,,the ,,fine ,,arts4 ,,history ,,of ,,sculpture1 ,,painting1 ,,and ,,architecture4 ,,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,memes1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,,boston3 ,,clapp ,,and ,,broaders1 ,,school ,,street #ahcd4 ,,to ,,the ,,very ,,reverend ,,william ,,jack1 ,d4,d4 ,,principal ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,and ,,king',s ,,college1 ,,aberdeen2 ,,in ,,grateful ,,remembrance ,,of ,,early ,,kindness ,,and ,,continued ,,friendship4 ,,and ,,as ,a ,,sincere ,,though ,,inadequate ,,tribute ,,of ,,most ,,profound ,,respect ,,for ,,his ,,virtues1 ,,learning1 ,,talents1 ,,and ,,integrity1 ,,this ,,volume1 ,,with ,,sentiments ,,of ,,the ,,highest ,,esteem1 ,,is ,,inscribed ,,by ,,the ,,author4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,introduction4 ,taste--,principles of ,imitative ,art #a ,,sculpture4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,egyptian and ,oriental ,sculpture--,indian ,monuments #ae ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,early ,schools of ,greece--,perfection of ,material ,art #cd ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,ideal ,art--,phidias--,elgin ,marbles--,methods of ,composition ,among the ,greek ,sculptors #di ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,school of ,beauty--,lysippus and ,praxiteles--,historical ,remarks #fj ,,chapter ,v4 ,sculpture in ,ancient ,italy--,etruscan ,art--,roman ,busts--,decline #fi ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,revival of ,sculpture in ,italy--,italian ,republics--,influence of ,liberty--,early ,schools of ,modern ,art #gi ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,michael ,angelo and his ,contemporaries #hd ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,school of ,bernini--,decline of ,sculpture--,causes of ,decay #id ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,revival--,canova--,thorwaldsen--,flaxma n--,conclusion #aja ,,painting4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,ancient ,painting--,schools of ,greece--,zeuxis1 ,appelles --,historical ,remarks #aag ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,modern ,schools in ,italy--,roman1 ,raphael--,florentine1 ,michael ,angelo--,comparison between the two--,lombard ,school1 ,coreggio--,venetian ,school1 ,titian--,eclectic ,school1 ,caracci #acj ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,german ,school1 ,holbein1 ,daur--,flemish ,school1 ,rubens1 ,vandyke--,dutch ,school1 ,teniers--,french ,school1 ,david--,anecdote of ,napoleon #aed ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,english ,school--,historical ,remarks--,causes of ,inferiority in the ,art--,influence of the ,reformation not ,hostile to the ,fine ,arts in ,britain1 c4 #agd ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,english ,school continued--,history--,portrait--,landsca pe --,reynolds--,west--,wilson--,laurence-- ,defects of ,english ,style--,conclusion #aij ,,architecture4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,early ,history and ,principles of ,architectural ,design--,egyptian --,syrian--,indian ,architecture #bbg ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,greek ,architecture--,three ,orders3 ,doric ,remains1 ,ionic ,remains1 ,corinthian ,remains--,roman ,architecture--,decline #bdh ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,architecture of the ,middle ,ages--,divisions of the ,gothic--,revival of ,classic ,architecture--,italian1 ,french1 and ,english ,masters--,conclusion #bgh ,,preface4 ,,the present volume is offered to the public1 under the impression that the general cultivation of practical taste1 and an acquaintance with the principles of the ,fine ,arts1 are not only desirable in the light of acquirement1 but must eventually prove highly beneficial to the useful arts of the country4 ,the subject1 therefore1 seemed peculiarly adapted to the very excellent ,publication of which this forms a portion4,a 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is only bespeaking that share of confidence due1 in the first instance1 to opportunities of research1 to state1 that in the following pages not a single work of art is made the subject of criticism1 the original of which the author has not seen and examined4 ,indeed1 the substance of his remarks is generally transcribed from notes taken with the statue1 or picture1 or building1 before him4 ,the best authorities1 also1 have been consulted1 and such as from their price or rarity are within reach of few readers4 ,the historical details of ,classic ,art are chiefly the result of inquiries connected with a work on ,grecian ,literature1 the composition of which has long engaged his hours of leisure4 ,j4 ,s4 ,m4 ,,introduction4 ,,taste is the perception of intellectual pleasure4 ,beauty1 the object of taste and the source of this pleasure1 is appreciated by the understanding1 exercised1 either upon the productions of art1 or upon the works of nature4 ,the term beauty1 indeed1 has appeared to admit a specific difference of import1 according to the diversity of objects in which it may seem to reside1 and the supposed variety of means through which it is perceived by the mind4 ,this cause1 more than any other1 has tended to throw difficulty and inconclusive inference over every department of the subject4 ,yet1 perhaps in all cases1 most certainly in every instance of practical importance to our present purpose--elucidation of the ,fine ,arts1 beauty will be found resolvable into some relation discerned and approved by the understanding4 ,hence the objects in which this relation exists impart pleasure to the mind1 on the well known principles of its constitution4 ,but in all languages1 the word beauty is applied to the results of those operations of the intellectual powers1 which are not commonly recognised as appertaining to any province of taste4 ,thus we speak of the beauty of a theorem1 of an invention1 of a philosophical system or discovery1 as frequently1 and with the same propriety1 as of a picture or a group of statuary1 of a landscape or a building4 ,correspondent to these objective modes of speech1 we find1 in every polished idiom1 such causative forms as these--a taste for the mathematics1 for mechanics1 for philology1 or science4 ,now1 in these1 and similar instances1 in which a like manner of expression by the common sentiment of mankind1 opposed to the opinion of certain writers1 is rightly applied1 relations furnishing the specific beauty of the subjects are perceived1 and pleasurable emotions are excited4 ,what then constitutes the essential difference between the beautiful in general language1 and the beautiful in the fine arts8 or1 which is identical1 the difference between the powers of judgment and of taste8 ,shall we say with some1 that to decide on the relations of truth and falsehood1 is the sole province of the judgment or understanding8 ,but in the fine arts1 to whose labours1 taste1 by these philosophers1 is confined1 truth is beauty1 falsehood deformity2 hence1 to discriminate between even their minutest shades1 requires the constant exercise of the most refined taste4 ,or1 shall we maintain with others1 that beauty consists in certain arrangements and proportions of the parts to a whole2 or in the fitness of means to an end8 ,this1 as far as an intelligible description of beauty1 applies equally to the pursuits of the philosopher and of the artist4 ,or1 omitting almost innumerable minor theories1 shall we say with the philosophy presently accepted1 that beauty is something not intrinsic in the beautiful object1 but dependent on associations awakened in the mind of the spectator8 ,without entering now into an examination of this important1 because received opinion1 we remark1 that this definition of beauty1 from its associated pleasures1 is applicable alike to the deductions of science1 to the exercises of imagination1 and to the disquisitions of taste4 ,indeed1 as the discoveries of the philosopher1 and the truths which he discloses1 are both more abiding in their nature1 and in their influence more universally important and interesting1 it would follow1 even on the system of association1 that the beauty of scientific truth must be1 at least1 equally fruitful in pleasurable emotions1 as the beauty of any one object in those pursuits to which this system has hitherto been restricted4 ,and that such is actually the case1 may be proved by an appeal to the writings and the annals of men of study4 ,the law of gravitation1 to take a familiar instance1 possesses an essential principle of the beautiful--simplicity4 ,accordingly1 to a mind of any refinement1 the abstract contemplation of this theory will ever impart high delight4 ,yet1 how imperfect is the pleasure1 and even the beauty1 till the mind associates with this simple law1 that thereby worlds are governed in their course through boundless space2 that by the same discovery1 the future generations of rational and immortal beings will be directed in their most useful and loftiest speculations2 and to all this magnificence of association1 what tender sublimity will be added1 by the thought1 that the ,supreme ,father of all has graciously endowed his creatures with powers1 and with permission1 to discern the secondary laws by which infinite wisdom sees fit to rule in the visible creation6 ,even the holier and lovelier sensibilities awakened by moral beauty1 though certainly distinct in principle1 are in their influence not easily separable from the pleasures of taste4 ,at least1 by the wise and gracious constitution of the human heart1 the latter1 when unallied with the former1 necessarily remain imperfect4 ,our most exquisite enjoyments in literature and the fine arts will be found to arise from such performances as most directly remind us of virtuous associations2 while1 in the material world1 those scenes prove most delightful which call forth recollections of man's nobleness1 or which elevate our contemplations to the power1 and wisdom1 and goodness of the ,creator4 ,in one important point1 however1 is at once discoverable the independent and higher principle of moral pleasure and beauty4 ,the humble and pious mind may1 often does1 enjoy the most refined and mental gratification in the exercises of charity and devotion1 while the intellectual resources or the adornments of taste are extremely circumscribed4 ,how wise1 how salutary1 are these appointments6 ,the possessor of the most cultivated perceptions and extensive knowledge1 thus feels1 if he feel aright1 that his acquirements render him only the more dependent upon religion and virtue for his best and purest enjoyments1 as also for the dignified estimation of his pursuits4 ,the unlettered but sincere ,christian1 again1 thus knows that his heartful joys suffer not alloy from ignorance of this world's external culture4 ,both are thus equal2 yet each profits by his own peculiar good4 ,the latter is secure against a deprivation imposed by temporal circumstances3 the former is paid the toil and self-denial of attainment1 by the increased manifestations he is thus enabled to discern of the charms of virtue1 and the goodness of ,omnipotence4 ,the presence and operation of taste can thus be traced in every act of the mind1 and are intimately associated with the feelings of our moral nature4 ,the exercises of taste have ever been regarded as productive generally of pleasurable emotion4 ,hence we consider ourselves justified in defining1 at the beginning of this chapter1 taste to be 'the perception of intellectual pleasure4' ,the common use of language1 also--an authority always to be respected in tracing the extent or import of ideas--and even the best theories of taste1 when rightly understood1 coincide with this definition4 ,the various systems of taste1 however apparently dissimilar1 may be referred in principle to one or other of the two following3 that this is an original and independent faculty2 or1 that it may be resolved into a modification of the general powers of the mind4 ,of these opinions1 the first has been1 within the present century1 satisfactorily proved utterly unphilosophical and inadequate to its purpose2 the second is preferable1 but imperfect in the explications hitherto given1 chiefly from three causes4 ,first1 writers have formed their conclusions from a consideration of the quality1 in its full and complete exercise1 instead of tracing the steps by which it is acquired or improved3 secondly1 this intellectual quality1 even by the best writers1 has been treated too much as an external sense--or it has been resolved into direct and inflex perceptions1 and confounded with so many accidental feelings1 that the inferences have been most perplexing and cumbrous3 and1 thirdly1 the subject in general has been treated too metaphysically4 ,hence1 however learned1 or even abstractly just1 the investigations may have been1 they have exerted slight influence in establishing practice upon obvious and enlightened theory4 ,but declining to enter upon the exposure of what may be conceived former mistakes1 we shall proceed briefly to explain our own views4 ,following out1 then1 the tenor of the preceding remarks1 we conceive taste to be nothing more than a certain acuteness1 which necessarily is acquired by1 and always accompanies1 the frequent exercise of the powers of understanding in any one given pursuit4 ,it seems to differ from mere knowledge1 in being attended by a love or desire of the particular exercise4 ,this desire1 whether it precedes or follows acquirement1 is easily accounted for1 in the one case1 as an agreeable anticipation of advantage to be gained1 and in the other as a mental habitude2 or it is frequently cherished from impressions received at an age too early for notice4 ,the gratification of this desire1 exclusive even of the enjoyment received from the successful exercise of the mental powers1 sufficiently explains the origin of the pleasures of taste4 ,this view of taste1 as applicable to1 and indeed resulting from1 training of the understanding in all dignified pursuits1 is agreeable1 as already shown1 to common feeling and common language4 ,but in deference to the same authorities1 it is necessary to limit the idea to a restricted1 that is1 a proper sense of the word4 ,hence we have said that the object of taste is beauty1 as perceivable in the works of nature and art3 thus confining its province to literature and the fine arts1 which reflect nature either by direct imitation1 or by more remote association4 ,in the present volume1 the subject is limited1 of course1 to the arts of design2 but the principles now expounded are conversant with every varied application of taste3 ,and we have pursued this extent of illustration throughout the whole powers of the mind1 in order to ground1 on the broadest basis1 this practical precept1 that taste1 like the powers of judgment and understanding1 of which1 in fact1 it is only a modification1 can be improved1 or1 we venture to say1 acquired in any useful degree1 only by patient cultivation1 and well-directed study of the particular subject4 ,the opinion opposite to this has been productive of the worst effects1 both in the practice and patronage of the arts4 ,it not unfrequently has led artists into irregular1 and even unnatural compositions2 but its greatest evils do daily arise from those1 whose previous habits and attainments by no means qualify them for judges1 confidently pronouncing upon works of art1 from what they are pleased to term a natural taste4 ,this1 if it means any thing1 must imply an untutored1 and therefore1 imperfect taste4 ,we would be understood here1 not as advocating a conventional criticism1 but as maintaining1 that the higher beauties1 and nobler principles of art1 can be appreciated only by those whose taste has been cultivated by profound study and knowledge of these principles4 ,one class of effects in an imitative art is1 doubtless1 to produce sensations which can be immediately compared with the more obvious effects and appearances of nature4 ,of these every one can judge1 whether the effect be actually produced or not4 ,this1 however1 though a primary1 is the lowest object of the artist4 ,the dignity1 too1 and comparative value1 of these effects1 can be estimated only by a mind generally cultivated2 while the propriety of the means employed1 and their agreement with the modes of art1 the higher beauties of execution1 the intelligence of style1 the just character of the performance as a work of peculiar talents1 can be sanctioned by canons of judgment familiar only to those who have made the subject a regular study4 ,in this we require nothing more for the sculptor and the painter than is demanded1 and rightly too1 in favour of the poet and the orator4 ,from these observations1 founded1 as they are1 on experience1 follows as a corollary the truth of the previous definition1 that1 in the fine arts1 beauty is always resolvable into some effect or relation discerned and approved by the understanding4 ,for since it has been shown that taste is but another name for intellectual cultivation and knowledge in a given pursuit1 the perception of beauty1 which forms the peculiar object of taste1 must ultimately be referred to the understanding4 ,now1 in an imitative art1 there can be only one relation1 namely1 truth1 which thus becomes both the source and the criterion of beauty4 ,this truth1 however1 admits of two specific distinctions2 or at least respects two separate objects1 as the production is compared with nature1 the archetype imitated2 and with the principles of the art1 or peculiar mode of imitation4 ,in the one case1 there is the relation of resemblance2 in the other1 that of consistency4 ,these1 in their infinitely various combinations and modified excellences1 still recur to one and the same simple law of the beautiful--veracity4 ,the general spirit and tendency of these remarks bear directly on the question regarding a standard of taste4 ,both parties here1 in pertinaciously adhering to their opinion1 are wrong4 ,there is1 and there is not1 a standard2 meaning1 by this term1 a permanent rule of taste beyond which human invention or genius shall never pass4 ,at the same time1 if there be no stable and unerring principles of judgment1 there can be neither merit nor moral dignity1 beauty nor truth1 in the works of the most gifted mind4 ,how1 then1 are facts seemingly so discordant to be reconciled8 ,we have already adverted to the radical error in all cases of disregarding1 and in some instances of treating with scorn1 the idea of a gradual and laborious acquirement of taste4 ,this1 however1 will be found the only idea of the subject truly useful in a practical view1 as well as the sole ground of consistent and rational theory4 ,taste is not only progressive1 but inductive2 it is1 in fact1 the result of a series of experiments whose object is beauty4 ,as in every other species of experimental knowledge1 then1 the standard of excellence must vary in different ages according to their lights and their refinement4 ,in the progress of individual genius this succession is very remarkable1 the objects and nature of its aims changing with1 and indeed indicating1 attainment4 ,it is thus clear that taste1 whether nationally or individually considered1 must vary in its models1 and in their standards1 according to the existing state of knowledge2 for1 in departing from received precepts1 men are guided by the hope of reaching higher perfection1 or of exhibiting novelty of invention4 ,if such tentative measures succeed1 the general standard is so far elevated2 when they fail1 though the advance of real improvement may be impeded for a season1 established modes more firmly recover their authority4 ,but again1 as in every species of experimental science1 those researches1 in their practice the most carefully conducted1 and in their inferences the most consistent1 are regarded as the canons of scientific truth2 so in the liberal arts1 those noble monuments which1 during the longest period1 and to the greatest number of competent judges1 have yielded the most satisfaction1 are justly esteemed standards of taste--rules by which other works are to be tried4 ,such standards1 or final experiments1 in the science of taste1 are fortunately possessed in the literary compositions1 and in the remains of the sculpture and architecture of antiquity2 as also in the labours of those moderns who have emulated the teachers of the olden time4 ,these accredited relics of genius obtain a deserved and venerable mastery over future aspirings1 first1 from their own inborn excellence2 secondly1 from the effects of that excellence in a continually increasing influence over association and feeling4 ,imagination thus combines with reason in hallowing both the original cause and the attendant influence into precepts of an immutable authority1 consecrated by the suffrages of the wise and the refined of every later age4 ,reason1 however1 first established1 and subsequently demonstrates1 the principles upon which this standard has become unchanged and unchangable2 namely1 perfect simplicity in the means1 and perfect truth in the results1 through all their varied combinations4 ,consideration even of the vicissitudes and revolutions in taste seems farther to confirm these general views4 ,opinion1 indeed1 has vacillated in the estimation of elegance2 but1 as in the constantly returning eccentricities of a planetary body1 some secret power has maintained certain limits to these changes1 and round certain principles1 though at times obscured1 art has continued to revolve4 ,now these checks to barbarous novelty and innovation1 have been derived from the not-altogether-forgotten remembrance of admitted standards1 or from the natural effects upon which these have been founded4 ,the temporary derelictions of good taste have ever occurred in the most ignorant ages1 and in extent as in duration have corresponded with the intellectual darkness of the period2 the returning light of knowledge has in this respect also invariably dispelled error1 afresh disclosing the pristine beauty of the ancient models1 and recalling the judgment to the rectitude of those precepts on which they are composed4 ,even the tyranny of fashion and the inveteracy of prejudice yield before the majesty of antique excellence1 or produce a passing absurdity adopted for a day1 to be forever forgotten4 ,surely1 then1 there must be in these abiding modes in literature and art1 as likewise in that science of taste which appreciates and determines their canons1 a beauty--an excellence1 the offspring and the object of truth and reason--and like these1 ever consistent1 immutable1 imperishable4 ,to the doctrines now advocated it furnishes no objection1 that mankind do not agree in the same estimate of beauty1 nor even that objects entirely different in their qualities1 are assumed as beautiful4 ,this fact1 indeed1 has often and triumphantly been adduced as conclusive in favour of the sceptical position regarding a standard of taste4 ,those writers1 again1 who support the opposite opinion1 seem too readily to have admitted difficulty in repelling the objection4 ,the truth is1 it can be obviated only on the principle which we have endeavoured to establish2 namely1 that taste is the certain result of intellectual cultivation in the proper province1 that it is consequently commensurate with the degree of intelligence1 and always an object of truth and reason4 ,now1 the diversity so much insisted upon1 is capable not only of being thus easily accounted for1 but is to be expected as the necessary effect of varied extent of knowledge4 ,the very objection predetermines1 that among the rudest people1 ideas and perceptions of something termed beauty are entertained4 ,does not this establish the existence of taste coeval with the earliest traces of information8 ,true1 the beauty admired by the ,african or the ,esquimaux differs from that which awakens the sensibility of the ,european1--but so also are their means and capabilities of judging unequal4 ,it is not1 therefore1 diversity1 but inconsistency of judgment1 that in this case can prove the absence of all fixed principles of decision4 ,now1 we will venture to affirm1 without fear of contradiction1 that there is no inconsistency nor opposition2 and that the most polished inhabitant of ,europe1 proceeding upon the same premises as the wildest in-dweller of the desert or savannah1 will arrive at exactly the same conclusion4 ,the sable virgin1 for instance1 whose charms are acknowledged by the rude warriors of her tribe1 will also1 by the refined ,european1 be admitted among the fairest examples of native beauty4 ,hence it is evident that all men acknowledge a standard of taste1 founded on similar reasonings and accordant feelings of the human heart1 though the final expression of this standard1 or the degree of refinement whence it is deduced1 will necessarily be modified by moral and physical circumstances1 and by the light enjoyed4 ,the questions we have now laboured to resolve1 are by no means to be regarded as mere problems in abstract speculation4 ,the subject is of the highest practical importance1 and we have attempted to reduce it to practical inferences4 ,nothing has tended more to retard improvement1 than placing genius and taste in opposition to reason and application4 ,each of the two former has been invested with some untangible1 undefined excellence1 disdaining rule1 and superior to the drudgery of study4 ,in treating of both1 authors appear to have aimed at exalting their theme1 by refusing certainty to the operations of the one1 and stability to the principles of the other2 treating each as the empiricism of talent1 which it would be as vain to attempt reducing to precept as to prescribe the eagle's path through heaven4 ,but how does this accord with fact and with usefulness8 ,men1 the most eminent for genius1 and who have bequeathed to futurity the most perfect productions1 have also been the most remarkable for assiduity4 ,this industry has been directed as much to the study of principles and rules as to the creation of new works4 ,we have shown that there are standards1 or rules1 of taste1 which never can be disregarded save at the peril of absurdity4 ,if we deny regularity and certainty1 or fixed and rational precepts of criticism to the labours of genius1 of what advantage to succeeding knowledge can these prove8 ,beyond a passing pleasure--a barren sentiment1 they remain without fruit4 ,excellence in the most refined exercises of mind is degraded to a mere knack1--to a fortunate and inexplicable aptitude4 ,thus1 not the improvement of the human race only1 but the very continuance of acquirement among men1 is rendered uncertain4 ,yet such are the consequences of every system which considers taste as different from1 and independent of knowledge2 or its precepts as mutable1 and not more amenable to judgment than to imagination4 ,in whatever light1 then1 the views now briefly proposed be regarded1 whether as respects taste as an object of mental science1 or as the improver of art2 whether in its influence upon the understanding or the heart1 they appear to promise the surest1 the most practical1 and the most dignified results4 ,beauty1 as already observed1 is the object of taste4 ,the primitive source1 and1 in a great measure1 the ultimate and only criterion1 of this beauty1 is nature4 ,for1 in the arts over which taste presides1 natural beauty receives new modifications1 and is subjected to new laws4 ,yet1 in their general tendency and design1 poetry1 painting1 sculpture1 architecture1 and even music1 all contemplate one end1--to awaken associated emotion2 while each employs the same means of direct or less obvious imitation of nature4 ,in each of these arts1 however1 a distinction exists1 both in the manner and in the extent of instruction4 ,they differ also in the closeness with which the respective imitations reflect their natural archetypes4 ,but in this they correspond1 that in none is mere imitation the final1 or most exalted1 object of the artist4 ,in the fidelity of representation1 and in the facility with which the originals in nature may be traced1 ,sculpture and ,painting are superior to all the other imitative arts4 ,between the vivid creations of these1 and the more varied1 more imaginative1 but less defined1 efforts of poetry1 the middle rank is occupied by ,architecture1 whose mighty masses and harmonious proportions fill the mind with awe or delight1 as they recall the majesty or grace of the material world4 ,architecture thus stands alone1 in its own principles1 and1 it may be1 in its own pre-eminence4 ,these principles are at once more profound1 or at least more abstract1 and yet more determinate1 than those of either of the sister arts4 ,indeed1 so remarkable is this fact1 and so nearly do the limits and the constituents of beauty verge here on demonstrative science1 that we may hereafter point out their connexion with some of the preceding doctrines of taste4 ,in the meantime1 it may be sufficient merely to mention1 that though architecture1 as a necessary knowledge1 must have been practised from the earliest formation of society2 and though it furnishes their principal field to the other arts2 yet it was later in arriving at perfection than ,sculpture1 which1 besides1 affords a more continuous series of monuments1 and supplies the best materials for the philosophy of the subject2 and in other respects1 the arrangement now selected seems to promise the most clear elucidation of the history of art4 ,,the ,,fine ,,arts4 ,,sculpture4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the representation of external forms by their tangible properties1 in actual or proportional magnitude1 seems the most obvious1 as it is the simplest1 mode of imitation4 ,sculpture1 therefore1 of all the imitative arts1 probably first exercised the ingenuity of mankind4 ,even now1 we remark that the rude carvings on the spear-shaft or canoe of the savage warrior surpass other exhibitions of his skill1 and might more readily be exalted into tasteful decorations4 ,hence1 in tracing the history of an art which thus appears almost coeval with the earliest formation of society1 the chronology of those ancient empires in which it chiefly flourished1 will supply an arrangement best adapted to the explanation of the subject4 ,regarding the origin of sculptural design1 indeed1 much has been written1 and many theories proposed1 each asserting1 for some favorite people1 the praise of invention4 ,all the kindred arts1 however1 with which taste and feeling are conversant1 have their birth and subsequent improvement1 in the same universal principles of the human mind4 ,principles which mysteriously1 yet powerfully1 and doubtless for the accomplishment of the wisest ends1 connect man with that nature amidst whose haunts he is destined to dwell--which awaken his untutored enthusiasm to her beauties1 and unite his individual sympathies1 as his social remembrances1 with her hallowed associations4 ,it is thus that human action and human suffering find their earliest records in the scenes where the events were transacted4 ,the conflict long continues to revive on its heath2 the memory of the chief appropriates the lone vale where he sleeps2 woods1 mountains1 streams1 become the representatives of supernatural beings--beneficent or vindictive--as sensations of beauty or of awe are called forth in the mortal breast4 ,the succeeding step is easy to the erection of less durable but more particular memorials4 ,piety--true in sentiment1 false in means--patriotism1 friendship1 gratitude1 admiration1 leave the successive impress of their influence1 according to the accessions of intelligence1 on the 'grey stone'--the rude column--the dressed altar--the visible shape--the perfect statue4 ,how beautiful1 then1 yet how true1 the allegory of ,grecian poetry1 which feigns that love1 or the natural affections1 taught man the arts of genius6 ,the gradations1 also1 from uninformed art to some degree of refined invention1 will present1 even among distant nations1 little of diversified character4 ,in the infancy of society1 men in all countries closely resemble each other1 in their feelings1 in their wants1 in their means of gratification1 and improvement4 ,hence1 in the fine arts1 which at first among every people minister1 with similar resources1 to the same natural desires1 or mental affections1 resemblance of style ought not to be assumed as evidence of continuous imitation from a common origin4 ,early ,egyptian and ,grecian statues exhibit almost identical lineaments1 and even corresponding attitude2 simply1 because each had to surmount the same difficulties with nearly equal information4 ,the tendency of these remarks1 especially applicable to sculpture1 sufficiently proves that no reliance is to be placed on any theories of its exclusive discovery4 ,such opinions1 however profound they may appear1 are in reality the substitution of a partial view of facts1 when a general law of our nature is within reach4 ,in treating of the ancient history of sculpture1 then1 the legitimate objects of inquiry are1 its progress1 character1 and degree of perfection among the different nations of antiquity4 ,but though no claims of any single nation to have imparted the skill to others can be conceded1 a very wide disparity of merit is observable1 both in the final excellence attained by one people1 as respects the relative acquirements of another2 and likewise points of equal advance being assumed1 the times past in realising this similar improvement are found to be very unequal4 ,these facts1 here most easily distinguishable1 are pregnant with importance1 and invest the history of this art with much of dignity and solemn interest1 exhibiting the striking connexion between the intellectual and the political and moral condition of man4 ,the diversity1 in truth1 is the visible impress which legislation has stamped upon human genius4 ,egypt has been styled the cradle of the arts2 and1 waiving the examination of all disputes as to priority1 we prefer commencing with the history of ,egyptian sculpture1 since its authentic monuments carry us up to a very early date1--are numerous1--and especially1 because they tend to unite the scattered lights which doubtful tradition flings over the less perfect remains of ,asiatic ingenuity4 ,in pursuing this investigation1 we shall observe the following arrangement of the subject4 ,era of original1 or native ,sculpture4 ,era of mixed1 or ,greco-,egyptian ,sculpture4 ,era of imitative ,sculpture1 improperly denominated ,egyptian4 ,the first or true age of ,sculpture in ,egypt1 ascends from the invasion of ,cambyses to unknown antiquity4 ,during this period only were primitive institutions in full vigour and integrity1 and public works1 reflecting national taste1 conducted by national talent4 ,the two remaining eras1 extending downwards through the successive dominion of the ,greeks and ,romans1 have been added1 in order to embrace the consideration of topics1 which1 though remotely connected therewith1 have hitherto been regarded as integral parts of the subject4 ,in examining the principles and character of this aboriginal school1 there are still left two sources of judging1 with sufficient accuracy1 the merits of its production1--vestiges of ancient grandeur yet existing on their native site--and the numerous specimens in ,european cabinets4 ,these remains may be classed under the three following divisions4 ,colossal statues4 ,groups or single figures about the natural size4 ,hieroglyphical and historical relievos4 ,in the formation of these various labours1 four kinds of materials are employed3 one soft1 a species of sandstone2 and three very hard1 a calcareous rock1 out of which the tombs1 with their sculptures1 are hewn2 basalt or trap1 of various shades1 from black to dark grey1 the constituent generally of the smaller statues2 granite1 more commonly of the description named by mineralogists granites rubescens1 of a warm reddish hue1 with large crystals of feld-spar2 or it is sometimes1 though rarely1 of a dark red ground1 with black specks1 as in the magnificent head1 mis-named of ,memnon1 now in the ,british ,museum4 ,colossal figures are uniformly of granite1 in which also is a large portion of the relievos4 ,besides these1 from the account of ,herodotus1 as also from the statues of wood actually discovered by modern travellers1 we learn that even in great works1 the ,egyptian sculptors were accustomed to exercise their skill on that less stubborn material4 ,metal appears to have been sparingly used2 at least1 only very small figures have yet been found of a composition similar to the bronze of later times4 ,yet the book of ,job especially1 and other parts of ,scripture1 would induce the conclusion1 that even colossal figures were1 from an early period1 cast of metal4 ,in the tombs1 as those near ,thebes1 small images of porcelain and terra cotta are likewise frequent4 ,i4 ,the number of colossal statues in ancient ,egypt1 as described by the writers of ,greece1 would appear incredible1 especially when we consider the magnitude of some1 and the materials of all1 if these early descriptions were not1 at the present day1 authenticated by countless remains4 ,yet1 than a statue of granite sixty or seventy feet high1 there is not1 perhaps1 one instance more striking1 of disregard of time1 and patience of toil4 ,of these mighty labours1 some are hewn from the living rock1 and left adhering to the natural bed2 as the celebrated ,sphynx1 near the pyramids of ,ghizeh1 and various sculptures on the rocks of the ,thebaid1 which look the shadows of giants cast by a declining sun4 ,others again1 as in some of the figures in the ,memnonium1 appear to have been built2 most probably reared first of square blocks1 and afterwards fashioned into shape4 ,the greater part1 however1 are composed of one block1 raised in the granite quarries of ,upper ,egypt1 and transported to their destined situation by the waters of the ,nile4 ,of these works1 ,herodotus1 to whose veracity almost every new discovery in these countries adds fresh credibility1 saw and has described many1 some of which can be identified at the present day1 and others1 a labour of not many hours promises to bring to light4 ,the dimensions of those actually enumerated1 extend from twelve to seventy cubits in height4 ,some are figures of men2 others of animals1 chiefly of the ,sphynx4 ,these latter appear to have been in considerable numbers1 usually ranged in corresponding lines on the opposite side of the approach to the great temples4 ,of the human colossi1 again1 some were isolated1 and were probably objects of worship2 others were merely ornaments1 chiefly employed as columns1 as in the famous ,propylon of the ,temple of ,vulcan1 ascribed to ,psammetichus1 and erected at ,memphis4 ,of the unattached figures1 the attitude appears to have exhibited but little action2 the posture apparently various1 though seldom erect4 ,one is described as recumbent1 seventy cubits long1 accompanied by two smaller1 standing one at each extremity4 ,the largest statues now known1 namely1 two in the ,memnonium at ,thebes1 are both in a sitting posture4 ,all these works1 even the columnar statues1 seem to have been connected with religious rites or symbols4 ,this1 together with imperfect science1 accounts for the striking similarity discoverable in a class1 the individuals of which are thus varied1 at least in purpose and magnitude4 ,another peculiarity is1 that in ,egyptian sculpture1 whenever the dimensions are much beyond nature1 the head is always larger than even colossal proportions would require4 ,it would be unreasonable to ascribe to ignorance a practice thus universal2 it is to be attributed rather to mistaken principle1 in order to render the features more conspicuous1 when removed to a distance from the eye4 ,where similar character and design thus pervade the whole class1 minuteness of individual description is unnecessary2 we may1 however1 merely refer1 as examples best known1 to the two ,theban colossi already noticed1 one of which1 from inscriptions still legible1 would appear to be the famous sounding statue of ,memnon4 ,in each of these figures1 exclusive of the lower plinth of the throne1 the altitude is fifty feet1 the material red granite1 and the positions alike--namely1 seated1 the head looking straight in front1 arms close pressed to the sides1 palms and forearm extended and resting upon the thighs1 lower extremities perpendicular and apart4 ,this posture1 which may be described as characteristic of the entire class1 is little calculated to convey any sentiment of ease or grace4 ,yet in these vast1 although comparatively uninformed labours1 we discover more of the sublime than arises from mere vastness1 or even from the recollections of distant time with which their memory is associated4 ,they are invested with a majestic repose--with a grand and solemn tranquillity1 which awes without astonishing2 and while they exhibit the greatest perfection to which ,egyptian art has attained1 in colossal statues generally1 we discover occasional approaches to truth and nature1 with no inconsiderable feeling of the sweet1 the unaffected1 and the flowing in expression and contour4 ,,ii4 ,to the second class belong both the earliest and the latest works of the ,egyptian chisel2 yet between the worst and the best1 is not to be perceived a diversity of merit corresponding to the lapse of time--a certain proof1 that the principles of the art were fixed at an early period of its progress1 and on grounds independent of its precepts4 ,the first essays in sculpture in ,egypt1 seem to have been made upon the living rock1 in the process of excavating artificial or enlarging natural caverns for the purposes of habitation or devotion1 and at every period in ,eastern history of sepulture4 ,statues thus formed1 would1 from the mode of their formation1 not much exceed the natural size2 and being afterwards detached when finished1 were transferred to other situations4 ,in imitation of these1 statues were subsequently hewn1 in what became the ordinary manner1 from detached blocks4 ,it is not here implied1 that these two methods can be distinctly traced in their separate applications1 nor that the one was superseded by the other2 but simply1 that the state of knowledge1 and the habits of the people1 render very probable the priority of the former4 ,hence appears an explanation of a singular fact in the history of the art1 which has been the subject of much discussion4 ,in every specimen1 without exception1 which can be ranked as ,egyptian1 a pilaster runs up the back of the figure1 in whatever attitude it may be represented4 ,the origin of a practice not natural1 in an art professing to imitate nature1 must be sought in some external circumstance of its early history4 ,now1 such circumstance seems plainly discernible in works still remaining1 in the excavations of ,philoe1 ,elephantis1 ,silsilis1 and at ,el ,malook1 in the tombs of the ,theban kings4 ,in these monuments1 which are often suites of magnificent chambers hewn from the hard and white calcareous rock1 numerous and beautiful remains of sculpture are preserved4 ,these ornaments vary from simple relievos to complete statues4 ,in the latter1 the figure is never entirely detached1 when placed on the surface of the wall1 a posterior portion being always left adhering2 while1 if formed by cutting round to a recess1 a pilaster behind runs up the whole height1 evidently with the original view of increasing strength or of saving labour1 or from certain religious notions4 ,subsequently1 in detached statues wrought out of blocks from the same1 or in part the same motives1 and also in order to obtain a surface for the inscription of hieroglyphics1 the aboriginal pillar was retained4 ,generally speaking1 the workmanship here is inferior to the details of the colossal figures1 although some of the finest specimens belong to this second division4 ,the varieties1 however1 cannot be referred to any regular gradations of improvement1 nor determinate epochas of style1 as sometimes attempted4 ,they are the result solely of individual skill in the artists1 and of the views1 opulence1 or purposes of their employers4 ,this difference1 also1 extends only to the minor details of execution2 in the more intellectual principles of art1 all are nearly on an equality4 ,even the design and attitudes are wonderfully limited1 the sameness being more uniform than could have been produced1 except by the operation of prescriptive rules and fixed models of imitation4 ,in many of the ancient ,egyptian buildings1 the whole of the exterior is frequently covered with relievos4 ,this profusion1 for the purpose1 too1 of mere decoration1 together with the indefinite nature of hieroglyphical delineation1 operated strongly against improvement in this particular province4 ,indeed1 the prejudicial effects arising from an embellishment1 in which extent more than intrinsic beauty was regarded1 and where arbitrary forms1 or mere indications of known objects1 precluded all natural imitation1 and all delicacy of expression1 infected the whole of the art4 ,the general inferiority in works of this third class1 is1 however1 to be understood with due limitation4 ,in relievos1 consisting of few figures1 sepulchral ones for instance1 which in the same piece rarely contain more than three1 are often displayed no mean beauties both of execution and of character4 ,in historical relievos1 again1 which occupy entire walls of the temples1 crowded as they are with figures in various actions1 processions1 battles1 sieges1 and represented by artists who apparently possessed no principles of design1 save a knowledge of simple form in its most restricted movements1 all is feebleness1 puerility1 and confusion4 ,or if beauty occasionally break forth1 it is in some single reposing figure1 or in the patient details of execution4 ,in the drawing and anatomy1 singular ignorance is manifested2 the limbs are without joints1 and the movements exhibit neither balance nor spring2 proportion and perspective seem to have been utterly unknown4 ,military engines1 buildings1 horses1 soldiers1 all appear of the same dimensions1 and all equally near the eye4 ,the hero in all these monuments bears a strong individual resemblance2 he is represented ever victorious1 in the bloom of youth1 and in his figure are sometimes displayed both grandeur and beauty of conception1 when considered apart4 ,but these separate excellences are completely obscured by the absurdity of representing him at least double the stature of his followers or opponents4 ,the circumstance of thus confounding moral greatness with physical magnitude1 were alone sufficient to mark the infancy of invention1 and the barbarism of taste4 ,it is nevertheless only justice to mention1 that occasionally1 in the historical relievos1 we observe rudiments of higher art1 with less of convention1 and more of freedom of imagination1 than in any other ,egyptian sculptures4 ,the praises bestowed upon the hieroglyphics of ,egypt by ,winkleman and others1 must be restricted to the mere workmanship2 and even then1 are exaggerated or misplaced4 ,considered as works of art1 if indeed they can be elevated to that rank1 they will be found entirely destitute of accurate discrimination of form1 and are more properly conventional representations1 dependent upon modes and principles at once limited and arbitrary4 ,these labours1 the probable records of primitive history1 and of earliest superstition1 are of different kinds4 ,the first in use1 though not afterwards superseded1 were anaglyphics1 in which objects are represented by a simple outline1 often traced to the depth of several inches4 ,an obvious improvement upon this was to round the angles1 and to relieve the figures upon themselves2 a mode which very generally obtains4 ,to this manner much ingenuity and forethought has inconsiderately been ascribed1 as if adopted against the attacks of time1 and to cast a deeper shadow on the symbols4 ,it is1 on the contrary1 to be judged merely as the resource of an imperfect art4 ,a third1 but comparatively rare method1 was to elevate the contour1 by reducing the surface both within and without4 ,the last and most laborious plan1 was to remove the ground entirely1 leaving the figures in proper relief4 ,this1 the true relievo1 was unknown to or unpractised in the ancient arts of ,egypt4 ,even the historical and monumental sculptures just described1 partake more of the anaglyphical than of the elevated relievo4 ,indeed every specimen of this latter is to be assigned to a later period than the first and genuine age4 ,by attending to this1 and to the costume of the figures in the most ancient works1 data of importance might be discovered1 throwing valuable light on the eras of ,egypt's mysterious monuments4 ,the expression1 mixed art1 selected to discriminate the second epoch1 has been adopted1 to mark the successive changes in the ancient modes induced by the ,persians and the ,greeks4 ,the influence exerted upon art by the dominion of the former1 amounted merely to a negative1--to the prohibition of its exercise2 which1 with the destruction of many of its best monuments1 produced a deterioration in the few and feeble attempts during the latter years of that dynasty4 ,mythraism1 in which elemental fire was the symbol of the ,deity1 proscribed the imitative arts in that service1 whence1 in all other countries1 they have sprung4 ,the ,persians1 says the father of history1 have neither temples nor statues4 ,or1 if architecture was encouraged by these conquerors1 evidence still remains that their erections were but modifications of materials torn from the mighty structures of past ages4 ,in little more than a century and a half1 the ,persian was subverted by the ,macedonian empire4 ,yet even in ,alexander1 the ancient and native arts of ,egypt obtained not a patron4 ,the majestic range of temples1 palaces1 and cities1 which bordered the sacred stream of the ,nile1 furnished so many quarries1 of tempting access1 whence ,alexandria was reared2 and the mightiest1 as well as most rational trophy of ,grecian superiority1 received its grandest and most enduring monuments from the stupendous labours of the first age4 ,his successors followed the example2 and although1 under them1 the polished literature of ,greece1 united with her own subtile philosophy1 constituted ,alexandria the ,athens of the ,east1 yet in sculpture1 in architecture1 and in religion1 to which both were subordinate1 the character remained essentially ,egyptian1 but with certain deviations and additions4 ,the ,roman dominion finally introduced new modifications1 or rather mutations1 of the ancient art4 ,this epoch may be considered as commencing with the introduction of the ,isiac mysteries at ,rome2 although the principal features by which1 as a division in the history of art1 it is distinguished1 are not decidedly marked prior to the reign of ,hadrian4 ,the works of the third1 or imitative era1 have1 in strict propriety1 no real connexion with ,egyptian sculpture1 farther than as it multiplied copies of the ancient forms1 with occasional accessions of elegance4 ,during a residence of two years in the ,east1 and by the deification there of his favorite ,antinous1 ,hadrian imbibed a fondness for the arts1 and particularly for the statuary of ,egypt4 ,but the works which he commanded were in all respects ,roman1 or rather ,grecian1 under ,egyptian modes4 ,they were indeed most scrupulously modelled after the most ancient and authentic specimens2 even the materials were brought from the native quarries1 but the sculptors were ,greeks or ,italians2 and the ,grecian character of design is visible in every remaining specimen1 the merits of which require notice4 ,nothing1 therefore1 can be more futile1 than from the works of this age to infer the merits or principles of native and ancient art4 ,so far1 indeed1 does our scepticism here extend1 that we doubt if a single statue of genuine and ancient ,egyptian workmanship is to be found among the numbers that have been discovered in ,italy1 and with which ,hadrian filled that portion of the empire4 ,the general conclusion1 then1 from these remarks1 is1 that there is but one period of real ,egyptian sculpture1 and that the genius and character of this indigenous and aboriginal art is to be discovered only in the most ancient monuments1 having suffered various changes under the ,greeks and under the ,romans4 ,in establishing this inference1 we have not been guided by the often fanciful1 always deceitful1 analogies discoverable in the fluctuating style and varying productions of imitation1 but have viewed these as directed by the steady operation of the laws and institutions of society1 which govern the spirit and tendency of the arts themselves4 ,during an interval of nearly twenty centuries previous to the era of ,alexander1 though diligently cultivated1 sculpture had hardly attained any of the nobler qualities of invention4 ,the system of taste and of government was in fact hostile to improvement in this art beyond a certain limit1 or upon any principles1 save those fixed on the very threshold of knowledge4 ,the national polity1 which will ever be found to guide the national taste1 induced a preference of the immense and the durable2 hence the grandeur of ,egyptian architecture3 but in statuary1 such a character of design necessarily produced figures rigid and motionless4 ,the essential elements of the grand and the beautiful--breadth and simplicity1 are indeed present1 but the effect is rarely elicited4 ,the simple is seldom inspired by any feeling of the true1 the natural1 or the graceful2 breadth1 unrelieved by symmetry of parts1 or expression of details1 degenerates into inert magnitude4 ,the colossal forms are the records only of power1 of patience1 and of labour2 not the creations of intelligence and of genius4 ,sculpture also suffered from peculiar obstacles to its progress4 ,exclusively attached to the service of religion1 its representations were confined to divinities1 priests1 and kings2 personages whose modes and lineaments were unalterably fixed--fixed1 too1 from types1 frequently of the most hideous description1 at least ill managed1 and little adapted to the objects or spirit of the art4 ,this religion likewise admitted no images of human virtue or sympathy to mingle with its cold obstructions2 thus denying to the ,egyptian arts a source1 which1 to those of ,greece1 proved one of the richest and sweetest veins of ideal composition4 ,the artist1 therefore1 even had he been allowed to depart from established but imperfect models1 possessed no ennobling source whence to create new models of beauty or of grandeur4 ,imagination wanted materials1 which neither the prescribed subject nor living nature1 under these restrictions1 could supply4 ,again1 sculpture not only laboured under the general disadvantage of hereditary and unchanging professions2 a national regulation which repressed every fortunate predilection of genius1 but as a security against the possibility of innovation1 slaves1 educated under the immediate care of the priests1 were entrusted with the execution of the most sacred1 and1 consequently1 most important monuments4 ,in ,egyptian sculpture1 thus properly understood1 little will be discovered of that excellence which has been attributed to its remains4 ,still there are to be found some first principles of true science2 and these are occasionally developed with considerable beauty of detail2 always with patient1 but inefficient technicality4 ,it is by no means apparent1 however1 that by the masters of these early ages any theory was observed2 certainly the occasional refinement seems rather the result of accident or of individual superiority1 than of systematic perceptions1 or of transmitted precept4 ,their best statues have an elevation of seven hands and a half1 being divided equally1 the torso and limbs having the same length4 ,these proportions are pleasing1 and borrowed directly from nature2 but they show nothing of that characteristic beauty of physical art1 which1 in the varied harmony of parts1 indicates the capabilities of form4 ,a similar principle regulates the details1 which1 though brought out with considerable propriety and softness1 are yet without precision or anatomical knowledge1 especially of internal structure1--the heads of the bones1 the insertions and terminations of the muscles1 never being correctly indicated4 ,hence the forms appear coarse and inelegant1 the limbs heavy and inert1 because without vigorous marking on the joints1 where the deeper depressions only and the strongest projections are aimed at1 not feelingly touched4 ,the attitude1 also1 is constantly rectilinear1 denoting that condition of the art when poverty of source limits its reach of the beautiful by the difficulties of execution4 ,it is1 in fact1 the first choice of invention rendered permanent by prescriptive institutions4 ,from the curve being thus unknown in the contour1 the action is necessarily angular in its direction1 unless the movement be parallel to the gravitating line of the figure4 ,hence the range of action and of attitude is very circumscribed2 the arms either hanging close by the sides or crossed at right angles on the breast2 or1 as a slight variation1 one is placed in each posture4 ,lateral movements in like manner are limited1 the statue standing equally poised on both limbs1 the feet not exactly opposite1 one being in advance1 often almost in front of the other4 ,whether erect1 sitting1 or kneeling1 the action is the same3 hence1 little of grace or animation of movement is to be found even in the most perfect works2 yet there is often to be remarked a grave and staid serenity1 neither unpleasing nor devoid of interest4 ,as in the selection of attitude1 however1 the artist has been guided1 not by the beautiful1 but by his own timidity and confined resources2 so in expression1 little beyond a vague and general emotion has been attempted2 seldom more1 indeed1 than might be produced by the symmetrical arrangement of the features4 ,these are flat1 the countenance being ,ethiopian1 and are just sufficiently distinguished for the effect of separation2 the depth of shadow is wanting to give contrast and firmness4 ,the eyes1 whether long and narrow1 the peculiar characteristic of the earliest era1 or more full and open1 as in the ,greco-,egyptian period1 are nearly on the general level of the face2 the nose is broad and depressed1 the lips thick1 and always sharp on the outer edge1 though often touched with great softness and delicacy2 the cheeks1 chin1 and ears1 are large1 ill made out1 and without feeling4 ,hence1 although the heads are often finished with wonderful labour1 the effect is always feeble1 while the whole is uniformly surmounted by harsh and disproportionate masses of drapery1 overpowering the already too weak expression4 ,the superior beauty of some of the colossal busts may perhaps be rightly attributed to their having been executed as portraits4 ,conventional art1 even in the most skilful hands1 is rarely pleasing2 nature1 even rudely imitated1 is ever viewed with a degree of pleasure4 ,on the methods employed to work materials so unyielding as those of the ,egyptian sculptors1 it is difficult to propose any decided opinion4 ,on their porphyry1 granite1 and basalt1 modern tools can hardly make impression2 yet are the forms1 in all instances1 highly finished1 with angles sharp and unbroken4 ,the latter circumstance1 indeed1 constitutes a peculiar feature in the works of this country as distinguished from ,oriental art generally1 which1 together with breadth and simplicity1 brings them nearest the productions of the ,grecian chisel4 ,from the style of execution1 however1 it would appear that the effect has been brought out rather by patience and labour1 than by rapid or dexterous management4 ,in fact1 the general character has been influenced not a little by the materials2 for in the statues of wood1 both as described and discovered1 the action is bolder1 and the manner more free4 ,if a conjecture may be hazarded on the subject of their theory1 it would seem that the ,egyptians1 in the infancy of their arts1 were guided by an outline traced round a human figure1 dead or alive1 extended upon the block1 face upwards1 with the arms close by the sides1 and the limbs placed together exactly as their statues are composed4 ,the scattered details given in the ,greek writers respecting the arts of this ancient people1 have indeed induced the belief1 that they were acquainted with much more refined canons of symmetry2 but it ought to have been observed1 that ,diodorus and others describe the practices existing in their own times1 when ,egypt had1 to a certain extent1 become the pupil of ,greece4 ,in some respects1 also1 it is difficult to give implicit credit to their accounts1 at least in the common interpretation4 ,it is farther particularly to be observed1 that the supposition now made will account for the correctness of the general proportions which would thus be obtained from nature2 likewise no theory of proportional parts can be detected different from the results thus obtainable1 while those details which a refined theory would preserve1 but which could not by such method be measured1 are defective4 ,we have been thus minute and critical in these investigations for two reasons3 from ,egypt certainly descended the first principles of improvement to ,western art1 while no less evidently did the ,eastern world derive its entire knowledge from the same source4 ,consequently1 in carefully examining that of the ,egyptians1 the best account1 deduced too from monuments actually observed1 has been given of ,oriental ,sculpture generally4 ,of the mighty empires1 indeed1 which once embraced the happiest regions of ,asia and of the globe1 a name1 or at most a shapeless mass of ruins1 alone remain4 ,of ,jewish art1 the sole memorials in existence are the sculptured transcripts on the arch of ,titus4 ,but every description in the sacred records1 from the calf of the wilderness to the twelve oxen of the molten sea1 or the lions of the throne of ,solomon1 evinces the taste of the former bondsmen of ,pharaoh1 and of him who was skilled in all the learning of the ,egyptians2 at the same time we learn that the ,israelites quickly departed from the severe and simple grandeur of the parent source4 ,moving eastward3 ,baalbec's gigantic masonry is adorned with little of sculpture2 the lonely ,palmyra exhibits only ,roman ruins1 for the ,tadmor of ,scripture has long disappeared2 the pillared ,persepolis claims a remoter antiquity2 but the ,pelhavi and arrowheaded inscriptions1 instead of hieroglyphics1 show comparatively recent1 and the innumerable and beautiful sculptures1 display certain traits of the ,grecian school4 ,they cannot be older than ,cyrus1 but most probably belong to the age of his successors4 ,the mysterious monuments of ,hindustan alone seem to claim an equal or more ancient date compared with the labours we have surveyed4 ,their nature1 also1 is the same2 hence there are not wanting names of highest eminence1 who have maintained not only the greater antiquity of ,indian art1 but that thence has been derived all other1 as from the parent source4 ,this opinion has been grounded too exclusively on the dubious inferences of philology1 or of mere antiquarian erudition1--dubious1 at least1 when applied to ,sculpture4 ,here the subject itself ought to supply the true principles of decision2 and on this point one observation will suffice4 ,the sculpture1 like the architecture1 of ,egypt1 bears the impress of uniform simplicity2 the grand lines of composition are few1 accessories are sparingly introduced1 and wear the same sober1 massive1 and unpretending character4 ,in the works of ,asiatic art1 on the contrary1 although presenting a general resemblance to those of ,egypt1 the design is neither simple nor uniform2 the parts are numerous1 breaking the master lines into multiplied compartments1 while the style of ornament is replete with complicated details1 and of pretension above the means of the artist4 ,now1 judging according to the natural inferences from these facts1 and according to the acknowledged precepts of imitative art1 this latter style1 with its defects in keeping1 has evidently arisen in consequence of superinducing a laboured and injudiciously aspiring taste upon the more severe and simple conceptions of a primitive composition4 ,similar principles may be obviously traced in the farther progress of the arts eastward4 ,china is admitted1 on the most learned authorities1 to have been planted by colonists from the banks of the ,indus and the ,ganges2 and in the unchanging modes of that country1 we seem almost to catch glimpses of the aboriginal knowledge of our race4 ,yet how striking the difference between the ornate and the frittered labours of the ,chinese compared with the works either of ,india or of ,egypt6 ,even their great wall is but the accumulation of petty exertions--an evidence of numerical1 not of scientific energy4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,in the previous chapter1 ,egypt has been exhibited as the centre of intelligence in the history of ancient art2 and having explained the connexion which can still be traced in the few remaining monuments of the ,east1 we now turn from the parent source to trace the progress of refinement in the ,west1 where1 first in ,greece1 the human mind awoke to the full consciousness of its capacious grasp1 and of its exquisite sensibilities4 ,the universal origin of sculptural representation1 already noticed1 in the alliance which man forms with natural objects as shadowing forth the affections or the regrets of the heart1 is nowhere so conspicuous as in ,greece4 ,here art was poetry from the beginning2 her consecrated groves1 her winding streams1 her flowery plains1 the azure depths of her mountains1 became at once the residence and the representatives of those beings1 whether divine or heroic1 who constituted her theology4 ,by a people1 simple in their habits1 yet ardent in their feelings1 this early faith was long remembered1--such reminiscences deeply tincturing much of what is most exquisitely descriptive and sentimental in ,grecian poetry4 ,but a belief so abstract1 so untangible in its forms1 and so remotely addressed to the senses1 would soon prove insufficient to maintain effectual empire over the passions4 ,attempts were speedily made to secure1 as it were1 the more immediate presence and protection of the objects of veneration or of worship4 ,men's desires in this respect1 however1 as in all other instances1 would necessarily be limited by their knowledge and their powers4 ,in the primitive ages1 accordingly1 objects rude and unfashioned as we learn from history1 were adored as representing the divinities of ,greece4 ,even to the time of ,pausanias1 stones and trunks of trees1 rough and uninformed by art1 were preserved in the temples3 and though replaced by forms almost divine1 still regarded with peculiar veneration1 as the ancient images of the deities4 ,as skill improved1 these signs began to assume more determinate similitude2 and from a square column1 the first stage1 by slow gradations something approaching to a resemblance of the human figure was fashioned4 ,these efforts at sculpture long continued extremely imperfect4 ,the extremities seem not to have been even attempted2 the arms were not separated from the body1 nor the limbs from each other1 but1 like the folds of the drapery1 stiffly indicated by deep lines drawn on the surface4 ,such appears to have been the general state of the art immediately prior to the period when it can first be traced1 as cultivated with some degree of success in any particular place4 ,this occurs about twelve centuries before ,christ4 ,the fine arts have never flourished in states not commercial2 in this respect1 presenting a marked contrast to the origin and progress of poetry and music2 a fact singularly exemplified in the condition of those cities where arose the primitive schools in ,greece4 ,sicyon1 gina1 ,corinth1 and ,athens1 were the first seats of commerce and of sculpture4 ,sicyon1 with its small but important territory1 extending a few miles along the south-eastern extremity of the ,corinthian gulf1 was the most ancient of the ,grecian states1 and probably the oldest city of ,europe4 ,from the earliest times1 it became celebrated for the wealth1 enterprise1 and intelligence of its population2 and from the ,sicyonian academy were sent forth many of the most celebrated masters of design2 hence ,sicyon obtained the venerable appellation of ',mother of the ,arts4' ,the foundation of this school1 though most probably of much higher antiquity1 is assigned to ,dibutades1 who1 in the humble occupation of a potter1 became the accidental inventor of the art of modelling4 ,for this discovery1 so precious in its subsequent effects1 he was indebted to the ingenuity of his daughter1 who1 inspired by love1 traced upon the wall1 by means of a lamp1 the shadowed profile of the favored youth as he slept1 that with this imperfect resemblance she might beguile the lingering hours of absence4 ,this outline the father1 filling up with clay1 formed a medallion1 which1 even to the time of ,pliny1 was preserved as a most interesting relic4 ,to the same pleasing origin painting has been ascribed--another instance of that delightful charm1 which1 to their poetry1 their arts1 their philosophy even1 the ,greeks have imparted by the constant union of sentiment and reason--of the heart with the understanding4 ,the little island1 or rather rock1 of gina1 still one of the most interesting spots of ,greece1 rising above the waves of the ,saronic gulf1 nearly opposite to ,athens1 affords a striking illustration of the effects of commercial wisdom4 ,insignificant in extent1 boasting of few productions1 it was yet enabled1 by this wisdom1 long and successfully to maintain the struggle of warfare1 and to cherish the arts of peace and of elegance1 especially sculpture1 in a school1 if not the earliest1 certainly latest distinguished by originality of style and invention4 ,smilis was famous by his statues of ,juno1 especially one at ,samos1 called by ,pliny 'the most ancient image' of that goddess4 ,even in the works of this1 her first master1 it is said1 were to be discovered a gravity and austere grandeur1 the principles of that style visible still in the noble marbles which once adorned1 in gina1 the temple of ,jupiter ,panhellenius4 ,corinth was early more celebrated as the patroness of painting4 ,concerning ,ddalus1 the first of the ,athenian sculptors1 doubtful or fabulous accounts have reached us2 but a careful investigation of circumstances proves1 that of whatsoever country a native1 he had rendered himself renowned by the exercise of his skill at the court of ,minos before settling in ,attica4 ,the facts attending his arrival there1 and the history of his previous labours1 enable us to fix dates1 and to trace the true source of improvement in ,grecian art at this particular era4 ,of the early establishments of the ,greeks planted in the isles of the gean1 which even preceded the mother country in the acquisition of wealth and intelligence1 the ,doric colony of ,crete enjoyed1 from a very early period1 the happiness and consequent power of settled government4 ,external advantages of situation first invited the access1 while domestic institutions secured the benefits1 of ancient and uninterrupted intercourse with ,egypt4 ,hence the laws and the arts of the ,cretans4 ,with the former1 the ,athenian hero1 ,theseus1 wished to transplant the latter also2 and while he gave to his countrymen a similar system of policy1 he did not fail to secure the co-operation of one whose knowledge might yield powerful aid in humanizing a rude people by adding new dignity to the objects of national veneration4 ,accordingly ,ddalus1 accompanying the conqueror of the ,minotaur to ,athens1 fixes there the commencement of an improved style1 #abcd years before the ,christian era4 ,with ,ddalus1 the artists already mentioned are described as nearly or altogether contemporaries4 ,the performances of ,ddalus were chiefly in wood1 of which no fewer than nine1 of large dimensions1 are described as existing in the second century1 which1 notwithstanding the injuries of fourteen hundred years1 and the imperfections of early taste1 seemed1 in the words of ,pausanias1 to possess something of divine expression4 ,their author1 as reported by ,diodorus1 improved upon ancient art1 so as to give vivacity to the attitude1 and more animated expression to the countenance4 ,hence we are not to understand1 with some1 that ,ddalus introduced sculpture into ,greece1 nor even into ,attica2 but simply that he was the first to form something like a school of art1 and whose works first excited the admiration of his own rude age1 while they were deemed worthy of notice even in more enlightened times4 ,indeed the details preserved in the classic writers1 that he raised the arms in varied position from the flanks1 and opened the eyes1 before narrow and blinking1 sufficiently prove the extent of preceding art1 and the views we have given on the subject4 ,in these primitive schools1 however1 many centuries necessarily elapsed1 before sculpture can be considered as a regular art4 ,their founders and pupils were little more than ingenious mechanics1 who followed carving among other avocations4 ,such were ,endus of ,athens1 celebrated for three several statues of ,minerva2 peus1 immortalized as the fabricator of the ,trojan horse2 ,icmulous1 praised in the ,odyssey as having sculptured the throne of ,penelope2 with many others who must have contributed to the arts of the heroic ages1 and who1 if they did not rapidly improve1 at least kept alive the knowledge of sculpture4 ,besides these continental schools1 another must be described1 which there is every reason to believe was still more ancient1 and which certainly attained higher perfection at an earlier period4 ,this was the insular ,ionian school1 flourishing in those delightful isles that gem the coast of ,asia ,minor1 and chiefly in ,samos and ,chios4 ,to this the continental academies were even indebted for many of their most distinguished members1 who1 leaving the narrow sphere of their island homes1 naturally preferred the commercial cities from the same causes which had rendered these originally seats of art1 opulence1 intelligence1 and security4 ,of the ,samian masters1 ,rhcus1 about the institution of the ,olympiads1 or #ggg ,b4 ,c41 first obtained celebrity1 as a sculptor in brass1 in which art1 ,telecles and ,theodorus1 his son and grandson1 also excelled4 ,their works in ivory1 wood1 and metal1 were extant in the age of ,pausanius1 whose description exhibits the hard and dry manner of ,egypt1 whence it is probable these artists had derived their improvements1 distinguished for very careful finish4 ,the ,chian school claims the praise of first introducing the use of a material to which sculpture mainly owes its perfection1 namely1 marble4 ,the merit of this happy application is assigned to ,malas1 the father of a race of sculptors1 and who is placed about the #chth ,olympiad1 or #fdi years before the ,christian era4 ,michiades inherited and improved the science of the inventor1 transmitting to his own son1 ,anthermus1 the accumulated fame and experience of two generations of sculptors1 to whom1 as to their successors1 the beautiful marbles of their native island furnished one rich means of superiority4 ,in the insular1--and the evidence is in favour of the ,chian school1--we also first hear of bronze statues4 ,the earliest works of this kind were not cast1 but executed with the hammer4 ,two manners are discernible2 large figures were formed of plates1 and hollow1 the interior being filled with clay2 in small pieces1 the separate parts were brought nearly into shape in the solid1 afterwards united1 and the whole finished by the graver and the file4 ,these methods1 in each of which rivets1 dovetails1 and soldering1 formed the joints1 were gradually superseded as the knowledge of casting was acquired4 ,about the commencement of the sixth century before ,christ1 the school of ,sicyon was illustrated by ,dipnus and ,scyllis1 brothers1 the most famous of her ancient masters1 and whose age forms an era in the history of the ancient art1 marking the first decided advances towards the mastery of the succeeding style4 ,their labours were in various materials1 the most esteemed of marble2 and the praise of its application is shared betwixt them and the ,chian school4 ,statues by these artists1 in ,parian marble1 were admired in the time of ,pliny1 excited the cupidity of ,nero1 and are subsequently described by one of the ,christian fathers1 from the peculiar veneration in which they were held4 ,the style of sculpture had hitherto been extremely dry and minute2--a passion for extreme finish1 in preference to general effect1 had distinguished former masters4 ,this taste had been first introduced1 and afterwards maintained1 by the limited resources of the art itself1 by the mediocrity of artists1 and by the dress and ornaments of the time4 ,the hair arranged in undulating locks or spiral curls1 and sometimes little separate knobs1 was laboured as if to be numbered2 the drapery1 disposed in the most rigid and methodical folds1 finished with painful minuteness2 at the same time the limbs and countenance retained much of rude and incorrect form and tasteless expression1 but elaborated with the extreme of care4 ,it is far easier1 and the common error1 both of inferior genius and of an unskilful age1 to bestow on parts that talent and application by which a whole is to be perfected4 ,the fault of fastidious and useless labour1 with inaccuracy of general result1 still attaches to the works of ,dipnus and ,scyllis1 but great melioration is also apparent2 their execution was much more free1 the whole effect more powerful1 the expression1 if not more animated1 more natural1 and the forms better selected and composed4 ,colossal heads1 now in the ,british ,museum1 of ,hercules and ,apollo1 most probably of these masters1 afford an admirable illustration of these remarks1 and of the style of art at this early period4 ,the fiftieth ,olympiad1 shows all the necessary inventions and principles of mechanical art fully known and universally practised4 ,even so early as the twentyninth ,olympiad1 an equestrian group had been executed in ,crete by ,aristocles2 all the proper materials1 and the methods of working them1 had long been discovered2 in the greatest single work of these times1 the shrine of ,apollo at ,amycl1 by ,bathycles the ,ionian1 every description of relief had been exhibited2 and lastly1 improvement had been fixed on such principles of taste and composition1 as enabled succeeding efforts to carry it forward4 ,the extent of country in which the art was now cultivated1 and the zeal evinced in the pursuit1 corresponded to1 while they increased1 the improvement of taste4 ,attention is now directed to a new school1 that of ,magna ,grcia1 which 7during two thousand years71 had been gradually rising into importance and excellence4 ,its chief seats were at ,rhegium and ,crotona in ,italy1 and in ,sicily1 ,syracuse and ,agrigentum4 ,in these1 the artists first practised in metal chiefly1 afterwards in marble2 and were among the foremost to perfect iconic statues1--a source of most decided advantage to the art4 ,omitting farther enumeration1 one of these early masters1 ,dionysius of ,rhegium1 merits to be mentioned as the first who composed a statue of ,homer1 erected about the twenty-seventh ,olympiad4 ,this was an ideal bronze1 in which the traditionary resemblance had been preserved2 and from this ancient original were taken those portraits of the father of verse which are mentioned by ,pliny as so numerous in his time1 and of which one or two exquisite examples still remain4 ,thus five centuries and a half before the ,christian era1 sculpture was practised with success throughout the wide extent of ,greece and her colonies4 ,during the former part of the sixth century1 however1 ,sicyon1 whose school had added to its ancient supremacy by the superiority of ,dipnus and ,scyllis1 continued to send forth1 in their pupils1 the most numerous and efficient artists4 ,of these1 the principal were ,learchus1 a native of ,rhegium2 ,theocles1 ,dontas1 ,doryclidos1 and ,medon1 ,lacedmonians2 ,tecteus and ,angelion of ,delos1 where they erected a colossal statue of ,apollo4 ,at ,rhegium1 ,clearchus was highly esteemed1 and had a very flourishing academy2 while at ,agrigentum1 ,perillus rivalled the masters of the parent schools4 ,he cast the famous bull of ,phalaris1 afterwards carried off by the ,carthaginians1 restored by ,scipio1 again the object of the cupidity of ,verres1 and of the praise of ,cicero1 whose words1 ille nobilis ,taurus1 prove that the skill of those early ages has not been too highly appreciated4 ,but the fame of all preceding sculptors has suffered from the superior reputation of the two ,chian brothers1 ,bupalus and ,anthemis1 who lived #eag years ,b4 ,c4 ,they were the first who brought to a high degree of perfection the discovery of their ancestors1--sculpture in marble4 ,both ,greece and ,asia strove to possess their works1 which were equally numerous and excellent1 and on which was inscribed1 not their own1 but their father's name and their country's1 in the following verse3 ',the sons of ,anthermus will render thee1 ,o ,chios1 more renowned than thy vines have yet done4' ,the beauty of these works caused them to be highly valued in all succeeding ages1 and they formed part of those master-pieces removed to ,rome by order of ,augustus4 ,during the period of fiftyeight years1 from the sixtieth to the seventysecond ,olympiad1 and the battle of ,marathon1 sculpture throughout ,greece was vigorously exercised1 and with corresponding success4 ,at ,athens1 which1 though distinguished in the very commencement of our narrative1 has subsequently appeared in the back ground1 ,pisistratus laid the foundation of that school whence afterwards issued the new lights of the art4 ,this extraordinary man perceived and applied the proper remedy to the poverty of ,attica3 he introduced manufactures and encouraged commerce2 and while the true sources of political greatness were thus opened1 the more enviable supremacy of his country was secured in the intellectual empire of literature and the arts of elegance4 ,yet this man has been termed1 in the history of that very country1 a tyrant1 because he saved her from her worst enemy1 the mob--miscalled free citizens--slaves of their own passions1 and agents in the hands of demagogues4 ,our own times are not without similar prejudices4 ,mankind seem destined1 in all ages1 to be the dupes of fears and of phantoms which they themselves have evoked1 and which distract attention from real danger4 ,happy that state1 governed by rulers1 who1 like ,pisistratus1 will respect the essentials of free institutions1 who will consecrate the resources of the state to promote the national grandeur1 and save the people from themselves6 ,under his protection were assembled the most esteemed artists of all descriptions3 of sculptors1 ,eucharis was famous for the figures of warriors in armour2 and ,callon for statues of bronze4 ,callimachus is praised as master of all the arts of design1 and in sculptural composition had introduced a lightness and elegance before unattained4 ,in other parts of ,greece1 during the same interval1 were the following3 ,dameas1 of whose works1 the statue of his compatriot ,milo was the most celebrated1 and which the latter1 among his other wonderful feats1 carried to the place of erection4 ,polycletus1 the first of the name1 and his master ,ageladas1 finished at ,argos1 their native city1 the statue of ,cleosthenes in a car1 soon after the sixtyseventh ,olympiad1 and one of the greatest works yet undertaken4 ,at ,sicyon were the brothers ,canachus and ,aristocles1 whose two ,muses were the finest statues then known2 and of which1 one is supposed to be the famous antique now in the ,barbarini palace4 ,ascarus1 at ,elis1 produced a ,jupiter crowned with flowers2 ,menecmus and ,soidas a ,diana1 afterwards placed in the palace of ,augustus4 ,menecmus was the first who wrote on the principles of his art4 ,the ,dioscorides of ,egesias1 contemporary with the ,persian invasion1 have1 by a misinterpretation of ,pliny1 been assigned to the figures now on ,monte ,cavallo1 at ,rome4 ,the victory of ,marathon1 ,b4 ,c4 #dij1 inspired fresh vigour into the genius and institutions of ,greece4 ,from this date1 to the government of ,pericles1 intervenes a period in moral grandeur1 the brightest1 perhaps1 in ,grecian history4 ,of the sculptors who then flourished1 the immediate predecessors1 or early contemporaries1 of ,phidias1 the following were the chief3 ,onatas and ,glaucias1 of ,egina2 the one modelled an admirable statue of ,gelon1 king of ,syracuse2 the other1 an iconic figure of ,theagines of ,thasos1 four hundred times victorious in the public games4 ,critias replaced the statues of ,harmodias and ,aristogiton1 the originals having been carried off by ,xerxes4 ,calamis was still more renowned for his horses1 which were likewise iconic statues--a proof how early nature was admitted as the only guide in every department of sculpture4 ,pythagoras of ,rhegium surpassed all his predecessors2 his statues of ,enthymus and ,astylas1 conquerors in the ,olympic games1 were masterpieces of form2 and in expression1 his ,philoctetes exhibited deeper and truer sentiment than had yet appeared in any work4 ,the name of ,pythagoras1 indeed1 is closely associated with the general advancement of the art1 as ranking among the inventors of that system of proportion which1 derived from nature1 taught to unite elegance with truth1 and which invariably guided the practice1 while its perfection was improved by the discoveries1 of each succeeding master4 ,in the mechanical department1 also1 his manner was more bold1 firm1 and graceful1 in delicacy of style being placed by ,quintilian inferior only to ,myron1 the last and the greatest of the early school4 ,myron1 a native of ,eleuther1 exercised his profession chiefly at ,athens1 of which he enjoyed the citizenship4 ,the decline of his life corresponds with the early labours of ,phidias3 ,myron thus unites the first and second ages of ,grecian sculpture1 combining in his works many of the essential excellences of its perfection1 with some of the remaining hardness and defects of its pupillage4 ,in adopting this chronology1 we seem to reconcile conflicting opinions both with each other and with history4 ,the principal works of ,myron were in bronze1 and the most colossal in wood2 consequently1 no original of his hand has come down to modern times4 ,there can1 however1 be no doubt that the famous ,discobolos is preserved to us in more than one antique repetition4 ,hence1 and from the writings of the orators and historians1 a fair estimate of his merits may be deduced4 ,his composition was distinguished for energy1 science1 and truth4 ,iconic statues he carried to a degree of excellence and vigour1 as in the portrait of ,ladus1 unsurpassed in any succeeding age4 ,the ,bacchus1 ,erectheus1 and ,apollo1 executed by order of the state1 were not less admired by the ,athenians2 the last1 carried away by ,antony1 was restored to them by ,augustus1 in consequence of a dream4 ,his representations of animals were equally admirable2 and seem1 if possible1 to have been more universally praised1 judging from the circumstance of no fewer than thirtysix laudatory poems on the famous heifer being still extant in the ,anthology4 ,myron carried mere imitative art to its utmost limits2 yet in some of the minor details1 the dry manner of the first ages appeared4 ,sculpture1 as the representation of the external form1 he perfected2 but as an instrument of touching the heart--of elevating the imagination--of embodying sentiment1 he proved unequal to call forth its powers4 ,he represented nature forcibly and with fidelity1 but without grandeur or ideal elevation4 ,an important approach1 however1 to just conceptions of abstract beauty1 is to be perceived in the principle which he is said first to have promulgated1--that propriety in the separate parts was beauty1 or that a work of art was beautiful as a whole1 according as the partial forms and proportions corresponded to their offices and to the general character4 ,this1 in fact1 is the essence of corporeal beauty1 the highest refinement of material art2 and assigns to form1 independent of mind1 the noblest expression of which it is susceptible4 ,this is the utmost range attained by the genius of this the first period in the history of art in ,greece1 and an admirable ground-work for the sublimity1 and refined perceptions of the beautiful1 added in the era that followed4 ,casting a retrospect over the ages that have passed in review1 how are we struck with the slow and painful growth of human invention6 ,the collective energies and discoveries of a thousand years were required to rear the arts of ,greece--not to their perfection1 but to the state where the first decided approaches to it commence4 ,such is the length of time from the first feeble glimmerings of imitative art to the era of ,dipnus and ,scyllis1 ,bupalus and ,anthermus4 ,the interval of forty years occupied by these artists1 from the fiftieth to the sixtieth ,olympiad1 may be considered as terminating the old1 and introducing the new school4 ,the art was now in possession of all the means and instruments1 the correct application of which bound the aspirings and the praise of mediocrity1 but which merely become subservient to the aims of loftier minds4 ,during part of this period1 also1 these means were industriously1 and with daily improving skill1 employed4 ,from this date to the battle of ,marathon1 an interval of fifty-eight years1 improvement was rapid in every corner of ,greece and her colonies4 ,fortunately1 also1 the movement then given to ,sculpture was one of diffuse activity1 not an influence derived from1 and sustained amongst1 a few leading minds1 whose authority might thus have operated fatally1 by binding down to fixed and imperfect modes the aspirings of future genius4 ,this advantage was secured by the number of independent states forming the ,grecian confederacy1 a constitution1 which1 throughout the whole history of ancient art1 exercised the most beneficial effects1 both by preventing mannerism1 in taste1 and by nourishing emulation4 ,the ,persian invasion1 the victories of ,marathon1 ,salamis1 and ,platea1 awakened a new energy in the moral character of ,greece1 infusing at the same time into her institutions a vigour and a stability before unknown4 ,from the elevation she had now attained among the nations of the earth1 her genius rushed forward as from vantage ground4 ,in every field of mental enterprise1 indeed1 a certain preparation had already been made1 and in some the best exertions had long been achieved4 ,in poetry a sublimity had been attained1 which has yet set at nought all succeeding rivalry4 ,but in that knowledge1 and in those arts1 which depend less upon individual eminence1 and more upon the circumstances of the times1 and upon a strong national interest1--in all those studies which embrace numbers by their consequences or their success1 which demand the union of patient perseverance with high talent1 and finally1 which pertain to the business of public life1 and require deep insight into the nicer distinctions of human character--all1 from this happy era1 with an almost supernatural progress1 attained maturity4 ,the opulence and security1 with the resulting consciousness of power1 and the love of elegance1 which followed the defeat of the ,barbarians1 proved especially propitious to the arts of sculpture and architecture4 ,if in the former any doubt be entertained1 what the difference of improvement was between the artists who preceded and those who followed the age of ,xerxes1 we have only to recall the fortunes of the drama during the same heart-stirring period4 ,in the last of the #gdth ,olympiad1 ,a4 ,c4 #dhi1 or one year after the battle of ,marathon1 schylus placed the first wreath upon the solemn brow of ,tragedy4 ,not twenty years afterwards1 the warrior bard was vanquished by his youthful rival4 ,between the ,prometheus of schylus1 then1 and the ,,oedipus of ,sophocles1 we find as wide an interval as is necessary to suppose between the sculptures contemporary with the former1 and the productions of ,polycletus or ,myron4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the age of ,pericles seemed marked out by fortune as a distinguished epoch in the history of his country4 ,the fine talents1 also1 and popular qualities of this accomplished statesman1 were admirably adapted to turn to the best account the propitious circumstances of the period4 ,to the further progress of the fine arts1 and of sculpture in particular1 preceding events1 and their present consequences1 almost necessarily contributed2 while the condition of the art itself was just fitted to receive the perfecting impulse4 ,the energies of sculpture1 likewise1 were now to be more directly concentrated in one parent school2 which1 while it especially adorned one seat1 preserved yet the stirring rivalry of honorable emulation1 as being the common seminary of free and independent states4 ,the noble stand she had made1 her superior sacrifices and sufferings in the cause of freedom1 directed to ,athens the sympathy and deference of ,greece4 ,the prosperity1 too1 of her political situation1 was suitable to the support of this moral pre-eminence4 ,provided with means of defence and of commerce1 on a scale which seemed to contemplate future empire1 she was left by ,themistocles with ample resources--a noble field of fame and recompense for the artist4 ,he himself1 satisfied with the useful1 had cared less about the ornamental2 but1 among the little he did add1 were the lions1 now at ,venice1 originally placed on the entrance to the ,pirus1 in which fidelity of detail1 and grandeur of conception1 have furnished to us existing evidence of the skill of this age4 ,great as they were1 the mind of ,phidias proved equal to these external advantages4 ,possessing that rarest and highest of all genius which is at once creative and regular--learned1 yet original1 he caught the inspiration of art in the most elevated range of the past1 bringing in his own attainments a sublimity and truth yet unequalled by all that has followed4 ,this great master1 the son of ,charmidas1 an ,athenian citizen1 was born about the #gb;d ,olympiad1 or nearly #ejj years before our era1 and studied under ,eladas4 ,his numerous works belonged to three distinct classes3 ,toreutic1 or statues of mixed materials1 ivory being the chief1--statues of bronze1--sculptures in marble4 ,in this enumeration are included only capital performances1 for exercises in wood1 plaster1 clay1 and minute labours in carving1 are recorded occasionally to have occupied his attention4 ,the beauty of these miniatures was not inferior to the excellence of his greater works2 at once sublime and ingenious1 he executed grand undertakings with majesty and force1 and the most minute with simplicity and truth4 ',artis ,phidiac toreuma durum ,pisces adspicis3 adde aquam1 natabunt4' ',these fish are iv'ry--but by ,phidias made2 ,from want of water only seem they dead4' ,of the works belonging to the first division1 the ,olympian ,jupiter1 and the ,minerva of the ,parthenon1 colossal statues composed of gold and ivory1 were the most wonderful productions of ancient art4 ,the former1 placed in the ,temple at ,elis1 was sixty feet high1 in a reposing attitude1 the body naked to the cincture1 the lower limbs clothed in a robe gemmed with golden flowers2 the hair also was of gold1 bound with an enamelled crown2 the eyes of precious stones2 the rest of ivory4 ,notwithstanding the gigantic proportions1 every part was wrought with the most scrupulous delicacy2 even the splendid throne was carved with exquisite nicety4 ,the whole was finished before the artist had obtained the direction of the public works of the ,athenians1 in the #hc;d ,olympiad after a labour of ten years2 the same date in which ,herodotus read the second part of his history1 the first regular prose composition that had been heard at ,athens4 ,about twelve years later was executed the ,minerva1 of inferior dimensions1 being only forty feet in altitude1 but equal1 if not superior1 in beauty of workmanship and richness of material1 the nude being of ivory1 the ornaments of gold4 ,a flowing tunic added grace to the erect attitude of the goddess3 in one hand was a spear1 upon the head a casque2 on the ground a buckler1 exquisitely carved1 the concave representing the giants' war1 the convex a conflict with the ,amazons1 portraits of the artist and of his patron being introduced among the ,athenian combatants--one cause of the future misfortunes which envy brought upon the author4 ,on the golden sandals was also sculptured another favorite subject1 the battle of the ,centaurs1 praised by historians as a perfect gem of minute art4 ,such admiration attached to these two works1 that they were regarded as 'having added majesty to the received religion2' and it was esteemed a misfortune not to have been able1 once in a lifetime1 to behold them4 ,yet judged according to the true principles of genuine art1 theirs was not a legitimate beauty4 ,it does not excite surprise1 then1 to learn that ,phidias himself disapproved of the mixed effect produced by such a combination of different substances1 nor will it appear presumptuous here to condemn these splendid representations4 ,it is not sufficient that a work of art does produce a powerful impression--it is indispensable to its excellence that the means employed be in accordance with the principles and the mode of imitation4 ,now1 in the compositions just described1 exposed as they were to the dim light of the ancient temple1 and from very magnitude imperfectly comprehended1 the effects of variously reflecting surfaces1 now gloom1 now glowing of unearthly lustre1 must have been rendered doubly imposing4 ,but this influence1 though well calculated to increase superstitious devotion1 or to impress mysterious terror on the bewildered sense1 was meretricious1 altogether diverse from the solemn repose1 the simple majesty of form and expression1 which constitute the true sublimity of sculptural representation4 ,statuary1 or the art of casting in bronze1 as the term was used by the ancients1 ,phidias carried to unrivalled perfection4 ,the ,amazon1 the ,minerva1 at ,lemnos1 and in the ,acropolis1 were considered as the masterpieces in this department4 ,the last1 called the ,minerva ,polias1 was of such majestic proportions1 that the crest and helmet might be discerned above the battlements of the citadel at a distance of twentyfive miles1 pointing home to the ,athenian mariner1 as he rounded the promontory of ,sunium4 ,of these and other works1 descriptions alone remain2 we are consequently indebted for our positive knowledge of his style and principles to the marble sculptures of ,phidias1 in which department numerous admirable performances of his hand have also perished2 but we have here an advantage in the possession of undoubted originals denied in every other instance4 ,of the scholars of ,phidias1 the most esteemed were ,alcamenes the ,athenian1 and ,agoracritus of ,paros4 ,their real merit1 however1 is matter of uncertainty1 since their works are reported to have been retouched by their master1 who was likewise in the habit of inscribing his statues with the names of his favorite pupils4 ,indeed1 the sublime style perfected by ,phidias seems almost to have expired with himself--not that the art declined1 but a predilection for subjects of beauty1 and the softer graces1 in preference to more heroic and masculine character1 with the exception of the grand relievos on the temple of ,olympia1 may be traced even among his immediate disciples4 ,among his contemporaries1 indeed1 ,polycletus1 the second of the name1 has been by some placed equal in grandeur of style1 while by others he has been described as unequal1 to the majesty of the great ,athenian4 ,polycletus himself appears to have decided the controversy1 by showing1 from the selection of his subjects1 that his genius carried him to the imitation rather of the beautiful than the great4 ,his most celebrated performances were the statues of two youths1 both nude1 the ,diadumenos and the ,doryphorus1 so called from their action of binding the head with a fillet1 and bearing a spear4 ,the latter formed the famous 'canon1' from which1 as from an unerring standard1 all succeeding artists1 even ,lysippus1 borrowed their proportions4 ,among contemporaries1 also1 a most distinguished station must have been occupied by ,ctesilaus1 since he contested with ,phidias and ,polycletus the public prize of merit for a statue to be dedicated in the temple of the ,ephesian ,diana4 ,to this artist is erroneously ascribed one of the finest specimens of art now in existence1 miscalled1 but best known as1 the ,dying ,gladiator1 and which1 more than any other ancient example1 discovers the most profound knowledge of the internal structure of the human frame4 ,from the banishment and death of ,phidias1 which occurred some time before his patron died of the plague1 in the last year of the eightyseventh ,olympiad1 the history of art is carried forward through a period1 one of the most stormy and unsettled in the ,grecian annals4 ,he beheld the commencement of the ,peloponnesian war1 an event1 indeed1 ,pericles is accused of having at least hastened1 in order to screen his remaining friends from those accusations of which the sculptor had been the guiltless victim4 ,during thirty years of hostile commotions1 the arts flourished with almost unimpaired vigor1 except that towards the close of the contest1 sculpture1 which had naturally participated in the fortunes of ,athens1 suffered a decline in this its capital school4 ,the spirit of the age generally1 however1 united with the sentiment of hostility a more generous rivalry in excellence of every kind4 ,the grand and beautiful in art continued to be followed and admired1 while1 amid the contention of arms1 eloquence began to attain that nervous elegance which yet renders attic oratory the finest model of deliberative procedure4 ,even the less friendly interval which followed1 the establishment of the iron rule of ,sparta--the ruin of the milder and more splendid dominion of ,athens--and1 more disastrous still1 the war kindled by the ambition of ,thebes1 with the various isolated struggles arising out of these leading events1 appear to have produced no material degradation in that heroic style1 whose lofty character harmonized with the strong excitement of contests for freedom or empire4 ,of the artists who adorned this stirring era1 the names of nearly fifty1 with descriptions of certain of their works1 have been handed down in the incidental notices of contemporary history1 or in the more detailed accounts of ,pausanius1 ,strabo1 and ,pliny4 ,naucydes was author of that beautiful figure holding a discus1 and measuring in his own mind the distance1 of which antique copies remain1 admired for fine position1 sweet variety of contour1 and unaffected expression4 ,leochares1 ,bryaxis1 and ,timotheus1 assisted in the erection of the tomb of ,mausolus1 where ,scopas1 superior to all others mentioned1 presided4 ,thus his age is fixed about the #ajb;d ,olympiad1 or #cgj ,b4 ,c4 ,to the chisel of this eminent artist is ascribed the ,townley ,venus1 or ,dione1 now in the ,british ,museum1 as also the group of ,niobe at ,florence4 ,grace1 softness1 and truth1 were the characteristics of his style1 which may be considered as forming the intermediate gradation between that of ,phidias and those of ,praxiteles and ,lysippus2 between the two grand divisions of ,greek sculpture1 the schools of grandeur and of beauty4 ,in the era and labours of ,phidias1 we discover the utmost excellence to which ,grecian genius attained in the arts4 ,from an examination1 then1 of this excellence1 we shall not only obtain a knowledge of that style pronounced by the ,greeks themselves to be their proudest achievement in sculpture1 but may also be able to elicit principles of the highest general importance in the philosophy of imitative art4 ,this inquiry likewise demands attention1 were it merely on account of the singularly fortunate circumstances under which it can be instituted4 ,respecting the most esteemed masterpieces of antiquity1 reasonable doubts still exist how far our judgments are formed upon real originals4 ,but in the marbles of the ,british ,museum1 the former ornaments of the ,parthenon1 we certainly behold the conceptions1 and1 in some measure1 the very practice of the great ,athenian sculptor4 ,both statues and relievos compose these precious remains1 one of the noblest bequests of ancient to modern talent4 ,the statues adorned the two tympana of the ,parthenon1 which was amphiprostylos or double-fronted1 consisting1 besides fragments1 of fourteen groups1 or seventeen figures1 of the natural proportions4 ,the relievos are of two kinds1 one of which formed the inner frieze of the cella1 and flat1 representing the procession of the ,panathenean festival2 the other1 consisting of fifteen metopes of the exterior peristyle1 very bold1 even to entire roundness in some parts1 the subject1 combats of the ,centaurs with the followers of ,theseus1 appropriate to a national temple4 ,in these sculptures1 the technicality is of unequal merit2 but in the design1 the presence of the same mind is visible throughout4 ,in the statues1 and in the frieze1 of which nearly two hundred feet still remain1 the execution generally approaches so near the beauty and grandeur of the composition1 that we seem to trace not only one intelligence1 but one hand2 in the metopes1 again1 a baldness of rendering1 utterly inconsistent with the fervid idea1 is occasionally perceivable4 ,these contradictions would naturally arise from1 and can be explained only by1 the fact that the master-spirit overlooking the whole trusted the expressing of his conceptions to assistants of dissimilar capacity4 ,of the intellectual character1 grandeur is the prevailing principle2 the grandeur of simplicity and nature1 devoid of all parade or ostentation of art4 ,the means are forgotten in their very excellence1 and in the fullest accomplishment of the end4 ,the ancient critics1 who1 in speaking of ,phidias1 seem to labour with the power of those ideas awakened by the contemplation of his works1 are fond of comparing their effects to those of the eloquence of their most accomplished orators4 ,the comparison is happy4 ,the sculpture of ,phidias might well be assimilated to ,demosthenian eloquence1 in the truth and affecting interest of its imagery1 and in its power of bearing the whole soul along in our engrossing feeling4 ,but the sternness and the severity of the orator1 the taking of the heart by force1 attach not to the artist2 all is here sweet and gracious2 we are willing captives to the witchery of art4 ,it is this union of the graceful and the pleasing with the energetic and the great1 which constitutes the surpassing merit of the works we are considering4 ,exquisitely delicate in the minute1 in the grand1 the style is bold1 vigorous1 and flowing4 ,their author1 to use the language of antiquity1 united the three characteristics of truth1 grandeur1 and minute refinement2 exhibiting majesty1 gravity1 breadth1 and magnificence of composition1 with a practice scrupulous in detail1 and truth of individual representation1 yet in the handling rapid1 broad1 and firm4 ,this harmonious assemblage of qualities1 in themselves dissimilar1 in their results the same1 gives to the productions of this master an ease1 a grace1 a vitality1 resembling more the spontaneous overflowings of inspiration than the laborious offspring of thought and science4 ,the attentive study of the remaining labours of ,phidias1 and1 fortunately for the arts of ,britain1 their final abiding place is with us1 will supply a criterion by which to estimate the principles of the beautiful in execution1 and of the ideal in imitative art1 as exercised among the ,greeks in the most splendid period of their refinement1 and will prove guides by which we may emulate1 perhaps1 equal1 our masters4 ,in all that merely meets the eye1 the marbles of the ,parthenon display the finest keeping1 with the general nobleness of their intellectual character4 ,but the execution is perfect1 simply because the composition is so4 ,it comes not forward as an independent merit4 ,its exquisite mechanism operates without intruding4 ,unseen and unfelt amid the intelligence it conveys1 it is finally noticed as an harmonious element of a perfect whole1 and only then calls forth an especial admiration4 ,the finish is high1 and even delicate1 because the extreme beauty and correctness of the design required to be rendered with corresponding elegance and ease4 ,the chiselling is at once detailed and vigorous1 harmonizing with attitudes and expressions full of vivacity1 natural grace1 and dignity4 ,the touch is broad1 the forms decided--the marking deep and firm1 according with and increasing the general grandeur and conception4 ,the style of design1 indeed1 is1 in the strictest acceptation1 learned1 the parts being pronounced with a decision and truth unequalled1 we are almost inclined to say1 in any other remain of antiquity4 ,the ideal of ,phidias is derived entirely from nature1 as the true ideal of art must ever be4 ,much has been said respecting the import of this term among the ancients2 and the words their writers have employed in speaking of this very master1 have been construed into meanings not only inconsistent with1 but subversive of1 the principles of genuine excellence4 ,if1 by the divine archetypes which he is reported to have followed1 be implied1 that he copied after ideas not existing in nature--living and tangible nature1 the breathing works before us attest1 that whether ancients or moderns1 these critics speak with more zeal than knowledge4 ,in the ,elgin marbles1 every conception deeply participates of human sentiment and action1 so intimately does the representation belong to reality1 that every form seems1 by the touch of enchantment1 to have become marble in the very energies of its natural life4 ,this happy effect of truth1 however1 does not arise from the imitation of common1 that is1 of imperfect types2 neither is nature the only real object of art1 viewed through any medium of fancy1 nor imitated according to conventional or imaginative principles4 ,the artist has only looked abroad upon all existence1 refining partial conceptions and limited modes by the unerring and collected harmonies of the whole4 ,the true ideal1 then--the ideal of ,grecian sculpture1 as beheld in these its sublimest productions1 is but the embodied union of whatever of beauty and perfection still lingers among the forms of nature viewed universally--free from individuality or accident4 ,truth is thus the primary constituent of the ideal4 ,beauty is the perfect expression of this truth1 agreeably to the most unblemished and purest models which general nature presents4 ,in this union of collective excellence and individual verisimilitude1 the mind feels1 and at once acknowledges1 a power of awakening and reflecting its own truest1 best sympathies4 ,these principles are unfolded in their purest elements2 and the modes of accomplishing this union distinctly traceable by careful observation on the style of ,phidias4 ,the forms are1 in the first place1 composed with the most correct1 but unostentatious science2 hence the freedom of their movements1 the ease of their attitudes1 seeming to possess the same capabilities of momentary action as the living models4 ,in this anatomical knowledge1 too1 as actually displayed1 there is a truly admirable simplicity3 the bones and muscles are1 indeed1 pronounced with a firmness rare in antique sculpture1 whence chiefly arises the wonderful elasticity of the figures4 ,all this is unaccompanied with the slightest exaggeration2 the divisions being few1 and masses large1 the eye runs sweetly along the general forms1 yet finds wherewithal to be delighted in resting upon details4 ,this absence1 or rather this unobtrusiveness1 of all pomp of art1 throws over the whole an air of reality and of unsophisticated nature4 ,but with these essential qualities of merely imitative art1 are united perfect symmetry1 the most harmonious contours1 grand composition1 the most refined taste1 and noble expression4 ,this causes every figure to respire an heroic and elevated character4 ,hence1 we perceive1 that to base ideal upon imitative art--to address the imagination by grandeur of design and perfection of form1 while he appealed to the judgment by fidelity of detail and correctness of resemblance--have formed the objects of this great sculptor4 ,the relations under which truth and imagination produce results at once grand and interesting1 he has carefully studied and successfully rendered4 ,hence1 while the general composition breathes the loftiest spirit of ideal or possible excellence1 the means by which the sentiment is rendered are received from individual nature1 expressed simply1 and without artifice4 ,in this happy and unobtrusive union of nature and imagination1 in this continually remounting1 without convention or ostentation1 to the eternal sources of natural truth and beauty1 ,phidias displays the real sublimity of art1 and stands unrivalled among the masters of the ancient world4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the progressive change in sculpture1 from a style of severe and simple majesty1 to one of more studied elegance and softer character1 already noticed as having commenced even in the lifetime of ,phidias1 received its full developement under those masters who adorned the beginning of the ,macedonian empire4 ,various political and moral causes1 without decline of talent1 might have contributed to this change1 which is not even so great1 while it corresponds with1 the contemporary revolutions which1 from similar origin1 took place in manners and literature1 in the opinions and usages of the times4 ,the annals of no nation1 also1 can boast a distinguished succession of names1 eminent in the exercises of the very highest genius4 ,sublimity is1 in its own nature1 a more simple sentiment than beauty1 and the sources whence it springs infinitely more limited4 ,if1 then1 we find the true sublime in ,grecian sculpture confined to almost the age and the labour of one man1 is this to be wondered at1 when the same is the case1 not only in their poetry1 an art far more abundant in resources1 but in the poetical literature of every people8 ,the sculptors1 then1 who followed the era of ,pericles to the death of ,alexander1 can be called inferior to ,phidias1 only in the same sense as the poets who succeeded will be termed inferior to ,homer4 ,in both instances1 the change was but the application of principles which in their essence could not vary1 the subjects requiring a modification of certain distinguishing qualities4 ,but an opinion opposite to this is more commonly entertained1 namely1 that not till the improvements of ,praxiteles and ,lysippus1 was ancient art perfectly free from the rude and harsh of that early taste4 ,a glance1 however1 either to the ,greek historians1 or especially to the remaining labours of ,phidias himself1 is more than sufficient to show how utterly without foundation is this censure2 and that no other man has united in his style more of the highest excellences4 ,it is1 in fact1 this union which truly constitutes beauty in sculpture1 whose sources of pleasing and of moving1 being new1 and derived only from the essential elements of design1 form1 and expression1 admit of separation or imperfection with peculiar disadvantage4 ,if we examine the ,elgin ,marbles in regard to those qualities considered as especial constituents of the beautiful1 we shall find how slight indeed could be succeeding additions4 ,more seductive grace1 an air more elaborately refined1 may have been given to the female statues of ,praxiteles2 but for that perfect beauty1 which arises from including the essentials of excellence in the most liberal proportion1 we search successfully in the labours of ,phidias alone4 ,the views now taken of ,grecian sculpture1 in which we have divided the subject into three schools1 are thus proved to be correct4 ,two of these have already been examined2 the old school1 which brought material art almost to perfection1 retaining only a degree of constraint1 but wanting the expression of mind2 the ,phidian1 or sublime school1 in which the genius of art soared to its loftiest height4 ,the third is now to be considered1 which1 from the prevailing character of its principal works1 has been rightly termed the ,school of the ,beautiful4 ,the discussions which have been so warmly agitated regarding the true era of this school1 seem entirely gratuitous4 ,it is acknowledged1 that the greatest masters of whom this latter age could boast1 were ,praxiteles and ,lysippus1 contemporaries1 and both highly esteemed by ,alexander the ,great4 ,coeval1 then1 with the commencement of the career1 and during the brief empire1 of this prince1 is to be placed the brightest period in this last display of the arts and genius of ,greece4 ,many external circumstances concurred1 with the encouragement given by ,alexander himself1 to render his reign propitious to refinement1 science1 and letters2 while a reaction of opposite influences1 on his death1 closed with that event both the progress of higher improvement1 and even the prospect of long retaining the knowledge possessed4 ,in sculpture1 particularly1 a visible decay of talent1 and a neglect of the exercise1 soon after follow4 ,indeed1 ,pliny decidedly says1 that art from thenceforth ceased1--deinde cessavit ars4 ,this expression must be understood in a limited sense2 there is no doubt1 however1 that the causes of decline1 whose consequences wealth1 the complexion and renewed energies of the times1 had retarded1 were then recalled into more direct activity4 ,praxiteles1 born about the #ajdth ,olympiad1 or #cfd ,b4 ,c41 was a native of ,magna ,grecia1 but of what town is uncertain4 ,from preceding remarks it will appear1 that in praising him as an original inventor1--the discoverer of a new style1 writers very generally have mistaken the influence exercised by his genius upon the progress and character of sculpture4 ,finding the highest sublimity in the more masculine graces of the art already reached2 perceiving1 also1 that the taste of his age tended thitherwards2 he resolved to woo exclusively the milder and gentler beauties of style4 ,in this pursuit he attained eminent success4 ,none ever more happily succeeded in uniting softness with force1--elegance and refinement with simplicity and purity2 his grace never degenerates into the affected1 nor his delicacy into the artificial4 ,he caught the delightful medium between the stern majesty which awes1 and the beauty which merely seduces1--between the external allurements of form1 and the colder1 but loftier1 charm of intellectuality4 ,over his compositions he has thrown an expression spiritual at once and sensual2 a voluptuousness and modesty which touch the most insensible1 yet startle not the most retiring4 ,the works which remain of this master1 either in originals or in repetitions1--the ,faun1--the ,thespian ,cupid1 in the ,museum of the capitol1--the ,apollino with a ,lizard1 one of the most beautiful1 as well as difficult1 specimens of antiquity1 abundantly justify this character4 ,of the works that have utterly perished1 the nude and draped1 or ,coan and ,cnidian ,venus of ,praxiteles1 fixed each a standard which future invention dared scarcely to alter4 ,indeed1 he appears to have been the first1 perhaps the sole master1 who attained the true ideal on this subject1 in the perfect union of yielding feminine grace with the dignity of intellectual expression4 ,the ,venus of ,cnidos1 in her representative the ,medicean1 still 'enchants the world'1 --and fills ,the air around with beauty3 we inhale ,the ambrosial aspect1 which1 beheld1 instils ,part of its immortality2 the veil ,of ,heaven is half withdrawn2 within the pale ,we stand1 and in that form and face behold ,what mind can make when nature's self would fail4 ,lysippus of ,sicyon the younger1 contemporary and rival of the preceding1 appears to have wrought only in metal4 ,accordingly1 in comparing him with ,phidias1 ,aristotle employs distinctive terms1 which both point out this fact1 and would alone settle the needless dispute1 whether the latter wrought in marble4 ,of the #faj works1 an incredible number1 ascribed to ,lysippus1 not one survives2 for the ,venetian horses originally brought from ,chios1 by ,theodosius the younger1 to ,constantinople1 and thence removed to ,st ,mark's in #abjd1 are unworthy of the artist's reputation4 ,the bust at ,portici requires also to be authenticated1 though of superior merit4 ,born in the lowest walks of life1 ,lysippus was1 in a great measure1 self-taught1 and commenced his studies where the art itself had begun1--with nature4 ,though a perfect master of beauty1 his style appears to have been distinguished by a more masculine character than that of the age4 ,he was emulous of reviving the grave and severe grandeur of the preceding school4 ,this predilection his subjects and materials would cherish1 if not produce4 ,colossal and equestrian statues of warriors in bronze1 demanded a forceful and vigorous composition1 with sober and dignified expression4 ,the ,tarentine ,jupiter1 sixty feet high1 was in magnitude equal to any undertaking in the ancient world2 and twentyone equestrian statues of ,alexander's bodyguard1 who fell at the ,granicus1 would alone have sufficed for the labour of years to an ordinary artist4 ,but not only in great works was ,lysippus famous2 many of the most beautiful and delicate description are recorded4 ,his finishing was exquisite1 his imitation of nature faithful 'as truth itself1' and he especially excelled in the knowledge of symmetry4 ,he was so great a favorite with ,alexander1 that to him alone permission of casting the prince's statue was granted2 and it may serve to prove how justly this admiration of his own age was deserved1 that centuries after1 even the monster ,tiberius trembled in his palace at an insurrection of the ,roman people1 occasioned by the removal from one of the public baths of a figure by ,lysippus4 ,during at least forty years from the death of ,alexander1 the school founded and presided in by these two masters would preserve undiminished the beauty of the art4 ,the latter was still alive on the death of the ,macedonian prince1 in the last year of the #aadth ,olympiad1 or #cbd ,b4 ,c42 while ,praxiteles survived to the #abc;d ,olympiad4 ,if1 again1 we consider the pupils immediately deriving their science from these great men1 the period may be extended during which ,greece could have produced sculptors not unworthy her ancient glory4 ,when we contemplate also her condition in other respects1 never had she exhibited a more numerous or a more imposing assemblage of intellectual worthies4 ,surely1 then1 the death of a despot could not have wrought so fatal and so immediate a decline in the means and faculties of human genius4 ,no6 but the consequences of that event destroyed an artificial system1 and dried up factitious streams of prosperity1 which for a time had supplied or concealed the absence of those healthful and constitutional currents1 whence was circulated1 throughout the whole of ,greece1 the very life-blood of her glory and greatness4 ,had liberal institutions been then restored2 had the moral vigour of her better days reappeared1 even amid wars and revolutions--in such struggles they had been reared--her genius and taste1 her letters and arts1 would have survived4 ,these were innate in the constitution of her free states4 ,the last1 in particular1 formed at once a means and an end in her popular governments4 ,springing up an ornamental blossom amid the sterner and the nobler fruits of liberty1 they withered as independence decayed4 ,we would not be understood as here maintaining a respectable and amiable1 but unfounded theory1 that the fine arts have never flourished except under popular governments1 nor that they ceased with such forms in ,greece4 ,in this1 more than in any walk of genius1 is the active encouragement of the supreme power indispensable to excellence4 ,but never can the arts of taste flourish in true grandeur1 where patriotism and popular feeling are not the paramount1 or at least the apparently paramount1 principles of the times1 and source of their peculiar cultivation4 ,the arts themselves must be essentially free2 they must likewise derive their quickening inspiration from a national sentiment of interest and of country4 ,pisistratus and ,pericles1 we have seen1 while rulers of ,athens1 were but superintendents of the arts1 in their application to public purposes1 in unison with public will1 and in obedience to public approval4 ,even ,phidias prepared with trembling anxiety to receive the award of merit from the voice of his fellow-citizens2 and only on the supposition that they were to undergo the ordeal of a close inspection before being placed in their destined situation1 can we account for the exquisite finish of the ,elgin ,marbles1 even in parts not exposed to the effects of climate4 ,only when the purity of this source of honor was contaminated1 did art fall1 never to rise again4 ,not till every institution belonging to the republican ages of ,greece2 not till every sentiment of a generous kind had been trampled upon2 not till the ,olympic games ceased1--till the physical education and martial exercises of the youth were neglected1--till the arts1 separated from national polity1 became dependent on the caprice of individuals1--till there was no longer public spirit nor patriotic feeling2 not till all that creates and endears the name of country had sunk beneath a foreign yoke or domestic thraldom1 did ,greece cease to produce artists4 ,again1 the period of this decline extends through nearly two hundred years1 from the dismemberment of the ,macedonian empire1 to the final reduction of ,greece into a ,roman province4 ,this space of time1 in regard to the eras of ,sculpture1 has been variously and too minutely divided4 ,each favorable turn of circumstances enabling the art to recover a little1 has been exalted into an epoch4 ,into these details it needs not to enter4 ,from the death of ,praxiteles1 or at least in the school of his own and the pupils of ,lysippus1 as ,cephissodotus1 son of the former1 ,tauriscus1 ,eubolas1 ,pamphilus1 ,polyceutas1 ,agasias1 and others1 it does not appear that original works of magnitude or beauty were produced4 ,after this the labours of artists seem to have been confined to copies of the works of the older masters1 and chiefly to making repetitions in marble of the ancient bronzes4 ,to this period belong many of the antique marbles now remaining4 ,pliny1 indeed1 though not with strict correctness1 considers that ,sculpture lay dormant during one hundred and twenty years1 from the #abjth to the #aejth ,olympiad4 ,the ,achan league1 and the expiring efforts of ,greece under the last of her heroes1 ,aratus and ,philopmen1 inspired a degree of vigour into her intellectual exertions4 ,of these warriors1 contemporary statues are noticed by ,pausanius2 and the latter is reported to have excelled in painting4 ,but the tolian war broke for ever the ties of country1 and the sacredness of national glory4 ,temples were therein first desecrated1--statues and paintings defaced in ,greece1 and by the hands of ,greeks4 ,if1 during the same era1 we direct our attention to the successors of ,alexander in ,egypt and ,asia1 we find letters cultivated in preference to art2 or1 where ,sculpture is patronised1 as at the courts of the ,ptolemies and the ,seleucid1 the cultivation of a taste between ,grecian and barbarian only hastened the progress of corruption4 ,one bright interval yet arose in the parent seats of refinement1 upon the declaration1 by the ,romans1 of freedom to the states of ,greece4 ,sculpture1 for more than thirty years of apparent liberty at least1 and of real repose1 was exercised with considerable success by the masters1 ,antheus1 ,callistratus1 ,polycles ,apollodorus1 ,pasiteles1 and others1 possessing considerable merit1 though far below the genius of ancient times4 ,this was the struggling gleam of the expiring taper--the farewell sweet of a sun about to set forever4 ,the independence of ,greece endured only by sufferance2 the ,achan league was dissolved1 and ,corinth and its capitol levelled with the dust1 to the sound of ,roman trumpets--the knell of freedom and of the arts in ,greece4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the history of ,sculpture in ,italy divides into two distinct1 yet connected1 subjects of inquiry1 embracing two very dissimilar dynasties--the ,etruscan and the ,roman4 ,of the former interesting people we know far too little commensurate with their power1 and the influence which they appear to have exercised upon the spirit and progress of ancient art4 ,the ,thyrreneans1 or ,etruscans1 it is certain1 possessed1 at a very early period1 the empire of almost the whole ,italian peninsula1 and1 to a very considerable extent1 whatever of refinement existed in those primitive times4 ,respecting the origin of the nation1 however1 and the sources of this intelligence1 authors disagree2 while the scanty annals that have reached us1 through the medium of the ,latins and ,greeks1 enemies or rivals1 leave but too much scope for unsettled opinion4 ,the various systems here may be arranged under two general heads2 first1 that the ,etruscans were of ,lydian extraction1 and under their king1 ,thyrrenus1 settled in ,italy at an era anterior to authentic history3 or1 secondly1 that the early colonization of ,etruria was owing to the wandering tribes from ,greece1 chiefly of the ,pelasgic race1 who settled at different times prior to the ,trojan war4 ,neither of these opinions1 singly1 accords with contemporary1 nor explains subsequent events2 combined1 they account both for the skill attained by the ,etruscans in the arts of taste and civil government1 while ,greece was yet in a state of pastoral rudeness1 and also for the subsequent interweaving into their history of ,grecian fable and mythology4 ,we enter not farther into this disquisition1 interesting as it undoubtedly is4 ,for our present purpose1 it is sufficient to bear in mind1 that ,sculpture in ,etruria had attained a coeval1 if not a prior1 degree of refinement as compared with ,greece1 and that regard to preserving the unity of the subject has alone occasioned the precedence in time given to the arts of the latter4 ,the remains of ,etruscan ,sculpture are not numerous1 and of these the authenticity of some may justly be doubted4 ,taken in general1 the works of national art consist of medals and coins2 statues of bronze and marble2 relievos2 sculptured gems2 engraved bronzes2 and paintings4 ,the first class is the most numerous1 and contains many beautiful1 indeed1 for those early ages1 wonderful specimens4 ,these are all cast of a compound metal1 being of two kinds1 either mythological or symbolical in their representations4 ,of the statues1 it is difficult to say whether those in marble be early ,greek or ,etruscan2 the smaller ones in bronze are more authentic1 being household divinities1 or merely ornaments3 of those in the size of nature1 scarcely one has escaped suspicion of its true age4 ,one or two exhibit great beauty4 ,of the ancient relievos found in various parts of ,italy1 several are admitted to be genuine ,etruscan2 and here there can be little hesitation1 as a series of sepulchral monuments1 sarcophagi1 and altars1 might be arranged and compared throughout the whole period of ,italian history4 ,gem engraving was brought to great perfection at an early period both in ,greece and ,italy4 ,of this minute but charming art1 probably the oldest specimen now extant represents five of the seven chiefs who fought against ,thebes4 ,of this the design is inartificial1 and the workmanship rude2 other ,etruscan gems1 however1 or scarabi1 from their resemblance to the shape of a beetle1 as the ,tydeus and ,peleus1 equal the most exquisite performances in this branch4 ,the most curious and numerous remains belong to the class of engraved bronzes1 or pater1 small vessels used in sacrificing1 circular1 and1 in the single instance of the ,etruscan1 with a handle4 ,on the bottom1 inside1 which is perfectly flat1 being merely a plate surrounded with a shallow brim1 there is usually engraved some mythological subject1 of simple design1 expressed in few1 bold1 firm1 and deep lines4 ,in the style of these remains1 three distinct eras of art among the ,etruscans may be discerned4 ,the first1 or ancient style1 commences with the earliest notices of the people4 ,it has been confounded with the ,egyptian and the ,grecian2 but the similarity is not greater than characterises the infancy of invention among every people4 ,and though1 apart1 it might be difficult to discern their national or original elements1 considered in connexion with the style of the following era1 their distinctive character becomes apparent1 of an unfettered imagination1 essaying its feeble powers by no systematic1 no conventional representation1 arising1 as in ,egypt1 from an impulse foreign to art2 while1 from ,greek sculpture of the same age1 we clearly distinguish the rudiments of new modes1 and certain specialities in the relations between fancy and feeling with nature4 ,the vigorous imagination1 the bold forms and general tendency to exaggeration1 which may be traced even in its infancy1 display in its perfection1 during the second epoch1 the peculiar characteristics of ,etruscan sculpture4 ,in the works of this age1 there is strength1 and massiveness1 and power2 but they want delicacy of proportion1 discrimination of character1 and graceful simplicity4 ,the third epoch embraces that period which beheld the gradual disappearance of the ,tuscans as an independent state from the face of ,italy4 ,their political empire was ingulfed in the extending dominion of ,rome3 the discriminative character of their genius merged in the arts of the colonial ,greeks2 when1 as we have already seen1 the schools of ,rhegium and ,crotona sent forth masters equal1 if not superior1 to those of ,greece4 ,these eras1 in date and duration1 nearly coincide with as many revolutions in the political history of the nation4 ,their greatest extent of territory was held but for a short time1 being quickly reduced on the south by settlements of the ,dorian colonies1 and on the north by the ,gauls and ,ligurians4 ,it was only during their diminished1 but secure and admirably constituted empire in ,etruria ,proper1 that their national arts flourished1 and their national style was formed4 ,each of twelve allied1 but separately independent capitals1 then became a school of art1 the friendly rival of her compeers--each exciting the industry1 and directing the advance1 of the other--each the ,athens of ancient ,italy4 ,inflamed by the brutal spirit of mere conquest1 the ,romans broke in upon this tranquillity2 and though1 at first1 science proved more than a match for force1 ,etruria1 with her free institutions1 her elective magistracy1 her solemn insignia1 fell beneath their rude despotism4 ,thus terminated1 #dhj years from the building of ,rome1 the only native school of art in ,italy2 and that here sculpture had been cultivated with no ordinary ardour1 is attested by the fact of the ,romans having carried off from ,volsinum alone no fewer than two thousand statues4 ,even for some time after the subjugation of the ,etruscan republics1 sculpture was practised2 but it soon lost all national character4 ,the ,roman dominion embracing the circuit of ,italy1 the ,tuscan freeman and the ,greek colonist became alike its vassal2 but their common masters fostered not the arts as native ornaments--as moral causes in their empire3 they possessed merely sufficient knowledge to value the fruits of genius as the harvest of conquest4 ,the same spirit actuated their subsequent conduct1 when their victorious armies came in successive contact with the richer treasures of ,sicily1 and of ,greece herself4 ,marcellus plundered ,syracuse of her marble population1 as a proof that he had subdued her living inhabitants2 and1 from a still more sordid motive1 in which ignorance and avarice are disgustingly blended1 ,mummius first began the work of devastation in ,greece4 ,a picture of ,bacchus1 which the ,corinthians1 on account of its super-excellence1 were anxious to regain from the soldiers1 who were using it as a table1 is said first to have excited his cupidity4 ,from the vast sum offered1 the ,roman general conceived the picture contained gold1 which he might perhaps discover when more at leisure2 accordingly he delivered it to a common messenger1 with this sage menace1 that he was to carry it safely to ,rome1 under pain of being obliged to paint one equally good6 ,such was the state of early republican taste1 quite in keeping with the national arts1 sufficiently characterised by ,tibullus1 when he says3 ',in paltry temple stood the wooden god4' ,or by the opposition of ,cato to the introduction of ,greek statuary1 on the plea1 that its divine forms would expose to ridicule the rude fashioning of the ,roman deities4 ,during the latter period of the commonwealth1 attempts were successively made by ,sylla1 ,pompey1 and ,csar1 to domiciliate the arts in ,rome4 ,their efforts1 however1 reached no farther than collecting in that capital the sculptors of ,greece1--thus doubly unfortunate1 as the place whence were torn the plundered ornaments of temples and palaces1 and as the nurse of that science which1 in busts and statues1 was to immortalize the lineaments of her enslavers4 ,the patronage of ,augustus1 who could wield for his purposes the energies of the whole enlightened world1 necessarily proved highly advantageous to art1 which he affected to cultivate from patriotic and intellectual1 but really from those still stronger political motives4 ,but of all the sculptors of the ,augustan age whose names have reached us1 every one is ,greek1 and chiefly ,athenian4 ,pasiteles1 ,arcesilaus1 ,zopirus1 and ,evander1 were the most eminent4 ,the arts1 indeed1 were revived2 but the creative spirit which infuses life and soul into their productions1 which stamps them with originality and thought1 could not be recalled4 ,the character of design and of execution is evidently the same as that by which the last era of sculpture in ,greece is distinguished1 or rather it is superior2 for settled government1 ample reward1 and certain honor1 not only drew to ,rome every man of talent1 but also awakened new powers4 ,but in the finest specimens1 there is no evidence of new energies1 added by the union of two separate modifications of talent2 nor in the inferior1 any exhibition of the more original1 though it might be ruder1 efforts of an aspiring and distinct national taste4 ,either or both of these effects would have been apparent1 had there been native1 prior to this importation of ,greek artists4 ,on the contrary1 everything in the sculpture of this era discovers a descent from a state of higher excellence2 every touch exhibits rather what has been1 than presages the eminence for which we are to draw upon futurity4 ,from ,augustus to ,trajan1 during a period of #adj years1 the principles and practice of the ,greeks continue to be observed1 with such difference only as political causes can easily reconcile1 but with a progressive decay4 ,the most favorable periods during this space were the reigns of ,vespasian1 ,titus1 and ,trajan2 for the reign of ,nero1 whose taste1 like his morals1 was corrupt1 which ,pliny has assumed as an epoch in the ,roman school1 was propitious to practice1 not to improvement4 ,with the reign of ,hadrian1 in the seventeenth year of the second century1 is introduced a new style of sculpture1 which may properly be termed ,roman4 ,here the distinguishing characteristic is extreme minuteness of finish1 indicating the labour more of the hand than the mind4 ,the chisel1 the file1 the drill1 have been plied with ceaseless care1 and great mechanical dexterity4 ,over the whole genius and spirit of the art1 is now diffused an air of studied and even affected refinement1 which smooths away every characteristic and natural expression4 ,for the sublime is substituted the difficult1 the florid for the elegant2 and in every remaining specimen1 we can readily detect the taste which preferred a poetaster to ,homer1 or the laboured inanities of the sophists to the vigorous and manly eloquence of ,demosthenes and ,cicero4 ,the reign of the ,antonines forms the last lucid interval in the arts of the ancient world4 ,the decline of sculpture from thence to the reign of ,constantine would be almost incredibly rapid1 were we not enabled to trace its progress in the monuments that yet remain4 ,beyond ,constantine it would not be difficult1 but it would be useless1 to carry our inquiries4 ,when an imperial master of the world is found pilfering1 from the monument of a virtuous predecessor1 a few ornaments to deck the record of his own triumphs1 and which the whole ingenuity of the ,roman world could not supply1 the annals of ancient taste may be closed4 ,sculpture1 it thus appears--and the remark is true of all the arts--was never cultivated in ,rome as a native acquirement1 as an integral element in national history4 ,as political causes1 too1 the arts scarcely operated1 except merely in connexion with public monuments1 which were treated more as matters of business than of sentiment2 where the successful execution brought no accession of moral dignity to the artist1 and where the modes long formed were adopted with no change1 save that arising from decaying capabilities4 ,of all the nations1 indeed1 who have held supremacy upon the earth1 the ,romans show the poorest claims to originality2 and have least impressed the future fortunes of the human mind by any bold peculiarities or successful darings of her own genius4 ,in letters and in the arts1 they have bequeathed to posterity only modifications of the exquisite inventions of ,greece4 ,in letters1 indeed1 they have improved upon their borrowings1 because in some instances they have imparted the stamp of nationality2--not so in the fine arts4 ,yet even in the former1 the improvement extends only to the manner2 the material remains with little alteration1 and no addition4 ,the character of ,roman talent--manly and persevering1 though not inventive--seemed well adapted to succeed in sculpture1 laborious in its practice1 in its principles grave and simple4 ,three causes chiefly opposed this success4 ,the ,romans regarded the art as the peculiar eminence of a conquered people4 ,hence they cherished no genuine enthusiasm for its excellences1 and no real respect for its professors--among them the fallen ,greeks or manumitted slaves4 ,secondly1 their national manners were inclined1 while their spirit burned in its best energies1 more to action and business than to elegant accomplishment4 ,as a more particular obstacle1 growing out of this general cause1 the desire constantly affected of being represented in armour1 most materially operated against the improvement of sculpture2 and by shutting up the warm and breathing forms of nature1 gave at once origin and inveteracy to the evils of harshness and incorrectness1 in the early school1 and in the latter1 to finical and ineffective laboriousness4 ,thirdly1 the superlative beauty of the finest labours of ,greece1 scattered with amazing profusion throughout ,italy1 rendered their possessors indifferent to contemporary and so conspicuously inferior works4 ,to this last circumstance1 however1 is principally to be ascribed the only excellence to which ,roman sculpture can justly lay claim1 as it proved mainly instrumental in directing attention to that particular department4 ,the busts of the ,roman school1 from ,julius to ,gallienus1 embracing a period of three centuries1 exhibit a series invaluable in the history of art1 and in some instances capable of being compared with the best of similar works of the first ages1 without suffering by the contrast4 ,these do not1 indeed1 equal in heroic character one or two remains of ,greece1 but they exhibit a more powerful representation of individual mental resemblance4 ,the soul of history absolutely seems to inhabit and to breathe from the marble4 ,into every movement of the countenance is infused an expression so speaking1 so characteristic1 so full of individuality1 that we seem to have set before us the very actor in those deeds which have formed our most serious studies4 ,but this high perfection applies only to the termination of the commonwealth1 or does not extend beyond the reign of ,augustus4 ,as we advance1 the impress of grandeur of thought1 and energy of purpose1 becomes obscured4 ,this in part is no doubt owing to the decline of power to represent2 but the decay of internal nobleness in the subject appears to have at least kept pace with the fall of material art2 and1 in the words of ,pliny1 when there were no longer images of mind1 the lineaments of form also degenerated4 ,from a careful examination of the imperial busts1--for the jealous fears of these tyrants soon forbade any others to be sculptured--we derive our best knowledge of the ,roman school4 ,the style of design during the first1 or republican age1 is distinguished by squareness and vigour in the forms--decision of arrangement--boldness and firmness in pronouncing the parts1 accompanied with truth and great force of general effect1 but destitute of minuteness and accuracy in the details4 ,the mastery of touch1 indeed1 is frequently so daring1 as to be redeemed from the imputation of careless and unfinished only by the vigorous meaning of every stroke4 ,we detect the greatest deficiency in those passing lines of thought and form1 where little meets the outward sense1 but in which the science and feeling of the artists are most surely displayed and most severely tried2 the expression of the eyes are studied1 and the eye-ball1 with intent to produce an imposing look1 is made larger than in nature4 ,the hair1 though skilfully massed1 and fine in distant effect1 is particularly heavy2 indeed1 the characteristic defect is harshness--an absence of those sweet and flowing lines which bring the contour fully1 but graciously1 upon the view4 ,to the close of the first century1 bold and facile execution1 and force of effect1 continue to take the place of simple and accurate design and natural expression--faults most conspicuous in the most prosperous time1 the reigns of ,titus and ,trajan1 from the art being exercised chiefly on architectural designs4 ,in addition to the dry1 the hard1 and laboured1 the era of ,hadrian is further distinguished by the pupil of the eye having a deeply drilled orifice1 and by the separate parts of the countenance being marked with an affected and unnatural depth4 ,the busts of ,aurelius are the last good examples4 ,under ,severus appears a singular affectation of marking the forehead1 and even the whole countenance1 with furrows4 ,subsequently every reign displays more decided retrogression1 and the final disappearance of every redeeming excellence4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,with the dawn of liberty in the republican cities of ,italy1 we hail the reappearance of the arts4 ,before the close of the thirteenth century1 ,pisa1 with the neighboring cities of ,etruria1 the ancient seats of elegance1 had already made progress in sculpture4 ,the founder of this1 the primitive school of modern ,europe1 was ,nicolo ,pisano4 ,the works of this master1 and those of his scholars1 still remaining in his native city1 in ,sienna1 ,arezzo1 ,pistoia1 ,orvieto1 and ,lucca1 induce a very high opinion indeed of the progress of the age4 ,in the succeeding century1 the art was carried by his grandson1 ,andrea1 to ,florence1 the future head and fountain of art4 ,here1 in #acej1 was established the first academy of design2 and before the close of the century1 sculpture was firmly established1 and far from unskilfully practised1 throughout a considerable portion of ,italy4 ,nor was this the limit of the influence1 though1 as upon its centre1 the eye of history is fixed chiefly here4 ,fraternities of itinerant sculptors carried their art over ,germany and ,france2 and even in ,england the works of this early school have been traced4 ,in these countries the numerous ,gothic edifices1 with their sculptured ornaments1 furnished rich occasions for the exercise of the art2 but from this very circumstance it ceased1 in a certain degree1 to be regarded as independent of architecture4 ,in ,italy1 private excellence was better preserved1 and is easily traced4 ,but it was union with the grand moral and political principles of free constitutions1 that in ,italy at once gave dignity to1 and cherished the progress of1 the arts4 ,in the ancient world we bade a common farewell to freedom and to genius1 nay1 virtue at the same time would have winged her flight1 had she not found an asylum on earth in the bosom of ,christianity4 ,upon the ages now passing in review1 when ,freedom again rises1 we behold genius also revive1 as if the sweeter sensibilities and the manlier virtues had together slumbered through the long long night of ignorance and of despotism4 ,it is thus that spring1 breathing on bank and wild wood1 unchains the bud and the blossom from the tenderest floweret to the hardy oak4 ,in the progress of intelligence1 the fifteenth century constitutes a splendid era4 ,advances were then accomplished in moral1 intellectual1 and political knowledge1 which form the ground work of no inconsiderable portion of modern science4 ,in the arts of elegance1 especially in sculpture1 the labours of this age will always hold distinguished rank4 ,in the first year of the century1 we find six great masters--competitors for the same public work--the bronze folding-doors of the baptistry at ,florence3 ,brunelleschi and ,ghiberti1 ,florentines2 ,jacomo della ,quercia of ,sienna2 ,nicolo ,lamberti of ,arezzo2 ,francisco di ,valdambrino1 and ,simon dei ,colle1 ,tuscans4 ,the competitors each afterwards became the head of a flourishing school4 ,ghiberti1 a youth of twentythree1 was the successful candidate2 and the work thus assigned to his superior merit1 occupied forty years of his future life1 remaining still one of the proudest triumphs of modern talent4 ,the subjects are upon panels in relievo1 representing historical passages from the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 and the same which were afterwards declared worthy the gates of ,paradise4 ,this era may be styled the commonwealth of sculpture2 no single master so far excelling his compeers as to impress upon the art the stamp and bearing of one individual style4 ,but among this crowd of illustrious contemporaries1 ,donatello1 born in #achc1 and already an eminent artist at the age of twenty1 stands forth pre-eminently conspicuous by the magnitude and excellence of his own labours1 as also by the number and merits of his pupils4 ,his performances1 in almost every variety of material1 are scattered over all ,italy2 the best are in ,florence1 but the equestrian statue of ,erasmus1 ,duke of ,narni1 in that city1 merits attention as the first attempt of such magnitude in the revival of art4 ,the numerous scholars of ,donatello may be divided into two classes4 ,the first comprehends those who1 without producing much of their own1 have attained reputation as fellow-labourers in the most considerable undertakings of their master4 ,the legitimate disciples of ,donatello1 however1 consists of those who1 without servilely following in the train of their instructer1 preserved1 or even in some respects improved1 the science derived from his precepts4 ,these include most of the leading masters of the latter part of the century1 for in every town of importance he had left works and planted a school4 ,after the demise of ,ghiberti in #adee1 and of ,donatello in #adff1 the art was far from languishing in the hands of their successors1 and especially under ,andrea du ,verrochio1 towards the close of the century4 ,in the academy founded by the ,medici1 many of the most eminent men of the next century are to be found1 as yet youthful though not undistinguished pupils4 ,in reviewing the ages which have been made to pass before us in their leading characters1 the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 we perceive1 may be termed the infancy of sculpture2 with the fifteenth begins its manhood1 while in some respects full vigour was attained even at the close of this period4 ,during the two preceding centuries1 we find views frequently derived from the antique1 of which many specimens were brought directly from the ,east to ,pisa4 ,a character of truth and simplicity1 faithful imitation of nature1 and just expression1 visibly begin from the time of ,nicolo1 whose own style indeed is remarkable for sweetness and absence of all pretension4 ,the effect is never daringly ventured1 but is sought to be discovered by patient reiteration of effort and persevering imitation4 ,at first1 therefore1 no acknowledged principles of taste or of composition can be perceived2 a degree of restraint and meagreness consequently long pervade the early labours of sculpture4 ,but if in these the creative faculties have seldom been conspicuously exerted2 if the fancy be rarely excited by novelty or variety of invention1 the heart1 even in the sculpture of the fourteenth century1 is often awakened to deep feeling by unexpected beauties of the sweetest power1 arising from a diligent imitation of nature4 ,the art being chiefly dedicated to devotion1 and to the memory of departed virtue1 an air of dignified sincerity1 a touching portraiture of the gentler affections1 diffuse over the mind of the spectator a melancholy yet pleasing serenity1 to be felt rather than described--which give back the images of our own sensibilities in all their simple1 unpretending reality4 ,the succeeding age assumes a style and character more elevated1 without being less true4 ,the simplicity is refined--equally removed from affectation as from poverty--the skill of hand great1 the execution bold and felicitous2 yet still exercised as a means1 never as an instrument to astonish or surprise4 ,nature is imitated faithfully1 under the least remote appearances1 and by the simplest expression--the manner never allures from the subject4 ,the great proportion of the sculpture of this century being in bronze1 may account for a style of execution in some respects harsh1 with a degree of restraint1 and occasionally defective in energy4 ,as respects intellectual merits1 the design is always chaste1 often extremely elegant2 the composition judicious1 seldom contrasted or grouped artificially4 ,the expression is sweet and calmly dignified1 for rarely is strongly marked passion attempted4 ,no decided aims at representation of abstract or ideal beauty can be observed2 the powers of fancy are never presumed upon--seldom roused by remote associations4 ,but the mind of the artist1 now no longer entirely engrossed in mechanical detail1 or confined by difficulties of mere representation1 expatiates1 selects1 combines2 if the forms and conceptions are not invested with the sublimity of ideal elevation1 the beautiful models of real existence are imitated not unsuccessfully4 ,were the extent and object of art confined to simple imitation1 the aim of the sculptor would now nearly be attained4 ,yet1 judging even by the principles of the most refined criticism1 one department1 during the fifteenth century1 acquired a perfection which has not been surpassed1 rarely equalled1 in succeeding times4 ,donatello and ,ghiberti1 the former in high1 the latter in low relief1 have left models which it does not easily appear possible to excel4 ,the best of these are ,donatello's1 in the church of ,san ,lorenzo1 representing the most memorable events in the life of the ,saviour2 and ,ghiberti's1 already noticed1 on the gates of the baptistry at ,florence4 ,the subjects seem to have imparted to the genius of the sculptors a portion of their own sacred dignity1 and calm and holy feeling4 ,indeed1 to the influence of religious impressions1 we attribute1 to a great degree1 the improvement of sculpture during this age1 the principal undertakings being from ,scripture4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,notwithstanding the very considerable attainments already exhibited1 to the perfection of ,sculpture1 there yet wanted greater ease and grace of execution1 more perfect and elevated expression1 more refined selection of form and composition1--more1 in short1 of that heightening charm which fancy lends to reality--of that which constitutes the poetry1 not the fiction1 of art4 ,the first blush of the times1 too1 at the commencement of the sixteenth century1 seemed to promise a most propitious era for the accomplishment of these remaining improvements4 ,in ,italy1 yet the only fixed and native seat of art1 a spirit of refinement and love of elegance1 a high and general respect for art1 pervaded all ranks4 ,universal activity1 also1 and energy of character1 growing out of the conscious dignity of independence1 animated the republican cities4 ,each vied with its neighbour in the splendour of public buildings1 and in munificence of patronage4 ,florence1 indeed1 from her peculiar advantages and superior opulence1 sooner distanced rivalry2 but her schools were open to all1 and her ,medici1 the most enlightened of patrons1 were as yet but merchants and simple citizens4 ,in those states1 too1 where free and popular government was not established1 kings and princes affected to love and encourage the arts4 ,literature1 in most of the countries of ,europe1 had spread its lights around2 the ancient models of eloquence were known1 at least in their precepts1 to all who laboured in the fields of genius2 and even in sculpture1 some of the most breathing fragments had been1 or in the course of the century1 were restored to day4 ,the stir of spirit had penetrated even the recesses of papal domination and priestly ease4 ,means of empire were now to be essayed more congenial to the complexion of the times1 and to the minds of men1 than spiritual weapons1 unhallowed in every church1 because unscriptural1 or than--more unjustifiable still1 when wielded by ministers of peace--secular arms4 ,rome was to be rendered the home and habitation of art1 as of religion4 ,she was to contain a temple vainly hoped to become the ,zion of the ,christian world4 ,all these causes1 favorable as they were to general developement of talent1 tended with a peculiar energy to the advancement of sculpture1 in which1 with the exception of poetry1 the greatest progress had yet been accomplished since the revival of intelligence4 ,the path1 too1 which had here been pursued1 led directly to excellence4 ,nothing was to be unlearned4 ,the era bore a striking resemblance in its leading features to that of ,pericles2 there was wanting only a ,phidias to realize its expectancy2 and in ,michael ,angelo1 the genius of ,greece seemed to be supplied4 ,for three fourths of the sixteenth century1 this extraordinary man presided in the schools1 and by his style influenced much longer the principles of modern art4 ,to him1 therefore1 during the most brilliant period in the annals which we are now feebly endeavoring to trace1 is the attention chiefly directed4 ,nor only in one point of view1 is his genius to be contemplated4 ,he has extended the grasp of a mighty though irregular spirit over our whole subject4 ,sculptor of the ,moses1 painter of the ,last ,judgment1 architect of the ,cupola--we behold in him the greatest of the works of art4 ,it is this1 more than any other circumstance1 which has invested the character of his genius with a species of awful supremacy not to be inquired into2 discrimination is lost in general admiration2 and to him who thus seems to bear away the palm of universal talent1 we are inclined to concede the foremost rank in each separate pursuit4 ,his productions1 thus dominating among the labours of man1 bewilder the judgment both by their real and their apparent magnitude4 ,thus some giant cliff1 rising far above minor elevations1 while it serves as a landmark to the traveller1 misleads his conceptions of its own distance and immediate relations of site4 ,here it appears the proper1 or at least simplest method1 to present such gradual unfolding of the subject as each branch separately may seem to require1 reserving a general view for such place as shall give the reader full command of the joint influences1 bearings1 and consequences of these details4 ,in sculpture1 the works of ,michael ,angelo are divided between ,rome and ,florence4 ,they are not numerous1 and few are even finished4 ,impatience of slowly progressive labour1 united with indomitable activity and unwearied industry--fastidiousness of fancy1 and exalted perceptions of excellence1 joined with a reckless daring in execution1 form singular distinctions of intellectual temperament4 ,hence have sprung the characteristic beauties and the besetting errors of his style in sculpture--a style discovering much that is derived from liberal and enlightened study of the sublime and graceful in nature1 but still more of those qualities which arise from the peculiarities of an individual and erratic1 though rich and powerful1 imagination4 ,rarely do his statues exhibit that simplicity and repose essential to beauty in an art--grave1 dignified1 or even austere1 and possessing means comparatively limited and uniform4 ,forced and constrained attitude1 proportions exaggerated1 expression awful1 gloomy1 and unearthly1 forms of unnatural1 of superhuman energy--these constitute the ideal of his composition4 ,in giving visible existence to these ideas1 his execution is most wonderful4 ,a force1 a fire1 an enthusiasm1 elsewhere unfelt1 unknown1 give to every limb and lineament1 a vitality1 a movement1 resembling more the sudden mandate of inspiration1 than a laborious and retarded effort4 ,the first impressions created by these works are thus irresistibly powerful2 but they startle1 surprise1 astonish--do not soothe1 delight1 and satisfy the mind4 ,an influence originating solely in the imagination1 and in which the sensibilities of the heart have little interest1 cannot long retain its power2 the ordinary tone of feeling returns1 and amid the unquiet and aspiring composition seeks for nature and repose4 ,if the productions and style of ,michael ,angelo be compared with the great standards of excellence and of truth in sculpture--nature1 and the remains of ancient art1 he will be found to have deviated widely from both1 or rather1 perhaps1 he has rendered both subservient to his own particular views of each4 ,he has created to himself modes of imitation1 which should in themselves claim a paramount importance1 independent of all archetypes2 while these latter are connected with the originals of reality1 only as an intermediate step to the realms of fancy4 ,hence1 round a false1 though gorgeous and imposing art1 his genius has swept a magic circle1 within whose perilous bound no inferior spirit has dared with impunity to tread4 ,unfortunately1 however1 such was the fascination produced in his own age1 when the forcible and imaginative were admired above the simple and the true1 that his works became a standard by which the past was to be tried1 and the future directed4 ,as a necessary consequence1 a prodigious and irreparable lapse was prepared for the art4 ,the imitation of a natural style will ever be productive of good2 it will ultimately lead to no imitation1 by conducting to the primeval source4 ,the very reverse is the effect of following a guide such as ,buonarotti1 who has departed from nature farther1 we will venture to say1 than any great name on record1 whether in literature or in art4 ,irregularities and imperfections in almost every other instance of lofty genius1 are forgotten amid the deep-thrilling pathos1 or soothing loveliness1 of natural expression2 but amid the awe-inspiring1 the commanding1 the overpowering representations of the ,tuscan1 the soul languishes for nature4 ,his creations are not of this world1 nor does feeling voluntarily respond to the mysterious and uncontrollable mastery which they exert over it4 ,the cause and progress of this dereliction of nature can also be traced4 ,he had marked the perplexities and constraint under which his predecessors had laboured1 in their endeavors to unite the forms and expressions of living nature with images of ideal beauty1 overlooking the productions of classic sculpture1 in which this union is so happily accomplished3 because to his vigorous1 rather than refined perceptions1 its simplicity appeared poverty1 he fearlessly struck into a line of art1 where all was to be new--vehement--wonderful4 ,from the antique1 besides simplicity1 ,michael ,angelo has deviated in another important1 and1 indeed1 vital respect2 a deviation1 indeed1 which changes completely the very aspect of art4 ,of the two elements of sculptural design--form and expression--the ancients selected form as the principal object of their representation3 the modern has preferred expression1 to which he may be said almost to have sacrificed form2 or rather1 he has so contorted his figures1 by the violence of their emotions1 that all is expression1 and that of the most vehement kind4 ,here1 however1 it may be asked1 how far has prescription the power to determine this matter8 ,to this it may be replied1 that not only the associations springing from the most perfect of human works were opposed to this choice1 but also the internal proprieties of the art favour the selection of the ancients4 ,in sculpture all is staid1 enduring1 actual2 movement alone is the only passing object of imitation4 ,expression1 therefore1 at least strong and individual expression1 as a primary characteristic--as destructive of symmetry1 and as implying an effort ungraceful1 when connected with unyielding materials1 seems not a legitimate beauty of higher art4 ,indeed1 passion is inconsistent with the beautiful in form1 or the dignified in sentiment4 ,a sweetly pleasing1 a gently agitating excitement1 or a nobly repressed feeling1 visible only in the resolve of soul1 and mastering of sorrow1 is the true and the only proper expression in sculpture4 ,grief alone seems to be admissible in its deepest pathos4 ,considered in connexion with the impetuous style of his composition1 nothing can be finer than the execution of ,michael ,angelo4 ,it participates in1 it harmonizes with1 his ardent temperament of mind2 rapid1 impatient1 fervid1 it seems to animate and create1 rather than form1 the breathing conceptions4 ,but taken alone1 it discovers many technical peculiarities and imperfections4 ,from having sometimes merely sketched1 or1 at most1 modelled the subject in small1 nay1 in some instances1 with no other suggestion or guide1 save the accidental shape of the block1 he struck into the marble4 ,it was impossible1 under these circumstances1 to avoid error4 ,while the hand1 the eye1 the mind1 were thus in instant exertion2 while propriety of expression and beauty of outline1 mechanical detail1 and general effect1 grandeur of the whole1 and propriety of parts1 were at once to be studied1 and that1 too1 where each stroke removes what never can be again united--imperfection was almost a necessary consequence4 ,hence the want of proportion so conspicuous in many of his best works--in the ,moses even2 hence so few finished2 hence1 too1 his statues1 like paintings1 seldom present more than one point of view4 ,as regards more individual details2 in the salient lines of the contours1 the circles have rarely their just value1 and the surfaces want their proper fulness4 ,partly to compensate this deficiency in the advancing curves1 partly as a characteristic distinction1 which consists in strongly pronouncing the muscles1 the retiring lines1 or muscular depressions1 are expressed in exaggerated depth4 ,trusting to mechanical dexterity1 also1 and to a profound science1 he was frequently reduced to work without model1 or reference to the living form4 ,this produces a rigidity1 a want of feeling1 and a mannerism1 in his best performances even1 the commencement of those conventional modes which finally superseded all diligent study of nature1 and led to the abandonment of every genuine grace of sculpture4 ,the style and character of composition now described is evidently one of study and acquisition2 we might therefore expect a gradation to be apparent in the works from which we have deduced our remarks4 ,accordingly1 the earlier performances of the artist retain much of the simplicity and truth of the fifteenth century1 exhibiting1 at the same time1 much of the better part of the qualities now described as the peculiar characteristics of the school4 ,these we are inclined1 upon the whole1 to regard1 if not the most splendid1 as the most correct examples of ,michael ,angelo's powers4 ,his later and more important labours present1 in their full maturity1 the peculiar modes of thought and execution which constitute the principles of this era4 ,a regular gradation1 however1 is scarcely to be traced1 since1 in his very old age1 he perceived and lamented the brilliant but fatal errors of his style2 and1 in the few works then finished1 a degree of sobriety and chasteness is observed4 ,he saw and lamented1 too late1 the fall prepared for sculpture4 ,of the works of this master at ,florence1 the ,bacchus1 notwithstanding the undignified expression of inebriety1 is the most correct in its forms1 and the least mannered in composition4 ,the tombs of the ,medici show much of whatever is most splendid1 and what is most reprehensible in the genius of their author4 ,they might indeed be selected as special illustrations of the general views just given4 ,every figure--there are six--bears the strong impress of a spirit delighting in the great and the wonderful--an imagination eager in the pursuit of untried modes of existence1 and a consciousness of power to execute the most daring conceptions4 ,intelligence in science1 breadth of touch1 boldness of manner1 fearlessness of difficulty1 unite to give life and movement to attitudes the most remote from such as nature would voluntarily assume1 or graceful design select4 ,rome contains the most perfect and the most wonderful of ,michael ,angelo's statues4 ,the ,piet1 or ,virgin and ,dead ,saviour1 in ,st ,peter's1 finished in his twentyfourth year1 is not only at the head of the first division of his works1 but1 on the whole1 is the least exaggerated1 and the most natural of all4 ,the ,moses1 on the tomb of ,julius ,,ii41 amid the creations of genius1 rises a solitary and matchless monument4 ,without model among the productions of antiquity1 it has remained inimitable and unimitated in modern times4 ,neither in nature do we find its prototype3 it is the extraordinary conception of an extraordinary mind4 ,thus isolated by its own peculiar sublimity of character1 this statue exhibits a striking resemblance of the imagination whence it derived existence4 ,we behold a being who awes1 who subdues1 yet who fails to interest--for with such humanity entertains no communion of feeling4 ,here the sublime is too exclusively sought in the vehement and the marvellous2 every effort is forced1 every trait exaggerated1 and the whole shows a daring originality verging on the extravagant and the false4 ,the solemn majesty--the dignified repose--the commanding simplicity1 admired in ancient sculpture--those milder beauties which sentiment alone can appreciate--those exalted and touching graces which arise from elegance or nobleness of form--from refined and subdued expression--from elevated yet genuine nature1 in the ,moses are looked for in vain4 ,than ,michael ,angelo1 no artist has ever exerted a more extensive influence1 or more deeply impressed his peculiar views1 upon art4 ,indeed1 so much is this the case1 that1 during the sixteenth century1 not a single sculptor appears who is not to be ranked either as a disciple or imitator4 ,even to this our own time1 the influence in some respect continues4 ,in sculpture more than in painting or architecture1 though for the first he did less than for the second art1 was his genius paramount4 ,of contemporaries1 then1 and successors1 from his death in #aefd1 to the end of the century1 the only distinction is between those who imitated and those who studied under this great leader4 ,among the most eminent of the former was ,baccio ,bandinelli1 a rival1 who contended with less generous weapons than those of talent3 yet he must receive justice1--as a sculptor he is second only1 sometimes hardly inferior1 to ,buonarotti4 ,baccio di ,monte ,lupo was an original artist of considerable power4 ,andrea ,contucci founded the school of ,loretto4 ,francisco ,rustici1 an excellent founder1 more eminent still as the master of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 carried the manner of this school into ,france1 dying at ,paris in #aeej4 ,giacomo ,tatti1 better known as ,sansovino1 presided over the ,venetian works of sculpture and architecture with much reputation1 having studied along with ,michael ,angelo at ,rome1 whence he fled in #aebg1 on the sack of that capital by ,bourbon4 ,he survived the great ,florentine1 and became founder of a numerous and respectable school1 where ,cattaneo and ,vittoria supported the credit of their instructor3 the latter perfected working in stucco4 ,in ,milan1 ,agostino ,busti1 and ,guglielmo della ,porta1 were highly distinguished1 especially the latter2 as were also1 in ,naples1 ,marliano ,nola1 and ,garolamo ,st ,croce4 ,in these schools1 however1 we trace the most rapid decay of the art1 in simplicity and correct design1 from the splendour of the courts demanding employment of the arts on objects of temporary interest1 when rapidity was preferred to excellence of execution4 ,among the real disciples of the ,florentine1 the following were the chief3--,raphael di ,monte ,lupo1 a favorite pupil1 who assisted his master in the tomb of ,julius1 the greatest undertaking in modern sculpture1 if completed2 ,nicolo di ,tribulo1 an excellent founder1 by whom are the bronze doors of the cathedral at ,bologna2 ,giovanni del ,opera1 whose name is significant of his industry2 ,danti1 the closest imitator of his instructer4 ,ammanati subsequently transferred his attention to architecture4 ,giovanni di ,bologna1 a ,frenchman by birth1 an ,italian as a sculptor1 was the most eminent of all the scholars of ,michael ,angelo2 and1 on the death of the latter1 continued to be the leading master in ,europe till the end of the century4 ,beyond the confines of ,italy1 the art had yet made few advances worthy of notice2 and what little had been accomplished was upon the principles of the ,tuscan school4 ,thus1 at the close of the sixteenth century1 the genius and principles of ,michael ,angelo extended their influence over the whole of ,europe4 ,during the last thirty years of this era1 however1 the art had been on the decline4 ,these principles could be maintained only by that genius by which they had been invented and matured2 and by it alone could the errors of the system be consecrated or concealed4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the seventeenth century thus rose with few favorable presages for sculpture4 ,the ,group of ,hercules and the ,centaur1 set up in ,florence the last year of the former era1 serves to show a considerable falling off in the intellectual qualities1 while it displays also many improvements and facilities introduced into the technical principles and modes of mechanical operation4 ,these are the last beauties to linger in the lapse of talent4 ,external circumstances1 also1 both moral and political1 had become less favorable4 ,the states of ,italy were either no longer alive to the same motives which had induced a cultivation of sculpture1 or1 with the loss of liberty1 had lost also the desire of prosecuting the measures of public aggrandizement4 ,the ascendancy of painting1 likewise1 was hostile to the recovery of a manly and accurate style of design in the sister art2 while the spirit of philosophical inquiry1 which came abroad in the seventeenth century1 was inimical to the fine arts generally4 ,it must1 however1 be acknowledged1 that the great sources of decline originated in the state of the art itself4 ,indeed1 when a high degree of excellence has been attained in any art1 a rapid and sudden retrogression will always be found to indicate the operation of external influences2 at the same time1 such falling off must always be preceded by1 and is in part the result of1 internal corruption in the principles of composition or of criticism4 ,a crowd of undistinguished names followed the dissolution of the great ,tuscan school4 ,and when at length an artist of decided talent appeared1 instead of retracing the steps of his predecessors1 he struck into a new path1 conducting still more pronely to error4 ,bernini1 born at ,naples in #aeih1 though immeasurably inferior to the mighty master of the last century in majesty and energy of mind1 possessed most of the requisites for becoming one of the greatest of modern sculptors4 ,unfortunately1 he neglected1 or was ignorant of1 the species of invention which belongs to an imitative art2 and choosing rather to be the founder of a sept1 than rank among the fathers of regular art1 he employed his endowments only to throw a meretricious splendour round the caprices of a silly and affected manner4 ,his powers of execution were wonderful1 his fertility of fancy exuberant1 but they were under control neither of regulated judgment nor of manly taste4 ,to ,bernini1 the conceptions of ancient simplicity seemed poverty and meagreness4 ,the compositions of ,michael ,angelo he deemed more forcible1 but too severe in character4 ,his aim consequently was1 to erect a third style1 which should possess distinctive qualities1 displaying greater strength and energy than1 to his taste1 the former presented1 while it surpassed the latter in suavity and grace4 ,in pursuit of these imaginary excellences1 he deviated1 and by his talents or patronage carried art along with him1 still farther from the simple1 the true1 and the natural4 ,to produce effect1 by whatever means of startling attitude1 voluminous drapery1 forced expression1 became the sole object of study--means the most improper for sculpture4 ,the works of ,bernini are very numerous1 for his opportunities as master of the works to several successive ,popes were extensive4 ,all are composed in the same false and flattering taste4 ,contemporaries were generally imitators4 ,algard and ,fiammingo1 however1 preserved the dignity of independent1 and1 in a certain degree1 merited the praise of original minds4 ,the former has produced the largest1 but not the best1 relievo of modern art2 the latter is most happy in the representation of children1 which1 to use the words of ,rubens1 ',nature1 rather than art1 appears to have sculptured2 the marble seems softened into life4' ,to ,bernini1 who died in #afhj1 ,camilla ,rusconi1 a ,milanese1 succeeded in the throne of sculpture during the remainder of the seventeenth1 and a considerable portion of the early part of the eighteenth century4 ,following the same principles as his greater predecessor1 but with talents much inferior1 in the hands of ,rusconi deterioration of taste became proportionably more rapid1 while the influence of external circumstances was also adverse4 ,italy was already filled with statues1 and no undertakings of magnitude presenting1 the art continued to languish during the greater part of the last century1 suffering both from defect of principle1 and poverty of means4 ,during the time that has elapsed1 ,transalpine sculpture scarcely demands our notice4 ,in ,france1 we first discover the art separately and extensively practised3 for in other countries it was associated with ornamental architecture4 ,the expeditions of ,charles ,,viii4 and the personal predilections of ,francis1 had introduced among their subjects some knowledge of ,italian refinement2 and so early as the middle of the sixteenth century1 ,french sculptors of considerable eminence appear4 ,jean ,gougon completed the celebrated ,fountain of the ,innocents in #aeej4 ,the works of a contemporary1 ,jean ,cousin1 show some grace and delicacy1 but want strength and correctness4 ,german ,pilon assimilates very closely to the style of the ,tuscan masters in energetic detail1 but is destitute of simplicity and natural expression4 ,jacques ,d',angouleme had merit1 but not enough to warrant the statement of native historians1 that he defeated ,michael ,angelo in a trial of skill4 ,towards the conclusion of this century1 ,giovanni di ,bologna filled the whole of ,france with the principles of his former master2 and his own pupils continued to maintain similar1 though inferior1 practice to the golden age of refinement in ,france--the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,of this school1 two artists1 ,girardon and ,puget1 claim to be the head4 ,the former1 though we cannot say with ,voltaire1 'il a gal tout ce que l'antiquit a de plus beau1' has yet great merit4 ,his manner of design1 with a degree of hardness1 is yet noble1 and though cold1 is more correct than that of his contemporaries1 as appears from the tomb of ,richelieu4 ,puget1 in every respect the opposite as to intellectual temperament1 is the favorite of his countrymen4 ,sculpteur1 ,architecte1 et ,peintre1 as they1 after the historian of ,louis ,,xiv41 are fond of representing him1 for the sake of comparison with ,buonarotti1 though what he painted1 or what he built1 does not appear1 is yet not dissimilar in the fiery energetic character of his composition1 and in his handling1 bold and full of movement2 but his expression is studied1 his science inaccurate1 his forms wanting in nobleness and grace4 ,sarasin was a most esteemed contemporary1 and1 in the ,caryatides of the ,louvre1 has equalled the best sculpture of ,france4 ,to the schools of the two first mentioned1 however1 and especially of ,puget1 in style at least1 are to be referred the succeeding artists of ,france1 as ,les ,gros1 ,theodon1 ,le ,peintre1 ,desjardins1 ,coysevaux ,vaucleve1 the two ,coustous1 all flourishing at the close of the seventeenth1 and during the early part of the eighteenth century4 ,the last of this list is ,bouchardon1 under ,louis ,,xv42 for though his unfortunate successor inclined to patronise talent1 the excesses of the ,revolution proved not less injurious to living art1 than destructive of ancient monuments4 ,among the latest works previous to this horrid outbreaking1 was the statue of ,voltaire1 by ,pigal1 now in the library of the ,institute1 and upon which the following severe epigram was composed3-- ,pigal au naturel represente ,voltaire-- ,le squelette la fois offre l'homme et l'auteur4 ,l'oeil qui le voit sans parure trangre ,est effray de sa maigreur6 ,bermudez1 the historian of ,spanish art1 enumerates a splendid list of native sculptors from the commencement of the sixteenth century4 ,this1 however1 is scarcely consistent with the fact1 that not till #aeeh1 in consequence of a royal edict1 was this esteemed a liberal profession1 or admitted to any privileges as such4 ,it is easy to perceive indeed1 that national partiality1 or that adventitious magnitude which every subject is apt to acquire in the estimation of the writer1 has led1 in this instance1 to consider as artists1 those who have with remarkable success been employed in ornamenting the fine ecclesiastical edifices in ,spain1 beyond which they are little known4 ,berruguete1 a pupil of ,michael ,angelo1 appears to have founded the first regular school1 of which ,paul de ,cespides was the ornament1 as he is of the national sculpture4 ,before the seventeenth century1 ,germany makes no appearance in a general history of sculpture2 and even now she is more celebrated for her writers on the philosophy1 than for her artists in the practice1 of the art4 ,still the genius of the nation we should be inclined to estimate as highly favorable to its future advancement4 ,in ,vienna1 ,rauchmller2 in ,silesia1 ,leigebe2 at ,berlin1 ,schluter1 ,millich1 ,barthel1 and others1 have proved this estimate not unfounded4 ,while our more immediate contemporaries1 ,ohnmacht1 ,sonnenschein1 ,nahl1 the two ,shadofs1 especially the younger1 whose ,spinning ,girl is one of the most exquisite imitations of simple nature which modern art can show1 do not discourage this hope2 if indeed artists be not carried away by that unnatural striving after marvellous effect1 which has wrought so much injury to common sense and right feeling in ,german literature4 ,on reviewing the history of modern sculpture during its rise and perfection1 to the decline immediately antecedent to the present century1 we find that1 from the commencement of the fifteenth century1 when the art began to rank among national causes of exertion and feeling1 progress towards perfection1 and in the most direct path1 was rapid4 ,hence it has been the singular distinction of the sculptors of this period1 to have left models in their own works1 while their previous discoveries enabled those who immediately followed also to produce models4 ,they have thus remained original in an age of originality4 ,during the sixteenth century1 causes more remotely connected with real patriotism--an ostentatious desire of splendour1 not an unaffected love of refinement--operated in the promotion of the arts2 and in ,sculpture1 in particular1 the artificial excitement imparted a portion of its spirit to its effects4 ,from the age of ,michael ,angelo inclusive1 we find that the desire of novelty1 a continued endeavor to extend the boundaries of art1 by the introduction of imaginary perfections inconsistent with its real character and excellence1 were the rocks on which was made fatal shipwreck of truth1 of simplicity1 and of beauty4 ,these imagined improvements were directed to the acquisition of two grand objects4 ,a style of composition was aimed at1 more purely ideal1 less connected with nature1 than is to be found in the remains of the ancient1 or in the works of the early modern masters4 ,genius hovered on the very confines of credibility and of the impossible1 deriving the elements of its creations from imaginings awful and imposing1 embodied in forms of gloomy sublimity and power1 overwhelming--not awakening--to the human sympathies4 ,as characteristics of this imaginative style1 the proportions are enlarged1 the expressions forced1 and action and energy are given1 destructive of grace and reality4 ,art is raised to regions where nature is unknown1 and where the very highest exertions of intellect and fancy could hardly sustain interest4 ,this was more especially the style of the ,tuscan school1 and it fell with its great founder1 who had placed the art on this dangerous height4 ,but1 in the second place1 sculpture was sought to be assimilated to painting1 and merit was estimated by the extent to which imitation was carried--in difficulty and variety of effect1 in complicated detail1 in volume of drapery1 and1 latterly1 even in facility of production4 ,this taste first began decidedly in the school of ,bernini1 and exclusively cherished the powers of mechanical execution1 in preference to the unobtrusive but essential beauties of purity and correctness of design4 ,hence the rapid decline2 for statues soon became merely confused masses of drapery1 without drawing1 and without science4 ,still the chisel was wielded with great mechanical dexterity2 but before the middle of the eighteenth century1 every moral beauty1 sentiment1 truth1 feeling1 had disappeared from the labours of the sculptor4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,art has never been reformed1 after a lapse from high eminence1 by mere imitation of examples1 however excellent2 nor by only following rules for the correction of error4 ,it is here as in morals1 example succeeds where precept would fail4 ,some mind of uncommon firmness and good sense is required1 who1 beginning with nature1 brings to the work of reformation original powers and severe judgment2 fancy and feeling1 with correctness and cultivated taste3 one1 in short1 of those rare minds whose merits1 great in themselves1 become incomparably greater viewed with the times in which they commenced their career2 whose exertions1 wonderful in their own accomplishments1 are yet more admirable from the progress which thereby others have been enabled to effect4 ,such a genius was that possessed by ,canova1 a name venerable alike for virtue and for talents4 ,born1 in #ageg1 in a distant and otherwise unknown hamlet1 in the territory of ,treviso--fallen upon evil days in his art--of the most obscure parentage1 destined to fill the humble and laborious occupation of village stone-cutter--remote1 in the first instance1 from every advice and assistance1 he rose to be the companion of princes1 the restorer of art1 and the generous patron of merit friendless as his own4 ,we know not whether more to love or to admire ,canova4 ,in his fifteenth year1 repairing to ,venice1 the cloisters of a convent supplied him1 through the benevolence of the good fathers1 with a work-shop2 and only fifteen years afterwards1 through a struggle of poverty1 yet redeemed by prudence and industry1 and sweetened by independence1 he erected in ,st ,peter's the monument of ,ganganelli--the first fruits of a spirit1 whose sobriety of temperament1 more valuable and more rare than mere original invention1 here exhibited a correctness which would amend1 with a vigour which would elevate1 a fallen age4 ,a series of more than two hundred compositions1 of which this was the first1 standing itself nobly conspicuous1 yet only a step from previous imbecility1 presents too extensive a field for particular description1 or minute examination4 ,the remembrance is yet fresh upon our memory1 when1 arranged in a funereal hall1 representations of these works might well have been deemed the labours of a generation2 and while now about to describe the originals1 we bear in recollection1 that to view these a considerable portion of ,europe has been traversed4 ,thus numerous1 and widely extending the influence of their style1 these productions certainly1 require careful notice4 ,avoiding details1 then1 we shall class them under ,heroic subjects2 ,compositions of softness and grace--,monumental erections and ,relievos4 ,the superiority of ,canova1 has been questioned in the first of these departments only4 ,he has been admitted a master of the beautiful--hardly of the grand4 ,or rather1 perhaps1 while his claims have been universally recognised in representing the softer graces of loveliness1 his powers in the sublimities of severe and masculine composition are less generally appreciated4 ,this estimation is unjust1 having been originated and maintained by causes entirely extrinsic to the genius or labours of the artist4 ,in not one1 but many groups and single statues1 he has attained some of the loftiest aims of sculpture4 ,in manly and vigorous beauty of form1 the ,perseus2 in forceful expression and perfection of science1 the ,pugilists--a work1 in its peculiar range1 one of the most classical of modern art2 in harmonious and noble composition1 uniting nature and poetic feeling1 the ,theseus combating the ,centaur2 in the terrible of sentiment and suffering1 the ,hercules2--these1 with the ,ajax1 ,hector1 ,paris1 ,palamedes1 all belonging to the grand style of art1 may challenge comparison with any works of the modern chisel1 in the beauties of sustained effect1 learned design1 boldness yet exquisite delicacy of execution2 while as to number1 the series here is unparalleled in the history of any single mind4 ,in the majestic or venerable realities of portraiture1 again1 there is ,napoleon1 ,pius ,,vi41 ,washington1 ,ganganelli1 ,rezzonico4 ,in the second department1 the compositions of ,canova have enriched modern art with the most glowing conceptions of elegance and grace2 raised1 and yet more refined1 by the expression of some elevating or endearing sentiment4 ,here1 indeed1 has been allotted his peculiar and unapproachable walk4 ,yet it may justly be doubted1 whether he be not superior in the former class1 where his merit has hitherto been denied or doubted4 ,true1 one or two works in the second1 as the ,venus recumbent1 the ,nymph1 and ,cupid1 are superior1 as examples of beauty and grace1 to any one of masculine character which might be compared with them2 but1 as a class1 the second is less uniformly dignified and excellent than the first4 ,the great defect here1 indeed1 is a want of dignity in the female figures2 which1 though equally removed from the flimsy affectations of his immediate predecessors1 as from the robust and austere proportions of the ,tuscan school1 are not always free from the meagre and the cold where grace is to be united with sweetness4 ,this seems to be occasioned by a want of harmony between the just height and roundness of the forms--from an absence of those firm1 yet gracious contours1 meeting1 yet eluding the eye1 rounded into life and dissolving in the animated marble1 which render1 for instance1 the ,medicean so incomparably superior to the ,venus of ,canova4 ,throughout the whole of this class1 there frequently runs a character of composition too ornate--too elaborately pleasing1 and which would appear still more decidedly1 were it not accompanied by inimitable ease1 and were not every part1 even to the minutest ornament1 an emanation of the same refined taste and cultivated mind4 ,it is this1 chiefly1 which spreads their delightful charm of consistency over these works2 there is1 on close examination1 little derived immediately and simply from nature4 ,every choice has finally1 but not obviously1 been determined after much thought and many trials4 ,all is that perfection of art1 by which art itself is best concealed1 and which to its creations lends the enchantment of nature's own sweetest graces4 ,in the monumental series of works1 ,canova displays all the practical excellences of his genius1 with more1 perhaps1 of originality and simplicity than generally characterise his other labours4 ,this class consists of architectural elevations1 supporting colossal statues1 and of tablets in relievo4 ,of the former1 the tombs of the ,popes at ,rome1 of ,alfieri at ,florence1 and of the ,archduchess ,maria ,christina at ,vienna1 are magnificent examples4 ,the second constitutes a numerous and very beautiful class1 which1 though composed of nearly the same simple elements of design1 a female figure1 or a genius1 in basso relievo1 mourning over a bust or an urn1 yet exhibit much diversity of character and arrangement4 ,from each of these an example might be selected in the tomb of the ,archduchess1 and the grand relievo of the ,o',hara family mourning over the funereal couch of the deceased daughter and wife--equal to anything in the whole compass of art4 ,to those who deny the merit of ,canova in relief1 we recommend the study of this monument4 ,the former1 representing a procession bearing to the tomb the ashes of the dead1 is one of the most arduous and noblest compositions extant2 and1 judging from our own impressions1 no record of mortality ever better accomplished its purpose1 whether to awaken regret for departed virtue1 or to tell1 by its own perfection1 that in man there exists an intelligence which shall survive beyond the grave4 ,although1 from the series of works briefly mentioned1 it would not be difficult to prove ,canova the most indefatigable--nor1 when we consider their influence1 the principles they are calculated to enforce1 and the fallen state from which they rescued art1 the most respectable--of modern sculptors2 yet1 in estimating truly the rank and constituents of his genius1 there is no small difficulty4 ,the very fertility of that genius1 diffusing its richness over every province of the art1 and1 in each varied exercise1 constantly displaying the same judgment and taste1 increases this difficulty1 by blending into one harmonious and regular effect1 those outbreakings of peculiar energies usually accompanying1 and indicative of1 great powers4 ,hence the character of his mind might be pronounced1 at first1 as distinguished rather by correctness than by force4 ,yet1 of his talents generally1 such would be an erroneous estimate4 ,his mind was deeply embued with both fire and enthusiasm2 his imagination1 uncommonly active1 was stored with materials1 but over the treasures thus lavishly poured forth by fancy1 severe scrutiny was held by the understanding4 ,energetic1 and even rapid1 in composition1 in correcting1 and finally determining1 he was slow and fastidious--often changing1 but always improving4 ,such intellectual organization is by no means favorable to that grandeur usually associated with highest genius1 which frequently hurrying alike the artist and spectator beyond reality1 derives its very mastery from daring disregard of rule1 grasping1 with dangerous hardihood1 those lofty graces1 pardoned only when successful2 and even then1 however they may elevate the individual subject or artist1 not enriching art with useful examples or solid acquisitions4 ,but a mind thus constituted was eminently fitted for correcting public taste1 especially in the serene majesty1 the orderly magnificence1 which compose the true grandeur of ,sculpture4 ,hence ,canova is uniformly dignified and consistent2 correct without coldness1 if he rarely attains the highest sublimity2 neither does he fall beneath himself1 nor into the extravagant4 ,compared with the ancients1 many of his works remind us of more than merely casual imitation2 but it is no less true1 that in others of novel invention1 he has applied1 in not unsuccessful rivalry1 their own principles1 the discovery of which forms his highest praise1 as constituting one of the most essential services ever rendered to ,sculpture4 ,among the moderns he claims pre-eminence1 as the first who established improvement upon genuine and universal precepts of art4 ,the perfection to which ,canova seems to have aspired in the ideal1 appears to have been the union of the two elements of sculptural design1 keeping each in just subordination to beauty4 ,hence1 in his figures1 form does not1 as in the antique1 constitute so entirely the primary1 and almost sole thought1 neither is it so much subservient to action and effect1 as in the most eminent of the modern masters4 ,in like manner1 the expression holds an intermediate character between the unmoved serenity of the ancients1 and the marked lineaments of ,michael ,angelo4 ,in some instances this union is very happily accomplished2 but generally1 though always true1 the expression is not often simple4 ,the only defect which can be discerned in ,canova's selection of form1 and which is more especially to be found in his female1 is a meagreness and want of vigour2 sometimes they too much remind us of the individual model1 and of those manners of life whence such models are usually obtained4 ,but speaking universally1 the contours of this master are full1 flowing1 and well sustained4 ,and here we can discover the same principles of design and practice which were pointed out in the best era of the ,grecian schools1 with this novel precept1 the discovery1 or at least uniformly successful application1 of which belongs to ,canova1 namely1 that all grand parts may be resolved into a primary and two secondary forms4 ,as this ternary combination is sweetly1 yet decidedly marked1 blending yet separating its constituent lines1 the graceful ease and infinite variety of natural outline is obtained4 ,in every statue of the modern1 also1 we find exemplified the principle adopted from ,phidias1 and already noticed1 namely1 that from whatever resources of imagination any figure may be composed1 the final surface--all that meets the eye at last--must be finished1 and faithfully imitated from individual nature4 ,there is still one characteristic which pre-eminently distinguishes those works we are examining1 namely1 the exquisite beauty of composition4 ,they unite the dexterity and force which constituted the peculiar praise of the masters of the sixteenth century1 with a delicacy1 a refinement1 and truth1 exclusively their own4 ,this is an excellence of the highest import--not so much in itself as in its consequences--for it can be introduced with good effect only when the nobler elements of composition are present4 ,a statue defective in the higher qualities of art1 would by high finish become only the more ungracious3 works of unblemished merit only admit with advantage of elaborate technicality4 ,hence1 among the ancients1 the perfect statues1 in all other respects1 are also the most highly wrought4 ,this excellence ,canova seems to have been the first to remark and to emulate1 which he has done successfully1 especially in the most difficult parts--the extremities4 ,in short1 when we view ,canova in himself and in his works singly1 isolated from the age that preceded1 and separated from that which now follows his own1 in concentrated energy and originality of mind1 he may hardly compare with ,donatello1 still less with ,buonarotti1 perhaps not with our own ,flaxman2 but when we estimate his genius in the varied1 yet uniform excellence of his labours1 in the principles upon which these are conducted1--when we recollect the state of degradation in which he found1 and the elevated condition in which he left art2 and remember1 too1 that his own works and practice between these extremes1 were marked by no false splendors of talent1 but must prove a shining light1 guiding to yet higher attainment2 we must pronounce1 in truth and gratitude1 that none other name is in merit so inseparably associated with the progress of sculpture4 ,since the death of his illustrious contemporary1 ,thorwaldsen1 born at ,copenhagen1 #agga-b1 has occupied the public eye as head of the modern school4 ,the character and powers of this master are doubtless of a very elevated rank2 but neither in the extent nor excellence of his works1 do we apprehend his station to be so high as sometimes placed4 ,the genius of the ,danish sculptor is forcible1 yet is its energy derived more from peculiarity than from real excellence4 ,his ideal springs less from imitation of the antique1 or of nature1 than from the workings of his own individual mind--it is the creation of a fancy seeking forcible effect in singular combinations1 rather than in general principles2 therefore hardly fitted to excite lasting or beneficial influence upon the age4 ,simplicity and imposing expression seem to have hitherto formed the principal objects of his pursuit2 but the distinction between the simple and rude1 the powerful and the exaggerated1 is not always observed in the labours of the ,dane4 ,his simplicity is sometimes without grace2 the impressive--austere1 and without due refinement4 ,the air and contours of his heads1 except1 as in the ,mercury--an excellent example both of the beauties and defects of the artist's style--when immediately derived from antiquity1 though grand and vigorous1 seldom harmonize in the principles of these efforts with the majestic regularity of general nature4 ,the forms1 again1 are not unfrequently poor1 without vigorous rendering of the parts1 and destitute at times of their just roundness4 ,these defects may in some measure have arisen from the early and more frequent practice of the artist in relievos4 ,in this department1 ,thorwaldsen is unexceptionably to be admired4 ,the ,triumph of ,alexander1 originally intended for the frieze of the government palace at ,milan1 notwithstanding an occasional poverty in the materials of thought1 is1 as a whole1 one of the grandest compositions in the world2 while the delicacy of execution1 and poetic feeling1 in the two exquisite pieces of ,night and ,aurora1 leave scarcely a wish here ungratified4 ,but in statues1 ,thorwaldsen excels only where the forms and sentiment admit of uncontrolled imagination1 or in which no immediate recourse can be had to fixed standards of taste1 and to the simple effects of nature4 ,hence1 of all his works1 as admitting of unconfined expression1 and grand peculiarity of composition1 the statues of the ,apostles1 considered in themselves1 are the most excellent4 ,thorwaldsen1 in fine1 possesses singular1 but in some respects erratic genius4 ,his ideas of composition are irregular2 his powers of fancy surpass those of execution2 his conceptions seem to lose a portion of their value and freshness in the act of realisement4 ,as an individual artist1 he will command deservedly a high rank among the names that shall go down to posterity4 ,as a sculptor1 who will influence1 or has extended the principles of the art1 his pretensions are not great2 or1 should this influence and these claims not be thus limited1 the standard of genuine and universal excellence must be depreciated in a like degree4 ,we have hitherto made little or no mention of ,british sculpture1 for two reasons4 ,the number of ancient monuments of the art with which the cathedrals of ,england1 and ,westminster ,abbey in particular1 are ornamented1 is considerable3 yet very little is known regarding their authors4 ,there is reason to believe1 however1 that by far the greater part are the work of foreigners1 members of those confraternities of itinerant artists1 which have been noticed as existing in ,italy so early as the middle of the fourteenth century4 ,this opinion is corroborated by the circumstance1 that the object in these societies was to undertake buildings in whatever country1 and for this purpose were composed of architects1 sculptors1 workers in mosaic1 builders1 designers1 each strictly attending to his own department1 except the architect1 who seems to have acted as the general overseer4 ,thus1 companies of individuals1 more or less numerous1 were engaged by the proper ecclesiastical authorities1 wherever a building of magnitude was to be erected4 ,of this1 the plan appears uniformly to have been prescribed by the ecclesiastics1 the foreign masters superintending and availing themselves of local assistants for the mere workmanship4 ,again1 between the early productions of sculpture in ,england1 when these first attract notice by their excellence1 we very decidedly trace the style1 and in some instances1 as in the beautiful monuments of ,eleanor1 queen of ,edward ,i41 the designs of the school of ,pisa4 ,about this time1 the very improvements introduced by ,giovanni da ,pisa1 son of ,nicolo1 especially in the drapery1 are decidedly apparent in those and other ,english works4 ,hence1 although we find ,english names mentioned as masters of the works in several of our most splendid erections1 and even in one instance as sculpturing the images of saints1 it is doubtful whether they were not the ecclesiastics directly employed by the chapter to communicate their plans to the actual artificers4 ,but it must also be observed1 that the natural consequence of introducing foreign art would be to create native artists4 ,there can be little doubt1 therefore1 that many of the really fine monuments of our ,henrys and ,edwards1 during the fifteenth century1 are the works of home-bred talent4 ,during the sixteenth century1 again1 we do certainly know that two ,italian sculptors1 ,cavallini1 and especially the celebrated ,torregiano1 were in ,england1 when the latter erected the monument in ,henry ,,vii4's chapel1 for which he received so large a sum as a thousand pounds4 ,henry ,,viii41 again1 had for his master of works an ,italian sculptor1 ,john of ,padua1 scholar of ,michael ,angelo4 ,in #afae1 we at length find a work erected by an ,englishman1 the monument of the 'good ,thomas ,sutton1' by ,nicholas ,stone2 and1 towards the conclusion of the same era1 lived ,francis ,bird1 a native of ,london1 whose labours1 however1 only show the miserable state of art4 ,sculpture has never been practised as a separate branch in the early history of ,scotland1 who appears to have obtained her masters rather from ,france than ,italy4 ,in both countries1 our first historians have been most culpably remiss in attention to the progress of native art4 ,on the present occasion1 to attempt a detailed account of the scattered notices they have left us1 or1 what might prove still more satisfactory1 an examination of the rich remains we possess1 would be irrelevant1 as we touch merely upon the general history of the arts1 in which our own isolated labours1 even at best1 form only an episode4 ,not till towards the conclusion of the last century can there properly be said to have existed a school of ,british sculpture4 ,cibber1 ,roubilac1 ,scheemakers1 ,carlini1 ,locatelli1 ,rysbrack--all the sculptors who flourished in ,england during the greater part of the eighteenth century1 were foreigners4 ,it is well that the fame of our good and our brave finds a memorial in the records of history1 and in the breasts of their countrymen1 more worthy of their virtues than these men have often erected1 in the noblest1 too1 of our temples4 ,now1 ,british worth can be commemorated by ,british art4 ,our native school of ,sculpture may be considered as commencing with ,banks1 born in #agch1 died in #ahje2 for ,wilton1 as an artist1 was educated abroad4 ,in power of modelling few have excelled ,banks1 whose name merits eulogium1 and is mentioned by foreign writers as among the very few at ,rome1 who1 previous to the appearance of ,canova1 presented in their works the dawnings of reviving art4 ,bacon1 born in #agdj1 was in every respect an ,english artist1 and we may almost say self-taught4 ,in simplicity his works have great merit2 they are often wanting in feeling4 ,bacon was not unacquainted with the literature of his art4 ,proctor and ,deare died too early for the arts1 after they had given evidence of the highest abilities4 ,deare has indeed left works1 young as he was1 not surpassed by any in modern art4 ,we approach our more immediate contemporaries with respectful diffidence1 and shall touch only upon the merits of those who are removed from the effects of praise or censure4 ,nollekins knew his art1 but wanted science1 dignity1 and fancy4 ,flaxman belongs to posterity1 and has more widely extended the influence of his genius--more intimately connected his labours with general improvement1 than any other ,english sculptor4 ,towards the propitious revolution which rescued the arts from utter imbecility1 in the latter end of last century1 he largely contributed1 by his learned1 powerful1 and simple style4 ,from #aghg to #agid1 he continued in ,italy2 and had his sojourn been longer1 he would have divided not unequal honors with the great reformer of taste4 ,this is known and acknowledged by the intelligent critics of that country1 of whom one of the most judicious1 ,count ,cicognara1 thus writes3--',to ,flaxman our obligations are very great1 since1 as far as our acquaintance with his works extends1 they served nobly to elevate from a certain monotonous lethargy1 and to create afresh1 that taste for the severe and golden style of antiquity1 which he applied to his own inventions4' ,from his youth1 ,flaxman was distinguished by the strength of his genius1 by devotion to the study of the ancient models1 and by fearless but judicious disregard of those conventional affectations by which art was disgraced4 ,he was among the first1 if not the earliest1 to awaken the long dormant energies of sculpture1 to unite anew art with nature4 ,the simple and the grand of antiquity he made his own2 nor1 since the best ages of ,greece1 do we anywhere find1 in the works mentioned in these pages1 greater meaning1 more deep feeling of truth1 with less pomp of art1 than in the sculpture of ,flaxman4 ,the wonderful designs from ,homer1 the statues of ,mr ,pitt and ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 the monuments of ,montague1 ,howe1 and ,nelson1 the group of ,michael and ,satan1 will alone fully justify this character4 ,if1 in the works of this master1 a defect may be pointed out1 it is an excess of the severe and simple1 which nearly approaches to harshness4 ,surpassing both ,canova and ,thorwaldsen in the loftiness of his conceptions1 and perhaps in classic purity of taste1 in the graces of composition1 and the facilities of modelling1 he is inferior to the former4 ,but in all that constitutes the epic of the art1 ,flaxman is not surpassed4 ,we must omit with regret1 though not unadmired1 the names of living ,english artists4 ,to their honor be it remarked1 that1 at this moment1 in rectitude and sobriety of precept1 in the walk which has hitherto been followed1 where nothing is yet to be unlearned1 and which must infallibly conduct to higher perfection1 no school in ,europe can boast of happier auspices1 of more vigorous practice1 nor of sounder principles1 than the ,british school of ,sculpture4 ,in ,italy1 the numerous--we may say universal--imitators of ,canova1 appear to be following1 with exaggerated effect1 the only failing towards which his style inclines--elaborate grace4 ,in ,germany1 the art languishes for want of encouragement4 ,sculpture is more pre-eminently the nursling of freedom4 ,the ,french sculptors are1 at the present time1 more distinguished for science than for feeling or invention4 ,they want individuality of character in their works2 the symmetry and proportions1 the mechanical art of antiquity1 their chisel has transferred1--but the sentiment1 the essence which unites art with nature1 which breathes into ,grecian statuary the breath of life1 has escaped4 ,it is a singular fact1 that from the school formed under the empire1 while the most valued treasures of existing art were collected in the ,french capital1 not a sculptor1 hardly one artist of eminence1 has issued4 ,the cause is plain4 ,these monuments were torn from their resting places by the hand of violence2 they were viewed by a vain and mistaken people as the trophies of victory2 but they were never venerated with that enthusiastic yet humble devotion1 with which the disciple regards the sources of knowledge4 ,during a shorter period1 how different have been the effects of our own unsullied and bloodless collection4 ,since the public exposition of the ,phidian ,marbles1 in particular1 every department of taste has been improved1 and every artist has been ready to exclaim1 with the late venerable president1 that till he saw these works1 he was ignorant how much of his art he had yet to learn4 ,let the ,british sculptor1 then1 continue in the same principles as have heretofore guided his practice2 let him follow nature1 and these the noblest remains of art in existence1 and he must excel4 ,sculpture seems especially calculated to flourish amongst us4 ,the grave and manly character of the art agrees with the tone of national genius1 harmonizes with our free institutions1 and may find in our history sources of the brightest inspiration4 ,,the ,,fine ,,arts4 ,,painting4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,in the present undertaking1 two methods of arrangement are obviously presented3 either to treat the arts simultaneously2 or1 considering each in succession1 to commence with that one which seemed best adapted to illustrate the history and common principles of all4 ,with this view we have1 in the commencement1 followed the fortunes of ,sculpture at some length1 because here we find an uninterrupted series of monuments2 here the elements of imitative art are discoverable in their purest and least compounded character2 and also because in ,sculpture the labours1 being enduring1 of greater magnitude1 and more generally employed for national purposes than those of ,painting1 seem more clearly to illustrate the connexion which will ever be found to subsist between the refinement of taste and the progress of moral and political intelligence1 as affects nations1 or the human race universally4 ,this is the truly dignified object in the history of the fine arts4 ,in this respect our inquiries have been most satisfactorily resolved4 ,we have found the state of sculpture an index of the moral and political condition of the people2 owing its best cultivation to national and popular causes4 ,we have seen it languish or revive according to the energy and the freedom of national institutions4 ,the epochs of painting were nearly or altogether the same1 as were also those of architecture4 ,the conclusions1 then1 are universal4 ,little1 therefore1 remains to be explained in painting1 save its own peculiarities as an individual art4 ,painting1 which depends upon illusion for some of its most striking effects1 and employs principles abstractly unreal1 is1 in the application of these principles1 and in the full accomplishment of their effects1 an art of greater difficulty than ,sculpture4 ,hence1 a priori1 it might be inferred1 that the former would more slowly attain to the perfection which it reached among the nations of the ancient world4 ,but perhaps it would hardly have been predicted1 that1 in the age of ,phidias1 when sculpture had already been raised to an elevation yet unapproached1 the sister art should still be little advanced4 ,at the same time1 there can be no doubt that the elements of both arts have in all countries sprung up together4 ,nature has sown the seed1 but circumstances nourish the plants4 ,among the ancient inhabitants of ,asia1 painting and writing appear to have been the same art1 or rather1 the former supplied the place of the latter4 ,from the same source the art arose in ,egypt1 where are still to be found its oldest remains4 ,in this branch the mental and political despotism already explained1 bound down every aspiration4 ,whether we regard the art as picture writing1 or in its more determinate and independent efforts at representation1 we discover no change--no progressive improvement1 and no superiority which has not evidently arisen from a greater or less degree of care and personal skill in the performer4 ,egyptian painting seldom1 if ever1 attempts more than an outline of the object1 as seen in profile1 such as would be obtained by its shadow4 ,to this rude but always well-proportioned draught1 colors are applied1 simply and without mixture or blending1 or the slightest indication of light and shade4 ,the process appears to have been1 first1 the preparation of the ground in white2 next1 the outline was firmly traced in black2 and1 lastly1 the flat colors were applied4 ,the ,egyptian artists employed six pigments1 mixed up with a gummy liquid1 namely1 white1 black1 red1 blue1 yellow1 and green3 the three first always earthy1 the remaining vegetable1 or at least frequently transparent4 ,the specimens from which we derive these facts1 are the painted shrouds and cases of the mummies1 and the still more perfect examples on the walls of the tombs4 ,it can furnish no evidence of extraordinary experience or practice1 that these paintings still retain their hues clear and fresh4 ,the circumstance merely shows the aridity of the climate1 and that the coloring matters were prepared and applied pure and without admixture4 ,over no part of ancient intellectual history hangs there so great uncertainty1 respecting at least the means and progressive steps1 as in the instance of ,painting in ,greece4 ,we can judge here only from inference1 while the facts upon which our conclusions must rest1 are in some degree contradictory4 ,no production of the ,grecian pencil remains to us1 as in sculpture1 whence to form our own judgment apart from the opinions of ancient critics2 while there is internal evidence1 that the historical annals handed down to us1 imperfect as these now are1 have been compiled1 not from authentic materials early collected1 but from recollection of names to whom discoveries are by the later historian casually attributed4 ,the whole account of early painting is too regular1 too systematic1 the progressive advances follow each other in an order too artificial to represent faithfully the alternate failure and success1 the devious course1 the rapid and almost inexplicable advance of genius4 ,the young eagle tempts not the liquid way in steady flight1 commensurate only with his strength--he flutters and falls--wavers in broken and ungraceful curves1 before he can launch into full career1 or circle slowly and majestically in his pride of place4 ,we do not doubt1 then1 that the names of the earliest painters handed down to us in the ,greek and ,roman writers1 are correct2 but the system of gradual and regular advance which they have connected with these names1 seems inconsistent with the nature of human things4 ,in this case1 the only safe method that can be adopted1 consistently with the intention of giving every useful information1 is to select a few leading and well ascertained dates1 between which it is proved that certain discoveries did take place2 the interval will thus be sufficiently filled up without entering into minute discussion4 ,anticipating this arrangement1 we have been full in our account of the early schools of sculpture1 whence the deficiency here may be supplied2 for in both arts1 the locality is always1 and the masters frequently1 the same4 ,the first painting on record is the battle of ,magnete1 by ,bularchus1 and purchased by ,candaules1 king of ,lydia1 for its weight in gold1 or as some say1 a quantity of gold coins equal to the extent of its surface4 ,this establishes the first era1 #gah ,b4 ,c4 ,during five centuries1 however1 the art had previously flourished in the cities and islands1 and especially at ,corinth1 whose situation1 commanding the two seas that wash the shores1 and connecting by land the grand divisions1 of ,greece1 early rendered that city1 with the commercial states already noticed1 the seat of wealth and refinement4 ,practised by numerous masters1--as ,eucherus1 ,hygenon1 ,dymas1 ,charamides1 ,philocles1 ,cleanthes1 ,cleophantes1--painting1 in this interval1 is reported to have passed through various gradations2 as1 simple skiagraphy1 or shadow painting2 the monographic style1 consisting of a simple outline2 monochromatic compositions1 in which one color only was employed2 and polychromatic1 where a variety of hue1 but without shading1 was used4 ,during the same time1 there appear accounts of minor improvements1 with their authors assigned1 all of which we reject1 as already stated4 ,in what manner the work of ,bularchus was executed1 does not appear2 but there is every reason to believe that it was merely a monogram1 and1 from the contemporaneous state of sculpture1 very highly finished1 in a style hard1 dry1 and ineffective4 ,the price paid is by no means the criterion of absolute excellence2--the work might be fully prized as the master-piece of its own remote age1 while the laborious minuteness of its details might render the sum not more than a compensation for the time bestowed4 ,to select a second era sufficiently marked by addition or revolution of principle1 is difficult4 ,to the age of ,phidias1 the art continued certainly to improve1 but very slowly1 being left far in the rear by ,sculpture4 ,the genius of this consummate master1 who indeed had originally commenced his career as a painter1 extended to all the arts2 and1 under such an instructer1 his brother ,pennus1 very highly distinguished himself1 though vanquished in a contest for the public prize1 then instituted at ,delphos and ,corinth4 ,from the middle of the fifth century1 then1 a decided movement commences in the history of painting1--a preparation for something still greater4 ,the influence extended among the able contemporaries of the great sculptor4 ,polygnotus of ,thasos then first succeeded1 to borrow a phrase1 'in the expression of undescribed being1' and whose pictures ,pliny admired six hundred years afterwards4 ,improvement was carried forward for half a century by ,mycon1 famous in horses2 ,pauson1 his rival2 ,dionysius of ,colophon1 praised by lian for minute accuracy2 ,aglaophon1 bold and energetic2 ,colotes1 sculptor and painter2 ,evenor1 father of ,parrhasius2 and finally1 greatest of all1 ,apollodorus the ,athenian1 who invented or perfected the knowledge of light and shade4 ,with this artist1 the precursor and contemporary of ,zeuxis1 and whose discovery may be placed about the commencement of the fourth century ,b4 ,c41 may be terminated the second era4 ,the propriety of this division will more obviously appear1 when it is considered that to this period1 not only was the art deficient in the most powerful of its means1 the magic of chiar' oscura1 but also in its instruments4 ,the ancient paintings1 as late as the age of ,phidias1 were executed with the cestrum1 a species of pliant stylus1 similar to that used in writing4 ,this is the diagraphic1 or linear method1 and seems to have resembled our chalk and crayon1 or perhaps more closely our pen and reed drawing4 ,the process1 however1 can be explained only by conjecture4 ,the tablet1 primed in white1 was laid over with a varnish of resin mixed with wax1 and usually incorporated with a dark-reddish coloring matter4 ,upon this the subject was traced1 and the lights worked in with the cestrum of various fineness4 ,at what precise period this imperfect instrument was superseded by the pencil1 or if the effects of the two were combined1 is unknown4 ,but the invention must have been made after the death of ,polygnotus1 and prior to the ninetythird ,olympiad1 a period of twenty or thirty years1 when ,apollodorus is known to have handled the pencil with great effect4 ,it is not unlikely1 therefore1 that this artist either was the inventor or the improver of this tool1 whose mastery so decidedly ministered to his reputation4 ,the third period commences with ,zeuxis1 marking an era distinct at once in principle and in excellence4 ,preceding masters had crowded their tablets with numerous figures4 ,he introduced simplicity of composition1 and relied upon the perfection frequently of a single figure to concentrate interest4 ,he was equally simple in his coloring1 never using more than four1 often only two pigments4 ,parrhasius equalled the former in expression1 and seems to have surpassed him in coloring4 ,euphranor was equally celebrated in painting as in statuary4 ,both were surpassed by ,timanthes1 who1 in veiling the head of a father compelled to attend the sacrifice of his daughter1 appealed to the heart not in vain1 when the powers of genius had failed4 ,eupompus1 by the splendour of his style1 gave rise to a new distinction of schools into the ,athenian and ,sicyonian1 in addition to the ,asiatic1 the ,rhodian1 and the ,corinthian4 ,theon of ,samos obtained high praise for the eager haste of his young warrior to join the fight4 ,aristides of ,thebes1 in his picture of the wounded mother1 solicitous1 in the pangs of death1 lest her child should suck blood1 appears to have reached the utmost range of expression in art4 ,and lastly1 ,pamphilus the ,macedonian1 eminent for the natural feeling and truth of his style1 was the master of ,apelles4 ,this era1 embracing about the first half of the fourth century1 coincides with the commencement of the ,phidian age in painting4 ,whatever might have been the merits of preceding masters1 ,zeuxis was certainly the first from whose works we derive explicit statements of the ideal in ,grecian painting4 ,this ideal1 as in their sculpture1 was immediately derived from reality2 it was no farther the creation of fancy1 than as taste and imagination were employed in selecting and combining what was good in particular1 towards an approach to the best1 in general nature4 ',behold1' said ,eupompus to ,lysippus1 when consulted by the young sculptor on the subject of imitation1 pointing to the passing multitude1 ',behold my models3 from nature1 not from art1 must he study1 who aspires to the true excellence of art4' ,zeuxis1 then1 first discovered or practised the grand principle in the heroic style of painting1--to render each figure the perfect representative of the class to which it belongs4 ,there is reason to believe1 also1 that he taught the true method of grouping2 at least1 from the manner of description adopted by ,pausanias1 it would evidently seem that in all pictures anterior to this age1 the figures were ranged in lines1 without any principal group on which the interest of the event was concentrated4 ,even so late as the works of ,pannus1 the brother of ,phidias1 the different distances were represented by the very inartificial and ungracious means of placing the figures in rows one above the other4 ,in all his improvements1 ,zeuxis was more than followed by his able contemporaries4 ,it is a singular and an amusing fact1 that at no time do we find more real talent in art1 combined with so much ridiculous coxcombry in the personal character of artists4 ,the fourth and last epoch of painting in ,greece commences with ,apelles1 about the conclusion of the fourth century ,b4 ,c4 ,this age witnessed both the glory and the fall of ancient art4 ,apelles united1 in his own style1 the scattered excellences which had separately adorned the performances of his predecessors4 ,it was this power and equability of combination1 arranged and animated by an elegance and refinement of taste peculiarly his own1 which constituted the just eminence of this master4 ,from the descriptions of ancient writers1 the character of his style must have closely resembled that of ,raphael1 while their choice of subjects appears to have been nearly similar4 ,the ,venus of ,apelles1 long afterwards purchased by ,augustus for one hundred talents1 or #bj1jjj sterling1 was esteemed the most faultless creation of the ,grecian pencil1 the most perfect example of that simple yet unapproachable grace of conception1 of symmetry of form1 and exquisite finish1 in which may be summed up the distinctive beauties of his genius4 ,he alone appears to have practised portrait painting in the full majesty of that art2 this1 indeed1 does not appear to have been a branch the most cultivated among the ,greeks1 who preferred busts4 ,hence1 while ,pausanias enumerates eightyeight masterpieces of history1 he mentions only half the number of portraits1 which he had seen in his travels through ,greece1 during the second century4 ,the contemporaries of ,apelles were ,protogenes1 an excellent artist1 whose merits his generous rival first pointed out4 ,he was blamed for finishing too highly2 yet1 to obtain possession of one of his pictures1 was the chief cause of the siege of ,rhodes4 ,nicias1 who is reported to have touched up the statues of ,praxiteles--in what manner is not known1 nor was ,canova successful in his researches on this subject4 ,somewhat later lived ,nichomachus1 ,pausius1 tion1 the ,albano of antiquity1 and others1 with whom the art began to lapse4 ,the causes and progress of this decline have already been traced in the history of sculpture4 ,the remarks there are applicable to both arts1 but peculiar circumstances rendered the progress of decay more rapid in painting4 ,even in the later contemporaries of the great ornament of the art1 we discover a falling off from the great style1 to one exactly resembling that of the modern ,dutch school4 ,although the best pictures1 from their greater rarity1 were more highly valued in pecuniary estimation than statues1 yet the art was never so completely national as ,sculpture4 ,the ambition was not cherished1 nor the talents of painters directed1 by the nationality of their performances2 the general taste was not fixed by public and venerated monuments1 consequently the wholesome restraints of public opinion operated but slightly1 and were speedily withdrawn4 ,be it also remembered1 that the standard here was formed after the severe purity of ancient taste1 and morals had suffered sad relaxation4 ,hence painting was sooner abandoned to the caprice of private patronage and judgment2 but the whole framework of her institutions1 moral and political1 was to be dissolved before sculpture1--which honored the forms of her religion2 whose labours were publicly dedicated to the renown of her good1 her learned1 and her brave1--could cease to be regarded with national sympathy in ,greece4 ,pausanias mentions the names of one hundred and sixtynine sculptors1 and only fifteen painters2 while1 after three centuries of spoliation1 he found in ,greece three thousand statues1 not one of them a copy1 while he describes only one hundred and thirtyone paintings4 ,the empire1 then1 of ancient painting1 appears to have been of brief continuance1 for1 beyond the age now under review1 no memorials of its greatness remain4 ,the ,romans prized this1 as they have been shown to value every accomplishment in the fine arts1 as ministering to luxury1 and as a worthy employment for their slaves4 ,in the early portion of their iron reign1 ,etruscan captives decorated their houses--subsequently itinerant ,greeks2 and though we find a few names of ,roman painters1 we never find it carried among them beyond mere embellishment4 ,the moral dignity of the art never revived4 ,one difficulty regarding the history of ancient painting still remains to be stated--satisfactorily cleared it never can be--namely1 the perfection to which the art actually attained4 ,it has been said1 and the remark is just1 that there exists a wide disparity between the means and instruments of the art1 as described by writers of antiquity1 and the excellence of the effects produced1 as these have reached us through the same channel4 ,we have1 it is replied1 the criticisms of the same writers upon other subjects of taste1 with the originals likewise in our hands1 and finding here their opinions correct--not only so1 but exquisitely correct--we are constrained to admit1 that in painting their judgment was equally refined as in poetry1 oratory1 sculpture1 or architecture4 ,this reasoning may prove relative1 but not absolute excellence2 for taste being necessarily formed upon the very models on which it passes sentence1 cannot be admitted as evidence beyond its experience4 ,our own conviction is1 that1 unless in this view of merely relative beauty1 the praises bestowed by the ,greek and ,roman writers upon their paintings are overcharged2 and that these were much inferior to their sculptures4 ,this opinion is founded not upon any alleged inferiority of means1 for1 besides the difficulty of exactly comprehending certain passages on this subject1 we do find1 that the ancient artists were armed with all the powers of fresco-painting1 in which the grandest conceptions of modern talent are embodied4 ,but these very descriptions1 in many of which are accounts of very complicated expression1 show that the writers1 and especially ,pliny1 the most circumstantial1 either did not truly feel the nature and object of beauty in painting2 or they evince1 that if such effects were attempted1 the art was devoid of that simplicity and natural expression which constitute the primeval source1 the all-pervading principle1 of beauty and of grandeur1 of truth and excellence1 in antique sculpture4 ,but again1 if1 from the few and very imperfect remains of ancient painting1 any conclusion be allowed in reference to its higher state1 we discover in these all the principles1 especially those of form1 common to sculpture1 always well1 often admirably understood1 while those peculiar to painting are inartificially expressed1 without firmness or decision4 ,these remains consist1 first1 of the delineations upon vases1 improperly called ,etruscan1 where the pictorial representations are monochromatic shadows and outline1 or monograms1 executed with the cestrum1 or style1 in black1 upon a red or yellow ground1 or sometimes the order of the colors is reversed4 ,even these support the views just stated2 for1 vigorous as are the lines1 the representation1 on the whole1 is inferior to the abstract perception of the beautiful in form1 as exhibited in the vases themselves4 ,the second division of remains are the frescos1 or stucco paintings of ,herculaneum1 ,pompeii1 ,stabia near ,naples1 and those in the baths of ,titus at ,rome4 ,the former were doubtless executed by itinerant ,greek painters1 who are known to have been very numerous under the empire4 ,the latter were most probably the performance of the best artists that could be procured2 yet we do not discover an intrinsic difference of style which can bear against our general conclusion1 or rather the similarity proves the fact1 while in ,herculaneum every sculptured ornament is infinitely more elegant than the paintings found in the same spot4 ,to these might be added some very imperfect sepulchral remains1 found near ,tarquinia1 which merely prove that the ancient ,etruscans were far from ignorant of painting4 ,in the pictures at ,naples and ,rome1 is greater variety of coloring than1 from some passages in their writings1 has been allowed to the ancients4 ,and1 indeed1 unless ,pliny be supposed to point out a distinction in this respect between the practice of the earlier and later painters1 he contradicts himself2 for in all1 he enumerates no less than five different whites1 three yellows1 nine reds or purples1 two blues1 one of which is indigo1 two greens1 and one black1 which also appears to be a generic expression1 including bitumen1 charcoal1 ivory1 or lamp-black1 mentioned with probably others4 ,occasional allusion has been made to the mechanical modes of operation employed in ancient painting4 ,on comparing the different passages allusive to these1 two things certainly appear3 that a permanency was given to its productions unknown even in modern art2 and that oil-painting1 properly so termed1 formed no part of its practice4 ,laying aside1 then1 all conflicting opinions1 we are disposed to infer that there were three principal methods2 first1 ,distemper employed on stuccoed walls1 and for pictures not moveable2 second1 ,glazing1 when the picture1 after being furnished in water-colours1 crayons1 or distemper1 was covered with a coat of hard and transparent varnish1 of which several kinds are described2 and thirdly1 ,encaustic1 when the coloring matters actually incorporated with wax1 or preparations of wax1 were thus applied in a liquid state1 and when finished1 allowed to dry1 and most likely afterwards varnished also4 ,in these two latter methods were executed the most excellent pictures of the great masters1 and which were portable4 ,the last has given rise to much needless discussion1 as if resembling enamel1 the colors being burnt in4 ,we apprehend1 however1 the ,greek and ,latin verb here used1 merely denotes that the tints were laid on hot1 which1 from their nature1 must have been absolutely necessary1 while it is evident1 from scattered hints1 that the material painted upon was destructible by fire4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,fallen as was every liberal pursuit during those ages1 since emphatically called dark1 painting was yet never unpractised in ,europe4 ,in the ecclesiastical records of that period1 evidence is found that1 in ,italy1 churches were in every century decorated with paintings and mosaics by native or ,greek artists4 ,a kind of competition1 indeed1 appears to have been carried on between the successive pontiffs1 imitated by their inferior suffragans1 who should thus load some favorite cathedral with the greatest quantity of barbarous finery4 ,these gentlemen1 as even the ,abbate ,tiraboschi has ventured to disclose1 being rarely ornamental to the church in their own proper persons1 endeavored to make up the deficiency in the best way possible by proxy4 ,from monuments still remaining in ,germany1 it is evident1 that neither was some degree of skill wanting in that quarter4 ,in ,france1 as in our country1 similar research would probably be rewarded with the same discovery4 ,though darkened1 the human spirit was still at work2 and when at length its energies were restored to comparative activity by the slow operation of causes1 imperceptible in themselves1 mighty in their results1 the arts1 as already seen1 shone forth among the morning stars in the dawn of freedom4 ,this light first arose upon ,italy2 and1 from the circumstances of her situation1 ,florence soonest established a school of painting4 ,cimabue1 her citizen1 early in the thirteenth century1 caught the inspiration from certain ,greek painters1 employed by order of the magistracy4 ,equalling his masters1 he was himself surpassed by ,giotto1 once a shepherd boy2 in turn excelled by ,memmi1 ,orgagna1 ,ucello1 ,massolino1 to the middle of the fifteenth century1 when all former names were forgotten in the merits of ,massaccio4 ,dying at the age of twentyfour1 he gave to painting truth1 expression1 light1 and shade2 thus creating the first era in its history4 ,the chapel which still contains his frescoes1 the early school of ,da ,vinci and ,buonarotti--the scene1 too1 of the latter's misfortune1 will long be visited with interest by the pilgrims of art4 ,about the same time1 the invention of oil painting1 ascribed to ,van ,eyck of ,bruges2 and1 not long after1 the illusion of aerial perspective added by ,ghirlandajo1 gave to modern art all the means of perfection4 ,these did not remain unimproved in the hands of such men as ,verrocchio1 first excelling in perspective1 ,lippi1 ,signorelli1 in whose works evidence of selection is apparent1 and many others1 who1 in different cities in ,italy1 were now laying the foundation of schools1 soon to become as distinct in manner as the masters of one and the same art can well be conceived4 ,but though much had been accomplished before the close of the fifteenth century1 as respects the higher qualities of imitative art1 painting was still in infancy4 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 born in #adeb1 reared it to high maturity4 ,the genius of this extraordinary man seemed as a mirror1 receiving and reflecting1 in added brightness1 every ray of intellectual light which had yet beamed upon the age4 ,philosopher1 poet1 artist1 he anticipated the march of three centuries2 proving1 in his own instance1 what the unshackled energies of man would then accomplish4 ,yet--and that1 too1 by a living historian of most deserved reputation--has ,leonardo been represented as a dabbler in various knowledge1 a proficient in none--a laborious idler1 wasting time and talent in useless multiplicity of pursuit4 ,this apparently has been done to exalt his great contemporary and successor2 but history ought not to be written as a picture is painted1 touching in under-tones what are deemed secondaries1 that the light may be more conspicuously directed to a principal figure4 ,at the shrine of art1 the devotion of ,da ,vinci was neither devoid of fervor nor unfruitful2 albeit he courted1 and not unsuccessfully1 the favors of science1 then new and dear to the aspiring mind4 ,his true rank is not only among the fathers1 but the masters of the art2 he is one who not merely preceded1 but excelled4 ,his cartoon of horsemen in the battle of ,pisa formed a favorite study of the greatest masters2 and1 in competition1 ,michael ,angelo produced another of soldiers arming in haste1 after bathing2 which even his admirers say he scarcely ever afterwards equalled4 ,yet was ,leonardo not vanquished4 ,the ,last ,supper1 painted in fresco1 at ,milan1 exhibited a dignity and propriety of expression1 a correctness of drawing1 then unequalled2 and1 if seen as originally finished1 probably still unsurpassed4 ,the story of the head of the principal personage having been left incomplete is a vulgar error1 as might be easily proved by reference to the early literature of ,italian art4 ,the well-known portrait of ,mona ,lisa1 in purity of drawing1 sweetness of simple and natural expression1 has an equal only in the works of ,raphael4 ,but the influence of this master extended much more widely than the sphere of individual examples3 he first united the science of anatomy with that of painting1 and both with nature2 and thus may truly be said to have prepared the art for the coming greatness4 ,to the majesty of ,michael ,angelo's genius the reader has already done homage4 ,if in sculpture the grandeur of his conceptions was admired1 in painting this greatness is still more wonderful1 but unfortunately1 not less singular and remote from nature4 ,yet1 than the painting of ,buonarotti there is perhaps no instance of intellectual power more truly grand in the entire history of mind4 ,previous to leaving his native ,florence1 where he was born1 of a noble family1 in #adgd2 and whence he fled1 when his country became false to herself and to freedom1 architecture and sculpture had formed his principal studies4 ,design he had pursued little farther than as indispensably connected with these3 of painting1 as a separate science1 he was of course comparatively ignorant4 ,in this state of knowledge1 he received orders to complete the paintings in the ,sistine ,chapel1 upon which several of the artists1 already mentioned1 had before been engaged4 ,yet1 at this time1 ,michael ,angelo was unacquainted with the mechanical processes of fresco4 ,to produce the designs was to him a labour of ease2 and these he endeavored to have executed by artists brought from ,florence2 but on trial1 dismissed them in all save utter hopelessness4 ,rising in the strength and perseverance of indomitable genius1 he resolved to begin art anew1 and to depend henceforth solely on his own resources4 ,shutting himself up in the fated chapel1 preparing the materials with his own hands1 after many trials and failures1--after beholding the first piece finished to his satisfaction1 moulder and mildew almost before his admiring eye--he at length triumphed1 achieving in the course of years the most adventurous undertaking in modern art1 under circumstances1 too1 that while they encourage all1 leave to none who aspires to the moral dignity of talent even the shadow of an apology for irresolution or indolence4 ,the walls and ceiling of the ,sistine ,chapel1 with the picture of the ,last ,judgment1 executed thirty years afterwards1 form the principal1 almost the sole1 works of ,michael ,angelo in painting4 ,the latter is the greatest work of modern art1 being fifty feet high by forty wide1 and containing upwards of #cjj figures1 many of which are larger than life4 ,here the human form appears under every variety of position1 and agitated by every gradation of feeling2 and over the whole is diffused a living ease--a science--a magic power--a fascination1 which constrains us to gaze with wonder1 astonishment1 admiration1 but not with interest or sympathy4 ,similar are our feelings in every other example2 nor can this be exactly charged as a defect4 ,michael ,angelo formed a system for himself--he stands alone in his art--an ideal abstraction of mind was the object of his imitation1 to which all of living nature1 elevated into gigantic forms and energetic modes1 was to be moulded in subserviency4 ,his art was creative1 not imitative--standing forth1 in its own independence of aim4 ,hence1 there are two relations in which the works in painting of ,michael ,angelo are to be examined1 and according to which his merits will be very differently estimated4 ,viewed in themselves1 the frescos of the ,vatican present astonishing evidences of human power4 ,every thought is grandeur and strength2 and the rapid1 fervent execution arms the pencil with an omnipotence of art equal to all the modifications of form4 ,here the whole is perfect1 inimitable2 within this his own walk1 ,buonarotti has no compeer1--'second to none1 with nothing like to him4' ,but when the same works are considered in reference to the general principles of imitation1 and as deriving value according as they reflect the archetypes of elevated nature1 those very qualities which formerly constrained our approbation1 become startling blemishes4 ,the ideal is found to consist solely in the imaginative2 sublimity is sought too exclusively in the vehement to be always dignified4 ,all is action1--all participates of an unquiet and too aspiring character of composition3 every form1 every muscle1 every attitude1 exhibits the very gladiatorship of art1--for each is displayed1 exerted1 involved1 to the utmost4 ,even repose is anything save rest4 ,yet1 in difficulty apparently insurmountable1 constraint is not perceived2 the execution1 wonderfully facile1 though too prominent in general effect1 gives to each giant limb of the awful and gloomy shapes1 the very effect of life and movement4 ,but to this display of capabilities--to the exhibition of science1 and the sporting with difficulty1 truth1 simplicity1 feeling1 and real beauty1 have been sacrificed4 ,in this nothing seems peculiar to painting as distinguished from sculpture2 nor1 indeed1 is there any discrimination3 color1 tone1 light1 shadow--all is systematic and ideal1 but all mighty and overpowering in the whole4 ,again1 when the influence of such a style upon the progress of improvement is considered1 it appears that such influence could be favorable neither to future improvement nor to stationary excellence4 ,the greatness of ,michael ,angelo1 then1 is his own--not the grandeur of art4 ,both sculpture and painting he made subservient to the loftiest aims1 and the most splendid fame any artist ever did1 perhaps can1 pursue or attain3 yet each was but a slave1 ministering to a glory in which neither intrinsically participated4 ,contemporary with the 'mighty ,florentine1' but most unlike in all the characteristics of genius1 save the sublimity of the final result1 was ,raphael1 the founder and master of the ,roman school4 ,born at ,urbino1 #adhc1 he arrived in ,rome upon the invitation of his relation1 ,bramante1 the architect1 about #aejh1 nearly at the same time with his great rival4 ,dying on his thirtyseventh birthday1 he has1 in a short life1 bequeathed to posterity works almost equally numerous1 and certainly displaying more of the profound excellences and beautiful sentiment of art1 than those of any name since the revival of painting4 ,of these inestimable productions there remain to us easel pictures in oil1 cartoons1 and frescos1 exhibiting1 also1 three different manners4 ,the first dry1 little1 and tedious1 but not without truth--often great beauty of finishing4 ,this was derived from his instructer1 ,pietro ,perugino2 and though observable as a general characteristic only in his early easel pictures1 and some frescos at ,sienna1 may yet occasionally be detected in the careful pencilling even of his frescos1 and in the making out of his accompaniments4 ,the pictures which display this style are those painted after he left his master in #adic1 and before his return to ,urbino about #aejd4 ,the finest of these was executed in his seventeenth year1 representing a ,holy ,family1--the ,virgin raising a veil from the ,infant1 who sleeps4 ,except in the works of ,da ,vinci1 so much sweetness of expression and beauty of design had not yet appeared in the art1 as is found even in this youthful production4 ,the second manner is an intermediate step--an attempt to escape from a minuteness which he soon discovered to be unsuitable both to his own fervor and the dignity of art4 ,the change is perceptible immediately after he had studied the works of the ,florentine masters1 whose improvements1 and the vigor of their enlarged style1 he would at sight appreciate as movements evidently in advance1 but with which he had hitherto remained unacquainted4 ,as a separate manner1 it can scarcely be said to exist2 for at most it was but a new instrument in the possession of a mind which has made everything its own4 ,all that is apparent amounts merely to a progressive melioration1 extending through three or four years1 of which space he resided nearly two in ,florence1 studying the performances of art in that city1 but receiving no personal instructions1 excepting a reciprocal interchange of knowledge with ,fra ,bartolomeo4 ,the most celebrated pictures produced by him during this interval are the ,virgin1 ,infant1 and ,st ,john1 in the ducal gallery1 and the entombing of ,christ1 now at ,rome4 ,these1 more strikingly when viewed in comparison with the style of contemporary works1 exhibit beauties of so opposite a character to the compositions of ,michael ,angelo1 that it is impossible to perceive any grounds on which the obligations said to be owing by their author to the latter can be rested4 ,buonarotti1 in fact1 could not1 or at least never did1 paint in a taste of such simplicity as these exhibit4 ,the third manner is solely and exclusively individual1 neither derived nor--we grieve to say--inherited2 full1 harmonious1 sweet1 and flowing--yet bold1 learned1 and sustained1--composed of such an union of natural grace and antique correctness1 as meet only in the creations of ,raphael's pencil4 ,to this style his most important works belong1 having been formed after his arrival in ,rome1 and when he had there become deeply impressed with the sublimities of ancient art4 ,in the space of only twelve years--for he united exquisite finish with wonderful expedition--he completed the frescos of the ,vatican and the ,farnesina1 besides others1 amounting to many hundred figures--designed the ,cartoons--cultivating1 at the same time1 architecture 7of which he was a master71 poetry1 and sculpture4 ,during the same laborious period were produced those exquisite paintings in oil1 which have chiefly contributed to spread his fame beyond ,italy4 ,of these the best1 the most wonderful1 though in slight respects not the most perfect1 is the ,transfiguration--the last bequeathment of his genius to the arts and to posterity1 for he died within a few days after it was completed4 ,as ,raphael in these works1 no painter has ever done so much for the real excellence of the art1 nor1 in the principles upon which they are conducted1 has placed improvement on precepts so pure1 so unerring4 ,all that imagination could lend to a strictly imitative art he has added1 yet has infused into its creations the warmest sensibilities of life2 to nature he has given all that grace and fancy can bestow1 consistent with the sweetest of all charms--leaving her nature still4 ,on this account is ,raphael1 of all great names in art1 the safest to adopt as the guide of taste and practice4 ,for were the most decided admirer of system merely to copy1 he would quickly find himself constrained to become the disciple of reality4 ,true1 we discover no mixed modes of nature1 such as impede her energies and cloud her beauties in ordinary life2 yet the tranquil loveliness--the sinless beauty--the noble feeling of the representation--has nothing of the cold and merely imaginative4 ,this1 indeed1 constitutes the great charm of ,raphael's grace1 that neither in form nor expression is it abstract2 its power of moving is acquired directly from human sympathy4 ,in gazing upon his dramatic scenes and breathing figures1 who has not experienced this truth in a gradual melting of the heart1 in unison with every pure and holy remembrance that connects man with the species8 ,see the ,madona--how mildly1 simply beautiful6 ,in that bosom not one rude passion has a resting place2 yet feels not each spectator now called-up dear though distant recollections of a parent's--a mother's tenderness1 with all the reverential charities of life's spring8 ,behold the ,magdalen--how changed the sensibilities6 still how respectable6 ,one overmastering1 absorbing affection4 ,no meretricious display--every movement is that of passion1 but of sentiment too4 ,or view that youth so intent upon instruction2 he hangs upon the very words of his aged guide4 ,how powerfully do we conceive the mature resolves that irradiate the ingenuous countenance6 ,or turn your attention to the child who is playing in the lap of the mother--how innocently happy6 how unconsciously beautiful6 ,yet look again2--even here is passion1 sentiment1 futurity4 ,the imagination involuntarily shapes out the fortunes of that disposition so legibly expressed in the speaking countenance4 ,but in the deep meaning of the mild full eye1 in the holy expression which beams in every lineament1 in the spotless form1 has not genius made the nearest approaches to our unbreathed conceptions of an infant ,saviour6 ,regard that prophet--how glorious1 yet how good1 he seems6 ,no spirit insensible to human woe1 unpitying of human frailty1 lives there4 ,the errors and backslidings of his race have given a fixed though placid sorrow to the eye1 but the closing sunshine of his own pure life hath settled on the majestic brow4 ,such are all the works of ,raphael1 full to overflowing of human sentiment and of interest4 ,in their very highest ideal1 they are but the primeval dignity and sacredness of our nature4 ,how then can these facts be reconciled with the opinion so boldly and so long asserted1 that they do not strike at first sight--that the heart as well as the judgment must be gradually prepared to relish their beauties8 ,we shall not attempt to reconcile--we deny the conclusion4 ,where these works have not been from the first felt1 and admired1 and loved in their truth and in their simplicity1 they have been viewed through the mists of false theory1 or compared with erroneous standards of excellence4 ,we discard all consideration of the theories of the ,french professional critics on this subject2 but it has often been matter of great surprise to find ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds maintaining the same system4 ',i remember very well1' says the ,english artist1 'my own disappointment when ,i first visited the ,vatican2 but on confessing my feelings to a brother student1 of whose ingenuousness ,i had a high opinion1 he acknowledged that the works of ,raphael had the same effect upon him--or rather1 that they did not produce the effect which he expected4 ,this was a great relief to my mind2 and on inquiring further of other students1 ,i found that those persons only1 who1 from natural imbecility1 appeared incapable of ever relishing those divine performances1 made pretensions to instantaneous raptures on first beholding them4 ,i found myself in the midst of works executed upon principles with which ,i was unacquainted2 ,i felt my ignorance1 and stood abashed4 ,i viewed them again and again2 ,i even affected to admire them more than ,i really did4 ,in a short time a new taste and a new perception began to dawn upon me1 and ,i was convinced that ,i had originally formed a false opinion of the perfection of the art1 and that this great painter was well entitled to the high rank which he holds in the estimation of the world4 ,but let it always be remembered that the excellence of his style is not on the surface1 but lies deep1 and at first view is seen but mistily4 ,it is the florid style which strikes at once1 and captivates the eye for a time1 without ever satisfying the judgment4' ,we admire this candor1 and can at once admit the justness of these remarks in general1 when applied to the works of ,michael ,angelo1 on whose principles it is well known that ,sir ,joshua formed his theory of ideal beauty4 ,but in reference to ,raphael1 conclusions the very opposite would be nearer the truth4 ,drawn immediately from nature1 as are all his ideas1 they interest the heart at once2 and as we study the exquisite mechanism1 the perfection of the details1 the propriety of the composition1 the judgment confirms yet more the impressions which the heart first entertained4 ,these observations lead to1 while they are confirmed by1 another view1 which yet remains to be taken of the genius of ,raphael4 ,it is only in the individuality and profoundness of expression1 that he reaches the sublimities of art4 ,in the abstract conception of form he is inferior2 hence1 in the representations of mythological existences1 he becomes feeble in proportion as he generalizes4 ,it is this that discriminates between the ,roman and the ,florentine4 ,the former is the painter of men as they live1 and feel1 and act2 the latter delineates man in the abstract4 ,the one embodies sentiment--feeling--passion2 the other pourtrays the capacities1 energies1 and idealities of form4 ,raphael excels in resemblance2 he walks the earth1 but with dignity1 and is seen to most advantage in relations of human fellowship4 ,michael ,angelo can be viewed only in his own world2 with ours he holds no farther communion than is necessary to obtain a common medium of intelligence4 ,in the grand1 the venerable1 the touching realities of life1 the first is unrivalled2 his fair1 and seeming true1 creations cause us to reverence humanity and ourselves4 ,over the awful and the sublime of fiction1 the second extends a terrible sway2 he calls spirits from their shadowy realms1 and they come at his bidding1 in giant shapes1 to frown upon the impotency of man4 ,to contend here for superiority is futile--each has his own independent sphere4 ,the style of ,raphael has justly been characterised as the dramatic1 that of ,michael ,angelo as the epic1 of painting4 ,the distinction is accurate1 in as far as the former has made to pass before us character in conflict with passion--in all its individualities of mode2 while the latter represented and generalized both character and passion4 ,the first leads us from natural beauty to divine--the second elevates us at once into regions which his own lofty imaginations have peopled4 ,hence1 than ,michael ,angelo's prophets1 and other beings that just hover on the confines of human and spiritual existence1 the whole range of art and poetry never has1 and never will1 produce more magnificent and adventurous creations4 ,this is his true power--here he reigns alone1 investing art with a mightiness unapproachable by any other pencil4 ,but when the interest is to be derived from known forms1 and natural combinations1 he fails almost utterly2 never can his line want grandeur--but grandeur so frequently substituted for feeling1 and when the subject cannot sustain it1 presents only gorgeous caricature4 ,human affection mingles in every touch of ,raphael1 and he carries our nature to its highest moral1 if not physical1 elevation4 ,hence1 his supernatural forms may want abstract majesty and overawing expression2 but they display a community in this world's feelings1 without its weaknesses or imperfections1 by which the heart is perhaps even more subdued4 ,if this be a true estimate of the powers of these great men1 and we have drawn our inferences from impressions often felt1 and long studied1 no comparison can be more unjust1 nor less apt1 than the one so frequently repeated1 that ,michael ,angelo is the ,homer1 ,raphael the ,virgil1 of modern painting4 ,the ,florentine may justly take his place by the side of the ,greek4 ,not so the ,roman and the ,mantuan4 ,the copyist of ,homer1 nay1 frequently his translator1 whose nature is taken at second-hand--whose characters1 in the mass1 have about as much individuality as the soldiers of a platoon1 and little more intellectual discrimination than brave1 braver1 and bravest1 must occupy a lower seat at the banquet of genius than the original1 the ever varied1 and graphic artist4 ,the great error in estimating the merits of these masters appears to have arisen from not considering them separately1 and as independent minds4 ,michael ,angelo1 indeed1 created1 while ,raphael may be said to have composed2 but he discovered and collected--he did not derive his materials4 ,michael ,angelo found the art poor in means1 undignified and powerless in composition2 he assumed it in feebleness1 and bore it at once to maturity of strength4 ,of these improvements ,raphael profited by novel application2 but the advantage was nothing more than necessarily occurs in the spread of intelligence4 ,massaccio had1 in like manner1 prepared the previous change2 ,da ,vinci first1 then ,buonarotti1 took it up4 ,the pupil of ,perugino made availment of this new path to a commanding height1 whence the whole prospect of the empire of art might be surveyed1 but over this his genius soared in guideless1 independent flight4 ,than the invention1 and at such a time1 of ,michael ,angelo's mighty system1 there is to be found no greater evidence of talent1 nor of greater talent2 but from the mind that could conceive that system1 scarcely an exertion was demanded to maintain supremacy therein1 guarded as were its claims against all rivalry by the very novelty and peculiarity of the style1 where each adopter would be degraded into an imitator4 ,on the other hand1 if the perfection of ,raphael's manner appear to be more in the ordinary course of genius1 it is to be remembered1 that its very perfectness depends upon those qualities of mind which most rarely assemble in the constitution of inventive genius--exquisite taste1 sound judgment1 patient study1 and profound knowledge of the human heart4 ,be it also recollected1 that to support the mastery here1 in a style founded on no peculiar habitudes of intellect1 but embracing the general and intrinsic principles of art1 where all good artists would consequently be rivals1 without incurring the imputation of copying1 required unabating effort1 diligence1 and originality1--more liberal and varied excellence1 than in the preceding system4 ,here we at length discover the real and abiding superiority of ,raphael4 ,it is not that he pre-eminently surpasses in one of the faculties of genius1 but he has embodied in his labours more of the requisites of perfection than any other of the modern masters4 ,in grandeur of invention and form1 he is inferior to ,michael ,angelo4 ,titian surpasses him in coloring1 ,corregio in gradation of tone4 ,this superiority1 however1 becomes visible only where each of the qualities becomes the ruling sentiment of the work4 ,for when we view in itself a composition of ,raphael1 where the style of design so exquisitely accords with the forms1 the coloring corresponding with each1 the chiar' oscuro just adequate to the degree of perception meditated2 the whole harmonized by innate and unerring propriety1 animated with his own peculiar grace and sentiment1 while each separate quality becomes yet more perfect in the combination1--the pencil seems justly to have attained its unrivalled utmost4 ,with their respective founders1 the schools of ,rome and ,florence may be said to have terminated2 at least the mantle of their teacher rested with very unequal inspiration upon the disciples of both4 ,the death of ,raphael1 in #aebj1 proved an irremediable loss to the arts1 the extent of which never can indeed be known4 ,his pure and natural style1 had it been more firmly engrafted by longer life1 would probably have delayed1 perhaps prevented1 the sudden extravagance and mannerism which overspread the united schools of ,tuscany and ,rome1 at the head of which ,michael ,angelo survived upwards of forty years4 ,among the various pursuits of taste1 painting alone exhibits this singular fortune1 that the noblest and most intellectual of its principles1 as also those which speak most directly to sense1 and are merely alluring1 were invented at the same time1 but in different places1 and separately practised4 ,it is worthy of remark1 also1 that in each respect the first inventors remained the most accomplished professors of their own discoveries4 ,while in ,rome and ,florence1 design and expression were receiving their perfection1 forming the almost exclusive subjects of study1 in ,venice1 the seductions of coloring1 in ,lombardy1 the illusions of light and shadow1 were adding unknown pomp and magic to the art4 ,the school of ,venice1 though one of the earliest in ,europe to cherish reviving arts1 has added little of intellectual or noble to their progressive culture4 ,here they have never flourished in the genial soil of popular institutions4 ,a haughty and jealous1 yet luxurious and unpatriotic aristocracy1 converted the arts into instruments of private gratification--instead of turning them to national ornament4 ,hence sculpture has been little cultivated1 architecture more1 though in peculiar style1 and painting most of all4 ,but while the sacredness of religion1 or the manliness of history1 has occupied the ,italian pencil generally1 of the older masters especially1 ,venice has sent forth her lordly senators1 splendid banquets1 and naked beauties4 ,from the twelfth century1 we have already seen1 a movement might be discerned in the arts of ,venice4 ,her school of painting begins to attract notice under ,antonello da ,messina1 who introduced oil colors4 ,the ,bellinis carried out his improvements2 and as pupils of the youngest1 we discover ,giorgione and ,titian1 who1 with ,tintoretto1 ,paul ,veronese1 ,sebastian del ,piombo1 ,schiavone1 and ,bassano1 were the chief masters of this school4 ,but of ,venetian painting the great ornament is ,titian1 whose name is synonymous with the characteristic of the native school--fine coloring4 ,from this1 however1 we are not to suppose1 as is too frequently done1 that he was wanting in the higher principles of his profession4 ,the alleged imperfection of his design will not often be detected1 and only in momentary action of the parts2 for in the more common modifications of form1 it is faultless1 and of inanimate nature the drawing and painting of his landscapes is unrivalled4 ,in expression he is the most historical of all painters1 his portraits being second only to those of ,raphael4 ,in careful imitation of natural effect1 he is equal to the most pains-taking of the ,dutch school2 yet1 with such grandeur and breadth in the masses1 that1 as has been justly remarked1 the most imperfect sketch in which the original disposition in this respect is preserved1 will present a character of high art4 ,the chief defect of ,titian was in composition and poetical fancy2 he penetrated the very secrets of nature in all her varied effects and minutest shades of tone and hue--but he neither made selections of her forms1 nor possessed the power of correcting her defects1 by an ideal standard4 ,in this mastery of coloring1 three principles may be remarked2 first1 the interposing medium between the eye and the object is supposed to be a mellow golden light2 secondly1 the most glowing and gorgeous lights are produced1 not so much by rich local tints as by the general conduct of the whole piece1 in which the gradations of tone are almost evanescent1 yet in their strongest hues powerfully contrasted4 ,hence the final splendor is effected rather by painting in under-tones1 than by lavishing on particular spots the whole riches of the palette4 ,the shadows and under-tones1 also1 are enlivened by a thousand local hues and flickering lights1 and his masses by innumerable varieties and play of parts2 yet all softened1 and blended1 and combined by an undefinable harmony4 ,hence1 nothing more easy than apparently to copy ,titian--nothing more difficult than really to imitate his faithfulness and splendor4 ,the third principle refers to his practice2 the colors are laid on pure1 without mixing1 in tints by reiterated application1 and apparently with the point of the pencil4 ,titian died in #aegf1 at the venerable age of #if or #ii1 having survived the glory of the ,venetian school1 the last disciple of decided eminence being ,tintoretto1 called the lightning of the pencil1 from his miraculous despatch4 ,the ,bassans are powerful colorists1 and wonderfully true to nature4 ,paul ,veronese wantons in all the luxuriance of fresh and magnificent coloring1 but is correct neither in taste nor drawing4 ,giorgione1 of all the early ,venetian masters1 gave greatest promise of uniting purity with splendor1 but died in #aeaa1 at the age of #cc2--thus leaving ,titian1 to whom he had in some measure been instructer1 to reap an undivided harvest of fame4 ,in the annals of genius1 no name bears more strongly on the popular sense attached to the term of a heaven-born inspiration1 superior to circumstances and independent of tuition1 than that of ,antonio ,leti--better known as ,corregio4 ,this artist1 who was born about #adid1 and died at the age of #dj1 is the model rather than the founder of the ,lombard school4 ,from the bosom of poverty1 without master1 without patron1 without even the commonest appliances of his art1 he bursts at once upon the view in all the blaze of original talent--unpraised1 unknown--in an age of knowledge1 to sink unmarked like the meteor of the desert1 leaving but the memorials of his graceful pencil--in his own phrase1 'anch' io son pittore'--to cry aloud that he also was a painter1--that such a man1 contemporary with ,raphael and ,michael ,angelo1 and their nearest compeer1 should have lived in ignorance of them1 of ,rome1 of the antique1 of all but nature--to die at last unrewarded in ,parma--is utterly inexplicable4 ,the principal works of this master are the two noble cupolas of the cathedral churches of ,parma1 painted in fresco--one subject the ,assumption of the ,virgin1 the other the ,ascension of the ,saviour4 ,of his easel paintings1 the most precious1 representing a ,holy ,family1 and called the ',night1' is in the ,dresden gallery4 ,the beauties of ,corregio are grace and exquisite management of light and color1 united with inexpressible harmony1--'thus was completed the round of art4' ',everything ,i see1' says ,annibale ,caracci1 on beholding fifty years afterwards these works of ,corregio1'astonishes me1 particularly the coloring and beauty of the children1 who live1 breathe1 and smile1 with so much sweetness and vivacity1 that we are constrained to sympathize in their enjoyment4' ,the clearness and relief1 the sweetness and freedom of pencil1 in the works before us1 have indeed never been exceeded1 but correctness is not one of their elements4 ,neither the most beautiful forms1 nor the most pleasing groupings1 are preferred to the most ungraceful upon any principle of abstract elegance1 but the whole composed and selected in obedience to the distribution of light and the gradation of tone4 ,in expression1 the same system is pursued2 for here ,corregio has endeavored habitually to impress the soft hues and undulating lines which rapture and joy leave on the countenance4 ,beyond these1 of ideal1 he appears to have had no conception4 ,every form wears the stamp of living nature1 and his coloring is the very reflection of natural bloom4 ,he wanted force1 which1 with the defect of elevation1 renders the whole effect1 though delightfully soft and graceful1 sometimes effeminate and monotonous4 ,yet ,raphael alone united a greater variety of different excellences4 ,we have now surveyed the labours and merits of the old masters--the patriarchs of modern art4 ,the establishment of the four primitive schools embraces likewise the golden age of painting4 ,how brief was the reign of lofty genius6 ,the same individual might have lived with all the masters now enumerated1--he might have survived them all1--beholding the art in its infancy1 and in its manhood1 he might have witnessed also its decline1 and yet have viewed all this within the ordinary span of existence4 ,the same brevity in the duration of excellence we also remarked in the arts of ,greece4 ,is it1 then1 the fate of the human spirit1 like human institutions1 to fall away immediately on attaining a degree of perfection8 or rather1 is not this evidence of powers which shall hereafter expand1 grow1 and unfold their activities1--here on earth chilled1 and cramped1 and broken8 ,among the minor fathers of the art who not unworthily supported the glory of the sixteenth century1 and who continue the history of painting in the ,roman and ,florentine schools through the remainder of that period1 the chief were the immediate disciples of ,raphael and ,michael ,angelo4 ,the favorite pupil of the former1 ,julio ,romano1 was an artist of highly poetic imagination1 but less informed with pure taste than his master2 his ambition appears to have aimed at uniting the grace of his instructer with the science and energy of ,florence4 ,penni1 ,perin del ,vaga1 ,polidore ,caravaggio1 and ,maturino1 not unsuccessfully studied in the same school2 but we find a gradual disappearance of the more simple style of ,raphael1 and long before the middle of the century1 the two schools may almost be said to have merged in the overwhelming despotism of the principles of ,michael ,angelo4 ,even the names now mentioned1 though at first following the ,roman in their later works1 are scarcely to be distinguished from the disciples of the ,florentine school4 ,of those who were truly disciples of the latter1 and who derived their science immediately from the founder1 was ,daniel de ,volterra1 who survived till #aeff4 ,the designs of this latter have frequently been assigned to his master2 and in the opinion of ,poussin1 his ,descent from the ,cross1 in fresco1 in the church of ,trinita del ,monte at ,rome1 is--or rather was1 for it perished under ,french experiment1--one of the three best pictures in the world4 ,andrea del ,sarto was more an independent master1 who held between the two styles1 and added better coloring than either4 ,mazzuoli1 better known as ,parmegiano1 though by birth and early study belonging to the school of ,corregio1 his better taste was formed at ,rome2 his style of design is noble1 coloring forcible1 and general effect sweet and gracious4 ,he died in #aedj1 ten years after the preceding4 ,but of all the followers of ,michael ,angelo1 ,tibaldi approached nearest to the sublimity1 without the extravagance1 of his model4 ,it soon becomes difficult1 indeed impossible1 to follow decidedly the division of the ancient schools4 ,in the progress of the century1 their principles become united in the works of the minor painters1 who are henceforth to be distinguished by the place of their birth1 rather than by their style4 ,the design of ,michael ,angelo prevailed2 but to this were added1 in proportion to the abilities of the artist1 the various discoveries of the other masters4 ,the art however1 was in rapid retrogression4 ,a style which suited only the most transcendent genius1 which only under such inspiration could be at all pleasing1 and from whose sublimity one step led into the turgid and the false1 became a most dangerous instrument of ill in the hands of mere imitators4 ,the ingrafting1 also1 upon its severe simplicity1 the more luxurious modes of ,venice and ,lombardy1 tended still more effectually to extinguish character and truth of distinctive representation4 ,towards the close of the sixteenth and early part of the seventeenth century1 the progress of decline was stayed for a time by the establishment of a new school4 ,this was the ,bolognese or ,eclectic1 founded by the ,caracci1 and which1 in some measure1 was the concentration of all the ,lombard artists1 who1 separately following1 in a great measure1 the style of ,corregio1 had yet never united into a seminary of which that master could be called the head4 ,the grand principle of this new academy1 and thence deriving the appellation of ,eclectic1 was to select what was most excellent in the primitive schools2 design from the ,florentine1 and grace from the ,roman1 from the ,venetian color1 from the ,lombard light and shade1 uniting all in due proportion and harmonious effect4 ,the plan was arduous and aspiring1 but the idea was good2 the failure which ensued1 for1 abating the success of individual talent1 the final result disappointed expectation1 arose not from the intention pursued1 but from the means employed4 ,the ,bolognese masters sought to effect the combination of these elements by rules of art1 instead of taking nature as the connecting and vivifying principle4 ,in the study of her effects they would have found the very union they contemplated--the previous separation1 in fact1 of pictorial excellence into departments1 had been occasioned by partial or peculiar views of nature4 ,still the success of the attempt was great1 and threw the last rays of glory over the native seat of modern art4 ,the founders and great ornaments of this school were the three ,caracci2 ,ludovico the eldest1 born in #aeee1 died in #afai1 was the instructer of his two cousins--,agostino1 three years younger1 and ,annibale1 born in #aefj1 both of whom ,ludovico survived4 ,the association formed by these relatives was1 in the strictest sense of the term1 a school of design1 and conducted upon an admirable plan2 students being instructed in anatomy1 in drawing1 in painting1 and in the principles of composition1 by actual superintendence and personal instruction4 ,the unaffected breadth1 solemnity1 yet grace of effect--the simplicity of character1 which distinguish the works of ,ludovico1 are justly admired4 ,augustino excelled more in the theory than the practice of his art2 but one of the best pictures of this school1 the ,st ,jerome of the ,certosa1 is his4 ,engravings by him are numerous and valuable4 ,of all the ,caracci1 ,annibale is the most magnificent in his compositions1 and may be taken as the true representative of the school2 bold1 splendid1 broad1 his pencil deals its touches with firm1 almost unerring certainty1 to its aim--but too frequently that aim is style in art1 rather than truth in feeling4 ,of the immediate pupils of the ,bolognese academy1 the first undoubtedly is the modest and tender ,domenichino4 ,though participating in the common fault of his school1 loaded design1 yet his heads have a feeling and expression approaching to the sublime in sentiment4 ,the ,communion of ,st ,jerome is pronounced by ,poussin to be one of the three best pictures in the world--the ,transfiguration of ,raphael1 and ,volterra's ,descent from the ,cross1 completing the number4 ,we shall not easily forget our impressions on beholding the ,transfiguration and the ,communion side by side in the ,vatican4 ,guido's name instantly calls up all our associations of the graceful and the benign2 but his expression is too often artificial3 perhaps in his works we first decidedly mark those academic abstractions and refinements of precept1 which1 formed independently of nature1 hastened the downfall of art in this its last resting place4 ,guercino wants power and individual character2 ,albani is agreeable and poetic1 the painter of the ,loves and ,graces4 ,carlo ,dolci1 a ,florentine1 imitates ,guido4 ,lanfranco is bold1 but incorrect in his design2 as are likewise ,pietro ,cortona1 and ,luca ,giordano1 mannerists in whom is lost every distinction of character4 ,contemporary with the ,carracci1 but self-taught1 and belonging to no school1 was ,caravaggio1 strong but ungraceful in design1 harsh in the disposition of his lights1 but of undoubted genius3--his pupil was ,spagnoletto4 ,the history of painting in ,italy1 at least of painting animated by genius1 may be closed with the name of ,salvator ,rosa1 who died in #afgc1 the only native landscape painter which that delightful and picturesque country has produced4 ,the old masters1 indeed1 have left the grandest and most perfect landscape compositions--but these are subservient to the figures4 ,rosa succeeded in both1 and stands nobly1 but peculiarly1 original in an age of decay and mannerism4 ,the eighteenth century opens under the auspices of ,carlo ,maratti1 an affected mannerist1 but not altogether devoid of talent4 ,after his death1 in #agac1 his rivals1 ,garzi and ,cignani1 sustained for a little the expiring reputation of the ,roman school4 ,but it is quite unnecessary to continue the narrative2 the state of the arts during the early part of this century has already been noticed1 and the names of ,bianchi1 ,costanzi1 ,manchini1 the early contemporaries of ,canova1 and of the revival1 are now forgotten4 ,the only artists of those times still regarded with some respect1 are1 ,solemena1 who died in #agdg2 ,sebastian ,conca1 in #agfd2 and ,pompeo ,battoni1 who brings down the history of the art to #aghg2 ,mengs belongs to ,germany4 ,over the living art of ,italy1 ,camuccini at ,rome1 and ,benvenuti at ,florence1 preside4 ,the former is perhaps the best draughtsman in ,europe1 but is inferior as a colorist2 he wants depth1 harmony1 and force2 his grouping also is defective in richness and variety1 approaching too nearly to the linear as in relievo4 ,his expression1 though noble1 is cold--deficient in that warm gush of sentiment1 which1 in the ancient masters1 seemed to 'create a soul under the ribs of death4' ,benvenuti excels his contemporary as a colorist1 in the disposition of his group1 and in the force of chiar' oscuro2 but in purity of drawing1 in classical taste1 and in the selection of form1 he is inferior4 ,each has chosen his subjects principally from profane history4 ,camuccini's best performance is the ,departure of ,regulus2 ,benvenuti's a scene in the recent history of ,saxony4 ,rome possesses several other good painters1 but few natives--for1 to the artist as to the poet of every nation1 she has become '----,his country--city of the soul4' ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,trans-alpine schools of painting now demand attention4 ,the ,german is usually divided into three distinct schools--the ,german1 properly so called1 the ,flemish1 and the ,dutch4 ,these distinctions are rather local than depending upon characteristic difference of manner4 ,indeed1 prior to the age of ,durer1 the only style discernible in the schools is that named ,gothic1 common more or less to all the states of ,europe1 but especially indigenous in ,germany4 ,the expression1 then1 is here employed not altogether in its vague and generic sense of anything stiff and formal--for these early or ,gothic pictures exhibit a specific character both of design and execution4 ,they are painted upon wood1 usually oak1 covered sometimes with canvass1 always with a white ground1 upon which the outline of the subject is sketched1 and the whole overlaid with gilding4 ,this last forms the real grounding of the picture1 which is painted in water or size-color1 with great care and diligence of finish1 often with considerable felicity of effect1 and always with more of the simplicity of individual nature than occurs in any other works of the same age and description4 ,this early school terminated in the fifteenth century1 from the more general diffusion of oil-painting2 its principal masters were ,schoen1 the ,bon ,martino of the ,italians1 born in #adbj1 painter and engraver2 ,wohlgemuth1 the instructer of ,durer2 and ,muiller1 or ,kranach1 ,burgomaster of ,wittemberg1 and friend of ,luther4 ,but the prince of ,german artists is ,albert ,durer1 born at ,nuremberg in #adga--the ,da ,vinci of this school1 as excelling in science and in art4 ,his works in painting and engraving are equally admirable1 evincing knowledge of the best principles of imitation4 ,they still retain a degree of constraint--a remnant of the ,gothic manner1 of which the habits and prejudices of his countrymen1 and his own ignorance of the antique1 prevented the removal4 ,want of dignified design and grandeur of composition1 hard and meagre outline1 are his defects2 truth1 originality1 and simplicity of thought1 good coloring1 and the invention1 or at least perfecting1 of etching on copper1 form his contributions to the arts4 ,his contemporary1 and1 in portraits1 superior1 was ,holbein1 best known in ,england1 and whose works1 in the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 are excellent examples of the school2 his successors1 in departing from the national style1 become blended with the minor ,italian masters--for the ,german school ceases to be original or distinct when it ceases to be ,gothic4 ,after ,schwartz ,rolenhamer1 and others of the sixteenth century1 who painted history in the ,italian manner1 ,germany sent forth chiefly landscape painters1 as ,bauer1 ,elzhaimer1 and others1 who finished in a style exquisitely delicate and natural4 ,commercial wealth1 the comparative independence and activity which always accompany industrious enterprise1 rendered the ,flemish cities1 from a very early period1 famous in painting4 ,in fact1 many of their most lucrative branches of trade--tapestry1 embroidery1 jewellery--depended upon1 and1 as in the ,italian republics1 aided the progress of design4 ,few characteristics of a national style1 however1 are to be found in the history of art in the ,low ,countries1 as distinct from ,germany1 prior to the close of the sixteenth century4 ,to ,john of ,bruges1 better known as ,van ,eyck1 a ,flemish painter about the beginning of the fifteenth century1 has been ascribed the discovery of oil colors2 but though the discovery appears rather to have been a gradual improvement1 commencing from a much earlier date1 he certainly first brought the practice into general use4 ,the painters of the ,flemish and ,dutch schools were thus put early in possession of an advantage1 contributing principally to the distinguishing qualities of art in these countries--fine coloring and exquisite finish4 ,the method1 indeed1 necessarily introduced these properties1 as may also be remarked in ,italy1 where the ,venetian masters1 who first obtained the secret1 continued to surpass1 as they had taken the lead1 in sweetness and splendor of pencilling4 ,lucas ,van ,leyden and ,mabeuse1 far surpassed ,van ,eyck1 and indeed rivalled their ,german contemporaries1 ,durer and ,holbein2 while1 in the subsequent century1 artists are numerous who carried to a high perfection the characteristics of the school--imitation of nature1 and wonderful minuteness of finish--such as ,brill1 ,stenwyck1 ,spranger1 the ,brueghils1 and ,van ,veen4 ,rubens was born of an honorable family1 at ,antwerp1 in #aegg1 and died in #afdj4 ,this powerful and prolific artist1 whose works are abundantly scattered over the whole of ,europe1 gave to the ,flemish school the consideration attendant on separate and dignified character4 ,had ,rubens1 indeed1 united to brilliancy of coloring1 rapidity of composition1 and splendor of general effect1 the elevation of form and sentiment which ennoble the thoughts of the old masters1 his name would justly have ranked amongst the highest in art4 ,but the seductions of the ,venetian1 and the bravura of the ,lombard style1 had for him more attraction than the majesty of the ,florentine1 or the grace and pathos of the ,roman pencil4 ,there is in his style1 however1 a dexterous compensation for defects1 which1 more than in any other1 momentarily seduces the judgment from propriety4 ,his defect of expression is concealed in the richness1 the lavish variety1 of his figures and grouping2 the incorrectness of his forms is forgotten in beholding their almost mobile elasticity2 the absence of lofty interest passes unmarked amid the striking contrasts and picturesque impressions of the general effect4 ,over the whole is thrown the most gorgeous coloring1 the play of reflected lights1 the magnificence of almost shifting1 yet ever harmonious hues and luxuriance of ornament2--like the golden flood from the stained window1 pouring its radiance over the irregular but magical combinations of the ,gothic aisle4 ,the landscapes of ,rubens are delightful2 they have the freshness1 the clearness1 the variety of nature1 and a far deeper sentiment of her beauty than his histories or portraits--the last1 indeed1 are the least meritorious of his works4 ,but we shall qualify or support our own by the opinion of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 whose summary of the character of ,rubens is as follows3 ',in his composition his art is too apparent2 his figures have expression1 and act with energy1 but without simplicity or dignity4 ,his coloring1 in which he is eminently skilled1 is notwithstanding too much of what we call tinted4 ,throughout the whole of his works1 there is a proportionable want of that nicety of distinction and elegance of mind1 which is required in the higher walks of painting2 to this want1 it may in some degree be ascribed1 that those qualities that make the excellence of this subordinate style1 appear in him with the greatest lustre4' ,the ,crucifixion at ,antwerp is his masterpiece2 the ,allegories of ,mary de ,medici in the ,louvre his largest work2 but some of the most finished smaller pictures which we have seen are in the ,rubens-gallery1 in the palace of ,frederic at ,potzdam4 ,the contemporaries of ,rubens were independent masters or disciples4 ,among the former were ,van ,voss ,strada1 ,miel ,savary ,seegers2 among the latter1 ,snyders1 ,jordains1 ,teniers1 and especially ,vandyke4 ,rather later1 lived ,schwaneveldt in landscape1 and ,neef for interiors1 c42 but the influence of the principles or precepts of ,rubens animated the whole of their efforts4 ,in point of manner and subject1 ,teniers and ,vandyke may in some measure be considered as forming the extremes of the ,flemish schools1 though in respect of merit they stand in the first rank4 ,teniers1 for instance1 connects the ,flemish with the ,dutch style1 being more elevated in the general tone of his conceptions and manner than the latter1 while he has selected a less dignified walk than ,rubens4 ,he has painted with exquisite truth1 and very great beauty of pencil1 the customs1 scenes1 amusements1 and character of his countrymen4 ,vandyke1 again1 in the grace and dignity of his portraits1 in the intellectuality of his expression and composition1 seems to effect a junction between the common and broad nature of the native taste1 with the ideal of ,italian art4 ,the pictures painted by ,vandyke during the early period of his residence in ,england1 are among the finest specimens of portraiture4 ,here1 indeed1 in some respects1 as the clearness and transparency of his carnations1 he is excelled only by ,titian1--in the graceful air of the heads1 and beautiful drawing of the extremities1 he reminds us of ,raphael1--while1 to these qualities1 he has added a silvery tone of pencilling1 which1 more so than in any other master1 gives back the delicate and varied hues of real flesh and skin4 ,he has hardly succeeded in history1 more1 however1 from want of practice than genius2 for his alleged want of fancy seems not so apparent as has been supposed4 ,in ,vandyke1 we find a most striking proof that excellence in art is founded upon no abstract theory of the ideal1 but in selecting1 and sedulously adhering to1 some one view of nature3 hence--hence alone1 ',the soft precision of the clear ,vandyke4' ,what ,rubens had accomplished for the ,flemish school in giving to it nationality and a head1 ,rembrandt some time after conferred upon that of ,holland2 but between the two cases there is this difference1--the former has identified his principles and reputation with the whole of succeeding art in his country1--these principles1 also1 are founded in a more comprehensive view of nature and of imitation2 the latter has merely given a consistency to the scattered details and individual artists of the ,dutch school1 by concentrating attention upon one1 while he has given a singular but most powerful delineation of nature4 ,he stands alone1 not only among his countrymen1 a gigantic workman among the minute laborers of cabbages1 butchers' shops1 and green-grocers' stalls1 but he is a solitary master in the schools of ,europe4 ,the style of ,rembrandt it is easy to distinguish1 but difficult to characterise4 ,it is at once natural and highly artificial--original1 yet excessively mannered4 ,it is natural3 for every object1 no matter what1 is represented just as it appears1 without alteration1 improvement1 or addition--but the medium of visibility1 if the expression may be allowed1 the mode in which nature is exposed1 is a complete artifice2 no inventor was ever more original in his system1 but none less varied in its application2--if we have seen one picture of ,rembrandt1 we have seen all1 as far as respects his principles1 for he has only two4 ,in his practice he is at once bold1 even to coarseness1 and elaborately finished--his coloring is delicate1 yet placed frequently in lumps upon the canvass4 ,but to attempt a positive description3 of the two principles of the ,dutch master1 one respects the manner of delineating1 the other of exhibiting1 nature4 ,he appears to have regarded art as without power or control1 over the character or form of the subject--these were to be most faithfully preserved1 and most minutely copied4 ,this formed his first principle1 to which he has most rigidly adhered4 ,but as natural objects present different modifications in appearance1 according to the quantity and direction of the light which falls upon them1 and since this can be artificially varied at the will of the artist1 here ,rembrandt fixed his second1 and what may be termed his ideal principle4 ,in the schools of ,italy1 we have seen that the management of light had been brought to very great perfection1 especially by ,titian1 ,corregio1 and their best instructed followers4 ,their method was diffusion--to unite1 by secondary1 the principal lights1 and both1 by a gradation of under-tone1 with the darkest shadows1 avoiding strong contrasts4 ,indeed1 the ,venetian master has shown1 in his practice1 that strong opposition1 neither of light nor color1 was necessary to powerful effect2 and ,corregio1 on the same principle1 has painted much in demi1 or neutral tone4 ,these precepts ,rubens also had discovered in his ,italian studies1 and afterwards constantly practised2 ,vandyke1 by the same method1 has given that extraordinary softness and delicacy which sits so divinely upon his female countenances4 ,rembrandt pursued a method directly the reverse2 he concentrated his light into one meteoric blaze1 directed in full power upon one spot--to which all other forms are sacrificed in deep gloom--and upon which the whole riches of his palette are heaped4 ,he placed nature1 as it were1 in a dungeon1 while1 through one solitary loophole1 the beam of heaven seems1 with ten-fold force1 to penetrate to the object of the artist's immediate contemplation4 ,this1 spreading a dazzling1 yet solemn light over all1 invests the commonest forms with an unknown interest1 and gives to the grossest and most unclassical imitation an elevated and romantic character1--just as the uncertain gloom of twilight mantles in the shadowy terrors and strange shapes1 objects1 the most familiar in ordinary day4 ,in the same style are painted the landscapes of ,rembrandt1 equally valued1 and more true than even his figures4 ,the rest of the ,dutch masters have little of distinctive excellence2 the imitation of all is wonderful in its fidelity1 minuteness1 and beauty2 but human talent1 and weeks of precious time1 wasted upon a cabbage leaf1 or a few fish upon a board1 is after all but a melancholy theme1 which we shall despatch with a catalogue of names4 ,before or contemporary with ,rembrandt1 who died in #afgd1 we have ,hmskirk1 ,both1 ,metzu1 ,blmart1 ,breenberg1 ,polemberg1 ,bhergem1 ,cuyp1 ,wynants1 ,heem1 ,mieris1 ,vangoyn1 ,schalken1 ,van der ,neer1 ,van der ,warf4 ,a higher class of artists were ,wouvermans1 ,laar1 and ,gherard ,douw1 the most careful of painters4 ,these and others now mentioned placed the ideal of art in the most scrupulous delineation of nature--the most elaborate truth and transparent coloring2 and it cannot be denied1 that they approached their ideal nearer than did the ,italian masters to theirs4 ,but more glory accrued from the attempt than in the success4 ,the arts of the ,low ,countries1 so long an appendage of the crown of ,spain1 naturally lead to those of that kingdom4 ,no regular ,spanish school of painting appears at any time to have existed1 though the art has been very successfully practised by numerous artists4 ,of these the chief are ,velasquez1 equally eminent in history and portrait2 and ,murillo1 a delightful colorist1 and distinguished for natural feeling1 though often vulgar1 and rarely dignified1 in his choice of forms4 ,he is the most original of all the great masters of ,spain1 who have generally been indebted to ,italy4 ,morales1 ,herrera1 with many others1 might be mentioned1 but we have not seen their works4 ,the principal seats of painting1 in ,spain1 were ,madrid and ,seville2 the school holds intermediate rank between those of ,venice and ,flanders--its chief beauty is truth of character1 natural expression and fine coloring1 correct1 but not elevated1 design4 ,in ,france1 or by ,french artists1 painting has been practised with much individual success2 and though academies have been formed1 and government protection long and liberally afforded1 it would yet be difficult exactly to describe in what the characteristics of the national style of art in ,france consist4 ,in that country1 taste1 as respects painting1 has fluctuated more1 and from the first has been less deeply impressed with original traits1 than as regards any other of the fine arts4 ,voltaire has remarked1 that a people may have a music and poetry pleasing only to themselves1 and yet both good2 but in painting1 though their genius may be peculiar1 it can be genuine only as it is agreeable to1 and prized by1 all the world4 ,tried by this rule1 ,french painting seems to be neither correct nor pleasing1 and it is not universal1 that is inventive1 in its peculiarity of manner4 ,in her early efforts1 ,france was indebted to ,italy1 and in her subsequent labors the ,italian method of design has prevailed2 indeed1 her artists have here rather copied than imitated1 adding1 no doubt1 what have been termed les graces ,franoises--an expression ill-naturedly1 but not without truth1 translated1 ',french grimaces4' ,it is rare1 perhaps impossible1 to find originality where taste has not been naturally1 and to a considerable extent1 cultivated prior to the introduction of extrinsic knowledge4 ,art borrowed in a state of forwardness1 can receive no new nor valuable modifications from unskilful hands and unpractised fancy4 ,on the other hand1 when thought has been independently exercised1 refinement1 engrafted upon its bold1 though perhaps rude strength1 will receive novel combinations and freshness of character1 while the reception of more perfect modes in the same walk1 will but improve the faculties1 without oppressing the powers1 of native genius4 ,again1 the fluctuations of painting observable during its progress in ,france1 appear to have arisen chiefly from the influence which favorite masters have been able to exercise over the art universally in that country4 ,nor has the influence often been that of pure talent4 ,court intrigue1 during the most favorable epochs1 has raised to court employment1 and consequently to pre-eminence in the honors and emoluments of his profession1 some individual1 who thus became possessed of the means of rendering his brethren eager to obtain his countenance by imitation of his style4 ,thus we have the schools of ,vouet1 of ,le ,brun1 of ,david1 distinguished merely by adherence to the particular manner of these masters2 with some exception in the last1 which is founded most on general principles4 ,this1 however1 is only an effect growing out of a far more general cause of imperfection in ,french art1 namely1 the absence of all true national interest4 ,among the ,french1 painting has hitherto1 during the most prosperous periods1 formed the amusement or the luxury of their rulers2 though as contributing to the external pomp1 splendor1 and show of their 'monarchie1' the people have been trained to applaud4 ,there never has been mutual sympathy between the artist and his countrymen2 he drew his encouragement1 and looked for his reward1 from other and far less ennobling inspiration than their praise4 ,that incense which not unfrequently was really kindled at the ,muses' flame1 was burnt before the idols set up by a despot1 instead of being offered to the majesty of national feeling4 ,in confirmation of these remarks1 so congenial with the whole history of art as an intellectual attainment1 we have only to refer to the reigns of ,louis ,,xiii41 ,,xiv41 ,,xv42 more especially of the second1 whose selfish glory1 the pursuit of his entire life1 converted the most splendid of the arts into a vehicle of adulation1 through fulsome and direct flattery1 or glaring and far-fetched allegory4 ,if1 during the recent order of things1 more respect was paid to real merit1 and less to cabal than formerly1 the same1 nearly1 was the isolation of the art from popular enthusiasm--it was still under the same thraldom to the cold and selfish aggrandisement of an individual2 or1 where this object seemed more directly connected with national exultation1 the art was exercised on a theme1 whose violent and artificial aspect is1 throughout1 unvaried1 entirely destructive of natural expression and discrimination of character4 ,the gold and glitter of military portraits--the unromantic combinations of modern warfare1 with its mechanical levelling of distinctive peculiarities1 were little calculated to rectify--they increased--the errors and the wants of ,french painting2 while that which is absolutely good was derived from the colder forms of sculpture4 ,the most ancient labours of the art in ,france appear to have been on glass1 and1 as in every other country1 dedicated to the service of religion4 ,of these primitive specimens1 many still remain of considerable beauty1 as in the church of ,st ,genevieve at ,paris4 ,another method1 common also to ,germany1 and which1 in the fourteenth century1 had assumed the appearance of a regular and important branch of ingenuity1 was a species of enamel1 formed by the fusion of metallic colors with glass4 ,of this method1 many remains of surprising beauty occur in the early part of the fifteenth century1 which1 with the ,gothic paintings already described1 seem to have exercised the ingenuity of his subjects1 till the exertions of ,francis ,i4 for their improvement brought artists from ,italy4 ,among these was the great ,leonardo1 who died at ,fontainbleau1 in the arms of this monarch1 in #aebd1 and before he had exercised his pencil in ,france4 ,copies of his works1 especially of the ,last ,supper1 were executed for ,francis1 who was desirous of carrying off the original with the wall upon which it is painted4,b ,the intervening period from the death of ,francis to the commencement of the seventeenth century1 torn by religious dissension1 distracted by the heartless intrigue1 and still more heartless massacres perpetrated by the ,catholic party1 threw ,france back in the career of improvement4 ,the splendid reign of ,henry of ,navarre was favorable indeed both to the fine and useful arts2 but1 as in the former age1 foreign1 and principally ,flemish artists1 were employed4 ,the imbecile ,louis ,,xiii4 has the credit of having first formed a native school of painting1 or rather1 perhaps1 in this reign1 advantage was first taken of those various circumstances which had gradually been forming both skill and taste in ,france4 ,this1 like every other measure of the same period1 is to be attributed to the prime minister1 ,richelieu1 founder also of the ,academy4 ,this was the source whence were supplied the artists of the succeeding reign1 who were principally disciples of ,vouet1 the first ,french master of eminence1 born in #aehb1 but whose merits in the nobler walks of art would not otherwise entitle him to notice4 ,the glory1 not only of this period1 but of the history of ,french art1 is ,nicholas ,poussin--the classic and the virtuous ,poussin4 ,to his contemporaries1 however1 or to the retainers in the halls of ,louis1 he did not properly belong4 ,born in #aeid1 he had formed his taste by a residence of nearly twenty years in ,italy1 before he was invited1 in #afci1 to a pension and an apartment in the ,tuileries4 ,from the cabals of a court1 and the petty jealousy of the inferior ,vouet1 he fled beyond the ,alps to his own loved ,rome1 never to return4 ,there he conversed more with antiquity than with living men4 ,thence originated the grand defect of his style4 ',we never1' says a moralist1 'live out of our age1 without missing something which our successors will wish we had possessed4' ,this is especially true in the present instance4 ,the characteristics of the works of ,poussin are extreme correctness of form and costume1 great propriety in keeping1 and the most enchanting simplicity of design4 ,these beauties he derived from constant study and deep knowledge of ancient sculpture4 ,while he thus followed closely one of the sources of excellence1 he1 however1 neglected the other1 and1 in painting1 the more important--nature4 ,hence the frequent want of interest--the defects of expression--the cold and sombre coloring--the absence of that breathing similitude which animates even the subjects of his intense contemplation4 ,but the ancient sculptors were not satisfied with nature at second-hand--the great cause of failure in the painter4 ,the perfections of their statues he transferred to his canvass1 forgetting that these were copied from men4 ,in the choice of his subject1 and manner of representing its incidents1 ,poussin has few equals2 in his pictures1 too1 there is always a most charming harmony of thought--the scene--the figures--the handling--even the forms of inanimate objects in his landscapes1 all have an antique air1 transporting the imagination into an ideal world4 ,hence1 of all those who have made the attempt1 ,poussin has best succeeded in classical allegory4 ,louis ,,xiv41 who commenced his reign in #afdc1 resolved to complete the intentions of his predecessor1 in giving to ,france a school of native artists2 and1 by the institution of academies1 conferring rewards1 and raising to honors1 so far accomplished his purpose1 as respected the cultivation of the art by ,frenchmen1 to a very considerable extent4 ,the school1 however1 thus created1 was composed of imitators in their profession1 and flatterers of their royal patron4 ,true1 vigorous1 original genius1 lives not to be called forth at the smile of a monarch1 nor by permission to display its powers in painted panegyrics on the walls of a palace4 ,as well might we expect1 in the artificial atmosphere of the hothouse1 the strength1 and beauty1 and freshness1 which bloom amid glades and groves1 freely visited by the pure breath of heaven4 ,the great master of this school was ,le ,brun1 for so the ,scotch name of ,brown1 from a family of which name he was descended1 has been translated4 ,he was born in #afai1 of a family long attached to the practice of the arts1 and became the favorite pupil of ,vouet1 whose precepts in many respects he too faithfully retained4 ,yet ,le ,brun had good capabilities1--a lively fancy1 great dexterity of hand1 and not unfrequently noble conceptions4 ,but in all things he is too artificial--a defect never redeemable by any display even of the most splendid technical qualities4 ,in the paintings of ,le ,brun1 the want of simplicity is conspicuous in the forced attitudes of his figures1 and in their too systematic expression4 ,both these imperfections have resulted from the same cause--neglect of nature1 neglect operating by different effects4 ,in the former case1 the artist has designed too much from memory1 or--a common fault1 we should be inclined to say1 in ,french art--has taken his attitudes from the theatre4 ,in the second1 it is easy to perceive1 that he aimed at reducing the infinite and minute changes1 of expression to a theory of academic rules2 indeed1 his pictures are but commentaries1 in this respect1 upon his celebrated treatise on the ,passions4 ,the coloring in these performances is glaring1 without firmness of shadow1 and the local tones are false2 hence the general effect is shallow1 with a monotony of hue1 arising1 not so much from want of variety in the tints1 as from error in keeping4 ,the best works of ,le ,brun are the five grand pictures from the life of ,alexander1 which1 notwithstanding the defects inherent in his style1 are productions of dignity and grandeur1 exhibiting great fertility both of composition and of resource in mechanic art2 but surely ,voltaire must intend his assertion to be restricted to ,france1 when he says1 that engravings of these paintings are more sought after than those of the battles of ,constantine1 by ,raphael and ,julio ,romano4 ,the truth of the preceding remarks on the causes which have contributed1 in ,france1 to the mediocrity of painting1 is placed in a striking view by the tyranny1 the absolute despotism1 in which ,le ,brun was enabled to lord it over his contemporaries1 whether painters1 sculptors1 or architects4 ,every one was forced to become the observant servitor of him whom the court favored1 or enjoyed the option of remaining unemployed4 ,such was the fate of ,le ,sueur1 not merely the superior of ,le ,brun1 but1 with the exception of ,poussin1 to whom even in some respects he is more than equal1 the best painter ,france has ever produced--the sole one in whose works are found natural simplicity and repose4 ,he took ,raphael for his model1 whose feeling1 sober grace1 and internal dignity1 do not contribute even now to render his imitation popular4 ,if ,le ,sueur were less frequently inferior to himself1 he would have stood in the first rank of his profession1 though he died in #afee1 at the early age of thirtyeight4 ,bourdon1 ,valentin1 and ,megnard1 were also contemporaries1 and in some respects equals1 of ,le ,brun4 ,to this period1 though only by chronology1 and to ,france merely by birth1 belongs ,claude ,gelee1 better known as ,claude ,lorrain1 from his native province1 where he was born in #afjj1 dying in his #hhth year at ,rome1 where he resided during the greater part of the reigns of ,louis ,,xiii4 and ,,xiv41 having never crossed the ,alps after leaving home as the runaway apprentice of a pastry cook4 ,to this artist1 self-taught1 and at first apparently more than commonly incapable1 landscape painting owes its interest and its loveliness as a separate and dignified branch of art4 ,in the sweetest1 as in the most brilliant1 effects of light--from the first blush of day to the fall of dewy eve1 ,claude is unrivalled1 or even unapproached1 if in one or two instances we except our own ,wilson4 ,the aerial perspective1 and the liquid softness of the tones1 in his pictures1--the leafing1 forms1 and branching of the trees1 the light flickering clouds1 the transparency of hue1 the retiring distances1 all make as near approaches to nature as it is possible for art to accomplish4 ,still there is one grand defect in the representations of ,claude1 which to a degree destroys the natural effect of their constituent features2--they are too frequently compositions1 or what are termed heroic landscape4 ,this certainly heightens the charm merely as respects the imagination1 but detracts from the still deeper interests of reality4 ,for this practice1 which1 indeed1 is too common with landscape painters1 there can be found also no plea1 till it has been proved that the majesty and variety of nature are unequal to the powers of the pencil4 ,the ,french painters of the eighteenth century were numerous1 and on the whole superior to those of the same era in ,italy4 ,throughout the whole1 however1 we detect the principles of the school of ,louis ,,xiv41 as respects the individual qualities of the art2 while in the philosophy of taste1 more especially as affects painting1 are discoverable the effects of the mechanical and systematic criticism--the mere pedantry of learning1 which1 originating with the writers of that age1 spread over ,europe1 nor1 in art1 is yet entirely exploded4 ,cases is one of the most eminent of native artists1 who was overlooked during his lifetime2 but what is the meaning of ,voltaire's remark on this artist8 ',chaque nation cherche se faire valoir2 les ,franais font valoir les autres nations en tout genre4' ,the taste of this writer in the fine arts is not less contemptible than in the principles of nobler literature1 and in religion4 ,the tawdry nudities which we have seen still suspended in the ,salle de ,tableaux1 at ,ferney1 are a practical testimony of the one fact2 and1 place serving1 it would be no difficult matter to prove the other1 or rather1 we trust1 it needs no exposition4 ,santerre studied nature1 designs with correctness1 and colors agreeably1 but he rises not above mediocrity2 nor will it be admitted1 as asserted by his countrymen1 that his picture of ,adam and ,eve is one of the best in modern art4 ,the two ,parrocels and ,bourgoyn painted combats1 chiefly of horsemen4 ,jouvenet shows talent in design1 but colors too yellow2 is remarkable as having painted in old age with his left hand4 ,rigaud is called the ,french ,rubens4 ,le ,moine1 in the ,apotheosis of ,henry ,,iv4 at ,versailles1 has left a striking and well-colored composition1 but one of those incongruous allegories1 which1 during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 formed the besetting sin of ,french art4 ,la ,fosse1 the two ,boulognes1 ,de ,troy1 ,raous1 ,tremoilliere1 and especially ,vanloo1 in history2 ,vateau1 in grotesque subjects2 ,desportes and ,audry1 in animals2 ,vernet1 the admirable marine painter1 with others of less note1 bring down our researches to the middle of the last century4 ,the founder and the representative of the modern ,french school is ,david4 ,born in #agej1 he early saw and forsook the conventional feebleness1 and1 to a great degree1 the false glare1 of contemporaries1 and thus merits the appellation of restorer of art4 ,unfortunately1 however1 he engaged in other revolutions than those of taste1 and participated too largely in the atrocities which desecrated the close of last century4 ,as one of the regicides1 he was1 at the restoration1 driven into exile--a useless severity1 which might have been spared in favor of one who has contributed largely to the solid glory of his country4 ,he died at ,brussels in #ahbe4 ,the leading defect of preceding art in ,france1 is a want of dignified and correct form2 next1 of simple and natural expression4 ,the former the genius of ,david detected1 and sought to apply the remedy in the careful study of antique sculpture4 ,in this he has been far from unsuccessful2 his drawing is most correct1 his style of design noble1 but both are cold and without feeling4 ,the second defect ,david either did not discover1 or has failed in rectifying4 ,the system which he pursued was in part excellent1 but he followed it too exclusively4 ,statuary can give little to painting beyond form and proportion--the essentials1 indeed--but expression1 action1 not less true and dignified1 but more varied1 and composition1 not to mention coloring1 must be added from nature4 ,here ,david has failed4 ,he either conceived that the artists who preceded him wanted only form to render ,french art perfect1 or that1 by grouping the statuary of ancient ,greece in more violent and complicated action1 and with more vehemence of expression1 pictures would be produced1 such1 to use his own words1 'that if an ,athenian were to return to this world1 they might appear to him the works of a ,greek painter4' ,like ,poussin1 then1 he lived too much for antiquity1 and too little with the present2 but if ,poussin has often given to representations of the most perfect art1 instead of delineations of nature1 he has at least depicted antiquity as it is1 in all its simplicity and perfect repose4 ,david has not done this2 he has completely changed1 nay1 inverted1 the character of ancient art1 by adding exaggerated expression and forced attitude4 ,the coloring is also very indifferent2 for though highly finished1 the effect is hard and dry1 without sweetness or depth2 and while the general tone inclines to the bronze or metallic1 the local tints are feeble or untrue4 ,here1 likewise1 we discover an endeavor at improvement failing through neglect of the proper object of study4 ,wishing to avoid the glaring hues of his predecessors1 ,david has fallen into the opposite extreme from overlooking the living subject4 ,the grouping1 too1 participates in the meagreness inseparable from the system1 the arrangement of the figures often approaching to the basso-relievo1 where they necessarily stand in lines1 while1 to relieve the sameness thus produced1 the forms are violently and ungracefully contrasted in themselves4 ,of this a striking instance occurs in the famous picture of the ,horatii1 who are ranged rank and file1 receding from the spectator1 so that only one is completely seen1 the heads of the others being in profile1 each with an arm and foot extended1 one1 by way of variety1 reaching forth his left hand to take the oath dictated by the father1 who stands on the opposite side6 ,without doubt1 however1 ,david was a man of great genius1 and when he errs1 it is more through defect of system than of talent2 but the former being his own creation1 he stands responsible for its faults4 ,besides that just quoted1 his best performances are ,leonidas with the ,spartans at ,thermopyl1 one of the best colored of his pictures1 but the figure of the chief wants majesty2 the ,death of ,socrates is destitute of that solemnity of repose1 yet activity of feeling1 which we have been accustomed to associate with the scene2 the ,funeral of ,patroclus--a fine antique composition1 but ,french in feeling2 the ,coronation of ,napoleon--a splendid failure2 the ,rape of the ,sabines--much fine drawing1 and the usual share of bustle--expression extravagant1 yet cold4 ,in portrait1 as might have been anticipated from the range of his studies1 ,david was unequal to himself4 ,his best performances in this walk are the numerous likenesses of his imperial patron4 ,we have seen the original sketch for one of these1 which indeed was never afterwards touched1 taken during the last few hours of undiminished power possessed by ,napoleon in ,paris4 ,the greater part of the preceding day and night had been spent in arranging the final operations of the campaign which terminated in the battle of ,waterloo4 ,when now past midnight1 instead of retiring to repose1 the emperor sent for ,david1 to whom he had promised to sit1 and who was in waiting in an apartment of the ,tuileries4 ',my friend1' said ,napoleon to the artist1 on entering1 'there are yet some hours till four1 when we are finally to review the defences of the capital2 in the meantime1 faites votre possible--7do your utmost71 while ,i read these despatches4' ,but exhausted nature could hold out no longer2 the paper dropt from the nerveless hand1 and ,napoleon sunk to sleep4 ,in this attitude the painter has represented him4 ,the pale and lofty forehead1 the careworn features1 the relaxed expression1 the very accompaniments1 wear an impress inexpressibly tender and melancholy4 ,with the dawn ,napoleon awoke1 and springing to his feet1 was about to address ,david1 when a taper just expiring in the socket arrested his eye4 ,folding his arms on his breast1 a usual posture of thought1 he contemplated in silence its dying struggles4 ,when with the last gleam the rays of the morning sun penetrated through the half closed window-curtains1 ',were ,i superstitious1' said ,napoleon1 a faint smile playing about his beautiful mouth1 'the first object on which my sight has rested this day might be deemed ominous2 but1' pointing to the rising sun1 'the augury is doubtful--at least1 the prayer of the ,grecian hero will be accorded1--we shall perish in light6' ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the history of ,painting in ,england embraces only a very recent period in the annals of the art4 ,but though chronologically1 as well as from the peculiar interest of the subject1 it is to be treated last1 this arrangement is not adopted from the same motive as actuates foreign critics1 namely1 the alleged inferiority of ,british painting4 ,it has been shown1 we trust satisfactorily1 that in the real condition of taste1 in the modes of practice and in the principles of theory1 our school of ,sculpture1 though not equal in specimens yet produced1 is superior to every other1 not only now1 but formerly1 in ,europe4 ,in favor of our painters1 we go further--and yet not so far4 ,pictures1 and in more than one branch1 painted in this country1 and by native living artists1 can be produced superior to any contemporary examples in any part of the ,continent2 but1 in its theoretic principles1 and in the practice introduced in consequence of these1 the ,english school has sadly departed from the perfect labours and just science of the old masters4 ,this has arisen from following a course in some respects opposite to that which has been adopted in sculpture1 as shall hereafter be the endeavor to point out4 ,again1 if we review our early history1 it appears1 that in the ages immediately subsequent to the revival of art1 native artists in this country1 in the ingenious processes then known1 were not inferior to contemporary names in ,italy1 ,france1 or ,germany4 ,it is sufficient here merely to refer to ,walpole's interesting work2 in which it is shown1 that before the middle of the thirteenth century1 two hundred years prior to ,van ,eyck1 evidences are found of oil-painting in ,england2 and that in the fourteenth1 painting on glass1 heraldic emblazonment1 the illumination of manuscripts1 with all the similar approaches to elegance then practised1 were cultivated among our ancestors1 and by natives whose names are preserved1 with equal success as elsewhere4 ,causes1 therefore1 originating in the moral and political condition of the people1 can alone explain the striking inferiority of ,english art during the period of greatest splendor in its modern history4 ,the opinions1 indeed1 promulgated by the ,french and ,italian writers1 not excepting ,winklemann1 and so complacently entertained even now on the ,continent1 respecting the deleterious influence of climate upon ,english genius1 are1 in their philosophy1 too contemptible to merit serious investigation4 ,nor are similar theories of our own and other authors exempted from this censure1 which ascribe excellence1 as for instance in ancient ,greece1 to the propitious effects of the same physical cause4 ,the mighty and the immortal energies of the human mind are independent of all other external causes2 they will bear up against all other external pressure--save moral and political degradation4 ,in fact1 art in ,england was crushed almost in its cradle by the civil wars of ,york and ,lancaster4 ,warfare between different nations1 where the struggle is from rivalry of interests or empire1 rather favors the developement of national talent2 the activity of martial achievement conveys1 through all the relations of citizenship1 and to every field of honorable exertion1 a corresponding vigor and elasticity of mind--an ardent love of glory and of country--raising high the spirit of emulation1 yet binding closer the ties of fellowship4 ,in the unhallowed commotion of civil contest1 all these effects are reversed2 while in ,england1 the desecration of country consequent on such feuds was deeper than perhaps in any other instance of modern times1 from religion1 which in other states1 under like unhappy circumstances1 had afforded an asylum to arts and to peace1 here taking part with the combatants4 ,these political divisions healed1 religious dissensions broke in upon the national quiet1 at a time1 too1 when a taste for the fine arts was gaining ground in the different states of ,europe4 ,when at length every animosity and partial feeling had subsided in the generous consciousness of being ,englishmen1 an eager thirst for nautical enterprise engaged the minds of the subjects of ,elizabeth and ,james4 ,the wealth1 security1 and information which flowed from these exertions1 were beginning to create taste1 and to provide means highly favorable to the future progress of painting4 ,the predilections of ,charles1 likewise1 as also his knowledge1 were calculated to improve and to direct in the best manner these advantages4 ,the collection of pictures which he formed was the most valuable then in ,europe1 and composed of pieces especially adapted to a national gallery1 and to the design of creating a native school4 ,the most eminent artists of the age1 invited to his court1 found their labors at once skilfully appreciated and munificently rewarded4 ,this unfortunate monarch had the satisfaction to perceive the refinement beginning to spread among his subjects1 even in the remotest and least opulent portion of his dominions4 ,in ,scotland1 ,jamieson1 born at ,aberdeen1 in #aehf1 and pupil of ,rubens1 has left1 in the universities of his native place and elsewhere1 fruits of his genius which by no means show him unworthy of the appellation of the ,scottish ,vandyke4 ,to this painter ,charles sat1 and further distinguished him by peculiar marks of royal favor4 ,in ,england1 painting was naturally still more flourishing in prospect2 the nobles imitated1 and some shared in1 the taste of their sovereign1 while a love of elegant acquirement was generally diffused4 ,this period1 also1 was highly favorable to a new and aspiring epoch in ,english art1 from the great and original acquirements previously made in poetry and elegant literature1 which both prepared the public mind to relish similar displays of talent in a cognate branch2 while they evinced and cherished that creative spirit which may render available the introduction of improved modes1 without degenerating into imitation in its own efforts4 ,the progress of successful art in ,greece1 and in republican ,italy1 with the absence of nationality in that of ancient ,rome and of modern ,france1 exhibits the justice of the remark1 and the importance of the acquisition4 ,the reign of ,charles1 ,i41 thus appears to have been one of the most favorable periods in our history for the foundation of a ,british school of art2 indeed1 we perceive that every essential towards this had been accomplished4 ,the fearful concussions which closed in blood the career of that unhappy monarch1 while they shook the entire realm from its propriety1 proved more pernicious to the cultivation of the arts of elegance1 than has usually been the case even in civil commotion4 ,the lowest and most illiterate1 now armed with some degree of power1 destroyed1 because they knew not how to value2 while the coarse hypocrisy and more dangerous cunning1 or the stern bigotry1 of their leaders1 viewed with the malignity of ignorance1 or the hatred of party1 all evidence of superior refinement4 ,in thus rapidly reviewing the leading causes which have concurred to retard the progress of early art in this country1 the ,reformation has been merely alluded to as turning aside attention to other pursuits4 ,the commonly received opinion which makes this event a primary and permanent source of our inferiority1 seems to rest on a very imperfect knowledge of facts4 ,when the glorious doctrines of the ,reformation obtained footing in ,england1 no advance had yet been effected in the formation of a native school2 the national refinement was in no degree prepared for the successful cultivation of painting2 nor do any circumstances particularly favorable induce the belief1 that had the ,catholic continued to be the established faith1 the arts would have improved4 ,on the contrary1 though the number of pictures would doubtless have multiplied1 these1 as in ,france at the same period1 and under circumstances incomparably more felicitous1 must have been the works of foreign artists2 consequently1 by introducing an artificial manner before any national character of art had been formed1 the exoteric taste would1 in all probability1 have for ever bound up in conventional trammels1 the freshness of original conception1 and the vigor of national genius4 ,such we have seen to be the invariable effects of introducing1 instead of rearing1 art1 among every people where the experiment has been attempted4 ,the ,reformation1 by restoring to the human mind the uncontrolled exercise of its own faculties1 by unlocking the barriers by which the will and the powers of free inquiry had been imprisoned1 has stamped upon every ,british institution1 as upon every effort of ,british talent1 the worth and the manliness of independent character4 ,our ,fine ,arts1 though the last to feel1 do at length experience this happy influence4 ,the particular views entertained1 or rather taken up without examination1 have led1 on this subject1 to erroneous conceptions1 both of the existing condition of art1 and of the state of royal patronage4 ,henry ,,viii4 certainly endeavored by every means to induce the most esteemed painters of the age to visit his court2 while the encouragement which he offered was not only continued1 but increased with more ample means1 after the ,reformation had commenced2 as far as his influence went1 there was a change for the better4 ,but his was neither a cultivated nor a natural taste4 ,the sentiment was merely one of rivalry1 stirred up by imitation of his contemporaries1 ,francis ,i4 and ,charles ,v4 ,his subjects and courtiers1 not even animated by such factitious impulse1 were1 generally speaking1 still less qualified to assist in rearing national art4 ,neither did there exist1 in any other form1 a previous standard of characteristic originality2 a most important consideration1 as already shown--for1 with the exception of ,surrey1 no poet of genius capable of giving to taste an abiding tone of nationality had yet appeared4 ,under these circumstances1 had the importation of foreign art--and it is clear none other could have been encouraged--taken place to any extent2 even had ,raphael and ,titian accepted the invitation of the ,english monarch1 beyond bare possession1 their works would have been valueless to the nation2 or worse--they would have depressed1 by an unapproachable model1 the aspirings of native talent1 fixing for ever our arts in the mediocrity of imitation4 ,the opposition1 also1 which the ,reformers are accused of having bent against the practice of painting has been altogether misrepresented4 ,not only were they not opposed to such acquirements in their proper place1 but the assurance is1 that they viewed such accomplishments with favor4 ,among the earliest ,reformers1 the movers of that emancipation which regenerated a portion1 and made despotism more tolerable in the rest1 of ,europe1 were to be found the most accomplished minds and the most elegant scholarship of which the age could boast4 ,indeed1 their superior enlightenment was the human means of that liberty1 in which through ,christ they had become free4 ,for such men to be the enemies of intelligence1 of whatever description1 if under proper guidance1 and in due subserviency to higher knowledge1 was to place obstacles to the spread of their own principles4 ,hence in ,germany and in the ,low ,countries1 the fine arts were admired and patronised by the leading ,reformers4 ,holbein came to ,england most warmly recommended by ,luther1 who has already been named as the friend of other contemporary artists4 ,in one respect1 the ,reformers certainly may be said to have been hostile to art4 ,they proscribed the introduction of pictures into their churches4 ,to this prohibition only1 extended the penal statutes of ,henry1 ,edward1 and ,elizabeth1 about which so much outcry has been raised4 ,no proscription1 no interdict against religious paintings merely as such1 was agitated1 till the period already alluded to as the most truly disastrous to national refinement1 when1 in #afdc1 a bigoted parliament ordered1 'that all pictures which had the representation of the ,saviour or the ,virgin ,mary in them should be burned4' ,the brutal fanaticism1 and still more disgusting hypocrisy1 of the adherents of ,oliver ,cromwell1 have in this and in similar instances been most unjustly mixed up with the pure spirit and unsullied zeal of the genuine followers of ,martin ,luther4 ,it is not intended1 however1 indeed it cannot be denied1 that to the mere practice of painting1 and to the multiplication of its labours1 the exclusion of pictures from the churches is injurious4 ,but extension is not improvement4 ,so far1 then1 the ,reformation has proved permanently hostile to the art4 ,but highly as we honor the talent of artisanship1 and intimately connected as is the glory of the land with the reputation of its arts1 we cannot for one moment entertain the proposal now so generally1 it had almost been said unblushingly1 brought forward1 of converting our churches 'into spacious repositories' for the productions of the pencil4 ,here we have explicitly to state an opinion1 though opposed by almost every writer on the arts2 first1 that neither is the house of ,god a proper receptacle for pictures2 nor1 secondly1 if every ,protestant place of worship were open to such ornaments1 is it clear that art would be materially advantaged4 ,let our sacred edifices be as nobly simple1 as massively grand1 as may be2 let them exhibit every beauty of architecture1 if needful2 the effect will elevate1 without distracting1 the mind2 or let the solemn representations of sculpture invite remembrance to dwell upon the departed1 who sleep around the living worshipper4 ,such thoughts prepare the mind for its duties4 ,but pictures do not seem so immediately associated1 either with the place or with our meditations2 with us1 the only association is that of mere ornament4 ,we might1 however1 be accused of treating here the subject too seriously1 were an attempt made to show the sinfulness of abducing even one thought from heaven1 to fix it on a merely ornamental appendage4 ,we shall therefore suppose1 that in our country1 people do not go to church to see pictures1 and that1 as elsewhere1 pictures are here painted to be seen4 ,now1 the time of divine service with us is short1 and that space is passed1 without intermission1 in sacred duties1 in prayer1 in praise1 and in exhortation4 ,either these momentous engagements or the pictures must be neglected4 ,in the ,romish church the service is long1 composed of many ceremonies in which the audience take no share1 and during which1 the mind may be employed in contemplating a religious painting1 with at least equal profit as the dressings and undressings1 the crossings1 genuflexions1 perambulations1 and incensings1 which are being enacted by the officials4 ,in a ,protestant assembly1 every one is seated in his place2 a picture can be viewed properly from a very few points1 perhaps only one2 granting1 then1 all the advantages 'of pictures in unison with the feelings of the mind1 exemplifying in the most striking manner the objects of its highest admiration and respect1' how limited is the number that could enjoy these8 ,the ,catholic church1 again1 knows not the impediment of pews1 and the individuals of the congregation may move and change positions at pleasure4 ,protestant churches are open only on ,sundays1 or a few fast days1 while we have no useless train of idle retainers to show the curiosities of the place2 the ,catholic church is open from sunrise to sunset throughout the year1 each with its sacristans1 vergers1 macemen1 c4 in constant attendance4 ,in the ,romish ritual1 external emblems are certainly permitted as stimulants to inward devotion2 of these1 pictures are among the most favored4 ,in our faith1 the symbols are simple as its practice1 and too sacred even to be named here4 ,we have no wish1 then1 to decry the use or advantage of paintings to the ,catholic2 but it seems sufficiently obvious1 that to the ,protestant they can at best be useless in a place of public worship4 ,in reference to the second consideration1 namely1 the profit thus accruing to the arts of the country1 it has been stated above1 that only to the multiplication of paintings has the exclusion in question proved hurtful1 and not to the improvement or perfection of the art4 ,in this respect the merits of the ,reformation have not only been overlooked1 but denied1 while the claims of ,catholicism1 as favorable to elegance1 have been too highly exalted4 ,true1 a great proportion of the patronage by which the arts have been supported in ,italy has been extended by churchmen2 this has all been put down to the account of the system4 ,but it is to be remembered1 that this protection has been granted more frequently in the character of lay noblemen and princes1 than of ecclesiastics4 ,the most splendid works of the pencil are in the private palaces of the popes and cardinals1 and other members of the hierarchy2 laymen with the same means would have acted similarly4 ,during the infancy of the arts1 their feebleness was stayed1 and their vigorous manhood nourished1 by the free corporations of the republican cities4 ,the ,catholic ,church only received the arts as orphans1 after her temporal1 and therefore improper ambition1 had destroyed their true and natural parent--,liberty4 ,at this moment1 too1 very few fine pictures are in churches2 they are in public galleries1 in private collections1 in the cabinets of the curious1 and in palaces4 ,where1 then1 is the vaunted superiority in the ,catholic profession1 or where the ancient and permanent disabilities under which ,protestantism has been represented as labouring1 in regard to the arts of elegance8 ,and why should we incur even the possibility of contaminating the purity and the spirituality of our faith1 or of even offending the mind of the humblest believer1 by filling our churches with pictures1 when there remains to us the amplest field yet unoccupied8 ,we have1 in fact1 all that is yet in possession of high art2 in our royal palaces1 in the almost regal seats of our nobility1 in our national galleries1 in the halls of our universities and institutions1 and in our public buildings of every description4 ,has not the pencil 'ample verge' and 'room' appropriate8 ,if these advantages have hitherto remained without fruit1 let it be remembered1 that the defective returns have not been occasioned by imbecility or idleness--the labourers have been otherwise engaged4 ,during only three centuries of poor and struggling ,protestantism1 tenfold more extensive and valuable accessions to true knowledge have been realized than were accomplished in the space of a thousand years of the prosperous and uncontrolled empire of ,catholicism4 ,that this uprousing of the human spirit has become not less refined than it has been vigorous1 is evident from the fact which connects these remarks with our subject1 namely1 that now1 in ,protestant ,britain1 is to be found the only original1 and the most flourishing school of painting in ,europe4 ,in pursuing the history of ,english art posterior to the ,restoration1 little of importance occurs till the late and present reigns4 ,charles ,,ii4 had wit1 but no great share of taste1 and that little1 like his morals1 was equally flimsy and meretricious4 ,he trifled with ,verrio and ,gennaro in decorating ceilings and covering walls2 while ,lely1 whose light and graceful1 but feeble pencil1 had in succession traced the melancholy countenance of the ,martyr1 and the bluff face of the ,protector1,c was employed as state portrait-painter on the sleepy and luxurious beauties of the court4 ,during the succeeding reigns1 to the accession of ,george ,i41 lived ,kneller1 a native of ,lubec1 an artist of considerable talent1 but who painted too expeditiously to paint well1 and who was too intent upon sharing the wealth of his own age to leave many drafts that would be honored by posterity1 though he painted in his life seven ,english and three foreign sovereigns4 ,his head of ,sir ,isaac ,newton is worth them all4 ,during the same period we find many native artists of obscure fame and merits2 as ,dobson1 who died in #afdf1 and was brought into notice through the generosity of ,vandyke4 ,riley1 7,john71 born in the same year1 possessed1 according to ,walpole1 more talent than any of his countrymen4 ,it was to this artist that ,charles ,,ii4 said1 ',od's fish1 man1 if your picture of me be a likeness1 ,i am an ugly fellow4' ,hoskins and ,cooper1 uncle and nephew1 were celebrated miniature-painters1 especially the latter1 who was married to a sister of ,pope's mother4 ,henry1 who was employed by ,king ,william in the reparation of ,raphael's cartoons4 ,highmore painted the only portrait known of the poet ,young4 ,greenhill and ,buckshorn were pupils of ,lely4 ,jervas1 who1 in spite of art1 contrived to make a fortune and to set up a carriage2 upon which ,kneller remarked1 in his broken ,english1 ',ah1 mine ,cot6 if de horses do not draw better dan he1 de journey will never have an end4' ,the praises lavished by ,pope on this his master evince the wretched condition of general taste1 when we consider these praises as merely the echo of the public voice4 ,richardson is best known as a writer on art2 though a very inferior artist1 he stood at the head of the profession on the death of ,kneller4 ,his scholar and son-in-law1 ,hudson1 succeeded in the dignity of metropolitan portrait-painter1 though opposed for some time by ,liotard1 a ,genevese1 and ,vanloo1 a ,frenchman4 ,hudson was the master of ,reynolds1 with whom the ,british school first assumes the dignity of higher art1 the elevation commencing with the portraits painted by ,sir ,joshua on his return from the ,continent in #ageb-c4 ,previously1 however1 had appeared ,hogarth1 the most original of all painters2 but his pictures1 from their subjects1 were not calculated1 in proportion to their merit1 to refine the national taste4 ,so early1 too1 as #agci1 the establishment of the old academy in ,st ,martin's ,lane had been silently preparing some melioration in a better manner of designing2 and the introduction of costume1 though poorly executed1 was an advance towards truth from the absurd robes of ,lely and ,kneller4 ,the association just mentioned was afterwards incorporated by his late ,majesty2 but the members disagreeing1 the ,royal ,academy was founded4 ,here have presided the three greatest names in the art since the time of ,rubens and ,vandyke1 perhaps since the ,caracci--,reynolds1 ,west1 and ,lawrence4 ,walpole has with justice remarked1 that 'in the commencement of the reign of ,george ,i41 in #agad1 the arts of ,england were sunk almost to their lowest ebb4' ,the preceding sketch verifies the observation2 and from the singular anomaly of a nation1 during the most flourishing period of its literature1 possessing a taste absolutely contemptible in the fine arts1 evinces the truth of the principles advocated throughout these pages4 ,from the ,restoration to the accession of ,george ,,iii41 the arts had never once been regarded as adding to national respectability1 nor as connected with national feeling4 ,the people crowded to have their portraits taken1 without inquiring or conceiving that there was anything to know beyond the mere mechanical art4 ,the sovereign1 instead of regarding the progress of elegant taste as an important object of legislation1 looked out for a limner merely as a necessary appurtenance of a court4 ,as our monarchs of this period1 not even excepting ,anne1 through the predilections of her husband1 were1 as regards painting1 better acquainted with ,continental art1 and some more attached to everything foreign1 ,british genius1 of course overlooked1 was never once called forth4 ,some stray ,italian1 ,dutchman1 or ,german1 was caught hold of1 patronised by royalty1 supported by the nobility1 and never thought of by the nation beyond face-painting in the metropolis4 ,from the middle of the seventeenth to the first forty years of the eighteenth century1 when national talent at length began to break forth in its own strength1 such was the state of patronage1 and the artists who enjoyed its benefits were but little qualified to create a national interest2 for their mannerism and foreign modes served only the more decidedly to exclude a characteristic style1 and1 as must ever be the case in similar instances1 prevented any developement of native originality4 ,another great cause of our wretched taste in the arts1 and which perhaps in part grew out of these more general causes1 was1 that the real genius of the land was bent upon the pursuits of literature and science2 while the nation had not attained that degree of refinement1 security1 and opulence1 which enable a people to enjoy and to reward the exertions of mind1 as at the present day1 in all its separate and diversified departments of action4 ,between literary eminence and excellence in art there seems a natural connexion1 as depending upon principles of taste and modes of exercise nearly similar4 ,letters and the ,fine ,arts1 then1 have generally been carried to the highest perfection among the same people2 they have flourished in conjunction1 and they have fallen together4 ,it is to be remarked1 however1 that the former have always preceded2 the noblest effusions of poetry have long been the delight of his country before the painter or the sculptor have reached an equal merit4 ,nor is this casual precedence4 ,the labours of the poet are a necessary1 in fact a creative preparation2 by their rapid and wide circulation1 they soften the sensibilities1 arouse the imagination1 give to taste an existence and a feeling of its object1 and awake the mind to a consciousness of its intellectual wants4 ,they constitute1 also1 a common chronicle1 whether of fiction or of reality1 whose events are clear to1 and quickly recognisable by all4 ,fancy thus obtains a lore of its own1 whose legends delight by repetition1 and whose imagery animates the canvass or the marble with forms loved of old4 ,poetry1 then1 must precede art4 ,all this advantage of preparation and expectancy was denied to the infancy of ,english painting4 ,milton's verse1 not inferior to any precursor of ,phidias or of ,raphael1 instead of being1 as ,homer's or ,dante's1 for centuries the manual of his countrymen1 was barely known4 ,dryden1 ,addison1 ,pope1 were yet but forming the public mind4 ,in many respects1 too1 even had there not existed artists capable of constituting an epoch1 the writings of these distinguished men are not favorable to vigorous originality of thought in art4 ,their own immediate productions are impressed with the genuine stamp of nationality1 but their abstract system of criticism is often timid1 almost always conventional2 while in every remark on that subject1 they show inexperience of the true object and philosophy of art4 ,even ,addison here writes as a mere antiquarian1 and ,dryden with all the enthusiasm of poetry indeed1 but with little of the sober judgment which must guide the more laborious hand and less undefined shapes of the painter4 ,again1 the intellectual temperament and state of society favorable to the arts is directly opposed to those which promote scientific knowledge4 ,indeed1 between the spirit of analytical inquiry1 of minute research1 which belongs to the investigations of science1 and the creative fancy which tends to the successful exercise of the poet's or painter's art1 the dissimilarity appears so great1 that among the same people and at the same period1 high eminence in both has never yet been attained4 ,the amazing demonstrations of ,newton1 then1 and the profound speculations of ,locke1 were by no means favorable to painting1 while so entirely in infancy4 ,they spread abroad a different taste--they engaged in the pursuit every ardent and aspiring mind4 ,the sublime mysteries unveiled by the genius of ,newton gave an especial bias to men's minds1 and caused his own age to view with indifference1 as light and valueless1 pursuits which seemed but to minister to the amenities of life1 or to hang only as graceful ornaments upon society4 ,having thus faintly traced the rise and progress of painting in connexion with the history of the country1 we now proceed briefly to examine the principles and the practice of the ,british school1 under the general heads of ,portrait1 ,historical1 and ,landscape ,painting4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,sir ,,joshua ,,reynolds is the founder of the ,english school4 ,he is also the author of much that presently forms the most objectionable practice4 ,like every great artist1 ,sir ,joshua must be viewed in two lights--as he stands in reference to the circumstances of his own age1 and as an individual master in his profession4 ,as the immediate successor1 then1 of the artists already named1 and as elevating the art from their inanity to the state in which he left it1 he justly ranks among the small number who compose the reformers of taste4 ,in this aspect1 his genius exhibits no ordinary claims to the gratitude of posterity1 while here his merits are presented in the most favorable light4 ,for when these are considered1 on the other hand1 as regards the present influence of the principles upon which the reformation1 or perhaps commencement1 of the ,english school was established1 there will be found defect both in practice and theory4 ,indeed1 the theoretical part of his professional education appears to have been founded1 in the first instance1 upon the erroneous modes of the writers of the age of ,louis ,,xiv41 which were never laid aside1 though to a certain extent modified by his studies in ,italy4 ,in fact1 the pictures and the writings of ,sir ,joshua bear in this respect a striking resemblance--that the beauties of each break forth in despite of theory4 ,nature and good feeling1 operating unrestrained1 give to his paintings their best graces1 when the ideal perfection at which he aimed has at happy moments been forgotten4 ,in like manner1 his discourses are admirable1 when they deliver practical precepts1 explain the suggestions of experience1 or endeavor to reconcile refined taste with common sentiment4 ,but when they speak of the abstractions and idealities of art1 they become1 and have already proved1 most treacherous guides4 ,this he has himself exemplified1 for he has uniformly gone astray where he has implicitly followed these guides2 and it may be shown that the besetting sins of the ,english school spring from the same sources4 ,sir ,joshua's theory and his practice were in more than one respect inconsistent1 while neither adhered so closely to1 or at least did not render nature1 so faithfully and so minutely1 as is desirable4 ,his perceptions of form he derived1 or professed to derive1 from ,michael ,angelo2 but his practice is founded upon the principles of ,rembrandt4 ,from the explanation of these already given1 with this anticipation1 at some length1 it must at once appear1 that they were little calculated kindly to amalgamate with the decided lines1 refined science1 and lofty abstractions of the ,florentine4 ,but even of these principles1 ,sir ,joshua did not follow the most valuable portion1 namely1 the rigid fidelity of imitation which they enjoined4 ,he adopted them only in their concentration of light1 and deep contrast of shadow1 and in their massive coloring1 intended for inspection at a certain distance4 ,instead of careful resemblance1 he substituted middle forms1 and large masses without details2 or1 to refer here to his own words1 which he has most directly illustrated in his whole practice3--'the great style in art1 and the most perfect imitation of nature1 consist in avoiding the details and peculiarities of particular objects2' and again3 'the perfection of portrait painting consists in giving the general idea or character1 without individual peculiarities4' ,now1 whether these principles be regarded as they affect the practice of an imitative art1 and more especially in the department of portraiture2 or whether they be examined in reference to the philosophy of taste and composition in historical painting1 we apprehend they will be found not only reprehensible in themselves1 but to be the ground work upon which have been reared the present errors of our school4 ,it is for this reason that we shall examine them at some length4 ,there are two styles or modes of representation in painting1 which agree in producing the same general effect of resemblance1 but differ in the extent to which the resemblance of individual forms is carried2 or perhaps1 if the expression be allowed1 in the number of particular similitudes composing the aggregate resemblance4 ,it is evident from this definition1 that the portion of mental pleasure1 or exercise of the imagination1 arising from contemplating the productions of an imitative art1 merely as such1 will be increased just in proportion to the facilities afforded of augmenting comparisons between the prototype and the representation4 ,if this be denied1 it follows that the coarsest scene-painting is equal to the most finished landscape of ,claude2 for the general effect must be alike true in each4 ,but again1 since painting has not1 like poetry1 the advantage of repeated and progressive impressions2 the object which the painter must hold constantly1 and as primary1 in view1 is to add power to the first burst of effect which his work is to produce upon the mind4 ,when1 therefore1 attention to the individual resemblances has caused to be neglected or overlooked the grand result or aggregate of resemblance1 one of the greatest possible errors is committed4 ,the performance is justly condemned to a low grade in art1 because the author has both mistaken the real strength of the instrument which he wields1 and has shown himself defective in the highest quality of genius1--comprehension and creation of a whole4 ,thus there are two extremes in art2 and even on the adage of common life1 the mean must be preferable4 ,hence1 then1 even thus far ,sir ,joshua's maxim1 and the maxim of too large a proportion of our native school generally1 appears to be erroneous1 'in avoiding details and individual character4' ,but in each of these extremes are found its respective1 and to excellence1 indispensable advantages4 ,the nearer1 therefore1 they can be approached and reconciled1 the more perfect will be the style4 ,if this be doubted1 the practice of the best masters will accord with a conclusion derived from the very nature of an art at once imitative and liberal4 ,if we examine in this view the remains of classic sculpture1 we find1 indeed1 the masses and divisions few and simple1 in order to preserve the harmony and force of general effect2 but so far from details being excluded1 the ,elgin marbles have the very veins of the horses marked1 and are in every respect highly finished2 and as we approach the era of ,alexander1 though this particular circumstance in certain cases be laid aside1 yet the general divisions become even more numerous1 and the details still more minute4 ,among the moderns1 again1 those masters in the art now considered1 who are esteemed the most excellent1 are singularly remarkable for the quantity and variety of detail which they have harmonized into one grand and perfect whole4 ,for this we refer to the heads of ,raphael1 ,titian1 ,coreggio1 and ,vandyke1 which1 though broad and grand in general effect1 are so far from being defective in detail1 that each separate part would form a perfect study4 ,if1 again1 the history of art be considered1 it has been shown1 both in sculpture and in painting1 that during the infancy of each art1 details were imitated1 while the mind was yet unable to grasp the entire subject4 ,as improvement advanced1 and genius attained the full mastery of its weapons1 truth and number of constituents1 grandeur and unity of design1 crowned the whole4 ,inversely1 decline is perceived to commence in the neglect of those fine and almost evanescent details1 which compose the breathing1 the master-touches of a work of art4 ,successively the progress of corruption advances1 till little remain save large harsh masses1 from which state the downward path is rapid1 to the complete destitution of even general form4 ,how strongly1 for instance1 and in how short a space1 was this exemplified in the fortunes of ,greek sculpture in ,rome6 ,from the finishing of even ,ludovico ,caracci1 to the sprawlings of ,luca ,giordano1 how brief was the interval6 from the exquisitely pencilled and speaking portraits of ,vandyke to the glaring vacancies1 the undetailed middle forms1 of ,lely and ,kneller6 ,these reasonings1 so varied in their origin1 give but one uniform conclusion1 the very reverse of the principle upon which ,english portraits have been painted1 with few exceptions1 from the works of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds to those of the present day2--a conclusion1 showing that the excellence of art1 and the most perfect imitation of nature1 do not consist in 'the avoiding of details1' but in the happy union of detail and of individual resemblance with greatness and breadth of general power4 ,to avoid details is to rest contented with an inferior aim in art--to avoid1 in fact1 the chief difficulty and the chief glory that mark the career of the artist4 ,this gross style of mechanical practice1 which the theory now combated certainly originated1 has spread over the whole of ,english portraiture a coarseness of effect and unfinished appearance1 destitute of the agreeable lightness of a sketch1 and yet without the clear and well-defined solidity of a highly-wrought picture4 ,in like manner1 the striving at some delusive1 some shadowy excellence of general expression1 instead of representing the air and character exactly as in the countenance of the sitter1 has greatly depreciated the intellectual qualities of our art4 ,hence the unmeaning1 common-place look which most of portraits cast at the spectator4 ,doubtless1 in every countenance there is a general impress of thought or feeling1 which may be said to constitute the habitual mental likeness of the individual4 ,this it is of the first importance faithfully to transfer to the canvass4 ,without this1 indeed1 the most correct and elaborate pronouncing of the separate features is of no comparative value4 ,hence1 however1 it by no means follows1 that 'individual peculiarities' are to be resigned4 ,on the contrary1 when judiciously introduced1 they will give force by the very addition of individuality to the general resemblance4 ,it is this which imparts the speaking impress of thought and mind to the portraits of ,raphael and ,titian1 where 'the rapt soul sitting in the eye' seems to breathe1 in all its historic energies1 from the canvass4 ,it astonishes1 indeed1 that such precepts should have been delivered by one who must have been sensible1 that the reformation which he accomplished in contemporary art1 was mainly owing to his having exploded the very same notions of generalizing resemblance1 and of middle forms1 held by his predecessors4 ,in fact1 ,reynolds was superior to ,lely or ,kneller1 or even ,hudson1 chiefly as he approached nearer to nature1 by discarding mannered1 conventional1 and systematic modifications of her realities4 ,and he is superior to himself exactly in those works where he has left out his own peculiar 'ways of seeing nature1' and has given her honestly and faithfully as she actually did appear4 ,thus his best portraits are those of his intimate friends2--men whose habits of thought and action were pressed upon him by constant observance1 and in veneration of whom1 and of all that belonged to them1 he forgot his system in the subject before him4 ,such are the portraits of ,dr ,johnson1 of ,baretti1 of ,goldsmith1 of ,burney1 and two of the finest and most powerful likenesses in the world1 of ,john ,hunter and ,bishop ,newton4 ,as it was with ,sir ,joshua1 so will it be with every other artist4 ,he must not merely imitate1 he must resign himself to1 nature2 become as a little child1 leaving all artifice and false knowledge1 and receive from her the precepts of truth and soberness4 ,these remarks1 though now illustrated chiefly by reference to its founder1 are applicable more or less to the ,english school of portraiture generally4 ,indeed1 down to the masters of the present day1 these precepts operate1 and often not less decidedly than in the works of those who were the contemporaries of ,sir ,joshua4 ,of the latter1 the names of a few of the principal may now be enumerated4 ,romney1 who died in #ahjb1 ten years after the death of ,sir ,joshua1 was an original1 and to a great degree1 self-taught artist4 ,his style of design is simple1 his coloring warm and rich1 but his affectation of breadth has frequently induced a neglect of form1 with often too vague a generalization of sentiment4 ,the great failing of ,romney--one common1 indeed1 to all men1 in every profession1 who have not been regularly educated--is something defective in his general management1 so that the whole is rendered imperfect or displeasing from some peculiarity or immethodical management1 which early instruction would easily have enabled him to avoid4 ,opie has carried the principles of ,sir ,joshua to the very verge of coarse and indistinct1 from which the force of his own genius has scarcely secured him4 ,his portraits have frequently not more detail than a sketch1 yet are usually heavy and laboured in effect4 ,though undoubtedly possessing high talent1 ,opie's success was owing not less to the circumstances under which he rose1 than to intrinsic merit4 ,he is1 however1 a very unequal artist1 sometimes attaining great beauty1 at others falling beneath himself1 which renders it difficult to pronounce generally2 besides1 he has several manners1 though in each1 the large and unfinished style predominates4 ,great allowance is1 however1 undoubtedly to be made for him1 whose first portrait was painted by stealth1 in moments snatched from the menial occupation of carrying offals to the house-dog of his first employer4 ,such was his employment as house-boy in the family of ,walcott1 the portrait being that of the butcher1 and which there is reason to believe was painted in the shambles4 ,no where in the history of mind1 do we find such amazing instances of the power of talent over circumstances as in art4 ,from painting likenesses at seven and sixpence in ,truro1 'the ,cornish boy' came to ,london with thirty guineas in his pocket1 and1 with hardly any instructions1 save advice from ,sir ,joshua1 made his way to fame and fortune4 ,next to ,sir ,joshua1 of the contemporary painters1 ,romney and ,opie supported undoubtedly the first rank1 though many others1 of considerable merit1 would deserve notice in a more extended narrative4 ,we shall therefore now direct attention to ,historical and ,landscape ,painting4 ,the excellence and amazing number of its portraits1 has occasioned the merits of the ,english school of history to appear less than they really are4 ,indeed1 where portraiture is practised on the principles of grand art1 as in this country1 there must be excellence in all the departments of the profession2 and the opinion so prevalent1 that portrait is an inferior branch1 has seriously prejudiced both divisions of the art4 ,it has withdrawn the historical painter1 as1 by way of exclusive eminence1 he was solicitous to be named1 from the careful study of nature in her individual modes and forms--the only true source of ideal perfection2 while it has damped the precious enthusiasm which arises from the consciousness of dignified pursuit1 by placing the portrait painter in the degraded rank of a secondary artizan4 ,the more elevated the standard to which1 in any study1 the mind is taught to aspire1 the nobler will be the fruits of exertion2 but where less is expected1 less will be accomplished4 ,the portrait painter1 feeling that he would not receive credit for beauties of which his art was deemed incapable1 has been too ready to take the public at their own word1 and to remain contented with the inferiority they were thus willing to accept4 ,but the very reverse of all this is the truth4 ,no essential principle of high art may not be exhibited1 and indeed every one is to be found1 in a first-rate portrait4 ,such works1 too1 are equally1 perhaps even more rare1 and by the same authors1 as the masterpieces of historical composition4 ,hence we are conducted to our first premise as a conclusion1 that where portraiture has been successfully practised1 history must also flourish4 ,a reference to the annals of the latter will prove this to be the case among ourselves1 at least to a greater extent than is the general impression4 ,even from the time of ,henry ,,viii4 we find historical painting in repute2 some of ,holbein's works from history remain even more admirable than his portraits4 ,in the reign of ,mary1 ,antonio ,more was eminent1 though against his inclination employed chiefly in portraiture4 ,elizabeth1 in like manner1 patronized ,zucchero2 and the portraits of ,hilliard1 one of the first ,english artists of merit1 are in some instances1 though of small size1 almost historical1 as ,donne bears witness3 ----,or hand or eye ,by ,hilliard drawn is worth a history ,by a worse painter made4 ,the labours of ,rubens and ,vandyke under ,charles1 especially the ,banqueting-,house at ,whitehall by the former1 continue to show that history was not unpatronized4 ,still no ,english school can properly be said to have been formed till the eighteenth century1 when ,sir ,james ,thornhill1 in the reign of ,queen ,anne1 was appointed historical painter to the court4 ,the works of this artist are numerous1 and we are disposed to rank them higher than they are commonly appreciated4 ,those in ,st4 ,paul's and at ,greenwich are well known2 and though it be questionable whether they could have been much better executed by any other artist at that time in ,europe1 yet so miserable was the encouragement1 that ,thornhill is reported to have been paid for some of these labours by the square yard for two pounds4 ,thus the annals of historical painting in ,england furnish little to reward research or to interest the reader1 previous to the appearance of ,hogarth1 born #afih1 in the ,old ,bailey1 the son of a schoolmaster1 and died in #agfd1 being the first native artist who proved that there existed subject in our manners1 and talent in our land1 for other painting than portrait4 ,hogarth claims the highest praise of genius2 he was an original inventor2 nay1 more1 he both struck out a new path1 and qualified himself to walk therein4 ,from an engraver of armorial bearings and ornaments on plate1 he taught himself to be a painter4 ,the aim of no artist has been more mistaken1 at least estimated on principles more opposed1 than that of ,hogarth4 ,some have ranked him as a satirical1 some as a grotesque painter1 while others have not scrupled to rate him merely as a caricaturist4 ,if1 however1 historical painting consist in the delineation of manners1 in the expression of sentiment1 and in striking representation of natural character1 few names in art will stand higher than ,hogarth2 while1 beyond most painters1 he has extended the bounds of the art1 in the alliance which he has formed between the imagination and the heart1--between amusing of the external sense and the profound reflections thus awakened4 ,his pictures are not merely passing scenes1 or momentary actions2 they are profound moral lessons4 ,it is this which raises him far above the ,dutch or ,flemish school1 with whose general imitation of national customs1 his firm and individual grasp of the morality of common life has with great injustice been confounded4 ,from the lofty abstractions of the ,italian masters1 again1 he differs widely1 but not1 as usually supposed1 because he represents low1 but because he paints real life4 ,in this respect1 the observation of ,walpole1 that1 ',hogarth's place is between the ,italians1 whom we may consider as epic poets and tragedians2 and the ,flemish painters1 who are as writers of farce1 and editors of burlesque nature1' is founded in utter mistake1 or misrepresentation2 he never forgave the artist's independence of his connoisseurship4 ,hogarth's place is not between1 but above and apart4 ,he 'holds the mirror up to nature1' not to exhibit graphic powers of mimicry1 not to depict the sublimity of mind1 or the idealities of form1 but 'to show ,vice her own features1' man 'his own image4' ,his predecessor thus standing alone1 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds claims to be the founder of ,english historical painting in its recognised acceptation4 ,indeed1 his principles already1 or hereafter to be explained1 have been followed by all succeeding artists1 or have influenced practice in history no less than in portraiture4 ,and what this influence accomplished in the latter1 it certainly has also effected in the former department1 with this difference indeed1 that in the first it created1 in the second improved1 giving to each a large1 bold1 and energetic manner1 which was at least a step greatly in advance1 a most respectable approximation1 in the path of excellence4 ,but this1 as a resting-place1 was far less perfect in history than in any other branch of the art1 since the style was adverse to attainment in many of those qualities justly deemed essential4 ,hence is ,sir ,joshua not only inferior to himself in history1 but his example has1 on the whole1 retarded the advancement of the study amongst us4 ,successors have either too often rested in imitation of his manner1 or they have carried his principles forward1 in which case they are unfortunately calculated to lead farther from the genuine sources of pure taste and substantial composition4 ,the masterpieces of ,sir ,joshua are his representations of children2 and in many historical1 or rather fancy pieces of this character1 as the ,infant ,hercules1 the ,strawberry ,girl1 ,puck1 ,cupid and ,psyche1 ,hope nursing ,love1 his labours are truly admirable4 ,such subjects were just fitted to his bland and flowing pencil1 while they suffered nothing from undecided form and contours feebly expressed4 ,the arch1 yet simple expression1 the lovely1 yet almost grotesque individuality of character1 in the heads of his children1 the execution1 and even coloring--all is equally natural and exquisite4 ,they are among the most perfect gems of art4 ,only second to the similar productions of ,coreggio1 they are superior to everything done on the ,continent since the days of ,rubens and ,fiammingo4 ,it appears singular1 then1 on the first view of the matter1 that ,sir ,joshua should have so frequently failed1 and on the whole left so few good female portraits1 while so nearly attaining perfection in subjects of allied grace and loveliness4 ,but it is to be remarked1 a style of handling broad and facile1 yet peculiarly soft and fleshy1 which in these instances produces effects so beautiful without much finish1 is not equally adapted to express the equally soft1 yet decided forms and delicate movements of the female countenance4 ,besides1 ,sir ,joshua had peculiar notions of grace1 which affected ease and nature1 rather than actually represented the easy and the natural4 ,he wished to avoid stiffness1 and has often lapsed into the contrasted and theatrical4 ,his picture of ,mrs ,siddons1 as the ,tragic ,muse1 however1 is pronounced by ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence to be 'a work of the highest epic character1 and indisputably the finest female portrait in the world4' ,how far1 however1 either that1 or the no less celebrated picture of ,garrick1 can rank with historical portraitures1 at least considered with those of ,raphael and ,titian1 may justly be questioned4 ,of the more elevated and serious historical compositions of ,sir ,joshua1 the ,death of ,cardinal ,beaufort is the grandest1 the best drawn1 and the most powerfully colored2 the only defect is the expression1 which is too material2 ,ugolino is a failure1 if intended for the fierce inmate of ,dante's 'tower of famine3' these want dignity and truth of character4 ,the designs at ,oxford are fine2 the ,nativity1 in imitation of the famous ,notte of ,coreggio1 is a splendid performance4 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 then1 owed more to taste and application than to genius2 more to incessant practice than to science2 he derived all from his predecessors which he has bequeathed to posterity2 but if1 in making the transmission1 he added no new nor essential principle of imitation or invention1 he established in high practical excellence the arts of his country4 ,among those whose labours in historical painting connect the former with the present school1 ,barry stands foremost in time as in merit4 ,the performances of this artist exhibit1 in a very striking manner1 the justice of some of the preceding remarks4 ,they are destitute of the most essential and touching graces of imitative representation2 they want1 in short1 all that portraiture1 which their author affected to despise1 could have given--life1 nature1 truth1 and sweetness1 without this absence being compensated by any extraordinary beauties of what is termed higher art4 ,the drawing1 though often good1 is also not seldom defective2 while the coloring is uniformly harsh1 and the management without force4 ,imagination and invention run riot without due control of the judgment2 not that the fervor of poetic enthusiasm snatches a too daring grace1 but rather the unpruned fertility of conception frequently unites the most glaring incongruities4 ,yet ,barry is far from being without power or science2 his great deficiences were a chaste taste and mellowed practice4 ,no man better understood1 or has written more learnedly1 on the abstract principles of composition2 indeed1 he has been accused of devoting too much attention to the mere theory and literature of his art1 while he neglected ,raphael's golden application of ,cicero's maxim--',nulla dies sine linea4' ,there existed1 however1 in the character of ,barry1 notwithstanding a rudeness of exterior1 and ignorance or disregard of the proprieties of polished life1 a moral grandeur of unshaken resolve1 of enduring enthusiasm1 of stern and uncompromising self-denial1 in his professional career1 which invest his memory with no common interest4 ,the man who could undertake1 alone1 and with no certain prospect of remuneration1 one of the greatest works which has been attempted within two centuries--and that1 too1 with only sixteen shillings in his pocket2 who1 during seven years of struggle1 prosecuted that work to a completion1 often thus labouring all day1 while he sat up the greater part of the night finishing some sketch for the publishers1 in order to make provision for the passing hour2--such a man presents claims to admiration of higher dignity than even those of genius4 ,the great work undertaken and finished amid these difficulties1 is the series of six pictures1 of the size of life1 representing the progress of civilization1 in the ,hall of the ,society of ,arts2 and it reflects the highest honor on that useful institution1 that its gratuitous reward enabled the artist to enjoy his only permanent1 though small income1 of about #fj yearly4 ,that such a member should have been ejected from the ,royal ,academy of ,great ,britain1 in which also he held the ,chair of ,painting1 must be considered as a common calamity both to that body and to himself3 to him it certainly was1 for the degradation embittered the enjoyment1 and very seriously impaired the means1 of existence4 ,barry died in #ahjf1 having been born at ,cork in #agda2 rising from a sailor boy1 chalking his rude fancies on the deck of his father's coaster1 self-taught1 to be the painter now described--the learned writer on his art--the friend of ,samuel ,johnson and of ,edmund ,burke4 ,many other names of minor reputation might be mentioned1--as ,hayman1 ,mortimer1 c41--who occasionally with portrait1 painted history1 but to no extent4 ,this branch of the art1 except for the labours of the late ,sir ,benjamin ,west1 at the close of the last century1 would almost have been without a representative amongst us4 ,from that period1 very great progress in all the departments has been realized4 ,still1 to the ancient grandeur of the historic style this venerable artist has continued to make the nearest approaches4 ,to the ,new ,world1 succeeding ages will stand indebted for ,west2 but for the painter1 the arts are under obligation to ,england4 ,it is singular1 too1 that the advice and services of a ,scotsman were the immediate inducements which prevented this ornament of two worlds from returning to his native country1 in which case his talents would most probably have been lost to both4 ,the state of patronage and of taste could not have afforded to him the means nor the incitement of rising beyond portrait1 in which we do not think ,west would ever have excelled4 ,two incidents in his lot reflect equal honor on his native and his adopted country1--like many other moral analogies1 evincing the common possession of a congenial liberality and kindliness of spirit1 which ought1 and will1 we trust1 ever mingle its best affections in reciprocally advantageous and amicable intercourse4 ,in the land of his birth1 the opening genius of ,west was cheered with a truly tender solicitude2 his future advance and his future fame seemed less the care of individual friends than of his countrymen4 ,and1 from #agfc1 on first setting foot in ,britain1 during the long course of his life1 he received more encouragement from her sovereign and her people than has ever been accorded to any historical painter1 native or foreign2 this1 too1 in the midst of an unhappy1 and1 as then considered1 rebellious contest4 ,when we consider the labours of ,sir ,benjamin1 in reference either to ,english or ,continental art1 they have1 in both points of view1 a high1 but not an equal rank4 ,in the former1 they are unrivalled in magnitude1 in progressive improvement1 and in the excellence of the principles upon which they are composed4 ,in comparing them with foreign art1 their merits are not so absolute2 but here we shall use the words of the present accomplished president4 ',at an era1' says ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence1 'when historical painting was at the lowest ebb1 7with the few exceptions which the claims of the beautiful and the eminent permitted to the pencil of ,sir ,joshua71 ,mr ,west1 sustained by the munificent patronage of his late ,majesty1 produced a series of compositions1 from sacred and profane history1 profoundly studied1 and executed with the most facile power1 which not only were superior to any former productions of ,english art1 but1 far surpassing contemporary merit on the ,continent1 were unequalled at any period below the schools of the ,caracci4' ,in support of this high encomium1 ,sir ,thomas instances 'the ,return of ,regulus to ,carthage1' and 'the ,shipwreck of ,st ,paul1'--pictures which amply testify the superiority we have assumed to exist in the living arts of ,britain4 ,these1 however1 are by no means the only master-pieces of ,west1 whose great glory it is to have proceeded on a system which admits of indefinite1 and which tends to certain improvement4 ,even to his eightieth year he was employed in new exercises1 not inferior to1 or in some respects excelling1 the enterprises of his vigorous strength4 ,the cause of his late eminence bears strongly upon the whole tenor of our remarks in treating of ,sculpture1 and will best be explained in his own words4 ,in #ahaa1 writing to ,lord ,elgin1 the artist thus expresses himself3 'in the last production of my pencil1 which ,i now invite your lordship to see1 it has been my ambition1 though at a very advanced period of life1 to introduce those refinements in art1 which are so distinguished in your collection1'--7the ,phidian ,marbles of the ,parthenon47 ',had ,i been blest with seeing and studying these emanations of genius at an earlier period of life1 the sentiment of their pre-eminence would have animated all my exertions2 and more character1 and expression1 and life1 would have pervaded my humble attempts at historical painting4' ,it is the soundness and regularity of principle expressed in1 or whose existence is clearly deducible from1 the entertaining of such views1 that constitutes the great merit of the pictures of ,west4 ,it is these qualities1 too1 which impart to them their utility and high value as a school of art4 ,as far as they go1 they may safely and without reserve be recommended to the student4 ,here he will not be led astray by brilliant though false theory1 nor degraded into mannerism by peculiar though striking modes1 which can please only from their peculiarity1 and when they exhibit the result of native invention4 ,all here is placed upon the broad highway of universal art2 all is equable1 uniformly correct1 firm1 and respectable2 no compensation of error by an occasional loftiness of flight3 the stream of invention sweeps onward calmly and majestically2 if not conducting to scenes of the most stupendous sublimity1 flowing at least without cataract or whirlpool1 through a magnificence which is grand from its very regularity and usefulness4 ,in these works we discover this1 perhaps singular character1 that in them we detect many wants1 but no defects4 ,the composition1 grouping and symmetry1 are unexceptionable2 the drawing is particularly fine1 yet without the statue-like design of the ,french school4 ,but to animate this beautiful framework of art--to inspire these moulds of form and emblems of intelligence with action and sentiment--the touch of that genius1 to whose final aims external science furnishes the bare instrument1 is wanting4 ,the representation is chaste and beautiful1 but it is too clearly a representation2 there wants the almost o'er-informing mind1 the freshness of natural feeling1 which give to art its truest1 only mastery over the human spirit4 ,the surpassing softness and variety of our island scenery seems to have inspired a corresponding beauty and vigorous diversity into our school of ,landscape4 ,rural imagery may almost be said to mingle in every dream of ,english enjoyment4 ,hence this department of our arts has always been popular1 and1 as a necessary consequence of encouragement1 has been cultivated with ardor and success4 ,only1 indeed1 when ,english artists have forsaken ,english nature1 or have attempted to unite classical allegory with heroic landscape1 as it is called1 have they failed in this delightful branch4 ,from an early period in the eighteenth century1 the school may be said to commence1 and thenceforward may justly be said to have remained unrivalled by contemporary merit in any other country4 ,one department indeed of landscape1 and that too a very charming one1 namely water-color1 has been1 by ,british artists1 not only invented1 it may be said1 but raised into a most beautiful and useful branch of dignified art4 ,nor let landscape be deemed1 as too frequently1 an inferior department3 it certainly requires not the highest genius1 yet so many qualities must unite in the same individual before he can attain excellence here1 that ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds used to say1 'there is more likely to be another ,raphael than a second ,claude4' ,yet more than one native has approached the eminence of the latter4 ,commencing with the last century1 the following arrangement will include the most esteemed landscape painters of this country4 ,first ,class4 ,wilson1 born #agad1 died #aghb1 the first of ,english landscape painters2 aerial perspective very fine1 not surpassed by ,claude2 great fidelity in representing natural effects2 coloring1 especially in his later pictures1 somewhat dry2 objects rather indeterminate4 ,gainsborough1 #agbg-hh2 a painter of universal but irregular genius2 in his landscapes the most decidedly ,english of all our great masters4 ,wright1 #agcd-ig2 exquisite finishing and wonderful effects of light1 especially in his ,eruption of ,vesuvius1 rising and setting sun2 touch delicate2 coloring fresh and transparent4 ,morland1 #agfd-ahjf2 it is not easy exactly to class this artist1 as his landscapes are generally accessory only to his figures1 while these latter are hardly of sufficient interest without such accessories4 ,whatever ,morland accomplished was rather by the force of genius1 than through study or knowledge1 with the exception of some of his pictures painted about #aghi-ie4 ,his great excellences lie in the unaffected exhibition of broad and vulgar character1 and in the representation of domestic animals1 pigs1 sheep1 donkeys1 and worn-out horses2 for as he drew merely by force of eye1 his ignorance of anatomy prevented him from attempting that 'noble creature' in perfect condition4 ,moreland's back-grounds and distances are often truly admirable4 ,second ,class4 ,wooton1 died #agfe1 excellent in field-sports1 horses1 dogs1 and landscape2 but his touch and coloring are indistinct4 ,lambert1 #agaj-agfe1 chaste and harmonious coloring1 with a slight degree of monotony2 distances sweet2 followed ,g4 ,poussin1 whose occasional faults in harshness and black shadow he has avoided1 though left far behind in sublimity and variety of composition4 ,barrett1 from the sister isle1 self-instructed1 yet none of our native school has more happily caught the characteristic features of ,english landscape3 his touch1 though defective in detail1 is rapid1 and forcibly distinguishes1 at least by their general forms1 the different elements of natural composition4 ,marlow1 concerning whom there are no exact dates1 and ,scott1 born in #agaj1 died in #aggb1--;both excel in marine views2 the latter is scarcely surpassed by the best masters of the ,flemish school1 and the finishing of the former is particularly happy1 though he fails in trees1 when attempting inland scenery4 ,third ,class4 ,this division includes many landscape painters of various1 some1 indeed1 of very high merit1 whose labours extend from the commencement of the eighteenth to an early part of the present century4 ,of this class the principal names are the following3 ,smiths of ,chichester1 especially ,john and ,george1 and ,smith of ,derby2--it is singular that all three were self-taught4 ,the two ,gilpins of ,carlisle2 the elder by pictures of horses and wild animals1 and the ,rev4 ,william ,gilpin1 by his writings and landscapes1 have added much to this department4 ,sandby of ,nottingham1 a most exquisite landscape draughtsman1 as also were ,cozens and ,hearne1 whose paintings have great value in fidelity1 and whose drawings contributed not a little towards forming the present school of water-color painting4 ,tull imitated too closely the ,dutch masters4 ,wheately excelled both in minor history and landscape1 especially in rural subjects4 ,dean1 a native of ,ireland1 some good ,italian landscapes4 ,dayes1 ,devis1 of which names there were three artists more or less connected with landscape4 ,two ,pethers of ,chichester2 ,william1 both a painter and engraver of landscapes2 ,abraham excelled in moonlight scenes1 exercising the pencil with remarkable sweetness1 luxuriance1 and transparency of coloring2 he died in #ahab4 ,of all the landscape painters of the ,british school1 ,wilson and ,gainsborough are undoubtedly the first2 nor is it easy to discriminate between them4 ,wilson excels in splendour of effect and magnificence of composition2 but ,gainsborough is more natural and pleasing1 at least in his early pictures4 ,latterly he introduced the notion of an ideal beauty in rural nature1 which has too frequently been imitated4 ,both possessed genius in no ordinary degree2 but though to the first has been conceded the higher walk as it has been called1 because imaginative1 to the latter belongs that temperament of mind more essential1 we think1 to the landscape painter1 which powerfully conceives the objects of contemplation1 and places them in vivid reality before the eye and the fancy4 ,each has failed in the grand difficulty of landscape--the proper introduction of figures2 and in the besetting defect of the ,english school--slovenly execution1 and want of detail4 ,here the remarks are not confined to these artists alone1 but express rather the general character4 ,among the masters of historical painting1 as ,titian1 ,caracci1 ,n4 ,poussin1 ,rubens1 who excelled in landscape incidentally1 as it were1 the scene is always subordinate to the figures4 ,this is generally the case1 too1 with those who more directly professed historical or heroic landscape1 as ,salvator ,rosa1 ,albano1 ,franceso ,bolonese1 with many of the most celebrated ,flemish and ,dutch artists4 ,in this case the landscape is introduced either to exhibit some scenic propriety1 or as a mere embellishment of the historical design4 ,the great difficulty here lies in maintaining subordination and unity1 yet preserving the interest1 of the respective parts of the composition4 ,in these beauties ,claude completely fails1 as do also ,wilson1 and most ,english artists who have made the attempt4 ,the landscape overwhelms the story1 while the story generally discredits the landscape2 or1 the attention being equally divided between both1 the interest of each is weakened4 ,this is sometimes the case with ,gainsborough1 often with ,morland1 and still more frequently in the ,dutch school4 ,in landscape painting1 properly considered1 the figures should always be subordinate1 forming merely a part of1 and corresponding with1 the scene2 most especially when that scene is from nature1 and with her beauties ever fresh renewed1 inexhaustible--there is something almost unhallowed in thrusting upon us the inferior1 and mannered and crowded compositions of mere imagination4 ,nor is it a matter merely of taste2 everything which has a tendency to lead the mind and the imagination of the artist away from nature1 tends also to the deterioration of art4 ,hence the absurdities so visible in the history of this particular branch--,nature represented as if seen through a ,claude-,lorraine-glass--skies gleaming and glaring under the appellations of sunrises and sunsets1--buildings of fantastic form and uninhabitable dimensions1 under the name of ,italian ruins--foliage and fields in every variety of tint1 save the soft1 quiet1 unobtrusive hues of leaves and herbage4 ,surely of all painters1 the ,british landscape painter is least excusable in deviating from the reality around him1 which presents every element of his art in its best perfection1 from the softest beauty in a freshness of dewy verdure elsewhere unknown1 to the wildest sublimity of lake1 mountain1 wood1 and torrent6 ,even in the gorgeous magnificence of our changing sky1 there is a gloriousness1 and grandeur of effect1 which we have never seen even in ,italy4 ,if1 again1 he seek for objects of moral interest1 there is the feudal fortalice--the cloistered abbey--the storied minster--the gothic castle1 with all their rich associations2--there the mouldering monument--the fields of conflict1 the scenes of tradition1 of poetry1 and of love--and1 far amid the wild upland1 gleams the mossy stone1 and bends the solitary ash1 over the martyr of his faith4 ,for such as these the imagination can give us no equivalents4 ,coarse and undetailed1 though talented1 execution1 has overspread every department of the ,british school4 ,in the present branch1 however1 this manner seems especially misplaced4 ,a landscape painting1 more than any other1 is viewed merely as a work of art4 ,consequently1 the mind feels dissatisfied in the absence of those qualities of finished execution and delicate management1 which constitute the essential value and character of art as such4 ,the imitation requires not only to be general2 but1 to give entire pleasure1 we must be enabled also to trace with ease minute and varied resemblances4 ,the work thus affords almost the endless gratification of nature's own productions4 ,but we shall not rest the objections to loose practice on grounds that might be disputed as a matter of dubious taste4 ,the evil is not stayed in the effect1 but endangers the very existence of its own rapid creations4 ,where the study is general effect only1 the next object must necessarily be to produce that effect speedily3 indeed1 such a style completely excludes the care requisite to proper elaboration and transparent coloring4 ,hence tints are used1 which soonest attain to the general end in view2 but such tints are exactly those which fade the soonest4 ,hence the blackness1 rawness1 and want of harmony1 in so many ,english landscapes4 ,hence1 also1 the clear and silvery tones which seem indestructible in the exquisitely finished landscapes of ,claude1 and the most eminent foreign artists4 ,generally1 indeed1 the best masters in this branch are decidedly those who have finished with due care4 ,of the works of our own school1 those are also the most excellent as essays of genius1 which are the most judiciously laboured as performances of art4 ,we may now turn our attention for a little to the past state of painting in ,scotland4 ,during the eighteenth century1 though there can hardly be said to have existed any separate style1 so as to merit the distinction of a school apart from that of the empire generally1 yet several very respectable ,scottish artists are found to have practised both in ,london and ,edinburgh4 ,in the latter capital1 towards the close of that period1 a school gradually arose1 which1 considering the resources of the country1 the opportunities of improvement1 the means of patronage1 and latterly1 the merits of its individual masters1 especially of its head1 the late ,sir ,henry ,raeburn1 displays an inferiority certainly not greater than might reasonably be expected4 ,or we will go farther2 when the invigorating influence of royal countenance and protection upon the fine arts1 the superior wealth and intelligence congregated in the seat of legislature1 are viewed--all concurring to foster and advance art in the capital2 and when1 on the other hand1 we reflect1 not merely on the absence of these advantages1 but on the positive detriment of a non-resident nobility1 whose presence might in some measure supply other deficiencies1 it must be matter of astonishment1 not that ,scottish painting is inferior1 but that it is so nearly equal1 to that of ,london4 ,but there needs not an appeal merely to relative excellence2 the absolute merits of some of the masters now in ,edinburgh1 or belonging to ,scotland1 are not surpassed in their respective departments4 ,it is far from the intention1 in these remarks1 to institute any invidious distinctions1 but to state fairly the claims of ,edinburgh1 and that the talents of her artists1 and the zeal of her people1 place her1 not among the secondary cities1 but among the capitals of ,europe4 ,it ought also to be remembered1 that in no instance are the arts of any kingdom more indebted1 than those of the ,british ,empire to ,scotsmen4 ,not to mention the exertions of ,gavin ,hamilton1 himself an artist1 whose discoveries and knowledge of antique art materially assisted the general restoration of taste--and we do know that1 in this light1 ,canova both regarded and ever spoke of him with gratitude--there are two cases more immediate to the present purpose4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 at his own risk and expense1 though afterwards1 as was only proper1 in part repaid1 made the most splendid collection of ancient vases now in the world1 excepting that of ,naples4 ,these are in the ,british ,museum1 and have not merely refined taste1 but have most materially improved the useful arts of the country4 ,the ,earl of ,elgin's inestimable treasures of ancient sculpture have enriched ,britain with examples of unrivalled excellence1 and which have already mainly contributed to the present superiority of her genius in art4 ,these precious remains1 with indefatigable assiduity1 at a ruinous and hopeless expenditure1 collected--an enterprise in which kings had formerly failed--he gave to his country on repayment of not nearly his own outlay1 though we have reason to know1 through the late venerable ,denon1 that the former government of ,france offered to the possessor his own terms4 ,the meritorious act of removal indeed has1 with schoolboy enthusiasm1 and maudlin sentimentality1 been deplored as a despoiling of a classic monument4 ,how utterly absurd is this1 to lament that the time-honored labours of ancient ,greece did not sink for ever beneath the violence of the despot and the ignorance of the slave1 instead of being1 as now1 in the midst of an admiring and enlightened people1 shedding abroad their beauty and their intelligence1 again to revive in our living arts6 ,jamieson1 the first of whom there is interesting notice1 and one of the most accomplished of the ,scottish artists1 died in ,edinburgh #afdd4 ,his labours1 with those of the succeeding century1 are connected by works and names1 as ,norrie1 elder and younger1 now fast hastening1 or already1 with no injustice1 consigned1 to oblivion4 ,the times1 agitated as they were by political and religious dissensions1 offered little encouragement to the arts of elegance and peace4 ,throughout the early part of the eighteenth century1 however1 to the era even of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 individual artists1 natives of ,scotland1 may be mentioned1 of attainments and practice superior to any in the history of painting during the same period in ,england4 ,the cause of this is evident in the more accomplished professional education which the former received4 ,the intercourse between ,scotland and ,italy1 owing to various political causes1 and to the great number of ,scotch residents in the latter country1 was then very close2 hence1 after attaining all that home instruction could give1 hardly a single ,scottish artist of eminence can be mentioned1 who had not1 by an abode in ,italy1 finished his studies where alone the highest and truest knowledge can be obtained4 ,it would be needless to combat the opinion1 that such a process is unnecessary4 ,no artist1 with a mind open to the real beauties of his profession1 can visit ,italy without reaping the most solid advantages1 otherwise unattainable4 ,in this respect1 too1 the ,scottish artist seemed to enjoy a security in the very poverty of native art2 for if he saw little to excite ambition1 enough remained to direct study1 without taste being influenced by the popularity of false modes4 ,hence it is not more than justice to state1 that in the works of the following names1 there is to be found a more uniformly pure and dignified style1 if not of higher excellence1 than generally distinguishes contemporary art4 ,ramsay1 son of the poet1 inherited no small portion of his father's love of nature1 and power of unaffected delineation of her simplicity4 ,his portraits present1 in these respects1 a charm quite refreshing1 when compared with the staring mannerism of the ,anglo-,german school1 founded by ,lely and ,kneller4 ,ramsay remained three years in ,italy1 from #agcf4 ,of his accomplishments1 ,dr ,johnson has left this testimony3 'you will not find a man in whose conversation there is more instruction1 more information1 and more elegance1 than in ,ramsay's4' ,runciman1 an excellent draughtsman and pleasing colorist1 born in #agcf4 ,several historical paintings1 executed at ,rome and in ,edinburgh1 evince very considerable powers both of composition and practice4 ,he was for a length of time a very efficient teacher in the ,scottish ,academy of design4 ,more1 the ,scottish ,claude1 as he is sometimes termed1 whom also he selected as his model4 ,without1 however1 reaching the depth of coloring and beautiful nature which are found in that admirable painter1 there are many stations which may be filled with honor4 ,in one of these ,more is to be placed1 while his figures have very great propriety both of selection and in the manner of introducing them4 ,his subjects are usually ,italian scenes1 in the neighborhood of ,rome1 where he chiefly resided1 and died in #agie4 ,to these1 other names of considerable merit might be added1 as ,cochrane1 ,sir ,george ,chalmers2 ,barker1 too1 the inventor of panoramic painting1 was1 we believe1 a native of ,scotland1 at least1 the first work of the kind ever exhibited was in ,edinburgh4 ,martin1 who visited ,italy in company with ,ramsay1 practised portrait painting with considerable reputation1 till he retired from his professional labours on the increasing and merited popularity of his distinguished contemporary1 under whom the ,scottish school assumes a dignified importance1 heretofore denied to its comparatively isolated endeavors4 ,sir ,henry ,raeburn1 the representative of painting in ,scotland from #aghg to his death #ahbc1 was born in a suburb of the capital1 #agef4 ,of all the distinguished artists who have attained excellence1 without any peculiarity of manner1 perhaps ,raeburn owes least to others and most to himself in the acquisition of his art4 ,originally apprenticed to a goldsmith1 it does not appear that he ever received a single lesson from a master even in the ordinary accomplishments of drawing4 ,from painting miniatures with success during his apprenticeship1 he turned his attention to large portraiture in oil1 with no other assistance than merely copying a few portraits could give4 ,even these early productions must have possessed merit1 since they obtained the approbation of ,sir ,joshua1 by whose advice he visited ,italy1 remaining abroad two years1 thus completing the round of his professional studies4 ,the character of ,sir ,henry's art participates strongly in that which has prevailed in ,british portraiture during the last fifty years4 ,it in fact presents the very ideal of that style whose aim is to speak most powerfully to the imagination1 through the slenderest means addressed to the eye4 ,his pictures afford the finest1 we might say the most wonderful examples1 how far detail may be sacrificed1 and yet general effect and striking resemblance be retained4 ,in this respect he has carried the principles of ,sir ,joshua to the very verge of indistinctness2 but what is given has such vigorous meaning1 that in the power of the leading forms1 the fancy discovers an intelligence1 which1 overspreading the whole composition1 and bursting from each master line1 guides the mind triumphantly over the blank masses often composing the interior4 ,if1 then1 to produce strong effect1 by whatsoever means1 be the object of art1 ,raeburn has succeeded beyond most painters2 but if true excellence consist in blending into one harmonious whole the delicate markings and grand contours of nature1 he has failed2 if pictures are to be viewed only on the walls of a gallery1 at a distance from the spectator1 his portraits correspond with this arrangement2 but if the eye loves to rest upon features dear to the affections1 or prized by the understanding--if delight to trace the shades of feeling and the lines of thought--if these wishes can be gratified1 and are indulged in the masterpieces of art1 then does ,raeburn1 and not only he1 but the great majority of the ,english school1 rest far behind4 ,the error1 in his individual instance1 as in most others1 lies in the system4 ,to this1 also1 which recognizes mere effect and general resemblance as all1 is to be ascribed his frequent disregard of correct outline1 his black and square shadows1 and coarseness of coloring4 ,yet ,raeburn saw nature with the eye of true genius1 for he caught her essential forms1 and often her most effective graces2 but either his industry disdained1 or his art was unable1 to add the rest4 ,the leading events and principal masters in the past history of ,british art have now been rapidly surveyed4 ,upon the living ornaments of the school1 individually1 it scarcely falls under the province of the annalist1 nor is it his intention1 to dwell4 ,it is not1 that matter of still farther congratulation would not thus be afforded in the evidence of national progress2 for at no time has the ,english school occupied a more elevated position1 whether compared with others1 or with itself4 ,but1 estimated thus highly and thus truly1 the general eminence has still gradations1 which1 in entering upon detail1 it would be incumbent to point out4 ,the responsibility of this duty it is the wish to avoid4 ,an opinion ventured upon works left by their authors to the guardianship of posterity1 may be canvassed in its truth or falsehood as an abstract criticism1 without either wounding the feelings of the living1 or1 it may be1 injuring the value of professional labour4 ,from judicious observations when called for1 an artist has to fear nothing1 and may profit much2 but it should ever be remembered1 that the professional merit must be humble indeed1 which does not render the possessor superior to his self-constituted judge1 who is himself not an artist4 ,a sound judgment in literature1 or an acquaintance with the general principles upon which all works of taste must necessarily be conducted1 are not sufficient1 without practical skill1 truly to estimate a production of art4 ,the poet employs vehicles of thought and signs of expression familiar to all as the use of reason2 the means and instruments of the painter constitute in their management a peculiar science1 in which excellence or defect is less appreciable by natural or untrained observation4 ,neglect of these principles of criticism has exposed to groundless censure1 and to as injurious praise1 both arts and artists4 ,when it is stated1 that the modern ,english school surpasses every other in ,europe1 the inference is not to be assumed1 that painting elsewhere has retrograded1 but that1 with us1 art has advanced beyond the general improvement4 ,during the present century1 painting in ,france has been superior to any thing produced in that country since the age of ,louis ,,xiv41 or1 perhaps1 it has in this space attained a greater glory4 ,italy has more than one master1 who1 in purity of style at least1 excels any predecessor within the last fifty years4 ,now1 if the representatives of these respective schools be compared1 or if the universal works of each be taken as the criterion of merit1 in either case it would not be difficult to show1 that separately1 or as a school1 the ,british artists of the present age have made the greatest attainments towards excellence4 ,but compared with ourselves1 has our course also been progressive8 ,the affirmative here it is more difficult to prove4 ,reynolds1 ,hogarth1 ,wilson1 ,gainsborough1 all contemporaries1 certainly present a rare combination of genius and art4 ,but besides these stars of the first magnitude1 every other 'lesser light' twinkles with diminished ray4 ,now1 as respects the general diffusion of most respectable eminence1 this is far from being the case at present4 ,in every branch1 more than one master of high talent might be mentioned4 ,again1 considering the representatives of each department in the present and in the former age1 there can be no hesitation1 everything considered1 in giving the preference to our contemporaries4 ,a remark of the late learned ,fuseli is here quite to the purpose1 while in itself perfectly correct3 ',the works of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds are unequal1 many of them are indifferent1 though some cannot be surpassed2 but1 on the other hand1 even the most inferior picture from the pencil of ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence is excellent4' ,it is this extended and uniform excellence1 as has appeared throughout the whole course of these investigations1 which constitutes not only individual superiority1 but which tends1 most directly and most surely1 to the exaltation of art4 ,hogarth1 again1 stands alone rather in the peculiar dramatic character of his performances1 than in their beauty or science1 as bearing upon the promotion of universal improvement1 or even as individual pieces of painting4 ,his pictures1 also1 with few exceptions1 are rather isolated representations than general exhibitions of manners2 they are scenes displaying the singularities1 more than the leading actions and feelings of life4 ,their effect is broad and true1 and the moral powerful2 but both are circumscribed by times1 and by partial divisions among mankind4 ,wilkie1 whose style of composition most nearly resembles ,hogarth's1 and with whom1 therefore1 he is to be compared1 while he preserves all the force of individual character and delineation of living nature1 has extended a far more comprehensive grasp of mind over the moralities of his subject4 ,he has brought within the pencil's magic sway1 and fixed there in permanent reality1 the sorrows and the joys1 the hopes1 fears1 and attachments1 the occupations1 customs1 habits1 and even amusements1 of a whole unchanging class of mankind4 ,this may appear to have been before accomplished1 both in the ,english and ,flemish schools4 ,but here lies the distinction3 ,hogarth represents general ideas by particular signs4 ,his forms and his expressions are individual modifications of the limited society to which they belong4 ,the conceptions of ,wilkie are the idealisms of his models4 ,each figure is not only pregnant with individuality of character and life1 but is the true representative of the class whose constituent it is4 ,each expression1 though generally but the index of humble feeling1 sends abroad into the heart of every spectator its artless appeal4 ,he has thus1 in fact1 applied the generalizations of higher art to the interests of common life1 yet preserving its simplicity1 its humbleness1 and reality4 ,the ,dutch painters1 again1 have painted vulgar instead of common nature2 nor1 in the complete range of their school1 is there once an example of that delightful sentiment1 which our countryman has so successfully cast over his most lowly scenes1 and by which he has redeemed them from every approach to vulgarity1 without falling1 as ,gainsborough has sometimes done1 into insipidity or mannerism4 ,in landscape1 ,turner has extended the boundaries of his art by the invention of prismatic colors1 and by his novel applications of them4 ,he is therefore decidedly a more original artist than ,wilson1 whose best works are those composed in imitation of ,claude4 ,but ,turner by no means stands so much alone as did the masters of the former age2 names in both divisions of ,britain might be mentioned his equals in more than one respect4 ,in the historical department1 again1 if we admit the late ,president's works1 there can be no comparison between these and any former labours of the ,english school4 ,but in all the possible varieties of historical composition1 there are artists of great excellence either now living1 or who have been taken from us within these few years2 as ,haydn1 ,martin1 ,allan of ,edinburgh1 ,heapy1 ,collings1 ,fuseli1 ,harlow1 ,stothard1 ,cooper1 ,landseer1 with others4 ,in portraiture1 ,jackson1 ,phillips1 and others1 show1 that even high excellence is not so confined as in the time of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,lawrence is indeed the first artist in ,europe1 but he is ably supported4 ,a little anecdote may here give some idea of the powers of ,sir ,thomas's pencil4 ,on visiting1 one evening1 the apartment in the ,vatican where his splendid portrait of ,george ,,iv41 in coronation robes1 was then exhibited1 we were much struck with the fixed attention immediately directed to it by an individual who had just entered4 ,a deeper interest was excited on perceiving the stranger to be a celebrated native artist4 ,continuing for some time in total abstraction1 during which the workings of his countenance clearly indicated admiration or astonishment1 and1 we thought1 disappointment1 with a sudden unconscious gesticulation1 he exclaimed aloud1 ',dio--il tramontane6' as if saying ',heavens6 can that have been painted beyond the ,alps6' and abruptly hurried away4 ,from the preceding remarks1 and the names now enumerated1 who are mentioned without any reference to comparative rank or merit as to each other1 two inferences are deducible3 first1 ,that the masters more immediately in the public eye1 as now at the head of the various departments of art1 are on the whole superior to those of the last age2 and1 secondly1 ,that between the former and their present contemporaries1 the interval is small in comparison with the position occupied by ,reynolds1 ,hogarth1 ,wilson1 or ,gainsborough1 in relation to the school over which they presided4 ,hence the general conclusion seems evident1 that in ,britain1 the art1 as compared with itself1 has continued to improve4 ,compared with foreign art1 the distinctive character of the ,english school is strongly marked4 ,painting on the ,continent exhibits a striking uniformity of style1 with such peculiarities as1 on a general view1 will not lessen the truth of a common classification4 ,the ,continental artist1 then1 studies to detail1 but fails in power of general effect2 his performances are more valuable as works of art and of imitation1 than of imagination or abstract resemblance4 ,the parts are beautifully made out1 finely drawn2 but the whole is too seldom connected by any animating principle of general similitude1 uniting the separate elaborations into one broad and forcible harmony4 ,hence the dry1 the meagre1 and the disjointed particulars1 the usual components of their labours1 though in themselves truer than the constituents of ,british art--better drawn1 it may be1 and more carefully finished1 as they almost always are1 yet contrast disadvantageously with the bold and powerful1 though large generalizations of our pencil4 ,nor can there be impartial question1 though each be separately defective1 that more genius is displayed in the latter than in the former4 ,the ,english artist paints more to the mind2 the ,french and the ,italian to the eye4 ,the first looks abroad upon the universal harmonies and oppositions of nature2 the second scrutinizes and carefully renders the filling up of her aggregated forms1 and the lesser concurrences of her general effects4 ,art1 with us1 represents objects as they seem in their relations1 rather than as they actually exist2 among our rivals1 it delineates things as they are in themselves1 to the neglect of those modifications by which reality is diversified through pleasing falsehood1 especially as viewed in reference to a medium of expression1 founded itself in delusion4 ,in the one case1 nature is seen and imitated as a picture2 in the other1 her operations and forms are contemplated as materials out of which pictures are to be wrought4 ,hence ,english art satisfies1 but deceives2 the foreign style does not deceive1 but fails to satisfy4 ,compared with itself1 and with the real objects and essence of art1 we have already pointed out the great defect in the practice of ,english art to be1 imperfection in the details4 ,in portraiture1 this has spread to a ruinous extent2 and with the most beautiful models in the world1 ,british female portraits1 speaking in general1 are most decided failures4 ,on this subject1 nothing more remains to be said--we refer to the exquisite works of ,lawrence1 whose female heads are at once most striking1 most lovely1 and very highly finished2--we recommend a study of ,vandyke's likenesses of the ladies of the ,court of ,charles1 now in the ,louvre4 ,let the natural grace and modesty1 the delicacy of feature and transparency of tint1 in these1 be compared with similar works of the present day and practice--when it must at once appear how much is lost to art1 and how great injustice is done to nature4 ,in male portraits our practice is better1 but only from the bolder lineaments of the subject4 ,the inherent errors are the same--modelling with the pencil1 rather than drawing--immense masses of dark shade to conceal the absence of all that should be present--and forcible rather than natural effect4 ,there certainly now appears1 however1 in the productions of the most esteemed living masters1 the progress of a more scientific and more perfect style4 ,in the walk of history1 expression--that expression which comes from the natural outpourings of feeling--which animates the canvass of the early masters--and which seems to find its proper1 spontaneous1 accordant instrument in their pencil1--has yet been wanting4 ,next1 our historical paintings are sadly defective in composition--not in the symmetrical arrangement and grouping of figures1 but in the real poetry of the art1 in the facile1 the creative power over the means and materials of the science--in the skill of causing them to fall as if by chance1 and without effort or visible design1 into the most harmonious1 most striking1 and most effective combinations4 ,another and a principal source of inferiority--of absolute1 yet laborious error1 has been the most mistaken perceptions of ideal beauty in art4 ,this subject it was our intention to have treated here at some length4 ,our limits1 however1 forbid1 while it is of less consequence1 since the volume contains within itself the leading precepts on this topic4 ,the sum of these separate remarks is1 that the ideal is not beauty apart from1 but wrought out of nature4 ,so far from being the creation of fancy1 it lives1 breathes1 and is to be found only in nature4 ,in this important principle1 juster ideas are beginning rapidly to diffuse their influence over the whole of our art1 since theory has been laid aside1 and nature1 and the antique1 and real taste have regained the ascendency4 ,,the ,,fine ,,arts4 ,,architecture4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,architecture has been termed the ,art of ,necessity1 in contradistinction to ,sculpture and ,painting1 which have been distinguished as the offspring of elegance and luxury4 ,to the first1 the remark of the ancient poet has been deemed most peculiarly applicable1 ',hinc vari venre artes--labor omnia vicit ,improbus1 et duris urgens in rebus egestas4' ,if there be1 however1 distinction in the first origin1 it ceases long before any of these can become the object of refined or useful inquiry4 ,the principles of all1 considered in the rank of arts1 originate in the mind1 though a sentiment of intelligent curiosity1 or a sense of corporeal weakness1 and the desire of protection1 first give visible action to the latent germs of feeling and of ingenuity4 ,here1 then1 appears the accidental1 not distinctive character1 in the originating impulse1 and in the species of imitative design thence resulting1 which is afterwards to call forth the most refined evidence of human thought and genius4 ,man's first care would evidently be directed to the discovery or construction of means of shelter against the inclemencies of the sky under which his lot was cast4 ,his best affections1 no less than his natural wants1 would prompt him to this4 ,but the cave of the ,troglodyte1 or the hut of the savage1 are not more connected with science and forethought1 than is the den of the tiger1 or the lair of the wolf1 or the still more artful structure of the fowl4 ,for no sooner is the human creature thus established1 his physical desires stilled1 not gratified1 than begin the ceaseless aspirings of the spirit within2 the workings of that wondrous maze of understanding and of feeling1 of thought and volition1 which so mysteriously bind1 and so irresistibly direct him to his higher and better destinies4 ,thence1 and only thence1 springs1 as a bright and pure emanation1 though darkened for a while in struggling through an imperfect medium1 every effort thereafter to instruct or to adorn a happier world4 ,in conformity with these views1 it has appeared1 that the first attempts at sculptural or pictorial representation were dedicated to piety1 and to the social affections of the heart4 ,in like manner1 the earliest and rudest erections of architecture now existing1 as well as the most perfect and magnificent1 are temples to the ,deity1 or memorials of the dead4 ,there is1 in these respects1 indeed1 a striking proof of the existence of this law of mind1--not of mere instinct1 and1 at the same time1 of self-denial1 in favor of the generous and the holy in man's nature4 ,not only do we find1 that1 wherever the human foot has been stayed1 there is the altar1 the temple1 and the tomb2 but we meet these amid the destitution of every approach to that luxury to which the arts have been ascribed2 and1 finally1 we discover a vast disproportion between the efforts dedicated to these tributes of gratitude and affection1 and those directed to personal comfort or splendor4 ,jacob1 while yet a wanderer in tents1 consecrated1 by a pillar1--the first monument on record1--the spot where reposed his beloved ,rachael4 ,over the whole of the inhabited globe1 not excepting the dark heaths of our native land1 are the last resting-places of the dead1 which must have required a union of care and labour given only to a duty1 everywhere held inviolably sacred4 ,even in the wilds of the ,new ,world1 there are sepulchres of like laborious structure1 to which1 with a steadiness surer than that of the needle1 the distant tribe tracks its way though pathless woods4 ,compare1 again1 the evidence of congregated energy1 and even science1 in the ,druidical temples only1 with the glimpses we possess of the accommodations of common life4 ,the religious edifices of ,egypt even yet fill the mind with admiration2 while the probable monuments of their dead1 faithless1 indeed1 to their individual trust1 shall only sink amid the ruins of the world1 enduring testimonies of the power of religion and of futurity over the mind of man1 and of the vain attempt to convert that power into an instrument of selfish aggrandisement4 ,from all this1 something better may be deduced than even refuting the idea1 that the sublimest objects of taste indicate1 in their origin1 a grovelling necessity1 and1 in their progress1 owe their most graceful improvements to an idle luxury4 ,in this inseparable union of the primitive arts of taste with feelings of religious service and of human affection1 we perceive that man1 even in a state of natural darkness1 is not the selfish1 the irreligious being1 represented by a cold and material philosophy1 equally the enemy of taste as of religion4 ,beyond these remarks it is not here necessary to trace the first origin of ,architecture4 ,in this art are certainly to be detected the very links of connexion1 joining the knowledge of the descendants of ,adam with that of the families of ,noah4 ,we learn from ,scripture1 that soon after the ,flood1 while yet the remembrance of that catastrophe was fresh in the mind1 the building of a city and a tower was commenced4 ,such design could not have been entertained without some previous model1 or1 at least1 assurance that it might be accomplished4 ,such model or such assurance could be derived only from antediluvian experience or tradition2 for it is in the highest degree improbable that either could have originated1 or been brought to such maturity1 in so short a space as intervenes between the descent of ,noah from the ,ark1 and the gigantic undertaking of his posterity4 ,again1 the materials were artificial2 and of such perfection1 well-burnt brick1 as we do not find mankind to have used in the same countries many centuries afterwards4 ,the construction1 too1 of that mysterious relic of two worlds1 which 'floated on the waters of the abyss1' is a proof of high advance in the arts of the first4 ,subsequently1 all researches are at fault4 ,from this state of intelligence and union1 mankind suddenly sink into the most wretched ignorance1 and disperse in wild confusion4 ,a cause1 such as the one in ,sacred ,writ1 could alone produce this effect4 ,broken fragments and glimmerings of ancient knowledge1 no doubt1 remained with the scattered tribes of the human family4 ,but to trace usefully the extent1 reunion1 and improvement of these imperfect elements1 would be here a vain task4 ,the few valuable and only authentic memorials of the very early ages are to be found in ,scripture1 which ascribes the origin of monuments that may be termed architectural1 to ratify contracts1--to mark the place of the dead1--to indicate some remarkable event--to the altar of stone2 also1 it contains the descriptions of regular buildings of a later period1 which have now passed away1 as the walled cities which the ,israelites found in ,canaan2 their own early labours1--the ,temple of ,solomon1 the ,palace of ,lebanon1 the ',house of ,dagon1' and other heathen temples incidentally mentioned in ,scripture1 to which reference is made4 ,all these erections and notices are confined to that part of ,asia which extends from the ,black ,sea to the mouth of the ,euphrates1 and from the ,mediterranean to the extremities of ,persia4 ,over the once magnificent architecture of the whole of this extensive tract1 including the seats of the most powerful and ancient monarchies of ,asia1--the ,assyrian1 ,median1 ,babylonian1 and ,persian1--except what can be gathered from scattered heaps of brick1 utter forgetfulness reigns4 ,later information is supplied by ,herodotus and the ,greek writers2 but1 except the comparatively recent remains at ,persepolis1 ,baalbec1 and ,palmyra1 already noticed1 nothing exists that can throw light upon our subject4 ,a very different aspect1 however1 is presented in ,egypt and in ,india1 where monuments of the most remote antiquity remain1 interesting in themselves1 and as they tend to illustrate the progress and the revolutions of ,architecture in its more modern forms4 ,from an examination of the former1 we shall be enabled to discover the germs of the more perfect ,greek modes1 while1 in the combinations of ,arabian with ,indian forms1 we seem to detect the rudiments of that singular style1 which1 under the various appellations of ,arabic1 ,saracenic1 ,gothic1 has extended over the whole of ,europe1 and a considerable portion of ,asia4 ,thus1 one of the first and one of the last departments of the present subject1 one of its purest and one of its most complicated systems1 originates probably in countries now to be considered1 and whose monuments are coeval with the first reunion of intelligence and society among men4 ,but1 before entering upon the inquiry which is to trace this connexion through the history of the art1 it becomes necessary to explain certain common and preliminary principles4 ,there are three grand causes of structure and form in ,architecture1--three leading principles1 which not only originated the primeval elements of design1 but which1 to a great degree1 have governed all the subsequent combinations of these4 ,this influence also extends not merely to the essentials of stability1 equilibrium1 and strength1 but1 as will afterwards appear1 has suggested the system of ornament4 ,these master dispositions1 which it thus becomes necessary to bear along with the commencement1 are1 first1 the purpose--secondly1 the material of ,architecture--and thirdly1 the climate4 ,the purpose for which any building was erected1 or the uses which it was contemplated to serve1 would necessarily determine the magnitude1 and to a certain extent1 the form4 ,again1 these considerations would suggest the most appropriate means of accomplishing the requisite ends1 which1 once accomplished1 would constitute permanent distinctions4 ,the materials1 again1 employed in architecture1 have influenced most decidedly its forms and character4 ,this has been the case1 not only in the peculiar styles which have separately been adopted in different countries1 but in the general and essential principles of the science4 ,the materials of which buildings1 in all ages1 have been chiefly constructed1 are stone1 wood1 and factitious substances1 are tiles and bricks4 ,the first adopting of these materials1 and1 of course1 the style of building1 must have been recommended by the resources of the country4 ,the law1 however1 which determines their arrangement is universal1 arising from exigencies over which taste1 and even ingenuity1 exert limited control4 ,this evidently arises from the nature of the question2 for1 since a mass of stone is heavier in all1 and weaker in most positions1 than timber of equal dimensions1 the whole congeries of supporting and supported members--that is1 the whole system of architecture will be affected as the one or the other material is employed4 ,thus1 in wooden erections1 the supporting members may be much fewer and less massive than in structures of stone2 because1 in the former1 the horizontal or supported parts are both lighter1 and will carry an incumbent weight--as a roof--over a much wider interval than in the latter4 ,it is apparent1 also1 even for the ordinary purposes of stability1 that1 in constructing edifices of stone1 whether of the perpendicular or horizontal members1 the dimensions would be greater than in elevations of wood2 and in the case of columnar structures1 that the altitude1 in proportion to the diameter1 would be far less in stone than in timber supports4 ,hence1 the two grand characteristics of a massive or solemn1 and a light or airy1 architecture4 ,hence1 also1 when genius and taste had begun to consider the arrangements of necessity and use in the relations of effect and beauty1 new combinations would be attempted1 which approached to one or other of these leading divisions4 ,it must1 however1 be obvious1 that the field of these experiments is narrowed by the very principles on which they would be first suggested4 ,in the art we are now considering1 the human agent has less power over the inertness of matter than in any other4 ,imagination comes in contact with reality at every step1 and the laws of nature impress the boundaries of that reality1 not at the risk of absurdity1 but of very being4 ,beauty becomes here1 not the creation of fantasy--a something pleasing only as it reflects our associations1 or harmonizes with our feelings2 but is more especially the creation of science--the object of demonstrative wisdom4 ,hence1 perfect architectural beauty is the most sublime and the most rational of the objects of taste2 because1 while the susceptibilities of mind are awakened1 the powers of judgment are gratified1 by the certainty with which the sources of pleasure can be traced4 ,we feel the arrangement to be beautiful2 we know that it is necessary4 ,hence1 also1 the perfect modes--the true combinations of the art--are few2 the error in departing from them great4 ,these refined perceptions do not indeed pertain to the period now contemplated2 but the facility with which they can be connected with the first practice of the art1 evinces how deeply rooted are the real and substantial precepts of architectural design4 ,the leading views1 also1 in regard to the influence of material upon form1 proportion1 and distribution of parts1 are supported by early history4 ,in ,egypt1 a country destitute of wood1 the most ancient erections were in imitation of the natural caves in which the rude inhabitants had sought a wretched shelter4 ,in a later age1 yet one which far transcends the authentic researches of history1 were reared those mysterious edifices1 still standing as landmarks between known and unknown time4 ,in the ponderous members of these solemn piles1 the narrowness of the intervals1 the crowded pillars1 the massive base1 and the lessened perpendicular1 is found every principle previously assumed as characteristic of that architecture1 which would be governed by necessity before the sensation of beauty had been felt1 or at least methodized4 ,here1 also1 appears the first species of architectural design4 ,again1 in that region of ,asia1 already noticed as the scene of the earliest recorded labours of the art1 wood was abundant4 ,from the descriptions of ,holy ,writ we accordingly find1 that this material was much employed even in their most sacred and important buildings4 ,thus1 though few details capable of giving any just architectural notions1 are preserved of ,solomon's ,temple1 it is yet plain1 that cedar wood was the chief material both for roofs and columns1 that is1 both for supported and supporting members4 ,hence1 the temples of ,palestine1 and of ,syria generally1 by which we understand the ,asia of the ,old ,testament1 already described1 were more spacious1 but less durable than those of ,egypt1 and with fewer upright supports4 ,of this1 a singularly striking proof occurs in the catastrophe of the ,house of ,dagon1 when ,samson1 by overturning only two columns1 brought down the whole fabric4 ,as with the force of winds and waters pent1 ,when mountains tremble1 those two massy pillars1 ,with horrible convulsion1 to and fro ,he tugg'd1 he shook1 till down they came1 and drew ,the whole roof after them1 with bursts of thunder3 ,the vulgar only 'scaped who stood without4 ,in an edifice constructed on the plan of the ,egyptian ,temple1 where pillar stands crowded behind pillar1 in range beyond range1 to give support to the ponderous architrave and marble roof1 the overturning of two of these columns would produce but a very partial disintegration4 ,the very circumstance1 also1 of there being no remains in a country where once stood the most renowned cities1 proves the perishable nature of the substance chiefly employed4 ,there is evidence1 also1 that stone and wood were often1 perhaps usually1 combined--the first as a columnar or pier-like support1 for horizontal beams of the latter4 ,this plainly appears to have been the case in the oldest ruin existing in this part of the world1 namely1 ,persepolis1 where the marble columns evidently bear marks of having been connected by cross beams of wood1 and to have supported a roof of the same light structure4 ,hence the easy conflagration of this abode of the ,persian kings1 in a debauch of ,alexander4 ,the columns are loftier1 further apart1 and fewer in number1 than in ,egypt4 ,had not the illustration of the general subject been of more importance in the establishment of this point1 reference might at once have been made to the early temples of ,greece1 which1 even to the age of ,xerxes1 were structures of wood2 and to the well-known difference of style between them and those of ,egypt4 ,thus we have the second species of architectural design2 and again find the facts1 recounted by history1 according with deductions from a priori consideration of the nature1 objects1 and origin1 of the art itself4 ,it may afford illustration of the certainty with which the principles of reasoning operate1 while the fact is singular1 that ancient writers describe the huts of the nomadic tribes on their dispersion1 or1 at least1 the earliest recorded residences of mankind1 as composed of poles1 formed of the branches of trees1 fixed in the earth1 enclosing a circular space1 and meeting at top1 the sloping sides being covered with leaves1 reeds1 or skins4 ,this is exactly the wigwam of the aboriginal inhabitant of ,america4 ,so much is man the creature of the same instincts1 under similar circumstances4 ,climate will necessarily operate a considerable effect upon the external arrangements of architecture4 ,according to the latitude of the situation1 buildings will be contrived to admit or exclude the sun1 to give shelter from biting cold1 or to secure against scorching heat1 or merely to yield shade1 without immediate reference to either extreme4 ,all these1 however1 will not affect the internal harmonies or proprieties of the constituent parts4 ,climate1 therefore1 is only modifying1 not creative1 as the two preceding causes2 it may suggest composition1 but hardly design2 for1 with the exception of the pointed or flat roof1 according to the humidity or dryness of the atmosphere1 consequently the angular pediment surmounting the horizontal lines of the entablature1 little of real form or order has been added1 or materially influenced1 by climate4 ,this cause1 however1 has given rise to1 or permitted1 many picturesque combinations4 ,purpose1 besides the constitutional effects upon the science already described1 necessarily occasions the various classes under which the labours of the architect may be arranged4 ,architecture1 by this principle1 is separated into two grand divisions--,civil and ,military4 ,the former of these1 from its greater variety of purpose1 is further subdivided into subordinate heads1 namely1 placing each in the order of its probable antiquity1 ,sacred1 ,monumental1 ,municipal1 and ,domestic4 ,these modifications of purpose do not1 indeed1 give novel principles1 nor do they affect any of the conclusions already explained2 they have only1 though strongly1 influenced the practice of the art4 ,in presenting an abstract of the history of the science of ,architecture1 then1 it is not requisite to dwell particularly upon these divisions1 nor to be guided by them in the future arrangement of our matter4 ,but as we may occasionally revert1 by a passing word1 to the obvious distinctions which are thus perceived1 a short explanation1 especially as several scattered particulars of very early times can thus be properly assembled1 will here be useful4 ,sacred ,architecture is a term sufficiently expressive of its own import4 ,it was the primitive effort of the present race of man2 the first impress of his existence left upon the soil1 yet moist from the waters of the deluge1 was the erection of an altar2 and the noblest evidence of his most accomplished skill has been a temple3 ----',his greatest ornament of fame1 ,and strength1 and art4' ,from the 'altar builded by ,noah1' how interesting to follow out the effects of one uncontrollable1 but1 when unguided1 erring sentiment in the steadfast piles--'works of ,memphian kings1' in the glorious proportions of ,greece1 where ----',doric pillars1 ,cornice1 and frieze1 with bossy sculptures graven1' rear their graceful height1 looking tranquil magnificence--down even to the rude circle of grey stones on the bleak heath6 ,for this inquiry1 visible materials are indeed wanting2 but does not the ,word of ,truth supply the general inference1 ',the imaginations of man's heart are wicked--he has sought out many inventions--but ,i will be honored among the generations of men8' ,incidental allusion has already been made to the marvellous fabric reared by ,solomon1 which1 if not in grace1 in splendor of decoration appears to have exceeded all the erections of the early ages1 and is the first of which written notice remains4 ,the descriptions of this building enable us to form a reunion of the arts of ,sculpture and ,architecture at the commencement of the tenth century before ,christ4 ,this date1 however1 we consider to be at least six hundred years later than the era of any ,egyptian monument1 not of brick1 now extant throughout the whole course of the ,nile4 ,in considering1 also1 the countries whence ,solomon obtained workmen1 will be remarked the confirmation of the preceding observations on the originating causes of styles in architecture4 ,the hewers of stone1 we are informed1 were from ,egypt2 and the solid substructions of the ,jewish temple1 the massive proportions of the separate parts--resemblances still more striking in ,josephus' account of the second edifice--show exactly the same principles and practice as can to this day be traced in the ,egyptian structures4 ,from ,phoenicia1 again1 a country abounding in timber1 were brought the most skilful 'hewers of wood1' that is1 workmen instructed in the arts of the joiner and carpenter1 and also1 as may be inferred from various descriptions of the ornamental appendages1 of the carver or sculptor in wood1--'and the cedar of the house within was carved with open knops and flowers2' again1 and 'he made two cherubims of olive tree4' ,these sculptures1 however1 might have been finished1 and1 from the state of art in that country1 most probably were the work of artists from ,egypt4 ,there can be no doubt that the ',house1' as the magnificent pile is emphatically termed1 was of a quadrangular outline1 erected upon a solid platform of stone1 bearing a strong resemblance to the ancient temples still extant4 ,indeed1 there is1 in this respect1 a most striking analogy between the dimensions as given in ,scripture1 and those of the oldest ,greek temples1 especially of gina and ,pstum4 ,this latter we have examined1 and1 agreeing to the fidelity of the grounds upon which ,wilkins has founded his reasonings1 in the admirable dissertation on this subject in his preface to the ',antiquities of ,magna ,grecia1' we cannot coincide in the final conclusion1 that the ,greeks borrowed the ,doric order from this ancient temple of ,solomon4 ,reference to this subject is hereafter to be made4 ,in the meantime1 while facts are fresh in the mind1 it must be obvious to the reader1 that1 since the shell or carcass of the temple of ,jerusalem was of stone1 and built by ,egyptian workmen1 alone skilled in that material1 the general arrangements would resemble those of the ,egyptian temples4 ,consequently1 the ,greeks and the ,jews1 deriving their leading orders from one source1 would naturally1 though unconsciously1 imitate each other4 ,again1 since wood was employed in every part of the roof and interior by ,solomon1 on the principles already explained1 the relative proportions of the parts1 and the number of the supports1 would necessarily be different1 compared with the similar members of ,egyptian art4 ,but the ,greeks also in part followed the laws of wooden structure2 consequently both differing1 on similar principles1 from the original model1 would yet preserve mutual resemblance in that very difference4 ,monumental ,architecture1 deriving its origin from allied feelings and associations1 would be coeval1 or nearly so1 with the origin of sacred4 ,indeed1 it is not possible always to separate the two distinct purposes4 ,monuments have two objects in view--to honor the memory of the dead1 and to preserve remembrance of the transactions of the living2 both of which are recorded in ,scripture4 ,the material of a monumental erection1 and consequently its design1 will always1 in early times1 be determined by the circumstances of the vicinity1 with the sole exception of wood4 ,hence pillars of stone1 and mounds of earth1 are the primitive records of both life and death4 ,in a more advanced age1 when stone could not be readily procured1 brick would be employed4 ,the magnitude and beauty will accord with the skill of the times4 ,hence arise sources of determining the relative antiquity of monuments1 and the circumstances of the age4 ,under almost every privation of means1 and in all countries1 'heaped earth' would present a durable and an accessible material4 ,hence the universality of this species of monument throughout the globe4 ,this primitive accumulation of efforts--for an earthen mound can be considered as nothing more--seems to have given origin to the most gigantic labours of human architecture4 ,the pyramids of ,egypt1 and the cognate structures of ,india1 seem to be imitations1 wonderful indeed1 of the more ancient barrow4 ,they are1 in fact1 but mounds of higher art and more valuable materials4 ,their intermediate forms1 indeed1 may be traced in both countries1 at least in the curve which would bound the perpendicular section of the mound4 ,in ,india1 however1 pyramids seem1 from the extent of the interior1 and the facility of access1 to have been chiefly intended for places of crowded resort--most likely1 therefore1 temples4 ,in ,egypt1 again1 the single chamber1 the imperviously closed entrance1 appear to indicate with precision their original destination to have been sepulchral4 ,it has already been remarked1 that the ,arts are themselves their own best interpreters1 and that little faith is to be placed in the remote analogies of philology1 which have too frequently been admitted in evidence beyond their value2 but it has often been matter of surprise1 that two words1 belonging to the most ancient forms of the ,syriac language1 should have been overlooked in the numerous derivations of the word pyramid4 ,peer and ,muid1 as the words in question may be rendered in our characters1 united1 as in ,eastern languages1 forming compound expressions1 would give almost identical sound1 and in signification1 'the hill or mountain of the dead1' would be nearer the purpose and appearance than any derivation with which we are acquainted4 ,under the head of ,municipal ,architecture is included every application of the science to those purposes of social life not included under the former heads1 such as public buildings of all descriptions connected with the civil business of life1 up to the arrangements of entire cities4 ,men1 therefore1 must have been assembled together for some time1 they must have agreed upon certain compacts and regulations of society1 before this branch could have made any progress in the world4 ,yet we find1 that not more than a century after the flood1 a city was begun1 a fact already attempted to be explained2 and to what was then said it may be farther added1 that the ,tower of ,babel1 which belonged to this city1 was clearly monumental--it was 'to make a name4' ,although no vestiges of the ancient cities of ,asia or of ,egypt remain1 sufficient from inspection to corroborate the descriptions of history1 these lead to the belief1 that1 in many instances1 the plan and architecture were both regular and grand4 ,the reader1 however1 ought to be on his guard against the amplifications of ,scriptural and ,homeric accounts contained in later authorities1 in as far as the former describe relatively1 according to the state of things in their own age and experience2 whereas the latter1 too often forgetting this distinction1 convey the impression1 that grandeur and magnificence were absolute4 ,yet1 even with this abatement1 there remains sufficient ground of admiration in the ideas excited of ,thebes1 ,babylon1 ,nineveh1 or ,memphis4 ,there appears1 in this respect1 a very striking difference between the cities of the second age1 after the arts had migrated into ,europe4 ,many circumstances tend to confirm the opinion1 that1 even in ,greece1 ,municipal ,architecture in general was not much studied1 and that there were few1 if any1 really fine cities among the numerous capitals of that country4 ,their magnificence was concentrated in particular spots--in their agorai1 or squares4 ,their temples usually stood apart2 so that1 like the cities of modern ,italy1 whatever might be the beauty1 or the romantic effect of their distant appearance1 internally1 they often appear to have been little more than an irregular assemblage of narrow winding streets4 ,such we know ,athens to have been to a very late period4 ,sparta was long an unwalled village4 ,argos1 ,thebes1 or ,corinth1 cannot be placed in comparison with the before mentioned capitals of ,asia and ,egypt4 ,even ,rome1 to the age of ,nero1 was crowded1 unwholesome1 and mean1 over a great portion of its less important surface4 ,in one respect1 however1 it seems to have differed greatly from every other ancient city of which we read1 namely1 in the great elevation of the houses2 in almost every other instance we are led to an opposite inference1 which is further corroborated by the present appearance of ,pompeii4 ,with the ,domestic ,architecture of the primitive ages1 to which our accounts have hitherto been confined1 the acquaintance to be obtained is exceedingly limited4 ,in the description of ,solomon's ,palace1 and in various passages of ,homer1 considerable details are given of the palatial dwellings2 but how the greater part of mankind were lodged1 few means of determining remain4 ,protection against the vicissitudes of climate would first employ the instinctive ingenuity of man2 next1 conveniency would be consulted1 by enlarging the dimensions of his abode4 ,both these objects might be obtained1 while yet the original circular area was retained4 ,as some ideas1 however1 of the comforts and decencies of life prevailed1 seclusion of the different orders and sexes in the members of the family would be sought2 and hence division of one common apartment into separate portions4 ,but as circular space admits of division very imperfectly1 and with loss1 this new necessity would introduce1 or at least render permanent1 the rectangular shape of the domestic abode4 ,military ,architecture is but little connected with the history of the science1 from the peculiar nature of those principles of construction which it recognises4 ,here design is regulated by circumstances external to the art1 and which1 therefore1 though enriched by novel combinations in its later and more impure modes1 received originally no component elements1 from a branch which has universally and largely engrossed the attention of mankind4 ,the application of architecture to the purposes of defence1 would not take place till a comparatively later period in the history of the species4 ,men would previously have acquired ideas of the right and value of property1 and divided into separate communities by political or moral distinctions4 ,mere defence would be the first object in military erections2 a wall1 a rampart1 or barrier1 of altitude and strength sufficient to resist1 or rather to disappoint1 any sudden attack1 would be all for some time required2 and1 subsequently1 with facility of access to the summit1 for the purpose of hurling stones from vantage ground upon the assailants1 these defences for long would be complete1 by the obvious addition of a ditch4 ,as the arts of violence1 and especially as missile warfare improved1 experience would point out the impossibility of defending1 even with a ditch1 a long unbroken line of wall1 consistently with the safety of the defenders1 who1 in the attempt to overlook the whole1 would necessarily be exposed to the hostile weapons4 ,to obviate this defect1 and that the whole line might be seen1 and the approaches commanded from points within itself1 towers projecting beyond the face of the wall were constructed1 thus finishing the whole of the science of ancient fortification4 ,cities1 with towers and battlements on this plan1 were found by the ,jews in ,syria1 where they had existed for ten centuries before4 ,the same was the system of the ,greeks and ,romans2 and all the varieties of feudal defences are but applications1 and even the inventions now in use are but modifications of the primeval fortress1 which1 in adaptations to the exigencies and science of the time1 have also removed from it all picturesque effect and all scenic grandeur1 such as the fortalice of old1 even in its 'ruins grey1' yet produces4 ,such is a rapid sketch of the origin and principles of architectural design2 and such the extent to which1 in practice1 history informs us they had been carried in the ancient world4 ,the details1 necessarily very imperfect1 now given1 belong to what may be termed the first age in the history of the art4 ,the second era commences with the earliest appearances of regular architectural science in ,europe1 marked by the erection of temples in ,greece1 soon after1 or nearly contemporary with1 the labours of ,solomon1 which were commenced #ajae ,b4 ,c4 ,before entering upon ,european art1 it will be useful1 as formerly hinted1 briefly to examine the monuments still existing in ,egypt of the architecture of the first age1--the probable sources of those primitive modes1 which1 adopted in rudeness1 by ,grecian taste refined and matured1 have become immutable4 ,in addition to what has already been stated in the first article1 and in reference to the present subject1 it will be necessary merely to explain the general character and principles of these aboriginal structures1 with the view of ascertaining whether1 and to what extent1 these have influenced the subsequent and more perfect science of the ,grecian architect4 ,of ancient ,egypt1 the government was not only peculiar1 but contemplated peculiar results--pursued1 too1 with undeviating purpose1 through an unknown succession of ages4 ,hence the enduring greatness of the works it has left2 but as the ends were1 from the commencement1 so fixed as to forbid progressive means1 hence the uniformity of imperfect character in these labours1 exhibiting much of the elements1 but none of the perfections of taste4 ,the eternal durability to which1 in all things1 the hierarchy aspired1 pointed out a style of architecture1 especially in their sacred buildings1 retaining1 as most substantial1 only the simplest forms and the largest masses4 ,hence1 in these mysterious structures1 whatever deficiency may be perceived in beauty or grace1 is compensated by vastness and simplicity1 the most powerful elements of the grand4 ,in beholding these mighty fabrics1 then1 even laying aside the associations of unnumbered centuries1 if neither the most refined nor agreeable emotions be experienced1 the imagination is exalted to a high pitch of awe1 astonishment1 and admiration4 ,long withdrawing lines1 unbroken surfaces1 simple contours1 immense blocks1 even while the individual forms are destitute of proportion1 harmony1 or grace1 will ever produce a solemn sublimity of effect4 ,but it now occurs to inquire1 before the merit of rational design can be granted1 or these architectonic labours admitted among the works of genius1--,do these lofty effects arise from principle1 or are they purely accidental8 ,are they the meditated results of science and taste1 or are they merely inevitable consequences of the large and enduring style which the political system recommended8 ,upon the nature of the reply to these questions will1 in a great measure1 depend the rank of the ,greeks1 as original inventors and refiners of taste in architecture4 ,now1 there can be no doubt that in these1 to use ,strabo's expression1 'barbarous monuments of painful labour1' the sublimity and imposing solemnity of the general effect is incidental1 not inherent4 ,it is the grandeur of mass1 not of proportion4 ,the imagination is subdued1 indeed1 by vastness1 but neither is the fancy delighted by tracing a well preserved resemblance to any acknowledged prototype1 nor is the judgment instructed by the contemplation of a harmony consistent in itself1 though deriving its elements from no immediate source4 ,we discover neither imitation nor creative taste1 for imitation is ever destroyed by some monstrous incongruity1 and originality becomes aimless through interminable variety of accessories4 ,as a science1 then1 beyond the rules necessarily imposed by the leading intention of durability1 we detect nothing in the architecture of ,egypt like the universal harmony given to it in ,greece4 ,the same is the character of ,indian art1 with still more of incongruous union2 for here the massive simplicity of the original1 or at least earliest source1 for so we have already shown ,egyptian art to be1 is broken down and loaded with frittered and pretending ornament1 ,syria1 or the vast district lying between1 furnishes nothing beyond conjecture1 or rather in the only instance1 that of ,solomon's labours1 where we attain some information on which implicit reliance may be placed--clear manifestations are discovered of mixed art1 in which that of ,egypt predominated4 ,thus1 in the whole of the ancient world1 about a thousand years before our present era1 and when the ,greeks first1 or soon after1 began to erect temples1 there existed no science complete in itself1 or whose principles even had been elicited from the chaotic mass of materials1 by which they could have been directed1 in their own matchless monuments4 ,whatever of grace and of beauty--of dignity and truth--of sublimity and harmonious proportion1--whatever of architectonic excellence1 grounded on the most profound principles of taste1 and established on the sure basis of geometry1--whatever of all this can be discovered in the building of ,greece1 she owes it to the superiority of native genius4 ,yet the obligations to ,egyptian predecessors were neither few nor unimportant4 ,the rectangular area1 in which the breadth should bear a proportion less to the length1 a shape of all others best adapted to beauty and convenience1 was introduced4 ,a still less obvious source of almost every higher beauty in the science--columnar architecture--was there practised so early1 that whether it originated in the country1 or was introduced1 is unknown4 ,even the system of ornament may1 in its rise at least1 be traced in these primeval remains2 for not a single detail afterwards introduced may not1 in a rudimental1 often nearly perfected state1 be remarked2 especially the beautiful idea of floral ornaments4 ,lastly1 in the works of ,egyptian art1 very perfect examples of mechanical practice1 both in dressing and laying the materials1 might be observed in almost every instance4 ,all these elements1 however1 the last excepted1 jarring among themselves1 whether as wholes or parts1 were to be selected1 arranged1 methodized1 and animated by grace1 harmony1 nobleness1--in short1 the science of architecture was yet to be created4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,in treating briefly of the architecture of ,greece1 though there still exist remains of astonishing magnitude1 and of the greatest beauty yet attained among men1 there are1 notwithstanding1 manifold difficulties in the attempt to treat historically of its origin and progress4 ,whatever information is to be derived from native writers composes merely incidental notices1 mixed up with those wild traditions and dreamy lore1 in which the ,greeks1 from ignorance or vanity1 or both1 seem to have delighted in wrapping up the sources of their knowledge4 ,it is almost certain1 indeed1 that they never possessed1 on the present subject1 any writings beyond the mere technical treatises which must have been in the hands of architects4 ,the compilation of ,vitruvius might be supposed amply to supply this defect of more original materials2 but1 as respects the history of the art1 this is not the case4 ,his accounts of the state of architecture in his own time1 that of ,augustus1 and the various scientific details into which he enters1 are excellent2 they show him to have probably possessed all the requisites which he enumerates as necessary to form an accomplished architect1 high as he rates the profession4 ,the historical department of his work1 again1 is extremely defective1 not only in point of research1 but in the fanciful nature of the theories4 ,he entirely keeps out of view all reference to skill anterior to the arts of ,greece2 while1 with the incredible fables received in that country1 he mixes up no less groundless notions of his own4 ,to these difficulties in the more ancient sources of information1 there is to be added the obscurity arising from modern hypothesis4 ,under these circumstances1 and while the present limits preclude lengthened discussion on any topic1 the most eligible and useful procedure appears to offer in a plain narrative of facts1 illustrated by a description of actual remains1 by reference to ancient authors1 particularly ,homer1 and by analogies drawn from the state of society and manners4 ,here there can be given only the general results of such an inquiry4 ,the earliest architectural remains in ,greece appear to have been military erections1 or at least constructions for the purposes of defence4 ,this corresponds with the condition of a country1 peopled1 as we know this portion of ,europe to have been1 when first noticed in history1 by different tribes1 hostile1 generally speaking1 to each other1 and in all instances fearing and feared by the rude and fierce aboriginal possessors4 ,in the instances where comparison can be instituted1 the gigantic elements of these structures1 and the manner of their union1 refer us to ,egypt1 or the cognate style of ,syria2 most probably1 however1 to the former1 by way of ,crete1 which1 as already shown1 formed the intervening station in the progress of civilization4 ,the traditions1 whether poetical1 or merely narrative1 connected with these monuments--whether they be ascribed to the labours of the gods1 or to the arts of the ,cyclops1 whence their common appellation--all point to a foreign origin1 and to imported skill4 ,this knowledge1 too1 must have been brought from a distance4 ,even on the adjacent shores of ,asia1 we find the walls of ,troy ascribed by ,homer to celestial skill--a clear proof that in his time there existed1 neither in ,greece1 nor in the neighboring regions1 experience adequate to such a work4 ,of these fortresses1 the most celebrated1 and probably the most ancient1 is ,tiryrns1 in the plain of ,argos1 and attributed to the ,lycians1 about six generations prior to the ,trojan war4 ,this cyclopean wall includes a circuit of about a quarter of a mile1 enclosing an inconsiderable elevation above the general level of the plain4 ,thus have evidently been composed the defences of the included town2 but the disproportion between the means of security and the object protected appears amazing1 and must have been considered as wonderful even in the age of ,homer1 who1 in his catalogue1 distinguishes this city by the epithet 'well-walled1' or1 as ,pope has rendered the passage1 ,whom strong ,tyrenth's lofty walls surround4 ,indeed1 of all the characteristics added to the ,grecian confederates1 the distinction of their walled cities is by far the most frequent4 ,of all these1 however1 the one now mentioned only retains a degree of regularity seeming to bid defiance to further dilapidation from time1 and capable of being overturned only by a force equal to that employed in the construction4 ,several entrances are yet to be traced1 one of which has1 opening into it1 a gallery formed in the thickness of the wall4 ,it is worthy of remark1 that the top of this passage is covered1 exactly as in the great pyramid1 by immense stones1 placed one on each side1 and meeting at an acute angle in the centre4 ,near in point of situation1 but somewhat later in time1 are the walls of the 'proud ,mycen' of ,homer1 an interesting ruin in the age of ,thucydides1 four hundred years before our era4 ,these remains show evident correspondence with the style of ,egypt4 ,the very gateway1 described by the author just mentioned1 and subsequently by ,pausanius1 still remains2 formed of single blocks1 the jambs incline narrowing upwards to eight feet1 and support a lintel twelve feet in length4,d ,next in point of antiquity and preservation to the preceding are those singular remains in ,greece2 to which the name of ,treasury has been given1 on the supposition1 that as the former were constructed as defences against hostile violence1 the latter were erected as places of security for valuable property4 ,from the frequent mention of such structures during the heroic age1 and from the preservation of the names1 true or false1 of two architects1 ,agamides and ,trophonius1 most eminent in their construction1 they seem to have been regarded as of no ordinary importance4 ,we are informed that both states and individuals had such places of safe custody1 before temples either existed or were employed as repositories for treasure4 ,of these buildings1 one of the most perfect1 and indeed the most interesting relic of those earliest times1 is the treasury of ,atreus amid the ruins of ,mycen4 ,externally it presents the appearance of a mound of earth2 but the interior is found to be a magnificent structure1 circular1 fifty feet in diameter1 and rather more in height1 composed of stones of great size1 each course projecting inwards and over the one below1 till1 meeting in a small aperture at top1 the whole is shut in by a mass of very large dimensions4 ,the general form is thus a hollow cone1 or paraboloid1 the surface of which appears to have been coated with plates of metal1 as brazen nails still remain in many parts4 ,these defences1 both for person and property1 prepared with such skill and solicitude1 afford a very striking view of the turbulent and dangerous state of society4 ,they are1 in fact1 records1 lasting almost as the ,iliad itself1 of an age capable of such outrages as gave foundation to that divine poem1 and to whose verisimilitude they thus supply unequivocal testimony4 ,into the condition of domestic architecture during the same period1 neither the poems of ,homer1 nor any collateral source1 afford much insight4 ,both in the ,iliad and ,odyssey1 palaces are described1 but in an extremely general as well as indefinite manner4 ,between these loose accounts and the graphic delineations which the same author has given of sculptured ornaments1 as in the shield of ,achilles1 it is easy to perceive the difference of a description without a model1 and from reality4 ,sculpture1 as a regular art1 had already made progress2 the science of architecture was yet unknown4 ,these palaces1 which appear to have answered all purposes of public edifices1 are described as very capacious1 as containing numerous apartments1 and as very rich in doors of ivory and gold1 with posts of silver2 but not the slightest impression occurs indicative of any regular order of architectonic ornament or design4 ,magnificence and lavish profusion of splendor are everywhere confounded with beauty and grace and regular art4 ,during the ,homeric age1 then1 it is plain that the orders were yet unknown--a deduction exactly tallying with the state of art in ,egypt1 where from the inspection of existing monuments1 it is evident1 that a system or order was in like manner undiscovered4 ,true1 the ,egyptian edifices resemble each other in general character1 and even to their measurements agree2 but the same building rises into endless multiplicity of subordinate parts and forms4 ,so ,homer heaps riches upon riches1 ornament above ornament1 making that fine which he cannot render great4 ,this affords more valuable evidence of his veracity than it detracts from his genius4 ,even the palace of ,troy1 though ,paris himself is represented as a great architect1 is described in the same general terms3 ,and now to ,priam's stately courts he came1 ,raised on arch'd columns of stupendous frame2 ,o'er these a range of marble structure runs1 ,the rich pavilion of his fifty sons1 ,in fifty chambers lodged2 and rooms of state1 ,opposed to these1 where ,priam's daughters sat2 ,twelve domes for them1 and their loved spouses shone1 ,of equal beauty1 and of polished stone4 ,this1 and indeed almost every other passage referring to the practical arts of antiquity1 is very incorrectly translated4 ,from a comparison of various original descriptions of palatial buildings1 a tolerable idea of the highest efforts of architecture during the ,homeric and succeeding ages may be obtained4 ,they appear universally to have been placed so as to enclose a court1 along the sides of which ran an open corridore1 formed by pillars2 for the word corresponding to column does not once occur in the ,iliad4 ,these pillars1 as may still be seen in ,egyptian buildings1 were united by flat epistylia or architraves1 for the phrase1 'arched columns1' is nonsense4 ,during the times of the ,iliad1 no division of stories appears to have been practised2 and the expression lofty chamber1 so often occurring1 seems to imply that the whole was open to the roof2 for the apartments1 with the exception of the great hall1 do not otherwise induce the idea of great magnitude4 ,in the ,odyssey again1 to this mode of division distinct reference is made1 a circumstance which1 with many others respecting the arts1 points to a later as the age of that poem4 ,the roof itself may be inferred from incidental remarks to have been pointed1 composed of wooden beams inclined towards each other1 and supported in the central angle by columns or shafts of wood2 for wherever the word occurs in the early poetical literature of ,greece1 an internal member is implied1 and from the casual introduction1 one of necessity1 not ornament1 the only adjunct being lofty or tall1 exactly corresponding with the distinction here supposed4 ,it is evident1 then1 that we must examine elsewhere for the origin of ornamental architecture in ,greece4 ,and the only other department of the art refers to buildings for sacred purposes4 ,but even here1 mighty and graceful as are the existing ruins1 many ages elapse before we reach the era of the temple--where ,the whole so measured true1 so lessen'd off1 ,by fine proportion that the marble pile1 ,form'd to repel the still or stormy waste ,of rolling ages1 light as fabrics look'd1 ,that from the magic wand aerial rise4 ,throughout the whole of the ,iliad no mention occurs of a temple in ,greece1 except in the second book1 evidently incidental1 and the interpolation of some vainly patriotic ,athenian rhapsodist4 ,the passage1 indeed1 might be condemned1 on the grounds of philological discussion1 but it contradicts both the history of art and of religion in that country4 ,in ,troy1 the temple of ,minerva appears to have been a mere shrine1 in which a statue was enclosed1 and probably1 in ,tenedos1 a temple of ,apollo is merely alluded to4 ,during the age of ,homer1 then1 the primeval altar1 common both to ,europe and ,asia1 was the only sacred edifice known4 ,this differed little from a common hearth2 the sacrifice being in fact a social rite1 the victim1 at once an offering to heaven1 and the food of man1 was prepared by roasting2 the first improvement upon this simple construction appears to have been the addition of a pavement1 an obvious means of cleanliness and comfort4 ,yet even this appears to have constituted a distinction at least not common1 since1 in particular instances1 the pavement is mentioned as a peculiar ornament4 ,subsequently1 in order to mark in a more conspicuous manner1 and with more dignity1 the sacred spot1 while the rites should be equally exposed to the spectators1 an open colonnade was added1 enclosing the altar and pavement4 ,thus the roofless temple might be said to be finished2 but whether this primeval structure existed in his native country during the age of ,homer1 does not appear4 ,we remark here a very striking resemblance between the ancient places of devotion in ,greece1 and the ,druidical temple of the more northern regions4 ,in fact1 the astonishing remains at ,stonehenge present the best known1 and perhaps one of the most stupendous examples ever erected of the open temple4 ,this species of religious erection appears to have been co-extensive with the spread of the human race1 and not1 as generally supposed1 limited to the northern portion of the globe4 ,the revolutions in ,greece1 which abolished the regal1 while they respected and increased the pontifical authority1 the gradual additions of magnificence and convenience to the places of sacrifice1 producing at length the regular temple2 the change of design from the circle to the quadrangle2 all these can now only be conjectured as to their causes and progressive vicissitudes4 ,one thing appears certain1 that the earliest approaches to the perfect temple were erections of wood2 and this materially contributed to fix the character of later architecture3 yet there still remain temples of stone1 whose date transcends the epochs of known history4 ,during this interval1 ,grecian architecture assumed regularity and science1 for the earliest dawnings of authentic information light us to monuments of a systematic style1 differing from the ,egyptian in the rejection of all variety of ornament1 yet1 like it1 solemn1 massive1 and imposing4 ,this is the order which1 subsequently1 under the name of ,doric1 extended over the whole of ,greece and her colonies4 ,to this the most ancient species of the art1 various origin has been assigned2 but from our imperfect knowledge of contemporary events1 and from the impossibility of extending research1 it is plain that nothing can with certainty be known4 ,the most ably supported1 but not less improbable theory1 is that of ,dr ,wilkins1 already referred to1 who supposes the order to have been directly introduced from ,syria1 and ,solomon's temple2 his reasonings and calculations on this subject present a rare combination of ingenuity1 learning1 and practical science4 ,the premises1 however1 are assumed1 namely1 that the word translated 'chapiter' in the common version of the book of ,kings1 means not only the capital1 but includes the entablature also2 a gratuitous assumption1 opposed by the dimensions still visible in the parent source of ,egyptian columns1 and which1 even granted1 would not prove an identity in purpose and proportion with the ,greek order4 ,the hypothesis of ,vitruvius is fanciful1 namely1 that the proportion of the human foot to the height of the body1 was adopted as the rule for the proportion of the base to the elevation of the column4 ,the most probable view seems to be1 that this order sprung up as the fruit of continued observation on the practice of ,egyptian art1 as compared with the methods of wooden erection employed among the early ,greeks themselves4 ,this would necessarily give an intermediate style in simplicity and lightness2 the pine1 common in the ancient forests of ,greece1 truncated for any purpose1 gives at once a very near approximation to the shaft2 the same tree converted into a squared beam1 gives the horizontal binding or architrave2 the merely ornamental or subordinate members would be suggested in progressive operations of experience1 or they might be introduced by selection2 for1 as already noted1 every ornament of succeeding art1 though not under the same combinations1 is to be found in the ,egyptian modes4 ,the whole history of taste1 even as touched upon in these pages1 favors this slow and native growth of an art among every people remarkable for its successful cultivation4 ,the three orders--the ,doric1 the ,ionic1 and the ,corinthian1 exhibit also this gradual process of discovery and advance to perfection4 ,it is historically1 as well as poetically true1 that ----,first1 unadorn'd1 ,and nobly plain1 the manly ,doric rose2 ,the ,ionic then with decent matron grace ,her airy pillar heaved2 luxuriant last ,the rich ,corinthian spread her wanton wreath4 ,the character of genius in ,greece likewise favors these views1 more exquisitely alive to beauty1 to propriety1 to decorous simplicity and grandeur1 than distinguished for those qualities that more decisively belong to invention--fire1 impetuosity1 wild irregularity1 or rude majesty4 ,neither then were the primitive elements invented1 and thence without aid of more ancient knowledge1 the orders or systems of architecture brought to perfection in ,greece2 nor was any one of these introduced wholly or at once in a state approaching to perfect symmetry and arrangement4 ,in this1 as in all their arts1 no less than in their literature1 the ,greeks borrowed1 imitated1 selected1--and yet they created--they assimilated discordant variety to one solemn breathing harmony--they brought out every latent germ of beauty that lay overwhelmed in the mass of more ancient thought4 ,from the dark yet mighty accumulations of ,eastern knowledge and skill1 their genius spake forth that light and that perfection which1 in human wisdom and taste1 still guides1 corrects1 and animates4 ,yet their improvements were but so many--important indeed--intermediate gradations in the universal system of obligation which nations owe to each other4 ,but while sound judgment constrains the rejection of the exclusive pretensions of the ,greek writers on the particular subject in question1 it must be confessed there is in these something more than pleasing4 ,they are not selfish2 they are deeply connected with the sympathies and the feelings--the truest1 best associations in objects of art4 ,though we find all the elements of composition in ,egyptian architecture1 and must believe that the ,greek orders were in their origin thence derived2 yet the very idea1 that the sedate grandeur of the ,doric borrowed its majesty from imitation of man's vigorous frame and decorous carriage2 or that the chaste proportions of the graceful ,ionic were but resemblances of female elegance and modesty1--the belief of all this1 so carefully cherished1 was calculated to produce the happiest effect upon living manners4 ,so also1 though the origin of the ,corinthian capital is apparent in an object emblematic over the whole ,east1 and not unknown even in some ,christian forms1 the mysterious lotus1 whose leaves so frequently constitute the adornment of the ,egyptian column2 still1 how dear to the heart the thought of most perfect skill receiving its model from the humble tribute of affection placed on the grave of the ,corinthian maid1 round which nature had by chance thrown the graceful acanthus6 ,if1 in the sober inquiries of history1 such opinions are removed1 the act is done with regret4 ,yet in this onward path of truth1 if one blossom planted there by human feeling must be beaten down1 how grateful the incense even of the crushed flower6 ,the three orders now mentioned constitute the whole system of ,greek architecture4 ,the ,doric appears to have been the most ancient1 and continued down to the period of the ,roman conquest to be most extensively employed in the ,european states of ,greece1 as these were colonized chiefly by the ,dorians--hence the name4 ,of this order are the most celebrated remains of ancient art1 which may be divided into two great classes1 namely1 those of ,greece1 and of the ,greek settlements in ,sicily and ,southern ,italy4 ,the first class of buildings comprehends a space extending from the earliest traditions1 when achus1 in the commencement of the tenth century before ,christ1 is reported to have built the temple of ,jupiter still remaining in gina1 to the erection of the ,parthenon1 the noblest monument of this order1 which1 from its beauty1 and the predilection in its favor1 has been termed the ,grecian4 ,subsequently1 decline appears so early as the era of the ,macedonian empire2 but the latest erection is supposed coeval with the reign of ,augustus4 ,within the ten centuries thus comprehended between the first and last application of the ,doric order1 must have been erected those magnificent structures whose ruins still adorn ,greece4 ,the probable ages of these are as follow3 commencing with the ginetic ruin just mentioned1 whose date is lost in remote antiquity1 and which seems to have formed the second remove only in the march of art westward from its primeval sources1 to ,crete1 gina1 ,greece4 ,next1 the celebrated four columns near ,corinth4 ,the temple of ,jupiter at ,olympia either precedes or follows1 the architect ,libon1 and the roof1 the first of the kind1 formed of marble tiles1 the invention of ,byzes of ,naxos4 ,an interval occurs here1 carrying us forward to the ,athenian structures1 the most ancient of which1 the temple of ,theseus1 belongs to a much later period than any of the preceding4 ,the date of the ,propylea and the ,parthenon crowning the ,acropolis1 and placed in situation as in excellence eminently conspicuous1 is fixed by the most splendid names in ,grecian art2--they were built under the direction of ,phidias1 the former by ,mnesicles1 the latter by ,ictinus1 encouraged by the patronage of ,pericles4 ,ancient of days6 august ,athena6 where1 ,where are thy men of might8 thy grand in soul8 ,gone--glimmering through the dream of things that were4 ,first in the race that led to ,glory's goal1-- ,they're sought in vain1 and o'er each mouldering tower1 ,dim with the mist of years1 grey flits the shade of power4 ,to ,ictinus is also to be ascribed the most perfect vestige of antiquity now in existence1 the ,temple of the ,apollo ,epicurius1 in ,arcadia1 and which is reported to have been one of the most splendid buildings of the ,peloponnesus4 ,the magnificent columns which 'crown ,sunium's marble steep1' belong to the same era1 and probably to the same school4 ,for sixty years afterwards1 we have no decline in the grandeur or purity of the ,doric1 as yet appears in the ruins of ,messene1 a city built by ,epaminondas1 and still exhibiting the most perfect specimen of ancient military architecture4 ,but the victories of this warrior were parricidal triumphs2 they were gained over those who ought to have been as brothers4 ,in sculpture1 we have already seen that this era marks the retrogression of the manly and the grand in style2 it is so in architecture1 for in less than forty years1 a great declension in these respects must have taken place in this the grandest and most severe of the orders1 as is attested by the specimen in the isle of ,delos1 inscribed with the name of ,philip of ,macedon4 ,after this the ,doric either fell into desuetude1 or the works have perished1 for the only remaining example is the portico1 erected by ,augustus in one of the agorai or squares of ,athens4 ,of the remains of ,doric architecture in the ancient seats of the ,sicilan and ,italian colonies1 the dates1 even with ordinary accuracy1 it is impossible individually to ascertain4 ,the former claim the highest antiquity in some1 but not in all instances4 ,the temple of ,egesta1 in the interior of the island1 is perhaps one of the oldest1 yet among the least imperfect monuments of the art in ,europe2 contemporary or earlier1 is the temple of ,minerva1 at ,syracuse2 the other remains near that city are of a later date4 ,the ponderous ruins at ,selinus1 which consist of no less than six temples1 one of which1 three hundred and thirty-one feet in length1 composed of a double peristyle of columns sixty feet high1 must have presented one of the sublimest objects ever reared by human art4 ,ruins at ,agrigentum--,temple of ,juno most picturesque1 of ,concord very perfect--three others1 last the grand ,temple of ,olympian ,jupiter1 one of the most stupendous buildings of the ancient world1 and whose buried materials swell into hills or subside in valleys1 over which we have ourselves wandered1 without at first knowing that we trode upon the prostrate labours of man1 and not the workings of nature4 ,with the exception of the two first1 these remains as also the ,temple of ,apollo1 at ,gela1 seem to be nearly of the same age4 ,indeed1 their erection can be fixed between certain limits1 by comparison of historical details1 in which1 either by direct mention or inference1 a connexion is traced between the political condition and the arts of the ,sicilian cities4 ,proceeding in this manner1 it is found that all of these enormous piles rose in little more than a century1 embracing the greater part of the fifth1 and the early portion of the fourth1 before our era4 ,these edifices thus fall in with the interval already noticed between the earliest ,doric buildings in ,greece1 and the erection of the ,athenian temples4 ,accordingly1 there appear in them more noble proportions and a greater elevation of column than in the former1 still without the graceful majesty of the latter4 ,under what circumstances1 however1 or by what science1 many of these wonderful fabrics were reared1 history affords no information4 ,of the rise and the overthrow1 for instance1 of the temples at ,selinus1 we know nothing2 some even doubt whether human power could have overthrown what it had elevated2 and ascribe the regular prostration of the gigantic columns1 each often exactly in a line1 extending outwards from its base1 as if overturned but yesterday1 to the concussion of an earthquake4 ,these appearances we have certainly remarked with astonishment1 and have beheld1 and measured1 and wandered amid the ruins1 with admiration not unmingled with awe2 but the truth was obvious1 that the same age which could arrange these masses into symmetry1 could also have cast them down as they now lie4 ,and we know that it was the same age--for one page1 almost one sentence1 records both their rise and their fall4 ,yet of the energies and knowledge of that age1 our own has no conception4 ,the riches of any one of the sovereigns of ,europe1 and the skill of his wisest subjects1 would barely suffice for the erection of only one of the six ,selinuntine temples--the works of a distant colony of ,greece4 ,that this may not appear exaggeration1 let the reader contemplate for a moment an edifice--the porticos of which alone would require one hundred columns of stone1 each sixty feet high1 and thirty in circumference--such was the great ,temple of ,selinus4 ,the celebrated ruins of ,pstum1 consisting of two temples and a quadrangular portico1 containing eighteen columns in flank1 and seven in front1 compose the only ,grecian ,doric remains in ,italy4 ,the date and origin of these structures will probably ever remain liable to doubt4 ,this arises partly from the singular nature of some of the buildings themselves1 as well as from the obscurity which rests upon this portion of history in general4 ,the greater of the two temples bears evident character of the same design and architectural principles as the ,sicilian edifices2 between which latter1 indeed1 as compared with each other1 there exists1 in this respect1 a very striking uniformity1 pointing to a nearly contemporary erection4 ,hence the inference seems clear1 that to the same era the ,pstan ruin is to be referred1 and that it is the work of ,greek colonists from ,sybaris1 who1 from the middle of the sixth century ,b4 ,c41 for more than two hundred years enjoyed peaceable possession of this part of ,lucania4 ,this temple1 though not equal in magnitude to some ruins in ,sicily1 is a very noble1 and the largest pile in a state of such perfection out of ,greece4 ,not a single column of the outer peristylia is wanting4 ,it was within this 'pillared range1' during the moonlight of a troubled sky1 we experienced emotions of the awful and sublime1 such as impress a testimony1 never to be forgotten1 of the power of art over the affections of the mind4 ,the other ruins1 which some consider a temple and a hall of justice1 others1 with greater probability1 two temples1 though1 like the former in situation1 ,they stand between the mountain and the sea1 ,awful memorials1 but of whom we know not1 are far inferior in dignity of effect and purity of style4 ,nor are these defects the consequences of a progressive knowledge advancing to better things1 they are evident corruptions of ancient simplicity4 ,both these are to be referred to a period posterior to the ,roman conquest of the city1 which occurred in the #dhast year of ,rome1 that is1 not three centuries before our era4 ,of the same age are the walls1 remaining in considerable entireness1 especially the eastern gate1 as represented in the vignette1 where the voussoirs1 or arch-stones1 still span the entrance4 ,here it may be proper1 without going into the particular facts and reasonings upon which the inference is founded1 merely to state1 that1 regarding the introduction of the arch into classic architecture1 the weight of evidence is against any knowledge of its use or construction prior to the era of ,alexander4 ,indeed1 the arch is contrary to the whole genius of the ,greek system1 which delights in the simplicity of horizontal and perpendicular lines1 to which the contrasts1 minute divisions1 and constantly recurring breaks of arched building1 are most directly opposed4 ,during the pure ages of truly ,grecian taste1 the very improvements and changes which successively ensued1 all tended to guide invention farthest from the arch4 ,to add elevation to the column1 and to increase the unbroken length of the entablature1 were objects most directly pursued4 ,the greater richness or variety of ornament thus admitted1 was an advantage rather incidental than contemplated1 though with exquisite skill rendered available-- ----without o'erflowing--full4 ,whether the ,ionic order of architecture originated merely as a variation on the ',dorian mode1' or as a separate invention1 it is not easy1 and not of much importance1 to determine4 ,the two ideas may be reconciled2 remains of ,ionic are found coeval with the earliest certain accounts of the ,doric edifices2 so far the former was independent1 and having arisen among the ,ionian states1 where subsequently it continued to be employed in preference1 it thus obtained a distinct name and character4 ,afterwards1 however1 on being brought into use in ,european ,greece1 architects appear to have studied its capabilities1 chiefly in contrast with the corresponding proprieties of the ,doric4 ,here something like an encroachment was made on its separate identity2 or rather1 the artists of those times contemplated each system as a modification1 in part1 of one great whole1 bearing a relation only to the emotions of grandeur and beauty4 ,this is still the proper view in which the orders are to be regarded in reference to excellence in architectural composition4 ,now1 indeed1 the moderns possess the advantage of a principle then unknown--the principle of association1 which both limits the field of choice1 and increases the beauty of a just selection4 ,of the ,ionic order1 few remains are extant in ,greece or her colonies--few1 we mean1 as compared with the amazing structures just considered4 ,the ,temple of ,juno1 in the ,isle of ,samos1 raised about the first ,olympiad by ,rchus and ,theodorus1 already noticed as the founders of the ,samian ,school of ,sculpture1 supplies the earliest specimen4 ,this1 in the age of ,herodotus1 was the grandest building in ,greece4 ,how rapidly the order must have improved6 ,many archaisms1 not to say barbarous inventions1 occur4 ,next in age has been placed the singular but not ungraceful monument at ,agrigentum1 called the ,tomb of ,theron4 ,here we discover1 indeed1 ,ionic columns1 but everything else is ,doric--proofs1 first1 of the antiquity of the monument2 and secondly1 of the truth of our opinion1 more than once hinted in these pages1 that the ,dorian colonies in ,sicily were original settlements from the ,east1 little or no intermediate connexion having taken place between them and the ,dorians of the ,peloponnesus1 who affected to be considered as the mother country4 ,if pursued to the full extent of its consequences1 this position would go far to explain several doubts1 in regard to the early power and arts of the ,sicilian and ,lucanian cities4 ,the earliest example of the true ,ionic1 is the ,temple of ,bacchus at ,teos1 erected1 most probably1 soon after the ,persian invasion1 or not later than fifty years after1 or about #ddj ,b4 ,c4 ,at ,athens1 however1 in the temples of ,minerva1 ,polias1 and ,erectheus1 is to be found the most perfect remain of this order1 but of what precise date is uncertain1--probably about the era of the ,peloponnesian war4 ,near ,miletus1 the ,temple of ,apollo1 erected by the architects ,peonius and ,daphnis1 brings us down to that of ,minerva at ,priene1 by ,pitheas1 in the age of ,alexander2 after which no specimens are to be found more ancient than the ,roman conquest1 with the exception of some in different parts of ,asia ,minor1 whose dates cannot be ascertained4 ,in these two orders1 now described1 almost every beauty of composition had been attained1 except facility of arrangement1 with that extreme simplicity in which the taste of 'early ,greece' seems to have placed the very perfection of the art4 ,in the ,doric1 the triglyphs broke in upon the unity of the entablature viewed in perspective1 producing also complexity in the intervals1 or difficulty of managing them4 ,the ,ionic1 by removing the divisions of the zoophorus1 left the guiding lines of the horizontal members of the order unbroken1 and with greater aptitude for the introduction of ornament2 still the capital deviated from the simple harmony--the object contemplated by the artist1 as it presented different aspects viewed in front or in flank1 and also was not equally adapted to all situations in the same range4 ,by the invention of the ,corinthian1 the beauties of the former orders were combined1 while their defects were also obviated2 the removal of the triglyphs left the arrangement unembarrassed1 while the circular capital presented always the same outline1 and adapted itself equally to all positions4 ,the system of ,greek architecture1 the most perfect combination of the necessities of science with forms most pleasing to the eye1 that ever did1 or1 we may venture to say1 will exist1 was completed4 ,when this perfection was attained is doubtful1 as we have elsewhere shown2,e but the question is of less importance1 since it is known that the ,corinthian order was employed by ,scopas in the magnificent temple of ,minerva at ,tegea1 erected between the #idth and #ajdth ,olympiad1 or nearly #djj years before the ,christian era4 ,of the remaining monuments of this order1 few can be ascribed to the best ages of ,grecian taste4 ,it became the favorite style after ,alexander1 and especially of the ,romans1 to whom is to be attributed by far the greater part of the ,corinthian remains now in ,greece4 ,the circular erection of ,lysicrates1 commonly termed1 from the occasion commemorated1 the ,choragic ,monument1 built #cdb ,b4 ,c42 the octagonal edifice of ,andronicus ,cyrrhestes1 apparently not much later2 most probably the magnificent remains of the temple of the ,olympian ,jupiter2 and1 according to ,stuart1 another ruin1 which he calls the ,poikele ,stoa1 or painted portico1 compose the sole remains of the order prior to the ,roman conquest4 ,the first is one of the most exquisite and perfect gems of architectural taste1 and the purest specimen of the order1 that has reached our time1 whose minuteness and unobtrusive beauty have preserved it almost entire amid the ruins of the mightiest piles of ,athenian art4 ,the second is curious in its contrivance to supply ignorance of the arch4 ,the fourth is of doubtful antiquity2 but of the third1 the columns1 at least1 are of the best age of ,greece4 ,these1 composed of the finest white marble1 and of the most perfect workmanship1 with an elevation of nearly sixty feet1 and belonging to an edifice four hundred long1 awaken emotions of regret1 of magnificence1 and of beauty1 difficult to comprehend or to impart4 ,in thus briefly following out the history of the orders1 as far as researches can be authenticated by remaining examples1 the narrative has conducted us to the death of ,alexander1 ,a4 ,c4 #cbd1 while it has included the consideration of every essential principle1 for the ,greeks never widely deviated from their established modes4 ,the caryatic supports of the ,temples of the ,nymph ,pandrosos1 still almost perfect at ,athens1 and the ,persian portico said to have been at ,sparta1 form the only exceptions to this observation4 ,these1 however1 were never imitated--they were suffered as individual fantasies--not allowed as models4 ,the period just considered1 comprehending a space of about #aac years from ,pericles to ,alexander1 was occupied almost exclusively with the perfecting and application of the ,ionic and ,corinthian orders4 ,the art had now attained1 in all its modes1 the highest character of purity and magnificence4 ,for more than two successive centuries1 the history of the art would conduct to consideration of the labours of the ,greek princes in the ,east1 when ,asia received back the early information given to ,europe4 ,how vast the interval of obligation6 ,but of all the labours of those times1 great as they must have been1 when one alone of the ,seleucidan dynasty founded forty cities1 only a few remains in ,ionia1 with one or two in ,greece1 are known1 or have been explored4 ,to this period are doubtless to be referred ruins in the ,greek style1 said to exist in ,syria and ,persia1 while1 as already noticed1 the ,romans justly claim those more commonly visited2 but over all these hangs an obscurity perhaps now impenetrable4 ,innovations upon the severe purity of ancient taste were now certainly introduced2 still the art had not suffered any lapse2 the essential principles appear to have been fully understood1 and sufficiently respected4 ,this1 indeed1 is the case1 to a degree of veneration not generally supposed1 at least in the remains of ,asia ,minor1 while now1 in complete possession of a new and mighty element of design--the arch2 never before had architecture exhibited so great capabilities1 or powers adequate to the most gigantic works1 whether of use or magnificence4 ,in this state the art passed into the hands of the ,romans1 when universal conquest had left them masters of the world4 ,thence commences a new era in the history of architecture1 distinguished1 however1 rather by new applications than by fresh inventions4 ,the art continued essentially ,greek1 for1 though to the ,etruscans1 and subsequently to the early ,romans1 an order has been ascribed1 no specimen of this ,tuscan capital has come down to our times1 and consequently there exist no means of tracing the narrative or descriptions of ,vitruvius4 ,but by the account even of this native writer1 the public buildings of the regal and consular times were rude enough1 exhibiting a state of the science as already described among the early nations of the ,east--vertical supports of stone1 with wooden bearers4 ,this continued to be their style of design and practice1 till extending empire brought the ,romans acquainted with the arts of the ,dorian settlements on the east and southern shores of ,italy4 ,the situation of the capital1 however1 distant from accessible materials1 the simplicity--not to say homeliness of manners--and the constant bent of the national genius towards foreign conquest1 at first denied power to profit by accession of science1 or subsequently diverted attention away from its pleasures and its advantages4 ,down to the conquest of ,asia and the termination of the republic1 ,rome continued a 'city of wood and brick4' ,only with the establishment of the empire and the reign of ,augustus1 with the wealth of the world at command1 and the skill of ,greece to direct the application1 commences the valuable history of architecture among the ,romans4 ,this1 the last period of ,classic ,art1 comprehends a space of about #cej years1 terminating with the transference of the seat of empire by ,constantine1 ,a4 ,d4 #cjf4 ,of this interval1 however1 only the smaller portion must be given to a taste even comparatively pure2 for1 great as were its resources1 symptoms of the decay of art1 continually increasing1 are detected even from the first years of the imperial government4 ,without entering minutely into these gradations1 the death of ,hadrian1 ,a4 ,d4 #ach1 may be assumed as including both the noblest erections and the better taste of the empire4 ,that to this date1 the essential characteristics of elegance and purity continued in a degree untainted1 there is evidence in the works of ,hadrian at ,athens4 ,thus1 during an interval of not less than #egd years1 from ,pericles to the last mentioned emperor1 architecture1 in this respect more fortunate than either sculpture or painting1 flourished in splendor and excellence not greatly impaired4 ,of all the fine arts--poetry not excepted--architecture is the only one into which the ,roman mind entered with the real enthusiasm of natural and national feeling4 ,success corresponded with the exalted sentiment whence it arose2 here have been left for the admiration of future ages1 the most magnificent proofs of original genius4 ,this originality1 however1 depends not upon invention so much as upon application of modes4 ,to the architectonic system1 indeed1 the ,romans claim to have added two novel elements in their own ,doric1 or ,tuscan1 and ,composite orders4 ,but in the restless spirit of innovation which these betray1 the alleged invention discovers a total want of the true feeling and understanding of the science of ,grecian design4 ,in this very desire of novelty1 and in the principles upon which it was pursued1 are to be traced the immediate causes of ruin to the art1 while yet its resources were unimpaired4 ,the ,romans unfortunately viewed the constituents of the ,greek orders1 and even the orders themselves1 as so many conventional ornaments1 which might be changed or superseded on the laws of association1 in the same manner as they were supposed to have been framed4 ,this it is of importance to mark1 for the very same have been the sources1 and are still the operating causes1 of inferiority in modern architecture4 ,but the very opposite of all this is the case4 ,of this system1 the ,greeks1 in the course of centuries1 had founded what was conventional upon what is necessary2 they had united beauty with science1 by combinations the most pleasing to taste--because of this very union of effect and principle4 ,architecture1 with them1 was thus not more conventional than is every part of knowledge not immediately derived from sense--not more1 for instance1 than geometry2 and its modes1 therefore1 as constituting one whole1 became immutable1 being only conventional1 as expressions or representatives of truth4 ,this harmony1 therefore1 between the intellectual and the merely beautiful--the very perfection of the science of taste--the ,greeks sought not by perilous experiments to disturb4 ,not that among them the vigor of independent genius was cramped2 proper latitude of composition being allowed1 licentiousness of fancy was restrained2 each artist thought1 in due subordination to the principles of a system which he knew to be as unchangeable as the laws that ensured the stability of his edifice4 ,hence1 in every remain of ,greek art1 something peculiar is discoverable--some exquisite adaptation of parts to circumstances--to proportion--to feeling2 but this never obtrudes--never is the general symmetry1 or prevailing character1 in the least interrupted4 ,even the orders observe the same law of composition4 ,they are but variations of one grand abstraction of stability and grace1 which may be termed the ideal of architecture4 ,each varies from another in detail1 but the result is one and the same concord2 the proportions in each differ1 but the analogies of proportion are in all cases congenial4 ,even when1 by addition or absence of parts1 there is discriminative form1 still the same final result of purpose or propriety is evident4 ,in all1 the same master lines meet the eye1 guide the comprehension over all divisions1 and bind the entire design into one grand harmonious whole4 ,similar means and similar harmonies everywhere occur2 the same in all is the last impress on the mind of symmetry and majestic repose--of grace and dignity--of steadfast tranquillity--of unlaboured elegance--and of rich simplicity4 ,the system in this1 its perfect wholeness1 the ,romans never conceived1 and upon this entireness their style first broke4 ,they appear to have deemed that lightness and grace1 here the great objects of their pursuit1 were to be attained not so much by proportion between the vertical and horizontal1 as by comparative slenderness in the former4 ,hence1 in the very outset1 is detected a poverty in the ,roman architecture1 even in the midst of profuse ornament1 which1 as we advance1 continually increases with the practice whence it originated4 ,the great error was a constant aim to lessen the diameter1 while they increased the elevation1 of the columns and supporting members generally--an error1 as remarked by ,plutarch1 'to a ,greek eye' perceptible so early as the reign of ,domitian4 ,hence the incongruities of the ,roman orders1 which yet are mere plagiarisms from the ,greek1 and upon this defective principle4 ,the massive simplicity and severe grandeur of the ancient ,doric1 disappear in the ,roman1 the characteristics of the order being frittered down into a multiplicity of minute members4 ,this division is not only in itself injurious to the simple idea of strength1 but the parts are separately composed in ignorance of the primitive intention4 ,to their two more refined orders1 the ,ionic and ,corinthian1 the ,greeks always added a base1 to unite them sweetly and gracefully with the plinth step1 or floor2 to the ,doric1 this accessory was always denied1 that strong contrast might lead the eye at once from the support to the firm position of the vertical shaft--thus apparently still more securely planted1 as resting immediately on the solid platform of the building4 ,in opposition to these obvious principles1 the ,romans used the ,doric always with a base1 composed1 too1 of various members2 while in the capital they erred still more against propriety4 ,the ,doric capital of the ,greeks is a masterpiece of composition2--formed of few and bold1 yet graceful parts1 it leads by degrees of increasing strength to the surmounting entablature1 which1 with its triglyphs and sculptured metopes1 seems to the eye yet more ponderous--ready to crush the starved and fluttering members1 fillet above fillet1 which compose the capital of the ,roman pillar4 ,the ,corinthian is the only order which the ,romans have employed with almost the undiminished grace of the original2 but even here is distinctly to be traced the pernicious effects of their system4 ,in the ,ionic1 they have left comparatively few examples1 while1 still following out their principle1 they added to the length of the shaft1 and flattened the capital1 thus losing much of the simple yet stately elegance which distinguishes this order4 ,their own ,composite is in some measure a combination of the ,ionic and the ,corinthian1 having the volutes of the former and the foliage of the latter1 upon which it is anything but an improvement1 since it contradicts the character1 and in a great degree opposes the advantages1 of the primitive4 ,as far1 then1 as concerns the invention of forms1 and the just conception of the elemental modes of ,greece1 the ,romans failed4 ,their architecture was imperfect1 both as a system of symmetry1 and as a science founded upon truth and upon taste4 ,but when their labours are viewed as regards the practice of the art1 their merits are presented under a far different aspect4 ,whether the magnitude1 the utility1 the varied combinations1 or the novel and important evidences of their knowledge1 be considered1 the ,romans1 in their practical works1 are yet unrivalled4 ,they here created their own models1 while they have remained examples to their successors4 ,though not the inventors of the arch1 they1 of all the nations of antiquity1 first discovered and boldly applied its powers2 nor is there one dignified principle in its use which they have not elicited4 ,rivers are spanned2 the sea itself1 as at ,ancona1 is thus enclosed within the cincture of masonry2 nay1 streams were heaved into air1 and1 borne aloft through entire provinces1 poured into the capital their floods of freshness1 and health4 ,the self-balanced dome1 extending a marble firmament over head1 the proudest boast of modern skill1 has yet its prototype and its superior in the ,pantheon-- ,relic of nobler days and noblest arts6 ,despoil'd1 yet perfect1 with thy circle spreads ,a holiness appealing to all hearts-- ,to art a model4 ,the same stupendous and enduring character pervaded all the efforts of ,roman art1 even in those instances where more ancient principles only were brought into action4 ,where the ,greeks were forced to call the operations of nature in aid of the weakness of art1 availing themselves of some hollow mountain side for the erection of places of public resort1 the imperial masters of ,rome caused such mountains to be reared of masonry1 within their capital1 for the ,theatre1 ,amphitheatre1 and ,circus4 ,of these vast structures1 where assembled multitudes might sit uncrowded1 the ,colosseum--the mightiest indeed1 yet only one of the labours of the reign in which it was raised--contains more solid material1 brought too from far1 and exquisitely wrought1 than all the works of either ,louis ,,xiv41 or the ,czar ,peter--the two greatest builders among the sovereigns of modern times3 ,from its mass1 ,walls1 palaces1 half cities1 have been rear'd2 ,yet oft the enormous skeleton ye pass1 ,and marvel where the spoil could have appear'd4 ,palaces--,temples--,baths--,porticos--, arches of ,triumph--,commemorative ,pillars--,basilica1 or ,halls of ,justice--,fora1 or ,squares--,bridges--without mentioning the astonishing highways1 extending to the extremities of the empire--all were constructed on the same grand and magnificent plan4 ,the art1 in every part of its practice1 partook of the national character of the people4 ,its applications were great1 substantial1 and useful--beautiful in execution1 but this beauty dignified yet more as subservient to utility4 ,the highest conceivable grandeur seemed but necessary1 as commensurate with the wants and the durability of a dominion which was to be universal and eternal4 ,roman art has1 in these respects1 a character almost of moral dignity beyond all relics of antiquity4 ,the records of their dead1 though erections of more equivocal usefulness1 partake of the same style1 and1 like the pyramids of ,egyptian kings1 have ceased to be monuments save of their own greatness4 ,some1 and those but of individuals1 or even a woman's grave1 as towers of strength have rolled back the shock of feudal warfare2 and the tomb of an emperor1 turned into a palace1 or a fortress1 still overawes the city of the ,csars4 ,but1 alas6 the passing briefness of all things sublunary6 ,the spirit's homage to this mightiness of mind and power1 is due only to the labours of little more than a century and a half4 ,the very greatness of these edifices proved a source of after corruption1 by withdrawing attention from the delicacies of composition1 and by substituting brute mass for the refinements of science4 ,even under the ,antonines1 decline from the age of ,hadrian is perceptible--though more in taste than in practice4 ,under ,commodus1 architecture suffered most decided degradation--another proof how steadily the arts reflect1 not only the mental1 but the moral energies of the times4 ,the downward impulse hurries onwards1 occasionally stayed by the personal virtues or activities of the reigning prince4 ,severus has thus left evidence how far his age had fallen1 and yet how superior to those that follow6 between his triumphal arch and that of ,titus1 how great the difference6--yet1 in point of design1 far less than between his and ,constantine's4 ,the last splendours of ,roman skill were elicited by the talents of ,dioclesian1 and great appear still to have been the practical resources of architecture--greater than usually admitted4 ,the circular ,hall in his ,baths is inferior only to the ,pantheon1 and awakened the enthusiasm of ,michael ,angelo2 his ,dalmatian ,palace was the finest building undertaken for twelve succeeding centuries4 ,few of the qualities which can ennoble the art1 as an object of taste1 survived this period4 ,the works of ,constantine1 not excepting the founding of a capital1 prove how complete was the lapse1 since even his zeal could call forth only attempts to ungraceful and ineffective4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the history of ,architecture still to be considered1 extends through fifteen centuries to the present time4 ,this interval may be divided into three eras4 ,i4 ,period of the circular arch4 ,,ii4 ,period of the pointed arch4 ,,iii4 ,revival and practice of classic art4 ,the theories so abounding in this particular portion of the subject1 must be reviewed as in themselves forming part of the information which the reader has a right to expect2 but the notice will be brief1 the narrative1 it is hoped1 enabling the judgment to deduce its own conclusions from facts1 independently of all opinion4 ,for this reason1 the preceding division is adopted1 characterised only by the style of architecture1 without reference to those minute distinctions and disputes about names1 the great sources of obscurity and unsettled hypothesis in treating of the building of the middle ages4 ,it may be remarked1 in limine1 that the term1 ',gothic ,architecture1' is of late invention1 and appears to be used in two distinct1 or indeed opposite meanings4 ,first1 to denote the whole system of architectural erection intervening between the decline of the ancient classic modes1 and their reappearance soon after the revival of letters4 ,in this sense1 it is usually employed as expressive of something barbarous and unscientific4 ,in the second place1 the phrase is employed by a large school of writers and artists1 to denote a system or systems of art1 arising1 it is acknowledged1 among men of rude cultivation in other respects1 yet claiming original principles of invention1 and very refined rules of practice--so far even as to be an imitation of natural prototypes of very distant1 yet tasteful associations4 ,each of these theories exclusively taken1 seems to be disproved by the course of history1 when all preconceived notions are laid aside1 and when art1 as ought ever to be the case1 is fairly made its own interpreter4 ,i4 ,it has been shown that the ,romans1 in obtaining full mastery of a powerful engine in building--the arch1 were at first bold1 subsequently lavish1 and1 it will appear1 finally barbarous1 in its application4 ,from the reigns even of the early ,csars1 a tendency may be traced in their architecture to become great in mass1 but little in parts--to lessen1 in the first instance1 the vertical or supporting members2 and in the second1 to load the superstructure1 or supported parts4 ,the progress of corruption might be traced1 by regular steps1 from vast arches1 with groins planted on a single ,corinthian column1 to the arcades of the palace of ,dioclesian at ,spalatro4 ,these still are left1 exhibiting external and internal ranges of arches1 springing directly from the capitals of the columns1 without any intervening entablature4 ,what more1 we ask1 is wanting here1 to one of the most decided characteristics of one species1 at least1 of ,gothic architecture1 and an elemental principle in all kinds8 nothing1 save a little less elegance of workmanship in the supports1 a pier substituted for the column1 and the soffit of the arch bevelled instead of being square2 steps successively apparent in posterior remains4 ,surely1 then1 it is carrying theory beyond all moderate limits1 to contend for a separate origin of the system1 when the principles of ,gothic building are thus distinctly recognizable in a corruption of classic modes1 at an era while yet vigorous practice prevailed1 with resources undiminished for its support4 ,this corruption1 indeed1 evidently proceeded1 not so much from inefficiency1 as from too eager pursuit of novelty--this too1 unrestrained by the immediate presence of more simple forms2 for1 in the baths of the same emperor1 appears a less licentious taste4 ,for the exterior1 indeed1 such ,gothic arcades do not seem to have been soon imitated2 but for the interior1 their adoption was almost immediate4 ,these intermediate steps it is unnecessary farther to pursue at present4 ,the era of ,constantine1 though justly regarded as marking the final disappearance of the last lingering rays of ancient taste1 proves yet a most important epoch in the history of architecture4 ,the reception of ,christianity as the religion of the empire1 not only changed to a very great extent1 the entire frame and aspect of society1 but in a particular manner influenced the practical art of building4 ,as in the heathen temple was traced the great source of perfection in ancient art1 so in the ,christian church then established1 is to be found the origin of those modes and forms1 which1 for so many centuries1 guided modern practice4 ,but the former structure was one of external magnificence only2 internally1 it was neither intended1 nor1 unaltered1 adapted1 to accommodate large assemblies4 ,in the new religion1 this became the primary object in its places of worship3 while the early ,christians refused to make use of the 'houses of idols4' ,in this emergency1 there remained only one course--to convert the most capacious of unobjectionable buildings into churches4 ,of all these1 the ,basilicon presented1 not only no difficulties as having been desecrated1 but also was directly accommodated to the necessities of the case4 ,the ancient ,basilicon was a building of great extent1 adjoining the forum or great square1 in every city1 serving at once the purposes of an exchange for the transaction of business1 of a court for the administration of justice1 and of a place for general resort4 ,the exterior was adorned with porticoes more or less magnificent1 while internally it was separated lengthwise by two or four ranges of columns1 into three or five longitudinal divisions1 according to its width4 ,of these1 the middle one was the largest1 open to the top1 and uncovered2 the side ones were smaller1 roofed in1 with galleries opening into the centre compartment1 and to which access was had by stairs at the two extremities4 ,under an arched niche1 usually at the extremity of the central division1 was a tribunal for the judge1 exactly in the situation where the ,christian altar was afterwards placed4 ,from the whole description1 it is evident1 that the only alteration necessary to convert this edifice into a complete church1 with its nave and lateral aisles1 was to place a roof over the middle portion4 ,thus the first ,christian churches were formed2 and hence many of those in ,rome still retain the name of ,basilicon4 ,subsequently1 the transepts were added1 to imitate the cross1 though this form seems to have been very early known in the ,east4 ,the general form of the church being thus determined1 more through chance than design1 yet with great convenience and propriety1 this accidental form was adhered to in the subsequent erections for sacred purposes2 but with certain internal arrangements1 modified by the lessened resources of the art1 the prevailing taste1 and the novel exigencies of the case4 ,instead of the horizontal entablature resting upon the internal ranges of pillars1 as in the more classical ,basilicon1 churches were constructed internally of arcades1 the arches resting upon the capitals of the columns4 ,these latter were torn from more ancient edifices1 but combined1 and often with considerable effect1 by the ruder efforts of existing art4 ,thus1 with columns for supports1 united with ranges of semicircular arches abutting against the walls1 we soon find the perfect ,gothic church established4 ,this style of building1 recommended at once by convenience and necessity1 rapidly spread over the whole of ,italy and the ,empire1 for ,constantinople was erected from pilfered monuments1 which1 when taken to pieces and transported thither1 were subsequently set up in a most confused and imperfect manner4 ,when the supporting columns could no longer be obtained from ancient structures1 or where this resource had never existed1 the whole was to be reared from the foundation4 ,here it would soon be discovered that a cylindrical1 square1 or bevelled pier1 without diminution1 would be a fitter and more easily erected support for the arch4 ,from the desire of stability1 or the imperfection of skill1 this pier1 of whatever form1 begins gradually to decrease in altitude1 while it becomes more massive1 still with a base and capital palpable though rude imitations of the same1 members of the classic column4 ,in this state was the art1 when ,italy fell under the power of barbarian conquerors4 ,this style they adopted in their own buildings2 for1 after conquest was secure1 they patronised the arts of their subjects1 introducing a still greater profusion of ornament1 rudely executed1 and in worse design4 ,yet the whole effect of such works is often not without grandeur4 ,beginning with ,rome1 we might instance1 from our own observation1 a continuous series of monuments1 of a style such as now described1 still remaining in different parts of ,italy1 especially the ,gothic capitals of ,lombardy1 as ,ravenna1 ,verona1 ,pavia1 introducing the early revival in ,pisa and the cities of ,tuscany4 ,such a survey would unite the labours of ,metrodorus1 the first ,christian architect under ,constantine1 with those of ,buschetto and ,diotisalvi1 in the commencement of the eleventh century1 leading to the mention of various architects of the ,gothic kingdom1 as ,ciriades1 of ,rome2 ,aloisius1 of ,padua1 author of the famous tomb of ,theodoric1 called the ,rotunda of ,ravenna2 ,st ,germain1 of ,france2 ,st ,avitus1 of ,clermont2 ,agricola1 of ,chalons2 ,romnaldus1 of ,france2 ,tietland1 of ,germany2 with others4 ,such an inquiry1 however1 is not here necessary1 inasmuch as it must now appear obvious1 that the style just described might be termed ,gothic1 as practised by the mixed race of invaders1 who1 under the name of ,goths1 subdued ,italy2 but that such a style could not have been introduced by them from the forests of ,germany and the wilds of ,pannonia4 ,from ,italy1 religion1 and consequently ecclesiastical building1 extended over the rest of ,europe4 ,in ,france and ,germany1 the names enumerated above1 with the works still remaining there1 might be examined in corroboration of the fact1 that the circular arch prevailed at the same time in these countries4 ,but as of most importance1 attention is better limited to ,british art in the middle age4 ,this species of building is distinguished1 in native antiquities1 by the appellation of ,saxon or ,norman1--displaying1 as characteristics1 low1 thick1 and rotund pillars1 with bases and capitals often fantastically carved1 with heavy semicircular arches1 springing directly from the top1 corresponding exactly with the corrupted ,roman4 ,regarding the propriety of this designation1 however1 doubts may reasonably be entertained1 since it by no means certainly appears that either the ,saxons or ,normans were the introducers4 ,there is evidence that sacred edifices existed in ,britain prior to the ,saxon invasion2 and1 indeed1 when ,constantine wrote rescripts to the various provinces1 his own birthplace would not be omitted among those enjoined to erect and repair churches4 ,it would appear1 also1 that the ,saxons were attached to wooden erections1 as is expressed by the verb getymbrian1 to build1--a similar analogy1 from the same cause1 as in ,greek1 where the word wood is used to denote the constituent matter1 or material1 of anything--as 'the wood1' meaning the matter1 of 'an argument4' ,it is probable1 then1 that the stone buildings of the ,saxons were rather copied from existing edifices among the conquered people1 consequently direct imitations of the parent corruptions of ,italy4 ,this last fact1 the only one of real importance in the present case1 is not left to conjecture2 for1 in the accounts of the earliest stone structures of the seventh century1 it is said they were erected1 in the original phrase1 'more ,romanorum1' in the style of the ,romans1 that is1 the style already described4 ,between the ,saxon1 or supposed ,saxon1 and ,norman1 there exists no difference1 except in the superior magnificence of the latter--a circumstance accounted for by the progress of society4 ,it has thus been established1 that the style of building with circular arches is clearly a corruption from the ancient classic forms4 ,with little distinctive change1 or characteristic difference1 this mode was practised throughout ,europe during nine centuries4 ,,ii4 ,during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 an innovation upon the long monotony of the circular arch begins to appear and to be perfected4 ,this was the introduction of the pointed1 or lancet ,gothic1 to which species the term is more strictly limited4 ,the origin and progress of the pointed arch1 has been rendered one of the most complicated problems in the history of architecture4 ,the subjects of discussion here involve two questions--first1 ,whence and by whom this style was introduced8 secondly1 ,from what prototype the idea was originally derived8 ,on the former of these subjects1 the various conflicting opinions may be arranged under two general heads3 that the proper ,gothic1 or pointed arch1 had its origin in the cathedral buildings of ,england1 whence the knowledge and practice of this style was diffused throughout ,europe during the thirteenth century2 or that this architecture is of ,oriental growth1 and was brought into ,europe by the ,crusaders4 ,the author of the first system we believe was ,walpole2 but it has since been adopted by ,britton1 and a large proportion of the ,english antiquaries4 ,the second opinion has been ably maintained by ,lord ,aberdeen1 and is that more generally adopted in other countries4 ,it is not here possible to enter into the details of the controversy2 the latter view certainly appears to be supported by the analogy both of history and of the arts4 ,this1 in absence of positive evidence1 and with similar buildings of equal age and character in ,france1 affords far more conclusive argument than any to be derived from the greater perfection which the style1 comparatively speaking1 displays in ,england1 when the extent of the country and the number of fine buildings are considered4 ,but individual edifices1 especially in ,germany1 are not only equally ancient1 but more splendid4 ,our pretensions to exclusive invention1 under circumstances so notorious1 that1 in ,italy1 the ,gothic is more frequently styled ',tedesco1' or ',german1' have exposed the national information in matters of art1 to the severe but merited animadversions of foreign writers4 ,the assumption1 however1 appears to have little connexion with national opinion1 having arisen among antiquaries whose almost sole study had been ,english building1 or1 at least1 who had viewed the history of ,architecture under this peculiar mode alone4 ,in this respect1 extensive research and elegant erudition enabled ,lord ,aberdeen to bring to the subject every requisite of decision2 and were we inclined to place faith in any exclusive theory of introduction1 it would be that which his ,lordship has so ably advocated1 in maintaining the ,eastern origin of the ,gothic or pointed arch4 ,from what exemplar this form was conceived1 or by what prototype suggested1 has1 in the second place1 exercised speculation to a wide extent4 ,the following are the principal opinions3 #a4 ,theory of ,warburton1--that natural groves supplied the primitive idea1 the trunks1 branches1 and foliage of the trees being represented in the pillars1 arches1 and tracery of the ,gothic4 #b4 ,the system of ,sir ,james ,hall1--that the whole style1 in all its varieties1 is but an imitation of wickerwork1--an opinion frequently1 though very improperly1 considered as a modification of the former3 it is independent1 and has been very ingeniously followed out in detail4 #c4 ,theory of ,sir ,christopher ,wren1 remarkable at least in its propounder1--that the ,free ,masons were the inventors of the pointed arch4 #d4 ,opinions of many ,german and ,continental writers1--that this arch is but an imitation of the ,egyptian and ,indian pyramid4 #e4 ,hypothesis1 first incidentally proposed by ,bentham1 subsequently methodized and illustrated by ,dr ,milner1 and pretty generally received1--that the intersection of semicircular arches forming intermediate pointed ones1 gave the primitive model4 ,this interlacing of arches is a common ornament in buildings of the old ,gothic1 already explained2 it occurs frequently in relievo1 and1 if we recollect rightly1 also with disengaged columns in several of the faades of old churches in ,italy4 ,durham and ,lincoln cathedrals1 likewise ecclesiastical remains in ,scotland1 as ,kelso ,abbey1 furnish examples4 #f4 ,opinion of ,mr ,whittaker and others1--that pointed ,architecture was known to1 and practised by1 the ,romans1 early under the imperial government4 ,such are the leading theories on this interesting subject2 an examination of the facts would lead to a history of the ecclesiastical architecture of a great portion of ,europe for upwards of three centuries4 ,in ,france1 the pointed arch was early introduced2 but the light style of ,gothic architecture was not generally carried to such perfection as in ,germany and ,flanders1 having been sooner affected by the introduction of the ,italian taste4 ,the ,german style was perfected about the close of the fourteenth century1 and subsequently appears to have undergone little variation1 even to the middle of the sixteenth1 thus retaining the elegance of the best age in the art much longer4 ,compared with our own1 the best examples have much the same character1 with lighter forms and richer tracery1--but of such examples there are fewer in proportion than with us4 ,in ,italy1 the pointed arch never obtained4 ,it is found1 indeed1 in ,venice and ,milan1 and occasionally elsewhere2 but the style to which it gave birth is not characteristic of ,italy1 where the early churches are of the old or circular1 and the more modern of the mixed or ,lombard style4 ,in ,england1 four general periods mark so many changes of ,gothic4 #a4 ,from #abce to #abgb1 including the reigns from the accession of ,stephen to that of ,edward ,i41 termed ,early1 ,english1 ,simple1 and ,lancet ,gothic1 characterised by long narrow openings1 with a very sharp high arch4 ,early part of the period shows the gradual introduction of the pointed style4 #b4 ,from #abgb to #acgg1 to the accession of ,richard ,,ii4 ,this has been designated the age of the ,pure ,gothic1 or ,decorated ,english1 being more highly ornamented than the former1 but without exuberance2 especially characterised by an arch which circumscribes an equilateral triangle1 hence proposed to be named1 ,triangular ,gothic4 #c4 ,from #acgg to #aeji1 terminating with the accession of ,henry ,,viii4 ,this constitutes the age of the ,florid ,gothic1 which1 between these dates1 underwent a succession of changes2 first1 from aspiring1 to flatly-pointed and obtuse arches1 with large daylights1 in panels and straight mullions1 instead of tracery2 hence the names ,obtuse and ,perpendicular ,english2 becomes more and more ornamented2 ceilings of the richest and most complicated tracery1 with pendents2 ,henry ,,vii4's chapel fine specimen4 #d4 ,from #aeji to #afbe2 when the reign of ,charles ,i4 introduces ,inigo ,jones1 and the revival of ancient architecture4 ,first part of the reign of ,henry the ,eighth a continuation of the ,florid ,gothic2 subsequently the designs of ,holbein1 and of the ,italian artist employed by that monarch1 entirely ruined the ,gothic1 introducing a most barbarous mixture of ,roman1 ,italian1 and ,gothic4 ,in the succeeding reigns1 a stiff and most unmeaning style arose2 and1 in ,scotland1 we trace a near approach1 if not in magnitude1 at least in excellence1 to the ,english examples of ,gothic2 while the fortunes of the art are found to assimilate to its history in ,germany1 in as far as a character of great perfection was early formed1 and longer preserved1 than in the south4 ,it must appear a singular proof of hasty and inconclusive inquiry1 that1 while an ,english origin has been claimed for the pointed arch1 its elements are found of a date more ancient in ,scottish ecclesiastical buildings1 not to mention those on the ,continent4 ,in opposition to all the preceding theories1 we consider the system of pointed architecture1 or that properly denominated ,gothic1 to have arisen independently1 though almost contemporaneously1 among the nations of ,europe most conspicuous for the cultivation of this peculiar style4 ,in this we are borne out by a series of monuments in each country1 showing the progressive rise and introduction of the pointed arch1 from the form of two long stones1 placed on supports1 and meeting at top--a contrivance as still visible in the walls of ,mycen1 of three thousand years' standing1 up to the finished lancet arch1 as in ,salisbury cathedral4 ,or1 granting even the ,eastern introduction of the arch--and here the monuments are of very doubtful antiquity1,f--what does this prove with regard to the origin of the system8--,absolutely nothing4 ,this knowledge alone would not go further to enable the architect to construct a ,gothic cathedral1 than would one of the voussoirs in teaching him the properties of the arch itself4 ,the system is one entire and independent whole1 in which the pointed arch is merely an instrument subservient to principles1 in consequence of which1 if not invented1 it was at least improved and rendered perfect4 ,in this light the subject has too seldom been viewed3 a light which places ,gothic architecture in true and dignified position of an independent branch of art1 governed by its own precepts of convenience1 stability1 and ornament4 ,when1 in consequence of an extraordinary out-breaking of religious zeal and enthusiasm1 an astonishing change was wrought in the frame of ,european society1 one of the first impulses was to provide1 in those countries hitherto comparatively ignorant of the arts1 more suitable edifices for the services of that religion1 in whose cause multitudes were shedding1 or ready to shed1 their blood in distant and unknown regions4 ,thus the ,crusades were1 but not as usually supposed1 the cause of the introduction of art4 ,they operated as one of those moral springs of action by which the arts1 as the course of human life1 are found to be directed4 ,under such impressions1 when the architect contemplated the ancient structures1 the principle of convenience would at once suggest the necessity of heightening their low arches1 and decreasing their enormous supports1 by which light was obstructed1 and space filled up4 ,he saw1 however1 these efforts could not be accomplished on the old methods3--here the principle of stability--no abstract theory1 but the knowledge of the practical builder--taught him1 that by elevating the crown of the arch1 and thus removing in part the lateral pressure1 both objects would be accomplished2 for while height was gained1 the weight would be thrown more into the perpendicular1 and consequently would remain firm with diminished support4 ,the principle once introduced1 was carried even to frightful boldness4 ,but again1 though the lateral pressure was removed from the arcade itself1 abutment was still to be provided at the extremities and side-walls4 ,hence the peculiar characteristic of the buttress4 ,this indeed existed in the old ,gothic2 but here the feature assumed a novel appearance4 ,the arches being placed high1 required additional altitude to be added1 as a counterbalance1 at the opposing point2 thus the buttress was converted into a turret or pinnacle1 susceptible of every varied form which it afterwards received1 when the desire of ornament1 without the guidance of taste1 wandered into every maze of fantasy4 ,thus the whole system depended upon principle--neither rising1 like an exhalation1 in consequence of imported knowledge1 nor emulating some remote association or model1 but by the slow and gradual process of experience4 ,the ,gothic cathedral1 thus contemplated in its native character and principles--established in unmoved security by the very agency of those forces which tend most directly to destruction1 displays an evidence of science1 perhaps1 when the times are considered1 the most wonderful in the whole history of intelligence4 ,never have the stereometric precepts of building--one of the most difficult branches of the art1 been better exhibited than in these piles4 ,mass counteracts mass1--the very confliction of downward efforts upholds the reed-like column1 and hangs on high the ponderous vault4 ,self-balanced1 the entire system contains within itself the essence of its own existence in the chain of means and end1 of minute contrivance1 and of one purpose4 ,yet amid all this no effort is apparent1 even while the mind starts at the power of its own ingenuity over the properties of matter1 and the laws of nature--the artist seems to sport with his subject1 to tempt the prostration of his airy fabrics4 ,here come into aid the principles of ,gothic ornament1 than which nothing pertaining to the style more merits admiration1 whether as enabling the architect to extend the fantasy of his plans1 or still more as essentially producing those effects which these plans contemplate4 ,in no system of architecture1 the ,grecian not even excepted1 do the ornamental1 so completely integrate and harmonize with the necessary modes4 ,ornament could not here be removed without destruction both of beauty and stability2 it strengthens1 yet conceals the necessity of support2 and1 like the garniture of herbage1 and flower1 and twining plant1 upon the rugged face of earth1 it spreads to the delighted eye its mazy error1 where would else be only a frightful and unformed mass of nodding masonry4 ,such are the merits of ,gothic architecture1 examined in itself1 and in reference to the times which gave it birth4 ,apart from these considerations1 viewed as the object of refined perception or cultivated taste1 the entire system is defective4 ,in architecture1 pleasurable emotion arises from a two-fold cause--the modes1 and the associations of the art4 ,in regard to the former1 it may be laid down as an universal precept of taste1 that in architecture1 of all the arts1 according to the exhibition of principle1 and to the facility with which the mind conceives design1 and traces intention1 will be the mental pleasure produced by the work4 ,this constitutes the very essence of exalted feeling in ,greek art1 which1 grounded upon obvious principle1 consonant with natural appearances1 and pursuing beauty as a final aim1 fills the mind with delight and admiration4 ,in ,gothic architecture1 all this is reversed3 its first principle is1 to conceal all principle2 to dazzle and to surprise by effects seemingly at variance with all the usual harmonies of things4 ,hence1 on entering a ,gothic edifice1 though the mind1 at first1 be strongly affected by the magnitude and daring arrangement of the forms1 where ----the tall pile1 ,whose ancient pillars rear their marble heads1 ,bearing aloft the arch'd and pond'rous roof1 ,by its own weight stands steadfast and immoveable2 yet neither the judgment nor the fancy experiences those continually increasing emotions of delight which a ,grecian building inspires4 ,again1 the associations connected with ,gothic structures are temporary1 and1 in great measure1 local4 ,they are dependent on our assurance of antiquity4 ,remove from such their antique reminiscences1 and venerable traditions1 and they are despoiled of all1 or good part1 of their power over the imagination4 ,with religious ,gothic1 our associations are more congenial2 the holiness of the sentiment mingles its permanency even with the abstract forms2 we love the very semblance of the place1 ,where1 through the long-drawn aisle and fretted vault1 ,the pealing anthem swells the note of praise6 ,but there can be no doubt that this effect is accidental1 not intrinsic2 for decidedly the most impressive interiors in ,europe are those in churches on classic models4 ,to such style we are1 indeed1 not accustomed2 yet certain it is1 the first ,christian hymn1 when ,christianity had now obtained a temple1 rose to heaven from amid the beauteous majesty of the ,grecian orders4 ,sublime associations1 how much more in unison with the simple grandeur of the reformed service1 than the austerity and superstitious gloom of ,gothic erection6 ,as a system1 then1 adapted to its own age--as possessing independent1 if not dignified1 principles1 we consider the pure ,gothic1 as now described1 as one of the most singular and ingenious modes of architectonic science4 ,but in its revived and modern application no useful purpose can be served1 whether of good taste or legitimate effect4 ,,iii4 ,having thus considered1 at some length1 the only original and distinguishing characteristics of the architecture of the middle age2 the revival of classic forms1 as already described1 and therefore offering little of novelty1 seems to require here only brief notice4 ,indeed1 to render a detailed account interesting1 would introduce discussions too lengthened for our limits1 on the present state of the art in the different countries of ,europe4 ,so early as the commencement of the eleventh century1 the ,italians began to depart from the ungraceful style of the first period2 a departure which1 if not a renovation1 was at least an improvement1 in some measure founded upon closer conceptions of ancient art1 and with the ,roman orders1 though improperly applied4 ,this style1 heavy1 highly decorated1 but not unimpressive1 continued to the close of the fourteenth century1 and has been named the ,italian4 ,its principal masters were the sculptors already mentioned as belonging to the period4 ,with the commencement of the fifteenth century1 a new and far higher school arose1 which1 though far from pure1 was yet much improved2 and would have been still more so1 had not its patrons been chiefly painters1 too ready to aspire to the bold and peculiar effects of their own art4 ,bramante1 the first architect of ,st ,peter's1 ,da ,vinci1 ,raphael1 ,julio ,romano1 and1 above all1 ,michael ,angelo1 were the masters of this era4 ,the last mentioned mighty name1 here1 as in all the arts1 created his own style3 robust1 even to the abuse of strength2 incorrect1 and sometimes barbarous1 in detail2 in general effect1 always grand and original4 ,in ,st ,peter's1 with many defects1 and still greater beauties1 he has left a monument of his genius1 the most glorious structure that now adorns the face of the earth1 unequalled in extent as in science4 ,yes1 thou1 of temples old or altars new1 ,standest alone1 with nothing like to thee-- ,worthiest of ,god1 the holy and the true4 ,since ,zion's desolation1 when that ,he ,forsook his former city1 what could be ,of earthly structures1 in his honor piled1 ,of a sublimer aspect8 ,majesty1 ,power1 glory1 strength1 and beauty1 there are aisled4 ,great as was this school1 much was yet wanting to retrieve the golden purity of ancient art2 and this1 in the succeeding century1 was added by ,palladio1 so far at least1 as the severe majesty of the primitive modes could be recovered from a ,roman writer1 and by the study of ,roman exemplars4 ,palladio is refined1 rather than nervous1--elegant1 rather than grand2 but of all the modern masters1 he is the most chaste in design and ornament1 prior to more recent knowledge of the fountain of all excellence--the remains of ,greece4 ,his school was numerous1 at least the masters who followed out his principles2 which1 spreading over ,europe1 firmly established the ,roman style1 banishing a bastard species of ,roman ,gothic1 by which both systems had been disgraced1 and their characteristic distinctions confounded4 ,of the ,palladian1 or reformed school1 ,bernini was the last disciple of genius2 his circular colonnade1 in front of ,st ,peter's1 is worthy of its site4 ,with him1 and the conceits of ,borromini1 ,italian architecture may almost be said to have ceased4 ,in ,france1 the two ,mansards1 during the building reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 have left heavy imitations of the ,michael-,angelesque style2 still1 to the artist writers of that country1 the art owes much4 ,it is there more regularly studied than in any other country in ,europe2 and in one specimen1 the faade of the ,louvre1 the grandest excellence has been attained2 but the general character of national building is too fluttering1 wanting repose and majesty4 ,from the two schools1 the following ten have been selected1 under the name of the modern masters1 because1 in their writings or buildings1 the best precepts are obtained4 ,ranging the names in order of merit1 we have ,palladio1 ,scamozzi1 ,vignola1 ,alberti1 ,de ,lorme1 ,serlio1 ,viola1 ,cataneo1 ,boullant1 ,barbaro4 ,the graces of the ,palladian school were caught by the congenial spirit of ,inigo ,jones1 in whose labours the ,english school of classical architecture took its rise1 and1 we might almost say1 received its completion4 ,whitehall and ,greenwich will rank among the finest architecture of ,europe--evidences at once of the skill of the artist1 and the taste of ,charles ,i4 ,sir ,christopher ,wren1 in the succeeding reign1 with the same chaste design1 brought to the profession more general science than his predecessor4 ,his opportunities1 from the consequences of the great fire1 were greater than perhaps have fallen to the lot of any other modern2 and1 in the erection of the ,metropolitan ,cathedral1 he proved the capabilities of his genius to be equal to his good fortune4 ,he has reared the second1 and barely second1 edifice in the world4 ,the art has nothing finer than the western front--so rich1 so noble1 and1 notwithstanding the double arcade1 so pure4 ,on the whole1 the exterior of ,st ,paul's is to be preferred1 both for effect and design1 to ,st ,peter's4 ,not so the interior4 ,the ,roman ,basilicon opens upon the view with a calm1 majestic1 expansive capaciousness2 the ,english cathedral is broken into parts1 and scattered in its entireness4 ,jones and ,wren have remained the great masters of the ,english school3 though ,vanbrugh hardly deserved ,swift's satire-- ,lie heavy on him1 earth1 for he ,laid many a heavy load on thee2 while the ,earl of ,burlington1 in spite of ,pope1 did understand building4 ,gibbs1 ,kent1 ,hawksmore1 left no successors2 and during the reign of ,george ,,ii41 ,english architecture was at its lowest4 ,his late majesty is reported to have understood1 and certainly had a taste for1 the science2 but his majesty was scarcely happy in the artist whom he patronized1 ,chambers1 the architect of ,somerset-house1 and whose character may be thus summed up3--he introduced the ,chinese style1 and denied that the ,parthenon ever existed1 or that1 if it did1 it must have been a clumsy piece of business4 ,it is unnecessary to pursue the subject4 ,for the mixed ,roman--the modern ,gothic--and ,oriental styles1 which have since prevailed1 we can find no place among the modes of art4 ,the most recent improvements in the ,british metropolis are in better taste than those immediately preceding2 but in following the varied forms of buildings among the ,romans1 rather than the simpler outline of the ,greeks1 though no error has been committed1 but perhaps the contrary1 sufficient care has not been employed to place these varied masses advantageously1 both as respects their own grandeur1 and their decorative effect in street architecture4 ,a more promising aspect1 also1 of things1 invites attention to the ,northern capital4 ,this singularly romantic and beautiful city1 combining the associations of centuries with our admiration of the living age1 and exhibiting in its buildings the rudest and the most refined exemplars1 constitutes a feature in the history of our national architecture1 and1 among the cities of ,europe1 an isolated instance of undecided mastery between art and nature4 ,the earlier of the new buildings of the ,scottish metropolis1 are1 generally speaking1 in the ,palladian1 or ,roman style1 with the exception of the college4 ,adams1 in the last1 has left a most splendid proof of genius4 ,viewed1 as it ought to be1 in itself1 within the quadrangle1 it fills the eye with a burst of splendid magnificence1 equal to any effect we have ever experienced in modern building4 ,recent structures are in the true ,grecian modes1 transcripts from the ,theseum and the ,parthenon4 ,we rejoice in this2 it is the only source whence renewed vigor can be derived to our fallen art--for fallen it is at present among us2 nor do we perceive1 in the ,british empire1 such decided marks1 not of reviving1 but of vigorous taste1 as in the ,scottish school of architecture4 ,the ,national ,monument on the ,calton1 emulates1 in gigantic mass1 the ,athenian structures themselves2 while in the new ,high ,school is presented a perfect gem of art--where the purest ,greek modes are combined and adapted with the happiest originality4 ,the laborious and useful investigations which have rendered our artists so well acquainted with even the minutest details of the ,greek forms1 cannot remain without fruit--provided architects will be true to the best interests of their profession4 ,let it ever be borne in mind1 that1 magnificent as are the specimens of ,roman skill1 we desert the parent source when for these we forsake the remains of ,grecian genius and art4 ,on reviewing these pages1 it scarcely appears1 that incidents or principles of importance have been overlooked1 without such notice as limits permitted4 ,in treating of the ,fine ,arts1 indeed1 the subject of patronage may seem to demand more separate consideration than is bestowed in occasional remarks4 ,brief1 however1 as these are1 they will be found to contain1 on this question1 the impartial decisions of history1 which uniformly declares the only wise1 wholesome1 and inspiring patronage to consist in national sympathy and national regard for the objects1 purposes1 and professors of ,art4 ,here the countenance and protection of government are necessarily included1 as affording the most distinguished assurance of the existence of this feeling1 and as giving direction to the national efforts4 ,in ,britain1 the genius of our institutions1 and the character of the people require1 while they will add power to1 the effects of this union4 ,these institutions are more national--the opulence and intelligence of the subject1 abler to strengthen the hands and to aid the designs of government1 than in any other empire that ever existed4 ,our ,fine ,arts have hitherto been the only constituent of our national glory to which the cheering influence of this united sympathy has been denied4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,footnotes3 ,a ,constable's ,miscellany4 ,b ,the best of these confirm the former remarks on this accomplished artist4 ,c ',i desire1 ,mr ,lely1' said ,cromwell1 when sitting to the artist1 'that you will paint my picture truly like me1 and not flatter me at all2 but remark all these roughnesses1 pimples1 warts1 and everything as you see me2 otherwise ,i will never pay you a farthing4' ,d ,in these ruins are two lions sculptured in relievo described by ,pausanius1 and remaining the most ancient accredited monument of the art in ,greece4 ,e ,see ,edinburgh ,encyclopdia1 vol4 xviii4 part i4 p4 #ba4 ,f ,since expressing our opinion1 in an early part of the volume1 on the doubtful antiquity of ,indian architecture1 we have perceived1 with pleasure1 that ,bishop ,heber's observations confirm the inference we had ventured to draw from the analogies of art4 ,transcribers ,notes3 ,obvious typos were silently corrected4 ,archaic and variable spelling has been preserved4 ,expressions such as 'epochas' for 'epochs' on ,p#bc1 have not been altered4 ,numbers such as 'twentyninth'1 have been retained throughout4 ,inconsistant spelling such as - 'developement' and 'development'1 has been retained4 ,gnidian and ,gnidos have been replaced with ,cnidian and ,cnidos1 ,p#fc and #fd4 ,in the table of contents chapter ,,xii has been corrected from p#aec to p#aed4 ,variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved4 ,italics are shown thus3 sloping4 ,small capitals have been capitalised4 ,,oe and oe have been used as ligatures4