,illustration3 ,,british ,,fine ,,wilton
 ,,carpet ,after the ,ardebit carpet    
7,victoria and ,albert ,museum74        
,frontispiece                           
,,pitman',s ,,common ,,commodities ,,and
 ,,industries                           
,,carpets                               
,,by                              ,r4   
,s4 ,,brinton                           
,,london           ,,sir ,,isaac        
,,pitman  ,,sons1 ,,ltd41 #a ,,amen     
,,corner1 ,e4,c4#d                      
,,bath1 ,,melbourne ,,and ,,new ,,york  
,,preface4   ,,in treating of carpet    
manufacture1 which involves the         
employment of looms and other machinery 
of a complicated nature1 ,i was         
confronted with the problem1 how far it 
was necessary or desirable to explain   
and illustrate mechanical devices4 ,upon
 consideration1 it seemed advisable1    
having regard to the scope of the book1 
to avoid as far as possible both        
descriptions and diagrams of a          
mechanical nature4 ,a certain standard  

of mechanical intelligence is assumed in
 the reader2 but this work1 like the    
rest of the series1 is intended for the 
layman2 and it is impossible to describe
 and explain detailed mechanical        
movements except at considerable length 
and with the aid of elaborate diagrams4 
,those who wish to study the technique  
of the subject in detail are referred to
 ,mr4 ,fred ,bradbury's book1 ,carpet   
,manufacture 7,f4 ,king  ,sons1 ,ltd41  
,halifax1 #aijd71 which1 though it has  
not been brought up to date1 is a       
classic for the trade1 as all experts   
are aware4 ,i am indebted to him for the
 use of several blocks4  ,i have also to
 acknowledge the courtesy of the        
,gresham ,publishing ,co41 ,ltd41 of    
,chandos ,street1 ,covent ,garden1 for  
permission to use a number of blocks    
from their ,textile ,industries1 which  
contains some admirable chapters on     
,carpet ,manufacture4  ,my thanks are   
further due to ,the ,times for          
permission to utilise some contributions

 ,i made to their 8,textile             
,supplement10 published in #aiac2 while 
,i have received information and helpful
 criticism from ,messrs4 ,woodward1     
,grosvenor  ,co41 ,ltd41 ,messrs4 ,t4   
,a4 ,naylor1 ,ltd41 ,the ,victoria      
,carpet ,co41 not to mention colleagues 
and foremen of my own ,company1         
,brintons ,limited4  ,for the historical
 chapter ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,a4 ,c4 
,parry1 and for particulars of ,carpet  
,trades ,unions to ,mr4 ,e4 ,stradling1 
,mr4 ,ellis ,crowther1 and ,mr4 ,t4     
,lindsay4  ,i am conscious of the       
possibility of errors and omissions1 and
 ,i should be grateful for any          
intimation of such1 with the view of    
making the necessary corrections1 if a  
further edition should be required4     
,r4 ,s4 ,,brinton4   ,,croft ,,house1   
,,kidderminster1    #aiai4              
,,contents                 ,,chap4      
,,page                      ,,preface   
iii                   ,i4 ,,history     
#a                  ,,ii4 ,,materials   

#i                 ,,iii4 ,,dyeing      
#ac                  ,,iv4 ,,hand-,,made
 ,,carpets                  #bj         
,v4 ,,brussels ,,carpets                
#bi                  ,,vi4 ,,wilton     
,,carpets                     #dd       
,,vii4 ,,axminster ,,carpets            
#di                ,,viii4 ,,chenille   
,,carpets                   #fc         
,,ix4 ,,tapestry ,,carpets              
#ga                   ,x4 ,,ingrain     
,,carpets                    #hf        
,,xi4 ,,design ,,and ,,colour           
#ib                 ,,xii4 ,,statistics 
#ajd                ,,xiii4 ,,employers 
,,and ,,employed            #ajg        
,,xiv4 ,,conclusion                     
#aai                      ,,index       
#abc                                    
,,illustrations        ,,fig4           
,,page            ,,british ,,fine      
,,wilton ,,carpet                       
,frontispiece          #a4 ,,turkish1   
,,knot                                  
#ba         #b4 ,,longitudinal ,,section

 ,,through ,,healds1          #cc       
,,harness1 ,,sley1 ,,and ,,fabric       
#c4 ,,section ,,of ,,five-,,frame       
,,brussels ,,carpet         #ce         
#d4 ,,section ,,of ,,three-,,frame      
,,brussels ,,carpet        #cf          
#e4 ,,and #e;,a4 ,,chlidema ,,square    
#da         #f4 ,,section ,,of          
,,five-,,frame ,,wilton                 
#de         #g4 ,,section ,,of          
,,imperial ,,axminster--#c-,,shot       
#ea         #h4 ,,section ,,of          
,,axminster--#c-,,shot                  
#eb         #i4 ,,sections ,,of         
,,axminster ,,weaves                    
#ec        #aj4 ,,tufting ,,mechanism   
#ee        #aa4 ,,chenille ,,design     
,,paper ,,cut ,,up                  #fd 
#ab4 ,,chenille ,,cloth                 
#fe        #ac4 ,,transverse ,,section  
,,showing ,,fur ,,inserted       #fe    
#ad4 ,,section ,,of ,,chenille          
,,axminster                 #fg         
#ae4 ,,design ,,of ,,tapestry ,,carpet  
#gb        #af4 ,,design ,,in ,,fig4 #ae

 ,,elongated ,,as ,,printed        #gc  
#ag4 ,,printing ,,drum                  
#gf        #ah4 ,,scale ,,and ,,design  
,,board ,,combined               #gh    
#ai4 ,a ,,scraper                       
#hj        #bj4 ,,printed ,,threads     
,,set ,,for ,,winding ,,on ,,to         
#ha              ,,the ,,beam           
#ba4 ,,fig4 #bj ,,as ,,woven            
#hb        #bb4 ,,structure ,,of        
,,tapestry ,,carpet                  #hb
        #bc4 ,,medium ,,tapestry        
,,carpet                        #hc     
#bd4 ,,tapestry ,,velvet--#c-,,shot     
#hc        #be4 ,,tapestry ,,velvet     
#hd        #bf4 ,,tapestry ,,velvet--#b 
,,shots ,,in ,,the ,,ground         #hd 
#bg4 ,,two-,,ply ,,in ,,warp ,,and      
,,weft                      #hf         
#bh4 ,,two-,,ply ,,warp ,,and ,,weft    
#hh        #bi4 ,,three-,,ply ,,warp    
,,and ,,two-,,ply ,,weft                
#hh        #cj4 ,,three-,,ply ,,warp    
,,and ,,weft                       #hi  
,,carpets                               

,,chapter ,i                            
,,history   ,,before the mechanical     
processes involved in the manufacture of
 carpets to-day are described1 a short  
sketch of the history of the fabric and 
the story of its introduction into this 
country may be of interest4 ,the origin 
of the weaver's loom1 like that of the  
potter's wheel1 dates back to the       
prehistoric times4 ,a loom with its     
workers is shown in an ancient ,egyptian
 fresco1 the date of which is reckoned  
by antiquarians to be about #c1jjj years
 before the ,christian ,era4 ,in the    
grottoes of ,benihassan1 both spinners  
and weavers are shown1 the weavers      
working on cloths both plain and of a   
checked pattern2 and both perpendicular 
and horizontal looms are represented4   
,there were1 however1 other             
civilisations beside the ,egyptian2 and 
the origin of the carpet must be sought 
still further to the ,east1 in places   
where1 in spite of the ebb and flow of  
conquests1 it is still made at the      

present day4  ,mention is frequently    
found in ancient records of history of  
rich hangings1 coverings1 fine cloths   
and tapestries1 generally the booty of  
some conqueror2 but it is difficult to  
tell whether some fabric used           
exclusively as the carpet of to-day is  
used is included in these lists4 ,the   
ancient equivalent of the modern carpet 
or rug was known to the ,babylonians1   
who were1 according to ,pliny1 skilful  
weavers2 and its manufacture was carried
 on at an early date among the          
,assyrians and ,persians1 in ,china and 
,india1 and among the ,arabs4  ,the     
original purpose of the carpet in the   
,east was probably the same in the      
beginning as it is there1 now1 at the   
present day4 ,it was used to give colour
 to the temple1 as a hanging for the    
tents1 a trapping for the saddle1 a     
sitting place for the guest1 for a      
covering of the ground on which to sleep
 or pray2 and its manufacture in any    
district implied a certain degree of    

civilisation and luxury4  ,the use of a 
woven floor-covering seems to be        
indicated in passages in ,homer2 and the
 well-known authority1 ,sir ,george     
,birdwood1 cites an account of a banquet
 given at ,alexandria in the third      
century before the ,christian ,era by   
,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 at which        
,persian rugs were spread in the ,king's
 tent4 ,persian carpets were highly     
valued1 and were exported to ,greece1   
and at a later date to ,rome4           
,themistocles1 according to ,plutarch1  
8likened a man's discourse to a rich    
,persian carpet1 the beautiful figures  
and patterns of which can be shown only 
by spreading and extending it out2 when 
it is contracted and folded up1 they are
 obscured and lost40  ,the conquests of 
,alexander the ,great1 which extended as
 far as ,india1 seem to have made the   
use of the products of the ,eastern     
looms familiar among the ,greeks4 ,at a 
later date the conquests made by the    
,roman ,consuls spread the arts of the  

,east still further into ,europe4 ,at a 
later period still the taking of        
,constantinople by the ,turks drove many
 skilful artificers to take up their    
residence in ,italy at ,venice1 ,genoa1 
and ,florence1 and at some towns in     
,france2 and from these centres carpets 
were still further distributed over     
,europe4  ,the ,crusades brought        
,england into touch with the ,east2 and 
specimens of carpet were probably       
introduced by returning knights and     
their followers2 but it is through      
,spain1 a country which acquired the art
 from the ,moors1 that they are first   
known to have come1 ,queen ,eleanor of  
,castille and her suite introducing them
 into this country on her marriage to   
,edward ,i4 ,illustrations of carpets   
are shown in pictures of the time of    
,henry ,,viii2 and in the time of       
,elizabeth they were probably in more   
general use in ,england than most       
writers on the subject are accustomed to
 allow2 for direct communication with   

the ,east had been opened up by the     
fearless and enterprising traders and   
adventurers of those times4 ,in         
,hakluyt's ,voyages there are the       
following instructions to a trader about
 to journey to ,persia--  8,in ,persia  
you shall finde carpets of course       
thrummed wooll1 the best of the world1  
and excellently coloured2 those cities  
and townes you most repaire to1 and you 
must use meanes to learne all the order 
of the dying of those thrummes1 which   
are so died as neither raine1 wine1 nor 
yet vinegar can staine2 and if you may  
attaine to that cunning you shall not   
need to feare dying of clothe4 ,for if  
the colour holde in yarne and thrumme1  
it will holde much better in cloth4     
,learne you there to fixe and make sure 
the colour to be given by logge wood2 so
 shall we not need to buy wood so deare 
to the enriching of our enemies4        
,enquire the price of leckar1 and all   
other things belonging to dying4 ,if    
before you returne you could procure a  

single good workeman in the arte of     
,turkish carpet making you should bringe
 the arte into this ,realme1 and also   
thereby increase worke to your company40
  ,hakluyt's praise of the ,persian     
carpets was not undeserved1 for their   
manufacture in his time had reached a   
period of excellence as regards design  
and workmanship which it has been from  
time to time the aim of modern          
manufacturers to reproduce1 as far as   
the conditions and requirements of the  
present day permit4 ,many of the best   
specimens in the museums and collections
 of ,new ,york1 ,london1 ,vienna1 and   
,paris are attributed to the fifteenth  
and sixteenth centuries4 ,when ,hakluyt 
wrote there was in existence a carpet at
 the ,mosque of ,ardebil1 in            
,north-,west ,persia1 which is now in   
the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,the 
date of this carpet is #aedj1 and       
experts agree that it belongs to the    
best period of ,persian carpet weaving4 
,there is1 unfortunately1 no record     

whether the efforts of ,hakluyt and the 
merchant adventurers of his time to     
obtain weavers from ,turkey or ,persia  
were successful4 ,carpets do not find a 
place among the goods to be especially  
sought after by their agents4 ,as far   
back as the reign of ,henry ,,viii we   
read of ,cardinal ,wolsey obtaining     
carpets through the ,venetian           
,ambassador2 and in that reign ,richard 
,sheldon lent his house to a weaver     
named ,richard ,hicks1 who produced     
among other fabrics woven maps of       
,worcestershire and ,oxfordshire1       
specimens of which are still in         
existence4  ,in ,france1 ,henry ,,iv    
gave assistance for the manufacture of  
carpets1 and in #afjd there was a strong
 guild of carpet weavers2 but it was not
 until the reign of ,louis ,,xiv that   
the manufacture was revived at ,aubusson
 and established at ,beauvais4 ,the     
industry had the direct patronage of the
 ,french ,king1 and some celebrated     
fabrics were made4 ,the ,revocation1 in 

#afhe1 of the ,edict of ,nantes1 which  
for a time had given protection to the  
,protestants of ,france1 drove a large  
number of ,french and ,walloon artisans 
into ,england and ,germany2 and the     
spinning and weaving were among the many
 industries in this country to be       
benefited by this influx of skilful     
workers4  ,in #agja the carpet weavers  
of ,wilton and ,axminster received a    
charter2 but even at an earlier date the
 manufacture of carpets had been carried
 on at these places4 ,both these towns  
have given their names to distinct      
fabrics that are now made in many places
 and countries4 ,carpet manufacture is  
no longer carried on at ,axminster1     
where it flourished for about a century2
 and other places1 like ,fulham1        
,moorfields1 ,exeter1 and ,frome1 where 
early attempts were made to establish   
the industry1 have long ceased to have  
any connection with carpet making4      
,about the year #agdj1 the ,earl of     
,pembroke brought over weavers from     

,france and introduced into ,wilton the 
making of loop-pile or ,brussels        
carpeting4 ,this was followed in due    
course by the development of the        
cut-pile fabric which took its name from
 the place4  ,about the year #agcf the  
weaving of carpets seems to have been   
established at ,kidderminster1 a town   
which had been connected with the       
weaving of broadcloth and 8flowered     
stuff0 from as far back as the reign of 
,henry ,,viii4 ,when the art was first  
introduced1 what is now called ,scotch  
or ,kidderminster carpet was made on the
 old hand-loom2 the process of weaving  
was slow and laborious1 and required a  
man and a boy to each loom4 ,in #agde1  
,mr4 ,broom started the manufacture of  
,wilton and ,brussels carpets in the    
town1 bringing over weavers from        
,tournai4 ,in #aggb the number of carpet
 looms in the town was #bej1 and the    
trade extended to other places in the   
,north of ,england and ,scotland4 ,in   
#ahcj there were nearly #a1ajj looms in 

,kidderminster1 and a considerable home 
and foreign trade had been established4 
,a ,parliamentary ,paper of that date   
gave the consumption of wool in the     
weaving of carpets as one twenty-eighth 
of the whole quantity of wool produced  
in the ,kingdom4  ,in #ageg1 ,mr4       
,thomas ,moore started the manufacture  
of carpets in ,london1 and obtained a   
premium from the ,society of ,arts for  
the best imitation of ,turkey carpets4  
,as far back as #aggh there was a trade 
to some extent at ,kilmarnock4 ,the     
original fabric was the two-ply ,scotch 
or ,kidderminster carpet4 ,in #ahbd1 an 
engineer of ,kilmarnock introduced the  
three-ply ,scotch carpet1 a fabric of   
three layers of different colours1 each 
of which is brought to the surface      
according to design2 while about the    
same time ,brussels and ,velvet pile    
were also introduced into ,scotland4 ,in
 #ahca1 the ,trustees for ,manufactures 
in ,scotland awarded the prize for four 
,turkey carpets1 the first of that type 

made in ,scotland4  ,in the last quarter
 of the eighteenth century the          
inventions of ,arkwright had been       
applied to the woollen and worsted      
industries4 ,boulton and ,watts had put 
their steam engine on a practical       
footing1 while ,cartwright had made a   
power-loom for the weaving of calico1   
and had also patented a wool-combing    
machine4 ,in ,france1 ,jacquard was     
perfecting a device which1 when adapted 
to the carpet loom1 was to play an      
important part in the development of the
 industry4  ,from the beginning of the  
nineteenth century1 progress1 in spite  
of occasional checks due to general     
economic conditions1 was well           
maintained2 and by the year #ahbe the   
,jacquard mechanism was beginning to    
replace1 both in ,england and ,scotland1
 the old and complicated harness of the 
hand-loom4 ,a great increase of trade   
followed its adoption4  ,two other      
important inventions1 which had a great 
influence in extending the scope of the 

trade1 were developed in the thirties of
 the last century4 ,the one was the     
development of the tapestry process of  
printing and weaving carpets by ,mr4    
,whytock1 of ,edinburgh and ,glasgow4   
,this process enabled a greater range of
 colours to be used than was previously 
possible1 and also allowed a cheaper    
fabric to be produced4 ,after initial   
opposition1 the process was developed in
 ,scotland2 and finally1 about the year 
#ahdb1 ,halifax became the centre of the
 ,tapestry weaving4 ,firms in other     
towns were licensed1 and the process was
 so widely taken up that in #ahej there 
were #a1bii ,tapestry hand-looms at work
 in ,england and ,scotland1 as against  
#b1ejj hand ,brussels looms4 ,the other 
notable invention was that of ,mr4      
,james ,templeton1 of ,glasgow1 who in  
#ahci patented a novel device for the   
manufacture of patent ,axminster carpets
 by a two-fold process4 ,this also      
admitted of a large range of shades4    
,the invention has since been           

considerably developed1 and has         
contributed largely to the extension of 
the carpet industry4  ,from small       
beginnings1 early in the nineteenth     
century the manufacture of carpets had  
grown in the course of #ej years to an  
important industry in the ,united       
,states1 and was well established in    
,philadelphia and other centres4 ,both  
in ,england and ,america the most able  
inventors had turned their attention to 
the problem of weaving by power4 ,mr4   
,collier1 who had been successful in    
weaving linen by power1 produced1 in    
conjunction with ,messrs4 ,crossley1 of 
,halifax1 a loom for the weaving of     
,tapestry and ,brussels4 ,the problem   
had1 however1 been solved by ,mr4 ,e4   
,p4 ,bigelow1 in ,america1 and the      
,bigelow patent was acquired by ,messrs4
 ,crossley4 ,the introduction of the    
power-loom created a great change in the
 industry4 ,the transition period from  
hand-weaving to power-weaving was a     
period of anxiety to manufacturers and  

of privation to the old hand-loom       
weavers2 but the situation was          
everywhere faced1 and from the first    
introduction of power-loom weaving      
ever-increasing quantities of carpets   
have been woven1 both for home          
consumption and for export4 ,in the     
seventies of the last century another   
step forward was the remarkable         
invention of the ,moquette or ,royal    
,axminster loom by ,alexander ,smith    
,sons1 of ,yonkers1 ,n4,y4 ,this loom   
was introduced to ,england by ,messrs4  
,tomkinson  ,adam1 of ,kidderminster2   
and the invention has caused a still    
further extension of the carpet trade   
both at home and abroad4                
,,chapter ,,ii                          
,,materials   ,,carpet manufacture is a 
complicated matter1 and involves the use
 both of various ingenious machines and 
of a diversity of materials1 such as    
wool1 cotton1 jute1 twine1 oil1 paper1  
wire1 colours1 size1 etc4 ,we need only 
concern ourselves1 however1 with the    

more important of these materials1 which
 are yarns made of wool1 in the form of 
worsted or woollen1 which are almost    
invariably used for the surface of a    
carpet2 and yarns made of other fibres1 
which are used for warp and weft4  ,the 
wool used for carpet yarns is different 
from that required for either cloth or  
hosiery4 ,it need not be so fine and    
soft1 but it should be strong1 and in   
the case of worsted yarn1 of fairly long
 staple1 while natural lustre adds to   
the value4  ,a recent estimate of the   
sources of wool consumed by the carpet  
trade allotted #i per cent4 to the      
,british ,empire1 as much as #dj per    
cent4 to ,russia1 and the remainder to  
other countries4 ,strong ,british wools1
 and the coarser stapled fibres from    
,australia and ,new ,zealand1 form the  
bulk of the first category1 while       
,egyptian and ,east ,indian wools1 which
 are in especial demand for woollen     
yarns1 are responsible for a large      
proportion of the last4  ,of other      

materials that can be and are used for  
the surface of carpets1 mention should  
first be made of silk4 ,hand-tufted     
carpets are sometimes made of silk both 
in ,asia and in ,europe1 and beautiful  
effects are obtained2 but the cost on   
the one hand1 and the nature of the yarn
 on the other militate against its being
 a very suitable material for a floor   
covering4 ,carpets made with a silk pile
 possess a wonderful sheen1 especially  
if hand-woven1 so that the tufts lie    
over at a considerable angle2 but the   
pile possesses no resilience and suffers
 more from soiling in wear than a       
wool-pile carpet of a corresponding     
quality4  ,mohair is used occasionally  
for hand-tufted carpets with excellent  
effect1 and it is often employed to     
great advantage in self-coloured hearth 
rugs1 for which there is a regular      
demand4 ,the extreme stiffness of the   
fibre and its disinclination to felt1   
however1 cause the yarn to be a rather  
intractable material for carpet         

manufacture4 ,it possesses1 moreover1   
the special characteristic of           
considerable density4 ,in other words1  
it is heavy for its volume1 so that a   
yarn of a given thickness will weigh    
much more than a similar yarn of another
 fibre1 with the result that all mohair 
fabrics are expensive compared with     
those made of wool or other yarns4      
,jute is employed for the surface as    
well as for the rest of the carpet at   
,dundee2 and horse-hair ,brussels       
carpets are made1 which are extremely   
durable1 but somewhat harsh1 and not    
very decorative4 ,yarn spun from        
cow-hair is utilised sometimes for the  
surface of carpets of the ,brussels or  
,dutch type1 but perhaps more often for 
filling warps2 while cotton has been    
tried for the former purpose also1 but  
without very satisfactory results1 owing
 to the lack of resilience in its fibre4
  ,if to the cobbler there is nothing   
like leather1 so to the carpet          
manufacturer there is nothing like wool4

 ,yarn made of wool seems to be the     
ideal material for the surface of a     
carpet4 ,wool is capable of being spun  
easily into yarn of any required count  
or thickness2 and such yarn can be dyed 
to any shade1 and woven into any fabric4
 ,when woven1 it will retain its        
appearance and stand reasonably hard    
wear better than most similar textile   
materials4 ,its liability to the attacks
 of moths may be urged2 but1 after all1 
carpets are made as much for use as for 
ornament1 and it is well known that the 
clothes moth only works when he is      
undisturbed4  ,of subsidiary yarns1     
perhaps cotton is the most important4   
,this is used for a large proportion of 
the chain warps of all kinds of         
carpeting4 ,it is also occasionally used
 for weft1 and in its lowest qualities  
for stuffers4  ,flax yarn1 more         
generally known in the trade as linen1  
is used in considerable quantities1     
especially as chains for ,axminster1 and
 as weft for ,wilton and ,brussels      

carpets4 ,its combined strength and     
pliancy1 coupled with a certain degree  
of stiffness1 make it a most useful     
fibre4 ,jute and hemp1 having regard to 
the total production of all kinds of    
carpet1 are probably used in greater    
quantities than any other yarn4 ,jute is
 cheap and strong1 and is invaluable as 
a filling to give weight and handle to a
 fabric4 ,it has the disadvantage of    
being liable to decay if it becomes wet1
 and in this state1 if used in too large
 a proportion1 of causing the           
disintegration of a carpet4  ,of other  
materials that are sometimes used for   
the backing of carpets1 mention must be 
made of ramie1 which has been tried as a
 substitute for linen yarn1 which it    
resembles a good deal in character1     
being strong and pliant1 but inelastic4 
,the cost1 however1 has proved to be    
prohibitive4 ,various mixtures of jute  
and wool1 or of cotton and wool1 have   
been tried1 and have their values as    
combining weight with resilience4       

,paper yarn1 though seldom as a matter  
of fact under its own name1 has been    
tried as a substitute for linen1 cotton1
 and jute1 as weft1 chain1 and stuffer4 
,it can be spun or twisted into a       
presentable yarn in a variety of counts2
 and a yarn that will weave and weave   
well4 ,during the war1 owing to their   
shortage of other fibres1 the ,germans  
used considerable quantities of paper   
yarn for weaving cloths1 webbing1       
harness1 equipment1 and even carpets1   
which no doubt served their purposes    
tolerably well4 ,it was1 however1 a     
development pursued rather from         
necessity than from choice4 ,they had   
plenty of wood1 which we have not2 and  
they lacked the wool1 cotton1 and jute4 
,paper yarn cannot seriously compete in 
price with jute1 nor in value with      
cotton1 for use in carpets4 ,it is1     
moreover1 particularly liable to        
deterioration from dampness4            
,,chapter ,,iii                         
,,dyeing   ,,all worsted and woollen    

yarns used for the surface of carpets1  
with the exception of those whereon the 
colours are printed1 as in ,tapestry    
carpets1 are dyed2 and fast and accurate
 dyeing is of cardinal importance in    
carpet manufacture4  ,practically all   
worsted yarns1 and some woollen yarns1  
however1 are supplied to carpet         
manufacturers by the spinners in oil or 
in grease2 that is to say1 still        
impregnated with the oil which has been 
put into them in the process of         
spinning4 ,the freeing of the yarn from 
this oil by washing is a necessary      
preliminary to dyeing1 inasmuch as the  
presence of oil would prevent the dye   
liquor permeating the wool fibres4      
,scouring is effected by soap and hot   
water1 generally by machines of one type
 or another4 ,the yarn in skeins is     
sometimes thrown upon swifts1 which     
revolve over a vat of suds4 ,the skeins 
are carried through the liquor and well 
rinsed by the rotation of the swifts4   
,another method employed is to pass the 

skeins1 tied together in a long chain1  
through vats in which they are steeped  
in the suds1 and through rollers which  
squeeze them more or less dry4 ,or the  
skeins may travel along a series of     
aprons1 underneath a shower1 between    
rollers1 or through bowls of suds4 ,the 
precise method adopted is not of great  
importance provided that the scouring   
solution has full opportunity to operate
 upon the wool fibres1 so that the yarn 
is delivered ultimately free of oil and 
of soap4 ,for this reason1 a final bath 
of pure water is desirable4  ,the       
solvents principally used are ammonia1  
alkali1 and an alkaline soap of some    
kind4 ,cotton-seed oil soap is generally
 regarded as one of the most suitable4  
,the scoured yarn is now ready for      
dyeing1 and passes1 without being fully 
dried1 to the sticks or frames of the   
hand-vat or dyeing machine4  ,the three 
main considerations to be kept in view  
in the dyeing of worsted and woollen    
yarns for carpets are levelness of      

colour1 accuracy of matching1 and       
fastness of colour to light4 ,the second
 and third are matters which concern the
 skill of the head dyer and the quality 
of the dyestuffs which he employs2 the  
first depends upon the handling of the  
yarn by the operative in the hand vat or
 dyeing machine2 and the essential      
factor1 apart from the proper           
temperature of the dye-liquor1 is       
motion4  ,dyeing by hand1 although      
superseded almost entirely by           
machine-dyeing1 is still employed in    
some cases1 particularly where only     
small quantities are required4 ,the     
dye-vat is of wood1 and should be a     
well-made piece of joinery to withstand 
the wear and tear incidental to its use4
 ,round the bottom on the inside is     
fitted a tube of copper or some         
acid-resisting metal1 perforated with   
small holes1 through which steam is     
passed to heat up the water4 ,the head  
dyer weighs out the dyestuffs estimated 
to produce a shade a fraction below the 

required shade1 so as to admit of final 
adjustment after testing4 ,this1 of     
course1 applies equally to hand or      
machine-dyeing4 ,for hand vats1 the     
skeins of scoured yarn are hung on a set
 of poles1 which1 when filled1 are      
placed on brackets above the vat4 ,when 
the dyestuff has been put in1 and the   
water brought to the required           
temperature1 a pair of workmen1 each    
holding one end of the poles1 standing  
on each side1 sets them on the edge of  
the vat and lets the free ends of the   
skeins sink down into the liquor4 ,when 
all the poles are in place1 the         
operators start on the pole at one end1 
and1 raising each skein in turn1 draw it
 over a few inches1 so that the part    
which has hitherto remained outside the 
liquor is now immersed4 ,when the skeins
 on one stick are finished1 that stick  
is pushed a little way along and the    
next is treated similarly4 ,when the    
whole set is done1 the operation is     
repeated4 ,the essence of the treatment 

is to keep the yarn moving4 ,if the     
skeins were allowed to remain in the    
same place1 even after the first moving1
 there would be 8stick marks0 at the    
point where the skein rested on the     
pole1 because the liquor would not have 
had as much access to this place as to  
the rest of the skeins4  ,after an hour 
or so1 or when sufficient time has been 
allowed for the dyestuffs to permeate   
the yarn fibres1 the poles are lifted on
 to the brackets1 and a skein is taken  
out and submitted to the head dyer for  
matching4 ,the head dyer will compare it
 with his standard1 and1 in the case of 
dyeing to match a cut-pile or tufted    
fabric such as ,wilton or ,axminster1 he
 will probably make a tuft from a thread
 of the sample skein1 so as to compare  
the shade of the cut ends as well as of 
the outside of the thread4 ,he will then
 make the necessary corrections or      
additions to the dye-bath if the exact  
shade has not been reached1 and the     
operation will be continued until he is 

satisfied4 ,the poles are then finally  
lifted1 removed from above the vat to a 
horse2 the yarn is then stripped from   
the poles and passed to the             
hydro-extractor prior to going on to the
 stove or drying machine4  ,the object  
of dyeing machines1 of course1 is to    
effect the same treatment of the yarn as
 is done by hand as just described1 but 
in a more expeditious way4 ,a machine   
can1 in fact1 do nearly twice as much as
 a man1 and in a more regular manner4   
,that is to say1 one man can mind a     
machine of the same capacity as a hand  
vat which requires two men2 but it is   
desirable1 if not1 indeed1 necessary1   
that he should have assistance in       
loading and unloading4  ,given the      
necessity for keeping the yarn in motion
 while immersed in the dye liquor1 the  
problem of the designer of dye machines 
has been to find the most simple and    
effective way of doing this1 keeping in 
view the need for convenience in        
preparing the yarn for the bath1        

dropping it in1 and removing it4        
,dyeing machines are of two main types3 
those which move the yarn through the   
liquor1 and those which move the liquor 
through the yarn4 ,each type has in     
common a frame of some kind to carry the
 dye-sticks on which the yarn is hung2  
and practically every type of frame is  
provided with sticks to support the     
skeins at one or both ends4 ,of the     
former and earlier type the movement of 
the frame carrying the yarn in the      
liquor may be effected in various ways4 
,the frame in one machine is revolved in
 the vat upon a circular axis2 in       
another the revolution is combined with 
a rocking motion2 in a third a vertical 
movement is obtained by means of a      
hydraulic pump fitted with an automatic 
reversing mechanism4 ,in each case the  
problem of moving the yarn in the liquor
 is complicated by the minor problems of
 moving the yarn on the sticks so as to 
avoid stick marks1 and of raising and   
lowering the frame1 or of stripping it  

in position1 if irremovable4 ,the former
 is solved by some worm or ratchet      
contrivance for automatically turning   
the dye-sticks1 and the latter by cranes
 or tackle1 or1 as in one of the makes  
just mentioned1 by a hydraulic pump4    
,all the machines of this main type have
 their advantages and disadvantages1 as 
they have their supporters and critics2 
but there can be little doubt that the  
balance of opinion among carpet yarn    
dyers is growing preponderatingly       
towards the second type of machine2 that
 in which the liquor is moved through   
the yarn4 ,in this type1 the frame      
carrying the yarn is dropped into the   
vat1 which is then covered with a lid4  
,the liquor is then caused to circulate 
in a strong stream throughout the vat by
 propellers fixed at the head4 ,the     
motion of the propellers can be reversed
 if desired4 ,if both top and bottom    
sticks are used in the frame1 they are  
placed at a less distance apart than the
 length of the skein1 so that1 the skein

 being completely immersed1 the yarn is 
carried free of the stick by the flow of
 the liquor1 access is given to all the 
wool fibres1 and the danger of stick    
marks is avoided4 ,the chief merit of   
this machine1 however1 is the           
considerable economy that is effected in
 steam consumption by the reduced size  
of the vat1 as well as by the lid4 ,the 
vat need only be made just large enough 
to contain the skeins dropped into it1  
whereas in the other type of machine it 
must be made large enough to allow for  
the skeins to be moved about in it4     
,there is1 therefore1 less water to be  
heated for a given weight of yarn4 ,the 
lid avoids loss of heat by radiation1   
which is inevitable with the open top   
types4  ,the chemistry and the science  
of dyeing worsted and woollen yarns is a
 subject that can only be dealt with    
adequately at considerable length4 ,here
 a brief reference must suffice4  ,wool 
fibre is a substance similar in nature  
to horn1 with a scaly surface4 ,it is   

hygroscopic1 being capable of taking up 
a large amount of water compared to its 
own bulk1 and when moistened and heated 
it tends to soften and swell4 ,these    
characteristics make wool very          
susceptible of being dyed4 ,it is said  
to have an affinity for certain         
colouring matters1 but this phrase      
serves to cover a want of agreement     
among chemists1 as to whether dyeing is 
actually of a chemical or a mechanical  
nature4 ,it is probably both4 ,in any   
case1 wool is easy to dye compared with 
silk1 cotton1 or other fibres4  ,natural
 dyestuffs1 such as logwood1 madder1    
fustic1 cochineal1 and indigo1 are      
practically obsolete so far as dyeing   
for carpet yarns is concerned2 and the  
modern dyer has a large range of aniline
 and alizarine colours to choose from4  
,as is pretty generally known1 the      
production of dyestuff from coal tar was
 originally a ,british invention1 but   
its development passed into the hands of
 the ,germans1 upon whom1 before the    

war1 the dye consumers of the carpet    
trade1 as of other trades1 were very    
largely dependent4 ,necessity and       
enterprise have remedied this deplorable
 state of affairs1 which need never     
recur4 ,the coal tar dyes now being     
produced by ,british dye manufacturers  
are trustworthy and satisfactory1 and   
they should improve both in quality and 
quantity as time goes on4  ,for the     
purposes of the carpet yarn dyer1 at any
 rate1 the anilines and alizarines now  
obtainable are infinitely preferable to 
any natural or vegetable dyes1 being    
easier to use1 more reliable1 and faster
 to light4  ,the ordinary method of     
preparing the dye-bath into which the   
worsted or woollen yarn is to be dipped 
in the manner that has been described1  
is as follows4 ,the water1 in which from
 #b to #d per cent4 of sulphuric acid   
and from #e to #aj per cent4 of         
,glauber's ,salts is mixed1 is brought  
up to about #agj;,f42 the dyestuff is   
added1 about #a to #e per cent41        

according to the depth of shade         
required4 ,the percentages are reckoned 
upon the weight of the yarn to be dyed4 
,the yarn is then entered1 and the water
 is brought to the boil1 and kept       
lightly boiling as long as required to  
obtain the shade4 ,there are some       
delicate shades1 however1 and some      
sensitive dyestuffs1 for which the yarn 
requires to be entered cool1 and the    
water to be brought slowly to the boil4 
,the dyed yarn passes from the vat to   
the hydro-extractor1 a large copper pan 
with perforated sides1 which1 revolving 
at a great speed1 causes the wet skeins 
by centrifugal force to press against   
the circumference and squeeze out a     
large proportion of the water they      
contain4 ,the skeins are then taken out1
 bundled roughly together1 and are ready
 for conveying to the drying room or    
drying machine4  ,drying the yarn can be
 effected simply by hanging the skeins  
on poles in a room through which strong 
currents of air are forced by revolving 

fans4 ,this method1 however1 depends too
 much upon the weather1 even if the air 
is caused to pass over steam-heated     
coils on entering the room4 ,a better   
alternative is to expose the yarn hung  
on poles in a heated chamber4 ,the most 
certain and satisfactory method1        
however1 is a drying machine of some    
type1 which enables the skeins to be fed
 into it at one end1 to pass through a  
current of heated air1 and to be        
delivered dry at the other4 ,the factors
 in this case1 the heat of the steam    
coils and the speed of the machine1 are 
known and can be controlled2 so that the
 dyer can rely upon getting a certain   
quantity of yarn satisfactorily dried in
 a certain time4 ,in the ordinary type  
of machine1 the skeins are carried      
horizontally between two wire aprons2   
but alternatively they can be carried   
vertically upon hooks or poles4  ,the   
yarn1 coloured and dried1 is now ready  
to go to the yarn store1 or direct to   
the winding-room4                       

,,chapter ,,iv                          
,,hand-,,made ,,carpets   ,,the         
characteristic feature of a carpet1 as  
distinguished from other floor          
coverings1 is the combination of a      
surface composed almost always of wool  
with a woven foundation1 which may be of
 various materials4  ,the main          
classification of carpets is between    
those which are made by hand and those  
which are made by machine2 and of both  
these classes there are many            
sub-divisions4  ,hand-made carpets are  
the oldest type of the fabric1 and1     
coming from the ,east1 are the          
historical parents of all modern        
carpets4 ,this kind of carpet is made   
to-day in the ,united ,kingdom1 on the  
,continent1 and in the ,east in almost  
exactly the same manner in which it has 
been made by the ,orientals for several 
hundred years4 ,the principle is        
extremely simple4 ,the warp threads1 or 
chain1 are wound on two horizontal      
beams1 between which they are stretched 

vertically4 ,the beams are carried by   
upright posts on which they can revolve1
 the space between the posts determining
 the width of the rug or carpet4 ,the   
weavers sit side by side in front1 the  
carpet as it is woven being gradually   
wound on to the lower beam1 and the warp
 correspondingly unwound from the upper 
beam4 ,the yarn for the pile is cut up  
into tufts about #b in4 in length1 and  
is knotted round two warp threads1 tuft 
by tuft1 according to the paper design1 
which is attached in front of the       
weaver4 ,as each row1 or part of a row  
is finished1 two weft threads are put   
in1 one in the shed formed between the  
front and back halves of the chain1 and 
a second in an alternate shed1 which is 
formed by the weaver pulling forward the
 back half of the chain temporarily in  
front of the front half4 ,the second    
weft is put in straight1 the first one  
loose1 zig-zag1 or vandyked1 so as to   
fill up the back of the carpet1 and to  
avoid the tendency towards lateral      

contraction4 ,the weft is beaten down   
into its place by a heavy fork or       
beater4 ,this interlocking of warp and  
weft with the tuft forms the weave of   
the carpet1 and has been imitated more  
or less in all mechanically woven carpet
 fabrics4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a     
,,turkish ,,knot  ,there are two        
different kinds of knot employed1 the   
,ghiordes or ,turkish1 and the ,senne or
 ,persian4 ,in carpets made with the    
former1 the tuft of yarn is knotted     
round a pair of warp threads in such a  
manner that the two ends of yarn come   
between the two warp threads round which
 the tuft is looped1 and consequently   
two pile ends alternate with every two  
warp threads4 ,in ,persian carpets the  
tuft is knotted in such a way that one  
end of the tuft obtrudes between each   
warp thread4 ,this method of weaving    
renders possible a closer texture than  
the ,turkish knot2 while carpets of     
suitable design and finer pitch are     
often woven with a running thread looped

 round the finger of the weaver1 and    
then cut1 instead of by individual      
tufts4 ,this latter system gives more   
waste but quicker weaving4 ,with both   
,turkish and ,persian knots the tuft    
ends do not stand up at right angles to 
the plane of the fabric1 but lie over   
obliquely towards the starting end of   
the carpet4 ,this natural slant of the  
pile1 which results in presenting to the
 eye and the foot of the user of the    
carpet partly the ends and partly the   
sides of tufts1 is a very characteristic
 feature of hand-made carpets1 and one  
which cannot be completely imitated by  
any class of machine-made fabrics4      
,another kind of hand weaving is the    
tapestry method1 wherein the weft       
colours1 wound upon wooden needles1 are 
threaded round and between the warp     
ends1 leaving a flat or slightly ribbed 
surface1 not unlike that of an ingrain  
carpet4 ,the absence of a tufted pile   
does not make this a luxurious carpet2  
but it enables a fine pitch to be       

employed1 and the richest and most      
delicate effects of design and colour to
 be obtained4 ,carpets of this type have
 long been made at ,les ,gobelins1      
,paris1 ,aubusson1 and ,beauvais1 in    
,france1 and ,tournai1 in ,belgium4 ,the
 work is slow and highly skilled1 and   
the product is naturally very expensive4
  ,there is no better kind of carpet    
than the carpet made by hand2 though    
this is far from implying that all      
hand-tufted carpets are superior to all 
machine-made ones4 ,but there is no     
method of combining the pile with the   
foundation so good as the knot2 and it  
cannot be completely imitated by the    
cleverest power-loom invented4 ,the     
hand-tufted carpet possesses an         
individuality1 even in its faults1 which
 no product of a machine can attain1 and
 which1 after all1 is an attribute to a 
work of art4 ,more of the soul of the   
worker has passed into it than the      
clashing metal of a power loom will     
permit to filter into its product4      

,hand-made carpets have a further       
advantage in their adaptability to      
requirements4 ,a single carpet1 for     
instance1 can be made to any specified  
shape1 size1 design1 colour1 and        
quality4 ,it is possible to produce in  
one piece carpets of oval1 circular1 or 
,l-shaped form1 or to conform to        
irregular curves and angles4  ,qualities
 are numerous1 but may be said to vary  
mainly between about #i and #djj tufts  
to the square inch4 ,the average        
,european hand-made carpet will not run 
to more than from #af to #cj4  ,as      
regards materials1 the tuft yarn will   
vary from a heavy woollen for coarse    
pitches to a fine worsted for the       
closer1 while silk is occasionally      
employed1 producing a carpet of greater 
lustre1 but less resiliency4  ,the      
,eastern weavers are fond of using      
woollen of suitable counts for both warp
 and weft1 though a cotton warp is quite
 common4 ,flax or linen1 however1 is    
more commonly employed by the ,european 

maker2 and the combination of strength  
and softness in this material seem to   
make it almost ideal for the purpose4   
,european hand-tufted carpets may be    
considered as upon a different footing  
from ,asiatic4 ,indeed1 the carpet      
dealer would hardly regard the two--at  
any rate in pre-war days1 would hardly  
have regarded them--as mutually         
competitive4 ,the main localities for   
this branch of the industry are         
,maffersdorf1 in ,austria1 ,holland1    
,donegal1 ,carlisle1 and ,wilton4 ,but1 
although in each of these places carpets
 of characteristic ,eastern design and  
colouring are produced1 their staple    
trade has always lain rather along the  
lines of specialities4 ,they have       
catered rather for architects1          
decorators1 individuals1 or public      
bodies1 who were inspired by some       
particular idea1 and who could afford to
 pay for it1 than for the ordinary      
consumer4 ,to make standard carpets for 
stock1 unless it were some crimson      

,yapraks1 would be quite exceptional4   
,the reason for this1 and the relation  
of ,european and ,asiatic hand-made     
carpets will be alluded to later4  ,at  
any rate the fact remains1 that the     
,european hand-tufted carpet trade1     
though it has been responsible for some 
superb productions in a variety of      
styles--and in this connection due      
credit must be given to the enemy maker 
alluded to--yet it never attained a     
position of importance adequate to its  
undoubted merits4  ,it is quite         
impossible to deal effectively in a     
limited space with so large a subject as
 that of ,oriental carpets and rugs4    
,books have been written on the         
historical and artistic aspects alone4  
,some brief notes must suffice4 ,it is  
interesting to recall that the          
inhabitants of ,persia and ,asia ,minor1
 who were the earliest makers of        
carpets1 were nomads4 ,they wove their  
tents1 decorated with tribal signs and  
symbols1 and they wove the curtains or  

kelims for greater comfort and ornament4
 ,rugs and carpets followed in natural  
sequence4 ,the primary object of these  
was to cover the raised bank of earth at
 the end of the tent on which the chief 
sat4 ,other rugs and mats were placed   
round the tent for the use of the family
 or of visitors4 ,besides these1 there  
were the prayer rugs for their special  
purpose1 which were carefully stored    
when not required for use4  ,when the   
dwelling-place developed from a tent to 
a house1 a raised seat of honour covered
 by a rug took the place of the bank of 
earth2 and divans on each side of the   
room1 for which long rugs or runners    
were required1 accommodated the family  
and callers4  ,weaving was1 and still   
is1 largely a family affair1 in the     
,east4 ,the women and girls sit in front
 of the loom and work under the         
supervision of the matriarch4 ,obviously
 the degrees of skill employed will     
vary2 and this leads to some of the     
irregularities in ,eastern carpets1     

which1 however1 are regarded rather as  
beauties than as blemishes by the       
,western buyer4  ,it is not to be       
implied1 however1 that all ,oriental    
carpets are still the product of family 
or tribal industry4 ,western methods    
have penetrated even into the           
8unchanging ,east03 organisation of the 
industry has been set up2 and carpet    
dealers and importers' syndicates in    
,new ,york1 ,london1 and ,paris have    
their agents in the ,east1 and even     
control their own factories1 to which   
they send their orders4 ,this may be    
thought to detract from the romance of  
the ,oriental carpet1 but it does not   
appear to have affected adversely the   
progress of the industry or the merit of
 its products2 and there is no reason   
why it should1 so long as the ,western  
buyers are men of taste and experience1 
and do not seek to impose uncongenial   
ideas upon the ,eastern worker1 which   
might tend to the destruction of        
individuality and local feeling4  ,it is

 a common fallacy1 that the yarns of    
,oriental carpets are dyed solely with  
vegetable dyes1 and that those dyes are 
intrinsically superior to aniline and   
alizarine dyes1 such as are employed for
 yarns for machine-made fabrics4 ,the   
latter have been used for many years now
 by ,european carpet manufacturers1 not 
because they are cheaper than vegetable 
dyes1 but because they are easier to    
use1 more accurate for matching         
purposes1 and faster to light4 ,there   
are1 of course1 good and bad synthetic  
dyes1 but the best are immeasurably     
superior to dyes made from plants1      
barks1 and berries4 ,this fact has long 
been recognised by those who control the
 production of ,oriental carpets1 for   
the yarns for which aniline and         
alizarine dyes are now extensively      
employed4  ,the subject of dyeing       
naturally leads on to that of doctoring 
or 8faking10 which is commonly adopted  
with a large proportion of ,eastern     
carpets4 ,the object is twofold3 to     

soften the original brightness of the   
colours1 or to give an appearance of    
age2 and to obtain a gloss which the    
wool does not naturally possess4 ,this  
is generally done by the collectors or  
agents1 and not by the people who weave 
the carpets4 ,it is often known by the  
innocent name of washing1 and consists  
in treating the surface with some       
chemical such as chlorine water1 or     
glycerine1 followed by ironing with a   
hot iron4 ,it can hardly be supposed    
that this treatment does not detract to 
some extent from the life of the carpet2
 but this consideration appears to be   
outweighed by that of the more          
attractive appearance4  ,it has been    
stated that it is not an uncommon       
practice to expose a carpet to use in   
the bazaar or street with the object of 
enhancing its commercial value by giving
 it an artificial appearance of age4 ,it
 is to be hoped1 however1 that this very
 insanitary method of faking is rare2   
but those who wilfully give preference  

to a carpet because it is dirty and     
faded1 and apparently old1 do not       
deserve too much sympathy4  ,there are  
varieties of ,asiatic carpets far too   
numerous to be mentioned here4 ,they    
differ widely in origin1 design1 colour1
 and quality1 each town or district     
having its characteristic pattern and   
ornament1 which is followed with more or
 less persistence4 ,the finest carpets1 
both in pattern and quality1 are the    
,persian1 the worst are some of the     
,indian1 which are coarse in texture and
 devoid of artistic merit4 ,in between  
are the standard ,turkeys1 which are in 
great and steady demand all over        
,europe4  ,reference has been made to   
the very different position occupied by 
,asiatic and ,european1 or at any rate  
,british hand-tufted carpets4           
,practically identical in manufacture1  
they are in different categories        
commercially4 ,the ,eastern carpet trade
 is a large one1 healthy1 well          
organised1 and profitable4 ,the ,british

 hand-tufted industry is artificial1 and
 maintains a precarious existence4  ,it 
may not be considered quite outside the 
scope of this chapter to examine the    
reason for this position4 ,the question 
is in reality purely an economic one4   
,british hand-tufted carpets cannot be  
manufactured on a basis of cost that    
enables them to compete in price with   
the imported ,eastern carpet4 ,the      
question of design and colour may be    
ignored for the moment2 quality for     
quality1 the domestic product cannot    
meet its ,oriental competitor on equal  
terms in the market1 despite the fact   
that it comes straight from the         
manufacturer1 while the other has       
probably had to bear collectors' and    
wholesale dealers' profits4  ,the reason
 lies1 of course1 in the different      
standard of living4 ,the cost of the raw
 materials is not substantially         
different in ,great ,britain and in     
,asia ,minor4 ,but the ,british carpet  
has got to pay for steam-heating1 gas   

and water1 and electric light1 and a    
more liberal standard of diet1 than     
suffices the frugal ,armenian or ,kurd4 
,the women and girls who weave ,eastern 
carpets are not protected by factory    
inspectors and welfare superintendents4 
,and the difference in cost of          
production due to these very different  
conditions is very considerable2 while  
in view of the increase of wages during 
the war1 and the steadily advancing     
standard of comfort among ,british      
artisans1 it seems likely to be even    
more in the future4  ,under these       
circumstances1 it is justifiable to ask 
whether it is fair and wise to allow    
this competition to continue4 ,during   
the war the import of ,oriental carpets 
has been prohibited1 and it cannot be   
claimed that the results have been      
disastrous4 ,the stock of ,oriental     
carpets existing in the country when the
 prohibition was initiated has changed  
hands at steadily increasing prices4 ,in
 other words1 the people who wanted the 

carpets keenly enough have got them1 and
 have had to pay handsomely for them4   
,why should not this prohibition1 or    
alternatively a high import duty1 be    
maintained8 ,no one would suffer except 
the ,turk1 about whose financial welfare
 we need not perturb ourselves1 and     
possibly the semi-,european middleman   
and agent4 ,the bona fide dealer in     
,oriental carpets1 located in ,great    
,britain1 would be able to convert his  
capital and his technical knowledge     
towards the building up of a big        
,british hand-tufted industry2 and in a 
few years we should see in private      
houses1 hotels1 and clubs1 instead of   
the ,asiatic product1 for which our     
money has been sent out of the country1 
real ,british hand-made carpets1 which  
would have been manufactured under ideal
 conditions1 and for good wages4 ,and   
there is no reason in the world why such
 carpets should not equal or surpass in 
quality and artistic merit the finest   
productions of the ,east4               

,,chapter ,v                            
,,brussels   ,,of machine-made carpets1 
that which naturally demands the first  
mention is the ,brussels carpet1 which  
was the first kind to be woven in this  
country by the aid of a ,jacquard1 a    
pattern-selecting mechanism to which    
allusion will be made later4 ,brussels  
is a loop-pile fabric1 consisting of a  
strong woven foundation1 composed of    
linen1 jute1 and cotton yarns1 together 
with that portion of the worsted yarn   
which is not utilised on the surface to 
form the pattern4 ,the pattern itself is
 formed on the surface by differently   
coloured looped threads of worsted      
yarns4  ,the character of the fabric    
lends itself to patterns well-defined in
 design and colour4 ,the smooth1        
gently-ribbed surface gives a clean and 
neat1 but not a luxurious effect2 and   
the carpet is generally more suitable   
for small and medium-sized rooms and    
simple furnishing schemes1 than for bold
 or ambitious effects4 ,the number of   

shades available is also limited4  ,the 
processes of manufacture are            
comparatively few and simple4  ,the yarn
 is received from the spinner in grease1
 that is1 still containing the oil that 
was put into the wool for the purpose of
 spinning1 and in skeins4 ,worsted      
spinners supply a large variety of      
counts and twists of yarn for ,brussels 
and ,wilton carpets1 which need not be  
particularised4 ,as a normal ,brussels  
yarn we may take #afs1 #b  #c2 a thread 
sharply twisted in the doubling1 and    
loosely in the re-doubling1 running     
about #ajj yards to the ounce4 ,the yarn
 should be spun from wool of a          
moderately long staple4  ,in the        
dye-house it is first scoured1 to get   
rid of the oil1 which would interfere   
with the dyeing1 and then dyed4 ,from   
the dye-vat the yarn is taken to the    
hydro-extractor1 or wince1 where a large
 proportion of the moisture is          
eliminated by centrifugal force4 ,the   
skeins of dyed yarn are then dried1     

either by being hung on poles and       
exposed to a current of warm air1 or by 
being passed through a mechanical dryer1
 which normally consists of a large     
chamber of wood and iron1 through which 
the yarn is carried by an apron1 or pair
 of aprons1 while exposed to streams of 
hot air propelled by fans4  ,from the   
drying room or drying machine1 the yarn 
passes to the winding room1 to be wound 
on to bobbins4 ,the winding frame       
consists of a series of pulleys set on a
 shaft4 ,opposite each pulley or drum is
 a swift on which the skein is adjusted1
 the end of the yarn from the skein     
being led on to the body of the empty   
bobbin1 which is held against and       
rotated by the pulley1 the face of the  
pulley being a little less than the     
space between the flanges of the bobbin4
 ,this bobbin1 called the creel bobbin1 
because it goes into the creel frames of
 the loom1 has a face of #b in4 and a   
flange diameter of #c in4  ,the creel   
bobbins1 each of which when fully wound 

will contain about #a_/c lb4 of yarn1   
are then taken to the creel frames at   
the back of the loom4 ,for a best       
five-frame ,brussels carpet1 five sets  
of #bef or #bfj bobbins will be         
required4 ,these five sets are placed in
 each of the five creel frames1 each    
bobbin being free to revolve slowly on a
 creel peg1 and so release its yarn as  
required4 ,each of the #a1bhj or #a1cjj 
ends of yarn is led through to the front
 of the loom1 being threaded first      
individually through an eyelet in the   
harness1 and then1 along with the other 
ends of yarn that belong with it1       
through a reed of the sley4  ,the body  
and back of the carpet is provided for  
normally by two warp beams1 the chain   
and the stuffer4 ,the chain consists of 
twice as many ends of cotton as there   
are reeds in the sley4 ,thus1 if the    
pitch is #bef1 there will be #bef reeds1
 or reed spaces in the #bg in4 width of 
the sley 7in practice the sley is made a
 little wider than the carpet is to be  

woven72 and there will be #eab ends of  
cotton chain in the same width1 two to  
each reed space4 ,the stuffer beam      
consists normally of as many ends as    
there are reed spaces4 ,the stuffer warp
 is of jute1 bump1 or cotton yarn4  ,the
 object of the chain is to form1 in     
combination with the weft1 the woven    
base of the fabric2 all the rest is     
either surface or back4 ,the weave is   
effected by the chain ends being        
threaded through eyelets mounted on two 
heald-frames or gears1 which rise       
alternately in such a way as to allow   
the shuttle1 carrying the weft1 to be   
shot through the shed or opening thus   
formed4  ,the purpose of the stuffer1 or
 dead warp1 is merely to give body or   
weight to the fabric1 and it is not     
essential if there is enough body       
provided by the rest of the warp4 ,the  
stuffer ends are also carried on eyelets
 in a gear frame1 but are not divided   
like the chain1 and remain practically  
in the middle of the fabric4  ,both     

chain and stuffer beams lie between the 
creel frames and the main part of the   
loom4 ,their slow unwinding is operated 
automatically while the loom is running4
  ,the harness consists of a set of     
#a1cjj cords1 carrying the mails or     
eyelets through which the worsted is    
threaded1 kept taut by a weight at their
 lower ends1 and connected with the     
,jacquard mechanism above4 ,the         
,jacquard 7the invention of ,joseph     
,marie ,jacquard1 of ,lyons7 is an      
ingenious device for selecting and      
raising the threads required to form the
 pattern4 ,the ,jacquard principle in   
various forms is in use throughout the  
textile trades1 and need not be         
described in detail here4 ,the essential
 feature of it is the combination of    
perforated paper or card with needles or
 pegs in such a way that the blank 7or1 
it may be1 the perforation7 in the card 
causes the harness carrying a certain   
thread1 or set of threads1 to rise as   
required4  ,the operation of the        

,brussels loom may now be described4    
,the ends of worsted yarn from the creel
 bobbins having been drawn through the  
eyes in the harness1 and the chain and  
stuffer ends through the eyes in the    
healds1 all are drawn through the sley  
in such a way that there will be in each
 reed-space five ends of worsted1 two of
 cotton chain1 and one of stuffer warp4 
,all ends are now made fast to the      
breast roller at the front of the loom1 
and kept taut by weighting the warp     
beams1 and by hanging small hooked      
weights on to each thread of worsted    
close to the bobbin in the creel frame4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,,longitudinal 
,,section ,,through ,,healds1 ,,harness1
 ,,sley1 ,,and ,,fabric ,a1 ,stuffer    
warp2 ,b1 ,worsted warps2 ,c1 ,chain2   
,j1 ,comberboard2 ,k1 ,mail2 ,l1        
,lingo2 ,h1 ,healds2 #a to #f1 ,harness 
,when the loom is running1 the ,jacquard
 lifts one worsted thread in each reed1 
thus forming a shed1 under which the    
wire is introduced from the side4       

,immediately below the wire now lies the
 body of the fabric1 consisting of the  
four frames of worsted in each course1  
which are not required to form the      
pattern1 the stuffer warp1 and one half 
of the cotton chain4 ,below the body of 
the fabric is a lower shed formed by the
 other half of the cotton chain1 and    
through this the shuttle passes1        
carrying the weft1 at the same time as  
the wire is being inserted4 ,then the   
lathe1 which has been lying back to     
allow the passing of the shuttle and the
 entrance of the wire1 comes forward    
with the sley1 and beats up the wire and
 the last shot of weft against the      
breast-plate of the loom and the last   
part of the woven fabric4 ,at the same  
time the ,jacquard allows the harness   
carrying the ends selected for the last 
lash to drop back on to a level with the
 others1 and the gears carrying the     
cotton chain begin to change4 ,next1 the
 lathe goes back again2 one half of the 
chain is brought up to form a shed1     

under which and over the rest of the    
threads the shuttle passes back1 thus   
effectively tying in the worsted threads
 which are looped over the wire4        
,meanwhile the last wire of the set 7of 
about #cj7 which has moved forward as   
the fabric is woven1 is drawn out by a  
hook1 and carried back for insertion    
under the next shed of worsted4 ,a      
number of wires is used so as to avoid  
the risk of the loops being pulled flat 
by the weight on the yarn or the strain 
of the harness or sley4  ,chains and    
stuffers are generally coloured and     
sized1 the yarn being slowly wound from 
bobbins or cheeses on a frame or stand1 
passing through a trough of coloured    
starching material1 over a steam-heated 
cylinder1 or a series of pipes1 on to an
 iron flanged beam4 ,the weft1 which is 
normally of linen yarn1 is also         
generally coloured and sized1 and is    
used whilst still damp4 ,the colouring  
certainly adds to the appearance of the 
carpet1 and the sizing adds stiffness   

and handling1 though1 apart from this1  
and from the fact that it is expected by
 the dealer1 it is doubtful whether it  
is of any advantage1 except in the      
cheaper grades1 where less yarn is used4
  ,brussels and ,wilton carpets are     
described as being of five1 four1 or    
three frames1 according to the number of
 sets of creel bobbins carrying worsted 
warp threads4 ,each frame will generally
 be composed of threads all of one      
colour2 but an enhanced colour effect is
 often obtained by one or more of the   
frames being 8planted40 ,this means that
 worsted threads of two or more colours 
are arranged side by side in the same   
frame in groups1 in accordance with the 
design4 ,if1 for instance1 the design   
contains a rose1 for the petals of which
 a frame of pink yarn is to be used1    
then the colourist or weaver1 by a      
judicious selection and arrangement of  
bobbins1 can add to the colour effect by
 shading the petals from light to dark2 
or1 again1 a flower may be coloured blue

 in one part of the design and gold in  
another4 ,skilfully used1 this device   
makes a three-frame look like a four1 or
 a five-frame like a six1 but it must be
 used with discretion and with due      
regard to the design1 or disfiguring and
 tell-tale stripes will ensue4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c ,,section ,,of 
,,five-,,frame ,,brussels ,,carpet ,a   
,a1 ,chain2 ,b1 ,pile warp2 ,c1 ,stuffer
 warp  ,best ,brussels has been taken as
 an example in describing the process of
 manufacture1 but a good many other     
qualities are1 or at least have been1   
made4 ,best is #bef pitch1 beaten up #i 
to the inch1 but extra qualities are    
made up to #aa per inch1 which gives an 
excellently close and even surface4     
,finer than this in pitch or beat-up it 
has not been found practicable to go4   
,lower qualities are made in #bcf and   
#bad pitch1 and even down to #ahj1 with 
beat-ups running down to #f or #f per   
inch1 and a framage of three or two4 ,in
 the coarsest qualities1 however1 there 

is always the tendency to 8grin10 that  
is1 for the weft and body of the carpet 
to be exposed between the loops of the  
pile1 unless the coarseness is          
compensated by the employment of a      
thicker pile yarn or a higher wire4     
,this is1 in fact1 the case with a class
 of ,brussels that has been manufactured
 extensively by some makers in recent   
years1 where the yarn is spun from low  
wool or cow-hair1 and is a good deal    
heavier than the ordinary ,brussels     
worsted counts4 ,this fabric is almost  
entirely confined to plains and stripes1
 though occasionally two frames are     
used1 and a simple pattern effect       
produced4 ,it is a good wearing carpet1 
and suitable for offices and modest     
purses4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d       
,,section ,,of ,,three-,,frame          
,,brussels ,,carpet ,a1 ,chain2 ,b1     
,pile warp2 ,c1 ,stutter warp2 ,e1 ,weft
  ,the fact is1 however1 that the demand
 for all qualities of ,brussels         
carpeting has fallen off steadily during

 the past few years2 and the reasons for
 this are strong and would seem likely  
to be permanent4 ,brussels has suffered 
from the competition of ,axminster on   
the one hand1 and ,tapestry on the      
other4 ,brussels is1 unfortunately1 an  
uneconomic fabric in its manufacture1   
inasmuch as1 in a five-frame for        
instance1 for every length of worsted   
that appears on the surface1 four times 
as much is hidden in the body of the    
fabric1 and1 except in so far as it acts
 as filling1 is wasted4 ,a ,tapestry    
carpet1 as will be explained later1     
avoids this waste1 and can therefore be 
produced with an equally good surface as
 ,brussels1 and at a lower cost4 ,we    
ignore for the moment the characteristic
 defect of ,tapestry carpets4  ,the     
cheaper ,axminster1 again1 and to some  
extent the cheaper ,chenille ,axminster 
as well1 have largely superseded        
,brussels1 owing to the fact that they  
can be sold at almost the same price1   
while offering a more luxurious effect  

with their cut pile surface and their   
larger range of colours4  ,there are    
some dealers1 moreover1 who aver that   
the manufacturers of the cheaper        
qualities of ,brussels have themselves  
to blame for the decreased demand1      
because these qualities were not        
satisfactory in wear1 and in particular 
were liable to 8sprout40 ,sprouting is  
the tendency of the loops in the pile of
 a ,brussels carpet to be pulled out    
through such external agencies as a     
chair leg1 a boot nail1 a rubber heel1  
or the claw of a dog or cat2 though1    
indeed1 complaints seem often to have   
been framed as if on the assumption that
 sprouting was a natural property of the
 carpet similar to that of its vegetable
 namesake4 ,still1 the maker has had to 
admit that cheaper qualities are more   
liable to the disease than better ones1 
and perhaps his best retort has been    
that he was long borne down in price and
 pressed to make cheaper qualities1 and 
that those who demand them must not     

complain too much if they do not get all
 they expect4  ,still1 when all is said1
 with all its limitations1 a good       
,brussels is an excellent carpet4 ,it   
has a clean surface which does not      
harbour dust1 and if the same can also  
be said of the ,ingrain carpet1         
,brussels has the extra resiliency      
afforded by the looped pile4 ,if its    
colours are few1 they are enough to give
 thousands of effective variations1     
suitable for almost any kind of design2 
and the comparative closeness of its    
pitch makes its patterns neat and       
adaptable4 ,a well-made ,brussels carpet
 will wear many years4  ,reverting to   
the processes of manufacture1 the roll  
of carpet goes from the loom to the     
measuring table1 where it is measured by
 hand or machine before passing to the  
finishing or 8picking0 room4 ,here it is
 first dried by passing over a          
steam-heated cylinder1 or1 in some      
places1 by being looped over a series of
 rails in a warm chamber4 ,then the back

 of the carpet is picked2 that is1 the  
superfluous material1 if any1 is removed
 and defects remedied4 ,the roll is then
 passed through a shearing machine1     
provided with a rapidly revolving shaft 
set with spiral blades1 where the       
surface is brushed and very lightly     
shorn1 to remove loose and projecting   
fibres4 ,the surface of the carpet then 
is inspected by the pickers1 who mend   
any faults left from the weaving4 ,their
 work is supervised and checked by the  
passers4 ,at this stage1 some           
manufacturers pass their ,brussels      
carpets1 particularly the cheaper       
qualities1 through a pressing machine1  
in which heavy pressure on the looped   
pile is exerted by rollers1 the object  
being to obtain better cover1 and to    
prevent grinning4 ,it is questionable1  
however1 whether the process is of any  
real benefit to the carpet1 as it tends 
to impair the handle of the fabric and  
the resiliency of the pile4 ,the final  
stage in the finishing department is the

 rolling and measuring1 which is done   
mechanically1 after which the roll is   
ticketed1 papered1 and corded1 and      
passes on its journey to the packing    
room1 carpet room1 or warehouse1 as the 
case may be4  ,a digression seems       
necessary here on the subject of breadth
 carpets1 ,cairo or ,chlidema squares4  
,originally1 carpeting was only made in 
body or filling #bg in4 wide1 and border
 #bb or #ah in4 wide1 and in rolls or   
pieces of about #ej yards2 and if a     
bordered carpet was required1 #ae ft4 by
 #ab ft41 the dealer would cut it up    
from the pieces1 using1 say1 four       
breadths of filling each #ab ft4 long1  
and enough border1  yd4 wide1 to go all 
round1 with mitred joints at the        
corners4 ,there were several objections 
to this method1 which is1 of course1    
still necessarily employed in bordered  
carpets of unusual sizes4 ,it involves a
 thick and awkward seam at the mitres1  
where the border has to be cut and      
turned under2 it is wasteful1 as        

odd-shaped bits of border are bound to  
be left over2 and it is inartistic1     
inasmuch as the figures in the border   
never match perfectly at the mitre4     
,lastly1 in ,wiltons and in some        
,axminsters1 it causes false shading1   
because1 the pile naturally leaning a   
little in one direction1 and not being  
perfectly vertical1 the border will only
 tone perfectly with the body on one    
side of the carpet4 ,on the three other 
sides the light will strike the pile at 
a different angle from that at which it 
strikes the pile of the body1 and give a
 different effect4  ,in #ahfc1 a carpet 
was manufactured at ,kidderminster for  
presentation to the late ,king ,edward  
,,vii1 then ,prince of ,wales1 on the   
occasion of his marriage4 ,in view of   
the natural desire to produce an article
 worthy of the event and of the         
industry1 it was recognised that no     
trouble and expense should be spared2   
and a carpet was designed and woven in  
such a way as to obviate the defects    

enumerated above4 ,the carpet was       
exhibited publicly and aroused much     
admiration4  ,it is curious1 however1 to
 note that it was not until about twenty
 years later that the new principle     
began to be generally adopted by carpet 
manufacturers4 ,the delay in utilising  
the idea was no doubt due to recognition
 of the heavy expense involved in       
additional designing and card stamping1 
and of the loss of production1 and also 
to the absence of any severe competition
 from ,oriental and other seamless      
carpets4  ,the device consisted simply  
in designing and stamping not two but   
five parts of the whole carpet3 the     
filling1 the border at each side        
including the corner piece1 and the     
border at top and bottom4 ,when1 as is  
almost invariably the case1 the width of
 the border is less than #bg in41 the   
difference between the width and #bg in4
 is stamped in body1 so that1 for       
example1 an outside breadth containing  
#ah in4 of border and #i in4 of body is 

woven in a #bg in4 loom4 ,this breadth1 
of course1 also contains at each end the
 corner piece1 and #i in4 of the end    
border4 ,the inner breadths of the      
carpet will have #ah in4 of border at   
each end1 and filling in between1 woven 
so as to match on to the filling and    
border of the breadths on each side4 ,if
 will be readily seen that in this      
manner the different breadths of a      
carpet can be woven consecutively on the
 same loom1 and that a harmonious effect
 as regards both design and surface can 
be ensured4 7,see ,figs4 #e and #e;,a47 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e  #e;,a         
,,chlidema ,,square  ,the system has one
 or two minor limitations4 ,the width of
 the carpet must be some multiple of #b 
ft4 #c in41 and the matching of the side
 borders with the corner pieces can only
 be perfect at certain lengths4 ,again1 
the line of the seam is not concealed by
 coinciding with the inner edge of the  
border2 and1 finally1 these breadth     
squares are more troublesome and        

expensive to make and handle at every   
stage than piece goods4 ,indeed1        
manufacturers would be justified in     
charging a larger difference of price   
between squares and pieces of the same  
quality than many of them do4  ,in spite
 of the expense and loss of production  
involved1 the device proved on the whole
 a real boon both to the maker and      
consumer of carpets1 and was sooner or  
later adopted by practically all        
manufacturers employing #c-d wide looms4
 ,it placed those who utilised it in a  
better position to compete with ,eastern
 carpets1 and it has thereby contributed
 in no small degree to the artistic     
development of the carpet trade4        
,indeed1 it may almost be said to have  
saved the life of the narrow loom1 in   
view of the remarkable evolution and    
consequent competition of the wide loom1
 to which further reference will be made
 later4  ,in recent years it has been   
turned to a notable development in the  
art of carpet making2 the production of 

medallion breadth squares4 ,this        
involves the exercise of the greatest   
ingenuity and skill on the part of the  
designer1 heavy expense in respect of   
card-cutting1 and the greatest care in  
weaving and finishing4 ,when completed1 
a medallion square is a triumph of      
technique4 ,the number of sizes         
available is obviously limited2 but a   
carpet of each size is absolutely       
perfect in design1 matching everywhere1 
as well as if made laboriously by hand1 
instead of being the product of         
machinery and brains4  ,coming back once
 more to the final stages of finishing1 
though the roll of carpeting1 body1     
border1 or stair1 is complete and ready 
for the market when it is rolled and    
papered1 this is not the case with the  
breadth square1 which has so far been   
treated in the same way4 ,the square1 or
 series of squares1 which are still in a
 continuous roll1 are cut up into their 
proper lengths1 matched1 and sorted4    
,they are then passed to the sewing     

room1 to be made up into complete       
carpets4 ,hand sewing has been          
superseded in most factories by         
mechanical sewing1 by hand or electric  
power1 for which ,messrs4 ,singer supply
 a very efficient machine4 ,in the      
larger power machine made by this house1
 the breadths to be sewn together are   
clipped face to face with flush edges1  
and stretched in the frame of the       
machine in such a way that the moving   
part of the mechanism runs along over   
the two edges and sews them together4   
,the ends of the carpet1 top and bottom1
 are then turned over and hemmed by hand
 or machine4 ,the carpet is then        
fastened to the floor1 face downwards1  
and the seams are damped and then       
pressed with a heavy heated iron4 ,if   
these operations have been properly     
performed1 and if the edges of the      
breadths are good1 the seams of the     
carpet will be barely visible4 ,the     
carpet is then finished1 though some    
manufacturers prefer to stretch their   

carpets by attaching them tightly to a  
frame1 and leaving them for some hours4 
,from the sewing room the carpets pass  
to the stock room or the packing room4  
,,chapter ,,vi                          
,,wilton   ,,wilton carpeting is similar
 in manufacture in many respects to     
,brussels4 ,the loom is practically the 
same for both fabrics1 convertible from 
one to the other without much difficulty
 or expense4 ,the preparation of yarns  
for worsted pile1 chain1 stuffer1 and   
weft is substantially identical1 while  
most of what has been said with regard  
to weaving and finishing operations     
applies no less to ,brussels than to    
,wilton4  ,the essential differences are
 two--a major and a minor one4 ,in the  
first place1 the loops of worsted yarns 
are cut1 so that the character of the   
surface is velvety instead of smooth and
 ribbed4 ,this is effected by the use of
 a narrow wire ending in a knife blade1 
which blade stands outside the fabric   
when the wire is inserted1 but severs   

the loops of worsted when the wire is   
withdrawn4  ,the second difference1     
which1 however1 does not apply to all   
grades of ,wilton carpet1 is that for   
the sake of holding down the pile more  
securely1 there are three shots of weft 
to each row of pile1 instead of two4    
,this is effected by an adjustment of   
the gear and harness motions1 in such a 
way that the lash or shed of worsted    
selected to form the pattern does not   
rise alternately with the shed of the   
chain1 but once in every three picks of 
the shuttle or beats of the sley4  ,the 
cutting of the yarn1 resulting as it    
does in exposing to view the ends       
instead of the sides of the wool fibre1 
gives a richer and softer surface effect
 both in appearance and in feel1 while  
the treble weft shot makes a better     
weave and a firmer fabric4 ,generally   
also ,wilton carpeting is woven closer1 
with more rows to the inch1 than        
,brussels1 which necessitates1          
incidentally1 the use of thinner wires4 

,the standard best or ,super ,wilton    
carpet is #bef pitch1 with a beat-up of 
#aj to the inch1 woven with a wire about
 #c_/af in4 high2 a linen weft is used1 
and a stuffer of bump4 ,five frames of  
worsted are generally employed4 ,this is
 an excellent carpet for dining and     
drawing rooms1 theatres1 show rooms1 and
 restaurants1 and will wear well4       
,several better qualities are made1     
however2 and the fabric lends itself    
readily to fine and luxurious effects4  
,wires are used occasionally as high as 
#c_/h in4 or more4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #f ,,section ,,of ,,five-,,frame       
,,wilton ,a1 ,chain2 ,b1 ,pile warp2 ,c1
 ,stuffer warp  ,depth of pile1 however1
 is not the highest desideratum in a    
,wilton carpet2 and the most notable    
development of recent years in the      
fabric has been in the direction of a   
fine1 closely woven fabric with no      
excessive wool surface4 ,these fine     
,wiltons are made #bef pitch1 #ab or #ac
 shots per inch1 and are generally      

#b-shot1 with chain1 stuffer1 and weft  
of cotton4 ,neither depth of pile nor   
weight is aimed at1 but fineness and    
smoothness of surface and artistic      
effect2 and their great popularity in   
spite of the present high price seems to
 indicate that they have justified      
themselves4 ,at the present time most   
manufacturers of ,wilton produce a fine 
,wilton quality of this nature4  ,among 
the better qualities of ,wilton1 mention
 must be made of ,saxonies1 the name    
given to ,wiltons woven with a heavy1   
sharply twisted twofold ,saxony worsted 
yarn1 which possesses exceptional       
wearing qualities4  ,below ,super       
,wilton come the medium qualities1 made 
in #bcf pitch1 #aj to the inch1 in five1
 four1 and three frames2 artistic and   
serviceable carpets suitable for        
studies1 bed-rooms1 and what may be     
called general use2 while they are also 
in great demand for ,cinema theatres4   
,the cheaper grades of ,wilton are made 
in #bad pitch with three frames or less4

 ,their manufacture has been limited    
during the war by the restricted        
supplies of worsted yarn2 and even      
before that time they suffered from the 
competition of woollen ,wiltons1 of     
which mention will be made4 ,the        
limitation of colours on the one hand1  
and the comparative poverty of the      
fabric on the other1 restricted the     
demand to those for whom the question of
 price was important2 and now that      
price-cutting has passed away in an era 
of high values and shortage of material1
 these qualities are out of favour4     
,woollen ,wiltons1 or ,wilton fabrics   
whose pile is made of a sharply twisted 
woollen yarn1 instead of worsted1       
require special mention4 ,they are of   
comparatively recent growth1 and        
probably originated in the effort of the
 ,jacquard loom manufacturer to meet the
 competition of ,imperial ,axminster1   
dating from the time when the price of  
the latter fabric was round about #ds41 
and woollen yarn was correspondingly    

cheap4 ,it was necessarily rather an    
uphill fight for the ,jacquard loom1    
because the ,axminster possessed the    
initial advantages of a greatly superior
 range of colours1 and of greater       
economy in manufacture owing to the yarn
 being all on the surface4  ,the price  
of woollen ,wiltons therefore had to be 
appreciably lower1 and the qualities cut
 as much as they would stand4 ,working  
on this basis1 however1 the woollen     
,wiltons did justify their existence4   
,made mainly in #bad pitch1 with three  
frames of yarn or less1 and beaten up   
from #h to #g per inch1 they achieved   
unambitious but ingenious and saleable  
effects1 and if the cover and consequent
 wear was not all that could have been  
desired1 yet they served a purpose4     
,but it must not be implied that the    
only woollen ,wiltons were1 or are1 the 
cheap grades4 ,the suitability of       
woollen yarn for use in a ,wilton loom  
to produce a soft and even luxurious    
fabric with an ,oriental effect has long

 been recognised2 and admirable         
qualities have been woven in #bef and   
#bcf pitch with four or five frames of  
yarn and with fairly high wires4        
,indeed1 some of these can be regarded  
as more successfully imitating the      
,eastern carpet in texture than even the
 finer worsted ,wiltons4  ,wilton       
carpeting lends itself particularly well
 to single shade effects3 plain ,wiltons
 have been woven in a variety of        
qualities with both worsted and woollen 
yarn for many years2 and1 indeed1 the   
demand has shown signs of a steady      
increase4 ,for those who are content    
with a single colour on the floor in    
their scheme of furnishing1 and who do  
not object to the sensitiveness of a    
plain carpet to 8shading10 and1 indeed1 
to the recording of individual          
footprints1 no fabric is better than a  
plain ,wilton4 ,but it should be borne  
in mind that a plain carpet has that    
defect4 ,wool fibre is elastic1 but not 
infinitely so4 ,a plain carpet1 however 

well and carefully woven1 cannot be     
expected to retain its virgin smoothness
 and level colour for long under wear4  
,wear on a carpet is never evenly       
distributed3 the feet tread down some   
places more than others2 the pile is    
depressed unequally1 with the result    
that1 in a plain carpet1 the light1     
falling at different angles upon the    
fibres causes light and dark patches to 
appear4 ,this is called shading1 and is 
often wrongly attributed to defective   
manufacture1 or to the presence of some 
foreign substance like oil4 ,shading    
actually occurs equally in figured      
,wiltons2 but it is rarely the subject  
of complaint1 simply because it is      
concealed by the design and colours4    
,subject to this limitation1 then1 plain
 carpets1 and plain ,wiltons in         
particular1 are all right for those who 
like them4 ,the manufacturer does not   
regard them with great enthusiasm1 for1 
though in some respects they are easier 
to make than figured goods1 yet they are

 exacting if they are to be turned out  
perfectly4 ,moreover1 they are more     
subject to competition1 and do not      
afford scope for artistic skill in      
design and colour combination4  ,as has 
been indicated1 ,wilton carpeting1 like 
,brussels1 has1 in comparison with some 
of its competitors1 two main            
limitations2 one economic and one       
artistic4 ,for every square or tuft of  
yarn showing on the surface1 there are1 
roughly1 from two to four parts         
uneconomically used in the body of the  
fabric1 and the number of shades that   
can be used to work one over the other  
to form the pattern is limited to five1 
or1 exceptionally1 to six4 ,these       
limitations1 however1 are not serious   
ones2 and the ,wilton carpet1 in its    
higher grades1 is regarded by many as   
the best of all machine-made carpets4   
,it is certainly the finest2 and        
closeness of texture1 broadly speaking1 
means both finer effects and better     
wear4 ,the higher grades of ,wilton are 

made1 as has been stated1 in pitch and  
beat-up which give from #ie to #abc     
points to the square inch2 so that in   
the matter both of texture and of       
delicacy of design1 effects can be      
produced in ,wilton which surpass those 
of any other carpet fabric1 with the    
exception of the finest ,persians4      
,,chapter ,,vii                         
,,axminster   ,,axminster carpets1      
though in point of time a comparatively 
recent development of the industry1 may 
claim to be1 in point of structure1 the 
nearest related of all machine-made     
fabrics to the ,oriental ancestor4 ,the 
similarity lies in the fact that they   
are tufted2 and the tuft1 though        
inserted in the fabric mechanically1 and
 bound down without being knotted1      
undoubtedly represents the knotted tuft 
of the original hand-made carpet4 ,the  
essential feature of a tufted ,axminster
 carpet is that the tufts are inserted  
row by row between the warp threads1    
either before or after being cut off1   

and are then bound down by the weft1 and
 so woven into the ground of the        
texture4 ,each tuft is used on the      
surface1 and forms part of the design2  
none of the tuft material is hidden away
 or wasted in the body of the fabric    
beyond what is needed for attachment to 
the binding weft4  ,the ,axminster loom 
was introduced into ,england from the   
,united ,states about #ahgh2 and since  
that time the fabric has developed      
steadily1 with an increasing popularity1
 which has only been rivalled in recent 
years by that of the ,chenille          
,axminster4 ,bradbury1 in commenting    
upon the similarity of ,axminster in    
structure and appearance to the original
 hand-made carpet1 says3 8,generally    
speaking they are far superior to       
,eastern and hand-made productions1 and 
where price is permitted to enter as a  
factor1 they leave these primitive      
structures still further in the rear40  
,this may appear to some an extravagant 
appreciation2 but there can be no       

difference of opinion as regards the    
general merits of the fabric4 ,it       
combines economy in the use of material1
 and in manufacture1 with richness of   
texture and almost unlimited            
potentialities of design and colour     
effect4  ,as in other carpet fabrics1   
there are in ,axminster plenty of       
varieties of qualities2 but there are   
comparatively few differences in        
structure1 such differences as exist    
being mainly matters of pitch1 tuft1 or 
method of tufting and binding4 ,the     
original ,axminster quality was called  
the ,royal4 ,this is about #e per inch  
in the pitch1 and #f in the beat-up1    
with a tuft of about #g_/h in4 ,this    
held the field until #ahic1 when a      
strong invasion of the ,british market  
by ,american ,axminster1 offered at a   
considerably lower price1 caused the    
,axminster makers of this country to    
bestir themselves to meet this          
competition4 ,they did so strenuously2  
and the result was the production of the

 quality known as the ,imperial         
,axminster1 which had an instant and a  
lasting success4 ,this was made in a    
pitch of #g to the inch1 and a beat-up  
of about #f1 and was put on the market  
at a moderate price4 ,for many years it 
held the position of being the critical 
quality of the whole trade2 the standard
 by which the value of other qualities  
was measured1 and1 as has been          
intimated1 it is only of recent years   
that its position has been challenged by
 the ,chenille ,axminster4  ,at the     
present time1 it would probably be safe 
to estimate that three-quarters of      
,axminster manufacturers' looms are     
being run on this quality4  ,the        
,imperial ,axminster quality may1       
therefore1 be taken as typical of the   
fabric2 and a description of how it is  
made will cover most of the ground1     
while variations from the standard type 
can be indicated4 ,the quality itself is
 made in slightly different ways by     
different makers1 but a normal standard 

will have the usual double chain1       
preferably of #b-ad or other linen1 but 
sometimes of cotton1 a cotton stuffer1  
one end to each reed1 and a jute weft of
 about #b fold #g lb4 count4 ,the pitch 
is #ahi or #aij in the #c-d width4 ,fig4
 #g gives a transverse section through  
the weft of the weave ordinarily        
employed4 ,in this there are three warps
 employed1 the two chain warps being    
wound on one beam1 and the stuffer warp1
 which runs straight in the fabric1 on  
another4 ,there are three double shots  
of weft to each row of tufts4 ,the two  
halves of the chain warp alternately    
bind two double shots above1 the tuft   
binding shot and the intermediate1 and  
one below4 ,the effect of this structure
 is to form a flat back1 and also1      
through the lateral pressure of the     
intermediate weft upon the tuft weft1   
under the same warp shed1 to give the   
tuft a distinct inclination out of the  
vertical1 adding thereby to the fabric a
 point of similarity to the hand-tufted 

carpet4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g       
,,section ,,of ,,imperial ,,axminster4  
#c-,,shot ,a1 ,chain2 ,b1 ,tufts2 ,c1   
,stuffer warp2 ,d1 ,double weft  ,the   
diagram of another method of weaving    
this quality is given in ,fig4 #h4      
,three warps are used here again1 but as
 each undergoes a different rate of     
consumption1 they are wound upon three  
separate beams4 ,the stuffer1 as before1
 runs straight2 one chain binds the     
bottom and the intermediate shots1 and  
the other the tuft shot4 ,in this case1 
the tuft1 equally supported on each     
side1 tends to remain vertical1 while   
the bottom weft1 projecting below the   
tuft weft1 gives the back a ribbed      
appearance4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h   
,,section ,,of ,,axminster4 #c-,,shot   
,a1 ,chain2 ,b1 ,tufts2 ,c1 ,stuffer    
warp2 ,d1 ,double weft  ,each of these  
two weaves has its merits4 ,the former  
gives better cover with its sloping     
tuft1 while the latter claims an        
increased resiliency and immunity from  

the shading in made-up carpets1 so      
noticeable with the first-named weave4  
,fig4 #i gives other but less usual     
structures4 ,it may be noted that it is 
possible to employ jute for the tuft    
binding and intermediate weft shots1 and
 at the same time a different yarn1     
preferably of woollen1 for the bottom   
weft1 which shows on the back4 ,this    
serves to make the carpet heavier and   
more elastic to the tread4  ,axminster  
may to some extent be compared with     
,tapestry and ,chenille1 in that it is  
essentially a two-process fabric2 and   
the pile yarns are arranged so as to    
form the design before they are put into
 the loom4 ,the actual method of        
preparation of the colours is1 however1 
quite different from that employed in   
either of the other two fabrics4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,,sections    
,,of ,,axminster ,,weaves  ,the yarn is 
received from the dye-house in skeins1  
and is wound on to large bobbins with a 
#f in4 face4 ,the yarn from these       

bobbins has then to be wound on to a    
series of wide spools1 the number of    
which will be the number of the rows of 
tufts in one complete repeat of the     
design to be woven1 while each spool    
contains as many ends of yarn as there  
are squares in the width of the design4 
,this operation is called setting1 or   
sometimes1 reeding-in4  ,the #f in4     
bobbins1 in number equal to the pitch of
 the carpet1 say1 #ahi or #aij for the  
#c-d width of the typical quality       
mentioned above1 are arranged on a creel
 frame fitted with horizontal pegs in   
order corresponding with the colours of 
the first row of the design4            
,alternatively1 a horizontal frame or   
table is employed1 fitted with vertical 
pegs for the bobbins4 ,this has the     
advantage of being more compact and     
accessible1 but the colours are not so  
easily distinguished4 ,the ends of the  
yarn from each bobbin are led on to the 
wide spool1 through an open sley1 which 
is opposite to it and equal in width4   

,these ends1 suitably tensioned1 are    
then wound on to the wide spool4 ,for a 
design of average length of repeat1 say 
#a yd41 one full spool will weave about 
#bej yds4 ,when the spool is full1      
therefore1 the yarns are cut1 and       
fastened down2 and as many more spools  
are filled with the same arrangement of 
colours as are needed to weave the      
required quantity4 ,the operators then  
re-arrange the bobbins in the creel     
frame in accordance with the second row 
of the design paper1 which is set up in 
some convenient place for reference1    
draw them in order through the sley on  
to the spool1 wind a second set of      
spools1 and so on2 each spool being     
numbered with its rotation as soon as   
filled4  ,when the spools for the whole 
of the repeat are wound1 whether one or 
more for each row of tufts1 they are    
passed to women1 whose task it is to    
thread the ends through a series of tin 
tubes1 the number of which corresponds  
with the number of ends on each spool4  

,the tubes are soldered to a piece of   
tin1 of ,l-shaped section1 which is     
attached to the tufting carriage4 ,the  
spools with tubes attached are then     
placed in the carriages1 and are ready  
to be set up in order in the loom for   
weaving4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj     
,,tufting ,,mechanism ,a1 ,wide spool2  
,b1 ,pin2 ,c1 ,finger2 ,d1 ,tufting     
carriage2 ,e1 ,tubes2 soldered   at ,f2 
,g1 ,guide-bar2 ,h1 ,transferring arm2  
,i1 ,finger2 ,k1 ,spring2 ,l1 ,link of  
chain2 ,m1 ,side view of tube2 ,n1      
,angle attachment  ,the tufting         
carriages are then placed1 in the       
correct rotation so as to form the      
pattern1 upon a pair of endless chains1 
which are actuated by the driving       
mechanism of the loom in such a way as  
to have an intermittent motion so that1 
when each spool is in position to make  
its row of tufts1 the chains remain at  
rest long enough for the spool to be    
removed from them1 lowered for the tubes
 to enter the warp threads2 for the     

tufts to be cut off1 and the spool to be
 replaced on the chains4  ,each spool   
with its set of tubes and carriage1     
therefore1 is so set in the chains that 
it can be automatically detached at the 
right moment and brought into position  
to form its successive line of fur4 ,the
 mechanism that effects these ingenious 
movements is too complicated to describe
 here4 ,it is an object lesson as to    
what variable and intermittent motions  
can be produced by combinations of cams1
 bowls1 levers1 rods1 etc41 while it    
gives the ,axminster loom the           
distinction of being probably the most  
ingenious of all carpet looms1 subject  
perhaps to that remarkable piece of     
mechanism1 the ,jacquard1 not being     
regarded as exclusively part of a carpet
 loom4  ,when the spool reaches the     
lowest point in the path of the double  
chain which carries it1 a few inches    
above the fell of the cloth1 it is      
nipped by an arm from each side1 and    
conveyed downwards in such a way that   

the tubes with the ends of the tuft     
yarns projecting are made to enter the  
spaces between the upper shed of the    
chain warp with a slight sweeping       
movement from the front to the back4    
,this has the result of trailing the    
ends of the yarn close to the fell of   
the cloth and the last row of tufts1 and
 leaving a space below the upper shed of
 the chain1 so that the weft-carrying   
needle is able to insert a double shot  
above the middle of the exposed lengths 
of tuft yarn4  ,the tufting tubes are   
now lifted out of the shed1 and somewhat
 forward towards the fell of the carpet1
 so as to double the tuft round the     
binding shot4 ,at the same time the sley
 comes forward1 presses against the tuft
 yarns and the weft enclosed by them1   
and carries them up to the breast comb  
and the fell of the carpet4 ,with the   
tuft yarns and the spool in position1   
another shot of weft is inserted1 either
 with or without a change of the warp   
shed1 as the case may be1 to assist in  

holding fast the row of tufts in the    
carpet4 ,the tufting carriage and tubes 
are then lifted high enough to draw off 
a sufficient length of yarn to form the 
next row of tufts in the following      
repeat4 ,the tufts are then cut by the  
meeting of two broad knives1 which come 
together at the level of the surface of 
the carpet with a scissor-cutting       
motion4 ,the spool and carriage are then
 replaced in the chains1 moved one step 
forward2 and the succeeding spool is    
brought into position4  ,it may be      
desirable to mention a different method 
of inserting the tuft yarn4 ,in this    
case the spool is detached from the     
chain and made to descend almost        
straight1 turning about #fj out of the  
vertical towards the back of the loom   
just as the tubes enter the warp shed4  
,this has the effect of turning the free
 ends of the tufts somewhat upwards4    
,the spool is then turned again so that 
the tubes are vertical1 and are brought 
close against the fell of the cloth4    

,the binding weft is then inserted1 and 
the sley comes forward to carry the     
tufts up against the breast4 ,at this   
stage1 a toothed comb1 made in two      
parts1 one working over the other1 comes
 up from below the breast to turn       
upwards the loose ends of the pile      
through the warp1 one part of the double
 comb1 called the dummy comb1 slipping  
over the other so as to clear any tufts 
which might be pulled down on to the    
back4 ,then the second binding weft is  
put in1 behind the tufts2 and at the    
same time the tufts are cut4 ,there is  
another beat-up of the sley1 and the    
bottom weft is inserted4 ,this completes
 the cycle2 the warp chains change2 and 
the process is repeated4  ,an           
alternative fashion of cutting to the   
double scissor or guillotine knives is  
sometimes employed1 a circular knife in 
front engaging against a fixed straight 
knife at the back4 ,this system has the 
advantage that the knives have not to be
 kept sharp1 though they must be very   

accurately adjusted4  ,the weft motion  
is another ingenious piece of mechanism4
 ,the weft is inserted in the warp shed 
by a needle about #e_/h in4 in diameter1
 entering from the right-hand side of   
the loom4 ,the jute weft is conveyed    
from a ball1 tensioned by suitable      
springs1 and threaded through the eye of
 the needle4 ,it is obvious that the    
weft shot must be double1 and also that 
it would not stay in the shed after the 
withdrawal of the needle1 unless it were
 caught in some way at the left hand of 
the loom4 ,this is effected by a small  
shuttle carrying the edge-thread4 ,this 
shuttle is similar to a sewing machine  
shuttle1 but larger1 being about #c in4 
long and #a in4 in diameter4 ,it runs   
backwards and forwards in a semicircular
 shuttle-race1 and is so adjusted that  
it passes under a notch near the end of 
the needle1 and over a loop of the weft1
 carrying the edge-thread through the   
loop1 and holding it taut while the     
needle is receding in such a way as to  

prevent the weft slipping back1 and to  
make a good selvedge to the carpet4     
,when it is desired to use two different
 weft threads1 the needle has an open   
eye1 or hook near its end1 instead of   
the ordinary eye1 and the two wefts in  
turn are presented to this eye by a     
rocking eyeletted weft-carrier1 so that 
the needle picks up the weft just before
 it enters the shed4  ,there have been  
other developments of the ,axminster    
principle of inserting tufts into the   
weave of the fabric1 and variations from
 the method of the wide spool and tubes4
 ,of these1 the most successful has been
 based upon the idea of conveying the   
cut tufts by means of nippers or        
grippers into the fell of the cloth4    
,this has been worked in combination    
with the wide spools1 but more          
satisfactorily in combination with yarn 
carriers operated by a ,jacquard with a 
differential lift mechanism for         
selecting the colours4  ,in this loom1  
which has been brought to perfection for

 various qualities1 pitches1 and widths1
 in recent years1 the pile yarns are    
wound on to creel bobbins1 which are    
arranged1 in much the same way as in    
,brussels and ,wilton1 in creel frames  
behind the loom4 ,a frame of bobbins is 
a set of bobbins of the same shade1     
equal in number to the pitch of the     
loom4 ,the number of frames is limited  
in practice to about #af1 which1        
however1 aided by 8planting10 admit of  
design and colour effects comparable    
with those obtainable in ,royal         
,axminster4  ,the yarns are led between 
guide bars and through perforated plates
 into the carriers1 which are vertical  
strips of steel or brass grooved back   
and front and drilled with a series of  
slots1 through which the ends of the    
yarn pass1 being held in position by    
small springs4 ,the frames of yarn are  
threaded through the holes in the       
carriers in order1 so that the yarns of 
the top frame pass through the highest  
hole in the carrier1 the second frame   

through the second hole1 and so on4     
,viewed from in front1 the ends of each 
frame of yarn will be seen in horizontal
 lines one above the other in the front 
grooves of the carriers4  ,these        
carriers are connected by cords or wires
 with a differential lift mechanism1    
which is actuated by the ,jacquard1 in  
such a way that the blank or perforation
 on the ,jacquard card1 corresponding   
with a certain colour1 causes the       
carrier to be lifted until that colour  
is at the required height4  ,it can     
readily be understood that cards        
perforated in different ways1 and       
presented to the ,jacquard at once1 can 
cause the carriers all across the loom  
to be lifted varying heights in such a  
way as to show at the required level a  
horizontal row of thread ends1          
corresponding to a row across the width 
of the paper design4 ,the sequence of   
these rows1 of course1 forms the        
pattern4  ,it remains to cut off the    
tufts1 to lay them in their place at the

 fell of the cloth1 and weave them into 
the carpet4  ,there is a set of         
grippers1 in shape very similar to the  
neck and beak of a bird1 mounted on     
three shafts1 and arranged so as to     
revolve in about a semicircle between   
the carriers and the fell of the carpet4
 ,the ,jacquard1 having operated so as  
to present the ends of the required     
colour in the carriers in a horizontal  
line1 the grippers come up in front of  
them with open beaks1 which are inserted
 just into the carrier grooves1 and then
 close1 nipping the ends of the yarn4   
,the whole of the frame in which the    
carriers are mounted is then withdrawn  
away from the points of the grippers a  
sufficient distance to give the required
 length of tuft4 ,a flat-toothed comb of
 hardened steel1 of the same pitch as   
the grippers1 carriers1 and carpet1     
drops down with its points between the  
threads so as to hold them steady1 while
 a travelling knife or set of knives1   
passing along the face of the comb1     

severs the tufts4 ,the grippers then    
descend into the warp threads1 laying   
the tufts against the fell of the       
carpet2 the needle or shuttle passes    
over them and through the shed1 carrying
 the binding weft1 which is beaten up by
 the open sley1 at the same time as the 
grippers open to release the end of the 
tuft1 and double it upwards4 ,two other 
shots are inserted1 while the grippers  
move in their semicircular path upwards 
to seize the next row of tufts1 and     
again downwards to lay them in place4   
,the advantages claimed for this very   
ingenious method of ,axminster weaving  
are3 that the preparatory processes are 
considerably simpler than with the      
,royal and ,crompton patents2 that the  
quantity of any pattern to be woven can 
be better controlled2 and that it       
involves less waste4 ,there is no       
disadvantage in the weaving of a small  
quantity1 if required1 as #a yard or    
#ejj can be woven equally well2 and the 
yarn left over at the end of an order   

can be cut off at the back of the       
carriers with a minimum of waste1 and   
stored conveniently on creel bobbins4   
,the cutting mechanism is also so good1 
that the surface waste is reduced to a  
negligible quantity1 and a minimum of   
shearing and finishing is required4     
,however this may be1 it is noteworthy  
that the principle has been applied with
 complete success to looms for weaving  
wide seamless carpets1 where the gripper
 mechanism1 though necessarily heavy1   
has probably a distinct advantage over  
the wide spool and tubes4  ,axminster1  
like other carpet fabrics1 has tended to
 develop in the direction of wide       
seamless goods2 and this is a tendency  
that will be worth watching1 leading as 
it does towards the evolution of the    
ideal carpet--a machine-made knotted    
fabric4 ,ideal1 that is to say1 in the  
sense that the knotting of a tuft on to 
a groundwork of warp and weft is the    
best way of putting a carpet together1  
and having regard for the facts that we 

live in a mechanical age2 that we cannot
 afford time or money to make our own   
carpets by hand2 and that we ought not  
to buy foreign hand-made carpets4       
,experiments in mechanically knotted    
carpets have continually been made1 and 
definite progress has been won in recent
 years2 but the technical difficulties  
are considerable1 and it will be        
interesting to see whether a carpet of  
so exceptional a weave can be put on the
 market1 except at a price comparable   
only with that of a hand-tufted fabric4 
,meanwhile1 the seamless tufted         
,axminster1 as it is now made in two or 
three forms1 with tufts as securely     
fastened for all practical purposes into
 the body of the fabric as if they were 
knotted1 holds the field as the nearest 
approach to the ideal1 and is deserving 
of a far larger measure of support from 
the ,british consumer that it has       
enjoyed hitherto4                       
,,chapter ,,viii                        
,,chenille   ,,chenille ,axminster      

carpeting possesses one or two features 
which differentiate it sharply from     
other kinds of carpet4 ,it is the       
product of two distinct processes3 the  
formation of the chenille fur1 and the  
weaving of that fur1 which is the weft1 
into a carpet4 ,it is1 in fact1 about   
the only cut-pile carpet fabric in which
 the pattern is distinctively formed by 
the weft2 for in almost all other makes 
the weft only performs the function of  
combining with the chain to form the    
woven fabric4  ,taking first the        
manufacture of the fur1 the dyed yarn1  
which is normally a single woollen1     
about #ee yards per ounce1 is wound on  
cops which fit inside the shuttles for  
the weft looms4 ,before starting to     
weave1 the weaver will have a supply of 
cops of all the colours required in the 
carpet4 ,the paper design will show full
 size1 the whole of the pattern1 filling
 and border1 that repeats1 in the       
colours that are to be used4 ,the design
 is cut up horizontally into strips two 

squares wide2 and the weaver works by   
this paper strip1 which is attached to  
the fabric in its length1 inserting and 
changing the shuttles carrying yarn of  
various colours4 ,the warp of the loom  
consists of sets of ends of fine cotton 
at intervals of about  in4 ,thus the    
woven fabric consists of a woollen weft 
of various colours held together at     
intervals by a fine cotton warp4  ,the  
pitch of the warp varies1 of course1    
according to the character and quality  
of the fur to be made1 the scales1      
indicating the number of sets of warp   
threads to the yard1 being1 normally1   
either #bh1 #ch1 #ef1 #gf1 or #aab4 ,on 
an ordinary weft loom1 making a fabric  
#db in4 wide1 on a #gf scale1 there will
 be #hh strips1 which will make two     
repeats of a certain portion1 say #d in4
 long1 of #dd carpets4 ,the average     
length of the woven strip is about #dh  
yards4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa       
,,chenille ,,design ,,paper ,,cut ,,up  
,the weaver has to insert by hand the   

shuttle carrying the required colour to 
match the square or squares on the      
painted strip of design paper1 count the
 number of shots needed1 stop the loom1 
change the shuttle and re-start the     
loom2 so that it will be seen that      
quickness of eye and dexterity are      
required4  ,a mechanical device has been
 invented for changing the shuttles2 but
 it is not automatic1 and does not      
appear to present any distinct advantage
 over the method of changing by hand2   
and it can only be employed with a      
limited number of colours4  ,the fabric 
is beaten up from #ab to #bj shots per  
inch1 according to the quality of the   
fur required2 but the closer beats up   
are only suitable for worsted yarn4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab ,,chenille    
,,cloth  ,the next process is the       
fur-cutting4 ,the roll of cloth with its
 horizontal stripes is taken to the     
cutting machine1 where it is cut into   
strips by a series of knives set upon a 
revolving cylinder1 and spaced so that  

they sever the woollen weft-threads as  
the fabric passes over the cutting bed1 
and leave the independent strips of fur 
held together by the fine cotton warp4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac ,,fur ,,after 
,,cutting4 ,,cut ,,and ,,folded4        
,,transverse ,,section ,,showing ,,fur  
,,inserted  ,immediately after being cut
 free1 these strips of fur pass over a  
jet of steam and a steam-heated         
cylinder1 whose surface is formed with a
 series of ,v-shaped grooves4 ,this has 
the result of folding upwards the cut   
ends of the woollen yarn1 and giving a  
permanent ,v-shape in section to the    
fur4 ,the object of this is that when   
the fur comes to be woven1 its pile     
shall all be turned in one direction4   
,the damping of the fur just before the 
grooved cylinder is sometimes effected  
by rollers revolving in a trough filled 
with water4  ,the newly formed fur is   
then reeled off into individual skeins4 
,it is marked both with its pattern     
number and series number1 and sorted    

into its proper sets4  ,for a carpet #i 
ft4 wide beaten up #d shots per inch1 it
 will be seen that each inch in the     
length of the carpet will require no    
less than #ab yards of fur weft1 so that
 a strip of fur #dh yards long will only
 weave #d inches2 and if the repeat of a
 design be a yard long1 #i series of fur
 strips will be needed4 ,the fur strips 
are1 therefore1 sorted into their sets  
and numbered from #a to #i for a #a yard
 repeat1 or as the case may be2 and are 
stored in bundles of skeins until       
required4  ,we now come to the second   
part of ,chenille manufacture1 the      
weaving up of the fur into the carpet4  
,this is done on a setting loom1 which  
may be regarded for the present purpose 
as normally of a width of #i ft4 or     
upwards4 ,this is not saying that       
,chenille is not woven in narrower      
widths1 for ,chenille is woven in pieces
 #bg in4 and #cf in4 wide1 and a very   
large business is done in rugs of       
various widths between about the same   

limits4  ,when a carpet is ordered1 the 
fur in bundles of skeins is handed out  
to the cop-winder1 whose duty it is to  
wind the skeins on to cops for use in   
the setting loom1 and to serve them to  
the weavers in their proper order4 ,cops
 are always the same size1 but the      
length of carpet that a cop will weave  
depends1 of course1 on the width of the 
carpet4  ,the setting loom is prepared  
for work by the threading of ends of    
warp from various beams through eyelets 
carried on gear frames1 in much the same
 way as in a ,brussels or ,wilton loom4 
,indeed1 this principle is common to all
 woven fabrics1 varying only in its     
application1 that is to say1 in the     
number and arrangement of the warp      
beams1 the yarn employed1 and the pitch4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad ,,section   
,,of ,,chenille ,,axminster             
,a1  ,chenille fur                      
,c1  ,fur wefts                         
,d1  ,catcher warp                      
,e1  ,float warp                        

,f1  ,stuffer warp                      
,g1  ,chain                             
,h1  ,filling weft  ,in a typical       
,chenille carpet1 such as that which is 
beaten up #d to the inch1 as above      
mentioned1 the pitch of the design will 
be #ab or #ac per inch 7the beat-up of  
the weft71 and of the sley #g1 though1  
indeed1 the latter is arbitrary1 and    
need bear no relation to the fur4 ,there
 will be three warp beams1 the catcher  
beam1 the chain beam1 and the stuffer   
beam4 ,a fourth is often added1 called  
the float4 ,the catcher warp consists of
 fine cotton1 coloured in some neutral  
shade1 so as to be as nearly invisible  
as possible1 its function being merely  
to hold down the fur weft when it is    
inserted into the fabric4 ,the chain1 or
 ground warp1 which is generally of jute
 yarn1 is double1 and is threaded on to 
two gears1 which rise and fall          
alternately as in ,brussels4 ,the       
stuffer or dead warp1 also of jute1 runs
 straight into the fabric1 and gives it 

substance4  ,for a #c or #d per inch    
,chenille carpet1 of average quality1   
two shuttles will be used1 one carrying 
the jute binding weft1 and the other the
 fur4 ,there are four picks of jute weft
 to one of fur1 and at the end of the   
fifth pick the loom stops automatically 
with the chain and stuffer horizontal1  
and the catcher warp forming a shed1    
under which the fur has just been       
carried4 ,the weavers1 two to each wide 
loom1 will then set the fur1 taking care
 that it matches correctly against the  
last fur shot1 and that the pile points 
upwards4 ,they will also lightly comb up
 the fur1 so that it beds against the   
last shot1 and the catcher threads      
settle down neatly through the pile4    
,this done1 the loom is re-started3 the 
first beat of the sley pushes the fur   
shot home1 and the next four jute shots 
are put in4  ,for closer weaves than #d 
per inch1 two jute weft shots may       
suffice1 while heavy woollen-backed     
carpets are produced by the employment  

of a shuttle carrying a woollen weft4   
,in the case of heavy-backed carpets1   
the double shed is usually employed1 the
 adjoining chain ends rising            
alternately1 so that they show on the   
back in diagonal lines4  ,the object of 
a float warp1 which rises a little above
 the level of the stuffer warp just when
 the fur shot is being woven1 is to     
support the fur shot1 and give a fuller 
and more level effect to the carpet4    
,there is another method of inserting   
the weft adopted in looms of a different
 make1 whereby it is carried between the
 catcher and the other gears by a       
travelling arm1 which leads the fur from
 a basket or can in which it is placed  
loose4 ,this has the advantage of       
enabling a long length of fur to be     
woven1 while it also avoids the crushing
 of the fur which results from its being
 wound on to a cop4 ,with this method   
the catcher beam is placed high up in   
the middle of the loom1 and the sley is 
made of stronger reeds1 open at the top 

to allow the catcher warp ends to       
descend between them4  ,from the loom   
the complete carpet passes to the       
finishing room1 where it is picked back 
and front1 brushed1 steamed1 combed1 and
 shorn2 all these processes tending to  
fill out and level the surface4 ,it is  
then passed or examined for any defects 
that may have escaped notice in the     
first mending4 ,the ends of the carpet1 
which are woven without fur1 are turned 
over and hemmed1 preferably by machine4 
,the carpet is then subjected to a final
 scrutiny before being swept1 rolled1   
and dispatched to the packing room or   
warehouse4  ,as has been intimated1     
considerable variety of quality can be  
obtained in ,chenille ,axminster by     
altering the pitch and thickness of the 
fur in the weft loom1 or the beat-up in 
the setting loom4 ,in practice1 however1
 competition has centred mainly round   
two standards of quality3 one about #ab 
shots of yarn per inch in the fur1 by #c
 or #d per inch beat-up in the setting  

loom2 and the other about #ad in the fur
 and #e in the setting loom4 ,extra     
qualities1 however1 are also largely    
made1 and heavy fabrics which give an   
excellent imitation of some ,oriental   
carpets4  ,chenille carpets have        
increased enormously in popularity      
during the past few years2 and the      
cheaper quality may be considered to    
have challenged even ,imperial          
,axminster in the consumer's favour1 and
 almost to have become the critical     
fabric of the industry4 ,the reason for 
this is not far to seek4 ,the taste of  
carpet users all over the world has     
tended in recent times more and more in 
the direction of seamless carpets2 while
 the demand for piece goods1 in body and
 border1 has correspondingly declined4  
,the evolution of the ,chlidema square1 
woven in #bg in4 breadths with a border 
matching all round1 has been to some    
extent the cause of the loss of the     
piece goods trade2 and it succeeded in  
retaining the business1 though in       

smaller bulk1 for the #c-d yd4 looms1   
both in ,brussels and ,wilton1 and      
later1 in a less degree1 for tufted     
,axminster4 ,but the breadth square has 
had to give way before the seamless     
square1 and in particular before the    
seamless ,chenille ,axminster square4   
,the cheap ,chenille fabric possesses   
several marked advantages over ,brussels
 and ,wilton1 ,tapestry1 and even over1 
tufted ,axminster breadth squares4 ,it  
is without seam2 it gives a             
comparatively luxurious surface with the
 absolute minimum of wool2 and it is    
practically unlimited in colour4        
,further1 the looms are not expensive to
 erect and run1 and in this respect the 
,chenille square has an initial         
advantage over the seamless ,wilton or  
tufted ,axminster carpets1 which        
necessitate costly and complicated      
machinery4 ,on the other hand1 it has   
its disadvantages4 ,it is not made in a 
fineness of pitch which admits of       
effects of design obtainable readily in 

,wilton or even in tufted ,axminster1   
while1 however skilful the setting may  
be1 there is an inherent tendency to    
irregularity in the pattern1 which is   
apt to offend the critical eye4         
,further1 in the cheaper qualities1     
which form the great bulk of the sale1  
the wearing qualities do not compare    
favourably with those of1 say1 ,imperial
 ,axminster4 ,these disadvantages1      
however1 do not deter that numerous     
class of consumers which demands an     
attractive carpet at a moderate price4  
,,chapter ,,ix                          
,,tapestry   ,,tapestry is a fabric made
 alternatively with a looped pile or a  
cut pile1 which possesses a close       
affinity to ,brussels and ,wilton       
respectively1 in its appearance and     
texture4 ,in its method of manufacture1 
however1 it has something in common with
 ,chenille1 inasmuch as it is           
essentially a two-process fabric1 while 
the pattern is wholly in the surface1   
and is the direct result of the         

preliminary and not of the weaving      
process4 ,no ,jacquard is used4  ,in    
comparison with its nearest competitors1
 ,brussels and ,wilton1 ,tapestry is    
simple in construction1 and economical  
in the quantity of pile yarn consumed1  
as there is only one pile warp-thread   
carrying the pattern1 as against four or
 five threads in the two fabrics named4 
,it also has the advantage of a         
practically unlimited range of colours4 
,on the other hand1 ,tapestry is        
expensive in the preparatory processes1 
and requires a high degree of technical 
knowledge and skill4  ,the underlying   
principle of the fabric1 which was      
invented by ,mr4 ,richard ,whytock1 of  
,edinburgh1 in #aheb1 is the attainment 
of the economy of using one frame of    
worsted yarn by printing or painting the
 pattern on the threads1 instead of     
using five frames1 each of a different  
colour4 ,several methods have been tried
 for printing the pattern on the warp1  
such as printing upon the surface either

 white or dyed1 after weaving2 printing 
the warp threads collectively before    
weaving2 and printing the warp threads  
individually4 ,in the two last named    
cases the design or part of the design  
has to be printed in an elongated form  
to allow for the reduction caused by the
 insertion of the wires in weaving4     
,modern ,tapestry manufacture1 however1 
has practically concentrated upon the   
last-named method2 so that the others   
can be disregarded for the present      
purpose4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae     
,,design ,,of ,,tapestry ,,carpet  ,in  
common with other carpet fabrics1 the   
design for a ,tapestry carpet must be   
put upon squared paper1 which is        
preferably1 at least1 of the actual     
size4 ,there is no limitation of colour 
beyond that imposed by considerations of
 taste and of expense4 ,the pitch of the
 carpet varies from #g to #i per inch1  
and the beat-up about the same2 but the 
average quality is about #h each way4   
,the design having been prepared1 it    

passes to the printers1 who are         
responsible for colouring the yarns in  
such a way that they can be assembled   
ready for producing the correct pattern 
in the weaving4 ,as the warp carries the
 whole of the pattern1 and the different
 colours of the design are printed on   
the warp threads1 the design must be    
read lengthwise4 ,each square on the    
design paper represents a loop of the   
warp in the woven carpet4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af ,,design ,,in 
,,fig4 #ae ,,elongated ,,as ,,printed   
,the length of colour to be printed on  
the warp thread must1 of course1 bear an
 accurate relation to the height of the 
wire used and the number of wires per   
inch4 ,this is a matter of calculation4 
,the length of yarn consumed in #a inch 
is determined4 ,this length1 divided by 
the number of wires1 or loops per inch1 
gives the length of warp yarn to be     
coloured for each wire4 ,thus1 for a    
carpet of nine wires to the inch1 #c    
inches of warp yarn are required for    

each inch of the carpet4 ,the length of 
each unit of colour to be printed is1   
therefore1 #a_/c in4 ,the mechanism of  
the printing drum is adjusted           
accordingly1 and can be varied for      
different qualities4  ,the normal yarn  
used in ,tapestry varies in count from  
#ajs #b  #b to #afs #b  #c worsted4 ,it 
is scoured and dried1 and then wound    
from hanks on to large bobbins4 ,a set  
of six of these bobbins1 or more or     
less1 filled with the white yarn1 is    
placed vertically on a stand in front of
 the printing drum2 and the six ends of 
worsted are attached at equal intervals 
to a triple thread of worsted stretched 
across the width of the drum4 ,the      
threads1 properly tensioned1 pass       
through guides1 and are wound on to the 
face of the drum1 the guides being      
mounted on a rod which is slowly moved  
laterally in such a manner that the     
threads are laid side by side on the    
surface of the drum4 ,the revolution of 
the drum continues until the whole face 

is covered1 or until the required length
 of yarn has been wound4 ,in the latter 
case1 fewer bobbins are put on1 and the 
drum is left partly uncovered4 ,to fill 
a drum of ordinary size1 then1 there    
will be required #a1agf threads1 which  
will be obtained from #aif revolutions4 
,each of the six divisions is called a  
hank1 and is tied separately4 ,whatever 
the number of threads and length of the 
hank1 the whole length of the yarn on   
the drum represents one warp thread     
only4  ,the printing drum is a large    
roller constructed with a wooden or tin 
face supported upon an iron frame and   
spokes1 the central shaft and external  
mechanism being carried upon iron       
framework4 ,drums are of various sizes1 
varying in circumference from #ab ft4 #f
 in4 to #dj ft41 and in width of face   
from #ah in4 to #gb in41 capable of     
carrying from #gjj to #a1bjj threads    
side by side4 ,the most usual width is  
#cj in4 ,the size of drums is reckoned  
by the number of 8scrolls0 or 8types10  

that is1 lines of colour1 they will     
carry4 ,these are commonly #baf1 #cbd1  
#dcb1 #fdh1 #hfd1 or #a1jgb scrolls2 but
 an average size is #fdh4  ,an essential
 part of the drum is the double row of  
teeth cut on a metal edge attached to   
one of the outer rims of the drum4      
,these are called indices and are of    
different pitch1 say #fdh and #dcb1     
corresponding to one or other of the    
scrolls4 ,each tooth is numbered        
consecutively1 all round the rim2 and   
the indices represent the total number  
of scrolls which can be printed1 since  
the pitch of each tooth permits the drum
 to revolve just the width of the scroll
 pulley4 ,a pawl or scotcher is arranged
 so as to engage in each tooth and stop 
the drum when required4 ,before         
printing1 the drum is covered with      
strips of oilcloth1 which are removable4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag ,,printing  
,,drum1 ,,covered ,,with ,,yarn1        
,,partly ,,coloured  ,the actual        
printing or painting of the yarn is     

effected by means of the scroll pulley1 
which revolves in a box ,the arrows show
 where the repeats begin containing the 
colour1 the whole being borne by a      
carriage running on rails across the    
width of the drum at the bottom of the  
frame4 ,the colours are made up by an   
expert colourist to match the required  
shades1 and by the admixture of flour   
and water are brought to the necessary  
consistency1 which is about that of a   
thin paste1 so that the colouring matter
 is dense enough to adhere1 but liquid  
enough to penetrate the yarn fibres4 ,in
 the carriage1 the colour roller1 which 
revolves in the colour1 is supported by 
springs which tend to give it elasticity
 and keep it up against the face of the 
drum4 ,the carriage is drawn across the 
drum by a rope which is mechanically    
actuated1 and1 of course1 harmonises    
with the revolution of the drum4 ,at the
 end of each traverse of the colour     
carriage there is a pause1 which gives  
the printer time to change the pawl into

 the new tooth of the index at which it 
is required4  ,the printer is guided in 
his selection of colours for each scroll
 that he prints by the 8scale board0 and
 the 8design board40  ,scale boards vary
 according to the pitch of the design   
paper1 and according to the length of   
the design1 and the number of times in  
which a design repeats in one revolution
 of the printing drum4 ,thus1 for a     
design on squared paper running seven   
per inch in its length1 the scale board 
is marked into divisions of seven to the
 inch throughout its length1 so as to   
correspond with the horizontal divisions
 on the design paper4 ,supposing a      
design repeats four times in the whole  
revolution1 a quarter board is employed2
 if it repeats twice a half board1 the  
total number of scrolls being divided   
into four or two respectively4 ,thus1 if
 the size of the drum is #fdh scrolls   
and the number of wires in one repeat of
 the pattern is #afb1 the quarter board 
will have four vertical columns of      

figures1 running respectively #a-afb1   
#afc-cbd1 #cbe-dhf1 and #dhg-fdh4 ,the  
scale board has a bevel edge1 and is    
preferably arranged so that it can be   
moved over the design board and aligned 
with the vertical line of the design    
which the printer is reproducing4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah ,,scale ,,and 
,,design ,,board ,,combined  ,fig4 #ah  
represents part of a scale and design   
board combined4 ,the numbers along the  
top indicate the threads in the design1 
and the printer may be supposed to be   
ready to print the eighth thread4 ,the  
numbers on the right-hand side represent
 the wires in the carpet1 with which the
 numbers on the scale board and the     
scrolls in printing correspond4 ,the    
design is #baf wires long2 and as the   
number of scrolls the drum will take is 
#fdh1 the design is repeated three times
 in one revolution4 ,the scale board is 
numbered in three columns2 and for the  
first1 second1 and third repeats of the 
design1 the printer uses the first1     

second1 and third divisions on his      
scale4  ,to minimise the danger of bad  
effects from a colour running1 the rule 
is to begin printing with the lightest  
shade4 ,in this instance1 the lightest  
colour is yellow1 represented           
7heraldically7 by spots1 and it occurs  
first at the fourth horizontal line4    
,the printer1 therefore1 turns the drum 
by hand1 and puts the pawl in tooth     
number #d4 ,he then puts the mechanism  
in gear and prints the scroll in the    
manner described1 following on          
immediately by printing a second scroll 
at number #e4 ,he then reads further    
down the eighth vertical line of the    
design1 and sees that the colour recurs 
at #aj1 #aa1 #ah1 #ai1 #bd1 and #be4 ,he
 therefore puts the pawl in the         
corresponding teeth of the index        
consecutively and prints accordingly4   
,when all the yellow squares            
corresponding to the first column of the
 scale board have been read1 he will    
take the second column1 and print #bbj1 

#bba1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bdj1 #bda
 and so on1 and then those in the third 
column4 ,the remaining colours will then
 follow on in order of their delicacy4  
,when the printing of a drum has been   
completed1 the next process is scraping4
 ,the scroll pulley in the act of       
printing always conveys more pigment on 
to the yarn than is needed to colour it1
 a little wall of material being left on
 each side of the path of the roller4   
,this has to be removed1 or it would    
smudge4 ,this is done by means of small 
vulcanite tools1 bevelled to a blunt    
edge1 from  in4 to #b in4 wide1 the     
operator being aided by a steel bar     
fixed across the face of the drum as a  
guide4 ,scraping has1 however1 a further
 purpose beyond the removal of          
superfluous colour1 and one no less     
important2 for by skilful pressure and  
rubbing1 the colour is caused to        
penetrate more deeply into the yarn4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai ,a ,,scraper  
,the yarn1 having been printed and      

scraped1 has now to be taken off the    
drum2 a process known as 8stripping40   
,the threads are looped together in     
hanks1 and numbered with a ticket to    
show which thread each represents in the
 design4 ,the drum is so constructed    
that a section of it can be drawn       
inwards upon a telescopic arm of the    
drum frame4 ,the yarn is thus released  
from its tension round the drum face2   
and the strippers1 inserting long sticks
 under the oilcloth1 lift it and the    
yarn clear of the drum4 ,one side of the
 frame which carries the drum shaft is  
made removable to enable the yarn to be 
taken away4  ,the long hanks are then   
ready for steaming4 ,they are placed    
with as little handling as possible upon
 latticed frames filled with oat-husks4 
,the frames are then run into an        
iron-walled steam-chest1 which is       
securely closed1 and into which steam is
 turned at high pressure4 ,the effect of
 the steam pressure and heat is to fix  
the colours on the yarn4 ,the operation 

takes about half an hour4 ,some makers  
prefer to put the hanks into net bags   
for steaming1 or to lay them on network 
frames1 without the bran4 ,but the first
 method described is probably the best1 
as the bran tends to absorb the         
superfluous colour1 and prevents it from
 dripping from one hank on to another4  
,after steaming1 the hanks are          
thoroughly rinsed1 preferably by a large
 rocking arm fitted with a hook1 in cold
 running water4 ,the yarn is then partly
 dried in a hydro-extractor and finished
 in a stove4 ,each hank is then wound on
 to large bobbins1 which are numbered so
 that the setters know to which part of 
the design each belongs4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #bj ,,printed ,,threads ,,set   
,,for ,,winding ,,on ,,to ,,the ,,beam  
,the next process is setting4 ,the      
object of the operations up to this     
point has been to make a set of warp    
threads which contain the pattern of the
 carpet in an elongated form in such a  
way that1 when woven in the loom1 the   

loops as seen in the carpet will        
accurately reproduce the design4 ,it is 
the business of the setters to arrange  
the threads alongside one another in    
proper order and dressing so that they  
form the pattern1 and to wind them thus 
arranged on to the warp beam4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba ,,fig4 #bj    
,,as ,,woven  ,the warp beam is at one  
end of the setting frame2 the           
bobbin-stand1 which moves on pinion feet
 upon a rack1 at the other4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb ,,structure   
,,of ,,tapestry ,,carpet ,w1 ,wires     
,the bobbins having been set in proper  
order on the vertical pegs in the bobbin
 frame1 the ends from them are led      
between guide rails1 through a sley1    
through two halves of a clamp1 over the 
setting table1 through another sley1 and
 a second clamp1 on to the warp beam4   
,in the first instance1 the setters hold
 down the yarn in the clamp next to the 
warp beam4 ,they then adjust and        
manipulate the threads over the setting 

table1 which is marked with horizontal  
lines1 in accordance with the pattern4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc ,,medium      
,,tapestry ,,carpet ,a1 ,chain2 ,b1     
,pile warp2 ,c1 ,stuffer warp2 ,e1 ,weft
  ,the other clamp is then screwed down1
 the first one unscrewed1 and the yarn  
wound on to the beam1 the bobbin-stand  
moving forward along its rack up to the 
setting table4 ,this operation is       
continued until the whole of the yarn   
has been wound from the bobbins on to   
the beam1 which is now ready to be put  
into the loom and woven4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #bd ,,tapestry ,,velvet4        
#c-,,shot  ,the method of weaving is    
substantially the same as with          
,brussels2 and except for the pile warp 
beam1 which is generally placed high up 
at the back of the loom1 and for the    
absence of a ,jacquard1 the mechanism of
 the loom is not dissimilar4 ,there are 
three heald-frames3 two for the two     
halves of the cotton chain1 and one for 
the stuffer and the pile warp1 the jute 

and worsted being threaded through two  
eyelets1 one below the other4 ,the      
,tapestry loom is run at rather a higher
 speed than the ,brussels1 the ,moxon or
 switch principle of wire motion1 which 
is generally adopted1 tending to make   
this possible4 ,a double stuffer1 that  
is1 two ends of jute1 of #ad lb4 or #af 
lb4 count1 to each reed1 is used for an 
average quality2 and a treble stuffer   
where greater weight is required4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be ,,tapestry    
,,velvet ,a1 ,chain2 ,b1 ,stuffer warp2 
,c1 ,pile warp2 ,d1 ,weft  ,tapestry    
velvet bears the same relation to the   
looped fabric as ,wilton does to        
,brussels1 the essential difference     
being the use of a knife-ended wire1    
instead of a round wire4 ,the use of    
three weft shots per row of pile is not1
 however1 the almost invariable rule in 
,tapestry velvet1 that it is in ,wilton4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf ,,tapestry  
,,velvet4 #b ,,shots ,,in ,,the ,,ground
  ,a three-shot fabric is1 of course1   

more expensive to make than a two-shot2 
and there is also the consideration     
that1 unless the pile is pretty high1   
the double shot on the top will tend to 
make the surface grin4 ,the method1     
therefore1 of using a double shot in the
 ground is sometimes adopted4 7,fig4    
#bf47  ,the ,tapestry branch of the     
carpet trade has naturally passed       
through a development similar to that of
 other makes1 in that it has found the  
demand passing from piece goods to sewn 
breadth squares1 and from them to       
seamless carpets2 and it has progressed 
accordingly4 ,the greater part of the   
,tapestry trade at the present time is  
done in squares1 and the enquiry for    
carpets #i ft4 and #ab ft4 wide seems to
 be a growing one4 ,this tendency throws
 additional burdens on the manufacturer4
 ,square carpets involve more designing 
and more printing than piece goods2 and 
the amount of preparation required is a 
very serious item4 ,before one complete 
carpet can be produced1 preparations    

have to be made for from #bjj to #cjj1  
or1 in the case of medallions1 double   
the number4 ,that is one of the         
disadvantages of the manufacture2 a     
further defect is inherent in the       
fabric4 ,however accurately and         
carefully the processes of printing1    
scraping1 setting1 and weaving may be   
carried out1 the transition from one    
colour to another cannot be made quite  
sudden and complete4 ,the colour will   
appear to have run2 and the shade which 
belongs to one wire will tend to        
trespass on to the next4 ,this means    
that with ,tapestry it is never quite   
possible to produce the clearly-defined 
pattern effect1 which is produced in    
,brussels and ,wilton1 and which is     
naturally looked for in all fabrics of  
moderately fine pitch4  ,apart from     
this1 the ,tapestry carpet has much to  
commend it4 ,it can be produced and sold
 at a moderate price2 it can be made    
seamless1 and it has great              
potentialities of design2 while1 for    

those who like plenty of colour1 the    
range of shades available is practically
 unlimited4                             
,,chapter ,x                            
,,ingrain   ,,the kind of carpet that is
 variously called ,kidderminster1       
,scotch1 or ,ingrain1 differs           
considerably from any of the carpets    
hitherto described4 ,perhaps            
essentially1 and in regard to texture1  
it is most akin to hand-woven ,tapestry1
 having a flat ribbed surface1 without  
tufts like ,axminster or loops like     
,brussels4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg   
,,two-,,ply ,,in ,,warp ,,and ,,weft4   
,,section ,,through ,,warp              
,a  ,b1 ,warp threads of different      
colours                 ,x  ,y1 ,wefts  
of corresponding colours  ,the original 
type of this carpet was the ,ingrain or 
8,two-ply ,super40 ,it was made with a  
worsted warp traversed by a woollen     
weft1 and was woven in pieces #a yd4    
wide4 ,the worsted warp was coloured    
generally to match the weft1 for which  

two1 three1 or four shuttles were       
employed4 ,the design and colour effect 
depended upon the working of the weft1  
though the incidental appearance on the 
surface of the warp threads1 which were 
harmonious or neutral in shade1 did not 
disturb the pattern4 ,there were #a1jhh 
warp ends for a full super warp to the  
#cf in4 width of fabric1 two to each    
reed1 equal to #edd1 or a pitch of about
 #ae per inch2 while the beat-up        
contained #ad pairs of weft to the inch1
 that is1 #ad above and #ad below4 ,this
 fineness of pitch and beat-up admitted 
of delicate and ambitious designing1 and
 of clever and artistic effects in spite
 of the limitation of colours4 ,the     
writer has seen an ,american ,ingrain   
carpet1 date about #ahic1 representing  
the landing of ,columbus1 which was     
admirably drawn and shaded1 and at a    
little distance might easily have been  
mistaken for a hand-made ,tapestry4     
,the ,ingrain carpet was made in large  
quantities at one time in the #cf in4   

width in ,scotland1 the ,north of       
,england1 and in the ,united ,states1   
but is more or less obsolete at the     
present time1 having given way before   
other types4  ,developments have been in
 various directions1 different          
manufacturers having pursued different  
improvements in looms or in textures2   
but the tendency of the development has 
been mainly in the direction of rather  
heavier fabrics and wider looms4 ,there 
are at least as many as twenty different
 qualities in this branch of the carpet 
trade at the present time1 varying from 
each other in more or less important    
particulars4 ,it must suffice1 however1 
to describe one or two of the fabrics1  
illustrating variations of the ,ingrain 
principle1 the original type of which   
has been indicated above4  ,of recent   
years there has been a considerable     
demand for plain colours1 and these can 
be made either in the twill or the plain
 weave4 ,in these fabrics both warp and 
weft are dyed1 with the object of       

obtaining a solid effect4 ,for a twill1 
four gears are required2 but the plain  
or 8,oatmeal0 surface can be obtained   
from two4  ,for two-colour effects1     
there are double warps1 one of each     
colour1 each warp working with the weft 
of the same shade4 ,a two-ply carpet is 
thus formed in such a way that the      
design shows on each surface but with   
the colours reversed4  ,alternatively1 a
 two-colour effect can be produced from 
wefts of two shades only1 working with a
 black or neutral chain1 the pattern    
being obtained entirely from the        
appearance on the surface1 above the    
chain1 of the dyed weft4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #bh ,,two-,,ply ,,warp ,,and    
,,weft2 #d ,,colours ,,in ,,each        
,warps3 ,a1 ,black2 ,b1 ,red2 ,c1       
,white2 ,d1 ,olive               ,wefts3
 ,a1 ,black2 ,b1 ,red2 ,c1 ,white2 ,d1  
,olive  ,where a more ambitious colour  
effect is desired1 four warps1 each of a
 different colour1 can be employed      
instead of two pairs4 ,these1 combined  

in different ways with four wefts of    
various colours1 obviously give scope   
for a great variety of shade and design4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi             
,,three-,,ply ,,warp ,,and ,,two-,,ply  
,,weft4 ,,section ,,through ,,warp ,a1  
,black stuffer warp2 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1    
,coloured warps2 ,w1 ,x1 ,y1 ,z1 ,wefts 
of   same colours as ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e     
,the so-called ,art ,squares--not a very
 satisfactory name--are generally made  
with two coloured warps1 one cotton     
chain1 and one jute stuffer beam4 ,the  
design is operated1 as1 of course1 in   
many other kinds of loom1 by a ,jacquard
 mechanism4 ,the blanks or perforations 
in the pattern cards cause some of the  
chain threads to be lifted up while     
others are left down1 the space between 
them forming the shed1 through which the
 shuttle passes1 carrying the weft4     
,where the chain ends only are lifted1  
the weft will show2 where the stuffer is
 raised1 it will cover the weft4 ,there 
may be three or four shuttles1 each     

carrying a different coloured weft1 and 
one or other of the wefts will appear on
 the surface of the carpet all along the
 shot1 while the remainder will remain  
hidden4 ,sometimes one shuttle carries a
 cotton weft4  ,in some weaves the black
 stuffer is occasionally brought to the 
surface so as to obtain an additional   
effect1 or1 alternatively1 a two-colour 
chain warp is employed1 without a       
stuffer4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj     
,,three-,,ply ,,warp ,,and ,,weft ,a1   
,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,coloured warps2 ,u1
 ,v1 ,w1 ,x1 ,y1 ,z1 ,coloured wefts  ,a
 more complicated variety of weave can  
be made with three sets of warp threads1
 each of two colours1 alternately1 and  
six wefts correspondingly coloured4     
,this produces a fabric of three        
textures1 which are fastened to each    
other at the point of interchange4 ,if1 
therefore1 the design should involve a  
large area of one colour or effect1 this
 area is apt to be loose and baggy1     
covering a pocket1 which is not attached

 to the rest of the fabric4 ,this       
defect1 however1 can be overcome by     
utilising one of the warps or wefts to  
act as a binding thread4  ,as has been  
intimated above1 modern developments of 
,ingrain carpets have tended in the     
direction of wide seamless carpets1 in  
which respect the fabric is on the same 
lines as other classes of carpeting4    
,the bulk of the trade now lies in the  
wide carpets1 and comparatively few     
breadth goods are woven4 ,the modern    
,art ,square loom is a fine piece of    
mechanism1 inspiring admiration with its
 comparatively small ,jacquard1 its mass
 of cordage1 and its ingenious          
co-ordinated motions4  ,modern          
developments of fabrics have also been  
in the direction of heavier goods and   
coarser pitches4 ,most qualities now    
being made contain #a1jhh warp ends to  
the yard1 in stuffer and chain combined4
 ,the yarn now used is heavier1 as it   
has been realised that a carpet needs   
weight1 both for the sake of wearing    

qualities1 and in order that it may lie 
well on the floor4  ,the preliminary and
 final processes in the manufacture of  
,ingrain carpets are substantially the  
same1 as regards winding1 beaming1      
finishing1 etc41 as for other fabrics2  
and these have been already described4  
,mention may be made1 however1 of a     
warping mill for preparing the warp     
beams for wide carpets4 ,the yarns are  
wound from bobbins fixed in a frame1 in 
some convenient multiple of the number  
of ends required1 on to a large reel    
frame or warping mill1 which revolves on
 either a vertical or horizontal axis4  
,this frame has a diameter of about #ab 
ft41 so as to enable a long length of   
warp to be wound upon it4 ,when the     
required number of ends of the desired  
lengths have been wound1 they are       
unwound from the reel on to a beam1     
which can be fitted into the beaming    
machine1 and detached again1 so as to go
 into the loom4 ,the beaming machine is 
adjustable to take different widths of  

beam4  ,compared with some carpet       
fabrics1 ,ingrain must take a modest    
place4 ,the effects of design and colour
 of which it is capable are limited2 and
 though1 in theory1 the combination of  
three or four wefts1 with as many warps 
of similar or different colours1 gives  
an almost indefinite potential number of
 colour combinations1 yet in practice   
these have their limits4 ,it will be    
generally conceded that ,ingrain carpets
 are most effective in simple and severe
 designs1 using few colours4 ,nor can it
 claim to be a luxurious carpet to tread
 upon4 ,even the heaviest ,ingrain lacks
 the resiliency1 which the looped pile  
gives to even a cheap ,brussels or      
,tapestry4 ,on the other hand1 it can be
 very artistic within its limitations2  
and it has the merit of being made in   
wide seamless carpets1 and of these     
carpets being clean in wear and easily  
handled4                                
,,chapter ,,xi                          
,,design ,,and ,,colour   ,,carpet      

designing is a branch of ,applied ,art  
which makes exacting demands upon its   
adherents1 requiring as it does         
technical knowledge to an exceptional   
extent4 ,the average designer who       
ventures into this field1 however high  
his artistic ability may be1 is not     
likely to achieve a practical success1  
unless and until he has studied the     
particular capacities and limitations of
 carpet fabrics4 ,for this reason1 the  
public carpet designer is more or less  
of a specialist in his domain1 which is 
rarely invaded unless by such           
exceptional craftsmen as the late       
,walter ,crane or ,voysey4 ,similarly1  
and because there are so many varieties 
of carpet fabrics1 requiring special    
knowledge and treatment1 all carpet     
manufacturers maintain private staffs of
 designers1 whose business it is to     
produce new patterns for each season and
 quality in accordance with the         
commercial requirements4 ,for the       
manufacturer has to be governed to a    

great extent by the tastes and          
inclinations of his customers1 the      
carpet dealers1 and cannot afford to be 
too enterprising in initiating          
novelties1 while the carpet dealer1 in  
his turn is1 as a rule1 rather a        
follower than a leader of the public    
taste4 ,the commercial standard has1    
therefore1 been to some extent a        
hampering influence upon the progress of
 carpet design towards perfection1 but  
it is certainly less so than in the     
past4 ,for it has been modified of      
recent years by a new tendency1 which1  
however1 is not one of unmixed advantage
 to the manufacturer4  ,this tendency   
may be expressed as the intervention of 
the consumer4 ,scarcity of materials    
during the war1 and the consequent      
obligation of carpet dealers to accept  
what they can get from manufacturers    
has1 temporarily at any rate1 modified  
the influence of the individual buyer of
 carpets upon carpet design and colour2 
but previous to the war it had become a 

factor to be reckoned with4 ,there were1
 and are1 many householders possessed of
 definite ideas upon arrangement of     
design1 combination of colour1 and      
harmony of decoration2 and these ideas  
often germinate in suggestions or       
demands conveyed through the dealer to  
the manufacturer for single carpets of  
special colouring or arrangement4 ,often
 these suggestions prove to be more     
original than effective2 but often they 
lead to effects both artistic and       
saleable4  ,this critical and creative  
spirit on the part of the individual is 
not1 therefore1 to be despised by the   
technical expert4 ,it encourages        
novelty1 and tends towards the evolution
 of new ideas in design and colour1 and 
a liberation from an excessive dominance
 of the commercial standard4  ,from     
whatever source1 however1 the carpet    
manufacturer obtains his ideas for a    
design1 it is by his expert staff1 or by
 a professional carpet designer1 that   
the ideas must be reduced to a practical

 form4 ,and the technical preparation of
 designs for carpets is as full of      
difficulty as it is of interest4 ,as has
 been indicated1 the various makes of   
carpet differ from each other in many   
respects1 including that of pitch1 or   
number of threads or rows per inch4     
,they all1 however1 have this in common1
 that1 anatomically so to speak1 as     
regards design1 they are reducible to   
squares of colour4 ,for this reason1    
ruled or point paper is always employed 
in the preparation of the design1 and   
preferably paper ruled so as to         
represent the full size of the woven    
fabric4 ,the designer1 therefore1 may   
not represent the curved outline of a   
leaf1 for instance1 with a bold sweep of
 his brush1 but must paint it carefully1
 square by square1 leaving actually an  
outline1 which is more or less jagged   
according to the coarseness or fineness 
of the pitch4 ,here1 at once we         
recognise a limitation which is apt to  
be irksome to the untrained designer of 

carpets4 ,and what applies to form      
applies also to colour4 ,there is no    
imperceptible graduation of shade to be 
achieved4 ,each particular square has to
 be of one colour and no more4 ,again1  
the designer must consider the number of
 colours he is allowed to employ1 be    
they two or a hundred2 and must know    
whether they can be used anywhere or    
only in restricted places in the        
pattern4 ,then there is the             
consideration of the repeat1 with the   
mysteries of the straight match1        
reverse1 drop and half drop2 of the     
width of the fabric1 body and border2   
and of the various adjustments of design
 required for carpets of different      
sizes1 whether breadth goods1 ,chlidema 
squares1 medallions1 or seamless4 ,last1
 there is the real artistic imagination 
that is required2 the art of seeing from
 one repeat how a complete carpet will  
look1 of estimating the difference in   
appearance between the flat colour on   
the paper and the richness of the wool2 

of the variation in value of the same   
shade in collocation with this or with  
that4 ,from the above it will be seen   
that the successful carpet designer has 
to be both craftsman and artist4  ,the  
finished coloured design passes into the
 hands of the colourist1 who1 whatever  
be the nature of the subsequent         
manufacturing process1 will have the    
responsibility of selecting the coloured
 yarns to go into the fabric4 ,these    
will normally1 in the first instance1   
follow the main lines of the shades of  
the design paper4 ,then the travellers' 
samples are made2 and in some fabrics   
even1 where pattern making is not       
practicable1 whole carpets or sets of   
carpets are produced4 ,some idea can    
thus be obtained of the expenses to     
which carpet manufacturers are put in   
the preparation of new designs and      
colourings 7which1 in pre-war times1    
used to be done annually1 and even more 
often7 before a yard of carpet is sold  
to recoup them4  ,the carpet designer   

and colourist must have strict regard   
for the limitations of his medium1 and  
in particular the limitations of pitch  
and of colour4 ,he must know how to     
employ in the most effective manner1    
thirty shades or three1 and what        
treatment is best for a floral design or
 an ,oriental1 in a fine or a coarse    
pitch4  ,of course1 the same laws of    
colour harmonies and contrasts hold good
 for the carpet colourist1 as for the   
artist in any other branches of applied 
art2 but the carpet artist has his own  
particular problems1 such as those that 
have been indicated1 and such as arise1 
for instance1 from the fact that carpets
 have wool surfaces and lie on the      
floor1 and therefore bear quite a       
different relation to the decoration of 
a room than curtains or ceilings4       
,carpet colourings1 apart from plains1  
may be analysed into self-colour        
effects1 two-colour effects1 and effects
 of three or more colours4  ,self-colour
 or tone-on-tone effects adapt          

themselves more easily to a scheme of   
decoration than carpets containing      
contrasted colours4 ,it seems to be a   
fact that the carpet is about the last  
thing to be thought of in a scheme of   
decoration4 ,it need not be discussed   
whether it ought to be so or not4 ,the  
walls1 curtains1 tiles1 etc41 are       
decided upon before the question of the 
colour of the carpet arises4 ,in such a 
case1 if a harmonious effect is to be   
ensured1 there may be little choice left
 in the matter2 and a self-coloured     
carpet may be either the easiest way out
 of the difficulty1 or an artistic      
necessity4 ,certainly it is easier to   
furnish to2 and1 if it does mean a      
certain want of ambition in the         
decorative scheme1 it is simple and     
satisfying4  ,self-coloured carpets are 
also eminently suitable for small rooms1
 especially bed-rooms1 on the one hand1 
and for theatres and music halls on the 
other1 perhaps because one colour is    
more restful than several4  ,the number 

of shades used varies from two to five1 
according to the simplicity or boldness 
of the design4 ,more than five are      
certainly undesirable1 as it becomes    
impossible to get steps of shades       
without approaching a white at the top  
and a black at the bottom2 and1 indeed1 
some of the most effective self-colours 
are made in three shades only4          
,two-tone effects of contrasted colours 
are not greatly used4 ,they are         
sometimes employed in small designs1    
with two colours only1 or three 7one and
 a contrasting pair71 but more often in 
bold designs of the ,empire1 ,adam1 or  
,wedgwood style1 with three or four     
shades of one colour1 upon a ground1 or 
working against a pair of shades1 of    
another2 but effective combinations on  
these lines are rare4  ,by far the      
largest proportion of carpets made are  
multi-coloured2 and nearly every style  
and fabric is adaptable to treatment in 
this way4  ,it is impossible to deal    
properly with the question of           

many-coloured carpets except at great   
length2 but1 as a basis1 it may be      
useful to remember that there are only  
three primary colours1 and that in every
 multi-coloured carpet there should be  
represented some red1 some yellow1 and  
some blue4 ,that is not saying that     
these should be primaries4 ,the red may 
be a terra-cotta1 the yellow a tan1 the 
blue a slate4 ,but if you have forty    
shades in a carpet they can all 7except1
 of course1 black and white7 be         
scientifically analysed into reds1      
yellows1 and blues1 even if some of them
 are secondaries or tertiaries4 ,that is
 to say1 that1 according to its         
collocation1 a purple will be acting    
either as a blue or as a red1 a green   
either as a yellow or as a blue1 and so 
on4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that in     
practice the carpet designer or         
colourist who has a large range of      
colours at his disposal will arrange    
them in sets3 a tan with a cream1 three 
blues1 two reds and a ruby1 and so on4  

,from this point of view1 the           
manufacturer of ,wilton is not so       
hopelessly outclassed by the maker of   
,axminster and ,chenille4 ,with his five
 or six colours1 irrespective of        
planting1 he can produce an effect which
 is satisfying1 and artistically        
perfect2 though he may have to use one  
shade1 where two or three would give    
additional softness and richness4       
,much1 however1 depends on the nature of
 the design2 and it is obvious that if  
it is desired to represent1 say1 a      
flower in a naturalistic manner1 the    
fabric that commands a large number of  
colours1 combined with a reasonably fine
 pitch1 will come off best4  ,a dictum  
of that eminent art-critic1 ,owen       
,jones1 may perhaps be appropriately    
quoted at this point4 ,in a lecture on  
,decorative ,art he writes--  8,carpets 
should be darker in tone and more broken
 in line than any portion of a room1    
both because they present the largest   
mass of colour1 and because they serve  

as a background to the furniture placed 
upon them4 ,as a general rule1 lighter  
carpets may be used in rooms thinly     
furnished than the contrary1 as we      
should otherwise have too overpowering a
 mass of shade40  ,all ornament1        
according to the source and principle of
 its design1 may be classified as either
 geometric1 naturalistic1 or            
conventional4 ,ornament of the first    
class consists of apparently arbitrary  
arrangements of circles1 squares1       
spirals1 or intersecting lines1 or      
repetitions of simple figures4 ,it is   
the natural form of expression of       
primitive art1 as employed by savages or
 found on prehistoric remains2 but it   
has been developed in some style1 as1   
for example1 the ,moorish1 into         
elaborate and beautiful patterns4       
,naturalistic ornament is that which is 
closely based upon natural objects1     
especially flowers and leaves1 which are
 coloured as closely as the limitations 
of the material permit4 ,conventional   

ornament1 which may probably be regarded
 as the highest class1 is based upon    
observation of nature2 but the natural  
forms are not slavishly copied1 but     
conventionalised1 in the sense of being 
selected and simplified1 and adapted to 
the decorative purpose in view4  ,this  
classification holds good of carpet     
design1 as for other domains of applied 
art2 and it may be interesting to trace 
the development of the fashion of carpet
 decoration with this classification in 
view4  ,the geometric style is          
characteristic of the youthful days of  
,british carpets1 and was at its zenith 
in ,early ,victorian times4 ,designs of 
this class1 rather elaborate than simple
 in drawing1 were associated with bright
 and strongly contrasted colours1 while 
black grounds1 at once the most         
effective and the most difficult of all 
ground shades1 were greatly in vogue4   
,it is interesting to note that of late 
we have returned to the use of black1   
for many years an outlaw colour2 though 

it is employed now in a more artistic   
manner than it was sixty years ago4     
,with the later ,victorian times is     
associated the development of the       
naturalistic style in carpets as in     
other decorative fabrics2 flowers1      
singly or in bouquets1 being depicted in
 bright colours as near to ,nature as   
the technical limitations permitted4    
,this style may perhaps be regarded as  
flourishing until gradually checked or  
sobered by conventionalising influences1
 and notably that of ,william ,morris1  
to whom1 indeed1 it is not too much to  
attribute a revolution in the decorative
 point of view4 ,but this revolution was
 both slow and partial2 and the         
naturalistic style1 founded1 as it is no
 doubt1 upon a love of ,nature innate in
 man1 is too deeply rooted ever to lose 
its popularity completely4  ,it is still
 with us4 ,and why not8 ,flowers1 though
 not meant to be trodden under foot1 are
 round about our feet2 and they make a  
double appeal to the carpet designer of 

intrinsic beauty1 and of fitness for    
ground decoration4 ,a green ground      
carpet with pink roses1 as near as may  
be to life1 represents no doubt         
something of the aspiration of the      
dweller in town for the country2 and who
 shall say that it is unworthy8  ,owen  
,jones is again worth quoting in this   
connection1 even if his strictures seem 
excessively severe4 ,he says--  8,i will
 say no more on the floral style1 but to
 express a regret that1 the more perfect
 the manufacturing process in carpets   
becomes1 the more do they 7the carpets7 
appear to lend themselves to evil4 ,the 
modest ,kidderminster carpet rarely goes
 wrong1 because it cannot2 it has to    
deal with but two colours1 and          
consequently much mischief is beyond its
 reach4 ,the ,brussels carpet1 which    
deals with five colours1 is more        
mischievous4 ,the ,tapestry carpet1     
where the colours are still more        
numerous1 are vicious in the extreme2   
whilst the recent invention of printed  

carpets1 with no bounds to its ambition1
 has become positively criminal40  ,but 
the supremacy of the naturalistic style 
long since passed away1 and gave place  
towards the end of last century to the  
conventional1 ,there was a very definite
 movement in this direction1 arising    
perhaps in the first instance from the  
,morris influence1 but carried forward  
notably by ,the ,studio1 the ,arts and  
,crafts ,exhibition1 and by such artists
 as ,c4 ,f4 ,a4 ,voysey1 ,walter ,crane1
 ,g4 ,c4 ,hait1 ,arthur ,silver1 and    
many others4  ,the conventional style is
 particularly suitable to carpets1 in   
that it possesses great decorative      
possibilities1 and continually reminds  
the occupant of a room of beautiful     
objects in ,nature1 without deliberately
 challenging1 as in the naturalistic    
style1 comparisons1 which can only be   
disadvantageous4 ,this style reached the
 summit of its popularity about the     
first years of the century and has since
 declined1 though it is by no means     

extinct4 ,its decline may be regretted1 
if only for the reason that it is one of
 the very few styles of design in       
carpets which can claim to be distinctly
 ,british4  ,it left behind it a        
successor1 however1 which enjoyed a few 
years of public favour4 ,this is the    
tapestry or verdure style1 wherein      
flowers1 fruit1 and leaves are treated  
in a half-conventional manner1 generally
 on a well-covered ground4 ,this really 
stands half-way between the naturalistic
 and the conventional styles4 ,it may be
 the joint offspring of the two1 a more 
exuberant ,morris type1 or a more       
chastened floral chintz2 while it seems 
not unlikely that it was introduced from
 ,germany1 where it was certainly very  
popular at one time4  ,then we passed   
into an era of reproductions4 ,examples 
of masterpieces of decoration1 and      
especially those of ,oriental art1 have 
always1 and rightly1 been studied by    
carpet designers1 and frequently        
reproduced by carpet manufacturers in   

the past2 but never to such an extent as
 during the years preceding the war4    
,the carpet trade of that time was      
dominated by the cult of the antique    
,eastern carpet2 and a very large       
proportion of the production of ,british
 carpets was upon ,persian and ,indian  
styles1 while subsequently the ,chinese 
came in for marked attention4 ,from one 
point of view1 this was all to the good2
 for the birthplace of the carpet was   
the ,orient1 and old ,eastern carpets   
are classics1 just as the works of      
,homer1 ,vergil1 ,handel1 or ,velasquez 
are classics4 ,competition among        
manufacturers was keen2 and close and   
beautiful reproductions of the best     
antique ,oriental carpets were offered  
to the public1 distinguished in design1 
soft in colouring1 and lending          
themselves readily to harmonious schemes
 of decoration4  ,but from another      
aspect this era was less satisfactory4  
,the masterpieces of ,persia and ,asia  
,minor1 so eagerly sought out1 were not 

studied as models1 to be adapted to     
modern ideas and requirements1 as       
inspirations1 or bases for new effects4 
,they were apt to be slavishly copied1  
line for line and shade for shade1 as   
far as the limitations of the           
machine-made fabric permitted4 ,a       
manufacturer would boast3 8,this is an  
exact reproduction of the famous carpet 
of so-and-so1 made in the fourteenth    
century02 not3 8,this is a beautiful    
carpet4 ,persian in feeling40 ,this sort
 of thing did not make for progress1 nor
 for originality and initiative in the  
design1 but led to a certain monotony   
and arrested progress1 though the beauty
 of the productions was incontestable4  
,the next stage in the development of   
carpet design was very interesting4 ,a  
slight1 but inevitable reaction set in  
against the dominance of close          
reproductions of ,persian and other     
carpets of the ,near ,east4 ,carpets in 
the characteristic decorative styles of 
other countries1 and of other ages1 were

 attempted4 ,the ,far ,east furnished   
the first departure from the ,persian   
domination2 and the rich stores of      
,chinese and ,japanese ornament were    
drawn upon1 with very satisfactory      
results4 ,then the carpet manufacturer  
and designer struck out more boldly1 and
 invaded any land or period whose       
particular style of decoration could be 
converted to the artistic purposes of   
the industry4 ,louis ,,xiv1 ,louis      
,,xvi1 ,rococo1 ,italian ,renaissance1  
,empire1 ,adam1 ,georgian1 ,queen ,anne1
 and other periods were laid under      
contribution2 and it was no less a clear
 demand on the part of the dealer and   
the public 7to whose share due credit   
must be given7 than a point of honour   
with the manufacturer1 that every design
 should be pure and true to its         
particular style4 ,this involved        
knowledge and study1 and tended to      
restore the designer and colourist to   
his proper position as a creative artist
 from that of a mere copyist1 to which  

he had been in some danger of sinking4  
,the ,futurist1 ,cubist1 ,vorticist     
movement1 whatever its effect has been  
in the world of ,fine ,art1 has had but 
little influence upon carpet design and 
colour4 ,but perhaps this is yet to     
come4  ,there has been one more stage in
 the development of carpet design1 which
 may be regarded as a part of1 but      
slightly different from1 the            
period-study stage4 ,this may be called 
the ,archaeological4 ,the art of ,greece
 and ,rome1 apart from the superb       
acanthus scroll1 has left little that   
lent itself to carpet decoration2 but   
older civilisations have been drawn     
upon2 and the finely conventionalised   
ornament of ,ancient ,egypt1 ,chaldea1  
and ,assyria1 has been utilised in      
harmonious and dignified carpets4 ,nor  
is this tendency likely to be arrested1 
as long as fresh fields can be found    
that will repay exploration4  ,all this 
is extremely healthy and stimulating for
 the industry4 ,it involves study and   

effort and originality2 and it makes for
 real progress4 ,the consumer of carpets
 has been growing more discriminating1  
just as he has been growing more        
eclectic4 ,his taste is varied3 he may  
buy a ,hamadan design or a ,celtic2 but 
he will want it pure in style1 and well 
coloured4 ,he is interested in a little 
archaeology2 but he likes a sound design
 better than archaeology1 and finds a   
good colouring more important still4    
,what developments the future holds in  
store it is impossible to say4 ,it may  
be that we shall have a reaction from   
this1 eclecticism1 this cosmopolitanism 
of taste1 to a more insular vogue2 that 
we shall even evolve a ,twentieth       
,century ,british style in carpets as   
characteristic as the ,egyptian or the  
,renaissance4  ,meanwhile1 some         
indication has been given of the steps  
by which the carpet trade has reached   
the high and varied standard of         
excellence in design and colour which it
 enjoys to-day4                         

,,chapter ,,xii                         
,,statistics   ,,the ,british carpet    
manufacturing trade cannot claim to     
compare in size with the larger         
industries of the country2 but the      
figures which follow will give some     
measure of its extent4 ,it should be    
premised that1 owing to the disturbance 
of the industry caused by war           
conditions1 it is necessary to go back  
to #aiac to obtain figures which can be 
regarded as approximately normal4       
,there are forty-five firms engaged in  
the manufacture of carpets1 of whom     
eleven are located in ,scotland1 nine in
 the ,north of ,england1 eighteen in    
,kidderminster and district1 and seven  
in other parts of the country4          
,kidderminster is thus1 both in the     
number of manufacturers1 and in its     
productive capacity1 the most important 
centre of the trade4  ,there are about  
#d1ejj looms of various kinds and widths
 in the whole trade1 of which number    
,brussels and ,wilton looms1 ,chenille1 

and ,tapestry each contribute about #be 
per cent41 ,axminster #ag per cent41 and
 ,ingrain1 hand-tufted1 and sundry looms
 the balance4  ,the total number of     
employees in the trade before the war   
was #cf1jjj1 of which rather more than  
one-quarter were male4 ,during the war  
the total was reduced to about #ej per  
cent4  ,the average annual consumption  
of wool may be taken as about #h1jjj    
tons2 which1 estimating a fleece as     
about #flb4 in weight1 represents the   
wool produced yearly by #c1jjj1jjj      
sheep4  ,the consumption of jute was    
from #ae1jjj to #bj1jjj tons2 of cotton 
about #ac1jjj tons2 of linen #h1jjj to  
#aj1jjj tons2 and of coal about #ajj1jjj
 tons per annum4  ,the export trade is  
an important branch1 as will be seen    
from the following tables for #aiac and 
#aiah1 printed here by the courtesy of  
the ,kidderminster ,shuttle--           
,,carpet ,,exports         7,in the     
following details of ,carpets1 ,rugs are
 included47                             

,quantities for ,twelve ,months ended-- 
,december1 #aiab4 ,december1 #aiac4     
,germany                        #abb1djj
            #ia1bjj        ,netherlands 
#cci1ajj           #djb1cjj             
,belgium                         #fh1ijj
            #ee1bjj        ,france      
#ga1ijj            #fc1gjj        ,spain
 and ,canaries              #ga1cjj     
#dg1cjj        ,united ,states          
#adb1jjj           #acg1cjj             
,chili                          #dai1djj
           #cch1gjj        ,argentine   
,republic             #cia1ejj          
#dji1jjj        ,australia              
#a1gjd1gjj         #a1hba1cjj           
,new ,zealand                           
#eee1djj           #eba1ejj             
,canada                       #b1gcj1cjj
         #b1efi1cjj        ,other       
,countries              #b1aid1ijj      
#b1adf1ajj                              
--------              --------          
,total ,square ,yards                   
#h1haa1hjj         #h1fjb1ijj           

,,carpet ,,exports                      
,value for ,twelve ,months ended--      
,december1 #aiab4 ,december1 #aiac4     
,germany                         #cg1ihb
            #bg1hec        ,netherlands 
#fj1afa            #gb1edd              
,belgium                         #aa1jji
             #i1heh        ,france      
#ah1dee            #ag1geg        ,spain
 and ,canaries              #af1efi     
#h1aic        ,united ,states           
#ee1fcd            #fj1fhh        ,chili
                           #ed1hji      
#ej1ich        ,argentine ,republic     
#gb1hgi            #gb1jbg              
,australia                      #bif1ffd
           #ccd1acg        ,new ,zealand
                     #hi1igb            
#ia1aaj        ,canada                  
#dej1aai           #ddi1aja             
,other ,countries                       
#cda1bgg           #cdb1gah             
----------             ----------       
,,total                       #a1eje1ecj
        #a1ecf1ibd                      

,,carpet ,,exports                      
,quantities for ,twelve ,months ended-- 
,december1 #aiag4 ,december1 #aiah4     
,netherlands                    #bhj1cjj
             #a1jjj        ,france      
#aac1bjj           #ahc1ajj             
,spain and ,canaries                    
#ed1fjj            #cb1cjj              
,united ,states of                      
#bih1ijj            #hi1ijj             
,america        ,chile                  
#aad1ajj           #aeb1bjj             
,argentine ,republic                    
#bbh1jjj           #bah1ijj             
,australia                      #hea1hjj
           #heb1ejj        ,new ,zealand
                    #bbb1ajj            
#ig1gjj        ,canada                  
#hhf1ijj           #bci1hjj             
,other ,countries                       
#a1dhb1ijj         #a1aea1jjj           
----------             ----------       
,total ,square ,yards                   
#d1ecb1hjj         #c1jah1djj           
,,carpet ,,exports                      

,value for ,twelve ,months ended--      
,december1 #aiag4 ,december1 #aiah4     
,netherlands                     #hh1cjg
               #ejb        ,france      
#ee1cfh           #abj1ihb        ,spain
 and ,canaries              #ag1jjh     
#ad1hjc        ,united ,states of       
#aij1egb            #ga1gij             
,america        ,chile                  
#cj1jgf            #fc1eab              
,argentine ,republic                    
#ga1iae            #ie1bcg              
,australia                      #bcg1fcd
           #ccj1bhg        ,new ,zealand
                     #eh1icg            
#cf1bfj        ,canada                  
#bjf1feh            #gj1abj             
,other ,countries                       
#dah1dcb           #dgj1hih             
----------             ----------       
,,total                       #a1cgd1ijg
        #a1bgd1cia                      
,,carpet ,,imports                      
,square   ,value4                       
,yds4                     ,imports of   

,carpets    #a1hed1eii    #fhg1jbf      
and ,carpet ,rugs1                 #aiab
               ,imports of ,carpets     
#a1ife1jjj    #fih1cga                  
and ,carpet ,rugs1                 #aiac
                                        
,,chapter ,,xiii                        
,,employers ,,and ,,employed   ,,carpet 
manufacture1 as already explained in the
 foregoing pages1 comprises a good many 
different processes and fabrics2 and it 
can be readily understood that the      
making of ,wilton carpets1 for instance1
 may require not only a different plant 
and staff from those needed for ,ingrain
 or ,axminster1 but even a different    
manufacturing and selling policy4 ,from 
these and other considerations it comes 
about that1 in practice1 carpet         
manufacturers are inclined to specialise
 in one fabric1 and to restrict         
themselves to making two or three1      
though this is not to be regarded as by 
any means an invariable rule4 ,as a     
result1 the interest in any one fabric  

will be found to be confined to a       
limited number of manufacturers1 and not
 to be extended over the whole trade2   
while nearly all manufacturers are      
interested in more than one fabric4  ,in
 default of any general association of  
carpet manufacturers1 the tendency in   
the past has been for the whole or the  
large majority of manufacturers         
interested in a fabric to form an       
,association for the control of         
qualities and prices in that fabric     
only4 ,thus1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 and ,d make    
,axminster carpets and form an          
,axminster ,association2 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 and
 ,e are members of a ,brussels and      
,wilton ,association2 ,a1 ,c1 ,e1 and ,f
 of a ,tapestry ,association1 and so on4
  ,as a matter of fact1 there have been 
in existence for a good many years a    
,brussels and ,wilton ,carpet           
,manufacturers' ,association1 working in
 close co-operation with an ,axminster  
,association1 and a ,victorian          
7,chenille7 ,association2 while the     

makers of ,tapestry carpets have an     
organisation of their own4 ,of recent   
years1 another body was added1 the      
,carpet ,manufacturers' ,federation1    
whose special function was the control  
of the lower qualities of ,brussels and 
,wilton1 which the existing ,brussels   
and ,wilton ,association did not claim  
to regulate4  ,the organisations        
enumerated comprise the large majority  
of the makers of the various carpet     
fabrics concerned2 and they have        
controlled the prices and terms         
obtaining in the trade on the whole in a
 very effective manner1 though subject  
always to the somewhat disturbing       
influence of the manufacturers remaining
 outside the ,associations4 ,of these1  
however1 the greater number have        
habitually followed the standard of     
prices and selling conditions set by the
 ,associations4  ,on the whole1 then1   
these trade organisations have done good
 work4 ,certainly they cannot be accused
 of greediness in advancing prices too  

quickly or too much1 or of undue        
stringency in conditions of sale4 ,the  
value and amount of control exercised by
 these ,associations have been partly   
conditioned by their mutual relations4  
,intercommunication between the         
different bodies and joint meetings has 
already contributed to the solution of  
some difficulties common to the trade2  
but more might be done in this          
direction4 ,no doubt an ideal           
organisation would be an ,association of
 the whole industry1 with sections for  
each branch of it4  ,the work of the    
,associations has included the          
standardisation of a certain number of  
qualities in various fabrics2 and1      
indeed1 without such standardisation the
 fixing of prices in a satisfactory     
manner is almost an impossibility4 ,in  
the interests of all concerned1         
including1 it may be confidently        
asserted1 both the carpet dealer and the
 ultimate consumer1 this                
standardisation1 coupled with a         

reduction in the number of qualities    
produced1 might very well be extended4  
,the trade has been unnecessarily       
complicated in the past by the existence
 of qualities differing from each other 
by a small percentage of value1 and     
puzzling to the buyer4 ,carpet          
manufacturers are themselves partly to  
blame for this multiplication of        
fabrics1 the outcome of an extravagant  
competition1 involving needless expense 
in production1 which fell1 of course1   
ultimately upon the consumer4 ,war      
conditions have made a clean sweep of   
many of them3 it is to be hoped that    
they will not recur4  ,the carpet       
industry was from the first a great     
sufferer from the state of affairs      
brought about by the declaration of war4
 ,in the early days1 cancels and a      
suspension of orders necessitated a     
recourse to short time2 while later1 as 
a so-called 8,luxury ,trade10 it did not
 seem likely to meet with much          
consideration at the hands of the       

authorities in respect of protection    
given to its personnel1 or of the       
provision of adequate raw materials4    
,these difficulties brought carpet      
manufacturers closer together than      
before2 and committees representing the 
whole trade were formed for the         
protection of its interests in the above
 connections4  ,ultimately1 when the    
question of the rationing of wool and   
other raw materials necessary to the    
industry became paramount1 a ,committee 
of the trade was formed1 entitled the   
,carpet ,trade ,rationing ,committee4   
,this ,committee was recognised by the  
,war ,office1 and responsible directly  
to the ,wool ,control ,board4 ,since    
,june1 #aiag1 it was occupied with the  
allocation of wool to spinners1 and of  
worsted and woollen yarns1 and          
subsequently jute1 to carpet            
manufacturers4 ,the distribution1 of    
course1 depended upon the amount        
allotted to the carpet trade by the     
,wool ,control ,board1 and had to be    

made with due regard to the needs of    
carpet manufacturers1 their pre-war     
consumption1 their stocks1 etc4 ,it was 
an arduous and invidious task2 and the  
fact that it was carried through with   
scarcely a complaint1 and that1 in spite
 of severe shortage of material at      
times1 no firm was ever obliged to shut 
down1 reflects great credit on all      
concerned4  ,labour was represented on  
this ,committee by one member from each 
branch of the ,carpet ,trade ,unions1 in
 ,scotland1 the ,north of ,england1 and 
,kidderminster4  ,the publication of the
 ,whitley ,report brought general       
recognition that effective co-operation 
of employers and employed was a         
necessity for the future prosperity of  
the carpet industry1 no less than for   
other trades1 and that this could best  
be brought about by an organisation as  
fully representative of the employers as
 the ,affiliation of ,carpet ,trade     
,unions was of the employees4  ,at the  
beginning of #aiah a scheme was put     

forward by the late ,sir ,charles ,bine 
,renshaw for the formation of a ,british
 ,carpet ,manufacturers' ,association   
for the whole trade1 composed of        
delegates from three ,district          
,associations1 representing the         
,scottish1 ,north of ,england1 and      
,kidderminster ,area ,carpet            
,manufacturers respectively4 ,the object
 of these ,associations was the         
protection of the general interests of  
the trade1 and in particular the        
settlement of questions of wages and    
employment in co-operation with         
accredited representatives of ,carpet   
,trade ,unions4 ,the ,scottish          
,manufacturers were the first to form   
their ,district ,association1 but were  
followed in due course by those of the  
other two areas4  ,the ,trade ,unions of
 the carpet industry were naturally     
local in origin4 ,the ,midland branch   
was founded in #ahff1 under the title   
8,the ,kidderminster and ,stourport     
,united ,brussels ,power ,loom ,carpet  

,weavers' ,friendly ,society40 ,in      
#ahfh1 the name was altered to 8,the    
,power ,loom ,carpet ,weavers' ,mutual  
,defence and ,provident ,association10  
though generally spoken of as the       
,carpet ,weavers' ,association2 and this
 title held good until #aiag1 when the  
textile workers1 both male and female1  
were admitted to membership1 and the    
name was finally altered to 8,the ,power
 ,loom ,carpet ,weavers' and ,textile   
,workers' ,association40  ,the original 
headquarters of the ,society was the    
,vine ,inn1 ,horsefair2 but in #ahgj a  
room was rented from the ,workmen's     
,club1 at #bh ,church ,street1 where the
 business was carried on up to #ahhg4   
,in this year the ,association was      
transferred to #aje ,mill ,street1 where
 it has remained until its recent move  
next door1 to ,no4 #ajf4  ,although the 
original raison d'tre of the            
organisation was that of a ,trade       
,defence ,association1 it very soon took
 up what is known as ,friendly ,society 

work2 for as early as #ahfg accident and
 funeral benefits were being paid2 sick 
pay was commenced in #ahfh2 and in #ahgg
 it was decided to use funds for        
superannuation claims4 ,it is           
interesting to record that at the       
beginning of #aiai there were #eb       
members on the superannuation list1     
including some of the men who helped to 
found the ,association1 such as ,noah   
,cooke 7#he71 ,thomas ,thatcher 7#ie71  
,b4 ,barber1 and several others now well
 advanced in years4  ,the ,association  
has gradually extended the scope of its 
benefits to members until we find that1 
for the year ending ,december1 #aiag1   
out of an income of #a1gag #js4 #h;d4 no
 less than #a1cia #ais4 #aj;d4 was      
disbursed in ,friendly ,society         
benefits1 subscriptions1 and donations4 
,the following figures1 showing the     
total amounts paid out for benefits to  
the sick and disabled1 for              
superannuation1 and for funerals1 will  
convey some idea of the great extent of 

the activity of the ,society in this    
direction since its formation--         
s4  d4                     ,sick ,pay   
#bf1fch  #ah   #a                       
,superannuation   #ag1bbc   #j   #i     
,funerals          #h1eeh  #ag   #b  ,in
 addition to these amounts1 various sums
 have been applied to other useful      
purposes4 ,for instance1 in the year    
#ahig1 #bba was spent in assisting      
members who were unemployed1 and in     
succeeding years several smaller amounts
 have been spent in the same way4 ,over 
#acj was distributed in #aijf to members
 who wished to emigrate1 and later about
 #ajj for the same purpose4  ,thanks to 
the good relations which have subsisted 
between employers and employed1 and     
which it is to be hoped will continue1  
the amount spent in trade disputes has  
been very small4  ,during the most      
flourishing days of the ,brussels and   
,wilton trade1 the actual number of     
members on the books reached #a1fjj4    
,this gradually fell to #hjj1 including 

superannuated members1 in the early part
 of #aiag4 ,in that year1 however1 the  
rules were altered to admit the textile 
workers to membership2 and the number on
 the books at the beginning of #aiai was
 rather over #c1jjj4  ,the ,association 
has a long and honourable record to look
 back upon4 ,it has played a useful part
 in the industrial life of the          
community1 it has treated its members   
well1 and has earned the respect of the 
manufacturers4 ,no doubt1 under the new 
conditions1 it will do no less well in  
the future4  ,the ,northern ,counties   
,carpet ,trades ,association was        
established in #ahib by a few           
enthusiasts at ,halifax1 under the title
 of 8,the ,halifax ,brussels ,carpet    
,weavers' ,association40 ,membership was
 confined to those working as ,jacquard 
weavers until ,june1 #aijd1 when the    
name was changed to 8,the ,northern     
,counties ,power ,loom ,weavers'        
,association10 making it possible to    
accept as members all power-loom        

weavers4 ,a further alteration was made 
in the title and constitution in #aiac1 
when the ,association was registered    
under its present name1 since when it   
has accepted as members any person      
engaged in the industry4 ,the           
,association has branches at ,halifax1  
,sowerby ,bridge1 ,heckmondwike1        
,rochdale1 and ,manchester1 with a      
membership of approximately #a1bjj4 ,up 
to the end of #aiah the ,association has
 disbursed in provident benefits the    
following amounts--                     
s4  d4                    ,death        
#bcf   #j   #j                          
,playing for ,work   #c1hhg  #ag   #c   
,out of ,work          #def  #ah   #b   
,grants               #bdf   #i   #j    
,emigration ,grants    #bfj  #ah   #d   
,sick ,pay             #bff   #j   #c   
,payment of sick pay was discontinued   
when the ,national ,health ,insurance   
,act came into force4  ,previous to     
#ahgd1 the interests of the workers in  
the carpet trade in ,scotland were      

vested in a more or less irregular form 
of a ,trade ,union1 whose activities    
were mainly directed by the workers in  
,glasgow2 but with the development of   
the ,trade ,union movement in the       
seventies1 several efforts were made by 
a few enthusiasts to form a regular     
society4 ,after many futile attempts in 
this direction1 a conference was        
ultimately held in the ,st4 ,mungo      
,hotel1 ,glasgow1 on #gth ,march1 #ahgd1
 when the following attended as         
representatives of their respective     
districts--  ,,bonnyrigg4--,mr4 ,john   
,craig4  ,,glasgow4--,messrs4 ,john     
,mitchell1 ,robert ,logan1 ,thomas      
,ramsay4  ,,glenpatrick                 
7,elderslie74--,messrs4 ,john ,miller1  
,james ,mc,lellan4  ,,paisley4--,messrs4
 ,james ,mc,naughton1 ,william ,findlay4
  ,,roslin 7,mid-,lothian74--,mr4 ,james
 ,armour4  ,,kilmarnock4--,mr4 ,james   
,young4  ,mr4 ,william ,findlay1 of     
,paisley1 was called to preside over the
 conference2 and ,mr4 ,thomas ,ramsay1  

of ,glasgow1 was appointed ,secretary4  
,after the various representatives had  
expressed their opinions for and against
 the formation of a ,union on           
progressive lines1 it was ultimately    
agreed that a ,protective and ,provident
 ,union be formed1 and that members be  
given the option of joining either for  
,trade ,protection and ,sick and        
,funeral ,benefit1 or for ,trade        
,protection only1 by paying the weekly  
contribution of #d;d4 or #b;d4 per week 
respectively4 ,it was further decided at
 this conference that the first         
,executive ,committee be composed of six
 members from ,glasgow1 and one each    
from ,paisley and ,glenpatrick4 ,thus we
 have the origin of the present 8,scotch
 ,power ,looms ,carpet ,trade           
,protective and ,provident              
,association40  ,according to the       
constitution of the ,association as it  
then existed1 the ,executive ,committee 
had the power to appoint its own        
officials2 and on #ith ,march1 #ahgd1   

,mr4 ,robert ,logan and ,mr4 ,thomas    
,ramsay1 both of the ,glasgow ,branch1  
were elected ,president and ,secretary  
respectively4  ,at a meeting held on    
#aith ,april1 #ahgd1 the ,secretary     
intimated that the organisation was     
proceeding very satisfactorily4 ,up to  
this date1 #ajb members had joined for  
the full benefits and #hc for trade     
benefits2 ,bonnyrigg being the only     
branch which had not responded to the   
call for organisation4  ,in ,february1  
#ahge1 a joint conference with the      
,english workers was held in ,halifax1  
for the dual purpose of soliciting      
assistance for the ,glenpatrick workers1
 who were then on strike1 and with a    
view to a thorough organisation of the  
whole of the workers in the trade4 ,some
 good financial assistance was obtained1
 but the organisation was not as        
successful as might have been expected1 
although ,kidderminster placed their    
experience at the disposal of all the   
workers1 ,the next few years were taken 

up in purely local affairs2 and in      
,february1 #ahha1 the question of an    
uniform price list for ,tapestry weaving
 and tying-in was discussed2 and a draft
 scheme was submitted to a meeting of   
delegates4 ,however1 as complete        
agreement among the workers could not be
 obtained1 the efforts in this direction
 did not materialise4  ,from #ahid      
onwards1 the ,association realised the  
necessity of a more powerful            
organisation and sufficient funds to    
support the members2 and strong         
recommendations were repeatedly put     
forward by the ,executive for increased 
contributions2 but owing to apparent    
apathy on the part of members1 these    
recommendations were not taken up with  
the zeal necessary for their success4   
,at the ,annual ,delegates' ,meeting    
held in ,may1 #ahie1 the question of    
replenishing the funds of the           
,association1 which had been greatly    
depleted1 was discussed2 and it was     
ultimately decided to raise the         

contributions from #d;d4 to #f;d4 per   
week4 ,as a result of this increase1 two
 of the branches in the ,east of        
,scotland seceded4  ,in ,july1 #ahie1   
the question of amalgamating with the   
,kidderminster ,association was again   
discussed2 but again no definite steps  
were taken4  ,in #ahig an effort was    
made by the ,east shops 7,bonnyrigg1    
,eskbank1 and ,roslin7 to form a local  
union4 ,this was partially established1 
but in ,june1 #aijd1 a lock-out took    
place in the district on the question of
 shift working2 and the local union1 not
 being able to deal with the matter1    
appealed to the ,executive of this      
,association for assistance1 which was  
granted4 ,the ,executive opened         
negotiations with the firms concerned1  
and after a few weeks duration1 a       
satisfactory agreement was arrived at1  
with the result that the local union was
 dissolved1 and the members agreed to   
join the original ,association4 ,in     
,march1 #ahie1 the membership of the    

,association was returned at #cig4  ,a  
special conference was held in ,glasgow 
on #cjth ,september1 #aije1 with the    
object of endeavouring to get the       
employers to return to the rates for    
tying beams which were reduced in #ahhf4
 ,a scheme was ultimately drawn up and  
submitted to the employers in #aijf2 but
 negotiations proved unproductive4  ,in 
#aije1 the ,glenpatrick branch1 which   
had seceded in #ahge after their        
unsuccessful strike1 rejoined the       
,association1 some #gb weavers becoming 
members4 ,in ,march1 #aijf1 the         
membership of the ,association was      
returned at #dfb4  ,in ,may1 #aijf1 a   
dispute arose in the ,charleston        
7,paisley7 branch on the question of the
 weaving rate for a new fabric1 which   
lasted about four months4  ,in #aijg the
 ,association became affiliated to the  
,general ,federation of ,trade ,unions  
with a view to strengthening the reserve
 funds of the ,association4  ,in #aijg  
and #aijh1 a further effort was made to 

bring about an affiliation of the       
,english and ,scotch ,carpet ,trade     
,unions2 and on this occasion a         
constitution was drawn up1 but at the   
last moment1 when all seemed shaping    
well for the formation of a ,federation1
 the matter again dropped4  ,in #aiaa1  
after prolonged negotiations with the   
,tapestry manufacturers1 a new scheme   
for payment for weaving was drawn up on 
a proportionate basis1 which was        
considered1 at least so far as ,scotland
 was concerned1 to be a great step      
towards uniformity of rates4 ,the       
workers' interests in the drawing up of 
this scheme were very capably handled by
 ,messrs4 ,rough1 ,robertson1 and       
,howie4 ,after the establishment of this
 scheme1 things went on smoothly until  
,august1 #aiad1 when the outbreak of war
 put the organisation1 in common with   
many others1 into a condition of        
suspense4 ,the ,general ,secretary was  
called to the ,colours2 and a large     
proportion of the younger members       

answered the call to arms4 ,thanks1     
however1 to careful and judicious       
handling1 the ,association ultimately   
overcame all difficulties2 and not only 
was the ,association preserved1 but that
 which was almost despaired of1 and     
which was the dream of the pioneers of  
the movement1 was also achieved3 namely1
 the complete organisation of all carpet
 workers in the ,brussels1 ,wilton1 and 
,tapestry carpet trade of ,scotland4 ,by
 the end of #aiah1 the membership of the
 ,association1 in spite of the great    
depletion in the ranks of the workers   
caused by the war1 had increased to     
#a1bjj4  ,since #aiad the ,executive was
 successful in obtaining the adoption of
 a new scheme for payment for tying-in  
beams1 replacing the one which was      
abolished in #ahhf1 and giving          
satisfaction to all workers in the      
,tapestry trade4  ,the progress and     
development of the ,scotch ,association 
during the past few years1 and the      
successful amalgamation with the        

,english ,associations1 has been largely
 due to the tact and energy of the      
,president1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,lindsay1 of   
,paisley4  ,the ,kidderminster1         
,northern ,counties1 and ,scottish      
,associations were amalgamated in       
,november1 #aiag1 under the title of    
8,the ,national ,affiliation of ,carpet 
,trade ,unions40 ,the objects of the    
affiliation were the maintenance of     
uniform rates1 the regulation of the    
supply of hands and hours of work1 and  
generally the regulation of the         
relations of employers and employed in  
the trade4  ,the constitution is simple1
 the control of the ,affiliation being  
vested in the hands of an ,affiliation  
,board1 composed of three               
representatives from each ,association4 
,the ,board appoints a ,president1      
,secretary1 and ,treasurer1 each        
,association being entitled to one      
official4  ,during the spring and early 
summer of #aiai negotiations had been   
proceeding between the ,employers1 the  

,trade ,unions' representatives1 and the
 ,ministry of ,labour for the formation 
of a ,joint ,industrial ,council for the
 ,carpet ,trade2 and the inaugural      
meeting of this body was held under the 
auspices of ,mr4 ,john ,hodge1 ,m4,p41  
on #ahth ,july4 ,it was composed as     
follows--                               
,,employers' ,,side                     
,kidderminster and ,district            
,manufacturers' ,association            
#e               ,northern ,counties'   
,manufacturers'                         
,association                            
#e               ,scottish              
,manufacturers' ,association       #d   
--                                      
#ad                                     
,,employees' ,,side                     
,national ,affiliation of ,carpet ,trade
                 ,unions                
#aj               ,general ,union of    
,textile ,workers          #b           
,the ,amalgamated ,society of ,gas1     
,municipal1 and ,general ,workers       

#a               ,workers' ,union       
#a                                      
--                                      
#ad  ,mr4 ,herbert ,smith1 of           
,kidderminster 7,employers71 was elected
 ,chairman1 and ,mr4 ,thomas ,lindsay1  
of ,paisley 7,employees71               
,vice-,chairman4                        
,,chapter ,,xiv                         
,,conclusion   ,,it may be of interest  
to consider briefly the prospects of the
 industry4  ,the ,carpet ,trade is in   
several respects a peculiar one4 ,its   
principal raw materials1 wool1 cotton1  
and jute1 are of such outstanding       
importance to more essential industries1
 that their supply and their price are  
conditioned by the latter2 so that the  
,carpet ,trade has to accommodate itself
 to a market which is not controlled to 
any extent by its own needs4 ,it is not 
a large industry2 but it employs a      
number of operatives in whom a high     
degree of technical skill is required in
 a great variety of branches2 and it    

utilises a considerable quantity of     
ingenious machinery of many kinds4 ,it  
is1 strictly speaking1 a luxury trade4  
,that is to say1 it is obvious that it  
is theoretically more possible to exist 
in a house with no carpets1 than in a   
house1 say1 with no tables and chairs1  
while a floor covering is perhaps less  
of a necessity than wall-paper or       
curtains4 ,of course1 as a matter of    
fact1 the line is not drawn sharply     
between carpets and other articles of   
furnishing4 ,a person who is furnishing 
a house1 if he can afford curtains can  
probably afford carpets1 though he may1 
indeed1 find his mind divided between   
his desire to provide his home with a   
comfort that is almost a necessity1 and 
his hesitation to indulge himself in a  
comfort that may be regarded as a       
luxury4 ,where the practical test of the
 trade being a luxury trade comes1 is in
 the matter of renewals4 ,it is here    
that the ,carpet ,industry is sensitive 
to the periodical changes in commercial 

prosperity1 which seem to be inherent in
 modern civilisation4 ,generally        
speaking1 when trade is bad the ,carpet 
,industry is the first to suffer2 and   
when there is a recovery it is some time
 before it feels the benefit4 ,it seems 
that1 with the first pinch of adversity1
 the carpet consumer decides upon a     
policy of economy that excludes the     
purchase of carpets1 whatever else may  
or may not be bought4  ,hence arises a  
period of depression in the carpet      
trade1 with a decrease of profitable    
production1 and consequent unemployment2
 and this in the future1 in the face of 
higher wages and more keenly realised   
responsibilities towards employees1 will
 certainly be an even more serious      
matter than it has been in the past4    
,the matter of the import of foreign    
goods has been mentioned in the chapter 
on ,hand-made ,carpets2 and all that was
 said therein as regards the            
unrestricted entrance into the ,british 
market of ,eastern and ,continental     

productions applies to some extent to   
their competition with all makes and    
grades of carpet4 ,the home market for  
carpets is a large one normally1 but it 
is not capable of indefinite expansion2 
the consumption has its limits2 and if  
the market is invaded by foreign goods1 
the consumption and the price of the    
domestic product will quickly fall with 
unpleasant if not disastrous results    
upon the industry4  ,the dangers        
indicated axe real ones1 serious alike  
for ,capital and ,labour1 who1 more than
 ever in the past1 will have to stand or
 fall together2 and they deserve        
consideration1 as regards the way in    
which they may best be met4  ,as        
previously indicated1 various           
,associations exist in the ,carpet      
,trade2 but it may be admitted that     
there is scope for better organisation  
as regards consideration of matters that
 affect the ,industry as a whole4 ,if it
 is to be on a firm foundation1 there   
should be a more complete recognition of

 the fact that the interests of all     
units of the trade are identical4       
,further1 in any new scheme of          
combination the position of ,labour will
 have to be recognised1 and its         
co-operation cordially welcomed4 ,some  
such scheme as is outlined in the       
well-known ,whitley ,report1 though it  
is by no means free from difficulties1  
may materialise1 possibly in a modified 
form4 ,the principle at any rate is a   
good one2 and carpet manufacturers have 
had no cause to complain of their       
relations with their employees 7nor vice
 vers7 in the past1 nor any cause for   
doubting a reasonable attitude on the   
part of ,trade ,unions in the future4   
,no reasonable employers in the ,carpet 
,trade will begrudge their employees a  
fair remuneration for their work1 nor   
improved conditions of working4 ,nor1 on
 the other hand1 will they be sorry to  
admit ,trade ,union representatives to a
 share in dealing with general trade    
problems4 ,it seems manifestly right1   

for instance1 that men no less than     
masters should consider how the         
,industry is affected by tariff         
questions1 or how high wages or reduced 
working hours may be made compatible    
with the maintenance of the export      
trade4  ,apart from this1 it remains to 
be seen whether the manufacturers       
themselves can devise any satisfactory  
scheme for protecting their own         
interests and those of the ,industry    
generally4 ,all are pretty well agreed  
as to the desirability of closer and    
more efficient combination3 differences 
of opinion exist as to the best methods 
by which this may be achieved4          
,,index   ,art squares1 #hh  ,aubusson1 
#d1 #bb ,axminster1 #e ---- carpeting1  
#di ---- qualities1 #ej-eb ----1        
seamless1 #fa ----1 setting1 #ed ----   
weaving process1 #ed1 #ee ---- weft     
motion1 #eh  ,beauvais1 #d1 #bb         
,brussels carpeting1 #bi ----1 chain    
warp1 #ca ----1 finishing1 #ch ----1    
pressing1 #ch ---- qualities1 #ce1 #cf  

----1 sprouting1 #cg ----1 stuffer warp1
 #ca ----1 weaving process1 #cb ----1   
winding1 #cj ----1 worsted1 #bi  ,cairo 
squares1 #ch ,carlisle1 #bc ,carpets1   
antiquity of1 #a ----1 artificial ageing
 of1 #bf ----1 doctoring of1 #be ----1  
earliest makers of1 #bd ----1 ,european 
and ,asiatic1 #bf ----1 export of1 #aje1
 #ajf ----1 import of1 #ajf ----1       
introduction into ,england1 #c ----1    
sewing of1 #db ,carpet trade            
associations1 #ajg ---- ----1 commercial
 conditions of1 #aai ---- ----1         
,district ,association1 #aaj ---- ----1 
distribution of1 #ajd ,carpet ,trade    
,industrial ,council1 #aah ---- ----    
,rationing ,committee1 #aji ,chenille1  
#fc ----1 fur cutting1 #fe ----1        
qualities1 #fg ----1 setting1 #ff ----1 
weft weaving1 #fd ,chlidema squares1 #ch
 ,colour1 #ib ,competition1 foreign1    
#bg1 #abj ,cotton1 #aa ,creel bobbin1   
#cj  ,design1 #ib ,distribution of      
carpet industry1 #ajd ,donegal1 #bc     
,drying yarns1 #ai ,dyeing1 #ac ----    

yarns1 #ad ---- machines1 #ae1 #af ---- 
process1 #ah ,dyes of ,oriental carpets1
 #be ,dyestuffs1 #ah1 #be ,dye vats1 #ad
  ,eclecticism in design1 #ajb ,egyptian
 loom1 #a ,employees1 number of1 #ajd   
,employers and employed1 #ajg ,export   
carpet trade1 #aje1 #ajf  ,fine         
,wiltons1 #de ,flax warp1 #bc ---- yarn1
 #aa ,foreign competition1 #bg1 #abj    
,hakluyt1 #c ,halifax1 #g ,hand-made    
carpets1 #bj ,henry ,,iv1 #d ----       
,,viii1 #d  ,imperial ,axminster1 #ej   
,ingrain carpeting1 #hf ---- qualities1 
#hg  ,jacquard1 #ca ---- ,axminster1 #ei
 ,jute yarn1 #aj  ,kidderminster1 #e1   
#ajd ---- carpeting1 #hf ---- ,carpet   
,weavers' ,association1 #ajj            
,kilmarnock1 #f ,knots1 ,turkish and    
,persian1 #ba  ,linen yarn1 #aa ,louis  
,,xiv1 #d  ,maffersdorf1 #bc ,materials1
 #i ----1 consumption of1 #ajd          
,medallion squares1 #db ,mohair1 #aj    
,morris1 influence of1 #ii  ,national   
,affiliation1 #aag ,northern ,counties  
,association1 #aab  ,ornament1 classes  

of1 #ig ,owen ,jones1 #ig1 #ii  ,paper  
yarn1 #aa ,plain ,wilton1 #dg ,planting1
 #cd  ,qualities1 standardisation of1   
#ajh  ,ramie yarn1 #aa ,reproduction1   
#ajj  ,saxony ,wilton1 #df ,scotch      
carpeting1 #hf ,scouring of yarns1 #ac  
,seamless ,axminster1 #fa ,self colours1
 #ie ,silk1 #i ,starching1 #cd          
,statistics1 #ajd  ,tapestry1 #g1 #ga   
----1 printing1 #gd ----1 scaleboard1   
#gh ----1 setting1 #ha ----1 steaming1  
#ha ----1 stripping1 #hj ----1 velvet1  
#hd ----1 weaving1 #hc ,trade unions1   
#aaj ,two-colour effect1 #if  ,washing  
of carpets1 #bf ,whytock1 #f1 #ga       
,wilton1 #d1 #e1 #bc ,wilton carpeting1 
#dd ----1 plains1 #dg ----1 qualities1  
#de ----1 shading of1 #dg ,wool1        
character and consumption of1 #i1 #aj   
----1 characteristics of1 #ag ,woollen  
,wiltons1 #df  ,yarn drying1 #ai ----   
scouring1 #ac                   99      
99        99        99        99        
,printed by ,sir ,isaac ,pitman  ,sons1 
,ltd41 ,bath1 ,england                  

,,brintons ,,limited                    
,,kidderminster       ,tel4 ,address3   
,brintons1 ,kidderminster4              
,telephone ,no4 #e                      
,,worsted ,,and ,,woollen ,,spinners    
,,carpet ,,and ,,rug ,,manufacturers    
,illustration                           
,brussels1 ,wilton1 ,axminster1         
,chenille1 and ,hand ,tufted            
4 4 4 4 ,carpeting 4 4 4 4              
,illustration                           
,cotton1 ,jute1 ,hemp1 ,linen           
4 4 and ,worsted ,webbing 4 4           
,illustration                           
,,warehouses--        ,london     #aj   
,ivy ,lane1 ,newgate ,st41 ,e4,c4       
,tel4 #gebi ,cent4        ,manchester   
#ec ,portland ,street                   
,tel4 #dgci ,city        ,glasgow    #ej
 ,wellington ,street              ,tel4 
#gcad ,city    ,tel4 ,addresses3        
,brintons1 ,london2 ,brintons1          
,manchester2 ,brintons1                 
,glasgow                                
,robert ,hall  ,sons ,bury ,ltd4        

,bury1 ,lancashire                      
,makers of all classes of               
,looms1 ,preparing  ,finishing          
,machinery       ,complete ,plants of   
,machinery for ,brussels and ,wilton    
,carpets1     ,squares1 etc41 ,tapestry 
and ,velvet ,carpets1 ,carriage         
,linings1     ,rugs1 ,slipper ,tops1    
,cocoa ,matting and ,mats1 ,royal       
,axminster and     ,chenille ,axminster 
,carpets1 ,turkey ,carpets1 ,scotch and 
,kidderminster ,carpets1 etc41          
in all widths1 including      ,winding1 
,warping1 ,beaming1 ,sizing ,printing1  
,setting1 ,starching1     ,drying and   
,steaming1 ,rolling and ,shearing or    
,cropping ,machines                   99
        99        99        99        99
                      ,special ,hand    
,looms for ,carpets                   99
        99        99        99        99
                   ,makers of the ,noted
 ,moxon ,carpet ,loom                   
99        99        99        99        
99    ,also ,preparing1 ,weaving and    

,finishing ,machinery for ,cotton1      
,woollen1                      ,linen1  
,jute1 ,ramie1 ,silk1 etc4              
,common ,commodities and ,industries    
,series ,each book in crown #hvo1 cloth1
 with many illustrations1 charts1 etc4  
#bs4                                    
#f;d4 net4  ,tea3 ,from ,grower to      
,consumer4 ,by ,a4 ,ibbetson4  ,coffee3 
,from ,grower to ,consumer4 ,by ,b4 ,b4 
,keable4  ,sugar3 ,cane and ,beet4 ,by  
,geo4 ,martineau1 ,c4,b4  ,cotton3 ,from
 the ,raw ,material to the ,finished    
,product4 ,by ,r4 ,j4 ,peake4  ,rubber3 
,production and ,utilisation of the ,raw
 ,product4 ,by ,c4 ,beadle and   ,h4 ,p4
 ,stevens1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,i4,c4   
,iron and ,steel3 ,their ,production and
 ,manufacture4 ,by ,c4 ,hood4  ,silk3   
,its ,production and ,manufacture4 ,by  
,luther ,hooper4  ,tobacco3 ,from       
,grower to ,smoker4 ,by ,a4 ,e4 ,tanner4
  ,wool3 ,from the ,raw ,material to the
 ,finished ,product4 ,by ,j4 ,a4        
,hunter4  ,coal3 ,its ,origin1 ,method  

of ,working1 and ,preparation for the   
,market4 ,by   ,francis ,h4 ,wilson1    
,m4,inst4 ,m4,e4  ,linen3 ,from the     
,field to the ,finished ,product4 ,by   
,alfred ,s4 ,moore4  ,timber3 ,from the 
,forest to its ,use in ,commerce4 ,by   
,william ,bullock4  ,clays and ,clay    
,products4 ,by ,a4 ,b4 ,searle4         
,leather3 ,from the ,raw ,material to   
the ,finished ,product4 ,by ,k4 ,j4     
,adcock4  ,oils3 ,animal1 ,vegetable1   
,essential1 and ,mineral4 ,by ,c4       
,ainsworth   ,mitchell1 ,b4,a41         
,f4,i4,c4  ,wheat and its ,products4 ,by
 ,a4 ,millar4  ,copper3 ,from the ,ore  
to the ,metal4 ,by ,h4 ,k4 ,picard1     
,assoc4 ,royal ,school   of ,mines1     
,mem4 ,inst1 of ,min4 and ,met4  ,paper3
 ,its ,history1 ,sources1 and           
,production4 ,by ,h4 ,a4 ,maddox4       
,glass and ,glass ,manufacture4 ,by     
,percival ,marson4  ,soap3 ,its         
,composition1 ,manufacture1 and         
,properties4 ,by ,william ,h4           
,simmons4  ,the ,motor ,industry4 ,by   

,horace ,wyatt1 ,b4,a4  ,the ,boot and  
,shoe ,industry4 ,by ,j4 ,s4 ,harding4  
,gums and ,resins4 ,by ,ernest ,j4      
,parry4  ,furniture4 ,by ,h4 ,e4        
,binstead4                       ,other 
,volumes in preparation4                
99        99        99        99        
99  ,transcriber's ,notes3  ,some       
illustrations have been moved slightly  
to keep paragraphs intact4 ,archaic     
spellings and hyphenation have been     
retained4 ,a few obvious typesetting    
errors have been corrected without note4
 ,the advertisements and publisher's    
catalogue have been moved from the front
 of the book to the end of the book4    
,end of ,carpets1 by ,r4 ,s4 ,brinton