,,comenius     ,the ,great ,educators   
,,edited ,,by ,,nicholas ,,murray       
,,butler       ,,comenius    ,,and      
,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,educational   
,,reform    ,,by    ,,will ,s4 ,,monroe1
 ,a4,b4   ,,professor ,,of ,,psychology 
,,and ,,pedagogy ,,in ,,the   ,,state   
,,normal ,,school ,,at ,,westfield1     
,,mass4    ,,new ,,york   ,,charles     
,,scribner',s ,,sons   #aijj            
,,copyright1 #aijj1 ,,by   ,,charles    
,,scribner',s ,,sons    ,norwood ,press 
,j4 ,s4 ,cushing  ,co4--,berwick  ,smith
   ,norwood ,mass4 ,u4,s4,a4            
,,preface   ,the present volume is an   
effort to trace the reform movement in  
education from ,vives1 ,bacon1 and      
,ratke to ,comenius1 who gave the       
movement its most significant force and 
direction2 and from him to the later    
reformers1--,francke1 ,rousseau1        
,basedow1 ,pestalozzi1 ,frbel1 and      
,herbart4 ,a variety of ideas1          
interests1 and adaptations1 all         
distinctly modern1 are represented in   

the life-creeds of these reformers2 and1
 in the absence of a more satisfactory  
term1 the progressive movement which    
they represent has been styled          
realism1--sometimes called the 8new     
education40  ,it has been well said that
 8the dead hand of spiritual ancestry   
lays no more sacred duty on posterity   
than that of realizing under happier    
circumstances ideas which the stress of 
age or the shortness of life has        
deprived of their accomplishment40 ,many
 of the reforms represented by the      
realists occupy no inconsiderable place 
in the platforms of modern practitioners
 of education2 and in the belief that a 
history of the movement might contribute
 toward the ultimate reforms which      
realism represents1 it has seemed       
expedient to focus such a survey on the 
life and teachings of the strongest     
personality and chief exponent of the   
movement4  ,the condition of education  
in ,europe during the sixteenth century 
is briefly told in the opening chapter2 

following are given the traces of the   
educational development of ,comenius in 
the writings of ,vives1 ,bacon1 and     
,ratke2 three chapters are devoted to   
the life of ,comenius and the reforms in
 which he actively participated2 an     
exposition of his educational writings  
has three chapters2 a chapter is given  
to the influence of ,comenius on        
,francke1 ,rousseau1 ,pestalozzi1 and   
other modern reformers2 and the closing 
chapter sums up his permanent influence4
 ,the volume has two appendices1--one   
giving tables of dates relating to the  
life and writings of ,comenius1 and the 
other a select annotated bibliography4  
,in the exposition of the writings of   
,comenius1 the author has made liberal  
use of ,english and ,german translations
 from ,latin and ,czech originals4 ,in  
the case of the ,great didactic1 the    
scholarly translation by ,mr4 ,keatinge 
has1 in the main1 been followed4 ,free  
translations of portions of this work   
had been made by the author before the  

appearance of ,mr4 ,keatinge's book2 and
 in some instances these have been      
retained4 ,as regards the account of    
,comenius' views on the earliest        
education of the child1 the author's    
edition of the ,school of infancy has   
been followed2 and in the discussion of 
reforms in language teaching1 he is     
indebted to ,mr4 ,bardeen's edition of  
the ,orbis pictus1 and to ,dr4 ,william 
,t4 ,harris for the use of the handsome 
,elzevir edition of the ,janua1 which is
 the property of the ,bureau of         
,education4    ,,will ,s4 ,,monroe4     
,,state ,,normal ,,school1              
,,westfield1 ,,mass4     ,,contents     
,,chapter ,i    ,,european ,,education  
,,in ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century        
,,page    ,humanism1 realism1 and       
naturalism   characterized--,devotion of
 the sixteenth century to   the         
humanistic ideal--,study of ,latin      
eloquence--,style   the chief           
aim--,neglect of the                    
mother-tongue--,views   of ,john ,sturm 

and the ,jesuits--,devotion to          
,cicero--,decadence of the later        
humanists--,erasmus   and ,melanchthon  
on the enrichment of the course   of    
study--,satires of ,rabelais directed   
against the   humanists--,protests of   
,montaigne--,attitude of ,ascham   and  
,mulcaster--,transition from humanism to
 realism             #a     ,,chapter   
,,ii    ,,forerunners ,,of ,,comenius   
,traces of the intellectual development 
of ,comenius4   ,vives a realist--,his  
early training in ,spain   and          
,france--,educational activity in       
,belgium and   ,england--,views on the  
education of women--,theory of          
education--,comparison of ,comenius and 
,vives4 ,bacon   the founder of modern  
realism--,views on the education   of   
his day--,attacks medivalism--,study of 
nature   and the inductive              
method--,individual differences   among 
children4 ,ratke--,studies at ,hamburg  
and   ,rostock--,visits ,england and    
becomes acquainted with   the philosophy

 of ,bacon--,his plan of education--,its
   reception by the universities at     
,jena and   ,giessen--,organization of  
the schools at ,gotha--,call   to       
,sweden--,summary of ,ratke's           
views--,harmony of his   teachings with 
those of ,comenius4 ,campanella1        
,andre1 and ,bateus--,their influence on
 the life and   teachings of ,comenius  
#ae     ,,chapter ,,iii    ,,boyhood    
,,and ,,early ,,life ,,of ,,comenius3   
#aeib-afbh    ,ancestry of              
,comenius--,attends the village school  
at ,strasnitz--,studies ,latin in the   
gymnasium at   ,prerau--,character of   
the ,latin schools of his   day--,enters
 the college at ,herborn--,studies      
theology   and philosophy--,inspired by 
the teachings of   ,alsted--,makes the  
acquaintance of the writings of         
,ratke--,continues his studies at       
,heidelberg--,begins   his career as a  
teacher at ,prerau--,ordained as   a    
clergyman--,installed as pastor and     
school   superintendent at              

,fulneck--,persecution                  
#ch     ,,chapter ,,iv    ,,career ,,as 
,,an ,,educational ,,reformer3          
#afbh-afef    ,flight to                
,poland--,appointed director of the     
gymnasium at ,lissa--,reforms           
introduced--,literary   projects--,need 
of a patron--,call to                   
,england--,friendship   with            
,hartlib--,interest of the ,english     
,parliament--,discontent with existing  
educational   institutions--,lewis de   
,geer1 his ,dutch patron--,call   to    
,sweden--,interview with                
,oxenstiern--,located at                
,elbing--,reform of the ,swedish        
schools--,return to                     
,poland--,consecration as senior        
bishop--,consequences   of the treaty of
 ,westphalia--,ecclesiastical           
ministrations--,call to                 
,hungary--,reform of the schools   at   
,saros-,patak--,plan of a pansophic     
school--,return to   ,lissa--,the city  
burned--,flight of ,comenius from       

,poland         #dg     ,,chapter ,v    
,,closing ,,years3 #afef-afgj    ,flight
 to ,amsterdam--,reception by ,lawrence 
de   ,geer--,religious freedom in       
,holland--,publication of the   complete
 edition of his writings--,other        
educational   activities--,the 8one     
thing needful0--,death at   ,amsterdam  
and burial at ,narden--,family history  
of   ,comenius--,alleged call to the    
presidency of ,harvard                  
,college--,portraits--,personal         
characteristics                   #ga   
,,chapter ,,vi    ,,philosophy ,,of     
,,education    ,the ,great              
didactic--,conditions under which       
produced--,aim of the book--,purpose of 
education--,man's   craving for         
knowledge--,youth the time for          
training--,private instruction          
undesirable--,education   for girls as  
well as boys--,uniform methods4         
,education   according to nature--,how  
nature teaches--,selection   and        
adaptation of materials--,organization  

of pupils   into classes--,correlation  
of studies4 ,methods of                 
instruction--,science--,arts--,language-
-,morals--,religion4   ,types of        
educational institutions--,the mother's 
school--,school of the                  
mother-tongue--,latin                   
school--,university4 ,school            
discipline--,character and   purpose of 
discipline--,corporal punishment only in
   cases of moral perversity            
#hc     ,,chapter ,,vii    ,,earliest   
,,education ,,of ,,the ,,child          
,school of infancy--,circumstances under
 which   written--,view of              
childhood--,conception of infant        
education4 ,physical training--,care of 
the body--,the   child's natural        
nurse--,food--,sleep--,play and         
exercise4   ,mental training--,studies  
which furnish the symbols   of          
thought--,nature                        
study--,geography--,history--,household 
economy--,stories and fables--,principle
 of                                     

activity--,drawing--,arithmetic--,geomet
ry--,music--,language--,poetry4   ,moral
 and religious                          
training--,examples--,instruction--,disc
ipline--,some   virtues to be           
taught--,character of formal religious  
instruction                             
#aji     ,,chapter ,,viii    ,,study    
,,of ,,language    ,dominance of ,latin 
in the seventeenth   century--,methods  
of study characterized by ,comenius4    
,the ,janua--,purpose and plan--,its    
success4 ,atrium   and                  
,vestibulum--,their relation to the     
,janua4   ,the ,orbis pictus--,its      
popularity--,use of pictures4           
,methodus novissima--,principles of     
language   teaching--,function of       
examples--,place of oral and   written  
language in education                   
#abc     ,,chapter ,,ix    ,,influence  
,,of ,,comenius ,,on ,,modern           
,,educators    ,francke--,early         
educational undertakings--,the          
institution at ,halle--,character of the

   ,pdagogium--,impulse given to modern 
education4   ,rousseau--,the child the  
centre of educational   schemes--,sense 
training fundamental--,order and method 
of nature to be followed4               
,basedow--,protests against             
traditional methods--,influenced by the 
mile--,his   educational writings--,the 
,philanthropinum4   ,pestalozzi--,love  
the key-note of his system--,domestic   
education--,education of all classes and
 sexes--,the   study of nature--,impulse
 given to the study of   geography4     
,frbel--,his relations to ,comenius and 
,pestalozzi--,educational value of play 
and principle   of self-activity--,women
 as factors in education4               
,herbart--,assimilation of              
sense-experience--,training in          
character--,doctrine of interest #adb   
,,chapter ,x    ,,permanent ,,influence 
,,of ,,comenius    ,general neglect of  
,comenius during the eighteenth         
century--,causes--,intrenchment of      
humanism--,summary of   the permanent   

reforms of ,comenius--,revived interest 
in his teachings--,national ,comenian   
pedagogical   library at ,leipzig--,the 
,comenius ,society--,reviews   published
 for the dissemination of the doctrines 
of   ,comenius--,conquest of his ideas  
#afe     ,,appendices    ,i4 ,,table    
,,of ,,dates                            
#agc    ,,ii4 ,,select ,,bibliography   
#age    ,,index                         
#aha   ,,comenius     ,,chapter ,i      
,,european ,,education ,,in ,,the       
,,sixteenth ,,century     ,humanism1    
realism1 and naturalism                 
characterized--,devotion of the         
sixteenth century to   the humanistic   
ideal--,study of ,latin                 
eloquence--,style   the chief           
aim--,neglect of the                    
mother-tongue--,views   of ,john ,sturm 
and the ,jesuits--,devotion to          
,cicero--,decadence of the later        
humanists--,erasmus   and ,melanchthon  
on the enrichment of the course   of    
study--,satires of ,rabelais directed   

against the   humanists--,protests of   
,montaigne--,attitude of ,ascham   and  
,mulcaster--,transition from humanism to
 realism4  8,education in ,europe10 says
 ,oscar ,browning1#a 8has passed through
 three phases1 which may conveniently be
 called humanism1 realism1 and          
naturalism4 ,the first is grounded upon 
the study of language1 and especially of
 the two dead languages1 ,greek and     
,latin4 ,the second is based upon the   
study of things instead of words1 the   
education of the mind through the eye   
and the hand4 ,closely connected with   
this is the study of those things which 
may be of direct influence upon and     
direct importance to life4 ,the third is
 not in the first instance study at all4
 ,it is an attempt to build up the whole
 nature of man1--to educate first his   
body1 then his character1 and lastly his
 mind40  ,the sixteenth century was     
wedded to the humanistic ideal of       
education4 ,without regard for the      
diversity of avocations1 classical      

culture was held to be the safest and   
best training for the manifold duties of
 life4 ,aristotle's ,politics was       
considered the wisest utterance on the  
direction of affairs of state2 ,csar's  
,commentaries the safest guides to      
military eminence2 the practical        
,stoicism of the ,latin authors the most
 infallible basis for ethics and the    
regulation of conduct2 and as for       
agriculture1 had not ,virgil written a  
treatise on that subject8 ,it was clear 
in the minds of the sixteenth-century   
humanists that classical culture        
furnished the best preparation1 alike   
for theologians and artisans4  ,to      
accomplish this purpose1 as soon as the 
child was considered sufficiently       
matured for linguistic discipline1 and  
this varied from the sixth to the ninth 
years1 he was initiated into the        
mysteries of ,latin eloquence4 ,his     
preliminary training consisted in a     
verbal study of the ,latin grammar for  
purposes of precision in speech and     

successful imitation2 but1 as the       
grammar was printed in ,latin1 with its 
hundreds of incomprehensible rules and  
exceptions1 all of which had to be      
8learned by heart10 the way of the young
 learner was1 indeed1 a thorny one4     
,true1 the classical authors were later 
read1 but chiefly for the purpose of    
gleaning from them choice phrases to be 
used in the construction of ,latin      
sentences1 or for purposes of           
disputations in dialectics4 ,logic and  
history were given most subordinate     
places in the course of study1 the      
former merely that it might give greater
 precision in writing and speaking1 and 
the latter that it might furnish        
illustrations in rhetorical exercises4  
,this conception of education was almost
 universally held in the sixteenth      
century1 by ,protestants like           
,trotzendorf and ,sturm1 as well as by  
,catholics like ,aquaviva and the       
members of the ,society of ,jesus4 ,nor 
was it confined to elementary and       

secondary education2 for1 as ,professor 
,paulsen#b has shown1 the conquest of   
,european universities by the humanists 
was complete by the second decade of the
 sixteenth century4 ,the statutes of    
most of the universities at this time   
make the speaking of the ,latin         
compulsory4 ,that at ,ingolstadt reads3 
8,a master in a bursary shall induce to 
the continual use of ,latin by verbal   
exhortations and by his own example2 and
 shall also appoint those who shall mark
 such as speak the vulgar tongue and    
shall receive from them an irremissible 
penalty40 ,again3 8,that the students in
 their academical exercises may learn by
 the habit of speaking ,latin to speak  
and express themselves better1 the      
faculty ordains that no person placed by
 the faculty upon a common or other     
bursary shall dare to speak ,german4    
,any one heard by one of the overseers  
to speak ,german shall pay one          
kreutzer40 ,there grew out of this      
prohibition a widespread system of      

spying4 ,the spies reported to the      
university authorities on such students 
7vulgarisantes they were called7 who    
persisted in speaking in the            
mother-tongue4 ,in spite1 however1 of   
statutes1 spies1 fines1 and floggings1  
the boys in the sixteenth century spoke 
little ,latin when they were alone by   
themselves4 ,cordier1#c writing in      
#aecj1 says1 8,our boys always chatter  
,french with their companions2 or if    
they try to talk ,latin1 cannot keep it 
up40  ,the old ecclesiastical ,latin of 
the ,middle ,ages had been superseded by
 the classical ,latin of the ,roman     
poets1 and all the energies of the      
educational institutions were thrown    
into the acquisition and practice of    
,latin eloquence4 ,the classics were    
read for the phrases that might be      
culled for use in the construction of   
,latin sentences2 these1 with           
disputations1 declamations1 and ,latin  
plays1 were the order of the century4   
,since education consisted in the       

acquisition of a graceful and elegant   
style1 the young learner1 from the      
first1 applied himself to the           
grammatical study of ,latin authors1    
regarding solely the language of the    
classics1 and taking subject-matter into
 account only when this was necessary to
 understand the words4  ,there was no   
study of the mother-tongue preliminary  
to the study of the classics4 ,children 
began at once the study of the ,latin   
grammar1 and they had to write ,latin   
verses before they had been exercised in
 compositions1 in the vernacular1 or1   
for that matter1 before they had been   
trained to express their thoughts in    
,latin prose4 ,and still more           
remarkable1 as ,oscar ,browning points  
out1 8the ,latin taught was not the     
masculine language of ,lucretius and    
,csar1 but the ornate and artificial    
diction of ,horace and ,virgil1 and1    
above all1 of ,cicero40 8,there is no   
doubt10 he adds1 8that narrow and faulty
 as it was1 it gave a good education so 

long as people believed in it4 ,to know 
,horace and ,virgil by heart became the 
first duty of the scholar4 ,speeches in 
,parliament were considered incomplete  
if they did not contain at least one    
,latin quotation4 ,a false quantity was 
held to be a greater crime than a slip  
in logical argument4 ,cicero not only   
influenced the education of ,english    
statesmen1 but had no inconsiderable    
effect on their conduct40  ,the humanist
 educators of the sixteenth century not 
only neglected the study of the         
mother-tongue--they proscribed it4 ,the 
,ratio#d of the ,jesuits forbids its use
 except on holidays1 and ,sturm at      
,strasburg abbreviated the recreation   
periods of his pupils because of risks  
of speaking in the mother-tongue on the 
playground4 ,and all this proscription  
of the vernacular that students might   
acquire eloquence in a foreign tongue4  
,well does ,raumer#e ask1 8,why did they
 continue1 like a second ,sisyphus1     
their fruitless endeavors to            

metamorphose ,german into ,roman youths1
 and to impart to them1 in defiance of  
the laws of human nature1 another       
tongue80  ,they were themselves deceived
 in assuming that they could call to    
life the ancient culture of ,rome and   
,greece4 ,indeed1 they believed that    
they had discovered ways of training    
which would develop scholars capable of 
producing ,latin works equal to the     
masterpieces that they had studied in   
their schools4 ,john ,sturm1 one of the 
most ardent of the humanists1 said3     
8,the ,romans had two advantages over   
us2 the one consisted in learning ,latin
 without going to school1 and the other 
in frequently seeing ,latin comedies and
 tragedies acted1 and in hearing ,latin 
orators speak4 ,could we recall these   
advantages in our schools1 why could we 
not1 by persevering diligence1 gain what
 they possessed by accident and         
habit--namely1 the power of speaking    
,latin to perfection8 ,i hope to see the
 men of the present age1 in their       

writing and speaking1 not merely        
followers of the old masters1 but equal 
to those who flourished in the noblest  
age of ,athens and ,rome40 ,but how     
misguided and mistaken6  ,not only did  
,latin monopolize the curriculum of the 
sixteenth-century school1 but the study 
was primarily philological1 for         
grammatical structure1 and only         
secondarily for the content of the      
literature1 for a correct understanding 
of the author4 ,as a matter of fact1 the
 method of study was such as to make    
intelligent comprehension of the        
author's thought next to impossible1    
since the humanists simply culled out   
phrases which might be imitated and used
 in the exercises of style4 ,raumer says
 of this kind of teaching3 8,the author 
was not an end1 but only a means to an  
end--the cultivation of deified ,roman  
eloquence in boys4 ,and why8 ,precisely 
as the peacock was used by the jackdaw4 
,they borrowed the author's words and   
phrases1 grouped them together1 and     

learned them by heart1 in order         
subsequently to apply them in speech or 
writing4 ,borrow is too feeble an       
expression2 for the jackdaw designed not
 merely to borrow the peacock's         
feathers1 but to represent them as his  
own4 ,the doctrine of imitation1 as set 
forth by ,sturm and the others1 was1    
after all1 a mere jackdaw theory4 ,the  
pupil was taught how1 by a slight       
alteration1 to disguise phrases from    
,cicero1 and then to use them in writing
 or speech1 exactly as if they were his 
own productions1 so adroitly smuggling  
them in that the readers or hearers     
might not suspect from whence they were 
taken4 ,says ,sturm3 #8,when the teacher
 gives out themes for composition1 he   
should draw attention to those points   
where imitation is desirable1 and show  
how similarity may be concealed by a    
superadded variation4' ,again3 #8,we    
must1 in the first place1 take care that
 the similarity shall not be manifest4  
,its concealment may be accomplished in 

three ways--by adding1 by taking away1  
and by alteration4'0  ,in this mad race 
for ,latin eloquence1 the               
sixteenth-century humanists became more 
and more circumscribed in the choice of 
authors4 ,sturm1 for example1 placed    
,cicero at the head of the list1 because
 of the faultless models of his         
eloquence4 ,the ,jesuits likewise held  
,cicero in high esteem4 ,said one of    
their writers1 8,style should be drawn  
almost exclusively from ,cicero1        
although the most approved of the       
historians need not on that account be  
overlooked40 ,again3 8,the pattern we   
should follow in style is comprehended  
in the words of the rule1 #8imitate     
,cicero4' ,as in the study of theology  
we follow the divine ,thomas ,aquinas1  
and in philosophy ,aristotle1 so in the 
humanities ,cicero must be regarded as  
our peculiar and preminent leader4 ,for 
he has been crowned by the palm of      
superior praise by the common consent of
 the world4 ,but some1 misguided by a   

wilful and self-formed taste1 have gone 
astray1 preferring a style totally      
different from that of ,cicero2 such an 
erratic course is quite at variance with
 the genius of our institutions and     
hostile to the spirit of prompt         
obedience40  ,this servile devotion to  
,cicero1 it should be recalled1 was a   
marked departure from the more varied   
and richer curricula of the             
fifteenth-century humanists1#f when men 
of the stamp of ,vittorino da ,feltre1  
,leonardo ,bruni1 ,vergarius1 ,sylvius1 
and ,guarino were the standard-bearers  
of humanism4 ,many causes had conspired 
to bring about this decadence2 and      
perhaps the most fundamental cause was  
the senseless worship of forms of       
expression4 ,the later humanists        
worshipped the forms of thought4        
8,beauty of expression10 says ,professor
 ,laurie1#g 8was regarded as inseparable
 from truth and elevation of thought4   
,the movement soon shared the fate of   
all enthusiasms4 ,the new form was      

worshipped1 and to it the spirit and    
substance were subordinated4 ,style     
became the supreme object of the        
educated classes1 and successful        
imitation1 and thereafter laborious     
criticism1 became marks of the highest  
culture40  ,this use of the classics as 
instruments in grammatical drill and    
vehicles of communication had become    
well-nigh universal by the middle of the
 sixteenth century4 ,erasmus1 himself   
one of the most ardent advocates of     
classical learning1 perceived apparently
 the narrowing tendencies of humanistic 
training1 and urged that students be    
taught to know many things besides      
,latin and ,greek in order that they    
might the better comprehend the         
classics4 ,he recommended the addition  
of geography1 arithmetic1 and natural   
science to the school course4  ,and     
,melanchthon1 with all his enthusiasm   
for classical learning1 thought the     
humanities insufficient to satisfy all  
the needs of culture4 ,he advised the   

incorporation of physics1 mathematics1  
and astronomy into the curriculum4      
8,although the nature of things cannot  
be absolutely known1 nor the marvellous 
works of ,god traced to their original1 
until1 in the future life1 we shall     
listen to the eternal counsel of the    
,father10 he writes1 8nevertheless1 even
 amid this our present darkness1 every  
gleam and every hint of harmony of this 
fair creation forms a step toward the   
knowledge of ,god and toward virtue1    
whereby we ourselves shall also learn to
 love and maintain order and moderation 
in all our acts4 ,since it is evident   
that men are endowed by their ,creator  
with faculties fitted for the           
contemplation of nature1 they must1 of  
necessity1 take delight in investigating
 the elements1 the laws1 the qualities1 
and the forces of the various bodies by 
which they are surrounded40  ,as has    
already been shown1 however1 the        
humanists took little interest in the   
study of subjects not discussed by      

classical authors4 ,absorbed in a world 
of books1 as ,mr4 ,quick#h suggests1    
they overlooked the world of nature4    
,galileo had in vain tried to persuade  
them to look through his telescope1 but 
they held that truth could not be       
discovered by any such                  
contrivances--that it could be arrived  
at only by the comparison of            
manuscripts4 8,no wonder10 remarks ,mr4 
,quick1 8that they had so little        
sympathy with children1 and did not know
 how to teach them40  ,fortunately for  
the history of education1 there were    
critics in the sixteenth century who did
 not conform to the dogma of linguistic 
discipline1 and who called attention to 
the need of educational reform4         
,whatever the merits of the classical   
languages1 protested these critics1 they
 must derive their value ultimately from
 the rank they take as literature4 ,the 
protest of ,rabelais early in the       
century was not only one of the first   
but one of the most effective charges   

against contemporary practices4 ,in his 
famous satire he intrusted the young    
giant ,gargantua to the care and        
training of the humanist educator ,tubal
 ,holofernes1 who spent five years and a
 quarter in teaching him to say his ,a  
,b ,c's backward2 thirteen years on     
,donatus' ,latin grammar and the        
composition of ,latin verses and        
sentences2 thirty-four years more in the
 study of ,latin eloquence1 after which 
the schoolmaster dies1 when1 as         
,rabelais concluded1 ,gargantua had     
grown more ignorant1 heavy1 and loutish4
 8,in this confused and ribald          
allegory10 says ,mr4 ,james ,p4         
,munroe1#i 8,rabelais led the way out of
 ancient superstition into modern       
science4 ,more than this1 he taught in  
it that the study of ,nature1           
observation of her laws1 imitation of   
her methods1 must be at the root of     
every true system of education4 ,he     
showed that the ,nature spirit is the   
true spirit of good teaching4 ,ever     

since his day civilized mankind has been
 trying to learn this lesson of his and 
to apply it in the schools4 ,for three  
centuries the leaders in education1     
under his direct inspiration1 have been 
slowly and painfully transforming the   
false pedagogy of the cloister into the 
true pedagogy of out-of-doors4 ,writers 
and teachers1 schools and universities1 
have been engaged in a halting and      
irregular struggle to transfer education
 from a metaphysical to a physical      
basis1 to lead it away from the habit of
 deductive speculation into one of      
inductive research4 ,this transfer      
,rabelais made boldly and at once4 ,he  
did not1 of course1 elaborate the       
educational ideal of to-day1 but he     
plainly marked out the lines upon which 
that ideal is framed4 ,he taught truth  
and simplicity1 he ridiculed hypocrisy  
and formalism1 he denounced the worship 
of words1 he demanded the study of      
things1 he showed the beauty of         
intellectual health1 of moral           

discipline1 of real piety4 ,best of all1
 he enunciated the supreme principle of 
,nature1 which is ordered freedom40     
,montaigne1#aj also1 in ,france1 was    
equally severe in his criticisms on the 
humanists4 ,he denounced in no uncertain
 terms the methods of introducing ,latin
 to beginners and the harsh and severe  
discipline so common in the schools of  
,europe during the sixteenth century4   
8,education ought to be carried on with 
a severe sweetness10 he wrote1 8quite   
contrary to the practice of our pedants1
 who1 instead of tempting and alluring  
children to a study of language by apt  
and gentle ways1 do1 in truth1 present  
nothing before them but rods and        
ferules1 horror and cruelty4 ,away with 
this violence6 ,away with this          
compulsion6 ,there is nothing which more
 completely dulls and degenerates the   
nature of a bright child40 ,again3 8,our
 schools are houses of correction for   
imprisoned youths2 and children are made
 incorrigible by punishment4 ,visit them

 when the children are getting their    
lessons1 and you will hear nothing but  
the outcries of boys under execution and
 the thundering noises of their         
teachers1 drunk with fury4 ,it is a     
pernicious way to tempt young and       
timorous souls to love their books while
 wearing a ferocious countenance and    
with a rod in hand40  ,montaigne was    
equally convinced of the pedagogic error
 of the humanists in regarding classical
 knowledge as synonymous with wisdom4   
8,we may become learned from the        
learning of others10 he said1 8but we   
never become wise except by our own     
wisdom4444 ,we are truly learned from   
knowing the present1 not from knowing   
the past any more than the future4444   
,yet we toil only to stuff the memory   
and leave the conscience and            
understanding void4 ,and like birds     
abroad to forage for grain1 bring it    
home in their beak1 without tasting it  
themselves1 to feed their young1 so our 
pedants go picking knowledge here and   

there out of several authors1 and hold  
it at their tongue's end1 only to spit  
it out and distribute it among their    
pupils40  ,roger ,ascham1#aa in the     
quaint preface of his ,scholemaster1    
also bears testimony against the harsh  
discipline of the sixteenth century4    
,during the great plague in ,london1 in 
#aefc1 ,ascham and some friends were    
dining at ,windsor with ,sir ,william   
,cecil4 ,while there he learned that    
many of the students at ,eton had run   
away because of the severe punishments  
administered at this famous public      
school4 8,whereupon10 says ,ascham1     
8,sir ,william took occasion to wish    
that some discretion were in many       
schoolmasters in using correction than  
commonly there is1 who many times punish
 rather the weakness of nature than the 
fault of the scholar1 whereby many      
scholars that might else prove well1 be 
driven to hate learning before they know
 what learning meaneth2 and so are made 
willing to forsake their book1 and to be

 willing to put to any other kind of    
living40 ,this incident led to the      
composition of the ,scholemaster1 which 
was a guide for 8the bringing up of     
youth10 in which gentleness rather than 
severity is recommended1 and 8a ready   
way to the ,latin tongue10 in which an  
honest effort is made to simplify       
language teaching and adapt it to the   
tastes and interests of young learners4 
,richard ,mulcaster1#ab another         
,englishman and humanist of the         
sixteenth century1 questioned seriously 
the wisdom of his associates and        
contemporaries in their exclusion of the
 mother-tongue from the course of study4
 ,in his ,elementarie he asked3 8,is it 
not a marvellous bondage to become      
servants to one tongue1 for learning's  
sake1 the most part of our time1 with   
loss of most time1 whereas we may have  
the very same treasure in our own tongue
 with the gain of most time8 our own    
bearing the joyful title of our liberty 
and freedom1 the ,latin tongue          

remembering us of our thraldom and      
bondage4 ,i love ,rome1 but ,london     
better2 ,i favor ,italy1 but ,england   
more3 ,i honor the ,latin1 but ,i       
worship the ,english40 ,mr4 ,quick is   
right in maintaining that 8it would have
 been a vast gain to all ,europe if     
,mulcaster had been followed instead of 
,sturm4 ,he was one of the earliest     
advocates of the use of ,english instead
 of ,latin1 and good reading and writing
 in ,english were to be secured before  
,latin was begun40  ,these were some of 
the voices raised against the bookish   
classical learning of the sixteenth     
century2 but it remained for ,vives1    
,bacon1 and ,ratke to convince ,europe  
of the insufficiency of the humanistic  
ideal1 and for ,comenius1 the evangelist
 of modern pedagogy1 to bring about the 
necessary reforms4 ,the part played by  
each in the transition from humanism to 
realism1 from classical learning and    
philology to modern thought and the     
natural sciences1 will be briefly traced

 in the succeeding chapters of this     
work4     ,,chapter ,,ii  ,,forerunners 
,,of ,,comenius     ,traces of the      
intellectual development of ,comenius4  
,vives a realist--,his early training in
 ,spain   and ,france--,educational     
activity in ,belgium and                
,england--,views on the education of    
women--,theory of                       
education--,comparison of ,vives and    
,comenius4 ,bacon   the founder of      
modern realism--,views on the education 
of his day--,attacks medivalism--,study 
of nature   and the inductive           
method--,individual differences   among 
children4 ,ratke--,studies at ,hamburg  
and   ,rostock--,visits ,england and    
becomes acquainted with   the philosophy
 of ,bacon--,his plan of education--,its
   reception by the universities at     
,jena and   ,giessen--,organization of  
the schools at ,gotha--,call   to       
,sweden--,summary of ,ratke's           
views--,harmony of his   teachings with 
those of ,comenius4 ,campanella1        

,andre1 and ,bateus--,their influence on
 the life and   teachings of ,comenius4 
,every educational reformer owes much1  
in the way of inspiration and           
suggestion1 to his predecessors1 and of 
none is this more true than of ,john    
,amos ,comenius4 ,everywhere in his     
writings are to be found traces of the  
movement he championed1 in the writings 
of ,vives1 ,bacon1 ,ratke1 ,bateus1     
,campanella1 and others4 ,as ,professor 
,nicholas ,murray ,butler remarks3      
8,from ,ratke he learned something of   
the way in which language teaching1 the 
whole curriculum of the time1 might be  
reformed2 and from ,bateus he derived   
both the title and the plan of his      
,janua4 ,campanella suggested to him the
 necessity of the direct interrogation  
of nature if knowledge was to progress1 
and ,vives emphasized for him from the  
same point of view the defects of       
contemporary school practice4 ,but it   
was ,bacon's ,instauratio ,magna that   
opened his eyes to the possibilities of 

our knowledge of nature and its place in
 the educational scheme40#ac ,this      
obligation to his predecessors ,comenius
 was the first to recognize4 ,and he    
recognized it often and specifically by 
his willing tributes to the help        
received by him from ,vives1 ,bacon1    
,ratke1 and others4   ,vives  8,comenius
 received his first impulse as a        
sense-realist10 says ,raumer1 8from the 
well-known ,spanish pedagogue ,john     
,lewis ,vives1 who had come out against 
,aristotle and disputation in favor of a
 ,christian mode of philosophizing and  
the silent contemplation of nature40    
8,it is better for the pupils to ask1 to
 investigate1 than to be forever        
disputing with one another10 said       
,vives4 8,yet10 adds ,comenius1 8,vives 
understood better where the fault was   
than what was the remedy40 ,in the      
preface to the ,janua1 ,comenius quotes 
,vives among others as opposed to the   
current methods of language teaching4   
,the ,spanish educator was born a       

hundred years before ,comenius1 of poor1
 but noble parentage4 ,when fifteen     
years old he was considered the most    
brilliant pupil in the academy at       
,valencia4 ,two years later he was      
matriculated in the ,university of      
,paris1 where1 as his biographers tell  
us1 he was surrounded by the            
,dialecticians1 whose theology was the  
most abstruse and whose ,latin was the  
most barbarous4 ,this condition of      
affairs turned the young ,spaniard's    
thoughts toward educational reform4 ,he 
realized in ,paris1 as he had not       
before1 the uselessness of the empty    
disputations which occupied so much time
 in the schools4  ,three years were     
spent in study at ,paris1 after which   
,vives travelled through portions of    
,spain and ,france1 and1 in #aeag1 he   
settled with the ,valdura family in     
,bruges and married the daughter of his 
host4 ,here he wrote his allegory       
,christi triumphus1 in which he holds up
 to ridicule the methods of teaching in 

the ,university of ,paris4 ,a year later
 he was installed in the ,university of 
,louvain as the instructor of the young 
,cardinal de ,croy4 ,while here he wrote
 a history of philosophy2 made the      
acquaintance of ,erasmus2 and opened    
correspondence with ,thomas ,more and   
other reformers4  ,in #aeai he visited  
,paris with ,cardinal de ,croy2 and1 in 
spite of his late criticisms1 he was    
cordially received by the university1   
his scholarship and ability now being   
recorded facts4 ,two years later ,de    
,croy died without having made any      
provision for the support of his tutor4 
,vives began at once a commentary on    
,st4 ,augustine2 but his health giving  
way1 he returned to ,bruges1 where1 in  
,july1 he had a personal interview with 
,thomas ,more1 ,wolsey1 and others1 who 
were in favor with ,henry ,,viii of     
,england4 ,he taught at ,louvain during 
the winter semester of #aebb-aebc1 after
 which1 through the influence of the    
,english dignitaries already mentioned1 

he was called to ,england4  ,in what    
capacity he went to ,england is hardly  
known4 ,some say as the tutor of ,king  
,henry's daughter ,mary2 others as a    
lecturer in the ,university of ,oxford4 
,certain it is that he gave two lectures
 at ,oxford1 which were attended by the 
king and queen1 and that he received the
 honorary degree of ,d4,c4,l41 in #aebc4
 ,in #aebf appeared his treatise on the 
care of the poor1 which he dedicated to 
the municipal council of ,bruges4 ,it   
was one of the first scientific         
treatments of pauperism4 ,he maintained 
that it was incumbent upon ,state1 and  
not upon the ,church to care for the    
poor4 ,buisson says of it1 8,its        
suggestions are as attractive as they   
are wise2 and even to-day they continue 
in full force40  ,in #aebh he published 
his pedagogic classic on the ,christian 
education of women4 ,the mother1 says   
,vives1 like ,cornelia1 should regard   
her children as her most precious       
jewels4 ,she should nurse her own       

children because of possible physical   
influences on the child4 ,the mother    
should instruct her girl in all that    
pertains to the household2 and early    
teach her to read4 ,she should relate to
 her stories1 not empty fables1 but such
 as will instruct and edify her and     
teach her to love virtue and hate vice4 
,the mother should teach her daughter   
that riches1 power1 praise1 titles1 and 
beauty are vain and empty things2 and   
that piety1 virtue1 bravery1 meekness1  
and culture are imperishable virtues4   
,strong discipline in the home is urged4
 ,lax discipline1 says ,vives1 makes a  
man bad1 but it makes a woman a         
criminal4 ,dolls should be banished from
 the nursery because they encourage     
vanity and love of dress4 ,boys and     
girls should not be instructed together1
 not even during the earliest years of  
childhood4 ,but women require to be     
educated as well as men4 ,this work1    
which presented in stronger terms than  
hitherto the claims of the education of 

women1 was dedicated to ,catherine of   
,aragon4 ,it was widely republished and 
had large influence4  ,for five years   
,vives had been a distinguished figure  
at the court of ,henry ,,viii1 but with 
the king's application for divorce1 in  
#aebh1 came a rupture of these pleasant 
relations4 ,in a letter to a friend he  
says3 8,you must have heard of the      
troubles between the king and the queen1
 as it is now talked of everywhere4 ,i  
have taken the side of the queen1 whose 
cause has seemed to me just1 and have   
defended her by word and pen4 ,this     
offended his ,majesty to such degree    
that ,i was imprisoned for six weeks1   
and only released upon condition that ,i
 would never appear in the palace again4
 ,i then concluded it safest to return  
home to ,bruges2 and1 indeed1 the queen 
advised me to in a secret letter4       
,shortly after ,cardinal ,campeggio was 
sent to ,britain to judge the cause4    
,the king was very solicitous that the  
queen appoint counsel to defend her side

 before ,campeggio and ,wolsey4 ,she1   
therefore1 called me to her aid2 but ,i 
told her plainly that any defence before
 such a court was useless1 and that it  
would be much better to be condemned    
unheard1 than with the appearance of    
defence4 ,the king sought only to save  
appearances with his people1 that the   
queen might not appear to have been     
unjustly treated2 but he had little     
regard for the rest4 ,at this the queen 
was incensed that ,i did not obey her   
call instead of following my own good   
judgment1 which is worth more to me than
 all the princes of the world together4 
,so it has come about that the king     
regards me as his adversary1 and the    
queen regards me as disobedient and     
opinionated2 and both of them have      
withdrawn my pension40  ,his closing    
years were passed at ,bruges with his   
wife's family2 at ,breda with the       
,duchess of ,nassau1 a ,spanish lady who
 had formerly been his pupil2 and at    
,paris1 where he gave some courses of   

lectures4 ,he had struggled against a   
weak constitution all his life1 and     
after his return from ,england other    
diseases developed4 ,he died on ,may #f1
 #aedj1 in his forty-eighth year1 and   
was buried in the ,church of ,st4 ,donat
 at ,bruges4  ,his most considerable    
contribution to the philosophy of       
education appeared after his return from
 ,england4 ,it was entitled ,de         
disciplinis2 was published in three     
parts1 in #aeca2 and was dedicated to   
the ,king of ,portugal4 ,as ,dr4 ,lange 
remarks1 this work alone entitles ,vives
 to large consideration as an           
educational reformer4  ,vives justifies1
 in the introduction1 the position he   
assumes in regard to ,aristotle2 while  
he regards the ,greek as a great        
philosopher1 he declares that the world 
has gained in experience since          
,aristotle wrote1 and he sees no reason 
why his teachings should not be set     
aside if found to be incorrect4 ,he has 
no doubt but that later generations will

 find theories better adapted to their  
ends than those he himself advocates1   
but he greets as a friend the one who   
shall point out his errors4  ,in the    
first part he treats of the decline of  
the sciences4 ,the causes of this       
decline he considers twofold3 7#a7      
,moral2 and here he notes an            
unwillingness to search for truth for   
truth's sake4 ,pride is the root of this
 evil4 ,a student in the ,university of 
,paris had remarked to him1 8,sooner    
than not distinguish myself by founding 
some new doctrine1 ,i would defend one  
of whose falsity ,i was convinced40     
,this moral weakness he thought         
altogether inconsistent with the        
advancement of the sciences4 7#b7       
,historical and material1 including as  
causes the migration of nations by which
 existing orders of civilization have   
been annihilated2 the obscurity of      
ancient manuscripts1 requiring more time
 to decipher their meaning than it would
 take to discover from nature their     

meaning2 the ever increasing use of     
commentaries in the study of originals1 
in which the diverse opinions of the    
commentators lead farther from the      
original sense2 the practice of         
scholastic disputation which is taught  
the pupils before they know what they   
are disputing about2 and the practice of
 regarding teaching as a trade rather   
than a profession1 thus causing many    
bright minds to select other vocations1 
and to bring to the work incompetent and
 coarse minds4  ,the second part treats 
of the decline of grammar1 and the third
 part of the art of teaching1 in which  
he gives some most sane directions4     
,schools should be located in the most  
healthy part of the community4 ,they    
should not be too near commercial       
centres2 at the same time1 they should  
not be too distant from the centre of   
population4 ,as to teachers1 they should
 have good academic training2 they      
should be skilled in the art of         
imparting knowledge2 and their morals   

should be such as would furnish examples
 to their pupils4 ,covetousness and     
ambition1 above all things1 should be   
unknown to them4 ,teachers who have     
ambition and reputation in their minds  
are thereby unfitted for the work of    
teaching4 ,on this account1 the state   
should fix the salaries1 and the        
compensation should be the wage of      
honest men4 ,there should be a school in
 every community4 ,before pupils should 
be assigned tasks1 teachers should      
ascertain their mental capacities and   
characteristics4 ,they should also be   
privately tested four times a year2 and 
when children are found who possess no  
taste for study they should be dismissed
 from the school4 ,corporal punishment  
should seldom be applied1 and never to  
such a degree as to humiliate the       
pupils4 ,children should be given plenty
 of play time2 and hearty1 romping games
 are especially recommended4 ,in the    
matter of method1 ,vives heartily       
commends the inductive1--from           

particulars to generals1--and he urges  
such a grouping of studies that each new
 subject studied may naturally grow out 
of the preceding lesson4 ,while he      
strongly advises the study of the       
natural sciences1 he is less            
enthusiastic here than ,bacon1 fearing1 
as he admits1 that a contemplation of   
nature may prove dangerous to those not 
deeply grounded in faith4  ,but ,vives  
was essentially a realist in his        
doctrines of education2 and when his    
views are compared with those of        
,comenius1 community of ideas is at once
 apparent4 ,both would begin education  
in the home and make the mother the     
first teacher4 ,both realized the need  
of better organization and              
classification of the schools4 ,both    
urged reforms in the matter of language 
teaching4 ,both considered education a  
matter of state concern1 and urged      
pedagogical training for teachers4 ,both
 presented the claims of science and    
urged the cordination and correlation of

 the different subjects of study4 ,both 
emphasized the value of play and the    
need of physical training4 ,both        
advocated education for all classes of  
both sexes1 and both exaggerated the    
need and importance of the religious    
training of the child4   ,bacon         
8,though there were many before ,bacon1 
and especially artists and craftsmen10  
says ,raumer1 8who lived in communion   
with nature1 and who1 in manifold ways1 
transfigured and idealized her1 and     
unveiled her glory2 and1 though their   
sense for nature was so highly          
cultivated that they attained to a      
practical understanding of her ways1 yet
 this understanding was at best merely  
instinctive3 for it led them to no      
scientific deductions and yielded them  
no thoughtful and legitimate dominion   
over her40  ,the founder of modern      
realism was born in ,london on the #bb;d
 of ,january in the year #aefa4 ,when   
sixteen years of age he entered ,trinity
 ,college1 ,cambridge1 where he studied 

under ,dr4 ,john ,whitgift1 a noted     
professor of theology1 and afterward    
archbishop of ,canterbury4 ,he studied  
diligently the writings of ,aristotle1  
but was convinced of their inadequacy4  
,writing of this period he says3 8,amid 
men of sharp and strong wits1 and       
abundance of leisure1 and small variety 
of reading1 their wits being shut up in 
the cells of a few authors1 chiefly     
,aristotle1 their dictator1 as their    
persons are shut up in the cells of     
monasteries and colleges2 and who       
knowing little history1 either of nature
 or time1 did out of no great quantity  
of matter1 and infinite agitation of    
wit1 spin cobwebs of learning1 admirable
 for the fineness of the thread and     
work1 but of no substance or profit40   
,the checkered career of ,bacon is      
extraneous to his writings and may be   
passed over in silence4 ,as noted in the
 first chapter1 the educational         
institutions of the sixteenth century   
concerned themselves wholly with the    

acquisition and display of ,latin       
eloquence4 ,grammar was studied with    
infinite labor and sorrow for years that
 students might acquire correct forms of
 speech2 logic that they might express  
themselves with precision2 and a minimum
 of history was taught that ancient     
records might furnish ornate            
illustrations in speaking and writing4  
,erasmus and ,melanchthon had disputed  
this ideal of culture1 but it remained  
for ,bacon to demolish this idol of     
medivalism4 8,forsooth10 he says1 8we   
suffer the penalty of our first parents'
 sin1 and yet follow in their footsteps4
 ,they desired to be like ,god1 and we1 
their posterity1 would be so in a higher
 degree4 ,for we create worlds1 direct  
and control nature1 and1 in short1      
square all things by the measure of our 
own folly1 not by the plummet of divine 
wisdom1 nor as we find them in reality4 
,i know not whether1 for this result we 
are forced to do violence to nature or  
to our own intelligence the most2 but it

 nevertheless remains true1 that we     
stamp the seal of our own image upon the
 creatures and works of ,god1 instead of
 carefully searching for1 and           
acknowledging1 the seal of the ,creator 
manifest in them4 ,therefore have we    
lost1 the second time1 and that         
deservedly1 our empire over the         
creatures1 yea1 when after and          
notwithstanding the fall1 there was left
 to us some title to dominion over the  
unwilling creatures1 so that they could 
be subjected and controlled1 even this  
we have lost1 in great part through our 
pride1 in that we have desired to be    
like ,god1 and to follow the dictates of
 our own reason alone4 ,now then1 if    
there be any humility in the presence of
 the ,creator1 if there be any reverence
 for and exaltation of his handiwork1 if
 there be any charity toward men1 any   
desires to relieve the woes and         
sufferings of humanity1 any love for the
 light of truth1 and hatred toward the  
darkness of error1--,i would beseech men

 again and again1 to dismiss altogether1
 or at least for a moment to put away   
their absurd and intractable theories1  
which give to assumptions the dignity of
 hypotheses1 dispense with experiment1  
and turn them away from the works of    
,god4 ,let them with a teachable spirit 
approach the great volume of creation1  
patiently decipher its secret           
characters1 and converse with its lofty 
truths2 so shall they leave behind the  
delusive echoes of prejudice1 and dwell 
within the perpetual outgoings of divine
 wisdom4 ,this is that speech and       
language whose lines have gone out into 
all the earth1 and no confusion of      
tongues has ever befallen it4 ,this     
language we should all strive to        
understand1 first condescending1 like   
little children1 to master its          
alphabet40  ,instead of training        
children to interrogate nature for      
themselves1 and to interpret the answers
 to these interrogations1 instead of    
going straight to nature herself1 the   

schools are forever teaching what others
 have thought and written on the        
subject4 ,this procedure1 according to  
,bacon1 not only displays lack of       
pedagogic sense1 but gives evidence of  
ignorance and self-conceit1 and inflicts
 the greatest injury on philosophy and  
learning4 ,such methods of instruction1 
moreover1 tend to stifle and interrupt  
all inquiry4 ,we must1 says ,bacon1     
8come as new-born children1 with open   
and fresh minds1 to the observation of  
nature4 ,for it is no less true in this 
human kingdom of knowledge than in      
,god's kingdom of heaven1 that no man   
shall enter into it except as he becomes
 first as a little child40  ,bacon's    
notion1 as summarized by ,raumer1 was   
that 8man must put himself again in     
direct1 close1 and personal contact with
 nature1 and no longer trust to the     
confused1 uncertain1 and arbitrary      
accounts and descriptions of her        
historians and would-be interpreters4   
,from a clear and correct observation   

and perception of objects1 their        
qualities1 powers1 etc41 the            
investigator must proceed1 step by step1
 till he arrives at laws1 and to that   
degree of insight that will enable him  
to interpret the laws and to analyze the
 processes of nature4 ,to this end      
,bacon proffers to us his new           
method--the method of induction4 ,with  
the aid of this method we attain to an  
insight into the connection and natural 
relation of the laws of matter1 and     
thus1 according to him1 we are enabled  
through this knowledge to make nature   
subservient to our will40  ,this was1   
according to ,comenius1 the true key to 
the human intellect4 ,but he laments    
that ,bacon should have given us the key
 and failed to unlock the door to the   
treasure-house4 ,but ,bacon did more    
than formulate the laws of scientific   
induction for pedagogic purposes3 he    
made possible the enrichment of the     
courses of study by the addition of a   
wide range of school studies4 ,his      

thrusts at the ,latin and ,greek1 as the
 sole exponents of culture1 were telling
 in their effect and made possible the  
recognition of the vernacular themes in 
,comenius' day4 8,the wisdom of the     
,greeks10 he says1 8was rhetorical2 it  
expended itself upon words1 and it had  
little to do with the search after      
truth40 ,speaking again of classical    
culture1 he says3 8,these older         
generations fell short of many of our   
present knowledges2 they know but a     
small part of the world1 and but a brief
 period of history4 ,we1 on the         
contrary1 are acquainted with a far     
greater extent of the world1 besides    
having discovered a new hemisphere1 and 
we look back and survey long periods of 
history40  ,bacon recognized great      
individual differences in the mental    
capacities of children1 and he urged    
that these differences and special      
tastes be taken into account by the     
teachers4 ,he says3 8,the natural bent  
of the individual minds should be so far

 encouraged that a student who shall    
learn all that is required of him may be
 allowed time in which to pursue a      
favorite study4 ,and1 furthermore1 it is
 worth while to consider1 and ,i think  
this point has not hitherto received the
 attention which its importance demands1
 that there are two distinct modes of   
training the mind to a free and         
appropriate use of its faculties4 ,the  
one begins with the easiest1 and so     
proceeds to the more difficult2 the     
other1 at the outset1 presses the pupil 
with the more difficult tasks1 and1     
after he has mastered these1 turns him  
to pleasanter and easier ones3 for it is
 one method to practise swimming with   
bladders1 and another to practise       
dancing with heavy shoes4 ,it is beyond 
all estimate how a judicious blending of
 these two methods will profit both the 
mental and the bodily powers4 ,and so to
 select and assign topics of instruction
 as to adapt them to the individual     
capabilities of the pupils1--this1 too1 

requires a special experience and       
judgment4 ,a close observation and an   
accurate knowledge of the different     
natures of the pupils are due from      
teachers to the parents of these pupils1
 that they may choose an occupation in  
life for their sons accordingly4 ,and   
note further1 that not only does every  
one make more rapid progress in those   
studies to which his nature inclines    
him1 but1 again1 that a natural         
disinclination1 in whatever direction1  
may be overcome by the help of special  
studies4 ,for instance1 if a boy has a  
light1 inattentive1 inconstant spirit1  
so that he is easily diverted1 and his  
attention cannot be readily fixed1 he   
will find advantage in the mathematics1 
in which a demonstration must be        
commenced anew whenever the thought     
wanders even for a moment40  ,these     
citations will suggest parallels in the 
aims of the two great reformers4 ,both  
sought to introduce the student to      
nature at first hand4 ,both aimed to    

reorganize the sciences into one great  
body of cordinated knowledge4 ,both     
emphasized the value of the inductive   
method in the development of subjects of
 study4 ,bacon said3 8,a good method    
will solve all problems4 ,a cripple on  
the right path will beat a racer on the 
wrong path40 ,said ,comenius3 8,the     
secret of education lies in method40    
,again3 8,there is no difficulty in     
learning ,latin3 what we want is a good 
method40   ,ratke  ,although but little 
more than twenty years the senior of    
,comenius1 ,ratke's mental development  
was less tardy1 so that when the        
,moravian was a young collegian at      
,herborn1 ,ratke was enjoying the full  
flush of popularity as an educational   
reformer4 ,born at ,wilster in ,holstein
 7,germany71 in #aega1 he trained in the
 gymnasium at ,hamburg1 and later       
studied philosophy at ,rostock4 ,later  
he travelled in ,england and ,holland2  
studied ,hebrew and ,arabic1 and        
formulated the plan of education which  

made him famous as a reformer4 ,he      
attached great value to his plan and    
expressed great unwillingness to divulge
 it without adequate remuneration4 ,he  
made known his contemplated reforms at a
 diet of the ,german ,empire1 held at   
,frankfort on the #abth of ,may1 #afab4 
,they were threefold3 7#a7 ,to teach    
,latin1 ,greek1 or ,hebrew1 or any other
 language1 to young or old in a very    
short time2 7#b7 to establish schools in
 which the arts and sciences should be  
taught and extended2 7#c7 to introduce a
 uniform speech throughout the empire1  
and1 at the same time1 uniform          
government and religion4 ,he proposed to
 follow the order and course of nature1 
and teach first the mother-tongue1 after
 this ,hebrew and ,greek1 as being the  
tongues of the original text of the     
,bible1 and1 lastly1 ,latin4  ,through  
the influence of the princes 7and more  
especially by the encouragement of the  
,duchess ,dorothea of ,weimar71 the     
plans of ,ratke were submitted to a     

commission selected from the faculties  
of the universities at ,jena and        
,giessen1--,professors ,grawer1         
,brendel1 ,walther1 and ,wolf           
representing ,jena and ,professors      
,helwig and ,jung1 ,giessen4 ,the report
 was favorable to ,ratke4 ,professor    
,helwig1 who was one of the best        
linguists of his day1 was the spokesman 
for ,giessen1 and he accepted ,ratke's  
views with great enthusiasm4 8,by       
diligent reflection and long practice10 
he says1 8,ratke has discovered a       
valuable method by which good arts and  
languages can be taught and studied more
 easily1 quickly1 and correctly than has
 been usual in the schools4 ,ratke's    
method is more practicable in the arts  
than in the sciences1 since arts and    
sciences are by their nature consistent 
with themselves1 while the languages1 on
 the contrary1 by long use have acquired
 many inaccuracies40  ,professor ,helwig
 commends especially the methodology in 
,ratke's plan1 and urges that we must   

consider not only the knowledge to be   
imparted1 but as well the method of     
imparting knowledge4 ,he says3 8,nature 
does much1 it is true1 but when art     
assists her1 her work is much more      
certain and complete4 ,therefore it is  
necessary that there should be an       
especial art to which any one who       
desires to teach can adhere1 so that he 
shall not teach by mere opinion and     
guess1 nor by native instinct alone1 but
 by the rules of his art2 just as he who
 would speak correctly by the rules of  
grammar1 and he who would sing correctly
 by the rules of music4 ,this art of    
teaching1 like the art of logic1 applies
 to all languages1 arts1 and sciences4  
,it discusses among other things how to 
distinguish among minds and gifts1 so   
that the quicker may not be delayed1 and
 that1 on the contrary1 those who are by
 nature not so quick may not remain     
behind2 how and in what order to arrange
 the exercises2 how to assist the       
understanding2 how to strengthen the    

memory2 how to sharpen the intellect    
without violence and after the true     
course of nature4 ,this art of teaching1
 no less than other arts1 has its fixed 
laws and rules1 founded not only upon   
the nature and understanding of man1 but
 upon the peculiarities of languages1   
arts1 and sciences2 and it admits of no 
ways of teaching which are not deduced  
from sure grounds and founded upon      
proof40 ,the ,jena professors were no   
less favorable with regard to this new  
art of teaching4  ,the influence of this
 report on the fame of ,ratke was       
far-reaching4 ,the following year       
7#afad7 he was invited to ,augsburg to  
reform the schools of that city4 ,this  
invitation was the outgrowth of a study 
of his plan by ,david ,hschel1 the      
principal of ,st4 ,anne's ,school1 and  
two other teachers appointed by the city
 to accompany him to ,frankfort and aid 
him in the investigation4 ,they reported
 that ,ratke had so far explained his   
method to them that they were satisfied 

and pleased with it2 and the invitation 
to ,ratke promptly followed4 ,beyond a  
few monographs by the ,augsburg         
disciples1 based on his method1 and     
inspired doubtless by his sojourn there1
 we are altogether without evidence of  
the success or failure of the reforms at
 ,augsburg4  ,early in #afaf1 ,prince   
,ludwig of ,anhalt-,gotha yielded to the
 persuasions of his sister1 the ,duchess
 ,dorothea of ,weimar1 and invited      
,ratke to ,gotha to organize the schools
 there in accordance with his views4 ,he
 engaged to organize and supervise the  
schools and to instruct and train the   
teachers1 but he bound the prince to    
exact from each teacher a promise not to
 divulge his method to any one4  ,a     
printing-office was established at      
,gotha to supply the books required by  
the new order4 ,fonts of type in six    
languages were imported from ,holland1  
and four compositors and two pressmen   
were brought from ,rostock and ,jena4   
,the people of ,gotha were required by  

the prince to send their children to the
 schools organized by ,ratke4 ,two      
hundred and thirty-one boys and two     
hundred and two girls were enrolled4    
,the school was graded into six classes4
 ,the mother-tongue was taught in the   
lowest classes2 ,latin was begun in the 
fourth1 and ,greek in the sixth4 ,he    
required that the teacher in the lowest 
class should be a man of kind manners1  
and that he need know no language but   
the ,german4 ,this scandalized the whole
 ,german nation4 ,a schoolmaster        
ignorant of ,latin6 ,critics appeared   
from the first with the most cogent     
reasons for distrusting the 8new        
methods40 ,but ,ratke had the confidence
 of the prince1 and all went merrily for
 a time4 ,the instruction was           
simplified2 and1 besides the            
mother-tongue1 arithmetic1 singing1 and 
religion were taught4  ,but he          
encountered numerous obstacles at       
,gotha3 the teachers of the town1 it    
would appear1 did not fully share his   

views2 the town adhered to the ,reformed
 ,church and ,ratke was a ,lutheran1--a 
fact which caused no end of trouble2 and
 the prince was not altogether satisfied
 with the fulfilment of ,ratke's        
promises of reform4 ,the pastor of the  
,reformed ,church of ,gotha preferred   
formal charges of heterodoxy against    
him1 and maintained1 besides1 that      
,ratke made too little provision for the
 study of music and the catechism2 that 
too much time was given to recreation2  
that the discipline was altogether too  
mild2 and that the children were        
permitted to pass from one study to     
another too rapidly4 ,singular charges1 
these6 ,and the more singular when one  
recalls the long hours and the harsh    
discipline of the seventeenth century4  
,the opposition was strong1 and at the  
end of eighteen months the ,gotha       
experiment was brought to an abrupt     
close4 ,ratke was not only dismissed1   
but was imprisoned on the charge that he
 8had claimed and promised more than he 

knew that he could bring to pass40      
,after spending the best of a year in   
prison1 he signed a declaration in which
 he assented to the charges4 ,then the  
prince released him4 ,he went to        
,magdeburg1 where he was well received  
by the school authorities2 but the      
ecclesiastical dignitaries of the city  
were soon at war with him1 and he moved 
on to ,rudolstadt1 where he was         
cordially received by the ,princess     
,anna ,sophia1 wife of ,prince ,gunther 
of ,swarzburg-,rudolstadt4              
,subsequently ,oxenstiern1 the          
chancellor of ,sweden1 sought his       
services in the reformation of the      
,swedish schools2 but instead of the    
requested interview1 he sent the        
chancellor a thick quarto4 8,i          
accomplished this wearisome labor10 says
 ,oxenstiern2 8and after ,i had read the
 whole book through1 ,i found that he   
had not ill displayed the faults of the 
schools1 but his remedies did not seem  
to me adequate40 ,ratke died shortly    

afterward at the age of sixty-four      
years4  ,ratke's contribution to        
education was chiefly in the matter of  
methodology4 ,his leading principles    
were3 7#a7 ,in everything we should     
follow the order of nature4 ,there is a 
certain natural sequence along which the
 human intelligence moves in the        
acquisition of knowledge4 ,this sequence
 must be studied1 and instruction must  
be based on a knowledge of it4 7#b7 ,one
 thing at a time4 ,each subject of study
 should be orderly developed and        
thoroughly dealt with before proceeding 
to the next4 7#c7 ,there should be      
frequent repetition4 ,it is astonishing 
what may be accomplished by the frequent
 repetition of one thing4 7#d7          
,everything first in the mother-tongue4 
,the first thinking should always be in 
the vernacular4 ,whatever the vocation1 
the pupil should learn to express       
himself in the mother-tongue4 ,after the
 mother-tongue has been mastered1 the   
other languages may be studied4 7#e7    

,everything without compulsion4         
,children cannot be whipped into        
learning or wishing to learn2 by        
compulsion and blows they are so        
disgusted with their studies that study 
becomes hateful to them4 ,moreover1 it  
is contrary to nature to flog children  
for not remembering what has been taught
 them4 ,if they had been properly taught
 they would have remembered1 and blows  
would have been unnecessary4 ,children  
should be taught to love and            
reverence--not to fear their teachers4  
7#f7 ,nothing should be learned by rote4
 ,learning by heart weakens the         
understanding4 ,if a subject has been   
well developed1 and has been impressed  
upon the mind by frequent repetition1   
the memory of it will follow without any
 pains4 ,frequent hours of recreation   
are advised2 in fact1 no two lessons    
should come immediately together4 7#g7  
,a definite method 7and a uniform       
method7 for all studies4 ,in the        
languages1 arts1 and sciences1 there    

must be a conformity in the methods of  
teaching1 text-books used1 and precepts 
given4 ,the ,german grammar1 for        
instance1 must agree with the ,hebrew   
and the ,greek as far as the idioms of  
the language will permit4 7#h7 ,the     
thing itself should first be studied1   
and then whatever explains it4 ,study   
first the literature of a language and  
then its grammar4 ,a basis of material  
must first be laid in the mind before   
rules can be applied4 ,he admits that   
many of the grammars furnish examples   
with the rules2 but these examples 8come
 together from all sorts of authors1    
like mixed fodder in a manger40 7#i7    
,everything must be learned by          
experience and examination4 ,nothing is 
to be taken on authority4 ,it will be   
recalled that ,ratke visited ,england   
after the completion of his studies at  
,rostock2 and it is altogether likely   
that while there he became a convert to 
induction and the philosophy of ,bacon4 
,in most particulars ,ratke and         

,comenius were in harmony4 ,both urged  
that the study of things should precede 
or be united with the study of words2   
that knowledge should be communicated   
through appeals to the senses2 that all 
linguistic study should begin with the  
mother-tongue2 that methods of teaching 
should be in accordance with the laws of
 nature2 and that progress in studies   
should be based not on compulsion1 but  
on the interest aroused in the pupils4  
,campanella1 ,andre1 and ,bateus        
,comenius derived many of his           
philosophic concepts from the ,dominican
 reformer1 ,thomas ,campanella1 whose   
writings influenced him powerfully1 at  
least during his student years at       
,herborn and ,heidelberg4 ,the writings 
of ,campanella convinced him of the     
unwisdom of the study of nature from the
 works of ,aristotle4 ,books1           
,campanella had declared1 are but dead  
copies of life1 and are full of error   
and deception4 ,we must ourselves       
explore nature and write down our own   

thoughts1 the living mirror which shows 
the reflection of ,god's countenance4   
,these protests against scholasticism   
found a responsive chord in the thoughts
 of the young ,comenius4  ,in the       
preface to the ,prodromus ,comenius is  
unreserved in his expression of         
obligations to his predecessors4 8,who1 
indeed1 should have the first place10 he
 says1 8but ,john ,valentine ,andre1 a  
man of nimble and clear brain40 ,the    
court preacher of ,stuttgart had        
strongly impressed ,comenius by his deep
 love for ,christian ideals and his warm
 enthusiasm for their realization in    
practical life1 as well as by his       
humorous polemics against the dead      
scholasticism of his day4 ,comenius     
incorporates in his ,great didactic a   
brief by ,andre on 8the use of the art  
of teaching10 in which he maintains 7#a7
 that parents up to this time have been 
uncertain how much to expect from their 
children2 7#b7 that schoolmasters1 the  
greater number of whom have been        

ignorant of their art1 have exhausted   
their energies and worn themselves out  
in their efforts to fulfil their duty2  
7#c7 that students should master the    
sciences without difficulty1 tedium1 or 
blows1 as if in sport and in merriment2 
7#d7 that schools should become places  
of amusement1 houses of delight and     
attraction1 and the work so adjusted    
that students of whatever capacity might
 attain a high standard of development2 
7#e7 that states should exist for the   
development of the young2 7#f7 that     
schools should be so efficient that the 
,church may never lack learned doctors1 
and the learned doctors lack suitable   
hearers2 and 7#g7 that the schools may  
be so reformed that they may give a more
 exact and universal culture of the     
intellect1 and that ,christian youths   
may be more fervently stirred up to     
vigor of mind and love of heavenly      
things4 8,let none1 therefore10 says    
,andre1 8withdraw his thoughts1 desires1
 strength1 and resources from such a    

sacred undertaking4 ,it is inglorious to
 despair of progress and wrong to       
despise the counsel of others40  ,the   
obligation of ,comenius to ,william     
,bateus1 the ,irish ,jesuit1 was not    
great1 although he makes free           
acknowledgment of the same in the       
,janua4 ,indeed1 the plan of the ,janua 
was well formulated before he knew of   
the existence of the ,jesuit father's   
book4 ,he made known the plan of his    
,janua to some friends1 who told him    
that ,bateus had already published a    
similar work4 ,he was not content until 
he had procured a copy of the book4     
8,the idea10 says ,comenius1 8was better
 than the execution4 ,nevertheless1 as  
he was the prime inventor1 ,i thankfully
 acknowledge it1 nor will ,i upbraid him
 for those errors he has committed40    
,this willing recognition of his        
obligation to a wide range of           
educational writers is proof of the     
declaration he often made1 8,i care not 
whether ,i act the part of teacher or   

learner40     ,,chapter ,,iii  ,,boyhood
 ,,and ,,early ,,life ,,of ,,comenius3  
#aeib-afbh     ,ancestry of             
,comenius--,attends the village school  
at ,strasnitz--,studies ,latin in the   
gymnasium at   ,prerau--,character of   
the ,latin schools of his   day--,enters
 the college at ,herborn--,studies      
theology   and philosophy--,inspired by 
the teachings of   ,alsted--,makes the  
acquaintance of the writings of         
,ratke--,continues his studies at       
,heidelberg--,begins   his career as a  
teacher at ,prerau--,ordained as   a    
clergyman--,installed as pastor and     
school   superintendent at              
,fulneck--,persecution4  ,many of the   
facts concerning the early life of ,john
 ,amos ,comenius are shrouded in        
obscurity4 ,it is certain1 however1 that
 he was born in the village of ,nivnitz 
in ,moravia 7now a province of ,austria7
 on the #bhth day of ,march1 in the year
 #aeib4 ,nivnitz then1 as now1 was      
little more than a country market town  

and settled quite largely by members of 
the religious organization known as     
,moravian ,brethren4 ,the father and    
mother of ,comenius1 ,martin and ,anna  
,komensky1 were influential members of  
the brotherhood1 who had settled here   
some years previous with other followers
 of ,john ,hus1 the ,bohemian reformer  
and martyr4 ,the tradition that ,martin 
,komensky was a miller by trade does not
 seem to be well authenticated4 ,besides
 ,john ,amos1 three daughters were born 
to ,martin and ,anna                    
,komensky1--,ludmilla1 ,susanna1 and    
,margaret1--but the three girls died in 
early childhood4  ,martin ,komensky died
 in #afjd1ad and his wife survived him  
less than a year4 ,left an orphan at the
 early age of twelve years1 ,comenius   
was intrusted to the care and training  
of an improvident aunt1 who soon made   
way with his inheritance4 ,in this1 as  
in the neglect of his school training1  
the incompetence of the foster parent is
 clearly apparent4 ,for something more  

than four years the lad attended the    
village school at ,strasnitz4 ,but1 as  
he himself tells us1 the curriculum was 
narrow and the teaching poor4 ,while    
here ,comenius formed the acquaintance  
of a schoolfellow named ,nicholas       
,drabik1 through whose prophetic visions
 he was so ignominiously led astray in  
his later life1 and so bitterly         
reproached by his contemporaries4 8,it  
was a strange irony of fate10 remarks   
,mr4 ,keatinge1 8that a wanderer like   
,comenius1 when only eleven years old   
and in his native land1 should commence 
the intimacy that was to embitter his   
old age in ,amsterdam40 ,but1 as ,benham
 notes1 the fact that the matter was so 
soon forgotten shows that the character 
of ,comenius received no indelible stain
 by the unfortunate alliance1 even      
though he excited the ridicule and      
disrespect1 and even the contempt1 of   
his contemporaries4  ,at the advanced   
age of sixteen years1 he was initiated  
into the mysteries of classical learning

 in the ,latin school at ,prerau1 where 
he studied for two years4 ,a fairly     
accurate notion of his studies during   
this period may be gained from a glance 
at the course of study in a contemporary
 ,latin school herewith reproduced in   
translation from the ,bohemian4#ae ,the 
schedule of hours in the second grade of
 this school was as follows3 ,in the    
morning1 during the first hour1         
repetition of grammar lesson from memory
 and explanation of the next day's      
grammar lesson4 ,during the second hour1
 the dialogues of ,castalio2 and the    
third hour1 the recitation of           
,castalio's dialogues in the ,bohemian1 
and the grammatical analysis of the     
words and conversation of the lesson4   
,in the afternoon1 during the first     
hour1 writing and singing2 the second   
hour1 explanation of the writings of    
,cicero according to ,sturm's edition1  
and grammatical analysis2 and the third 
hour1 exercises in words and sayings4   
,this was the programme for ,mondays1   

,tuesdays1 ,thursdays1 and ,saturdays4  
,on ,wednesdays there was but one lesson
 in the morning and one in the          
afternoon4 ,in the morning the catechism
 was recited2 in addition1 imitative    
exercises for the formation of style4   
,in the afternoon1 the writing of short 
words and a recapitulation of the week's
 lessons4  ,the programme for the third 
grade was as follows3 ,in the forenoon  
of ,mondays1 ,tuesdays1 ,thursdays1 and 
,fridays3--  ,first hour4--,repetition  
of ,latin rules in the mother-tongue4   
,second hour4--,exposition of the       
conversations of ,john ,lewis ,vives4   
,third hour4--,repetition of the above1 
and ,bohemian exercises from the text4  
,in the afternoon of the same days1     
first hour1 writing and singing2 second 
hour1 ,greek grammar and the collected  
writings of ,john ,sturm2 and third     
hour1 exposition of ,greek proverbs from
 the ,new ,testament1 together with     
grammatical analysis of the same4 ,this 
class had for its forenoon lesson on    

,wednesdays the catechism and exercises 
in the ,bohemian1 and in the afternoon  
singing and writing4 ,in the summer the 
more industrious pupils were excused    
from the lessons on ,wednesday          
afternoons4  ,one period on ,saturday   
was devoted to a weekly review2 and on  
,sunday morning a chapter was read from 
the ,new ,testament1 the same explained 
in ,greek 7to all grades above the      
second71 and all the students attended  
church4 ,in the afternoon there was     
preaching again and more reading from   
the ,new ,testament4  ,such we may      
suppose to have been the character of   
his studies at ,prerau during the two   
years from #afjh to #afaj4 ,because of  
his maturity1 he appreciated most keenly
 the faults of current humanistic       
methods of teaching4 ,as one of his     
biographers remarks3 8,the defects of   
this early education were the seeds from
 which sprang the whole of his didactic 
efforts4 ,considerably older than his   
school-fellows1 he was able to criticise

 the methods and speedily arrive at the 
conclusion that the lack of progress was
 due more to the inefficiency of the    
teachers than to the idleness of their  
pupils4 ,from this time onward1 he began
 to devise new methods of class         
instruction and better schemes of study4
 ,from the vivid memory of the horrors  
through which he had passed1 of the     
thousand and one rules that had to be   
learned by rote before they were        
understood1 of the monotonous study of  
grammar1 only diversified by the        
maddening effort to translate ,latin    
authors without the assistance of       
suitable dictionaries or commentaries1  
sprang that intense sympathy with       
beginners which characterizes his whole 
life and gives practical worth to every 
precept that he enunciated40  ,after two
 years in the ,latin school at ,prerau1 
he entered the college at ,herborn on   
the #cjth of ,march1 #afaa4 ,the        
,university of ,prague was at this time 
in the hands of the ,utraquists1 whose  

unfriendly attitude toward the ,moravian
 ,brethren led to the selection of a    
,german university for his higher course
 of instruction4 ,he had determined to  
qualify for the ministry1 and the       
institution at ,herborn at this time    
afforded unusual opportunities for the  
study of theology4 ,doubtless another   
factor in the selection of ,herborn was 
the fact that ,john ,henry ,alsted1 one 
of the most distinguished theological   
and philosophical professors of the day1
 was lecturing there1 and aspiring      
youths of the temperament of ,comenius  
naturally gravitated toward this centre 
of fresh thought4 ,although but four    
years older than ,comenius1 ,alsted was 
the most commanding figure in the       
academic circles of ,europe at this     
time4 ,he had travelled extensively2 had
 made the acquaintance of most of the   
learned men in ,europe worth knowing2   
and had advocated views of education    
which were new and startling4  ,for     
twenty-seven years ,herborn had enjoyed 

unprecedented academic prosperity4      
,opportunities for the study of         
education were unexcelled2 for1         
connected with the college1 there was a 
preparatory department which served as a
 laboratory for the study of pedagogic  
problems1 in which1 for example1 the    
lower classes were instructed in the    
mother-tongue--a procedure that was     
regarded as ultra-heterodox at this     
time4  ,comenius was most helped by the 
instruction of the distinguished        
theologian and philosopher1 ,professor  
,john ,henry ,alsted4 ,the teachings of 
,alsted were of a character calculated  
to deepen the convictions of the young  
student from ,moravia1 for the ,herborn 
professor taught among other things--as 
is indicated by his ,encyclopdia of the 
sciences1 published a few years         
later--the following3 7#a7 ,not more    
than one thing should be taught at a    
time2 7#b7 not more than one book should
 be used on one subject1 and not more   
than one subject should be taught on one

 day2 7#c7 everything should be taught  
through the medium of what is more      
familiar2 7#d7 all superfluity should be
 avoided2 7#e7 all study should be      
mapped out in fixed periods2 7#f7 all   
rules should be as short as possible2   
7#g7 everything should be taught without
 severity1 though discipline must be    
maintained2 7#h7 corporal punishment    
should be reserved for moral offences1  
and never inflicted for lack of         
industry2 7#i7 authority should not be  
allowed to prejudice the mind against   
the facts gleaned from experience1 nor  
should custom or preconceived opinion   
prevail2 7#aj7 the construction of a new
 language should first be explained in  
the vernacular2 7#aa7 no language should
 be taught by means of grammar2 7#ab7   
grammatical terms should be the same in 
all languages4 8,the teacher10 said     
,alsted1 8should be a skilled reader of 
character1 so that he may be able to    
classify the dispositions of his pupils4
 ,unless he pays great attention to     

differences of disposition1 he will but 
waste all the efforts he expends in     
teaching40  ,another professor of       
philosophy at ,herborn at the time was  
,heinrich ,gutberleth1 who was likewise 
deeply interested in pedagogy and whose 
lectures seem to have influenced        
,comenius1 with special reference to his
 advocacy of the study of the physical  
sciences4 ,in theology he heard lectures
 by ,piscator1 ,hermannus1 and ,pasor4  
,since #aecj the schools of ,nassau had 
been marked by great improvement1 and   
this improvement was in no small measure
 due to the intelligent interest of the 
professors of theology at ,herborn in   
the schools of the province4 ,hermannus1
 with whom ,comenius studied practical  
theology1 was especially active in      
school reform4  ,it was during his      
student life at ,herborn that ,comenius 
became acquainted with ,ratke's plan of 
instruction1 then much discussed at     
university centres1 and especially at   
,jena1 ,giessen1 and ,herborn4 ,however 

much he may have been stimulated to     
educational reform by his own belated   
classical training and by the pedagogic 
character of the work at ,herborn1 the  
writings of ,ratke1 as he himself tells 
us1 played the largest part in making   
him an educational reformer4 ,while at  
,herborn he gave special attention to   
the ,bohemian language1 and planned a   
dictionary which was never published4   
,comenius left ,herborn in the spring of
 #afac2 and after a few weeks' sojourn  
at ,amsterdam he repaired to            
,heidelberg1 where he matriculated as a 
student of philosophy and theology on   
the #acth of ,june4 ,beyond the fact    
that he purchased a manuscript of       
,copernicus1 and that at the end of a   
year1 his funds becoming exhausted1 he  
was forced to make the return journey to
 ,prague on foot1 nothing is known of   
his life at ,heidelberg4  ,back in his  
native country after these years of     
study and travel in ,germany1 he was    
still too young by two years for        

ordination in the brotherhood4          
,meanwhile he turned his attention to   
education1 and engaged himself as a     
teacher in the elementary school at     
,prerau conducted by the ,moravian      
,brethren4 ,this experience brought him 
face to face with problems of           
methodology and discipline1 and gave him
 an opportunity to apply some of the    
theories he had formulated while a      
student at ,herborn4 ,his attention was 
at once called to the ineffective       
methods employed in teaching ,latin1 for
 the remedy of which he prepared an easy
 ,latin book for beginners4  ,his       
ordination took place at ,zerwick on the
 #bith day of ,april1 #afaf1 although he
 continued teaching at ,prerau for two  
years longer1 when he was called to the 
pastorate of the flourishing ,moravian  
church at ,fulneck4 ,at the same time1  
or shortly thereafter1 he was elected   
superintendent of the schools of the    
town4 ,in this twofold capacity he      
ministered to the spiritual and         

educational needs of ,fulneck for three 
years1 and passed the only tranquil and 
happy years of his life4 ,but the year  
that ushered in this prosperous career  
witnessed the outbreak of the ,thirty   
,years' ,war4  ,in #afba ,fulneck was   
sacked by the ,spaniards1 and the       
conquering force gave itself up to      
destruction that baffles description4   
,houses were pillaged1 including the    
residence of ,comenius1 and he lost all 
his property1 including his library and 
the manuscripts of several educational  
treatises1 on the composition of which  
he had spent years of labor4  ,from this
 time on1 the ,moravian ,brethren were  
exposed to the most relentless          
persecutions4 ,many were executed1 and  
others took refuge in caves in the      
wilderness or on the secluded estates of
 wealthy sympathizers4 ,for three years 
,comenius found an asylum on the estate 
of ,karl von ,zerotin4 ,the death of his
 wife and children 7for he had married  
while at ,fulneck7 added to the         

afflictions of his exile2 but he sought 
relief from his sorrow in literary      
work--the composition of a metrical     
translation of the ,psalms1 an          
allegorical description of life1 and the
 construction of a highly meritorious   
map of ,moravia4  ,the persecution of   
the enemies rendered concealment no     
longer possible2 and1 although ,karl von
 ,zerotin was held in high regard by    
,ferdinand ,,ii1 in #afbd the imperial  
mandate was issued which banished the   
evangelical clergy from the country4    
,for a time ,comenius and several of his
 brethren secreted themselves from their
 merciless pursuers on the ,bohemian    
mountains1 in the citadel of ,baron     
,sadowsky1 near ,slaupna4 ,but the edict
 of #afbg put an end to further         
protection of the ,moravian clergy by   
the nobles2 and in ,january1 #afbh1     
,comenius and many of his compatriots1  
including his late protector1 ,baron    
,sadowsky1 set out for ,poland4 ,on the 
mountain frontier which separates       

,moravia from ,silesia1 one gets an     
excellent view of ,fulneck and the      
surrounding country4 ,here the band of  
exiles knelt and ,comenius offered up an
 impassioned prayer for his beloved     
,moravia and ,bohemia4 ,this was his    
last sad look on his devoted country4   
,he never afterward beheld the land of  
his fathers1 but for more than half a   
century he lived an exile in foreign    
regions4 ,well might he1 in his old age1
 exclaim3 8,my whole life was merely the
 visit of a guest2 ,i had no            
fatherland40     ,,chapter ,,iv         
,,career ,,as ,,an ,,educational        
,,reformer3 #afbh-afef     ,flight to   
,poland--,appointed director of the     
gymnasium at ,lissa--,reforms           
introduced--,literary   projects--,need 
of a patron--,call to                   
,england--,friendship   with            
,hartlib--,interest of the ,english     
,parliament--,discontent with existing  
educational   institutions--,lewis de   
,geer1 his ,dutch patron--,call   to    

,sweden--,interview with                
,oxenstiern--,located at                
,elbing--,reform of the ,swedish        
schools--,return to                     
,poland--,consecration as senior        
bishop--,consequences   of the treaty of
 ,westphalia--,ecclesiastical           
ministrations--,call to                 
,hungary--,reform of the schools   at   
,saros-,patak--,plan of a pansophic     
school--,return to   ,lissa--,the city  
burned--,flight of ,comenius from       
,poland4  ,after the flight from        
,bohemia1 ,comenius and his compatriots 
found a refuge at ,lissa1 ,poland1 with 
,count ,raphael1 a powerful prince of   
the faith of the ,moravian ,brethren1 to
 whose estate hundreds of persecuted    
,bohemians had already fled4 ,twelve    
years were passed in ,lissa1 during     
which time ,comenius was actively       
engaged in educational reform4 ,besides 
the composition of three of his most    
important books--the ,janua1 in #afca1  
the ,great didactic1 probably in #afcb1 

and the ,school of infancy1 in          
#afcc--;he engaged actively in the work 
of teaching4 ,a secondary school of     
acknowledged repute had been maintained 
in ,lissa by the ,moravian ,brethren    
since #aeee1 and here ,comenius found   
the opportunity of putting into practice
 some of his educational theories4 ,it  
is apparent1 however1 from his writings1
 that he read widely before undertaking 
the reorganization of the gymnasium at  
,lissa1 and that he sought aid from all 
the writers on education1 both ancient  
and modern4 ,his correspondents at this 
period included such distinguished names
 as ,lubin1 ,andre1 ,ritter1 ,vogel1    
,ratke1 ,frey1 ,mencel1 ,hartlib1       
,evenius1 ,johnstone1 and ,mochinger4   
,to these distinguished contemporaries  
he expresses his dissatisfaction with   
current educational practices1 and seeks
 guidance in the reform movement he has 
instituted in ,poland4  8,when our      
people attend school for the sake of the
 learned languages1 what do they bring  

with them on returning home80 he asks4  
8,what beyond that which they obtain    
there--the tinkling of human eloquence1 
the love of disputation1 and the        
knowledge that puffeth up instead of the
 charity that buildeth up4 ,moreover1   
some acquire corrupt morals2 some1 a    
desire to make themselves agreeable by a
 show of external civility2 some1 habits
 of intemperance and a distaste or      
hatred of firm discipline4 ,and yet     
these very men were trained for the     
lights of the ,church and the pillars of
 the ,state4 ,o that1 instead of such an
 education1 we had retained the         
simplicity of childhood4 ,o that we     
might bring back the ancient custom of  
the ,spartans1 who1 more than all the   
other ,greeks1 were intent upon the     
rational education of their youth40  ,a 
noteworthy feature of his work as a     
reformer at ,lissa consisted in a       
careful grading of the schools1 and the 
formulation of a course of study for the
 successive grades4 ,the guiding        

principle in this schematization of     
school work was that each grade should  
pave the way for the one next           
higher1--the elements of all subjects of
 study being comparatively simple1 these
 elements should be gradually introduced
 and elaborated from grade to grade4    
,these reforms were not only            
far-reaching1 they were revolutionary2  
and they made possible the modern graded
 school4  ,civilized ,europe did not    
long remain in ignorance of these       
reforms4 ,they were discussed with      
approval in ,england1 ,germany1 ,france1
 and ,sweden2 and several foreign       
governments sought his services in the  
work of educational reform4 ,sweden1 in 
#afch1 tendered him a remunerative      
position and unlimited opportunities of 
reforming the schools of the kingdom    
along the lines laid down in his        
writings4 ,he replied that he was       
willing to recommend a competent person 
to undertake the work1 but that he was  
not in position to sever his relations  

with the ,moravian ,church in ,poland   
and to leave unfinished some important  
educational writings4  ,his own poverty1
 as well as that of his brethren1 made  
him realize keenly the need of a wealthy
 patron to aid him in the realization of
 his educational ideals4 8,the vastness 
of the labors ,i contemplate10 he wrote1
 8demands that ,i should have a wealthy 
patron1 whether we look at their extent1
 or at the necessity of securing        
assistants1 or at the expense generally4
 ,i propose to render the study of      
science1 philosophy1 and theology more  
accessible to all parties1 and of       
greater usefulness in the regulation of 
human affairs than has hitherto been the
 case4 ,in order to do this1 two kinds  
of books are necessary--7#a7 for        
philosophical research and 7#b7 for     
elementary training4  8,books of the    
first class would primarily have        
reference to the ,latin language1 and of
 this class ,i would adopt eight3--     
8#a4 ,the ,vestibulum1 or introduction  

to the ,latin tongue4  8#b4 ,the ,janua1
 or gate of the ,latin tongue4  8#c4    
,the ,palace1 or essentials of the      
,latin language4  8#d4 ,a dictionary    
giving the meaning of the ,latin words  
in the mother-tongue4  8#e4 ,a          
dictionary giving all the words of the  
native language in ,latin1 and more     
especially supplying phrases of the     
former language with corresponding      
phrases in the latter4  8#f4 ,a ,latin  
dictionary explaining all the peculiar  
idioms of the language4  8#g4 ,an       
elementary grammar containing all the   
declensions and conjugations1 and to be 
used in connection with the ,vestibulum4
  8#h4 ,a more comprehensive grammar1 to
 be used in connection with the ,janua4 
8,the books to be used in connection    
with elementary training are three3--   
8#a4 ,pansophia1 or universal wisdom4   
,this book should comprise the sum total
 of human wisdom1 and be so expressed as
 to meet the requirements of both the   
present and future ages4 ,the method to 

be followed in such a book would be to  
reduce it to certain fundamental        
principles1 beyond the compass of which 
no part of human knowledge can reach4   
,such first principles are ,god1 the    
world1 and common sense4  8#b4          
,panhistoria1 or universal history4     
,this work must comprehend the most     
vital facts of all ages4 ,universal     
history is a most excellent handmaid of 
the understanding1 searching into the   
causes of all things1 and inquiring into
 the laws of cause and effect4          
,instruction in history must be graded4 
,it might be arranged in six            
classes--,bible history1 natural        
history1 history of inventions1 history 
of morals1 history of the various       
religious rites1 and general history4   
8#c4 ,general dogmatics4 ,these have to 
treat of the different theories taken by
 human ingenuity1 the false as well as  
the true1 thereby preventing a relapse  
into vain speculations and dangerous    
errors4  8,one man is not able to       

accomplish an undertaking of such       
magnitude4 ,there ought to be some      
clever linguists1 perhaps three well    
versed in philosophy1 an able historian1
 and a man thoroughly acquainted with   
,biblical literature4 ,as regards the   
philological labors1 ,i have already met
 with an excellent assistant in ,mr4    
,wechner4 ,nor are clever coadjutors    
wanting for the ,pansophia1 who have not
 only offered the treasures of their    
libraries1 but who have offered         
themselves in their coperation in this  
work4 ,among these my friend ,hartlib   
far excels4 ,i do not know his equal in 
the extent of his knowledge1 his        
acuteness of reasoning1 his zeal to     
become useful to the welfare of mankind1
 his fervent love for a philosophy      
unmixed with errors and fanciful        
speculations1 and his self-denial in    
order to further the objects in view40  
,such a patron1 however1 was not at once
 forthcoming1 although it would appear  
from his letters that ,count ,bohulslaw 

of ,lissa1 whom he styles 8the chief in 
the kingdom of ,poland10 was of some    
pecuniary assistance to him at this time
 in the development of his theories4    
,the wide publication of his writings   
aroused a keen interest in his reforms1 
and especially in ,england4 ,samuel     
,hartlib1 who corresponded extensively  
with the learned men of ,europe1 had    
already translated into ,english several
 of the educational writings of         
,comenius1 and in various other ways had
 interested the ,english public in the  
work of the ,moravian reformer4  ,the   
keen personal interest of ,hartlib in   
the work of ,comenius had important     
temporary consequences on the direction 
of the reformer's activities during the 
next few years4 ,hartlib at this time   
was the most interesting figure in      
,english educational history4           
8,everybody knew him10 says ,professor  
,masson4#af 8,he was a foreigner by     
birth1 being the son of a ,polish       
merchant who had left ,poland when the  

country fell under ,jesuit rule1 and had
 settled in ,elbing in ,prussia1 in very
 good circumstances4 ,twice married     
before to ,polish ladies1 this merchant 
had married in ,prussia for his third   
wife the daughter of a wealthy ,english 
merchant at ,dantzig2 and thus our      
,hartlib1 their son1 though ,prussian   
born and with ,polish connections1 could
 reckon himself half ,english4 ,the date
 of his birth was probably about the    
beginning of the century4 ,he appears to
 have first visited ,england in or about
 #afbh1 and from that time1 though he   
made frequent journeys to the continent1
 ,london had been his headquarters4     
,here1 with a residence in the city1 he 
carried on business as a merchant1 with 
extensive foreign correspondence1 and   
very respectable family connections4    
,but it did not require such family     
connections to make ,hartlib at home in 
,english society4 ,the character of the 
man would have made him at home         
anywhere4 ,he was one of those persons  

now styled philanthropists1 or friends  
of progress1 who take an interest in    
every question or project of their time 
promising social improvement1 have      
always some irons in the fire1 are      
constantly forming committees1 or       
writing letters to persons of influence1
 and live altogether for the public4 ,by
 the common consent of all who have     
explored the intellectual and social    
history of ,england in the seventeenth  
century1 he is one of the most          
interesting and memorable figures of    
that whole period4 ,he is interesting   
both for what he did himself and on     
account of the number and intimacy of   
his contacts with other interesting     
people40  ,through ,hartlib's influence 
the ,english ,parliament invited        
,comenius to ,england4 ,this was in the 
summer of #afda4 ,comenius himself may  
be permitted to tell how all this came  
about3 8,after my ,pansophia had been   
published and dispersed through the     
various countries of ,europe1 many      

learned men approved of the object and  
plan of the work1 but despaired of its  
ever being accomplished by one man      
alone1 and therefore advised that a     
college of learned men should be        
instituted to carry it into effect4 ,mr4
 ,samuel ,hartlib1 who had forwarded its
 publication in ,england1 labored       
earnestly in this matter1 and endeavored
 by every possible means to bring       
together for this purpose a number of   
intellectual men4 ,and at length1 having
 found one or two1 he invited me with   
many strong entreaties4 ,as my friends  
consented to my departure1 ,i proceeded 
to ,london1 and arrived there on the    
autumnal equinox 7,september the #bb;d7 
in the year #afda1 and then learned that
 ,i had been called thither by an order 
of the ,parliament4 ,but1 in consequence
 of the king having gone to ,scotland1  
the ,parliament had been dismissed for  
three months1 and1 consequently1 ,i had 
to winter in ,london40  ,his friends    
meanwhile examined with more detail his 

educational views and encouraged him to 
elaborate his views in a tract1 which he
 named ,via lucis1 or the way of light4 
,this1 as he himself says1 was 8a       
national disquisition as to the manner  
in which wisdom--the intellectual law of
 minds--may at length toward the evening
 of the world be felicitously diffused  
through all minds in all nations40      
,around ,comenius ,hartlib soon         
collected a group of thoughtful men     
interested in the ,moravian reformer's  
views2 and together we may suppose they 
discussed at length the larger          
educational problems already formulated 
by ,comenius in his published writings4 
,the group included1 besides ,hartlib1  
,mr4 ,john ,pell1 a mathematician of    
acknowledged repute2 ,john ,milton1 the 
poet and educational writer2 ,theodor   
,haak1 the expositor of philosophic     
systems2 ,john ,wilkins1 the            
agricultural enthusiast2 ,john ,durie1  
the advocate of evangelical unity2      
,thomas ,farnaby1 the schoolmaster at   

,sevenoaks and one of the ,english      
editors of ,comenius' ,janua2 and       
probably the ,american ,winthrop1 later 
governor of ,connecticut1 who was       
wintering in ,london4 ,he was delighted 
with ,london and the people he met4     
,writing to friends in ,lissa1 he says3 
8,i live as a friend among friends2     
though not so many visit me as would if 
they knew that ,i could speak ,english1 
or if they had more confidence in their 
own ,latin40  ,when ,parliament finally 
convened 8and my presence being known10 
writes ,comenius1 8,i was commanded to  
wait until after some important business
 having been transacted1 a commission   
should be issued to certain wise and    
learned ,englishmen to hear me and be   
informed of my plan4 ,as an earnest1    
moreover1 of their intentions1 they     
communicated to me their purpose to     
assign to us a college with revenues1   
whence some men of learning and industry
 selected from any nation might be      
honorably sustained either for a certain

 number of years or in perpetuity4 ,the 
,savoy in ,london1 and beyond ,london1  
,winchester1 and again near the city1   
,chelsea1 were severally mentioned1 and 
inventories of the latter and its       
revenues were communicated to me2 so    
that nothing seemed more certain than   
that the designs of ,lord ,bacon to open
 a universal college of all nations1    
devoted solely to the advancement of the
 sciences1 were now in way of being     
carried into effect40  ,comenius had    
assumed that when the call to ,england  
came to him at ,lissa1 it simply        
represented a private movement backed by
 ,hartlib and other influential         
,englishmen2 and he expresses himself in
 terms of delighted surprise upon       
arriving in ,london to find that he had 
been summoned thither by the ,parliament
 of the realm4 ,the parliamentary       
sanction of this summons has never been 
corroborated4 ,professor ,masson made   
the attempt1 but was unable to find in  
the ,lords' or ,commons' ,journal for   

the years #afda and #afdb any traces of 
communication between ,comenius and the 
,parliament of which he speaks4 ,he     
admits that there may be such           
corroborative evidence1 since the       
indexes for these years are incomplete4 
,there are1 however1 no good and        
sufficient reasons for doubting the word
 of ,comenius in this matter4  ,there   
are traces at this period of            
parliamentary dissatisfaction with      
current ,english education1 and more    
particularly with university education  
in ,england4 ,professor ,masson thus    
states the matter3 8,there had for some 
time been a tradition of dissatisfaction
 with the existing state of the         
universities and the great public       
schools4 ,in especial1 ,bacon's         
complaints and suggestions in the second
 book of his ,de ,augmentis had sunk    
into thoughtful minds4 ,that the        
universities1 by persistence in old and 
outworn methods1 were not in full accord
 with the demands and needs of the age2 

that their aims were too professional   
and particular1 and not sufficiently    
scientific and general2 that the order  
of studies in them was bad1 and some of 
the studies barren2 that there ought to 
be a bold direction of their endowments 
and apparatus in the line of            
experimental knowledge1 so as to extract
 from nature new secrets and sciences   
for which humanity was panting2 that1   
moreover1 there ought to be more        
fraternity and correspondence among the 
universities of ,europe and some        
organization of their labors1 with a    
view to mutual illumination and         
collective advancement3--all these      
,verulamian speculations1 first         
submitted to ,king ,james1 were lying   
here and there in ,english intellects in
 watch for an opportunity40  ,but the   
time was not yet come for the reform    
movement in ,english education4 ,ireland
 was in a state of commotion2 two       
hundred thousand ,englishmen had been   
massacred2#ag the sudden departure of   

the king from ,london on the #ajth of   
,january1 #afdb1 and the prospect of a  
prolonged civil war convinced ,comenius 
that it would be useless to tarry longer
 in ,england4 ,he informed his friends  
of his disappointment of his plans4     
,hartlib was hopeful and urged delay1   
but a call to ,sweden1 made four years  
previous1 was renewed at this time1 and 
he left ,london on the #ajth of ,june1  
in the year #afdb4  ,lewis de ,geer1 a  
rich ,dutch merchant and philanthropist1
 residing at ,nordkping1 ,sweden1 had   
offered to render him financial aid in  
working out his educational reforms in  
,sweden4 ,but de ,geer's notions of     
reform differed widely from those of the
 ,english friends4 ,he was less         
interested in universal research1 the   
founding of pansophic colleges1 and the 
results of original investigation than  
,hartlib and the ,englishmen4 ,what he  
wanted was better school-books for the  
children1 rational methods of teaching  
for the teachers1 and some intelligent  

grading of the schools4 ,the ,english   
friends were satisfied with the broad   
generalities of pansophic learning1 the 
unrealized dreams that were so very near
 the reformer's heart2 the ,dutch       
merchant would be satisfied with nothing
 less than concrete applications of     
theories4 ,there is no doubt that       
,comenius would have preferred lingering
 in ,england or going to some place     
where his cherished pansophic schemes   
might be given a hearing4 ,but he was   
human and had organic needs1 and he knew
 that the liberal remuneration offered  
him by de ,geer would avert poverty even
 though the realization of his pure and 
exalted pansophic dream was deferred4   
8,in the history of great               
renunciations10 says ,mr4 ,keatinge1#ah 
8surely none is stranger than this4 ,we 
have a man little past the prime of     
life1 his brain teeming with            
magnificent1 if somewhat visionary1     
plans for social reform1 a mighty power 
in the community that shaved his        

religious ideas1 and an object of       
interest even to those who may have     
shrugged their shoulders at his         
occasional want of balance4 ,suddenly he
 flings his projects to the winds1      
consigns his darling plans to the       
dustheap of unrealizable ideas1 and     
retires to a small seaside town--not to 
meditate1 not to give definite form to  
latent conceptions or to evolve new     
ones1 not to make preparation for the   
dazzling of intellectual ,europe with an
 octavo of fantastic philanthropy or of 
philosophic mysticism1 but--to write    
school-books for the little boys in     
,swedish schools40  ,comenius went from 
,london to ,nordkping1 where he spent   
some days in conference with his new    
patron1 ,lewis de ,geer4 ,he was not to 
receive a stipulated salary1 but to be  
paid certain sums upon the completion of
 definite texts1 the number and         
character of the same to be determined  
by the educational authorities at       
,stockholm1 whither de ,geer directed   

,comenius to go for further orders4 ,in 
,stockholm he met with ,lord ,axel      
,oxenstiern1 grand chancellor of the    
kingdom of ,sweden1 and ,dr4 ,john      
,skyte1 professor of canon and civil law
 7as well as chancellor7 in the         
,university of ,upsala4 ,of this        
conference ,comenius says3 8,these two  
exercised me in debate for four days1   
and chiefly ,oxenstiern1 that eagle of  
the north4 ,he inquired into the        
foundations of both my schemes1 the     
didactic and the pansophic1 so          
searchingly that it was unlike anything 
that had been done before by any of my  
learned critics4 ,in the first two days 
he examined the didactics1 with1 at     
length1 this conclusion3 #8,from an     
early age1' said he1 #8,i perceived that
 our method of studies generally in use 
is a harsh and crude one1 but where the 
root of the trouble was ,i couldn't find
 out4 ,at length having been sent by my 
king ,gustavus ,adolphus1 of glorious   
memory1 as ambassador into ,germany1 ,i 

conversed on the subject with various   
learned men4 ,and when ,i heard that    
,wolfgang ,ratke was toiling at a       
reformed method1 ,i had no rest of mind 
until ,i had got that gentleman into my 
presence2 but1 instead of a talk on the 
subject1 he offered me a big volume in  
quarto to read4 ,i swallowed that       
trouble2 and1 having gone through the   
book1 ,i noted that he detected not     
badly the maladies of the schools2 but  
the remedies he proposed did not seem to
 me sufficient4 ,yours1 ,mr4 ,comenius1 
rest on firmer foundations4'0#ai  ,the  
consultation with ,oxenstiern and ,skyte
 continued four days1 at the conclusion 
of which they rendered their decision on
 his various theories4 ,with reference  
to his pansophic notions1 they saw      
little of immediate utility to the      
welfare of mankind4 ,but his didactics  
they regarded with favor4 ,they urged   
him to give his attention to the        
reformation of teaching and the         
preparation of suitable text-books4     

,while somewhat chagrined at this       
unsympathetic attitude toward his       
pansophic theories1 and a little        
surprised to learn that de ,geer should 
be of the same mind1 he was forced to   
acquiesce1 not1 however1 without the    
earnest solicitations of ,hartlib and   
his ,english friends not to forsake the 
cherished pansophic principles4#bj  ,the
 town of ,elbing1 on the ,baltic ,sea1  
in ,west ,prussia1 was designated by de 
,geer as a suitable residence for       
,comenius during the time that he should
 be in the service of the ,swedish      
educational department4 ,here he        
settled1 with his family and the        
assistants de ,geer had permitted him to
 employ at the patron's expense1 in     
,october1 #afdb4 ,the chief task imposed
 upon him was the compilation of a      
series of text-books for use in         
elementary and secondary schools4 ,but  
progress was slow2 the ,swedes became   
impatient1 and de ,geer grew restive4   
,in consequence1 the relations with his 

patron soon became strained1 and        
continued so during most of the ,elbing 
period4 ,in reply to a complaint from de
 ,geer1 ,comenius wrote him in          
,september1 #afdc3 8,i compose books and
 do not merely copy those of others4    
,our proposed work is not merely a book1
 but a real treasure for the aiding of  
whose production my patron will         
assuredly have no cause for regret40 ,he
 admits that he has been diverted from  
the completion of a work on language    
teaching by a philosophic treatise which
 he considers of far greater importance 
than the details of methodology4  ,in   
addition to the philosophic studies1 in 
which de ,geer and the ,swedes had      
little or no interest1 ,comenius        
dissipated his energies in other ways4  
,when it became generally known that he 
had located in ,elbing1 the wealthy     
patrons of the local high school        
petitioned the town council to secure   
him to give weekly lectures to the      
pupils4 ,in other ways he identified    

himself with local interests1 which     
diverted his time from his assigned     
tasks4 ,moreover1 his connection with   
the ,moravian ,brethren compelled him to
 make frequent trips to ,poland to      
attend ecclesiastical conventions and   
minister to the needs of the scattered  
brethren4 ,de ,geer's patience must have
 been sorely tried1 for he sent to      
,elbing1 with annoying frequency1 to    
inquire concerning the progress of the  
work4 ,in reply1 ,comenius begged his   
patron have patience2 he explained the  
difficult nature of his labors1 and     
assured him that he was making as much  
progress as was consistent with the     
nature of his undertaking4  ,toward the 
close of #afdf he went to ,sweden and   
made a personal report to his patron1   
covering the four years of his          
employment4 ,a government committee was 
appointed to review his work2 its report
 was most favorable to ,comenius2 and he
 was urged to get the work in shape for 
immediate publication4 ,he had prepared 

during this time1 in spite of           
distractions1 a work on language        
teaching1 which treated of its nature1  
function1 and the laws to be observed in
 language teaching2 a lexicon based on  
these laws2 and a series of graded      
reading books4  ,at the death of        
,justinus1 the senior bishop of the     
,moravian ,brethren in #afdh1 ,comenius 
was elected his successor4 ,his new     
duties made his removal to ,lissa       
necessary1 and he took with him the     
unfinished treatises for the ,swedes1   
and sent them to de ,geer as rapidly as 
he was able to complete them4 ,it caused
 him no pang of sorrow to sever his     
connection with the ,dutch merchant and 
the ,swedes4 ,for he was isolated at    
,elbing2 his labors were uncongenial1   
and the remuneration which he received  
was small4 ,it is apparent from his     
letters1 subsequently written1 that it  
was not merely the ,dutchman's gold that
 held him to tasks so arduous and       
uncongenial4 ,he hoped by this          

connection to secure the moral support  
of the ,swedes in removing from the     
,moravian ,brethren the ban which exiled
 them from their beloved fatherland4    
,the treaty of ,westphalia1 however1    
shattered this hope4 ,there was not a   
single stipulation in favor of the      
exiled brethren4 ,the promises ,sweden  
had made to ,comenius in this matter    
were disregarded4 ,in vain he implored  
,oxenstiern not to forsake his people4  
8,my people have aided your arms with   
their weapons1 the unceasing offerings  
of their tears and supplications to     
,god2 and now1 when they see your       
success and may rejoice in the hope for 
a more favorable issue of affairs1 they 
are troubled with dread apprehension    
lest they should be forsaken40 ,later he
 wrote him3 8,of what use is it to us1  
who are now deprived of every hope of   
peace1 to have assisted you with our    
tears in obtaining victory2 when1       
although it lay within your power to    
release us from our prison-house1 you   

surrender us anew into the hands of our 
oppressors8 ,of what avail now all those
 holy evangelical alliances formed by   
our ancestors1 and consecrated with     
their sacred martyr-blood80#ba ,but     
these importunities were of no avail2   
for1 while equal privileges were granted
 to the ,reformed1 ,lutheran1 and       
,catholic churches in ,germany1 in      
,bohemia1 and ,moravia1 the ritual of   
the latter alone was established4 ,it   
was a severe blow to ,comenius1 as well 
as to the whole brotherhood of the      
,moravian ,church4  ,the years #afdh to 
#afej were passed in ministrations to   
the dispersed brethren2#bb he was       
especially conscientious in the         
discharge of the duties of his episcopal
 office2 he established more intimate   
relations between the ,polish and       
,hungarian branches of the ,moravian    
churches2 he sought and secured         
important financial aid for the         
brotherhood in ,england1 ,holland1 and  
,sweden2 he secured positions as        

teachers for many of his exiled         
countrymen2 and induced the ,university 
of ,oxford to create stipends for       
,bohemian students4 ,gindely remarks    
that at this period there were few      
,european countries in which the protgs 
of ,comenius could not be found in the  
capacity of private tutors1 public      
school-teachers1 artists1 or clergymen4 
,the impoverished condition of the      
,moravian ,church caused ,comenius no   
little concern1 and induced him to look 
with some favor on the numerous calls to
 important educational posts which came 
to him from foreign countries4 ,that    
from the widow of ,prince ,rakoczy and  
her son ,sigismund was especially       
tempting4 ,they wanted him to come to   
,transylvania1 ,hungary1 and reform the 
school system4 ,a liberal salary was    
offered1 together with complete         
facilities for the organization of a    
school system in accordance with his own
 views--including a printing            
establishment for the publication of    

required books4 ,it was further         
stipulated that he might bring with him 
ten or a dozen ,bohemian youths to be   
educated at the expense of the prince   
and his mother4 ,the scattered members  
of the ,moravian ,church in ,hungary1 in
 the belief that the presence of the    
bishop in that country would unify the  
interests of the brotherhood1 also urged
 him to accept the ,transylvanian call1 
at the same time petitioning the general
 synod to relieve ,comenius of his      
clerical functions at ,lissa for a few  
years4  ,the ,church granted the        
petition1 and ,comenius settled in      
,saros-,patak1 in ,may1 #afej4 ,he at   
once drew up a sketch of a seven-grade  
school1 which he published a year later 
under the title ,plan of a pansophic    
school4 8,in scope and breadth of view10
 remarks a modern historian1 8the scheme
 was centuries in advance of its time1  
while many of the suggestions which it  
contained are but imperfectly carried   
into effect at the present day40  ,the  

,plan is a detailed course of study with
 specific directions for the application
 of the course for the use of teachers4 
,in these directions he explains the    
great danger of overworking the         
children2 and to avoid this1 a          
rest-pause of a half-hour is provided   
after each hour's instruction for free1 
spontaneous play4 ,after each meal a    
full hour's rest is granted4 ,the pupils
 are to have eight hours of sleep2 they 
are granted a half-holiday on ,sundays  
and ,wednesdays1 with fortnight         
vacations at ,christmas1 ,easter1 and   
,whitsuntide1 and a month's vacation in 
the summer4 ,this gave a school year of 
forty-two weeks1 with thirty hours for  
school work in each week4 ,the forenoon 
instruction was as follows3 ,from #f to 
#g o'clock1 religious instruction1      
including hymns1 prayers1 and ,bible    
readings4 ,from #g4cj to #h4cj1         
theoretical exposition of the new       
subject-matter of the day's lesson2 and 
from #i to #aj1 a practical treatment   

and review of the same4 ,there was music
 7and mathematics7 in the afternoon from
 #a to #b2 history from #b4cj to #c4cj2 
and composition1 with exercises in      
style1 from #d to #e4  ,the ,plan       
requires that the seven grades of the   
school meet in separate rooms1 and that 
a teacher be provided for each grade4   
,in each class1 the text-books must be  
adapted to the capacities of the        
children4 ,the ,vestibulum is the lowest
 class4 ,over the door of this room is  
the motto1 8,let no one enter who cannot
 read40 ,the room is so decorated that  
the pictures illustrate the subjects    
taught in this grade2 and1 by means of  
these illustrations1 the senses are     
trained4 ,the pupils are taught short   
maxims containing the most important    
rules of conduct1 a few common ,latin   
words1 the elements of arithmetic1 the  
scales in music1 and some short hymns   
and prayers4 ,writing and drawing are   
also taught1 and special attention is   
given to the games of the children4     

,the ,janual is the second class4 ,the  
motto over the class-room door of this  
grade is1 8,let no one enter who is     
ignorant of mathematics40 ,provided the 
more common objects mentioned in the    
,janua cannot be readily obtained1      
pictures of these objects are hung on   
the wall4 ,the text-books used are1     
besides the ,janua1 the ,latin          
vernacular dictionary and the ,janual   
grammar4 ,in composition1 the pupils are
 exercised in the structure of phrases1 
sentences1 and periods2 in religion1    
they learn the catechism2 in            
mathematics1 addition and subtraction   
and plane figures in geometry4 ,there   
are more advanced exercises in music2   
and1 as in the preceding grade1 the     
teachers are urged to encourage the     
plays and games of the children4  ,the  
,atrial is the third class4 ,its motto  
is1 8,let no one enter who cannot       
speak40 ,here ,bible readings1 in       
abridged form and suited to the         
intelligence of the children1 are begun4

 ,the text-book is the ,atrium1 together
 with a grammar of eloquence and a      
,latin-,latin dictionary4 ,in           
arithmetic1 the pupils master           
multiplication and division1 and in     
geometry1 solid figures4 ,the musical   
instruction includes harmony and the    
rudiments of ,latin verse4 ,famous deeds
 in ,biblical narrative furnish the     
basis of the historic instruction4 ,in  
composition there are exercises in      
style1 consisting of paraphrasing and   
the transposition of sentences4 ,before 
the pupils are permitted to pass from   
this grade they must be able to read the
 ,latin authors readily and to converse 
in the ,latin fluently4  ,the           
,philosophical is the fourth class1 with
 the motto1 8,let no one who is ignorant
 of history enter here40 ,the walls are 
decorated with pictures illustrative of 
arithmetic1 geometry1 and physics1 and  
connected with this class-room are a    
chemical laboratory and a               
dissecting-room4 ,the religious         

instruction includes hymns1 ,psalms1 an 
epitome of the ,new ,testament1 and a   
life of ,christ4 ,the text-book is      
called the ,palace of wisdom2 in it the 
genesis of natural phenomena are        
described4 ,in mathematics1 the pupils  
learn the rules of proportion2 they     
begin the study of trigonometry2 also   
statics1 and instruction on musical     
instruments4 ,greek is begun1 and the   
pupils study natural history through    
,pliny and lian4 ,comenius mentions that
 he does not consider ,greek a difficult
 study2 and he thinks it need cause the 
pupils no alarm1 since an exhaustive    
knowledge of ,greek is not required1 and
 the difficulties of the study will be  
largely overcome by the use of rational 
methods of teaching4  ,the fifth class  
is the ,logical4 ,over the door is the  
inscription1 8,let no one enter who is  
ignorant of natural philosophy10 and the
 walls are covered with the rules of    
logic4 ,the pupils have a ,bible manual 
and a class-book on problems in         

philosophy4 ,the problems include a     
survey of things that have been and may 
be discovered by man2 a formal logic    
explaining the processes of reasoning1  
and a repertory of such philosophical   
problems as present themselves to the   
human mind4 ,in arithmetic1 the rules of
 partnership and allegation are studied2
 in geometry1 mensuration of heights and
 distances and plane surfaces2 in       
geography1 a description of the earth2  
in astronomy1 an account of the heavens2
 in history1 a survey of mechanical     
inventions4 ,for the formation of a     
literary style1 such historians as      
,curtius1 ,csar1 and ,justin are read4  
,the study of ,greek is continued1 and  
,isocrates and ,plutarch are recommended
 for reading4 ,dramatic performances are
 introduced in the fifth class4         
,grammar1 logic1 and metaphysics are    
represented in conflict1 but a          
reconciliation is finally effected      
through study4  ,the sixth is the       
,political class4 ,its motto1 8,let no  

one enter who cannot reason40 ,sallust1 
,cicero1 ,virgil1 and ,horace are read  
for style2 provision is made for verse  
writing2 attention is given to geography
 and the parts of astronomy dealing with
 the planets and the laws of the        
eclipses2 the ,bible is read through2   
more advanced topics in arithmetic and  
geometry are taken up2 the special      
class-book studied deals with human     
society and the laws of economics2 in   
,greek the pupils read from ,thucydides 
and ,hesiod4 ,dramatic performances are 
continued1 the degeneration and moral   
downfall of ,solomon being rendered4    
,the seventh and last grade of the      
course is the ,philosophic4 ,its motto  
is1 8,let no one enter who is           
irreligious40 ,the instruction is of an 
essentially theological character4 ,on  
the walls are inscribed numerous mystic 
symbols illustrative of the hidden      
wisdom of the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,the   
most devotional ,psalms and church hymns
 are used in the school exercises4      

,there are readings from the            
,scriptures1 the works of the most      
inspired theologians and martyrs1 and a 
rsum of ,christian beliefs1 duties1 and 
aspirations1 all written in the         
phraseology of the ,bible4 ,the         
text-book of the grade is               
ultra-religious in character4 ,it       
includes 7#a7 an account of the earthly 
and heavenly revelations of ,god2 7#b7 a
 commentary for ,scriptural reading2 and
 7#c7 a detailed account of the         
mysteries of salvation4 ,in arithmetic1 
the sacred and mystic numbers that occur
 in the ,scriptures2 in architecture1   
the sacred structures as exemplified by 
,noah's ark1 the tabernacle1 and the    
,temple2 in history1 the general history
 of the ,church2 and in ancient         
language1 ,hebrew takes the place of    
,greek--this1 that the students may be  
able to read and understand the         
,scriptures in the original text4       
,oratory is studied that those who      
become preachers may know how to address

 a congregation1 and that those who     
engage in politics may know how to      
reason with their hearers4  ,such is a  
condensed survey of the course of study 
which ,comenius devised for the schools 
at ,saros-,patak2 and in no small degree
 his reputation as a reformer rests upon
 this piece of work4 ,for the           
,saros-,patak ,plan became a model for  
educators in many lands1 and the        
progenitor of a long line of graded     
schemes of instruction which constitute 
such an essential feature of the        
educational economy of to-day4 ,not only
 were subjects of study graded in       
accordance with the laws of the         
development of child-mind1 but          
text-books were graded as well4         
,moreover1 the scheme made necessary the
 employment of teachers who comprehended
 the character of the work1 and1 more   
particularly1 those with some           
appreciation of the natural history of  
the child and the causes which condition
 its growth4 ,little as ,comenius       

understood psychology1 at least in the  
modern use of that term1 he was alive to
 the fact that in childhood the senses  
are keenest1 and that the line of least 
resistance in the acquisition of new    
impressions is through 7#a7 objects1    
7#b7 pictures1 and 7#c7 interesting     
verbal descriptions in the              
mother-tongue4  ,his labors at          
,saros-,patak terminated at the close of
 the fourth year1 during which time the 
first three grades of the ,plan were    
organized4 ,all contemporary evidence   
confirms the success of the scheme4     
,although so marked a departure from    
traditional educational practices1 it   
succeeded to a degree that must have    
been surprising even to ,comenius       
himself4 ,the fact that the teachers in 
the schools were trained under ,comenius
 at ,lissa did much1 doubtless1 to      
remove otherwise possible frictions4    
,but careful gradation was not the only 
marked reform carried out at            
,saros-,patak during this period4       

,pictures were introduced as aids in    
teaching1 and the first child's picture 
book1 the first of a long line of books 
so popular in our own day1 was written4 
,this was the famous ,orbis pictus1 to  
be discussed in a subsequent chapter4   
,comenius returned to ,lissa in #afed1  
to resume his ecclesiastical labors4    
,but his sojourn was brief2 for1 with   
the invasion of ,poland by the ,swedes1 
came the fall and conflagration of the  
city4 ,comenius escaped1 8almost in a   
state of nudity10 to use his own words4 
,he had not only lost his property and  
his library in the conflagration1 but he
 had sustained a yet greater loss in the
 burning of his numerous manuscripts1   
and1 more important 7to him7 than all   
the others1 his entire pansophic work1  
on the composition of which he had      
labored so arduously for many years4    
,writing to ,montanus1 he says1 8,the   
loss of this work ,i shall cease to     
lament only when ,i cease to breathe40  
,he escaped from ,lissa to ,silesia1    

where he found refuge for a time in the 
home of a nobleman4 ,he shortly         
afterward pushed on to ,frankfort1 but  
not feeling secure here he moved to     
,hamburg1 where for two months he was   
prostrated by a severe illness4         
,,chapter ,v  ,,closing ,,years3        
#afef-afgj     ,flight to               
,amsterdam--,reception by ,lawrence de  
,geer--,religious freedom in            
,holland--,publication of the   complete
 edition of his writings--,other        
educational   activities--,the 8,one    
thing needful0--,death at   ,amsterdam  
and burial at ,narden--,family history  
of   ,comenius--,alleged call to the    
presidency of ,harvard                  
,college--,portraits--,personal         
characteristics4  ,during his last      
year's residence at ,saros-,patak1      
,comenius had sustained a great loss in 
the death of his friend and former      
patron1 ,lewis de ,geer4 ,in a funeral  
oration which he composed1 he           
characterized his benefactor as 8a man  

pious toward ,god1 just toward men1     
merciful to the distressed1 and         
meritoriously great and illustrious     
among all men40 ,the rich ,dutch        
merchant bequeathed his estates to his  
son1 ,lawrence de ,geer of ,amsterdam2  
and not only his estates1 but also his  
deep interest in the welfare of the     
,moravian reformer4  ,learning of the   
severe illness of ,comenius1 ,lawrence  
de ,geer wrote him to leave ,hamburg and
 come directly to ,amsterdam1 where all 
the needs of his closing years would be 
provided4 ,the younger de ,geer1 it     
would seem1 had not only a real and     
profound affection for the aged         
,comenius1 but also a keen and          
intelligent interest in all his schemes 
for educational reform4  ,amsterdam     
proved1 indeed1 a haven of rest to the  
weary wanderer4 ,at this time the city  
enjoyed greater religious freedom than  
perhaps any other city in ,europe4 ,says
 ,benham3 8,comenius found himself in   
the midst of a community then enjoying  

the largest amount of religious         
toleration to be found anywhere in      
,europe1 and with it a great diversity  
of religious opinions4 ,unitarians      
expelled from their own countries here  
united themselves to the friends of     
speculative philosophy among the        
,remonstrants and ,arminians2 and the   
philosophy of ,descartes here found     
admirers even among the members of the  
,reformed ,church4 ,the truly           
evangelical ,comenius had become known  
to many through his writings1 which1    
together with the influence of his      
patron's son1 ,lawrence de ,geer1 who   
continued his father's benevolence1     
induced rich merchants to intrust him   
with the education of their sons2 so    
that1 with the additions accruing from  
his literary labors1 ,comenius found a  
supply of food and raiment1 and was     
thereby content40  ,in spite of his     
advanced age1 these closing years of his
 life at ,amsterdam were busy ones2 for 
besides ministering to the needs of the 

scattered and disheartened ecclesiastics
 of the ,moravian ,brethren1 he engaged 
somewhat in private teaching1 and saw   
through the press a complete edition of 
his educational writings4 ,it was a     
magnificent volume of more than a       
thousand pages1 and was printed by      
,christopher ,cunard and ,gabriel  ,roy 
under the title ,all the didactical     
works of ,j4 ,a4 ,comenius4  ,the       
publication of this handsome folio1     
containing all his educational writings1
 was made possible by the generosity of 
,lawrence de ,geer4 ,the first part of  
the folio1 written between #afbg and    
#afdb1 contains 7#a7 a brief narration  
of the circumstances which led the      
author to write these studies2 7#b7 the 
,great didactic1 showing the method of  
teaching all things2 7#c7 the ,school of
 infancy1 being an essay on the         
education of youth during the first six 
years2 7#d7 an account of a six-class   
vernacular school2 7#e7 the ,janua2 7#f7
 the ,vestibulum2 7#g7 ,david ,vechner's

 ,model of a temple of ,latinity2 7#h7 a
 didactic dissertation on the           
quadripartite study of the ,latin       
language2 7#i7 the circle of all the    
sciences2 7#aj7 various criticisms on   
the same2 7#aa7 explanations of attempts
 at pansophy4  ,the second part of the  
folio1 written between #afdb and #afej1 
contains 7#a7 new reasons for continuing
 to devote attention to didactic        
studies2 7#b7 new methods of studying   
languages1 built upon didactic          
foundations2 7#c7 vestibule of the      
,latin language adapted to the laws of  
the most recent methods of language     
teaching2 7#d7 new gate of the ,latin   
language exhibiting the structure of    
things and words in their natural order2
 7#e7 a ,latin and ,german introductory 
lexicon explaining a multitude of       
derived words2 7#f7 a grammar of the    
,latin and vernacular1 with short       
commentaries2 7#g7 treatise on the      
,latin language of the ,atrium2 7#h7    
certain opinions of the learned on these

 new views of language teaching4  ,the  
third part of the work1 written between 
#afej and #afed1 contains 7#a7 a brief  
account of his call to ,hungary2 7#b7 a 
sketch of the seven-class pansophic     
school2 7#c7 an oration on the culture  
of innate capacities2 7#d7 an oration on
 books as the primary instruments in the
 cultivation of innate capacities2 7#e7 
on the obstacles to the acquisition of  
encyclopdic culture and some means of   
removing these obstacles2 7#f7 a short  
and pleasant way of learning to read and
 understand the ,latin authors2 7#g7 on 
scholastic erudition2 7#h7 on driving   
idleness from the schools2 7#i7 laws for
 a well-regulated school2 7#aj7 the     
,orbis pictus2 7#aa7 on scholastic play2
 7#ab7 valedictory oration delivered on 
the occasion of the completion of his   
labors at ,saros-,patak2 7#ac7 funeral  
oration on the life and character of    
,lewis de ,geer4  ,the fourth part of   
the work represents the years from #afed
 to #afeg4 ,it contains 7#a7 an account 

of the author's didactic studies2 7#b7 a
 little boy to little boys1 or all      
things to all2 7#c7 apology for the     
,latinity of ,comenius2 7#d7 the art of 
wisely reviewing one's own opinions2    
7#e7 exits from scholastic labyrinths   
into the open plain2 7#f7 the formation 
of a ,latin college2 7#g7 the living    
printing-press1 or the art of impressing
 wisdom compendiously1 copiously1 and   
elegantly1 not on paper1 but on the     
mind2 7#h7 the best condition of the    
mind2 7#i7 a devout commendation of the 
study of wisdom4  ,in addition to his   
literary labors1 he gave much time to   
the administration of church affairs2   
for ,lissa had risen from her ashes and 
was more prosperous than before the war4
 ,here congregated again many adherents 
of the ,moravian brotherhood1 and the   
college was rebuilt and resumed its     
beneficent pedagogic influence4 ,from   
this centre the ,moravian influence     
spread anew to many parts of ,europe4   
,england1 ,prussia1 and other           

,protestant countries were generous in  
their contributions toward the          
restoration of ,moravian churches4 ,all 
this money was sent to ,comenius at     
,amsterdam1 and by him apportioned to   
the scattered brethren4 ,he received    
thirty thousand dollars from ,england   
alone during the years #afeh and #afei2 
the only stipulation made in the        
disposition of the money was that a     
portion of it should be used for the    
printing of ,polish and ,bohemian       
,bibles4 ,the last years of his life    
were occupied almost wholly in such     
ministrations4  ,he published in #affh  
his swan song1 the ,one thing needful4  
,this is his farewell address to the    
world4 ,it delineates in a forceful yet 
modest way his aspirations for          
educational reform1 gives expression of 
the deep faith which sustained him      
during the long years of his weary      
pilgrimage1 and burns with enthusiastic 
zeal for the welfare of mankind--the    
burning passion of his life4 ,he was    

well prepared at the advanced age of    
seventy-six years to sum up the         
experience of a long and afflicted life4
  ,a few citations from this touching   
bit of reminiscence will hint at the    
motives which actuated him in his       
life-work as an educational reformer4   
8,i thank ,god that ,i have been all my 
life a man of aspirations2 and although 
,he has brought me into many labyrinths1
 yet ,he has so protected me that either
 ,i have soon worked my way out of them1
 or ,he has brought me by ,his own hand 
to the enjoyment of holy rest4 ,for the 
desire after good1 if it is always in   
the heart1 is a living stream that flows
 from ,god1 the fountain of all good4   
,the blame is ours if we do not follow  
the stream to its source or to its      
overflow into the sea1 where there is   
fulness and satiety of good40  8,one of 
my chief employments has been the       
improvement of schools1 which ,i        
undertook and continued for many years  
from the desire to deliver the youth in 

the schools from the labyrinth in which 
they are entangled4 ,some have held this
 business foreign to a theologian1 as if
 ,christ had not connected together and 
given to his beloved disciple ,peter at 
the same time the two commands1 #8,feed 
my sheep' and #8,feed my lambs4' ,i     
thank ,christ for inspiring me with such
 affection toward his lambs1 and for    
regulating my exertions in the form of  
educational works4 ,i trust that when   
the winter of indifference has passed   
that my endeavors will bring forth some 
fruit40  8,my life here was not my      
native country1 but a pilgrimage2 my    
home was ever changing1 and ,i found    
nowhere an abiding resting place4 ,but  
now ,i see my heavenly country near at  
hand1 to whose gates my ,saviour has    
gone before me to prepare the way4      
,after years of wandering and straying  
from the direction of my journey1       
delayed by a thousand extraneous        
diversions1 ,i am at last within the    
bounds of the promised land40  ,the rest

 and peace and glory which he so        
hopefully anticipated came to him at    
,amsterdam on the #aeth of ,november1 in
 the year #afgj4 ,his remains were      
conveyed to ,narden1 a small town on the
 ,zuyder ,zee1 twelve miles east of     
,amsterdam1 where they were interred in 
the ,french ,reformed ,church1 on the   
#bb;d of ,november4 ,the figure #h was  
the only epitaph placed on his tomb4    
,more than a century afterward the      
church was transformed into a military  
barracks1 and for many years the date of
 his death1 the church in which he was  
buried1 and the grave inclosing his     
remains were unknown4 ,but in #ahga ,mr4
 de ,rper1 a lawyer residing in ,narden1
 found among his father's papers the    
church register1 the sexton's account   
book1 and other documents relating to   
the old ,french ,reformed ,church4      
,after the figure #h1 in the church     
register1 was this entry3 8,john ,amos  
,comenius1 the famous author of the     
,janua ,linguarum2 interred the #bb;d of

 ,november1 #afgj40 ,a diligent search  
was instituted1 and the grave was found4
 ,an aged woman residing in ,narden     
recalled the location of the ,french    
,reformed ,church as the present site of
 the barracks4 ,by permission of the    
commanding officer1 an examination was  
made and the tombstone marked #h was    
found4 ,the remains were subsequently   
removed to a little park in ,narden1    
where there was erected to his memory1  
in #ahib1 by friends of education in    
,europe and ,america1 a handsome        
monument4 ,this consists of a pyramid of
 rough stones with two white marble     
slabs containing gold-furrowed          
inscriptions in ,latin1 ,dutch1 and     
,czech 7,bohemian73 8,a grateful        
posterity to the memory of ,john ,amos  
,comenius1 born at ,nivnitz on the #bhth
 of ,march1 #aeib2 died at ,amsterdam on
 the #aeth of ,november1 #afgj2 buried  
at ,narden on the #bb;d of ,november1   
#afgj4 ,he fought a good fight40 ,a room
 in the town hall at ,narden has been   

set aside as a permanent ,comenius      
museum1 where will be found a collection
 of his portraits1 sets of the different
 editions of his writings1 and the old  
stone slab containing the figure #h4    
,the present work being an educational  
rather than a personal life of          
,comenius1 no reference has thus far    
been made to his family life4 ,it may be
 noted briefly that he married1 in      
#afbd1 ,elizabeth ,cyrrill1 with whom he
 had five children1 a son 7,daniel7 and 
four daughters4 ,elizabeth died in #afdh
 and he married again on the #agth of   
,may1 #afdi1 ,elizabeth ,gainsowa1 with 
whom he appears to have had no children4
 ,a third marriage is mentioned by some 
of his biographers1 but the statement   
lacks corroboration4 ,one daughter1     
,elizabeth1 married ,peter ,figulus     
,jablonsky1 who was bishop of the       
,church from ,november1 #affb1 until his
 death1 ,january the #abth1 #afgj4      
,their son ,daniel ,ernst ,jablonsky was
 consecrated a bishop of the ,polish    

branch of the ,moravian ,church at      
,lissa ,march the #ajth1 #afii4 ,he     
served the ,church until his death1 ,may
 the #beth1 #agda4  ,an account of the  
life of ,comenius would be incomplete   
without some reference to his alleged   
call to the presidency of ,harvard      
,college4 ,this rests upon an           
unconfirmed statement by ,cotton        
,mather4 ,in his ,magnalia#bc he says3  
8,mr4 ,henry ,dunster continued the     
,praesident of ,harvard-,college until  
his unhappy ,entanglement in the ,snares
 of ,anabaptism fill'd the ,overseers   
with uneasie ,fears1 lest the ,students 
by his means should come to be          
,ensnared3 ,which ,uneasiness was at    
length so signified unto him1 that on   
,october #bd1 #afed1 he presented unto  
the ,overseers1 an ,instrument under his
 ,hands1 wherein he ,resigned his       
,presidentship and they accepted his    
,resignation4 ,that brave ,old ,man     
,johannes ,amos ,commenius1 the ,fame of
 whose ,worth has been ,trumpetted as   

far as more than ,three ,languages      
7whereof every one is ,endebted unto his
 ,janua7 could carry it1 was agreed     
withall1 by our ,mr4 ,winthrop in his   
,travels through the ,low ,countries to 
come over into ,new ,england and        
,illuminate this ,college and ,country  
in the ,quality of a ,president4 ,but   
the ,solicitations of the ,swedish      
,ambassador1 diverting him another way1 
that ,incomparable ,moravian became not 
an ,american40  ,the following evidence 
makes improbable this call3--  #a4 ,some
 years ago the writer asked ,professor  
,paul ,h4 ,hanus to ascertain for him if
 the records of ,harvard ,college       
corroborated ,mather's statement4 ,after
 examining the proceedings of the       
overseers and all other records of the  
college during its early history1 he    
reported that he could not find the     
slightest corroboration of ,mather's    
statement1 and that he seriously doubted
 its accuracy4  #b4 ,the historians of  
the college--,peirce1 ,quincy1 and      

,eliot--do not allude to the matter4    
,and ,president ,josiah ,quincy1#bd in  
his complete and standard history of the
 institution1 refers to the 8loose and  
exaggerated terms in which ,mather and  
,johnson1 and other writers of that     
period1 speak of the early donations to 
the college1 and the obscurity1 and not 
to say confusion1 in which they appear  
in the first records of the seminary40  
#c4 ,careful examination has been made  
of the numerous lives of ,comenius      
printed in the ,german language1 as well
 as those printed in the ,czech2 and1   
although less noteworthy distinctions   
are recorded1 there is no mention of a  
call to ,harvard ,college or ,america4  
#d4 ,in the ,journals of ,governor ,john
 ,winthrop of ,massachusetts1 there are 
no allusions to ,comenius4 ,governor    
,winthrop died in #afdi2 and it was not 
until #afec that ,president ,dunster    
fell 8into the briers of                
,antpdo-baptism10 when he bore 8public  
testimony in the church at ,cambridge   

against the administration of baptism to
 any infant whatsoever40 ,and the       
historians of the college report that up
 to this time 7#afec7 ,dunster's        
administration had been singularly      
satisfactory1 so that there could have  
been no thought of providing his        
successor before the death of ,governor 
,winthrop4 ,mather is either in error or
 he does not refer to ,governor         
,winthrop of ,massachusetts4 ,he may    
refer to ,governor ,winthrop of         
,connecticut1 the eldest son of the     
,massachusetts governor1 although       
evidence is wanting to show that the    
,connecticut governor had anything to do
 with the management of ,harvard        
,college4 ,young ,winthrop was in       
,england from ,august the #c;d1 #afda1  
until the early part of #afdc4 ,it will 
be recalled that ,comenius spent the    
winter of #afda-afdb in ,london1 and the
 fact that both knew ,hartlib most      
intimately would suggest that they must 
have met4 ,in a letter which ,hartlib   

wrote to ,winthrop after the latter's   
return to ,america1 he says1 8,mr4      
,comenius is continually diverted by    
particular controversies of ,socinians  
and others from his main ,pansophical   
,worke40#be  #e4 ,mather is clearly in  
error in regard to the date of the call 
of ,comenius to ,sweden4 ,the           
negotiations were begun in #afda and    
were completed in ,august of the next   
year1 so that the 8solicitations of the 
,swedish ,ambassador diverting him      
another way0 took place more than twelve
 years before the beginning of the      
troubles at ,cambridge which led to the 
resignation of ,dunster4  ,with so many 
flaws in ,mather's statement1 and the   
absence of corroborative evidence1 it   
seems altogether improbable that        
,comenius was ever called to the        
presidency of ,harvard ,college4#bf  ,in
 closing1 brief mention may be made of  
his most dominant physical and personal 
characteristics4 ,several excellent     
portraits of ,comenius are in existence1

 the best perhaps being by ,hollar and  
,glover4 ,from these it is apparent that
 he was a man of imposing figure1 with  
high forehead1 long chin1 and soft1     
pathetic eyes4 ,it is not difficult to  
read into his sad1 expressive           
countenance the force of the expression 
in his last published utterance1 8,my   
whole life was merely the visit of a    
guest2 ,i had no fatherland40  ,there is
 no conflicting evidence on the personal
 life of the reformer2 but rather       
unanimous agreement on the sweetness and
 beauty of his character4 ,says         
,palacky3 8,in his intercourse with     
others1 ,comenius was in an             
extraordinary degree friendly1          
conciliatory1 and humble2 always ready  
to serve his neighbor and sacrifice     
himself4 ,his writings1 as well as his  
walk and conversation1 show the depth of
 his feeling1 his goodness1 his         
uprightness1 and his fear of ,god4 ,he  
never cast back upon his opponents what 
they meted out to him4 ,he never        

condemned1 no matter how great the      
injustice which he was made to suffer4  
,at all times1 with fullest resignation1
 whether joy or sorrow was his portion1 
he honored and praised the ,lord40      
,raumer says of him3 8,comenius is a    
grand and venerable figure of sorrow4   
,wandering1 persecuted1 and homeless    
during the terrible and desolating      
,thirty ,years' ,war1 he never          
despaired1 but1 with enduring and       
faithful truth1 labored unceasingly to  
prepare youth by a better education for 
a better future4 ,his unfailing         
aspirations lifted up in a large part of
 ,europe many good men prostrated by the
 terrors of the times and inspired them 
with the hope that by pious and wise    
systems of education there might be     
reared up a race of men more pleasing to
 ,god40 ,well might ,herder say3        
8,comenius was a noble priest of        
humanity1 whose single end and aim in   
life was the welfare of all mankind40   
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,philosophy ,,of       

,,education     ,the ,great             
didactic--,conditions under which       
produced--,aim of the book4 ,purpose of 
education--,man's   craving for         
knowledge--,youth the time for          
training--,private instruction          
undesirable--,education   for girls as  
well as boys--,uniform methods4         
,education   according to nature--,how  
nature teaches--,selection   and        
adaptation of materials--,organization  
of pupils   into classes--,correlation  
of studies4 ,methods of                 
instruction--,science--,arts--,language-
-,morals--,religion4   ,types of        
educational institutions--,the mother's 
school--,school of the                  
mother-tongue--,latin                   
school--,university4 ,school            
discipline--,character and   purpose of 
discipline--,corporal punishment only in
   cases of moral perversity4   ,the    
,great ,didactic  ,most comprehensive of
 all of the educational writings of     
,comenius is the ,great didactic4 ,it   

was planned in #afbh1 while yet in the  
full possession of his vigor1 before    
misfortune had hampered his usefulness  
and persecution had made him a wanderer4
 ,written originally in the ,czech1 it  
was translated into the ,latin and      
published at ,amsterdam in #afeg4 ,the  
original ,czech manuscript was          
discovered at ,lissa in #ahda1 and      
presented to the museum at ,prague2 but 
the ,austrian censors of the press      
forbade its publication because         
,comenius was a ,bohemian exile 7674    
,through the exertions of the museum    
authorities1 however1 it was allowed to 
be printed in #ahdi4 ,professor ,laurie 
gave ,english readers a summary of the  
,great didactic in his ,life and        
educational works of ,john ,amos        
,comenius 7,london1 #ahhc72 but the     
first complete translation was made by  
,mr4 ,m4 ,w4 ,keatinge of ,edinburgh in 
#ahif4  ,the full title is3 ,the great  
didactic setting forth the whole art of 
teaching all things to all men2 or a    

certain inducement to found such schools
 in all parishes1 towns1 and villages of
 every ,christian kingdom that the      
entire youth of both sexes1 none being  
excepted1 shall quickly1 pleasantly1 and
 thoroughly become learned in the       
sciences1 pure in morals1 trained in    
piety1 and in this manner instructed in 
all things necessary for the present and
 future life1 in which1 with respect to 
everything that is suggested1 its       
fundamental principles are set forth    
from the essential nature of the matter1
 its truth is proved by examples1 from  
the several mechanical arts its order is
 clearly set forth in years1 months1    
days1 and hours2 and finally an easy and
 sure method is shown by which it can be
 pleasantly brought into existence4     
,the purpose of the ,great didactic1 as 
announced by ,comenius in the preface1  
is to seek and find a method of         
instruction by which teachers may teach 
less1 but learners may learn more2      
schools may be the scene of less noise1 

aversion1 and useless labor1 but of more
 leisure1 enjoyment1 and solid progress2
 the ,christian community have less     
darkness1 perplexity1 and dissension1   
but more light1 peace1 and rest4 ,he    
promises in his 8greeting0 an 8art of   
teaching all things to all men1 and of  
teaching them with certainty1 so that   
the result cannot fail40 ,among the uses
 of such an art he notes the advantage  
7#a7 to parents1 that they may know that
 if correct methods have been employed  
with unerring accuracy1 it is impossible
 that the desired result should not     
follow2 7#b7 to teachers1 who1 without a
 knowledge of this art1 try in turn     
first one plan and then another--a      
course which involves a tedious waste of
 time and energy2 and 7#c7 to schools1  
that they may become places of          
amusement1 houses of delight and        
attraction1 and that they may cause     
learning to flourish4 ,such1 in brief1  
are fundamental principles of a         
philosophy of education4 ,how well those

 principles were elaborated and applied 
will be seen in the exposition of his   
writings which follows4   ,purpose of   
,education  ,the opening chapters of the
 ,great didactic treat of man as the    
highest1 the most absolute1 and the most
 excellent of created beings3 of the    
life beyond as man's ultimate end1 and  
of this life as merely a preparation for
 eternity4 ,the human being passes      
through three stages in his preparation 
for eternity--he learns to know himself1
 to rule himself1 and to direct himself 
to ,god4 ,man's natural craving is for  
knowledge1--learning1 virtue1           
piety1--and the seeds of knowledge are  
implanted in every rational creature4   
,the mind of man is unlimited in its    
aspirations4 8,the body is enclosed by  
small boundaries2 the voice roams within
 wider limits2 the sight is bounded only
 by the vault of heaven2 but for the    
mind1 neither in heaven nor anywhere    
outside of heaven can a boundary be     
fixed for it40  ,man delights in        

harmony2 and1 as respects both his mind 
and his body1 he is a harmony4 ,just as 
the great world itself is like an       
immense piece of clockwork1 put together
 with many wheels and bells1 and        
arranged with such art that1 throughout 
the whole structure1 one part depends   
upon another through the harmony and    
perfection of the movements--so it is   
with man4 ,all this harmony and         
perfection is made possible through     
education4  ,he gave no bad definition1 
remarks ,comenius1 who said that man was
 a 8teachable animal40 ,but he must be  
taught1 since he is born only with      
aptitudes4 ,before he can sit1 stand1   
walk1 or use his hands1 he requires     
instruction4 ,it is the law of all      
created things that they develop        
gradually and ultimately reach a state  
of perfection4 ,plato was right when he 
said1 8,if properly educated1 man is the
 gentlest and most divine of created    
beings2 but if left uneducated or       
subjected to a false training1 he is the

 most intractable thing in the world40  
,education is necessary for all classes 
of society2 and this is the more        
apparent when we consider the marked    
individual differences to be found among
 human beings4 ,no one doubts that the  
stupid need instruction that they may   
outgrow their stupidity4 ,but clever and
 precocious minds require more careful  
instruction than dull and backward      
minds2 since those who are mentally     
active1 if not occupied with useful     
things1 will busy themselves with what  
is useless1 curious1 and pernicious4    
,just as a millstone grinds itself away 
with noise if wheat is not supplied1 so 
an active mind1 if void of serious      
things1 entangles itself with vain1     
curious1 and noxious thoughts1 and      
becomes the cause of its own            
destruction4  ,the time for education is
 in early youth4#bg ,god has1           
accordingly1 made the years of childhood
 unsuitable for anything but education2 
and this matter was interposed by the   

deliberate intent of a wise ,providence4
 ,youth is a period of great plasticity4
 ,it is in the nature of everything that
 comes into being to bend and form      
easily while tender2 but when the       
plastic period has passed to alter only 
with great difficulty4 ,if one wishes to
 become a good tailor1 writer1 or       
musician1 he must apply himself to his  
art from his earliest youth1 during the 
period when his imagination is most     
active and when his fingers are most    
flexible4 ,only during the years of     
childhood is it possible to train the   
muscles to do skilled work4 ,if1 then1  
parents have the welfare of their       
children at heart1 and if the good of   
the human race be dear to the civil and 
ecclesiastical guardians of society1 let
 them hasten to make provision for the  
timely planting1 pruning1 and watering  
of the plants of heaven that these may  
be prudently formed in letters1 virtue1 
and piety4  ,private education is not   
desirable4 ,children should be trained  

in common1 since better results and more
 pleasures are to be obtained when they 
are taught together in classes4 ,not    
only is class teaching a saving of labor
 over private instruction1 but it       
introduces a rivalry that is both       
needful and helpful4 ,moreover1 young   
children learn much that is useful by   
imitation through association with      
school-fellows4 ,comenius1 it may be    
remarked1 was one of the first of the   
educational reformers to see clearly the
 value of class teaching and graded     
instruction4 ,his reforms in this       
direction have already been noted4      
,school training is necessary for the   
children of all grades of society1 not  
of the rich and powerful only1 but the  
poor and lowly as well4 ,let none be    
neglected1 unless ,god has denied him   
sense and intelligence4 ,when it is     
urged that the laboring classes need no 
school education1 let it be also        
recalled that they are expected to      
think1 obey1 and do good4  ,girls should

 be educated as well as boys4 ,no       
satisfactory reason can be given why    
women should be excluded from the       
pursuits of knowledge1 whether in the   
,latin or in the mother-tongue4 ,they   
are formed in the image of ,god as well 
as men2 and they are endowed with equal 
sharpness of mind and capacity for      
learning1 often1 indeed1 with more than 
the opposite sex4 ,why1 then1 should we 
admit them to the alphabet1 and         
afterwards drive them away from books8  
,comenius takes issue with most writers 
on education that study will make women 
blue-stockings and chatterboxes4 ,on the
 contrary1 he maintains1 the more their 
minds are occupied with the fruits of   
learning1 the less room and temptation  
there will be for gossip and folly4     
,not only should education be common to 
all classes of society1 but the subjects
 of instruction should be common to the 
whole range of knowledge4 ,comenius     
holds that it is the business of        
educators to take strong and vigorous   

measures that no man in his journey     
through life may encounter anything so  
unknown to him that he will be unable to
 pass sound judgment upon it and turn it
 to its proper use without serious      
error4 ,this desire for encyclopdic     
learning1 as already noted1 dominated   
his life and writings4  ,but even       
,comenius recognized the futility of    
thoroughness in a wide range of         
instruction1 and he expresses           
willingness to be satisfied if men know 
the principles1 the causes1 and the uses
 of all things in existence4 ,it is     
general culture--something about a great
 many things--that he demands4          
,comenius clearly saw that the          
conditions of educational institutions  
were wholly inadequate for the          
realization of these purposes--7#a7     
because of an insufficient number of    
schools1 and 7#b7 because of the        
unscientific character of current       
methods of instruction4 ,the            
exhortations of ,martin ,luther1 he     

observes1 remedied the former           
shortcoming1 but it remains for the     
future to improve the latter4  ,the best
 intellects are ruined by unsympathetic 
and unpedagogic methods4 ,such great    
severity characterizes the schools that 
they are looked upon as terrors for the 
boys and shambles for their intellects4 
,most of the students contract a dislike
 for learning1 and many leave school    
altogether4 ,the few who are forced by  
parents and guardians to remain acquire 
a most preposterous and wretched sort of
 education1 so that instead of tractable
 lambs1 the schools produce wild asses  
and restive mules4 ,nothing could be    
more wretched than the discipline of the
 schools4 8,what should be gently       
instilled into the intellect is         
violently impressed upon it1 nay1 rather
 flogged into it4 ,how many1 indeed1    
leave the schools and universities with 
scarcely a notion of true learning40    
,comenius laments that he and many      
thousands of his contemporaries have    

miserably lost the sweet spring-time of 
life and wasted the fresh years of youth
 on scholastic trifles4   ,education    
according to ,nature  ,comenius proposes
 to so reconstruct systems of education 
that 7#a7 all shall be educated1 except 
those to whom ,god has denied           
understanding1 in all those subjects    
calculated to make men wise1 virtuous1  
and pious2 7#b7 the course of training1 
being a preparation for life1 shall be  
completed before maturity is attained2  
7#c7 and schools shall be conducted     
without blows1 gently and pleasantly1 in
 the most natural manner4 ,bold         
innovator6 ,how clearly he perceived the
 faults of the schools of his day2 with 
what keen insight he formulated methods 
for their improvement2 and with what    
hope in the reform which has gone       
forward steadily for these two hundred  
and seventy-five years1 but which even  
now is far from being an accomplished   
fact6  ,the basis of the reform which he
 advocates is an application of the     

principle of order--order in the        
management of time1 in the arrangement  
of subjects taught1 and in the methods  
employed4 ,nature furnishes us a        
criterion for order in all matters      
pertaining to the improvement of human  
society4 ,certain universal principles1 
which are fundamental to his philosophy 
of education1 are deduced from nature4  
,these1 stripped of their tedious       
examples and details1 are3--  #a4       
,nature observes a suitable time4  #b4  
,she prepares the material before she   
attempts to give it form4  #c4 ,she     
chooses a fit subject to act upon1 or   
first submits her subject to a suitable 
treatment in order to make it fit4  #d4 
,she is not confused in her operations2 
but1 in her onward march1 advances with 
precision from one point to another4    
#e4 ,in all the operations of nature1   
development is from within4  #f4 ,in her
 formative processes1 she begins with   
the universal and ends with the         
particular4  #g4 ,nature makes no leaps1

 but proceeds step by step4  #h4 ,when  
she begins a thing1 she does not leave  
off until the operation is completed4   
#i4 ,she avoids all obstacles that are  
likely to interfere with her operations4
  ,with nature as our guide1 ,comenius  
believes that the process of education  
will be easy1 7#a7 if it is begun before
 the mind is corrupted2 7#b7 if the mind
 is prepared to receive it2 7#c7 if we  
proceed from the general to the         
particular1 from what is easy to what is
 more complex2 7#d7 if the pupils are   
not overburdened with too many different
 studies2 7#e7 if the instruction is    
graded to the stages of the mental      
development of the learners2 7#f7 if the
 interests of the children are consulted
 and their intellects are not forced    
along lines for which they have no      
natural bent2 7#g7 if everything is     
taught through the medium of the senses2
 7#h7 if the utility of instruction is  
emphasized2 and 7#i7 if everything is   
taught by one and the same method4      

,nature begins by a careful selection of
 materials1 therefore education should  
commence early2 the pupils should not   
have more than one teacher in each      
subject1 and before anything else is    
done1 the morals should be rendered     
harmonious by the teacher's influence4  
,nature always makes preparation for    
each advance step2 therefore1 the desire
 to know and to learn should be excited 
in children in every way possible1 and  
the method of instruction should lighten
 the drudgery1 that there may be nothing
 to hinder progress in school studies4  
,nature develops everything from        
beginnings which1 though insignificant  
in appearance1 possess great potential  
strength2 whereas1 the practice of most 
teachers is in direct opposition to this
 principle4 ,instead of starting with   
fundamental facts1 they begin with a    
chaos of diverse conclusions4  ,nature  
advances from what is easy to what is   
more difficult4 ,it is1 therefore1 wrong
 to teach the unknown through the medium

 of that which is equally unknown4 ,such
 errors may be avoided if pupils and    
teachers talk in the same language and  
explanations are given in the language  
that the pupil understands2 if grammars 
and dictionaries are adapted in the     
language and to the understanding of the
 pupils2 if1 in the study of a foreign  
language1 the pupils first learn to     
understand it1 then to write it1 and    
lastly to speak it2 if in such study the
 pupils get to know first that which is 
nearest to their mental vision1 then    
that which lies moderately near1 then   
that which is more remote1 and lastly   
that which is farthest off2 and if      
children be made to exercise first their
 senses1 then their memory1 and finally 
their understanding4  ,nature does not  
overburden herself1 but is content with 
a little at a time2 therefore the mental
 energies of the pupils should not be   
dissipated over a wide range of         
subject-matter4  ,nature advances       
slowly2 therefore school sessions should

 be shortened to four hours2 pupils     
should be forced to memorize as little  
as possible2 school instruction should  
be graded to the ages and capacities of 
the children4  ,nature compels nothing  
to advance that is not driven forward by
 its own mature strength2 therefore it  
follows that nothing should be taught to
 children not demanded by their age1    
interests1 and mental ability4  ,nature 
assists her operations in every possible
 manner2 therefore children should not  
be punished for inability to learn4     
,rather1 instruction should be given    
through the senses that it may be       
retained in the memory with less effort4
  ,nothing is produced by nature the    
practical application of which is not   
evident2 therefore those things only    
should be taught whose application can  
be easily demonstrated4  ,nature is     
uniform in all her operations2 hence the
 same method of instruction should be   
adapted to all subjects of study1 and   
the text-books in each subject should1  

as far as possible1 be of the same      
editions4  ,comenius observes that there
 is a very general complaint that few   
leave school with a thorough education1 
and that most of the instruction        
retained in after life is little more   
than a mere shadow of true knowledge4   
,he considers that the complaint is well
 corroborated by facts1 and attributes  
the cause to the insignificant and      
unimportant studies with which the      
schools occupy themselves4 ,if we would 
correct this evil1 we must go to the    
school of nature and investigate the    
methods she adopts to give endurance to 
the beings which she has created4  ,a   
method should be found by means of which
 each person will be able not only to   
bring into his mental consciousness that
 which he has learned1 but at the same  
time to pass sound judgment on the      
objective facts to which his information
 refers4 ,this will be possible if only 
those subjects are studied which will be
 of real service in the later life2 if  

such subjects be taught without         
digression or interruption2 if a        
thorough grounding precede the detailed 
instruction2 if all that comes later be 
based upon what has gone before2 if     
great stress be laid on the points of   
resemblance between cognate subjects2 if
 the studies be arranged with reference 
to the pupils' present mental           
development1 and if knowledge be fixed  
in the memory by constant use4  ,in     
support of his principle of             
thoroughness1 ,comenius adduces the     
following proofs from nature3 ,nothing  
is produced by nature that is useless4  
,when she forms a body1 she omits       
nothing that is necessary4 ,she does not
 operate on anything unless it possesses
 foundations1 and she strikes her roots 
deep and develops everything from them4 
,she never remains at rest1 but advances
 continually2 never begins anything     
fresh at the expense of work already    
begun1 but proceeds with what she has   
started and brings it to completion4    

,she knits everything together in       
continuous combination1 preserving due  
proportion with respect to both quality 
and quantity4 ,through constant exercise
 she becomes strong and fruitful4       
,progress is less a question of strength
 than of skill4 ,hitherto little has    
been accomplished in the school-life of 
the child1 because no set landmarks have
 been set up as goals to be reached by  
the pupils2 things naturally associated 
are not taught together2 the arts and   
sciences are scarcely ever thought of as
 an encyclopdic whole2 the methods      
employed are as numerous and diverse as 
the schools and teachers2 instruction is
 individual and private1 and not public 
and general1 and books are selected with
 too little regard for the value of     
their contents4 ,if these matters could 
be reformed1 there is no doubt in the   
mind of ,comenius that the whole circle 
of the sciences might be covered during 
the period of school training4 ,toward  
the solution of this problem he answers 

the following questions3--  #a4 ,how can
 a single teacher instruct a large      
number of children at the same time8 ,in
 answer1 he maintains that it is not    
only possible for one teacher to        
instruct several hundred children 767 at
 once1 but that it is essential for the 
best interests of both the teacher and  
the children 76674 ,the larger the      
number of pupils1 the greater will be   
the teacher's interest in his work2 and 
the keener his interest1 the greater the
 enthusiasm of his pupils4 ,in the same 
way1 to the children1 the presence of a 
number of companions will be productive 
not only of utility1 but also of        
enjoyment1 since they will mutually     
stimulate and assist one another4 ,for  
children of this age1 emulation and     
rivalry are the best incentives to      
study4 ,the reader will observe that    
this scheme of ,comenius contemplates   
some adaptation of the system of pupil  
teaching1 and that it interdicts all    
efforts at individual instruction4  #b4 

,how far is it possible for pupils to be
 taught from the same book8 ,it is an   
undisputed fact1 says ,comenius1 that   
too many facts presented to the mind at 
the same time distract the attention4   
,it will1 therefore1 be of great        
advantage if the pupils be permitted to 
use no books except those which have    
been expressly composed for the class in
 which they are4 ,such books should     
contain a complete1 thorough1 and       
accurate epitome of all the subjects of 
instruction4 ,they should give a true   
representation of the entire universe2  
should be written simply and            
clearly--preferably in the form of a    
dialogue2 and should give the pupils    
sufficient assistance to enable them1 if
 necessary1 to pursue their studies     
without the help of a master4  #c4 ,how 
is it possible for all the pupils in a  
school to do the same thing at one time8
 ,this may be accomplished by having a  
course of instruction commence at a     
definite time of each year2 and by and  

by so dividing the course of instruction
 that each year1 each month1 each week1 
each day1 each hour may have a definite 
appointed task for it4  #d4 ,how is it  
possible to teach everything according  
to one and the same method8 ,that there 
is only one natural method has already  
been satisfactorily demonstrated 7to the
 mind of ,comenius71 and the universal  
adoption of this natural method will be 
as great a boon to pupils as a plain and
 undeviating road is to travellers4  #e4
 ,how can many things be explained in a 
few words8 ,the purpose of education is 
not to fill the mind with a dreary waste
 of words from books4 ,rightly says     
,seneca of instruction3 8,its           
administration should resemble the      
sowing of seed1 in which stress is laid 
not on the quantity1 but on the         
quality40  #f4 ,how is it possible to do
 two or three things by a single        
operation8 ,it may be laid down as a    
general rule that each subject should be
 taught in combination with those which 

are correlative to it4 ,reading1        
penmanship1 spelling1 language1 and     
nature study should work together in the
 acquisition and expression of ideas4   
,as ,professor ,hanus#bh has pointed    
out1 ,comenius clearly foreshadowed the 
correlation and cordination of school   
studies at least two centuries before   
,herbart4 ,indeed1 he went so far as to 
urge the correlation of school          
instruction with the plays and games of 
children4 ,he urged that children be    
given tools and allowed to imitate the  
different handicrafts1 by playing at    
farming1 at politics1 at being soldiers 
or architects4 ,in the game of war they 
may be allowed to take the part of      
field-marshals1 generals1 captains1 and 
standard-bearers4 ,in that of politics  
they may be kings1 ministers1           
chancellors1 secretaries1 and           
ambassadors1 as well as senators1       
consuls1 and lawyers2 since such        
pleasantries often lead to serious      
things4 ,thus1 maintains ,comenius1     

would be fulfilled ,luther's wish that  
the studies of the young at school might
 be so organized that the pupils would  
take as much pleasure in them as playing
 at ball all day4 ,in this way1 the     
schools might become a real prelude to  
the more serious duties of practical    
life4   ,methods of ,instruction  ,a    
correct method of instruction was to    
,comenius1 as has already been pointed  
out1 the panacea for most of the ills of
 teaching4 ,he made reform in           
methodology the starting point of all   
his schemes for educational improvement4
 ,in the ,great didactic he considers   
reform in methods of instructing in the 
sciences1 arts1 language1 morals1 and   
religion4  #a4 ,science4 ,knowledge of  
nature or science requires objects to be
 perceived and sufficient attention for 
the perception of the objects4 ,the     
youth who would comprehend the sciences 
must observe four rules3 7#a7 he must   
keep the eye of his mind pure2 7#b7 he  
must see that the proper relationship is

 established between the eye and the    
object2 7#c7 he must attend to the      
object2 7#d7 he must proceed from one   
object to another in accordance with a  
suitable method4  ,the beginning of     
wisdom in the sciences consists1 not in 
the mere learning of the names of       
things1 but in the actual perception of 
the things themselves4 ,it is after the 
thing has been grasped by the senses    
that language should fulfil its function
 of still further explaining it4 ,the   
senses are the trusty servants of the   
memory1 leading to the permanent        
retention of the knowledge that has been
 acquired4 ,reasoning1 also1 is         
conditioned and mediated by the         
experience gained through               
sense-perception4 ,it is evident1       
therefore1 that if we wish to develop a 
true love and knowledge of science1 we  
must take special care to see that      
everything is learned by actual         
observation through sense-perception4   
,this should be the golden rule of      

teachers3 ,everything should as far as  
possible be placed before the senses4   
,when the objects themselves cannot be  
procured1 representations of them may be
 used2 models may be constructed or the 
objects may be represented by means of  
engravings4 ,this is especially needful 
in such studies as geography1 geometry1 
botany1 zology1 physiology1 and physics4
 ,it requires both labor and expense to 
produce models1 but the results of such 
aids will more than repay the efforts4  
,in the absence of both objects and     
models1 the things may be represented by
 means of pictures4#bi  #b4 ,arts4      
8,theory10 says ,vives1 8is easy and    
short1 but has no result other than the 
gratification that it affords4          
,practice1 on the other hand1 is        
difficult and prolix1 but of immense    
utility40 ,since this is so1 remarks    
,comenius1 we should diligently seek out
 a method by which the young may be     
easily led to the application of such   
natural forces as one finds in the arts4

  ,in the acquisition of an art1 three  
things are required3 7#a7 a model which 
the pupil may examine and then try to   
imitate2 7#b7 material on which the new 
form is to be impressed2 and 7#c7       
instruments by the aid of which the work
 is accomplished4 ,after these have been
 provided1 three things more are        
necessary before an art can be          
learned--a proper use of the materials1 
skilled guidance1 and frequent practice4
  ,progress in the art studies is       
primarily through practice4 ,let the    
pupils learn to write by writing1 to    
talk by talking1 and to sing by singing4
 ,since imitation is such an important  
factor in the mastery of an art1 it is  
sheer cruelty to try to force a pupil to
 do that which you wish done1 while the 
pupil is ignorant of your wishes4 ,the  
use of instruments should be shown in   
practice1 and not by words2 by example1 
rather than by precept4 ,it is many     
years since ,quintilian wrote1 8,through
 precepts the way is long and difficult1

 while through examples it is short and 
practicable40 ,but alas6 remarks        
,comenius1 how little heed the schools  
pay to this advice4 ,man is essentially 
an imitative animal1 and it is by       
imitation that children learn to walk1  
to run1 to talk1 and to play4#cj ,rules 
are like thorns to the understanding1   
since to grasp them requires a degree of
 mental development not common during   
the elementary school life of the child4
  ,comenius would have the first        
attempts at imitation as accurate as    
possible1 since whatever comes first is 
the foundation of that which is to      
follow4 ,all haste in the first steps   
should be avoided1 lest we proceed to   
the advanced work before the elements   
have been mastered4  ,perfect           
instruction in the arts is based on both
 synthesis and analysis4 ,the synthetic 
steps should generally come first1 since
 we should commence with what is easy1  
and our own efforts are always easiest  
to understand4 ,but the accurate        

analysis of the work of others must not 
be neglected4 ,finally1 it must be      
remembered that it is practice1 nothing 
but faithful practice1 that makes an    
artist4  #c4 ,language4 ,we learn       
languages1 not merely for the erudition 
and wisdom which they hold1 but because 
languages are the instruments by which  
we acquire knowledge and by which we    
impart our knowledge to others4 ,the    
study of languages1 particularly in     
youth1 should be joined to the study of 
objects4 ,the intelligence should thus  
be exercised on matters which appeal to 
the interests and comprehension of      
children4 ,they waste their time who    
place before children ,cicero and the   
other great writers2 for1 if students do
 not understand the subject-matter1 how 
can they master the various devices for 
expressing it forcibly8 ,the time would 
be more usefully spent on less ambitious
 efforts1 so correlated that the        
languages and the general intelligence  
might advance together step by step4    

,nature makes no leaps1 neither does    
art1 since art imitates nature4  ,each  
language should be learned separately4  
,first of all1 the mother-tongue should 
be learned2 then a modern language--that
 of a neighboring nation2 after this1   
,latin2 and1 lastly1 ,greek and ,hebrew4
 ,the mother-tongue1 because of its     
intimate connection with the gradual    
unfolding of the objective world to the 
senses1 will require from eight to ten  
years2 a modern language may be mastered
 in one year2 ,latin in two years2      
,greek in one year2 and ,hebrew in six  
months4  ,there are four stages in the  
study of a language4 ,the first is the  
age of babbling infancy1 during which   
time language is indistinctly spoken2   
the second is the age of ripening       
boyhood1 in which the language is       
correctly spoken2 the third is the age  
of mature youth1 in which the language  
is elegantly spoken2 and the fourth is  
the age of vigorous manhood1 in which   
the language is forcibly spoken4  #d4   

,morals4 ,if the schools are to become  
forging places of humanity1 the art of  
moral instruction must be more          
definitely elaborated4 ,to this end     
,comenius formulates the following      
pedagogic rules3--  ,all the virtues may
 be implanted in men4  ,those virtues   
which are called cardinal               
virtues--prudence1 temperance1          
fortitude1 and justice--should first be 
implanted4  ,prudence may be acquired   
through good instruction1 and by        
learning the differences which exist    
between things and the relative value of
 those things4 ,comenius expresses      
agreement with ,vives1 that sound       
judgment must be acquired in early      
youth4  ,children should be taught to   
observe temperance in eating1 drinking1 
sleeping1 exercising1 and playing4      
,fortitude is to be learned by the      
suppression of excessive                
desires--playing at the wrong time or   
beyond the proper time--and by avoiding 
manifestations of anger1 discontent1 and

 impatience4 ,it is needful for the     
young to learn fortitude in the matter  
of frankness and endurance in toil4     
,children must be taught to work1 and   
moral education must preach the gospel  
of work4  ,lastly1 examples of          
well-ordered lives in the persons of    
parents1 teachers1 nurses1 and          
schoolmates must continually be set     
before the children1 and they must be   
carefully guarded against bad           
associations4  #e4 ,religion4 ,in the   
scheme of education which ,comenius     
outlines in the ,great didactic1        
religion occupies the most exalted      
place2 and while training in morals is  
accessory to religion1 children must in 
addition be given specific instruction  
in piety4 ,for this purpose definite    
methods of instruction are outlined4    
,instruction in piety must be of such a 
character as to lead children to follow 
,god1 by giving themselves completely up
 to ,his will1 by acquiescing in ,his   
love1 and by singing ,his praises4 ,the 

child's heart may thus be joined to ,his
 in love through meditation1 prayer1 and
 examination4 ,children should early be 
habituated to the outward works which   
,he commands1 that they may be trained  
to express their faith by works4 ,at    
first they will not understand the true 
nature of what they are doing1 since    
their intelligence is not yet           
sufficiently developed2 but it is       
important that they learn to do what    
subsequent experience will teach them to
 be right4#ca  ,while ,comenius was not 
willing to go as far as ,st4 ,augustine 
and the early church fathers in the     
matter of abolishing altogether the     
whole body of pagan literature from the 
school1 nevertheless1 he thought that   
the best interests of the religious     
education of the child required unusual 
precaution in the reading of pagan      
books4 ,he reminds his readers that it  
is the business of ,christian schools to
 form citizens1 not merely for this     
world1 but also for heaven1 and that    

accordingly children should read mainly 
those authors who are well acquainted   
with heavenly as well as with earthly   
things4   ,types of ,educational        
,institutions  ,the modern fourfold     
division of education into kindergarten1
 elementary schools1 secondary schools1 
colleges or universities was clearly    
foreshadowed by ,comenius in the ,great 
didactic4 ,his philosophy of education  
comprehends a school of infancy1 a      
school of the mother-tongue1 a ,latin   
school1 and a university4 ,these        
different institutions1 he notes1 are   
not merely to deal with different       
subjects1 but they are to treat the same
 subjects in different ways1 giving such
 instruction in all of them as will make
 true men1 true ,christians1 and true   
scholars1 although grading the          
instruction throughout to the age1      
capabilities1 and previous training of  
the learners4  #a4 ,school of infancy4  
,comenius would have a mother's school  
in every home1 where children may be    

given such training as will fit them at 
the age of six years to begin regular   
studies in the vernacular school4 ,he   
prepared for the use of mothers during  
this period a detailed outline1 which he
 published under the title1 ,information
 for mothers1 or ,school of infancy4 ,an
 analysis of this book is given in the  
following chapter on the earliest       
training of the child4  #b4 ,school of  
the mother-tongue4 ,this covers the     
years from six to twelve1 and includes  
all children of both sexes4 ,the aim of 
this school is to teach the young such  
things as will be of practical utility  
in later life--to read with ease both   
printing and writing in the             
mother-tongue2 to write first with      
accuracy1 and finally with confidence in
 accordance with the rules of the       
mother-tongue2 to compute numbers as far
 as may be necessary for practical      
purposes2 to measure spaces1 such as    
lengths1 breadths and distances2 to sing
 well-known melodies1 and to learn by   

heart the greater number of psalms and  
hymns commonly used in the country4 ,in 
addition1 the children study the        
principles of morality1 the general     
history of the world1 the geography of  
the earth and principal kingdoms of     
,europe1 elementary economics and       
politics1 and the rudiments of the      
mechanical arts4  ,the six years of the 
school of the mother-tongue are graded  
into six classes1 with a detailed course
 of study for each class4 ,provision is 
made for four lessons daily1 two in the 
forenoon and two in the afternoon4 ,the 
remaining hours of the day are to be    
spent in domestic work or in some form  
of recreation4 ,the morning hours are   
devoted to such studies as train the    
intellect2 the afternoons to such as    
give manual skill4 ,no new work is to be
 introduced in the afternoon2 but the   
pupils may review and discuss the       
lessons developed during the morning    
sessions4 ,if it is desired that a      
foreign language be introduced1 it      

should not be begun before the tenth    
year4  #c4 ,the ,latin school4 ,the     
purpose of the ,latin school is to give 
a more thorough and comprehensive       
training to those aspiring to callings  
higher than the industrial pursuits4 ,it
 covers the years from twelve to        
eighteen1 and was also divided into six 
classes1--the grammar1 natural          
philosophy1 mathematical1 ethics1       
dialectic1 and rhetorical classes4      
,since ,comenius' views on ,latin are so
 fully set forth in a later chapter on  
language teaching and the ,janua1 it is 
only necessary here to recall that his  
curriculum for the ,latin school        
includes a wide range of culture        
subjects4 ,the most important of the    
culture studies of the ,latin school is 
history1 including an epitome of        
,biblical history1 natural history1 the 
history of arts1 inventions and customs1
 history of morals1 and a general       
historical survey of the leading modern 
nations of the world4  #d4 ,university4 

,while ,comenius frankly admits that his
 experience has been chiefly limited to 
work in elementary and secondary        
schools1 still he sees no reason why he 
should not state his views and wishes   
with regard to superior instruction4    
,the curriculum of the university       
conceived in the ,great didactic is     
universal in character1 making provision
 for a wide range of studies in every   
branch of human knowledge4 ,the         
university must possess learned and able
 professors in the languages1 sciences1 
and arts1 as well as a library of       
well-selected books for the common use  
of all4 ,one of the fundamental aims of 
the university is to widen the domain of
 knowledge through original             
investigation2 in consequence1 its      
equipment must fit it for research work4
  ,how fully these schemes have been    
realized1 the reader may appreciate by  
comparing the types of educational      
institutions of the ,united ,states and 
,germany with those of the ,great       

didactic1 which were outlined by        
,comenius more than two centuries ago4  
,school ,discipline  ,the ,great        
didactic is an eloquent protest against 
the severe and inhuman discipline of    
,comenius' day4 ,schools which abound   
with shrieks and blows1 he says1 are not
 well disciplined4 ,discipline is quite 
another thing2 it is an unfailing method
 by which we may make our pupils pupils 
in reality4 ,this makes it necessary for
 the teacher to know the child1 the     
being to be disciplined1 the subjects of
 study which serve as mental stimulants1
 and the relations which should exist   
between the child and the subjects to be
 taught4  ,discipline must be free from 
personal elements1 such as anger or     
dislike1 and should be exercised with   
frankness and sincerity4 ,teachers      
should administer punishments just as   
physicians prescribe medicines--with a  
view to improving the condition of the  
individual4 ,nor should severe forms of 
discipline be exercised in connection   

with studies or literary exercises4     
,studies1 if they are properly taught1  
form in themselves a sufficient         
attraction4 ,when this is not the case1 
the fault lies not with the pupil1 but  
with the teacher2 if his skill is unable
 to make an impression on the           
understanding1 his blows will have no   
effect4 ,indeed1 he is more likely to   
produce a distaste for letters than a   
love for them by the application of     
force4  ,whenever1 therefore1 we see a  
mind that is diseased or dislikes study1
 we should try to remove its disposition
 by gentle remedies2 but on no account  
should we employ violent ones4 ,the sun 
gives us an excellent lesson on this    
point4 ,in the spring-time1 when the    
plants are young and tender1 it does not
 scorch them1 but warms and invigorates 
them2 it does not put forth its full    
heat until they are full grown4 ,the    
gardener proceeds on the same principle1
 and does not apply the pruning knife to
 plants that are immature4 ,in the same 

way the musician does not strike his    
instrument a blow with his fist or throw
 it against the wall because it produces
 a discordant sound2 but setting to work
 on scientific principles1 he tunes it  
and gets it into order4 ,just such a    
skilful and sympathetic treatment is    
necessary to instil a love of learning  
into the minds of pupils2 and any other 
procedure will only convert their       
idleness into antipathy and their       
interest into downright stupidity4      
,severe forms of discipline should be   
used only in cases of moral             
delinquencies1 as 7#a7 impiety of any   
kind1 such as blasphemy1 obscenity1 and 
other offences against ,god's law2 7#b7 
stubbornness and premeditated           
misbehavior1 such as disobeying orders  
and conscious neglect of duty2 and 7#c7 
pride1 disdain1 envy1 and idleness4     
,offences of the first kind are an      
insult against the majesty of ,god2     
those of the second kind undermine the  
foundations of virtue2 and those of the 

third prevent any rapid progress in     
studies4 ,an offence against ,god is a  
crime1 and should be expiated by an     
extremely severe punishment2 an offence 
against man is iniquitous1 and should be
 promptly corrected2 but an offence     
against ,priscian is a stain that may be
 wiped out by the sponge of blame4 ,in a
 word1 the object of discipline should  
be to stir the pupils to revere ,god1 to
 assist their fellows1 and to perform   
the labors and duties of life with      
alacrity4     ,,chapter ,,vii           
,,earliest ,,education ,,of ,,the       
,,child     ,school of                  
infancy--,circumstances under which     
written--,view of childhood--,conception
 of infant   education4 ,physical       
training--,care of the body--,the       
child's natural                         
nurse--,foods--,sleep--,play and        
exercise4   ,mental training--,studies  
which furnish the materials   of        
thought1 and studies which furnish the  
symbols   of thought--,nature           

study--,geography--,history--,household 
economy--,stories and fables--,principle
 of                                     
activity--,drawing--,arithmetic--,geomet
ry--,music--,language--,poetry4   ,moral
 and religious                          
training--,examples--,instruction--,disc
ipline--,some   virtues to be           
taught--,character of formal religious  
instruction4   ,the ,school of ,infancy 
,plato1 ,quintilian1 ,plutarch1 and     
other writers on education have         
discussed the earliest training of the  
child1 but none of these early writers  
have comprehended the significance of   
infancy with any such pedagogic insight 
as ,comenius2 and his ,school of infancy
 has taken a permanent place among the  
classics which deal with the period of  
childhood4 ,it was written during the   
years #afbh to #afcj1 when he was in    
charge of the ,moravian school at       
,lissa4 ,a ,german edition 7it was      
originally written in the ,sclavic      
tongue7 appeared at ,lissa in #afcc1 a  

second edition at ,leipzig in #afcd1 and
 a third ,german edition at ,nuremberg  
in #afcf4 ,subsequently ,polish1        
,bohemian1 and ,latin translations      
appeared2 and ,joseph ,mller1#cb a most 
painstaking ,comenius bibliographer1    
mentions an ,english translation in     
#afda4 ,i have found no other reference 
to an ,english translation so early4 ,as
 already noted1 however1 ,comenius was  
well and favorably known to ,milton1    
,hartlib1 and others high in educational
 authority in ,england2 and the fact    
that most of his other writings were    
translated there gives credence to ,mr4 
,mller's statement4 ,in the year #aheh1 
,mr4 ,daniel ,benham#cc published in    
,london an ,english translation1 to     
which he prefixed a well-written account
 of the life of ,comenius4 ,but his     
translation was soon out of print2 and  
this excellent treatise in consequence  
remained inaccessible to ,english       
readers until the appearance of my own  
translation4 7,boston1 #ahif4           

,republished in ,london1 #ahig47  ,the  
,school of infancy was written as a     
guide for mothers during the first six  
years of the child's life1 and was      
dedicated to 8pious ,christian parents1 
guardians1 teachers1 and all upon whom  
the charge of children is incumbent40   
,since the education of the child must  
begin at its birth1 mothers must assume 
the teacher's rle2 and the mothers of   
the seventeenth century1 according to   
,comenius1 were altogether unfitted     
because of lack of training to undertake
 this high and holy mission4            
,accordingly1 the ,school of infancy    
outlines definite instructions for      
mothers4  ,comenius was too deeply      
grounded in the religious dogmas of his 
day to abandon altogether the doctrine  
of original sin1 then so generally held2
 but he maintained that suitable early  
training would overcome most of the     
original perversity in the human heart4 
,no one1 he urges1 should be a mother or
 a teacher who does not hold unbounded  

faith in the possibilities of childhood4
 ,the child is not to be regarded with  
reference to its youthful disabilities1 
but rather with a view to the purposes  
of the ,divine mind1 as ,frbel would    
say1 regard the child as a pledge of the
 presence1 goodness1 and love of ,god4  
,what higher tribute to childhood than  
this3 8,the mother that has under her   
care the training of a little child     
possesses a garden in which celestial   
plantlets are sown1 watered1 bloom1 and 
flourish4 ,how inexpressibly blessed is 
a mother in such a paradise60 ,with     
,quintilian he asks3 8,has a son been   
born to you8 ,from the first1 conceive  
only the highest hopes for him40  ,the  
purpose in the education of the child is
 threefold3 7#a7 faith and piety1 7#b7  
uprightness in respect to morals1 and   
7#c7 knowledge of languages and arts2   
and this order must not be inverted4    
,parents1 therefore1 do not fully       
perform their duty when they merely     
teach their offspring to eat1 drink1    

walk1 and talk4 ,these things are merely
 subservient to the body1 which is not  
the man1 but his tabernacle only2 the   
rational soul dwells within1 and rightly
 claims greater care than its outward   
tenement4  ,in the education of the     
child1 care especially for the soul1    
which is the highest part of its nature2
 and next1 attend to the body1 that it  
may be made a fit and worthy habitation 
for the soul4 ,aim to train the child to
 a clear and true knowledge of ,god and 
all his wonderful works1 and a knowledge
 of himself1 so that he may wisely and  
prudently regulate his actions4  ,it    
must be borne in mind1 however1 that to 
properly train children requires clear  
insight and assiduous labor4 ,it is to  
be regretted that so many parents are   
too incompetent to instruct their       
children and that others1 by reason of  
the performance of family and social    
duties1 are unable to discharge this    
high and holy mission4 ,all such1 of    
course1 must hand their children over to

 some one else to instruct4 ,but they   
should intrust their little ones to the 
care and training of such instructors   
only who will make the act of learning  
pleasing and agreeable--a mere amusement
 and mental delight4  ,schools should be
 retreats of ease1 places of literary   
amusement1 and not houses of torture4 ,a
 musician does not dash his instrument  
against the wall1 or give it blows and  
cuffs because he cannot draw music from 
it1 but continues to apply his skill    
until he is able to extract a melody4   
,so by your skill you should bring the  
mind of the young child into harmony    
with his studies4  ,the first step in   
the education of the child is the most  
important4 ,every one knows that        
whatever form the branches of an old    
tree may have1 that they must           
necessarily have been so formed from the
 first growth4 ,the animal born blind1  
lame1 defective1 or deformed remains so4
 ,the training of the child's body1     
mind1 and soul should1 therefore1 be a  

matter of earnest thought from the very 
first4  ,while it is possible for ,god  
to completely transform an inveterately 
bad man1 yet1 in the regular course of  
nature1 it scarcely ever happens        
otherwise than that as a being is formed
 during the early stages of development1
 so it matures1 and so it remains4      
,whatever seed is sown in youth1 such   
fruit is reaped in old age4  ,nor is it 
wise to delay such training until the   
child is old enough to be instructed in 
a school1 since tendencies are acquired 
which are difficult to overcome4 ,it is 
impossible to make a tree straight that 
has grown crooked1 or to produce an     
orchard from a forest everywhere        
surrounded with briers and thorns4 ,this
 makes it necessary for parents to know 
something about the management of       
children1 that they may be able to lay  
the foundations upon which the teachers 
are to build when the child enters      
school at the age of six years4  ,great 
care must be exercised with reference to

 the methods adopted with children so   
young4 ,the instruction need not be     
apportioned to the same degree that it  
is apportioned in schools1 since at this
 early age all children are not endowed 
with equal ability1 some beginning to   
speak in the first year1 some in the    
second1 and some not until the third    
year4   ,physical ,training  ,the first 
care of the mother must be for the      
health of her child1 since bodily vigor 
so largely conditions normal mental     
development4 8,a certain author10 says  
,comenius1 8advises that parents ought  
#8to pray for a sound mind in a sound   
body1' but they ought to labor as well  
as pray40 ,since the early care of the  
child devolves largely on the mother1   
,comenius counsels women with reference 
to the hygiene of childhood4 ,prenatal  
conditions are no less important than   
postnatal2 and prospective mothers      
should observe temperance in diet1 avoid
 violent movements1 control the         
emotions1 and indulge in no excessive   

sleep or indolence4  ,for good and      
sufficient reasons the mother should    
nurse her own child4 8,how grievous1 how
 hurtful1 how reprehensible10 he        
exclaims1 8is the conduct of some       
mothers1 especially among the upper     
classes1 who1 feeling it irksome to     
nourish their own offspring1 delegate   
the duty to other women40 ,this cruel   
alienation of mothers from their        
children1 he maintains1 is the greatest 
obstacle to the early training of the   
child4 ,such conduct is clearly opposed 
to nature3 the wolf and bear1 the lion  
and panther1 nourish their offspring    
with their own milk2 and shall the      
mothers of the human race be less       
affectionate than the wild beasts8      
,moreover1 it contributes to the health 
of the child to be nourished by its     
natural mother4  ,comenius has some     
sound advice for mothers on the kinds of
 food for young children4 ,at the first 
it must as nearly as possible           
approximate to their natural aliment2 it

 must be soft1 sweet1 and easily        
digestible4 ,milk is an excellent food2 
and after milk1 bread1 butter1 and      
vegetables4 ,all highly seasoned foods  
are to be avoided2 and ,comenius urges  
mothers to regard medicines as they     
would poisons1 and avoid them           
altogether4 ,children accustomed to     
medicine from their earliest years are  
certain to become 8feeble1 sickly1      
infirm1 pale-faced1 imbecile1           
cancerous40  ,children during the       
earliest years require an abundance of  
sleep1 fresh air1 and exercise4 ,they   
need not only to be exercised1 but their
 exercises should be in the nature of   
amusements4 8,a joyful mind10 he        
remarks1 8is half health1 and the joy of
 the heart is the very life-spring of   
the child40 ,these exercises for the    
amusement of the child may provide for  
the pleasure of its eyes1 ears1 and     
other senses1 as well as contribute to  
the vigor of its body and mind4 ,play   
not only conduces to the health of the  

child1 but it lays the basis for later  
development4#cd   ,mental ,training     
,for the mental training of the child   
during its first six years ,comenius has
 outlined two classes of studies3 7#a7  
those which furnish the materials of    
thought1 such as nature study1          
geography1 and household economy1 and   
7#b7 those which furnish the symbols of 
thought1 such as drawing1 writing1 and  
language4 ,this grouping of form and    
content studies1 it should be noted1 has
 been followed by the disciples of      
,herbart in their schemes of            
classification4  ,the first and second  
years of the child's life must be       
entirely given over to the development  
of organic functions2 but1 by the       
beginning of the third year1 the child  
has acquired a vocabulary1 and he should
 be taught to comprehend the meaning of 
the words he uses4 ,this early knowledge
 should be of natural things--plants1   
flowers1 trees1 sand1 clay1 the cow1    
horse1 and dog4 ,he may be taught to    

comprehend some of the more important   
observable characters of these objects  
and to know their uses4  ,special       
exercises should be provided for the    
training of the eye2 excessive lights   
must be avoided1 and also overstraining4
 ,children may be moderately introduced 
to objects of color1 and thus taught to 
enjoy the beauty of the heavens1 trees1 
flowers1 and running water4 ,in the     
fourth and following years they should  
be taken into fields and along the      
rivers1 and trained to observe plants1  
animals1 running water1 and the turning 
of windmills4 ,in both nature study and 
geography ,comenius anticipated the     
,heimatskunde of ,pestalozzi4  ,children
 should also during their first six     
years be taught to know the heavens1 and
 to distinguish between sun1 moon1 and  
stars2 to understand that the sun and   
moon rise and set2 to recognize that the
 days are shortest in winter and longest
 in summer2 to distinguish              
time--morning1 noonday1 evening1 and    

when to eat1 sleep1 and pray4  ,the     
study of geography should be begun at   
the cradle1 and the location1 distance1 
and direction of the nursery1 kitchen1  
bed-chamber1 and orchard should early be
 learned4 ,they should have out-door    
lessons in geography1 and be taught to  
find their way through the streets1 to  
the market-place1 and to the homes of   
their friends and relatives4 ,in the    
fifth year they should study a city1    
field1 orchard1 forest1 hill1 and river1
 and fix what they learn about these    
things in the memory4  ,the early       
historic instruction should begin with a
 development of the sense of time--the  
working days and the ,sabbath days1 when
 to attend and engage in divine         
services1 the occurrence of such solemn 
festivals as ,christmas1 ,easter1 and   
,whitsuntide1 and the significance of   
these holy occasions4 ,the child may    
also be trained to recall where he was  
and what he did yesterday1 the day      
before1 a week ago4  ,household economy 

should receive important instruction    
during the first six years of the       
child's life4 ,he must be trained to    
know the relation which he is to sustain
 to his father and mother1 and to obey  
each2 where to place and how to care for
 his clothes2 the use of toys and       
playthings2 the economy of the home1 and
 his place in that economy4  ,comenius  
also commends stories and fables1       
particularly those about animals which  
contain some moral principle4           
8,stories10 says ,comenius1 8greatly    
sharpen the innate capacity of          
children40 ,ingeniously constructed     
stories serve a twofold purpose in the  
early development of the child3 they    
occupy their minds1 and they instil     
knowledge which will afterward be of    
use4  ,the greatest service which       
parents can render their children during
 these early years is to encourage play4
 ,this must not be left to chance1 but  
must be provided for2 and children need1
 most of all1 to play with other        

children near their own age4 ,in such   
social plays with their companions there
 is neither the assumption of authority 
nor the dread of fear1 but the free     
intercourse which calls forth all their 
powers of invention1 sharpens their     
wits1 and cultivates their manners and  
habits4  ,in his discussion of the form 
studies1 such as drawing1 writing1 and  
language1 ,comenius remarks that nothing
 delights children more than to be doing
 something4 ,youthful vigor will not    
long permit them to be at rest2 and this
 spontaneous activity requires wise     
regulation1 in order that children may  
acquire the habit of doing things that  
they will be required to do later4#ce   
,this is the time when children are most
 imaginative and imitative2 they delight
 in doing the things that they have seen
 done by their elders4 ,all these       
imitative exercises give health to their
 bodies1 agility to their movements1 and
 vigor to their muscles4  ,at this      
period children delight in construction2

 supply them with material with which   
they may exercise whatever architectural
 genius they may have--clay1 wood1      
blocks1 and stones1 with which to       
construct houses1 walls1 etc4 ,they     
should also have toy carriages1 houses1 
mills1 plows1 swords1 and knives4       
,children delight in activity1 and      
parents should realize that restraint is
 alike harmful to the development of the
 mind and the body4  ,after children    
have been taught to walk1 run1 jump1    
roll hoop1 throw balls1 and to construct
 with blocks and clay1 supply them with 
chalk or charcoal1 and allow them to    
draw according as their inclination may 
be excited4 ,in arithmetic ,comenius    
recognizes the difficulty in leading    
children to see quantitative relations4 
,by the fourth year1 however1 he thinks 
that they may be taught to count to ten 
and to note resemblances and differences
 in quantity4 ,to proceed further than  
this would be unprofitable1 nay1        
hurtful1 he says1 since nothing is so   

difficult to fix in the mind of the     
young child as numbers4 ,comenius1 it   
would seem1 valued the study of         
arithmetic much less highly than modern 
educators4 ,he thought that some        
geometry might be taught during these   
early years2 children may easily be     
trained to perceive the common geometric
 forms2 and the measurements and        
comparisons involved in the perception  
of such forms train the understanding of
 the child4  ,music is instinctive and  
natural to the child4 ,complaints and   
wailings are his first lessons in music4
 ,it is impossible to restrain such     
complaints and wails2 and even if it    
were possible1 it would not be          
expedient1 since all such vocalizations 
exercise the muscles involved in the    
production of speech1 develop the chest1
 and contribute to the child's general  
health4 ,children should hear music in  
their earliest infancy1 that their ears 
and minds may be soothed by concord and 
harmony4 ,he even countenances the      

banging and rattling noises which       
children are fond of making1 on the     
ground that such noises represent       
legitimate steps in the development of  
the child's musical sense4 ,give them   
horns1 whistles1 drums1 and rattles1 and
 allow them to acquire perceptions of   
rhythm and melody4  ,in the matter of   
instruction in language1 ,comenius had  
one fundamental principle--that ideas of
 things must accompany or precede the   
words which symbolized the things4 ,in  
consequence1 word training1 as such1 had
 no place in his schemes of education4  
,when children begin to talk1 great care
 must be exercised that they articulate 
distinctly and correctly4 ,the start    
must always be in the mother-tongue4    
,comenius1 it will be recalled1 was at  
variance with his contemporaries in     
deferring instruction in ,latin until   
the child was twelve years old4 ,during 
these early years he believes that      
poetry--and especially jingles and      
nursery rhymes--may be used with great  

profit in aiding children to acquire    
language4 ,they may not always          
understand the rhymes1 but they are     
certain to be pleased much more by the  
rhythm of verse than by prose4   ,moral 
and ,religious ,training  ,however much 
,comenius may have valued mental and    
physical training1 the fundamental aim  
and end of all education he regarded as 
moral and religious4 ,the agencies which
 he would have employed in the early    
moral training of the child are 7#a7 a  
perpetual example of virtuous conduct2  
7#b7 properly timed and prudent         
instruction and exercise2 and 7#c7      
well-regulated discipline4 ,children are
 exceptionally imitative1 in consequence
 of which there should be great         
circumspection in the home in matters of
 temperance1 cleanliness1 neatness1     
truthfulness1 complaisance1 and respect 
for superiors4 ,while lengthened        
discourses and admonitions are not      
expedient1 prudent instruction may often
 accompany examples with profit4  ,as to

 discipline1 ,comenius thinks that      
occasionally there is need of           
chastisement in order that children may 
attend to examples of virtue and        
admonition4 ,when other means of        
discipline have been ineffectual1 the   
rod may be used1 but only for offences  
against morals--never for stupidity4    
,comenius gives the impression that     
children may be whipped into being good4
 ,the influence of the ill-timed advice 
of ,solomon is clearly apparent here4   
,temperance and frugality1 he thinks1   
claim the first place in the moral      
training of the child1 inasmuch as they 
are the foundations of health and life1 
and the mother of all the virtues4      
,neatness and cleanliness should be     
exacted from the first2 so should       
respect of superiors and elders4 ,bold  
and forward children are not generally  
loved4 ,obedience1 like the plant1 does 
not spring up spontaneously1 but        
requires years of patient care and      
training to develop into a thing of     

beauty4 ,truthfulness likewise is no    
less important2 so also justice1 respect
 for the rights of others1 benevolence1 
patience1 and civility4  ,and most      
important of the virtues to be acquired 
by the young child is industry4 ,nothing
 hinders moral growth more than         
indolence4 ,comenius agrees with the    
church fathers that ,satan's best allies
 are the idle4 ,children must not be    
idle4 ,teach them to play1 to make      
things1 to do things1 to be helpful to  
themselves and useful to others4        
,comenius exaggerated the importance of 
religious training during the child's   
earliest years4 ,while recognizing that 
reasoning was necessary for the best    
results in religious instruction1 he    
nevertheless overburdens the memory with
 formal religious instructions4 ,before 
the child is six years old he is to be  
taught the ,lord's ,prayer1 the         
,apostles' ,creed1 the ,confession of   
,faith1 the ,ten ,commandments1 and     
numerous hymns4  ,in spite of his       

unreasonable demands on the memory1 most
 of ,comenius' counsels to mothers on   
the religious instruction of their      
little ones are sane and helpful4 ,the  
spirit of the parents1 he rightly       
suggests1 is all important in religious 
instruction2 outward piety is not       
enough4 ,the religious nature unfolds   
slowly1 and unusual patience and        
foresight are required in its nurture   
and development4  ,all this             
training--physical1 mental1 moral1 and  
religious--has been preliminary to the  
formal training in the school1 which is 
to begin in the sixth or seventh year of
 the child's life4 ,the transition step 
from the home to the school is now to be
 made2 for just 8as little plants after 
they have grown up from their seed are  
transplanted into orchards1 for their   
more successful growth1 so it is        
expedient that children1 cherished and  
nurtured in the home1 having acquired   
strength of mind and body1 should be    
delivered to the care of teachers40     

,,chapter ,,viii  ,,study ,,of          
,,language     ,dominance of ,latin in  
the seventeenth   century--,methods of  
study characterized by ,comenius4   ,the
 ,janua--,purpose and plan--,its        
success4 ,atrium   and                  
,vestibulum--,their relation to the     
,janua4 ,the   ,orbis pictus--,how      
conceived--,its popularity--,use   of   
pictures4 ,methodus                     
novissima--,principles of   language    
teaching--,function of examples--,place 
of oral   and written language in       
education4  ,recalling that ,latin      
occupied such an exalted place in the   
schools of ,comenius' day1 it is not at 
all surprising that he gave so much     
attention to the study of language4     
,latin absorbed practically all the     
energies of the pupils1 and with results
 that were far from satisfactory4 ,a    
historian of the period says1 8,boys and
 teachers were alike unhappy2 great     
severity of discipline was practised1   
and after all was done1 and all the     

years of youth had been spent in the    
study mainly of the ,latin1 the results 
were contemptible40  ,the study of      
,latin is thus characterized by         
,comenius3  #a4 ,the ,latin language is 
taught abstractly without a knowledge of
 the things which the words denote4     
,words should be learned in connection  
with things already known2 it is false  
to conclude that1 because children know 
how to utter words1 they therefore      
understand them4  #b4 ,the second evil  
in the study of language is driving     
children into the manifold intricacies  
of grammar from the very first4 ,it is a
 blunder to plunge them into the formal 
statements of grammar on their first    
beginning ,latin4 ,to make matters      
worse1 the ,latin grammar is written in 
,latin4 ,how should we adults like it1  
if1 in the study of ,arabic1 we had a   
grammar written in the ,arabic first put
 into our hands8  #c4 ,the third evil in
 the study of language is the practice  
of compelling children to make          

impossible leaps instead of carrying    
them forward step by step4 ,we introduce
 them from the grammar into ,virgil and 
,cicero4 ,the sublimity of poetic style 
is beyond the conception of boys1 and   
the subject-matter of ,cicero's epistles
 not easy for grown men4 ,it will be    
said that the object is to place before 
children a perfect model to which they  
may attain4 ,it is right to aim at a    
perfect model1 when the aim is          
practicable1 and if we proceed gradually
 to the highest4 ,but larger things are 
with advantage postponed to lesser      
things2 and lesser things1 if           
accommodated to the age of the learners1
 yield greater fruits than large things4
 ,if ,cicero himself were to enter our  
schools and find boys engaged with his  
works1 ,comenius believes that he would 
be either amused or indignant4          
,professor ,laurie remarks that 8when we
 bear in mind the construction of the   
,latin grammars then in use1--that of   
,alvarus1 for example1 having five      

hundred rules and as many               
exceptions1--we cannot be surprised at  
the unanimous condemnation of the then  
current methods of teaching1 and the    
almost universal lamentation over the   
wasted years of youth40   ,the ,janua   
,we are now to see how ,comenius        
proposed to reform these evils4 8,i     
planned a book10 he says1 8in which all 
things1 the properties of things1 and   
the actions and passions of things      
should be presented1 and to each should 
be assigned its proper work1 believing  
that in one and the same book the whole 
connected series of things might be     
surveyed historically1 and the whole    
fabric of things and words reduced to   
one continuous context4 ,on mentioning  
my purpose to some friends1 one of them 
directed my attention to the ,jesuit    
father's ,janua linguarum1 and gave me a
 copy4 ,i leaped for joy2 but on        
examination1 ,i found that it did not   
fulfil my plan40  ,the ,janua referred  
to by ,comenius was that written by     

,william ,bateus1 an ,irish ,jesuit1 who
 was spiritual father at ,salamanca1    
,spain4 ,his ,janua appeared in ,spain  
prior to #afje4 ,it contained twelve    
hundred short ,latin sentences with     
accompanying ,spanish translations4 ,the
 sentences were made up of common ,latin
 root-words1 and no word was repeated4  
,in #afae an ,english-,latin edition    
appeared2 and subsequently editions in  
,french1 ,german1 and ,italian4 ,the    
object of ,bateus in the publication of 
his ,janua was to promote the spread of 
,christianity by enabling the heathen   
the more easily to learn to read the    
,latin4  ,it will thus appear that the  
plan of the ,janua linguarum reserata of
 ,comenius1 the book that was destined  
to make his name known throughout the   
world1 was not wholly original with the 
,moravian reformer4 ,the name and to    
some extent the plan of the book had    
been suggested by the publication of the
 ,jesuit4  ,the first edition of        
,comenius' ,janua appeared in #afca4cf  

,in the numerous subsequent editions the
 author made important changes and      
additions4 ,in subject-matter1 the      
,janua comprehends the elements of all  
the sciences and arts4 ,there are a     
hundred chapter headings with a thousand
 ,latin sentences and their ,german     
equivalents arranged in parallel        
columns4 ,the subjects treated cover a  
wide range--from the origin of the world
 to the mind and its faculties4 ,the    
first chapter is an introduction1 in    
which the reader is saluted1 and        
informed that learning consists in this3
 to know distinctions and names of      
things4 ,he is assured that he will find
 explained in this little book the whole
 world and the ,latin language4 ,if he  
should learn four pages of it by rote1  
he would find his eyes opened to all the
 liberal arts4  ,the second chapter     
treats of the creation of the world1 the
 third of the elements1 and the fourth  
of the firmament4 ,in chapters five to  
thirteen inclusive1 fire1 meteors1      

water1 earth1 stones1 metals1 trees1    
fruits1 herbs1 and shrubs are treated4  
,animals occupy the next five chapters2 
and man--his body1 external members1    
internal members1 qualities and         
accidents of the body1 ulcers and       
wounds1 external and internal senses1   
the intellect1 affections1 and the      
will--the eleven following chapters4    
,nineteen chapters are given to the     
mechanic arts4 ,twenty-one chapters deal
 with the house and its parts1 marriage1
 the family1 civic and state economy4   
,twelve chapters are assigned to        
grammar1 dialectics1 rhetoric1          
arithmetic1 geometry1 and the other     
branches of knowledge1 describing       
briefly what they are2 and ethics gets  
twelve chapters1 a chapter being devoted
 to each of the twelve virtues4 ,in the 
four succeeding chapters1 games1 death1 
burial1 and the providence of ,god and  
the angels are treated4 ,chapter        
ninety-nine treats of the end of the    
world2 and in the one-hundredth chapter 

,comenius gives some farewell advice1   
and takes leave of his reader4  ,each   
chapter of the ,janua is to be read ten 
times4 ,in the first reading there is to
 be an accurate translation into the    
vernacular2 at the second reading the   
whole is to be written out1 ,latin and  
vernacular1 and the teacher is to begin 
conversation in the ,latin tongue4 ,at  
the third reading the teacher is to read
 the ,latin aloud1 and the pupils are to
 translate into the vernacular without  
seeing the printed page4 ,at the fourth 
reading the grammar is to be written out
 and the words parsed4 ,special         
attention is to be given to the         
derivation of words at the fifth        
reading2 the synonyms to be explained at
 the sixth2 and the grammatical rules   
applied at the seventh4 ,at the eighth  
reading the pupils are to learn the text
 by heart4 ,the ninth reading is to be  
devoted to a logical analysis of the    
subject-matter2 and the tenth and last  
reading is to be conducted by the pupils

 themselves4 ,they are to challenge one 
another to repeat portions of the text4 
,in this ingenious manner ,comenius     
applies his long-cherished pansophic    
theories to language teaching1 the      
,janua being an application of ideas    
formulated in the ,great didactic4 ,it  
is1 however1 more than an application of
 pansophic notions--it is an attempt to 
realize his oft-enunciated educational  
maxim that words and things should never
 be divorced1 that knowledge of the     
language should go hand in hand with the
 knowledge of the things explained4     
,the success of the ,janua was most     
unexpected1 and no one was more         
surprised at its sudden popularity than 
,comenius himself4 8,that happened10 he 
writes1 8which ,i could not have        
imagined1 namely1 that this childish    
book was received with universal        
approbation by the learned world4 ,this 
was shown me by the number of men who   
wished me hearty success with my new    
discovery2 and by the number of         

translations into foreign languages4    
,for1 not only was the book translated  
into twelve ,european languages1 since  
,i myself have seen these translations  
7,latin1 ,greek1 ,bohemian1 ,polish1    
,german1 ,swedish1 ,dutch1 ,english1    
,french1 ,spanish1 ,italian1 and        
,hungarian71 but also into the ,asiatic 
languages--,arabic1 ,turkish1 and       
,persian--and even into the ,mongolian1 
which is understood by all the ,east    
,indies40  ,the ,janua1 more than any   
other book that he wrote1 made          
,comenius' name familiar to scholars    
throughout the world1 and for more than 
a century it was the most popular       
secondary-school text-book in use4 ,how 
came this book to confer on its author  
such world-wide fame8 8,partly10 answers
 ,raumer1 8from the pleasure found in   
the survey of the whole world1 adapted  
both to young and old1 and at a day when
 no great scientific requirements were  
made4 ,many were amused by the motley   
variety of the imaginations and         

investigations of the book2 by its      
old-fashioned grammatical1 didactic1 and
 rhetorical discussions1 and its        
spiritual extravagances4 ,the greatest  
influence was1 however1 exerted by the  
fundamental maxim of the book--that the 
knowledge of a language1 and especially 
of the ,latin1 should go hand in hand   
with a knowledge of the things explained
 in it40#cg   ,atrium and ,vestibulum   
,the ,janua was followed in #afcc by the
 ,atrium4 ,it contains #dbg short       
sentences somewhat more amplified than  
in the ,janua4 ,in the introduction the 
teacher promises to initiate the pupil  
into the mysteries of wisdom1 the       
knowledge of all things1 the ability to 
do right always1 and to speak correctly 
of everything1 especially in ,latin1    
which1 as a common language to all      
nations1 is indispensable to a complete 
education4 ,the foundation of things is 
laid in the ,vestibulum 7subsequently   
published72 the ,janua furnishes the    
materials for the building2 and the     

,atrium provides the decorations4 ,with 
the completion of these1 pupils may     
confer with the wisest authors through  
their books1 and through this reading   
they may become learned1 wise1 and      
eloquent4  ,the second part treats of   
substantives1 as the classification of  
things2 the third part of adjectives1 as
 the modification of things2 the fourth 
part explains pronouns2 in the fifth    
part verbs are introduced2 the sixth    
part discusses adverbs1 the seventh part
 prepositions1 the eighth part          
conjunctions1 and the ninth part        
interjections4 ,the tenth part contains 
examples of the derivation of words4    
,the ,atrium was intended as a          
simplified ,latin grammar to be used    
with the graded system of language      
teaching outlined by ,comenius4  ,the   
,vestibulum1 although written and       
published after the ,janua and ,atrium1 
was intended as a first book or ,latin  
primer4 ,the ,janua was found to be too 
difficult for the younger learners1 and 

so this simple book was composed during 
his sojourn at ,saros-,patak4 ,the      
sentences were abbreviated1 and they    
deal with simple things4 ,the following 
are the chapter headings3 7#a7          
,concerning the accidents or qualities  
of things2 7#b7 ,concerning the actions 
and passions of things2 7#c7 ,the       
circumstances of things2 7#d7 ,things in
 the school2 7#e7 ,things at home2 7#f7 
,things in the city2 7#g7 ,concerning   
the virtues4 ,he expresses regret that  
he is unable to illustrate the text of  
the ,vestibulum with cuts to amuse the  
pupils and enable them the better to    
remember1 but says that he could find no
 artists competent to do the required   
illustrative work4 ,he urges the        
teachers to supply the want of such cuts
 by explanations of the things1 or by   
showing the things themselves4 ,without 
some such devices1 the instruction must 
necessarily be lifeless4 8,the          
parallelism of the knowledge of words   
and things is the deepest secret of the 

method40   ,orbis ,pictus  ,the idea of 
the use of pictures in elementary school
 work was suggested to ,comenius by     
,professor ,lubinus1 of ,rostock1 who   
edited in #afad a ,greek testament in   
three languages4 ,he suggested reforms  
in the simplification of language       
instruction1 and advised the            
construction of a book containing       
pictures of things1 with a certain      
number of brief sentences attached to   
each1 until all the words and phrases of
 ,latin were exhausted4  ,while at      
,saros-,patak1 he carried into effect   
the desires set forth in the ,vestibulum
 with reference to an illustrated       
child's first ,latin reader1 although   
the book was not printed until some     
years later1 because of unexpected      
difficulty in finding a skilful engraver
 in copper4 ,in a letter to ,michel     
,endter1 of ,nuremberg1 who subsequently
 published the ,orbis pictus1 ,comenius 
wrote in #afee3 8,it may be observed    
that many of our children grow weary of 

their books1 because they are overfilled
 with things which have to be explained 
by the help of words4 ,the pupils1 and  
often the teachers themselves1 know next
 to nothing about the things40  ,the    
,orbis pictus was first published at    
,nuremberg in #afeg2 and1 although the  
,janua had been received with well-nigh 
universal favor1 its popularity was     
surpassed by the illustrated book4 ,i   
have no means of knowing how many       
editions of the ,orbis pictus have      
appeared during the last two hundred and
 fifty years4 ,i have myself seen twelve
 different editions in the ,british     
,museum1 ,comenius-,stiftung1 library of
 ,harvard ,university1 and elsewhere4   
,these are3 ,nuremberg1 #afeg1          
,latin-,german2 ,london1 #afeh1         
,latin-,english2 ,amsterdam1 #afgc1     
,latin-,dutch-,german2 ,nuremberg1      
#afgi1 ,latin-,german-,italian-,french2 
,london1 #agbg1 ,latin-,english2        
,nuremberg1 #agdf1 ,latin-,german2      
,london1 #aggg1 ,latin-,german2 ,st4    

,petersburg1 #ahjh1                     
,latin-,russian-,german2 ,new ,york1    
#ahaj1 ,latin-,english2 ,wroctawin1     
#ahah1 ,latin-,polish-,french-,german2  
,knigsgratz1 #ahhc1                     
,latin-,bohemian-,german-,french2       
,syracuse1 #ahhg1 ,latin-,english4  ,the
 purpose of the ,orbis pictus1 as       
indicated by ,comenius in the preface1  
was3  #a4 ,to entice witty children to  
learn2 for it is apparent that children1
 even from their infancy1 are delighted 
with pictures and willingly please their
 eyes with them4 ,and it will be very   
well worth the pains to have once       
brought it to pass that scarecrows may  
be taken away out of wisdom's gardens4  
#b4 ,this same little book will serve to
 stir up the attention1 which is to be  
fastened upon things1 and even to be    
sharpened more and more1 which is also  
an important matter4 ,for the senses    
being the main guides of childhood      
7because therein the mind does not as   
yet rise to an abstract contemplation of

 things71 they must evermore seek their 
own objects2 if the objects are not     
present1 the senses grow dull and flit  
hither and thither out of weariness4    
,but when the objects are present1 they 
grow merry1 wax lively1 and willingly   
suffer themselves to be fastened upon   
them till the things be sufficiently    
discerned4 ,this book1 then1 will do a  
good piece of service in taking         
flickering wits and preparing them for  
deeper studies4  #c4 ,children being    
thus interested and the attention       
attracted1 they may be furnished with   
the knowledge of the most important     
things by sport and merry pastime4 ,in a
 word1 this book will add pleasure to   
the use of the ,vestibulum and ,janua1  
for which end it was at the first       
chiefly intended4 ,the accounts of the  
things being given in the mother-tongue1
 the book promises three good things3   
7#a7 ,it will afford a device for       
learning to read more easily than       
hitherto1 especially having a symbolical

 alphabet set before it1 with pictures  
of the voices creatures to be imitated4 
,the young ,,abc pupils will easily     
remember the force of every character by
 looking at the creatures1 and the      
imagination will be strengthened4       
,having looked over a table of the chief
 syllables1 the children may proceed to 
view the pictures and the inscriptions  
set under them4 ,simply looking upon the
 object pictured will suggest the name  
of the object and tell how the picture  
is to be read4 ,thus the whole book     
being gone over by the bare use of the  
pictures1 reading cannot but be learned4
 7#b7 ,the book being used in the       
vernacular will serve for the perfect   
learning of the mother-tongue4 7#c7 ,the
 learning of the vernacular words will  
serve as a pleasant introduction to the 
,latin tongue4  ,the ,orbis pictus was  
translated for use in ,english schools  
in #afeh by ,charles ,hoole1 a ,london  
schoolmaster4 ,he observes in his       
introduction3 8,there are few of you 7,i

 think7 but have seen1 and with great   
willingness have made use of 7or at     
least pursued71 many of the books of    
this well-deserving author1 ,mr4 ,john  
,comenius1 which1 for their             
profitableness to the speedy attainment 
of a language1 have been translated into
 several countries1 out of ,latin into  
their native tongue4 ,now the general   
verdict 7after trial made7 that hath    
passed1 touching those formerly extant1 
is this1 that they are indeed of        
singular use1 and very advantageous to  
those of more discretion 7especially of 
such as already have a smattering of    
,latin7 to help their memories to retain
 what they have scatteringly gotten here
 and there1 to furnish them with many   
words1 which 7perhaps7 they have not    
formerly read1 or so well observed2 but 
to young children 7whom we have chiefly 
to instruct71 as to those that are      
ignorant altogether of things and words1
 and prove rather a mere toil and       
burden1 than a delight and furtherance4 

,for to pack up many words in memory of 
things not conceived in the mind1 is to 
fill the head with empty imaginations1  
and to make the learner more to admire  
the multitude and variety 7and thereby  
to become discouraged7 than to care to  
treasure them up in hopes to gain more  
knowledge of what they mean40  ,the     
first lesson in the ,orbis pictus is a  
dialogue between a teacher and a pupil4 
,the former says1 8,come1 boy1 learn to 
be wise40 ,whereupon the latter asks1   
8,what doth this mean80 ,the master     
makes reply1 8,to understand rightly1 to
 do rightly1 and to speak rightly all   
that are necessary40 ,the boy asks who  
will teach him these things1 to which   
the master makes reply1 8,i1 by ,god's  
help1 will guide thee through all4 ,i   
will show thee all2 ,i will name thee   
all40 ,to all this the boy makes eager  
response3 8,see1 here ,i am4 ,lead me in
 the name of ,god40 ,the master         
concludes the dialogue with this        
injunction3 8,before all things thou    

oughtest to learn the plain sounds of   
which man's speech consisteth1 which    
living creatures know how to make1 and  
thy tongue knoweth how to imitate1 and  
thy hand can picture out4 ,afterward we 
will go into the world1 and we will view
 all things40 ,mr4 ,maxwell#ch thus     
characterizes this introduction and the 
picture that illustrates it3 8,the boy1 
a plump but not a pleasing person1 and  
the master1 a man #8severe' and #8stern 
to view1' who has evidently all the     
frowns and none of the jokes of         
,goldsmith's schoolmaster4 ,they are    
conversing on a barren plain1 the only  
other living thing in sight being a wild
 animal apparently of some extinct      
species4 ,in the background are a       
village church1 of the regulation       
pattern1 the roofs of houses1 and a     
couple of pyramids which are intended   
for mountains40  ,the introduction is   
followed by an illustrated lesson on the
 sounds of the letters of the alphabet1 
with a picture and statement 7in the    

vernacular and ,latin7 of the sounds    
made by animals4 ,the crow illustrates  
the sound of a1 the statement in the    
,english being1 8,the crow crieth02 in  
the ,latin1 ,cornix cornicatur4 ,a lamb 
illustrates the sound of b1 the         
statement being1 8,the lamb bleateth0   
7,latin1 ,agnus balat74 ,and so on      
through the alphabet4 ,this is what     
,comenius calls 8a lively and vocal     
alphabet40  ,like the ,janua1 the       
subjects treated in the ,orbis pictus   
cover a wide range of topics4 ,their    
character may be indicated by the       
following citations of chapter headings3
 ,god1 the world1 the heavens1 fire1 the
 air1 the water1 the clouds1 the earth1 
the fruits of the earth1 metals1 stones1
 trees1 fruits of trees1 flowers1       
potherbs1 corn1 shrubs1 birds1 tame     
fowls1 singing birds1 birds that haunt  
the fields and woods1 ravenous birds1   
waterfowls1 ravenous vermin1 animals    
about the house1 herd-cattle1 laboring  
beasts1 wild cattle1 wild beasts1       

serpents and creeping things1 crawling  
vermin1 creatures that live as well by  
water as by land1 river-fish and        
pond-fish1 sea-fish and shell-fish1 man1
 the seven ages of man1 the outward     
parts of man1 the head and the hand1 the
 flesh and bowels1 the charnels and     
bones1 the outward and inward senses1   
the soul of man1 deformed and monstrous 
people1 dressing of gardens1 husbandry1 
grazing1 grinding1 bread-making1        
fishing1 fowling1 hunting1 butchery1    
cookery1 the vintage1 brewing1 a feast1 
and so on to the one hundred and        
fifty-first chapter1 in which the first 
illustration is reproduced with this    
benediction by the master3 8,thus thou  
hast seen in short all things that can  
be shewed1 and hast learned the chief   
words of the ,latin and mother-tongue4  
,go on now and read other good books    
diligently1 and thou shalt become       
learned1 wise and godly4 ,remember these
 things3 ,fear ,god and call upon him   
that he may bestow upon thee the spirit 

of wisdom4 ,farewell40  ,under the      
pictures illustrating each chapter      
follows the descriptions in the         
vernacular and the ,latin4 ,the         
following on the school may be taken as 
characteristic of the book3--      ,a   
school 7#a7                             
,schola 7#a7   is a shop in which young 
wits        est officina in qu novelli  
animi   are fashioned to virtue1 and it 
formantur ad virtutem   is distinguished
 into classes4        distinguitur in   
classes4      ,the master 7#b7          
,prceptor 7#b7   sits in a chair 7#c7   
sedet in cathedra 7#c7   the scholars   
7#d7                     discipuli 7#d7 
in forms 7#e7                         in
 subsells 7#e7   he teaches1 they learn4
              ille docet1 hi discunt4   
,some things are writ down              
,qudam pr scribuntur illis   before them
 with chalk on a          cret in       
tabella4 7#f7   table4 7#f7      ,some  
sit                             ,quidam 
sedent   at a table and write 7#g7      

ad mensam  scribunt 7#g71   he mendeth  
their faults 7#h74         ipse corrigit
 mendas 7#h74      ,some stand and      
rehearse              ,quidam stant     
recitant   things committed to memory   
mandata memori 7#i74   7#i74      ,some 
talk together 7#aj7 and          ,quidam
 confabulantur 7#aj7   behave themselves
 wantonly           ac gerunt se        
petulantes   and carelessly2 these are  
chastised    negligentes2 hi castigantur
   with a ferrula 7#aa7                 
ferul 7baculo7 7#aa7   and a rod 7#ab74 
virg 7#ab74  ,the braced figures refer  
to the objects numbered in the cut2 for 
example1 a group of students conversing 
together in the illustration is marked  
#aj in the cut and in the text4 ,the    
purpose of ,comenius1 it should be noted
 in passing1 was primarily to teach the 
vernacular through things and the       
representation of things2 although he   
had no objection to the learning of the 
,latin with the vernacular4 ,his aim1 as
 stated by himself1 8,that instruction  

may progress without hindrance1 and     
neither learning nor teaching delay1    
since what is printed in words may be   
brought before the eyes by sight1 and   
thus the mind may be instructed without 
error40  8,primer though it be10 says   
,g4 ,stanley ,hall1 8the ,orbis pictus  
sheds a broad light over the whole field
 of education40 ,compayr remarks1 8,it  
was the first practical application of  
the intuitive method1 and has served as 
a model for the innumerable illustrated 
books which for three centuries have    
invaded the schools40 ,and ,raumer1 who 
is little given to praise of ,comenius  
and his schemes1 adds1 8,the ,orbis     
pictus was the forerunner of future     
development1 and had for its object1 not
 merely the introduction of an          
indistinct painted world into the       
school1 but1 as much as possible1 a     
knowledge of the original world itself1 
by actual intercourse with it40         
,professor ,laurie is doubtless right   
when he says that ,comenius knew little 

psychology--scarcely more than the      
generalizations of ,plato and           
,aristotle1 and these not strictly      
investigated by himself4 ,yet who can   
read these lines in the preface of the  
,orbis pictus1 8,this little book will  
serve to stir up the attention1 which is
 to be fastened upon things1 and ever to
 be sharpened more and more2 for the    
senses ever more seek their own objects1
 and when the objects are present1 they 
grow merry1 wax lively1 and willingly   
suffer themselves to be fastened upon   
them1 until the things are sufficiently 
discerned0--who can read these lines1   
and reflect upon the manner in which    
volitional attention operates in the    
higher spheres of thought and emotion1  
and say that ,comenius was altogether   
ignorant of the psychological law that  
the power of the will over the attention
 of little children is largely a matter 
of automatic fixation1 depending upon   
the attractiveness of the objects that  
affect the senses4   ,methodus          

,novissima  ,while residing at ,elbing1 
,comenius wrote the ,methodus novissima 
for the use of the teachers of ,sweden4 
,this he intended as a plan of studies1 
and it contains the principles which    
must lie at the basis of every rational 
course of study4 ,the three principles  
of his method are the parallelism of    
things and words1 proper stages of      
succession1 and easy natural progress4  
,in ,god are the ideas1 the original    
types which he impresses upon things2   
things1 again1 impress their            
representation upon the senses1 the     
senses impart them to the mind1 the mind
 to the tongue1 and the tongue to the   
ears of others2 for souls shut up in    
bodies cannot understand each other in a
 purely intellectual way4  ,any language
 is complete in so far as it possesses a
 full nomenclature1 has words for       
everything1--and these significant and  
consistent1--and is constructed in      
accordance with fixed grammatical laws4 
,it is a source of error when things    

accommodate themselves to words1 instead
 of words to things4 ,the same          
classification prevails for words as for
 things2 and whoever understands the    
relation of words among themselves will1
 the more easily1 study the analogous   
relations among things4  ,vives thought 
that the most complete language would be
 that in which the words express the    
nature of things1 and ,comenius believed
 that there could be composed a real    
language in which each word should be a 
definition4  ,to be able to represent a 
thing by the mind1 hand1 or tongue is to
 understand it4 ,the mental process     
involved consists of representations and
 images of the pictures of things4 ,if1 
says ,comenius1 ,i perceive a thing by  
the senses1 its image is impressed upon 
my brain2 if ,i represent a thing1 ,i   
impress its image upon the material2 but
 if ,i express in words the thing which 
,i have thought of or represented1 ,i   
impress it upon the atmosphere1 and     
through it upon the ear1 brain1 and mind

 of another4  ,things are learned by    
examples1 rules1 and practice4 ,before  
the understanding1 truth must be held up
 as an example2 before the will1 the    
good2 before the forming powers1 the    
ideal2 and to these must be added       
practice regulated by suitable rules4   
,but rules should not be given before   
the examples4 ,this is well understood  
by artisans2 they do not begin by       
lecturing to their apprentices upon     
trades1 but by showing them how masters 
work and then by putting tools in their 
hands and training them to imitate their
 masters4 ,we learn to do by doing1 to  
write by writing1 and to paint by       
painting4  ,the second step must never  
be taken until the first is learned2 and
 the first step should be repeated and  
assimilated with the second step4 ,we   
should advance from the easy to the more
 difficult1 from the near to the more   
distant1 and from the simple to the     
complex4 ,proceed toward knowledge by   
the perception and understanding of     

objects present to the senses1 and later
 to the information of others about the 
objects4  ,the attention should be fixed
 upon one object at a time2 first upon  
the whole1 then upon the parts4 ,the    
understanding should compare the objects
 being perceived with similar objects   
previously observed4 ,the memory has    
three offices3 to receive impressions1  
to retain impressions1 and to recall    
impressions4 ,retention will be made    
easier by repetition1 and recollection  
by the association of perceived         
relations4 ,the youngest children should
 be instructed by means of visible      
objects1 and pictures impress themselves
 most firmly upon the memory4  ,teachers
 who are themselves intellectually quick
 must avoid impatience4 ,the pupils who 
learn the quickest are not always the   
best2 and the dulness of the pupils must
 be supplemented by the teacher's       
industry4 ,learning will be easy to     
pupils if teachers manage them in a     
friendly way and study the disposition  

of each child4 ,children must not only  
be made to look at their lessons1 but to
 enter into the spirit of the subject   
under consideration4  ,we should        
remember that schools are the workshops 
of humanity2 and that they should work  
their pupils into the right and skilful 
use of their reason1 speech1 and        
talents--into wisdom1 eloquence1        
readiness1 and shrewdness4 ,thus will   
the teachers shape these little images  
of ,god1 or1 rather1 fill up the        
outlines of goodness1 power1 and wisdom 
impressed upon them by divine power4    
,the art of teaching is no shallow      
affair1 but one of the deepest mysteries
 of nature and salvation4     ,,chapter 
,,ix  ,,influence ,,of ,,comenius ,,on  
,,modern ,,educators                    
,francke--,early educational            
undertakings--,the   institution at     
,halle--,character of the               
pdagogium--,impulse given to modern     
learning4   ,rousseau--,the child the   
centre of educational   schemes--,sense 

training fundamental--,order and method 
of nature to be followed4               
,basedow--,protests against             
traditional methods--,influenced by the 
mile--,his   educational writings--,the 
,philanthropinum4   ,pestalozzi--,love  
the key-note of his system--,domestic   
education--,education for all classes   
and sexes--,the   study of              
nature--,impulse given to the study of  
geography4 ,frbel--,his relations to    
,comenius and                           
,pestalozzi--,educational value of play 
and principle   of self-activity--,women
 as factors in education4               
,herbart--,assimilation of              
sense-experience--,training of          
character--,doctrine of interest4  ,it  
is less easy to trace the influence of  
,comenius on modern educational         
reformers than to indicate the traces of
 his pedagogic development1 since he    
read widely and credited cheerfully the 
paternity of his educational ideals4 ,he
 says in this connection3 8,i gave my   

mind to the perusal of divers authors1  
and lighted upon many which at this age 
have made a beginning in reforming the  
method of studies1 as ,ratke1 ,helwig1  
,rheinus1 ,ritter1 ,glaum1 ,ccil1 and1  
who indeed should have the first place1 
,john ,valentine ,andre1 a man of noble 
and clear brain2 as also ,campanella and
 the ,lord ,verulam1 those famous       
restorers of philosophy2 by reading of  
whom ,i was raised in good hope1 that at
 last those so many various sparks would
 conspire into a flame2 yet observing   
here and there some defects and gaps1 ,i
 could not contain myself from          
attempting something that might rest    
upon an immovable foundation1 and which1
 if it could be once found out1 should  
not be subject to any ruin4 ,therefore1 
after many workings and tossings of my  
thoughts1 by reducing everything to the 
immovable laws of nature1 ,i lighted    
upon my ,great didactic1 which shows the
 art of teaching all things to all men40
  ,such commendable frankness is not    

always found in the reformers that      
follow ,comenius2 but in their writings 
it is not difficult to discern community
 of ideas first definitely formulated by
 ,comenius4 ,this holds true in a degree
 of all reformers since ,comenius' day1 
but in a measure sufficiently large to  
require passing note in ,francke1       
,rousseau1 ,basedow ,pestalozzi1 ,frbel1
 and ,herbart4   ,francke#ci  ,of a     
profoundly religious nature like        
,comenius1 ,francke applied himself to  
the study of theology at the            
,universities of ,kiel and ,leipzig1    
after having studied at ,erfurt4 ,the   
listless and heartless character of the 
teaching and study at these institutions
 impressed him profoundly1 and directed 
his attention to the need of educational
 reform4 ,four years after taking his   
degree at ,leipzig 7#afhh71 he          
established an infant school at         
,hamburg1 which1 though brief1 was1 as  
he tells us1 the richest and happiest   
experience of his long and varied       

career4 ,it taught him the lesson which 
he thought was needed alike by himself  
and his contemporaries-- that teachers  
of little children entered upon their   
work with altogether too little         
preparation4 ,he says1 8,upon the       
establishment of this school1 ,i learned
 how destructive is the usual school    
management1 and how exceedingly         
difficult is the discipline of children2
 and this reflection made me desire that
 ,god would make me worthy to do        
something for the improvement of schools
 and instruction40  ,he received an     
ecclesiastical call to ,erfurt1 which he
 accepted1 but his orthodoxy was        
questioned and he was not permitted to  
fill the office to which he had been    
appointed4 ,the foundation of the       
,university of ,halle1 in #afia1 made an
 opening for him in the chair of ,greek 
and ,oriental languages4 ,while serving 
in this capacity1 he organized the      
philanthropic institution which has made
 ,halle famous4 ,it began as a charity  

work among the poor1 and grew to such   
proportions that at his death1 in       
#agbg1--thirty-three years after its    
inception1--it included 7#a7 the        
pdagogium with eighty-two students and  
seventy teachers and pupil-teachers2    
7#b7 the ,latin school of the orphanage 
with three inspectors1 thirty-two       
teachers1 four hundred pupils1 and ten  
servants2 7#c7 elementary schools in    
,halle for the children of citizens1    
employing four inspectors1 ninety-eight 
male and eight female teachers1 and     
having an enrollment of one thousand and
 twenty-five children2 7#d7 apothecary  
shops and bookstores4 ,as a charity     
school1 ,francke's institution became   
the model of hundreds organized in      
,europe during the next century4  ,the  
pdagogium1 which was a part of the great
 philanthropic institution1 was opened  
in #afif1 as a select school for the    
sons of noblemen4 ,it was one of the    
earliest training schools for teachers1 
and the forerunner of university        

pedagogical seminaries1 which1 in       
,germany at least1 serve as training    
schools for teachers in secondary       
schools4 ,francke aimed to fit young    
men1 and particularly university        
students1 in the faculties of philosophy
 and theology1 for greater usefulness as
 teachers4 ,indeed1 much of the teaching
 in the pdagogium was done by the       
university students who contemplated    
teaching careers4 ,besides the practice 
work1 instruction was given in the      
history and theory of education1 methods
 of teaching1 and school organization   
and government4 ,francke's pdagogium was
 a worthy progenitor of the long line of
 renowned university seminaries which   
are now integral factors of the ,german 
universities1 such1 for example1 as the 
deservedly noted pedagogical seminary at
 ,jena under the direction of ,professor
 ,wilhelm ,rein1 and the not less noted 
pedagogical seminaries at ,leipzig under
 ,professors ,volkelt1 ,schiller1 and   
,richter4  ,like ,comenius1 ,francke    

valued less the classical culture1 but  
more the modern learning which fitted   
for the duties of life4 8,it is a common
 evil10 he says1 8that we do not teach  
what we use in our occupations every    
day40 ,this led him to give large       
consideration to the study of the       
mother-tongue4 8,i find few university  
students10 he says1 8who can write a    
,german letter correctly spelled4 ,they 
violate orthography in almost every     
line4 ,i know of many examples where1   
after they have entered upon the        
ministry and have had occasion to have  
something printed1 it has been necessary
 to have their manuscripts first        
corrected in almost every line4 ,the    
reason for this defect is usually in the
 schools1 where only the ,latin         
translation of their exercises is       
corrected1 but not the ,german40 ,in    
many ways he labored to actualize the   
larger idea of education which ,comenius
 had outlined in the ,great didactic4   
,rousseau  ,while he does not mention   

,comenius by name1 even a cursory       
reading of the mile#dj furnishes        
abundant evidence of ,rousseau's        
familiarity with the writings of the    
,moravian reformer1 if not at first     
hand1 then through the writings of      
others4 ,at any rate1 some striking     
parallels are suggested in a comparative
 study of the writings of the two       
reformers4 ,as summarized by ,mr4       
,davidson1#da ,rousseau's educational   
demands are threefold3 7#a7 the demand  
that children should1 from the moment of
 their birth1 be allowed complete       
freedom of movement2 7#b7 that they     
should be educated through direct       
experience1 and not through mere        
information derived from books2 7#c7    
that they should be taught to use their 
hands in the production of useful       
articles4 ,these demands1 it will be    
recalled1 were also made by ,comenius in
 one form or another4  ,comenius and    
,rousseau both emphasized the fact that 
school systems must be made for         

children1 and not children for school   
systems4 ,neither reformer shared the   
schoolmaster's customary contempt for   
childhood1 but both urged that childhood
 must be studied and loved to be        
understood and trained1 and both1 if    
they had lived in the nineteenth and    
twentieth centuries1 would have been    
enthusiastic advocates of child study4  
,says ,rousseau3 8,we do not understand 
childhood1 and pursuing false ideas of  
it1 our every step takes us farther     
astray4 ,the wisest among us fix upon   
what it concerns men to know1 without   
ever considering what children are      
capable of learning4 ,they always expect
 to find the man in the child1 without  
thinking of what the child is before it 
is a man4444 ,we never know how to put  
ourselves in the place of children2 we  
do not enter into their ideas2 we       
attribute to them our own2 and following
 always our own train of thought1 even  
with syllogisms1 we manage to fill their
 heads with nothing but extravagance and

 error4444 ,i wish some discreet person 
would give us a treatise on the art of  
observing children--an art which would  
be of immense value to us1 but of which 
parents and teachers have not as yet    
learnt the very rudiments40  ,sense     
training was fundamental in ,comenius'  
scheme of primary education4 ,nature    
studies--plants1 animals1 and           
minerals--were introduced from the      
first1 that the child might early       
cultivate his powers of observation1 and
 form the habit of acquiring knowledge  
at first hand4 ,rousseau likewise lays  
great stress on sense training4 8,the   
faculties which become strong in us10 he
 says1 8are our senses4 ,these1 then1   
are the first that should be cultivated2
 they are1 in fact1 the only faculties  
we forget1 or at least those which we   
neglect most completely4 ,the child     
wants to touch and handle everything4   
,by no means check this restlessness2 it
 points to a very necessary             
apprenticeship4 ,thus it is that the    

child gets to be conscious of the       
hotness or coldness1 the hardness or    
softness1 the heaviness or lightness of 
bodies1 to judge of their size and shape
 and all their sensible properties by   
looking1 feeling1 listening1 especially 
by comparing sight and touch1 and       
combining the sensations of the eye with
 those of the fingers40  ,comenius1     
,rousseau1 and1 in fact1 all the        
realists from ,bacon to ,herbert        
,spencer1 have emphasized the thought   
that education should follow the order  
and method of nature2 though1 as        
,professor ,payne suggests1 it is not   
always easy to form a clear notion of   
what they mean by nature1 when they say 
that education should be natural1 and   
that teachers should follow the method  
of nature4 ,the key-note of ,rousseau's 
theory1 as expressed in the opening     
paragraph of the mile1 is that          
8everything is good as it comes from the
 hands of the author of nature1 but     
everything degenerates in the hands of  

man40 ,mr4 ,davidson points out in his  
study of ,rousseau that the air was full
 of nature panaceas during the middle   
years of the eighteenth century1 and    
that these were applied alike to social1
 political1 and educational             
institutions4 ,he says3 8,the chief of  
these notions were 7#a7 a state of      
nature as man's original condition--a   
state conceived sometimes as one of     
goodness1 peace1 freedom1 equality1 and 
happiness1 sometimes as one of badness1 
war1 slavery1 inequality1 and misery2   
7#b7 a law of nature independent of all 
human enactment1 and yet binding upon   
all men2 7#c7 a social contract1        
voluntarily and consciously made1 as the
 basis of justification for civil       
society and authority--a contract by    
which men united for the protection of  
rights and the enforcement of laws which
 had existed already in the state of    
nature2 7#d7 false inequality among men1
 as due to private property1 or the     
usurpation by some of what1 by natural  

right1 belonged to all2 7#e7 a peaceful1
 untroubled1 unenterprising1            
unstruggling existence as the normal    
form of human life40  ,while less sane1 
less practical1 less comprehensive in   
his educational views than ,comenius1 it
 can scarcely be said that he was less  
influential4 ,differing in many         
important particulars1 a common ideal   
permeates the writings of the two       
reformers--an unbounded faith in the    
possibilities of youth1 and a deep      
conviction that it is the business of   
teachers to view the world and nature   
from the standpoint of young and growing
 children1 and to cling with less       
tenacity to points of view established  
by antiquity and convention4            
,basedow#db  ,while resembling ,rousseau
 more than ,comenius in temperament and 
character1 as well as in educational    
ideals1 there is yet much in ,basedow's 
educational scheme that recalls the     
,moravian reformer4 ,born at ,hamburg1  
in #agbg1 he experienced1 like          

,rousseau1 an unhappy childhood1 and1   
like ,comenius1 received a belated      
education4 ,he prepared for the         
,university of ,leipzig at the ,hamburg 
gymnasium2 but at both institutions he  
rebelled against the traditional methods
 of instruction4 ,after completing the  
course in theology at ,leipzig1 it was  
found that he had grown too heterodox   
for ordination1 and he engaged himself  
as a private tutor to a gentleman in    
,holstein4 ,remarkable success attended 
his labors as a teacher4 ,he studied his
 children1 adapted subject-matter to    
their capacities1 and made extensive use
 of conversational methods4 ,this       
experience secured him an appointment in
 ,denmark1 where he taught for eight    
years4 ,but his essays on ,methodical   
instruction in natural and ,biblical    
religion disturbed alike the serenity of
 the ,danish clergy and schoolmasters1  
and he was released and called to the   
gymnasium at ,altoona1 where he         
encountered opposition no less          

pronounced4  ,rousseau's mile appeared  
at this time1 and it influenced him     
powerfully4 ,he renewed his attacks on  
contemporary educational practices2     
charged universal neglect of physical   
education and the mother-tongue2        
criticised the schools for devoting so  
much time to the study of ,latin and    
,greek1 and for the mechanical and      
uninteresting methods employed in       
teaching these languages2 and admonished
 society for neglecting to instruct the 
children of the poor and middle classes4
 ,raumer1 who is no admirer of ,basedow1
 admits the justice of the charges4 ,he 
says3 8,youth was in those days for most
 children a sadly harassed period4      
,instruction was hard and heartlessly   
severe4 ,grammar was caned into the     
memory2 so were portions of ,scripture  
and poetry4 ,a common form of school    
punishment was to learn by heart the    
,one ,hundred and ,nineteenth ,psalm4   
,schoolrooms were dismally dark4 ,no one
 conceived it possible that the young   

could find pleasure in any kind of work1
 or that they had eyes for aught but    
reading and writing4 ,the pernicious age
 of ,louis ,,xiv had inflicted on the   
children of the upper class hair curled 
by the barber and messed with powder and
 pomade1 braided coats1 knee breeches1  
silk stockings1 and a dagger by the     
side--for active1 lively children a     
perfect torture40  ,the publication1 in 
#aggd1 of his ,elementary book with     
plates and his ,book of methods for     
parents and teachers1 formulated and    
brought to public notice his views on   
education4 ,the ,elementary book with   
plates followed closely the lines of    
,comenius1 and it has often been called 
the ,orbis pictus of the eighteenth     
century4 ,the purpose of the book was   
clearly encyclopdic4 ,as stated by      
himself1 his aims were3 7#a7 elementary 
instruction in the knowledge of words   
and things2 7#b7 an incomparable method1
 founded upon experience1 of teaching   
children to read without weariness or   

loss of time2 7#c7 natural knowledge2   
7#d7 knowledge of morals1 the mind1 and 
reasoning2 7#e7 a thorough and          
impressive method of instructing in     
natural religion1 and for a description 
of beliefs so impartial that it shall   
not appear of what belief is the writer 
himself2 7#f7 knowledge of social duties
 and commerce4 ,the work was published  
in four volumes and illustrated by one  
hundred plates4  ,the ,book of methods  
presents the root-ideas of ,comenius and
 ,rousseau4 ,in it he says3 8,you should
 attend to nature in your children far  
more than to art4 ,the elegant manners  
and usages of the world are1 for the    
most part1 unnatural4 ,these come of    
themselves in later years4 ,treat       
children like children1 that they may   
remain the longer uncorrupted4 ,a boy   
whose acutest faculties are his senses1 
and who has no perception of anything   
abstract1 must first of all be made     
acquainted with the world as it presents
 itself to the senses4 ,let this be     

shown him in nature herself1 or1 where  
this is impossible1 in faithful drawings
 or models4 ,thereby can he1 even in    
play1 learn how the various objects are 
to be named4 ,comenius alone has pointed
 out the right road in this matter4 ,by 
all means reduce the wretched exercises 
of the memory40  ,the institution which 
carried ,basedow's educational theories 
into practice was the ,philanthropinum  
at ,dessau1 which became both famous and
 notorious in the days of the founder1  
and exercised1 withal1 a powerful       
influence on the pedagogy of ,germany   
and ,switzerland during the last quarter
 of the eighteenth and the first half of
 the nineteenth century4 ,whatever may  
have been its faults1 it had the merit  
of looking at education from a more     
modern standpoint4 ,with the conviction 
that the final word had not been spoken 
on pedagogy1 ,basedow boldly determined 
to find new methods of approach to the  
child's mind4 ,as an experiment the     
,philanthropinum was both interesting   

and suggestive4 ,kant1 who recognizes   
this aspect of its utility1 says3 8,it  
was imagined that experiments in        
education were not necessary2 but this  
was a great mistake4 ,experience shows  
very often that results are produced    
precisely the opposite to those which   
had been expected4 ,we also see from    
experiments that one generation cannot  
work out a complete plan of education4  
,the only experimental school which has 
made a beginning toward breaking the    
path is the institution at ,dessau4     
,whatever its faults1 this praise must  
be given it3 ,it is the only school in  
which teachers have had the liberty to  
work out their own methods and plans1   
and where they stood in connection1 not 
only with each other1 but with men of   
learning throughout all ,germany40  ,in 
subjects taught1 as well as in methods  
of teaching1 ,basedow followed ,comenius
 in the main4 ,words were taught in     
connection with things2 object teaching 
occupied an important place2 pictures   

were extensively used2 children were    
first taught to speak and later to write
 in foreign languages2 ,german and      
,french held positions of honor2        
arithmetic1 geometry1 geography1 and    
natural history were all taught2 great  
attention was given to the physical     
development of the children1 and play   
was considered as important as ,latin2  
school hours were shortened2 the        
discipline was much less severe2 and the
 children were allowed and permitted to 
take degrees of freedom altogether      
unheard of before ,basedow's day4       
,pestalozzi#dc  ,pestalozzi was not     
widely read in the literature of        
education2 in fact1 the mile was about  
the only such book he ever read1 as he  
himself tells us4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 
apparent that he was quite as much      
influenced by ,comenius as by ,rousseau4
 ,the vital principle of his            
reforms--love of and sympathy for the   
child--had been as forcefully enunciated
 by ,comenius as by ,rousseau2 and the  

saner and more practical character of   
,pestalozzi's enthusiasm would lead one 
to suppose that he was less influenced  
by the author of the mile than by the   
,moravian reformer4 8,the first         
qualification for the task of teaching10
 says ,pestalozzi1 in a letter to       
,greaves1#dd 8is thinking love40 ,and   
this spirit dominated all his efforts in
 behalf of educational reform4 ,he says3
 8,it is recorded that ,god opened the  
heavens to the patriarch of old1 and    
showed him a ladder leading thither4    
,this ladder is let down to every       
descendant of ,adam2 it is offered to   
your child4 ,but he must be taught to   
climb it--not by the cold calculations  
of the head1 or by the mere impulses of 
the heart1 but by a combination of      
both40  ,both reformers started with the
 child at birth1 and made domestic      
education fundamental to their schemes4 
8,maternal love10 says ,pestalozzi1 8is 
the first agent in education4 ,nature   
has qualified the mother to be the chief

 factor in the education of the child40 
,in ,how ,gertrude teaches her          
children#de he tells us1 8,it is the    
main design of my method to make home   
instruction again possible to our       
neglected people1 and to induce every   
mother whose heart beats for her child  
to make use of my elementary exercises40
 ,again1 in the account of his school at
 ,stanz1 he says3 8,my aim was to       
simplify teaching so that the common    
people might be induced to begin the    
instruction of their children1 and thus 
render superfluous the teaching of the  
elements in the schools4 ,as the mother 
is the first to nourish her child       
physically1 so also1 by the appointment 
of ,god1 she must be the first to give  
it spiritual and mental nourishment4 ,i 
consider that very great evils have been
 occasioned by sending children too     
early to school2 and by adopting so many
 artificial means of educating them away
 from home4 ,the time will come1 so soon
 as we shall have simplified            

instruction1 when every mother will be  
able to teach1 without the help of      
others1 and thereby1 at the same time1  
go on herself always learning40 ,this1  
it will be recalled1 was also ,comenius'
 cherished desire in the ,school of     
infancy4  ,comenius and ,pestalozzi     
stand almost alone among the great      
educational reformers in proclaiming the
 doctrine of universal                  
education--training for the poor as well
 as the rich1 for the lowly born as well
 as for the privileged classes1 for     
girls as well as boys4 8,popular        
education10 says ,pestalozzi1 8once lay 
before me like an immense marsh1 in the 
mire of which ,i waded about1 until ,i  
had discovered the source from which its
 waters sprang1 as well as the causes by
 which their free course is obstructed1 
and made myself acquainted with those   
points from which a hope of draining its
 pools might be conceived4 ,ever since  
my youthful days1 the course of my      
feelings1 which rolled on like a mighty 

stream1 was directed to this one        
point1--to stop the sources of that     
misery in which ,i saw the people around
 me immersed40 ,such regeneration he    
thought could be brought about by       
consecrated and intelligent             
schoolmasters1 and particularly1 as ,g4 
,stanley ,hall notes in his admirable   
introduction to the ,american           
translation of ,leonard and             
,gertrude1#df 8by the love and devotion 
of noble women overflowing from the     
domestic circle into the community1 by  
the good ,gertrudes of all stations in  
life1 the born educators of the race1   
whose work and whose #8key-words' we men
 pedagogues must ponder well if our     
teaching is to be ethically inspired40  
,the study of nature1 and this at first 
hand1 was likewise an inheritance from  
,comenius4 ,pestalozzi makes observation
 the basis of all knowledge4 8,if ,i    
look back and ask myself what ,i have   
really done toward the improvement of   
methods of elementary instruction1 ,i   

find that in recognizing observation as 
the absolute basis of all knowledge1 ,i 
have established the first and most     
important principle of instruction4 ,i  
have endeavored to discover what ought  
to be the character of the instruction  
itself1 and what are the fundamental    
laws according to which the education of
 the human race must be determined by   
nature40  ,comenius was the first of the
 educational reformers to recognize the 
importance of geography as a subject of 
school study2 and although he had it    
taught in the schools he conducted1 and 
gave it important consideration in his  
educational schemes1 the study received 
no fresh recognition until the time of  
,pestalozzi4 ,at ,stanz1 at ,burgdorf1  
and at ,yverdon1 geography ranked as one
 of the foremost elementary school      
studies4 ,and not only was geography    
taught in the schoolrooms1 but better   
than that1 it was taught in the open    
air4 ,vulliemin1 who was two years a    
student under ,pestalozzi at ,yverdon1  

writes3 8,the first elements of         
geography were taught us on the ground4 
,we began the study by taking a walk    
along a narrow valley on the outskirts  
of ,yverdon4 ,we were led to observe all
 its details1 and then to help ourselves
 to some clay we found there4 ,this we  
carried back in our baskets1 and1 on our
 return home1 we had to make a model of 
the ground walked over1 and of the      
surrounding country2 this we did on long
 tables4 ,our walks were extended1 from 
time to time1 and1 on our return1 we    
added new features as we learned them40 
,pestalozzi was fortunate in having with
 him at ,yverdon two eminently          
successful ,german teachers1 who        
comprehended his aims1 and who          
subsequently applied his methods in the 
fatherland4 ,one was ,hennig1 the author
 of a popular pedagogic work on home    
geography1 and the other was ,karl      
,ritter1 the deservedly renowned ,german
 geographer4 ,ritter brought with him to
 ,yverdon two young men from ,frankfort 

whom he was tutoring1 and he served     
,pestalozzi in the capacity of a        
pupil-teacher2 and1 while a developed   
man when he entered the institution1 in 
#ahjg1 he came to ,yverdon1 as so many  
other enthusiastic ,germans had done1 to
 study pedagogy with the most           
distinguished master of the century4    
,years later1 when ,ritter had become   
the best-known geographer of his age1 he
 wrote3 8,pestalozzi knew less geography
 than a child in one of our primary     
schools1 yet it was from him that ,i    
gained my chief knowledge of this       
science2 for it was in listening to him 
that ,i first conceived the idea of the 
natural method4 ,it was he who opened   
the way to me1 and ,i take pleasure in  
attributing whatever value my work may  
have entirely to him40  ,comenius and   
,pestalozzi had much in common in their 
aims as educational reformers2 and they 
together share1 as ,dr4 ,hoffmeister#dg 
points out1 the honor of having         
originated and carefully elaborated one 

of the most efficient elementary school 
systems in ,europe--the ,volksschule in 
,germany4 ,pestalozzi gave himself to   
education1 or1 to use his own           
significant characterization1 8,i have  
lived all my days like a beggar1 that ,i
 might teach beggars how to live like   
men40 ,comenius gave himself1 also1 and 
he gave besides a half-dozen books1     
which take classic rank in the permanent
 literature of education4   ,frbel  ,the
 large obligations of the founder of the
 kindergarten to both ,comenius and     
,pestalozzi cannot be gainsaid4 ,frbel's
 attention was called to the writings of
 the ,moravian reformer early in his    
educational career by ,professor        
,krause1 ,herder1 and others interested 
in his schemes4 8,comenius proposes an  
entirely new basis of education10       
,professor ,krause wrote to ,frbel4 8,he
 attempts to find a method of education1
 consciously based upon science1 whereby
 teachers will teach less1 and learners 
will learn more2 whereby there will be  

less noise in the schools1 less         
distaste1 fewer idle pupils1 more       
happiness and progress2 whereby         
confusion1 division1 and darkness will  
give place to order1 intelligence1 and  
peace40 ,he adds1 8,comenius was the    
first to advocate ,pestalozzi's doctrine
 of observation 7,anschauung740 ,mr4    
,hauschmann1#dh one of ,frbel's         
biographers1 remarks3 8,krause looked   
upon ,frbel as the educational successor
 of ,comenius and ,pestalozzi4 ,frbel1  
he thought1 might show1 as it had never 
been shown before1 how the ,pestalozzian
 doctrine of ,anschauung was to be      
applied to the education of every       
child40  ,the weeks spent with          
,pestalozzi in the autumn of #ahje and  
the two subsequent years 7#ahjh-ahaj7   
passed with him at ,yverdon1 gave ,frbel
 ample opportunity to study thoroughly  
the ,swiss reformer's theories and      
practices2 and these he subsequently    
applied with even greater skill than his
 master had done4 ,schmid1 the ,german  

historian of education1 says1 8,frbel1  
the pupil of ,pestalozzi1 and a genius  
like his master1 completed the          
reformer's system2 taking the results at
 which ,pestalozzi had arrived through  
the necessities of his position1 ,frbel 
developed the ideas involved in them1   
not by further experience1 but by       
deduction from the nature of man1 and   
thus he attained to the conception of   
true human development and to the       
requirements of true education40  ,he   
was thus1 in a sense1 the combined      
product of the philosophy of ,comenius  
and the zeal of ,pestalozzi1 although   
working along lines carefully marked out
 by himself4 ,it does not detract from  
the fame of ,frbel to say that most of  
the root-ideas of his kindergarten are  
to be found in the ,school of infancy4  
,mr4 ,bowen1 who has given us one of the
 best expositions#di of ,frbel's ideas1 
pays a just tribute of the obligation of
 his master to the writings of          
,pestalozzi and ,comenius4 ,he says3    

8,with all his enthusiasm for education 
and his desire to found it on a         
scientific basis1 ,comenius had but     
little scientific knowledge of          
child-nature1 and troubled himself not  
at all to acquire it4 ,he constantly    
insisted1 it is true1 upon the exercise 
of the senses1 and an education in      
accordance with nature2 but his exercise
 of the senses soon reduced itself1 in  
the main1 to the use of pictures1 with a
 view to a readier and more intelligent 
acquirement of language2 and1 even in   
his ergastula literaria1 or literary    
workshop1 the manual and other work     
introduced was intended to aid poor     
children in partly getting their own    
living while at school1 rather than to  
exercise faculty2 while his #8nature'   
was as quaint and conventional as that  
in a pre-,raphaelite picture4 ,none the 
less1 however1 ,comenius was the true   
founder of educational method40  ,there 
is entire agreement in a few of the most
 fundamental aims of the two reformers4 

,comenius1 no less than ,frbel1 preached
 the gospel of self-activity1 and       
demanded that play be given important   
consideration in the training of the    
child4 ,what ,comenius says on these    
subjects has already been given in the  
exposition of the ,school of infancy4   
,in his ,education of man1#ej ,frbel    
says3 8,play is the purest1 most        
spiritual activity of the child at this 
period2 and1 at the same time1 typical  
of human life as a whole--of the hidden 
natural life in man and all things4 ,it 
gives1 therefore1 joy1 freedom1         
contentment1 inner and outer rest1 peace
 with the world4 ,a child that plays    
thoroughly1 with self-active            
determination1 perseveringly1 until     
physical fatigue forbids1 will surely be
 a thorough1 determined man1 capable of 
self-sacrifice for the promotion of the 
welfare of himself and others4 ,is not  
the most beautiful expression of        
child-life at this time a playing       
child8--a child wholly absorbed in his  

play8--a child that has fallen asleep   
while so absorbed8444 ,the plays of the 
child contain the germ of the whole life
 that is to follow2 for the man develops
 and manifests himself in play1 and     
reveals the noblest aptitudes and the   
deepest elements of his being40  ,frbel 
joined with ,comenius in demanding that 
women shall take a responsible part in  
the education of the child4 ,mr4 ,james 
,l4 ,hughes#ea says in this connection3 
8,the greatest step made toward the full
 recognition of woman's individuality   
and responsibility since the time of    
,christ was made when ,frbel founded his
 kindergartens and made women educators 
outside the home--educators by          
profession4 ,this momentous reform gave 
the first great impetus to the movement 
in favor of women's freedom1 and        
provided for the general advance of     
humanity to a higher plane by giving    
childhood more considerate1 more        
sympathetic1 and more stimulating       
teachers40 ,frbel was convinced that    

women were better adapted than men for  
the early stages of instruction4 ,he    
says3 8,all agree that1 compared with   
the true mother1 the formal educator is 
but a bungler4 ,but she must become     
conscious of her own aim1 and must learn
 intelligently the means to reach it4   
,she can no longer afford to squander or
 neglect the earliest years of her      
child4 ,as the world grows older1 we    
become richer in knowledge and art4 ,but
 childhood remains short as before40    
,in other important particulars ,frbel  
owed much to ,comenius1 as well as to   
,pestalozzi4 ,compare1 for example1 the 
,school of infancy with the aims of the 
kindergarten1 and the bequests of the   
,moravian reformer will at once be      
apparent4 ,the exaggerated and          
unpedagogic symbolism1 however1 with    
which ,frbel burdened his otherwise     
excellent kindergarten system1 formed no
 part of his heritage from ,comenius4   
,herbart  ,professor ,de ,garmo1#eb who 
has given us a most succinct statement  

of ,herbart's educational views1        
remarks1 8that one of the main results  
of ,comenius1 ,rousseau1 and ,pestalozzi
 is the firmly fixed conviction that    
observation1 or the use of the senses1  
and1 in general1 the consideration of   
simple concrete facts in every field of 
knowledge1 is the sure foundation upon  
which all right elementary education    
rests4 ,this truth is now the           
acknowledged starting-point of all      
scientific methods of teaching4 ,yet the
 fact of importance of observation in   
instruction does not carry with it any  
information showing how the knowledge so
 obtained can be utilized1 or what its  
nature1 time1 amount1 and order of      
presentation should be4 ,in short1 it   
does not show how mental assimilation   
can best take place1 or how the         
resulting acquisitions can be made most 
efficiently to influence the emotional  
and volitional sides of our nature4     
,perception is1 indeed1 the first stage 
of cognition1 but its equally important 

correlative is apperception and         
assimilation4 ,it is ,herbart and his   
successors who have made us distinctly  
conscious of this fact40 ,there can be  
no reasonable doubt but that ,herbart   
did give a powerful impulse to the      
judicious assimilation of acquired      
sense-experience2 and yet even here it  
is quite possible to underestimate the  
character and value of the nature       
studies of ,comenius and the object     
lessons of ,pestalozzi4  ,herbart1 like 
,comenius1 emphasized the necessary     
effect of all instruction on character4 
8,the circle of thought10 says ,herbart1
 8contains the store of that which by   
degrees can mount by the steps of       
interest to desire1 and then1 by means  
of action1 to volition4 ,further1 it    
contains the store upon which all the   
workings of prudence are founded--in it 
are the knowledge and care1 without     
which man cannot pursue his aims through
 means4 ,the whole inner activity1      
indeed1 has its abode in the circle of  

thought4 ,here is found the initiative  
life1 the primal energy2 here all must  
circulate easily and freely1 everything 
must be in its place1 ready to be found 
and used at any moment2 nothing must lie
 in the way1 and nothing like a heavy   
load impede useful activity40 ,indeed1  
as ,kern suggests1 in ,herbart's scheme 
interest is the moral monitor and       
protector against the servitude that    
springs from passions and desires4  ,the
 doctrine of interest1 but vaguely      
suggested by ,comenius1 is perhaps the  
most noteworthy contribution of ,herbart
 to modern pedagogy2 but to summarize   
,herbart's views on interest would be to
 summarize his whole theory of          
education4 ,he recognizes two groups of 
interests--intellectual and social4 ,two
 phases of intellectual interests are   
distinguished3 7#a7 empirical interests1
 or the pleasures occasioned by         
disinterested curiosity2 7#b7           
speculative interests occasioned by the 
impulse to search out causal relations2 

and 7#c7 sthetic interests aroused      
through beauties in nature1 art1 and    
character4 ,the social interests are    
likewise threefold3 7#a7 sympathetic or 
altruistic2 7#b7 social and fraternal2  
and 7#c7 religious4  ,herbart's         
contribution to empirical psychology1   
although important1 was second to his   
application of direct pedagogic problems
 to actual school practice--the working 
out of his doctrine of many-sided       
interest1 the selection and adjustment  
of materials of instruction1 and the    
reform of school government and         
discipline4#ec     ,,chapter ,x         
,,permanent ,,influence ,,of ,,comenius 
,general neglect of ,comenius during the
 eighteenth                             
century--,causes--,intrenchment of      
humanism--,summary of   the permanent   
reforms of ,comenius--,revived interest 
in his teachings--,national ,comenius   
pedagogical   library at ,leipzig--,the 
,comenius ,society--,reviews   published
 for the dissemination of the           

educational   doctrines of              
,comenius--,conquest of his ideas4  ,the
 permanent influence of ,comenius       
remains to be noted4 ,famous in his own 
day2 enjoying the friendship of great   
scholars and the confidence of royal    
personages2 the founder of numerous     
school systems2 the author of more than 
a hundred books and treatises1 which    
were translated into most of the        
languages of ,europe and ,asia1--the    
name of the great ,moravian reformer was
 quite if not entirely forgotten1 and   
his writings practically unknown1 for   
more than a century after his death4    
,professor ,nicholas ,murray ,butler1#ed
 in likening him unto the stream that   
loses itself in the arid desert and then
 reappears with gathered force and      
volume to lend its fertilizing power to 
the surrounding country1 says3 8,human  
history is rich in analogies to this    
natural phenomenon2 but in ,comenius the
 history of education furnishes its     
example4 ,the great educational revival 

of our century1 and particularly of our 
generation1 has shed the bright light of
 scholarly investigation into all the   
dark places1 and to-day1 at the three   
hundredth anniversary of his birth1 the 
fine old ,moravian bishop is being      
honored wherever teachers gather        
together and wherever education is the  
theme40  ,the world1 which usually takes
 pause for a moment1 when a great man   
dies1 to seriously consider what there  
was in the dead that lifted him above   
the ordinary level1 took no such        
inventory when the remains of ,comenius 
were laid at rest in a quiet little town
 in ,holland4 8,the man whom we         
unhesitatingly affirm10 says ,mr4       
,keatinge1 8to be the broadest-minded1  
the most far-seeing1 the most           
comprehensive1 and withal the most      
practical of all writers who have put   
pen to paper on the subject of          
education2 the man whose theories have  
been put into practice in every school  
that is conducted on rational           

principles2 who embodies the            
materialistic tendencies of our #8modern
 side' instructors1 while avoiding the  
narrowness of their reforming zeal2 who 
lays stress on the spiritual aspect of  
true education1 while he realizes the   
necessity of equipping his pupils for   
the rude struggle with nature and with  
fellow-men--,comenius1 we say1 the      
prince of schoolmasters1 produced1      
practically1 no effect on the school    
organization and educational development
 of the following century40  ,the causes
 of this universal neglect are not      
easily explained4 ,that he lived most of
 his days in exile2 that he belonged to 
a religious community which was         
numerically insignificant and which     
suffered all those bitter persecutions  
following in the train of the ,thirty   
,years' ,war2 that indiscretion         
entangled him in certain alleged        
prophetic revelations1 which            
subsequently turned out the baldest     
impostures2 and1 more important than    

all1 as ,professor ,laurie points out1  
that schoolmasters did not wish to be   
disturbed by a man with new             
ideas1--these facts help to explain the 
universal neglect into which his name   
and writings fell4 ,in a personal       
letter1 ,oscar ,browning expresses the  
belief that if the teachings of         
,comenius had been dated a century      
earlier1 that the realistic type of     
education might have been generally     
followed--at least in the countries that
 had broken with the ,church of ,rome4  
,as it was1 however1 ,melanchthon1 the  
schoolmaster of the ,reformation1       
adopted1 with slight modifications1 the 
humanistic type of education4 ,for the  
time being1 at least1 the ideas held by 
,comenius were pushed into the          
background1 and humanism1 already deeply
 intrenched1 dominated educational      
practices4 ,reformers were not wanting1 
however1 to champion the reforms of     
,comenius1 men like ,francke1 ,rousseau1
 ,basedow1 ,pestalozzi1 ,frbel1 and     

,herbart4 ,but it remained for the      
nineteenth century to realize1 in       
considerable measure1 the aims and      
aspirations of the far-reaching reforms 
of the ,moravian bishop4  8,there is    
nothing startling about the educational 
reforms of ,comenius to-day10 says      
,professor ,earl ,barnes4 8,they are the
 commonplace talk of all school         
conventions4 ,but to see them when no   
one else has formulated them1 to        
enunciate them before an audience often 
hostile1 and to devote a life to        
teaching them and working them out--this
 requires a broad mind and something of 
the spirit of the martyr1 and both these
 elements were strong in ,comenius40    
,in spite of the neglect into which the 
reforms of ,comenius fell1 his influence
 has been lasting because his work was  
constructive and his reforms were far   
reaching4 ,among the reforms which he   
advocated 7and since incorporated in the
 modern educational movement71 the      
following may be named3--  #a4 ,that the

 purpose of education is to fit for     
complete living1 in consequence of which
 its benefits must be extended to all   
classes of society4  #b4 ,that education
 should follow the course and order of  
nature1 and be adapted to the stages of 
mental development of the child4  #c4   
,that intellectual progress is          
conditioned at every step by bodily     
vigor1 and that to attain the best      
results1 physical exercises must        
accompany and condition mental training4
  #d4 ,that children must first be      
trained in the mother-tongue1 and that  
all the elementary knowledge should be  
acquired through that medium4  #e4 ,that
 nature study must be made the basis of 
all primary instruction1 so that the    
child may exercise his senses and be    
trained to acquire knowledge at first   
hand4  #f4 ,that the child must be      
wisely trained during its earliest      
years1 for which purpose mothers must be
 trained for the high and holy mission  
of instructing little children1 and     

women generally be given more extended  
educational opportunities4  #g4 ,that   
the school course must be enriched by   
the addition of such useful studies as  
geography and history4  #h4 ,that the   
subjects of study must be so correlated 
and cordinated that they may form a     
common unit of thought4  #i4 ,that      
teachers must be specially trained4     
#aj4 ,that schools must be more         
rationally graded and better supervised4
  #aa4 ,that languages must be taught as
 8living organic wholes fitted for the  
purposes of life1 and not as the        
lifeless tabulations of the             
grammarians40  ,it was the opinion of   
,mr4 ,quick that the most hopeful sign  
of the improvement of education was the 
rapid advance in the last thirty years  
of the fame of ,comenius1 and the growth
 of a large literature about the man and
 his ideas4 ,the revival of ,comenian   
ideas really dates from the beginning of
 the present century1 when ,germany1    
crushed and dismembered1 looked to her  

schools as the surest means of regaining
 fallen glory2 so that the battle of    
,jena may be given as the date of this  
awakened interest in the reforms of the 
,moravian educator4 ,this interest      
culminated in the foundation of the     
great national ,comenius pedagogical    
library 7,comenius-,stiftung7 at        
,leipzig1 in #ahga4 ,it was founded by a
 band of enthusiastic disciples of      
,comenius1 of whom ,julius ,beeger was  
the foremost2 and1 although it numbered 
but #bfdb volumes at the end of the     
first year1 the interest in the movement
 has been so great that it now numbers  
over #gj1jjj volumes1 and constitutes   
the largest single collection of        
pedagogical books in the world4 ,the    
books are classified in #ef departments1
 the most important of which are3       
encyclopdias of pedagogy1 complete      
collections of the writings of standard 
educational writers1 sources of history 
of education1 general works on the      
history of education1 histories of      

special periods in education1 histories 
of education in different countries1    
histories of individual educational     
institutions1 educational biographies1  
works on systematic pedagogy1 physical  
education1 etc4 ,the library covers     
every department of educational thought1
 and is especially strong in the        
literature relating to the elementary   
schools of ,germany4 ,the privileges of 
the library are freely open to all      
students of education4 ,the library is  
under the control of the ,leipzig       
teachers' association1 and is sustained 
in part by the association and in part  
by appropriations from the city of      
,leipzig and the kingdom of ,saxony4#ee 
,what more appropriate memorial to the  
long and devoted life of ,comenius to   
the cause of education could be desired1
 and what stronger evidence of the      
permanent influence of his work and     
worth4  ,a second recent manifestation  
of the permanency of the ,moravian      
educator's influence is the ,comenius   

,society 7,comenius-,gesellschaft71 with
 headquarters in ,germany1 and numbering
 among its members most of the leaders  
in educational thought in the world4 ,it
 was organized in #ahia4 ,the objects of
 the society are 7#a7 to spread the     
living influence of the spirit of       
,comenius and the men who have          
represented cognate reforms2 7#b7 to    
work toward an increased knowledge of   
the past and a healthy development of   
the future on the principle of mutual   
union and forbearance1 by means of the  
cultivation of the literature which has 
grown out of that spirit2 and 7#c7 to   
prepare the way for a reform of         
education and instruction on the lines  
laid down by ,comenius4 ,in order to    
realize these objects1 the society      
further proposes 7#a7 the publication of
 the more important writings and letters
 of ,comenius and his associates2 7#b7  
inquiry into the history and dogmas of  
the old evangelical congregations       
7,waldenses1 ,bohemian ,brethren1 ,swiss

 ,brethren1 etc471 chiefly by publishing
 the original sources from their        
history2 and 7#c7 the collection of     
books1 manuscripts1 and documents which 
are important for the history of the    
above objects4  ,the membership of the  
society1 while overwhelmingly ,german1  
includes a considerable number from     
,austria-,hungary1 ,holland1 ,great     
,britain1 the ,united ,states1 ,russia1 
,sweden1 ,norway1 ,italy1 ,switzerland1 
,france1 ,greece1 ,belgium1 and         
,denmark4 ,the society inspired the     
numerous celebrations in commemoration  
of the three hundredth anniversary of   
the birth of ,comenius 7,march #bh1     
#ahib74 ,these celebrations1 held at    
most of the educational centres in the  
,old ,world1 and at a number of places  
in the ,new1 revived the memory of      
,comenius1 and brought his teachings to 
thousands of teachers who had known him 
before only as a name4  ,the society    
began in #ahib the publication of a     
high-grade review1--,monatshefte der    

,comenius-,gesellschaft1--which is      
published bi-monthly at ,berlin1 and is 
edited by the distinguished ,comenius   
scholar1 ,dr4 ,ludwig ,keller4 ,this    
review has most creditably carried out  
the purposes of the society in          
publishing a wealth of original material
 on ,comenius and his contemporaries1   
that hitherto has been altogether       
inaccessible to the student of the      
history of education4 ,the society also 
publishes a bi-monthly educational      
journal for the use of teachers in the  
elementary schools of ,germany          
especially interested in the doctrines  
of ,comenius4 ,it is entitled           
,comenius-,bltter fr ,vlkserziehung1 and
 is also published at ,berlin and edited
 by ,dr4 ,keller4 ,the propaganda of the
 ,comenius ,society has done much to    
restore this worthy to the place he so  
justly merits--the foremost educational 
reformer of modern times4  ,these are   
some of the agencies employed by the    
,comenius ,society in opening up an     

appreciation of this great man1 who1    
8born in ,moravia1 working amongst      
,czechs1 ,germans1 ,english1 ,dutch1    
,swedes1 and ,hungarians1 with friends  
in ,france and ,italy1 has won by his   
thought1 as well as by his life1 a      
universal significance4 ,as philosopher 
and divine1 in union with ,andre1 ,dury1
 ,milton1 and others1 he devoted his    
life to a work of peace4 ,he placed the 
weal of man1 as he termed it1 above the 
respect for languages1 persons1 and     
sects2 thus his energies were directed  
toward restraining the wrangling people1
 churches1 and classes from the violent 
utterance of their differences1 and     
leading them on the ground of early     
,christian views to mutual peace and    
forbearance4 ,as educationalist1        
inspired by ,bacon1 he successfully     
asserted the claims of experimental     
science in the elementary schools of his
 time1 placed the mother-tongue on the  
list of subjects of instruction1 and    
included in the conception of the school

 the idea of physical culture4 ,by his  
demand for education of all children1   
including girls1 who till then had been 
neglected1 he became one of the fathers 
of modern elementary education40        
,,appendices   ,i4 ,,table ,,of ,,dates 
7a7 ,pertaining to the ,life of         
,comenius    #aeib4 ,born at ,nivnitz1  
,moravia1 ,march #bhth4    #afjd4 ,death
 of his father and mother4    ----4     
,entered the elementary school at       
,strasnitz4    #afjh4 ,entered the      
gymnasium at ,prerau4    #afaa4         
,matriculated in the college at         
,herborn4    #afac4 ,matriculated in the
 university at ,heidelberg4    #afad4   
,appointed teacher in the ,moravian     
school at   ,prerau4    #afaf4 ,ordained
 as a minister1 ,april #bith4    #afah4 
,called to the pastorate of the church  
at   ,fulneck2 also superintendent of   
schools4    #afbd4 ,marriage to         
,elizabeth ,cyrrill4    ----4 ,driven   
into the ,bohemian mountains by         
religious   persecutions4    #afbg4     

,banished from his native country4      
#afbh4 ,fled to ,poland2 given charge of
 the gymnasium   at ,lissa4    #afcb4   
,consecrated as a bishop1 ,october #fth4
    #afda4 ,called to ,england1 arriving
 there ,september   #bb;d4    #afdb4    
,left ,london1 ,june #ajth1 for ,sweden4
    ----4 ,settled at ,elbing1 ,prussia1
 in ,october4    #afdh4 ,returned to    
,lissa2 death of his wife2 chosen       
president of the council 7senior        
bishop71 of the   ,moravian ,church4    
#afdi4 ,re-married1 to ,elizabeth       
,gaiusowa4    #afej4 ,took charge of the
 schools at ,saros-,patak1   ,hungary1  
in ,may4    #afed4 ,returned to ,lissa4 
#afef4 ,lissa burned2 flight to         
,silesia4    ----4 ,settled in          
,amsterdam4    #afgj4 ,died at          
,amsterdam1 ,november #aeth2 buried at  
,narden 7,holland71 ,november #bb;d4    
7b7 ,principal ,writings of ,comenius   
#afaf4 ,grammatic facilioris prcepta    
7,simple   grammatical rules74 ,prague4 
#afag4 ,listow do nebe 7,cries of the   

oppressed   poor74 ,olmtz4    #afbb4 ,de
 ,christina perfectione 7,on ,christian 
perfection74 ,prague4    #afbc4         
,labyrint svta a rj srdce1 to jest      
7,labyrinth of the world and paradise of
 the heart74   ,lissa4    #afca4 ,janua 
linguarum reserata 7,gate of languages  
unlocked74 ,lissa4    #afcc4            
,informatorium der ,mutter-,schul       
7,school of   infancy74 ,lissa4    ----4
 ,atrium lingu ,latin 7,on the study of 
,latin   style74 ,lissa4    #afcd4      
,physic ad lumen divinum reformat       
synopsis   7,physics remodelled in      
accordance with divine   light74        
,leipzig4    #afch4 ,prodromus pansophi 
7,fragment of the ,great   didactic4    
,published in ,london1 #afci1 by        
,hartlib74   ,lissa4    #afda4 ,via     
lucis 7,the way of light74 ,amsterdam4  
#afdc4 ,pansophi diatyphosis1           
inconographica1 et   orthographica      
7,published in ,england in #afej with   
the title3 ,a pattern of universal      
knowledge74 ,danzig4    #afdg4          

,vestibulum ,latin lingu rerum          
7,vestibule of   the ,latin language74  
,lissa4    #afdh4 ,linguarum methodus   
novissima 7,new method of   language    
study74 ,lissa4    #afej4 ,lux in       
tenebris 7,light in darkness--on        
prophetic visions74 ,amsterdam4    ----4
 ,schol pansophic delintio 7,plan of a  
pansophic school74 ,saros-,patak4       
#afef4 ,schola ludus 7,school dramas74  
,saros-,patak4    #afeg4 ,orbis         
sensualium pictus 7,the world           
illustrated74 ,nuremberg4    ----4      
,opera didactica omnia 7,complete       
didactic works   in four volumes74      
,amsterdam4    #affj4 ,historia fratrum 
,bohemorum 7,history of the   ,bohemian 
brethren74 ,amsterdam4    ----4         
,cartesius cum sua naturali philosophia 
a   mechanicis eversus 7,descartes and  
his natural   philosophy overthrown by  
arguments derived from   mechanical     
principles74 ,amsterdam4    ----4 ,de   
natura caloris et frigoris 7,on the     
nature   of heat and cold74 ,amsterdam4 

#afjh4 ,unum necessarium 7,the one thing
 needful74   ,amsterdam4   ,,ii4        
,,select ,,bibliography  7a7 ,writings  
of ,comenius    #a4 ,the great didactic4
 ,translated with   introductions1      
biographical and historical1 by ,m4 ,w4 
,keatinge4 ,london3 ,adam and ,charles  
,black4 #ahif4 pp4   #dfh4     ,this    
first complete translation of ,comenius'
 most   philosophic work is admirably   
done4 ,the biographical   introduction  
is given ninety-eight pages1 and the    
historical introduction fifty pages4    
,these are both   interesting and       
critical4 ,the book unfortunately is    
not indexed4     #b4 ,the school of     
infancy3 an essay on the education   of 
youth during the first six years4       
,edited with an   introduction and notes
 by ,will ,s4 ,monroe4 ,boston3 ,d4     
,c4 ,heath  ,co4 #ahif4 ,london3        
,isbister  ,co4 #ahig4   pp4 xvi  #ii4  
,there are numerous foot-notes1 intended
 to show   the origin of ,comenius'     
educational ideals and   the influence  

of his writings on later educators4     
,collateral reading references are given
 at the   end of each chapter1 and in   
the appendix there is   a reasonably    
complete bibliography of ,comenius      
literature4     #c4 ,the orbis pictus4  
,translated into ,english by   ,charles 
,hoole4 ,london3 ,john and ,benj4       
,sprint1 #agbh4   ,syracuse1 ,n4,y43 ,c4
 ,w4 ,bardeen4 #ahhg4 pp4 #ajj4         
,this is a very satisfactory            
reproduction of the   famous ,hoole     
translation by the photographic         
process4 ,some of the cuts are          
indistinct1 but ,mr4   ,bardeen wisely  
refrained from retouching them1         
preferring occasional indistinctness to 
modern   tampering with the originals4  
#d4 ,john ,amos ,comenius3 his life and 
educational   work4 ,by ,s4 ,s4 ,laurie4
 ,boston3 ,willard ,small4 #ahhe4   pp4 
#bbi4     ,the introduction 7pp4 #a-af7 
gives the effect of the   ,renaissance  
on education2 a brief but appreciative  
sketch of the life of ,comenius follows 

7pp4 #ag-fd72   and the remainder of the
 book is given to an   exposition of his
 writings4     #e4 ,grosse              
,unterrichtslehre4 ,aus dem             
,lateinischen   bersetzt mit            
,einleitungen und ,anmerkungen versehen 
von ,julius ,beeger und ,franz ,zoubek4 
,leipzig3   ,siegismund und ,volkening4 
,no date4 pp4 clxxvii  #bhj4     ,the   
sketch of the life of ,comenius 7#agf   
pp47 is by   ,zoubek1 and the           
translation of the ,great didactic      
from the ,latin into ,german by ,beeger4
     #f4 ,ausgewhlte ,schriften4 ,aus   
dem ,lateinischen   bersetzt und mit    
,einleitung und ,anmerkungen   versehen 
von ,julius ,beeger und ,j4 ,leutbecher4
   ,leipzig3 ,siegismund und ,volkening4
 ,no date4 pp4 xvi    #cei4     ,a      
collection of the miscellaneous         
educational   writings of ,comenius1    
including the ,school of   infancy1     
,panegersia1 and fragments of the       
,pansophy4     #g4 ,grosse              
,unterrichtslehre4 ,mit einer           

,einleitung3   ,j4 ,comenius1 sein      
,leben und ,wirken4 ,einleitung1        
bersetzung und ,commentar von ,gustav   
,adolph ,lindner4   ,wien und ,leipzig3 
,a4 ,pichler's ,witwe und ,sohn4 #ahib4 
pp4 lxxxix  #caa4     ,perhaps the best 
,german edition of the ,great           
didactic4 ,the biographical sketch is   
less valuable   than the one in the     
edition by ,beeger and ,zoubek2   but   
the annotations on the ,great didactic1 
covering about forty pages1 give it     
special   pedagogic value4     #h4      
,ueber 8,eins ist noth0 78,unum         
necessarium074 ,von   ,joh4 ,amos       
,comenius4 ,znaim3 ,fournier und        
,haberler4   #ahib4 pp4 #bb4     ,a     
convenient edition of ,comenius'        
pathetic swan   song1 8,the one thing   
needful40 _/   7b7 ,biographical and    
,critical    #a4 ,educational ,review4  
,nicholas ,murray ,butler1   editor4    
,new ,york3 ,educational ,review        
,publishing ,co4   ,march1 #ahib4 ,vol4 
,,iii4 pp4 #bji-bcf4     ,the issue for 

,march1 #ahib1 is a ,comenius number4   
,it   contains a brief on ,comenius by  
,professor ,butler   7pp4 #bji-baa72    
8,the place of ,comenius in the history 
of education10 by ,professor ,laurie    
7pp4 #baa-bbc72   8,the text-books of   
,comenius10 by ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,bardeen    
7pp4 #bbc-ccf72 and 8,the permanent     
influence of   ,comenius10 by ,professor
 ,hanus 7pp4 #bbf-bcf74  #b4            
,proceedings of the ,national           
,educational ,association for #ahib4 pp4
 #gjc-gbh4    ,the department of        
superintendence of the ,national        
,educational ,association1 in connection
 with the   meeting at ,brooklyn1       
,february #af-ah1 #ahib1 held           
exercises in commemoration of the       
three-hundredth   anniversary of the    
birth of ,comenius1 with the   following
 addresses3 8,private life and personal 
characteristics10 ,dr4 ,john ,max ,hark 
7pp4 #gjc-gaa72   8,text-books of       
,comenius10 ,superintendent ,william ,h4
   ,maxwell 7pp4 #gab-gbc72 8,place of  

,comenius in the   history of           
education10 ,professor ,nicholas ,murray
   ,butler 7pp4 #gbc-gbh74     #c4      
,essays on educational reformers4 ,by   
,robert   ,hebert ,quick4 ,new ,york3   
,d4 ,appleton  ,co41 #ahic4 pp4         
#aai-aga4     ,one of the best brief    
critical surveys of the   writings of   
,comenius and written in the fascinating
   style of the genial ,quick4     #d4  
,history of pedagogy4 ,by ,gabriel      
,compayr4   ,translated by ,w4 ,h4      
,payne4 ,boston3 ,d4 ,c4 ,heath  ,co4   
#ahhf4 pp4 #abb-acf4     ,a brief       
summary of ,comenius' most important    
contributions to primary instruction4   
#e4 ,the educational ideal3 an outline  
of its growth   in modern times4 ,by    
,james ,phinney ,munroe4 ,boston3   ,d4 
,c4 ,heath  ,co4 #ahie4 pp4 #fh-id4     
,a concise and critical survey of the   
reforms of   ,comenius and the other    
realists4 ,after ,quick1 the   best     
brief survey of the modern movement2 and
 at   many points it supplements ,quick4

    #f4 ,barnard's ,american ,journal of
 ,education4   ,published at ,hartford  
by the editor1 ,henry ,barnard4   ,june1
 #aheh4 ,vol4 ,v4 pp4 #beg-bih4    ,dr4 
,barnard was one of the earliest to call
   attention to the pedagogic value of  
,comenius'   writings4 ,this translation
 from ,karl von ,raumer's   ,geschichte 
der ,pdagogik was1 up to the time       
,professor ,laurie's book appeared1 the 
only   comprehensive study of ,comenius 
in ,english4 ,raumer1   however1 is not 
an impartial critic of the realists4    
#g4 ,the history of the unitas fratrum4 
,by ,edmund de   ,schweinitz4           
,bethlehem1 ,penn43 ,moravian           
,publication   ,office4 #ahhe4 pp4 #fic4
    ,an authoritative account of the    
,moravian ,brethren   and of ,comenius' 
relation to the same4    #h4            
,monatshefte der                        
,comenius-,gesellschaft4   ,ludwig      
,kellar1 editor4 ,berlin3 ,hermann      
,heyfelder4   #ahib-aijj4 #aj volumes4  
,a high grade bi-monthly review         

published by the   ,comenius ,society in
 the interest of education   generally1 
and in particular of the views held by  
the ,moravian reformer4 ,the review is a
 mine of rich   material on ,comenius   
and his contempories4    #i4 ,leben und 
,schicksale des ,johann ,amos ,comenius4
   ,von ,anton ,vrbka4 ,znaim3 ,fournier
 und ,haberler4 #ahib4   pp4 #afj4      
,the best brief ,german life of         
,comenius4 ,it is   accurate and        
sympathetic1 and contains #ag wood-cuts4
    #aj4 ber des ,johann ,amos ,comenius
 ,leben und   ,wirksamkeit4 ,von ,anton 
,gindely4 ,znaim3 ,fournier und         
,haberler4 #ahic4 pp4 #aji4    ,another 
brief ,german work4 ,professor ,gindely 
is a   ,roman ,catholic1 and while he   
writes of ,comenius with   less         
enthusiasm1 he presents his life with   
critical   fairness4    #aa4 ,johann    
,amos ,comenius3 sein ,leben und seine  
,schriften4 ,von ,johann ,kvacsala4     
,berlin3 ,julius   ,klinkhardt4 #ahib4  
pp4 #dhj  #hi4    ,this1 so far as ,i   

know1 is the most comprehensive   life  
of ,comenius to be found in any         
language2 but at   many points it is    
unnecessarily tedious and diffuse4      
#ab4 ,rein's ,encyclopdisches ,handbuch 
der   ,pdagogik4 ,langensalza3 ,hermann 
,beyer und ,shne4   ,vol4 ,i4 pp4       
#eeh-efi4    ,an excellent brief article
 by ,a4 ,nebe4 ,an article on   the     
,comenius-,stiftung follows 7pp4        
#efi-egc74     #ac4 ,der                
,anschauungsunterricht in der deutschen 
,schule von ,amos ,comenius bis zur     
,gegenwart4 ,von   ,gottlieb ,gustav    
,deussing4 ,frankenberg3 ,c4 ,c4        
,rossberg4 #ahhd4 pp4 #ff4     ,a       
historical and critical dissertation on 
the growth   of object teaching and     
nature study4     #ad4 ,die pdagogischen
 ,grundgedanken des ,amos   ,comenius4  
,von ,hermann ,gottsched4 ,magdeburg3   
,a4 und   ,r4 ,faber4 #ahgi4 pp4 #fd4   
,a dissertation on ,comenius' philosophy
 of education4    #ae4 ,comenius3 ein   
,systematiker in der ,pdagogik4   ,von  

,walter ,mller4 ,dresden3 ,bleyl und    
,kaemmer4 #ahhg4   pp4 #ej4    ,a       
dissertation on the contributions of    
,comenius to   systematic pedagogy and  
school systems4    #af4 ,die ,pdagogik  
des ,spaniers ,johann ,ludwig ,vives    
und sein ,einfluss auf ,joh4 ,amos      
,comenius4 ,erlangen3   ,junge und      
,sohn4 #ahij4 pp4 #fi4    ,indicates    
traces of the educational theories of   
,comenius in the writings of ,vives4    
#ag4 ,die ,didaktik ,basedows im        
,vergleiche zur   ,didaktik des         
,comenius4 ,von ,petru ,garbovicianu4   
,bucharest3 ,carol ,gbl4 #ahhg4 pp4 #hb4
    ,the influence of the ,great        
didactic of ,comenius on   ,basedow and 
his institution is pointed out4    #ah4 
,schmidt's ,encyclopdie des gesammten   
,erziehungs   und ,unterrichtswesen4    
,gotha3 ,besser4 #ahgf4 ,vol4 ,i4   pp4 
#ida-iea4    ,the article is by ,g4     
,baur4 ,it is less comprehensive1       
although more sympathetic1 than the     
article in   ,raumer's ,geschichte der  

,pdagogik4    #ai4 ,buisson's           
,dictionnaire de pdagogie et            
d'instruction primaire4 ,paris3         
,hanchette et ,cie4   #ahhg4 ,vol ,i4   
,part ,i4 pp4 #dba-dbg4    ,three brief 
but discriminating articles4 ,the       
first1 on the life of ,comenius1 by ,c4 
,progler 7pp4   #dba-dbc72 the second1  
on the pedagogical writings of          
,comenius1 by ,ferdinand ,buisson 7pp4  
#dbc-dbf72 the   third1 on the permanent
 influences of ,comenius1 by   ,a4      
,daguet 7pp4 #dbf-dbg74  ,,footnotes3   
,footnote #a3 ,aspects of education4 ,by
 ,oscar ,browning4 ,new ,york3          
,industrial ,educational ,association1  
#ahhh4  ,footnote #b3 ,the ,german      
universities3 their character and       
historical development4 ,by ,friedrich  
,paulsen4 ,authorized translation by    
,edward ,delavan ,perry1 with an        
introduction by ,nicholas ,murray       
,butler4 ,new ,york and ,london3        
,macmillan  ,co41 #ahie4 pp4 xxxi  #bed4
  ,footnote #c3 ,de corrupti sermonis   

emendatione4 ,by ,maturin ,cordier4     
,paris1 #aecj4 ,quoted by ,mr4          
,keatinge4  ,footnote #d3 ,for an       
account of the schools of the ,jesuits  
see ,loyola and the educational system  
of the ,jesuits4 ,by ,thomas ,hughes4   
,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 
#ahib4 pp4 #cjb4  ,footnote #e3         
,geschichte der ,pdagogik4 ,von ,karl   
von ,raumer4 ,gtersloh3 ,bertelsmann1   
#ahhb4  ,footnote #f3 ,see the admirable
 sketch of the earlier humanists3       
,vittorino da ,feltre and other         
humanists4 ,by ,william ,h4 ,woodward4  
,cambridge3 ,university ,press1 #ahig4  
pp4 #bef4  ,footnote #g3 ,john ,amos    
,comenius3 his life and educational     
work4 ,by ,s4 ,s4 ,laurie4 ,boston3     
,willard ,small1 #ahhe4 pp4 #bbi4       
,footnote #h3 ,essays on educational    
reformers4 ,by ,robert ,hebert ,quick4  
,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton  ,co41 #ahic4 
pp4 #efj4  ,footnote #i3 ,the           
educational ideal3 an outline of its    
growth in modern times4 ,by ,james      

,phinny ,munroe4 ,boston3 ,d4 ,c4 ,heath
  ,co41 #ahie4 pp4 #bfb4  ,footnote #aj3
 ,montaigne's ,education of children4   
,translated by ,l4 ,e4 ,rector4 ,new    
,york3 ,d4 ,appleton  ,co41 #ahii4 pp4  
xxiii  #aia4  ,footnote #aa3 ,the       
scholemaster4 ,by ,roger ,ascham4       
,edited by ,edward ,arber4 ,boston3     
,willard ,small1 #ahhh4 pp4 #cag4       
,footnote #ab3 ,positions4 ,by ,richard 
,mulcaster4 ,edited by ,robert ,hebert  
,quick4 ,london3 ,longmans1 ,green      
,co41 #ahhh4 pp4 #cji4  ,footnote #ac3  
,the place of ,comenius in the history  
of education4 ,by ,nicholas ,murray     
,butler4 ,proceedings of the ,national  
,educational ,association for #ahib4    
,footnote #ad3 ,i am aware that         
,comenius says that his father died in  
#afjb2 but the evidence which ,vrbka has
 adduced seems to me conclusive that the
 senior ,komensky died two years later4 
,footnote #ae3 ,rukovt ,skolstvi        
,obecnho4 ,by ,karel ,toubenek and      
,karel ,vorovka4 ,prague1 #ahib4        

,translated by ,miss ,clara ,vostrovsky4
  ,footnote #af3 ,the life of ,john     
,milton4 ,by ,david ,masson4 ,vol4      
,,iii4 ,london1 #ahgc4  ,footnote #ag3  
,professor ,masson4  ,footnote #ah3 ,the
 ,great didactic of ,john ,amos         
,comenius4 ,with introductions1         
biographical and historical4 ,by ,m4 ,w4
 ,keatinge4 ,london1 #ahif4 pp4 #dfh4   
,footnote #ai3 ,mittheilungen ber       
,wolfgang ,ratichius4 ,von ,agathon     
,niemeyer4 ,halle1 #ahdj4  ,footnote    
#bj3 ,in a letter to ,governor ,winthrop
 of ,connecticut1 ,hartlib laments that 
,comenius should continually allow      
himself to be diverted from his         
pansophic works4  ,footnote #ba3 ,the   
correspondence between ,comenius and    
,oxenstiern over the treaty of          
,westphalia is given by ,gindely1 ber   
des ,comenius ,leben und ,wirksamkeit in
 der ,fremde4 ,vienna1 #ahee4  ,footnote
 #bb3 ,for a full account of these      
labors see ,gindely's ,geschichte der   
,bhmischen ,brder4 ,prague1 #aheg-h4    

,footnote #bc3 ,magnalia ,christi       
,americana1 or the ecclesiastical       
history of ,new ,england4 ,by the       
,reverend and ,learned ,cotton ,mather  
and ,pastor of the ,north ,church in    
,boston1 ,new ,england4 ,london1 #agjb4 
,book ,,iv1 p4 #abh4  ,footnote #bd3    
,the history of ,harvard university4 ,by
 ,josiah ,quincy4 ,boston1 #ahdj4 #b    
vols4  ,footnote #be3 ,correspondence of
 ,hartlib1 ,haak1 ,oldenburg1 and others
 of the founders of the ,royal ,society 
with ,governor ,winthrop of             
,connecticut1 #affa-afgb4 ,with an      
introduction and notes by ,robert ,c4   
,winthrop4 ,boston1 #ahgh4  ,footnote   
#bf3 ,for further discussion of the     
question see my article1 8,was ,comenius
 called to the presidency of ,harvard80 
in the ,educational ,review1 ,november1 
#ahif1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 pp4 #cgh-chb1 and   
the article by ,mr4 ,james ,h4 ,blodgett
 in the same ,review for ,november1     
#ahih1 ,vol4 ,,xvi1 pp4 #cij-cic2 also  
the closing chapter in ,professor       

,hanus' ,educational aims and           
educational values 7,new ,york1 #ahii71 
pp4 #bjf-baa4  ,footnote #bg3 ,for an   
excellent discussion of the meaning of  
infancy see ,professor ,john ,fiske's   
,excursions of an evolutionist 7,boston1
 #ahif71 pp4 #cjf-cai1 and ,professor   
,nicholas ,murray ,butler's ,meaning of 
education 7,new ,york1 #ahih71 pp4      
#c-cd4  ,footnote #bh3 ,permanent       
influence of ,comenius1 ,educational    
,review1 ,march1 #ahib4 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4
 #bbf-bcf4  ,footnote #bi3 ,the ,orbis  
pictus1 the first child's picture-book1 
was subsequently prepared to meet this  
need4  ,footnote #cj3 ,see in this      
connection ,tarde's ,laws of imitation4 
,new ,york1 #aijj4  ,footnote #ca3 ,for 
a more detailed account of ,comenius'   
views on the religious education of     
children see the following chapter on   
the ,school of infancy4  ,footnote #cb3 
,zur ,bckerkunde des ,comenius4         
,monatshefte der                        
,comenius-,gesellschaft4 #ahib4 ,vol4   

,i41 pp4 #ai-ec4  ,footnote #cc3 ,school
 of infancy3 an essay on the education  
of youth during the first six years1 by 
,john ,amos ,comenius4 ,to which is     
prefixed a sketch of the life of the    
author4 ,london1 #aheh4 pp4 #afh  #ge4  
,footnote #cd3 ,to except ,locke no     
reformer before ,comenius' time has set 
forth the need of physical training with
 anything like the clearness and fulness
 of the ,school of infancy4 ,see ,some  
thoughts concerning education by ,john  
,locke4 ,edited with introduction and   
notes by ,r4 ,h4 ,quick4 ,london1 #ahhd4
 pp4 #bdj4  ,footnote #ce3 ,note the    
harmony of this conception of play with 
the modern theories of ,professor ,karl 
,groos in his ,play of animals 7,new    
,york1 #ahih1 pp4 #cda7 and in his      
,spiele der ,menschen 7,jena1 #ahii1 pp4
 #ech74  ,footnote #cf3 ,i am indebted  
to ,dr4 ,william ,t4 ,harris for the use
 of the copy of the ,janua belonging to 
the library of the ,bureau of ,education
 at ,washington4 ,it is a handsome      

,elzevir1 bound in vellum1 and published
 at ,amsterdam in #affa4 ,it contains   
#hfc pages1 #eaa of which are given to  
the thousand parallel sentences in the  
five languages 7,latin1 ,french1        
,spanish1 ,italian1 and ,german71 in    
which the book appears4 ,the remaining  
#ceb pages are given to the             
lexicon-vocabularies in the different   
languages4  ,footnote #cg3 ,the ,janua  
has lately been brought out in ,france  
in inexpensive form by ,professor ,a4   
,c4 ,vernier of the ,college of ,autun4 
7,autun1 #ahii4 pp4 #cej47  ,footnote   
#ch3 ,the text-books of ,comenius4      
,proceedings of the ,national           
,educational ,association for #ahib4 pp4
 #gab-gbc4  ,footnote #ci3 ,for a full  
account of ,francke's life and work see 
,a4 ,h4 ,francke's ,pdagogische         
,schriften4 ,nebst einer ,darstellung   
seines ,lebens und seiner ,stiftungen4  
,herausgeg4 von ,g4 ,kramer4            
,langensalza1 #ahgf4  ,footnote #dj3 ,an
 abbreviated translation of the mile has

 been made by ,miss ,eleanor            
,worthington 7,boston3 ,d4 ,c4 ,heath   
,co41 #ahia1 pp4 #aeg71 and a fuller    
7though not complete7 translation by    
,professor ,william ,h4 ,payne 7,new    
,york3 ,d4 ,appleton  ,co41 #ahic4 pp4  
#cee74  ,footnote #da3 ,rousseau and    
education according to nature4 ,by      
,thomas ,davidson4 ,new ,york3 ,charles 
,scribner's ,sons1 #ahih4 pp4 #bec4     
,also the excellent life by ,john       
,morley1 in two volumes 7,london and    
,new ,york1 #ahhh74  ,footnote #db3 ,to 
except the brief sketch by ,quick       
7,educational reformers1 pp4 #bgc-bhi7  
and von ,raumer's sketch in translation 
in ,barnard's ,american ,journal of     
,education 7,vol4 #e1 pp4 #dhg-ebj71    
there is dearth of material on ,basedow 
in ,english4 ,for an excellent account  
in the ,german see ,pdagogische         
,schriften4 ,mit ,einleitungen1         
,anmerkungen1 und ,basedow's            
,biographie4 ,herausgegeben von ,hugo   
,gring4 ,langensalza1 #ahgi-hj4         

,footnote #dc3 ,there is a wealth of    
material in the ,english language on    
,pestalozzi4 ,see3 ,pestalozzi and the  
modern elementary school1 by ,professor 
,a4 ,pinloche 7,new ,york3 ,charles     
,scribner's ,sons1 #aijj72 ,pestalozzi3 
his life and work1 by ,roger de ,guimps 
7,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton  ,co41 #ahig1
 pp4 #dch72 ,life1 work1 and influence  
of ,pestalozzi1 by ,hermann ,krusi 7,new
 ,york3 ,american ,book ,co41 pp4 #bdj72
 and the rich volume of sources by      
,henry ,barnard1 ,pestalozzi and        
,pestalozzianism 7,hartford1 #ahei1 pp4 
#bch  #bcj74  ,footnote #dd3 ,letters on
 early education4 ,addressed to ,j4 ,p4 
,greaves1 ,esq41 ,syracuse1 #ahih1 pp4  
#ahj4  ,footnote #de3 ,translated by    
,lucy ,e4 ,holland and ,frances ,e4     
,turner1 and edited with introduction   
and notes by ,ebenezer ,cook4 ,syracuse3
 ,c4 ,w4 ,bardeen1 #ahid4 pp4 xliv      
#bef4  ,footnote #df3 ,translated and   
abridged by ,eva ,channing4 ,with an    
introduction by ,g4 ,stanley ,hall4     

,boston3 ,d4 ,c4 ,heath  ,co41 #ahig4   
pp4 #aha4  ,footnote #dg3 ,comenius und 
,pestalozzi als ,begrnder der           
,volksschule4 ,von ,hermann             
,hoffmeister4 ,berlin1 #ahgg4  ,footnote
 #dh3 ,the kindergarten system3 its     
origin and development as seen in the   
life of ,friedrich ,frbel4 ,by          
,alexander ,bruno ,hauschmann4          
,translated and adapted by ,fanny       
,franks4 ,london3 ,swan ,sonnenschein   
,co41 #ahig4 pp4 xvi  #bec4  ,footnote  
#di3 ,frbel and education through       
self-activity4 ,by ,h4 ,courthope       
,brown4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's
 ,sons1 #ahig4 pp4 #bji4  ,footnote #ej3
 ,translated and annotated by ,w4 ,n4   
,hailmann4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton    
,co41 #ahhg4 pp4 #ccb4  ,footnote #ea3  
,frbel's educational laws for all       
teachers4 ,by ,james ,l4 ,hughes4 ,new  
,york3 ,d4 ,appleton  ,co41 #ahig4 pp4  
#bif4  ,footnote #eb3 ,herbart and the  
,herbartians4 ,by ,charles ,de ,garmo4  
,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 

#ahie4 pp4 #bfh4  ,footnote #ec3 ,see   
,herbart's ,science of education4       
,translated from the ,german1 with a    
biographical introduction by ,henry ,m4 
and ,emmie ,felkin4 ,boston3 ,d4,c4     
,heath  ,co41 #ahie4 pp4 #bfh4          
,footnote #ed3 ,the place of ,comenius  
in the history of education4            
,proceedings of the ,national ,education
 ,association for #ahib4 pp4 #gbc-gbh4  
,footnote #ee3 ,an excellent account of 
the national ,comenius pedagogical      
library will be found in3 ,die          
pdagogischen ,bibliotheken1 ,schulmuseen
 und stndigen ,lehrmittelausstellungen  
der ,welt4 ,von ,julius ,beeger4        
,leipzig3 ,zangenberg  ,himly1 #ahib4   
pp4 #hd4     ,,index     ,alsted1 ,john 
,h41 #dc4    ,andre1 ,john ,valentine1  
#ce4    ,aquaviva1 #c4    ,aquinas1     
,thomas1 #g4    ,aristotle1 ,politics1  
#b2     philosophy of1 #g4              
,arithmetic1 #aaf4    ,arts1 #ii4       
,ascham1 ,roger1 on humanism1 #ab2      
the ,scholemaster1 #ac4    ,atrium1 #fe1

 #abi4     ,bacon1 ,francis1 dangers of 
science1 #bb2     views on education1   
#bc-bh2     criticisms on ,english      
education1 #ef2     education according 
to nature1 #adh4    ,bardeen1 ,c4 ,w41  
editor of ,orbis pictus1 #age2          
text-book of ,comenius1 #agg4           
,barnard1 ,henry1 contributions to the  
literature of ,comenius1 #agh4          
,barnes1 ,earl1 on the reforms of       
,comenius1 #afg4    ,basedow1 ,johann   
,bernhard1 educational theories and     
labors1 #adi-aec4    ,bateus1 ,william1 
the ,janua1 #cf1 #abe4    ,baur1 ,g41   
sketch of ,comenius1 #agi4    ,beeger1  
,julius1 relation to the                
,comenius-,stiftung1 #afi2              
translation of the writings of          
,comenius1 #agf4    ,benham1 ,daniel1   
translation of ,school of infancy1 #aaj4
    ,bibliography of ,comenius1         
#agg-ahj4    ,blodgett1 ,james ,h41 call
 of ,comenius to ,harvard1 #ha4         
,bowen1 ,h4 ,courthope1 relation of     
,frbel to ,comenius1 #aei4    ,browning1

 ,oscar1 on humanism1 #a2     on the    
study of ,latin1 #d4    ,bruni1         
,leonardo1 an early humanist1 #h4       
,buisson1 ,ferdinand1 ,vives on         
pauperism1 #ah2     the pedagogical     
writings of ,comenius1 #ahj4    ,butler1
 ,nicholas ,murray1 forerunners of      
,comenius1 #ae2     meaning of infancy1 
#hf2     permanent influence of         
,comenius1 #afe1 #agg4     ,csar1       
,commentaries1 #b4    ,campanella1      
,thomas1 on study of nature1 #ce4       
,comenius1 ,john ,amos1 forerunners1    
#ae2     relation to ,vives1 #af2       
agreement with ,bacon1 #bc2             
influenced by ,ratke1 #bh2              
obligations to ,bateus1 #cf2     birth  
at ,nivnitz1 #ch2     ancestry1 #ci2    
classical training at ,prerau1 #dj2     
studies at ,herborn1 #db2               
matriculation at ,heidelberg1 #dd2      
teacher in an elementary school1 #dd2   
ordination as a minister1 #de2     exile
 in the ,bohemian mountains1 #df2       
flight from ,bohemia1 #dg2     literary 

connections1 #dh2     first call to     
,sweden1 #di2     call to ,england1 #ec2
     ,english friends1 #ed2     failure 
of ,english schemes1 #ee2     second    
call to ,sweden1 #ef2     relations with
 ,lewis de ,geer1 #eg2     location at  
,elbing1 #fj2     ordination as senior  
bishop of the ,moravian ,brethren1 #fa2 
ecclesiastical ministrations1 #fb2      
call to ,hungary1 #fc2     organization 
of the schools at ,saros-,patak1 #fd2   
return to ,poland1 #fi2     flight to   
,amsterdam1 #ga2     complete edition of
 his works1 #gb2     death at           
,amsterdam1 #gf2     burial at ,narden1 
#gf2     marriage and children1 #gg2    
alleged call to presidency of ,harvard  
,college1 #gh2     portraits1 #ha2      
the ,great didactic1 #hc-ajh2     the   
,school of infancy1 #aji-abb2     the   
,janua1 #abc-abi2     the ,atrium and   
the ,vestibulum1 #abi-aci2     the      
,orbis pictus1 #acj-ach2     ,methodus  
novissima1 #ach-ada2     influence on   
modern educators1 #adb2     on ,francke1

 #adc-adf2     on ,rousseau1 #adf-adi2  
on ,basedow1 #adi-aec2     on           
,pestalozzi1 #aec-aeh2     on ,frbel1   
#aeh-afb2     on ,herbart1 #afb-afd2    
permanent influence1 #afe-aga2          
bibliography1 #agg-ahj4                 
,comenius-,bltter1 #agb4                
,comenius-,gesellschaft1 #agj4          
,comenius-,stiftung1 #afi4    ,compayr1 
,gabriel1 the ,orbis pictus1 #acg2      
sketch of ,comenius1 #agg4    ,cordier1 
,maturin1 condition of education in     
,france in the #afth century1     #d4   
,daguet1 ,a41 sketch of ,comenius1 #ahj4
    ,davidson1 ,thomas1 relation of     
,rousseau to ,comenius1 #adf4    ,de    
,garmo1 ,charles1 ,frbel and ,comenius1 
#afb4    ,de ,geer1 ,lawrence1 aid to   
,comenius1 #ga4    ,de ,geer1 ,lewis1   
patron of ,comenius1 #eg4    ,de        
,schweinitz1 ,edmund1 account of the    
,unitas fratrum1 #agh4    ,discipline of
 schools1 #hi1 #ajf-ajh4    ,dunster1   
,henry1 president of ,harvard ,college1 
#gh4    ,durie1 ,john1 connection with  

,comenius1 #ed4     ,elbing1 the        
,prussian home of ,comenius1 #fj4       
mile1 #adf4    ,erasmus1 on classical   
learning1 #h1 #bd4     ,fables1 #aag4   
,fiske1 ,john1 meaning of infancy1 #hf4 
,food of children1 #aaf4    ,francke1   
,august ,hermann1 studies at ,kiel and  
,leipzig1 #adc2     organization of the 
,pdagogium at ,halle1 #add2     attitude
 toward classical learning1 #ade4       
,frbel1 ,friedrich1 obligations to      
,comenius1 #aei2     studies with       
,pestalozzi1 #aei2     views on the     
education of women1 #afa4     ,galileo1 
opposed by the humanists1 #i4           
,geography1 #aaf1 #ach4    ,gindely1    
,anton1 life of ,comenius1 #agh4        
,girls1 education of1 #hh4    ,gotha1   
,ratke's experiment at1 #ca4    ,great  
didactic1 #cf1 #fc-ajh4    ,groos1      
,karl1 on play1 #aah4     ,hall1 ,g4    
,stanley1 value of the ,orbis pictus1   
#acg2     influence of ,pestalozzi1     
#aef4    ,hanus1 ,paul ,h41 call of     
,comenius to ,harvard ,college1 #gi2    

correlation1 #ig2     permanent         
influence of ,comenius1 #agg4    ,hark1 
,john ,max1 personal characteristics of 
,comenius1 #agg4    ,harris1 ,william   
,t41 #abf4    ,hartlib1 ,samuel1 account
 of1 #ea-ed4    ,harvard ,college1      
alleged call of ,comenius to the        
presidency of1 #gh-hc4    ,heidelberg1  
matriculation of ,comenius at the       
university1 #dd4    ,henry ,,viii1      
relations with ,vives1 #ai4    ,herbert1
 ,johann ,friedrich1 obligations to     
,comenius1 #afb2     effect of          
instruction on character1 #afc2         
doctrine of interest1 #afd4    ,herborn1
 studies of ,comenius at1 #db4          
,history1 #aaf4    ,hoole1 ,charles1    
editor of the ,orbis pictus1 #acc1 #agg4
    ,hughes1 ,james ,l41 ,frbel and the 
education of women1 #afa4    ,hughes1   
,thomas1 account of ,loyola1 #e4        
,humanism1 #a-ad4    ,hus1 ,john1 first 
bishop of the ,moravian ,brethren1 #ch4 
,infancy1 meaning of1 #hf2              
,comenius' ,school of infancy1 #ajc1    

#aji-abb4    ,interest1 doctrine of1    
#afc4     ,janua1 of ,bateus1 #hg2      
of ,comenius1 #fe1 #abe-abi4    ,jena1  
relations to ,ratke1 #bi2               
pedagogical seminary1 #ade4    ,jesuits1
 the ,ratio studiorum of1 #e2           
devotion to ,latin eloquence1 #g4       
,justinus1 ,laurentius1 bishop of the   
,moravian ,brethren1 #fa4     ,kant1    
,immanuel1 on the labors of ,basedow1   
#aeb4    ,keatinge1 ,m4 ,w41 quoted1    
#ci1 #eg2     edition of the ,great     
didactic1 #hd1 #age4    ,keller1        
,ludwig1 editor of ,monatshefte der     
,comenius ,gesellschaft1 #agj1     #agh4
    ,kindergarten1 #aeh4    ,komensky1  
,martin1 father of ,john ,amos          
,comenius1 #ch4    ,kvacsala1 ,johann1  
sketch of ,comenius1 #agh4              
,language1 #ajj1 #abc-ada4    ,latin1   
schools1 #aje2     study of1 #b4        
,laurie1 ,s4 ,s41 quoted1 #acg2         
edition of the ,great didactic1 #agf2   
place of ,comenius in the history of    
education1 #agg4    ,leipzig1 study of  

pedagogy at the university1 #ade2       
national pedagogical library1 #afi4     
,lindner1 ,g4 ,a41 edition of the ,great
 didactic1 #agf4    ,luther1 ,martin1   
#fi4     ,magnalia of ,cotton ,mather1  
#gh4    ,masson1 ,david1 quoted1 #eb4   
,mather1 ,cotton1 call of ,comenius to  
,harvard1 #gh4    ,maxwell1 ,william    
,,ii41 text-books of ,comenius1 #acd1   
#agg4    ,melanchthon1 ,philip1 on      
classical learning1 #i1 #bd4    ,mental 
training1 #aae-abj4    ,methods of      
instruction1 #ig-ajc4    ,methodus      
novissima1 #ach-ada4    ,monatshefte der
 ,comenius-,gesellschaft1 #aga1 #agh4   
,monroe1 ,will ,s41 call of ,comenius to
 ,harvard ,college1 #ha2     edition of 
the ,school of infancy1 #aaj1 #age4     
,montaigne1 on humanism1 #aa4    ,moral 
training1 #aja1 #abj4    ,moravian      
,brethren1 #ch4    ,mulcaster1 ,richard1
 on humanism1 #ac4    ,mller1 ,joseph1  
bibliography of ,comenius1 #aaj4        
,munroe1 ,james ,p41 on ,rabelais1 #aj2 
sketch of ,comenius1 #agg4    ,music1   

#aai4     ,narden1 burial place of      
,comenius1 #gf4    ,naturalism1 #a4     
,nature1 education according to1 #ij-ig4
    ,nivnitz1 birthplace of ,comenius1  
#ch4    ,nursing of children1 #aad4     
,orbis pictus1 #fi1 #acj-ach4           
,oxenstiern1 ,axel1 #cc1 #eh1 #fb4      
,oxford1 university of1 #fc4            
,pdagogium at ,halle1 #add4             
,pansophia1 #ea1 #ec1 #fd4    ,paulsen1 
,friedrich1 on ,european universities1  
#c4    ,pestalozzi1 anticipated by      
,comenius1 #aaf2     influenced by the  
mile1 #aec2     domestic education1     
#aed2     study of nature1 #aef2        
geography1 #aeg4    ,philanthropinum of 
,basedow1 #aeb4    ,physical training1  
#aac-aae4    ,pictures1 use of1 #ih4    
,play1 #afj4    ,portraits of ,comenius1
 #ha4    ,private education1 #hg4       
,purpose of education1 #he-hi4          
,quick1 ,robert ,hebert1 quoted1 #i1    
#afi2     estimate of ,comenius1 #agg4  
,quintilian1 #ii4     ,rabelais1 on     
humanism1 #aj4    ,ratio studiorum of   

the ,jesuits1 #e4    ,ratke1 ,wolfgang1 
#bh-ce1 #ei4    ,raumer1 ,karl von1 #e1 
#f1 #af1 #ag1 #abh4    ,realism1 #a4    
,rein1 ,wilhelm1 #ade1 #agi4            
,religious training1 #ajb1 #abj-abb4    
,ritter1 ,karl1 #aeg4    ,rousseau1     
,jean ,jacques1 #adf-adi4               
,saros-,patak1 #fd4    ,schiller1       
,hermann1 #ade4    ,school of infancy1  
#ajc1 #aji-abb1 #age4    ,science1 #ih4 
,sense-training1 #aae1 #adg4    ,skyte1 
,john1 #eh4    ,spencer1 ,herbert1 #adh4
    ,sturm1 ,john1 #c1 #e1 #g1 #ad4     
,symbolism of ,frbel1 #afb4             
,trotzendorf1 ,valentine ,friedland1 #c4
     ,university1 #aje4     ,vergarius1 
,petrus ,paulus1 #h4    ,vernier1 ,a4   
,c41 edition of the ,janua1 #abi4       
,vestibulum1 #abi4    ,vittorino da     
,feltre1 #h4    ,vives1 ,john ,lewis1   
account of educational views1 #af-bb4   
,volkelt1 ,johannes1 #ade4              
,volksschule of ,germany1 #aeh4         
,vostrovsky1 ,clara1 #dj4    ,vrbka1    
,anton1 life of ,comenius1 #agh4        

,westphalia1 treaty of1 #fb4    ,women1 
education of1 #ah1 #hh4     ,zerotin1   
,karl von1 patron of ,comenius1 #df4    
,zoubek1 ,franz1 edition of ,comenius'  
writings1 #agf4