,transcriber's ,notes ,text between tildes represents text printed in blackletter1 text between underscores represents text printed in italics4 ,small capitals have been replaced by ,,all ,,capitals4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,illustration ,,milch ,,cows ,,and ,,dairy ,,farming2 ,,comprising ,,the ,,breeds1 ,,breeding1 ,,and ,,management1 ,,in ,,health ,,and ,,disease1 ,,of ,,dairy ,,and ,,other ,,stock1 ,,the ,,selection ,,of ,,milch ,,cows1 ,,with ,a ,,full ,,explanation ,,of ,,guenon',s ,,method2 ,,the ,,culture ,,of ,,forage ,,plants1 ,,and ,,the ,,production ,,of ,,milk1 ,,butter1 ,,and ,,cheese3 ,,embodying ,,the ,,most ,,recent ,,improvements1 ,,and ,,adapted ,,to ,,farming ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,and ,,british ,,provinces4 ,,with ,a ,,treatise ,,upon ,,the ,,dairy ,,husbandry ,,of ,,holland2 ,,to ,,which ,,is ,,added ,,horsfall',s ,,system ,,of ,,dairy ,,management4 ,,by ,,charles ,l4 ,,flint1 ,,secretary ,,of ,,the ,,massachusetts ,,state ,,board ,,of ,,agriculture2 ,,author ,,of 8,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,grasses ,,and ,,forage ,,plants10 ,,etc4 ,,liberally ,,illustrated4 ,,boston3 ,,phillips1 ,,sampson ,,and ,,company1 #ac ,,winter ,,street4 #ahei4 ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #aheh1 by ,,charles ,l4 ,,flint1 ,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,district of ,massachusetts4 ,stereotyped by ,,hobart ,a ,,robbins1 ,new ,england ,type and ,stereotype ,foundery1 ,,boston4 ,,printed ,,by ,r4 ,m4 ,,edwards4 ,,to ,,the ,,mass4 ,,state ,,board ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,the ,,mass4 ,,society ,,for ,,the ,,promotion ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,and ,,the ,,various ,,agricultural ,,societies ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states1 ,,whose ,,efforts ,,have ,,contributed ,,so ,,largely ,,to ,,improve ,,the ,,dairy ,,stock ,,of ,,our ,,country ,this ,treatise1 ,,designed ,,to ,,advance ,,that ,,highly ,,important ,,interest1 ,,is ,,respectfully ,,dedicated1 ,,by ,,the ,,author4 ,,contents4 ,,preface4 vii ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4--,,the ,,various ,,races ,,of ,,pure-,,bred ,,cattle ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 #i ,the ,ayrshires -- ,the ,jersey -- ,the ,short-horns -- ,the ,dutch -- ,herefords -- ,the ,north ,devons ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,american ,,grade ,,of ,,native ,,cattle4--,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,breeding4 #di ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,selection ,,of ,,milch ,,cows4 #gi ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,feeding ,,and ,,management ,,of ,,dairy ,,cows4 #aac ,soiling -- ,milking -- ,the ,barn ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,raising ,,of ,,calves4 #aee ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,culture ,,of ,,grasses ,,and ,,other ,,plants ,,recommended ,,for ,,fodder4 #afi ,timothy grass -- ,june grass -- ,meadow ,foxtail -- ,orchard grass1 or ,rough ,cocksfoot -- ,rough-stalked ,meadow grass -- ,fowl ,meadow grass -- ,rye grass -- ,italian ,rye grass -- ,redtop -- ,english ,bent -- ,meadow ,fescue -- ,tall ,oat grass -- ,sweet-scented ,vernal grass -- ,hungarian grass1 or ,millet -- ,red ,clover -- ,white ,clover -- ,indian ,corn -- ,common ,millet 7,panicum miliaceum7 -- ,rye -- ,oats -- ,chinese ,sugar-,cane -- ,the ,potato 7,solanum tuberosum7 -- ,the ,carrot 7,daucus carota7 -- ,turnip 7,brassica rapa7 -- ,mangold ,wurzel -- ,parsnip 7,pastinaca sativa7 -- ,kohl ,rabi 7,brassica oleracea1 var4 caulorapa7--,linseed ,meal-- ,rape-,cake -- ,cotton-seed ,meal -- ,manures ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,milk4 #aii ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,butter ,,and ,,the ,,butter-,,dairy4 #bag ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,cheese-,,dairy4 #bda ,cheshire ,cheese -- ,stilton ,cheese -- ,gloucester ,cheese -- ,cheddar ,cheese -- ,dunlop ,cheese -- ,dutch ,cheese -- ,parmesan -- ,american ,cheese ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,diseases ,,of ,,dairy ,,stock4 #bga ,garget -- ,puerperal or ,milk ,fever -- ,simple ,fever -- ,typhoid ,fever -- ,hoove or ,hoven -- ,choking -- ,foul in the ,foot -- ,red ,water -- ,hoose -- ,inflammation of the ,glands -- ,inflammation of the ,lungs -- ,diarrha -- ,dysentery -- ,mange -- ,lice -- ,warbles -- ,loss of ,cud -- ,diseases of ,calves -- ,diarrha1 ,purging1 or ,scours -- ,constipation or ,costiveness -- ,hoove -- ,canker in the ,mouth ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,dairy ,,husbandry ,,of ,,holland4 #bie ,milking and ,treatment of ,milk4 -- ,determination of the ,milking ,qualities of the ,cows -- ,treatment of ,milk for ,butter -- ,methods of ,churning -- ,churning in the ,common ,churn -- ,the ,lever ,churn -- ,churning with an ,elastic ,rod -- ,churning with the ,treadle ,lever -- ,churning by ,horse-power -- ,duration of the ,churning -- ,working and ,treatment of ,butter -- ,the ,form of ,fresh ,butter -- ,the ,packing of ,butter in ,firkins and ,barrels -- ,coloring of ,butter -- ,use of the ,butter-milk -- ,the ,manufacture of the different kinds of ,dutch ,cheese -- ,cheese-making in ,south ,holland -- ,manufacture of ,sweet ,milk ,cheese in ,south ,holland -- ,the ,use of the ,whey of ,sweet ,milk ,cheese -- ,may ,cheese -- ,jews' ,cheese -- ,council's ,cheese -- ,new ,milk's ,cheese -- ,cheese-making in ,north ,holland -- ,the ,utensils used in ,cheese-making in ,north ,holland -- ,variety of ,north ,dutch ,cheeses1 and the ,trade in them -- ,making of ,edam ,cheese -- ,the ,red ,color of ,edam ,cheese -- ,use of the ,whey of the ,north ,dutch ,sweet ,milk ,cheese ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,letter ,,to ,a ,,dairy-,,woman4 #cee ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,piggery ,,as ,a ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,dairy ,,establishment4 #cfa ,,appendix4 #cfe ,gain or ,loss of ,condition ascertained by weighing ,cattle ,periodically -- ,richness of ,milk and ,cream -- ,comparison of different methods of ,feeding ,dairy ,cows -- ,quality of ,butter ,,index4 #daa ,,preface4 ,this work is designed to embody the most recent information on the subject of dairy farming4 ,my aim has been to make a practically useful book4 ,with this view1 ,i have treated of the several breeds of stock1 the diseases to which they are subject1 the established principles of breeding1 the feeding and management of milch cows1 the raising of calves intended for the dairy1 and the culture of grasses and plants to be used as fodder4 ,for the chapter on the diseases of stock1 ,i am largely indebted to ,dr4 ,c4 ,m4 ,wood1 ,professor of the ,theory and ,practice of ,veterinary ,medicine1 and to ,dr4 ,geo4 ,h4 ,dadd1 ,professor of ,anatomy and ,physiology1 both of the ,boston ,veterinary ,institute4 ,if this chapter contributes anything to promote a more humane and judicious treatment of cattle when suffering from disease1 ,i shall feel amply repaid for the labor bestowed upon the whole work4 ,the chapter on the ,dutch dairy1 which ,i have translated from the ,german1 will be found to be of great practical value1 as suggesting much that is applicable to our ,american dairies4 ,this chapter has never before1 to my knowledge1 appeared in ,english4 ,the full and complete explanation of ,gunon's method of judging and selecting milch cows1--a method originally regarded as theoretical1 but now generally admitted to be very useful in practice1--,i have translated from the last edition of the treatise of ,m4 ,magne1 a very sensible ,french writer1 who has done good service to the agricultural public by the clearness and simplicity with which he has freed that system from its complicated details4 ,the work will be found to contain an account of the most enlightened practice in this country1 in the statements those actually engaged in dairy farming2 the details of the dairy husbandry of ,holland1 where this branch of industry is made a specialty to greater extent1 and is consequently carried to a higher degree of perfection1 than in any other part of the world2 and the most recent and productive modes of management in ,english dairy farming1 embracing a large amount of practical and scientific information1 not hitherto presented to the ,american public in an available form4 ,nothing need be said of the usefulness of a treatise on the dairy4 ,the number of milch cows in the country1 forming so large a part of our material wealth1 and serving as a basis for the future increase and improvement of every class of neat stock1 on which the prosperity of our agriculture mainly depends2 the intrinsic value of milk as an article of internal commerce1 and as a most healthy and nutritious food2 the vast quantity of it made into butter and cheese1 and used in every family2 the endless details of the management1 feeding1 and treatment1 of dairy stock1 and the care and attention requisite to obtain from this branch of farming the highest profit1 all concur to make the want of such a treatise1 adapted to our climate and circumstances1 felt not only by practical farmers1 but by a large class of consumers1 who can appreciate every improvement which may be made in preparing the products of the dairy for their use4 ,the writer has had some years of practical experience in the care of a cheese and butter dairy1 to which has been added a wide range of observation in some of the best dairy districts of the country2 and it is hoped that the work now submitted to the public will meet that degree of favor usually accorded to an earnest effort to do something to advance the cause of agriculture4 ,,dairy ,,farming ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4--,,the ,,various ,,races ,,of ,,pure-,,bred ,,cattle ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,the milking qualities of our domestic cows are1 to some extent1 artificial1 the result of care and breeding4 ,in the natural or wild state1 the cow yields only enough to nourish her offspring for a few weeks1 and then goes dry for several months1 or during the greater part of the year4 ,there is1 therefore1 a constant tendency to revert to that condition1 which is prevented only by judicious treatment1 designed to develop and increase the milking qualities so valuable to the human race4 ,if this judicious treatment is continued through several generations of the same family or race of animals1 the qualities which it is calculated to develop become more or less fixed1 and capable of transmission4 ,instead of being exceptional1 or peculiar to an individual1 they become the permanent characteristics of a breed4 ,hence the origin of a great variety of breeds or races1 the characteristics of each being due to local circumstances such as climate1 soil1 and the special objects of the breeder1 which may be the production of milk1 butter and cheese1 or the raising of beef or working cattle4 ,a knowledge of the history of different breeds1 and especially of the dairy breeds1 is of manifest importance4 ,though very excellent milkers will sometimes be found in all of them1 and of a great variety of forms1 the most desirable dairy qualities will generally be found to have become fixed and permanent characteristics of some to a greater extent than of others2 but it does not follow that a race whose milking qualities have not been developed is of less value for other purposes1 and for qualities which have been brought out with greater care4 ,a brief sketch of the principal breeds of ,american cattle1 as well as of the grades or the common stock of the country1 will aid the farmer1 perhaps1 in making an intelligent selection with reference to the special object of pursuit1 whether it be the dairy1 the production of beef1 or the raising of cattle for work4 ,in a subsequent chapter on the selections of milch cows1 the standard of perfection will be discussed in detail1 and the characteristics of each of the races will naturally be measured by that4 ,in this connection1 and as preliminary to the following sketches1 it may be stated that1 whatever breed may be selected1 a full supply of food and proper shelter are absolutely essential to the maintenance of any milking stock1 the food of which goes to supply not only the ordinary waste of the system common to all animals1 but also the milk secretions1 which are greater in some than in others4 ,a large animal on a poor pasture has to travel much further to fill itself than a small one4 ,a small or medium-sized cow would return more milk in proportion to the food consumed1 under such circumstances1 than a large one4 ,in selecting any breed1 therefore1 regard should be had to the circumstances of the farmer1 and the object to be pursued4 ,the cow most profitable for the milk-dairy may be very unprofitable in the butter and cheese dairy1 as well as for the production of beef2 while for either of the latter objects the cow which gave the largest quantity of milk might prove very unprofitable4 ,it is desirable to secure a union and harmony of all good qualities1 so far as possible2 and the farmer wants a cow that will milk well for some years1 and then1 when dry1 fatten readily1 and sell to the butcher for the highest price4 ,these qualities1 though often supposed to be incompatible1 will be found to be united in some breeds to a greater extent than in others2 while some peculiarities of form have been found1 by observation1 to be better adapted to the production of milk and beef than others4 ,this will appear in the following pages4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,ayrshire ,cow1 imported and owned by ,dr4 ,geo4 ,b4 ,loring1 ,salem1 ,mass4 ,,the ,,ayrshires are justly celebrated throughout ,great ,britain and this country for their excellent dairy qualities4 ,though the most recent in their origin1 they are pretty distinct from the other ,scotch and ,english races4 ,in color1 the pure ,ayrshires are generally red and white1 spotted or mottled1 not roan like many of the short-horns1 but often presenting a bright contrast of colors4 ,they are sometimes1 though rarely1 nearly or quite all red1 and sometimes black and white2 but the favorite color is red and white brightly contrasted1 and by some1 strawberry-color is preferred4 ,the head is small1 fine1 and clean2 the face long1 and narrow at the muzzle1 with a sprightly yet generally mild expression2 eye small1 smart1 and lively2 the horns short1 fine1 and slightly twisted upwards1 set wide apart at the roots2 the neck thin2 body enlarging from fore to hind quarters2 the back straight and narrow1 but broad across the loin2 joints rather loose and open2 ribs rather flat2 hind quarters rather thin2 bone fine2 tail long1 fine and bushy at the end2 hair generally thin and soft2 udder light color and capacious1 extending well forward under the belly2 teats of the cow of medium size1 generally set regularly and wide apart2 milk-veins prominent and well developed4 ,the carcass of the pure-bred ,ayrshire is light1 particularly the fore quarters1 which is considered by good judges as an index of great milking qualities2 but the pelvis is capacious and wide over the hips4 ,on the whole1 the ,ayrshire is good-looking1 but wants some of the symmetry and aptitude to fatten which characterize the short-horn1 which is supposed to have contributed to build up this valuable breed on the basis of the original stock of the county of ,ayr2 a county extending along the eastern shore of the ,frith of ,clyde1 in the south-western part of ,scotland1 and divided into three districts1 known as ,carrick1 ,cunningham1 and ,kyle3 the first famous as the lordship of ,robert ,bruce1 the last for the production of this1 one of the most remarkable dairy breeds of cows in the world4 ,the original stock of this county1 which undoubtedly formed the basis of the present ,ayrshire breed1 are described by ,aiton1 in his ,treatise on the ,dairy ,breed of ,cows1 as of a diminutive size1 ill fed1 ill shaped1 and yielding but a scanty return in milk4 ,they were mostly of a black color1 with large stripes of white along the chine and ridge of their backs1 about the flanks1 and on their faces4 ,their horns were high and crooked1 having deep ringlets at the root1--the plainest proof that the cattle were but scantily fed2 the chine of their backs stood up high and narrow2 their sides were lank1 short1 and thin2 their hides thick1 and adhering to their bones2 their pile was coarse and open2 and few of them yielded more than six or eight quarts of milk a day when in their best plight1 or weighed when fat more than from twelve to sixteen or twenty stones avoirdupois1 at eight pounds the stone1 sinking offal4 8,it was impossible10 he continues1 8that these cattle1 fed as they then were1 could be of great weight1 well shaped1 or yield much milk4 ,their only food in winter and spring was oat-straw1 and what they could pick up in the fields1 to which they were turned out almost every day1 with a mash of weak corn and chaff daily for a few days after calving2 and their pasture in summer was of the very worst quality1 and eaten so bare that the cattle were half starved1 and had the aspect of starvelings4 ,a wonderful change has since been made in the condition1 aspect1 and qualities1 of the ,ayrshire dairy stock4 ,they are not now the meagre1 unshapely animals they were about forty years ago2 but have completely changed into something as different from what they were then as any two breeds in the island can be from each other4 ,they are almost double the size1 and yield about four times the quantity of milk that the ,ayrshire cows then yielded4 ,they were not of any specific breed1 nor uniformity of shapes or color2 neither was there any fixed standard by which they could be judged40 ,aiton wrote in #ahae1 and even then the ,ayrshire cattle had been completely changed from what they were in #aggj1 and had1 to a considerable extent1 at least1 settled down into a breed with fixed characteristics1 distinguished especially for an abundant flow and a rich quality of milk4 ,a large part of the improvement then manifested was due to better feeding and care1 but much1 no doubt1 to judicious crossing4 ,strange as it may seem1 considering the modern origin of this breed1 8all that is certainly known is that a century ago there was no such breed as ,cunningham or ,ayrshire in ,scotland4 ,did the ,ayrshire cattle arise entirely from a careful selection of the best native breed8 ,if they did1 it is a circumstance unparalleled in the history of agriculture4 ,the native breed may be ameliorated by careful selection2 its value may be incalculably increased2 some good qualities1 some of its best qualities1 may be for the first time developed2 but yet there will be some resemblance to the original stock1 and the more we examine the animal the more clearly we can trace out the characteristic points of the ancestor1 although every one of them is improved40 ,aiton remembered well the time when some short-horn or ,dutch cattle1 as they were then called1 were procured by some gentlemen in ,scotland1 and particularly by one ,john ,dunlop1 of ,cunningham1 who brought some ,dutch cows--doubtless short-horns--to his byres soon after the year #agfj4 ,as they were then provided with the best of pasture1 and the dairy was the chief object of the neighborhood1 these cattle soon excited attention1 and the small farmers began to raise up crosses from them4 ,this was in ,cunningham1 one of the districts of ,ayrshire1 and ,mr4 ,dunlop's were1 without doubt1 among the first of the stranger breed that reached that region4 ,about #agej1 a little previous to the above date1 the ,earl of ,marchmont bought of the ,bishop of ,durham several cows and a bull of the ,teeswater breed1 all of a brown color spotted with white1 and kept them some time at his seat in ,berwickshire4 ,his lordship had extensive estates in ,kyle1 another district of ,ayrshire1 and thither his factor1 ,bruce ,campbell1 took some of the ,teeswater breed and kept them for some time1 and their progeny spread over various parts of ,ayrshire4 ,a bull1 after serving many cows of the estates already mentioned1 was sold to a ,mr4 ,hamilton1 in another quarter of ,ayrshire1 and raised a numerous offspring4 ,about the year #agfg1 also1 ,john ,orr sent from ,glasgow to his estate in ,ayrshire some fine milch cows1 of a much larger size than any then in that region4 ,one of them cost six pounds1 which was more than twice the price of the best cow in that quarter4 ,these cows were well fed1 and of course yielded a large return of milk2 and the farmers1 for miles around1 were eager to get their calves to raise4 ,about the same time1 also1 a few other noblemen and gentlemen1 stimulated by example1 bought cattle of the same appearance1 in color brown spotted with white1 all of them larger than the native cattle of the county1 and when well fed yielding much larger quantities of milk1 and their calves were all raised4 ,bulls of their breed and color were preferred to all others4 ,from the description given of these cattle1 there is no doubt that they were the old ,teeswater1 or ,dutch2 the foundation1 also1 according to the best authorities1 of the modern improved short-horns4 ,with them and the crosses obtained from them the whole county gradually became stocked1 and supplied the neighboring counties1 by degrees1 till at present the whole region1 comprising the counties of ,ayr1 ,renfrew1 ,lanark1 ,dumbarton1 and ,stirling1 and more than a fourth part of the whole population of ,scotland1 a large proportion of which is engaged in manufactures and commercial or mechanical pursuits1 furnishing a ready market for milk and butter1 is almost exclusively stocked with ,ayrshires4 ,the cross with larger cattle and the natives of ,ayrshire produced1 for many years1 an ugly-looking beast1 and the farmers were long in finding out that they had violated one of the plain principles of breeding in coupling a large and small breed so indiscriminately together1 especially in the use of bulls proportionately larger than the cows to which they were put4 ,they did not then understand that no crosses could be made in that way to increase the size of a race1 without a corresponding increase in the feed2 and many very ill-shaped animals were the consequence of ignorance of a natural law4 ,they made large bones1 but they were never strong and vigorous in proportion to their size4 ,trying to keep large animals on poor pasture produced the same effect4 ,the results of first crosses were therefore very unsatisfactory2 but gradually better feeding and a reduction in size came to their aid1 while in the course of years more enlightened views of farming led to higher cultivation1 and consequently to higher and better care and attention to stock4 ,the effect of crosses with the larger ,teeswater or short-horn was not so disastrous in ,ayrshire as in some of the mountain breeds1 whose feed was far less1 while their exposure on high and short pastures was greater4 ,the climate of ,ayrshire is moist and mild1 and the soil rich1 clayey1 and well adapted to pasturage1 but difficult to till4 ,the cattle are naturally hardy and active1 and capable of enduring severe winters1 and of easily regaining condition with the return of spring and good feed4 ,the pasture-land of the county is devoted to dairy stock1--chiefly for making butter and cheese1 a small part only being used for fattening cows when too old to keep for the dairy4 ,the breed has undergone very marked improvements since ,aiton wrote1 in #ahae4 ,the local demand for fresh dairy products has very naturally taxed the skill and judgment of the farmers and dairy-men to the utmost1 through a long course of years2 and thus the remarkable milking qualities of the ,ayrshires have been developed to such a degree that they may be said to produce a larger quantity of rich milk and butter in proportion to the food consumed1 or the cost of production1 than any other of the pure-bred races4 ,the owners of dairies in the county of ,ayr and the neighborhood were generally small tenants1 who took charge of their stock themselves1 saving and breeding from the offspring of good milkers1 and drying off and feeding such as were found to be unprofitable for milk1 for the butcher2 and thus the production of milk and butter has for many years been the leading object with the owners of this breed1 and symmetry of form and perfection of points for any other object have been very much disregarded1 or1 if regarded at all1 only from this one point of view--the production of the greatest quantity of rich milk4 ,the manner in which this result has been brought about may further be seen in a remark of ,aiton1 who says that the ,ayrshire farmers prefer their dairy bulls according to the feminine aspect of their heads and necks1 and wish them not round behind1 but broad at the hook-bones and hips1 and full in the flanks4 ,this was more than forty years ago1 and under such circumstances1 and with such care in the selection of bulls and cows with reference to one specific object1 it is not surprising that we find a breed now wholly unsurpassed when the quantity and quality of their produce is considered with reference to their proportional size and the food they consume4 ,the ,ayrshire cow has been known to produce over ten imperial gallons of good milk a day4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,ayrshire ,bull 8,,albert10 ,imported and owned by the ,mass4 ,soc4 for ,promoting ,agriculture4 ,a cow-feeder in ,glasgow1 selling fresh milk1 is said to have realized two hundred and fifty dollars in seven months from one good cow2 and it is stated1 on high authority1 that a dollar a day for six months of the year is no uncommon income from good cows under similar circumstances1 and that seventy-five cents a day is below the average4 ,but this implies high and judicious feeding1 of course3 the average yield1 on ordinary feed1 would be considerably less4 ,youatt estimates the daily yield of an ,ayrshire cow1 for the first two or three months after calving1 at five gallons a day1 on an average2 for the next three months1 at three gallons2 and for the next four months1 at one gallon and a half4 ,this would be #hej gallons as the annual average of a cow2 but allowing for some unproductive cows1 he estimates the average of a dairy at #fjj gallons per annum for each cow4 ,three gallons and a half of the ,ayrshire cow's milk will yield one and a half pounds of butter4 ,he therefore reckons #beg pounds of butter1 or #ead pounds of cheese1 at the rate of #bd pounds to #bh gallons of milk1 as the yield of every cow1 at a fair and perhaps rather low average1 in an ,ayrshire dairy1 during the year4 ,aiton sets the yield much higher1 saying that 8thousands of the best ,ayrshire dairy-cows1 when in prime condition and well fed1 produce #ajjj gallons of milk per annum2 that in general three and three quarters to four gallons of their milk will yield a pound and a half of butter2 and that #bg gallons of their milk will make #ba pounds of full-milk cheese40 ,mr4 ,rankin puts it lower--at about #fej to #gjj gallons to each cow2 on his own farm of inferior soil1 his dairy produced an average of #eej gallons only4 ,one of the four cows originally imported into this country by ,john ,p4 ,cushing1 ,esq41 of ,massachusetts1 gave in one year #chfd quarts1 beer measure1 or about #iff gallons1 at ten pounds to the gallon1 being an average of over ten and a half beer quarts a day for the whole year4 ,it is asserted1 on good authority1 that the first ,ayrshire cow imported by the ,massachusetts ,society for the ,promotion of ,agriculture1 in #ahcg1 yielded sixteen pounds of butter a week1 for several weeks in succession1 on grass feed only4 ,these yields are not so large as those stated by ,aiton2 but it should1 perhaps1 be recollected that our climate is less favorable to the production of milk than that of ,england and ,scotland1 and that no cow imported after arriving at maturity could be expected to yield as much1 under the same circumstances1 as one bred on the spot where the trial is made1 and perfectly acclimated4 ,in a series of experiments on the ,earl of ,chesterfield's dairy farm1 at ,bradley ,ball1 interesting as giving positive data on which to form a judgment as to the yield1 it was found that1 in the height of the season1 the ,holderness cows gave #g gallons #a quart per diem2 the long-horns and ,alderneys1 #d gallons #c quarts2 the ,devons1 #d gallons #a quart2 and that1 when made into butter the above quantities gave1 respectively1 #ch ounces1 #bh ounces1 and #be ounces4 ,the ,ayrshire1 a cow far smaller than the ,holderness1 at #e gallons of milk and #cd ounces of butter per day1 gives a fair average as to yield of milk1 and an enormous production of butter1 giving within #d ounces as much from her #e gallons as the ,holderness from her #g gallons #a quart2 her rate being nearly #g ounces to the gallon1 while that of the ,holderness is considerably under #f ounces4 ,the evidence of a large and practical dairyman is certainly of the highest value2 and in this connection it may be stated that ,mr4 ,harley1 the author of the ,harleian ,dairy ,system1 who established the celebrated ,willowbank ,dairy1 in ,glasgow1 and who kept1 at times1 from two hundred and sixty to three hundred cows1 always using the utmost care in selection1 says that he had cows1 by way of experiment1 from different parts of the united kingdom4 ,he purchased ten at one ,edinburgh market1 of the large short-horned breed1 at twenty pounds each1 but these did not give more milk1 nor better in quality1 than ,ayrshire cows that were bought at the same period for thirteen pounds a head2 and1 on comparison1 it was found that the latter were much cheaper kept1 and that they improved much more in beef and fat in proportion to their size1 than the high-priced cows4 ,a decided preference was therefore given to the improved ,ayrshire breed1 from seven to ten years old1 and from eight to twenty pounds a head4 ,prime young cows were too high-priced for stall feeding2 old cows were generally the most profitable in the long run1 especially if they were not previously in good keeping4 ,the cows were generally bought when near calving1 which prevented the barbarous practice called hafting1 or allowing the milk to remain upon the cow for a considerable time before she is brought to the market4 ,this base and cruel custom is always pernicious to the cow1 and in consequence of it she seldom recovers her milk for the season4 ,the middling and large sizes of cows were preferred1 such as weighed from thirty-five to fifty stone1 or from five hundred to eight hundred pounds4 ,according to ,mr4 ,harley1 the most approved shape and marks of a good dairy cow are as follows3 ,head small1 long1 and narrow towards the muzzle2 horns small1 clear1 bent1 and placed at considerable distance from each other2 eyes not large1 but brisk and lively2 neck slender and long1 tapering towards the head1 with a little loose skin below2 shoulders and fore quarters light and thin2 hind quarters large and broad2 back straight1 and joints slack and open2 carcass deep in the rib2 tail small and long1 reaching to the heels2 legs small and short1 with firm joints2 udder square1 but a little oblong1 stretching forward1 thin-skinned and capacious1 but not low hung2 teats or paps small1 pointing outwards1 and at a considerable distance from each other2 milk-veins capacious and prominent2 skin loose1 thin1 and soft like a glove2 hair short1 soft1 and woolly2 general figure1 when in flesh1 handsome and well proportioned4 ,if this description of the ,ayrshire cow be correct1 it will be seen that her head and neck are remarkably clean and fine1 the latter swelling gradually towards the shoulders1 both parts being unincumbered with superfluous flesh4 ,the same general form extends backwards1 the forequarters being light1 the shoulders thin1 and the carcass swelling out towards the hind quarters1 so that standing in front of her it has the form of a blunted wedge4 ,such a structure indicates very fully developed digestive organs1 which exert a powerful influence on the exercise of all the functions of the body1 and especially on the secretion of the milky glands1 accompanied with milk-veins and udder partaking of the same character as the stomach and viscera1 being large and capacious1 while the external skin and interior walls of the milk-glands are thin and elastic1 and all parts arranged in a manner especially calculated for the production of milk4 ,a cow with these marks will generally be of a quiet and docile temper1 which greatly enhances her value4 ,a cow that is of a quiet and contented disposition feeds at ease1 is milked with ease1 and yields more than one of an opposite temperament2 while after she is past her usefulness as a milker she will easily take on fat1 and make fine beef and a good quantity of tallow1 because she feeds freely1 and when dry the food which went to make milk is converted into fat and flesh4 ,but there is no breed of cows with which gentleness of treatment is so indispensable as with the ,ayrshire1 on account of her naturally nervous temperament4 ,if she receives other than kind and gentle treatment1 she will often resent it with angry looks and gestures1 and withhold her milk2 and if such treatment is long continued1 will dry up2 but she willingly and easily yields it to the hand that fondles her1 and all her looks and movements towards her friends are quiet and mild4 ,as already remarked1 the ,ayrshires in their native country are generally bred for the dairy1 and no other object2 and the cows have obtained a just and world-wide reputation for this quality4 ,the oxen are1 however1 very fitly as working cattle1 though they cannot be said to excel other breeds in this respect4 ,the ,ayrshire steer may be fed and turned at three years old1 but for feeding purposes the ,ayrshires are greatly improved by a cross with the short-horns1 provided regard is had to the size of the animals4 ,it is the opinion of good breeders that a high-bred short-horn bull and a large-sized ,ayrshire cow will produce a calf which will come to maturity earlier1 and attain greater weight1 and sell for more money1 than a pure-bred ,ayrshire4 ,this cross1 with feeding from the start1 may be sold fat at two or three years old1 the improvement being especially seen in the earlier maturity and the size4 ,even ,youatt1 who maintains that the fattening properties of the ,ayrshires have been somewhat exaggerated1 admits that they will fatten kindly and profitably1 and that their meat will be good2 while he also asserts that they unite1 perhaps1 to a greater degree than any other breed1 the supposed incompatible qualities of yielding a great deal of milk and beef4 ,in the cross with the short-horn1 the form becomes ordinarily more symmetrical1 while there is1 perhaps1 little risk of lessening the milking qualities of the offspring1 if sufficient regard is paid to the selection of the individual animals to breed from4 ,it is thought by some that in the breeding of animals it is the male which gives the external form1 or the bony and muscular system of the young1 while the female imparts the respiratory organs1 the circulation of the blood1 the mucous membranes1 the organs of secretion1 c4 ,if this principle is true1 it follows that the milking qualities come chiefly from the mother1 and that the bull can not materially alter the conditions which determine the transmission of these qualities1 especially when they are as strongly marked as they are in the ,ayrshire or the ,jersey races4 ,others1 however1 maintain that it is more important to the perfection of their dairy to make a good choice of bulls than of heifers1 because the property of giving much milk is more surely transmitted by the male than the female4 ,others still maintain that both parents are represented in the offspring1 but that it is impossible to say beforehand what parts of the derivative system are to be ascribed to the one parent and what to the other1 and that there is a blending and interfusion of the qualities of both which prevent the body of their progeny being mapped out into distinct regions1 or divided into separate sets of organs1 of which we can say1 8,this is from the father1 that from the mother40 ,till this question is settled1 it is safe1 in breeding for the dairy1 to adhere to the rule of selecting only animals whose progenitors on both sides have been distinguished for their milking qualities4 ,but where the history of either is unknown1 a resort to a well-known breed1 remarkable for its dairy qualities1 is of no small importance2 since1 though the immediate ancestors of a male may not be known1 if he belongs to a dairy breed1 it is fair to presume that his progenitors were milkers4 ,a study and comparison of the size and form of the milk mirror1 and other points1 indicated by ,gunon1 on a subsequent page1 are worthy of careful consideration in selecting animals to breed from for the dairy1 not only among pure-bred animals1 but especially in crossing4 ,in the scale of points adopted in ,england and this country as the standard of perfection for an ,ayrshire cow1 the udder1 on which ,gunon placed so much reliance1 is valued at twelve times as much as that of the ,devon1 8because10 as the judges affirm1 8the ,ayrshires have been bred almost exclusively with reference to their milking properties40 ,we must conclude1 then1 that 8for purely dairy purposes the ,ayrshire cow deserves the first place4 ,in consequence of her small1 symmetrical1 and compact body1 combined with a well-formed chest and a capacious stomach1 there is little waste1 comparatively speaking1 through the respiratory system2 while1 at the same time1 there is very complete assimilation of the food1 and thus she converts a large proportion of her food into milk4 ,so remarkable is this fact1 that all dairy farmers who have any experience on the point agree in stating that an ,ayrshire cow generally gives a larger return of milk for the food consumed than a cow of any other breed4 ,the absolute quantity may not be so great1 but it is obtained at a less cost2 and this is the point upon which the question of profit depends40 ,i have dwelt thus at length upon this race for the reason that it is preeminently a dairy breed1 surpassing all other pure breeds in the production of rich milk and butter on soils of medium fertility1 and admirably adapted1 in my opinion1 to raise the character of our stock to a higher standard of excellence4 ,the best milkers ,i have ever known1 in the course of my own observations1 were grade ,ayrshires1 larger in size than the pure bloods1 but still sufficiently high grades to give certain signs of their origin4 ,i have owned several such1 which were all good cows4 ,this grade would seem to possess the advantage of combining1 to some extent1 the two qualities of milking and adaptation to beef2 and this is no small recommendation of the stock to farmers situated as ,american farmers are1 who wish for milk for some years and then to turn over to the butcher4 ,,the ,,jersey cattle have now become widely known in this country4 ,many of them have been imported from an island of the same name in the ,british ,channel1 near the coast of ,france1 and they may now be considered1 ,i think1 as fully acclimated4 ,they were first introduced over thirty years ago1 from the channel islands ,alderney1 ,guernsey1 and ,jersey4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,jersey ,cow4#a #a ,see page #cj4 ,the opinions of practical men differ widely as to the comparative merits of this race1 and its adaptation to our climate and to the wants of our farmers4 ,the most common decision1 prevailing among many even of the best judges of stock1 appears to be1 that1 however desirable the cows may be on the lawn or in a gentleman's park1 they are wholly unsuited to the general wants of the practical farmer4 ,this may or may not be the case4 ,if the farmer keeps a dairy farm and sells only milk1 the quantity and not the quality of which is his chief care1 he can satisfy himself better with some other breed4 ,if otherwise situated1--if he devotes his time to the making of butter for the supply of customers who are willing to pay for a good article1--he may very properly consider whether a few ,jerseys1 or an infusion of ,jersey blood1 may not be desirable4 ,haxton calls the ,jersey cow the cheese and butter dairyman's friend when her milk is diluted with that of ten or a dozen ordinary cows1 and his enemy if he should attempt to make either cheese or butter solely from her produce1 as1 from the excessive richness of the milk1 neither will keep long2 and1 finally1 an ornament to the rich man's lawn1 yet in aspect altogether devoid of those rounded outlines which constitute the criterion of animal beauty4 ,the ,jersey race is supposed to have been derived originally from ,normandy1 in the northern part of ,france4 ,the cows have been long celebrated for the production of very rich milk and cream1 but till within a quarter of a century they were comparatively coarse1 ugly1 and ill-shaped4 ,improvements have been very marked1 but the form of the animal is still far from satisfying the eye4 ,the head of the pure ,jersey is fine and tapering1 the cheek small1 the throat clean1 the muzzle fine and encircled with a light stripe1 the nostril high and open2 the horns smooth1 crumpled1 not very thick at the base1 tapering1 and tipped with black2 ears small and thin1 deep orange color inside2 eyes full and placid2 neck straight and fine2 chest broad and deep2 barrel hooped1 broad and deep1 well ribbed up2 back straight from the withers to the hip1 and from the top of the hip to the setting on of the tail2 tail fine1 at right angles with the back1 and hanging down to the hocks2 skin thin1 light color and mellow1 covered with fine soft hair2 fore legs short1 straight and fine below the knee1 arm swelling and full above2 hind quarters long and well filled2 hind legs short and straight below the hocks1 with bones rather fine1 squarely placed1 and not too close together2 hoofs small2 udder full in size1 in line with the belly1 extending well up behind2 teats of medium size1 squarely placed and wide apart1 and milk-veins very prominent4 ,the color is generally cream1 dun1 or yellow1 with more or less white1 and the fine head and neck give the cows and heifers a fawn-like appearance1 and make them objects of attraction in the park2 but the hind quarters are often too narrow to look well1 particularly to those who judge animals from the amount of fat they carry4 ,we should bear in mind1 however1 that a good race of animals is not always the most beautiful1 as that term is commonly understood4 ,beauty in stock has no fixed standard4 ,in the estimation of some1 it results mainly from fine forms1 small bones1 and close1 compact frames2 while others consider that structure the most perfect1 and therefore the most beautiful1 which is best adapted to the use to which it is destined4 ,according to the latter1 beauty is relative4 ,it is not the same in an animal designed for beef and in one designed fer the dairy or for work4 ,the beauty of a milch cow is the result of her good qualities4 ,large milkers are very rarely cows that please the eye of any but a skilful judge4 ,they are generally poor1 because their food goes mainly to the production of milk1 and because they are selected with less regard to form than to good milking qualities4 ,we meet with good milkers of all forms1 from the round1 close-built ,devon to the coarsest-boned scrub2 but1 with all their varieties of form and structure1 good cows will usually possess certain points of similarity and well-known marks by which they are known to the eyes of the judge4 ,it is asserted by ,colonel ,le ,couteur1 of the island of ,jersey1 that1 contrary to the general opinion here1 the ,jersey cow1 when old and no longer wanted as a milker1 will1 when dry and fed1 fatten rapidly1 and produce a good quantity and excellent quality of butcher's meat4 ,an old cow1 he says1 was put up to fatten in ,october1 #ahej1 weighing #aabe pounds1 and when killed1 the #fth of ,january1 #ahea1 she weighed #accj pounds2 having gained #bje pounds in ninety-eight days1 on twenty pounds of hay1 a little wheat-straw1 and thirty pounds of roots1 consisting of carrots1 ,swedes1 and marigold wurzel1 a day4 ,the prevailing opinion as to the beauty of the ,jersey is based on the general appearance of the cow in milk1 no experiments in feeding exclusively for beef having been made1 to my knowledge1 and no opportunity to form a correct judgment from actual observation having been furnished2 and it must be confessed that the general appearance would amply justify the hasty conclusion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,jersey ,bull4 ,the bulls are usually very different in character and disposition from the cows1 and are much inclined to become restive and cross at the age of two or three years1 unless their treatment is uniformly gentle and firm4 ,the accompanying figure very accurately represents one of the best animals of the race in the vicinity of ,boston1 which has been pronounced by good judges a model of a bull for a dairy breed4 ,the beautiful ,jersey cow 8,flirt10 figured on page #bf1 received the first prize at the ,fair of the ,massachusetts ,state ,board of ,agriculture in #aheg1 which brought together the largest and finest collection of ,jersey cattle ever made in this country4 ,she is well-shaped1 and a very superior dairy cow4 ,her dam1 ,flora1 was very remarkable for the richness of her milk and the quantity of her butter1 having made no less than five hundred and eleven pounds in one year1 without extra feeding4 ,from what has been said it is evident that the ,jersey is to be regarded as a dairy breed1 and that almost exclusively4 ,it is evident1 too1 that it would not be sought for large dairies kept for the supply of milk to cities2 for1 though the quality would gratify the customer1 the quantity would not satisfy the owner4 ,the place of the ,jersey cow is rather in private establishments1 where the supply of cream and butter is a sufficient object1 or1 in limited numbers1 to add richness to the milk of large butter dairies4 ,even one or two good ,jersey cows with a herd of fifteen or twenty1 will make a great difference in the quality of the milk and butter of the whole establishment2 and they would probably be profitable for this1 if for no other object4 99 99 99 99 99 ,other breeds are somewhat noted in ,great ,britain for their excellent dairy qualities1 and among them might be named the ,yorkshire and the ,kerry2 but they have never been introduced into this country to any extent2 or1 if they ever were1 no traces of them as a distinct breed can now be found here4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,short-horn ,cow ,,the ,,short-,,horns4--,no breed of horned cattle has commanded more universal admiration during the last half-century than the improved ,short-horns1 whose origin can be traced back for nearly a hundred years4 ,according to the best authorities1 the stock which formed the basis of improvement existed equally in ,yorkshire1 ,lincolnshire1 ,northumberland1 and counties adjoining2 and the preminence was accorded to ,durham1 which gave its name to the race1 from the more correct principles of breeding which seem to have prevailed there4 ,there is a dispute among the most eminent breeders as to how far it owes its origin to early importations from ,holland1 whence many superior animals were brought for the purpose of improving the old long-horned breed4 ,a large race of cattle had existed for many years on the western shores of the continent of ,europe4 ,at a very early date1 as early as #afcc1 they were imported from ,denmark into ,new ,england in considerable numbers1 and thus laid the foundation of a valuable stock in this country4 ,they extended along the coast1 it is said1 through ,holland to ,france4 ,the dairy formed a prominent branch of farming at a very early date in ,holland1 and experience led to the greatest care in the choice and breeding of dairy stock4 ,from these cattle many selections were made to cross over to the counties of ,york and ,durham4 ,the prevailing color of the large ,dutch cattle was black and white1 beautifully contrasted4 ,the cattle produced by these crosses a century ago were known under the name of 8,dutch40 ,the cows selected for crossing with the early imported ,dutch bulls were generally long-horned1 large-boned1 coarse animals1 a fair type of which was found in the old 8,holderness0 breed of ,yorkshire1--slow feeders1 strong in the shoulder1 defective in the fore quarter1 and not very profitable for the butcher1 their meat being 8coarse to the palate and uninviting to the eye40 ,their milking qualities were good1 surpassing1 probably1 those of the improved short-horns4 ,whatever may be the truth with regard to these crosses1 and however far they proved effective in creating or laying the foundation of the modern improved short-horns1 the results of the efforts made in ,yorkshire and some of the adjoining counties were never so satisfactory to the best judges as those of the breeders along the ,tees1 who selected animals with greater reference to fineness of bone and symmetry of form1 and the animals they bred soon took the lead1 and excited great emulation in improvement4 ,the famous bull 8,hubback10 bred by ,mr4 ,turner1 of ,hurworth1 and subsequently owned by ,mr4 ,colling1 laid the foundation of the celebrity of the short-horns1 and it is the pride of short-horn breeders to trace back to him4 ,he was calved in #aggg1 and his descendants1 ,foljambe1 ,bolingbroke1 ,favorite1 and ,comet1 permanently fixed the characteristics of the breed4 ,comet was so highly esteemed among breeders1 that he sold at one thousand guineas1 or over five thousand dollars4 ,hubback is thought by some to have been a pure short-horn1 and by others a grade or mixture4 ,many breeders had labored long previous to the brothers ,charles and ,robert ,colling1 especially on the old ,teeswater short-horns2 yet a large share of the credit of improving and establishing the reputation of the improved short-horns is generally accorded to the ,collings4 ,certain it is that the spirit and discrimination with which they selected and bred soon became known1 and a general interest was awakened in the breed at the time of the sale of ,charles ,colling's herd1 ,october #aa1 #ahaj4 ,it was then that ,mr4 ,bates1 of ,kirkleavington1 purchased the celebrated heifer ,duchess ,i41 whose family sold1 in #ahej1 after his decease1 at an average of one hundred and sixteen pounds five shillings per head1 including young calves4 ,many representatives of the ,duchess family1 which laid the foundation of ,mr4 ,bates' success as a breeder1 have been brought to this country4 ,they may1 perhaps1 be regarded as an exception to the modern improved short-horns1 their milking qualities being generally very superior4 ,the sale referred to1 and those of ,r4 ,colling's herd1 in #ahah1 and that of ,lord ,spencer1 in #ahdf1 as well as that of the ,kirkleavington herd1 in #ahej1 and especially that of the herd of ,lord ,ducie1 two years later1 are marked eras in the history of improved short-horns2 and through these sales1 and the universal enthusiasm awakened by them1 the short-horns have become more widely spread ever ,great ,britain1 and more generally fashionable1 than any other breed4 ,they have also been largely introduced into ,france by the government1 for the improvement of the various ,french breeds by crossing1 and into nearly every quarter of the civilized world4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,short-horn ,bull 8,,double ,,duke10 7#adea ,am4 ,h4 ,book17 ,owned by ,harvest ,club1 ,springfield4 ,importations have been frequent and extensive into the ,united ,states within the last few years1 and this famous breed is now pretty generally diffused over the country4 ,the use of the early-imported short-horn bulls and native cows led to the formation of many families of grades1 some of them bred back to the sire1 and others crossed high up1 which have attained a very considerable local reputation in many sections4 ,as instances of this1 may be mentioned the ,creampot stock1 obtained by ,col4 ,jaques from a short-horn bull1 ,clebs1 and a superior native cow4 ,a family of fine milkers still exists in ,massachusetts1 known by the name of the 8,sukey breed10 supposed to have been derived from 8,denton10 a very superior animal imported by ,mr4 ,williams1 of ,northboro'1 some forty years ago4 ,many of the best milkers of that section can be traced back to him4 ,the ,patton stock1 originally imported into ,maryland and ,virginia1 in #aghc1 and thence to ,kentucky1 may be classed in the same category4 ,a part of these were at first known as the 8milk breed10 and others as the 8beef breed30 the first short-horns1 at that time good milkers1 and the latter long-horns1 of large size and coarse in the bone4 ,in ,kentucky they were all known as the ,patton stock4 ,the high-bred short-horn is easily prepared for a show1 and1 as fat will cover faults1 the temptation is often too great to be resisted2 and hence it is common to see the finest animals rendered unfit for breeding purposes by over-feeding4 ,the race is susceptible of breeding for the production of milk1 as several families show1 and great milkers have often been known among pure-bred animals2 but it is more common to find it bred mainly for the butcher1 and kept accordingly4 ,it is1 however1 a well-known fact that the dairies of ,london are stocked chiefly with short-horns and ,yorkshires1 or high grades between them1 which1 after being milked as long as profitable1 feed equal1 or nearly so1 to pure-bred short-horns4 ,it has been said1 by very high authority1 that 8the short-horns improve every breed they cross with40 ,the desirable characteristics of the short-horn bull may be summed up1 according to the judgment of the best breeders1 as follows3 ,he should have a short but fine head1 very broad across the eyes1 tapering to the nose1 with a nostril full and prominent2 the nose itself should be of a rich flesh-color2 eyes bright and mild2 ears somewhat large and thin2 horns slightly curved and rather flat1 well set on a long1 broad1 muscular neck2 chest wide1 deep1 and projecting2 shoulders fine1 oblique1 well formed into the chine2 fore legs short1 with upper arm large and powerful2 barrel round1 deep1 well ribbed home2 hips wide and level2 back straight from the withers to the setting on of the tail1 but short from hip to chine2 skin soft and velvety to the touch2 moderately thick hair1 plentiful1 soft1 and mossy4 ,the cow has the same points in the main1 but her head is finer1 longer1 and more tapering1 neck thinner and lighter1 and shoulders more narrow across the chine4 ,the astonishing precocity of the short-horns1 their remarkable aptitude to fatten1 the perfection of their forms1 and the fineness of their bony structure1 give them an advantage over most other races when the object of breeding is for the shambles4 ,no animal of any other breed can so rapidly transform the stock of any section around him as the improved short-horn bull4 ,but it does not follow that the high-bred short-horns are unexceptionable even for beef4 ,the very exaggeration1 so to speak1 of the qualities which make them so valuable for the improvement of other and less perfect races1 may become a fault when wanted for the table4 ,the very rapidity with which they increase in size is thought by some to prevent their meat from ripening up sufficiently before being hurried off to the butcher4 ,the disproportion of the fatty to the muscular flesh1 found in this to a greater extent than in races coming slower to maturity1 makes the meat of the thorough-bred short-horn1 in the estimation of some1 both less agreeable to the taste and less profitable to the consumer1 since the nitrogenous compounds1 true sources of nutriment1 are found in less quantity than in the meat of animals not so highly bred4 ,but the improved short-horn is justly unrivalled for symmetry of form and beauty4 ,i have never seen a picture or an engraving of an animal which gave an adequate idea of the beauty of many specimens of this race1 especially of the best bred in ,kentucky and ,ohio1 where many excellent breeders1 favored by a climate and pastures eminently adapted to bring the short-horn to perfection1 have not only imported extensively from the best herds in ,england1 but have themselves attained a degree of knowledge and skill equalled only by that of the most celebrated breeders in the native country of this improved race4 ,in sections where the climate is moist and the food abundant and rich1 some families of the short-horns may be valuable for the dairy2 but they are most frequently bred exclusively for beef in this country1 and in sections where they have attained the highest perfection of form and beauty so little is thought of their milking qualities that they are often not milked at all1 the calf being allowed to run with the dam4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,imported ,dutch ,cow4 ,,the ,,dutch is a short-horned race of cattle1 which1 in the opinion of many1 as ,i have already remarked1 contributed largely1 about a century ago1 to build up the ,durham or ,teeswater stock4 ,it has been bred with special reference to dairy qualities1 and is eminently adapted to supply the wants of the dairy farmer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,imported ,dutch ,bull4 ,the cow1 ,fig4 #g1 was bred in ,north ,holland1 and imported by ,winthrop ,w4 ,chenery1 ,esq41 of ,watertown1 in #aheg4 ,the bull1 ,fig4 #h1 was also imported by ,mr4 ,chenery at the same time1 from near the ,beemster1 in the northerly part of ,purmerend4 ,both animals are truthfully delineated1 and give a correct idea of the points of the ,north ,dutch cattle4 ,for a more detailed description of this celebrated dairy race1 see pages #ea and #cja4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,hereford ,cow4 ,,herefords4--,the ,hereford cattle derive their name from a county in the western part of ,england4 ,their general characteristics are a white face1 sometimes mottled2 white throat1 the white generally extending back on the neck1 and sometimes1 though rarely1 still further along on the back4 ,the color of the rest of the body is red1 generally dark1 but sometimes light4 ,eighty years ago the best ,hereford cattle were mottled or roan all over2 and some of the best herds1 down to a comparatively recent period1 were either all mottled1 or had the mottled or speckled face4 ,the expression of the face is mild and lively2 the forehead open1 broad1 and large2 the eyes bright and full of vivacity2 the horns glossy1 slender1 and spreading2 the head small1 though larger and not quite so clean as that of the ,devons2 the lower jaw fine2 neck long and slender2 chest deep2 breast-bone large1 prominent1 and very muscular2 the shoulder-blade light2 shoulder full and soft2 brisket and loins large2 hips well developed1 and on a level with the chine2 hind quarters long and well filled in2 buttocks on a level with the back1 neither falling off nor raised above the hind quarters2 tail slender1 well set on2 hair fine and soft2 body round and full2 carcass deep and well formed1 or cylindrical2 bone small2 thigh short and well made2 legs short and straight1 and slender below the knee2 as handlers very excellent1 especially mellow to the touch on the back1 the shoulder1 and along the sides1 the skin being soft1 flexible1 of medium thickness1 rolling on the neck and the hips2 hair bright2 face almost bare1 which is characteristic of pure-bred ,herefords4 ,they belong to the middle-horned division of the cattle of ,great ,britain1 to which they are indigenous4 ,they have been improved within the last century by careful selections1 the first step to this end having been taken by ,benjamin ,tomkins1 of ,herefordshire1 who began about #agff1 with two cows possessing a remarkable tendency to take on fat4 ,one of these was gray1 and the other dark red1 with a mottled or spotted face4 ,taking these as a foundation1 ,mr4 ,tomkins went on to build up a large herd1 from which he sold to other breeders1 from time to time1 till at his decease1 in #ahai1 the whole herd was disposed of at auction--fifty-two animals1 including twenty-two steers and two heifers1 varying in age from calves to two-year-olds1 bringing an aggregate of four thousand six hundred and seventy-three pounds1 fourteen shillings1 or four hundred and forty-five dollars1 thirty-seven and a half cents1 a head4 ,a bull was sold to ,lord ,talbot for five hundred and eighty-eight pounds1 while several cows brought from a thousand to twelve hundred dollars a head4 ,hereford oxen are excellent animals1 less active but stronger than the ,devons1 and very free and docile4 ,the demand for ,herefords for beef prevents their being much used for work in their native county1 and the farmers there generally use horses instead of oxen4 ,a recent writer in the ,farmer's ,magazine makes the following remarks on this head3 8,it is allowed on all hands1 ,i believe1 that the properties in which ,herefords stand preminent among the middle-sized breeds are in the production of oxen and their superiority of flesh4 ,on these points there is little chance of their being excelled4 ,it should1 however1 be borne in mind that the best oxen are not produced from the largest cows2 nor is a superior quality of flesh1 such as is considered very soft to the touch1 with thin skin4 ,it is the union of these two qualities which often characterizes the short-horns2 but the ,hereford breeders should endeavor to maintain a higher standard of excellence1--that for which the best of the breed have always been esteemed1--a moderately thick1 mellow hide1 with a well-apportioned combination of softness with elasticity4 ,a sufficiency of hair is also desirable1 and if accompanied with a disposition to curl moderately it is more in esteem3 but that which has a harsh and wiry feel is objectionable40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,hereford ,bull4 ,in point of symmetry and beauty of form1 the well-bred ,herefords may be classed with the improved short-horns1 though they arrive somewhat slower at maturity1 and never attain such weight4 ,like the improved short-horns1 they are chiefly bred for beef1 and their beef is of the best quality in the ,english markets1 commanding the highest price of any1 except1 perhaps1 the ,west ,highlanders4 ,in an experiment carefully tried in #ahbh1 for the purpose of arriving at the comparative economy of the short-horns and ,herefords1 the latter gained less by nearly one fourth than the former1 which had consumed more food4 ,the six animals1 three of each breed1 were sold after being fed1 in ,smithfield market1 the ,herefords bringing less by only about five dollars than the short-horns1 while the cost of food consumed by the latter was greater1 and the original purchase greater than that of the former4 ,the short-horn produces more beef at the same age than the ,hereford1 but consumes more food in proportion4 8,in all the fairs of ,england10 says ,hillyard1 8except those of ,herefordshire and the adjoining counties1 short-horn heifers are more sought after and sell at higher prices than the ,hereford2 but it is not so with fat cattle1 for1 with the exception of ,lincolnshire and some of the northern counties1 they much prefer the ,herefords4 ,then at ,smithfield1 where the quality of the beef passes its final judgment1 the pound of ,hereford beef pays better than the pound of short-horn beef4 ,short-horn beeves produce at the same age a greater weight1 it is true1 but they also consume more food4 ,i can easily conceive why1 in the magnificent pastures of ,lincolnshire1 and some of the northern counties of ,england1 they may prefer the short-horns2 and that is1 that they may keep a less number on a given quantity of land1 and only the short-horn could1 under these conditions1 produce a greater weight of beef per acre4 ,it is very difficult to decide which of the two races in ,england 7the two best in the world7 is the most profitable for stock-raisers and for the community40 ,there are1 even in ,lincolnshire1 many good feeders who prefer the ,herefords to the short-horns4 ,one of these1 when visited the past season1 had thirty head of cattle feeding for the butcher1 and only one short-horn4 ,when asked the reason of this1 he replied1 8,i am a farmer myself1 and have to pay high rent1 and ,i must feed the cattle that pay me best4 ,perhaps you think it would be more in fashion to cover my fields with short-horns2 but ,i must look to the net profit1 and ,i get much better with the ,herefords4 ,the short-horns are too full of fat and make too little tallow1 and they consequently sell too low in the ,smithfield market4 ,our ,herefords are better1 and they sell better40 ,the ,herefords are far less generally spread over ,england than the improved short-horns4 ,they have seldom been bred for milk1 as some families of the short-horns have2 and it is not very unusual to find pure-bred cows incapable of supplying milk sufficient to nourish their calves4 ,this system was pursued especially by ,mr4 ,price1 a skilful ,hereford breeder1 who sacrified everything to form1 disregarding milking properties1 breeding often from near relations1 and thus fixing the fault incident to his system more or less permanently in the descendants of his stock4 ,the ,herefords have been brought to this country1 to some extent1 and several fine herds exist in different sections2 the earliest importations being those of ,henry ,clay1 of ,kentucky1 in #ahag4 ,the figures of the two animals of this breed presented in this connection represent a bull and cow bred at the ,state ,farm1 in ,massachusetts1 and are good specimens of the breed4 ,the want of care and attention to the udder1 soon after calving1 especially if the cow be on luxuriant grass1 often injures her milking properties exceedingly4 ,the practice in the county of ,hereford has generally been to let the calves suckle from four to six months1 and bull-calves often run eight months with the cow4 ,but their dairy qualities are perhaps as good as those of any cattle whose fattening properties have been so carefully developed2 and1 though it is probable that they could be bred for milk by proper care and attention1 yet1 as this change would be at the sacrifice of other qualities equally valuable1 it would evidently be wiser to resort to other stock for the dairy4 ,illustration3 ,fig #aa4 ,devon ,cow4 ,owned by ,william ,buckminster ,esq41 ,framingham ,mass4 ,,the ,,north ,,devons4--,the last of the pure-bred races which it will be necessary to describe as prominent among our ,american cattle is the ,devon1 a middle-horned breed1 now very generally distributed in some sections of the country4 ,this beautiful race of cattle dates further back than any well-established breed among us4 ,it goes generally under the simple name of ,devon2 but the cattle of the southern part of the county1 from which the race derives its name1 differ somewhat from those of the northern1 having a larger and coarser frame1 and far less tendency to fatten1 though their dairy qualities are superior4 ,the ,north ,devons are remarkable for hardihood1 symmetry1 and beauty1 and are generally bred for work and for beef rather than for the dairy4 ,the head is fine and well set on2 the horns of medium length1 generally curved2 color usually bright blood-red1 but sometimes inclining to yellow2 skin thin and orange-yellow2 hair of medium length1 soft and silky1 making the animals remarkable as handlers2 muzzle of the nose white2 eyes full and mild2 ears yellowish1 or orange color inside1 of moderate size2 neck rather long1 with little dewlap2 shoulders oblique2 legs small and straight1 and feet in proportion2 chest of good width2 ribs round and expanded2 loins of first-rate quality1 long1 wide1 and fleshy2 hips round1 of medium width2 rump level2 tail full near the setting on1 tapering to the tip2 thighs of the bull and ox muscular and full1 and high in the flank1 though in the cow sometimes thought to be too light2 the size medium1 generally called small4 ,the proportion of meat on the valuable parts is greater1 and the offal less1 than on most other breeds1 while it is well settled that they consume less food in its production4 ,the ,devons are popular with the ,smithfield butchers1 and their beef is well marbled or grained4 ,as working oxen1 the ,devons perhaps excel all other races in quickness1 docility1 and beauty1 and the ease with which they are matched4 ,with a reasonable load1 they are said to be equal to horses as walkers on the road1 and when they are no longer wanted for work they fatten easily and turn well4 ,as milkers1 they do not excel1 perhaps they may be said not to equal1 the other breeds1 and they have a reputation of being decidedly below the average4 ,in their native country the general average of a dairy is one pound of butter per day during the summer4 ,they are bred for beef and for work1 and not for the dairy2 and their yield of milk is small1 though of a rich quality4 ,i have1 however1 had occasion to examine several animals from the celebrated ,patterson herd1 which would have been remarkable as milkers even among good milking stock4 ,they had not1 to be sure1 the beautiful symmetry of form and fineness of bone which characterize most of the modern and highly improved pure-bred ,north ,devons1 and had evidently been bred for many years with special reference to the development of the milking qualities1 great care having been taken to use bulls and cows as breeders from the best milking stock1 rather than of the finest forms4 ,the use of bulls distinguished only for symmetry of form1 and of a race deficient in milk-secreting qualities1 will be sure to deteriorate1 instead of improving1 the stock for the dairy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,devon ,bull4 ,on the whole1 whatever may be our judgment of this breed1 the faults of the ,north ,devon cow can hardly be overlooked from our present point of view4 ,the rotundity of form and compactness of frame1 though they contribute to her remarkable beauty1 constitute an objection to her as a dairy cow1 since it is generally thought that the peculiarity of form which disposes an animal to take on fat is somewhat incompatible with good milking qualities1 and hence ,youatt says3 8,for the dairy the ,north ,devons must be acknowledged to be inferior to several other breeds4 ,the milk is good1 and yields more than the average proportion of cream and butter2 but it is deficient in quantity40 ,he also maintains that its property as a milker could not be improved without probable or certain detriment to its grazing qualities4 ,but the fairest test of its fitness for the dairy is to be found in the estimation in which distinguished ,devon breeders themselves have held it in this respect4 ,a scale of points of excellence in this breed was established1 some time ago1 by the best judges in ,england2 and it has since been adopted1 with but slight changes1 in this country4 ,these judges1 naturally prejudiced in favor of the breed1 if prejudiced at all1 made this scale to embrace one hundred points1 no animal to be regarded as perfect unless it excelled in all of them4 ,each part of the body was assigned its real value in the scale3 a faultless head1 for instance1 was estimated at four2 a deep1 round chest1 at fifteen1 c4 ,if the animal was defective in any part1 the number of points which represented the value of that part in the scale was to be deducted pro rata from the hundred1 in determining its merits4 ,but in this scale the cow is so lightly esteemed for the dairy1 that the udder1 the size and shape of which is of the utmost consequence in determining the capacity of the milch cow1 is set down as worth only one point1 while1 in the same scale1 the horns and ears are valued at two points each1 and the color of the nose1 and the expression of the eye1 are valued at four points each4 ,supposing1 therefore1 that each of these points were valued at one dollar1 and a perfect ,north ,devon cow was valued at one hundred dollars2 then another cow of the same blood1 and equal to the first in every respect except in her udder1 which is such as to make it certain that she can never be capable of giving milk enough to nourish her calf1 must be worth1 according to the estimation of the best ,devon breeders1 ninety-nine dollars6 ,it is safe1 therefore1 to say that an animal whose udder and lacteal glands are regarded1 by those who best know her capacities and her merits1 as of only one quarter part as much consequence as the color of her nose1 or half as much as the shape and size of her horns1 cannot be recommended for the dairy4 ,the improved ,north ,devon cow may be classed1 in this respect1 with the ,hereford1 neither of which has well-developed milk-vessels--a point of the utmost consequence to the practical dairyman4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the list of pure-bred races in ,america may be said to end here2 for1 though other and well-established breeds1 like the long-horns1 the ,galloways1 the ,spanish1 c41 have1 at times1 been imported1 and have had some influence on our ,american stock1 they have not been kept distinct to such an extent as to have become the prevailing stock of any particular section1 so far as ,i am aware1 and hence a notice of them properly comes in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,american ,,grade ,,of ,,native ,,cattle4--,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,breeding4 ,we have dwelt thus far mainly upon the prominent breeds of cattle known among us1 and especially those adapted to the dairy4 ,but a large proportion--by far the largest proportion1 indeed--cannot be included under any of the races alluded to4 ,the term breed1 properly understood1 applies only to animals of the same species1 possessing1 besides the general characteristics of that species1 other characteristics peculiar to themselves1 which they owe to the influence of soil1 climate1 nourishment1 and habits of life to which they are subjected1 and which they transmit with certainty to their progeny4 ,the characteristics of certain breeds or families are so well marked1 that if an individual supposed to belong to any one of them were to produce an offspring not possessing them1 or possessing them only in part1 with others not belonging to the breed1 it would be just ground for suspecting a want of purity of blood4 ,if this definition of the term breed be correct1 no grade animals1 and no animals not possessing fixed peculiarities or characteristics which they share with all other animals of the class of which they are a type1 and which they are capable of transmitting with certainty to their descendants1 can be recognized by breeders as belonging to any one distinct race1 breed1 or family4 ,the term 8native10 or 8scrub10 is applied to a vast majority of our ,american cattle1 which1 though born on the soil1 and thus in one sense natives1 do not constitute a breed1 race1 or family1 as properly understood by breeders4 ,they do not possess characteristics peculiar to them all1 which they transmit with any certainty to their offspring1 either of form1 size1 color1 milking or working properties4 ,but1 though an animal may be made up of a mixture of blood almost to infinity1 it does not follow that for specific purposes1 it may not1 as an individual animal1 be one of the best of the species4 ,and for particular purposes individual animals might be selected from among those commonly called natives in ,new ,england1 and scrubs at the ,west and ,south1 equal1 and perhaps superior1 to any among the races produced by the most skilful breeding4 ,there can be no impropriety in the use of the term 8native10 therefore1 when it is understood as descriptive of no known breed1 but only as applied to the common stock of the country1 which does not constitute a breed4 ,but perhaps the whole class of animals commonly called 8natives0 would be better described as grades1 since they are well known to have sprung from a great variety of cattle procured in different places and at different times on the continent of ,europe1 in ,england1 and in the ,spanish ,west ,indies1 brought together without any regard to fixed principles of breeding1 but only from individual convenience1 and by accident4 ,the first importations to this country were doubtless those taken to ,virginia previous to #afji1 though the exact date of their arrival is not known4 ,several cows were carried there from the ,west ,indies in #afaj1 and the next year no less than one hundred arrived there from abroad4 ,the earliest cattle imported into the ,plymouth colony1 and undoubtedly the earliest introduced into ,new ,england1 arrived in #afbd4 ,at the division of cattle which took place in #afbg1 three years after1 one or two are distinctly described as black1 or black and white1 others as brindle1 showing that there was no uniformity of color4 ,soon after this1 a large number of cattle were brought over from ,england for the settlers at ,salem4 ,these importations formed the original stock of ,massachusetts4 ,in #afbe the first importation was made into ,new ,york from ,holland1 by the ,dutch ,west ,india ,company1 and the foundation was then laid for an exceedingly valuable race of animals1 which subsequent importations from the same country1 as well as from ,england1 have greatly improved4 ,dairy farming in some parts of ,holland1 it may be remarked in passing1 became a highly important branch of industry at a very early date1 and a large and valuable race of dairy cattle existed there long before the efforts of modern breeders began in ,england4 ,the attention of farmers there is at the present time devoted especially to the dairy1 and the manufacture of butter and cheese4 ,they support themselves1 to a considerable extent1 upon this branch of farming2 and hence it is held in the highest respect1 and carried to a greater degree of exactness and perfection1 perhaps1 than in any other part of the world4 ,they are especially particular in the breeding1 keeping1 and care of milch cows1 as on them very much of their success depends4 ,the principles on which they practise1 in selecting a cow to breed from1 are as follows3 ,she should have1 they say1 considerable size--not less than four and a half or five feet girth1 with a length of body corresponding2 legs proportionally short2 a finely-formed head1 with a forehead or face somewhat concave2 clear1 large1 mild1 and sparkling eyes1 yet with no expression of wildness2 tolerably large and stout ears1 standing out from the head2 fine1 well-curved horns2 a rather short than long1 thick1 broad neck1 well set against the chest and withers2 the front part of the breast and the shoulders must be broad and fleshy2 the low-hanging dewlap must be soft to the touch2 the back and loins must be properly projected1 somewhat broad1 the bones not too sharp1 but well covered with flesh2 the animal should have long1 curved ribs1 which form a broad breast-bone2 the body must be round and deep1 but not sunken into a hanging belly2 the rump must not be uneven1 the hip-bones should not stand out too broad and spreading1 but all the parts should be level and well filled up2 a fine tail1 set moderately high up and tolerably long1 but slender1 with a thick1 bushy tuft of hair at the end1 hanging down below the hocks2 the legs must be short and low1 but strong in the bony structure2 the knees broad1 with flexible joints2 the muscles and sinews must be firm and sound1 the hoofs broad and flat1 and the position of the legs natural1 not too close and crowded2 the hide1 covered with fine glossy hair1 must be soft and mellow to the touch1 and set loose upon the body4 ,a large1 rather long1 white and loose udder1 extending well back1 with four long teats1 serves also as a characteristic mark of a good milch cow4 ,large and prominent milk-veins must extend from the navel back to the udder2 the belly of a good milch cow should not be too deep and hanging4 ,the color of the ,north ,dutch cattle is mostly variegated4 ,cows with only one color are no favorites4 ,red or black variegated1 gray and blue variegated1 roan1 spotted and white variegated cows1 are especially liked4 ,the annexed cut gives a correct idea of the cow most esteemed in ,holland2 the type of the race so noted for the production of milk1 and of the excellent round ,dutch cheeses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,dutch ,dairy ,cow4 ,in #afbg1 cattle were brought from ,sweden to the settlements on the ,delaware by the ,swedish ,west ,india ,company4 ,in #afca1 #afcb1 and #afcc1 several importations were made into ,new ,hampshire by ,capt4 ,john ,mason1 who1 with ,gorges1 procured the patent of large tracts of land in the vicinity of ,piscataqua ,river1 and immediately formed settlements there4 ,the object of ,mason was to carry on the manufacture of potash4 ,for this purpose he employed the ,danes2 and it was in his voyages to and from ,denmark that he procured many ,danish cattle and horses1 which were subsequently diffused over that whole region1 and large numbers of which were driven to the vicinity of ,boston and sold4 ,these facts are authenticated by original documents and depositions now on file in the office of the ,secretary of ,state of ,new ,hampshire4 ,the ,danish cattle are there described as large and coarse1 of a yellow color2 and it is supposed that they were procured by ,mason as being best capable of enduring the severity of the climate and the hardships to which they were to be subjected4 ,however this may have been1 they very soon spread among the colonists of the ,massachusetts ,bay1 and have undoubtedly left their marks on the stock of ,new ,england and the ,middle ,states1 which exist to some extent even to the present day1 mixed in with an infinite multitude of crosses with the ,devons1 the ,dutch cattle already alluded to1 the black cattle of ,spain and ,wales1 and the long-horn and the short-horn1 most of which crosses were accidental1 or due to local circumstances or individual convenience4 ,many of these cattle1 the descendants of such crosses1 are of a very high order of merit1 but to what particular cross it is due it is impossible to say4 ,they make generally hardy1 strong1 and docile oxen1 easily broken to the yoke and quick to work1 with a fair tendency to fatten when well fed2 while the cows1 though often ill-shaped1 are sometimes remarkably good milkers1 especially as regards the quantity they give4 ,i have very often heard the best judges of stock say that if they desired to select a dairy of cows for milk for sale1 they would go around and select cows commonly called native1 rather than resort to pure-bred animals of any of the established breeds1 and that they believed they should find such a dairy the most profitable4 ,in color1 the natives1 made up as already indicated1 are exceedingly various4 ,the old ,denmarks1 which to a considerable extent laid the foundation of the stock of ,maine and ,new ,hampshire1 were light yellow4 ,the ,dutch of ,new ,york and the ,middle ,states were black and white2 the ,spanish and ,welsh were generally black2 the ,devons1 which are supposed to have laid the foundation of the stock of some of the states1 were red4 ,crosses of the ,denmark with the ,spanish and ,welsh naturally made a dark brindle4 ,crosses of the ,denmark and ,devon often made a lighter or yellowish brindle1 while the more recent importations of ,jerseys and short-horns have generally produced a beautiful spotted progeny4 ,the deep red has long been a favorite color in ,new ,england2 but the prejudice in its favor is fast giving way to more variegated colors4 ,but1 though we have already an exceedingly valuable foundation for improvement1 no one will pretend to deny that our cattle1 as a whole1 are susceptible of it in many respects4 ,they possess neither the size1 the symmetry1 nor the early maturity1 of the short-horns2 they do not1 as a general thing1 possess the fineness of bone1 the beauty of form and color1 nor the activity1 of the ,devons or the ,herefords2 they do not possess that uniform richness of milk1 united with generous quantity1 of the ,ayrshires1 nor the surpassing richness of milk of the ,jerseys2 but1 above all1 they do not possess the power of transmitting the many good qualities which they often have to their offspring1 which is a characteristic of all well-established breeds4 ,equally certain is it1 in the opinion of many good judges1 that the dairy stock of ,new ,england has not been improved in its intrinsic good qualities during the last thirty or forty years4 ,cows of the very highest order as milkers were as frequently met with1 they say1 in #ahbe1 as at the present time4 ,any increased product of our dairies they ascribe to improved care and feeding1 rather than to improvement in the dairy qualities of the stock4 ,this may not be true of some other sections of the country1 where the dairy has been a more special object of pursuit1 and where the custom of raising the best male calves of the neighborhood1 or those that came from the best dairy cows1 and then of using only the best-formed bulls1 has long prevailed4 ,in this way some progress has1 doubtless1 been made4 ,there is an old adage among the dairy farmers of ,ayrshire1 that 8,the cow gives her milk by the mou'10 which was slightly varied from an old ,german proverb1 that 8,the cow milks only through the throat40 ,it is fortunate1 indeed1 that wiser and more humane ideas prevail with regard to the care of stock of all kinds2 for it is well known that the treatment the stock of the country received for the first two centuries after its settlement was often barbarous and cruel in the extreme1 and that thousands perished1 in the early history of the colonies1 from exposure and starvation4 ,even within my own distinct recollection1 it was thought1 for miles around my native place1 that cows and young stock should remain out of doors exposed to the cold winter days1 to 8toughen20 and that1 too1 by men who styled themselves 8practical0 farmers4 ,mr4 ,henry ,colman truly asserted1 in #ahda1 that the general treatment of cows in ,new ,england would not be an inapt subject of presentment by a grand jury4 ,there were1 at that time1 it is true1 many honorable exceptions2 but the assertion was strictly correct so far as it applied to the section of which ,i then had a personal knowledge4 ,judging from the anxiety manifested by those who enter superior milch cows for the premiums offered by agricultural societies to show that they have had nothing1 or next to nothing1 to eat1 it is evident that the false ideas with regard to the feeding and treatment of this animal have not yet wholly disappeared4 ,but1 if little improvement has been made in our dairy stock except that produced by more liberal feeding1 it simply shows that our efforts have not been made in the right direction4 ,the raising of cattle has now become a source of profit in many sections to a greater extent1 at least1 than formerly1 and it becomes a matter of great practical importance to our farmers to take the proper steps to improve them4 ,indeed1 the questions1 what is the best breed1 and what are the best crosses1 and how shall ,i improve my stock1 are now almost daily asked2 and their practical solution would add many thousand dollars to the aggregate wealth of the farmers of the country1 if they would all study their own interests4 ,the time is gradually passing away when the intelligent practical farmer will be willing to put his cows to any mere 8runt0 of a bull1 simply because his service may be had for twenty-five cents2 for1 even if the progeny is to go to the butcher1 the calf sired by a pure-bred bull1 particularly of a race distinguished for fineness of bone1 symmetry of form1 and early maturity1 will bring a much higher price at the same age than the calf sired by a scrub4 ,blood has a money value1 which will1 sooner or later1 be generally appreciated4 ,the first and most important object of the farmer is to get the greatest money-return for his labor and his produce2 and it is for his interest to obtain an animal--a calf1 for instance--that will yield the largest profit on the outlay4 ,if a calf1 for which the original outlay was five dollars1 will bring at the same age1 and on the same keep1 more real net profit than another1 the original outlay for which was but twenty-five cents1 it is certainly for the farmer's interest to pay the larger original outlay1 and have the superior animal4 ,setting all fancy aside1 it is merely a question of dollars and cents2 but one thing is certain1 and that is1 that the farmer cannot afford to keep poor stock4 ,it eats as much1 and requires nearly the same amount of care and attention1 as stock of the best quality2 while it is equally certain that stock of ever so good a quality1 whether grade1 8native10 or thorough-bred1 will be sure to deteriorate and sink to the level of poor stock1 by neglect and want of proper attention4 ,how1 then1 are we to improve our stock8 ,not1 surely1 by that indiscriminate crossing1 with a total disregard to all well-established principles1 which has thus far marked our efforts generally with foreign stock1 and which is one prominent reason why so little improvement has been made in our dairies2 nor by leaving all the results to chance1 when1 by a careful and judicious selection1 they may be within our own control4 ,two modes of improvement seem to suggest themselves to the mind of the breeder1 either of which1 apparently1 promises good results4 ,the first is1 to select from among our native cattle the most perfect animals not known or suspected to be related to any of the well-established breeds1 and to use them as breeders4 ,this is a mode of improvement simple enough1 if adopted and carried on with animals of any known breed2 and1 indeed1 it is the only mode of improvement which preserves the purity of blood2 but1 to do it successfully1 requires great experience1 a good and sure eye for stock1 a mind free from prejudice1 and indefatigable patience and perseverance4 ,it is absolutely necessary1 also1 to pay special attention to the calves thus produced2 to furnish them at all times1 summer and winter1 with an abundant supply of nutritious food1 and to regulate it according to their growth4 ,few men are to be found willing to undertake the herculean task of building up a new breed in this way from grade stock4 ,an objection meets us at the very outset1 which is that it would require a long series of years to arrive at any satisfactory results1 from the fact that no two animals1 made up1 as our 8native0 cattle are1 of such a variety of elements and crosses1 could be found sufficiently alike to produce their kind4 ,the principle that like produces like may be perfectly true1 and in the well-known breeds it is not difficult to find two animals that will be sure to transmit their own characteristics to their offspring2 but1 with two animals which cannot be classed with any breed1 the defects of an ill-bred ancestry will be liable to appear through several generations1 and thus thwart and disappoint the expectations of the breeder4 ,the objection of time1 and expense1 and disappointment1 attending this method1 should have no weight1 if there were no more speedy method of accomplishing equally desirable results4 ,the second mode is somewhat more feasible2 and that is1 to select animals from races already improved and well-nigh perfected1 to cross with our cattle1 using none but good specimens of pure-bred males1 and selecting1 if our object is to improve stock for the dairy1 only such as belong to a race distinguished for dairy qualities2 or1 if resort is had to other breeds less remarkable for such qualities1 such only as are descended from large and generous milkers4 ,and here it may be remarked that these qualities do not belong to any one breed exclusively1 though1 as they depend mainly on structure and temperament1 which are hereditary to a considerable extent1 they are themselves transmissible4 ,in almost every breed we can find individual good milkers which greatly surpass the average of the cows of the same race or family1 and from such many suppose that good crosses may be expected4 ,how often do we see farmers raising the calves of their best milking-cows simply because they are the best cows1 without regard to the qualities of the bull1 or to the progenitors of either parent2 and how often are they disappointed1 at the end of three or four years of labor and expense6 ,now1 though a cow of a bad milking family1 or of a breed not at all distinguished for dairy qualities1 may turn out to be an excellent milker1 and all else that may be desirable in a cow1 yet these qualities in her are accidental4 ,they are not supposed to be transmissible with anything like the certainty which exists where they are the fixed and constant characteristics of the family4 ,she is an exception to the rule of her race4 ,a good calf from her1 though not1 of course1 an impossibility1 would be very much the result of chance4 ,the resort to any but a distinguished breed of milkers cannot1 therefore1 be recommended1 nor can we expect to improve our dairies by it4 ,a disregard of this important matter has led to endless disappointment1 and has done much to raise up unjust prejudices against the use of all improved stock on our native cows4 ,as if we could expect nature to go out of her regular course to give us a good animal1 when we have violated her laws6 ,the offspring of these crosses will be grades2 but grades are often better for the practical purposes of the farmer than pure-bred animals4 ,the skill of the breeder is especially manifest in the selection of animals to breed from1 since both parents undoubtedly have a great influence in transmitting the milking qualities of the race4 ,but this method of improvement requires less exact and critical knowledge than the first1 from the fact that it is easier to appreciate the good points of an animal already perfected1 or greatly improved1 than to discover them in animals which it is our desire to improve1 and which are inferior in form1 possessing only the elements of a better stock4 ,it has also an immense advantage1 since results may be far more rapidly attained1 and improvements effected which1 by the first method1--that of creating or building up a race from the so-called natives1 by judicious selections1--would be looked for in vain in the ordinary life of man4 ,all grades are produced by this second method2 but all grades are not equally good1 nor equally well adapted to meet the farmer's wants4 ,it is desirable to know1 then1 what1 on the whole1 are the best and most profitable to the practical farmer4 ,we want cattle for distinct purposes1 as for milk1 beef1 or labor4 ,in a large majority of cases1--especially in the dairy districts1 comprising the ,middle and ,eastern ,states1 at least1--the farmer cares more for the milking qualities of his cows1 especially for the quantity they give1 than for their fitness for grazing1 or aptness to fatten4 ,these latter points become more important in the ,western and some of the ,southern ,states1 where far greater attention is paid to breeding and to feeding1 and where comparatively little attention is given to the productions of the dairy4 ,a stock of cattle that might suit one farmer might be wholly unsuited to another2 and in each particular case the breeder should have some special object in view1 and select his animals with reference to it4 ,but there are some general principles that apply to breeding everywhere1 and which1 in many cases1 are not well understood4 ,it would not be desirable1 even if it were possible1 by crossing1 to breed out all the general characteristics of many of our native cattle4 ,they have many valuable qualities adapted to our climate and soil1 and to the geological structure of the country2 and these should be preserved1 while we improve the points in which many of them are deficient1 such as a want of precocity and aptitude to fatten1 where it is an object to attain this quality1 coarseness of bone1 and lack of symmetry1 which is often apparent1 especially when the form of the animal does not indicate a near relation to some of the established breeds4 ,it's a well-known fact that1 in crossing1 the produce most frequently takes after the male parent1 especially1 it is thought1 in exterior form1 in its organs of locomotion1 such as the bones1 the muscles1 c4 ,particularly is this the case when the male belongs to an old and well-established breed1 and the female belongs to no known breed1 and has no strongly-marked and fixed points4 ,put a ,galloway bull1 for instance1 to a native cow1 and the calf will1 as a general rule1 be hornless4 ,put a ram without horns to ewes with horns1 and most of the lambs will be destitute of horns2 that is1 they take the characteristics of the father rather than the dam2 and this rule holds good generally in breeding1 though1 like all other rules1 it has1 of course1 its exceptions4 ,hence1 if this position be correct1 the first principle which the good sense of the farmer would dictate would be to select a bull from a breed most noted for the qualities he wishes to obtain in their greatest perfection1 and especially if the cow is deficient in those qualities4 ,a bull1 for instance1 of fine bone1 and other good points in perfection1 will make up for the deficiency of some of these points in the cow4 ,on the other hand1 say the advocates of this doctrine1 in the physiology of breeding the internal structure of the offspring1 the organs of secretion1 the mucous membranes1 the respiratory organs1 c41 are imparted chiefly by the dam4 ,hence it has sometimes been found that by taking a cow remarkable for milking properties1 though deficient in many other points1 as in the coarseness of bone and in early maturity1 and putting to her a bull remarkable for symmetry of form and fineness of bone1 the offspring has been superior to the cow in beauty of form and proportions1 and has still retained the milking qualities of the dam4 ,this principle1 as already intimated1 is questioned by some1 who say that the milking qualities1 as well as the external form1 c41 are transmitted through the male offspring4 ,mr4 ,james ,dickson1 an experienced breeder and drover1 who views the subject from his own standpoint1 says3 8,a great part of the art of breeding lies in the principle of judicious crossing2 for it is only by attending properly to this that success is to be attained1 and animals produced that shall yield the greatest amount of profit for the food they consume4 ,all eminent breeders know full well that ill-bred animals are unprofitable both to the breeder and feeder4 ,to carry out the system of crossing judiciously1 certain breeds of cattle1 sheep1 pigs1 c41 must be kept pure of their kind--males especially2 indeed1 as a general rule1 no animal possessing spurious blood1 or admixture with other breeds1 should be used4 ,the produce in almost all cases assimilates to the male parent2 and ,i should say that in crossing the use of any males not pure-bred is injudicious1 and ought to be avoided40 ,if1 therefore1 a cross is effected with satisfactory results1 it should be continued by resorting to pure-bred bulls1 and not by the use of any grade bulls thus obtained2 for1 though a grade bull may be a very fine animal1 it has been found that he does not transmit his good qualities with anything like the certainty of a pure-bred one4 ,the more desirable qualities are united in the bull1 the better2 but the special reason for the use of a pure-bred male in crossing is not so much that the particular individual selected has these qualities most perfectly developed in himself2 as that they are hereditary in the breed to which he belongs4 ,the moment the line is crossed1 and the pedigree broken1 uncertainty commences4 ,although the form of the grade bull may1 in individual cases1 be even superior to that of his pure-bred sire1 yet there is less likelihood of his transmitting the qualities for which his breed is most noted2 and when it is considered that during his life he may scatter his progeny over a considerable section of country1 and thus affect the cattle of his whole neighborhood1 attention to this becomes a matter of no small public importance4 ,this principle1 so far as its application to breeding for the shambles is concerned1 seems to me to be sound1 and fully established by long experience and practice4 ,perhaps it is equally so1 also1 in breeding for the dairy4 ,but it may be well to consider whether there are not other rational modes of judgment in the selection of animals for breeding with this specific object in view4 ,there is a difference of opinion with regard to the practical value of the system of classification and judgment of milch cows discovered and developed by ,gunon3 some being inclined to ridicule it1 as absurd2 others to adopt it implicitly1 and follow it out in all its details2 and others still--and among this class ,i generally find a very large number of the most sensible practical judges of stock--to admit that in the main it is correct1 though they discredit the practicability of carrying it so far1 and so minutely into detail1 as its author did4 ,it may be remarked1 at the outset1 that the fact that the best of the signs of a great and good milker adopted by ,gunon are generally found united with the best forms and marks almost universally admitted and practised upon by good judges1 gives1 at least1 some plausibility to the system1 while the importance of it1 if it be correct1 is sufficient to demand a careful examination4 ,every good judge of a milch cow1 for instance1 wants to see in her a small1 fine head1 with short and yellowish horns2 a soft1 delicate1 and close coat of hair2 a skin soft and flexible over the rump2 broad1 well-spread ribs1 covered with a loose skin of medium thickness2 a broad chest2 a long1 slender tail2 straight hind legs2 a large1 regularly-formed udder1 covered with short1 close1 silky hair2 four teats of equal size and length1 set wide apart2 large1 projecting lacteal veins1 which run along under the belly from the udder towards the fore legs1 forming a fork at the end1 and finally losing themselves in a round cavity2 and when these points1 or any considerable number of them1 are found united in a cow1 she would be pronounced a good milker4 ,an animal in which these signs are found would rarely fail of having a good 8milk-mirror10 or escutcheon2 on which ,gunon1 after many years of careful observation and experiment1 came to lay particular stress2 and on the basis of which he built up a system or theory so complicated as to be of little practical value compared with what it might have been had he seen fit to simplify it so as to bring it within the easy comprehension of the farmer4 ,as one means of forming a judgment of the milking qualities1 however1 it must be regarded as very important1 since it is unquestionably sustained by facts in a very large majority of cases4 ,the milk-mirror1 or escutcheon1 is formed by the hair above the udder1 extending upwards between the thighs1 growing in an opposite direction from that of other parts of the body4 ,in well-formed mirrors1 found only in cows which have the arteries which supply the milky glands large and fully developed1 it ordinarily begins between the four teats in the middle1 and ascends to the vulva1 and sometimes even higher1 the hair growing upwards4 ,the direction of the hair is subordinate to that of the arteries2 for the relation existing between the direction of the hair above the udder and the activity of the milky glands is apparent on a careful examination of all the cases4 ,when the lower part of the mirror is large and broad1 with the hair growing from below upwards1 and extending well out on the thighs1 it indicates that the arteries which supply the milky glands1 and which are situated just behind it1 are large and capable of conveying much blood1 and of giving great activity to the functions of secretion4 ,now1 in the bull1 the arteries which correspond to the mammary or lacteal arteries of the cow are not so fully developed2 and the escutcheons are smaller1 shorter1 and narrower4 ,gunon applied the same name1 milk-mirror1 to these marks in the bull2 and the natural inference was1 that there should exist a correspondence or similarity in the mirror of the bull and the cow which are coupled for the purpose of producing an offspring fit for the dairy1--that the mirror in the bull should be of the same class1 or of a better class than that of the cow4 ,it is confidently asserted by the advocates of ,gunon's method1 and with much show of reason1 that the very large proportion of cows of bad or indifferent milking qualities1 compared with the good1 is owing to the mistakes in selecting bulls without reference to the proper marks or points4 ,as to the transmission of the milk-mirror1 it has been found in many cases that bulls sprung from cows with good mirrors had smaller and more heart-shaped mirrors1 spreading out pretty broad upon the thighs4 ,pabst1 a successful ,german breeder1 says that he has used such bulls for three years1 and that the milk-mirrors were transmitted in the majority of the male progeny1 and in nearly every case very large and beautiful mirrors were given to the heifer-calves4 ,a son of the bull with which he began was serving at the time of which he speaks1 having a mirror more highly developed than his sire1 and the first calves of his get had also very large milk-mirrors4 ,the female offspring of the first bull of good milk-mirror promised first rate1 though they had not then come in4 ,his inference is1 that in breeding from cows noted as milkers regard should be had to the form of the mirror on the bull1 and the chance of his transmitting it4 ,if any credit is due to this ingenious method1 it may be laid down1 as a principle in the selection of a bull to get dairy stock1 that the one possessing the largest and best-developed milk-mirror is the best for the purpose1 and will be most likely to get milkers of large quantity and continued flow4 ,this method will be more fully developed in the chapter on the ,selection of ,milch ,cows4 ,but1 however careful we may be to select good milkers1 and to breed from them with the hope of improvement1 it is by no means easy to select such as are capable of transmitting their qualities to their offspring4 ,this is rendered still more difficult by the fact that there is no known mark to indicate it1 and we are left to use our own judgment2 for1 in the case of bulls1 we are often obliged to give them up before their progeny have arrived at an age to show their qualities by actual trial4 ,we are thrown back1 therefore1 upon their external marks4 ,but1 as ,m4 ,magne1 a very sensible ,french writer1 justly observes in his admirable little work 7,choix des ,vaches ,latires1 p4 #hf1 ,paris1 #aheg71 the fixed characteristics which have existed in races for several generations will be transmitted with most certainty4 ,hence the importance1 he says1 of selecting milch cows from good breeds and good families1 and especially1 in breeding stock1 of selecting carefully both male and female4 ,the male designed to get dairy stock ought to possess the structure which1 in the cow1 indicates the greatest activity of the mammary glands1 as fineness of form1 mellowness of skin1 large hind quarters1 large and well-developed veins and escutcheon4 ,a cow of a race or family not noted as milkers may chance to be an excellent milker1 and this is enough1 if we do not desire to breed from her2 but she would not transmit her exceptional qualities like a cow of which these qualities were the fixed characteristics1 constant and transmissible in the breed4 ,these considerations apply also1 as already said1 in the choice of a bull4 ,the attention of practical men has been so much directed to the best points of good cows1 of late years1 that it becomes necessary to study to propagate these1 if the breeder desires to find buyers for his stock4 ,the buyer judges more from external signs than from the intrinsic qualities of the cow1 with which he may not be acquainted4 ,to explain the variations in the transmission of milking qualities1 we should bear in mind that these qualities are not found in wild cows1 and that they are developed only when man can1 by a particular course of treatment1 as by the act of milking1 the separation of the sexes1 etc41 cause certain natural powers to act with greater strength than others2 that they incline to disappear as soon as these powers1 the nature of the soil1 the peculiarities of climate1 the properties of plants1 and the temperament of the cows1 are permitted to act according to the original plan of creation2 so that the variations which we consider as sports of nature are incontestible proofs of the uniformity of her works4 ,it is only by observing animals carefully1 by noting accurately their good qualities and their faults1 by watching the circumstances in which individuals are produced1 raised1 and kept1 that we can account for what seems to us a sport or caprice of nature4 ,we can then tell1 first1 how the same bull and cow have produced three calves with different properties2 and1 secondly1 trace out the rules which we are to follow1 to be almost uniformly successful in obtaining stock of the best quality4 ,experience shows that the qualities which are transmitted with most certainty depend on the most important organs of life2 and so1 in the forms of the viscera and the skeleton1 variations are rare1 not only in breeds of the same species1 but in different species of the same genera4 ,moreover1 in cases where the transmission of properties is so uncertain as to seem the result of caprice in nature1 these properties are formed by superficial organs1--by the skin1 the horns1 the state of the hair1 etc4 ,but it is in qualities which are1 in a measure1 artificial1 qualities produced by domestication1 and often more injurious than useful to the health of animals1 that variations most commonly occur4 ,these change not only with the breed of one species1 but with the different individuals of the same breed1 of the same half-breed1 and often of the same family4 ,bearing these elementary principles of natural history and physiology in mind1 we shall comprehend how cows and bulls well marked in regard to escutcheons have produced stock which did not resemble them4 ,m4 ,lefebvre ,sainte ,marie asserts that the influence of the escutcheons is very feeble in the act of reproduction4 ,in this view1 the escutcheon is almost nothing in itself4 ,it depends on the state of the hair1 on one of the most fleeting of peculiarities1 on that which is least hereditary in animals4 ,it has no value as a mark of good getters of stock1 unless it is supported by marks superior to it from their stability1--a larger skeleton1 double loins1 a wide rump1 highly-developed blood-vessels1--unless it is united with a spacious chest1 round ribs1 large lungs1 and a strong constitution4 ,the more complete the correspondence between these marks1 the more the milking quality is connected with the general condition of the animal1 the greater the chances of transmission2 and when1 with a view to breeding1 we shall choose only animals having the two-fold character of general vigor of constitution and activity of the mammary system1 and place the progeny under favorable circumstances1 the qualities will rarely prove defective4 ,thus far the conclusions of ,magne4 ,another well-known fact in natural history is1 that the size of animals depends very much upon the fertility of the region they inhabit4 ,where food is abundant and nutritious1 they increase in size in proportion to the quantity and quality2 and this size1 under the same circumstances1 will run through generations1 unless interrupted by artificial means4 ,so1 if the food is more difficult to obtain1 and the pastures are short1 the pliancy of the animal organization is such that it naturally becomes adapted to it1 and the animal is of smaller size2 and hence ,mr4 ,cline observes that 8the general mistake in crossing has arisen from an attempt to increase the size of a native race of animals1 being a fruitless effort to counteract the laws of nature40 ,mr4 ,cline also says1 in his treatise 8,on the ,form of ,animals30 8,experience has proved that crossing has only succeeded in an eminent degree in those instances in which the females were larger than the usual proportion of females to males2 and that it has generally failed when the males were disproportionally large4 ,when the male is much larger than the female1 the offspring is generally of an imperfect form2 if the female be proportionally larger than the male1 the offspring is generally of an improved form4 ,for instance1 if a well-formed large ram be put to ewes proportionally smaller1 the lambs will not be so well shaped as their parents2 but1 if a small ram be put to larger ewes1 the lambs will be of an improved form40 8,the improvement depends on the principle that the power of the female to supply her offspring with nourishment is in proportion to her size1 and to the power of nourishing herself from the excellence of her constitution2 as larger animals eat more1 the larger female may afford most nourishment to her young40 ,this should1 ,i am inclined to think1 be regarded as another principle of breeding1--that1 when improvement in form is desired1 the size of the female selected should be proportionally larger than the male2 though ,lord ,spencer1 a successful breeder1 strongly contested it1 and ,mr4 ,dickson1 an excellent judge of stock1 advised the attempt to build up a new breed by selecting some ,zetland cows1 a very diminutive breed of ,scotch cattle1 of good symmetry1 points1 and handling1 and a high-bred ,west ,highland bull to put to them4 8,the produce would probably be10 says he1 8a neat1 handsome little animal1 of a medium size1 between the two breeds4 ,the shaggy hide1 long horns1 symmetry1 and fine points1 of the ,west ,highlanders1 would be imparted to this cross1 which would not only be a good feeder and very hardy1 but the beef of superior quality4 ,the great point would1 of course1 be the proper selection of breeding animals4 ,the next step towards improving this would be the crossing of these crosses with a pure ,hereford bull1 which would improve the size1 and impart still finer points1 more substance1 with greater aptitude to fatten4 ,by combining those favorite breeds1 the produce would1 in all probability1 be very superior1 not only attaining to good weights1 but feeding well1 and arriving at maturity at an early age4 ,the breeder must not be satisfied and rest here1 but go a point further1 and cross the heifers of the third cross with a short-horn bull40 ,these successive steps imply the use of a bull of larger breed1 though not necessarily1 perhaps1 proportionally larger than the cow1 in any individual case4 ,this1 it will be perceived1 is a case of breeding with less reference to the milking or dairy qualities than the grazing4 ,great milkers are found of all shapes1 and the chief object of improving their form is to improve their feeding qualities1 or1 in other words1 to unite1 as far as possible1 the somewhat incompatible properties of grazing and milking4 ,graceful1 well-rounded1 and compact forms1 which constitute beauty in the eyes of the grazier1 as well as in the estimation of those not accustomed to consider the intrinsic qualities of an animal1 or not capable of appreciating them in a milch cow1 will very rarely be found united1 to any considerable extent1 with active mammary glands or milk vessels4 ,the best milkers often look coarse and flabby2 for1 even if their bony structure is good and symmetrical1 they will appear1 especially when in milk1 to have large1 raw bones and sharp points1 particularly if they are largely developed in the hind quarters1 which is most frequently the case1 as is strikingly seen in the form of the ,oakes cow1 a native animal1 the most celebrated of her time1 in ,massachusetts1 and winner of the first premium at the ,state ,fair of #ahaf4 ,she yielded in that year no less than four hundred and sixty-seven and a quarter pounds of butter from ,may #aeth to ,december #bjth1 at which time she was giving over eight quarts of milk1 beer measure1 a day4 ,the weight of her milk in the height of the season1 in ,june1 was but forty-four and a half pounds2 not so great as that of some cows of the present day1 on far less feed in proportion to their size4 ,many cows can be named in ,new ,england1 at the present time1 whose yield1 under the most favorable circumstances1 exceeds fifty pounds a day1 and some1 whose yield will be fifty-five pounds1 on less feed than the ,oakes cow had4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,oakes ,cow4 ,the flesh on the hindquarters of most large milkers bears little proportion to the bone2 the hips protrude1 the pelvis is broad1 the legs far apart1 giving great space for the receptacle of large milk-vessels2 whilst great flow of blood to the milky glands1 incident to this peculiar structure1 keeps them in more constant and greater activity than any other organs1 so that the muscles develop less than they otherwise would1 remain slender1 and leave the buttocks and thighs small and narrow4 ,such animals will seldom acquire the reputation of being beautiful in form1 and if they are not decidedly ugly1 the owner may console himself with the adage that 8handsome is that handsome does40 ,but1 though it is to the influence of the male that we are chiefly to look for improvements in the form1 size1 muscular development1 and general appearance1 of our stock1 and for transmitting their milking qualities1 to a considerable extent1 the influence of the female is no less important2 and undoubtedly the safest course to pursue1 to obtain improved animals1 is to select the best-formed animals1 on both sides1 from the greatest milking families4 ,with regard to the particular breeds to select for crossing with our natives1 opinions will naturally differ widely4 ,those who are favored with luxuriant pastures and abundance of winter feed will have no objection to large-sized animals1 and will naturally wish to obtain or possess grade short-horns4 ,there is no breed in the world to which it is more desirable to resort1 under such circumstances1 particularly where improvement in form1 early maturity1 and general symmetry1 are sought1 in union with other qualities4 ,it is well known that some families of short-horns have been bred for the pail1 while most others have been bred chiefly for beef4 ,if resort is had to this breed1 therefore1 great care and caution should be observed to select bulls from the milking families only2 and1 unless this is done we shall run the risk of losing the milking qualities of our stock1 for which the improvement in form and early maturity can be little compensation1 when breeding for the dairy4 ,it is a remarkable and significant fact that the large dairies of ,london are nearly filled with the short-horns1 or short-horn and ,yorkshire grades2 and the fact that this breed is selected in such circumstances for the production of milk to supply the milk-market speaks volumes in favor of this cross4 ,it is found that grade short-horns1 after yielding extraordinary quantities of milk1 during which they very naturally present the most ungainly appearance1 will1 when dried off and fed1 take on flesh very rapidly1 and yield large weights of beef4 ,this is one prominent reason for keeping them2 and another is1 that they occupy less space than would be required to produce the same quantity of milk from smaller animals1 which might give even more milk per cow in proportion to size and food consumed4 ,the cross of the well-bred short-horn and the native or ,dutch cows of the dairy districts of ,new ,york is very highly esteemed2 and six hundred pounds of cheese a year is no uncommon yield for such grades in ,herkimer and adjacent counties4 ,the ,ayrshires have been tried in the ,london dairies1 but it was found that they were too difficult to obtain in sufficient numbers1 and at sufficiently low prices2 and that where quantity was the chief object1 as in a milk-dairy1 and space a matter of great importance1 they could not compete with the short-horn and the ,yorkshire cows1 and crosses between these races4 ,it often happens1 particularly in milk-dairies1 that the farmer is so situated as not to desire to raise his calves1 but disposes of them at the highest price to the butcher4 ,he will obtain the greatest weight and the highest quality of veal from the use of a pure-bred short-horn or ,hereford bull4 ,but1 on poorer pastures1 where there is too little feed to bring young stock to their most perfect development1 the pure-bred short-horns and high grades of the short-horn are thought1 by some1 to be too large1 and consequently unprofitable4 ,how far this objection to them might be obviated by stall feeding or soiling1 and the use of roots1 is for each one to consider who has these facilities at command4 ,for most parts of ,new ,england they are unquestionably too large to be well maintained4 ,as to the ,herefords1 they cannot be recommended for the dairy1 either as pure bloods or grades2 but in grazing districts1 devoted to raising beef or working cattle1 they are highly and justly prized4 ,the same may be said of the ,north ,devons4 ,the pure-bred ,devon bull1 put to a good1 young native cow1 produces a beautiful and valuable cross1 either for the yoke or the shambles2 and if the cow is a remarkably good milker to begin with1 and the bull from a milking family1 there would be no fear of materially lessening the quantity in the offspring1 while its form1 and other qualities1 would probably be greatly improved4 ,grade ,devons are very much sought for working oxen1 and high prices are readily obtained for them1 while as beef cattle they are by some highly esteemed4 ,but1 unfortunately1 very few herds are to be found where attention has been paid to breeding for milk2 and great milkers are the exception1 and very rarely met with among the pure breeds4 ,in their native country they are bred almost exclusively for beef4 ,the estimation in which they are held as dairy stock1 even by ,devon breeders themselves1 both in ,england and in this country1 has been shown in the low value placed upon the development of the udder in the establishment of the scale of points spoken of on a preceding page2 from which it is evident that1 in judging of them1 it was not contemplated that their milking qualities should be taken into consideration4 ,as cows for the dairy1 therefore1 they possess no advantages over our common stock1 and we should hardly look for improvement from them in this respect4 ,the ,jerseys1 as already seen1 are justly celebrated for the richness of their milk and the butter made from it4 ,in this respect no pure breed can excel them4 ,they are1 therefore1 as a dairy breed1 worthy of attention4 ,on farms where the making of butter is an object of pursuit and profit1 an infusion of ,jersey blood will be likely to secure richness of milk1 and high-flavored1 delicious butter4 ,many good judges of stock recommend this cross for dairy purposes2 and the chief objection that can be urged against them is that they are1 as a breed1 very deficient in quantity1 which in a milk-dairy would be fatal to them1 while1 at the same time1 they have little to recommend them1 as the ,devons have1 on the score of beautiful forms and symmetrical proportions4 ,put upon a large and roomy native cow1 remarkable as a milker1 the produce would be likely to be a very superior animal4 ,the ,ayrshires1 as already seen1 have been bred with reference both to quality and quantity of milk1 and the grades are usually of a very high order4 ,the best milkers ,i have ever known1 in proportion to their size and food1 have been grade ,ayrshires2 and this is also the experience of many who keep dairies for the manufacture of butter and cheese1 as well as for the sale of milk4 ,a cross obtained from an ,ayrshire bull of good size and a pure-bred short-horn cow will produce a stock which it will be hard to beat at the pail1 especially if the cow belong to any of the families of short-horns which have been bred with reference to their milking qualities1 as some of them have4 ,i have taken great pains to inquire of dairymen as to the breed or grade of their best cows1 and what they consider the best cows for milk for their purposes2 and the answer has almost invariably been the ,ayrshire and the native4 ,the ,ayrshires have by no means been a failure in this country1 although ,i do not think that1 as a general thing1 we have been so fortunate hitherto as to import the best specimens of them4 ,if any improvement has been made in our dairy stock apart from that effected by a higher and more liberal course of feeding1 it has come1 in a great measure1 from the ,ayrshires2 and1 had the facilities been offered to cross our common stock with them to greater extent1 there can be little doubt that the improvement would have been greater and more perceptible4 ,it should1 however1 be said1 that in sections where the feed is naturally luxuriant1 and adapted to grazing large animals1 some families of the short-horns crossed with our natives have produced an equally good stock for cheese and milk dairies4 ,before closing this part of the subject1 it is proper to observe that among the earlier importations were several varieties of hornless cattle1 and that they have been kept distinct in some sections1 or where they have been crossed with the common stock there has been a tendency to produce hornless grades4 ,these are not unfrequently known under the name of buffalo cattle4 ,they were1 in many cases1 supposed to have belonged to the ,galloway breed2 or1 which is more likely1 to the ,suffolk dun1 a variety of the ,galloway1 and a far better milking-stock than the ,galloways1 from which it sprung4 ,the polled1 or hornless cattle1 vary in color and qualities1 but they are usually very good milkers when well kept1 and many of them fatten well1 and attain good weights4 ,the ,hungarian cattle have also been imported1 to some extent1 into different parts of the country1 and have been crossed upon the natives with some success4 ,many other strains of blood from different breeds have contributed to build up the common stock of the country of the present day2 and there can be no question that its appearance and value have been largely improved during the last quarter of a century1 nor that improvements are still in progress which will lead to satisfactory results in future4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,selection ,,of ,,milch ,,cows4 ,we have now reviewed the prominent races of cattle found in ,american dairy herds1 and devoted some space to an examination of the principles to be followed in the breeding of dairy stock2 and this has involved1 to some extent1 the choice of breeds1 and the selection of individual animals1 with special reference1 however1 to transmitting and improving their milking properties4 ,but the selection of cows for the dairy is of such importance as to demand the most careful consideration4 ,the objects of a dairy are three-fold3 the production of milk for sale1 mainly confined to milk-dairies1 and to smaller farms in the vicinity of large towns1 where a mixed husbandry is followed2 the production of butter1 chiefly confined to farms at a distance from cities and large towns1 which furnish a ready market for milk2 and the fabrication of cheese1 carried on under circumstances somewhat1 similar to the manufacture of butter1 and sometimes united with it as an object of pursuit1 on the farm4 ,these different objects should1 therefore1 be kept in view1 in the selection of cows2 for animals which would be most profitable for the milk-dairy might be very unprofitable in the butter-dairy--a fact of almost daily experience4 ,the productiveness of the cow does not depend on her breed so much as upon her food and management1 her temperament and health1 and the activity and energy of the organs of digestion and secretion4 ,these latter1 it is true1 depending upon the structure of the chest and other parts1 are far better developed1 and more permanently fixed1 in some races than in others1 and are derived more or less by descent1 and capable of being transmitted4 ,the breed1 therefore1 cannot be wholly disregarded1 inasmuch as it is an element in forming a judgment of the merits of a milch cow4 ,cows1 of whatever breed1 having the best developed external marks of good milkers1 will very rarely disappoint the practised eye or the skilful hand2 while cows of breeds in highest repute for the dairy1 and which do not show these marks1 will as certainly fail to answer the expectations of those who select them simply for the breed4 ,those who would obtain skill in judging of these marks1 and by means of them be able to estimate the value of a cow1 need not expect to attain this end without long study and practical observation1 for which some men have far greater talent than others2 being able1 while examining a particular mark or favorite characteristic of a milker1 to take in all others at a glance1 and so1 while appearing to form their opinion from one or two important points1 actually to estimate the whole development of the animal1 while others must examine in detail each point by itself4 ,long practice is required1 therefore1 to become an adept in the judgment and selection of milch cows2 but still much assistance may1 unquestionably1 be derived by careful attention to the external signs which have been long observed to indicate the milking qualities4 ,it is important1 in the first place1 to be able to judge of the age of the cow4 ,few farmers wish to purchase a cow for the dairy after she has passed her prime1 which will ordinarily be at the age of nine or ten years1 varying1 of course1 according to care1 feeding1 c41 in the earlier part of her life4 ,the most usual mode of forming an estimate of the age of cattle is by an examination of the horn4 ,at three years old1 as a general rule1 the horns are perfectly smooth2 after this1 a ring appears near the root1 and annually afterward a new one is formed2 so that1 by adding two years to the first ring1 the age is calculated4 ,this is a very uncertain mode of judging4 ,the rings are distinct only in the cow2 and it is well known that1 if a heifer goes to bull when she is two years old1 or a little before or after that time1 a change takes place in the horn1 and the first ring appears2 so that a real three-year-old would carry the mark of a four-year-old4 ,the rings on the horns of a bull are either not seen until five1 or they cannot be traced at all2 while in the ox they do not appear till he is five years old1 and then are often very indistinct4 ,in addition to this1 it is by no means an uncommon practice to file the horns1 so as to make them smooth1 and to give the animal the appearance of being much younger than it really is4 ,this is1 therefore1 an exceedingly fallacious guide1 and we cannot rely on it without being subject to imposition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,teeth at birth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,second week4 ,the surest indication of the age is given by the teeth4 ,the calf1 at birth1 will usually have two incisor or front teeth2 in some cases just appearing through the gums2 in others1 fully set1 varying as the cow falls short or exceeds her regular time of calving4 ,if she overruns several days1 the teeth will have set and attained considerable size1 as appears in ,fig4 #ae4 ,during the second week1 a tooth will usually be added on each side1 and the mouth will generally appear as in ,fig4 #af2 and1 before the end of the third week1 the animal will generally have six incisor teeth1 as shown in ,fig4 #ag2 and in a week from that time the full number of incisors will have appeared1 as seen in ,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,third week4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,month4 ,these teeth are temporary1 and are often called milk-teeth4 ,their edge is very sharp2 and1 as the animal begins to live upon more solid food1 this edge becomes worn1 showing the bony part of the tooth beneath1 and indicates1 with considerable precision1 the length of time they have been used4 ,the centre or oldest teeth show the marks of age first1 and often become somewhat worn before the corner teeth appear4 ,at eight weeks1 the four inner teeth are nearly as sharp as before4 ,they appear worn not so much on the outer edge or line of the tooth1 as inside this line2 but1 after this1 the edge begins gradually to lose its sharpness1 and to present a more flattened surface2 while the next outer teeth wear down like the four central ones2 and at three months this wearing off is very apparent1 till at four months all the incisor teeth appear worn1 but the inner ones the most4 ,now the teeth begin slowly to diminish in size by a kind of contraction1 as well as wearing down1 and the distance apart becomes more and more apparent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,five to eight months4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,ten months4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,twelve months4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,fifteen months4 ,from the fifth to the eighth month the inner teeth will usually appear as in ,fig4 #ai2 and at ten months this change shows more clearly1 as in ,fig4 #bj1 and the spaces between them begin to show very plainly1 till at a year old they ordinarily present the appearance of ,fig4 #ba2 and at the age of fifteen months that shown in ,fig4 #bb1 where the corner teeth are not more than half the original size1 and the centre ones still smaller4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,eighteen months4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,two years past4 ,the permanent teeth are now rapidly growing1 and preparing to take the place of the milk-teeth1 which are gradually absorbed till they disappear1 or are pushed out to give place to the two permanent central incisors1 which1 at a year and a half1 will generally present the appearance indicated in ,fig4 #bc1 which shows the internal structure of the lower jaw at this time1 with the cells of the teeth1 the two central ones protruding into the mouth1 the two next pushing up1 but not quite grown to the surface1 with the third pair just perceptible4 ,these changes require time2 and at two years past the jaw will usually appear as in ,fig4 #bd1 where four of the permanent central incisors are seen4 ,after this the other milk-teeth decrease rapidly1 but are slow to disappear2 and at three years old the third pair of permanent teeth are but formed1 as in ,fig4 #be2 and at four years the last pair of incisors will be up1 as in ,fig4 #bf2 but the outside ones are not yet fully grown1 and the beast can hardly be said to be full-mouthed till the age of five years4 ,but before this age1 or at the age of four years1 the two inner pairs of permanent teeth are beginning to wear at the edges1 as shown in ,fig4 #bf1 while at five years old the whole set becomes somewhat worn down at the top1 and on the two centre ones a darker line appears in the middle1 along a line of harder bone1 as appears in ,fig4 #bg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,three years past4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,four years past4 ,now will come a year or two1 and sometimes three1 when the teeth do not so clearly indicate the exact age1 and the judgment must be guided by the extent to which the dark middle lines are worn4 ,this will depend somewhat upon the exposure and feeding of the animal2 but at seven years these lines extend over all the teeth4 ,at eight years another change begins1 which cannot be mistaken4 ,a kind of absorption begins with the two central incisors1 slow1 at first1 but perceptible1 and these two teeth become smaller than the rest1 while the dark lines are worn into one in all but the corner teeth1 till at ten years four of the central incisors have become smaller in size1 with a smaller and fainter mark1 as seen in ,fig4 #bh4 ,at eleven the six inner teeth are smaller than the corner ones2 and at twelve all become smaller than they were1 while the dark lines are nearly gone1 except in the corner teeth1 and the inner edge is worn to the gum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,five years past4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,ten years past4 ,after being satisfied with regard to the age of a cow1 we should examine her with reference to her soundness of constitution4 ,a good constitution is indicated by large lungs1 which are found in a deep1 broad1 and prominent chest1 broad and well-spread ribs1 a respiration somewhat slow and regular1 a good appetite1 and if in milk a strong inclination to drink1 which a large secretion of milk almost invariably stimulates4 ,in such cows the digestive organs are active and energetic1 and they make an abundance of good blood1 which in turn stimulates the activity of the nervous system1 and furnishes the milky glands with the means of abundant secretion4 ,such cows1 when dry1 readily take on fat4 ,when activity of the milk-glands is found united with close ribs1 small and feeble lungs1 and a slow appetite1 often attended by great thirst1 the cow will generally possess only a weak and feeble constitution2 and if the milk is plentiful1 it will generally be of bad quality1 while the animal1 if she does not die of diseased lungs1 will not take on fat readily when dry and fed4 ,other external marks of great milkers have already been given in part4 ,they should be found united1 as far as possible2 for1 though no one of them1 however well developed1 can be taken as a sure indication of extraordinary milking powers1 several of them united may1 as a general rule1 be implicitly relied on4 ,in order to have no superfluous flesh1 the cow should have a small1 clean1 and rather long head1 tapering towards the muzzle4 ,a cow with a large1 coarse head will seldom fatten readily1 or give a large quantity of milk4 ,a coarse head increases the proportion of weight of the least valuable parts1 while it is a sure indication that the whole bony structure is too heavy4 ,the mouth should be large and broad2 the eye bright and sparkling1 but of a peculiar placidness of expression1 with no indication of wildness1 but rather a mild and feminine look4 ,these points will indicate gentleness of disposition4 ,such cows seem to like to be milked1 are fond of being caressed1 and often return caresses4 ,the horns should be small1 short1 tapering1 yellowish1 and glistening4 ,the neck should be small1 thin1 and tapering towards the head1 but thickening when it approaches the shoulder2 the dewlaps small4 ,the fore quarters should be rather small when compared with the hind quarters4 ,the form of the barrel will be large1 and each rib should project further than the preceding one1 up to the loins4 ,she should be well formed across the hips and in the rump4 ,the spine or back-bone should be straight and long1 rather loosely hung1 or open along the middle part1 the result of the distance between the dorsal vertebr1 which sometimes causes a slight depression1 or sway back4 ,by some good judges this mark is regarded as of great importance1 especially when the bones of the hind quarters are also rather loosely put together1 leaving the rump of great width1 and the pelvis large1 and the organs and milk-vessels lodged in the cavities largely developed4 ,the skin over the rump should be loose and flexible4 ,this point is of great importance2 and as1 when the cow is in low condition1 or very poor1 it will appear somewhat harder and closer than it otherwise would1 some practice and close observation are required to judge well of this mark4 ,the skin1 indeed1 all over the body1 should be soft and mellow to the touch1 with soft and glossy hair4 ,the tail1 if thick at the setting on1 should taper and be fine below4 ,but the udder is of special importance4 ,it should be large in proportion to the size of the animal1 and the skin thin1 with soft1 loose folds extending well back1 capable of great distension when filled1 but shrinking to a small compass when entirely empty4 ,it must be free from lumps in every part1 and provided with four teats set well apart1 and of medium size4 ,nor are the milk-veins less important to be carefully observed4 ,the principal ones under the belly should be large and prominent1 and extend forward to the navel1 losing themselves1 apparently1 in the very best milkers1 in a large cavity in the flesh1 into which the end of the finger can be inserted2 but1 when the cow is not in full milk1 the milk-vein1 at other times very prominent1 is not so distinctly traced2 and hence1 to judge of its size when the cow is dry1 or nearly so1 this vein may be pressed near its end1 or at its entrance into the body1 when it will immediately fill up to its full size4 ,this vein does not carry the milk to the udder1 as some suppose1 but is the channel by which the blood returns2 and its contents consist of the refuse of the secretion1 or what has not been taken up in forming milk4 ,there are1 also1 veins in the udder1 and the perineum1 or the space above the udder1 and between that and the buttocks1 which it is of special importance to observe4 ,these veins should be largely developed1 and irregular or knotted1 especially those of the udder4 ,they may be seen in ,figs4 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 c4 ,they are largest in great milkers4 ,the knotted veins of the perineum1 extending from above downwards in a winding line1 are not readily seen in young heifers1 and are very difficult to find in poor cows1 or cows of only a medium quality4 ,they are easily found in very good milkers1 and1 if not at first apparent1 they are made so by pressing upon them at the base of the perineum1 when they swell up1 and send the blood back towards the vulva4 ,they form a kind of thick network under the skin of the perineum1 raising it up somewhat1 in some cases near the vulva1 in others lower down and nearer to the udder4 ,it is important to look for these veins1 as they often form a very important guide1 and by some they would be considered as furnishing the surest indications of the milking qualities of the cow4 ,their full development almost always indicates an abundant secretion of milk2 but they are far better developed after the cow has had two or three calves1 when two or three years' milking has given full activity to the milky glands1 and attracted a large flow of blood4 ,the larger and more prominent these veins1 the better4 ,it is needless to say that in observing them some regard should be had to the condition of the cow1 the thickness of skin and fat by which they may be surrounded1 and the general activity and food of the animal4 ,food calculated to stimulate the greatest flow of milk will naturally increase these veins1 and give them more than usual prominence4 ,we come now to an examination of the system of ,gunon1 whose discovery1 whatever may be said of it1 has proved of immense importance to agriculture4 ,gunon was a man of remarkable practical sagacity1 a close observer of stock1 and an excellent judge4 ,this gave him a great advantage in securing the respect of those with whom he came in contact1 and assisted him vastly in introducing his ideas to the knowledge of intelligent men4 ,born in ,france1 in the vicinity of ,bordeaux1 in humble circumstances1 he early had the care of cows1 and spent his whole life with them4 ,his discovery1 for which a gold medal was awarded by the agricultural society of ,bordeaux1 on the #dth of ,july1 #ahcg1 consisted in the connection between the milking qualities of the cow and certain external marks on the udder1 and on the space above it1 called the perineum1 extending to the buttocks4 ,to these marks he gave the name of milk-mirror1 or escutcheon1 which consists in certain perceptible spots rising up from the udder in different directions1 forms1 and sizes1 on which the hair grows upwards1 whilst the hair on other parts of the body grows downwards4 ,to these spots various names have been given1 according to their size and position1 as tufts1 fringes1 figures or escutcheons1 which last1 is the most common term used4 ,the reduction of these marks into a system1 explaining the value of particular forms and sizes of the milk-mirror1 belongs1 so far as ,i know1 exclusively to ,gunon1 though the connection of the milking qualities of the cow and the size of the ovals with downward-growing hair on the back part of the udder above the teats was observed and known in ,massachusetts more than forty years age1 and some of the old farmers of that day were accustomed to say that when these spots were large and well developed the cow would be a good milker4 ,gunon divided the milk-mirror into eight classes1 and each class into eight orders1 making in all no less than sixty-four divisions1 which he afterwards increased by sub-divisions1 making the whole system complicated in the extreme1 especially as he professed to be able to judge with accuracy1 by means of the milk-mirror1 not only of the exact quantity a cow would give1 but also the quality of the milk and the length of time it would continue4 ,he tried to prove too much1 and the consequence was that he was himself frequently at fault1 notwithstanding his excellent knowledge of other general characteristics of milch cows1 while others1 of less knowledge1 and far more liable to err in judgment1 were inclined to view the whole system with distrust4 ,my own attention was called to ,gunon's method of judging of cows some eight or ten years ago1 and since that time ,i have examined many hundreds1 with a view to ascertain the correctness of its main features1 inquiring1 at the same time1 after the views and opinions of the best breeders and judges of stock1 with regard to their experience and judgment of it merits2 and the result of my observation has been1 that cows with the most perfectly-developed milk-mirrors1 or escutcheons1 are1 with rare exceptions1 the best milkers of their breed1 and that cows with small and slightly-developed mirrors are1 in the majority of cases1 bad milkers4 ,i say the best milkers of their breed2 for ,i do not believe that precisely the same sized and formed milk-mirrors on a ,hereford or a ,devon1 and an ,ayrshire or a native1 will indicate anything like the same or equal milking properties4 ,it will not do1 in my opinion1 to disregard the general and well-known characteristics of the breed1 and rely wholly on the milk-mirror4 ,but ,i think it may be safely said that1 as a general rule the best-marked ,hereford will turn out to be the best milker among the ,herefords1 all of which are poor milkers2 the best-marked ,devon the best among the ,devons1 and the best-marked ,ayrshire the best among the ,ayrshires2 that is1 it will not do to compare two animals of entirely distinct breeds1 by the milk-mirrors alone1 without regard to the fixed habits and education1 so to speak1 of the breed or family to which they belong4 ,there are cows with very small mirrors1 which are1 nevertheless1 very fair in the yield of milk2 and among these with middling quality of mirrors instances of rather more than ordinary milkers often occur1 while at the same time it is true that now and then cases occur where the very best marked and developed mirrors are found on very poor milkers4 ,i once owned a cow of most extraordinary marks1 the milk-mirror extending out broadly upon the thighs1 and rising broad and very distinctly marked to the buttocks1 giving every indication1 to good judges1 of being as great a milker as ever stood over a pail2 and yet1 when she calved1 the calf was feeble and half nourished1 and she actually gave too little to feed it4 ,but ,i believe that this exception1 and most others which appear to be direct contradictions1 could be clearly explained by the fact1 of which ,i was not aware at the time1 that she had been largely over-fed before she came into my possession4 ,i mention this case simply to show how impossible it is to estimate with mathematical accuracy either the quantity1 the quality1 or the duration of the milk1 since it is affected by so many chance circumstances1 which cannot always be known or estimated by even the most skilful judge2 as the food1 the treatment1 the temperament1 accidental diseases1 inflammation of the udder1 premature calving1 the climate and season1 the manner in which she has been milked1 and a thousand other things which interrupt or influence the flow of milk1 without1 materially changing the size or the shape of the milk-mirror4 ,m4 ,magne1 who appears to me to have simplified and explained the system of ,gunon1 and to have freed it from many of the useless details with which it is encumbered in the original work1 while he has preserved all that is of practical value1 very justly observes that we often see cows1 equally well formed1 with precisely the same milk-mirror1 and kept in the same circumstances1 yet giving neither equal quantities nor similar qualities of milk4 ,nor could it be otherwise2 for1 assuming a particular tuft on two cows to be of equal value at birth1 it could not be the same in the course of years1 since innumerable circumstances occur to change the activity of the milky glands without changing the form or size of the tuft2 or1 in other words1 the action of the organs depends not merely on their size and form1 but1 to a great extent1 on the general condition of each individual4 ,te give a more distinct idea of the milk-mirror1 it will be necessary to refer to the figures1 and the explanations of these ,i translate literally from the little work already referred to1 the ,choix des ,vaches ,latires1 or1 the ,choice of ,milch ,cows4 ,the different forms of milk-mirrors are represented by the shaded part of figures #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 etc42 but it is necessary to premise that upon the cows themselves they are always partly concealed by the thighs1 the udder1 and the folds of the skin1 which are not shown1 and so they are not always so uniform in nature as they appear in the cuts4 ,their size varies as the skin is more or less folded or stretched1 while we have supposed in the figures that the skin is uniform or free from folds1 but not stretched out4 ,in order to understand the differences which the milk-mirrors present in respect to size1 according to the state of the skin1 the milk-mirror is shown in two ways in ,figs4 #eb and #ec4 ,in ,fig4 #ec the proportions are preserved the same as in the other mirrors represented1 but an effort is made to represent the folds of the skin2 while in ,fig4 #eb the mirror is just as it would have been had the folds of the udder been smoothed out1 and the skin between the udder and the thighs stretched out2 or1 in other words1 as if the skin1 covered with up-growing hair1 had been fully extended4 ,this mirror1 but little developed1 just as shown in ,fig4 #ec1 was observed on a very large ,norman cow4 ,it is usually very easy to distinguish the milk-mirrors by the upward direction of the hair which forms them4 ,they are sometimes marked by a line of bristly hair growing in the opposite direction1 which surrounds them1 forming a sort of outline by the upward and downward growing hair4 ,yet1 when the hair is very fine and short1 mixed with longer hairs1 and the skin much folded1 and the udder voluminous and pressed by the thighs1 it is necessary1 in order to distinguish the part enclosed between the udder and the legs1 and examine the full size of the mirrors1 to observe them attentively1 and to place the legs wide apart1 and to smooth out the skin1 in order to avoid the folds4 ,the mirrors may also be observed by holding the back of the hand against the perineum1 and drawing it from above downwards1 when the nails rubbing against the up-growing hair1 make the parts covered by it very perceptible4 ,as the hair of the milk-mirror has not the same direction as the hair which surrounds it1 it may often be distinguished by a difference in the shade reflected by it4 ,it is then sufficient to place it properly to the light to see the difference in shade1 and to make out the part covered by the upward-growing hair4 ,most frequently1 however1 the hair of the milk-mirror is thin and fine1 and the color of the skin can easily be seen4 ,if we trust alone to the eye1 we shall often be deceived4 ,thus1 in ,figs4 #eb and #ec1 the shaded part1 which extends from the vulva to the mirror ,e1 represents a strip of hair of a brownish tint1 which covered the perineum1 and which might easily have been taken for a part of the milk-mirror4 ,in some countries cattle-dealers shave the back part of the cows4 ,just after this operation the mirrors can neither be seen nor felt2 but this inconvenience ceases in a few days4 ,it may be added that the shaving1 designed1 as the dealers say1 to beautify the cow1 is generally intended simply to destroy the milk-mirror1 and to deprive buyers of one means of judging of the milking qualities of the cows4 ,it is not necessary to add that the cows most carefully shaven are those which are badly marked1 and that it is prudent to take it for granted that cows so shorn are bad milkers4 ,milk-mirrors vary in position1 extent1 and the figure they represent4 ,they may be divided1 according to their position1 into mirrors or escutcheons1 properly so called1 or into lower and upper tufts1 or escutcheons4 ,the latter are very small in comparison with the former1 and are situated in close proximity to the vulva1 as seen at ,s in ,figs4 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1 etc4 ,they are very common on cows of bad milking races1 but are very rarely seen on the best milch cows4 ,they consist of one or two ovals1 or small bands of up-growing hair1 and serve to indicate the continuance of the flow of milk4 ,the period is short in proportion as the tufts are large4 ,they must not be confounded with the escutcheon proper1 which is often extended up to the vulva4 ,they are separated from it by bands of hair1 more or less large1 as in ,figs4 #dj1 #db1 c4 ,the mirrors shown in ,figs4 #ch to #db1 and #bi to #ce1 c41 exist1 more or less developed1 on nearly all cows1 and indicate the quantity of milk1 which will be in proportion to their size4 ,sometimes they form only a small plate on the posterior surface of the udder1 as in ,fig4 #di4 ,in other cases they cover the udder1 the inner surface of the legs and the thighs1 the perineum1 and a part of the buttocks1 as in ,figs4 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 c4 ,two parts may be distinguished in the lower tufts3 one situated on the udder1 the legs1 and the thighs1 as at ,m ,m1 ,fig4 #cj2 and the other on the perineum1 extending sometimes more or less out upon the thighs1 as at ,p ,p1 in the same figure4 ,the first part is represented by itself1 in ,figs4 #cg and #di4 ,we shall call the former mammary1 and the latter perinean4 ,the former is sometimes large1 extending over the milky glands1 the thighs1 and the legs1 as shown in ,figs4 #bi to #cg2 and sometimes circumscribed1 or more or less checked over with tufts of downward-growing hair1 as in ,figs4 #dc to #eb4 ,it is sometimes terminated towards the upper part of the udder by a horizontal line1 straight1 as in ,fig4 #cg1 or angular1 as in ,fig4 #di2 but more frequently it continues without interruption over the perineum1 and constitutes the perinean part4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,this presents a large band1 ,fig4 #cj1 straight1 as in ,fig4 #dc1 and bounded on the sides by two parallel lines1 as seen in the same figures1 or by curved lines1 as in ,fig4 #cd4 ,it sometimes rises scarcely a fourth part up the perineum1 as in ,fig4 #ch2 at others1 it reaches or passes beyond that part1 forming a straight band1 as in ,figs4 #ce and #dc1 or is folded into squares1 as in ,figs4 #ca and #cf1 or truncated1 ,fig4 #ch1 or terminated by one or several points1 ,figs4 #cb1 #cc1 #da1 #ej4 ,in some cows this band extends as far as the base of the vulva1 ,figs4 #dj and #dh2 in others1 it embraces more or less of the lower part of the vulva1 ,figs4 #bi1 #cj1 #ci1 and #dg4 ,milk-mirrors are sometimes symmetrical1 as in ,figs4 #bi1 #cj1 #cd1 #ce1 #cg1 and #ch2 sometimes without symmetry1 as in ,figs4 #db1 #de1 and #ej4 ,when there is a great difference in the extent of the two halves1 it almost always happens that the teats on the side where the mirror is best developed give1 as we shall see1 more milk than those of the opposite side4 ,we will remark here that the left half of the mirror is almost always the largest2 and so1 when the perinean part is folded into a square1 it is on this side of the body that it unfolds1 as in ,figs4 #ca1 #cf1 and #db4 ,of three thousand cows in ,denmark1 ,m4 ,andersen found only a single one whose escutcheon varied even a little from this rule4 ,we have observed the contrary only in a single case1 and that was on a bull4 ,the perinean part of the mirror formed a band of an inch to an inch and a half in breadth1 irregular1 but situated1 in great measure1 on the right side of the body4 ,stretching towards the upper part of the perineum1 it formed a kind of square1 with a small projecting point on the right1 ,fig4 #ea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,the mirrors having a value in proportion to the space they occupy1 it is of great importance to attend to all the rows of down-growing hairs1 which diminish its extent of surface1 whether these tufts are in the midst of the mirror1 ,figs4 #de1 #df1 and #dg1 or form indentations on its edges1 as in ,figs4 #db1 #dd1 #de1 #df1 and #dh4 ,these indentations1 concealed in part by the folds of the skin1 are sometimes seen with difficulty2 but it is important to take them into account1 since in a great many cows they materially lessen the size of the mirror4 ,we often find cows whose milk-mirror at first sight appears very large1 but which are only medium milkers2 and it will usually be found that lateral indentations greatly diminish the surface of up-growing hair4 ,many errors are committed in estimating the value of such cows1 from a want of attention to the real extent of the milk-mirror4 ,all the interruptions in the surface of the mirror indicate a diminution of the quantity of milk1 with the exception1 however1 of small oval or elliptical plates which are found in the mirror1 on the back part of the udders of the best cows1 as in ,figs4 #bi1 #cj1 #cb1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 and #dj4 ,these ovals have a peculiar tint1 which is occasioned by the downward direction of the hair which forms them4 ,in the best cows these ovals exist with the lower mirrors very well developed1 as in ,figs4 #bi1 #cj1 and #cb4 ,in fine1 we should state that in order to determine the extent and significance of a mirror it is necessary to consider the state of the perineum as to fat1 and of the fulness of the udder4 ,in a fat cow1 with an inflated udder1 the mirror would appear larger than it really is2 whilst in a lean cow1 with a loose and wrinkled udder1 it appears smaller4 ,fat will cover faults1 a fact to be kept in mind in selecting a cow4 ,in bulls1 ,fig4 #ea1 the mirrors present the same peculiarities as in cows2 but they are less varied in their form1 and especially much less in size4 ,this will easily be understood from the explanation of mirrors given on a preceding page4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,in calves the mirrors show the shapes they are afterwards to have1 only they are more contracted1 because the parts which they cover are but slightly developed4 ,they are easily seen after birth2 but the hair which then covers them is long1 coarse1 and stiff2 and when this hair falls off1 the calf's mirror will resemble that of the cow1 but be of less size4 ,with calves1 however1 it should be stated1 in addition to what has already been said1 that the milk-mirrors are more distinctly recognized on those from cows that are well kept1 and that they will generally be fully developed at two years old4 ,some changes take place in the course of years1 but the outlines of the mirror appear prominent at the time of advanced pregnancy1 or1 in the case of cows giving milk1 at the times when the udder is more distended with milk than at others4 ,the classification adopted by ,magne appears still further to simplify the whole method1 and to bring it within the easy reach and comprehension of every one who will examine the figures and the explanations connected with them4 ,he divides cows1 according to the quantity they give1 into four classes3 ,first1 the very good2 second1 the good2 third1 the medium2 and fourth1 the bad4 ,in the first class he places cows both parts of whose milk-mirror1 the mammary and the perinean1 are large1 continuous1 uniform1 covering at least a great part of the perineum1 the udder1 the inner surface of the thighs1 and extending more or less out upon the legs1 as in ,figs4 #bi to #cc1 with no interruptions1 or1 if any1 small ones1 oval in form1 and situated on the posterior face of the udder1 ,figs4 #bi1 #cj1 and #cb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,such mirrors are found on most very good cows1 but may also be found on cows which can scarcely be called good1 and which should be ranked in the next class4 ,but cows1 whether having very well-developed mirrors or not1 may be reckoned as very good1 and as giving as much milk as is to be expected from their size1 feed1 and the hygienic circumstances in which they are kept1 if they present the following characteristics3 ,veins of the perineum large1 as if swollen1 and visible on the exterior1 as in ,figs4 #bi-cb1 or which can be easily made to appear by pressing upon the base of the perineum2 veins of the udder large and knotted1 milk-veins large1 often double1 equal on both sides1 and forming zig-zags under the belly4 ,to the signs furnished by the veins and by the mirror may be added also the following marks3 ,a uniform1 very large and yielding udder1 shrinking much in milking1 and covered with soft skin and fine hair2 good constitution1 full chest1 regular appetite1 and great propensity to drink4 ,cows rather inclining to be poor than fat4 ,soft1 yielding skin1 short1 fine hair1 small head1 fine horns1 bright1 sparkling eye1 mild expression1 feminine look1 with a fine neck4 ,cows of this first class are very rare4 ,they give1 even when small in size1 from ten to fourteen quarts of milk a day1 and the largest sized from eighteen to twenty-six quarts a day1 and even more4 ,just after calving1 if arrived at maturity and fed with good1 wholesome1 moist food in sufficient quantity and quality1 adapted to promote the secretion of milk1 they can give about a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay1 or its equivalent1 which they eat4 ,they continue in milk for a long period4 ,the best never go dry1 and may be milked even up to the time of calving1 giving from eight to twelve quarts of milk a day4 ,the ,dutch cow1 ,fig4 #ed1 was giving daily twenty-two quarts of milk1 a year after calving4 ,but even the best cows often fall short of the quantity of milk they are able to give1 from being fed on food that is too dry1 or not sufficiently varied1 or not rich enough in nutritive qualities1 or deficient in quantity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,the second class is that of good cows2 and to this belong the best commonly found in the market and among the cow-feeders of cities4 ,they have the mammary part of the milk-mirror well developed1 but the perinean part contracted or wholly wanting1 as in ,figs4 #cd and #cg2 or both parts of the mirror are moderately developed1 or slightly indented1 as ,figs4 #ce and #cf4 ,figs4 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1 and #da1 belong also to this class1 in the lower part2 but they denote cows which1 as the upper mirrors1 ,s ,s ,s1 indicate1 dry up sooner when again in calf4 ,these marks1 though often seen on many good cows1 should be considered as certain only when the veins of the perineum form1 under the skin1 a kind of network1 which1 without being very apparent1 may be felt by a pressure on them2 when the milk-veins on the belly are well developed1 though less knotted and less prominent than in cows of the first class2 in fine1 when the udder is well developed1 and presents veins which are sufficiently numerous1 though not very large4 ,it is necessary1 then1 as in the preceding class1 to have a mistrust of cows in which the mirror is not accompanied by large veins4 ,this remark applies especially to cows which have had several calves1 and are in full milk4 ,they are medium or bad1 let the milk-mirror be what it may1 if the veins of the belly are not large1 and those of the udder apparent4 ,the general characteristics which depend on form and constitution combine less than in cows of the preceding class the marks of good health and excellent constitution with those of a gentle and feminine look4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,a ,good ,milch ,cow4 ,small cows of this class give from seven to ten or eleven quarts of milk a day1 and the largest from thirteen to seventeen quarts4 ,they can be made to give three fourths of a pint of milk1 just after calving1 for every ten ounces of hay consumed1 if well cared for1 and fed in a manner favorable to the secretion of milk4 ,they hold out long in milk when they have no upper mirrors or tufts4 ,at seven or eight months in calf1 they may give from five to eight quarts a day4 ,the third class consists of middling cows4 ,when the milk-mirror really presents only the lower or mammary part slightly developed or indented1 and the perinean part contracted1 narrow1 and irregular1 as in ,figs4 #db to #dg1 the cows are middling4 ,the udder is slightly developed or hard1 and shrinks very little after milking4 ,the veins of the perineum are not apparent1 and those which run along the lower sides of the abdomen are small1 straight1 and sometimes unequal4 ,in this case the mirror is not symmetrical1 and the cow gives more milk on the side where the vein is largest4 ,these cows often have large heads1 and a thick and hard skin4 ,being ordinarily in good condition1 and even fat1 they are beautiful to look at1 and seem to be well formed4 ,many of them are nervous and restive1 and not easily approached4 ,cows of this class give1 according to size1 from three or four to ten quarts of milk4 ,they very rarely give1 even in the most favorable circumstances1 half a pint for every ten ounces of hay which they consume4 ,the milk diminishes rapidly1 and dries up wholly the fourth or fifth month in calf4 ,the fourth class is composed of bad cows4 ,as they are ordinarily in good condition1 these cows are often the most beautiful of the herd and in the markets4 ,they have fleshy thighs1 thick and hard skin1 a large and coarse neck and head1 and horns large at the base4 ,the udder is hard1 small1 and fleshy1 with a skin covered with long1 rough hair4 ,no veins are to be seen either on the perineum or the udder1 while those of the belly are very slightly developed1 and the mirrors are ordinarily small1 as in ,figs4 #dh1 #di1 and #ej4 ,with these characteristics1 cows give only a few quarts of milk a day1 and dry up a short time after calving4 ,some such can scarcely nourish their calves1 even when they are well cared for and well fed4 ,sickly habits1 chronic affections of the digestive organs1 the chest1 the womb1 and the lacteal system1 sometimes greatly affect the milk secretions1 and cause cows troubled with them to fall from the first or second to the third1 and sometimes to the fourth class4 ,the above classification is very similar to that of ,pabst1 a ,german farmer of large experience and observation of stock1 who1 with a view to simplify the method of ,gunon1 and render it of greater practical value to the farmer1 made five divisions or classes1 consisting of1 #ast1 ,very good or extraordinary2 #b;d1 ,good or good middling2 #c;d1 ,middling and little below middling2 #dth1 ,small2 and1 #eth1 ,very bad milkers4 ,these classifications1 adopted by ,magne1 ,pabst1 and other good breeders and judges of cows1 appear to me to be far more simple and satisfactory than the more extended and complicated classification of ,gunon himself4 ,without pretending to be able to judge with any accuracy of the quantity1 the quality1 or the duration1 which any particular size or form of the mirror will indicate1 they give to ,gunon the full credit of his important discovery of the escutcheon1 or milk-mirror1 as a new and very valuable element in forming our judgment of the milking qualities of a cow2 and simply assert1 with respect to the duration or continuance of the flow of milk1 that the mirror that indicates the greatest quantity will also indicate the longest duration4 ,the mirror forms1 in other words1 an important additional mark or point for distinguishing good milkers2 and it is safe to lay it down as a rule that1 in the selection of milch cows1 as well as in the choice of young animals as breeders1 we should1 by all means1 examine and consider the milk-mirror1 but not limit or confine ourselves exclusively to it1 and that other and long-known marks should be equally regarded4 ,but there are cases where a knowledge and careful examination of the form and size of the mirror becomes of the greatest importance4 ,it is well known that certain signs or marks of great milkers are developed only as the capacities of the animal herself are fully and completely developed by age4 ,the milk-veins1 for instance1 are never so large and prominent in heifers and young cows as in old ones1 and the same may be said of the udder1 and the veins of the udder and perineum2 all of which it is of great importance to observe in the selection of milch cows4 ,those signs1 then1 which in cows arrived at maturity are almost sufficient in themselves to warrant a conclusion as to their merits as milkers1 are1 to a great extent1 wanting in younger animals1 and altogether in calves1 of which there is often doubt whether they shall be raised2 and here a knowledge of the form of the mirror is of immense advantage1 since it gives1 at the outset1 and before any expense is incurred1 a somewhat reliable means of judging of the future milking capacities of the animal or1 if a male1 of the probability of his transmitting milking qualities to his offspring4 ,it will be seen1 from an examination of the points of a good milch cow1 that1 though the same marks which indicate the greatest milking qualities may not indicate any great aptitude to fatten1 yet that the signs which indicate good fattening qualities are included among the signs favorable to the production of milk1 such as soundness of constitution1 indicated by good organs of digestion and respiration1 fineness and mellowness of the skin and hair1 quietness of disposition1 which inclines the animal to rest and lie down in chewing the cud1 and other marks which are relied on by graziers in selecting animals to fatten4 ,in buying dairy stock the farmer generally finds it for his interest to select young heifers4 ,they give the promise of longer usefulness4 ,but it is often the case that older cows are selected with the design of using them for the dairy for a limited period1 and then feeding them for the butcher4 ,in either case1 it is advisable1 as a rule1 to choose animals in low or medium condition4 ,the farmer cannot ordinarily afford to buy fat2 it is more properly his business to make it1 and to have it to sell4 ,good and well-marked cows in poor condition will rapidly gain in flesh and products when removed to better pastures and higher keeping1 and they cost less in the original purchase4 ,it is unnecessary to say that regard should be had to the quality of the pasturage and keeping which a cow has previously had1 as compared with that to which she is to be subjected4 ,the size of the animal should also be considered with reference to the fertility of the pastures into which she is to be put4 ,small or medium-sized animals accommodate themselves to ordinary pastures far better than large ones4 ,where a very large cow will do well1 two small ones will usually do better1 while the large animal might fail entirely where two small ones would do well4 ,it is better to have the whole herd1 so far as may be1 uniform in size2 for1 if they vary greatly1 some may get more than they need1 and others will not have enough4 ,this however1 cannot always be brought about4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,a ,good ,dairy ,cow4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,feeding ,,and ,,management ,,of ,,dairy ,,cows4 ,no branch of dairy farming can compare in importance with the management of cows4 ,the highest success will depend very much upon it1 whatever breed be selected1 and whatever amount of care and attention be given to the points of the animals2 for experience will show that very little milk comes out of the bag that is not first put into the throat4 ,it is poor economy1 therefore1 to attempt to keep too many cows for the amount of feed we have2 for it will generally be found that one good cow well bred and well fed will yield as much as two ordinary cows kept in the ordinary way1 while a saving is effected both in labor and room required1 and in the risks on the capital invested4 ,if the larger number on poorer feed is urged for the sake of the manure1 which is the only ground on which it can be put1 it is sufficient to remark that it is a very expensive way of making manure4 ,it is not too much to say that a proper regard to profit and economy would require many an ,american farmer to sell off nearly half his cows1 and to feed the whole of his hay and roots hitherto used into the remainder4 ,a certain ,german farmer was visited1 one day1 by some ,swiss from over the border1 who desired to buy of him all the milk of his cows for the purpose of making cheese4 ,not being able to agree upon the terms1 he finally proposed to let them take the entire charge of his cows1 and agreed to furnish food amply sufficient1 the ,swiss assuming the whole care of feeding it out1 and paying a fixed price by measure for all the milk4 8,i found myself1 at once10 says he1 8under the necessity of selling almost half my cows1 because the ,swiss required nearly double the quantity of fodder which the cows had previously had1 and ,i was well satisfied that all the produce ,i could raise on my farm would be far from sufficient to feed in that way the number of cows ,i had kept4 ,i was in despair at finding them using such a quantity of the best quality of feed1 though it was according to the strict letter of the contract1 especially as ,i knew that ,i had given my cows rather more than the quantity of food recommended by men in whom ,i had perfect confidence4 ,thus1 while ,thar names twenty-three pounds of hay1 or its equivalent1 as food sufficient for a good-sized cow1 ,i gave mine full twenty-seven pounds4 ,but1 if the change effected in the management of my cows was great1 the result was still more striking4 ,the quantity of milk kept increasing1 and it reached the highest point when the cows attained the condition of the fat kine of ,pharaoh's dream4 ,the quantity of milk became double1 triple1 and even quadruple1 what it had been before2 so that1 if ,i should compare the product with that previously obtained1 a hundred pounds of hay produced three times more milk than it had produced with my old mode of feeding4 ,such results1 of course1 attracted my attention to this branch of my farming4 ,it became a matter of pleasure2 and my observations were followed up with great care1 and during several years ,i devoted a large part of my time to it4 ,i even went so far as to procure scales for weighing the food and the animals1 in order to establish exact data on the most positive basis40 ,the conclusions to which he arrived were1 that an animal1 to be fully fed and satisfied1 requires a quantity of food in proportion to its live weight2 that no feed could be complete that did not contain a sufficient amount of nutritive elements2 hay1 for example1 being more nutritive than straw1 and grains than roots4 ,he found1 too1 that the food must possess a bulk sufficient to fill up to a certain degree the organs of digestion or the stomach2 and that1 to receive the full benefit of its food1 the animal must be wholly satisfied1 as1 if the stomach is not sufficiently distended1 the food cannot be properly digested1 and of course many of the nutritive principles it contains would not be perfectly assimilated4 ,an animal regularly fed eats till it is satisfied1 and no more than is requisite4 ,a part of the nutritive elements in hay and other forage plants is needed to keep an animal on its feet1--that is1 to keep up its condition1--and if the nutrition of its food is not sufficient for this the weight decreases1 and if it is more than sufficient the weight increases1 or else this excess is consumed in the production of milk or in labor4 ,about one sixtieth of their live weight in hay1 or its equivalent1 will keep horned cattle on their feet2 but1 in order to be completely nourished1 they require about one thirtieth in dry substances1 and four thirtieths in water1 or other liquid contained in their food4 ,the excess of nutritive food over and above what is required to sustain life will go in milch cows generally to the production of milk1 or to the growth of the ftus1 but not in all cows to an equal extent2 the tendency to the secretion of milk being far more developed in some than in others4 ,with regard to the consumption of food in proportion to the live weight of the animal1 however far it may apply as a general principle1 it should1 ,i think1 be taken with some qualifications4 ,the proportion is probably not uniform as applied to all breeds indiscriminately1 though it may be more so as applied to animals of the same breed4 ,bakewell's idea was that the quantity of food required depended much on the shape of the barrel2 and it is well known that an animal of a close1 compact1 well-rounded barrel will consume less than one of an opposite make4 ,the variations in the yield of milch cows are caused more by the variations in the nutritive elements of their food than by a change of the form in which it is given4 8,a cow1 kept through the winter on mere straw10 says a practical writer on this subject1 8will cease to give milk2 and1 when fed in spring on green forage1 will give a fair quantity of milk4 ,but she owes the cessation and restoration of the secretion to respectively the diminution and the increase of her nourishment1 and not at all to the change of form1 or of outward substance1 in which the nourishment is administered4 ,let cows receive through winter nearly as large a proportion of nutritive matter as is contained in the clover1 lucerne1 and fresh grasses1 which they eat in summer1 and1 no matter in what precise substance or mixture that matter may be contained1 they will yield a winter's produce of milk quite as rich in caseine and butyraceous ingredients as the summer's produce1 and far more ample in quantity than almost any dairyman with old-fashioned notions would imagine to be possible4 ,the great practical error on this subject consists not in giving wrong kinds of food1 but in not so proportioning and preparing it as to render an average ration of it equally rich in the elements of nutrition1 and especially in nitrogenous elements1 as an average ration of the green and succulent food of summer40 ,we keep too much stock for the quantity of good and nutritious food which we have for it2 and the consequence is cows are1 in nine cases out of ten1 poorly wintered1 and come out in the spring weakened1 if not1 indeed1 positively diseased1 and a long time is required to bring them into a condition to yield a generous quantity of milk4 ,it is a hard struggle for a cow reduced in flesh and in blood to fill up the wasted system with the food which would otherwise have gone to the secretion of milk2 but1 if she is well fed1 well housed1 well littered1 and well supplied with pure1 fresh water1 and with roots1 or other moist food1 and properly treated to the luxury of a frequent carding1 and constant kindness1 she comes out ready to commence the manufacture of milk under favorable circumstances4 ,keep the cows constantly in good condition1 ought1 therefore1 to be the motto of every dairy farmer1 posted up over the barn-door1 and over the stalls1 and over the milk-room1 and repeated to the boys whenever there is danger of forgetting it4 ,it is the great secret of success1 and the difference between success and failure turns upon it4 ,cows in milk require more food in proportion to their size and weight than either oxen or young cattle4 ,in order to keep cows in milk well and economically1 regularity is next in importance to a full supply of wholesome and nutritious food4 ,the healthy animal stomach is a very nice chronometer1 and it is of the utmost importance to observe regular hours in feeding1 cleaning1 and milking4 ,this is a point1 also1 in which very many farmers are at fault--feeding whenever it happens to be convenient4 ,the cattle are thus kept in a restless condition1 constantly expecting food when the keeper enters the barn1 while1 if regular hours are strictly adhered to1 they know exactly when they are to be fed1 and they rest quietly till the time arrives4 ,go into a well-regulated dairy establishment an hour before the time of feeding1 and scarcely an animal will rise to its feet2 while1 if it happens to be the hour of feeding1 the whole herd will be likely to rise and seize their food with an avidity and relish not to be mistaken4 ,with respect to the exact routine to be pursued1 no rule could be prescribed which would apply to all cases2 and each individual must be governed much by circumstances1 both in respect to the particular kinds of feed at different seasons of the year1 and the system of feeding4 ,i have found in my own practice1 and in the practice of the most successful dairymen1 that1 in order to encourage the largest secretion of milk in stalled cows1 one of the best courses is1 to feed in the morning1 either at the time of milking--which ,i prefer--or immediately after1 with cut feed1 consisting of hay1 oats1 millet1 or corn-stalks1 mixed with shorts1 and ,indian1 linseed1 or cotton-seed meal1 thoroughly moistened with water4 ,if in winter1 hot or warm water is far better than cold4 ,if given at milking-time1 the cows will generally give down the milk more readily4 ,the stalls and mangers ought always to be well cleaned out first4 ,roots and long hay may be given during the day2 and at the evening milking1 or directly after1 another generous meal of cut feed1 well moistened and mixed1 as in the morning4 ,no very concentrated food1 like grains alone or oil-cakes1 should1 it seems to me1 be fed early in the morning on an empty stomach1 though it is sanctioned by the practice in the ,london milk-dairies4 ,the processes of digestion go on best when the stomach is sufficiently distended2 and for this purpose the bulk of food is almost as important as the nutritive qualities4 ,the flavor of some roots1 as cabbages and turnips1 is more apt to be imparted to the flesh and milk when fed on an empty stomach than otherwise4 ,after the cows have been milked1 and have finished their cut feed1 they are carded and curried down1 in well-managed dairies1 and then either watered in the stall1 which in very cold or stormy weather is far preferable1 or turned out to water in the yard4 ,when they are out1 if they are let out at all1 the stables are put in order2 and1 after tying them up1 they are fed with long hay1 and left to themselves till the time of next feeding4 ,this may consist of roots1 such as cabbages1 beets1 carrots1 or turnips1 sliced1 or of potatoes1 a peck1 or1 if the cows are very large1 a half-bushel each1 and cut feed again at the evening milking1 as in the morning1 after which water in the stall1 if possible4 ,the less cows are exposed to the cold of winter1 the better4 ,they eat less1 thrive better1 and give more milk1 when kept housed all the time1 than when exposed to the cold4 ,caird mentions a case where a herd of cows1 which had been usually supplied from troughs and pipes in the stalls1 were1 on account of an obstruction in the pipes1 obliged to be turned out twice a day to be watered in the yard4 ,the quantity of milk instantly decreased1 and in three days the falling off became very considerable4 ,after the pipes were mended1 and the cows again watered as before1 in their stalls1 the flow of milk returned4 ,this1 however1 will be governed much by the weather2 for in very mild1 warm days it may be judicious not only to let them out1 but to allow them to remain out for a short time1 to exercise4 ,any one can arrange the hour for the several processes named above1 to suit himself2 but1 when once fixed1 let it be rigidly and regularly followed4 ,if the regular and full feeding be neglected for even a day1 the yield of milk will immediately decline1 and it will be very difficult to restore it4 ,it may safely be asserted1 as the result of many trials and long practice1 that a larger flow of milk follows a complete system of regularity in this respect than from a higher feeding where this system is not adhered to4 ,one prime object which the dairyman should keep constantly in view is1 to maintain the animal in a sound and healthy condition4 ,without this1 no profit can be expected from a milch cow for any considerable length of time2 and1 with a view to this1 there should be an occasional change of food4 ,but1 in making changes1 great care is required to supply an equal amount of nourishment1 or the cow falls off in flesh1 and eventually in milk4 ,we should therefore bear in mind that the food consumed goes not alone to the secretion of milk1 but also to the growth and maintenance of the bony structure1 the flesh1 the blood1 the fat1 the skin1 and the hair1 and in exhalations from the body4 ,these parts of the body consist of different organic constituents4 ,some are rich in nitrogen1 as the fibrin of the blood1 albumen1 c42 others destitute of it1 as fat2 some abound in inorganic salts1 phosphate of lime1 salts of potash1 c4 ,to explain how the constant waste of these substances may be supplied1 ,dr4 ,voelcker observes that the albumen1 gluten1 caseine1 and other nitrogenized principles of food1 supply the animal with materials required for the formation of muscle and cartilage2 they are1 therefore1 called flesh-forming principles4 8,fats1 or oily matters of the food10 says he1 8are used to lay on fat1 or for the purpose of sustaining respiration4 8,starch1 sugar1 gum1 and a few other non-nitrogenized substances1 consisting of carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen1 supply the carbon given off in respiration1 or they are used for the production of fat4 8,phosphates of lime and magnesia in food principally furnish the animal with the materials of which the bony skeleton of its body consists4 8,saline substances--chlorides of sodium and potassium1 sulphate and phosphate of potash and soda1 and some other mineral matters occurring in food--supply the blood1 juice of flesh1 and various animal juices1 with the necessary mineral constituents4 8,the healthy state of an animal can thus only be preserved by a mixed food2 that is1 food which contains all the proximate principles just noticed4 ,starch or sugar alone cannot sustain the animal body1 because neither of them furnishes the materials to build up the fleshy parts of the animal4 ,when fed on substances in which an insufficient quantity of phosphates occurs1 the animal will become weak1 because it does not find any bone-producing principles in its food4 ,due attention1 therefore1 ought to be paid by the feeder to the selection of food which contains all the kinds of matter required1 nitrogenized as well as non-nitrogenized1 and mineral substances2 and these should be mixed together in the proportion which experience points out as best for the different kinds of animals1 or the particular purpose for which they are kept40 8,on the nutrition of cows for dairy purposes10 ,dr4 ,voelcker still further observes that 8milk may be regarded as a material for the manufacture of butter or of cheese2 and1 according to the purpose for which the milk is intended to be employed1 whether for the manufacture of butter or the production of cheese1 the cow should be differently fed4 8,butter contains carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen1 and no nitrogen4 ,cheese1 on the contrary1 is rich in nitrogen4 ,food which contains much fatty matter1 or substances which in the animal system are readily converted into fat1 will tend to increase the proportion of cream in milk4 ,on the other hand1 the proportion of caseine or cheesy matter in milk is increased by the use of highly nitrogenized food4 ,those1 therefore1 who desire much cream1 or who produce milk for the manufacture of butter1 select food likely to increase the proportion of butter in the milk4 ,on the contrary1 where the principal object is the production of milk rich in curd1--that is1 where cheese is the object of the farmer1--clover1 peas1 and bean-meal1 and other plants which abound in legumine1--a nitrogenized organic compound1 almost identical in properties and composition with caseine1 or the substance which forms the curd of milk1--will be selected40 ,and so the quality1 as well as the quantity1 of butter in the milk1 depends on the kind of food consumed1 and on the general health of the animal4 ,cows fed on turnips in the stall always produce butter inferior to that of cows living upon the fresh and aromatic grasses of the pastures4 ,succulent food in which water abounds--the green grass of irrigated meadows1 green clover1 brewers' refuse1 distillers' refuse1 etc4--increases the quantity1 rather than the quality1 of the milk2 and by feeding these substances the milk-dairyman studies his own interest1 and makes thin milk1 without diluting it with water1 though1 in the opinion of some1 this may be no more legitimate than watering the milk4 ,but1 though the yield of milk may be increased by succulent or watery food1 it should be given so as not to interfere with the health of the cow4 ,food rich in starch1 gum1 or sugar1 which are the respiratory elements1 an excess of which goes to the production of fatty matters1 increases the butter in milk4 ,quietness promotes the secretion of fat in animals and increases the butter4 ,cheese will be increased by food rich in albumen1 such as the leguminous plants4 ,the most natural1 and of course the healthiest food for milch cows in summer1 is the green grass of the pastures2 and when those fail from drought1 or over-stocking1 the complement of nourishment may be made up with green clover1 green oats1 barley1 millet1 or corn-fodder1 and cabbage-leaves1 or other succulent vegetables2 and if these are wanting1 their place may be partly supplied with shorts1 ,indian-meal1 linseed or cotton-seed meal4 ,green grass is more nutritious than hay1 which always loses more or less of its nutritive qualities in curing2 the amount of the loss depending chiefly on the mode of curing1 and the length of exposure to sun and rain4 ,but1 apart from this1 grass is more easily and completely digested than hay1 though the digestion of hay may be greatly aided by cutting and moistening1 or steaming2 and by this means it is rendered more readily available1 and hence far better adapted to promote a large secretion of milk--a fact too often overlooked by many even intelligent farmers4 ,that green grass is better adapted than most other kinds of food to promote a large flow of milk1 may be seen from the following table1 from which it will appear that greater attention should be given to the proper constituents of food for milch cows4 ,two cows were taken in the experiment4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,milk in ,butter ,nitrogen in five in five food in ,food of two cows4 days4 days4 five days4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #a4 ,grass1 #aad lbs4#c4ej lbs4 #b4cb lbs4 #b4 ,barley and hay1 #ajg #c4dc #c4hi #c4 ,malt and hay1 #ajb #c4bj #c4cd #d4 ,barley1 molasses1 and hay1#ajf #c4dd #c4hb #e4 ,barley1 linseed1 and hay1 #ajh #c4dh #d4ad #f4 ,beans and hay1 #ajh #c4gb #e4bg ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,here grass produced the largest flow of milk1 but of a quality less rich than bean-meal and hay1 which produced the richest quality2 one hundred and eight pounds making more butter than one hundred and fourteen pounds of grass-made milk4 ,in autumn1 the best feed will be the grasses of the pastures1 so far as they are available1 green-corn fodder1 cabbage1 carrot and turnip leaves1 and an addition of meal or shorts4 ,towards the middle of autumn1 the cows fed in the pastures will require to be housed regularly nights1 especially in the more northern latitudes1 and put1 in part at least1 upon hay4 ,but every farmer knows that it is not judicious to feed out the best part of his hay when his cattle are first put into the barn1 and that he should not feed so well in the early part of winter that he cannot feed better as it advances4 ,at the same time1 it should always be borne in mind that the change from grass to a poor quality of hay or straw1 for cows in milk1 should not be too sudden4 ,a poor quality of dry hay is far less palatable in the early part of winter1 after the cows are taken from grass1 than at a later period2 and1 if it is resorted to with milch cows1 will inevitably lead to a falling off in the milk1 which no good feed can afterwards wholly restore4 ,it is desirable1 therefore1 to know what can be used instead of his best ,english or upland meadow hay1 and yet not suffer any greater loss in the flow of milk1 or condition1 than is absolutely necessary4 ,in some sections of ,new ,england1 the best quality of swale hay will be used2 and the composition of that is as variable as possible1 depending on the varieties of grasses of which it was made1 and the manner of curing4 ,but1 in other sections1 many will find it necessary to use straw1 and other substitutes2 and it may be desirable to know how much is required to form an equivalent in nutrition to good meadow or ,english hay4 ,the following brief table of nutritive equivalents will be convenient for reference3 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,percentage of ,nitrogen4 ,nutritive ---------------- equivalent4 ,dried4 ,undried4 --------------------------- #a4 ,meadow hay1 #ajj #a4cd #a4ae #b4 ,red ,clover-hay1 #ge #a4gj #a4ed #c4 ,rye-straw1 #dgi #j4cj #j4bd #d4 ,oat-straw1 #chc #j4cf #j4cj #e4 ,wheat-straw1 #dbf #j4cf #j4bg #f4 ,barley-straw1 #dfj #j4cj #j4be #g4 ,pea-straw1 #fd #a4de #a4gi ---------------------------------------- ----- ,the following is the composition of these several substances1 in which their relative value will more distinctly appear3 ---------------------------------------- --- ,starch1,gluten1 ,woody ,gum1 ,albumen1 ,fatty ,saline ,water4 fibre4 ,sugar4 etc4 matter4matter4 ---------------------------------------- --- #ad #cj #dj #g4a #b to #ee to #aj #ad #be #dj #i4c #c to #e #i #ab to #ae #de #ch #a4c #d #ab #de #ce #a4c #j4h #f #ab to #ae #ej #cj #a4c #b to #c #e #ab to #ae #ej #cj #a4c #e #aj to #ae #be #de #ab4c #a4e #d to #f ---------------------------------------- --- ,from these tables it will be seen that1 taking good ,english or meadow hay as the standard of comparison1 and calling that one1 #d4gi times the weight of rye-straw1 or #c4hc times the weight of oat-straw1 contains the same amount or nutritive matter2 that is1 it would take #d4gi times as much rye-straw to produce the same result as good meadow hay4 ,the more elaborate nutritive equivalents of ,boussingault will be found to be very valuable and suggestive1 and the following table is given in this connection for the sake of convenient reference4 ,,nutritive ,,equivalents4 7,,practical ,,and ,,theoretical47 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,theoretical ,,values4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,,boussingault4 --------------------------------------- ,nitrogen ,nitrogen in #ajj in #ajj ,water parts of parts of un- in #ajj;dried sub- dried sub- ,nutritive ,,articles ,,of ,,food4 parts4 stance4 stance4 equivalent4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,english ,hay1 #aa4j #a4cd #a4ae #ajj ,lucerne1 #af4f #a4ff #a4ch #hc ,red ,clover-hay1 #aj4a #a4gj #a4ed #ge ,red ,clover 7green71 #gf4j - 4#fd #caa ,rye-straw1 #ah4g 4#cj 4#bd #dgi ,oat-straw1 #ba4j 4#cf 4#cj #chc ,carrot-leaves 7tops71 #gj4i #b4id 4#he #ace ,swedish ,turnips1 #ia4j #a4hc 4#ag #fgf ,mangold ,wurzel1 - - - - ,white ,silician ,beet1 #he4f #a4dc 4#ah #ffi ,carrots1 #hg4f #b4dj 4#cj #chb ,potatoes1 #ge4i #a4ej 4#cf #cai ,potatoes kept in pits1 #gf4h #a4ah 4#cj #chc ,beans1 #g4i #e4ej #e4aa #bc ,peas1 #h4f #d4bj #c4hd #bg ,indian ,corn1 #ah4j #b4jj #a4fd #gj ,buckwheat1 #ab4e #b4dj #b4aj #ee ,barley1 #ac4b #b4jb #a4gf #fe ,oats1 #ab4d #b4bb #a4ib #fj ,rye1 #aa4e #b4bg #b4jj #eh ,wheat1 #aj4e #b4cc #b4ji #ee ,oil-cake 7,linseed71 #ac4d #f4jj #e4bj #bb ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,theoretical ,,values4 ---------------------------- ,,fresenius4 --------------------------- ,relative proportion of nitrogenized to non-nitrogenized ,nutritive ,,articles ,,of ,,food4 substances4 equivalent4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,english ,hay1 - #ajj ,lucerne1 - - ,red ,clover-hay1 #a to #f4jh #gg4i ,red ,clover 7green71 - - ,rye-straw1 #a to #bd4dj #ebg ,oat-straw1 #a to #ab4ej #dde ,carrot-leaves 7tops71 - - ,swedish ,turnips1 - - ,mangold ,wurzel1 #a to #g4bf #cia ,white ,silician ,beet1 - - ,carrots1 #a to #g4hd #edb4a ,potatoes1 #a to #i4jj #ccj ,potatoes kept in pits1 - - ,beans1 #a to #b4h #cd ,peas1 #a to #b4ad #cd ,indian ,corn1 #a to #f4ee - ,buckwheat1 #a to #f4je #ic ,barley1 #a to #d4be - ,oats1 #a to #d4jh #eh ,rye1 #a to #d4db #eh ,wheat1 #a to #b4db #ch ,oil-cake 7,linseed71 - - ---------------------------------------- --------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,practical values1 as obtained by experiments in feeding1 according to ---------------------------------------- ------- ,,articles ,schweit- ,,of ,,food4 ,block4,petri4,meyer4,thar4,pabst4,schwe rtz4 zer4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,english ,hay1 #ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj ,lucerne1 - #ij - #ij #ajj #ajj - ,red ,clover-hay1 #ajj #ij - #ij #ajj #ajj - ,red ,clover 7green71 #dcj - - #dej #dbe - - ,rye-straw1 #bjj #ejj #aej #fff #cej - #bfg ,oat-straw1 #bjj #bjj #aej #aij #bjj #djj #bjj ,carrot-leaves 7tops71 - - - - - - - ,swedish ,turnips1 - #cjj - #cjj #bej #bjj - ,mangold ,wurzel1 #cff #djj #bej #dfj #bej #ccc #cff ,white ,silician ,beet1 - - - - - - ,carrots1 #cff #bej #bbe #cjj #bej #bgj #cjj ,potatoes1 #baf #bjj #aej #bjj #bjj #bjj #bjj ,potatoes kept in pits1 #djj - - - - - - ,beans1 #cj #ed #ej #gc #dj - #cj ,peas1 #cj #ed #dh #ff #dj ,boussin- #cj gault ,indian ,corn1 - #eb - - - #ei - ,buckwheat1 - #fd - - - - - ,barley1 #cc #fa #ec #gf #ej - #ce ,oats1 #ci #ga - #hf #fj - #cg ,rye1 #cc #ee #ea #ga #ej - #cc ,wheat1 #bg #eb #df #fd #dj - #cj ,oil-cake 7,linseed71 #db #ajh - - - - #dc ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,the reader will find no difficulty in making this table of practical value in deciding upon the proper course of feeding to be pursued4 ,in winter the best food for cows in milk will be good sweet meadow hay1 a part of which should be cut and moistened with water1 as all inferior hay or straw should be1 with an addition of root-crops1 such as turnips1 carrots1 parsnips1 potatoes1 mangold wurzel1 with shorts1 oil-cake1 ,indian-meal1 or bean-meal4 ,it is the opinion of most successful dairymen that the feeding of moist food cannot be too highly recommended for cows in milk1 especially to those who desire to obtain the largest quantity4 ,hay cut and thoroughly moistened becomes more succulent and nutritive1 and partakes more of the nature of green grass4 ,as a substitute for the oil-cake1 hitherto known as an exceedingly valuable article for feeding stock1 there is probably nothing better than cotton-seed meal1 now to be had in large quantities in the market4 ,this is an article whose economic value has been but recently made known1 but which1 from practical trials already made1 has proved eminently successful as food for milch cows4 ,an average specimen of this was submitted for analysis to ,professor ,johnson1 who reported that its composition is not inferior to that of the best flax-seed cake1 and that in some respects its agricultural value surpasses that of any other kind of oil-cake1 as is shown in the following table1 containing in column first the analysis of cotton-seed meal made by himself2 in column second1 some of the results obtained by ,dr4 ,c4 ,t4 ,jackson on cake prepared by himself from hulled cotton-seed2 in column third1 an analysis of cotton-seed cake1 made by ,dr4 ,anderson1 of ,edinburgh2 in column fourth1 the average composition of eight samples of ,american linseed-cake2 and in column fifth1 an analysis of meadow hay1 obtained by ,dr4 ,wolff in ,saxony1 given as a means of comparison4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,water1 #f4hb #aa4ai #i4bc #af4id ,oil1 #af4dg - #i4jh #ab4if - ,albuminous bodies1 #dd4da #dh4hb #be4af #bh4bh #aj4fi ,mucilaginous and ,saccharine#ab4gd #cd4bb #dj4aa matters1 444 #dh4ic ,fibre1 #aa4gf #i4jj #bg4af ,ash1 #g4hj #h4if #e4fd #f4ba #e4jd ------ ------------------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jjajj4jjajj4jj ,nitrogen1 #g4je #g4ge #c4ie #d4dg - ,phosphoric acid in ash1 #b4cf #b4de - - - ,sand1 4#id - #a4cb - - ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,johnson also remarks1 in this connection1 that the great value of linseed-cake1 as an adjunct to hay for fat cattle and milch cows1 has long been recognized2 and is undeniably traceable in the main to three ingredients of the seeds of the oil-yielding plants4 ,the value of food depends upon the quantity of matters it contains which may be appropriated by the animal which consumes the food4 ,now1 it is proved that the fat of animals is derivable from the starch1 gum1 and sugar1 and more directly and easily from the oil of the food4 ,these four substances are1 then1 the fat-formers4 ,the muscles1 nerves1 and tendons of animals1 the fibrine of their blood1 and the curd of their milk1 are almost identical in composition1 and strongly similar in many of their properties with matters found in all vegetables1 but chiefly in such as form the most concentrated food4 ,these blood 7and muscle7 formers are characterized by containing about fifteen and a half per cent4 of nitrogen2 and hence are called nitrogenous substances4 ,they are also often designated as the albuminous bodies4 ,the bony framework of the animal owes its solidity to phosphate of lime1 and this substance must be furnished by the food4 ,a perfect food must supply the animal with these three classes of bodies1 and in proper proportions4 ,the addition of a small quantity of a food rich in oil and albuminous substances to the ordinary kinds of feed1 which contain a large quantity of vegetable fibre or woody matter1 more or less indigestible1 but nevertheless indispensable to the herbivorous animals1 their digestive organs being adapted to a bulky food1 has been found highly advantageous in practice4 ,neither hay alone nor concentrated food alone gives the best results4 ,a certain combination of the two presents the most advantages4 ,a ,bavarian farmer has recently announced that heifers fed1 for three months before calving1 with a little linseed-cake1 in addition to their other fodder1 acquire a larger development of the milk-vessels1 and yield more milk afterwards1 than similar animals fed as usual4 ,cotton-seed cake must have an equally good effect4 ,some of those who have used cotton-seed cake have found difficulty in inducing cattle to eat it4 ,by giving it at first in small doses1 mixed with other palatable food1 they soon learn to eat it with relish4 ,on comparing the analyses ,,ii4 and ,i4 with the average composition of linseed-cake ,,iv41 it will be seen that the cotton-seed cake is much richer in oil and albuminous matters than the linseed-cake4 ,a correspondingly less quantity will therefore be required4 ,three pounds of this cotton-seed cake are equivalent to four of linseed-cake of average quality4 ,during the winter season1 as already remarked1 a frequent change of food is especially necessary1 both as contributing to the general health of animals1 and as a means of stimulating the digestive organs1 and thus increasing the secretion of milk4 ,a mixture used as cut feed1 and well moistened1 is now especially beneficial1 since concentrated food1 which would otherwise be given in small quantities1 may be united with larger quantities of coarser and less nutritive food1 and the complete assimilation of the whole be better secured4 ,on this subject ,dr4 ,voelcker truly observes that the most nutritious kinds of food produce little or no effect when they are not digested by the stomach1 or if the digested food is not absorbed by the lymphatic vessels1 and not assimilated by the various parts of the body4 ,now1 the normal functions of the digestive organs not only depend on the composition of the food1 but also on its volume4 ,the volume or bulk of the food contributes to the healthy activity of the digestive organs1 by exercising a stimulating effect on the nerves which govern them4 ,thus the whole organization of ruminating animals necessitates the supply of bulky food1 to keep the animal in good condition4 ,feed sweet and nutritious food1 therefore1 regularly1 frequently1 and in small quantities1 and change it often1 and the best results may be confidently expected4 ,if the cows are not in milk1 but are to come in in the spring1 the difference in feeding should be rather in the quantity than the quality1 if the highest yield is to be expected from them the coming season4 ,the most common feeding is hay alone1 and oftentimes very poor hay1 at that4 ,the main point is to keep the animal in a healthy and thriving condition1 and not to suffer her to fail in flesh2 and with this object some change and variety of food is highly important4 ,and here it may be remarked that cows in calf should not1 as a general rule1 be milked the last month or six weeks before calving1 and many prefer to have them run dry as many as eight or ten weeks4 ,the yield of milk is better the coming season1 and holds out better1 than if they are milked up to the time of calving4 ,there are exceptions1 however1 and it is often very difficult to dry off a cow sufficiently to make it judicious to cease milking much1 if any1 before the time of calving4 ,some even prefer to milk quite up to this time2 but the weight of authority among the best practical farmers is so decidedly against it1 that there can be no question of its bad economy4 ,towards the close of winter1 a herd of cows will begin to come in1 or approach their time of calving4 ,care should then be taken not to feed too rich or stimulating food for the last week or two before this event1 as it is often attended with ill consequences4 ,a plenty of hay1 a few potatoes or shorts1 and pure water1 will be sufficient4 ,as the time of calving approaches1 the cow should be removed from the rest of the herd1 to a pen with a level floor1 by herself4 ,nothing is needed1 usually1 but to supply her regularly with food and drink1 and leave her quietly to herself4 ,in most cases the parturition will be natural and easy1 and the less the cow is disturbed or meddled with1 the better4 ,she will do better without help than with2 but she should be watched1 in order to see that no difficulty occurs which may require aid and attention4 ,in cases of difficult parturition the aid of a skilful veterinary surgeon may be required4 ,for those who may desire to make themselves familiar with the details of such cases so far as to be able to act for themselves1 ,skellett's 8,practical ,treatise on the ,parturition of the ,cow1 or the ,extraction of the ,calf10 an elaborate work1 published in ,london in #ahdd1 will be an important guide4 ,in spring the best feeding for dairy cows will be much the same as that for winter2 the roots in store over winter1 such as carrots1 mangold wurzel1 turnips1 and parsnips1 furnishing very valuable aid in increasing the quantity and improving the quality of milk4 ,towards the close of this season1 and before the grass of the pastures is sufficiently grown to make it judicious to turn out the cows1 the best dairymen provide a supply of green fodder in the shape of winter rye1 which1 if cut while it is tender and succulent1 and before it is half grown1 will be greatly relished4 ,unless cut young1 however1 its stalk soon becomes hard and unpalatable4 ,having stated briefly the general principles of feeding cows for the dairy1 it is proper to give the statements of successful practical dairymen1 both as corroborating what has already been said1 and as showing the difference in practice in feeding and managing with reference to the specific objects of dairy farming4 ,and first1 a farmer of ,massachusetts1 supplying milk for the ,boston market1 and feeding for that object1 says3 8,for thirty cows1 cut with a machine thirty bushels for one feed2 one third common ,english hay1 one third salt hay1 and one third rye or barley straw2 add thirty quarts of wheat bran or shorts1 and ten quarts of oat and corn meal moistened with water4 ,one bushel of this mixture is given to each cow in the morning1 and the same quantity at noon and in the evening4 ,in addition to this1 a peck of mangold wurzel is given to each cow per day4 ,this mode of feeding has been found to produce nearly as much milk as the best grass feed in summer4 ,when no wheat-bran or any kind of meal is given1 the hay is fed without cutting40 ,another excellent farmer1 of the western part of the same state1 devoting his attention to the manufacture of cheese1 and the successful competitor for the first prize of the state society for dairies1 says of his feeding3 8,my pastures are upland1 and yield sweet feed4 ,i fed1 in the month of ,june1 all the whey from the milk made into cheese1 without any meal4 ,in ,september1 my pastures being very much dried up1 ,i fed all the whey1 with one quart of meal to each cow1 and also ten pounds of corn fodder to each cow per day4 8,i commence feeding my cows in the spring1 before calving1 with three quarts of meal each per day1 until the feed in the pasture is good4 8,i consider the best mixture of grain1 ground into meal1 for milk1 is equal quantities of rye1 buckwheat1 and oats4 ,for the last ten years ,i have not made less than five hundred pounds of cheese and twenty pounds of butter to each cow2 and one year ,i made six hundred and forty pounds of cheese and twenty pounds of butter to each cow4 8,a cow will give more milk on good fresh grass than any other feed4 ,when the grass begins to fail1 ,i make up the deficiency by extra feed of meal and corn fodder4 ,i feed all my whey to my cows4 ,i let them run dry four months1 and during this time ,i give them no extra feed1 always keeping salt before them40 ,another1 with one of the best butter dairies in the same state1 explains his mode of management of cows in the stall as follows3 8,in the management of my stock the utmost gentleness is observed1 and exact regularity in the hours of feeding while confined to the stable1 and of milking throughout the year4 8,the stock is fed regularly three times a day4 8,in the morning1 as soon as the milking is over1 each cow 7having been previously fed1 and her bag cleaned by washing1 if necessary7 is thoroughly cleaned and groomed1 if the expression may be used1 with a curry-comb1 from head to foot1 and1 when cleaned1 turned out to drink4 ,the stable is now cleaned out1 the mangers swept1 and the floors sprinkled with plaster2 and as the cows return1 which they do as soon as inclined1 they are tied up and left undisturbed until the next hour of feeding1 which is at noon4 8,the cattle at this time are again turned out to drink1 and1 after being tied up on their return again1 fed4 ,of course the stable is at this time again thoroughly cleansed4 ,and so again at night the same course is pursued4 ,at this time a good bedding is spread for each cow1 and1 after all are in1 they are fed4 8,at six o'clock the milking commences1 and at its termination1 after removing from the floor whatever manure may have been dropped1 the stable is closed for the night4 ,if carrots are fed1 which is the only root allowed to my cows in milk1 they are given at the time of the evening milking4 8,whatever material is taken for bedding 7as corn-stalks1 husks1 c47 is passed through a cutting-machine1 and composes the noon feed1 such portions as are not consumed by the cows being used for bedding4 ,the additional labor of cutting up is amply compensated by the reduced amount of labor in working 7loading7 and ploughing under the manure4 8,while ,i consider it highly desirable that the cows1 during the period they are stabled1 should be kept warm and dry1 ,i regard it as indispensable that they should be perfectly clean2 and1 although the stock is stabled the whole time1 care is taken that there is a sufficient degree of ventilation40 ,in ,herkimer county1 ,new ,york1 one of the best dairy districts in the country1 a dairy farmer who kept twenty-five cows for the manufacture of cheese1 making in one year nearly seven hundred pounds per cow1 states his mode of feeding as follows3 8,when the ground is settled1 and grass is grown so that cows can get their fill without too much toil1 they are allowed to graze an hour1 only1 the first day2 the second day a little longer1 and so on1 till they get accustomed to the change of feed before they are allowed to have full range of pasture4 ,shift of pasture is frequently made to keep feed fresh and a good bite4 ,about one acre per cow affords plenty of feed till the first of ,august4 ,if enough land was turned to pasture to feed the cows through the season1 it would get a start of them about this time1 and be hard and dry the balance of the season4 ,to avoid turning on my meadows in the fall1 ,i take one acre to every ten cows1 plough and prepare it the fore part of ,june for sowing2 ,i commence sowing corn broadcast1 about half an acre at a time 7for twenty-five cows71 so that it may grow eighty or ninety days before it is cut and fed4 ,i have found1 by experiment1 that it then contains the most saccharine juice1 and will produce the most milk4 ,if the ground is strong1 ,i sow two bushels per acre2 more if the ground is not manured4 8,the common yield is from fifteen to twenty tons 7of green feed7 per acre4 ,about the first of ,august1 when heat and flies are too oppressive for cows to feed quietly in the day-time1 ,i commence feeding them with what corn they will eat in the morning1 daily1 which is cut up with a grass-scythe1 and drawn on a sled or wagon to the milk-barn and fed to them in the stalls1 which is one hour's work for a man at each feeding4 ,when thus plentifully fed1 my cows have their knitting-work on hand for the day1 which they can do up by lying quietly under artificial shades1 erected in such places as need manuring most1 and are most airy1 by setting posts and putting poles and bushes on top1 the sides being left open4 ,these shades may be made and removed annually1 to enrich other portions of soil1 if desired1 at the small expense of one dollar for each ten cows4 ,at evening1 my cows are fed whey only1 because they can feed more quietly1 with less rambling1 and will give more milk by feeding most when the dew is on the grass4 8,the capacity of cows for giving milk is varied much by habit4 ,in fall1 after the season of feeding is past1 ,i feed four quarts of wheat bran or shorts made into slop with whey1 or a peck of roots to each cow1 till milking season closes 7about the first of ,december74 ,when confined in stables and fed hay and milked1 they are fed each one pail full of thin slop at morning before foddering1 and also at evening1 to render their food more succulent1 and they will not drink so much cold water when let out in the middle of the day4 ,in cold weather cows are kept well attended in warm stables4 ,no foddering is done on the ground4 ,thus a supply of milk is kept up1 and the cows get in good flesh1 while their blood and bags are left in a healthy condition when dried off4 8,this flesh they hold till milk season in spring1 without other feed than good hay4 ,they will not get fleshy bags1 but come into milk at once4 ,about the first of ,april they are carded daily1 till they are turned to grass4 ,wheat-bran in milk or whey1 slops1 or roots1 are daily fed1 as they are found best adapted to the nature of different cows1 and most likely to establish a regular flow of milk till grass comes40 ,all practical dairymen concur in saying that a warm and well-ventilated barn is indispensable to the promotion of the highest yield of milk in winter2 and most agree that cows in milk should not be turned out even to drink in cold weather1 all exposure to cold tending to lessen the yield of milk4 ,in the ,london dairies1 where1 of course1 the cows are fed so as to produce the largest flow of milk1 the treatment is as follows3 ,the cows are kept at night in stalls4 ,about three ,a4 ,m4 each has half a bushel of grains4 ,when milking is finished1 each receives a bushel of turnips 7or mangolds71 and shortly afterwards one tenth of a truss of hay of the best quality4 ,this feeding occurs before eight ,a4 ,m41 when the animals are turned into the yard4 ,four hours after1 they are again tied up in their stalls1 and have another feed of grains4 ,when the afternoon milking is over 7about three ,p4 ,m471 they are fed with a bushel of turnips1 and after the lapse of an hour1 hay is given them as before4 ,this mode of feeding usually continues throughout the root season1 or from ,november to ,march4 ,during the remaining months they are fed with grains1 tares1 and cabbages1 and a proportion of rowen or second-cut hay4 ,they are supplied regularly until they are turned out to grass1 when they pass the whole of the night in the field4 ,the yield is about six hundred and fifty gallons a year for each cow4 ,mr4 ,harley1 whose admirable dairy establishment has been already alluded to1 as erected for the purpose of supplying the city of ,glasgow with a good quality of milk1 and which contributed more than anything else to improve the quality of milk furnished to all the cities of ,great ,britain1 adopted the following system of feeding with the greatest profit3 ,in the early part of summer1 young grass and green barley1 the first cutting especially1 mixed with a large proportion of old hay or straw1 and a good quantity of salt to prevent swelling1 were used4 ,as summer advanced less hay and straw were given1 and as the grass approached ripeness they were discontinued altogether1 but young and wet clover was never given without an admixture of dry provender4 ,when grass became scarce1 young turnips and turnip-leaves were steamed with hay1 and formed a good substitute4 ,as grass decreased the turnips were increased1 and at length became a complete substitute4 ,as the season advanced a large proportion of distillers' grains and wash was given with other food1 but these were found to be apt to make the cattle grain-sick2 and if this feeding were long continued1 the health of the cows became affected4 ,boiled linseed and short-cut wheat-straw mixed with the grains were found to prevent the cows from turning sick4 ,as spring approached1 ,swedish turnips1 when cheap1 were substituted for yellow turnips4 ,these two roots1 steamed with hay and other mixtures1 afforded soft food till grass was again in season4 ,when any of the cows were surfeited1 the food was withheld till the appetite returned1 when a small quantity was given1 and increased gradually to the full allowance4 ,but the most elaborate and valuable experiments in the feeding and management of milch cows are those recently made by ,mr4 ,t4 ,horsfall1 of ,england1 and published in the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society4 ,his practice1 though adapted1 perhaps1 more especially to his own section1 is nevertheless of such general application and importance as to be worthy of attention4 ,by his course of treatment he found that he could produce as much and as rich butter in winter as in summer4 ,his first object was to afford a full supply of the elements of food adapted to the maintenance and also to the produce of the animal2 and this could not be effected by the ordinary food and methods of feeding1 since it is impossible to induce a cow to consume a quantity of hay requisite to supply the waste of the system1 and keep up1 at the same time1 a full yield of the best quality of milk4 ,he used1 to some extent1 cabbages1 kohl rabi1 mangolds1 shorts1 and other substances1 rich in the constituents of cheese and butter4 8,my food for milch cows10 says he1 8after having undergone various modifications1 has for two seasons consisted of rape-cake five pounds and bran two pounds1 for each cow1 mixed with a sufficient quantity of bean-straw1 oat-straw1 and shells of oats1 in equal proportions1 to supply them three times a day with as much as they will eat4 ,the whole of the materials are moistened and blended together1 and1 after being well steamed1 are given to the animals in a warm state4 ,the attendant is allowed one pound to one and a half pounds per cow1 according to circumstances1 of bean-meal1 which he is charged to give to each cow in proportion to the yield of milk2 those in full milk getting two pounds each per day1 others but little4 ,it is dry1 and mixed with the steamed food on its being dealt out separately4 ,when this is eaten up1 green food is given1 consisting of cabbages from ,october to ,december1 kohl rabi till ,february1 and mangold till grass time4 ,with a view to nicety of flavor1 ,i limit the supply of green food to thirty or thirty-five pounds per day for each4 ,after each feed1 four pounds of meadow hay1 or twelve pounds per day1 is given to each cow4 ,they are allowed water twice a day to the extent they will drink40 ,bean-straw uncooked being found to be hard and unpalatable1 it was steamed to make it soft and pulpy1 when it possessed an agreeable odor1 and imparted its flavor to the whole mess4 ,it was cut for this purpose just before ripening1 but after the bean was fully grown1 and in this state was found to possess nearly double the amount of albuminous matter1 so valuable to milch cows1 of good meadow or upland hay4 ,bean or shorts is also vastly improved by steaming or soaking with hot water1 when its nutriment is more readily assimilated4 ,it contains about fourteen per cent4 of albumen1 and is rich in phosphoric acid4 ,rape-cake was found to be exceedingly valuable4 ,linseed and cotton-seed cake may probably be substituted for it in this country4 ,mr4 ,horsfall is accustomed to turn his cows in ,may into a rich pasture1 housing them at night1 and giving them a mess of the steamed mixture and some hay morning and night2 and from ,june to ,october they have cut grass in the stall1 besides what they get in the pasture1 and two feeds of the steamed mixture a day4 ,after the beginning of ,october the cows are kept housed4 ,with such management1 his cows generally yield from twelve to sixteen quarts of milk 7wine measure7 a day1 for about eight months after calving1 when they fall off in milk1 but gain in flesh1 up to calving-time4 ,in this course of treatment the manure is far better than the average1 and his pastures are constantly improved4 ,the average amount of butter from every sixteen quarts of milk is twenty-five ounces1 a proportion far larger than the average4 ,his investigations are very full and complete4--,see ,appendix4 ,how widely does this course of practice differ from that of most farmers6 ,the object with many seems to be to see with how little food they can keep the cow alive4 ,now1 it appears to me that the milch cow should be regarded as an instrument of transformation4 ,with so much hay1 so much grain1 so many roots1 how can the most milk1 or butter1 or cheese1 be made8 ,the conduct of a manufacturer who owned good machinery1 and an abundance of raw material1 and had the labor at hand1 would be considered as very absurd1 if he hesitated to supply the material1 and keep the machinery at work at least so long as he could run it with profit4 ,stimulate the appetite1 then1 and induce the cow to eat1 by a frequent change of diet1 not merely enough to supply the constant waste of her system1 but enough and to spare1 of a food adapted to the production of milk of the quality desired4 ,,soiling4--,of the advantages of soiling milch cows1 or feeding exclusively in the barn1 there are still many conflicting opinions4 ,as to its economy of land and food there is no question1 it being generally admitted that a given number of animals may be abundantly fed on a less space2 nor is there much question as to the increased quantity of milk yielded in stall feeding4 ,its economy in this country turns rather upon the cost of labor and land2 and the question asked by the dairyman is whether it will pay--whether its advantages are sufficient to balance the extra expense of cutting and feeding over and above cropping on the pasture4 ,the importance of this subject has been strongly impressed upon the attention of farmers in many sections of the country1 by a growing conviction that something must be done to improve the pastures1 or that they must be abandoned altogether4 ,thousands of acres of neglected pasture-land in the older states are so poor and worn out that from four to eight acres furnish but a miserable subsistence for a good-sized cow4 ,no animal can flourish under such circumstances4 ,the labor and exertion of feeding is too great1 to say nothing of the vastly inferior quality of the grasses in such pastures to those on more recently seeded lands4 ,true economy would dictate that such pastures should either be allowed to run up to wood1 or be devoted to sheep-walks1 or ploughed and improved4 ,cows1 to be able to yield well1 must have plenty of food of a sweet and nutritious quality2 and unless they find it1 they wander over a large space1 if at liberty1 and deprive themselves of rest4 ,if a farmer or dairyman is the unfortunate owner of such pastures1 there can be no question that1 as a matter of real economy1 he had better resort to the soiling system for his milch cows1 by which means he will largely increase his annual supply of good manure1 and thus have the means of improving1 and bringing his land to a higher state of cultivation4 ,a very successful instance of this management occurs in the report of the visiting committee of an agricultural society in ,massachusetts1 in which they say3 8,we have now in mind a farmer in this county who keeps seven or eight cows in the stable through the summer1 and feeds them on green fodder1 chiefly ,indian-corn4 ,we asked him the reasons for it4 ,his answer was3 #a4 ,that he gets more milk than he can by any other method4 #b4 ,that he gets more manure1 especially liquid manure4 #c4 ,that he saves it all1 by keeping a supply of mould or mud under the stable1 to be taken out and renewed as often as necessary4 #d4 ,that it is less troublesome than to drive his cows to pasture2 that they are less vexed by flies1 and have equally good health4 #e4 ,that his mowing-land is every year growing more productive1 without the expense of artificial manure4 ,he estimates that on an acre of good land twenty tons of green fodder may be raised4 ,that which is dried is cut fine1 and mixed with meal or shorts1 and fed with profit4 ,he believes that a reduced and partially worn-out farm--supposing the land to be naturally good--could be brought into prime order in five years1 without extra outlay of money for manure1 by the use of green fodder in connection with the raising and keeping of pigs2 not fattening them1 but selling at the age of four or five months40 ,he keeps most of his land in grass1 improving its quality and productiveness by means of top-dressing1 and putting money in his pocket1--which is1 after all1 the true test both for theory and practice4 ,another practical case in hand on this point is that of a gentleman in the same state1 who had four cows1 but not a rod of land to pasture them on4 ,they were1 therefore1 never out of the barn1--or1 at least1 not out of the yard1--and were fed with grass1 regularly mown for them2 with green ,indian-corn fodder1 which had been sown broadcast for the purpose2 and with about three pints of meal a day4 ,their produce in butter was kept for thirteen weeks4 ,two of them were but two years old1 having calved the same spring4 ,all the milk of one of them was taken by her calf six weeks out of the thirteen1 and some of the milk of the other was taken for family use1 the quantity of which was not measured4 ,these heifers could not be estimated1 therefore1 as more than equal to one cow in full milk4 ,and yet from these cows no less than three hundred and eighty-nine pounds of butter were made in the thirteen weeks4 ,another pound would have made an average of thirty pounds a week for the whole time4 ,it appears from these1 and other similar instances of successful soiling1 or stall-feeding in summer on green crops cut for the purpose1 that the largely increased quantity of the yield fully counterbalances the slightly deteriorated quality4 ,and not only is the quantity yielded by each cow increased1 but the same extent of land1 under good culture1 will carry double or treble the number of ordinary pastures1 and keep them in better condition4 ,there is also a saving of manure4 ,but with us the economy of soiling is the exception1 and not the rule4 ,in adopting this system of feeding1 regularity is required as much as in any other1 and a proper variety of food4 ,a succession of green crops should be provided1 as near as convenient to the stable4 ,the first will naturally be winter rye1 in the ,northern ,states1 as that shoots up with great luxuriance4 ,winter rape would probably be an exceedingly valuable addition to the plants usually cultivated for soiling in this country1 in sections where it withstands the severity of the winter4 ,cabbages kept in the cellar1 or pit1 and transplanted early1 will also come in here to advantage1 and clover will very soon follow them2 oats1 millet1 and green ,indian-corn1 as the season advances2 and1 a little later still1 perhaps1 the ,chinese sugar-cane1 which should not be cut till headed out4 ,these plants1 in addition to other cultivated grasses1 will furnish an unfailing succession of succulent and tender fodder2 while the addition of a little ,indian1 linseed1 or cotton-seed meal will be found economical4 ,in the vicinity of large towns and cities1 where the object is too often to feed for the largest quantity1 without reference to quality1 an article known as distillers' swill1 or still-slop1 is extensively used4 ,this1 if properly fed in limited quantities1 in combination with other and more bulky food1 may be a valuable article for the dairyman2 but1 if given1 as it too often is1 without the addition of other kinds of food1 it soon affects the health and constitution of the animals fed on it4 ,this swill contains a considerable quantity of water1 some nitrogenous compounds1 and some inorganic matter1 in the shape of phosphates and alkaline salts found in the different kinds of grain of which it is made up1 as ,indian corn1 wheat1 barley1 rye1 c4 ,where this forms the principal food of milch cows1 the milk is of a very poor quality--blue in color1 and requiring the addition of coloring substances to make it salable4 ,it contains1 often1 less than one per cent4 of butter1 and seldom over one and three tenths or one and a half per cent41 while good1 salable milk ought to contain from three to five per cent4 ,it will not coagulate1 it is said1 in less than five or six hours1 while good milk will invariably coagulate in one hour or less1 under the same conditions4 ,its effect on the system of young children is therefore very destructive1 causing diseases of various kinds1 and1 if continued1 certain death4 ,,milking4--,the manner of milking exerts a more powerful and lasting influence on the productiveness of the cow than most farmers are aware of4 ,that a slow and careless milker soon dries up the best of cows1 every practical farmer and dairyman knows2 but a careful examination of the beautiful structure of the udder will serve further to explain the proper mode of milking1 to obtain and keep up the largest yield4 8,the udder of a cow10 says a writer in the ,rural ,cyclopdia1 8is a unique mass1 composed of two symmetrical parts1 simply united to each other by a cellular tissue1 lax1 and very abundant2 and each of these parts comprises two divisions or quarters1 which consist of many small granules1 and are connected together by a compact laminous tissue2 and from each quarter proceed systems of ducts1 which form successive unions and confluences1 somewhat in the manner of the many affluents of a large river1 until they terminate in one grand excretory canal1 which passes down through the elongated mammillary body called the teat4 ,its lactiferous or milk tubes1 however1 do not1 as might be supposed1 proceed exactly from smaller to larger ducts by a gradual and regular enlargement1 because it would not have been proper that the secretion of milk should escape as it was formed2 and therefore we find an apparatus adapted for the purpose of retaining it for a proper time4 ,this apparatus is to be found both in the teat and in the internal construction of the udder4 ,the teat resembles a funnel in shape1 and somewhat in office2 and it is possessed of a considerable degree of elasticity4 ,it seems formed principally of the cutis1 with some muscular fibres1 and it is covered on the outside by cuticle1 like every other part of the body2 but the cuticle here not only covers the exterior1 but also turns upwards1 and lines the inside of the extremity of the teat1 as far as it is contracted1 and there terminates by a frilled edge1 the rest of the interior of the teats and ducts being lined by mucous membrane4 ,but1 as the udder in most animals is attached in a pendulous manner to the body1 and as the weight of the column of fluid would press with a force which would1 in every case1 overcome the resistance of the contractions of the extremity1 or prove oppressive to the teat1 there is in the internal arrangement of the udder a provision made to obviate this difficulty4 ,the various ducts1 as they are united1 do not become gradually enlarged so as to admit the ready flow of milk in a continual stream to the teat1 but are so arranged as to take off1 in a great measure1 the extreme pressure to which the teat would be otherwise exposed4 ,each main duct1 as it enters into another1 has a contraction produced1 by which a kind of valvular apparatus is formed in such a manner as to become pouches or sacks1 capable of containing the great body of the milk4 ,in consequence of this arrangement1 it is necessary that a kind of movement upwards1 or lift1 should be given to the udder before the teat is drawn1 to force out the milk2 and by this lift the milk is displaced from these pouches1 and escapes into the teat1 and is then easily squeezed out2 while the contractions1 or pouches1 at the same time resist1 in a certain degree1 the return or reflux of the displaced milk40 ,the first requisite of a good milker is1 of course1 the utmost cleanliness4 ,without this1 the milk is unendurable4 ,the udder should1 therefore1 be carefully cleaned before the milking commences4 ,the milker may begin gradually and gently1 but should steadily increase the rapidity of the operation till the udder is emptied1 using a pail sufficiently large to hold all1 without the necessity of changing4 ,cows are very sensitive1 and the pail cannot be changed1 nor can the milker stop or rise during the process of milking1 without leading the cow more or less to withhold her milk4 ,the utmost care should be taken to strip to the last drop1 and to do it rapidly1 and not in a slow and negligent manner1 which is sure to have its effect on the yield of the cow4 ,if any milk is left1 it is reabsorbed into the system1 or else becomes caked1 and diminishes the tendency to secrete a full quantity afterwards4 ,milking as dry as possible is especially necessary with young cows with their first calf1 as the mode of milking1 and the length of time to which they can be made to hold out1 will have very much to do with their milking qualities as long as they live4 ,at the age of two or three years the milky glands have not become fully developed1 and their largest development will depend very greatly upon the management after the first calf4 ,cows should have1 therefore1 the most milk-producing food2 be treated with constant gentleness2 never struck1 or spoken harshly to1 but coaxed and caressed2 and in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred they will grow up gentle and quiet4 ,but harshness is worse than useless4 ,nothing does so much to dry a cow up1 especially a young cow4 ,the longer the young cow1 with her first1 and second calf1 can be made to hold out1 the more surely will this habit be fixed upon her4 ,stop milking her four months before the next calf1 and it will be difficult to make her hold out to within four or six weeks of the time of calving afterwards4 ,induce her1 if possible1 by moist and succulent food1 and by careful milking1 to hold out even up to the time of calving1 if you desire to milk her so long1 and this habit will be likely to be fixed upon her for life4 ,but do not expect to obtain the full yield of a cow the first year after calving4 ,some of the very best cows are slow to develop their best qualities2 and no cow reaches her prime till the age of five or six years4 ,the extreme importance of care and attention to these points cannot be over-estimated4 ,the wild cows grazing on the plains of ,south ,america are said to give only about three or four quarts a day at the height of the flow2 and many an owner of large herds in ,texas1 it is said1 has too little milk for family use1 and sometimes receives his supply of butter from the ,new ,york market4 ,there is1 therefore1 a constant tendency to dry up in milch cows2 and it must be guarded against with special care1 till the habit of yielding a large quantity1 and yielding it long1 becomes fixed in the young animal1 when1 with proper care1 it may easily be kept up4 ,if gentle and mild treatment is observed and persevered in1 the operation of milking appears to be one of pleasure to the animal1 as it undoubtedly is2 but if an opposite course is pursued1--if1 at every restless movement1 caused1 perhaps1 by pressing a sore teat1 the animal is harshly spoken to1--she will be likely to learn to kick as a habit1 and it will be difficult to overcome it ever afterwards4 ,to induce quiet and readiness to give down the milk freely1 it is better that the cow should be fed at milking-time with cut feed1 or roots1 placed within her easy reach4 ,i have never practised milking more than twice a day1 because in spring and summer other farm-work was too pressing to allow of it2 but there is no doubt that1 for some weeks after calving1 and in the height1 of the flow1 the cows ought1 if possible1 to be milked regularly three times a day--at early morning1 noon1 and night4 ,every practical dairyman knows that cows thus milked give a larger quantity of milk than if milked only twice1 though it may not be quite so rich2 and in young cows1 no doubt1 it has a tendency to promote the development of the udder and milk-veins4 ,a frequent milking stimulates an increased secretion1 therefore1 and ought never to be neglected in the milk-dairy1 either in the case of young cows or very large milkers1 at the height of the flow1 which will ordinarily be for two or three months after calving4 ,the charge of this branch of the dairy should generally be intrusted to women4 ,they are more gentle and winning than men4 ,the same person should milk the same cow regularly1 and not change from one to another1 unless there are special reasons for it4 ,there being a wide difference in the quality as well as in the quantity of milk of different cows1 no dairyman should neglect to test the milk of each new addition to his dairy stock1 whether it be an animal of his own raising or one brought from abroad4 ,a lactometer is a very convenient instrument here2 but any one can set the milk of each cow separately at first1 and give it a fair and full trial1 when the difference will be found to be great4 ,economy will dictate that the cows least adapted to the purpose should be disposed of1 and their place supplied by better ones4 ,,the ,,barn4--,the management of dairy stock requires a warm and well-ventilated barn or cow-room1 in latitudes where it becomes necessary to stall-feed during several months of the year4 ,this should be arranged in a manner suitable to keeping hay and other fodder dry and sweet1 and with reference to the comfort and health of animals1 and the economy of labor and manure4 ,the size and finish will1 of course1 depend on the wants and means of the farmer or dairyman2 but many little conveniences can be added at trifling cost4 ,the cow-room1 ,fig4 #ef;a1 is given as an illustration merely of a convenient arrangement for a medium-sized dairy1 and not as adapted to all circumstances or situations4 ,the barn stands1 we will suppose1 upon a side hill1 or an inclined surface1 where it is easy to have a cellar1 if it is desired2 and the cow-room1 as shown in the figure1 is in the second story1 or directly over the cellar1 the bottom of which should be somewhat dished1 or lower in the middle than around the outer sides1 and carefully paved or laid in cement4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef;a4 ,cow-room for #cd cows and #c yoke of oxen4 ,the cow-room1 as shown in the figure1 is drawn on a scale of twenty feet to the inch4 ,on the outside is represented an open shed1 m1 for carts and wagons to remain under cover1 thirty feet by fifteen1 while l l l l l l are bins for vegetables1 to be filled through scuttles from the floor of the story above1 and surrounded by solid walls4 ,the area of this whole floor equals one hundred feet by fifty-seven4 k1 open space1 and nearly on a level with the cow-chamber1 through the door p4 s1 stairs to third story and to the cellar4 d d d1 passage next to the walls1 five feet wide1 and nine inches above the dung-pit4 e e e1 dung-pit1 two feet wide1 and seven inches below the floor where the cattle stand4 ,the manure drops from this pit into the cellar below1 five feet from the walls1 and quite round the cellar4 c c c1 plank floor for cows1 four feet six inches long4 b b b1 stalls for three yoke of oxen1 on a platform five feet six inches long4 n n1 calf-pens1 which may be used also for cows in calving4 r r1 feeding-troughs for calves4 ,the feeding-boxes are made in the form of trays1 with partitions between them4 ,water comes in by a pipe1 to cistern a4 ,this cistern is regulated by a cock and ball1 and the water flows by dotted lines1 o o o1 to the boxes1 and each box is connected by lead pipes well secured from frost1 so that1 if desired1 each animal can be watered without leaving the stall1 or water can be kept constantly before it4 ,a scuttle by which sweepings1 etc41 may be put through into the cellar1 is seen at f4 g is a bin receiving cut hay from third story1 or hay-room4 h h h h h h1 bins for grain-feed4 i is a tunnel to conduct manure or muck from the hay-floor to the cellar4 j j1 sliding doors on wheels4 ,the cows all face towards the open area in the centre4 ,this cow-room may be furnished with a thermometer1 clock1 etc41 and should always be well ventilated by sliding windows1 which at the same time admit the light4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg;a4 ,fig4 #eg;a is a transverse section of the cow-room1 ,fig4 #ef;a1 a being a walk behind the cows1 five feet wide2 b1 dung-pit2 c1 cattle-stand2 d1 feeding-trough1 with a bottom on a level with the platform where the cattle stand2 k1 open area1 forty-three feet by fifty-six4 ,the story above the cow-room1 ,fig4 #eh;a1 is one hundred feet by forty-two1 the bays for hay1 ten on each side1 being ten feet front and fifteen feet deep1 and the open space1 p1 for the entrance of wagons1 carts1 etc41 twelve feet wide4 b1 hay-scales4 c1 scale-beam4 m m m m m m1 ladders reaching almost to the roof4 l l l1 c41 scuttle-holes for sending vegetables direct to the bins1 l l l1 etc41 below4 a a b b1 rooms on the corners for storage4 d1 scuttles1 four of which are used for straw1 one for cut hay1 and one for muck for the cellar4 n and the other small squares are eighteen-feet posts4 f1 passage to the tool-house1 a room one hundred feet long by fifteen wide4 o1 stairs leading to the scaffold in the roof of the tool-house4 i i1 benches4 g1 floor4 h1 boxes for hoes1 shovels1 spades1 picks1 iron bars1 old iron1 etc4 j j j1 bins for fruit4 k1 scuttles to put apples into wagons1 etc41 in the shed below4 ,one side of this tool-house may be used for ploughs and large implements1 hay-rigging1 harrows1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh;a4 ,room over the cow-room for hay1 c4 ,proper ventilation of the cellar and the cow-room avoids the objection that the hay is liable to injury from noxious gases4 ,the excellent manure-cellar beneath this barn extends only under the cow-room4 ,it has a drive-way through doors on each side4 ,no barn-cellar should be kept shut up tight1 even in cold weather4 ,the gases are constantly escaping from the manure1 unless held by absorbents1 and are liable not only to affect the health of the stock1 but to injure the quality of the hay4 ,to prevent this1 and yet secure the important advantages of a manure-cellar1 the barn may be furnished with good-sized ventilators on the top1 for every twenty-five feet of its length1 and with wooden tubes leading from the cellar to the top4 ,there should also be windows on different sides of the cellar1 to admit a free circulation of air4 ,with these precautions1 together with the use of absorbents in the shape of loam and muck1 there will be no danger of rotting the timbers of the barn1 or of risking the health of the cattle or the quality of the hay4 ,the temperature at which the cow-room should be kept is somewhere from #ej to #fj1 ,fahr4 ,the practice and the opinions of successful dairymen differ on this point4 ,too great heat would affect the health and appetite of the herd1 while too low a temperature is equally objectionable1 for various reasons4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,raising ,,of ,,calves4 ,it has been found in practice that calves properly bred and raised on the farm have a far greater intrinsic value for that farm1 other things being equal1 than any that can be procured elsewhere1 while on the manner in which they are raised will depend much of their future usefulness and profit4 ,these considerations should have their proper weight in the decision as to whether a promising calf from a good cow and bull shall be kept or sold to the butcher4 ,but1 rather than raise a calf at hap-hazard1 and simply because its dam was celebrated as a milker1 the judicious farmer will judge of the peculiar characteristics of the animal itself4 ,this will often save a great and useless outlay which has sometimes been incurred in raising calves for dairy purposes1 that a more careful examination would have rejected as unpromising4 ,the method of judging stock developed in a former chapter is of practical use here1 and it is safer to rely upon it1 to some extent1 particularly when other appearances concur1 than to go on blindly4 ,the milk-mirror on the calf is small1 but no smaller in proportion to its size than that of the cow2 while its shape and form can generally be distinctly seen1 particularly at the end of ten or twelve weeks4 ,the development of the udder1 and other peculiarities1 will give some indication of the future capacities of the animal1 and these should be studied4 ,if we except the manure of young stock1 the calf is the first product of the cow1 and as such demands our attention1 whether it is to be raised or hurried off to the shambles4 ,the practice adopted in raising calves differs widely in different sections of the country1 being governed very much by local circumstances1 as the vicinity of a milk-market1 the value of milk for the dairy1 the object of breeding1 whether mainly for beef1 for work1 or for the dairy1 etc42 but1 in general1 it may be said that within the range of thirty or forty miles of good veal-markets1 which large towns furnish1 comparatively few are raised at all4 ,most of them are fatted and sold at ages varying from three to eight or ten weeks2 and in milk-dairies still nearer large towns and cities they are often hurried off at one or two days1 or1 at most1 a week old4 ,in both of these cases1 as long as the calf is kept it is generally allowed to suckle the cow1 and1 as the treatment is very simple1 there is nothing which particularly calls for remark1 unless it be to condemn the practice entirely1 on the ground that there is a more profitable way even for fattening calves for the butcher1 and to say that allowing the calf to suck the cow at all is objectionable on the score of economy1 except in cases where it is rendered necessary by the hard and swollen condition of the udder4 ,if the calf is so soon to be taken away1 ,i should prefer not to suffer the cow to become attached to it at all1 since she is apt to withhold her milk when it is removed1 and a loss is sustained4 ,the farmer will be governed by the question of profit1 whatever course it is proposed to adopt4 ,in raising blood stock1 however1 or in raising beef cattle1 without any regard to economy of milk1 the system of suckling the calves1 or letting them run with the cow1 may and will be adopted1 since it is usually attended with somewhat less labor4 ,the other course1 which is regarded as the best where the calf is to be raised for the dairy1 is to bring it up by hand4 ,this is done almost universally in all countries where the raising of dairy cows is best understood1--in ,switzerland1 ,holland1 some parts of ,germany1 and ,england4 ,it requires rather more care1 on the whole2 but it is decidedly preferable1 since the calves cost less1 as the food can be easily modified1 and the growth is not checked1 as it is apt to be when the calf is finally taken off from the cow4 ,i speak1 of course1 of sections where the milk of the cow is of some account for the dairy1 and where it is too valuable to be devoted entirely to nourishing the calf4 ,in this case1 as soon as the calf is dropped the cow is allowed to lick off the slimy moisture till it is dry1 which she will usually do from instinct1 or1 if not1 a slight sprinkling of salt over the body of the calf will immediately tempt her4 ,the calf is left to suck once or twice1 which it will do as soon as it is able to stand4 ,it should1 in all cases1 be permitted to have the first milk that comes from the cow1 which is of a turbid1 yellowish color1 unfit for any of the purposes of the dairy1 but somewhat purgative or medicinal1 and admirably and wisely designed by nature to free the bowels and intestines of the new-born animal from the mucous1 excrementitious matter always existing in them after birth4 ,too much of this new milk may1 however1 be hurtful even to the new-born calf1 while it should never be given at all to older calves4 ,the best course1 it seems to me1--and ,i speak from considerable experience1 and much observation and inquiry of others1--is to milk the cow dry immediately after the calf has sucked once1 especially if the udder is painfully distended1 which is often the case1 and to leave the calf with the cow during one day1 and after that to feed it by putting the fingers into its mouth1 and gently bringing its muzzle down to the milk in a pail or trough1 when it will imbibe in sucking the fingers4 ,i have never found much difficulty in teaching the calf to drink when taken so young1 though some take to it much more readily than others4 ,what the calf does not need should be given to the cow4 ,some1 however1 prefer to milk immediately after calving2 and if the udder is overloaded this may be the best course1 though the better practice seems to be to leave the cow as quietly to herself as possible for a few hours4 ,the less she is disturbed1 as a general thing1 the better4 ,the after-birth should be taken from her immediately after it is dropped4 ,it is customary to give the cow1 as soon as convenient1 after calving1 some warm and stimulating drink1--a little meal stirred into warm water1 with a part of the first milk that comes from her1 seasoned with a little salt4 ,in many cases the calf is taken from the cow immediately1 and before she has seen it1 to a warm1 dry pen out of her sight1 and there rubbed till thoroughly dry2 and then1 when able to stand1 fed with the new milk from the cow1 which it should have three or four times a day1 regularly1 for the first fortnight1 whatever course it is proposed to adopt afterwards4 ,it is of the greatest importance to give the young calf a thrifty start4 ,the milk1 unless coming directly from the cow1 should be warmed4 ,some object to removing the calf from the cow in this way1 on the ground of its apparent cruelty4 ,but the objection to letting the calf suckle the cow for several days1 as they do1 or indeed of leaving it with the cow for any length of time1 is1 that she invariably becomes attached to it1 and frets and withholds her milk when it is at last taken from her4 ,she probably suffers a great deal more1 after this attachment is once formed1 at the removal of the object of it1 than she does at its being taken at once out of her sight4 ,the cow's memory is far greater than many suppose2 and the loss and injury sustained by removing the calf after it has been allowed to suck her for a longer or shorter period is never known exactly1 because it is not usually known how much milk the calf takes2 but it is1 without doubt1 very considerable4 ,if the udder is all right1 there seems to be no good reason for leaving the calf with the cow two or three days1 if it is then to be taken away4 ,the practice in ,holland is to remove the calf from the mother even before it has been licked1 and to take it into one corner of the barn1 or into another building1 out of the cow's sight and hearing1 put it upon soft dry straw1 and rub it dry with some hay or straw1 when its tongue and gums are slightly rubbed with salt1 and the mucus and saliva removed from the nostrils and lips4 ,after this has been done1 the calf is made to drink the milk first taken as it comes from the mother4 ,it is slightly diluted with water1 if taken last from the udder2 but1 if the first of the milking1 it is given just as it is4 ,the calf is taught to drink in the same manner as in this country1 by putting the fingers in its mouth and bringing it down to the milk1 and it soon gets so as to drink alone4 ,it is fed at first from four to six times a day1 or even oftener2 but soon only three times1 at regular intervals4 ,its food for two or three weeks is clear milk1 as it comes warm and fresh from the cow4 ,this is never omitted1 as the milk during the most of that time possesses certain qualities which are necessary to the calf1 and which cannot be effectually supplied by any other food4 ,in the third or fourth week the milk is skimmed1 but warmed to the degree of fresh milk2 though1 as the calf grows a little older1 the milk is given cold1 while less care is taken to give it the milk of its own mother1 that of other cows now answering equally well4 ,in some places calves are fed on butter-milk at the age of two weeks and after2 but the change from new milk1 fresh from the cow1 is made gradually1 some sweet skim-milk and warm water being at first added to it4 ,at three weeks old1 or thereabouts1 the calf will begin to eat a little sweet1 fine hay1 and potatoes cut fine1 and it very soon becomes accustomed to this food4 ,many now begin to give linseed-meal mixed into hot water1 to which is added some skim-milk or butter-milk2 and others use a little bran cooked in hay-tea1 made by chopping the hay fine1 and pouring on boiling hot water1 which is allowed to stand a while on it4 ,an egg is frequently broken into such a mixture4 ,others still at this age take pains to have fresh linseed-cake1 broken into pieces of the size of a pigeon's-egg2 putting one of these into the mouth after the meal of milk has been finished1 and when it is eager to suck at anything in its way4 ,it will very soon learn to eat linseed-meal4 ,a little sweet clover is put in its way at about the age of three weeks1 and it will soon eat that also4 ,in this manner the feeding is continued from the fourth to the seventh week1 the quantity of solid food being gradually increased4 ,in the sixth or seventh week the milk is by degrees withheld1 and water or butter-milk used instead2 and soon after this1 green food may be safely given1 increasing it gradually with the hay to the age of ten or twelve weeks1 when it will do to put them upon grass alone1 if the season is favorable for it4 ,a lot as near the house as possible1 where they can be easily looked after and frequently visited1 is best4 ,calves should be gradually accustomed to all changes2 and even after being turned to pasture they ought to be taken in if the weather is not dry and warm4 ,the want of care and attention to these little details will be apparent sooner or later2 while1 if the farmer give his own time to these matters1 he will be fully paid in the rapid growth of his calves4 ,it is especially necessary to see that the troughs from which they are fed1 if troughs are used1 are kept clean and sweet4 ,but there are some even among intelligent farmers who make a practice of turning their calves out to pasture at the tender age of two and three weeks1 and that1 too1 when they have sucked the cow up to that time1 and allow them nothing in the shape of milk or tender care4 ,i cannot but think that this is the poorest possible economy1 to say nothing of the cruelty of such treatment4 ,the growth of the calf is checked1 and the system receives a shock from so sudden a change1 from which it cannot soon recover4 ,the careful ,dutch breeders bring the calves either skimmed milk or butter-milk to drink several times a day after they are turned to grass1 which is not till the age of ten or twelve weeks2 and1 if the weather is chilly1 the milk is warmed for them4 ,they put a trough generally under a covering1 where the calves may come and drink at regular times4 ,thus they are kept tame and docile4 ,in the raising of calves1 through all stages of their growth1 great care should be taken neither to starve nor to over-feed4 ,a calf should never be surfeited1 and never be fed so highly that it cannot be fed more highly as it advances4 ,the most important point is to keep it growing thriftily without getting too fat1 if it is to be raised for the dairy4 ,mr4 ,aiton1 in describing the mode of rearing calves in the dairy districts of ,scotland1 says3 8,they are fed on milk1 with seldom any admixture2 and they are not permitted to suckle their dams1 but are taught to drink milk by the hand from a dish4 ,they are generally fed on milk only for the first four1 five1 or six weeks1 and are then allowed from two to two and a half quarts of new milk each meal1 twice in the twenty-four hours4 ,some never give them any other food when young except milk1 lessening the quantity when the calf begins to eat grass or other food1 which it generally does when about five weeks old1 if grass can be had2 and withdrawing it entirely about the seventh or eighth week of the calf's age4 ,but1 if the calf is reared in winter1 or early in spring1 before the grass rises1 it must be supplied with at least some milk till it is eight or nine weeks old2 as a calf will not so soon learn to eat hay or straw1 nor fare so well on them alone as it will do on pasture4 ,some feed their calves reared for stock partly with meal mixed in the milk after the third or fourth week4 ,others introduce gradually some new whey among the milk1 first mixed with meal2 and1 when the calf gets older1 they withdraw the milk1 and feed it on whey and porridge4 ,hay-tea1 juices of peas and beans1 or pea or bean straw1 linseed beaten into powder1 treacle1 c41 have all been sometimes used to advantage in feeding calves2 but milk1 when it can be spared1 is by far their most natural food4 8,in ,galloway1 and other pastoral districts1 where the calves are allowed to suckle1 the people are so much wedded to their own customs as to argue that suckling is much more nutritive to the calves than any other mode of feeding4 ,that suckling induces a greater secretion of saliva1 which1 by promoting digestion1 accelerates the growth and fattening of the young animal1 cannot be doubted2 but the secretion of that fluid may likewise be promoted by placing an artificial teat in the mouth of the calf2 and giving it the milk slowly1 and at the natural temperature4 ,in the dairy districts of ,scotland1 the dairy-maid puts one of her fingers into the mouth of the calf1 when it is fed1 which serves the purpose of a teat1 and will have nearly the same effect as the natural teat1 in inducing the secretion of saliva4 ,if that1 or an artificial teat of leather1 be used1 and the milk given slowly before it is cold1 the secretion of saliva may be promoted to all the extent that can be necessary2 besides1 that secretion is not confined to the mere period of eating1 but1 as in the human body1 the saliva is formed and part of it swallowed at all times4 ,as part of the saliva is sometimes seen dropping from the mouths of the calves1 it might be advisable to give them not only an artificial teat1 when fed1 but to place1 as is frequently done1 a lump of chalk before them to lick1 thus leading them to swallow the saliva4 ,the chalk would so far supply the want of salt1 of which cattle are so improperly deprived1 and it would also promote the formation of saliva4 ,indeed1 calves are much disposed to lick and suckle everything that comes within their reach1 which seems to be the way that nature teaches them to supply their stomachs with saliva4 8,but1 though suckling their dams may be most advantageous in that respect1 yet it has also some disadvantages4 ,the cow is always more injured than the calf is benefited1 by that mode of feeding4 ,she becomes so fond of the calf that she does not1 for a long time after1 yield her milk freely to the dairy-maid4 ,the calf does not when young draw off the milk completely1 and when it is taken off by the hand the cow withholds part of her milk2 and1 whenever a cow's udder is not completely emptied every time she is milked1 the lactic secretion is thereby diminished4 8,feeding of calves by the hand is in various other respects advantageous4 ,instead of depending on the uncertain or perhaps precarious supply of the dam1 which may be more at first than the young animal can consume or digest1 and at other times too little for its supply1 its food can1 by hand-feeding1 be regulated to suit the age1 appetite1 and purposes for which the calf is intended2 other admixtures or substitutes can be introduced into the milk1 and the quantity gradually increased or withdrawn at pleasure4 ,this is highly necessary when the calves are reared for stock4 ,the milk is in that case diminished1 and other food introduced so gradually that the stomach of the young animal is not injured as it is when the food is too suddenly changed4 ,and1 in the case of feeding of calves for the butcher1 the quantity of milk is not limited to that of the dam 7for no cow will allow a stranger calf to suckle her71 but it can be increased1 or the richest or poorest parts of the milk given1 at pleasure40 ,in these districts1 where1 probably1 the feeding and management of calves is as well and judiciously conducted as in any other part of ,britain1 the farmers' wives and daughters1 or female domestics1 have the principal charge of young calves2 and they are1 no doubt1 much better calculated for this duty than men1 since they are more inclined to be gentle and patient4 ,the utmost gentleness should always be observed in the treatment of all stock2 but especially of milch cows1 and calves designed for the dairy4 ,persevering kindness and patience will1 almost invariably1 overcome the most obstinate natures2 while rough and ungentle handling will be repaid in a quiet kind of way1 perhaps1 by withholding the milk1 which will always have a tendency to dry a cow up2 or1 what is nearly as bad1 by kicking1 and other modes of revenge1 which often contribute to the personal discomfort of the milker4 ,the disposition of the cow is greatly modified1 if not1 indeed1 wholly formed1 by her treatment while young2 and therefore it is best to handle calves as much as possible1 and make pets of them1 lead them with a halter1 and caress them in various ways4 ,calves managed in this way will always be docile1 and suffer themselves to be approached and handled both in the pasture and the barn4 ,with respect to the use of hay-tea1 often used in this country1 but more common abroad1 where greater care and attention is usually given to the details of breeding1 ,youatt says3 8,at the end of three or four days1 or perhaps a week1 or even a fortnight1 after a calf has been dropped1 and the first passages have been cleansed by allowing it to drink as much of the cow's milk as it feels inclined for1 let the quantity usually allotted for a meal be mixed1 consisting1 for the first week1 of three parts milk and one part hay-tea4 ,the only nourishing infusion of hay is that which is made from the best and sweetest hay1 cut by a chaff-cutter into pieces about two inches long1 and put into an earthen vessel2 over this boiling water should be poured1 and the whole allowed to stand for two hours1 during which time it ought to be kept carefully closed4 ,after the first week1 the proportions of milk and hay-tea may be equal2 then composed of two thirds of hay-tea and one of milk2 and at length one fourth part of milk will be sufficient4 ,this food should be given to the calf in a lukewarm state at least three1 if not four times a day1 in quantities averaging three quarts at each meal1 but gradually increasing to four quarts as the calf grows older4 ,towards the end of the second month1 beside the usual quantity given at each meal 7composed of three parts of the infusion and one of milk71 a small wisp or bundle of hay is to be laid before the calf1 which will gradually come to eat it2 but1 if the weather is favorable1 as in the month of ,may1 the beast may be turned out to graze in a fine1 sweet pasture1 well sheltered from the wind and sun4 ,this diet may be continued until towards the latter end of the third month1 when1 if the calf grazes heartily1 each meal may be reduced to less than a quart of milk1 with hay-water2 or skimmed milk or fresh butter-milk may be substituted for new milk4 ,at the expiration of the third month the animal will hardly require to be fed by hand1 though1 if this should still be necessary1 one quart of the infusion given daily1 and which during the summer need not be warmed1 will be sufficient40 ,the hay-tea should be made fresh every two days1 as it soon loses its nutritious quality4 ,this and other preparations are given not because they are better than milk1 than which nothing is better adapted to fatten a calf1 or promote its growth1 but simply to economize by providing the most suitable and cheaper substitutes4 ,experience shows that the first two or three calves are smaller than those that follow2 and hence1 unless they are pure-bred1 and to be kept for the blood1 they are not generally thought to be so desirable to raise for the dairy as the third or fourth1 and those that come after1 up to the age of nine or ten years4 ,on this point opinions differ4 ,according to the comparative experiments of a ,german agriculturist1 cows which as calves had been allowed to suckle their dams from two to four weeks brought calves which weighed only from thirty-five to forty-eight pounds2 while others1 which1 as calves1 had been allowed to suckle from five to eight weeks1 brought calves weighing from sixty to eighty pounds4 ,it is difficult to see how there can be so great a difference1 if1 indeed1 there is any2 but it may be worthy of careful observation and experiment1 and as such it is stated in this connection4 ,the increased size of the calf would be due to the larger size to which the cow would attain2 and if as a calf she were allowed to run with her dam in the pasture four or five months1 taking all the milk she wanted1 she would doubtless be kept growing on in a thriving condition4 ,but taking a calf from the cow at four or even eight weeks must check its growth to some extent1 and this may be avoided by feeding liberally1 and bringing up by hand4 ,after the calf is fully weaned1 there is nothing very peculiar in the general management4 ,a young animal will require for the first few months--say up to the age of six months--an average of five or six pounds daily of good hay1 or its equivalent4 ,at the age of six months it will require from four and a half to five pounds1 and at the end of the year from three and a half to four pounds of good hay1 or its equivalent1 for every one hundred pounds of its live weight2 or1 in other words1 about three and a half or four per cent4 of its live weight4 ,at two years old it will require three and a half1 and some months later three per cent4 of its live weight daily in good hay or its equivalent4 ,indian-corn fodder1 either green or cured1 forms an excellent and wholesome food at this age4 ,the heifer should not be pampered1 nor yet poorly fed or half starved1 so as to receive a check in her growth4 ,an abundant supply of good healthy dairy food and drink will do all that is necessary up to the time of having her first calf1 which should not ordinarily be till the age of three years1 though some choose to allow them to come in at two or a little over1 on the ground that it early stimulates the secretion of milk1 and that this will increase the milking propensity through life4 ,this is undoubtedly the case1 as a general rule2 but ,i think greater injury is done by checking the growth1 unless the heifer has been fed up to large size and full development from the start1 in which case she may perhaps take the bull at fifteen or eighteen months without injury4 ,i have had several come in as early as two years1 and one at less than twenty months4 ,this last was not by design1 however1 and ,i would rather have given a considerable sum than had it happen1 as she was an exceedingly beautiful pure-bred ,jersey1 and ,i was desirous to have her attain to good size and growth4 ,even if a heifer comes in at two years1 it is generally thought desirable to let her run farrow for the following year1 which will promote her growth and more perfect development4 ,the feeding which young stock often get is not such as is calculated to make good-sized or valuable cattle of them4 ,they are often fed on the poorest of hay or straw through the winter1 not unfrequently left exposed to cold1 unprotected and unhoused1 and thus stinted in their growth4 ,this seems to me to be the very worst economy1 or rather no economy at all4 ,properly viewed1 it is an extravagant wastefulness which no farmer can afford4 ,no animal develops its good points under such treatment2 and if the starving system is to be followed at all1 it had better be after the age of two or three years1 when the animal's constitution has attained strength and vigor to resist ill treatment4 ,to raise up first-rate milkers1 it is absolutely necessary to feed on dairy food even while young4 ,no matter how fine the breed is1 if the calf is raised on poor1 short feed1 it will never be so good a milker as if raised on better keeping2 and hence1 in dairy districts1 where calves are raised at all1 they ought to be allowed the best pasture during the summer1 and good sweet and wholesome food during the winter4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,culture ,,of ,,grasses ,,and ,,other ,,plants ,,recommended ,,for ,,fodder4 ,as already stated1 the grasses in summer1 and hay in winter1 form the most natural and important food for milch cows2 and whatever other crops come in as additional1 these will form the basis of all systems of feeding4 ,the nutritive qualities of the grasses differ widely2 and their value as feed for cows will depend1 to a considerable extent1 on the management of pastures and mowing-lands4 ,if the turf of an old pasture is carefully examined1 it will be found to contain a large variety of grasses and plants adapted for forage2 some of them valuable for one purpose1 and some for another4 ,some of them1 though possessing a lower percentage of nutritive constituents than others1 are particularly esteemed for an early and luxuriant growth1 furnishing a sweet feed in early spring1 before other grasses appear2 some of them1 for starting more rapidly than others1 after being eaten off by cattle1 and consequently of great value as pasture grasses4 ,most grasses will be found to be of a social character1 and to do best in a large mixture with other varieties4 ,in forming a mixture for pasture grasses1 the peculiarities of each species should1 therefore1 be regarded3 as the time of flowering1 the habits of growth1 the soil and location on which it grows best1 and other characteristics4 ,among the grasses found on cultivated lands1 in this country1 the following are considered as among the most valuable for ordinary farm cultivation2 some of them adapted to pastures1 and others almost exclusively to mowing and the hay crop3 ,timothy 7,phleum pratense74 ,meadow ,foxtail 7,alopecurus pratensis74 ,june1 or ,kentucky ,blue ,grass 7,poa pratensis74 ,fowl meadow 7,poa serotina74 ,rough-stalked ,meadow 7,poa trivialis74 ,orchard ,grass 7,dactylis glomerata74 ,perennial ,rye ,grass 7,lolium perenne74 ,italian ,rye ,grass 7,lolium italicum74 ,redtop 7,agrostis vulgaris74 ,english ,bent 7,agrostis alba74 ,meadow ,fescue 7,festuca pratensis74 ,tall ,oat ,grass 7,arrhenatherum avenaceum74 ,sweet-scented ,vernal 7,anthoxanthemum odoratum74 ,hungarian ,grass 7,panicum ,germanicum74 ,red ,clover 7,trifolium pratense74 ,white or ,dutch ,clover 7,trifolium repens71 and some others4 ,of these1 the most valuable1 all things considered1 is the first1 or ,timothy 7,fig4 #ef;b74 ,it forms a large proportion of what is commonly called ,english1 or in some sections meadow hay1 though it originated and was first cultivated in this country4 ,it contains a large percentage of nutritive matter1 in comparison with other agricultural grasses4 ,it thrives best on moist1 peaty1 or loamy soils1 of medium tenacity1 and is not well suited to very light1 sandy lands4 ,on very moist soils its root is almost always fibrous2 while on dry and loamy ones it is bulbous4 ,on soils of the former description1 which it especially affects1 its growth is rapid1 and its yield of hay large1 sometimes amounting to three and four tons to the acre1 depending much1 of course1 on cultivation4 ,but1 though very valuable for hay1 it is not adapted to pastures1 as it will neither endure severe grazing1 nor is its aftermath to be compared with meadow foxtail1 and some of the other grasses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef;b4 ,timothy grass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg;b4 ,june grass4 ,,june ,,grass 7,fig4 #eg;b71 better known in some sections as ,kentucky ,blue grass1 is very common in most sections of the country1 especially on limestone lands1 forming a large part of the turf1 wherever it flourishes1 and being universally esteemed as a pasture grass4 ,it starts early1 but varies much in size and appearance1 according to the soil2 growing in some places with the utmost luxuriance1 and forming the predominant grass2 in others1 yielding to the other species4 ,if cut at the time of flowering1 or a few days after1 it makes a good and nutritive hay1 though it is surpassed in nutritive qualities by several of the other grasses4 ,it starts slowly after being cut1 especially if not cut very early4 ,but its herbage is fine and uniform1 and admirably adapted to lawns1 growing well in almost all soils1 though it does not endure very severe droughts4 ,it withstands1 however1 the frosts of winter better than most other grasses4 ,in ,kentucky1 a section where it attains its highest perfection and luxuriance1 ripening its seed about the #ajth of ,june1 and in latitudes south of that1 it sometimes continues green through the mild winters4 ,it requires three or four years to become well set1 after sowing1 and it does not attain its highest yield as a pasture grass till the sod is even older than that4 ,it is not1 therefore1 suited to alternate husbandry1 where land usually remains in grass but two or three years before being ploughed up4 ,in ,kentucky it is sown any time in winter when the snow is on the ground three or four quarts of seed being used to the acre4 ,in spring the seeds germinate1 when the sprouts are exceedingly fine and delicate4 ,stock is not allowed on it the first year4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh;b4 ,meadow ,foxtail4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,orchard grass4 ,the ,,meadow ,,foxtail 7,fig4 #eh;b7 is also an excellent pasture grass4 ,it somewhat resembles ,timothy1 but is earlier1 has a softer spike1 and thrives on all soils except the dryest4 ,its growth is rapid1 and it is greatly relished by stock of all kinds4 ,its stalk and leaves are too few and light for a field crop1 and it shrinks too much in curing to be valuable for hay4 ,it flourishes best in a rich1 moist1 and rather strong soil1 sending up a luxuriant aftermath when cut or grazed off1 which is much more valuable1 both in quantity and nutritive value1 than the first crop4 ,in all lands designed for permanent pasture1 therefore1 it should form a considerable part of a mixture4 ,it will endure almost any amount of forcing1 by liquid manures1 or irrigation4 ,it requires three or four years1 after sowing1 to gain a firm footing in the soil4 ,the seed is covered with the soft and woolly husks of the flower1 and is consequently light2 weighing but five pounds to the bushel1 and containing seventy-six thousand seeds to the ounce4 ,the ,,orchard ,,grass1 or ,,rough ,,cocksfoot 7,fig4 #ei71 for pastures1 stands preminent4 ,this is a native of this country1 and was introduced into ,england1 from ,virginia1 in #agfd1 since which time its cultivation has extended into every country of ,europe1 where it is universally held in very high estimation4 ,the fact of its being very palatable to stock of all kinds1 its rapidity of growth1 and the luxuriance of its aftermath1 with its power of enduring the cropping of cattle1 have given it a very high reputation1 especially as a pasture grass4 ,it blossoms earlier than ,timothy2 when green is equally relished by milch cows2 requires to be fed closer1 to prevent its forming tufts and growing up to seed1 when it becomes hard and wiry1 and loses much of its nutritive quality4 ,as it blossoms about the same time1 it forms an admirable mixture with red clover1 either for permanent pasture or mowing4 ,it resists drought1 and is less exhausting to the soil than either rye grass or ,timothy4 ,the seed weighs twelve pounds to the bushel1 and when sown alone requires about two bushels to the acre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,rough-stalked ,meadow grass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,rye grass4 ,the ,,rough-,,stalked ,,meadow ,,grass 7,fig4 #fj7 is somewhat less common than ,june grass1 but is considered as equally valuable4 ,it grows best on moist1 sheltered meadows1 where it flowers in ,june and ,july4 ,it is easily distinguished from ,june grass1 by having a rough sheath1 while the latter has a smooth one1 and by having a fibrous root1 while the root of ,june grass is creeping4 ,it possesses very considerable nutritive qualities1 and comes to perfection at a desirable time2 is exceedingly relished by cattle1 horses1 and sheep4 ,for suitable soils it should form a portion of a mixture of seeds1 producing1 in mixture with other grasses which serve to shelter it1 a large yield of hay1 far above the average of grass usually grown on a similar soil4 ,it should be cut when the seed is formed4 ,seven pounds of seed to the acre will produce a good sward4 ,the grass loses about seventy per cent4 of its weight in drying4 ,the nutritive qualities of its aftermath exceed very considerably those of the crop cut in the flower or in the seed4 ,,fowl ,,meadow ,,grass is another indigenous species1 of great value for low and marshy grounds1 where it flourishes best2 and1 if cut and properly cured1 makes a sweet and nutritious hay1 which1 from its fineness1 is eaten by cows without waste4 ,according to ,sinclair1 who experimented1 with the aid of ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 to ascertain its comparative nutritive properties1 it is superior1 in this respect1 to either meadow foxtail1 orchard grass1 or tall meadow oat grass2 but it is probable that he somewhat overrates it4 ,if allowed to stand till nearly ripe1 it falls down1 but sends up innumerable flowering stems from the joints1 so that it continues green and luxuriant till late in the season4 ,it thrives best in mixture with other grasses1 and deserves a prominent place in all mixtures for rich1 moist pastures1 and low mowing-lands4 ,,rye ,,grass 7,fig4 #fa7 has a far higher reputation abroad than in this country1 and probably with reason2 for it is better adapted to a wet and uncertain climate than to a dry and hot one4 ,it varies exceedingly1 depending much on soil and culture2 but1 when cut in the blossom to make into hay1 it possesses very considerable nutritive power4 ,if allowed to get too ripe1 it is hard and wiry1 and not relished by cows4 ,the change from a juicy and nutritious plant to woody fibre1 possessing but little soluble matter1 is very rapid4 ,properly managed1 however1 it is a tolerably good grass1 though not to be compared to ,timothy1 or orchard grass4 ,,italian ,,rye ,,grass 7,fig4 #fb7 has also been cultivated to considerable extent in this country1 but with less satisfactory results than are obtained from it in ,europe1 where it endures all climates1 giving better crops1 both in quantity and quality1 than the perennial rye grass4 ,it is one of the greatest gluttons of all the grasses1 and luxuriates in frequent irrigation with liquid manure1 though it is said to stand the drought very well4 ,the soils best adapted to it are rich1 moist1 and fertile1 of medium tenacity2 and it is admirably adapted to the purposes of soiling1 as it endures repeated cutting1 rapidly sending up luxuriant crops4 ,for rich soils near the barn1 used for the growth of crops for soiling1 therefore1 it may be confidently used as a profitable addition to our list of cultivated grasses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,italian ,rye grass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,redtop4 ,,redtop 7,fig4 #fc7 is a grass familiar to every farmer in the country4 ,it is the ,herd's grass of ,pennsylvania1 while in ,new ,york and ,new ,england it is known by a great variety of names1 and assumes a great variety of forms1 according to the soil in which it grows4 ,it is well adapted to almost every soil1 though it seems to prefer a moist loam4 ,it makes a profitable crop for spending1 in the form of hay1 though its yield is less than that of ,timothy4 ,it is well suited to our permanent pastures1 where it should be fed close1 otherwise it becomes wiry and innutritious1 and cattle refuse it4 ,it stands the climate of the country as well as any other grass1 and so forms a valuable part of any mixture for pastures and permanent mowing-lands2 but it is probably rather overrated by us4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,english ,bent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,meadow ,fescue4 ,,english ,,bent 7,fig4 #fd71 known also by a great variety of other names1 is also largely cultivated in some sections4 ,it closely resembles redtop1 but may be distinguished from it by the roughness of the sheaths when the hand is drawn from above downwards4 ,it possesses much the same qualities as redtop4 ,,meadow ,,fescue 7,fig4 #fe7 is one of the most common of the fescue grasses1 and is said to be the ,randall grass of ,virginia4 ,it is an excellent pasture grass1 forming a very considerable portion of the turf of old pastures and fields2 and is more extensively propagated and diffused by the fact that it ripens its seeds before most other grasses are cut1 and sheds them to spring up and cover the ground4 ,its long and tender leaves are much relished by cattle4 ,it is rarely sown in this country1 notwithstanding its great and acknowledged value as a pasture grass4 ,if sown at all1 it should be in mixture with other grasses1 as orchard grass1 rye grass1 or ,june grass4 ,it is of much greater value at the time of flowering than when the seed is ripe4 ,the ,,tall ,,oat ,,grass 7,fig4 #ff7 is the ,ray grass of ,france4 ,it furnishes a luxuriant supply of foliage1 is valuable either for hay or for pasture1 and has been especially recommended for soiling purposes1 on account of its early and luxuriant growth4 ,it is often found on the borders of fields and hedges1 woods and pastures1 and is sometimes very plenty in mowing-lands4 ,after being sown it shoots up a very thick aftermath1 and on this account1 partly1 is regarded as nearly equal for excellence to the common foxtail4 ,it grows spontaneously on deep1 sandy soils1 when once naturalized4 ,it has been cultivated to a considerable extent in this country1 and is esteemed by those who know it mainly for its early1 rapid1 and late growth1 making it very well calculated as a permanent pasture grass4 ,it will succeed on tenacious clover soils4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,tall ,oat grass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,sweet-scented ,vernal4 ,the ,,sweet-,,scented ,,vernal ,,grass 7,fig4 #fg7 is one of the earliest in spring and one of the latest in autumn2 and this habit of growth is one of its chief excellences1 as it is neither a nutritious grass nor very palatable to stock of any kind1 nor does it yield a very good crop4 ,it is very common all over ,new ,england and the ,middle ,states1 coming into old worn-out fields and moist pastures spontaneously1 and along every roadside4 ,it derives its name from its sweetness of smell when partially wilted1 or crushed in the hand1 and it is this chiefly that gives the delicious fragrance to all new-mown hay4 ,it is almost the only grass that possesses a strongly-marked aromatic odor1 which is imparted to other grasses with which it is cured4 ,its seed weighs eight pounds to the bushel4 ,in mixtures for permanent pastures it may be of some value4 ,,hungarian ,,grass1 or ,millet 7,fig4 #fh71 is an annual forage plant1 introduced into ,france in #ahae1 and more recently into this country4 ,it germinates readily and withstands the drought remarkably1 remaining green when other grasses are parched and dried up4 ,it has numerous succulent leaves1 which furnish an abundance of sweet fodder1 greatly relished by stock of all kinds4 ,it attains its greatest luxuriance on soils of medium consistency and richness1 but does very well on light and dry plains4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,red ,clover4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,hungarian grass4 ,,red ,,clover 7,fig4 #fi7 is an artificial grass of the leguminous family1 and one of the most valuable of cultivated plants for feeding to dairy cows4 ,it flourishes best on tenacious soils and stiff loams4 ,its growth is rapid1 and a few months after sowing are sufficient to supply an abundant sweet and nutritious food4 ,in the climate of ,new ,england clover should be sown in the spring of the year1 while most of the natural grasses do far better sown in the fall4 ,it is often sown with perfect success on the late snows of ,march or ,april1 and soon finds its way down into the soil and takes a vigorous root4 ,it is valuable not only as a forage plant1 but as shading the ground1 and thereby increasing its fertility4 ,the introduction of clover among the cultivated plants of the farm has done more1 perhaps1 for modern agriculture than that of any other single plant4 ,it has now come to be considered indispensable in all good dairy districts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,white ,clover4 ,,white ,,clover 7,fig4 #gj71 often called ,honeysuckle1 is also widely diffused over this country1 to which it is undoubtedly indigenous4 ,as a mixture in all pasture grasses it holds a very high rank1 as it is exceedingly sweet and nutritious1 and relished by stock of all kinds4 ,it grows most luxuriantly in moist grounds and moist seasons1 but easily accommodates itself to a great variety of circumstances4 ,with respect to the mixtures of grass-seeds most profitable for the dairy farmer1 no universal rule can be given1 as they depend very much upon the nature of the soil and the locality4 ,the most important point to be observed1 and one in which we1 as a body1 are perhaps most deficient1 is to use a large number of species1 with smaller quantities of each than those most commonly used4 ,this is nature's rule2 for1 in examining the turf of a rich old pasture1 we shall find a large number of different species growing together1 while1 if we examine the turf of a field sown with only one or two different species1 we find a far less number of plants to the square foot1 even after the sod is fairly set4 ,no improvement in grass culture is more important1 it seems to me4 ,i have suggested1 in another place1 a large number of mixtures adapted to the different varieties of soil and circumstance1 together with the reasons for the mixture in many instances4 7,see ,a ,practical ,treatise on ,grasses and ,forage ,plants1 comprising their ,natural ,history1 ,comparative ,nutritive ,value1 ,methods of ,cultivating1 ,cutting1 and ,curing1 and the ,management of ,grass ,lands1 c4 #bcf pp4 #hvo41 with illustrations47 ,as an instance of what ,i should consider an improvement on our ordinary mixtures for permanent pastures1 ,i would suggest the following as likely to give satisfactory results1 dependent1 of course1 to a considerable extent1 on the nature and preparation of the soil3 ,meadow ,foxtail1 flowering in ,may and ,june1 #b pounds ,orchard ,grass1 flowering in ,may and ,june1 #f 8 ,sweet-scented ,vernal1 flowering in ,april and ,may1 #a 8 ,meadow ,fescue1 flowering in ,may and ,june1 #b 8 ,redtop1 flowering in ,june and ,july1 #b 8 ,june ,grass1 flowering in ,may and ,june1 #d 8 ,italian ,rye ,grass1 flowering in ,june1 #d 8 ,perennial ,rye ,grass1 flowering in ,june1 #f 8 ,timothy1 flowering in ,june and ,july1 #c 8 ,rough-stalked ,meadow ,grass1 flowering in ,june and ,july1 #b 8 ,perennial ,clover1 flowering in ,june1 #c 8 ,white ,clover1 flowering in ,may to ,september1 #e-dj 8 ,for mowing-lands the mixture would1 of course1 be somewhat changed4 ,the meadow foxtail and sweet-scented vernal would be left out entirely1 and some six or eight pounds added to the ,timothy and red clover4 ,the proper time to lay down lands to grass in the latitude of ,new ,england is ,august or ,september1 and no grain crop should be sown with the seed4 ,stiff or clayey pastures should never be over-stocked1 but when fed pretty close the grasses are far sweeter and more nutritious than when they are allowed to grow up rank and coarse2 and if1 by a want of sufficient feeding1 they get the start of the stock1 and grow into rank tufts1 they should be cut and removed1 when a fresh grass will start up1 similar to the aftermath of mowing-lands1 which will be greedily eaten4 ,grasses for curing into hay should be cut either at the time of flowering or just before1 especially if designed for milch cows4 ,they are then more succulent and juicy1 and1 if properly cured1 form the sweetest food4 ,grass cut in the blossom will make more milk than if allowed to stand later4 ,cut a little before the blossoming1 it will make more than when in the blossom2 and the cows prefer it1 which is by no means an unimportant consideration1 since their tastes should always be consulted4 ,grass cut somewhat green1 and properly cured1 is next to fresh1 green grass in palatable and nutritive qualities4 ,and so a sensible practical farmer writes me3 8,the time of cutting grass depends very much upon the use you wish to make of it4 ,if for working oxen and horses1 ,i would let it stand till a little out of the blossom2 but if to feed out to new milch cows in the winter1 ,i would prefer to cut it very green4 ,it is then worth for the making of milk in the winter almost double that cut later40 ,every farmer knows the milk-producing properties of rowen1 which is generally cut before it blossoms4 ,no operation on the farm is of greater importance to the dairyman than the cutting of his grass and the manner of curing hay1 and in this respect the practice over the country generally is susceptible of very great improvement4 ,the chief object is to preserve the sweetness and succulence of grass in its natural state1 so far as it is possible2 and this object cannot be gained by exposing it too long to the scorching suns and the drenching rains to which we are liable in this climate4 ,we generally try to make our hay too much4 ,as to the best modes of curing clover1 my own experience and observation accord with that of several practical farmers1 who write me as follows3 8,my method of curing clover is this3 ,what is mown in the morning ,i leave in the swath1 to be turned over early in the afternoon4 ,at about four o'clock1 or while it is still warm1 ,i put it into small cocks with a fork1 and1 if the weather is favorable1 it may be housed on the fourth or fifth day1 the cocks being turned over on the morning of the day it is to be carted4 ,by so doing all the heads and leaves are saved1 and these are worth more than the stems4 ,this has been my method for the last ten years4 ,for new milch cows in the winter ,i think there is nothing better4 ,it will make them give as great a flow of milk as any hay1 unless it be good rowen40 ,another says3 8,when the weather bids fair to be good1 ,i mow it after the dew is off1 and cock it up after being wilted1 using the fork instead of rolling with the rake1 and let it remain several days1 when it is fit to put into the barn40 ,and another3 8,i mow my clover in the forenoon1 and towards night of the same day ,i take forks and pitch it into cocks and let it stand till it cures4 ,the day ,i cart it1 ,i turn the cocks over1 so as to air the lower part4 ,i then put it into the mow with all the leaves and heads on1 and it is as nice and green as green tea4 ,i think it worth for milch cows and sheep as much per ton as ,english hay40 ,and still another3 8,i have found no better hay for farm stock than good clover1 cut in season4 ,for milch cows it is much better than ,timothy4 ,the rowen crop is better than any other for calves40 ,,indian ,,corn makes an exceedingly valuable fodder1 both as a means of carrying a herd of milch cows through our severe droughts of summer1 and as an article for soiling cows kept in the stall4 ,no dairy farmer will neglect to sow an extent in proportion to the number of cows he keeps4 ,the most common practice is to sow in drills from two and a half to three feet apart1 on land well tilled and thoroughly manured1 making the drills from six to ten inches wide with the plough1 manuring in the furrow1 dropping the corn about two inches apart1 and covering with the hoe4 ,in this mode of culture the cultivator may be used between the rows when the corn is from six to twelve inches high1 and unless the ground is very weedy no other after culture is generally needed4 ,the first sowing usually takes place about the #bjth of ,may1 and this is succeeded by other sowings at intervals of a week or ten days1 till ,july1 in order to have a succession of green fodder4 ,but1 if it is designed to cut it up to cure for winter use1 an early sowing is generally preferred1 in order to be able to cure it in warm weather1 in ,august or early in ,september4 ,sown in this way1 about three or four bushels of corn are required for an acre1 since1 if sown thickly1 the fodder is better1 the stalks smaller1 and the waste less4 ,the chief difficulty in curing corn cultivated for this purpose1 and after the methods spoken of1 arises mainly from the fact that it comes at a season when the weather is often colder1 the days shorter1 and the dews heavier1 than when the curing of hay takes place4 ,nor is the curing of corn cut up green so easy and simple as that of drying the stalks of ,indian corn cut above the ear1 as in our common practice of topping4 ,the plant is then riper1 less juicy1 and cures more readily4 ,the method sometimes adopted is to cut and tie into small bundles1 after it is somewhat wilted1 and stook upon the ground1 where it is allowed to stand1 subject to all the changes of the weather1 with only the protection of the stook itself4 ,the stooks consist of bunches of stalks first bound in small bundles1 and are made sufficiently large to prevent the wind from blowing them over4 ,the arms are thrown around the tops to bring them together as closely as possible1 when the tops are broken over or twisted together1 or otherwise fastened1 in order to make the stook 8shed the rain0 as well as possible4 ,in this condition they stand out till sufficiently dried to put into the barn4 ,corn fodder is very excellent for young dairy stock4 ,,common ,,millet 7,panicum miliaceum7 is another very valuable crop for fodder in soiling1 or to cure for winter use1 but especially to feed out during our usual periods of drought4 ,many varieties of millet are cultivated in this country1 the ground being prepared and treated as for oats4 ,if designed to cut for green fodder1 half a bushel of seed to the acre should be used2 if to ripen seed1 twelve quarts1 sown broad-cast1 about the last of ,may or early in ,june4 ,a moist loam or muck is the best adapted to millet2 but ,i have seen very great crops grown on dry upland4 ,it is very palatable and nutritious for milch cows1 both green and when properly cured4 ,the curing should be very much like clover1 care being taken not to over-dry it4 ,for fodder1 either green or cured1 it is cut before ripening4 ,in this state all cattle eat it as readily as green corn1 and a less extent will feed them4 ,millet is worthy of a widely-extended cultivation1 particularly on dairy farms4 ,indian millet 7,sorghum vulgare7 is another cultivated variety4 ,,rye1 as a fodder plant1 is chiefly valuable for its early growth in spring4 ,it is usually sown in ,september or ,october1 from the middle to the end of ,september being1 perhaps1 the most desirable time1 on land previously cultivated and in good condition4 ,if designed to ripen only1 a bushel of seed is required to the acre1 evenly sown2 but1 if intended for early fodder in spring1 two or two and a half bushels per acre of seed should be used4 ,on warm land the rye can be cut green the last of ,april or first of ,may2 and care should be taken to cut early1 as1 if allowed to advance too far towards maturity1 the stalk becomes hard and unpalatable to cows4 ,,oats are also sometimes used for soiling1 or for feeding green1 to eke out a scanty supply of pasture feed2 ,and for this purpose they are valuable4 ,they should be sown on well-tilled and well-manured land1 about four bushels to the acre1 towards the last of ,april or first of ,may4 ,if the whole crop is to be used as green fodder1 five bushels of seed will not be too much on strong1 good soil4 ,they will be sufficiently grown to cut by the first of ,july1 or in some sections earlier1 depending on location4 ,the ,,chinese ,,sugar-,,cane also may deserve attention as a fodder plant4 ,experiments hitherto made seem to show that when properly cultivated1 and cut at the right time1 it is a palatable and nutritious plant1 while many of the failures have been the result of too early cutting4 ,for a fodder crop the drill culture is preferable1 both on account of the larger yield obtained and to prevent it from becoming too hard and stalky4 ,,the ,,potato 7,solanum tuberosum7 is the first of the root crops to be mentioned4 ,this produces a large quantity of milk1 though the quality is inferior4 ,the market value of this root is1 at the present time1 too great to allow of feeding extensively with it1 even in milk-dairies1 where it is most valuable as food for cows2 still1 there are locations where it may be judicious to cultivate this root for dairy feed1 and in all circumstances there is a certain portion of the crop of unmarketable size1 which will be of value fed to milch cows or swine4 ,it should be planted in ,april or ,may1 but in many sections in ,june1 on good mellow soil1 first thoroughly ploughed and harrowed1 then furrowed three feet apart1 and manured in the furrows with a mixture of ashes1 plaster of ,paris1 and salt4 ,the seed may be dropped in the furrows1 one foot apart1 after the drill system1 or in hills1 two and a half or three feet apart1 to be covered with the plough by simply turning the furrows back1 after which the whole should be rolled with the field roller1 where it can be done4 ,if the land is not already in good heart from continued cultivation1 a few loads of barn-yard manure may be spread1 and ploughed under by the first ploughing4 ,used in this way1 it is far less liable to cause the rot than when put in the hill4 ,if a sufficient quantity of wood-ashes is not at hand1 sifted coal-ashes will answer the purpose1 and are said to be valuable as a preventive of the rot4 ,in this way one man1 two boys1 and a horse1 can plant from three to four acres a day on mellow land4 ,i have planted two acres a day on the sod1 the manure being first spread on the grass1 a furrow made by a yoke of oxen and one man1 another following after and dropping1 a foot apart1 along the outer edge of the furrow on the grass4 ,by quick work1 one hand can nearly keep up with the plough in dropping4 ,when arrived at the end of the piece1 a back furrow is turned up to the potatoes1 and a good ploughman will cover nearly all without difficulty4 ,on the return-furrow the man or boy who dropped follows after1 covering up any that may be left or displaced1 and smoothing off the top of the back-furrows where necessary4 ,potatoes thus planted came out as fine as ,i ever saw any4 ,the cost of cultivation in this mode1 it must be evident1 is but trifling compared with the slower method of hand-planting4 ,the plan will require a skilful ploughman1 a quick1 active lad1 and a good yoke of oxen1 and the extent of the work will depend somewhat on the state of the turf4 ,the nutritive equivalent in potatoes for one hundred pounds of good hay is #c4ai pounds2 that is1 it will take #cai pounds of potatoes to afford the same amount of nourishment as one pound of hay4 ,the great value of roots is as a change or condiment1 calculated to keep the animal in a healthy condition4 ,,the ,,carrot 7,daucus carota7 is somewhat extensively fed1 and is a valuable root for milch cows4 ,this1 like the potato1 has been cultivated and improved from a wild plant4 ,carrots require a deep1 warm1 mellow soil1 thoroughly cultivated1 but clean and free from weed-seed4 ,the difference between a very good profit and a loss on the crop depends much on the use of land and manures perfectly free from foul seeds of any kind4 ,ashes1 guano1 sea-weed1 ground bone1 and other similar substances1 or thoroughly-rotted and fermented compost1 will answer the purpose4 ,after ploughing deep1 and harrowing carefully1 the seed should be sown with a seed-sower1 in drills about eighteen inches apart1 at the rate of four pounds to the acre1 about the middle or twentieth of ,may4 ,the difference between sowing the fifteenth of ,may and the tenth of ,june in ,new ,england is said to be nearly one third in the crop on an average of years4 ,in weeding1 a little wheel-hoe is invaluable1 as with it a large part of the labor of cultivation is saved4 ,a skilful hand can run this hoe within half an inch of the young plants without injury1 and go over a large space in the course of a day1 if the land was properly prepared in the first place4 ,the ,american farmer should always plan to economize labor4 ,that is the great item of expense on the farm4 ,i do not mean that he should try to shirk or avoid work1 but that he should make the least amount of work accomplish the largest and most profitable results4 ,labor-saving machinery on the farm is applied not to reduce the number of hours' labor1 or to make the owner a man of leisure1--who is1 generally1 the unhappiest man in the world1--but to enable him to accomplish the greatest results in the same time that he would be compelled to labor to obtain smaller ones4 ,carrots will continue to grow and increase in size late into the fall4 ,when ready to dig1 plough around as near to the outside rows as possible1 turning the furrow away from the row4 ,then take out the carrots1 pulling off the tops1 and throw the carrots and tops into separate heaps on the ploughed furrows4 ,in this way a man and two boys can harvest and put into the cellar over a hundred bushels a day4 ,the ,,turnip 7,brassica rapa7 and the ,swedish turnip or ruta baga 7,brassica campestris7 are also largely cultivated as a field crop to feed to stock2 and for this purpose numberless varieties are used1 furnishing a great amount of succulent and nutritious food1 late into winter1 and1 if well kept1 late into spring4 ,the chief objection to the turnip is that it taints the milk4 ,this may be remedied1 to a considerable extent1 if not wholly1 by the use of salt1 or salt hay1 and by feeding at the time of milking1 or immediately after1 or by steaming before feeding1 or putting a small quantity of the solution of nitre into the pail1 and milking upon it4 ,turnips may be sown any time in ,june1 in rich land1 well mellowed by cultivation4 ,very large crops are often obtained sown as late as the middle of ,july1 or first of ,august1 on an inverted sod4 ,the ,michigan or double-mould-board plough leaves the land light1 and in admirable condition to harrow1 and drill in turnips4 ,a successful root-grower last year cut two tons of hay to the acre1 on the #bc;d of ,june1 and after it was removed from the land spread eight cords of rotten kelp to the acre1 and ploughed in2 after which about three cords of fine old compost manure were used to the acre1 which was sown1 with ruta baga seed1 in drills1 three feet apart1 plants thinned to eight or ten inches in the drill4 ,no after cultivation was required4 ,on the #aeth of ,november he harvested three hundred and seventy bushels of splendid roots to the acre1 carefully measured off4 ,the nutritive equivalent of ,swedish turnips as compared with good meadow hay is #fgf1 taking hay as a standard at #ajj2 that is1 it would require #f4gf lbs4 of turnips to furnish the same nutriment as one pound of good hay2 but1 fed in connection with other food1 as hay1 for instance1 perhaps five pounds of turnips would be about equal to one pound of hay4 ,the ,english or round turnip is usually sown broadcast after some other crop1 and large and valuable returns are often obtained4 ,the ,swede is sown in drills4 ,both these varieties are used for the production of milk4 ,the chief objection to the turnip crop is that it leaves many kinds of soil unfit for a succession of some other crops1 like ,indian corn1 for instance4 ,in some sections no amount of manuring appears to make corn do well after turnips or ruta bagas4 ,the ,,mangold ,,wurzel1 a variety of the ,beta vulgaris1 is often cultivated with great success in this country1 and fed to cows with advantage1 furnishing a succulent and nutritive food in winter and spring4 ,the crop is somewhat uncertain4 ,when it does well an enormous yield is often obtained2 but it often proves a failure1 and is not1 on the whole1 quite as reliable as the ruta baga1 though a more valuable crop when the yield is good4 ,it is cultivated like the common beet1 in moist1 rich soils1 three pounds of seed to the acre4 ,the leaves may be stripped off1 towards fall1 and fed out1 without injury to the growth of the root4 ,both mangolds and turnips should be cut with a root-cutter1 before being fed out4 ,the ,,parsnip 7,pastinaca sativa7 is a very sweet and nutritive article of fodder1 and adds richness and flavor to the milk4 ,it is worthy of extended culture in all parts of this country where dairy husbandry is pursued4 ,it is a biennial1 easily raised on deep1 rich1 well-cultivated and well-manured soils1 often yielding enormous crops1 and possessing the advantage of withstanding the severest winters4 ,as an article of spring feeding1 therefore1 it is exceedingly valuable4 ,sown in ,april or ,may1 it attains a large growth before winter4 ,then1 if desirable1 a part of the crop may be harvested for winter use1 and the remainder left in the ground till the frost is out1 in ,march or ,april1 when they can be dug as wanted1 and are exceedingly relished by milch cows1 and stock of all kinds4 ,they make an admirable feed at the time of milking1 and produce the richest cream1 and the yellowest and finest-flavored butter1 of any root with which ,i am acquainted4 ,the good dairy farmers on the island of ,jersey often feed to their cows from thirty to thirty-five pounds of parsnips a day1 in addition to hay or grass4 ,both practical experiment and scientific analysis prove this root to be eminently adapted to dairy stock1 where the richness of milk or fine-flavored butter is any object4 ,for mere milk-dairies1 it is not quite so valuable1 probably1 as the ,swedish turnip4 ,the culture is similar to that of carrots1 a rich1 mellow1 and deep loam being best2 while it has a great advantage over the carrot in being more hardy1 and rather less liable to injury from insects1 and more nutritive4 ,for feeding and fattening stock it is eminently adapted4 ,to be sure of a crop1 fresh seed must be had1 as it cannot be depended on more than one year4 ,for this reason1 the largest and straightest roots should be allowed to stand for seed1 which1 as soon as nearly ripe1 should be taken off and spread out to dry1 and carefully kept for use4 ,for field culture the hollow-crowned parsnip is the best and most profitable2 but on thin1 shallow soils the turnip-rooted variety should be used4 ,parsnips may be harvested like carrots1 by ploughing along the rows4 ,let butter or cheese dairymen give this crop a fair and full trial1 and watch its effect on the quality of the milk and butter4 ,the ,,kohl ,,rabi 7,brassica oleracea1 var4 caulorapa7 is also cultivated to a considerable extent in this country1 to feed to stock4 ,it is supposed to be a hybrid between the cabbage and the turnip1 and is often called the cabbage-turnip1 having the root of the former1 with a turnip-like or bulbous stem4 ,the special reason for its more extensive cultivation among us is its wonderful indifference to droughts1 in which it seems to flourish best1 and to bring forth the most luxuriant crops4 ,it also withstands the frosts remarkably1 being a hardy plant4 ,it yields a somewhat richer quality of milk than the ordinary turnip1 and the crop is generally admitted to be as abundant and profitable4 ,i have seen very large crops of it produced by the ordinary turnip or cabbage cultivation4 ,as in cabbage culture1 it is best to sow the seed in ,march or ,april1 in a warm and well-enriched seed-bed2 from which it is transplanted in ,may1 and set out after the manner of cabbages in garden culture4 ,it bears transplanting better than most other roots4 ,insects injure it less than the turnip1 dry weather favors it1 and it keeps well through the winter4 ,for these reasons1 it must be regarded as a valuable addition to our list of forage plants adapted to dairy farming4 ,it grows well on stronger soils than the turnip4 ,,linseed ,,meal is the ground cake of flax-seed1 after the oil is pressed out4 ,it is very rich in fat-forming principles1 and given to milch cows it increases the quality of butter1 and keeps them in condition4 ,four or five pounds a day are sufficient for cows in milk1 and this amount will effect a great saving in the cost of other food1 and at the same time make a very rich milk4 ,it is extensively manufactured in this country1 and largely exported1 but is worthy of more general use here4 ,it must not be fed in too large quantities to milch cows1 for it would be liable to give too great a tendency to fat1 and thus affect the quantity of milk4 ,,rape-,,cake possesses much the same qualities4 ,it is the residuum after pressing the oil from rape-seed4 ,,cotton-,,seed ,,meal is an article of comparatively recent introduction4 ,it is obtained by pressing the seed of the cotton-plant1 which extracts the oil1 when the cake is crushed or ground into meal1 which has been found to be a very valuable article for feeding stock4 ,an analysis has been given on a preceding page1 which shows it to be equal or superior to linseed meal4 ,practical experiments are needed to establish it4 ,it is prepared chiefly in ,providence1 ,r4 ,i41 and is for sale in the market at a very reasonable price4 ,the ,,manures used in this country in the culture of the plants mentioned above are mostly such as are made on the farm1 consisting chiefly of barn-yard composts of various kinds1 with often a large admixture of peat-mud4 ,there are few farms that do not contain substances which1 if properly husbanded1 would add very greatly to the amount of manure ordinarily made4 ,the best of the concentrated manures1 which it is sometimes necessary to use1 for want of time and labor to prepare enough on the farm1 is1 unquestionably1 ,peruvian guano4 ,the results of this1 when properly applied1 are well known and reliable1 which can hardly be said of any other artificial manure offered for the farmer's notice4 ,the chief objection to depending on manures made off the farm is1 in the first place1 their great expense2 and in the second1 which is equally important1 the fact that1 though they may be made valuable1 and produce at one time the best results1 a want of care in the manufacture1 or designed fraud1 may make them almost worthless1 with the impossibility of detecting the imposition1 without a chemical analysis1 till it becomes too late1 and the crop is lost4 ,it is1 therefore1 safest to rely mainly upon the home manufacture of manure4 ,the extra expense of soiling cattle1 saving and applying the liquid manure1 and thus bringing the land to a higher state of cultivation1 when it will be capable of keeping more stock1 and of furnishing more manure1 would offer a surer road to success than a constant outlay for concentrated fertilizers4 ,the various articles used for top-dressing grass lands1 and the management of grass and pasture lands1 have been treated of in detail in the work already alluded to1 on the ,,culture ,,of ,,grasses ,,and ,,forage ,,plants4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,milk4 ,milk1 as the first and natural food of man1 has been used from the remotest antiquity of the human race4 ,it is produced by the females of that class of animals known as the mammalia1 and was designed by nature as the nourishment of their young2 but the richest and most abundant secretions in common use are those of the cow1 the camel1 the mare1 and the goat4 ,the use of camel's milk is confined chiefly to ,africa and to ,china1 that of mares to ,tartary and ,siberia1 and that of goats to ,italy and ,spain4 ,the milk of the cow is universally esteemed4 ,milk is an opaque fluid1 generally white in color1 having a sweet and agreeable taste1 and is composed of a fatty substance1 which forms butter1 a caseous substance1 which forms cheese1 and a watery residuum1 known as serum1 or whey1 in cheese-making4 ,the fatty or butyraceous matter in pure milk varies usually from two and a half to six and a half per cent42 the caseous or cheesy matter1 from three to ten per cent42 and the serous matter1 or whey1 from eighty to ninety per cent4 ,to the naked eye milk appears to be of the same character and consistence throughout2 but under the microscope a myriad of little globules of varied forms1 but mostly round or ovoid1 and of very unequal sizes1 appear to float in the watery matter4 ,on more minute examination1 these butter-globules are seen to be enclosed in a thin film of caseous matter4 ,they are so minute that they filter through the finest paper4 ,milk readily assimilates with water and other sweet and unfermented liquids1 though it weighs four per cent4 more than water4 ,cold condenses1 heat liquefies it4 ,the elements of which it is composed1 not being similar in character or specific gravity1 undergo rapid changes when at rest4 ,the oily particles1 being lighter than the rest1 soon begin to separate from them1 and rise to the surface in the form of a yellowish semi-liquid cream1 while the greater specific gravity of the serous matter1 or whey1 carries it to the bottom4 ,a high temperature very soon develops acidity1 and hastens the separation of the cheesy matter1 or curd1 from the whey4 ,and so the three principal elements are easily distinguished4 ,but the oily or butyraceous matter1 in rising to the surface1 brings up along with it many cheesy particles1 which mechanically adhere to it1 and give it more or less of a white instead of a yellow color2 and many watery or serous particles1 which make it thinner1 or more liquid1 than it otherwise would be4 ,if it rose up free from the adhesion of the other elements1 it would appear in the form of pure butter1 and would not need to undergo the process of churning to separate it from other substances4 ,the time may come when some means will be devised1 either mechanical or chemical1 to separate the butter particles from the rest instantaneously and completely1 and thus avoid the often long and tedious process of churning4 ,the coagulation1 or collecting together of the cheesy particles1 by which the curd becomes separated from the whey1 sometimes takes place so rapidly1 from the effect of great heat1 or sudden changes in the atmosphere1 that there is not time for the butter particles to rise to the surface1 and they remain mixed up with the curd4 ,nor does the serous or watery matter remain distinct or free from the mixture of particles of the cheesy and buttery matters4 ,it also holds in suspension some alkaline salts and sugar of milk1 to the extent of from three to four per cent4 of its weight4 ,we have1 then1 ,butter4 ,cream4 ,butter-milk4 ,water4 ,milk4 ,buttery and cheesy residuum4 ,skimmed milk4 ,curd4 ,sugar of milk4 ,pure ,whey4 ,salts4 water4 ,it may be stated1 in other words1 that milk is composed chiefly of caseine1 or curd1 which gives it its strength1 and from which cheese is made2 a butyraceous or oily substance1 which gives it its richness2 a sugar of milk1 to which it owes its sweetness1 and a watery substance1 which makes it refreshing as a beverage2 together with traces of alkaline salts1 from whence are derived its flavor and medicinal properties2 and that these constituents appear in proportions which vary in different specimens1 according to the breed of the animal1 the food1 the length of time after parturition1 etc4 ,milk becomes sour1 on standing exposed to a warm atmosphere1 by the change of its sugar of milk into an acid known as lactic acid2 and it is owing to this sugar1 and the chemical changes to which it gives rise1 that milk is susceptible of undergoing all degrees of fermentation1 and of being made into a fermented and palatable but intoxicating liquor1 which1 by distillation1 produces pure alcohol4 ,this liquor is extensively used in some countries4 ,the arrack of the ,arabs is sometimes made from camel's milk4 ,the ,tartars make most of their spirituous liquors from milk2 and for this purpose they prefer mare's milk1 on account of its larger percentage of sugar1 which causes a greater and more active fermentation4 ,the liquor made from it is termed milk-wine1 or khoumese4 ,it resembles beer1 and has intoxicating qualities4 ,the process of manufacture is very simple4 ,the milk1 being allowed first to turn sour1 is then heated to the proper temperature1 when it begins to ferment2 and in a day in summer1 or two or three days in winter1 the process is completed1 and the liquor may be kept several weeks without losing its good qualities4 ,the admirable though complicated organization of the udder and teats of the cow has already been explained1 in speaking of the manner of milking4 ,but it may be said1 in general1 that the number of stomachs or powerful digestive organs of the ruminants is wonderfully adapted to promote the largest secretions of every kind4 ,the udder of the cow1 the more immediate and important receptacle of milk1 and in which other milk-vessels terminate1 is divided into two sections1 and each of these sections is subdivided into two others1 making four divisions1 each constituting in itself1 to some extent1 an organ of secretion4 ,but it is well known that1 as a general thing1 the lateral section1 comprising the two hind teats1 usually secretes larger quantities of milk than the front section1 and that its development1 both external and internal1 is usually the greatest4 ,milk is exceedingly sensitive to numerous influences1 many of which are not well understood4 ,it is probably true that the milk of each of the divisions of the udder differs to some extent from that of the others in the same animal2 and it is well known that the milk of different cows1 fed on the same food1 has marked differences in quality and composition4 ,but food1 no doubt1 has a more powerful and immediate effect than anything else1 as we should naturally suppose from the fact that it goes directly to supply all the secretions of the body4 ,feeding exclusively on dry food1 for instance1 produces a thicker1 more buttery and cheesy milk1 though less abundant in quantity1 than feeding on moist and succulent food4 ,the former will be more nutritive than the latter4 ,cows in winter will usually give a milk much richer in butter and less cheesy than in summer1 for the same reason2 while in summer their milk is richer in cheese and less buttery than in winter4 ,as already intimated1 the frequency of milking has its effect on the quality4 ,milking but once a day would give a more condensed and buttery milk than milking twice or three times4 ,the separation of the different constituents of milk begins1 undoubtedly1 before it leaves the udder2 and hence we find that the milk first drawn from the cow at a milking is far more watery than that drawn later1 the last drawn1 commonly called the strippings1 being the richest of all1 and containing from six to twelve times as much butter as the first4 ,many other influences affect the milk of cows1 both in quantity and quality1 as the length of time after calving1 the age and health of the cow1 the season of the year1 etc4 ,milk is whiter in color in winter than in summer1 even when the feeding is precisely the same4 ,at certain seasons the milk of the same cow is bluer than at others4 ,this is often observable in dog-days4 ,the specific gravity of milk is greater than that of water1 that of the latter being one thousand1 and that of the former one thousand and thirty-one on an average1 though it varies greatly as it comes from different cows1 and even at different times from the same cow4 ,a feeding of salt given to the cow will1 in a few hours1 cause the specific gravity of her milk to vary from one to three per cent4 ,milk will ordinarily produce from ten to fifteen per cent4 of its own volume in cream2 or1 on an average1 not far from twelve and a half per cent4 ,eight quarts of milk will1 therefore1 make about one quart of cream4 ,but the milk of cows that are fed so as to produce the richest milk and butter will often very far exceed this1 sometimes giving over twenty per cent4 of cream1 and in very rare instances twenty-five or twenty-six per cent4 ,the product of milk in cream is more regular than the product of cream in butter4 ,a very rich milk is lighter than milk of a poor quality1 for the reason that cream is lighter than skim-milk4 ,of the different constituents of milk1 caseine is that which most resembles animal matter1 and hence the intrinsic value of cheese as a nutritive article of food4 ,hence1 also1 the nutritive qualities of skimmed milk1 or milk from which the cream only has been removed1 while the milk is still sweet4 ,the oily or fatty parts of milk furnish heat to the animal system2 but this is easily supplied by other substances4 ,from the peculiar nature of milk1 and its extreme sensitiveness to external influences1 the importance of the utmost care in its management must be apparent2 and this care must begin from the moment when it leaves the udder1 especially if it is to be made into butter4 ,in this case it would be better1 if it were convenient1 to keep the different kinds of milk of the same milking by itself--that which comes first from the udder1 and that which is drawn last2 and if the first third could be set by itself1 and the second and the third parts by themselves1 the time required to raise the cream of each part would doubtless be considerably less than it is where the different elements of the milk are so intimately mixed together in the process of milking1 after being once partially separated1 as they are before they leave the udder4 ,after milking1 as little time as possible should elapse before the milk is brought to rest in the pan4 ,the remarks of ,dr4 ,anderson on the treatment of milk are pertinent in this connection4 8,if milk10 says he1 8be put into a dish and allowed to stand until it throws up cream1 the portion of cream rising first to the surface is richer in quality and equal in quantity to that which rises in a second equal space of time2 and the cream which rises in a second interval of time is greater in quantity and richer in quality than that which rises in a third equal space of time4 ,that of the third is greater than that of the fourth1 and so of the rest2 the cream that rises continuing progressively to decrease in quantity and quality1 so long as any rises to the surface4 8,thick milk always throws up a much smaller proportion of the cream which it actually contains than milk that is thinner1 but the cream is of a richer quality2 and if water be added to that thick milk1 it will afford a considerably greater quantity of cream1 and consequently more butter1 than it would have done if allowed to remain pure2 but its quality at the same time is greatly deteriorated4 8,milk which is put into a bucket or other proper vessel1 and carried in it to a considerable distance1 so as to be much agitated and in part cooled before it be put into the milk-pans to settle for cream1 never throws up so much or so rich a cream as if the same milk had been put into the milk-pans1 without agitation1 directly after it was milked40 ,milk as it comes from the cow is about blood-heat1 or #ih ,fah4 ,it should be cooled off as little as possible before coming to rest4 ,with this object in view1 the pails may be rinsed with hot water before milking1 and the distance from the place of milking to the milk-room should be as short as possible2 but1 even with all these precautions1 the fall in temperature will be considerable4 ,from what has already been said with regard to the manner in which the cream or oily particles of the milk rise to the surface1 and the difficulty of rising through a great space1 on account of their intimate entanglement with the cheesy and other matters1 the importance of using shallow pans must be sufficiently obvious4 ,to facilitate and hasten the rising of the butter or oily particles1 the importance of keeping the milk-room at a uniform and pretty high temperature will be equally obvious4 ,the greatest density of milk is at or near the temperature of #da ,fah42 and at this point the butter particles will1 of course1 rise with the greatest difficulty and slowness1 and bring up a far greater amount of cheese particles than under more favorable circumstances4 ,these caseous and watery matters1 as has been already stated1 cause the cream or the butter to look white1 and to ferment and become rancid4 ,to avoid this1 the temperature is generally kept1 in the best butter-dairies1 as high as from #eh to #fb4 ,some recommend keeping the milk at over #gj1 and from that to #hj1 at which temperature the cream1 they say1 rises very rapidly1 especially if the depth through which it has to rise is but slight4 ,but that1 in the opinion of most practical dairymen1 is too high4 ,to obtain the greatest amount of cream from a given quantity of milk1 the depth in the pan should1 it seems to me1 never exceed two inches4 ,a high temperature and shallow depth1 as they liquefy the milk and facilitate the rising of the particles1 tend to secure a cream free from the cheesy matter1 and such cream will make a quality of butter both more delicate to the taste1 and less likely to become rancid1 than any other4 ,it has already been intimated1 in another connection1 that neither the largest quantity nor the best quality of milk is given by the cow till after she has had two or three calves1 or has arrived at the age of five or six years4 ,it may also be said1 what cannot fail to have attracted the attention of observing dairymen1 that in very dry seasons the quantity of milk yielded will generally be less1 though the quality will be richer1 than in moist and mild seasons4 ,hence it may be inferred that moist climates are much more favorable to the production of milk than dry ones2 and this also has been frequently observed and admitted to be a well-known fact4 ,from these facts it may be stated that dry and warm weather increases the quantity of butter1 but it is also true that cooler weather produces a greater amount of cheese4 ,a state of pregnancy1 it is obvious1 must reduce the quality of the milk1 and cause it to yield less cream than before4 ,in the treatment of milk the utmost cleanliness is especially requisite4 ,the pails1 the strainers1 the pans1 the milk-room1 and1 in short1 everything connected with the dairy1 must be kept neat and clean to an extent which few but the very best dairy-women can appreciate4 ,the smallest portion of old milk left to sour in the strainers or pans will be sure to taint them1 and impart their bad flavor to the new milk put into them4 ,every one is familiar with the fact that an exceedingly small quantity of yeast causes an active fermentation4 ,the process is a chemical one1 and another familiar instance of it is in the distillation of liquors and the brewing of beer1 where the malt creates a very active fermentation4 ,in a similar manner the smallest particle of sour milk will taint a large quantity of sweet4 ,the milk-room should be removed from dampness1 and all gases which might be injurious to the milk by infecting the atmosphere4 ,if the state of the atmosphere and the temperature1 as has been stated1 affect it1 all contact with foreign substances to which it is liable in careless and slovenly milking1 and all air rendered impure by vegetables and innumerable other things kept in a house-cellar1 will be much more liable to taint and injure it4 ,milk appears to absorb odors from objects near it1 to such an extent that a piece of catnip lying near the pan has been known to impart its flavor to it4 ,milk1 as sold in most large cities1 is often adulterated to a great extent1 but most frequently with water4 ,not unfrequently1 too1 a part of the cream is first taken off1 and water afterwards added2 in which case the use of burnt sugar is very common for coloring the milk1 the blueness of which would otherwise lead to detection4 ,the adulteration of pure milk from the healthy cow by water1 though dishonest1 and objectionable in the highest degree1 is far less iniquitous in its consequences than the nefarious traffic in 8swill-milk10 or milk produced from cows fed entirely on 8still-slops10 from which they soon become diseased1 after which the milk contains a subtle poison1 which is as difficult of detection by any known process of chemistry as the miasma of an atmosphere tainted with yellow fever or the cholera4 ,the simple fact is sufficiently palpable1 that no pure and healthy milk can be produced by an unhealthy and diseased animal2 and that no animal can long remain healthy that is fed on an unnatural food1 and treated in the manner too common around the distilleries of many large cities4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,it is evident1 from the well-known influence which 8still-slops0 and other exceedingly succulent food have in increasing the amount of water in the milk1 that adulteration may be effected by means of the food1 as well as by addition of water to the milk itself4 ,it is evident1 too1 on a moment's reflection1 that the specific gravity of pure milk must vary exceedingly1 as it comes from different cows1 or from the same cow at different times4 ,this variation reached to the extent of twenty-three degrees in the milk of forty-two different cows1 or from one thousand and eight to one thousand and thirty-one2 but so great a variation is very rare1 and not to be expected4 ,no reliable conclusion1 as to whether a particular specimen of milk has been adulterated or not1 can therefore be drawn from the differences in specific gravity alone4 ,a radical difficulty attending this test arises from the fact that the specific gravity both of water and cream is less than that of pure milk4 ,if1 therefore1 the hydrometer sinks deeper into the fluid than would be expected in ordinary pure milk1 how is it possible1 unless the variation is very large1 to tell whether it is due to the richness of the milk in cream1 or to the water8 ,i have1 for instance1 two instruments1 each labelled 8,lactometer10 but both of which are simple hydrometers 7,fig4 #ga71 or specific gravity testers1 one of which is graduated with the water-mark #j and that of pure milk #bj2 the water-mark of the other being #j1 like the first1 and that of pure milk #ajj4 ,both are the same in principle1 the only difference being in the graduation4 ,on the former1 graduated for pure milk at #bj1 it is difficult to tell with accuracy the small variations in the percentage of water or cream1 the divisions on the scale are so minute1 while the latter marks them so that they can be read off with greater ease and precision4 ,for the purpose of showing the difference in the specific gravity in different specimens of pure milk1 taken from the cows in the morning1 and allowed to cool down to about #fj1 ,i used the latter instrument with the following results3 ,the first pint drawn from a native cow stood at #aja1 the scale being graduated at #ajj for pure milk4 ,the last pint of the same milking1 being the strippings of the same cow1 stood at #hf4 ,the mixture of the two pints stood at about #ic4 ,the milk of a pure-bred ,jersey stood at #ie1 that of an ,ayrshire at #ajj1 that of a ,hereford at #ajf1 that of a ,devon at #aaa1 while a thin cream stood at #ff4 ,all these specimens of milk were pure1 and milked at the same time in the morning1 carefully labelled in separate vessels1 and set upon the same shelf to cool off2 and yet the variations of specific gravity amounted to #be1 or1 taking the average quality of the native cows' milk at #ic1 the variations amounted to #ag4 ,but1 knowing the specific gravity1 at the outset1 of any specimen of milk1 the hydrometer would show the amount of water added4 ,this cheap and simple instrument is therefore of frequent service4 ,the lactometer is a very different instrument1 and measures the comparative richness of different specimens of milk4 ,it is of very great service both in the butter and cheese dairy1 for testing the comparative value of different cows for the purposes for which they are kept4 ,this instrument is very simple and cheap and the practical dairyman can tell by it what cows he can best part with without detriment to his business4 ,no cow should be admitted to a herd kept for butter-making without knowing her qualities in this respect4 ,many would find1 on examination1 that some of their cows1 though giving a good quantity1 were comparatively worthless to them4 ,such was the experience of ,john ,holbert1 of ,chemung1 ,new ,york1 who1 in his statement to the state agricultural society1 says3 8,i find1 by churning the milk of each cow separately1 that one of my best cows will make as much butter as three of my poorest1 giving the same quantity of milk4 ,i have kept a dairy for twenty years1 but ,i never until the past season knew that there was so much difference in cows40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,lactometer4 ,the simplest form of the lactometer is a series of graduated glass tubes 7,fig4 #gb71 or vials1 of equal diameter2 generally a third of an inch inside1 and about eleven inches long4 ,the tubes are filled to an equal height1 each one with the milk of a different cow1 and allowed to stand for the cream to rise4 ,the difference in thickness of the column of cream will be very perceptible1 and it will be greater than most people imagine4 ,the effect of different kinds of food for the production of butter may be studied in the same way4 ,this form of the lactometer was invented by ,sir ,joseph ,banks4 ,various means are used for the preservation of milk4 ,one of these is by concentrating it by boiling4 ,where this is followed1 as it is by some dairymen1 as a regular business1 the milk is poured1 as it comes from the dairy1 into long1 shallow1 copper pans1 and heated to a temperature of a hundred and ten degrees1 ,fahrenheit4 ,a little sugar is then mixed in1 and the whole body of milk is kept in motion by stirring for some three or four hours4 ,the water is evaporated1 leaving the milk about one fourth of its original bulk4 ,it is now put into tin cans1 the covers of which are soldered on1 when the cans are lowered into boiling water4 ,after remaining a while1 they are taken out and hermetically sealed1 in which condition the milk will keep for months4 ,concentrated milk may thus be taken to sea or elsewhere4 ,another form is that of solidified milk1 in which state it is easily and perfectly soluble in water2 and when so dissolved with a proper proportion of water1 it assumes its original form of milk1 and may be made into butter4 ,a statement by ,dr4 ,dormus1 in the ,new ,york ,medical ,journal1 explains the process1 as follows3 8,to one hundred and twelve pounds of milk twenty eight pounds of ,stuart's white sugar were added1 and a trivial portion of bicarbonate of soda1--a teaspoonful1--merely enough to insure the neutralizing of any acidity1 which1 in the summer season1 is exhibited even a few minutes after milking1 although inappreciable to the organs of taste4 ,the sweet milk was poured into evaporating pans of enamelled iron1 imbedded in warm water heated by steam4 ,a thermometer was immersed in each of these water-baths1 that1 by frequent inspection1 the temperature might not rise above the point which years of experience have shown advisable4 ,to facilitate the evaporation1 by means of blowers and other ingenious apparatus a current of air is established between the covers of the pans and the solidifying milk4 ,connected with the steam-engine is an arrangement of stirrers1 for agitating the milk slightly1 while evaporating1 and so gently as not to churn it4 ,in about three hours the milk and sugar assumed a pasty consistency1 and delighted the palates of all present4 ,by constant manipulation and warming1 it was reduced to a rich1 creamy-looking powder1 then exposed to the air to cool1 weighed into parcels of a pound each1 and by a press1 with the force of a ton or two1 made to assume the compact form of a tablet 7the size of a small brick71 in which shape1 covered with tin-foil1 it is presented to the public4 8,some of the solidified milk which had been grated and dissolved in water the previous evening was found covered with a rich cream2 this1 skimmed off1 was soon converted into excellent butter4 ,another solution was speedily converted into wine-whey by a treatment precisely similar to that employed in using ordinary milk4 ,it fully equalled the expectations of all2 so that solidified milk will hereafter rank among the necessary appendages to the sick room4 ,in fine1 this article makes paps1 custards1 puddings1 and cakes1 equal to the best milk2 and one may be sure it is an unadulterated article1 obtained from well-pastured cattle1 and not the produce of distillery slops2 neither can it be watered4 ,for our steamships1 our packets1 for those travelling by land or by sea1 for hotel purposes1 or use in private families1 for young or old1 we recommend it cordially as a substitute for fresh milk40 ,a pound of this solidified milk1 it is said1 will make five pints when dissolved in water4 ,another favorite form in which milk is used is that known as ice-cream1 a cheap and healthy luxury during the summer months4 ,it is frozen in a simple machine made for the purpose1 in the best form of which the time of the operation is from six to ten minutes4 ,the richest quality of ice-cream is made from cream1 in the following manner3 ,to one quart of cream use the yolks of three eggs4 ,put the cream over the fire till it boils1 during which time the eggs are beaten up with half a pound of white sugar1 powdered fine2 and when the cream boils stir it upon the eggs and sugar1 then let it stand till quite cold1 then add the juice of three or four lemons4 ,it is then ready to put into the freezer4 ,the heat of the cream partially cooks the eggs1 and the stirring must be continued to prevent their cooking too much4 ,a somewhat simpler receipt1 given by the confectioners1 is the following3 ,to half a pound of powdered sugar add the juice of three lemons4 ,mix the sugar and lemon together1 and then add one quart of cream4 ,this is less rich and delicate than the preceding1 but is quite rich enough for common use1 and some trouble is saved4 ,the following receipt makes a very good ice-cream4 ,two quarts of good rich milk2 four fresh eggs2 three quarters of a pound of white sugar2 six teaspoons of ,bermuda arrow-root4 ,rub the arrow-root smooth in a little cold milk1 beat the eggs and sugar together1 bring the milk to the boiling point1 then stir in the arrow-root2 remove it then from the fire1 and immediately add the eggs and sugar1 stirring briskly1 to keep the eggs from cooking1 then set aside to cool4 ,if flavored with extracts1 let it be done just before putting it in the freezer4 ,if the vanilla bean is used1 it must be boiled in the milk4 ,the preparation must be thoroughly cooled before the freezing is proceeded with4 ,the ice-cream by this receipt may be produced at a cost not exceeding twenty-five cents a quart1 calling the milk five cents a quart1 and the eggs a cent apiece1 and including the cost of labor4 ,it is quite equal to that commonly furnished by the confectioners at seventy-five cents a quart4 ,the arrow-root may be dispensed with4 ,the freezer is a cheap and simple machine4 ,after the cream has frozen in the machine1 it should stand an hour or two to harden before it is used4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to secure a more uniform flow and a richer quality of milk1 cows are sometimes spayed1 or castrated4 ,the milk of spayed cows is pretty uniform in quantity1 and this quantity will be1 on an average1 a little more than before the operation was performed4 ,but few instances have come under my observation1 and those few have resulted satisfactorily1 the quality of the milk having been greatly improved1 the yield becoming regular for some years1 and varying only by the difference in the succulence of the food4 ,the proper time for spaying is about five or six weeks after calving1 or at the time when the largest quantity of milk is given4 ,there seem to be some advantages in spaying for milk and butter dairies1 where the raising of stock is not attended to4 ,the cows are more quiet1 never being liable to returns of seasons of heat1 which always more or less affect the milk both in quantity and quality4 ,they give milk nearly uniform in these respects1 for several years1 provided the food is uniformly succulent and nutritious4 ,their milk is influenced like that of other cows1 though to less extent1 by the quality and quantity of food2 so that in winter1 unless the animal is properly attended to1 the yield will decrease somewhat1 but will rise again as good feed returns4 ,this uniformity for the milk-dairy is of immense advantage4 ,besides1 the cow1 when old1 and inclined to dry up1 takes on fat with greater rapidity1 and produces a juicy and tender beef1 superior1 at the same age1 to that of the ox4 ,the operation of spaying is simple1 and may be performed by any veterinary surgeon1 without much risk of injury4 ,the milk of the cow has often been analyzed4 ,it was found by ,haidlen to consist of ,water1 #hgc4 ,butter1 #cj4 ,caseine1 #dh4b ,sugar of milk1 #dc4i ,phosphate of lime1 #b4ca ,magnesia1 4#db ,iron1 4#dg ,chloride of ,potassium1 #a4dd ,sodium and ,soda1 4#ff ------- #ajjj4 ,but its composition1 as already intimated1 varies exceedingly with the food of the animal1 and is influenced by an infinite variety of circumstances4 ,skim-milk is much more watery than whole milk4 ,it was found by one analysis to contain about #ig per cent4 of water and #c per cent4 of caseine4 ,swill-milk1 or milk from cows fed on 8still-slops10 in ,new ,york1 was found by analysis to contain less than #a4e per cent4 of butter1 some specimens having even less than one per cent4 ,the colostrum1 or milk of the cow just after calving1 contains a large proportion of cheesy matter4 ,its amount of caseine was found by careful analysis to be #ae4a per cent41 of butter #b4f1 mucous matter #b1 and water #hj4c1 there being only a trace of sugar of milk4 ,the measures for milk in common use in this country are those used for wine and beer4 ,the wine quart is about one fifth less than the beer quart1 and is that most commonly used in ,england4 ,it is to be regretted that no uniform standard has been adopted throughout the country4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,butter ,,and ,,the ,,butter-,,dairy4 8,slow rolls the churn--its load of clogging cream ,at once foregoes its quality and name4 ,from knotty particles first floating wide1 ,congealing butter's dashed from side to side40 ,butter1 as we have seen1 is the oily or fatty constituent of all good milk1 mechanically united or held in suspension by the solution of caseine or cheesy matter in water4 ,it is already formed in the udder of the cow1 and the operations required after it leaves the udder1 to produce it1 effect merely the separation1 more or less complete1 of the butter from the cheese and the whey4 ,this being the case1 it is natural to suppose that butter was known at an early date4 ,the wandering tribes1 accustomed to take on their journeys a supply of milk in skins1 would find it formed by the agitation of travelling1 and thus would be suggested the first rude and simple process of churning4 ,but it is not probable that the ,jews possessed a knowledge of it2 and it is pretty well settled1 at the present time1 that the passages in our ,english version of the ,old ,testament in which it is used are erroneously translated1 and that wherever the word butter occurs the word milk1 or sour1 thick milk1 or cream1 should be substituted4 ,and so in ,isaiah1 8,milk and honey shall he eat10 instead of 8butter20 and in ,job 7#bi3 #f71 8,when ,i washed my feet in milk10 instead of 8butter40 ,and the expression in ,prov4 7#cj3 #cc71 8,surely the churning of milk bringeth forth butter10 would be better translated1 according to the best critics1 8the pressing of the milker bringeth forth milk10 or the 8pressing of milk bringeth forth cheese40 ,in the oldest ,greek writers milk and cheese are spoken of1 but there is no evidence that butter was known to them4 ,the ,greeks obtained their knowledge of it from the ,scythians or the ,thracians1 and the ,romans obtained theirs from the ,germans4 ,in the time of ,christ it was used chiefly as an ointment in the baths1 and as a medicine4 ,in warm latitudes1 as in the southern part of ,europe1 even at the present day1 its use is comparatively limited1 the delicious oil of the olive supplying its place4 ,i have already stated that all good milk of the cow contained butter enclosed in little round globules held in suspension1 or floating in the other substances4 ,as soon as the milk comes to rest after leaving the udder1 these round particles1 being lighter than the mass of cheesy and watery materials by which they are surrounded1 begin to rise and work their way to the surface4 ,the largest globules1 being comparatively the lightest1 rise first1 and form the first layer of cream1 which is the best1 since it is less filled with caseine4 ,the next smaller1 rising a little slower1 are more entangled with other substances1 and bring more of them to the surface2 and the smallest rise the slowest and the last1 and come up loaded with foreign substances1 and produce an inferior quality of cream and butter4 ,the most delicate cream1 as well as the sweetest and most fragrant butter1 is that obtained by a first skimming1 only a few hours after the milk is set4 ,of three skimmings1 at six1 twelve1 and eighteen hours after the milk is strained into the pan1 that first obtained will make more and richer butter than the second1 and that next obtained richer than the third1 and so on4 ,the last quart of milk drawn at a milking1 for reasons already stated1 will make a more delicious and savory butter than the first2 and if the last quart or two of a milking is set by itself1 and the first cream that rises taken from it after standing only five or six hours1 it will produce the richest and highest-flavored butter the cow is capable of giving1 under like circumstances as to season and feed4 ,the separation of the butter particles from the others is slower and more difficult in proportion to the thickness and richness of the milk4 ,hence in winter1 on dry feeding1 the milk being richer and more buttery1 the cream or particles of butter are slower and longer in rising4 ,but1 as heat liquefies milk1 the difficulty is overcome in part by elevating the temperature4 ,the same effect is produced by mixing a little water into the milk when it is set4 ,it aids the separation1 and consequently more cream will rise in the same space of time1 from the same amount of rich milk1 with a little water in it1 than without4 ,water slightly warm1 if in cold weather1 will produce the most perceptible effect4 ,the quantity of butter will be greater from milk treated in this way2 the quality1 slightly deteriorated4 ,it must be apparent1 from what has been said1 that butter may be produced by agitating the whole body of the milk1 and thus breaking up the filmy coatings of the globules1 as well as by letting it stand for the cream to rise4 ,this course is preferred by many practical dairymen1 and is the general practice in some of the countries most celebrated for superior butter4 ,the general treatment of milk and the management of cream have been already alluded to in a former chapter4 ,it has been seen that the first requisites to successful dairy husbandry are good cows1 and abundant and good feeding1 adapted to the special object of the dairy1 whether it be milk1 butter1 or cheese2 and that1 with both these conditions1 an absolute cleanliness in every process1 from the milking of the cow to bringing the butter upon the table1 is indispensably necessary4 ,cleanliness may1 indeed1 with propriety be regarded as the chief requisite in the manufacture of good butter2 for the least suspicion of a want of it turns the appetite at once1 while both milk and cream are so exceedingly sensitive to the slightest taint in the air1 in everything with which they come in contact1 as to impart the unmistakable evidence of any negligence1 in the taste and flavor of the butter4 ,it is safe to say1 therefore1 that good butter depends more upon the manufacture than upon any other one thing1 and perhaps than all others put together4 ,so important is this point1 that a judicious writer remarks that 8in every district where good butter is made it is universally attributed to the richness of the pastures1 though it is a well-known fact that1 take a skilful dairymaid from that district into another1 where good butter is not usually made1 and where1 of course1 the pastures are deemed very unfavorable1 she will make butter as good as she used to do4 ,and bring one from this last district into the other1 and she will find that she cannot make better butter there than she did before1 unless she takes lessons from the servants1 or others whom she finds there20 and a ,french writer very justly observes that 8the particular nature of ,bretagne butter1 whose color1 flavor1 and consistence1 are so much prized1 depends neither on the pasture nor on the particular species of cow1 but on the mode of making20 and this will hold1 to a considerable extent1 in every country where butter is made4 ,many things1 indeed1 concur to produce the best results1 and it would be useless to underrate the importance of any2 but1 with the best of cows to impart the proper color and consistency to butter1 the sweetest feed and the purest water to secure a delicate flavor1 the utmost care must still be bestowed by the dairymaid upon every process of manufacture1 or else the best of milk and cream will be spoiled1 or produce an article which will bring only a low price in the market1 when1 with greater skill1 it might have obtained the highest4 ,from what has been said of the care requisite to preserve the milk from taint1 it may be inferred that attention to the milk and dairy room is of no small importance4 ,in very large butter-dairies1 a building is devoted exclusively to this department4 ,this should be at a short distance from the yard1 or place of milking1 but no further than is necessary to be removed from all impurities in the air arising from it1 and from all low1 damp places1 subject to disagreeable exhalations4 ,this is of the utmost importance4 ,it should be well ventilated1 and kept constantly clean and sweet1 by the use of pure water2 and especially1 if milk is spilled1 it should be washed up immediately1 with fresh water4 ,no matter if it is but a single drop2 if allowed to soak into the floor and sour1 it cannot easily be removed1 and it is sufficient to taint the air and the milk in the room1 though it may not be perceptible to the senses4 ,in smaller dairies1 economy dictates the use of a room in the house2 and this1 in warm climates1 should be on the north side1 and used exclusively for this purpose4 ,i have known many to use a room in the cellar as a milk-room2 but very few cellars are at all suitable4 ,most are filled with a great variety of articles which never fail to infect the air4 ,but1 if a house-cellar is so built as to make it a suitable place to set the milk1 as where a large dry and airy room1 sufficiently isolated from the rest1 can be used1 a greater uniformity of temperature can usually be secured than on the floor above4 ,the room1 in this case1 should have a gravel or loamy bottom1 uncemented1 but dry and porous4 ,the soil is a powerful absorbent of the noxious gases which are apt to infect the atmosphere near the bottom of the cellar4 ,milk should never be set on the bottom of a cellar1 if the object is to raise the cream4 ,the cream will rise in time1 but rarely or never so quickly or so completely as on shelves from five to eight feet from the bottom1 around which a free circulation of pure air can be had from the latticed windows4 ,it is1 perhaps1 safe to say that as great an amount of better cream will rise from the same milk in twelve hours on suitable shelves1 six feet from the bottom1 as would be obtained directly on the bottom of the same cellar in twenty-four hours4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,milk-stand4 ,one of the most convenient forms for shelves in a dairy-room designed for butter-making is represented in ,fig4 #gc1 made of light and seasoned wood1 in an octagonal form1 and capable of holding one hundred and seventy-six pans of the ordinary form and size4 ,it is so simple and easily constructed1 and so economizes space1 that it may readily be adapted to other and smaller rooms for a similar purpose4 ,if the dairy-house is near a spring of pure and running water1 a small stream can be led in by one channel and taken out by another1 and thus keep a constant circulation under the milk-stand1 which may be so constructed as to turn easily on the central post1 so as often to save many footsteps4 ,the pans designed for milk are generally made of tin4 ,that is found1 after long experience1 to be1 on the whole1 the best and most economical1 and subject to fewer objections than most other materials4 ,glazed earthen ware is often used1 the chief objection to it being its liability to break1 and its weight4 ,it is easily kept clean1 however1 and is next in value to tin1 if not1 indeed1 equal to it4 ,a tin skimmer is commonly used1 somewhat in the form of the bowl of a spoon1 and pierced with holes1 to remove the cream4 ,in some sections of the country1 a large white clam-shell is very commonly used instead of a skimmer made for the purpose1 the chief objection to it being that the cream is not quite so carefully separated from the milk4 ,a mode of avoiding the necessity of skimming has long been used to some extent in ,england1 by which the milk is drawn off through a hole in the bottom of the pan4 ,this plan is recommended by ,unwerth1 a ,german agriculturist1 who proposes a pan represented in ,fig4 #gd1 made of block tin1 oblong in shape1 and having the inside corners carefully rounded4 ,the pan is only two inches in depth1 and is made large enough to hold six or eight quarts of milk at the depth of one and a half inches4 ,this shallowness greatly facilitates the rapid separation of the cream1 especially at a temperature somewhat elevated4 ,a strainer is shown in ,fig4 #ge1 pierced with holes1 the centre half an inch lower than the rim1 to which hooks are fixed to hold it to the top of the pan4 ,on this a coarse linen cloth is laid1 the milk being strained through both the cloth and the strainer1 thus serving to separate all foreign substances in a thorough manner4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,milk-pan4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,in the bottom of the milk-pan1 near one end1 is an opening1 a1 through which the milk is drawn1 after the cream is all risen or separated from it1 by raising a brass pin1 b4 ,the opening is lined with brass1 and is three fourths of an inch in diameter4 ,fig4 #gf represents the tin cylinder magnified4 ,this is pierced1 to the height of an inch1 with many small holes1 diminishing in size towards the top4 ,the cream is all risen in twenty-four hours4 ,the pin is then drawn from the cylinder1 and the milk flows out1 leaving the thick cream1 which is prevented from flowing out by the smallness of the holes in the cylinder4 ,with the form of pans in most common use in this country1 which are circular1 three or four inches deep1 this shallow depth of milk causes a little more trouble in skimming2 but1 if the principle is correct1 the form and depth of the pan will be easily adapted to it4 ,after the cream is removed1 it is put into stone or earthen jars1 and kept in a cool place till a sufficient quantity is accumulated to make it convenient to churn4 ,if a sufficient number of cows is kept1 it is far better to churn every day2 but in ordinary circumstances that may be oftener than is practicable4 ,the more frequently the better2 and the advantages of frequent churning are so great that cream should never be kept longer than three or four days1 where it is possible to churn so often4 ,the mode of churning in one of the many good dairies in ,pennsylvania1--that of ,mr4 ,j4 ,comfort1 of ,montgomery county1--is as follows3 ,he uses a large barrel-shaped churn1 of the size of about two hogsheads1 hung on journals supported by a framework in an adjoining building4 ,it is worked by machinery in a rotatory motion1 by a horse travelling around in a circle4 ,the churning commences about four o'clock in the morning in summer1 the cream being poured into the churn and the horse started4 ,when the butter has come1 a part of the butter-milk is removed by a vent-hole in the churn4 ,then1 without beating the mass together1 as is usual1 a portion of the butter and its butter-milk is taken out by the spatula and placed in the bottom of a tub covered with fine salt1 and spread out equally to a proper depth2 then the surface of this butter is covered with salt1 and another portion of butter and butter-milk taken from the churn and spread over the salted surface in the same manner1 and salted as before1 thus making a succession of layers1 till the tub is full4 ,the whole is then covered with a white cloth1 and allowed to stand a while4 ,a part of this butter1 say eight or ten pounds1 is then taken from the tub and laid on a marble table 7,fig4 #hj71 grooved around the edges1 and slightly inclined1 with a place in the groove for the buttermilk and whey to escape4 ,it is then worked by a butter-worker or brake1 turning on a swivel-joint1 which perfectly and completely removes the butter-milk1 and flattens out the butter into a thin mass2 then the surface is wiped by a cloth laid over it1 and the working and wiping repeated till the cloth adheres to the butter1 which indicates that the butter is dry enough1 when it is separated into pound lumps1 weighed and stamped1 ready for market4 ,the rest of the butter in the tub is treated in the same way4 ,it will be seen that this method avoids the ordinary washing with water1 not a drop of water being used1 from beginning to the end4 ,it avoids also the working by hand1 which in warm weather has a tendency to soften the butter4 ,in the space of about an hour a hundred pounds are thus made1 and its beautiful color and fragrance preserved4 ,if it happens to come from the churn soft1 it hardens by standing a little longer in the brine4 ,the most common form of the churn in small dairies is the upright or dash-churn1 ,fig4 #gg2 but many other forms are in extensive use1 each possessing1 doubtless1 more or less merit peculiar to itself4 ,the cylinder churn1 ,fig4 #gh1 is very simply constructed1 and capable of being easily cleaned4 ,some prefer the thermometer churn1 ,fig4 #gi1 having an attachment for indicating the temperature of the cream4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,as already stated1 there are two modes of practice with regard to the process of churning1 each of which has its advantages4 ,the milk itself may be churned1 or it may be set in the milk-room for the cream to rise1 which is to be churned by itself4 ,the former is the practice of a successful dairyman of ,new ,york1 who1 in his statement1 says3 8,i take care to have my cellar thoroughly cleansed and whitewashed early every spring4 ,i keep milk in one cellar1 and butter in another4 ,too much care cannot be taken by dairymen to observe the time of churning4 ,i usually churn from one hour to one hour and a half1 putting from one to two pails of cold water in each churn4 ,when the butter has come1 ,i take it out1 wash it through one water1 set it in the cellar and salt it1 then work it from three to five times before packing4 ,butter should not be made quite salt enough until the last working4 ,then add a little salt1 which makes a brine that keeps the butter sweet4 ,one ounce of salt to a pound of butter is about the quantity ,i use4 ,i pack the first day1 if the weather is cool2 if warm1 the second4 ,if the milk is too warm when churned1 the quantity of butter will be less1 and the quality and flavor not so good as when it is at a a proper temperature1 which1 for churning milk1 is from #fj to #fe40 ,but1 whichever course it is thought best to adopt1 whether the milk or cream is churned1 it is the concussion1 rather than the motion1 which serves to bring the butter4 ,this may be produced in the simple square box as well as by the dasher churn2 and it is the opinion of a scientific gentleman with whom ,i have conversed on the subject1 that the perfect square is the best form of the churn ever invented4 ,the cream or milk in this churn has a peculiar compound motion1 and the concussion on the corners and right-angled sides is very great1 and causes the butter to come as rapidly as it is judicious to have it4 ,this churn consists of a simple square box1 which any one who can handle a saw and plane can make1 hung on axles turned by a crank somewhat like the barrel churn4 ,no dasher is required4 ,if any one is inclined to doubt the superiority of this form over all others1 he can easily try it and satisfy himself4 ,it costs but little4 ,in some sections the milk is churned soon after milking2 in others1 the night's and morning's milk are mixed together1 and churned at noon2 in others1 the cream is allowed to rise1 when the milk is curdled1 and cream1 curd1 and whey1 are all churned together4 ,a successful instance of churning only the cream is found in the statement of ,mr4 ,lincoln1 who received the first dairy premium of the ,massachusetts ,society for the ,promotion of ,agriculture4 ,he says3 8,the cream1 as it is skimmed1 is poured into stone pots1 which in warm weather are kept in a refrigerator1 and during the winter stand in the milk-room4 ,the times of churning depend upon the quantity of cream4 8,the time usually occupied in churning is from fifty minutes upwards4 ,this is deemed a matter of importance4 ,we consider it much better to bring the cream to the degree of temperature necessary to the formation of butter by a steady1 moderate agitation1 than to use artificial heat to take it to that point before commencing to churn4 ,by such moderate1 long-continued agitations1 we think the butter has a firmer1 more waxy consistence than it can have by more rapid churning4 ,the churn used is #8,galt's4' ,numerous trials have been made with many of the other kinds of churns in comparison with this1 and the result has been uniformly favorable to this patent4 8,when the butter has come1 the butter-milk is drawn off1 and the butter1 after being thoroughly worked1 is salted with from one half to three fourths ounces of salt to the pound4 ,it is now set away for twenty-four hours1 when it is again worked over thoroughly1 and made into pound lumps with wooden #8spatters4' ,after standing another twenty-four hours1 it is sent into market4 ,in #8working' butter we use a table over which a fluted roller is made to pass 7,fig4 #hj71 rolling out the butter into a thin sheet1 and completely and entirely depriving it of butter-milk4 8,from many years' experience1 the observation is warranted1 that by no other process of manufacture can the butter-milk be so completely extracted4 ,i am aware of the truth of the objection made that the shrinkage occasioned by its use is too great2 yet there is1 in fact1 a difference in the worth of the butter made upon it1 over that manufactured in the ordinary way1 quite equal to the loss in weight occasioned by it40 ,the high reputation of ,philadelphia butter being so well known1 ,i was desirous of ascertaining the opinions of practical men as to what this was due1--whether to any peculiar richness of the pasturage1 or to the careful mode of manufacture4 ,in reply to my inquiries1 ,i have received satisfactory statements from several sources1 and among them the following communication from one of the most successful of the butter-makers who supply that market4 8,the high reputation of ,philadelphia butter10 he says1 8is owing to the manner of its manufacture1 though ,i would not say that the sweet-scented vernal and other natural grasses do not add to the fine quality of well-made butter4 8,in proof of what ,i say1 ,i would refer to the experience of my brother1 who is the owner of two farms4 ,his tenant1 an excellent butter-maker1 lived on one farm1 and made a very fine article1 which brought the highest prices4 ,he moved to the other farm1 where the former tenant had never made good butter1 and had ascribed his want of success to the spring-house4 ,on this farm he succeeded in establishing a higher reputation than he ever had before4 ,the tenant who followed him on the first farm never succeeded in gaining a reputation for good butter1 his inability arising from his ignorance of the proper mode of manufacture1 and his unwillingness to improve by the experience of others4 8,only a part of the information as to the best mode of manufacture can be given1 so much depends on the judgment and experience of the operator4 ,the first thing required is to provide a suitable place4 ,this should be1 for the summer months1 a well-ventilated house1 over a good spring of water4 ,the second requisite will be proper vessels to hold the milk and cream1 and for churning4 ,a table is needed which shall not be used for any other purpose than for working and printing the butter on4 ,i have always used a lever in connection with the table 7,fig4 #hj74 ,a large sponge1 with a linen cloth to cover it1 with which the milk can be removed from the butter1 is another important article2 and then a skimmer1 either of wood or tin1 or both1 as may be necessary in the different states of the milk2 a thermometer1 and a boiler convenient for heating water for cleansing the vessels4 ,no person can expect to make good butter without the greatest attention to the cleanliness of the vessels used for the milk and cream1 and care in exposing them to the sun and air4 8,after the milk has been brought from the yard or stable1 strain it immediately into the pans1 in which has been put a little sour milk from which the cream has been removed1 the quantity varying from a tablespoonful to half a common teacupful1 according to the state of the weather4 ,in very warm weather the smaller quantity is sufficient4 ,but the rule for warm weather will not always hold good2 for1 from the electrical state of the atmosphere1 the milk may sour either too slow or too fast4 8,the pans containing the milk should then be set into the water1 if the weather be hot3 and here is a point where the operator should exercise his or her judgment2 for even in warm weather it may be necessary to draw off the water from the milk1 if the spring be cold4 ,the milk should remain there1 under no circumstances1 longer than the fourth meal1 or forty-eight hours2 but thirty-six hours is much to be preferred1 if the milk has become thick1 or the cream sufficiently raised1 when it should be taken off carefully1 so as not to take any sour milk with it1 and put in the cream-pot4 ,when the cream-pot is full1 sprinkle a small handful of fine salt over the top of the cream1 and let it remain4 ,our custom has been1 when making butter but once a week1 to pour the cream into a clean vessel at the end of three days1 keeping back any milk that might have been taken up with the cream1 which is found at the bottom of the jar4 8,i would mention that it is essential1 in making a fine article1 to keep the cream clear of milk4 ,the next operation will he preparatory to churning1 by straining the cream1 and reducing the temperature of the churn by the use of the cold spring-water4 ,the operation of churning should neither be protracted nor hastened too much4 ,after the butter has made its appearance of the size of a small pea1 draw off the milk1 and throw in a small amount of cold water1 and gather it4 ,after the butter has been taken from the churn1 it is placed upon the table1 worked over by the lever1 and salted2 then worked again with the lever1 in connection with the sponge and cloth1 a pan of cold water being at hand1 with a piece of ice in it in summer1 into which you throw the cloth and sponge frequently1 and wring out dry before again using it4 ,these1 as well as every other article which will come into contact with the butter1 must be scalded1 and afterward1 as well as the hands1 placed in cold water4 ,i would here add that the use of the sponge is one of the important points in making butter to keep well2 for by it you can remove almost every particle of butter-milk1 which is the great agent in the destruction of its sweetness and solidity4 ,for the winter dairy a room in which is placed a stove should be provided1 which can be made warm1 and also well ventilated4 ,i prefer the use of coal1 on account of keeping the fire through the night4 ,my dairy-room is adjoining the spring-house1 and connects with it1 which ,i consider important4 ,this room should be used for no other purpose1 as cream and butter are the greatest absorbents of effluvia with which ,i am acquainted4 ,i have known good butter to be spoiled by being placed over night in a close closet4 8,the thermometer should always accompany the winter dairy4 ,there is one thing very important in the winter dairy1 which1 perhaps1 ,i should have placed first1 and that is the food of the cows2 for1 without something else than hay1 you will not make very fine butter4 ,mill-feed and corn-meal ,i consider about the best for yield and quality1 although there are many other articles of food which will be useful1 and contribute to the appetite and health of the cattle4 8,the process for the winter dairy is similar to that of the summer1 with the exception of the regulation as to the temperature of room1 etc41 which is as follows3 8,particular care should be taken not to let the milk get cold before placing it in the dairy-room2 for1 should it be completely chilled1 the cream will not rise well4 ,add about a gill of warm water to the sour milk for each pan1 before straining into it1 which will greatly facilitate the rising of the cream4 ,keep the temperature of the room as near fifty-eight degrees1 ,fahrenheit1 as possible1 and guard against the air being dry by having a small vessel of water upon the stove1 or else a dry coat will form on the surface of the cream4 ,the cream should be kept in a colder place than the dairy-room until the night before churning1 when it might be placed in the warm room1 so that its temperature shall be about #eh4 8,the churn may be prepared by scalding it1 and then reduced to the same temperature as the cream by cold water1 using the thermometer as a test4 8,this regulation of temperature is of the greatest importance3 for1 should it be too low1 you will be a long time churning1 and have poor1 tasteless butter2 if too high1 the butter will be soft and white40 ,what is especially noticeable in the above statement is the use of the sponge1 and the thorough and complete removal of all the butter-milk4 ,here is probably the secret of success1 after all4 ,i have given the statement in full1 notwithstanding its length1 on account of the well-known excellence of the butter produced by the process1 as well as for the suggestions with regard to the dairy-rooms1 and not because ,i can recommend all its details for the imitation of others4 ,the use of sour milk in the pans is based1 ,i suppose1 on the idea that the cream does not begin to rise till acidity commences in the milk1--an idea which was once pretty generally entertained2 but the process of souring undoubtedly commences1 though imperceptible to the senses1 very soon after the milk comes to rest in the pan4 ,at any rate1 there is no doubt that the separation of the butter from the other substances commences at once1 and without the addition of any foreign substance to the milk4 ,nor do ,i believe there is any necessity for the milk to stand over twenty-four hours in any case2 for ,i have no doubt that all the best of the cream rises within the first twelve hours1 under favorable circumstances1 and ,i am inclined to think that whatever is added to the quantity of cream after twenty-four hours1 detracts from the quality of the butter to an extent which more than counterbalances the whole of the quantity4 ,many good dairy-women make an exceedingly fine article1 in spite of the defects of some parts of the process of manufacture4 ,this does not show that they would not make still better butter if they remedied these defects4 ,the more we can retard the development of acidity in the milk1 within certain limits1 the more cream may we expect to get2 and hence some use artificial means for this purpose1 mixing in the milk a little crystallized soda1 dissolved in twice its volume of water1 which corrects the acidity as soon as it forms4 ,it is a perfectly harmless addition1 and increases the product of the butter1 and improves its quality4 ,but under ordinarily favorable circumstances1 from twelve to eighteen hours will be sufficient to raise all the cream in summer1 and from twenty to thirty hours in winter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,butter-worker4 ,the butter-worker1 ,fig4 #hj1 with its marble top1 used by the writer of the statement above1 is an important addition to the implements of the dairy4 ,it effects the complete removal of the butter-milk1 without the necessity of bringing the hands in contact with it4 ,another form of the lever butter-worker is seen in ,fig4 #ha4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,to keep the cream properly after it is placed away in pots or jars1 it should stand in a cool place1 and whenever additions of fresh cream are made1 they should be stirred in4 ,many keep the cream1 as well as the butter1 in the well1 in hot weather4 ,this is the practice of ,mr4 ,horsfall1 whose experiments have been alluded to4 ,finding his butter inclined to be soft1 he lowered a thermometer twenty-eight feet into the well1 and found it indicated #dc1 the temperature of the surface being #gj4 ,he then let down the butter1 and found it somewhat improved2 and soon after began to lower down the cream1 by means of a movable windlass and a rope1 the cream-jar being placed in a basket hung on the rope4 ,the cream was let down on the evening previous to churning1 and drawn up in the morning and immediately churned4 ,the time of churning the cream at this temperature would be as long as in winter1 and the butter was found to have the same consistency4 ,the same object is effected in this country by the use of ice in many sections2 but1 if the butter remains too long on ice1 or in an ice-house1 it is apt to become bleached1 and lose its natural and delicate straw-color4 ,the time of churning is by no means an unimportant matter4 ,various contrivances have been made to shorten this operation2 but the opinions of the best and most successful dairymen concur that it cannot be too much hastened without injuring the fine quality and consistency of the butter4 ,the time required depends much on the temperature of the cream2 and this can be regulated at convenience1 as indicated above4 ,the temperature of the dairy-room should be as uniform as possible4 ,the practice of the best and most successful dairymen differs in respect to the degree to which it should be kept2 but the range is from #eb to #fb ,fahr41 and ,i am inclined to think from #eh to #fj the best4 ,at #fj1 with a current of fresh1 pure air passing over it1 the cream will rise very rapidly and abundantly4 ,the greatest density of milk is at about #da1 and cream rises with great difficulty and slowness as the temperature falls below #ej towards that point4 ,a practical butter dealer of ,new ,york gives the following as the best mode of packing butter1 or putting it up for a distant market4 ,the greatest care1 he says1 should be taken to free the butter entirely from milk1 by working it and washing it after churning at a temperature so low as to prevent it from losing its granular character and becoming greasy4 ,the character of the product depends in a great measure on the temperature of churning and working1 which should be between sixty and seventy degrees ,fahr4 ,if free from milk1 eight ounces of ,ashton salt is sufficient for ten pounds4 ,western salt should never be used1 as it injures the flavor4 ,while packing1 the contents of the firkin should be kept from the air by being covered with saturated brine4 ,no undissolved salt should be put in the bottom of the firkin4 ,goshen butter is reputed best1 though much is put up in imitation of it1 and sold at the same price4 ,great care should be taken to have the firkins neat and clean4 ,they should be of white oak1 with hickory hoops1 and should hold about eighty pounds4 ,wood excludes air better than stone1 and consequently keeps butter better4 ,tubs are better than pots4 ,western butter comes in coarse1 ugly packages2 even flour and pork barrels are sometimes used4 ,much of it must be worked over and re-packed here before it will sell4 ,it generally contains a good deal of milk1 and if not re-worked soon becomes rancid4 ,improper packing1 in kegs too large and soiled on the outside1 makes at least three cents a pound difference4 ,whatever the size of the firkin1 it must be perfectly tight and quite full of butter1 so that when opened the brine1 though present1 will not be found on the top4 ,until the middle of ,may1 dairymen should pack in quarter firkins or tubs1 with white oak covers1 and send directly to market as fresh butter4 ,from this time until the fall frost there is but little change in color and flavor with the same dairy1 and it may be packed in whole firkins1 and kept in a cool place4 ,the fall butter should also be packed separately in tubs4 ,to prepare new butter-boxes for use in the shortest time1 dissolve common1 or bicarbonate of soda in boiling water1 as much as the water will dissolve1 and water enough to fill the boxes2 about a pound of soda will be required to be put into a thirty-two pound box1 and the water should be poured upon it4 ,let it stand over night1 and the box may be safely used next day4 ,this mode is cheap and expeditious1 and1 if adopted1 would often save great losses4 ,potash has a like effect4 ,as already seen1 in the statements of practical dairymen1 the greatest care is required in the salting or seasoning4 ,over-salted butter is not only less palatable to the taste1 but less healthy than fresh1 sweet butter4 ,the same degree of care is needed with respect to the box in which it is packed4 ,i have often seen the best and richest-flavored butter spoilt by sending it to the exhibition or to market in new and improper boxes4 ,a new pine-wood box should always be avoided4 ,butter that has been thoroughly worked1 and perfectly freed from butter-milk1 is of a firm and waxy consistence1 so as scarcely to dim the polish of the blade of a knife thrust into it1 leaving upon it only a slight dew as it is withdrawn4 ,if it is soft in texture1 and leaves greasy streaks of butter-milk upon the knife that cuts it1 or upon the cut surface after the blade is withdrawn1 it shows an imperfect and defective process of manufacture1 and is of poor quality1 and will be liable to become rancid4 ,an exceedingly delicate and fine-flavored butter may be made by wrapping the cream in a napkin or clean cloth1 and burying it1 a foot deep or more1 in the earth1 from twelve to twenty hours4 ,this experiment ,i have repeatedly tried with complete success1 and have never tasted butter superior to that produced by this method4 ,it requires to be salted to the taste as much as butter made by any other process4 ,a tenacious subsoil loam would seem to be best4 ,after putting the cream into a clean cloth1 the whole should be surrounded by a coarse towel4 ,the butter thus produced is white instead of yellow or straw-color4 ,butter has been analyzed by ,prof4 ,way1 with the following result3 ,pure fat1 or oil1 #hb4gj ,caseine1 or curd1 #b4de ,water1 with a little salt1 #ad4he #ajj ,the fat or oil peculiar to butter is in winter more solid than in summer1 and known as margarine fat1 while that of summer is known as liquid or oleine fat4 ,the proportions in which these are found in ordinary butter have been stated by ,prof4 ,thomson1 as follows3 ,summer4 ,winter4 ,solid or margarine fat1 #dj #fe ,liquid or oleine fat1 #fj #ce --- --- #ajj #ajj ,winter butter appears to be rich and fine in proportion as the oleine fat increases4 ,the proportion is undoubtedly dependent on the food4 ,a more general attention to the details of butter-making1 and to the best modes of preserving its good qualities1 would add many thousands of dollars to the aggregate profits of our ,american dairies4 ,in the management of the dairy1 an ice-house and a good quantity of ice for summer use are not only very convenient for regulating the temperature of the dairy-room1 and for keeping butter at the proper consistence1 and preserving it1 but are also profitable in other respects4 ,and now1 when ice-houses are so easily constructed1 and ice is so readily procured1 no well-ordered dairy should be without a liberal supply of it4 ,it is housed at a time when other farm-work is not pressing1 and ponds are so distributed over the country that it may be generally procured without difficulty2 but where ponds or streams are at too great a distance from the dairy-house1 an artificial pond can be easily made1 by damming up the outlet of some spring in the neighborhood4 ,where this is done1 the utmost care should be taken to keep the water perfectly clean when the ice is forming4 ,the ice-house should be above ground1 and in a dry1 airy place4 ,the top of a dry knoll is better than a low1 damp shade4 ,the ice may be packed in tan1 sawdust1 shavings1 or other non-conductors1 and when wanted for use it should be taken off the top4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,cheese-,,dairy4 8,streams of new milk through flowing coolers stray1 ,and snow-white curds abound1 and wholesome whey40 ,milk1 if allowed to become sour1 will eventually curdle1 when the whey is easily separated2 and this simple mode was probably the universal method of making cheese in ancient times4 ,cheese1 as already explained1 is made from caseine1 an ingredient of milk held in solution by means of an alkali1 which it requires the presence of an acid to neutralize4 ,this1 in modern manufacture1 is artificially added to form the curd2 but the acidity of milk1 after standing1 acts in the same manner to produce cogulation4 ,this is due to the change of the milk-sugar into lactic acid4 ,cheese has been made and used as an article of food from a very early date4 ,it was well known to the early ,jewish patriarchs1 and is frequently mentioned in the earliest ,hebrew records4 8,hast thou not poured me out as milk1 and curdled me like cheese80 says ,job2 and ,david was sent to 8carry ten cheeses to the captain of their thousand in the camp40 ,most of the ancient nations1 indeed1 barbarous as well as civilized1 made it a prominent article of food4 ,but cheese1 as made by the ancients1 was found to be hard and brittle1 and not well flavored1 and means were devised to produce the same effect while the milk still remained sweet4 ,it was observed that acids of various kinds would answer1 and vinegar was used2 and cream of tartar1 muriatic acid1 and sour milk1 added to sweet1 produced a rapid cogulation4 ,in ,sweden1 ,norway1 and other countries1 a handful of the plant known as butterwort 7,pinguicula vulgaris7 is sometimes mixed with the food of the cow1 to cause the milk to cogulate readily4 ,a few hours after milking1 the curd is formed without the addition of an acid4 ,milk taken into the stomach of the calf was found to curdle rapidly1 even while sweet2 and hence the use of rennet1 which is simply the stomach of the calf1 prepared by washing1 salting1 and drying1 for preservation4 ,this acts the most surely1 and1 if properly prepared and preserved1 is the least objectionable1 of any article now known2 and is1 in fact1 the natural mode of curdling the milk as it enters the stomach1 preparatory to the process of digestion4 ,besides this1 it is generally the cheapest and most available for the farmer4 ,the richness of cheese depends very much upon the amount of butter or oily matter it contains4 ,it may be made entirely of cream1 or from whole or unskimmed milk1 to which the cream of other milk is added1 or from milk from which a part of its cream has been taken1 or from ordinary skim-milk1 or from milk that has been skimmed three or four times1 so as to remove nearly every particle of cream1 or from butter-milk4 ,the acid used in curdling milk acts upon the caseine alone1 and not upon the butter particles1 which are imbedded in the curd as it hardens1 and thus increase its richness and flavor without adding to its consistency1 which is due to the caseine4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that cheese made entirely of cream cannot have the firmness and consistence of ordinary cheese4 ,it is only made for immediate use1 and cannot be long kept4 ,it is1 in fact1 little more than thick1 dried1 sweet cream1 from which all the milk has been pressed4 ,on the other hand1 skim-milk cheese has the opposite fault of being too hard and tough1 and destitute of flavor and richness4 ,the best quality of cheese is made from full milk1 or from milk to which some extra cream is added1 as in the ,english ,stilton renowned for its richness and flavor4 ,the ,gloucester1 ,cheshire1 ,cheddar1 ,dunlop1 and the ,dutch ,gouda1 are made of whole milk1 as are the best qualities made in this country4 ,the process of making cheese is both chemical and mechanical4 ,the heating of the milk at the time of adding the acid or rennet hastens the chemical action1 and facilitates the separation of the whey2 at the same time great nicety is required1 for1 if over-heated1 the oily particles will run off with the whey4 ,on the complete separation of the whey from the curd1 and the amount of butter particles retained in the latter1 the taste or flavor and keeping qualities of the cheese depend4 ,if properly made1 the taste improves by keeping1 but the chemical changes effected by age are not very well understood4 ,the practical process of manufacture most common in the best dairies of this country will appear in the following statements of successful competitors at agricultural exhibitions4 ,the first was made1 by request1 to the ,new ,york ,state ,agricultural ,society1 and appeared in its transactions1 by ,a4 ,l4 ,fish1 of ,herkimer county1 one of the finest dairy regions of that state4 ,the value of his statement is enhanced by the fact that his cows averaged seven hundred pounds of the first quality of cheese each in #ahdd1 and seven hundred and seventy-five pounds each in #ahde4 ,in his mode of manufacture1 the evening's and morning's milk is commonly used to make one cheese4 ,the evening's is strained into a tub or pans1 and cooled to prevent souring4 ,the proper mode of cooling is to strain the milk into the tin tub set in a wooden vat1 described in the dairy-house1 and cool by filling the wooden vat with ice-water from the ice-house1 or ice in small lumps1 and water from the pump4 ,the little cream that rises over night is taken off in the morning1 and kept till the morning and evening milk are put together1 and the cream is warmed to receive the rennet4 ,it is mixed with about twice its quantity of new milk1 and warm water added to raise its temperature to ninety-eight degrees3 stir it till perfectly limpid1 put in rennet enough to curdle the milk in forty minutes1 and mix it with the mass of milk by thorough stirring2 the milk having been previously raised to eighty-eight or ninety degrees1 by passing steam from the steam generator to the water in the wooden vat4 ,in case no double vat is to be had1 the milk may be safely heated to the right temperature1 by setting a tin pail of hot water into the milk in the tubs4 ,it may be cooled in like manner by filling the pail with ice-water1 or cold spring-water where ice is not to be had4 ,it is not safe to heat milk in a kettle exposed directly to the fire1 as a slight scorching will communicate its taint to the whole cheese and spoil it4 ,if milk is curdled below eighty-four degrees1 the cream is more liable to work off with the whey4 ,an extreme of heat will have a like effect4 ,the curdling heat is varied with the temperature of the air1 or the liability of the milk to cool after adding rennet4 ,the thermometer is the only safe guide in determining the temperature2 for1 if the dairyman depends upon the sensation of the hand1 a great liability to error will render the operation uncertain4 ,if1 for instance1 the hands have previously been immersed in cold water1 the milk will feel warmer than it really is2 if1 on the contrary1 they have recently been in warm water1 the milk will feel colder than it really is4 ,to satisfy the reader how much this circumstance alone will affect the sensation of the hand1 let him immerse one hand in warm water1 and at the same time keep the other in a vessel of cold water1 for a few moments2 then pour the water in the two dishes together1 and immerse both hands in the mixture4 ,the hand that was previously in the warm water will feel cold1 and the other quite warm1 showing that the sense of feeling is not a test of temperature worthy of being relied upon4 ,a fine cloth spread over the tub while the milk is curdling will prevent the surface from being cooled by circulation of air4 ,no jarring of the milk1 by walking upon a springy floor1 or otherwise1 should be allowed while it is curdling1 as it will prevent a perfect cohesion of the particles4 8,when milk is curdled so as to appear like a solid1 it is divided into small particles to aid the separation of the whey from the curd4 ,this is often too speedily done to facilitate the work1 but at a sacrifice of quality and quantity40 ,to effect the fine division of the curd for the easy separation of the whey1 ,mr4 ,fish uses a wire network1 made to fit into the tub1 the meshes of fine wire being about a half-inch square1 and the outer rim of coarse and stronger material4 ,a cheese-knife is also used1 about half as long as the diameter of the tub1 and firmly fastened to the lower end of a long screw which passes through one end of the blade as it lies horizontally1 leaving the blade at right angles with the screw1 which has a coarse thread1 and passes through a piece of wood on the top of the tub1 held firm by notches at the ends laid on the edges of the tub4 ,by turning a crank1 the knife passes down through the curd in revolutions1 cutting it into layers of the thickness of the threads of the screw4 ,the following is the statement of ,mrs4 ,williams1 of ,windsor1 ,massachusetts1 who received the first premium at the ,franklin ,county ,fair1 in #aheg1 for exceedingly rich1 fine1 and delicately-flavored cheeses of seventy-five pounds each4 ,her method1 which is the result of her own experience and observation1 corresponds almost exactly1 as the committee remark1 with the ,english mode of making the famous ,cheddar cheese1 which is much the same as the ,cheshire4 ,mrs4 ,williams says3 8,my cheese is made from one day's milk of twenty-nine cows4 ,i strain the night's milk into a tub1 skim it in the morning1 and melt the cream in the morning's milk3 ,i warm the night's milk1 so that with the morning's milk1 when mixed together1 it will be at the temperature of ninety-six degrees2 then add rennet sufficient to turn it in thirty minutes4 ,let it stand about half or three quarters of an hour2 then cross it off and let it stand about thirty minutes1 working upon it very carefully with a skimmer4 ,when the curd begins to settle1 dip off the whey1 and heat it up and pour it on again at the temperature of one hundred and two degrees4 ,after draining off and cutting up1 add a teacup of salt to fourteen pounds4 8,the process of making sage cheese is the same as the other1 except adding the juice of the sage in a small quantity of milk40 ,another successful competitor in the same state says3 8,we usually make but one curd in a day4 ,the night's milk is strained into pans till morning1 when the cream that will have risen is taken off1 and the milk warmed to blood heat1 when the cream is again returned to the milk and thoroughly mixed4 ,this prevents the melting of the cream that would otherwise run off with the whey4 ,the whole is then immediately laded into a tub with the morning's milk1 and set for the cheese1 with rennet sufficient to form the curd in about thirty minutes2 and here much care is thought to be necessary in cutting and crossing the curd1 and much moderation in dipping and draining the whey from it1 that the white whey 7so called7 may not exude from it4 8,when sufficiently drained1 it is taken and cut with a sharp knife to about the size and form of dice1 when it is salted with about one pound of fine salt to twenty-five of curd4 ,it is then subjected to a moderate pressure at first1 gradually increasing it for two days1 in the mean time turning it twice a day1 and substituting dry cloths4 ,it is then taken from the press and dressed all over with hot melted butter1 and covered with thin cotton cloth1 and this saturated with the melted butter4 ,it is then placed upon the shelf1 and turned and rubbed daily with the dressing until ripe for use40 ,one of the most important processes in the manufacture of good cheese is the preparation of the rennet4 ,this is made of the inner lining or mucous membrane of the stomach of the young sucking calf1 sometimes called the bag or maw2 and the use of it was undoubtedly suggested1 originally1 by observing the complete and rapid cogulation or curdling of milk in the stomach of a calf newly killed4 8,cogulation is the first process of digestion in the fourth stomach of the calf4 ,there are numerous glands scattered in and about the stomach that secrete a fluid which readily and almost immediately accomplishes this cogulation4 ,they are always full of it2 even after the animal is dead they remain filled with it2 and if the stomach is preserved from putrefaction1 this fluid retains its cogulating quality for a considerable period2 therefore dairy-women usually take care of the maw or stomach of the calf2 and preserve it by salting it1 and then1 by steeping it1 or portions of it1 in warm water1 they prepare what they call a rennet4 ,after the maw has been salted a certain time1 it may be taken out and dried1 and then it will retain the same property for an indefinite period4 ,a small piece of the maw thus dried is steeped over night in a few teaspoonfuls of warm water1 and this water will turn the milk of three or four cows40 ,it is important that rennet enough should be prepared at once for the whole season1 in order to secure as great a uniformity in strength as possible4 ,the object should be to produce a prompt1 complete1 and firm or compact cogulation of all the cheesy matter4 ,mr4 ,aiton1 in his admirable treatise on the ,dairy ,husbandry of ,scotland1 gives the simple method of preparing the rennet in the dairy districts1 as follows3 8,when the stomach or bag--usually termed the yirning--is taken from the calf's body1 its contents are examined1 and if any straw or other food is found among the curdled milk1 such impurity is carefully removed2 but all the curdled milk found in the bag is carefully preserved1 and no part of the chyle is washed out4 ,a considerable quantity of salt--at least two handfuls--is put into and outside the bag1 which is then rolled up and hung near a fire to dry4 ,it is always allowed to hang until it is well dried1 and is understood to be improved by hanging a year or longer before being infused4 8,when rennet is wanted1 the yirning with its contents is cut small1 and put into a jar with a handful or two of salt2 and a quantity of soft water that has been boiled and cooled to sixty-five degrees1 or of new whey taken off the curd1 is poured into it4 ,the quantity of water or whey necessary is more or less1 according to the quality of the yirning3 if it is that of a new-dropped calf1 a ,scotch chop pin1 or at most three ,english pints1 will be enough2 but if the calf has been fed four or five weeks1 two quarts or more may be used2 the yirning of a calf four weeks old yields more rennet than that of one twice that age4 ,when the infusion has remained in the jar from one to three days1 the liquid is drawn off and strained1 after which it is bottled for use2 and if a dram-glass of any ardent spirit is put into each bottle1 the infusion may either be used immediately1 or kept as long as may be convenient40 ,the mode of preparing rennet in the dairy districts of this country is various2 but that adopted by ,mr4 ,fish1 of ,herkimer1 ,new ,york1 already quoted1 is simple and easy of application4 ,he says3 8,various opinions exist as to the best mode of saving rennet1 and that is generally adopted which1 it is supposed1 will curdle the most milk4 ,i have no objection to any mode that will preserve its strength and flavor so that it will be smelled and tasted with good relish when put into the milk4 ,any composition not thus kept ,i deem unfit for use1 as the cogulator is an essential agent in cheesing the curd1 and sure to impart its own flavor4 8,the rennet never should be taken from the calf till the excrement shows the animal to be in perfect health4 ,it should be emptied of its contents1 salted1 and dried1 without any scraping or rinsing1 and kept dry for one year1 when it will be fit for use4 ,it should not be allowed to gather dampness1 or its strength will evaporate4 ,to prepare it for use1 into ten gallons of water1 blood warm1 put ten rennets2 churn or rub them often for twenty-four hours2 then rub and press them to get the strength2 stretch1 salt1 and dry them1 as before4 ,they will gain strength for a second use4 ,make the liquor as salt as it can be made1 strain and settle it1 separate it from the sediment1 if any1 and it is fit for use4 ,six lemons1 two ounces of cloves1 two ounces of cinnamon1 and two ounces of common sage1 are sometimes added to the liquor1 to preserve its flavor and quicken its action4 ,if kept cool in a stone jar1 it will keep sweet any length of time desired1 and a uniform strength is secured while it lasts4 ,stir it before dipping off4 ,to set milk1 take of it enough to curdle milk firm in forty minutes2 squeeze or rub through a rag annatto enough to make the curd a cream color1 and stir it in with the rennet40 ,it will be seen that he adopts the practice of removing the contents of the stomach4 ,this1 it appears to me1 is the best calculated to promote cleanliness and purity1 so important in making a good-flavored cheese4 ,but in ,cheshire1 so celebrated for its superior cheese1 the contents of the stomach are frequently salted by themselves1 and after being a short time exposed to the air are fit for use2 while the well-known and highly-esteemed ,limburg cheese is mostly made with rennet prepared as in ,ayrshire1 the curd being left in the stomach1 and both dried together4 ,the general opinion is that rennet1 as usually prepared1 is not fit to use till nearly a year old4 ,perhaps the plan of making a liquid rennet from new and fresh stomachs1 and keeping it in bottles corked tight till wanted for use1 would tend still further to secure this end4 ,the use of annatto to color the cheese artificially is somewhat common in this country1 though probably not so much so as in many other countries4 ,annatto1 or annotto1 is made from the red pulp of the seeds of an evergreen tree of the same name1 found in the ,west ,indies and in ,brazil1 by bruising and obtaining a precipitate4 ,a variety is made in ,cayenne1 which comes into the market in cakes of two or three pounds4 ,it is bright yellow1 rather soft to the touch1 but of considerable solidity4 ,the quantity used is rarely more than an ounce to one hundred pounds1 and the effect is simply to give the high coloring so common to the ,gloucester and ,cheshire cheeses1 and to many made in this country4 ,this artificial coloring is continued from an idle prejudice1 somewhat troublesome to the dairyman1 expensive to the consumer1 and adding nothing to the taste or flavor of the article4 ,the annatto itself is so universally and so largely adulterated1 often by poisonous substances1 such as lead and mercury1 that the practice of using it by the cheese-maker1 and of requiring the high coloring by the consumer1 might well be discontinued4 ,the common mode of application is to dissolve it in hot milk1 and add at the time of putting in the rennet1 or to put it upon the outside1 in the manner of paint4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,cheese-press4 ,the cheese-presses in most common use are very different in construction1 and each possesses1 doubtless1 some peculiar merits4 ,the self-acting press1 ,fig4 #hb1 is the favorite of some4 ,another form of this is seen in ,fig4 #hc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,self-acting cheese-press4 ,one of the most extensive and experienced dealers in cheese1 in one of the largest dairy districts of ,new ,york1--,mr4 ,harry ,burrill1 of ,little ,falls1--has placed in my hands the following simple directions for cheese-making4 ,the cheese-tub should be so graduated that it may be correctly known what quantity of milk is used4 ,this is requisite1 in order that the proper proportions1 both of coloring matter and rennet1 may be used4 ,the temperature should be ascertained by the thermometer4 ,experience proves that when the dairy has been at seventy degrees the best temperature at which to run the milk will be eighty-four degrees2 but1 as the temperature of the dairy at different times of the year will be found to vary above or below seventy degrees1 the temperature of the milk must be proportionally regulated by the simple addition of cold water1 to lower it2 but1 to increase the temperature1 heat the milk in the usual manner1 although it is absolutely necessary to avoid heating it beyond one hundred and twenty degrees4 ,after having brought the milk to the required temperature1 and added the coloring1 for every quarter hundred weight of cheese mix one pint of new sour whey with the requisite proportion of rennet2 and1 having arrived at the formation of a good curd1 which will be the invariable result of a strict adhesion to the foregoing rules1 let it be carefully cut up with three-bladed knives1 as fine as possible2 then dip off half the whey1 and heat a portion of it to the temperature of ninety-five degrees1 and return it to the whey and curds2 then1 after stirring it for five minutes1 allow the curd to sink1 and as quickly as possible dip off the whey4 ,having done this1 press the curd by placing on it a board weighted with from three to five fifty-pound weights1 which will gradually and effectually press the remainder of the whey out4 ,when the whey is dipped off1 put the curd into white twig basket-vats1 made the shape and size of a turned vat1 which would contain the sixth of a hundred weight 7about three inches deep1 and two feet in diameter74 ,it will be necessary to have boards about one inch thick1 and two feet four inches in diameter1 to go between each of these twig vats1 to prevent the whey running from one vat into the other4 ,when it has been pressed1 return it again into the cheese-tub1 cut it into small pieces1 put it into the vats again in dry cloths1 press it and return it to the tub again1 cutting it into small pieces1 and to every hundred weight of curd add one and one quarter pounds of salt2 grind it twice1 and stir it so that it shall be properly mixed with the salt2 then put it into well-perforated turned vats1 taking care to press it thoroughly whilst the vats are filling1 to prevent the accumulation of air1 to the presence of which is to be attributed the honeycomb appearance so often observed in cheese when cut4 ,when the cheese is put into the press let the pressure gradually upon it4 ,after it has been in press one and a half hours1 take it out and examine it1 and1 should there be any curd pressed over1 cut it round and put it into the middle of the cheese1 carefully breaking it up in the middle4 ,wash the ends of the cloths out in a bowl of warm water1 squeeze them1 and cover the cheese up1 and1 if there should be any not sufficiently full1 it will be necessary either to put a follower upon it1 or to put it into a smaller vat2 in the evening let them be dry clothed4 ,the following morning salt them all over and dry cloth them1 and repeat this three successive mornings2 after which1 put them in vats1 placed one on the other1 and allow them to stand1 if possible1 a fortnight1 occasionally wiping them4 ,the cheese will get matured much sooner by these means1 and the tendency to cracking and bulging be prevented4 ,the way to get a fine coat upon cheese1 after the first coat has been washed and scraped off1 is to put the cheese on shelves1 nail thick sheeting to the ceiling from one of the shelves to the other1 and let it drop closely to the floor4 ,if put over the floor1 cover them over with thick sheeting1 or rugs4 ,the varieties of cheese are almost infinite in number1 and are often dependent on very minute details of practice4 ,the general principles involved are the same in all2 but it would be next to impossible to find any one variety of cheese possessing uniformity throughout1 in point of texture1 consistency1 taste1 flavor1 and keeping qualities2 and it is rare1 with the present guess-work in many of the operations of cheese-making1 to find a lot of cheese made in the same dairy1 from the same cows1 on the same pastures and by the same hands1 which can be considered a fair sample of what is generally produced4 ,these great differences are due to feeding and treatment of the cows in part1 but especially to the temperature of the milk at the time of curding1 which is again in part dependent on the quality and strength of the rennet employed4 ,nothing is more susceptible to external influences1 as has been remarked elsewhere1 than milk and cream1 both of which are liable to taint from the food of the cows1 from impurities derived from careless milking1 from exposure to foul or impure air in the cellar or milk-room1 and from sudden changes in the atmosphere4 ,the most scrupulous cleanliness is1 therefore1 required to produce a first quality of cheese1 even under favorable circumstances4 ,and when it is considered that it is necessary to observe minutely the temperature of the milk1 and that slight differences at the time of forming the curd may make the difference of mellowness or toughness in the ripened cheese1 and that the proper temperature is affected by the time taken to bring the curd1 which depends on the strength and quality of the rennet1 some of which will act in fifteen or twenty minutes1 while the same quantity of others requires even two or three hours to produce the same effect1 the infinite variety in the qualities of cheese will scarcely be a matter of surprise4 ,a brief statement of the mode of making some of the more important and well-known varieties will be sufficient in this connection4 ,the details of cheese-making in some of the best of the dairies of ,new ,england and ,new ,york correspond in a remarkable degree with the mode of making ,cheddar and ,cheshire cheese1 both celebrated for their richness and popularity in the market4 ,of the latter there are made1 it is said1 over twelve thousand tons annually2 ,cheshire taking the lead in cheese-making1 and keeping about forty thousand cows4 ,,cheshire ,,cheese is remarkable for its uniformity1 being1 in dairies of the best repute1 made by fixed rules1 and usually by the same persons4 ,if the number of cows is sufficient to make a cheese from one meal1 that amount is used2 if not1 two meals are united4 ,the cows are milked at six o'clock1 morning and evening2 are kept on rich pastures1 and never driven far1 great care being taken that nothing shall interfere with the regularity with which every operation connected with this chief source of the wealth and prosperity of the ,cheshire farmer is conducted4 ,the milk is brought in large wooden pails into the milk-house1 which it is generally contrived shall have a cool north aspect1 and immediately strained into pans1 and placed upon the floor of the dairy4 ,each pan is about six inches in depth1 and usually made of block-tin4 ,this substance is objected to by some because it is liable1 like every other metal1 although1 perhaps1 in a less degree than either zinc or lead1 to be acted upon by the lactic acid1 and so produce compounds of a deleterious character4 ,at six o'clock in the morning the cheese-ladder is put on the cheese-tub1 the whole of the night's milk is again passed through the sieve1 and the morning's milk is then poured upon it1 and well agitated to equalize the temperature2 in cold weather a pan of hot water is previously put into the tub1 to increase the temperature of the previous night's meal4 ,the rennet is next applied1 care being taken that the heat of the whole quantity of the milk is about seventy-four degrees2 and1 almost simultaneously with the rennet1 the annatto1--about a quarter of an ounce is sufficient for a cheese of sixty-four pounds1--both of which1 in all well-regulated dairies1 are strained through a piece of silk or fine cloth4 ,the rennet is generally made on the previous evening1 by a piece of the dried skin about the size of a crown-piece being immersed in hot water1 and allowed to stand all night4 ,after the rennet and coloring matter have been thoroughly mixed with the milk1 it is covered with the lid of the cheese-tub1 and in cold weather with a cloth in addition1 to preserve the temperature of the mass until the curd has formed4 ,it is then left undisturbed for about an hour1 and frequently longer1 to allow the cogulation of the milk4 ,after that time a curd-breaker is passed up and down it for about five minutes1 and again it is allowed to settle for another half-hour4 ,the whey is then taken out by means of a dish or bowl1 the curd being gathered to one side of the tub1 and gently pressed by the hand1 to allow the whey to separate from it more easily4 ,it is then pressed by a weight of about fifty pounds2 afterwards the curd is taken out of the tub and put into a basket1 the inside of which is covered with a coarse square cheese-cloth4 ,the four ends of the cloth are then folded over the curd1 a tin hoop being put around the upper edge of the cheese1 and within the sides of the vat1 upon which a board is placed bearing a weight of about one hundred pounds1 varying1 of course1 with the size of the cheese4 ,this process is repeated two or three times1 the curd being slightly broken at each operation4 ,it is next taken out of the basket for salting or curing1 and either broken down small by hand or in a curd-mill4 ,a certain quantity of salt is then carefully and intimately mixed with the curd1 according to the experience1 taste1 and custom1 of the dairymaid4 ,it is then put into the cheese-vat in a coarse cloth1 pressed lightly at first for an hour2 then taken out and turned1 and the pressure increased until the proper degree of consistence is attained4 ,afterwards it is turned every twelve hours for three or four days1 remaining in the vat until the curd becomes so dry as not to moisten the cloth4 ,during this time skewers are passed through holes made in the sides of the vat into the body of the cheese1 the more effectually to aid the expression of the whey1 the pressure being still continued4 ,when they are withdrawn1 the whey flows through these miniature tunnels1 which are in a few moments obliterated by the superincumbent weight4 ,it is the practice of some dairymaids in this county to take the cheese to a cool salting-house1 leaving it there for a week or ten days1 turning it daily1 and rubbing salt on the upper surface4 ,others immerse the cheese in a brine almost sufficiently strong to float it1 with occasional turning2 others1 again1 after taking the cheese from the press1 place it in a furnace at a moderate heat1 and keep it closed therein for a night2 while some run a hot iron over the whole1 or over the edges4 ,the binder--a cloth of three or four inches in breadth--is then passed tightly round the cheese1 and secured by pins1 when it is removed to the cheese-room1 and placed on a kind of grass1 which in ,cheshire is called sniggle1 the newest or latest-made cheese being put in the warmest situation4 ,here it remains1 being turned over three times a week while it is new1 and less often as it becomes matured1 care being taken to keep each one of the cheeses separate from all the others4 ,the room selected for a store is always that which can be best protected from the light1 and any sudden changes of temperature4 ,the best ,cheshire cheese is seldom ripe for the market under one or two years4 ,the ,,stilton ,,cheese is by far the richest of the ,english dairies4 ,this originated in a small town of that name1 in ,leicestershire4 ,it possesses 8a peculiar delicacy of flavor1 a delicious mellowness1 and a great aptness to acquire a species of artificial decay2 without which1 to the somewhat vitiated taste of lovers of ,stilton cheese1 as now eaten1 it is not considered of prime account4 ,to be in good order1 according to the present standard of taste1 it must be decayed1 blue1 and moist40 ,to suit this taste1 an artificial mode is adopted1 old and decayed cheese being introduced into the new1 or port wine or ale added by means of tasters1 or caulking-pins are stuck into them1 and left till they rust and produce an appearance of decay in the cheese4 8,it is commonly made by putting the night's cream to the milk of the following morning with the rennet1 great care being taken that the milk and the cream are thoroughly mixed together1 and that they both have the proper temperature4 ,the rennet should also be very pure and sweet4 ,as soon as the milk is curdled1 the whole of it is taken out1 put into a sieve gradually to drain1 and moderately pressed4 ,it is then put into a case or box1 of the form that it is intended to be2 for1 on account of its richness1 it would separate and fall to pieces were not this precaution adopted4 ,afterwards it is turned every day on dry boards1 cloth-binders being tied around it1 which are gradually tightened as occasion requires4 ,after it is removed from the box or hoop1 the cheese must be closely bound with cloths and changed daily1 until it becomes sufficiently compact to support itself4 ,when these cloths are taken away1 each cheese has to be rubbed over with a brush once every day4 ,if the weather is moist or damp1 this is done twice a day during two or three months4 ,it is occasionally powdered with flour1 and plunged into hot water4 ,this hardens the outer coat and favors the internal fermentation1 and thus produces what is called the ripening of the cheese4 ,sometimes it is made in a net like a cabbage-net1 which gives it the form of an acorn40 ,the maturity of ,stilton cheeses is sometimes hastened by putting them in a bucket1 and covering them over with horse-dung4 ,,gloucester ,,cheese is likewise quite celebrated for its richness1 piquancy1 and delicacy of flavor1 and justly commands a high price in the market4 ,the management of the milk up to the time of curding is similar to that of ,cheshire2 a cheese1 often being made of one meal1 requires no additional heat to raise it to a proper temperature4 ,after the curd is cut into small squares1 the whey is carefully drained off through a hair strainer4 ,the cutting is repeated every thirty minutes till the whey is removed1 when it is put into vats and covered with dry cloths1 and placed in the press4 ,after remaining a sufficient length of time1 it is put into a curd-mill and cut or ground into small pieces1 when it is again packed in fine canvas cloth1 and put in the cheese-vat4 ,hot water or whey is poured over the cloth1 to harden the rind and prevent its cracking4 8,the curd is next turned out of the vat into the cloth1 and1 the inside of the vat being washed with whey1 the inverted curd with the cloth is returned to the vat4 ,the cloth is then folded over1 and the vat put into the press for two hours1 when it is taken out1 and dry cloths applied during the course of the day4 ,it is then replaced in the press until salted1 which operation is generally performed about twenty-four hours after it is made4 ,in salting the cheese1 it is rubbed with finely-powdered salt1 and this is thought to make the cheese more smooth and solid than when the salting process is performed upon the curd4 ,the cheese is after this returned to the vat1 and put under the press1 in which several are placed1 the newest at the bottom and the oldest on the top4 ,the salting is repeated three times1 twenty-four hours being allowed to intervene between each2 and the cheese is finally taken from the press to the cheese-room in the course of five days4 ,in the cheese-room it is turned over every day for a month1 when it is cleaned of all scurf1 and rubbed over with a woollen cloth dipped in a paint made of ,indian red or ,spanish brown and small beer4 ,as soon as the paint is dry1 the cheese is rubbed once a week with a cloth4 ,the quantity of salt employed is about three and a half pounds2 and one pound of annatto is sufficient to color half a ton of cheese40 ,,cheddar ,,cheese is another variety in high repute for its richness1 and commands a high price in the market4 ,it is made of new milk only1 and contains more fat than the egg4 ,it is1 indeed1 too rich for ordinary consumption4 ,the milk is set with rennet while yet warm1 and allowed to stand still about two hours4 ,the whey first taken off is heated and poured back upon the curd1 and1 after turning off the remainder1 that is also heated and poured back in the same manner1 where it stands about half an hour4 ,the curd is then put into the press1 and treated very much as the ,cheshire up to the time of ripeness4 ,the ,,dunlop ,,cheese1 the most celebrated of ,scotland1 had its origin in ,ayrshire1 from which it was sent to the ,glasgow market1 and from which the manufacture soon spread to ,lanark1 ,renfrew1 and other adjoining counties4 ,it is manufactured1 according to ,aiton1 in the following manner3 ,when the cows on a farm are not so numerous as to yield milk sufficient to make a cheese every time they are milked1 the milk is stored about six or eight inches deep in the coolers1 and placed in the milk-house until as much is collected as will form a cheese of a proper size4 ,when the cheese is to be made1 the cream is skimmed from the milk in the coolers1 and1 without being heated1 is1 with the milk that is drawn from the cows at the time1 passed through the sieve into the curd-vat4 ,the cold milk from which the cream has been taken is heated so as to raise the temperature of the whole mass to near blood heat2 and the whole is cogulated by the means of rennet carefully mixed with the milk4 ,the cream is put into the curd-vat1 that its oily parts may not be melted1 and the skimmed milk is heated sufficient to raise the whole to near animal heat4 ,it may be said that the utmost care is always taken to keep the milk1 in all stages of the operation1 free not only from every admixture or impurity1 but also from being hurt by foul air arising from acidity in any milky substance1 putrid water1 the stench of the barn1 dunghill1 or any other substance2 and likewise to prevent the milk from becoming sour1 which1 when it happens1 greatly injures the cheese4 ,great care is taken to prevent any of the butyraceous or oily matter in the cream from being melted in any stage of the process4 ,to cool the milk1 and to facilitate the separation or rising of the cream1 a small quantity of clean cold water is generally mixed with the milk in each cooler4 ,the cogulum is formed in from ten to fifteen minutes1 and nobody would use rennet twice that required more than twenty minutes or half an hour to form a curd4 ,whenever the milk is completely cogulated the curd is broken1 in order to let the serum or whey be separated and taken off4 ,some break the curd slightly at first1 by making cross-scores with a knife or a thin piece of wood1 at about one or two inches distant1 and intersecting each other at right angles2 and these are renewed still more closely after some of the whey has been discharged4 ,others break the whole curd more minutely at once with the hand or the skimmer4 ,after the curd has been broken1 the whey ought to be taken off as speedily as it can be done1 and with as little further breaking or handling the curd as possible4 ,it is necessary1 however1 to turn the curd1 cut it with a knife1 or break it gently with the hand4 ,when the curd has consolidated a little1 it is cut with the cheese-knife1 slightly at first1 and more minutely as it hardens1 so as to bring off the whey4 ,when the greater part of the whey has been extracted1 the curd is taken up from the curd-boyn1 and1 being cut into pieces of about two inches in thickness1 it is placed in a sort of vat or sieve with many holes4 ,a lid is placed upon it1 and a slight pressure1 say from three to four stone avoirdupois2 and the curd is turned up and cut small every ten or fifteen minutes1 and occasionally pressed with the hand so long as it continues to discharge scrum4 ,when no more whey can be drawn off by these means1 the curd is cut as small as possible with the knife1 the proper quantity of salt minutely mixed into it in the curd-boyn1 and placed in the chessart within a shift of thin canvas1 and put under the press4 ,all these operations ought to be carried on and completed with the least possible delay1 and yet without precipitation4 ,the sooner the whey is removed after the cogulation of the milk1 so much the better4 ,but1 if the curd is soft1 from being set too cold1 it requires more time1 and to be more gently dealt with1 as otherwise much of the curd and of the fat would go off with the whey2 and when the curd has been formed too hot1 the same caution is necessary4 ,precipitation1 or handling the curd too roughly1 would add to its toughness1 and expel still more of the oily matter2 and1 as has been already mentioned1 hot water or whey should be put on the curd when it is soft and cold1 and cold water when the curd is set too hot4 ,undue delay1 however1 in any of these operations1 from the time the milk is taken out of the coolers until the curd is under the press in the shape of a cheese1 is most improper1 as the curd in all these stages is1 when neglected for even a few minutes1 very apt to become ill-flavored4 ,if it is allowed to remain too long in the curd-vat1 or in the dripper over it1 before the whey is completely extracted1 the curd becomes too cold1 and acquires a pungent or acrid taste2 or1 it softens so much that the cheese is not sufficiently adhesive1 and does not easily part with the serum4 ,whenever the curd is completely set1 the whey should be taken off without delay2 and the dairymaid should never leave the curd-boyn until the curd is ready for the dripper or cheese-vat4 ,the salt is mixed into the curd4 ,after the cheese is put into the press1 it remains for the first time about an hour1 or less than two hours1 until it is taken out1 turned upside down in the cheese-vat1 and a new cloth put around it every four or six hours until the cheese is completed1 which is generally in the course of a day and a half1 two1 or at most in three days after it was first put under the press4 ,some have shortened the process of pressing by placing the cheese--after it has been under the press for two hours or so for the first time--into water heated to about one hundred or one hundred and ten degrees1 and allowing the cheese to remain in the water about the space of half an hour1 and thereafter drying it with a cloth1 and putting it again under the press4 ,when taken from the press1 generally after two or three days from the time they were first placed under it1 they are exposed for a week or so to the warmth and heat of the farmer's kitchen1--not to excite sweating1 but merely to dry them a little before they are placed in the store1 where a small proportion of heat is admitted4 ,while they remain in the kitchen they are turned over three or four times every day2 and1 whenever they begin to harden a little on the outside1 they are laid up on the shelves of the store1 where they are turned over once a day or once in two days for a week or so1 until they are dry1 and twice every week afterwards4 ,the store-houses for cheese in ,scotland are in proportion to the size of the dairy1--generally a small place adjoining the milk-house1 or in the end of the barn or other buildings1 where racks are placed1 with as many shelves as can hold the cheeses made in the season4 ,when no particular place is prepared1 the racks are placed in the barn1 which is generally empty during summer2 or some lay the cheeses on the floor of a garret over some part of their dwelling-house4 ,wherever the cheeses are stored1 they are not sweated or put into a warm place1 but kept cool1 in a place in a medium state1 between damp and dry1 without the sun being allowed to shine on them1 or yet a great current of air admitted4 ,too much air1 or the rays of the sun1 would dry the cheeses too fast1 diminish their weight1 and make them crack2 and heat would make them sweat or perspire1 which extracts the fat1 and tends to induce hooving4 ,but when they are kept in a temperature nearly similar to that of a barn1 the doors of which are not much open1 and but a moderate current of air admitted1 the cheeses are kept in a proper shape1--neither so dry as to rend the skin1 nor so damp as to render them mouldy on the outside2 and no partial fermentation is excited1 but the cheese is preserved sound and good4 ,,dutch ,,cheese--,the most celebrated of the ,dutch cheeses is the ,edam1 of ,north ,holland1 and the ,gouda4 ,the manufacture of these and other varieties will be described in a subsequent chapter1 on ,dairy ,husbandry in ,holland4 ,the ,,parmesan is an ,italian cheese1 made of one meal of milk1 allowed to stand sixteen hours1 to which is added another which has stood eight hours4 ,the cream being taken from both1 the skim-milk is heated an hour over a slow fire1 and constantly stirred till it reaches about eighty-two degrees1 when the rennet is put in and an hour allowed to form the curd4 ,the curd is thoroughly broken or cut1 after which a part of the whey is removed1 and the curd is then heated nearly up to the boiling point1 when a little saffron is added to color it4 ,it then stands over the fire about half an hour1 when it is taken off1 and nearly all the rest of the whey removed1 cold water being added1 till the curd is cool enough to handle4 ,it is then surrounded with a cloth1 and1 after being partially dried1 is put into a hoop and remains there two days4 ,it is then sprinkled with salt for thirty days in summer1 or about forty in winter4 ,one cheese is then laid above another to allow them to take the salt2 after which they are scraped and cleansed every day1 and rubbed with linseed-oil to preserve them from the attack of insects1 and they are ready for sale at the age of six months4 ,,american ,,cheese1 as it is called in the ,english markets1 whither large quantities are shipped for sale1 is made of almost every conceivable variety and quality1 from the richest ,cheddar or ,cheshire to the poorest skim-milk cheese4 ,the statements of some of the best dairymen have already been given4 ,as a further illustration of the mode pursued in other sections of the country1 the statement of ,c4 ,g4 ,taylor1 a successful competitor for the premiums offered by the ,illinois ,state ,agricultural ,society1 may be given as follows3 8,as the milk is drawn from the cows1 it is immediately strained into a vat4 ,this vat is a new patent1 and is better than any ,i have ever seen for cheese-making4 ,it is double1 a space being left between the two parts4 ,into the upper vat the milk is strained1 and cold water is applied between it and the lower one4 ,thus the animal heat is soon expelled1 and the milk is prevented from souring before morning4 ,the morning milk is added4 ,under the lower vat a copper boiler is arranged4 ,the water in the boiler is in perfect connection with that remaining all around the upper or milk vat1 connected with three copper pipes4 ,with a little wood the water is warmed4 ,thus the temperature of the milk is soon brought to the desired point to receive the rennet1 which is about ninety to ninety-five degrees4 ,sufficient rennet is applied to the milk to cause it to curdle or cogulate in from thirty to forty minutes4 ,then the curd is carefully cut1 each way1 into slices of about one inch square4 ,soon the temperature is slowly increased4 ,in about twenty minutes the curd is carefully broken up with the hand1--increasing the heat1 and stirring often4 ,when the curd is sufficiently hard1 so as to 8squeal0 when you bite it1 it is scalded4 ,by this time the temperature is up to about one hundred and thirty or one hundred and forty4 8,there are hinges placed in the legs of one end of the vat1 which is easily tipped1 and through the curd-strainer and whey-gate the whey is soon run off4 ,the curd is then dipped into a sink1 over which is placed a coarse strainer1 and allowed to drain quite dry4 ,it is then broken up fine1 and one teacup of ground solar salt added to curd to make twenty pounds of cheese1 and well worked in4 ,after the curd is quite cool1 it is placed in the hoop1 and a light pressure is applied4 ,in a few minutes more power is needed4 ,after remaining in press about six hours1 it is taken out of the hoop1 wholly covered with strong muslin1 finely sewed on1 and then reversed and replaced in the hoop and press4 ,it is allowed to remain until the next day1 when it has to give place for another4 8,after pressing thus twenty-four hours1 the cheese is placed upon the shelf1 and allowed to stand until the cloth is dry4 ,then a preparation1 made from annatto and butter-oil1 is applied sufficiently to fill all the interstices of the cloth4 ,it must be turned and thoroughly rubbed three times a week1 until ripe for use4 8,i use the self-acting press4 ,i know of none in use that is better1--the weight of the cheese being the power40 ,the statements of skilful and practical dairymen1 in different parts of the country1 are sufficient to show that good cheese can be produced2 but it is believed that a more general attention to all the details of the dairy would add many thousand dollars a year to the wealth of the people1 and enable us to compete successfully with the best dairy countries in the world4 ,the composition of cheese will1 of course1 differ widely in nutritive value1 according to the mode of manufacture1 age1 etc4 ,a specimen of good cheese was found to contain about #ca4jb per cent4 of flesh-forming substances1 #be4cj per cent4 of heat-producing substances1 #d4ij per cent4 of mineral matter1 and #ch4gh per cent4 of water4 ,the analyses of several varieties will serve as a comparison of cheese with other kinds of food4 ,the ,cheddar was a rich cheese two years old1 the double ,gloucester one year old1 the ,dunlop one year old1 the skim-milk one year4 ------------------------------------- ,dbl4 ,skim- ,cheddar4,glo'ster4,dunlop4milk4 ----------------------------- ,water1 #cj4jd #ce4ha #ch4df #dc4hb ,caseine1 #bh4ih #cg4if #be4hg #de4jd ,fat1 #cj4dj #ba4ig #ca4hf #e4ih ,ash1 #d4eh #d4be #h4ha #e4ah ------------------------------------- ,professor ,johnston gives a table of comparison of ,cheddar and skim-milk cheese in a dried state1 and milk1 beef1 and eggs1 also in a dried state1 as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,cheddar,skim-milk cheese1 cheese1 ,milk4 dried4 dried4 ,beef4,eggs4 ------------------------------- ,caseine 7curd71 #ce #de #hj #hi #ee ,fat 7butter71 #bd #dh #aa #g #dj ,sugar1 #cg - - - - ,mineral matter1 #d #g #i #d #e ------------------------------- #ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj ---------------------------------------- ------ ,a full-milk cheese differs but little from pure milk1 except in the absence of sugar1 which1 as already seen1 is held in solution1 and goes off in the whey4 ,the difference becomes greater in proportion as the cream is removed from the milk before curding1 and the nutritive qualities thereby diminished4 ,cheese is used both as a regular article of food1 for which the ordinary kinds of full-milk cheeses are admirably fitted1 and as a condiment or digester1 in connection with other articles of food2 and for this purpose the stronger varieties1 such as are partially decayed and mouldy1 are best4 8,when the curd of milk is exposed to the air in a moist state1 for a few days1 at a moderate temperature1 it begins gradually to decay1 to emit a disagreeable odor1 and to ferment4 ,when in this state1 it possesses the property1 in certain circumstances1 of inducing a species of chemical change and fermentation in other moist substances with which it is mixed1 or is brought into contact4 ,it acts after the same manner as sour leaven does when mixed with sweet dough4 ,now1 old and partially decayed cheese acts in a similar way when introduced into the stomach4 ,it causes chemical changes gradually to commence among the particles of the food which has previously been eaten1 and thus facilitates the dissolution which necessarily precedes digestion4 ,it is only some kinds of cheese1 however1 which will effect this purpose4 ,those are generally considered the best in which some kind of cheese-mould has established itself4 ,hence1 the mere eating of a morsel of cheese after dinner does not necessarily promote digestion4 ,if too new1 or of improper quality1 it will only add to the quantity of food with which the stomach is probably already overloaded1 and will have to await its turn for digestion by the ordinary processes40 ,this mouldiness and tendency to decay1 with its flavor and digestive quality1 are often communicated to new cheese by inoculation1 or insertion of a small portion of the old into the interior of the new by means of the cheese-taster4 ,in studying attentively the practice of the most successful cheese-makers1 ,i think it will be observed that they are particularly careful about the preparation of the rennet1 and equally so about the details of pressing4 ,in my opinion1 the point in which many ,american cheese-makers fail of success is in hurrying the pressing4 ,i think it will be found that the best cheese is pressed two days1 at least1 and in many cases still longer4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,diseases ,,of ,,dairy ,,stock4 ,dairy stock1 properly fed and managed1 is liable to few diseases in this country1 notwithstanding the sudden changes to which our climate is subject4 ,if pure air1 pure water1 a dry barn or pasture1 and a frequent but gradual change of diet1 when kept in the stall1 are provided for milch cows1 nature will generally remedy any derangements of the system which may occur1 far better than art4 ,common sense is especially requisite in the treatment of stock1 and that will very rarely dictate a resort to bleeding1 boring the horns1 cutting off the tail1 and a thousand other equally absurd practices1 too common even within the memory of men still living4 ,the diseases most to be dreaded are garget1 puerperal or milk fever1 and idiopathic or common fever1 commonly called 8horn ail10 and often 8tail ail40 ,,garget is an inflammation of the internal substance of the udder4 ,one or more of the teats1 or whole sections of the udder1 become enlarged and thickened1 hot1 tender1 and painful4 ,the milk cogulates in the bag1 and causes inflammation where it is deposited1 which is accompanied by fever4 ,it most commonly occurs in young cows after calving1 especially when in too high condition4 ,the secretion of milk is very much lessened1 and1 in very had cases1 stopped altogether4 ,sometimes the milk is thick1 and mixed with blood4 ,often1 also1 in severe cases1 the hind extremities1 as the hip-joint1 hock1 or fetlock1 are swollen and inflamed to such an extent that the animal cannot rise4 ,the simplest remedy1 in mild cases1 is to put the calf to its mother several times a day4 ,this will remove the flow of milk1 and often dispel the congestion4 ,sometimes the udder is so much swollen that the cow will not permit the calf to suck4 ,if the fever increases1 the appetite declines1 and rumination ceases4 ,in this stage of the complaint1 the advice of a scientific veterinary practitioner is required4 ,a dose of purging medicine and frequent washing of the udder1 in mild cases1 are usually successful4 ,the physic should consist of ,epsom salts one pound1 ginger half an ounce1 nitrate of potassa half an ounce2 dissolved in a quart of boiling water2 then add a gill of molasses1 and give to the cow lukewarm4 ,diet moderate2 that is1 on bran1 or if in summer green food4 ,there are various medicines for the different forms and stages of garget1 which1 if the above medicine fails1 can be properly prescribed only by a skilful veterinary practitioner4 ,it is important that the udder should be frequently examined1 as matter may be forming1 which should be immediately released4 ,various causes are assigned for this disease1 such as exposure to cold and wet1 or the want of proper care or attention in parturition4 ,an able writer1 ,mr4 ,youatt1 says that hasty drying up a cow often gives rise to inflammation and indurations of the udder1 difficult of removal4 ,sometimes a cow lies down upon and bruises the udder1 and this is another cause4 ,but a very frequent source1 and one for which there can be no excuse1 is the failure to milk a cow clean4 ,the calf should be allowed to suck often1 and the cow should be milked at least twice a day as clean as possible1 while suffering from this complaint4 ,if the udder is hot and feverish1 a wash may be used1 consisting of eight ounces of vinegar and two ounces of camphoretted spirit2 the whole well and thoroughly mixed1 and applied just after milking1 to be washed off in warm water before milking again4 ,in very bad cases1 iodine has often been found most effectual4 ,an iodine ointment may be prepared by taking one drachm of hydriodate of potash and an ounce of lard1 and mixing them well together4 ,a small portion of the mixture1 from the size of a pigeon's egg1 in limited inflammations1 to twice that amount1 is to be well rubbed into the swollen part1 morning and night4 ,when milk forms in the bag before parturition1 so as to cause a swelling of the udder1 it should be milked away2 and a neglect of this precaution often leads to violent attacks of garget4 ,prevention is always better than cure4 ,the reason most commonly given for letting the cow run dry for a month or two before calving is that after a long period of milking her system requires rest1 and that she will give more milk and do better the coming season than if milked up to the time of calving4 ,this is all true1 and a reason sufficient in itself for drying off the cow some weeks before parturition2 but there is another important reason for the practice1 which is that the mixture of the old milk with the new secretion is liable to end in an obstinate case of garget4 ,to prevent any ill effects from calving1 the cow should not be suffered to get too fat1 which high feeding after drying off might induce4 ,the period of gestation is about two hundred and eighty-four or two hundred and eighty-five days4 ,but cows sometimes overrun their time1 and have been known to go three hundred and thirteen days1 and even more2 while they now and then fall short of it1 and have been known to calve in two hundred and twenty days4 ,if they go much over the average time1 the calf will generally be a male4 ,but cows are sometimes liable to slink their calves2 and this usually takes place about the middle of their pregnancy4 ,to avoid the evil consequences1 so far as possible1 they should be watched2 and1 if a cow is found to be uneasy and feverish1 or wandering about away from the rest of the herd1 and apparently longing for something she cannot get1 she ought to be taken away from the others4 ,if a cow slinks her calf while in the pasture with others1 they will be liable to be affected in the same way4 ,in many cases1 physicking will quiet the cow's excitement in the condition above described1 and prove of essential benefit4 ,a dose of one pound of ,epsom or ,glauber's salts1 and one ounce of ginger1 mixed in a pint of thick gruel1 should be given first1 to be immediately followed by the salts1 in a little thinner gruel4 ,when a cow once slicks her calf1 there is great risk in breeding from her4 ,she is liable to do the same again4 ,but when the slinking is caused by sudden fright or over-exertion1 or any offensive matter1 such as blood or the dead carcasses of animals1 this result is not so much to be feared4 ,but the cow1 when about to calve1 ought not to be disturbed by too constant watching4 ,the natural presentation of the ftus is with the head lying upon the fore legs4 ,if in this position1 nature will generally do all4 ,but1 if the presentation is unnatural1 and the labor has been long and ineffectual1 some assistance is required4 ,the hand1 well greased1 may be introduced1 and the position of the calf changed2 and1 when in a proper position1 a cord should be tied round the fore legs1 just above the hoofs2 but no effort should be made to draw out the calf till the natural throes are repeated4 ,if the nostril of the calf has protruded1 and the position is then found to be unnatural1 the head cannot be thrust back without destroying the life of the calf4 ,the false position most usually presented is that of the head first1 with the legs doubled under the belly4 ,a cord is then fixed around the lower jaw1 when it is pushed back1 to give an opportunity to adjust the fore legs1 if possible4 ,the object must now be to save the life of the cow4 ,but the cases of false presentation1 though comparatively rare1 are so varied that no directions could be given which would be applicable in all cases4 ,after calving the cow will require but little care1 if she is in the barn1 and protected from changes of weather4 ,a warm bran mash is usually given1 and the state of the udder examined4 ,,puerperal ,,or ,,milk ,,fever4--,calving is often attended with feverish excitement4 ,the change of powerful action from the womb to the udder causes much constitutional disturbance and local inflammation4 ,a cow is subject to nervousness in such circumstances1 which sometimes extends to the whole system1 and causes puerperal fever4 ,this complaint is called dropping after calving1 because it succeeds that process4 ,the prominent symptom is a loss of power over the motion of the hind extremities1 and inability to stand2 sometimes loss of sensibility in these parts1 so that a deep puncture with a pin1 or other sharp instrument1 is unfelt4 ,this disease is much to be dreaded by the farmer1 on account of the high state of excitement and the local inflammation4 ,either from neglect or ignorance1 the malady is not discovered until the manageable symptoms have passed1 and extreme debility has appeared4 ,the animal is often first seen lying down1 unable to rise2 prostration of strength and violent fever are brought on by inflammation of the womb4 ,but soon a general inflammatory action succeeds1 rapid and violent1 with complete prostration of all the vital forces1 bidding defiance to the best-selected remedies4 ,cows in very high condition1 and cattle removed from low keeping to high feeding1 are the most liable to puerperal fever4 ,it occurs most frequently during the hot weather of summer1 and then it is most dangerous4 ,when it occurs in winter1 cows sometimes recover4 ,in hot weather they usually die4 ,milk fever may be induced by the hot drinks often given after calving4 ,a young cow at her first calving is rarely attacked with it4 ,great milkers are most commonly subject to it2 but all cows have generally more or less fever at calving4 ,a little addition to it1 by improper treatment or neglect1 will prevent the secretion of milk2 and thus the milk1 being thrown back into the system1 will increase the inflammation4 ,this disease sometimes shows itself in the short space of two or three hours after calving1 but often not under two or three days4 ,if four or five days have passed1 the cow may generally be considered safe4 ,the earliest symptoms of this disease are as follows3 ,the animal is restless1 frequently shifting her position2 occasionally pawing and heaving at the flanks4 ,muzzle hot and dry1 the mouth open1 and tongue out at one side2 countenance wild2 eyes staring4 ,she moans often1 and soon becomes very irritable4 ,delirium follows2 she grates her teeth1 foams at the mouth1 tosses her head about1 and frequently injures herself4 ,from the first1 the udder is hot1 enlarged1 and tender2 and if this swelling is attended by a suspension of milk1 the cause is clear4 ,as the case is inflammatory1 its treatment must be in accordance2 and it is usually subdued without much difficulty4 ,mr4 ,youatt says1 8,the animal should be bled1 and the quantity regulated by the impression made upon the circulation1--from six to ten quarts often before the desired effect is produced40 ,he wrote at a time when bleeding was adopted as the universal cure1 and before the general reasoning and treatment of diseases of the human system was applied to similar diseases of animals4 ,the cases are very rare1 indeed1 where the physician of the present day finds it necessary to bleed in diseases of the human subject2 and they are equally rare1 ,i apprehend1 where it is really necessary or judicious to bleed for the diseases of animals4 ,a more humane and equally effectual course will be the following3 ,a pound to one and a half pounds of ,epsom or ,glauber's salts1 according to the size and condition of the animal1 should be given1 dissolved in a quart of boiling water2 and1 when dissolved1 add pulv4 red pepper a quarter of an ounce1 caraway do4 do41 ginger do4 do42 mix1 and add a gill of molasses1 and give lukewarm4 ,if this medicine does not act on the bowels1 the quantity of ginger1 capsicum1 and caraway1 must be doubled4 ,the insensible stomach must be roused4 ,when purging in an early stage is begun1 the fever will more readily subside4 ,after the operation of the medicine1 sedatives may be given1 if necessary4 ,the digestive function first fails1 when the secondary or low state of fever comes on4 ,the food undischarged ferments2 the stomach and intestines are inflated with gas1 and swell rapidly4 ,the nervous system is also attacked1 and the poor beast staggers4 ,the hind extremities show the weakness2 the cow falls1 and cannot rise2 her head is turned on one side1 where it rests2 her limbs are palsied4 ,the treatment in this stage must depend on the existence and degree of fever4 ,the pulse will be the only true guide4 ,if it is weak1 wavering1 and irregular1 we must avoid depleting1 purgative agents4 ,the blood flows through the arteries1 impelled by the action of the heart1 and its pulsations can be very distinctly felt by pressing the finger upon almost any of these arteries that is not too thickly covered by fat or the cellular tissues of the skin1 especially where it can be pressed upon some hard or bony substance beneath it4 ,the most convenient place is directly at the back part of the lower jaw1 where a large artery passes over the edge of the jawbone to ramify on the face4 ,the natural pulse of a full-grown ox will vary from about forty-eight to fifty-five beats a minute2 that of a cow is rather quicker1 especially near the time of calving2 and that of a calf is quicker than that of a cow4 ,but a very much quicker rate than that indicated will show a feverish state1 or inflammation2 and a much slower pulsation indicates debility of some kind4 ,next in importance1 as we have already stated1 is the physic4 ,the bowels must be opened1 or the animal will fall a victim to the disease4 ,all medicines should be of an active character1 and in sufficient quantity2 and stimulants should always be added to the purgative medicines1 to insure their operation4 ,ginger1 gentian1 caraway1 or red pepper in powder1 may be given with each dose of physic4 ,some give a powerful purgative1 by means of ,epsom salts one pound1 flour of sulphur four ounces1 powdered ginger a quarter of an ounce1 all dissolved in a quart of cold water1 and one half given twice a day till the bowels are opened4 ,the digestive organs are deranged in most forms of milk fever1 and the third stomach is loaded with hard1 indigestible food4 ,when the medicine has operated1 and the fever is subdued1 little is required but good nursing to restore the patient4 ,no powerful medicines should be used without discretion2 for in the milder forms of the disease1 as the simple palsy of the hind extremities1 the treatment1 though of a similar character1 should be less powerful1 and every effort should be made for the comfort of the cow1 by providing a thick bed of straw1 and raising the fore quarters to assist the efforts of nature1 while all filth should be promptly and carefully removed4 ,she may be covered with a warm cloth1 and warm gruel should be frequently offered to her1 and light mashes4 ,an attempt should be made several times a day to bring milk from the teats4 ,the return of milk is an indication of speedy recovery4 ,milch cows in too high condition appear to have a constitutional tendency to this complaint1 and one attack of it predisposes them to another4 ,,simple ,,fever4--,this may be considered as increased arterial action1 with or without any local affection2 or it may be the consequence of the sympathy of the system with the morbid condition of some particular part4 ,the first is pure or idiopathic fever2 the other1 symptomatic fever4 ,pure fever is of frequent occurrence in cattle4 ,symptoms as follows3 muzzle dry2 rumination slow or entirely suspended2 respiration slightly accelerated2 the horn at the root hot1 and its other extremity frequently cold2 pulse quick2 bowels constipated2 coat staring1 and the cow is usually seen separated from the rest of the herd4 ,in slight attacks1 a cathartic of salts1 sulphur1 and ginger1 is sufficient4 ,but1 if the common fever is neglected1 or improperly treated1 it may assume1 after a time1 a local determination1 as pleurisy1 or inflammation of the lungs or bowels4 ,in such cases the above remedy would be insufficient1 and a veterinary surgeon1 to manage the case1 would be necessary4 ,symptomatic fever is more dangerous1 and is commonly the result of injury1 the neighboring parts sympathizing with the injured part4 ,cattle become unwell1 are stinted in their feed1 have a dose of physic1 and in a few days are well2 still1 a fever may terminate in some local affection4 ,but in both cases pure fever is the primary disease4 ,a more dangerous form of fever is that known as symptomatic4 ,as we have said1 cattle are not only subject to fever of common intensity1 but to symptomatic fever1 and thousands die annually from its effects4 ,but the young and the most thriving are its victims4 ,there are few premonitory symptoms of symptomatic fever4 ,it often appears without any previous indications of illness4 ,the animal stands with her neck extended1 her eyes protruding and red1 muzzle dry1 nostrils expanded1 breath hot1 base of the horn hot1 mouth open1 pulse full1 breathing quick4 ,she is often moaning2 rumination and appetite are suspended2 she soon becomes more uneasy2 changes her position often4 ,unless these symptoms are speedily removed1 she dies in a few hours4 ,the name of the ailment1 inflammatory or symptomatic fever1 shows the treatment necessary1 which must commence with purging4 ,salts here1 as in most inflammatory diseases1 are the most reliable4 ,from a pound to a pound and a half1 with ginger and sulphur1 is a dose1 dissolved in warm water or thin gruel4 ,if this does not operate in twelve hours1 give half the dose1 and repeat once in twelve hours1 until the bowels are freed4 ,after the operation of the medicine the animal is relieved4 ,then sedative medicines may be given4 ,sal ammoniac one drachm1 powdered nitre two drachms1 should be administered in thin gruel1 two or three times a day1 if required4 ,typhus fever1 common in some countries1 is little known here among cattle4 ,,typhoid ,,fever sometimes follows intense inflammatory action1 and is considered the second stage of it4 ,this form of fever is usually attended with diarrha4 ,it is a debilitating complaint1 and is sometimes followed by diseases known as black tongue1 black leg1 or quarter evil4 ,the cause of typhoid fever is involved in obscurity4 ,it may be proper to say that copious drinks of oat-meal gruel1 with tincture of red pepper1 a diet of bran1 warmth to the body1 and pure air1 are great essentials in the treatment of this disease4 ,the barbarous practices of boring the horns1 cutting the tail1 and others equally absurd1 should at once and forever be discarded by every farmer and dairyman4 ,alternate heat or coldness of the horn is only a symptom of this and other fevers1 and has nothing to do with their cause4 ,the horns are not diseased any further than a determination of blood to the head causes a sympathetic heat1 while an unnatural distribution of blood1 from exposure or other cause1 may make them cold4 ,in all cases of this kind1 if anything is done1 it should be an effort to assist nature to regulate the animal system1 by rousing the digestive organs to their natural action1 by a light food1 or1 if necessary1 a mild purgative medicine1 followed by light stimulants4 ,the principal purgative medicines in use for neat cattle are ,epsom salts1 linseed-oil1 and sulphur4 ,a pound of salts will ordinarily be sufficient to purge a full-grown cow4 ,a slight purgative drink is often very useful for cows soon after calving1 particularly if feverish1 and in cases of over-feeding1 when the animal will often appear dull and feverish2 but when the surfeiting is attended by loss of appetite1 it can generally be cured by withholding food at first1 and then feeding but slightly till the system is renovated by dieting4 ,purgative drinks will often cure cases of red water1 if taken in season4 ,a purgative is often necessary for cows after being turned into a fresh and luxuriant pasture1 when they are apt to become bound from over-feeding2 but constipation does not so often follow a change from dry to green food in spring1 as from a poor pasture in summer to one where they obtain much better feed4 ,the ,,hoove or ,,hoven is brought on by a derangement of the digestive organs1 occasioned by over-feeding on green and luxuriant clover1 or other luxuriant food4 ,it is simply the distension of the first stomach by carbonic acid gas4 ,in later stages1 after fermentation of the contents of the stomach has commenced1 hydrogen gas is also found4 ,the green food1 being gathered very greedily after the animal has been kept on dry and perhaps unpalatable hay1 is not sent forward so rapidly as it is received1 and remains to overload and clog the stomach1 till this organ ceases or loses the power to act upon it4 ,here it becomes moist and heated1 begins to ferment1 and produces a gas which distends the paunch of the animal1 which often swells up enormously4 ,the cow is in great pain1 breathing with difficulty1 as if nearly suffocating4 ,then the body grows cold1 and1 unless relief is at hand1 the cow dies4 ,prevention is both cheaper and safer than cure2 but if by neglect1 or want of proper precaution1 the animal is found in this suffering condition1 relief must be afforded as soon as possible1 or the result will be fatal4 ,a hollow flexible tube1 introduced into the gullet1 will sometimes afford a temporary relief till other means can be had1 by allowing a part of the gas to escape2 but1 the cause is not removed either by this means or by puncturing the paunch1 which is often dangerous4 ,in the early stage of the disease the gas may be neutralized by ammonia1 which is usually near at hand4 ,two ounces of liquid ammonia1 in a quart of distilled or rain water1 given every quarter of an hour1 will prove beneficial4 ,a little tincture of ginger1 essence of anise-seed1 or some other cordial1 may be added1 without lessening the effect of the ammonia4 ,if the case has assumed an alarming character1 the flexible tube1 or probang1 may be introduced1 and afterwards take three drachms either of the chloride of lime or the chloride of soda1 dissolve in a pint of water1 and pour it down the throat4 ,lime-water1 potash1 and sulphuric ether1 are often used with effect4 ,in desperate cases it may be found necessary to make an incision through the paunch2 but the chloride of lime will1 in most cases1 give relief at once1 by neutralizing the gas4 ,,choking is often produced by feeding on roots1 particularly round and uncut roots1 like the potato4 ,the animal slavers at the mouth1 tries to raise the obstruction from the throat1 often groans1 and appears to be in great pain4 ,then the belly begins to swell1 from the amount of gases in the paunch4 ,the obstruction1 if not too large1 can sometimes be thrust forward by introducing a flexible rod1 or tube1 into the throat4 ,this method1 if adopted1 should be attended with great care and patience1 or the tender parts will be injured4 ,if the obstruction is low down1 and a tube is to be inserted1 a pint of olive or linseed oil first turned down will so lubricate the parts as to aid the operation1 and the power applied must be steady4 ,if the gullet is torn by the carelessness of the operator1 or the roughness of the instrument1 a rupture generally results in serious consequences4 ,a hollow tube is best1 and if the object is passed on into the paunch1 the tube should remain a short time1 to permit the gas to escape4 ,in case the animal is very badly swelled1 the dose of chloride of lime1 or ammonia1 should be given1 as for the hoove1 after the obstruction is removed4 ,care should be taken1 after the obstruction is removed1 to allow no solid food for some days4 ,,foul ,,in ,,the ,,foot4--,cows and other stock1 when fed in low1 wet pastures1 will often suffer from ulcers or sores1 generally appearing first between the claws4 ,this is commonly called foul in the foot1 and is analogous to foot-rot in sheep4 ,it is often very painful1 causing severe lameness and loss of flesh1 and discharges a putrid matter1 or pus4 ,sometimes it first appears in the form of a swelling near the top of the hoof1 which breaks and discharges foul matter4 ,the rough and common practice among farmers is to fasten the foot in the same manner as the foot of an ox is fastened in shoeing1 and draw a rough rope back and forth over the ulcerated parts1 so as to produce a clean1 fresh wound1 and then dress it with tar or other similar substance4 ,this is often an unnecessarily cruel operation4 ,the loose matter may easily be removed by a knife1 and then carefully wiped off with a moist sponge4 ,the animal should then be removed at once to a warm1 dry pasture1 or kept in the barn4 ,if the case has been neglected till the pasterns become swollen and tender1 the sore may be thoroughly cleansed out1 and dressed with an ointment of sulphate of iron one ounce1 molasses four ounces1 simmered over a slow fire till well mixed4 ,apply on a piece of cotton batting1 and secure upon the parts4 ,if any morbid growth or fungus appear1 use equal parts of powdered blood-root and alum sprinkled on the sore1 and this will usually effect a cure4 ,some also give a dose of flour of sulphur half an ounce1 powdered sassafras-bark one ounce1 and burdock two ounces1 the whole steeped in a quart of boiling water1 and strained when cool2 and1 if the matter still continues to flow from the sore1 wash it morning and night with chloride of soda one ounce1 or a tablespoonful of common salt dissolved in a pint of water4 ,foul in the foot causes very serious trouble1 if not taken in season4 ,the health of cows is injured to a great extent4 ,i have seen1 during the present season1 many instances of foul in the foot in dairy stock arising from the wetness of the pastures4 ,no lameness in cattle should be neglected4 ,,red ,,water is so called from the high color of the urine4 ,it is rather a symptom of some derangement of the digestive organs than a disease of itself1 and the cause is most frequently to be found in the quality of the food4 ,it is peculiar to certain localities1 and is of very rare occurrence in ,new ,england4 ,in the early stage of the difficulty the bowels are loose1 but soon constipation ensues1 and the appetite is affected1 the milk decreases1 and the urine becomes either very red or sometimes black4 ,the case demands treatment1 for it is apt to prey upon the health of the cow4 ,purgatives are usually employed with most success4 ,take a pound of ,epsom salts1 half an ounce of ginger1 and half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia4 ,pour a quart of boiling water on the salts and ginger1 stir thoroughly1 and1 when cold1 add the ammonia4 ,if this fails to act on the bowels1 repeat a quarter part of it every six or eight hours till it succeeds4 ,then a nutritious diet should be used till the appetite is fully restored4 ,if a cow is once affected in this way1 the difficulty will be liable to return1 and she had better be disposed of4 ,,hoose is a cold or cough to which stock are subject when exposed to wet weather and damp pastures4 ,the cold may not be bad at first1 or may be so slight as not to attract attention2 but it often leads to worse complaints1 and ought1 when observed1 to be attended to at once1 by keeping the animal in a dry and warm barn a few days1 and feeding with mashes1 and1 if it continues1 take an ounce of sweet spirits of nitre in a pint of ginger tea2 mix1 and give in a quart of thick gruel4 ,no prudent farmer will neglect to observe approaching symptoms of disease in his stock4 ,the cheapest way to keep animals healthy is to treat them properly in time1 and before disease is seated upon them4 ,hoose often ends in consumption and death4 ,,inflammation ,,of ,,the ,,glands often occurs in hoose1 catarrh1 etc41 but they resume their natural state when these complaints are removed4 ,the animal cannot swallow without pain sometimes1 and soft feed should be given4 ,remove the cause1 and the inflammation ceases4 ,some make a relaxing poultice of marsh-mallows1 or similar substances2 and rub the throat with a mixture of olive or goose oil one gill1 spirit of camphor one ounce1 oil of cedar one ounce1 and half a gill of vinegar4 ,,inflammation ,,of ,,the ,,lungs4--,common catarrh or hoose sometimes leads to inflammation of the lungs1 which is indicated by dulness and sore cough4 ,the ears1 the roots of the horns1 and legs1 are sometimes cold4 ,the breath is hot1 as well as the mouth2 and the animal rarely lies down1 and is reluctant to move1 or change its position4 ,warm water and mashes1 or gruel1 may be given1 and the animal kept in a dry place4 ,the cause of the complaint should be removed1 and the trouble will generally soon cease4 ,the treatment is much the same as for fever2 but where the surface of the body is cold1 as is generally the case1 give sweet spirits of nitro two ounces1 liquor acetate of ammonia four ounces1 in a pint of water1 two or three times a day4 ,,diarrh,a is brought on by too sudden change of food1 especially from dry to green and succulent food2 sometimes by poisonous plants or bad water4 ,if slight1 the farmer may not be anxious to check it4 ,it may show simply an effort of nature to throw off some injurious substances from the body1 and so it may exist when the animal is quite healthy4 ,but1 if it continues too long1 and is likely to debilitate the system1 a mild purgative may be given to assist rather than check the operation of nature4 ,half a pound of ,epsom salts1 with a little ginger and gentian1 will do for a medium-sized animal in this case2 but a purgative may be followed in a day or two by an astringent medicine4 ,take prepared chalk two ounces1 powdered oak-bark one ounce1 powdered catechu two drachms1 powdered opium one drachm1 and four drachms powdered ginger4 ,mix these together1 and give in a quart of warm gruel4 ,sometimes a few ounces of pulverized charcoal will arrest the diarrha4 ,common diarrha may be distinguished from dysentery by a too abundant discharge of dung in too fluid a form1 or in a full1 almost liquid stream1 sometimes very offensive to the smell1 and now and then bloody4 ,in dysentery1 the dung is often mixed with mucus and blood1 and is not unfrequently attended by a hard straining4 ,the quantity of dung is less than in diarrha1 but more offensive4 ,diarrha may occur at any season of the year1 and sometimes leads to dysentery1 which more frequently appears in the spring and fall4 ,,dysentery1 or scouring rot1 is a dangerous and troublesome malady when it becomes seated4 ,the cow suffers from painful efforts to pass the dung1 which is thin1 slimy1 olive-colored1 and offensive1 and after it falls rises up in little bubbles1 with a slimy substance upon it4 ,she is restless1 lying down and soon rising again1 and appears to be in great distress4 ,the hair seems to stand out stiff from the body1 and this stage of the malady indicates an obstinate and fatal disease4 ,it is often brought on by a simple cold at the time of calving1 exposure to sudden changes1 and by poor keeping1 which exhausts the system1 especially in winter4 ,a dry1 warm barn1 and careful nursing1 will do much2 and dry1 sweet food1 as hay1 oat-meal1 boiled potatoes1 gruel1 c4 ,some linseed-meal is also very good for cows with this complaint4 ,a little gum-arabic or starch may be mixed with the medicine4 ,the treatment is much the same as for diarrha4 ,the ,,mange is commonly brought on by half starving in winter1 and by keeping the cow in a filthy1 ill-ventilated place4 ,it is contagious1 and if one cow of a herd has it1 the rest will be apt to get it also4 ,blaine says1 8,mange has three origins1--filth1 debility1 and contagion40 ,it is a disgrace to the farmer to suffer it to enter his herd from either of these causes1 since it shows a culpable neglect of his stock4 ,i am sorry to say it is too common in this country1 especially in filthy barns4 ,the cow afflicted with the mange is hide-bound2 the hair is dry and stiff1 and comes off4 ,she is constantly rubbing1 and a kind of white scurfiness appears on the skin4 ,it is most perceptible towards the latter part of winter and in spring1 and thus too plainly tells the story of the winter's neglect4 ,an ointment composed chiefly of sulphur has been found most effectual4 ,some mercurial ointment may be added1 if the cows are kept housed2 but1 if let out during the day1 the quantity must be very small1 else salivation is produced by their licking themselves4 ,the ointment may be made of flour of sulphur one pound1 strong mercurial ointment two ounces1 common turpentine one half-pound1 lard one and a quarter pounds4 ,melt the turpentine and lard together1 and stir in the sulphur as they begin to cool off2 then rub down the mercurial ointment on some hard substance with the other ingredients4 ,rub the whole in with the hand1 and take care to leave no places untouched1 once a day1 for three days2 and after this1 if any places are left uncured1 rub it in over them4 ,there is no danger in this application1 if the animal is not exposed to severe cold4 ,this will be pretty sure to effect a speedy cure1 if aided by cleanliness1 pure air1 and a nutritious diet4 ,another wash for mange is the following3 ,pyroligneous acid four ounces1 water a pint2 mix and apply4 ,,lice show unpardonable neglect of duty wherever they are suffered to exist4 ,they crawl all over the stable-floor and the stalls1 on the pastures1 and a touch is sufficient to give them to other animals4 ,they worry and trouble the poor animal constantly2 and no thriftiness can be expected where they are found4 ,if the mange ointment does not completely destroy them1 as it often will1 take bees-wax1 tallow1 and lard1 in equal parts1 and rub it into the hide in the most thorough manner1 with the hand or a brush1 two and a half pounds for a small cow1 three pounds for a large one4 ,the next day it may be washed off in soft soap1 and the lice will have disappeared from the animal1 but not always from the barn4 ,some use a wash of powdered lobelia-seeds two ounce2 steeped in boiling water1 and applied with a sponge4 ,others hang up tobacco-leaves over the stalls4 ,this may do to keep them away2 but1 after the animal is covered with them1 they are not so easily scared4 ,,warbles4--,the gad-fly is very troublesome to cattle towards the end of summer4 ,the fly alights on the back of the cow1 punctures the skin1 and lays her eggs under it4 ,a tumor is now formed1 varying in size1 which soon bursts and leaves a small hole for the grub already hatched to breathe through4 ,here the insect feeds on its surroundings1 and grows up to considerable size4 ,all this time the animal is probably suffering more or less pain1 and often tries to lick or rub the part affected1 if possible4 ,farmers often press them out with the finger and thumb4 ,the best way is to puncture the skin with a common pen-knife1 and then press out the grub4 ,they injure the hide more than most people are aware of4 ,,loss ,,of ,,cud is a consequence of indigestion1 and is often brought on by eating too greedily of food which the cow is not used to4 ,loss of cud and loss of appetite are synonymous4 ,gentle purgatives may be given1 with such as salts1 ginger1 and sulphur4 ,but when a cow is surfeited1 as already said1 ,i should prefer to withhold food entirely1 or for the most part1 till the system can regulate itself4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,calves4--,the colostrum1 or first milk of the cow after calving1 contains medicinal qualities peculiarly adapted to cleanse the young calf1 and free its bowels from the matter always existing in them at birth4 ,this should1 therefore1 never be denied it4 ,bleeding at the navel1 with which calves are sometimes seriously troubled1 may generally and safely be stopped by tying a string around the cord which hangs suspended from it4 ,but ,,diarrh,a1 ,,purging1 or ,,scours1 is the most dangerous complaint with which calves are afflicted4 ,this is caused often by neglect1 or exposure to wet and cold1 or insufficiency of food at one time and over-feeding at another4 ,stinting the calf in food or attention will often involve the loss of considerable profit on the cow for the year4 ,when purging is once fully seated from several days' neglect1 it is often difficult to remove it4 ,the acidity on the stomach which always attends it must first be removed4 ,a mild purgative medicine may be given4 ,rhubarb and magnesia is a very convenient article1 and may easily be given in ounce doses along with the milk4 ,potash is also to be given in quarter-ounce doses in the same way4 ,two ounces of castor-oil1 or two ounces of ,epsom salts1 might be given with the desired effect4 ,after this1 mild astringents may be given4 ,take prepared chalk two drachms1 or magnesia one ounce1 powdered opium ten grains1 powdered catechu half a drachm1 tincture of capsicum two drachms1 essence of peppermint five drops4 ,mix together1 and give twice a day in the milk or gruel4 ,after giving the above repeatedly without effect1 which will rarely happen1 take ,dover's powders two scruples1 starch or arrow-root powdered one ounce1 cinnamon powder one drachm1 and powdered kino half a drachm4 ,boil the starch or arrow-root in water till it thickens1 and when cold stir in the other ingredients4 ,give night and morning4 ,this complaint is often attended by inflammation of the bowels and general fever4 ,it is a good plan to keep a lump of chalk constantly before calves after they are two or three weeks old4 ,it corrects acidity on the stomach1 and is otherwise useful to them4 ,,constipation or ,,costiveness sometimes attacks calves a few days old1 that have not been judiciously managed4 ,it may be brought on by putting a calf to a cow whose milk is too old1 or from feeding a calf from the milk of several cows mixed4 ,it results from too heavy a mass of cogulated milk in the fourth stomach1 which becomes very much swollen with hard curd4 ,it is difficult to remedy4 ,the best way is to pour down some ,epsom salts1 two ounces1 dissolved in two quarts of warm water1 by means of a horn or bottle1 and follow this by half the dose every six hours4 ,constipation sometimes appears in calves from two to four months old1 when their food is too suddenly changed4 ,the bowels must be opened and the hardened mass in the stomach softened very soon1 or it will lead to fatal consequences4 ,farmers are generally very careless about observing these things till it is too late4 ,as already said1 prevention is cheaper than cure2 but1 if the complaint once appears1 no time should be lost to administer a purge of salts in proportion to the size of the animal or the severity of the attack4 ,many a valuable animal will be saved by it4 ,the ,,hoove often appears among calves after being turned out to pasture4 ,the young animal coughs violently1 and appears in pain4 ,it should be removed at once to a dry place1 and physicked4 ,if taken in season1 it is easily cured4 ,if neglected1 it will often prove fatal4 ,this complaint assumes the form of an epidemic at times1 and becomes very prevalent and troublesome4 ,calves sometimes suffer from ,,canker ,,in ,,the ,,mouth1 especially at the time of teething4 ,the gums swell1 and fever sets in4 ,common alum or borax1 dissolved in water1 may be applied1 and a mild purgative administered1 in the shape of one or two ounce doses of ,epsom salts4 ,the diseases and complaints mentioned above are nearly all that afflict our dairy stock2 and the list at least includes all the common diseases and their treatment4 ,some of the diseases and epidemics from which the cattle of ,great ,britain and other countries suffer are not known at all here1 or are of so very rare occurrence as not to have attracted attention2 and among these may be named pleuro-pneumonia1 typhus fever1 cow-pox1 and various epidemics which have from time to time decimated the cattle of all ,europe4 ,to accidents of various kinds1 to wounds1 trouble with the eyes1 and to lameness from other causes than those named1 they are1 indeed1 more or less subject2 but no work could anticipate or cover the treatment best in every case1 and much must be left to the judgment of the owner4 ,i have tried to make this chapter1 which ,i consider one of the most important of any to the dairy farmer1 of practical value to every one who owns or has the care of a cow4 ,but1 lest a want of familiarity with some of the medicines recommended for particular diseases1 or the fear of the expense of procuring and keeping them on hand1 should deter some one from providing himself with a good medicine-chest1 ,i wish to remind the reader that no small portion of them are always to be found in every well-regulated household1 and that the others are obtained at so little expense that no one need be without them for a single day4 ,let us see1 for instance1 how many of them are at hand4 ,but few families are destitute of a supply of ginger1 camphor1 red pepper1 lard1 molasses1 cinnamon1 peppermint1 starch1 turpentine1 tallow1 bees-wax1 burdock1 and caraway-seed4 ,the farmer's wife or daughter will generally have a supply of ammonia or hartshorn4 ,now1 ,i wish to suggest to the farmer or dairyman who happens to live at a distance from the apothecary to provide himself with a convenient little medicine-chest1 and put into it say four times the quantities of the various medicines which are mentioned in the preceding pages1 carefully bottled and labelled for use4 ,to aid in this simple plan1 which might be the means of saving an animal worth twenty times its cost1 ,i have obtained1 from a wholesale druggist1 about the average cost of the following quantities and kinds of medicines1 which include all1 or nearly all1 that would be likely to be needed3 ,five pounds of ,epsom salts1 4#ah2 one pint of castor-oil1 4#be2 one pint of sweet spirits of nitre1 4#ai2 one pound of powdered nitrate of potash1 4#bj2 one pound carbonate of ammonia1 4#bc2 one half-pound sal ammoniac1 4#jh2 one pint of tincture of red pepper 7hot drops71 4#ca2 one ounce of hydriodate of potash1 4#cj2 one pound chloride of lime1 4#aj2 one pound sulphate of iron1 4#aj2 #b pounds powdered sulphur1 4#af2 one pint of tincture of ginger1 #cg2 one quart of essence of anise-seed1 4#ej2 one half-pound sulphuric ether1 4#bj2 one half-pound powdered sassafras-bark1 4#bj2 one quarter-pound magnesia1 4#jf2 one quarter-pound rhubarb1 #cj 7the common will answer instead of prepared72 one ounce powdered opium1 4#dc2 ,one quarter-pound catechu1 4#jf2 one ounce ,dover's powders1 4#be2 #b ounces gum kino1 4#je2 one half-pound mercurial ointment1 4#cg2 and one pound aloes1 4#be4 ,then keep in the chest a good probang1 which is a flexible tube made for the purpose1 and is much safer and better for introducing into the throat or gullet of an animal than a common whip-stick1 which some use4 ,this costs about #c4ej1 and can be procured at almost any veterinary surgeon's4 ,this whole chest and contents will cost less than ten dollars4 ,let the farmer also become familiar with the structure and anatomy of his animals4 ,it will open a wide field of useful and interesting investigation4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,dairy ,,husbandry ,,of ,,holland4 ,this chapter ,i translate from an admirable little work in ,german1 8,die ,hollndische ,rindviehzucht und ,milchwirthschaft im ,knigreich ,holland10 by ,ellerbrock1 a distinguished veterinary surgeon1 professor of cattle pathology and cattle-breeding in the ,agricultural ,institute at ,zeyst1 in ,holland4 ,,milking ,,and ,,treatment ,,of ,,milk4--,the cows are turned to pasture early in spring1 and stay there day and night throughout the pasture-season4 ,they are milked daily in a particular part of the lot called the milk-yard4 ,this is kept in some instances permanently in the same place2 in others1 it is changed about at pleasure4 ,a shady part of the pasture is generally selected1 and it is commonly enclosed with a board fence4 ,the cows are driven into this yard to be milked1 when not already there at the usual time4 ,the milking is done by male and female domestics1 who carry their pails1 cans1 and dishes1 hung on a kind of wooden yoke1 ,fig4 #hd1 neatly cut out1 painted1 and set with copper nails4 ,this is swung over the shoulders1 or else the dairy utensils are carried on donkeys1 ponies1 or hand-carts2 or1 where there is water communication1 in boats1 twice a day1 to the yard4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,in the larger dairies the utensils in common use are small wooden pails1 ,fig4 #he1 painted in variegated colors1 with bright brazen or iron hoops1 and neatly washed2 a strainer1 ,fig4 #hf1 made of horse-hair2 a large wooden tunnel1 ,fig4 #hg1 for pouring the milk into the cans and casks2 one or more buckets1 ,fig4 #hh1 usually of brass1 lined with tin1 large enough to hold the milk of several cows together1 or from twelve to eighteen quarts4 ,in many dairies they have wooden buckets1 ,fig4 #he1 painted green or blue outside1 with black stripes1 and with iron or brass handles1 kept very bright4 ,here the buckets are coated over inside with white oil-colors4 ,these are borne by the yoke 7,fig4 #hd71 or in some of the ways indicated above4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,in many places1 instead of buckets for keeping the milk together1 they use copper or brass cans lined inside with tin1 and in the form of antique vases or large beer-jugs1 ,figs4 #ij and #ia1 which are constantly kept brightly polished4 ,in other places1 they use for holding the milk smaller or larger barrels1 ,fig4 #ib1 with broad hoops also kept constantly polished4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,instead of the yoke a soft cushion is also used1 which the dairymaids strap over their backs1 so that they hang down and rest over the hips and thighs4 ,on this cushion the cans are laid1 and fastened with broad hempen straps1 that they may not press too heavily upon the body4 ,this band is called the milk-strap4 ,where the milk is carried home on a hand-cart1 neatly-woven baskets are fastened upon little wagons in which the cans are placed4 ,if it is to be carried in casks1 the same arrangement is fixed upon a hand-cart4 ,two wooden floats are laid upon the milk in the buckets1 in order to protect it from slopping over4 ,one or more large milk-casks or tubs1 in which it may cool off properly1 are also used4 ,the size of these tubs is different1 as well as the materials of which they are made4 ,where the cooling is not left to the air alone1 but is sought to be effected by hanging the milk-tub into cold water1 the vessels are made of metal4 ,the large vase-like jars are also used for this purpose4 ,these hold about thirty cans1 or twenty-six quarts4 ,wooden bowls are used1 of different sizes and forms1 and earthen pans1 rather deeper than broad1 ,figs4 #ic and #id1 in which the milk as it cools is set for the cream to rise4 ,a large pot for collecting the cream until there is enough to churn1 and wooden skimmers for taking off the cream1 are also used4 ,the milker sits upon a common four-legged1 and sometimes one-legged milking-stool1 and milks either the teats on one side1 or one hind and one front teat1 the pail being held between the knees4 ,the cows are milked regularly at four or five o'clock in the morning1 and at five or six in the afternoon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,in ,west ,friesland1 ,north and ,south ,holland1 ,utrecht1 and other places1 it is customary to tie the tail to the leg of the cow1 that she may not annoy the milker4 ,most cows do not resist this1 being accustomed to it from the beginning4 ,they also pass a cord around the horns and tie her to a post stuck in the ground during the milking1 as in ,fig4 #ie4 ,in many provinces only the unruly cows are tied in this way4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,the milking takes place on the right side of the cow1 so that the milker sits on this side4 ,in ,west ,friesland and ,north ,holland there is an exception to this rule4 ,the cows are tied in pairs in the stalls1 and one is milked on one side and the other on the other1 the milker sitting with his back to the board partition1 to avoid annoyance from either animal4 ,when the milking is ended the milk is poured through the hair strainer into the bucket1 or through a strainer or tunnel in the cans or casks1 whichever are used4 ,the milk is taken to the dairy-house1 without delay1 in some of the ways already mentioned4 ,when the yoke is used1 one bucket is hung on the right side and another on the left1 each with a float on the top of the milk to keep it from slopping over4 ,the large metallic milk-cans1 with wooden stoppers1 are borne home on the cushions already described as being held by shoulder-knots strapped round the waist4 ,the mode of transportation depends much on the distance from the dairy-house and the quantity to be carried4 ,in winter1 when the cows are in the barn1 they are likewise milked twice a day1 and the milk is at once strained through the hair strainer into casks made for the purpose4 ,these implements differ according to the object pursued in the dairy2 yet pans and pots are mostly used for raising the cream to be made into butter1 since but few dairymen make cheese in winter4 ,all utensils necessary for milking1 the preservation of milk1 and the making of butter and cheese1 are kept with the utmost neatness4 ,where a stream of running water flows through the yard1 the implements are generally washed in that1 and flowing water is preferred for the purpose4 ,but where the farm or dairy-house stands at a distance from a stream1 a shallow fountain1 or basin1 is dug out in the earth1 walled up1 and so arranged that the water can be taken from it and fresh water substituted when it gets impure4 ,in such a basin1 or in flowing water1 all new wooden dairy utensils are soaked for a long time before being used2 but those in daily use are washed1 rinsed1 and scoured out with ashes1 with the greatest care4 ,none but cold1 clear1 fresh fountain or flowing water is taken for cleansing dairy implements4 ,it is to be observed that1 in large dairies1 the use of water which is covered with newly-fallen honey-dew1 for washing the dairy utensils1 is carefully avoided4 ,when the milk-vessels have been perfectly rinsed out in fresh water1 they are1 in many dairies1 put into a large kettle of water over the fire1 and properly scalded2 after which they are again cleanly washed with cold water1 so that not the least particle of milk or impurity is to be seen1 nor the least smell of it to be observed4 ,the metallic milk-vessels and the metal parts of the wooden ones are cleansed with equal care and exactness1 and kept polished4 ,dairymaids feel a pride in always having the brightest1 most polished1 and cleanest utensils1 and each strives earnestly to excel the others in this respect4 ,when the milk-vessels are scoured1 scalded1 and rinsed perfectly clean1 they are hung on a stand of laths and poles1 made for the purpose1 to be properly dried4 ,the round wooden milk-bowls1 being made of one piece1 are very easily broken or split1 and must be handled with very great care in cleaning4 ,to avoid breaking1 a peculiar table is used for scouring them4 ,the ,dutch dairyman knows perfectly well that his dairy can secure him the highest profit only when the utmost cleanliness is the basis and groundwork of his whole business2 and so he keeps1 with the most extraordinary carefulness1 and even with anxiety1 the greatest possible neatness in all parts of the dairy establishment4 ,,determination ,,of ,,the ,,milking ,,qualities ,,of ,,the ,,cows4--,the ,dutch cattle are1 in general1 renowned for their dairy qualities2 but especially so are the cows of ,north ,holland1 which not only give a large quantity1 but also a very good quality1 so that a yield of sixteen to twenty-five cans#b at every milking is not rare4 ,next to these come the ,west ,friesland and ,south ,dutch cows1 from which from twenty to twenty-four cans of milk may be calculated on4 ,though one could not take a certain number and calculate surely what the yield of each cow would be1 yet he could come very near the truth if he reckoned that a cow1 in three hundred days1 or as long as she is milked1 gives1 on an average1 daily1 from six to eight cans of milk1 from which the whole annual yield would be from one thousand eight hundred to two thousand four hundred cans4 ,of this the cow gives one half in the first four months1 one third in the next three1 and in the remainder one sixth4 ,these superficial results cannot be taken1 however1 as the fixed rule4 #b ,a ,dutch can is a little less than our wine quart ,professor ,wilkins1 in his ,handbook of ,agriculture1 gives the following estimates of the yield of milk3 ,a good ,west ,friesland or ,grningen cow will1 after calving1 give daily fourteen quarts of milk4 ,this will1 after a while1 be reduced to eight quarts4 ,she may be milked three hundred and twenty-three days in the year1 and her product in butter and cheese will amount to one hundred gldens4 ,in ,prof4 ,kop's ,magazine it is stated that a medium-sized ,friesland cow1 which had had several calves1 was giving daily1 on good feed1 five and a half to six buckets1 or from twenty to twenty-two cans1 and over4 ,in ,south ,holland1 also1 this quantity is considered a good yield of a cow4 ,of the cows of ,gelderland1 ,overyssel1 and ,utrecht1 the yield cannot be reckoned higher than sixteen cans daily1 and that only during the first half of their milking season4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,milk ,,for ,,butter4--,to get good butter it is quite necessary that the fresh milk be properly cooled before it is set for cream4 ,in the great dairies of ,north and ,south ,holland1 which not only possess the best cattle1 but may be given as models in dairy husbandry1 they manage as follows3 ,the milk1 as it is brought from the pasture1 is poured from the buckets1 cans1 and casks1 through a hair strainer1 into one vessel1 the milk-kettle4 ,these milk-kettles are not everywhere of the same size1 or of similar form1 but are always riveted together with strong brass or copper bands1 and lined with tin inside4 ,the most common milk-kettles hold sixteen cans2 yet they are found so large as to hold three barrels1 or about six hundred quarts4 ,the peculiar kettle form is very rarely found1 but more frequently the cylindrical1 or vase-shaped4 ,they are held either by two handles or one4 ,the number required depends on the number of cows and the quantity of milk expected4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,cool-bath4 ,the milk-kettles1 when filled1 are set into a basin with cold water1 called the cool-bath1 for the purpose of cooling the milk4 ,the cool-bath is frequently in the kitchen1 sometimes in the bauer-house1 so called1 or directly before the cow-room1 near the spring4 ,the latter is the most common and the most convenient place4 ,the water reservoir is dug in the ground1 and an oblong four-cornered form is preferred for it2 the sides of the excavation being walled up with hard-burnt building-stones and cement1 but the bottom is laid in tiles1 either red1 hard-burnt1 or white glazed4 ,richer dairymen take finely-hewn blue stone or white marble for it4 ,the size of the reservoir is governed by the number of milk-kettles to be put into it1 and so is its depth by their height1 so that the rim of the kettle is on a level with the top of the cool-bath1 ,fig4 #if4 ,the sides of the cool-bath in the kitchen project some feet over the floor1 yet are not so high that the setting in and taking out the milk-kettle will be attended with great inconvenience and trouble4 ,where it is desired to make the work of setting in or raising up the milk-kettles from the cool-bath as easy as possible1 a beam is fixed along the side of the trough1 and iron props are firmly fixed1 which extend out a little over the edge of the trough1 half-way down from the beam4 ,on these the operator can support himself in lowering or raising heavy vessels4 ,these stays1 or props1 are sometimes fixed directly into the wall1 along which the cool-bath stands4 ,under the bottom of the reservoir1 on the other side from where the water comes in1 is an outlet1 stopped with a tap or faucet1 to let off the water4 ,the cool-baths in the kitchen are1 for the most part1 on the floor1 and extend up a convenient height2 whilst those in the cow-barns1 as a general rule1 are dug down and walled up1 and their top is fastened to the floor of the barn4 ,they are deep enough to allow the water for cooling the milk to come up to the rim of the milk-kettle2 but1 in order to prevent men and cattle from falling in1 it is covered with a strong wooden lid to shut down1 as in ,fig4 #ig4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,cool-bath4 ,such a cool-bath is used in the cow-room only in summer1 when the heat is so great that it is difficult to keep the milk cool in the kitchen4 ,the cool-bath in the cow-room is considered as only an auxiliary to that in the kitchen1 and to be used only in case of necessity4 ,the milk-kettles are hung by their handles1 and let down by means of a crank4 ,when the platform is not in use it is taken away from the cool-bath1 and the cover is let down and kept closed4 ,the milk is allowed to remain in the cool-bath until the froth has disappeared1 and there is no difference in temperature between the water and the milk4 ,the milk of one milking must give place for the next1 so that it will be changed twice daily1 morning and evening4 ,a very great importance is1 everywhere in the ,dutch dairies1 attached to this rapid cooling of the milk1 because it is known by experience that it is thus greatly protected from turning sour4#c #c ,it will be perceived that the arrangement for cooling the milk before setting in the pans1 in the ,dutch dairies1 is very elaborate4 ,i have followed the original in translating the above1 though the practice in ,holland differs widely from our own in this respect1 and from that recommended in the preceding pages4 ,the point may be worthy of careful experiment4--,,translator4 ,the milk1 when properly cooled1 is brought to the milk-cellar1 where it is immediately poured out of the milk-kettles into vessels designed to receive it4 ,wooden bowls or pans1 or high earthen pots1 are used for holding it4 ,the pans and pots are set on the table1 and a small ladder1 or hand-barrow1 is laid on there1 on which is placed the strainer1 when the milk is poured from the kettles4 ,the wooden milk-pans are of several forms1 generally made of ash or of linden1 and oval4 ,they are1 on an average1 three and a half feet long1 and half a foot broad1 more or less2 but their dimensions vary4 ,it has been found1 by experience1 that the flatter and shallower the pans1 the quicker and better the cream rises4 ,the milk-pots are pretty large1 but are rather shallow than deep1 glazed inside1 of different forms1 and different capacities2 but they are always broader on the top than at the bottom1 though they stand firmly on a round1 broad foot-piece4 ,milk pans and pots are rinsed with cold water before the milk is poured into them4 ,when properly cleaned and filled1 they are placed on shelves made for the purpose1 in regular rows4 ,these shelves are only a few feet high above the floor of the cellar1 and of suitable width2 but1 if there is not space enough for the milk1 the pans are placed on the bottom of the cellar4 ,the pots are also set along the walls1 on firm board shelves4 ,the milk-cellar1 or rather the milk-room1 ,fig4 #ih1 in the ,north and ,south ,dutch dairies1 is placed on the north side of the house1 next to the kitchen1 but a little lower than the latter1 so that there are usually three steps down4 ,the longer side1 facing towards the north1 has one window1 whilst the gable end1 with its two windows1 faces towards the west4 ,the windows are generally kept shut1 and are open only nights in summer4 ,the cellar is either arched or covered with strongly boarded rafters1 over which the so-called cellar-chamber is situated4 ,the floor of this room is laid in lime or cement1 with red or blue burnt tiles1 so that nothing can pass down through into the milk-cellar4 ,in the cellar itself are the above-mentioned shelves and platforms for the milk-vessels along the walls1 while outside1 in front of the cellar1 linden and juniper trees are planted1 to prevent as much as possible the heat of the sun from striking upon the walls4 ,cleanliness1 the fundamental principle of ,dutch dairy husbandry1 is carried to its utmost extent in the cellar4 ,barrels of meat1 bacon1 vegetables of every kind1 and everything which could possibly create a strong odor and infect the air1 or impart a flavor to the milk1 butter1 or cheese1 are carefully excluded4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,dutch dairy-room4 ,the vessels in which the milk is set remain standing undisturbed in their places1 that the formation of cream may go on without interruption4 ,twenty-four hours1 on an average1 are thought to be necessary for the milk to stand1 during which time the cream is twice taken off1 once at the end of each twelve hours4 ,the morning's milk is skimmed in the evening1 and the evening's on the next morning4 ,but the milk always remains quite still till the dairymaid thinks it time to skim1 which she decides by the taste4 ,long practice enables her to judge with great certainty by this mode of trial4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,when the cream is ripe it is taken off by the dairymaid with a shallow wooden skimmer1 ,fig4 #ii1 in the form of a deep plate1 and carefully placed in a particular vessel--a bucket or cream-pot4 ,the cream-pot is generally washed very clean1 the staves very finely polished1 striped with blue or white outside1 and held together by broad brass or copper hoops1 kept very bright4 ,for closing the jar they use an ashen cover1 which is either simply laid on by a common handle1 or sometimes held on by brass or copper hinges4 ,both cream-pot and cover are always scoured quite white and clean4 ,the cream remains there till enough is got for churning1 or till it becomes of itself thick enough for butter4 ,it is known to be of the proper consistence for butter when a long1 slender1 wooden spoon1 thrust down into it1 will stand erect4 ,when in summer the cream does not get thick enough in season1 they seek to hasten it by putting in a little butter-milk2 but in winter the ripening of the cream is hastened by warming1 either by holding the cream-pot over a coal-pan1 or on a hearth-plate4 ,the remainder1 the skim-milk from the milk bowls or pans1 sour milk1 or butter-milk1 is poured into a particular vessel1 and made into spice-cheese4 ,besides the methods here described for keeping milk for butter1 milk is used for other purposes4 ,sweet milk cheese is made of the unskimmed milk2 cream is used in the house for coffee4 ,rennet is also added to fresh milk1 and the product is immediately sold1 being greatly relished by many4 ,from skim-milk and butter-milk put together is made an article called kramery by cooking the mixture1 putting it into a linen bag1 and hanging it in a cool part of the milk-cellar1 or elsewhere1 when the liquid drops out and leaves a mass of considerable consistence1 called ,hangebast4 ,as soon as the milk is taken from the vessels1 they are taken out of the cellar and carefully cleansed and dried before being used again4 ,,methods ,,of ,,churning4--,churning is the principal operation in the manufacture of butter1 for by it the fatty particles are separated from the other constituents4 ,there are several methods in ,holland of effecting this separation of the butter globules4 ,the oldest and simplest is that of putting the cream into an upright churn1 in which the cream is agitated by moving a long dasher1 pierced with holes1 up and down1 till the object is accomplished4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,there are1 strictly speaking1 only two forms of the churn which are used in all parts of the country4 ,one is broad at the bottom and narrow at the top4 ,this has been known from the earliest times1 and is called the old churn1 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,this old churn is still used in many dairies1 and it has the preference over the other form1 because it is thought to bring the butter quicker and more completely4 ,the other form is more like a beer or brandy cask on end1 being smaller at each end than in the middle1 and is called the barrel-churn4 ,both kinds are made of oak-wood1 and have wooden or broad metal hoops4 ,in the one case they are painted outside2 in the other1 they remain of the natural color1 but are the more frequently scoured1 so that the dark-colored oak-wood gets a whitish color4 ,the metallic hoops are always kept polished bright4 ,both kinds are of different sizes1 according as the quantity of cream is greater or less1 or as they are to be worked by hand or animal power simply1 or by machinery4 ,in ,south ,holland1 where unquestionably the most butter is made1 the barrel-churn is at each end about two feet and two inches in diameter1 and in the centre is seven inches broader1 with two-inch staves4 ,the old churn1 on the other hand1 is usually fourteen inches at the top and twenty-five at the bottom4 ,in ,north ,holland and ,west ,friesland1 also1 sizes are found in which one hundred and fifty to two hundred quarts of cream can be churned4 ,the churns have each a strong cover at the top1 which fits into their rim about the thickness of the hand1 with a hole in the middle for the dasher4 ,the churning is performed either by the hand motion of the dasher1 as in all small dairies1 and in the smallest churns1 or by man-power with the help of certain mechanical contrivances4 ,the means for effecting this are different1 and so the churns have different names4 ,in many dairies1 for instance1 they have a lever connected with the dasher2 in other places they use a flexible pole1 fixed into the ceiling above1 for facilitating the motion of the dasher1 or put a lever in motion with the feet1 which raises and sinks the dasher4 ,there are also complicated artificial butter-machines and butter-mills1 which are named after the inventor1 the manufacturer1 or the motive power4 ,the most known and widely used are the turning-mills1 the wheel-mills1 and the clock-work mills2 as the ,hand ,butter-,mill of ,valk1 ,frst's churn1 etc4 ,there are also still more elaborate machine-works for moving the dasher1 which are used in the larger dairies on account of their convenience and economy4 ,dog-power and horse-power churns are frequently met with4 ,,churning ,,in ,,the ,,common ,,churn4--,the use of this is well known4 ,the dasher is moved up and down by hand1 with the churn full of cream1 till the butter particles are separated and collected together4 ,the operator keeps his body in equilibrium1 to exercise the power of moving the dasher regularly for agitating the cream4 ,,the ,,lever ,,churn is very commonly used in ,south ,holland1 ,fig4 #aja4 ,the churn itself is barrel-form1 as already described1 and the dasher is put in motion by a lever4 ,the upper end is pierced with holes1 through which runs an iron pin4 ,in a beam of the ceiling two joists are firmly fixed1 about a foot and five inches long and four inches square1 and several inches apart4 ,the longer arm of the lever is four feet and seven inches2 the shorter1 three feet and six inches4 ,the churn stands under the short arm of the lever1 where the dasher is fixed4 ,by drawing the longer arm of the lever towards him1 the operator presses the dasher down through the cream4 ,this mode is far less wearisome than the hand-churn1 because by the lever1 with less expense of power1 a far greater agitation is produced4 ,a weight is sometimes attached to the longer arm1 by which the power required is still further reduced4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,,churning ,,with ,,an ,,elastic ,,rod4--,the old-fashioned churn is set in motion by the aid of another kind of power1 as seen in ,fig4 #ajb4 ,a long1 tough1 flexible stick is fastened into the cross-beam in the ceiling1 so that its larger end is held firm by two iron clasps4 ,the elasticity of the rod is such that1 when the smaller end is drawn down by hand1 which1 at the same time1 moves the dasher1 it rebounds1 and thus saves considerable expenditure of power4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,,churning ,,with ,,the ,,treadle ,,lever4--,in many places the churn is put in motion by the feet1 as in ,fig4 #ajc1 where several levers are united to produce the upward and downward motion of the dasher4 ,the longer arm of the lever is connected with the churn1 and the shorter is set in motion by a foot-board4 ,the foot-board lies on a roller1 with its longer part attached to the lever2 and by throwing the weight of the body upon this part the shorter arm of the lever is drawn down1 and the longer1 attached to the churn-dasher1 is raised4 ,the mode of operation is so plainly seen in the cut as to need no explanation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,among the more ingenious contrivances used for churning in ,holland belongs the churn invented by ,frst4 ,the body is somewhat similar to the barrel-churn1 but is smaller2 and it is of uniform diameter throughout1 as in ,fig4 #ajd4 ,it is covered with a wooden lid1 furnished with a convenient handle1 and stands on a low platform1 to which it is fixed1 when in use1 by means of a screw1 k4 ,the motion is communicated to the dasher by means of a wheel1 or windlass1 and an endless cord4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,in the interior of the cylinder is placed a kind of ventilator1 ,fig4 #aje4 ,this consists of eight wooden wings1 pierced with holes1 and motion is communicated to it by means of the wheel1 b1 connected by the cord to the larger windlass4 ,the wings of the machine when set in motion1 strike incessantly in the cream1 and so powerfully that the whole mass is agitated1 and in this manner the separation of the butter particles is soon effected4 ,the motion is so rapid that it is often necessary to turn the crank very slowly1 especially just as the butter is coming4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,,valk',s ,,hand ,,butter-,,mill1 ,fig4 #ajf1 has many advantages4 ,it is less fatiguing to work than the old-fashioned churn1 and even than ,frst's1 because the motion of the body required is simple and less exacting4 ,and again1 the churn takes up less room1 and is easily transported1 which is an important consideration in churning1 on account of the influence of the temperature4 ,in summer the heat may delay1 or render the operation difficult1 and in winter the coldness presents obstacles4 ,a transportable churn can be moved into a cool place in summer1 and a warm one in winter1 when it is desirable4 ,the dasher of the churn is also seen separate in the same figure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,,the ,,dog-,,power ,,churn1 ,fig4 #ajg1 economizes labor1 while1 at the same time1 more butter is obtained1 on account of the uniformity of the agitation produced4 ,it is in use in all the ,dutch provinces4 ,the form and size of the churn are comparatively indifferent2 but the tread-wheel and direction of the moving power are the important points4 ,the diameter of the wheel is from ten to twelve feet1 and the rim or outer circumference is made of boards two feet wide4 ,the weight of the animal turns the wheel and moves the dasher by means of cogs1 as shown in the figure4 ,where there is a sufficient supply of moving power1 a churn with two dashers is sometimes attached1 as shown in ,fig4 #ajh1 in which case one dasher moves down while the other is raised4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,a large and strong dog is required1 and he is easily taught to keep to his work1 by beginning with short trials1 and gradually lengthening them4 ,a steady and uniform step is necessary1 and this will soon be acquired4 ,the dog is sometimes left free1 and sometimes tied by a line4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,,churning ,,by ,,horse-,,power4--,on large farms and in extensive dairies the churning is done by horse-power1 as shown in ,fig4 #aji4 ,the form of the churn itself is optional in this case1 also4 ,the size of the wheel varies1 but it is seldom less than nine or ten feet in diameter1 furnished with cogs on the upper surface1 which are from four to six inches long1 and play into a smaller wheel1 the axle of which is attached to the dasher of the churn4 ,a third and smaller wheel is sometimes introduced1 as in ,fig4 #aaj4 ,a quick and regular step is required of the animal1 and a quiet and docile horse is always preferred4 ,a horse adapted to this work commands a good price4 ,blinders are always used on the horse while churning4 ,,duration ,,of ,,the ,,churning4--,in whatever way the churning is performed1 the result is always a separation of the fatty particles from the other constituents of the milk4 ,as soon as the churning indicates that the butter particles increase in size and collect together1 the motion of the dasher must be hastened till the butter has come together in a large mass4 ,great care should be taken to observe the appearance of this formation4 ,the ,dutch dairymaids acquire great skill1 by long practice and experience1 in judging of the proper moment when the separation of the particles has completely taken place4 ,very great importance is with justice attached to this skill1 for it is undoubtedly true that one with this knowledge can get far more and better butter from milk of the same quality1 the same quantity1 and skimmed at the same time4 ,the cream taken from the milk of thirty-five cows1 after standing twenty-four hours1 is generally churned in summer in less than an hour1 sometimes in three quarters of an hour4 ,in very hot weather the cream-pot is frequently set into the cool-bath of fresh water for five or six hours before the churning begins1 and it churns the easier for it4 ,cold water is never poured into the churn with the cream4 ,in winter1 as well as in cold weather in spring and fall1 warm water is sometimes poured in with the cream4 ,,working ,,and ,,treatment ,,of ,,butter4--,when the churning is finished1 the dairy-woman takes out the butter with a wooden scoop1 ,fig4 #aaa1 and puts it into a tub for further working4 ,the tub1 ,fig4 #aab1 is a broad1 shallow vessel1 open at the top1 and having an opening at the bottom which is stopped by a bung4 ,the scoop is pierced with holes1 through which the butter-milk drains4 ,the butter put into the tub is now rinsed1 salted1 and formed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,the tub is put upon a low1 firm table1 and the butter is worked by the hands1 or by a shallow1 rather wide and strong wooden ladle1 until the butter is united into one firm and entire mass4 ,many dairy-women are accustomed to work the butter out from the middle towards all sides before bringing the whole mass together in the tub4 ,then very clear and pure fresh cold water is poured upon the butter1 and worked through it till all the milky particles are entirely removed4 ,after this is done in several workings1 the bung is removed from the bottom of the tub1 and the watery matter runs down through a little strainer1 as in ,fig4 #aac4 ,as a general rule1 butter is washed with water and worked over eleven or twelve times2 yet the operator must judge whether the butter contains any particles of milk1 and must work with water till1 as it runs off1 it is no longer whitish1 but perfectly clear4 ,butter sometimes becomes too soft from too much working1 if it is all done at once2 it is then worked over two or three times1 and allowed to stand in cold water after each working1 which preserves its hardness and texture4 ,this whole operation is called the washing of the butter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,when the washing is finished1 the butter is cut with a blunt1 saw-toothed knife1 ,fig4 #aad1 in every direction1 in order to remove all hairs1 or fibres of any kind1 which by any possibility have got into it during the day4 ,it is then sprinkled over with white1 finely-powdered salt1 the quantity of which is regulated by the taste2 and this is perfectly worked in1 so that the whole is uniformly salted4 ,most dairy-women determine the quantity of salt by the eye and the taste1 and acquire such facility by continued practice that they always get the proper quantity2 but less experienced ones take the salt by weight4 ,the salting is not all done at once1 but is continued three or four days1 twelve hours intervening between each application1 until all the salt has dissolved1 and not a crystal is to be found4 ,if the butter has a speckled and variegated appearance1 it is a sign that the salt is not completely worked in1 and the neglect must be remedied by working it over still more in the most thorough manner4 ,when the salt is all dissolved1 the butter is brought into single balls and got ready for the next market-day1 or the whole mass is put into a particular keg1 in order to be taken to market at some subsequent time as firkin-butter4 ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,fresh ,,butter4--,the form of the butter is made by taking a suitable quantity and pressing it into a mould1 and then taking it out by knocking on the mould4 ,many different forms of butter-moulds are in use in the different sections of ,holland1 such as are shown in ,figs4 #aae1 #aaf1 and others4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,the figures impressed on the butter are given by the mould1 where it is deeply engraved2 or they are made after the butter is taken out of the mould1 and for this purpose a peculiar instrument is used1 ,fig4 #aag1 a kind of flat wooden spoon1 with a short1 convenient handle1 and long grooves in the broad1 flat surface4 ,each region has its own peculiar stamp1 or special figures1 which are given to lump-butter1 to which particular attention is paid by the purchaser4 ,the butter-dealer knows exactly that in one section butter is stamped in one way1 in another section in some other way2 and that the butter of one section1 with its peculiar stamp1 is worth more than that of another4 ,the butter-moulds are generally made of linden-wood1 but must always be large enough to hold at least a certain prescribed weight of butter2 for all lump-butter brought for sale to the weekly market must be of a prescribed weight4 ,this weight is very different1 and almost every city has different regulations and market customs2 yet1 in most places1 a pound is the legal weight4 ,certain market-masters1 or inspectors of butter1 are appointed1 and watch that all the butter has its proper weight4 ,if too light1 it is forfeited by the seller1 who is also punished for fraud4 ,the butter brought to market is generally covered with very clean white cloths1 and several sample lumps are put for inspection in a large butter-bowl1 basket1 or shallow box4 ,many dairymen are accustomed in spring1 when the first grass butter is made1 to send their regular customers a few little lumps of fresh ,may or grass butter4 ,these presents generally have a peculiar form1 and on the specimens most carefully prepared some animal is moulded1 as a sheep lying down1 a dog1 c41 with a bunch of green grass or buttercups in its mouth4 ,the dairy-woman herself usually presents this butter in a beautiful milk-bowl adorned with grass and flowers1 covered with glittering white cloths4 ,,the ,,packing ,,of ,,butter ,,in ,,firkins ,,and ,,barrels4--,if the butter packed in firkins and barrels is to be kept a long time1 experience and knowledge are required to pack it so that it will not be injured4 ,the form and size of these casks are different in different sections and provinces4 ,where butter-making forms a chief branch of dairy business1 the particular form and size which have been used for a long time are adhered to1 because dairymen know very well that the public recognizes their choice butter by the form and size of the casks1 and buys it the more readily4 ,the greatest anxiety of the ,dutch butter-maker is to keep up the old1 well-earned reputation which ,dutch butter has in every foreign country1 both for its intrinsic good qualities1 the result of the process of manufacture1 and for its extraordinary appearance as an article of commerce4 ,for the proper preservation of the good qualities of butter1 it is of the highest importance to have the casks properly made and treated2 but the mode of salting and packing the butter in them is also of special importance1 since this is examined at the sale4 ,the old and customary forms and sizes of butter-casks are1 therefore1 of great consequence to the butter-maker1 because every butter-dealer and judge of butter recognizes at once1 by the external form of the casks1 from what section the butter comes1 and makes up his mind on the money value of the article from these appearances4 ,it was not originally known what kinds of wood were best for transporting butter long distances in1 and preserving its highest qualities2 and butter-casks were made of several kinds of wood1 as oak1 beech1 willow1 etc4 ,but it was for the interest of the government that ,dutch butter should maintain its reputation for extraordinary qualities abroad1 and the most rigid laws were enacted1 prescribing from what wood the casks should be made1 etc42 and now only oak is allowed to be used1 and the casks are all inspected and stamped according to law4 99 99 99 99 ,before the butter is packed the casks are properly cleaned and prepared1 for which practice and experience are requisite4 ,old butter-casks that have been previously used are cleaned of every particle of fat and dirt remaining in them1 and scoured and washed out as carefully as possible1 and are placed for several days in running water before they are used again4 ,if no running water is at hand1 quite clean pond or spring water is taken1 and all impure water is carefully avoided4 ,after they have lain in the water five or six days1 they are carefully scoured out with good wood-ashes and sand1 and again well rinsed4 ,after several scourings and soakings1 they are put into a kettle over a fire and carefully scalded2 and then1 when cold1 again scoured and rinsed1 for which the most judicious dairymen use milk instead of water1 and they are then placed to dry in the air4 ,they are fit for use only when everything has been done in the most careful manner4 ,but new butter-casks require still more particular and careful treatment before they can be filled with butter without fear of injury4 ,they are got ready for packing in several different ways4 ,some dairymen let them lie in pure water a whole summer and winter long1 and wash them out in lye1 and then treat them just as they do those that have been used4 ,others1 however1 who give the new casks the preference over the old1 but who cannot wait for the soaking in lye over summer and winter1 treat them in the following manner3 ,they prepare a lye of good ,american potash1 which generally contains the most alkali1 in a cask holding some three hundred quarts1 taking a pound of potash to twenty pounds of water4 ,for a cask of the size named fifteen pounds of potash are used1 which is prepared by pouring boiling water upon it and stirring constantly1 adding a little more water as the potash dissolves4 ,with this lye1 which will be about five degrees strong by ,beaum's arometer1 the butter-barrels are entirely filled4 ,the barrels stand two hours filled with lye1 and are then emptied and exposed to the air to dry1 without being scoured out with water or milk4 ,the lye may be used again for other new barrels1 even though a part of its strength may be gone4 ,potash is added1 from time to time1 to keep up the specified degree of strength4 ,a solution of fifteen pounds of coarsely-powdered alum is prepared in about three hundred quarts of hot water1 in a vessel as large as the lye-cask4 ,the butter-barrels are also filled full of the solution of alum1 and allowed to stand twenty-four hours4 ,this alum solution must also be of five degrees strength by ,beaum's scale1 and it can be used over and over by adding more alum now and then4 ,after emptying out the alum and lye1 they are dried a day in the sun and air1 and then rinsed out in fresh1 pure water1 when they can be used for packing butter without fear4 ,some add a little sulphate of iron or green copperas to the alum1 when the solution is more powerful2 yet the management of the butter-barrels is then more troublesome1 and requires more experience4 ,the effect of the copperas has also the disadvantage that it blackens the barrels1 which1 though it does not injure them1 is not liked by the purchaser4 ,by this treatment the new butter-barrels are much more quickly and cheaply cleansed1 and got ready for packing and transporting butter1 than by the course pursued with old barrels4 ,the barrels1 treated as above1 are not only quite water-tight1 but the wood is stronger and more durable4 ,by means of the potash-lye and the alum solution the tannin is taken from the oak-wood used in the barrels1 which1 if it remained1 would give a disagreeable taste to the butter4 ,the effect of the potash and alum upon the wood of the barrels is quite harmless1 and does not impart the least unhealthy quality to the butter4 ,when the old or new barrels have been cleansed and prepared1 in either of the ways indicated1 suitably for packing the butter1 the bottom of the barrel is evenly covered with salt4 ,then a layer of butter which has been thoroughly washed and salted is made1 and another layer of salt1 and so alternate layers of salt and butter till the barrel is full1 when a little brine of salt and water is poured on top4 ,the butter is now ready to be laid in the cellar1 and thence to be sold and exported4 ,when the dairy is not sufficiently large to fill a barrel each day1 the butter of several churnings must be used1 and the barrel filled from time to time as it stands in the cellar4 ,in that case the upper layer of butter is left covered with salt1 and the cover of the barrel is closed down tight4 ,in most large dairies a barrel is generally filled at one churning1 which is considered better for the quality of the butter4 ,the butter is always packed in so firmly that no space is left unfilled4 ,in doing up butter for sale at home1 or at a neighboring market1 the lumps are worked into the form of half a sphere1 and put into little bright-hooped boxes1 made to fit into larger casks1 which can be nicely covered and closed up1 as seen in ,fig4 #aai1 where the dairy-woman holds a box in her hand4 ,the covered casks are also seen carefully nailed up4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,the buyer who wishes to try the butter uses a long iron or steel borer1 hollow inside1 and furnished with a handle1 as also seen in the cut4 ,this not only enables him to test the quality but the uniformity of the butter in the cask4 ,,coloring ,,of ,,butter4--,the practice of coloring butter is founded on the fact that we are accustomed to form our judgment at once of the qualities of the article from the whiteness or the yellowness of its color4 ,whiter butter is less attractive generally than yellow summer or grass-made butter4 ,the color has come to be important to the seller1 and artificial means are found to regulate it4 ,the coloring is made as follows3 ,about a pound of butter is melted1 so that the heavier parts sink to the bottom1 when the light1 clear fat on the top is poured into another dish4 ,in this fat thus poured off is put a piece of annatto about the size of a walnut1 wrapped up in a linen cloth1 and it is then again put over the fire4 ,the coloring matter of the annatto strains through the linen cloth1 and turns the butter brown red1 when it is allowed to cool off4 ,when the butter is to be colored1 some of this brown red is melted1 salted1 and mixed very carefully into the butter after washing4 ,the quantity of coloring matter used depends on the color which the maker wants to impart to his butter1 and a little practice soon enables him to take the right quantity4 ,others pour the coloring matter directly upon the butter to attain the same end4 ,in coloring artificially it is important to get a uniformity of color1 which is the result of very thorough working4 ,colored butter must not be marbled4 ,the cream is sometimes colored before churning4 ,the annatto is put into a clean beech-wood lye1 and as much of this colored and strained lye is taken as is necessary to produce the desired color in the butter4 ,it is then churned as usual4 ,turmeric is sometimes used instead of annatto for coloring butter4 ,it has no advantage1 however1 over annatto4 ,in many sections the butter is colored with an extract of saffron in water1 or of marigold1 or with the juice of carrots1 which is applied to the cream before churning4 ,the coloring adds nothing to the quality or the taste4 ,it is done for the sake of the looks2 but it gives the butter a deceptive appearance4 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,butter-,,milk4--,the butter-milk in the churn is poured into a great cask1 which in large dairies1 as a general rule1 is painted blue outside and white inside1 with broad black iron hoops4 ,it stands generally in the kitchen covered with a wooden lid4 ,butter-milk is used either in cooking1 or for calves or swine1 or is sold4 ,dairymen in the vicinity of large cities have barrels with broad1 bright brass hoops1 in which they carry their butter-milk to market4 ,it is put into them through a bung-hole1 and when full the wooden bung is wound with linen and driven in4 ,in these barrels the butter-milk is carried to ,amsterdam1 ,rotterdam1 etc41 sometimes by boats on the canals1 sometimes on wagons1 and by yokes1 and there sold to the grocers at wholesale1 to be again sold out by them4 ,the butter-milk thus brings an income by no means inconsiderable to well-managed dairies4 ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,the ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,dutch ,,cheese4--,from time immemorial1 cheese1 as an article of commerce1 which has had a large sale1 has brought an extensive income to the cattle-breeders and dairymen where its manufacture has been largely carried on1 as everywhere in ,west ,friesland1 ,north and ,south ,holland1 and along the borders of the crooked ,rhine in ,utrecht4 ,dairymen are not the only ones who enjoy the advantage which grows out of the cheese-trade2 but a large number of other people derive considerable profit from it1 and support themselves entirely by it4 ,even the commonalty of the cities1 where the weekly markets for the sale of cheese are regularly held1 derive a considerable revenue from the small taxes for carriage and market-dues1 to which every seller has to submit4 ,the actual difference between the different kinds of cheese made in ,holland is due in part to the form and size1 and in part to the mode of making4 ,every sort has also a name derived from its peculiarities1 or from the provinces or sections where it is made4 ,the varieties of cheese best known in the markets in ,south ,holland are the spice cheese1 the sweet milk cheese1 known also under the name of ,gouda cheese1 the so-called ,may cheese1 the ,council's cheese1 the ,jews' cheese1 and the ,english cheese1 made in many places4 ,further up in ,north ,holland1 the ,north ,dutch sweet milk cheese1 as it is commonly called in the province1 known in the foreign markets as ,edam cheese1 is almost exclusively made4 ,a kind of sweet milk cheese is made to a limited extent1 called ,commissions' cheese4 ,in ,west ,friesland1 ,utrecht1 and ,south ,holland1 but few except sweet milk cheeses are made4 ,in making cheese1 the utmost cleanliness is most carefully observed in all the operations4 ,whoever is intrusted with this work is required to display the utmost neatness in his whole person1 as well as in the dairy-room2 and the vats and other utensils are daily scoured1 washed with lye1 and washed out in water and rinsed4 ,the greatest attention is also paid to the transport of cheese to the weekly markets in the cities2 and in whatever way his load is carried1 whether by wagon or in little boats1 the person intrusted with it is always dressed in the so-called cheese-frock1 a large white linen1 which is used exclusively for this purpose4 ,at the market itself the cheese is laid on a four-cornered bench1 two feet high1 and exposed to view in a glittering white linen cloth4 ,but1 in order to keep off all dust and impurities1 a sail-cloth is raised over the whole1 called the cheese-sail2 or it is covered with a sail-cloth covering1 or sometimes with clean straw4 ,but in other places it is customary to carry the cheese on wagons1 in a white linen cloth1 and covered with a woollen cover1 ready packed for sale at the markets4 ,,cheese-,,making ,,in ,,south ,,holland4--,spice cheese from skim-milk1 and sweet milk or ,gouda cheese1 are the only kinds made to any extent in ,south ,holland4 ,spice cheese1 which derived its name from the addition of spices1 is a firm1 flat cheese1 of about twenty pounds weight1 brought to market generally colored red4 ,it is three quarters of a foot thick1 and one and a half feet in diameter1 and is made as follows3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,the skim-milk is poured from the milk-pans into large tubs1 and allowed to stand quiet till the cheesy matter has settled to the bottom1 which requires1 perhaps1 half a day4 ,then the thin liquid on top is poured off very carefully1 without stirring up the rest1 through a strainer1 into a large brass kettle1 till it is full2 but the thicker substance at the bottom is left1 and not put into the kettle4 ,under this kettle a fire is made1 and the milk heated to a certain degree1 regulated by the judgment of the dairymaid1 sufficient to warm other cold milk1 but it must not boil4 ,the fire is made in the kitchen1 or in the summer-house1 or in some other room called the cheese-house4 ,when the milk in the kettle is properly heated1 it is poured into the tub of milk which has been heated and allowed to get cold4 ,this tub is an upright vat1 open at the top1 of uniform diameter1 bound with wooden hoops1 and generally left of the natural color of the wood2 scoured very bright1 but sometimes painted blue and the hoops black4 ,it is seen in ,fig4 #abj4 ,when the quantity of milk is large1 the dairyman puts in as much rennet as he thinks necessary to curdle the milk completely2 but before and during the addition of the curd the whole is thoroughly stirred1 and this stirring is continued until the stick or wooden ladle used for the purpose will stand erect in the curd4 ,then the dairy-woman works the curd with her hands till no further effect of the rennet in curding the milk is to be seen4 ,it is called the cheese-curd4 ,the rennet is prepared in the following manner3 ,the maw or fourth stomach of a newly-killed sucking calf is taken from the other stomachs1 carefully cleaned and cut into strips two inches wide1 and then hung up in the chimney to be smoked and dried2 or1 in hot weather in summer1 it is hung up in the sun4 ,well smoked and dried strips will keep a very long time4 ,when these are wanted for use1 they are very carefully washed and purified1 and then laid in the salt brine from the butter-barrels1 or in lukewarm salt water to soak4 ,the liquid is put into bottles and laid in the cellar4 ,for curding milk as much is taken as is thought to be necessary1 which cannot be determined without considerable practice and experience4 ,if too little is taken1 the cheese is not fat enough2 if more than the right quantity1 it gives a disgusting acid taste4 ,it is difficult1 almost impossible1 to state exactly how much rennet should be used with a certain quantity of milk1 because this must be determined by its quality and its strength4 ,something like the following quantity is1 however1 taken3 ,in a sixty-quart vat are placed about fifty rennets1 prepared by drying1 washing1 and cutting1 and a clear salt brine or butter-pickle of twenty to twenty-five degrees strength is added4 ,in smaller quantities the proportion of rennet is about one and a half quarts to a rennet1 or even less4 ,this dried maw can be bought everywhere in packages of twenty-five pieces each4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,one great point in cheese-making is to have a sufficient quantity of good rennet in store2 for the older it grows the more powerful and effective it becomes1 and the experienced cheese-makers1 studying their own interests1 know very well how difficult1 hurtful1 and time-wasting1 it is to use fresh or new rennet4 ,the assertion sometimes made that they use muriatic acid instead of rennet for curding the milk in ,holland rests on an error1 at least so far as the present methods are concerned4 ,in earlier times1 and for the poorest kinds1 as the ,jews' cheese1 muriatic acid was more or less used4 ,at the present time1 the rennet for those cheeses is prepared from the stomachs of calves some days old4 ,when the curd has sufficiently come1 and has all been thoroughly broken1 the dairy-woman puts a four-cornered linen cloth1 called the cheese-cloth1 which is used only for this purpose1 and is only loosely woven1 upon a small strong ladder laid over the edges of a low tub1 and puts upon the cloth the proper quantity of curd1 then ties up the four corners of the cloth1 and presses with her whole strength1 that the milk may drain off4 ,this work is also done by men who can apply great strength1 ,fig4 #aba4 ,the corners of the cheese-cloth are brought together1 and the operator presses as hard as he can1 in order to remove all the milk from the curd4 ,but1 as this is not possible with the hands alone1 the whole is placed under a plank-press1 and by this means as much of the milk as possible is pressed out4 ,a strong cleat is nailed to a pillar in the wall at a convenient height from the floor1--say two feet1--so that the tub1 ladder1 and cheese-cloth1 can be put under the plank1 when the plank is pressed down upon the cloth and curd4 ,at the other end of the plank the operator sits and presses down with the whole weight of his body1 as seen in ,fig4 #abb4 ,the whey runs into the tub1 and is generally used as food for swine4 ,the pressure is continued till no more runs off4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,after the complete removal of the whey1 the curd remaining in the cloth has the form of the palms of the hands1 and is pressed so firmly that it holds together when the cloth is removed4 ,but it is again broken up1 and put for this purpose into the breaking-tub1 a low but broad1 open tub1 with wooden hoops1 and made of strong staves1 and is here worked over by the bare but cleanly-washed feet of the dairyman1 or hired man4 ,this working with the feet is continued1 just as in kneading dough1 till all is brought to a stiff paste4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,when it has come to this consistence the forming of the cheese begins4 ,the dairyman has for this purpose a cheese-mould standing before him1 and lays on the bottom a layer of cheese without spice1 and this is called the blind layer4 ,the cheese tub or mould1 ,figs4 #abc and #abd1 is used only for this first moulding4 ,it is a wooden vat1 made of staves from one to one and a half inches thick1 and is nine and a half to twelve and a half inches in diameter1 and about ten inches high1 bound at the bottom and top with stout hoops4 ,the bottom of oak-wood1 put in very carefully1 is pierced with holes for letting off any moisture that may remain in the cheese4 ,on the top of the tub a cover is exactly fitted1 to sink down upon the cheese when the pressure is applied4 ,this cover is of oak1 one and a half inches thick1 and has a cross-piece three and a half inches thick1 which serves as a handle4 ,the first layer of cheese is quite firmly pressed down or trodden into the mould with the hands or feet1 and then follows a layer of curd mixed with spices4 ,the mixture is made best by putting as much of the pasty curd from the vat into a tub as will form one layer in the mould4 ,over this the spice is strewn1 caraway and some pounded cloves1 and the mass is then worked over1 when it is placed as a new layer into the mould4 ,upon the second layer some coarsely-pounded cloves are generally scattered1 or they are stuck whole over the surface4 ,after that the second layer is pressed in like the first1 and the third follows1 and so on till the mould is full4 ,on the uppermost and firmly pressed layer is laid the cover4 ,the mould thus carefully filled is now brought under a press1 which1 partly on account of its length1 is called the 8long-press10 and sometimes the 8first0 or 8cheese press10 because the cheese first comes under it4 ,this press is seen in ,fig4 #abe4 ,it stands on four short legs1 and consists of upright beams fixed upon a platform1 and a long beam1 acting as a lever1 with one end fastened by a rivet or bolt4 ,the other end is loaded with weights to any desirable extent1 as appears in the cut4 ,the power of the press may also be increased or diminished by shifting the end of the lever to the lower or upper hole4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,when the mould is put under the press it is set into a shallow1 four-cornered wooden box or pan on the foot-board4 ,this pan is furnished with grooves at the side1 through which the whey can escape4 ,the pressure may still further be increased by putting a block on the lid of the mould1 as appears in the press4 ,it is this powerful pressure which gives the cheese the high quality for which it is distinguished above others4 ,the whey still remaining in the curd runs off through the holes in the bottom of the mould1 when the strong pressure is applied1 into the pan1 and is caught in another pan which sits under the press4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,when the cheese has stood two hours under the press1 it is taken from the mould1 surrounded by a clean linen cloth1 and again brought under the press4 ,the change of cloth is repeated once or twice after two or three hours' pressing1 and the cheese is left standing in the press over night4 ,the next morning the cheese is brought under another press1 under which it is subjected to still more powerful pressure1 and receives its peculiar form4 ,this press is seen in ,fig4 #abf1 and consists of a frame resting on four strong uprights1 forming a kind of firm table4 ,on the plate of the table lie four or six rollers1 whose ends at both sides pass through holes in the standard pieces1 and serve merely to assist in taking out the cheese4 ,the pressure is obtained by heavy weights let down and raised by a kind of windlass fixed in two perpendicular standards4 ,the cheese as it comes under this press is not in the mould1 but is simply laid in a pan1 as seen in ,fig4 #abg4 ,before the pressure begins1 however1 the stamp or mark of the manufacturer1 a key1 a letter1 etc41 in iron1 is laid upon the cheese1 and upon that a square board4 ,the pan and weight are lowered1 so that the pressure begins and the stamp is impressed on the cheese1 which becomes flatter1 smoother1 and firmer than before4 ,the cheese is left under this press till it gets its final form1 and the pressure in the pan is increased or diminished1 according to circumstances4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,when the cheese1 after being pressed in both machines1 has received its final form1 it is placed in a long trough1 called the salt-trough1 which is generally in the cow-room behind the cow-stands4 ,it has been already said that the cow-stall is used as a cheese-room in summer1 when the cows are out to pasture4 ,in this trough1 a space deep and wide enough for the diameter of the cheese1 from four to six cheeses can be laid4 ,in the salt-trough the cheeses are salted as long and as thoroughly as is necessary4 ,observation and experience are needed here to get the right quantity of salt and the right time1 that the cheese may receive a suitably firm crust or rind4 ,when the cheese in the salt-trough is sufficiently salted1 it is put over a large tub1 where it is properly washed in cold1 fresh water1 trimmed with a cheese-knife1 and colored4 ,for coloring1 annatto boiled in water with some potash is used4 ,after the coloring the cheese is rubbed with the beistings1 or first milk of a cow newly-calved4 ,the spice cheese gets its red color and firm1 smooth rind in the coloring and washing in the beistings2 and this distinguishes it from other sorts4 ,the colored cheeses are now laid upon shelves made for the purpose in the cow-stall used as a cheese-room1 and turned daily till properly dried4 ,when dry they are laid for sale in a cheese or store room4 ,this room is connected with the house1 or separated from the other rooms only by a thin board partition4 ,this room1 as well as the cow-stall1 is kept extraordinarily clean1--scoured and aired1 and used for nothing but the keeping of cheese4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,fig4 #abh represents the cow-stall used as a cheese-room1 in which the salt-trough is seen1 and the dairyman and dairy-woman are occupied in turning and trimming the cheese4 ,,manufacture ,,of ,,sweet ,,milk ,,cheese ,,in ,,south ,,holland4--,the best kind of sweet milk cheese is made in the vicinity of the city of ,gouda1 and on the gray and ,dutch ,yssel1 from which circumstance it is often known by the name of ,gouda cheese4 ,the making of this cheese is less difficult than that of spice cheese1 but requires more attention and care1 because the rich sweet milk is used for it4 ,it is as follows3 ,the milk as it comes fresh from the cow is strained through a hair-strainer into a large wooden vat or tub1 or1 in some large dairies1 into a copper kettle1 which stands on a peculiar tray or bench4 ,this tray is made of four to five inch posts1 and its size is governed by the quantity of milk of the tubs to be used2 but these tubs generally hold from one hundred to one hundred and fifty cans4 ,the milk is immediately set with the requisite quantity of rennet1 usually one quarter of a can to one hundred cans of milk2 and if it does not 8come0 in a quarter of an hour1 more rennet is added4 ,when it has properly curdled1 it is stirred in all directions with a wooden ladle three or four times over1 and somewhat broken up1 when it is allowed to stand three or four minutes at rest4 ,it is then gently and constantly stirred again1 with the ladle or the hands1 and broken4 ,by too active stirring one gets more whey than cheese1 and very quick stirring must be avoided4 ,the whey is then allowed to stand some time1 by which the curdled cheese particles collect1 and the whey appears on the surface1 and can be taken off and poured into a tub made for the purpose4 ,to the mass still remaining in the kettle1 which is now almost all cheesy matter1 as much hot water is added as is sufficient to warm it properly4 ,the addition of hot water must be made with discretion1 however1 and must not exceed a certain amount1 which can be learned only by practice4 ,the more we add1 the drier will the cheese become after a while2 and1 though it may keep the better1 and be better for transportation1 the taste is unquestionably injured by it4 ,the cold-made cheese is far more liable to injury from keeping1 but is much richer and more palatable1 on which account the best is generally eaten fresh4 ,the quantity of hot water to be added for warming the milk must therefore he determined somewhat by the disposition to be made of the cheese4 ,when the hot water has stood1 say half an hour1 on the curd1 it is taken off and poured into the whey4 ,the curd is now properly brought together by the hands or a ladle1 and again thoroughly worked and broken4 ,after standing at rest a short time1 the water and whey are turned off again1 as completely as possible1 in the whey-tub4 ,the mass of curd still remaining in the vat1 now called wrongel1 is cut up into small pieces1 which are very carefully worked over1 and then pressed into the wooden cheese-mould4 ,in order to get a very fine separation of the curd1 only a small quantity is taken at once from the vat1 which is rubbed in the hands1 and then pressed into the mould till it is quite full4 ,the cheese-mould is in the form of a bowl1 made of willow wood1 with its lower part pierced with holes1 so that the whey can run off when the pressure is applied4 ,the cheese now formed is taken out carefully1 rubbed with the hands1 and still further worked in the cheese-tub1 and again very firmly pressed into the mould with the hands4 ,to be able to press it into the mould with greater power1 an implement called the presser is used4 ,it consists of a short stick1 with a kind of handle or cross-piece on the upper end4 ,on the lower end a disc is fixed which fits into the cheese-mould4 ,in using the instrument1 the disc is placed on the cheese to be pressed into the mould1 the handle or cross-piece is placed against the chest or shoulders1 and the operator presses down at the same time with his hands1 thrusting the disc as deeply as possible into the cheese-mould4 ,when pressed enough on one side1 it is turned round in the mould1 bringing the other side up1 and the pressure is again applied as strongly as possible4 ,for saving the whey in cheese-pressing1 the mould is set into a pan only a little larger than the mould itself1 which catches the whey running out from the mould4 ,when the cheese in the mould is properly pressed by hand1 the cover is put upon the mould1 which is loaded gradually1 in order to bring down the greatest possible pressure4 ,the weight or pressure is greater or less according to the size of the cheese2 yet during the pressure the cheese must be frequently turned1 that it may get the right form4 ,the gradual increase of the pressure goes on for twenty-four hours1 when the cheese is taken from the mould to be laid in a tub of salt-brine in the cellar2 the cellar must be kept cool4 ,the cheese remains in the brine twenty-four hours1 but is turned once in that time4 ,it is then taken out and put upon a table1 the surface of which is inclined1 the legs of one end being longer than those of the other4 ,on both sides of the inclined table run grooves in the direction of the inclination of the surface1 which unite at the lower end1 and serve as a way of escape for the brine or pickle into a tub below4 ,here the cheese is rubbed with salt1 and a handful of salt1 is scattered over the top1 when it is left standing for some time 8in the salt40 ,if one side was rubbed in the morning1 it is turned at evening2 and the other side is served in the same manner as the first4 ,a cheese of from fifteen to sixteen pounds remains standing thus four or five days1 according to the temperature4 ,if the heat is great1 it must stand the longer in the salt4 ,when sufficiently salted1 it is washed off in hot water1 and taken to the cheese-room1 where it is daily turned on dry1 clean shelves4 ,if it is still greasy or dauby on the outside1 it is still further washed in water1 and dried off with a coarse linen towel4 ,the cheese-room is generally kept closed by day to keep out the light and sun1 which are not good for cheese4 ,it is opened in the morning and evening to let in a little cooling air2 yet a strong breeze is avoided by opening all the doors and windows at the same time1 for the cheese will crack and break open if exposed to it4 ,sweet milk cheese is fit for use at the age of four weeks4 ,strongly salted cheese does not ripen up so quickly as that which is salted less2 but1 if it takes longer1 the loss is less1 and1 on that account1 it is preferred for sending off to less salted cheese1 which1 on the other hand1 is richer1 and has a little better taste4 ,in the daily turning of the cheese1 great care is taken to observe any little specks in it where the mites conceal themselves4 ,as soon as such places are discovered1 a hole is dug out with a knife as deep as they extend into the cheese4 ,the holes are left open till the next day1 when1 if no more mites appear1 they are stopped up with other cheese4 ,but1 if they still appear1 some pounded pepper is put into the holes1 which destroys them4 ,rotten or moist spots on the cheese are treated in the same way1 but very deep holes have to be made into the cheese1 and it is best to cover them with buckwheat-meal1 when they dry up very quickly4 ,in very hot weather it sometimes happens that the cheese swells up and begins to ferment4 ,then it is laid on the cleanly-scoured pavement of the cheese-room1 where it is cooler2 or1 as many do1 pierced pretty deeply with holes with a knitting-needle1 which often helps it4 ,with the decrease of the great heat of the sun1 the swelling also ceases4 ,the cheese is not injured except in appearance1 the taste being improved4 ,but1 if the swelling is very considerable1 it makes the cheese hollow4 ,if the milk and cheese dishes are not very cleanly washed and rinsed out1 the cheese gets a wrinkled crust1 and begins to ferment4 ,sweet milk cheese1 three or four months old1 is turned and aired only once a week in dry weather4 ,many cheese-makers also sprinkle the cheeses daily1 for a week or two after they are fourteen days old1 with beer and vinegar1 or with vinegar in which saffron has been extracted1 by which it gets not only a beautiful yellow color1 but is also protected from flies4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,whey ,,of ,,sweet ,,milk ,,cheese4--,on what remains of the milk devoted to the making of sweet milk cheese in the manner above described1 or the whey which runs off in the pressing of the cheese1 there forms1 after it has stood a few days1 a fine creamy skin1 which is carefully taken off with a wooden spoon1 put in a clean jar1 and stirred from time to time4 ,this cream is collected to make butter1 and it can be done once a week4 ,this butter-whey is healthful and good1 to be sure2 but1 on the whole1 is not so fine and delicate flavored as good cream butter1 and on this account is cheaper4 ,the butter-milk which comes from the churning of the cream of whey is a good food for swine4 ,they greatly relish it4 ,whey is also sold as a beverage1 and is called 8sweet whey40 ,when fresh and untainted1 it is quite an agreeable drink1 very cooling1 and good for the health in spring1 purifying the blood1 though somewhat purgative in its effect on the kidneys4 ,later in summer1 when the heat is very great1 whey is thought to be rather injurious to the health than otherwise4 ,it is then used exclusively for swine4 ,,may ,,cheese4--,in the early part of summer1 when the grass is best1 sweet milk cheese is made in precisely the same way as that described1 yet of smaller size and less weight4 ,this is called ,may cheese1 and is designed for immediate use or sale when ripe1 as it will not keep1 and easily loses its fine flavor4 ,,jews' ,,cheese4--,another kind of sweet milk cheese is the ,jews' cheese4 ,it differs from common sweet milk cheese in its form1 which is flatter and thinner1 and partly in being less salted1 and of a much looser texture4 ,it is but little made2 but some dairies are devoted to it4 ,,council',s ,,cheese4--,this is made as the common sweet milk cheese1 only in much smaller moulds4 ,it has also a peculiar color4 ,it is allowed to get rather old before it is relished1 and is then mostly given away4 ,,new ,,milk',s ,,cheese4--,this is made in winter1 when the cows are in the stall4 ,it is not so good as grass cheese1 which is made in summer1 when the cows are at pasture1 and is less relished1 and brings a lower price4 ,when the cows are brought to the barn late in the fall1 it can be made of very good quality for a few days2 but the longer the cow remains in the stall the more the milk loses its good quality for cheese1 on which account but few of the larger dairies make cheese at all in winter4 ,to make it appear to buyers more like grass-made cheese1 and to be able to sell it1 it is colored with the same material1 and it is then often very difficult to distinguish it1 since great pains is taken to give the two kinds the same form1 hardness of rind1 etc4 ,the dairymen have less to do with this deception than the dealers4 ,hay cheese is rather better in quality for coloring1 since it gains in appearance and taste2 but it never can equal grass-made cheese in fine qualities4 ,,cheese-,,making ,,in ,,north ,,holland4--,in the province of ,north ,holland sweet milk cheese is made almost exclusively4 ,from ancient times this particular branch of farming has been carried to great extent2 but it has especially grown in importance since the province gained a firm soil by artificial draining4 ,at the present time ,north ,holland is the head-quarters of the cheese-trade2 and it is easily explained in the fact that no other province has more or better cattle4 ,the manufacture of cheese is almost the only object of keeping cattle1 and the ,north ,dutch dairy farmer applies himself with the greatest possible zeal to the most careful modes of cheese-making1 in order to keep up the ancient reputation of his cheeses1 both in the domestic and foreign markets1 and to secure to himself all of the advantages springing from it4 ,the quantity of cheese which is weekly sold in the markets of ,alkmaar1 ,hoorn1 ,edam1 ,purmerend1 ,medenblik1 ,enkhuizen1 etc41 is enormous4 ,we cite ,alkmaar alone as an example1 where on the city scales there were weighed no less than #bc1hei1beh ,netherlandish pounds 7#ecf1hcd1hcj pounds1 ,american71 from #ageh to #ahcj4 ,since that time the manufacture has increased1 so that from three to four million ,netherland pounds are annually brought to the ,alkmaar market4 ,but1 besides this1 a large quantity of cheese does not come into the market1 but is sold at the dairy without passing through the hands of the traders1 and never comes to the city scales4 ,in #ahdc there were sold in the ,north ,dutch cheese-markets #bb1che1hab pounds1 to say nothing of the large quantity sold directly from the dairy4 ,it is easy to see1 therefore1 how important and extensive an interest the manufacture of cheese has become for this province4 ,of the twenty-two million pounds annually exported1 the value may be estimated as at least three million ,dutch guilders4 ,the price and value of the cheese vary1 of course1 with the markets4 ,the ,north ,dutch cheese differs somewhat in quality and money value1 according to the section where it is made2 but in general that made in the region about ,hoorn is considered the best1 as is very natural1 since in that vicinity are to be found the finest meadows and pastures in the province4 ,the villages of ,oosterblokker1 ,westerwoude1 ,hoogecarspel1 and ,twisk1 are distinguished above all others2 and so are the pastures of ,beemster1 ,purmer1 and ,schermer1 almost equally so4 ,the ,dutch cheese-maker reckons twelve ,netherland cans of milk to a pound--two and a quarter pounds ,american--of cheese1 according to which a cow in three hundred days would give from eighteen hundred to two thousand cans of milk1 or usually from one hundred and fifty to one hundred and seventy-five ,netherland pounds of cheese1 in a year4 ,,the ,,utensils ,,used ,,in ,,cheese-,,making ,,in ,,north ,,holland are nearly the same as those already described for saving the milk for butter1 and those used in the various processes of cheese-making in ,south ,holland4 ,they are modified to some extent1 to be sure1 by the taste1 the pride1 the wealth1 or the caprice1 of each dairyman4 ,many a them are painted1 wholly or in part1 in oil colors1 for the sake of durability as well as cleanliness1 on which the ,north ,dutch dairyman lays great stress4 ,they do not require much capital4 ,,variety ,,of ,,north ,,dutch ,,cheeses1 ,,and ,,the ,,trade ,,in ,,them4--,the ,north ,dutch cheese is called sweet milk cheese1 and also1 pretty commonly1 white cheese1 where it is made2 but in ,germany it is called ,edamer1 less because the best is made in the vicinity of this city than because the largest trade in it is carried on there4 ,all sweet milk cheese has not the same weight1 form1 and size4 ,many kinds of it come into the market under different names2 as1 for example1 large cheese of #bj to #bd pounds 7#de to #ed pounds71 ,malbollen of #af pounds 7#cf pounds71 medium of #aj to #ab pounds 7#bb to #bg pounds71 ,commission's of #f or #g pounds 7#ad to #af pounds71 and little ones of #d pounds 7#i pounds71 to which belong the ,jews' cheese4 ,besides this1 the making of ,english cheese is carried on4 ,malbollen is but little made4 ,it is of about twenty pounds weight4 ,fifty years ago large quantities of it came into market1 and were sold mostly in ,north ,brabant and the ,rhine provinces4 ,of the medium cheese the manufacture is pretty extensive at the present time1 and it is sold to go to ,north ,brabant chiefly4 ,the price of these sorts is more frequently fluctuating than that of the smaller ones2 but less so than that of ,commission's cheese1 which is not much made4 ,these varieties in former years were very profitable1 since they were made with little labor1 being light and spongy from slight pressing and little salting1 and were sold green4 ,dairy industry is now chiefly devoted to making the varieties most known and sought for in ,germany1 the ,edam small sweet milk cheeses1 which are sent in enormous quantities to all parts of the world4 ,there are two varieties of ,edam cheese in the market1 one with a white1 the other with a red rind4 ,the latter is firm1 more of a yellowish color inside1 and colored outside4 ,the coloring matter is prepared in ,france for this special purpose4 ,by this treatment the cheese is better adapted to transportation4 ,the early red rind cheese is the finest and best4 ,it is made in spring from milk fresh and warm from cows just turned to pasture1 and is exported mostly to ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,america4 ,that made later in summer is not so good1 and goes to ,france2 the red rind1 made still later in the fall1 goes to ,england and ,brabant4 ,cheese that is injured1 or does not keep well1 is sold mostly in ,hamburg and ,brabant4 ,,making ,,of ,,edam ,,cheese4--,the ,edam is a rich sweet milk cheese1 that is made from fresh1 unskimmed milk4 ,the milk1 while still warm from the cow1 is poured into a large tub or a kettle through the strainer4 ,in cold weather1 when it has cooled off in standing in the air1 it is warmed to a proper degree by adding milk heated by the fire4 ,the rennet is then added4 ,this is prepared in the following manner3 ,the maw of the nursing-calf1 cut1 into long strips1 is soaked for twenty-four hours in sweet whey1 when it is made lukewarm over a slow fire1 whey and all1 and three times the quantity of cheese-brine1 or solution of the salt of the cheese1 added4 ,the mass is then allowed to stand four days1 when it is fit for use4 ,an exact determination of the quantity of rennet to be used cannot well be given1 since the quantity depends on the quality2 but usually about two hundred cans of milk to one fifth of a can of rennet is the proportion1 taking more or less1 according to the strength of the rennet4 ,the milk in the tub to which the rennet has been added is covered over and allowed to stand till it is curdled1 or become hard1 which usually requires a quarter of an hour4 ,the curdled milk is then called 8glib40 ,it is now slowly but regularly stirred1 with a shallow1 long-handled cheese-spoon1 in all directions4 ,some cheese-makers treat the milk in the following manner3 ,they stir the milk1 thrusting an inverted cheese-ladle into the curdling mass every two or three minutes after adding the rennet1 by which the curdling is much hastened4 ,now they move the ladle or cheese-stick three or four times with considerable force through the thickening milk1 and lay it1 inverted1 on the surface of the milk1 covering the vat for ten or twelve minutes1 when the mass is again set in motion1 and then again allowed to stand4 ,by this means the cheese particles settle to the bottom1 and the whey rises to the top4 ,when1 after these alternate stirrings and rest of the curdling milk1 the solid particles have settled1 and the whey is collected on top1 the latter is turned off1 as carefully as possible1 into the whey-tub4 ,in order the better to settle the cheesy parts1 and to cause the whey to come up1 the cheese-stick is loaded with weights or stones1 by which the whey is separated in the pressure upon the curd4 ,some minutes after1 the whey is again turned off1 the whole mass is properly stirred1 and the curd is collected with the cheese-stick and worked with the hands1 and the whey is again carefully turned off4 ,the curd1 now become thick1 is taken out of the vat1 piece by piece1 and broken with the hands as finely as possible1 in order to fill as much into the cheese-moulds as will just make a cheese4 ,the moulds are set into the cheese-vat1 and the curd is worked and pressed closely in with the hand1 to remove the whey as much as possible4 ,the cheese is then taken out of the mould1 and again very finely crumbled in the vat1 and1 after the whey is again turned off through the strainer1 is pressed the second time into the mould1 so that it is as full of cheese as it can possibly be4 ,it is then turned in the mould so that the upper side goes down1 when it is again firmly pressed in4 ,the turning is repeated several times4 ,in the making of large and medium cheeses the presser is used1 while space left empty by the pressure is again filled with curd1 so that the mould is always full1 and the cheese gets its requisite size4 ,in the smaller or four-pound cheeses1 the hands alone are used for this pressing into the mould4 ,the mould1 now pressed full1 is put into a tub1 properly washed in whey1 and cleansed of all remaining fat4 ,by the washing and smoothing the cheese must get a glossy and smooth rind4 ,after this is done1 the cheese is again taken out of the mould1 wrapped in a clean linen cloth1 put in again1 and covered over and brought under the press1 that it may become harder and firmer1 and that the whey may run off4 ,in hot weather the cheese is left under the press five hours1 from nine in the morning till two in the afternoon2 but1 if it is cool1 it must stand longer4 ,there are several different objects in view in deciding the continuance of the pressure4 ,many think two or three hours sufficient1 whilst others press five hours4 ,cheese designed for export is pressed longer1 or twelve hours4 ,it takes from three to four hours1 usually1 from the pouring in of the milk to the bringing of the cheese under the press2 but it can be done in two or two and a half hours without injuring the cheese4 ,after the first pressing is finished1 the cheese is put into another mould1 rounder than the first1 and with only one hole in the bottom1 to lie in the salt4 ,in many places a long trough is used1 in which several such moulds are placed to be salted at the same time2 and for this either dry salt or pickle 7brine1 or salt in solution7 is used4 ,the pickle is most commonly used1 and is thought best4 ,when one side of the cheese has laid some hours in the brine1 it is turned1 and the other side is also salted4 ,after a while it is salted or turned in the brine but once a day4 ,small four-pound cheeses remain nine days in hot weather1 and in cold ten or twelve days1 in the salt2 medium ones of ten to twelve pounds must lie at least three weeks4 ,in very hot weather they are often salted twice a day4 ,the moulds with the salted cheese are placed1 several together1 into the cheese-vat where the brine is1 or on a salting-tray where the brine is collected in a tub beneath4 ,after being finally salted1 they are washed perfectly clean with water or warm whey4 ,many put their cheeses from the brine immediately in a kettle of hot whey for some minutes1 and wash them in it4 ,all unevenness or roughness got in pressing in the mould is now scraped off with a knife4 ,after the washing1 the cheeses are again perfectly dried1 and laid on the shelves in the cheese-room1 where they are daily turned1 and remain from two to four1 and even five weeks4 ,the cheese is now salable2 but before it is packed or delivered it is laid for some hours to soak in pure1 cold spring or well water1 the smallest for three hours1 the medium four1 and the largest five hours4 ,the cheese is then well cleaned with the cheese-brush1 laid on the shelf in the store-room1 and turned a week or more1 daily4 ,but1 in order to give them a fine yellow color1 in damp weather1 especially1 the poorer ones are1 by many dairymen1 laid a good ways apart1 and sprinkled or washed daily with new beer4 ,when the cheese is to be sold1 it is properly washed still again in hot whey1 and rubbed with a woolen cloth a day before sending to market1 with hot or cold linseed-oil1 by which the outside of the cheese gets a fine glow2 but it must be rubbed till no fat or oil is to be felt4 ,,the ,,red ,,color ,,of ,,edam ,,cheese4--,after the dairyman has sold his cheese to the merchant1 it is colored by him quite red4 ,it will not be uninteresting to many readers to know some of the details of this peculiar color4 ,edam cheese is colored with what is called tournesol1 which is extracted from a plant 7,croton tinctorium74 ,this is an annual1 which grows wild in ,france1 in great abundance1 in the vicinity of ,montpelier1 in ,languedoc2 and around ,aix1 in ,provence1 large commons are sown with it4 ,the seed is sown in ,march and ,april4 ,from a white and straight tap root1 it sends up a stalk something like six inches high1 which divides into many branches4 ,the leaves have very long stems1 of a pale green color4 ,the flower-stalks spring up from between the branches1 and bear flowers in fan-shaped clusters4 ,the vegetation of the plant continues four months4 ,the preparation of the tournesol is as follows3 ,the plants are collected late in summer1 the roots thrown away1 and the other parts taken to a mill1 where they are ground1 and the juice pressed out4 ,into this juice the rags of old hempen cloth are dipped till they are soaked full1 when they are hung up to dry in the sun4 ,when they are dry they are laid on a tray over a tub filled with urine1 in which carbonate of lime has been dissolved1 so that the edges hang over the rim of the tub on which they rest4 ,the vapor from the solution of lime must penetrate the rags1 and this gives them a violet color1 when they are taken off and dried again1 to be replaced till they are fully colored4 ,the tournesol rags have become an article of commerce1 for which ,france receives annually from ,holland from #ajj1jjj to #bjj1jjj guilders 7from #ch1jjj to #gf1jjj74 ,to give the ,edam cheeses the red rind1 they are rubbed with these tournesol rags1 from which they got the dark violet color2 and after they are dried they are again rubbed1 which gives them a glowing red4 ,it is an excellent peculiarity of the tournesol rags that they not only impart the color to ,edam cheese1 to which people abroad are so accustomed1 but that they keep the insects from the cheese1 whilst the coloring matter does not penetrate inside1 but remains on the rind4 ,substitutes for it have been repeatedly sought1 but not found2 nor have the attempts made to grow the plant in ,holland proved successful4 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,whey ,,of ,,the ,,north ,,dutch ,,sweet ,,milk ,,cheese4--,the whey obtained in making cheese in ,north ,holland is collected in large tubs4 ,the sweet1 agreeable taste of the whey is soon lost when it is set to obtain the fatty particles still remaining in it4 ,the cream which forms on it is daily taken off with a skimmer1 put into a cream-pot1 and when it is collected in sufficient quantity it is made into whey butter4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,letter ,,to ,a ,,dairy-,,woman4 ,in the earlier chapters of this work ,i have spoken to farmers and dairymen of the selection1 care1 and management1 of dairy stock4 ,the seventh1 eighth1 and ninth chapters relate more especially to your department1 and on your application and skill will depend chiefly the successful result of the dairy establishment4 ,of what avail are costly barns1 well-selected cows1 and judicious feeding1 in the butter and cheese dairy1 if the products are to be depreciated in value by the imperfect modes of preparing them for the market1 where the final judgment is passed upon them1 and where it is expected the price will be according to their value8 ,you have1 doubtless1 had a much greater practical knowledge and experience of the details of dairy management than ,i have4 ,for this practice and experience ,i have the utmost respect2 but ,i have not spoken without a knowledge of the subject4 ,i have made many a cheese1 and many a pound of butter1 while my observations have extended over all the most important dairy districts of the country1 and have not been limited to the practices of any one section1 which1 however good in themselves1 may not be the best4 ,i trust1 therefore1 you will excuse me for calling your attention to the more important points to which ,i have alluded2 and1 if my conclusions happen to differ from your own1 in any respect1 that you will not discard them as worthless1 without first bringing them to the test of careful experiment1 when ,i trust they will be found correct4 ,i have not written to establish any favorite theory1 but simply to inculcate truth1 and to aid in developing a most important branch of ,american industry1 which1 either directly or indirectly1 involves the investment of a vast amount of capital1 the aggregate profits of which depend so largely on your judgment and skill4 ,i need not remind you that any addition1 however small1 to the market value of each pound of butter or cheese1 will largely increase the annual income of your establishment4 ,nor need ,i remind you that these articles are generally the last of either the luxuries or the necessaries of life in which city customers are willing to economize4 ,they must and will have a good article1 and are ready to pay for it in proportion to its goodness2 or1 if they desire to economize in butter1 it will be in the quantity rather than the quality4 ,poor butter is a drug in the market4 ,nobody wants it1 and the dealer often finds it difficult to get it off his hands1 when a delicate and finely-flavored article attracts attention and secures a ready sale4 ,some say that poor butter will do for cooking4 ,but a good steak or mutton-chop is too expensive to allow any one to spoil it by the use of a poor quality of butter2 and good pastry-cooks will tell you that cakes and pies cannot be made without good sweet butter1 and plenty of it4 ,these dishes relish too well1 when properly cooked with nice butter1 for any one to tolerate the use of poor butter in them4 ,on page #bbj and elsewhere1 ,i have dwelt on the necessity of extreme cleanliness in all the operations of the dairy2 and this is the basis and fundamental principle of your business4 ,i would not suppose1 for a moment1 that you are lacking in this respect4 ,the enormous quantities of disgusting1 streaky1 and tallow-like butter that are daily thrust upon the seaboard markets must be due to the carelessness and negligence of heedless men1 to exposure to sun and rain1 to bad packing1 and to delays in transportation4 ,many of these evils you may not be able to remove1 since you cannot follow the article to the market1 and see that it arrives safely and untainted4 ,but you can take greater pains1 perhaps1 in some of the preliminary processes of making1 and produce an article that will not be so liable to injure from keeping and transportation2 and then1 if fault is to be found1 it does not rest with you4 ,i will not suggest the possibility that your ideas of cleanliness and neatness may be at fault2 and that what may seem an excess of nicety and scrubbing to you may appear to be almost slovenliness to some others1 whose butter receives the highest price in the market1 and always finds the readiest sale4 ,permit me1 however1 to refer you to pages #cjj1 #cbd1 and #cbe1 where a detailed account is given of the washings in water and washings in alkali2 of the scrubbings1 and the scourings1 and the scaldings1 and the rinsings1 which the neat and tidy ,dutch dairy-women give all the utensils of the dairy1 from the pails to the firkins and the casks1 and also to their extreme carefulness that no infectious odor rises from the surroundings4 ,i think you will see that it is a physical impossibility that any taint can affect the atmosphere or the utensils of such a dairy1 and that many of the details of their practice may be worthy of imitation in our ,american dairies4 ,and here allow me to suggest that1 though we may not approve of the general management in any particular section1 or any particular dairy1 it is rare that there is not something in the practice of that section that is really valuable and worthy of imitation4 ,on pages #bca and #bcd ,i have called your attention to the use of the sponge and clean cloth for absorbing and removing the butter-milk in the most thorough manner2 this ,i regard as of great importance4 ,i have stated on page #bcd that1 under ordinarily favorable circumstances1 from twelve to eighteen hours will be sufficient to raise the cream2 and that ,i do not believe it should stand over twenty-four hours under any circumstances4 ,this1 ,i am aware1 is very different from the general practice over the country4 ,but1 if you will make the experiment in the most careful manner1 setting the pans in a good1 airy place1 and not upon the cellar bottom1 ,i think you will soon agree with me that all you get1 after twelve or eighteen hours1 under the best circumstances1 or at most after twenty-four hours1 will detract from the quality and injure the fine and delicate aroma and agreeable taste of the butter to a greater extent than you are aware of4 ,the cream which rises from milk set on the cellar bottom acquires an acrid taste1 and can neither produce butter of so fine a quality or so agreeable to the palate as that which rises from milk set on shelves from six to eight feet high1 around which there is a full and free circulation of pure air4 ,the latter is sweeter1 and appears in much larger quantities in the same time than the former4 ,if1 therefore1 you devote your attention to the making of butter to sell fresh in the market1 and desire to obtain a reputation which shall aid and secure the quickest sale and the highest price1 you will use cream that rises first1 and that does not stand too long on the milk4 ,you will churn it properly and patiently1 and not with too great haste4 ,you will work it so thoroughly and completely with the butter-worker1 and the sponge and cloth1 as to remove every particle of butter-milk1 never allowing your own or any other hands to touch it4 ,you will keep it at a proper temperature when making1 and after it is made1 by the judicious use of ice1 and avoid exposing it to the bad odors of a musty cellar4 ,you will discard the use of artificial coloring or flavoring matter1 and take the utmost care in every process of making4 ,you will stamp your butter tastefully with some mould which can be recognized in the market as yours2 as1 for instance1 your initials1 or some form or figure which will most please the eye and the taste of the customer4 ,you will send it in boxes so perfectly prepared and cleansed as to impart no taste of wood to the butter4 ,if all these things receive due attention1 my word for it1 the initials or form which you adopt will be inquired after1 and you will always find a ready and a willing purchaser at the highest market price4 ,but1 if you are differently situated1 and it becomes necessary to pack and sell as firkin-butter1 let me suggest the necessity of an equal degree of nicety and care in preparation1 and that you insist1 as one of your rights1 that the article be packed in the best of oak-wood firkins1 thoroughly prepared after the manner of the ,dutch1 as stated on page #cbe4 ,a greater attention to these points would make the butter thus packed worth several cents a pound more when it arrives in the market than it ordinarily is4 ,indeed1 the manner in which it not infrequently comes to market is a disgrace to those who packed it2 and it cannot be that such specimens were ever put up by the hands of a dairy-woman4 ,i have often seen what was bought for butter open so marbled1 streaked1 and rancid1 that it was scarcely fit to use on the wheels of a carriage4 ,if you adopt the course which ,i have recommended in regard to skimming1 you will have a large quantity of sweet skimmed milk1 far better than it would be if allowed to stand thirty-six or forty-eight hours1 as is the custom with many4 ,this is too valuable to waste1 and it is my opinion that you can use it to far greater profit than to allow it to be fed to swine4 ,there can be no question1 ,i think1 that cheese-making should be carried on at the same time with the making of butter1 in small and medium-sized dairies4 ,you have seen1 in ,chapter ,,xi41 that some of the best cheese of ,holland is made of sweet skim-milk4 ,the reputation of ,parmesan--a skim-milk cheese of ,italy1 page #bff--;is world-wide1 and it commands a high price and ready sale4 ,the mode of making these varieties has been described in detail in the ninth and eleventh chapters2 and you can imitate them1 or1 perhaps1 improve upon them1 and thus turn the skim-milk to a very profitable account1 if it is sweet and good4 ,you will find1 if you adopt this system1 that your butter will be improved1 and that1 without any great amount of extra labor1 you will make a large quantity of very good cheese1 and thus add largely to the profit of your establishment1 and to the comfort and prosperity of your family4 ,but1 if you devote all your attention to the making of cheese1 whether it is to be sold green1 or as soon as ripe1 or packed for exportation1 ,i need not say that the same neatness is required as in the making of butter4 ,you will find many suggestions in the preceding pages on the mode of preparation and packing1 which ,i trust will prove to be valuable and applicable to your circumstances4 ,there is a general complaint among the dealers in cheese that it is difficult to get a superior article4 ,this state of things ought not to exist4 ,i hope the time is not far distant when a more general attention will be paid to the details of manufacture1 and let me remind you that those who take the first steps in improvement will reap the greatest advantages4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,piggery ,,as ,a ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,dairy ,,establishment4 ,the keeping of swine is incidental to the well-managed dairy1 and both the farmer and the dairyman unite it1 to some extent1 with other branches of farming4 ,in the regular operations of the dairy1 however economically conducted1 there will always be more or less refuse in the shape of whey1 butter-milk1 or skim-milk1 which may be consumed with profit by swine1 and which might otherwise be lost4 ,dairy-fed pork is distinguished for its fineness and delicacy2 and the dairy refuse1 in connection with grains1 potatoes1 and scraps1 is highly nutritious and fattening4 ,there is a wide difference between the profit to be derived from the different breeds4 ,some are far more thrifty than others1 and arrive at maturity earlier4 ,but the choice of a breed will depend1 to considerable extent1 on the locality and the object in view1 whether it be to breed for sale as stock1 or for pork or bacon4 ,to get desirable crosses1 some breeds must be kept pure1 especially in the hands of stock breeders1 or those who raise to sell as pure-bred1 even though as pure breeds they may not be most profitable to the practical farmer and dairyman4 ,those who confine themselves to the pure breeds1 therefore1 do good service to the community of farmers and dairymen1 who can avail themselves of the results of their experience and skill4 ,i think it will generally be conceded that the size of the male is of less importance than his form1 his tendency to lay on large amounts of fat in proportion to the food he eats1 or his early maturity4 ,smallness of bone and compactness of form indicate early maturity2 and this is an essential element in the calculations of the dairy farmer1 who generally raises for pork rather than for bacon1 and whose profit will consist in fattening and turning early1 or1 at most1 as young as from twelve to fifteen months4 ,a fine and delicate quality of pork is at the present time highly prized in the markets1 and commands the highest price4 ,for bacon1 a much larger hog is preferred2 but there can be little doubt that the cross of the pure ,suffolk or ,berkshire boar and the large1 heavy and coarse sow1 not uncommon in the ,western ,states1 would produce an offspring far superior to the class of hogs usually denominated 8subsoilers10 with their long and pointed snouts1 and their thin1 flabby sides4 ,the principles of breeding1 as stated on pp4 #gj and #ga1 and elsewhere in the preceding pages1 are equally applicable here1 and are abundantly suggestive on many other points4 ,this is the important point1 the selection of the proper breed and the proper cross3 for there is scarcely any class of stock which varies so much in its net returns as this2 and there is none which1 if properly selected and judiciously managed1 returns the investment so quickly4 ,those who feed for the early market1 and desire to realize the largest profits with the least outlay of time and money1 will resort to the ,suffolk1 the ,berkshire1 or the ,essex1 to obtain crosses with sows of the larger breeds1 and will breed up more or less closely to these breeds1 according to the special object they have in view4 ,the ,suffolks are nearly allied to the ,chinese1 and possess much the same characteristics4 ,though generally regarded as too small for profit except to those who breed for stock1 their extraordinary fattening qualities and their early maturity adapt them eminently for crossing with the larger breeds4 ,the form of the well-built ,suffolk1 when not too closely inbred1 is a model of compactness1 and lightness of bone and offal4 ,though often too short in the body1 a large-boned female will generally correct this fault1 and produce an offspring suited to the wants of the dairy farmer4 ,the ,berkshire is also mixed in with the ,chinese1 and owes no small part of its valuable characteristics to that race4 ,the ,berkshires1 as a breed1 often attain considerable size and weight4 ,the improved ,essex are the favorites of some1 and for early maturity they are difficult to surpass4 ,some think they require greater care and better feeding than the ,berkshire4 ,what is wanted is to unite1 so far as possible1 the early maturity and the facility to take on fat of the ,suffolk1 the ,chinese1 or the ,essex1 with a tendency at the same time to make flesh as well as fat2 or1 in other words1 to attain a good growth and size1 and to fatten easily when the time comes to put them down4 ,the ,chinese or the ,suffolk are but ill adapted for hams and bacon2 but1 crossed upon the kind of hog already described1 the produce will be likely to be valuable4 ,the most judicious practical farmers are new fully satisfied1 ,i think1 that the tendency1 for the last ten years1 in the ,eastern ,states more especially1 has been to breed too fine2 and that the result of this error has been to cover our swine with fat at a very early age1 and before they have attained a respectable size4 ,in other words1 the flesh and bone have been too far sacrificed to fat4 ,a rection has already taken place in the opinions on this point1 and perhaps some caution may be necessary1 that it does not load too far in the opposite direction4 ,some practical dairymen think that with a dairy of twenty or thirty cows they can keep from forty to fifty swine1 by turning into the orchard or the pasture1 in early spring1 and as pigs1 where they will easily procure a large part of their food1 till the close of fall1 when they are taken in and fed up gradually at first1 but afterward more highly1 and fattened as rapidly and turned as soon as possible4 ,others say there is no profit in working hogs1 and that they should be kept confined and constantly and rapidly growing up to the time of turning them for pork1 growing steadily1 but not laying on too much fat till fed up to it4 ,i am inclined to think the farmers of the ,eastern ,states confine their swine too closely2 and that1 while still kept as store-pigs1 a somewhat greater range in the orchard1 or the pasture1 would prove to be good economy1 particularly up to the age of eight or nine months4 ,the judicious dairyman will study the taste and demands of the market where his pork is to be sold4 ,if he supplies a city customer1 he knows he must raise a fine and delicate quality of pork2 and to do this he must select stock that will early arrive at maturity1 and that will bear forcing ahead and selling young4 ,if he supplies a market where large amounts of pork are salted and packed for shipping1 or for bacon1 a larger and coarser hog1 fed to greater age and weight1 will turn to better advantage1 though ,i think a strain of finer blood will even then be profitable to the feeder4 ,in either case1 the refuse of the dairy is of considerable value1 and should be saved with scrupulous care1 and judiciously fed4 8,many a little makes a mickle40 ,,appendix4 ,the following is ,mr4 ,thomas ,horsfall's statement1 referred to on page #ach1 with the omission of a few passages1 relating to matters not immediately connected with the dairy4 ,it is entitled ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,dairy ,,cattle4 ,on entering upon a description of my treatment of cows for dairy purposes1 it seems pertinent that ,i should give some explanation of the motives and considerations which influence my conduct in this branch of my farm operations4 ,i have found it stated1 on authority deserving attention1 that store cattle of a fair size1 and without other occupation1 maintain their weight and condition for a length of time1 when supplied daily with one hundred and twenty pounds of ,swedish turnips and a small portion of straw4 ,the experience of the district of ,craven1 in ,yorkshire1 where meadow hay is the staple food during winter1 shows that such cattle maintain their condition on one and a half stone1 or twenty-one pounds1 of meadow hay each per day4 ,these respective quantities of turnips and of hay correspond very closely in their nutritive properties2 they contain a very similar amount of albuminous matter1 starch1 sugar1 etc41 and also of phosphoric acid4 ,of oil--an important element1 especially for the purpose of which ,i am treating--the stated supply of meadow hay contains more than that of turnips4 ,if we supply cows in milk1 of average size1 with the kind and quantity of food above mentioned1 they will lose perceptibly in condition4 ,this is easily explained when we find their milk rich in substances which serve for their support when in store condition1 and which are shown to be diverted in the secretion of milk4 ,in the neighborhood of towns where the dairy produce is disposed of in new milk1 and where the aim of dairymen is to produce the greatest quantity1 too frequently with but little regard to quality1 it is their common practice to purchase incalving cows4 ,they pay great attention to the condition of the cow2 they will tell you1 by the high comparative price they pay for animals well stored with flesh and fat1 that condition is as valuable for them as it is for the butcher2 they look upon these stores as materials which serve their purpose2 they supply food more adapted to induce quantity than quality1 and pay but little regard to the maintenance of the condition of the animal4 ,with such treatment1 the cow loses in condition during the process of milking1 and when no longer profitable is sold to purchasers in farming districts where food is cheaper1 to be fattened or otherwise replenished for the use of the dairy keeper4 ,we thus find a disposition in the cow to apply the aliment of her food to her milk1 rather than to lay on flesh or fat2 for not only are the elements of her food diverted to this purpose1 but1 to all appearance1 her accumulated stores of flesh and fat are drawn upon1 and converted into components of milk1 cheese1 or butter4 ,as ,i am differently circumstanced1--a considerable portion of my dairy produce being intended for butter1 for which poor milk is not adapted1--and as ,i fatten not only my own cows1 but purchase others to fatten in addition1 ,i have endeavored to devise food for my milch cows adapted to their maintenance and improvement1 and with this view ,i have paid attention to the composition of milk4 ,from several analyses ,i have selected one by ,haidler1 which ,i find in publications of repute4 ,taking a full yield of milk1 four gallons per day1 which will weigh upwards of forty pounds1 this analysis assigns to it of dry material #e4bj1 of which the proportion1 with sufficient accuracy for my purpose1 consists of ,pure caseine1 #b4jj pounds4 ,butter1 #a4be 8 ,sugar1 #a4ge 8 ,phosphate of lime1 4#ji 8 ,chloride of potassium1 ,other mineral ingredients1 4#aa 8 ---- #e4bj 8 ,it appeared an object of importance1 and one which called for my particular attention1 to afford an ample supply of the elements of food suited to the maintenance and likewise to the produce of the animal2 and that1 if ,i omitted to effect this1 the result would be imperfect and unsatisfactory4 ,by the use of ordinary farm produce only1 ,i could not hope to accomplish my purpose4 ,turnips are objectionable on account of their flavor2 and ,i seek to avoid them as food for dairy purposes4 ,i use cabbages1 kohl rabi1 and mangold wurzel1 yet only in moderate quantities4 ,of meadow hay it would require1 beyond the amount necessary for the maintenance of the cow1 an addition of fully twenty pounds for the supply of caseine in a full yield of milk 7sixteen quarts72 forty pounds for the supply of oil for the butter1 whilst nine pounds seem adequate for that of the phosphoric acid4 ,you cannot1 then1 induce a cow to consume the quantity of hay requisite for her maintenance1 and for a full yield of milk of the quality instanced4 ,though it is a subject of controversy whether butter is wholly derived from vegetable oil1 yet the peculiar adaptation of this oil to the purpose will1 ,i think1 be admitted4 ,i had1 therefore1 to seek assistance from what are usually termed artificial feeding substances1 and to select such as are rich in albumen1 oil1 and phosphoric acid2 and ,i was bound also to pay regard to their comparative cost1 with a view to profit1 which1 when farming is followed as a business1 is a necessary1 and in any circumstances an agreeable accompaniment4 ,i think it will be found that substances peculiarly rich in nitrogenous or other elements have a higher value for special than for general purposes1 and that the employment of materials characterized by peculiar properties for the attainment of special objects has not yet gained the attention to which it is entitled4 ,i have omitted all reference to the beat-supplying elements--starch1 sugar1 etc4 ,as the materials commonly used as food for cattle contain sufficient of these to effect this object1 under exposure to some degree of cold1 ,i have a right to calculate on a less consumption of them as fuel1 and consequently a greater surplus for deposit as sugar1 and probably also as fat1 in consequence of my stalls being kept during winter at a temperature of nearly sixty degrees4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the means used to carry out his objects are stated on page #ach4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as several of these materials--rape-cake1 shorts1 bean-straw1 etc4--are not commonly used as food1 ,i may be allowed some observations on their properties4 ,bean-straw uncooked is dry and unpalatable4 ,by the process of steaming1 it becomes soft and pulpy1 emits an agreeable odor1 and imparts flavor and relish to the mess4 ,for my information and guidance ,i obtained an analysis of bean-straw of my own growth1 on strong and high-conditioned land2 it was cut on the short side of ripeness1 but yielding a plump bean4 ,the analysis by ,professor ,way shows a percentage of ,moisture1 #ad4dg ,albuminous mater1 #af4ch ,oil or fatty matter1 #b4bc ,woody fibre1 #be4hd ,starch1 gum1 etc41 #ca4fc ,mineral matters1 #i4de ------ ,total #ajj4jj ,in albuminous matter1 which is especially valuable for milch cows1 it has nearly double the proportion contained in meadow hay4 ,bran also undergoes a great improvement in its flavor by steaming1 and it is probably improved in its convertibility as food4 ,it contains about fourteen per cent4 of albumen1 and is peculiarly rich in phosphoric acid1 nearly three per cent4 of its whole substance being of this material4 ,the properties of rape-cake are well known3 the published analyses give it a large proportion 7nearly thirty per cent47 of albumen2 it is rich in phosphates1 and also in oil4 ,this is of the unctuous class of vegetable oils1 and it is to this property that ,i call particular attention4 ,chemistry will assign to this material1 which has hitherto been comparatively neglected for feeding1 a first place for the purpose of which ,i am treating4 ,if objection should occur on account of its flavor1 ,i have no difficulty in stating that by the preparation ,i have described ,i have quite overcome this4 ,i can easily persuade my cattle 7of which sixty to eighty pass through my stalls in a year71 without exception1 to eat the requisite quantity4 ,nor is the flavor of the cake in the least perceptible in the milk or butter4 ,during ,may1 my cows are turned out on a rich pasture near the homestead2 towards evening they are again housed for the night1 when they are supplied with a mess of the steamed mixture and a little hay each morning and evening4 ,during ,june1 when the grasses are better grown1 mown grass is given to them instead of hay1 and they are also allowed two feeds of steamed mixture4 ,this treatment is continued till ,october1 when they are again wholly housed4 ,the results which ,i now proceed to relate are derived from observations made with the view of enabling me to understand and regulate my own proceedings4 ,,gain ,,or ,,loss ,,of ,,condition ,,ascertained ,,by ,,weighing ,,cattle ,,periodically4--,for some years back ,i have regularly weighed my feeding stock1 a practice from which ,i am enabled to ascertain their doings with greater accuracy than ,i could previously4 ,in ,january1 #ahed1 ,i commenced weighing my milch cows4 ,it has been shown1 by what ,i have premised1 that no accurate estimate can be formed of the effect of the food on the production of milk1 without ascertaining its effect on the condition of the cows4 ,i have continued the practice once a month1 almost without omission1 up to this date4 ,the weighings take place early in the morning1 and before the cows are supplied with food4 ,the weights are registered1 and the length of time 7fifteen months7 during which ,i have observed this practice enables me to speak with confidence of the results4 ,the cows in full milk1 yielding twelve to sixteen quarts each per day1 vary but little2 some losing1 others gaining1 slightly2 the balance in the month's weighing of this class being rather to gain4 ,it is common for a cow to continue a yield from six to eight months before she gives below twelve quarts per day1 at which time she has usually1 if not invariably1 gained weight4 ,the cows giving less than twelve quarts and down to five quarts per day are found1 when free from ailment1 to gain1 without exception4 ,this gain1 with an average yield of nearly eight quarts per day1 is at the rate of seven pounds to eight pounds per week each4 ,my cows in calf ,i weigh only in the incipient stages2 but they gain perceptibly in condition1 and consequently in value4 ,they are milked till within four weeks to five weeks previous to calving4 ,i give the weights of three of these1 and also of one heifer1 which calved in ,march1 #ahee3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,n o 4 #ahed4 #ahee4 ,gain4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- cwt4 qr4 lbs4 cwt4 qr4 lbs4 lbs4 #a;,bought and weighed1 ,july4 #aj #a #bj ,april4 #aa #c #j #adh #b;,bought and weighed1 8 #h #b #aj 8 #aj #b #j #bad #c;,bought and weighed1 8 #h #b #j 8 #aj #j #j #ahd #d;,heifer1 which calved also in ,march1 #ahee1 weighed 8 #g #j #j 8 #i #c #j #cjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,these observations extend over lengthened periods1 on the same animals1 of from thirty to upwards of fifty weeks4 ,a cow1 free from calf1 and intended for fattening1 continues to give milk from ten months to a year after calving1 and is then in a forward state of fatness requiring but a few weeks to finish her for sale to the butchers4 ,it will thus appear that my endeavors to provide food adapted to the maintenance and improvement of my milch cows have been attended with success4 ,on examining the composition of the ordinary food which ,i have described1 straw1 roots1 and hay1 it appears to contain the nutritive properties which are found adequate to the maintenance of the animal1 whereas the yield of milk has to be provided for by a supply of extra food2 the rape-cake1 bran1 and bean-meal1 which ,i give1 will supply the albumen for the caseine2 it is somewhat deficient in oil for the butter1 whilst it will supply in excess the phosphate of lime for a full yield of milk4 ,if ,i take the class of cows giving less than twelve quarts per day1 and take also into account a gain of flesh of seven to nine pounds per week1 though ,i reduce the quantity of extra food by giving less of the bean-meal1 yet the supply will be more in proportion than with a full yield2 the surplus of nitrogen and phosphoric acid1 or phosphate of lime1 will go to enrich the manure4 ,i cannot here omit to remark on the satisfaction ,i derive from the effects of this treatment on the fertility of the land in my occupation4 ,my rich pastures are not tending to impoverishment1 but to increased fertility2 their improvement in condition is apparent4 ,a cow in full milk1 giving sixteen quarts per day1 of the quality analyzed by ,haidlen1 requires1 beyond the food necessary for her maintenance1 six to eight pounds per day of substances containing thirty or twenty-five per cent4 of protein4 ,a cow giving on the average eight quarts per day1 with which she gains seven to nine pounds per week1 requires four to five pounds per day of substances rich in protein1 beyond the food which is necessary for her maintenance4 ,experience of fattening gives two pounds per day1 or fourteen pounds per week1 as what can be attained on an average1 and for a length of time4 ,if we considered half a pound per day as fat1 which is not more than probable1 there will be one and a half pounds for flesh1 which1 reckoned as dry material1 will be about one third of a pound1 which is assimilated in increase of fibrin1 and represents only one and one third to two pounds of substances rich in protein1 beyond what is required for her maintenance4 ,if we examine the effects on the fertility of the land1 my milch cows1 when on rich pasture1 and averaging a yield of nine quarts per day1 and reckoning one cow to each acre1 will carry off in twenty weeks twenty-five pounds of nitrogen1 equal to thirty of ammonia4 ,the same quantity of milk will carry off seven pounds of phosphate of lime in twenty weeks from each acre4 ,a fattening animal1 gaining flesh at the rate ,i have described1 will carry off about one third of the nitrogen 7equal to about ten pounds of ammonia7 abstracted by the milch cow1 whilst if full grown it will restore the whole of the phosphate4 ,it is worthy of remark that experience shows that rich pastures1 used for fattening1 fully maintain their fertility through a long series of years1 whilst those used for dairy cows require periodical dressings to preserve their fertility4 ,if these computations be at all accurate1 they tend to show that too little attention has been given to the supply of substances rich in nitrogenous compounds in the food of our milch cows1 whilst we have laid too much stress on this property in food for fattening cattle4 ,they tend also to the inference that in the effects on the fertility of our pastures used for dairy purposes we derive advantage not only from the phosphate of lime1 but also from the gelatine of bones used as manure4 ,on comparing the results from my milch cows fed in summer on rich pasture1 and treated at the same time with the extra food ,i have described1 with the results when on winter food1 and whilst wholly housed1 taking into account both the yield of milk and the gain of weight1 ,i find those from stall-feeding full equal to those from depasture4 ,the cows which ,i buy as strippers1 for fattening1 giving little milk1 from neighboring farmers who use ordinary food1 such as turnips with straw or hay1 when they come under my treatment increase their yield of milk1 until after a week or two they give two quarts per day more than when they came1 and that too of a much richer quality4 ,,richness ,,of ,,milk ,,and ,,cream4--,i sometimes observe1 in the weekly publications which come under my notice1 accounts of cows giving large quantities of butter4 ,these are usually1 however1 extraordinary instances1 and not accompanied with other statistical information requisite to their being taken as a guide2 and it seldom happens that any allusion is made to the effects of the food on the condition of the animals1 without which no accurate estimate can be arrived at4 ,on looking over several treatises to which ,i have access1 ,i find the following statistics on dairy produce3 ,mr4 ,morton1 in his 8,cyclopdia of ,agriculture10 p4 #fba1 gives the results of the practice of a ,mr4 ,young1 an extensive dairy-keeper in ,scotland4 ,the yield of milk per cow is stated at six hundred and eighty gallons per year2 he obtains from sixteen quarts of milk twenty ounces of butter1 or for the year two hundred and twenty-seven pounds per cow2 from one gallon of cream three pounds of butter1 or twelve ounces per quart 7wine measure74 ,mr4 ,young is described as a high feeder2 linseed is his chief auxiliary food for milch cows4 ,professor ,johnston 78,elements of ,agricultural ,chemistry07 gives the proportion of butter from milk at one and a half ounces per quart1 or from sixteen quarts twenty-four ounces1 being the produce of four cows of different breeds1--,alderney1 ,devon1 and ,ayrshire1--on pasture1 and in the height of the summer season4 ,on other four cows of the ,ayrshire breed he gives the proportion of butter from sixteen quarts as sixteen ounces1 being one ounce per quart4 ,these cows were likewise on pasture4 ,the same author states the yield of butter as one fourth of the weight of cream1 or about ten ounces per quart4 ,mr4 ,rowlandson 78,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society10 vol4 xiii41 p4 #ch7 gives the produce of #bj1aaj quarts of milk churned by hand as #aaji pounds of butter1 being at the rate of fully #ad ounces per #af quarts of milk2 and from #bc1aef quarts of milk #aebe pounds of butter1 being from #af quarts nearly #af ounces of butter4 ,the same author states that the yield of butter derived from five churnings1 of #ae quarts of cream each1 is somewhat less than #h ounces per quart of cream4 ,dr4 ,muspratt1 in his work on the 8,chemistry of ,arts and ,manufactures10 which is in the course of publication1 gives the yield of butter from a cow per year in ,holstein and ,lunenburg at #ajj pounds1 in ,england at #afj pounds to #ahj pounds4 ,the average of butter from a cow in ,england is stated to be eight or nine ounces per day1 which1 on a yield of eight to nine quarts1 is one ounce per quart1 or for sixteen quarts sixteen ounces4 ,the quantity of butter derived from cream is stated as one fourth1 which is equal to about nine ounces per quart4 ,the richest cream of which ,i find any record is that brought to the ,royal ,society's meeting during the month of ,july1 for the churns which compete for the prize4 ,on referring to the proceedings of several meetings1 ,i find that fourteen ounces per quart of cream is accounted a good yield4 ,i have frequently tested the yield of butter from a given quantity of my milk4 ,my dairy produce is partly disposed of in new milk1 partly in butter and old milk1 so that it became a matter of business to ascertain by which mode it gave the best return4 ,i may here remark that my dairy practice has been throughout on high feeding1 though it has undergone several modifications4 ,the mode of ascertaining the average yield of butter from milk has been to measure the milk on the churning-day1 after the cream has been skimmed off1 then to measure the cream1 and having1 by adding together the two measurements1 ascertained the whole quantity of milk 7including the cream71 to compare it with that of the butter obtained4 ,this ,i consider a more accurate method than measuring the new milk1 as there is a considerable escape of gas1 and consequent subsidence1 whilst it is cooling4 ,the results have varied from twenty-four to twenty-seven and a quarter ounces from sixteen quarts of milk4 ,i therefore assume in my calculation sixteen quarts of milk as yielding a roll 7twenty-five ounces7 of butter4 ,as ,i have at times a considerable number of cows bought as strippers1 and fattened as they are milked1 which remain sometimes in my stalls eight or nine months1 and yield towards the close but five quarts per day1 ,i am not enabled to state with accuracy and from ascertained data the average yield per year of my cows kept for dairy purposes solely4 ,however1 from what occurs at grass-time1 when the yield is not increased1 and also from the effects of my treatment on cows which ,i buy1 giving a small quantity1 ,i am fully persuaded that my treatment induces a good yield of milk4 ,as the yield of butter from a given quantity of cream is not of such particular consequence1 ,i have not given equal attention to ascertain their relative proportions4 ,i have a recollection of having tested this on a former occasion1 when ,i found fourteen to sixteen ounces per quart1 but cannot call to mind under what treatment this took place4 ,on questioning my dairy-woman1 in ,december1 #ahed1 as to the proportion of cream and butter1 she reported nearly one roll of twenty-five ounces of butter to one quart of cream4 ,i looked upon this as a mistake4 ,on its accuracy being persisted in1 the next churning was carefully observed1 with a like proportion4 ,my dairy cows averaged then a low range of milk as to quantity--about eight quarts each per day4 ,six of them1 in a forward state of fatness1 were intended to be dried for finishing off in ,january2 but1 owing to the scarcity and consequent dearness of calving cows1 ,i kept them on in milk till ,i could purchase cows to replace them1 and it was not till ,february that ,i had an opportunity of doing so4 ,i then bought four cows within a few days of calving2 they were but in inferior condition1 and yielded largely of milk4 ,towards the close of ,february and ,march1 four of my own dairy cows1 in full condition1 likewise calved4 ,during ,march1 three of the six which had continued from ,december1 and were milked nearly up to the day of sale1 were selected by the butcher as fit for his purpose4 ,each churning throughout was carefully observed1 with a similar result1 varying but little from twenty-five ounces of butter per quart of cream2 on ,monday1 ,april #cj1 sixteen quarts of cream having yielded sixteen rolls 7of twenty-five ounces each7 of butter4 ,though ,i use artificial means of raising the temperature of my dairy1 by the application of hot water during cold weather1 yet1 my service-pipes being frozen in ,february1 ,i was unable to keep up the temperature1 and it fell to forty-five degrees4 ,still my cream1 though slightly affected1 was peculiarly rich1 yielding twenty-two ounces of butter per quart4 ,throughout ,april the produce of milk from my fifteen dairy cows averaged full one hundred and sixty quarts per day4 ,my cows are bought in the neighboring markets with a view to their usefulness and profitableness4 ,the breeds of this district have a considerable admixture of the short-horn1 which is not noted for the richness of its milk4 ,it will be remarked that during the time these observations have been continued on the proportion of butter from cream1 more than half of my cows have been changed4 ,having satisfied myself that the peculiar richness of my cream was due mainly to the treatment of my cows which ,i have sought to describe1 it occurred to me that ,i ought not to keep it to myself1 inasmuch as these results of my dairy practice not only afforded matter of interest to the farmer1 but were fit subjects for the investigation of the physiologist and the chemist4 ,though my pretensions to acquirements in their instructions are but slender1 they are such as enable me to acknowledge benefit in seeking to regulate my proceedings by their rules4 ,in taking off the cream ,i use an ordinary shallow skimmer of tin perforated with holes1 through which any milk gathered in skimming escapes4 ,it requires care to clear the cream2 and even with this some streakiness is observable on the surface of the skimmed milk4 ,the milk-bowls are of glazed brown earthen ware1 common in this district4 ,they stand on a base of six to eight inches1 and expand at the surface to nearly twice that width4 ,four to five quarts are contained in each bowl1 the depth being four to five inches at the centre4 ,the churn ,i use is a small wooden one1 worked by hand1 on what ,i believe to be the ,american principle4 ,i have forwarded to ,professor ,way a small sample of butter for analysis2 fifteen quarts of cream were taken out of the cream-jar1 and churned at three times in equal portions3 ,the first five quarts of cream gave #abg ounces of butter4 ,second five 8 8 8 8 #abe 8 8 8 ,third five 8 8 8 8 #abj 8 8 8 ------ #cgb ,equal to #bd ounces per quart4 ,at a subsequent churning of fourteen quarts of cream1 ,the first seven gave #g rolls1 or #age ounces of butter4 ,second seven gave #g rolls #b oz41 or #agg 8 8 8 --- #ceb ,equal to #be ounces per quart4 ,on testing the comparative yield of butter and of butter-milk1 ,i find seventy per cent4 of butter to thirty per cent4 of butter-milk1 thus reversing the proportions given in the publications to which ,i have referred4 ,an analysis of my butter by ,professor ,way gives3 ,pure fat or oil1 #hb4gj ,caseine or curd1 #b4de ,water1 with a little salt1 #ad4he ------ ,total1 #ajj4jj ,the only analyses of this material which ,i find in the publications in my hand are two by ,professor ,way1 8,journal10 vol4 xi41 p4 #gce1 8,on butter by the common and by the ,devonshire method20 the result in one hundred parts being3 ,raw4 ,scalded4 ,pure butter1 #gi4gb #gi4ab ,caseine1 c41 #c4ch #c4cg ,water1 #af4ij #ag4ea ------ ------ ,total1 #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,the foregoing observation of dairy results was continued up to grass time in #ahee4 ,in ,april and ,may the use of artificial means was discontinued1 without diminution in the yield of butter or richness of cream1 the natural temperature being sufficient to maintain that of my dairy at #ed to #ef4 ,i now proceed to describe the appearances since that time4 ,in the summer season1 whilst my cows were grazing in the open pastures during the day and housed during the night1 being supplied with a limited quantity of the steamed food each morning and evening1 a marked change occurred in the quality of the milk and cream2 the quantity of the latter somewhat increased1 but1 instead of twenty-five ounces of butter per quart of cream1 my summer cream yielded only sixteen ounces per quart4 ,i would not be understood to attribute this variation in quality to the change of food only4 ,it is commonly observed by dairy-keepers that milk1 during the warm months of summer1 is less rich in butter1 owing probably to the greater restlessness of the cows1 from being teased by flies1 etc4 ,i am by no means sure that1 if turning out during the warm months be at all advisable1 it would not be preferable that this should take place during the night instead of during the day time4 ,towards the close of ,september1 when the temperature had become much cooler1 and the cows were supplied with a much larger quantity of the steamed food1 results appeared very similar to those which ,i had observed and described from ,december to ,may1 #ahee4 ,during the month of ,november the quality was tested with the following result3 ,from two hundred and fifty-two quarts of old milk were taken twenty-one quarts of cream1 of which twenty were churned1 and produced four hundred and sixty-eight ounces of butter1 which shows3 #bg4ej ounces of butter from #af quarts of new milk4 #bc4dj 8 8 8 8 each quart of cream4 ,during ,may1 #ahef1 my cows being on open pasture during the day were supplied with two full feeds of the steamed mixture1 together with a supply of green rape-plant each morning and evening4 ,the result was that from three hundred and twenty-four quarts of old milk twenty-three quarts of cream were skimmed1 of which twenty-two were churned1 and produced five hundred and fifteen ounces of butter1 which shows3 #bd ounces of butter from #af quarts of new milk4 #bb4da 8 8 8 8 each quart of cream4 ,there is1 doubtless1 some standard of food adapted to the constitution and purposes of animals1 combining with bulk a due proportion of elements of respiration1 such as sugar1 starch1 c41 together with those of nutrition1 namely1 nitrogenous compounds1 phosphates1 and other minerals2 nor can we omit oil or fat-forming substances2 for1 however we may be disposed to leave to philosophy the discussion as to whether sugar1 starch1 c41 are convertible into fat1 yet ,i think ,i shall not offend the teacher of agricultural chemistry by stating that the more closely the elements of food resemble those in the animal and its product1 the more efficacious will such food be for the particular purpose for which it is used4 ,sugar1 starch1 c41 vary very considerably in form and proportion from vegetable oils1 which closely resemble animal fats4 ,when we consider that plants have a two-fold function to perform1--namely1 to serve as food for animals1 and also for the reproduction of the like plants1--and that1 after having undergone the process of digestion1 they retain only one half or one third of their value as manure1 the importance of affording a due but not excessive supply of each element of food essential to the wants and purposes of the animal will be evident4 ,if we fall short1 the result will be imperfect2 if we supply in excess1 it will entail waste and loss4 ,linseed and rape-cake resemble each other very closely in chemical composition2 the latter is chiefly used for manure1 and its price ranges usually about half that of linseed-cake4 ,in substances poorer in nitrogen1 and with more of starch1 gum1 oil1 c41 the disparity in value as food and as manure will be proportionately greater4 ,during the present season1 ,mr4 ,mendelsohn1 of ,berlin1 and ,mr4 ,gausange1 who is tenant of a large royal domain near ,frankfort on the ,oder1 on which he keeps about one hundred and fifty dairy cows1 have been my visitors4 ,these gentlemen have collected statistics in dairy countries through which they have travelled4 ,i learned from them that in ,mecklenburg1 ,prussia1 ,holland1 c41 fourteen quarts of milk yield1 on the average1 one pound of butter2 in rare instances twelve quarts are found to yield one pound4 ,both attach great importance to the regulation of the temperature4 ,mr4 ,mendelsohn tells me that the milk from cows fed on draff 7distillers' refuse7 requires a higher temperature to induce its yield of butter than that from cows supplied with other food4 ,on inquiry in my own neighborhood1 ,i find it is computed that each quart at a milking represents one pound of butter per week4 ,thus1 a cow which gives four quarts at each milking will yield in butter four pounds per week1 or from fifty-six quarts sixty-four ounces of butter1 or from fourteen quarts of milk one pound of butter4 ,taking the winter produce alone1 it is lower than this2 the cream from my neighbors' cows1 who use common food1 hay1 straw1 and oats1 somewhat resembles milk in consistence1 and requires three to four hours1 sometimes more1 in churning4 ,on one occasion1 a neighboring dairy-woman sent to borrow my churn1 being unable to make butter with her own2 ,i did not inquire the result4 ,if she had sent her cow1 ,i could in the course of a week have insured her cream which would make butter in half an hour4 ,these dairy people usually churn during winter in their kitchen1 or other room with a fire4 ,each of them states that from bean or oat meal used during winter as an auxiliary food they derive a greater quantity of butter1 whilst those who have tried linseed-oil have perceived no benefit from it4 ,my own cream during the winter season is of the consistence of paste1 or thick treacle4 ,when the jar is full1 a rod of two feet long will1 when dipped into the cream to half its length1 stand erect4 ,if ,i take out a teacupful in the evening1 and let it stand till next morning1 a penny-piece laid on its surface will not sink2 on taking it off1 ,i find the under side partially spotted with cream4 ,the churnings are performed in a room without fire1 at a temperature in winter of forty-three to forty-five degrees1 and occupy one half to three quarters of an hour4 ,several who have adopted my system have reported similar effects--an increase in the quantity with a complete change as to richness of quality4 ,i select from these ,mr4 ,john ,simpson1 a tenant farmer residing at ,ripley1 in ,yorkshire1 who1 at my request1 stated to the committee of the ,wharfdale ,agricultural ,society that he and a neighbor of his1 being inconvenienced from a deficient yield of milk1 had agreed to try my mode of feeding1 and provided themselves with a steaming apparatus4 ,this change of treatment took place in ,february1 #ahee4 ,i quote his words3 8,in about five days ,i noticed a great change in my milk2 the cows yielded two quarts each1 per day1 more2 but what surprised me most was the change in the quality4 ,instead of poor winter cream and butter1 they assumed the appearance and character of rich summer produce4 ,it only required twenty minutes for churning1 instead of two to three hours2 there was also a considerable increase in the quantity of butter1 of which1 however1 ,i did not take any particular notice4 ,my neighbor's cow gave three quarts per day in addition1 and her milk was so changed in appearance that the consumers to whom he sold it became quite anxious to know the cause40 ,my dairy is but six feet wide by fifteen long and twelve high4 ,at one end 7to the north7 is a trellis window2 at the other1 an inner door1 which opens into the kitchen4 ,there is another door near to this1 which opens into the churning-room1 having also a northern aspect2 both doors are near the south end of the dairy4 ,along each side1 and the north end1 two shelves of wood are fixed to the wall1 the one fifteen inches above the other2 two feet higher is another shelf somewhat narrower1 but of like length1 which is covered with charcoal1 whose properties as a deodorizer are sufficiently established4 ,the lower shelves being two feet three inches wide1 the interval or passage between is only one foot six inches4 ,on each tier of shelves is a shallow wooden cistern1 lined with thin sheet-lead1 having a rim at the edges three inches high4 ,these cisterns incline downwards slightly towards the window1 and contain water to the depth of three inches4 ,at the end nearest the kitchen each tier of cisterns is supplied with two taps1 one for cold water in summer1 the other with hot for winter use4 ,at the end next the north window is a plug or hollow tube1 with holes perforated at such an elevation as to take the water before it flows over the cistern4 ,during the summer the door towards the kitchen is closed1 and an additional door is fixed against it1 with an interval between well packed with straw2 a curtain of stout calico hangs before the trellis window1 which is dipped in salt water1 and kept wet during the whole day by cold water spirted over it from a gutta-percha tube4 ,on the milk being brought in1 it is emptied into bowls4 ,some time after these bowls 7of which a description is given in a former part of this7 have been placed on the cistern1 the cold-water taps are turned till the water rises through the perforated tube1 and flows through a waste pipe into the sewer4 ,the taps are then closed1 so as to allow a slight trickling of water1 which continues through the day4 ,by these means ,i reduce the temperature1 as compared with that outside the window1 by twenty degrees4 ,i am thus enabled to allow the milk to stand till the cream has risen1 and keep the skimmed milk sweet1 for which ,i obtain one penny per quart4 ,having heard complaints during very hot weather of skimmed milk1 which had left my dairy perfectly sweet1 being affected so as to curdle in cooking on being carried into the village1 ,i caused covers of thick calico 7the best of our fabrics for retaining moisture7 to be made2 these are dipped in salt water1 and then drawn over the whole of the tin milk-cans4 ,the contrivance is quite successful1 and is in great favor with the consumers4 ,i have not heard a single complaint since ,i adopted it4 ,finding my butter rather soft in hot weather1 ,i uncovered a draw-well which ,i had not used since ,i introduced water-works for the supply of the village and my own premises4 ,on lowering a thermometer down the well to a depth of twenty-eight feet1 ,i found it indicated a temperature of forty-three degrees--that on the surface being seventy degrees4 ,i first let down the butter1 which was somewhat improved1 but afterwards the cream4 ,for this purpose ,i procured a movable windlass with a rope of the required length2 the cream-jar is placed in a basket two feet four inches deep1 suspended on the rope1 and let down the evening previous to churning4 ,it is drawn up early next morning1 and immediately churned4 ,by this means the churning occupies about the same time as in winter1 and the butter is of like consistence4 ,the advantage ,i derive from this is such that1 rather than be without it1 ,i should prefer sinking a well for the purpose of reaching a like temperature4 ,when winter approaches1 the open trellis window to the north is closed1 an additional shutter being fixed outside1 and the interval between this and an inner shutter closely packed with straw1 to prevent the access of air and cold2 the door to the kitchen is at the same time unclosed to admit warmth4 ,before the milk is brought from the cow-house1 the dairymaid washes the bowls well with hot water1 the effect of which is to take off the chill1 but not to warm them4 ,the milk is brought in as milked1 and is passed through a sile into the bowls1 which are then placed on the cistern4 ,a thermometer1 with its bulb immersed in the milk1 denotes a temperature of about ninety degrees4 ,the hot water is applied immediately1 at a temperature of one hundred degrees or upwards1 and continues to flow for about five minutes1 when the supply is exhausted4 ,the bowls being of thick earthen ware1--a slow conductor1--this does not heighten the temperature of the milk4 ,the cooling1 however1 is thereby retarded1 as ,i find the milk1 after standing four hours1 maintains a temperature of sixty degrees4 ,this application of hot water is renewed at each milking to the new milk1 but not repeated to the same after it has cooled4 ,the temperature of the dairy is momentarily increased to above #fj1 but speedily subsides1 the average temperature being #eb to #ef4 ,it will be observed that the churnings in summer and winter occupy half an hour or upwards4 ,by increasing the temperature of the cream ,i could easily churn in half the time1 but ,i should thereby injure the quality of the butter4 ,when the butter has come and gathered into a mass1 it is taken1 together with the butter-milk1 out of the churn1 which is rinsed with water2 the butter is then placed again in the churn with a quantity of cold spring water1 in which salt has been dissolved1 at the rate of one ounce per quart of cream2 after a few minutes' churning1 the butter is again taken out2 the water in which it has been washed assumes a whitish appearance4 ,by this process the salt is equally diffused through the butter1 which requires little manipulation1 and is freed from a portion of caseous matter4 ,a recent analysis of my butter shows only #a4jg instead of #b4de per cent4 of caseine1 as before4 ,that it ranks as choice may be inferred when ,i state that my purchaser willingly gives me a penny per roll more than the highest price in ,otley market1 and complains that ,i do not supply him with a greater quantity4 ,in this dairy of the small dimensions ,i have described1 my produce of butter reaches at times sixty to seventy pounds per week4 ,though the size may appear inconveniently small1 yet ,i beg to remark on the greater facility of regulating the temperature of a small in comparison with a large dairy4 ,this difficulty will be found greater in summer than in winter1 as it is far easier to heighten than depress the temperature4 ,i have cooked or steamed my food for several years4 ,it will be observed that ,i blend bean-straw1 bran1 and malt-combs1 as flavoring materials1 with oat or other straw and rape-cake2 the effect of steaming is to volatilize the essential oils1 in which the flavor resides1 and diffuse them through the mess4 ,the odor arising from it resembles that observed from the process of malting2 this imparts relish to the mess1 and induces the cattle to eat it greedily2 in addition to which1 ,i am disposed to think that it renders the food more easy of digestion and assimilation4 ,i use this process with advantage for fattening1 when ,i am deficient in roots4 ,with the same mixed straw and oat-shells1 three to four pounds each of rape-cake1 and half a pound of linseed-oil1 but without roots1 ,i have fattened more than thirty heifers and cows free from milk1 from ,march up to the early part of ,may2 their gain has averaged fully fourteen pounds each per week1--a result ,i could not have looked for from the same materials1 if uncooked4 ,this process seems to have the effect of rendering linseed-oil less of a laxative1 but cannot drive off any portion of the fattening oils1 to volatilize which requires a very high temperature4 ,my experience of the benefits of steaming is such that if ,i were deprived of it ,i could not continue to feed with satisfaction4 ,i have weighed my fattening cattle for a number of years1 and my milch cows for more than two years4 ,this practice enables me at once to detect any deficiency in the performance of the animals2 it gives also a stimulus to the feeders1 who attend at the weighings1 and who are desirous that the cattle intrusted to their care should bear a comparison with their rivals4 ,another obvious advantage is in avoiding all cavils respecting the weight by my purchasers1 who1 having satisfied themselves as to the quality of the animal1 now ask and obtain the most recent weighing4 ,the usual computation for a well-fed but not over fat beast is1 live to dead weight1 as #ba to #ab1 or #ajj to #ei with such modifications as suggest themselves by appearances4 ,though many discussions have taken place on the fattening of cattle1 the not less important branch of dairy treatment has hitherto been comparatively neglected4 ,i therefore venture to call attention to considerations which have arisen from observations in my own practice affecting the chemistry and physiology1 or1 in other words1 the science of feeding4 ,that ,i am seeking aid from its guidance will be apparent1 and ,i have no hesitation in admitting that1 beyond the satisfaction from the better understanding of my business1 ,i have latterly derived more benefit or profit from examination of the chemical composition of materials of food than from the treatment or feeding experiments of others which have come under my notice4 ,so persuaded am ,i of the advantage of this1 that ,i do not feel satisfied to continue the use of any material1 with the composition of which ,i am not acquainted1 without resorting to the society's laboratory for an analysis4 ,to one leading feature of my practice ,i attach the greatest importance--the maintenance of the condition of my cows giving a large yield of milk4 ,i am enabled1 by the addition of bean-meal in proportion to the greater yield of milk1 to avert the loss of condition in those giving sixteen to eighteen quarts per day2 whilst on those giving a less yield1 and in health1 ,i invariably effect an improvement4 ,when we take into consideration the disposition of a cow to apply her food rather to her milk than to her maintenance and improvement1 it seems fair to infer that the milk of a cow gaining flesh will not be deficient either in caseine or butter4 ,i have already alluded to the efficiency of bean-meal in increasing the quantity of butter3 ,i learn1 also1 from observant dairymen who milk their own cows and carry their butter to market1 that their baskets are never so well filled as when their cows feed on green clover1 which1 as dry material1 is nearly as rich in albumen as beaus4 ,i am also told1 by those who have used green rape-plant1 that it produces milk rich in butter4 ,from this we may infer that albuminous matter is the most essential element in the food of the milch cow1 and that any deficiency in the supply of this will be attended with loss of condition1 and a consequent diminution in the quality of her milk4 ,i am clearly of opinion that you can increase the proportion of butter in milk more than that of caseine1 or other solid parts4 ,from several1 who have adopted my treatment1 ,i learn that on substituting rape-cake for beans they perceive an increased richness in their milk4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,garnett1 of ,clitheroe1 who has used bean-meal largely as an auxiliary food for milch cows during the winter season1 tells me that when rape-cake is substituted1 his dairymaid1 without being informed1 perceives the change from the increased richness of the milk4 ,mr4 ,garnett has also used linseed-cake in like quantity2 still his dairy people prefer rape-cake4 ,mr4 ,whelon1 of ,lancaster1 who keeps two milch cows for his own use1 to which he gave bean-meal and bran as auxiliaries1 has recently substituted rape-cake#d for bean-meal2 he informs me that in a week he saw a change in the richness of milk1 with an increase of butter4 #d ,the analysis of cotton-seed cake1 in comparison with rape and linseed cake1 in a former chapter of this work1 will show the comparative value of that as food for milch cows4 ,the vegetable oils are of two distinct classes3 the drying or setting represented by linseed1 the unctuous represented by rape-oil4 ,they consist of two proximate elements1 margarine and oleine2 in all probability they will vary in their proportion of these1 but in what degree ,i have not been able to ascertain4 ,though the agricultural chemists make no distinction1 as far as ,i am aware1 between these two classes of oils1 the practitioners in medicine use them for distinct purposes4 ,cod-liver oil has been long used for pulmonary complaints2 latterly1 olive1 almond1 and rape oils are being employed as substitutes4 ,these are all of the unctuous class of oils4 ,mr4 ,rhind1 the intelligent medical practitioner of this village1 called my attention to some experiments by ,dr4 ,leared1 published in the ,medical ,times1 ,july #bast1 #ahee1 with oleine alone1 freed from margarine1 which showed marked superiority in the effect2 and ,i now learn from ,mr4 ,rhind that he is at present using with success the pure oleine1 prepared by ,messrs4 ,price ,co41 from cocoa-nut oil1 one of the unctuous class4 ,that linseed and others of the drying oils are used in medicine for a very different purpose1 it seems unnecessary to state4 ,the oleine of oil is known to be more easy of consumption and more available for respiration than margarine--a property to which its use in medicine may be attributable4 ,if we examine the animal fats1 tallow1 suet1 and other fat1 they are almost wholly of the solid class1 stearine or margarine1 closely resembling or identical with the margarine in plants2 whilst butter is composed of oleine and margarine1 combining both the proximate elements found in vegetable oils4 ,it seems worthy of remark that a cow can yield a far greater weight of butter than she can store up in solid fat2 numerous instances occur where a cow gives off two pounds of butter per day1 or fourteen pounds per week1 whilst half that quantity will probably rarely be laid on in fat4 ,if you allow a cow to gain sixteen pounds per week1 and reckon seven for fat1 there will only remain nine pounds for flesh1 or1 deducting the moisture1 scarcely three pounds 7#b4ig7 per week1 equal to 4#db1 or less than half a pound per day1 of dry fibrin4 ,the analyses of butter show a very varying proportion of oleine and margarine fats3 summer butter usually contains of oleine sixty and margarine forty per cent41 whilst in winter butter these proportions are reversed1 being forty of oleine to sixty of margarine4 ,by ordinary treatment the quantity of butter during winter is markedly inferior4 ,the common materials for dairy cows in winter are straw with turnips or mangel1 hay alone1 or hay with mangel4 ,if we examine these materials1 we find them deficient in oil1 or in starch1 sugar1 etc4 ,if a cow consume two stones or twenty-eight pounds of hay a day1 which is probably more than she can be induced to eat on an average1 it will be equal in dry material to more than one hundred pounds of young grass1 which will also satisfy a cow4 ,that one hundred pounds of young grass will yield more butter1 will scarcely admit of a doubt4 ,the twenty-eight pounds of hay will be equal in albuminous matter and in oil to the one hundred pounds of grass2 but in the element of starch1 sugar1 etc41 there is a marked difference4 ,during the growth of the plant1 the starch and sugar are converted into woody fibre1 in which form they are scarcely digestible or available for respiration4 ,it seems1 then1 not improbable that1 when a cow is supplied with hay only1 she will consume some portion of the oleine oil for respiration1 and yield a less quantity of butter poorer in oleine4 ,if you assume summer butter to contain of oleine1 #fj per cent4 ,if you assume summer butter to contain of margarine1 #dj 8 8 --- #ajj 8 8 ,if the cow consume of the oleine1 #cf 8 8 --- ,the quantity of butter will be reduced from #ajj to #fd 8 8 ,and the proportions will then be1 of oleine1 #dj 8 8 ,and the proportions will then be1 of margarine1 #fj 8 8 --- #ajj 8 8 ,if you supply turnips or mangel with hay1 the cow will consume less of hay2 you thereby substitute a material richer in sugar1 etc41 and poorer in oil4 ,each of these materials1 in the quantity a cow can consume1 is deficient in the supply of albumen necessary to keep up the condition of an animal giving a full yield of milk4 ,to effect this1 recourse must be had to artificial or concentrated substances of food1 rich in albuminous matter4 ,it can scarcely be expected1 nor is it desirable1 that practical farmers should apply themselves to the attainment of proficiency in the art of chemical investigations2 this is more properly the occupation of the professor of science4 ,the following simple experiment1 however1 seems worth mentioning4 ,on several occasions1 during winter1 ,i procured samples of butter from my next neighbor4 ,on placing these1 with a like quantity of my own1 in juxtaposition before the fire1 my butter melted with far greater rapidity--by no means an unsafe test of a greater proportion of oleine4 ,the chemical investigation of our natural and other grasses has hitherto scarcely had the attention which it deserves4 ,the most valuable information on this subject is in the paper by ,professor ,way1 on the nutritive and fattening properties of the grasses1 in vol4 xiv41 p4 #aga1 of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society's ,journal4 ,these grasses were nearly all analyzed at the flowering time1 a stage at which no occupier of grass-land would expect so favorable a result in fattening4 ,we much prefer pastures with young grass not more than a few inches high1 sufficient to afford a good bite4 ,with a view to satisfy myself as to the difference of composition of the like grasses at different stages of growth1 ,i sent to ,professor ,way a specimen of the first crop of hay1 cut in the end of ,june1 when the grass was in the early stage of flowering1 and one of aftermath1 cut towards the close of ,september1 from the same meadow1 the analyses of which ,i give3 ,,hay1 ,,first ,,crop4 ,,aftermath ,,hay ,moisture1 #ab4jb ,moisture1 #aa4hg ,albuminous matter1 #i4bd ,oil and fatty matter1 #f4hd ,oil and fatty matter1 #b4fh ,albuminous matter1 #i4hd ,starch1 gum1 sugar1 #ci4ge ,starch1 gum1 sugar1 #db4be ,woody fibre1 #bg4da ,woody fibre1 #ai4gg ,mineral matter1 #h4ij ,mineral matter1 #i4dc ------- ------- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,a comparison between these will show a much greater percentage of woody fibre1--#bg4da in the first crop to #ai4gg in the aftermath4 ,the most remarkable difference1 however1 is in the proportion of oil1 being #b4fh in the first crop to #f4hd in the aftermath4 ,on inquiry from an observing tenant of a small dairy farm of mine1 who has frequently used aftermath hay1 ,i learn that1 as compared with the first crop1 he finds it induces a greater yield of milk1 but attended with some impoverishment in the condition of the cow1 and that he uses it without addition of turnips or other roots1 which he gives when using hay of the first crop--an answer quite in accordance with what might be expected from its chemical composition4 ,it is likewise to be presumed that the quickness of growth will materially affect the composition of grasses1 as well as of other vegetables4 ,your gardener will tell you that if radishes are slow in growth they will be tough and woody2 that asparagus melts in eating1 like butter1 and salad is crisp when grown quickly4 ,the same effect will1 ,i apprehend1 be found in grasses of slow growth3 they will contain more of woody fibre1 with less of starch or sugar4 ,the quality of butter grown on poor pastures is characterized by greater solidity than on rich feeding pastures4 ,the cows1 having to travel over more space1 require a greater supply of the elements of respiration1 whilst the grasses grown on these poor pastures contain1 in all probability1 less of these in a digestible form available for respiration4 ,the like result seems probable as from common winter treatment--a produce of butter less in quantity1 and containing a greater proportion of margarine1 and a less of oleine4 ,it is well known that pastures vary greatly in their butter-producing properties2 there is1 however1 as far as ,i am aware1 no satisfactory explanation of this4 ,if you watch cows on depasture1 you observe them select their own food2 if you supply cows in stall alike with food1 they will also select for themselves4 ,i give rape-cake as a mixture to all1 and induce them to eat the requisite quantity2 yet some will select the rape-cake first1 and eat it up clean1 whilst others rather neglect it till towards the close of their meal1 and then leave pieces in the trough4 ,two ,alderneys1--the only cows of the kind ,i have as yet had1--whose butter-producing qualities are well known1 are particularly fond of rape-cake1 and never leave a morsel4 ,may not these animals be prompted by their instinct to select such food as is best suited to their wants and propensities8 ,if so1 it seems of the greatest importance that the dairyman should be informed of the properties of food most suitable for his purpose1 especially whilst in a stall1 where they have little opportunity of selecting4 ,it appears worth the attention of our society to make inquiries as to the localities which are known as producing milk peculiarly rich in butter4 ,when travelling in ,germany1 ,i well recollect being treated with peculiarly rich milk1 cream1 and butter1 on my tour between ,dresden and ,toplitz1 at the station or resting-place on the chausse or turnpike-road1 before you descend a very steep incline to the valley in which ,toplitz is situated4 ,i travelled this way after an interval of several years1 when the same treat was again offered4 ,it was given as a rarity1 and can only be accounted for by the peculiar adaptation of the herbage of the country for the production of butter4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,different ,,methods ,,of ,,feeding ,,dairy ,,cows4--,being desirous of comparing the result of my method of feeding dairy cows with the system usually practised in this locality1 it occurred to me that1 as my cows had been accustomed to savory steamed food1 a change to ordinary food would be attended with less favorable results than if they had been previously treated in the common mode2 and that1 under these circumstances1 it would be better to institute comparisons with two near neighbors1 ,mr4 ,smith and ,mr4 ,pawson1 whose practice and results ,i had the opportunity of inspecting4 ,mr4 ,smith's cow was of rather small frame1 but noted for her usefulness as a good milker4 ,at the time of calving her third calf2 about the #abth of ,november1 she was in good condition1 and gave1 soon after1 seventeen quarts of milk per day4 ,her owner states that in the first three weeks 7up to the time this comparison was begun7 her condition sensibly diminished--a result which ,i apprehend will be invariable with cows giving this quantity of milk when fed on meadow hay only1 with which ,mr4 ,smith's cow was supplied ad libitum1 and of which she consumed twenty-eight pounds per day4 ,mr4 ,pawson's was a nice heifer1 three years old at the time of calving her first calf1 ,october #fth1 in more than ordinary condition1 and gave about sixteen quarts per day4 ,her owner states that on the first of ,january her condition was much diminished4 ,this is corroborated by ,mr4 ,myers1 a dealer in the village1 who tells me that1 previous to her calving1 he was desirous of purchasing her1 and would have given from seventeen pounds ten shillings to eighteen pounds1 and describes her as being at that time full of beef4 ,her weight on the first of ,january1 #g cwt4 #b qrs41 bespeaks her condition as much lowered4 ,during the month of ,october1 and till late in ,november1 she was turned out in the daytime to graze on aftermath1 and housed during the night1 where she was supplied with turnips4 ,from the close of ,november till the first week in ,february1 her food consisted of ,meadow hay of inferior quality1 #ah lbs4 per day4 ,swedish turnips1 #de 8 8 8 ,ground oats1 #i 8 8 8 ,after this the ground oats were discontinued1 and meadow hay of good quality was given ad libitum1 with forty-five pounds of turnips4 ,for comparison ,i selected a cow of my own1 which calved about the #hth of ,october1 and gave soon after eighteen quarts of milk per day2 she was also of small size4 ,at the time of calving her condition was somewhat higher than that of ,mr4 ,smith's4 ,when the experiment was begun1 on the first of ,january1 no perceivable difference was found in the yield of milk of ,mr4 ,smith's cow and my own1 each giving fifteen and a half quarts per day4 ,the following table gives the dates of calving of the three cows1 together with their weights and yield of milk at the commencement and termination of the experiment3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,january #a4 ,march #f4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,yield at calving4 ,weight4 ,yield4 ,weight4 ,yield4 ,when calved4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,quarts4 ,cwt4qrs4lbs4 ,qts4 ,cwt4qrs4lbs4 ,qts4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,mr4 ,smith's-- ,nov4 #ab4 #ag #h #c #j #ae #h #j #j #i ,mr4 ,pawson's-- ,oct4 #f4 #af #g #b #j #ab #g #a #j #f ,my own--,oct4 #h4 #ah #i #c #j #ae #aj #a #j #ab ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,mr4 ,smith's cow lost in weight in nine weeks #hd pounds1 being #i pounds per week1 with an average yield of #ab quarts per day4 ,mr4 ,pawson's lost #bh pounds4 ,this loss1 together with the diminished yield of milk1 occurred almost wholly after the oats had been withdrawn2 her weight on the #fth of ,february being still #g cwt4 #b qrs41 and her yield of milk #aa quarts per day4 ,my cow has gained in the nine weeks #ef lbs41 being #f pounds per week1 with an average yield of #ad quarts1 the diminution being regular4 ,january #ast1 #ae2 ,feb4 #dth1 #ad2 ,march #dth1 #ab2 making an average yield of #ad quarts per day4 ,the whole loss and gain of weight will be in flesh and fat1 the cows having kept up their consumption of food and their bulk4 ,the weekly account of profit and loss will stand as follows3 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,mr4 ,smith's cow1 average yield fer #i weeks1 #ab quarts per day1 at #b;d4 per quart1 #ad #g ,deduct loss in flesh1 #i lbs41 at #f;d41 #d #h ----------- #i #aa ,cost of #ad stones hay1 at #f;d4 per stone1 #g #j ----------- ,profit1 #b #aa ,mr4 ,pawson's cow1 average during the first five weeks1 #aa quarts per day1 at #b;d4 per quart1 #ac #e ,cost of #i stones inferior hay 7at #d;d4 per stone71 per week1 #c #j ,cost of #fc lbs4 ground oats1 #ds4 #h;d42 turnips1 #as4 #f;d41 #f #b #i #b ------------ ,profit1 #d #c ,my cow1 average yield for #i weeks1 #ad quarts per day1 at #b;d4 per quart1 #af #d ,gain of flesh1 #f lbs per week1 at #f;d41 #c #a ------------- #ai #e ,cost of food3 ,hay1 #fc lbs41 at #f;d4 per stone2 straw and shells of oats1 #as4 #c;d42 mangel1 #as41 #d #f ,rape-cake1 #ce lbs42 bran1 #aj lbs42 malt- combs1 #aj lbs42 bean-meal1 #aj lbs41 #d #j #h #g ------------- ,profit1 #aj #aj ,the richer quality of the manure will probably compensate for the extra labor1 cooking1 and attention bestowed upon my cow4 ,with a view of extending the comparison1 give particulars of the whole of my cows the weights of which were registered on the #hth of ,october1 and which were still on hand1 free from calf1 and in a state admitting of comparison4 ,these were bought at a neighboring market in but moderate condition1 and were young1 having had two or three calves each4 ,a cow in full condition attains her maximum yield in a week or so after calving2 whilst those in lower condition continue1 by my treatment1 to increase their quantity up to about a month after calving4 ,,table4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,february #d4 -------------------------------- ,greatest ,yield yield per ,october #h per ,no4 ,calved4 day4 ,weight4 ,weight4 day4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,quarts4 ,cwt4 qrs4 lbs4,cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 ,qts4 #a4 ,july #bh4 #ab #i #b #j #aj #j #j #h #b4 ,aug4 #be4 #ah #aj #j #j #aa #a #j #ad #d4 ,july #bh4 #ah #h #b #j #aj #a #j #ae #f4 ,sept4 #h4 #af #aj #b #j #aj #b #j #ad #g4 ,sept4 #h4 #af #aj #b #j #aa #j #j #aj #aa4 ,aug4 #be4 #af #i #a #j #i #b #j #aa ---------------------------------------- -- ,average1 #af #ab ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,table--,,continued4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,march #d4 ,gain --------------------- ,gain1 in ,yield ,oct4 #h weight per ,computed average to per ,no4 ,weight4 day4 per day during ,feb4 #d4 week4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,cwt4 qrs4 lbs4,quarts4,weeks4 ,qts4 ,lbs4 ,lbs4 #a4 #aj #a #j #h #bi -- #aj #hd #d #b4 #aa #a #j #ad #bg -- #af #adj #f #d4 #aj #j #j #ae #ca -- #ae #afh #h #f4 #aj #c #j #ad #be -- #ae #bh #a #g4 #aa #j #j #aj #be -- #ac #ef #b #aa4 #i #b #j #aa #bg -- #ac #bh #a ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,average1 #ab #bg -- #ad ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,my cows1 during the period under consideration1 were treated as follows3 ,during ,august and ,september they were on open pasture by day and housed by night2 evening and morning they were supplied with mown grass1 and two feeds of steamed mixture4 ,towards the close of ,september green rape was substituted for the mown grass1 with the same allowance of steamed mixture2 from the #hth of ,october1 when they were wholly housed1 they were supplied with steamed food ad libitum three times per day4 ,after each meal ten to twelve pounds of green rape-plant were given1 and nine pounds of hay per day till ,november2 from that time steamed food with cabbages or kohl rabi till the early part or ,february1 when mangold wurzel was substituted4 ,it will be observed that ,i give hay and roots in limited quantities1 and the steamed food ad libitum4 ,i prefer this to apportioning the cake and other concentrated food in equal quantities to each1 as this steamed mixture contains more of the elements essential to milk1 and each cow is thus at liberty to satisfy her requirements with it4 ,nos4 #b and #d1 which have given the greatest quantity of milk1 have eaten more than their share2 whilst ,no4 #a1 which has given the least milk1 has scarcely eaten more than half the quantity of steamed mixture consumed by #b or #d4 ,the yield of milk and the live weights on the #dth of ,february and the #dth of ,march scarcely vary4 ,during ,february thirty-four pounds of mangold were substituted for kohl rabi2 with this change the cows became mere relaxed4 ,my experience in weighing1 extending over several years1 has shown me that when animals1 from change of food1 become more relaxed or more costive1 their weighings in the former state denote less1 whilst in the latter they denote more1 than their actual gain in condition4 ,i have known instances in which a month's weighing1 accompanied by relaxation1 has shown no gain1 whilst1 with restored consistency1 the gain doubled4 ,i now proceed to examine the materials of food1 their composition1 and the probable changes they undergo in the animal economy4 ,quantity and description of food supplied to six cows during twenty-seven and a third weeks1 and its composition in proximate elements and minerals4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,total ,weight weight of of ,cost food ,per food per ,total when day4given4 ton4 cost4 dried4 ---------------------------------------- ------ lbs4 lbs4 s4 d4 s4 d4 lbs4 ,meadow hay1 #efaj1gaed #j #jai #b #i #i1dbj ,rape-cake1 #cj #e1gdjf #aj #jaf #ab #j #e1def ,malt-combs1 #i #a1gbbe #i #j #d #c #j #a1ffj ,bran1 #i #a1gbbf #aj #j #e #j #j #a1ejj ,beans1 #i #a1gbbi #f #h #g #c #f #a1ejj ,green food1 #bjdci1jcbj #aj #j #h #ad #f #e1gdj ,oat-straw1 #ej #i1effa #ae #j #g #i #j #h1djg ,bean-straw1 #ab #b1bifa #ae #j #g #af #j #a1ifd ----------------------------------- ,total1 #cgigb1eae #gj #j #ice1fdg ---------------------------------------- ------ ---------------------------------------- --- ,albu- ,min- men4 ,starch4 ,oil4,fibre4erals4 ---------------------------------------- --- lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 ,meadow hay1 #iij #d1beg #bhg #b1icc #iec ,rape-cake1 #a1hjc #b1agg #faa #did #aga ,malt-combs1 #daa #gia #ea #cbj #hh ,bran1 #bdf #hjj #if #beh #ajj ,beans1 #dfd #ggd #cd #agf #ec ,green food1 #hfb #c1jgd #aae #a1adh #eda ,oat-straw1 #bhg #c1jff #ajj #d1ebf #dbh ,bean-straw1 #cgf #gbe #ea #eid #bag -------------------------------- ,total1 #e1dci #ae1ffda1cdeaj1ddib1eea ,nitro- gen #hhh lbs4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,analysis ,,of ,,milk ,,by ,,haidlen4 ,water1 #hgc4 ,butter1 #cj4 ,caseine1 #dh4b ,milk sugar1 #dc4i ,phosphate of lime1 #b4ca ,magnesia1 4#db ,iron1 4#jg ,chloride of potassium1 #a4dd ,sodium and ,soda1 4#ff ------- #ajjj4jj ,production of milk by #f cows1 average #ad quarts per day each1 for #bg weeks #af1jgb quarts1 which at #da oz4 per quart #da1ahd lbs4 lbs4 ,when dry or free from moisture1 #ebcj ------ ,butter in #af1jgb quarts1 at #cj per #ajjj #abce ,caseine in #af1jgb quarts1 at #dh4b per #ajjj1 #aigg ,sugar of milk1 #ahjd ,minerals4 ,phosphate of lime1 #ii ,other1 #aae #bad ------ #ebcj ,gain of weight #ejj lbs41 of which ,i compute #cjj lbs4 as fat4 #bjj lbs4 as flesh4 --- #ejj ,nitrogen1 #caf lbs4 ,phosphate of lime1 #ii ,phosphoric acid1 #de4ej ,cost of food per cow per week1 #hs4 #f;d4 ,when the yield of milk is less1 the cost of food is reduced to #gs4 #h;d4 per week4 s4 d4 ,gross return in milk1 #af #d 8 8 8 weight1 #a #f 8 8 8 manure1 #b #h --------- #bj #f ,,analysis ,,of ,,excrement ,,by ,,professor ,,way4 ,per cent4 ,moisture1 #hd4he ,phosphoric acid1 4#ci ,potash1 4#eh ,soda1 4#bb ,other substances1 #ac4if ------ #ajj4 ,nitrogen1 4#da ,ammonia1 4#di ,manure1 #hh lbs4 per cow per day4 ,for #f cows per day #ebh lbs4 #cfif lbs4 per week4 8 8 8 for #bg weeks #aja1jbh lbs41 containing of ,nitrogen1 #dad lbs4 ,phosphoric acid1 #cic ,potash1 #ehe ,nitrogen incorporated in food1 #hhh lbs4 ,caseine1 #caf4 ,fibrin1 #g4ce ,manure1 #dad4 ,balance consumed in perspiration1 #aej4fe ------ #hhh4jj ,the materials of food are shown to have cost #gj #js #i;d4 4 s4 d4 ,gross value #af1jgb quarts of milk1 at #b;d4 per quart1 #acc #ah #h ,gain of weight #ejj lbs41 at #f;d4 per lb41 #ab #aj #j ,nitrogen in manure #dad lbs4 ,ammonia 4 s4 d4 #did lbs41 at #f;d41 #ab #g #j ,phosphoric acid #cic lbs41 at #a;d4 per lb41 #b #i #a ,potash #ehe lbs41 at #c;d4 per lb41 #g #f #c ------------- #bb #b #d --------------- #afh #aa #j ,manure per cow per day #hh lbs41 per week #faf lbs4 s4 d4 ,containing ammonia #c lbs41 #a #f ,phosphoric acid #b4dj lbs41 #j #c ,potash #c4eg lbs41 #j #aj ------------ ,value of a cow's excrement1 per week1 #b #h ,the analyses of the chief ingredients of my own produce1 or such extra materials as ,i usually purchase1 have been made by ,professor ,way2 for other materials ,i have had recourse to a very useful compilation by ,mr4 ,hemming 7vol4 xiii41 p4 #ddi1 of the ,society's ,journal71 and to ,morton's 8,cyclopdia of ,agriculture40 ,the analysis of straw is that of oat-straw2 that of green food is derived from the analysis of rape-plant1 cabbages1 and kohl rabi4 ,during ,february and ,march ,i have been using wheat and barley straw with marigold1 and1 as these materials contain less oil1 ,i give in the steamed food three ounces of linseed-oil per day to each animal4 ,for the composition of milk ,i adopt that by ,haidlen1 whose method of analysis is reputed to be the most accurate1 the proportion of butter in my milk being this season very similar to that given by him4 ,it will be observed that this is the gross return for twenty-seven and one third weeks from the time of calving1 from which will have to be deducted expense of attendance1 etc4 4 s4 d4 ,the materials used for food are found to have cost #gj #j #i ,the value of these materials as manure consists of #hhh lbs4 nitrogen #ajfa lbs4 ammonia1 at #f;d41 #bf #aj #f ,phosphoric acid and potash1 #i #ae #d -------------- ,value of food if employed as manure1 #cf #e #aj ,the #af1jgb quarts of milk1 at #b;d4 per quart for new milk1 at which price it enters largely into consumption as food for man1 amount to #acc #ah #h 4 s4 d4 ,the nitrogen in the milk #caf lbs4 ammonia #cgh lbs41 at #f;d4 per lb41 #i #i #j ,phosphoric acid in ditto4 #de lbs41 at #a;d4 per lb41 #j #e #h ------------- #i #ad #h ,from these statements it will be seen that materials used as food for cattle represent double the value they would do if used for manure1 whilst that portion converted into food fitted for the use of man represents a value thirteen to fourteen times greater than it would as manure4 ,it then appears clear that it is for the feeder's profit to use his produce as much as possible as food for cattle1 with the view to convert it with the utmost economy into food for man1 and thus increase rather than enrich his manure-heap4 ,the calculation of caseine in milk is based upon the supposition that my milk is equal in its proportion of that element to that analyzed by ,haidlen4 ,several analyses by other chemists show a less percentage1 #d to #d4ej4 ,as my cows are adequately supplied with albuminous matter1 ,i have a right to presume on their milk being rich in caseine4 ,the loss of nitrogen by perspiration1 #aej4fe lbs41 is nearly #ag per cent4 ,boussingault found a loss of #ac4ej of nitrogen in a cow giving milk4 ,the abstraction of nitrogen in the milk is computed at 4 s4 d4 #caf lbs41 value1 #i #i #j ,the abstraction of phosphoric acid in the milk is computed at #dh lbs41 #j #e #h ,either the rape-cake or bran alone suffices for the restoration of the phosphoric acid4 ,the amount of phosphoric acid in the manure is #cic pounds1 being about sixteen per cent4 of the whole ash or mineral matter4 ,the ash of meadow hay contains about #ad per cent41 that of rape-cake #cj per cent41 bran #ej per cent41 malt-combs #be per cent41 and turnips1 c41 #aj per cent4 of phosphoric acid4 ,the amount of potash in the excrement is #faf pounds1 being about #be per cent4 of the whole ash or mineral matter4 ,the ash of meadow hay contains about #bj per cent42 rape-cake1 #ba per cent42 malt-combs1 #cg per cent42 turnips 7various71 #dd per cent42 from which it may be inferred that the sample of excrement sent to ,professor ,way for analysis did not contain more than a fair proportion of these ingredients4 ,to ascertain the quantity of excrement1 the contents of the tanks into which the cows had dropped their solid and liquid excrement during five weeks were weighed1 and found to be #ejj cwt4 #b qrs4 #j lbs1 from #ah cows1 being #hh lbs4 per cow per day4 ,the sample for analysis was taken from that which the cows had deposited within the preceding #bd hours4 ,this was collected in the mud-cart1 well blended1 and sent off quite fresh4 ,it is sufficiently proved1 by the experience of this district1 that #bj pounds of meadow hay suffice for the maintenance of a cow of fair size in store condition2 a like result is stated to be obtained from #abj pounds of turnips per day4 ,the six cows will have then required1 during the #bg weeks1 for their maintenance1 only ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,albu- ,total minous ,starch1 ,per day4 ,weeks4,weight4 mat4 ,oil4 c4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4lbs4 #abj of hay or for #bg #bb1ifj;containing of #babg #fafiacj #aej of turnips1 or for #bgacg1gfj 8 8 #bbie #cjfiajj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,they will further have required adequate food-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,albumi- nous ,starch matter1 and fibrin1 ,oil sugar and and of caseine4butter4 milk4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,for the production of #b1aaf #a1bce #a1hid ,and for maintenance by turnips1 #b1bie #cjf #i1ajj --------------------- #d1daa #a1eda #aj1iid ,the food supplied is computed to have contained #e1dei #a1cde #ae1ffd ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,i omit the minerals1 which are observed to be in excess of the requirements4 ,for the maintenance of a fair-sized cow1 for one day1 in a normal state1 the following elements seem adequate3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,mineral ingredients4 ,albu- ,starch1 ,phosphoric men4,oil4 c4 ,lime4 acid4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,in #bj lbs4 of hay1 #a4he4ecf #g4ie 4#ij #a4aa ,in #abj 8 8 turnips1 #a4ih4bf #g4hb 4#ig #a4i ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,when cows are in milk1 there occurs a much greater activity of the functions2 they eat and drink more1 evacuate more excrement1 and1 in all probability1 spend considerably more food in respiration4 ,whilst the #ag4fj lbs4 per day dry matter in #bj lbs4 of hay are found adequate for the maintenance of a cow in a store state1 the six cows in milk have eaten on the average #ba4cg lbs4 solid matter per day during the #bg weeks4 ,when ,i have fattened cattle together with a number of milch cows of similar size1 which gave on an average eight quarts of milk per day1 the whole being fed with moist steamed food1 and receiving the same allowance of green food1 ,i have found the fattening cattle refuse water1 whilst the milch cows on the average drank upwards of #dj pounds per day of water given separately4 ,the eight quarts of milk contain only about #ag4eh lbs4 of water2 still1 in several analyses of excrement1 ,i have noticed little difference in the percentage of moisture in that from the fattening animals as compared with that from cows giving milk4 ,these facts would seem to show that upwards of #bj lbs4 more water were given off from the lungs and pores of the skin of a milking than of a fattening animal4 ,the excrement of the six milch cows1 #hh lbs4 per day on the average1 is found to contain of nitrogen #cf1 equal to that in #b4be lbs4 of albumen2 whilst #a4he of albumen in the #bj lbs4 of hay is found adequate for maintenance4 ,on comparing the supply of the food to the six milch cows with their requirements and production1 there seems an excess in the albuminous matter1 a deficiency in the oil for the fat and butter1 an excess in the starch1 c4 ,taking1 however1 the increased activity of the animal functions1 and consequent consumption of food by the milch cow1 ,i am not encouraged to lower my standard of food4 ,that it has sufficed is abundantly proved1 as each of the six cows under observation has gained in condition during #bg weeks4 ,my observations on nutrition tend to the conclusion that if you supply animals with starch1 sugar1 c41 to satisfy their requirements for respiration1 you enable them to convert the oil of their food into butter or fat to such extent as their particular organism is fitted for effecting it4 ,on the #abth of ,march ,i purchased ,mr4 ,smith's cow 7see p4 #cib7 for twelve pounds ten shillings1 being more than her market value1 for the purpose of trying her on my food2 her yield of milk had then diminished to #h quarts per day4 ,on the #cast of ,march1 four weeks from the former weighing1 and nineteen days after being treated with my food1 her yield of milk had increased to #i quarts per day1 and her weight to #h cwt4 #a qr41 being #bh lbs4 increase4 ,mr4 ,pawson's cow1 which was continued on the same food1 namely1 meadow hay ad libitum1 and a more limited supply of turnips1 reduced her yield of milk to less than #e quarts per day1 without alteration in her weight4 ,my cow first placed on trial with those of ,mr4 ,smith and ,mr4 ,pawson gave a yield of milk of #ab quarts per day1 and gained #bh lbs4 in the four weeks1 her weight on the #cast of ,march being #aj cwt4 #b qrs4 ,the weight and the yield of milk of the six1 on the #cast of ,march1 were3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,yield of ,yield of,gain milk milk in #d ,march #d4 per day4 ,march #ca4 per day4weeks4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ cwt4 qr4 lbs4quarts4 cwt4 qr4 lbs4 quarts4lbs4 ,weight of ,no4 #a4 #aj #j #bf #h #aj #c #j #h4i #eh 8 8 8 #b4 #aa #a #j #ad #aa #c #j #ad4i #ef 8 8 8 #d4 #aj #j #j #ad #aj #a #j #ac #bh 8 8 8 #f4 #aj #c #j #ad #aa #b #j #ab #hd 8 8 8 #g4 #aa #j #j #aj #aa #c #j #aj #hd 8 8 8 #aa4 #i #b #j #aa #aj #a #j #ab #hd ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,on referring to the previous weighing1 there was little or no gain from ,feb4 #dth to ,march #dth1 the cows being at that time in a somewhat more relaxed state4 ,during ,march they wholly regained their consistency4 ,the gain shown in the weighing1 ,march #ca1 by the six cows1 appears therefore unusually great4 ,it should1 however1 be computed as made during the eight weeks from ,feb4 #dth to ,march #ca1 being with an average yield of nearly #ab quarts 7#aa4ff7 per day each1 at the rate of #h lbs4 each per week on the average4 ,no4 #aa1 it will be observed1 is stated as giving more milk on the #cast than on the #dth of ,march4 ,it occasionally happens that cows drop their yield of milk for a day or two1 and then regain it1 especially when in use4 ,the whole of these six cows were kept free from calf till ,february1 when ,nos4 #b and #d were sent to bull4 ,i had some hesitation in regard to ,no4 #d1 from her having suffered from pleuro4 ,her milk1 tested by a lactometer1 denoted a less than average proportion of cream2 still1 in quantity1 and keeping up its yield for a length of time1 being of more than ordinary capability2 ,i decided to retain her4 ,nos4 #a and #g1 which are giving respectively #h and #aj quarts per day1 are in a state of fatness2 they will probably be sold in ,june as prime fat1 when their yield of milk will probably be #f and #h quarts per day each4 ,they may be expected to fetch twenty pounds to twenty-three pounds4 ,no4 #f is also in a state of forwardness4 ,no4 #aa1 which suffered considerably from pleuro1 is in comparatively lower condition4 ,during the season from the close of ,october to the close of ,january1 ,i avoid purchasing near-calving cows1 which are then unusually dear1 my replenishments being made with cows giving a low range of milk1 and intended for fattening4 ,i find them more profitable than those which are quite dry4 ,the present season ,i had additional grounds for abstaining from buying high-priced cows1 from the recent presence of pleuro4 ,on the #b;d of ,march ,i had occasion to purchase a calving cow1 which was reported to have calved on the #bhth of ,february4 ,her weight on the #dth of ,march was #i cwt4 #a qr4 ,i supplied her with #ce lbs4 of mangold1 and hay ad libitum41 of which she ate #bb lbs4 per day4 ,the greatest yield she attained was somewhat more than #ac quarts per day4 ,on the #cast of ,march her weight was #i cwt41 being a loss of #bh lbs4 in four weeks4 ,her yield of milk had diminished to #aa quarts per day4 ,a week after this her milk1 during six days1 was kept apart1 and averaged #aj quarts per day2 being at first rather more1 at the close rather less1 than this4 ,the cream produced from these #aj quarts was #i pints1 the butter #fc oz4 ,the butter from each quart of cream was #ad oz4 ,the proportion of butter to milk was #fc oz4 from #fj quarts--rather more than #a oz4 per quart4 ,an equal quantity of milk from a cow 7calved ,oct4 #hth7 treated with steamed food1 and set apart for comparison1 gave less than #g pints of cream1 which produced #gi oz4 of butter4 ,in quality and agreeableness the butter from steamed food and cake was decidedly superior to that from hay and mangold4 ,mr4 ,stansfeld1 of ,chertsey1 has supplied me with the following interesting particulars of two ,alderney cows which were treated as follows3 ,from ,dec4 #ast to ,jan #aeth1 with ,swedes and meadow hay4 ,from ,jan4 #aeth to ,feb4 #agth1 pulped and fermented ,swedes1 meadow hay1 and #c lbs4 rape-cake1 #b lbs4 bean-meal1 #b lbs4 bran1 #b lbs4 malt-combs4 ,from ,feb4 #agth to ,may #ast1 #e lbs4 rape-cake1 #b lbs4 bran1 #b lbs4 malt-combs4 ,results3 ,december #ast to ,january #aeth1 yield of butter from each quart of cream1 #aj oz4 ,january #aeth to ,february #agth1 yield of butter from each quart of cream1 #ad oz4 ,february #agth to ,may #ast1 yield of butter from each quart of cream1 #ah oz4 ,the yield of butter in proportion to milk1 ,dec4 #ast to ,jan4 #aeth1 is described as unsatisfactory4 ,the yield of butter in proportion to milk1 ,feb4 #agth to ,may1 as #b oz4 per quart1 which is their maximum proportion4 ,soon after calving the two cows gave #ah quarts of milk per day2 on the #aeth of ,may1 #ae quarts per day4 ,mr4 ,stansfeld has completely satisfied himself that by the process of fermentation the turnip loses its disagreeable taste1 and that his butter is of excellent quality4 ,if ,i take the supply of turnips1 #abj lbs4 per day1 as requisite for the maintenance only of the cow1 the nutritive elements will be3 ,albumen4 ,oil4 ,starch and sugar4 #a4gi 4#bfd #g4ib ,reckoning the oil as used for respiration1 and computing it in proportion of #e to #b as compared with starch 4#ff ---- #h4eh ,the food supplied to the cow consists of3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,starch ,phos- ,albu- and ,min- phoric ,lbs4,water4 ,dry4 men4,oil4sugar4,fibre4erals4 acid4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,hay1 #bb #bai4cf #b4jc4ei #h4gd #f4je #a4ie 4#cj ,stored mangold1 #ce #bh4j #g4 #a4je #d4bj #a4je 4#gj 4#je ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #bf4cf #c4jh4ei #ab4id #g4aj #b4fe 4#ce ---------------------------------------- ---------------- oz4 ,the #ac quarts of milk yielded of butter1 #ac4fj ,deduct for moisture1 c41 #b4bh ----- #aa4cb ,butter in the skimmed milk estimated as 4#fh ----- #ab4jj oz4 #ab ounces of pure oil in the butter are lb4 4#ge lb4 ,the oil in the food1 4#ei ,the starch and sugar1 #ab4id ,used for animal respiration1 #h4eh ---- #d4cf ,there appears1 then1 in this supply of food1 4#ei lbs4 oil and #d4cf lbs4 starch for the production of 4#ge in the butter from #ac quarts per day1 the cow's greatest yield4 ,at the time the milk was tested1 aftermath hay was substituted for first-crop hay1 in equal quantity4 ,this1 it will be observed1 is decidedly richer in oil4 ,her produce had lessened to #aj quarts per day2 her production of butter was #aj4ej oz4 per day1 or of pure oil about #i oz42 for the supply of oil the aftermath hay alone would be much more than adequate4 ,on examining the adequacy of the food for the supply of albumen for the caseine1 lbs4 ,i find this to be1 #c4jh ,i assume that in #abj lbs4 of turnips1 as required for maintenance1 in a normal state1 #a4ih ---- #a4aj ,which1 according to ,haidlen's analysis1 will be adequate to the supply of #h4fj quarts per day4 ,the supply of mineral substances is in excess4 ,the cow1 under this treatment1 gave1 ,soon after calving1 fully #ac quarts per day4 ,five weeks after calving1 #aa 8 8 8 ,in less than #h weeks after calving1 #i 8 8 8 ,and with this there occurred also a loss of weight4 ,we find this cow supplied with food amply rich in every element suited to her wants and purposes1 with the exception of the nitrogenous principle only1 lowering her condition1 and likewise her yield of milk1 till it approaches a quantity for which her food enables her to supply a due proportion of caseine4 ,about the #bjth of ,april1 the cow's yield being reduced to #i quarts per day1 her food was changed to steamed mixture4 ,soon after this her yield increased to #aa quarts per day4 ,her weight1 ,april #bhth1 #i cwt42 ,may #afth1 #i cwt4 #ad lbs4 yield of milk1 #aa quarts4 ,i now introduce the dairy statistics of ,mr4 ,alcock1 of ,aireville1 ,skipton1 who has for some time been practising my method of treatment1 with such modifications as are suited to his circumstances4 ,during the winter season1 ,mr4 ,alcock's food consisted of mangold1 of which he gave #bj lbs4 per day to each1 uncooked1 together with steamed food ad libitum1 consisting of wheat and bean straw1 and shells of oats4 ,carob bean and ,indian meal1 for each1 #c lbs4 per day ,bran and malt-combs1 #a 8 8 8 ,bean-meal1 #c 8 8 8 ,rape-cake1#e #c 8 8 8 ------ ,of extra food1 #aa #e ,the rape-cake used by ,mr4 ,alcock was of foreign manufacture1 evidently rich in oil1 but containing mustard1 and on this account supplied in less proportion4 ,from ,march #ai1 when his store of mangold was exhausted1 he increased his supply of ,indian meal to #d lbs4 per day1 and omitted the carob bean4 ,during the month of ,january1 ,mr4 ,alcock obtained from #gei quarts of milk #acbc oz4 of butter1 being from each #af quarts #bf oz42 during ,february and ,march1 from #gcfh quarts of milk #ab1dec oz4 of butter1 or from each #af quarts fully #bg oz43 so that rather less than #i quarts of milk have produced #af oz4 of butter4 ,the average produce from each quart of cream was #bj oz4 ,mr4 ,alcock fattens his cows whilst giving milk1 and sells them whilst giving #d to #f quarts per day4 ,he quite agrees with me that it is far more profitable to buy far-milked cows for fattening2 and obtains1 from a change to his food1 #b to #c quarts per day more than the cow had given previously4 ,though ,mr4 ,alcock's cream is not so rich as what ,i have described on pp4 #cgg and #cgh1 it is more than ordinarily so4 ,his mode of separating his milk from his cream differs from my own1 his milk being set up in leaden vessels1 from which1 on the cream being formed1 the old milk is drawn1 by taking a plug from a hollow tube1 with perforated holes in the centre of the vessel4 ,to this difference ,i am disposed in some degree to attribute the less richness of ,mr4 ,alcock's cream4 ,on examining1 the cream with a spoon1 after the dairy-keeper had drawn off the milk1 ,i observed some portion of milk1 which would have escaped through my perforated skimmer4 ,mr4 ,alcock's proportion of butter from milk1 which is the matter of practical importance1 is greater than what ,i have shown on a preceding page1 being from each #af quarts of milk #bg oz4 of butter4 ,,quality ,,of ,,butter4--,in ,january1 #aheg1 samples of about #ef oz4 each1 of butter of my own1 and also of ,mr4 ,alcock's1 were sent to the laboratory of ,messrs4 ,price ,co4's candle-works1 at ,belmont4 ,my butter was found to consist of 7taking the pure fat only71 ,hard fat1 mostly margarine1 fusible at #iej1 #de4i ,liquid1 or oleine1 #ed4a ----- #ajj4j ,mr4 ,alcock's1 ,hard fat1 mostly margarine1 fusible at #aj1 #cf4j ,liquid1 or oleine1 #fd4j ----- #ajj4j ,for these analyses of butter the agricultural public is indebted to the good offices of ,mr4 ,george ,wilson1 director of ,messrs4 ,price ,co4's manufactory4 ,it will be observed that ,mr4 ,alcock's milk is richer in butter and that his butter is also richer in proportion of oleine to margarine than my own4 ,professor ,thompson 78,elements of ,agricultural ,chemistry10 #fth edition1 p4 #cag7 states that winter butter consists more of solid1 and summer more of liquid or oleine fat4 ,an analysis of butter made in ,vosges gives3 ,summer4 ,winter4 ,solid or margarine fat1 #dj #fe ,liquid 7or oleine7 fat1 #fj #ce --- --- #ajj #ajj ,in ,lehmann's 8,physiological ,chemistry0 7,leipsic edition1 vol4 ii41 p4 #cbi71 an analysis of butter by ,bromus gives3 ,margarine1 #fh ,oleine1 #cj ,special butter-oil1 #b --- #ajj ,it will be observed that my butter may be classed as summer butter1 and that ,mr4 ,alcock's is the richest in the proportion of oleine4 ,both were produced in the month of ,january4 ,these results are important1 and completely establish the conclusion ,i had previously formed1 that the quantity and quality of butter depend essentially on the food and treatment2 and that by suitable means you can produce as much and as rich butter in winter as in summer4 ,,index4 ,aiton's opinion of dairy stock1 #ac1 #ad1 #ai ,albuminous substances1 value of as food1 #abb-abh ,american cattle1 origin of1 #ej1 #ea1 #ec1 #ed1 #ee1 #fj ,american cheese1 #bfj ,analysis of milk1 #baf1 #cig ,analysis of butter1 #bci1 #cgi1 #dji ,analysis of cheese1 #bfh1 #bfi ,analysis of hay and grasses1 #cij1 #cgi ,analysis of cotton-seed cake1 #abg1 #abh1 #aig ,analysis and value of manure1 #aih1 #cjh1 #dja ,animals1 large and small1 #aj1 #aaa ,annatto for coloring1 #bej1 #bea1 #cbh ,artificial shades in pastures1 #ace ,ayrshires1 as dairy cows1 #aa1 #ag1 #ai1 #bb1 #be1 #ge1 #gg ,ayrshires1 origin and points of1 #aa1 #ab1 #ad1 #af1 #bb1 #bc1 #be ,ayrshires1 yield of1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #be ,barn1 plan of a1 #aej1 #aea1 #aec ,barn1 cellar1 convenience of1 #aed ,barn1 temperature of for cows1 #aed ,bean-vines1 value of1 #aci1 #cgj1 #cga ,beauty of stock1 #bh1 #cf1 #da1 #gb1 #gc1 #ajd ,berkshire swine1 crosses of the1 #cfb1 #cfc ,boussingault's equivalents1 #abe1 #abf ,breed1 meaning of the term1 #di ,breed1 an element in judging dairy cows1 #ia1 #ib ,breeds1 some must be kept pure1 #cfa ,bull1 selection of for breeding1 #fb1 #fc1 #ff1 #ge1 #gg ,butter1 origin of1 #bag ,butter1 not made by the early ,jews1 #bag ,butter1 from cream first skimmed the best1 #bah ,butter1 making of1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bcb1 #cji1 #cbj ,butter1 modes of churning1 #bbf1 #bbh1 #bcb1 #cji1 #caa1 #cah ,butter1 salting of1 #bch1 #cba1 #chf ,butter1 composition of1 #aba1 #bci1 #cgi ,butter1 producing localities1 #cib ,butter1 quantity of milk to make a pound of1 #chb ,butter1 qualities of1 #bci1 #cia1 #dji ,butter1 worker1 #bbf1 #bca1 #bce1 #bcf ,butter1 from poor and rich pastures1 #cia ,butter1 use of the sponge to remove butter-milk1 #bca1 #bcd ,butter1 fat or oil of1 #bci1 #bdj ,butter1 in winter1 #bcc1 #che1 #daj ,butter1 in lumps1 #bch1 #cbc1 #cbg ,butter1 time of churning1 #bbi1 #bcf1 #cai1 #chf ,butter1 cleansing the casks for1 #cbd1 #cbe ,butter1 mode of packing1 #bcg1 #bch1 #cbc1 #cbf ,butter1 coloring of1 #cbh1 #cei ,butter1 made by burying cream1 #bci ,butter-milk1 use of1 #cbi1 #cde1 #cfa ,butter-milk1 proportions of1 #cgi ,buying dairy stock1 #aaa ,calves1 raising of1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg1 #afj1 #afb1 #afe1 #afg ,calves1 value of ,gunon's method of judging1 #ajb1 #aaj1 #aee ,calves1 feeding of by hand1 #aeg1 #aei1 #afj1 #afc ,calves1 diseases of1 #bij1 #bia1 #bib ,calves1 must have the first milk1 #aeg1 #aei1 #bij ,calves1 immediately taken from the cow1 #aeh1 #aei ,calves1 starving and over-feeding1 #afa1 #afg1 #afh ,calves1 feeding hay-tea to1 #afe ,calves1 food required1 #afg1 #afh ,calving1 treatment of the cow at1 #ac1 #acj1 #aca1 #bge ,cattle1 importance of weighing1 #chg1 #cif ,cattle1 fattening of1 #chh ,cheddar cheese1 mode of making1 #bfa ,cheddar cheese1 analysis of1 #bfi ,cheese1 early history of1 #bda ,cheese1 composition of1 #aba1 #abb1 #bfh1 #bfi ,cheese1 made of cream1 #bdb ,cheese1 made of skim-milk1 #bdc1 #bff1 #cca ,cheese1 making of1 #bdc1 #bde1 #bdg1 #beb1 #cfj ,cheese1 breaking the curd1 #bde1 #bdg1 #bec1 #cej ,cheese1 new and sweet milks1 #bdf1 #cci1 #cde1 #cdh ,cheese1 pressing of1 #bdg1 #bea1 #beb1 #bed1 #bfd1 #bfh1 #bgj1 #ccd1 #ccf1 #cdb ,cheese1 salting1 #bed1 #beh1 #bfa1 #cch1 #cdb ,cheese1 varieties of1 #bed1 #bee1 #ccj1 #cdh ,cheese1 coloring of1 #bej1 #cec ,cheese1 ,cheshire1 how made1 #bef1 #beg1 #beh ,cheese1 ,stilton1 how made1 #bei ,cheese1 ,gloucester1 how made1 #bfj1 #bfi ,cheese1 ,cheddar1 how made1 #bfa1 #bfi ,cheese1 as a digester1 #bfi1 #bgj ,cheese1 ,dutch1 making of1 #ccj1 #cca1 #cci1 #cde1 #cdf ,cheese1 ,gouda1 how made1 #ccj1 #cca1 #cci1 #cdd ,cheese1 ,edamer1 how made1 #cdj ,cheese1 moulds1 #cce1 #ccg1 #cdb1 #cea ,cheshire cheese1 mode of making1 #bef1 #beg1 #beh ,choking1 cure for1 #bhc1 #bhd ,churn1 forms of the1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #caj1 #cab1 #cae ,churning1 #bbe1 #bbh1 #bcb1 #bcf1 #cjj1 #chc1 #che ,churning1 temperature for1 #chc1 #che ,churning1 by lever1 #caa1 #cac ,churning1 by dog-power1 #cag ,churning1 by horse-power1 #bbe1 #cah ,cleanliness the first requisite1 #adf1 #bba1 #bee1 #cjj1 #cbd1 #ccj1 #ceg ,climate and its effect on stock1 #af1 #cg ,clover1 value of for milch cows1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #ahg ,constitution1 indications of1 #hf1 #ajd ,cool-bath1 use of the1 #cjc1 #cjd ,costiveness in calves1 treatment of1 #bia1 #bib ,cotton-seed meal1 analysis and use of1 #abg1 #abh1 #aig ,cows1 in the natural or wild state1 #i1 #fh1 #acf ,cows1 in calf1 treatment of1 #acj1 #aca ,cows1 classification of1 #ajb1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aji ,cream1 treatment of1 #bcf1 #cgh1 #che ,cream1 difference in quality1 #cgg1 #chj ,cream-pots1 #cd1 #bih1 #cjh ,crosses and their results1 #bc1 #ed1 #ee1 #eh1 #fb1 #fc1 #gd1 #gg ,dairy cows1 management of1 #aac1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aai1 #abc1 #adj1 #cfg1 #cib ,dairy cows1 too many for the food1 #aac1 #aaf ,dairy cows1 regularity of feeding1 #aag1 #aai1 #abj1 #acc1 #acg ,dairy room1 #bcc1 #bcg1 #chc1 #chd1 #chf ,dairy utensils1 treatment of1 #bif1 #big1 #bii1 #cbb1 #cdg ,dairy-fed pork1 excellence of1 #cfa ,dairyman's motto1 #aag1 #abj ,dairy-woman1 letter to a1 #cee ,denmark cattle1 #ec ,diarrha1 cause and treatment of1 #bhg1 #bia ,digestive organs1 #bb1 #hf1 #aji1 #acj1 #bgg ,diseases of dairy stock1 #bga1 #bgi1 #bhf1 #bij ,dunlop cheese1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bfd ,dunlop cheese1 analysis of1 #bfi ,dutch cattle1 #ad1 #ae1 #cb1 #cg1 #eb1 #ajd1 #ajg ,dysentery1 symptoms and treatment of1 #bhh ,early maturity1 importance of1 #bc1 #cf1 #cfb1 #cfd ,elements of food1 #aaf1 #abj1 #abb1 #abe1 #ach1 #cig ,escutcheon1 form of the1 #bd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fi1 #ia1 #ic1 #ie1 #ig1 #ii1 #aja1 #ajc1 #aje ,escutcheon1 transmission of the1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #gj ,escutcheon1 of calves #ajb1 #aaj1 #aee ,exceptional and characteristic qualities1 #i1 #ei1 #fh ,external signs of milkers1 #hj1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #aaj ,false presentations in calving1 #bgd1 #bge ,fat of animals1 how formed1 #abj1 #aba1 #abg1 #cgd ,fat forming elements1 #abj1 #abb1 #abh1 #cha ,feeding1 course of1 #aah1 #abc1 #abd1 #abg1 #abi1 #aca1 #acc1 #ach1 #adj1 #afh ,food and shelter1 #aj1 #ef1 #aac1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aai1 #acf1 #afh ,food to produce quantity1 #aag1 #abb1 #abg1 #acf1 #aci1 #chg ,food adapted to the animal1 #cha1 #cif ,food1 economy of1 #djj ,food1 bulk of1 #add1 #cha ,food1 variety of required1 #aba1 #adc1 #add ,food1 steaming the1 #chg1 #cif ,foul in the foot1 treatment of1 #bhd ,garget1 symptoms and treatment1 #bga1 #bgb ,gentleness in the care of stock1 #adg1 #adh1 #afd ,gloucester cheese1 mode of making1 #bfj1 #bfa ,gloucester cheese1 analysis of1 #bfi ,grade and native cattle1 #di1 #ed1 #ee1 #fj1 #gd ,grasses1 culture of the1 #afi1 #agj1 #agb1 #agf1 #ahj ,grasses1 varieties of pasture1 #afi1 #agj1 #ahd1 #ahe ,grasses1 cutting and curing of1 #ahf1 #ahg ,grass-fed cows1 #abh1 #abd1 #acc1 #acg ,great milkers1 form of1 #bh1 #gb1 #ajd ,gunon's method of judging cows1 #bd1 #fd1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #aji ,gunon's method1 explanation of1 #fe1 #ia ,hafting and its results1 #ba ,harley's experience1 #bj1 #acg ,hay cut and moistened1 value of1 #aag1 #abb1 #abg ,hereditary qualities1 #bd1 #fc ,herefords1 origin and characteristics of1 #ch1 #dj1 #dc ,hornless cattle1 #gh ,hoove1 cause and cure of1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bib ,hoose1 treatment of1 #bhf ,horsfall's system of feeding1 #ach1 #cfe1 #cgj1 #chj1 #chc ,hubback1 fame of1 #cb1 #cc ,hungarian cattle1 #gh ,ice1 use of in the dairy1 #bcf1 #bdj1 #bdd ,ice-creams1 modes of making1 #bad1 #bae ,inflammation of the glands1 treatment of1 #bhf ,inflammation of the lungs1 treatment of1 #bhf ,indian corn1 culture and curing for fodder1 #ahh1 #ahi ,jersey cattle1 origin and characteristics of1 #bf1 #bg1 #bi1 #cj ,jersey cattle1 ,haxton's opinion of1 #bg ,jersey cows1 milk of1 #cj1 #gf1 #cja ,lactometer1 use of1 #adi1 #baj1 #baa ,letter to a dairy-woman1 #cee ,lice on cows1 how to get rid of1 #bhj ,linseed-meal1 value and use of1 #abh1 #aig1 #cha ,london dairies1 #ce1 #gd1 #acf ,loss of cud1 cure for1 #bij ,male1 selection of the1 #fb1 #ff1 #ge1 #gg1 #cfb ,mange1 symptoms and cure of1 #bhh ,manures1 economy and use of1 #aed1 #aih1 #djj1 #dja ,medicine chest1 importance of1 #bic1 #bid ,medicine1 easily procured1 #bic1 #bid ,milch cows1 yield of1 #ah1 #bj1 #be1 #aaf1 #acc1 #cja1 #cgb ,milch cows1 selection of1 #aj1 #fa1 #fd1 #fg1 #ga1 #gi1 #hj1 #hf ,milch cows1 teeth of1 #ha1 #hc1 #he1 #hf ,milk1 nature and composition of1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjc1 #baf1 #cfi ,milk1 oily parts of1 #bjj1 #bjd1 #baf1 #bag1 #bah1 #bci1 #chi ,milk1 cheesy parts of1 #bjj1 #bjd1 #baf1 #bda1 #cfi1 #chi1 #djj ,milk1 temperature for raising cream1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bje1 #bab1 #bbh1 #bcc ,milk1 temperature for curdling1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bec1 #bfg ,milk1 intoxicating liquor from1 #bja1 #bjb ,milk1 difference in quality1 #bjc1 #bjg1 #bji1 #bai1 #cge1 #chc ,milk1 specific gravity of1 #bjc1 #bji1 #baj ,milk1 setting for cream1 #bje1 #bjg1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbe1 #bbh1 #bcb1 #bcd1 #cjh ,milk1 effect of climate on the quantity1 #bjg ,milk1 treatment of1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bab1 #bai1 #bba1 #bbc1 #bie1 #cjb1 #cjh ,milk1 adulterating1 #bjh1 #bji ,milk1 ice-creams from1 #bad ,milk1 of spayed cows1 #bae ,milk1 measures for1 #baf1 #bif ,milk1 room1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bca1 #chc ,milk1 testing the quality of1 #adi1 #bji1 #baa1 #cgf1 #cig ,milk1 feeding for1 #ef1 #aad1 #aae1 #aag1 #abc1 #abg1 #abi1 #aca1 #acb ,milk1 greatest yield of on grass1 #abc1 #abd1 #acb1 #acg ,milk-fever1 symptoms and treatment of1 #bge1 #bgf1 #bgg1 #bgh ,milking1 manner of affects the yield1 #ade1 #adf1 #adg ,milking1 women best adapted for1 #adi1 #bie ,milking1 in the ,dutch dairies1 #bie ,milking1 qualities1 artificial1 #i1 #fh1 #acf1 #adh ,milk-mirror1 transmission of the1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #gj ,milk-mirror1 form of the1 #bd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #ie1 #ig1 #ii1 #aja ,milk-mirror1 explanation of the1 #fe ,milk-pans1 forms of1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bif1 #cjf ,milk-yoke1 use of the1 #bie1 #bif ,milk-veins1 size of the1 #hh1 #ajd1 #ajf1 #aaj ,millet1 culture and value of1 #ahi ,mixed food1 conducive to health1 #aba1 #adc ,moist and succulent food1 #aag1 #abb1 #abg1 #acc1 #acf1 #aci1 #add1 #chg ,native or grade cattle1 #ad1 #di1 #ej1 #ed1 #ef1 #fj1 #fa ,nitrogenous substances1 value of1 #abb1 #abh1 #cha ,north ,devons1 origin and qualities of1 #dd1 #de1 #dg1 #gf ,nutritive value of articles of food1 #abe1 #abf ,oakes cow1 yield of1 #gb1 #gc ,oil-cake1 value of1 #abg1 #abi1 #cha ,origin of breeds and races1 #i ,parmesan cheese1 mode of making1 #bff1 #cfj ,parturition1 treatment at1 #aca1 #bgc1 #bgd ,pastures1 different qualities of1 #cia ,patton stock1 #ce ,philadelphia-butter1 quality of1 #bcj1 #bcd ,points of a dairy cow1 #ba1 #bb1 #dg1 #ea1 #fd1 #gc1 #hj1 #hf1 #hh1 #aaj ,pork1 best quality of1 #cfb ,practice in judging stock1 #hj ,principles of breeding1 #bc1 #cb1 #eh1 #fa1 #fb1 #fi1 #ga1 #gd ,puerperal fever1 treatment of1 #bge1 #bgf ,purgatives in use for cattle1 #bha ,rape-cake1 value of as food1 #cha1 #cia ,red water1 treatment of1 #bhe ,regularity1 importance of1 #aag1 #aai1 #acc1 #acg1 #adc ,relative size of male and female1 #af1 #fb1 #gj1 #ga1 #cfb ,rennet1 how prepared1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bei1 #ccb1 #cdi ,rennet1 use of1 #bee1 #beg1 #ccb ,rings on the horns1 #ha ,roots for stock1 #aah1 #aai1 #abb1 #abg1 #afg1 #ach1 #cif ,roots1 culture of1 #aia1 #aib1 #aic1 #aif ,rye1 culture and use of1 #aij ,scours in calves1 treatment of1 #bia ,selection of cows1 #aj1 #fa1 #ga1 #gi1 #hj1 #hf1 #aaj1 #aaa ,shaving the milk-mirror1 #ie ,short-horns1 origin and characteristics of1 #ca1 #cc1 #ce ,short-horns1 influence on ,american cattle1 #cd1 #ce1 #gd ,short-horns1 beef of the1 #cf1 #db1 #dc ,simple fever1 symptoms and treatment1 #bgi1 #bhj ,size of animals1 relative1 #aj1 #gj1 #aaa ,skim-milk cheese1 #bdc1 #bff1 #cca1 #cfj ,slinking the calf1 #bgd ,soiling1 plants for1 #acb1 #ace1 #adb1 #adc1 #add ,soiling1 advantages of1 #ada1 #adb1 #adc ,sponge and cloth1 use of the1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bcd1 #ceh ,spring1 treatment of cows in1 #aca1 #acc1 #acg ,square box the best churn1 #bbh ,stamping of butter1 #cbc1 #cei ,stilton cheese1 mode of making1 #bei1 #bfj ,stock1 improvement of1 #eg1 #eh1 #fj1 #fc1 #ga1 #afh ,stock1 selection of1 #aj1 #eh1 #fj1 #fd1 #ff1 #ga1 #hf ,stock1 age of1 #hj1 #ha ,suffolk swine1 crosses with1 #cfb1 #cfc ,surfeited cows1 treatment of1 #ach1 #bij ,swill-milk1 how produced1 #add1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj ,swine1 the kind of wanted1 #cfb1 #cfc ,swine1 treatment of1 #cfd ,symptomatic fever1 treatment of1 #bhj ,teeth1 indicative of age1 #ha1 #hc1 #he1 #hf ,the piggery1 #cfa1 #cfd ,time a cow should run dry1 #acj1 #aca1 #bgc ,time of calving1 #aca1 #bgb1 #bgc ,treatment of dairy stock1 #ef1 #acj1 #aca1 #acc1 #acd1 #acf1 #ach1 #adj1 #adh1 #afh ,typhoid fever1 treatment of1 #bha ,udder1 attention to the1 #dc1 #hh1 #hi1 #ajd1 #ajh1 #bgb ,udder1 structure of the1 #ade1 #adf1 #bjb ,vegetable oils1 #cgi1 #chi1 #dji ,virginia1 importation of cattle to1 #ce1 #ej ,warbles1 injure the hide1 #bij ,warmth and ventilation requisite1 #acf1 #adi ,whey1 use of the1 #cdd1 #ced ,willowbank dairy1 #bj1 #acg ,winter food for cows1 #abg1 #aca1 #acd1 #acf1 #aci ,wood for butter casks and firkins1 #cbd ,yorkshire cattle1 notice of1 #cj1 #cb1 #ce1 #gd ,youatt's opinion1 #ah1 #dg1 #bgb1 #bgg ,transcriber's ,notes ,inconsistent spelling1 hyphenation1 formatting and lay-out in the source document have been retained1 except as mentioned below4 ,the use of 8 in lieu of the ditto sign has been retained as well4 p4 vii1 444 which ,i have translated from the ,german3 several words 7including names7 are given in their ,german1 not the usual ,dutch or ,english1 spelling4 p4#if1 as at ,m ,m1 ,fig4 #cj3 there is just a single ,m visible in the illustration4 p4 #abe1 second table3 presumably the rows correspond to the rows in the first table on this page4 p4 #abf3 ,white ,silician ,beet3 possibly an error for ,white ,sicilian or ,white ,silesian ,beet4 p4 #aib1 ,the nutritive equivalent 444 one pound of hay3 as printed in the source document4 ,the comparison between hay and potatoes is off by a factor #ajj 7see also the table on page #abf74 p4 #baf1 table3 the addition results in #ajjj4d1 not in exactly #ajjj4 p4 #bag and p4 #bda3 ,the poem is from ,the ,farmer's ,boy by ,robert ,bloomfield 7#ahjj74 p4 #cbi1 crooked ,rhine3 this should read ,crooked ,rhine1 ,crooked being part of the river's name 7,kromme ,rijn74 p4 #ccj1 ,commissions' cheese3 ,commission's cheese would have been a more accurate translation4 p4 #ccg1 444 as appears in the press3 probably an error for 444 as appears in the cut 7or similar74 p4 #cdg1 #ecf1hcd1hcj pounds3 the amount appears to be a factor #aj too high4 p4 #cec1 tournesol3 the colouring agent is more commonly called turnsole4 p4 #dja1 table on maintenance requirements3 the text and the table mention different amounts of foodstuffs2 the calculation from daily to total use of turnips seems to be mistaken4 ,changes made3 ,footnotes and illustrations have bee moved out of text paragraphs2 some tables have been re-aranged4 ,non-,english words have not been corrected1 unless listed below4 ,some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,the ,table of ,contents was not present in the source document1 and has been created for this e-text4 ,the source document contained two illustrations each numbered ,fig4 #ef1 ,fig4 #eg and ,fig4 #eh4 ,the first occurrences of these and the references thereto have been renumbered ,fig4 #ef;a1 ,fig4 #eg;a and ,fig4 #eh;a1 the second instances and references thereto ,fig4 #ef;b1 ,fig4 #eg;b and ,fig4 #eh;b4 ,in some places the ditto sign 7in this book 87 has been replaced by the dittoed text4 p4 #bab3 8 inserted before ,to one hundred and twelve pounds 444 p4 #bdc3 8 removed from before ,the evening's and morning's milk p4 #cic1 table3 ,parson changed to ,pawson p4 #dja1 table on maintenance requirements3 header ,per day moved to include the first column2 header lbs4 added to last three columns4