,the ,wisdom of the ,east ,series       
,,edited ,,by     ,l4 ,,cranmer-,,byng  
,dr4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,kapadia      ,,the       
,,confessions ,,of ,,al ,,ghazzali      
8,he who knows himself knows ,god40     
,,sayings ,,of ,,muhammed4              
,,wisdom ,,of ,,the ,,east              
,,the ,,confessions ,,of                
,,al ,,ghazzali                         
,,translated ,,for ,,the ,,first ,,time 
,,into ,,english                        
,,by ,,claud ,,field1 ,m4,a4            
,illustration                           
,,london                     ,,john     
,,murray1 ,,albemarle ,,street1 ,w4     
#aiji                                   
,,printed ,,by                          
,,hazell1 ,,watson ,,and ,,viney1 ,,ld4 
,,london ,,and ,,aylesbury4             
,,contents                              
,,page      ,,introduction              
#g      ,ghazzali's ,search for ,truth  
#aa      ,the ,subterfuges of the       
,sophists                               
#ae      ,the ,different ,kinds of      

,seekers after ,truth                   
#bj      ,the ,aim of ,scholastic       
,theology and its ,results              
#ba      ,concerning the ,philosophical 
,sects and the ,stigma of ,infidelity   
which attaches to them all              
#be      ,divisions of the ,philosophic 
,sciences                               
#bg      ,sufism                        
#da      ,the ,reality of ,inspiration3 
its ,importance for the ,human ,race    
#ej     ,,editorial ,,note   ,the object
 of the ,editors of this series is a    
very definite one4 ,they desire above   
all things that1 in their humble way1   
these books shall be the ambassadors of 
good-will and understanding between     
,east and ,west--the old world of       
,thought and the new of ,action4 ,in    
this endeavour1 and in their own sphere1
 they are but followers of the highest  
example in the land4 ,they are confident
 that a deeper knowledge of the great   
ideals and lofty philosophy of ,oriental
 thought may help to a revival of that  

true spirit of ,charity which neither   
despises nor fears the nations of       
another creed and colour4 ,finally1 in  
thanking press and public for the very  
cordial reception given to the 8,wisdom 
of the ,east0 ,series1 they wish to     
state that no pains have been spared to 
secure the best specialists for the     
treatment of the various subjects at    
hand4                                   
,l4 ,,cranmer-,,byng4                   
,s4 ,a4 ,,kapadia4  ,,northbrook        
,,society1 #ahe ,,piccadilly1 ,w4       
,,introduction  ,,birth ,,of ,,ghazzali 
,abo ,hmid ,muhammed ,ibn ,muhammad ,al 
,ghazzali was born in the city of ,tus  
in ,khorassan1 ,a4,d4 #ajeh1 one year   
after the great poet and freethinker    
,abu' l' ,al died4 ,he was the son of a 
dealer in cotton thread 7,gazzl71 whence
 his name4 ,losing his father in early  
life1 he was confided to the care of a  
,sufi1 whose influence extended through 
his subsequent career4 ,on finishing his
 studies he was appointed professor of  

theology at ,bagdad4 ,here he achieved  
such splendid success that all the ,imms
 became his zealous partisans4 ,so      
great1 indeed1 was his renown1 so ardent
 the admiration he inspired1 that the   
,muhammedans sometimes said3 8,if all   
the books of ,islam were destroyed1 it  
would be but a slight loss1 provided ,al
 ,ghazzali's work on the ,revivification
 of the ,sciences of ,religion were     
preserved40 ,the following short        
treatise gives the history of the mind  
of this remarkable man in his pursuit of
 truth4 ,it might not inaptly bear the  
title 8,confessions of an ,inquiring    
,spirit40 ,in its intellectual subtlety 
it bears a certain resemblance to       
,newman's ,grammar of ,assent1 and in   
its almost ,puritanical sense of the    
terrors of the world to come1 it is akin
 to ,bunyan's ,grace ,abounding4 ,it is 
also interesting as being one of the    
very few specimens of genuine ,eastern  
autobiography4  ,after describing the   
difficulty with which he escaped from an

 almost ,pyrrhonic scepticism1 8not by  
systematic reasoning and accumulation of
 proofs1 but by a flash of light which  
,god sent into my soul10 he reviews the 
various sects whom he encountered in his
 search for truth4  ,i4 ,the scholastic 
theologians1 who profess to follow      
reason and speculation4  ,,ii4 ,the     
philosophers1 who call themselves       
masters of ,logic and ,demonstration4   
,,iii4 ,the ,sufis1 who claim an        
immediate intuition1 and who perceive   
the real manifestation of truth as      
common men perceive material phenomena4 
,after mastering the first two systems  
and still finding the great problem     
unsolved1 he was forced to pronounce    
philosophy incompetent1 and to seek in  
some higher faculty than reason the     
solution of his doubts4 ,the intuition  
or ecstasy 78wajd07 of the ,sufis was to
 him a sort of revelation4 ,his search  
for truth occupied several years1 in the
 course of which he renounced his       
professorship of theology at ,bagdad and

 went into devotional retirement at     
,jerusalem and ,damascus1 and also      
performed the pilgrimage to ,mecca4  ,he
 returned for a short time to ,nishapur1
 the birthplace of ,omar ,khayym1 his   
elder contemporary1 whom1 as ,professor 
,browne tells us in his ,history of     
,persian ,literature1 he met and        
disliked4 ,he finally went back to ,tus1
 his native place1 where he died1 ,a4,d4
 #aaaa4 ,professor ,d4 ,b4 ,macdonald1  
in an article on ,ghazzali in the       
,journal of the ,american ,oriental     
,society1 quotes the following account  
of his death as related by his brother  
,ahmad3 8,on ,monday at dawn my brother 
performed the ablution and prayed4 ,then
 he said1 #8,bring me my grave-clothes1'
 and he took them and kissed them1 and  
laid them on his eyes and said1 #8,i    
hear and obey the command to go into the
 ,king4' ,and he stretched out his feet 
and went to meet ,him and was taken to  
the good-will of ,god ,most ,high40     
,the great service which ,al ,ghazzali  

rendered to the ,sufis was1 as ,mr4     
,whinfield has pointed out1 in the      
preface to his translation of the       
,masnavi1 to provide them with a        
metaphysical terminology which he had   
derived from the writings of ,plotinus  
the ,neo-,platonist4 ,he also gave them 
a secure position in the ,church of     
,islam4  ,in his ,development of ,muslim
 ,theology ,professor ,macdonald calls  
,ghazzali 8the greatest1 certainly the  
most sympathetic figure in the history  
of ,islam1 and the only teacher of the  
after generations ever put by a ,muslim 
on a level with the four great ,imms40  
,he further says of him3 8,islam has    
never outgrown him1 has never fully     
understood him4 ,in the renaissance of  
,islam which is now rising to view1 his 
time will come1 and the new life will   
proceed from a renewed study of his     
works40                                 
,c4 ,f4     ,,the ,,confessions ,,of    
,,al ,,ghazzali     ,,ghazzali',s       
,,search ,,for ,,truth  8,in the name of

 the most merciful ,god40   ,quoth the  
,imm ,ghazzali3  ,glory be to ,god1     
,whose praise should precede every      
writing and every speech6 ,may the      
blessings of ,god rest on ,muhammed ,his
 ,prophet and ,his ,apostle1 on his     
family and companions1 by whose guidance
 error is escaped6  ,you have asked me1 
,o brother in the faith1 to expound the 
aim and the mysteries of religious      
sciences1 the boundaries and depths of  
theological doctrines4 ,you wish to know
 my experiences while disentangling     
truth lost in the medley of sects and   
divergencies of thought1 and how ,i have
 dared to climb from the low levels of  
traditional belief to the topmost summit
 of assurance4 ,you desire to learn what
 ,i have borrowed1 first of all from    
scholastic theology2 and secondly from  
the method of the ,ta'limites1 who1 in  
seeking truth1 rest upon the authority  
of a leader2 and why1 thirdly1 ,i have  
been led to reject philosophic systems2 
and finally1 what ,i have accepted of   

the doctrine of the ,sufis1 and the sum 
total of truth which ,i have gathered in
 studying every variety of opinion4 ,you
 ask me why1 after resigning at ,bagdad 
a teaching post which attracted a number
 of hearers1 ,i have1 long afterwards1  
accepted a similar one at ,nishapur4    
,convinced as ,i am of the sincerity    
which prompts your inquiries1 ,i proceed
 to answer them1 invoking the help and  
protection of ,god4  ,know then1 my     
brothers 7may ,god direct you in the    
right way71 that the diversity in       
beliefs and religions1 and the variety  
of doctrines and sects which divide men1
 are like a deep ocean strewn with      
shipwrecks1 from which very few escape  
safe and sound4 ,each sect1 it is true1 
believes itself in possession of the    
truth and of salvation1 8each party10 as
 the ,koran saith1 8rejoices in its own 
creed02 but as the chief of the         
apostles1 whose word is always truthful1
 has told us1 8,my people will be       
divided into more than seventy sects1 of

 whom only one will be saved40 ,this    
prediction1 like all others of the      
,prophet1 must be fulfilled4  ,from the 
period of adolescence1 that is to say1  
previous to reaching my twentieth year  
to the present time when ,i have passed 
my fiftieth1 ,i have ventured into this 
vast ocean2 ,i have fearlessly sounded  
its depths1 and1 like a resolute diver1 
,i have penetrated its darkness and     
dared its dangers and abysses4 ,i have  
interrogated the beliefs of each sect   
and scrutinised the mysteries of each   
doctrine1 in order to disentangle truth 
from error and orthodoxy from heresy4 ,i
 have never met one who maintained the  
hidden meaning of the ,koran without    
investigating the nature of his belief1 
nor a partisan of its exterior sense    
without inquiring into the results of   
his doctrine4 ,there is no philosopher  
whose system ,i have not fathomed1 nor  
theologian the intricacies of whose     
doctrine ,i have not followed out4      
,sufism has no secrets into which ,i    

have not penetrated2 the devout adorer  
of ,deity has revealed to me the aim of 
his austerities2 the atheist has not    
been able to conceal from me the real   
reason of his unbelief4 ,the thirst for 
knowledge was innate in me from an early
 age2 it was like a second nature       
implanted by ,god1 without any will on  
my part4 ,no sooner had ,i emerged from 
boyhood than ,i had already broken the  
fetters of tradition and freed myself   
from hereditary beliefs4  ,having       
noticed how easily the children of      
,christians become ,christians1 and the 
children of ,moslems embrace ,islam1 and
 remembering also the traditional saying
 ascribed to the ,prophet1 8,every child
 has in him the germ of ,islam1 then his
 parents make him ,jew1 ,christian1 or  
,zoroastrian10 ,i was moved by a keen   
desire to learn what was this innate    
disposition in the child1 the nature of 
the accidental beliefs imposed on him by
 the authority of his parents and his   
masters1 and finally the unreasoned     

convictions which he derives from their 
instructions4  ,struck with the         
contradictions which ,i encountered in  
endeavouring to disentangle the truth   
and falsehood of these opinions1 ,i was 
led to make the following reflection3   
8,the search after truth being the aim  
which ,i propose to myself1 ,i ought in 
the first place to ascertain what are   
the bases of certitude40 ,in the next   
place ,i recognised that certitude is   
the clear and complete knowledge of     
things1 such knowledge as leaves no room
 for doubt nor possibility of error and 
conjecture1 so that there remains no    
room in the mind for error to find an   
entrance4 ,in such a case it is         
necessary that the mind1 fortified      
against all possibility of going astray1
 should embrace such a strong conviction
 that1 if1 for example1 any one         
possessing the power of changing a stone
 into gold1 or a stick into a serpent1  
should seek to shake the bases of this  
certitude1 it would remain firm and     

immovable4 ,suppose1 for instance1 a man
 should come and say to me1 who am      
firmly convinced that ten is more than  
three1 8,no2 on the contrary1 three is  
more than ten1 and1 to prove it1 ,i     
change this rod into a serpent10 and    
supposing that he actually did so1 ,i   
should remain none the less convinced of
 the falsity of his assertion1 and      
although his miracle might arouse my    
astonishment1 it would not instil any   
doubt into my belief4  ,i then          
understood that all forms of knowledge  
which do not unite these conditions     
7imperviousness to doubt1 etc47 do not  
deserve any confidence1 because they are
 not beyond the reach of doubt1 and what
 is not impregnable to doubt cannot     
constitute certitude4     ,,the         
,,subterfuges ,,of ,,the ,,sophists   ,i
 then examined what knowledge ,i        
possessed1 and discovered that in none  
of it1 with the exception of            
sense-perceptions and necessary         
principles1 did ,i enjoy that degree of 

certitude which ,i have just described4 
,i then sadly reflected as follows3 8,we
 cannot hope to find truth except in    
matters which carry their evidence in   
themselves--that is to say1 in          
sense-perceptions and necessary         
principles2 we must therefore establish 
these on a firm basis4 ,is my absolute  
confidence in sense-perceptions and on  
the infallibility of necessary          
principles analogous to the confidence  
which ,i formerly possessed in matters  
believed on the authority of others8 ,is
 it only analogous to the reliance most 
people place on their organs of vision1 
or is it rigorously true without        
admixture of illusion or doubt80  ,i    
then set myself earnestly to examine the
 notions we derive from the evidence of 
the senses and from sight in order to   
see if they could be called in question4
 ,the result of a careful examination   
was that my confidence in them was      
shaken4 ,our sight for instance1 perhaps
 the best practised of all our senses1  

observes a shadow1 and finding it       
apparently stationary pronounces it     
devoid of movement4 ,observation and    
experience1 however1 show subsequently  
that a shadow moves not suddenly1 it is 
true1 but gradually and imperceptibly1  
so that it is never really motionless4  
,again1 the eye sees a star and believes
 it as large as a piece of gold1 but    
mathematical calculations prove1 on the 
contrary1 that it is larger than the    
earth4 ,these notions1 and all others   
which the senses declare true1 are      
subsequently contradicted and convicted 
of falsity in an irrefragable manner by 
the verdict of reason4  ,then ,i        
reflected in myself3 8,since ,i cannot  
trust to the evidence of my senses1 ,i  
must rely only on intellectual notions  
based on fundamental principles1 such as
 the following axioms3 #8,ten is more   
than three4 ,affirmation and negation   
cannot coexist together4 ,a thing cannot
 both be created and also existent from 
eternity1 living and annihilated        

simultaneously1 at once necessary and   
impossible4'0 ,to this the notions ,i   
derived from my senses made the         
following objections3 8,who can         
guarantee you that you can trust to the 
evidence of reason more than to that of 
the senses8 ,you believed in our        
testimony till it was contradicted by   
the verdict of reason1 otherwise you    
would have continued to believe it to   
this day4 ,well1 perhaps1 there is above
 reason another judge who1 if he        
appeared1 would convict reason of       
falsehood1 just as reason has confuted  
us4 ,and if such a third arbiter is not 
yet apparent1 it does not follow that he
 does not exist40  ,to this argument ,i 
remained some time without reply2 a     
reflection drawn from the phenomena of  
sleep deepened my doubt4 8,do you not   
see10 ,i reflected1 8that while asleep  
you assume your dreams to be            
indisputably real8 ,once awake1 you     
recognise them for what they            
are--baseless chimeras4 ,who can assure 

you1 then1 of the reliability of notions
 which1 when awake1 you derive from the 
senses and from reason8 ,in relation to 
your present state they may be real2 but
 it is possible also that you may enter 
upon another state of being which will  
bear the same relation to your present  
state as this does to your condition    
when asleep4 ,in that new sphere you    
will recognise that the conclusions of  
reason are only chimeras40  ,this       
possible condition is1 perhaps1 that    
which the ,sufis call 8ecstasy0 78hl071 
that is to say1 according to them1 a    
state in which1 absorbed in themselves  
and in the suspension of                
sense-perceptions1 they have visions    
beyond the reach of intellect4 ,perhaps 
also ,death is that state1 according to 
that saying of the ,prince of prophets3 
8,men are asleep2 when they die1 they   
wake40 ,our present life in relation to 
the future is perhaps only a dream1 and 
man1 once dead1 will see things in      
direct opposition to those now before   

his eyes2 he will then understand that  
word of the ,koran1 8,to-day we have    
removed the veil from thine eyes and thy
 sight is keen40  ,such thoughts as     
these threatened to shake my reason1 and
 ,i sought to find an escape from them4 
,but how8 ,in order to disentangle the  
knot of this difficulty1 a proof was    
necessary4 ,now a proof must be based on
 primary assumptions1 and it was        
precisely these of which ,i was in      
doubt4 ,this unhappy state lasted about 
two months1 during which ,i was1 not1 it
 is true1 explicitly or by profession1  
but morally and essentially a           
thoroughgoing sceptic4  ,god at last    
deigned to heal me of this mental       
malady2 my mind recovered sanity and    
equilibrium1 the primary assumptions of 
reason recovered with me all their      
stringency and force4 ,i owed my        
deliverance1 not to a concatenation of  
proofs and arguments1 but to the light  
which ,god caused to penetrate into my  
heart--the light which illuminates the  

threshold of all knowledge4 ,to suppose 
that certitude can be only based upon   
formal arguments is to limit the        
boundless mercy of ,god4 ,some one asked
 the ,prophet the explanation of this   
passage in the ,divine ,book3 8,god     
opens to ,islam the heart of him whom   
,he chooses to direct40 8,that is       
spoken10 replied the ,prophet1 8of the  
light which ,god sheds in the heart40   
8,and how can man recognise that light80
 he was asked4 8,by his detachment from 
this world of illusion and by a secret  
drawing towards the eternal world10 the 
,prophet replied4  ,on another occasion 
he said3 8,god has created ,his         
creatures in darkness1 and then has shed
 upon them ,his light40 ,it is by the   
help of this light that the search for  
truth must be carried on4 ,as by ,his   
mercy this light descends from time to  
time among men1 we must ceaselessly be  
on the watch for it4 ,this is also      
corroborated by another saying of the   
,apostle3 8,god sends upon you1 at      

certain times1 breathings of ,his grace2
 be prepared for them40  ,my object in  
this account is to make others          
understand with what earnestness we     
should search for truth1 since it leads 
to results we never dreamt of4 ,primary 
assumptions have not got to be sought   
for1 since they are always present to   
our minds2 if we engage in such a       
search1 we only find them persistently  
elude our grasp4 ,but those who push    
their investigation beyond ordinary     
limits are safe from the suspicion of   
negligence in pursuing what is within   
their reach4     ,,the ,,different      
,,kinds ,,of ,,seekers ,,after ,,truth  
,when ,god in the abundance of ,his     
mercy had healed me of this malady1 ,i  
ascertained that those who are engaged  
in the search for truth may be divided  
into three groups4  ,i4 ,scholastic     
theologians1 who profess to follow      
theory and speculation4  ,,ii4 ,the     
,philosophers1 who profess to rely upon 
formal logic4  ,,iii4 ,the ,sufis1 who  

call themselves the elect of ,god and   
possessors of intuition and knowledge of
 the truth by means of ecstasy4  8,the  
truth10 ,i said to myself1 8must be     
found among these three classes of men  
who devote themselves to the search for 
it4 ,if it escapes them1 one must give  
up all hope of attaining it4 ,having    
once surrendered blind belief1 it is    
impossible to return to it1 for the     
essence of such belief is to be         
unconscious of itself4 ,as soon as this 
unconsciousness ceases it is shattered  
like a glass whose fragments cannot be  
again reunited except by being cast     
again into the furnace and refashioned40
 ,determined to follow these paths and  
to search out these systems to the      
bottom1 ,i proceeded with my            
investigations in the following order3  
,scholastic theology2 philosophical     
systems2 and1 finally ,sufism4     ,,the
 ,,aim ,,of ,,scholastic ,,theology     
,,and ,,its ,,results   ,commencing with
 theological science1 ,i carefully      

studied and meditated upon it4 ,i read  
the writings of the authorities in this 
department and myself composed several  
treatises4 ,i recognised that this      
science1 while sufficing its own        
requirements1 could not assist me in    
arriving at the desired goal4 ,in short1
 its object is to preserve the purity of
 orthodox beliefs from all heretical    
innovation4 ,god1 by means of ,his      
,apostle1 has revealed to ,his creatures
 a belief which is true as regards their
 temporal and eternal interests2 the    
chief articles of it are laid down in   
the ,koran and in the traditions4       
,subsequently1 ,satan suggested to      
innovators principles contrary to those 
of orthodoxy2 they listened greedily to 
his suggestions1 and the purity of the  
faith was menaced4 ,god then raised up a
 school of theologians and inspired them
 with the desire to defend orthodoxy by 
means of a system of proofs adapted to  
unveil the devices of the heretics and  
to foil the attacks which they made on  

the doctrines established by tradition4 
,such is the origin of scholastic       
theology4 ,many of its adepts1 worthy of
 their high calling1 valiantly defended 
the orthodox faith by proving the       
reality of prophecy and the falsity of  
heretical innovations4 ,but1 in order to
 do so1 they had to rely upon a certain 
number of premises1 which they accepted 
in common with their adversaries1 and   
which authority and universal consent or
 simply the ,koran and the traditions   
obliged them to accept4 ,their principal
 effort was to expose the               
self-contradictions of their opponents  
and to confute them by means of the     
premises which they had professed to    
accept4 ,now a method of argumentation  
like this has little value for one who  
only admits self-evident truths4        
,scholastic theology could not          
consequently satisfy me nor heal the    
malady from which ,i suffered4  ,it is  
true that in its later development      
theology was not content merely to      

defend dogma2 it betook itself to the   
study of first principles1 of           
substances1 accidents and the laws which
 govern them2 but through want of a     
thoroughly scientific basis1 it could   
not advance far in its researches1 nor  
succeed in dispelling entirely the      
overhanging obscurity which springs from
 diversities of belief4  ,i do not1     
however1 deny that it has had a more    
satisfactory result for others2 on the  
contrary1 ,i admit that it has2 but it  
is by introducing the principle of      
authority in matters which are not      
self-evident4 ,moreover1 my object is to
 explain my own mental attitude and not 
to dispute with those who have found    
healing for themselves4 ,remedies vary  
according to the nature of the disease2 
those which benefit some may injure     
others4         99       99       99    
99       99  ,,philosophy4--,how far it 
is open to censure or not--,on what     
points its adherents may be considered  
believers or unbelievers1 orthodox or   

heretical--,what they have borrowed from
 the true doctrine to render their      
chimerical theories acceptable--,why the
 minds of men swerve from the           
truth--,what criteria are available     
wherewith to separate the pure gold from
 the alloy in their systems4  ,i        
proceeded from the study of scholastic  
theology to that of philosophy4 ,it was 
plain to me that1 in order to discover  
where the professors of any branch of   
knowledge have erred1 one must make a   
profound study of that science2 must    
equal1 nay surpass1 those who know most 
of it1 so as to penetrate into secrets  
of it unknown to them4 ,only by this    
method can they be completely answered1 
and of this method ,i can find no trace 
in the theologians of ,islam4 ,in       
theological writings devoted to the     
refutation of philosophy ,i have only   
found a tangled mass of phrases full of 
contradictions and mistakes1 and        
incapable of deceiving1 ,i will not say 
a critical mind1 but even the common    

crowd4 ,convinced that to dream of      
refuting a doctrine before having       
thoroughly comprehended it was like     
shooting at an object in the dark1 ,i   
devoted myself zealously to the study of
 philosophy2 but in books only and      
without the aid of a teacher4 ,i gave up
 to this work all the leisure remaining 
from teaching and from composing works  
on law4 ,there were then attending my   
lectures three hundred of the students  
of ,bagdad4 ,with the help of ,god1     
these studies1 carried on in secret1 so 
to speak1 put me in a condition to      
thoroughly comprehend philosophical     
systems within a space of two years4 ,i 
then spent about a year in meditating on
 these systems after having thoroughly  
understood them4 ,i turned them over and
 over in my mind till they were         
thoroughly clear of all obscurity4 ,in  
this manner ,i acquired a complete      
knowledge of all their subterfuges and  
subtleties1 of what was truth and what  
was illusion in them4  ,i now proceed to

 give a resum of these doctrines4 ,i    
ascertained that they were divided into 
different varieties1 and that their     
adherents might be ranged under diverse 
heads4 ,all1 in spite of their          
diversity1 are marked with the stamp of 
infidelity and irreligion1 although     
there is a considerable difference      
between the ancient and modern1 between 
the first and last of these             
philosophers1 according as they have    
missed or approximated to the truth in a
 greater or less degree4                
,,concerning ,,the ,,philosophical      
,,sects ,,and ,,the ,,stigma ,,of       
,,infidelity ,,which ,,attaches ,,to    
,,them ,,all   ,the philosophical       
systems1 in spite of their number and   
variety1 may be reduced to three3 7#a7  
,the ,materialists2 7#b7 ,the           
,naturalists2 7#c7 ,the ,theists4  7#a7 
,the ,materialists4 ,they reject an     
intelligent and omnipotent ,creator and 
,disposer of the ,universe4 ,in their   
view the world exists from all eternity 

and had no author4 ,the animal comes    
from semen and semen from the animal2 so
 it has always been and will always be2 
those who maintain this doctrine are    
atheists4  7#b7 ,the ,naturalists4      
,these devote themselves to the study of
 nature and of the marvellous phenomena 
of the animal and vegetable world4      
,having carefully analysed animal organs
 with the help of anatomy1 struck with  
the wonders of ,god's work and with the 
wisdom therein revealed1 they are forced
 to admit the existence of a wise       
,creator ,who knows the end and purpose 
of everything4 ,and certainly no one can
 study anatomy and the wonderful        
mechanism of living things without being
 obliged to confess the profound wisdom 
of ,him ,who has framed the bodies of   
animals and especially of man4 ,but     
carried away by their natural researches
 they believed that the existence of a  
being absolutely depended upon the      
proper equilibrium of its organism4     
,according to them1 as the latter       

perishes and is destroyed1 so is the    
thinking faculty which is bound up with 
it2 and as they assert that the         
restoration of a thing once destroyed to
 existence is unthinkable1 they deny the
 immortality of the soul4 ,consequently 
they deny heaven1 hell1 resurrection1   
and judgment4 ,acknowledging neither a  
recompense for good deeds nor a         
punishment for evil ones1 they fling off
 all authority and plunge into sensual  
pleasures with the avidity of brutes4   
,these also ought to be called atheists1
 for the true faith depends not only on 
the acknowledgment of ,god1 but of ,his 
,apostle and of the ,day of ,judgment4  
,and although they acknowledge ,god and 
,his attributes1 they deny a judgment to
 come4  7#c7 ,next come the ,theists4   
,among them should be reckoned          
,socrates1 who was the teacher of ,plato
 as ,plato was of ,aristotle4 ,this     
latter drew up for his disciples the    
rules of logic1 organised the sciences1 
elucidated what was formerly obscure1   

and expounded what had not been         
understood4 ,this school refuted the    
systems of the two others1 i4e4 the     
,materialists and ,naturalists2 but in  
exposing their mistaken and perverse    
beliefs1 they made use of arguments     
which they should not4 8,god suffices to
 protect the faithful in war0 7,koran1  
xxxiii4 #be74  ,aristotle also contended
 with success against the theories of   
,plato1 ,socrates1 and the theists who  
had preceded him1 and separated himself 
entirely from them2 but he could not    
eliminate from his doctrine the stains  
of infidelity and heresy which disfigure
 the teaching of his predecessors4 ,we  
should therefore consider them all as   
unbelievers1 as well as the so-called   
,mussulman philosophers1 such as ,ibn   
,sina 7,avicenna7 and ,farabi1 who have 
adopted their systems4  ,let us1        
however1 acknowledge that among         
,mussulman philosophers none have better
 interpreted the doctrine of ,aristotle 
than the latter4 ,what others have      

handed down as his teaching is full of  
error1 confusion1 and obscurity adapted 
to disconcert the reader4 ,the          
unintelligible can neither be accepted  
nor rejected4 ,the philosophy of        
,aristotle1 all serious knowledge of    
which we owe to the translation of these
 two learned men1 may be divided into   
three portions3 the first contains      
matter justly chargeable with impiety1  
the second is tainted with heresy1 and  
the third we are obliged to reject      
absolutely4 ,we proceed to details3     
,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,philosophic    
,,sciences   ,these sciences1 in        
relation to the aim we have set before  
us1 may be divided into six sections3   
7#a7 ,mathematics2 7#b7 ,logic2 7#c7    
,physics2 7#d7 ,metaphysics2 7#e7       
,politics2 7#f7 ,moral ,philosophy4     
,mathematics comprises the knowledge of 
calculation1 geometry1 and cosmography3 
it has no connection with the religious 
sciences1 and proves nothing for or     
against religion2 it rests on a         

foundation of proofs which1 once known  
and understood1 cannot be refuted4      
,mathematics tend1 however1 to produce  
two bad results4  ,the first is this3   
,whoever studies this science admires   
the subtlety and clearness of its       
proofs4 ,his confidence in philosophy   
increases1 and he thinks that all its   
departments are capable of the same     
clearness and solidity of proof as      
mathematics4 ,but when he hears people  
speak of the unbelief and impiety of    
mathematicians1 of their professed      
disregard for the ,divine ,law1 which is
 notorious1 it is true that1 out of     
regard for authority1 he echoes these   
accusations1 but he says to himself at  
the same time that1 if there was truth  
in religion1 it would not have escaped  
those who have displayed so much        
keenness of intellect in the study of   
mathematics4  ,next1 when he becomes    
aware of the unbelief and rejection of  
religion on the part of these learned   
men1 he concludes that to reject        

religion is reasonable4 ,how many of    
such men gone astray ,i have met whose  
sole argument was that just mentioned4  
,and supposing one puts to them the     
following objection3 8,it does not      
follow that a man who excels in one     
branch of knowledge excels in all       
others1 nor that he should be equally   
versed in jurisprudence1 theology1 and  
medicine4 ,it is possible to be entirely
 ignorant of metaphysics1 and yet to be 
an excellent grammarian4 ,there are past
 masters in every science who are       
entirely ignorant of other branches of  
knowledge4 ,the arguments of the ancient
 philosophers are rigidly demonstrative 
in mathematics and only conjectural in  
religious questions4 ,in order to       
ascertain this one must proceed to a    
thorough examination of the matter40    
,supposing1 ,i say1 one makes the above 
objection to these 8apes of unbelief10  
they find it distasteful4 ,falling a    
prey to their passions1 to a besotted   
vanity1 and the wish to pass for learned

 men1 they persist in maintaining the   
pre-eminence of mathematicians in all   
branches of knowledge4 ,this is a       
serious evil1 and for this reason those 
who study mathematics should be checked 
from going too far in their researches4 
,for though far removed as it may be    
from the things of religion1 this study1
 serving as it does as an introduction  
to the philosophic systems1 casts over  
religion its malign influence4 ,it is   
rarely that a man devotes himself to it 
without robbing himself of his faith and
 casting off the restraints of religion4
  ,the second evil comes from the       
sincere but ignorant ,mussulman who     
thinks the best way to defend religion  
is by rejecting all the exact sciences4 
,accusing their professors of being     
astray1 he rejects their theories of the
 eclipses of the sun and moon1 and      
condemns them in the name of religion4  
,these accusations are carried far and  
wide1 they reach the ears of the        
philosopher who knows that these        

theories rest on infallible proofs2 far 
from losing confidence in them1 he      
believes1 on the contrary1 that ,islam  
has ignorance and the denial of         
scientific proofs for its basis1 and his
 devotion to philosophy increases with  
his hatred to religion4  ,it is         
therefore a great injury to religion to 
suppose that the defence of ,islam      
involves the condemnation of the exact  
sciences4 ,the religious law contains   
nothing which approves them or condemns 
them1 and in their turn they make no    
attack on religion4 ,the words of the   
,prophet1 8,the sun and the moon are two
 signs of the power of ,god2 they are   
not eclipsed for the birth or the death 
of any one2 when you see these signs    
take refuge in prayer and invoke the    
name of ,god0--these words1 ,i say1 do  
not in any way condemn the astronomical 
calculations which define the orbits of 
these two bodies1 their conjunction and 
opposition according to particular laws4
 ,but as for the so-called tradition1   

8,when ,god reveals ,himself in         
anything1 ,he abases ,himself thereto10 
it is unauthentic1 and not found in any 
trustworthy collection of the           
traditions4  ,such is the bearing and   
the possible danger of mathematics4     
7#b7 ,logic4 ,this science1 in the same 
manner1 contains nothing for or against 
religion4 ,its object is the study of   
different kinds of proofs and           
syllogisms1 the conditions which should 
hold between the premises of a          
proposition1 the way to combine them1   
the rules of a good definition1 and the 
art of formulating it4 ,for knowledge   
consists of conceptions which spring    
from a definition or of convictions     
which arise from proofs4 ,there is      
therefore nothing censurable in this    
science1 and it is laid under           
contribution by theologians as well as  
by philosophers4 ,the only difference is
 that the latter use a particular set of
 technical formul and that they push    
their divisions and subdivisions        

further4  ,it may be asked1 ,what1 then1
 this has to do with the grave questions
 of religion1 and on what ground        
opposition should be offered to the     
methods of logic8 ,the objector1 it will
 be said1 can only inspire the logician 
with an unfavourable opinion of the     
intelligence and faith of his adversary1
 since the latter's faith seems to be   
based upon such objections4 ,but1 it    
must be admitted1 logic is liable to    
abuse4 ,logicians demand in reasoning   
certain conditions which lead to        
absolute certainty1 but when they touch 
on religious questions1 they can no     
longer postulate these conditions1 and  
ought therefore to relax their habitual 
rigour4 ,it happens1 accordingly1 that a
 student who is enamoured of the        
evidential methods of logic1 hearing his
 teachers accused of irreligion1        
believes that this irreligion reposes on
 proofs as strong as those of logic1 and
 immediately1 without attempting the    
study of metaphysics1 shares their      

mistake4 ,this is a serious disadvantage
 arising from the study of logic4  7#c7 
,physics4 ,the object of this science is
 the study of the bodies which compose  
the universe3 the sky and the stars1    
and1 here below1 simple elements such as
 air1 earth1 water1 fire1 and compound  
bodies--animals1 plants and minerals2   
the reasons of their changes1           
developments1 and intermixture4 ,by the 
nature of its researches it is closely  
connected with the study of medicine1   
the object of which is the human body1  
its principal and secondary organs1 and 
the law which governs their changes4    
,religion having no fault to find with  
medical science cannot justly do so with
 physical1 except on some special       
matters which we have mentioned in the  
work entitled ,the ,destruction of the  
,philosophers4 ,besides these primary   
questions1 there are some subordinate   
ones depending on them1 on which        
physical science is open to objection4  
,but all physical science rests1 as we  

believe1 on the following principle3    
,nature is entirely subject to ,god2    
incapable of acting by itself1 it is an 
instrument in the hand of the ,creator2 
sun1 moon1 stars1 and elements are      
subject to ,god and can produce nothing 
of themselves4 ,in a word1 nothing in   
nature can act spontaneously and apart  
from ,god4  7#d7 ,metaphysics4 ,this is 
the fruitful breeding-ground of the     
errors of philosophers4 ,here they can  
no longer satisfy the laws of rigorous  
argumentation such as logic demands1 and
 this is what explains the disputes     
which arise between them in the study of
 metaphysics4 ,the system most closely  
akin to the system of the ,muhammedan   
doctors is that of ,aristotle as        
expounded to us by ,farabi and          
,avicenna4 ,the sum total of their      
errors can be reduced to twenty         
propositions3 three of them are         
irreligious1 and the other seventeen    
heretical4 ,it was in order to combat   
their system that we wrote the work     

,destruction of the ,philosophers4 ,the 
three propositions in which they are    
opposed to all the doctrines of ,islam  
are the following3  7#a7 ,bodies do not 
rise again2 spirits alone will be       
rewarded or punished2 future punishments
 will be therefore spiritual and not    
physical4 ,they are right in admitting  
spiritual punishments1 for there will be
 such2 but they are wrong in rejecting  
physical punishments1 and contradicting 
in this manner the assertions of the    
,divine ,law4  7#b7 8,god takes         
cognisance of universals1 not of        
specials40 ,this is manifestly          
irreligious4 ,the ,koran asserts truly1 
8,not an atom's weight in heaven or     
earth can escape ,his knowledge0 7x4    
#fb74  7#c7 ,they maintain that the     
universe exists from all eternity and   
will never end4  ,none of these         
propositions have ever been admitted by 
,moslems4  ,besides this1 they deny that
 ,god has attributes1 and maintain that 
,he knows by ,his essence only and not  

by means of any attribute accessory to  
,his essence4 ,in this point they       
approach the doctrine of the            
,mutazilites1 doctrines which we are not
 obliged to condemn as irreligious4 ,on 
the contrary1 in our work entitled      
,criteria of the differences which      
divide ,islam from ,atheism1 we have    
proved the wrongness of those who accuse
 of irreligion everything which is      
opposed to their way of looking at      
things4  7#e7 ,political ,science4 ,the 
professors of this confine themselves to
 drawing up the rules which regulate    
temporal matters and the royal power4   
,they have borrowed their theories on   
this point from the books which ,god has
 revealed to ,his prophets and from the 
sentences of ancient sages1 gathered by 
tradition4  7#f7 ,moral ,philosophy4    
,the professors of this occupy          
themselves with defining the attributes 
and qualities of the soul1 grouping them
 according to genus and species1 and    
pointing out the way to moderate and    

control them4 ,they have borrowed this  
system from the ,sufis4 ,these devout   
men1 who are always engaged in invoking 
the name of ,god1 in combating          
concupiscence and following the way of  
,god by renouncing the pleasures of this
 world1 have received1 while in a state 
of ecstasy1 revelations regarding the   
qualities of the soul1 its defects and  
its evil inclinations4 ,these           
revelations they have published1 and the
 philosophers making use of them have   
introduced them into their own systems  
in order to embellish and give currency 
to their falsehoods4 ,in the times of   
the philosophers1 as at every other     
period1 there existed some of these     
fervent mystics4 ,god does not deprive  
this world of them1 for they are its    
sustainers1 and they draw down to it the
 blessings of heaven according to the   
tradition3 8,it is by them that you     
obtain rain1 it is by them that you     
receive your subsistence40 ,such were   
8the ,companions of the ,cave10 who     

lived in ancient times1 as related by   
the ,koran 7xviii474 ,now this mixture  
of moral and philosophic doctrine with  
the words of the ,prophet and those of  
the ,sufis gives rise to two dangers1   
one for the upholder of those doctrines1
 the other for their opponent4  ,the    
danger for their opponent is serious4 ,a
 narrow-minded man1 finding in their    
writings moral philosophy mixed with    
unsupported theories1 believes that he  
ought to entirely reject them and to    
condemn those who profess them4 ,having 
only heard them from their mouth he does
 not hesitate in his ignorance to       
declare them false because those who    
teach them are in error4 ,it is as if   
some one was to reject the profession of
 faith made by ,christians1 8,there is  
only one ,god and ,jesus is ,his        
prophet10 simply because it proceeds    
from ,christians and without inquiring  
whether it is the profession of this    
creed or the denial of ,muhammed's      
prophetic mission which makes           

,christians infidels4 ,now1 if they are 
only infidels because of their rejection
 of our prophet1 we are not entitled to 
reject those of their doctrines which do
 not wear the stamp of infidelity4 ,in a
 word1 truth does not cease to be true  
because it is found among them4 ,such1  
however1 is the tendency of weak minds3 
they judge the truth according to its   
professors instead of judging its       
professors by the standard of the truth4
 ,but a liberal spirit will take as its 
guide this maxim of the ,prince of      
believers1 ,ali the son of ,abu ,talib3 
8,do not seek for the truth by means of 
men2 find first the truth and then you  
will recognise those who follow it40    
,this is the procedure followed by a    
wise man4 ,once in possession of the    
truth he examines the basis of various  
doctrines which come before him1 and    
when he has found them true1 he accepts 
them without troubling himself whether  
the person who teaches them is sincere  
or a deceiver4 ,much rather1 remembering

 how gold is buried in the bowels of the
 earth1 he endeavours to disengage the  
truth from the mass of errors in which  
it is engulfed4 ,the skilled            
coin-assayer plunges without hesitation 
his hand into the purse of the coiner of
 false money1 and1 relying on           
experience1 separates good coins from   
bad4 ,it is the ignorant rustic1 and not
 the experienced assayer1 who will ask  
why we should have anything to do with a
 false coiner4 ,the unskilled swimmer   
must be kept away from the seashore1 not
 the expert in diving4 ,the child1 not  
the charmer1 must be forbidden to handle
 serpents4  ,as a matter of fact1 men   
have such a good opinion of themselves1 
of their mental superiority and         
intellectual depth2 they believe        
themselves so skilled in discerning the 
true from the false1 the path of safety 
from those of error1 that they should be
 forbidden as much as possible the      
perusal of philosophic writings1 for    
though they sometimes escape the danger 

just pointed out1 they cannot avoid that
 which we are about to indicate4  ,some 
of the maxims found in my works         
regarding the mysteries of religion have
 met with objectors of an inferior rank 
in science1 whose intellectual          
penetration is insufficient to fathom   
such depths4 ,they assert that these    
maxims are borrowed from the ancient    
philosophers1 whereas the truth is that 
they are the fruit of my own            
meditations1 but as the proverb says1   
8,sandal follows the impress of         
sandal40#a ,some of them are found in   
our books of religious law1 but the     
greater part are derived from the       
writings of the ,sufis4  ,but even if   
they were borrowed exclusively from the 
doctrines of the philosophers1 is it    
right to reject an opinion when it is   
reasonable in itself1 supported by solid
 proofs1 and contradicting neither the  
,koran nor the traditions8 ,if we adopt 
this method and reject every truth which
 has chanced to have been proclaimed by 

an impostor1 how many truths we should  
have to reject6 ,how many verses of the 
,koran and traditions of the prophets   
and ,sufi discourses and maxims of sages
 we must close our ears to because the  
author of the ,treatise of the ,brothers
 of ,purity has inserted them in his    
writings in order to further his cause1 
and in order to lead minds gradually    
astray in the paths of error6 ,the      
consequence of this procedure would be  
that impostors would snatch truths out  
of our hands in order to embellish their
 own works4 ,the wise man1 at least1    
should not make common cause with the   
bigot blinded by ignorance4  ,honey does
 not become impure because it may happen
 to have been placed in the glass which 
the surgeon uses for cupping purposes4  
,the impurity of blood is due1 not to   
its contact with this glass1 but to a   
peculiarity inherent in its own nature2 
this peculiarity1 not existing in honey1
 cannot be communicated to it by its    
being placed in the cupping glass2 it is

 therefore wrong to regard it as impure4
 ,such is1 however1 the whimsical way of
 looking at things found in nearly all  
men4 ,every word proceeding from an     
authority which they approve is accepted
 by them1 even were it false2 every word
 proceeding from one whom they suspect  
is rejected1 even were it true4 ,in     
every case they judge of the truth      
according to its professors and not of  
men according to the truth which they   
profess1 a ne plus ultra of error4 ,such
 is the peril in which philosophy       
involves its opponents4  ,the second    
danger threatens those who accept the   
opinions of the philosophers4 ,when1 for
 instance1 we read the treatises of the 
8,brothers of purity0 and other works of
 the same kind1 we find in them         
sentences spoken by the ,prophet and    
quotations from the ,sufis4 ,we approve 
these works2 we give them our           
confidence2 and we finish by accepting  
the errors which they contain1 because  
of the good opinion of them with which  

they have inspired us at the outset4    
,thus1 by insensible degrees1 we are led
 astray4 ,in view of this danger the    
reading of philosophic writings so full 
of vain and delusive utopias should be  
forbidden1 just as the slippery banks of
 a river are forbidden to one who knows 
not how to swim4 ,the perusal of these  
false teachings must be prevented just  
as one prevents children from touching  
serpents4 ,a snake-charmer himself will 
abstain from touching snakes in the     
presence of his young child1 because he 
knows that the child1 believing himself 
as clever as his father1 will not fail  
to imitate him2 and in order to lend    
more weight to his prohibition the      
charmer will not touch a serpent under  
the eyes of his son4  ,such should be   
the conduct of a learned man who is also
 wise4 ,but the snake-charmer1 after    
having taken the serpent and separated  
the venom from the antidote1 having put 
the latter on one side and destroyed the
 venom1 ought not to withhold the       

antidote from those who need it4 ,in the
 same way the skilled coin-assayer1     
after having put his hand in the bag of 
the false coiner1 taken out the good    
coins and thrown away the bad ones1     
ought not to refuse the good to those   
who need and ask for it4 ,such should be
 the conduct of the learned man4 ,if the
 patient feels a certain dislike of the 
antidote because he knows that it is    
taken from a snake whose body is the    
receptacle of poison1 he should be      
disabused of his fallacy4 ,if a beggar  
hesitates to take a piece of gold which 
he knows comes from the purse of a false
 coiner1 he should be told that his     
hesitation is a pure mistake which would
 deprive him of the advantage which he  
seeks4 ,it should be proved to him that 
the contact of the good coins with the  
bad does not injure the former and does 
not improve the latter4 ,in the same way
 the contact of truth with falsehood    
does not change truth into falsehood1   
any more than it changes falsehood into 

truth4  ,thus much1 then1 we have to say
 regarding the inconveniences and       
dangers which spring from the study of  
philosophy4     ,,sufism   ,when ,i had 
finished my examination of these        
doctrines ,i applied myself to the study
 of ,sufism4 ,i saw that in order to    
understand it thoroughly one must       
combine theory with practice4 ,the aim  
which the ,sufis set before them is as  
follows3 ,to free the soul from the     
tyrannical yoke of the passions1 to     
deliver it from its wrong inclinations  
and evil instincts1 in order that in the
 purified heart there should only remain
 room for ,god and for the invocation of
 ,his holy name4  ,as it was more easy  
to learn their doctrine than to practise
 it1 ,i studied first of all those of   
their books which contain it3 ,the      
,nourishment of ,hearts1 by ,abu ,talib 
of ,mecca1 the works of ,hareth el      
,muhasibi1 and the fragments which still
 remain of ,junaid1 ,shibli1 ,abu ,yezid
 ,bustami and other leaders 7whose souls

 may ,god sanctify74 ,i acquired a      
thorough knowledge of their researches1 
and ,i learned all that was possible to 
learn of their methods by study and oral
 teaching4 ,it became clear to me that  
the last stage could not be reached by  
mere instruction1 but only by transport1
 ecstasy1 and the transformation of the 
moral being4  ,to define health and     
satiety1 to penetrate their causes and  
conditions1 is quite another thing from 
being well and satisfied4 ,to define    
drunkenness1 to know that it is caused  
by vapours which rise from the stomach  
and cloud the seat of intelligence1 is  
quite a different thing to being drunk4 
,the drunken man has no idea of the     
nature of drunkenness1 just because he  
is drunk and not in a condition to      
understand anything1 while the doctor1  
not being under the influence of        
drunkenness1 knows its character and    
laws4 ,or if the doctor fall ill1 he has
 a theoretical knowledge of the health  
of which he is deprived4  ,in the same  

way there is a considerable difference  
between knowing renouncement1           
comprehending its conditions and causes1
 and practising renouncement and        
detachment from the things of this      
world4 ,i saw that ,sufism consists in  
experiences rather than in definitions1 
and that what ,i was lacking belonged to
 the domain1 not of instruction1 but of 
ecstasy and initiation4  ,the researches
 to which ,i had devoted myself1 the    
path which ,i had traversed in studying 
religious and speculative branches of   
knowledge1 had given me a firm faith in 
three things--,god1 ,inspiration1 and   
the ,last ,judgment4 ,these three       
fundamental articles of belief were     
confirmed in me1 not merely by definite 
arguments1 but by a chain of causes1    
circumstances1 and proofs which it is   
impossible to recount4 ,i saw that one  
can only hope for salvation by devotion 
and the conquest of one's passions1 a   
procedure which presupposes renouncement
 and detachment from this world of      

falsehood in order to turn towards      
eternity and meditation on ,god4        
,finally1 ,i saw that the only condition
 of success was to sacrifice honours and
 riches and to sever the ties and       
attachments of worldly life4  ,coming   
seriously to consider my state1 ,i found
 myself bound down on all sides by these
 trammels4 ,examining my actions1 the   
most fair-seeming of which were my      
lecturing and professorial occupations1 
,i found to my surprise that ,i was     
engrossed in several studies of little  
value1 and profitless as regards my     
salvation4 ,i probed the motives of my  
teaching and found that1 in place of    
being sincerely consecrated to ,god1 it 
was only actuated by a vain desire of   
honour and reputation4 ,i perceived that
 ,i was on the edge of an abyss1 and    
that without an immediate conversion ,i 
should be doomed to eternal fire4 ,in   
these reflections ,i spent a long time4 
,still a prey to uncertainty1 one day ,i
 decided to leave ,bagdad and to give up

 everything2 the next day ,i gave up my 
resolution4 ,i advanced one step and    
immediately relapsed4 ,in the morning ,i
 was sincerely resolved only to occupy  
myself with the future life2 in the     
evening a crowd of carnal thoughts      
assailed and dispersed my resolutions4  
,on the one side the world kept me bound
 to my post in the chains of            
covetousness1 on the other side the     
voice of religion cried to me1 8,up6    
,up6 thy life is nearing its end1 and   
thou hast a long journey to make4 ,all  
thy pretended knowledge is nought but   
falsehood and fantasy4 ,if thou dost not
 think now of thy salvation1 when wilt  
thou think of it8 ,if thou dost not     
break thy chains to-day1 when wilt thou 
break them80 ,then my resolve was       
strengthened1 ,i wished to give up all  
and flee2 but the ,tempter1 returning to
 the attack1 said1 8,you are suffering  
from a transitory feeling2 don't give   
way to it1 for it will soon pass4 ,if   
you obey it1 if you give up this fine   

position1 this honourable post exempt   
from trouble and rivalry1 this seat of  
authority safe from attack1 you will    
regret it later on without being able to
 recover it40  ,thus ,i remained1 torn  
asunder by the opposite forces of       
earthly passions and religious          
aspirations1 for about six months from  
the month ,rajab of the year ,a4,d4     
#ajif4 ,at the close of them my will    
yielded and ,i gave myself up to        
destiny4 ,god caused an impediment to   
chain my tongue and prevented me from   
lecturing4 ,vainly ,i desired1 in the   
interest of my pupils1 to go on with my 
teaching1 but my mouth became dumb4 ,the
 silence to which ,i was condemned cast 
me into a violent despair2 my stomach   
became weak2 ,i lost all appetite2 ,i   
could neither swallow a morsel of bread 
nor drink a drop of water4  ,the        
enfeeblement of my physical powers was  
such that the doctors1 despairing of    
saving me1 said1 8,the mischief is in   
the heart1 and has communicated itself  

to the whole organism2 there is no hope 
unless the cause of his grievous sadness
 be arrested40  ,finally1 conscious of  
my weakness and the prostration of my   
soul1 ,i took refuge in ,god as a man at
 the end of himself and without         
resources4 8,he who hears the wretched  
when they cry0 7,koran1 xxvii4 #fc7     
deigned to hear me2 ,he made easy to me 
the sacrifice of honours1 wealth1 and   
family4 ,i gave out publicly that ,i    
intended to make the pilgrimage to      
,mecca1 while ,i secretly resolved to go
 to ,syria1 not wishing that the ,caliph
 7may ,god magnify him7 or my friends   
should know my intention of settling in 
that country4 ,i made all kinds of      
clever excuses for leaving ,bagdad with 
the fixed intention of not returning    
thither4 ,the ,imms of ,irak criticised 
me with one accord4 ,not one of them    
could admit that this sacrifice had a   
religious motive1 because they          
considered my position as the highest   
attainable in the religious community4  

8,behold how far their knowledge goes60 
7,koran1 liii4 #ca74 ,all kinds of      
explanations of my conduct were         
forthcoming4 ,those who were outside the
 limits of ,irak attributed it to the   
fear with which the ,government inspired
 me4 ,those who were on the spot and saw
 how the authorities wished to detain   
me1 their displeasure at my resolution  
and my refusal of their request1 said to
 themselves1 8,it is a calamity which   
one can only impute to a fate which has 
befallen the ,faithful and ,learning60  
,at last ,i left ,bagdad1 giving up all 
my fortune4 ,only1 as lands and property
 in ,irak can afford an endowment for   
pious purposes1 ,i obtained a legal     
authorisation to preserve as much as was
 necessary for my support and that of my
 children2 for there is surely nothing  
more lawful in the world than that a    
learned man should provide sufficient to
 support his family4 ,i then betook     
myself to ,syria1 where ,i remained for 
two years1 which ,i devoted to          

retirement1 meditation1 and devout      
exercises4 ,i only thought of           
self-improvement and discipline and of  
purification of the heart by prayer in  
going through the forms of devotion     
which the ,sufis had taught me4 ,i used 
to live a solitary life in the ,mosque  
of ,damascus1 and was in the habit of   
spending my days on the minaret after   
closing the door behind me4  ,from      
thence ,i proceeded to ,jerusalem1 and  
every day secluded myself in the        
,sanctuary of the ,rock4#b ,after that  
,i felt a desire to accomplish the      
,pilgrimage1 and to receive a full      
effusion of grace by visiting ,mecca1   
,medina1 and the ,tomb of the ,prophet4 
,after visiting the shrine of the       
,friend of ,god 7,abraham71 ,i went to  
the ,hedjz4 ,finally1 the longings of my
 heart and the prayers of my children   
brought me back to my country1 although 
,i was so firmly resolved at first never
 to revisit it4 ,at any rate ,i meant1  
if ,i did return1 to live there solitary

 and in religious meditation2 but       
events1 family cares1 and vicissitudes  
of life changed my resolutions and      
troubled my meditative calm4 ,however   
irregular the intervals which ,i could  
give to devotional ecstasy1 my          
confidence in it did not diminish2 and  
the more ,i was diverted by hindrances1 
the more steadfastly ,i returned to it4 
,ten years passed in this manner4       
,during my successive periods of        
meditation there were revealed to me    
things impossible to recount4 ,all that 
,i shall say for the edification of the 
reader is this3 ,i learnt from a sure   
source that the ,sufis are the true     
pioneers on the path of ,god2 that there
 is nothing more beautiful than their   
life1 nor more praiseworthy than their  
rule of conduct1 nor purer than their   
morality4 ,the intelligence of thinkers1
 the wisdom of philosophers1 the        
knowledge of the most learned doctors of
 the law would in vain combine their    
efforts in order to modify or improve   

their doctrine and morals2 it would be  
impossible4 ,with the ,sufis1 repose and
 movement1 exterior or interior1 are    
illumined with the light which proceeds 
from the ,central ,radiance of          
,inspiration4 ,and what other light     
could shine on the face of the earth8   
,in a word1 what can one criticise in   
them8 ,to purge the heart of all that   
does not belong to ,god is the first    
step in their cathartic method4 ,the    
drawing up of the heart by prayer is the
 keystone of it1 as the cry 8,allahu    
,akbar0 7,god is great7 is the keystone 
of prayer1 and the last stage is the    
being lost in ,god4 ,i say the last     
stage1 with reference to what may be    
reached by an effort of will2 but1 to   
tell the truth1 it is only the first    
stage in the life of contemplation1 the 
vestibule by which the initiated enter4 
,from the time that they set out on this
 path1 revelations commence for them4   
,they come to see in the waking state   
angels and souls of prophets2 they hear 

their voices and wise counsels4 ,by     
means of this contemplation of heavenly 
forms and images they rise by degrees to
 heights which human language cannot    
reach1 which one cannot even indicate   
without falling into great and          
inevitable errors4 ,the degree of       
proximity to ,deity which they attain is
 regarded by some as intermixture of    
being 7haloul71 by others as            
identification 7ittihd71 by others as   
intimate union 7wasl74 ,but all these   
expressions are wrong1 as we have       
explained in our work entitled ,the     
,chief ,aim4 ,those who have reached    
that stage should confine themselves to 
repeating the verse--      ,what ,i     
experience ,i shall not try to say2     
,call me happy1 but ask me no more4  ,in
 short1 he who does not arrive at the   
intuition of these truths by means of   
ecstasy1 knows only the name of         
inspiration4 ,the miracles wrought by   
the saints are1 in fact1 merely the     
earliest forms of prophetic             

manifestation4 ,such was the state of   
the ,apostle of ,god when1 before       
receiving his commission1 he retired to 
,mount ,hira to give himself up to such 
intensity of prayer and meditation that 
the ,arabs said3 8,muhammed is become   
enamoured of ,god40  ,this state1 then1 
can be revealed to the initiated in     
ecstasy1 and to him who is incapable of 
ecstasy1 by obedience and attention1 on 
condition that he frequents the society 
of ,sufis till he arrives1 so to speak1 
at an imitative initiation4 ,such is the
 faith which one can obtain by remaining
 among them1 and intercourse with them  
is never painful4  ,but even when we are
 deprived of the advantage of their     
society1 we can comprehend the          
possibility of this state 7revelation by
 means of ecstasy7 by a chain of        
manifest proofs4 ,we have explained this
 in the treatise entitled ,marvels of   
the ,heart1 which forms part of our     
work1 ,the ,revival of the ,religious   
,sciences4 ,the certitude derived from  

proofs is called 8knowledge02 passing   
into the state we describe is called    
8transport02 believing the experience of
 others and oral transmission is        
8faith40 ,such are the three degrees of 
knowledge1 as it is written1 8,the ,lord
 will raise to different ranks those    
among you who have believed and those   
who have received knowledge from ,him0  
7,koran1 lviii4 #ab74  ,but behind those
 who believe comes a crowd of ignorant  
people who deny the reality of ,sufism1 
hear discourses on it with incredulous  
irony1 and treat as charlatans those who
 profess it4 ,to this ignorant crowd the
 verse applies3 8,there are those among 
them who come to listen to thee1 and    
when they leave thee1 ask of those who  
have received knowledge1 #8,what has he 
just said8' ,these are they whose hearts
 ,god has sealed up with blindness and  
who only follow their passions40  ,among
 the number of convictions which ,i owe 
to the practice of the ,sufi rule is the
 knowledge of the true nature of        

inspiration4 ,this knowledge is of such 
great importance that ,i proceed to     
expound it in detail4     ,,the         
,,reality ,,of ,,inspiration3 ,,its     
,,importance ,,for ,,the ,,human ,,race 
,the substance of man at the moment of  
its creation is a simple monad1 devoid  
of knowledge of the worlds subject to   
the ,creator1 worlds whose infinite     
number is only known to ,him1 as the    
,koran says3 8,only thy ,lord knoweth   
the number of ,his armies40  ,man       
arrives at this knowledge by the aid of 
his perceptions2 each of his senses is  
given him that he may comprehend the    
world of created things1 and by the term
 8world0 we understand the different    
species of creatures4 ,the first sense  
revealed to man is touch1 by means of   
which he perceives a certain group of   
qualities--heat1 cold1 moist1 dry4 ,the 
sense of touch does not perceive colours
 and forms1 which are for it as though  
they did not exist4 ,next comes the     
sense of sight1 which makes him         

acquainted with colours and forms2 that 
is to say1 with that which occupies the 
highest rank in the world of sensation4 
,the sense of hearing succeeds1 and then
 the senses of smell and taste4  ,when  
the human being can elevate himself     
above the world of sense1 towards the   
age of seven1 he receives the faculty of
 discrimination2 he enters then upon a  
new phase of existence and can          
experience1 thanks to this faculty1     
impressions1 superior to those of the   
senses1 which do not occur in the sphere
 of sensation4  ,he then passes to      
another phase and receives reason1 by   
which he discerns things necessary1     
possible1 and impossible2 in a word1 all
 the notions which he could not combine 
in the former stages of his existence4  
,but beyond reason and at a higher level
 a new faculty of vision is bestowed    
upon him1 by which he perceives         
invisible things1 the secrets of the    
future and other concepts as            
inaccessible to reason as the concepts  

of reason are inaccessible to mere      
discrimination and what is perceived by 
discrimination to the senses4 ,just as  
the man possessed only of discrimination
 rejects and denies the notions acquired
 by reason1 so do certain rationalists  
reject and deny the notion of           
inspiration4 ,it is a proof of their    
profound ignorance2 for1 instead of     
argument1 they merely deny inspiration  
as a sphere unknown and possessing no   
real existence4 ,in the same way1 a man 
blind from birth1 who knows neither by  
experience nor by information what      
colours and forms are1 neither knows nor
 understands them when some one speaks  
of them to him for the first time4      
,god1 wishing to render intelligible to 
men the idea of inspiration1 has given  
them a kind of glimpse of it in sleep4  
,in fact1 man perceives while asleep the
 things of the invisible world either   
clearly manifest or under the veil of   
allegory to be subsequently lifted by   
divination4 ,if1 however1 one was to say

 to a person who had never himself      
experienced these dreams that1 in a     
state of lethargy resembling death and  
during the complete suspension of sight1
 hearing1 and all the senses1 a man can 
see the things of the invisible world1  
this person would exclaim1 and seek to  
prove the impossibility of these visions
 by some such argument as the following3
 8,the sensitive faculties are the      
causes of perception4 ,now1 if one can  
perceive certain things when one is in  
full possession of these faculties1 how 
much more is their perception impossible
 when these faculties are suspended40   
,the falsity of such an argument is     
shown by evidence and experience4 ,for  
in the same way as reason constitutes a 
particular phase of existence in which  
intellectual concepts are perceived     
which are hidden from the senses1       
similarly1 inspiration is a special     
state in which the inner eye discovers1 
revealed by a celestial light1 mysteries
 out of the reach of reason4 ,the doubts

 which are raised regarding inspiration 
relate 7#a7 to its possibility1 7#b7 to 
its real and actual existence1 7#c7 to  
its manifestation in this or that       
person4  ,to prove the possibility of   
inspiration is to prove that it belongs 
to a category of branches of knowledge  
which cannot be attained by reason4 ,it 
is the same with medical science and    
astronomy4 ,he who studies them is      
obliged to recognise that they are      
derived solely from the revelation and  
special grace of ,god4 ,some            
astronomical phenomena only occur once  
in a thousand years2 how then can we    
know them by experience8  ,we may say   
the same of inspiration1 which is one of
 the branches of intuitional knowledge4 
,further1 the perception of things which
 are beyond the attainment of reason is 
only one of the features peculiar to    
inspiration1 which possesses a great    
number of others4 ,the characteristic   
which we have mentioned is only1 as it  
were1 a drop of water in the ocean1 and 

we have mentioned it because people     
experience what is analogous to it in   
dreams and in the sciences of medicine  
and astronomy4 ,these branches of       
knowledge belong to the domain of       
prophetic miracles1 and reason cannot   
attain to them4  ,as to the other       
characteristics of inspiration1 they are
 only revealed to adepts in ,sufism and 
in a state of ecstatic transport4 ,the  
little that we know of the nature of    
inspiration we owe to the kind of       
likeness to it which we find in sleep2  
without that we should be incapable of  
comprehending it1 and consequently of   
believing in it1 for conviction results 
from comprehension4 ,the process of     
initiation into ,sufism exhibits this   
likeness to inspiration from the first4 
,there is in it a kind of ecstasy       
proportioned to the condition of the    
person initiated1 and a degree of       
certitude and conviction which cannot be
 attained by reason4 ,this single fact  
is sufficient to make us believe in     

inspiration4  ,we now come to deal with 
doubts relative to the inspiration of a 
particular prophet4 ,we shall not arrive
 at certitude on this point except by   
ascertaining1 either by ocular evidence 
or by reliable tradition1 the facts     
relating to that prophet4 ,when we have 
ascertained the real nature of          
inspiration and proceed to the serious  
study of the ,koran and the traditions1 
we shall then know certainly that       
,muhammed is the greatest of prophets4  
,after that we should fortify our       
conviction by verifying the truth of his
 preaching and the salutary effect which
 it has upon the soul4 ,we should verify
 in experience the truth of sentences   
such as the following3 8,he who makes   
his conduct accord with his knowledge   
receives from ,god more knowledge02 or  
this1 8,god delivers to the oppressor   
him who favours injustice02 or again1   
8,whosoever when rising in the morning  
has only one anxiety 7to please ,god71  
,god will preserve him from all anxiety 

in this world and the next40  ,when we  
have verified these sayings in          
experience thousands of times1 we shall 
be in possession of a certitude on which
 doubt can obtain no hold4 ,such is the 
path we must traverse in order to       
realise the truth of inspiration4 ,it is
 not a question of finding out whether a
 rod has been changed into a serpent1 or
 whether the moon has been split in     
two4#c ,if we regard miracles in        
isolation1 without their countless      
attendant circumstances1 we shall be    
liable to confound them with magic and  
falsehood1 or to regard them as a means 
of leading men astray1 as it is written1
 8,god misleads and directs as ,he      
chooses0 7,koran1 xxxv4 #i72 we shall   
find ourselves involved in all the      
difficulties which the question of      
miracles raises4 ,if1 for instance1 we  
believe that eloquence of style is a    
proof of inspiration1 it is possible    
that an eloquent style composed with    
this object may inspire us with a false 

belief in the inspiration of him who    
wields it4 ,the supernatural should be  
only one of the constituents which go to
 form our belief1 without our placing   
too much reliance on this or that       
detail4 ,we should rather resemble a    
person who1 learning a fact from a group
 of people1 cannot point to this or that
 particular man as his informant1 and   
who1 not distinguishing between them1   
cannot explain precisely how his        
conviction regarding the fact has been  
formed4  ,such are the characteristics  
of scientific certitude4 ,as to the     
transport which permits men to see the  
truth and1 so to speak1 to handle it1 it
 is only known to the ,sufis4 ,what ,i  
have just said regarding the true nature
 of inspiration is sufficient for the   
aim which ,i have proposed to myself4 ,i
 may return to the subject later1 if    
necessary4  ,i pass now to the causes of
 the decay of faith and show the means  
of bringing back those who have erred   
and of preserving them from the dangers 

which threaten them4 ,to those who doubt
 because they are tinctured with the    
doctrine of the ,ta'limites1 my treatise
 entitled ,the ,just ,balance affords a 
sufficient guide2 therefore it is       
unnecessary to return to the subject    
here4  ,as to the vain theories of the  
,ibahat1 ,i have grouped them in seven  
classes1 and explained them in the work 
entitled ,alchemy of ,happiness4 ,for   
those whose faith has been undermined by
 philosophy1 so far that they deny the  
reality of inspiration1 we have proved  
the truth and necessity of it1 seeking  
our proofs in the hidden properties of  
medicines and of the heavenly bodies4   
,it is for them that we have written    
this treatise1 and the reason for our   
seeking for proofs in the sciences of   
medicine and of astronomy is because    
these sciences belong to the domain of  
philosophy4 ,all those branches of      
knowledge which our opponents boast     
of--astronomy1 medicine1 physics1 and   
divination--provide us with arguments in

 favour of the ,prophet4  ,as to those  
who1 professing a lip-faith in the      
,prophet1 adulterate religion with      
philosophy1 they really deny            
inspiration1 since in their view the    
,prophet is only a sage whom a superior 
destiny has appointed as guide to men1  
and this view belies the true nature of 
inspiration4 ,to believe in the ,prophet
 is to admit that there is above        
intelligence a sphere in which are      
revealed to the inner vision truths     
beyond the grasp of intelligence1 just  
as things seen are not apprehended by   
the sense of hearing1 nor things        
understood by that of touch4 ,if our    
opponent denies the existence of such a 
higher region1 we can prove to him1 not 
only its possibility1 but its actuality4
 ,if1 on the contrary1 he admits its    
existence1 he recognises at the same    
time that there are in that sphere      
things which reason cannot grasp2 nay1  
which reason rejects as false and       
absurd4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that the

 fact of dreams occurring in sleep were 
not so common and notorious as it is1   
our wise men would not fail to repudiate
 the assertion that the secrets of the  
invisible world can be revealed while   
the senses are1 so to speak1 suspended4 
,again1 if it were to be said to one of 
them1 8,is it possible that there is in 
the world a thing as small as a grain1  
which being carried into a city can     
destroy it and afterwards destroy itself
 so that nothing remains either of the  
city or of itself80 8,certainly10 he    
would exclaim1 8it is impossible and    
ridiculous40 ,such1 however1 is the     
effect of fire1 which would certainly be
 disputed by one who had not witnessed  
it with his own eyes4 ,now1 the refusal 
to believe in the mysteries of the other
 life is of the same kind4  ,as to the  
fourth cause of the spread of           
unbelief--the decay of faith owing to   
the bad example set by learned          
men--there are three ways of checking   
it4  7#a7 ,one can answer thus3 8,the   

learned man whom you accuse of          
disobeying the divine law knows that he 
disobeys1 as you do when you drink wine 
or exact usury or allow yourself in     
evil-speaking1 lying1 and slander4 ,you 
know your sin and yield to it1 not      
through ignorance1 but because you are  
mastered by concupiscence4 ,the same is 
the case with the learned man4 ,how many
 believe in doctors who do not abstain  
from fruit and cold water when strictly 
forbidden them by a doctor6 ,that does  
not prove that those things are not     
dangerous1 or that their faith in the   
doctor was not solidly established4     
,similar errors on the part of learned  
men are to be imputed solely to their   
weakness40  7#b7 ,or again1 one may say 
to a simple and ignorant man3 8,the     
learned man reckons upon his knowledge  
as a viaticum for the next life4 ,he    
believes that his knowledge will save   
him and plead in his favour1 and that   
his intellectual superiority will       
entitle him to indulgence2 lastly1 that 

if his knowledge increases his          
responsibility1 it may also entitle him 
to a higher degree of consideration4    
,all that is possible2 and even if the  
learned man has neglected practice1 he  
can at any rate produce proofs of his   
knowledge4 ,but you1 poor1 witless one1 
if1 like him1 you neglect practice1     
destitute as you are of knowledge1 you  
will perish without anything to plead in
 your favour40  7#c7 ,or one may answer1
 and this reason is the true one3 8,the 
truly learned man only sins through     
carelessness1 and does not remain in a  
state of impenitence4 ,for real         
knowledge shows sin to be a deadly      
poison1 and the other world to be       
superior to this4 ,convinced of this    
truth1 man ought not to exchange the    
precious for the vile4 ,but the         
knowledge of which we speak is not      
derived from sources accessible to human
 diligence1 and that is why progress in 
mere worldly knowledge renders the      
sinner more hardened in his revolt      

against ,god4  ,true knowledge1 on the  
contrary1 inspires in him who is        
initiate in it more fear and more       
reverence1 and raises a barrier of      
defence between him and sin4 ,he may    
slip and stumble1 it is true1 as is     
inevitable with one encompassed by human
 infirmity1 but these slips and stumbles
 will not weaken his faith4 ,the true   
,moslem succumbs occasionally to        
temptation1 but he repents and will not 
persevere obstinately in the path of    
error4         99       99       99     
99       99  ,i pray ,god the           
,omnipotent to place us in the ranks of 
,his chosen1 among the number of those  
whom ,he directs in the path of safety1 
in whom ,he inspires fervour lest they  
forget ,him2 whom ,he cleanses from all 
defilement1 that nothing may remain in  
them except ,himself2 yea1 of those whom
 ,he indwells completely1 that they may 
adore none beside ,him4     ,,footnotes 
#a ,i4e4 ,there is nothing new under the
 sun4  #b ,in the ,mosque of ,omar4  #c 

,a miracle ascribed to ,muhammed4       
,printed by ,hazell1 ,watson  ,viney1   
,ld41 ,london and ,aylesbury4     ,,the 
,,orient ,,library  ,illustration  ,,the
 ,,wisdom ,,of ,,the ,,east ,,series    
,edited by ,l4 ,,cranmer-,,byng and ,dr4
 ,s4 ,a4 ,,kapadia   ,,the ,,hon4       
,,advisory ,,committee ,,of ,,the       
,,orient ,,library 7,,wisdom ,,of ,,the 
,,east ,,series7  ,lord ,,reay1         
,g4,c4,s4,i41 ,president4  ,sir ,,arthur
 ,,wollaston1 ,k4,c4,i4,e41 ,chairman4  
,l4 ,,cranmer-,,byng and ,s4 ,a4        
,,kapadia1 ,hon4 ,secs4      ,prof4 ,t4 
,w4 ,,arnold 7,london ,university       
,college74     ,prof4 ,l4 ,d4 ,,barnett 
7,london ,university ,college74         
,miss ,g4 ,,bell4     ,,syed ,,hosain   
,,bilgrami1 ,c4,s4,i4     ,prof4 ,j4 ,f4
 ,,blumhardt 7,cambridge ,university74  
,prof4 ,e4 ,g4 ,,browne 7,cambridge     
,university74     ,l4 ,,cranmer-,,byng1 
,esq4     ,dr4 ,j4 ,,estlin ,,carpenter 
7,oxford ,university74     ,a4 ,g4      
,,ellis1 ,esq4     ,prof4 ,,gregory     

,,foster 7,provost1 ,london ,university 
,college74     ,dr4 ,m4 ,,gaster4       
,prof4 ,h4 ,a4 ,,giles 7,cambridge      
,university74     ,,lionel ,,giles1     
,esq41 ,m4,a4     ,prof4 ,,ignaz        
,,goldziher 7,budapest ,university74    
,dr4 ,g4 ,a4 ,,grierson1 ,c4,i4,e4      
,sir ,,henry ,,howorth1 ,k4,c4,i4,e4    
,dr4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,kapadia 7,london         
,university ,college74     ,sir ,,alfred
 ,,lyall1 ,g4,c4,i4,e4     ,sir         
,,charles ,,lyall1 ,k4,c4,s4,i4         
,prof4 ,d4 ,s4 ,,margoliouth 7,oxford   
,university74     ,mrs4 ,d4 ,s4         
,,margoliouth4     ,prof4 ,a4 ,a4       
,,macdonell 7,oxford ,university74      
,,theodor ,,morison1 ,esq41 ,m4,a4      
,j4 ,,morris1 ,esq4 7,japan74     ,a4   
,h4 ,,hallam ,,murray1 ,esq4     ,prof4 
,,reginald ,a4 ,,nicholson 7,cambridge  
,university74     ,prof4 ,,rapson       
7,cambridge ,university74     ,miss     
,,ridding4     ,,syed ,,ameer ,,ali1    
,c4,i4,e4     ,f4 ,w4 ,,thomas1 ,esq41  
,m4,a4     ,prof4 ,,anton ,,tien4       

,don ,m4 ,,de ,,wickremasinghe 7,oxford 
,university74   ,,wisdom ,,of ,,the     
,,east ,,series  ,the ,diwan of         
,abu'l-,ala      ,by ,,henry ,,baerlein4
 #a_/- net4  ,brahma-,knowledge3 ,an    
,outline of the ,philosophy of the      
,vednta      ,as set forth by the       
,upanishads and by ankara4 ,by ,l4 ,d4  
,,barnett1 ,m4,a41 ,,litt4,d41          
,professor of ,sanskrit at ,university  
,college1 ,london4 #b_/- net4  ,the     
,conduct of ,life2 or1 ,the ,universal  
,order of ,confucius      ,a            
,translation of one of the four         
,confucian ,books1 hitherto     known as
 the ,doctrine of the ,mean4 ,by ,,ku   
,,hung ,,ming1 ,m4,a4     7,edin474     
#a_/- net4  ,the ,teachings of          
,zoroaster and the ,philosophy of the   
,parsi ,religion      ,translated with  
,introduction by ,dr4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,kapadia1
 ,lecturer1     ,university ,college1   
,london4 #b_/- net4  ,the ,persian      
,mystics  ,i4 ,jallu'd-dn ,rm      ,by  
,f4 ,,hadland ,,davis4 #b_/- net4  ,,ii4

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,,some ,,opinions ,,of ,,the ,,press    
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all who would     penetrate to the depth
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,literary ,guide4--8,we wish success to 
this little series of     books40       
,outlook4--8,this ,series is published  
to help in the process of     renewing  
the spiritual and moral life of the     
,west40      ,the ,scotsman4--8,this    
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readers     of the more studious sort40 
,southport ,guardian4--8,this ,series   
will find considerable     favour with  
all ,students of ,eastern ,literature   
and ,eastern     ,philosophy40          
,bristol ,mercury4--8,we commend these  
little books to all who     imagine that
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outside ,europe     and ,america40      
,glasgow ,herald4--8,this new ,series   
has a definite and lofty     aim1 and is
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small1 cheap1     and well adapted for  
the pocket4 ,every page is regularly    
refreshing and stimulating40            

,field4--8,such books are valuable aids 
to the understanding of     a far-off   
age and people1 and have a great        
interest for the     student of         
literature40      ,irish ,times4--8,the 
volumes are charming in form1 low in    
price1     and excellent in matter40    
,,london3 ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albemarle  
,,street1 ,w4