,transcriber's ,note ,words in italics are marked with underscores4 ,words in small capitals are shown in ,,upper ,,case4 ,variant spelling1 inconsistant hyphenation and inconsistant use of ligatures1 have been retained4 ,one missing full stop has been added1 a duplicate word has been deleted1 but otherwise the book is as printed4 ,descriptions of the diagrams1 have been added by the transcriber1 and are enclosed in braces4 ,other transcription changes are described in the note at the end of this book4 ,illustration3 ,,physical ,,map ,,of ,,hertford ,george ,philip ,son1 ,ltd4 ,the ,london ,geographical ,institute4 ,,cambridge ,,county ,,geographies ,general ,editor3 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,,guillemard1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d4 ,,hertfordshire ,,cambridge ,,university ,,press ,london3 ,,fetter ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,,manager4 ,illustration3 ,publisher's colophon ,edinburgh3 #ajj1 ,,princes ,,street4 ,berlin3 ,a4 ,,asher ,,and ,,co4 ,leipzig3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,brockhaus4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons4 ,bombay and ,calcutta3 ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,all ,rights reserved4 ,cambridge ,county ,geographies ,,hertfordshire by ,r4 ,,lydekker ,with ,maps1 ,diagrams and ,illustrations ,cambridge3 at the ,university ,press #aiji ,cambridge3 ,,printed ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press ,,contents ,,page #a4 ,county and ,shire4 ,the ,name ,hertfordshire4 ,its ,origin and ,meaning #a #b4 ,general ,characteristics of the ,county #d #c4 ,size4 ,shape4 ,boundaries #h #d4 ,surface and ,general ,features #aj #e4 ,watershed4 ,rivers #af #f4 ,geology and ,soil #be #g4 ,natural ,history #ch #h4 ,climate and ,rainfall #ej #i4 ,people--,race1 ,dialect1 ,settlements1 ,population #eg #aj4 ,agriculture--,main ,cultivations1 ,woodlands1 ,stock #fb #aa4 ,special ,cultivations #fg #ab4 ,industries and ,manufactures #gj #ac4 ,minerals--,an ,exhausted ,industry #gd #ad4 ,history of ,hertfordshire #gf #ae4 ,antiquities--,prehistoric1 ,roman1 ,saxon #hg #af4 ,architecture4 7a7 ,ecclesiastical--,abbeys and ,churches #ig #ag4 ,architecture4 7b7 ,military--,castles #aji #ah4 ,architecture4 7c7 ,domestic--,famous ,seats1 ,manor ,houses1 ,cottages #aad #ai4 ,communications--,past and ,present4 ,roads1 ,railways1 ,canals #abe #bj4 ,administration and ,divisions--,ancient and ,modern #ace #ba4 ,the ,roll of ,honour of the ,county #ada #bb4 ,the ,chief ,towns and ,villages of ,hertfordshire #aea ,,illustrations ,,page ,modern ,hertfordshire3 ,station ,road1 ,letchworth #d ,ancient ,hertfordshire3 ,thatched ,cottages1 ,harpenden #e ,an ,old ,farm-,house near ,wheathampstead #g ,a ,typical ,hertfordshire ,village3 ,much ,hadham #ab ,bancroft1 ,hitchin #ae ,netting the ,gade1 ,cassiobury ,park #ba ,bishop's ,stortford #bd ,view on the ,downs looking towards ,wallington from the ,icknield ,way #cb ,six ,hills1 ,stevenage 7,danish ,barrows7 #ci ,tring ,park #df ,french ,row1 ,st ,albans #fj ,ancient ,house at ,welwyn1 now the ,police ,station #fb ,a ,hertfordshire ,farm near ,rickmansworth #fd ,a ,lavender ,field1 ,hitchin #fi ,moor ,park1 near ,rickmansworth #gb ,canal and ,lock1 ,rickmansworth #gc ,monastery ,gateway1 ,st ,albans #gg ,the ,staircase1 ,hatfield ,house #hc ,cassiobury #hd ,the ,rye ,house3 ,portions of the ,servants' ,quarters #hf ,palaeolithic ,flint ,implement #hi ,neolithic ,celt of ,greenstone #hi ,the ,devil's ,dyke1 ,marford #ib ,ancient ,causeway1 ,verulam 7,st ,albans7 #ic ,roman ,wall in ,st ,germans' ,meadow1 ,verulam #id ,st ,albans' ,abbey from the south side #ie ,st ,peter's1 ,tewin #ii ,st ,mary's1 ,cheshunt #ajj ,st ,helen's1 ,wheathampstead #aja ,st ,mary's1 ,hemel ,hempstead #ajb ,st ,albans' ,abbey #ajc ,ruins of ,sopwell ,nunnery1 ,st ,albans #ajf ,the ,priory1 ,hitchin #ajg ,courtyard in the ,biggin ,almshouses1 ,hitchin #ajh ,the ,priory1 ,king's ,langley #aji ,hatfield ,house1 ,south ,front #aaf ,knebworth ,house #aag ,water ,end ,farm near ,wheathampstead #aah ,christ's ,hospital ,school1 ,hertford #aai ,the ,grammar ,school1 ,hitchin #abj ,an ,old ,malting ,house1 ,baldock #aba ,chequer's ,yard1 ,watford #abb ,the 8,fighting ,cocks10 ,st ,albans #abc ,waltham ,cross #abd ,the ,ermine ,street at ,hertford ,heath #abf ,the ,icknield ,way1 showing a ,ford between ,ickleford and ,wilbury ,hill #abg ,high ,street1 ,stevenage #abi ,view on the ,great ,north ,road1 ,codicote ,village #acj ,watford #aca ,the ,grand ,junction ,canal near ,hemel ,hempstead #acc ,haileybury ,college #acd ,the ,shire ,hall1 ,hertford #aci ,the ,salisbury ,statue1 ,hatfield #adc ,cecil ,rhodes's ,birth-place1 ,bishop's ,stortford #add ,ruins of ,verulam ,house1 the ,residence of ,francis1 ,viscount ,st ,albans #ade ,francis ,bacon1 ,viscount ,st ,albans #adf ,charles ,lamb #adh ,william ,cowper #adi ,bishop's ,stortford and the ,river ,stort #aee ,the ,college ,chapel1 ,haileybury #aeg ,letchworth1 ,open ,air ,school #afb ,shrine of ,st ,amphibalus1 ,st ,albans' ,abbey #afe ,diagrams #agj ,,maps ,hertfordshire1 ,topographical ,front ,cover 0 ,geological ,back ,cover ,england and ,wales1 showing ,annual ,rainfall #ee ,the illustrations on pp4 #g1 #cb1 #fj1 #fb1 #fd1 #hc1 #hf1 #ib1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaf1 #aah1 #aai1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd1 #abf1 #abg1 #acj1 #acc1 #aci1 and #adc are reproduced from photographs by ,the ,homeland ,association1 ,ltd42 and those on pp4 #d1 #ab1 #ae1 #bd1 #ci1 #df1 #fi1 #gb1 #gc1 #gg1 #ii1 #ajc1 #ajg1 #aag1 #abj1 #abi1 #add1 #ade1 #aee1 #afa1 and #afe are from photographs by ,messrs ,f4 ,frith ,co41 ,ltd41 ,reigate4 ,messrs ,h4 ,w4 ,taunt ,co41 of ,oxford1 supplied the views on pp4 #ba1 #hd and #aca2 ,mr ,a4 ,elsden1 of ,hertford1 those on pp4 #acd and #aeg2 and ,mr ,h4 ,valentine1 of ,harpenden1 the one on p4 #e4 #a4 ,county and ,shire4 ,the ,name ,hertfordshire4 ,its ,origin and ,meaning4 ,the only true and right way of learning geography 7which in its widest sense comprehends almost everything connected with the earth7 is to become acquainted with the geography--or1 strictly speaking1 the topography--and history of the district in which we live4 ,modern ,england is split up into a number of main divisions known as counties1 and in some instances also as shires2 the word shire1 when it is used1 being added at the end of the county name4 ,thus we have the county of ,essex or the county of ,hertford2 but whereas in the former case the word shire is never added1 it may be in the case of the latter4 ,we then have either the county of ,hertford1 or ,hertfordshire1 as the full designation of the territorial unit in which we dwell4 ,in official documents our area is always mentioned under the title of the 8,county of ,hertford02 but imperfectly educated persons when filling in such documents frequently write the 8,county of ,hertfordshire40 ,this is wrong and superfluous2 shire being equivalent to county4 ,the word county signifies an area of which a count or earl is the titular head4 ,here it may be incidentally mentioned that the title 8,earl0 is of ,saxon origin1 which it was attempted to replace after the ,conquest by the ,norman-,french 8,count02 the attempt being successful only in the case of an ,earl's consort1 who is still known as 8,countess40 ,it also obtained in the case of 8,county10 which is thus practically equivalent to 8,earldom40 ,it now remains to enquire why some counties are also known as shires1 while others are not thus designated4 ,in ,anglo-,saxon times ,england1 in place of being one great kingdom1 was split up into a number of petty kingdoms1 each ruled by a separate sovereign4 ,essex was then a kingdom by itself1 situated in the east of the country2 while ,wessex was a western kingdom1 and ,mercia a sovereignty more in the heart of the country4 ,essex and ,sussex1 being small kingdoms1 were constituted counties by themselves when the country came under a single dominion1 and their names have consequently remained without addition or alteration from ,anglo-,saxon times to our own day4 ,the larger kingdoms1 such as ,wessex and ,mercia1 were1 on the other hand1 split up into shares1 or shires1--i4e4 that which is shorn or cut off--and their names have disappeared except as items in history4 ,hertfordshire1 then1 is in great part a share of the ancient kingdom of ,mercia1 of which1 indeed1 it seems to have formed a centre1 as the ,mercian kings spent at least a portion of their time at ,berghamstedt 7,berkhampstead74 ,it is however only the larger western portion of the county that belonged to ,mercia1 a smaller area on the eastern side originally being included in the kingdom of ,essex4 ,as to the meaning of the name ,hertford1 there has been some difference of opinion among archaeologists4 ,in that extremely ancient chronicle1 8,domesday ,book10 the name1 it appears1 is spelt ,herudsford1 which is interpreted as meaning 8the red ford40 ,the more general and obvious interpretation is1 however1 that of 8hart's-ford10 from the ,anglo-,saxon heort1 a hart1 or stag2 and this explanation is supported by the occurrence in other parts of the country of such names as ,oxford1 ,horseford1 ,gatford 7 goat's-ford71 ,fairford 7 sheep's-ford71 and ,swinford4 ,writing on this subject in a paper on ,hertfordshire place-names published in #ahei1 the ,rev4 ,henry ,hall1 after alluding to the custom of naming fords after animals1 concluded as follows3--8,at all events1 the custom is so prevalent1 and the word hart so common for ,anglo-,saxon localities1 as ,hart's-bath1 ,hartlepool 7the ,hart's pool71 ,hartly--that though several other derivations have been given for the capital of the county1 none seems so simple1 or so satisfactory1 as that which interprets it to mean the hart's ford40 ,this interpretation has been adopted by that division of ,his ,majesty's local forces formerly known as the ,hartfordshire ,militia4 ,possibly it is supported by the title of a neighbouring village1 ,hertingfordbury1 that is to say1 the stronghold near ,hertingford1--the ford at the hart's meadow4 ,whether or not it has anything to do with the matter1 it may be worthy of mention that red-deer antlers occur in considerable abundance buried in the peat of ,walthamstow1 lower down the ,lea valley1 in ,essex4 #b4 ,general ,characteristics of the ,county4 ,illustration3 ,modern ,hertfordshire3 ,station ,road1 ,letchworth ,hertford is an inland county1 situated in the south-eastern portion of ,england1 and cut off from the nearest sea by the whole width of ,essex1 which forms the greater portion of its eastern border4 ,neither has it any great river of its own communicating with the ocean2 although the ,lea1 which is navigable below ,hertford1 and falls into the ,thames at ,barking in ,essex1 affords the means of transporting malt 7the great output of ,ware7 and other products to ,london and elsewhere by water4 ,as to canal communication1 this will be discussed in a later section4 ,illustration3 ,ancient ,hertfordshire3 ,thatched ,cottages1 ,harpenden ,originally ,hertford was essentially an agricultural county1 as it is to a great extent at the present day2 its northern three-quarters being noted for its production of corn4 ,the southern portion1 on the other hand1 was partly a hay-growing and grazing country4 ,nowadays1 however1 more especially on the great lines of railway1 conditions have materially altered2 and large areas have become residential districts1 which in the more southern part are little more than suburbs of the metropolis4 ,printing-establishments and factories--moved from ,london for the sake of cheapness--have likewise been set up on the outskirts of many of the larger towns1 such as ,st ,albans and ,watford1 or even in some of the villages4 ,on the other hand1 the old-fashioned timbered and tiled or thatched cottages formerly so characteristic of the county are rapidly vanishing and giving place to the modern abominations in brick and slate4 ,gone1 too1 is the old-fashioned and picturesque smock-frock of the labourer and the shepherd1 which was still much in evidence some five and forty years ago1 or even later2 its disappearance being accompanied by the loss of many characteristic local words and phrases1 to some of which reference will be made in a later section4 ,the gangs of ,irish mowers and reapers which used to perambulate the county at hay and harvest time are likewise a feature of the past4 ,the scenery of the southern portion of the county differs--owing to its different geological formation--very markedly from that of the northern two-thirds2 the latter area representing what may be called typical ,hertfordshire4 ,although there is nothing grand or striking in the scenery of this part1 for quiet and picturesque beauty--whether of the village with its ancient church nestling in the shelter of the well-wooded valley1 or the winding and tall-hedged lanes 7where they have been suffered to remain7--it would be hard to beat2 and in many instances is fully equal in charm to the much-vaunted ,devonshire scenery1 although1 it is true1 the hedge-banks lack the abundant growth of ferns characteristic of those of the latter county4 ,very characteristic of this part of the county are its open gorse or heath commons1 like those of ,harpenden1 ,gustard ,wood1 ,bower's ,heath1 and ,berkhampstead4 ,from the higher chalk downs on the northern marches of the county extensive views may be obtained over the flats of ,bedfordshire and ,cambridgeshire2 while in like manner the southern range of chalk hills in the neighbourhood of ,elstree presents a panoramic view over the low-lying clay plains of the southern portion of the county and ,middlesex4 ,illustration3 ,an ,old ,farm-,house near ,wheathampstead ,in former days1 it may be mentioned in this place1 the inhabitants of most1 if not all1 of the ,english counties had nicknames applied to them by their neighbours2 8,hertfordshire ,hedgehogs0 being the designation applied to natives of this county1 while their neighbours to the eastward were dubbed 8,essex ,calves40 #c4 ,size4 ,shape4 ,boundaries4 ,the maximum length of ,hertfordshire1 along a line running in a south-westerly and north-easterly direction1 is about twenty-eight miles2 while its greatest breadth1 along a line passing near its centre from the neighbourhood of ,tring to that of ,bishop's ,stortford1 is very nearly the same4 ,owing to its extremely irregular outline1 the county has1 for its size1 a very large circumference1 measuring approximately #acj miles4 ,here it should be stated that the ancient area of the county differs somewhat from that of what is now known as the administrative county4 ,according to the census of #aija1 the area of the ancient1 or geographical county1 included #djf1aeg acres1 whereas that of the administrative county is only #djd1eah acres#a1 or about #fcj square miles4 ,the difference in these numbers is due to the fact that certain portions of the old county1 such as that part of the parish of ,caddington originally included in ,hertfordshire1 have been transferred to adjacent counties4 ,the figures relating to population1 etc4 given in the sequel refer to the administrative county4 #a ,in the ,report of the ,board of ,agriculture published in #aije the number of acres is given as #djb1hef2 and this is taken as the basis of calculation in section #aj and in the diagrams4 ,in size ,hertford may be reckoned a medium county1 its acreage being rather less than that of ,surrey1 and about half that of ,essex4 ,to describe the shape of ,hertfordshire is almost an impossibility1 on account of its extremely irregular contour2 but as its two maximum diameters are approximately equal1 it may be said to lie in a square1 of which the four angles have been cut away to a greater or less extent in a curiously irregular manner4 ,the reason of this irregular outline1 seeing that only the eastern border is formed to any great extent by a river-valley1 is very difficult to guess4 ,where its south-eastern boundary leaves the ,lea valley in the neighbourhood of ,waltham ,abbey1 ,middlesex gives off from ,enfield ,chase a kind of peninsula running in a north-westerly direction into ,hertfordshire2 while1 in its turn1 ,hertfordshire1 a short distance to the south1 sends a better-marked and irregular peninsula 7in which stands ,chipping ,barnet7 jutting far into ,middlesex4 ,in consequence of this interlocking arrangement1 a portion of ,hertfordshire actually lies to the south of a part of ,middlesex1 although1 as a whole1 the former county is due north of the latter4 ,another1 but narrower1 projection runs from the south-western corner of the county in the neighbourhood of ,rickmansworth so as to cut off the north-western corner of ,middlesex from ,buckinghamshire2 while a third prominence1 in which ,tring is situated1 is wedged into ,buckinghamshire from the western side of the county4 ,other minor projections occur on the north-western and northern border1 of which the most pronounced is the one north of ,baldock1 jutting in between ,bedfordshire and ,cambridgeshire4 ,as regards boundaries1 ,hertfordshire is bordered on the east by ,essex1 by ,middlesex on the south1 by ,buckinghamshire on the south-west1 by ,bedfordshire on the north-west1 and1 to a small extent1 by ,cambridgeshire on the north4 ,from a short distance below the ,rye ,house to ,waltham ,abbey the boundary between ,hertfordshire and ,essex is a natural one1 formed by the rivers ,stort and ,lea2 but the other boundaries of our county are1 for the most part at any rate1 purely artificial4 ,it should be added that these boundaries at the present day do not everywhere accord with those of half a century ago4 ,the parish of ,caddington was1 for instance1 in former days partly in ,hertfordshire and partly in ,bedfordshire1 but under the provisions of the ,local ,government ,act of #ahhh1 confirmed in #ahig1 the whole of it was included in the latter county4 ,certain other alterations were made about the same time in the boundary4 #d4 ,surface and ,general ,features4 ,the contours of a district depend almost entirely upon the nature of its geological formations1 and the action of rain1 rivers1 and frost upon the rocks of which they are composed4 ,these formations in the case of this county are briefly described in a later section4 ,here it must suffice to state that hard slaty rocks form jagged mountain ranges1 while soft limestones like our ,hertfordshire chalk weather into rounded dome-like hills and ridges1 and heavy clays form flat plains4 ,as the bed-rock1 or1 as we may say1 foundation1 of ,hertfordshire1 is constituted either by chalk or clay1 it is the two latter types of scenery that mainly characterise this county4 ,it is only1 however1 on the north-western and northern borders of the county1 as at ,ivinghoe in ,bucks1 or between ,sandon and ,pirton1 that we find typical chalk scenery1 where the downs forming the north-easterly continuation of the ,chiltern ,hills of ,buckinghamshire enter our own area4 ,here we find the rounded downs and hollow combes characteristic of the ,south and ,north ,downs of the south-eastern counties2 and the same absence of woods1 except where artificial foresting has been attempted4 ,some approach to true chalk scenery is likewise shown on the line of hills on the ,london side of ,elstree1 where they overlook the clay plain forming this part of northern ,middlesex4 ,there is1 however1 a difference in the scenery of this part as compared with that of the downs to the north in that these hills are partially covered with a capping of clay or gravel1 while the beds or layers of which the chalk is composed slope towards the plains at the base of the ridge instead of in the opposite direction 7see section on ,,geology74 ,elsewhere the chalk is covered over to a greater or less degree1 alike on the hills and in the valleys1 with thick deposits of clay1 sand1 and gravel4 ,these communicate to the hills and valleys a contour quite different from that of chalk downs2 and in many parts of the county we have a series of more or less nearly parallel lines of low undulating hills separated by wide1 open valleys4 ,examples of this type of scenery are conspicuous in walking from the valley of the ,ver at ,redbourn across the hill on which ,rothamsted stands1 then descending into the riverless valley of ,harpenden1 again crossing the hill to the east of the latter1 and then descending into the valley of the ,lea near the ,great ,northern railway station4 ,illustration3 ,a ,typical ,hertfordshire ,village3 ,much ,hadham ,this capping of clay permits the growth of forest on the hills1 as do the alluvial deposits in the valleys2 so that in its well-wooded character the scenery of the greater part of the county is altogether different from that characterising the bare ,north and ,south ,downs and the ,chiltern ,hills4 ,where the chalk comes near the surface there is a marked tendency to the growth of beech-trees1 splendid examples of which may be seen in ,beechwood ,park4 ,elsewhere in the chalk districts the elm is the commonest timber-tree2 although it should be said that this species of tree was originally introduced into ,england from abroad4 ,reference has already been made to the numerous open commons dotted over the chalk area of ,hertfordshire4 ,these appear to have been left as open spaces at the time the country was enclosed1 owing to the sterility of their soil1 which is unsuited for growing good crops of either corn or grass4 ,many of these commons1 as in the neighbourhood of ,harpenden1 were enclosed some time previous to the battle of ,waterloo1 when corn in this country was so dear1 and every available piece of land capable of growing wheat consequently of great value4 ,it may be presumed that the commons with the best soil were selected for enclosure2 but most of such enclosed commons produce inferior crops1 partly1 it may be1 owing to the plan on which they are cultivated4 ,till twenty years ago or thereabouts all such commons in the writer's own neighbourhood were divided into a number of parallel strips1 separated by grass 8baulks02 these strips representing the respective shares of the copyholders of the district1 who had the right of grazing on the original common4 ,the absence of hedges rendered it necessary that the same kind of crop should be grown each year on every plot4 ,this made it not worth the while of the occupiers to spend money on high cultivation4 ,of late years many of these enclosed commons have either been built over1 or come under a single ownership1 thereby obliterating one more interesting page in the history of the county4 ,to the south of the ,elstree range of chalk hills the scenery suddenly changes1 and on emerging into ,middlesex from the tunnel through these hills on the ,midland ,railway we enter an extensive grassy plain1 characterised by its abundance of oak trees1 the scarcity of elms1 and the total absence of ash4 ,parts of this plain1 which is continued through ,middlesex to ,london1 form the great grass-growing and hay-producing district of ,eastern ,hertfordshire4 ,a plain very similar in character to that south of ,elstree is entered upon to the northward of ,baldock1 just after leaving the line of chalk hills1 although the greater portion of this northern plain is situated in ,cambridgeshire and ,bedfordshire4 ,when travelling northward from ,london by the ,great ,northern ,railway1 observant persons1 after passing through the tunnels traversing the chalk hills north of ,hitchin1 cannot fail to notice the general flatness of the country as this great plain is entered4 ,although so like the southern plain in general appearance1 this northern plain1 as is noticed in the section on ,geology1 is composed of much older rocks4 ,illustration3 ,bancroft1 ,hitchin ,the heights of some portions of the chalk area above mean sea-level are1 for this part of ,england1 considerable4 ,thus ,great ,offley ,church is #eed feet1 ,st ,peter's ,church1 ,st ,albans1 #djb feet1 ,stevenage #cjf feet1 ,hitchin ,church #baf feet1 while a hill near ,therfield attains the height of #ebe feet4 ,hastoe ,hill near ,tring is #gji feet4 #e4 ,watershed4 ,rivers4 ,in commencing this section it will be well to devote a few lines to the proper meaning of the frequently misunderstood term 8watershed40 ,it means the line of water-division1 or water-parting2 that is to say the line along a range of hills from which the streams flow in one direction on one side1 and in the opposite direction on the other4 ,the ridge-tiles on a roof form an excellent illustration of a watershed4 ,every local stream is separated from the one nearest to it by a watershed2 while a river-system1 such as that of the ,thames1 is separated by a much more important watershed from the other river-systems which take their origin near its source4 ,such river-systems1 each enclosed by a single watershed which it shares with its neighbours1 are known as drainage-areas1 or catchment-basins4 ,practically the whole of ,hertfordshire lies in the ,thames drainage-area4 ,at first sight it would be natural to suppose that the summit of the line of chalk downs forming the continuation of the ,chiltern ,hills in the neighbourhood of ,tring and continuing thence to ,dunstable would constitute the watershed between two river-systems4 ,but this is not the case1 for the ,thames cuts through the ,chiltern ,hills between ,wallingford and ,pangbourne1 and thus receives the drainage of both the northern and the southern flanks of that range4 ,the watershed formed by the continuation of the ,chilterns in the ,tring district is therefore one of second-rate importance4 ,on the other hand1 in the chalk hills near ,hitchin we have a watershed of first class1 or primary rank1 for it divides the ,thames catchment-area from that of the ,great or ,bedfordshire ,ouse1 which flows into the ,north ,sea miles away from the estuary of the ,thames4 ,only four comparatively small streams flowing into the ,ouse basin lie for part or the whole of their course within the limits of the county4 ,the first of these is the ,pirre1 or ,purwell1 a small brook which rises in the parish of ,ippolits1 and1 after passing ,much ,wymondley1 flows into the ,hiz near ,ickleford4 ,the ,hiz itself rises in a spring at ,wellhead1 a short distance southward of ,hitchin 7formerly also called ,hiz71 and after receiving the ,purwell1 flows to ,ickleford1 where it leaves the county1 being joined in ,bedfordshire by the ,ivel1 which rises not far from ,baldock1 passing ,biggleswade to join the ,ouse4 ,below ,biggleswade it flows through ,tempsford1 where it unites with the ,ouse4 ,the last of the four streams belonging to the ,ouse system is the ,rhee 7a ,saxon term signifying a water-course or river71 which springs strongly from the chalk a short distance west of ,ashwell1 and after passing ,accrington ,bridge and crossing the ,ermine ,street1 eventually falls into the ,cam4 ,the whole of the remaining rivers of the county belong to the ,thames catchment-area4 ,with the exception of the ,thame1 to be mentioned immediately in a separate paragraph1 these form two main systems1 namely that of the ,colne draining the western and that of the ,lea the northern and eastern part of the county2 the watershed between these two systems running in a north-westerly and south-easterly direction between ,st ,albans and ,hatfield1 and thence to the north of ,chipping ,barnet4 ,the ,thame is almost entirely a ,buckinghamshire river1 but it rises in our county and runs on the north side of the great watershed formed by the continuation of the ,chiltern ,hills2 this watershed constituting a broad1 nearly waterless belt separating the catchment-area of the upper ,thame from that of the ,lea4 ,the ,thame itself springs from three heads in the parish of ,tring2 the first of these rising near the vicarage1 the second at a spot called ,dundell1 and the third in a spring known as ,bulbourne4 ,the three become united at ,new ,mill1 whence1 after passing through ,puttenham1 the ,thame flows by ,aylesbury1 in ,buckinghamshire1 and from there continues its course till it eventually joins the ,thames near the village of ,dorchester1 a considerable distance below ,oxford4 ,of the tributaries of the ,colne system1 the most important is the ,ver 7or ,verlume71 which rises some distance to the east of ,cheverell's ,green1 on the ,watling ,street1 and passes through the village of ,flamstead1 and thence near the line of the high road to ,redbourn1 where it is joined by an intermittent stream1 or 8bourne10 known as the ,wenmer1 or ,womer4 ,the latter crosses the road from ,harpenden to ,redbourn at the foot of a steep descent2 and in the old days its appearance as a running stream was believed to forbode a death1 or 8some extremity of dangerous import40 ,from ,redbourn the ,ver continues its course by way of ,shafford ,mill1 at which place it crosses the high road1 to ,st ,albans1 where it passes between the present city and the ruined walls of ancient ,verulam1 to which latter it is generally believed to have given its name4 ,thence its course is continued through the old nunnery of ,sopwell 7of which it supplied the extensive fish-ponds71 and from that point it flows through ,park ,street to join the ,colne near ,colney ,street2 the latter stream giving the name to the united rivers1 although the ,ver is considerably the larger of the two constituents4 ,the ,colne itself rises in the neighbourhood of ,tittenhanger1 between ,st ,albans and ,hatfield1 and passes through ,london ,colney on its way to join the ,ver4 ,near ,watford the ,colne receives an important tributary in the shape of the ,gade1 which issues from the chalk in the meadows of ,great ,gaddesden 7to which and ,gadebridge it gives the name71 and after passing through ,hemel ,hempstead and ,nash ,mills1 is joined at ,two ,waters by the ,bulbourne4 ,the latter rises at ,tring very close to the ,bulbourne source of the ,thame 7the watershed being here very narrow71 and runs by way of the ,frith1 ,dagnalls1 ,aldbury ,meads1 ,dudswell ,bottom1 and ,north ,church to the north-east side of ,berkhampstead1 where its volume is increased by two important springs1 and thence to ,two ,waters4 ,there is also an intermittent stream known as the ,hertfordshire ,bourne1 which1 when running1 flows into the ,bulbourne about halfway between ,berkhampstead and ,boxmoor4 ,it is reported--and apparently correctly--to flow on the average once in every seven years2 the point from which it flows may be higher up or lower down in the valley according to the amount of water discharged4 ,below ,two ,waters the ,gade 7as the united stream is now called7 passes through ,kings ,langley1 ,hunton ,bridge1 and ,cassiobury ,park to join the ,colne between that park and ,watford4 ,after skirting the north side of ,moor ,park immediately below the last-named town1 the ,colne receives the ,chess 7giving the name to ,chesham1 in ,buckinghamshire71 which passes through ,sarratt in our own county4 ,the ,colne then reaches ,rickmansworth1 where it forms the boundary between ,buckinghamshire and ,middlesex1 and thence flowing by way of ,uxbridge and ,colnbrook1 discharges itself into the ,thames above ,staines1 after a course of about thirty-five miles4 ,illustration3 ,netting the ,gade1 ,cassiobury ,park ,we pass next to the basin of the ,lea or ,luy1 the ,logodunum or ,logrodunum of the ancient ,britons1 and the largest river in the county4 ,the ,lea itself takes origin in a marsh at ,leagrave1 or ,luigrave1 a little north of ,luton 7 ,lea-town71 in ,bedfordshire1 and after passing through ,luton ,hoo1 in that county1 where it is expanded into a large artificial lake1 enters ,hertfordshire at ,east ,hyde1 in the valley north of ,harpenden1 and flows thence by way of ,wheathampstead and ,brocket 7where it again expands into another artificial lake7 to ,hatfield1 whence its course is continued by way of ,essendon and the north side of ,bayfordbury ,park to ,hertford4 ,just before entering the county town the ,lea receives the ,mimram1 or ,marran1 which rises in the parish of ,kings ,walden1 to the north-west of the ,bury1 and flows to the eastward of ,kimpton ,hoo1 and thence by way of ,codicote1 ,welwyn1 ,digswell 7with added supplies from local springs71 ,tewin ,water1 and ,hertingfordbury to its junction with the ,lea close to ,hertford4 ,in the upper part of its course the ,mimram receives the small brook known as the ,kime1 from which ,kimpton and ,kimpton ,hoo take their names4 ,in ,hertford the ,lea is divided into two channels1 one of which runs through the eastern portion of the town to cross ,great ,hertham common1 while the other1 which is navigable1 passes along the western side to join its fellow at the aforesaid common4 ,at about one-third the distance between ,hertford and ,ware the ,lea is largely augmented by the waters of the ,beane 7,benefician7 and the ,rib1 which join close to their union with the main river4 ,the ,beane rises from a ditch in the parish of ,ardeley 7between ,stevenage and ,buntingford71 and thence flows in a southward direction by way of ,walkern1 ,aston1 ,frogmore1 ,watton1 and ,stapleford1 passing on its way through ,woodhall ,park1 at the entrance to which it is reinforced by several strong springs4 ,between ,watton and ,stapleford it also receives a small brook flowing from ,bragbury ,end4 ,starting in an easterly direction from ,ardeley or ,walkern1 we shall cross the low watershed dividing the valley of the ,beane from that of the ,rib2 which latter takes its rise near ,reed1 and after crossing the ,ermine ,street at the south end of ,buntingford1 flows by way of ,west ,mill and ,new ,bridge to ,braughing1 where it is joined by the ,quin1 which issues from a spring at ,barkway1 and passing by ,hormead and ,quinbury 7to which it lends its name71 reaches ,braughing ,priory4 ,below ,braughing the ,rib1 as it is now called1 flows by way of ,hammels1 ,standon1 ,barwick1 ,thundridge1 to cross the ,ermine ,street at ,wade's ,mill1 and thence vi ,ware ,westmill and ,ware ,park to join the ,lea with the ,beane4 ,from ,luton to ,hatfield the course of the ,lea pursues a generally south-easterly direction2 at ,hatfield it becomes for a short distance due east1 and then trends to the north-east through ,hertford to ,ware4 ,here it takes a sudden bend1 so that the remainder of its course through the county and the adjacent portion of ,essex is almost due south4 ,a direct line from ,luton to the ,lea near ,waltham ,abbey measures about #dj miles2 but1 owing to its great north-easterly bend1 the course of the ,lea between these two points is something like #de miles4 ,illustration3 ,bishop's ,stortford 7showing the ,plain ,country7 ,the last two rivers on our list are the ,ash and the ,stort1 both of which in the upper part of their courses run from north to south nearly parallel with the ,beane and the ,quin4 ,the ,ash rises near ,brent ,pelham and thence flowing by ,much ,hadham and through the parish of ,widford1 falls into the ,lea above ,stanstead ,abbots4 ,the ,stort1 which is the most easterly tributary of the ,lea in the county1 is of ,essex origin1 taking its rise at the very border of the county1 near ,meesdon1 and entering it again close to ,bishop's ,stortford4 ,some distance above ,stortford it receives one tributary from the ,essex and a second from the ,hertfordshire side1 the latter forming for a short distance the boundary between the two counties4 ,at ,stortford the ,stort is wholly within ,hertfordshire1 but a little below the town it forms the county boundary for a considerable distance1 passing by way of ,sawbridgeworth on the ,hertfordshire1 and ,harlow on the ,essex side1 to join the ,lea a short distance below the ,rye ,house4 ,from this point and ,hoddesdon nearly to ,waltham ,abbey the ,lea forms the boundary between ,hertfordshire and ,essex1 finally leaving the former county near ,waltham4 ,the river now constitutes the line of division between ,middlesex and ,essex1 finally joining the ,thames below ,bow ,bridge1 at ,barking1 after a course of #de miles4 ,here may conveniently be mentioned the celebrated ,chadwell spring1 near ,hertford1 which after supplying ,london with a large amount of water by way of the ,new ,river 7of which more in a later chapter7 for three hundred years1 failed temporarily in #ahig1 so that water began to flow into1 instead of out of its basin4 ,previous to this failure the amount of water discharged daily by the ,chadwell spring was estimated at not less than #b1fjj1jjj gallons4 ,in addition to the temporary failure of ,chadwell1 a spring in ,woolmers ,park1 near ,hertford1 has of late years completely dried up2 both these failures being attributed mainly1 if not entirely1 to the tapping of the ,hertfordshire water-supply by the deep borings in ,london4 #f4 ,geology and ,soil4 ,by ,geology we mean the study of the rocks1 and we must at the outset explain that the term rock is used by the geologist without any reference to the hardness or compactness of the material to which the name is applied2 thus he speaks of loose sand as a rock equally with a hard substance like granite4 ,rocks are of two kinds1 7#a7 those laid down mostly under water1 7#b7 those due to the action of fire4 ,the first kind may be compared to sheets of paper one over the other4 ,these sheets are called beds1 and such beds are usually formed of sand 7often containing pebbles71 mud or clay1 and limestone or mixtures of these materials4 ,they are laid down as flat or nearly flat sheets1 but may afterwards be tilted as the result of movement of the earth's crust1 just as you may tilt sheets of paper1 folding them into arches and troughs1 by pressing them at either end4 ,again1 we may find the tops of the folds so produced worn away as the result of the wearing action of rivers1 glaciers1 and sea-waves upon them1 as you might cut off the tops of the folds of the paper with a pair of shears4 ,this has happened with the ancient beds forming parts of the earth's crust1 and we therefore often find them tilted1 with the upper parts removed4 ,the other kinds of rocks are known as igneous rocks1 which have been molten under the action of heat and become solid on cooling4 ,when in the molten state they have been poured out at the surface as the lava of volcanoes1 or have been forced into other rocks and cooled in the cracks and other places of weakness4 ,much material is also thrown out of volcanoes as volcanic ash and dust1 and is piled up on the sides of the volcano4 ,such ashy material may be arranged in beds1 so that it partakes to some extent of the qualities of the two great rock groups4 ,the relations of such beds are of great importance to geologists1 for by means of these beds we can classify the rocks according to age4 ,if we take two sheets of paper1 and lay one on the top of the other on a table1 the upper one has been laid down after the other4 ,similarly with two beds1 the upper is also the newer1 and the newer will remain on the top after earth-movements1 save in very exceptional cases which need not be regarded here1 and for general purposes we may look upon any bed or set of beds resting on any other in our own country as being the newer bed or set4 ,the movements which affect beds may occur at different times4 ,one set of beds may be laid down flat1 then thrown into folds by movement1 the tops of the beds worn off1 and another set of beds laid down upon the worn surface of the older beds1 the edges of which will abut against the oldest of the new set of flatly deposited beds1 which latter may in turn undergo disturbance and renewal of their upper portions4 ,again1 after the formation of the beds many changes may occur in them4 ,they may become hardened1 pebble-beds being changed into conglomerates1 sands into sandstones1 muds and clays into mudstones and shales1 soft deposits of lime into limestone1 and loose volcanic ashes into exceedingly hard rocks4 ,they may also become cracked1 and the cracks are often very regular1 running in two directions at right angles one to the other4 ,such cracks are known as joints1 and the joints are very important in affecting the physical geography of a district4 ,then1 as the result of great pressure applied sideways1 the rocks may be so changed that they can be split into thin slabs1 which usually1 though not necessarily1 split along planes standing at high angles to the horizontal4 ,rocks affected in this way are known as slates4 ,,names ,,of ,,systems ,,characters ,,of ,,rocks ,recent ,pleistocene------ ,pliocene ------ sands1 superficial deposits ,,tertiary ,eocene ------ clays and sands chiefly ------ ,cretaceous chalk at top sandstones1 mud and clays below ------ ,,secondary ,jurassic shales1 sandstones and oolitic limestones ------ ,triassic red sandstones and marls1 gypsum and salt ------ ,permian red sandstones magnesian ------ limestone sandstones1 shales and coals ,carboniferous at top sandstones in middle limestone and shales below ------ ,devonian red sandstones1 shales1 slates and limestones ------ ,silurian sandstones and shales thin limestones ,,primary ------ shales1 slates1 ,ordovician sandstones and thin limestones ------ ,cambrian slates and sandstones ------ sandstones1 ,pre-,cambrian slates and volcanic rocks ------ ,if we could flatten out all the beds of ,england1 and arrange them one over the other and bore a shaft through them1 we should see them on the sides of the shaft1 the newest appearing at the top and the oldest at the bottom1 as shown in the figure4 ,such a shaft would have a depth of between #aj1jjj and #bj1jjj feet4 ,the strata are divided into three great groups called ,primary or ,palaeozoic1 ,secondary or ,mesozoic1 and ,tertiary or ,cainozoic1 and the lowest of the ,primary rocks are the oldest rocks of ,britain1 which form as it were the foundation stones on which the other rocks rest4 ,these may be spoken of as the ,pre-,cambrian rocks4 ,the three great groups are divided into minor divisions known as systems4 ,the names of these systems are arranged in order in the table with a very rough indication of their relative importance1 though the divisions above the ,eocene have their thickness exaggerated1 as otherwise they would hardly show in the figure4 ,on the right hand side1 the general characters of the rocks of each system are stated4 ,with these preliminary remarks we may now proceed to a brief account of the geology of the county4 ,in ,hertfordshire1 apart from the soil and the superficial accumulations of gravel1 sand1 and clay1 only the lower beds or strata of the ,tertiary and the uppermost formations of the ,secondary period are represented4 ,as the greater portion of the subjacent rocks of the county is formed by the ,chalk1 it will be convenient to commence with this formation4 ,the ,chalk extends1 or 8strikes10 across all but the south-eastern portion of the county in a broad belt1 with a general south-westerly or north-easterly direction1 reaching on the northern side1 with a few exceptions1 to the border of the county and beyond1 while to the southward its boundary runs approximately through ,bushey1 ,south ,mims1 ,hertford1 and ,bishop's ,stortford4 ,at ,dunstable the ,chalk forms what is called an 8escarpment10 that is to say a high and somewhat precipitous 7although rounded7 cliff overlooking the great plain formed by the marls and clays of the underlying strata4 ,as in all true escarpments1 the beds1 or strata of the ,chalk1 which are somewhat tilted by earth-movements out of their originally horizontal plane1 incline1 or 8dip0 away from the main face of the cliff1 that is to say1 towards the south-east2 and this south-easterly dip of the ,chalk1 apart from local interruptions and folds1 continues to its southerly boundary4 ,now since the ,chalk is a porous formation admirably fitted to collect and retain the rain-water falling upon it1 while it is underlain1 as we shall see shortly1 by the impervious ,gault ,clay of the ,bedfordshire plain1 and overlain along its southern boundary by the equally impervious ,london ,clay1 it is obvious that it will hold all the water thus collected1 and that this water will tend to run deep down in the rock in a south-easterly direction4 ,hence the northern part of the ,chalk zone forms an almost perfect water-collecting area1 which can be tapped along the southern side of the county by boring through the overlying ,london ,clay4 ,the ,chalk comprises several main divisions1 of which the highest is known as the ,upper ,chalk1 or the ,chalk with flints2 this when fully developed being about #cjj feet thick4 ,it is a soft white limestone traversed by nearly horizontal layers of black1 white-coated flint1 which have originated by a process of 8segregation0 in the rock subsequent to its deposition as ooze on the old sea-bed4 ,usually these layers consist of irregular nodular masses2 but there is sometimes a continuous thin layer of scarcely more than half-an-inch in thickness1 locally known as 8chimney-flint40 ,the south-easterly dip of the ,chalk is shown by the layers of flint to be not more1 as a rule1 than three or four degrees4 ,the ,upper ,chalk extends from the summits of the hills as far down as ,rickmansworth1 ,watford1 ,hatfield1 and ,hertford1 thus forming the bed-rock of the greater portion of the county4 ,by the wearing away of the overlying ,tertiary strata1 a small cone1 or 8inlier10 of ,chalk is exposed at ,northaw4 ,next comes a bed of about four feet thick known as the ,chalk-rock4 ,it is a hard cream-coloured rock1 containing layers of green-coated nodules1 is traversed by numerous vertical joints1 and rings to the stroke of the hammer4 ,owing to its hardness1 it resists the action of the weather1 and is therefore in evidence at or near the summits of the hills1 where it can be traced from close to ,berkhampstead ,castle by ,boxmoor and ,apsley1 and thence to the south-west of ,dunstable1 ,kensworth1 the south of ,baldock1 and so in a north-easterly direction to ,lannock ,farm4 ,illustration3 ,view on the ,downs looking towards ,wallington from the ,icknield ,way ,below the ,chalk-rock we come to the ,middle ,chalk1 or ,chalk without flints1 which may be so much as #cej feet in thickness1 and rises in a rather steep slope or 8step0 from the underlying beds to be next mentioned4 ,flints are few and far between in the ,middle ,chalk1 which forms the western slope of the ,downs at ,royston1 as well as beyond the limits of the county at ,luton1 and so on to the ,chiltern ,hills4 ,fossils are much more numerous in the ,middle than in the ,upper ,chalk4 ,the lowest bed of the former is the ,melbourn ,rock1 a hard1 nodular band about #aj feet thick4 ,next comes the grey and white ,lower ,chalk1 from #fe to #ij feet thick1 after which we reach the ,totternhoe ,stone4 ,although only six feet in thickness1 this ,totternhoe ,stone1 which forms the escarpment of ,royston ,downs1 is of importance as having been largely employed in the construction of churches and other buildings on the northern side of the county4 ,it is a sandy grey limestone1 which used to be largely quarried at ,totternhoe1 with special precautions in drying4 ,it can be traced from ,tring by way of ,miswell1 ,marsworth1 ,pirton1 and ,radwell to ,ashwell4 ,the ,totternhoe ,stone really forms the top of the ,chalk-marl1 which is some #hj feet thick1 and consists of buff crumbling marly limestones4 ,it forms a strip of low ground at the base of the ,chalk escarpment4 ,at the bottom of the ,chalk occurs the so-called coprolite-bed1 which contains large quantities of phosphate nodules4 ,forty years ago these beds were extensively worked between ,hitchin and ,cambridge for the sake of the nodules4 ,only on the northern border of the county1 between ,hitchin and ,baldock1 and also near ,tring and then merely to a very small extent1 are any of the beds underlying the ,chalk exposed4 ,these comprise1 firstly the ,upper ,greensand1 which is either a sandy marl or a sandstone with green grains1 and secondly1 a dark blue impervious clay known as the ,gault4 ,these formations constitute the plain at the foot of the ,chalk hills in ,bedfordshire1 the scenery of which is very similar to that of the ,london ,clay plain in eastern ,hertfordshire and ,middlesex4 ,it is important to add that1 at a gradually increasing depth as we proceed south1 the ,gault underlies the whole of the ,hertfordshire ,chalk1 and renders the latter such an excellent water-bearing formation4 ,if the ,gault be perforated we come upon the ,lower ,greensand1 another excellent water-bearing stratum1 which comes to the surface in the neighbourhood of ,silsoe1 in ,bedfordshire4 ,we may now turn to the formations overlying the ,chalk in the southern half of the county4 ,here it should be mentioned that all the formations hitherto described overlie 7or underlie7 one another in what is termed conformable sequence2 that is to say1 there is no break between them1 but a more or less nearly complete passage from one to another4 ,between the ,chalk and the overlying ,tertiary formations1 there is1 on the other hand1 a great break or 8unconformity02 the surface of the ,chalk having been worn into a very irregular contour1 above which we pass suddenly to the ,tertiary beds1 generally containing at their base a number of rolled chalk flints4 ,this indicates that before the ,tertiary beds were laid down1 the ,chalk had become dry land2 after which a portion of it once more subsided beneath the ocean4 ,the ,tertiary beds are in fact formed for the most part from the dbris1 or wearing away of the old ,chalk land4 ,the lowest ,tertiary stratum of eastern and southern ,hertfordshire is known as the ,woolwich and ,reading beds4 ,these consist of alternations of bright-coloured plastic clays and sandy or pebble-beds2 their maximum thickness in the county being about #ce feet4 ,they form a band extending from ,harefield ,park to ,watford1 and thence to ,hatfield and ,hertford4 ,below the ,woolwich and ,reading beds we come on the ,london ,clay1 of which the basement bed contains a layer of flint pebbles1 although the remainder of this thick formation is a stiff blue clay1 turning brown when exposed to the action of the weather4 ,originally these ,tertiary formations must have extended all over the ,chalk of central ,hertfordshire1 as is demonstrated by the occurrence of patches1 or 8outliers10 of them over a zone of considerable width4 ,such ,tertiary outliers occur at ,micklefield ,hall1 ,micklefield ,green1 ,sarratt1 ,abbot's ,langley1 ,bedmond1 ,bennet's ,end1 and ,leverstock ,green1 and in the northern1 or ,st ,peter's portion of ,st ,albans4 ,closely connected with these ,tertiary formations is the well-known ,hertfordshire pudding-stone2 a conglomerate formed of stained flint-pebbles cemented together by a flinty matrix as hard as the pebbles themselves1 so that a fracture forms a clean surface traversing both pebbles and cement4 ,this pudding-stone is usually found in the gravels 7or washed out of them7 in irregular masses1 weighing from a few pounds to as many tons4 ,it is stated1 however1 to occur in its original bedding between ,aldenham and ,shenley2 and the rock evidently represents a hardened zone of the ,woolwich and ,reading beds4 ,pudding-stone is found in special abundance at ,st ,albans and again in the neighbourhood of ,great ,gaddesden4 ,in some ,st ,albans specimens the pebbles are stained black for a considerable thickness by the oxides of iron1 while the central core is bright red or orange4 ,such specimens1 when cut and polished1 form ornamental stones of great beauty2 but1 on account of their hardness1 the expense of cutting is very heavy4 ,except on the higher part of the ,chalk ,downs1 and very generally along a narrow band half way up the sides of the valleys1 the aforesaid formations are but rarely exposed in the county at the surface1 on account of being overlaid with superficial deposits of gravel1 clay1 etc41 which are of post-,tertiary age1 and were deposited for the most part during the time that man has been an inhabitant of the world4 ,these superficial beds are very frequently termed 8drift10 on account of a large portion being formed by ice1 at the time that northern ,europe was under the influence of the great glacial period4 ,over most of the chalk area the denuded surface of the ,chalk is covered with a thick layer of stiff clay full of flints1 this layer being formed by the disintegration of the ,chalk itself1 the soluble calcareous portion being dissolved and carried away1 while the insoluble flints and clay remain4 ,above this layer in the neighbourhood of ,hertford1 ,barnet1 and elsewhere1 is a series of gravelly beds assigned to the middle division of the glacial period2 while these in turn are overlaid locally1 as at ,bricket ,wood1 between ,st ,albans and ,watford1 by the chalky ,boulder-clay1 of upper glacial age1 which is there some twenty feet in thickness4 ,in other places1 as at ,harpenden1 the hills are capped by a still greater thickness of clayey deposits1 mingled with flints1 resting upon a very irregular surface of ,chalk1 which appears to be for the most part of glacial origin4 ,speaking generally1 ,boulder-clay is characteristic of the east1 and clay with flints and gravel of the western side of the county4 ,half way down the sides of the hills1 in the district last named1 the ,chalk is more or less completely exposed at the surface along a narrow zone1 below which we come upon deposits of gravel1 sand1 and clay filling the bottoms of the valleys4 ,at ,bowling ,alley1 ,harpenden1 these deposits are fully forty feet in thickness4 ,although they have been supposed to be the result of river action1 it is more probable that they are due to rain-wash4 ,indeed this is practically proved in the case of the valley leading from ,harpenden towards ,no-,man's-,land1 where the lower end is blocked by a ridge of gravel1 which could not possibly have been formed by river action4 ,the stones in these valley-gravels are of irregular shape1 and thus quite different from the rounded pebbles of the gravels of the ,woolwich and ,reading beds1 as seen at ,st ,peter's1 ,st ,albans4 ,at ,harpenden the uppermost layer of valley-gravel is extremely clean and sharp1 generally of a golden yellow colour with blackish veins4 ,deposits of brick-earth occur locally throughout the ,chalk area4 ,over the greater part of the county the soil is the result of the decomposition of the foregoing superficial formations2 and is consequently in most cases of a stiffer and more clayey character on the hill-tops than in the valleys1 where it frequently forms only a bed of a foot1 or even less1 in thickness above the sharp1 running gravel4 ,everywhere in the ,chalk districts the soil contains a vast number of flints2 but it is1 nevertheless1 admirably adapted for corn-growing1 and especially for malting-grain2 ,hertford being one of the four ,english counties best suited to crops of the latter nature4 ,on many of the unenclosed commons the soil is1 however1 of a poor and hungry nature1 producing various kinds of inferior grass1 together with spring-flowering gorse1 as on ,harpenden ,common1 or heather1 as at ,kingsbourn ,green1 between ,harpenden and ,luton1 and at ,gustard ,wood1 near ,wheathampstead4 ,on the higher ,chalk ,downs near ,dunstable and ,royston there is little or no soil properly so-called2 the short1 but sweet and nourishing grass growing on the chalk itself4 ,a very different type of soil obtains in the ,london ,clay area in the south and east of the county2 this being heavy and clayey1 and thus better suited for grass than for corn2 in fact in the old days the ,middlesex portion of this district was known to the country people as the 8,hay-country40 ,along many of the river-valleys peaty soils of a marshy and swampy nature prevail4 #g4 ,natural ,history4 ,in former days1 when the mammoth or hairy elephant1 the extinct woolly rhinoceros1 and the wild ox1 together with the ,african hippopotamus and spotted hyaena roamed over the ,thames valley and afforded sport to our prehistoric ancestors1 ,england was joined to the ,continent across what is now the ,english ,channel2 so that the animals and plants of the southern portion of our islands1 at any rate1 were more or less nearly identical with those of ,france and ,belgium4 ,the advent of the great ice age1 or glacial period1 caused1 however1 a vast disturbance of the fauna and flora 7as the assemblages of animals and plants characteristic of different countries are respectively termed71 especially as about this time there occurred several oscillations in the level of our country1 during one or more of which ,great ,britain was temporarily separated from the ,continent4 ,how much or how little these and other changes had to do with the poverty of the ,british fauna as compared with that of the ,continent is too long and difficult a question to be discussed in this place2 but certain it is that even the southern counties of ,england do possess fewer species of animals and plants than ,france or ,belgium2 that this poverty increases with the distance from the ,continent2 and that ,ireland is much poorer in species than ,england4 ,it may perhaps be well to add1 although it does not really concern our subject1 that there appears to have been another land-connection by means of which ,scotland and ,ireland received a portion of their faunas from ,scandinavia by way of what is now the ,north ,sea4 ,illustration3 ,six ,hills1 ,stevenage 7,danish ,barrows7 ,at the date of the final insulation of ,great ,britain from the ,continent there is every reason to believe that all the land animals of the former were identical with species inhabiting adjacent regions of the latter4 ,and even at the present day1 when isolation has for centuries been exerting its influence on the non-migratory 7and in some degree also on the migratory7 animals1 there are no species of quadrupeds 7mammals71 birds1 or reptiles absolutely peculiar to our islands1 with the exception of the grouse2 and in the opinion of many naturalists that bird should be regarded rather as a local variety or race of the willow-grouse of ,scandinavia than as a distinct species4 ,minor variations1 however1 characterise many1 if not indeed all1 of our ,british quadrupeds and birds when contrasted with their continental representatives4 ,the ,british squirrel is1 for instance1 very markedly distinct from all the continental races of that animal in the matter of colouring1 while somewhat less decided differences characterise our badger1 hare1 field-mice1 etc4 ,similarly1 among birds1 the ,british coal-tit is so decidedly distinct from its continental representatives that it is regarded by some naturalists as entitled to rank as a species by itself2 and minor differences from their continental cousins are displayed by the ,british redbreast1 bullfinch1 great titmouse1 and many other resident species4 ,indeed1 if careful comparisons were instituted between sufficiently large series of specimens1 it is almost certain that all species of resident ,british land animals1 as well as exclusively fresh-water fishes1 would display certain differences from their foreign representatives2 while in some instances1 at any rate1 as is already known to be the case in regard to certain species1 more than one local race of an animal may exist in our own islands4 ,it is1 however1 a question as to what is to be gained by the recognition of such comparatively trifling local differences in animals 7and still more by assigning to them distinct technical names71 as the splitting process may be carried to an almost endless degree4 ,a large ,london fishmonger is1 for instance 7as the writer is informed71 able to distinguish a ,tay from a ,severn or ,avon salmon2 while a wholesale game-dealer will in like manner discriminate between a ,perthshire and a ,yorkshire grouse4 ,in like manner a ,hertfordshire badger or stoat may be distinguished from their ,midland or ,north of ,england representatives2 but it is difficult to see in what respect we should be the better for the recognising of the existence of such differences4 ,accordingly1 the fauna and flora of ,hertfordshire may be regarded for all practical purposes as more or less completely identical with that of the south-east of ,england generally2 and nothing would be gained1 even if space permitted1 by giving lists of the species which have been found within the limits of our county4 ,the fauna and flora of ,hertfordshire1 like those of other counties with varying geological formations1 are not1 however1 by any means the same everywhere4 ,on the contrary1 there are well-marked local differences mainly associated with what naturalists call 8station02 that is to say1 differences of elevation1 soil1 geological formation1 climate1 etc41 etc4 ,the animals and plants of the high chalk downs in the neighbourhood of ,gaddesden1 ,dunstable1 and ,ashwell1 are for instance more or less markedly distinct from those of the lower level corn-growing areas of the centre of the county4 ,on these elevated tracts we find1 for example1 wheatears1 stone-curlews 7near ,tring71 blue butterflies1 burnet-moths1 small brown-banded white snails1 a periwinkle-like snail with a horny door to its shell known as ,cyclostoma1 blue gentians1 certain orchids1 and many other kinds of plants rarely or never seen on the low grounds4 ,the open commons and heaths1 on the other hand1 as has been already mentioned1 are the home of heather and gorse1 together with various distinctive birds and reptiles1 such as stonechats1 whinchats1 titlarks1 goldfinches1 vipers1 slow-worms1 and lizards4 ,in the river-bottoms and other swampy localities we find marsh and water-birds1 such as yellow wagtails1 snipes1 sandpipers1 grebes 7at ,tring71 herons1 moorhens1 water-rails1 coots1 dabchicks1 and wild duck1 together with 7locally7 the common grass or water snake1 amber-snails1 marsh-marigolds1 purple loose-strife1 ragged robin1 reeds1 and yellow flags4 ,beech trees1 as mentioned above1 form the predominant timber on the chalk-lands other than the high downs1 while on the heavier soils of the centre of the county their place is mainly taken by elm and ash4 ,on these lowlands and other open cultivated tracts are found such birds as partridges1 corncrakes1 lapwings1 pipits1 and larks2 while in the coppices1 hedgerows1 and gardens we look for nightingales 7from which bird ,harpenden takes its name1 haerpen being a nightingale and dene a valley in ,anglo-,saxon71 blackcaps1 whitethroats1 wrens1 and nuthatches2 while the woods are the resort of green and spotted woodpeckers1 wood-pigeons1 jays1 and pheasants4 ,the low grass-growing clay-plains on the southern side of the county support1 as already stated1 an abundant growth of oaks to the almost complete exclusion of other timber trees2 and this area doubtless also presents certain peculiarities in its fauna distinguishing it from the corn-growing tract to the north4 ,the oaks grow to a very great size1 especially at ,sacombe and ,woodhall ,park1 and three notable specimens in the county are ,queen ,elizabeth's oak at ,hatfield1 ,goff's oak at ,cheshunt1 and the ,panshanger oak4 ,in addition to these local peculiarities in the fauna dependent upon elevation1 geological formation1 soil1 and the presence or absence of forest1 there are1 however1 certain others for which climate may possibly account4 ,a case in point is afforded by the distribution of stag-beetles and magpies in the county4 ,both these species are unknown in the district immediately round ,harpenden1 while the former1 at any rate1 are likewise unknown in the ,st ,albans district1 and apparently between that city and ,london4 ,if1 however1 we travel from ,harpenden to the east1 magpies may be met with when we reach ,codicote1 while in the opposite direction they occur in the ,hemel ,hempstead district4 ,as to the exact point where stag-beetles make their appearance in the latter direction the writer has no information1 but they are to be met with in the neighbourhood of ,rickmansworth and elsewhere on the ,buckinghamshire border1 and become quite common in that county4 ,grass-snakes1 so far as the writer is aware1 are likewise absent from the ,harpenden neighbourhood1 although on the ,cambridgeshire side of the county they are quite common1 as they are across the border4 ,if the local distribution of these species were carefully worked out and mapped1 we might perhaps be able to account for what is at present a puzzle4 ,with the increase of population and building the wild fauna of ,hertfordshire1 like that of ,england generally1 has been gradually becoming poorer in species--probably indeed from the time the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros were exterminated1 as they possibly were1 by our prehistoric ancestors4 ,when the wolf1 the bear1 the wild cat1 and the beaver disappeared1 is quite unknown2 but it is in comparatively modern times that the marten has been exterminated1 a solitary individual of this species having been killed in the county within a score of miles of ,london1 that is to say near ,watford1 so recently as ,december1 #ahgb4 ,polecats appear to have almost if not quite disappeared from the county1 although a straggler may occasionally enter from ,buckinghamshire1 where a few still survive2 and one was trapped in ,ware ,park about #ahhe4 ,otters are rare1 although a few occasionally appear in the lower part of the ,lea valley1 and some may enter the county from ,buckinghamshire1 in parts of which they are much more common1 the ,buckinghamshire ,otter-hounds having killed over a score of these animals in #aijh4 ,some years ago badgers were to be found in many parts of the county1 a well-known haunt previous to #ahdj being 8,badger's ,dell0 in ,cassiobury ,park4 ,they still occur locally in certain parts of the ,buckinghamshire side of the county1 and probably elsewhere4 ,foxes owe their preservation mainly to the sporting instincts of the county gentry and farmers4 ,among birds that have disappeared from the county1 the most to be regretted is the bustard1 which in the early part of last century was still to be found in the neighbourhood of ,royston1 although the precise date of its extermination from this part of ,england is unknown4 ,the bittern1 too1 is1 at the very most1 known only as an occasional straggler2 but a specimen was shot in a small marshy pond on ,harpenden ,common some time previous to #ahfj4 ,the ,royston crow1 by some naturalists held to be only a form of the common crow1 has been named from the ,hertfordshire town1 though a widespread species throughout many parts of ,europe4 ,neither has extermination been confined to animals4 ,fern-hunters have in some instances made a clean sweep of certain species of ferns from many districts1 if not from the county generally2 and nowadays aspleniums1 shield-ferns1 polypodies1 and false maidenhair 7trichomanes7 have completely disappeared from the ,harpenden high roads and lanes2 the present writer possessing in his garden what he believes to be the sole remaining indigenous specimen of the last-named species4 ,among localities specially celebrated for birds in the county are ,tring reservoirs1 where vast flocks of water-birds congregate1 especially in winter4 ,here breeds the great crested grebe2 and here1 too1 was shot in #aija the only known ,british example of the white-eyed pochard4 ,the neighbouring downs1 as already mentioned1 form one of the chief ,english resorts of the stone-curlew1 or thick-knee2 a species of especial interest on account of the remarkable manner in which both birds and eggs assimilate to their surroundings4 ,illustration3 ,tring ,park ,rare birds1 as well as various maritime species driven from their normal resorts by stress of weather1 make their appearance occasionally in various parts of the county1 but references to very few of such cases must suffice4 ,during the great visitation of sand-grouse 7a bird normally characteristic of the steppes of ,central ,asia7 to the ,british ,isles in #ahfc1 some individuals reached this county4 ,in the early part of last century a little auk1 or rotche1 was taken on the millhead at ,wheathampstead during very severe weather2 a great northern diver has been seen on ,tring reservoir2 a pair of storm petrels were killed some five-and-twenty years ago at ,hemel ,hempstead1 where snow-buntings have likewise been seen2 while various species of gulls from time to time put in an appearance in winter4 ,among recent events of this nature the appearance at ,harpenden of an immature specimen of the great purple heron is certainly noteworthy4 ,in #ahgh the late ,mr ,j4 ,e4 ,littleboy had recorded #bja species of birds from the county1 and a few others have been added since1 bringing up the number to #baj in #aijb4 ,in regard to fishes1 it is of interest to quote the following passage from ,sir ,henry ,chauncy's ,historical ,antiquities of ,hertfordshire1 published early in the eighteenth century4 ,after referring to its other fish1 it is there stated1 in the author's quaint language1 that the river ,lea also contains 8some ,salmons2 which 7like young ,deer7 have several denominations3 the first ,year they are called ,salmon-smelts1 the second ,year ,salmon-sprats1 the third ,year ,salmon-forktails1 the fourth ,year ,salmon-peall1 the fifth ,year ,salmonets1 and the sixth ,year ,salmon2 and if these ,fish had free ,passage by the ,mills1 and thro' the ,sluices at ,waltham up the ,stream towards ,ware and ,hertford1 where they might ,spawn in fresh ,water and were carefully preserved from ,pochers1 they would greatly increase in that ,river1 and be of great benefit1 as well to the ,city of ,london as the ,country2 for some ,water-men have observed1 that they delight in this ,stream1 and play much about those ,sluices at ,waltham40 ,chauncy likewise mentions that trout from the ,lea below ,hertford1 where it has peaty banks1 are much less red than those from the gravelly streams of the chalk districts4 ,for botanical purposes the county has been divided into six districts corresponding to the river-basins2 the first two belonging to the ,ouse system1 and comprising the ,cam and the ,ivel basins1 and the other four1 comprising the ,thame1 the ,colne1 the ,brent1 and the ,lea1 pertaining to the ,thames system4 ,of these the ,lea area is the largest1 the ,colne next in size1 the ,ivel considerably smaller1 and the other three quite small4 ,in some respects the local characters of the flora are1 however1 better brought out by taking the geological formations as a basis of division4 ,the ,upper ,chalk area1 capped with much ,boulder-clay on the eastern1 and with clay-and-flints and gravel on the western side1 corresponds very closely as regards these divisions with the ,lea and the ,colne basins4 ,the ,middle ,chalk1 which as we have seen is exposed on the flanks of the continuation of the ,chiltern ,hills in the north-west1 is peculiar in being the only area in the county in which grows the pasque-flower1 or anemone2 this chiefly flourishing on south-westerly slopes1 as at ,aldbury ,towers1 near ,tring4 ,the ,middle ,chalk is also the chief home of the various kinds of orchis2 the dwarf1 the man1 and the butterfly orchis being apparently restricted to this formation4 ,the ,tertiary area has a vegetation of a totally different type from the so-called 8dry-plant type0 characteristic of the ,chalk area1 but it cannot be further mentioned here4 ,in the five adjacent counties there occur #aaj species of flowering plants unknown in ,hertfordshire4 ,on the other hand1 ,hertfordshire has about a dozen plants 7exclusive of varieties of the bramble7 unknown in the adjacent counties4 ,of the #hic native flowering plants of ,hertfordshire about #aaj have not been recorded from ,cambridgeshire1 while about #abj are wanting in ,bedfordshire1 #agj in ,buckinghamshire1 #adj in ,middlesex1 and #ajj in ,essex4 ,these figures may1 however1 be subject to considerable modification by future research4 ,the following passage on the relations of the ,hertfordshire flora is quoted from the ,victoria ,history of the ,counties of ,england3-- 8,taking the number of species in any adjoining county which are absent from ,hertfordshire as the best index of the degree of relationship1 it would appear that the flora of ,bucks is the most nearly allied to that of ,herts1 and that those of ,cambridge and ,essex are the most divergent4444 ,this is just what might be expected from the physical features and geological structure of these counties4 ,the floras of ,cambridge and ,essex have also a more northern or north-eastern facies character than that of ,hertfordshire1 which is of a decidedly southern type4 ,the large number of ,hertfordshire species which have not yet been recorded from ,buckinghamshire is probably due to the flora of that county not having been so thoroughly investigated as ours has been40 #h4 ,climate and ,rainfall4 ,in its original sense the word climate meant the degree of inclination of the sun's rays at any particular spot at a specified date2 but nowadays it is employed to designate the average type of weather experienced in a district4 ,in this latter sense it comprises the results of the combined effects of temperature1 atmospheric pressure1 the degree of moisture in the air1 the direction and force of the wind1 and the amount of rainfall2 the study of climate constituting the science of meteorology4 ,although the climate of the ,british ,isles is of an exceedingly changeable type1 yet the average of the seasonal changes is far from being the same in all parts of the country4 ,taking temperature alone1 we find1 for instance1 that while the average for the whole year in ,shetland is as low as #dc ,fahrenheit1 in the ,scilly ,islands it rises to #ec4 ,it is a very general idea that in our islands the winter temperature of a place depends upon whether it is situated in the north or the south4 ,this1 however1 is a mistake1 the temperature having little relation to latitude1 but growing colder as we pass from the west to the eastern side of the country2 the south of ,england1 as a whole1 being milder than the north1 not because it is the south1 but because it includes such a large extent of land in the west4 ,the degree of elevation above the sea-level has much to do with temperature and the amount of moisture in the air2 high lands being1 as a rule1 colder and drier in winter than those lying at lower levels4 ,on account of the comparatively high elevation of a considerable proportion of its area and its easterly position1 coupled with the prevalence of north-easterly and easterly winds in spring1 ,hertfordshire ought to have1 on the whole1 a cold and bracing climate for the greater part of the year2 and1 as a matter of fact1 such is the case4 ,indeed1 it is commonly said that northern ,hertfordshire is so cold and bracing1 that only strong and robust constitutions can stand it2 but that for those blessed with such constitutions it is one of the healthiest counties in the kingdom4 ,hertfordshire1 however1 like ,england on a small scale1 has local climates of its own1 dependent upon differences in elevation above the sea-level1 in the amount of rainfall1 in the nature of the geological formation and soil1 and also in aspect1 especially as regards protection from the east wind in spring4 ,the slope of a hill facing south or south-west receives for instance far more sun in winter than one which looks in the opposite direction2 while it also escapes the full blast of the bitter east wind4 ,places situated on chalk1 and above all on gravel1 are drier1 and consequently--if on the same level and with a similar aspect--also warmer than those on cold1 heavy clay or marl4 ,as if to confirm and perpetuate the above-mentioned popular error1 it happens that the northern and north-western districts of the county1 that is to say1 those constituting the chalk area1 are very much colder and more bracing than those to the south and east1 whose substratum is clay4 ,this difference depends1 however1 not on differences of latitude1 but on the lower elevation of the southern as compared with the northern districts1 coupled with the protection from cold winds afforded to the low lands by the high ground4 ,to those who are in the habit of travelling by the ,midland railway from the north-western corner of the county to ,london1 the differences between the climate of the northern and the southern districts is made self-apparent in early spring by the extraordinary difference in the condition of the hedges and trees on the two sides of the ,elstree tunnel4 ,it is true that on this particular route the district south of the tunnel is in ,middlesex1 but to the eastward much of the lowland is in ,herts4 ,on the northern side of the range of chalk-hills pierced by this tunnel the hawthorn hedges may be seen at a certain period of the spring to be absolutely devoid of a sign of green2 while on the opposite side they will be in full leaf4 ,there is1 in fact1 about a fortnight's difference between the ,elstree and the ,mill ,hill side of this range in regard to the development of spring-vegetation2 and while the northern side is exposed to the full force of the east wind1 the combes and valleys with a south-westerly aspect near the summit of the opposite flank are so warm and sheltered that hardy species of bamboo and palm will grow in the open air almost as luxuriantly as in similar situations in ,surrey or ,sussex4 ,we see1 then1 as has been well remarked1 that the division of the county1 along the line indicated in the section on its geology1 into two very unequal portions--namely1 a large north-western area with a relatively dry soil and atmosphere1 and a smaller south-eastern tract with a comparatively moist soil and atmosphere--forms a sufficient approach to an accurate climatic division4 ,here we may mention that the daily temperature and the amount of moisture in the air1 together with the barometric pressure and a number of other details1 are recorded at the ,meteorological ,office in ,london from reports received from a host of observing stations 7either public or private7 scattered at intervals all over the country2 and at the end of each year the averages1 or 8means10 of these observations are worked out for the ,british ,isles and ,england generally1 and likewise for the various counties and other local districts4 ,this enables comparisons to be instituted between the climates of different places with much greater accuracy than would otherwise be possible4 ,in the year #aije the mean temperature for the whole of ,england was #dhg1 while that of ,hertfordshire was #dhi1 as deduced from observations taken at four stations1 of which ,bennington showed the lowest mean of #dhd1 and ,new ,barnet the highest of #ejb4 ,the aforesaid county mean of #dhi was1 however1 #jf above the average2 the average mean for a series of years thus being #dgh1 or about #a lower than that for ,england generally4 ,if we turn to the map here given we notice that1 speaking generally1 the rainfall of ,england decreases steadily as we pass from west to east4 ,the moisture-laden clouds1 driven by the prevalent winds across the ,atlantic1 precipitate their contents on reaching the land1 more especially if the land be high1 and in consequence the country beyond is less wet4 ,hertfordshire occupies a middle position between the heavy averages of ,wales and ,s4,w4 ,england and the minimum of ,essex and the neighbourhood of the ,wash1 as we should expect4 ,the difference between the average of the various stations in our country is remarkable4 ,in the year #aije1 which is taken throughout as the basis of comparison1 the highest rainfall in ,england and ,wales occurred at ,glas ,lyn1 near ,snowdon1 and was no less than #agff inches2 whereas the lowest was registered at ,shoeburyness1 in ,essex1 this being only #adeg inches2 while the average rainfall for ,great ,britain was #bgag inches4 ,in ,hertfordshire1 as we shall see1 the average in that year for the whole county was #bcdg inches1 but this is #ae inches below the general average for a series of years1 which is #bdeb inches4 ,in the same year the average for the four chief observing stations in the county was1 however1 #bdbb inches1 with a maximum of #behh inches at ,new ,barnet and a minimum of #bbea inches at ,bennington4 ,these extremes were exceeded by a maximum of #bhbi inches at ,pendley ,manor1 ,tring1 and a minimum of #aica inches 7or rather more than #e inches above the ,essex minimum7 at ,hillside1 ,buntingford4 ,illustration3 ,,england ,,wales ,,annual ,,rainfall ,,george ,,philip ,,son ,,ltd4 7,the figures show the annual rainfall in inches47 ,for a succession of years it has1 however1 been observed that the rainfall of ,hertfordshire is in excess of that of all the adjacent counties to the west and south4 ,this is shown by the following comparative average rainfalls for #aije2 viz43 ,bedfordshire 7#bc stations71 #bjdg ins42 ,buckinghamshire 7#cb stations71 #bbjf ins42 ,middlesex1 exclusive of ,london 7#di stations71 #bbbf ins42 and ,hertfordshire 7#ea stations71 #bcdg ins4 ,of the #ajd stations exclusive of ,hertfordshire1 the combined mean rainfall is #baf inches2 ,hertfordshire thus showing an excess over the average rainfall in the adjoining counties of nearly two inches in actual amount4 ,as a whole1 and in spite of the excess over its neighbour in the matter of rainfall1 ,hertford may be reckoned among the relatively dry counties2 its average in #aije being nearly four inches below that for ,england generally in the same year4 ,at ,bennington there were recorded #aebc hours of bright sunshine during the year1 and #ed absolutely sunless days4 ,throughout ,great ,britain as a whole there were #ahf days in the same year on which a minimum of #jjje inch of rain fell2 all such days with that or a greater quantity of rain being officially known as rain-days4 ,at ,greenwich1 where the total amount of rainfall was #bcjbd inches1 the rain-days numbered #afa1 and the wettest month was ,june when #dcbc inches of rain were registered4 ,june was also the wettest month of the year in ,hertfordshire1 but the amount of rain was much less than at ,greenwich1 being only #cdf inches4 ,as regards bright sunshine1 the number of hours in ,england as a whole amounted to #aece1 while in ,kent the number reached #affgh1 and at ,tunbridge ,wells #agabd hours4 ,in respect to the number of wet days during the year in question ,hertfordshire therefore occupied a very creditable position1 although its record for sunshine was less satisfactory4 #i4 ,people--,race1 ,dialect1 ,settlements1 ,population4 ,previous to the ,roman occupation of ,britain ,hertfordshire was inhabited by two ,british tribes1--the ,cattyeuchlani1 whose capital appears to have been ,verulam or ,st ,albans1 and the ,trinobantes4 ,to what extent these original ,british inhabitants of the county survived the ,roman and ,saxon invasions is unknown2 but it may be taken as certain that at an early date ,anglo-,saxon was the language spoken in this part of the country4 ,forty years ago ,anglo-,saxon idioms and words still lingered among the labouring rural population in the ,harpenden district 7and probably elsewhere71 which have apparently now disappeared completely4 ,instead of houses1 the ,anglo-,saxon plural housen was1 for instance1 always used by the old people2 while when a log of timber was cut the wrong way of the grain they would say that it would be sure to spalt 7equivalent to the ,german spalten71 instead of to split4 ,of the ,anglo-,saxon language there were originally two chief dialects1 a northern and a southern2 but after the ,norman conquest the number of such dialects was increased to half-a-dozen4 ,according to ,dr ,a4 ,j4 ,ellis's ,english ,dialects1 southern ,hertfordshire comes within the domain of the south-eastern dialect1 which also prevailed in ,middlesex1 south-eastern ,buckinghamshire1 and south-western ,essex4 ,throughout this area there is1 however1 an underlying basis of the middle eastern dialect1 which is still to be detected in northern ,hertfordshire1 as well as in ,essex1 ,bedfordshire1 ,huntingdonshire1 and ,northamptonshire4 ,it accordingly appears that if the ,east ,anglian counties of ,cambridgeshire1 ,suffolk1 and ,norfolk be eliminated1 the whole of the country lying to the eastward of the ,chiltern ,hills1 as well as the high grounds of ,northamptonshire1 had one dialect in common1 which was the speech of the early ,teuton settlers of this part of ,england4 ,this dialect1 during the course of fourteen centuries1 has been gradually modified and altered by the speech of ,london till it has resulted in the modern ,english of this part of south-eastern ,england4 ,according to ,mr ,r4 ,a4 ,smith1 writing in the ,victoria ,history of the ,counties of ,england1 8,the grouping of dialects in this part of the country would thus unite ,hertfordshire with ,essex1 and lead us to expect from archology some indications of ,saxon rather than of ,anglian influence in the county4 ,the few results already obtained in ,hertfordshire certainly show a marked absence of ,anglian characteristics1 but many discoveries must be made before the peculiarities of ,east ,saxon remains can be demonstrated4 ,to the west of the ,chilterns enough has been recovered from graves to show that the settlers in the upper ,thames valley1 presumably the ,saxons of the ,west1 were homogeneous uniform in characteristics and distinguishable from their neighbours2 but at present nothing has been found to link them with the people of ,essex1 who probably reached the eastern slopes of the ,chilterns at one time1 but were mainly confined to the north of ,essex and the neighbourhood of ,london4 ,in fact1 the few discoveries in this district point rather to a connection with ,kent the country of the ,british tribe of ,cantii than with ,wessex40 ,whatever may be the precise state of the case with regard to these details1 it may be taken as certain that the present population of ,hertfordshire is mainly descended from the ,saxons who came to ,britain in the fifth and sixth centuries4 ,there must have been1 however1 a certain mixture of ancient ,british blood2 while later1 and more especially among the higher classes1 this was followed by the infusion of a ,norman strain4 ,otherwise the population of the county does not appear to have been much influenced by foreign immigration1 although there was a settlement of ,huguenots in ,st ,albans1 who have left their mark in the name of one of the streets--,french ,row--near the market-place4 ,illustration3 ,french ,row1 ,st ,albans ,passing on to the present day1 we have the somewhat curious anomaly that the population of the administrative county is somewhat larger than that of the original county2 this being due to the inclusion in the former of some thickly populated areas4 ,the population of the administrative county in the census of #aija was given as #beh1dbc2 ten years previously it was #bbf1ehg1 thus showing a very marked increase2 that of the ancient county was #bej1aeb persons4 ,the number of persons to a square mile in ,hertfordshire1 on the latter basis at the former date1 was thus about #cih1 against #eeh for ,england and ,wales generally4 ,during the last twenty-five years the increase of the population has mainly taken place on the three great lines of railways1 the ,great ,northern1 the ,midland1 and the ,north-,western1 at such places as ,barnet1 ,hitchin1 ,st ,albans1 ,harpenden1 and ,watford4 ,st ,albans has indeed altogether outstripped the county town in point of numbers2 its population being #af1jai in #aija against the #i1cbb of ,hertford4 ,in common with ,england generally1 there has of late years been a marked tendency for the rural population to migrate to the larger villages and towns2 and this dominance of the urban population has been accentuated by the transference to ,st ,albans and elsewhere of large manufacturing and printing establishments from the metropolis4 ,the urban districts on the lines of railway likewise constitute the residence of a large population of men having daily business in ,london4 ,as in the country generally1 the females in #aija largely exceeded the male population in numbers2 the total for the former being #ah1agf1 and for the latter #af1gbc4 ,the great majority of these lived in houses1 of which #ed1ifc were inhabited at the date in question4 ,in addition to these1 #ga were living in military barracks2 something like another #e1bjj were maintained in workhouses1 hospitals1 asylums1 industrial schools1 etc41 while barges on the canals accounted for about another #adg4 ,it should be added that the county contains several large ,london asylums2 it would therefore give a very exaggerated proportion1 as compared with the true state of the case1 if the number of lunatics resident in the county were quoted4 ,illustration3 ,ancient ,house at ,welwyn1 now the ,police ,station #aj4 ,agriculture--,main ,cultivations1 ,woodlands1 ,stock4 ,as already mentioned1 the greater portion of ,hertfordshire1 that is to say1 most of the chalk area1 exclusive of the downs1 commons1 woods1 and private parks1 was in former years devoted to corn1 for the cultivation of which its soil is particularly well suited4 ,indeed the county had the reputation of growing not only the best barley for malting1 but likewise the best wheat-straw 7that is to say1 the hardest and whitest7 for plaiting4 ,the wheat itself was also of specially good quality and hardness1 and there was likewise an abundance of mills in which it could be converted into flour4 ,a noteworthy feature of ,hertfordshire agriculture is the practice of mixing chalk with the soils1 especially where they are clayey2 this resulting in a decided increase in fertility4 ,a century and a half ago wheat1 barley1 and oats formed the chief cereal crops2 beans being better suited to the ,vale of ,aylesbury1 while peas are profitable only on the very light chalky grounds4 ,clover1 lucerne1 trefoil1 turnips1 and 7in later times7 swedes and mangold are also extensively grown4 ,in this connection it is interesting to note that the first crops of red clover and of swede turnips ever grown in this country were sown at ,broadby ,farm1 near ,berkhampstead2 a spot celebrated in literature as having been the home of ,peter the ,wild ,boy in #agbe4 ,a certain amount of grass land was intermingled with that under cereal and root cultivation2 while1 as mentioned in earlier sections1 most of the heavy land in the south and south-east of the county is under grass4 8,hertfordshire farming10 observes a recent writer1 8has undergone little material change since ,ellis's description of it in #agcb2 the hay-crop has become a more prominent feature perhaps1 potatoes on the lighter soils have gained a leading place in the rotation1 and the standard of fertility has been raised all round2 otherwise a farm on the high chalk-plateau was farmed in #agcb pretty much on the same lines as it is to-day4 ,ellis gives a list of the chief weeds1 #8crow-garlick1 wild oat1 carlock1 poppy1 mayweed1 bindweed1 dock1 crow-needle1 black bent'3 they are not less troublesome nor any nearer extinction at the present time1 the last grass in particular being very characteristic of corn-land on the #8clay with flints'40 ,illustration3 ,a ,hertfordshire ,farm near ,rickmansworth ,every year the ,board of ,agriculture publishes a return in which the number of acres in each county devoted to each particular kind of crop is duly recorded1 the classification adopted being as follows1 viz43 corn crops2 green crops2 clover1 sainfoin1 and grasses for hay2 grass not for hay2 flax2 hops2 small fruits2 and orchards4 ,such land as produces none of these crops is classed as bare fallow1 of which ,hertfordshire in #aije possessed #ad1bge acres4 ,of the total of #djb1hefb acres in the county1 #cbi1fda were under cultivation in that year2 #aiag were orchards1 #bf1efh were woodland1 while #afeg acres consisted of heaths and commons used as grazing-grounds4 ,at the same date there were #aaf1gjj acres under corn-cultivation2 that is to say1 something approaching one-fourth the total acreage1 against about one-seventh in ,kent4 ,green crops accounted for #cb1gjb acres1 while of the remainder there were #cf1hca under clover1 sainfoin1 and grasses1 #ccae under lucerne1 meadows claimed #ed1ehi acres1 pasture #gj1fgh1 and small fruits #edd4 ,of the corn-grazing area1 wheat occupied #ea1fia1 oats #cf1idf1 and barley #bg1ifj acres4 #b ,see page #h and footnote4 ,it is thus apparent that out of the #cbi1fda acres of cultivated land no less than #bjj1jjj1 or more than half the whole area of the county1 and about #fj per cent4 of the total farming land1 was still under the plough2 this large proportion being at the time exceeded only in six ,english counties4 ,the increase in permanent pasture has1 however1 been steadily progressing since the great fall in the price of cereals in the seventies2 this being aided by the improvements in the means of communication throughout the country1 which have tended to rob ,hertfordshire of its original special advantage 7owing to its proximity7 in the matter of supplying the metropolis with corn and straw4 ,the subject of ,hertfordshire agriculture cannot be dismissed without mention of the fact that the world-renowned agricultural station at ,rothamsted1 in ,harpenden parish1 founded and endowed by the late ,sir ,j4 ,b4 ,lawes1 is included within its limits4 ,this includes a laboratory1 under a ,director1 situated on the west side of ,harpenden common1 and certain plots of land in the park at ,rothamsted where agricultural experiments have been carried on for more than sixty years4 ,the whole station is administered by a committee1 mainly appointed by the ,royal ,society4 ,fruit is grown only to a comparatively small extent in ,hertfordshire4 ,very characteristic of the county are1 however1 the orchards 7now for the most part more or less neglected7 of small black cherries1 known as ,hertfordshire blacks1 and also as 8mazzards10 which are situated near the homesteads of most of the older farms4 ,these are probably a cultivated variety of the wild black cherry of the neighbouring woods4 ,on the rich-soiled1 low-lying lands of the ,lea valley on the south-eastern side of the county are situated numerous market-gardens and nurseries4 ,the growing of tomatos 7at ,harpenden71 cucumbers1 and grapes under glass is carried on in several parts of the county on a more or less extensive scale4 ,elm1 oak1 beech1 and ash form the most common timber-trees of the county1 but the predominance of each kind in particular districts depends1 as already mentioned1 on the nature of the geological formation4 ,the undergrowth in the woods1 which should be cut every #ab or #ac years1 consists mainly of hazel4 ,as regards the number of the larger and commoner kinds of domesticated animals1 sheep in #aije reached a total of #id1dfa1 or about #bcd to every #ajjj acres2 the average for ,england generally being #dde per #ajjj acres4 ,the prevailing breeds are the ,hampshire ,down1 the ,south ,down1 and the ,dorset2 the latter being favoured on account of their early lambing4 ,hertfordshire is not a great horse-breeding county1 and in #aije the number of these animals was only #ae1jgj4 ,cattle numbered #ch1fcf1 and pigs #be1cch4 ,shorthorns are the favourite breed of cattle among the farmers2 and although in the chalk districts the soil is not specially well suited for dairy purposes1 farms near the main railways despatch a considerable amount of milk to ,london4 ,the number of horses was nearly the same as in #aija1 but cattle showed an increase of nearly #bjjj head4 ,sheep1 however1 had decreased by over #bjjj and pigs by more than #fjjj4 #aa4 ,special ,cultivations4 ,the most important special cultivation in ,hertfordshire is undoubtedly watercress1 which is very extensively grown in the river-valleys over a broad belt of country extending from the ,welwyn district1 through the parishes of ,harpenden1 ,wheathampstead and ,redbourn1 and thence to ,amersham and ,rickmansworth1 as well as to the ,vale of ,aylesbury in ,buckinghamshire2 this district being reported to be the best in ,england for this particular crop4 ,the cress is grown in beds cut through the low-ground from one bend of the river to another1 so that a constant1 but regulated stream of water is continually flowing through4 ,the seed is sown in special beds1 and the young cress carefully planted out in regular rows in the mud of the permanent beds during the autumn4 ,much care has to be exercised in tending and weeding the crop1 from which two prolonged cuttings are obtained annually2 the spring cutting being1 however1 much larger and better than the autumn one4 ,after cutting1 the watercress is tied up in bundles and packed in flat1 oblong1 osier hampers1 or baskets2 of which1 during the spring season1 huge stacks may be seen at the local railway stations awaiting despatch1 either to the metropolis1 or to the great manufacturing towns of the ,midlands4 ,for ordinary purposes the land on which watercress is grown is almost valueless2 but the watercress beds yield a big rental4 ,to furnish material for the aforesaid watercress hampers1 as well as for basket-work generally1 osiers are cultivated in some of the river-valleys1 as in the ,lea a mile or so above ,wheathampstead1 where there are extensive beds4 ,next in importance to the cultivation of watercress in the ,harpenden-,redbourn district is that of lavender at ,hitchin1 where numerous fields on a spur of the chalk range near ,windmill ,hill are devoted to the growth of this fragrant plant4 ,in late summer or early autumn the terminal spikes of blossom are nipped from their long stems1 and garnered for the sake of their contained oil1 which is distilled into lavender-water in ,hitchin itself4 ,lavender-water has been produced at ,hitchin for a period of fully eighty years4 ,the growing of lavender as an industry is extremely restricted in ,england4 ,illustration3 ,a ,lavender ,field1 ,hitchin #ab4 ,industries and ,manufactures4 ,as will be inferred from the statements in earlier chapters with regard to its essentially agricultural nature1 ,hertfordshire is in no wise a manufacturing county like ,lancashire or ,yorkshire2 this being due1 no doubt1 in great part to the fact that it possesses no commercially valuable minerals of its own1 or1 at all events1 none which are at present accessible to the miner4 ,during the last quarter of a century or so a certain number of manufacturing and industrial establishments have been moved from ,london and set up in various parts of the county1 as at ,st ,albans and elsewhere2 but these cannot be termed ,hertfordshire industries in the proper sense of the term1 and do not need further mention4 ,one of the great industries of the county is the malting business carried on at ,ware1 as is indicated by the number of cowls over the drying-kilns1 which form conspicuous objects for miles round4 ,ware was the greatest malting place in ,england4 ,the method of malting is too well known and the industry too widely spread to call for any special notes on the subject4 ,in former years1 say up to about #ahfe1 the straw-plait industry afforded employment to a whole army of workers in north-western ,herts and the neighbouring districts of ,bedfordshire and ,buckinghamshire2 and at that date the women and children might be seen in summer plaiting the straw at almost every cottage-door in each village or town4 ,as already mentioned1 the chalk districts of the county grow wheat-straw specially well suited for plait4 ,the straws to be used were selected and pulled one by one from the sheaves before the latter were threshed2 and1 after having the corn-ears cut off1 were done up into bundles4 ,the latter were in turn cut into such lengths as could be obtained free from knots1 and tied up into smaller bundles ready for sale to the workers4 ,before being employed in plaiting1 each straw was split longitudinally into several strips by means of a brass instrument1 which consisted of a handle and a pointed1 star-shaped head bent down at right angles to the former4 ,the finished plait was sold at so much per 8score0 7that is to say twenty yards7 for manufacture into hats and bonnets4 ,cheap ,chinese labour has completely killed the local plaiting industry2 but the manufacture of the finished foreign plait into hats still constitutes an important trade in ,st ,albans and elsewhere1 as well as at ,luton and ,dunstable in ,bedfordshire2 the sewing of the plait into hats being done mainly1 if not entirely1 in large factories4 ,tring was a great plait centre4 ,the manufacture of textile fabrics was formerly carried on in several parts of the county1 but in most of these has either completely ceased or fallen into decline4 ,about #ahjb there were mills for the manufacture both of silk and cloth at ,rickmansworth2 and the occurrence of the name 8,fuller ,street0 in the records of ,st ,albans apparently indicates the existence at some unknown date of the latter industry in that city1 and there were certainly cotton-mills at ,sopwell1 to the south of it4 ,the ,abbey silk-mills1 on the ,ver1 are still working at ,st ,albans1 although with a much diminished output2 but those at the neighbouring village of ,redbourn have been recently closed4 ,tring had silk-mills1 and canvas was also made there4 ,lace-making was probably carried on by some of the cottagers on the ,buckinghamshire side of the county1 where it flourishes to a certain extent at the present day1 and may even still here and there survive4 ,illustration3 ,moor ,park1 near ,rickmansworth ,nowadays perhaps the most important manufacturing industry in the county is that carried on at the paper-mills at ,abbot's ,langley1 where a large amount of high class paper is turned out4 ,being on the canal1 these mills have the advantage of water-carriage4 ,paper1 it may be observed1 is made nowadays from wood-pulp and esparto grass1 as well as from linen rags4 ,illustration3 ,canal and ,lock1 ,rickmansworth ,brick-making employs a considerable number of hands in various parts of the county2 the glacial and other superficial deposits on the chalk area frequently yielding excellent brick-earth2 while the ,london clay may be employed for brick-making anywhere in the south-eastern districts4 ,bricks from the ,london clay1 which is naturally blue1 turn yellow or white after burning in consequence of the combustion of the organic colouring matter2 but many of those from the glacial clays are of a full rich red ,at ,pepperstock1 near ,caddington1 however1 there are manufactured certain very hard1 heather-coloured bricks1 which are much favoured for house-building in north-western ,hertfordshire1 although their colour compares very unfavourably in the matter of effect when contrasted with the 8brick-red0 of the more ordinary kinds4 ,as we approach the ,gault plain of ,bedfordshire numerous cement works may be seen at the edge of the chalk-marl near the northern borders of the county1 some of which may be within the county itself4 ,chalk is much worked1 as at ,hitchin and elsewhere1 for lime2 and1 as already mentioned1 is dug largely by the farmers for 8chalking0 their fields4 ,it is to such diggings that the deep circular pits 7now generally ploughed over7 to be seen in many arable fields are due4 ,the ,totternhoe stone has been1 and perhaps still is1 quarried locally for building in some parts of the northern districts of the county4 #ac4 ,minerals--,an ,exhausted ,industry4 ,having referred in the last section to brick-making1 lime1 cement1 and ,totternhoe stone1 very little remains for mention in the present one2 as the absence of mines is one of the features of ,hertfordshire and the adjacent counties4 ,reference may1 however1 again be made to the so-called coprolite beds of the chalk-marl which were worked in the neighbourhood of ,hitchin in the early part of the first half of last century as a source of phosphoric acid for agricultural manure4 ,the irregularly shaped black nodules of phosphate of lime occur crowded together in a comparatively thin bed4 ,they were dug out1 and washed from the marl in which they were embedded on the spot in large circular tanks through which a wheel was made to revolve by horse-labour2 and then carted away to be converted by a chemical process into superphosphate4 ,after the excavation of the coprolite bed from one strip of a field1 the marl from the next was thrown in1 and the top soil replaced1 so that the land was left in as good1 or even better1 condition than previously4 ,the industry was continued till all the beds situated at or above a level which it paid to work were exhausted4 ,in winter there is a considerable local trade in gravel and shingle1 dug mainly in the valleys4 ,twenty years ago this trade was much more extensive in some districts than is at present the case2 this being due partly to the exhaustion of the deposits1 partly to the fact that in districts served by the ,midland ,railway the use of syenite from ,mount ,sorrel and ,charnwood ,forest1 in ,leicestershire1 has to a considerable extent replaced flint-gravel as road-metal on the main highways of the county and in the metropolitan districts4 ,formerly1 very large quantities of gravel were sent from ,st ,albans and ,harpenden to the northern metropolitan suburbs such as ,hendon and ,child's ,hill2 but most of that now dug is employed for road-metal on the local by-roads4 ,here it should be mentioned that in ,hertfordshire phraseology the term 8gravel0 is used exclusively to denote the coarse big-stoned material used as road-metal2 what is ordinarily denoted as 8gravel0--that is to say the material employed for garden-paths--being locally known as 8hoggin40 ,flints picked from the fields of the chalk area have a higher value as road-metal than dug gravel1 owing to their superior hardness2 the so-called 8quarry-water10 which is present in all dug gravel1 having been long since dried out4 8,facing0 flints for building purposes is an art much less commonly practised in the county than was the case in earlier days2 and when buildings of faced flint are contemplated it is generally necessary to send to a distance in order to secure the services of an expert in the facing process4 #ad4 ,history of ,hertfordshire4 ,the history of ,hertfordshire includes such a number of events of primary importance that it is somewhat difficult to make a selection of those most fitted to appear in the limited space available4 ,it was in this county that the offer of the crown of ,england was made to ,william the ,conqueror1 and it was from here that the first petition for the redress of grievances was forwarded to ,charles ,i2 while several important battles have been fought within its limits4 ,to the two ,british tribes who inhabited this part of ,england previous to the ,roman invasion1 reference has been made in an earlier section4 ,the first landing of ,julius ,caesar took place 7in ,kent7 in #ee ,b4,c41 and the second and more successful in #ed ,b4,c42 while a third ,roman invasion took place under ,claudius in #dc ,a4,d41 from which date the ,roman legions held possession of the whole country till about the year #daj ,a4,d4 ,whether ,caesar himself ever visited ,verulam does not appear to be definitely ascertained1 but it was early in the history of that great city that the encounter between the ,british ,queen ,boadicea and the ,romans took place4 ,during the ,roman period ,hertfordshire1 which then appears to have been a well-populated and wealthy district1 formed a part of the province of ,flavia ,caesariensis4 ,illustration3 ,the ,monastery ,gateway1 ,st ,albans ,the next great event was the ,saxon ,conquest1 which in ,kent was ushered in by the landing of a force in the year #ddi ,a4,d4 ,during this part of its history the western1 or larger portion of our county was included1 as already mentioned1 in the kingdom of ,mercia1 while the eastern and smaller section belonged to that of ,essex4 ,of the numerous ,mercian kings1 the most renowned and most powerful was ,offa1 whose name survives in ,offley1 where he had a palace1 and where he died about the year #gif1 while still engaged in building the ,monastery and ,abbey of ,st ,alban4 ,mercia at this time made a bid for the supremacy of the petty kingdoms of this part of ,england1 but was eventually beaten by ,wessex under the able rule of ,egbert4 ,it was in the reign of the last-mentioned sovereign that invaders of another nationality--namely the ,danes--began to make their presence seriously felt in the south2 but it was not till the time of his son and successor ,aethelwulf that they landed on the east coast4 ,early in his reign a council of ,mercians and ,west ,saxons was held at ,kingsbury1 near ,st ,albans1 to devise means for repelling the invaders2 while a second assembly was called for the same purpose at ,bennington in the year #hej4 ,neither seems to have resulted in effectual measures1 for in #hea we find a large ,danish fleet which had sailed up the ,thames beating off one of the ,saxon kings1 who had marched to stop its progress2 and after this event the county was harried and raided time after time1 till it was eventually divided about the year #hhj by a treaty executed at ,wedmore between the ,saxon sovereign ,alfred and ,guthrum the ,dane by a boundary line running from the mouth of the ,lea to its source1 and thence straight across country to ,bedford4 ,a few years later1 however1 namely in #hid1 the ,danish fleet sailed up the ,lea to ,hertford1 where ,alfred crippled it by cutting into the banks of the river1 so that by loss of water the vessels became stranded1 and the ,danish force had to fight its way to the west of ,england4 ,after numerous skirmishes and fights1 and the building of forts at ,hertford and on a small island near ,bishop's ,stortford1 the ,danish invasion was practically crushed by ,king ,edward1 who died in #ibe4 ,much1 however1 still remained to be done by his son ,aethelstan1 who stoutly attacked the invaders after they had made a raid on ,st ,albans in #icj4 ,a memorial of the ,danish sojourn still exists in ,dacorum1 the name of the western hundred in which ,tring is situated2 there is also evidence to the same effect in the records of gifts to ,st ,albans ,abbey by ,danes who had settled in the neighbourhood4 ,the ,mercian shire-system1 which was probably instituted as an aid against the ,danes1 is known to have come into force by #ieg2 but in place of ,hertfordshire having a sheriff of its own1 it shared one with ,essex2 an arrangement which remained in force till the reign of ,elizabeth4 ,this was in ,edgar's reign 7#ieg-ige72 but even then we do not reach the end of the ,danish trouble1 which did not cease till after ,sweyn's invasions between the years #ajaa and #ajad1 which were worse than their predecessors1 and included the pillage of ,canterbury4 ,about this time occurs the first mention of 8,heorotford0 as the name of the county4 ,scarcely had the country recovered1 in greater or less degree1 from the ,danish raids than it was conquered by the ,normans under ,william ,i1 who soon after the battle of ,hastings marched through the country south of the ,thames till he reached ,berkhampstead in this county1 where he built the castle whose foundations and earthworks remain to this day4 ,by relentless severity against all who stood in his way on the march1 ,william had succeeded in instilling a wholesome fear into the ,saxon 7or1 as we now say1 ,english7 inhabitants of the country2 and1 although he is reported to have been successfully opposed by ,frederic1 ,abbot of ,st ,albans1 he was finally tendered the submission of the people and the ,english crown at ,berkhampstead4 ,to follow in detail the events of the troublous times which succeeded the conquest is here impossible2 and it must suffice to state that at ,christmas1 #aaaf1 ,henry ,i paid a visit to ,st ,albans for the purpose apparently of quelling trouble among the turbulent ,norman barons who had now become the paramount lords4 ,stephen also held a court at ,st ,albans in #aadc in connection with other troubles4 ,with the bare mention that several ,hertfordshire barons accompanied ,richard ,i in his crusade to the ,holy ,land1 we may pass on to the quarrel between ,king ,john and his barons1 which has a very intimate connection with our county2 among the opposing noblemen being ,robert ,fitzwalter1 their leader1 and the ,earls of ,essex and of ,hertford4 ,the barons advanced from ,northampton to ,bedford1 while the main body of their army marched to ,ware and thence to ,london4 ,the signing of ,magna ,charta produced temporary peace2 but this was soon succeeded by fiercer fighting than ever in this county4 ,at the commencement of #abae ,john himself was in ,st ,albans1 and also had possession of ,hertford and ,berkhampstead castles4 ,in ,may of the same year ,louis landed from ,france1 and in due course besieged ,hertford and ,berkhampstead till they surrendered1 and then proceeded to ,st ,albans1 where he was for some time defied by the abbot4 ,at the departure of ,louis the castles were restored to the king4 ,the next event is the looting of ,st ,albans by ,fulke de ,breaut and his band in #abag4 ,the trouble with the barons continued into the reign of ,henry ,,iii2 and in the year #abfa the autumn parliament was held at ,st ,albans4 ,up to #abie the shires alone sent representatives to parliament but in the session held at ,st ,albans in that year the cities1 boroughs1 and chief towns were each permitted to elect two parliamentary burgesses4 ,during the reign of ,edward ,,ii the county was considerably involved in the affairs of ,sir ,piers de ,gaveston1 who spent much of his time at ,king's ,langley1 where ,edward had a palace1 and where ,gaveston was buried after his execution in #acab4 ,during that year the papal envoy met the barons at ,st ,albans with a view to the settlement of their differences with the king2 and in ,july1 #acba1 the barons marched through that city on their way to ,london4 ,during the fourteenth century the county suffered severely from plague2 but in spite of this ,edward ,,iii spent much time at ,langley2 and in #acfa the king and queen came to ,berkhampstead to take leave of the ,black ,prince 7to whom the castle had been given7 previous to his departure for ,aquitaine4 ,in #acha1 owing to exactions on the part of the king and the abbot of ,st ,albans1 there broke out the peasants' revolt1 in which ,hertfordshire men took a large share4 ,indeed after the execution of ,wat ,tyler the king proposed to go himself to ,st ,albans to punish the insurgents1 but was persuaded to send a commission in his stead2 although a short time later1 after another riot1 his majesty appeared in person in that city at the head of an armed force4 ,with the bare mention that in the second year of his reign ,king ,henry ,,iv visited the abbey1 we pass on to the ,wars of the ,roses1 and especially the first battle of ,st ,albans1 which was fought in ,may1 #adee4 ,the ,lancastrians1 or royalists1 held the main street of the city till the ,yorkists1 under the leadership of the ,duke of ,warwick1 burst through the defences from the direction of ,sopwell and cut the royalist position in half4 ,in less than an hour they had the city in their own hands1 after a great carnage1 during which ,king ,henry ,,vi himself was wounded4 ,in #adeh the king visited ,berkhampstead with the object of quelling the strife1 but to no purpose2 and in ,february1 #adfa1 the two factions again fought an engagement at ,st ,albans1 this time at ,bernard's ,heath1 to the northward of ,st ,peter's ,church4 ,this second battle of ,st ,albans ended in a victory for the king4 ,on #adth ,april1 #adga1 ,edward defeated ,warwick in the great battle of ,barnet1 on the south-east border of the county4 ,illustration3 ,the ,staircase1 ,hatfield ,house ,hertfordshire had much to do with royalty during the reign of ,king ,henry ,,viii1 the palace at ,king's ,langley being bestowed on ,queen ,catherine1 while the king himself spent much time at ,hunsdon ,house1 and also had a residence at ,tittenhanger4 ,there is1 moreover1 a tradition that he was married to ,anne ,boleyn at ,sopwell4 ,the ,princess ,mary lived for a time at ,hertford ,castle previous to her removal to ,hunsdon1 where ,princess ,elizabeth also lived before her long sojourn at ,hatfield1 in which beautiful park she was informed of her accession to the throne4 ,when queen1 ,elizabeth continued to be a frequent visitor to the county2 and in her reign1 owing to plague in ,london1 the law courts were held for a time at ,st ,albans1 while1 for the same reason1 ,parliament sat at ,hertford in #aefd and #aeha4 ,the sovereign herself came as a guest to ,lord ,burleigh at ,theobalds1 to the ,earl of ,essex at ,cassiobury1 and to ,sir ,nicholas ,bacon at ,gorhambury4 ,james ,i likewise spent much time in the county1 having an establishment at ,royston1 and dying at ,theobalds4 ,during the civil wars ,hertfordshire men played an important part in connection with what was known as the ,eastern ,association2 and in #afdc1 when the ,high ,sheriff ventured to read a royal proclamation in the market-place at ,st ,albans1 he was arrested by ,cromwell himself4 ,to follow the fortunes of ,hertfordshire during the conflict between ,charles ,i and ,parliament would occupy too much space2 and it must suffice to mention that in #affj ,sir ,harbottle ,grimston of ,gorhambury was ,speaker of the ,house of ,commons and took a leading part in the restoration of ,king ,charles ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,cassiobury ,the last event in the history of the county to which space admits allusion is the ,rye ,house ,plot4 8,in the spring of #afhc10 to quote the words of a well-known local writer1 8,charles ,,ii and ,james ,duke of ,york went to see the races at ,newmarket4 ,just opposite to the ,rye ,house ,inn there stood then a castle1 built in the days of ,henry ,,vi1 and in that castle lived one ,rumbold1 formerly an officer in the parliamentary army4 ,rumbold and about a score of equally reckless malcontents put their heads together over their tankards1 and1 so far as can be gathered from many rather contradictory narratives1 they formed a plot to delay the royal party on the return journey from ,newmarket to ,london1 by placing an overturned cart in the road-way1 in order that they might shoot the ,king and the ,duke of ,york in the confusion4 ,the conspiracy was frustrated1 for the royal party returned earlier than ,rumbold had been led to expect1 and presently the plot leaked out4 ,the ,rye ,house was searched1 incriminating papers were discovered1 and the affair culminated in the arrest of those nobler patriots who1 in concert with ,argyle1 had been planning the overthrow of what they honestly regarded as a corrupt government40 ,illustration3 ,the ,rye ,house4 ,portions of the ,servants ,quarters ,the ,rye ,house1 it may be added1 is situated in the south-eastern border of the county1 a short distance north-east of ,hoddesdon4 #ae4 ,antiquities--,prehistoric1 ,roman1 ,saxon4 ,the earliest evidence of the presence of man in ,hertfordshire is afforded1 as elsewhere in this country1 not by written or sculptured records1 but by stone implements of various shapes and types4 ,the very earliest of these implements1 at any rate1 belong to a time when the mammoth inhabited this country1 which was then united to the continent2 and their age must be reckoned by thousands1 if not by tens of thousands1 of years4 ,the period to which all these implements belong1 being before all human records1 is known as the ,prehistoric2 and it is important to mention that this term should be restricted to the epoch intervening between the time of the formation of the uppermost portion of the ,tertiary beds and the first dawn of history4 ,we often find the term 8prehistoric monsters0 applied to the great reptiles of the ,chalk and ,oolites2 but such a usage1 although etymologically justifiable1 is technically wrong4 ,the ,prehistoric period for lack of all other means of dating has been divided by antiquarians1 according to the material of which man formed his implements1 into the ,stone1 the ,bronze1 and the late-,celtic or ,iron ,ages2 the ,stone age being further divided into an older1 or ,palaeolithic1 section1 in which all the so-called 8celts10 or flint implements1 were formed simply by chipping1 and a newer ,neolithic section1 in which they were often ground and polished4 ,in connection with these implements attention may be directed to some of the ancient earthworks in the county1 although the age of many of these is unknown1 and in some cases may be later than the ,roman occupation4 ,the antiquities newer than the late-,celtic age are described as referable to the ,roman or the ,saxon period1 as the case may be4 ,these correspond with the history of ,england from #ee ,b4,c4 to #ajff ,a4,d4 ,palaeolithic implements are found locally in certain parts of the county1 although from the gravels of a very considerable area1 especially the ,harpenden district1 they appear to be absent4 ,the larger implements1 or 8celts10 which are often six or seven inches in length1 seem to have been employed for all purposes1 and to have been held in the hand1 without handle or shaft1 although some of them might easily be used as spear-heads4 ,the first discovery of an implement of this type in the county was made near ,bedmond1 ,abbot's ,langley1 in #ahfa4 ,a few specimens have been obtained in other parts of the ,colne basin2 but in the district round ,kensworth and ,caddington vast numbers have been discovered1 although for the most part just outside the county boundary4 ,in fact1 near ,caddington the ,stone-age men had a great manufactory of these implements3--a kind of ,palaeolithic ,sheffield4 ,in the basin of the ,lea a few flakes1 etc41 have been found at or near ,ayot ,st ,peter1 ,welwyn1 ,hertford1 ,bengeo1 ,ware1 ,amwell1 ,hoddesdon1 ,ippolits1 ,stocking ,pelham1 and elsewhere4 ,much more important is a 8find0 at ,hitchin1 near the source of the ,hiz1 and thus situated1 in part at any rate1 in the ,ouse basin4 ,these implements1 which were first brought to notice in #ahgg1 occur in clay-pits worked for brick-earth1 and are accompanied by bones of the mammoth1 hippopotamus1 and rhinoceros4 ,illustration3 ,palaeolithic ,flint ,implement 7,from ,kent's ,cavern1 ,torquay7 ,illustration3 ,neolithic ,celt of ,greenstone 7,from ,bridlington1 ,yorks47 ,between the ,palaeolithic and ,neolithic age exists a gap of untold length1 for the land had again to be re-peopled4 ,chipped1 or rough-hewn celts1 or hatchets1 of the latter age have been picked up in fields near ,abbot's ,langley1 ,bedmond1 ,kensworth1 ,wheathampstead1 ,markyate ,street1 and ,weston4 ,polished celts are more rare1 but specimens have been found at ,panshanger1 ,king's ,langley1 ,aldbury 7near ,stortford71 ,ashwell1 and between ,hitchin and ,pirton4 ,perforated axe-heads and hammer-heads of stone1 which may belong to the close of the ,neolithic or commencement of the ,bronze age1 are still more uncommon1 although a few such have been found1 notably a hammer1 near ,sandridge1 now preserved in the ,british ,museum4 ,much the same remark applies to chipped arrow-heads--the fairy darts of a more poetical age--but a few beautiful specimens have been found near ,tring1 some so long ago as the year #agfc or thereabouts1 and others at ,ashwell and ,hunsdon4 ,after a time man learnt the use of metal4 ,the smelting of iron was at first beyond his power1 and he employed the mixture of copper and tin which we term bronze4 ,of this age specimens of winged celts and palstaves 7a narrow hatchet1 with a tang or socket for a haft7 have been found in various parts of the county1 as well as socketed celts1 daggers1 swords1 spear-heads1 and the like4 ,the most important discovery of this nature was made in #ahgf during drainage operations at ,cumberlow ,green1 near ,baldock1 when some forty bronze implements were found in a well-like hole4 ,gold ornaments1 probably referable to the same epoch1 have been found at ,little ,amwell and at ,mardox1 near ,ware4 ,we now come to the early ,iron ,age1 when man had succeeded in mastering this metal4 ,of this a very brief notice must suffice4 ,primitive coins1 without inscription1 of the type issued by ,philip ,,ii of ,macedon1 and hence known as ,philippi1 were probably coined in the county in early ,british times2 but after the ,roman invasion a number of ,british coins were struck at ,verulamium1 among the most interesting of which are those of ,tarciovanus1 who reigned in that city from 7probably7 about #cj ,b4,c4 to about #e ,a4,d4 ,a large number of his coins have been found at ,verulam1 as well as those of other ,british sovereigns4 ,tarciovanus1 it may be added1 was the father of ,cunovelinus 7,shakespeare's ,cymbeline71 whose capital was ,camulodunum1 the modern ,colchester4 ,illustration3 ,the ,devil's ,dyke1 ,marford ,earthworks of great but unknown antiquity are by no means uncommon in ,hertfordshire2 one of the most important being ,grimes-ditch1 or ,grimm's ,dyke1 traces of which remain on ,berkhampstead common1 as well as on the opposite side of the ,bulbourne valley1 while a deep ditch runs in a bold sweep from near ,great ,berkhampstead through ,northchurch and ,wiggington to the north of ,cholesbury camp1 and thence into ,buckinghamshire4 ,beech ,bottom forms another great dyke lying between the site of ,verulam and ,sandridge1 and is probably pre-,roman1 and possibly connected with the encampment east of ,wheathampstead known as the ,moats or the ,slad4 ,the latter forms part of a great system of earthworks of which the opposite side is marked by the ,devil's ,dyke at ,marford4 ,the great earthworks running outside of and parallel to parts of the ,roman wall at ,verulam are likewise older than the latter4 ,berkhampstead ,castle may stand on the site of an earlier camp1 as ,british and ,roman coins have been found there2 but the mound or keep1 as at ,bishop's ,stortford1 ,pirton1 and ,hertford ,castles1 is probably ,saxon4 ,on the other hand1 the well-preserved camp near ,redbourn1 known as the ,aubreys1 ,auberys1 or ,aubury1 is certainly pre-,roman2 and the same is probably the case with some of the numerous other earthworks dotted over the county1 such as ,arbury ,banks1 ,ashwell4 ,a few barrows or tombs of pre-,roman age have been opened and examined in various parts of the county1 as at ,therfield1 ,royston1 and ,easneye near ,ware4 ,illustration3 ,ancient ,causeway1 ,verulam ,in evidence of the ,roman occupation of ,britain ,hertfordshire is unusually rich1 although limitations of space prevent anything like justice being done to this part of the subject4 ,the county is1 in the first place1 traversed from south to north by three main ,roman roads1 the ,watling ,street1 running through ,st ,albans and ,markyate1 the ,ermine ,street1 passing through ,hertford1 and the ,icknield ,way1 traversing ,hatfield and ,baldock2 as well as by the ,roman ,way1 connecting the latter town with ,hertford4 ,of these we shall speak presently4 ,the crowning ,roman glory of ,hertfordshire is1 however1 the city of ,verulamium1 or ,verulam1 situated on the hill on the opposite side of the ,ver to ,st ,albans4 ,much of the foundations of this city lie buried within the area partially enclosed by the remains of the massive walls2 and the ploughman within that ring is constantly turning up coins1 fragments of pottery and glass1 and other articles4 ,illustration3 ,roman ,wall in ,st ,germans' ,meadow1 ,verulam ,in one place are buried the apparently complete foundations of an amphitheatre1 which was opened out many years ago1 but again covered up after examination4 ,of the walls considerable portions1 in a more or less damaged condition1 still remain to bear eloquent testimony to the lasting character of ,roman masonry2 and much more would have persisted had they not been used as a convenient source of materials for the construction of ,st ,albans' ,abbey and other ancient buildings4 ,the basement of a ,roman villa1 in a fine state of preservation1 was opened out at ,sarratt ,bottom in #aijh1 and plans of the structure prepared1 after which the excavations were filled in4 ,other ,roman remains are known to exist in the district4 ,illustration3 ,st ,albans' ,abbey from the ,south ,side ,ravensburgh ,castle1 ,hexton1 is a well-known ,roman camp1 built on an earlier foundation2 and remains of ,roman camps exist at ,braughing and several other places in the county1 although in many cases the precise age of such ancient stations does not appear to be definitely ascertained4 ,isolated ,roman remains of various kinds occur in many parts of ,hertfordshire4 ,from the writer's own neighbourhood the ,british ,museum possesses a ,roman altar found many years ago at ,harpenden1 as well as a ,romano-,british stone coffin1 containing a glass vessel and pottery1 found near ,pickford ,mill in the ,lea valley1 east of ,harpenden1 in #ahbg4 ,the remains of another ,roman interment1 including fine specimens of amphorae1 or large two-handled pottery vessels1 were found about the year #ahfe near ,harpenden station on the ,great ,northern railway1 and ,barkway has yielded a fine bronze statuette of ,mars4 ,reference may here be made to the ancient millstones1 for hand use1 made of ,hertfordshire pudding-stone1 and known as querns1 of which the writer gave two fine specimens from ,harpenden to the ,british ,museum4 ,both stones have one flat and one convex surface1 but the convexity is much greater in the upper stone1 which is almost conical1 and is completely perforated at the centre4 ,when in use1 a stick1 to serve as the axis of rotation1 was inserted in this hole and received in a socket in the nether stone4 ,the labour involved in making these pudding-stone querns must have been enormous4 ,with the ,saxon period we reach the age of church building2 but apart from such portions of certain churches as are of that age1 ,hertfordshire is exceedingly poor in evidence of the ,saxon dominion4 ,a glass ,anglo-,saxon basin1 together with a bronze ,frankish pot of late sixth or early seventh century work1 was1 however1 discovered at ,wheathampstead in #ahhf4 ,anglo-,saxon relics are believed also to have been unearthed at ,redbourn at a very early period1 when they were attributed to ,st ,amphibalus2 and a ,saxon burial-place appears to have been found near ,sandridge in modern times1 although unfortunately ploughed over4 ,apart from the above1 there are only a few isolated 8finds10 such as of the coins known as minimi1 and of a gold ornament discovered at ,park ,street in #agdd4 #af4 ,architecture4 7a7 ,ecclesiastical--,abbeys and ,churches4 ,the architecture of ,hertfordshire buildings may be most conveniently discussed under three separate sections1 namely3--7a7 ecclesiastical1 or buildings related to the church2 7b7 military1 or castles2 and 7c7 domestic1 or dwelling houses and cottages4 ,as in ,england generally1 the architecture of the older buildings of all three classes has been affected to a greater or less degree by the nature of the building materials most easily accessible4 ,throughout the northern chalk area of the county the ,totternhoe stone of ,bedfordshire and the northern flanks of ,hertfordshire was largely employed in church building1 both for inside and outside work1 to the latter of which it is but ill suited4 ,flint--in the better class of work 8faced0 or 8dressed0 by fracture so as to present a flattened outer face--was also very extensively used4 ,the ,norman builders of the tower of ,st ,albans found1 however1 a quarry ready to their hands in the adjacent walls of ,verulam1 and we accordingly find this part of the structure made almost entirely of the characteristic ,roman bricks or tiles4 ,contemporaneous brick was also locally used to a very considerable extent even in the chalk districts2 and in the north-western part of the county there are numerous beautiful examples of ,tudor brick chimneys1 as at ,water ,end4 ,timber in the old days was1 however1 much cheaper than bricks1 and we consequently find many of the older buildings--especially cottages--constructed of a framework of wood1 arranged in the fashion of a net1 with the large 8meshes0 filled in with brick4 ,this type of work is locally known as brick and studding and to the architect as half-timbered work4 ,other buildings were largely constructed of a wooden framework overlain with lath-and-plaster work4 ,many of the churches built of flint or ,totternhoe stone have their angles or quoins made of harder material2 in many instances of stone apparently from ,northamptonshire1 but in other cases of ,roman brick2 similar materials being also used in the arches of some of the churches4 ,illustration3 ,st ,peter's1 ,tewin ,a large number of ,hertfordshire churches have relatively low battlemented towers1 frequently with a short spire or steeple in the centre as at ,tewin1 or a turret in one corner4 ,kensworth is an example of such a battlemented tower without either spire or turret2 ,st ,mary's1 ,hitchin1 ,tring1 ,northchurch1 ,barnet1 ,bushey1 ,king's ,walden1 ,cheshunt1 and ,watford are examples of towers with a turret in one angle1 while at ,ashwell there are turrets in all four corners4 ,some of the smaller churches1 like ,st ,michael's1 ,st ,albans1 originally had no aisles4 ,clothall church is peculiar in that the roof of the tower forms a four-sided cone2 while the roof of the church at ,sarratt is equally unique in being saddle-backed1 that is to say1 having a ridge running at right angles to that of the roof of the nave and chancel4 ,illustration3 ,st ,mary's1 ,cheshunt ,apparently there is no wholly ,saxon church in the county1 although several of the older ones were constructed on the site of ,saxon buildings1 many of which were probably of wood1 and thus either perished through decay or were burnt during the ,danish raids4 ,on the other hand1 there are remains of ,saxon work in ,st ,albans' ,abbey1 and there are several ,hertfordshire churches which are referred with a greater or less degree of certainty to the period before the ,norman conquest2 the original part of ,st ,michael's1 in ,st ,albans1 and of ,st ,stephen's1 to the south-west of that town1 may be cited as examples1 both dating from the middle of the tenth century4 ,the church of ,sandridge--on the road from ,st ,albans to ,wheathampstead--may likewise date from the same epoch4 ,illustration3 ,st ,helen's1 ,wheathampstead ,illustration3 ,st ,mary's1 ,hemel ,hempstead ,of ,norman churches there are numerous examples1 among which may be cited as a fine specimen ,st ,mary's1 ,hemel ,hempstead1 whose tall octagonal tower and spire are visible from a long distance4 ,the ,norman arches of the nave are of great solidity1 while the western doorway1 dating from about #aadj1 is a magnificent example of the work of the period4 ,sarratt church is also largely ,norman1 as was also the old church of ,st ,nicholas1 ,harpenden1 unfortunately pulled down 7with the exception of the much later tower7 nearly half a century ago4 ,a considerable portion of ,st ,albans' ,abbey 7now cathedral71 the pride of the whole county1 is also ,norman2 the tower of ,roman brick being1 apart from modern additions1 wholly of that period4 ,the old ,saxon ,church of ,king ,offa1 which stood on or near the site of the present building1 appears to have been completely swept away by ,abbot ,paul of ,caen 7#ajgg-ajic71 the founder of the present abbey1 which although completed by him1 was not consecrated till #aaae4 8,it is to be inferred10 according to the ,victoria ,history of ,hertfordshire1 8that a clean sweep was made of the old buildings1 and no evidence as to their site has been preserved4 ,the ,norman ,abbot's contempt for his ,saxon predecessors 444 led him to destroy their tombs1 and he doubtless laid out his new building without attempting in any way to accommodate them to those previously existing on the site4 ,but he preserved and used up in his new church some of the stonework of the old building1 giving a very prominent place to the turned shafts which still remain in the transept1 and are the most notable relics of the ,saxon building40 ,in the present nave1 which is the second longest in ,england1 the first six pillars on the north side belong to the original structure of ,abbot ,paul2 after which we come to ,early ,english 7,pointed7 work2 this being continued to the west end of the building and back to the fifth pillar on the south side1 whence ,decorated work extends to ,st ,cuthbert's screen4 ,the ,norman work 7#ajgg-ajic7 of one side thus faces ,decorated work 7#acjh-acbf7 on the other1 but this is due to accident rather than design1 the ,norman pillars having given way early in the church's history4 ,it has recently been suggested that the ,abbey stands on the site of the old ,roman amphitheatre1 and that ,st ,peter's ,street1 ,st ,albans1 marks the position of the ,roman cursus1 or race-course4 ,illustration3 ,st ,albans' ,abbey ,of the ,decorated style1 in vogue during the reigns of the three ,edwards1 in other words1 throughout the fourteenth century1 in addition to the beautiful work in ,st ,albans' ,abbey1 we have examples in ,abbot's ,langley1 ,clothall1 and ,hitchin churches4 ,abbot's ,langley has also some fine ,norman work in the nave4 ,many of the churches of the ,perpendicular period1 like ,st ,mary's1 ,hitchin1 have large and beautiful porches4 ,most of the windows in ,abbot's ,langley church are ,perpendicular1 although some on the south side are ,decorated2 and ,tring and ,offley churches are wholly of the ,perpendicular style4 ,previous to the ,reformation1 ,hertfordshire1 like other counties1 possessed numerous religious houses1 such as priories1 monasteries1 nunneries1 and hospitals2 all of which1 commencing with the smaller ones1 were suppressed by ,henry ,,viii1 whose chief agent in the work was ,thomas ,cromwell4 ,in many instances the sole evidence of the existence of such establishments is the survival of the word 8,abbey0 or 8,priory0 as the name of a private mansion1 but sometimes their gateways1 towers1 or merely ruins1 still remain4 ,illustration3 ,ruins of ,sopwell ,nunnery1 ,st ,albans ,the neighbourhood of ,st ,albans is especially rich in relics of this nature4 ,to the south1 on the banks of the ,ver1 are the famous ruined walls of ,sopwell ,nunnery1 a building known to have been in existence so early as #aaai2 but of the monastery there remains only the fine gate-house 7long misused as a gaol71 together with traces of the cloister arches on the south wall of the abbey4 ,from documentary evidence1 however1 aided by excavations in the abbey orchard1 it has been found possible to make a ground-plan of the whole establishment4 ,the last traces of the hospital of ,st ,mary-de-,pr vanished only during the last century2 the name surviving in a private house by the ,ver1 which is known as the ,pr4 ,illustration3 ,the ,priory1 ,hitchin ,hitchin formerly possessed a large priory1 as is indicated by the designation of the home of the ,delm-,radcliffes2 as well as by the existence in the town itself of certain almshouses known as the 8,biggin40 ,the latter were purchased by a private gentleman in #aede1 being at that time part of the disestablished 8,priory of ,bygyng in the town of ,hychen40 ,the ,biggin1 which was once inhabited by ,gilbertine nuns1 has a beautiful wooden corridor4 8,the ,priory0 as the title of a house in the main street of ,redbourn1 and 8,the ,cell0 as that of a mansion further down the road1 at ,markyate1 are but two among many other traces of monastic institutions in the county4 ,illustration3 ,courtyard in the ,biggin ,almshouses1 ,hitchin ,of ,king's ,langley ,priory1 which is known to have been in existence in #adjj1 a considerable portion still exists4 ,ashridge ,house now occupies the site of a large monastery and college1 of which there are many remains4 ,a brief reference may here be made to ,st ,albans' clock-tower1 which was erected between #adjc and #adab1 and from which the curfew was rung till so late as #ahfa1 while a bell was also rung early in the morning to awaken work-people4 ,illustration3 ,the ,priory1 ,king's ,langley #ag4 ,architecture4 7b7 ,military--,castles4 ,like most other counties in the south of ,england1 ,hertfordshire possesses the remains of several ,norman castles1 most of which appear to date back no further than the ,conquest1 while others1 like ,berkhampstead 7where1 as we have seen in a previous section1 ,mercian kings held their courts71 have been supposed to be constructed on the site of earlier buildings of a similar nature4 ,the total number of castles built by the ,normans to overawe their new ,english subjects is stated to have been about #aajj4 ,these1 as may naturally be surmised1 varied considerably in size1 some being royal castles1 constructed for the defence of the country generally and ruled by a constable or guardian1 while others belonged to individual ,norman noblemen for the defence of their own estates1 and were for the most part the terror of the surrounding districts4 ,a ,norman castle of the highest type occupied a large area1 the lofty and massive outer wall enclosing a space of several acres1 and being surmounted with towers and protected by bastions1 while it was also surrounded by a moat or ditch4 ,within the enclosure thus formed were three main divisions1 the first of which was the outer bailey1 or courtyard1 entered by a towered gateway furnished with a portcullis 7that is to say1 a gate which could be dropped down from1 and drawn up into1 the tower by means of a system of chains and pulleys7 and a drawbridge4 ,the stables and other buildings were contained in this court4 ,next came the inner bailey1 or quadrangle1 likewise entered through a towered and fortified gateway1 and containing the chapel1 the barracks1 and the keep4 ,lastly1 we have the keep or donjon itself1 which always contained a well1 and constituted the final portion which was defended during a protracted siege when the garrison was hard pressed4 ,in choosing the site for such a military castle1 either a more or less isolated and steep hill or rock might be selected1 or a situation in marshy low-lands1 where access might be rendered difficult or impossible by damming back the waters4 ,the ,norman castle at ,berkhampstead1 which stood close to the present railway due east of the station1 and portions of the ruins of which may be seen from the train1 was built by ,robert ,earl of ,morton1 brother of ,william the ,conqueror4 ,according to a recent writer1 the earthworks of this castle represent the original fortress founded by the ,conqueror1 and the appellation of a 8burh0 to the structure is consequently erroneous4 ,a ,saxon 8burh0 or 8burg0 was a fortified town1 whereas the moated mound of ,berkhampstead1 like those at ,hertford1 ,bishop's ,stortford1 ,anstey1 ,bennington1 and ,pirton1 are essentially ,norman castles of the type known as 8mottes10 or1 from their shape1 as 8mount and bailey castles40 ,it is a common idea that ,berkhampstead was originally a stone castle1 but the earthworks now remaining really represent the fortress itself4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,ii the custody of ,berkhampstead ,castle was entrusted to ,thomas ,becket1 who replaced the old wooden defences 7such as stockades1 palisades1 and towers7 originally crowning the banks1 by walls of flint rubble1 remains of which still partly surround the enclosure4 ,hertford ,castle1 the site of which forms the residence of ,his ,majesty's judges during the assizes1 was built by ,edward the ,elder about the year #ije2 and after the conquest ,william ,i placed both castle and town in the custody of ,peter de ,valoignes4 ,other ancient castles and baileys in the county include the following1 viz3-- ,anstey ,castle1 situated about a mile from the eastern border of ,hertfordshire1 on the watershed between the ,stort and the ,quin4 ,bennington ,castle1 built on high ground about a mile from the river ,beane and some two miles from ,walkern ,bury2 the ruins include the remains of a small1 square keep1 as well as of a bailey4 ,waytemore ,castle1 ,bishop's ,stortford1 belonging to the ,bishop of ,london1 is an excellent example of the type of fortress which owes the main part of its strength to being situated in a practically impassable morass2 that is to say1 when the latter was kept well flooded4 ,the flint rubble walls of the keep are fully a dozen feet in thickness4 ,smaller baileys existed at ,high ,down1 near ,pirton2 at ,periwinkle ,hill1 on nearly level ground1 midway between ,reed and ,barkway2 and also at ,walkern1 on the ,beane1 about a mile and a half distant from the village4 ,in the last of these it is noteworthy that the church is situated close to the castle1 although1 unlike the one at ,anstey1 it does not appear to have been included in an outer ward4 ,the class of defensive works known as homestead moats--that is to say1 simple enclosures formed into islands by means of moats containing water--do not1 perhaps1 strictly speaking1 come under the title of either architectural or military structures4 ,still this seems the most convenient place in which to mention them4 ,the northern and eastern districts of ,hertfordshire are remarkable for the enormous number of these homestead moats2 these districts being equalled in this respect only by ,essex and ,suffolk4 ,on the western side of the county they are comparatively uncommon4 8,these enclosures10 observes a writer in the ,victoria ,history of the county1 8vary greatly in size1 shape1 and position1 and it is obvious that they do not all belong to one period1 for in all ages to surround a piece of land with a ditch has been one of the most elementary forms of defence4 ,there are1 however1 as with the larger earthworks1 certain typical forms4444 ,it should be noted that the typical feature of a homestead moat is that the earth1 dug to form the deep surrounding ditch1 was thrown on to the inclosure and spread1 thus raising the island slightly above the surrounding level4 ,the construction of moats1 except for ornamental purposes1 having ceased when the state of the country no longer necessitated such protective measures against men or wild beasts1 they often fell into decay1 or were partially filled up1 and their vestiges converted into ponds1 while many may have been obliterated as interfering with agriculture1 but there still remain a large number40 ,to reproduce the list of these would occupy far too much space2 and it must suffice to mention that examples of homestead moats may be seen in the parishes of ,ashwell1 ,braughing1 ,pirton1 and ,sawbridgeworth4 ,a step in advance of the homestead moat was formed by earthworks made on the same plan as the latter1 but provided with a rampart and a 8fosse10 or ditch1 and in some cases also with outer defences4 ,of this type of earthwork three examples are definitely known to occur in the county1 namely one at ,bygrave1 a second at ,whomerley ,wood to the south-east of ,stevenage1 and a third at ,well ,wood1 ,watton4 ,yet another kind of defensive earthwork is to be found in the shape of walls1 ramparts1 or ditches surrounding the sites of ancient villages4 ,of this we have a local example in ,kingsbury ,castle1 an old fortified village lying to the south-west of the city of ,st ,albans1 and covering an area of about #bg acres4 ,the village stood upon a hill1 of which the summit has been planed off and the material employed to form steep banks or ramparts1 one of which was partially thrown down to form the present ,verulam ,road1 while another portion persists in the shape of a steep fall in the gardens or yards at the back of the houses on the north side of ,fishpool ,street4 ,the main structure of the castle was demolished during the tenth century1 and the remnant about the year #aaeb4 ,it may be added that the clay-pits on the north side of ,kingsbury ,castle are the reputed source of the material of the ,roman bricks of which ,verulam is built4 ,the gigantic earthworks of the type of ,beech ,bottom and ,grimm's ,dyke have been mentioned in an earlier section4 #ah4 ,architecture4 7c7 ,domestic--,famous ,seats1 ,manor ,houses1 ,cottages4 ,with the advent of less troublous times at the close of the ,wars of the ,roses a marked change is noticeable in the plan and architecture of the residences of the great noblemen and country gentlemen4 ,the need for castles or fortified houses ceased to exist2 and attention was consequently directed to comfort rather than strength in the construction of country mansions4 ,fortunately a number of these fine old ,tudor residences have survived in different parts of the country2 but many have been replaced by other later structures built on the old foundations4 ,these ,tudor mansions usually took the form of a large house built round a quadrangle1 the hall occupying the middle portion of the building1 with flanking wings on both sides4 ,the building material depended upon the locality and on the taste and means of the owner2 but in this county brick was extensively employed by the ,tudor1 and still more so by the ,stuart builders4 ,in lordly country seats1 as well as in mansions of a less pretentious type1 dating from the ,tudor period downward1 ,hertfordshire1 owing doubtless to its well-wooded and picturesque scenery1 its good soil1 bracing climate1 and proximity to the metropolis1 is especially rich1 and in this respect presents a marked contrast to the neighbouring county of ,essex4 ,the majority of these houses1 however1 have been either completely rebuilt or more or less extensively altered at later epochs4 ,illustration3 ,hatfield ,house1 ,south ,front ,among the few of these noble residences that can be mentioned here1 ,hatfield ,house1 which was built between the years #afje and #afaa by the first ,earl of ,salisbury1 presents a magnificent specimen of early ,jacobean architecture in brick and stone1 mellowed by time to exquisitely soft tints4 ,the original palace1 where ,edward ,,vi lived1 and where ,elizabeth was kept in captivity1 now forms the stables4 ,the mention of the virgin queen naturally leads on to ,ashridge1 near ,berkhampstead1 formerly the seat of the ,dukes of ,bridgewater1 where ,elizabeth also spent a considerable time in her early days4 ,although the present building1 which stands partly in ,hertfordshire and partly in ,buckinghamshire1 is mostly modern ,gothic1 the fine vaulted cellar is a remnant of the old monastery and college which formerly occupied the site4 ,knebworth1 near ,stevenage1 the home of the ,earls of ,lytton1 although now a comparatively modern ,gothic building1 was originally a ,tudor mansion1 dating from the reign of ,henry ,,vii1 the present house occupying the position of one of the four wings of the original building4 ,tittenhanger1 between ,st ,albans and ,colney1 occupies the site of a royal residence dating from the fourteenth and early part of the fifteenth century2 the present mansion1 notable for its grand oak staircase1 is stated to have been built in #afed1 although the style of the brickwork suggests the early part of the eighteenth century4 ,little ,hadham ,hall1 at the village of that name1 is a splendid example of ,elizabethan architecture in red brick4 ,illustration3 ,knebworth ,a very interesting mansion is ,salisbury ,house1 ,shenley1 built some time before #affi2 much of the original brick building still remaining as an excellent example of ,stuart architecture4 ,the house is surrounded by a broad moat1 and is approached by a bridge4 ,mackery ,end1 near ,wheathampstead1 contains some fine examples of sixteenth century architecture2 and ,rothamsted1 near ,harpenden1 is in the main a seventeenth century brick mansion1 dating from between #afcj and #afej1 although it has older portions1 and the hall belonged to a house constructed of timber on a flint base4 ,of fine old houses now forming farm-homesteads there are many examples on the western side of the county4 ,among these is ,turner's ,hall1 to the north-west of ,harpenden1 now considerably modernised4 ,illustration3 ,water ,end ,farm near ,wheathampstead 7,elizabethan ,manor-,house7 ,another very interesting building of this type is ,water ,end ,farm1 in the parish of ,sandridge1 situated on the banks of the ,lea about two miles from ,wheathampstead1 and stated to have been built about #afaj4 ,it is constructed of brick and has the straight-gabled1 mullioned style characteristic of the later part of the reign of ,elizabeth and the commencement of that of ,james ,i4 ,like many other houses of ,elizabethan times it is constructed in the form of the letter ,e1 and its three stacks of brick chimneys1 with octagonal shafts and moulded brick caps and bases1 are especially characteristic of the style of this period4 ,illustration3 ,christ's ,hospital ,school1 ,hertford ,of later date are the ,marlborough ,buildings1 or ,almshouses1 ,st ,albans1 erected by ,sarah1 ,duchess of ,marlborough in #agcf1 and affording a fine example of the brick architecture of that period in an excellent state of preservation4 ,here also may be mentioned the ,blue-,coat ,school at ,hertford1 and the ,boys' ,grammar ,school at ,hitchin4 ,illustration3 ,the ,grammar ,school1 ,hitchin ,forty years ago the county abounded in picturesque brick-and-timber cottages1 roofed with either tiles or thatch2 but these are disappearing yearly under the hand of the speculative builder1 to be replaced by hideous box-like buildings of brick and slate4 ,some1 however1 still survive1 either in the towns or the smaller hamlets1 such as picturesque ,amswell1 near ,wheathampstead1 which may be cited as an ideal example of one of the smaller ,hertfordshire villages4 ,as has been well remarked in another volume of the present series1 the great difference between these ancient cottages and houses and the great majority of their modern successors is that while the former harmonise with their surroundings1 reflect not a little of the spirit of the builder1 and improve1 like good wine1 with age1 the latter are altogether out of keeping1 and are likely to become1 if possible1 still more offensive and objectionable with the advance of time4 ,illustration3 ,an ,old ,malting ,house1 ,baldock ,while most of the old ,hertfordshire cottages were of brick and timber1 others were built of flint with brick facings1 or more rarely of rounded pebbles from the ,woolwich and ,reading beds1 or with brick courses and window-mullions2 some were of feather-edge boarding1 and others again of rubble and plaster4 ,illustration3 ,chequer's ,yard1 ,watford ,in ,hemel ,hempstead ,high ,street is a building1 now converted into cottages1 which contains above the fireplaces on the ground and first floors the ,tudor rose and fleur-de-lys in plaster-work2 while the back of a neighbouring building probably dates from the time of ,henry ,,viii4 ,excellent examples of the old brick-and-timber cottages are to be seen in the village of ,northchurch1 and also at ,aldbury1 east of ,tring1 where the old parish stocks are likewise preserved4 ,most of these ,aldbury cottages are tiled1 although a few are covered with thatch1 a style of roofing much less common in that district than in many parts of the county4 ,watford has still a number of old cottages1 notably in ,farthing ,lane and ,chequer's ,yard1 and in ,st ,albans1 especially in the market-place and ,french ,row1 there are several dating from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,there is also a very remarkable old hexagonal wooden house near the ford across the ,ver at ,st ,michael's silk-mills1 said to be one of the oldest licensed houses in ,england4 ,illustration3 ,the 8,fighting ,cocks10 ,st ,albans 7,ancient ,inn near the ,ford across the ,ver7 ,did space permit1 reference might be made to old houses in ,hertford1 ,berkhampstead1 and other towns and villages1 but the facts mentioned are sufficient to indicate the interest of the county to antiquarians in the matter of ancient buildings1 and before concluding this section we must not omit to mention what is certainly not the least interesting of all ,hertfordshire antiquities--the ,cross at ,waltham which ,edward erected to his beloved ,queen ,eleanor2 the last before arriving in ,london of the fifteen commemorating the resting-place of her body on its journey from ,grantham to ,westminster ,abbey in #abij4 ,illustration3 ,waltham ,cross #ai4 ,communications--,past and ,present4 ,roads1 ,railways1 ,canals4 ,lying as it does on the direct route from the metropolis to the north and north-west of ,england1 and containing in its western portion the formerly important city of ,verulam1 ,hertfordshire1 as might be expected1 is traversed by several trunk roads leading in those directions1 two of which date from ,roman times4 ,what these lines of communication were in pre-,roman days we have no means of knowing1 although it is probable that they were little more than rude tracks through the great forest1 or 8weald10 which in those days extended some forty miles to the north of ,london1 and afforded shelter to the great wild ox1 red deer1 wild boars1 bears1 and wolves4 ,road-making was a special attribute of the ancient ,romans2 and after they had constructed highways from their early stations in ,kent1 they probably set to work on those in the counties to the northward of ,london4 ,so well made and so straight were these ancient ,roman roads that many of them 7with in some cases a certain amount of local deviation7 have remained the main highways of the country down to the present day4 ,immediately before the introduction of railways1 when the coaching traffic was brought to its highest pitch of development1 these main trunk roads--thanks to the invention of ,macadam--were maintained in superb condition1 though with the extension of the railway system some of them were allowed to deteriorate4 ,illustration3 ,the ,ermine ,street at ,hertford ,heath ,there are three great ,roman roads traversing ,hertfordshire--,watling ,street1 the ,icknield ,way1 and ,ermine ,street4 ,watling ,street starts from ,dover1 and after passing through ,london1 enters the county to the south of ,elstree1 whence it is continued through ,colney ,street1 ,park ,street and ,st ,stephens to ,st ,albans1 and thence on through ,redbourn and ,markyate ,street1 and so to ,dunstable whence it eventually reached ,chester and ,holyhead4 ,although frequently miscalled the ,north ,road1 the modern representative of ,watling ,street is known as the ,chester and ,holyhead road4 ,originally the ,roman road in the neighbourhood of ,st ,albans ran altogether to the west of the ,ver1 from ,gorham ,block to the ,pondyards2 this section of the modern road1 which crosses the river to enter the city1 having been constructed during the years #ahbf-ahcd4 ,illustration3 ,the ,icknield ,way1 showing a ,ford between ,ickleford and ,wilbury ,hill ,the ,icknield ,way 7taking its name apparently from the ,british tribe of the ,iceni7 may be the oldest of the three great tracks1 and originally of pre-,roman age1 as1 like the ,pilgrims' ,way in ,kent1 it mainly follows the line of the chalk downs4 ,it may be called a cross-country road from the west of ,england1 cutting the ,watling ,street at ,dunstable1 and thence extending in a north-easterly direction across ,hertfordshire through ,little ,offley1 ,ickleford1 and ,baldock1 and thence by way of ,royston1 where it crosses the ,ermine ,street1 to ,newmarket and ,yarmouth4 ,the ,ermine ,street1 the third great ,roman road1 takes1 on the other hand1 a northern direction1 passing through ,cheshunt1 ,wormley1 ,broxbourne1 and ,wadesmill1 and so by way of ,buntingford to ,royston4 ,there is however some difference of opinion about its course4 ,illustration3 ,high ,street1 ,stevenage ,of modern roads1 the ,chester and ,holyhead road has been already mentioned as following in the main the line of the ,old ,watling ,street4 ,of equal importance is the ,great ,north ,road to ,york1 passing through ,barnet1 ,hatfield1 ,welwyn1 ,codicote1 ,stevenage1 and ,hitchin4 ,of other highways it must suffice to mention that the ,bedford road branches off from the ,chester and ,holyhead at ,st ,albans to run through ,harpenden1 and so on to ,luton1 in ,bedfordshire2 while the main road from ,london to ,cambridge and ,norwich takes the line of the ,lea valley on the eastern side of the county1 which it leaves a short distance to the northward of ,bishop's ,stortford4 ,illustration3 ,view on the #8,great ,north ,road1' ,codicote ,village ,in coaching days ,st ,albans was a far more bustling and busy town than it is at the present day2 a very large number of coaches passing daily through the city each way1 the majority running on the ,holyhead and ,chester road1 but a certain number taking the ,bedford line4 ,the two chief coaching and posting inns were the ,peahen and the ,white ,hart1 both of which are still in existence4 ,the speed and smartness with which the mail-coaches were run in the days immediately preceding their abolition was little short of marvellous4 ,illustration3 ,watford ,the first half of the nineteenth century saw the introduction of railways1 which gradually but surely killed the old coaching traffic4 ,one of the first lines to be opened was the ,london and ,north-,western--in #ahch--which traverses the south-western side of the county1 passing through ,watford1 ,boxmoor1 ,berkhampstead1 and the outskirts of ,tring4 ,in #ahec a branch line was opened from ,watford to ,st ,albans1 and another to ,rickmansworth in #ahfb4 ,with a short break between ,boxmoor and ,hemel ,hempstead1 the ,north-,western system is connected with the ,midland by means of a branch line from the last-named town to ,harpenden4 ,the main line of the ,midland1 which traverses the western half of the county by way of ,elstree1 ,st ,albans1 and ,harpenden1 was opened in #ahfh4 ,both ,st ,albans and ,harpenden have branches of the ,great ,northern ,railway to ,hatfield1 which is on the main line2 the latter continuing through ,welwyn1 ,stevenage1 and ,hitchin4 ,by means of a branch line of the ,great ,northern from ,hatfield to ,hertford1 we reach the ,great ,eastern1 the fourth great railway in the county1 the main line of which runs through ,broxbourne1 ,sawbridgeworth1 and ,bishop's ,stortford1 but connected also with ,ware and ,hertford1 and having a branch from ,st ,margaret's to ,buntingford4 ,with such a multiplicity of lines1 it might well be imagined that railway communication between nearly all parts of the county would be well-nigh perfect4 ,as a matter of fact1 this is by no means the case2 and the journey by rail from the western to the eastern side1 owing to changes and delays1 is so slow and tedious1 that it is frequently found convenient to hold important ,hertfordshire meetings1 like those of the ,county ,council1 in ,london4 ,as regards water-communication1 the western side of the county is served by the ,grand ,junction ,canal1 which1 after leaving ,leighton ,buzzard1 enters the county near ,tring1 and thence runs by way of ,berkhampstead1 ,boxmoor1 ,hemel ,hempstead1 ,runton ,bridge1 ,watford and ,rickmansworth in a south-easterly and southerly direction to ,london4 ,a considerable amount of barge-traffic is still carried on this canal1 although nothing approaching that in pre-railway times4 ,in those days the whole of the coal-supply for north-western ,herts came by canal to ,boxmoor1 whence it had to be carted for long distances--some #ad miles to ,harpenden1 for instance4 ,as there are at least two very steep hills--which become impossible for heavily laden teams when the roads are slippery--between ,boxmoor and ,harpenden1 the inhabitants of the latter picturesque village were apt to run short of firing at ,christmas4 ,illustration3 ,the ,grand ,junction ,canal near ,hemel ,hempstead ,on the other side of the county the ,lea is navigable for barges as far up as ,ware and ,hertford2 and here too a considerable amount of heavy traffic is still carried on by water4 ,illustration3 ,haileybury ,college ,in this place mention may conveniently be made of the ,new ,river1 running from the valley of the ,lea near the ,rye ,house1 at a gradually increasing distance from that river1 to the metropolis4 ,the ,new ,river1 or ,middleton's ,waters1 as it used also to be called1 was constructed in the reign of ,james ,i1 at first almost entirely by ,sir ,hugh ,middleton1 but later on by a company with a special charter1 for the purpose of supplying north ,london with drinking-water4 ,the chief sources of the ,new ,river are the springs at ,chadwell and ,amwell4 ,at the present time an original #ajj share in the ,new ,river ,company is worth an almost fabulous price4 #bj4 ,administration and ,divisions--,ancient and ,modern4 ,the present administration and administrative divisions of ,hertfordshire1 like those of other ,english counties1 have been gradually evolved and developed from those of our ,saxon forefathers2 each alteration in the form of local government and of local administrative boundaries being based on the previously existing system4 ,by the ,saxons each county was divided into a number of main divisions known as hundreds1 or wapentakes1 each governed by a hundreder1 or centenary 7the equivalent of the ,old ,german ,zentgrafen71 and each having a name of its own4 ,hertfordshire is now divided into eight hundreds1 the names of which1 commencing on the western side of the county1 are as follows3 ,dacorum 7including ,tring71 ,cassio 7with the important towns of ,st ,albans1 ,watford1 and ,rickmansworth71 ,hertford1 ,braughing1 ,broadwater 7occupying nearly the centre71 ,hitchin and ,pirton 7on the north-west corner71 ,odsey 7in the extreme north71 and ,edwinstree 7on the north-east74 ,originally they were more numerous1 ,cassio1 for instance1 being much smaller than at present1 while the ,hitchin division was reckoned only as a half-hundred4 ,the origin of the names of most of the hundreds are self-apparent2 but that of ,cassio 7originally ,kayso7 appears to be unknown1 while that of ,dacorum has some connection with the ,danes1 perhaps referring to a ,danish settlement4 ,one of the most remarkable facts connected with the hundreds of ,hertfordshire is that three of them do not lie within what farmers call a ring-fence4 ,dacorum1 for instance1 has two outlying areas in the south-eastern corner of ,cassio1 and a third wedged in between ,cassio on the west1 ,broadwater on the north1 and an outlying portion of ,cassio on the east4 ,broadwater1 again1 has a small outlier on the ,middlesex border of the south-eastern 8peninsula0 of ,cassio2 while ,cassio itself1 inclusive of the one already mentioned1 has no less than eight of these curious outliers1 one situated in the extreme north in the hundred of ,odsey4 ,each hundred originally had its own court1 or 8hundred-mote10 which met monthly2 and it was divided1 as at present1 into townships1 or parishes4 ,the parish1 in turn1 had its own council1 or gemot1 where every freeman had a right to appear4 ,this assembly or council made its own local by-laws1 to enforce which it had a reeve1 a bailiff1 and a tithingman1 with the powers of a constable4 ,the reeve was chairman of the township gemot1 and could summon that assembly at pleasure4 ,passing on to more modern times1 we find ,hertfordshire occupying a peculiar position in regard to local government and administration in that it possessed a kind of imperium in imperio in the shape of what was known as the ,liberty of ,st ,alban2 in other words1 a large area on the western side of the county originally under the jurisdiction of the abbots of ,st ,albans1 who had the power of inflicting the death-penalty4 ,originally there was a separate ,commission of the ,peace for the ,liberty1 so that a ,justice for the ,county had no jurisdiction in the former unless he had been specially inducted4 ,this arrangement was found1 however1 to be inconvenient1 and the ,liberty1 as such1 was abolished1 although it was taken as a basis for the splitting of the county into a western and an eastern division for judicial purposes4 ,the chief officers of the county are the ,lord ,lieutenant and the ,high ,sheriff2 the former 7who in ,hertfordshire is always a nobleman7 being the direct local representative of the sovereign1 and having the appointment of magistrates and the officers of the territorial forces1 while the latter 7who is a commoner7 is the head of the executive department in the administration of justice4 ,the ,lord ,lieutenant holds office for life1 or during the sovereign's pleasure1 but the ,sheriff is appointed annually by the ,crown4 ,deputy ,lieutenants are supposed to act1 in case of need1 for the ,lord ,lieutenant4 ,formerly the greater part of the business of the county was conducted by the ,justices of the ,peace1 or ,magistrates1 at ,quarter ,sessions1 but most of this is now transferred to the ,county ,council1 which1 as previously stated1 often meets in ,london4 ,this ,county ,council1 which was first established in #ahhh1 is composed of ,aldermen and ,councillors2 the latter of whom are elected1 while the former are what is called 8co-opted10 that is to say1 selected by the ,council itself1 either from its own body1 or from the general public4 ,the duties of the ,county ,council include the maintenance of high roads and bridges2 the appointment and control1 in conjunction with the magistrates1 of the police2 the management of reformatories and lunatic asylums2 and1 in a word1 the general carrying out of the laws enacted by ,parliament4 ,according to a scheme elaborated in an ,act of ,parliament passed in #ahid1 the more important minor local bodies are denominated ,district ,councils1 and those whose function is less ,parish ,councils2 the former having control of the more populous towns and villages1 other than cities and boroughs1 and the latter those with fewer inhabitants4 ,for this purpose many parishes are divided into a more populous ,urban and a less populous ,rural ,district4 ,certain towns in the county rank1 however1 as cities1 or boroughs1 and have larger powers and different forms of government2 being ruled by a ,mayor and ,corporation1 and having magistrates and a police force distinct from those of the county4 ,among these privileged towns1 ,st ,albans ranks as a city1 while ,hertford and ,hemel ,hempstead are boroughs4 ,hemel ,hempstead is a very ancient borough1 and has1 in addition to its ,mayor1 an official known as the ,high ,bailiff4 ,the county is likewise divided into a number of ,poor ,law ,unions1 each with a ,board of ,guardians1 whose duty it is to manage the workhouses1 and appoint officers to carry out the work of relieving the poor and those incapacitated by age or other cause from earning their own living4 ,illustration3 ,the ,shire ,hall1 ,hertford ,as regards the administration of justice1 ,assizes are held by ,his ,majesty's ,judges three or four times a year at the ,shire ,hall1 ,hertford1 for the whole county2 the ,grand ,jury on such occasions being composed entirely1 or mainly1 of magistrates4 ,quarter ,sessions1 on the other hand1 are held four times a year at ,hertford for the eastern1 and at the ,court ,house1 ,st ,albans1 for the western division of the county2 these courts being constituted by the magistrates for the county and the mayors of the boroughs and city4 ,petty ,sessions are held weekly1 fortnightly1 or monthly at a number of the towns and larger villages4 ,in most cases the county magistrates in the immediate neighbourhood preside at these sessions2 but the city of ,st ,albans and the two boroughs have magistrates of their own1 who also hold petty sessions for trying cases which occur within the area of their jurisdiction4 ,st ,albans is the centre of an episcopal diocese1 which includes most of that portion of ,london situated within the county of ,essex4 ,arrangements are1 however1 now in progress for relieving the ,bishop of ,st ,albans of the care of that part of the diocese commonly known as 8,london ,over the ,border40 ,the diocese1 so far as ,hertfordshire is concerned1 is divided into archdeaconries1 rural deaneries1 and parishes4 ,the latter are very numerous1 although somewhat less so than the civil parishes1 for the purposes of which1 as already mentioned1 the ecclesiastical parishes are frequently split into an urban and a rural section4 ,there are #agj ecclesiastical parishes situated wholly or partly within the old county1 of which #afd are included in the diocese of ,st ,albans2 while three belong to ,ely1 two to ,oxford1 and part of one 7,northwood7 to ,london4 ,the larger towns1 the city1 and the two boroughs have ,education ,committees of their own2 but for the rest of the county a ,committee of this nature is appointed by the ,county ,council4 ,hertfordshire has four parliamentary divisions1 namely1 ,hertford1 ,hitchin1 ,st ,albans1 and ,watford1 each of which returns one member to the ,house of ,commons4 ,the county is thus represented only by four members1 as against fifteen for ,kent4 #ba4 ,the ,roll of ,honour of the ,county4 ,hertfordshire cannot hope to rival such counties as ,norfolk or ,kent in its roll of distinguished names1 but it can show a fairly long list of persons connected with the county who have been famous4 ,since reference has already been made in several of the foregoing sections to the visits of ,english sovereigns to the county1 or to their residence within its borders1 very brief mention of the connection between royalty and the county will suffice in this place4 ,neither here nor elsewhere in these pages is any attempt made to give a complete list of such visits4 ,the names of ,boadicea1 queen of the ,iceni1 and of ,offa1 king of ,mercia1 who had his palace at ,offley1 dying there in #gif1 will always be specially connected with ,hertfordshire4 ,in a somewhat less degree the same may be said of ,william the ,conqueror1 to whom1 as already mentioned1 the crown of this realm was offered at ,berkhampstead4 ,edward ,,ii and ,edward ,,iii frequently resided at ,langley ,palace1 where ,edmund de ,langley1 the founder of the ,white ,rose faction1 was born in #acda2 and the same residence was also used by ,richard ,,ii4 ,henry ,i and his consort ,matilda were present at the dedication of ,st ,albans' ,abbey on its completion by ,abbot ,paul2 and ,henry ,,vi was at the first battle of ,st ,albans1 where he was wounded4 ,henry ,,viii1 as mentioned on page #hb1 was still more intimately connected with ,hertfordshire1 and the manor of ,hitchin was conferred by him in turn on ,anne ,boleyn and her successors4 ,reference has already been made to the residence of ,queen ,mary1 in her youth1 at ,ashridge1 and of ,queen ,elizabeth 7before her ascent to the throne7 both there and at ,hatfield2 while1 as sovereign1 ,elizabeth also visited ,st ,albans on two or three occasions as the guest of ,sir ,nicholas ,bacon at ,gorhambury1 and also went to other great houses in the county4 ,james ,i1 as mentioned on the same page1 spent much time at ,royston1 and died at ,theobalds4 ,the ,rye ,house plot1 so called from the meeting-place of the conspirators at ,broxbourne1 as stated in an earlier section1 was devised for the purpose of assassinating ,charles ,,ii while on his way through the county4 ,in connection with personages of royal blood1 mention may be made of ,humphry1 ,duke of ,gloucester1 whose name is so intimately associated with ,st ,albans' ,abbey1 to the monastery of which he was admitted a member in #adbc2 and also of ,sarah1 ,duchess of ,marlborough1 who was born at ,sandridge in the eighteenth century1 and built and endowed the almshouses bearing her name in ,st ,albans4 ,among great statesmen connected with the county a prominent place must be assigned to ,queen ,elizabeth's councillors and favourites1 ,lord ,burleigh and the ,earl of ,essex4 ,to her reign likewise belongs ,sir ,nicholas ,bacon1 ,keeper of the ,great ,seal1 and owner of ,gorhambury1 where he died in #aegh4 ,nearly a century later 7#afeb71 ,gorhambury came into the possession of ,sir ,harbottle ,grimston1 well known as ,speaker of the ,house of ,commons4 ,illustration3 ,the ,salisbury ,statue1 ,hatfield ,passing on to the ,victorian age1 we have two great statesmen1 namely1 ,lord ,melbourne and ,lord ,palmerston1 both of whom lived at ,brocket1 where the former died2 and1 subsequently1 the late ,marquis of ,salisbury1 owner of stately ,hatfield4 ,the first ,viscount ,hampden1 sometime ,speaker of the ,house of ,commons1 was also a ,hertfordshire man1 with his residence at ,kimpton ,hoo4 ,cecil ,rhodes1 the ,south ,african premier and 8,empire-builder10 likewise claims a place in the roll of honour of the county1 having been born at ,bishop's ,stortford rectory1 and ,commodore ,anson1 the great circumnavigator1 though not a native1 lived at ,moor ,park1 where he died in #agfb4 ,illustration3 ,cecil ,rhodes's ,birth-place1 ,bishop's ,stortford ,dame ,juliana ,berners1 imaginary prioress of ,sopwell nunnery1 who was supposed to have written the immortal ,treatyse on ,fysshynge with an ,angle1 the first work on angling ever published in ,england1 has been shown to be a myth4 ,among names famous in literature and science the greatest connected with the county is perhaps that of the great philosopher ,sir ,francis ,bacon1 afterwards ,lord ,verulam and ,viscount ,st ,albans1 who1 during his father's residence at ,gorhambury1 lived in ,verulam ,house1 at the ,pondyards4 ,on the death of his father ,sir ,nicholas ,bacon he succeeded to ,gorhambury4 ,by a curious error he is frequently called ,lord ,bacon1 although no such title was ever in existence4 ,john ,bunyan claims a place among ,hertfordshire literary worthies as he was connected with a chapel at ,hitchin4 ,illustration3 ,ruins of ,verulam ,house1 the ,residence of ,francis1 ,viscount ,st ,albans ,illustration3 ,francis ,bacon1 ,viscount ,st ,albans ,two of the greatest literary names connected with the county are those of ,william ,cowper the poet1 and ,charles ,lamb1 author of the ,essays of ,elia1 unsurpassed as a master of delicately humorous prose1 whether as essayist or letter-writer4 ,the former was born at ,berkhampstead rectory in the year #agca2 but ,lamb was chiefly a visitor to the county1 though1 as he tells us in the ,essays1 he was once a ,hertfordshire landowner1 and his cottage at ,west ,hill ,green1 about #b miles from ,puckeridge1 still exists4 ,mackery ,end ,farm was the residence of the ,brutons1 who were his relatives1 and it was to their house that his visits were made2 so that the neighbourhood is essentially ,lamb's country4 ,it is a question whether the ,lyttons or the beauties of ,knebworth1 their home1 are the more famous4 ,the great novelist1 author of ,the ,last ,days of ,pompeii1 ,the ,caxtons1 and innumerable other tales1 as well as such successful plays as ,the ,lady of ,lyons and ,money1 was best known to readers in the middle of the last century as ,sir ,edward ,bulwer-,lytton1 though he began life as ,mr ,bulwer and died ,lord ,lytton4 ,his son1 poet1 ,ambassador1 and ,viceroy1 who wrote under the name of 8,owen ,meredith10 was scarcely less distinguished1 and received an ,earldom in #ahhj4 ,here1 too1 mention may be made of ,mrs ,thrale1 the friend of ,dr ,johnson1 who was often at ,offley ,place1 where her husband1 whose family was long connected with ,st ,albans1 was born4 ,offley ,place was at this time a fine old ,elizabethan mansion1 although it has since been rebuilt4 ,gadebridge ,park1 ,hemel ,hempstead1 was the residence of the great surgeon ,sir ,astley ,paston ,cooper4 ,but a greater distinction attaches to the name of ,rothamsted1 near ,harpenden1 as being the residence of the late ,sir ,john ,bennet ,lawes1 ,bart41 who1 with his scientific colleague ,sir ,henry ,gilbert1 conducted the experiments which made their names famous throughout the agricultural world4 ,sir ,john ,lawes first obtained the idea of using fossilised phosphates for manure from ,professor ,henslow1 the great ,cambridge botanist 7himself sometime a resident at ,hall ,place1 ,st ,albans71 who sent him specimens obtained from the ,essex 8,crag10 with a suggestion that they might be used as a source of phosphoric acid4 ,yarrell1 the naturalist1 lies buried in ,bayford churchyard1 with many members of his family4 ,last in the scientific and literary list1 we have the name of ,sir ,john ,evans1 the great antiquarian and numismatist of ,nash ,mills1 ,hemel ,hempstead1 who died so recently as #aijh4 ,to ,evans1 in conjunction with the late ,sir ,joseph ,prestwich1 is mainly due the credit of definitely establishing the fact that the so-called flint 8celts0 are really the work of prehistoric man4 ,his most important and best work is ,ancient ,stone ,implements4 ,illustration3 ,charles ,lamb ,illustration3 ,william ,cowper ,among great ecclesiastics mention must be made of ,nicholas ,breakspear1 born near ,abbot's ,langley towards the close of the eleventh century1 who subsequently became ,pope as ,adrian ,,iv2 being the only ,englishman who has occupied the papal chair4 ,reference may also be made to ,cardinal ,wolsey1 who spent a considerable portion of his time at ,delamere ,house4 ,nor must we omit ,young1 the author of the ,night ,thoughts and ,rector of ,welwyn1 or that great maker of hymns1 ,dr ,watts1 who as the #cf-year guest of ,sir ,thomas ,abney resided at ,theobalds1 where he died4 ,among distinguished lawyers1 the most prominent name is that of ,lord ,grimthorpe 7formerly ,sir ,edmund ,beckett71 who was1 however1 connected with the county1 not in his professional capacity1 but as the restorer of ,st ,albans' ,abbey and other churches in the neighbourhood4 ,much criticism has been expended on ,lord ,grimthorpe's modes of 8restoration10 which were certainly of a drastic character4 ,it must1 however1 be remembered that when he undertook the restoration of ,st ,albans' ,abbey it was in a dangerous condition1 and sufficient money was not forthcoming to make it secure4 ,the result is that the abbey1 although in many ways unlike its former self1 will stand for centuries4 ,lord ,grimthorpe1 who was a ,yorkshireman1 built himself a residence at ,batchwood1 near ,st ,albans4 ,as another well-known lawyer and also a judge1 mention may be made of ,lord ,brampton 7,sir ,henry ,hawkins71 who came of a family long connected with ,hitchin1 at which town he was born4 ,sir ,henry ,chauncy1 the antiquary and historian of the county1 to whom reference has so often been made in this book1 lived1 and died in #agjj1 at ,yardley2 and ,balfe1 the composer1 made his home at ,rowney ,abbey1 close by1 till his death in #ahgj4 #bb4 ,,the ,,chief ,,towns ,,and ,,villages ,,of ,,hertfordshire4 7,the figures in brackets after each name give the population in #aija1 and those at the end of the sections give the references to the text47 ,abbot's ,langley 7#ccdb71 a village situated on the ,gade1 with a station on the ,north-,western ,railway2 it was bestowed in the time of ,edward the ,confessor upon the then abbot of ,st ,albans1 whence its name4 ,hunton ,mill1 on the ,gade1 was granted to ,sir ,richard ,lee in #aedd1 and both this and ,nash ,mills were farmed from the abbot of ,st ,albans between #acdi and #acif4 ,the present church1 dedicated to ,st ,lawrence1 cannot be traced farther back than the close of the twelfth century4 ,a west tower was added about #abjj4 7pp4 #gb1 #ij1 #aje1 #adi47 ,aldenham 7#bdcg71 a village and manor lying to the north-east of ,watford4 ,it has a grammar school2 and near by is ,aldenham ,abbey1 the seat of ,lord ,aldenham4 ,in #ahih two ,roman kilns were discovered in the parish4 ,the church1 which has been restored1 contains one small twelfth-century window2 no trace of the chancel remains4 ,the ,amwells--,great ,amwell 7#adba71 and ,little ,amwell 7#icj7--small villages not far from the ,rye ,house4 ,amwell is associated with the name of the ,quaker poet1 ,john ,scott1 who lived there for some time after #agdj4 ,near by is ,haileybury1 formerly the training college for the officials of the ,east ,india ,company1 but now a public school4 7p4 #ace47 ,ashridge1 a domain in ,little ,gaddesden parish1 situated on the ,buckinghamshire border of the county1 and celebrated for its splendid beech woods4 ,it was formerly the property of the ,dukes of ,bridgewater1 being acquired by the ,egertons in #afjd1 but it is now owned by ,earl ,brownlow4 ,a building1 formerly the porter's lodge1 includes some remains of an old monastic college4 ,the present house1 which stands partly in ,buckinghamshire1 was built by the eighth ,earl of ,bridgewater4 7pp4 #aae1 #adb47 ,ashwell 7#abha71 a village on the ,cambridgeshire border of the county1 with a station some distance away on the ,royston and ,cambridge branch of the ,great ,northern ,railway4 ,ashwell1 which was formerly a town1 had a fair and a market in the time of ,william the ,conqueror4 ,it was severely visited by the plague4 ,its church-tower is the only one in the county built wholly of stone4 7pp4 #ib1 #aac47 ,baldock 7#bjeg7 is a market-town on the ,icknield ,way1 to the north-west of ,hitchin1 with a station on the above-mentioned branch of the ,great ,northern ,railway4 ,it dates from ,norman times1 when it was known as ,baudok4 ,during the ,crusades1 ,baldock1 like ,st ,albans1 ,berkhampstead1 and ,hoddesdon1 had a lazar-house for lepers1 who were at that time numerous all over ,england4 ,the list of ,rectors is complete from the days of the ,knights ,hospitallers in #acag4 ,the church contains much ,decorated and ,perpendicular work4 7pp4 #ij1 #id1 #abh47 ,barkway 7#ffa71 originally ,berkway1 is a small town and manor situated a few miles to the north-east of ,buntingford4 7p4 #if47 ,barnet1 or ,chipping ,barnet1 originally ,chipping ,bernet 7#ghgf71 a large and important market-town near the ,middlesex border of the county1 with a station 7,high ,barnet7 on a branch of the ,great ,northern ,railway4 ,near by are ,new ,barnet and ,east ,barnet1 with a station on the main line1 and having a population of #aj1jbd4 ,the name ,barnet is a corruption of the ,saxon ,bergnet1 signifying a little hill2 the site of the town then forming a small rising in the midst of the great forest2 the prefix ,chipping market is a word of ,scandinavian origin1 represented in the ,swedish ,jonkping and the ,danish ,kjbenhavn 7,copenhagen74 ,barnet was the scene of a battle in #adga1 when the ,yorkists defeated the ,lancastrians1 killing their leader1 ,warwick the king-maker4 ,the market was famous for its cattle2 and in addition to this there is an annual horse-fair1 which formerly attracted dealers from all parts of the country4 7pp4 #i1 #ec1 #ed1 #hb1 #ii1 #abh47 ,east ,barnet 7#bhfg71 known as ,la ,barnette in the thirteenth century1 and ,low ,barnet in the fifteenth century1 is situated on the stream known as ,pymmes' ,brook1 on the western side of the valley of which stands the almost deserted old parish church4 ,bayford 7#ccj71 a village nearly midway between ,hatfield and ,hoddesdon4 ,in the churchyard is buried ,william ,yarrell the naturalist4 ,bayfordbury is celebrated for its collection of portraits of members of the ,kitcat ,club painted by ,sir ,godfrey ,kneller4 7p4 #adg47 ,bengeo 7#cjfc71 formerly ,bengehoo1 a village in the valley of the ,beane one mile north of ,hertford4 ,the old church1 now little used1 is one of the oldest in the county1 dating apparently from the early ,norman period4 ,together with ,great ,wymondley church1 it is peculiar1 so far as ,hertfordshire is concerned1 in having an apsidal chancel4 ,in place of a tower1 it has a wooden bell-cote4 ,panshanger1 formerly the property of the late ,lord ,cowper1 is near by4 ,bennington 7#ebb71 a market-town and manor1 situated on the ,beane1 from which it takes its name2 it was an important place in the ninth century1 when it was the residence of the kings of ,mercia4 ,the church is fourteenth century4 7pp4 #ec1 #ed1 #ef1 #gh1 #aaa47 ,berkhampstead1 or ,berkhampstead ,magna 7#eadj71 an important market-town#c on the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway and ,grand ,junction ,canal1 and one of the oldest in the county1 the castle dating from ,norman times1 and being possibly on the site of an earlier ,saxon edifice4 ,it was here that the crown of ,england was offered to ,william the ,conqueror4 ,the manor and castle were granted first to ,piers ,gaveston and subsequently to ,edward the ,black ,prince1 but were afterwards annexed to the ,duchy of ,cornwall4 ,berkhampstead1 which is now a petty-sessions town1 and has an ancient grammar school1 formerly returned burgesses to ,parliament4 ,its almshouses were built in #afhd4 ,cowper was born here4 ,berkhampstead ,parva and ,berkhampstead ,st ,mary's--the latter now generally known as ,northchurch--are villages in the neighbourhood4 ,the church dates from the thirteenth century2 it contains the beautiful ,torrington tomb4 7pp4 #b1 #g1 #fc1 #hj1 #ha1 #hb1 #ia1 #ib1 #aji1 #aaa1 #aca1 #acb1 #ada47 #c ,the market at ,berkhampstead has been discontinued for many years4 ,bishop's ,stortford 7#gadc7 is the most important town on the ,essex border of the county1 and has a station on the main line of the ,great ,eastern ,railway1 and a bridge over the ,stort4 ,the town1 which has a market1 possessed a considerable trade in ,saxon times1 and was the property of the ,bishop of ,london1 and to protect this1 and for the purpose of consolidating his own rights1 ,william the ,conqueror built a small castle here4 ,bishop's ,stortford has a grammar school1 and formerly returned members to ,parliament4 ,the church1 which dates from the tenth century1 is an imposing ,perpendicular edifice1 and stands on the site of an earlier building4 7pp4 #bc1 #bd1 #gi1 #ib1 #aab1 #acb1 #add47 ,illustration3 ,bishop's ,stortford1 and the ,river ,stort ,boxmoor 7#aabg71 a small town on the ,grand ,junction ,canal and ,north ,western ,railway4 ,a ,roman villa was discovered here some years ago4 7pp4 #acb1 #acc47 ,braughing 7#icj71 a village to the north-west of ,stortford1 on the ,cambridge road1 with a station on the ,great ,eastern ,railway1 situated in the valley of the ,quin4 ,it dates from ,saxon times1 when it was known as ,brooking2 and it was granted a market by ,stephen4 ,a ,roman sarcophagus and many ,roman coins have been discovered in the parish4 7pp4 #bb1 #aac1 #acf47 ,broxbourne 7#gdh7 is also a village on the ,great ,eastern ,railway1 to the south of ,hoddesdon3 it contains an almshouse for poor widows founded in the year #agbh4 ,the village is intimately connected with the ,rye ,house ,plot4 7pp4 #abh1 #adb47 ,buntingford 7#abgb7 is a market-town1 with almshouses1 on a branch of the ,great ,eastern ,railway running northwards from ,stortford4 ,it was granted a market by ,edward ,,iii4 7pp4 #ed1 #abh47 ,bushey 7#bhch71 a parish in the south of the county1 separated from ,watford about #aaff4 ,the village is now the site of the ,herkomer ,art ,school4 ,the church was 8restored0 in #ahga1 when a late ,gothic window was removed4 ,bygrave 7#adh71 a small market-town a short distance north-east of ,baldock4 ,cassiobury1 a park and mansion at the north-west of ,watford which has for many generations been the residence of the ,earls of ,essex4 ,the present house is modern4 7pp4 #bj1 #ba1 #de1 #hd1 #he1 #acf47 ,cheshunt 7#ab1bib7 is a large market-town in the south-eastern corner of the county1 nearly north-west of ,waltham ,abbey1 with a station on the ,great ,eastern and some distance from the town itself4 ,it is celebrated for its nursery gardens1 roses being especially cultivated4 ,within ,cheshunt parish is situated ,theobald's ,park1 at one time a royal residence4 ,cheshunt ,park is on the opposite1 or north side of the town2 and near by are the remains of an old nunnery4 7pp4 #dc1 #ii1 #ajj1 #abh47 ,codicote 7#aade71 a small village to the north-west of ,welwyn4 ,the church was an ancient one1 but a drastic 8restoration0 in #ahec destroyed much of the evidence of the age of its constituent portions4 7pp4 #dc1 #abh1 #acj47 ,elstree 7#acbc71 a village on the southern border of the county lying a little west of the ,midland ,railway1 on which it has a station4 ,it is rapidly becoming a suburb of ,london4 7pp4 #g1 #aa1 #eb1 #abf1 #acb47 ,flamstead 7#ajci71 a village near the ,watling ,street to the north of ,redbourn4 ,the name is supposed to be a corruption of ,verlampstead1 the ,ver flowing in the valley below the village4 ,the ,thomas ,saunders almshouses were built in #affi4 ,beechwood1 the seat of the ,sebright family is in the parish4 ,great ,gaddesden 7#gdf71 a village in ,dacorum ,hundred to the north of ,hemel ,hempstead4 ,gaddesden ,place1 which was burnt down in #aije and rebuilt1 is the seat of the ,halsey family1 who possessed the neighbouring 8,golden ,parsonage0 so long ago as #aedd4 ,the church probably dates from the twelfth century4 7pp4 #ai1 #ce1 #db47 ,the ,hadhams--,much ,hadham 7#aaii71 ,little ,hadham 7#fee7--two villages lying respectively to the south-west and north-west of ,bishop ,stortford1 and known to have been in existence in the time of the ,conqueror4 ,the manor of ,hadham ,hall was granted by the crown to the ,bishops of ,london at the time when the survey recorded in ,domesday books was made4 7pp4 #ab1 #aag47 ,harpenden 7#dgbe71 a large village or small town on the ,midland ,railway1 almost exactly half-way between ,st ,albans and ,luton4 ,during the last twenty years ,harpenden 78the valley of nightingales07 has nearly doubled in size1 and is rapidly increasing4 ,within the parish is the agricultural experiment-station of ,rothamsted2 the laboratory being situated on the borders of the village itself4 ,about a mile to the north is ,shire-,mere1 a small green partly in ,hertfordshire and partly in ,bedfordshire1 and in consequence a favourite site for prize-fights in the old days4 ,harpenden has branch-lines connected with the ,great ,northern and the ,north-,western ,railways4 ,with the exception of the more modern tower1 the church1 which was largely ,norman1 was pulled down and rebuilt in the sixties4 ,a ,norman arch remains in the tower4 7pp4 #g1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #dc1 #de1 #dg1 #ff1 #fg1 #ge1 #if1 #aag1 #acj1 #acb47 ,hatfield1 or ,king's ,hatfield 7#dccj71 is a small town on the main line of the ,great ,northern ,railway1 chiefly noteworthy on account of its connection with ,hatfield ,house1 the seat of the ,cecils1 ,marquises of ,salisbury4 ,as mentioned above1 ,hatfield was at one time a royal palace2 but the original building is now used as a stable and riding-school1 the present house being of ,jacobean date4 ,the residence at ,hatfield of ,queen ,elizabeth is connected with the old palace4 ,among the features of ,hatfield ,house are the marble hall1 its oak-panelled walls hung with tapestry1 and its panelled ceiling painted2 the grand staircase1 hung with portraits2 the long gallery1 with its armour and pictures2 ,king ,james's drawing-room1 a magnificently decorated apartment2 the great dining-room1 with a bust of ,lord ,burleigh2 the armoury2 and the beautiful chapel1 with its exquisite ,flemish window and a marble altar-piece4 ,hatfield is an important railway centre for the county1 the ,great ,northern having branches to ,hertford1 ,st ,albans1 and ,harpenden and ,luton4 ,petty sessions are held in the town4 ,in the church are the monuments of the ,cecil family1 and a statue of the late ,lord ,salisbury1 erected by county subscription1 stands at the park entrance4 7pp4 #bj1 #bc1 #ca1 #cd1 #dc1 #hc1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abh1 #acb1 #adb47 ,hemel ,hempstead 7#aa1bfd7 is an ancient borough and market-town on the western side of the county connected with the main line of the ,north-,western ,railway at ,boxmoor1 and also served by a branch joining the main line of the ,midland at ,harpenden4 ,in addition to a mayor1 ,hempstead has a borough official known as the high bailiff#d4 ,the town1 which is situated in the ,gade valley1 and formerly returned members of its own to ,parliament1 is remarkable for the length of its main street--part of which is known as ,marlowes4 ,its market-day is ,thursday1 and there is an annual wool-sale4 ,corn and cattle are its chief trade1 the straw-plait industry having nearly died out2 but near by is ,nash ,mills1 the site of a large paper factory4 ,the church1 which stands to the west of the main street1 is a fine example of a cruciform twelfth-century parish church2 it was commenced about #aadj and finished some #dj years later4 ,there is no evidence of any earlier building on the site4 7pp4 #dc1 #dg1 #aja1 #ajb1 #abb1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc1 #ach1 #adg47 #d ,the office of high bailiff of ,hemel ,hempstead is held by the mayor4 ,hertford 7#icbb71 although by no means the largest town as regards the number of its population1 occupies the first place1 as being the county-town1 and the only one in ,hertfordshire where assizes are held4 ,it is also a market-town and borough 7with a mayor and corporation71 and formerly returned members of its own to ,parliament1 although now it is only the centre of a parliamentary division of the county4 ,in addition to the assizes for the whole county1 quarter-sessions for the eastern division of ,hertfordshire are held in the ,shire ,hall4 ,the site of ,hertford ,castle--a building of great antiquity--is now used as the ,judges' lodgings in assize time4 ,hertford has branches of ,christ's ,hospital1 for both boys and girls2 and within a short distance is ,haileybury ,college1 now a public school1 but formerly the training-place for the civil service of the old ,east ,india ,company4 ,hertford is served by branches of both the ,great ,eastern and ,great ,northern ,railways1 and has also water communication with ,london by way of the ,lea4 ,it is a centre of the waning malting industry4 ,the old church was burnt down some years ago4 7pp4 #c1 #bj1 #ca1 #cd1 #gi1 #ha1 #hd1 #ib1 #id1 #aaa1 #abf1 #acd1 #acf1 #ach1 #aci1 #ada1 #adg47 ,illustration3 ,the ,college ,chapel1 ,haileybury ,hertingfordbury 7#gcc71 a village on the railway to the west of ,hertford1 dating from ,norman times4 ,the manor of ,roxford was granted by ,william the ,conqueror to ,goisfrede de ,beck for good service rendered4 ,hexton 7#aee71 a village in a small parish of ,cassio ,hundred on the north border of the county jutting into ,bedfordshire4 ,ancient coins have been found in the parish1 which includes the old earthwork known as ,ravensburgh ,castle4 ,hexton seems to have been granted on two occasions to the monastery of ,st ,alban4 ,hitchin 7#aj1jgb7 is one of the most ancient towns in the county1 and is now an important railway centre1 as it is the starting point of the ,royston and ,cambridge branch of the ,great ,northern ,railway1 on the main line of which the town itself is situated4 ,hitchin is one of the four parliamentary centres of the county1 and is noted for its corn and cattle market1 and also as being one of the few places in ,england where lavender is cultivated for commercial purposes4 ,hitchin preserves the remnant of an ancient monastery in the almshouses known as the ,biggin1 and teems with buildings and sites of antiquarian interest4 ,petty sessions are held in the town4 ,the parish church is one of great beauty and interest1 mainly of the ,decorated and ,perpendicular styles4 ,a picture of the ,adoration of the ,magi presented in #aggd is believed to be by ,rubens4 7pp4 #ad1 #fh1 #fi1 #gd1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #abj1 #abh1 #acf1 #ada1 #adb1 #ade1 #adi47 ,hoddesdon 7#dgaa71 an ancient market-town on the eastern border of the county1 approached from either the ,broxbourne or ,rye ,house stations of the ,great ,eastern ,railway4 ,it is intimately connected with the story of the ,rye ,house ,plot 7see page #he74 ,it may be mentioned here that the 8great bed of ,ware0 is now preserved at the ,rye ,house4 7pp4 #he1 #hf47 ,the ,hormeads--,great ,hormead 7#cgf71 ,little ,hormead 7#abh7--two villages1 near the ,quin about two miles east of ,buntingford1 while the latter is about half a mile south of the same4 ,both date from the time of the ,conqueror4 ,ippolits or ,hippolits 7#hdj71 a village in the ,hundred of ,hitchin1 dedicated to ,st ,hippolytus patron saint of horses4 ,travellers used to take their horses to the high altar1 where miracles were performed on untamed colts4 ,kensworth 7#eaf71 a small and ancient village in ,dacorum ,hundred dating from the time of ,edward the ,confessor1 and formerly belonging to ,st ,paul's ,cathedral4 ,the small church dates from about the year #aajj1 although the tower is later4 7pp4 #hh1 #ij1 #ih47 ,king's ,langley 7#aegi71 a village on the ,north-,western ,railway notable as the site of the ancient ,tudor ,palace of ,langley1 and of a friary of which portions still remain4 ,the royal palace and park date at least from #abii4 ,the friary belonged to the ,dominican order4 7pp4 #ha1 #hb1 #ajg1 #ada47 ,layston 7#ihc72 the original village is now represented only by the ruined church of ,st ,bartholomew1 situated a short distance from ,buntingford1 and of great antiquity4 ,letchworth1 till recently a very small village on the ,great ,northern ,railway a little north of ,hitchin1 has now sprung into importance as the site of the 8,garden ,city02 an endeavour to aid in bringing the population back to the land4 ,illustration3 ,letchworth1 ,open ,air ,school ,north ,mimms 7#aaab71 a village on the ,north road1 situated some distance to the south-east of ,st ,albans4 ,a manor of ,north ,mimms was in existence at the ,conquest4 ,the parish includes three large parks1 ,brookman's1 ,potterells1 and ,north ,mimms4 ,the church1 which is rich in monuments1 dates from the fourteenth century4 ,offley 7#ajja71 or ,great ,offley1 which lies on the ,bedfordshire border of the county1 between ,luton and ,hitchin1 takes its name from ,offa ,,ii1 king of ,mercia1 who died there in his palace4 ,the church of ,st ,mary ,magdalene is built in the ,perpendicular style1 with an apsidal chancel4 ,mrs ,thrale1 the friend of ,dr ,johnson1 lived as a girl at ,offley ,place4 7pp4 #ad1 #aje1 #abh1 #ada1 #adg47 ,redbourn 7#aicb71 a village on the ,chester and ,holyhead road1 in the valley of the ,ver1 about four miles north-west of ,st ,albans2 it has a station on the ,harpenden and ,hemel ,hempstead branch of the ,midland ,railway4 ,the manor of ,redbourn was given to ,st ,albans' ,abbey in the reign of ,edward the ,confessor4 ,the church1 which is some distance from the main street1 was dedicated between #ajid and #aaji1 but the chancel appears to have been rebuilt about #acdj4 ,near ,church ,end are the ancient earthworks known as the ,aubreys4 7pp4 #ab1 #fg1 #gb1 #abf47 ,rickmansworth 7#efbg71 at the junction of the ,colne1 ,gade1 and ,chess rivers1 is a town in the south-western corner of the county1 close to the ,bucks and ,middlesex borders4 ,it has several ancient almshouses1 of which one dates from #afhj4 ,immediately to the south-east is ,moor ,park1 the seat of ,lord ,ebury1 where ,lord ,anson formerly lived4 ,this once belonged to the abbots of ,st ,albans1 but was given by ,henry ,,vii to the ,earl of ,oxford1 and in the reign of ,henry ,,viii was the property of ,cardinal ,wolsey4 ,the present house is of comparatively modern date4 ,the ,bury is an excellent specimen of an early seventeenth century mansion4 ,the church appears to have been rebuilt in the fifteenth century4 ,rickmeresworth was the old name of the town4 ,there are a number of manors in the parish4 7pp4 #bj1 #ca1 #ga1 #gc1 #aca1 #acb47 ,royston 7#ceag7 is situated on the ,icknield ,way1 actually on the ,cambridgeshire border1 and is served by a station on the ,cambridge branch of the ,great ,northern4 ,the town1 which has a market1 stands just at the foot of the chalk downs2 it has the honour of giving the name to one of the species1 or races1 of ,british birds1 to wit1 the ,royston crow4 ,the church is that of an ,augustinian priory now demolished4 ,james ,i had a hunting seat here4 7pp4 #cb1 #cc1 #de1 #ic1 #abh47 ,st ,albans 7#af1jai71 situated about twenty miles north-west of ,london by rail1 enjoys the distinction of being the only town in ,hertfordshire entitled to style itself a 8city40 ,it is the direct modern successor of the ,roman city of ,verulamium1 lying on the opposite side of the ,ver1 and itself dates from ,saxon times1 its ancient monastery having been founded by the ,mercian king ,offa ,,ii in #gic1 in memory of ,alban1 the first ,english ,christian martyr4 ,the city has a mayor and corporation1 and was formerly a parliamentary borough in its own right1 although at the present day it forms the centre of an electoral district returning one member to the ,house of ,commons4 ,it is also the centre of the western division of ,hertfordshire2--a division corresponding in the main to the old ,liberty of ,st ,albans1 the area lying within the jurisdiction of the abbot4 ,quarter-sessions for the western division of the county are held in the ,court ,house1 and likewise petty-sessions for the ,st ,albans division of the county1 as well as city petty-sessions for ,st ,albans itself4 ,at these last the city magistrates sit2 the cases being brought before them by the local police force1 which is distinct from that of the county4 ,the city is the see of the bishopric of ,st ,albans1 and its crowning glory is its ,abbey1 now raised to the dignity of a cathedral4 ,offa's abbey was attacked and plundered by the ,danes1 and a rebuilding of the monastic church was contemplated by ,ealdred1 the eighth abbot1 who collected building materials from ,verulam4 ,the long-deferred work1 on a new site1 was however not undertaken till the time of ,paul of ,caen1 the first ,norman abbot 7#ajgg-ic74 ,this abbot rebuilt the church and nearly all the monastic buildings with the materials collected by his predecessor2 and apparently made a clean sweep of the original structures4 ,although the fabric appears to have been completed by ,abbot ,paul1 the consecration did not take place till #aaae4 ,between #aaie and #abad ,abbot ,john de ,cella commenced a new west front1 but only part of the original design was carried out4 ,in #abeg the eastern end was in a dangerous condition1 and the two easternmost bays were pulled down2 and eventually a presbytery and a ,lady ,chapel with vestibule were added4 ,extensive alterations and rebuilding were carried out previous to #acbf1 and again between #acce and #acdj4 ,other works were carried out by ,john de ,wheathampstead between #adea and #adhd1 including the rebuilding of ,st ,andrew's chapel4 ,in #aeec the abbey was sold to the ,mayor and ,burgesses as a parish church1 when the ,lady ,chapel was cut off from the rest of the building by a public passage and used as a grammar school4 ,this passage remained till about #ahgj1 when the ,lady ,chapel was once more rejoined to the main fabric4 ,about this time a restoration of portions of the building was undertaken by a county committee1 when the low-pitched roof of the nave was replaced by a high-pitched one on the lines of a much earlier structure4 ,soon after1 the tower was in danger of collapsing1 owing to crush in the supporting pillars1 and the whole structure had to be shored up previous to underpinning4 ,finally1 the late ,lord ,grimthorpe undertook the completion of the 8restoration10 which was carried out in substantial but drastic style4 ,his most notable work comprised the complete rebuilding of the west front in a peculiar style1 the repointing of the tower1 and the replacing of its brick turrets by stone 8pepper-pots40 ,illustration3 ,shrine of ,st ,amphibalus1 ,st ,albans' ,abbey ,the clock-tower in the centre of the city1 from which the curfew was rung till the sixties1 is another interesting building1 as is also the old gateway of the monastery1 now used as a grammar school4 ,near by the city are the ruins of ,sopwell nunnery4 ,the city has three parishes1 those of the ,abbey1 ,st ,peter1 and ,st ,michael1 but it is also extending into the parish of ,sandridge4 ,on the further side of the ,ver is situated ,st ,stephen's4 ,st ,albans is rapidly increasing as a residential district1 and also as a manufacturing centre1 a number of industrial establishments from ,london having been recently set up in its environs4 ,straw-plait still remains1 however1 the chief trade1 although the actual plaiting of the straw has been killed by foreign competition4 ,a market is held every ,saturday4 ,st ,albans has a museum1 unfortunately not restricted to local antiquities and natural history objects4 ,there are three railway stations1 one on the ,midland1 the second the terminus of a branch line from the ,north-,western at ,watford1 and the third that of a branch of the ,great ,northern from ,hatfield4 ,st ,peter's church stands on the site of a ,saxon church built in the latter half of the tenth century2 this was replaced in less than #bjj years by a ,norman edifice1 remains of which were found during the alterations carried out by the late ,lord ,grimthorpe4 ,st ,michael's church contains ,bacon's tomb4 ,two notable battles were fought at ,st ,albans during the ,wars of the ,roses4 ,in #adee the ,yorkists and in #adfa the ,lancastrians were victorious4 7pp4 #ad1 #ah1 #ce1 #eg1 #ei1 #fj1 #fa1 #ga1 #gb1 #ge1 #hj1 #ha1 #hb1 #hd1 #id1 #ih1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajg1 #abc1 #abd1 #abf1 #abh1 #acj1 #acg1 #ach1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #adi47 ,sawbridgeworth 7#bjhe71 pronounced ,satsworth1 is a town on the eastern border of the county1 to the south of ,bishop's ,stortford1 with a station on the ,great ,eastern ,railway4 ,it was originally known as ,sabricstworth1 being the seat of the family of ,say1 or de ,say4 ,it has a history dating from the ,conquest4 7pp4 #aac1 #acb47 ,shenley 7#aabj7 a village about four miles to the southward of ,st ,albans2 the manor in the time of ,stephen belonged to the de ,mandeviles1 who had also the church4 ,standon 7#aegg71 a village and manor1 with a station on the ,great ,eastern ,railway about midway between ,buntingford and ,stanstead ,abbots4 ,standon ,lordship was the seat of the ,lords ,aston of ,forfar1 who inherited it from the ,sadler family4 ,the living originally belonged to the ,knights ,templars4 ,stanstead ,abbots 7#adhd71 now a parish and manor1 but formerly a borough1 is a village lying east of ,hertford1 near ,st ,margaret's station on the ,great ,eastern ,railway4 ,stevenage 7#cieg71 a market-town on the ,great ,north ,road and ,great ,northern ,railway1 between ,welwyn and ,hitchin4 ,the town originally stood near to the church of ,st ,nicholas1 now half-a-mile distant2 but after a disastrous fire1 a new settlement sprang up on each side of the ,north ,road1 which runs to the south-west of the old church4 ,the fortieth1 and last1 abbot of ,st ,albans was ,richard ,boreham de ,stevenage1 elected in #aech1 and dismissed the following year on the dissolution of the monasteries4 ,elmwood ,house1 now pulled down1 was the home of ,lucas1 the ,hertfordshire hermit4 7pp4 #ad1 #ci1 #aaf1 #abh1 #abi47 ,tring 7#dcdi7 forms the extreme western outpost of ,hertfordshire1 being situated in the peninsula projecting from this part of the county into the heart of ,buckinghamshire4 ,it has a station on the ,north-,western ,railway some considerable distance from the town itself2 and of late years has become well-known in the scientific world on account of the private natural history museum established by the ,hon4 ,walter ,rothschild in ,tring ,park1 the seat of ,lord ,rothschild4 ,tring was formerly one of the centres of the straw-plait industry4 7pp4 #ah1 #db1 #df1 #dg1 #ed1 #gb1 #ij1 #ii1 #aje47 ,waltham ,cross 7#ebia71 a town on the ,essex border of the county1 with a station on the ,great ,eastern ,railway1 which takes its name from one of the crosses erected at the resting-places on the funeral route of ,queen ,eleanor from ,grantham4 7pp4 #abd1 #abe47 ,ware 7#eegc71 an ancient town to the north-east of ,hertford1 situated on the river ,lea 7which is here navigable71 and on a branch of the ,great ,eastern ,railway4 ,ware1 which is associated with the story of 8,john ,gilpin10 is the chief centre of the malting industry in the county2 the grant of a market was made by ,king ,henry ,,iii in the year #abed4 7pp4 #e1 #dd1 #gj1 #hj47 ,watford 7#bi1cbg7 is by far the largest town in the county1 being the only one with a population which exceeded #bj1jjj at the census of #aija4 ,it is situated in the south-western corner of the county1 and is traversed by the ,colne2 it has a station on the ,north-,western ,railway1 from which a branch line runs to ,st ,albans4 ,a market has existed since the time of ,henry ,,ii1 and is stated to have been granted by ,henry ,i4 ,watford played an important part in ,wat ,tyler's rising4 ,the ,grove1 the seat of the ,earls of ,clarendon1 and ,cassiobury1 that of the ,earls of ,essex1 are situated in the vicinity of the town4 ,watford is the centre of the ,west ,herts parliamentary division and has numerous mills and factories4 ,the parish church contains some magnificent monuments by ,nicholas ,stone4 7pp4 #f1 #ca1 #cd1 #dd1 #ii1 #abb1 #abc1 #aca1 #acb1 #ada47 ,watton or ,watton-at-,stone 7#gaj71 a village in the valley of the ,beane1 near the centre of the county1 taking its name from the number of springs in the neighbourhood--,wat1 in ,saxon1 signifying a moist place4 ,watton1 which was in existence as a manor in the time of the ,conqueror1 was the home of the ancient family of ,boteler1 whose seat was the present ,woodhall ,park1 now the property of the ,abel ,smith family4 ,near by is the manor house of ,aston ,bury1 a fine example of a sixteenth century house1 also once belonging to the ,botelers1 with tall1 twisted chimneys1 a magnificent staircase1 and an upper room occupying the whole width of the building4 7p4 #aac47 ,welwyn 7#affj71 a village on the ,great ,northern ,railway between ,hatfield and ,stevenage4 ,young1 who was born near ,bishop's ,waltham in ,hampshire1 became ,rector of the place1 wrote his ,night ,thoughts here1 and is buried in the churchyard4 ,two centuries ago ,welwyn was celebrated for its chalybeate springs4 7pp4 #fb1 #abh1 #adi47 ,wheathampstead 7#bdje71 a village in the valley of the ,lea1 between ,luton and ,hatfield1 with a station on the ,luton and ,dunstable branch of the ,great ,northern ,railway4 ,the parish originally included ,harpenden1 which was separated about #ahfj4 ,one of the oldest buildings is ,wheathampstead ,place1 or ,place ,farm1 which dates back to the time of ,queen ,elizabeth1 and has some fine ,tudor chimneys2 it was formerly the property of the ,brockett family1 whose monuments are in the church4 ,the church itself1 which is a cruciform edifice with a central tower1 is dedicated to ,st ,helen1 and was judiciously restored in the sixties2 the chancel with its three beautiful lancet windows was built about #abcj1 the tower was rebuilt towards the close of the thirteenth century1 and the north transept between #accj-dj4 ,the parish includes the manors of ,mackery ,end and ,lamer2 the latter taking its name from the de la ,mare family1 by whom it was held in the fourteenth century4 ,lamer ,house was rebuilt about #agfa4 7pp4 #ch1 #fg1 #ij1 #ig1 #aja47 ,illustration3 ,stack of rectangles with areas proportional to population4 #agc1bhj #ahfa #aib1bbf #ahga #bjc1adj #ahha #bbj1afb #ahia #bej1aeb #aija ,fig4 #a4 ,diagram showing the increase in the population of ,hertfordshire from #ahfa to #aija ,illustration3 ,squares with density represented by dots4 ,england and ,wales #eeh ,herts #dji ,lancashire #bcdg ,fig4 #b4 ,comparative density of the population of ,hertfordshire to the sq4 mile in #aija4 ,each dot represents #aj persons ,illustration3 rectangular chart ,,england ,,wales ,total #cb1ebg1hdc ,,herts ,fig4 #c4 ,the population of ,herts 7#beh1dbc7 as compared with that of ,england and ,wales ,illustration3 rectangular chart ,,england ,,wales ,total #cg1cbg1dgi acres ,,herts ,fig4 #d4 ,the area of ,herts 7#djd1eah acres7 as compared with that of ,england and ,wales ,illustration3 ,pie chart ,permanent ,pasture #abe1bfg ,area not under ,permanent ,pasture #bgg1ehi ,fig4 #e4 ,proportionate area of ,permanent ,pasture to total area of ,county ,illustration3 ,pie chart ,area not under ,corn ,crops #bhf1aef ,corn ,crops #aaf1gjj ,fig4 #f4 ,proportionate acreage of ,corn ,crops to total area of ,county ,illustration3 ,pie chart ,barley #bg1ifj ,wheat #ea1fia ,oats #cf1idf ,fig4 #g4 ,proportionate acreage of ,oats1 ,wheat1 and ,barley in ,herts ,illustration3 ,pie chart ,meadows and ,permanent ,pasture #abe1bfg ,green ,crops and ,rotation ,grasses #gb1hdh ,corn ,crops #aaf1gjj ,woodlands #bf1efh ,bare ,fallow1 ,fruits #af1gcf ,remaining area of ,herts #dd1gcg ,fig4 #h4 ,proportionate acreage of land under ,cultivation and ,not under ,cultivation in the ,county ,illustration3 ,pie chart ,horses #ae1jgj ,pigs #be1cch other ,cattle #ch1fcf ,sheep #id1dfa ,fig4 #i4 ,comparative numbers of ,live ,stock in ,herts ,cambridge3 ,,printed ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press4 ,illustration3 ,,geological ,,map ,,of ,,hertford ,george ,philip ,son1 ,ltd4 ,the ,london ,geographical ,institute4 ,transcriber's ,note ,on page #dc1 in the diagram of geological systems1 the ,names of ,systems were originally printed in bold4 ,in the last chapter1 the ,names of ,towns and ,villages were originally printed in bold and in a large font4 ,under each map1 8,ltd40 or 8,,ltd401 in the name of the printer was originally printed with the 8td0 or 8,,td0 raised above the line with a dot underneath4 ,the errata listed on a slip bound into this book have been applied to this text4 ,it reads3 ,hertfordshire ,,errata ,page #cc1 line #ab from bottom1 after ,baldock1 add and also near ,tring4 0 #fa1 line #f from top1 for ,great ,western read ,north-,western4 0 #acb1 line #ac from top1 for ,stortford1 read ,st ,margaret's4 0 #add1 line #b1 for ,the late ,viscount ,peel read ,the first ,viscount ,hampden4 0 #aec1 line #e from top1 dele has a castle and4 0 #aed4 ,the market at ,berkhampstead has been discontinued for many years4 0 #aei4 ,the office of high bailiff of ,hemel ,hempstead is held by the mayor4 ,the changes to pages #aed and #aei have been made by adding footnotes4 ,figures have been moved to be near the text they illustrate4 ,the page numbers in the ,table of ,illustrations refer to the page number of their original position in the printed book4