,transcriber's ,notes3 ,underscores 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate italics in the original text4 ,carat symbol 80 designates a superscript4 ,small capitals have been converted to ,,solid capitals4 ,illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs4 ,old or antiquated spellings have been preserved4 ,typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,,handbooks ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,craftsmen4 ,,edited ,,by ,g4 ,c4 ,,williamson1 ,,litt4,d4 ,illustrated ,monographs1 ,biographical and ,critical1 on the ,great ,craftsmen and ,workers of ,ancient and ,modern ,times4 ,edited by ,g4 ,c4 ,,williamson1 ,litt4,d4 ,imperial #afmo1 with numerous ,illustrations1 #es4 net each4 ,first ,volumes of the ,series ,,the ,,pavement ,,masters ,,of ,,siena4 ,by ,r4 ,h4 ,,hobart ,,cust1 ,m4,a4 ,,peter ,,vischer4 ,by ,,cecil ,,headlam1 ,b4,a4 ,,the ,,ivory ,,workers ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,by ,a4 ,m4 ,,cust4 ,others to follow4 ,,london3 ,,george ,,bell ,,and ,,sons ,,new ,,york3 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,illustration3 ,,dossetter ,,photo4 ,,british ,,museum #a4 ,,leaf ,,of ,a ,,diptych ,byzantine1 fifth century ,see p4 #ee4 ,,the ,,ivory ,,workers ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,,by ,a4 ,m4 ,,cust ,illustration ,,london ,,george ,,bell ,,and ,,sons #aijb ,,chiswick ,,press3 ,,charles ,,whittingham ,,and ,,co4 ,,tooks ,,court1 ,,chancery ,,lane1 ,,london4 ,,to ,,my ,,dear ,,father ,i ,,dedicate ,,this ,,book4 ,,preface ,this little book can do no more than humbly touch the fringe of a large subject2 but if it leads the reader to a further study of this beautiful craft1 it will have amply fulfilled its duty4 ,i must express my deep obligation to the magnificent volume on ivories by ,m4 ,emile ,molinier1 whose masterly arrangement of a very fragmentary and scattered subject is a model of lucidity2 and also to ,dr4 ,hans ,graeven1 whose scholarly researches and excellent photographs are indispensable for a real study of the craft4 ,a4 ,m4 ,,cust4 ,december1 #aija4 ,,contents ,,page ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations xiii ,,bibliography xvii ,,chapter ,i4 ,,consular ,,and ,,other ,,secular ,,diptychs #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,latin ,,and ,,byzantine ,,ivories #cg ,i4 ,latin and ,latino-,byzantine and the ,early ,byzantine ,ivories #cg ,,ii4 ,byzantine ,caskets #ge ,,iii4 ,the ,byzantine ,renaissance #hd ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,lombardic1 ,,anglo-,,saxon1 ,,carlovingian ,,and ,,german ,,ivories #if ,i4 ,lombard ,ivory ,carvings #if ,,ii4 ,anglo-,saxon ,ivory ,carvings #ii ,,iii4 ,the ,carlovingian ,renaissance #ajf ,,iv4 ,german ,ivory ,carving in the time of the ,ottos #aah ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,romanesque ,,and ,,gothic ,,ivories #abi ,,list ,,of ,,diptychs #aeg ,,list ,,of ,,places ,,where ,,important ,,examples ,,of ,,ivories ,,can ,,be ,,found #afe ,,index #afg ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,,an ,,angel4 ,leaf of a ,diptych4 ,fifth century4 ,byzantine ,british ,museum1 ,london ,frontispiece #b4 ,,second ,,leaf ,,of ,,the ,,diptych ,,of ,,probianus1 ,,vice-,,prefect ,,of ,,rome4 ,end of fourth century ,berlin ,library #h #c4 ,,first ,,leaf ,,of ,,the ,,diptych ,,of ,,probus1 ,,consul ,,at ,,rome1 #djf ,a4,d4 ,duomo1 ,aosta #i #d4 ,,first ,,leaf ,,of ,,the ,,diptych ,,of ,,orestes1 ,,consul ,,at ,,rome1 #ecj ,a4,d4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london #ad #e4 ,,leaf ,,of ,,the ,,diptych ,,of ,,amalasuntha787 ,sixth ,century4 ,italian ,bargello1 ,florence #cj #f4 ,,adam ,,in ,,the ,,terrestrial ,,paradise1 ,,and ,,scenes ,,from ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,st4 ,,paul4 ,leaves of a ,diptych4 ,fifth century4 ,italian ,bargello1 ,florence #da #g #h4 ,,two ,,plaques1 ,,the ,,crucifixion and ,,christ ,,leaving ,,the ,,pr,,torium4 ,fifth century4 ,italian ,british ,museum #df1 #dg #i4 ,,pyx ,,with ,,the ,,scene ,,of ,,christ ,,healing ,,the ,,paralytic4 ,sixth century4 ,italo-,byzantine ,muse de ,cluny1 ,paris #ea #aj4 ,,cover ,,of ,a ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,gospels 7from ,s4 ,michele di ,murano74 ,sixth century4 ,italo-,byzantine ,ravenna ,museum #ec #aa4 ,,cover ,,of ,a ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,gospels1 with three scenes from the ,nativity 7from ,metz ,cathedral74 ,sixth century4 ,italo-,byzantine ,bibliothque nationale1 ,paris #eg #ab4 ,,front ,,of ,,the ,,ivory ,,throne ,,of ,,st4 ,,maximian1 with ,st4 ,john ,baptist and the ,four ,evangelists4 ,sixth century4 ,byzantine ,duomo1 ,ravenna #ei #ac4 ,a ,,panel ,,from ,,the ,,same ,,throne1 ,,bringing ,,joseph',s ,,coat ,,to ,,jacob4 ,sixth century4 ,byzantine ,duomo1 ,ravenna #fc #ad4 ,,oliphant4 ,ninth to tenth century4 ,oriental ,byzantine ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london #gc #ae4 ,,veroli ,,casket4 ,byzantine ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london #gg #af4 ,,front ,,of ,a ,,casket1 with scenes from the life of ,david4 ,ninth century4 ,byzantine ,museo ,kircheriano1 ,rome #ha #ag4 ,,harbaville ,,triptych4 ,tenth century4 ,byzantine ,louvre1 ,paris #hg #ah4 ,,plaque ,,with ,,the ,,ascension ,,of ,,christ4 ,eleventh century4 ,byzantine ,bargello1 ,florence #hi #ai4 ,,christ ,,enthroned4 ,eleventh century4 ,byzantine ,trivulzio ,collection1 ,milan #ia #bj4 ,,christ ,,crowning ,,the ,,emperor ,,romanus ,,and ,,the ,,empress ,,eudoxia4 ,eleventh century4 ,byzantine4 ,cabinet des ,mdailles1 ,bibliothque nationale1 ,paris #ic #ba4 ,,the ,,adoration ,,of ,,the ,,magi4 ,eleventh century4 ,anglo-,saxon ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london #aja #bb4 ,,the ,,xxviith ,,psalm ,,represented ,,in ,,scenic ,,form4 ,ninth century4 ,carlovingian ,zrich ,museum #aji #bc4 ,,cover ,,of ,a ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,gospels4 ,ninth century4 ,carlovingian ,abbey of ,st4 ,gall1 ,switzerland #aac #bd4 ,,the ,,crucifixion ,,and ,,allegorical ,,figures4 ,ninth century4 ,carlovingian ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london #aae #be4 ,,panel ,,of ,,the ,,crucifixion1 from a book cover4 ,tenth century4 ,german ,john ,rylands ,library1 ,manchester #abc #bf4 ,,ceremonial ,,comb4 ,eleventh century4 ,english ,british ,museum1 ,london #abg #bg4 ,a ,,bishop',s ,,crozier4 ,fourteenth century4 ,french ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london #aca #bh4 ,,the ,,coronation ,,of ,,the ,,virgin4 ,thirteenth century4 ,french ,louvre1 ,paris #acg #bi4 ,,the ,,virgin ,,and ,,child4 ,thirteenth century4 ,french ,bargello1 ,florence #aci #cj4 ,,the ,,descent ,,from ,,the ,,cross4 ,thirteenth century4 ,french ,louvre1 ,paris #ada #ca4 ,a ,,polyptych1 with the ,virgin and ,child and various scenes from the ,nativity4 ,fourteenth century4 ,french ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london #adc #cb4 ,,first ,,leaf ,,of ,a ,,diptych4 ,fourteenth century4 ,french ,mayer ,coll41 ,liverpool ,museum #ade #cc4 ,,plaque ,,from ,a ,,casket ,,representing ,,dancers4 ,fourteenth century4 ,french ,bargello1 ,florence #adg #cd4 ,a ,,mirror ,,case1 with the ,elopement of ,guinivere and ,lancelot4 ,fourteenth century4 ,french ,mayer ,coll41 ,liverpool ,museum #adi #ce4 ,,panel ,,from ,a ,,casket4 ,fourteenth century4 ,french ,bargello1 ,florence #aea #cf4 ,,triptych ,,made ,,for ,,bishop ,,grandison ,,of ,,exeter4 #acbg-acfi4 ,english ,british ,museum1 ,london #aec #cg4 ,,triptych4 ,early fifteenth century4 ,italian ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london #aee ,,bibliography ,antoniewicz4 ,romanische ,forschungen4 ,g4 ,bhne1 ,leipsic4 ,barbier de ,montault1 ,xavier4 ,le symbolisme du blier sur les crosses d'ivoire au moyen ge4 ,revue de l',art ,chrtien4 #ahhc1 p4 #aeg4 ,darcel1 ,alfred4 ,collection ,basilewsky4 ,catalogue raisonn4 #b vols4 ,fol4 ,paris1 #ahgd4 ,spitzer1 ,frdric4 ,la ,collection ,spitzer4 ,les ,ivoires4 ,notice de ,m4 ,alf4 ,darcel4 ,paris1 #ahij4 ,garucci4 ,storia dell' arte cristiana4 ,vol4 #f4 ,prato1 #ahgb-hj4 ,gatty1 ,charles ,t4 ,catalogue of ,medival and ,later ,antiquities contained in the ,mayer ,museum4 ,gilbert ,walmsley4 ,liverpool1 #ahhc4 ,goodyear1 ,w4 ,h4 ,roman and ,medival ,art4 ,flood ,vincent1 ,chatauqua ,press4 ,gori1 ,ant4 ,francesco4 ,thesaurus ,veterum ,diptychorum ,consularium et ,ecclesiasticorum4 #c vols4 ,florence1 #agei4 ,graeven1 ,hans4 8,entstellte ,consular ,diptychon40 ,mitth4 ,arch4 ,instituts4 ,rom4 #ahib1 p4 #bjd4 8,ein ,reliquienkstchen aus ,pirano40 ,jahrbuch der ,kunsthistorischen ,sammlungen des ,allerhchsten ,kaiserhauses1 ,wien4 ,vol4 ,,xx4 #ahii4 8,der ,wiener-,genesis und byzantinische ,elfenbeinwerke40 ,do4 ,vol4 ,,xxi4 #aijj4 8,antike ,vorlagen ,byzantinische ,elfenbeinreliefs40 ,jahrbuch der ,k4 ,preuss4 ,kunstsammlungen1 ,,xviii4 #c4 #ahig4 ,photographs4 ,frhchristliche und mittelalterliche ,elfenbeinwerke in photographischer ,nachbildung 8,aus ,sammlungen in ,england40 #ahih4 8,aus ,sammlungen in ,italien40 #aijj4 ,labarte1 ,jules4 ,histoire des ,arts ,industriels au ,moyen ,age et l',epoque de la ,renaissance4 ,ve ,a4 ,morel4 ,paris1 #ahgb4 ,maskell1 ,w4 ,ancient and ,medival ,ivories in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,london1 ,chapman and ,hall1 #ahgb4 ,the ,introduction is sold separately4 ,price #as4 ,meyer1 ,wilhelm 7aus ,speyer74 ,zwei ,antike ,elfenbeintafeln der k4 ,staats-,bibliothek in ,mnchen4 ,mnchen1 ,verlag der ,k4 ,akademie4 #ahgi4 ,molinier1 ,emile4 ,histoire ,gnrale des ,arts appliqus l',industrie du ,ve la fin du ,,xviiie ,sicle4 ,vol ,i4 ,ivoires4 ,e4 ,lvy et ,cie4 ,paris4 ,catalogue des ,ivoires4 ,muse national du ,louvre4 ,paris1 #ahif4 ,oldfield1 ,edmund4 ,a ,catalogue of ,specimens of ,ancient ,ivory ,carvings in various collections4 ,with ,memoir by ,sir ,digby ,wyatt4 ,first edition1 #ahef4 ,new edition1 without memoir1 #ahic4 ,pulzky1 ,francis4 ,catalogue of the ,fejvry ,ivories in the ,museum of ,joseph ,mayer1 ,esq4 ,liverpool1 #ahef4 ,roujon1 ,molinier et ,marcou4 ,catalogue ,illustr ,officiel de l',exposition ,rtrospective de l',art ,franais des ,origines #ahjj4 ,paris1 #aijj4 ,scharf1 ,sir ,g4 ,article on 8,sculpture0 in ,waring's ,art ,treasures of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,manchester1 #ahgc4 ,schlumberger1 ,g4 ,un ,empereur ,byzantin au ,xe ,sicle4 ,nicphore ,phocas4 ,paris4 ,didot4 #ahij4 ,l',epope ,byzantine la fin du ,xe ,sicle4 ,paris1 ,hachette et ,cie4 #ahif4 ,stuhlfauth1 ,g4 ,die altchristliche ,elfenbeinplastik4 ,leipsig1 #ahif4 ,venturi1 ,adolfo4 ,un cofano civile bizantino di ,cividale4 ,gallerie nazionale italiane4 ,vol #c4 #ahig4 ,storia dell' arte italiana4 ,i4 ,dai primordi dell' arte cristiana al tempo di ,giustiano4 ,hoepli4 ,milan1 #aija4 ,vge1 ,w4 ,katalog der ,berliner ,elfenbeinwerke4 7,in course of publication47 ,berlin1 #aijj4 8,ein deutscher ,schnitzer des ,x ,jahrhunderts40 ,jahrbuch der k4 preuss4 ,kunstsammlungen4 ,vol4 ,,xx4 ,berlin1 #ahii4 ,westwood1 ,j4 ,o4 ,a ,descriptive ,catalogue of the ,fictile ,ivories in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,with an ,account of the ,continental ,collections of ,classical and ,medival ,ivories4 ,chapman and ,hall4 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,wilpert1 ,josef4 ,un ,capitolo della ,storia di ,vestario4 ,l',arte4 #ahih1 #ahii4 ,,the ,,ivory ,,workers ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,,chapter ,i ,,consular ,,and ,,other ,,secular ,,diptychs ,from the earliest dawn of the human race until our time1 ,ivory has held a first place as a material for making the pleasing little luxuries of life1 religious or civil4 ,cave-,man has left behind him incised sketches of animals1 the product of his leisure moments2 all literature tells of the use of it1 and the digger's spade turns up a series of charming objects1 from the ornamental hair combs of a prehistoric princess1 who dazzled the ,egyptian court some #gjjj years ,b4,c41 to the ivory-handled walking-stick of some gouty old ,greek who lived at the outset of this most prosaic era4 ,to this passion for carved ivory we owe our knowledge of the continuity of art for many centuries after the break up of the ,roman ,empire1 and the almost complete cessation of monumental sculpture4 ,in fact1 no such continuous chain has survived in any other artistic production2 and this alone makes the study of the craft of such intense interest1 illustrating as it does the early quickening of art in a period of great obscurity between the old order and the new4 ,there is no real break between ,classical art and that of the ,middle ,ages2 the early ,christian was the last phase of ,roman art1 and the ,church handed on with the ,christian religion a mass of ,judaic and ,latin culture which the barbarian races1 having none of their own1 accepted1 but through their different nature and requirements1 modified and debased4 ,thence we see the continuity1 and also the two main causes of the deterioration of ,classical art3 first1 by the rise of ,christianity1 which was in its early days antagonistic to the plastic arts1 owing to a haunting horror of images1 inherited from ,judaism1 and a fear of falling back under the pagan spell of sensuous beauty3 and though later and for a long period the ,church became by far the most munificent and inspiring patron1 the final tendency in the ,eastern ,empire was to stifle the true spirit of art by subjecting it to as dogmatic a rigour in design as in doctrine4 ,secondly the near presence of the powerful and rapidly assimilating barbarian1 who imitating all things1 often ignorant of their meaning1 and incapable of good workmanship1 reduced art in the ,western ,empire to the lowest ebb4 ,in ,constantinople there lingered a fading shadow of the old ,greek spirit1 which1 at least1 inspired the craftsman to finished workmanship and a love of elegant form4 ,in spite of the paralysis caused by the enforcement of a fixed canon of iconography there were long periods of high artistic excellence 7,figs4 #ag and #ah74 ,we have an exaggerated idea of the rigidity of ,byzantine art owing to the numerous repetitions by inferior craftsmen which are found in our museums1 and by confusing the ,golden ,age1 with the period of real deadness which commenced in the twelfth century1 and has lasted to this very day in the art of the ,greek ,church4 ,byzantine art became the technical school of the younger nations1 teaching them craftsmanship and design1 thus enabling them to express their more impulsive religious emotions and leading them on till they found the full expression of their genius in the aspiring beauty of ,gothic art4 ,the best period for commencing the study of medival ivory-carving is with the fourth century1 ,a4,d41 and the great series of ,consular ,diptychs which form the backbone of the early history of the craft and created a type which lasted through the whole medival era4 ,theodosius the ,great 7#cie71 divided the ,roman ,empire between his two sons4 ,arcadius ruled the ,eastern ,empire1 his capital continuing at ,constantinople4 ,honorius1 then only eleven years old1 nominally governed the ,western4 ,he did not make the ,eternal ,city his seat of government1 in fact the ,imperial ,court had rarely returned there since it was deserted by ,diocletian4 ,milan was considered too exposed to the attacks of the barbarians1 so the city of ,ravenna1 almost impregnable owing to the surrounding marshes1 was chosen1 and remained the capital of the varying rulers of ,italy until the eighth century4 ,two ,consuls were chosen for the ,east and ,west1 their names continuing to give the legal date to the year1 according to the ancient custom4 ,and though every vestige of political power was gone1 the post was the object of much ambition1 it being a personal favour of the ,emperor1 and conferring on the holder the highest rank4 ,it also brought great popularity with the people1 who still honoured the name of ,consul1 full of memories of the great republic1 and still more passionately appreciated the ,games in the ,circus1 which it was the expensive privilege of the ,consul to inaugurate on his accession4 ,these ,games were an occasion for great ostentation1 and were carried out with lavish expenditure4 ,first there was a procession of all the dignitaries of the city1 in which the ,consul was the most important figure2 this was greeted on its arrival at the amphitheatre by the tens of thousands of spectators starting up and clapping their hands2 then all were breathlessly still while the ,consul1 cynosure of every eye1 flung down into the arena the small white napkin1 or ,mappa ,circensis1 with which he1 and he alone1 might signal the commencement of the games4 ,this was the psychic moment1 and the scene has been preserved for all time on the carved ivory diptychs which were presented by the ,consul to the ,senators and other high officials in commemoration of his office4 ,the word diptych is derived from the ,greek or 8double folded10 and the diptychs given by the ,consuls were an elaborate form of the ordinary writing-tablets or pugillares1 8a thing held in the fist40 ,they consisted of two pieces of ivory joined together like a book by hinges1 decorated on the outside and grooved inside to hold the wax1 which was written on by a sharp style4 ,the most important leaf is the right hand one1 or that which comes uppermost when the book is closed1 on it1 with a few early exceptions1 the ,consul's name was always inscribed1 the second leaf bearing his titles4 ,these consular diptychs probably contained the ,fasti ,consulares or ,list of ,consuls up to the year of the donor4 ,they were often gilded1 the inscriptions being painted in red2 and some were of great size1 as the ,byzantine ,angel in the ,british ,museum 7frontispiece71 which measures #af by #e in41 and is so large that no known tusk would suffice to cut it4 ,it has been thought that the ancients possessed some secret for rolling out ivory or joining it invisibly2 but it is more likely that elephants had not been so much killed down for the sake of their ivory1 so larger tusks were obtainable4 ,these tablets were so costly that ,theodosius decreed in #chd that they should only be given away by the ,consules ,ordinarii1 or the ,consuls admitted on the #ast of ,january and who named the year1 and not by those who replaced them or by any other officials2 but this law was soon disregarded1 and nine years later we read in a letter of the noble ,roman ,symmachus that1 in honour of his son's elevation to the qustorship he is sending to the very same ,emperor a diptych set in gold4 ,this series of diptychs spreads over a period of about #aej years1 from the end of the fourth to the middle of the sixth century4 ,the sculpture steadily decreasing in value1 the earliest examples show freedom of design and good work1 but the last were nothing but indifferent repetitions of the same subjects1 in bad proportion and worse relief till it became possible to produce a figure such as that of ,orestes 7,fig4 #d74 ,soon after ,orestes the ,emperor ,justinian abolished this ancient office1 and1 really1 he must be held justified if all the consuls could do was to give bloodthirsty shows to the citizens1 and still more corrupt the standard of art by distributing such despicable types of art among the provincials4 ,it is noticeable that all the fifth century diptychs1 the earliest and the best1 both consular and otherwise are from the ,west4 ,by the end of the century there was a complete collapse1 following the further invasions of the ,huns and other barbarians1 and the ,western ,empire flickered out with the suppression1 by ,odoacer the ,goth1 of the last emperor1 grotesquely named ,romulus ,augustulus1 a sort of satire on his unworthy following of such mighty predecessors4 ,orestes1 ,consul at ,rome1 #ecj 7,fig4 #d71 ,no4 #cd1a is the only ,western ,consul of the sixth century whose diptych has been preserved2 the style is so like that of ,constantinople1 that it gives weight to ,graeven's theory that the medallions on it represent ,amalasuntha1 daughter of ,theodoric the ,ostro-,goth1 who was then ruling in the name of her young son ,athalric1 and who carried on that short renaissance of the ,arts1 so artificially introduced from ,constantinople by her father4 ,the busts cannot represent the reigning ,emperor ,justinian and his wife ,theodora1 because at that time he was forty-eight years of age1 and they never had a son4 ,before passing to the real consular diptychs1 it is impossible to leave unmentioned the splendid tablets of ,probianus at ,berlin 7,fig4 #b71 ,no4 #ej4 ,we know no more than what the well-cut inscription tells us1 that he was ,,vicarius ,,urbis ,,rom1 or ,vice-,prefect of the city of ,rome4 ,but1 judging from the style1 the good proportions 7admitting the convention which made the person of highest rank the largest71 the dignified faces1 and the natural arrangement of the drapery1 it must be of early date1 probably towards the end of the fourth century1 about the time of the beautiful tablets of the ,nicomachi and the ,symmachi 7,no4 #eh71 to which it is closely allied by the well-hung drapery and the surrounding border of delicately cut honeysuckle pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,berlin ,,museum #b4 ,,second ,,leaf ,,of ,,the ,,diptych ,,of ,,probianus ,end of fourth century ,the top has a slight gable1 as in the early diptych of ,probus 7,fig4 #c71 ,no4 #b4 ,probianus is depicted in the ,tribunal1 sitting on his high-backed throne1 surrounded by his clerks1 who bear piles of writing tablets1 and below1 probably outside the cancelli or barrier1 which is to be found in all ,roman basilicas1 stand the litigants1 who appear to be congratulating him4 ,outstretched fingers1 in early art1 meant the act of speech1 and then1 as now1 congratulatory addresses were inscribed and presented4 ,on the second leaf we see the address on his knee1 and by a curious convention he is writing with his own hand the words they acclaim him with1 8,,probiane ,,floreas40 ,illustration3 ,,alinari ,,photo4 ,,aosta ,,cathedral #c4 ,,first ,,leaf ,,of ,,the ,,diptych ,,of ,,probus ,in the first leaf he is delivering judgment1 and the two lower figures wear the toga1 showing they are of high rank1 and on the other both he and the litigants are arrayed in the chlamys of ordinary folk4 ,below1 between the litigants is seen a mysterious object on a tripod stand1 which some say is the clepsydra or water-clock1 and others declare to be the official inkpot4 ,on the right of the ,vice-,prefect is a curious standard-like erection called the vexilla regalia1 on which was painted the portraits of the ,emperor and ,empress1 and which was never absent from any important ceremonial4 ,the diptych first on ,molinier's list covers an antiphonary in the ,treasury of the ,basilica at ,monza1 which contains so many other interesting antiquities4 ,legend tells us that this ivory was sent about the year #fjj to the ,lombard queen1 ,theodolinda1 by ,pope ,gregory the ,great in acknowledgment of her efforts to convert her very barbaric subjects from the ,arian heresy to ,catholicism4 ,three figures are represented1 a bearded soldier and a stately lady1 who has with her a little boy4 ,it is evidently a portrait group1 and has given rise to many questionings2 and among the names of the numerous historical personages connected with it are those of the general ,constantius1 his wife1 the famous ,galla ,placidia1 daughter of ,theodosius ,i41 and their little son1 afterwards ,valentinian ,,iii4 ,this would place it towards the end of the first twenty-five years of the fifth century4 ,this theory is quite possible1 historically2 but1 judging from the style1 the attribution of ,molinier is more likely4 ,he considers that the figures represent another trio who lived a quarter of a century earlier4 ,the decadence in art was so exceedingly rapid that it is very doubtful if such good craftsmanship and originality of design were possible at the later period4 ,molinier suggests that the carving represents the great general ,stilicho1 who though of ,vandal origin1 raised himself to a position of great power4 ,he faithfully served ,theodosius ,i41 and the ,emperor on his deathbed intrusted to him the care of his two young sons4 ,stilicho1 however1 finding his influence in the ,eastern ,court was checked by ,rufinus1 concentrated his energies in the ,west1 and practically ruled the ,western ,empire1 and his weak young son-in-law1 the ,emperor ,honorius4 ,he kept the invading hordes at bay by conquest and treaty till his fall in #djh1 in which year the three persons depicted on these tablets--,stilicho1 his wife ,serena1 adopted daughter and niece of ,theodosius ,i41 and their young son1 ,eucherius1 were all cruelly murdered4 ,this attribution would date it about #djj1 and an examination of the style supports the idea4 ,the proportions are good1 and the drapery well rendered1 especially ,serena's girdled tunic4 ,the whole design shows originality1 and the figures being portraits1 the craftsman was thrown on his own resources and could not copy from classical sculpture4 ,the pose of the figures is somewhat uneasy1 and contrasts unfavourably with the grace of the ,bacchantes on the beautiful private diptych1 part in the ,muse de ,cluny1 and part in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum 7,no4 #eh71 which probably formed the cover of a marriage contract between the families of the ,nicomachi and the ,symmachi4 ,these tablets1 though nearly of the same date1 adhere closely to some ,greek model1 and though gaining much in beauty1 lose in originality4 ,camille ,jullian in an interesting article#b points out how in the midst of thoroughly ,roman surroundings1 it is only the energetic face of ,stilicho which is not ,roman in type and betrays his barbarian origin4 ,the short tunic worn by ,stilicho is embroidered all over with pictures of his wife and son1 his long chlamys having only portraits of the boy4 ,it was a popular custom at this period to have the portraits of near relations embroidered on ,state garments1 especially pictures of children4 ,the poet ,claudian in his panegyric on ,stilicho1 alludes to scenes from the lives of ,eucherius and his little sisters being embroidered on the robe of their father4 ,more often the portrait was on a square of stuff1 or segment1 which was let into the front of the garment 7see ,fig4 #e74 ,the first diptych of certain date is that of ,probus1 ,consul at ,rome1 #djf1 ,no4 #b 7,fig4 #c71 and probably intended as a gift for the ,emperor ,honorius1 who is depicted thereon as a figure of heavy proportions1 borrowed from the common type of imperial statue4 ,the head is evidently a portrait1 as even at the most decadent period there was always a striving1 even if an unsuccessful one1 after portraiture and naturalism4 ,it is interesting to note the nimbus round the head of ,honorius4 ,in heathen times the nimbus was given to the immortals#c and to images of the deified emperors4 ,christian art adopted it1 but not invariably1 and it appears to have been regarded more as an attribute of power than saintliness4 ,though ,christ and his disciples and the ,old ,testament#d heroes received it1 it also encircled the heads of the great people of this world4 ,we find it on the celebrated ,justinian mosaics at ,s4 ,vitale in ,ravenna1 and on the medals of ,justinian1 and as late as the eleventh century on the plaque of the ,emperor and ,empress1 ,romanus and ,eudoxia1 in the ,bibliothque nationale at ,paris 7,fig4 #bj74 ,next in date and infinitely coarser in execution is that of ,felix1 #dbh 7,no4 #c72 the head is of a rugged type1 and the ,consul is represented standing alone at the door of his house4 ,asturias1 #ddi 7,no4 #d71 on the contrary1 is throned high in front of a colonnade and accompanied by two attendants4 ,in the tablet1 however1 of the ,consul ,boethius1 #dhg 7,no4 #e71 we see for the first time the ,consul seated1 mappa in hand1 signalling the commencement of the games2 but the design on the two leaves still has some variation1 and on the second leaf he stands without the mappa4 ,the diptych of ,sividius1 #dhh 7,no4 #f71 furnishes the earliest example of the tablets of simpler type1 which were probably given to people of lower degree4 ,it is decorated by an inscribed medallion surrounded by foliated scrolls and four rosettes4 ,all these are from the ,western ,empire4 ,illustration3 ,,victoria ,,and ,,albert ,,museum1 ,,london #d4 ,,first ,,leaf ,,of ,,the ,,diptych ,,of ,,orestes1 #ecj ,a4,d4 ,with the commencement of the sixth century and the diptych of ,areobindus1 ,consul at ,constantinople1 #ejf1 we change to the ,eastern ,empire and find the formal type already fixed 7see ,fig4 #d74 ,the ,consul is seen sitting on the sella curulis1 or consular chair4 ,this has no back1 and is usually made of ivory1 with elaborately carved masks and claws of lions1 and sometimes has small figures of ,victory on the arms4 ,on it is a richly embroidered cushion1 rather ostentatiously showing2 for to sit on a cushion in the ,circus was only allowed to certain privileged classes4 ,his feet rest on the scabellum1 or stool1 and he is clad in his gorgeous festival robe1 which is a development of the purple triumphal garb of the victorious generals in earlier days4 ,the component parts of this dress are still under discussion1 but according to ,meyer#e they consist of four parts3 #ast4 ,the paenula4 ,a long plain under-robe with long narrow sleeves2 #bnd4 ,the colobium4 ,a shorter embroidered over-tunic1 with half length wide sleeves2 #crd4 ,an embroidered strip1 which is laid over one shoulder and hangs down before and behind2 #dth4 ,a nameless wrap of lighter material1 embroidered or woven in a pattern4 ,the complete dress was called the trabea or toga picta4 ,wilpert1#f however1 declares that ,nos4 #c and #d are one long piece equal to the ancient toga3 without which1 by a decree of #chb1 the ,senators were forbidden to appear in public1 and which by more and more folding was reduced into the narrow ,byzantine lorum4 ,the feet were covered with red leather shoes1 fastened by crossed ribbons with falling ends4 ,the ,consul holds in his right hand the mappa circensis and in his left the scipio or sceptre4 ,these sceptres are crowned by many devices--an eagle1 busts of the imperial family and even two sitting figures4 ,as in the diptych of ,orestes1 there are often two female personifications of ,rome and ,constantinople2 the former1 on the ,consul's right hand1 holds a tessera in her right and a spear in her left hand4 ,her helmet has three crests1 while that of ,constantinople only one4 ,the latter holds up her right hand and bears a shield or standard in the left4 ,these cities are sometimes represented in little medallions on the ,consul's chair 7,no4 #ag74 ,very often above the head of the central figure were medallions with the portraits of imperial personages1 or1 perhaps1 renowned ancestors4 ,these niches were designed in imitation of those wooden shrines in which ,roman households kept the waxen busts of their ancestors4 ,sometimes these diptychs were finished with a cross1 and some have a medallion with the bust of ,christ 7,no4 #cf74 ,the upper part was inscribed with the name and titles of the ,consul1 the last name always denominating the year4 ,some early tablets have the name in the genitive1 always a sign of antiquity1 as ,nicomachorum and ,symmachorum 7,no4 #eh71 ,felicis 7,no4 #c71 ,lampadorium 7,no4 #cc71 and the plain tablets bearing the name ,gallieni ,concessi ,v4,c4 ,v4 ,inl4 or ,vir ,inlustris1 ,v4 ,c4 or ,vir ,clarissimus1 and even ,patric4 or ,patrician1 were personal titles and not hereditary4 ,they denoted that the bearer had held high office4 ,we also find ,prfectus1 and ,comes domesticorum equites1 or commander of the imperial bodyguard4 ,to be called ,vir spectabilis1 or a respectable man1 was then esteemed a high honour1 while in our degenerate days it is almost considered an insult4 ,but ,cons4 ordin4 or ,consul ordinarius was the real dignity1 and with one exception always stood last4 ,in the lower division of the ,orestes tablet1 two servants pour money from sacks1 doubtless commemorating the ,consul's largesse to the people4 ,in some diptychs they scatter prizes for the ,games1 and often there are lively representations of the chariot races 7,no4 #cc71 and the fights with wild beasts4 ,areobindus has left us the most varied pictures4 ,a row of spectators look on at the struggling gladiators 7,no4 #i71 or ,bestiarii fighting with all sorts of wild beasts1 lions and bears 7,no4 #g71 a bull-fight 7,no4 #aj71 and on an anonymous diptych at ,liverpool 7,no4 #ea71 five magnificent elans are being attacked by hunters4 ,the fights do not appear to have been very dangerous for the men2 the scenes are often quite comic from the numerous precautions taken1 especially on the ,basilewsky tablet at ,st4 ,petersburg 7,no4 #eb74 ,the fighters1 carefully packed in leather protectors1 bolt through doors with peep-holes1 or climb into a sort of crow's-nest1 curling up their ferocious opponents at the end of extremely long spears4 ,in fact there was every means of escape1 trap-doors1 turnstile exits1 and even dummy figures to divert the attention of the animals4 ,perhaps it was necessary1 for we read of ,pompey providing six hundred lions for a single show1 and of ,trajan celebrating his ,dacian victories by the slaughter of eleven thousand beasts4 ,if these little precautions had not been taken1 the entertainment might have ended abruptly1 and more in favour of the lower animals than the lords of creation4 ,the fights of the gladiators represented on the ,besanon tablet must have been more exhibitions of skill than struggles to the death4 ,these gladiatorial fights ceased after the generous act of the monk ,telemachus4 ,he1 after travelling to ,rome from the far ,east with the set purpose1 stept down into the arena1 at the triumphal games of the ,emperor ,honorius 7#djd71 and tried to part the combatants4 ,he was stoned to death by the enraged multitude2 but his death was not unavailing1 for his memory was respected1 and these degrading exhibitions were for ever abolished4 ,basilius1 ,consul at ,constantinople1 #eda1 was the last of the ,consuls before the ,emperor ,justinian1 impatient of the empty show of power1 absorbed the office among his other titles1 and from that time the ,emperors always went through the form of being made ,consul once on their accession4 ,basilius is represented on the first leaf of his diptych 7,no4 #cg7 standing by the figure of ,constantinople1 who holds a standard on a gigantic pole4 ,below is a minute chariot race4 ,on the second leaf1 which has been cut1 a figure of ,victory holds an oval medallion portrait of the ,consul4 ,below is an eagle with outstretched wings4 ,these two leaves1 though widely separated1 were proved to be a pair by the likeness of the thin sickly face of the ,consul on each leaf4 ,this diptych varies considerably from the contemporary design1 and though all idea of the real structure of the body1 and of the hang of drapery from the limbs has disappeared1 still it shows so much originality and clever portraiture1 that ,graeven1 after a careful consideration of the fashion of the dress1 attributes it to an earlier ,consul ,basilius of #dhj1 at a time before the grouping had become so stereotyped4 ,the number of these carvings given away was so considerable that all were not of the same richness4 ,there are many tablets of simpler design and rougher make1 several being smaller and in camel bone 7,no4 #dc74 ,these were1 as already stated1 intended for persons of lower degree4 ,the decoration consisted usually of a medallion1 inscribed1 or with the bust of the ,consul1 surrounded by foliated scrolls 7,areobindus has left several of this latter kind among his numerous diptychs74 ,the ,barbarini leaf has a charming variation1 the bust being inclosed in a garland bound with hanging ribbons 7,no4 #da74 ,some are fully inscribed 7,no4 #ce71 and others have only a monogram like that formed from the ,greek letters of the name ,areobindus 7,no4 #ab74 ,justinianus1 ,consul at ,constantinople in #eda1 and afterwards ,emperor1 has1 in addition to his names1 a ,latin dedication framed in a circular moulding of delicate honeysuckle pattern4 ,the diptych of ,philoxenus at the ,bibliothque nationale 7,no4 #bi7 is quite a new departure4 ,three medallions1 linked by knotted cords1 contain the portrait of the ,consul1 his name and titles in ,latin1 and below1 a female bust1 who1 some think1 represents his wife4 ,she is more likely to be the personification of ,constantinople1 judging from the absence of the fashionable headgear1 the hair being simply parted under a narrow diadem1 and from the standard she grasps in her hand1 which is embroidered with a garland in the same fashion as that held by ,constantinople in the ,basilius diptychon4 ,the faces are well characterized and the whole workmanship is excellent1 round it is an elaborate border1 the spaces being filled in by a ,greek verse1 which runs as follows3 8,i ,philoxenus being ,consul1 offer this present to the wise ,senate40 ,there is a simpler diptych of this ,consul at ,liverpool1 which bears a ,greek dedication to a friend4 ,the most important among the anonymous consular diptychs is the fine one preserved in the ,cathedral ,treasury at ,halberstadt 7,no4 #ch7 on which the bearded ,consul stands among his friends1 the group being varied on each leaf4 ,above1 in a narrow division1 are two small imperial figures seated on a wide throne with the figures of ,rome and ,constantinople2 at the back stands a ,victory1 as in the similar design on a coin of ,theodosius ,i4 ,below1 in another narrow division1 are pathetic groups of captive barbarians4 ,the inscription has been cut from the top1 but the whole style points to an early date1 and ,meyer places it between those of ,asturias and ,boethius in the third quarter of the fifth century4 ,the tablet of ,lampadius at ,brescia is especially interesting for the large picture it gives of a chariot race1 showing the quadrigas rushing past the spina or turning post4 ,the ,consul1 clad in the trabea sits with two companions behind the richly carved cancelli or balustrade4 ,the only similar representation is on the magisterial diptych at ,liverpool 7,no4 #ea71 but the identification is very confusing4 ,in the ,brescia tablet the central trabea-clad figure and the man on his left both hold the mappa1 but on that at ,liverpool there is1 more reasonably1 only one starter1 but he is on the left of the central figure1 who holds a libation cup instead of the mappa1 and all three figures have the same un-consular dress4 ,meyer points out an inscription announcing the restoration of the ,flavian ,amphitheatre by ,caecina ,felix ,lampadius1 in the second half of the fifth century2 the inscription being in the genitive is also a sign of antiquity4 ,but the smooth and rather too minute workmanship connect it with the best diptychs of the early sixth century1 and so ,molinier attributes it to ,lampadius1 ,consul at ,constantinople in #ecj1 and the same year as our old friend ,orestes 7,fig4 #d71 and the smooth finish of the ,lampadius tablet can be contrasted1 not altogether unfavourably1 with the rougher modelling of what had become by then almost a provincial school4 ,the nameless consular diptych of ,bourges 7,no4 #ci71 divides into two equal registers4 ,above1 the bearded ,consul is seated between two guards1 on one leaf these have long hair1 and may have been intended for ,goths1 and in the corners of the arch are two eagles exactly like those on the ,st4 ,gregory diptych at ,monza 7,no4 #dd74 ,in each lower half is a bestiarius transfixing lions and leopards with his spear4 ,the treatment1 if rough1 is free1 and the grouping of the lions is somewhat similar to that in the ,adam tablet at the ,bargello 7,fig4 #f74 ,it is probably fifth or early sixth century4 ,meyer quotes the text of ,gregory of ,tours1 who describes the installation of ,clovis the ,frankish king as ,consul of the ,west in #ejh1 with all the pomp and honour of ,roman custom1 and repeats the rather problematic suggestion that this diptych commemorates the occasion4 ,the ivory tablet in the ,british ,museum1 called the ,apotheosis of ,romulus1 from a very doubtful reading of the monogram1 is probably also of the fifth or even sixth century1 though its thoroughly heathen subject seems to necessitate an earlier date4 ,the composition is most elaborate4 ,below1 the ,consul1 clad in the toga1 is seated in an architectural triumphal car drawn by four elephants1 each with their driver4 ,in the centre he is seen in miniature driving in a quadriga1 which bears him upward1 preceded by eagles1 from the funeral pile to the heavens1 where he is again represented in the hands of winged genii1 who present him to the assembled gods4 ,this is interesting as being an example of that continuous method of composition1 in which the same figure is repeated acting in sequence4 ,this method was introduced into ,roman art about the ,augustan age1 and was largely continued by ,christian art1 especially in the ,,mss4 ,it gained great popularity1 and for a while it seemed doubtful whether the 8continuous0 or the 8episodic0 method would be the leading feature in modern art4#g ,several consular diptychs have been turned to ,christian religious uses by slight alterations of the figures1 and by the removal of inscriptions and scenes from the games4 ,the most important transformed diptych is in the ,cathedral ,treasury at ,monza 7,no4 #dd71 which now represents ,st4 ,gregory and ,king ,david4 ,the alterations have been considerable1 and have given rise to many differences of opinion1 but the latest writers1 with the exception of ,meyer1 have gone back to the opinion of the earliest1 ,gori1 who declared the consular origin of these tablets4 ,st4 ,gregory did not die till #fjd1 so could not have been canonized before the seventh century1 and the style is fully that of the consular diptychs in the first half of the preceding century4 ,the saints are depicted in full consular robes1 the right hand raised with the mappa in the act of flinging it into the arena1 and in the left the scipio4 ,the background has the typical decorated arch1 supported by cannelated pilasters1 over the capitals of which are rectangular spaces having the names of ,gregory and ,david cut with a deep background1 as if to destroy any under carving4 ,above the arch is a cross similar to that on ,fig4 #d1 on each side are two eagles of the ,bourges pattern 7,no4 #ci74 ,david sits on a curule chair1 his feet resting on a stool in good consular fashion4 ,on each side of the chair1 above the leg1 is a square with deep cut carving4 ,these squares might have contained the now obliterated busts of ,rome and ,constantinople1 which decorate that part on the diptych of ,anastasius 7,no4 #ag74 ,in fact the knot and twisted stalks almost follow the outlines of a head and shoulders4 ,there is more deep carving let in a narrow groove between the pilasters and the smooth background1 all of which has a ,carlovingian character4 ,st4 ,gregory has been given a tonsure and his hair has been cut at the expense of his ears1 which have been cut away too4 ,the robes are untouched1 but ,gregory's sceptre has been altered to a cross4 ,above the head of ,david are faint traces of an inscription on the smooth background1 and on the other leaf there is a later inscription referring to ,gregory's ,antiphonary1 to a copy of which the tablets formerly acted as a cover4 ,on a reliquary book cover at ,prague is another consul changed into ,st4 ,peter 7,no4 #de74 ,this figure has suffered considerably1 for the trabea has been so much smoothed that it is hardly distinguishable4 ,the mappa has been turned into a volumen or roll1 the scipio into a key1 and the feet have been bared4 ,there appears to have been a class of diptychs1 each leaf consisting of five pieces joined together by ivory beading or metal mountings4 ,the four pieces were arranged like a frame round the central and most important plaque4 7,see the later ,christian book cover1 ,fig4 #aj47 ,meyer suggests they were especially intended for gifts to members of the imperial family4 ,some of these five-piece panels were more probably intended as book covers1 but one undoubted consular diptych in five parts still survives1 though the pieces are scattered4 ,two horizontal strips are in the collection of the ,marchese di ,trivulzio at ,milan4 ,the upper one1 with a bust of ,constantinople borne by two winged figures1 is inscribed with a dedication to an ,emperor1 while the lower strip1 which is carved with barbarians rushing forward to present tribute 7the same motive as that of the ,magi71 bears the ,consul's titles4 ,two upright pieces of slightly varying width1 on a book cover in the ,munich ,library1 represent a consul in the act of walking to his right1 and carrying what is probably a congratulatory address to the ,emperor1 his hands being religiously veiled4 ,above and behind him is an ,imperial ,guard1 with large shield and spear1 his robe embroidered on the shoulders1 and his neck encircled by a collar from whence hangs a bulla1 just as we see them on the mosaic in ,st4 ,vitale at ,ravenna4 ,the narrower piece has a rigidly vertical design4 ,below is the full face figure of a man holding a long staff1 and above1 the upper portion of a figure of ,victory1 holding up over her head a wreath containing a bust of the ,emperor1 the exact enlargement of those ,victories which so often stand on the arms of the curule chair 7,no4 #ag74 ,meyer considers that these two unequal pieces formed the two sides1 but the complete want of balance in the composition makes ,molinier's opinion that they both formed the right side the more probable4 ,this increases the number of pieces to seven1 but the ,victory having no border may have been sawn off the central plaque4 ,on the other hand1 in the five-piece panel at ,ravenna 7,fig4 #aj71 the central plaque is divided horizontally by a beading1 if not in two separate pieces4 ,if we consider that these two pieces formed the right side1 and multiply their combined width for the left side1 and then compare the total of the two sides with the width of the horizontal strips1 there is still ample space for a central plaque representing the ,emperor4 ,meyer adds to the list of diptychs the celebrated five-piece tablet in the ,barbarini ,library at ,rome4 ,the upper and lower strips are of exactly the same character1 and in the central plaque the ,emperor 7probably ,constantine the ,great7 is seen on a rearing horse1 under whose feet is a woman with her lap full of fruit1 who personifies some conquered country4 ,in the left piece is the figure of a soldier bringing a ,victory1 and the other side1 which should have a representation like the ,munich ,consul1 is lost4 ,molinier emphatically declares this could not have been a consular diptych1 as there is no trace of inscription2 but suggests that it was the cover of a book intended for the ,emperor4 ,there is one more diptych in exceedingly high relief1 which may possibly be classed among the consular series1 the date and subject of which is still a matter of much discussion4 ,one leaf is in the ,bargello at ,florence 7,fig4 #e71 and the other in the ,vienna ,museum 7,no4 #eg74 ,the ,florentine portion represents a personage clad in a robe blazing with jewels1 and standing under an elaborate edifice1 holding orb and sceptre4 ,the ,vienna leaf is practically the same1 only the figure is seated on a throne set with precious stones1 and extends the right hand in the same manner as the ,empress ,eudoxia on ,fig4 #bj1 whilst the left hand supports the orb4 ,the sex of this personage was long disputed1 but now it is considered by most writers to represent a woman1 both from the modelling of the form and from the dress4 ,the robes of ,emperor and ,empress were very similar1 but on examining the mosaics of ,st4 ,vitale at ,ravenna1 we find that though ,justinian and ,theodora both wear the chlamys1 hers is more lavishly decorated1 and she wears a large collar of pendant jewels1 while ,justinian has the fibula4 ,but the head-dresses were always tolerably distinctive till considerably later4 ,ladies of high rank all wore a kind of wig-like turban1 sometimes double1 as in the case of ,serena 7,no4 #a74 ,that it was a turban and not hair is evident from the striped pattern on that of ,serena4 ,this was often bound with jewels1 and the imperial family wore diadems with long strings of jewels hanging over the ears1 as on the ,bargello tablet4 ,these pendants were often1 but not invariably1 worn by the ,emperor1 but his diadem fitted close on to his forehead without the intervening wig1 as we see on the interesting ninth century casket in the ,museo ,kircheriano in ,rome1 where both head-dresses are represented4 ,a large segment is inserted on the front of her robe by a jewelled edging1 on which we see the portrait of a chubby boy dressed in the trabea1 and wielding mappa and scipio1 a diadem with pendants being on his head4 ,having decided that the figure is intended for a lady1 there remains the vexed question of who she is4 ,molinier thinks she is of ,byzantine origin1 not wrought with the delicate art of the tenth to the eleventh centuries1 but earlier and coarser1 and going through the various historic characters in search of a name1 he attributes the portrait to the ,empress ,irene1 widow of ,leo ,,iv41 and long ,regent for her ten-year-old son ,constantine ,,iv41 for she alone would dare to be portrayed throned1 and with all the attributes of sovereignty4 ,it was ,irene who1 in the middle of the ,iconoclastic period1 convened a council of the ,church1 repealed the new laws1 and encouraged the use of religious images throughout her realm4 ,this attribution would bring the date of the diptych down to the end of the eighth century1 and later than the style would seem to warrant2 and it is vigorously opposed by ,graeven1 who declares that after the first half of the sixth century1 there were no more purely secular representations2 and that the coins of ,irene represent her with both diadem and sceptre surmounted by a cross4 ,to this may be added the affinity of the architecture with that on diptychs of the early sixth century1 as the eagles on the top1 which are exactly like those surmounting the ,bourges 7,no4 #ci7 and ,st4 ,gregory 7,no4 #dd7 diptychs4 ,also the columns with tightly wound curtains are extremely near in design to those on the tablets of the ,poet and ,muse at ,monza 7,no4 #fc74 ,curtains1 however1 with horizontal stripes were fairly constant all through early art1 but were less used in strictly ,byzantine ,art than in any other4 ,illustration3 ,,alinari ,,photo4 ,,bargello1 ,,florence #e4 ,,leaf ,,of ,,the ,,diptych ,,of ,,amalasuntha787 ,italian1 sixth century ,graeven having given good reasons for placing this ivory in the first half of the sixth century1 suggests that it represents ,amalasuntha1 daughter of ,theodoric1 who1 by right of conquest and the reluctant consent of the ,emperor of the ,east1 was ,king of ,italy from #dic-ebf2 and who1 by good government1 had brought about some measure of order1 and induced a slight renaissance of the arts4 ,amalasuntha governed at ,pavia in the name of her young son ,athalric 7,fig4 #e74 ,graeven suggests that these two are also represented in the medallions on the diptych of ,orestes 7,fig4 #d74 ,athalric is represented without a diadem1 like his grandfather on the gold medal1 and he wears a coat in ,gothic fashion1 like that on the coins of ,theodatus1 his successor1 and his mother's second husband4 ,amalasuntha attempted to control ,theodatus in the same manner as her dead son1 but he resented the interference and had her murdered1 thus severing the last link with the enlightened rgime of ,theodoric1 and plunging the country once more in darkness and barbarism4 ,there still remain for attention the ,private ,diptychs1 which were given away to celebrate a marriage1 or a happy recovery to health1 or some other domestic reason4 ,the subjects were usually mythological1 and the compositions1 sometimes of great beauty1 were chiefly borrowed from ,classical ,art4 ,first1 and by far the most beautiful1 is the magnificent diptych of the noble families of the ,nicomachi and the ,symmachi2 the two leaves are1 respectively1 in the ,muse de ,cluny at ,paris and the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum in ,london4 ,the wonderful preservation of the surface shows the soft modelling of the ivory1 and though the ,paris leaf has been cruelly shattered and several pieces lost1 the soft flow of the drapery is still sufficiently visible4 ,it is rather saddening to think of the long periods which must elapse in the history of ivory carving1 from this time when drapery was still a thing of beauty1 showing the form it seemed to hide1 on through phases in which the garments were laid on in a series of flat lumps1 or covered with a multitude of meaningless lines1 until1 finally1 it emerges in ,gothic art1 no longer diaphanous and clinging1 it is true1 but drapery1 real drapery1 hanging in long swaying folds and falling round the feet in delicate little heaps in a manner whose perfection was the sole prerogative of the ,french craftsmen4 ,between the ,nicomachus diptych and the famous ,diptychon ,quirinalis of ,brescia 7,no4 #ei71 there is a great abyss4 ,on one leaf of the latter are carved ,hippolytus and ,phdra1 a poor copy of some ,greek model2 on the other ,diana and ,endymion4 ,meyer thinks it probable that in the representation of the chaste ,diana1 coyly saluting her lover under the chin1 we may find the portrait of a ,roman lady4 ,certainly the attitude of the lady's left hand1 firmly placed on her hip1 could have been copied from no ,greek original1 and further1 these two figures have curtains behind them and embroidery on the shoulders of their tunics1 after the popular fashion of the fifth and sixth centuries4 ,it is interesting to note the architectural background1 an arch supported by two pilasters1 which is very similar to that on the ,st4 ,gregory diptych1 except that here the string-course which supports the scallop shell has not been cut away as in that at ,monza4 ,liverpool ,museum has a fine pair of tablets representing sculapius and ,hygeia 7,no4 #fa72 which undoubtedly refer to recovery from an illness4 ,the figure of sculapius appears to be taken from the ,farnese ,hercules4 ,another small ivory of this subject is in a private collection in ,zurich2 the figures vary considerably1 but are evidently of the same period--mid sixth century4 ,there is one more diptych in that wonderful collection in the ,treasury of the ,basilica at ,monza2 representing an elderly bald-headed man1 whose heavy torso and fat puffy face are well characterized1 though the pose is rather awkwardly rendered4 ,he appears to be a poet1 for writing tablets and a volumen lie at his feet1 and on the adjoining leaf we see a ,muse playing on the lyre4 ,but from her matronly figure and his uncompromising ugliness1 we appear to be dealing with another of those portrait diptychs1 like the one at ,brescia1 in which the noble ,roman had his portrait taken in fancy dress4 ,there are two most interesting tablets now in the ,bibliothque nationale at ,paris1 originally from ,sens1 where they long served as a binding to the thirteenth century ,,ms4 containing 8,the ,office of ,fools10 or that read on the first day of the year1 and in which was incorporated many customs derived from the ,roman ,saturnalia4 ,the decoration is frankly pagan1 and is somewhat similar in style to the sarcophagi of the third century1 on which the various scenes are superimposed in much the same manner4 ,on one leaf ,bacchus ,helios is represented clasping a thyrsis in one hand and an empty wine-cup in the other1 while he stands upright in a car drawn by a male and female centaur4 ,above are lively scenes of the vintage1 little figures gathering grapes and gaily treading out the wine4 ,at the bottom of the tablet a group of sea-gods are seen disporting themselves among dolphins and other fish4 ,in the centre of the other tablet ,diana ,lucifera1 rises like the moon from the sea2 she wears a crescent on her brow1 and round her head floats a cloud of airy drapery4 ,she carries a lighted torch1 and the two bulls which draw her chariot bound rapidly upward out of the sea4 ,above are a satyr and nymph1 some women1 ,cupid and the tiny figure of ,venus in a shell1 and below1 lying on the waters1 is a figure of the ,sea1 surrounded by fish and holding a curious crustacean in her hand4 ,these diptychs have passed through many vicissitudes during the lapse of time4 ,in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum there is a later carving on the back of a mutilated consular diptych1 from which the whole surface has been smoothed away1 leaving only a deeper outline here and there4 ,this gives an idea of the fate of a large number of carved ivories1 and of our great loss2 and it is entirely to the adoption of diptychs for liturgical purposes by the ,church that we owe the preservation of those that remain4 ,the bishops1 being high functionaries1 may have received them as gifts1 and others were votive4 ,the ,council of ,mopsueste1 in #eej1 ordered the churches to keep the diptychs1 and the names of those persons to be prayed for during the celebration of mass to be inscribed in them1 in the following categories1 all having a more or less local connection with the particular church3 ,firstly3 ,neophytes1 or newly baptized2 ,secondly3 ,benefactors1 ,sovereigns and ,bishops2 ,thirdly3 ,saints and ,martyrs2 and ,lastly3 ,the ,faithful ,dead 8in the sleep of peace40 ,people were very anxious to have their names inscribed1 and fearful of being scratched out for heresy4 ,for the dead bishops the prayer was less for them1 than to them1 from which comes the word 8canonize10 or to be named in the ,canon of the ,mass4 ,on the inner side of the diptych of ,clementinus1 at ,liverpool1 there is in roughly written ,greek letters a prayer for the clergy of a church of ,st4 ,agatha1 and for 8our ,shepherd ,hadrian the ,patriarch10 who can be none other than ,pope ,hadrian 7#gie72 this diptych probably came from a church in ,sicily1 for ,greek was still spoken1 and the patron saint of ,palermo is ,st4 ,agatha4 ,lists of bishops were inscribed1 and when the list grew too long parchment leaves were inserted4 ,whole services were bound in these carvings1 and the covers of many of the oldest ,,mss4 are of diptychs1 set in an elaborate border of goldsmith's work1 to increase the size as well as to enhance the beauty4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the numbers to the diptychs1 in all cases1 refer to those in the list of diptychs at the end of the book4 #b ,mlanges de l',archol4 et d',histoire1 ,rome1 #ahhb4 #c ,see the figure of ,circe in the ,casa di ,modesta1 ,pompeii4 #d ,see the ,joshua ,rotulus1 edited by the ,directors of the ,vatican ,library1 ,rome4 #e ,zwei ,antike ,elfenbeintafeln1 ,munich1 #ahgi4 #f ,l',arte1 #ahih4 #g ,roman ,art1 ,wickhoff1 ,eng4 trans4 by ,mrs4 ,a4 ,strong4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,latin ,,and ,,byzantine ,,ivories ,i4 ,,latin1 ,,latino-,,byzantine ,,and ,,the ,,early ,,byzantine ,,ivories ,at the end of the last chapter it was shown how the ,church had preserved a large number of consular diptychs1 either unchanged or altered to suit ,christian iconography4 ,to that list must be added several ivory carvings with religious subjects1 yet so closely connected with the class of ,private ,diptychs1 that it is more than probable that they also have undergone transformation4 ,the most important among these are a fragmentary panel in the ,museo ,civico at ,bologna and the celebrated ,ivory ,book of ,rouen ,cathedral4 ,on the ,bologna fragment is the figure of a bearded man of heavy type1 in a well designed but poorly executed robe2 he clasps a roll in his left land and beneath his neatly sandalled feet is a stool1 always a mark of honour1 in the side of which is a deepened space with the name 8,petrus0 rudely inscribed4 ,above1 in the broken pediment1 is a niche with the bust of a bearded man1 labelled 8,marcus40 ,the whole is surrounded by a handsome ovolo moulding1 as are also the panels of the ,rouen ,book ,cover1 which may be of a slightly later date1 but they must both be placed early in the sixth century4 ,the ,rouen carvings represent ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul1 without a doubt1 for they are already of that iconographical type which had become fixed by the end of the preceding century1 ,st4 ,paul with a bald head and long pointed beard1 and ,st4 ,peter with thick hair and a round curling beard2 but it is very likely that the figures on both the ,bologna and ,rouen tablets were originally intended for authors or poets as on the series of complimentary diptychs4 ,the architecture lends credence to this theory1 the cannelated columns and pediment flanked by so-called 8doves10 being much the same as that on the various sixth century diptychs4 ,the drapery too1 has been copied from good models1 that of ,st4 ,peter1 with the right arm buried in the folds of his toga1 is in imitation of the famous ,lateran ,sophocles4 ,another proof of alteration is the manner in which he holds a narrow key in a grasp wide enough to contain a roll as large as that in the ,bologna fragment4 ,there is a diptych in ,tongres ,cathedral1#h which has a history carrying it back to the ninth century4 ,the names of the ,bishops of ,tongres from #hee-iei being engraved on the back4 ,it evidently belongs to the large class of ivories of mixed ,latino-,byzantine origin4 ,the vine scroll border1 the flat relief and rather grooved working of the draperies1 also the peculiar stockings and oriental shoes are all features of this class4 ,st4 ,paul raises his hand to bless in the ,greek manner1 with only two fingers extended4 ,the interpretation of this gesture is variously given1 many say it is symbolical of the dual nature of ,our ,lord and of the ,trinity4 ,byzantine1 equally with ,italian art1 sprang from the last floraison of ,roman ,art1 and grew up at ,constantinople1 the ,new ,rome1 but much modified by ,greek and ,syrian influences4 ,at first the culture of the two ,empires was so linked together1 that it is the merest shade which distinguishes ,roman ,art in the ,east and ,west4 ,the division widens1 and the two branches stretch out1 one1 the purely ,latin1 soon to wither and almost perish1 and the other to grow into that spreading tree of ,byzantine ,art1 whose branches have scattered fruit in every part of ,europe and the ,levant4 ,the latest bloom on the purely ,latin branch1 before it commenced to decay1 included ivories of singular beauty1 as the splendid casket at ,brescia and the famous ,carrand diptych in the ,bargello at ,florence 7,figs4 #e and #f74 ,this carving is of superb finish1 worthy of the beautiful ,bacchante diptych1 though the design is less purely classical4 ,the first leaf represents ,adam in the ,earthly ,paradise1 engaged in naming the animals1 the figure is thoroughly ,greek1 and the treatment closely resembles an ,orpheus scene1 though the curiously crimped hair and heavy hands and feet betray a decline in art4 ,the animals show delightful touches of first-hand observation1 the worrying attitude of the little dog1 who1 forgetting he is in ,paradise1 is just going to bark at the dignified goat below4 ,the droop of the bull's head as he grazes by the side of the ,four ,rivers is very natural1 though the artist still adheres to the rather dry technique of animal portrayal in ancient art4 ,these animals may be compared with those on the diptych of ,bourges1 which are scattered over the background in much the same way1 but with less defiance of perspective1 as they are supposed to be leaping in the act of fighting4 ,the object of much controversy is another fine ,earthly ,paradise carved on the back of an ,areobindus diptych in the ,louvre 7,no4 #ac74 ,it is divided into registers by irregular lines of herbage2 above are ,adam and ,eve and the ,serpent1 next come a series of weird mythological creatures1 and then follow serried ranks of animals1 fabulous and otherwise4 ,molinier declares it cannot be later than the sixth century1 and connects it with the ,bargello diptych1 but there is a real difference in the feeling and technique of the animals1 and a bizarre element1 quite foreign to the matter-of-fact and straightforward methods of ancient art4 ,in the opinion of de ,linas and ,graeven1 the carving was added in the early periods of the ,italian ,renaissance1 and the former points out a connection with the carvings on the faade of ,orvieto ,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,alinari ,,photo4 ,,bargello1 ,,florence #f4 ,,diptych ,,with ,,the ,,earthly ,,paradise ,,and ,,scenes ,,from ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,st4 ,,paul ,italian1 fifth century ,the second leaf of the ,bargello diptych is covered with three rows of exquisitely carved and well characterized figures4 ,the top row may represent the meeting of ,paul and ,barnabas with ,peter at ,damascus4 ,the next shows ,paul at ,malta1 shaking the viper into the fire 7,acts1 xviii4 #c71 and remaining unhurt1 to the surprise of ,publius1 governor of the island1 who stands by dressed as a man of rank in a chlamys embroidered with a segment and fastened by a rich fibula4 ,the soldier with the strange sleeved fur coat hung over his shoulders is probably one of the governor's guard4 ,at the bottom we see the healing of the father of ,publius1 who lay sick of a fever4 ,the ,lipsanoteca1 or large ivory casket in the ,museo ,civico at ,brescia1 is a fine work of early ,christian sculpture1 and has far more connection with antiquity than with the early development of the art of the ,middle ,ages4 ,but it is difficult to pass it by undescribed1 as it gives the early types of so much that is met again in later art4 ,molinier classes it among the sixth century ivories of mixed style4 ,but ,westwood points out that the mingling of subjects from the ,old and ,new ,testament histories1 and the small size given to some of them as border pieces1 show the precise treatment of many early sarcophagi1 also the classical nature of many of the details point to an early date1 and he attributes it at latest to the fourth century1 with which date ,graeven entirely agrees4 ,the casket has a frieze of fifteen heads in medallions1 and in the narrow borders are the symbolical ,types of ,old ,testament history4 ,the large central scenes are from the ,new ,testament1 showing ,christ as the ,good ,shepherd at the ,gate of the ,fold1 and several of the miracles which became so popular on the ,italo-,byzantine ivories1 including the rarer scene of the ,raising of ,jairus's daughter1 which has many features in common with the ,raising of ,tabitha on one of a series of three most interesting little plaques in the ,british ,museum1 notably in the treatment of the long waving hair of the attendant women4 ,on the flat lid the ,cycle of the ,passion is most fully illustrated1 but stops short with the scene in the ,prtorium before the sad representation of the ,crucifixion4 ,the great similarity between the art of the ,eastern and ,western divisions of the ,roman ,empire has already been mentioned1 and it is this similarity which causes considerable difficulty in classifying the early ivories4 ,the three ,british ,museum plaques just referred to as having a close connection in the scene of the ,raising of ,tabitha to the ,brescia casket1 which is undoubtedly of ,western origin1 have also a strong resemblance to the first half of a diptych now in the ,trivulzio ,collection at ,milan1 both in the dress of the soldiers1 and in the crouching figure of one of the ,holy ,women1 which are almost identical on the two ivories4 ,molinier considers the ,trivulzio tablet to be purely ,constantinopolitan1 but ,graeven produces good evidence for connecting it with ,latin sculpture4 ,this tablet is divided into two scenes from the first ,easter ,morn1 the startled soldiers by the tomb of ,christ1 and the ,angel appearing to the two ,maries4 ,the proportions are on the whole good1 though inclining to the dumpiness peculiar to the reliefs on the sarcophagi4 ,there are other details which betray the influence of these sculptures4 ,the half opened door of the tomb is found on pagan coffins1 and the dress of the soldiers1 with the strange round headgear1 rather like a cook's cap1 is often characteristic of the ,jews1 and is found on several of the sarcophagi4 ,in the ,british ,museum plaques the ,israelites who stoop down to drink of the water from the rock wear exactly the same dress1 treated in exactly the same manner1 even to the ends of the chlamys1 which fly out in rapid movement4 ,this dress is also found in a ,codex 7,no4 #bhf7 at ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge1 and again on another set of plaques in the ,british ,museum1 which belonged to a casket1 and are of a deep reddish colour4 ,on these plaques the types of the ,holy ,women are the same as those on the ,trivulzio tablet1 and the crouching women in the ,raising of ,tabitha in the ,british ,museum set of three4 ,the ,crucifixion 7,fig4 #g7 belongs to the coloured set1 and is the earliest representation known1 excepting that on the carved wood doors of ,st4 ,sabina at ,rome1 which were made by ,greek workmen for ,pope ,celestin 7#dcb-ddj71 and the two conceptions have much in common in modelling and pose4 ,it should be noticed that the titulus is written only in ,latin4 ,a most important proof of the ,latin origin of these ivories is the finely cut honeysuckle moulding which surrounds the door of the tomb in the ,trivulzio tablet1 and which is found both on the diptych of ,probianus 7,fig4 #b7 and on that of the ,nicomachi family 7,no4 #eh74 ,the tablet has another close connection with the ,probianus diptych in the division of the surface into two tiers by the border1 and the recognition of the existence of three dimensional space1 by grouping the figures firmly on the ground4 ,this knowledge was soon forgotten1 and the figures on sculptures of scarcely later date float about one over the other without the artist being in the least troubled by the problem of the depth of inclosed space4 ,the close connection with these diptychs points to an early date1 probably not later than the first decades of the fifth century4 ,the dividing border#i is very common in ,carlovingian ivories1 and is1 perhaps1 one reason why ,westwood and ,stuhlfauth attribute the ,trivulzio plaque to that epoch1 but a comparison of the 8space0 arrangement1 imperfect as it is1 with any ,carlovingian ivory1 clearly shows the superiority of the more ancient work4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,graeven ,,photo4 ,,british ,,museum #g4 ,,the ,,crucifixion ,italian1 commencement of fifth century ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,graeven ,,photo4 ,,british ,,museum #h4 ,,christ ,,leaving ,,the ,,pr,,torium ,italian1 commencement of fifth century ,after this time angels were rarely represented without wings2 the absence of wings makes the beautiful nimbed angel on the ,trivulzio plaque quite indistinguishable from the figures of ,christ on the ,british ,museum plaques with the ,passion4 ,it is interesting to note1 just about the end of the fourth century1 the earliest representation of the symbolism of the ,apocalypse in the presence of the ,bull of ,st4 ,luke and ,st4 ,matthew's ,angel4 ,the round shape of the tomb1 with the raised tiled roof1 is a difficult point1 it appears to be the germ of the elaborate circular edifice with a cupola which became such a feature in purely ,byzantine ,art2 but there were many circular tombs#aj in ,rome for the artist to copy1 and the huge round mass of the ,mausoleum of ,hadrian consisted of a drum1 raised on a square basis1 and decorated with columns and statues in a rather similar manner to the tomb on the fine ,byzantine plaque with the ,ascension1 in the ,munich ,museum4 ,thus we find the two sets of plaques in the ,british ,museum and the ,trivulzio tablet closely connected with each other and in touch with the ,brescia casket4 ,the workmanship is not so good on the smaller pieces1 but on the whole the drawing is fairly correct1 the drapery well designed and falling in few and soft folds over the rather chubby forms2 and the whole technique is very different from the unyielding draperies and the too minute details of the consular diptychs4 ,sculpture in ivory prospered1 while that in marble declined4 ,the fashion of sculptured marble sarcophagi had almost died out in the sixth century2 but the ,latin types and traditions were carried on by a series of carved pyxes1 till they gradually merged in the ,latino-,byzantine ,art4 ,these pyxes are little circular boxes made in ,italy1 and dating practically from the fifth and sixth centuries4 ,many were of pagan origin1 and decorated with mythological subjects1 some being used for the toilet requisites of ,roman ladies2 and others were1 doubtless1 accerae1 or boxes for holding incense for heathen worship1 such as we see in the hand of the lovely ,bacchante on the diptych of the ,symmachi family in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,afterwards they found a place in ,christian liturgy1 being used to hold the ,reservation of the ,host4 ,the most ancient and beautiful pyx of ,christian origin is in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,it was probably carved in the fifth century from good antique models2 on it1 ,christ1 posed like ,probianus on his diptych1 and represented as a beardless youth1 is teaching the ,apostles4 ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul 7who usually takes the place of ,judas among the twelve7 are seated at ,his feet4 ,the apostle on the right of ,christ raises his hand1 just in the manner of a consul about to throw the mappa4 ,on the other side is a very beautiful figure of ,abraham sacrificing ,isaac4 ,the style is so completely that of the sarcophagi that when the design is drawn as a flat strip it could easily be mistaken for one4 ,in the ,bargello there is a well-carved pyx with a lively picture of the ,angel appearing to the ,shepherds1 who1 with their rough short garments and thick crooked sticks are typical antique figures and very like ,joseph's brothers on the ,throne of ,maximian 7,fig4 #ac74 ,we also find on the ,throne the strange basket chair in which the ,virgin sits4 ,the onward rush of the ,magi1 as they bear gifts to the ,infant ,saviour1 is a very favourite motive in ,byzantine ,art4 ,their barbaric costume1 of trousers and short girdled shirt1 surmounted by a ,phrygian cap1 traces back all through ancient ,greek ,art1 and1 minus the cap1 is still the summer dress of the ,russian peasant4 ,a pyx in the ,muse de ,cluny 7,fig4 #i7 is of interest1 giving some of the same series of miracles that are found so repeatedly at this period1 both in carvings and in the mosaics4 ,the ,healing of the ,paralytic1 who carries his bed1 ,restoring sight to the man born blind1 the ,woman of ,samaria1 the ,raising of ,lazarus1 and the ever popular whale scenes from the ,life of ,jonah 7,fig4 #aj74 ,the minds of the early ,christians seemed turned away from the scenes of ,christ's ,passion and ,death1 and only dwelt on ,his human relations as a ,teacher and ,healer1 and on ,his glorious position as 8,pantocrator10 ,ruler of ,all4 ,a great triumphal joy seems to break out in the glowing mosaics of the earlier basilicas1 and again and again1 ,christ1 the ,mighty1 the ,ruler1 is represented in enormous size on the glittering walls1 and not a trace of ,his sufferings1 which formed the chief theme of later art4 ,in the series of miracles ,christ is nearly always represented is a young beardless man1 with a slight smile1 the hair sometimes cut short in ,roman fashion1 but more often at this period with clustering curls4 ,this younger1 or 8,ideal0 type is1 perhaps1 slightly the earlier1 and we find it in the catacomb frescoes and the most ancient mosaics and sarcophagi4 ,the so-called 8,portrait0 type of ,christ1 as a ,nazarene1 with long hair and beard and a grave face1 tending to severity was employed at the same time and sometimes side by side in the same decoration1 as in the ,ivory ,book of ,st4 ,lupicien1 and the mosaics of ,s4 ,vitale at ,ravenna1 both sixth century4 ,in each case ,he is figured as ,pantocrator1 this type being invariably bearded in ,byzantine ,art4 ,on some few sarcophagi ,he is also represented with a beard4 ,illustration3 ,,mus,e ,,de ,,cluny1 ,,paris #i4 ,,pyx1 ,,christ ,,raising ,,the ,,paralytic ,italo-,byzantine1 sixth century ,early in the third century there had been a sharp struggle about the appearance of ,our ,lord2 many sided with ,tertullian1 making ,him of abject form1 others with ,jerome and ,john ,chrysostom declared ,he conquered souls by ,his beauty4 ,the latter opinion prevailed1 as it agreed with the existing traditions of the beauty of the ,immortals4 ,it is interesting to note that during this controversy no actual portrait was referred to1 all the so-called portraits of ,our ,lord being of later date4 ,fig4 #aj is typical of a large group of ivory carvings of mixed origin4 ,these book covers and the later pyxes are closely allied to the scenic pieces on the ,throne of ,maximian1 though the technique is inferior1 some being of very rough workmanship4 ,the arrangement of these panels is like that of the five-piece consular diptych mentioned in the last chapter1 only the vertical side panels are divided into two pieces by a border4 ,the three important examples of this kind of book cover are3 this single panel from ,s4 ,michele di ,murano1 now in the ,ravenna ,library1 the two panels of the ,book of ,st4 ,lupicien1 in the ,bibliothque nationale at ,paris1 and the pair lately discovered by ,dr4 ,strzygowski in the ,patriarchal ,library at ,etschmiadzin on the slopes of ,mount ,ararat4 ,illustration3 ,,alinari ,,photo4 ,,museum1 ,,ravenna #aj4 ,,cover ,,of ,a ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,gospels1 ,,from ,s4 ,,michele ,,di ,,murano ,italo-,byzantine1 sixth century ,the figures on the ,murano panel are long and slight1 and the modelling1 though very barbarous1 does round off to the background4 ,above are the well-known group of flying angels supporting a garland4 ,these figures in the course of time have gone through a whole cycle of changes2 starting from the flying ,erotes who so commonly support the portrait of the deceased on ,roman sarcophagi1 they became clothed and elongated1 as we see them here1 and at last stripped and chubby again we find them on the tombs of the ,medici1 while their grown-up relations hover over many an ,italian picture and sculpture4 ,the peculiar dumpy dolphin is an interesting specimen of longevity1 going through more than two thousand years of life from the ,choragic ,monument at ,athens to a ,london ,drinking ,fountain without changing a line4 ,the surprised gesture of the accompanying disciple 7,fig4 #i71 and of the ,three ,children in the ,fiery ,furnace 7,fig4 #aj71 is another of those delightful conventions that meet us at every turn in this most nave group of sculptures4 ,we meet it again in the ,st4 ,lupicien panels1 which are very similar1 but nearer in technique to the scenes on the ,throne of ,maximian4 ,the subjects vary little1 but instead of ,jonah there is a charming picture of the ,woman of ,samaria standing by the well4 ,the figure of ,christ seated in the central panel is old and bearded1 and it so closely resembles the ,st4 ,john ,baptist on the ,throne 7,fig4 #ab7 that1 except for the large cruciform nimbus1 it might be taken for that saint4 ,the workmanship is coarse and the hands are terribly large and ill drawn4 ,the drawing on the ,etschmiadzin ,book ,cover1 which is in the same style as ,st4 ,lupicien1 is still more incorrect1 the legs and arms of the flying angels being quite detached and merely placed in the drapery at suitable angles4 ,the modelling is even worse1 and goes in many places sheer down to the background from a surface covered with grooved lines4 ,yet the figure of the youthful ,christ is not unpleasing1 with the wide smooth face so characteristic of early ,byzantine art4 ,the pose1 with fingers raised to teach or bless1 is taken directly from the ,roman official type1 and should be compared with the diptych of ,probianus4 ,the ,virgin is accompanied by two angels1 who1 though without wings1 can be recognized by their pointed diadems1 which have been inherited by the angels in ,italian painting4 ,there are a number of ivories of a double character1 strongly influenced by ,byzantine art yet not so closely allied to the ,ravenna ,throne as those already mentioned4 ,the magnificent angel in the ,british ,museum should probably be classed among these 7frontispiece74 ,it is the first half of a diptych of unusual size1 and though the drapery is a little unmeaning in places1 still it is good1 and with the rich architecture and the thickly feathered wings1 forms a splendid whole4 ,there is nothing to compare with it in the sixth century for firmness of design2 yet the tendency to fullness in the face and the wealth of detail are signs of lateness1 and it can hardly be dated with any certainty before the last years of the fifth century4 ,the first half of the ,greek inscription reads1 8,receive these things that are present and learning the cause--04 ,it is sad to see how soon this fine type was debased and moon faces and unstructural forms became the order of the day4 ,a beautiful book cover in the ,bibliothque nationale at ,paris 7,fig4 #aa7 came from the ,cathedral of ,metz1 where it had been for centuries a model to the ,carlovingian and ,german craftsmen4 ,the pure design and justness of the movements1 together with the generous folds of the drapery1 all denote a close study of the fine work of antiquity2 yet the complication of the design and the exaggerated fineness of the carving1 which is pierced right through1 show how far the work is from the simplicity of ancient art4 ,the ,italian craftsman had still individuality enough to resist the ,byzantine influence in some things4 ,the ,virgin is draped like a ,roman lady1 and ,herod has not yet donned the dress of a ,byzantine functionary1 as on the later ivories where court etiquette reigns supreme4 ,the artist of the ,milan book covers had not so much strength1 and has succumbed still more to ,byzantine influence4 ,these panels have been enriched at a later date by a jewelled lamb and cross4 ,much of the dress and detail is still ,latin1 but he draws his inspiration from the apocryphal gospel of ,nicodemus1 and represents the ,virgin receiving the ,divine message1 not in her own house but by the side of a stream1 from which she is drawing water in a tall vase4 ,the three plaques of the casket of ,werden 7now in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum7 belong to this series2 there are the same rushing figures of the ,magi1 bearing strange gifts on flat dishes1 and the ,virgin also stands by the stream4 ,a curious survivor of paganism is present at the ,baptism of ,our ,lord1 the allegorical figure of ,jordan1 not by any means a modest accessory1 but a large muscular figure1 proudly comparing his fine shoulders with the rather meagre proportions of the sacred figures4 ,decidedly the ,christian artists preferred the ,spirit to the ,flesh1 and the era of elongated figures and champagne bottle shoulders was soon to commence4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,,giraudon ,,photo4 ,,biblioth,,que ,,nationale1 ,,paris #aa4 ,,cover ,,of ,a ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,gospels1 ,,with ,,three ,,scenes ,,from ,,the ,,nativity ,italo-,byzantine1 sixth century ,milan ,cathedral possesses another ivory carving too important to be passed over1 which ,molinier and ,graeven attribute to this period in contradiction to ,labarte1 who declares it to be ,italian ,carlovingian of the ninth century1 but the design is too closely connected with the series just under discussion for it to be possibly of later date than the sixth century4 ,the two leaves of the diptych are crowded with active little figures1 all intent on the business in hand4 ,it should be noted that though the angel by the tomb is almost identical with that on the ,trivulzio tablet1 the guards are differently dressed1 having the crested helmet and mailed tunic of antique ,roman soldiers4 ,the separation of the two schools had become complete when the plaque in the ,munich ,museum was carved1 probably well on in the sixth century4 ,it is unmistakably ,byzantine2 in the lower half the ,holy ,women visit the ,tomb1 whilst above1 there is a fine figure of ,christ ascending to heaven2 ,he rises with a powerful impetus1 and the whole scene is far superior in vigour to the later representations4 ,there is an interesting plaque in the ,liverpool ,museum1 on which the ,carlovingian craftsman has closely imitated the grouping of the ,holy ,women and the soldiers round the tomb4 ,the glory of the ivory craft is at ,ravenna1 the magnificent ,throne of ,st4 ,maximian1 bishop of that city from #edf-eec4 ,illustration3 ,l4 ,,ricci ,,photo4 ,,cathedral1 ,,ravenna #ab4 ,,front ,,of ,,the ,,throne ,,of ,,maximian ,italo-,byzantine1 sixth century ,this cathedra or episcopal chair is entirely covered with carved ivory1 and has been treasured in the ,cathedral for more than fourteen centuries4 ,the throne was made in the sixth century1 during that period of great artistic activity1 when ,justinian was engaged in beautifying ,constantinople and the other great cities of his ,empire4 ,the new ,church of ,st4 ,sophia was being decorated in the most gorgeous manner4 ,the old chroniclers tell of gold and silver doors1 and six doors of carved ivory2 so the custom of overlaying large surfaces with ivory plaques was not an innovation4 ,the bishop ordered his ,throne and set it up at a time when ,ravenna was still an important centre1 and yearly adding to the number of its beautiful buildings4 ,s4 ,vitale1 newly finished and decorated with the celebrated mosaic portraits of ,justinian and ,theodora1 was consecrated by ,st4 ,maximian himself1 who is pictured on the walls by the side of the ,emperor4 ,yet1 in spite of all this encouragement1 art1 and sculpture in particular1 had already commenced that steady decline to the period of comparative stagnation which1 as ,professor ,krumbacher1 the well-known ,byzantine scholar1 says1 affected not only art but literature1 and lasted nearly two hundred years1 from about #fej to #hej4 ,the decline can be traced in the mosaics at ,ravenna2 those in ,s4 ,vitale are not so good as those in the tomb of ,galla ,placidia1 while the decoration of the ,baptistery is the most ancient and the best4 ,the ,throne is most precious as an exception1 showing really artistic work in a period when originality was rare4 ,the height is one yard fourteen inches1 the seat being flanked by two panels rising above it and forming the arms2 the front is entirely filled in by the large panel with five saints1 the back is high and semi-circular1 the top being arched4 ,at the junction of the side panels1 with the front and back1 are upright posts1 which form the feet1 and rising slightly above the level of the panels are capped by flattened balls2 these1 and the strips of ivory which divide the back into little scenes1 are carved with the most decorative vine scrolls1 growing out of vases of classical shape1 and peopled with a whole world of animals leaping in and out amid the leaves and bunches of grapes4 ,these borders show real progress and the adoption of new oriental ideas4 ,the animated scroll work is often found on the ,eastern textiles of this period1 which must have formed objects of constant trade4 ,the ,koptic tombs on the ,nile ,delta#aa have yielded a numerous collection of contemporary textiles with beautifully woven patterns in much the same style4 ,the vine from being a popular pagan decoration became closely connected with the ,christian religion4 ,the carving of the wide borders on the back1 if rather summary1 attains the largeness of treatment as of sculpture in marble4 ,the actual manual work on the ,throne varies somewhat1 and is probably the work of different artizans1 ,byzantine or ,italian1 but there can be little doubt that the whole was the work of one master mind4 ,the ,five ,saints on the front panel are of noble design and most carefully carved1 but lacking in spontaneity4 ,each stands under the familiar round arch1 and the scallop shell is arranged as a kind of halo behind each head4 ,the grand figure of ,john the ,baptist stands in the middle of the ,four ,evangelists1 among whom we are tempted to recognize ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul1 but this resemblance is probably owing to the artist's poverty of types4 ,above1 in the border1 flanked by two peacocks of evident ,syrian origin1 is the monogram of the saint1 which reads ,maximianus episcopus4 ,the plaques on the side panels deal with the life of ,joseph1 and those on the back have scenes from the life of ,christ4 ,the latter were twenty-four in number1 but only seven remain1 four inside and three out4 ,some of these are carved on each side1 and all are bordered with a narrow and much debased ,greek bead and lozenge moulding1 which is an additional help in the identification of the straying pieces4 ,one of these lost plaques is now in the collection of ,count ,stroganoff at ,rome2 it represents on one side 8the ,entry into ,jerusalem10 and on the other 8the ,nativity10 with an additional incident in the withering of the hand of the incredulous attendant1 ,salome1 which is recounted in the apocryphal gospels4 ,the type of ,joseph in this scene is just the low-browed1 bullet-headed type of the ,greek wrestler1 and must have been borrowed from some ancient sculpture4 ,illustration3 ,l4 ,,ricci ,,photo4 ,,cathedral1 ,,ravenna #ac4 ,,panel ,,from ,,the ,,throne ,,of ,,maximian ,italo-,byzantine1 sixth century ,in the scene of the ,annunciation the ,virgin sits in a high-backed chair of basket-work1 just like that on the ,bargello pyx1 with the ,visit of the ,magi4 ,she is spinning1 as described in the apocryphal gospels1 and beside her stands a basket for her wool4 ,the plaque1 with the ,virgin riding on an ass1 is not the flight into ,egypt1 but the journey to ,bethlehem just before the ,child was born1 and the languid attitude of the ,virgin as she leans in weakness on the shoulder of ,joseph1 is rendered with much feeling4 ,the ,baptism of ,christ is peculiarly interesting as it gives an insight into the early types of this subject4 ,the ,holy ,spirit in the form of a dove flies headlong downwards1 and ,christ is represented as a little naked child1 and beside him1 leaning on an urn is the personification of the ,river ,jordan4 ,another remnant of pagan tradition is found in the winged and bearded genius of ,sleep1 who stands by ,pharaoh's couch in the 8,dream ,scene40 ,this figure also appears on a plaque in the ,early ,christian ,room at the ,british ,museum1 which is decorated with scenes from the life of ,christ1 the strange bearded angel being present at the baptism4 ,there is a very interesting ivory in the same room1 a pyx representing the ,martyrdom of ,st4 ,menas1 which has another peculiarity in common with the carvings on the ,throne1 in the elaborate and curiously embroidered blouse worn by the executioner1 which is like that worn by ,joseph in the house of ,potiphar4 ,the scenes from ,joseph's life are more deeply carved than the others1 the figures are wonderfully characterized1 the oriental faces of the ,egyptians are framed in long plaits1 like the ,egyptian hair dressing on the monuments1 which is even now to be seen on the ,upper ,nile4 ,all these reliefs are a curious mixture of close observation of nature and servile imitations of classical types4 ,the woman present at the sale of ,joseph1 holds her hand in her veil like many a stately figure in ,roman art1 but the meeting of ,joseph with his old father is quite modern in its emotional force1 the old man tremblingly totters forward into the arms of his stalwart young son1 and one cannot help feeling irritated at the bystanders' conventional gestures as they gaze on such a touching scene4 ,jacob's wild distress 7,fig4 #ac7 is terribly realistic1 and the contrasted stony despair of the bereaved ,rachel is most dramatic4 ,rachel appears in other presentments of this subject1 but the ,bible narrative mentions her death some time before4 ,the provenance of this great monument is a very thorny question1#ab many writers notice the strongly marked oriental characteristics1 and some infer that it was imported from ,alexandria1 which then had a flourishing school of artists and craftsmen4 ,st4 ,maximian certainly visited ,alexandria before he was made bishop1 and he may afterwards have ordered the ,throne to be made there1 or brought over ,alexandrian workmen4 ,there is every reason to believe the story that the ,emperor ,heraklius brought over a carved ivory throne from ,alexandria in the beginning of the next century4 ,the difficulty of adopting this ,alexandrian theory lies in the existence of an ,italo-,byzantine school in ,italy1 which is proved by the number of pyxes and book covers1 which seem to show nearly every step between the old ,latin and the almost entirely ,byzantine art of the ,ravenna ,throne4 ,of course many of these may have been influenced by the carvings on the ,throne1 but many are undoubtedly of earlier date4 ,any way1 with the acceptance or rejection of this theory stands or falls the ,european origin of several other most important ivories3 first and most important1 the much-discussed ,berlin diptych1 representing on one leaf ,christ as a middle-aged man1 very similar in type to the ,john ,baptist 7,fig4 #ab71 and on the others the ,virgin1 attended by wingless angels2 ,schmirnoff1 by close examination of the border1 which has been partially cut away1 believes he has discovered the remains of a monogram similar to that on the front panel of the ,throne4 ,also the plaque with the ,baptism of ,christ1 in the ,british ,museum1 the ,tongres diptych1 the 8,bateman0 diptych1 and one or two others which are closely related in style4 ,reference was made to an ivory throne brought from ,alexandria to ,constantinople by ,heraklius 7#faj-fda74 ,this throne was ultimately placed in the ,cathedral at ,grado1 and the legend grew up that it was actually the episcopal throne of ,st4 ,mark1 who was the first ,bishop of ,alexandria4 ,in the ,castello at ,milan there are a series of five plaques dealing with the subject of ,st4 ,mark's mission to ,alexandria and ,cyrene1 as told in the ,acts of ,st4 ,mark2 there is every probability that they belonged to the throne of ,st4 ,mark in ,grado1 which appears to have been more or less perfect in the sixteenth century1 but is reported by a later writer to be entirely stripped of its decoration4 ,the ,milan reliefs are of a very distinctive technique1 the drapery being marked by rib-like folds1 usually in couples1 and the type of face is refined1 though over elaborated4 ,they are earlier than the time of ,heraklius1 and probably date from the sixth century4 ,three scattered plaques are unmistakably connected with this series2 ,st4 ,peter dictating the ,gospel of ,st4 ,mark1 with a winged figure behind1 in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum2 ,the ,raising of ,lazarus in the ,british ,museum1 and ,the ,annunciation1 in the ,trivulzio ,collection at ,milan4 ,the two last are more delicately carved1 but the striking similarities of pose and drapery1 and the same violent perspective of the architecture1 make it almost certain that they are from the same atelier1 if not by the hand of the same craftsman4 ,two ivories of a totally different style seem to belong to the next century1 but their dates are still a matter of doubt4 ,one is a plaque in the ,treasury of ,trves ,cathedral1 deeply undercut and full of little figures and details4 ,westwood says it represents the arrival of the ,holy ,coat to that very ,cathedral4#ac ,the relic is in a casket held by two ecclesiastics1 who sit in a gorgeous car drawn by a pair of horses4 ,the procession is led by the ,emperor ,constantine and received at the church doors by his mother1 ,helena1 who holds a cross in memorial of her journey to ,jerusalem to fetch the ,true ,cross4 ,in the background is the ,porta ,nigra1 and the nave of a basilica showing an apse4 ,unfortunately1 there is no proof of this attractive theory1 though the building in the background does resemble the ,porta ,nigra 7still existing at ,trves7 and the basilica there has a very similar apse2 but all ,roman architecture imperfectly depicted looks much alike1 every basilica has an apse1 and it is not recorded how long the ivory has been in the ,treasury at ,trves4 ,thus we must be reconciled to call it by an indeterminate name4 ,it is certainly ,byzantine1 and most probably about the seventh century4 ,if possible there is still greater uncertainty about the second ivory1 which is also of an architectural character and has lately been acquired by the ,louvre authorities4 ,it is without doubt ,byzantine1 and represents the conventional type of ,st4 ,paul1 preaching to a distinguished and eager crowd4 ,the relief of the ivory is very deep1 and there is a certain boldness in the treatment of the mass of the crowd1 also the city which towers over head1 is of a very real structure and seems intended for some actual city4 ,comparing the round arched buildings with the types of architecture on the sixth and seventh century mosaics1 ,molinier and ,saglio attribute this ivory to the same period1 but ,schlumberger cannot believe it to be more ancient than the tenth century4 ,the deep red colour is the remnant of the purple stain1 which was probably still further enriched by gilding4 ,with few exceptions1 it has been the common practice to colour ivories as well as statues1 and though much at variance with our modern taste 7which is founded on a mistaken appreciation of the tint of marble from which the colour has faded71 it must have greatly enhanced the effect1 especially in the smaller objects which enter almost into the province of bijouterie4 ,in the eighth century the iconoclastic#ad troubles commenced2 the movement was at first one of real reform1 the charge of idolatry which had been brought against the ,greek ,christians by their ,mahometan neighbours was not without foundation1 but unfortunately the love of images was deeply rooted in the heart of the people1 who transferred to these little pictures and images the same homage they had paid to their local protecting deities in pagan times4 ,a powerful party1 always a minority1 gained the ear of the ,emperor ,leo ,,iii41 the ,isaurian 7#gag-gda71 a man of low birth1 who had raised himself to his high station by sheer merit on the field of battle1 and though he has been bitterly abused by his enemies1 he appears to have been quite above the average of imperial character1 which1 it must be confessed1 did not reach an overpoweringly high level4 ,this man1 having subdued his country's enemies in the ,east1 turned his active mind to the annihilation of the unhappy artists and all their works4 ,at first his measures were moderate1 the removing of pictures out of reach of the lips of the worshippers2 but superstition was so deeply rooted that an abortive revolt broke out1 instigated by the monks1 who1 besides being the most strenuous advocates for images1 were also the chief manufacturers4 ,this rebellion was easily suppressed1 but it provoked severer measures1 an edict was promulgated that all images were to be destroyed1 and the painted walls of the churches to be covered with plaster4 ,all opposition was punished by a rapid crescendo of penalties1 by imprisonment1 mutilation and excommunication4 ,more revolts followed1 ,leo became still more angry1 and the next thing we read of is the destruction by fire of the great ,library of ,constantinople1 guards and all1 by order of the ,emperor4 ,the guards were not a matter of importance1 as a violent death one way or other was of small moment in those most unpleasant times2 but the manuscripts were an irreparable loss1 almost as terrible as the burning of the ,alexandrian ,library by the ,mahometans1 only a hundred years before1 and for the same unreasonable reason4 ,these struggles continued1 with less or more violence1 for nearly #aej years2 the choleric ,leo was succeeded by his still more violent son1 ,constantine ,v4 who1 according to the opposite party 7which contained all the chroniclers71 was closely related to the ,evil ,one1 but he certainly had great energy1 and was probably not so black as he was painted4 ,he continued the work of his father with great vigour1 and1 it must be added1 considerable cruelty4 ,sometimes there was comparative calm1 as when the ,empress ,irene seized the reins of government from her unhappy son1 ,constantine ,,vi41 in #gig1 and issued an edict of tolerance4 ,she was a wonderful woman1 and lived in imperial state for many years1 against all law1 human and divine2 for she was many bad things1 besides being a woman1 and as such1 debarred from government4 ,among her schemes was an alliance with ,charlemagne1 to whom she offered her hand2 the offer was not accepted1 and soon after she was exiled to ,lesbos by another usurper1 who1 being a violent iconoclast1 immediately restored all the oppressive laws4 ,with delightful readiness the ecclesiastical ,general ,councils promulgated decrees for1 or against1 the cult of images1 according to the taste of the ruling power4 ,theophilus1 the last of the iconoclastic emperors1 was a great builder of churches and palaces1 and none of the iconoclasts went to the length of forbidding the introduction of the human form1 and reducing decoration to geometrical motives and scroll work1 as is the case of ,arabian art4 ,theophilus was succeeded by his widow1 the ,empress ,theodora1 who governing in the name of her infant son ,michael ,,iii41 promptly reversed all the edicts of her husband and his predecessors1 and endeared herself to the ,greeks1 by the restoration of their beloved images1 and the final defeat of the iconoclastic party1 which was accomplished about #hdb4 ,though there was a sensible difference after this movement1 still it is easy to exaggerate its influence on ,byzantine art4 ,the edicts of the ,emperor were not always carried out to the letter1 except1 perhaps1 in the capital city1 and even there the smaller objects were secreted1 and women1 always conservative1 clung to their lares and penates1 keeping up the old observances as much as possible4 ,many an obstinate monk took pride and pleasure in setting the law at defiance1 carving little diptychs with the decoration on the inner side1 so that they could be folded together and slipped away in safety4 ,illustration3 ,,victoria ,,and ,,albert ,,museum1 ,,london #ad4 ,,oliphant ,oriental-,byzantine1 ninth and tenth centuries ,the civil art went on uninterruptedly1 and in such a luxurious city the objects of secular use must have been very rich and varied4 ,a large series of caskets have come down to us1 preserved in the treasuries of churches as shrines for the relics of saints1 also large oliphants1 or complete tusks1 hollowed out and thickly covered with linked patterns of strongly oriental style2 these were first imported from the ,east and afterwards imitated more or less exactly by ,byzantine craftsmen4 ,in early ritual they were used as horns to announce the commencement and the end of the ,mass1 and also to contain relics1 and it was the latter use which brought them in such numbers to the ,west4 ,the miniaturists1 also1 continued their art1 copying and illustrating texts of ,homer and ,virgil and other classical writers4 ,the iconoclastic movement1 though lasting a century and a quarter1 had no permanent effect in checking the natural development of art4 ,in fact1 the greater impetus given to the civil art had rather the effect of purifying the ,byzantine style by constant reference to the antique1 and prepared the way for the ,renaissance of the tenth century4 ,byzantine art is still so little known that it is probable that many ivories now classed in the tenth may belong to the preceding century4 ,molinier attributes even the ,vienna and ,bargello diptych 7,fig4 #e7 to the mid iconoclastic period1 to that lull in the storm during the reign of the ,empress ,irene 7end of eighth century71 whose portrait he considers it to be4 ,this ivory1 though more probably of the sixth century1 has some slight likeness in the wide face and full neck to the two busts of ,christ and the symbolic angel of ,st4 ,matthew in the ,library1 ,ravenna 7the eagle of ,st4 ,john is in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum74 ,these must be classed with another ivory of this period in the ,louvre1 a figure of ,christ standing under a richly decorated arch1 but the low forehead and staring eyes1 with the pompous attitude1 in imitation of the beautiful ,british ,museum angel1 make it positively ridiculous4 ,another plaque in the ,berlin ,museum1 the only dated ivory of the ninth century1 represents an emperor being crowned by the ,virgin1 and bears the name of a 8,basileus ,leo40 ,the early emperors of this name are too ancient1 and the last three were rabid iconoclasts1 so that brings it to the ,emperor ,leo ,,vi41 crowned in #hhf4 ,unfortunately this work1 which should be most useful for comparison1 is of rough technique1 and evidently a provincial production1 for no craftsman of the great metropolis could have produced such uncultivated work1 even on the morrow of the iconoclastic crisis4 ,,ii4 ,,byzantine ,,caskets4 ,we owe to the series of secular caskets most of our knowledge of this transitional period4 ,they do not appear to have been articles of great luxury and were usually made of bone and sometimes indifferently carved4 ,the fashion continued for several hundred years1 and side by side with these secular caskets we have others decorated with scenes from ,old ,testament history1 which1 though very few in number at first1 become more frequent as time goes on4 ,the religious caskets have many details in common with the secular1 but draw their inspiration from a different source4 ,there is great similarity in the design of the secular caskets1 the box itself being made of wood and covered with ivory plaques4 ,the lids are either in the shape of a truncated pyramid1 and hinged1 or flat and sliding into grooves4 ,the decoration consists of an elaborate border surrounding either long scenic plaques1 as in the ,veroli casket in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum 7,fig4 #ae71 or more often little squares containing a single figure 7,bargello1 etc474 ,the borders show strong oriental influence1 and invariably consist of ringed rosettes connected by a pointed leaf2 these rosettes sometimes alternate with coin-like medallions1 and there are occasionally additional bands of varying pattern1 as on the ,volterra casket 7late ,spitzer ,collection7 at the ,muse de ,cluny4 ,the subjects are a proof of the still lingering power of classical antiquity1 and of the infiltration of oriental designs4 ,they are either taken from ancient myths 7often very imperfectly understood by the adaptor71 or from scenes in the hippodrome or circus 7,volterra72 perhaps also from the statues1 part of the ,grecian loot that ,constantine had brought from ,rome to decorate his new city4 ,illustration3 ,,victoria ,,and ,,albert ,,museum1 ,,london #ae4 ,,the ,,veroli ,,casket ,byzantine1 ninth and tenth centuries ,most of these caskets are composed in the gayest frame of mind2 on the beautiful ivory ,veroli casket the little loves1 on the light fantastic toe1 dance to the harping of poor1 melancholy1 old ,polyphemus1 who is compelled to cease his solitary lament and play hornpipes and jigs for the benefit of wild ,bacchantes1 who whirl round and round till their drapery is tossed out like foam4 ,it is amusing to see these same ladies on the casket at ,cividale1 no longer carved with delicate finish1 but angular and rough1 the drapery flying out like wire1 and the development of the muscles rivalling that of a prima ballerina4 ,the maker of the ,pirano casket in the ,vienna ,museum imitated the ,veroli in many things1 as the putti and the panther1 and the group of ,mars caressing ,venus under the chin1 in the good old-fashioned ,brescia diptych way1 also the peculiar treatment of the hair in tiny knobby ringlets1 which is found again on the ,bologna casket1 and on two most interesting plaques in the ,british ,museum4 ,one plaque represents ,christ freeing the ,souls in ,hades1 and the other ,the ,nativity4 ,on the first there is a group of little child-souls with polished round muscles and knobby hair1 also the hair of the angels in both the scenes is of the same character1 the rest of the technique has little to distinguish it from the so-called ,x-,,xi century type2 but the conception of the subject is not the ordinary stereotyped one of later years1 and those few peculiarities of style have such a marked connection with the ,veroli casket1 that ,graeven considers it likely that they both came from the same atelier1 and may1 perhaps1 be dated about the middle of the ninth century4 ,before pointing out the various similarities between these secular caskets1 and those with religious subjects1 it would be well to inquire into the ancestry of the separate styles4 ,the classical designs on the secular caskets are more completely conventionalized than would be the result of direct imitation of antique originals by later craftsmen2 and the coin-like borders give a clue to finding out what were their actual models4 ,they must have been inspired by the repouss designs on gold and silver plate1 it being a very common practice1 in all ages1 to insert coins round the edges of precious vessels4 ,the peculiar tapering ankles and delicate wrists are another proof of some other technique intervening between the marble sculpture and the ivories4 ,the tendency of marble to crack if exposed to too great a weight1 led to a sturdiness in all detached forms1 and not even in the bronze statues are such exaggeratedly slender extremities to be found4 ,ancient records often tell of large masses of plate being presented to churches in the ,west4 ,a single gift to ,st4 ,germain at ,auxerre in the seventh century1 consisted of one hundred silver vessels1 including two great dishes decorated with reliefs from the neid1 and a third with the 8,rape of ,europa10 and having ,greek inscriptions4 ,if there was such a mass of plate in the ,west1 the richness of ,constantinople in gold and silver vessels must have been simply fabulous4 ,the descriptions of the ,byzantine chroniclers1 and the figures given of the ,venetian share in the sack of ,constantinople by the ,crusaders in #abjd1 are astounding4 ,the silver casket at ,anagni forms a connecting link2 it is the same shape and style as the ivory caskets1 and the little silver reliefs are mounted in the same manner with border strips4 ,the caskets with religious subjects are derived from the miniatures in ancient and contemporary manuscripts1 as has been abundantly proved by the complete correspondence of existing plaques and miniatures4 ,the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum possesses an excellent example in the strip of ivory1 with ,joshua receiving envoys from the people of ,gibeon1 which is taken almost line for line from two miniatures in the famous ,joshua ,roll in the ,vatican ,library2 except that in the translation of the painting into sculpture1 certain details had to be simplified1 and the serried ranks of ,joshua's soldiers were reduced to a faithful copy of the forward group4 ,a tiny plaque in the ,grne ,gewlbe at ,dresden is another instance of this connection with the manuscripts4 ,it is one of two surviving portions of a casket decorated with the life of ,joseph1 and is directly inspired by the wonderful ,genesis codex at ,vienna4 ,this codex is especially interesting as showing the artist's delight in scenes of domestic affection2 the picture1 which coincides with the ivory carving1 illustrates the departure of ,joseph to get news of his brethren4 ,his father with a stately gesture bids him go1 and as he goes he turns to kiss his little brother ,benjamin1 who follows him a little way4 ,the sculptor has taken the moment of the kiss1 and the gentleness of the action is like the little domestic scene on the casket in the ,museo ,kircheriano at ,rome 7,fig4 #af74 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,h4 ,,graeven ,,photo4 ,,museo ,,kircheriano1 ,,rome #af4 ,,front ,,of ,a ,,casket4 ,,scenes ,,from ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,david ,byzantine1 ninth century ,the carvings on this casket give a graphic account of the early life and adventures of ,david1 and are most probably derived from some lost manuscript of the ,book of ,samuel4 ,the active little figures are exceedingly droll1 and it is difficult not to think that a little of the gay secular spirit had crept into these more sober scenes4 ,the lamb which sits up and begs while ,david pipes is particularly engaging4 ,the front side of the sloping lid is given up to most tragic scenes4 ,the ,massacre of the ,innocents1 and the ,murder of ,zachariah1 the ,high ,priest1 8killed between the temple and the altar40 ,the inscription tells us that the casket was intended as a marriage gift to a ,basileus and ,basilissa from another wedded pair1 the portraits all being on the top4 ,the various details which the two series of caskets have in common1 prove they belong to the same period4 ,on the ,veroli casket 7,fig4 #ae71 the group of men stoning the bull which bears away ,europa corresponds with a miniature in the ,joshua ,roll1 which depicts the stoning of the captive people of ,achan4 ,the rosette border is also found on a twelfth century casket with half-length figures of saints in the ,bargello4 ,on some of these caskets the plaques are decorated with designs taken bodily from ,oriental textiles and carvings2 the smaller ,volterra casket in the ,muse de ,cluny is a case in point1 and it has the additional charm of an openwork border of maple leaves on a gilt background4 ,some writers call these caskets ,italo-,byzantine because a large number have been found in the treasuries of ,italian cathedrals1 but their ancestry is thoroughly ,byzantine4 ,it is not impossible that some few examples were made in the ,west1 as several stone reliefs have been found in ,venetia1 clearly dating from the first decade of the eleventh century1 and ornamented with the same classical subjects1 confused in the same way with foreign elements1 and surrounded by the customary rosette border1 and which are most probably copies of these ,byzantine fancy goods4 ,the ,throne of ,st4 ,peter in the apse of his church in ,rome1 is made up in the same way with little plaques representing the ,labours of ,hercules and other purely pagan subjects4 ,the ivory carvings belong to two periods1 one1 admittedly1 of the ninth century when the ,throne was restored1 and the others are traditionally supposed to date from the lifetime of the apostle4 ,it was inclosed #bjj years ago in a hideous casing1 and no close examination is permitted4 ,if this chair is really of great antiquity1 even if not so early as the first century1 it would be a great support to ,venturi's assumption that all these secular caskets belong really to classical antiquity1 and are of late ,roman origin4 ,there is a beautiful casket in the ,cathedral of ,troyes1 of the tenth or eleventh century1 which was sent back by ,garnier de ,traisnel1 ,bishop of ,troyes1 and ,almoner to the ,crusaders4 ,garnier died in the ,east1 but sent home his share of the spoil from ,constantinople4 ,it is stained a rich purple and evidently belonged to the ,basileus1 who is depicted on horseback4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,byzantine ,,renaissance4 ,the ,golden ,age of ,byzantine ,art commences about the beginning of the tenth century1 and1 roughly speaking1 coincides with the rule of the great ,macedonian dynasty1 a period when the warrior emperors1 usurpers or otherwise1 kept the invading barbarians at bay4 ,the ,byzantine chroniclers expatiate at great length on the unparalleled luxury of the ,court and how the 8,sacred ,palace0 was filled with art treasures2 and they also tell us that ,constantine ,,vii41 ,porphrygenitus 7#iaa-iei71 was an enthusiastic amateur1 and even employed his 8sacred0 fingers in carving and painting beautiful objects2 it was about the only thing he did do1 for the government was entirely taken out of his hands by a series of usurpers who were nominally his colleagues4 ,ivory carving was only one small portion of this great stream of decorative work1 but an important part1 as there was practically no sculpture in stone4 ,in the new basilica at ,constantinople were some animals carved on the marble fountains1 and a few inferior bas-reliefs have been found in the ,crimea and ,mount ,athos1 but the technique is merely an enlargement of the tiny reliefs1 with a complete loss of that delicacy and loving finish which is the greatest charm of the ivory craft4 ,the number of examples of carved ivory during the tenth and eleventh centuries is so great that it is most difficult to make a selection4 ,the ,reliquary of the ,true ,cross in the ,franciscan ,church at ,cortona is valuable for comparison with other carvings of the tenth century1 for it is dated by an inscription mentioning the ,basileus ,nicephorus1 ,conqueror of the ,barbarians1 who can be no other than ,nicephorus ,phocas 7#ifc-ifi74 ,the reliquary is divided in the usual manner into four compartments by the arms of the great central crucifix1 and owing to the shallowness of the space the figures are not so disproportionately tall as was mostly the case4 ,in the research for dignity and reverence the figures became less and less earthly1 the shoulders sloping away to nothing1 and a growing tendency crept in to exaggerate the height out of all proportion2 also the calm expression on the delicate oval faces grew more and more solemn1 till on some of the later ivories it is positively lugubrious4 ,yet the quiet grace and exquisite dignity of a figure like that of the ,virgin on the ,harbaville ,triptych 7,fig4 #ag71 is hardly to be found in the finest ,italian art4 ,the pose of this figure and that of ,john the ,forerunner1 1 are almost identical with those on the ,cortona ,reliquary2 the ,virgin's gesture of adoration is simple and spontaneous1 and it is only when it is repeated by ,st4 ,john that the balance of the pattern becomes too exact and pains the eye4 ,the figure of ,christ1 grandly posed on the highbacked throne1 is the type of nearly every other representation of the ,saviour throughout the whole period 7cf4 ,fig4 #ai7 and traces back directly to the ,roman official diptychs4 ,the drapery is elegant and well considered1 though the folds have a hard flatness in spite of the soft finish of the technique4 ,the features inherit much from the antique1 the well-cut brow and deeply set eyes1 but the noses have increased in length and have that slight curve at the tip which is so characteristic1 and becomes so pronounced1 in later ,byzantine ,art4 ,the fine heads1 framed in their rugged mane of hair1 are very picturesque1 but there is such a strong family likeness among them1 that it is quite refreshing to meet a bald forehead like that of ,st4 ,paul or ,st4 ,john ,theologus1 here represented as an aged man and not as the beardless stripling of ,western art4 ,above all1 it is the hands and the well-proportioned muscular feet1 which show the power of the real artist escaping from the conventionality of his subject4 ,on the back of the panel he has freed himself entirely from the spell of classical antiquity and drunk deeply of new oriental ideas1 creating a most decorative design1 illustrating the 8,triumph of the ,cross10 which rises1 ornamented with roses1 above the flowering earth1 stretching up to the skies1 which are thickly covered with stars1 and bear the ,greek inscription ,jesus ,christ ,victorious4 ,two tall cypresses1 tightly bound by the symbolical vine and by ivy1 bow before it1 whilst from the ground spring small trees and reeds1 among which wild animals run in and out4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,,giraudon ,,photo4 ,,louvre1 ,,paris #ag4 ,,triptych ,d',,harbaville ,byzantine1 tenth century ,the trees may be contrasted with the fruitful olives on the ,bargello plaque of the ,ascension 7,fig4 #ah74 ,the composition of this scene is grand in character1 in spite of its small size1 and there is great freedom of movement in the lower group1 each pose being cleverly characterized2 the grouping is scarcely freer in the ,italian conception of this subject1 and the upraised hand of the apostle on the ,virgin's left is to be seen1 centuries later1 in the famous 8,assumption of the ,virgin0 by ,titian4 ,there are many other plaques with scenic pictures4 ,the elaborate carving of the ,death of the ,virgin is still fixed to the ,bamberg ,missal1 which belonged to ,cunigunda1 wife of the ,emperor ,henry ,,ii4 7#ajjb-ajbh74 ,the scene is crowded1 and takes place under a richly pierced canopy4 ,christ holds the ,infant ,soul of the ,virgin1 whilst two angels with veiled hands fly down to receive it4 ,perhaps the most beautiful of all these pictorial sculptures is a diptych now unfortunately divided4 ,each leaf has two scenes1 the first1 representing the ,holy ,women kneeling before the risen ,christ and the ,resurrection1 is at ,dresden1 while the other1 with the ,crucifixion and the ,deposition1 is in the ,provincial ,museum at ,hanover4 ,the various scenes are treated with much freedom1 and the proportions are excellent4 ,it is enough to glance at the appalling length of the two ,maries in a twelfth century plaque with the ,resurrection 7,bargello7 to realize how much we have to be thankful for in the earlier periods4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,h4 ,,graeven ,,photo4 ,,bargello1 ,,florence #ah4 ,,ascension ,byzantine1 eleventh century ,there are a large number of triptychs#ae all more or less of the ,harbaville school4 ,a fine one at the ,louvre of ,christ and ,st4 ,theodore has lost the second wing1 and of another still finer one1 only the splendidly carved wings remain1 widely separated now1 one being in ,vienna and the other in the ,doge's ,palace at ,venice4 ,several of these little shrines inclose a group of the ,virgin and ,child1 the two most beautiful being in the ,episcopal ,museums of ,utrecht and ,lige4 ,count ,strogonoff in his interesting collection at ,rome has a particularly fine seated ,virgin and ,child4 ,the whole pose is most pleasing and the ,infant ,christ on her knee has a far more childish face than usual1 the ,holy ,child being more often like a little man1 raising his hand to bless with exaggerated dignity4 ,but the ineradicable love of ostentation and luxury leads the artist to diminish the importance of a really dignified figure by adding a mass of gigantic and over-decorated accessories1 and the legs of the throne are wrought with more exactitude than he bestows on the robe of the central figure4 ,illustration3 ,g4 ,,rossi ,,photo4 ,,trivulzio ,,collection1 ,,milan #ai4 ,,christ ,,enthroned ,byzantine1 eleventh century ,there are many other interesting ivories in this fine collection1 which even contains one of the lost plaques from the ,throne of ,maximian4 ,among them is a noble figure of ,christ ,teaching which might well correspond to the ,john ,baptist at ,liverpool1 one of the gems of the ,mayer ,collection4 ,john bears a roll with the text commencing1 8,behold the ,lamb of ,god10 which would refer to the ,christ on the opposite leaf of a diptych4 ,the ,liverpool ,museum also possesses a fine triptych1 with ,christ on the ,cross1 the ,virgin and ,st4 ,john4 ,this is a type which seized the imagination of the ,german people1 who constantly repeated it1 losing1 perhaps1 in technique1 but gaining in vigour and expression1 as will be seen on referring to ,fig4 #bd4 ,the plaque in the ,cabinet des ,mdailles of the ,bibliothque nationale1 ,paris 7,fig4 #bj71 is a fitting end to an account of the ivories of the ,byzantine ,renaissance4 ,it represents the ,emperor ,romanus ,,iv4 and the ,empress ,eudoxia being crowned by ,christ4 ,it is doubly interesting1 as through its certain date 7the ,emperor's reign only lasting four years #ajfg-ajga71 we can compare it with earlier work1 as the ,cortona ,reliquary or the ,harbaville triptych 7,fig4 #ag71 and see that after more than a hundred years the art had not changed for better or worse4 ,this plaque is also interesting from its artistic value1 which is very high1 the figure of ,christ being one of the finest in the whole range of ,byzantine ivory carving4 ,we can see that the artist was perfectly capable of rendering drapery in a soft and pliant manner1 yet the tyranny of the court etiquette compelled him to envelope the ,basileus and ,basilissa in the stiffest of sheaths1 covered with a regular mosaic of jewels2 and to pay honour to the ,saviour he was obliged to place under ,his feet that triple platform of hideous device4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,,giraudon ,,photo4 ,,cabinet ,,des ,m,,dailles1 ,,biblioth,,que ,,nationale1 ,,paris #bj4 ,,romanus ,,iv4 ,,and ,,eudoxia ,,crowned ,,by ,,christ ,byzantine1 eleventh century 8,the composition of the figures is not the invention of the painters1 but the law of tradition of the ,catholic ,church40 ,these are the words of a decree of the ,nicene ,council in the eighth century1 and it is not surprising that these compositions1 settled on theological grounds were inclined to be unvarying and hieratic1 the wonder is that they have so many artistic qualities4 ,another bond for the unfortunate artist was a certain work called 8,a ,guide to ,painting10 in which minute regulations are laid down for every detail of form and colouring4 ,it does not appear to have been in force till after this period of renaissance1 but a strict adherence to these formul is1 without doubt1 the reason why it is practically impossible to tell a nineteenth from a twelfth century mosaic by reference alone to style4 ,this great stream of art and culture went on uninterruptedly1 no matter what were the palace intrigues or the sudden changes of government4 ,one winter night a great cry is raised1 the ,emperor1 the brave general whose glorious campaigns had enabled the city to increase its wealth and commerce a thousandfold1 had been slain1 foully murdered by order of his wife and his ancient friend4 ,yet there is no revolt among the people2 what is it to them8 ,a few dangerous partizans are killed1 and later a few of the hired murderers1 and the wife in question1 are offered up to the ,church in expiation of the usurper's crime4 ,in the evening ,nicephorus ,phocas is ,emperor1 and by the next morning ,john ,zimisces is crowned and reigning in his stead4 ,both the emperors were good generals1 and could keep the barbarians at bay1 and1 for the matter of that1 they were both flagrant usurpers1 the rightful sovereigns1 ,basil and ,constantine1 being kept half prisoners in the palace1 while their so-called colleagues ruled the country2 and if freedom from invasion1 wealth1 and munificent patronage of the arts are signs of good government1 then these usurpers were pattern rulers4 ,this was by no means the case with ,basil ,,ii41 who1 at the mature age of sixty flung off the tutelage of his colleagues and plunged into a wild career of conquest1 earning for himself not only the title of 8,destroyer of the ,bulgarians10 but the hearty hatred of his subjects at home and in the provinces4 ,with ,basil we must leave the ,byzantine ,empire1 which had reached its apogee of political power and art production4 ,it was centuries before the internal decay made itself felt1 but the great edifice never recovered the shock of the invasion and sack of ,constantinople by the ,crusaders in #abjd1 and falling bit by bit before the attacks of the ,mahometans1 finally fell an easy prey to the ,seljuk ,turks in #adec4 ,,footnotes3 #h ,second leaf in the ,royal ,museum of ,decorative and ,industrial ,art1 ,brussels4 #i ,see the plaque with the ,judgment of ,solomon in the ,louvre4 #aj ,a round tomb with a cupola has been excavated in the ,via ,praestina1 and the circular ,church of ,s4 ,costanzo is the tomb of a daughter of the ,emperor ,constantine4 #aa ,les ,tapisseries ,coptes1 par ,m4 ,gerspach1 ,paris1 #ahij4 #ab ,venturi considers that the ,throne was made for another ,maximian1 ,archbishop of ,constantinople #cde1 and being taken in the course of time to ,venetia1 is identical with that mentioned in the ,chronicle of the ,deacon ,john2 who tells of an ivory throne sent in ,december1 #ajja1 by the ,doge ,pietro ,orseolo1 to the ,emperor ,otto ,,iii41 who was then residing in ,ravenna1 and gave it to the ,cathedral4 ,there is no mention of an ivory throne in the ,cathedral before this date4 ,cf4 ,storia dell' arte italiana1 vol4 i41 p4 #dff4 ,ricci connects this throne with that of ,st4 ,mark in ,grado4 ,cf4 ,l'arte italiana decorativa e industriale1 vol4 vii41 p4 #ajd4 #ac ,this coat is said to be the one 8without seam10 for which the soldiers cast lots1 and which has an undoubted history from the time of the ,empress ,helena1 in the fourth century4 #ad ,from 1 a likeness1 and 1 ,i break in pieces4 #ae ,full list given by ,molinier1 ,les ,arts appliqus1 vol4 i4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,lombardic1 ,,anglo-,,saxon1 ,,carlovingian ,,and ,,german ,,ivories ,i4 ,,lombard ,,ivory ,,carvings ,we have seen how ,constantinople1 or the 8,new ,rome10 became the centre of the new ,christian ,world as ,alexandria had been of the ,hellenistic2 and for many centuries the riches and splendour of this most luxurious city shone out on the barbarian nations1 as a lodestar for their imagination and a pattern for all civilization and culture4 ,byzantine1 being an intrusive art in these countries1 did not entirely crush out native effort1 but modified the design and vastly improved the technique4 ,each imitator introduced more of himself and got further from the ,greek original1 so there arose a composite style1 strongly influenced by the ,byzantines1 yet bearing in it the seeds of a national art4 ,leaving aside the large number of ,syro-,byzantine and other ,eastern ivories1 we must pass on to ,italy1 where the remains of the old ,latin art still lingered1 though terribly debased and mingled with that of the barbarian ,lungobards4 ,by the seventh century sculpture was reduced to a deplorable state1 and as ,cattaneo says1#af it is most unlikely that the ,ravenna carved sarcophagi were really made at this period2 they more probably belonged to ancient burials1 with the new name carved on the lid4 ,even in ivory carving1 which is always behind the age1 we find an almost ludicrous barbarity4 ,an ivory tablet of the eighth century in the ,bologna ,museum is a fair example of this mixed style2 it has three tiers of scenes from the ,nativity1 and shows strong ,byzantine influence1 yet there is something in the treatment of the drapery1 barbaric as it is1 which seems to lead on to the later ,italian style of the eleventh century1 which definitely connects with the earliest ,gothic art in ,france4#ag ,an example of this may be seen in a plaque in the ,bargello1 representing ,christ in glory surrounded by angels4 ,by far the most celebrated example of this long period is the diptych of ,rambona in the ,vatican1 which in spite of the miserable relief and the rudeness of the technique1 plainly shows the two influences1 ,lombardic and ,byzantine4 ,at the foot of the cross is a large representation of ,romulus and ,remus with the ,roman wolf4 ,at the top the familiar pair of flying angels1 much curtailed1 bear a medallion containing a bust of ,christ raising ,his hand to bless in the ,greek manner4 ,on the second leaf the ,virgin is enthroned between two cherubim1 the lower portion being ornamented with fragmentary scroll-work of a northern type1 surrounding figures of the saints of more or less ,byzantine design4 ,an important inscription runs between stating that the diptych was carved for a certain ,ageltruda1 who was most probably the wife of ,guy1 ,duke of ,camerino and ,spoleto1 ,king of ,italy1 and ,emperor in #hia4 ,in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum there are two noteworthy examples of ,lombard ,art2 a strange tall-figured group of ,the ,presentation of ,christ in the ,temple1 with architecture of a strongly marked ,lombard type1 and a plaque with a representation of ,joseph's ,dream4 ,both of these are carved in a large style with open surfaces1 but show a very rudimentary notion of drapery4 ,the latter is especially interesting as the design is almost exactly the same as in the elaborate series of plaques from the ,paliotto or shrine in the ,cathedral at ,salerno 7eleventh to twelfth century74 ,the subjects of these carvings are taken from the life of ,christ and from the ,old ,testament1 and show an unusually full series of scenes from ,genesis1 with most picturesque representations of the creation4 ,the fluency of the design and technique of these plaques is a strange and sudden oasis in a desert of barbarism4 ,if they were made at ,salerno1 as seems likely1 the technique of some school in the old ,greek city may have lingered on1 receiving new life from the encouragement of the ,normans1 who certainly showed themselves ardent patrons of the arts in ,sicily4 ,there had been little encouragement of the arts elsewhere in ,italy4 ,several objects of goldsmith's work and ivory in the ,basilica at ,monza are said to have belonged to ,theodolinda1 the ,lombard queen1 in addition to the famous ivory diptych sent to her by ,gregory the ,great1 which was of an earlier date4 ,two hundred years later ,popes ,adrian and ,leo ,,iii41 seconded ,charlemagne in his efforts to restore learning and culture2 and finally ,didier1 the great abbot of ,monte ,cassino in #ajah1 and afterwards ,pope1 was also a great admirer and benefactor of the arts4 ,it is not surprising that poor ,italy made so little progress1 for all this time she was ravaged1 first by the ,saracens1 who invaded the mainland from ,sicily1 which they had conquered from the ,greeks1 and then by the ,normans1 who in the eleventh century1 consolidated their power in ,south ,italy1 and afterwards in ,sicily1 under ,robert ,guiscard4 ,,ii4 ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,ivory ,,carvings4 ,the earliest carvings in the ,northern countries still belonged to the type of geometric and interlaced patterns roughly cut in walrus or whalebone4 ,the panels from the sarcophagus of ,st4 ,caletricus1 ,bishop of ,chartres in the sixth century1 is an example of this rough kind of decoration1 which is also found on objects from the ,germanic tombs4 ,the ,anglo-,saxons were far more advanced1 owing to the training of the ,keltic schools4 ,in the ,british ,museum there is a whalebone casket1 probably made in ,northumbria in the eighth century4 ,it is ornamented with scenes from the ,sagas1 the ,holy ,scriptures and from ,roman legends2 this range of subjects gives a clue to the explanation of the style1 which is ,norse1 influenced by ,byzantine religious art1 but the latter has been so transformed by the unskilful craftsman that it is hardly recognizable4 ,the whole casket is bordered by a ,runic inscription relating the capture of the whale which supplied the bone2 it has been translated thus3 8,the whale's bones from the fishes' flood1 ,i lifted on ,fergen's ,hill3 ,he was dashed to death in his gambols ,as a-ground he swam in the shallows40 ,the name ,fergen occurs on a charter of the eleventh century1 and has been identified with ,ferry ,hill in the county of ,durham4 ,the front panel is divided into two1 and represents the daughter of ,herodias receiving ,john ,baptist's head1 the headless body lying on the ground1 and the ,wise ,men offering gifts1 the word 8,magi0 being written in runes above them4 ,all that remains of the ,byzantine model of the ,virgin and ,child are two nimbed heads1 one below the other1 a lesser and a greater disk sheltered by a typical ,byzantine ciborium or four-pillared canopy4 ,one end has a picture of ,romulus and ,remus and their wolf1 and the rest is decorated with scenes from the ,sagas4 ,the background of these reliefs is so crowded by small objects and fragments of scroll-work that the scenes are difficult to make out2 but it is extremely interesting as a sample of ,english art in the time of the ,heptarchy4 ,illustration3 ,,victoria ,,and ,,albert ,,museum1 ,,london #ba4 ,,adoration ,,of ,,the ,,magi ,anglo-,saxon1 eleventh century ,the ,adoration of the ,magi in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum 7,fig4 #ba71 has been also attributed to this period1 but ,westwood's opinion that it is of the eleventh century is more probably correct1 the workmanship being most delicate and finished1 and the design closely connected with the pictures in the tenth century ,anglo-,saxon manuscripts1 which have the same crinkled edges to the drapery1 large heads and protruding eyes1 with a sharply accentuated pupil4 ,in the relief the modelling of the face1 with the hollow between the wide cheekbones and the lips gives the face quite a ,hibernian appearance which is visible in several other ivories of this class1 notably in a most pathetic ,deposition in the same museum4 ,the richly embroidered dress and tiny feet and hands show ,byzantine influence1 but the architecture1 with the twin arch windows is thoroughly ,saxon4 ,the mysterious man on the roof is a curious genre addition1 and the owl1 most likely typifies the night4 ,the hunting scenes clearly show the two art waves1 the lions are unintelligently copied from the conventional ,byzantine animal1 but very considerable first-hand information is shown in the drawing of the boars and bears1 with which the craftsman probably had some personal acquaintance4 ,the ,deposition referred to above is of the eleventh century1 and has a curious prototype in the ,arundel ,psalter 7,no4 #fj1 ,british ,museum71 with the same attenuated anatomy and finely plaited drapery4 ,the design is instinct with the spirit of these ,anglo-,saxons and their ,keltic teachers1 as is seen in the mournful expression of the faces1 and the utter deadness of ,christ's body as ,he falls forward from the cross1 hanging ,his threadlike arms4 ,the whole feeling is of suffering and sadness1 very different from the cheerful scenes on the earlier1 and the calm1 unmoved solemnity of the later ,byzantine art4 ,this research for expression was a special feature of the more emotional ,germanic nations1 and in spite of the almost comic peculiarities1 there is a sincere reverence and religious feeling1 which is almost unknown in any other school of ivory carving4 ,the series of chessmen made of walrus ivory that were found in the ,island of ,lewis should be mentioned here2 they have stumpy figures and fine rugged countenances1 and the thrones are carved with the elaborate tracery so typical of this artistic movement4 ,the game of chess was early brought from the ,east1 as was the game of draughts1 and many pieces are to be found in the various museums of ,europe4 ,in addition to the chessmen1 the ,british ,museum possesses a fine set of draughts deeply carved in ,romanesque style1 with men and animals4 ,in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum there is a specimen of a large and elaborate set of chessmen1 having tiers of attendants round the principal figure4 ,a charming story is told in one of the ,chansons de ,gestes1 and was repeatedly carved on mirror covers and other small objects in the fourteenth century1 showing the popularity of the game4 ,it tells how the crusader ,huon de ,bordeaux was taken prisoner by the ,saracen admiral and condemned to death2 one chance was given him1 that he should play a game of chess with the admiral's daughter1 the most expert player of her day1 the stakes being his life or the lady's hand2 but it seems the lady looked too much in his eyes and too little at the game1 and the result was one more convert to the ,christian faith4 ,the tracery which decorates the thrones of the chessmen is a small example of the elaborate interlaced scroll-work1 which is a leading feature in ,keltic and ,anglo-,saxon work4 ,in the manuscripts it is often reduced to a series of calligraphic flourishes1 but it also develops into serpents and dragons inextricably woven together1 and1 later1 more varied animal forms are introduced and even human figures are seen crushed in the serpentine rings4 ,forms from vegetation are rarely seen1 and the introduction of the acanthus into these intricacies is due to the ,carlovingian scribes of the ninth century and may be seen in the ,bible written for ,charles the ,bald4 ,several objects decorated with the earlier forms of this wild tracery are found in the great abbeys of ,germany and ,eastern ,france1 and are thought to have been made in ,great ,britain or ,ireland and brought over by the throng of missionaries who flocked on to the continent to convert the wild tribes of ,frisia1 ,germany and ,switzerland1 bearing with them culture and learning4 ,little ,ireland in early days was a centre of artistic diffusion1 almost more important for the ,northern nations than that of ,constantinople4 ,owing to freedom from invasion1 ,christianity and civilization had continued to flourish and the remnant of the old ,latin literature was carefully preserved4 ,not long after the death of ,st4 ,patrick1 the ,irish ,church1 having increased in strength and learning1 sent forth the famous ,st4 ,columba to minister to the hordes of barbarians who were over-running ,britain4 ,st4 ,columba met with great success and founded several large monasteries which became powerful centres of religion and learning in ,scotland and ,england4 ,for hundreds of years the schools of ,ireland continued in great repute1 numerous bands of missionaries were sent across the sea to convert the ,germanic tribes on the continent4 ,most famous among these was ,st4 ,columbanus1 who laboured in the ,east of ,france for many years1 and afterwards in ,switzerland and ,italy1 dying in #fae at the monastery he had founded at ,bobbio4 ,everywhere these monks went they took with them the seeds of art and learning1 beautiful illuminated manuscripts and other small works of art1 which formed an inexhaustible store of motifs for the sculptors and goldsmiths of the following centuries4 ,one of the disciples of ,columbanus1 ,st4 ,gall1 who was called the 8,apostle of ,switzerland10 founded there the great monastery named after him1 which became a most flourishing art centre in later years4 ,the ,anglo-,saxons were not idle1 and in the eighth century ,st4 ,boniface and many others pierced far into the wild forests of ,germany1 founding the great monastic establishments which exist to this day4 ,this was not a fleeting movement1 but a close relation was kept up between ,england and the continent till well into the eleventh century4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,carlovingian ,,renaissance4 ,charlemagne1 crowned emperor in #hjj1 if not perhaps the wondrous hero of tradition1 was a very powerful factor in the history and civilization of his day1 and exerted all his energy to introduce order and learning among the vast hordes of barbarians who more or less willingly acknowledged his rule4 ,he stirred up all latent powers1 introduced new ideas and stimulated an admiration for all ,roman culture1 being dazzled quite as much by the actual pomp and splendour of the ,constantinopolitan court as by the memories of ancient ,rome4 ,he invited learned men from the ,east and the ,west1 but the most famous were ,alcuin1 who was born at ,york1 and his pupil1 ,eginhardt1 who became ,secretary and ,chronicler to ,charlemagne and his successor4 ,the ,carlovingian renaissance was a most composite production4 ,byzantine ,art had long been known to the ,northern races1 and at this time its influence was spread still further by the presence of artists exiled by the iconoclasts2 but the ,anglo-,saxon influence was even stronger1 encouraged as it was by the bands of missionaries1 and by ,alcuin and his followers4 ,to these intermingled strains must be added the independent ,gallo-,roman reminiscence1 the study of the monuments1 and also a strange1 but undeniable ,oriental tendency1 arising from communications with the ,east and the ,moors in ,spain4 ,this renaissance1 though to a certain extent artificial1 lasted for nearly three centuries and affected the civilization of the whole of ,western ,europe4 ,carlovingian art flourished for centuries in ,germany1 but the invasions of the ,normans checked for a while the artistic progress of ,northern ,france4 ,what little art they had was in much the same ,norse style1 but freshly barbaric and not like that of the ,british ,isles1 which had undergone centuries of incubation and had the additional ,latin element4 ,it was to this ,anglo-,saxon ,art1 conventional as it had become1 the human form often being reduced to a geometrical figure1 that the ,carlovingian craftsmen turned for inspiration4 ,two classes of ivory carving arose1 one copied almost directly from the miniatures in the ,anglo-,saxon manuscripts1 which were themselves derived from late ,roman types2 and the second following more closely in the steps of the ,byzantines4 ,all through the ,carlovingian period there is a close connection between the illuminator and the ivory carver1 the latter trying to treat his subjects more in the manner of a painter1 enlarged the cycle of ,christian representations and began to break with tradition and recover his liberty4 ,the figures still1 in many cases1 retain the heavy and rather crushed forms of degenerate ,roman art2 and in the endeavour to impart deeper expression the proportions were often spoiled1 delicate parts1 as the features being delineated in undue size1 and the research for originality often leading to violent and exaggerated attitudes1 and to the overloading of detail1 yet all the gestures are instinct with life1 and full of a nave directness of action4 ,a small plaque in the museum at ,zurich 7,fig4 #bb7 is a good illustration of the immense influence of the miniatures on ivory carving4 ,the ,book of ,psalms was especially popular1 and this plaque is a word for word translation of certain verses of the ,x,x,v,i,ith ,psalm 7,,xxvi4 in the ,vulgate7 into plastic form4 v4 #b4 8,when the wicked1 even my enemies and my foes1 came upon me to eat up my flesh1 they stumbled and fell40 7,the crowd of warriors1 some of whom have fallen74 v4 #e4 8,for in the time of trouble he shall hide me in his pavilion3 in the secret of his tabernacle he shall hide me3 he shall set me up upon a rock40 7,david is seen being welcomed into the ,tabernacle1 which stands on a rock74 ,part of v4 #f4 8,therefore will ,i offer in his tabernacle sacrifices of joy0 7altar and lamb74 ,v4 #aj4 8,when my father and mother forsake me then the ,lord will take me up0 7in the right corner a man and woman turn away from a child74 ,the hand above is typical of the protection of ,god which is asked for throughout the psalm4 ,the slight and thin-ankled figures1 and the continuous method of narration are characteristic of the miniatures1 which originally derived their technique from late ,roman ,art1 and carried on the old system of an unbroken series of scenes which is to be found in the bas-reliefs of ,trajan's ,column4 ,in the ,utrecht ,psalter 7,anglo-,saxon7 is an almost identical illustration of this psalm1 which proves that this plaque was copied from it or some analogous manuscript1 as the ,bodley ,psalter 7,no4 #fjc7 in the ,british ,museum4 ,these ,psalters have furnished a model for another of these scenic psalms1 carved on a plaque set in the magnificent binding of the ,psalter of ,charles the ,bald1 in the ,bibliothque nationale at ,paris4 ,the manuscript was written between the years #hdb-hfi1 and there is no reason to think that the jewelled and ivory cover is not contemporary4 ,one side gives a graphic picture of the ,l,v,ith ,psalm1 and the other represents ,nathan telling ,david the story of the little ewe lamb 7#b ,sam4 xii474 ,the ,louvre possesses a plaque1 also of the ninth century1 representing the interview of ,abner and ,joab 7#b ,sam4 ii471 a subject by no means of general interest1 and unlikely to have a plastic type1 which proves still further the custom of copying the miniatures with more or less servility4 ,illustration3 ,,schweizerischer ,,landesmuseum1 ,,zurich #bb4 ,,illustration ,,of ,,psalm ,,xxvii ,carlovingian1 ninth century ,one more scenic plaque in the ,louvre is of interest1 not so much in connection with the ,,mss41 but from the strong resemblance to the ,probianus diptych 7,fig4 #b71 especially in the lower scene1 where the figures raise their hands to ,solomon on his judgment seat4 ,on the second half ,david is dictating his psalms to an assembly of clerks4 ,it is difficult to class the ivories of this long period1 but the majority are of ,german origin4 ,art and culture were a great deal dependent on the ,court1 which had the effect of bringing into line the work of craftsmen of very varying nationalities4 ,here also was a fear lest the people should worship the images themselves1 but an iconoclastic spirit never arose1 and these numerous carvings1 besides adding to the sumptuousness of the cult1 were used for the instruction of the unlettered4 ,ivory was classed with the precious metals1 and much sought after for ecclesiastical purposes1 the great abbeys of eastern ,france and ,germany became regular workshops1 making a large number of exquisite objects in goldsmith's work and ivory4 ,we are given a little side-light on the use of ivory in a letter of ,eginhardt to his son1 in which he mentions that he is sending him a carved ivory model of classical architecture that he should better understand certain passages in ,vitruvius4 ,the mention of the work done in the monasteries brings us to the ,abbey of ,st4 ,gall and the monk ,tuotilo1 who has long been the hero of the craft2 but1 alas1 the charming picture that the chronicler ,ekkehardt gives1 a hundred years later1 of this ,leonardo among craftsmen is utterly without foundation2 that there was a monk ,tuotilo at the end of the ninth and the beginning of the tenth centuries the records of the monastery tell us1 and a note added by a later hand says that he was learned and a sculptor4 ,ekkehardt spoils his argument in favour of ,tuotilo by attributing to him too many perfections1 and by finally quoting the opinion of ,charlemagne1 who had been dead and buried nearly a hundred years4 ,it is very sad to have to give up the one real individual who greets us on the rather weary path of anonymity4 ,the fine book cover1 one leaf of which ,ekkehardt attributes to ,tuotilo 7,fig4 #bc71 is still safely preserved in the ,abbey of ,st4 ,gall1 but the two leaves appear to be by the same hand1 though there is every reason to attribute the workmanship to the ninth century4 ,on the upper leaf ,christ is represented in glory1 youthful and beardless in type1 as is often the case in ,carlovingian ivories which come from the ,germanic part of the empire4 ,there was a flourishing school of ,german craftsmen who closely imitated the ivories of the ,italo-,byzantine school of the sixth century1 the great abbeys having many specimens of ancient ivory carving in their treasuries4 ,the two cherubim and ,four ,evangelists with their symbolic beasts are also strongly ,byzantine2 above are busts of the sun and moon and beneath the figures of ,ocean and ,earth4 ,in fact1 the arrangement is borrowed wholesale from a very frequent ,carlovingian type of the crucifixion 7,fig4 #bd71 even to the little tombs which have no connection with the subject4 ,the workmanship is delicate1 but very conventional1 and the concentric folds on this and on the second leaf1 point to the influence of the manuscripts4 ,the second leaf represents the ,assumption of the ,virgin1 the attitude is stiff and the drapery is terribly unreal1 having almost the appearance of corrugated iron1 but the movements of the angels are freer1 especially the forward movement of the one on the ,virgin's right4 ,illustration3 ,,schobinger ,,and ,,episcopal ,,library1 ,,sandherr ,,photo4 ,,st4 ,,gall1 ,,switzerland #bc4 ,,cover ,,of ,a ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,gospels ,carlovingian1 ninth century ,the lower scene represents ,st4 ,gall taming the bears1 which bring him bread whilst his companion sleeps4 ,in this carving we see what the craftsman can do when left to himself2 it is not a very artistic production1 but it has a freshness entirely lacking in the other panels4 ,the ornamental panels are splendidly carved1 and recall the beautiful openwork panels on the book cover at ,monza1 which most probably belonged to ,berenger1 ,king of ,italy in #hhh1 and ,emperor #iaf1 and also the marble screens and balustrades which decorate so many ,byzantine buildings4 ,there are two more plaques at ,cluny#ah which should be classed with these1 and which are decorated with scroll-work containing figures of men fighting with satyrs and lions4 ,the figures have a great likeness to those on the sixth century diptychs1 especially the diptych in the ,hermitage at ,st4 ,petersburg2 and as that diptych formed part of the treasure of ,metz ,cathedral1 it could easily have served as a model to the ,carlovingian ivory workers4 ,the rich border is of scroll-work with alternating rosettes and animals4 ,the second plaque is still more like the ,byzantine original1 and this similarity has caused many writers to differ with ,molinier and class it among pure ,byzantine work4 ,illustration3 ,,victoria ,,and ,,albert ,,museum1 ,,london #bd4 ,,crucifixion ,carlovingian1 ninth century ,one of the most important ivories of the tenth century is the ,frankfort book cover2 the second leaf is still in the ,library1 but the other was in the late ,spitzer ,collection4 ,it represents the large figure of ,an ,archbishop chanting the ,psalms in company with some smaller canons1 the whole group being surrounded by a battlemented wall1 probably that of the convent4 ,the work is dry1 but very exact and particularly interesting for the study of early ecclesiastical vestments1 which are given with great detail4 ,in the ,frankfort leaf1 the ,archbishop celebrates the mass1 surrounded by attendant priests and acolytes4 ,the numerous representations of the crucifixion of the ninth and tenth centuries can be roughly divided into two classes3 those decidedly original and others copied from ,byzantine models4 ,the ,carlovingian type is filled with symbolism1 not altogether of ,christian origin4 ,these plaques are very numerous and all vary slightly4 ,fig4 #bd is typical of a large number4 ,the whole scene is emotional1 all creation is moved1 the sun and moon are represented with mournful faces1 while the attendant angels weep bitterly2 and below1 the old pagan personifications of ,earth and ,sea bow their heads in sorrow4 ,stephaton with reed and sponge1 and ,longinus with his spear1 stand on each side of the ,cross1 and the ,virgin and ,st4 ,john are always near4 ,the two women carrying banners are allegorical figures of the ,church and the ,synagogue#ai or the ,old and ,new ,dispensations2 the banner of the latter is sometimes reversed and broken1 while the ,church in some renderings of the scene catches the blood of the ,redeemer in a chalice4 ,these figures seem to be the successors of the little cities of ,jerusalem and ,bethlehem in the ,early ,christian mosaics1 which likewise typified the ,old and ,new ,dispensations4 ,at the foot of the ,cross is often rolled a serpent1 emblem of ,christ's triumph over ,evil and ,death2 and on each side the dead are rising and stretching out their hands towards their ,redeemer4 ,on the ,metz book cover in the ,bibliothque nationale1 ,adam and ,eve crouch beneath the feet of the ,saviour4 ,on the ,brunswick casket1 ,sol and ,luna are each depicted driving in a biga and bearing torches4 ,on this ,brunswick casket1 and on one in the ,berlin ,museum1 ,christ is represented beardless1 and the technique is close to the ,st4 ,gall book cover4 ,in the ,carlovingian period the plaques are nearly always framed by a deeply cut acanthus border4 ,many of these carvings show traces of colour and others have been studded with gold nails1 and portions incrusted with gold foil 7,fig4 #bd74 ,two plaques in the ,bargello have a charming additional border of tiny dots and beads inlaid with gold4 ,in the ivory plaque on the cover of the gospels which were presented by the ,emperor ,henry ,,ii4 to the ,abbey at ,bamberg 7now in the ,munich ,library71 the stronger ,byzantine influence is visible1 the relief1 also1 is exceptionally deep1 the figures of the two soldiers being almost detached1 as in the purely ,byzantine ivory of ,the ,death of the ,virgin in the same library4 ,this ,byzantine influence is also to be seen in ,the ,crucifixion in the ,muse de ,cluny2 the arrangement of this carving is more like a ,reliquary of the ,true ,cross1 the four compartments being crowded with figures4 ,the figure of ,christ is robed in a flowing garment1 as in many ,byzantine renderings of the subject1 and there is a greater delicacy of technique1 showing the more intimate knowledge of ,byzantine models4 ,the drapery on the ,essen and ,tongres plaques is particularly good1 and they probably were carved in the same atelier4 ,,iv4 ,,german ,,ivory ,,carving ,,in ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,the ,,ottos4 ,otto the ,great having consolidated his power in ,germany1 undertook1 in #ifb1 the classic expedition to ,rome to be crowned ,emperor of the ,west4 ,an ivory tablet1 now in the ,trivulzio ,collection at ,milan1 appears to commemorate that event4 ,it represents ,otto1 his wife ,adelheid1 and their little son1 kneeling at the feet of ,christ1 while their patron saints1 ,maurice and ,mary1 intercede for them1 the name ,,otto ,,imperator being inscribed beneath4 ,the apparent age of the young ,otto1 about seven years1 would coincide with the date of the coronation1 making this carving valuable for comparison with other ,german ivories1 many being of far earlier date and closely connected with the ,carlovingian1 from which this characteristically ,german art slowly developed4 ,the style of the ,trivulzio plaque is rude1 the figures heavy and inclined to be coarse1 but there is a largeness of design1 the drapery being arranged in wide planes1 and the energetic heads1 with the typical long pointed beards and round cut hair1 are of marked ,germanic type4 ,with this certain knowledge of the ,german style in the second half of the tenth century1 it is easier to turn back and examine the transitional period1 which is represented by a series of caskets in the ,louvre1 ,brunswick ,museum1 and the ,bamberg ,reliquary1 half of which is at ,munich1 and half in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,the ,louvre casket has many ,carlovingian features1 the long tiled roofs with slender columns are exactly like those in the ,bible of ,charles le ,chauve 7ninth century74 ,that of ,brunswick shows strong ,byzantine influence1 and the ,bamberg casket is typical of the ,german imitations of ,byzantine type2 the forms have a greater fulness and a certain swing is introduced into the placid folds of the ,byzantine drapery1 a swing which develops into the gusty flutterings which are a curious characteristic of some of the ,german schools4#bj ,a gorgeous ivory casket is still preserved in the cathedral at ,quedlinburg adorned with exquisite jewelled filigree work1 and repousse plaques4 ,the plaques are in conventional ,byzantine design1 while the ivory sides of the casket are ornamented with seated figures and scenes from the gospels1 of ,byzantine inspiration it is true1 but translated into the most colloquial ,german4 ,martin ,luther might have sat as a model for the heavily built angel in the ,easter ,morning scene1 and if this casket really dates back to the time of ,henry the ,fowler1 whose gift it is said to have been1 it proves that this ,german national art had existed as early as the second decade of the tenth century4 ,a most interesting series of square plaques belong to the second half of the century1 and are much the same type as the ,trivulzio tablet2 the figures are positively grotesque1 with their peculiar cap-like hair1 staring eyes1 heavy features1 and large unmodelled forms1 yet there is such a sincere reverence and solemn earnestness about them1 that the attention is forcibly arrested4 ,the ,darmstadt plaque represents ,christ healing the ,demoniac1 who is held1 whilst the evil spirit struggles forth from his lips4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses an equally well-carved plaque with the ,raising of the ,widow's ,son at ,nain1 the vertical folds are finely fluted1 and the features1 though peculiar1 are in no way coarse4 ,the background of this plaque like one in the ,berlin ,museum1 and another at ,liverpool1 is covered with a diaper of cruciform perforations1 like those on ,st4 ,patrick's ,bell and other early ,irish antiquities4 ,christ is youthful and beardless on the ,berlin plaque1 which represents ,mary and ,joseph finding ,him in the ,temple4 ,the technique in this and the remaining plaques at ,liverpool is slightly coarser1 but the style in all is identical4 ,christ alone is nimbed1 and in each the figures have heavy masses of hair drawn back half over the ears1 and strange solid robes1 with the folded edge of the transverse drapery passing just below the knee4 ,another very exceptional series1 which must be the work of some ,rhenish master at the end of the century1 is intensely forcible in style2 but the artist is already preoccupied with the technical effects of which he shows himself such a master4 ,the cover of the ,echternach codex1 which is said to have belonged to the ,empress ,theophano1 bears in the centre an ivory plaque representing ,christ on the ,cross1 with ,longinus and ,stephaton4 ,these bizarre figures seem to presage the whole future of ,german art1 the love of descriptive figures1 that evil should appear evil1 and earthly things should have no heavenly aspect4 ,perhaps they carried their love of naturalism to extremes1 and as heavenly things were few and far between1 they also gained a strong earthly taint4 ,the ,crucifixion on a binding in the ,john ,rylands ,library at ,manchester 7,fig4 #be7 is evidently by the same artist4 ,the grouping is purely ,byzantine1 but the severance of feeling is as far as the ,east is from the ,west4 ,the gesture of the beloved disciple as he clasps his hands to control his passionate emotion1 is worth all the stereotyped poses of ,byzantine art1 and one forgets the crudity of the whole thing in wonder at the emotion pent up in those rugged forms4 ,the clumsy features and moustache divided into two solid pieces1 with the forceful attitudes and the peculiar drapery edged with an embroidered hem1 are found again on several other carvings1#ba notably an aged figure of ,st4 ,paul in the ,muse de ,cluny4 ,the bald head1 wrinkled forehead1 and the fulness of the drooping lids1 are portrayed with wonderful realism in a wide and rough technique1 the very reverse of the caressing finish of the contemporary ,byzantine artist4 ,this contrast of ,german and ,byzantine art on a book belonging to the ,empress1 raises the question of how much of the ,byzantine influence was attributable to ,theophano1 grandchild of the artistic ,constantine ,porphrygenitus1 and sister of the ,emperors ,basil and ,constantine4 ,after long hesitation on the part of the proud ,byzantine ,court1 the ,german offer was accepted and ,theophano1 the delicately nurtured ,porphrygenite1 was married to that little boy we see kneeling by his mother's side on the ,trivulzio tablet1 and set forth on a journey to the savage wilds of ,germany4 ,otto ,,ii4 grew up to be an heroic dreamer1 and on his early death1 during one of his campaigns in ,italy1 the youthful ,theophano claimed to be regent1 and had a hard struggle for the rights of her young son1 ,otto ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,,john ,,rylands ,,library1 ,,manchester #be4 ,,crucifixion ,german1 tenth century ,theophano1 whose grand figure stands out against a background of incredible rudeness and turbulence1 must1 undoubtedly1 have had considerable influence in introducing the softer ,byzantine manners4 ,her husband1 ,otto ,,ii41 is said to have adopted much of the ,byzantine court ceremonial1 and the wedding presents she brought with her1 on her arrival in #igb1 must have formed a fund of novel design for the ,german craftsmen4 ,yet it is very easy to exaggerate her personal influence4 ,byzantium had always been a remarkable civilizing agent1 and in the tenth to eleventh centuries was exercising the strongest influence on the ,west4 ,relations with ,germany had been established long before the time of ,theophano1 and were continued long after4 ,in reality ,otto ,,iii4 was the more special admirer and imitator of ,byzantine arts and customs1 this influence coming1 no doubt1 indirectly from his mother's care in choosing for his masters1 men of high culture4 ,one of these men1 the most trusted councillor of ,theophano1 was the refined and learned ,greek1 ,john of ,calabria2 and the other1 the ,german1 ,bernward1 was a most enthusiastic amateur of the arts1 and on his appointment to the ,see of ,hildesheim1 helped to create the new ,german school which flourished all through the eleventh and twelfth centuries4 ,in every museum there are examples of the ,byzantino-,german school1 one branch of which was situated in the ,rhine ,provinces4 ,the relief of the ,rhenish carvings is usually bold1 and the figures large and long1 but they often lack both the spontaneity of the ,germans and the elegance of the ,byzantines4 ,a charming representation of the ,nativity encircled by an embattled wall1 and another plaque with the ,visitation of the ,magi1 in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 show these features1 the figures having almost the appearance of children's toys set out at random without the slightest relation to the background4 ,a peculiar feature in some of these carvings1 is the row of dots drilled down the centre of each fold4 ,there was also a school of direct copiers of ,byzantine carvings1 which varies from the most miserable caricatures to such splendidly finished work1 that critics experience great difficulty in deciding for or against the ,byzantine origin4 ,a case in point is the magnificent book cover in the ,vatican1 which came from the ,abbey of ,lorsch in ,germany1 and the similar panel in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,the central figure of ,christ on the ,vatican panel has a wide smooth face 7without a beard71 as in the sixth century sculptures4 ,the ,virgin's face is much narrower and more of the ,byzantine type1 and the robes are treated with a wonderful complexity of folds4 ,both these panels are divided like the five-piece diptych 7,fig4 #aj1 with a single figure on each side71 and have a similar pair of flying angels above1 and long narrow scene beneath4 ,westwood has attributed them to ,italy in the sixth to eighth centuries1 but that is impossible1 as the actual technique is far more delicate than anything that could have been accomplished even in the sixth century4 ,molinier thinks it probable that the ,vatican panel is an original from the finest period of ,byzantine ,art1 and the ,english panel is an imitation by an almost contemporary ,german craftsman4 ,the extraordinary similarity of technique1 even down to such small details as the folds of drapery on the thighs of the standing figures1 seems to point that the two panels came from the same atelier1 even if they were not made for the same book cover1 the latter seeming to be disproved owing to the slight variation in size and shape of some of the panels4 ,the book cover in the ,bodleian ,library at ,oxford is a variant of the panel in the ,vatican4 ,illustration3 ,,british ,,museum #bf4 ,,ceremonial ,,comb ,english1 eleventh century ,most of the small objects connected with ecclesiastical ceremonial are of this period1 for instance the liturgic combs used by the bishop or officiating priest before celebrating high mass2 the comb was a special feature in ,anglo-,saxon ritual1 and several have been found in ,great ,britain4 ,the strange large comb in the ,british ,museum is said to have been found in ,wales1 and is probably about the eleventh century 7,fig4 #bf74 ,it shows the later forms of the ,anglo-,saxon scroll-work and has much in connection with ,romanesque decoration4 ,the comb of ,st4 ,gauzelin1 ,bishop of ,toul is still preserved in the cathedral at ,nancy1 and the comb of ,st4 ,loup in the cathedral at ,sens2 both betray strong ,byzantine and oriental influence1 and both date from the tenth century4 ,these combs all have the more general arrangement of a double row of teeth1 in two sizes2 but that attributed to ,st4 ,heribert 7in ,cologne ,museum71 has only one row1 and is probably more ancient1 as the grouping of the ,crucifixion is like that on the ,carlovingian plaques of the ninth century 7,fig4 #bd74 ,the urcei1 or holy water stoups are usually of ,german origin4 ,a magnificent example in ,milan ,cathedral bears the inscription of ,gotfredus1 ,archbishop of ,milan1 #igc-igh4 ,it is very handsome in design1 being surrounded by an arcade1 above which rise the towers of the new ,jerusalem4 ,underneath are seated the ,virgin and ,child and the ,four ,evangelists1 modelled in the rather heavy ,german style of the tenth century4 ,another urceus in the ,hermitage ,museum at ,st4 ,petersburg is of the same bucket shape1 but ornamented with two tiers of arcades containing complicated scenes from the ,passion4 ,the ,cathedral ,treasury at ,aix-la-,chapelle contains two of these urcei one of an octagon shape1 each panel having two figures4 ,the style of carving is like that of the school of ivory carvers founded by ,bernward at ,hildesheim in the eleventh century4 ,,footnotes3 #af ,l',archittetura in ,italia1 ,,vi4-,,xi4 cent4 ,venice1 #ahij4 #ag ,see ,marcel ,reymond1 ,la ,sculpture ,toscane4 ,florence1 #ahig4 #ah ,nos4 #ajda-b1 ,cat4 #ahha4 #ai ,dr4 ,paul ,weber1 ,geistliche ,schauspiel und ,kirchliche ,kunst4 #bj ,see a plaque in the ,british ,museum with the ,nativity1 and notably the ,salutation4 #ba ,see article by ,dr4 ,w4 ,vge in the ,jahrbuch der kgl4 preuss4 ,kunst-samml41 #ahii4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,romanesque ,,and ,,gothic ,,ivories ,romanesque ,art grew up north of the ,alps in the valley of the ,lower ,rhone and ,south ,france1 and is especially the work of the ,french people4 ,the ,italians led the way in the first centuries ,a4,d41 and were followed by the ,greeks of ,byzantium1 and then by the ,carlovingian ,germanic peoples in the great art development of ,europe2 but from the eleventh century ,france entirely fills the stage1 and this pre-eminence was kept up till the early ,renaissance1 when ,italy again takes a leading part4 ,the ,romanesque style was transitional1 and turned for re-inspiration to the ,gallo-,roman monuments1 but it is deeply influenced by that northern spirit which later on triumphed in the full perfection of the ,gothic ,art4 ,there was a great revival of monumental sculpture with the growth of the ,romanesque spirit1 and sculptured figures1 from being introduced tentatively in the capitals and other parts connected with the structure1 later1 entirely filled the great tympana or arches surmounting the doors of the churches1 and from thence spread to every nook and cranny till in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries they were numbered by thousands4 ,carved ivories are not so numerous in the eleventh and twelfth centuries as in the years before1 and when they became popular again1 in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 the division between the sculptors in stone and the ivory workers had taken place1 beautiful and clever imitations of the sculptures were turned out by the dozen1 but it is exceedingly rare to find the work of a real artist4 ,the sculptures of the eleventh and early twelfth centuries have many details in common with the book cover at ,st4 ,gall 7,fig4 #bc72 but gradually the folds of the drapery grew vertical and the figures more drawn out1 and with a peculiar tendency to arrange the hair in set curled locks4 ,one of the most important transitional ivories is the diptych of ,st4 ,nicasius1 ,bishop of ,rheims1 which is preserved in the ,cathedral of ,tournai1 and is still strongly ,carlovingian1 as will be seen in the typical representation of the ,crucifixion4 ,each leaf has a central medallion1 that on the first leaf containing the ,agnus ,dei supported by angels1 whose movements can be closely paralleled in the ,st4 ,gall plaque4 ,above1 ,christ is throned in a mandorla and accompanied by the symbols of the four evangelists4 ,on the second leaf1 in addition to the medallion containing the figure of ,st4 ,nicasius are some pierced vine scrolls rather like those on ,fig4 #bc1 and by far the best part of a very poor work4 ,the drapery is1 perhaps1 better designed than in the ,carlovingian sculptures1 but the folds are only engraved1 and though there is a certain change in the type of the faces1 in the matter of beauty it is entirely for the worse4 ,a plaque in the ,british ,museum seems also to belong to this period1 it is bordered by a flowered scroll and has representations of ,the ,nativity1 ,the ,announcement to the ,shepherds and ,the ,baptism1 the latter being very strange2 the figure of ,christ being immersed to the waist in a large vase4 ,illustration3 ,,victoria ,,and ,,albert ,,museum1 ,,london #bg4 ,,crozier ,french1 fourteenth century ,the ,romanesque age was1 above all1 the age of symbolism2 the sculptures on the pastoral staves are full of hidden meaning4 ,the tau1 or crutch shape1 is the earliest form and belonged1 more especially1 to the insignia of the abbots1 though in later days they also had croziers4 ,the most ancient tau#bb belonged to ,morard1 ,abbot of ,st4 ,germain de ,prs 7#iij-ajad7 and is ornamented with a network pattern4 ,another fine tau1 with the ends curling upwards and finished with lions' heads1 belonged to ,grard1 ,bishop of ,limoges4 ,the earlier croziers had a simple volute usually ending in a dragon's or serpent's head1 with snapping jaws1 which symbolizes the struggle between the serpent and the cross1#bc the latter being borne by the symbolic ram1 a development of the ,agnus ,dei4 ,this ram is the symbol of ,christ2 as ,st4 ,ambrose says1 because he washes his fleece1 guides the flock1 clothes the shepherd1 conquers the wolves by his strength and was the victim which replaced ,isaac at the sacrifice1 and again1 because the ram is silent before the shearers1 as ,christ was before his judges1 and finally the crozier curls like the horn of a ram1 a symbol of force4 ,the famous crozier 7so-called of 8,st4 ,gregory07 in the ,monastery of ,st4 ,gregory on the ,clian ,hill at ,rome1 shows the dragon's head1 the ram bearing the cross and a strange little lion cub1 which is a direct reference to the death and resurrection of ,christ4 ,in the natural history of the ,middle ,ages1 which drew more on fancy than on fact1 it was narrated how the lion cub died at birth and could only be recalled to life by the breath of its father4 ,the ,romanesque ,church plunged even deeper into this symbolic thought1 and the ,pascal ,taper1 which signifies the life of ,christ on earth was placed in a candelabrum supported by lions4 ,the strange pagan form1 half human and half serpent1 with a cock's head1 is none other than the mystic ,abraxas1 whose name in ,greek numerals represented in the elaborate ,gnostic calculations the whole hierarchy of heaven and the ,supreme ,ruler of the ,universe4 ,this symbol was supposed to have great talismanic powers to ward off evil1 and though it was contrary to canonical rules1 ,gnostic gems engraved with the ,abraxas deity were often set in the episcopal croziers1 or even the crook was decorated with this mysterious symbol1 as on the ivory crozier in the ,british ,museum4 ,these croziers became more and more complicated in design1 whole groups of figures were introduced and foliage of a freer pattern1 as in the ,staff of ,st4 ,ives1 ,bishop of ,chartres1 which is now in the ,bargello at ,florence4 ,the ,gothic artists of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries filled the volutes with figures and exquisite foliage1 the groups of the ,crucifixion and the ,virgin in glory fitting back to back so accurately1 that each side appeared perfect1 and the join of the ivory volute on to the wooden staff was often hidden by a row of saints under delicate ,gothic canopies4 ,the book cover of the ,princess ,melisanda1 daughter of ,baldwin ,,ii41 ,king of ,jerusalem 7#aafj71 is preserved in the ,,ms4 ,department of the ,british ,museum2 it is especially interesting as it shows the curious mixture of ,byzantine1 ,arabian1 and ,western art which had been adopted by the ,frankish rulers of the ,east1 and which must have had considerable influence on ,french art4 ,the upper panel is ornamented with representations of the six good actions1 the principal actor being richly apparelled as a ,byzantine basileus4 ,these medallions are surrounded by a cord-like scroll1 and the spaces are filled with struggling oriental animals1 which symbolize the combat of the ,virtues and ,vices4 ,on the lower leaf the medallions contain scenes from the life of ,king ,david and both panels are surrounded by a border of thoroughly oriental design4 ,before entering on the subject of ,gothic carvings1 one class of bone caskets should be mentioned which are roughly carved in imitation of the ,romanesque monumental style1 with rows of tall figures under round arcades4 ,molinier thinks they are rather archaistic than archaic1 being made in ,constantinople as late as the thirteenth century1 from old models1 and sold to contain the relics brought back from the ,east by the ,crusaders4 ,there are examples in the ,berlin ,museum1 the ,louvre1 and the ,muse ,cluny2 the latter contained the relics of ,st4 ,barnaby1 and was the gift of ,hugh1 ,abbot d',estival and ,bishop of ,ptolemas in the thirteenth century4 ,the stages of development from the ,romanesque to ,gothic are almost imperceptible1 and it is hard to say when the lingering classical traditions received their final transformation4 ,the same breath which awakened the life in architecture freed the sculptor from the chains of custom1 and we may consider the statues on the porch at ,chartres as the commencement of modern sculpture4 ,like the ,greeks1 the ,gothic artists formed a type by the process of selection from individuals4 ,the new art was at first absolutely religious and simple1 but the research for grace and the ever growing naturalism1 mitigated1 it is true1 by extreme elegance and delicacy1 gradually engrossed the entire mind of the artist and ended in the exclusion of all spirituality4 ,the ivory carvers long continued repeating the old formul1 and it was only by the end of the thirteenth century that they commenced to copy the exquisite statues which decorated the new cathedrals in such numbers4 ,there are several examples of thirteenth century work still extremely old-fashioned in style1 as the three little pierced plaques in the ,louvre1 representing the twelve apostles1 accompanied by the favourite ,french saints1 ,denis1 ,rusticus and ,eleutherius4 ,the style is still transitional1 but the forms of the foliage are freer1 and a considerable modification of type is visible4 ,the ,virgin in the ,collection ,fillon is seated full face with the ,child sitting equally on both knees1 the stiffness of the pose being only relieved by a little freedom in the turn of the ,child's head4 ,the marvellous impulse of religious enthusiasm1 which1 arising in the thirteenth century1 became evident by the passionate fervour of the worship of the ,virgin1 and the multiplication of her images for public and private devotion4 ,one of the most ideally noble representations is that in the group of ,the ,coronation of the ,virgin in the ,louvre1 7,fig4 #bh72 it closely resembles the best sculpture in its severe lines1 and was probably made about #abhj4 ,a hundred years later there is an entry in the ,inventory of ,charles ,v4 which most probably refers to this group2 it reads most quaintly in the old ,french4 8,item1 ung courronnement de ,nostre ,seigneur ,nostre-,dame1 d'yvire et trois angellotz de mesmes40 ,the earlier ivories were always painted1 and much of the original colouring is preserved4 ,the ,virgin is dressed in rich robes1 semes de ,france 7as much in honour of the ,royal ,house as of her attribute the 8lily071 but she is utterly unconscious of self as she humbly bows her head to receive the crown4 ,the two little ecstatic angels form a part of every group of the ,glorification of the ,virgin1 either bearing tall candles1 or with their hands raised in adoration4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,,giraudon ,,photo4 ,,louvre1 ,,paris #bh4 ,,coronation ,,of ,,the ,,virgin ,end of thirteenth century ,there is hardly fifty years between this purely idealistic conception and the beautiful1 but completely mundane ,vierge de la ,sainte ,chapelle in the same collection4 ,this magnificent figure is carved from one huge piece of ivory1 and was probably the gift of ,st4 ,louis to his new chapel1 about #acbj4 ,the masterly arrangement of the drapery and the exquisite finish make it one of the most celebrated ivories of the fourteenth century1 but the old simplicity is quite gone1 and the studied ease of the ,virgin's pose is chosen to give value to every line of drapery and figure4 ,there is a feeling of movement in all her being1 which1 with the beautiful broken folds of the drapery has within it the germ of that restlessness which1 rapidly increasing1 became a painful fault in later ,gothic sculpture4 ,the colouring is very delicate1 the pupils of the eyes are dark2 the lips1 which are just parting in a rather affected smile1 are lightly touched with carmine1 and a faint gilded border relieves the edges of the garments4 ,the little seated figure of the ,virgin in the ,bargello 7,fig4 #bi71 is more direct and simple in design1 and is probably of the last years of the thirteenth century4 ,the curve in many of these figures has been put down to the shape of the tusk2 this is no doubt the case in many examples1 but the peculiar twist is first found in some of the stone figures of the ,sainte ,chapelle1 where it seems to have been introduced as a contrast to the perpendicular shafts of the architecture1 and the constant employment of this peculiar twist in the tiny figures of the ivory reliefs and in stone carving1 proves it to be more a question of taste than necessity4 ,illustration3 ,,alinari ,,photo4 ,,bargello1 ,,florence #bi4 ,,the ,,madonna ,,and ,,child ,thirteenth century ,in the ,paris ,exposition of #aijj two lovely ivory figures were placed together and formed a group of the ,annunciation4 ,they belong to different private collections1#bd and have been beautifully illustrated in the splendid series of photogravures of the treasures in the ,exposition retrospective de l',art franais4 ,whether they are by the hand of the same craftsman seems a matter of doubt1 as the technique of the drapery varies somewhat2 but nothing can equal the exquisite softness of the ,virgin's robes and the dignified pose1 worthy of the best work of the thirteenth century4 ,the ideal and pathetic group of ,the ,descent from the ,cross now in the ,louvre 7,fig4 #cj74 ,it is strangely reminiscent in design1 recalling the ,byzantine rendering of the same subject in an eleventh century ivory1 late in the ,bonaff ,collection1 in which the ,virgin raises the hand of ,christ to her lips with the same noble and restrained gesture1 while ,his lifeless body slips helplessly down over the shoulder of ,joseph of ,arimathea4 ,a similar group is sculptured in the ,church of ,le ,bourget in ,savoy1 which is also useful in giving a clue to the fourth figure1 which is evidently missing from the ,louvre group4 ,maskell1 in the introductions to his ,catalogue of ,ivories in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 refers to a small carving from the centre of a crozier which represents the ,dead ,christ on the knees of the ,virgin1 which is treated with strong but reserved feeling4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,,giraudon ,,photo4 ,,louvre1 ,,paris #cj4 ,,the ,,descent ,,from ,,the ,,cross ,end of thirteenth century ,the series of religious tableaux cloans are very numerous1 especially in the fourteenth century2 they consist of two1 three or more pieces and were intended for private devotions or as portable decorations for the various altars of a church1 being taken with the cross and candles by the acolyte and placed on the altar for mass4 ,the ornamentation was usually in tiers of little scenes1 or with one large central figure 7,fig4 #ca74 ,the subjects have little variety and are taken from the ,passion or the popular ,lgende dore4 ,the scenes usually follow in chronological order from the bottom of the left leaf to the corresponding corner on the right4 ,the composition is often very confused1 owing to the tendency to portray different stages of the same action in different compartments1 to avoid placing figures on a second plane1 and often the complicated architectural setting compelled the figures to be placed in contorted attitudes2 in many representations of the ,crucifixion the figure of ,christ is strangely twisted to bring the head on a level with the other figures beneath the arcade4 ,illustration3 ,,victoria ,,and ,,albert ,,museum1 ,,london #ca4 ,,polyptych4 ,,virgin ,,and ,,child--,,scenes ,,from ,,the ,,nativity ,french1 fourteenth century ,a fine triptych of the thirteenth century1 in the ,collection ,martin le ,roy at ,paris1 is especially interesting1 as it is an early example of the composition of the scenes of ,the ,death of the ,virgin1 as described by ,jaques ,voragine in the ,lgende dore1 and it shows how the types hardly altered all through the succeeding century4 ,the angel coming to the ,virgin to announce her death brings her a palm from ,paradise as a sign2 the group of men in uneasy attitudes are the apostles newly dropped from the clouds1 having been collected from all parts to be present4 ,the lowest scene of the central part is the most important2 in it the ,virgin is lying dead1 surrounded by the apostles1 whilst the little naked soul is on the arm of ,christ1 ,who raises ,his hand to bless the dead body4 ,the whole imagery is the same as on the ,byzantine ivory in the ,library at ,munich4 ,in another part the body is borne away for burial4 ,on the second register the ,virgin rises in glory carrying a palm and book and accompanied by the most charming group of music-making angels2 above1 she sits enthroned beside ,christ and attended by the two candle-bearing angels4 ,the only known signed medival ivory is a box in the ,british ,museum which bears the name of ,jehan ,nicolle4 ,in the ,inventory of ,charles ,v4 the name of one ivory carver has survived1 but he was also goldsmith to the king4 8,item1 deux grans beaulx tableaux d'yvire des troys ,maries que fist ,jehan le ,braellier1 en ung estuy de cuir40 ,these estuys de cuir were made of very beautiful tooled leather1 two fine examples are in the ,salting ,collection in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,reference is made to as many as three degrees of ivory carvers in the list of mestiers and marchandise of the town of ,paris in #abeh4 ,illustration3 ,,mayer ,,collection1 ,,liverpool ,,museum #cb4 ,,first ,,leaf ,,of ,a ,,diptych ,french1 fourteenth century ,as the country grew more settled1 riches and comfort increased1 and once more the ivory carvers turned their attention to ornamenting the little objects of civil life1 and we find exquisitely carved writing tablets1 caskets and articles for the toilet1 as combs1 long hair wavers1 and above all1 the covers for the little metal mirrors that were worn hanging from the girdle4 ,no self-respecting woman could dispense with these little luxuries1 and in the lengthy ,miroir de ,mariage of ,eustache ,deschamps1 one verse deals with the requirements of a wife3 ,pigne1 tressoir1 semblablement ,et miroir1 pour moy ordonner ,d'yvoire me devez donner1 ,et l'estuy qui soit noble et gent ,pendre a cheannes d'argent4 ,illustration3 ,,alinari ,,photo4 ,,bargello1 ,,florence #cc4 ,,plaque ,,from ,a ,,casket ,french1 fourteenth century ,quite a new range of subjects were introduced at the end of the thirteenth century1 and in civil as in religious subjects the compositions were fixed and varied but little afterwards2 though we know that about #acdj there was a complete change in dress1 and the old-fashioned long loose robes1 which fell in such soft folds were discarded for tighter and rather shorter garments2 these are sometimes seen in social groups1 as the games of la mourre and la main chaude 7a sort of forfeits71 which are carved on a pair of writing tablets in the ,louvre4 ,the subjects are nearly all from literary sources1 the miniatures of the ,,mss4 having once more furnished models for the ivory carver4 ,there is a beautiful little casket in the ,british ,museum with scenes from the romance of ,la ,chastelaine de ,vergi1 and the delightful dancing group in the ,bargello 7,fig4 #cc7 formed part of a similar casket4 ,the rhythmic flow of the soft rich drapery as the dancers move to the sound of music is exceedingly beautiful and the treatment broad1 considering that the whole scene is contained in little more than six square inches4 ,the figures are well proportioned1 but with hardly any muscular development1 and there is an entire absence of manliness in the male figures1 who can only be recognized by the arrangement of the hair1 the centre lock being cut across the forehead1 and by the slightly shorter robes4 ,scenes are taken from the ,lai d',aristote and the other so-called classical romances of ,jason1 ,alexander and ,virgil1 the latter being described as a medival enchanter4 ,both he and poor ,aristotle were most cruelly treated by their mistresses1 the dignified ,virgil being compelled to crawl on all fours while the lady rides on his back1 and ,aristotle fared even worse1 being suspended in mid-air in a basket4 ,the cycle of ,king ,arthur and the ,knights of the ,round ,table are ever popular themes1 especially the scene of ,tristan and ,iseult surprised by the reflection of ,king ,mark in the fountain4 ,the ,assault of the ,castle of ,love was taken from an allegory in the ,romaunt de la ,rose4 ,the knights ride up to force the gate or scale the battlements and are met with a shower of posies1 but the fair garrison makes but a faint show of resistance1 and the enemy is soon within4 ,four lions or basilisks crawl along the outer edge of these mirrors for convenience in opening the circular cover4 ,there are examples in all collections of these civil ivories1 some of a perfectly marvellous delicacy and minuteness1 and it is unnecessary to name any special examples1 except1 perhaps1 a fine but broken mirror cover in the ,muse de ,cluny which is splendidly carved with the figures of a king and queen4 ,illustration3 ,,mayer ,,collection1 ,,liverpool ,,museum #cd4 ,,the ,,elopement ,,of ,,guinivere ,french1 fourteenth century ,the art of ,southern ,france had a peculiar local style1 the figures being heavier and flabbier with little thought of the modelling of forms1 which were thickly covered with brilliant paint2 there is perhaps a greater freedom in the grouping of the figures4 ,by the end of the fourteenth century the ,franco-,flemish influence appears1 and art rapidly lost its delicacy in the attempts at realism4 ,a magnificent chess-board in the ,bargello of the closely allied ,burgundian school1 is carved with a tourney and other festivities1 and gives a good picture of the costumes of the fifteenth century4 ,the beautiful ivory harp in the ,louvre1 and the prettily carved wand of the ,lord ,high ,falconer of ,england in the ,liverpool ,museum are some of the latest ,gothic efforts before the advent of the ,renaissance4 ,there is little to distinguish ,german ivories in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries from the ,french2 perhaps there is a tendency to greater elaboration in the architecture1 and on rare occasions the figures betray the ,german type2 but in the fifteenth century the love of realism gained ground1 and the ivory carvers more closely imitated the painters and the rapidly increasing school of wood carving4 ,illustration3 ,,alinari ,,photo4 ,,bargello1 ,,florence #ce4 ,,panel ,,from ,a ,,casket ,french1 fourteenth century ,the ,english were also profoundly influenced by the ,french ,gothic art1 but gradually worked out a style of their own4 ,there was less monotony of design and a considerable modification of types1 the figures becoming thinner and the faces graver1 more earnest and sweeter in expression1 though1 at the same time1 more realistic2 also there is a variation in certain details of the costumes4 ,two pierced plaques with scenes from ,the ,life of ,st4 ,agnes which were in the ,meyrick and ,spitzer ,collections1 and a plaque representing ,christ with the apostles1 the group being surrounded by rich architecture1 and two other pierced plaques with scenes of the ,passion1 in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 seem to be ,english work4 ,in the ,salting ,collection1 now in the same museum1 is a deeply cut diptych of a strongly characteristic type representing the ,virgin and ,child1 and ,christ teaching2 the figures are framed in architecture of an ,english type decorated with small heraldic roses4 ,this diptych formed part of both the ,soltykoff and ,spitzer ,collections4 ,the triptych in the ,british ,museum 7,fig4 #cf7 is closely connected with it1 and is said to have been carved for ,bishop ,grandison of ,exeter 7#acbg-acfi71 but ,molinier thinks that the style is far nearer that of the early fifteenth century4 ,in the ,british ,museum there is also the wing of a diptych1 in two divisions1 with ,the ,annunciation1 and below1 ,john ,baptist2 the other wing is in the ,louvre and represents the ,coronation1 with ,john the ,evangelist in the lower compartment4 ,before closing this short survey1 one small statuette in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum should be mentioned1 as the sweet and affectionate earnestness of the ,virgin's face is typical of the ,english ivories1 for if far inferior to the ,french in actual technique1 they have a depth of reverent feeling which is too often entirely wanting in the latter4 ,the ,italian ivory workers continued long under the spell of the ,byzantines1 and when aroused to the fresh ideas of ,gothic art1 their work at first showed few features that could distinguish it from the ,french models4 ,gradually the designs became less concentrated and many differences crept in1 especially in the treatment of the conventional foliage4 ,the gorgeously coloured crozier in the ,salting ,collection is an example of this period2 it belonged to ,benci ,aldobrandini1 ,bishop of ,volterra in #acca4 ,on the top is a half-length figure of ,christ between two men2 ,the ,adoration of the ,magi is figured within the crook1 which emerges from the throat of a dragon1 and just below1 in four highly-painted shrines1 sit the ,evangelists4 ,illustration3 ,,mansell ,,photo4 ,,british ,,museum #cf4 ,,triptych ,,of ,,bishop ,,grandison ,,of ,,exeter ,english1 fourteenth century ,in the late fourteenth century the ,italians commenced an entirely original style of carving on narrow strips of bone4 ,the figures with the scenic accessories are closely related to the early schools of painting4 ,these sculptures1 unlike the unmixed ivory of the ,french carvings1 were always framed in narrow intarsia borders4 ,small triptychs 7,fig4 #cg7 developed into enormous size1 as the great altar-piece in the old ,sacristy at the ,certosa at ,pavia and the famous retable in the ,louvre1 which comes from the abbey of ,poissy1 and was the gift of the ,due de ,berri1 brother of ,charles ,v41 and one of the regents for the young ,charles ,,vi4 in #achj4 ,it contains his portrait and that of his wife1 ,jehanne de ,bourgogne4 ,the fragments of a third large retable still exist1 divided between the ,john ,rylands ,library at ,manchester and the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,these retables are large in size1 but not great in design1 and though the groups of figures are lovely in detail1 they are not impressive as a whole1 the low relief giving little scope for the play of light and shade4 ,there are many beautiful polygonal caskets with domed covers1 also combs and other small articles1 and a very excellent account of the whole series has been given by ,julius v4 ,schlosser in the ,wiener ,jahrbuch for #aijj4 ,illustration3 ,,victoria ,,and ,,albert ,,museum1 ,,london ,,loan ,,collection ,,hon4 ,a4 ,,beresford-,,hope1 ,m4,p4 #cg4 ,,triptych ,,in ,,carved ,,bone ,italian1 early fifteenth century ,this short account of the ,ivory ,workers of the ,middle ,ages commenced with ,italy in the last years of the fourth century1 and1 having made the round of ,europe1 returns to her after a thousand years1 at the end of the fourteenth century1 and must close1 just at the outgoing of the medival era1 with this magnificent group of carvings1 which lies half across the border line of the early and true ,renascimento4 ,,footnotes3 #bb ,see an article on ,croziers by ,cahier and ,martin1 ,mlanges d',archologie1 t4 iv4 #bc ,see an article by ,barbier de ,montault1 ,revue de l',art ,chrtien1 #ahhc1 p4 #aeg4 #bd ,the ,angel belongs to ,m4 ,g4 ,chalandon and the ,virgin to ,m4 ,p4 ,garnier4 ,,list ,,of ,,diptychs ,,from ,,molinier ,,consular #a4 ,about #djj4 ,probably ,,stilicho4 a4 ,stilicho1 standing1 armed1 bearded4 b4 ,serena and little ,eucherius1 standing4 ,tesorio della ,basilica1 ,monza4 #b4 #djf4 ,,probus4 ,rome4 a4 ,emperor ,honorius1 standing1 armed1 with standard and orb4 b4 ,emperor ,honorius1 standing1 armed1 with shield and spear4 ,cathedral ,treasury1 ,aosta4 #c4 #dbh4 ,,felix4 ,rome4 a4 ,standing in trabea1 bearded4 b4 ,standing in chlamys4 ,bibliothque nationale1 ,paris4 #d4 #ddi4 ,,asturias4 ,rome4 a4 ,sitting on curule chair1 two attendants 7lost74 b4 ,same type 7formerly at ,lige74 ,darmstadt ,museum4 #e4 #dhg4 ,,boethius4 ,rome4 a4 ,sitting1 holding mappa4 b4 ,standing4 ,museo ,civico1 ,brescia4 #f4 #dhh4 ,,sividius4 ,rome4 a4 ,inscribed medallion and scrolls4 ,bibliothque nationale1 ,paris4 b4 ,inscribed medallion and scrolls 7lost74 #g4 #ejf4 ,,areobindus4 ,constantinople4 a4 ,consular type4 ,lions4 b4 ,cons4 type4 ,bears4 ,national ,museum1 ,zurich4 #h4 #ejf4 ,,areobindus4 ,constantinople4 a4 ,cons4 type4 ,bears 7,basilewsky ,coll474 ,museum of the ,hermitage1 ,st4 ,petersburg4 b4 7,lost47 #i4 #ejf4 ,,areobindus4 ,constantinople4 a4 ,cons4 type4 ,gladiators4 b4 7,lost1 or possibly pair to ,no4 #aj47 ,besanon ,museum4 #aj4 #ejf4 ,,areobindus4 ,constantinople4 a4 7,lost or possibly pair to ,no4 #i47 b4 ,cons4 type4 ,bull-fight 7late ,baudot ,coll474 ,muse de ,cluny1 ,paris4 #aa4 #ejf4 ,,areobindus4 ,constantinople4 a4 and b4 ,crossed cornucopias4 ,biblioteca1 ,lucca4 #ab4 #ejf4 ,,areobindus4 ,constantinople4 a4 and b4 ,bust and scroll4 ,monogram4 ,trivulzio ,collection1 ,milan4 #ac4 #ejf4 ,,areobindus4 ,constantinople4 a4 ,same as ,no4 #ab4 7,renaissance carving on back47 ,louvre1 ,paris4 #ad4 #ejf4 ,,areobindus4 ,constantinople4 a4 and b4 ,type of ,no4 #ab1 without monogram 7formerly in ,treasury of ,st4 ,gaudenzio1 ,novara74 ,museo ,civico1 ,bologna4 #ae4 #eac4 ,,clementinus4 ,constantinople4 a4 and b4 ,cons4 type4 ,monogram4 ,mayer ,collection1 ,liverpool ,museum4 #af4 #eae4 ,,anthemius4 ,constantinople4 a4 ,cons4 type 7lost74 7,formerly at ,limoges47 #ag4 #eag4 ,,anastasius4 ,constantinople4 a4 ,cons4 type4 ,bears4 b4 ,cons4 type4 ,manumission of slaves1 etc4 ,bibliothque nationale1 ,paris4 #ah4 #eag4 ,,anastasius4 ,constantinople4 a4 ,cons4 type 7formerly at ,lige74 ,berlin ,museum4 b4 ,cons4 type 7broken71 7formerly at ,lige74 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,south ,kensington1 ,london4 #ai4 #eag4 ,,anastasius4 ,constantinople4 b4 ,type of ,no4 #ah4 ,two ,amazons and jugglers4 ,chapter ,library1 ,verona4 #bj4 #eag4 ,,anastasius4 ,constantinople4 b4 ,lower fragment1 two ,amazons and tumblers4 7,formerly ,coll4 ,jauz1 lost47 #ba4 #eah4 ,,magnus4 ,constantinople4 a4 ,cons4 type 7formerly at ,leyden74 ,bibliothque nationale1 ,paris4 #bb4 #eah4 ,,magnus4 ,constantinople 7attributed to74 a4 ,type of ,no4 #ba 7camel bone74 ,re-inscribed ,,pio ,,praesule ,,baldrico ,,iubente4 ,mayer ,collection1 ,liverpool ,museum4 #bc4 #eah4 ,,magnus4 ,constantinople 7attributed to74 a4 ,type of ,no4 #ba4 ,re-inscribed ,,arabonti ,,deo ,,vota 7formerly ,basilewsky ,coll474 ,hermitage1 ,st4 ,petersburg4 #bd4 #eah4 ,,magnus4 ,constantinople 7attributed to74 a4 ,type of ,no4 #ba4 ,changed to wrinkled old man4 ,museo di ,castello1 ,milan4 #bf4 #eba4 ,,justinianus4 ,constantinople4 a4 and b4 ,inscribed medallion1 four rosettes4 ,trivulzio ,collection1 ,milan4 #bg4 #eba4 ,,justinianus4 ,constantinople4 a4 and b4 ,type of ,no4 #bf4 ,collection ,sigismond ,bordac4 #bh4 #eba4 ,,justinianus4 ,constantinople4 a4 ,type of ,no4 #bf 7formerly at ,autun74 ,bibliothque nationale1 ,paris4 #bi4 #ebe4 ,,philoxenus4 ,constantinople4 a4 and b4 ,three linked medallions 7formerly in ,st4 ,corneille1 ,compigne74 ,bibliothque nationale1 ,paris4 #cj4 #ebe4 ,,philoxenus4 ,constantinople4 a4 and b4 ,inscribed octagon with scrolls4 ,trivulzio ,collection1 ,milan4 #ca4 #ebe4 ,,philoxenus4 ,constantinople4 a4 and b4 ,type of ,no4 #cj4 ,mayer ,collection1 ,liverpool ,museum4 #cb4 #ebe4 ,,philoxenus4 ,constantinople4 a4 and b4 ,type of ,no4 #cj 7worn74 ,bibliothque nationale1 ,paris4 #cc4 #ecj8 ,,lampadius4 ,constantinople4 ,consul behind cancelli4 ,chariot ,race4 ,museo ,civico1 ,brescia4 #cd4 #ecj4 ,,orestes4 ,rome4 a4 and b4 ,cons4 type4 ,two ,servants4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london4 #ce4 #eci4 ,,arion4 ,constantinople4 a4 and b4 ,bust and scrolls4 ,chapter ,house of ,orviedo ,cathedral1 ,spain4 #cf4 #edj4 ,,justinus4 ,constantinople4 a4 and b4 ,bust and scrolls4 ,three medallions4 ,two servants4 ,berlin ,museum4 #cg4 #eda4 ,,basilius4 ,constantinople4 a4 ,consul and ,constantinople4 ,castello1 ,milan4 b4 ,victory4 ,uffizi1 ,florence4 ,,anonymous ,,consular ,,diptychs #ch4 ,v4 cent4 a4 ,consul and friends2 above1 imperial figures enthroned2 below1 barbarians4 b4 ,repeated with variations4 ,cathedral ,treasury1 ,halberstadt4 #ci4 ,v4-,,vi4 cent4 a4 ,consul and two attendants4 ,below1 large scene1 leopard fight4 b4 ,consul and two attendants4 ,below1 large scene1 lions 7formerly in ,cathedral ,treasury74 ,bourges ,museum4 #dj4 ,v4-,,vi4 cent4 ,so-called ,apotheosis of ,romulus4 ,consul borne to ,heaven in chariot4 ,british ,museum4 #da4 ,,vi4 cent4 b4 ,bust in garland1 four rosettes4 ,biblioteca ,barbarini1 ,rome4 #db4 ,,vi4 cent4 ,two worn fragments of a diptych4 ,cons4 type4 7,later carving on back47 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,british ,museum4 #dc4 ,,vi4 cent4 ,bust and scrolls4 ,type of ,no4 #ab4 ,camel bone4 ,mayer ,collection1 ,liverpool ,museum4 #dd4 ,,vi4 cent4 a4 ,cons4 type1 sitting4 b4 ,cons4 type1 standing4 ,changed to ,st4 ,gregory and ,king ,david4 ,tesorio della ,basilica1 ,monza4 #de4 ,,vi4 cent4 ,cons4 type1 changed to ,st4 ,peter4 ,library of the ,metropolitan ,chapter ,house1 ,prague4 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #di4 ,,vi4 cent4 ,five-piece diptych4 7#df7 ,top4 ,flying figures4 7#dg7 ,bottom4 ,barbarians4 ,trivulzio ,collection1 ,milan4 7#dh7 ,top4 ,flying figures4 ,basle ,museum4 7#di7 ,right side4 ,consul and ,victory4 ,munich ,library4 ,,official ,,diptychs #ej4 ,end of ,,iv4 or commencement of ,v4 cent4 ,probianus4 ,vice-prefect of ,rome4 a4 ,sitting1 delivering justice4 ,below1 two litigants4 b4 ,sitting with scroll4 ,below1 two litigants4 ,berlin ,library4 #ea4 ,v4-,,vi4 cent4 ,above1 type of ,no4 #cc4 ,below1 fight with elans4 ,mayer ,collection1 ,liverpool ,museum4 #eb4 ,v4-,,vi4 cent4 a4 and b4 ,games in ,circus 7varied71 7formerly in ,basilewsky ,coll474 ,hermitage1 ,st4 ,petersburg4 #ec4 ,,vi4 cent4 a4 ,rome carrying orb and spear4 b4 ,constantinople carrying cornucopia and palm4 ,later inscription ,temperancia and ,castitas4 ,cabinet of ,antiquities1 ,vienna ,museum4 #ed4 ,,vi4 cent4 a4 ,a bald man standing half under a porch4 b4 ,slightly varied pose4 ,cathedral ,treasury1 ,novara4 #ee4 ,,vi4 cent4 ,standing figure4 ,museo ,civico1 ,bologna4 #ef4 ,,vi4 cent4 ,muse1 standing 7broken1 found at ,trves74 ,berlin ,museum4 #eg4 ,,vi4 cent4 787 a4 ,figure1 sitting4 ,cabinet of ,antiquities1 ,vienna4 b4 ,figure1 standing4 ,bargello1 ,florence4 ,,private ,,diptychs #eh4 ,end of ,,iv4 or commencement of ,v4 cent4 a4 ,nicomachorum4 ,draped figure and torch4 ,muse de ,cluny1 ,paris4 b4 ,symmachorum4 ,draped figure and altar4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london4 #ei4 ,v4-,,vi4 cent4 a4 ,hippolytus and ,phdra4 b4 ,diana and ,endymion4 ,museo ,civico1 ,brescia4 #fj4 ,,vi4 cent4 ,two registers4 ,dioscuri4 ,europa and the ,bull4 ,trieste ,museum4 #fa4 ,,vi4 cent4 a4 sculapius4 b4 ,hygeia4 ,mayer ,collection1 ,liverpool4 #fb4 ,,vi4 cent4 a4 ,muse with lyre4 b4 ,poet4 ,tesorio della ,basilica1 ,monza4 #fc4 ,,vi4 cent4 a4 and b4 ,authors and ,muses1 varied poses4 #fd4 ,,vi4 cent4 a4 ,bacchus ,helios4 b4 ,diana ,lucifera 7formerly in the ,cathedral ,treasury74 ,sens ,museum4 #fe4 ,,vi4 cent4 ,three registers4 ,apollo and the ,muses 7broken74 ,bibliothque nationale1 ,paris4 ,,list ,,of ,,museums ,the following ,museums are richest in ,medival ,ivory ,carving4 ,austria4 ,,vienna4 7,cabinet des ,antiques71 ,k4 ,k4 ,oesterreichisches ,museum4 ,england4 ,,london4 ,british ,museum4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,south ,kensington4 7,this museum has a large collection of ,fictile ,ivories47 ,salting ,loan ,collection4 ,,liverpool4 ,mayer ,collection4 ,free ,public ,museum4 ,,manchester4 ,john ,rylands ,library4 7,late ,crawford ,collection47 ,,oxford4 ,bodleian ,library4 ,france4 ,,paris4 ,bibliothque nationale ,cabinet des ,mdailles4 ,dpartement des ,,mss4 ,muse de ,cluny4 ,muse du ,louvre4 ,german ,empire4 ,,berlin4 ,kunstkammer4 ,k4 ,museum4 ,k4 ,bibliothek4 ,,munich4 ,k4 ,staats-,bibliothek4 ,national ,bavarian ,museum4 ,italy4 ,,bologna4 ,museo ,civico4 ,,brescia4 ,museo ,civico4 ,,florence4 ,museo nazionale4 ,bargello4 ,,milan4 ,museo archeologico4 ,castello4 ,tesorio del ,duomo4 ,,monza4 ,tesorio della ,basilica4 ,,ravenna4 ,museo ,civico4 ,duomo4 ,,rome4 ,biblioteca ,barbarini4 ,museo ,kircheriano 7,collegio ,romano74 ,vatican4 ,museo cristiano4 ,biblioteca4 ,for the study of ,ivory ,carvings ,m4 ,molinier gives a full bibliography in his work on ,ivoires4 ,for illustrations4 ,garucci1 vol4 vi4 and the ,collections of ,photographs published by ,dr4 ,graeven4 ,fictile ,ivories for sale1 see ,oldfield's ,catalogue4 ,,index ,abraxas1 #acc4 ,aix-la-,chapelle1 ,cathedral1 #abh4 ,aldobrandini1 ,benci1 ,bishop of ,volterra1 crozier of1 #aeb4 ,amalasuntha1 #g1 #cj1 #ca4 ,anagni1 silver casket at1 #hj4 ,anastasius1 diptych of1 #bd4 ,areobindus1 diptychs of1 #ad1 #ae1 #ag1 #ai1 #bj1 #dj4 ,asturias1 diptych of1 #ac4 ,bamberg ,missal1 #hh2 reliquary1 #aah1 #aai4 ,basil ,,ii41 the ,emperor1 #ie4 ,basilewsky tablet1 #ah4 ,basilius1 diptych of1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj4 ,bateman diptych1 #fg4 ,berlin1 ,museum1 #di1 #ff1 #ge1 #aag1 #aai1 #aba1 #acd4 ,bernward1 ,bishop of ,hildesheim1 #abd1 #abe1 #abh4 ,besanon1 #ah4 ,boethius1 diptych of1 #ac4 ,bologna1 ,museo ,civico1 #cg1 #gh1 #ig4 ,bonaff ,collection1 #adj4 ,book covers1 #aj1 #be1 #bf1 #eb-eg1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aac1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aah1 #aba1 #abc1 #abe1 #acd4 ,bourges1 #bb1 #bi1 #dj4 ,brescia1 #ba1 #cb1 #cd1 #ci1 #db1 #dc1 #dh1 #gh4 ,brunswick1 #aag1 #aai4 ,brussels1 ,royal ,art ,museum1 #ch n4 ,cambridge1 ,corpus ,christi ,college1 #dd4 ,carrand diptych1 #ci-db4 ,caskets1 ,byzantine1 #ge-hd2 ,anglo-,saxon1 #ajj2 ,carlovingian1 #aai1 #abj2 ,romanesque1 #acd2 ,gothic1 #adf1 #adg4 ,chalandon1 ,m41 #adj4 ,charlemagne1 #ajf4 ,charles ,v41 inventory of1 #acf1 #add4 ,chessboard1 #aej4 ,chessmen1 #ajc1 #ajd4 ,christ1 representation of1 in early times1 #ej1 #ea4 ,cividale1 #gh4 ,clementinus1 diptych of1 #cf4 ,clovis1 #bb4 ,cologne1 ,museum1 #abg4 ,combs1 ceremonial1 #abf1 #abg4 ,constantine the ,great1 the ,emperor1 #bg4 ,constantine ,v41 the ,emperor1 #ga4 ,constantine ,,vi41 the ,emperor1 #ga4 ,constantine ,,vii41 the ,emperor1 #hd4 ,consular diptychs1 #c1 et seq4 ,cortona ,reliquary1 #he1 #ib4 ,croziers1 #aca-acc1 #adb1 #aeb4 ,darmstadt1 #abj4 ,dresden1 #hj1 #hh4 ,echternach codex1 #aba4 ,essen1 #aah4 ,etschmiadzin book cover1 #eb1 #ee4 ,felix1 diptych of1 #ac4 ,florence1 ,bargello1 #bb1 #bg1 #ci-db1 #di1 #fd1 #gd1 #gf1 #hb1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #aag1 #acc1 #ach1 #aci1 #adg1 #aej4 ,frankfort1 #aaf4 ,garnier1 ,m41 #adj4 ,grard1 ,bishop of ,limoges1 #acb4 ,gotfredus1 ,archbishop of ,milan1 #abg4 ,grandison1 ,bishop1 triptych of1 #aeb1 #aec4 ,gregory the ,great1 ,pope1 #aj4 ,hadrian1 ,pope1 #cf4 ,halberstadt1 ,cathedral1 #ba4 ,hanover1 ,provincial ,museum1 #ij4 ,harbaville triptych1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #ij1 #ib4 ,heraklius1 the ,emperor1 #ff1 #fg4 ,honorius1 the ,emperor1 #e1 #ab1 #ac1 #ah4 ,iconoclasm of the ,emperors1 #gj-ge4 ,irene1 the ,empress1 #bi1 #ga1 #gb1 #gd4 ,justinian1 the ,emperor1 #f1 #g1 #ah1 #bj1 #bh4 ,lampadius1 tablet of1 #ba1 #bb4 ,le ,bourget1 ,church1 #adj4 ,leo ,,iii41 the ,emperor1 #gj1 #ga4 ,leo ,,vi41 the ,emperor1 #ge4 ,lige1 ,episcopal ,museum1 #ij4 ,lipsanoteca1 the1 #db4 ,liverpool ,museum1 #ag1 #bj1 #ba1 #cc1 #cf1 #eh1 #ib1 #aba1 #ade1 #adi1 #aej4 ,london1 ,british ,museum1 #e1 #bc1 #dc1 #dd1 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #ee1 #fd1 #fg1 #fh1 #ge1 #gh1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aaj1 #abj1 #abg1 #abh1 #aca1 #acc1 #acd1 #add1 #adg1 #aeb1 #aec4 ---- ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 #ab1 #cb1 #ce1 #dh1 #ef1 #fh1 #gc1 #gd1 #gf1 #gg1 #hj1 #ih1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aae1 #abe1 #aca1 #adb1 #adc1 #add1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aed1 #aee4 ,lorsch1 ,abbey of1 #abe4 ,manchester1 ,john ,rylands ,library1 #abb1 #abc1 #aed4 ,maximian1 the ,throne of1 #di1 #eb1 #ed1 #eh-fg1 #ib4 ,melisanda1 ,princess1 #acd4 ,metz1 ,cathedral1 #ee1 #aad4 ,meyrick ,collection1 #aea4 ,milan1 ,castello1 #fg4 ---- ,cathedral1 #ef1 #eh1 #abg4 ---- ,trivulzio ,collection1 #be1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #df1 #dh1 #eh1 #fh1 #ia1 #aah1 #abd4 ,mirror covers1 #adh1 #adi4 ,monza1 ,basilica at1 #aj1 #bb1 #bd1 #ca1 #cc1 #ii1 #aad4 ,mopsuete1 ,council of1 #ce4 ,morard1 ,abbot1 #acb4 ,munich1 ,library1 #bf1 #aah1 #aai1 #add4 ---- ,museum1 #dh1 #eh4 ,nancy1 ,cathedral1 #abg4 ,nicephorus ,phocas1 #he1 #ie4 ,nicolle1 ,jehan1 #add4 ,nicomachi and ,symmachi1 diptych of the1 #ab1 #ce1 #de4 ,oliphants1 #gc1 #gd4 ,orestes1 diptych of1 #f1 #g1 #ad1 #af1 #ag1 #bb1 #ca4 ,otto the ,great1 the ,emperor1 #aah4 ,otto ,,ii41 the ,emperor1 #abd4 ,otto ,,iii41 the ,emperor1 #fe n41 #abd4 ,oxford1 ,bodleian1 #abf4 ,paris1 ,louvre1 #dj1 #de n41 #fi1 #ge1 #hg1 #ij1 #aaj1 #aai1 #acd1 #ace-ada1 #aej1 #aeb1 #aed4 ,paris ,bibliothque nationale1 #ac1 #bj1 #cd1 #eb1 #ee1 #eg1 #ib1 #ic1 #aaj1 #aae4 ---- ,muse de ,cluny1 #ab1 #cb1 #di1 #ea1 #gf1 #hc1 #aad1 #aah1 #abb1 #acd1 #adi4 ---- ,collection ,martin le ,roy1 #adb4 ,pavia1 ,certosa1 #aed4 ,philoxenus1 diptych of1 #bj4 ,pirano casket1 #gh4 ,poissy1 ,abbey of1 #aed4 ,prague1 #be4 ,probianus1 diptych of1 #g1 #h1 #de1 #di1 #ee1 #aaj4 ,probus1 diptych of1 #h1 #i1 #ab4 ,pyxes1 #dh-ea4 ,quedlinburg1 #abj4 ,quirinalis diptychon1 #cb4 ,rambona1 diptych of1 #ig4 ,ravenna1 #d1 #ac1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 #ej1 #eb1 #ec1 #eh-fg1 #gd4 ,romanus and ,eudoxia1 #ac1 #ib1 #ic4 ,rome1 ,barbarini ,library1 #bj1 #bg4 ---- ,kircherian ,museum1 #bh1 #ha1 #hb4 ---- ,monastery of ,st4 ,gregory1 #acb4 ---- ,st4 ,peter's1 the ,throne of ,st4 ,peter1 #hc4 ---- ,count ,stroganoff1 #fb1 #ij1 #ib4 ---- ,vatican1 #ig1 #abe1 #abf4 ,romulus1 the ,apotheosis of1 #bc4 ,rouen ,cathedral1 ,ivory ,book of1 #cg1 #ch4 ,st4 ,barnaby1 relics of1 #ace4 ,st4 ,caletricus1 ,bishop of ,chartres1 #ii4 ,st4 ,columba1 #aje4 ,st4 ,columbanus1 #aje4 ,st4 ,gall1 monastery of1 #aje1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aac1 #aad1 #aag1 #acj4 ,st4 ,gauzelin1 comb of1 #abg4 ,st4 ,gregory and ,king ,david1 #bb1 #bd1 #be1 #ca4 ,st4 ,gregory1 crozier of1 #acb4 ,st4 ,heribert1 comb of1 #abg4 ,st4 ,ives1 ,bishop of ,chartres1 #acc4 ,st4 ,loup1 comb of1 #abg4 ,st4 ,lupicien1 ,ivory ,book of1 #ej1 #eb1 #ed4 ,st4 ,nicasius1 diptych of1 #acj4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ah1 #aad1 #abh4 ,salerno1 ,cathedral1 #ih4 ,salting ,collection1 #add1 #aea1 #aeb4 ,sens1 ,cathedral1 #abg4 ,sividius1 diptych of1 #ad4 ,soltykoff ,collection1 #aeb4 ,spitzer ,collection1 #aaf1 #aea1 #aeb4 ,stilicho1 diptych of1 #aa1 #ab4 ,symmachus1 #f4 ,symmachi1 diptych of the1 #ab1 #cb1 #dh4 ,telemachus1 #ah4 ,theodolinda1 ,queen1 #aj1 #ii4 ,theodora1 the ,empress1 #gb4 ,theodosius ,i41 the ,emperor1 #c1 #e1 #ba4 ,theophano1 the ,empress1 #aba1 #abb1 #abd4 ,theophilus1 the ,emperor1 #gb4 ,tongres1 ,cathedral1 #ch1 #fg1 #aah4 ,tournai1 ,cathedral1 #acj4 ,trves1 ,cathedral1 #fh1 #fi4 ,troyes1 ,cathedral1 #hd4 ,tuotilo1 #aaa1 #aab4 ,urcei1 #abg1 #abh4 ,utrecht1 ,episcopal ,museum1 #ij4 ,venice1 ,doge's ,palace1 #ij4 ,veroli casket1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh1 #hb4 ,vienna1 ,museum1 #bg1 #bh1 #gd1 #gh1 #ij4 ,volterra casket1 #gf1 #hc4 ,werden1 casket of1 #ef4 ,zurich1 #cc1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,,chiswick ,,press3 ,,printed ,,by ,,charles ,,whittingham ,,and ,,co4 ,,tooks ,,court1 ,,chancery ,,lane1 ,,london4