,,the ,,apothecary in ,eighteenth-,century ,,williamsburg ,being an ,account of his medical and chirurgical ,services1 as well as of his trade ,practices as a ,chymist ,williamsburg ,craft ,series ,,williamsburg ,published by ,colonial ,williamsburg ,,mcmxc ,the ,apothecary in ,eighteenth-,century ,williamsburg ,illustration3 ,decorative capital ,of the first #bbe men sent over from ,london to settle at ,jamestown in #afjg and #afjh1 seven were practitioners of medicine--as it was then practiced3 ,walter ,russell1 ,gent41 was a 8,doctour of ,physicke10 which is to say that he had studied at a university and earned a degree in medicine2 ,thomas ,wotton1 ,will ,wilkinson1 and ,post ,ginnat were listed as surgeons--8chirurgeon0 as it then appeared2 ,thomas ,field and ,john ,harford bore the label of apothecaries2 and the seventh was 8,tho3 ,cowper the ,barber40 ,plainly1 the ,virginia ,company of ,london1 numbering several prominent medical men among its backers1 wanted its adventurers to the ,new ,world to have the best of medical care4 ,unfortunately for about four of every five settlers in the first few years at ,jamestown1 the best was not enough to avert wholesale mortality from sickness1 ,indian arrows1 and 8meere famine40 ,that some of the medical men shared the fate of their patients seems likely in the absence of later information about most of them4 ,medical theories and practices at the beginning of the seventeenth century were largely those that had prevailed since the time of ,galen1 a ,greek physician who died about two centuries after ,christ4 ,according to ,galen1 the four elements of ,aristotelian science--fire1 water1 air1 and earth--comprised the four major humors of the human body3 blood1 phlegm1 yellow bile1 and black bile4 ,blood was held to be moist and warm1 phlegm was moist and cool1 yellow bile dry and warm1 and black bile dry and cold4 ,sickness1 in the theory of ,galen1 was caused by one or more of these humors becoming impure or out of place or out of balance4 ,treatment thus consisted of removing or diminishing the offending humor by purging1 bleeding1 vomiting1 blistering1 urinating1 sweating1 or salivating2 on the other hand1 a deficient humor was to be restored by diet and drugs4 ,galen classed drugs according to their warm1 cold1 moist1 or dry qualities4 ,for instance1 pepper was a heating drug1 good for chills1 while cucumber was a cool one1 to be given in case of fever4 ,galenism had been subjected to attack in the sixteenth century by ,paracelsus and ,vesalius1 but its appeal was logical and remained strong in seventeenth-century ,england4 7,in fact1 some survivals can be found in twentieth-century folk medicine47 ,dr4 ,lawrence ,bohun 7or ,boone71 who came over in #afaj and returned to ,england in #afaa1 spent some of the year investigating medicinal sources in ,virginia4 ,he discovered a white clay--and shipped some to ,england--that he claimed could absorb and expel poisons from the body4 ,among vegetable remedies1 ,bohun experimented with sassafras and found 8,galbanum mechoacon1 otherwise called rubarbum alum1 to be of service in cold moist bodies1 for the purginge of fleame phlegm and superfluous matter40 ,,what ,,is ,,an ,,apothecary8 ,already it will be evident that the practice of medicine in seventeenth-century ,england1 and hence in the first ,american colonies1 was not neatly confined to the licensed graduates of accredited medical schools4 ,quite the contrary4 ,in fact1 ,henry ,,viii had complained that all kinds of ignorant people got into the act1 including 8,smiths1 ,weavers1 and ,women40 ,illustration3 ,in the upper half of this woodcut from ,the ,expert ,doctor's ,dispensary1 published in ,london in #afeg1 a learned physician is shown conducting a urinalysis4 ,he simply holds the flask of liquid to the light for visual examination4 ,below1 a customer presents what appears to be a written prescription to be filled by the apothecary4 ,two centuries of legal and parliamentary pulling and hauling1 plus the consequence of some natural developments1 left the situation in ,england somewhat stabilized--but not necessarily logical4 ,the barbers1 chartered as a guild in #adfb and authorized to practice surgery1 included both barbers and surgeons in growing disharmony until they were formally divorced in #agde4 ,the apothecaries--the word originally meant shopkeeper--joined the guild of grocers at one time but shortly broke away to form their own guild in #afag4 ,meantime1 the physicians1 organized in the ,college of ,physicians1 obtained the right to keep watch on the apothecaries4 ,physicians1 who had to have as much as #ad years training and four degrees from ,oxford or ,cambridge1 were naturally not abundant4 ,being learned men1 they would not stoop to the indignity of such menial work as performing surgical operations or compounding medicines4 ,the former was the province of the surgeon or barber-surgeon1 the latter was the specialty of the apothecary4 ,but the scarcity of physicians1 especially in rural areas1 left a medical gap that the apothecaries1 trained through apprenticeship and many times more numerous1 naturally moved to fill4 ,in #agbg ,english law finally recognized and legalized the fact that for most people the apothecary-surgeon was the only available practitioner of medicine4 ,in turn1 the business of purveying drugs and compounding medicines passed from the apothecaries to the wholesale druggists and pharmaceutical chemists4 ,as it was transferred to ,america the trade of apothecary--it was neither a craft nor a profession in any strict sense--was probably much like that of the rural apothecary-surgeon of seventeenth-century ,england4 ,the apothecary still made his living primarily from the provision of drugs and medical preparations2 but he also performed amputations1 dressed wounds1 and subjected his patients to the normal medical treatments of the day4 ,,all ,,that ,,the ,,law ,,allows ,virginia was the only colony that tried to draw legislative boundaries around the various aspects of medical practice4 ,the effort came in #agcf in the form of 8an ,act for ,regulating the ,fees and ,accounts of the ,practicers of ,phisic40 ,on two grounds the act deserves to be quoted at some length4 ,for one thing1 it throws a good light on the state of medical practice at that time4 ,for another1 it affords undeniable parallels to some current problems in the cost of medicines and medical care1 and to the role of government in serving the interests of the 8consumer40 ,illustration3 ,an eighteenth-century operating chair1 fully equipped with tilting back1 padded adjustable supports1 and straps to keep the patient from writhing away from the knife4 ,anesthesia was limited to strong doses of spirituous liquors2 antisepsis was unknown4 ,the illustration is taken from ,denis ,diderot's famous encyclopedia of arts and sciences4 ,the first section of the act recited certain abuses1 especially of the surgeons and apothecaries3 ,i4 ,whereas the practice of phisic in this colony1 is most commonly taken up and followed1 by surgeons1 apothecaries1 or such as have only served apprenticeships to those trades1 who often prove very unskilful in the art of a phisician2 and yet do demand excessive fees1 and exact unreasonable prices for the medicines which they administer1 and do too often1 for the sake of making up long and expensive bills1 load their patients with greater quantities thereof1 than are necessary or useful1 concealing all their compositions1 as well to prevent the discovery of their practice1 as of the true value of what they administer3 which is become a grievance1 dangerous and intolerable1 as well to the poorer sort of people as others1 doth require the most effectual remedy that the nature of the thing will admit4 ,the second section then proceeded to emphasize the chief distinction between the apprentice-trained apothecary-surgeons and the university-educated physicians by allowing the latter to charge twice as much for their services as the former could4 ,if the apothecaries and surgeons felt--as well they might have--that the difference in fees was an insult to them1 it did not last long4 ,the law was not renewed at the following session of the ,assembly2 perhaps its backers1 the physicians1 had seen their patients flock to the lower-priced practicers4 ,although ,virginia was the only colony to set medical fees by law1 the practice of legislative price fixing in other areas of the economy was as common in colonial ,america as it was in ,england4 ,in ,virginia1 to be specific1 not only prices and quantities but in some cases even qualities of goods and services offered to the public by tavernkeepers1 shoemakers1 millers1 and ferrymen were regulated by law4 ,the economic philosophy and terminology of laissez faire were among the alien isms imported after #aggf4 ,during the colonial years1 government rarely hesitated to act in the economic field where the need was felt4 ,from this particular ,virginia law of #agcf it would appear that some if not all medical charges had gotten well out of line--the correct line1 of course1 being what the people and their elected representatives thought was reasonable3 ,,ii4 ,,be it therefore enacted1 444 ,that from and after the passing of this act1 no practicer in phisic1 in any action or suit whatsoever1 hereafter to be commenced in any court of record in this colony1 shall recover1 for visiting any sick person1 more than the rates hereafter mentioned3 that is to say1 ,surgeons and apothecaries1 who have served an apprenticeship to those trades1 shall be allowed1 s d ,for every visit1 and prescription1 in town1 or within #jj #e #jj five miles ,for every mile1 above five1 and under ten #jj #a #jj ,for a visit1 of ten miles #jj #aj #jj ,and for every mile1 above ten #jj #jj #jf ,with an allowance for all ferriages in their journeys4 ,to ,surgeons1 ,for a simple fracture1 and the cure thereof #jb #jj #jj ,for a compound fracture1 and the cure thereof #jd #jj #jj ,but those persons who have studied phisic in any university1 and taken any degree therein1 shall be allowed1 ,for every visit1 and prescription1 in any town1 or within #jj #aj #jj five miles ,if above five miles1 for every mile more1 under ten #jj #a #jj ,for a visit1 if not above ten miles #a #jj #jj ,and for every mile1 above ten #jj #a #jj ,with an allowance of ferriages1 as before4 ,lest it appear that all ,williamsburg 8practicers0 made a habit of charging excessive fees1 the generous treatment an earlier doctor gave at least one of his patients must be set down4 ,george ,hume1 a ,scottish merchant who came to ,virginia about #agbb and soon caught all the prevalent ills1 found the place 8only good for doctors and ministers who have very good encouragem'nt here40 ,one of the 8common distempers0 that afflicted ,hume was dysentery1 then called the flux4 ,he was laid so low that ,dr4 ,john ,brown all but despaired of his life4 ,hume's gratitude for being cured was doubtless enhanced by the fact--carefully reported to his ,scottish relatives--that 8ye ,dr4 took nothing for my druggs40 ,the third section of the act1 specifying exactly what the 8practicer of phisic0 should set forth in his bill1 bears if least a faint augury of modern food-and-drug labeling legislation3 ,,iii4 ,and to the end the true value of the medicines administered by any practicer in phisic1 may be better known1 and judged of1 ,be it further enacted1 by the authority aforesaid1 ,that whenever any pills1 bolus1 portion1 draught1 electuary1 decoction1 or any medicines1 in any form whatsoever1 shall be administered to any sick person1 the person administering the same shall1 at the same time1 deliver in his bill1 expressing every particular thing made up therein2 or if the medicine administered1 be a simple1 or compound1 directed in the dispensatories1 the true name thereof shall be expressed in the same bill1 together with the quantities and prices1 in both cases4 ,and in failure thereof1 such practicer1 or any apothecary1 making up the prescription of another1 shall be nonsuited1 in any action or suit hereafter commenced1 which shall be grounded upon such bill or bills3 ,nor shall any book1 or account1 of any practicer in phisic1 or any apothecary1 be permitted to be given in evidence1 before a court2 unless the articles therein contained1 be charged according to the directions of this act4 ,this final section reveals that some differentiation between the branches of the medical profession had already begun in ,america4 ,the tip-off is the phrase that imposes on 8any apothecary making up the prescription of another0 the same requirements as on physicians who make up their own prescriptions4 ,,the ,,doctors ,,of ,,williamsburg ,if competition tends to keep prices low1 fees charged in and around the capital city in the early eighteenth century should have been at the rock bottom level4 ,governor ,gooch in #agbi reported to ,london that ,williamsburg abounded in physicians4 ,the same year young ,adam ,cunningham gave up his brief effort to establish himself in practice as a doctor3 ,illustration3 ,another illustration from the ,diderot encyclopedia shows the operation of trepanning a skull and some surgical tools in common use in the eighteenth century1 in colonial ,america as well as in ,europe4 ,williamsburg he wrote is but a small ,village containing not more than #fj families1 at most2 and in and about this ,city are no less than #be or #cj phisitians1 and of that number not above #b capable of living handsomly4 ,so that ,i did not think it proper to stay1 in a place where so many of my profession are lickely to starve4 ,little is known about any of these 8phisitians10 not even the names of most4 ,it seems fairly sure1 however1 that a number were quacks4 ,gooch had complained in the same letter about the 8unskilfulness of practioners in this country0 but was gullible enough himself to pay #fj pounds from public funds and give freedom to a ,negro slave for the secret of the latter's alleged cure of venereal diseases4 ,it turned out to be a decoction of roots and barks1 which the ,governor avowed to be 8a certain ,remedy here0 and sent samples so the ,college of ,physicians could try its effect in ,england4 ,most of ,gooch's abundant physicians almost certainly made up their own prescriptions4 ,from #afbb at ,jamestown until #agca in ,williamsburg no mention of an apothecary in ,virginia has been found in historical records4 ,in the latter year1 however1 there were four shops purveying drugs and compounding medicines in ,williamsburg4 ,the proprietors of two were doctors--,dr4 ,george ,gilmer and ,dr4 ,kenneth ,mc,kenzie2 the other two were druggists or 8chymists0--,thomas ,wharton and ,thomas ,goodwin4 ,goodwin did not remain independent long4 ,after about two years he joined ,dr4 ,robert ,davidson1 mayor of ,williamsburg1 in a partnership that was itself dissolved in two years by the death of ,dr4 ,davidson4 ,thomas ,wharton1 on the other hand1 kept shop in ,williamsburg for some eleven years4 ,he had arrived in ,virginia about #agjc as an indentured servant to a ,dr4 ,richard ,wright and had acquired by the time of his death in #agdf not only a pharmaceutical business1 but the title of 8,doctor40 ,he willed his drugs1 medicines1 and shop utensils to ,dr4 ,mc,kenzie4 ,,shopkeeper ,,extraordinary ,the fourth named practicer1 ,george ,gilmer1 ,sr41 deserves extended attention4 ,he comes as close as any one person to being a typical ,williamsburg apothecary-surgeon-physician of his time1 though his extramedical career was far from typical4 ,born in ,edinburgh in #agjj1 ,gilmer studied medicine there1 then practiced with one of ,london's leading doctors1 whose daughter he married4 ,possibly the death of his young wife moved him to ship for ,america2 at the age of #ca he arrived in ,virginia to practice medicine and manage the affairs of a land company4 ,he married again and must have prospered1 because in four years' time he was able to purchase for #aee three choice lots near the ,governor's ,palace in ,williamsburg4 ,these three lots1 on which the rambling ,st4 ,george ,tucker ,house has stood since #aghh1 were described in #agce as 8the ,lotts and ,land whereon the ,bowling ,green formerly was1 the ,dwelling ,house and ,kitchen of ,william ,levingston and the ,house call'd the ,play ,house40 ,the last1 of course1 was the first theater in the ,english colonies1 and ,gilmer later sold it to the mayor and aldermen of ,williamsburg to be used as a city hall and courthouse4 ,it was a particularly convenient arrangement for one of the aldermen who was to become mayor himself a year later1 none other than ,dr4 ,george ,gilmer4 ,gilmer's career as an apothecary-surgeon-physician was not without its ups and downs4 ,soon after buying the property on ,palace ,green1 he was giving away samples of rattlesnake root on behalf of ,dr4 ,john ,tennent1 who maintained it would cure pleurisy1 the gout1 rheumatism1 and mad-dog bites4 ,at the same time the ,virginia ,gazette1 ,williamsburg's new weekly1 carried the news that 8on ,monday ,morning last1 dy'd1 at ,mr4 ,geo4 ,gilmer's1 in this ,city1 ,mrs4 ,susanna ,skaife1 444 and was decently interr'd on ,wensday4 ,and1 on ,thursday ,morning also dy'd1 the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,john ,skaife1 her ,husband1 after a tedious ,indisposition40 ,it would appear that at least ,mrs4 ,skaife was a bed patient in ,dr4 ,gilmer's home2 this was a usual way of caring for serious illnesses before the day of hospitals4 ,illustration3 ,surrounded by the equipment of his craft1 this young apothecary is making up a prescription of some kind1 probably for pills4 ,the illustration traces back to a ,london publication1 ,the ,book of ,trades or ,library of ,useful ,arts1 first ,american edition published in #ahjg by ,j4 ,johnson and for sale in his bookstore in ,philadelphia and in ,richmond1 ,virginia4 ,soon thereafter1 ,gilmer found it necessary to insert the following advertisement in the ,virginia ,gazette3 ,williamsburg ,may #bf1 #agcg4 ,there being a ,report industriously spread about the ,country1 of ,george ,gilmer's ,death1 by some well-meaning ,people1 and of his being so much in ,debt1 that nothing from ,england would be sent him this ,year1 if alive4 ,to obviate such scandalous and groundless ,reports1 ,i take this ,opportunity to acquaint all my ,friends1 that ,i can now1 better than ever1 supply them with all manner of ,chymical and ,galenical ,medicines1 truly and faithfully prepared1 and at as cheap ,rates as can be had from ,england4 ,also ,double-refin'd1 ,single refin'd1 and ,lump ,sugars1 ,cinnamon1 ,cloves1 ,mace1 ,nutmegs1 ,bateman's ,drops1 ,squire's ,elixir1 ,anderson's ,pills1 ,sweet ,oil1 c4 at reasonable ,rates2 at my ,old ,shop1 near the ,governor's4 ,george ,gilmer ,nine years later ,gilmer was so much alive and active as to be mayor of the city1 the owner of a new four-wheeled chaise1 and once more a bridegroom4 ,on the death of his second wife1 ,gilmer had promptly married his next-door neighbor4 ,the third ,mrs4 ,gilmer was ,harrison ,blair1 daughter of ,dr4 ,archibald ,blair and sister of the ,hon4 ,john ,blair of the governor's council4 ,the apothecary's star was rising4 ,he was still1 of course1 a shopkeeper4 ,his 8,old ,shop near the ,governor's0 stood at the very edge of ,palace ,green1 a frame building of about #bj feet square4 ,every year or so he advertised the arrival from ,england of a shipment of drugs1 medicines1 spices1 and groceries--to be sold at the shop1 wholesale or retail1 and at reasonable rates4 ,archaeological excavations on the site of the first theater1 and extending north of it onto the adjacent ,brush-,everard ,house property1 yielded quantities of ,dr4 ,gilmer's domestic and pharmaceutical rubbish4 ,the latter included delftware ointment pots and drug jars1 glass medicine phials and fragments of carboys1 bottles for ,pyrmont mineral water1 a brass pestle1 and1 inexplicably1 a human jaw4 ,just how1 or if1 that related to ,gilmer's shop remains open to conjecture1 but it is evident from the quantity of pharmaceutical artifacts recovered that ,dr4 ,gilmer's business was as extensive as his #agcg advertisement claimed4 ,indeed1 ,gilmer was no ordinary shopkeeper4 ,his social status--doubtless bolstered by that of his wife's family--was great enough that he could be among the first to entertain the newly appointed ,governor ,dinwiddie4 ,one suspects that either the ambitious ,dr4 ,gilmer or his well-born wife decided that his house on ,palace ,street fell short of such prestigious demands4 ,six months after the dinner for ,dinwiddie1 the apothecary was having his dining room wainscoted1 with a marble fireplace1 a mirror over the mantel1 and a cabinet to contain the set of new china his wife had ordered from ,london4 ,about the same time ,dr4 ,gilmer1 who gave himself perhaps facetiously the title of 8colonel10 became part owner of the ,raleigh ,tavern4 ,the deed by which he and ,colonel ,chiswell bought the famous inn for #gjj testified that he had gained that ultimate accolade of social and economic status in colonial ,virginia1 the designation 8,geo ,gilmer ,gent40 ,in the letters he wrote to ,london1 ,gilmer seems to refer to himself not as a doctor or surgeon1 but as an apothecary1 and his name in public documents as well as in private records most often appears not as ,dr4 ,gilmer but as ,mr4 ,gilmer4 ,he was doubtless prouder of being known as a gentleman and a colonel2 the title of doctor was often held in poor esteem4 ,william ,byrd ,,ii wrote in #agjf that 8here be some men indeed that are call'd ,doctors3 but they are generally discarded ,surgeons of ,ships1 that know nothing above the very common ,remedys40 ,as late as #aghc ,dr4 ,johann ,schoepf1 writing of his travels through the former colonies1 asserted that 8in ,america every man who drives the curing trade is known without distinction as ,doctor1 as elsewhere every person who makes verses is a poet--so there are both black doctors and brown1 and quacks in abundance40 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,an ,,apothecary ,apprenticeship was the usual form of training for all colonial occupations1 with the possible exception of the ministry at one end of the scale and ordinary farming at the other4 ,medicine was not an exception2 practitioners normally took apprentices for the same reasons that cabinetmakers or blacksmiths did4 ,the beginning apprentice performed the unskilled and some of the semiskilled duties of the establishment1 learning as he did so4 ,as he acquired knowledge1 he could give the doctor more and more assistance in his practice4 ,the doctor generally undertook1 if there was a formal indenture1 to teach the apprentice the 8art and mystery of physic1 surgery1 and pharmacy10 or words to that effect4 ,sometimes1 however1 he agreed to teach only the art of the apothecary4 ,in either event1 the apprentice was taught to compound medicines as directed by his master1 to search the woods for medicinal plants1 and probably to keep books and collect fees4 ,even an apprentice apothecary might in time be called on to assist--or perhaps even take over--such routine treatments as bleeding4 ,most likely he also had to spend his evenings reading whatever medical or pharmaceutical works the doctor had on hand--from ,hippocrates to the latest edition of the ,edinburgh ,pharmacopoeia4 ,on completing this apprenticeship--which in most cases probably fell short of the ,english norm of seven years--the young man could set up in the 8curing trade01 for himself1 with no more credentials than his master's certificate to the effect that he had served a certain term and had studied certain books4 ,or he could go to ,edinburgh or ,london for further study at a university or in a hospital4 ,illustration3 ,another plate from ,diderot's encyclopedia shows a variety of instruments used by eighteenth-century apothecary-surgeons4 ,notice the box-like device with #af small knives that can be pressed against the skin and triggered to make simultaneous incisions for bleeding a patient4 ,one of these gadgets can be seen at the ,apothecary ,shop in ,williamsburg4 ,in any event1 there was no requirement that a dealer in drugs or a practicer of medicine must have a degree1 a license1 or any other recommendation than his own assurance of good results to the sick who applied to him4 ,some practitioners were on the modest side in offering their services2 some were wholly unrestrained--even guaranteeing to cure cancer6 ,the contrast stands out sharply in these two advertisements from the ,virginia ,gazette1 the first in #agga by ,dr4 ,william ,stark of the town of ,blandford1 the second five years later by a quack who did not even bother to give himself the title of doctor4 ,the ,subscriber having been bred to ,physick in his younger ,years1 and having attended particularly to this ,study for these three ,years past1 now proposes to practise on the most moderate ,terms4 ,he cannot with ,sincerity boast of having attained the ,ne plus ultra of the ,aesculapian ,art1 nor yet of acquiring any superior ,degree of ,knowledge in this ,science2 but flatters himself that1 by a vigilant and due ,attention to the ,indications and ,efforts of ,nature in those sick ,persons who should1 through ,choice or ,necessity1 be committed to his ,care1 he may be able to afford them proper and timely ,assistance4 99 99 99 ,thomas ,johnson1 of ,brunswick1 ,who is well known for his ,abilities in the ,cure of the ,flux1 gives ,notice that he also cures the following ,disorders1 viz4 the ,spleen1 ,cholic1 ,asthma1 and any ,kind of ,fevers1 lingering ,disorders1 bad ,coughs1 ,scurvy1 any ,kind of running ,humours or scorbutic ,disorders1 the ,yaws and ,french ,disorder1 without ,salivation1 sore ,legs1 ,dropsy1 ,scurvy in the ,gums1 and has the greatest ,reason to believe he can cure the ,consumption if timely applied to4 ,,lines ,,of ,,succession ,in a very direct and personal way1 each generation of ,williamsburg physician-apothecary trained its successor4 ,two particularly illustrative lines began with ,dr4 ,george ,gilmer4 ,at one time in #agde it appears that ,gilmer had an apprentice by the name of ,james ,carter4 ,a few years later ,carter opened an apothecary shop of his own at the sign of the ,unicorn's ,horn1 next door to the ,raleigh ,tavern in ,williamsburg4 ,carter in turn took ,andrew ,anderson as apprentice1 and in due time when ,anderson had attain the status of 8doctor10 took him into partnership4 ,this combination lasted only two years1 and ,james ,carter later formed a partnership with his brother ,william1 a physician4 ,after another few years ,james sold his share of the apothecary shop to ,william but apparently continued independently to practice medicine until his death in #agid4 ,gilmer1 of course1 had long since taken another apprentice in young ,james ,carter's place4 ,billy ,pasteur was the son of the barber and wigmaker1 who could not afford to send his son abroad for medical study4 ,but at the end of his apprenticeship1 ,pasteur did go to ,london with the help of ,dr4 ,gilmer for a year's study at ,st4 ,thomas's ,hospital4 ,he returned to ,williamsburg and opened shop just after his benefactor's death4 ,it would seem probable that he took over ,gilmer's shop before building his own1 though the record does not say4 ,pasteur1 in his own turn1 had at least two apprentices who later practiced in ,williamsburg4 ,the second1 ,robert ,nicolson1 shortly moved his apothecary shop and medical practice to ,yorktown1 thereby taking himself out of this narrative4 ,his predecessor1 ,john ,minson ,galt1 remained in ,williamsburg and in the medical profession until #ahjh4 ,like ,dr4 ,gilmer1 who educated his own son1 ,george ,gilmer1 ,jr41 in medicine1 ,john ,minson ,galt launched two of his sons into medicine via apprenticeship4 ,a son of ,samuel ,galt1 the silversmith1 ,john ,minson ,galt was apprenticed at the age of #ad to ,william ,pasteur1 who himself had just set up shop and was only half a dozen years older4 ,the apprenticeship appears to have lasted a full term of seven years4 ,it was followed by two years of medicine in ,london4 ,there the young man studied the theory and practice of physic under ,dr4 ,hugh ,smith1 midwifery under ,dr4 ,colin ,mc,kenzie1 and surgery1 anatomy1 and operations at ,st4 ,thomas's ,hospital4 ,galt is also said to have attended the ,college of ,william and ,mary--presumably before going abroad--and to have pursued his medical studies in ,edinburgh and ,paris as well as in ,london4 ,all of this made ,john ,minson ,galt undoubtedly the best educated apothecary-surgeon of eighteenth-century ,williamsburg4 ,on his return to ,williamsburg in #agfi he bought 8a box of ,surgeon's ,instruments10 married ,judith ,craig1 and announced his intention to open shop at 8the ,brick ,house1 opposite the ,coffee ,house when he gets his utensils fixed40 ,the ,virginia ,gazette's notice of the marriage was short and full of confident optimism3 ,this evening ,doctor ,,john ,,minson ,,galt1 of this city1 was married to ,miss ,,judith ,,craig1 eldest daughter of ,mr4 ,,alexander ,,craig4 ,the mutual affection and familiarity of disposition in this agreeable pair1 afford the strongest assurance of their enjoying the highest felicity in the nuptial state4 ,in setting up shop as an apothecary-surgeon in ,williamsburg1 ,galt was not exactly filling a vacuum4 ,in fact1 the same issue of the ,gazette in which he announced himself carried long advertisements by two other apothecaries4 ,one was ,galt's former master and benefactor1 ,william ,pasteur2 the other was 8,andrew ,anderson1 ,surgeon and ,man-,midwife10 also just launching in practice4 ,altogether the ads occupy a little over one whole column of the paper1 and each consists almost solely of a list of the items available at that shop4 ,it is interesting to notice that ,william ,pasteur had imported a new supply of goods in the same ship with ,galt's 8compleat assortment10 and just in time3 ,the subscriber having had but very few medicines left in his shop before this order came to hand1 will now be able to furnish his friends and customers with every thing fresh and genuine4 ,gentlemen practitioners1 and others1 may depend on being supplied at a very low advance4 ,the final assurance echoes ,pasteur's earlier complaint written his ,london agents to the effect that 8tiss hardly worth our while to import medicines for sale we are ,oblige to sell at a low advance on acct of our confounded druggist here44440 ,the 8confounded druggist10 ,william ,biers1 was having his own difficulties making a living1 however1 and soon sold out to the partnership of ,james ,carter and ,andrew ,anderson4 ,colonial ,williamsburg owns several of ,dr4 ,galt's account books1 including the one for the years #aggj to #agge1 before he joined ,pasteur4 ,one of the early entries shows a charge against ,thomas ,glass of ten shillings for 8visiting c40 ,the corresponding credit entry shows that the bill was paid in cash seven years and five months later6 ,patients were as lax about paying their doctor's bills then as now1 and although most of ,dr4 ,galt's patients paid in cash1 he also took wood1 hay1 and oats4 ,on one instance he wrote off a debt with an equal credit 8for the ,runaway40 ,what is surely the most provocative entry occurs opposite ,february #bi1 #aggb1 a ,leap ,year ,day4 ,on that date appears a debit against a ,mr4 ,bowyer of #aj shillings for 8attendce in the night40 ,on the credit side are these words in ,galt's hand3 8,twas sewed on by a ,girl who ,i shou'd be happy with40 ,does this mean that in three short years the 8mutual affection and familiarity of disposition0 of ,john and ,judith had worn away8 ,the account book does not answer4 ,notice that ,galt's charge of #aj shillings for visiting a patient was the very sum permitted by law in #agcf--three and a half decades earlier4 ,for amputating ,mr4 ,parson's finger and dressing it he charged #c #ds #f;d1 and the same amount to ,mr4 ,cardwell for 8laying open ,child's leg c40 ,there is but a single entry for bleeding1 and in this case the patient was a ,negro4 ,dr4 ,galt1 unlike most of his colleagues1 seems not to have favored phlebotomy4 ,the great number of entries simply mention visiting1 attendance1 or advice1 with prescriptions by the score of cathartics1 emetics1 purges1 etc4 ,,pasteur ,,galt ,it must have been a source of gratification to ,john ,minson ,galt when the well-established ,pasteur invited the younger man to become his partner4 ,the announcement of the new firm read as follows3 ,,williamsburg1 ,april #ae1 #agge4 ,,the ,subscribers having this ,day entered into ,partnership1 beg ,leave to acquaint the ,public in general1 and their ,friends and ,neighbours in particular1 that they intend practicing ,physic and ,surgery to their fullest ,extent2 and that they intend also1 as soon as the ,situation of the ,times will admit1 to keep full and complete ,assortments of ,drugs and ,medicines1 which they will endeavour to procure of the very best in ,quality1 and will take ,care to have them fresh by making several ,importations in the ,year4 ,it is proposed that ,john ,m4 ,galt shall pay his particular ,attention to ,surgery1 to whom our ,friends are desired to apply on all such occasions1 but will be advised and assisted by ,w4 ,pasteur in all difficult ,cases4 ,they both desire to make their most grateful ,acknowledgments to their ,friends and ,customers for the many ,favours and ,civilities they have received1 and hope1 by this ,union1 they will be enabled to carry on their ,business to the entire ,satisfaction of their ,friends2 as1 on their ,part1 the strictest ,assiduity and ,attention shall be observed4 ,,pasteur ,,galt ,only a few days after this announcement appeared1 the spark of revolution flared out in both ,lexington1 ,massachusetts1 and ,williamsburg1 ,virginia4 ,as it happened1 ,dr4 ,pasteur was to play a minor role and a momentary one on the ,williamsburg stage4 ,governor ,dunmore's surreptitious removal of the colony's gunpowder from the ,magazine was detected and there was an immediate reaction from the populace1 some under arms4 ,attending a patient in the ,palace1 ,dr4 ,pasteur was twice accosted by the ,governor and made the bearer of angry messages to the ,speaker of the ,house of ,burgesses and 8the ,gentlemen of the ,town40 ,should he be attacked1 ,his ,lordship blustered1 8he would declare freedom to the slaves reduce the city of ,williamsburg to ashes40 ,what actually followed was that ,dunmore and his family fled the ,palace1 never to return1 and ,pasteur became the next mayor of ,williamsburg4 ,it should be mentioned that he and ,john ,minson ,galt were already members of the ,committee of ,safety for the city when they formed their partnership4 ,the sympathies of both were clearly on the patriot side4 ,the partners very shortly were able to advertise the importation of the usual wide assortment of drugs and medicines for sale in their shop on ,duke of ,gloucester ,street4 ,and a few surviving bills indicate that they did not lack for medical and surgical business4 ,dr4 ,pasteur1 it would seem1 did not share his younger colleague's aversion to phlebotomy1 as the following excerpt from a ,pasteur ,galt bill to ,henry ,morse ,esq4 in #agge shows3 ,april #ad ,to bleeding ,vomit ,chamomile ,flowers 4 4 #g 4 4 #f #ba ,to ,brimstone ,antimony 4 4 #a 4 4 #c #bb ,to ,purge ,honey ,barley 4 4 #d 4 4 #be ,to ,purge #b_/f4 #bf ,sugar ,candy #a_/c 4 4 #c 4 4 #i #bi ,to bleeding ,pectoral ,mixture 4 4 #h 4 4 #f #cj ,to ,visiting ,mixture ,sago 4 4 #i 4 4 #i ,may #d ,to ,pectoral ,mixture 4 4 #f 4 4 #f #aa ,to #a lb ,balsam ,honey 4 4 #f 4 4 #c #ai ,to #a lb ,do4 #f_/c #be ,honey #a_/j #cast ,cons4 ,roses #b_/ 4 4 #i 4 4 #c ,june #a ,to #a lb ,balsam ,honey 4 4 #f 4 4 #c #f ,to ,lenitive ,electary ,salope 4 4 #c 4 4 #f #ae ,to ,castor ,oil ,honey 4 4 #f 4 4 #af ,to ,febrifuge ,bitter ,decoctions 4 4#ab 4 4 #bb ,to ,attendce ,bleedg in the ,night 4 4#aj 4 4 #bc ,to ,honey ,oxymel ,squills 4 4 #b 4 4 #f ,july #aj ,to ,honey #a_/ #ajth ,capillaire ,sago #e_/f 4 4 #f 4 4 #f ,august #bj ,to ,vomit ,chamomile ,flowers 4 4 #b 4 4 #f #ba ,to ,febrifuge ,decoction repeated 4 4#aj 4 4 ,l #e4 #af 4 #f ,the partnership lasted only three years1 for reasons not now discernable1 and ,william ,pasteur gave notice to the public that 8,i purpose commencing oyster merchant0 at his landing on ,king's ,creek between ,williamsburg and ,yorktown4 ,galt1 on the other hand1 continued to practice medicine1 serving as a senior surgeon to the ,continental military hospital in ,williamsburg1 joining in partnership with ,dr4 ,philip ,barraud1 and becoming visiting physician to the public hospital for the insane and a member of its board of directors4 ,he held both offices until his death in #ahjh4 ,yet as late as #agid he was identified in court records as 8,apothecary1 of the ,city of ,williamsburg40 ,,the ,,apothecary ,,shop ,the ,pasteur-,galt apothecary shop on ,duke of ,gloucester ,street in ,williamsburg is a reconstruction4 ,its size and location are determined with certainty not only from an eighteenth-century town map1 but also by eighteenth-century foundations excavated on the site4 ,the land was owned by ,dr4 ,william ,pasteur from #agfj until #aggh1 during which time he probably built the shop4 ,when he and ,john ,minson ,galt dissolved their partnership1 he sold the property to ,galt1 who transferred it to his son at the end of the century4 ,no record survives as to the exact appearance1 outside or inside1 of the ,pasteur-,galt shop4 ,some apothecary shops apparently had as many as three rooms3 the front shop1 the doctor's office and operating room1 and possibly a sort of laboratory where the apprentice compounded medicines4 ,the ,pasteur-,galt shop has been reconstructed with two1 the preparative work being done in full view of the public4 ,as to the content of the shop1 ample evidence comes from almost any advertisement of ,galt1 ,pasteur1 or for that matter of just about any apothecary in colonial ,america at any time during the eighteenth century4 ,they all published for their prospective customers lengthy lists of items just imported1 and the lists bear a marked resemblance from place to place and from time to time4 ,illustration3 ,apothecary's advertisement ,,williamsburg1 ,august #ca1 #agfi4 ,just imported in the ,experiment1 ,capt4 ,hamlin1 ,a ,,fresh and compleat assortment of ,,drugs and ,,medicines1 chymical and galenical1 which will be ,,sold at very low advance for ,,ready ,,cash1 and are as follows3 ,crude antimony1 ther1 verdigrease1 ,barbados1 hepatick1 and succotrine aloes1 common and rock alum1 ambergrise1 compound waters of all kinds1 quicksilver1 balsams of capri1 ,peru1 amber1 and ,tolu1 ,canadian balsam1 ,armenian bole1 borax1 calomel crude and prepared1 comphor1 camella alba1 cantharides1 cloves1 ,indian pink1 greatly celebrated for destroying worms in children1 ,russian and ,hudson's ,bay castors1 common and lunar caustick1 cinnabar of antimony1 native and fictitious cinnabar1 potash1 cochineal1 colcothar1 vitriol1 colocynth1 confectio cardiaca1 conserves of hips1 sloes1 and sorrel roses1 wormwood and orange peel1 ,jesuits bark1 cinnamon1 cascarilla1 cremor tartar1 ,english and ,spanish saffron1 claterium1 plaisters and electuaries of all kinds1 essence of lemons1 burgamot and ambergrease1 single and double camomile flowers1 flower of brimstone1 balaustines1 fenna1 galls1 grains of paradise1 gums of all kinds1 pearl barley1 isinglass1 ,irish slate1 litharge1 common and flakey manna1 sweet mercury1 calcined mercury1 corrosive sublimate1 red precipitate1 musk1 chymical oils1 opium1 long pepper1 ipecacuanha1 jalap1 gentian1 licorice1 contrayerva1 calamus aromaticus1 china and sarsaparilla1 best ,turkey and ,india rhubarb1 valerian1 sago1 alkaline1 neutral1 and volatile salts1 saloop1 seeds of anise1 carraway1 coriander1 wild carrot1 fennel and fennugreek1 lesser cardamoms1 staves acre1 spermaceti1 spirits of hartshorn1 lavender1 sal volatile1 and sal ammoniac1 nitre1 mineral acids1 dulcified spirits of salt1 vitriol1 and sal ammoniac1 ,spanish licorice1 tartar emetic1 vermacelli1 white1 blue1 and green vitriols1 extract of hemlock1 glass of antimony1 meadow1 saffron1 and mezereon roots1 common and ,nesbitt's clyster pipes1 gold and silver leaf1 ,dutch metal1 gallipots and vials1 ,anderson's1 ,hooper's1 and ,lockyer's pills1 ,turlington's balsam1 ,hill's pectoral balsam of honey1 ,bateman's drops1 ,squire's1 ,daffy's1 and ,bostock's elixirs1 ,freeman's and ,godfrey's cordials ,british oil1 eau de luce1 ,dr4 ,james's fever powder1 court plaister1 best lavender and ,hungary water1 c4 c4 ,the subscriber intends opening shop at the ,,brick ,,house1 opposite the ,coffee-,house1 when he gets his utensils fixed1 which will be in a fortnight at farthest2 and as this is his first importation1 every thing may be depended upon as entirely fresh1 and bought of one of the best hands in ,london4 ,those who please to favour him with their orders1 may depend on having them immediately dispatched1 and every thing put up in the best manner1 by ,their most obedient humble servant1 ,,john ,,minson ,,galt4 ,an apt example is the advertisement placed in the ,virginia ,gazette of ,september #ba1 #agfi1 by ,john ,minson ,galt at the outset of his long career 7preceding page74 ,illustration3 ,turlington's ,balsam of ,life bottles as pictured in a brochure dated #agee-ageg1 preserved in the ,pennsylvania ,historical ,society1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,according to ,turlington1 the bottle was adopted in #aged 8to prevent the villainy of some persons who1 buying up my empty bottles1 have basely and wickedly put therein a vile spurious counterfeit sort40 ,,london ,by ,the ,kings ,royall ,patent ,granted to ,,janu,y #bf #aged ,rob4t ,turlington ,for ,his ,invented ,balsam of ,life ,analysis of the ,galt or any other advertisement of the time shows that the contents of a colonial apothecary shop fell into five categories3 plant materials1 animal extracts1 metals and metallic derivatives1 medical equipment1 and prepared elixirs1 pills1 and the like4 ,among the most popular of the prepared medicines--judging from the many advertisements of ,dr4 ,john ,minson ,galt in the years #aggb-aggd--were ,dr4 ,keyser's celebrated anti-venereal pills4 ,these were backed by testimonials of two ,english and three ,french dukes1 and ,galt published lengthy accounts avowing that 8the ,patient is most effectually cured without any ,inconvenience to himself1 or being exposed to the ,shame and ,confusion of his ,disaster being known to the nicest ,observer40 ,not only were they supposed to cure syphilis1 but 8the happy effects of ,keyser's pills have often been proved in white ,swellings1 asthmas1 ,suppressions of the ,urine1 in the ,palsy1 ,apoplexies1 ,sciaticks1 in the ,green ,sickness1 and more especially in the ,yaws40 8,mrs4 ,rednapp's red fit drops0 were among ,dr4 ,pasteur's favorite patent medicines1 and ,daffy's1 ,stoughton's1 and ,bateman's elixirs or drops were distributed not only by most colonial apothecaries but also by the keepers of general stores1 ship captains1 and others4 ,in #agga no fewer than nineteen packaged ,english medicines were offered for sale at the ,post ,office in ,williamsburg6 ,the formulas for some of these1 consisting of twenty or more separate ingredients1 were printed in the principal pharmacopoeias and were commonly made up by doctors and apothecaries for their own use and for sale4 ,dr4 ,pasteur and ,dr4 ,james ,carter both ordered quantities of empty bottles for ,stoughton's and ,daffy's compounds4 ,dependence on imported patent medicines was a development that several observers deplored4 ,dr4 ,schoepf1 for instance1 thought ,american physicians should patriotically discontinue 8making use almost wholly of foreign medicines1 with which in large measure they might easily dispense1 if they were willing to give their attention to home-products1 informing themselves more exactly of the properties and uses of the stock of domestic medicines already known40 ,jefferson in his ,notes on the ,state of ,virginia had listed twenty-one medicinal plants native to the state1 and others before him had commented on the abundance of simple remedies afforded by the woods and marshes of tidewater ,virginia4 ,indeed1 it appears that colonial medical men in the seventeenth century had gathered the largest part of their own medicines close at hand1 and that the growing importation of patent mixtures was matched by an increasing export of native drugs4 ,by the middle of the eighteenth century considerable quantities of at least eight medicinal plants were being shipped to ,england from ,virginia1 among them ipecacuanha1 sassafras1 balsam of ,tolu1 ginseng1 and snakeroot4 ,the last two formed the bulk of the export2 of them more in a moment4 ,illustration3 ,seneca rattlesnake root or ,polygala ,virginiana was a mainstay of medical treatment in eighteenth-century ,virginia4 ,the original source of this drawing has not been identified4 ,however1 if there were in colonial towns 8some apothecaries shops wainscotted or papered with advertisements1 recommending quack medicines10 a large number of rural practitioners preferred to make up their remedies4 8,i do not apply to the ,apothecaries ,shops for my ,means10 said the advertisement of one such1 8,i compact my own medicines myself4 ,the produce of ,virginia ,earth1 with a few trifles besides1 supports my ,body1 444 and many others besides1 without bleeding1 sweating1 physicking1 or ,bitters40 ,whether used from conviction that such means were better1 or because the imported medicines were too expensive1 the result was the same3 such mild cures were less likely to interfere with the healing course of nature than did the complex1 often drastic1 and sometimes revolting compounds of the leading ,english physicians4 ,from inventories of the estates of deceased apothecaries as well as from their newspaper advertisements comes evidence as to the equipment they kept and used in their shops4 ,the remarkable thing is to see how little the essential items have changed over the course of the centuries--alike before and since the colonial era4 ,the mortar and pestle1 traditional symbol of the apothecary's calling and often used as the sign of his shop1 was to be found in ,williamsburg shops in many sizes and materials4 ,the largest recorded was a bell-metal mortar and iron pestle belonging to ,dr4 ,thomas ,wharton and weighing #afh pounds4 ,wharton also owned a large marble mortar and pestle1 two small ones of marble1 and a 8,porphrey ,stone ,muller40 ,later in the century1 as the medical profession learned that toxic quantities of metal dust could come from the use of metal mortars1 ceramic and glass became widely used4 ,glass and ceramic containers by the hundreds were also used to store simple ingredients and compounds for sale4 ,dr4 ,pasteur at one time1 for instance1 ordered #bdf white glass vials ranging in capacity from two drams to twelve ounces4 ,dr4 ,alexander ,middleton1 whose tory sympathies cost him his ,williamsburg shop and contents during the ,revolution1 listed more than fifty dozen bottles1 from one ounce size to two gallons1 along with dozens of pill pots1 ointment pots1 and syrup pots4 ,glass seems to have been the most common type of container1 with earthenware 8gallipots0 probably second4 ,among the articles with which the ,williamsburg shop is furnished are a number that belonged to the first ,dr4 ,galt that have been obtained from his descendants or generously loaned by them to ,colonial ,williamsburg4 ,the largest is the secretary-bookcase that stands in the back office1 the most numerous are the scores of glass bottles and cardboard pillboxes that cluster on one section of the shelves1 and perhaps the most interesting are his diplomas in anatomy1 surgery1 and midwifery that hang on the wall4 ,vying with the last name is the account book displaying a charge of #g shillings against ,patrick ,henry--but no entry to show that the bill was ever paid4 ,it would require more space than is here available to describe1 or even to list1 all the articles in the shop today1 and to identify all the drugs1 herbs1 powders1 and compounds that would have been contained in the numerous bottles1 jars1 boxes1 and drawers of the shop4 ,the quantity and variety1 however1 may be taken as typical of a well provided apothecary shop of colonial ,america4 ,one should note in particular the surgical instruments in their velvet-lined cases4 ,these have been collected from various sources--including one case of lancets and a set of scales from the ,galt family--and are of the period4 ,dr4 ,alexander ,middleton claimed to have been deprived in the ,revolution of instruments for amputating1 trepanning1 lithotomy1 cupping1 couching1 dissecting1 dentistry1 and midwifery4 ,the estate of ,dr4 ,kenneth ,mc,kenzie of ,williamsburg inventoried three sets of instruments for amputating1 trepanning1 and lithotomy4 ,the ,mc,kenzie inventory also listed the medical books in ,dr4 ,mc,kenzie's library4 ,there were more than seventy titles1 of which all but a few were medical treatises1 some of them in several volumes4 ,among them were listed ,james' ,dispensatory and ,shaw's ,dispensatory4 ,these1 along with ,bate's ,dispensatory and the ,london ,dispensatory were among the most widely read1 owned1 and used books in the colony1 and not alone by doctors or apothecaries4 ,one or more was almost certain to be in the library of every planter of tidewater ,virginia1 a kind of 8,what to do till the ,doctor comes0 manual for the home treatment of the planter himself1 his wife and children1 his relatives and neighbors1 and his slaves4 ,these dispensatories avoided the need or cost of a doctor's services unless the trouble was so serious as to need 8expert0 attention4 ,this was by no means such an unwise system as at first glance may appear4 ,after all1 the doctor would probably dose with the same medicines from the same dispensatory1 and with the same result4 ,and while quacks were plentiful1 well-trained physicians were extremely scarce1 especially in rural areas where pay was sure to be slow and skimpy4 ,in view of the general state of medical knowledge and practice throughout the eighteenth century--bleeding being always a foremost treatment of numerous ailments--it seems likely that the liberal use of native herbs1 being for the most part harmless1 was probably the safest and most effective course of medication4 ,surely human and animal excreta1 mashed-up insects1 and the like1 which were not uncommon in ,london prescriptions1 could not have been more curative than rattlesnake root and ginseng1 whose praises were sung by the famous ,william ,byrd ,,ii3 ,the ,earth has never produced any vegetable so friendly to man as ,ginseng4 ,nor do ,i say this at ,random1 or by the strength of my ,faith1 but by my own ,experience4 ,i have found it very cordial and reviving after great ,fatigue1 it warms the ,blood1 frisks the ,spirits strengthens the ,stomach and comforts the ,bowels exceedingly4 ,all this it performs with out any of those naughty ,effects that might make men too troublesome and impertinent to their poor ,wives4 ,then as for the ,rattlesnake ,root the ,reputation of it encreases every day4 ,the ,tincture of it has done ,wonders in the ,gout4444 ,by its purging1 its deuretick1 and diaphoretick ,qualities it is of great use in the ,dropsy 444 of great ,efficacy in ,pleuretick ,feaver 444 and a ,specifick against worms4444 ,for the ,bite of a mad ,dog1 444 it may perhaps be as ,sure a ,remedy2 as for the ,bite of a ,rattlesnake4 ,a ,list of ,williamsburg ,apothecaries ,this list includes only those medical practitioners of eighteenth-century ,williamsburg who operated apothecary shops4 ,it does not include physicians who may have made up and dispensed their own prescriptions but did not operate a shop4 ,andrew ,anderson 7#agfh-agga7 ,anderson studied medicine in ,england after serving an apprenticeship with ,dr4 ,james ,carter4 ,anderson returned to ,williamsburg in #agfh and formed a partnership with ,dr4 ,carter and they purchased the shop of ,william ,biers4 ,anderson moved to ,new ,kent ,county in #agga and in #aggd married ,betsey ,burnet1 8an agreeable young ,lady1 with a handsome ,fortune40 ,robert ,anderson 7#agfd7 ,anderson advertised his apothecary shop in ,williamsburg in #agfd4 ,william ,biers 7#agfe-agfh7 ,biers operated a druggist shop in ,williamsburg from about #agfe to #agfh when he sold his business to ,dr4 ,carter and ,dr4 ,anderson4 ,in #agfi ,biers announced his intention to leave the colony4 ,james ,carter 7#agea-aggi7 ,dr4 ,carter opened his apothecary shop1 8the ,unicorn's ,horn10 in ,williamsburg in #agea and operated it until #aggi when he sold it to his brother ,william ,carter4 ,james continued to practice medicine in ,williamsburg until his death in #agid4 ,william ,carter 7#aggc-aghd7 ,in #agga ,william ,carter established his medical practice in ,gloucester ,county4 ,in #aggc he came to ,williamsburg and formed a partnership with his brother ,james4 ,six years later he purchased his brother's share of 8the ,unicorn's ,horn10 and in #aghd he moved to ,richmond where he opened another apothecary shop4 ,robert ,davidson 7#agcg-agci7 ,dr4 ,davidson1 mayor of ,williamsburg1 operated a druggist shop in partnership with ,thomas ,goodwin from #agcg to #agci when ,davidson died4 ,john ,minson ,galt 7#agfi-ahjh7 ,after studying medicine in ,england1 ,galt opened his apothecary shop in #agfi4 ,from #agge until #aggh he operated a shop in partnership with ,dr4 ,william ,pasteur4 ,in #agie ,galt was appointed visiting physician to the hospital for the insane and in #agii he was appointed a member of the court of directors for the hospital4 ,george ,gilmer1 ,sr4 7#agca-ageg7 ,a graduate of the ,university of ,edinburgh1 ,dr4 ,gilmer established an apothecary shop in ,williamsburg in #agca4 ,he operated the shop in connection with a successful medical practice until his death in #ageg4 ,george ,gilmer1 ,jr4 7#agff-agga7 ,after completing his medical studies in ,england1 ,gilmer returned to ,williamsburg in #agff and opened his apothecary shop4 ,in #agga he moved to ,charlottesville and established a successful practice4 ,thomas ,goodwin 7#agce-agci7 ,goodwin owned a druggist shop in ,williamsburg and apparently did not engage in a medical practice4 ,from #agcg to #agci he conducted the shop in partnership with ,dr4 ,robert ,davidson4 ,peter ,hay 7#agdd-agff7 ,dr4 ,hay conducted an apothecary shop in ,williamsburg from #agdd until his death in #agff when he was described as 8one of our most eminent physicians40 ,kenneth ,mc,kenzie 7#agcb-agee7 ,dr4 ,mc,kenzie owned an apothecary shop in ,williamsburg from #agcb until his death in #agee4 ,alexander ,middleton 7#aggf7 ,dr4 ,middleton operated an apothecary shop in ,williamsburg in #aggf4 ,middleton1 a tory1 was forced to leave ,virginia during the ,revolutionary ,war4 ,robert ,nicolson 7#aggi-aghc7 ,dr4 ,nicolson served his apprenticeship with ,dr4 ,pasteur and then studied medicine in ,england4 ,he returned to ,williamsburg in #aggi and opened his apothecary shop4 ,after the ,revolutionary ,war he moved his shop to ,yorktown where he practiced medicine until his death in #agih4 ,william ,pasteur 7#ageg-agia7 ,after the completion of his apprenticeship with ,dr4 ,george ,gilmer1 ,sr41 ,pasteur studied in ,england for about a year4 ,he returned to ,williamsburg in #ageg and established an apothecary shop4 ,from #agge to #aggh he operated the shop in partnership with ,john ,minson ,galt4 ,george ,pitt 7#agdd-agfh7 ,dr4 ,pitt1 born in #agbd in ,england and 8bred a ,surgeon10 established his apothecary shop in ,williamsburg in #agdd at the 8,sign of the ,rhinoceros40 ,in #agfh he closed his shop and returned to ,england4 ,he later came back to ,virginia but no longer engaged in medicine or pharmacy4 ,in #aggf ,pitt1 a tory1 left ,virginia again4 ,he died later that year in ,england4 ,thomas ,wharton 7#agce-agdf7 ,wharton arrived in ,virginia about #agjc as an indentured servant to ,dr4 ,richard ,wright4 ,by #agce ,wharton had established an apothecary shop in ,williamsburg1 which he operated until his death in #agdf4 ,he left his drugs1 medicines1 and shop utensils to ,dr4 ,mc,kenzie4 ,suggestions for ,further ,reading ,whitfield ,j4 ,bell1 ,jr41 ,the ,colonial ,physician ,other ,essays4 ,new ,york3 ,science ,history ,publications1 #aige4 ----1 8,medical ,practice in ,colonial ,america10 in ,symposium on ,colonial ,medicine4 ,williamsburg3 ,jamestown-,williamsburg-,yorktown ,celebration ,commission and the ,virginia #cejth ,anniversary ,commission1 #aieg4 ,john ,b4 ,blake1 ,public ,health in the ,town of ,boston1 #afcj-ahbb4 ,cambridge1 ,mass43 ,harvard ,university ,press1 #aiei4 ,wyndham ,b4 ,blanton1 ,medicine in ,virginia in the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,richmond3 ,garrett and ,massie1 #aica4 ----1 ,medicine in ,virginia in the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,richmond3 ,william ,byrd ,press1 #aicj4 ,john ,duffy1 ,a ,history of ,public ,health in ,new ,york ,city1 #afbe-ahff4 ,new ,york3 ,russell ,sage ,foundation1 #aifh4 ,harold ,b4 ,gill1 ,jr41 ,the ,apothecary in ,colonial ,virginia4 ,williamsburg3 ,colonial ,williamsburg ,foundation1 #aigb4 ,george ,b4 ,griffenhagen1 ,drug ,supplies in the ,american ,revolution4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c43 ,contributions from the ,museum of ,history and ,technology1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bbe1 #aifa4 ----1 ,tools of the ,apothecary4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c43 ,american ,pharmaceutical ,association1 #aieg4 ,patrick ,henderson1 8,smallpox and ,patriotism3 ,the ,norfolk ,riots1 #agfh-agfi40 ,virginia ,magazine of ,history and ,biography1 ,,lxxiii 7,october #aife71 pp4 #dac-dbd4 ,thomas ,p4 ,hughes1 ,medicine in ,virginia1 #afjg-afii4 ,williamsburg3 ,virginia #cejth ,anniversary ,celebration ,corporation1 #aieg4 ,thomas ,jefferson1 ,notes on the ,state of ,virginia1 ed4 ,william ,peden4 ,chapel ,hill3 ,university of ,north ,carolina ,press1 #aiee4 ,edward ,kremers and ,george ,urdang1 ,history of ,pharmacy3 ,a ,guide and a ,survey4 ,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott ,co41 #aiea4 ,geoffrey ,marks and ,william ,k4 ,beatty1 8,the ,virginia ,colony10 in ,the ,story of ,medicine in ,america4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 #aigc4 ,benjamin ,rush1 ,the ,autobiography of ,benjamin ,rush1 ed4 ,george ,w4 ,corner4 ,princeton3 ,princeton ,university ,press1 #aidh4 ,richard ,harrison ,shryock1 ,medicine and ,society in ,america3 #affj-ahfj4 ,new ,york3 ,new ,york ,university ,press1 #aifj4 ,c4 ,j4 ,s4 ,thompson1 ,the ,mystery and ,art of the ,apothecary4 ,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott ,co41 #aibi4 ,surry ,wood1 ,the ,old ,apothecary ,shop4 ,watkins ,glen1 ,n4,y43 ,century ,house1 #aief4 ,the ,apothecary in ,eighteenth-,century ,williamsburg was first published in #aife and previously reprinted in #aifh1 #aigj1 #aigc1 #aigh1 #aihb1 #aihd1 #aihe1 #aihf1 #aihg1 #aihh1 and #aiij4 ,written by ,thomas ,k4 ,ford1 now retired as editor of ,colonial ,williamsburg publications1 it is based largely on a monograph by ,harold ,b4 ,gill1 ,jr4 ,that study has been published as ,the ,apothecary in ,colonial ,virginia 7,williamsburg1 ,virginia1 #aigb74 ,transcriber's ,notes --,retained publication information from the printed edition3 this e,book is public-domain in the country of publication4 --,silently corrected a few palpable typos4 --,in the text versions only1 text in italics is delimited by underscores4