,,english ,,church ,,architecture ,,of  
,,the ,,middle ,,ages                   
,,english ,,cathedrals                  
,,canterbury--,,peterborough--          
,,durham--,,salisbury--,,lichfield--    
,,lincoln--,,ely--,,wells--,,winchester-
-                                       
,,gloucester--,,york--,,london          
,by ,mrs4 ,s4 ,,van ,,rensselaer4       
,illustrated with one hundred and       
fifty-four ,drawings by ,,joseph        
,,pennell4 ,also with ,plans and        
,diagrams4 ,fifth ,edition1 revised and 
corrected4 ,cloth1 #bjs4 net            
,,handbook ,,of ,,english ,,cathedrals  
,by ,mrs4 ,s4 ,,van ,,rensselaer4       
,illustrated with ,drawings by ,,joseph 
,,pennell4 ,also with ,plans and        
,diagrams4 ,cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net      
,t4 ,,fisher ,,unwin1 ,,ltd41 ,,london  
,,english ,,church                      
,,architecture                          
,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages              
,,an ,,elementary ,,handbook            
,by ,a4 ,,freeman ,,smith  ,for many    

years ,art ,master and ,instructor in   
all ,architectural ,subjects in the     
,municipal ,school of ,art1 ,birmingham 
,,with ,,twelve ,,plates                
,t4 ,,fisher ,,unwin1 ,,ltd4            
,,london3 ,,adelphi ,,terrace           
,first published in #aibb4              
,all ,rights ,reserved     ,,preface    
,the object of this little work is to   
give an outline of the leading          
characteristics of ,gothic              
,architecture1 as found in churches of  
the ,middle ,ages in ,england4 ,and it  
is hoped that it may be found useful to 
those visiting those noble buildings1   
whose antiquity and inseparable         
connection with the history of the      
country in their growth and development1
 in addition to the highest purpose for 
which they were erected by the faithful 
followers of the ,founder of the        
,christian ,faith1 entitle them to      
veneration and careful study in the     
realms of history1 art1 and religion4   
,its purpose as a handbook is to explain

 the origin and use of some of the forms
 which are presented to the eye of the  
visitor to these ancient monuments1 not 
as being the result of caprice1 or mere 
sthetic motives1 but as derived         
originally from a deep conviction of the
 living truth which their founders      
professed1 and which they attempted to  
express in all their constructive work4 
,it is intended that the book may also  
be found useful as an elementary        
introduction to the study of ,gothic    
,architecture through the many elaborate
 and exhaustive treatises which are     
published on the subject4 ,to such      
students1 literary study should be      
supplemented by personal acquaintance   
with buildings recognised as standards  
of excellence4  ,the ,introduction deals
 with symbols as the motive of ,gothic  
design4 ,in the following pages the     
various periods of ,english ,gothic are 
defined by their predominating forms and
 ornaments dating from the seventh to   
the sixteenth centuries4 ,simple        

examples have been chosen in order to   
avoid the confusion which might result  
from the choice of more complex         
illustrations4  ,in the preparation of  
the illustrations the works of          
,agincourt1 ,didron1 ,owen ,jones1 and  
the late ,jethro ,a4 ,cossins1 have been
 consulted for those of ,plate ,i4 ,of  
the remaining1 ,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #e1  
and ,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #a1 are from works
 of ,parker and ,rickman respectively4  
,five details are from photographs2 the 
remainder are from original sketches and
 studies by the ,author4     ,,list ,,of
 ,,plates   ,,plate                     
,,page     ,i4 ,,byzantine ,,and ,,early
 ,,christian                            
#ac    ,,ii4 ,,anglo-,,saxon            
#ba   ,,iii4 ,,norman                   
#bg    ,,iv4 ,,transitional1 #aade-aaij 
7,,norman ,,to ,,early ,,english7       
#ce     ,v4 ,,early ,,english           
#ci    ,,vi4 ,,decorated                
#de   ,,vii4 ,,decorated                
#dg  ,,viii4 ,,perpendicular            

#ec    ,,ix4 ,,perpendicular            
#ee     ,x4 ,,english ,,gothic ,,roofs  
#fc    ,,xi4 ,,vaulting                 
#ga   ,,xii4 ,,vaulting                 
#gc     ,,chronology   ,the popular     
classification of ,english ,gothic      
,architecture divides the style into    
four periods1 thus3      ,norman        
,william  ,i41 #ajff1 to ,richard  ,i41 
#aahi4     ,early ,english    ,richard  
,i41 #aahi1 to ,edward   ,i41 #abgb4    
,decorated        ,edward   ,i41 #abgb1 
to ,richard ,,ii41 #acgg4               
,perpendicular    ,richard ,,ii41 #acgg1
 to ,edward  ,,vi41 #aedg4  ,these terms
 are useful1 but not sufficiently       
descriptive4 ,they were superseded by   
the late ,edmund ,sharpe's 8,seven      
,periods10 the terms of which are       
derived from the forms of the windows   
and their tracery1 but are applicable to
 other details4   ,,sharpe',s 8,,seven  
,,periods40      ,saxon                 
#ajff4     ,norman                      
#ajff to #aade4     ,transitional       

#aade 0  #aaij4     ,lancet             
#aaij 0  #abde4     ,geometrical        
#abde 0  #acae4     ,curvilinear        
#acae 0  #acfj4     ,rectilinear        
#acfj 0  #aeej4     ,,plate ,i          
,,byzantine ,,and ,,early ,,christian   
,illustration3 ,,plate ,i     ,english  
,church ,architecture of the ,middle    
,ages     ,,introduction  ,,plate ,i    
,,byzantine ,,and ,,early ,,christian   
,the term ,gothic was applied originally
 as one of contempt in the fifteenth    
century by the architects of the        
,renaissance1 who attempted to reproduce
 the ancient architecture of ,rome1 and 
considered ,medival ,art1 which had     
ruled all departments of design         
throughout ,europe during the three     
preceding centuries1 to be no better    
than the invention of the ,barbarians1  
the ,goths1 and the ,vandals1 who       
overran the ,roman ,empire in the fourth
 century4 ,during the three previous    
centuries the persecuted converts to    
,christianity were driven to take refuge

 in any hiding-place available4 ,in     
,rome they descended to the ,catacombs1 
the underground workings of the ancient 
,roman stone quarries1 consisting of    
narrow1 low passages1 their aggregate   
lengths amounting to hundreds of miles4 
,there they quarried out of the rock    
their chambers for assembly1 where they 
gathered for worship in the light of    
torches or lamps1 and excavated recesses
 for the burial of their dead4 ,these   
chambers were imitated in the form of   
the ,crypts 7hidden chambers7 existing  
under some churches and cathedrals4     
7,compare ,plate ,i41 ,figs4 #a and #b47
 ,the walls of the catacombs have rude  
incised inscriptions and carvings       
revealing the ,christian ,faith by      
symbols1 such as the cross1 suggesting  
the ,crucifixion--the emblem of         
sacrifice2 the circle1 the line without 
end1 the symbol of ,eternity 7,plate    
,i41 ,fig4 #c72 the triangle1 trefoil1  
and triquetra1 symbols of the ,trinity  
7,figs4 #f1 #g1 and #h72 the quatrefoil 

of the four evangelists 7,figs4 #i and  
#aj74 ,the fish was adopted as a symbol 
of the ,redeemer1 because the letters of
 the ,greek word icthys1 when used as an
 acrostic1 gave the initials of the     
words--,jesus1 ,christ1 ,god1 ,son1     
,saviour 7,plate ,i41 ,fig4 #aa74 ,this 
symbol was extensively adopted in the   
decoration of baptismal fonts4  ,the    
,vesica piscis 7,latin1 the bladder of a
 fish7 7,plate ,i41 ,fig4 #e7 was used  
as a nimbus or glory to surround the    
figure of a sacred personage in         
sculpture and in painting4 ,its name    
shows the use of ,latin terms in the    
,roman ,church as distinguished from the
 ,greek in ,byzantium1 which was an     
ancient ,greek city adopted by          
,constantine1 the ,christian ,emperor1  
as the capital of the eastern division  
of the ,roman ,empire under the new name
 of ,constantinopolis--the modern       
,constantinople4 ,but the term          
8,byzantine0 has been retained in       
matters relating to art4 ,plate ,i41    

,figs4 #ae and #af1 show the ,greek     
,cross1 which is a version of the ,greek
 letter chi combined with the letter rho
 7similar to the ,english ,p74 ,this    
symbol represented the name ,christ1 and
 was the ,christian standard1 the       
,labarum1 chosen by the ,emperor        
,constantine4  ,plate ,i41 #c;,a4 ,the  
sacred monogram generally found in      
church decoration stands for the ,latin 
phrase ,jesus hominum                   
,salvator--8,jesus1 the ,saviour of     
men40 ,the ,greek letters ,,ihs 7iota1  
eta1 sigma7 gave the first three letters
 of the name ,jesus4  ,in the plan of an
 ,english cathedral or cruciform church1
 the symbol of the ,latin ,cross is made
 the basis of its form 7,plate ,,xi41   
,fig4 #a74 7,the ,byzantine or ,greek   
,cross has the four limbs of equal      
length47 ,the ,nave1 ,n4 7,latin1 navis1
 a ship1 a symbol of the ,church71 is   
built from west to east4 ,the ,choir or 
,chancel1 which is screened off by a    
,cancellum or lattice1 is in            

continuation of the ,nave to the east   
end4 ,this in some cathedrals includes  
the ,lady ,chapel1 which was in medival 
times dedicated to the ,virgin ,mary4   
,in several churches and some cathedrals
 the head of the ,cross1 the ,chancel or
 ,choir1 is not in line with the ,nave1 
but is slightly inclined to one         
side--not in all cases the same side4   
,two explanations are given for this1   
one being its orientation--i4e41 the    
axis of its length points to the rising 
of the sun on the day of its foundation1
 which does not coincide with that of   
the ,nave1 the ,chancel having been     
commenced at an earlier or later date   
and different season of the year4 ,the  
other theory is that it symbolises the  
head of ,christ falling on one side in  
death4  ,plate ,i41 ,fig4 #ad 7from the 
8,grammar of ,ornament071 shows an      
ornamental design composed entirely of  
early ,christian symbols4 ,plate ,i41   
,figs4 #ab and #ac1 carved ornament and 
a capital bearing crude resemblance to  

an ancient ,ionic capital4 ,both ,figs4 
#ab and #ac are under the influence of  
,greek and ,roman ,art without reference
 to symbolism4  ,plate ,i41 ,fig4 #d1   
shows a chevron 7a ,french military     
ornament71 a decoration dating back to  
ancient ,egypt1 where it symbolised the 
waves of the ,nile1 and was adopted in  
many later periods1 and became          
conspicuous in the ,norman arches of    
,english architecture4     ,,plate ,,ii 
,,anglo-,,saxon  ,illustration3 ,,plate 
,,ii     ,,plate ,,ii  ,,anglo-,,saxon  
,there can be no doubt that             
,christianity found its way into        
,britain early during the ,roman        
occupation1 but was suppressed through  
the violent persecutions by the ,pagan  
tribes who ruled following the ,roman   
departure ,a4,d4 #daj1 to be revived and
 further developed after the mission of 
,st4 ,augustine1 ,a4,d4 #eig1 from ,rome
 to the ,anglo-,saxons1 who occupied    
,britain between the fifth and eleventh 
centuries4  ,the church of ,greenstead1 

in ,essex1 is one of the most ancient in
 the country1 and was built by          
,anglo-,saxons4 ,its walls are of       
substantial logs of timber placed       
upright upon a foundation of rude       
stonework4 ,this method appears to be a 
survival of their method of building    
their dwellings4  ,of stone buildings1  
the church tower of ,barton-on-,humber  
7,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #f7 is a good      
example of ,anglo-,saxon work4 ,in it   
the external angles of the tower and of 
the door and window openings have their 
quoins 7corner stones7 of               
8long-and-short0 work1 the name applied 
to ,saxon masonry of this kind1 in which
 long stones are placed on end with     
short stones laid flat1 suggesting their
 origin to be the work of carpenters who
 would place timbers in such positions1 
contrasted with that of masons1 who     
would place all stones horizontally or  
at right-angles to pressure4  ,in this  
example and the very fine one at ,earls 
,barton1 ,northamptonshire1 this        

8long-and-short0 work is carried over   
the exterior of the wall as a kind of   
surface decoration4  ,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4
 #c1 shows the present-day manner of    
framing timbers in a partition with sill
 7s471 posts or studs 7p471 lintel 7l471
 inclined struts1 and corbel-blocks     
7c4b474  ,saxon timber framing would be 
on similar lines1 and this manner was   
perpetuated traditionally in their stone
 walls4 ,the practice of imitating      
woodwork in stone and vice versa is one 
to be found in the works of all ages    
from remote antiquity4 ,the heads of    
,saxon door and window openings were    
either semicircular 7,plate ,,ii41      
,figs4 #g1 #h1 and #i7 or formed by     
placing two stones inclined to each     
other thus--1 and a short column or rude
 baluster was sometimes placed between  
two windows4  ,note4--,the window over  
the clock face 7,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #f7 
is an insertion of a later period4  ,the
 interesting little church at           
,bradford-on-,avon1 ,wiltshire1 shows   

the same manner of building 7,plate     
,,ii41 ,fig4 #a74  ,anglo-,saxon        
bell-towers appear to have been         
generally covered with a roof of the    
form shown in ,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #e1 as
 at ,sompting1 ,sussex4     ,,plate     
,,iii  ,,norman1 #ajff-aahi             
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii     ,,plate
 ,,iii  ,,norman1 #ajff-aahi   ,the     
,norman period dates from ,a4,d4 #ajff1 
though the ,norman manner of building   
had been adopted after the year #ajjj1  
when church building was revived after  
suspension in anticipation of the       
,millennium1 which was expected to bring
 the end of the world4 ,that dreaded    
year having safely passed1 church       
building was vigorously revived4 ,timber
 construction had led to frequent       
disaster by fire1 and as larger         
buildings were now required1 better     
construction became imperative4 ,masonry
 must supersede carpentry in wall       
construction1 and the necessary skilled 
labour came from ,normandy4  ,the influx

 of superior talent following the       
,norman ,conquest resulted in great     
improvement in every department of      
building4 ,stately cathedrals were      
founded1 each for the reception of the  
cathedra or throne of the bishop4       
,abbeys and monasteries and parish      
churches for the clergy were built      
throughout the land1 as proved by the   
existence of ,norman work in most parts 
of the country4  ,every period of       
,english ,gothic architecture has       
certain forms appearing in the general  
composition and details which help to   
fix the period to which they belong4 ,in
 the ,norman the square and the circle1 
the right angle and the semicircle1 are 
the prevailing figures suggestive of    
strength and severity so evident in the 
impressive naves of ,ely1 ,peterborough1
 ,norwich1 ,gloucester1 ,tewkesbury1 and
 the fortress-like cathedral of ,durham4
  ,plate ,,iii4 gives a few details of  
work of the ,norman period4 ,the term   
pier 7,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #a7 defines  

the pillars or masses of masonry        
supporting the arches between the nave  
and aisles of a church4 ,this example   
7,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #a71 from ,st4    
,john's ,chapel in the ,white ,tower of 
,london1 ,william the ,conqueror's      
residence1 is circular with a square    
capital chamfered down to the circular  
pier1 and has a slightly moulded abacus 
7the crowning moulding of a capital74   
,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #b1 the cushion    
capital1 is the simplest kind of ,norman
 capital4 ,it is cubical1 with its      
square faces rounded down to the shaft4 
,note4--,the shafts of all ,english     
,gothic columns are cylindrical--i4e41  
without any diminution towards the top1 
in contrast with ,greek and ,roman      
shafts1 which are always diminished4    
,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #c1 is the capital 
of a respond--a half-column attached to 
a wall and carrying an arch or part of a
 roof4  ,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #d1 the    
corbel-table1 or cornice underneath the 
eaves of a roof 7corbel--a bracket74    

,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #e1 the base of a  
pier with spur ornaments4  ,plate       
,,iii41 ,fig4 #f1 fragment of a ,norman 
arch of four orders1 each order being a 
separate arch1 three of which are       
enriched with the ,norman chevron4 ,the 
dripstone or hood-moulding 7d4s47       
encloses the arch as in ,plate ,,iii41  
,fig4 #h1 though its original           
function--to protect the moulding under 
it from weather--is not needed here1 but
 it is generally introduced to give     
effective finish to the arch4 ,the      
capitals in this group are scallop      
capitals4 ,a small portion of a similar 
capital is shown at the right hand of   
,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #c4  ,plate ,,iii41
 ,fig4 #g1 is a ,norman font of the     
simple bowl form enriched with carved   
,norman heads connected by ,byzantine   
ornament and surrounded with a ,norman  
arcade of intersecting arches--a feature
 often introduced in the walls of       
churches and cathedrals4  ,plate ,,iii41
 ,fig4 #h1 is a double-recessed window  

with an arch of three orders4 ,the      
columns in the positions shown are      
called jamb-shafts or nook-shafts2 those
 on the right are detached and may be   
removed1 leaving the bases and capitals 
remaining4 ,on the left the shafts are  
engaged--i4e41 form part of the masonry 
of the wall4 ,these two varieties are   
never found together as here1 but are   
thus shown for convenience4 ,the        
capitals are a variety of the cushion   
capital4  ,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #i1 is a 
cushion capital with the triquetra      
symbol of the ,trinity 7,plate ,i41     
,fig4 #h74  ,byzantine influence is     
evident in the ornament of the capitals 
7,plate ,,iii41 ,figs4 #a1 #c1 and #i71 
in the chevron 7,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4    
#f71 and the decoration of the font     
7,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #g74  ,norman     
walls depended for their strength upon  
their thickness1 with the slight        
addition at intervals1 where lateral    
pressure occurred1 of thin pilaster-like
 buttresses projecting only a few inches

 equally from bottom to top4     ,,plate
 ,,iv  ,,transitional1 #aade-aaij       
7,,norman ,,to ,,early ,,english7       
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv     ,,plate 
,,iv  ,,transitional1 #aade-aaij   ,the 
period of ,transition from ,norman to   
,early ,english dates from #aade to     
#aaij1 in the reigns of ,stephen and    
,richard ,i41 the period when           
architecture gradually passed from the  
massiveness and severity of ,romanesque1
 as expressed in the ,norman1 to the    
delicate refinement of ,early ,english  
,gothic4 ,in its general character there
 is much that is common to both periods4
 ,it is easily distinguished in its     
details as capitals1 arches1 carving1   
etc4  ,plate ,,iv41 ,figs4 #a and #c1   
show ,transitional capitals in which the
 square abacus of the ,norman remains   
and the concave surface of the body or  
bell contrasts with the convex of the   
,norman 7,plate ,,iii41 ,figs4 #b1 #c1  
#f1 and #i74 ,rude carving suggestive of
 foliage was sometimes introduced4 ,the 

placing of two pointed arches under a   
semicircle 7,plate ,,iv41 ,fig4 #b7 is  
especially indicative of the            
,transitional period4  ,in the          
,transitional period the pointed or     
,gothic arch was first introduced1 and  
established as the most characteristic  
feature of the ,gothic style on account 
of its superior strength and fitness4   
,in the ,transition1 hollows were       
introduced separating the rounds in     
mouldings 7,plate ,,iv41 ,fig4 #d74 ,in 
other respects ,transitional work       
differs little from ,norman4     ,,plate
 ,v  ,,early ,,english  ,,lancet1       
#aaij-abde ,,geometrical1 #abde-acae    
,illustration3 ,,plate ,v     ,,plate ,v
  ,,early ,,english1 #aahi-abgb   ,in   
the ,early ,english period knowledge of 
the true principles of architectural    
design and construction advanced        
considerably--mouldings and carving     
attained the highest refinement1 and the
 work of the ,early ,english period is  
admitted to be the purest of the ,gothic

 style4  ,improved scientific           
construction is most evident in the     
walls4 ,the development of stone-vaulted
 roofs 7a protection against fire7      
carried by arched ribs brought down the 
incumbent load on to the walls1         
producing thrusts upon them which had to
 be provided against4 ,the old manner of
 making the wall of great thickness was 
wasteful and unsatisfactory4 ,the happy 
idea of the ,gothic buttress fulfilled  
all the requirements1 and produced one  
of the most beautiful features of the   
,gothic style4 ,it was built in         
diminishing stages1 its outline         
enclosing the graceful parabolic curve  
of nature--the path of the combined     
thrusts and their opposing reactions4   
,this structure was carried to          
perfection when combined with the       
flying-buttress 7,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4   
#aj71 which conducted the thrust from   
the lofty wall of the nave over the     
external roof of the aisle by an arch on
 the wall-buttress1 which was           

strengthened to do its work by the      
addition of a heavy pinnacle4 ,plate    
,v41 ,fig4 #i1 from ,lichfield          
,cathedral1 shows two buttresses of the 
,lancet period built to meet the thrust 
of the ribs carrying the vaulting of the
 ,chapter-house and ,library over4 ,in  
one of these the approximate direction  
of the thrusts is indicated by the      
arrows a1 b1 which1 if unopposed1 would 
cause a collapse2 the ultimate          
deflection of their path by the weight  
of the superincumbent masonry is        
indicated by dotted lines within the    
buttress1 thereby producing equilibrium 
through the opposing resistance from the
 foundations along the same path4  ,in  
,plate ,v41 ,figs4 #aj and #aa1 the     
piers had columns surrounding them whose
 shafts in the ,lancet period were      
detached1 but connected at their        
extremities by moulded stone bands 7,a1 
,b71 and at the bases and capitals4     
,these piers were sometimes carried to a
 great height1 as those in ,westminster 

,abbey1 which have three of these stone 
bands in their height4 ,in the          
,geometrical period the shafts formed   
part of the main pier1 were not         
detached1 and resembled mouldings       
7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #aa74 ,such shafts   
were described as engaged4  ,plate ,v41 
,fig4 #g1 shows a tower with a          
broach-spire belonging to the ,early    
,english period4 ,in the figure the four
 broaches are the small pyramids        
covering the squinch arches or squinch  
corbels1 which carried four of the eight
 sides of the octagonal spire across the
 angles of the tower4  ,plate ,v41 ,fig4
 #d1 shows three ,lancet windows under a
 single arch or dripstone4 ,this        
grouping of the windows soon suggested  
the design of tracery windows1 in which 
the lights are separated by mullions1   
the simplest form being as represented  
in the ,lichfield ,chapter-house in     
,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #i4 ,geometrical      
arrangements were invented from the     
simple one 7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #e7 to the

 elaborate windows and arcades of       
,westminster ,abbey4 ,cusps 7spear      
points7 were formed in the tracery1 the 
,soffit-cusp 7s4c47 projecting from the 
underside of the mullion1 indicating    
early work and uncommon4 ,all other     
cusps were worked on the chamfer 7c4c71 
their points being variously shaped4    
,in ,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #h1 the capitals  
were either moulded1 or carved with     
stiff-leaf foliage1 being               
conventional--i4e41 designed on natural 
principles1 but not in imitation of     
nature1 and sometimes of great beauty1  
but never so delicate as to suggest its 
unsuitability to the material in which  
it was wrought4 ,hollows in the arch and
 other mouldings were enriched with the 
tooth ornament 7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #ab71 
which occurs in the ,lancet period only4
  ,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #b1 shows the       
decoration of gables with crockets and  
finial4  ,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #c1 shows    
diaper ornaments used in wall           
decoration4  ,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #f1 shows

 a string course and dripstone4 ,all    
mouldings consist of large rounds and   
deep hollows1 separated by fillets 7a1  
b71 and are frequently arranged in      
extensive groups1 as in doorways1       
arcading1 etc4  ,the ,cathedral of      
,salisbury is the only one which is     
throughout belonging to the ,early      
,english period4     ,,plate ,,vi       
,,decorated1 #abgb-acgg  ,,geometrical1 
#abde-acae ,,curvilinear1 #acae-acfj    
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi     ,,plate 
,,vii  ,,decorated1 #abgb-acgg          
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii            
,,plates ,,vi ,,and ,,vii  ,,decorated1 
#abgb-acgg2 ,,geometrical1 #abde-acae2  
,,curvilinear1 #acae-acfj   ,the term   
8decorated0 is applied to the work of   
this period because of the superfluity  
of its ornaments4 ,almost every feature 
was enriched with carved ornament4 ,the 
predominating form is the curvilinear   
line1 the ogee or ogival 7,plate ,,vi41 
,fig4 #b71 ,hogarth's 8line of beauty   
and grace10 which occurs in the lines of

 tracery1 the shape of arches1 sections 
of mouldings1 and of foliated ornament4 
,the ,geometrical period1 #abde-acae1 is
 the overlapping of ,early ,english and 
,decorated4 ,the term ,geometrical is   
applied on account of the window        
tracery1 which is made up of circles and
 triangles more or less elaborate4 ,the 
change from ,geometrical to ,curvilinear
 or flowing tracery is demonstrated in  
,plate ,,vii41 ,figs4 #a1 #b2 ,plate    
,,vii41 ,fig4 #b1 being a slight        
alteration of ,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #a4  
,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #e1                
reticulated--net-like--is a common      
example produced in the same manner as  
,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #b1 and is         
adaptable to all shapes of windows4     
,many elaborate and beautiful designs   
were produced on these principles by    
extension of such elements as in ,plate 
,,vii41 ,fig4 #c4  ,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 
#d1 is a common type of window2 an      
extension of the simple two-light window
 7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #i71 frequently     

enriched with cusps and ball-flower     
7,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #c7 in the hollows 
of the mullions4  ,in ,plate ,,vii41    
,fig4 #aj1 the buttresses are decorated 
with niches for statuary4 ,a            
flying-buttress is shown 7,f4,b471      
carrying the thrust of the stone-vaulted
 roof of the nave over the external roof
 of the aisle into the main buttress1   
whose weight and consequent stability   
are increased by the heavy pinnacle4    
,the smaller buttress 7,c47 resists the 
thrust of the window arches4 ,norwich   
,cathedral displays an interesting array
 of flying-buttresses4  ,plate ,,vi41   
,fig4 #f1 shows a tower and spire at the
 crossing of nave and transepts4 ,the   
base of the spire and its broaches      
7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #g7 are concealed by 
a parapet wall1 with battlements        
protecting a footway round the spire1   
which could be used as a place of       
observation4 ,mouldings in the          
,geometrical period attained the        
greatest refinement4 ,many can be       

favourably compared with those of the   
best ,greek periods4  ,arches continued 
to be built in square orders 7,plate    
,,iii41 ,figs4 #f and #h71 and consisted
 of round mouldings1 generally separated
 by deep hollows and fillets 7,plate    
,,vii41 ,fig4 #g74  ,in mouldings of the
 ,curvilinear period 7,plate ,,vii41    
,fig4 #h7 the ogee superseded the round1
 and the hollows were shallower4        
,towards the end of the period the      
square orders ceased1 and the planes of 
the orders were at about #de with the   
vertical 7,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #i2      
compare with ,plate ,,viii41 ,fig4 #ab74
  ,the wave-moulding 7,plate ,,vii41    
,fig4 #i7 and the scroll-moulding       
7,plate ,,vii41 ,figs4 #i1 #ab1 and     
#ac71 supposed to resemble a parchment  
scroll1 are conspicuous in the          
,curvilinear4 ,the general character of 
the ornament is indicated on ,plate     
,,vii41 in most of which the ogee line  
is apparent4  ,the ball-flower 7,plate  
,,vi41 ,fig4 #c7 is a distinctive       

feature of the ,decorated period        
superseding the tooth ornament of the   
,lancet 7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #ab74 ,it was
 applied to hollow mouldings of arches  
and tracery of windows1 vaulting1 and   
spires4  ,capitals were moulded as in   
the section 7,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #ac71 
or carved1 as ,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #d1   
generally in imitation of natural       
foliage1 varying from a bold            
conventionalism 7,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #e7
 to a close imitation of nature1 as     
,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #a 7a4a474 ,animal  
forms and small human figures were      
occasionally introduced4 ,figure        
sculpture reached its highest degree of 
excellence in this period4              
,construction was further advanced1 but 
in design the climax had been attained  
in the ,geometrical period1 and a very  
gradual decline set in1 as shown in     
excessive ornamentation and literal     
imitation of natural forms in stonework1
 which is unsuitable for such delicate  
treatment on account of its fragility4  

,the increasing wealth of the nation    
during this period is indicated by the  
grandeur of the buildings and the       
redundancy of ornament4     ,,plate     
,,viii  ,,perpendicular1 #acgg-aedg     
,,rectilinear1 #acfj-aeej               
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii           
,,plate ,,ix  ,,perpendicular           
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix     ,,plates
 ,,viii ,,and ,,ix  ,,perpendicular1    
#acgg-aedg  ,,rectilinear1 #acfj-aeej   
,the term 8perpendicular0 was applied to
 the work of this period1 the last of   
,english ,gothic1 on account of the     
predominance of vertical lines in the   
whole architectural design1 and         
especially in window tracery4  ,a       
comparison of ,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #e1  
net tracery1 with ,plate ,,ix41 ,fig4   
#e1 rectilinear1 will explain how the   
latter was developed from the former by 
extending the sides of the meshes of the
 net by straight lines into the summit  
of the window4 ,but as the term         
perpendicular is only a relative one1   

not necessarily meaning vertical1 the   
term rectilinear was substituted1 being 
descriptive of the general character of 
the whole design in mass and detail4 ,in
 this work1 however1 the term           
8perpendicular0 is preferred as the one 
most generally known4 ,windows became so
 large1 chiefly for the display of      
stained glass1 as to reduce the wall    
spaces between them to little more than 
piers1 and transoms 7horizontal         
mullions7 had to be introduced to       
strengthen the vertical mullions4 ,see  
,plate ,,ix41 ,figs1 #a and #b 7a4b471  
belfry windows in these examples4       
,loftiness is a special trait of the    
,perpendicular period4 ,walls were      
carried to a greater height than        
previously4 ,the external roof was      
frequently covered with lead1 and       
inclined at an angle easy to walk upon4 
,the roof-timbers were supported by     
ornamental principals exposed to view   
from the interior1 or there was a       
stone-vaulted internal roof of rich     

design1 the increased thrusts upon the  
walls being counteracted by larger      
buttresses4  ,tall towers were built1   
such as those of ,york ,minster1        
,gloucester1 ,worcester1 and the        
churches of ,boston 7,lincolnshire71    
,wrexham1 ,taunton1 and many others of  
magnificence4 ,plate ,,ix41 ,figs4 #a   
and #c1 give varieties of smaller parish
 church towers4 ,in these the ,tudor    
arch and square-headed window are shown4
 ,spires are not so common as in the    
preceding periods4 ,buttresses were     
placed diagonally at all corners1       
scientifically the best position 7,plate
 ,,ix41 ,figs1 #a and #b74  ,in large   
churches external wall surfaces were    
enriched with panelling1 covering in    
some cases the whole from ground to     
summit1 and combined with open tracery  
in the battlements4 ,in the interior the
 same kind of decoration prevailed1 and 
in some cases the window tracery was    
carried below the glass down to the     
floor as panelling4  ,plate ,,ix41      

,figs4 #d;,a and #d;,b1 gives the       
comparative shape of battlements4       
,arch-mouldings 7,plate ,,viii41 ,fig4  
#ab7 generally included the large hollow
 also common in the window jambs4 ,the  
plane of the arch-mouldings was inclined
 to the vertical #de 7,plate ,,viii41   
,fig4 #ab74 ,the usual dripstone 7d4s47 
and some of their corbels are shown in  
,plate ,,viii41 ,figs4 #a and #c4 ,piers
 7,plate ,,viii41 ,fig4 #aa7 were of the
 simple form shown with columns at the  
angles1 single1 or in groups1 as ,plate 
,,viii41 ,fig4 #ac1 the general contour 
of the pier being a rhombus or lozenge  
in plan4  ,the ogee arch with crockets  
and finial was continued from the       
,decorated period4  ,the ,tudor or      
four-centred arch 7,plate ,,ix41 ,figs4 
#a and #f7 belongs to the late          
,perpendicular period4  ,plate ,,viii41 
,fig4 #d1 shows a common form of ,tudor 
door-head with the label or square      
dripstone and carved spandril 7a        
triangular space74 ,columns were        

circular1 with octagonal bases and      
capitals1 the latter moulded or carved  
with oak-leaf foliage or conventional   
ornament1 resembling that in ,plate     
,,viii41 ,fig4 #i4 ,corbels with shields
 7,plate ,,viii41 ,fig4 #i71 armorial   
bearings1 and the ,tudor rose 7,plate   
,,viii41 ,fig4 #b71 frequently occur4   
,many ,perpendicular churches are rich  
in ornamental woodwork3 choir stalls    
with lifting seats 7misereres71 under   
which are grotesque carvings2           
poppy-heads 7,fr4 poupe1 a doll71 the   
bench-end ornaments which sometimes     
carried a small carved figure among     
foliage2 panelled screens crowned with  
brattishing 7,plate ,,viii41 ,fig4 #e71 
and other ornaments4 ,the term          
brattishing is also applied to the open 
tracery of some battlements of the      
,perpendicular period4  ,the            
,perpendicular is the longest of the    
,english ,gothic periods4 ,in it ,gothic
 construction attained its climax2      
ornamentation declined from a refined   

realism to coarse conventionalism1      
coinciding with the decline of spiritual
 life in the ,church4 ,cathedrals and   
churches increased in all dimensions1   
and everything showed the tendency      
towards the renaissance of classic art  
which was flourishing on the ,continent4
 ,classic mouldings were imitated1 and  
carved ornament of pure ,italian design 
was applied to decorate ,gothic         
forms--notable instances being the tomb 
of ,henry ,,vii4 in ,westminster ,abbey1
 and the ,salisbury ,chantry in         
,christchurch ,priory near ,bournemouth4
 ,both were the work of ,torregiano1 a  
contemporary of ,michael ,angelo4  ,the 
,english people clung to their ,gothic  
style for a century after the same had  
almost disappeared from the ,continent1 
and in the ,elizabethan period1         
#aeeh-afjc1 classic details1 including  
the five orders1 were completely        
incorporated into ,gothic design4 ,the  
pointed arch disappeared2 the ,roman    
semicircle took its place4 ,brickwork   

superseded masonry1 roof construction   
was concealed1 and all kinds of shams   
were introduced4 ,then came a period of 
close imitation of ,greek and ,roman    
temples1 until the ,gothic revival under
 its pioneer1 ,a4 ,w4 ,pugin 7b4 #ahab1 
d4 #aheb71 whose literary works are very
 instructive and interesting reading4   
,the present-day 7#aibb7 tendency is    
towards a revival of ,byzantine         
architecture4     ,,plate ,x  ,,english 
,,gothic ,,roofs  ,illustration3 ,,plate
 ,x     ,,plate ,x  ,,english ,,gothic  
,,roofs   ,next in importance to the    
construction of substantial walls comes 
the necessity of weather-proof and      
storm-proof roofs1 such as should       
preserve the stability of the walls1 or 
their disintegration would be hastened  
by that which should be their           
protection4  ,the nature of the covering
 and the action of weather are the      
principal factors affecting their design
 and construction4 ,the rigours of the  
,english climate require a covering to  

be such as to prevent the penetration of
 rain1 and their support to be strong   
enough to resist the pressure of snow   
and the hurricane4 ,the high-pitched    
roof 7of steep inclination7 is common to
 all periods of ,english ,gothic4 ,the  
average ,norman roof was pitched about  
#de1 its apex being about a right angle 
composed agreeably with the semicircular
 arches in the gables4 ,the             
higher-pitched roofs came simultaneously
 with the introduction of the pointed   
arch1 sometimes at a pitch of #fj1      
ultimately declining to about #bj or    
less in the late ,perpendicular period4 
,the outer covering is generally of     
boards overlaid with tiles or           
sheet-lead1 the latter being imperative 
in the low-pitched roofs4 ,the whole of 
the covering is carried by common       
rafters or spars rising from the walls  
to the apex of the roof4  ,plate ,x41   
,figs4 #a and #b1 show two ordinary     
principals or trusses4 ,these are in no 
sense ,gothic1 but are here given to    

more clearly explain the principles of  
roof construction4 ,the common rafters  
7c4r47 bearing the covering are of light
 timber1 tending to bend under the      
weight2 to prevent this purlins 7,p471  
stout beams1 are placed at suitable     
intervals1 and these are carried at     
their ends by the roof trusses4 ,the    
tie-beam 7t4b7 is the chief beam of the 
truss4 ,the principal rafters 7p4r47 are
 framed into it and into the heads of   
the ,king and ,queen posts4 ,in the     
,queen-post-truss the collar unites the 
,queen posts2 struts and cross-braces   
complete the structure4 ,in a properly  
constructed roof-truss all the stresses 
are neutralised in the truss itself1 and
 the whole framework rests as a dead    
weight upon the walls without any       
lateral thrust to force them out of the 
vertical4 ,the ,king-post-truss is      
suitable to roofs up to #cj feet span1  
the ,queen-post-truss to #dj feet4      
,open timber roofs have their           
construction visible from the interior4 

,plate ,x41 ,fig4 #h1 shows a crude     
,queen-post-truss in an old             
,worcestershire church1 in which the    
tie-beam has been chosen from a bent log
 so as to prevent its bending under the 
roof load4 ,in the trusses 7,plate ,x41 
,figs4 #a1 #b7 the ,king and ,queen     
posts act like the keystones of an arch1
 so that by bolting or strapping up with
 ironwork at points s4s4 these posts are
 put into a state of tension1 the       
tie-beam 7t4b47 is pulled up to a       
camber1 or curve1 and is also in        
tension4 ,in the crude ,queen-post-truss
 7,plate ,x41 ,fig4 #h7 these conditions
 are reversed1 for the tie-beam supports
 the ,queen posts4 ,in ,plate ,x41      
,figs4 #a and #b1 all the spaces in     
these trusses are triangular1 a fact    
which ensures stability where the parts 
are of proper strength and properly     
united4 ,plate ,x41 ,fig4 #d1 is a      
trussed rafter roof requiring no purlins
 nor principal--each common rafter is a 
truss4 ,this kind of roof is suitable   

only to small spans2 its weakest part is
 from a4 to b4  ,in the roof-truss1 or  
principal1 the ,gothic architects       
objected to the tie-beam as an          
obstruction to the sense of loftiness1  
so desirable in the church interior1 and
 therefore invented the hammer-beam     
principal 7,plate ,x41 ,fig4 #g71 which 
resembles a ,queen-post-truss1 having a 
collar and ,king post4 ,the hammer-beams
 7h4b47 are substitutes for the         
tie-beam4  ,in this principal the space 
between the collar and the apex of the  
roof is satisfactorily trussed1 but from
 the collar downwards the ,queen posts  
7,q4p47 and wall posts 7w4p47 with their
 braces 7b47 become mere brackets       
supporting the small ,king-post-truss   
above1 bringing its load as low as      
possible on to the walls1 so that their 
weight of masonry and buttresses may    
effectually resist the lateral thrust of
 the roof upon them4  ,plate ,x41 ,fig4 
#e1 shows a collar principal with curved
 braces4 ,the tendency of all roof      

principals is to spread at the walls2   
this has been met by modern             
church-builders by introducing an iron  
tie-rod in place of a tie-beam1 thus    
forming a triangle1 the only form of    
absolute stability1 for the whole of the
 principal1 as indicated by the dotted  
line connecting the hammer-beams in     
,plate ,x41 ,fig4 #g4  ,plate ,x41 ,fig4
 #f1 shows a low-pitched ,perpendicular 
roof with principals and half-principal4
 ,the common rafters are concealed by a 
panelled ceiling1 the panels being      
formed by principal rafters and purlins4
 ,the arched trusses bring part of the  
thrust low down on to the walls1 which  
are strengthened by heavy buttresses on 
the outside4 ,the half-principal is     
placed over a window arch4  ,plate ,x41 
,fig4 #c1 shows a low-pitched roof and  
ceiling supported by a tie-beam only1   
strengthened at its bearings by wall    
posts and braces4     ,,plate ,,xi      
,,gothic ,,vaults  ,illustration3       
,,plate ,,xi     ,,plate ,,xii  ,,gothic

 ,,vaults  ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii 
,,plates ,,xi ,,and ,,xii  ,,gothic     
,,vaults   ,stone-vaulted roofs became  
necessary in church building early in   
the ,norman period for security against 
fire4 ,they were made after the ,roman  
manner1 semicircular1 with similar      
vaults intersecting at right angles4    
,the lines of their intersections are   
the groins4 ,when two intersecting      
vaults are of equal semicircles1 each   
groin is a semi-ellipse4 ,this groin is 
the weakest part of the vault2 in order 
to strengthen it the ,normans built an  
arch called the groin rib1 underneath   
the groin1 to support it4 ,difficulties 
were met in forming intersecting vaults 
of unequal span1 clumsy contrivances    
were resorted to1 until1 in the         
,transition period1 #aade-aaij1 the     
introduction of the pointed arch solved 
the problem1 and led the way to the     
development of ,gothic vaulting4 ,the   
,roman and ,norman vaults were built    
upon temporary centering4 ,a centre is a

 timber frame made like a roof-truss    
shaped to the form of the arch2 a series
 of centres were placed at convenient   
distances apart and covered with strong 
boarding upon which the vault was built4
 ,after the masonry was completely set1 
the temporary centering was removed1    
leaving the vault to carry itself4  ,as 
the system of vaulting developed1 cross 
ribs and wall ribs 7,plate ,,xi41 ,fig4 
#c7 were added1 and much of the         
temporary centering was dispensed with2 
ornamental arrangements were designed by
 introducing more ribs1 and the web--the
 covering surface of masonry--was       
reduced to small panels in the          
,decorated and ,perpendicular periods4  
,in the ,tudor period1 #adhe-aeeh1 the  
web became the principal part1 the ribs 
being mere mouldings worked upon its    
surface in the form of fan-vaulting1 a  
simple example of which can be studied  
in the south porch of ,chester          
,cathedral1 and the most elaborate in   
the roof of the ,chapel of ,henry       

,,vii41 ,westminster ,abbey4  ,a bay of 
a cathedral is one of the spaces into   
which its length is divided by the      
supports of the roof as piers1 arches1  
or principals4 ,the bays of the aisles  
are usually square--those of the nave1  
choir1 or transepts rectangular on      
account of their greater width4         
,vertically each of the bays of the     
nave1 etc41 is divided into three       
stories 7,plate ,,xi41 ,fig4 #b71 the   
groundstory rising from the floor2 the  
triforium1 or blindstory1 having no     
windows1 is over the aisles1 and the    
clerestory over the triforium4 ,the     
prefix clere--bright--indicates the     
brilliancy of its light4  ,in the       
,norman period these three divisions    
were nearly equal in height4 ,in the    
succeeding periods the groundstory      
attained about half of the total height 
of the bay1 the clerestory was extended 
downwards1 and the triforium reduced1   
until1 in the ,perpendicular period1 it 
entirely disappeared4  ,plate ,,xi41    

,figs4 #c and #d1 show a few square bays
 of ,gothic vaulting in skeleton        
diagrams with the forms of plan         
indicated by dotted lines upon their    
base-planes4 ,all the lines represent   
ribs4  ,plate ,,xi41 ,figs4 #b and #c1  
show quadripartite vaulting--i4e41      
having four compartments in one bay4    
,this is the simplest form of ,gothic   
vault1 and belongs chiefly to the ,early
 ,english period4 ,the ribs ah1 bh1 ci1 
di are wall ribs2 bg1 cg1 ag1 dg1 are   
cross ribs2 ae1 ce1 be1 de1 are the     
diagonal ribs4 ,the ridge-ribs eg and h1
 e1 i1 are horizontal1 and intersect the
 summits of the cross ribs and          
diagonals4 ,at every intersection there 
is generally a carved keystone or boss4 
,in the vaulting of a nave the breadth  
across is about twice the breadth of the
 aisles1 so that the nave bays are not  
square1 but rectangular4  ,plate ,,xi41 
,fig4 #d1 and ,plate ,,xii41 ,fig4 #b1  
show lierne-vaulting1 having            
lierne-ribs1 the short ribs joining and 

supporting all the ascending ribs as h1 
k1 l1 m1 g4  ,plate ,,xii41 ,figs4 #b   
and #c1 are lierne vaults4 ,that shown  
in ,fig4 #c is under the belfry of a    
church tower at ,coventry1 with circular
 opening for hoisting the bells4  ,the  
detail at ,b shows the method of        
collecting the three ribs into one at   
the springers in the corners ,a1 ,b1 ,c1
 ,d1 by small arches in the tracery of  
ribs4  ,plate ,,xii41 ,fig4 #a1 shows   
fan-vaulting having no ribs4 ,the lines 
shown indicate mouldings on the masonry 
imitating ribs4 ,the structure is built 
up of slabs of stone1 accurately joined 
together forming concave half-cones1    
their vertices being the springers of   
the vault4 ,the dotted lines show some  
of the jointing2 the other lines        
represent the imitation ribs4 ,the crown
 of the vault is the flat surface gh1   
gi1 generally richly ornamented4        
,,index   ,abacus1 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,fig4 #a
  ,arcade 7,norman71 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,fig4 
#g   ,ball-,flower1 ,pl4 ,,vi41 ,fig4 #c

  ,band1 ,pl4 ,v41 ,figs4 #aj1 #aa      
,base1 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,figs4 #a1 #e       
,battlements1 ,pl4 ,,ix41 ,figs4 #d;,a1 
#d;,b  ,bay1 ,pl4 ,,xi41 ,fig4 #b       
,belfry ,windows1 ,pl4 ,,ix41 ,figs4 #a1
 #b  ,boss1 ,pl4 ,,xii41 ,figs4 #b1 #c  
,braces1 ,pl4 ,x41 ,figs4 #b1 #g        
,brattishing1 ,pl4 ,,viii41 ,fig4 #e    
,broach-,spire1 ,pl4 ,v41 ,fig4 #g      
,buttress1 ,pl4 ,v41 ,fig4 #i2 ,pl4     
,,vii41 ,fig4 #aj  ,buttress            
7,diagonal71 ,pl4 ,,ix41 ,figs4 #a1 #b  
,byzantine1 ,pl4 ,i41 ,figs4 #c to #af  
,byzantium1 p4 #ag   ,camber1 ,pl4 ,x41 
,figs4 #a1 #b1 p4 #fg  ,catacombs1 ,pl4 
,i41 ,fig4 #a  ,cathedral1 p4 #bi       
,centering1 p4 #ge  ,chamfer-,cusp1 ,pl4
 ,v41 ,fig4 #e  ,chevron1 ,pl4 ,i41     
,fig4 #d2 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,fig4 #f         
,chrism1 ,pl4 ,i41 ,figs4 #ae1 #af      
,clerestory1 ,pl4 ,,xi41 ,fig4 #b       
,collar1 ,pl4 ,x41 ,figs4 #b1 #e1 #g1 #h
  ,conventional1 p4 #dd  ,corbel        
,blocks1 ,pl4 ,,ii41 ,fig4 #c           
,corbel-,table1 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,fig4 #d   

,crocket1 ,pl4 ,v41 ,figs1 #a1 #b2 ,pl4 
,,vii41 ,figs4 #aj1 #aa1 #ad  ,crypt1   
,pl4 ,i41 ,fig4 #b  ,cushion ,capital1  
,pl4 ,,iii41 ,figs4 #b1 #h1 #i  ,cusp1  
,pl4 ,v41 ,fig4 #e  ,cylindrical        
,shafts1 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,fig4 #b          
,detached ,shafts1 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,fig4 #h
  ,dripstone1 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,figs4 #f1 #h
   ,engaged ,shafts1 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,fig4 
#h   ,fan-,vaulting1 ,pl4 ,,xii41 ,fig4 
#a  ,finial1 ,pl4 ,v41 ,fig4 #b2 ,pl4   
,,vii41 ,figs4 #f1 #aj1 #aa2 ,pl4       
,,viii41 ,fig4 #f  ,fish ,symbol1 ,pl4  
,i41 ,fig4 #aa  ,flowing ,tracery1 ,pl4 
,,vii41 ,figs4 #b1 #c                   
,flying-,buttress1 ,pl4 ,,vii41 ,fig4   
#aj  ,font 7,norman71 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,fig4
 #g   ,geometrical ,tracery1 ,pl4 ,v41  
,fig4 #e2 ,pl4 ,,vii41 ,fig4 #a  ,gothic
 ,arch1 ,pl4 ,,iv41 ,fig4 #b2 ,pl4 ,v41 
,figs4 #d1 #e  ,groin1 ,pl4 ,,xi41      
,figs4 #c1 #d1 p4 #ge  ,groundstory1    
,pl4 ,,xi41 ,fig4 #b   ,hammer-,beam1   
,pl4 ,x41 ,fig4 #g  ,hood-,moulding1    
,pl4 ,,iii41 ,figs4 #f1 #h   ,i4,h4,s41 

,pl4 ,i41 ,fig4 #c;,a   ,jamb-,shaft1   
,pl4 ,,iii41 ,fig4 #h   ,labarum1 ,pl4  
,i41 ,figs4 #ae1 #af  ,label1 ,pl4      
,,viii41 ,fig4 #d  ,lancet ,windows1    
,pl4 ,v41 ,fig4 #d  ,lierne-,vaulting1  
,pl4 ,,xi41 ,fig4 #d2 ,pl4 ,,xii41      
,figs4 #b1 #c  ,long-and-,short ,work1  
,pl4 ,,ii4   ,mullion1 ,pl4 ,,ix41      
,figs4 #a1 #c1 #e1 #f   ,nave1 ,pl4     
,,xi41 ,fig4 #a   ,ogee or ,ogival1 ,pl4
 ,,vi41 ,fig4 #b  ,open ,timber ,roof1  
,pl4 ,x41 ,figs4 #c to #h1 p4 #fg       
,orders of ,arches1 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,figs4 
#f1 #h   ,parapet1 ,pl4 ,,vi41 ,fig4 #f2
 ,pl4 ,,ix41 ,figs4 #a to #d  ,pier1    
,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #a  ,pinnacle1 ,pl4
 ,,vi41 ,fig4 #f2 ,pl4 ,,vii41 ,fig4    
#aj2 ,pl4 ,,ix41 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c      
,pitch of ,roof1 ,pl4 ,x4  ,pointed     
,arch1 pp4 #cg1 #ch  ,principal and     
,principal ,rafter1 ,pl4 ,x41 all ,figs4
  ,purlin1 ,pl4 ,x41 ,figs4 #a1 #b      
,quadripartite ,vaulting1 ,pl4 ,,xi41   
,fig4 #c  ,quatrefoil1 ,pl4 ,i41 ,figs4 
#i1 #aj  ,queen ,post1 ,pl4 ,x41 ,figs4 

#b1 #g1 #h  ,quoin1 ,pl4 ,,ii41 ,figs4  
#f to #i   ,rafters1 ,common1 ,pl4 ,x41 
,figs4 #a1 #b1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #h  ,respond1
 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,fig4 #c2 ,pl4 ,,xi41     
,fig4 #b1 p4 #ca  ,reticulated ,tracery1
 ,pl4 ,,vii41 ,fig4 #e   ,sacred        
,monogram1 ,pl4 ,i41 ,fig4 #c;,a        
,scallop ,capital1 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,fig4 #f
  ,scroll-,moulding1 ,pl4 ,,vii41 ,figs4
 #ab1 #ac  ,shaft1 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,fig4   
#b1 p4 #ca  ,sill1 ,pl4 ,,ii41 ,fig4 #c 
,soffit-,cusp1 ,pl4 ,v41 ,fig4 #e       
,spandril1 ,pl4 ,,viii41 ,fig4 #d1 p4   
#fj  ,springer1 ,pl4 ,,xii41 ,fig4 #c1  
detail  ,spur1 ,pl4 ,,iii41 ,fig4 #e    
,square and ,circle1 ,pl4 ,,iii41 p4 #cj
  ,squinch ,arches1 p4 #dc              
,stiff-,leaf1 ,pl4 ,v41 ,fig4 #h        
,string ,courses and ,dripstones1 ,pl4  
,,iv41 ,fig4 #d2     ,pl4 ,v41 ,fig4 #f2
 ,pl4 ,,vii41 ,fig4 #ab2 ,pl4 ,,viii41  
,fig4 #h  ,strut1 ,pl4 ,x41 ,figs4 #a1  
#b1 #g  ,studs1 ,pl4 ,,ii41 ,fig4 #c    
,symbols1 ,pl4 ,i4   ,tie-,beam1 ,pl4   
,x41 ,figs1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #h  ,tooth      

,ornament1 ,pl4 ,v41 ,fig4 #ab  ,tracery
 ,development1 ,pl4 ,v41 ,figs4 #d1 #e2 
,pl4 ,,vii41 ,figs4 #a to #e            
,transitional1 ,pl4 ,,iv4  ,transom1    
,pl4 ,,ix41 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 p4 #eh       
,trefoil1 ,pl4 ,i41 ,fig4 #g            
,triforium1 ,pl4 ,,xi41 ,fig4 #b        
,triquetra1 ,pl4 ,i41 ,fig4 #h2 ,pl4    
,,iii41 ,fig4 #i  ,truss1 ,pl4 ,x4      
,tudor ,arch1 ,pl4 ,,viii41 ,fig4 #d2   
,pl4 ,,ix41 ,fig4 #f  ,tudor ,flower1   
,pl4 ,,viii41 ,fig4 #b   ,vaulting      
,ribs1 ,pl4 ,,xii41 ,figs4 #b1 #c2 ,pl4 
,,xi41 ,figs4 #c1 #d  ,vesica ,piscis1  
,pl4 ,i41 ,fig4 #e   ,wall ,post1 ,pl4  
,x41 ,figs4 #c1 #g1 p4 #fh              
,wave--,moulding1 ,pl4 ,,vii41 ,fig4 #i 
,web 7,vaulting71 ,pl4 ,,xi41 ,figs4 #c1
 #d1 p4 #gf                             
,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,by   
,,billing ,,and ,,sons1 ,,ltd41         
,,guildford ,,and ,,esher