,,!                                     
,,apo!c>y                          9    
,eighte5?-,c5tury                       
,,williamsburg     ,be+ an ,acc\nt ( 8  
m$ical & *irurgical ,s]vices1 z well z  
( 8 trade ,practices z a ,*ymi/         
,williamsburg ,craft ,s]ies             
,,williamsburg                          
,publi%$ by ,colonial ,williamsburg     
,,mcmxc                                 
,! ,apo!c>y                   9         
,eighte5?-,c5tury ,williamsburg         
,illu/ration3 ,decorative capital  ,( ! 
fir/ #bbe m5 s5t ov] f ,london to settle
 at ,jame/[n 9 #afjg & #afjh1 sev5 7    
practition]s ( m$ic9e--z x 0 !n         
practic$3 ,walt] ,russell1 ,g5t41 0 a   
8,doct\r ( ,physicke10 :i* is to say t  
he _h /udi$ at a univ]sity & e>n$ a     
degree 9 m$ic9e2 ,?omas ,wotton1 ,w     
,wilk9son1 & ,po/ ,g9nat 7 li/$ z       
surgeons--8*irurgeon0 z x !n appe>$2    
,?omas ,field & ,john ,h>=d bore ! label
 ( apo!c>ies2 & ! sev5? 0 8,?o3 ,c[p] ! 
,b>b]40  ,pla9ly1 ! ,virg9ia ,company ( 

,london1 numb]+ sev]al prom95t m$ical m5
 among its back]s1 want$ its adv5tur]s  
to ! ,new ,_w to h ! be/ ( m$ical c>e4  
,un=tunately = ab\t f\r ( e five settl]s
 9 ! fir/ few ye>s at ,jame/[n1 ! be/ 0 
n en\gh to av]t :olesale mortality f    
sickness1 ,indian arr[s1 & 8me]e fam9e40
 ,t "s ( ! m$ical m5 %>$ ! fate ( _!    
pati5ts seems likely 9 ! abs5ce ( lat]  
in=mation ab\t mo/ ( !m4  ,m$ical !ories
 & practices at ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5?   
c5tury 7 l>gely ^? t _h prevail$ s9ce ! 
"t ( ,gal51 a ,greek physician :o di$   
ab\t two c5turies aft] ,*ri/4 ,accord+  
to ,gal51 ! f\r elem5ts ( ,ari/otelian  
sci5ce--fire1 wat]1 air1 & e>?--compris$
 ! f\r major humors ( ! human body3     
blood1 phlegm1 yell[ bile1 & black bile4
 ,blood 0 held to be moi/ & w>m1 phlegm 
0 moi/ & cool1 yell[ bile dry & w>m1 &  
black bile dry & cold4  ,sickness1 9 !  
!ory ( ,gal51 0 caus$ by "o or m ( ^!   
humors becom+ impure or out ( place or  
out ( balance4 ,treatm5t ?us consi/$ (  
remov+ or dim9i%+ ! (f5d+ humor by      

purg+1 ble$+1 vomit+1 bli/]+1 ur9at+1   
sweat+1 or salivat+2 on ! o!r h&1 a     
defici5t humor 0 to be re/or$ by diet & 
drugs4 ,gal5 class$ drugs accord+ to _! 
w>m1 cold1 moi/1 or dry qualities4 ,=   
in/ance1 pepp] 0 a heat+ drug1 good =   
*ills1 :ile cucumb] 0 a cool "o1 to be  
giv5 9 case ( fev]4  ,gal5ism _h be5    
subject$ to attack 9 ! sixte5? c5tury by
 ,p>acelsus & ,vesalius1 b its appeal 0 
logical & rema9$ /rong 9 sev5te5?-c5tury
 ,engl&4 7,9 fact1 "s survivals c be    
f\nd 9 tw5tie?-c5tury folk m$ic9e47 ,dr4
 ,lawr5ce ,bohun 7or ,boone71 :o came   
ov] 9 #afaj & return$ to ,engl& 9 #afaa1
 sp5t "s ( ! ye> inve/igat+ m$ic9al     
s\rces 9 ,virg9ia4 ,he discov]$ a :ite  
clay--& %ipp$ "s to ,engl&--t he claim$ 
c\ld absorb & expel poisons f ! body4   
,among vegetable rem$ies1 ,bohun        
exp]im5t$ ) sassafras & f\nd 8,galbanum 
me*oacon1 o!rwise call$ rub>bum alum1 to
 be ( s]vice 9 cold moi/ bodies1 = !    
purg+e ( fleame phlegm & sup]flu\s      
matt]40                                 

,,:at ,,is ,,an ,,apo!c>y8   ,already x 
w be evid5t t ! practice ( m$ic9e 9     
sev5te5?-c5tury ,engl&1 & h5ce 9 ! fir/ 
,am]ican colonies1 0 n neatly conf9$ to 
! lic5s$ graduates ( accr$it$ m$ical    
s*ools4 ,q ! contr>y4 ,9 fact1 ,h5ry    
,,viii _h compla9$ t all k9ds ( ignorant
 p got into ! act1 includ+ 8,smi?s1     
,weav]s1 & ,wom540      ,illu/ration3 ,9
 ! upp] half ( ?is woodcut f ,! ,exp]t  
,doctor's ,disp5s>y1 publi%$ 9 ,london 9
 #afeg1 a le>n$     physician is %[n    
conduct+ a ur9alysis4 ,he simply holds !
     flask ( liquid to ! light = visual 
exam9ation4 ,bel[1 a     cu/om] pres5ts 
:at appe>s to be a writt5 prescription  
to be     fill$ by ! apo!c>y4  ,two     
c5turies ( legal & p>liam5t>y pull+ &   
haul+1 plus ! consequ5ce ( "s natural   
developm5ts1 left ! situation 9 ,engl&  
some:at /abiliz$--b n necess>ily        
logical4 ,! b>b]s1 *>t]$ z a guild 9    
#adfb & au?oriz$ to practice surg]y1    
includ$ bo? b>b]s & surgeons 9 gr[+     
di%>mony until !y 7 =mally divorc$ 9    

#agde4  ,! apo!c>ies--! ^w orig9ally    
meant %opkeep]--jo9$ ! guild ( groc]s at
 "o "t b %ortly broke away to =m _! own 
guild 9 #afag4 ,meantime1 ! physicians1 
organiz$ 9 ! ,college ( ,physicians1    
obta9$ ! "r to keep wat* on ! apo!c>ies4
  ,physicians1 :o _h to h z mu* z #ad   
ye>s tra9+ & f\r degrees f ,ox=d or     
,cambridge1 7 naturally n abundant4 ,be+
 le>n$ m51 !y w\ld n /oop to ! indignity
 ( su* m5ial "w z p]=m+ surgical        
op]ations or comp\nd+ m$ic9es4 ,! =m] 0 
! prov9ce ( ! surgeon or b>b]-surgeon1 !
 latt] 0 ! specialty ( ! apo!c>y4  ,b ! 
sc>city ( physicians1 especially 9 rural
 areas1 left a m$ical gap t ! apo!c>ies1
 tra9$ ?r\gh appr5tice%ip & _m times m  
num]\s1 naturally mov$ to fill4 ,9 #agbg
 ,engli% law f9ally recogniz$ & legaliz$
 ! fact t = mo/ p ! apo!c>y-surgeon 0 ! 
only available practition] ( m$ic9e4 ,9 
turn1 ! bus9ess ( purvey+ drugs &       
comp\nd+ m$ic9es pass$ f ! apo!c>ies to 
! :olesale druggi/s & ph>maceutical     
*emi/s4  ,z x 0 transf]r$ to ,am]ica !  

trade ( apo!c>y--x 0 nei!r a craft nor a
 pr(ession 9 any /rict s5se--0 probably 
mu* l t ( ! rural apo!c>y-surgeon (     
sev5te5?-c5tury ,engl&4 ,! apo!c>y /ill 
made 8 liv+ prim>ily f ! provision (    
drugs & m$ical prep>ations2 b he also   
p]=m$ amputations1 dress$ w\nds1 &      
subject$ 8 pati5ts to ! normal m$ical   
treatm5ts ( ! day4                      
,,all ,,t ,,! ,,law ,,all[s   ,virg9ia 0
 ! only colony t tri$ to draw           
legislative b\nd>ies ar\nd ! v>i\s      
aspects ( m$ical practice4 ,! ef=t came 
9 #agcf 9 ! =m ( 8an ,act = ,regulat+ ! 
,fees & ,acc\nts ( ! ,practic]s (       
,phisic40 ,on two gr\nds ! act des]ves  
to be quot$ at "s l5g?4 ,= "o ?+1 x ?r[s
 a good light on ! /ate ( m$ical        
practice at t "t4 ,= ano!r1 x af=ds     
und5iable p>allels to "s curr5t problems
 9 ! co/ ( m$ic9es & m$ical c>e1 & to ! 
role ( gov]nm5t 9 s]v+ ! int]e/s ( !    
8consum]40      ,illu/ration3 ,an       
eighte5?-c5tury op]at+ *air1 fully      
equipp$ ) tilt+ back1 padd$ adju/able   

supports1 & /raps     to keep ! pati5t f
 wri?+ away f ! knife4 ,ane/hesia     0 
limit$ to /rong doses ( spiritu\s       
liquors2 antisepsis 0     unkn[n4  ,!   
illu/ration is tak5 f ,d5is ,did]ot's   
fam\s     encyclop$ia ( arts & sci5ces4 
,! fir/ section ( ! act recit$ c]ta9    
abuses1 especially ( ! surgeons &       
apo!c>ies3    ,i4 ,:]eas ! practice (   
phisic 9 ?is colony1 is mo/ commonly    
tak5 up & foll[$1 by surgeons1          
apo!c>ies1 or su* z h only   s]v$       
appr5tice%ips to ^? trades1 :o (t5 prove
 v unskilful   9 ! art ( a phisician2 & 
yet d dem& excessive fees1 & exact      
unreasonable prices = ! m$ic9es :i* !y  
adm9i/]1 & d   too (t51 = ! sake ( mak+ 
up long & exp5sive bills1 load   _!     
pati5ts ) great] quantities !re(1 ?an   
are necess>y or   useful1 conceal+ all  
_! compositions1 z well to prev5t !     
discov]y ( _! practice1 z ( ! true value
 ( :at !y   adm9i/]3 :i* is become a    
grievance1 dang]\s & intol]able1 z      
well to ! poor] sort ( p z o!rs1  do?   

require ! mo/   effectual rem$y t !     
nature ( ! ?+ w admit4  ,! second       
section !n proce$$ to emphasize ! *ief  
di/9ction betwe5 ! appr5tice-tra9$      
apo!c>y-surgeons & ! univ]sity-educat$  
physicians by all[+ ! latt] to *>ge     
twice z mu* = _! s]vices z ! =m] c\ld4  
,if ! apo!c>ies & surgeons felt--z well 
!y might h--t ! diff]5ce 9 fees 0 an    
insult to !m1 x did n la/ long4 ,! law 0
 n r5ew$ at ! foll[+ session ( !        
,assembly2 p]haps its back]s1 !         
physicians1 _h se5 _! pati5ts flock to !
 l[]-pric$ practic]s4  ,al?\gh ,virg9ia 
0 ! only colony to set m$ical fees by   
law1 ! practice ( legislative price fix+
 9 o!r areas ( ! economy 0 z common 9   
colonial ,am]ica z x 0 9 ,engl&4 ,9     
,virg9ia1 to be specific1 n only prices 
& quantities b 9 "s cases ev5 qualities 
( goods & s]vices (f]$ to ! public by   
tav]nkeep]s1 %oemak]s1 mill]s1 & f]rym5 
7 regulat$ by law4 ,! economic          
philosophy & t]m9ology ( laissez faire 7
 among ! ali5 isms import$ aft] #aggf4  

,dur+ ! colonial ye>s1 gov]nm5t r>ely   
hesitat$ to act 9 ! economic field :]e !
 ne$ 0 felt4  ,f ?is p>ticul> ,virg9ia  
law ( #agcf x w\ld appe> t "s if n all  
m$ical *>ges _h gott5 well out ( l9e--! 
correct l9e1 ( c\rse1 be+ :at ! p & _!  
elect$ repres5tatives ?\ght 0           
reasonable3    ,,ii4 ,,be x !re=e       
enact$1 444    ,t f & aft] ! pass+ ( ?is
 act1 no practic] 9 phisic1   9 any     
action or suit :atsoev]1 h]eaft] to be  
comm5c$ 9 any   c\rt ( record 9 ?is     
colony1 %all recov]1 = visit+ any sick  
p]son1 m ?an ! rates h]eaft] m5tion$3 t 
is to say1    ,surgeons & apo!c>ies1 :o 
h s]v$ an appr5tice%ip to ^?   trades1  
%all be all[$1                          
s  d     ,= e visit1 & prescription1 9  
t[n1 or )9      #jj  #e #jj         five
 miles     ,= e mile1 above five1 & "u  
t5                  #jj  #a #jj     ,= a
 visit1 ( t5 miles                      
#jj #aj #jj     ,& = e mile1 above t5   
#jj #jj #jf     ,) an all[ance = all    
f]riages 9 _! j\rneys4     ,to          

,surgeons1 ,= a simple fracture1 & !    
cure !re(   #jb #jj #jj        ,= a     
comp\nd fracture1 & ! cure !re(         
#jd #jj #jj    ,b ^? p]sons :o h /udi$  
phisic 9 any univ]sity1 & tak5   any    
degree !re91 %all be all[$1      ,= e   
visit1 & prescription1 9 any t[n1 or )9 
#jj #aj #jj         five miles     ,if  
above five miles1 = e mile m1 "u t5     
#jj  #a #jj     ,= a visit1 if n above  
t5 miles                         #a #jj 
#jj     ,& = e mile1 above t5           
#jj  #a #jj     ,) an all[ance (        
f]riages1 z be=e4  ,le/ x appe> t all   
,williamsburg 8practic]s0 made a habit (
 *>g+ excessive fees1 ! g5]\s treatm5t  
an e>li] doctor gave at lea/ "o ( 8     
pati5ts mu/ be set d[n4 ,george ,hume1 a
 ,scotti% m]*ant :o came to ,virg9ia    
ab\t #agbb & soon caught all ! preval5t 
ills1 f\nd ! place 8only good = doctors 
& m9i/]s :o h v good enc\ragem'nt "h40  
,"o ( ! 8common di/emp]s0 t afflict$    
,hume 0 dys5t]y1 !n call$ ! flux4 ,he 0 
laid s l[ t ,dr4 ,john ,br[n all b      

despair$ ( 8 life4 ,hume's gratitude =  
be+ cur$ 0 d\btless enhanc$ by !        
fact--c>efully report$ to 8 ,scotti%    
relatives--t 8ye ,dr4 took no?+ = my    
druggs40  ,! ?ird section ( ! act1      
specify+ exactly :at ! 8practic] (      
phisic0 %\ld set =? 9 8 bill1 be>s if   
lea/ a fa9t augury ( mod]n food-&-drug  
label+ legislation3    ,,iii4 ,& to !   
end ! true value ( ! m$ic9es adm9i/]$ by
   any practic] 9 phisic1 may be bett]  
kn[n1 & judg$ (1 ,be x   fur!r enact$1  
by ! au?ority a=esaid1 ,t :5ev] any     
pills1   bolus1 portion1 draught1       
electu>y1 decoction1 or any m$ic9es1 9  
any =m :atsoev]1 %all be adm9i/]$ to any
 sick p]son1 !   p]son adm9i/]+ ! same  
%all1 at ! same "t1 deliv] 9 8   bill1  
express+ e p>ticul> ?+ made up !re92 or 
if !   m$ic9e adm9i/]$1 be a simple1 or 
comp\nd1 direct$ 9 !   disp5satories1 ! 
true "n !re( %all be express$ 9 ! same  
bill1 toge!r ) ! quantities & prices1 9 
bo? cases4 ,& 9   failure !re(1 su*     
practic]1 or any apo!c>y1 mak+ up !     

prescription ( ano!r1 %all be nonsuit$1 
9 any action or suit   h]eaft] comm5c$1 
:i* %all be gr\nd$ ^u su* bill or bills3
   ,nor %all any book1 or acc\nt1 ( any 
practic] 9 phisic1 or any   apo!c>y1 be 
p]mitt$ to be giv5 9 evid5ce1 be=e a    
c\rt2   unless ! articles !re9 conta9$1 
be *>g$ accord+ to !   directions ( ?is 
act4  ,?is f9al section reveals t "s    
diff]5tiation betwe5 ! bran*es ( !      
m$ical pr(ession _h already begun 9     
,am]ica4 ,! tip-(f is ! phrase t imposes
 on 8any apo!c>y mak+ up ! prescription 
( ano!r0 ! same requirem5ts z on        
physicians :o make up _! own            
prescriptions4                          
,,! ,,doctors ,,( ,,williamsburg   ,if  
competition t5ds to keep prices l[1 fees
 *>g$ 9 & ar\nd ! capital city 9 ! e>ly 
eighte5? c5tury %\ld h be5 at ! rock    
bottom level4 ,gov]nor ,goo* 9 #agbi    
report$ to ,london t ,williamsburg      
ab\nd$ 9 physicians4 ,! same ye> "y     
,adam ,cunn+ham gave up 8 brief ef=t to 
e/abli% himself 9 practice z a doctor3  

,illu/ration3 ,ano!r illu/ration f !    
,did]ot encyclop$ia     %[s ! op]ation (
 trepann+ a skull & "s surgical tools 9 
common use 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 9       
colonial ,am]ica z well z     9 ,europe4
    ,williamsburg he wrote is b a small 
,village conta9+ n m   ?an #fj families1
 at mo/2 & 9 & ab\t ?is ,city are no    
less ?an   #be or #cj phisitians1 & ( t 
numb] n above #b capable ( liv+         
h&somly4 ,s t ,i did n ?9k x prop] to   
/ay1 9 a place :]e   s _m ( my pr(ession
 are lickely to />ve4  ,little is kn[n  
ab\t any ( ^! 8phisitians10 n ev5 !     
names ( mo/4 ,x seems fairly sure1      
h[ev]1 t a numb] 7 quacks4 ,goo* _h     
compla9$ 9 ! same lett] ab\t !          
8unskilfulness ( praction]s 9 ?is       
c\ntry0 b 0 gullible en\gh himself to   
pay #fj p\nds f public funds & give     
fre$om to a ,negro slave = ! secret ( ! 
latt]'s alleg$ cure ( v5]eal diseases4  
,x turn$ out to be a decoction ( roots &
 b>ks1 :i* ! ,gov]nor av[$ to be 8a     
c]ta9 ,rem$y "h0 & s5t samples s !      

,college ( ,physicians c\ld try its     
effect 9 ,engl&4  ,mo/ ( ,goo*'s        
abundant physicians almo/ c]ta9ly made  
up _! own prescriptions4 ,f #afbb at    
,jame/[n until #agca 9 ,williamsburg no 
m5tion ( an apo!c>y 9 ,virg9ia has be5  
f\nd 9 hi/orical records4 ,9 ! latt]    
ye>1 h[ev]1 !re 7 f\r %ops purvey+ drugs
 & comp\nd+ m$ic9es 9 ,williamsburg4 ,! 
proprietors ( two 7 doctors--,dr4       
,george ,gilm] & ,dr4 ,k5ne? ,mc,kenzie2
 ! o!r two 7 druggi/s or                
8*ymi/s0--,?omas ,:>ton & ,?omas        
,goodw94  ,goodw9 did n rema9 indep5d5t 
long4 ,aft] ab\t two ye>s he jo9$ ,dr4  
,rob]t ,davidson1 mayor ( ,williamsburg1
 9 a p>tn]%ip t 0 itself dissolv$ 9 two 
ye>s by ! dea? ( ,dr4 ,davidson4 ,?omas 
,:>ton1 on ! o!r h&1 kept %op 9         
,williamsburg = "s elev5 ye>s4 ,he _h   
arriv$ 9 ,virg9ia ab\t #agjc z an       
ind5tur$ s]vant to a ,dr4 ,ri*>d ,wright
 & _h acquir$ by ! "t ( 8 dea? 9 #agdf n
 only a ph>maceutical bus9ess1 b ! title
 ( 8,doctor40 ,he will$ 8 drugs1        

m$ic9es1 & %op ut5sils to ,dr4          
,mc,kenzie4                             
,,%opkeep] ,,extraord9>y   ,! f\r? nam$ 
practic]1 ,george ,gilm]1 ,sr41 des]ves 
ext5d$ att5tion4 ,he comes z close z any
 "o p]son to be+ a typical ,williamsburg
 apo!c>y-surgeon-physician ( 8 "t1 ?\gh 
8 extram$ical c>e] 0 f> f typical4      
,born 9 ,ed9burgh 9 #agjj1 ,gilm] /udi$ 
m$ic9e !re1 !n practic$ ) "o ( ,london's
 lead+ doctors1 ^: daught] he m>ri$4    
,possibly ! dea? ( 8 "y wife mov$ him to
 %ip = ,am]ica2 at ! age ( #ca he arriv$
 9 ,virg9ia to practice m$ic9e & manage 
! affairs ( a l& company4 ,he m>ri$ aga9
 & mu/ h prosp]$1 because 9 f\r ye>s' "t
 he 0 able to pur*ase = #aee ?ree *oice 
lots ne> ! ,gov]nor's ,palace 9         
,williamsburg4  ,^! ?ree lots1 on :i* ! 
rambl+ ,/4 ,george ,tuck] ,h\se has /ood
 s9ce #aghh1 7 describ$ 9 #agce z 8!    
,lotts & ,l& :]eon ! ,b[l+ ,gre5 =m]ly  
01 ! ,dwell+ ,h\se & ,kit*5 ( ,william  
,lev+/on & ! ,h\se call'd ! ,play       
,h\se40 ,! la/1 ( c\rse1 0 ! fir/ !at] 9

 ! ,engli% colonies1 & ,gilm] lat] sold 
x to ! mayor & ald]m5 ( ,williamsburg to
 be us$ z a city hall & c\r?\se4 ,x 0 a 
p>ticul>ly conv5i5t arrangem5t = "o ( ! 
ald]m5 :o 0 to become mayor himself a   
ye> lat]1 none o!r ?an ,dr4 ,george     
,gilm]4  ,gilm]'s c>e] z an             
apo!c>y-surgeon-physician 0 n )\t its   
ups & d[ns4 ,soon aft] buy+ ! prop]ty on
 ,palace ,gre51 he 0 giv+ away samples (
 rattlesnake root on behalf ( ,dr4 ,john
 ,t5n5t1 :o ma9ta9$ x w\ld cure         
pleurisy1 ! g\t1 rheumatism1 & mad-dog  
bites4  ,at ! same "t ! ,virg9ia        
,gazette1 ,williamsburg's new weekly1   
c>ri$ ! news t 8on ,monday ,morn+ la/1  
dy'd1 at ,mr4 ,geo4 ,gilm]'s1 9 ?is     
,city1 ,mrs4 ,susanna ,skaife1 444 & 0  
dec5tly int]r'd on ,w5sday4 ,&1 on      
,?ursday ,morn+ also dy'd1 ! ,rev4 ,mr4 
,john ,skaife1 h] ,husb&1 aft] a t$i\s  
,indisposition40 ,x w\ld appe> t at lea/
 ,mrs4 ,skaife 0 a b$ pati5t 9 ,dr4     
,gilm]'s home2 ?is 0 a usual way ( c>+ =
 s]i\s illnesses be=e ! day ( hospitals4

      ,illu/ration3 ,surr\nd$ by !      
equipm5t ( 8 craft1 ?is "y     apo!c>y  
is mak+ up a prescription ( "s k9d1     
probably =     pills4 ,! illu/ration    
traces back to a ,london publication1 ,!
     ,book ( ,trades or ,libr>y (       
,useful ,arts1 fir/ ,am]ican edition    
publi%$ 9 #ahjg by ,j4 ,johnson & = sale
 9 8 book/ore 9     ,philadelphia & 9   
,ri*mond1 ,virg9ia4  ,soon !reaft]1     
,gilm] f\nd x necess>y to ins]t ! foll[+
 adv]tisem5t 9 ! ,virg9ia ,gazette3     
,williamsburg ,may #bf1 #agcg4    ,!re  
be+ a ,report indu/ri\sly spread ab\t ! 
,c\ntry1 (   ,george ,gilm]'s ,dea?1 by 
"s well-mean+ ,p1 & ( 8 be+   s mu* 9   
,debt1 t no?+ f ,engl& w\ld be s5t him  
?is   ,ye>1 if alive4    ,to obviate su*
 sc&al\s & gr\ndless ,reports1 ,i take  
?is   ,opportunity to acqua9t all my    
,fri5ds1 t ,i c n[1 bett] ?an   ev]1    
supply !m ) all mann] ( ,*ymical &      
,gal5ical ,m$ic9es1   truly & fai?fully 
prep>$1 & at z *eap ,rates z c be _h   f
 ,engl&4 ,also ,d\ble-ref9'd1 ,s+le     

ref9'd1 & ,lump ,sug>s1   ,c9namon1     
,cloves1 ,mace1 ,nutmegs1 ,bateman's    
,drops1 ,squire's ,elixir1   ,&]son's   
,pills1 ,sweet ,oil1 c4 at reasonable   
,rates2 at my ,old   ,%op1 ne> !        
,gov]nor's4                             
,george ,gilm]  ,n9e ye>s lat] ,gilm] 0 
s mu* alive & active z to be mayor ( !  
city1 ! own] ( a new f\r-:eel$ *aise1 & 
once m a bridegroom4 ,on ! dea? ( 8     
second wife1 ,gilm] _h promptly m>ri$ 8 
next-door neighbor4 ,! ?ird ,mrs4 ,gilm]
 0 ,h>rison ,blair1 daught] ( ,dr4      
,ar*ibald ,blair & si/] ( ! ,hon4 ,john 
,blair ( ! gov]nor's c\ncil4 ,!         
apo!c>y's /> 0 ris+4  ,he 0 /ill1 (     
c\rse1 a %opkeep]4 ,8 8,old ,%op ne> !  
,gov]nor's0 /ood at ! v edge ( ,palace  
,gre51 a frame build+ ( ab\t #bj feet   
squ>e4 ,e ye> or s he adv]tis$ ! arrival
 f ,engl& ( a %ipm5t ( drugs1 m$ic9es1  
spices1 & groc]ies--to be sold at ! %op1
 :olesale or retail1 & at reasonable    
rates4  ,ar*aeological excavations on ! 
site ( ! fir/ !at]1 & ext5d+ nor? ( x   

onto ! adjac5t ,bru%-,ev]>d ,h\se       
prop]ty1 yield$ quantities ( ,dr4       
,gilm]'s dome/ic & ph>maceutical rubbi%4
 ,! latt] includ$ delftw>e o9tm5t pots &
 drug j>s1 glass m$ic9e phials &        
fragm5ts ( c>boys1 bottles = ,pyrmont   
m9]al wat]1 a brass pe/le1 &1           
inexplicably1 a human jaw4 ,j h[1 or if1
 t relat$ to ,gilm]'s %op rema9s op5 to 
conjecture1 b x is evid5t f ! quantity (
 ph>maceutical artifacts recov]$ t ,dr4 
,gilm]'s bus9ess 0 z ext5sive z 8 #agcg 
adv]tisem5t claim$4  ,inde$1 ,gilm] 0 no
 ord9>y %opkeep]4 ,8 social             
/atus--d\btless bol/]$ by t ( 8 wife's  
family--0 great en\gh t he c\ld be among
 ! fir/ to ent]ta9 ! newly appo9t$      
,gov]nor ,d9widdie4 ,"o suspects t ei!r 
! ambiti\s ,dr4 ,gilm] or 8 well-born   
wife decid$ t 8 h\se on ,palace ,/reet  
fell %ort ( su* pre/igi\s dem&s4 ,six   
mon?s aft] ! d9n] = ,d9widdie1 ! apo!c>y
 0 hav+ 8 d9+ room wa9scot$1 ) a m>ble  
fireplace1 a mirror ov] ! mantel1 & a   
cab9et to conta9 ! set ( new *9a 8 wife 

_h ord]$ f ,london4  ,ab\t ! same "t    
,dr4 ,gilm]1 :o gave himself p]haps     
faceti\sly ! title ( 8colonel10 became  
"p own] ( ! ,raleigh ,tav]n4 ,! de$ by  
:i* he & ,colonel ,*iswell b\ght ! fam\s
 inn = #gjj te/ifi$ t he _h ga9$ t      
ultimate accolade ( social & economic   
/atus 9 colonial ,virg9ia1 ! designation
 8,geo ,gilm] ,g5t40  ,9 ! lett]s he    
wrote to ,london1 ,gilm] seems to ref]  
to himself n z a doctor or surgeon1 b z 
an apo!c>y1 & 8 "n 9 public docum5ts z  
well z 9 private records mo/ (t5 appe>s 
n z ,dr4 ,gilm] b z ,mr4 ,gilm]4 ,he 0  
d\btless pr\d] ( be+ kn[n z a g5tleman &
 a colonel2 ! title ( doctor 0 (t5 held 
9 poor e/eem4 ,william ,byrd ,,ii wrote 
9 #agjf t 8"h be "s m5 inde$ t are      
call'd ,doctors3 b !y are g5]ally       
disc>d$ ,surgeons ( ,%ips1 t "k no?+    
above ! v common ,rem$ys40 ,z late z    
#aghc ,dr4 ,johann ,s*oepf1 writ+ ( 8   
travels ?r\gh ! =m] colonies1 ass]t$ t  
89 ,am]ica e man :o drives ! cur+ trade 
is kn[n )\t di/9ction z ,doctor1 z      

else:]e e p]son :o makes v]ses is a     
poet--s !re are bo? black doctors &     
br[n1 & quacks 9 abundance40            
,,! ,,education ,,( ,,an ,,apo!c>y      
,appr5tice%ip 0 ! usual =m ( tra9+ = all
 colonial occupations1 ) ! possible     
exception ( ! m9i/ry at "o end ( ! scale
 & ord9>y f>m+ at ! o!r4 ,m$ic9e 0 n an 
exception2 practition]s normally took   
appr5tices = ! same reasons t           
cab9etmak]s or blacksmi?s did4 ,! beg9n+
 appr5tice p]=m$ ! unskill$ & "s ( !    
semiskill$ duties ( ! e/abli%m5t1 le>n+ 
z he did s4 ,z he acquir$ k1 he c\ld    
give ! doctor m & m assi/ance 9 8       
practice4  ,! doctor g5]ally und]took1  
if !re 0 a =mal ind5ture1 to tea* !     
appr5tice ! 8art & my/]y ( physic1      
surg]y1 & ph>macy10 or words to t       
effect4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 he agre$ to  
tea* only ! art ( ! apo!c>y4 ,9 ei!r    
ev5t1 ! appr5tice 0 taught to comp\nd   
m$ic9es z direct$ by 8 ma/]1 to se>* !  
woods = m$ic9al plants1 & probably to   
keep books & collect fees4 ,ev5 an      

appr5tice apo!c>y might 9 "t be call$ on
 to assi/--or p]haps ev5 take ov]--su*  
r\t9e treatm5ts z ble$+4 ,mo/ likely he 
also _h to sp5d 8 ev5+s read+ :atev]    
m$ical or ph>maceutical works ! doctor  
_h on h&--f ,hippocrates to ! late/     
edition ( ! ,ed9burgh ,ph>macopoeia4    
,on complet+ ?is appr5tice%ip--:i* 9 mo/
 cases probably fell %ort ( ! ,engli%   
norm ( sev5 ye>s--! "y man c\ld set up 9
 ! 8cur+ trade01 = himself1 ) no m      
cr$5tials ?an 8 ma/]'s c]tificate to !  
effect t he _h s]v$ a c]ta9 t]m & _h    
/udi$ c]ta9 books4 ,or he c\ld g to     
,ed9burgh or ,london = fur!r /udy at a  
univ]sity or 9 a hospital4              
,illu/ration3 ,ano!r plate f ,did]ot's  
encyclop$ia %[s a     v>iety ( in/rum5ts
 us$ by eighte5?-c5tury                 
apo!c>y-surgeons4 ,notice ! box-l device
 ) #af small knives     t c be press$   
aga9/ ! sk9 & trigg]$ to make           
simultane\s incisions = ble$+ a pati5t4 
,"o ( ^! gadgets     c be se5 at !      
,apo!c>y ,%op 9 ,williamsburg4  ,9 any  

ev5t1 !re 0 no requirem5t t a deal] 9   
drugs or a practic] ( m$ic9e mu/ h a    
degree1 a lic5se1 or any o!r            
recomm5dation ?an 8 own assurance ( good
 results to ! sick :o appli$ to him4 ,"s
 practition]s 7 on ! mode/ side 9 (f]+  
_! s]vices2 "s 7 :olly unre/ra9$--ev5   
gu>antee+ to cure canc]6 ,! contra/ /&s 
out %>ply 9 ^! two adv]tisem5ts f !     
,virg9ia ,gazette1 ! fir/ 9 #agga by    
,dr4 ,william ,/>k ( ! t[n ( ,bl&=d1 !  
second five ye>s lat] by a quack :o did 
n ev5 bo!r to give himself ! title (    
doctor4    ,! ,subscrib] hav+ be5 br$ to
 ,physick 9 8 y\ng] ,ye>s1 &   hav+     
att5d$ p>ticul>ly to ?is ,/udy = ^! ?ree
 ,ye>s pa/1   n[ proposes to practise on
 ! mo/ mod]ate ,t]ms4 ,he _c )          
,s9c]ity boa/ ( hav+ atta9$ ! ,ne plus  
ultra ( !   ,aesculapian ,art1 nor yet (
 acquir+ any sup]ior ,degree (   ,k 9   
?is ,sci5ce2 b flatt]s himself t1 by a  
vigilant   & due ,att5tion to !         
,indications & ,ef=ts ( ,nature 9 ^?    
sick ,p]sons :o %\ld1 ?r\gh ,*oice or   

,necessity1 be committ$ to   8 ,c>e1 he 
may be able to af=d !m prop] & timely   
,assi/ance4                             
99 99 99    ,?omas ,johnson1 (          
,brunswick1 ,:o is well kn[n = 8        
,abilities 9   ! ,cure ( ! ,flux1 gives 
,notice t he also cures ! foll[+        
,disord]s1 viz4 ! ,sple51 ,*olic1       
,a/hma1 & any ,k9d ( ,fev]s1   l+]+     
,disord]s1 bad ,c\ghs1 ,scurvy1 any ,k9d
 ( runn+ ,hum\rs   or scorbutic         
,disord]s1 ! ,yaws & ,fr5* ,disord]1 )\t
   ,salivation1 sore ,legs1 ,dropsy1    
,scurvy 9 ! ,gums1 & has !   greate/    
,reason to believe he c cure !          
,consumption if timely   appli$ to4     
,,l9es ,,( ,,succession   ,9 a v direct 
& p]sonal way1 ea* g5]ation (           
,williamsburg physician-apo!c>y tra9$   
its successor4 ,two p>ticul>ly          
illu/rative l9es began ) ,dr4 ,george   
,gilm]4  ,at "o "t 9 #agde x appe>s t   
,gilm] _h an appr5tice by ! "n ( ,james 
,c>t]4 ,a few ye>s lat] ,c>t] op5$ an   
apo!c>y %op ( 8 own at ! sign ( !       

,unicorn's ,horn1 next door to !        
,raleigh ,tav]n 9 ,williamsburg4 ,c>t] 9
 turn took ,&rew ,&]son z appr5tice1 & 9
 due "t :5 ,&]son _h atta9 ! /atus (    
8doctor10 took him into p>tn]%ip4 ,?is  
comb9ation la/$ only two ye>s1 & ,james 
,c>t] lat] =m$ a p>tn]%ip ) 8 bro!r     
,william1 a physician4 ,aft] ano!r few  
ye>s ,james sold 8 %>e ( ! apo!c>y %op  
to ,william b app>5tly cont9u$          
indep5d5tly to practice m$ic9e until 8  
dea? 9 #agid4  ,gilm]1 ( c\rse1 _h long 
s9ce tak5 ano!r appr5tice 9 "y ,james   
,c>t]'s place4 ,billy ,pa/eur 0 ! son ( 
! b>b] & wigmak]1 :o c\ld n af=d to s5d 
8 son abroad = m$ical /udy4 ,b at ! end 
( 8 appr5tice%ip1 ,pa/eur did g to      
,london ) ! help ( ,dr4 ,gilm] = a ye>'s
 /udy at ,/4 ,?omas's ,hospital4 ,he    
return$ to ,williamsburg & op5$ %op j   
aft] 8 b5efactor's dea?4 ,x w\ld seem   
probable t he took ov] ,gilm]'s %op be=e
 build+ 8 own1 ?\gh ! record does n say4
  ,pa/eur1 9 8 own turn1 _h at lea/ two 
appr5tices :o lat] practic$ 9           

,williamsburg4 ,! second1 ,rob]t        
,nicolson1 %ortly mov$ 8 apo!c>y %op &  
m$ical practice to ,yorkt[n1 !reby tak+ 
himself out ( ?is n>rative4 ,8          
pr$ecessor1 ,john ,m9son ,galt1 rema9$ 9
 ,williamsburg & 9 ! m$ical pr(ession   
until #ahjh4 ,l ,dr4 ,gilm]1 :o educat$ 
8 own son1 ,george ,gilm]1 ,jr41 9      
m$ic9e1 ,john ,m9son ,galt laun*$ two ( 
8 sons into m$ic9e via appr5tice%ip4  ,a
 son ( ,samuel ,galt1 ! silv]smi?1 ,john
 ,m9son ,galt 0 appr5tic$ at ! age ( #ad
 to ,william ,pa/eur1 :o himself _h j   
set up %op & 0 only half a doz5 ye>s    
old]4 ,! appr5tice%ip appe>s to h la/$ a
 full t]m ( sev5 ye>s4 ,x 0 foll[$ by   
two ye>s ( m$ic9e 9 ,london4 ,!re ! "y  
man /udi$ ! !ory & practice ( physic "u 
,dr4 ,hugh ,smi?1 midwif]y "u ,dr4 ,col9
 ,mc,kenzie1 & surg]y1 anatomy1 &       
op]ations at ,/4 ,?omas's ,hospital4    
,galt is also said to h att5d$ !        
,college ( ,william & ,m>y--presumably  
be=e go+ abroad--& to h pursu$ 8 m$ical 
/udies 9 ,ed9burgh & ,p>is z well z 9   

,london4 ,all ( ?is made ,john ,m9son   
,galt und\bt$ly ! be/ educat$           
apo!c>y-surgeon ( eighte5?-c5tury       
,williamsburg4  ,on 8 return to         
,williamsburg 9 #agfi he b\ght 8a box ( 
,surgeon's ,in/rum5ts10 m>ri$ ,judi?    
,craig1 & ann\nc$ 8 int5tion to op5 %op 
at 8! ,brick ,h\se1 opposite ! ,c(fee   
,h\se :5 he gets 8 ut5sils fix$40 ,!    
,virg9ia ,gazette's notice ( ! m>riage 0
 %ort & full ( confid5t optimism3       
,?is ev5+ ,doctor ,,john ,,m9son ,,galt1
 ( ?is city1 0 m>ri$ to   ,miss ,,judi? 
,,craig1 elde/ daught] ( ,mr4 ,,alex&]  
,,craig4 ,! mutual   affection &        
famili>ity ( disposition 9 ?is agreeable
 pair1   af=d ! /ronge/ assurance ( _!  
enjoy+ ! highe/ felicity   9 ! nuptial  
/ate4  ,9 sett+ up %op z an             
apo!c>y-surgeon 9 ,williamsburg1 ,galt 0
 n exactly fill+ a vacuum4 ,9 fact1 !   
same issue ( ! ,gazette 9 :i* he ann\nc$
 himself c>ri$ long adv]tisem5ts by two 
o!r apo!c>ies4 ,"o 0 ,galt's =m] ma/] & 
b5efactor1 ,william ,pa/eur2 ! o!r 0    

8,&rew ,&]son1 ,surgeon &               
,man-,midwife10 also j laun*+ 9         
practice4 ,altoge!r ! ads occupy a      
little ov] "o :ole column ( ! pap]1 &   
ea* consi/s almo/ solely ( a li/ ( !    
items available at t %op4  ,x is int]e/+
 to notice t ,william ,pa/eur _h import$
 a new supply ( goods 9 ! same %ip )    
,galt's 8compleat assortm5t10 & j 9 "t3 
,! subscrib] hav+ _h b v few m$ic9es    
left 9 8 %op   be=e ?is ord] came to h&1
 w n[ be able to furni% 8   fri5ds &    
cu/om]s ) e ?+ fre% & g5u9e4 ,g5tlem5   
practition]s1 & o!rs1 may dep5d on be+  
suppli$ at a v l[   advance4  ,! f9al   
assurance e*oes ,pa/eur's e>li] compla9t
 writt5 8 ,london ag5ts to ! effect t   
8tiss h>dly wor? our :ile to import     
m$ic9es = sale we are ,oblige to sell at
 a l[ advance on acct ( our conf\nd$    
druggi/ "h44440 ,! 8conf\nd$ druggi/10  
,william ,bi]s1 0 hav+ 8 own            
difficulties mak+ a liv+1 h[ev]1 & soon 
sold out to ! p>tn]%ip ( ,james ,c>t] & 
,&rew ,&]son4  ,colonial ,williamsburg  

owns sev]al ( ,dr4 ,galt's acc\nt books1
 includ+ ! "o = ! ye>s #aggj to #agge1  
be=e he jo9$ ,pa/eur4 ,"o ( ! e>ly      
entries %[s a *>ge aga9/ ,?omas ,glass (
 t5 %ill+s = 8visit+ c40 ,! correspond+ 
cr$it entry %[s t ! bill 0 paid 9 ca%   
sev5 ye>s & five mon?s lat]6 ,pati5ts 7 
z lax ab\t pay+ _! doctor's bills !n z  
n[1 & al?\gh mo/ ( ,dr4 ,galt's pati5ts 
paid 9 ca%1 he also took wood1 hay1 &   
oats4 ,on "o in/ance he wrote (f a debt 
) an equal cr$it 8= ! ,runaway40  ,:at  
is surely ! mo/ provocative entry occurs
 opposite ,febru>y #bi1 #aggb1 a ,leap  
,ye> ,day4 ,on t date appe>s a debit    
aga9/ a ,mr4 ,b[y] ( #aj %ill+s =       
8att5dce 9 ! night40 ,on ! cr$it side   
are ^! words 9 ,galt's h&3 8,twas sew$  
on by a ,girl :o ,i %\'d be happy )40   
,does ?is mean t 9 ?ree %ort ye>s !     
8mutual affection & famili>ity (        
disposition0 ( ,john & ,judi? _h worn   
away8 ,! acc\nt book does n answ]4      
,notice t ,galt's *>ge ( #aj %ill+s =   
visit+ a pati5t 0 ! v sum p]mitt$ by law

 9 #agcf--?ree & a half decades e>li]4  
,= amputat+ ,mr4 ,p>son's f+] & dress+ x
 he *>g$ #c #ds #f;d1 & ! same am\nt to 
,mr4 ,c>dwell = 8lay+ op5 ,*ild's leg   
c40  ,!re is b a s+le entry = ble$+1 & 9
 ?is case ! pati5t 0 a ,negro4 ,dr4     
,galt1 unlike mo/ ( 8 colleagues1 seems 
n to h favor$ phlebotomy4 ,! great numb]
 ( entries simply m5tion visit+1        
att5dance1 or advice1 ) prescriptions by
 ! score ( ca?>tics1 emetics1 purges1   
etc4                                    
,,pa/eur  ,,galt   ,x mu/ h be5 a s\rce 
( gratification to ,john ,m9son ,galt :5
 ! well-e/abli%$ ,pa/eur invit$ ! y\ng] 
man to become 8 p>tn]4 ,! ann\ncem5t ( !
 new firm read z foll[s3                
,,williamsburg1 ,april #ae1 #agge4      
,,! ,subscrib]s hav+ ?is ,day ent]$ into
 ,p>tn]%ip1 beg ,leave to   acqua9t !   
,public 9 g5]al1 & _! ,fri5ds &         
,neighb\rs 9   p>ticul>1 t !y int5d     
practic+ ,physic & ,surg]y to _!        
fulle/ ,ext5t2 & t !y int5d also1 z soon
 z ! ,situation (   ! ,times w admit1 to

 keep full & complete ,assortm5ts (     
,drugs   & ,m$ic9es1 :i* !y w endeav\r  
to procure ( ! v be/   9 ,quality1 & w  
take ,c>e to h !m fre% by mak+ sev]al   
,importations 9 ! ,ye>4 ,x is propos$ t 
,john ,m4 ,galt %all pay   8 p>ticul>   
,att5tion to ,surg]y1 to :om our ,fri5ds
 are desir$   to apply on all su*       
occasions1 b w be advis$ & assi/$ by    
,w4 ,pa/eur 9 all difficult ,cases4 ,!y 
bo? desire to make _!   mo/ grateful    
,ackn[l$gm5ts to _! ,fri5ds & ,cu/om]s =
 !   _m ,fav\rs & ,civilities !y h      
receiv$1 & hope1 by ?is   ,union1 !y w  
be enabl$ to c>ry on _! ,bus9ess to !   
entire   ,satisfaction ( _! ,fri5ds2 z1 
on _! ,"p1 ! /ricte/   ,assiduity &     
,att5tion %all be obs]v$4               
,,pa/eur  ,,galt  ,only a few days aft] 
?is ann\ncem5t appe>$1 ! sp>k (         
revolution fl>$ out 9 bo? ,lex+ton1     
,massa*usetts1 & ,williamsburg1         
,virg9ia4 ,z x happ5$1 ,dr4 ,pa/eur 0 to
 play a m9or role & a mom5t>y "o on !   
,williamsburg /age4 ,gov]nor ,dunmore's 

surreptiti\s removal ( ! colony's       
gunp[d] f ! ,magaz9e 0 detect$ & !re 0  
an imm$iate reaction f ! populace1 "s "u
 arms4 ,att5d+ a pati5t 9 ! ,palace1    
,dr4 ,pa/eur 0 twice acco/$ by !        
,gov]nor & made ! be>] ( angry messages 
to ! ,speak] ( ! ,h\se ( ,burgesses & 8!
 ,g5tlem5 ( ! ,t[n40 ,%\ld he be        
attack$1 ,8 ,lord%ip blu/]$1 8he w\ld   
decl>e fre$om to ! slaves  r$uce ! city 
( ,williamsburg to a%es40  ,:at actually
 foll[$ 0 t ,dunmore & 8 family fl$ !   
,palace1 nev] to return1 & ,pa/eur      
became ! next mayor ( ,williamsburg4 ,x 
%\ld be m5tion$ t he & ,john ,m9son     
,galt 7 already memb]s ( ! ,committee ( 
,safety = ! city :5 !y =m$ _! p>tn]%ip4 
,! sympa?ies ( bo? 7 cle>ly on ! patriot
 side4  ,! p>tn]s v %ortly 7 able to    
adv]tise ! importation ( ! usual wide   
assortm5t ( drugs & m$ic9es = sale 9 _! 
%op on ,duke ( ,gl\ce/] ,/reet4 ,& a few
 surviv+ bills indicate t !y did n lack 
= m$ical & surgical bus9ess4 ,dr4       
,pa/eur1 x w\ld seem1 did n %>e 8 y\ng] 

colleague's av]sion to phlebotomy1 z !  
foll[+ exc]pt f a ,pa/eur  ,galt bill to
 ,h5ry ,morse ,esq4 9 #agge %[s3        
,april  #ad  ,to ble$+ ,vomit  ,*amomile
 ,fl[]s       4 4 #g 4 4 #f          #ba
  ,to ,brim/one  ,antimony              
4 4 #a 4 4 #c          #bb  ,to ,purge  
,honey  ,b>ley                     4 4  
#d 4 4          #be  ,to ,purge #b_/f4  
#bf ,sug> ,c&y #a_/c            4 4 #c 4
 4 #i          #bi  ,to ble$+  ,pectoral
 ,mixture              4 4 #h 4 4 #f    
#cj  ,to ,visit+ ,mixture  ,sago        
4 4 #i 4 4 #i   ,may     #d  ,to        
,pectoral ,mixture                      
4 4 #f 4 4 #f          #aa  ,to #a lb   
,balsam ,honey                        4 
4 #f 4 4 #c          #ai  ,to #a lb ,do4
 #f_/c #be ,honey #a_/j                 
#ca/ ,cons4 ,roses #b_/                 
4 4 #i 4 4 #c   ,june    #a  ,to #a lb  
,balsam ,honey                        4 
4 #f 4 4 #c           #f  ,to ,l5itive  
,elect>y  ,salope               4 4 #c 4
 4 #f          #ae  ,to ,ca/or ,oil     

,honey                       4 4 #f 4 4 
#af  ,to ,febrifuge  ,bitt] ,decoctions 
4 4#ab 4 4          #bb  ,to ,att5dce   
,ble$g 9 ! ,night         4 4#aj 4 4    
#bc  ,to ,honey  ,oxymel ,squills       
4 4 #b 4 4 #f   ,july   #aj  ,to ,honey 
#a_/ #aj? ,capillaire  ,sago #e_/f    4 
4 #f 4 4 #f   ,augu/ #bj  ,to ,vomit    
,*amomile ,fl[]s                4 4 #b 4
 4 #f          #ba  ,to ,febrifuge      
,decoction repeat$             4 4#aj 4 
4                                       
,l #e4 #af 4 #f  ,! p>tn]%ip la/$ only  
?ree ye>s1 = reasons n n[ disc]nable1 & 
,william ,pa/eur gave notice to ! public
 t 8,i purpose comm5c+ oy/] m]*ant0 at 8
 l&+ on ,k+'s ,creek betwe5             
,williamsburg & ,yorkt[n4 ,galt1 on !   
o!r h&1 cont9u$ to practice m$ic9e1 s]v+
 z a s5ior surgeon to ! ,cont95tal      
milit>y hospital 9 ,williamsburg1 jo9+ 9
 p>tn]%ip ) ,dr4 ,philip ,b>raud1 &     
becom+ visit+ physician to ! public     
hospital = ! insane & a memb] ( its bo>d
 ( directors4 ,he held bo? (fices until 

8 dea? 9 #ahjh4 ,yet z late z #agid he 0
 id5tifi$ 9 c\rt records z 8,apo!c>y1 ( 
! ,city ( ,williamsburg40               
,,! ,,apo!c>y ,,%op   ,! ,pa/eur-,galt  
apo!c>y %op on ,duke ( ,gl\ce/] ,/reet 9
 ,williamsburg is a recon/ruction4 ,its 
size & location are det]m9$ ) c]ta9ty n 
only f an eighte5?-c5tury t[n map1 b    
also by eighte5?-c5tury f\ndations      
excavat$ on ! site4 ,! l& 0 own$ by ,dr4
 ,william ,pa/eur f #agfj until #aggh1  
dur+ :i* "t he probably built ! %op4 ,:5
 he & ,john ,m9son ,galt dissolv$ _!    
p>tn]%ip1 he sold ! prop]ty to ,galt1 :o
 transf]r$ x to 8 son at ! end ( !      
c5tury4  ,no record survives z to !     
exact appe>ance1 outside or inside1 ( ! 
,pa/eur-,galt %op4 ,"s apo!c>y %ops     
app>5tly _h z _m z ?ree rooms3 ! front  
%op1 ! doctor's (fice & op]at+ room1 &  
possibly a sort ( laboratory :]e !      
appr5tice comp\nd$ m$ic9es4  ,!         
,pa/eur-,galt %op has be5 recon/ruct$ ) 
two1 ! prep>ative "w be+ done 9 full    
view ( ! public4  ,z to ! cont5t ( !    

%op1 ample evid5ce comes f almo/ any    
adv]tisem5t ( ,galt1 ,pa/eur1 or = t    
matt] ( j ab\t any apo!c>y 9 colonial   
,am]ica at any "t dur+ ! eighte5?       
c5tury4 ,!y all publi%$ = _! prospective
 cu/om]s l5g?y li/s ( items j import$1 &
 ! li/s be> a m>k$ resemblance f place  
to place & f "t to "t4                  
,illu/ration3 ,apo!c>y's adv]tisem5t    
,,williamsburg1 ,augu/ #ca1 #agfi4      
,j import$ 9 ! ,exp]im5t1               
,capt4 ,haml91    ,a ,,fre% & compleat  
assortm5t ( ,,drugs & ,,m$ic9es1 *ymical
 &   gal5ical1 :i* w be ,,sold at v l[  
advance = ,,ready ,,ca%1 &   are z      
foll[s3    ,crude antimony1 !r1         
v]digrease1 ,b>bados1 hepatick1 &       
succotr9e   aloes1 common & rock alum1  
amb]grise1 comp\nd wat]s ( all k9ds1    
quicksilv]1 balsams ( capri1 ,p]u1 amb]1
 & ,tolu1 ,canadian balsam1   ,arm5ian  
bole1 borax1 calomel crude & prep>$1    
comphor1 camella   alba1 can?>ides1     
cloves1 ,indian p9k1 greatly celebrat$ =
   de/roy+ worms 9 *ildr51 ,russian &   

,hudson's ,bay ca/ors1 common   & lun>  
cau/ick1 c9nab> ( antimony1 native &    
fictiti\s   c9nab>1 pota%1 co*9eal1     
colco?>1 vitriol1 colocyn?1 confectio   
c>diaca1 cons]ves ( hips1 sloes1 &      
sorrel roses1 wormwood &   orange peel1 
,jesuits b>k1 c9namon1 casc>illa1 cremor
 t>t>1   ,engli% & ,spani% saffron1     
clat]ium1 plai/]s & electu>ies (   all  
k9ds1 ess5ce ( lemons1 burgamot &       
amb]grease1 s+le &   d\ble camomile     
fl[]s1 fl[] ( brim/one1 balau/9es1 f5na1
   galls1 gra9s ( p>adise1 gums ( all   
k9ds1 pe>l b>ley1 is+lass1   ,iri%      
slate1 li?>ge1 common & flakey manna1   
sweet m]cury1   calc9$ m]cury1 corrosive
 sublimate1 r$ precipitate1 musk1       
*ymical   oils1 opium1 long pepp]1      
ipecacuanha1 jalap1 g5tian1 licorice1   
contray]va1 calamus aromaticus1 *9a &   
s>sap>illa1 be/ ,turkey   & ,india      
rhub>b1 val]ian1 sago1 alkal9e1 neutral1
 & volatile   salts1 saloop1 se$s (     
anise1 c>raway1 cori&]1 wild c>rot1     
f5nel & f5nugreek1 less] c>damoms1 /aves

 acre1 sp]maceti1   spirits ( h>t%orn1  
lav5d]1 sal volatile1 & sal ammoniac1   
nitre1   m9]al acids1 dulcifi$ spirits (
 salt1 vitriol1 & sal ammoniac1         
,spani% licorice1 t>t> emetic1          
v]macelli1 :ite1 blue1 & gre5           
vitriols1 extract ( hemlock1 glass (    
antimony1 mead[1 saffron1 &   mez]eon   
roots1 common & ,nesbitt's cly/] pipes1 
gold & silv]   leaf1 ,dut* metal1       
gallipots & vials1 ,&]son's1 ,hoop]'s1 &
   ,locky]'s pills1 ,turl+ton's balsam1 
,hill's pectoral balsam ( honey1        
,bateman's drops1 ,squire's1 ,daffy's1 &
 ,bo/ock's elixirs1 ,freeman's   &      
,godfrey's cordials ,briti% oil1 eau de 
luce1 ,dr4 ,james's fev]   p[d]1 c\rt   
plai/]1 be/ lav5d] & ,hung>y wat]1 c4 c4
    ,! subscrib] int5ds op5+ %op at !   
,,brick ,,h\se1 opposite !              
,c(fee-,h\se1 :5 he gets 8 ut5sils fix$1
 :i* w be 9 a   =tnight at f>!/2 & z ?is
 is 8 fir/ importation1 e   ?+ may be   
dep5d$ ^u z entirely fre%1 & b\ght ( "o 
( !   be/ h&s 9 ,london4 ,^? :o please  

to fav\r him ) _!   ord]s1 may dep5d on 
hav+ !m imm$iately dispat*$1 & e   ?+   
put up 9 ! be/ mann]1 by                
,_! mo/ ob$i5t humble s]vant1           
,,john ,,m9son ,,galt4  ,an apt example 
is ! adv]tisem5t plac$ 9 ! ,virg9ia     
,gazette ( ,septemb] #ba1 #agfi1 by     
,john ,m9son ,galt at ! outset ( 8 long 
c>e] 7prec$+ page74      ,illu/ration3  
,turl+ton's ,balsam ( ,life bottles z   
pictur$ 9 a     bro*ure dat$ #agee-ageg1
 pres]v$ 9 ! ,p5nsylvania ,hi/orical    
,society1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,accord+  
to ,turl+ton1 ! bottle 0     adopt$ 9   
#aged 8to prev5t ! villa9y ( "s p]sons  
:o1 buy+     up my empty bottles1 h     
basely & wick$ly put !re9 a vile        
spuri\s c\nt]feit sort40                
,,london                  ,by ,! ,k+s   
,royall ,pat5t ,grant$ to               
,,janu,y #bf #aged            ,rob4t    
,turl+ton ,= ,8 ,inv5t$ ,balsam ( ,life 
,analysis ( ! ,galt or any o!r          
adv]tisem5t ( ! "t %[s t ! cont5ts ( a  
colonial apo!c>y %op fell into five     

categories3 plant mat]ials1 animal      
extracts1 metals & metallic d]ivatives1 
m$ical equipm5t1 & prep>$ elixirs1      
pills1 & ! l4  ,among ! mo/ popul> ( !  
prep>$ m$ic9es--judg+ f ! _m            
adv]tisem5ts ( ,dr4 ,john ,m9son ,galt 9
 ! ye>s #aggb-aggd--7 ,dr4 ,keys]'s     
celebrat$ anti-v5]eal pills4 ,^! 7 back$
 by te/imonials ( two ,engli% & ?ree    
,fr5* dukes1 & ,galt publi%$ l5g?y      
acc\nts av[+ t 8! ,pati5t is mo/        
effectually cur$ )\t any ,inconv5i5ce to
 himself1 or be+ expos$ to ! ,%ame &    
,confusion ( 8 ,disa/] be+ kn[n to !    
nice/ ,obs]v]40  ,n only 7 !y suppos$ to
 cure syphilis1 b 8! happy effects (    
,keys]'s pills h (t5 be5 prov$ 9 :ite   
,swell+s1 a/hmas1 ,suppressions ( !     
,ur9e1 9 ! ,palsy1 ,apoplexies1         
,sciaticks1 9 ! ,gre5 ,sickness1 & m    
especially 9 ! ,yaws40  8,mrs4 ,r$napp's
 r$ fit drops0 7 among ,dr4 ,pa/eur's   
favorite pat5t m$ic9es1 & ,daffy's1     
,/\ghton's1 & ,bateman's elixirs or     
drops 7 di/ribut$ n only by mo/ colonial

 apo!c>ies b also by ! keep]s ( g5]al   
/ores1 %ip capta9s1 & o!rs4 ,9 #agga no 
few] ?an n9ete5 packag$ ,engli% m$ic9es 
7 (f]$ = sale at ! ,po/ ,(fice 9        
,williamsburg6  ,! =mulas = "s ( ^!1    
consi/+ ( tw5ty or m sep>ate +r$i5ts1 7 
pr9t$ 9 ! pr9cipal ph>macopoeias & 7    
commonly made up by doctors & apo!c>ies 
= _! own use & = sale4 ,dr4 ,pa/eur &   
,dr4 ,james ,c>t] bo? ord]$ quantities (
 empty bottles = ,/\ghton's & ,daffy's  
comp\nds4  ,dep5d5ce on import$ pat5t   
m$ic9es 0 a developm5t t sev]al obs]v]s 
deplor$4 ,dr4 ,s*oepf1 = in/ance1 ?\ght 
,am]ican physicians %\ld patriotically  
discont9ue 8mak+ use almo/ :olly ( =eign
 m$ic9es1 ) :i* 9 l>ge measure !y might 
easily disp5se1 if !y 7 will+ to give _!
 att5tion to home-products1 in=m+       
!mselves m exactly ( ! prop]ties & uses 
( ! /ock ( dome/ic m$ic9es already      
kn[n40  ,jeff]son 9 8 ,notes on ! ,/ate 
( ,virg9ia _h li/$ tw5ty-"o m$ic9al     
plants native to ! /ate1 & o!rs be=e him
 _h comm5t$ on ! abundance ( simple     

rem$ies af=d$ by ! woods & m>%es (      
tidewat] ,virg9ia4 ,inde$1 x appe>s t   
colonial m$ical m5 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury  
_h ga!r$ ! l>ge/ "p ( _! own m$ic9es    
close at h&1 & t ! gr[+ importation (   
pat5t mixtures 0 mat*$ by an increas+   
export ( native drugs4  ,by ! middle ( !
 eighte5? c5tury consid]able quantities 
( at lea/ eight m$ic9al plants 7 be+    
%ipp$ to ,engl& f ,virg9ia1 among !m    
ipecacuanha1 sassafras1 balsam ( ,tolu1 
g9s5g1 & snak]oot4 ,! la/ two =m$ ! bulk
 ( ! export2 ( !m m 9 a mom5t4          
,illu/ration3 ,s5eca rattlesnake root or
 ,polygala ,virg9iana 0     a ma9/ay (  
m$ical treatm5t 9 eighte5?-c5tury       
,virg9ia4 ,!     orig9al s\rce ( ?is    
draw+ has n be5 id5tifi$4  ,h[ev]1 if   
!re 7 9 colonial t[ns 8"s apo!c>ies %ops
 wa9scott$ or pap]$ ) adv]tisem5ts1     
recomm5d+ quack m$ic9es10 a l>ge numb] (
 rural practition]s pref]r$ to make up  
_! rem$ies4 8,i d n apply to !          
,apo!c>ies ,%ops = my ,means10 said !   
adv]tisem5t ( "o su*1 8,i compact my own

 m$ic9es myself4 ,! produce ( ,virg9ia  
,e>?1 ) a few trifles besides1 supports 
my ,body1 444 & _m o!rs besides1 )\t    
ble$+1 sweat+1 physick+1 or ,bitt]s40   
,:e!r us$ f conviction t su* means 7    
bett]1 or because ! import$ m$ic9es 7   
too exp5sive1 ! result 0 ! same3 su*    
mild cures 7 less likely to int]f]e ) ! 
heal+ c\rse ( nature ?an did ! complex1 
(t5 dra/ic1 & sometimes revolt+ comp\nds
 ( ! lead+ ,engli% physicians4  ,f      
inv5tories ( ! e/ates ( deceas$         
apo!c>ies z well z f _! newspap]        
adv]tisem5ts comes evid5ce z to !       
equipm5t !y kept & us$ 9 _! %ops4 ,!    
rem>kable ?+ is to see h[ little !      
ess5tial items h *ang$ ov] ! c\rse ( !  
c5turies--alike be=e & s9ce ! colonial  
era4  ,! mort> & pe/le1 traditional     
symbol ( ! apo!c>y's call+ & (t5 us$ z !
 sign ( 8 %op1 0 to be f\nd 9           
,williamsburg %ops 9 _m sizes &         
mat]ials4 ,! l>ge/ record$ 0 a          
bell-metal mort> & iron pe/le belong+ to
 ,dr4 ,?omas ,:>ton & weigh+ #afh p\nds4

 ,:>ton also own$ a l>ge m>ble mort> &  
pe/le1 two small ones ( m>ble1 & a      
8,porphrey ,/one  ,mull]40 ,lat] 9 !    
c5tury1 z ! m$ical pr(ession le>n$ t    
toxic quantities ( metal du/ c\ld come f
 ! use ( metal mort>s1 c]amic & glass   
became widely us$4  ,glass & c]amic     
conta9]s by ! hundr$s 7 also us$ to /ore
 simple +r$i5ts & comp\nds = sale4 ,dr4 
,pa/eur at "o "t1 = in/ance1 ord]$ #bdf 
:ite glass vials rang+ 9 capacity f two 
drams to twelve ounces4 ,dr4 ,alex&]    
,middleton1 ^: tory sympa?ies co/ him 8 
,williamsburg %op & cont5ts dur+ !      
,revolution1 li/$ m ?an fifty doz5      
bottles1 f "o ounce size to two gallons1
 along ) doz5s ( pill pots1 o9tm5t pots1
 & syrup pots4 ,glass seems to h be5 !  
mo/ common type ( conta9]1 ) e>!nw>e    
8gallipots0 probably second4  ,among !  
articles ) :i* ! ,williamsburg %op is   
furni%$ are a numb] t belong$ to ! fir/ 
,dr4 ,galt t h be5 obta9$ f 8 desc5dants
 or g5]\sly loan$ by !m to ,colonial    
,williamsburg4 ,! l>ge/ is !            

secret>y-bookcase t /&s 9 ! back (fice1 
! mo/ num]\s are ! scores ( glass       
bottles & c>dbo>d pillboxes t clu/] on  
"o section ( ! %elves1 & p]haps ! mo/   
int]e/+ are 8 diplomas 9 anatomy1       
surg]y1 & midwif]y t hang on ! wall4    
,vy+ ) ! la/ "n is ! acc\nt book        
display+ a *>ge ( #g %ill+s aga9/       
,patrick ,h5ry--b no entry to %[ t !    
bill 0 ev] paid4  ,x w\ld require m     
space ?an is "h available to describe1  
or ev5 to li/1 all ! articles 9 ! %op   
today1 & to id5tify all ! drugs1 h]bs1  
p[d]s1 & comp\nds t w\ld h be5 conta9$ 9
 ! num]\s bottles1 j>s1 boxes1 & draw]s 
( ! %op4 ,! quantity & v>iety1 h[ev]1   
may be tak5 z typical ( a well provid$  
apo!c>y %op ( colonial ,am]ica4  ,"o    
%\ld note 9 p>ticul> ! surgical         
in/rum5ts 9 _! velvet-l9$ cases4 ,^! h  
be5 collect$ f v>i\s s\rces--includ+ "o 
case ( lancets & a set ( scales f !     
,galt family--& are ( ! p]iod4 ,dr4     
,alex&] ,middleton claim$ to h be5      
depriv$ 9 ! ,revolution ( in/rum5ts =   

amputat+1 trepann+1 li?otomy1 cupp+1    
c\*+1 dissect+1 d5ti/ry1 & midwif]y4 ,! 
e/ate ( ,dr4 ,k5ne? ,mc,kenzie (        
,williamsburg inv5tori$ ?ree sets (     
in/rum5ts = amputat+1 trepann+1 &       
li?otomy4  ,! ,mc,kenzie inv5tory also  
li/$ ! m$ical books 9 ,dr4 ,mc,kenzie's 
libr>y4 ,!re 7 m ?an sev5ty titles1 (   
:i* all b a few 7 m$ical treatises1 "s (
 !m 9 sev]al volumes4 ,among !m 7 li/$  
,james' ,disp5satory & ,%aw's           
,disp5satory4 ,^!1 along ) ,bate's      
,disp5satory & ! ,london ,disp5satory 7 
among ! mo/ widely read1 own$1 & us$    
books 9 ! colony1 & n alone by doctors  
or apo!c>ies4 ,"o or m 0 almo/ c]ta9 to 
be 9 ! libr>y ( e plant] ( tidewat]     
,virg9ia1 a k9d ( 8,:at to d till !     
,doctor comes0 manual = ! home treatm5t 
( ! plant] himself1 8 wife & *ildr51 8  
relatives & neighbors1 & 8 slaves4 ,^!  
disp5satories avoid$ ! ne$ or co/ ( a   
doctor's s]vices unless ! tr\ble 0 s    
s]i\s z to ne$ 8exp]t0 att5tion4  ,?is 0
 by no means su* an unwise sy/em z at   

fir/ glance may appe>4 ,aft] all1 !     
doctor w\ld probably dose ) ! same      
m$ic9es f ! same disp5satory1 & ) ! same
 result4 ,& :ile quacks 7 pl5tiful1     
well-tra9$ physicians 7 extremely sc>ce1
 especially 9 rural areas :]e pay 0 sure
 to be sl[ & skimpy4  ,9 view ( ! g5]al 
/ate ( m$ical k & practice ?r\gh\t !    
eighte5? c5tury--ble$+ be+ always a     
=emo/ treatm5t ( num]\s ailm5ts--x seems
 likely t ! lib]al use ( native h]bs1   
be+ = ! mo/ "p h>mless1 0 probably !    
safe/ & mo/ effective c\rse ( m$ication4
 ,surely human & animal excreta1 ma%$-up
 insects1 & ! l1 :i* 7 n uncommon 9     
,london prescriptions1 c\ld n h be5 m   
curative ?an rattlesnake root & g9s5g1  
^: praises 7 sung by ! fam\s ,william   
,byrd ,,ii3    ,! ,e>? has nev] produc$ 
any vegetable s fri5dly to man z        
,g9s5g4 ,nor d ,i say ?is at ,r&om1 or  
by ! /r5g? ( my ,fai?1   b by my own    
,exp]i5ce4 ,i h f\nd x v cordial &      
reviv+   aft] great ,fatigue1 x w>ms !  
,blood1 frisks ! ,spirits   /r5g!ns !   

,/oma* & com=ts ! ,b[els exce$+ly4 ,all 
?is   x p]=ms ) out any ( ^? naughty    
,effects t might make m5   too          
tr\blesome & imp]t95t to _! poor ,wives4
    ,!n z = ! ,rattlesnake ,root !      
,reputation ( x encreases e   day4 ,!   
,t9cture ( x has done ,wond]s 9 !       
,g\t4444 ,by its   purg+1 its deuretick1
 & diaphoretick ,qualities x is ( great 
use   9 ! ,dropsy 444 ( great ,efficacy 
9 ,pleuretick ,feav] 444 & a            
,specifick aga9/ worms4444    ,= ! ,bite
 ( a mad ,dog1 444 x may p]haps be z    
,sure a ,rem$y2 z   = ! ,bite ( a       
,rattlesnake4                      ,a   
,li/ ( ,williamsburg ,apo!c>ies   ,?is  
li/ includes only ^? m$ical practition]s
 ( eighte5?-c5tury ,williamsburg :o     
op]at$ apo!c>y %ops4 ,x does n include  
physicians :o may h made up & disp5s$ _!
 own prescriptions b did n op]ate a %op4
  ,&rew ,&]son 7#agfh-agga7    ,&]son   
/udi$ m$ic9e 9 ,engl& aft] s]v+ an      
appr5tice%ip   ) ,dr4 ,james ,c>t]4     
,&]son return$ to ,williamsburg 9 #agfh 

&   =m$ a p>tn]%ip ) ,dr4 ,c>t] & !y    
pur*as$ ! %op (   ,william ,bi]s4 ,&]son
 mov$ to ,new ,k5t ,c\nty 9 #agga & 9   
#aggd   m>ri$ ,betsey ,burnet1 8an      
agreeable "y ,lady1 ) a h&some          
,=tune40  ,rob]t ,&]son 7#agfd7         
,&]son adv]tis$ 8 apo!c>y %op 9         
,williamsburg 9 #agfd4  ,william ,bi]s  
7#agfe-agfh7    ,bi]s op]at$ a druggi/  
%op 9 ,williamsburg f ab\t #agfe to     
#agfh   :5 he sold 8 bus9ess to ,dr4    
,c>t] & ,dr4 ,&]son4 ,9 #agfi   ,bi]s   
ann\nc$ 8 int5tion to leave ! colony4   
,james ,c>t] 7#agea-aggi7    ,dr4 ,c>t] 
op5$ 8 apo!c>y %op1 8! ,unicorn's       
,horn10 9   ,williamsburg 9 #agea &     
op]at$ x until #aggi :5 he sold x to 8  
bro!r ,william ,c>t]4 ,james cont9u$ to 
practice m$ic9e 9   ,williamsburg until 
8 dea? 9 #agid4  ,william ,c>t]         
7#aggc-aghd7    ,9 #agga ,william ,c>t] 
e/abli%$ 8 m$ical practice 9 ,gl\ce/]   
,c\nty4 ,9 #aggc he came to             
,williamsburg & =m$ a p>tn]%ip )   8    
bro!r ,james4 ,six ye>s lat] he pur*as$ 

8 bro!r's %>e (   8! ,unicorn's ,horn10 
& 9 #aghd he mov$ to ,ri*mond :]e he    
op5$   ano!r apo!c>y %op4  ,rob]t       
,davidson 7#agcg-agci7    ,dr4          
,davidson1 mayor ( ,williamsburg1 op]at$
 a druggi/ %op 9   p>tn]%ip ) ,?omas    
,goodw9 f #agcg to #agci :5 ,davidson   
di$4  ,john ,m9son ,galt 7#agfi-ahjh7   
,aft] /udy+ m$ic9e 9 ,engl&1 ,galt op5$ 
8 apo!c>y %op 9   #agfi4 ,f #agge until 
#aggh he op]at$ a %op 9 p>tn]%ip ) ,dr4 
,william ,pa/eur4 ,9 #agie ,galt 0      
appo9t$ visit+ physician to !   hospital
 = ! insane & 9 #agii he 0 appo9t$ a    
memb] ( !   c\rt ( directors = !        
hospital4  ,george ,gilm]1 ,sr4         
7#agca-ageg7    ,a graduate ( !         
,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 ,dr4 ,gilm]     
e/abli%$ an   apo!c>y %op 9             
,williamsburg 9 #agca4 ,he op]at$ ! %op 
9   connection ) a successful m$ical    
practice until 8 dea? 9 #ageg4  ,george 
,gilm]1 ,jr4 7#agff-agga7    ,aft]      
complet+ 8 m$ical /udies 9 ,engl&1      
,gilm] return$ to   ,williamsburg 9     

#agff & op5$ 8 apo!c>y %op4 ,9 #agga he 
mov$   to ,*>lottesville & e/abli%$ a   
successful practice4  ,?omas ,goodw9    
7#agce-agci7    ,goodw9 own$ a druggi/  
%op 9 ,williamsburg & app>5tly did n    
engage 9 a m$ical practice4 ,f #agcg to 
#agci he conduct$ ! %op   9 p>tn]%ip )  
,dr4 ,rob]t ,davidson4  ,pet] ,hay      
7#agdd-agff7    ,dr4 ,hay conduct$ an   
apo!c>y %op 9 ,williamsburg f #agdd     
until   8 dea? 9 #agff :5 he 0 describ$ 
z 8"o ( our mo/ em95t   physicians40    
,k5ne? ,mc,kenzie 7#agcb-agee7    ,dr4  
,mc,kenzie own$ an apo!c>y %op 9        
,williamsburg f #agcb until   8 dea? 9  
#agee4  ,alex&] ,middleton 7#aggf7      
,dr4 ,middleton op]at$ an apo!c>y %op 9 
,williamsburg 9 #aggf4   ,middleton1 a  
tory1 0 =c$ to leave ,virg9ia dur+ !    
,revolution>y ,w>4  ,rob]t ,nicolson    
7#aggi-aghc7    ,dr4 ,nicolson s]v$ 8   
appr5tice%ip ) ,dr4 ,pa/eur & !n   /udi$
 m$ic9e 9 ,engl&4 ,he return$ to        
,williamsburg 9 #aggi &   op5$ 8 apo!c>y
 %op4 ,aft] ! ,revolution>y ,w> he mov$ 

8   %op to ,yorkt[n :]e he practic$     
m$ic9e until 8 dea? 9 #agih4  ,william  
,pa/eur 7#ageg-agia7    ,aft] !         
completion ( 8 appr5tice%ip ) ,dr4      
,george ,gilm]1   ,sr41 ,pa/eur /udi$ 9 
,engl& = ab\t a ye>4 ,he return$ to     
,williamsburg 9 #ageg & e/abli%$ an     
apo!c>y %op4 ,f #agge to   #aggh he     
op]at$ ! %op 9 p>tn]%ip ) ,john ,m9son  
,galt4  ,george ,pitt 7#agdd-agfh7      
,dr4 ,pitt1 born 9 #agbd 9 ,engl& & 8br$
 a ,surgeon10 e/abli%$   8 apo!c>y %op 9
 ,williamsburg 9 #agdd at ! 8,sign ( !  
,rh9oc]os40 ,9 #agfh he clos$ 8 %op &   
return$ to ,engl&4 ,he   lat] came back 
to ,virg9ia b no long] engag$ 9 m$ic9e  
or   ph>macy4 ,9 #aggf ,pitt1 a tory1   
left ,virg9ia aga94 ,he di$ lat]   t ye>
 9 ,engl&4  ,?omas ,:>ton 7#agce-agdf7  
,:>ton arriv$ 9 ,virg9ia ab\t #agjc z an
 ind5tur$ s]vant to ,dr4   ,ri*>d       
,wright4 ,by #agce ,:>ton _h e/abli%$ an
 apo!c>y %op 9   ,williamsburg1 :i* he  
op]at$ until 8 dea? 9 #agdf4 ,he left 8 
drugs1 m$ic9es1 & %op ut5sils to ,dr4   

,mc,kenzie4                             
,sugge/ions = ,fur!r ,read+   ,:itfield 
,j4 ,bell1 ,jr41 ,! ,colonial ,physician
  ,o!r ,essays4 ,new       ,york3       
,sci5ce ,hi/ory ,publications1 #aige4   
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#aicj4  ,john ,duffy1 ,a ,hi/ory (      
,public ,heal? 9 ,new ,york ,city1      
#afbe-ahff4       ,new ,york3 ,russell  
,sage ,f\ndation1 #aifh4  ,h>old ,b4    
,gill1 ,jr41 ,! ,apo!c>y 9 ,colonial    

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,george ,b4 ,griff5hag51 ,drug ,supplies
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,association1 #aieg4  ,patrick ,h5d]son1
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#dac-dbd4  ,?omas ,p4 ,hughes1 ,m$ic9e 9
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,corporation1 #aieg4  ,?omas ,jeff]son1 
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,autobiography ( ,b5jam9 ,ru%1 ed4      
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,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,press1 #aidh4     
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publi%$ 9 #aife & previ\sly repr9t$ 9   
#aifh1 #aigj1 #aigc1 #aigh1 #aihb1      
#aihd1 #aihe1 #aihf1 #aihg1 #aihh1 &    
#aiij4 ,writt5 by ,?omas ,k4 ,=d1 n[    
retir$ z editor ( ,colonial             
,williamsburg publications1 x is bas$   
l>gely on a monograph by ,h>old ,b4     
,gill1 ,jr4 ,t /udy has be5 publi%$ z ,!

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7,williamsburg1 ,virg9ia1 #aigb74       
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publication in=mation f ! pr9t$ edition3
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few palpable typos4  --,9 ! text v]sions
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