,,the ,,spanish ,,series                
,,cordova                               
,,the ,,spanish ,,series                
,,edited ,,by ,,albert ,f4 ,,calvert    
,,seville                               
,,murillo                               
,,cordova                               
,,the ,,prado                           
,,the ,,escorial                        
,,spanish ,,arms ,,and ,,armour         
,in preparation--                       
,,goya                                  
,,toledo                                
,,madrid                                
,,velazquez                             
,,granada ,,and ,,alhambra              
,,royal ,,palaces ,,of ,,spain          
,,leon1 ,,burgos1 ,,and ,,salamanca     
,,valladolid1 ,,oviedo1 ,,segovia1      
,,zamora1 ,,avila1 ,,and ,,zaragoza     
,,cordova                          ,a   
,,city ,,of ,,the ,,moors ,,by          
,,albert ,f4 ,,calvert ,,and            
,,walter ,m4 ,,gallichan                
,,with #afj ,,illustrations             

,,london3 ,,john ,,lane1 ,,the ,,bodley 
,,head                   ,,new ,,york3  
,,john ,,lane ,,company ,,mcmvii        
,edinburgh3 ,t4 and ,a4 ,,constable1    
,printers to ,his ,majesty              
,to                          ,,the      
,,duke ,,of ,,sotomayor          ,lord  
,high ,chamberlain to ,h4,m4 the ,king  
of ,spain1 etc4   ,my dear ,duke1  ,some
 of the pleasantest of my many pleasant 
memories of ,spain are associated with1 
as indeed they were derived from1 the   
sympathy you have displayed in my work  
and the great kindness ,i ever received 
from the ,duchess of ,sotomayor and     
yourself4 ,for these1 ,i hope1          
sufficient reasons--not as one who seeks
 to liquidate a heavy debt of           
hospitality1 but rather rejoices in his 
obligations--,i beg you to accept this  
dedication and permit me to associate   
your illustrious name with this modest  
volume4                                 
,i am1                               ,my
 dear ,duke1                      ,your 

obliged and ever grateful1              
,,albert ,f4 ,,calvert4     ,,preface   
,it would be unnecessary to enlarge upon
 the reasons for including a study of   
,cordova in this series of ,spanish     
,handbooks3 indeed a series of this     
description would be incomplete without 
it4 ,the beautiful1 powerful1 and wise  
,cordova1--#8the ,city of ,cities1'     
#8the ,pearl of the ,west1' #8the ,bride
 of ,andalus1' as the ,arabian poets    
have variously named it1--the ancient   
capital of ,mohammedan ,spain1 is still 
one of the most curious and fascinating 
monuments of this singularly interesting
 country4  ,much water has flowed under 
the sixteen arches of the bridge which  
spans the ,guadalquivir since #8,cordova
 was to ,andalus what the head is to the
 body1 or what the breast is to the     
loin'2 the ,moorish city of the thirty  
suburbs and three thousand mosques1     
whose fame once obscured the glory of   
ancient ,damascus1 is no longer the     
centre of ,european culture4 #8,the     

brightest splendour of the world' has   
been lost in centuries of neglect and   
decay1 and the new light of a modern    
civilisation has not shone upon the     
remains of its medival grandeur4  ,but  
the ,cordova of the great ,khalif is    
still the most ,african city in ,spain2 
its mosque remains to give us a clearer 
and fuller idea of the power and        
magnificence of the ,moors than anything
 else in the ,peninsula1 not excepting  
even the ,alhambra2 and in its narrow1  
uneven streets and mysterious1 silent   
patios1 in the gold and crimson of its  
fragrant gardens1 the student and the   
artist may find unending interest and   
enchantment4  ,in selecting the         
illustrations for this book1 the authors
 have endeavoured to provide both for   
the antiquary and the lover of the      
beautiful2 for those whose acquaintance 
with ,spain must be made through the    
medium of the printed page1 and for     
those more fortunate readers who will1  
we hope1 find this book a memento of    

their wanderings in ,andalusia4         
,,albert ,f4 ,,calvert4                 
,,walter ,m4 ,,gallichan4     ,,contents
   ,,chap4                              
,,page     ,i4 ,,the ,,bride ,,of       
,,andalus                               
#a    ,,ii4 ,,the ,,moorish ,,capture   
#ac   ,,iii4 ,,the ,,omeyyad ,,dynasty  
#bc    ,,iv4 ,,the ,,building ,,of ,,the
 ,,mosque                               
#db     ,v4 ,,in ,,the ,,court ,,of     
,,oranges                               
#eg    ,,vi4 ,,the ,,splendours ,,of    
,,the ,,mosque                          
#fe   ,,vii4 ,,the ,,cathedral ,,and    
,,churches                              
#ge  ,,viii4 ,,the ,,palace ,,of ,,the  
,,khalifs ,,and ,,the ,,moorish ,,bridge
                #gi    ,,ix4            
,,illustrious ,,natives ,,of ,,cordova  
#hc  ,,appendix ,i4--,,the ,,great      
,,mosque ,,of ,,cordova                 
#if  ,,appendix ,,ii4--,,cordova        
#ajj     ,,illustrations                
,,plate ,,no4  ,view of the ,city and   

the ,bridge south of the ,guadalquivir1 
#a  ,the ,bridge1                       
#b  ,view of ,mosque and ,bridge1       
#c  ,the ,iron ,mill on the             
,guadalquivir1                          
#d  ,promenade of #8,grand ,capitaine1' 
#e  ,market ,street1 or ,calle de la    
,feria1                                 
#f  ,plaza del ,triunfo and exterior of 
the ,mosque1                          #g
  ,entrance ,gate of the ,city1 the     
,column of ,triumph1 and the ,mosque    
from the ,bridge1                       
#h  ,the ,column of ,triumph1           
#i  ,ancient ,arab ,tower1 now the      
,church of ,st4 ,nicholas de la ,villa1 
#aj  ,the ,tower of ,san ,nicolas1      
#aa  ,tower of the ,cathedral and ,patio
 de ,los ,naranjos1                     
#ab  ,view of the ,patio de ,los        
,naranjos1                              
#ac  ,the ,tower of the ,cathedral1     
#ad  ,entrance to the ,city from the    
,bridge1                                
#ae  ,public ,fountain in the ,patio de 

,los ,naranjos1                         
#af  ,women at the ,spring1             
#ag  ,well in the ,patio de ,los        
,naranjos1                              
#ah  ,peasant with his ,donkey1         
#ai  ,a ,water-,carrier1                
#bj  ,the ,poor ,man's ,meal1           
#ba  ,muleteers1                        
#bb  ,a ,gardener1                      
#bc  ,girl with a ,guitar1              
#bd  ,a ,room in the ,provincial        
,museum3 ,view of the ,roman and        
,visigoth ,section1                     
#be  ,a ,room in the ,provincial        
,museum3 ,view of the ,arab ,section1   
#bf  ,door of the ,house of the         
,innocents1                             
#bg  ,the ,door of ,don ,jernimo ,pez1  
#bh  ,the ,door of the ,foundling       
,hospital1                              
#bi  ,the ,tower of ,carrahoe1          
#cj  ,porch of ,st4 ,paul1              
#ca  ,ancient ,arab ,walls1             
#cb  ,mosaics of the ,four ,seasons in  
the ,house of ,s4,s4 ,lugue1 ,plaza de  

la ,compania1                           
#cc  ,architectural ,parts of the       
,catholic ,basilicas1                   
#cd  ,capitals and ,fragments of        
,ornamentation in the ,mosque1          
#ce  ,architectural ,parts of the       
,catholic ,basilicas and other          
constructions1                          
#cf  ,capitals of the ,catholic         
,basilicas preserved in the ,mosque1 now
 the ,cathedral1                        
#cg  ,fragments of the ,catholic        
,basilicas preserved in the ,mosque1 now
 the ,cathedral1                        
#ch  ,general ,view of the ,choir and   
,high ,altar1                           
#ci  ,pulpit and ,steps of the ,high    
,altar1                                 
#dj  ,choir ,stalls in the ,mosque or   
,cathedral1                             
#da  ,left ,side of the ,choir ,stalls1 
#db  ,general ,view of the ,choir in the
 ,mosque1 or ,cathedral1                
#dc  ,the ,bishop's ,stall in the ,choir
 of the ,mosque1 or ,cathedral1         

#dd  ,central ,nave in the ,cathedral1  
#de  ,central ,nave in the ,cathedral1  
#df  ,central ,nave in the ,cathedral1  
#dg  ,plan of the ,mosque in the time of
 the ,arabs1                            
#dh  ,plan of the ,mosque at the present
 time1                               #di
  ,the ,bishop's ,gate1                 
#ej  ,entrance to the ,mosque1 called   
the ,gate of ,camnigos1                 
#ea  ,the ,tower of ,la ,mala ,muerte1  
#eb  ,the ,cathedral3 ,view of the      
,transverse ,nave1                      
#ec  ,north ,angle of the ,chapel of    
,villaviciosa1                          
#ed  ,the ,central ,nave of the ,mosque1
                                        
#ee  ,the ,gate of ,pardon1             
#ef  ,the ,gate of ,pardon1             
#eg  ,the ,gate of ,pardon1             
#eh  ,the ,gate of ,pardon1             
#ei  ,knocker on the ,gate of ,pardon1  
#fj  ,principal ,nave and ,mih-rab of   
the ,mosque1                            
#fa  ,entrance to the ,chapel of the    

,mih-rab1                               
#fb  ,interior ,view of the ,mosque     
7from a drawing71                       
#fc  ,general ,view of the ,interior of 
the ,mosque1                            
#fd  ,interior of the ,mosque1          
#fe  ,interior of the ,cathedral1       
#ff  ,interior of the ,mosque1          
#fg  ,interior of the ,cathedral1       
#fh  ,general ,view of the ,chapel of   
,villaviciosa1                          
#fi  ,interior of the ,mosque1          
#gj  ,interior of the ,mosque1          
#ga  ,lateral ,door of the ,mosque1     
#gb  ,the ,chapel of ,villaviciosa in   
the ,mosque1                            
#gc  ,exterior of the ,mosque1          
#gd  ,the ,mosque--,moorish ,portal on  
the ,north ,side1 built under ,hakem    
,,iii41 #ihh-ajja1                      
#ge  ,chapel of ,trastamara1 south side1
                                     #gf
  ,general ,view of the ,chapel of the  
,mih-rab1                            #gg
  ,faade and ,gate of ,almanzor1        

#gh  ,the ,mosque--,elevation of the    
,gate of the ,sanctuary of the ,koran1  
#gi  ,gate corresponding to the         
,buildings of ,al-,hakem ,,ii41         
#hj  ,portal of the ,mih-rab1           
#ha  ,arcade of the ,entrance to the    
,vestibule of the ,mih-rab1             
#hb  ,the ,maksurrah 7now the           
,villaviciosa ,chapel71 left side1      
#hc  ,right ,lateral ,portal1 within the
 ,precinct of the ,maksurrah1           
#hd  ,detail of the ,hall of ,chocolate1
                                        
#he  ,exterior of the ,chapel of the    
,mih-rab1                               
#hf  ,detail1 ,arches of the ,mih-rab1  
#hg  ,detail in the ,chapel of the      
,maksurrah1                             
#hh  ,mosaic ,decoration of the         
,sanctuary1                             
#hi  ,general ,view of the ,interior of 
the ,chapel of the ,maksurrah and ,st4  
,ferdinand1                             
#ij  ,detail near the ,mih-rab1         
#ia  ,detail of the ,interior of the    

,mih-rab1                               
#ib  ,vertical ,section of the ,dome and
 ,cupola of the ,mih-rab1               
#ic  ,detail of the ,trastamara ,chapel1
                                        
#id  ,detail of the ,higher ,part and   
,roof of the ,chapel of ,st4 ,ferdinand1
                                        
#ie  ,sections of the ,mosque1          
#if  ,sections of the ,mosque and       
,cathedral1                             
#ig  ,detail in the ,chapel of          
,trastamara1 south side1                
#ih  ,detail in the ,angle of the ,arch 
of the ,mih-rab1 left side1             
#ii  ,detail in the ,angle of the ,arch 
of the ,mih-rab1 right side1            
#ajj  ,detail of the ,gate of the       
,mosque1                                
#aja  ,kufic ,inscription of the time of
 the ,khalifate1 found in an            
,excavation1                            
#ajb  ,the ,mosque4 ,kufic ,inscription 
in the ,palace1                         
#ajc  ,arabian ,inscriptions1           

#ajd  ,arabian ,inscriptions1           
#aje  ,basement ,panel of the ,faade of 
the ,mih-rab1                           
#ajf  ,marble ,socle in the ,mih-rab1   
#ajg  ,exterior of the ,chapel of ,san  
,pedro1 north side1 in the ,mosque1     
#ajh  ,a ,gate on one of the lateral    
sides1                                  
#aji  ,a ,kufic ,inscription on the     
additions made to the ,mosque by order  
of the ,khalif ,al-,hakem1              
#aaj  ,a ,kufic ,inscription on the     
additions made to the ,mosque by order  
of the ,khalif ,al-,hakem1              
#aaa  ,capitals4 ,entrance ,arch1       
#aab  ,detail of a ,frieze1             
#aac  ,detail of a ,cornice1            
#aad  ,detail of a ,cornice1            
#aae  ,eastern ,side of the ,exterior of
 the ,mosque and ,detail1               
#aaf  ,plan of the ,arch and ,cupola of 
the ,mih-rab1                           
#aag  ,detail of the ,portals of the    
,maksurrah1                             
#aah  ,section and ,details of the      

,mih-rab of the ,mosque1                
#aai  ,details of the ,cupola of the    
,vestibule of the ,mih-rab1             
#abj  ,the ,gate of ,pardon             
#aba  ,the ,bishop's ,gate              
#aba  ,the ,mosque4    ,detail of the   
,trastamara ,chapel1                    
#abb  ,the ,mosque4 ,the ,gate of the   
,sultan1                                
#abb  ,the ,mosque4 ,interior of the    
,mih-rab1                               
#abc  ,the ,mosque4 ,arab ,arcade above 
the ,first ,mih-rab1                    
#abc  ,interior of the ,mosque1         
#abd  ,interior of the ,chapel of ,san  
,fernando1                              
#abe  ,gate of the ,cathedral1          
#abf  ,principal ,entrance to the       
,mosque1                                
#abg  ,the ,mosque4 ,trastamara ,chapel1
 south side1                            
#abh  ,eastern ,faade of the ,mosque1   
#abi  ,patio de los ,naranjos1          
#acj  ,calle del ,cardinal ,herrero1    
#aca  ,tower of the ,cathedral1         

#acb  ,the ,mosque4 ,pulpit of the      
,angel1                                 
#acc  ,the ,mosque4 ,pulpit of the      
,bull1                                  
#acd  ,cathedral4 ,choir ,stalls1       
#ace  ,cathedral4 ,principal ,nave1     
#acf  ,gate of ,st4 ,catharine1         
#acg  ,altar of ,san ,rafael1           
#ach  ,the ,house of ,pez1              
#aci  ,general ,view of the ,roman      
,bridge and ,calahorra over the         
,guadalquivir1 taken from the ,arab     
,mill1                              #adj
  ,calahorra ,castle1                   
#ada  ,general ,view of the ,roman      
,castle of the ,calahorra1              
#adb  ,entrance ,gate to the ,roman     
,bridge1                                
#adc  ,almodvar ,gate1                  
#add  ,the ,mills1                      
#ade  ,general ,view and ,roman ,bridge 
over the ,guadalquivir1                 
#adf  ,grating and ,court of a ,private 
,house1                                 
#adg  ,avenue of the ,grand ,captain1   

#adh  ,district and ,church of ,san     
,lorenzo1                               
#adi  ,general ,view of the ,bank and   
the ,roman ,bridge over the             
,guadalquivir1                          
#aej  ,interior of the ,plaza de ,toros1
                                        
#aea  ,horticultural ,gardens1          
#aeb  ,the ,bank of the ,guadalquivir   
from the ,bridge1                       
#aec  ,general ,view of ,cordova1       
#aed  ,courtyard of an ,inn1            
#aee  ,a ,street and ,country ,types1   
#aef  ,a ,street and ,country ,types1   
#aeg  ,ancient ,receptacle for ,water of
 ,medina ,az-,zahira1 ,tenth ,century1  
#aeh  ,plan of ,cordova1                
#aei   ,many of the photographs included
 in this volume1 other than those taken 
by myself1 were supplied by ,messrs4    
,rafael ,garzon of ,granada1 ,senan and 
,gonzalez of ,granada1 ,hauser and      
,menet of ,madrid1 ,ernst ,wasmuth of   
,berlin1 publisher of ,uhde's           
,baudenkmaeler in ,spanien und          

,portugal1 and ,eugen ,twietmeyer of    
,leipzig1 publisher of ,junghndel's ,die
 ,baukunst ,spaniens1 and ,i take this  
opportunity of acknowledging their kind 
permission to reproduce them in this    
volume4                                 
,a4 ,f4 ,c4     ,,cordova     ,i  ,,the 
,,bride ,,of ,,andalus   ,an impression 
of colour1 heat1 and somnolence grows   
upon the stranger as he rambles through 
the bright alleys and sunlit plazas of  
,cordova4 ,he may be neither painter1   
poet1 nor antiquary2 yet the opulence of
 vivid1 almost garish tones1 the romance
 that lingers about the ,moorish        
courtyards and the perfumed gardens1 and
 the surviving1 pervasive suggestion of 
age1 will stimulate his senses and      
imagination4 ,for one who is capable of 
deeper and more subtle impressions1 the 
old city will seem as a consummation of 
desire and a realisation of fanciful    
dreams4 ,the spell of ,orientalism will 
hold him2 the splendours of ,the        
,arabian ,nights will be brought before 

his vision2 and he will conjure shapes  
of sultan1 wizard1 genii1 and sage1 and 
see the lovely retinue of fair women    
within the palaces of the swarthy       
potentates4  ,music of reed and string  
will delight his ears2 and loitering by 
the walls1 on the banks of the swirling 
,guadalquivir1 he will hear the selfsame
 song of the bulbul which brought joy   
and sadness to dark1 inscrutable eyes in
 olden days4 ,he will watch the blue    
shadows of mosque and tower1 and see the
 sun lavish gold on roof and turret1    
while his eye will be dazzled by the    
hues of balconies1 by the hot geranium1 
the gay dabs of drying garments1 hanging
 like flags against the ardent sapphire 
of the ,andalusian sky4  ,framed in the 
arch of a city gateway1 he will see a   
lovely vista of vineyard1 olive-crowned 
hillock1 and meditative1 grey sierra1   
rising to the blue4  ,he will pace the  
silent square at night1 and discourse   
with ,seneca4 ,his ears will drink in   
the stoic counsels of ,lucan1 and his   

brain will grapple with the problems    
laid down by the sagacious ,averroes4   
,he will hear the ,moslem call to       
prayer1 and stand to gaze upon the band 
of the devout filing into the ,mezquita4
  ,clamours of battle will assail him1  
the clash of sword and shield will      
startle his slumber1 and the night will 
tremble with the triumphant roar of the 
fierce1 invading ,goths4 ,and in hours1 
fragrant with the scent of              
flowers--placid in contemplation of the 
simple happiness of ,cordova's youths   
and maidens in the ,court of            
,oranges--he will weave romances of the 
ancient life1 when the town was the seat
 of the cultured1 the home of the arts1 
and the sanctuary of the pious4         
,doubtless the ,cordova of to-day       
subsists like other towns upon the      
industry and the commercial energy of   
its inhabitants4 ,there are shops and   
hotels in the streets2 there are signs  
of handicrafts and of common daily      
employments4 ,but there is no bustle1 no

 indication of a strenuous existence for
 the people1 and the siesta is long and 
undisturbed4 ,there is a market1 but its
 produce and merchandise do not suggest 
the wealth and commerce of earlier days4
 ,the consumo1 or customs officer1      
levies his tax upon almost everything   
which the hard-faring peasants bring    
into the town1 and we have seen a       
conflict between one of these officials 
and a countryman over a single live     
pigeon4 ,the peasant questioned the tax1
 and the officer explained the case with
 the flat of his sword-blade4 ,this     
incident is characteristic of           
,andalusia1 and perhaps it may throw a  
light upon the discontent which is apt1 
at times1 to manifest itself violently  
among the agricultural population of    
,spain4  ,certainly there are days of   
markets and ferias when ,cordova arouses
 itself1 and trains of mules and asses  
creep into the place1 and flocks may be 
seen in the streets4 ,wine1 oil1 and    
fruit are produced in the environs1 and 

grain-crops flourish on the plain4 ,in  
medival times ,cordova was famed for its
 mart1 where silk and grain were sold4  
,the district still bears repute for its
 horse-breeding1 but the stock has      
suffered deterioration through          
injudicious selection4 ,an anonymous    
,american writer1 who was here in #ahca1
 speaks of the horses of ,cordova as the
 finest in ,spain1 and asserts that they
 are the descendants of the pure        
,arabian breed4 ,one still notes many   
good horses4 ,it is said that the water 
from the ,guadalquivir is as nourishing 
for horses as is the barley of certain  
districts of ,spain4  ,the banishment of
 the ,moors hastened the decay of       
,cordova4 ,for a period the region was  
almost stripped of its population1 and  
grass grew in the plazas and patios of  
the town4 ,to-day the inhabitants number
 about fifty thousand1 and though       
,cordova wears an air of lethargy1 the  
grass does not spring up in the streets4
 ,there seems to be just enough human   

activity to keep the town alive1 and it 
is not wholly1 as ,henry ,o',shea       
described it1 #8a city of the dead4' ,a 
certain measure of prosperity is assured
 for ,cordova by the attraction of its  
antiquity1 which brings strangers from  
many lands to visit the magnificent     
,mezquita4  ,the ,spaniard is not a     
passionate enthusiast of modernity4 ,he 
is conservative1 and zealous and proud  
of his ancient towns1 and it is quite   
probable that the bulk of the natives of
 ,cordova prefer that the atmosphere of 
the place shall remain medival4 ,and we 
who resort to ,cordova to reflect upon  
its past grandeur1 and to imbue         
ourselves with the spirit of the        
,moorish days1 are assuredly satisfied  
that it has not been modernised and     
marred during the years that have       
intervened between the great vandalism  
after the expulsion of the ,arabs and   
the present time4 ,we are glad to think 
that all which remains of majesty and   
beauty is now carefully cherished and   

respected4  ,toledo and ,avila1 both    
,moorish towns1 display an austerity    
fascinating by reason of its very       
grimness4 ,cordova is beautiful by      
comparison1 partly on account of its    
situation in a fertile district1 and    
partly because its houses are white     
flower-decked1 and cheerful in aspect4  
,it is more voluptuous than these       
fortified towns of ,castile4 ,the       
climate is southern1 the air softer1 and
 the buildings are less stern in        
colouring and less menacing in          
appearance4 ,in ,cordova1 flowery courts
 invite you with a smile2 in ,toledo1   
frowning gates and barred doors forbid  
your entrance4 ,toledo reminds us that  
the ,moors were warriors and conquerors1
 bent upon aggression and the extension 
of territory2 in ,cordova one thinks of 
the race as sages1 artists1 worshippers1
 poets1 and lovers4 ,the palm-trees     
planted by ,abd-er-,rahman1 #8,the      
,servant of the ,merciful ,god1' the    
tropical flowers and fruits1 the mosque1

 and the fountains1 give impress of the 
milder1 pacific1 quietly joyous life of 
the ,moors4 ,we recall the words of the 
wise ruler3 #8,beautiful palm-tree6 thou
 art1 like me1 a stranger in this land2 
but thy roots find a friendly and a     
fertile soil1 thy head rises into a     
genial atmosphere1 and the balmy west   
breathes kindly among thy branches4'    
,by these signs we learn to love        
,cordova as the sanctuary of learning   
and devotion rather than as the citadel 
of the valiant4 ,it is essentially      
,oriental4 ,look at the streets--narrow1
 crooked1 and shady1 for1 having no     
horse vehicles1 the ,arabs had no need  
for wider thoroughfares4 ,the roofs of  
the houses project and screen the alleys
 from the sun4 ,cordova is clean and    
bright in contrast to ,toledo4 ,the     
streets are free from garbage2 the      
interiors of the houses are frequently  
cleansed1 and flowers are grown by rich 
and poor4 ,fruits are cultivated in and 
around the town1 and one may pluck the  

fig1 orange1 lemon1 date1 peach1 plum1  
pomegranate1 strawberry1 and almond4    
,standing on the massive bridge which   
spans the ,guadalquivir1 one looks upon 
the mosque1 the city walls1 and towers  
of churches4 ,the ,campo de la ,verdad  
forms a broad promontory washed by the  
river1 and we see quaint ,morisco       
water-mills1 and the lever nets of      
fishermen4 ,there are seventeen arches  
to the bridge1 which is of ,moorish     
design1 standing upon piles constructed 
by the ,romans4 ,in the distance rises  
the range of the ,sierra ,morena1 a     
savage wilderness of rock1 ravine1 and  
crag1 haunted by the boar1 deer1 and    
lynx4 ,winding through rich meadowland1 
the ,guadalquivir flows1 now in swift   
shallows1 and then in slow deeps1 which 
from certain points of view resemble    
landlocked pools4 ,the river is wide1   
but not of great depth4 ,its flood is   
stained brown from the soil through     
which it flows1 and at times1 when the  
mountains pay their tribute of swollen  

streams1 the ,guadalquivir speeds in a  
turbid current1 filling its banks to the
 brim4  ,there is a lonely majesty about
 this tawny river which for many leagues
 of its course flows through a desolate1
 deserted plain4 ,it has but few trees  
upon its banks2 but here and there are  
stretches of brushwood tenanted by      
nightingales4 ,the stork visits the     
silent reaches to fish for eels4 ,upon  
its brown banks grows the cold grey     
cactus4 ,the river breeds barbel1 tench1
 and big eels1 and in the summer shad   
ascend from the sea4  ,in ,roman times  
the ,guadalquivir was navigable as far  
as ,cordova1 but to-day the channels    
have silted up4 ,a few salt pools in the
 plains show that the sea once covered  
large tracts of this part of ,andalusia4
 ,the river is now tidal for some miles 
above ,seville1 and ships of heavy      
tonnage can reach that port4 ,in the    
middle and upper reaches the river is   
unfrequented2 it waters grassy wastes   
and fertile vegas1 and murmurs by groves

 of olives in its course by ,andujar and
 ,cordova4  ,antillon1 a ,spanish       
writer1 accuses the ,cordovese of       
ignorance and coarse manners4 ,we       
encountered neither of these qualities  
during our stay in the old town4        
,cordova has its mendicants1 whose eyes 
are keen for the advent of visitors1 and
 the boys are somewhat troublesome in   
their voluntary capacity as guides to   
the sights of the place4 ,but the       
natives of ,cordova are sedate1         
picturesque folk1 showing no discourtesy
 to the stranger1 but rather a          
disposition to assist him4  ,there are  
three principal hostelries--the ,suiza  
and the ,oriente are the visitors'      
houses2 but those who desire a purely   
,spanish environment may find quarters  
at the little ,victoria1 which has a    
very charming patio1 gay with flowers4  
,there are several good cafs4 ,for      
amusement there is the ,grand ,teatro1 a
 large house1 in which we saw ,the      
,barber of ,seville performed4 ,there   

is1 of course1 a bull-ring1 the ,plaza  
de ,toros of every town in ,spain4 ,the 
chief fights are held during the ferias 
of ,may and ,september4  ,but ,cordova  
is the town of dreams1 memories1 and    
meditations rather than of exuberant    
gaiety4 ,it is a ,mecca of the artistic 
and the studious4 ,for garish pleasure1 
sparkling society1 and excitement one   
must go to ,seville1 ,malaga1 or ,cadiz4
 ,there is a serene solemnity in        
,cordova1 though it is by no means a    
gloomy city4 ,the mosque is the         
attraction and the wonder of the city1  
and sacred temples do not dispose to    
hilarity4 ,cordova is eloquent of the   
gorgeous1 heroic past1 and its stones   
contain sermons upon human destiny and  
the insecurity of empires4 ,it is a     
garden city1 antiquated1 improgressive1 
tenacious of the ancient spirit1 and    
abounding in beauty of form and colour4 
,cordova contains only the remnants of  
its pristine magnificence1 but these are
 marvellous and precious4 ,the city once

 boasted of fifty thousand resplendent  
palaces1 and a hundred thousand inferior
 houses4 ,its mosques numbered seven    
hundred1 and the cleanly ,moors built   
nine hundred public baths4 ,the city    
stretched for ten miles along the banks 
of the ,guadalquivir1 flanked with      
walls1 battlements1 and towers1 and     
approached by guarded gates4 ,the common
 folk spoke in phrases of poetry2 there 
were no illiterates4 ,art in every      
branch flourished in the city2 there    
were hosts of craftsmen working in      
brass1 gold1 and clay4 ,the libraries   
were huge1 and hither came men of       
science1 philosophers1 poets1 and       
students of all subjects to glean from  
the store of the world's accumulated    
thought4  ,throughout ,europe the       
mention of ,cordova brought yearning to 
the hearts of the cultured and studious1
 and men suffered hardship and stress to
 pay pilgrimages to this source of      
learning4 ,many who journeyed hither    
echoed the words of ,ibn ,sareh1 the    

poet1 which he uttered upon entering the
 seat of wisdom3 #8,god be praised2 ,i  
am in ,cordova1 the abode of science1   
the throne of the ,sultans6' ,seville   
was #8the gem1' #8the pearl' of         
,andalusia2 ,cordova was called #8the   
,bride4' ,el-,makkari1 the ,moorish     
chronicler1 rehearses many of the       
poetical tributes paid by ,moslem       
writers to the splendid city4 ,setting  
forth the culture of the city1 he adds1 
in one place3 #8,the ,cordovans were    
further celebrated for the elegance and 
richness of their dress1 their attention
 to religious duties1 their strict      
observance of the hours of prayer1 the  
high respect and veneration in which    
they held their mosque1 their aversion  
to wine and their destruction of        
wine-vases wherever they found any1     
their abhorrence of every illicit       
practice1 their glory in nobility of    
descent and military enterprise1 and    
their success in every department of the
 sciences4'  ,such were the inhabitants 

of ,cordova at the time when the city   
was the great capital of the ,mohammedan
 empire4 ,seville and ,toledo yielded   
pre-eminence to ,cordova1 and men spoke 
in veneration of its four great wonders3
 the immense and gorgeous mosque1 the   
bridge over the ,guadalquivir1 the city 
of ,ez-,zahra1 situated in the suburbs1 
and the sciences which were studied in  
the colleges4  ,when we read the ancient
 annals and grow absorbed by the story  
of ,cordova's past1 we can scarcely     
realise that the town and its inmates   
were real things4 ,the place and the    
people seem to belong to the realm of   
fairy romance2 the city seems one of    
dreams1 and the natives pass as in a    
pageant of the imagination4 ,and yet we 
may enter the sacred mih-rab1 commune   
with the ghosts of warrior and          
philosopher1 and stand where ,tarik     
stood when he wrested the prized capital
 from the ,goths4  ,tangible evidence of
 a superb civilisation surrounds us in  
,cordova4 ,we see examples of early     

,moorish architecture brought to its    
highest artistic manifestation in the   
mosque4 ,we listen in vain for the      
voices of teachers1 the song of the     
singers and poets1 and the call of the  
muezzin to devotion2 but we tread in the
 footsteps of the long-vanished ,moor1  
and read his story in the noble lines1  
chaste embellishments1 and gorgeous     
details which his skilful hands         
produced4     ,,ii  ,,the ,,moorish     
,,capture   ,probably a city of the     
,carthaginians once stood upon the      
ground now covered by ,cordova4         
,phnicians1 ,greeks1 ,trojans1 and      
,tyrians battled in their day for the   
rich spoil of ,spain1 and the armies of 
,carthage ravaged the whole of the      
country4 ,rome wrought the downfall of  
the ,carthaginian dominion in ,btica    
7,andalusia7 and ,lusitania 7,spain74   
,in ,a4,d4 #bje the ,romans began to lay
 hands on the ,iberian ,peninsula1 and  
after long strife they conquered all the
 land save the territory of the         

indomitable ,basques of the rocky north4
  ,at ,corduba 7,cordova7 the ,romans   
established a capital of ,hispania      
,ulterior1 and the city was one of      
importance and prosperity4 ,under ,csar 
it became the chief town of ,btica4     
,according to ,plutarch1 the government 
of ,spain was given to ,julius ,csar    
after his prtorship1 and he ruled firmly
 and justly over ,portugal and          
,andalusia4 ,the conquering emperor     
resided in ,corduba1 and it was here    
that he was first attacked with         
epilepsy4  ,beneath the rule of ,rome   
,andalusia prospered4 ,roads1 bridges1  
and aqueducts were constructed2 cities  
were enlarged and founded1 industries   
were developed1 and the wealth of the   
country increased4 ,this spell of peace 
and progress was broken by the conflict 
between ,csar and ,pompey1 and ,spain   
was the scene of some of their fiercest 
battles4 ,with the decay of ,roman      
greatness and valour1 ,btica was overrun
 by the hosts of the ,goths from        

northern and eastern ,europe4 ,like     
beasts of prey these hordes despoiled   
the ,roman cities1 shattering temple and
 amphitheatre1 and laying waste fertile 
farms and abundant orchards4 ,rome      
yielded its last hold upon fair ,btica2 
the ,goths seized upon the land1 and    
split it up into territories ruled by   
warriors4 ,the invaders were ruthless in
 their destruction2 they aimed at       
removing every trace of the ,roman      
civilisation1 and unfortunately they    
were successful in accomplishing an     
almost universal demolition of building1
 monument1 and statue4  ,cordova was one
 of the residences of the ,gothic kings4
 ,it was known as ,kordhobah among the  
,goths4 ,there is little doubt that it  
was a city of considerable opulence2 for
 when it was sacked by the ,moors it    
yielded gorgeous robes1 embroidered with
 gold flowers1 fine chains of gold1     
strings of pearls1 and quantities of    
emeralds and rubies4 ,the sway of       
,ludherick1 or ,roderick1 ,king of the  

,goths1 was first menaced by ,tarif the 
,berber4 ,roderick was in dispute with  
the ,lord of ,ceuta1 a city on the      
,strait of ,gibraltar1 and this quarrel 
exposed him to the attack of the        
covetous territory-hunters of northern  
,africa4  ,while ,roderick and the ,lord
 of ,ceuta contended1 ,tarif1 the       
redoubtable leader of the ,berber army1 
landed in ,spain1 with a force of one   
hundred cavalry and four hundred        
foot-soldiers4 ,tarif appears to have   
solicited reinforcements1 in order to   
meet the ,goths at better odds4 ,a force
 under ,tarik was then sent by ,musa    
,ibn ,noseyr1 with the object of        
capturing ,andalusia4 ,as ,tarik was    
crossing the sea1 he beheld an          
apparition of ,mohammed1 surrounded by  
armed ,arabs4 ,the ,prophet bade the    
,general take cheer1 saying3 #8,take    
courage1 ,o ,tarik1 and accomplish what 
thou art destined to perform4' ,the     
vision was accepted by the anxious      
,tarik as an omen of victory4 ,he       

rallied his soldiers1 and marched upon  
,cordova1 which was the royal citadel of
 ,roderick4 ,the ,gothic king1 upon the 
tidings of the invasion1 came from the  
north with his army to the capital1 and 
commanded his officer ,theodemir to     
advance and encounter ,tarik4  ,roderick
 was at this time striving with the sons
 of ,witiza1 the preceding monarch1 for 
his claim to certain territories4 ,count
 ,julian and ,bishop ,oppas sided with  
the princes1 and a large number of the  
people stood to their cause4 ,the advent
 of the forces of ,musa served as an    
opportunity for the sons of ,witiza to  
strike a blow at ,roderick1 their       
powerful enemy4 ,they decided to join   
the army of ,tarik1 and to oppose the   
,gothic rule4  ,the combined hosts of   
,tarik and the sons of ,witiza encamped 
to the south of ,cordova1 after taking  
,algeciras4 ,meanwhile the ,moorish     
commander wrote to his superior for more
 troops1 for ,roderick boasted of a     
large and valorous following4 ,the great

 encounter between the ,goths and the   
,moors was enacted on the plain of      
,guadalete4 ,roderick came to the field 
in a litter1 carried by two mules1 and  
over his head was a brilliantly jewelled
 canopy4 ,aided by the disaffected      
princes and their adherents1 ,tarik made
 a terrific onslaught upon the ranks of 
the ,goths4 ,it has been recounted by   
,moorish historians that ,tarik himself 
went into the thick of the fight1 and   
killed ,roderick with his sword4 ,this  
account is1 however1 doubted by         
,el-,makkari1 who asserts that after the
 battle ,roderick could not be found    
alive or dead4  ,the victory was mighty 
and complete for the ,moors4 ,upon the  
news of ,tarik's success1 his           
compatriots began to pour into the      
country1 for the purpose of             
colonisation1 and in the expectation of 
enrichment in a land which had yielded  
fortune to ,carthaginian1 ,roman1 and   
,visigoth4 ,but ,cordova was still      
secure in the keeping of the            

,christians1 though ,roderick had been  
defeated4 ,naturally the victorious     
,tarik yearned to win fresh laurels1 and
 his design was upon the great capital  
of the ,goths1 the remaining stronghold 
of the routed defenders of ,btica4  ,the
 general selected for the attack upon   
,cordova was ,mughth ,ar-rumi4 ,at the  
direction of ,tarik1 this warrior rode1 
with seven hundred horsemen1 to lay     
siege to the city4 ,some of the ,moorish
 chroniclers state that ,tarik himself  
led the expedition against the capital2 
but ,mughth appears to have been the    
leader upon whom the conduct of this    
important movement fell4  ,advancing    
within a short distance of ,cordova1 the
 force encamped in a forest1 and        
remained cautiously in hiding4 ,at this 
time many parts of ,andalusia1 which are
 now wholly bare of trees1 were well    
wooded4 ,the foolish destruction of the 
forests came later1 under the ,christian
 rule1 the reason for the wholesale     
felling of timber being that trees      

harbour birds1 and that birds feed upon 
seed and grain4  ,concealed in a dense  
pinewood1 ,mughth ,ar-rumi saw the      
coveted city almost within his grasp4   
,but the walls were high1 stoutly       
fortified1 and formidable1 and the      
defenders were reputed valiant and      
stubborn4 ,scouts from the ,moorish army
 were sent to view the defences of the  
city4 ,they met a shepherd1 and from him
 they extracted the intelligence that   
the chief residents of ,cordova had     
quitted1 and fled to ,toledo for        
protection4 ,by threat or bribe1 the    
spies also gathered from the shepherd   
that there was one weak spot in the city
 walls4 ,with this information they     
returned to the ambush1 and acquainted  
,mughth with that which they had        
learned4  ,the ,moorish commander bade  
his warriors prepare for a night attack 
upon the city4 ,darkness and a heavy    
shower of hail favoured the stealthy    
approach of the horsemen to the walls1  
the hail drowning the sound of the      

horses' hoofs4 ,a halt was called4      
,mughth ordered an inspection of the    
walls1 enjoining a close watch for      
sentries4 ,the advance party reported   
that no sentinels were to be seen at    
their posts1 and that the city seemed   
deep in slumber4 ,upon this the shepherd
 quietly conducted the soldiers to the  
weakest point of the embattlements1     
where grew a big fig-tree4 ,one of the  
,moors clambered into the topmost branch
 of the tree1 and contrived to gain the 
summit of the city wall4 ,unrolling the 
coils of his turban1 ,mughth threw one  
end to the man1 who used it as a rope to
 assist his comrades in scaling the     
barrier4  ,the entrance into the city   
was achieved quietly and with little    
loss of time4 ,with scarcely any effort 
of resistance1 the startled inhabitants 
fled from their houses1 and1 headed by  
the ,governor1 rushed to a church for   
safety4 ,the edifice proved a veritable 
fastness for a large number of the      
people4 ,mughth ,ar-rumi was baffled4   

,his only course was to cut off all     
approach to and egress from the church1 
trusting that starvation would compel   
the imprisoned populace to yield4 ,but  
he was unaware that a conduit brought   
water underground to the building1 and  
that the defenders were probably able to
 hold out for some time1 having provided
 themselves with rations for a state of 
siege4  ,a negro1 who managed to find a 
way into the church1 was sent as a spy4 
,this man immediately fell into the     
hands of the besieged1 who were at first
 alarmed by his appearance4 ,they had   
never seen a human creature with a skin 
of ebony and hair of wool4 ,mistaking   
the hue of the black man's skin for     
uncleanliness1 they washed and scrubbed 
him with great pains4 ,but1 greatly to  
their wonder1 the black covering refused
 to leave the man's skin1 and they at   
length ended the prolonged ablutions4   
,in seven days the much-scrubbed negro  
made his escape4 ,to ,mughth he reported
 the conduit4 ,whereupon the general    

promptly cut off the supply of water1   
and thought to bring the people to      
instant surrender4 ,he was1 however1    
disappointed1 for the band in the church
 still bravely held out and defied him4 
,the extremest measure was at length    
employed by the impatient ,moor4 ,for   
three months the refugees had resisted  
all endeavour to eject them or to starve
 them into submission4 ,the church was  
fired1 and the luckless defenders had no
 choice between instant death and       
yielding4 ,they rushed from the flames1 
and the ,governor of the city was taken 
captive4 ,the church was afterwards     
known as #8,the ,church of the          
,burning4'  ,so fell the ,kordhobah of  
the ,gothic kings4 ,the palace became   
the residence of ,mughth1 who lived     
there until he had decided upon the     
future government of the city4 ,before  
leaving ,cordova1 the ,moorish general  
appointed the ,jewish residents the     
rulers of the city4 ,thus the oppressed 
and plundered ,hebrew came into         

possession1 and rose to the position of 
autocratic director of those who had    
bitterly persecuted him4 ,this affront  
to the dignity of the proud ,goths was  
doubtless grievous to them in the hour  
of their defeat4 ,but it was a shrewd   
policy of rulership on the part of      
,mughth ,ar-rumi4  ,whether certain of  
the ,moorish writers of this period are 
correct in relating that ,tarik was     
before the walls of ,cordova1 we are not
 able to say4 ,it is written that he    
came with an army1 and after waiting    
nine days in impatience1 being unable to
 force an entry1 he departed1 and left  
,mughth to capture the city4  ,cordova  
was now made subject to the ,khalif of  
,damascus2 but in #gef it was           
independent1 under the rule of          
,abd-er-,rahman ,i4 ,according to       
,el-,makkari1 ,ayub was the first to    
establish the capital of the territory  
of ,andalus at ,cordova4  ,mughth1 the  
capturer of ,cordova1 was not only an   
intrepid soldier1 he was a scholar and  

poet1 and a lover of the arts4 ,after   
the taking of the city he went to       
,damascus1 but returned to ,cordova and 
lived in the palace4     ,,iii  ,,the   
,,omeyyad ,,dynasty   ,abd-er-,rahman1 a
 brave prince of a family that had ruled
 ,damascus1 was born in troubled times  
in the camp before that city4           
,es-,deffah had seized upon the throne2 
the family of the ,omeyyads was hurled  
from power4 ,while under sentence of    
death for his attempt to restore the    
fortunes of his family1 ,abd-er-,rahman 
passed a period of wandering among ,arab
 herdsmen4 ,his dream was of ,andalusia1
 where the supporters of the ,omeyyads  
were still numerous and powerful2 and by
 dint of energy and enthusiasm the young
 prince contrived to form a corps of one
 thousand ,arabs4  ,abdulmalek ,ibn     
,kattan1 who had usurped rulership in   
,cordova1 had been defeated by the      
adventurous ,balj at the head of a troop
 of ,syrians4 ,the luckless ,abdulmalek1
 after falling into the hands of ,balj1 

was crucified in a field outside        
,cordova1 with a hog on one side and a  
dog on the other4 ,until recovered by   
friends and removed for burial1 the body
 of the conquered sultan was left upon  
the cross as a menace to his followers4 
,but ,balj enjoyed only a short spell of
 power1 for at the end of eleven months 
he was forced to encounter the          
redoubtable prince of the ,omeyyads1    
whose army of ,arabs was largely        
augmented by fierce partisans in ,spain4
  ,marching upon ,cordova1              
,abd-er-,rahman besieged the city4 ,balj
 was wounded1 and his injuries caused   
his death4 ,from this time1 for about   
three centuries1 the capital of         
,andalusia was held by the ,omeyyad     
line1 and during this rule the city     
reached the highest stage of its might  
and magnificence4 ,the ,arab writers    
state that the independent khalifate of 
,cordova was founded by ,abd-er-,rahman 
,i41 after conquering ,yusuf1 who       
reigned in the city4 ,yusuf resisted the

 ,omeyyad troops outside the walls of   
,cordova1 and1 being worsted1 he        
retired4 ,abd-er-,rahman then entered   
the city1 and appointing the command to 
,abu ,othman1 went in pursuit of the    
remnant of ,yusuf's army4 ,meanwhile    
,yusuf counter-marched1 returned to     
,cordova1 and assailed ,abu ,othman1    
promising him future security for       
himself and his relatives if he would   
surrender4  ,it is said that ,othman    
refused to accept the terms of          
surrender4 ,but eventually ,yusuf and   
,abd-er-,rahman came to an agreement1   
and both monarchs lived in the city     
7,a4,d4 #geg7 in amity4 ,the treaty was1
 however1 afterwards broken by ,yusuf1  
who left his palace1 collected a force1 
and made war in ,andalusia4 ,he was     
frustrated by the ,governor of ,seville1
 but after the conflict ,yusuf escaped  
to ,toledo4 ,here he was recognised in  
the street1 and murdered1 by spies who  
hoped to receive reward for their fealty
 to ,abd-er-,rahman4 ,yusuf's head was  

sent to ,cordova1 and nailed to an arch 
of the bridge1 together with the head of
 his son4  ,upon attaining the throne1  
,abd-er-,rahman began to turn his       
energies to the development of ,cordova4
 ,he had a passion for building4 ,a new 
palace arose1 mosques and baths were    
erected1 and an aqueduct was constructed
 to bring pure water from the mountains4
 ,in #ghf ,abd-er-,rahman supervised the
 building of the huge and splendid      
,mezquita4  ,in character the first     
,omeyyad ruler was humane1 eloquent1 and
 brave4 ,he had red hair1 a fresh skin1 
and high cheek-bones4 ,his form was tall
 and supple1 and he was fond of         
exercise1 especially the sport of       
falconry4 ,his dress was always of white
 linen1 and he lived simply4  ,there    
are1 however1 blots upon the reputation 
of ,abd-er-,rahman ,i4 ,he was of       
violent temper1 and subject to strong   
prejudices4 ,his treatment of ,abu      
,othman1 ,temain1 and other allies1 who 
had assisted him in gaining power1 was  

not generous4 ,he reigned for over      
thirty-three years1 and was buried in   
,cordova4  ,hisham1 son of              
,abd-er-,rahman1 succeeded in the       
government of ,cordova4 ,he was esteemed
 as a wise king1 and under his direction
 the work of building and adorning the  
,mezquita was continued4 ,hisham founded
 schools for teaching the ,arabic       
language1 and he restored the long      
bridge over the ,guadalquivir4  ,the    
next ruler was ,hakem1 who continued the
 work of enlarging and improving the    
mosque4 ,this sovereign was soon        
confronted with the trials of a         
rebellion in the city1 and a very       
grievous period of famine4 ,a poet of   
,cordova wrote3      #8,time has brought
 on sterility and famine1 but the       
calamity itself          has proved a   
benefit to ,al-,hakem4      ,it has     
insured his rule1 and delivered him of  
many a rebellious          subject4'    
,hakem was the first king to give       
regular pay to the army4 ,he left a     

family of twenty boys and twenty girls1 
and the throne descended to one of his  
sons1 ,abd-er-,rahman ,,ii4  ,the fourth
 ,omeyyad sultan was an encourager of   
poets1 painters1 and philosophers4 ,abu 
,meruan1 the illustrious historian1     
lived in this reign1 and ,ziryb1 the    
distinguished musician1 was a court     
favourite4 ,when ,ziryb was on his way  
to the city of culture and the arts1 his
 royal patron went out to receive him   
with honour and pomp4 ,being himself a  
poet and a passionate worshipper of     
music1 ,abd-er-,rahman ,,ii4 was a true 
friend of all artists4  ,ziryb1 the     
composer1 was singularly versatile4 ,we 
read that he invented a new process for 
making linen white1 that he introduced  
asparagus into ,andalusia1 invented a   
crystal ware1 and taught the use of     
leather beds4  ,it is interesting to    
learn that the harem of the second      
,abd-er-,rahman contained several       
cultured women4 ,one of these was ,tarb1
 a favourite concubine1 to whom the     

monarch addressed these lines3          
#8,when the sun rises every day to give 
us light1 it reminds         me of      
,tarb4      ,i am the happiest of       
mortals1 since ,i am successful in love 
and prosperous in war4'  ,another beauty
 of the court was ,kalam1 a woman of    
learning4 ,she recited poetry and was   
gifted in music4  ,we may pass over the 
somewhat uneventful period of rule under
 ,mohammed and ,abdullah1 and enter upon
 the reign of the illustrious           
,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii4 7#iab-ifa71 the  
greatest of the ,omeyyads1 and the most 
enlightened of the trio of monarchs     
bearing his name4 ,this was the         
crowning1 the most glorious1 hour of    
,cordova's splendour4 ,the ,moors were  
in possession of almost the whole of    
,spain4 ,draw a line on the map of the  
country from the north-eastern limit of 
the ,pyrenees to ,coimbra1 north of     
,lisbon1 and you will divide the region 
of the conquered ,iberians of the       
,biscayan mountains from the kingdom of 

the ,mohammedans4 ,all the districts    
below the line were governed by the     
,moors4 ,in #acfj only ,granada remained
 as the remnant of ,moorish might in    
,spain4  ,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii4 lived in
 a gorgeous palace in the northern      
quarter of ,cordova4 ,this was but one  
of the sumptuous houses of the city in  
the height of its grandeur1 for1 on the 
authority of several chroniclers1 there 
were fifty thousand palaces in ,cordova1
 besides three hundred mosques4 ,one of 
these palaces was known as ,damascus2   
others were called the ,palace of the   
,garden1 the ,palace of ,contentment1   
and the ,palace of ,flowers4 ,the       
glitter of ,cordova shone afar          
throughout the ,moslem world4 ,ibn      
,said1 the historian1 wrote a full      
description of #8the beauties of the    
kingdom of ,cordova1' containing        
information concerning the population1  
industries1 and buildings of the fair   
and opulent city4 ,the water from the   
aqueduct was collected in a large       

reservoir1 in which stood the image of a
 lion1 covered with gold1 and having    
jewels for the eyes4 ,the stream poured 
in at the hind part of the lion1 and    
gushed from the mouth1 and the overflow 
ran to the ,guadalquivir4  ,a palace    
upon arches was built over the river4   
,dimascus1 the chief palace1 had roofs  
supported by marble columns1 and        
dazzling floors of mosaics4 ,walls      
surrounded the city1 which was          
approached by beautiful gates1 bearing  
such names as ,bab ,koriah 7the ,gate of
 ,coria71 ,bbu-el-,tamen 7the ,gate of  
the ,gardens71 and ,bbu-el-,jemi 7the   
,gate of the ,great ,mosque74  ,the     
wise1 the studious1 and those skilled in
 the arts and the crafts flocked to     
,cordova during the reign of            
,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii4 ,surrounded by   
the learned in his splendid palace1 the 
great ,khalif lived in an atmosphere of 
thought and beauty4 ,literary men came  
nightly to recite their stories to the  
sultan and his nobles1 musicians played 

their compositions1 and masters of      
science expounded their theories and    
discoveries4  ,amid the counsels of the 
intellectual and the prudent            
,abd-er-,rahman ruled with discretion1  
justice1 and tolerance2 ,spain had      
reached the height of its civilisation4 
,the land was made to yield of its      
richest2 fruits and flowers of the      
tropics flourished2 the steeds of       
,arabia were bred in the vales around   
the city2 workers in clay1 wood1 and    
metals plied their crafts with loving   
industry2 and the world wondered at this
 spectacle of might1 culture1 and peace4
  ,it was ,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii4 who    
caused the building of                  
,medinat-,ez-,zahra1 a city situated at 
a distance of four miles and a third    
from ,cordova4 ,this marvellous suburb  
contained markets1 taverns1 baths1 and  
institutions of learning4 ,a stupendous 
mosque was erected4 ,el-,makkari speaks 
of the magnificent palace1 wherein the  
,khalif was served by an army of        

servants2 the gardens1 and the fishponds
 teeming with well-fed fish1 who were   
regaled with a daily allowance of twelve
 thousand loaves of bread4  ,forty years
 were spent in the making of ,ez-,zahra4
 ,ten thousand workmen and three        
thousand horses and mules were employed 
in the labour4 ,the columns came from   
,carthage1 ,rome1 and ,constantinople2  
the walls and roof of the palace were of
 marble adorned with gold4  ,upon       
viewing the majestic city1 a ,moorish   
writer cried3 #8,praise be to ,god ,most
 ,high for allowing ,his humble         
creatures to design and build such      
enchanting palaces as this1 and who     
permitted them to inhabit them as a sort
 of recompence in this world1 and in    
order that the faithful might be        
encouraged to follow the path of virtue1
 by the reflection that1 delightful as  
were these pleasures1 they were still   
far below those reserved for the true   
believer in the ,celestial ,paradise4'  
,when the messengers of ,constantine    

came to ,ez-,zahra1 they were awed and  
made speechless by the majestic grandeur
 of the palace4 ,alas6 to-day not a     
vestige of ,medinat-,ez-,zahra survives4
 ,the ruthless ,berbers razed the fair  
city to the ground in #ajaj1 leaving not
 a stone to remind the beholder of its  
past glory4  ,the last ,abd-er-,rahman  
possessed a love of ceremony and        
splendour4 ,he built palaces1 mosques1  
and halls to appease this passion of    
ostentation2 and we read that when      
potentates journeyed to seek his        
presence1 he caused elaborate buildings 
to be erected for their nightly         
reception along the route4 ,in reading  
of the ,mezquita1 we shall see how much 
of his time and wealth were devoted to  
improving and embellishing the great    
structure4  ,upon the city of ,ez-,zahra
 ,abd-er-,rahman spent huge sums from   
the treasury4 ,it was built to please   
one of his concubines1 after whom it was
 named1 and a statue of the fair        
favourite was carved in relief over the 

chief gateway4 ,the palaces were of     
massive plan and beautiful design4 ,dark
 hills formed the background to the     
city1 and referring to the situation    
,ez-,zahra said3 #8,see1 ,o master1 how 
beautiful this girl looks in the arms of
 yonder ,ethiopian4' ,the sombre hills  
were1 however1 an eyesore to            
,abd-er-,rahman1 and he proposed to     
remove them2 but this feat of           
engineering was not carried out1 and to 
relieve the blackness of the slopes the 
,sultan caused them to be planted with  
fig and almond trees4  ,hakem ,,ii41 who
 succeeded ,abd-er-,rahman1 was a just  
ruler1 distinguished for his humility4  
,he was a zealous ascetic1 and he passed
 laws condemning the use of wine4 ,to   
enforce abstinence from the juice of the
 grape1 he rooted up the vineyards4 ,we 
shall see later how this ,khalif devoted
 himself to enriching the ,mezquita4    
,we have now reached the reign of the   
powerful ,almanzor1 or ,almansur1 a     
romantic and ambitious personage1 who   

came to ,cordova as a poor student4     
,during the days of his poverty he made 
a scanty livelihood by writing letters1 
and became the protg of ,aurora1 mother 
of ,hisham ,,ii4 ,after attaining this  
post1 he appears to have made quick     
advance towards preferment1 for he was  
soon appointed kadi of a town1 and      
obtained a position as a civil servant  
in the city of ,seville4 ,returning to  
,cordova1 he paid homage to his         
patroness ,aurora1 and gave her costly  
gifts4 ,his next appointment was as     
master of the mint1 and we learn that he
 built himself a mansion of silver4     
,almanzor's career was a fight for      
power4 ,he won general esteem by his    
prowess as a soldier1 and in the wars   
with the ,christians he triumphed in    
fifty-six battles4 ,even when stricken  
by illness1 ,almanzor went to the field 
in a litter1 and directed the movements 
of his force in their attacks on the    
infidels4 ,always scheming for          
authority1 he contrived to usurp rule in

 ,andalusia4 ,the attainment of his     
desire did not yield him complete       
felicity1 for he once wept at the       
thought that war would one day destroy  
his sway and level his magnificent      
palace4  ,under ,almanzor ,cordova grew 
in might and was still regarded as the  
wonder of the ,moslem world4 ,the       
,vizier was a man of culture1 a clever  
diplomatist1 and a valorous soldier4    
,conde says that in battle #8he         
resembled a raging panther1 leaping on  
the prey and thirsting for blood4' ,in  
times of peace he held poetical         
tournaments1 rewarding the victorious   
poets with heavy prizes of money for    
their verses4 ,almanzor was the founder 
of ,ez-,zahirah1 a town which grew up in
 the vicinity of ,ez-,zahra4 ,it        
contained a resplendent palace1 which   
was two years in the building4 ,here the
 monarch maintained a court1 and        
received foreign potentates1 with much  
ceremony and parade of wealth4  ,cordova
 saw the first signs of impending       

decadence when ,almanzor died1 and his  
son ,muzaffar came in to rule4 ,under   
,almanzor the glory of the city reached 
its culmination4 #8,do not make war on  
these people1 for by the ,lord we have  
seen the earth yielding them its hidden 
treasures1' was the counsel of the      
,sclavonian ambassadors1 after they had 
sojourned in ,cordova1 and seen the     
wonders and riches of ,ez-,zahra and    
,ez-,zahirah displayed before their     
dazzled eyes4 ,vast were the resources  
and the armaments of these three        
marvellous cities1 and famous for valour
 were their sons4 ,almanzor forged      
thousands of blades and spears1 and the 
yield of his shield manufactory was     
twelve thousand in one year4  ,and yet  
power1 pomp1 learning and the arts--all 
decayed with the waning of the great    
,omeyyad dynasty4 ,the ripe fruit of    
this fine civilisation seems to have    
rotted rapidly4 ,such social science as 
the ,moors possessed could not save it  
from destruction2 the arts of war1 in   

which the makers of ,kordhobah were so  
excellent1 failed against the inexorable
 march of decadence4 ,boastful          
imperialism and luxury ate out the heart
 of the city1 till it could not         
withstand the savage ,berber mob4       
,complete disorder prevailed1 palaces   
were wrecked1 mosques were pillaged1    
treasure looted1 gardens laid waste1 and
 the largest library in the world was   
ransacked and plundered4  ,we can       
scarcely form a conception of all the   
beauteous edifices1 the noble works of  
artist and craftsman1 that perished in  
this last upheaval4 ,almanzor's palace  
was ruthlessly burned to the ground4    
,the city claimed to be an independent  
republic4 ,robbers swarmed in the holy  
fanes1 and murderers rushed red-handed  
through the streets4  ,in ,a4,d4 #ajaj  
the ,berbers attacked ,ez-,zahra1 and   
killed its defenders with savage        
ferocity4 ,even within the mosque the   
fugitive citizens were not safe from the
 swords of the invading barbarians4 ,led

 by ,ibn ,hishaim ,ibn ,abd-l-,jabbar1  
the rebels swooped upon ,cordova4 ,the  
glorious art treasures of ,ez-,zahirah  
were seized by the troops1 and the      
mansions were destroyed by fire4        
,baghdad and other towns of the east    
became the storehouses of the jewels1   
plate1 books1 and pictures which were   
stolen from ,cordova2 and the uncultured
 horde came into possession under the   
leadership of ,suleyman4 ,only vestiges 
of ,cordova's pristine grandeur survived
 this period of frenzied rapine4        
,lamentable was the fall of this centre 
of wisdom1 virtue1 refinement1 and the  
arts4 ,nothing could restore its majesty
 and pre-eminence4 ,misruled by         
discordant factions1 ,cordova lingered  
moribund1 a sad spectacle of shattered  
might4 ,it has never regained a tithe of
 its former supremacy4 ,the drowsy city 
lives on its memories of greatness4  ,in
 #abce ,ferdinand ,,iii4--the doughty   
,christian warrior ,san ,fernando--took 
the city at the point of the sword1 and 

reclaimed it from the alien heretic4    
,spain rejoiced at this capture of the  
capital of ,moorish power4 ,it was a    
triumph for the soldiers of the ,cross4 
,most of the vanquished ,cordovans took 
refuge in ,granada2 the #8reconciled'   
sullenly accepted the conditions imposed
 upon them1 and remained in the city4   
,such was the downfall of the ,khalifs4 
,the ,christians established rule in the
 despoiled capital2 the mosque was      
purified from its taint of the ,moslem1 
and dedicated to the worship of ,god and
 the ,virgin1 and one by one the        
hundreds of baths fell into disuse1 for 
cleanliness was not a canon of the      
victorious faith4  ,the coming of ,san  
,fernando only hastened the process of  
disruption in ,cordova4 ,war was the    
chief business of the ,spaniard at this 
age1 and handicraft was despised as     
something unworthy of a true ,castilian 
caballero4 ,all the possibilities of    
reconstruction and restoration were     
neglected by the ,christians1 who were  

more concerned with expelling the ,moors
 and shattering every relic of their    
rule1 than in making reasonable use of  
the resources and the crafts which they 
had developed and brought to perfection4
 ,the remnant of the ,moors still       
remained the designers1 craft-workers1  
and agriculturists1 but their arts and  
their husbandry steadily declined4 ,no  
great and beautiful buildings were      
reared on the ashes of ,cordova1        
excepting the ,christian additions to   
the ,mezquita1 which was consecrated in 
the name of the ,vrgen de la ,asuncon4  
,the militarist ,spaniards had no time  
to devote to trade1 the cultivation of  
the vegas1 and the extension of         
learning4 ,buildings which had been the 
joy of the ,moors were permitted to     
crumble1 or were pulled down to supply  
material for the erection of squalid    
dwellings4 ,grim ruin descended upon    
fair ,cordova2 melancholy decay         
succeeded its long era of growth and    
prosperity4 ,the admirable irrigation   

system1 which had made the meadows lush 
and the land fecund1 was left unused1   
and the vineyards and plots were        
neglected4 ,briars and weeds gained     
supremacy in the fertile valley2 the    
earth became impoverished and barren4   
,the beautiful horses of ,arab breed1   
which were reared by the ,moors1        
deteriorated in stamina and grace1 and  
degenerate cattle roamed the plains by  
the ,guadalquivir4 ,forests planted by  
the makers of ,cordova were felled2 the 
country was rendered bare of foliage and
 shade4  ,in the seventeenth century the
 population of the city had been reduced
 to about seventy thousand inhabitants1 
and the number of its residents steadily
 dwindled after the expulsion of the    
,moors4 ,there are now about fifty      
thousand people in ,cordova4 ,in the    
tenth century three hundred thousand    
persons dwelt in the city and its       
surroundings4  ,the ,mezquita1 the      
bridge1 the mosque of ,almanzor and the 
ruins of the ,alcazar stand as eloquent 

examples of the ,cordova of ,almanzor3  
not a stone survives of the luxurious   
palaces1 whose names suggest ,oriental  
splendour and the joy of life4 ,we can  
but imagine the charm of the ,palace of 
,contentment and the ,palace of the     
,diadem1 and the loveliness of the      
scented gardens that delighted sultans  
and sultanas1 and the sages and the     
poets of the far-famed #8,bride of      
,andalusia4'  ,hushed is the voice of   
the muezzin3 no longer can men sit      
entranced at the strains of the         
musicians1 or listen to the recitals of 
the doctors and the poets4 ,but the same
 notes of the nightingale drift on the  
perfumed breeze of evening1 and the     
hawks still sail and soar above the     
minaret4 ,and in the ,court of ,oranges1
 girls of erect and ,moorish mien bear  
,oriental pitchers on their heads1 as   
they resort to the fountain for water2  
while through the open door of the      
,mezquita one may scent the incense1 and
 see the tangled vista of ,arabic       

arches2 or1 standing upon the           
many-arched bridge1 watch the selfsame  
umber river which legions upon legions  
of dusky warriors crossed to victory4   
,thus ,cordova1 though in a sense dead1 
still lives and speaks4 ,its stones are 
vividly reminiscent of the days of the  
,moors2 the atmosphere is mysteriously  
impressive1 and the features of its     
natives have still the ,arab cast1 while
 in their customs and their speech      
traces of the ,moor survive4  ,with the 
triumph of ,san ,fernando came the      
steady disintegration of the high       
civilisation of ,cordova1 and its       
history from the day of victory onwards 
is one both mournful and instructive4   
,the expulsion of the ,arab artisans was
 an error of policy which the more      
intelligent ,cordovese quickly          
recognised1 for soon after the          
restoration of the city into the hands  
of the ,spanish sovereigns1 many of the 
inhabitants proposed to request the king
 to permit six per cent4 of the ,moors  

to remain in ,cordova4 ,this petition   
was1 however1 lightly regarded by the   
,governor1 and it does not appear to    
have come under the attention of        
,ferdinand4 ,later on1 the citizens1    
finding that trade was rapidly          
declining1 begged that a few aged ,moors
 might be allowed to stay in the city1  
and to ply their trade of               
harness-makers4  ,the neglect of the    
staple industries of ,cordova after the 
,christian reconstruction is an         
object-lesson upon the paralysis of the 
arts and crafts which characterises the 
,castilian influence during this period4
 ,it seems almost incredible that the   
,spaniards had forgotten the art of     
harness-making1 or that the natives of  
,cordova refused to soil their fingers  
in any sort of labour4 ,but what other  
inferences can be drawn from the        
proposed petitions that a small number  
of the ,moriscos might be retained as   
mechanics8 ,it appears evident that the 
only occupations deemed fitting for an  

,andalusian of that day were            
ecclesiastic or military4 ,there was    
only the choice between the church and  
the army4  ,an observant traveller1 the 
,chevalier de ,bourgoanne1 who made a   
tour of ,spain in #agig1 writes of the  
melancholy decay of ,cordova4 #8,in so  
fine a climate1' says the ,chevalier1   
#8in midst of so many sources of        
prosperity1 it 7,cordova7 contains no   
more than #ce1jjj inhabitants4 ,formerly
 celebrated for its manufactories of    
silks1 fine cloths1 etc41 it has now no 
other industrious occupations but a few 
manufactories of ribbons1 galoons1 hats 
and baize4'     ,,iv  ,,the ,,building  
,,of ,,the ,,mosque   ,when             
,abd-er-,rahman ,i4 seized upon the     
citadel of the ,gothic ,christian kings1
 he found the ,cordovese split up into  
various sects1 such as the ,gnostics1   
,priscillianists1 ,donatists1 and       
,luciferians4 ,these cults were1        
however1 united in their detestation of 
the new creed of the ,east1 which the   

victors sought to impose upon them4 ,it 
is quite clear from the records of the  
more impartial ,spanish historians1 that
 the ,sultan was a man of tolerant mould
 and a respecter of justice4 ,his       
ambition was to erect a temple1 which   
would rival in magnificence those of    
,baghdad1 ,jerusalem1 and ,damascus1 and
 approach in sanctity to the fane of    
,mecca itself4  ,the ,christian church  
in ,cordova stood upon the site of the  
former ,roman religious edifice         
dedicated to ,janus1 and upon this      
situation ,abd-er-,rahman desired to    
rear his great mosque4 ,autocrat though 
he was1 the monarch strove to maintain  
the conditions upon which the           
inhabitants had surrendered4 ,he might  
have broken faith1 and annexed the      
,christian building and the ground upon 
which it stood4 ,but he honourably      
offered to buy the church and the plot  
from the conquered people4 ,the         
negotiations of purchase were placed in 
the hands of the ,sultan's favourite    

secretary1 ,umeya ,ibn ,yezid4  ,at     
first the ,christians refused to sell   
their cherished basilica1 which had been
 divided into a temple of the faith of  
,christ and a fane for the worship of   
,allah4 ,here1 in separate portions of  
the building1 the conquerors and the    
conquered murmured their prayers and    
repeated their praises to their deities4
 ,how the ,cordovese were induced to    
relinquish the church cannot be         
explained by any historical evidence    
that we are able to obtain from the     
writings of ,arabians and ,spaniards4   
,some authors have suggested that the   
,christians of ,cordova were            
disheartened by adversity and the       
assaults of ,islam upon their creed1 and
 that they yielded to the suasion and   
counsels of ,umeya ,ibn ,yezid1 and sold
 their tabernacle to the invaders4 ,at  
any rate it is manifest that            
,abd-er-,rahman won in the end1 and that
 he was able to forward his project     
without showing violence to the natives 

of ,cordova4  ,no doubt the ,christians 
preferred to worship in their own       
buildings rather than to share the      
basilica with the infidels1 and this    
preference may have influenced their    
spiritual leaders in meeting the request
 of the sultan and his agent4 ,under the
 terms of transference1 the ,cordovese  
were permitted to reconstruct the       
edifice formerly dedicated to ,st4      
,faustus1 ,st4 ,januarius1 and ,st4     
,marcellus1 three martyrs whom they     
deeply revered4 ,immediately upon the   
conveyance of the church and its site to
 ,abd-er-,rahman1 the work of erecting  
the gorgeous mosque was begun with much 
enthusiasm and at the expenditure of    
huge sums of money4 ,the ,khalif was    
rich4 ,besides the treasure wrested from
 the ,goths during the wars1 he         
extracted a tithe upon the produce of   
the land and on manufactures4 ,a tax was
 also laid upon every ,christian and    
,jew in ,andalusia4 ,beyond this1 the   
,moorish kings were greatly enriched by 

the acquisition of the valuable mines of
 ,spain1 the quarries of marble1 and    
other sources of wealth4 ,from these    
revenues ,abd-er-,rahman and his        
successors1 ,hisham1 ,abd-er-,rahman    
,,ii41 the greatest of the dynasty and  
the third of the line--and lastly1 the  
extravagant ,al-manzor--lavished heavy  
sums upon the designing1 construction1  
and costly adornment of the ,mosque4    
,the power of the first ,khalif of      
,cordova was supreme and undisputed4 ,he
 was the sole spiritual and temporal    
head of the people1 #8the ,commander of 
the ,faithful4' ,subservient to him were
 the walis who ruled in the provinces4  
,abd-er-,rahman's despotism made upon   
the whole for charity1 tolerance1 and   
justice4 ,the accounts of his           
persecutions have been coloured by pious
 historians1 and bear the stamp of a    
natural hostility to the conqueror and  
his religion4 ,one or two of the more   
accurate ,spanish writers assert that1  
at the most1 only forty persons were    

martyred in ,cordova under the ,omeyyad 
sway2 and1 according to ,morales1 these 
victims sought persecution4  ,to court  
sufferings at the hands of the ,moors   
was deemed a noble virtue in the breast 
of the devout ,christians4 ,we may      
recall the story of ,santa ,teresa of   
,avila1 who1 as a child1 wandered from  
the city with her little brother to seek
 persecution in the country of the      
infidels4 ,whatever may be charged      
against the ,khalifs of the family of   
,omeyya1 it cannot be asserted that     
their policy after the conquest was one 
of tyrannous subjugation4 ,they         
undoubtedly levied taxes and imposts    
upon the ,goths1 and confiscated their  
lands1 after a campaign of destruction  
and aggression2 but as victors they     
displayed magnanimity1 and sought to    
heal the wounded spirit of the          
vanquished4  ,the attitude of           
,abd-er-,rahman ,i4 towards the         
,christian population of ,cordova was1  
therefore1 clement and conciliatory4    

,under his sovereignty there dawned an  
age of prosperity and advancement4 ,the 
work of building the resplendent        
,mezquita employed thousands of artisans
 and labourers4 ,this vast undertaking  
led to the development of all the       
resources of the district4 ,durable     
stone and beautifully veined marbles    
were quarried from the ,sierra ,morena  
and the surrounding regions of the city4
 ,metals of various kinds were dug from 
the soil1 and factories sprang up in    
,cordova amid the stir and bustle of an 
awakened industrial energy4 ,a famous   
,syrian architect made the plans for the
 ,mosque4 ,leaving his suburban         
dwelling1 the ,khalif came to reside in 
the city1 so that he might personally   
superintend the operations1 and offer   
proposals for the improvement of the    
designs4 ,we are told that              
,abd-er-,rahman moved about among the   
workers1 directing them during several  
hours of every day4 ,the monarch was    
growing old4 ,it was the longing of his 

heart to witness the final achievement  
of his great scheme before death        
overtook him4  ,in planning the ,mosque 
the architects incorporated a number of 
,roman columns with choice capitals4    
,some of the columns were already in the
 ,gothic structure2 others were sent    
from various quarters of ,spain as      
presents from the governors of          
provinces4 ,ivory1 jasper1 porphyry1    
gold1 silver1 copper1 and brass were    
used in the decorations4 ,marvellous    
mosaics and azulejos were designed4     
,panels of scented woods were fastened  
with nails of pure gold1 and the red    
marble columns were said to be the work 
of ,god4 ,the primitive part of the     
building1 reared under the direction of 
,abd-er-,rahman ,i41 was that bordering 
the ,court of ,oranges4 ,later1 the     
immense temple embodied all the styles  
of ,morisco architecture in one noble   
composition4  ,the first ,khalif of     
,cordova did not survive to witness the 
completion of the ,mosque4 ,he died in  

the ,alcazar long before the work was   
finished1 and committed the task to his 
son ,hisham4 ,the prince carried on the 
work with zealous devotion4 ,upon his   
father's death in #ghh1 the building    
covered only a small part of the ground 
now occupied by the ,mosque and its     
later additions4 ,hisham ,i4 built the  
tower for the muezzin1 and the fretted  
gallery for the women worshippers1 and  
added much to the ,zeca1 or ,house of   
,purification1 erected by               
,abd-er-,rahman4  ,the ,court of        
,ablutions was laid out by the first    
,khalif1 and occupied the ground of the 
present ,court of ,oranges4 ,in         
constructing the ,mosque1 the founders  
adapted the basilica form of building to
 the new worship4 ,during the ,omeyyad  
dynasty the original building was       
constantly enlarged and improved1 and   
fresh decorations were added up to the  
time of ,almanzor4 ,each ,khalif vied   
with his predecessor in beautifying the 
temple4 ,the pristine building was      

finished ten years after the planning   
under ,abd-er-,rahman ,i41 that is1     
during the reign of ,hisham ,i41 who    
conducted the labour with the utmost    
expedition4 ,marbles of spotless white  
were chosen for the innumerable columns4
 ,arrazi1 an ,arab writer1 speaks of the
 valuable wine-coloured marble1 obtained
 from the mountains of the district1    
which was much used in embellishing the 
naves of the ,mosques of ,cordova and   
,ez-,zahra4  ,the solemnity and beauty  
of the ceremonies in the ,house of      
,purification can only be imagined4     
,every day saw the celebration of the   
tazamein1 or purification of the devout1
 before entering the holy structure1 and
 six times daily the alicama1 or call to
 prayer1 was shouted by the muezzin from
 the summit of the minaret4 ,no shoes   
were permitted to defile the sanctuary2 
the worshippers entered barefooted4     
,from its sacred shadow all ,jews were  
excluded1 and restrictions guarded the  
approach of women1 except the privileged

 royal brides4  ,the interior glittered 
with gold1 silver1 precious stones1     
mosaics1 and hundreds of lamps of brass4
 ,by the side of the priest stood a     
mighty wax candle1 and the scent of the 
burning aloes1 ambergris1 and perfumed  
oils in the lanterns drifted through the
 tangled arches of the long naves4 ,some
 of the brass lamps were made out of    
bells taken from ,christian churches4   
,the pulpit was seven years in the      
making4 ,it was of ivory1 ebony1 sandal1
 aloe1 and citron wood1 with nails of   
gold and silver4 ,eight artists lavished
 their skill upon the designing and     
adorning of this pulpit4 ,in the        
wondrous mih-rab the walls were of pure 
gold4 ,a copy of the ,koran in a gold   
case1 set with pearls and rubies1 was   
kept in the pulpit4 ,it was taken away  
by ,abu-,mohammed on one of his         
campaigns1 and was finally lost to the  
faithful4  ,the building of the ,mosque 
began in #ghe or #ghf1 and throughout   
the rule of the ,omeyyad monarchs there 

were constant additions to the ,zeca of 
,abd-er-,rahman ,i4 ,as ,cordova grew1  
and strangers flocked to the city from  
,north ,africa and ,arabia1 it was found
 necessary to provide a larger edifice  
for the worshippers4 ,in the time of    
,abd-er-,rahman ,,ii41 the ,house of    
,purification was enlarged by the       
addition of several aisles1 two porches 
were added1 and a new mih-rab was       
constructed4 ,the columns were gilded at
 this period at the direction of the    
,sultan4 ,during the reign of ,mohammed 
,i4 the work was continued2 the walls   
and portals were improved1 and the      
maksurrah1 or railed sanctum for the    
,khalif1 was also built4 ,the ruler     
attended the services in great pomp on  
,fridays1 approaching the ,mosque by an 
underground passage from his palace4    
,hisham's temple covered an area of #dfj
 feet from north to south1 and #bhj feet
 from east to west4 ,it was flanked by  
stout1 fortified walls1 with            
watch-towers and a tall minaret4 ,the   

number of the outer gates was nine1 and 
of the inner doors eleven4 ,these doors 
led to the same number of naves within  
the ,mosque4 ,the court had spacious    
gates on the north1 west1 and east      
sides1 and fountains for the            
purification of the pious4 ,the naves   
were eleven in number1 stretching from  
north to south1 and these were crossed  
by twenty-one smaller naves running from
 east to west4  ,in the ,mezquita of    
,cordova we see the first examples of   
the true ,arabian architecture1 whose   
purity was lost at a later date in the  
style of the ,almohades4 ,the ,estilo   
,sarraceno1 or earlier style of design  
and decoration1 has an example in the   
beautiful ,puerta del ,perdon of the    
,mosque of ,cordova4 ,we learn that by  
the year #abhb the fashion in form and  
adornment had so greatly changed1 that  
the ,moors who then remained in the city
 appeared unable to follow the tradition
 of their craft in decorating the       
interior of the cathedral4 ,even in the 

reign of ,almanzor1 the specific style  
of the ,arabs was giving place to less  
beautiful conceptions of line and       
decoration4 ,nevertheless1 it is        
generally admitted that the ,mosque is  
the finest example in ,europe of the    
,moorish religious edifice4 ,it         
maintains uniformity in the plan of its 
construction1 while the dimensions are  
enormous1 and the adornment elegant and 
characteristic of the art of ,islam in  
the flower of its might and             
magnificence4  ,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii4   
assumed his title of ,khalif with the   
style of ,en-,nsir li-dni-llh1 #8the    
,defender of the ,faith of ,god1' added 
to the ,mosque a new tower1 and         
renovated the ancient faade4 ,the       
minaret contained two staircases1 which 
were built for the separate ascent and  
descent of the tower4 ,on the summit    
there were three apples1 two of gold and
 one of silver1 with lilies of six      
petals4 ,the minaret is four-faced1 with
 fourteen windows1 having arches upon   

jasper columns1 and the structure is    
adorned with splendid tracery4  ,long   
before the final stages in the history  
of the ,omeyyad builders1 the ,moslem   
temple of ,cordova was deemed one of the
 greatest marvels of architecture in the
 world4 ,the chroniclers and poets of   
the period unite in applauding the zeal 
of the sovereigns who expended such vast
 treasure in furthering the glory of    
,allah by the erection of this sumptuous
 and dazzling tabernacle4 ,ablmothanne1 
the poet1 wrote of the ,mosque3 #8,to it
 the pilgrims resort from all parts of  
the world1 as if it were the sacred     
temple of ,mekka4 ,indeed1 its mih-rab1 
when examined1 will be found to contain 
rokn 7angles7 as well as makrn          
7standing-place74' ,and another singer  
proclaimed that the ,mosque1 which was  
consecrated to ,god1 was #8without equal
 in the world4'  ,hakem ,,ii41          
,al-,mostansir-billh1 greatly increased 
the size of the building4 ,this just and
 cultured ruler caused the construction 

of the third mih-rab1 which was over    
four years in the making and rivalled   
all the previous work in this gorgeous  
part of the ,mosque4 ,the new sanctuary 
was crowned with a splendid cupola1 and 
the marvellous mosaics of foseyfasa were
 introduced4 ,hakem also designed a     
fresh maksurrah for the ,sultan1 a space
 enclosed by an ornate wooden fence or  
screen1 which was beautifully domed in  
the ,byzantine style4  ,hakem ,,ii4 was 
not only occupied in extending and      
adorning the interior of the ,mezquita4 
,during his busy reign in ,cordova1 the 
immense library was enlarged by         
contributions of manuscripts upon all   
subjects1 gathered from every part of   
the civilised nations4 ,but the library1
 with its unique treasures of ,oriental 
lore1 and its works of science in many  
languages1 was lost to the world upon   
the wrecking and downfall of the city4  
,the fruit of ,hakem's devotion remains1
 however1 in the most gorgeous and      
lovely embellishments of the ,mosque4   

,this ,khalif also built an alms-house  
adjoining the temple1 and quarters for  
the residence of the preachers and      
officials of the house of worship4  ,the
 style introduced by ,hakem ,,ii4 is    
seen in the ,puerta ,murada1 in the holy
 mih-rab1 and the part once occupied by 
the maksurrah4 ,this sovereign delighted
 in rich colouring1 in splendour and    
daring in the construction of delicate  
columns to heavy arches1 and in the     
extension of the fantastic arched naves4
 ,he almost doubled the size of the     
,mezquita by the extensions on the south
 side4  ,under ,almanzor there was no   
slackening in the enthusiasm which the  
,omeyyad family exhibited in improving  
,cordova and extending and beautifying  
its famous ,house of ,purification4 ,the
 part added to the ,mosque by ,almanzor 
is that behind the altar1 to the left1  
when entering by the ,door of ,pardon4  
,the enlargement during this ,khalif's  
rule was towards the east4 ,new rows of 
columns1 numbering eight1 were added1   

giving a fresh sense of vastness to the 
aisles and vistas of interlaced arches4 
,the great ,mosque was completed in the 
time of ,almanzor1 and its completion   
was the presage of the decline of ,arab 
power in ,spain4 ,in extent the building
 now measures #cid feet by #cfj feet4   
,almanzor put the finishing touches to  
the work which ,abd-er-,rahman ,i4      
began4 ,for generations architects1     
designers1 artists1 masons1 and         
metal-workers had lovingly toiled to    
produce a triumph of art4  ,the ,mosque 
was finished4 ,almanzor sought to       
improve upon the designs and bewildering
 brilliance displayed in the labour of  
preceding reigns2 but it is doubtful    
whether his endeavours heightened the   
splendour of the structure1 or gave     
fresh lustre to the building that stood 
in the days of ,hakem ,,ii4 ,it is      
agreed among the authorities upon       
,moorish art that ,almanzor's           
contributions to the edifice show       
evidence of a decline in taste1 and a   

waning of the sthetic sense of the      
,arab-,byzantine schools of designers   
and craftsmen4  ,when ,almanzor died1   
the ,mosque was #gdb feet in length from
 north to south1 and #dgb feet in width 
from east to west4 ,it was encompassed  
by battlemented walls1 with towers of   
irregular height4 ,the south wall was   
the highest1 and it had nineteen towers4
 ,the total number of the watch-towers  
was forty-eight1 and the majority of    
these have survived4  ,in the stressful 
days when the ,moorish colonisers sought
 to possess the whole of the ,iberian   
,peninsula1 ,cordova was stoutly        
fortified1 and the ,mosque was protected
 by this unscalable wall4 ,this barrier 
of stone is over six feet thick1 and    
designed to withstand the most violent  
battering4 ,the defences of the         
sanctuary are very picturesque2 there is
 a subject for the painter at every     
tower and corner2 but they are perhaps a
 little less wonderful than the grim    
walls of ,avila1 or the sombre parapets 

of brown ,toledo4 ,they are made of     
durable stone1 which is marvellously    
preserved4 ,many times have these       
battlements shuddered at the shouts of  
the fierce besiegers and the determined 
defenders2 often have their stones been 
stained with the blood of ,goth and     
,moor4  ,to-day1 in the shadow of the   
walls1 we stroll and look upon the calm 
vistas1 the plain1 and the cold grey    
slopes of the sierras1 and see the      
beggars shrinking from the blinding     
glare of the sun1 prone upon the ground 
in their tatters1 in the cool shelter   
which the tall towers yield4 ,the       
,mosque dreams1 as all things dream in  
ancient ,spain4 ,its solid outer walls  
have defied the ravage of storms and    
wars4 ,they remain weird monuments of   
,oriental strength1 placid and somewhat 
mournful in their magnificent           
sufficiency4     ,v  ,,in ,,the ,,court 
,,of ,,oranges   ,the ,court of ,oranges
 is shaded on one side by the oldest    
parts of the ,mosque4 ,it is much larger

 than the ,orange ,court1 or ,patio de  
los ,naranjos1 of the cathedral of      
,seville4 ,here was once the ,court of  
,ablutions1 the place where the faithful
 purified themselves before venturing   
within the ,mezquita4 ,the fountains1   
five in number1 remain to remind us of  
the original character of the courtyard4
 ,women come here to fetch water from   
the clear springs4 ,they carry tall jars
 upon their hips1 or upon their heads1  
and loiter by the fountain to gossip4   
,this quiet court invites the aged and  
the idler4 ,it is cool and gratefully   
shaded1 and when the orange-trees are in
 bloom a fragrance pervades the place4  
,the priests who officiate in the       
cathedral spend the hours of leisure    
here1 pacing in pairs up and down1 as   
they smoke their cigarettes4 ,now and   
again1 one notes the lover waiting for  
his fair one amid the fountains and the 
palms4  ,once there were nineteen       
beautiful gateways leading into the     
,court of the ,oranges1 and these were  

uniform with the nineteen aisles4 ,we   
enter by the ,puerta de los ,palmas1    
facing the ,puerta del ,perdon4 ,the    
sumptuous ,gate of ,pardon at once      
attracts us4 ,it is over twenty feet    
high1 with the characteristic horseshoe 
arches and the elaborate ,oriental      
ornamentation4 ,but this is not the     
ancient gate2 it dates from the         
,christian recapture of ,cordova1 and is
 constructed in imitation of the        
,arabian work4 ,it is surmounted by a   
belfry4 ,the upper part of the horseshoe
 arches is exceedingly ornate1 and on   
either side are coats of arms4 ,the     
structure is in the ,estilo ,sarraceno4 
,there are massive doors1 coated with   
copper1 upon which are inscriptions4    
,above the door are poorly painted      
frescoes4  ,the ,bell ,tower erected in 
place of the old minaret of             
,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii4 is not ,moorish4 
,it was designed by ,hernan ,ruiz1 one  
of the ,christian architects who planned
 the cathedral4 ,this tower is          

interesting as a later monument1 but it 
is not in harmony with the ,mosque4 ,it 
rises higher than the former minaret1 is
 more pretentious1 and is out of        
character with the surroundings4 ,on the
 top is a figure of ,san ,rafael4  ,the 
,court of ,oranges is over four hundred 
feet long and more than two hundred feet
 in breadth4 ,there was a destruction of
 many of the trees during a violent     
storm about seventy years ago1 and some 
of the orange-trees were not replaced4  
,the courtyard has quiet cloisters on   
three sides1 with pillars and arches in 
the ,gothic style4  ,one side of the    
,patio de los ,naranjos is occupied by  
the ,mosque1 and it is here we see the  
finest exterior work of the time of     
,abd-er-,rahman ,i4 and ,hisham4 ,the   
portions added by ,almanzor are behind  
the altar to the left1 when entering by 
the ,gate of ,pardon4 ,in the main the  
impression that one gains in the ,court 
of ,oranges is distinctly ,moorish4 ,the
 fountains1 the trees1 the fine doors of

 the ,mosque1 the walls1 the gate on the
 eastern side1 and the inscriptions are 
purely ,oriental4 ,for the rest there   
has been tampering4 ,the hand of the    
#8restorer' can be traced1 and the ,bell
 ,tower is an affront upon the old      
edifice4  ,four of the fountains were   
originally constructed by ,hakem ,,ii41 
when he had spent his energy upon       
improving the interior of the ,mezquita4
 ,the two founts in the east were for   
the ablution of the women2 the two in   
the west for the purification of the    
men4 ,the fountains were scooped out of 
single blocks of marble1 brought from   
one quarry4 ,to bring these huge masses 
of marble to their positions in the     
,court of ,oranges1 it was necessary to 
make a sloping road4 ,the fountains were
 drawn by oxen1 and borne upon heavy    
carts1 and seventy beasts were required 
for each team4 ,when the tanks were set 
in their places1 the water streamed in  
through the great aqueduct of           
,abd-er-,rahman ,i41 and the surplus    

went to fill other fountains in the     
city4  ,there was no sparing of the toil
 of man or beast in the days when the   
,omeyyads reigned in ,cordova1 for each 
,khalif seemed eager for the completion 
of his share of work upon the ,mezquita4
 ,the army of ,morisco labourers was    
augmented by a host of ,christian       
captives1 and we read that these        
unfortunates were employed to carry     
stone upon their heads4 ,we can imagine 
the files of ,christians1 each man      
bending under his burden1 compelled to  
toil in the upraising of a mighty temple
 to the glory of ,islam4 ,but the       
pendulum swings1 and time brings its    
changes in the fortunes of ,moor and    
,christian4 ,at a later period it is the
 ,mudejar1 the #8reconciled' ,moor1 who 
supports the cumbrous loads upon his    
head1 and does the bidding of the       
,catholic in the construction of the    
cathedral4 ,and out of all this labour  
and sweat1 hewing of stone1 forging of  
metal1 carving of wood and ivory1       

beating of gold and silver1 and laying  
on of choice1 imperishable colours1 we  
have the composite fane of to-day--the  
,christian cathedral enfolded in the    
more wondrous structure of the          
,mohammedan ,mosque4 ,surely there are  
questions that flash upon the mind as we
 sit in the ,orange ,court1 and listen  
to the throb of the bell calling the    
,christians to prayer within the ancient
 ,mezquita of the ,omeyyads6  ,but the  
,cordovese do not appear to ponder upon 
,time's fantastic transformations4 ,they
 muse of other things--the affairs of   
the hour--and regard the ,mezquita as an
 excellent asset to their slumbrous and 
impoverished city4 ,every stranger      
within their walls is looked upon as a  
sightseer2 and what should he come to   
see but the famous ,mosque8 ,and so the 
boys in the street1 offering their      
services as guides through the          
labyrinthine white alleys1 point ahead  
and cry3 #8,mezquita1 ,mezquita4' ,for  
the building is not known as the        

cathedral2 it is still called the       
,mosque1 although it has been           
reconsecrated and dedicated to the      
worship of ,god and the ,virgin ,mother4
  ,climb to the top of the tower and    
look around upon the bleached houses of 
the city1 the curving river1 the dull   
green of the olive thickets1 the yellow 
grain fields1 and the grey ridges of the
 mountains4 ,everything is sharp1       
clear-cut in the unpolluted air1 and    
glowing in the brilliant sunshine of the
 south4 ,the thoroughfares are like a   
network1 tangled and mazy4 ,carthaginian
 hosts crossed those sierras to conquer 
this coveted territory from the         
,iberians4 ,then came the legions of    
,rome1 to expel the settlers and to     
found ,corduba4 ,here stood the great   
temple of ,janus in the days of ,seneca 
and ,lucan1 the arena1 the schools1 and 
the institutions of a powerful and      
cultured people4 ,but all these fell    
with the inrush of the ,goths from the  
north1 those intrepid warriors1         

fanatical as they were fearless2 and    
,cordova saw the ruin of the ,roman     
civilisation1 and the inception of a new
 faith and a new social order4  ,the    
scene changes constantly2 the action of 
the drama is vivid4 ,again the invading 
flood sweeps over ,andalusia4 ,the      
swarthy ,moors advance in battle array  
to the walls of the city1 and the       
affrighted ,cordovese fly to their      
churches for hiding4 ,again there sounds
 the clash of weapons and the shouts of 
combatants4 ,and ,islam prevails2 the   
,christian cathedral is given to the    
,moors1 and the ,mezquita takes its     
place4  ,for centuries the ,omeyyad     
rules in ,cordova1 and shapes the city  
to his fashion1 obliterating almost     
every trace of the preceding orders1    
creeds1 and customs4 ,these are the     
palmy days1 whose memorial lies below us
 in the ,mosque1 and the bridge over the
 ,guadalquivir4 ,these are the days that
 made ,cordova a name familiar in the   
ears of the civilised nations1 the days 

of power1 splendour1 and learning1 whose
 glory shone throughout the world4 ,the 
new ,mecca arose2 the creed of the ,east
 conquered1 and ,iberia was transformed 
to the guise of the ,orient4 ,and as the
 ,moorish sway spread1 and the conquered
 ,christians conformed to the new       
traditions1 and the country prospered1  
men thought that this state was sound   
and stable1 and probably final and      
perfect4  ,but the pendulum swung again2
 the dominion of ,islam was threatened  
by enemies within and without4 ,history 
repeated itself2 ,time worked its       
inevitable revenge1 and a lustier race  
made profit from the decadence of the   
,morisco civilisation4 ,spain arose and 
turned upon her oppressor1 and the      
streets of ,cordova were once more      
drenched with the blood of ,moor and    
,christian4 ,this proud ,bell ,tower    
stands as a symbol of the reconquest1   
and of the decline of ,cordova4         
,christian ,spain rejoiced in her change
 of fortune4 ,the crusaders set         

themselves to demolish and to upheave4  
,they abandoned the wholesome habits of 
the ,moors2 the baths were destroyed by 
the hundred as useless relics of the    
detested ,mohammedan4 ,temples1         
colleges1 and palaces were thrown down4 
,science1 the arts1 and letters were    
neglected4 ,we have read how trade      
forsook ,cordova1 and how the light of  
learning was almost extinguished4 ,gone 
were the cultured days of               
,abd-er-,rahman ,,iii41 and the         
resplendent pomp of ,almanzor4 ,the     
,mecca of the ,west had fallen2 the fate
 of ,roman ,corduba had come upon it4   
,there was no revival1 no uprising of   
the ruins from the ashes that could     
remake ,cordova in the semblance of its 
old self4 ,vestiges alone remained to   
remind the beholder of the grandeur and 
the glory of the ,mohammedan domination4
 ,a misdirected imperialism1 an         
irrational conception of greatness1     
wrought the wreckage of the #8,bride of 
,andalus' after her recapture by the    

,christian ,spaniards4     ,,vi  ,,the  
,,splendours ,,of ,,the ,,mosque        
,before the rise of ,mahomet1 the       
architecture of the ,arabs was almost   
devoid of those specific characters that
 we find in the later work of ,omeyyad  
designers and artists4 ,the pristine    
,arabian edifices were built as though  
the tent served as the model for the    
architects of this nomadic race4 ,but in
 the great ,mosque of ,omar at          
,jerusalem we have the first example of 
a new and vigorous development of the   
art of architecture4 ,the minaret1 or   
praying-tower1 was invented by ,alwalid1
 and other distinctive features of the  
,moorish or ,saracenic style were       
introduced in religious buildings4  ,in 
the earliest ,morisco-,spanish edifices 
there was not much original work4 ,the  
,visigothic temples were reconsecrated  
to the new faith and adapted to the     
plans of the primitive ,mohammedan      
mosques1 but the designs and style of   
decoration were not purely ,morisco4    

,the work was probably influenced by    
,persian and ancient ,egyptian art1 and 
according to ,seor ,f4 ,m4 ,tubino it   
contained ,semitic elements4 ,we shall  
also note the incorporation of the      
,corinthian capital with the slender    
,moorish column of marbles of various   
colours4 ,the characteristic horseshoe  
arch1 with its delicate columns1 was one
 of the earliest manifestations of the  
developing art of the ,moors4 ,there has
 been much discussion concerning the    
introduction of the pointed arch1 which 
is so often claimed as #8,gothic4' ,the 
arch in architecture was no doubt copied
 from the curved interlacing of the     
branches of trees1 and the wide1 flat   
arch was succeeded by models of a more  
pointed type4 ,in the thirteenth century
 the pointed arch was a comparatively   
common form1 and it is fairly evident   
that its origin was in the ,east4  ,in  
the ,mosque of ,jerusalem1 and of       
,amrou1 in ,cairo1 there were early     
examples of the pointed arch4 ,the      

contrary flexure is a form of pointed   
arch1 and it was used by the ,moors4    
,sir ,christopher ,wren1 and other      
authorities upon architectural art1 lean
 to the opinion that the so-called      
,gothic arch is of ,oriental origin4    
,there are1 however1 a number of        
students who have endeavoured to        
disprove the ,moorish genesis of the    
narrow arch4  ,in the ,first ,period of 
,morisco architecture1 the talent and   
the energy of the designers were chiefly
 applied to the planning of military    
defences1 towers1 walls1 and            
embattlements4 ,the ,second ,period was 
one of greater security from the alarms 
of wars1 and the architects devoted     
their art to devising religious         
structures and noble mosques4 ,in the   
,third ,period we see the upraising of  
fine secular buildings1 palaces1        
dwelling-houses1 with their courts and  
colonnades1 and the erection of         
sumptuous marble baths4  ,from the      
eighth to the eleventh century the style

 in ,spain is known as the              
,arab-,spanish1 and is sometimes called 
the ,estilo ,califato4 ,this style is   
#8,saracenic1' with ,jewish features4   
,in the next period1 from the twelfth to
 the thirteenth century1 we have the    
,almohade development of ,arabian       
architecture1 whose examples may be seen
 in most of the ,moorish cities of      
,spain4 ,the last period--from the      
fourteenth to the fifteenth             
century--which marks the decline of the 
pure ,morisco designs1 is sometimes     
described as the ,alhamares4  ,the      
salient characteristics of ,moorish     
architecture are the groves of slender  
columns1 the interlacing horseshoe      
arches in bewildering profusion1 the    
minaret1 with its gradually inclined    
path in lieu of steps for the ascent1   
the gorgeous colouring of flat surfaces1
 the mosaics1 dazzling gildings1 and    
decorations of precious stones and      
jewels4 ,it was the ,moor who discovered
 the art of preserving colour and       

rendering his adornments imperishable4  
,the flat illuminations were probably   
imitations of ,egyptian decoration1 but 
it is not certain that the secret of    
preserving the lavish and brilliant     
colours was derived from ,egypt4  ,in   
selecting his woods for the purposes of 
decorating the ,mosque of ,cordova1 the 
,moor employed those of the most durable
 texture1 so durable1 indeed1 that age  
has scarcely left its mark upon them4   
,the bricks and stones are equally      
lasting1 as may be proved by an         
inspection of the walls of the          
,mezquita4 ,there was no hasty work in  
the construction of the temple of       
,allah4 ,nothing was used except        
material of a permanent quality4 ,the   
treasure of the earth1 its forests and  
its mountains1 was employed in the great
 labour of duty and devotion4  ,it has  
been suggested that the horseshoe arch  
has a very ancient symbolic meaning of a
 ,phallic origin4 ,this is1 perhaps1 not
 the occasion for discussing this       

theory4 ,it is apparent that the ,moors 
employed this form of decoration upon   
every opportunity and complicated it in 
a variety of styles4 ,they used it in   
their doorways1 aisles1 cloisters1 and  
windows4 ,the ,ajimez window is         
typically ,morisco4 ,it has usually from
 two to three arches1 supported on fine 
columns1 and is exceedingly graceful in 
design4 ,ajimez signifies a window      
through which the sun or light shines4  
,for effects of light in the interiors  
of their fanes the ,morisco architects  
designed several ingenious apertures1   
such as the star-shaped window1 through 
which the daylight peers with singular  
weirdness4  ,the defect of the ,mosque  
of ,cordova is in a want of space above 
the naves4 ,we lack the grandeur of     
height within the building4 ,loftiness  
does not seem to have appealed to the   
designers4 ,the average height of the   
columns is about sixteen feet4 ,length  
and breadth have1 however1 been         
carefully considered in the construction

 of the temple1 and the long arched     
aisles are like forest avenues4 ,there  
were once one thousand and twelve       
columns in the building1 but many of    
these were removed when ,san ,fernando  
commanded that the ,mezquita should be  
adapted as a ,christian cathedral4  ,the
 ,vizier1 ,almanzor1 removed the eastern
 wall of the ,mosque and extended the   
building in order to add eight new      
naves4 ,these naves had the same number 
of arches as those already standing1 and
 they were intersected at right angles  
with lesser naves1 thirty-five in       
number4 ,at this period a lack of space 
necessitated a narrowing of some of the 
arches1 and the curves were made more   
pointed4 ,every conceivable             
ornamentation was introduced in the     
beautifying of these arches4  ,the      
foseyfasa1 or enamel-work of the ,moors1
 is seen in its brilliant examples in   
the ,mosque4 ,this enamel1 called       
foseyfasa by the ,arabs1 is composed of 
crushed glass and small pebbles baked   

together with gorgeous colours1 and     
sometimes containing an admixture of    
gold and silver4 ,it was used at        
,damascus1 in the great ,mosque1 and at 
,constantinople4 ,according to          
,gayangos1 this mosaic enamel was set in
 its place by ,greek mechanics imported 
by ,abd-er-,rahman4 ,this work is finely
 exampled upon the entrance to the      
sanctuary1 and throughout the ,mosque   
there are specimens of this wondrous art
 of embellishment4  ,the principal nave 
of the ,mezquita has huge arches on     
stone columns1 with finely carved       
capitals1 and a large number of minor   
arches in the ,estilo del ,califato4    
,most of these columns were made from   
the stone of ,spanish quarries4 ,they   
are of jasper1 marble1 and other stone1 
and number nearly nine hundred4 ,narrow 
avenues run transversely through the    
grand aisles4 ,we are lost in them2     
these passages appear interminable1 and 
their ribbon decorations bewilder the   
eyes4  ,we approach the sacred mih-rab1 

the receptacle of the ,koran1 the       
holiest of holies of the temple4 ,the   
faade is exceedingly beautiful1 in the  
later style of decoration1 and the      
arcades of the vestibule of the         
sanctuary have fine triple arches and   
interlacing curves of exquisite design4 
,the dome is cone-shaped4  ,the door is 
in the ,estilo del ,califato1 dazzling  
in the wealth of its colouring1         
marvellous in the grace and symmetry of 
its main arch1 trefoil arches1 and      
delicate frets4 ,the mih-rab is         
seven-sided1 with a cupola of           
extraordinary richness of hue1 and      
details of the greatest interest4 ,one  
is baffled in attempting to describe    
this sanctuary4 ,the technical terms of 
architecture do not convey a conception 
of its beauty to the lay mind4 ,in the  
days of its glory1 the mih-rab was      
illuminated by an enormous lamp and huge
 candles4 ,el-,makkari1 the ,arab1 says 
that the great lantern had nearly       
fifteen hundred lights1 and that the    

total number of lights was over ten     
thousand4 ,the enamels shone with their 
brilliant hues in the rays of these     
lamp-lights and candles until the eye   
could scarcely rest upon the walls and  
the cupola4 ,here the khalifs came in   
pomp to worship1 and to scan reverently 
the pages of the costly ,koran4  ,the   
hollowed roof of the mih-rab and the    
floor are of white marble4 ,we may see  
the marks worn by the knees of the      
faithful who came hither to pay their   
devotions to the ,father of ,islam4 ,the
 mosaics of the walls exhibit the finest
 designs and richest tones of the       
foseyfasa work4 ,this is the third      
mih-rab1 the production of ,hakem1 and  
it is a retreat that speaks eloquently  
of that piety which seeks to glorify a  
deity by the erection and adornment of a
 temple4 ,it is resplendent beyond      
compare4  ,this chamber was the         
repository of the famous nimbar1 a      
pulpit on wheels1 which had seven steps1
 and could be moved to any part of the  

,mosque4 ,when the ,christians regained 
power in the city1 this highly          
ornamented pulpit was cut into pieces1  
and portions of it were used in the     
construction of the altar4 ,the superb  
copy of the ,koran1 to which we have    
referred before1 was kept in a golden   
case1 mounted with precious stones4 ,it 
was so heavy that two men were required 
to carry it4  ,upon the ceiling of the  
,mezquita there were formerly           
inscriptions4 ,among them were the      
command3 #8,be not one of the           
negligent1' and the dictum3 #8,there is 
no ,god but ,allah1 to whom all beings  
address themselves in their need4' ,the 
,christians effaced these inscriptions  
when the ,mosque was purified and       
consecrated to the ,virgin ,mother4  ,in
 the ,capilla de ,villaviciosa we shall 
see the ,arab-,byzantine crossed arches 
on decorated columns4 ,this was the     
retreat of the ,khalif1 and it was once 
lined with silver4 ,the chapel is the   
only one of ,moorish interest4 ,there   

are forty-five ,christian chapels1 but  
these scarcely demand inspection4 ,in   
front of the ,capilla of ,san ,pablo is 
the tomb of ,pablo de ,cspedes1 the     
,cordovese painter4 ,this chapel has a  
horseshoe arch with sharp points4 ,the  
,capilla de la ,cena contains #8,the    
,last ,supper1' painted by ,cspedes4    
,and in the ,sala ,capitular were       
statues by ,alonso ,cano and de ,mora4  
,the chapels were constructed from the  
side aisles of the ,mezquita when the   
building was dedicated to the ,christian
 faith4 ,after the capture of ,cordova  
by ,san ,fernando1 the original work of 
the ,moorish builders was spoiled in    
many parts of the ,mezquita4 ,large     
surfaces1 beautifully designed and      
coloured1 were removed by the           
innovators1 columns were pulled down1   
and screens destroyed4 #8,the gold      
lavished on the panelled ceilings1' so  
praised by an ,arab poet1 was           
obliterated in many places2 the         
,christian architects wrought havoc in  

almost every part of the structure4 ,no 
doubt the pious reconstructors were     
unconscious of their vandalism4 ,they   
sought to improve upon the art of the   
,mohammedans1 and to build a worthier   
edifice4 ,but their failure is only too 
apparent1 and it has been admitted by   
,spanish writers4 ,charles ,v4 expressed
 sorrow at the garish and meagre        
innovations1 saying that the designers  
and craftsmen had destroyed a great and 
unique work of art in their endeavour to
 improve upon the design of the         
,moriscos4     ,,vii  ,,the ,,cathedral 
,,and ,,churches   ,from the time of the
 taking of ,cordova by the sainted ,king
 ,ferdinand1 ,spanish architects and    
artificers designed and constructed     
additions to the interior and exterior  
of the beautiful ,mezquita4 ,we have    
already described these additions as    
often incongruous and for a great part  
unlovely4 ,san ,fernando caused the     
erection of the first ,christian chapel 
within the ,mosque1 and it occupied a   

position by the south wall1 covering    
three naves from east to west1 and four 
transverse naves from north to south4   
,the chapel1 which was dedicated to ,st4
 ,clement1 enclosed two ,moorish arches4
  ,following the example of the         
sovereign1 several noblemen erected     
chapels in the ,mezquita4 ,in #abej ,don
 ,diaz de ,haro built the chapel of     
,santa ,inez1 and later ,domingo ,muoz  
erected that of ,san ,bartolom4         
,enriched by donations from the pious1  
the ,chapter of the ,cathedral undertook
 to transform the building1 and even    
sought to improve upon the work of the  
,mohammedans4 ,they removed the         
apartment of the ,kadi1 destroyed the   
chamber of the ,khalif1 known as the    
maksurrah1 and in its place reared the  
,grand ,chapel4 ,the chapels of ,st4    
,john and of ,santiago were built       
between #abfj and #abfe4  ,at this time 
four ,mudejares1 or reconciled ,moors1  
were employed upon the work of altering 
the ,mosque4 ,it was evidently the wish 

of the improvers that the ,arabic       
tradition should be followed in the     
construction of the arches and the plan 
of the decorations2 but already the     
,moorish art was declining1 and these   
latest examples of ,morisco design and  
ornamentation do not display that wealth
 of imagination and high skill which    
characterised the ,omeyyad              
craftsmanship4 ,hence the work in the   
,cathedral became more #8,gothic' and   
less ,arab-,byzantine1 as piece by piece
 the chapels were added to the structure
 of ,abd-er-,rahman1 ,hakem ,,ii41 and  
,almanzor4  ,the worst vandalism was    
wrought when the great ,choir was made  
under the sanction of ,charles ,v41 who 
afterwards regretted that he had        
consented to the alterations4 ,in order 
to erect the ,coro1 with its high roof1 
the old ,moorish ceiling was destroyed4 
,the architect originally employed upon 
the ,grand ,chapel and ,choir was the   
celebrated ,hernan ,ruiz1 who achieved  
some notable designs in the ,plateresque

 style4 ,the retablo1 or high altar1 is 
by ,alonso ,matias1 and the painting is 
the work of ,palomino4  ,in the ,coro   
the seats are beautifully carved by     
,pedro ,cornejo4 ,the ,capilla de       
,nuestra ,seora de ,villaviciosa is     
perhaps the most interesting of the many
 ,christian chapels erected within the  
,mezquita4 ,it is in the later ,moorish 
style4 ,cspedes' painting of #8,the     
,last ,supper' is in the ,capilla de la 
,cena2 and the tomb of this artist1 who 
was a native of the city1 is near the   
,capilla de ,san ,pablo4  ,in the       
,christian ,cathedral there are many    
examples of the composite ,moorish and  
,gothic architecture1 which is known in 
,spain as the ,estilo ,mudejar4         
,portraits of saints and paintings of   
living things were introduced later1 in 
contravention of the ,mohammedan law    
forbidding such representations in the  
decoration of holy buildings4 ,statues  
were also placed in the ,cathedral4 ,the
 brilliant ,plateresque style eventually

 succeeded the later ,mudejar work2 the 
decorations were fanciful and           
flamboyant1 and not always inspired by  
the highest sthetic sense4 ,finally1 in 
the seventeenth century1 the ,baroque   
style became the fashion of the hour1   
and the arts of pictorial embellishment 
and of carving degenerated often into   
the bizarre and the theatrical4 ,wood   
was used in place of stone for statuary1
 and many of the fine old altar-pieces  
in the ,spanish churches were destroyed 
to give place to grotesque and more     
#8realistic' conceptions4  ,as early as 
#abgh the minaret of ,abd-er-,rahman    
,,iii4 was crowned with the ,christian  
figure of ,saint ,raphael1 and at the   
time of the alterations under the       
direction of ,hernan ,ruiz the bulk of  
the ,moorish praying-tower was removed1 
and the much loftier belfry erected4    
,most of the beautiful doors of the     
,mosque were blocked up during the      
progress of the reconstruction4 ,the    
door of the ,gate of ,pardon was        

decorated by ,henry ,,ii41 and is in the
 later ,mudejar style1 with ,christian  
images above it4 ,such are among the    
many examples of the curious blending of
 ,moorish and ,christian forms of design
 and styles of ornamentation within and 
without the ,mosque4  ,for further      
examples of ,mudejar architecture we may
 visit the ,hospital del ,cardinal1     
where there is a fine chapel dedicated  
to ,san ,bartolom4 ,the ,church of      
,santa ,marina was originally ,moorish1 
but it is now modern4 ,relatives of the 
,gran ,capitan ,gonsalvo are buried in  
the ,san ,hipolito4     ,,viii  ,,the   
,,palace ,,of ,,the ,,khalifs ,,and     
,,the ,,moorish ,,bridge   ,very little 
of the ancient ,moorish ,alcazar        
remains4 ,on the south side there are a 
bath and some towers1 and the plot by   
the river is beautifully shady with     
semi-tropical foliage and fruit-trees4  
,the old ,alcazar was originally the    
,palace of the ,khalifs1 and it covered 
a large area4 ,it contained huge and    

sumptuous chambers and several handsome 
baths1 which were destroyed during the  
reign of ,isabella4 ,the northern part  
of the building was erected in the time 
of ,alfonso ,,xi41 about a century after
 the recapture of ,cordova by ,san      
,fernando4  ,the gate leading to the    
bridge is no longer ,moorish4 ,it was   
designed by a ,christian architect4 ,we 
gain a glimpse of the sierras through   
the portal1 and passing through1 reach  
the many-arched bridge1 leading to the  
,campo de la ,verdad4 ,the foundations  
are ,roman1 and it was probably built in
 the time of ,csar4 ,at the far end is  
the ,calahorra1 a picturesque tower4 ,in
 the centre stands the shrine of the    
patron saint of ,cordova1 ,st4 ,raphael1
 the archangel4  ,this bridge was the   
scene of many conflicts during the      
,moorish occupancy of the city4 ,long   
before it was built1 when ,csar came to 
attack ,cordova1 he constructed a       
temporary bridge across the             
,guadalquivir1 by placing large baskets 

of stones in the river and laying timber
 upon them4  ,the ,moorish water-mills1 
which can be seen from the bridge1 are  
interesting relics4 ,the river1 the     
mills1 the bell-tower of the ,mosque1   
and the walls form a picture which lives
 in the memory4 ,the view lacks the     
stern grandeur of that from the ,bridge 
of ,toledo1 but it is nevertheless      
beautiful4 ,in flood-time the river     
seethes by the buttresses1 and tumbles  
through the arches to spend itself below
 in a wide and imposing stream4 ,and at 
night1 when the moon gleams on the      
,guadalquivir1 and lights the ,mosque1  
and lingers upon the ancient walls and  
towers1 the scene is one of fairy-like  
enchantment4  ,men fish above and below 
the bridge1 employing curious lever nets
 and other quaint tackle for the capture
 of shad and eels4 ,along the verge of  
the swirling stream busy women kneel to 
rinse and wring their linen1 and to     
spread the garments upon the green banks
 to dry in the hot sun4 ,the devout     

pause before the shrine in the centre of
 the bridge1 and pay their reverence to 
,st4 ,raphael4 ,here1 too1 loiter the   
idlers of ,cordova2 they lounge and     
blink at the water1 and smoke their     
cigarettes in the sunshine4 ,and on     
market-days there is a stream of        
pack-mules and asses1 heavy wains with  
teams of horses1 and droves of cattle   
across the long ,puente4  ,the spell of 
,cordova holds one long after leaving   
the city4 ,one recalls the white1       
tortuous alleys1 and the luminous blue  
shadows of the ,mosque at noonday4 ,the 
odours of orange-bloom and of roses are 
wafted to the nostrils1 as one thinks of
 the silent patios1 where the footstep  
echoes1 and the huerta by the river1    
where there are trees and plants of the 
tropics4 ,one hears the rattle of the   
mule-wagon upon the stony thoroughfares1
 the first streets that were ever paved 
in ,spain2 the nightly cry of the       
watchman1 in his medival garb2 the      
jangling of church bells the call of the

 water-seller1 carrying his tall        
,oriental jar2 the rich liquid tones of 
the nightingales in the gardens and the 
thickets of the ,guadalquivir2 the early
 morning scream of the hawk floating    
over the bell-tower1 and the bleating of
 the wandering herds of goats4 ,cordova 
is ,moorish1 ,spanish1 ,andalusian1 but1
 still more than all1 ,oriental4        
,wonderful ,moors6 ,marvellous city of  
light1 colour1 beauty1 and romantic     
memories6     ,,ix  ,,illustrious       
,,natives ,,of ,,cordova   ,the #8holy  
and learned' city of ,cordova has ever  
produced sons worthy of its renown4     
,there were1 no doubt1 many             
philosophers1 teachers1 and poets during
 the ,mohammedan dominion1 whose names  
have not been preserved1 and whose works
 have perished4 ,corduba was the        
birthplace of ,seneca1 the relative and 
the contemporary of ,lucan1 and one of  
the greatest men that the city produced4
  ,the moralist and philosopher was a   
delicate1 ailing child1 and throughout  

his life he suffered from ill-health1   
which was increased by his severe       
studies1 and possibly by his asceticism4
 ,seneca was one of the first strenuous 
advocates of the vegetarian diet and    
#8the simple life4' ,it is said that he 
subsisted upon the plainest fare and    
practised rigorous self-denial4  ,there 
is much that is admirable in the        
character of ,seneca1 but there are also
 traits that appear extremely           
incompatible with his constant          
insistence upon right conduct and purity
 of life4  ,the genius of ,seneca was   
soon recognised by the rulers in        
,cordova1 and his fame reached ,rome1   
whither he went1 and where he was       
received with the respect that his deep 
learning merited4 ,his career was1      
however1 checked by his unfortunate     
intrigue with ,julia1 the married sister
 of the ,emperor ,caligula4 ,as a       
punishment for his adultery he was sent 
to ,corsica1 where he lived in          
banishment for eight years4  ,during    

this long spell of solitude ,seneca     
mused and studied1 and found the period 
of exile one of fruitfulness to the     
mind4 ,yet when he was recalled to      
,rome1 at the intercession of           
,agrippina1 the philosopher exhibited a 
keen desire for wealth1 which is        
scarcely reconcilable with his          
affirmations concerning the life of     
simplicity and self-denial4 ,in order to
 make money1 he did not hesitate to lend
 sums at an exorbitant interest4 ,he    
became a courtier1 and was the          
confidential tutor of ,nero2 but at the 
height of his fortune he conspired      
against the emperor4 ,his condonation of
 ,nero's murder of his mother was an    
elaborate piece of casuistry1 devised   
for no other reason than the desire to  
retain the royal patronage4 ,in this and
 in other episodes1 the career of       
,seneca bewilders us1 and provides      
matter for reflection upon the          
inconsistency of human nature and the   
fallibility of even the greatest        

ethicists4  ,the last pages in the life 
of the philosopher are sad4 ,he was     
condemned to death as a traitor1 and he 
had married a young wife4 ,when he heard
 that the guards were on their way to   
arrest him1 ,seneca resolved to open one
 of his veins and to bleed to death4    
,his loyal and loving wife begged to    
share his fate1 and at her request he   
cut one of her veins4 ,but ,seneca was  
old1 seventy years of age1 and his blood
 flowed so slowly that he could not die4
 ,in his desperation he drank a cup of  
hemlock1 hoping to poison himself1 and  
by that means put an end to his anguish4
 ,yet even the hemlock potion failed4   
,asphyxiation in a heated chamber at    
last brought death to the aged sage1 and
 by timely attention the life of his    
young wife was saved4  ,marcus ,annus   
,lucanus1 or ,lucan1 was born in        
,cordova in the year ,a4,d4 #ch or #ci4 
,he was the nephew of ,seneca1 and his  
father was a public servant held in     
esteem in the city4 ,our data for a     

biography of ,lucanus are very scanty4  
,he wrote poems before he left ,cordova1
 and encouraged the writing of ,latin   
verse among the ,spanish residents4 ,his
 great work1 the ,pharsalia1 was left   
unfinished4  ,lucan was lauded by       
,tacitus as a poet4 ,he went to ,rome1  
and it is recorded that he vanquished   
,nero in one of the poetical tournaments
 in which that monarch delighted4 ,the  
egotistic emperor never forgave ,lucan  
for beating him in this literary        
contest4 ,he vindictively forbade the   
poet to write any more poems or to      
recite to audiences4 ,we need not be    
surprised that the aggrieved poet       
rebelled against this attempt to utterly
 silence his song1 to deprive him of the
 exercise of his art1 and to crush him4 
,lucan was aroused4 ,he became one of   
the conspirators of ,piso1 and plotted  
against the power of ,nero4  ,when he   
was arrested1 and offered pardon if he  
would name his accomplices in the plot1 
,lucan falsely accused his mother       

,atilia of complicity4 ,this cowardly   
resort was1 however1 of no avail4 ,he   
was not spared by the vengeful ,nero1   
who gave the poet his choice of death4  
,lucan chose the usual ,roman mode of   
opening a vein in a bath4 ,he is said to
 have recited one of his poems as he    
died4  ,ibn-,roshid ,averroes1 the most 
renowned of the ,arabian philosophers1  
was born in ,cordova in ,a4,d4 #aabj4   
,he came of a high-born family held in  
honour in the city4 ,his grandfather was
 a ,kadi of ,cordova4 ,in his youth     
,averroes learned law1 mathematics1     
theology1 and the practice of medicine4 
,his reputation as a man of erudition   
and of force of intellect caused        
,almanzor to grant him privileges4 ,he  
was appointed ,kadi of the city of      
,seville4  ,the story of the life of    
,averroes is an example of the eternal  
conflict between the reformer of thought
 and morals and the mass of the people  
of his age4 ,averroes was misunderstood1
 impeached as a dangerous heretic1 and  

condemned as an enemy of humanity4 ,the 
,moors1 in spite of their culture1 could
 manifest rank fanaticism when they     
encountered any teaching that seemed to 
contradict the writings of the ,koran1  
or the traditional piety4 ,averroes was 
a follower of ,aristotle1 although he   
remained a ,mohammedan1 and as the      
,greek philosophy did not accord        
completely with the dogmas of ,mohammed1
 the teacher was arraigned as an        
assailant of religion and a foe to      
morality4 ,his ostracism was thorough4  
,the noble man was pelted with stones by
 boys in the street1 and scorned by the 
whole city4  ,shrinking from this       
terrible spectacle of the humiliation   
and cruelty heaped upon the innocent    
head of his revered tutor1 the young    
,maimonides1 a diligent pupil of        
,averroes1 fled from ,cordova4 ,averroes
 soon after left the city1 and wandered 
in ,morocco4 ,but he was not allowed to 
roam unmolested4 ,at ,fez the populace  
treated him with gross inhumanity4 ,he  

was forced to stand on the step of the  
mosque1 and every one who passed into   
the ,house of ,allah spat in the        
philosopher's face4 ,hunted1 despised1  
and bereft of the opportunity for using 
his learning for the good of humanity1  
,averroes dissembled and professed to   
repent of his heresies4 ,we can hardly  
experience surprise at this4 ,his       
humiliation and his trials had been such
 that few men could endure without a    
loss of reason or a total paralysis of  
aspiration4  ,averroes returned to      
,cordova4 ,but he was still avoided and 
looked upon as a felon1 and his poverty 
and miserable state continued4          
,eventually he was reinstated4 ,there   
was a reaction of feeling2 bigotry was  
wearing out1 and the virtues and        
attainments of the great thinker were   
recognised at their worth4 ,the chief   
work of ,averroes was his philosophy1   
compounded of ,aristotle and the        
teaching of ,neo-,platonism4 ,his       
writings upon ,aristotle are not of the 

highest value1 for he was unversed in   
the ,greek language4  ,like ,seneca1 the
 ,arab teacher ,averroes was a rigidly  
plain liver4 ,he contented himself with 
common raiment1 slept on hard couches1  
and made only one meal in twenty-four   
hours4 ,averroes was not only reputed   
for his culture and his philosophical   
treatises2 he bore the character of     
amiability1 simplicity of manner1 and   
extreme courteousness4 ,he rises far    
above ,seneca in the conduct of life and
 the application of his principles to   
actions4 ,he was a true moral           
philosopher4 ,cordova has produced many 
illustrious sons1 but certainly not a   
greater man since his day4  ,for some   
time the philosophy of ,averroes was    
regarded as highly dangerous among the  
,moors of ,cordova4 ,it was considered  
equally injurious to the ,christian     
faith1 for all the works of the ,arab   
doctor were placed upon the ,catholic   
,index4  ,cordova gave many valiant     
soldiers to the world1 but none more    

brave than the ,gran ,capitan4 ,the     
hero's name was ,fernandez ,gonsalvo1 or
 ,hernandez de ,cordova4 ,he was born in
 #adec1 and arose to fame about #adie4  
#8,nursed amid the din of battle1'      
,gonsalvo accompanied his father to the 
courts of ,alfonso and ,isabella4 ,he   
fought in ,portugal1 showing remarkable 
intrepidity at the great battle of      
,albuera4 ,at ,monte ,frio the ,great   
,captain led the besiegers in scaling   
the ramparts4 ,at ,granada his horse was
 killed beneath him1 but he mounted that
 of his attendant1 who lost his life in 
the encounter4 ,in the ,calabrian       
campaign1 ,gonsalvo led the army4 ,for  
his prowess he was made ,viceroy of     
,naples4  ,the life of the ,gran        
,capitan is a chapter of moving romance4
 ,in the ,spanish estimation he is      
almost as mighty and adorable as the    
,cid4 ,gonsalvo was over sixty when he  
died4 ,he was a born commander1 capable 
of judging character and of leading men1
 and possessed of extraordinary bravery 

and coolness in action4 ,his manners    
were urbane and pleasing4  ,the city is 
associated with at least three famous   
painters of the ,andalusian school3     
,pedro de ,cordova1 ,pablo de ,cspedes1 
and ,juan ,valds ,leal4 ,the ,museo of  
,cordova is not a very important        
collection of paintings1 but it contains
 some works of ,cspedes1 ,zurbarn1 and  
,ribera4 ,zurbarn's best work is not to 
be seen in ,cordova4 ,ribera's #8,rest  
on the ,flight into ,egypt1' in the     
,museo1 is a fine picture1 but it is    
injured by the state into which it has  
fallen through neglect4 ,it is          
deplorable that so many of the paintings
 in the collection at ,cordova are in a 
condition of decay4 ,during our visit to
 the city we were appalled at the       
indifference exhibited by those in      
charge of the pictures4  ,there is      
evidence that ,cordova under the ,moors 
contained some works of the early       
,spanish schools of painting4 ,pablo de 
,cspedes1 in an essay1 states3 #8,in the

 parish church of ,san ,pedro1 in our   
city of ,cordova1 on the right wall1    
there are many paintings of those times 
which escaped the barbarous fury of the 
,moors when they held that place1 though
 they have not escaped the ravages of   
time and the neglect of those intrusted 
with the care of the church4 ,the       
consequence is1 they are scarcely       
intelligible from the injury which they 
have received and the dust which has    
accumulated upon them4 ,this sort of    
painting1 rude and savage as it is1     
appears to have been the ashes whence   
was destined to spring that fairest     
,phnix of modern art which has since    
burst forth in such splendour and       
riches4'  ,the first painter of ,cordova
 of whom we have a brief record is      
,pedro de ,cordoba4 ,in #adge he painted
 the ,annunciation1 which is still to be
 seen in the ,capilla del ,santo ,cristo
 of the ,mezquita4 ,the picture is      
representative of ,gothic art2 but it is
 in a poor light1 and the canvas is in a

 condition of neglect4  ,cordova was    
ranked as the second centre of art in   
,andalusia2 and the ,italian influence1 
which succeeded the ,gothic1 was        
exemplified in the productions of the   
cultured and versatile ,pablo de        
,cspedes1 who was born in the city in   
#aech4 ,this artist1 who wrote a        
celebrated poem on the art of painting1 
is ranked among the writers as well as  
the painters of his nation4 ,he studied 
in ,italy1 and became one of the canons 
of the ,cathedral of ,cordova4 ,in ,rome
 he painted frescoes after the manner of
 ,correggio4 #8,the ,last ,supper1' and 
two pictures of #8,st4 ,john' and #8,st4
 ,andrew1' are in the ,mezquita1 and in 
these we see the intellectual quality of
 this painter's art4 ,cean ,bermudez1   
the ,spanish critic1 ranked ,pablo de   
,cspedes high as a colourist1 and       
especially in flesh-tints4 ,most of the 
pictures by ,cspedes have perished4     
,juan de ,valds ,leal was born in       
,cordova in #afcj4 ,most of the         

painter's life was spent in ,seville1   
where he was regarded as the rival of   
,murillo4 ,his most sincere1 and one of 
his earliest compositions is in         
,cordova1 in the ,church of the ,carmen4
 ,this work is interesting because it   
instances the dramatic qualities of the 
painter4 ,the retablo is painted in     
eleven different parts1 representing the
 life of the prophet ,elijah4 ,most of  
the work of ,valds ,leal is to be seen  
in ,seville4  ,antonio de ,castillo y   
,saavedra1 born in ,cordova in #afjc1   
revived the best traditions of ,cspedes4
 ,castillo was one of the first of the  
,spanish landscape-painters1 but his    
strength lay in the presentment of      
figures4 ,his colour is not his forte1  
as will be seen from a study of his     
pictures in the ,museo4 ,perhaps his    
most admirable work is the #8,denial of 
,st4 ,peter4' ,castillo unfortunately   
attempted to imitate ,murillo1 and it is
 said that he was envious of the        
reputation of that more popular painter4

 ,this artist seems to have spent most  
of his time in ,cordova1 where he died  
in #affg4  ,the poet ,luis de ,gongora  
was born in the city in #aefa4 ,his     
first studies were at the ,university of
 ,salamanca1 whither he was sent at the 
age of fifteen1 to learn law4 ,while at 
the ,college he became exceedingly worn 
in health1 but his disease was not      
mortal1 and his recovery was accounted  
miraculous4 ,while still a youth        
,gongora wrote poetry4 ,he showed but   
little aptitude for the profession of   
lawyer1 and upon his return to ,cordova 
he cultivated his bent for poetry4  ,in 
person ,luis de ,gongora was tall and   
powerfully built4 ,he was a caustic     
writer1 and in his first period his     
style was simple and delightful4 ,but he
 became more mannered and affected as he
 grew older1 and his later work was     
marred by pomposity1 extravagance1 and  
often by sheer absurdity4 ,his          
mannerisms were1 however1 regarded as   
the fruit of rare genius by his host of 

disciples and imitators4 ,gongorism     
became the fashion among poetasters in  
,spain1 and the followers of this master
 of eccentricity were slavish flatterers
 and fanatical worshippers4  ,at        
forty-five ,gongora left ,cordova and   
entered the ,church4 ,he afterwards     
lived in ,madrid4 ,in the capital he was
 under the patronage of influential     
hidalgos and nobles1 and ,philip ,,iii4 
made him his honorary chaplain4 ,gongora
 eventually returned to his native      
place1 where he died at the age of      
sixty-six1 in the year #afbg4  ,in spite
 of his stilted style and metrical      
defects1 ,gongora was endowed with true 
poetic talent4 ,writing of him1 ,lope de
 ,vega said3 #8,i have known this       
gentleman for eight-and-twenty years1   
and ,i hold him to be possessed of the  
rarest and most excellent talent of any 
in ,cordova1 so that he need not yield  
even to ,seneca or ,lucan1 who were     
natives of the same town4'              
,,appendix ,i  ,,the ,,great ,,mosque   

,,of ,,cordova   ,it is not a little    
singular that the present ,cathedral of 
,cordova is better known to the         
inhabitants of the city as ,la          
,mezquita1 or ,mosque1 than by its      
,christian designation2 which           
circumstance may be taken as a proof of 
the great influence exerted over        
,spanish thought and feeling by the     
,moorish occupation of the ,peninsula4  
,the truth is that ,spanish and ,moorish
 interests had much in common1 and both 
nations had equal pride in the          
celebration of notable deeds performed  
by ,mussulman or ,christian4 ,the       
mingling of the two peoples after the   
conquest of ,granada gave1 at least to  
the commonalty of both nations1 a spirit
 of charity which it had been better to 
foster than to extinguish4  ,this gentle
 sentiment is well expressed in a lament
 by ,amados de los ,rios1 a great       
,spanish antiquary and ,orientalist1 who
 sings a mournful requiem over the      
departed glories of the ,mosque1 once   

the model of ,arab architecture1 and the
 pride of ,islam3--  #8,neither the     
sumptuous ,christian fabric that to-day 
rises in the midst of those countless   
columns1 nor all the treasures of art   
lavished upon it by the celebrated      
artists of the sixteenth century who    
erected it1 nor that interminable series
 of chapels of every epoch which1       
resting against the walls of the        
,mosque1 disfigure it2 nor the clumsy   
angels that seem to suspend their flight
 to shed glory over the divine service1 
nor the words of the ,evangelist        
sounding from the seat of the ,holy     
,spirit1 can dispel or banish in the    
slightest degree the majesty of those   
wandering shades1 that in vain seek in  
the sanctuary the sacred volume whose   
leaves1 according to tradition1 were    
enamelled with the blood of the ,khalif 
,othman1 martyr to the faith4 ,a world  
of souvenirs here enthralls the mind of 
the traveller as he gazes with a feeling
 of sorrow upon these                   

profanations1--works dictated by the    
intolerant yet sincere faith of our     
ancestors1 impelled by the desire of    
banishing for ever from that spot       
consecrated to the law of ,jesus1 the   
spirit of ,mohammed and the ghosts of   
his slaves that haunt it1 and will for  
ever haunt it while it exists4 ,for1 in 
spite of the mutilations it has endured1
 and of the changes it has undergone1   
there is impressed upon it1 by a        
superior ineradicable law1 the seal of  
the art that inspired it1 and the       
character of the people by whom it was  
planned and erected4'  ,don ,amados is  
not alone in his eloquent1 if unavailing
 protest4 ,when ,charles ,v41 in #aebf1 
visited ,cordova1 and observed ,st4     
,peter's 7the ,coro7 rising out of the  
very centre of the ,mosque1 he rebuked  
the ,bishop1 ,alonso ,manriquez1 who had
 erected the incongruous edifice1 in no 
measured terms4 ,when the king saw the  
extent of the mischief1 he said3 #8,you 
have built here what you or any one     

might have built elsewhere2 but you have
 spoilt what was unique in the world4'  
,alas6 the monarch had forgotten1 or did
 not choose to remember1 that the       
declaration came with a very bad grace  
from one who1 for his never-completed   
palace at ,granada1 had torn down whole 
,courts and ,halls of the ,alhambra4    
,like most ,moorish buildings1 the      
exterior of the ,great ,mosque of       
,cordova has a somewhat forbidding      
aspect1 and rises before one much unlike
 a house of prayer4  ,the vast interior 
of the ,mosque may be likened to a      
petrified grove of palm-trees1 their    
stems strangely varied in colour1 and in
 amazing perspective to all points of   
the compass4 ,marble columns of every   
hue1 from pure white and translucent    
alabaster1 through the intervening red1 
the precious verde antique1 jasper1     
porphyry1 all shades1 to the deepest    
black2 the variety only to be explained 
by the fact that the great builders     
,abd-er-,rahman ,i41 together with his  

son and successor1 ,hisham ,i41 procured
 their materials whenever and wherever  
they could #8acquire' them4 ,many of the
 columns being too tall1 were #8topped' 
to supply a deficiency in the length of 
another--a process eloquent of the      
pillage of many a distant city4#a  ,all 
historians agree that the great ,mosque 
of ,cordova owes its inception to       
,abd-er-,rahman ,i41 the first sovereign
 to reign independently over ,andalus4  
,directly the ,sultan found himself     
comparatively free from his turbulent   
rivals1 and firmly established on the   
throne1 he began the building of his    
royal palace--that of the pleasure-house
 called ,rissafah1 and of the great     
,mosque4 ,the circumstances which led to
 the erection of the ,mosque are thus   
related3--  ,when a city surrendered to 
the ,moors by capitulation1 it was their
 custom to divide with the ,christians  
the principal temple of that city4 ,so1 
for instance1 when ,damascus was taken1 
the principal temple was divided1 half  

of it remaining in the hands of the     
inhabitants for their form of worship1  
while the other half was appropriated to
 the use of the ,moslems1 who forthwith 
converted their moiety into a ,mosque4  
,according to this usage1 when the      
,arabs entered ,cordova they divided    
with the ,christians their principal    
place of worship1 all other churches1   
both within and without the city1 being 
immediately pulled down4 ,the ,moslems  
remained for a long time satisfied with 
this state of affairs1 until their      
number increased1 and ,cordova became a 
very populous city1 owing to the        
,arabian ,amirs having taken up their   
abode in it1 and made it the seat of    
,government4 ,the ,mosque could then no 
longer contain the worshippers1 and roof
 after roof was added to accommodate    
them1 the roof of each successive       
addition being inferior in height to the
 preceding structure1 until the roof of 
the latest addition was so low as to be 
but a few feet from the floor1          

preventing the people from standing with
 any comfort under it4  ,upon the       
consolidation of the ,omeyyah dynasty1  
,abd-er-,rahman at once turned his      
attention to the enlargement of the     
,mosque4 ,he sent for the chiefs of the 
,christian ,church1 and proposed to     
purchase from them that part of the     
building which remained in their hands1 
in order that he might utilise the space
 for the better observance of the       
religion of the ,prophet4  ,after much  
negotiation1 the ,christians agreed to  
relinquish their moiety1 on condition of
 being allowed to rebuild or repair a   
church outside the walls1 and of holding
 it independently of the ,moslems4 ,the 
church of the ,christians was           
consecrated wholly to the worship of    
their ,god4#b ,this being granted by    
,abd-er-,rahman1 and the ,christians    
having received the sum agreed upon1 the
 ,sultan demolished the old place of    
worship 7,a4,d4 #ghd-e71 and laid upon  
its site the foundations of the great   

,mosque1 which became one of the wonders
 of the world4  ,the building was       
carried on with incredible activity     
during the whole of his reign1 for the  
,sultan begrudged no expenditure that   
could add to its magnificence2 yet it   
was not until nine years after the death
 of ,abd-er-,rahman that the ,mosque was
 completed according to the original    
plan4 ,the design was accomplished by   
the ,sultan ,hisham ,i4 in the years    
#gid-e1 and the ,mosque received        
considerable improvements at the hands  
of his successors2 indeed1 it can be    
safely said that none of the ,sultans of
 the illustrious family of ,omeyyah who 
reigned in ,cordova failed to make some 
estimable addition1 or contributed in   
some way to the decoration of the       
sumptuous building4 ,hisham's son1      
,abd-er-,rahman ,,ii4 7,a4,d4 #hbb-heb71
 ordered much #8gilt work' 7,zak-hrafah7
 to be made1 but died before the work   
was carried out4 ,mohammed1 his son and 
successor 7,a4,d4 #heb-hhf71 continued  

the work begun by his father1 and       
brought it to a close4 ,mohammed's son1 
,mundhir1 in a short reign 7,a4,d4      
#hhf-hhh71 is recorded as having made   
improvements in the building4 ,the great
 ,khalif1 ,an-nassir 7,abd-er-,rahman   
,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #iab-ifa71 caused the old
 minaret to be pulled down and a more   
magnificent one to be erected4 ,al-hakem
 ,al-mustanser-billah 7,hakem ,,ii41    
,a4,d4 #ifa-igf7 made important         
additions4 ,seeing1 on his accession1   
that ,cordova was every day increasing  
in extent1 and the population rapidly   
growing1 he directed his attention to   
the enlargement of the ,mosque1 and     
completed the additional building known 
by his name1 by which the structure1    
already gorgeous1 reached the highest   
perfection1 the work of his time being  
executed in a manner that bewilders by  
its excellence4  ,lastly1 in the reign  
of his successor ,hisham ,,ii4 7,a4,d4  
#igf-ajji71 and under the administration
 of his famous ,hajib 7,lord            

,chamberlain and ,prime ,minister7      
,al-,mansur1 or ,almanzor1 as he is more
 commonly called1 an addition was made  
which almost doubled the capacity of the
 building4 ,a vast number of houses were
 pulled down1 the sites and the lands   
belonging to them appropriated for the  
extension of the ,mosque2 the addition  
falling nowise short1 in respect of     
solidity1 beauty of design1 and boldness
 of execution1 of those of any of his   
predecessors1 unless we except the      
transcendent work of ,hakem ,,ii4  ,the 
grace and purity of construction and    
decoration in ,cordova reached their    
zenith during the reign of ,hakem ,,ii4 
,he it was who built the maksurrah#c    
within the ,mosque1 a production that   
has been described by contemporary      
writers as one of the most exquisite    
fabrics ever raised by man4 ,in the two 
jambs of the arch forming the entrance  
to the mih-rab#d were four columns of   
great value3 two were made of green     
marble1 the other two of lapis-lazuli4#e

  ,near the mih-rab there once stood a  
pulpit constructed by ,hakem ,,ii41     
equalled by none other in the world for 
workmanship and materials4 ,it was built
 of ivory and the rarest woods1 such as 
ebony1 sandal1 almond1 ,indian plantain1
 citron1 aloe1 and so forth4 ,this      
beautiful object was to be seen in the  
,cathedral of ,cordova as late as the   
middle of the sixteenth century1 when it
 was dismembered and its materials      
employed in the construction of a       
,christian altar4 ,it was known to the  
,spaniards under the name of carro de   
,almanzor1 the chariot of               
,al-mansur--probably because it stood   
upon wheels4  ,not only did the ,khalif 
,hakem ,,ii4 make many additions to the 
great ,mosque of ,cordova1 but          
improvements which greatly benefited the
 city4 ,in place of the old reservoir   
for purification in the ,court of the   
,mosque1 he built four others at two    
sides of the ,mosque1 and these he      
filled by means of a canal which1 taking

 the water from the hills of ,cordova1  
poured it into an immense reservoir of  
marble which fed the four minor         
cisterns4 ,these marble receptacles for 
water may yet be seen in the ,mezquita  
of ,cordova2 the quarry whence they were
 extracted is likewise indicated by the 
peasants at a few miles from the city4  
,the water1 running constantly1 after   
supplying the needs of the ,mosque1 was 
distributed into three conduits parting 
from three sides of the ,mosque1 ,east1 
,north1 and ,west1 thus supplying the   
city and suburbs4  ,the actual          
dimensions of the ,mosque are difficult 
to establish4 ,an excellent authority   
says that in length from ,north to      
,south1 the ,mosque measures six hundred
 and twenty feet1 in width four hundred 
and forty feet4 ,mr4 ,waring1 in his    
,notes of an ,architect in ,spain says  
the ,mosque is an oblong of three       
hundred and ninety-four feet by three   
hundred and sixty feet4 ,the famous     
,orange ,court is in length two hundred 

and twenty feet1 and1 being within the  
boundary walls of the ,mosque1 is       
probably included in the first          
measurement given4  ,it is impossible to
 fix with any degree of certainty the   
number of columns contained in the      
,mosque during the time of ,mohammedan  
supremacy4 ,ambrosio de ,morales and the
 ,infante ,don ,juan ,manuel1 both of   
whom described the ,mosque before the   
columns were reduced in number by the   
unnecessary1 not to say barbarous1      
alterations to which the building has   
been subjected1 estimate the figures at 
one thousand and twelve2 but it is only 
too certain that when the ,mosque was   
converted into a ,christian ,church very
 many columns were removed to make room 
for altars1 chapels1 and the like4  ,no 
less than one hundred columns were      
comprised within the maksurrah1 which   
was further provided with three doors of
 exquisite workmanship1 one of which was
 covered with pure gold1 as were the    
walls of the mih-rab4 ,the floor of the 

maksurrah1 it is said1 was paved with   
silver1 and that the pavements adjacent 
to it were covered with sofeysafa1 an   
obscure word which ,don ,pascual de     
,gayangos believes to be a transposition
 of the ,arabic word foseyfasa1#f       
signifying enamel work of exceptional   
brilliancy1 laid down by ,greek workmen 
whom ,abd-er-,rahman had brought to     
,cordova for the task4  ,the ceiling of 
the ,mosque was formerly covered with   
oval cartouches bearing appropriate     
monitory inscriptions and pious         
sentences1 such as #8,be not one of the 
negligent1' #8,felicity1' #8,blessing1' 
#8,there is no ,god but ,god1 to whom   
all beings address themselves in their  
need1' thus inciting the minds of the   
faithful to contemplation and prayer4   
,some few of the cartouches are still   
remaining1 but the inscriptions were    
carefully effaced at the time when the  
,mosque was transformed into a          
,christian temple4 ,those in the        
mih-rab1 and in the angles near the     

tower1 were spared4  ,the number of     
brazen chandeliers of different sizes in
 the ,mosque is computed at upwards of  
two hundred1 and the number of cups     
attached and containing oil1 at upwards 
of seven thousand4 ,some of the         
oil-reservoirs for the great lamps were 
,christian bells deprived of their      
clappers1 afterwards inverted1 and      
suspended from the roof4 ,it is known   
that in the many expeditions against the
 ,christian1 bells were frequently      
removed from their churches and brought 
to ,cordova4 ,sometimes the metal of the
 bells was recast into forms more in    
accordance with the ,moorish style of   
ornament4     ,,appendix ,,ii  ,,cordova
   ,the most elegant description of     
,cordova is that contained in the       
epistle of ,ash-shakandi1 a native of   
,shakandah1 a town close to ,cordova1 on
 the southern bank of the ,guadalquivir4
 ,he calls ,cordova #8the repository of 
science1 the minaret of piety and       
devotion1 the abode of magnificence1    

superiority1 and elegance3 neither      
,baghdad nor ,damascus can compete with 
it4 ,an idea of its worth can only be   
arrived at by comparing the city to a   
beautiful bride of whose dower it should
 form part4 ,cordova may be properly    
called the military camp of ,andalus1   
the common rendezvous of those splendid 
armies which1 with the help of ,allah1  
defeated at every encounter the         
worshippers of the ,crucified4 ,its     
great ,mosque1 lighted with bronze lamps
 made from ,christian bells1 had its    
foundations formed of the materials of  
demolished churches brought to ,cordova 
by ,christian captives4'  ,during the   
reigns of the monarchs of ,gothic       
descent1 ,cordova cannot be said to have
 been the capital of ,andalus1 for      
although it served as a place of        
temporary residence for some of their   
kings1 it was not1 properly speaking1   
the court of the empire4 ,by the        
establishment of ,islam within it1 its  
importance increased2 the city became   

the capital of the ,mohammedan empire in
 ,spain and the stronghold of the family
 of ,merwan1#g the two important cities 
of ,seville and ,toledo quickly         
acknowledging its pre-eminence4  ,upon  
the coming of the ,beni ,omeyyah1 its   
,sultans exalted ,cordova above any city
 of ,andalus1 by reason of its          
convenient situation and delightful     
temperature4 ,in course of time ,cordova
 became1 says ,el-,makkari1 #8the       
meeting-place of the learned from all   
countries1 and owing to the power and   
splendour of the mighty dynasty that    
ruled over it1 it contained more        
excellences than any other city on the  
face of the earth4'  ,there is a highly 
characteristic anecdote of the relative 
merits of ,cordova and ,seville1 the    
refined society of the one city being   
devoted to literature1 while that of the
 other was dedicated to music4 #8,when a
 rich man dies at ,seville1' says a     
native writer1 #8and his heirs desire to
 sell his library1 it is sent to        

,cordova for disposal2 when1 on the     
other hand1 a musician dies at ,cordova 
and his instruments are to be sold1 the 
custom is to send them to ,seville4'  ,a
 ,mohammedan author of the twelfth      
century of our era1 ,al-hijr1 ,abu      
,mohammed1 wrote a description of       
,cordova in a volume called ,al-mishab1 
#8,the ,chatterer1' in which he         
describes the glories of the city4      
#8,cordova1' says he1 #8was1 during the 
reign of the ,beni-,merwan1 the cupola  
of ,islam1 the convocation of scholars1 
the court of the ,sultans of the family 
of ,omeyyah1 and the residence of the   
most illustrious tribes of ,yemen4      
,students from all parts of the world   
flocked thither at all times to learn   
the sciences of which ,cordova was the  
most noble repository1 and to derive    
knowledge from the mouths of the doctors
 and ulemas who swarmed in it4 ,cordova 
is to ,andalus what the head is to the  
body4 ,its river is one of the finest in
 the world1 now gliding slowly through  

level lawns1 or winding softly across   
emerald fields sprinkled with flowers1  
and serving it for robes2 now flowing   
through thickly planted groves1 where   
the song of birds resounds perpetually  
in the air1 and now widening into a     
majestic stream to impart its waters to 
the numerous wheels constructed on its  
banks1 communicating fresh vigour to the
 land4'  ,the extent of ancient ,cordova
 has been differently stated1 owing1 no 
doubt1 to the rapid increase of its     
population and the expansion of the     
buildings under the ,sultans of the     
dynasty of ,merwan on the one hand1 and 
on the other1 to the calamities and     
disasters by which it was afflicted     
under the last sovereigns of that house4
 ,cordova is further described by       
,mohammedan writers as a city which     
never ceased augmenting in size1 and    
increasing in importance from the time  
of its subjugation by the ,moslems until
 ,a4,d4 #ajji-aj1 when1 civil war       
breaking out within it1 the capital fell

 from its ancient splendour1 gradually  
decaying and losing its former          
magnificence until its final destruction
 ,a4,d4 #abcf1 when it fell into the    
hands of the ,christians4               
,illustration3 ,,plate #a4  ,,view ,,of 
,,the ,,city ,,and ,,the ,,bridge       
,,south ,,of ,,the ,,guadalquivir4      
,illustration3 ,,plate #b4  ,,the       
,,bridge4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #c4   
,,view ,,of ,,mosque ,,and ,,bridge4    
,illustration3 ,,plate #d4  ,,the ,,iron
 ,,mill ,,on ,,the ,,guadalquivir4      
,illustration3 ,,plate #e4  ,,promenade 
,,of 8,,grand ,,capitaine40             
,illustration3 ,,plate #f4  ,,market    
,,street ,,or ,,calle ,,de ,,la ,,feria4
  ,illustration3 ,,plate #g4  ,,plaza   
,,del ,,triunfo ,,and ,,exterior ,,of   
,,the ,,mosque4  ,illustration3 ,,plate 
#h4  ,,entrance ,,gate ,,of ,,the       
,,city1 ,,the ,,column ,,of ,,triumph1  
,,and ,,the ,,mosque ,,from ,,the       
,,bridge4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #i4   
,,the ,,column ,,of ,,triumph4          

,illustration3 ,,plate #aj4  ,,ancient  
,,arab ,,tower1 ,,now ,,the ,,church    
,,of ,,st ,,nicholas ,,de ,,la ,,villa4 
,illustration3 ,,plate #aa4  ,,the      
,,tower ,,of ,,san ,,nicolas4           
,illustration3 ,,plate #ab4  ,,tower    
,,of ,,the ,,cathedral ,,and ,,patio    
,,de ,,los ,,naranjos4  ,illustration3  
,,plate #ac4  ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,patio 
,,de ,,los ,,naranjos4  ,illustration3  
,,plate #ad4  ,,the ,,tower ,,of ,,the  
,,cathedral4  ,illustration3 ,,plate    
#ae4  ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,city      
,,from ,,the ,,bridge4  ,illustration3  
,,plate #af4  ,,public ,,fountain ,,in  
,,the ,,patio ,,de ,,los ,,naranjos4    
,illustration3 ,,plate #ag4  ,,women    
,,at ,,the ,,spring4  ,illustration3    
,,plate #ah4  ,,spring ,,in ,,the       
,,patio ,,de ,,los ,,naranjos4          
,illustration3 ,,plate #ai4  ,,peasant  
,,with ,,his ,,donkey4  ,illustration3  
,,plate #bj4  ,a ,,water-,,carrier4     
,illustration3 ,,plate #ba4  ,,the      
,,poor ,,man',s ,,meal4  ,illustration3 

,,plate #bb4  ,,muleteers4              
,illustration3 ,,plate #bc4  ,a         
,,gardener4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #bd4
  ,,girl ,,with ,a ,,guitar4            
,illustration3 ,,plate #be4  ,a ,,room  
,,in ,,the ,,provincial ,,museum4       
,,view ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,and         
,,visigoth ,,section4  ,illustration3   
,,plate #bf4  ,a ,,room ,,in ,,the      
,,provincial ,,museum4  ,,view ,,of     
,,the ,,arab ,,section4  ,illustration3 
,,plate #bg4  ,,door ,,of ,,the ,,house 
,,of ,,the ,,innocents4  ,illustration3 
,,plate #bh4  ,,the ,,door ,,of ,,don   
,,jer,,nimo ,p,,ez4  ,illustration3     
,,plate #bi4  ,,the ,,door ,,of ,,the   
,,foundling ,,hospital4  ,illustration3 
,,plate #cj4  ,,the ,,tower ,,of        
,,carrahol4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #ca4
  ,,porch ,,of ,,st ,,paul4             
,illustration3 ,,plate #cb4  ,,ancient  
,,arab ,,walls4  ,illustration3 ,,plate 
#cc4  ,,mosaic ,,of ,,the ,,four        
,,seasons1 ,,in ,,the ,,house ,,of      
,s4,s4 ,,luque1 ,,plaza ,,de ,,la       

,,compania4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #cd4
  ,,architectural ,,parts ,,of ,,the    
,,catholic ,,basilicas4  ,illustration3 
,,plate #ce4  ,,capitals ,,and          
,,fragments ,,of ,,ornamentation ,,in   
,,the ,,mosque4  ,illustration3 ,,plate 
#cf4  ,,architectural ,,parts ,,of ,,the
 ,,catholic ,,basilicas ,,and ,,other   
,,constructions4  ,illustration3 ,,plate
 #cg4  ,,capitals ,,of ,,the ,,catholic 
,,basilicas ,,preserved ,,in ,,the      
,,mosque1 ,,now ,,the ,,cathedral4      
,illustration3 ,,plate #ch4  ,,fragments
 ,,of ,,the ,,catholic ,,basilicas      
,,preserved ,,in ,,the ,,mosque1 ,,now  
,,the ,,cathedral4  ,illustration3      
,,plate #ci4  ,,general ,,view ,,of     
,,the ,,choir ,,and ,,high ,,altar4     
,illustration3 ,,plate #dj4  ,,pulpit   
,,and ,,steps ,,of ,,the ,,high ,,altar4
  ,illustration3 ,,plate #da4  ,,choir  
,,stalls ,,in ,,the ,,mosque ,,or       
,,cathedral4  ,illustration3 ,,plate    
#db4  ,,left ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,choir  
,,stalls4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #dc4  

,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,choir ,,in
 ,,the ,,mosque ,,or ,,cathedral4       
,illustration3 ,,plate #dd4  ,,the      
,,bishop',s ,,stall ,,in ,,the ,,choir  
,,of ,,the ,,mosque ,,or ,,cathedral4   
,illustration3 ,,plate #de4  ,,central  
,,nave ,,in ,,the ,,cathedral4          
,illustration3 ,,plate #df4  ,,central  
,,nave ,,in ,,the ,,cathedral4          
,illustration3 ,,plate #dg4  ,,central  
,,nave ,,in ,,the ,,cathedral4          
,illustration3 ,,plate #dh4  ,,plan ,,of
 ,,the ,,mosque ,,in ,,the ,,time ,,of  
,,the ,,arabs4  ,illustration3 ,,plate  
#di4  ,,ii4  ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,mosque 
,,at ,,the ,,present ,,time4            
,illustration3 ,,plate #ej4  ,,the      
,,bishop',s ,,gate4  ,illustration3     
,,plate #ea4  ,,entrance ,,to ,,the     
,,mosque1 ,,called ,,the ,,gate ,,of    
,,cam,,nigos4  ,illustration3 ,,plate   
#eb4  ,,the ,,tower ,,of ,,mala         
,,muerte4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #ec4  
,,the ,,cathedral4 ,,view ,,of ,,the    
,,transverse ,,nave4  ,illustration3    

,,plate #ed4  ,,north ,,angle ,,of ,,the
 ,,chapel ,,of ,,villaviciosa4          
,illustration3 ,,plate #ee4  ,,the      
,,central ,,nave ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4   
,illustration3 ,,plate #ef4  ,,the      
,,gate ,,of ,,pardon4  ,illustration3   
,,plate #eg4  ,,the ,,gate ,,of         
,,pardon4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #eh4  
,,the ,,gate ,,of ,,pardon4             
,illustration3 ,,plate #ei4  ,,the      
,,gate ,,of ,,pardon4  ,illustration3   
,,plate #fj4  ,,knocker ,,on ,,the      
,,gate ,,of ,,pardon4  ,illustration3   
,,plate #fa4  ,,principal ,,nave ,,and  
,,mihrab ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4           
,illustration3 ,,plate #fb4  ,,entrance 
,,to ,,the ,,chapel ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4
  ,illustration3 ,,plate #fc4           
,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,mosque   
7,,from ,a ,,drawing74  ,illustration3  
,,plate #fd4  ,,general ,,view ,,of     
,,the ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4   
,illustration3 ,,plate #fe4  ,,interior 
,,of ,,the ,,mosque4  ,illustration3    
,,plate #ff4  ,,interior ,,of ,,the     

,,cathedral4  ,illustration3 ,,plate    
#fg4  ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4   
,illustration3 ,,plate #fh4  ,,interior 
,,of ,,the ,,cathedral4  ,illustration3 
,,plate #fi4  ,,general ,,view ,,of     
,,the ,,chapel ,,of ,,villaviciosa4     
,illustration3 ,,plate #gj4  ,,interior 
,,of ,,the ,,mosque4  ,illustration3    
,,plate #ga4  ,,interior ,,of ,,the     
,,mosque4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #gb4  
,,lateral ,,door ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4   
,illustration3 ,,plate #gc4  ,,the      
,,villaviciosa ,,chapel ,,in ,,the      
,,mosque4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #gd4  
,,exterior ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4         
,illustration3 ,,plate #ge4  ,,the      
,,mosque4  ,,portal ,,on ,,the ,,north  
,,side1 ,,moorish ,,style1 ,,built      
,,under ,,hakem ,,iii41 #ihh-ajja4      
,illustration3 ,,plate #gf4  ,,chapel   
,,of ,,trastamara1 ,,south ,,side4      
,illustration3 ,,plate #gg4  ,,general  
,,view ,,of ,,the ,,chapel ,,of ,,the   
,,mihrab4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #gh4  
,,fa,,ade ,,and ,,gate ,,of ,,almanzor4 

,illustration3 ,,plate #gi4  ,,the      
,,mosque4  ,,elevation ,,of ,,the ,,gate
 ,,of ,,the ,,sanctuary ,,of ,,the      
,,koran4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #hj4   
,,gate ,,corresponding ,,to ,,the       
,,building ,,of ,,alhakem ,,ii4         
,illustration3 ,,plate #ha4  ,,portal   
,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4  ,illustration3    
,,plate #hb4  ,,arcade ,,of ,,the       
,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,vestibule ,,of  
,,the ,,mihrab4  ,illustration3 ,,plate 
#hc4  ,,arab ,,tribunal 7,,now ,,the    
,,villaviciosa ,,chapel71 ,,left ,,side4
  ,illustration3 ,,plate #hd4  ,,right  
,,lateral ,,portal1 ,,within ,,the      
,,precinct ,,of ,,the ,,maksurrah4      
,illustration3 ,,plate #he4  ,,detail   
,,of ,,the ,,hall ,,of ,,chocolate4     
,illustration3 ,,plate #hf4  ,,exterior 
,,of ,,the ,,chapel ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4
  ,illustration3 ,,plate #hg4  ,,detail4
 ,,arches ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4          
,illustration3 ,,plate #hh4  ,,detail   
,,in ,,the ,,chapel ,,of ,,the          
,,maksurrah4  ,illustration3 ,,plate    

#hi4  ,,mosaic ,,decoration ,,of ,,the  
,,sanctuary4  ,illustration3 ,,plate    
#ij4  ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the       
,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,chapel ,,of     
,,the ,,maksurrah ,,and ,,st            
,,ferdinand4  ,illustration3 ,,plate    
#ia4  ,,detail ,,near ,,the ,,mihrab4   
,illustration3 ,,plate #ib4  ,,detail   
,,of ,,the ,,interior ,,of ,,the        
,,mihrab4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #ic4  
,,vertical ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,dome  
,,and ,,cupola ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4     
,illustration3 ,,plate #id4  ,,detail   
,,of ,,the ,,trastamara ,,chapel4       
,illustration3 ,,plate #ie4  ,,detail   
,,of ,,the ,,higher ,,part ,,and ,,roof 
,,of ,,the ,,chapel ,,of ,,st           
,,ferdinand4  ,illustration3 ,,plate    
#if4  ,,sections ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4   
,illustration3 ,,plate #ig4  ,,sections 
,,of ,,the ,,mosque ,,and ,,cathedral4  
,illustration3 ,,plate #ih4  ,,detail   
,,in ,,the ,,chapel ,,of ,,trastamara1  
,,south ,,side4  ,illustration3 ,,plate 
#ii4  ,,detail ,,in ,,the ,,angle ,,of  

,,the ,,arch ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab1 ,,left
 ,,side4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #ajj4  
,,detail ,,in ,,the ,,angle ,,of ,,the  
,,arch ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab1 ,,right     
,,side4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #aja4   
,,detail ,,of ,,the ,,gate ,,of ,,the   
,,mosque4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #ajb4 
,,kufic ,,inscription ,,of ,,the ,,time 
,,of ,,the ,,khalifate1 ,,found ,,in    
,,an ,,excavation4  ,illustration3      
,,plate #ajc4  ,,the ,,mosque4 ,,kufic  
,,inscription ,,in ,,the ,,palace       
,,appropriated ,,to ,,the ,,performance 
,,of ,,ablutions4  ,illustration3       
,,plate #ajd4  ,,arabian ,,inscriptions4
  ,illustration3 ,,plate #aje4          
,,arabian ,,inscriptions4               
,illustration3 ,,plate #ajf4  ,,basement
 ,,panel ,,of ,,the ,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,the
 ,,mihrab4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #ajg4
  ,,marble ,,socle ,,in ,,the ,,mihrab4 
,illustration3 ,,plate #ajh4  ,,exterior
 ,,of ,,the ,,chapel ,,of ,,san ,,pedro1
 ,,north ,,side1 ,,in ,,the ,,mosque4   
,illustration3 ,,plate #aji4  ,a ,,gate 

,,on ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,lateral ,,sides4
  ,illustration3 ,,plate #aaj4  ,a      
,,kufic ,,inscription ,,on ,,the        
,,additions ,,made ,,to ,,the ,,mosque1 
,,by ,,order ,,of ,,the ,,khalif        
,,al-,,hakem4  ,illustration3 ,,plate   
#aaa4  ,a ,,kufic ,,inscription ,,on    
,,the ,,additions ,,made ,,to ,,the     
,,mosque1 ,,by ,,order ,,of ,,the       
,,khalif ,,al-,,hakem4  ,illustration3  
,,plate #aab4  ,,capitals4 ,,entrance   
,,arch4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #aac4   
,,detail ,,of ,a ,,frieze4              
,illustration3 ,,plate #aad4  ,,detail  
,,of ,a ,,cornice4  ,illustration3      
,,plate #aae4  ,,detail ,,of ,a         
,,cornice4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #aaf4
  ,,eastern ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,exterior
 ,,of ,,the ,,mosque1 ,,and ,,detail4   
,illustration3 ,,plate #aag4  ,,plan    
,,of ,,the ,,arch ,,and ,,cupola ,,of   
,,the ,,mihrab4  ,illustration3 ,,plate 
#aah4  ,,detail ,,of ,,the ,,portals    
,,of ,,the ,,maksurrah4  ,illustration3 
,,plate #aai4  ,,section ,,and ,,details

 ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab ,,of ,,the         
,,mosque4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #abj4 
,,details ,,of ,,the ,,cupola ,,of ,,the
 ,,vestibule ,,of ,,the ,,mihrab4       
,illustration3 ,,plate #aba4  ,,the     
,,gate ,,of ,,pardon4  ,,the ,,bishop',s
 ,,gate4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #abb4  
,,the ,,mosque4  ,,detail ,,of ,,the    
,,trastamara ,,chapel4  ,,the ,,mosque4 
,,the ,,gate ,,of ,,the ,,sultan4       
,illustration3 ,,plate #abc4  ,,the     
,,mosque4  ,,interior ,,of ,,the        
,,mihrab4  ,,the ,,mosque4  ,,arab      
,,arcade ,,above ,,the ,,first ,,mihrab4
  ,illustration3 ,,plate #abd4          
,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,mosque4         
,illustration3 ,,plate #abe4  ,,interior
 ,,of ,,the ,,chapel ,,of ,,san         
,,fernando4  ,illustration3 ,,plate     
#abf4  ,,gate ,,of ,,the ,,cathedral4   
,illustration3 ,,plate #abg4            
,,principal ,,entrance ,,to ,,the       
,,mosque4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #abh4 
,,the ,,mosque4  ,,trastamara ,,chapel1 
,,south ,,side4  ,illustration3 ,,plate 

#abi4  ,,eastern ,,fa,,ade ,,of ,,the   
,,mosque4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #acj4 
,,patio ,,de ,,los ,,naranjos4          
,illustration3 ,,plate #aca4  ,,calle   
,,del ,,cardinal ,,herrero4             
,illustration3 ,,plate #acb4  ,,tower   
,,of ,,the ,,cathedral4  ,illustration3 
,,plate #acc4  ,,the ,,mosque4 ,,pulpit 
,,of ,,the ,,angel4  ,illustration3     
,,plate #acd4  ,,the ,,mosque4 ,,pulpit 
,,of ,,the ,,bull4  ,illustration3      
,,plate #ace4  ,,cathedral4 ,,choir     
,,stalls4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #acf4 
,,cathedral4 ,,principal ,,nave4        
,illustration3 ,,plate #acg4  ,,gate    
,,of ,,st ,,catharine4  ,illustration3  
,,plate #ach4  ,,altar ,,of ,,san       
,,rafael4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #aci4 
,,the ,,house ,,of ,p,,ez4              
,illustration3 ,,plate #adj4  ,,general 
,,view ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,bridge ,,and
 ,,calahorra ,,over ,,the               
,,guadalquivir1 ,,taken ,,from ,,the    
,,arab ,,mill4  ,illustration3 ,,plate  
#ada4  ,,calahorra ,,castle4            

,illustration3 ,,plate #adb4  ,,general 
,,view ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,castle ,,of 
,,the ,,calahorra4  ,illustration3      
,,plate #adc4  ,,entrance ,,gate ,,to   
,,the ,,roman ,,bridge4  ,illustration3 
,,plate #add4  ,,almod,,var ,,gate4     
,illustration3 ,,plate #ade4  ,,the     
,,mills4  ,illustration3 ,,plate #adf4  
,,general ,,view ,,and ,,roman ,,bridge 
,,over ,,the ,,guadalquivir4            
,illustration3 ,,plate #adg4  ,,grating 
,,and ,,court ,,of ,a ,,private ,,house4
  ,illustration3 ,,plate #adh4  ,,avenue
 ,,of ,,the ,,grand ,,captain4          
,illustration3 ,,plate #adi4  ,,district
 ,,and ,,church ,,of ,,san ,,lorenzo4   
,illustration3 ,,plate #aej4  ,,general 
,,view ,,of ,,the ,,bank ,,and ,,the    
,,roman ,,bridge ,,over ,,the           
,,guadalquivir4  ,illustration3 ,,plate 
#aea4  ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,plaza    
,,de ,,toros4  ,illustration3 ,,plate   
#aeb4  ,,horticultural ,,gardens4       
,illustration3 ,,plate #aec4  ,,the     
,,bank ,,of ,,the ,,guadalquivir ,,from 

,,the ,,bridge4  ,illustration3 ,,plate 
#aed4  ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,cordova4 
,illustration3 ,,plate #aee4            
,,courtyard ,,of ,,an ,,inn4            
,illustration3 ,,plate #aef4  ,a        
,,street ,,and ,,country ,,types4       
,illustration3 ,,plate #aeg4  ,a        
,,street ,,and ,,country ,,types4       
,illustration3 ,,plate #aeh4  ,,ancient 
,,receptacle ,,for ,,water ,,of ,,medina
 ,,az-,,zahira1 #aj,,th ,,century4      
,illustration3 ,,plate #aei4  ,,cordova 
,specially drawn for ,the ,spanish      
,series   ,,footnotes3  #a ,it is said  
that many of the pillars were brought   
from the plunder of ,narbonne1 the      
,french town on the ,mediterranean4  #b 
,the new ,christian ,church was         
dedicated to ,,ss4 ,faustus and         
,marcial4 ,the priests quitted their    
,cathedral peacefully1 bearing in       
procession the relics and images of the 
saints4  #c ,the maksurrah is a screen  
or enclosure surrounding the mih-rab1   
with a sort of throne or platform where 

the ,sultan sits1 elevated above the    
level of the ,mosque4 ,the whole of that
 space which was taken up by the        
maksurrah is now occupied by the chapel 
of ,st4 ,estevan4  #d ,the mih-rab is a 
recess having a cavity within one of its
 walls1 wherein stood that copy of the  
,koran held in highest veneration4 ,the 
cavity also marked that point of the    
compass towards which stands the        
,ka'bah1 the object of veneration at    
,mecca4  #e ,the four columns are yet in
 place in what is now the chapel of ,st4
 ,peter4 ,behind the mih-rab at ,cordova
 was a room where other copies of the   
,koran were kept4 ,both the sanctuary1  
and the mih-rab room1 now form part of  
,st4 ,peter's ,chapel1 which the        
inhabitants vulgarly call ,la ,capilla  
del ,zancarron--the chapel of the       
shin-bone--from a popular belief that   
the shin-bone of the ,prophet was there 
preserved4  #f ,foseyfasa4--,gayangos   
tells us that the word is not in the    
dictionaries1 but that1 according to an 

old ,arabian writer1 it is a substance  
of glass and small pebbles crushed and  
baked together1 uniting1 with great     
variety of colour1 great brilliancy and 
beauty2 it is sometimes mixed with      
silver and gold4 ,one of the conditions 
of peace granted to the ,emperor of     
,constantinople by the ,khalif ,al-walid
 was that the ,emperor should provide a 
certain quantity of foseyfasa or        
enamelled work for the great ,mosque at 
,damascus4 ,idrs1 in his description of 
the ,mosque of ,cordova1 says that the  
enamel which covered the walls of the   
mih-rab came from ,constantinople4  #g  
,merwan1 the last ,khalif at ,damascus  
of the ,beni ,omeyyah dynasty1 was the  
ancestor of ,abd-er-,rahman ,i4