,essays of an ,americanist4             
,i4 ,,ethnologic ,,and ,,arch,,ologic4  
,,ii4 ,,mythology ,,and ,,folk ,,lore4  
,,iii4 ,,graphic ,,systems ,,and        
,,literature4                    ,,iv4  
,,linguistic4                           
,,by                      ,,daniel ,g4  
,,brinton4 ,a4 ,m41 ,m4 ,d41            
,,professor ,,of ,,american             
,,arch,,ology ,,and ,,linguistics ,,in  
,,the ,,university ,,of                 
,,pennsylvania1 ,,president ,,of ,,the  
,,numismatic ,,and ,,antiquarian        
,,society ,,of  ,,philadelphia1         
,,president ,,of ,,the ,,american       
,,folk-,,lore ,,society1 ,,member ,,of  
,,the   ,,american ,,antiquarian        
,,society1 ,,the ,,american             
,,philosophical ,,society1 ,,the        
,,soci,t ,,royale ,,des ,,antiquaires   
,,du ,,nord1 ,,the ,,soci,t             
,,am,,ricaine ,,de  ,,france1 ,,the     
,,berliner ,,anthropologische           
,,gesellschaft1 ,,the ,,real ,,academia 
,,de                        ,,historia1 

,,madrid1 ,,etc41 ,,etc4                
,,philadelphia3                         
,,porter  ,,coates4                     
#ahij4                                  
,,copyright                             
,,by ,d4 ,g4 ,,brinton4                 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,preface4   ,the word 8,essays0 appears
 on the title of this book in the sense 
in which old ,montaigne employed        
it--attempts1 endeavors4 ,the articles  
which make up the volume have been      
collected from many scattered sources1  
to which ,i have from time to time      
contributed them1 for the definite      
purpose of endeavoring to vindicate     
certain opinions about debated subjects 
concerning the ancient population of the
 ,american continent4  ,in a number of  
points1 as for example in the antiquity 
of man upon this continent1 in the      
specific distinction of an ,american    
race1 in the generic similarity of its  
languages1 in recognizing its mythology 

as often abstract and symbolic1 in the  
phonetic character of some of its       
graphic methods1 in believing that its  
tribes possessed considerable poetic    
feeling1 in maintaining the absolute    
autochthony of their culture--in these  
and in many other points referred to in 
the following pages ,i am at variance   
with most modern anthropologists2 and   
these essays are to show more fully and 
connectedly than could their separate   
publication1 what are my grounds for    
such opinions4  ,there is a prevailing  
tendency among ethnologists of to-day to
 underrate the psychology of savage     
life4 ,this error arises partly from an 
unwillingness to go beyond merely       
physical investigations1 partly from    
judging of the ancient condition of a   
tribe by that of its modern and         
degenerate representatives1 partly from 
inability to speak its tongue and to    
gain the real sense of its expressions1 
partly from preconceived theories as to 
what a savage might be expected to know 

and feel4 ,as against this error ,i have
 essayed to show that among very rude   
tribes we find sentiments of a high     
character1 proving a mental nature of   
excellent capacity in certain           
directions4  ,several of the ,essays    
have not previously appeared in print1  
and others have been substantially      
re-written1 so as to bring them up to   
the latest researches in their special  
fields4 ,nevertheless1 the reader will  
find a certain amount of repetition in  
several of them1 a defect which ,i hope 
is compensated by the greater clearness 
which this repetition gives to the      
special subject discussed4              
,philadelphia1 ,february1 #ahij4        
,,contents4                             
,,page   ,,preface                      
iii1 iv   ,,table ,,of ,,contents       
v-xii                                   
,,part ,i4                              
,,ethnologic ,,and ,,arch,,ologic4      
,,introductory                          
#ag-ai   ,a ,,review ,,of ,,the ,,data  

,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,the          
,,pre-,,historic    ,,chronology ,,of   
,,america                               
#bj-dg       ,classification of ,data4  
,i4 ,legendary3 of northern tribes2     
of ,peruvians1 ,mexicans and ,mayas2    
limited range4 ,,ii4      ,monumental3  
pueblos of ,new ,mexico2 stone and brick
      structures of ,mexico1 ,central   
,america and ,peru2 ruins of            
,tiahuanaco2 artificial shell heaps2 the
 sambaquis of      ,brazil4 ,,iii4      
,industrial3 palolithic implements2     
early      polished stone implements2   
dissemination of cultivated food        
plants4 ,,iv4 ,linguistic3 multitude and
 extension of      linguistic stocks2   
tenacity of linguistic form2            
similarities of internal form2 study of 
internal form4 ,v4      ,physical3      
racial classifications2 traits of the   
,american      type2 permanence of the  
type4 ,,vi4 ,geologic3 date of the      
glacial epochs in ,north and ,south     
,america2 the earliest      ,americans  

immigrants2 lines of migrations4        
,importance of      archological        
studies4   ,,on ,,pal,,oliths1          
,,american ,,and ,,other                
#dh-ee       ,the cutting instrument as 
the standard of culture2 the      three 
8,ages0 of ,stone1 ,bronze and ,iron2   
subdivisions of the      ,age of ,stone 
into ,palolithic and ,neolithic2 a true 
8,palolith02 subdivision of the         
,palolithic period into the      epochs 
of 8simple0 and 8compound0 implements2  
palolithic      finds along the         
,delaware river2 the glacial period in  
,america2 earliest appearance of man in 
,america4   ,,on ,,the ,,alleged        
,,mongolian ,,affinities ,,of ,,the     
,,american ,,race          #ef-ff       
,a practical question2 ,cuvier's triple 
division of the human      species2     
alleged ,mongolian affinities in        
language2 supposed      affinities in   
culture2 imagined physical resemblances1
 as      color1 cranial analogies1 the  
oblique or 8,mongoloid0 eye1      etc4  

,insufficiency of all these4   ,,the    
,,probable ,,nationality ,,of ,,the     
8,,mound-,,builders40                   
#fg-hb       ,who were the              
8,mound-builders08 ,known tribes as     
constructors      of mounds1 the        
,iroquois1 ,algonkins1 ,cherokees and   
,chahta-,muskoki family4 ,descriptions  
from ,de ,soto's      expedition2 from  
,huguenots in ,florida2 from ,french    
writers      on ,louisiana2 great size  
of the southern mounds2 probable        
builders of ,ohio mounds4   ,,the       
,,toltecs ,,and ,,their ,,fabulous      
,,empire                                
#hc-ajj       ,statement of the         
question2 the current opinion2 the      
adverse      opinion2 ,tula as an       
historic site2 the ,serpent-,hill2 the  
,aztec legends about ,tula2 date of the 
desertion of ,tula2      meaning of the 
name ,tula or ,tollan2 the mythical     
cyclus of      ,tula2 birth of          
,huitzilopochtli2 myth of ,quetzalcoatl 
at      ,tula2 his subjects1 the        

,toltecs2 purely fabulous narratives    
concerning them4                        
,,part ,,ii4                            
,,mythology ,,and ,,folk-,,lore4        
,,introductory                          
#aja-ajc   ,,the ,,sacred ,,names ,,in  
,,quiche ,,mythology                    
#ajd-abi       ,the ,quiches of         
,guatemala1 and their relationship2     
sources      of information4 ,their     
,sacred ,book1 the ,popol ,vuh2 its     
opening words2 ,the name                
,hun-,ahpu-,vuch1 the ,god of ,light2   
,hun-,ahpu-,utiu2 ,nim-ak1 the ,great   
,hog2 ,nim-tzyiz2 ,tepeu2               
,gucumatz2 ,qux-cho and ,qux-palo2      
,ah-raxa-lak and      ,ah-raxa-sel2     
,xpiyacoc and ,xmucane1 the primal pair2
      ,cakulha2 ,huracan and ,cabrakan2 
,chirakan1 the god of the      ,storm   
and the ,earthquake2 ,xbalanque and his 
journey to      ,xibalba1 or the        
,descent into ,hell4   ,,the            
,,hero-,,god ,,of ,,the ,,algonkins ,,as
 ,a ,,cheat ,,and ,,liar                

#acj-acd       ,micmac story of         
,gluskap1 the ,liar2 the ,cree god1 the 
,deceiver2 ,michabo and his tricks2     
psychological      significance of such 
stories4   ,,the ,,journey ,,of ,,the   
,,soul                                  
#ace-adg       ,general belief in a     
soul2 ,egyptian theory of its fate2 it  
sinks and rises with the sun2 invocation
 to ,osiris2 symbols      of the river1 
the boat1 the dog1 and the sacred       
numbers2      recurrence of these       
symbols in ,greek1 ,vedantic and ,norse 
beliefs2 the ,aztec account of the      
soul's journey to      ,paradise4       
,origin of these symbolic narratives    
from the      apparent daily course of  
the ,sun4   ,,the ,,sacred ,,symbols    
,,in ,,america                          
#adh-afb       ,the four symbols of the 
,ta ,ki1 the ,triskeles1 the ,svastika  
and the ,cross2 the prevalence of the   
,triskeles in the ,old      ,world2 the 
meaning of the ,ta ,ki in ,chinese      
philosophy2 the      ,yin and ,yang2 the

 ,svastika2 origin illustrated from n   
picture-writing2 the ,copan stone2 the  
earth-plain2 the      wheel-cross2      
winter-counts and year cycles2          
time-wheels and      sun-motions2 the   
,four ,ages and ,tree of ,life4   ,,the 
,,folk-,,lore ,,of ,,yucatan            
#afc-ahj       ,mental activity of the  
,mayas2 the diviners2 the 8field        
mass02 invocation to the rain-gods2     
fire-worship2      prognostics2         
transformations of sorcerers2 nagualism2
 a      ,maya witch story2 the ,balams2 
the ,man of the ,woods2 stories      of 
dwarfs and imps2 female deceivers2      
fabulous birds and      snakes4         
,,folk-,,lore ,,of ,,the ,,modern       
,,lenape                                
#aha-aib       ,source of information2  
reminiscences of the tribe2             
,messianic hopes2 relics of the ,stone  
,age2 methods of      hunting and       
fishing2 utensils1 boats and houses2 the
 native      games2 the sweat-lodge2    
their canticos1 and the derivation      

of the term2 medical knowledge2 cure for
 rattlesnake bites2      native         
trephining2 position of the ,lenp as    
8grandfathers02 wampum belts2 totemic   
divisions2      peculiarities of the    
dialect2 ,lenp grammar4                 
,,part ,,iii4                           
,,graphic ,,systems ,,and ,,literature4 
,,introductory                          
#aic-aid   ,,the ,,phonetic ,,elements  
,,in ,,the ,,graphic ,,systems ,,of     
,,the ,,mayas ,,and    ,,mexicans       
#aie-bab       ,material for the study2 
were the native hieroglyphs             
phonetic8 ,character and arrangement of 
phonetic symbols2      the failure of   
,landa's alphabet2 phonetic signs in    
,maya      ,,mss42 hieroglyph of the    
firmament2 phonetic terminals2          
signs of cardinal points2 ,mexican      
phonetic elements2      principle of the
 rebus2 examples2 the ikonomatic system4
   ,,the ,,ikonomatic ,,method ,,of     
,,phonetic ,,writing                    
#bac-bbi       ,thought-,writing and    

,sound-,writing2 the ikonomatic method  
explained2 illustrations from ,egyptian 
inscriptions2 from      the canting arms
 in heraldry2 from the ,mexican         
picture-writing2 values of position and 
colors2      determinatives and         
ideograms in ,aztec ,,mss42 further     
illustrations from ,maya hieroglyphs2   
,chipeway pictography4   ,,the ,,writing
 ,,and ,,records ,,of ,,the ,,ancient   
,,mayas                    #bcj-bed     
#a4 ,introductory--,phoneticism in ,maya
 and ,aztec writing4 #b4                
,descriptions by ,spanish writers2 by   
,peter ,martyr2 by ,las      ,casas2 by 
,alonso ,ponce2 by ,lizana2 by ,aguilar2
 by ,buena      ,ventura2 by ,cogolludo2
 by ,soto-,mayor2 by ,landa2 facsimile  
of ,landa's alphabet2 critiques on it2  
conclusions4 #c4      ,references from  
native sources2 ,maya words for         
8writing10      8book10 8calendar10     
etc42 a prophecy of ,ahkul ,chel        
translated4 #d4 ,the existing ,codices2 
the ,dresden ,codex2 the      ,codex    

,peresianus2 the ,codex ,troano2 the    
,codex ,cortesianus2      the mural     
paintings and inscriptions4   ,,the     
,,books ,,of ,,chilan ,,balam           
#bee-bgc       ,high civilization of    
ancient ,mayas2 destruction of their    
literature2 modern ,books of ,chilan    
,balam2 signification of      this name2
 contents of the ,books2 specimen of the
      prophecies2 linguistic value2     
opinion of ,pio ,perez2 length      of  
the ,maya year-cycles2 hieroglyphs of   
the months and      days2 the #ac ahau  
katuns2 medical contents of the books4  
,,on ,,the 8,,stone ,,of ,,the          
,,giants40                              
#bgd-bhc       ,location of the ,stone  
near ,orizaba2 its figures2 refer to a  
date in ,february1 #aejb2 translation of
 the hieroglyphs1 and                   
identification of the date as that of   
the death of the      ,emperor          
,ahuitzotzin2 the stone a sepulchral    
tablet4   ,,native ,,american ,,poetry  
#bhd-cjd       ,nature of poetry2       

principle of repetition2 ,eskimo nith   
songs2 other ,eskimo songs2 a ,pawnee   
song2 ,kioway love      songs2 a        
,chipeway serenade2 ,aztec love songs2  
war-songs of      the ,otomis2 of the   
,aztecs2 of the ,qquichuas2 prophetic   
chants of the ,mayas4 ,faculty of poetry
 universal4                             
,,part ,,iv4                            
,,linguistic4   ,,introductory          
#cje-cjg   ,,american ,,languages1 ,,and
 ,,why ,,we ,,should ,,study ,,them4    
#cjh-cbg       ,indian geographic names2
 language a guide to ethnology2         
reveals the growth of arts and the      
psychologic processes of      a people2 
illustration from the ,lenp tongue2     
structure of      language best studied 
in savage tongues2 rank of ,american    
tongues2 characteristic traits2         
pronominal forms2 idea of               
personality2 polysynthesis2             
incorporation2 holophrasis2      origin 
of these2 lucidity of ,american tongues2
 their      vocabularies2 power of      

expressing abstract ideas2              
conclusion4   ,,wilhelm ,,von           
,,humboldt',s ,,researches ,,in         
,,american ,,languages         #cbh-cdh 
,what led ,humboldt toward the ,american
 tongues2 progress of      his studies2 
fundamental doctrine of his philosophy  
of      language2 his theory of the     
evolution of languages2 opinion      on 
,american languages2 his criterion of   
the relative      perfection of         
languages2 not abundance of forms1 nor  
verbal      richness2 ,american tongues 
not degenerations2 ,humboldt's          
classification of languages2            
psychological origin of                 
,incorporation in language2 its         
shortcomings2 in simple      sentences2 
in compound sentences2 absence of true  
formal      elements2 the nature of the 
,american verb4   ,,some                
,,characteristics ,,of ,,american       
,,languages                             
#cdi-chi       ,study of the human      
species on the geographic system2 have  

,american languages any common trait8   
,duponceau's theory of                  
polysynthesis2 ,humboldt on             
,polysynthesis and ,incorporation2      
,francis ,lieber on ,holophrasis2 ,prof4
 ,steinthal on the      incorporative   
plan2 ,lucien ,adam's criticism of it2  
,prof4      ,mller's inadequate         
statement2 ,major ,powell's omission to 
consider it2 definitions of             
polysynthesis1 incorporation      and   
holophrasis2 illustrations2 critical    
application of the      theory to the   
,othomi language2 to the ,bri-bri       
language2 to      the ,tupi-,guarani    
dialects2 to the ,mutsun2 conclusions2  
addendum2 critique by ,m4 ,adam on this 
essay4   ,,the ,,earliest ,,form ,,of   
,,human ,,speech ,,as ,,revealed ,,by   
,,american    ,,tongues                 
#cij-dji       ,the ,homo alalus or     
speechless man1 a romance2 linguistic   
stocks2 the phonetic elements           
significant2 examples2 but      not of  
same significance in different stocks2  

notion of      self and other2 pronouns 
a late development2      alternating    
consonants and permutable vowels2       
examples2      phoneticism inadequate2  
difficulties thus created2              
counter-sense in language2 notion of    
,being and ,not-,being2                 
incorporation2 sentence-words2 no       
dependent clauses2 no      tenses2 no   
adjectives2 no numerals2 notion of      
,animate and      ,inanimate2           
classificatory particles2 primitive man 
a      visuaire4   ,,the ,,conception   
,,of ,,love ,,in ,,some ,,american      
,,languages               #daj-dcb      
,significance of love-words2 various    
origins4 ,i4 ,algonkin      love-words2 
various senses2 highest forms4 ,,ii4    
,nahuatl      love-words2 poverty of the
 tongue2 made up by terminations2       
words for friendship4 ,,iii4 ,maya      
love-words2 singular      derivations2  
the ,huasteca dialect2 the ,cakchiquel  
dialect2      comparisons4 ,,iv4        
,qquichua love-words2 abundant2 various 

meanings4 ,v4 ,tupi-,guarani love-words2
 meaning of4      ,conclusions4   ,,the 
,,lineal ,,measures ,,of ,,the          
,,semi-,,civilized ,,nations ,,of       
,,mexico ,,and    ,,central ,,america   
#dcc-dea       ,metrical standards a    
criterion of progress2 those of the     
,mayas2 of the ,cakchiquels2 of the     
,mexicans or ,aztecs2 of      the       
,mound-,builders of ,ohio4 ,conclusions4
   ,,the ,,curious ,,hoax ,,of ,,the    
,,taensa ,,language                     
#deb-dfg       ,how it began2 the       
deception exposed2 absurdities of the   
invention2 a wonderful calendar2 a yet  
more wonderful      marriage-song2 a    
second ,psalmanazar2 rejoinder of the   
editor2 reply to that2 final verdict4   
,,index ,,of ,,authors ,,and            
,,authorities                           
#dfi-dgd   ,,index ,,of ,,subjects      
#dge-dhi                                
,,part ,i4                              
,,ethnologic ,,and ,,arch,,ologic4      
,,introductory4   ,ever since ,america  

was discovered1 the question about it   
which has excited the most general      
interest has been1 ,whence came its     
inhabitants8 ,the inquiry1 ,who are the 
,american ,indians8 has been the theme  
of many a ponderous folio and labored   
dissertation1 with answers nearly as    
various as the number of debaters4  ,few
 or none of them have reflected on the  
unphilosophical character of the inquiry
 as thus crudely put4 ,take a precisely 
analogous question1 and this will be    
apparent--,whence came the ,african     
,negroes8 ,all will reply--,from        
,africa1 of course4 ,originally8 ,yes1  
originally2 they constitute the ,african
 or ,negro sub-species of ,man4  ,the   
answer in the case of the ,american     
,indians is entirely parallel--their    
origin is ,american2 the racial type was
 created and fixed on the ,american     
continent2 they constitute as true and  
distinct a sub-species as do the        
,african or the ,white ,race4  ,each of 
the great continental areas moulded the 

plastic1 primitive man into a           
conformation of body and mind peculiar  
to itself1 in some special harmony with 
its own geographic features1 thus       
producing a race or sub-species1 subtly 
correlated in a thousand ways to its    
environment1 but never forfeiting its   
claim to humanity1 never failing in its 
parallel and progressive development    
with all other varieties of the species4
  ,america was no exception to this     
rule1 and it is time to dismiss as      
trivial all attempts to connect the     
,american race genealogically with any  
other1 or to trace the typical culture  
of this continent to the historic forms 
of the ,old ,world4 ,my early studies   
inclined me to these opinions1 and they 
have been constantly strengthened by    
further research4 ,yet they are not     
popularly accepted2 the very latest     
writer of competence on the pre-history 
of ,america says1 8,it is now generally 
held that the earliest population 7of   
the continent7 was intruded upon by     

other races1 coming either from ,asia or
 from the ,pacific ,islands1 from whom  
were descended the various tribes which 
have occupied the soil down to the      
present time40#a  ,it is true that this 
opinion is that generally held1 and for 
this reason ,i have selected for        
reprinting some articles intended to    
show that it is utterly                 
fallacious--devoid of any respectable   
foundation4  ,the first two papers treat
 of the archologic material1 and its    
value for ascertaining the pre-historic 
life of the ,american race2 the third1  
on its pretended affinities to ,asiatic 
peoples4 ,these are followed by two     
papers respectively on the ,toltecs and 
,mound-,builders1 setting aright1 ,i    
hope1 the position of these             
semi-mythical shapes in the             
culture-history of ,north ,america1     
maintaining that for neither do we have 
to call in as explanation migrations    
from ,asia1 ,europe1 ,oceanica or       
,africa1 as has so often been attempted4

       ,a ,,review ,,of ,,the ,,data    
,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,the          
,,pre-,,historic ,,chronology ,,of      
,,america4#b   ,early in this century   
the doubt was expressed by ,alexander   
von ,humboldt#c whether it is           
philosophical to inquire into the origin
 of any of the human races or           
sub-species4 ,although he expressed this
 doubt with particular reference to the 
,american race1 ,i believe ,i am right  
in assuming that the hesitancy he felt  
in pushing inquiry so far should now    
diminish in view of new methods of      
research and a wider range of           
observations4 ,we may not1 in fact we   
shall not1 be able to trace the         
,american or any other sub-species      
directly back to its origin in place or 
time2 but by reviewing all the data     
which have been offered in solution of  
such a problem1 we may perceptibly      
narrow the question1 and also estimate  
the relative value of the means         
proposed4 ,it is to such a review1      

applied to the ,american race1 that ,i  
now invite your attention4  ,the data   
upon which theories of the antiquity1   
the genealogy and the affinities of this
 race have been constructed are varied4 
,for convenience of treatment ,i shall  
class them under six heads4 ,they are3  
,i4 ,legendary1 including the traditions
 of the native tribes and their own     
statements of their history4  ,,ii4     
,monumental1 where we have to do with   
those structures whose age or character 
seems to throw light on the question4   
,,iii4 ,industrial1 under which heading 
we may inquire as to the origin of both 
the useful and the decorative arts in   
the ,new ,world4  ,,iv4 ,linguistic1    
broaching the immense and important     
questions as to the diversity and       
affinities of languages4  ,v4 ,physical1
 which takes into consideration the     
anatomic and morphologic peculiarities  
of the ,american race2 and finally1     
,,vi4 ,geologic1 where its position in  
the geologic horizons is to be          

determined1 and the influence upon it of
 the physical geography of the          
continent4  ,legendary4 ,turning to the 
first of these1 the legendary data1 ,i  
confess to a feeling of surprise that   
learned scholars should still hold to   
the opinion that the native tribes1 even
 some of the most savage of them1 retain
 to this day traditions which they had  
brought from their supposed ,asiatic    
homes4 ,thus the missionaries1 ,bishop  
,henry ,faraud and the ,abb ,emile      
,petitot1 both entirely familiar with   
the ,cree and the ,athapaskan languages 
and lore1 insist that the myths and     
legends of these tribes bear such strong
 resemblances to the ,semitic traditions
 that both must have had a common       
origin4#d ,no one can deny the          
resemblance2 but the scientific student 
of mythology discovers such identities  
too frequently1 and at points too       
remote1 to ask any other explanation for
 them than the common nature of the     
human mind4  ,the question has been     

often raised how long a savage tribe1   
ignorant of writing1 is likely to retain
 the memory of past deeds4 ,from a great
 many examples in ,america and          
elsewhere1 it is probable that the lapse
 of five generations1 or say two        
centuries1 completely obliterates all   
recollection of historic occurrences4   
,of course1 there are certain events of 
continuous influence which may be       
retained in memory longer--for example1 
the federation of prominent tribes2 and 
perhaps a genealogy may run back        
farther4 ,my friend1 ,dr4 ,franz ,boas1 
informs me that some tribes on          
,vancouver's ,island pretend to preserve
 their genealogies for twelve or fifteen
 generations back2 but he adds that the 
remoter names are clearly of mythical   
purport4  ,it appears obvious that all  
efforts to establish a pre-historic     
chronology by means of the legends of   
savage tribes1 are and must be vain4    
,the case is not much better with those 
semi-civilized ,american nations1 the   

,mayas and ,nahuas1 who possessed a     
partially phonetic alphabet1 or with the
 ,quichuas1 who preserved their records 
by the ingenious device of the quipu4   
,manco ,capac1 the alleged founder of   
the ,peruvian state1 floats before us as
 a vague and mythical figure1 though he 
is placed in time not earlier than the  
date when ,leif1 the son of ,erik1      
anchored his war-ship on the ,nova      
,scotian coast4#e ,historians are agreed
 that the long lists of ,incas in the   
pages of ,montesinos1 extending about   
two thousand years anterior to the      
,conquest1 are spurious1 due to the     
imagination or the easy credulity of    
that writer4  ,the annals of ,mexico    
fare no better before the fire of       
criticism4 ,it is extremely doubtful    
that their earliest reminiscences refer 
to any event outside the narrow valley  
parcelled out between the petty states  
of ,tenochtitlan1 ,tezcuco1 and         
,tlacopan4#f ,the only fact that bears  
out the long and mysterious journey from

 the land of the ,seven ,caves1         
,chicomoztoc1 in the distant northwest1 
by the great water1 is that the learned 
and indefatigable ,buschmann has        
conclusively shown that the four        
languages of ,sonora and all the        
dialects of the ,shoshonian family      
reveal marks of continued and deep      
impressions of the ,nahuatl tongue4#g   
,but the chronicles of ,mexico proper   
contain no fixed date prior to that of  
the founding of the city of             
,tenochtitlan1 in the year #acbe of our 
era4  ,i am aware that there are still  
some writers who maintain that both the 
,mexican and the ,maya astronomic cycles
 assume a commencement for their records
 centuries1 even thousands of years1    
before the beginning of our era4 ,these 
opinions1 however1 have not obtained the
 assent of other students4 ,we are too  
ignorant both of the astronomy and the  
methods of writing of these nations to  
admit such claims2 and the facts        
advanced are capable of quite other     

interpretation4  ,it is1 on the whole1  
rare for the ,american tribes to declare
 themselves autochthonous4 ,the ,mayas1 
on the peninsula of ,yucatan1 stated    
that their earliest ancestors came there
 from beyond the seas1 some from the far
 east1 others from the west4 ,so the    
,toltecs1 under ,quetzalcoatl1 were     
fabled to have entered ,mexico from     
beyond the ,eastern ,ocean4 ,the ,creeks
 and ,choctaws pointed to the west1 the 
,algonkins generally to the east1 as    
their primal home4#h ,these legends are 
chiefly mythical1 not much truer than   
those of other tribes who claimed to    
have climbed up from some under-world4  
,sifting them all1 we shall find in them
 little to enlighten us as to the       
pre-historic chronology of the tribes1  
though they may furnish interesting     
vistas in comparative mythology4  ,that 
in which we may expect the legends of   
tribes to be of most avail is their     
later history1 the record of their wars1
 migrations and social development      

within a few generations4 ,the spirit of
 the uncivilized man is1 however1 very  
careless of the past4 ,we have means of 
testing the exactness of such traditions
 in some instances1 and the result is   
rarely such as to inspire confidence in 
verbal records4 ,those of you who were  
present at the last meeting will        
remember how diversely two able students
 of ,iroquois tradition estimated its   
value4 ,even when remarkable events are 
not forgotten1 the dates of their       
occurrence are generally vague4 ,the    
inference1 therefore1 is that very few  
data1 dependent on legendary evidence   
alone1 can be accepted4  ,monumental4   
,when we turn to the monumental data1 to
 the architecture and structural relics 
of the ancient ,americans1 we naturally 
think first of the imposing stone-built 
fortresses of ,peru1 the massive        
pyramids and temples of ,yucatan and    
,mexico1 and the vast brick-piles of the
 ,pueblo ,indians4  ,it is doubtful if  
any of these notable monuments supply   

pre-historic dates of excessive         
antiquity4 ,the pueblos1 both those now 
occupied and the vastly greater number  
whose ruins lie scattered over the      
valleys and mesas of ,new ,mexico and   
,arizona1 were constructed by the       
ancestors of the tribes who still       
inhabit that region1 and this at no     
distant day4 ,though we cannot assign   
exact dates to the development of this  
peculiar civilization1 there are        
abundant reasons1 drawn from language1  
physical geography and the character of 
the architecture1 to include all these  
structures within the period since the  
commencement of our era4#i  ,there is   
every reason to suppose that the same is
 true of all the stone and brick        
edifices of ,mexico and ,central        
,america4 ,the majority of them were    
occupied at the period of the ,conquest2
 others were in process of building2 and
 of others the record of the date of    
their construction was clearly in memory
 and was not distant4 ,thus1 the famous 

temple of ,huitzilopochtli at           
,tenochtitlan1 and the spacious         
palace--or1 if you prefer the word1     
8communal house0--of the ruler of       
,tezcuco1 had been completed within the 
lifetime of many who met the ,spaniards4
 ,to be sure1 even then there were once 
famous cities fallen to ruin and sunk to
 oblivion in the tropical forests4 ,such
 was ,palenque1 which could not have    
failed to attract the attention of      
,cortes had it been inhabited4 ,such    
also was ,t',ho1 on the site of the     
present city of ,mrida1 ,yucatan1 where 
the earliest explorers found lofty stone
 mounds and temples covered with a      
forest as heavy as the primitive growth 
around it4#aj ,but tradition and the    
present condition of such of these old  
cities as have been examined1 unite in  
the probability that they do not        
antedate the ,conquest more than a few  
centuries4  ,in the opinion of some     
observers1 the enigmatical ruins on the 
plain of ,tiahuanaco1 a few leagues from

 the shore of ,lake ,titicaca1 in ,peru1
 carry us far1 very far1 beyond any such
 modern date4 8,even the memory of their
 builders10 says one of the more recent 
visitors to these marvellous relics1    
,general ,bartolom ,mitre1 8even their  
memory was lost thousands of years      
before the discovery of ,america40#aa   
,such a statement is neither more nor   
less than a confession of ignorance4 ,we
 have not discovered the period nor the 
people concerned in the ruins of        
,tiahuanaco4 ,it must be remembered that
 they are not the remains of a populous 
city1 but merely the foundations and    
beginnings of some vast religious       
edifice which was left incomplete1      
probably owing to the death of the      
projector or to unforeseen difficulties4
 ,if this is borne in mind1 much of the 
obscurity about the origin1 the purpose 
and the position of these structures    
will be removed4 ,they do not justify a 
claim to an age of thousands of years   
before the ,conquest2 hundreds will     

suffice4 ,nor is it necessary to assent 
to the opinion advanced by ,general     
,mitre1 and supported by some other     
archologists1 that the most ancient     
monuments in ,america are those of most 
perfect construction1 and1 therefore1   
that in this continent there has been1  
in civilization1 not progress but       
failure1 not advance but retrogression4 
,the uncertainty which rests over the   
age of the structures at ,tiahuanaco is 
scarcely greater than that which still  
shrouds the origin of the mounds and    
earthworks of the ,ohio and ,upper      
,mississippi valleys4 ,yet ,i venture to
 say that the opinion is steadily       
gaining ground that these interesting   
memorials of vanished nations are not   
older than the medival period of        
,european history4 ,the condition of the
 arts which they reveal indicates a date
 that we must place among the more      
recent in ,american chronology4 ,the    
simple fact that tobacco and maize were 
cultivated plants is evidence enough for

 this4#ab  ,there is1 however1 a class  
of monuments of much greater antiquity  
than any ,i have mentioned4 ,these are  
the artificial shell-heaps which are    
found along the shores of both oceans   
and of many rivers in both ,north and   
,south ,america4 ,they correspond to the
 kitchen-middens of ,european archology4
  ,in several parts of the continent    
they have been examined by competent    
observers and the question of their date
 approximately ascertained4 ,i need not 
say this differs widely1 for these      
refuse heaps of ancient villages or     
stations were of course begun at wide   
intervals4  ,long ago ,i called         
attention to the singular size and      
antiquity of those ,i found in ,florida 
and along the ,tennessee ,river2#ac and 
the later researches of ,professor      
,jeffries ,wyman would1 in his opinion1 
measure the age of some of the former by
 tens of thousands of years4#ad         
,further to the south1 in ,costa ,rica1 
,dr4 ,earl ,flint has examined the      

extensive artificial shell deposits     
which are found along the shores of that
 republic4 ,they are many feet in       
height1 covered by a dense forest of    
primeval appearance1 and are undoubtedly
 of human origin4  ,in ,brazil such     
shell-heaps are called sambaquis1 and   
they are of frequent occurrence along   
the bays and inlets of the coast4 ,some 
of them are of extraordinary dimensions1
 rising occasionally to more than a     
hundred feet in height4 ,the lower      
layers have been consolidated into a    
firm1 stony breccia of shells and bones1
 while the surface stratum1 from six to 
ten feet thick1 is composed of sand and 
vegetable loam supporting a growth of   
the largest trees4 ,yet even the lowest 
layers of this breccia1 or              
shell-conglomerate1 yield tokens of     
human industry1 as stone axes1 flint    
arrow-heads1 chisels1 and fragments of  
very rude pottery1 as well as human     
bones1 sometimes split to extract the   
marrow4 ,the shells are by no means all 

of modern type4 ,many are of species now
 wholly extinct1 or extinct in the      
locality4 ,this fact alone carries us   
back to an antiquity which probably     
should be counted by thousands of years 
before our era4  ,at that remote period 
not only did a fishing and hunting race 
dwell along the ,brazilian coast1 but   
this race was fairly advanced on the    
path to culture2 it was acquainted with 
pottery1 with compound implements1 and  
with the polishing of stone4 ,we further
 know that this race was not that which 
occupied the land when the whites       
discovered it2 for the human skulls     
disinterred from the sambaquis are1     
craniologically1 almost diametrically   
opposite those of the ,botocudos and the
 ,tupis4 ,yet if we can trust the       
researches of ,dr4 ,lund in the caverns 
of ,brazil1 the oldest skulls in these  
deposits1 found in immediate connection 
with the bones of extinct mammalia1     
belonged to the ancestors of these      
tribes4 ,markedly dolichocephalic1 they 

present an entire contrast to the       
brachycephalic type from the            
sambaquis4#ae  ,this class of monuments1
 therefore1 supply us data which prove  
man's existence in ,america in what some
 call the 8diluvial10 others the        
8quaternary10 and others again the      
8pleistocene0 epoch--that characterized 
by the presence of some extinct species4
  ,industrial4 ,let us now turn to the  
industrial activity of the ,american    
race1 and see whether it will furnish us
 other data concerning the pre-historic 
life of the ,new ,world4 ,we may        
reasonably look in this direction for   
aid1 since it is now universally        
conceded that at no time did man spring 
into being fully armed and equipped for 
the struggle for existence1 but         
everywhere followed the same path of    
painful effort from absolute ignorance  
and utter feebleness to knowledge and   
power4 ,at first1 his only weapons or   
tools were such as he possessed in      
common with the anthropoid apes3 to wit1

 an unshapen stone and a broken stick4  
,little by little1 he learned to fit his
 stone to his hand and to chip it to an 
edge1 and with this he could sharpen the
 end of his stick1 thus providing       
himself with a spear and an axe4  ,it   
was long before he learned to shape and 
adjust the stone to the end of the      
stick1 and to hurl this by means of a   
cord attached to a second and elastic   
stick--in other words1 a bow2 still     
longer before he discovered the art of  
fashioning clay into vessels and of     
polishing and boring stones4 ,these     
simple arts are landmarks in the        
progress of the race3 the latter divides
 the history of culture into the        
palolithic or rough stone period1 and   
the neolithic or polished stone period2 
while the shaping of a stone for        
attachment to a handle or shaft marks   
the difference between the epoch of     
compound implements and the earlier     
epoch of simple implements1 both        
included in the older or palolithic     

age4#af ,with these principles as       
guides1 we may ask how far back on this 
scale do the industrial relics in       
,america carry us8  ,i have spoken of   
the great antiquity of some of the      
,american shell-heaps1 how they carry us
 back to the diluvial epoch1 and that of
 numerous extinct species4 ,yet it is   
generally true that in the oldest       
hitherto examined in ,brazil1 ,guiana1  
,costa ,rica and ,florida1 fragments of 
pottery1 of polished stone1 and compound
 implements1 occur even in the lowest   
strata4#ag ,venerable though they are1  
they supply no date older than what in  
,europe we should call the neolithic    
period4 ,the arrow-heads which have been
 exhumed from the loess of the ancient  
lake-beds of ,nebraska1 the net-sinkers 
and celts which have been recovered from
 the auriferous gravels of ,california1 
prove by their form and finish that the 
tribes who fashioned them had already   
taken long strides beyond the culture of
 the earlier palolithic age4 ,the same  

is true1 though in a less degree1 of the
 chipped stones and bones which         
,ameghino exhumed from the lacrustine   
deposits of the ,pampas1 although he    
proves that these relics were the       
products of tribes contemporary with the
 extinct glyptodon and mylodon1 as well 
as the fossil horse and dog4 ,in the    
very oldest station which he examined1  
there appears to have been found a      
quartz arrow-head2 yet he argues that   
this station dated from the pliocene    
division of the tertiary1 long anterior 
to the austral glacial epoch4#ah ,this  
leaves another such open conflict       
between geology and the history of      
culture1 as ,professor ,rau has already 
pointed out as existing in ,californian 
archology4  ,there is1 however1 one     
station in ,america which has furnished 
an ample line of specimens1 and among   
them not one1 so far as ,i know1        
indicating a knowledge of compound      
implements4 ,this is that of the        
8,trenton gravels10 ,new ,jersey4 ,there

 we appear to be in face of a stage of  
culture as primitive as that of the     
stations of ,chelles and ,st4 ,acheul in
 ,france1 absolutely without pottery1   
without polished stone1 without compound
 implements4#ai  ,assuming that these   
post-glacial gravels about ,trenton     
supply one of the earliest authentic    
starting points in the history of       
culture on this continent1 the later    
developments of industry will furnish a 
number of other data4 ,this first date  
was long before the extinction of the   
native ,american horse1 the elephant1   
the mammoth1 and other animals important
 to early man4 ,there is nothing        
unlikely therefore in the reported      
discoveries of his pointed flints or his
 bones in place along with the remains  
of these quadrupeds4  ,not only the form
 but the material of implements supplies
 us data4 ,if man in his earliest stage 
was1 as some maintain1 quite migratory1 
it is certain that he did not carry his 
stone implements with him1 nor did he   

obtain by barter or capture those of    
other tribes4 ,all the oldest implements
 are manufactured from the rocks of the 
locality4 ,when1 therefore1 we find a   
weapon of a material not obtainable in  
the vicinity1 we have a sure indication 
that it belongs to a period of          
development considerably later than the 
earliest4 ,when the obsidian of the     
,yellowstone ,park is found in ,ohio1   
when the black slate of ,vancouver's    
,island is exhumed in ,delaware1 it is  
obvious we must assume for such         
extensive transits a very noticeable    
sthetic and commercial development4  ,i 
can but touch in the lightest manner on 
the data offered by the vast realm of   
industrial activity4 ,the return it     
offers is abundant1 but the harvesting  
delicate4 ,in the dissemination of      
certain kinds of arts1 certain          
inventions1 certain decorative designs  
and sthetic conceptions from one tribe  
to another1 we have a most valuable     
means of tracing the pre-historic       

intercourse of nations3 but we must     
sedulously discriminate such borrowing  
from the synchronous and similar        
development of independent culture under
 like conditions4  ,in one department of
 industry we shall be largely free from 
this danger1 that is1 in the extension  
of agriculture4 ,one of ,america's      
ablest ethnologists1 ,dr4 ,charles      
,pickering1 as the result of a lifetime 
devoted to his science1 finally settled 
upon the extension of cultivated plants 
as the safest guide in the labyrinth of 
pre-historic migrations4 ,its value is  
easily seen in ,america when we reflect 
that the two tropical plants1 maize and 
tobacco1 extended their area in most    
remote times from their limited local   
habitat about the ,isthmus of           
,tehuantepec to the north as far as the 
,st4 ,lawrence river and to the south   
quite to the ,archipelago of ,chiloe4   
,their presence is easily traced by the 
stone or earthen-ware implements        
required for their use4 ,how many ages  

it must have required for these plants  
to have thus extended their domain1 amid
 hostile and savage tribes1 through five
 thousand miles of space6 ,the squash1  
the bean1 the potato and the mandioca1  
are native food-plants offering in a    
less degree similar material for tracing
 ancient commerce and migration4        
,humboldt and others have claimed as    
much for the banana 7,musa paradisiaca71
 but the recent researches of ,dr4 ,karl
 von den ,steinen have removed that     
valued fruit from the list of native    
,american plants4 ,both species of      
banana 7,m4 paradisiaca and ,m4         
sapientium7 were undoubtedly introduced 
into the ,new ,world after the          
discovery4#bj ,indeed1 summing up the   
reply to an inquiry which has often been
 addressed to the industrial evolution  
of the indigenes of our continent1 ,i   
should say that they did not borrow a   
single art or invention nor a single    
cultivated plant from any part of the   
,old ,world previous to the arrival of  

,columbus4 ,what they had was their own1
 developed from their own soil1 the     
outgrowth of their own lives and needs4 
,linguistic4 ,this individuality of the 
race is still more strongly expressed in
 their languages4 ,you are all aware    
that it is upon linguistic data almost  
exclusively that ,american ethnology has
 been and must be based4 ,the study of  
the native tongues becomes therefore of 
transcendent importance in the          
pre-historic chronology of the          
,continent4 ,but to obtain its best     
results1 this study must be conducted in
 a much more thorough manner than has   
hitherto been the custom4  ,in ,america 
we are confronted with an astonishing   
multiplicity of linguistic stocks4 ,they
 have been placed at about eighty in    
,north and one hundred in ,south        
,america4 ,it is stated that there are  
that many radically diverse in elements 
and structure4 ,to appreciate the vista 
in time that this fact opens to our     
thoughts1 we must recognize the tenacity

 of life manifested by these tongues4   
,some of them have scores of dialects1  
spoken by tribes wandering over the     
widest areas4 ,take the ,athapascan or  
,tinn1 for example1 found in its        
greatest purity amid the tribes who     
dwell on the ,arctic sea1 and along the 
,mackenzie river1 in ,british ,america1 
but which is also the tongue of the     
,apaches who carried it almost to the   
valley of ,mexico4 ,the ,algonkin was   
spoken from ,hudson ,bay to the         
,savannah river and from ,newfoundland  
to the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the ,guarani 
of the ,rio de la ,plata underlies      
dialects which were current as far north
 as ,florida4  ,how1 then1 in spite of  
such tenacity of ,american languages1   
have so many stocks come into existence8
 ,this was the question which my        
predecessor in this chair last year     
undertook to answer4 ,his suggestions   
appear to me extremely valuable1 and    
only in one point do ,i widely differ   
from him1 and that is1 in the length of 

time required for these numerous tongues
 to originate1 to sever into dialects   
and to be carried to distant regions4#ba
 ,according to the able linguist1 ,dr4  
,stoll1 the difference which is         
presented between the ,cakchiquel and   
,maya dialects could not have arisen in 
less than two thousand years2#bb and any
 one who has carefully compared the     
earliest grammars of an ,american tongue
 with its present condition will        
acknowledge that the changes are        
surprisingly few4 ,to me the exceeding  
diversity of languages in ,america and  
the many dialects into which these have 
split1 are cogent proofs of the vast    
antiquity of the race1 an antiquity     
stretching back tens of thousands of    
years4 ,nothing less can explain these  
multitudinous forms of speech4          
,underlying all these varied forms of   
expression1 however1 ,i think future    
investigation will demonstrate some     
curious identities of internal form1    
traits almost or entirely peculiar to   

,american languages1 and never quite    
absent from any of them4  ,such was the 
opinion of the two earliest             
philosophical investigators of these    
tongues1 ,p4 ,s4 ,duponceau and ,wilhelm
 von ,humboldt4 ,they called these      
traits polysynthesis and incorporation1 
and it was proposed to apply the term   
incorporative as a distinguishing       
adjective to all ,american languages4   
,of late years this opinion has been    
earnestly combatted by ,m4 ,lucien ,adam
 and others2 but my own studies have led
 me to adopt the views of the older     
analysts against these modern critics4  
,i do not think that the student can    
compare any two stocks on the continent 
without being impressed with the        
resemblance of their expression of the  
relations of ,being1 through the        
incorporative plan4  ,along with this   
identity of plan1 there coxists the     
utmost independence of expression4 ,an  
,american language is usually perfectly 
transparent4 ,nothing is easier than to 

reduce it to its ultimate elements1 its 
fundamental radicals4 ,these are few in 
numbers and interjectional in character4
 ,the ,athapascan1 the ,algonkin1 whose 
wide extension ,i have referred to1 have
 been reduced to half a dozen particles 
or sounds expressive of the simplest    
conceptions4#bc ,upon these1 by         
combination1 repetition1 imitation and  
other such processes1 the astonishing   
structure of the tongue has been        
erected1 every portion of it displaying 
the mechanism of its origin4 ,it is this
 transparency which renders these       
tongues so attractive to the philosophic
 student of human expression1 and so    
valuable to him who would obtain from   
them the record of the progress of the  
nation4  ,a thorough study of such a    
language would embrace its material1 its
 formal and its psychologic contents4   
,its material elements include the      
peculiarities of its vocabulary3 for    
example1 its numerals and the system    
they indicate1 its words for weights and

 measures1 for color and direction1 for 
relations of consanguinity and affinity1
 for articles of use and ornament1 for  
social and domestic conditions1 and the 
like4  ,few studies of ,american        
languages go beyond this material or    
lexicographic limit2 but in truth these 
are merely the externalities of a       
tongue1 and have nothing to do with     
linguistic science proper4 ,this        
concerns itself with the forms of the   
language1 with the relation of parts of 
speech to each other and to the         
sentence1 and with the historical       
development of the grammatical          
categories4 ,beyond this1 again1 is the 
determination of the psychical character
 of the tribe through the forms         
instinctively adopted for the expression
 of its thoughts1 and reciprocally the  
reaction exerted by these forms on the  
later intellectual growth of those who  
were taught them as their only means of 
articulate expression4  ,these are data 
of the highest value in the study of    

prehistoric time2 but so far as ,america
 is concerned1 ,i could name very few   
scholars who have pursued this promising
 line of research4  ,physical4 ,much    
more attention has been paid to the     
physical than the linguistic data of the
 native ,americans1 but it may freely be
 said1 with not more satisfactory       
results4 ,this failure is partly owing  
to the preconceived notions which still 
govern the study of ethnology4 ,linnus  
offered the cautious division of the    
human species into races named from the 
five great geographical areas it        
inhabited2 ,blumenbach pointed out that 
this roughly corresponded with the      
division into five colors1 the white1   
black1 yellow1 brown and red races1     
occupying respectively ,europe1 ,africa1
 ,asia1 ,polynesia and ,america4        
,unfortunately1 ,cuvier chose to        
simplify this scheme1 by merging the    
brown and red races1 the ,polynesian or 
,malayan and the ,american1 into the    
yellow or ,mongolian4 ,the latest       

writers of the ,french school1 and ,i am
 sorry to add various ,americans1       
servilely follow this groundless        
rejection of the older scheme1 and speak
 of ,malayans and ,americans alike as   
,mongolians or ,mongoloids4 ,neither in 
language nor ethnic anatomy is there any
 more resemblance than between whites   
and ,mongolians4  ,it is gratifying to  
see that the more accurate ,german      
investigators decidedly reject the      
blunder of ,cuvier1 and declare that the
 ,american race is as independent as any
 other of those named4 ,thus ,dr4 ,paul 
,ehrenreich1 who has lately published an
 admirable monograph on the ,botocudos  
of ,brazil1 a tribe often quoted for its
 so-called 8,mongoloid0 aspect1 declares
 that any such assertion must be        
contradicted in positive terms4 ,both in
 osteology and anatomy1 in formation of 
the hair and shape of the skull1 the    
differences are marked1 permanent and   
radical4  ,what is true of the          
,botocudos is not less so of the other  

,american tribes which are claimed to   
present ,mongolian traits4 ,such        
assertions are based on the superficial 
observations of travellers1 most of whom
 do not know the first principles of    
ethnic anatomy4 ,this is sufficiently   
shown by the importance they attach to  
the oblique eye1 a slight malformation  
of the skin of scarcely any weight4#bd  
,the anatomy and physiology of the      
various ,american tribes present1       
indeed1 great diversity1 and yet1       
beneath it all is a really remarkable   
fixedness of type4 ,we observe this     
diversity in the shape of the skull1    
which may be1 as among the ,botocudos1  
strictly dolichocephalic1 while the     
,araucanians are brachycephalic2 the    
nasal index varies more than in the     
extremest members of the white race2 the
 tint of the skin may be a dark brown   
with an under-color of red1 or of so    
light a hue that a blush is easily      
perceptible4 ,the beard is usually      
absent1 but ,d',orbigny visited a tribe 

who wore it full and long4#be ,the      
height varies from an average of six    
feet four inches for adult males in     
,patagonia to less than five feet among 
the ,warraus of ,guiana2 and so it is   
with all the other traits of the race4  
,there is not one which is not subject  
to extensive variation4  ,on the other  
hand1 these variations are not greater  
than can be adduced in various members  
of the white or black race4 ,in spite of
 them all1 there is a wonderful family  
likeness among tribes of ,american      
origin4 ,no observer well acquainted    
with the type would err in taking it for
 another4 ,darwin says that the         
,fuegians so closely resemble the       
,botocudos that they seem members of the
 same tribe4 ,i have seen ,arawacks from
 ,guiana who in the northwest would have
 passed for ,sioux4  ,in spite of the   
total dissimilarity of climate and other
 physical surroundings1 the tribes of   
the tropics differ no more from those   
near the ,arctic circle than they do    

among themselves4 ,this is a striking   
lesson how independent of environment   
are the essential characteristics of a  
race1 and it is a sweeping refutation of
 those theories which make such         
characteristics dependent upon external 
agencies4  ,a still more remarkable fact
 has been demonstrated by ,professor ,j4
 ,kollmann of ,ble3 to wit1 that the    
essential physical identity of the      
,american race is as extended in time as
 it is in space4 ,this accurate student 
has analyzed the cranioscopic formulas  
of the most ancient ,american skulls1   
those from the alleged tertiary deposits
 of the ,pampas1 those from the caverns 
of ,lagoa ,santa in ,brazil1 that       
obtained from ,rock ,bluff1 ,illinois1  
the celebrated ,calaveras skull from    
,california1 and one from ,pontemelo in 
,buenos ,ayres of geologic antiquity4   
,his results are most interesting4      
,these very ancient remains prove that  
in all important craniologic indicia the
 earliest ,americans1 those who were    

contemporaries of the fossil horse and  
other long since extinct quadrupeds1    
possessed the same racial character as  
the natives of the present day1 with    
similar skulls and a like               
physiognomy4#bf ,we reach therefore the 
momentous conclusion that the ,american 
race throughout the whole continent1 and
 from its earliest appearance in time1  
is and has been one1 as distinct in type
 as any other race1 and from its        
isolation probably the purest of all in 
its racial traits4 ,this is a fact of   
the first order in establishing its     
prehistoric chronology4  ,geologic4 ,i  
have left the geologic data to the last1
 as it is these which carry us with     
reasonable safety to the remotest       
periods4 ,no one who examines the       
evidence will now deny that man lived in
 both ,north and ,south ,america during 
and after the glacial epochs1 and that  
he was the contemporary of many species 
of animals now extinct4 ,as you are     
aware1 the attempt has several times    

been made to fix the date for the final 
retrocession of the glaciers of ,north  
,america4 ,the estimates have varied    
from about #ab1jjj years ago up to      
#ej1jjj1 with a majority in favor of    
about #ce1jjj years4  ,there have also  
been various discoveries which are said 
to place the human species in ,america  
previous to the appearance of the       
glaciers4 ,some remains of man's        
industry or of his skeleton have been   
reported from interglacial1 others from 
tertiary deposits4#bg ,unfortunately1   
these finds have not always been        
sufficient1 or not of a character to    
convince the archologist4 ,i have before
 adverted to the impossibility1 for     
instance1 of an archologist accepting   
the discovery of a finely-polished stone
 implement in a tertiary gravel1 except 
as an intrusive deposit4 ,it is a       
violent anachronism1 which is without a 
parallel in other countries4 ,even the  
discovery of a compound implement1 as a 
stemmed arrowhead1 in strata of tertiary

 date1 is1 with our present knowledge1  
quite out of the question4  ,although   
there are well recognized signs of      
glacial action in ,south ,america1 it is
 not certain that the glacial epoch     
coincided in time in the two continents4
 ,that there was a reasonable           
approximation is probable from the      
appearance of later deposits4 ,we may   
suppose therefore that the habitable    
area of the ,new ,world was notably less
 at that period1 and that the existing  
tribes were confined to a much narrower 
space4 ,this would force them into      
closer relations1 and tend powerfully to
 the production of that uniformity of   
type to which ,i have before referred4  
,we might also expect to discover in the
 tropical regions of ,america more      
frequent evidence of the primitive      
,americans than in either temperate     
zone4 ,this has not been the case1      
probably because the geologic deposits  
of the tropics have been less           
investigated4 ,throughout the ,west     

,indies there is an entire absence of   
palolithic remains4 ,those islands were 
first peopled by tribes in the polished 
stone stage of culture4 ,in the valley  
of ,mexico human remains have been      
disinterred from a volcanic deposit of  
supposed tertiary age1 and you have all 
heard of those human footprints which   
,dr4 ,earl ,flint has unearthed in      
,nicaragua4 ,these are found under      
layers of compact volcanic tufas1       
separated by strata of sand and         
vegetable loam4 ,there can be no doubt  
of their human origin or of their great 
antiquity2 but no geologist need be     
informed of the difficulty of assigning 
an age to volcanic strata1 especially in
 a tropical country1 subject to         
earthquakes1 subsidence and floods4#bh  
,it would not be in accordance with my  
present purpose to examine the numerous 
alleged finds of human remains in the   
strata of the tertiary and quaternary4  
,all such furnish data for the          
pre-historic chronology of ,america1 and

 should be carefully scrutinized by him 
who would obtain further light upon that
 chronology4 ,i must hasten to some     
other considerations which touch the    
remote events to which ,i am now        
alluding4  ,since a comparison of the   
fauna of ,south ,america and ,africa1   
and a survey of the sea-bottom between  
those continents1 have dispelled the    
dream of the ancient ,atlantis1 and     
relegated that land connection at least 
to the eocene period of the tertiary1 no
 one can suppose the ,american man to   
have migrated from ,africa or           
southwestern ,europe4 ,for other and    
equally solid reasons1 no immigration of
 ,polynesians can be assumed4 ,yet      
zologists1 perfectly willing to derive  
man from an anthropoid1 and polygenists 
to the utmost1 hesitate to consider man 
an autochthon in the ,new ,world4 ,there
 is too wide a gap between the highest  
monkeys and the human species in this   
continent4#bi ,discoveries of fossil    
apes might bridge this1 but none such   

has been reported4  ,if we accept the   
theory that man as a species spread from
 one primal centre1 and in the higher   
plasticity of his early life separated  
into well defined races1 which became   
unalterably fixed not much later than   
the close of the glacial epoch--and this
 theory appears to be that now most     
agreeable to anthropologists--then the  
earliest ,americans made their advent on
 this continent as immigrants4 ,this is 
our first fact in their pre-historic    
chronology2 but before we can assign it 
an accurate position on the scale of    
geologic time1 we must await more       
complete discoveries than we now have at
 our command4  ,we must also wait until 
our friends the geologists have come to 
some better understanding among         
themselves as to what took place in the 
pleistocene age4 ,you have heard me     
talking freely about the glacial epoch  
and its extension in ,america2 but      
geologists are by no means of one mind  
as to this extension1 and a respectable 

minority of them1 led by ,sir ,j4       
,william ,dawson1 deny the existence or 
even possibility of any continental     
glacier4 ,what others point out as a    
terminal moraine they explain to be     
8nothing but the southern limit of the  
ice-drift of a period of                
submergence40#cj  ,it is clear that when
 we speak about the migration of the    
,americans at a time when the polar half
 of each continent was either covered   
with a glacier thousands of feet thick1 
or submerged to that depth beneath an   
arctic sea1 we have to do with          
geographical conditions totally unlike  
those of to-day4 ,i call attention to   
this obvious fact because it has not    
been obvious to all writers4  ,in your  
archological reading you will rarely    
come across a prettier piece of         
theoretical history than ,mr4 ,lewis ,a4
 ,morgan's description of the gradual   
peopling of the two ,americas by tracing
 the lines of easiest subsistence4 ,he  
begins at the fishy rivers of the       

northwest coast1 and follows the        
original colony which he assumes landed 
at that point1 all the way to ,patagonia
 and ,florida4#ca ,but how baseless     
becomes this vision when we consider the
 geography of ,america as it is shown by
 geology to have been at a period       
contemporary with the earliest remains  
of man6 ,we know to a certainty that the
 human race had already spread far and  
wide over both its continental areas    
before ,mr4 ,morgan's lines of easiest  
nutrition had come into existence4      
,properly employed1 a study of those    
geologic features of a country which    
determine its geography will prove of   
vast advantage in ascertaining the      
events of pre-historic time4 ,these     
features undoubtedly fixed the lines of 
migration and of early commerce4 ,man in
 his wanderings has always been guided  
by the course of rivers1 the trend of   
mountain chains1 the direction of ocean 
currents1 the position of deserts1      
passes and swamps4 ,the railroad of     

to-day follows the trail of the         
primitive man1 and the rivers have ever 
been the natural highways of nations4   
,the theories of ,morgan therefore      
remain true as theories2 only in their  
application he fell into an error which 
was natural enough to the science of    
twenty years ago4 ,perhaps when twenty  
years more shall have elapsed1 the      
post-tertiary geology of our continent  
will have been so clearly defined that  
the geography of its different epochs   
will be known sufficiently to trace     
these lines of migration at the various 
epochs of man's residence in the western
 world1 from his first arrival4  ,i have
 now set before you1 in a superficial   
manner it is true1 the various sources  
from which we may derive aid in         
establishing the pre-historic chronology
 of ,america4 ,i have also endeavored1  
to a limited extent1 to express myself  
as to the relative value of these       
sources4 ,none of them can be neglected1
 and it will be only from an exhaustive 

study of them all that we can expect to 
solve the numerous knotty problems1 and 
lift the veil which hangs so darkly on  
all that concerns the existence of the  
,american race before the sixteenth     
century4  ,we are merely beginning the  
enormous labor which is before us2 we   
have yet to discover the methods by     
which we can analyze fruitfully the     
facts we already know4 ,but ,i look     
forward with the utmost confidence to a 
rich return from such investigations4   
,the day is coming1 and that rapidly1   
when the pre-historic life of man in    
both the ,new and the ,old ,world will  
be revealed to us in a thousand         
unexpected details4 ,we have but to turn
 backward about thirty years to reach a 
time when the science of pre-historic   
archology was unknown1 and its early    
gropings were jeered at as absurdities4 
,already it has established for itself a
 position in the first rank of the      
sciences which have to do with the      
highest of problems4 ,it has cast a     

light upon the pathway of the human race
 from the time that man first deserved  
his name down to the commencement of    
recorded history4 ,its conquests are but
 beginning4 ,year by year masses of new 
facts are brought to knowledge from     
unexpected quarters1 current errors are 
corrected1 and novel methods of         
exploration devised4  ,as ,americans by 
adoption1 it should be our first        
interest and duty to study the          
,americans by race1 in both their       
present and past development4 ,the task 
is long and the opportunity is fleeting4
 ,a century more1 and the anthropologist
 will scarcely find a native of pure    
blood2 the tribes and languages of      
to-day will have been extinguished or   
corrupted4 ,nor will the archologist be 
in better case4 ,every day the progress 
of civilization1 ruthless of the        
monuments of barbarism1 is destroying   
the feeble vestiges of the ancient race2
 mounds are levelled1 embankments       
disappear1 the stones of temples are    

built into factories1 the holy places   
desecrated4 ,we have assembled here to  
aid in recovering something from this   
wreck of a race and its monuments3 let  
me urge upon you all the need of prompt 
action and earnest work1 inasmuch as the
 opportunities we enjoy will never again
 present themselves in such fulness4    
,,on ,,pal,,oliths1 ,,american ,,and    
,,other4#cb   ,there has been much talk 
in scientific circles lately about      
,paloliths1 and much misunderstanding   
about them4 ,let me try to explain in a 
few words what they are1 what they tell1
 and what mistakes people make about    
them4  ,since man first appeared on this
 planet1 his history has been a slow    
progress from the most rudimentary arts 
up to those which he now possesses4 ,we 
know this1 because in a given locality  
those remains of his art which are found
 undisturbed in strata geologically the 
oldest are always the rudest4 ,the      
exceptions to this rule are in          
appearance only1 as for instance when a 

given locality was not occupied by men  
until they had already acquired         
considerable knowledge of arts1 or when 
a cultivated nation was overrun by a    
barbarous one4  ,the general line of    
advance ,i have indicated shows1        
wherever we can trace it1 many          
similarities--similarities not          
necessarily dependent on an ancient     
intercourse1 but simply because         
primitive man felt everywhere the same  
wants1 and satisfied them in pretty much
 the same manner4 ,he felt the need of  
defence and attack1 and everywhere a    
stick and a stone offered themselves as 
the handiest and most effective weapons2
 he used both wherever he was1 and      
adapted them to like shapes4  ,in       
casting about for some standard         
wherewith to measure the long progress  
from this simple beginning to the       
present day1 antiquaries have hit upon a
 very excellent one--the choice of a    
material employed at any given epoch for
 obtaining a cutting edge--for          

manufacturing l'instrument tranchant4   
,man conquers nature as he does his     
enemy--by cutting her down4 ,the world  
at present uses iron1 or its next       
product steel1 for that purpose2 before 
it came into vogue many nations employed
 bronze2 but in the earliest periods of 
man's history1 and to-day in some savage
 tribes1 stone was the substance almost 
exclusively wrought for this purpose4   
,these distinctions divide the progress 
of man into the three great periods2 the
 ,age of ,iron1 the ,age of ,bronze1 and
 the ,age of ,stone4  ,do not make the  
mistake of supposing that the remains of
 human art reveal this sequence in every
 locality2 ,i have already hinted that  
this is not the case4 ,and do not make  
that other mistake of supposing that all
 three are found in chronologic sequence
 over the whole world4 ,on the contrary1
 they are synchronous even to-day1 as   
there are now tribes in ,brazil in the  
,age of ,stone and nations in ,asia in  
the ,age of ,bronze4 ,the word 8,age0 in

 this connection does not mean a        
definite period of time1 but a          
recognized condition of art4  ,in       
,western ,europe1 however1 where these  
terms originated1 the three ,ages were  
chronologic4 ,previous to about two     
thousand years before the ,christian    
era1 all the nations in that region     
employed stone exclusively to           
manufacture their cutting implements2   
later1 bronze was preferred for the same
 purpose2 and still later1 iron4 ,i say 
8preferred10 for do not imagine that the
 implement of stone or of bronze was    
straightway discarded when the better   
material was learned4 ,we know that     
stone battle-axes were used in ,ireland 
and ,germany down to the tenth century1 
and bronze was employed by ,romans and  
,egyptians long after they became       
acquainted with iron4  ,each of these   
three ,ages has various subdivisions4   
,those of the ,age of ,stone are        
particularly important4 ,they are two1  
based upon the manner in which the stone

 was brought to an edge4 ,all the       
specimens in geologically the oldest    
deposits have been brought to an edge by
 a process of chipping off small pieces1
 so as to produce a sharp line or crest 
on a part or the whole of the border of 
the stone4 ,this artificial process     
leaves such peculiar traces that a      
practiced eye cannot confound it with   
any accidental chipping which natural   
means effect4  ,the later deposits of   
the ,age of ,stone show that the early  
workmen had acquired another manner of  
dressing their material2 they rubbed one
 stone against another1 thus grinding it
 down to a sharp polished edge4  ,these 
two methods give the names to the two   
periods of the ,age of ,stone1 the      
,period of ,chipped ,stone and the      
,period of ,polished ,stone4 ,do not    
suppose1 however1 that the workmen in   
polished stone forgot the art of        
chipping stone4 ,on the contrary1 they  
continued it side by side with their new
 learning1 and you will find on the     

sites of their workshops plenty of stone
 implements in form and technical       
production like the chipped implements  
of the older period4  ,we know that the 
polished or ground-stone implements came
 into use later than the earliest       
chipped implements1 for in the oldest   
beds the latter are found exclusively4  
,hence the time when they were used     
exclusively is called the older stone   
implement period or the ,palolithic     
period2 while1 the time when both       
chipped and polished stones were used1  
metals were yet unknown1 is named the   
newer stone implement period1 or the    
,neolithic period4 ,a true 8,palolith0  
is a typical chipped stone implement1   
the position of which when found leads  
us to believe that it was manufactured  
in the older of these periods4  ,we are 
not entirely dependent on its position  
to decide its antiquity4 ,the kind of   
stone it is1 the amount of              
weather-wearing or patine it shows1     
certain characteristics of shape and    

size1 the indication that the chipping  
was done in a peculiar manner1 all these
 aid the skilled observer in pronouncing
 definitely as to whether it is a true  
,palolith4  ,nor is position always a   
guarantee of antiquity4 ,a genuine      
,palolith may have been washed into     
newer strata1 or be exposed by natural  
agencies on the surface of the ground1  
and in such cases it may not be possible
 to distinguish it from the products of 
,neolithic industry4 ,a recent product  
of art may have sunk or been buried in  
an ancient stratum1 and thus become what
 is termed an 8intrusive deposit40  ,the
 ,palolithic period itself is           
advantageously subdivided further into  
two ,epochs1 an earlier one in which men
 made 8simple0 implements only1 and a   
later one in which they manufactured    
8compound0 implements as well4 ,i was   
the first to point out this distinction1
 and as ,i have found it really useful1 
and as others have also expressed to me 
the value which it has been to them in  

this line of research1 ,i will explain  
it further4#cc ,a 8compound0 implement  
is one composed of several parts adapted
 to each other1 as the bow and the      
arrow1 the spear with its shaft and     
blade1 or the axe with its head and     
helve and the means of fastening the one
 to the other4 ,these were not early    
acquisitions4 ,during long ages man     
contented himself with such tools or    
weapons as he could frame of a single   
piece of wood or stone1 simply holding  
it in his hand4 ,when he found he could 
increase its effectiveness by fitting it
 to a handle1 the discovery marked an   
era in his culture4  ,he may indeed in  
his rudest ages have lashed a stone to  
the end of his club1 or have inserted a 
spall of flint in the split end of a    
stick2 but these are not compound       
implements in the proper sense of the   
term4 ,the expression means an          
art-product which clearly shows that it 
was but one part of a mechanical        
apparatus4 ,the arrow-head with its     

stem1 barbs and body1 the stone axe with
 its grooves or drilled perforation for 
the handle1 are incomplete in           
themselves1 they disclose a preconceived
 plan for the adjustment of parts which 
man in his earliest and rudest condition
 does not seem to have possessed4 ,the  
most ancient strata in which the remains
 of human art have been found1 either in
 ,europe or ,america1 yield 8simple0    
implements only2 8compound0 implements  
are a conquest of his inventive faculty 
at a later date4  ,so far as ,america is
 concerned it is probable that the      
oldest remains of man yet discovered on 
the northern continent have been those  
exhumed in the valley of the ,delaware  
,river1 in the states of ,pennsylvania1 
,new ,jersey and ,delaware4 ,according  
to the most careful geological observers
 that large deposit of gravel covering  
about five thousand acres on both banks 
of the river below ,trenton is a        
post-glacial deposit not less than      
twelve or fifteen thousand years old4   

,imbedded in this at various depths a   
large number of true paloliths have been
 discovered by ,dr4 ,c4 ,c4 ,abbott1    
,professor ,f4 ,a4 ,putnam1 myself and  
others4 ,every one of them so far as ,i 
am aware belongs to the class of        
8simple0 implements1 not an arrowhead   
nor grooved axe nor stemmed scraper     
having been reported4  ,another deposit 
of gravel further down the ,delaware    
,river is much older3 ,the best         
authorities in such matters believe that
 it was deposited1 not after the        
recession of the great glacier which    
once covered ,canada and the northern   
portion of the ,united ,states1 but     
while that tremendous phenomena was at  
its height1 and when all the streams of 
the central ,united ,states were        
periodically choked with vast masses of 
ice and snow4 ,in this1 which is called 
the ,columbian gravel1 chipped stone    
implements have been found by ,mr4      
,cresson1 all of the 8simple0 variety1  
and at such depths as to preclude the   

theory of an intrusive deposit4 ,these  
discoveries carry the age of the        
appearance of man in the ,delaware      
valley back to a date which is possibly 
over a hundred thousand years ago4  ,the
 great glacier left its mass of         
boulders1 pebbles and broken stone1     
which it pushed before it1 or carried   
with it1 in a long line of so-called    
8moraines10 extending1 roughly speaking1
 from ,new ,york to ,st4 ,louis4 ,in    
this mass1 at its edges where the great 
wash from the melting ice poured down1  
paloliths have been found in undisturbed
 position1 proving that also there man  
had struggled with the inclemency of the
 ice-age1 and1 poorly provided as he    
was1 had come out victorious4 ,here too 
all the implements he left are of the   
8simple0 type1 indicating at once the   
vast antiquity of the period and the    
presence of a race substantially the    
same as that to the east at the same    
date4  ,no tribe has been known to      
history which was confined to the       

knowledge of 8simple0 implements1 or    
which manufactured stone implements     
exclusively in the ,palolithic forms4   
,wherever1 therefore1 these are found   
without the admixture of artificially   
ground or polished stones we may be sure
 we face the remains of a time whose    
antiquity cannot be measured by any     
chronology applied to the historic      
records of humanity4  ,this enables us  
in a measure to define the limits of the
 region known to the human race at this1
 its earliest epoch2 with our present   
deficient knowledge we can do so only   
partially and by exclusion4 ,it is safe 
to state that in ,europe ,palolithic man
 did not occupy the central alpine area 
of ,switzerland and its surroundings1   
nor the plains of ,russia1 nor any part 
of the ,scandinavian peninsula1         
,scotland1 ,ireland1 nor ,iceland4 ,in  
,north ,america he had no habitations   
north of the forty-first parallel of    
latitude except perhaps close to the    
shores of the two great oceans2#cd it is

 not probable that his foot pressed the 
soil of any of the ,west ,indian        
,islands2 but when the great ,austral   
,glacier was in its recession depositing
 the fertile loam of the pampas of      
,buenos ,ayres human beings with their  
rude ,paloliths were following up the   
retreating line of ice1 as in the       
,northern ,hemisphere4 ,ages uncounted  
and uncountable have passed since then1 
but man has left indestructible         
evidences that even in that early morn  
of his existence he had explored and    
conquered that continent which a late   
generation has chosen to call 8the ,new 
,world40          ,,on ,,the ,,alleged  
,,mongolian ,,affinities ,,of ,,the     
,,american ,,race4#ce   ,were the       
question ,i am about to discuss one of  
merely theoretical bearings1 ,i should  
not approach it2 but the widespread     
belief that the ,american tribes are    
genealogically connected with the       
,mongolians is constantly directing and 
coloring the studies of many            

,americanists1 very much as did at one  
time the belief that the red men are the
 present representatives of the ten lost
 tribes of ,israel4 ,it is practically  
worth while1 therefore1 to examine the  
grounds on which the ,american race is  
classed by these anthropologists as a   
branch of the ,mongolian1 and to inquire
 whether the ancient culture of ,america
 betrayed any positive signs of         
,mongolian influence4  ,you will permit 
me to avoid the discussion as to what   
constitutes races in anthropology4 ,to  
me they are zological sub-species1      
marked by fixed and correlated          
characteristics1 impressed so firmly    
that they have suffered no appreciable  
alteration within the historic period   
either through time or environment4 ,in 
this sense1 ,blumenbach1 in the last    
century1 recognized five races1         
corresponding to the five great         
land-areas of the globe1 and to their   
characteristic faunal and floral        
centres4 ,this division was an eminently

 scientific one1 and still remains the  
most in accord with anatomical and      
linguistic research4 ,about twenty years
 after the appearance of ,blumenbach's  
work1 however1 the eminent naturalist   
,cuvier published his great work on     
8,the ,animal ,kingdom10 in which he    
rejected ,blumenbach's classification1  
and proposed one dividing the human     
species into three races1--the white or 
,caucasian1 the black or ,ethiopian1 and
 the yellow or ,mongolian4 ,in the      
latter he included the ,malays and the  
,american ,indians4  ,this triple       
division has been very popular in       
,france1 and to some extent in other    
countries4 ,it is not1 and it was not in
 its inception1 a scientific deduction  
from observed facts1 but was a sort of a
 priori hypothesis based on the         
physiological theories of ,bichat1 and  
at a later day derived support from the 
philosophic dreams of ,auguste ,comte4  
,bichat1 for instance1 had recognized   
three fundamental physiological systems 

in man--the vegetative or visceral1 the 
osso-muscular1 and the cerebro-spinal4  
,the anthropologists1 in turn1          
considered it a happy thought to divide 
the human species into three races1 each
 of which should show the predominance  
of one or other of these systems4 ,thus 
the black race was to show the          
predominance of the vegetative system2  
the yellow race1 the osso-muscular      
system2 the white race1 the nervous     
system4#cf ,as ,bichat had not          
discovered any more physiological       
systems1 so there could be no more human
 races on the earth3 and thus the sacred
 triplets of the ,comtian philosophy    
could be vindicated4  ,how little value 
attaches to any such generalizations you
 will readily perceive1 and you will be 
prepared1 with me1 to dismiss them all1 
and to turn to the facts of the case1   
inquiring whether there are any traits  
of the red race which justify their     
being called 8,mongolian0 or            
8,mongoloid40  ,such affinities have    

been asserted to exist in language1 in  
culture1 and in physical peculiarities1 
and ,i shall take these up seriatim for 
examination4  ,first1 as to language4   
,the great ,mongolian stock is divided  
into the southern branch1 speaking      
monosyllabic1 isolating languages1 and  
the northern branch1 whose dialects are 
polysyllabic and agglutinating4 ,the    
latter are sometimes called ,turanian or
 ,ural-,altaic2 and as they are         
geographically contiguous to the        
,eskimo1 and almost to the ,athabascans1
 we might reasonably expect the         
linguistic kinship1 if any exists1 to be
 shown in this branch of ,mongol speech4
 ,is such the case8 ,not in the least4  
,to prove it1 ,i think it enough to     
quote the positive statement of the best
 ,european authority on the             
,ural-,altaic languages1 ,dr4 ,heinrich 
,winkler4 ,he emphatically says1 that1  
in the present state of linguistic      
science1 not only is there no connection
 apparent between any ,ural-,altaic and 

any ,american language1 but that such   
connection is shown to be highly        
improbable4 ,the evidence is all the    
other way4#cg  ,i need not1 therefore1  
delay over this part of my subject1 but 
will proceed to inquire whether there   
are any ,american affinities to the     
monosyllabic1 isolating languages of    
,asia4  ,there is one prominent example1
 which has often been put forward1 of a 
supposed monosyllabic ,american         
language2 and its relationship to the   
,chinese has frequently been asserted--a
 relationship1 it has been said1        
extending both to its vocabulary and its
 grammar4 ,this is the ,otomi1 spoken in
 and near the valley of ,mexico4 ,it    
requires1 however1 but a brief analysis 
of the ,otomi to see that it is not a   
monosyllabic language in the linguistic 
sense1 and that in its sentence-building
 it is incorporative and polysynthetic1 
like the great majority of ,american    
tongues1 and totally unlike the         
,chinese4 ,i may refer to my own        

published study of the ,otomi1 and to   
that of the ,count de ,charencey1 as    
proving what ,i say4#ch  ,some have     
thought that the ,maya of ,yucatan has  
in its vocabulary a certain number of   
,chinese elements2 but all these can    
readily be explained on the doctrine of 
coincidences4 ,the ,mexican antiquary   
,mendoza has marshalled far more        
coincidences of like character and equal
 worth to show that the ,nahuatl is an  
,aryan dialect descended from the       
,sanscrit4#ci ,in fine1 any1 even the   
remotest1 linguistic connection between 
,american and ,mongolian languages has  
yet to be shown2 and any linguist who   
considers the radically diverse genius  
of the two groups of tongues will not   
expect to find such relationship4  ,i   
shall not detain you long with arguments
 touching supposed ,mongolian elements  
of culture in ancient ,america4 ,any one
 at all intimately conversant with the  
progress of ,american archology in the  
last twenty years must see how rapidly  

has grown the conviction that ,american 
culture was homebred1 to the manor born3
 that it was wholly indigenous and had  
borrowed nothing--nothing1 from either  
,europe1 ,asia1 or ,africa4 ,the        
peculiarities of native ,american       
culture are typical1 and extend         
throughout the continent4 ,mr4 ,lewis   
,morgan was perfectly right in the      
general outline of his theory to this   
effect1 though1 like all persons        
enamored of a theory1 he carried it too 
far4  ,this typical1 racial ,american   
culture is as far as possible1 in spirit
 and form1 from the ,mongolian4 ,compare
 the rich theology of ,mexico or ,peru  
with the barren myths of ,china4 ,the   
theory of governments1 the method of    
house-construction1 the position of     
woman1 the art of war1#dj are all       
equally diverse1 equally un-,mongolian4 
,it is useless to bring up single       
art-products or devices1 such as the    
calendar1 and lay stress on certain     
similarities4 ,the doctrine of the      

parallelism of human development        
explains far more satisfactorily all    
these coincidences4 ,the sooner that    
,americanists generally1 and especially 
those in ,europe1 recognize the absolute
 autochthony of native ,american        
culture1 the more valuable will their   
studies become4  ,it is no longer in    
season to quote the opinions of         
,alexander von ,humboldt and his        
contemporaries on this subject1 as ,i   
see is done in some recent works4 ,the  
science of archology has virtually come 
into being since they wrote1 and we now 
know that the development of human      
culture is governed by laws with which  
they were unacquainted4 ,civilization   
sprang up in certain centres in both    
continents1 widely remote from each     
other2 but1 as the conditions of its    
origin were everywhere the same1 its    
early products were much alike4  ,it is 
evident from what ,i have said1 that the
 asserted ,mongolian or ,mongoloid      
connection of the ,american race finds  

no support either from linguistics or   
the history of culture4 ,if anywhere1 it
 must be in physical resemblances4 ,in  
fact1 it has been mainly from these that
 the arguments have been drawn4 ,let us 
examine them4  ,cuvier1 who1 as ,i have 
said1 is responsible for the confusion  
of the ,american with the ,mongolian    
race1 based his racial scheme on the    
color of the skin1 and included the     
,american within the limits of the      
yellow race4 ,cuvier had seen very few  
pure ,mongolians1 and perhaps no        
pure-blooded ,americans2 otherwise he   
would not have maintained that the hue  
of the latter is yellow4 ,certainly it  
is not4 ,you may call it reddish1 or    
coppery1 or cinnamon1 or burnt sugar1   
but you cannot call it yellow4 ,some    
individuals or small tribes may approach
 the peculiar dusky olive of the        
,chinaman1 but so do some of the        
,european peoples of ,aryan descent2 and
 there are not wanting anthropologists  
who maintain that the ,aryans are also  

,mongoloid4 ,the one position is just as
 defensible as the other on the ground  
of color4  ,several of the most         
prominent classifications of mankind are
 based upon the character of the hair2  
the three great divisions being1 as you 
know1 into the straight1 the curly1 and 
the woolly haired varieties4 ,these     
external features of the hair depend    
upon the form of the individual hairs as
 seen in cross-section4 ,the nearer this
 approaches a circle1 the straighter is 
the hair4 ,it is true that both         
,mongolians and ,americans belong to the
 straight haired varieties2 but of the  
two1 the ,american has the straighter   
hair1 that whose cross-section comes    
nearer to a perfect circle4 ,so that by 
all the rules of terminology and logic1 
if we are to call either branch a       
variation from the other1 we should say 
that the ,mongol is a variety of the    
,american race1 and call it             
8,americanoid10 instead of vice versa4  
,the color of the hair of the two races 

is1 moreover1 distinctly different4     
,although superficially both seem black1
 yet1 observed carefully by reflected   
light1 it is seen that the ground-tone  
of the ,mongolian is bluish1 while that 
of the ,american is reddish4  ,of       
positive cranial characteristics of the 
red race1 ,i call attention to the      
interparietal bone 7the os ,inc71 which 
is found in its extreme development in  
the ,american1 in its greatest rarity   
among the ,mongolians2 also to the form 
of the glabella1 found most prominent in
 ,american crania1 least prominent in   
,altaic or northern ,mongoloid crania2  
and the peculiar ,american              
characteristics of the occipital bone1  
flattened externally1 and internally    
presenting in nearly forty per cent4 of 
cases the 8,aymarian depression10 as it 
has been termed1 instead of the internal
 occipital protuberance4#da  ,the shape 
of the skull has been made another      
ground of race-distinction2 and1        
although we have learned of late years  

that its value was greatly              
over-estimated by the earlier           
craniologists1 we have also learned that
 in the average1 and throughout large   
numbers of peoples1 it is a very        
persistent characteristic1 and one      
potently indicative of descent or       
relationship4 ,now1 of all the peoples  
of the world1 the ,mongols1 especially  
the ,turanian branch1 are the most      
brachycephalic2 they have the roundest  
heads2 and it is in a high degree       
noteworthy that precisely the ,american 
nation dwelling nearest to these1 having
 undoubted contact with them for        
unnumbered generations1 are long-headed1
 or dolichocephalic1 in a marked degree4
 ,i mean the ,eskimo1 and ,i cannot but 
be surprised that such an eminent       
anthropologist as ,virchow1#db in spite 
of this anatomical fact1 and in defiance
 of the linguistic evidence1 should have
 repeated the assertion that the ,eskimo
 are of ,mongolian descent4  ,throughout
 the ,american continent generally1 the 

natives were not markedly               
brachycephalic4 ,this was abundantly    
illustrated more than twenty years ago  
by the late ,prof4 ,james ,aitkins      
,meigs1 in his 8,observations on the    
,cranial ,forms of the ,american        
,aborigines40 ,they certainly1 in this  
respect1 show no greater ,mongoloid     
affinities than do their white          
successors on the soil of the ,united   
,states4  ,if color1 hair1 and crania   
are thus shown to present such feeble   
similarities1 what is it that has given 
rise to a notion of the ,mongoloid      
origin of the ,american ,indian8 ,is it 
the so-called ,mongolian eye1 the       
oblique eye1 with a seeming droop at its
 inner canthus8 ,yes1 a good deal has   
been made of this by certain writers1   
especially by travellers who are not    
anatomists4 ,the distinguished          
ethnologist ,topinard says the ,chinese 
are very often found without it1 and ,i 
can confirm this opinion by those ,i    
have seen in this country4 ,it is1      

indeed1 a slight deformity1 affecting   
the skin of the eyebrow only1 and is not
 at all infrequent in the white race4   
,surgeons know it under the name        
epicanthus1 and1 as with us it is       
considered a disfigurement1 it is       
usually removed in infancy by a slight  
operation4 ,in a few ,american tribes it
 is rather prevalent1 but in most of the
 pure ,indians ,i have seen1 no trace of
 it was visible4 ,it certainly does not 
rank as a racial characteristic4#dc     
,the nasal index has been recommended by
 some anatomists as one of the most     
persistent and trustworthy of racial    
indications4 ,the ,mongolian origin of  
the red race derives faint support from 
this quarter4 ,from the measurements    
given in the last edition of ,topinard's
 work#dd the ,mongolian index is #hj1   
while that of the ,eskimo and tribes of 
the ,united ,states and ,canada1 as far 
as observed1 is #gj1 that of the average
 ,parisian of to-day being #fi 7omitting
 fractions74 ,according to this test1   

the ,american is much closer to the     
white than to the yellow race4  ,most of
 the writers 7for instance1             
,av-,lallemant1 ,st4 ,hilaire1 ,peschel1
 and ,virchow7 who have argued for the  
,mongoloid character of the ,americans1 
have quoted some one tribe which1 it is 
asserted1 shows marked ,chinese traits4 
,this has especially been said of the   
natives of three localities1--the       
,eskimo1 the tribes of the ,north       
,pacific coast1 and the ,botocudos of   
,brazil4 ,so far as the last-mentioned  
are concerned1 the ,botocudos1 any such 
similarity has been categorically denied
 by the latest and most scientific      
traveller who has visited them1 ,dr4    
,paul ,ehrenreich4 ,it is enough if ,i  
refer you to his paper in the           
,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie for #ahhg1  
where he dismisses1 ,i should say once  
for all1 the notion of any such         
resemblance existing4 ,i have already   
pointed out that the ,eskimo are totally
 un-,mongolian in cranial shape1 in     

nasal index1 and in linguistic          
character4 ,they do possess in some     
instances a general physiognomical      
similarity1 and this is all2 and this is
 not worth much1 as against the         
dissimilarities mentioned4 ,the same is 
true of the differences and similarities
 of some tribes of the north-west coast4
 ,in estimating the value of            
resemblances observed in this part of   
our continent1 we should remember that  
we have sufficient evidence to believe  
that for many generations some slight   
intercourse has been going on between   
the adjacent mainlands and islands of   
the two continents in the regions of    
their nearest proximity4 ,the same train
 of events led to a blending of the     
negro and the white races along the     
shores of the ,red ,sea2 but any one who
 recognizes the distinction of races at 
all--and ,i am aware that certain       
eccentric anthropologists do not--will  
not1 on that account1 claim that the    
white race is negroid4 ,with just as    

little reason1 it seems to me1 has it   
been argued that the native ,americans  
as a race are ,mongoloid4#de  ,an acute 
philosophical writer has stated that the
 superficial observer is apt to be      
impressed with the similarities of      
objects2 while the profounder student   
finds his attention more profitably     
attracted to their differences4 ,by this
 maxim we may explain this theory of the
 affinities of the ,american race as    
well as many another which has been     
broached4                ,,the          
,,probable ,,nationality ,,of ,,the     
8,,mound-,,builders40    ,the following 
,essay is reprinted without alteration4 
,it appeared in   the ,american         
,antiquarian for ,october1 #ahha1 and   
has a certain   degree of historic value
 as illustrating the progress of        
archologic   study in the ,united       
,states4 ,it is1 ,i believe1 the first  
reasoned   argument that the            
constructors of the mounds of the ,ohio 
,valley were   the ancestors of tribes  

known and resident not remote from the  
sites   of these ancient works4 ,though 
this opinion has not yet been fully     
accepted1 the tendency of later studies 
is unquestionably in its   favor4   ,the
 question1 ,who were the                
,mound-builders8 is one that still      
remains open in ,american archology4    
,among the most recent expressions of   
opinion ,i may quote ,prof4 ,john ,t4   
,short1 who thinks that one or two      
thousand years may have elapsed since   
they deserted the ,ohio valley1 and     
probably eight hundred since they       
finally retired from the ,gulf coast4#df
 ,mr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,mac,lean continues to    
believe them to have been somehow       
related to the 8,toltecs40#dg ,dr4 ,j4  
,w4 ,foster1 making a tremendous leap1  
connects them with a tribe 8who1 in     
times far remote1 flourished in         
,brazil10 and adds3 8a broad chasm is to
 be spanned before we can link the      
,mound-builders to the ,north ,american 
,indians4 ,they were essentially        

different in their form of government1  
their habits and their daily pursuits4  
,the latter were never known to erect   
structures which should survive the     
lapse of a generation40#dh  ,on the     
other hand1 we have the recent utterance
 of so able an ethnologist as ,major ,j4
 ,w4 ,powell to the effect that1 8,with 
regard to the mounds so widely scattered
 between the two oceans1 it may be said 
that mound-building tribes were known in
 the early history of discovery of this 
continent1 and that the vestiges of art 
discovered do not excel in any respect  
the arts of the ,indian tribes known to 
history4 ,there is1 therefore1 no reason
 for us to search for an extralimital   
origin through lost tribes for the arts 
discovered in the mounds of ,north      
,america40#di  ,between opinions so     
discrepant the student in archology may 
well be at a loss1 and it will therefore
 be worth while to inquire just how far 
the tribes who inhabited the            
,mississippi valley and the ,atlantic   

slope at the time of the discovery were 
accustomed to heap up mounds1 excavate  
trenches1 or in other ways leave upon   
the soil permanent marks of their       
occupancy4  ,beginning with the warlike 
northern invaders1 the ,iroquois1 it    
clearly appears that they were          
accustomed to construct burial mounds4  
,colden states that the corpse was      
placed in a large round hole and that   
8they then raise the ,earth in a round  
,hill over it40#ej ,further particulars 
are given by ,lafitau3 the grave was    
lined with bark1 and the body roofed in 
with bark and branches in the shape of  
an arch1 which was then covered with    
earth and stones so as to form an agger 
or tumulus4#ea ,in these instances the  
mound was erected over a single corpse2 
but it was also the custom among the    
,hurons and ,iroquois1 as we are        
informed by ,charlevoix1 to collect the 
bones of their dead every ten years1 and
 inter them in one mass together4#eb    
,the slain in a battle were also        

collected into one place and a large    
mound heaped over them1 as is stated by 
,mr4 ,paul ,kane1#ec and that such was  
an ancient custom of the ,iroquois      
tribes1 is further shown by a tradition 
handed down from the last century1      
according to which the ,iroquois        
believed that the ,ohio mounds were the 
memorials of a war which in ancient     
times they waged with the ,cherokees4#ed
 ,mr4 ,e4 ,g4 ,squier1 who carefully    
examined many of the earthworks in the  
country of the ancient ,iroquois1 was   
inclined at first to suppose the remains
 he found there were parts of 8a system 
of defence extending from the source of 
the ,allegheny and ,susquehanna in ,new 
,york1 diagonally across the country    
through central and northern ,ohio to   
the ,wabash10 and hence drew the        
inference that 8the pressure of         
hostilities upon the mound-builders was 
from the north-east40#ee ,this opinion  
has been repeated by some recent        
writers2 but ,mr4 ,squier himself       

substantially retracted it in a later   
work1 and reached the conviction that   
whatever ancient remains there are in   
,western ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania   
are to be attributed to the later       
,indian tribes and not to the           
,mound-builders4#ef  ,the neighbors of  
the ,iroquois1 the various ,algonkin    
tribes1 were occasionally constructors  
of mounds4 ,in comparatively recent     
times we have a description of a        
8victory mound0 raised by the           
,chippeways after a successful encounter
 with the ,sioux4 ,the women and        
children threw up the adjacent surface  
soil into a heap about five feet high   
and eight or ten feet in diameter1 upon 
which a pole was erected1 and to it     
tufts of grass were hung1 one for each  
scalp taken4#eg  ,robert ,beverly1 in   
his ,history of ,virginia1 first        
published in #agje1 describes some      
curious constructions by the tribes     
there located4 ,he tells us that they   
erected 8pyramids and columns0 of stone1

 which they painted and decorated with  
wampum1 and paid them a sort of worship4
 ,they also constructed stone altars on 
which to offer sacrifices4#eh ,this     
adoration of stones and masses of       
rocks--or rather of the genius which was
 supposed to reside in them--prevailed  
also in ,massachusetts and other        
,algonkin localities1 and easily led to 
erecting such piles4#ei  ,another       
occasion for mound-building among the   
,virginian ,indians was to celebrate or 
make a memorial of a solemn treaty4 ,on 
such an occasion they performed the time
 honored ceremony of 8burying the       
hatchet10 a tomahawk being literally put
 in the ground1 8and they raise a pile  
of stones over it1 as the ,jews did over
 the body of ,absalom40#fj  ,i am not   
aware of any evidence that the          
,cherokees were mound-builders3 but they
 appreciated the conveniences of such   
structures1 and in one of their villages
 ,william ,bartram found their council  
house situated on a large mound4 ,he    

adds3 8,but it may be proper to observe 
that this mount on which the rotunda    
stands is of a much ancienter date than 
the building1 and perhaps was raised for
 another purpose40#fa ,lieutenant       
,timberlake is about our best early     
authority on the ,cherokees1 and ,i     
believe he nowhere mentions that they   
built upon mounds of artificial         
construction4 ,adair1 however1 states   
that they were accustomed to heap up and
 add to piles of loose stones in memory 
of a departed chief1 or as monuments of 
important events4#fb  ,the tribes who   
inhabited what we now call the ,gulf    
,states1 embracing the region between   
the eastern border of ,texas and the    
,atlantic ,ocean south of the ,savannah 
,river1 belonged1 with few and small    
exceptions1 to the great                
,chahta-,muskokee family1 embracing the 
tribes known as ,choctaws1 ,chikasaws1  
,muskokees or ,creeks1 ,seminoles1      
,allibamons1 ,natchez and others4 ,the  
languages of all these have numerous and

 unmistakable affinities1 the ,choctaw  
or ,chahta presenting probably the most 
archaic form4 ,it is among them1 if     
anywhere within our limits1 that we must
 look for the descendants of the        
mysterious 8,mound-builders40 ,no other 
tribes can approach them in claims for  
this distinction4 ,their own traditions1
 it is true1 do not point to a migration
 from the north1 but from the west2 nor 
do they contain any reference to the    
construction of the great works in      
question2 but these people seem to have 
been a building race1 and to have reared
 tumuli not contemptible in comparison  
even with the mightiest of the ,ohio    
,valley4  ,the first explorer who has   
left us an account of his journey in    
this region was ,cabeza de ,vaca1 who   
accompanied the exposition of ,pamfilo  
de ,narvaez in #aebg4 ,he1 however1 kept
 close to the coast for fear of losing  
his way1 and saw for the most part only 
the inferior fishing tribes4 ,these he  
describes as generally in a miserable   

condition4 ,their huts were of mats     
erected on piles of oyster shells 7the  
shell heaps now so frequent along the   
southern coast74 ,yet he mentions that  
in one part1 which ,i judge to be       
somewhere in ,louisiana1 the natives    
were accustomed to erect their dwellings
 on steep hills and around their base to
 dig a ditch1 as a means of defence4#fc 
,our next authorities are very          
important4 ,they are the narrators of   
,captain ,hernando de ,soto's famous and
 ill starred expedition4 ,of this we    
have the brief account of ,biedma1 the  
longer story of 8the gentleman of       
,elvas10 a ,portuguese soldier of       
fortune1 intelligent and clear-headed1  
and the poetical and brilliant          
composition of ,garcilasso de la ,vega4 
,in all of these we find the southern   
tribes described as constructing        
artificial mounds1 using earthworks for 
defence1 excavating ditches and canals1 
etc4 ,i quote the following passage in  
illustration3  8,the town and the house 

of the ,cacique ,ossachile are like     
those of the other caciques in ,florida4
 99 99 99 ,the ,indians try to place    
their villages on elevated sites2 but   
inasmuch as in ,florida there are not   
many sites of this kind where they can  
conveniently build1 they erect          
elevations themselves in the following  
manner3 ,they select the spot and carry 
there a quantity of earth which they    
form into a kind of platform two or     
three pikes in height1 the summit of    
which is large enough to give room for  
twelve1 fifteen or twenty houses1 to    
lodge the cacique and his attendants4   
,at the foot of this elevation they mark
 out a square place according to the    
size of the village1 around which the   
leading men have their houses4 99 99 99 
,to ascend the elevation they have a    
straight passage way from bottom to top1
 fifteen or twenty feet wide4 ,here     
steps are made by massive beams1 and    
others are planted firmly in the ground 
to serve as walls4 ,on all other sides  

of the platform1 the sides are cut      
steep40#fd  ,later on ,la ,vega         
describes the village of ,capaha3       
8,this village is situated on a small   
hill1 and it has about five hundred good
 houses1 surrounded with a ditch ten or 
twelve cubits 7brazas7 deep1 and a width
 of fifty paces in most places1 in      
others forty4 ,the ditch is filled with 
water from a canal which has been cut   
from the town to ,chicagua4 ,the canal  
is three leagues in length1 at least a  
pike in depth1 and so wide that two     
large boats could easily ascend or      
descend it1 side by side4 ,the ditch    
which is filled with water from this    
canal surrounds the town except in one  
spot1 which is closed by heavy beams    
planted in the earth40#fe  ,biedma      
remarks in one passage1 speaking of the 
provinces of ,ycasqui and ,pacaha3 8,the
 caciques of this region were accustomed
 to erect near the house where they     
lived very high mounds 7tertres         
trs-eleves71 and there were some who    

placed their houses on the top of these 
mounds40#ff  ,i cannot state precisely  
where these provinces and towns were    
situated2 the successful tracing of ,de 
,soto's journey has never yet been      
accomplished1 but remains as an         
interesting problem for future          
antiquaries to solve4 ,one thing ,i     
think is certain2 that until he crossed 
the ,mississippi he at no time was      
outside the limits of the wide spread   
,chahta-,muskokee tribes4 ,the proper   
names preserved1 and the courses and    
distances given1 both confirm this      
opinion4 ,we find them therefore in his 
time accustomed to erect lofty mounds1  
terraces and platforms1 and to protect  
their villages by extensive             
circumvallations4 ,i shall proceed to   
inquire whether such statements are     
supported by later writers4  ,our next  
authorities in point of time are the    
,french ,huguenots1 who undertook to    
make a settlement on the ,st4 ,john     
,river near where ,st4 ,augustine now   

stands in ,florida4 ,the short and sad  
history of this colony is familiar to   
all4 ,the colonists have1 however1 left 
us some interesting descriptions of the 
aborigines4 ,in the neighborhood of ,st4
 ,augustine these belonged to the       
,timuquana tribe1 specimens of whose    
language have been preserved to us1 but 
which1 according to the careful analysis
 recently published by ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4     
,gatschet1#fg has no relationship with  
the ,chahta-,muskokee1 nor1 for that    
matter1 with any other known tongue4    
,throughout the rest of the peninsula a 
,muskokee dialect probably prevailed4   
,the 8,portuguese gentleman0 tells us   
that at the very spot where ,de ,soto   
landed1 generally supposed to be        
somewhere about ,tampa ,bay1 at a town  
called ,ucita1 the house of the chief   
8stood near the shore upon a very high  
mound made by hand for strength40 ,such 
mounds are also spoken of by the        
,huguenot explorers4 ,they served as the
 site of the chieftain's house in the   

villages1 and from them led a broad1    
smooth road through the village to the  
water4#fh ,these descriptions correspond
 closely to those of the remains which  
the botanists1 ,john and ,william       
,bartram1 discovered and reported about 
a century ago4  ,it would also appear   
that the natives of the peninsula       
erected mounds over their dead1 as      
memorials4 ,thus the artist ,le ,moyne  
de ,morgues1 writes3 8,defuncto aliquo  
rege ejus provici1 magna solemnitate    
sepelitur1 et ejus tumulo crater1 e quo 
bibere solebat1 imponitur1 defixis      
circum ipsum tumulum multis             
sagittis40#fi ,the picture he gives of  
the 8tumulus0 does not represent it as  
more than three or four feet in height2 
so that if this was intended as an      
accurate representation1 the structure  
scarcely rises to the dignity of a      
mound4  ,after the destruction of the   
,huguenot colony in #aefe1 the ,spanish 
priests at once went to work to plant   
their missions4 ,the ,jesuit fathers    

established themselves at various points
 south of the ,savannah ,river1 but     
their narratives1 which have been       
preserved in full in a historic work of 
great rarity1 describe the natives as   
broken up into small clans1 waging      
constant wars1 leading vagrant lives1   
and without fixed habitations4#gj ,of   
these same tribes1 however1 ,richard    
,blomes1 an ,english traveler1 who      
visited them about a century later1 says
 that they erected piles or pyramids of 
stones1 on the occasion of a successful 
conflict1 or when they founded a new    
village1 for the purpose of keeping the 
fact in long remembrance4#ga ,about the 
same time another ,english traveler1 by 
name ,bristock1 claimed to have visited 
the interior of the country and to have 
found in 8,apalacha0 a half-civilized   
nation1 who constructed stone walls and 
had a developed sun worship2 but in a   
discussion of the authenticity of his   
alleged narrative ,i have elsewhere     
shown that it cannot be relied upon1 and

 is largely a fabrication4#gb ,a correct
 estimate of the constructive powers of 
the ,creeks is given by the botanist1   
,william ,bartram1 who visited them     
twice in the latter half of the last    
century4 ,he found they had 8chunk      
yards0 surrounded by low walls of earth1
 at one end of which1 sometimes on a    
moderate artificial elevation1 was the  
chief's dwelling and at the other end   
the public council house4#gc ,his       
descriptions resemble so closely those  
in ,la ,vega that evidently the latter  
was describing the same objects on a    
larger scale--or from magnified reports4
  ,within the present century the       
,seminoles of ,florida are said to have 
retained the custom of collecting the   
slain after a battle and interring them 
in one large mound4 ,the writer on whose
 authority ,i state this1 adds that he  
8observed on the road from ,st4         
,augustine to ,tomaka1 one mound which  
must have covered two acres of          
ground10#gd but this must surely have   

been a communal burial mound4  ,passing 
to the tribes nearer the ,mississippi1  
most of them of ,choctaw affiliation1 we
 find considerable testimony in the     
,french writers to their use of mounds4 
,thus ,m4 de la ,harpe says3 8,the      
cabins of the ,yasous1 ,courous1        
,offogoula and ,ouspie are dispersed    
over the country on mounds of earth made
 with their own hands40#ge ,the ,natchez
 were mostly of ,choctaw lineage4 ,in   
one of their villages ,dumont notes that
 the cabin of the chief was elevated on 
a mound4#gf ,father ,le ,petit1 a       
missionary who labored among them1 gives
 the particulars that the residence of  
the great chief or 8,brother of the     
,sun10 as he was called1 was erected on 
a mound 7butte7 of earth carried for    
that purpose4 ,when the chief died1 the 
house was destroyed1 and the same mound 
was not used as the site of the mansion 
of his successor1 but was left vacant   
and a new one was constructed4#gg ,this 
interesting fact goes to explain the    

great number of mounds in some          
localities2 and it also teaches us the  
important truth that we cannot form any 
correct estimate of the date when a     
mound-building tribe left a locality by 
counting the rings in trees1 etc41      
because long before they departed1      
certain tumuli or earthworks may have   
been deserted and tabooed from          
superstitious notions1 just as many were
 among the ,natchez4  ,we have the size 
of the ,natchez mounds given            
approximately by ,m4 ,le ,page du       
,pratz4 ,he observes that the one on    
which was the house of the ,great ,sun  
was 8about eight feet high and twenty   
feet over on the surface40#gh ,he adds  
that their temple1 in which the         
perpetual fire was kept burning1 was on 
a mound about the same height4  ,the    
custom of communal burial has been      
adverted to4 ,at the time of the        
discovery it appears to have prevailed  
in most of the tribes from the ,great   
,lakes to the ,gulf4 ,the bones of each 

phratry or gens--the former1            
probably--were collected every eight or 
ten years and conveyed to the spot where
 they were to be finally interred4 ,a   
mound was raised over them which        
gradually increased in size with each   
additional interment4 ,the particulars  
of this method of burial have often been
 described1 and it is enough that ,i    
refer to a few authorities in the       
note4#gi ,indeed it has not been        
pretended that such mounds necessarily  
date back to a race anterior to that    
which occupied the soil at the advent of
 the white man4  ,i have not included in
 the above survey the important ,dakota 
stock who once occupied an extended     
territory on the upper ,mississippi and 
its affluents1 and scattered clans of   
whom were resident on the ,atlantic     
,coast in ,virginia and ,carolina4 ,but1
 in fact1 ,i have nowhere found that    
they erected earthworks of any          
pretentions whatever4  ,from what ,i    
have collected1 therefore1 it would     

appear that the only resident ,indians  
at the time of the discovery who showed 
any evidence of mound-building          
comparable to that found in the ,ohio   
valley were the ,chahta-,muskokees4 ,i  
believe that the evidence is sufficient 
to justify us in accepting this race as 
the constructors of all those extensive 
mounds1 terraces1 platforms1 artificial 
lakes and circumvallations which are    
scattered over the ,gulf ,states1       
,georgia and ,florida4 ,the earliest    
explorers distinctly state that such    
were used and constructed by these      
nations in the sixteenth century1 and   
probably had been for many generations4 
,such too1 is the opinion arrived at by 
,col4 ,c4 ,c4 ,jones1 than whom no one  
is more competent to speak with         
authority on this point4 ,referring to  
the earthworks found in ,georgia he     
writes3 8,we do not concur in the       
opinion so often expressed that the     
mound-builders were a race distinct from
 and superior in art1 government1 and   

religion1 to the ,southern ,indians of  
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries40 
,it is a ,baconian rule which holds good
 in every department of science that the
 simplest explanation of a given fact or
 series of facts should always be       
accepted2 therefore if we can point out 
a well known race of ,indians who1 at   
the time of the discovery1 raised mounds
 and other earthworks1 not wholly       
dissimilar in character and not much    
inferior in size to those in the ,ohio  
valley1 and who resided not very far    
away from that region and directly in   
the line which the ,mound-,builders are 
believed by all to have followed in     
their emigration1 then this rule        
constrains us to accept for the present 
this race as the most probable          
descendants of the ,mound ,tribes1 and  
seek no further for ,toltecs1 ,asiatics 
or ,brazilians4 ,all these conditions   
are filled by the ,chahta tribes4#hj    
,it is true1 as ,i have already said1   
that the traditions of their own origin 

do not point to the north but rather to 
the west or northwest2 but in one of    
these traditions it is noticeable that  
they claim their origin to have been    
from a large artificial mound1 the      
celebrated ,nanih ,waiya1 the ,sloping  
,hill1 an immense pile in the valley of 
the ,big ,black ,river2#ha and it may be
 that this is a vague reminiscence of   
their remote migration from their       
majestic works in the north4  ,the size 
of the southern mounds is often worthy  
of the descendants of those who raised  
the vast piles in the northern valleys4 
,thus one in the ,etowah ,valley1       
,georgia1 has a cubical capacity of     
#a1jjj1jjj1 cubic feet4#hb ,the ,messier
 ,mound1 near the ,chatahoochee ,river1 
contains about #gjj1jjj cubic feet4#hc  
,wholly artificial mounds #ej to #gj    
feet in height1 with base areas of about
 #bjj by #djj feet1 are by no means     
unusual in the river valleys of the     
,gulf ,states4  ,with these figures we  
may compare the dimensions of the       

northern mounds4 ,the massive one near  
,miamisburg1 ,ohio1 #fh feet high1 has  
been calculated to contain #caa1cej     
cubic feet--about half the size of the  
,messier ,mound4 ,at ,clark's ,works1   
,ohio1 the embankments and mounds       
together contain about #c1jjj1jjj cubic 
feet2#hd but as the embankment is three 
miles long1 most of this is not in the  
mounds themselves4 ,greater than any of 
these is the truncated pyramid at       
,cahokia1 ,illinois1 which has an       
altitude of #ij feet and a base area of 
#gjj by #ejj feet4 ,it is1 however1     
doubtful whether this is wholly an      
artificial construction4 ,professor     
,spencer ,smith has shown that the once 
famous 8big mound0 of ,st4 ,louis was   
largely a natural formation2 and he     
expresses the opinion that many of the  
mounds in ,missouri and ,illinois1      
popularly supposed to be artificial     
constructions1 are wholly1 or in great  
part1 of geologic origin4#he ,there is  
apparently therefore no such great      

difference between the earth structures 
of the ,chahta tribes1 and those left us
 by the more northern mound-builders1   
that we need suppose for the latter any 
material superiority in culture over the
 former when first they became known to 
the whites2 nor is there any            
improbability in assuming that the      
,mound-builders of the ,ohio were in    
fact the progenitors of the ,chahta     
tribes1 and were driven south probably  
about three or four hundred years before
 the discovery4 ,such is the conviction 
to which the above reasoning leads us4  
,in the course of it1 ,i have said      
nothing about the condition of the arts 
of the ,mound-builders compared with    
that of the early southern ,indians2 nor
 have ,i spoken of their supposed       
peculiar religious beliefs which a      
recent writer thinks to point to        
8,toltec0 connections2#hf nor have ,i   
discussed the comparative craniology of 
the ,mound-builders1 upon which some    
very remarkable hypotheses have been    

erected2 nor do ,i think it worth while 
to do so1 for in the present state of   
anthropologic science1 all the facts of 
these kinds relating to the             
,mound-builders which we have as yet    
learned1 can have no appreciable weight 
to the investigator4  ,investigations   
conducted since the above ,essay was    
printed require some modifications in   
its statements4 ,the researches of      
,professor ,cyrus ,thomas render it     
likely that the ,cherokees were also    
,mound-builders1 and that they occupied 
portions of ,western ,pennsylvania and  
,western ,virginia less than two        
centuries ago4 7,see also my work ,the  
,lenp and their ,legends1 pp4 #af-ah4   
,philadelphia1 #ahhe47 ,probably the    
,ohio ,valley ,mound-builders were the  
ancestors of some of the ,cherokees as  
well as of the ,chahta-,muskoki tribes4 
,craniologic data from the ,ohio mounds 
are still too vague to permit inferences
 from them4                      ,,the  
,,toltecs ,,and ,,their ,,fabulous      

,,empire4   ,in the first addition of my
 ,myths of the ,new ,world#hg published 
in #ahfh1 ,i asserted that the story of 
the city of ,tula and its inhabitants1  
the ,toltecs1 as currently related in   
ancient ,mexican history1 is a myth1 and
 not history4 ,this opinion ,i have     
since repeated in various               
publications1#hh but writers on         
pre-,columbian ,american civilization   
have been very unwilling to give up     
their ,toltecs1 and lately ,m4 ,charnay 
has composed a laborious monograph to   
defend them4#hi  ,let me state the      
question squarely4  ,the orthodox       
opinion is that the ,toltecs1 coming    
from the north 7-west or -east71 founded
 the city of ,tula 7about forty miles   
north of the present city of ,mexico7 in
 the sixth century1 ,a4 ,d42 that their 
,state flourished for about five hundred
 years1 until it numbered nearly four   
millions of inhabitants1 and extended   
its sway from ocean to ocean over the   
whole of central ,mexico2#ij that it    

reached a remarkably high stage of      
culture in the arts2 that in the tenth  
or eleventh century it was almost       
totally destroyed by war and famine2#ia 
and that its fragments1 escaping in     
separate colonies1 carried the          
civilization of ,tula to the south1 to  
,tabasco 7,palenque71 ,yucatan1         
,guatemala and ,nicaragua4              
,quetzalcoatl1 the last ruler of ,tula1 
himself went to the south-east1 and     
reappears in ,yucatan as the            
culture-hero ,cukulkan1 the traditional 
founder of the ,maya civilization4      
,this1 ,i say1 is the current opinion   
about the ,toltecs4 ,it is found in the 
works of ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,veitia1       
,clavigero1 ,prescott1 ,brasseur de     
,bourbourg1 ,orozco y ,berra1 and scores
 of other reputable writers4 ,the       
dispersion of the ,toltecs has been     
offered as the easy solution of the     
origin of the civilization not only of  
,central ,america1 but of ,new ,mexico  
and the ,mississippi valley4#ib  ,the   

opinion that ,i oppose to this1 and     
which ,i hope to establish in this      
article1 is as follows3  ,tula was      
merely one of the towns built and       
occupied by that tribe of the ,nahuas   
known as ,azteca or ,mexica1 whose      
tribal god was ,huitzilopochtli1 and who
 finally settled at                     
,mexico-,tenochtitlan 7the present city 
of ,mexico72 its inhabitants were called
 ,toltecs1 but there was never any such 
distinct tribe or nationality2 they were
 merely the ancestors of this branch of 
the ,azteca1 and when ,tula was         
destroyed by civil and foreign wars1    
these survivors removed to the valley of
 ,mexico and became merged with their   
kindred2 they enjoyed no supremacy1     
either in power or in the arts2 and the 
,toltec 8empire0 is a baseless fable4   
,what gave them their singular fame in  
later legend was partly the tendency of 
the human mind to glorify the 8good old 
times0 and to merge ancestors into      
divinities1 and especially the          

significance of the name ,tula1 8the    
,place of the ,sun10 leading to the     
confounding and identification of a     
half-forgotten legend with the          
ever-living light-and-darkness myth of  
the gods ,quetzalcoatl and              
,tezcatlipoca4  ,to support this view1  
let us inquire what we know about ,tula 
as an historic site4  ,its location is  
on one of the great ancient trails      
leading from the north into the ,valley 
of ,mexico4#ic ,the ruins of the old    
town are upon an elevation about #ajj   
feet in height1 whose summit presents a 
level surface in the shape of an        
irregular triangle some #hjj yards long1
 with a central width of #cjj yards1 the
 apex to the south-east1 where the face 
of the hill is fortified by a rough     
stone wall4#id ,it is a natural hill1   
overlooking a small muddy creek1 called 
the ,rio de ,tula4#ie ,yet this         
unpretending mound is the celebrated    
,coatepetl1 ,serpent-,mount1 or         
,snake-,hill1 famous in ,nahuatl legend1

 and the central figure in all the      
wonderful stories about the ,toltecs4#if
 ,the remains of the artificial tumuli  
and walls1 which are abundantly         
scattered over the summit1 show that1   
like the pueblos of ,new ,mexico1 they  
were built of large sun-baked bricks    
mingled with stones1 rough or trimmed1  
and both walls and floors were laid in a
 firm cement1 which was usually painted 
of different colors4 ,hence probably the
 name ,palpan1 8amid the colors10 which 
tradition says was applied to these     
structures on the ,coatepetl4#ig ,the   
stone-work1 represented by a few broken 
fragments1 appears equal1 but not       
superior1 to that of the ,valley of     
,mexico4 ,both the free and the attached
 column occur1 and figure-carving was   
known1 as a few weather-beaten relics   
testify4 ,the houses contained many     
rooms1 on different levels1 and the     
roofs were flat4 ,they were no doubt    
mostly communal structures4 ,at the foot
 of the ,serpent-,hill is a level plain1

 but little above the river1 on which is
 the modern village with its            
corn-fields4  ,these geographical       
particulars are necessary to understand 
the ancient legend1 and with them in    
mind its real purport is evident4#ih    
,that legend is as follows3 ,when the   
,azteca or ,mexica--for these names were
 applied to the same tribe#ii--left     
their early home in ,aztlan--which      
,ramirez locates in ,lake ,chalco in the
 ,valley of ,mexico1 and ,orozco y      
,berra in ,lake ,chapallan in           
,michoacan#ajj--they pursued their      
course for some generations in harmony2 
but at a certain time1 somewhere between
 the eighth and the eleventh century of 
our era1 they fell out and separated4   
,the legend refers to this as a dispute 
between the followers of the tribal god 
,huitzilopochtli and those of his sister
 ,malinalxochitl4 ,we may understand it 
to have been the separation of two      
8totems40 ,the latter entered at once   
the ,valley of ,mexico1 while the       

followers of ,huitzilopochtli passed on 
to the plain of ,tula and settled on the
 ,coatepetl4 ,here1 says the narrative1 
they constructed houses of stones and of
 rushes1 built a temple for the worship 
of ,huitzilopochtli1 set up his image   
and those of the fifteen divinities     
7gentes87 who were subject to him1 and  
erected a large altar of sculptured     
stone and a court for their ball        
play4#aja ,the level ground at the foot 
of the hill they partly flooded by      
damming the river1 and used the         
remainder for planting their crops4     
,after an indeterminate time they       
abandoned ,tula and the ,coatepetl1     
driven out by civil strife and warlike  
neighbors1 and journeyed southward into 
the ,valley of ,mexico1 there to found  
the famous city of that name4  ,this is 
the simple narrative of ,tulan1 stripped
 of its contradictions1 metaphors and   
confusion1 as handed down by those      
highest authorities the ,codex ,ramirez1
 ,tezozomoc and ,father ,duran4#ajb ,it 

is a plain statement that ,tula and its 
,snake-,hill were merely one of the     
stations of the ,azteca in their        
migrations--an important station1       
indeed1 with natural strength1 and one  
that they fortified with care1 where for
 some generations1 probably1 they       
maintained an independent existence1 and
 which the story-tellers of the tribe   
recalled with pride and exaggeration4   
,how long they occupied the site is     
uncertain4#ajc ,ixtlilxochitl gives a   
list of eight successive rulers of the  
8,toltecs10 each of whom was computed to
 reign at least fifty-two years1 or one 
cycle2 but it is noteworthy that he     
states these rulers were not of         
8,toltec0 blood1 but imposed upon them  
by the 8,chichimecs40 ,this does not    
reflect creditably on the supposed      
singular cultivation of the ,toltecs4   
,probably the warrior ,aztecs subjected 
a number of neighboring tribes and      
imposed upon them rulers4#ajd  ,if we   
accept the date given by the ,codex     

,ramirez for the departure of the       
,aztecs from the ,coatepetl--,a4 ,d4    
#aafh--then it is quite possible that   
they might have controlled the site for 
a couple of centuries or longer1 and    
that the number of successive chieftains
 named by ,ixtlilxochitl should not be  
far wrong4 ,the destructive battles of  
which he speaks as preceding their      
departure--battles resulting in the     
slaughter of more than five million     
souls--we may regard as the grossly     
overstated account of some really       
desperate conflicts4  ,that the warriors
 of the ,azteca1 on leaving ,tula1      
scattered over ,mexico1 ,yucatan and    
,central ,america1 is directly contrary 
to the assertion of the high authorities
 ,i have quoted1 and also to most of the
 mythical descriptions of the event1    
which declare they were all1 or nearly  
all1 massacred4#aje  ,the above ,i claim
 to be the real history of ,tula and its
 ,serpent-,hill1 of the ,toltecs and    
their dynasty4 ,now comes the question1 

if we accept this view1 how did this    
ancient town and its inhabitants come to
 have so wide a celebrity1 not merely in
 the myths of the ,nahuas of ,mexico1   
but in the sacred stories of ,yucatan   
and ,guatemala as well--which was       
unquestionably the case8  ,to explain   
this1 ,i must have recourse to some of  
those curious principles of language    
which have had such influence in        
building the fabric of mythology4 ,in   
such inquiries we have more to do with  
words than with things1 with names than 
with persons1 with phrases than with    
facts4  ,first about these names1 ,tula1
 ,tollan1 ,toltec--what do they mean8   
,they are evidently from the same root4 
,what idea did it convey8  ,we are first
 struck with the fact that the ,tula ,i 
have been describing was not the only   
one in the ,nahuatl district of ,mexico4
 ,there are other ,tulas and ,tollans1  
one near ,ococingo1 another1 now ,san   
,pedro ,tula1 in the ,state of ,mexico1 
one in ,guerrero1 ,san ,antonio ,tula in

 ,potosi1#ajf etc4 ,the name must have  
been one of common import4 ,herrera1 who
 spells it ,tulo1 by an error1 is just  
as erroneous in his suggestion of a     
meaning4 ,he says it means 8place of the
 tuna10 this being a term used for the  
prickly pear4#ajg ,but tuna was not a   
,nahuatl word2 it belongs to the dialect
 of ,haiti1 and was introduced into     
,mexico by the ,spaniards4 ,therefore   
,herrera's derivation must be ruled out4
 ,ixtlilxochitl pretends that the name  
,tollan was that of the first chieftain 
of the ,toltecs1 and that they were     
named after him2 but elsewhere himself  
contradicts this assertion4#ajh ,most   
writers follow the ,codex ,ramirez1 and 
maintain that ,tollan--of which ,tula is
 but an abbreviation--is from tolin1 the
 ,nahuatl word for rush1 the kind of    
which they made mats1 and means 8the    
place of rushes10 or where they grow4   
,the respectable authority of ,buschmann
 is in favor of this derivation2 but    
according to the analogy of the ,nahuatl

 language1 the 8place of rushes0 should 
be ,toltitlan or ,tolinan1 and there are
 localities with these names4#aji       
,without doubt1 ,i think1 we must accept
 the derivation of ,tollan given by     
,tezozomoc1 in his ,cronica ,mexicana4  
,this writer1 thoroughly familiar with  
his native tongue1 conveys to us its    
ancient form and real sense4 ,speaking  
of the early ,aztecs1 he says3 8,they   
arrived at the spot called ,coatepec1 on
 the borders of ,tonalan1 the place of  
the sun40#aaj  ,this name1 ,tonallan1 is
 still not unusual in ,mexico4          
,buschmann enumerates four villages so  
called1 besides a mining town1          
,tonatlan4#aaa 8,place of the sun0 is a 
literal rendering1 and it would be      
equally accurate to translate it        
8sunny-spot10 or 8warm place10 or       
8summer-place40 ,there is nothing very  
peculiar or distinctive about these     
meanings4 ,the warm1 sunny plain at the 
foot of the ,snake-,hill was called1    
naturally enough1 ,tonallan1 syncopated 

to ,tollan1 and thus to ,tula4#aab  ,but
 the literal meaning of ,tollan--8,place
 of the ,sun0--brought it in later days 
into intimate connection with many a    
myth of light and of solar divinities1  
until this ancient ,aztec pueblo became 
apotheosized1 its inhabitants           
transformed into magicians and demigods1
 and the corn-fields of ,tula stand     
forth as fruitful plains of ,paradise4  
,in the historic fragments to which ,i  
have alluded there is scant reference to
 miraculous events1 and the gods play no
 part in the sober chronicle4 ,but in   
the mythical cyclus we are at once      
translated into the sphere of the       
supernal4 ,the ,snake-,hill ,coatepetl  
becomes the ,aztec ,olympus4 ,on it     
dwells the great goddess 8,our ,mother  
amid the ,serpents10 ,coatlan           
,tonan1#aac otherwise called 8,the      
,serpent-skirted10 ,coatlicue1 with her 
children1 ,the ,myriad ,sages1 the      
,centzon ,huitznahua4#aad ,it was her   
duty to sweep the ,snake-,hill every    

day1 that it might be kept clean for her
 children4 ,one day while thus engaged1 
a little bunch of feathers fell upon    
her1 and she hid it under her robe4 ,it 
was the descent of the spirit1 the      
divine ,annunciation4 ,when the ,myriad 
,sages saw that their mother was        
pregnant1 they were enraged1 and set    
about to kill her4 ,but the unborn babe 
spake from her womb1 and provided for   
her safety1 until in due time he came   
forth armed with a blue javelin1 his    
flesh painted blue1 and with a blue     
shield4 ,his left leg was thin and      
covered with the plumage of the         
humming-bird4 ,hence the name was given 
to him 8,on the left1 a humming-bird10  
,huitzilopochtli4#aae ,four times around
 the ,serpent-,mountain did he drive the
 ,myriad ,sages1 until nearly all had   
fallen dead before his dart1 and the    
remainder fled far to the south4 ,then  
all the ,mexica chose ,huitzilopochtli  
for their god1 and paid honors to the   
,serpent-,hill by ,tula as his          

birthplace4#aaf  ,an equally ancient and
 authentic myth makes ,huitzilopochtli  
one of four brothers1 born at one time  
of the uncreated1 bi-sexual divinity1   
the ,god of our ,life1 ,tonacatecutli1  
who looms dimly at the head of the      
,aztec ,pantheon4 ,his brothers were the
 black and white ,tezcatlipoca and the  
fair-skinned1 bearded ,quetzalcoatl4    
,yet a third myth places the birthplace 
of ,quetzalcoatl directly in ,tula1 and 
names his mother1 ,chimalman1 a virgin1 
divinely impregnated1 like ,coatlicue1  
by the descending spirit of the ,father 
of ,all4#aag  ,tula was not only the    
birthplace1 but the scene of the highest
 activity of all these greatest         
divinities of the ancient ,nahuas4      
,around the ,coatepetl and on the shores
 of the ,tollanatl--8the ,water of      
,tula0--as the stream is called which   
laves the base of the hill1 the mighty  
struggles of the gods took place which  
form the themes of almost all ,aztec    
mythology4 ,tulan itself is no longer   

the hamlet of rush houses at the foot of
 the ,coatepec1 surmounted by its pueblo
 of rough stone and baked brick2 it is a
 glorious city1 founded and governed by 
,quetzalcoatl himself1 in his first     
avatar as ,hueman1 the strong-handed4   
8,all its structures were stately and   
gracious1 abounding in ornaments4 ,the  
walls within were incrusted with        
precious stones or finished in beautiful
 stucco1 presenting the appearance of a 
rich mosaic4 ,most wonderful of all was 
the temple of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,it had    
four chambers1 one toward the east      
finished in pure gold1 another toward   
the west lined with turquoise and       
emeralds1 a third toward the south      
decorated with all manner of delicate   
sea-shells1 and a fourth toward the     
north resplendent with red jasper and   
shells40#aah ,the descriptions of other 
buildings1 equally wondrous1 have been  
lovingly preserved by the ancient       
songs4#aai ,what a grief that our worthy
 friend1 ,m4 ,charnay1 digging away in  

#ahhj on the ,coatepec1 at the head of a
 gang of forty-five men1 as he tells    
us1#abj unearthed no sign of these      
ancient glories1 in which1 for one1 he  
fully believed6 ,but1 alas6 ,i fear that
 they are to be sought nowhere out of   
the golden realm of fancy and mythical  
dreaming4  ,nor1 in that happy age1 was 
the land unworthy such a glorious city4 
,where now the neglected corn-patches   
surround the shabby huts of ,tula1 in   
the good old time 8the crops of maize   
never failed1 and each ear was as long  
as a man's arm2 the cotton burst its    
pods1 not white only1 but spontaneously 
ready dyed to the hand in brilliant     
scarlet1 green1 blue and yellow2 the    
gourds were so large that they could not
 be clasped in the arms2 and birds of   
brilliant plumage nested on every tree60
  ,the subjects of ,quetzalcoatl1 the   
,toltecs1 were not less marvelously     
qualified4 ,they knew the virtues of    
plants and could read the forecast of   
the stars2 they could trace the veins of

 metals in the mountains1 and discern   
the deposits of precious stones by the  
fine vapor which they emit2 they were   
orators1 poets and magicians2 so swift  
were they that they could at once be in 
the place they wished to reach2 as      
artisans their skill was unmatched1 and 
they were not subject to the attacks of 
disease4  ,the failure and end of all   
this goodly time came about by a battle 
of the gods1 by a contest between       
,tezcatlipoca and ,huitzilopochtli on   
the one hand1 and ,quetzalcoatl on the  
other4 ,quetzalcoatl refused to make the
 sacrifices of human beings as required 
by ,huitzilopochtli1 and the latter1    
with ,tezcatlipoca1 set about the       
destruction of ,tula and its people4    
,this was the chosen theme of the later 
,aztec bards4 ,what the siege of ,troy  
was to the ,grecian poets1 the fall of  
,tula was to the singers and            
story-tellers of ,anahuac--an           
inexhaustible field for imagination1 for
 glorification1 for lamentation4 ,it was

 placed in the remote past--according to
 ,sahagun1 perhaps the best authority1  
about the year #cai before ,christ4#aba 
,all arts and sciences1 all knowledge   
and culture1 were ascribed to this      
wonderful mythical people2 and wherever 
the natives were asked concerning the   
origin of ancient and unknown           
structures1 they would reply2 8,the     
,toltecs built them40#abb  ,they fixedly
 believed that some day the immortal    
,quetzalcoatl would appear in another   
avatar1 and would bring again to the    
fields of ,mexico the exuberant         
fertility of ,tula1 the peace and       
happiness of his former reign1 and that 
the departed glories of the past should 
surround anew the homes of his          
votaries4#abc  ,what ,i wish to point   
out in all this is the contrast between 
the dry and scanty historic narrative   
which shows ,tula with its ,snake-,hill 
to have been an early station of the    
,azteca1 occupied in the eleventh and   
twelfth century by one of their clans1  

and the monstrous myth of the later     
priests and poets1 which makes of it a  
birthplace and abode of the gods1 and   
its inhabitants the semi-divine         
conquerors and civilizers of ,mexico and
 ,central ,america4 ,for this latter    
fable there is not a vestige of solid   
foundation4 ,the references to ,tula and
 the ,toltecs in the ,chronicles of the 
,mayas and the ,annals of the           
,kakchiquels are loans from the later   
mythology of the ,nahuas4 ,it is high   
time for this talk about the ,toltecs as
 a mighty people1 precursors of the     
,azteca1 and their instructors in the   
arts of civilization1 to disappear from 
the pages of history4 ,the residents of 
ancient ,tula1 the ,tolteca1 were       
nothing more than a sept of the ,nahuas 
themselves1 the ancestors of those      
,mexica who built ,tenochtitlan in      
#acbe4 ,this is stated as plainly as can
 be in the ,aztec records1 and should   
now be conceded by all4 ,the mythical   
,tula1 and all its rulers and           

inhabitants1 are the baseless dreams of 
poetic fancy1 which we principally owe  
to the ,tezcucan poets4#abd             
,,part ,,ii4                            
,,mythology ,,and ,,folk-,,lore4        
,,introductory4   ,fashions in the study
 of mythology come and go with something
 like the rapidity of change in costume 
feminine1 subject to the autocracy of a 
,parisian man-modiste4 ,myths have been 
held in turn to be of some deep         
historical1 or moral1 or physical       
purport1 and their content has been     
sought through psychologic or philologic
 analysis4 ,just now1 all these methods 
are out of fashion4 ,the newest theory  
is that myths generally mean nothing at 
all2 that they are merely funny or      
fearsome stories and never were much    
more2 and that at first they were not   
told of anybody in particular nor about 
anything in particular4  ,as for        
philologic analysis1 it is accused of   
failures and contradictory results2 the 
names which it makes its material are   

alleged not to have belonged to the     
original story2 and their etymology     
casts no more light on the meaning or   
the source of the myth than if they were
 ,smith or ,brown4  ,according to this  
facile method1 the secret of all        
mythology is an open one1 because there 
is no secret at all4 ,no painful        
preliminary study of language is        
necessary to the science1 no laborious  
tracing of names through their various  
dialectic forms and phonetic changes to 
their first and original sense1 for     
neither their earlier nor later sense is
 to the purpose4  ,this new method goes 
still further4 ,some former mythologists
 had supposed that even in the savage   
state man feels a sense of awe before   
the mighty forces of nature and the     
terrible mysteries of life2 that joy in 
light and existence1 dread of death and 
darkness1 love of family and country1   
are emotions so intimate1 so native to  
the soul1 as nowhere to be absent--so   
potent as to find expressions in the    

highest imaginative forms of thought and
 speech4 ,not so the latest teachers4   
,they sneer at the possibility of such  
inspiration even in the divine legends  
of cultivated nations1 and are ready to 
brand them all as but the later growths 
of 8myths1 cruel1 puerile and obscene1  
like the fancies of the savage          
myth-makers from which they sprang40#abe
  ,like other fashions1 this latest will
 also pass away1 because it is a fashion
 only1 and not grounded on the          
permanent1 the verifiable facts of human
 nature4 ,etymology is as yet far from  
an exact science1 and comparative       
mythologists in applying it have made   
many blunders3 they have often erred in 
asserting historical connections where  
none existed2 they have been slow in    
recognizing that primitive man works    
with very limited materials1 both       
physical and mental1 and as everywhere  
he has the same problems to solve1 his  
physical and mental productions are     
necessarily very similar4 ,these are    

objections1 not against the method1 but 
against the manner of its application4  
,those who have studied savage races    
most intimately and with most unbiased  
minds have never found their religious  
fancies merely 8puerile and obscene10 as
 some writers suppose1 but significant  
and didactic4 ,savage symbolism is rich 
and is expressed both in object and     
word2 and what appears cruelty1         
puerility or obscenity assumes a very   
different aspect when regarded from the 
correct1 the native1 point of view1 with
 a full knowledge of the surroundings   
and the intentions of the myth-makers   
themselves4  ,in the sections which     
follow ,i have endeavored to illustrate 
these opinions by some studies from     
,american mythology4 ,i have chosen a   
series of unpromising names from the    
sacred books of the ,quiches of         
,guatemala1 and endeavored to ascertain 
their exact definition and original     
purport4 ,i have taken up the most      
unfavorable aspect of the ,algonkin     

hero-god1 and shown how parallel it is  
to the tendencies of the human mind     
everywhere2 in the ,journey of the      
,soul1 the striking analogies of        
,egyptian1 ,aryan and ,aztec myth have  
been brought together and an explanation
 offered1 which ,i believe will not be  
gainsaid by any competent student of    
,egyptian symbolism4 ,the ,sacred       
,symbols found in all continents are    
explained by a similar train of         
reasoning2 while the modern folk-lore of
 two tribes of semi-,christianized      
,indians of to-day reveals some relics  
of the ancient usages4                  
,,the ,,sacred ,,names ,,in ,,quiche    
,,mythology4#abf    ,contents4--,the    
,quiches of ,guatemala1 and their       
relationship--,their   ,sacred ,book1   
the ,popol ,vuh--,its opening           
words--,the name                        
,hun-,ahpu-,vuch--,hun-,ahpu-,utiu--,nim
-ak--,nim-tzyiz--,tepeu--,gucumatz--,qux
-cho   and ,qux-palo--,ah-raxa-lak and  
,ah-raxa-sel--,xpiyacoc and             

,xmucane--,cakulha--,huracan--,chirakan-
-,xbalanque and his ,journey to         
,xibalba4   ,of the ancient races of    
,america1 those which approached the    
nearest to a civilized condition spoke  
related dialects of a tongue1 which from
 its principal members has been called  
the 8,maya-,quiche0 linguistic stock4   
,even to-day1 it is estimated that about
 half a million persons use these       
dialects4 ,they are scattered over      
,yucatan1 ,guatemala and the adjacent   
territory1 and one branch formerly      
occupied the hot lowlands on the ,gulf  
of ,mexico1 north of ,vera ,cruz4  ,the 
so-called 8metropolitan0 dialects are   
those spoken relatively near the city of
 ,guatemala1 and include the            
,cakchiquel1 the ,quiche1 the ,pokonchi 
and the ,tzutuhil4 ,they are quite      
closely allied1 and are mutually        
intelligible1 resembling each other     
about as much as did in ancient ,greece 
the ,attic1 ,ionic and ,doric dialects4 
,these closely related members of the   

,maya-,quiche family will be referred to
 under the sub-title of the             
,quiche-,cakchiquel dialects4  ,the     
civilization of these people was such   
that they used various mnemonic signs1  
approaching our alphabet1 to record and 
recall their mythology and history4     
,fragments1 more or less complete1 of   
these traditions have been preserved4   
,the most notable of them is the        
,national ,legend of the ,quiches of    
,guatemala1 the so-called ,popol ,vuh4  
,it was written at an unknown date in   
the ,quiche dialect1 by a native who was
 familiar with the ancient records4 ,a  
,spanish translation of it was made     
early in the last century by a ,spanish 
priest1 ,father ,francisco ,ximenez1 and
 was first published at ,vienna1        
#aheg4abg ,in #ahfa the original text   
was printed in ,paris1 with a ,french   
translation by the ,abb ,brasseur 7de   
,bourbourg74 ,this original covers about
 #age octavo pages1 and is therefore    
highly important as a linguistic as well

 as an archologic monument4  ,both these
 translations are open to censure4 ,it  
needs but little study to see that they 
are both strongly colored by the views  
which the respective translators        
entertained of the purpose of the       
original4 ,ximenez thought it was       
principally a satire of the devil on    
,christianity1 and a snare spread by him
 to entrap souls2 ,brasseur believed it 
to be a history of the ancient wars of  
the ,quiches1 and frequently carries his
 euhemerism so far as to distort the    
sense of the original4  ,what has added 
to the difficulty of correcting these   
erroneous impressions is the extreme    
paucity of material for studying the    
,quiche4 ,a grammar written by ,ximenez 
has indeed been published1 but no       
dictionary is available1 if we except a 
brief 8,vocabulary of the ,principal    
,roots0 of these dialects by the same   
author1 which is almost useless for     
critical purposes4  ,it is not          
surprising1 therefore1 that some writers

 have regarded this legend with         
suspicion1 and have spoken of it as but 
little better than a late romance       
concocted by a shrewd native1 who       
borrowed many of his incidents from     
,christian teachings4 ,such an opinion  
will pass away when the original is     
accurately translated4 ,to one familiar 
with native ,american myths1 this one   
bears undeniable marks of its aboriginal
 origin4 ,its frequent obscurities and  
inanities1 its generally low and narrow 
range of thought and expression1 its    
occasional loftiness of both1 its       
strange metaphors1 and the prominence of
 strictly heathen names and potencies1  
bring it into unmistakable relationship 
to the true native myth4 ,this          
especially holds good of the first      
two-thirds of it1 which are entirely    
mythological4  ,as a contribution to the
 study of this interesting monument1 ,i 
shall undertake to analyze some of the  
proper names of the divinities which    
appear in its pages4 ,the especial      

facilities that ,i have for doing so are
 furnished by two ,,ms4 ,vocabularies of
 the ,cakchiquel dialect1 presented to  
the library of the ,american            
,philosophical ,society by the ,governor
 of ,guatemala in #ahcf4 ,one of these  
was written in #afea1 by ,father ,thomas
 ,coto1 and was based on the previous   
work of ,father ,francisco ,varea4 ,it  
is ,spanish-,cakchiquel only1 and the   
final pages1 together with a grammar and
 an essay on the native calendar1       
promised in a body of the work1 are     
unfortunately missing4 ,what remains1   
however1 makes a folio volume of #igb   
double columned pages1 and contains a   
mass of information about the language4 
,the second ,,ms4 is a copy of the      
,cakchiquel-,spanish ,vocabulary of     
,varea1 made by ,fray ,francisco ,ceron 
in #afii4 ,it is a quarto of #dic pages4
 ,i have also in my possession copies of
 the ,compendio de ,nombres en ,lengua  
,cakchiquel1 by ,p4 ,f4 ,pantaleon de   
,guzman 7#agjd71 and of the ,arte y     

,vocabulario de la ,lengua ,cakchiquel1 
by the ,r4 ,p4 ,f4 ,benito de           
,villacaas1 composed about #aehj4       
,father ,coto observes that the natives 
loved to tell long stories1 and to      
repeat chants1 keeping time to them in  
their dances4 ,these chants were called 
nugum tzih1 garlands of words1 from     
tzih1 word1 and nug1 to fasten flowers  
into wreaths1 to set in order a dance1  
to arrange the heads of a discourse1    
etc4 ,as preserved to us in the ,popol  
,vuh1 the rhythmical form is mostly     
lost1 but here and there one finds      
passages1 retained intact by memory no  
doubt1 where a distinct balance in      
diction1 and an effort at harmony are   
noted4  ,the name ,popol ,vuh given to  
this work is that applied by the natives
 themselves4 ,it is translated by       
,ximenez 8libro del comun10 by ,brasseur
 8livre national40 ,the word popol is   
applied to something held in common     
ownership by a number2 thus food        
belonging to a number is popol naim2 a  

task to be worked out by many1 popol    
zamah2 the native council where the     
elders met to discuss public affairs was
 popol tzih1 the common speech or talk4 
,the word pop means the mat or rug of   
woven rushes or bark on which the family
 or company sat1 and from the community 
of interests thus typified1 the word    
came to mean anything in common4  ,vuh  
or uuh is in ,quiche and ,cakchiquel the
 word for paper and book4 ,it is an     
original term in these and connected    
dialects1 the ,maya having nooh1 a      
letter1 writing2 uoch1 to write4  ,there
 is a school of writers who deprecate   
such researches as ,i am about to make4 
,they are of opinion that the           
appellations of the native gods were    
derived from trivial or accidental      
circumstances1 and had no recondite or  
symbolic meaning4 ,in fact1 this        
assertion has been made with reference  
to the very names which ,i am about to  
discuss4  ,i do not share this opinion4 
,many of the sacred names among the     

,american tribes ,i feel sure had occult
 and metaphorical significance4 ,this is
 proved by the profound researches of   
,cushing among the ,zuis2 of ,dorsey    
among the ,dakotas2 and others4 ,but to 
reach this hidden purport1 one must     
study all the ideas which the name      
connotes1 especially those which are    
archaic4  ,i begin with the mysterious  
opening words of the ,popol ,vuh4 ,they 
introduce us at once to the mighty and  
manifold divinity who is the source and 
cause of all things1 and to the original
 couple1 male and female1 who in their  
persons and their powers typify the     
sexual and reproductive principles of   
organic life4 ,these words are as       
follows3    8,here begins the record of 
what happened in old times in the land  
of   the ,quiches4    8,here will we    
begin and set forth the story of past   
time1 the outset   and starting point of
 all that took place in the city of     
,quiche1 in   the dwelling of the       
,quiche people4    8,here we shall bring

 to knowledge the explanation and the   
disclosure   of the ,disappearance and  
the ,reappearance through the might of  
the   builders and creators1 the bearers
 of children and the begetters of       
children1 whose names are               
,hun-ahpu-vuch1 ,hun-ahpu-utiu1         
,zaki-nima-tzyiz1 ,tepeu1 ,gucumatz1 u  
,qux-cho1 u ,qux-palo1   ,ah-raxa-lak1  
,ah-raxa-tzel4    8,and along with these
 it is sung and related of the          
grandmother-grandfather1 whose name is  
,xpiyacoc and ,xmucane1 the   ,concealer
 and ,protector2 two-fold grandmother   
and two-fold   grandfather are they     
called in the legends of the            
,quiches40#abh  ,it will be here        
observed that the declaration of the    
attributes of the highest divinity sets 
forth distinctly sexual ideas1 and1 as  
was often the case in ,grecian1         
,egyptian and ,oriental mythology1 this 
divinity is represented as embracing the
 powers and functions of both sexes in  
his own person2 and it is curious that  

both here and in the second paragraph1  
the female attributes are named first4  
,first in the specific names of divinity
 given is ,hun-ahpu-vuch4 ,to derive any
 appropriate signification for this has 
baffled students of this mythology4 ,hun
 is the numeral one1 but which also1 as 
in most tongues1 has the other meanings 
of first1 foremost1 self1 unique1 most  
prominent1 8the one10 etc4 ,ah pu is    
derived both by ,ximenez and ,brasseur  
from the prefix ah1 which is used to    
signify knowledge or possession of1 or  
control over1 mastership or skill in1   
origin from or practice in that to which
 it is prefixed2 and ub1 or pub1 the    
sarbacana or blowpipe1 which these      
,indians used to employ as a weapon in  
war and the chase4 ,ah pu1 therefore1   
they take to mean1 ,he who uses the     
sarbacane1 a hunter4 ,vuch1 the last    
member of this compound name1 is        
understood by both to mean the opossum4 
,in accordance with these derivations   
the name is translated 8an opossum      

hunter40  ,such a name bears little     
meaning in this relation2 little        
relevancy to the nature and functions of
 deity2 and if a more appropriate and   
not less plausible composition could be 
suggested1 it would have intrinsic      
claims for adoption4 ,there is such a   
composition1 and it is this3 ,the       
derivation of ,ahpu from ah-pub is not  
only unnecessary but hardly defensible4 
,in ,cakchiquel the sarbacane is pub1   
but in ,quiche the initial p is dropped1
 as can be seen in many passages of the 
,popol ,vuh4 ,the true composition of   
this word ,i take to be ah-puz1 for puz 
has a signification associated with the 
mysteries of religion2 it expressed the 
divine power which the native priests   
and prophets claimed to have received   
from the gods1 and the essentially      
supernatural attributes of divinity     
itself4 ,it was the word which at first 
the natives applied to the power of     
forgiving sins claimed by the ,catholic 
missionaries2 but as it was associated  

with so many heathen notions1 the clergy
 decided to drop it altogether from     
religious language1 and to leave it the 
meaning of necromancy and unholy power4 
,thus ,coto gives it as the ,cakchiquel 
word for magic or necromancy4#abi  ,the 
word puz is used in various passages of 
the ,popol ,vuh to express the          
supernatural power of the gods and      
priests2 but probably by the time that  
,ximenez wrote1 it had1 in the current  
dialect of his parish1 lost its highest 
signification1 and hence it did not     
suggest itself to him as the true       
derivation of the name ,i am discussing4
  ,the third term1 ,vuch or ,vugh1 was  
chosen according to ,ximenez because    
this animal is notoriously cunning1 8por
 su astucia40 ,this may be correct1 and 
we may have here a reminiscence of an   
animal myth4 ,but the word has several  
other significations which should be    
considered4 ,it was the name of a sacred
 dance2 it expressed the trembling in   
the ague chill2 the warmth of water2 and

 the darkness which comes before the    
dawn4#acj  ,of these various meanings   
one is tempted to take the last1 and    
connect ,hun-ahpu-vuch with the auroral 
gods1 the forerunners of the light1 like
 the 8,kichigouai1 those who make the   
day10 of ,algonkin mythology4  ,there is
 a curious passage in the ,popol ,vuh   
which is in support of such an opinion4 
,it occurs at a certain period of the   
history of the mythical hero ,hunahpu4  
,the text reads3   8,are cut ta chi r'ah
 zakiric1       8,and now it was about  
to become                               
white1   8,chi zaktarin1                
,and the dawn came1   8,u xecah ca      
xaquinuchic4            ,the day opened4
   8,ama x-u ch'ux ri ,vuch8            
#8,is the ,vuch about to be8'   8,ve1   
x-cha ri mama4                 ,yes1    
answered the old man4   8,ta chi        
xaquinic2                   ,then he    
spread apart his legs2   8,quate ta chi 
gekumar chic2         ,again the        
darkness appeared2   8,cahmul xaquin ri 

mama4             ,four times the old   
man spread his                          
legs4   8,ca xaquin-,vuch10 ca cha vinak
      8,now the opossum 7,vuch7 spreads 
vacamic4                            his 
legs10 say the people yet               
7meaning that the day                   
approaches74  ,as the same word ,vuch   
meant both the opossum and the          
atmospheric change which in that climate
 precedes the dawn1 the text may be     
translated either way1 and the homophony
 would give rise to a double meaning of 
the name4 ,this homophony contains1     
indeed1 rich material for the           
development of an animal myth1          
identifying the ,vuch with the ,god of  
,light1 just as the similarity of the   
,algonkin waubisch1 the dawn1 and       
waubos1 the rabbit1 gave occasion to a  
whole cycle of curious myths in which   
the ,great ,hare or the ,mighty ,rabbit 
figures as the ,creator of the world1   
the ,day ,maker1 and the chief ,god of  
the widely spread ,algonkin tribes4#aca 

,in the second name1 ,hun-ahpu-utiu1 the
 last member utiu means the coyote1 the 
native wolf1 an animal which plays an   
important symbolic part in the          
cosmogonical myths of ,californian1     
,mexican and ,central ,american tribes4 
,it appears generally to represent the  
night1 and ,i would render the esoteric 
sense of the two names by 8,master of   
the ,night10 and 8,master of the        
,approaching ,dawn40  ,the same         
concealed sense seems to lurk in the    
next name1 ,zaki-nima-tzyiz1 literally1 
8,the ,great ,white ,pisote10 the pisote
 being the proboscidian known as ,nasua 
narica1 ,l4  ,these names are repeated  
in a later passage of the ,popol ,vuh   
7p4 #bj74    8,make known your name1    
,hun-ahpu-vuch1 ,hun-ahpu-utiu1 twofold 
bearer   of children1 twofold begetter  
of children1 ,nim-ak1 ,nim-tzyiz1 master
   of the emerald1 etc40  ,the name     
,nim-ak is elsewhere given ,zaki-nim-ak4
 ,the former means 8,great ,hog10 the   
latter 8,white1 ,great ,hog40 ,brasseur 

translates ak as wild boar 7sanglier71  
but it is the common name for the native
 hog1 without distinction of sex4 ,in a 
later passage1#acb we are informed that 
it was the name of an old man with white
 hair1 and that ,zaki-nima-tzyiz was the
 name of an old woman1 his wife1 all    
bent and doubled up with age1 but both  
beings of marvelous magic power4 ,thus  
we find here an almost unique example of
 the deification of the hog2 for once1  
this useful animal1 generally despised  
in mythology and anathematized in       
religion1 is given the highest pedestal 
in the ,pantheon4  ,perhaps we should   
understand these and nearly all similar 
brute gods to be relics of a primitive  
form of totemic worship1 such as was    
found in vigor among some of the        
northern tribes4 ,various other         
indications of this can be discovered   
among the branches of the ,maya family4 
,the ,cakchiquels were called 8the      
people of the bat0 7zoq'71 that animal  
being their national sign or token1 and 

also the symbol of their god4#acc ,the  
tucur owl1 chan or cumatz serpent1 balam
 tiger1 and geh deer1 are other animals 
whose names are applied to prominent    
families or tribes in these nearly      
related myths4  ,the priests and rulers 
also assumed frequently the names of    
animals1 and some pretended to be able  
to transform themselves into them at    
will4 ,thus it is said of ,gucumatz     
,cotuha1 fifth king of the ,quiches1    
that he transformed himself into an     
eagle1 into a tiger1 into a serpent1 and
 into coagulated blood4#acd ,in their   
dances and other sacred ceremonies they 
used hideous masks1 carved1 painted and 
ornamented to represent the heads of    
eagles1 tigers1 etc4 ,these were called 
coh1 as cohbal ruvi cot1 the mask of an 
eagle2 cohbal ruvi balam1 the mask of a 
tiger1 etc4 ,in ,maya the same word is  
found1 koh1 and in the ,codex ,troano1  
one of few original ,maya manuscripts we
 have left1 these masks are easily      
distinguished on the heads of many of   

the persons represented4 ,recent        
observers tell us that in the more      
remote parishes in ,central ,america    
these brute-faced masks are still worn  
by the ,indians who dance in            
accompanying the processions of the     
,church6#ace ,even yet1 every new-born  
child among the ,quiches is solemnly    
named after some beast by the native    
8medicine man0 before he is baptized by 
the padre4#acf  ,this brings me to a    
name which has very curious meanings1 to
 wit1 ,tepeu4 ,it is the ordinary word  
in these dialects for lord1 ruler1 chief
 or king4 ,its form in ,cakchiquel is   
,tepex1 in ,maya ,tepal1 and it is      
probably from the adjective root tep1   
filled up1 supplied in abundance1       
satisfied4 ,in ,quiche and ,cakchiquel  
it is used synonymously with galel or   
gagal and ahau1 as a translation of     
,seor or ,cacique4 ,but it has another  
definite meaning1 and that is1 the      
disease syphilis2 and what is not less  
curious1 this meaning extends also in a 

measure to gagal and ahau4  ,this       
extraordinary collocation of ideas did  
not escape the notice of ,ximenez1 and  
he undertakes to explain it by          
suggestion that as syphilis arises from 
cohabitation with many different women1 
and this is a privilege only of the     
great and powerful1 so the name came to 
be applied to the chiefs and nobles1 and
 to their god4#acg  ,of course1 syphilis
 has no such origin2 but if the ,indians
 thought it had1 and considered it a    
proof of extraordinary genetic power1 it
 would be a plausible supposition that  
they applied this term to their divinity
 as being the type of the fecundating   
principle4 ,but the original sense of   
the adjective tep does not seem to bear 
this out1 and it would rather appear    
that the employment of the word as the  
name of the disease was a later and     
secondary sense4 ,such is the opinion of
 ,father ,coto1 who says that the term  
was applied jestingly to those suffering
 from syphilitic sores1 because1 like a 

chieftain or a noble1 they did no work1 
but had to sit still with their hands in
 their laps1 as it were1 waiting to get 
well4#ach  ,the same strange connection 
occurs in other ,american mythologies4  
,thus in the ,aztec tongue nanahuatl    
means a person suffering from syphilis2 
it is also1 in a myth preserved by      
,sahagun1 the name of the ,sun-,god1 and
 it is related of him that as a         
sacrifice1 before becoming the sun1 he  
threw into the sacrificial flames1 not  
precious gifts1 as the custom was1 but  
the scabs from his sores4#aci ,so also  
,caracaracol1 a prominent figure in     
,haytian mythology1 is represented as   
suffering from sores or buboes4  ,the   
name ,gucumatz is correctly stated by   
,ximenez to be capable of two           
derivations4 ,the first takes it from   
gugum1 a feather2 tin gugumah1 ,i       
embroider or cover with feathers4 ,the  
second derivation is from gug1 feather1 
and cumatz1 the generic name for        
serpent4 ,the first of these is that    

which the writer of the ,popol ,vuh     
preferred1 as appears from his          
expression2 8,they are folded in the    
feathers 7gug71 the green ones2         
therefore their name is ,gugumatz2 very 
wise indeed are they0 7p4 #f74 ,the     
brilliant plumage of the tropical birds 
was constantly used by these tribes as  
an ornament for their clothing and their
 idols1 and the possession of many of   
these exquisite feathers was a matter of
 pride4  ,the names u ,qux cho1 ,qux    
palo1 mean 8the ,heart of the ,lake1 the
 ,heart of the ,sea40 ,to them may be   
added u ,qux cah1 8the ,heart of the    
,sky10 and u ,qux uleu1 8the ,heart of  
the ,earth10 found elsewhere in the     
,popol ,vuh1 and applied to divinity4   
,the literal sense of the word heart    
was1 however1 not that which was        
intended2 in those dialects this word   
had a much richer metaphorical meaning  
than in our tongue2 in them it stood for
 all the psychical powers1 the memory1  
will and reasoning faculties1 the life1 

the spirit1 the soul4#adj  ,it would be 
more correct1 therefore1 to render these
 names the 8spirit0 or 8soul0 of the    
lake1 etc41 than the 8heart40 ,they     
represent broadly the doctrine of       
8animism0 as held by these people1 and  
generally by man in his early stages of 
religious development4 ,they indicate   
also a dimly understood sense of the    
unity of spirit or energy in the        
different manifestations of organic and 
inorganic existence4  ,this was not     
peculiar to the tribes under            
consideration4 ,the heart was very      
generally looked upon1 not only as the  
seat of life1 but as the source of the  
feelings1 intellect and passions1 the   
very soul itself4#ada ,hence1 in        
sacrificing victims it was torn out and 
offered to the god as representing the  
immaterial part of the individual1 that 
which survived the death of the body4   
,the two names ,ah-raxa-lak and         
,ah-raxa-sel literally mean1 8,he of the
 green dish10 8,he of the green cup40   

,thus ,ximenez gives them1 and adds that
 forms of speech with rax signify things
 of beauty1 fit for kings and lords1 as 
are brightly colored cups and dishes4   
,rax is the name of the colors blue and 
green1 which it is said by many writers 
cannot be distinguished apart by these  
,indians2 or at least that they have no 
word to express the difference4 ,rax1 by
 extension1 means new1 strong1 rough1   
violent1 etc4#adb ,coming immediately   
after the names 8,soul of the ,lake10   
8,soul of the ,sea10 it is possible that
 the 8blue plate0 is the azure surface  
of the tropical sea4  ,in the second    
paragraph ,i have quoted1 the narrator  
introduces us to 8the ancestress 7iyom71
 the ancestor 7mamom71 by name          
,xpiyacoc1 ,xmucane40 ,these were       
prominent figures in ,quiche mythology2 
they were the embodiments of the        
paternal and maternal powers of organic 
life2 they were invoked elsewhere in the
 ,popol ,vuh to favor the germination of
 seeds1 and the creation of mankind2    

they are addressed as 8ancestress of the
 sun1 ancestress of the light40 ,the old
 man1 ,xpiyacoc1 is spoken of as the    
master of divination by the tzite1 or   
sacred beans2 the old woman1 ,xmucane1  
as she who could forecast days and      
seasons 7ahgih72 they were the parents  
of those mighty ones 8whose name was    
,ahpu10 masters of magic4#adc ,from this
 ancient couple1 ,ximenez tells us the  
native magicians and medicine men of his
 day claimed to draw their inspiration1 
and they were especially consulted      
touching the birth of infants1 in which 
they were still called upon to assist in
 spite of the efforts of the padres4 ,it
 is clear throughout that they          
represented mainly the peculiar         
functions of the two sexes4  ,their     
names perhaps belonged to an archaic    
dialect1 and the ,quiches either could  
not or would not explain them4 ,all that
 ,ximenez says is that ,xmucane means   
tomb or grave1 deriving it from the verb
 tin muk1 ,i bury4  ,in most or all of  

the languages of this stock the root muk
 or muc means to cover or cover up4 ,in 
,maya the passive form of the verbal    
noun is mucaan1 of which the            
,diccionario de ,motul#add gives the    
translation 8something covered or       
buried10 the second meaning arising     
naturally from the custom of covering   
the dead body with earth1 and indicated 
that the mortuary rites among them were 
by means of interment2 as1 indeed1 we   
are definitely informed by ,bishop      
,landa4#ade ,the feminine prefix and the
 terminal euphonic e give precisely     
,x-mucaan-e1 meaning 8,she who is       
covered up10 or buried4  ,but while     
etymologically satisfactory1 the        
appropriateness of this derivation is   
not at once apparent4 ,can it have      
reference to the seed covered by the    
soil1 the child buried in the womb1 the 
egg hidden in the nest1 etc41 and thus  
typify one of the principles or phases  
of reproduction8 ,for there is no doubt1
 but that it is in the category of      

divinities presiding over reproduction  
this deity belongs4 ,not only is she    
called 8primal mother of the sun and the
 light10#adf but it is she who cooks the
 pounded maize from which the first of  
men were formed4  ,both names may be    
interpreted with appropriateness to the 
sphere and functions of their supposed  
powers1 from radicals common to the     
,maya and ,quiche dialects4 ,xmucane may
 be composed of the feminine prefix x   
7the same in sound and meaning as the   
,english pronominal adjective she in    
such terms as she-bear1 she-cat73 and   
mukanil1 vigor1 force1 power4  ,xpiyacoc
 is not so easy of solution1 but ,i     
believe it to be a derivative from the  
root xib1 the male1 whence xipbil1      
masculinity1#adg and oc or ococ1 to     
enter1 to accouple in the act of        
generation4#adh  ,we can readily see1   
with these meanings hidden in them1 the 
subtler sense of which the natives had  
probably lost1 that these names would be
 difficult of satisfactory explanation  

to the missionaries1 and that they would
 be left by them as of undetermined     
origin4                    99       99  
99       99       99  ,the second       
fragment of ,quiche mythology which ,i  
shall analyze is one that relates to the
 ,gods of the ,storm4 ,these are        
introduced as the three manifestations  
of ,qux-cha1 the ,soul of the ,sky1 and 
collectively 8their name is ,hurakan30  
8,cakulha ,hurakan is the first2        
,chipi-cakulha is the second2 the       
third is ,raxa-cakulha2 and these three 
are the ,soul of the ,sky40  ,elsewhere 
we read3    8,speak therefore our name1 
honor your mother1 your father2 call ye 
upon ,hurakan1 ,chipi-cakulha1          
,raxa-cakulha1 ,soul of the ,earth1     
,soul   of the ,sky1 ,creator1 ,maker1  
,her who brings forth1 ,him who begets2 
speak1 call upon us1 salute us40#adi    
,cakulha 7,cakchiquel1 cokolhay7 is the 
ordinary word for the lightning2        
,raxa-cakulha1 is rendered by ,coto as  
8the flash of the lightning0 7el        

resplandor del rayo72 ,chipi-cakulha is 
stated by ,brasseur to mean 8le         
sillonnement de l'eclair20 chip is used 
to designate the latest1 youngest or    
least of children1 or fingers1 etc41 and
 the expression therefore is 8the track 
of the lightning40  ,there remains the  
name ,hurakan1 and it is confessedly    
difficult4 ,brasseur says that no       
explanation of it can be found in the   
,quiche or ,cakchiqel dictionaries1 and 
that it must have been brought from the 
,antilles1 where it was the name applied
 to the terrible tornado of the ,west   
,indian latitudes1 and1 borrowed from   
the ,haytians by early navigators1 has  
under the forms ouragan1 huracan1       
hurricane1 passed into ,european        
languages4 ,i am convinced1 however1    
that the word ,hurakan belongs in its   
etymology to the ,maya group of         
dialects1 and must be analyzed by them4 
,one such etymology is indeed offered by
 ,ximenez1 but an absurd one4 ,he       
supposed the word was compounded of hun1

 one2 ru his2 and rakan1 foot1 and      
translates it 8of one foot40 ,this has  
very properly been rejected4  ,on       
collating the proper names in the ,popol
 ,vuh there are several of them which   
are evidently allied to ,hurakan4 ,thus 
we have ,cabrakan1 who is represented as
 the god of the earthquake1 he who      
shakes the solid earth in his might and 
topples over the lofty mountains4 ,his  
name is the common word for earthquake  
in these dialects4 ,again1 one of the   
titles of ,xmucane is ,chirakan         
,xmucane4  ,the terminal rakan in these 
names is a word used to express         
greatness in size1 height or bigness4   
,many examples are found in ,coto's     
,vocabulario4#aej  ,for a person tall in
 stature he gives the expression togam  
rakan3 for large in body1 the ,cakchiqel
 is naht rakan1 and for gigantic1 or a  
giant1 hu rakan4  ,this idea of strength
 and might is of course very appropriate
 to the deity who presides over the     
appalling forces of the tropical        

thunderstorm1 who flashes the lightning 
and hurls the thunderbolt4  ,it is also 
germane to the conception of the        
earthquake god4 ,the first syllable1    
cab1 means twice1 or two1 or second2 and
 apparently has reference to hun1 one or
 first1 in hurakan4 ,as the thunderstorm
 was the most terrifying display of     
power1 so next in order came the        
earthquake4  ,the name ,chirakan as     
applied to ,xmucane may have many       
meanings2 chi in all these dialects     
means primarily mouth2 but it has a vast
 number of secondary meanings1 as in all
 languages4 ,thus1 according to ,coto1  
it is currently used to designate the   
mouth of a jar1 the crater of a volcano1
 the eye of a needle1 the door of a     
house1 a window1 a gate to a field1 in  
fact1 almost any opening whatever4 ,i   
suspect that as here used as part of the
 name of the mythical mother of the race
 and the representation of the female   
principle1 it is to be understood as    
referring to the ostium vagin1 from     

which1 as from an immeasurable vagina   
gentium1 all animate life was believed  
to have drawn its existence4  ,if the   
derivation of ,hurakan here presented is
 correct1 we can hardly refuse to       
explain the word as it occurs elsewhere 
with the same meaning as an evidence of 
the early influence of the ,maya race on
 other tribes4 ,it would appear to have 
been through the ,caribs that it was    
carried to the ,west ,india islands1    
where it was first heard by the         
,european navigators4 ,thus the         
,dictionaire ,galibi 7,paris1 #agdc17   
gives for 8diable10 iroucan1 jeroucan1  
hyorokan1 precisely as ,coto gives the  
,cakchiquel equivalent of 8diablo0 as   
hurakan4 ,this god was said by the      
,caribs to have torn the islands of the 
,west ,indian archipelago from the      
mainland1 and to have heaped up the sand
 hills and bluffs along the shores4#aea 
,as an associate or 8captain0 of the    
hurricane1 they spoke of a huge bird who
 makes the winds1 by name ,savacon1 in  

the middle syllable of which it is      
possible we may recognize the bird vaku1
 which the ,quiches spoke of as the     
messenger of ,hurakan4                  
99       99       99       99       99  
,i now pass to the myth of the descent  
of the hero-god1 ,xbalanque1 into the   
underworld1 ,xibalba1 his victory over  
the inhabitants1 and triumphant return  
to the realm of light4 ,the exploits of 
this demigod are the principal theme of 
the earlier portion of the ,popol ,vuh4 
,it was the vague similarity of this    
myth to the narrative of the descent of 
,christ into hell1 and his ascent into  
heaven1 to which we owe the earliest    
reference to these religious beliefs of 
the ,guatemalan tribes2 and it is a     
gratifying proof of their genuine       
antiquity that we have this reference4  
,our authority is the ,bishop of        
,chiapas1 ,bartolome de las ,casas1 with
 other contemporary writers4 ,the       
,bishop writes that the natives of      
,guatemala alleged that ,xbalanque was  

born at ,utlatlan1 the ancient ,quiche  
capital1 and having governed it a       
certain time with success1 went down to 
hell to fight the devils4 ,having       
conquered them1 he returned to the upper
 world1 but the ,quiches refused to     
receive him1 so he passed on into       
another province4#aeb  ,as related in   
the ,popol ,vuh1 the myth runs thus3    
,the divine pair1 ,xpiyacoc and ,xmucane
 had as sons ,hunhun-,ahpu and          
,vukub-,hun-,ahpu 7,each-one-a-,magician
 and ,seven-times-a-,magician74 ,they   
were invited to visit ,xibalba1 the     
,underworld1 by its lords1 ,hun-,came   
and ,vukub-,came 7,one-,death and       
,seven-,deaths71 and accepting the      
invitation1 were treacherously murdered4
 ,the head of ,hunhun-,ahpu was cut off 
and suspended on a tree4 ,a maiden1 by  
name ,xquiq1 7,blood17 passed that way1 
and looking at the tree1 longed for its 
fruit2 then the head of ,hunhun-,ahpu   
cast forth spittle into the outstretched
 palm of the maiden1 and forthwith she  

became pregnant4 ,angered at her        
condition1 her father set about to slay 
her1 but she escaped to the upper world 
and there brought forth the twins       
,hun-,ahpu and ,xbalanque4 ,they grew in
 strength1 and performed various deeds  
of prowess1 which are related at length 
in the ,popol ,vuh1 and were at last    
invited by the lords of the ,underworld 
to visit them4 ,it was the intention of 
the rulers of this dark land that the   
youths should meet the same fate as     
their father and uncle4 ,but1 prepared  
by warnings1 and skilled in magic power1
 ,xbalanque and his brother foiled the  
murderous designs of the lords of       
,xibalba2 pretending to be burned1 and  
their ashes cast into the river1 they   
rose from its waves unharmed1 and by a  
stratagem slew ,hun-,came and           
,vukub-,came4 ,then the inhabitants of  
the ,underworld were terrified and fled1
 and ,hun-,ahpu and ,xbalanque released 
the prisoners and restored to life those
 who had been slain4 ,the latter rose to

 the sky to become its countless stars1 
while ,hunhun-,ahpu and                 
,vukub-,hun-,ahpu ascended to dwell the 
one in the sun1 the other in the moon4  
,the portion of the legend which        
narrates the return of ,xbalanque to the
 upper world1 and what befell him there1
 as referred to in the myth preserved by
 ,las ,casas1 is not preserved in the   
,popol ,vuh4  ,the faint resemblance    
which the early missionaries noticed in 
this religious tradition to that of     
,christ would not lead any one who has  
at all closely studied mythology to     
assume that this is an echo of          
,christian teachings4 ,both in ,america 
and the ,orient the myths of the hero   
god1 born of a virgin1 and that of the  
descent into ,hades1 are among the most 
common4 ,their explanation rests on the 
universality and prominence of the      
processes of nature which are typified  
under these narratives4 ,it is          
unscientific to attempt to derive one   
from the other1 and it is not less so to

 endeavor to invest them with the       
character of history1 as has been done  
in this instance by the ,abb ,brasseur  
and various other writers4  ,the ,abb   
maintained that ,xibalba was the name of
 an ancient ,state in the valley of the 
,usumasinta in ,tabasco1 the capital of 
which was ,palenque4#aec ,he inclined to
 the belief that the original form was  
tzibalba1 which would mean painted mole1
 in the ,tzendal dialect and might have 
reference to a custom of painting the   
face4 ,this far-fetched derivation is   
unnecessary4 ,the word ,xibalba1        
7,cakchiquel ,xibalbay1 ,maya ,xibalba1 
,xabalba1 or ,xubalba7 was the common   
term throughout the ,maya stock of      
languages to denote the abode of the    
spirits of the dead1 or ,hades1 which   
with them was held to be under the      
surface of the earth1 and not1 as the   
,mexicans often supposed1 in the far    
north4 ,hence the ,cakchiquels used as  
synonymous with it the expression 8the  
centre or heart of the earth40#aed      

,after the conquest the word was and is 
in common use in ,guatemalan dialects to
 mean hell1 and in ,maya for the devil4 
,cogolludo states that it was the       
original ,maya term for the ,evil       
,spirit1 and that it means 8,he who     
disappears1 or vanishes40#aee ,he       
evidently derived it from the ,maya     
verb1 xibil1 and ,i believe this        
derivation is correct2 but the          
signification he gives is incomplete4   
,the original sense of the word was 8to 
melt10 hence 8to disappear40#aef ,this  
became connected with the idea of       
disappearance in death1 and of ghosts   
and specters4  ,it is interesting to    
note how the mental processes of these  
secluded and semi-barbarous tribes led  
them to the same association of ideas   
which our greatest dramatist expresses  
in ,hamlet's soliloquy3                 
8,o1 that this too1 too solid flesh     
would melt1              ,thaw1 and     
resolve itself into a dew20  and which  
,cicero records in the phrase dissolutio

 natur1 in the sense of death4#aeg  ,the
 natural terror and fright with which   
death and ghosts are everywhere         
regarded1 and especially1 as ,landa     
remarks1 by this people1 explain how    
this secondary meaning became           
predominant in the word4 ,the           
termination ba means in the ,guatemalan 
dialects1 where1 whence1 whither1 bey1 a
 path or road2 ,xibilbay thus signifies1
 in the locative sense1 8the place where
 they 7i4 e4 the dead7 disappear10 the  
,hades1 the ,invisible ,realm1 which was
 supposed to be under the ground4  ,it  
was a common belief among many tribes in
 ,america1 that their earliest ancestors
 emerged from a world which underlies   
this one on which we live1 and in       
ancient ,cakchiquel legend1 the same or 
a similar notion seems to have          
prevailed4  ,the name of the hero-god   
,xbalanque is explained by the ,abb     
,brasseur as a compound of the          
diminutive prefix x1 balam1 a tiger1 and
 the plural termination que4#aeh ,like  

so many of his derivations1 this is     
quite incorrect4 ,there is no plural    
termination que1 either in the ,quiche  
or in any related dialect2 and the      
signification 8tiger0 7jaguar1 ,felix   
unca ,lin4 in ,mexican ocelotl71 which  
he assigns to the word balam1 is only   
one of several which belong to it4  ,the
 name is compounded of the prefix1      
either feminine or diminutive1 x2 balam1
 or1 as given by ,guzman1 balan2#aei and
 queh1 deer4 ,this is the composition   
given by ,ximenez1 who translates it    
literally as 8a diminutive form of tiger
 and deer40#afj  ,the name balam1 was   
also that of a class of warriors3 of a  
congregation of priests or diviners2 and
 of one of the inferior orders of       
deities4 ,in composition it was applied 
to a spotted butterfly1 as it is in our 
tongue to the 8tiger-lily20 to the      
king-bee2 to certain rapacious birds of 
prey1 etc4  ,none of the significations 
concerns us here2 but we do see our way 
when we learn that both balam and queh  

are names of days in the                
,quiche-,cakchiquel calendar4 ,the      
former stood for the twelfth1 the latter
 for the seventh in their week of twenty
 days4#afa ,each of the days was sacred 
to a particular divinity1 but owing to  
the inadequate material preserved for   
the study of the ancient calendars of   
,guatemala1 we are much in the dark as  
to the relationship of these divinities4
  ,suffice it to say that the hero-god  
whose name is thus compounded of two    
signs in the calendar1 who is born of a 
virgin1 who performs many surprising    
feats of prowess on the earth1 who      
descends into the world of darkness and 
sets free the sun1 moon and stars to    
perform their daily and nightly journeys
 through the heavens1 presents in these 
and other traits such numerous          
resemblances to the ,divinity of ,light1
 reappearing in so many ,american myths1
 the ,day-maker of the northern hunting 
tribes1 that ,i do not hesitate to      
identify the narrative of ,xbalanque and

 his deeds as one of the presentations  
of this widespread1 this well-nigh      
universal myth--guarding my words by the
 distinct statement1 however1 that the  
identity may be solely a psychological1 
not a historical one4             ,,the 
,,hero-,,god ,,of ,,the ,,algonkins ,,as
 ,a ,,cheat ,,and ,,liar4#afb   ,in the 
pleasant volume which ,mr4 ,charles ,g4 
,leland has written on the surviving    
aboriginal folk-lore of ,new            
,england1#afc the chief divinity of the 
,micmacs and ,penobscots appears under  
what seems at first the outrageously    
incongruous name of ,gluskap1 the ,liar6
 ,this is the translation of the name as
 given by the ,rev4 ,s4 ,t4 ,rand1 late 
missionary among the ,micmacs1 and the  
best authority on that language4 ,from a
 comparison of the radicals of the name 
in related dialects of the ,algonkin    
stock1 ,i should say that a more        
strictly literal rendering would be     
8word-breaker10 or 8deceiver with       
words40 ,in the ,penobscot dialect the  

word is divided thus1--,glus-,gahb1     
where the component parts are more      
distinctly visible4#afd  ,the           
explanation of this epithet1 as quoted  
from native sources by ,mr4 ,leland1 is 
that he was called the liar because     
8when he left earth1 like ,king ,arthur1
 for fairy land1 he promised to return1 
and has never done so40  ,it is true    
that the ,algonkian ,hero-,god1 like all
 the ,american culture-heroes1 ,ioskeha1
 ,quetzalcoatl1 ,zamna1 ,bochica1       
,viracocha1 and the rest1 disappeared in
 some mysterious way1 promising again to
 visit his people1 and has long delayed 
his coming4 ,but it was not for that    
reason that he was called the 8deceiver 
in words40 ,had ,mr4 ,leland made       
himself acquainted with ,algonkin       
mythology in general1 he would have     
found that this is but one of several1  
to our thinking1 opprobrious names they 
applied to their highest divinity1 their
 national hero1 and the reputed saviour 
and benefactor of their race4  ,the     

,crees1 living northwest of the         
,micmacs1 call this divine personage1   
whom1 as ,father ,lacombe tells us1 they
 regard as 8,the principal deity and the
 founder of these nations10 by the name 
,wisakketjk1 which means 8the           
trickster10 8the deceiver40#afe ,the    
,chipeways apply to him a similar term1 
,nenaboj1 or as it is usually written1  
,nanabojoo1 and ,nanaboshoo1 8the       
,cheat10 perhaps allied to ,nanabanisi1 
he is cheated4#aff  ,this is the same   
deity that reappears under the names    
,manabozho1 ,michabo1 and ,messou1 among
 the ,chipeway tribes2 as ,napiw among  
the ,blackfeet2 and as ,wetucks among   
the ,new ,england ,indians where he is  
mentioned by ,roger ,williams as 8,a man
 that wrought great miracles among them1
 with some kind of broken resemblance to
 the ,sonne of ,god40#afg  ,these       
appellations have various               
significations4 ,the last mentioned is  
apparently from ock or ogh1 father1 with
 the prefix wit1 which conveys the sense

 8in common0 or 8general40 ,hence it    
would be 8the common father40  ,michabo1
 constantly translated by writers 8the  
,great ,hare10 as if derived from michi1
 great1 and wabos1 hare1 is really a    
verbal form from michi and wabi1 white1 
and should be translated1 8the ,great   
,white ,one40 ,the reference is to the  
white light of the dawn1 he1 like most  
of the other ,american hero-gods1 being 
an impersonation of the light4  ,the    
name ,wisakketjk1 though entirely       
,algonkin in aspect1 offers serious     
etymological difficulties1 so           
unmanageable indeed that one of the best
 authorities1 ,m4 ,cuoq1 abandons the   
attempt4#afh ,its most apparent root is 
wisak1 which conveys the sense of       
annoyance1 hurt or bitterness1 and the  
name would thus seem to be applied to   
one who causes these disagreeable       
sensations4  ,in all the pure and       
ancient ,algonkin cosmogonical legends1 
this divinity creates the world by his  
magic powers1 peoples it with game and  

animals1 places man upon it1 teaches his
 favorite people the arts of the chase1 
and gives them the corn and beans4 ,his 
work is disturbed by enemies of various 
kinds1 sometimes his own brothers1      
sometimes by a formidable serpent and   
his minions4  ,these myths1 when        
analyzed through the proper names they  
contain1 and compared with those of the 
better known mythologies of the old     
world1 show plainly that their original 
purport was to recount1 under           
metaphorical language1 on the one hand  
the unceasing struggle of day with      
night1 light with darkness1 and on the  
other1 that no less important conflict  
which is ever waging between the storm  
and sunshine1 the winter and summer1 the
 rain and the clear sky4  ,writers whose
 knowledge of religions was confined to 
that of the ,semitic race1 as           
represented in our ,bible1 have         
maintained that the story of ,michabo's 
battles with the serpent1 who is        
certainly represented as a master of    

magic and subtlety1 and hence dangerous 
to the human race1 must have come from  
contact with the missionaries4 ,a       
careful study of the myth will dispel   
all doubts on this point4 ,years ago1   
,mr4 ,e4 ,g4 ,squier showed that this   
legend was unquestionably of aboriginal 
source2 but he failed to perceive its   
significance4#afi ,the serpent1 typical 
of the sinuous lightning1 symbolizes the
 storm1 the rains and the water4  ,but  
to return to the class of names with    
which we began4 ,the struggles of       
,michabo with these various powerful    
enemies ,i have just named1 constitute  
the principal theme of the countless    
tales which are told of him by the      
native story-tellers1 only a small part 
of which1 and those much disfigured1    
came under the notice of ,mr4 ,leland1  
among the long civilized eastern tribes4
 ,mr4 ,schoolcraft frequently refers to 
these 8innumerable tales of personal    
achievement1 sagacity1 endurance1       
miracle and trick which place him in    

almost every scene of deep interest     
which can be imagined40#agj ,these words
 express the spirit of the greater      
number of these legends4 ,michabo does  
not conquer his enemies by brute force1 
nor by superior strength1 but by craft  
and ruses1 by transforming himself into 
unsuspected shapes1 by cunning and      
strategy4 ,he thus comes to be          
represented as the arch-deceiver2 but in
 a good sense1 as his enemies on whom he
 practices these wiles are also those of
 the human race1 and he exercises his   
powers with a benevolent intention4     
,thus it comes to pass that this highest
 divinity of these nations1 their chief 
god and culture-hero1 bears in familiar 
narrative the surprising titles1 8the   
liar10 8the cheat10 and 8the deceiver40 
,it would be an interesting literary and
 psychological study to compare this    
form of the ,michabo myth with some in  
the old world1 which closely resemble it
 in what artists call motive4 ,i would  
name particularly the story of the 8wily

 ,ulysses0 of the ,greeks1 the          
8transformations of ,ebu ,seid of       
,serug0 and the like in ,arabic1 and the
 famous tale of ,reynard the ,fox in    
medieval literature4 ,the same spirit   
breathes in all of them2 all minister to
 the delight with which the mind        
contemplates mere physical strength     
beaten in the struggle with             
intelligence4 ,they are all peans sung  
for the victory of mind over matter4 ,in
 none of them is there much nicety about
 the means used to accomplish the ends4 
,deceit by word and action is the       
general resource of the heroes4 ,they   
all act on the ,italian maxim3          
8,o per fortuna1 o per ingano1          
,il vencer sempre e laudabil cosa40     
,,the ,,journey ,,of ,,the ,,soul4#aga  
,i am about to invite your attention to 
one of the many curious results of      
comparative mythology4 ,this science1   
which is still in its infancy1 may be   
regarded by some of you1 as it is by the
 world at large1 as one of little       

practical importance1 and quite remote  
from the interests of daily life and    
thought4 ,but some of the results it    
attains are so startling1 and throw such
 a singular light on various familiar   
customs and popular beliefs1 that the   
time is not far off when it will be     
recognized as one of the most potent    
solvents in the crucible of             
intelligence4  ,the point to which ,i   
shall address myself to-night is the    
opinion entertained by three ancient    
nations1 very wide apart in space1 time 
and blood1 concerning the journey of the
 soul when it leaves the body4  ,these  
nations are the ancient ,egyptians1 the 
ancient ,aryans1 and the ,aztecs or     
,nahua of ,central ,mexico4  ,all these 
people believed1 with equal faith1 in   
the existence of a soul or spirit in    
man1 and in its continuing life after   
the death of the body4 ,how they came by
 this belief does not concern my present
 thesis2 that they held it in           
unquestioning faith none can deny who   

has studied even superficially their    
surviving monuments4 ,they supposed this
 assumed after-life was continued under 
varying conditions in some other        
locality than this present world1 and   
that it required a journey of some      
length for the disembodied spirit to    
reach its destined abode4 ,it is the    
events which were supposed to take place
 on this journey1 and the goals to which
 it led1 that ,i am about to narrate4   
,it will be seen that there are several 
curious similarities in the opinions of 
these widely diverse peoples1 which can 
only be explained by the supposition    
that they based their theories of the   
soul's journey and goal on some analogy 
familiar to them all4  ,i begin with the
 ,egyptian theory4 ,it appears in its   
most complete form in the sepulchral    
records of the ,new ,kingdom1 after the 
long period of anarchy of the ,shepherd 
,kings had passed1 and when under the   
#ahth1 #aith and #bjth dynasties1 ,egypt
 may be said to have risen to the very  

pinnacle of her greatness4  ,the        
collection of the sacred funerary texts 
into the famous ritual known as 8,the   
,book of the ,dead10 dates from this    
time4 ,many of its chapters are1 indeed1
 very much older2 but ,egyptian         
religion1 which was not stationary1 but 
constantly progressive toward higher    
intellectual forms and purer ethical    
standards1 can best be judged as it was 
in this period1 that of the ,theban     
dynasties of the ,new ,kingdom4 ,to     
assign a date1 we may say in round      
numbers1 two thousand years before the  
,christian era4  ,from that invaluable  
document1 therefore1 the 8,book of the  
,dead10 we learn what this ancient      
people expected to happen to the soul   
when it left the body4 ,of the millions 
of mummies which were zealously prepared
 in those ages1 none was complete unless
 it had folded with it one or a number  
of chapters of this holy book1 the      
formulas in which were safeguards and   
passwords to the spirit on its perilous 

journey4  ,the general statement is that
 the soul on leaving the corpse passes  
toward the ,west1 where it descends into
 the divine inferior region called      
,amenti1 over which presides ,osiris1   
8chief of chiefs divine10 who represents
 the ,sun-god in his absence1 in other  
words the sun at night1 the sun which   
has sunk in the west and stays somewhere
 all night4  ,in this place of darkness 
the soul undergoes its various tests4   
,the deeds done in the flesh1 the words 
spoken in life1 the thoughts of the     
heart1 are brought up against it by     
different accusers1 who appear in the   
form of monsters of the deep4 ,as the   
sun has to combat the darkness of the   
night and to overcome it before it can  
again rise1 so the soul has to combat   
the record of its sins1 and conquer the 
frightful images which represent them4  
,this was to be done in the ,egyptian1  
as in almost all religions1 by the power
 of magic formulas1 in other words by   
prayers1 and the invocation of holy     

names4  ,having succeeded1 the soul saw 
the nightly constellations and the      
heavenly stars1 and reached the great   
celestial river1 whose name was ,nun4   
,this was the self-created1 primordial  
element4 ,from its green depths all     
created things1 even the gods           
themselves1 took their origin4 ,it is   
called in the texts1 8father of all     
gods40 ,from it rose ,ra1 the ,sun-god1 
in his brightness4 ,in its dark depths  
lies bound in chains of iron the serpent
 ,refref1 the symbol of evil1 otherwise 
called ,apap4 ,but1 though bound1 this  
monster endeavors to seize each soul    
that crosses the river4 ,the fortunate  
soul repels the serpent by blows and    
incantations which destroy its power1   
but the unfortunate one is swallowed up 
and annihilated4  ,this danger passed1  
the soul reaches the farther strand1 and
 rises from the waters1 as ,horus1 who  
represents the sun at dawn1 rises from  
the eastern waves4 ,this is the purpose 
of all the rites and prayers--to have   

the soul1 as the expression is1 8rise at
 day0 or 8rise in the daytime40 ,in     
other words1 to rise as the sun and with
 the sun1 or1 to use again the constant 
formula of the 8,book of the ,dead10 to 
8enter the boat of the ,sun20 for the   
,sun was supposed to sail through       
celestial and translucent waters on its 
grand journey from horizon to zenith and
 zenith to horizon4 ,starting at dawn as
 the child ,horus1 son of the slain and 
lost ,osiris1 the orb of light became at
 midday the mighty ,ra1 and as evening  
approached1 was transformed into        
,khep-,ra or ,harmachis1 again to become
 ,osiris when it had sunk beneath the   
western verge4  ,so strict and absolute 
was the analogy supposed by the         
,egyptians to exist between the course  
of the sun and the destiny of the soul1 
that every soul was said to become      
,osiris at the moment of death1 and in  
the copies of the 8,book of the ,dead10 
enclosed in a mummy1 the proper name of 
the defunct is always preceded by the   

name 8,osiris10 as we might say 8,osiris
 ,rameses0 or 8,osiris ,sesostris40  ,to
 illustrate further what ,i have said1  
,i will translate a few passages from   
the most recent and correct version of  
the 8,book of the ,dead10 that published
 at ,paris a few months ago1 and made by
 ,prof4 ,paul ,pierret1 of the ,egyptian
 ,museum of the ,louvre4  ,the following
 is an extract from the first chapter of
 this ,ritual3  8,o ye who open the     
roads6 ,o ye who make smooth the paths  
to the souls in the abode of ,osiris6   
,make smooth the paths1 open the roads  
to ,osiris ,such-a-one that he may      
enter1 by the aid of this chapter1 into 
the abode of ,osiris2 that he may enter 
with zeal and emerge with joy2 that this
 ,osiris ,such-a-one be not repulsed1   
nor miss his way1 that he may enter as  
he wishes and leave when he wills4 ,let 
his words be made true and his orders   
executed in the abode of ,osiris4       
8,this ,osiris ,such-a-one is journeying
 toward the west with good fortune4     

,when weighed in the balance he is found
 to be without sin2 of numerous mouths1 
none has condemned him2 his soul stands 
erect before ,osiris2 out of his mouth  
when on earth no impurity proceeded40   
7,here the soul speaks37  8,i place     
myself before the master of the gods2 ,i
 reach the divine abode2 ,i raise myself
 as a living god2 ,i shine among the    
gods of heaven2 ,i am become as one of  
you1 ,o ye gods4 ,i witness the progress
 of the holy stars4 ,i cross the river  
,nun4 ,i am not far removed from the    
fellowship of the gods4 ,i eat of the   
food of the gods4 ,i sit among them4 ,i 
am invoked as a divine being2 ,i hear   
the prayers offered to me2 ,i enter the 
boat of the sun2 my soul is not far from
 its lord4 ,hail to thee1 ,osiris6      
,grant that ,i sail joyously to the     
west1 that ,i be received by the lords  
of the west2 that they say to me1       
#8,adoration1 adoration and peace be    
thine2' and that they prepare a place   
for me near to the chief of chiefs      

divine40  ,through the rhetoric of this 
mystic rhapsody we see that the soul    
goes to the abode of ,osiris1 is judged 
and tested as to its merits1 and if     
approved crosses in safety the river    
,nun and becomes as one of the gods     
themselves2 a companion of ,osiris and  
,ra4  ,such1 in broad outline1 was the  
orthodox ,egyptian doctrine4 ,there was 
a vast amount of accessory matter and   
mysticism added to this simple          
statement1 but the foundation is always 
the same4  ,to one or two points ,i will
 call attention for later reference in  
this paper4  ,in the #acth ,chapter of  
the 8,book of the ,dead10 the defunct is
 supposed to repeat the following       
formula3  8,i arrive as a hawk1 ,i      
depart as a phenix4 ,i am the ,god of   
the morning4 ,i have finished the       
journey and worshipped the sun in the   
lower world4 ,heavily braided is the    
hair of ,osiris4 ,i am one of the dogs  
of ,horus4 ,i have finished the journey 
and worshipped ,osiris40  ,the reference

 to the hair of ,osiris and the         
transformation of the soul into a dog1  
are incidents to which ,i shall refer in
 another connection4  ,another          
interesting fact is the frequent        
recurrence of the numbers four and eight
 in the ,egyptian theories of the       
spiritual world4 ,in the #afth ,chapter 
of the 8,book of the ,dead10 it is      
prescribed that four pictures as set    
forth should be painted on the          
sarcophagus1 in order that the soul may 
pass through the four apertures of the  
sky4 ,the chapter identifies these with 
the cardinal points from which blow the 
four winds4 ,in chapter #ag1 which is   
one of the oldest texts in the book1    
reference is made to the eight gods of  
,hermapolis2 elsewhere the number is    
mentioned4 ,this illustrates the easy   
transfer of the plan of terrestrial     
geography to that of the spiritual      
world4  ,passing now to the mythology of
 the ,aryan nations1 we find that the   
three great cycles of its poetry1 the   

,indian1 the ,greek1 and the ,norse1    
agree closely in their opinions of the  
destination of the soul4  ,after death1 
according to their belief1 the soul     
descended into a world below the surface
 of the earth4 ,the ,greeks called it   
the realm of ,hades1 from the name of   
its ruler1 otherwise known as ,pluto4   
,the latter name signifies the wealthy1 
because sooner or later all the children
 of men and all their possessions come  
under his power4 ,the meaning of ,hades 
is unknown1 as its derivation from idos1
 unseen1 is now generally doubted by the
 best ,greek scholars4  ,the entrance to
 this realm was supposed to be guarded  
by two dogs1 the more famous of which1  
,cerberus in ,greek1 is in the ,vedas   
spoken of by the same name1 ,carvara4   
,the soul must pacify these dogs and    
pass them without injury if it would    
enjoy the delights that lay beyond4     
,within the gates stretched a broad     
desert through which flowed the river   
,acheron1 which in later myths came to  

have various branches1 the ,styx1       
,lethe1 ,polyphegmon1 etc4 ,this was to 
be crossed in the boat of ,charon1 the  
silent ferryman1 who spake no word but  
exacted of each ghost a toll4  ,the dark
 river crossed1 the spirit appeared     
before the judges1 and by them its      
future fate was decided4 ,an adverse    
decision condemned it to wander lonely  
in the darkness1 but a favorable verdict
 authorized its entrance into the happy 
fields of ,elysium4 ,this joyous abode  
was in the far west1 in that land beyond
 the shining waters and the purple      
sunset sea1 where the orb of light goes 
to rest himself at night4 ,its light is 
eternal1 its joys perennial1 its        
happiness perfect4  ,with little        
difference1 this faith was shared by    
ancient ,indians and ancient ,norsemen4 
,the latter often buried with the dead a
 canoe or boat1 destined to convey the  
soul across the waves to the happy land 
beyond4  ,even the ancient ,kelt of     
,cornwall or ,brittany had this same    

myth of the ,islands of the ,blessed1   
lying somewhere far out in the ,western 
,sea4 ,what to the ,greek was the       
,garden of the ,hesperides with its     
fruit of golden quinces1 was to the     
,kelt the ,isle of ,avalon1 with its    
orchards of apples4  ,thither was       
conveyed the noble ,arthur when slain on
 the field of ,lyoness4 ,he was borne   
away in a royal boat by the fairy women 
of the strand4 ,there ,ogier the ,dane1 
worn by the wars of a hundred years1 was
 carried by his divine godmother to be  
restored to youth and strength1 and to  
return again to wield his battle-axe    
under the ,oriflamme of ,france4        
,wherever we turn1 whether in the most  
ancient chants of the ,vedas1 in the    
graceful forms of the ,greek religious  
fancy1 in the gaunt and weird imaginings
 of the ,norse poets1 or in the complex 
but brilliant pictures of medival       
romance1 we find the same distinct plan 
of this journey of the soul4  ,i pass   
now to the ,new ,world1 almost to the   

antipodes of ,india1 and take up the    
doctrines of the ,aztecs4 ,we have      
sufficiently ample accounts of their    
notions1 preserved by various early     
writers1 especially by ,father ,sahagun1
 who took down the words of the priests 
in their own tongue1 and at a date when 
their knowledge was not dimmed or       
distorted by ,christian teaching4       
,something may also be learned from     
,tezozomoc1 a native chronicler1 and    
others4  ,from these it appear that the 
,aztecs held that after death the souls 
of all people pass downward into the    
under-world1 to the place called        
,mictlan4 ,this is translated by the    
missionaries as 8hell0 or 8inferno10 but
 by derivation it means simply 8the     
place of the slain10 from an active verb
 meaning 8to kill40  ,to explain this   
further1 ,i add that in all primitive   
,american tribes1 there is no notion of 
natural death4 ,no man 8dies10 he is    
always 8killed40 ,death as a necessary  
incident in the course of nature is     

entirely unknown to them4 ,when a person
 dies by disease1 they suppose he has   
been killed by some sorcery1 or some    
unknown venomous creature4  ,the journey
 to ,mictlan was long and perilous4 ,the
 soul first passed through a narrow     
defile between two mountains which      
touched each other1 where it was liable 
to be crushed2 it then reached a path by
 which lay in wait a serpent2 next was a
 spot where a huge green lizard whose   
name was 8,the ,flower of ,heat10 was   
concealed4 ,after this1 eight deserts   
stretched their wild wastes1 and beyond 
these1 eight steep hills reared their   
toilsome sides into the region of snow4 
,over their summits blew a wind so keen 
that it was called 8,the ,wind of       
,knives40 ,much did the poor soul       
suffer1 exposed to this bitter cold1    
unless many coats of cotton and other   
clothing were burnt upon his tomb for   
use at this lofty pass4  ,these hills   
descended1 the shivering ghost reached  
the river called 8,by the ,nine         

,waters40 ,it was broad1 and deep1 and  
swift4 ,little chance had the soul of   
crossing its dark current1 was the aid  
for this purpose forgotten during life1 
or by the mourners4 ,this aid was a dog1
 of the species trained by the ,aztecs  
and held in high esteem by them4  ,but  
the dog must be of a particular color2  
white would not answer1 else he would   
say1 when brought to the brink1 8,as for
 me1 ,i am already washed40 ,black would
 fail as much1 for the animal would say1
 8,i am too black myself to help another
 wash40 ,the only color was red1 and for
 this reason great numbers of reddish   
curs were fostered by the ,aztecs1 and  
one was sacrificed at each funeral4     
,clinging to it1 the soul crossed the   
river and reached the further brink in  
safety1 being purged and cleansed in the
 transit of all that would make it unfit
 for the worlds beyond4  ,these worlds  
were threefold4 ,one was called 8,the   
nine ,abodes of the ,dead10 where the   
ordinary mass of mankind were said to go

 and forever abide4 ,the second was     
paradise1 ,tlalocan1 the dwelling-place 
of the ,tlalocs1 the gods of fertility  
and rain4 ,it was full of roses and     
fruits4 ,no pain was there1 and no      
sorrow4 ,scorching heat and cold were   
alike unknown4 ,green fields1 rippling  
brooks1 balmy airs and perpetual joy1   
filled the immortal days of the happy   
souls in ,tlalocan4 ,those who were     
destined for its ,elysian years were    
divinely designated by the diseases or  
accidents of which they died4 ,these    
were of singular variety4 ,all struck by
 lightning or wounded1 the leprous1 the 
gouty1 the dropsical1 and what at first 
sight seems curious1 all those who died 
of the forms of venereal diseases1 were 
believed to pass directly to this       
,paradise4  ,the third and highest      
reward was reserved for the brave who   
died upon the field of battle1 or1 as   
captives1 perished by the malice of     
public enemies1 and for women who died  
in childbirth4 ,these went to the sun in

 the sky1 and dwelt up in the bright    
heavens4 ,after four years they returned
 to earth1 and under the form of        
bright-plumaged singing birds rejoiced  
the hearts of men1 and were again       
spectators of human life4  ,in this     
,aztec doctrine the ruler of the        
underworld is spoken of as              
,mictlantecutli1 which the obtuse       
missionaries persistently render as the 
devil4  ,the name means simply 8,lord of
 the ,abode of the ,slain10 or of the   
dead4 ,in several of myths he is brought
 into close relation with the ,aztec    
national hero-god1 ,quetzalcoatl4  ,like
 ,osiris1 ,quetzalcoatl was said to be  
absent1 to have gone away to the home of
 the sun1 that home where the sun rests 
at night4 ,more specifically1 this was  
said to be under the earth1 and it was  
spoken of as a place of delights1 like  
,tlalocan4 ,its name was ,cincalco1     
which means the ,house of ,abundance2   
for no want1 no dearth1 no hunger and no
 suffering1 were known there4 ,with him 

dwelt the souls of his disciples and the
 ,toltecs1 his people1 and at some day  
or other he and they would return to    
claim the land and to restore it to its 
pristine state of perfection4  ,the     
thoughts in these faiths which ,i have  
described are the same4 ,in each of them
 the supposed history of the destiny of 
the soul follows that of the sun and the
 stars4 ,in all of them the spirits are 
believed to descend into or under the   
surface of the earth1 and then1 after a 
certain lapse of time1 some fortunate   
ones are released to rise like the orbs 
of light into the heavens above4        
,striking analogies exist among them    
all4 ,the river which in each flows     
through the underworld1 is nothing else 
than the great world-stream which in the
 primitive geography of every nation is 
believed to surround the habitable land1
 and beyond which the sun sinks at      
night4 ,to reach the abode of the sun in
 the west this river must be crossed4   
,the numbers #d and #h which occur in   

the ,egyptian and ,aztec geography of   
the underworld1 are relics of the       
sacredness attached to the cardinal     
points4  ,the ruler of the realm of     
shadows is not a malevolent being4      
,osiris1 ,hades or ,pluto1              
,mictlantecutli1 ,quetzalcoatl1 all     
originally represented the sun in its   
absence1 and none of them in any way    
corresponds to the medival or modern    
notion of the devil4 ,as ,osiris1 who is
 unquestionably the departed ,sun-god1  
was represented with heavy and braided  
hair1 so his ,aztec correlative was also
 named ,tzontemoc1 which means1 he of   
the abundant falling hair4 ,in each case
 the analogy was to the long slanting   
rays of the setting sun4  ,the role of  
the dog in these myths is a curious one4
 ,he appears as a guardian and          
preserver4 ,even ,cerberus is good to   
the good soul4 ,it has been argued by   
the eminent ,sanscrit antiquary         
,rajendalala1 in his late volume on the 
,indo-,aryans1 that this is a           

reminiscence of an ancient custom of    
throwing the dead bodies to the dogs to 
be consumed1 rather than have them      
decay4 ,this to me is not a very        
satisfactory explanation1 but ,i have   
none other to offer in its place1 and ,i
 therefore merely call attention to this
 singular similarity of notions4        
,though ,i have confined my comparison  
to these three ancient nations1 you     
would err widely if you imagine that it 
is for lack of material to extend it4 ,i
 could easily summon numberless other   
analogies from classic1 from ,persian1  
from ,turanian1 from ,semitic sources1  
to show that these notions were almost  
universal to the race of man4  ,they    
carried themselves into early ,christian
 teachings1 and to-day the wording of   
this ancient ,sun-myth is repeated in   
most of the churches of ,christendom4   
,we have but to mention the 8river of   
death0 which is supposed to limit human 
life2 we have but to look at the        
phraseology of the ,nicene ,symbol1     

where it is said that ,christ 8descended
 into hell 7,hades710 and after three   
days rose from the dead and ascended    
into heaven1 to see how persistently the
 old ideas have retained their sway over
 the religious sentiments and           
expressions of man4                     
,,the ,,sacred ,,symbols ,,in           
,,america4#agb   ,what ,i am about to   
say is1 to a certain degree1 polemical4 
,my intention is to combat the opinions 
of those writers who1 like ,dr4 ,hamy1  
,m4 ,beauvois and many others1#agc      
assert that because certain well-known  
,oriental symbols1 as the ,ta ,ki1 the  
,triskeles1 the ,svastika and the       
,cross1 are found among the ,american   
aborigines1 they are evidence of        
,mongolian1 ,buddhistic1 ,christian or  
,aryan immigrations1 previous to the    
discovery by ,columbus2 and ,i shall    
also try to show that the position is   
erroneous of those who1 like ,william   
,h4 ,holmes1 of the ,bureau of          
,ethnology1 maintain that 8it is        

impossible to give a satisfactory       
explanation of the religious            
significance of the cross as a religious
 symbol in ,america40#agd  ,in          
opposition to both these views ,i       
propose to show that the primary        
significance of all these widely        
extended symbols is quite clear2 and    
that they can be shown to have arisen   
from certain fixed relations of man to  
his environment1 the same everywhere1   
and hence suggesting the same graphic   
representations among tribes most       
divergent in location and race2 and1    
therefore1 that such symbols are of     
little value in tracing ethnic          
affinities or the currents of           
civilization2 but of much import in     
investigating the expressions of the    
religious feelings4  ,their wide        
prevalence in the ,old ,world is        
familiar to all students4 ,the three    
legs diverging from one centre1 which is
 now the well-known arms of the ,isle of
 ,man1 is the ancient ,triquetrum1 or1  

as ,olshausen more properly terms it1   
the ,triskeles1#age seen on the oldest  
,sicilian coins and on those of ,lycia1 
in ,asia ,minor1 struck more than five  
hundred years before the beginning of   
our era4 ,yet1 such is the persistence  
of symbolic forms1 the traveler in the  
latter region still finds it recurring  
on the modern felt wraps used by the    
native inhabitants4#agf ,as a decorative
 motive1 or perhaps with a deeper       
significance1 it is repeatedly found on 
ancient ,slavic and ,teutonic vases1    
disinterred from mounds of the bronze   
age1 or earlier1 in ,central and        
,northern ,europe4 ,frequently the      
figure is simply that of three straight 
or curved lines springing from a central
 point and surrounded by a circle1 as3  
,illustration3    ,,fig4 #a4            
,illustration3    ,,fig4 #b4   ,in the  
latter we have the precise form of the  
,chinese ,ta ,ki1 a symbolic figure     
which plays a prominent part in the     
mystical writing1 the divination and the

 decorative art of ,china4#agg  ,as it  
is this symbol which1 according to ,dr4 
,hamy1 the distinguished ethnologist and
 ,director of the ,museum of the        
,trocadero1 ,paris1 indicates the       
preaching of ,buddhistic doctrines in   
,america1 it merits close attention4    
,the ,ta ,ki1 expressed by the signs3   
,illustration3    ,,fig4 #c4   is       
properly translated1 8,the ,great       
,uniter0 7ta1 great2 ki1 to join        
together1 to make one1 to unite72 as in 
modern ,chinese philosophy1 expressed in
 ,platonic language1 the ,one is        
distinguished from the ,many1 and is    
regarded as the basis of the numerical  
system4 ,but as the ,chinese believe in 
the mystic powers of numbers1 and as    
that which reduces all multiplicity to  
unity naturally controls or is the      
summit of all things1 therefore the ,ta 
,ki expresses the completest and highest
 creative force4  ,in ,chinese          
philosophy1 the ,universe is made up of 
opposites1 heaven and earth1 light and  

darkness1 day and night1 land and water1
 concave and convex1 male and female1   
etc41 the highest terms for which are   
,yin and ,yang4 ,these are held to be   
brought into fructifying union by ,ta   
,ki4 ,abstractly1 the latter would be   
regarded as the synthesis of the two    
universal antitheses which make up all  
phenomena4#agh  ,the symbolic           
representation of ,yin and ,yang is a   
circle divided by two arcs with opposite
 centres1 while the symbol of ,ta ,ki   
adds a third arc from above uniting     
these two4  ,illustration3    ,,fig4 #d4
   ,illustration3    ,,fig4 #e4   ,it is
 possible that these symbols are of late
 origin1 devised to express the ideas   
above named4 ,one ,chinese scholar 7,mr4
 ,s4 ,culin7 tells me that it is        
doubtful if they occur earlier than the 
twelfth century1 ,a4 ,d41 and that they 
were probably introduced for purposes of
 divination4 ,in this case1 ,i believe  
that they were introduced from the      
,south1 and that they originally had    

another and concrete significance1 as ,i
 shall explain later4  ,others consider 
these symbols as essentially ,mongolian4
 ,the ,ta ,ki or ,triskeles is to them  
the ,mongolian1 while the ,svastika is  
the ethnic ,aryan symbol4 ,such writers 
suspect ,indo-,european immigration     
where they discover the latter1 ,chinese
 immigration were they find the former  
emblem4  ,the ,svastika1 ,i need hardly 
say1 is the hooked cross or gammated    
cross1 usually represented as follows3  
,illustration3    ,,fig4 #f4   the four 
arms of equal length1 the hook usually  
pointing from left to right4 ,in this   
form it occurs in ,india and on very    
early 7neolithic7 ,greco-,italic and    
,iberian remains4 ,so much has been     
written upon the ,svastika1 however1    
that ,i need not enter upon its         
archological distribution4  ,its primary
 significance has been variously        
explained4 ,some have regarded it as a  
graphic representation of the lightning1
 others as of the two fire-sticks used  

in obtaining fire by friction1 and so   
on4  ,whatever its significance1 we are 
safe in considering it a form of the    
,cross1 and in its special form         
obtaining its symbolic or sacred        
association from this origin4  ,the     
widely-spread mystic purport of the     
,cross symbol has long been matter of   
comment4 ,undoubtedly in many parts of  
,america the natives regarded it with   
reverence anterior to the arrival of    
,europeans2 as in the ,old ,world it was
 long a sacred symbol before it became  
the distinctive emblem of ,christianity4
  ,as in previous writings ,i have      
brought together the evidence of the    
veneration in which it was held in      
,america1 ,i shall not repeat the       
references here4  ,i believe we may go a
 step further and regard all three of   
these symbols1 the ,ta ,ki or           
,triskeles1 the ,svastika1 and the      
,cross as originally the same in        
signification1 or1 at least1 closely    
allied in meaning4 ,i believe1 further1 

that this can be shown from the relics  
of ancient ,american art so clearly that
 no one1 free from prejudice1 and whose 
mind is open to conviction1 will deny   
its correctness4  ,my theory is that all
 of the symbols are graphic             
representations of the movements of the 
sun with reference to the figure of the 
earth1 as understood by primitive man   
everywhere1 and hence that these symbols
 are found in various parts of the globe
 without necessarily implying any       
historic connections of the peoples     
using them4  ,this explanation of them  
is not entirely new4 ,it has previously 
been partly suggested by ,professors    
,worsaae and ,virchow2 but the          
demonstration ,i shall offer has not    
heretofore been submitted to the        
scientific world1 and its material is   
novel4  ,beginning with the ,ta ,ki1 we 
find its primary elements in the        
symbolic picture-writing of the ,north  
,american ,indians4 ,in that of the     
,ojibways1 for example1 we have the     

following three characters3             
,illustration3    ,,fig4 #g4            
,illustration3    ,,fig4 #h4            
,illustration3    ,,fig4 #i4   ,of      
these1 the ,fig4 #g represents the      
sunrise2 ,fig4 #i1 sunset2 ,fig4 #h1    
noonday4 ,the last-mentioned is the full
 day at its height4#agi ,where1 in      
rock-writing or scratching on wood1 the 
curve could not conveniently be used1   
straight lines would be adopted3        
,illustration3    ,,fig4 #aj4   thus    
giving the ordinary form of the         
,triskeles4 ,but the identical form of  
the ,ta ,ki is found in the calendar    
scroll attached to the ,codex-,poinsett1
 an unpublished original ,mexican ,,ms41
 on agave paper1 in the library of the  
,american ,philosophical ,society4 ,a   
line from this scroll is as follows3    
,illustration3    ,,fig4 #aa4   ,here   
each circle means a day1 and those with 
the ,triskeles1 culminating days4#ahj   
,another form of representing days is   
seen in the ,vatican ,mexican ,codex1   

published in ,kingsborough's ,mexico1   
,vol4 iii3  ,illustration3    ,,fig4    
#ab4   ,this is not far from the figure 
on the stone at ,copan1 described in    
,dr4 ,hamy's paper1 where the design is 
as follows3  ,illustration3    ,,fig4   
#ac4   ,this does not resemble the ,ta  
,ki1 as ,dr4 ,hamy supposes1 but rather 
the ,yin-,yang2 yet differs from this in
 having a central circle 7apparently a  
cup-shaped depression74 ,this central   
circular figure1 whether a boss or nave1
 or a cup-shaped pit1 has been explained
 by ,worsaae as a conventionalized form 
of the sun1 and in this he is borne out 
by primitive ,american art1 as we shall 
see4 ,the twenty elevations which       
surround the stone1 corresponding in    
number to the twenty days of the ,maya  
month1 indicate at once that we have    
here to do with a monument relating to  
the calendar4  ,turning now to the      
development of this class of figures in 
primitive ,american art1 ,i give first  
the simplest representations of the sun1

 such as those painted on buffalo skins 
by the ,indians of the ,plains1 and     
scratched on the surface of rocks4 ,the 
examples are selected from many of the  
kind published by ,col4 ,garrick        
,mallery4#aha  ,illustration3    ,,fig4 
#ad4   ,the design is merely a rude     
device of the human face1 with four rays
 proceeding from it at right angles4    
,these four rays represent1 according to
 the unanimous interpretation of the    
,indians1 the four directions defined by
 the apparent motions of the sun1 the   
,east and ,west1 the ,north and ,south4 
,by these directions all travel and all 
alignments of buildings1 corpses1 etc41 
were defined2 and hence the earth was   
regarded as four-sided or four-cornered2
 or1 when it was expressed as a circle1 
in accordance with the appearance of the
 visible horizon1 the four radia were   
drawn as impinging on its four sides3   
,illustration3    ,,fig4 #ae4           
,illustration3    ,,fig4 #af4   ,fig4   
#ae is a design on a vase from ,maraja1 

,brazil1 and is of common occurrence on 
the pottery of that region4#ahb ,fig4   
#af represents the circle of the visible
 horizon1 or the earth-plain1 with the  
four winds rushing into it when summoned
 by a magician4 ,it is a figure from the
 ,meday ,magic of the ,ojibways4#ahc    
,dr4 ,ferraz de ,macedo has claimed that
 such devices as ,fig4 #af 8show        
,chinese or ,egyptian inspiration40#ahd 
,it is certainly unnecessary to accept  
this alternative when both the origin   
and significance of the symbol are so   
plain in native ,american art4  ,when   
the symbol of the sun and the four      
directions was inscribed within the     
circle of the visible horizon1 we obtain
 the figure representing the motions pf 
the sun with reference to the earth1 as 
in3  ,illustration3    ,,fig4 #ag4      
,this is what ,german archologists call 
the wheel-cross1 ,radkreuz1             
distinguished1 as ,worsaae pointed out1 
by the presence of the central boss1 cup
 or nave1 from the ring-cross1          

,ringkreuz1 ,fig4 #ah3  ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #ah4   ,illustration3    ,,fig4  
#ai4   in which1 also1 the arms of the  
cross do not reach to the circumference 
of the wheel4 ,worsaae very justly laid 
much stress on the presence of the      
central boss or cup1 and correctly      
explained it as indicative of the sun2  
but both he and ,virchow1 who followed  
him in this explanation1 are1 ,i think1 
in error in supposing that the circle or
 wheel represents the rolling sun1 die  
rollende ,sonne4 ,my proof of this is   
that this same figure was a familiar    
symbol1 with the signification stated1  
in tribes who did not know the          
mechanical device of the wheel1 and     
could have had1 therefore1 no notion of 
such an analogy as the rolling wheel of 
the sun4#ahe  ,when applied to time1 the
 symbol of the circle in primitive art  
referred to the return of the seasons1  
not to an idea of motion in space4 ,this
 is very plainly seen both in art and   
language4 ,in the year-counts or        

winter-counts of the ,american tribes1  
the years were very generally signified 
by circles arranged in rows or spirals4 
,fig4 #bj shows the ,dakota             
winter-count1 as depicted on their      
buffalo robes4#ahf  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #bj4   ,this count is to be read 
from right to left1 because it is       
written from left to right1 and hence   
the year last recorded is at the end of 
the line4  ,precisely similar series of 
circles occur on the ,aztec and ,maya   
codices1 with the same signification4   
,moreover1 the year-cycles of both these
 nations were represented by a circle on
 the border of which the years were     
inscribed4 ,in ,maya this was called    
uazlazon katun1 the turning about again1
 or revolution of the katuns4#ahg  ,the 
,aztec figure of the year-cycle is so   
instructive that ,i give a sketch of its
 principal elements 7,fig4 #ba71 as     
portrayed in the atlas to ,duran's      
,history of ,mexico4#ahh  ,illustration3
    ,,fig4 #ba4   ,in this remarkable   

figure we observe the development and   
primary signification of those          
world-wide symbols1 the square1 the     
cross1 the wheel1 the circle1 and the   
svastika4 ,the last-mentioned is seen in
 the elements of the broken circle1     
which are3  ,illustration3    ,,fig4    
#bb4   ,these1 conventionalized into    
rectilinear figures for scratching on   
stone or wood1 became3  ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #bc4   ,in the ,mexican          
time-wheel1 the years are to be read    
from right to left1 as in the ,dakota   
winter-counts2 each of the quarter      
circles represents thirteen years2 and  
these1 also1 are to be read from right  
to left1 beginning with the top of the  
figure1 which is the ,east1 and         
proceeding to the ,north1 ,south and    
,west1 as indicated4  ,the full analysis
 of this suggestive and authentic       
astronomical figure will reveal the     
secret of most of the rich symbolism and
 mythology of the ,american nations4 ,it
 is easy to see how from it was derived 

the ,nahuatl doctrine of the nahua      
ollin1 or ,four ,motions of the ,sun1   
with its accessories of the ,four ,ages 
of the world4 ,the ,tree of ,life1 so   
constantly recurring as a design in     
,maya and ,mexican art1 is but another  
outgrowth of the same symbolic          
expression for the same ideas4  ,that we
 find the same figurative symbolism in  
,china1 ,india1 ,lycia1 ,assyria and the
 valley of the ,nile1 and on ancient    
urns from ,etruria1 ,iberia1 ,gallia1   
,sicilia and ,scythia1 needs not        
surprise us1 and ought not to prompt us 
to assert any historic connection on    
this account between the early          
development of man in the ,new and ,old 
,world4 ,the path of culture is narrow1 
especially in its early stages1 and men 
everywhere have trodden unconsciously in
 each other's footsteps in advancing    
from the darkness of barbarism to the   
light of civilization4                  
,,the ,,folk-,,lore ,,of ,,yucatan4#ahi 
,yucatan presents a strange spectacle to

 the ethnologist4 ,the native race1     
which in nearly every other part of the 
,american continent has disappeared     
before the white invaders or else become
 their acknowledged inferior1 has there 
gained the upper hand4 ,the native      
language has ousted the ,spanish to that
 extent that whole villages of whites   
speak ,maya only1 and the fortunes of   
war in the last generation have sided so
 much with the native braves that they  
have regained undisputed possession of  
by far the larger part of the peninsula4
  ,is there to be recognized in this a  
revival of that inherent energy which   
prompted their ancestors to the         
construction of the most remarkable     
specimens of native architecture on the 
continent1 and to the development of a  
ripe social and political fabric8  ,it  
can scarcely be doubted2 but1 however   
that may be1 such considerations cannot 
fail to excite our interest in all that 
relates to a race of such plucky        
persistence4  ,as throwing a side-light 

on their mental constitution1 their     
superstitions and folk-lore merit       
attention4 ,i happen to have some       
material on this which has never been   
published1 and some more which has only 
appeared in mediums quite inaccessible  
even to diligent students4 ,of the      
former are a manuscript by the          
,licentiate ,zetina of ,tabasco1 a      
native of ,tihosuco1 and some notes on  
the subject by ,don ,jose ,maria ,lopez1
 of ,merida1 and the late ,dr4 ,carl    
,hermann ,berendt2 while of the latter a
 report by ,don ,bartholom ,granado de  
,baeza1 cura of ,yaxcab1 written in     
#ahac1 and an article of later date by  
the learned cura1 ,estanislao ,carrillo1
 are particularly noteworthy4#aij ,from 
these sources ,i have gathered what ,i  
here present1 arranging and studying the
 facts they give with the aid of several
 dictionaries of the tongue in my       
possession4  ,these ,mayas1 as the      
natives called themselves1 were         
converted at the epoch of the conquest  

7about #aeej7 to ,christianity in that  
summary way which the ,spaniards        
delighted in4 ,if they would not be     
baptized they were hanged or drowned2   
and1 once baptized1 they were flogged if
 they did not attend mass1 and burned if
 they slid back to idol-worship4 ,they  
were kept in the densest ignorance1 for 
fear they should learn enough to doubt4 
,their alleged ,christianity was        
therefore their ancient heathenism under
 a new name1 and brought neither        
spiritual enlightenment nor intellectual
 progress4 ,as a recent and able        
historian of ,yucatan has said1 8the    
only difference was that the natives    
were changed from pagan idolaters to    
,christian idolaters40#aia  ,to this day
 the belief in sorcerers1 witchcraft and
 magic is as strong as it ever was1 and 
in various instances the very same rites
 are observed as those which we know    
from early authors obtained before the  
conquest4  ,the diviner is called h'men1
 a male personal form of the verb men1  

to understand1 to do4 ,he is one who    
knows1 and who accomplishes4 ,his main  
instrument is the zaztun1 8the clear    
stone0 7zaz1 clear1 transparent2 tun1   
stone74 ,this is a quartz crystal or    
other translucent stone1 which has been 
duly sanctified by burning before it gum
 copal as an incense1 and by the solemn 
recital of certain magic formulas in an 
archaic dialect passed down from the    
wise ancients4 ,it is thus endowed with 
the power of reflecting the past and    
future1 and the soothsayer gazes into   
its clear depths and sees where lost    
articles may be recovered1 learns what  
is happening to the absent1 and by whose
 witchery sickness and disaster have    
come upon those who call in his skill4  
,there is scarcely a village in ,yucatan
 without one of these wondrous stones4  
,the wise men have also great influence 
over the growing crops1 and in this     
direction their chiefest power is       
exercised4 ,by a strange mixture of     
,christian and pagan superstition1 they 

are called in to celebrate the misa     
milpera1 the 8field mass0 7misa1        
,spanish1 8mass02 milpera1 a word of    
,aztec derivation1 from milpa1          
8cornfield074 ,in the native tongue this
 is called the tich1 which means the    
offering or sacrifice4 ,it is a distinct
 survival of a rite mentioned by ,diego 
de ,landa1 one of the earliest bishops  
of the diocese of ,yucatan4#aib  ,the   
ceremony is as follows3 ,on a sort of   
altar constructed of sticks of equal    
length the native priest places a fowl1 
and1 having thrown on its beak some of  
the fermented liquor of the country1 the
 pitarrilla1 he kills it1 and his       
assistants cook and serve it with       
certain maize cakes of large size and   
special preparation4 ,when the feast is 
ready1 the priest approaches the table1 
dips a branch of green leaves into a jar
 of pitarrilla1 and asperges the four   
cardinal points1 at the same time       
calling on the three persons of the     
,christian ,trinity1 and the sacred four

 of his own ancient religion1 the ,pah  
ah tun4 ,these mysterious beings were   
before the conquest and to this day     
remain in the native belief the gods of 
rain1 and hence of fertility4 ,they are 
identical with the winds1 and the four  
cardinal points from which they blow4   
,to each is sacred a particular color1  
and in modern times each has been       
identified with a saint in the ,catholic
 calendar4 ,thus ,father ,baeza tells us
 that the red ,pahahtun is placed at the
 ,east1 and is known as ,saint ,dominic2
 to the ,north the white one1 who is    
,saint ,gabriel2 the black1 toward the  
,west1 is ,saint ,james2 the yellow is  
toward the ,south1 and is a female1     
called in the ,maya tongue ,x',kanleox1 
8the yellow goddess10 and bears the     
,christian name of ,mary ,magdalen4     
,the name ,pahahtun is of difficult     
derivation1 but it probably means       
8stone1 or pillar1 set up or erected10  
and this tallies quite exactly with a   
long description of the ancient rites   

connected with the worship of these     
important divinities in the old times4  
,there are some discrepancies in the    
colors assigned the different points of 
the compass1 but this appears to have   
varied considerably among the ,central  
,american nations1 though many of them  
united in having some such symbolism4 ,a
 curious study of it has been made by   
the well-known archologist1 the ,count  
de ,charencey4#aic  ,the invocation to  
these four points of the compass in its 
modern form was fortunately obtained and
 preserved in the original tongue by    
that indefatigable student1 the late    
,abb ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 while on a
 visit to the plantation of ,xcanchakan1
 in the interior of ,yucatan4#aid ,the  
translation of it runs as follows3--    
8,at the rising of the ,sun1 ,lord of   
the ,east1 my word goes forth to the    
four corners of the heaven1 to the four 
corners of the earth1 in the name of    
,god the ,father1 ,god the ,son1 and    
,god the ,holy ,ghost4  8,when the      

clouds rise in the east1 when he comes  
who sets in order the thirteen forms of 
the clouds1 the yellow lord of the      
hurricane1 the hope of the lords to     
come1 he who rules the preparation of   
the divine liquor1 he who loves the     
guardian spirits of the fields1 then ,i 
pray to him for his precious favor2 for 
,i trust all in the hands of ,god the   
,father1 ,god the ,son1 and ,god the    
,holy ,ghost40  ,such is an example of  
the strange mixture of heathen and      
,christian superstition which has been  
the outcome of three centuries of       
so-called ,christian instruction6       
,there still continue to be relics of an
 ancient form of fire-worship which once
 prevailed commonly throughout the      
peninsula4 ,the missionaries refer to it
 as 8the festival of fire10#aie but the 
exact rites performed were so carefully 
concealed that we have no description of
 them4 ,that they are not yet out of    
date is apparent from a copy of a native
 calendar for #ahda-b1 obtained by ,mr4 

,stephens when in ,yucatan4 ,in it the  
days are marked as lucky or unlucky1 and
 against certain ones such entries are  
made as 8now the burner lights his      
fire10 8the burner gives his fire       
scope10 8the burner takes his fire10    
8the burner puts out his fire40 ,this   
burner1 ah toc1 is the modern           
representative of the ancient priest of 
the fire1 and we find a few obscure     
references to an important rite1 the    
tupp kak1 extinction of the fire1 which 
was kept up long after the conquest1 and
 probably is still celebrated in the    
remoter villages4 ,the sacred fire in   
ancient ,maya land is said to have been 
guarded by chosen virgins1 and it       
appears in some way to have been        
identified with the force which gives   
life to the animal and vegetable world4 
,another of the modern ceremonies which 
is imbued with the old notion1 common to
 them as to all primitive people1 of a  
soul with material wants1 is that called
 8the feast of the food of the soul40   

,small cakes are made of the flesh of   
hens and pounded maize1 and are baked in
 an underground oven4 ,of these as many 
are placed on the altar of the church as
 the person making the offering has     
deceased relatives for whose well-being 
he is solicitous4 ,these cakes are      
called hanal pixan1 8the food of the    
soul40 ,evidently they are intended to  
represent the nourishment destined for  
the soul on its journey through the     
shadowy lands of death4  ,along with    
these there are many minor superstitions
 connected especially with the growth of
 crops and fruits4 ,thus it is widely   
believed that the fruit known as the    
white zapote 7,sapota achras1 in ,maya1 
choch7 will not ripen of itself4 ,one   
must tap it lightly several times as it 
approaches maturity1 repeating the      
formula3                    ,hoken1     
chech2 ocen1 takan3                     
,depart1 greenness3 enter1 ripeness4    
,the owl is looked upon as an uncanny   
bird1 presaging death or disease1 if it 

alights on or even flies over a house4  
,another bird1 the cox1 a species of    
pheasant1 is said to predict the        
approach of high northerly winds1 when  
it calls loudly and frequently in the   
woods2 though this1 according to one    
writer1 is not so much a superstition as
 an observation of nature1 and is       
usually correct4  ,a singular ceremony  
is at times performed to prevent the    
death of those who are sick4 ,the dread 
being who in medival symbolism was      
represented by a skeleton1 is known to  
the ,mayas as ,yum ,cimil1 ,lord of     
,death4 ,he is supposed to lurk around a
 house where a person is ill1 ready to  
enter and carry off his life when       
opportunity offers4 ,he is1 however1    
willing to accept something in lieu     
thereof1 and to bring about this result 
the natives perform the rite called kex1
 or 8barter40 ,they hang jars and nets  
containing food and drink on the trees  
around the house1 repeating certain     
invocations1 and they believe that often

 the ,lord of ,death will be satisfied  
with these1 and thus allow the invalid  
to recover4  ,those diviners to whom ,i 
have alluded are familiarly known as    
,tat ,ich1 ,daddy ,face1 and ,tata      
,polin1 ,daddy ,head1 a reference1 ,i   
suspect1 to a once familiar name of a   
chief divinity1 ,kin ich1 the face 7or  
eye7 of the day1 i4 e4 the ,sun4  ,a    
power universally ascribed to these     
magicians is that of transforming       
themselves into beasts4 ,were it not for
 so many examples of delusions in       
enlightened lands1 it would be difficult
 to explain the unquestioning belief    
which prevails on this subject          
throughout ,central ,america4 ,father   
,baeza relates that one of these old    
sorcerers declared in a dying confession
 that he had repeatedly changed himself 
into various wild beasts4 ,the ,english 
priest1 ,thomas ,gage1 who had a cure in
 ,guatemala about #afcj1 tells with all 
seriousness a number of such instances4 
,even in our own days the learned ,abb  

,brasseur de ,bourbourg is not entirely 
satisfied that animal magnetism1        
ventriloquism1 and such trickery1 can   
explain the mysteries of nagualism1 as  
the ,central ,american system of the    
black arts is termed4 ,he is not certain
 that we ought to exclude the assistance
 of the invisible diabolic agencies6#aif
  ,the sacred books of the ,quiches1 a  
tribe living in ,guatemala related to   
the ,mayas1 ascribe this power to one of
 their most celebrated kings4 ,as an    
illustration the passage is worth       
quoting3  8,truly this ,gucumatz became 
a wonderful king4 ,every seven days he  
ascended to the sky1 and every seven    
days he followed the path to the abode  
of the dead2 every seven days he put on 
the nature of a serpent and he became   
truly a serpent2 every seven days he put
 on the nature of an eagle and again of 
a tiger1 and he became truly an eagle   
and a tiger2 every seven days also he   
put on the nature of coagulated blood1  
and then he was nothing else but        

coagulated blood40#aig  ,men and women  
alike might possess this magic power4   
,this is shown in a curious little      
native story heard by ,dr4 ,berendt in  
the wilds of ,yucatan from a ,maya      
woman1 who told it to prove the value of
 salt as a counter-charm to the         
machinations of these mysterious beings4
 ,the doctor wrote it down with         
scrupulous fidelity1 and added a verbal 
translation4 ,as it has never been      
published1 and as it is at once an      
interesting bit of authentic folk-lore  
and a valuable example of the ,maya     
language1 ,i give it here in the        
original tongue with a literal1         
interlinear translation3--              
,a ,,maya ,,witch ,,story4     ,huntu   
hxib tsoocubel yetel huntul xchup2 ma tu
 yoheltah uaix      ,a man married with 
a woman2 not did he know 7her7 as   uay4
 ,hunpe kin tu yalahti3 8,huche capel   
mut tabb40 ,tu  a witch4 ,one day he    
said to her3 8,mix two measures 7of7    
salt40 ,she   huchah paibe1 ca tu katah3

 8,baax tial tech80 ,hunpel akab  mix'd 
7them7 first1 then she asked3 8,why this
 7wishest7 thou80 ,one night   pixaan   
hxibe ca tu yilah u hokol u yatan4 ,ca  
tu chaah u mazcabe  woke the man and he 
saw go out his wife4 ,then he took his  
axe   ca tu mucul thulbelah tu pach ti  
kax4 ,ca kuchioob ti chichan  and       
secretly followed behind 7her7 to the   
wood4 ,when they arrived at a     little
    chakan1 yau u zazil uh1 ca tu mucuba
 hxib tu booy nohoch  meadow1 there     
being a bright moon1 then hid himself   
the man in the shade     of a great     
yaxche4 ,ca tu pucah u nok xchup tu     
pach1 uaan xmabuc tu  seiba tree4 ,then 
threw her garments the woman behind     
7her71 standing     naked in the   tan  
uh3 ca tu sipah u yothel1 ca culhi      
chembac4 ,ca  face of the moon3 then she
 stripped off her skin1 and remained    
mere     bones4 ,then   naci ti caan4   
,ca emi tucaten1 ca tu yalahi3 8,zazaba 
she rose to the sky4 ,when she came down
 again1 then she said to him3           

8,wouldst thou   xtac caan80 ,hemac ma  
uchuc u nacal tucaten1 tumen tu thootal 
reach to the sky80 ,but not could she   
ascend again1 because of the            
throwing   taab4  7of7 salt4  ,to the   
,maya1 the woods1 the air1 and the      
darkness are filled with mysterious     
beings who are ever ready to do him     
injury or service1 but generally injury1
 as the greater number of these         
creations of his fancy are malevolent   
sprites4  ,of those which are well      
disposed1 the most familiar are the     
,balams 7,maya1 ,hbalamob1 masculine    
plural form of balam74 ,this word is the
 common name of the ,american tiger1 and
 as a title of distinction was applied  
to a class of priests and to kings4 ,the
 modern notions of the ,balams are      
revealed to us by the ,licentiate       
,zetina of ,tihosuco1 in his manuscripts
 to which ,i have previously referred4  
,he tells us that these beings are      
supposed to be certain very ancient men 
who take charge of and guard the towns4 

,one stands north of the town1 a second 
south1 a third east1 and the fourth to  
the west4 ,they are usually not visible 
during the day1 and if one does see them
 it is a sign of approaching illness1   
which suggests that it is the disordered
 vision of some impending tropical fever
 which may occasionally lead to the     
belief in their apparition4  ,at night  
the ,balams are awake and vigilant1 and 
prevent many an accident from befalling 
the village1 such as violent rains1     
tornadoes1 and pestilential diseases4   
,they summon each other by a loud1      
shrill whistle2 and1 though without     
wings1 they fly through the air with the
 swiftness of a bird4 ,occasionally they
 have desperate conflicts with the evil 
powers who would assail the town4 ,the  
signs of these nocturnal struggles are  
seen the next day in trees broken down  
and uprooted1 the ground torn up1 and   
large stones split and thrown around4   
,another of their duties is to protect  
the corn-fields or milpas4 ,it seems    

probable1 from comparing the authorities
 before me1 that the ,balams in this    
capacity are identical with the ,pa     
ahtuns1 whom ,i have referred to above1 
and that both are lineal descendants of 
those agricultural deities of the       
ancient ,mayas1 the ,chac or ,bacab1    
which are described by ,bishop ,landa   
and others4 ,no ,indian on the peninsula
 neglects to propitiate the ,balam with 
a suitable offering at the time of      
corn-planting4 ,were he so negligent as 
to forget it1 the crop would wither for 
lack of rain or otherwise be ruined4    
,an instance of this is told by ,seor   
,zetina4 ,an ,indian near ,tihosuco had 
paid no attention to the usual offering1
 perhaps being infected with evil modern
 skeptical views4 ,his crop grew fairly2
 and as the ears were about ripening he 
visited his field to examine them4 ,as  
he approached he saw with some dismay a 
tall man among the stalks with a large  
basket over his shoulders1 in which he  
threw the ripening ears as fast as he   

could pluck them4 ,the ,indian saluted  
him hesitatingly4 ,the stranger replied1
 8,i am here gathering in that which ,i 
sent40 ,resting from his work1 he drew  
from his pocket an immense cigar1 and1  
taking out a flint and steel1 began to  
strike a light4 ,but the sparks he      
struck were flashes of lightning1 and   
the sound of his blows was terrible     
thunderclaps which shook the very earth4
 ,the poor ,indian fell to the ground   
unconscious with fright2 and when he    
came to himself a hail-storm had        
destroyed his corn1 and as soon as he   
reached home he himself was seized with 
a fever which nigh cost him his life4   
,the ,balams are great smokers1 and it  
is a general belief among the ,indians  
that the shooting stars are nothing else
 than the stumps of the huge cigars     
thrown down the sky by these giant      
beings4  ,sometimes they carry off      
children for purposes of their own4     
,when ,dr4 ,berendt was exploring the   
east coast of ,yucatan he was told of   

such an occurrence on the ,island of    
,san ,pedro1 north of ,belize4 ,a little
 boy of four years wandered to some     
cacao bushes not more than fifty yards  
from the house1 and there all trace of  
him was lost4 ,there was no sign of wolf
 or tiger1 no footprint of kidnapper4   
,they sought him the whole day in vain1 
and then gave up the search1 for they   
knew what had happened--the ,balam had  
taken him6  ,the ,balams have also the  
reputation of inculcating a respect for 
the proprieties of life4 ,zetina tells  
this story which he heard among his     
native friends3 ,one day an ,indian and 
his wife went to their corn-patch to    
gather ears4 ,the man left the field to 
get some water1 and his wife threw off  
the gown she wore lest it should be     
torn1 and was naked4 ,suddenly she heard
 some one call to her in a loud voice1  
,pixe avito1 xnoh cizin1 which ,zetina  
translates literally into ,spanish1     
,tapa ta culo1 gran diablo6 ,at the same
 time she received two smart blows with 

a cane4 ,she turned and beheld a tall   
man with a long beard1 and a gown which 
reached to his feet4 ,this was the      
,balam4 ,he gave her two more smart     
blows on the part of the person to which
 he had referred1 and then disappeared2 
but the marks of the four blows remained
 as long as she lived4  ,it is vain to  
attempt to persuade the ,indian that    
such notions are false and cannot be    
facts4 ,he will not try to reason with  
you4 ,he contents himself with a patient
 gesture and the despairing exclamation1
 ,bix ma hahal8 8,how can it be         
otherwise than true80 7,bix1 how1 ma1   
not1 hahal1 true47  ,these ,balams are  
in fact the gods of the cardinal points 
and of the winds and rains which proceed
 from them1 and are thus a survival of  
some of the central figures of the      
ancient mythology4 ,the wind still holds
 its pre-eminence as a supernatural     
occurrence in the native mind4 ,one day 
,dr4 ,berendt was traveling with some   
natives through the forests when the    

sound of a tropical tornado was heard   
approaching with its formidable roar    
through the trees4 ,in awe-struck       
accents one of his guides said1 8,he    
catal nohoch yikal nohoch tat3 ,here    
comes the mighty wind of the ,great     
,father40 ,but it is only in an         
unguarded moment that in the presence of
 a white man the ,indian betrays his    
beliefs1 and no questioning could elicit
 further information4 ,a hint is        
supplied by ,seor ,zetina4 ,he mentions 
that the whistling of the wind is       
called1 or attributed to1 tat acmo1     
words which mean ,father ,strong-bird4  
,this suggests many analogies from the  
mythologies of other races2 for the     
notion of the primeval bird1 at once    
lord of the winds and father of the     
race1 is found in numerous ,american    
tribes1 and is distinctly contained in  
the metaphors of the first chapter of   
,genesis4  ,the balam1 as ,i have said1 
is esteemed a kindly and protective     
being2 he is affectionately referred to 

as yum balam1 ,father ,balam4 ,he is    
said to have a human form1 that of an   
old man with a long beard and ample     
flowing robes4 ,but there are other     
gigantic spectres of terrible aspect and
 truculent humor4 ,one of these is so   
tall that a man cannot reach his knees4 
,he stalks into the towns at midnight1  
and planting his feet like a huge       
,colossus1 one on each side of the      
roadway1 he seizes some incautious      
passer-by and breaks his legs with his  
teeth1 or conquers him with a sudden    
faintness4 ,the name of this terror of  
late walkers is ,giant ,grab1 ,ua ua    
pach4  ,another is the ,che ,vinic1 the 
,man of the ,woods1 called by the       
,spanish population the ,salonge4 ,he is
 a huge fellow without bones or joints4 
,for that reason if he lies down he     
cannot rise without extreme difficulty2 
hence he sleeps leaning against a tree4 
,his feet are reversed1 the heels in    
front1 the toes behind4 ,he is larger   
and stronger than a bull1 and his color 

is red4 ,in his long arms he carries a  
stick the size of a tree-trunk4 ,he is  
on the watch for those who stray through
 the woods1 and1 if he can1 will seize  
and devour them4 ,but a ready-witted man
 has always a means of escape4 ,all he  
has to do is to pluck a green branch    
from a tree1 and waving it before him1  
begin a lively dance4 ,this invariably  
throws the ,wood ,man into convulsions  
of mirth4 ,he laughs and laughs until he
 falls to the ground1 and once down1    
having no joints1 he cannot rise1 and   
the hunter can proceed leisurely on his 
journey4 ,it is singular1 says ,dr4     
,berendt1 how widely distributed is the 
belief in this strange fancy4 ,it recurs
 in precisely the same form in ,yucatan1
 in ,peten1 in ,tabasco1 around         
,palenque1 etc4  ,another ugly customer 
is the ,culcalkin4 ,this word means 8the
 priest without a neck10 and the        
hobgoblin so named is described as a    
being with head cut off even with the   
shoulders1 who wanders around the       

villages at night1 frightening men and  
children4  ,in contrast to the giants   
are the dwarfs and imps which are ready 
in their malicious ways to sour the     
pleasures of life4 ,the most common of  
these are the h'lox1 or more fully1     
h'loxkatob1 which means 8the strong clay
 images40#aih ,they are1 indeed1        
believed to be the actual idols and     
figures in clay which are found about   
the old temples and tombs1 and hence an 
,indian breaks these in pieces whenever 
he finds them1 to the great detriment of
 archological research4 ,they only      
appear after sunset1 and then in the    
shape of a child of three or four years1
 or sometimes not over a span in height1
 naked except wearing a large hat4 ,they
 are swift of foot1 and can run         
backwards as fast as forwards4 ,among   
other pranks1 they throw stones at the  
dogs and cause them to howl4 ,their     
touch produces sickness1 especially     
chills and fever4 ,it is best1          
therefore1 not to attempt to catch them4

  ,of similar malevolent disposition is 
the ,chan ,pal1 ,little ,boy1 who lurks 
in the woods and is alleged to bring the
 small-pox into the villages4  ,others  
are merely teasing in character1 and not
 positively harmful4 ,thus there is the 
,x bolon thoroch who lives in the house 
with the family1 and repeats at night   
the various sounds of domestic labor    
which have been made during the day4    
,the word thoroch is applied to the     
sound caused by the native spindle      
revolving in its shaft2 bolon is 8nine10
 a number used to express the           
superlative degree in certain phrases2  
while the initial ,x shows that the imp 
is of the feminine gender4 ,the name    
therefore signifies 8the female imp who 
magnifies the sound of the spindle40    
,other such household imps are the      
,bokol h'otoch1 ,stir-the-,house1 who   
creeps under the floors and makes a     
noise like beating a cake to scare the  
inmates2 the ,yancopek1 ,pitcher-,imp1  
who crawls into jars and jugs2 and the  

,way cot1 ,witch-bird1 who lurks on or  
behind walls and drops stones on passers
 by4  ,the female sex is further        
represented in the ,maya folk-lore by a 
personage who has a curious similarity  
to legendary ladies of the old world1   
sirens1 mermaids1 the ,lorelei1 and     
others4 ,she is called ,x tabai1 the    
7female7 ,deceiver4 ,her home is under  
shady bowers in the forests1 and there  
the ardent hunter suddenly espies her1  
clothed1 and combing with a large comb  
7x ache7 her long and beautiful hair4   
,as he approaches she turns and flees1  
but not with discouraging haste1 rather 
in such a manner and with such backward 
glances as to invite pursuit4 ,he soon  
overtakes her1 but just as he clasps her
 beauteous form in his strong embrace1  
her body changes into a thorny bush1 and
 her feet become claws like those of a  
wild fowl4 ,tom and bleeding he turns   
sadly homeward1 and soon succumbs to an 
attack of fever with delirium4  ,another
 very similar creature is ,x ,thoh      

,chaltun1 ,miss ,pound-the-,stones4 ,she
 slily waits around the villages1 and   
when she sees some attractive youth she 
awakes his attention by tapping on the  
stones1 or in default of these on an    
empty jar which she carries for the     
purpose4 ,does the foolish youth respond
 to the seductive invitation1 she coyly 
moves to the woods1 where the amorous   
pursuer meets like disappointment and a 
similar sad fate as the victim of the ,x
 tabai4  ,as may be supposed1 many      
superstitions cling around the animal   
world4 ,each species of brute has its   
king1 who rules and protects it4 ,even  
the timid native hare may thus assert   
its rights4 ,an ,indian told ,dr4       
,berendt that once upon a time a hunter 
with two dogs followed a hare into a    
cave4 ,there he found a large hole1     
leading under the earth4 ,he descended1 
and came to the town of the hares4 ,they
 seized him and his dogs1 and brought   
him before the king1 and it was no easy 
matter for him to get off by dint of    

protests and promises4  ,there are also 
tales of the ,straw ,bird or ,phantom   
,bird4 ,the hunter unexpectedly sees a  
handsome bird on a branch before him4   
,he fires and misses4 ,he repeats his   
shot in vain4 ,after a while it falls of
 itself1 and proves to be nothing but a 
colored feather4 ,then he knows that he 
has been fooled by the ,zohol chich4    
,an object of much dread is the ,black  
,tail1 ,ekoneil1 an imaginary snake with
 a black1 broad1 and forked tail4 ,he   
glides into houses at night where a     
nursing mother is asleep2 and1 covering 
her nostrils with his tail1 sucks the   
milk from her breasts4  ,these are      
probably but a small portion of the     
superstitions of the modern ,mayas4     
,they are too reticent to speak of these
 subjects other than by accident to the 
white man4 ,he is quite certain either  
to ridicule or to reprove such          
confidences4 ,but what is above         
collected is a moderately complete1 and 
certainly1 as far as it goes1 an        

accurate notion of their folk-lore4     
,,folk-,,lore ,,of ,,the ,,modern       
,,lenape4#aii   ,in ,august #ahhf1 and  
,september #ahhg1 ,i had many           
conversations with the ,rev4 ,albert    
,seqaqknind ,anthony1 an educated       
,delaware ,indian1 then assistant       
missionary to the ,six ,nations1 in     
,ontario1 ,canada4 ,our immediate       
business was the revision of the        
8,lenp-,english ,dictionary10 which has 
since been published by the ,historical 
,society of ,pennsylvania2 but in the   
intervals of that rather arduous and dry
 labor1 we sought recreation in broader 
subjects of thought1 and our discourse  
often fell on the ancient traditions1   
folk-lore1 and customs of the ,lenp1 now
 fast disappearing4  ,mr4 ,anthony was  
on his father's side a ,delaware1 or    
,lenp1 of the ,minsi tribe1 while his   
grandmother was a ,shawnee4 ,he himself 
was born on the ,ontario ,reservation1  
and up to his thirteenth year spoke     
nothing but pure ,lenp4 ,his memory     

carries him back to the fourth decade of
 this century4  ,one of his earliest    
reminiscences was of the last surviving 
emigrant from the native home of his    
ancestors in ,eastern ,pennsylvania--a  
venerable squaw 7ochquu1 woman1 hen71   
supposed to be a hundred years old4 ,at 
the time her parents left the mountains 
between the ,lehigh and ,susquehanna    
rivers1 she was 8old enough to carry a  
pack0--twelve years1 probably4 ,this    
must have been about #agfj1 as after the
 ,french ,war 7#agee7 the natives       
rapidly deserted that region4  ,i was   
surprised to find how correctly the old 
men of the tribe had preserved and      
handed down reminiscences of their      
former homes along the ,delaware ,river4
 ,the flat marshy 8,neck10 south of     
,philadelphia1 between the ,delaware and
 ,schuylkill rivers1 was pointed out to 
me by ,mr4 ,anthony 7who had never seen 
it before7 as the spot where the tribe  
preferred to gather the rushes with     
which they manufactured rugs and mats4  

,he recognized various trees1 not seen  
in ,canada1 by the descriptions he had  
heard of them4  ,such narratives formed 
the themes of many a long tale by the   
winter fire in the olden time4 ,like    
most ,indians1 the ,lenp are1 or rather 
were--for1 alas6 the good old customs   
are nearly all gone--inexhaustible      
raconteurs4 ,they had not only          
semi-historic traditions1 but numberless
 fanciful tales of spirits and sprites1 
giants and dwarfs1 with their kith and  
kin4 ,such tales were called tomoacan1  
which means 8tales for leisure hours40  
,they relate the deeds of potent        
necromancers1 and their power over the  
machtanha1 8those who are bewitched40   
,it greatly interested me to learn that 
several of these tales referred         
distinctly to the culture-hero of the   
tribe1 that ancient man who taught them 
the arts of life1 and on his            
disappearance--these heroes do not      
die--promised to return at some future  
day1 and restore his favorite people to 

power and happiness4 ,this ,messianic   
hope was often the central idea in      
,american native religions1 as witness  
the worship of ,quetzalcoatl in ,mexico1
 of ,kukulcan in ,yucatan1 of ,viracocha
 in ,peru4 ,mr4 ,anthony assured me that
 it was perfectly familiar to the old   
,delawares1 and added that in his       
opinion their very name1 ,lenp1 conveys 
an esoteric meaning1 to wit1 8the man   
comes10 with reference to the second    
advent of their culture-hero4#bjj ,this 
is singular confirmation of the         
fragmentary myths collected by the      
,swedish engineer ,lindstrom in #afej1  
and by the ,moravian ,bishop ,ettwein   
about a century later4 ,these ,i have   
collected in 8,the ,lenp and their      
,legends0 7,philadelphia1 #ahhe71 and   
have discussed the general subject at   
such length in my 8,american            
,hero-,myths0 7,philadelphia1 #ahhb7    
that the reader will probably be        
satisfied to escape further expansion of
 it here4  ,only in traditions does the 

8,stone ,age0 survive among the         
,delawares4 ,in ,mr4 ,anthony's youth1  
the bow-and-arrow was still occasionally
 in use for hunting2 but he had never   
seen employed arrow-points of stone4    
,they were either of deer's horns or of 
sharpened bones4 ,the name for the      
compound instrument 8bow-and-arrow0 is  
manhtaht1 the first a being nasal2 and  
from this word1 ,mr4 ,anthony states1 is
 derived the name ,manhattan1 properly  
manahah tank1 8the place where they     
gather the wood to make bows40 ,the     
bow-string is tschipan3 the arrow1      
allunth4 ,the generic name for stone    
weapon is still familiar1 achsinhican1  
and the word from which we derive       
8tomahawk10 t'mahican1 is strictly      
applied to a stone hatchet4 ,war-clubs  
were of several varieties1 called       
apech'lit and mehitqueth1 which were    
different from an ordinary stick or     
cane1 alauwan4 ,though the war-whoop is 
heard no more1 its name remains1        
kowa'mo1 and tradition still recalls    

their ancient contests with the         
,iroquois1 their cruel and hated        
enemies1 to whom they applied the       
opprobrious epithet mengwe 7that is1    
glans penis74  ,hunting is scarcely     
worth the name any longer on the        
,canadian reservations4 ,the debated    
question as to whether the ,lenp knew   
the buffalo attracted me4 ,mr4 ,anthony 
assured me that they did4 ,it was called
 sisiliti1 which he explained as 8the   
animal that drops its excrement when in 
motion10 walking or running2 though he  
added that another possible derivation  
is from siselamen1 to butt against1 from
 which comes sisejahen1 to break in     
pieces by butting4  ,in former times a  
favorite method of hunting in the autumn
 was for a large number of hunters to   
form a line and drive the game before   
them4 ,this was called p'mochlapen4     
,this answered well for deer1 but now   
little is left save the muskrat1        
chuaskquis1 the ground-hog1 monachgen1  
the white rabbit1 wapachtques1 the      

weasel1 mani'tohumisch1 and the little  
chipmunk1 pochqwapiith 7literally1 8he  
sits upright on something074 ,for such  
small game1 it is scarcely worth while  
running the risk of the bite of the     
blow-adder1 pethbotalwe1 and the        
much-feared 8bloody-mouthed lizard10    
mokdomus2 though ,i suspect both are    
more terrible in tale than in fact4  ,in
 fishing1 they appear to have known not 
only the brush-net and the spear1 but   
the hook-and-line as well4 ,the line1   
wendamakan1 was twisted from the strands
 of the wild hemp1 achhallap1 or of the 
milk-weed1 pichtokenna2 and the hook was
 armed with a bait1 awauchkon1 which    
might be wecheeso1 the ground-worm1     
literally1 8he who extends and retracts 
himself10 or the waukchelachees1        
grasshopper1 literally1 8one that hops40
 ,this corresponds with what the old    
,swedish traveler1 ,peter ,kalm1 relates
 in the first half of the last century4 
,he describes the native hooks as made  
of bone or of the spur of a fowl4  ,they

 still gather for food the ptukquim1    
walnut1 literally1 8round nut20 the     
quinokquim1 butternut1 literally1       
8oblong nut20 and various berries1 as   
the lechlochhilleth1 the red raspberry1 
literally1 8the berry that falls to     
pieces40  ,among utensils of ancient    
date and aboriginal invention seem to   
have been wooden dishes or bowls1       
wollakanes1 made from the elm-tree1     
wollakanahungi2 wooden mortars1 in which
 corn was pounded1 taquachhakan2 and    
peyind1 cups with handles4 ,the art of  
pottery1 which they once possessed1 has 
been entirely lost4  ,although now      
resident inland1 they remember the      
manufacture and use of canoes1 amochol4 
,some were of birch bark1 wiqua1 and    
were called wiqua-amochol2 others were  
dugouts1 for which they preferred the   
,american sycamore1 distinctively named 
canoe-wood1 amochol-he4  ,the ordinary  
word for house is still wikwam1 wigwam1 
while a brush-hut is called pimoakan4 ,i
 was particular to inquire if1 as far as

 now known1 the ,lenp ever occupied     
communal houses1 as did the ,iroquois4  
,mr4 ,anthony assured me that this was  
never the custom of his nation1 so far  
as any recollection or tradition goes4  
,every family had its own lodge4 ,i     
called his attention to the discovery in
 ancient village sites in ,new ,jersey  
of two or three fire-places in a row1   
and too close to belong to different    
lodges4 ,this has been adduced by ,dr4  
,c4 ,c4 ,abbott as evidence of communal 
dwellings4 ,he replied that these were  
the sites of the village council-houses2
 he himself could remember some with two
 or three fires2 but their only         
permanent occupants were the head chief 
with his wives and children4  ,though   
most of the national games are no longer
 known to the rising generation1 in my  
informant's boyhood they still figured  
conspicuously by the native firesides1  
where now 8progressive euchre0 and the  
like hold sway4 ,one such was           
qua'quallis4 ,in this a hollow bone is  

attached by a string to a pointed stick4
 ,the stick is held the hand1 and the   
bone is thrown up by a rapid movement1  
and the game is to catch the bone1 while
 in motion1 on the pointed end of the   
stick4 ,it was a gambling game1 often   
played by adults4  ,a very popular sport
 was with a hoop1 tautmusq1 and spear or
 arrow1 allunth4 ,the players arranged  
themselves in two parallel lines1 some  
forty feet apart1 each one armed with a 
reed spear4 ,a hoop was then rolled     
rapidly at an equal distance between the
 lines4 ,each player hurled his spear at
 it1 the object being to stop the hoop  
by casting the spear within its rim4    
,when stopped1 the shaft must lie within
 the hoop1 or the shot did not count4   
,a third game1 occasionally seen1 is    
maumun'di4 ,this is played with twelve  
flat bones1 usually those of a deer1 and
 a bowl of wood1 constructed for the    
purpose4 ,one side of each bone is      
white2 the other1 colored4 ,they are    
placed in the bowl1 thrown into the air1

 and caught as they descend4 ,those with
 the white side uppermost are the       
winning pieces4 ,bets usually accompany 
this game1 and it had1 in the old days1 
a place in the native religious rites2  
probably as a means of telling fortunes4
  ,the ,delawares on the ,ontario       
,reservation have long since been       
converted to ,christianity1 and there is
 little trace left of their former pagan
 practices4 ,if they remain anywhere1 it
 is in their medical rites4 ,i inquired 
particularly if there are any remnants  
of the curious adoration of the sacred  
twelve stones1 described by ,zeisberger 
a century and a quarter ago4 ,i found   
that the custom of the 8sweat-lodge10 a 
small hut built for taking sweat-baths1 
still prevails4 ,the steam is generated 
by pouring water on hot stones4 ,this is
 done by the 8medicine-man10 who is     
known as quechksa'pict4 ,he brings in   
one stone after another1 and pours water
 upon it until it ceases 8to sing20 and 
invariably he uses precisely twelve     

stones4  ,probably some of the more     
benighted still seek to insure the      
success of their crops by offering food 
to the m'sink4 ,this is a false face1 or
 mask1 rudely cut from wood to represent
 the human visage1 with a large mouth4  
,the victuals are pushed into the mouth1
 and the genius is supposed to be thus  
fed4  ,our word cantico1 applied to a   
jollification1 and by some etymologists1
 naturally enough1 traced to the ,latin 
cantare1 in reality is derived from the 
,lenp gentkehn1 to sing and dance at the
 same time4 ,this was their most usual  
religious ceremony1 and to this day     
gendtoma means 8to begin religious      
services10 either ,christian or heathen2
 and gendtowen signifies 8to be a       
worshipper40 ,these dances were often   
connected with sacred feasts1 toward    
which each participant contributed a    
portion of food4 ,to express such a     
communal religious banquet they used the
 term w'chindin1 and for inviting to    
one1 wingindin2 and they were clearly   

distinguished from an ordinary meal in  
common1 an eating together1 tachquipuin 
or tachquipoagan4  ,my informant fully  
believes that there is yet much medical 
knowledge held secretly by the old men  
and women4 ,he has known persons bitten 
by the rattlesnake who were promptly and
 painlessly cured by a specific known to
 these native practitioners4 ,it is from
 the vegetable materia medica1 and is   
taken internally4 ,they also have some  
surgical skill4 ,it was interesting to  
learn that an operation similar to      
trephining has been practiced among the 
,lenp time out of mind for severe       
headaches4 ,the scalp on or near the    
vertex is laid open by a crucial        
incision1 and the bone is scraped4 ,this
 perhaps explains those trepanned skulls
 which have been disinterred in ,peru   
and other parts of ,america4  ,the      
national legends have mostly faded out1 
but the ,lenp perfectly remember that   
they are the 8grandfather0 of all the   
,algonkin tribes1 and the fact is still 

recognized by the ,chipeways and some   
others1 whose orators employ the term   
numoh'homus1 8my grandfather10 in their 
formal addresses to the ,lenp4 ,the old 
men still relate with pride that1 in the
 good old times1 before any white man   
had landed on their shores1 8the ,lenp  
had a string of white wampum beads1     
wapakeekq'1 which stretched from the    
,atlantic to the ,pacific1 and on this  
white road their envoys travelled from  
one great ocean to the other1 safe from 
attack40  ,there are still a few among  
them who pretend to some knowledge of   
the art of reading the wampum belts4    
,the beads themselves are called keekq'2
 a belt handed forth at a treaty is     
nochkunduwoagan1 literally1 8an         
answering20 and after the treaty has    
been ratified the belt is called        
aptunwoagan1 the covenant4  ,the tribal 
and totemic divisions are barely        
remembered1 and the ancient prohibitions
 about endogamous marriage have fallen  
completely into desuetude4 ,mr4         

,anthony's term for totem1 or sub-tribe1
 is w'aloch'ke2 as1 tulpenaloch'ke1 the 
,turtle totem4 ,the name ,minsi1 he     
believes1 is an abbreviation of         
minachsinink1 the place of broken       
stones1 referring to the mountains north
 of the ,lehigh river1 where his        
ancestors had their homes4 ,the         
,wonalacht'go of the early historians he
 identifies with the ,nanticokes1 and   
translates it 8people following the     
waves20 that is1 living near the ocean4 
,the chieftaincy of the tribe is still1 
in theory1 hereditary in one family1 and
 in the female line4 ,the ordinary term 
sakima1 sachem1 is not in use among the 
,minsi1 who call their chief kikay1 or  
kitschikikay 7kitschi1 great2 kikay1    
old1 or old man3 the elderman1 or       
alderman1 of the ,saxons74  ,some       
peculiarities of the language deserve to
 be noted4  ,the ,german alphabet1      
employed by the ,moravians to reduce it 
to writing1 answered so well that the   
,moravian missionary1 ,rev4 ,mr4        

,hartmann1 at present in charge of the  
,new ,fairfield ,reservation1 ,ontario1 
who does not understand a word of       
,delaware1 told me he had read the books
 printed in the native tongue to his    
congregation1 and they understood him   
perfectly4 ,but ,i soon detected two or 
three sounds which had escaped          
,zeisberger and his followers4 ,there is
 a soft th which the ,german ear could  
not catch1 and a kth which was equally  
difficult1 both of frequent occurrence4 
,there is also a slight breathing       
between the possessives n'1 my1 k'1 thy1
 w'1 his1 and the names of the things   
possessed1 which the missionaries       
sometimes disregarded1 and sometimes    
wrote as a full vowel4 ,but after a     
little practice ,i had rarely any       
difficulty in pronouncing the words in  
an intelligible manner4 ,this ,i was    
obliged to do with the whole dictionary1
 for although ,mr4 ,anthony speaks his  
language with perfect ease1 he does not 
read or write it1 and has no            

acquaintance with ,german or its        
alphabet4  ,on one point ,i             
cross-examined him carefully4 ,it is    
well-known to linguists that in         
,algonkin grammar the verb undergoes a  
vowel change of a peculiar character1   
which usually throws the sentence into  
an indefinite or dubitative form4 ,this 
is a very marked trait1 recognized early
 by the missionary ,eliot and others1   
and the omission of all reference to it 
by ,zeisberger in his ,grammar of the   
,lenp has been commented on as a serious
 oversight4 ,well1 after all my         
questions1 and after explaining the     
point fully to ,mr4 ,anthony1 he        
insisted that no such change takes place
 in ,delaware verbs4 ,i read to him the 
forms in ,zeisberger's ,grammar which   
are supposed to indicate it1 but he     
explained them all by other reasons1    
mere irregularities or erroneous        
expressions4  ,the intricacies of the   
,lenp verb have never yet been solved1  
and it is now doubtful if they ever will

 be1 for the language is fast changing  
and disappearing1 at least in both      
reservations in ,canada1 and also among 
the representatives of the tribe at     
their settlement in ,kansas4 ,it is not 
now1 and ,mr4 ,anthony assured me that1 
so far as he knew1 it never was1 a      
custom for parents to correct their     
children in speaking the language4      
,probably this is true of most          
uncivilized tribes4 ,the children of    
such learn their exceedingly complicated
 languages with a facility and accuracy 
which is surprising to the cultivated   
mind4 ,i can say from experience1 that  
no child learns to speak pure ,english  
without incessant correction from       
parents and teachers4  ,the general     
result of my conversations with ,mr4    
,anthony on the grammar of his language 
led me to estimate at a lower value the 
knowledge of it displayed in the works  
of ,zeisberger1 ,ettwein1 and           
,heckewelder4 ,the first and last named 
no doubt spoke it fluently in some      

fashion2 but they had not the power to  
analyze it1 nor to detect its finer     
shades of meaning1 nor to appreciate    
many refinements in its word-building1  
nor to catch many of its semi-notes4    
,to give an example3--  ,heckewelder    
gave ,duponceau a compound which has    
often been quoted as a striking instance
 of verbal synthesis4 ,it is            
kuligatschis1 and is analyzed by        
,duponceau thus3 k1 possessive pronoun1 
second person singular2 uli1            
abbreviation of wulit1 pretty2 gat1 last
 syllable of wichgat1 foot or paw2 chis1
 diminutive termination2 in all1 8thy   
pretty little paw40 ,now1 there is no   
such word in ,lenp as wichgat4 8,his    
foot0 is w'uchst1 where the initial w is
 the possessive1 and does not belong in 
the word for foot4 ,but in all          
likelihood this was not in the compound 
heard by ,heckewelder4 ,what he heard   
was k'wulinachkgis1 from1 k1 possessive2
 wulit1 pretty2 nachk1 hand1 or paw of  
an animal2 gis1 diminutive termination4 

,he lost the peculiar whistled w and the
 nasalized n1 sounds unknown to         
,germans4 ,duponceau's statement that   
gat is the last syllable of the word for
 foot is totally erroneous4 ,i am       
convinced that much of the excessive    
synthesis1 so called1 in the ,lenp      
arises from a lack of appreciation on   
the part of the whites of delicate      
phonetic elements4 ,if ,i had heard many
 more of ,mr4 ,anthony's analyses of    
compounds1 ,i believe ,i should have    
reached the conclusion that synthesis in
 ,lenp means little beyond juxtaposition
 with euphonic elision4                 
,,part ,,iii4                           
,,graphic ,,systems ,,and ,,literature4 
,,introductory4   ,the intellectual     
development of a nation attains its     
fullest expression in language1 oral or 
written4 ,this 8divine art0 as ,plato   
calls it1 claims therefore from the     
student of man in the aggregate a       
prolonged attention and the most        
painstaking analysis4 ,too frequently   

one hears among anthropologists the     
claims of linguistics decried1 and the  
many blunders and over-hasty            
generalizations of philologists quoted  
as good reasons for the neglect or      
distrust of their branch4  ,the real    
reason of this attitude ,i believe to be
 not so much the mistakes of the        
linguists1 as a strong aversion which ,i
 have noticed in many distinguished     
teachers of physical science to the     
study of language and the philosophy of 
expression4 ,the subject is difficult   
and distasteful to them4 ,having no     
aptitude for it1 nor real acquaintance  
with it1 they condemn it as of small    
value and of doubtful results4 ,i have  
never known a scientific man who was    
really a well-read philologist who thus 
under-estimated the position of         
linguistics in the scheme of            
anthropology2 but ,i have known many    
who1 not having such thorough knowledge1
 depreciated its value in others4  ,the 
third and fourth parts of this volume   

are devoted to language1 the third as it
 appears especially in its written      
forms1 the fourth particularly to the   
profounder questions of linguistic      
philosophy4 ,here again ,i shall be     
found in opposition to the majority who 
have written on these subjects4 ,the    
claim ,i make for the largely phonetic  
character of the ,mexican and ,maya     
hieroglyphs is not generally accepted2  
and the poetical spirit which ,i argue  
exists in many productions of the       
aboriginal muse will not be favored by  
those who deny the higher sentiments of 
humanity to uncivilized man4  ,i have   
endeavored by frequent illustration1 and
 reference to the best sources of       
information1 to put the reader in the   
position to judge for himself2 and ,i   
shall feel highly gratified if he is    
prompted to such investigations by what 
,i may say1 whether his final           
conclusions agree with mine or not4     
,,the ,,phonetic ,,elements ,,in ,,the  
,,graphic ,,systems ,,of ,,the ,,mayas  

,,and                                   
,,mexicans4#bja   ,all who have read the
 wonderful story of the ,spanish        
conquest of ,mexico and ,central        
,america will remember that the         
,european invaders came upon various    
nations who were well acquainted with   
some method of writing1 who were skilled
 in the manufacture of parchment and    
paper1 and who filled thousands of      
volumes formed of these materials with  
the records of their history1 the       
theories of their sciences1 and the     
traditions of their theologies4 ,aiming 
at greater permanence than these        
perishable materials would offer1 they  
also inscribed on plinths of stone1 on  
slabs of hard wood1 and on terra cotta  
tablets1 the designs and figures which  
in the system they adopted served to    
convey the ideas they wished to transmit
 to posterity4  ,in spite of the        
deliberate and wholesale destruction of 
these records at the conquest1 and their
 complete neglect for centuries         

afterwards1 there still remain enough1  
were they collected1 to form a          
respectably large ,corpus ,inscriptionum
 ,americanarum4 ,within the present     
century many ,mexican and ,maya ,,mss4  
have for the first time been published1 
and the inscriptions on the temples of  
southern ,mexico and ,yucatan have been 
brought to the tables of students by    
photography and casts1 methods which    
permit no doubt as to their             
faithfulness4  ,nor have there been     
lacking diligent students who have      
availed themselves of these facilities  
to search for the lost key to these     
mysterious records4 ,it is a pleasure to
 mention the names of ,thomas and       
,holden in the ,united ,states1 of ,de  
,rosny1 ,aubin and de ,charencey in     
,france1 of ,frstemann1 ,seler and      
,schellhas in ,germany1 of ,ramirez and 
,orozco in ,mexico4 ,but it must frankly
 be confessed that the results obtained 
have been inadequate and unsatisfactory4
 ,we have not yet passed the threshold  

of investigation4  ,the question which  
forces itself upon our attention as     
demanding a reply at the very outset1 is
 whether the ,aztec and ,maya systems of
 writing were or were not1 in whole or  
in part1 phonetic systems8 ,did they    
appeal1 in the first instance1 to the   
meaning of the word1 or to the sound of 
the word8 ,if to the latter--if1 in     
other words1 they were phonetic1 or even
 partially phonetic--then it is vain to 
attempt any interpretation of these     
records without a preliminary study of  
the languages of the nations who were   
the writers4 ,these languages must      
moreover be studied in the form in which
 they were spoken at the period of the  
conquest1 and the course of native      
thought as expressed in the primitive   
grammatical structure must be understood
 and taken into account4 ,i hasten to   
add that we have abundant materials for 
such studies4  ,this essential          
preliminary question1 as to the extent  
of the phonetic element in the ,mexican 

and ,maya systems of writing1 is that   
which ,i propose to put at present1 and 
to answer it1 so far as may be4         
,hitherto1 the greatest diversity of    
opinion about it has prevailed4 ,some   
able writers1 such as ,valentini and    
,holden1 have questioned the existence  
of any phonetic elements2 but most have 
been willing to concede that there are  
such present1 though their quantity and 
quality are by no means clearly defined4
  ,we may assume that both systems under
 consideration are partly ideographic4  
,every system of phonetic writing       
introduces ideograms to some extent1 our
 own among the number4 ,the question is1
 to what extent8  ,but before we are    
prepared to answer this question about  
the extent of the phonetic element1 we  
must seek to ascertain its character4   
,we are all aware that a phonetic symbol
 may express the sound either of a whole
 word of several syllables1 or of a     
single syllable1 or of a simple acoustic
 element4 ,again1 a single phonetic     

symbol may express several quite diverse
 sounds1 as is familiarly exemplified in
 the first letter of the ,english       
alphabet1 which represents three very   
different sounds2 and1 on the other     
hand1 we may find three1 four or more   
symbols1 no wise alike in form or       
origin1 bearing one and the same        
phonetic value1 a fact especially       
familiar to ,egyptologists4  ,we must   
further bear in mind that the           
arrangement to the eye of phonetic      
symbols is altogether arbitrary4        
,because a prefix is pronounced first in
 the order of time and a suffix last1 it
 by no means follows that the order in  
space of their corresponding symbols    
shall bear any analogous relation4 ,the 
idea awakened by the sound of the word  
is a whole1 and one2 and so that this   
sound is represented1 the disposition of
 its component parts is1 philosophically
 speaking1 indifferent4 ,when it is     
remembered that in most ,american       
languages1 and notably in the ,mexican  

or ,nahuatl1 there is a tendency to     
consolidate each phrase into a single   
word1 the importance of this            
consideration is greatly increased4  ,as
 the position of the phonetic parts of  
the phrase-word may thus be disregarded1
 yet more indifferent is the order of   
sequence of the symbols4 ,there is no a 
priori reason why this should be from   
left to right as in ,english1 or from   
right to left as in ,hebrew2            
alternately1 as in the ,boustrophedon of
 the ,greek2 or from top to bottom1 as  
in ,chinese4  ,in such an examination as
 the present one1 we must rid our minds 
of the expectation of finding the       
phonetic elements in some familiar form1
 and simply ask whether they are to be  
found in any form4  ,we are not without 
a trustworthy guide in this quest4 ,it  
is agreed among those who have most     
carefully studied the subject that there
 is but one path by which the human mind
 could have originally proceeded from   
picture-writing or thought-writing to   

phonetic or sound-writing4 ,this was    
through the existence of homophones and 
homoiophones in a language1 of words    
with the same or similar sounds1 but    
with diverse significations4 ,the       
deliberate analysis of a language back  
to its phonetic elements1 and the       
construction upon those of a series of  
symbols1 as was accomplished for the    
,cherokee by the half-breed ,sequoyah1  
has ever been the product of culture1   
not a process of primitive evolution4   
,in this primitive process the sounds   
which were most frequently repeated1 or 
were otherwise most prominent to the    
ear1 would be those first represented by
 a figure2 and the same figure would    
come to be employed as an equivalent for
 this sound and others closely akin to  
it1 even when they had other connections
 and bore other significations4 ,hence  
affixes1 suffixes1 and monosyllabic     
words1 are those to which we must look  
as offering the earliest evidences of a 
connection of figure with sound4        

,according to the theory here very      
briefly indicated1 ,i shall examine the 
,maya and ,nahuatl systems of writing1  
to ascertain if they present any        
phonetic elements1 and of what nature   
these are4  ,turning first to the ,maya1
 ,i may in passing refer to the         
disappointment which resulted from the  
publication of ,landa's alphabet by the 
,abb ,brasseur in #ahfd4 ,here was what 
seemed a complete phonetic alphabet1    
which should at once unlock the         
mysteries of the inscriptions on the    
temples of ,yucatan and ,chiapas1 and   
enable us to interpret the script of the
 ,dresden and other ,codices4           
,experience proved the utter fallacy of 
any such hope4 ,his work is no key to   
the ,maya script2 but it does indicate  
that the ,maya scribes were able to     
assign a character to a sound1 even a   
sound so meaningless as that of a single
 letter4  ,the failure of the ,landa    
alphabet left many scholars total       
skeptics as to the phonetic values of   

any of the ,maya characters4 ,to name a 
conspicuous and recent example1 ,prof4  
,leon de ,rosny1 in his edition of the  
,codex ,cortesianus1 published in #ahhc1
 appends a ,vocabulary of the hieratic  
signs as far as known2 but does not     
include among them any phonetic signs   
other than ,landa's4  ,but if we turn to
 the most recent and closest students of
 these records1 we find among them a    
consensus of opinion that a certain     
degree1 though a small degree1 of       
phoneticism must be accepted4 ,thus our 
own able representative in this branch1 
,prof4 ,cyrus ,thomas1 announced in     
#ahhb1 in his ,study of the ,,ms4       
,troano1#bjb that several of the day and
 month characters are1 beyond doubt1    
occasionally phonetic4  ,prof4          
,frstemann1 of ,dresden1 whose work on  
the ,dresden ,codex has appeared quite  
recently1 announces his conclusion that 
the ,maya script is essentially         
ideographic2#bjc but immediately adds   
that the numerous small figures attached

 to the main sign are to be considered  
phonetic1 and no matter in what local   
relation they may stand to this sign1   
they are to be regarded either as       
prefixes or suffixes of the word4 ,he   
does not attempt to work out their      
possible meaning1 but1 as he says1      
leaves that to the future4  ,almost     
identical is the conclusion of ,dr4     
,schellhas1 whose essay on the ,dresden 
,codex#bjd is a most meritorious study4 
,his final decision is in these words3  
8,the ,maya writing is ideographic in   
principle1 and probably avails itself1  
in order to complete its ideographic    
hieroglyphs1 of a number of fixed       
phonetic signs40  ,illustration3        
,,fig4 #a4--,the ,maya ,hieroglyph of   
the ,firmament4   ,some of these signs  
have been so carefully scrutinized that 
their phonetic value may be considered  
to have been determined with reasonable 
certainty4 ,an interesting example is   
shown in ,fig4 #a1 for the analysis of  
which we are indebted to ,dr4           

,schellhas4 ,the quadrilateral figure at
 the top represents the firmament4 ,one 
of the squares into which it is divided 
portrays the sky in the day time1 the   
other1 the starry sky at night4 ,beneath
 each are white and black objects1      
signifying the clouds1 from which       
falling rain is indicated by long zigzag
 lines4 ,between the clouds on the left 
of the figure is the well-known ideogram
 of the sun1 on the right that of the   
moon4 ,in the ,maya language the sun is 
called kin1 the moon u1 and these       
figures are found elsewhere1 not        
indicating these celestial bodies1 but  
merely the phonetic values1 the one of  
the syllable kin1 the other of the      
letter u4 ,the two signs given in       
,landa's alphabet for the letter u are  
really one1 separated in transcription1 
and a variant of the figure for the moon
 with the wavy line beneath it4 ,the    
word u in ,maya is the possessive       
adjective of the third person1 and as   
such is employed in conjugating verbs1  

the ,maya verbal being really a         
possessive4  ,a very common terminal    
syllable in ,maya is il4 ,it is called  
by grammarians 8the determinative       
ending10 and is employed to indicate the
 genitive and ablative relations4 ,dr4  
,schellhas considers that this is       
represented by the signs affixed to the 
main hieroglyphs shown on ,fig4 #b4bje  
,illustration3    ,,fig4 #b4--,maya     
,phonetic ,terminals4   ,the upper      
figure he reads kinil1 the lower cim-il4
 ,the two signs are the title to a      
picture in the ,codex ,troano           
representing a storm with destruction of
 human life4 ,the two words kin-il      
cim-il maybe translated 8,at the time of
 the killing40 ,the syllable cim is     
expressed in several variants in the    
,codices1 examples of two of which1 from
 the ,dresden ,codex1 are presented in  
,fig4 #c4  ,illustration3    ,,fig4     
#c4--,maya ,phonetic ,terminals4   ,the 
signs for the four cardinal points      
appear to be expressed phonetically4    

,they are represented in ,figs4 #d and  
#e4 ,the words are for ,north1 xaman1   
,east1 lakin1 ,south1 nohil1 ,west1     
chikin4 ,of these the syllable kin      
appears in lakin and chikin1 and is     
represented as above described4 ,the    
word for ,north has not been analyzed2  
that for ,south has been translated by  
,prof4 ,londe ,rosny as ma ya1 the word 
ma meaning hands or arms1 the lower as  
either a fruit or the masculine sign1 in
 either case the phonetic value being   
alone intended4 ,both the name and the  
etymology are1 however1 doubtful1       
resting upon late and imperfect         
authorities4  ,by pursuing the plan here
 indicated1 that is1 by assuming that a 
figure whose representative value is    
known1 has also a merely phonetic value 
in other combinations1 a certain number 
of phonetic elements of the ,maya tongue
 have been identified4 ,prof4 ,cyrus    
,thomas1 in an article published in one 
of our prominent journals1 states that  
he has 8interpreted satisfactorily to   

himself twelve or fifteen compound      
characters which appear to be           
phonetic40#bjf  ,illustration3          
,,figs4 #d and #e4--,signs of the       
,cardinal ,points in ,maya4   ,it is    
obvious1 however1 that small progress   
has been made in this direction compared
 to the labor expended4 ,by far the     
greater number of the fixed symbols of  
the ,maya are yet undeciphered4 ,it is  
acknowledged by all recent students that
 they cannot be representative1 as they 
recur too frequently4 ,to explain them1 
there is but one sure course1 and that  
is1 by a close analysis of the ,maya    
language to get at the relations of     
ideas in the native mind as expressed in
 their own phonetic system4  ,when we   
turn to the ,mexican system of writing1 
much more definite and extensive        
information as to its phonetic elements 
awaits us4 ,it is possible that at      
bottom it has really no higher phonetic 
character1 but several facts have       
combined to give us a better            

understanding of its structure4 ,in the 
first place1 more examples of it have   
been preserved1 some of these with more 
or less accurate translations4 ,again1  
the earlier writers1 those whom we look 
upon as our historical authorities1 have
 been more explicit and ample in their  
description of ,mexican native          
literature than of that of ,yucatan4    
,finally1 and most important1 the       
,mexican language1 the ,nahuatl1 was    
studied at an early date1 and with      
surprising thoroughness1 by the         
,catholic priests4 ,within a generation 
after the conquest they had completed a 
quite accurate analysis of its          
grammatical structure1 and had printed a
 ,nahuatl-,spanish dictionary containing
 more words than are to be found in any 
,english dictionary for a century later4
  ,these intelligent missionaries       
acquainted themselves with the          
principles of the ,mexican script1 and  
to a limited extent made use of it in   
their religious instructions1 as did    

also the ,spanish scriveners in their   
legal documents in transactions with the
 natives4 ,they found the native        
phonetic writing partly syllabic and    
partly alphabetic2 and it was easy for  
the priests to devise a wholly          
alphabetic script on the same plan4 ,an 
interesting example of this is preserved
 in the work of ,valades1 entitled      
,rhetorica ,christiana1 written about   
#aegj4 ,familiar objects are            
represented1 chiefly of ,european       
introduction4 ,each has the phonetic    
value only of the first letter of its   
,nahuatl name4 ,the plan is extremely   
simple1 and indeed the forms and names  
of the ,hebrew letters seem to indicate 
that they arose in the same way4        
,applying it to ,english1 we should     
spell the word cat by a picture of a    
chair1 of an axe1 and of a table1 each  
of these being the recognized symbol of 
its first phonetic element or initial   
letter4 ,often any one of several       
objects whose names begin with the same 

letter could be used1 at choice4 ,this  
is also illustrated in ,valades'        
alphabet1 where1 for instance1 the      
letter ,e is represented by four        
different objects4  ,as ,i have         
observed1 the native genius had not     
arrived at a complete analysis of the   
phonetic elements of the language2 but  
it was distinctly progressing in that   
direction4 ,of the five vowels and      
fourteen consonants which make up the   
,nahuatl alphabet1 three vowels         
certainly1 and probably three           
consonants1 had reached the stage where 
they were often expressed as simple     
letters by the method above described4  
,the vowels were a1 for which the sign  
was atl1 water2 e represented by a bean1
 etl2 and o by a footprint1 or path1    
otli2 the consonants were p1 represented
 either by a flag1 pan1 or a mat1 petl2 
t1 by a stone1 tetl1 or lips1 tentli2   
and z1 by a lancet1 zo4 ,these are1     
however1 exceptions4 ,most of the       
,nahuatl phonetics were syllabic1       

sometimes one1 sometimes two syllables  
of the name of the object being         
employed4 ,when the whole name of an    
object or most of it was used as a      
phonetic value1 the script remains truly
 phonetic1 but becomes of the nature of 
a rebus1 and this is the character of   
most of the phonetic ,mexican writing4  
,every one is familiar with the         
principle of the rebus4 ,it is where a  
phrase is represented by pictures of    
objects whose names bear some           
resemblance in sound to the words       
employed4 ,a stock example is that of   
the gallant who to testify his devotion 
to the lady of his heart1 whose name was
 ,rose ,hill1 had embroidered on his    
gown the pictures of a rose1 a hill1 an 
eye1 a loaf of bread1 and a well1 which 
was to be interpreted1 8,rose ,hill ,i  
love well40  ,in medieval heraldry this 
system was in extensive use4 ,armorial  
bearings were selected1 the names of the
 elements of which expressed that of the
 family who bore them4 ,thus ,pope      

,adrian ,,iv1 whose name was ,nicolas   
,breakespeare1 carried the device of a  
spear with a broken shaft2 the ,boltons 
of ,england wear arms representing a    
cask or tun pierced by a cross-bow shaft
 or bolt2 etc4 ,such arms were called   
canting arms1 the term being derived    
from the ,latin cantare1 to sing or     
chant1 the arms themselves chanting or  
announcing the family surname4  ,we     
have1 so far as ,i am aware1 no         
scientific term to express this manner  
of phonetic writing1 and ,i propose for 
it therefore the adjective ikonomatic1  
from the ,greek eikon1 a figure or      
image1 and onoma 7genitive1 onomatos7   
name1--a writing by means of the names  
of the figures or images represented4   
,the corresponding noun would be        
ikonomatography4 ,it differs radically  
from picture-writing 7,bilderschrift17  
for although it is composed of pictures1
 these were used solely with reference  
to the sound of their names1 not their  
objective significance4  ,illustration3 

,,fig4 #f4--,mexican ,phonetic          
,hieroglyphics of the name of           
,montezuma4   ,the ,mexicans1 in their  
phonetic writing1 were never far removed
 from this ikonomatic stage of          
development4 ,they combined1 however1   
with it certain clearly defined         
monosyllabic signs1 and the separate    
alphabetic elements which ,i have       
already noted4 ,an examination of the   
,,mss4 proves that there was no special 
disposition of the parts of a word4 ,in 
other words1 they might be arranged from
 right to left or from left to right1   
from below upwards or from above        
downwards2 or the one may be placed     
within the other4 ,it will easily be    
seen that this greatly increases the    
difficulty of deciphering these figures4
  ,as illustrations of the phoneticism  
of ,mexican writing ,i show two         
compounds1 quoted by ,m4 ,aubin in his  
well-known essay on the subject4 ,the   
first is a proper noun1 that of the     
emperor ,montezuma 7,fig4 #f74 ,it      

should be read from right to left4 ,the 
picture at the right represents a mouse 
trap1 in ,nahuatl1 montli1 with the     
phonetic value mo1 or mon2 the head of  
the eagle has the value quauh1 from     
quauhtli2 it is transfixed with a       
lancet1 zo2 and surmounted with a hand1 
maitl1 whose phonetic value is ma2 and  
these values combined give              
mo-quauh-zo-ma4  ,illustration3         
,,fig4 #g4--,mexican ,phonetic          
,hieroglyphics of the name of a         
,serpent4   ,the second example is a    
common noun1 the name of a serpent      
tecuhtlacozauhqui 7,fig4 #g74 ,it is    
also read from right to left2 the head  
with the peculiar band and frontal      
ornament is that of one of the noble    
class1 tecuhtli2 at the base of the left
 figure is a familiar sign for tla1 and 
represents two teeth1 tlantli2 they are 
surmounted by a jar1 comitl with the    
value co2 and this in turn is pierced by
 a lancet1 which here has only its      
alphabetic value z4 ,the remainder of   

the word was not expressed in the       
writing1 the above signs being deemed   
sufficient to convey the idea to the    
reader4  ,in presenting these examples  
,i do not bring forward anything new4   
,they are from an essay which has been  
in print nearly forty years4#bjg ,many  
other examples are to be seen in the    
great work of ,lord ,kingsborough1 and  
later in publications in the city of    
,mexico4 ,the learned ,ramirez undertook
 a dictionary of ,nahuatl hieroglyphics 
which has in part been published2       
,orozco y ,berra in his 8,history of    
,ancient ,mexico0 gathered a great many 
facts illustrative of the phonetic      
character of the ,mexican script2 and   
within a year ,dr4 ,peafiel has issued a
 quarto of considerable size giving     
ancient local ,mexican names with their 
phonetic representations4#bjh  ,with    
these aids at command1 why has not our  
progress in the interpretation of the   
ancient records on stone and paper been 
more rapid8 ,why do we stand now almost 

at the same point as in #ahej8  ,there  
can be but one answer1 and that will    
immediately suggest itself from the     
nature of the phoneticism in the        
,mexican writing4 ,what ,i have called  
the ikonomatic system of writing can be 
elucidated only by one who has a wide   
command of the vocabulary of the        
language4 ,consider1 for a moment1 the  
difficulty which we experience1 with all
 our knowledge of our native tongue1 in 
solving one of the rebuses which appear 
in the puzzle columns of periodicals for
 children2 or in interpreting the       
canting arms in armorial bearings4 ,not 
only must we recall the various names of
 the objects represented1 and select    
from them such as the sense of the      
context requires1 but we must make      
allowance for extensive omissions1 as in
 one of the examples above quoted 7,fig4
 #g71 and for mere similarities of      
sound1 often quite remote1 as well as   
for the abbreviations and               
conventionalisms of practiced scribes1  

familiar with their subject and with    
this method of writing the sounds of    
their language4  ,such difficulties as  
these can only be overcome by           
long-continued application to the       
tongues themselves1 and by acquainting  
one's self intimately with the forms1   
the methods1 and the variations of this 
truly puzzling graphic system4 ,every   
identification is solving an enigma2 but
 once solved1 each illustrates the      
method1 confirms its accuracy1 and      
facilitates the learner's progress1 and 
at the same time stimulates him with the
 joyous sense of difficulties conquered1
 and with the vision of discovered truth
 illuminating his onward path4          
,although1 as ,i have stated1 the       
general principles of this method were  
pointed out forty years ago1 the        
prevailing ignorance of the ,nahuatl    
language has prevented any one from     
successfully deciphering the ,mexican   
script4 ,this ignorance has had even a  
worse effect4 ,men who did not know a   

dozen words of ,nahuatl1 who were unable
 to construe a single sentence in the   
language1 have taken upon themselves to 
condemn ,aubin's explanations as        
visionary and untrue1 and to deny wholly
 the phonetic elements of the ,mexican  
writing4 ,lacking the essential         
condition of testing the accuracy of the
 statement1 they have presumed blankly  
to condemn it6                 ,,the    
,,ikonomatic ,,method ,,of ,,phonetic   
,,writing4#bji   ,all methods of        
recording ideas have been divided into  
two classes1 ,thought ,writing and      
,sound ,writing4  ,the first1 simplest  
and oldest is ,thought ,writing4 ,this  
in turn is subdivided into two forms1   
,ikonographic and ,symbolic ,writing4   
,the former is also known as ,imitative1
 ,representative or ,picture ,writing4  
,the object to be held in memory is     
represented by its picture1 drawn with  
such skill1 or lack of skill1 as the    
writer may possess4 ,in ,symbolic       
,writing1 a single characteristic part  

or trait serves to represent the whole  
object2 thus1 the track of an animal    
will stand for the animal itself2 a     
representation of the peculiar round    
impression of the wolf's foot1 or the   
three-lined track of the wild turkey1   
being amply sufficient to designate     
these creatures4 ,even the rudest       
savages practice both these forms of    
writing1 and make use of them to scratch
 on rocks1 and paint on bark and hides1 
the record of their deeds4  ,it will be 
observed that ,thought ,writing has no  
reference to spoken language2 neither   
the picture of a wolf1 nor the          
representation of his footprint1 conveys
 the slightest notion of the sound of   
the word wolf4 ,how was the enormous    
leap made from the thought to the       
sound--in other words1 from an          
ideographic to a phonetic method of     
writing8  ,this question has received   
considerable attention from scholars    
with reference to the development of the
 two most important alphabets of the    

world1 the ,egyptian and the ,chinese4  
,both these began as simple picture     
writing1 and both progressed to almost  
complete phoneticism4 ,in both cases1   
however1 the earliest steps are lost1   
and can be retraced only by indications 
remaining after a high degree of        
phonetic power had been reached4 ,on the
 other hand1 in the ,mexican and        
probably in the ,maya hieroglyphics1 we 
find a method of writing which is       
intermediate between the two great      
classes ,i have mentioned1 and which    
illustrates in a striking manner the    
phases through which both the ,egyptian 
and ,semitic alphabets passed somewhat  
before the dawn of history4  ,to this   
method1 which stands midway between the 
ikonographic and the alphabetic methods 
of writing1 ,i have given the name      
ikonomatic1 derived from the ,greek -1  
an image1 a figure2 -1 a name4 ,that    
which the figure or picture refers to is
 not the object represented1 but the    
name of that object--a sound1 not a     

thing4 ,but it does not refer to that   
sound as the name of the object1 but    
precisely the contrary--it is the sound 
of the name of some other object or     
idea4 ,many ideas have no objective     
representation1 and others are much more
 simply expressed by the use of figures 
whose names are familiar and of similar 
sound4 ,thus1 to give a simple example1 
the infinitive 8to hide0 could be       
written by a figure #b1 and the picture 
of a skin or hide4 ,it is this plan on  
which those familiar puzzles are        
constructed which are called rebuses1   
and none other than this which served to
 bridge over the wide gap between       
,thought and ,sound writing4 ,it is1    
however1 not correct to say that it is a
 writing by things1 8rebus20 but it is  
by the names of things1 and hence ,i    
have coined the word ikonomatic1 to     
express this clearly4  ,i shall select  
several illustrations from two widely   
diverse sources1 the one the hieroglyphs
 of ,egypt1 the other the heraldry of   

the ,middle ,ages1 and from these more  
familiar fields obtain some hints of    
service in unraveling the intricacies of
 the ,mexican and ,maya scrolls4  ,the  
general principle which underlies       
8ikonomatic writing0 is the presence in 
a language of words of different meaning
 but with the same or similar sounds2   
that is1 of homophonous words4 ,the     
figure which represents one of these is 
used phonetically to signify the other4 
,there are homophones in all languages2 
but they abound in some more than in    
others4 ,for obvious reasons1 they are  
more abundant in languages which tend   
toward monosyllabism1 such as the       
,chinese and the ,maya1 and in a less   
degree the ancient ,coptic4 ,in these it
 is no uncommon occurrence to find four 
or five quite different meanings to the 
same word2 that is1 the same sound has  
served as the radical for that many     
different names of diverse objects4 ,the
 picture of any of these objects would1 
to the speaker of the language1 recall a

 sound which would have all these       
significations1 and could be employed   
indifferently for any of them4 ,this    
circle of meanings would be still more  
widely extended when mere similarity1   
not strict identity1 was aimed at4      
,such was plainly the origin of         
phoneticism in the ,egyptian            
hieroglyphic inscriptions4 ,take the    
word nefer4 ,its most common concrete   
signification was 8a lute10 and in the  
picture writing proper the lute is      
represented by its figure4 ,but nefer   
had several other significations in     
,coptic4 ,it meant1 a colt1 a conscript 
soldier1 a door1 and the adjective good4
 ,the picture of the lute therefore was 
used to signify every one of these4  ,it
 will be observed that this is an       
example of a pure ikonograph--the       
picture is that of the object in full1 a
 lute2 but precisely in the same way the
 second class of figures in picture     
writing1 those which are wholly         
symbolic1 may be employed4 ,this1 too1  

finds ample illustration in the         
,egyptian hieroglyphics4 ,instead of the
 picture of a house1 the figure of a    
square was employed1 with one side      
incomplete4 ,phonetically1 this conveyed
 the sound per1 which means house1 and  
several other things4  ,it will readily 
be seen that where a figure represents a
 number of homophonous words1           
considerable confusion may result from  
the difficulty of ascertaining which of 
these is intended4 ,to meet this1 we    
find both in ,egyptian and ,chinese     
writing series of signs which are       
written but not pronounced1 called      
8determinatives40 ,these indicate the   
class to which a word has reference4    
,they are ideographic1 and of fixed     
meaning4 ,thus1 after the word nefer1   
when used for conscript1 the            
determinative is the picture of a man1  
etc4#baj  ,there is little doubt but    
that all the ,egyptian syllabic and     
alphabetic writing was derived from this
 early phase1 where the governing       

principle was that of the rebus4 ,at the
 date of the earliest inscriptions1 most
 of the phonetics were monosyllabic2 but
 in several instances1 as nefer1 above  
given1 neter1 which represents a banner1
 and by homophony1 a god1 and others1   
the full disyllabic name was preserved  
to the latest times4 ,the monosyllabic  
signs were derived from the initial and 
the accented syllables of the           
homophones2 and the alphabet1 so-called1
 but never recognized as such1 by the   
,egyptians1 either from monoliteral     
words1 or from initial sounds4 ,at no   
period of ancient ,egyptian history was 
one sound constantly represented by one 
sign4 ,in the so-called ,egyptian       
alphabet1 there are four quite different
 signs for the ,m1 four for the ,t1     
three for the ,n1 and so on4 ,this is   
obviously owing to the independent      
derivation of these phonetic elements   
from different figures employed         
ikonomatically4  ,there are other       
peculiarities in the ,egyptian script1  

which are to be explained by the same   
historic reason4 ,for instance1 certain 
phonetic signs can be used only in      
definite combinations2 others must be   
assigned fixed positions1 as at the     
beginning or at the end of a group2 and1
 in other cases1 two or more different  
signs1 with the same phonetic value1    
follow one another1 the scribe thinking 
that if the reader was not acquainted   
with one1 he would be with the other4 ,i
 note these peculiarities1 because they 
may be expected to recur in other       
systems of ikonomatic writing1 and may  
serve as hints in interpreting them4    
,evidently1 one of the earliest stimuli 
to the development of phonetics was the 
wish to record proper names1 which in   
themselves had no definite              
signification1 such as those drawn from 
a foreign language1 or those which had  
lost through time their original sense4 
,in savage conditions every proper name 
is significant2 but in conditions of    
social life1 as developed as that of the

 ,egyptians of the earlier dynasties1   
and as that of the ,mayas and ,mexicans 
in the ,new ,world1 there are found many
 names without meaning in the current   
tongue4 ,these could not be represented 
by any mode of picture writing4 ,to be  
recorded at all1 they must be written   
phonetically2 and to accomplish this the
 most obvious plan was to select objects
 whose names had a similar sound1 and by
 portraying the latter1 represent to the
 ear the former4 ,the ,greek names1     
,alexander and ,alexandria1 occurring on
 the ,rosetta ,stone1 were wholly       
meaningless to the ,egyptian ear2 but   
their scribes succeeded in expressing   
them very nearly by a series of signs   
which in origin are rebuses4  ,this     
inception of the ikonomatic method1 in  
the effort to express phonetically      
proper names1 is admirably illustrated  
in medival heraldry4 ,very early in the 
history of armorial bearings1 we find a 
class of scutal devices called in ,latin
 arma cantantia1 in ,english canting    

arms1 in ,french armes parlantes4 ,the  
,english term canting is from the ,latin
 cantare1 in its later sense of chanting
 or announcing4 ,armorial bearings of   
this character present charges1 the     
names of which resemble more or less    
closely in sound the proper names of the
 family who carry them4  ,some writers  
on heraldry have asserted that bearings 
of this character should be considered  
as what are known as assumptive arms1   
those which have been assumed by        
families1 without just title4 ,excellent
 authorities1 however1 such as ,woodham 
and ,lower1 have shown that these       
devices were frequent in the remotest   
ages of heraldry4#baa ,for instance1 in 
the earliest ,english ,roll of ,arms    
extant1 recorded in the reign of the    
third ,henry1 about the year #abdj1 nine
 such charges occur1 and still more in  
the ,rolls of the time of ,edward the   
,second4 ,they are also abundant in the 
heraldry of ,spain1 of ,italy and of    
,sweden2 and analogous examples have    

been adduced from ancient ,rome4 ,in    
fact1 the plan is so obvious that       
instances could be quoted from every    
quarter of the globe4 ,in later         
centuries1 such punning allusions to    
proper names became unpopular in        
heraldry1 and are now considered in bad 
taste4  ,to illustrate their character1 
,i will mention a few which are of      
ancient date4 ,the well-known ,english  
family of ,dobells carry a hart passant1
 and three bells argent1 thus expressing
 very accurately their name1 doe-bells4 
,the equally ancient family of ,boltons 
carry a device representing a cask or   
tun1 transfixed by a cross-bow or bolt4 
,few canting arms1 however1 are so      
perfect as these4 ,the ,swinburnes1 who 
are among those mentioned on the ,roll  
of #abdj1 already referred to1 bear     
three boar-heads1 symbolical of swine2  
the ,boleynes carry three bulls' heads1 
which reminds us of ,cardinal ,wolsey's 
pronunciation of the name in            
,shakespeare's ,henry ,,viii1 ,bullen3  

8,anne ,bullen8 ,no2 ,i'll no ,anne     
,bullens for him2            ,there's   
more in't than fair visage4--,bullen6   
,no1 we'll no ,bullens40--,king ,henry  
,,viii1 ,act ,,iii4  ,not rarely the    
antiquity of such bearings is evidenced 
by the loss of the allusion in the      
current language1 and recourse must be  
had to ancient and obsolete words to    
appreciate it4 ,the ,english ,harrisons 
display in their shield a hedge-hog1    
which is to be explained by the ,french 
hrisson1 and testifies to their ,norman 
origin4 ,the ,sykes of the north of     
,england show a fountain in their       
shield1 whose significance is first     
ascertained on learning that in the     
,northumbrian dialect syke means a      
flowing spring or stream4 ,the          
celebrated fleurs-de-lys of the royal   
house of ,france are traced back to the 
first ,louis1 whose name was pronounced 
,loys1 and from the similarity of this  
to the common name of the flower1 the   
latter was adopted as the charge on his 

shield4  ,hundreds of such examples     
could be adduced1 and the task of       
examining and analyzing them would not  
be an altogether vain one1 as the       
principles upon which they were applied 
are the same which control the          
development of ikonomatic writing       
wherever we find it4 ,but ,i pass from  
the consideration of these facts of     
general knowledge to the less known and 
much misunderstood forms of this writing
 which are presented in ,american       
archology4  ,these are best exemplified 
in the so-called ,mexican picture       
writing4 ,for many years scholars have  
been divided in opinion whether this was
 purely ikonographic or partly phonetic4
 ,about forty years ago ,m4 ,aubin wrote
 an essay maintaining that it is chiefly
 phonetic1 and laid down rules for its  
interpretation on this theory4 ,but     
neither he nor any who undertook to     
apply his teachings succeeded in        
offering any acceptable renderings of   
the ,aztec ,codices4 ,i am persuaded1   

however1 that the cause of this failure 
lay1 not in the theory of ,aubin1 but in
 the two facts1 first1 that not one of  
the students who approached this subject
 was well grounded in the ,nahuatl      
language2 and1 secondly1 that the       
principles of the interpretation of     
ikonomatic writing have never been      
carefully defined1 and are extremely    
difficult1 ambiguous and obscure1 enough
 so to discourage any one not specially 
gifted in the solution of enigmas4 ,at  
first1 every identification is as       
puzzling as the effort to decipher an   
artificial rebus4  ,there are1 indeed1  
some able scholars who still deny that  
any such phoneticism is to be found in  
,mexican pictography4 ,to convince such 
of their error1 and to illustrate the   
methods employed by these native        
,american scribes1 ,i will present and  
analyze several typical examples from   
,aztec manuscripts4  ,beginning with    
proper names drawn from other languages1
 we find that the ,nahuas had a number  

of such1 which1 of course1 had no       
meaning in their own tongue4 ,one of    
their documents speaks of the town of   
the ,huastecas1 called by that tribe    
,tamuch1 which means in their tongue    
8near the scorpions10 and by the        
,aztecs1 in imitation1 ,tamuoc4#bab ,as 
the ,huasteca is a ,maya dialect1       
totally distinct from the ,nahuatl1 this
 word had no sense to the ears of the   
,aztecs4 ,to convey its sound1 they     
portrayed a man holding in his hands a  
measuring stick1 and in the act of      
measuring4 ,now1 in ,nahuatl1 the verb  
8to measure0 is tamachina2 the measuring
 stick is octocatl2 and to make the     
latter plainer1 several foot-prints1    
xoctli1 are painted upon the measuring  
stick1 giving an example of the         
repetition of the sound1 such as we have
 already seen was common among the      
,egyptian scribes4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #a4--,tamuoc4   ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #b4--,mapachtepec4   ,in another 
class of proper names1 in their own     

tongue1 although they had a meaning in  
the ,nahuatl1 the scribe preferred to   
express them by ikonomatic instead of   
ikonographic devices4 ,thus1            
,mapachtepec1 means literally1 8badger  
hill10 or 8badger town10 but in place of
 depicting a badger1 the native writer  
made a drawing of a hand grasping a     
bunch of ,spanish moss1 the ,tillandsia 
usneoides4 ,the hand or arm in ,nahuatl 
is maitl1 the moss pachtli2 and taking  
the first syllables of these two words  
we obtain ma pach3 the word tepec1      
locative form of tepetl1 hill or        
village1 is expressed by the usual      
conventional ideographic or             
determinative sign4  ,in other names1   
the relative positions of the objects   
are significant1 reminding us of the    
rebus of a well-known town in           
,massachusetts1 celebrated for its      
educational institutions3               
,mass4  which is to be read1 8,andover1 
,massachusetts20 so in the ,aztec       
scrolls1 we have itzmiquilpan           

represented by an obsidian knife1       
itztli1 and an edible plant1 quilitl1   
which are placed above or over 7pan71   
the sign for cultivated land1 milli1    
thus giving all the elements of the     
name1 the last syllable by position     
only4  ,illustration3    ,,fig4         
#c4--;,itzmiquilpan4   ,in one respect  
,i believe the ikonomatic writing of the
 ,mexicans is peculiar2 that is1 in the 
phonetic value which it assigns to      
colors4 ,like the ,egyptian1 it is      
polychromatic1 but1 so far as ,i know1  
the ,egyptian polychromes never had a   
phonetic value2 they were1 in a general 
way1 used by that people as             
determinatives1 from some supposed      
similarity of hue2 thus green indicates 
a vegetable substance or bronze1 yellow1
 certain woods and some animals1 and so 
on4 ,in heraldry the colors are very    
important and have well-defined         
significations1 but very seldom1 if     
ever1 phonetic ones4 ,quite the contrary
 is the case with the ,mexican script4  

,it presents abundant instances where   
the color of the object as portrayed is 
an integral phonetic element of the     
sound designed to be conveyed4  ,to     
quote examples1 the ,nahuatl word for   
yellow is cuztic or coztic1 and when the
 hieroglyphics express phonetically such
 proper names as ,acozpa1 ,cozamaloapan1
 ,cozhuipilcan1 etc41 the monosyllable  
coz is expressed solely by the yellow   
color which the scribe lays upon his    
picture4 ,again1 the name ,xiuhuacan1   
8the place of grass10 is represented by 
a circle colored pale blue1 xiuhtic4    
,the name of this tint supplies the     
phonetic desired4 ,the name of the      
village ,tlapan is conveyed by a circle1
 whose interior is painted red1         
tlapalli1 containing the mark of a human
 foot-print4 ,such examples are         
sufficient to prove that in undertaking 
to decipher the ,mexican writing we must
 regard the color as well as the figure1
 and be prepared to allow to each a     
definite phonetic value4  ,illustration3

    ,,fig4 #d4--;,acozpa4 7,a yellow    
center surrounded by water drops1 atl1  
a47   ,illustration3    ,,fig4          
#e4--,tlamapa4   ,it must not be        
understood that all the ,aztec writing  
is made up of phonetic symbols4 ,this is
 far from being the case4 ,we discover  
among the hundreds of curious figures   
which it presents1 determinatives1 as in
 the ,egyptian inscriptions1 and        
numerous ideograms4 ,sometimes the      
ideogram is associated with the phonetic
 symbol1 acting as a sort of            
determinative to the latter4 ,an        
interesting example of this is given at 
the beginning of the 8,manuscrito       
,hieratico10 recently published by the  
,spanish government4#bac ,it is the more
 valuable as an example1 as the picture 
writing is translated into ,nahuatl and 
written in ,spanish characters4 ,the    
date of the document1 #aebf1 leaves no  
doubt that it is in the same style as   
the ancient ,codices4 ,the page is      
headed with the picture of a church     

edifice2 underneath is the outline of a 
human arm1 and the legend in ,nahuatl   
is3                    ,in ,altepetl y  
,santa ,cruz ,tlamapa4  ,these words    
mean1 8the town of ,santa ,cruz         
,tlamapa40 ,the name 8tlamapa0 means 8on
 the hill-side10 and doubtless          
originally referred to the position in  
which the village was situated4 ,but the
 prefix 8tlama0 usually signifies1 8to  
do something with the arms or hands10   
derived from maitl1 hand or arm4 ,hence1
 the figure of the extended arm gives   
this disyllable1 tlama1 which was       
sufficient to recall the name of the    
town4  ,the ,aztecs by no means confined
 the ikonomatic system to proper names4 
,they composed in it words1 sentences1  
and treatises on various subjects4 ,in  
proportion as it is applied to these    
connected and lengthy compositions1 its 
processes become more recondite1 curious
 and difficult of interpretation4       
,without a knowledge of the spoken      
language considerably more than         

rudimentary1 it would be hopeless for   
the student to attempt to solve the     
enigmas which he meets at every step4   
,yet every well-directed effort will    
convince him that he is on the right    
track1 and he will constantly be cheered
 and stimulated to further endeavor by  
the victories he will win day by day4   
,the analogy which is presented in so   
many particulars between ,mexican and   
,maya civilization would lead us to     
infer that the ,maya writing1 of which  
we have a number of examples well       
preserved1 should be unlocked by the    
same key which has been successfully    
applied to the ,aztec ,codices4 ,the    
latest writers on the ,maya manuscripts1
 while agreeing that they are in part1  
at least1 in phonetic characters1       
consider them mostly ideographic4 ,but  
it is to be noted that not one of these 
writers had any practical acquaintance  
with the sounds of the ,maya language1  
and scarcely any with its vocabulary4   
,from this it is evident that even were 

these codices in ikonomatic writing1    
such investigators could make very      
little progress in deciphering them1 and
 might readily come to the conclusion   
that the figures are not phonetic in any
 sense4 ,precisely the same position was
 taken by a number of students of       
,egyptian antiquity long after the      
announcement of the discovery of        
,champollion2 and even within a few     
years works have been printed denying   
all phoneticism to the ,nilotic         
inscriptions4  ,what induces me to      
believe that much of the ,maya script is
 of the nature of the ,mexican is the   
endeavor1 undertaken for a very         
different purpose1 of ,professor        
,valentini to explain the origin of the 
so-called ,maya alphabet1 preserved by  
,bishop ,landa1 and printed in the      
editions of his celebrated 8,description
 of ,yucatan40#bad ,professor ,valentini
 shows by arguments and illustrations1  
which ,i think are in the main correct1 
that when the natives were asked to     

represent the sounds of the ,spanish    
letters in their method of writing1 they
 selected objects to depict1 whose      
names1 or initial sounds1 or first      
syllables1 were the same1 or akin1 to   
the sounds of the ,spanish vowel or     
consonant heard by them4 ,sometimes they
 would give several words1 with their   
corresponding pictures1 for the same    
sound2 just as ,i have shown was the    
custom of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,thus1
 for the sound b they drew a foot-print1
 which in their tongue was called be2   
for the sound a an obsidian knife1 in   
,maya1 ach1 etc4 ,valentini thinks also 
that the letter e was delineated by     
black spots1 in ,maya eek1 meaning      
black1 which1 if proved by further      
research1 would show that the ,mayas1   
like the ,mexicans1 attributed phonetic 
values to the colors they employed in   
their painted scrolls4  ,outside of the 
two nations mentioned1 the natives of   
the ,american continent made little     
advance toward a phonetic system4 ,we   

have no positive evidence that even the 
cultivated ,tarascas and ,zapotecs had  
anything better than ikonographs2 and of
 the ,quiches and ,cakchiquels1 both    
near relatives of the ,mayas1 we only   
know that they had a written literature 
of considerable extent1 but of the plan 
by which it was preserved we have only  
obscure hints4 ,next to these we should 
probably place the ,chipeway            
pictography1 as preserved on their meda 
sticks1 bark records1 and adjidjiatig or
 grave-posts4 ,i have examined a number 
of specimens of these1 but have failed  
to find any evidence that the characters
 refer to sounds in the language2       
however1 ,i might not consider it       
improbable that further researches might
 disclose some germs of the ikonomatic  
method of writing even in these         
primitive examples of the desire of the 
human intellect to perpetuate its       
acquisitions1 and hand them down to     
generations yet unborn4                 
,,the ,,writing ,,and ,,records ,,of    

,,the ,,ancient ,,mayas4#bae            
#a4--;,introductory4  ,one of the ablest
 living ethnologists has classified the 
means of recording knowledge under two  
general headings--,thought-writing and  
,sound-writing4#baf ,the former is again
 divided into two forms1 the first and  
earliest of which is by pictures1 the   
second by picture-writing4  ,the        
superiority of picture-writing over the 
mere depicting of an occurrence is that 
it analyzes the thought and expresses   
separately its component parts1 whereas 
the picture presents it as a whole4 ,the
 representations familiar among the     
,north ,american ,indians are usually   
only pictures1 while most of the records
 of the ,aztec communities are in       
picture-writing4  ,the genealogical     
development of ,sound-writing begins by 
the substitution of the sign of one idea
 for that of another whose sound is     
nearly or quite the same4 ,such was the 
early graphic system of ,egypt1 and such
 substantially to-day is that of the    

,chinese4 ,above stands syllabic        
writing1 this as that of the ,japanese1 
and the semi-syllabic signs of the old  
,semitic alphabet2 while1 as the        
perfected result of these various       
attempts1 we reach at last the invention
 of a true alphabet1 in which a definite
 figure corresponds to a definite       
elementary sound4  ,it is a primary     
question in ,american archology1 ,how   
far did the most cultivated nations of  
the western continent ascend this scale 
of graphic development8 ,this question  
is as yet unanswered4 ,all agree1       
however1 that the highest evolution took
 place among the ,nahuatl-speaking      
tribes of ,mexico and the ,maya race of 
,yucatan4  ,i do not go too far in      
saying that it is proved that the       
,aztecs used to a certain extent a      
phonetic system of writing1 one in which
 the figures refer not to the thought1  
but to the sound of the thought as      
expressed in spoken language4 ,this has 
been demonstrated by the researches of  

,m4 ,aubin1 and1 of late1 by the studies
 of ,seor ,orozco y ,berra4#bag  ,two   
evolutionary steps can be distinguished 
in the ,aztec writing4 ,in the earlier  
the plan is that of the rebus in        
combination with ideograms1 which latter
 are nothing more than the elements of  
picture-writing4 ,examples of this plan 
are the familiar 8tribute rolls0 and the
 names of towns and kings1 as shown in  
several of the codices published by     
,lord ,kingsborough4 ,the second step is
 where a conventional image is employed 
to represent the sound of its first     
syllable4 ,this advances actually to the
 level of the syllabic alphabet2 but it 
is doubtful if there are any ,aztec     
records entirely1 or even largely1 in   
this form of writing4 ,they had only    
reached the commencement of its         
development4  ,the graphic system of the
 ,mayas of ,yucatan was very different  
from that of the ,aztecs4 ,no one at all
 familiar with the two could fail at    
once to distinguish between the         

manuscripts of the two nations4 ,they   
are plainly independent developments4   
,we know much more about the ancient    
civilization of ,mexico than of         
,yucatan2 we have many more ,aztec than 
,maya manuscripts1 and hence we are more
 at a loss to speak with positiveness   
about the ,maya system of writing than  
about the ,mexican4 ,we must depend on  
the brief and unsatisfactory statements 
of the early ,spanish writers1 and on   
what little modern research has         
accomplished1 for means to form a       
correct opinion2 and there is at present
 a justifiable discrepancy of opinion   
about it among those who have given the 
subject most attention4                 
#b4--;,descriptions by ,spanish         
,writers4  ,the earliest exploration of 
the coast of ,yucatan was that of       
,francisco ,hernandez de ,cordova1 in   
#aeag4 ,the year following a second     
expedition1 under ,juan de ,grijalva1   
visited a number of points between the  
island of ,cozumel and the ,bahia de    

,terminos4  ,several accounts of        
,grijalva's voyage have been preserved1 
but they make no distinct reference to  
the method of writing they found in use4
 ,some native books were obtained1      
however1 probably from the ,mayas1 and  
were sent to ,spain1 where they were    
seen by the historian ,peter ,martyr4   
,he describes them in general terms1 and
 compares the characters in which they  
were written to the ,egyptian           
hieroglyphics1 some of which he had seen
 in ,rome4 ,he supposes that they       
contain the laws and ceremonies of the  
people1 astronomical calculations1 the  
deeds of their kings1 and other events  
of their history4 ,he also speaks in    
commendation of the neatness of their   
general appearance1 the skill with which
 the drawing and painting were carried  
out4 ,he further mentions that the      
natives used this method of writing or  
drawing in the affairs of common        
life4#bah  ,although ,yucatan became    
thus early known to the ,spaniards1 it  

was not until #aeda that a permanent    
settlement was effected1 in which year  
,francisco de ,montejo1 the younger1    
advanced into the central province of   
,ceh ,pech1 and established a city on   
the site of the ancient town called     
,ichcanziho1 which means 8the five      
7temples7 of many oracles 7or           
serpents710 to which he gave the name   
,mrida1 on account of the magnificent   
ancient edifices he found there4        
,previous to this date1 however1 in     
#aecd1 ,father ,jacobo de ,testera1 with
 four other missionaries1 proceeded from
 ,tabasco up the west coast to the      
neighborhood of the ,bay of ,campeachy4 
,they were received amicably by the     
natives1 and instructed them in the     
articles of the ,christian faith4 ,they 
also obtained from the chiefs a         
submission to the ,king of ,spain2 and  
,i mention this early missionary        
expedition for the fact stated that each
 chief signed this act of submission    
8with a certain mark1 like an           

autograph40 ,this document was          
subsequently taken to ,spain by the     
celebrated ,bishop ,las ,casas4#bai ,it 
is clear from the account that some     
definite form of signature was at that  
time in use among the chiefs4  ,it might
 be objected that these signatures were 
nothing more than rude totem marks1 such
 as were found even among the hunting   
tribes of the ,northern ,mississippi    
,valley4 ,but ,las ,casas himself1 in   
whose possession the documents were1    
here comes to our aid to refute this    
opinion4 ,he was familiar with the      
picture-writing of ,mexico1 and         
recognized in the hieroglyphics of the  
,mayas something different and superior4
 ,he says expressly that these had      
inscriptions1 writings1 in certain      
characters1 the like of which were found
 nowhere else4#bbj  ,one of the early   
visitors to ,yucatan after the conquest 
was the ,pope's commissary-general1     
,father ,alonzo ,ponce1 who was there in
 #aehh4 ,many natives who had grown to  

adult years in heathenism must have been
 living then4 ,he makes the following   
interesting observation3  8,the natives 
of ,yucatan are1 among all the          
inhabitants of ,new ,spain1 especially  
deserving of praise for three things3   
,first1 that before the ,spaniards came 
they made use of characters and letters1
 with which they wrote out their        
histories1 their ceremonies1 the order  
of sacrifices to their idols1 and their 
calendars1 in books made of bark of a   
certain tree4 ,these were on very long  
strips1 a quarter or a third 7of a yard7
 in width1 doubled and folded1 so that  
they resembled a bound book in quarto1 a
 little larger or smaller4 ,these       
letters and characters were understood  
only by the priests of the idols 7who in
 that language are called ,ahkins7 and a
 few principal natives4 ,afterwards some
 of our friars learned to understand and
 read them1 and even wrote them40#bba   
,the interesting fact here stated1 that 
some of the early missionaries not only 

learned to read these characters1 but   
employed them to instruct the ,indians1 
has been authenticated by a recent      
discovery of a devotional work written  
in this way4  ,the earliest historian of
 ,yucatan is ,fr4 ,bernardo de          
,lizana4#bbb ,but ,i do not know of a   
single complete copy of his work1 and   
only one imperfect copy1 which is1 or   
was1 in the city of ,mexico1 from which 
the ,abb ,brasseur 7de ,bourbourg7      
copied and republished a few chapters4  
,lizana was himself not much of an      
antiquary1 but he had in his hands the  
manuscripts left by ,father ,alonso de  
,solana1 who came to ,yucatan in #aefe1 
and remained there til his death1 in    
#aeii4 ,solana was an able man1         
acquiring thoroughly the ,maya tongue1  
and left in his writings many notes on  
the antiquities of the country4#bbc     
,therefore we may put considerable      
confidence in what ,lizana writes on    
these matters4  ,the reference which ,i 
find in his work to the ,maya writings  

is as follows3  8,the most celebrated   
and revered sanctuary in this land1 and 
that to which they resorted from all    
parts1 was this town and temples of     
,ytzamal1 as they are now called2 and   
that it was founded in most ancient     
times1 and that it is still known who   
did found it1 will be set forth in the  
next chapter4  8,,iii4 ,the history and 
the authorities which we can cite are   
certain ancient characters1 scarcely    
understood by many1 and explained by    
some old ,indians1 sons of the priests  
of their gods1 who alone knew how to    
read and expound them1 and who were     
believed in and revered as much as the  
gods themselves1 etc4#bbd0  ,we have    
here the positive statement that these  
hieroglyphic inscriptions were used by  
the priests for recording their national
 history1 and that by means of them they
 preserved the recollection of events   
which took place in a very remote past4 
,another valuable early witness1 who    
testifies to the same effect1 is the    

,dr4 ,don ,pedro ,sanchez de ,aguilar1  
who was cura of ,valladolid1 in         
,yucatan1 in #aeif1 and1 later1 dean of 
the chapter of the cathedral at ,merida4
 ,his book1 too1 is extremely scarce1   
and ,i have never seen a copy2 but ,i   
have copious extracts from it1 made by  
the late ,dr4 ,c4 ,hermann ,berendt from
 a copy in ,yucatan4 ,aguilar writes of 
the ,mayas3  8,they had books made from 
the bark of trees1 coated with a white  
and durable varnish4 ,they were ten or  
twelve yards long1 and were gathered    
together in folds1 like a palm leaf4 ,on
 these they painted in colors the       
reckoning of their years1 wars1         
pestilences1 hurricanes1 inundations1   
famines1 and other events4 ,from one of 
these books1 which ,i myself took from  
some of these idolaters1 ,i saw and     
learned that to one pestilence they gave
 the name ,mayacimil1 and to another    
,ocnakuchil1 which mean #8sudden deaths'
 and #8times when the crows enter the   
houses to eat the corpses4' ,and the    

inundation they called ,hunyecil1 the   
submersion of trees40#bbe  ,the writer  
leaves it uncertain whether he learned  
these words directly from the characters
 of the book or through the explanations
 of some native4  ,it has sometimes been
 said that the early ,spanish writers   
drew a broad line between the           
picture-writing that they found in      
,america and an alphabetic script4 ,this
 may be true of other parts1 but is not 
so of ,yucatan4 ,these signs1 or some of
 them1 are repeatedly referred to as    
8letters10 letras4  ,this is pointedly  
the case with ,father ,gabriel de ,san  
,buenaventura1 a ,french ,franciscan who
 served in ,yucatan about #afgj-'hj4 ,he
 published one of the earliest grammars 
of the language1 and also composed a    
dictionary in three large volumes1 which
 was not printed4 ,father ,beltran de   
,santa ,rosa quotes from it an          
interesting tradition preserved by      
,buenaventura1 that among the inventions
 of the mythical hero-god of the        

natives1 ,itzamna or ,kinich ahau1 was  
that of 8the letters of the ,maya       
language10 with which letters they wrote
 their books4#bbf ,itzamna1 of course1  
dates back to a misty antiquity1 but the
 legend is of value1 as showing that the
 characters used by the natives did1 in 
the opinion of the early missionaries1  
deserve the name of letters4  ,father   
,diego ,lopez ,cogolludo is the         
best-known historian of ,yucatan4 ,he   
lived about the middle of the           
seventeenth century1 and says himself   
that at that time there was little more 
to be learned about the antiquities of  
the race4 ,he adds1 therefore1          
substantially nothing to our knowledge  
of the subject1 although he repeats1    
with positiveness1 the statement that   
the natives 8had characters by which    
they could understand each other in     
writing1 such as those yet seen in great
 numbers on the ruins of their          
buildings40#bbg  ,this is not very full4
 ,yet we know to a certainty that there 

were quantities of these manuscripts in 
use in ,yucatan for a generation after  
,cogolludo wrote4 ,to be sure1 those in 
the ,christianized districts had been   
destroyed1 wherever the priests could   
lay their hands on them2 but in the     
southern part of the peninsula1 on the  
islands of ,lake ,peten and adjoining   
territory1 the powerful chief1 ,canek1  
ruled a large independent tribe of      
,itzas4 ,they had removed from the      
northern provinces of the peninsula     
somewhere about #adej1 probably in      
consequence of the wars which followed  
the dissolution of the confederacy whose
 capital was the ancient city of        
,mayapan4  ,their language was pure     
,maya1 and they had brought with them in
 their migration1 as one of their       
greatest treasures1 the sacred books    
which contained their ancient history1  
their calendar and ritual1 and the      
prophecies of their future fate4 ,in the
 year #afig they were attacked by the   
,spaniards1 under ,general ,don ,martin 

de ,ursua2 their capital1 on the island 
of ,flores1 in ,lake ,peten1 taken by   
storm2 great numbers of them slaughtered
 or driven into the lake to drown1 and  
the twenty-one temples which were on the
 island razed to the ground4  ,a minute 
and trustworthy account of these events 
has been given by ,don ,juan de         
,villagutierre ,soto-,mayor1 in the     
course of which occur several references
 to the sacred books1 which he calls    
,analts4  ,the king ,canek1 he tells us1
 in reading in his ,analts1 had found   
notices of the northern provinces of    
,yucatan and of the fact that his       
predecessors had come thence1 and had   
communicated these narratives to his    
chiefs4#bbh  ,these books are described 
as showing 8certain characters and      
figures1 painted on certain barks of    
trees1 each leaf or tablet about a      
quarter 7of a yard7 wide1 and of the    
thickness of a piece of eight1 folded at
 one edge and the other in the manner of
 a screen1 called by them               

,analtehes40#bbi  ,when the island of   
,flores was captured these books were   
found stored in the house of the king   
,canek1 containing the account of all   
that had happened to the tribe4#bcj     
,what disposition was made of them we   
are not informed4  ,i have reserved     
until now a discussion of the           
description of the ,maya writing        
presented in the well-known work of     
,diego de ,landa1 the second bishop of  
,yucatan4 ,landa arrived in the province
 in ,august1 #aedi1 and died in ,april1 
#aegi1 having passed most of the        
intervening thirty years there in the   
discharge of his religious duties4 ,he  
became well acquainted with the         
language1 which1 for that matter1 is a  
comparatively easy one1 and though      
harsh1 illiberal1 and bitterly fanatic1 
he paid a certain amount of attention to
 the arts1 religion1 and history of the 
ancient inhabitants4  ,the notes that he
 made were copied after his death and   
reached ,spain1 where they are now      

preserved in the library of the ,royal  
,academy of ,history1 ,madrid4 ,in #ahfd
 they were published at ,paris1 with a  
,french translation1 by the ,abb        
,brasseur 7de ,bourbourg74  ,of all     
writers ,landa comes the nearest telling
 us how the ,mayas used their system of 
writing2 but1 unfortunately1 he also is 
so superficial and obscure that his     
words have given rise to very erroneous 
theories4 ,his description runs as      
follows3  8,this people also used       
certain characters or letters1 with     
which they wrote in their books their   
ancient matters and their sciences1 and 
with them 7i4 e41 with their characters 
or letters71 and figures 7i4 e41        
drawings or pictures71 and some signs in
 the figures1 they understood their     
matters1 and could explain them and     
teach them4 ,we found great numbers in  
these letters1 but as they contained    
nothing that did not savor of           
superstition and lies of the devil1 we  
burnt them all1 at which the natives    

grieved most keenly and were greatly    
pained4  8,i will give here an a1 b1 c1 
as their clumsiness does not allow more1
 because they use one character for all 
the aspirations of the letters1 and for 
marking the parts another1 and thus it  
could go on in infinitum1 as may be seen
 in the following example4 ,le means a  
noose and to hunt with one2 to write in 
their characters1 after we had made them
 understand that there are two letters1 
they wrote it with three1 giving to the 
aspiration of the l the vowel 1 which it
 carries before it2 and in this they are
 not wrong so to use it1 if they wish   
to1 in their curious manner4 ,after this
 they add to the end the compound       
part40#bca  ,i need not pursue the      
quotation4 ,the above words show clearly
 that the natives did not in their      
method of writing analyze a word to its 
primitive phonetic elements4 8,this10   
said the bishop1 8we had to do for      
them40 ,therefore they did not have an  
alphabet in the sense of the word as we 

use it4  ,on the other hand1 it is      
equally clear1 from his words and       
examples1 that they had figures which   
represented sounds1 and that they       
combined these and added a determinative
 or an ideogram to represent words or   
phrases4  ,illustration3    ,,fig4      
#a4--;,fac ,simile of ,landa's          
,manuscript4   ,the alphabet which he   
inserts has been engraved and printed   
several times1 but nowhere with the     
fidelity desirable for so important a   
monument in ,american archology4 ,for   
that reason ,i insert a photographic    
reproduction of it from the original    
,,ms4 in the library of the ,academia de
 la ,historia of ,madrid4  ,a comparison
 of this with the alphabet as given in  
,brasseur's edition of ,landa discloses 
several variations of importance4 ,thus 
the ,abb places the first form of the   
letter ,c horizontally instead of       
upright4 ,again in the ,,ms41 the two   
figures for the letter ,u stand1 the    
first at the end of one line1 the second

 at the beginning of the next4 ,from    
their strong analogy with the sign of   
the sky at night1 ,i am of opinion that 
they belong together as members of one  
composite sign1 not separately as       
,brasseur gives them4  ,both in it and  
in the inscriptions1 manuscripts1 and   
paintings the forms of the letters are  
rounded1 and a row of them presents the 
outlines of a number of pebbles cut in  
two4 ,hence the system of writing has   
been called 8calculiform10 from         
calculus1 a pebble4 ,the expression has 
been criticised1 but ,i agree with ,dr4 
,frstemann in thinking it a very        
appropriate one4 ,it was suggested1 ,i  
believe1 by the ,abb ,brasseur 7de      
,bourbourg74  ,this alphabet of course1 
can not be used as the ,latin a1 b1 c4  
,it is surprising that any scholar      
should have ever thought so4 ,it would  
be an exception1 even a contradiction1  
to the history of the evolution of human
 intelligence1 to find such an alphabet 
among nations of the stage of           

cultivation of the ,mayas or ,aztecs4   
,the severest criticism which ,landa's  
figures have met has been from ,dr4     
,phillip ,j4 ,j4 ,valentini4 ,he        
discovered that many of the sounds of   
the ,spanish alphabet were represented  
by signs or pictures of objects whose   
names in the ,maya begin with that      
sound4 ,thus he supposes that ,landa    
asked an ,indian to write in the native 
character the ,spanish letter a1 and the
 ,indian drew an obsidian knife1 which1 
says ,dr4 ,valentini1 is in the ,maya   
ach2 in other words1 it begins with the 
vowel a4 ,so for the sound ki1 the      
,indian gave the sign of the day named  
kinich4  ,such is ,dr4 ,valentini's     
theory of the formation of ,landa's     
alphabet2 and not satisfied with lashing
 with considerable sharpness those who  
have endeavored by its aid to decipher  
the manuscripts and mural inscriptions1 
he goes so far as to term it 8a ,spanish
 fabrication40  ,i shall not enter into 
a close examination of ,dr4 ,valentini's

 supposed identification of these       
figures4 ,it is evident that it has been
 done by running over the ,maya         
dictionary to find some word beginning  
with the letter under criticism1 the    
figurative representation of which word 
might bear some resemblance to ,landa's 
letter4 ,when the ,maya fails1 such a   
word is sought for in the ,kiche or     
other dialect of the stock2 and the     
resemblances of the pictures to the     
supposed originals are sometimes greatly
 strained4  ,but ,i pass by these       
dubious methods of criticism1 as well as
 several lexicographic objections which 
might be raised4 ,i believe1 indeed1    
that ,dr4 ,valentini is not wrong in a  
number of his identifications4 ,but the 
conclusion ,i draw is a different one4  
,instead of proving that this is        
picture-writing1 it indicates that the  
,mayas used the second or higher grade  
of phonetic syllabic writing1 which1 as 
,i have before observed1 has been shown 
by ,m4 ,aubin to have been developed to 

some extent by the ,aztecs in some of   
their histories and connected           
compositions 7see above1 page #bca74    
,therefore the importance and           
authenticity of ,landa's alphabet are1  
,i think1 vindicated by this attempt to 
treat it as a 8fabrication40#bcb  ,landa
 also gives some interesting details    
about their books4 ,he writes3  8,the   
sciences that they taught were the      
reckoning of the years1 months1 and     
days1 the feasts and ceremonies1 the    
administration of their sacraments1 the 
fatal days and seasons1 their methods of
 divination and prophecies1 events about
 to happen1 remedies for diseases1 their
 ancient history1 together with the art 
of reading and writing their books with 
characters which were written1 and      
pictures which represented the things   
written4  8,they wrote their books on a 
large sheet doubled into folds1 which   
was afterwards inclosed between two     
boards1 which they decorated handsomely4
 ,they were written from side to side in

 columns1 as they were folded4 ,they    
manufactured this paper from the root of
 a tree and gave it a white surface on  
which one could write4 ,some of the     
principal nobles cultivated these       
sciences out of a taste for them1 and   
although they did not make public use of
 them1 as did the priests1 yet they were
 the more highly esteemed for this      
knowledge40#bcc  ,from the above        
extracts from ,spanish writers we may   
infer that--  #a4 ,the ,maya graphic    
system was recognized from the first to 
be distinct from the ,mexican4  #b4 ,it 
was a hieroglyphic system1 known only to
 the priests and a few nobles4  #c4 ,it 
was employed for a variety of purposes1 
prominent among which was the           
preservation of their history and       
calendar4  #d4 ,it was a composite      
system1 containing pictures 7figuras71  
ideograms 7caracteres71 and phonetic    
signs 7letras74                         
#c4--,references from ,native ,sources4 
,we might reasonably expect that the    

,maya language should contain terms     
relating to their books and writings    
which would throw light on their        
methods4 ,so1 no doubt1 it did4 ,but it 
was a part of the narrow and crushing   
policy of the missionaries not only to  
destroy everything that related to the  
times of heathendom1 but even to drop   
all words which referred to ancient     
usages4 ,hence the dictionaries are more
 sterile in this respect than we might  
have supposed4  ,the verb 8to write0 is 
dzib1 which like the ,greek 1 meant also
 to draw and to paint4 ,from this are   
derived the terms dziban1 something     
written2 dzibal1 a signature1 etc4      
,another word1 meaning to write1 or to  
paint in black1 is zabac4 ,as a noun1   
this was in ancient times applied to a  
black fluid extracted from the zabacche1
 a species of tree1 and used for dyeing 
and painting4 ,in the sense of 8to      
write10 zabac is no longer found in the 
language1 and instead of its old        
meaning1 it now refers to ordinary ink4 

,the word for letter or character is    
uooh4 ,this is a primitive root found   
with the same or a closely allied       
meaning in other branches of this       
linguistic stock1 as1 for instance1 in  
the ,kich and ,cakchiquel4 ,as a verb1  
pret4 uooth1 fut4 uoot1 it also means to
 form letters1 to write2 and from the   
passive form1 uoohal1 we have the       
participial noun1 uoohan1 something     
written1 a manuscript4  ,the ordinary   
word for book1 paper1 or letter1 is     
huun1 in which the aspirate is almost   
mute1 and is dropped in the forms       
denoting possession1 as u uun1 my book1 
yuunil ,dios1 the book of ,god1 il being
 the so-called 8determinative0 ending4  
,it occurs to me as not unlikely that   
uun1 book1 is a syncopated form of      
uoohan1 something written1 given above4 
,to read a book is xochun1 literally to 
count a book4  ,according to            
,villagutierre ,soto-,mayor1 the name of
 the sacred books of the ,itzas was     
analt4 ,in the printed ,diccionario de  

la ,lengua ,maya1 by ,don ,juan ,pio    
,perez1 this is spelled anaht1 which    
seems to be a later form4  ,the term is 
not found in several early ,maya        
dictionaries in my possession1 of dates 
previous to #agjj4 ,the ,abb ,brasseur  
indeed1 in a note to ,landa1 explains it
 to mean 8a book of wood10 but it can   
have no such signification4 ,perhaps it 
should read hunilt1 this being composed 
of hunil1 the 8determinative0 form of   
huun1 a book1 and the termination t1    
which added to nouns1 gives them a      
specific sense1 e4 g4 amayt1 a square   
figure1 from amay1 an angle2 tzucubl1 a 
province1 from tzuc1 a portion separated
 from the rest4 ,it would mean          
especially the sacred or national books4
  ,the particular class of books which  
were occupied with the calendar and the 
ritual were called tzolant1 which is a  
participial noun from the verb tzol1    
passive tzolal1 to set in order1 to     
arrange1 with the suffix t4 ,by these   
books were set in order and arranged the

 various festivals and fasts4  ,when the
 conquest was an accomplished fact and  
the priests had got the upper hand1 the 
natives did not dare use their ancient  
characters4 ,they exposed themselves to 
the suspicion of heresy and the risk of 
being burnt alive1 as more than once    
happened4 ,but their strong passion for 
literature remained1 and they gratified 
it as far as they dared by writing in   
their own tongue with the ,spanish      
alphabet volumes whose contents are very
 similar to those described by ,landa4  
,a number of these are still in         
existence1 and offer an interesting     
field for antiquarian and linguistic    
study4 ,although1 as ,i say1 they are no
 longer in the ,maya letters1 they      
contain quite a number of ideograms1 as 
the signs of the days and the months1   
and occasional cartouches and paintings1
 which show that they were made to      
resemble the ancient manuscripts as     
closely as possible4  ,they also contain
 not infrequent references to the       

8writing0 of the ancients1 and what are 
alleged to be extracts from the old     
records1 chiefly of a mystic character4 
,the same terms are employed in speaking
 of the ancient graphic system as of the
 present one4 ,thus in one of them1     
known as 8,the ,book of ,chilan ,balam  
of ,chumayel10 occurs this phrase3 ,bay 
dzibanil tumenel ,evangelistas yetel    
profeta ,balam--8as it was written by   
the ,evangelists1 and also by the       
prophet ,balam10 this ,balam being one  
of their own celebrated ancient seers4  
,among the predictions preserved from a 
time anterior to the ,conquest1 there   
are occasional references to their books
 and their contents4 ,i quote1 as an    
example1 a short prophecy attributed to 
,ahkul ,chel1 8priest of the idols40 ,it
 is found in several of the oldest ,maya
 manuscripts1 and is in all probability 
authentic1 as it contains nothing which 
would lead us to suppose that it was one
 of the 8pious frauds0 of the           
missionaries4   8,enhi cibte katune     

yume1 maixtan  naat2  ,uatac u talel1   
mac bin ca abac tu co pop2  ,katune yume
 bin uluc1 holom uil tucal ya2  ,tali ti
 xaman1 tali ti chikine2 ahkinob uil    
yane yume2  ,mac to ahkin1 mac to       
ahbobat1 bin alic u than uoohe2  ,yhcil 
,bolon ,ahau1 maixtan  naat80   8,the   
lord of the cycle has been written down1
 but ye will not     understand2  8,he  
has come1 who will give the enrolling of
 the years2  8,the lord of the cycle    
will arrive1 he will come on account of 
his love2  8,he came from the north1    
from the west4 ,there are priests1 there
 are     fathers1  8,but what priest1   
what prophet1 shall explain the words of
 the books1  8,in the ,ninth ,ahau1     
which ye will not understand80#bcd      
,from this designedly obscure chant we  
perceive that the ancient priests       
inscribed their predictions in books1   
which were afterward explained to the   
people4 ,the expression bin alic u than 
uoohe--literally1 8he will speak the    
words of the letters0--seems to point to

 a phonetic writing1 but as it may be   
used in a figurative sense1 ,i shall not
 lay stress on it4#bce                  
#d4--,the ,existing ,codices4  ,the word
 ,codex ought to be confined1 in        
,american archology1 to manuscripts in  
the original writing of the natives4    
,some writers have spoken of the 8,codex
 ,chimalpopoca10 the 8,codex            
,zumarraga10 and the 8,codex ,perez10   
which are nothing more than manuscripts 
either in the native or ,spanish tongues
 written with the ,latin alphabet4  ,of 
the ,maya ,codices known1 only four have
 been published1 which ,i will mention  
in the order of their appearance4  ,the 
,dresden ,codex4--,this is an important 
,maya manuscript preserved in the ,royal
 ,library at ,dresden4 ,how or when it  
came to ,europe is not known4 ,it was   
obtained from some unknown person in    
,vienna in #agci4  ,this ,codex         
corresponds in size1 appearance1 and    
manner of folding to the descriptions of
 the ,maya books which ,i have presented

 above from ,spanish sources4 ,it has   
thirty-nine leaves1 thirty-five of which
 are colored and inscribed on both      
sides1 and four on one side only1 so    
that there are only seventy-four pages  
of matter4 ,the total length of the     
sheet is #c4e meters1 and the height of 
each page is #j4bie meter1 the width    
#j4jhe meter4  ,the first publication of
 any portion of this ,codex was by      
,alexander von ,humboldt1 who had five  
pages of it copied for his work1 ,vues  
des ,cordillres et ,monumens des        
,peuples ,indigenes de l',amrique1      
issued at ,paris in #ahac 7not #ahaj1 as
 the title-page has it74 ,it was next   
very carefully copied in full by the    
,italian artist1 ,agostino ,aglio1 for  
the third volume of ,lord               
,kingsborough's great work on ,mexican  
,antiquities1 the first volume of which 
appeared in #ahca4  ,from               
,kingsborough's work a few pages of the 
,codex have been from time to time      
republished in other books1 which call  

for no special mention2 and two pages   
were copied from the original in        
,wuttke's ,geschichte der ,schrift1     
,leipzig1 #ahgb4  ,finally1 in #ahhj1   
the whole was very admirably            
chromo-photographed by ,a4 ,naumaun's   
establishment at ,leipzig1 to the number
 of fifty copies1 forty of which were   
placed on sale4 ,it is the first work   
which was ever published in             
chromo-photography1 and has1 therefore1 
a high scientific as well as antiquarian
 interest4  ,the editor was ,dr4 ,e4    
,frstemann1 aulic counselor and         
librarian-in-chief of the ,royal        
,library4 ,he wrote an introduction 7#ag
 pp4 #dto47 giving a history of the     
manuscript1 and bibliographical and     
other notes upon it of much value4 ,one 
opinion he defends must not be passed by
 in silence4 ,it is that the ,dresden   
,codex is not one1 but parts of two     
original manuscripts written by         
different hands4  ,it appears that it   
has always been in two unequal          

fragments1 which all previous writers   
have attributed to an accidental injury 
to the original4 ,dr4 ,frstemann gives a
 number of reasons for believing that   
this is not the correct explanation1 but
 that we have here portions of two      
different books1 having general         
similarity but also many points of      
diversity4  ,this separation led to an  
erroneous 7or perhaps erroneous7        
sequence of the pages in ,kingsborough's
 edition4 ,the artist ,aglio took first 
one fragment and copied both sides1 and 
then proceeded to the next one2 and it  
is not certain that in either case he   
begins with the first page in the       
original order of the book4  ,the ,codex
 ,peresianus1 or ,codex ,mexicanus1 ,no4
 ,,ii1 of the ,bibliothque ,nationale of
 ,paris4--,this fragment--for it is     
unfortunately nothing more--was         
discovered in #ahei by ,prof4 ,leon de  
,rosny among a mass of old papers in the
 ,national ,library4 ,it consists of    
eleven leaves1 twenty-two pages1 each #i

 inches long and #e inches wide4 ,the   
writing is very much defaced1 but was   
evidently of a highly artistic          
character1 probably the most so of any  
manuscript known4 ,it unquestionably    
belongs to the ,maya manuscripts4  ,its 
origin is unknown4 ,the papers in which 
it was wrapped bore the name 8,perez10  
in a ,spanish hand of the seventeenth   
century1 and hence the name             
8,peresianus0 was given it4 ,by order of
 the ,minister of ,public ,instruction1 
ten photographic copies of this ,codex1 
without reduction1 were prepared for the
 use of scholars4 ,none of them were    
placed on sale1 and so far as ,i know   
the only one which has found its way to 
the ,united ,states is that in my own   
library4 ,an ordinary lithographic      
reproduction was given in the ,archives 
palographiques de l',orient et de       
l',amrique1 tome ,i4 7,paris1           
#ahfi-'ga74  ,the ,codex ,tro1 or       
,troano4--,the publication of this      
valuable ,codex we owe to the enthusiasm

 of the ,abb ,brasseur 7de ,bourbourg74 
,on his return from ,yucatan in #ahfd he
 visited ,madrid1 and found this        
,manuscript in the possession of ,don   
,juan de ,tro y ,ortolano1 professor of 
paleography1 and himself a descendent of
 ,hernan ,cortes4 ,the abb named it     
,troano1 as a compound of the two names 
of its owner2 but later writers often   
content themselves by referring to it   
simply as the ,codex ,tro4  ,it consists
 of thirty-five leaves and seventy      
pages1 each of which is larger than a   
page of the ,dresden ,codex1 but less   
than one of the ,codex ,peresianus4 ,it 
was published by chromo-lithography at  
,paris1 in #ahfi1 prefaced by a study on
 the graphic system of the ,mayas by the
 abb1 and an attempt at a translation4  
,the reproduction1 which was carried out
 under the efficient care of ,m4 ,leonce
 ,angrand1 is extremely accurate4  ,the 
,codex ,cortesianus4--,this ,codex1     
published at ,paris1 #ahhc1 under the   
editorship of ,professor ,leon de       

,rosny1 presents the closest analogy to 
the ,codex ,troano1 of which1 indeed1 it
 probably formed a part4 ,it has        
forty-two leaves1 closely written in the
 calculiform character4 ,there is no    
evidence that it was brought to ,spain  
by ,cortes1 but from a tradition to that
 effect1 it has received its name4  ,all
 four of these codices were written on  
paper manufactured from the leaves of   
the maguey plant1 such as that in common
 use in ,mexico4 ,in ,maya the maguey is
 called ci1 the varieties being         
distinguished by various prefixes4 ,it  
grows luxuriantly in most parts of      
,yucatan1 and although the favorite     
tipple of the ancient inhabitants was   
mead1 they were not unacquainted with   
the intoxicating pulque1 the liquor from
 the maguey1 if we can judge from their 
word for a drunkard1 ci-vinic           
7vinicman74 ,the old writers were       
probably in error when they spoke of the
 books being made of the barks of trees2
 or1 at least1 they were not all of that

 material4  ,the above-mentioned        
,manuscripts are the only ones which    
have been published4 ,i shall not       
enumerate those which are said to exist 
in private hands4 ,so long as they are  
withheld from the examination of        
scientific men they can add nothing to  
the general stock of knowledge1 and as  
statements about them are not           
verifiable1 it is useless to make any4  
,in addition to the ,manuscripts1 we    
have the mural paintings and            
inscriptions found at ,palenque1 ,copan1
 ,chichen ,itza1 and various ruined     
cities within the boundaries of the     
,maya-speaking races4 ,there is no      
mistaking these inscriptions4 ,they are 
unquestionably of the same character as 
the ,manuscripts1 although it is also   
easy to perceive variations1 which are  
partly owing to the necessary           
differences in technique between        
painting and sculpture3 partly1 no      
doubt1 to the separation of age and     
time4  ,photographs and 8squeezes0 have 

reproduced many of these inscriptions   
with entire fidelity4 ,we can also      
depend upon the accurate pencil of      
,catherwood1 whose delineations have    
never been equalled4 ,but the pictures  
of ,waldeck and some other travelers do 
not deserve any confidence1 and should  
not be quoted in a discussion of the    
subject4                         ,,the  
,,books ,,of ,,chilan ,,balam4#bcf      
,civilization in ancient ,america rose  
to its highest level among the ,mayas of
 ,yucatan4 ,not to speak of the         
architectural monuments which still     
remain to attest this1 we have the      
evidence of the earliest missionaries to
 the fact that they alone1 of all the   
natives of the ,new ,world1 possess a   
literature written in 8letters and      
characters10 preserved in volumes neatly
 bound1 the paper manufactured from the 
material derived from fibrous plants1   
and sized with a durable white          
varnish4#bcg  ,a few of these books     
still remain1 preserved to us by        

accident in the great ,european         
libraries2 but most of them were        
destroyed by the monks4 ,their contents 
were found to relate chiefly to the     
pagan ritual1 to traditions of the      
heathen times1 to astrological          
superstitions1 and the like4 ,hence1    
they were considered deleterious1 and   
were burned wherever discovered4  ,this 
annihilation of their sacred books      
affected the natives most keenly1 as we 
are pointedly informed by ,bishop       
,landa1 himself one of the most ruthless
 of ,vandals in this respect4#bch ,but  
already some of the more intelligent had
 learned the ,spanish alphabet1 and the 
missionaries had added a sufficient     
number of signs to it to express with   
tolerable accuracy the phonetics of the 
,maya tongue4 ,relying on their         
memories1 and no doubt aided by some    
manuscripts secretly preserved1 many    
natives set to work to write out in this
 new alphabet the contents of their     
ancient records4 ,much was added which  

had been brought in by the ,europeans1  
and much omitted which had become       
unintelligible or obsolete since the    
,conquest2 while1 of course1 the        
different writers1 varying in skill and 
knowledge1 produced works of very       
various merit4  ,nevertheless1 each of  
these books bore the same name4 ,in     
whatever village it was written1 or by  
whatever hand1 it always was1 and to-day
 still is1 called 8,the ,book of ,chilan
 ,balam40 ,to distinguish them apart1   
the name of the village where a copy was
 found or written1 is added4 ,probably1 
in the last century1 almost every       
village had one1 which was treasured    
with superstitious veneration4 ,but the 
opposition of the padres to this kind of
 literature1 the decay of ancient       
sympathies1 and especially the long war 
of races1 which since #ahdg has         
desolated so much of the peninsula1 have
 destroyed most of them4 ,there remain1 
however1 either portions or descriptions
 of not less than sixteen of these      

curious records4 ,they are known from   
the names of the villages respectively  
as the ,book of ,chilan ,balam of       
,nabula1 of ,chumayel1 of ,kua1 of      
,mani1 of ,oxkutzcab1 of ,ixil1 of      
,tihosuco1 of ,tixcocob1 etc41 these    
being the names of various native towns 
in the peninsula4  ,when ,i add that not
 a single one of these has ever been    
printed1 or even entirely translated    
into any ,european tongue1 it will be   
evident to every archologist and        
linguist what a rich and unexplored mine
 of information about this interesting  
people they may present4 ,it is my      
intention in this article merely to     
touch upon a few salient points to      
illustrate this1 leaving a thorough     
discussion of their origin and contents 
to the future editor who will bring them
 to the knowledge of the learned world4 
,turning first to the meaning of the    
name 8,chilan ,balam10 it is not        
difficult to find its derivation4       
8,chilan10 says ,bishop ,landa1 the     

second bishop of ,yucatan1 whose        
description of the native customs is an 
invaluable source to us1 8was the name  
of their priests1 whose duty it was to  
teach the sciences1 to appoint holy     
days1 to treat the sick1 to offer       
sacrifices1 and especially to utter the 
oracles of the gods4 ,they were so      
highly honored by the people that       
usually they were carried on litters on 
the shoulders of the devotees40#bci     
,strictly speaking1 in ,maya 8chilan0   
means 8interpreter10 8mouth-piece10 from
 8chij10 8the mouth10 and in this       
ordinary sense frequently occurs in     
other writings4 ,the word1              
8balam0--literally1 8tiger10--was also  
applied to a class of priests1 and is   
still in use among the natives of       
,yucatan as the designation of the      
protective spirits of fields and towns1 
as ,i have shown at length in a previous
 study of the word as it occurs in the  
native myths of ,guatemala4#bdj 8,chilan
 ,balam10 therefore1 is not a proper    

name1 but a title1 and in ancient times 
designated the priest who announced the 
will of the gods and explained the      
sacred oracles4 ,this accounts for the  
universality of the name and the        
sacredness of its associations4  ,the   
dates of the books which have come down 
to us are various4 ,one of them1 8,the  
,book of ,chilan ,balam of ,mani10 was  
undoubtedly composed not later than     
#aeie1 as is proved by internal         
evidence4 ,various passages in the works
 of ,landa1 ,lizana1 ,sanchez ,aguilar  
and ,cogolludo--all early historians of 
,yucatan--prove that many of these      
native manuscripts existed in the       
sixteenth century4 ,several rescripts   
date from the seventeenth century1--most
 from the latter half of the eighteenth4
  ,the names of the writers are         
generally not given1 probably because   
the books1 as we have them1 are all     
copies of older manuscripts1 with merely
 the occasional addition of current     
items of note by the copyist2 as1 for   

instance1 a malignant epidemic which    
prevailed in the peninsula in #afgc is  
mentioned as a present occurrence by the
 copyist of 8,the ,book of ,chilan      
,balam of ,nabula40  ,i come now to the 
contents of these curious works4 ,what  
they contain may conveniently be        
classified under four headings3         
,astrological and prophetic matters2    
,ancient chronology and history2        
,medical recipes and directions2  ,later
 history and ,christian teachings4  ,the
 last-mentioned consist of translations 
of the 8,doctrina10 ,bible stories1     
narratives of events after the          
,conquest1 etc41 which ,i shall dismiss 
as of least interest4  ,the astrology   
appears partly to be reminiscences of   
that of their ancient heathendom1 partly
 that borrowed from the ,european       
almanacs of the century #aeej-afej4     
,these1 as is well known1 were crammed  
with predictions and divinations4 ,a    
careful analysis1 based on a comparison 
with the ,spanish almanacs of that time1

 would doubtless reveal how much was    
taken from them1 and it would be fair to
 presume that the remainder was a       
survival of ancient native theories4    
,but there are not wanting actual       
prophecies of a much more striking      
character4 ,these were attributed to the
 ancient priests and to a date long     
preceding the advent of ,christianity4  
,some of them have been printed in      
translations in the 8,historias0 of     
,lizana and ,cogolludo1 and of some the 
originals were published by the late    
,abb ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 in the    
second volume of the reports of the     
8,mission ,scientificque au ,mexique et 
dans l' ,amrique ,centrale40 ,their     
authenticity has been met with          
considerable skepticism by ,waitz and   
others1 particularly as they seem to    
predict the arrival of the ,christians  
from the ,east and the introduction of  
the worship of the cross4  ,it appears  
to me that this incredulity is uncalled 
for4 ,it is known that at the close of  

each of their larger divisions of time  
7the so-called 8katuns107 a 8chilan10 or
 inspired diviner1 uttered a prediction 
of the character of the year or epoch   
which was about to begin4 ,like other   
would-be prophets1 he had doubtless     
learned that it is wiser to predict evil
 than good1 inasmuch as the             
probabilities of evil in this worried   
world of ours outweigh those of good2   
and when the evil comes his words are   
remembered to his credit1 while if1     
perchance1 his gloomy forecasts are not 
realized1 no one will bear him a grudge 
that he has been at fault4 ,the temper  
of this people was1 moreover1 gloomy1   
and it suited them to hear of threatened
 danger and destruction by foreign foes4
 ,but1 alas6 for them4 ,the worst that  
the boding words of the oracle foretold 
was as nothing to the dire event which  
overtook them--the destruction of their 
nation1 their temples and their freedom1
 'neath the iron heel of the ,spanish   
conqueror4 ,as the wise ,gthe says3     

8,seltsam ist ,prophetenlied1           
,doch mehr seltsam was geschieht40  ,as 
to the supposed reference to the cross  
and its worship1 it may be remarked that
 the native word translated 8cross0 by  
the missionaries1 simply means 8a piece 
of wood set upright10 and may well have 
had a different and special             
signification in the old days4  ,by way 
of a specimen of these prophecies1 ,i   
quote one from 8,the ,book of ,chilan   
,balam of ,chumayel10 saying at once    
that for the translation ,i have        
depended upon a comparison of the       
,spanish version of ,lizana1 who was    
blindly prejudiced1 and that in ,french 
of the ,abb ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 who
 knew next to nothing about ,maya1 with 
the original4 ,it will be easily        
understood1 therefore1 that it is rather
 a paraphrase than a literal rendering4 
,the original is in short1 aphoristic   
sentences1 and was1 no doubt1 chanted   
with a rude rhythm3               8,what
 time the sun shall brightest shine1    

,tearful will be the eyes of the king4  
,four ages yet shall be inscribed1      
,then shall come the holy priest1 the   
holy god4              ,with grief ,i   
speak what now ,i see4                  
,watch well the road1 ye dwellers of    
,itza4              ,the master of the  
earth shall come to us4                 
,thus prophesies ,nahau ,pech1 the seer1
              ,in the days of the fourth
 age1              ,at the time of its  
beginning40  ,such are the obscure and  
ominous words of the ancient oracle4 ,if
 the date is authentic1 it would be     
about #adhj--the 8fourth age0 in the    
,maya system of computing time being a  
period of either twenty or twenty-four  
years at the close of the fifteenth     
century4  ,it is1 however1 of little    
importance whether these are accurate   
copies of the ancient prophecies2 they  
remain1 at least1 faithful imitations of
 them1 composed in the same spirit and  
form which the native priests were wont 
to employ4 ,a number are given much     

longer than the above1 and containing   
various curious references to ancient   
usages4  ,another value they have in    
common with all the rest of the text of 
these books1 and it is one which will be
 properly appreciated by any student of 
languages4 ,they are1 by common consent 
of all competent authorities1 the       
genuine productions of native minds1    
cast in the idiomatic forms of the      
native tongue by those born to its use4 
,no matter how fluent a foreigner       
becomes in a language not his own1 he   
can never use it as does one who has    
been familiar with it from childhood4   
,this general maxim is ten-fold true    
when we apply it to a ,european learning
 an ,american language4 ,the flow of    
thought1 as exhibited in these two      
linguistic families1 is in such         
different directions that no amount of  
practice can render one equally accurate
 in both4 ,hence the importance of      
studying a tongue as it is employed by  
natives2 and hence the very high        

estimate ,i place on these 8,books of   
,chilan ,balam0 as linguistic           
material--an estimate much increased by 
the great rarity of independent         
compositions in their own tongues by    
members of the native races of this     
continent4  ,i now approach what ,i     
consider the peculiar value of these    
records1 apart from the linguistic mould
 in which they are cast2 and that is the
 light they throw upon the chronological
 system and ancient history of the      
,mayas4 ,to a limited extent1 this has  
already been brought before the public4 
,the late ,don ,pio ,perez gave to ,mr4 
,stephens1 when in ,yucatan1 an essay on
 the method of computing time among the 
ancient ,mayas1 and also a brief        
synopsis of ,maya history1 apparently   
going back to the third or fourth       
century of the ,christian era4 ,both    
were published by ,mr4 ,stephens in the 
appendix to his 8,travels in ,yucatan10 
and have appeared repeatedly since in   
,english1 ,spanish and ,french4#bda     

,they have1 up to the present1          
constituted almost our sole sources of  
information on these interesting points4
 ,don ,pio ,perez was rather vague as to
 whence he derived his knowledge4 ,he   
refers to 8ancient manuscripts10 8old   
authorities10 and the like2 but1 as the 
,abb ,brasseur de ,bourbourg justly     
complains1 he rarely quotes their words1
 and gives no descriptions as to what   
they were or how he gained access to    
them4#bdb ,in fact1 the whole of ,seor  
,perez's information was derived from   
these 8,books of ,chilan ,balam20 and   
without wishing at all to detract from  
his reputation as an antiquary and a    
,maya scholar1 ,i am obliged to say that
 he has dealt with them as scholars so  
often do with their authorities2 that   
is1 having framed his theories1 he      
quoted what he found in their favor and 
neglected to refer to what he observed  
was against them4  ,thus1 it is a       
cardinal question in ,yucatecan         
archology as to whether the epoch or age

 by which the great cycle 7the ahau     
katun17 was reckoned1 embraced twenty or
 twenty-four years4 ,contrary to all the
 ,spanish authorities1 ,perez declared  
for twenty-four years1 supporting       
himself by 8the manuscripts40 ,it is    
true there are three of the 8,books of  
,chilan ,balam0--those of ,mani1 ,kua   
and ,oxkutzcab1--which are distinctly in
 favor of twenty-four years2 but1 on the
 other hand1 there are four or five     
others which are clearly for the period 
of twenty years1 and of these ,don      
,perez said nothing1 although copies of 
more than one of them were in his       
library4 ,so of the epochs1 or katuns1  
of ,maya history2 there are three or    
more copies in these books which he does
 not seem to have compared with the one 
he furnished ,stephens4 ,his labor will 
have to be repeated according to the    
methods of modern criticism1 and with   
the additional material obtained since  
he wrote4  ,another valuable feature in 
these records is the hints they furnish 

of the hieroglyphic system of the       
,mayas4 ,almost our only authority      
heretofore has been the essay of ,landa4
 ,it has suffered somewhat in credit    
because we had no means of verifying his
 statements and comparing the characters
 he gives4 ,dr4 ,valentini has even gone
 so far as to attack some of his        
assertions as 8fabrications40 ,this is  
an amount of skepticism which exceeds   
both justice and probability4  ,the     
chronological portions of the 8,books of
 ,chilan ,balam0 are partly written with
 the ancient signs of the days1 months  
and epochs1 and they furnish us1 also1  
delineations of the 8wheels0 which the  
natives used for computing time4 ,the   
former are so important to the student  
of ,maya hieroglyphics1 that ,i have    
added photographic reproductions of them
 to this paper1 giving also             
representations of those of ,landa for  
comparison4 ,it will be observed that   
the signs of the days are distinctly    
similar in the majority of cases1 but   

that those of the months are hardly     
alike4  ,the hieroglyphs of the days    
taken from the 8,codex ,troano10 an     
ancient ,maya book written before the   
,conquest1 probably about #adjj1 are    
also added to illustrate the variations 
which occurred in the hands of different
 scribes4 ,those from the 8,books of    
,chilan ,balam0 are copied from a       
manuscript known to ,maya scholars as   
the 8,codice ,perez10 of undoubted      
authenticity and antiquity4#bdc  ,the   
result of the comparison ,i thus        
institute is a triumphant refutation of 
the doubts and slurs which have been    
cast on ,bishop ,landa's work1 and      
vindicate for it a very high degree of  
accuracy4  ,the hieroglyphics for the   
months are quite complicated1 and in the
 8,books of ,chilan ,balam0 are rudely  
drawn2 but1 for all that1 two or three  
of them are evidently identical with    
those in the calendar preserved by      
,landa4 ,some years ago1 ,professor de  
,rosny expressed himself in great doubt 

as to the fidelity in the tracing of    
these hieroglyphs of the months1        
principally because he could not find   
them in the two codices at his          
command4#bdd ,as he observes1 they are  
composite signs1 and this goes to       
explain the discrepancy2 for it may be  
regarded as established that the ,maya  
script permitted the use of several     
signs for the same sound1 and the       
sculptor or scribe was not obliged to   
represent the same word always by the   
same figure4  ,illustration3    ,,fig4  
#a4--,signs of the ,months1 from the    
,book of ,chilan ,balam of              
,chumayel4   ,illustration3    ,,fig4   
#b4--,signs of the ,months1 as given by 
,bishop ,landa4   ,in close relation to 
chronology is the system of numeration  
and arithmetical signs4 ,these are      
discussed with considerable fulness1    
especially in the 8,book of ,chilan     
,balam of ,kua40 ,the numerals are      
represented by exactly the same figures 
as we find in the ,maya manuscripts of  

the libraries of ,dresden1 ,pesth1      
,paris and ,madrid2 that is1 by points  
or dots up to five1 and the fives by    
single straight lines1 which may be     
indiscriminately drawn vertically or    
horizontally4 ,the same book contains a 
table of multiplication in ,spanish and 
,maya1 which settles some disputed      
points in the use of the vigesimal      
system by the ,mayas4  ,a curious       
chapter in several of the books1        
especially those of ,kua and ,mani1 is  
that on the thirteen ahau katuns1 or    
epochs1 of the greater cycle of the     
,mayas4 ,this cycle embraced thirteen   
periods1 which1 as ,i have before       
remarked1 are computed by some at twenty
 years each1 by others at twenty-four   
years each4 ,each of these katuns was   
presided over by a chief or king1 that  
being the meaning of the word ahau4 ,the
 books above mentioned give both the    
name and the portrait1 drawn and colored
 by the rude hand of the native artist1 
of each of these kings1 and they suggest

 several interesting analogies4  ,they  
are1 in the first place1 identical1 with
 one exception1 with those on an ancient
 native painting1 an engraving of which 
is given by ,father ,cogolludo in his   
8,history of ,yucatan10 and explained by
 him as the representation of an        
occurrence which took place after the   
,spaniards arrived in the peninsula4    
,evidently1 the native in whose hands   
the worthy father found it1 fearing that
 he partook of the fanaticism which had 
led the missionaries to the destruction 
of so many records of their nation1     
deceived him as to its purport1 and gave
 him an explanation which imparted to   
the scroll the character of a harmless  
history4  ,the one exception is the last
 or thirteenth chief4 ,cogolludo appends
 to this the name of an ,indian who     
probably did fall a victim to his       
friendship to the ,spaniards4 ,this     
name1 as a sort of guarantee for the    
rest of his story1 the native scribe    
inserted in place of the genuine one4   

,the peculiarity of the figure is that  
it has an arrow or dagger driven into   
its eye4 ,not only is this mentioned by 
,cogolludo's informant1 but it is       
represented in the paintings in both the
 8,books of ,chilan ,balam0 above noted1
 and also1 by a fortunate coincidence1  
in one of the calendar pages of the     
8,codex ,troano10 plate xxiii41 in a    
remarkable cartouche1 which1 from a     
wholly independent course of reasoning1 
was some time since identified by the   
well-known antiquary1 ,professor ,cyrus 
,thomas1 of ,illinois1 as a cartouche of
 one of the ahau katuns1 and probably of
 the last of them4 ,it gives me much    
pleasure to add such conclusive proof of
 the sagacity of his supposition4#bde   
,illustration  ,illustration3    ,,fig4 
#c4--,,signs ,,of ,,the ,,days4    ,the 
first column on the right is from       
,landa4 ,the second is from the         
8,codex ,troano40 ,the remaining four   
are from the ,book of ,chilan     ,balam
 of ,kua4   ,there is other evidence to 

show that the engraving in ,cogolludo is
 a relic of the purest ancient ,maya    
symbolism--one of the most interesting  
which have been preserved to us2 but to 
enter upon its explanation in this      
connection would be too far from my     
present topic4  ,a favorite theme with  
the writers of the 8,books of ,chilan   
,balam0 was the cure of diseases4       
,bishop ,landa explains the 8chilanes0  
as 8sorcerers and doctors10 and adds    
that one of their prominent duties was  
to diagnose diseases and point out their
 appropriate remedies4#bdf ,as we might 
expect1 therefore1 considerable         
prominence is given to the description  
of symptoms and suggestions for their   
alleviation4 ,bleeding and the          
administration of preparations of native
 plants are the usual prescriptions2 but
 there are others which have probably   
been borrowed from some domestic        
medicine-book of ,european origin4  ,the
 late ,don ,pio ,perez gave a great deal
 of attention to collecting these native

 recipes1 and his manuscripts were      
carefully examined by ,dr4 ,berendt1 who
 combined all the necessary knowledge1  
botanical1 linguistic and medical1 and  
who has left a large manuscript1        
entitled 8,recetarios de ,indios10 which
 presents the subject fully4 ,he        
considers the scientific value of these 
remedies to be next to nothing1 and the 
language in which they are recorded to  
be distinctly inferior to that of the   
remainder of the 8,books of ,chilan     
,balam40 ,hence1 he believes that this  
portion of the ancient records was      
supplanted some time in the last century
 by medical notions introduced from     
,european sources4 ,such1 in fact1 is   
the statement of the copyists of the    
books themselves1 as these recipes1     
etc41 are sometimes found in a separate 
volume1 entitled 8,the ,book of the     
,jew10--,el ,libro del ,judio4 ,who this
 alleged ,jewish physician was1 who left
 so widespread and durable a renown     
among the ,yucatecan natives1 none of   

the archologists has been able to find  
out4#bdg  ,the language and style of    
most of these books are aphoristic1     
elliptical and obscure4 ,the ,maya      
language has naturally undergone        
considerable alteration since they were 
written2 therefore1 even to competent   
readers of ordinary ,maya1 they are not 
readily intelligible4 ,fortunately1     
however1 there are in existence         
excellent dictionaries1 which1 were they
 published1 would be sufficient for this
 purpose4                        ,,on   
,,the 8,,stone ,,of ,,the ,,giants40#bdh
   ,at the last meeting of this         
,society1 a photograph was received of  
the ,piedra de los ,gigantes1 or 8,stone
 of the ,giants10 now situated at       
,escamela1 near the city of ,orizaba1   
,mexico4 ,it was obligingly forwarded by
 the ,mexican antiquary1 ,father ,damaso
 ,sotomayor1 and was referred by the    
,society to me for a possible           
interpretation of the figures           
represented4  ,the sender accompanied   

the envoy with a copy of a newspaper    
published in ,orizaba1 entitled ,el     
,siglo que ,acaba1 which contained a    
lengthy interpretation of the figure by 
,father ,sotomayor in accordance with   
the principles laid down in his recently
 published work on the decipherment of  
,aztec hieroglyphics4#bdi ,the ,father  
sees in the inscribed figures a mystical
 allusion to the coming of ,christ to   
the ,gentiles1 and to the occurrences   
supposed in ,hebrew myth to have taken  
place in the ,garden of ,eden4 ,as ,i   
cannot agree in the remotest with his   
hypothesis1 ,i shall say nothing further
 about it1 but proceed to give what ,i  
consider the true significance of the   
inscribed figures4  ,i should preface my
 remarks by mentioning that this stone  
is not a recent discovery in ,mexican   
archology4 ,it was examined by ,captain 
,dupaix in the year #ahjh1 and is       
figured in the illustrations to his     
voluminous narrative4#bej ,the figure he
 gives is however so erroneous that it  

yields but a faint idea of the real     
character and meaning of the drawing4   
,it omits the ornament on the breast1   
and also the lines along the right of   
the giant's face1 which as ,i shall show
 are distinctive traits4 ,it gives him a
 girdle where none is delineated1 and   
the relative size and proportions of all
 the three figures are quite distorted4 
,dupaix informs us1 however1 of several 
particulars which the ,rev4 ,sotomayor  
omitted to state4 ,from the former's    
description we learn that the stone1 or 
rather rock1 on which the inscription is
 found is roughly triangular in shape1  
presenting a nearly straight border of  
thirty feet on each side4 ,it is hard   
and uniform in texture1 and of a dark   
color4 ,the length or height of the     
principal figure is twenty-seven feet1  
and the incised lines which designate   
the various objects are deeply and      
clearly cut4 ,in the present position of
 the stone1 which is the same as that   
stated by ,captain ,dupaix1 the head of 

the principal figure1 called 8the       
giant10 lies toward the east1 while the 
right hand is extended toward the north 
and the left toward the west4 ,it is    
open to doubt whether this disposition  
was accidental or intentional1 as there 
is reason to believe that the stone is  
not now in its original position1 or not
 in that for which it was intended4     
,along the base of the stone1 which is  
in thickness some five feet1 at the feet
 of the giant1 there are a series of    
figures inscribed which are now almost  
obliterated2 at least the photographs   
sent the ,society give no clear idea of 
them1 and the cuts of ,dupaix are       
plainly for the most part fanciful4     
,their presence there1 however1 proves  
that the block was not intended to have 
been set up on edge1 or inserted        
vertically into a wall1 as either of    
these arrangements would have obscured  
these hieroglyphs4#bea  ,i now approach 
the decipherment of the inscriptions4   
,any one versed in the signs of the     

,mexican calendar will at once perceive 
that it contains the date of a certain  
year and day4 ,on the left of the giant 
is seen a rabbit surrounded with ten    
circular depressions4 ,these depressions
 are the well-known ,aztec marks for    
numerals1 and the rabbit represents one 
of the four astronomic signs by which   
they adjusted their chronologic cycle of
 fifty-two years4 ,the three others were
 a house1 a reed1 and a flint4 ,each one
 of these recurred thirteen times in    
their cycle1 making1 as ,i have said1 a 
term of fifty-two years in all4 ,a year 
was designated by one of the four names 
with its appropriate number2 as 8#c     
house10 8#ab flint10 8#d reed10 etc41   
the sequence being regularly preserved4 
,the days were arranged in zones or     
weeks of twenty1 the different series   
being numbered1 and also named from a   
sequence of eighteen astronomical signs 
called 8wind10 8lizard10 8snake10       
8deer10 etc4 ,the five days lacking to  
complete the #cfe were intercalated4 ,a 

second or ritual system had thirteen    
weeks of twenty days each2 but as       
thirteen times twenty makes only two    
hundred and sixty1 in this computation  
there remained #aje days to be named and
 numbered4 ,their device to accomplish  
this was simple3 they merely recommenced
 the numbering and naming of the weeks  
for this remainder1 adding a third      
series of appellations drawn from a list
 of nine signs1 called 8rulers of the   
night40 ,at the close of the solar year 
they recommenced as at the beginning of 
the previous year4#beb  ,with these     
facts in our mind1 we can approach our  
task with confidence4 ,the stone bears a
 carefully dated record1 with the year  
and day clearly set forth4 ,the year is 
represented to the left of the figure1  
and is that numbered 8ten0 under the    
sign of the rabbit1 in ,nahuatl1 xihuitl
 matlacth tochtli2 the day of the year  
is numbered 8one0 under the sign of the 
fish1 ce cipactli4  ,these precise dates
 recurred once1 and only once1 every    

fifty-two years2 and had recurred only  
once between the year of our era #adej  
and the ,spanish conquest of ,mexico in 
#aeai-bj4 ,we may begin our             
investigations with that one epoch1 as  
from other circumstances1 such as local 
tradition#bec and the character of the  
work1 it is not likely that the         
inscription was previous to the middle  
of the fifteenth century4 ,within the   
period named1 the year 8#aj rabbit0 of  
the ,aztec calendar corresponded with   
the year #aejb of the ,gregorian        
calendar4 ,it is more difficult to fix  
the day1 as the mathematical problems   
relating to the ,aztec diurnal          
reckonings are extremely complicated1   
and have not yet been satisfactorily    
worked out2 but it is1 ,i think1 safe to
 say1 that according to both the most   
probable computations the day 8one      
fish0--ce cipactli--occurred in the     
first month of the year #aejb1 which    
month coincided in whole or in part with
 our ,february4  ,such is the date on   

the inscription4 ,now1 what is intimated
 to have occurred on that date8 ,the    
clue to this is furnished by the figure 
of the giant4  ,on looking at it closely
 we perceive that it represents an ogre 
of horrid mien with a death-head grin   
and formidable teeth1 his hair wild and 
long1 the locks falling down upon the   
neck2 and suspended on the breast as an 
ornament is the bone of a human lower   
jaw with its incisor teeth4 ,the left   
leg is thrown forward as in the act of  
walking1 and the arms are uplifted1 the 
hands open1 and the fingers extended1 as
 at the moment of seizing the prey or   
the victim4 ,the lines about the        
umbilicus represent the knot of the     
girdle which supported the maxtli or    
breech-cloth4  ,illustration3    ,,fig4 
#a4 ,the ,stone of the ,giants4   ,there
 is no doubt as to which personage of   
the ,aztec pantheon this fear-inspiring 
figure represents2 it is ,tzontemoc     
,mictlantecutli1 8the ,lord of the      
,realm of the ,dead1 ,he of the ,falling

 ,hair10 the dread god of death and the 
dead4#bed ,his distinctive marks are    
there1 the death-head1 the falling hair1
 the jaw bone1 the terrible aspect1 the 
giant size4  ,there can be no question  
but that the ,piedra de los ,gigantes   
establishes a date of death2 that it is 
a necrological tablet1 a mortuary       
monument1 and from its size and         
workmanship1 that it was intended as a  
memorial of the decease of some very    
important personage in ancient ,mexico4 
,provided with these deductions from the
 stone itself1 let us turn to the       
records of old ,mexico and see if they  
corroborate the opinion stated4         
,fortunately we possess several of these
 venerable documents1 chronicles of the 
empire before ,cortes destroyed it1     
written in the hieroglyphs which the    
inventive genius of the natives had     
devised4 ,taking two of these           
chronicles1 the one known as the ,codex 
,telleriano-,remensis1 the other as the 
,codex ,vaticanus1#bee and turning to   

the year numbered 8ten0 under the sign  
of the rabbit1 ,i find that both present
 the same record1 which ,i copy in the  
following figure4  ,illustration3       
,,fig4 #b4 ,extract from the ,vatican   
,codex4   ,you will observe the sign of 
the year1 the rabbit1 shown merely by   
his head for brevity4 ,the ten dots     
which give its number are beside it4    
,immediately beneath is a curious       
quadruped with what are intended as     
water-drops dripping from him4 ,the     
animal is the hedge-hog and the figure  
is to be construed iconomatically1 that 
is1 it must be read as a rebus through  
the medium of the ,nahuatl language4 ,in
 that language water is atl1 in         
composition a1 and hedge-hog is uitzotl4
 ,combine these and you get ahuitzotl1  
or1 with the reverential termination1   
ahuitzotzin4 ,this was the name of the  
ruler or emperor1 if you allow the word1
 of ancient ,mexico before the accession
 to the throne of that ,montezuma whom  
the ,spanish conquistador ,cortes put to

 death4 ,his hieroglyph1 as ,i have     
described it1 is well known in ,mexican 
codices4#bef  ,returning to the page    
from the chronicle1 we observe that the 
hieroglyph of ,ahuitzotzin is placed    
immediately over a corpse swathed in its
 mummy cloths1 as was the custom of     
interment with the highest classes in   
,mexico4 ,this signifies that the death 
of ,ahuitzotzin took place in that year4
 ,adjacent to it is the figure of his   
successor1 his name iconomatically      
represented by the head-dress of the    
nobles2 the tecuhtli1 giving the middle 
syllables of 8,mo-tecuh-zoma40#beg      
,beneath is also the figure of the new  
ruler1 with the outlines of a flower and
 a house1 which would be translated by  
the iconomatic system xochicalli or     
xochicalco2 but the significance of     
these does not concern us here4  ,this  
page of the ,codices gives us therefore 
a record of a death in the year 8#aj    
tochtli0--#aejb--of the utmost          
importance4 ,no previous ruler had      

brought ancient ,mexico to such a height
 of glory and power4 8,in his reign10   
says ,orozco y ,berra1 8,mexico reached 
its utmost extension4 ,tributes were    
levied in all directions1 and fabulous  
riches poured into the capital          
city40#beh ,the death of the ruler was  
therefore an event of the profoundest   
national significance4 ,we may well     
believe that it would be commemorated by
 some artistic work commensurate with   
its importance2 and this ,i claim was   
the purpose of the ,piedra de los       
,gigantes of ,escamela4  ,but we may add
 further and convincing testimony to    
this interpretation4 ,the day of the    
month ce cipactli1 #a ,fish1 is engraved
 to the right of the figure as connected
 with the event commemorated4 ,now1     
although ,i have not found in the       
records the exact day of ,ahuitzotzin's 
death1 ,i do find that the native       
historian ,ixtlilxochitl assigns this   
very day1 ce cipactli1 #a ,fish1 as that
 of the accession of ,montezuma2#bei and

 another native historian1 ,chimalpahin1
 states distinctly that this took place 
8immediately0 after the death of his    
predecessor on the throne4#bfj ,it may  
possibly have been on the very day of   
,ahuitzotzin's decease1 as still another
 native writer1 ,tezozomoc1 informs us  
that this was not sudden1 but the slow  
result of a wound on the head4#bfa  ,it 
is indeed remarkable that we should find
 the precise dates1 the year and the day
 of the year1 depicted on this stone1   
and also recorded by various native     
writers1 as connected with the demise of
 the emperor ,ahuitzotzin4 ,these       
coincidences are of such a nature that  
they leave no doubt that ,la ,piedra de 
los ,gigantes of ,escamela is a         
necrologic tablet commemorating the     
death of the emperor ,ahuitzotzin some  
time in ,february1 #aejb4               
,,native ,,american ,,poetry4#bfb   ,in 
our modern civilization we are apt to   
consider that a taste for poetry is a   
mark of high culture1 something which   

belongs exclusively to trained mental   
fibre and educated perceptions4 ,it     
causes us1 therefore1 some surprise when
 we study the psychology of savage      
tribes1 to find them almost everywhere  
passionate lovers of verse and measure1 
of music and song4 ,this fact1 well     
established by the researches of        
ethnology1 was recognized by more than  
one keen thinker before ethnology was   
born4 ,in the last century that erratic 
genius1 ,hamann1 known in ,german       
literature as 8the magician of the      
north10 penned the memorable words1     
8,poetry is the common mother-tongue of 
the human race10 and insisted that to   
attain its noblest flights1 8we must    
return to the infancy of the race1 and  
to the simplicity of a childlike faith10
 a dictum warmly espoused by the        
philosophic ,herder and by the          
enthusiasm of the young ,gthe4 ,later   
on1 that profoundest of psychologists1  
,wilhelm von ,humboldt1 reflecting on   
the problems presented by the origin of 

languages1 expressed his conviction that
 man as a zoological species is a       
singing animal1 like many birds2 that   
his vocal organs turn to song as their  
appropriate function with a like        
spontaneity as his mind turns to thought
 or his eyes to the light4  ,if we      
inquire into the psychological principle
 which makes rhythm agreeable to the    
ear1 we shall find that this principle  
is that of repetition4 ,i could carry   
the analysis still further1 and         
demonstrate to you that the             
physiological principle of all pleasure 
is expressed in the formula--8maximum   
action with minimum effort20 and that   
the nerves of audition are most         
successfully acted upon in accordance   
with this law by limited repetitions    
with harmonious intervals4 ,all metres1 
all rhythm1 all forms of alliteration   
and assonance1 are but varied           
applications of the principle of        
harmonious repetition2 and the poet1 as 
a poet1 as an artist1 must be rated1 and

 practically always is rated1 by the    
skill with which he employs the         
resources of repetition4 ,lofty         
thoughts1 beautiful metaphors1 delicate 
allusions1 these are his extraneous     
aids1 and by no means his exclusive     
property2 but the form is his own1 be it
 quantity1 rhyme1 alliteration or       
accent4  ,i have felt it necessary to   
state very briefly these general        
principles1 in order to place in its    
proper light that form of poetry which  
is most prevalent among the native      
tribes of ,america4 ,you will not find  
among them any developed examples of    
either rhyme or alliteration2 their     
dialects do not admit of fixed vocalic  
quantity1 like the ,latin2 even accent  
and assonance1 which are the more       
imperfect resources of the poetic art1  
are generally absent4 ,what1 then1 in a 
literary analysis1 constitutes their    
poetic form8  ,i answer1 repetition in  
its simplest expressions4 ,these are    
two4 ,the same verse may be repeated    

over and over again2 or the wording of  
the verses may be changed1 but each may 
be accompanied by a burden or refrain1  
which is repeated by the singer or the  
chorus4 ,these are the two fundamental  
characteristics of aboriginal poetry1   
and are found everywhere on the         
,american continent4 ,the refrain is    
usually interjectional and meaningless2 
and the verses are often repeated       
without alteration1 four or five times  
over4  ,we may1 if we choose1 begin our 
survey of the continent with its extreme
 northernmost inhabitants1 the ,eskimo1 
whose abode is along the inhospitable   
shores of the ,arctic sea4 ,one might   
think that the eternal snows which      
surround them1 the vast glaciers which  
chill the air for miles beyond their    
limits1 would also freeze out and kill  
all fire of poesy4 ,quite the contrary4 
,i doubt if throughout the ,american    
continent ,i could quote you a more     
thoroughly poetic people1 one taking a  
greater delight in song1 than these same

 boreal1 blubber-eating1 ice-bound      
,eskimo4 ,their great delight is in long
 tales of magic and adventure1 and in   
improvisation4 ,an ,eskimo hunter1 with 
a ready power to string together verse  
after verse of their peculiar poetry1   
soon extends his fame beyond the        
confines of his native village1 and     
becomes known for many a league up and  
down the shore4 ,often in the long      
winter nights1 genuine tourneys of song 
are organized between the champions of  
villages1 not unlike those which took   
place in fair ,provence in the palmy    
days of la gaye science4 ,more than     
this1 ,i have been assured by ,dr4      
,franz ,boas1 who recently passed two   
years among the ,eskimo of ,baffin's    
,land1 living with them as one of them1 
that it is nothing uncommon for         
downright hostile feelings1 personal    
grudges1 to be settled by the opponents 
meeting on a fixed occasion and singing 
satirical and abusive songs at each     
other4 ,he who comes out best1 raising  

the most laughter at his antagonist's   
expense1 is considered to have          
conquered1 and his enemy accepts the    
defeat4 ,these controversial songs have 
been called by the ,danish writers 8nith
 songs10 from the word nith1 which is   
also old ,english1 and means cursing and
 contention4  ,the distinguished        
traveler1 ,dr4 ,heinrich ,rink1 who has 
passed nineteen winters in ,greenland1  
has furnished me the originals1 with    
translations1 of several of these nith  
songs4  ,as an example1 ,i will read you
 one which took place between two       
rivals1 ,savdlat and ,pulangit-,sissok4 
,savdlat lived to the north1            
,pulangit-,sissok to the south4 ,to     
appreciate the satire1 you must know    
that an ,eskimo gentleman prides himself
 chiefly on two points3 first1 that he  
speaks his own tongue with precisely the
 right accent1 which1 ,i need not say1  
he considers to be the accent of his own
 village1 wherever that may be2 and     
secondly1 that he is a skillful boatman4

  ,savdlat begins the poetic duel in    
these words3                            
,,savdlat ,,and ,,pulangit-,,sissok4    
,,savdlat--         ,the ,south shore1  
,o yes1 the ,south shore1 ,i know it2   
,once ,i lived there and met            
,pulangit-,sissok1        ,a fat fellow 
who lived on halibut2 ,o yes1 ,i know   
him4        ,those ,south-shore folk    
can't talk2        ,they don't know how 
to pronounce our language2        ,truly
 they are dull fellows2        ,they    
don't even talk alike2        ,some have
 one accent1 some another2              
,nobody can understand them2            
,they can scarcely understand each      
other4                                  
,,pulangit-,,sissok--         ,o yes1   
,savdlat and ,i are old acquaintances2  
,he wished me extremely well at times2  
,once ,i know he wished ,i was the best 
boatman on the shore2        ,it was a  
rough day1 and ,i in mercy took his boat
 in tow2        ,ha6 ha6 ,savdlat1 thou 
didst cry most pitiful2        ,thou    

wast awfully afeared2        ,in truth1 
thou wast nearly upset2        ,and     
hadst to keep hold of my boat strings1  
,and give me part of thy load4        ,o
 yes1 ,savdlat and ,i are old           
acquaintances4  ,a similar humorous     
strain is very marked in most of the    
,eskimo songs4 ,indeed1 ,i know no other
 tribe in ,america where the genuine    
fun-loving spirit bubbles forth so      
freely4 ,in ,mexico and ,central        
,america1 in the midst of beautiful     
scenery and where the flowery earth     
basks in the lap of an eternal spring1  
the tone of most of the songs is sad and
 lugubrious2 or1 if humorous1 with a    
satirical1 bitter1 unhealthy humor1 a   
,schadenfreude1 which is far from       
wholesome merriment4 ,dr4 ,berendt1 who 
spent seventeen years in studying the   
languages of ,central ,america1 has     
pointedly called attention to the great 
predominance of words in them expressing
 painful1 over those expressing         
pleasurable emotions4 ,it teaches us how

 little the happiness of man depends    
upon his environment1 that the merriest 
of the ,american nations is found       
precisely where according to our usual  
notions almost every cheering and       
enlivening element is withdrawn from    
life1 where darkness1 cold1 and         
destitution have undisputed rule4  ,but 
,i will not continue with such          
generalizations1 attractive though they 
are4 ,let me relieve their dryness by a 
little ,eskimo song1 the full ,eskimo   
text of which you will find printed in  
,dr4 ,rink's work entitled 8,tales of   
the ,eskimo40 ,as usual1 each line is   
followed by an interjectional burden1   
which ,i shall repeat only in part4 ,the
 song is called                  ,,the  
,,song ,,of ,,kuk-,,ook1 ,,the ,,bad    
,,boy4              ,this is the song of
 ,kuk-ook1 the bad boy4                 
,imakayah--hayah1                       
,imakayah--hah--hayah4             ,i am
 going to run away from home1 hayah1    
,in a great big boat1 hayah1            

,to hunt for a sweet little girl1 hayah2
             ,i shall get her some      
beads1 hayah2             ,the kind that
 look like boiled ones1 hayah2          
,then after a while1 hayah1             
,i shall come back home1 hayah1         
,i shall call all my relations together1
 hayah1             ,and shall give them
 all a good thrashing1 hayah2           
,then ,i shall go and get married1      
hayah1             ,i shall marry two   
girls at once1 hayah2             ,one  
of the sweet little darlings1 hayah1    
,i shall dress in spotted seal-skins1   
hayah1             ,and the other dear  
little pet1 hayah1             ,shall   
wear skins of the hooded seal only1     
hayah4  ,but you must not derive the    
idea from these specimens that the      
,eskimos are triflers and jesters only4 
,some of their poetical productions     
reveal a true and deep appreciation of  
the marvellous1 the impressive1 and the 
beautiful scenes which their land and   
climate present4 ,prominent features in 

their tales and chants are the flashing1
 variegated aurora1 whose shooting      
streamers they fable to be the souls of 
departed heroes2 the milky way1 gleaming
 in the still ,arctic night1 which they 
regard as the bridge by which the souls 
of the good and brave mount to the place
 of joy2 the vast1 glittering1 soundless
 snowfields2 and the mighty1 crashing   
glacier1 splintering from his shoreward 
cliffs the ice mountains which float    
down to the great ocean4  ,as an        
instance of this appreciation of natural
 scenery ,i shall read you a song       
obtained by ,dr4 ,rink1 at the small    
trading station of ,arsut on the        
southern coast of ,greenland1 near      
,frederickshaab4 ,close to ,arsut stands
 ,mt4 ,koonak1 whose precipitous sides  
rise fully four thousand feet above the 
billows of the ,atlantic which dash     
against its foot4 ,it is the play of the
 clouds about the mountain which        
inspires the poet3                      
,,mount ,,koonak3 ,a ,,song ,,of        

,,arsut4              ,i look toward the
 south1 to great ,mount ,koonak1        
,to great ,mount ,koonak1 there to the  
south2             ,i watch the clouds  
that gather round him2             ,i   
contemplate their shining brightness2   
,they spread abroad upon great ,koonak2 
,they climb up his seaward flanks2      
,see how they shift and change2         
,watch them there to the south2         
,how the one makes beautiful the other2 
,how they mount his southern slopes1    
,hiding him from the stormy sea1        
,each lending beauty to the other4  ,no 
doubt there were and are many historical
 or traditional songs among the natives2
 but ,i should have little hope of      
deriving from them much information of a
 really historical character4 ,their    
references to occurrences are very      
vague1 and rather in the form of        
suggestion than narration4 ,the auditors
 are supposed to be familiar with the   
story1 and a single name or prominent   
word is enough to recall it to their    

minds4  ,i may illustrate this by a     
short ,pawnee song sent me by ,mr4      
,dunbar1 whose intimate acquaintance    
with the language and customs of that   
tribe lends entire authority to all he  
writes about them4  ,about #ahbj the    
,pawnees captured a young girl from     
their enemies the ,paducas1 and         
according to custom1 prepared to burn   
her alive4 ,on the appointed day she was
 fastened to the stake1 and the village 
gathered around in order to commence the
 tortures which were to precede her     
death4 ,at that moment a young ,pawnee  
brave1 by name ,pitale-,sharu1 whose    
heart had been touched with pity and    
perhaps with love1 dashed madly into the
 ring with two fleet horses4 ,in a      
moment with his ready knife he had slit 
the thongs which fastened the girl to   
the stake1 had thrown her on one horse1 
himself on the other1 and was speeding  
away on the prairie toward her father's 
village4 ,the ,pawnees were literally   
stricken dumb4 ,they retired silently to

 their cabins1 and when1 three days     
later1 ,pitale-,sharu returned to the   
village1 no man challenged his action4  
,all regarded it as an act of divine    
inspiration1 even to inquire about which
 would be sacrilege4 ,this act is       
remembered to this day in the tribe1 and
 commemorated in the following song3    
,a ,,pawnee ,,commemorative ,,song4     
,well1 he foretold this1                
,well1 he foretold this1                
,yes1 he foretold this2                 
,i1 ,pitale-,sharu1                     
,am arrived here4                       
,well1 he foretold this1                
,yes1 he foretold this1                 
,i1 ,pitale ,sharu1                     
,am arrived here4  ,one of the ,pawnee  
war-songs has a curious metaphysical    
turn4 ,it is one which is sung when a   
warrior undertakes to perform some      
particularly daring individual exploit1 
which may well cost him his life4 ,the  
words seem to call upon the gods to     
decide whether this mortal life is only 

an illusion1 or a divine truth under the
 guidance of divine intelligence4       
,,pawnee ,,war-,,song4                  
,let us see1 is this real1              
,let us see1 is this real1              
,let us see1 is this real1              
,let us see1 is this real1              
,this life ,i am living8                
,ye gods1 who dwell everywhere1         
,let us see1 is this real1              
,this life ,i am living8  ,the so-called
 ,indian medicine-songs cannot be       
understood without a thorough insight   
into the habits and superstitions of    
these peoples1 and it would only fatigue
 you were ,i to repeat them to you4  ,i 
prefer to turn to some of the less      
esoteric productions of the native muse1
 to some of its expressions of those    
emotions which are common to mankind    
everywhere1 and which everywhere seek   
their expression in meter and rhythm4   
,a recent ,german traveler1 ,mr4        
,theodore ,baker1 furnishes me with a   
couple of simple1 unpretending but      

genuinely aboriginal songs which he     
heard among the ,kioway ,indians4 ,one  
is a             ,,song ,,of ,a ,,kioway
 ,,mother ,,whose ,,son ,,has ,,gone    
,,to ,,war4                     ,young  
men there are in plenty1                
,but ,i love only one2                  
,him ,i've not seen for long1           
,though he is my only son4              
,when he comes1 ,i'll haste to meet him1
                      ,i think of him   
all night2                    ,he too   
will be glad to see me1                 
,his eyes will gleam with delight4  ,the
 second example from the ,kioways is a  
song of true love in the ordinary sense4
 ,such are rare among the ,north        
,american ,indians anywhere4 ,most of   
their chants in relation to the other   
sex are erotic1 not emotional2 and this 
holds equally true of those which in    
some tribes on certain occasions are    
addressed by the women to the men4 ,the 
one ,i give you from the ,kioway is not 
open to this censure                    

,a ,,kioway ,,love-,,song4              
,i sat and wept on the hill-side1       
,i wept till the darkness fell          
,i wept for a maiden afar off           
,a maiden who loves me well             
,the moons are passing1 and some moon   
,i shall see my home long-lost1         
,and of all the greetings that meet me1 
,my maiden's will gladden me most4  ,a  
specimen of a characteristic ,chipeway  
love-song is given in one of the works  
of the late ,henry ,r4 ,schoolcraft4 ,it
 was chanted by the lover1 at night1 in 
front of the dwelling of the girl he    
would captivate4 ,the song is in four   
verses1 and it will be noticed that each
 verse approaches nearer and nearer the 
final request4 ,it should be understood 
that each verse was to be repeated      
several times1 so as to give the fair   
one an opportunity to express her       
approval or disapproval by some of those
 signs which belong to the freemasonry  
of love the world over4 ,if the sign was
 negative and repelling1 the singer     

abruptly ceased his chant and retired1  
concealed by the darkness of the night2 
but if he was encouraged1 or heard      
without rebuke1 he continued1 in hope   
that at the close of the song timid     
fingers would partially draw aside the  
curtain which closes the lodge door1 and
 that his prayer would be granted4  ,the
 serenade runs as follows3              
,,serenade ,,song ,,of ,a ,,chipeway    
,,lover ,,to ,,his ,,mistress4          
,i would walk into somebody's dwelling1 
,into somebody's dwelling would ,i walk4
                 ,into thy darkened     
dwelling1 my beloved1                   
,some night would ,i walk1 would ,i     
walk4                 ,some night at    
this season1 my beloved1                
,into thy darkened dwelling would ,i    
walk4                 ,on this very     
night1 my beloved1                ,into 
thy darkened dwelling would ,i walk4    
,while dealing with these amatory       
effusions1 ,i will add one or two from  
another part of the map1 from the tribes

 who make their home in our sister      
republic1 ,mexico4 ,you are aware that  
there are many tribes there barely      
tinged with ,european culture or        
religion4 ,they retain the ancestral    
tongues and modes of thought4 ,the sword
 and whip of the ,spaniard compelled an 
external obedience to church and state1 
but the deference to either was         
reluctant1 and in the minimum degree4   
,consequently1 there also the field for 
research is rich and practically        
uncultivated4 ,to employ a native       
metaphor1 frequent in the ,aztec poets1 
,i will cause you to smell the fragrance
 of a few of the flowers ,i have        
gathered from those meads4  ,my late    
friend1 ,dr4 ,berendt1 personally known1
 ,i doubt not1 to some present1 obtained
 a curious ,aztec love-song from the    
lips of an ,indian girl in the ,sierra  
of ,tamaulipas4 ,it is particularly     
noticeable from the strange1 mystical   
conceit it contains that to the person  
who truly loves1 the mere bodily        

presence or absence of the beloved      
object is unimportant1 nay1 not even    
noticed4 ,the literal translation of    
this song is as follows3                
,i know not whether thou hast been      
absent3               ,i lie down with  
thee1 ,i rise up with thee1             
,in my dreams thou art with me4         
,if my ear drops tremble in my ears1    
,i know it is thou moving within my     
heart4  ,this rough rendering has been  
put into metrical form as follows3      
,a ,,modern ,,aztec ,,love-,,song4      
,i knew it not that thou hadst absent   
been1              ,so full thy presence
 all my soul had left2            ,by   
night1 by day1 in quiet or changing     
scene1              ',tis thee alone ,i 
see1 sense of all else bereft4          
,and when the tinkling pendants sway and
 ring1            ',tis thou who in my  
heart dost move and sing4  ,in another  
love-song in the same language ,i have  
met a conceit which ,i distinctly       
remember to have read in some old       

,english poet1 that of a lover who      
complains that his heart has been       
gathered in along with her flowers by a 
maiden picking roses4  ,the literal     
translation of this song reads thus3    
,on a certain mountain side1            
,where they pluck flowers1              
,i saw a pretty maiden1                 
,who plucked from me my heart4          
,whither thou goest1                    
,there go ,i4  ,as a metrical expansion 
of this couplet the following has been  
suggested3                              
,,aztec ,,love-,,song4                  
,do you know that mountain side         
,where they gather roses8               
,there ,i strolled one eventide         
,in the garden closes4                  
,soon ,i met a lovely maid              
,fairer than all fancies1               
,quick she gathered in my heart         
,with her buds and pansies1             
,but take heed1 my pretty may1          
,in reaping and in sowing1              
,once with thee1 ,i'll ever stay1       

,and go where thou art going4  ,perhaps 
the refinement of some of these         
sentiments may excite skepticism4 ,it is
 a favorite doctrine among a certain    
class of writers that delicacy of sexual
 feeling is quite unknown among savage  
tribes1 that1 indeed1 the universal law 
is that mere bestiality prevails1 more  
or less kept in bounds by superstition  
and tribal law4 ,i am well acquainted   
with this theory of several popular     
philosophers1 and do not in the least   
accept it4 ,any such dogmatic assertion 
is unscientific4 ,delicacy of sentiment 
bears no sort of constant relation to   
culture4 ,every man present knows this4 
,he can name among his acquaintances men
 of unusual culture who are coarse      
voluptuaries1 and others of the humblest
 education who have the delicacy of a   
refined woman4 ,so it is with families1 
and so it is with tribes4 ,i have       
illustrated this lately by an analysis  
of the words meaning 8to love0 in all   
its senses in five leading ,american    

linguistic stocks1 and have shown by the
 irrefragable proof of language how much
 they differ in this respect1 and how   
much also the same tribe may differ from
 itself at various periods of its       
growth4 ,as the result of this and      
similar studies ,i may assure you that  
there is no occasion for questioning the
 existence of highly delicate sentiments
 among some of the ,american tribes4    
,as ,i found the ,mexican love poems the
 most delicate1 so ,i have found their  
war songs the most stirring4 ,we have a 
number of specimens written down in the 
native tongue shortly after the         
conquest4 ,they have never been         
translated or published1 but ,i will    
give you a rendering of one in my       
possession which1 from intrinsic        
evidence1 was written about #aeaj4 ,i   
say written advisedly1 for the nation   
who sang these songs possessed a        
phonetic alphabet1 and wrote many       
volumes of poems by its aid4 ,their     
historian1 ,bernardino de ,sahagun1     

especially mentions that the works used 
for the instruction of youth in their   
schools contained 8poems written in     
antique characters40  ,the first of my  
selections is supposed to be addressed  
by the poet to certain friends of his   
who were unwilling to go to war4        
,a ,,war-,,song ,,of ,,the ,,otomis4    
#a4 ,it grieves me1 dear friends1 that  
you walk not with me in spirit1   that  
,i have not your company in the scenes  
of joy and pleasure1 that   never more  
in union do we seek the same paths4     
#b4 ,do you really see me1 dear friends8
 ,will no ,god take the   blindness from
 your eyes8 ,what is life on earth8 ,can
 the dead   return8 ,no1 they live far  
within the heavens1 in a place of joy4  
#c4 ,the joy of the ,lord1 the ,giver of
 ,life1 is where the warriors   sing1   
and the smoke of the war-fire rises up2 
where the flowers of   the shields      
spread abroad their leaves2 where deeds 
of valor shake   the earth2 where the   
fatal flowers of death cover the fields4

    #d4 ,the battle is there1 the       
beginning of the battle is there1 in the
   open fields1 where the smoke of the  
war-fire winds around and curls   upward
 from the fatal war flowers which adorn 
you1 ye friends and   warriors of the   
,chichimecs4    #e4 ,let not my soul    
dread that open field2 ,i earnestly     
desire the   beginning of the slaughter1
 my soul longs for the murderous fray4  
#f4 ,o you who stand there in the       
battle1 ,i earnestly desire the         
beginning of the slaughter1 my soul     
longs for the murderous fray4    #g4    
,the war-cloud rises upward1 it rises   
into the blue sky where   dwells the    
,giver of ,life2 in it blossom forth the
 flowers of prowess   and valor1 beneath
 it1 in the battle field1 the children  
ripen to   maturity4    #h4 ,rejoice    
with me1 dear friends1 and do ye        
rejoice1 ye children1   going forth to  
the open field of battle2 let us rejoice
 and revel   amid these shields1 flowers
 of the murderous fray4  ,the song which

 ,i have just read1 like most which ,i  
bring before you1 has no name of author4
 ,the poet has passed to an eternal     
oblivion1 though his work remains4 ,more
 fortunate is the composer of the next  
one ,i shall read you4 ,it is a poem by 
an ,aztec prince and bard who bore the  
sonorous appellation1 ,tetlapan         
,quetzanitzin4 ,i can tell you little   
about him4 ,at the time ,cortes entered 
the ,city of ,mexico1 ,tetlapan         
,quetzanitzin was ruler of one of its   
suburbs1 ,tlacopan or ,tacuba4 ,at the  
interview when the daring ,spaniard     
seized upon the person of ,montezuma and
 made him a captive1 this ,tetlapan was 
one of the attendants of the ,aztec     
monarch1 and it is recorded of him that 
he made his escape and disappeared4 ,i  
have found no mention of his subsequent 
adventures4  ,this war-song is one of   
two of his poems which have survived the
 wreck of the ancient literature4 ,it is
 highly metaphorical4 ,you might at     
first think it a drinking song2 but the 

drunkenness it refers to is the         
intoxication of battle1 the             
,berserkerwuth of the ,norse ,vikings2  
the flowers which he sings are the      
war-shields with their gay ornaments2   
and the fertile plains which he lauds   
are those which are watered with the    
blood of heroes4 ,finally1 ,i should    
tell you that the white wine he speaks  
of was a sacred beverage among the      
,mexicans1 set forth at certain solemn  
festivals4 ,like the rest of their wine1
 it was manufactured from the maguey4   
,a ,,war-,,song ,,of ,,tetlapan         
,,quetzanitzin 7#aeai74    #a4 ,why did 
it grieve you1 ,o friends1 why did it   
pain you1 that you   were drunk with the
 wine8 ,arise from your stupor1 ,o      
friends1 come   hither and sing2 let us 
seek for homes in some flowery land2    
forget   your drunkenness4    #b4 ,the  
precept is old that one should quaff the
 strong white wine in   the moment of   
difficulty1 as when one enters the      
battle-plain1 when   he goes forth to   

the place of shattered stones1 where the
 precious   stones are splintered1 the  
emeralds1 the turquoises1 the youths1   
the   children4 ,therefore1 friends and 
brothers1 quaff now the flowing   white 
wine4    #c4 ,let us drink together amid
 the flowers1 let us build our houses   
among the flowers1 where the fragrant   
blossoms cast abroad their   odors as a 
fountain its waters1 where the breath of
 the dew-laden   flowers makes sweet the
 air2 there it is that nobility and     
strength   will make glorious our       
houses1 there the flowers of war bloom  
over a   fertile land4    #d4 ,o        
friends1 do you not hear me8 ,let us go1
 let us go1 let us pour   forth the     
white wine1 the strong wine of battle2  
let us drink the   wine which is as     
sweet as the dew of roses1 let it       
intoxicate our   souls1 let our souls be
 steeped in its delights1 let them be   
enriched as in some opulent place1 some 
fertile land4 ,why does it   trouble    
you8 ,come with me1 and listen to my    

song4  ,alongside of these specimens    
from ,mexico1 ,i put a war-song of the  
,peruvians4 ,it is from the drama of    
,ollanta1 a production dating from      
shortly before the conquest1 and one of 
the most interesting monuments of       
,american native literature4 ,the hero1 
,ollanta1 a warrior of renown but of    
humble parentage1 had1 on the strength  
of his successes against the enemy1     
applied for the hand of the ,inca's     
daughter1 and had been rejected with    
scorn4 ,all his loyalty and allegiance  
turns to hatred1 and he sings his       
war-song against his native country and 
its ruler in these words3               
,a ,,war-,,song ,,of ,,ollanta4         
,o ,cuzco1 beautiful city1              
,henceforward ,i shall be thy enemy4    
,i shall break the walls of thy bosom1  
,i shall tear out thy heart             
,and fling it to the vultures4          
,thy cruel king shall witness           
,my thousands of warriors1              
,armed and led by me1                   

,gather1 like a cloud of curses1        
,against thy citadel4              ,the 
sky shall be red with thy burning1      
,bloody shall thy couch be1             
,and thy king shall perish with thee4   
,gasping in death1 with my hand on his  
throat1              ,we shall see if   
again he will say3              8,thou  
art unworthy of my daughter1            
,never shall she be thine40  ,a variety 
of poetic production of frequent        
occurrence among the aborigines is the  
prophetic4 ,you are aware that it is by 
no means peculiar to them2 the oracle at
 ,delphi1 the sibylline leaves in the   
,capitol1 the words of the ,hebrew      
seers1 even the forecasts of            
,nostradamus1 were usually cast in      
poetic form4 ,the effort to lift the    
veil of futurity is one ineradicable    
from the human breast1 and faith in its 
possibility is universal4 ,those        
prophets who are wise1 those augurs who 
pass the wink to each other1 favor great
 obscurity and ambiguity in their       

communications1 or else express         
themselves in such commonplaces as that 
man is mortal2 that all beauty fadeth2  
that power is transitory1 and the like4 
,we find both kinds flourished in       
ancient ,america4 ,you may remember that
 ,montezuma in his first interview with 
,cortes told the ,spanish invader that  
the arrival of a white and bearded      
conqueror from the ,east had long been  
predicted by ,mexican soothsayers4      
,similar prophecies were current in     
,yucatan1 in ,peru1 and in other        
portions of the continent4 ,they are all
 easily explained1 and there is no      
occasion either to question the fact1 or
 to seek for them any supernatural      
inspiration4 ,it would lead me away from
 my theme to enter into a discussion of 
their meaning1 but ,i should like to    
read you two brief examples of them4    
,both are from the ,maya language of    
,yucatan1 and ,i have no doubt both     
antedate the conquest4 ,the first1      
according to an expression in the poem  

itself1 was composed in the year #adfi4 
,it was the prediction of a ,maya priest
 at the close of the indiction or cycle 
which terminated in that year of our    
chronology4            ,,the ,,prophecy 
,,of ,,pech1 ,,priest ,,of              
,,chichen-,,itza 7#adfi74            ,ye
 men of ,itz1 hearken to the tidings1   
,listen to the forecaste of this cycle's
 end2           ,four have been the ages
 of the world's progressing4            
,now the fourth is ending1 and its end  
is near4           ,a mighty lord is    
coming1 see you give him honor2         
,a potent lord approaches1 to whom all  
must bow2           ,i1 the prophet1    
warn you1 keep in mind my boding1       
,men of ,itz1 mark it1 and await your   
lord4  ,the second example of these     
mystic chants which ,i shall give you is
 from a curious native production       
called1 8,the ,book of ,chilan ,balam10 
a repertory of wild imaginings and      
scraps of ancient and modern magical    
lore1 which is the very ,bible of the   

,maya ,indians4 ,although ,i have a copy
 of it1 ,i have been unable to translate
 any large portion of it1 and my        
correspondents in ,yucatan1 though some 
of them speak ,maya as readily as       
,spanish1 find the expressions too      
archaic and obscure to be intelligible4 
,this particular song is that of the    
priest and soothsayer ,chilan1 from whom
 the sacred book takes its name4 ,there 
is every reason to believe that it dates
 from the fifteenth century4            
,,recital ,,of ,,the ,,priest ,,chilan4 
,eat1 eat1 while there is bread1        
,drink1 drink1 while there is water2    
,a day comes when dust shall darken the 
air1         ,when a blight shall wither
 the land1         ,when a cloud shall  
arise1         ,when a mountain shall be
 lifted up1         ,when a strong man  
shall seize the city1         ,when ruin
 shall fall upon all things1            
,when the tender leaf shall be          
destroyed1         ,when eyes shall be  
closed in death2         ,when there    

shall be three signs on a tree1         
,father1 son and grandson hanging dead  
on the same tree2         ,when the     
battle flag shall be raised1            
,and the people scattered abroad in the 
forests4  ,such poems properly belong to
 the mythologic class4 ,this class was  
fully represented in the productions of 
the primitive bards1 but chiefly owing  
to the prejudices of the early          
missionaries1 the examples remaining are
 few4  ,i could continue to bring before
 you specimens of this quaint and       
ancient lore4 ,my garner is by no means 
emptied4 ,but probably ,i have said     
enough for my purpose4 ,you see that the
 study of the aboriginal poetry of our  
continent opens up an unexpectedly rich 
field for investigation4 ,it throws a   
new light not only on the folk songs of 
other nations1 but on the general       
history of the growth of the poetic     
faculty4 ,more than this1 it elevates   
our opinion of the nations whom we are  
accustomed to call by the terms savage  

and barbarous4 ,we are taught that in   
much which we are inclined to claim as  
our special prerogatives1 they too have 
an interest4 ,in the most precious      
possessions of the race1 in its         
aspirations for the infinite and the    
forever true1 they also have a share4   
,they likewise partake1 and in no mean  
degree1 of that sweetest heritage of    
man1 the glorious gift of song1 8the    
vision and the faculty divine40         
,,part ,,iv4                            
,,linguistic4                           
,,introductory4   ,the processes1       
psychical and logical1 which lie at the 
basis and modify the forms of articulate
 speech1 have yet to be defined and     
classified in a manner to secure the    
general acceptance of scholars4 ,while  
these processes are operative and       
recognizable in all languages1 it has   
ever seemed to me that they are more    
apparent and transparent in the         
unwritten tongues of savage tribes4 ,as 
the stream is more diaphanous near its  

source1 as the problem of organic life  
is more readily studied in the lowest   
groups of animals and vegetables1 by    
such analogies we are prompted to select
 the uncultured speech of the rudest of 
our race to discover the laws of growth 
in human expression4  ,though such laws 
are not precisely the same throughout   
space and time1 they unquestionably     
partake of the same uniformity as we    
note in other natural phenomena1 and no 
language has yet been reported which    
stands alone in its formation4  ,perhaps
 the general laws under which languages 
should be grouped have already been     
defined as closely as the subject       
permits4 ,the labors of ,wilhelm von    
,humboldt1 as expanded by ,professor    
,steinthal1 would appear to present the 
most comprehensive and satisfactory     
classification yet attempted4 ,such is  
the conclusion to which my own studies  
of the subject have led me1 and in the  
first three essays of this ,part1 ,i    
have set forth in considerable detail   

the application of this opinion to the  
languages of ,america4 ,especially in   
the second essay1 ,i have attempted to  
popularize a profounder philosophic     
analysis of these tongues than has      
heretofore appeared in works on the     
subject4  ,the essay on 8,the ,earliest 
,form of ,human ,speech0 offers a series
 of inferences drawn from the study of  
,american tongues as to the general     
characteristics of the articulate       
utterances of the species when it first 
became possessed--by some slow          
evolutionary process--of the power of   
conveying ideas by intelligible sounds4 
,it is an application of facts drawn    
from a limited number of languages to   
the linguistic status of the whole      
species at an indeterminately remote    
period1 but is1 ,i think1 a fair use of 
the materials offered4  ,the analysis of
 words for the affections is the theme  
of the essay on 8,the ,conception of    
,love in some ,american ,languages40 ,it
 is an example of the use to which      

linguistics may be put in the science of
 racial psychology2 while the essay on  
the words for linear measures in certain
 tongues illustrates what knowledge as  
to the condition of a nation's arts may 
be obtained by a scrutiny of its        
lexicon4  ,the next essay1 on the       
curious hoax perpetrated on some        
,european and ,american linguists by the
 manufacture of a novel ,american tongue
 by some ,french students1 is an        
instance1 not wholly unprecedented1 of  
misplaced ingenuity on the one side1 and
 easy credulity on the other4 ,it       
belongs among the 8curiosities of       
literature40  ,professional linguists   
will probably consider the most         
important generalization debated in this
 ,part that of the identity or diversity
 of the agglutinative and incorporative 
processes of tongues4 ,these two        
processes are considered as forms of but
 one by most of the present ,french     
school2 but ,i have maintained their    
radical distinction1 following the      

,german writers above mentioned2 and ,i 
have further insisted that the          
incorporative plan is that especially   
prominent in ,american languages4       
,,american ,,languages1 ,,and ,,why ,,we
 ,,should ,,study ,,them4#bfc           
,contents4--,indian geographic          
names--,language a guide to             
ethnology--,reveals the growth of arts  
and the psychologic processes   of a    
people--,illustration from the ,lenpe   
tongue--,structure of   language best   
studied in savage tongues--,rank of     
,american   tongues--,characteristic    
traits2 pronominal forms2 idea of       
personality2 polysynthesis2             
incorporation2 holophrasis2 origin of   
these--,lucidity of ,american tongues2  
their vocabularies2 power of            
expressing abstract ideas--,conclusion4 
,i appear before you this evening to    
enter a plea for one of the most        
neglected branches of learning1 for a   
study usually considered hopelessly dry 
and unproductive--that of ,american     

aboriginal languages4  ,it might be     
thought that such a topic1 in ,america  
and among ,americans1 would attract a   
reasonably large number of students4    
,the interest which attaches to our     
native soil and to the homes of our     
ancestors might be supposed to extend to
 the languages of those nations who for 
uncounted generations possessed the land
 which we have occupied relatively so   
short a time4  ,this supposition would  
seem the more reasonable in view of the 
fact that in one sense these languages  
have not died out among us4 ,true1 they 
are no longer media of intercourse1 but 
they survive in thousands of            
geographical names all over our land4   
,in the state of ,connecticut alone     
there are over six hundred1 and even    
more in ,pennsylvania4  ,certainly it   
would be a most legitimate anxiety which
 should direct itself to the            
preservation of the correct forms and   
precise meanings of these numerous and  
peculiarly national designations4 ,one  

would think that this alone would not   
fail to excite something more than a    
languid curiosity in ,american          
linguistics1 at least in our            
institutions of learning and societies  
for historical research4  ,that this    
subject has received so slight attention
 ,i attribute to the comparatively      
recent understanding of the value of the
 study of languages in general1 and more
 particularly to the fact that no one1  
so far as ,i know1 has set forth the    
purposes for which we should investigate
 these tongues1 and the results which we
 expect to reach by means of them4 ,this
 it is my present purpose to attempt1 so
 far as it can be accomplished in the   
scope of an evening address4  ,the time 
has not long passed when the only good  
reasons for studying a language were    
held to be either that we might thereby 
acquaint ourselves with its literature2 
or that certain business1 trading1 or   
political interests might be subserved2 
or that the nation speaking it might be 

made acquainted with the blessings of   
civilization and ,christianity4 ,these  
were all good and sufficient reasons1   
but ,i cannot adduce any one of them in 
support of my plea to-night3 for the    
languages ,i shall speak of have no     
literature2 all transactions with their 
people can be carried on as well or     
better in ,european tongues2 and1 in    
fact1 many of these peoples are no      
longer in existence--they have died out 
or amalgamated with others4 ,what ,i    
have to argue for is the study of the   
dead languages of extinct and barbarous 
tribes4  ,you will readily see that my  
arguments must be drawn from other      
considerations than those of immediate  
utility4 ,i must seek them in the       
broader fields of ethnology and         
philosophy2 ,i must appeal to your      
interest in man as a race1 as a member  
of a common species1 as possessing in   
all his families and tribes the same    
mind1 the same soul4 ,language is almost
 our only clue to discover the kinship  

of those countless scattered hordes who 
roamed the forests of this broad        
continent4 ,their traditions are vague  
or lost1 written records they had none1 
their customs and arts are misleading1  
their religions misunderstood2 their    
languages alone remain to testify to a  
oneness of blood often seemingly        
repudiated by an internecine hostility4 
,i am well aware of the limits which a  
wise caution assigns to the employment  
of linguistics in ethnology1 and ,i am  
only too familiar with the many foolish1
 unscientific attempts to employ it with
 reference to the ,american race4 ,but  
in spite of all this1 ,i repeat that it 
is the surest and almost our only means 
to trace the ancient connection and     
migrations of nations in ,america4      
,through its aid alone we have reached a
 positive knowledge that most of the    
area of ,south ,america1 including the  
whole of the ,west ,indies1 was occupied
 by three great families of nations1 not
 one of which had formed any important  

settlement on the northern continent4   
,by similar evidence we know that the   
tribe which greeted ,penn1 when he      
landed on the site of this city where ,i
 now speak1 was a member of the one vast
 family--the great ,algonkin            
stock--whose various clans extended from
 the palmetto swamps of ,carolina to the
 snow-clad hills of ,labrador1 and from 
the easternmost cape of ,newfoundland to
 the peaks of the ,rocky ,mountains1    
over #bj of latitude and #ej of         
longitude4 ,we also know that the       
general trend of migration in the       
northern continent has been from north  
to south1 and that this is true not only
 of the more savage tribes1 as the      
,algonkins1 ,iroquois1 and ,athapascas1 
but also of those who1 in the favored   
southern lands1 approached a form of    
civilization1 the ,aztecs1 the ,mayas1  
and the ,quiches4 ,these and many minor 
ethnologic facts have already been      
obtained by the study of ,american      
languages4  ,but such external          

information is only a small part of what
 they are capable of disclosing4 ,we can
 turn them1 like the reflector of a     
microscope1 on the secret and hidden    
mysteries of the aboriginal man1 and    
discover his inmost motives1 his        
impulses1 his concealed hopes and fears1
 those that gave rise to his customs and
 laws1 his schemes of social life1 his  
superstitions and his religions4        
,personal names1 family names1 titles1  
forms of salutation1 methods of address1
 terms of endearment1 respect1 and      
reproach1 words expressing the emotions1
 these are what infallibly reveal the   
daily social family life of a community1
 and the way in which its members regard
 one another4 ,they are precisely as    
correct when applied to the             
investigation of the ,american race as  
elsewhere1 and they are the more        
valuable just there1 because his        
deep-seated distrust of the white       
invaders--for which1 let us acknowledge1
 he had abundant cause--led the ,indian 

to practice concealment and equivocation
 on these personal topics4  ,in no other
 way can the history of the development 
of his arts be reached4 ,you are        
doubtless aware that diligent students  
of the ,aryan languages have succeeded  
in faithfully depicting the arts and    
habits of that ancient community in     
which the common ancestors of ,greek and
 ,roman1 ,persian and ,dane1 ,brahmin   
and ,irishman1 dwelt together as of one 
blood and one speech4 ,this has been    
done by ascertaining what household     
words are common to all these tongues1  
and therefore must have been in use     
among the primeval horde from which they
 are all descended4 ,the method is      
conclusive1 and yields positive results4
 ,there is no reason why it should not  
be addressed to ,american languages1 and
 we may be sure that it would be most   
fruitful4 ,how valuable it would be to  
take even a few words1 as maize1        
tobacco1 pipe1 bow1 arrow1 and the like1
 each representing a widespread art or  

custom1 and trace their derivations and 
affinities through the languages of the 
whole continent6 ,we may be sure that   
striking and unexpected results would be
 obtained4  ,these languages also offer 
an entertaining field to the            
psychologist4  ,on account of their     
transparency1 as ,i may call it1 the    
clearness with which they retain the    
primitive forms of their radicals1 they 
allow us to trace out the growth of     
words1 and thus reveal the operations of
 the native mind by a series of         
witnesses whose testimony cannot be     
questioned4 ,often curious associations 
of ideas are thus disclosed1 very       
instructive to the student of mankind4  
,many illustrations of this could be    
given1 but ,i do not wish to assail your
 ears by a host of unknown sounds1 so ,i
 shall content myself with one1 and that
 taken from the language of the ,lenp1  
or ,delaware ,indians4  ,i shall        
endeavor to trace out one single radical
 in that language1 and show you how     

many1 and how strangely diverse ideas   
were built up upon it4  ,the radical    
which ,i select is the personal pronoun 
of the first person1 ,i1 ,latin ,ego4   
,in ,delaware this is a single syllable1
 a slight nasal1 ,n1 or ,ni4  ,let me   
premise by informing you that this is   
both a personal and a possessive        
pronoun2 it means both ,i and mine4 ,it 
is both singular and plural1 both ,i and
 we1 mine and our4  ,the changes of the 
application of this root are made by    
adding suffixes to it4  ,i begin with   
ni'hillan1 literally1 8mine1 it is so10 
or 8she1 it1 is truly mine10 the accent 
being on the first syllable1 ni'1 mine4 
,but the common meaning of this verb in 
,delaware is more significant of        
ownership than this tame expression4 ,it
 is an active1 animate verb1 and means1 
8,i beat1 or strike1 somebody40 ,to the 
rude minds of the framers of that       
tongue1 ownership meant the right to    
beat what one owned4  ,we might hope    
this sense was confined to the lower    

animals2 but not so4 ,change the accent 
from the first to the second syllable1  
ni'hillan1 to nihil'lan1 and you have   
the animate active verb with an         
intensive force1 which signifies 8to    
beat to death10 8to kill some person20  
and from this1 by another suffix1 you   
have nihil'lowen1 to murder1 and        
nihil'lowet1 murderer4 ,the bad sense of
 the root is here pushed to its         
uttermost4  ,but the root also developed
 in a nobler direction4 ,add to         
ni'hillan the termination ape1 which    
means a male1 and you have nihillape1   
literally1 8,i1 it is true1 a man10     
which1 as an adjective1 means free1     
independent1 one's own master1 8,i am my
 own man40 ,from this are derived the   
noun1 nihillapewit1 a freeman2 the verb 
nihillapewin1 to be free2 and the       
abstract1 nihillasowagan1 freedom1      
liberty1 independence4 ,these are       
glorious words2 but ,i can go even      
farther4 ,from this same theme is       
derived the verb nihillape-wheu1 to set 

free1 to liberate1 to redeem2 and from  
this the missionaries framed the word   
nihillape-whoalid1 the ,redeemer1 the   
,saviour4  ,here is an unexpected       
antithesis1 the words for a murderer and
 the ,saviour both from one root6 ,it   
illustrates how strange is the          
concatenation of human thoughts4  ,these
 are by no means all the derivatives    
from the root ni1 ,i4  ,when            
reduplicated as nn1 it has a plural and 
strengthened form1 like 8our own40 ,with
 a pardonable and well-nigh universal   
weakness1 which we share with them1 the 
nation who spoke the language believed  
themselves the first created of mortals 
and the most favored by the ,creator4   
,hence whatever they designated as      
8ours0 was both older and better than   
others of its kind4 ,hence nenni came to
 mean ancient1 primordial1 indigenous1  
and as such it is a frequent prefix in  
the ,delaware language4 ,again1 as they 
considered themselves the first and only
 true men1 others being barbarians1     

enemies1 or strangers1 nenno was        
understood to be one of us1 a man like  
ourselves1 of our nation4  ,in their    
different dialects the sounds of n1 l1  
and r were alternated1 so that while    
,thomas ,campanius1 who translated the  
,catechism into ,delaware about #afde1  
wrote that word rhennus1 later writers  
have given it lenno1 and translate it   
8man40 ,this is the word which we find  
in the name ,lenni ,lenape1 which1 by   
its derivation1 means 8we1 we men40 ,the
 antecedent lenni is superfluous4 ,the  
proper name of the ,delaware nation was 
and still is ,len p1 8we men10 or 8our  
men10 and those critics who have        
maintained that this was a misnomer1    
introduced by ,mr4 ,heckewelder1 have   
been mistaken in their facts4#bfd  ,i   
have not done with the root n4 ,i might 
go on and show you how it is at the base
 of the demonstrative pronouns1 this1   
that1 those1 in ,delaware2 how it is the
 radical of the words for thinking1     
reflecting1 and meditating2 how it also 

gives rise to words expressing          
similarity and identity2 how it means to
 be foremost1 to stand ahead of others2 
and finally1 how it signifies to come to
 me1 to unify or congregate together4   
,but doubtless ,i have trespassed on    
your ears long enough with unfamiliar   
words4  ,such suggestions as these will 
give you some idea of the value of      
,american languages to ,american        
ethnology4 ,but ,i should be doing      
injustice to my subject were ,i to      
confine my arguments in favor of their  
study to this horizon4 ,if they are     
essential to a comprehension of the red 
race1 not less so are they to the       
science of linguistics in general4 ,this
 science deals not with languages1 but  
with language4 ,it looks at the idiom of
 a nation1 not as a dry catalogue of    
words and grammatical rules1 but as the 
living expression of the thinking power 
of man1 as the highest manifestation of 
that spiritual energy which has lifted  
him from the level of the brute1 the    

complete definition of which1 in its    
origin and evolution1 is the loftiest   
aim of universal history4 ,as the       
intention of all speech is the          
expression of thought1 and as the final 
purpose of all thinking is the discovery
 of truth1 so the ideal of language1 the
 point toward which it strives1 is the  
absolute form for the realization of    
intellectual function4  ,in this high   
quest no tongue can be overlooked1 none 
can be left out of account4 ,one is just
 as important as another4 ,gthe once    
said that he who knows but one language 
knows none2 we may extend the apothegm1 
and say that so long as there is a      
single language on the globe not        
understood and analyzed1 the science of 
language will be incomplete and         
illusory4 ,it has often proved the case 
that the investigation of a single1     
narrow1 obscure dialect has changed the 
most important theories of history4     
,what has done more than anything else  
to overthrow1 or1 at least1 seriously to

 shake1 the time-honored notion that the
 ,white ,race first came from ,central  
,asia8 ,it was the study of the         
,lithuanian dialect on the ,baltic ,sea1
 a language of peasants1 without        
literature or culture1 but which        
displays forms more archaic than the    
,sanscrit4 ,what has led to a complete  
change of views as to the prehistoric   
population of ,southern ,europe8 ,the   
study of the ,basque1 a language unknown
 out of a few secluded valleys in the   
,pyrenees4  ,there are many reasons why 
unwritten languages1 like those of      
,america1 are more interesting1 more    
promising in results1 to the student of 
linguistics1 than those which for       
generations have been cast in the       
conventional moulds of written speech4  
,their structure is more direct1 simple1
 transparent2 they reveal more clearly  
the laws of the linguistic powers in    
their daily exercise2 they are less tied
 down to hereditary formul and          
meaningless repetitions4  ,would we     

explain the complicated structure of    
highly-organized tongues like our own1  
would we learn the laws which have      
assigned to it its material and formal  
elements1 we must turn to the nave      
speech of savages1 there to see in their
 nakedness those processes which are too
 obscure in our own4  ,if the           
much-debated question of the origin of  
language engages us1 we must seek its   
solution in the simple radicals of      
savage idioms2 and if we wish to        
institute a comparison between the      
relative powers of languages1 we can by 
no means omit them from our list4 ,they 
offer to us the raw material1 the       
essential and indispensable requisites  
of articulate communication4  ,as the   
structure of a language reflects in a   
measure1 and as1 on the other hand1 it  
in a measure controls and directs the   
mental workings of those who speak it1  
the student of psychology must occupy   
himself with the speech of the most     
illiterate races in order to understand 

their theory of things1 their notions of
 what is about them4 ,they teach him the
 undisturbed evolution of the untrained 
mind4  ,as the biologist in pursuit of  
that marvellous something which we call 
8the vital principle0 turns from the    
complex organisms of the higher animals 
and plants to life in its simplest      
expression in microbes and single cells1
 so in the future will the linguist find
 that he is nearest the solution of the 
most weighty problems of his science    
when he directs his attention to the    
least cultivated languages4  ,convinced 
as ,i am of the correctness of this     
analogy1 ,i venture to predict that in  
the future the analysis of the ,american
 languages will be regarded as one of   
the most important fields in linguistic 
study1 and will modify most materially  
the findings of that science4 ,and ,i   
make this prediction the more           
confidently1 as ,i am supported in it by
 the great authority of ,wilhelm von    
,humboldt1 who for twenty years devoted 

himself to their investigation4  ,as ,i 
am advocating so warmly that more       
attention should be devoted to these    
languages1 it is but fair that you      
should require me to say something      
descriptive about them1 to explain some 
of their peculiarities of structure4 ,to
 do this properly ,i should require not 
the fag end of one lecture1 but a whole 
course of lectures4 ,yet perhaps ,i can 
say enough now to show you how much     
there is in them worth studying4        
,before ,i turn to this1 however1 ,i    
should like to combat a prejudice which 
,i fear you may entertain4 ,it is that  
same ancient prejudice which led the old
 ,greeks to call all those who did not  
speak their sonorous idioms barbarians2 
for that word meant nothing more nor    
less than babblers 771 people who spoke 
an unintelligible tongue4 ,modern       
civilized nations hold that prejudice   
yet1 in the sense that each insists that
 his own language is the best one       
extant1 the highest in the scale1 and   

that wherein others differ from it in   
structure they are inferior4  ,so       
unfortunately placed is this prejudice  
with reference to my subject1 that in   
the very volume issued by our government
 at ,washington to encourage the study  
of the ,indian languages1 there is a    
long essay to prove that ,english is the
 noblest1 most perfect language in the  
world1 while all the native languages   
are1 in comparison1 of a very low grade 
indeed6#bfe  ,the essayist draws his    
arguments chiefly from the absence of   
inflections in ,english4 ,yet many of   
the profoundest linguists of this       
century have maintained that a fully    
inflected language1 like the ,greek or  
,latin1 is for that very reason ahead of
 all others4 ,we may suspect that when a
 writer lauds his native tongue at the  
expense of others1 he is influenced by a
 prejudice in its favor and an absence  
of facility in the others4  ,those best 
acquainted with ,american tongues praise
 them most highly for flexibility1      

accuracy1 and resources of expression4  
,they place some of them above any      
,aryan language4 ,but what is this to   
those who do not know them8 ,to him who 
cannot bend the bow of ,ulysses it      
naturally seems a useless and awkward   
weapon4  ,i do not ask you to accept    
this opinion either2 but ,i do ask that 
you rid your minds of bias1 and that you
 do not condemn a tongue because it     
differs widely from that which you      
speak4  ,american tongues do1 indeed1   
differ very widely from those familiar  
to ,aryan ears4 ,not that they are all  
alike in structure4 ,that was a hasty   
generalization1 dating from a time when 
they were less known4 ,yet the great    
majority of them have certain           
characteristics in common1 sufficient to
 place them in a linguistic class by    
themselves4 ,i shall name and explain   
some of these4  ,as of the first        
importance ,i would mention the         
prominence they assign to pronouns and  
pronominal forms4 ,indeed1 an eminent   

linguist has been so impressed with this
 feature that he has proposed to        
classify them distinctively as          
8pronominal languages40 ,they have many 
classes of pronouns1 sometimes as many  
as eighteen1 which is more than twice as
 many as the ,greek4 ,there is often no 
distinction between a noun and a verb   
other than the pronoun which governs it4
 ,that is1 if a word is employed with   
one form of the pronoun it becomes a    
noun1 if with another pronoun1 it       
becomes a verb4  ,we have something of  
the same kind in ,english4 ,in the      
phrase1 8,i love10 love is a verb2 but  
in 8my love10 it is a noun4 ,it is      
noteworthy that this treatment of words 
as either nouns or verbs1 as we please  
to employ them1 was carried further by  
,shakespeare than by any other ,english 
writer4 ,he seemed to divine in such a  
trait of language vast resources for    
varied and pointed expression4 ,if ,i   
may venture a suggestion as to how it   
does confer peculiar strength to        

expressions1 it is that it brings into  
especial prominence the idea of         
,personality2 it directs all subjects of
 discourse by the notion of an          
individual1 a living1 personal unit4    
,this imparts vividness to narratives1  
and directness and life to propositions4
  ,of these pronouns1 that of the first 
person is usually the most developed4   
,from it1 in many dialects1 are derived 
the demonstratives and relatives1 which 
in ,aryan languages were taken from the 
third person4 ,this prominence of the   
,ego1 this confidence in self1 is a     
trait of the race as well as of their   
speech4 ,it forms part of that savage   
independence of character which         
prevented them coalescing into great    
nations1 and led them to prefer death to
 servitude4  ,another characteristic1   
which at one time was supposed to be    
universal on this continent1 is what    
,mr4 ,peter ,du ,ponceau named          
polysynthesis4 ,he meant by this a power
 of running several words into one1     

dropping parts of them and retaining    
only the significant syllables4 ,long   
descriptive names of all objects of     
civilized life new to the ,indians were 
thus coined with the greatest ease4     
,some of these are curious enough4 ,the 
,pavant ,indians call a school house by 
one word1 which means 8a stopping-place 
where sorcery is practiced20 their      
notion of book-learning being that it   
belongs to the uncanny arts4 ,the       
,delaware word for horse means 8the     
four-footed animal which carries on his 
back40  ,this method of coining words   
is1 however1 by no means universal in   
,american languages4 ,it prevails in    
most of those in ,british ,america and  
the ,united ,states1 in ,aztec and      
various ,south ,american idioms2 but in 
others1 as the dialects found in        
,yucatan and ,guatemala1 and in the     
,tupi of ,brazil1 the ,otomi of ,mexico1
 and the ,klamath of the ,pacific coast1
 it is scarcely or not at all present4  
,another trait1 however1 which was      

confounded with this by ,mr4 ,du        
,ponceau1 but really belongs in a       
different category of grammatical       
structure1 is truly distinctive of the  
languages of the continent1 and ,i am   
not sure that any one of them has been  
shown to be wholly devoid of it4 ,this  
is what is called incorporation4 ,it    
includes in the verb1 or in the verbal  
expression1 the object and manner of the
 action4  ,this is effected by making   
the subject of the verb an inseparable  
prefix1 and by inserting between it and 
the verb itself1 or sometimes directly  
in the latter1 between its syllables1   
the object1 direct or remote1 and the   
particles indicating mode4 ,the time or 
tense particles1 on the other hand1 will
 be placed at one end of this compound1 
either as prefixes or suffixes1 thus    
placing the whole expression strictly   
within the limits of a verbal form of   
speech4  ,both the above                
characteristics1 ,i mean ,polysynthesis 
and ,incorporation1 are unconscious     

efforts to carry out a certain theory of
 speech which has aptly enough been     
termed holophrasis1 or the putting the  
whole of a phrase into a single word4   
,this is the aim of each of them1 though
 each endeavors to accomplish it by     
different means4 ,incorporation confines
 itself exclusively to verbal forms1    
while polysynthesis embraces both nouns 
and verbs4  ,suppose we carry the       
analysis further1 and see if we can     
obtain an answer to the query1--,why did
 this effort at blending forms of speech
 obtain so widely8 ,such an inquiry will
 indicate how valuable to linguistic    
search would prove the study of this    
group of languages4  ,i think there is  
no doubt but that it points unmistakably
 to that very ancient1 to that          
primordial period of human utterance    
when men had not yet learned to connect 
words into sentences1 when their utmost 
efforts at articulate speech did not go 
beyond single words1 which1 aided by    
gestures and signs1 served to convey    

their limited intellectual converse4    
,such single vocables did not belong to 
any particular part of speech4 ,there   
was no grammar to that antique tongue4  
,its disconnected exclamations mean     
whole sentences in themselves4  ,a large
 part of the human race1 notably1 but   
not exclusively1 the aborigines of this 
continent1 continued the tradition of   
this mode of expression in the structure
 of their tongues1 long after the union 
of thought and sound in audible speech  
had been brought to a high degree of    
perfection4  ,although ,i thus regard   
one of the most prominent peculiarities 
of ,american languages as a survival    
from an exceedingly low stage of human  
development1 it by no means follows that
 this is an evidence of their           
inferiority4  ,the ,chinese1 who made no
 effort to combine the primitive        
vocables into one1 but range them       
nakedly side by side1 succeeded no      
better than the ,american ,indians2 and 
there is not much beyond assertion to   

prove that the ,aryans1 who1 through    
their inflections1 marked the relation  
of each word in the sentence by numerous
 tags of case1 gender1 number1 etc41 got
 any nearer the ideal perfection of     
language4  ,if we apply what is         
certainly a very fair test1 to wit3 the 
uses to which a language is and can be  
put1 ,i cannot see that a well-developed
 ,american tongue1 such as the ,aztec or
 the ,algonkin1 in any way falls short  
of1 say ,french or ,english4  ,it is    
true that in many of these tongues there
 is no distinction made between         
expressions1 which with us are carefully
 separated1 and are so in thought4      
,thus1 in the ,tupi of ,brazil and      
elsewhere1 there is but one word for the
 three expressions1 8his father10 8he is
 a father10 and 8he has a father20 in   
many1 the simple form of the verb may   
convey three different ideas1 as in     
,ute1 where the word for 8he seizes0    
means also 8the seizer10 and as a       
descriptive noun1 8a bear10 the animal  

which seizes4  ,this has been charged   
against these languages as a lack of    
8differentiation40 ,grammatically1 this 
is so2 but the same charge applies with 
almost equal force to the ,english      
language1 where the same word may belong
 to any of four1 five1 even six parts of
 speech1 dependent entirely on the      
connection in which it is used4  ,as a  
set-off1 the ,american languages avoid  
confusions of expression which prevail  
in ,european tongues4  ,thus in none of 
these latter1 when ,i say 8the love of  
,god10 8l'amour de ,dieu10 8amor ,dei10 
can you understand what ,i mean4 ,you do
 not know whether ,i intend the love    
which we have or should have toward     
,god1 or ,god's love toward us4 ,yet in 
the ,mexican language 7and many other   
,american tongues7 these two quite      
opposite ideas are so clearly           
distinguished that1 as ,father ,carochi 
warns the readers of his ,mexican       
,grammar1 to confound them would not    
merely be a grievous solecism in speech1

 but a formidable heresy as well4       
,another example4 ,what can you make out
 of this sentence1 which is strictly    
correct by ,english grammar3 8,john told
 ,robert's son that he must help him80  
,you can make nothing out of it4 ,it may
 have any one of six different meanings1
 depending on the persons referred to by
 the pronouns 8he0 and 8him40 ,no such  
lamentable confusion could occur in any 
,american tongue known to me4 ,the      
,chippeway1 for instance1 has three     
pronouns of the third person1 which     
designate the near and the remote       
antecedents with the most lucid         
accuracy4  ,there is another point that 
,i must mention in this connection1     
because ,i find that it has almost      
always been overlooked or misunderstood 
by critics of these languages4 ,these   
have been free in condemning the        
synthetic forms of construction4 ,but   
they seem to be ignorant that their use 
is largely optional4 ,thus1 in ,mexican1
 one can arrange the same sentence in an

 analytic or a synthetic form1 and this 
is also the case1 in a less degree1 in  
the ,algonkin4 ,by this means a         
remarkable richness is added to the     
language4 ,the higher the grade of      
synthesis employed1 the more striking1  
elevated1 and pointed becomes the       
expression4 ,in common life long        
compounds are rare1 while in the native 
,mexican poetry each line is often but  
one word4  ,turning now from the        
structure of these languages to their   
vocabularies1 ,i must correct a         
widespread notion that they are scanty  
in extent and deficient in the means to 
express lofty or abstract ideas4  ,of   
course1 there are many tracts of thought
 and learning familiar to us now which  
were utterly unknown to the ,american   
aborigines1 and not less so to our own  
forefathers a few centuries ago4 ,it    
would be very unfair to compare the     
dictionary of an ,indian language with  
the last edition of ,webster's          
,unabridged4 ,but take the ,english     

dictionaries of the latter half of the  
sixteenth century1 before ,spenser and  
,shakespeare wrote1 and compare them    
with the ,mexican vocabulary of ,molina1
 which contains about #ac1jjj words1 or 
with the ,maya vocabulary of the convent
 of ,motul1 which presents over #bj1jjj1
 both prepared at that date1 and your   
procedure will be just1 and you will    
find it not disadvantageous to the      
,american side of the question4  ,the   
deficiency in abstract terms is         
generally true of these languages4 ,they
 did not have them1 because they had no 
use for them--and the more blessed was  
their condition4 ,european languages    
have been loaded with several thousand  
such by metaphysics and mysticism1 and  
it has required many generations to     
discover that they are empty windbags1  
full of sound and signifying nothing4   
,yet it is well known to students that  
the power of forming abstracts is       
possessed in a remarkable degree by many
 native languages4 ,the most recondite  

formul of dogmatic religion1 such as the
 definition of the ,trinity and the     
difference between consubstantiation and
 transubstantiation1 have been          
translated into many of them without    
introducing foreign words1 and in entire
 conformity with their grammatical      
structure4 ,indeed1 ,dr4 ,augustin de la
 ,rosa1 of the ,university of           
,guadalajara1 says the ,mexican is      
peculiarly adapted to render these      
metaphysical subtleties4  ,i have been  
astonished that some writers should     
bring up the primary meaning of a word  
in an ,american language in order to    
infer the coarseness of its secondary   
meaning4 ,this is a strangely unfair    
proceeding1 and could be directed with  
equal effect against our own tongues4   
,thus1 ,i read lately a traveler who    
spoke hardly of an ,indian tribe because
 their word for 8to love0 was a         
derivative from that meaning 8to buy10  
and thence 8to prize40 ,but what did the
 ,latin amare1 and the ,english to love1

 first mean8 ,carnally living together  
is what they first meant1 and this is   
not a nobler derivation than that of the
 ,indian4 ,even yet1 when the most      
polished of ,european nations1 that one 
which most exalts la grande passion1    
does not distinguish in language between
 loving their wives and liking their    
dinners1 but uses the same word for both
 emotions1 it is scarcely wise for us to
 indulge in much latitude of inference  
from such etymologies4  ,such is the    
general character of ,american          
languages1 and such are the reasons why 
they should be preserved and studied4   
,the field is vast and demands many     
laborers to reap all the fruit that it  
promises4 ,it is believed at present    
that there are about two hundred wholly 
independent stocks of languages among   
the aborigines of this continent4 ,they 
vary most widely in vocabulary1 and     
seemingly scarcely less so in grammar4  
,besides this1 each of these stocks is  
subdivided into dialects1 each          

distinguished by its own series of      
phonetic changes1 and its own new words4
 ,what an opportunity is thus offered   
for the study of the natural evolution  
of language1 unfettered by the          
petrifying art of writing6  ,this is the
 case which ,i present to you1 and for  
which ,i earnestly solicit your         
consideration4 ,and that ,i may add     
weight to my appeal1 ,i close by quoting
 the words of one of ,america's most    
distinguished scientists1 ,professor    
,william ,dwight ,whitney1 of ,yale     
,college1 who writes to this effect3    
8,the study of ,american languages is   
the most fruitful and the most important
 branch of ,american ,archology40       
,,wilhelm ,,von ,,humboldt',s           
,,researches ,,in ,,american            
,,languages4#bff    ,contents4--,what   
led ,humboldt toward the ,american      
tongues--,progress   of his             
studies--,fundamental doctrine of his   
philosophy of   language--,his theory of
 the evolution of languages--,opinion on

   ,american languages--,his criterion  
of the relative perfection of           
languages--,not abundance of forms--,nor
 verbal richness--,american   tongues   
not degenerations--,humboldt's          
classification of                       
languages--,psychological origin of     
,incorporation in language--,its        
shortcomings--,in simple sentences--,in 
compound sentences--,absence of   true  
formal elements--,the nature of the     
,american verb4   ,the foundations of   
the ,philosophy of ,language were laid  
by ,wilhelm von ,humboldt 7born ,june   
#bb1 #agfg1 died ,april #h1 #ahce74 ,the
 principles he advocated have frequently
 been misunderstood1 and some of them   
have been modified1 or even             
controverted1 by more extended research2
 but a careful survey of the tendencies 
of modern thought in this field will    
show that the philosophic scheme of the 
nature and growth of languages which he 
set forth1 is gradually reasserting its 
sway after having been neglected and    

denied through the preponderance of the 
so-called 8naturalistic0 school during  
the last quarter of a century4  ,the    
time seems ripe1 therefore1 to bring the
 general principles of his philosophy to
 the knowledge of ,american scholars1 as
 applied by himself to the analysis of  
,american languages4  ,these languages  
occupied ,humboldt's attention earnestly
 and for many years4 ,he was first led  
to their study by his brother           
,alexander1 who presented him with the  
large linguistic collection amassed     
during his travels in ,south and ,north 
,america4  ,while ,prussian ,minister in
 ,rome 7#ahjb-h7 ,wilhelm ransacked the 
library of the ,collegio ,romano for    
rare or unpublished works on ,american  
tongues2 he obtained from the ex-,jesuit
 ,forneri all the information the latter
 could give about the ,yurari1 a tongue 
spoken on the ,meta river1 ,new         
,granada2#bfg and he secured accurate   
copies of all the manuscript material on
 these idioms left by the diligent      

collector and linguist1 the ,abb        
,hervas4  ,a few years later1 in #ahab1 
we find him writing to his friend ,baron
 ,alexander von ,rennenkampff1 then in  
,st4 ,petersburg3 8,i have selected the 
,american languages as the special      
subject of my investigations4 ,they have
 the closest relationship of any with   
the tongues of north-eastern ,asia2 and 
,i beg you therefore to obtain for me   
all the dictionaries and grammars of the
 latter which you can40#bfh  ,it is     
probable from this extract that         
,humboldt was then studying these       
languages from that limited1            
ethnographic point of view1 from which  
he wrote his essay on the ,basque       
tongue1 the announcement of which       
appeared1 indeed1 in that year1 #ahab1  
although the work itself was not issued 
until #ahba4  ,ten years more of study  
and reflection taught him a far loftier 
flight4 ,he came to look upon each      
language as an organism1 all its parts  
bearing harmonious relations to each    

other1 standing in a definite connection
 with the intellectual and emotional    
development of the nation speaking it4  
,each language again bears the relation 
to language in general that the species 
does to the genus1 or the genus to the  
order1 and by a comprehensive process of
 analysis he hoped to arrive at those   
fundamental laws of articulate speech   
which form the ,philosophy of ,language1
 and which1 as they are also the laws of
 human thought1 at a certain point      
coincide1 he believed1 with those of the
 ,philosophy of ,history4  ,in the      
completion of this vast scheme1 he      
continued to attach the utmost          
importance to the ,american languages4  
,his illustrations were constantly drawn
 from them1 and they were ever the      
subject of his earnest studies4 ,he     
prized them as in certain respects the  
most valuable of all to the philosophic 
student of human speech4  ,thus1 in     
#ahbf1 he announced before the ,berlin  
,academy that he was preparing an       

exhaustive work on the 8,organism of    
,language10 for which he had selected   
the ,american languages exclusively1 as 
best suited for this purpose4 8,the     
languages of a great continent10 he     
writes1 8peopled by numerous            
nationalities1 probably never subject to
 foreign influence1 offer for this      
branch of linguistic study specially    
favorable material4 ,there are in       
,america as many as thirty little known 
languages for which we have means of    
study1 each of which is like a new      
natural species1 besides many others    
whose data are less ample40#bfi  ,in his
 memoir1 read two years later1 8,on the 
,origin of ,grammatic ,forms1 and their 
,influence on the ,development of       
,ideas10 he chose most of his examples  
from the idioms of the ,new ,world2#bgj 
and the year following1 he read the     
monograph on the ,verb in ,american     
languages1 which ,i refer to on a later 
page4  ,in a subsequent communication1  
he announced his special study of this  

group as still in preparation4 ,it was1 
however1 never completed4 ,his earnest  
desire to reach the fundamental laws of 
language led him into a long series of  
investigations into the systems of      
recorded speech1 phonetic hieroglyphics 
and alphabetic writing1 on which he read
 memoirs of great acuteness4  ,in one of
 these he again mentions his studies of 
the ,american tongues1 and takes        
occasion to vindicate them from the     
current charge of being of a low grade  
in the linguistic scale4 8,it is        
certainly unjust10 he writes1 8to call  
the ,american languages rude or savage1 
although their structure is widely      
different from those perfectly          
formed40#bga  ,in #ahbh1 there is a     
published letter from him making an     
appointment with the ,abb ,thavenet1    
missionary to the ,canadian ,algonkins1 
then in ,paris1 8to enjoy the pleasure  
of conversing with him on his           
interesting studies of the ,algonkin    
language40#bgb ,and a private letter    

tells us that in #ahca he applied       
himself with new zeal to mastering the  
intricacies of ,mexican grammar4#bgc    
,all these years he was working to      
complete the researches which led him to
 the far-reaching generalization which  
is at the basis of his linguistic       
philosophy4  ,let me state in a few     
words what this philosophy teaches4  ,it
 aims to establish as a fundamental     
truth that the diversity of structure in
 languages is both the necessary        
antecedent and the necessary consequent 
of the evolution of the human mind4#bgd 
,in the establishment of this thesis he 
begins with a subtle analysis of the    
nature of speech in general1 and then   
proceeds to define the reciprocal       
influences which thought exerts upon it1
 and it upon thought4  ,it will readily 
be seen that a corollary of this theorem
 is that the ,science of ,language is   
and must be the most instructive1 the   
indispensable guide in the study of the 
mental evolution of the human race4     

,humboldt recognized this fully4 ,he    
taught that in its highest sense the    
philosophy of language is one with the  
philosophy of history4 ,the science of  
language misses its purpose unless it   
seeks its chief end in explaining the   
intellectual growth of the race4#bge    
,each separate tongue is 8a             
thought-world in tones0 established     
between the minds of those who speak it 
and the objective world without4#bgf    
,each mirrors in itself the spirit of   
the nation to which it belongs4 ,but it 
has also an earlier and independent     
origin2 it is the product of the        
conceptions of antecedent generations1  
and thus exerts a formative and         
directive influence on the national     
mind1 an influence not slight1 but more 
potent than that which the national mind
 exerts upon it4#bgg  ,he fully         
recognized a progress1 an organic       
growth1 in human speech4 ,this growth   
may be from two sources1 one the        
cultivation of a tongue within the      

nation by enriching its vocabulary1     
separating and classifying its elements1
 fixing its expressions1 and thus       
adapting it to wider uses2 the second1  
by forcible amalgamation with another   
tongue4  ,the latter exerts always a    
more profound and often a more          
beneficial influence4 ,the organism of  
both tongues may be destroyed1 but the  
dissolvent force is also an organic and 
vital one1 and from the ruins of both   
constructs a speech of grander plans and
 with wider views4 8,the seemingly      
aimless and confused interminglings of  
primitive tribes sowed the seed for the 
flowers of speech and song which        
flourished in centuries long posterior40
  ,the immediate causes of the          
improvement of a language through       
forcible admixture with another1 are3   
that it is obliged to drop all          
unnecessary accessory elements in a     
proposition2 that the relations of ideas
 must be expressed by conventional and  
not significant syllables2 and that the 

limitations of thought imposed by the   
genius of the language are violently    
broken down1 and the mind is thus given 
wider play for its faculties4  ,such    
influences1 however1 do not act in      
accordance with fixed laws of growth4   
,there are no such laws which are of    
universal application4 ,the development 
of the ,mongolian or ,aryan tongues is  
not at all that of the ,american4 ,the  
goal is one and the same1 but the paths 
to it are infinite4 ,for this reason    
each group or class of languages must be
 studied by itself1 and its own peculiar
 developmental laws be ascertained by   
searching its history4#bgh  ,with       
reference to the growth of ,american    
languages1 it was ,humboldt's view that 
they manifest the utmost refractoriness 
both to external influences and to      
internal modifications4 ,they reveal a  
marvellous tenacity of traditional words
 and forms1 not only in dialects1 but   
even in particular classes of the       
community1 men having different         

expressions from women1 the old from the
 young1 the higher from the lower       
classes4 ,these are maintained with     
scrupulous exactitude through           
generations1 and three centuries of     
daily commingling with the white race   
have scarcely altered their grammar or  
phonetics4  ,nor is this referable to   
the contrast between an ,aryan and an   
,american language4 ,the same           
immiscibility is shown between          
themselves4 8,even where many radically 
different languages are located closely 
together1 as in ,mexico1 ,i have not    
found a single example where one        
exercised a constructive or formative   
influence on the other4 ,but it is by   
the encounter of great and contrasted   
differences that languages gain         
strength1 riches1 and completeness4     
,only thus are the perceptive powers1   
the imagination and the feelings        
impelled to enrich and extend the means 
of expression1 which1 if left to the    
labors of the understanding alone1 are  

liable to be but meagre and arid40#bgi  
,humboldt's one criterion of a language 
was its tendency to quicken and         
stimulate mental action4 ,he maintained 
that this is secured just in proportion 
as the grammatical structure favors     
clear definition of the individual idea 
apart from its relations2 in other      
words1 as it separates the material from
 the inflectional elements of speech4   
,clear thinking1 he argued1 means       
progressive thinking4 ,therefore he     
assigned a lower position both to those 
tongues which inseparably connect the   
idea with its relations1 as most        
,american languages1 and to those which1
 like the ,chinese and in a less degree 
the modern ,english1 have scarcely any  
formal elements at all1 but depend upon 
the position of words 7placement7 to    
signify their relations4 ,but he warns  
us that it is of importance to recognize
 fully 8that grammatical principles     
dwell rather in the mind of the speaker 
than in the material and mechanism of   

his language10 and that the power of    
expressing ideas in any tongue depends  
much more on the intellectual capacity  
of the speaker than the structure of the
 tongue itself4  ,he censures the common
 error 7common now as it was in his day7
 that the abundance and regularity of   
forms in a language is a mark of        
excellence4 ,this very multiplicity1    
this excessive superfluity1 is a burden 
and a drawback1 and obscures the        
integration of the thought by attaching 
to it a quantity of needless            
qualifications4 ,thus1 in the language  
of the ,abipones1 the pronoun is        
different as the person spoken of is    
conceived as present1 absent1 sitting1  
walking1 lying or running--all quite    
unnecessary specifications4#bhj  ,in    
some languages much appears as form     
which1 on close scrutiny1 is nothing of 
the kind4  ,this misunderstanding has   
reigned almost universally in the       
treatment of ,american tongues4 ,the    
grammars which have been written upon   

them proceed generally on the principles
 of ,latin1 and apply a series of       
grammatical names to the forms          
explained1 entirely inappropriate to    
them1 and misleading4 ,our first duty in
 taking up such a grammar as1 for       
instance1 that of an ,american language1
 is to dismiss the whole of the         
arrangement of the 8parts of speech10   
and by an analysis of words and phrases1
 to ascertain by what collocation of    
elements they express logical1          
significant relations4#bha  ,for        
example1 in the ,carib tongue1 the      
grammars give aveiridaco as the second  
person singular1 subjunctive imperfect1 
8if thou wert40 ,analyze this1 and we   
discover that a is the possessive       
pronoun 8thy20 veiri is 8to be0 or      
8being0 7in a place72 and daco is a     
particle of definite time4 ,hence1 the  
literal rendering is 8on the day of thy 
being40 ,the so-called imperfect        
subjunctive turns out to be a verbal    
noun with a preposition4 ,in many       

,american languages the hypothetical    
supposition expressed in the ,latin     
subjunctive is indicated by the same    
circumlocution4  ,again1 the infinitive1
 in its classical sense1 is unknown in  
most1 probably in all1 ,american        
languages4 ,in the ,tupi of ,brazil and 
frequently elsewhere it is simply a     
noun2 caru is both 8to eat0 and 8food20 
che caru ai-pota1 8,i wish to eat10     
literally 8my food ,i wish40  ,many     
writers continue to maintain that a     
criterion of a language is its          
lexicographic richness--the number of   
words it possesses4 ,even recently1     
,prof4 ,max ,mller has applied such a   
test to ,american languages1 and1       
finding that one of the ,fuegian        
dialects is reported to have nearly     
thirty thousand words1 he maintains that
 this is a proof that these savages are 
a degenerate remnant of some much more  
highly developed ancestry4 ,founding his
 opinion largely on similar facts1      
,alexander von ,humboldt applied the    

expression to the ,american nations that
 they are 8des dbris chapps  un naufrage
 commun40  ,such1 however1 was not the  
opinion of his brother ,wilhelm4 ,he    
sounded the depths of linguistic        
philosophy far more deeply than to      
accept mere abundance of words as proof 
of richness in a language4 ,many savage 
languages have twenty words signifying  
to eat particular things1 but no word   
meaning 8to eat0 in general2 the ,eskimo
 language has different words for       
fishing for each kind of fish1 but no   
word 8to fish10 in a general sense4     
,such apparent richness is1 in fact1    
actual poverty4  ,humboldt taught that  
the quality1 not merely the quantity1 of
 words was the decisive measure of      
verbal wealth4 ,such quality depends on 
the relations of concrete words1 on the 
one hand1 to primitive objective        
perceptions at their root1 and1 on the  
other1 to the abstract general ideas of 
which they are particular               
representatives2 and besides this1 on   

the relations which the spoken word1 the
 articulate sound1 bears to the         
philosophic laws of the formation of    
language in general4#bhb  ,in his letter
 to ,abel-,remusat he discusses the     
theory that the ,american languages     
point to a once higher condition of     
civilization1 and are the corrupted     
idioms of deteriorated races4 ,he denies
 that there is linguistic evidence of   
any such theory4 ,these languages1 he   
says1 possess a remarkable regularity of
 structure1 and very few anomalies4     
,their grammar does not present any     
visible traces of corrupting            
intermixtures4#bhc  ,humboldt's         
classification of languages was based on
 the relation of the word to the        
sentence1 which1 expressed in logic1    
would mean the relation of the simple   
idea to the proposition4 ,he taught that
 the plans on which languages combine   
words into sentences are a basic        
character of their structure1 and divide
 them into classes as distinct and as   

decisive of their future1 as those of   
vertebrate and invertebrate animals in  
natural history4  ,these plans are four 
in number3  #a4 ,by ,isolation4  ,the   
words are placed in juxtaposition1      
without change4 ,their relations are    
expressed by their location only        
7placement74 ,the typical example of    
this is the ,chinese4  #b4 ,by          
,agglutination4  ,the sentence is formed
 by suffixing to the word expressive of 
the main idea a number of others1 more  
or less altered1 expressing the         
relations4 ,examples of this are the    
,eskimo of ,north ,america1 and the     
,northern ,asiatic dialects4  #c4 ,by   
,incorporation4  ,the leading word of   
the sentence is divided1 and the        
accessory words either included in it or
 attached to it with abbreviated forms1 
so that the whole sentence assumes the  
form and sound of one word4  #d4 ,by    
,inflection4  ,each word of the sentence
 indicates by its own form the character
 and relation to the main proposition of

 the idea it represents4 ,sanscrit1     
,greek and ,latin are familiar examples 
of inflected tongues4  ,it is possible  
to suppose that all four of these forms 
were developed from some primitive      
condition of utterance unknown to us1   
just as naturalists believe that all    
organic species were developed out of a 
homogeneous protoplasmic mass2 but it is
 as hard to see how any one of them in  
its present form could pass over into   
another1 as to understand how a radiate 
could change into a mollusk4  ,of the   
four plans mentioned1 ,incorporation is 
that characteristic of1 though not      
confined to1 ,american tongues4  ,the   
psychological origin of this plan is    
explained rather curiously by ,humboldt1
 as the result of an exaltation of the  
imaginative over the intellectual       
elements of mind4 ,by this method1 the  
linguistic faculty strives to present to
 the understanding the whole thought in 
the most compact form possible1 thus to 
facilitate its comprehension2 and this  

it does1 because a thought presented in 
one word is more vivid and stimulating  
to the imagination1 more individual and 
picturesque1 than when narrated in a    
number of words4#bhd  ,incorporation may
 appear in a higher or a lower grade1   
but its intention is everywhere the     
effort to convey in one word the whole  
proposition4 ,the verb1 as that part of 
speech which especially conveys the     
synthetic action of the mental          
operation1 is that which is selected as 
the stem of this word-sentence2 all the 
other parts are subordinate accessories1
 devoid of syntactic value4  ,the higher
 grade of incorporation includes both   
subject1 object and verb in one word1   
and if for any reason the object is not 
included1 the scheme of the sentence is 
still maintained in the verb1 and the   
object is placed outside1 as in         
apposition1 without case ending1 and    
under a form different from its original
 and simple one4  ,this will readily be 
understood from the following examples  

from the ,mexican language4  ,the       
sentence ni-naca-qua is one word1 and   
means 8,i1 flesh1 eat40 ,if it is       
desired to express the object           
independently1 the expression becomes   
ni-c-qua-in-nacatl1 8,i it eat1 the     
flesh40 ,the termination tl does not    
belong to the root of the noun1 but is  
added to show that it is in an external 
and1 as it were1 unnatural position4    
,both the direct and remote object can  
thus be incorporated1 and if they are   
not1 but separately appended1 the scheme
 of the sentence is still preserved2 as 
ni-te-tla-maca1 literally1 8,i1 to      
somebody1 something1 give40 ,how closely
 these accessories are incorporated is  
illustrated by the fact that the        
tense-augments are not added to the     
stem1 but to the whole word2            
o-ni-c-temaca-e1 where the o is the     
prefix of the perfect4  ,in these       
languages1 every element in the sentence
 which is not incorporated in the verb  
has1 in fact1 no syntax at all4 ,the    

verbal exhausts all the formal portion  
of the language4 ,the relations of the  
other words are intimated by their      
position4 ,thus ni-tlaotlaz-nequia1 ,i  
wished to love1 is literally1 8,i1 ,i   
shall love1 ,i wished40 ,tlaotlaz is the
 first person singular of the future2   
ni-nequia1 ,i wished2 which is divided1 
and the future form inserted4 ,the same 
expression may stand thus3              
ni-c-nequia-tlao-tlaz1 where the c is an
 intercalated relative pronoun1 and the 
literal rendering is1 8,i it wished1 ,i 
shall love40  ,in the ,lule language the
 construction with an infinitive is     
simply that the two verbs follow each   
other in the same person1 as caic       
tucuec1 8,i am accustomed to eat10      
literally1 8,i am accustomed1 ,i eat40  
,none of these devices fulfils all the  
uses of the infinitive1 and hence they  
are all inferior to it4  ,in languages  
which lack formal elements1 the         
deficiency must be supplied by the mind4
 ,words are merely placed in            

juxtaposition1 and their relationship   
guessed at4 ,thus1 when a language      
constructs its cases merely by prefixing
 prepositions to the unaltered noun1    
there is no grammatical form2 in the    
,mbaya language e-tiboa is translated   
8through me10 but it is really 8,i1     
through20 l'emani1 is rendered 8he      
wishes10 but it is strictly1 8he1 wish40
  ,in such languages the same           
collocation of words often corresponds  
to quite different meanings1 as the     
precise relation of the thoughts is not 
defined by any formal elements4 ,this is
 well illustrated in the ,tupi tongue4  
,the word uba is 8father20 with the     
pronoun of the third person prefixed it 
is tuba1 literally 8he1 father40 ,this  
may mean either 8his father10 or 8he is 
a father10 or 8he has a father10 just as
 the sense of the rest of the sentence  
requires4  ,certainly a language which  
thus leaves confounded together ideas so
 distinct as these1 is inferior to one  
which discriminates them2 and this is   

why the formal elements of a tongue are 
so important to intellectual growth4    
,the ,tupis may be an energetic and     
skillful people1 but with their language
 they can never take a position as      
masters in the realm of ideas4  ,the    
absence of the passive in most ,american
 tongues is supplied by similar         
inadequate collocations of words4 ,in   
,huasteca1 for example1 nana tanin      
tahjal1 is translated 8,i am treated by 
him20 actually it is1 8,i1 me1 treats   
he40 ,this is not a passive1 but simply 
the idea of the ,ego connected with the 
idea of another acting upon it4  ,this  
is vastly below the level of inflected  
speech2 for it cannot be too strenuously
 maintained that the grammatical        
relations of spoken language are the    
more perfect and favorable to           
intellectual growth1 the more closely   
they correspond to the logical relations
 of thought4  ,sometimes what appears as
 inflection turns out on examination to 
be merely adjunction4 ,thus in the      

,mbaya tongue there are such verbal     
forms as daladi1 thou wilt throw1       
nilabuite1 he has spun1 where the d is  
the sign of the future1 and the n of the
 perfect4 ,these look like inflections2 
but in fact1 d is simply a relic of     
quide1 hereafter1 later1 and n stands in
 the same relation to quine1 which means
 8and also40  ,to become true formal    
elements1 all such adjuncts must have   
completely lost their independent       
signification2 because if they retain   
it1 their material content requires     
qualification and relation just as any  
other stem-word4  ,a few ,american      
languages may have reached this stage4  
,in the ,mexican there are the terminals
 ya or a in the imperfect1 the augment o
 in the preterit and others in the      
future4 ,in the ,tamanaca the present   
ends in a1 the preterit in e1 the future
 in c4 8,there is nothing in either of  
these tongues to show that these        
tense-signs have independent meaning1   
and therefore there is no reason why    

they should not be classed with those of
 the ,greek and ,sanscrit as true       
inflectional elements40#bhe  ,the theory
 of ,incorporation1 it will be noted1 is
 to express the whole proposition1 as   
nearly as possible1 in one word2 and    
what part of it cannot be thus          
expressed1 is left without any syntax   
whatever4 ,not only does this apply to  
individual words in a sentence1 but it  
extends to the various clauses of a     
compound sentence1 such as in ,aryan    
languages show their relation to the    
leading clauses by means of             
prepositions1 conjunctions and relative 
pronouns4  ,when the methods are        
analyzed by which the major and minor   
clauses are assigned their respective   
values in these tongues1 it is very     
plain what difficulties of expression   
the system of ,incorporation involves4  
,few of them have any true connecting   
word of either of the three classes     
above mentioned4 ,they depend on        
scarcely veiled material words1 simply  

placed in juxtaposition4  ,it is        
probable that the prepositions and      
conjunctions of all languages were at   
first significant words1 and the degree 
to which they have lost their primary   
significations and have become purely   
formal elements expressing relation1 is 
one of the measures of the grammatical  
evolution of a tongue4 ,in most         
,american idioms their origin from      
substantives is readily recognizable4   
,frequently these substantives refer to 
parts of the body1 and this1 in passing1
 suggests the antiquity of this class of
 words and their value in comparison4   
,in ,maya tan means in1 toward1 among2  
but it is also the breast or front of   
the body4 ,the ,mexican has three       
classes of prepositions--the first1     
whose origin from a substantive cannot  
be detected2 the second1 where an       
unknown and a known element are         
combined2 the third1 where the          
substantive is perfectly clear4 ,an     
example of the last mentioned is itic1  

in1 compounded of ite1 belly1 and the   
locative particle c2 the phrase         
ilhuicatl itic1 in heaven1 is literally 
8in the belly of heaven40 ,precisely the
 same is the ,cakchiquel pamcah1        
literally1 8belly1 heaven0in heaven4 ,in
 ,mexican1 notepotzco is 8behind me10   
literally1 8my back1 at20 this          
corresponds again to the ,cakchiquel    
chuih1 behind me1 from chi1 at1 u1 my1  
vih1 shoulder-blades4 ,the ,mixteca     
prepositions present the crude nature of
 their origin without disguise1 chisi   
huahi1 belly1 house--that is1 in front  
of the house2 sata huahi1 back1         
house--behind the house4  ,the          
conjunctions are equally transparent4   
8,and0 in ,maya is yetel1 in ,mexican   
ihuan4 ,one would suppose that such an  
indispensable connective would long     
since have been worn down to an         
insoluble entity4 ,on the contrary1 both
 these words retain their perfect       
material meaning4 ,yetel is a compound  
of y1 his1 et1 companion1 and el1 the   

definite termination of nouns4 ,ihuan is
 the possessive1 i1 and huan1 associate 
companion1 used also as a termination to
 form a certain class of plurals4  ,the 
deficiency in true conjunctions and     
relative pronouns is met in many        
,american languages by a reversal of the
 plan of expression with us4 ,the       
relative clause becomes the principal   
one4 ,there is a certain logical justice
 in this2 for if we reflect1 it will    
appear evident that the major           
proposition is in our construction      
presented as one of the conditions of   
the minor4 8,i shall drown1 if ,i fall  
in the water10 means that1 of the       
various results of my falling in the    
water1 one of them will be that ,i shall
 drown4 8,i follow the road which you   
described10 means that you described a  
road1 and one of the results of this act
 of yours was that ,i follow it4  ,this 
explains the plan of constructing       
compound sentences in ,qquichua4        
,instead of saying 8,i shall follow the 

road which you describe10 the           
construction is1 8,you describe1 this   
road ,i shall follow20 and instead of   
8,i shall drown if ,i fall in the       
water10 it would be1 8,i fall in the    
water1 ,i shall drown40  ,the ,mexican  
language introduces the relative clause 
by the word in1 which is an article and 
demonstrative pronoun1 or1 if the       
proposition is a conditional one1 by    
intla1 which really signifies 8within   
this10 and conveys the sense that the   
major is included within the conditions 
of the minor clause4 ,the ,cakchiquel   
conditional particle is vue1 if1 which  
appears to be simply the particle of    
affirmation 8yes10 employed to give     
extension to the minor clause1 which1 as
 a rule1 is placed first4  ,or a        
conventional arrangement of words may be
 adopted which will convey the idea of  
certain dependent clauses1 as those     
expressing similitude1 as is often the  
case in ,mexican4  ,about #ahbb         
,humboldt read a memoir before the      

,berlin ,academy on 8,the ,american     
,verb10 which remained unpublished      
either in ,german or ,english until ,i  
translated and printed it in the        
,proceedings of the ,american           
,philosophical ,society in #ahhe4 ,at   
its close he sums up his results1 and   
this summary will form an appropriate   
conclusion to the present review of his 
labors in the field of ,american        
linguistics3    8,if we reflect on the  
structure of the various verbal forms   
here   analyzed1 certain general        
conclusions are reached1 which are      
calculated to throw light upon the whole
 organism of these   languages4    8,the
 leading and governing part of speech in
 them is the ,pronoun2   every subject  
of discourse is connected with the idea 
of   ,personality4    8,noun and ,verb  
are not separated2 they first become so 
through the   pronoun attached to them4 
8,the employment of the ,pronoun is     
two-fold1 one applying to the   ,noun1  
the other to the ,verb4 ,both1 however1 

convey the idea of   belonging to a     
person--in the noun appearing as        
,possession1 in the   verb as ,energy4  
,but it is on this point1 on whether    
these ideas are   confused and obscure1 
or whether they are defined and clear1  
that   the grammatical perfection of a  
language depends4 ,the just             
discrimination of the kinds of pronouns 
is therefore conclusive1 and   in this  
respect we must yield the decided       
pre-eminence to the   ,mexican4    8,it 
follows that the speaker must constantly
 make up his verbs1   instead of using  
those already on hand2 and also that the
 structure   of the verb must be        
identical throughout the language1 that 
there   must be only one conjugation1   
and that the verbs1 except a few        
irregular ones1 can possess no          
peculiarities4    8,this is different in
 the ,greek1 ,latin and ancient ,indian4
 ,in these   tongues many verbs must be 
studied separately1 as they have        
numerous   exceptions1 phonetic changes1

 deficiencies1 etc41 and in other       
respects carry with them a marked       
individuality4    8,the difference      
between these cultivated and those rude 
languages is   chiefly merely one of    
time1 and of the more or less fortunate 
mixture of dialects2 though it certainly
 also depends in a measure   on the     
original mental powers of the nations4  
8,those whose languages we have here    
analyzed are1 in speaking1   constantly 
putting together elementary parts2 they 
connect nothing   firmly1 because they  
follow the changing requirements of the 
moment1   joining together only what    
these requirements demand1 and often    
leave connected through habit that which
 clear thinking would   necessarily     
divide4    8,hence no just division of  
words can arise1 such as is demanded by 
accurate and appropriate thought1 which 
requires that each word must   have a   
fixed and certain content and a defined 
grammatical form1 and   as is also      
demanded by the highest phonetic laws4  

8,nations richly endowed in mind and    
sense will have an instinct for   such  
correct divisions2 the incessant moving 
to and fro of   elementary parts of     
speech will be distasteful to them2 they
 will   seek true individuality in the  
words they use2 therefore they will     
connect them firmly1 they will not      
accumulate too much in one1 and   they  
will only leave that connected which is 
so in thought1 and not   merely in usage
 or habit40                 ,,some      
,,characteristics ,,of ,,american       
,,languages4#bhf    ,contents4--,study  
of the human species on the geographic  
system--,have ,american languages any   
common trait8--,duponceau's   theory of 
polysynthesis--,humboldt on             
,polysynthesis and                      
,incorporation--,francis ,lieber on     
,holophrasis--,prof4 ,steinthal on   the
 incorporative plan--,lucien ,adam's    
criticism of it--,prof4   ,mller's      
inadequate statement--,major ,powell's  
omission to   consider it--,definitions 

of polysynthesis1 incorporation and     
holophrasis--,illustrations--,critical  
application of the theory to   the      
,othomi language--,to the ,bri-bri      
language--,to the ,tupi-,guarani        
dialects--,to the                       
,mutsun--,conclusions--,addendum3       
critique by ,m4 ,adam   on this essay4  
,as the careful study of the position of
 man toward his surroundings advances1  
it becomes more and more evident that   
like other members of the higher fauna1 
he bears many and close correlations to 
the geographical area he inhabits4      
,hence the present tendency of          
anthropology is to return to the        
classification proposed by ,linnus1     
which1 in a broad way1 subdivides the   
human species with reference to the     
continental areas mainly inhabited by it
 in the earliest historic times4 ,this  
is found to accord with color1 and to   
give five sub-species or races1 the     
,white or ,european1 the ,black or      
,african1 the ,yellow or ,mongolian     

7,asiatic71 the ,brown or ,malayan      
7,oceanic71 and the ,red or ,american   
,races4  ,no ethnologist nowadays will  
seek to establish fixed and absolute    
lines between these4 ,they shade into   
one another in all their peculiarities1 
and no one has traits entirely unknown  
in the others4 ,yet1 in the mass1 the   
characteristics of each are prominent1  
permanent and unmistakable2 and to deny 
them on account of occasional exceptions
 is to betray an inability to estimate  
the relative value of scientific facts4 
,does this racial similarity extend to  
language8 ,on the surface1 apparently   
not4 ,only one of the races named--the  
,malayan--is monoglottic4 ,all the      
others seem to speak tongues with no    
genetic relationship1 at least none     
indicated by etymology4 ,the profounder 
study of language1 however1 leads to a  
different conclusion--to one which1 as  
cautiously expressed by a recent writer1
 teaches that 8every large1 connected1  
terrestrial area developed only one1 or 

scarcely more than one1 fundamental     
linguistic type1 and this with such     
marked individuality that rarely did any
 of its languages depart from the       
general scheme40#bhg  ,this similarity  
is not to be looked for in likeness     
between words1 but in the inner         
structural development of tongues4 ,to  
ascertain and estimate such identities  
is a far more delicate undertaking than 
to compare columns of words in          
vocabularies2 but it is proportionately 
more valuable4  ,nor should we expect it
 to be absolute4 ,the example of the    
,basque in a pure white nation in       
,western ,europe warns us that there are
 exceptions which1 though they may find 
a historic explanation1 forbid us all   
dogmatic assertion4 ,they are so few1   
however1 that ,i quote ,dr4 ,winkler's  
words as the correct expression of the  
latest linguistic science1 and ,i wish  
that some investigator would make it the
 motto of his study of ,american        
tongues4  ,the task--no light one--which

 such an investigator would have1 would 
be1 first to ascertain what structural  
traits form the ground plan or plans 7if
 there are more than one7 of the        
languages of the ,new ,world4 ,upon this
 ground-plan he would find very         
different edifices have been erected1   
which1 nevertheless1 can be classified  
into groups1 each group marked by traits
 common to every member of it4 ,these   
traits and groups he must carefully     
define4 ,then would come the separate   
question as to whether this community of
 traits has a genetic explanation or    
not4 ,if the decision were affirmative1 
we might expect conclusions that would  
carry us much further than etymological 
comparisons1 and might form a scientific
 basis for the classification of        
,american nations4  ,possibly some one  
or two features might be discovered     
which though not peculiar to ,american  
tongues1 nor fully present in every one 
of them1 yet would extend an influence  
over them all1 and impart to them in the

 aggregate a certain aspect which could 
fairly be called distinctive4 ,such     
features are claimed to have been found 
in the grammatic processes of           
polysynthesis and incorporation4  ,peter
 ,stephen ,duponceau1 at one time       
,president of the ,american             
,philosophical ,society1 was the first  
to assert that there was a prevailing   
unity of grammatic schemes in ,american 
tongues4 ,his first published utterance 
was in #ahai1 when he distinguished1    
though not with desirable lucidity1     
between the two varieties of synthetic  
construction1 the one 7incorporation7   
applicable to verbal forms of           
expression1 the other 7polysynthesis7 to
 nominal expressions4 ,his words are--  
8,a polysynthetic or syntactic          
construction of language is that in     
which the greatest number of ideas are  
comprised in the least number of words4 
,this is done principally in two ways4  
#a4 ,by a mode of compounding locutions 
which is not confined to joining two    

words together1 as in ,greek1 or varying
 the inflection or termination of a     
radical word as in most ,european       
languages1 but by interweaving together 
the most significant sounds or syllables
 of each simple word1 so as to form a   
compound that will awaken in the mind at
 once all the ideas singly expressed by 
the words from which they are taken4 #b4
 ,by an analogous combination of the    
various parts of speech1 particularly by
 means of the verb1 so that its various 
forms and inflections will express not  
only the principal action1 but the      
greatest possible number of the moral   
ideas and physical objects connected    
with it1 and will combine itself to the 
greatest extent with those conceptions  
which are the subject of other parts of 
speech1 and in other languages require  
to be expressed by separate and distinct
 words4 ,such ,i take to be the general 
character of the ,indian languages40#bhh
  ,duponceau's opinion found an able    
supporter in ,wilhelm von ,humboldt1    

who1 as already shown1 placed the       
,american languages among those acting  
on the incorporative plan--das          
,einverleibungssystem4 ,the spirit of   
this system he defines to be1 8to       
impress the unity of the sentence on the
 understanding by treating it1 not as a 
whole composed of various words1 but as 
one word40 ,a perfect type of           
incorporation will group all the        
elements of the sentence in and around  
the verbal1 as this alone is the bond of
 union between the several ideas4 ,the  
designation of time and manner1 that is1
 the tense and mode signs1 will include 
both the object and subject of the verb1
 thus subordinating them to the notion  
of action4 ,it is 8an indispensable     
basis0 of this system that there should 
be a difference in the form of words    
when incorporated and when not4 ,this   
applies in a measure to nouns and       
verbals1 but especially to pronouns1 and
 ,humboldt names it as 8the             
characteristic tendency0 of ,american   

languages1 and one directly drawn from  
their incorporative plan1 that the      
personal pronouns1 both subjective and  
objective1 used in connection with the  
verbs1 are of a different form from the 
independent personal pronouns1 either   
greatly abbreviated or from wholly      
different roots4 ,outside of the verbal 
thus formed as the central point of the 
sentence1 there is no syntax1 no        
inflections1 no declension of nouns or  
adjectives4#bhi  ,humboldt was far from 
saying that the incorporative system was
 exclusively seen in ,american          
languages1 any more than that of        
isolation in ,chinese1 or flexion in    
,aryan speech4 ,on the contrary1 he     
distinctly states that every language he
 had examined shows traces of all three 
plans2 but the preponderance of one plan
 over the other is so marked and so     
distinctive that they afford us the best
 means known for the morphological      
classification of languages1 especially 
as these traits arise from psychological

 operations widely diverse1 and of no   
small influence on the development of   
the intellect4  ,dr4 ,francis ,lieber1  
in an essay on 8,the ,plan of ,thought  
in ,american ,languages10#bij objected  
to the terms polysynthesis and          
incorporation that 8they begin at the   
wrong end2 for these names indicate that
 that which has been separated is put   
together1 as if man began with analysis1
 whereas he ends with it40 ,he therefore
 proposed the noun holophrasis with its 
adjective holophrastic1 not as a        
substitute for the terms he criticised1 
but to express the meaning or purpose of
 these processes1 which is1 to convey   
the whole of a sentence or proposition  
in one word4 ,polysynthesis1 he         
explains1 indicates a purely            
etymological process1 holophrasis       
8refers to the meaning of the word      
considered in a philosophical point of  
view40  ,if we regard incorporation and 
polysynthesis as structural processes of
 language aiming to accomplish a certain

 theoretical form of speech1 then it    
will be convenient to have this word    
holophrasis to designate this           
theoretical form1 which is1 in short1   
the expression of the whole proposition 
in a single word4  ,the eminent linguist
 ,professor ,h4 ,steinthal1 has         
developed the theory of incorporation   
more fully than any other writer4 ,he   
expresses himself without reserve of the
 opinion that all ,american languages   
are constructed on this same plan1 more 
or less developed4  ,i need not make    
long quotations from a work so          
well-known as his ,charakteristik der   
hauptschlichsten ,typen des             
,sprachbaues1 one section of which1     
about thirty pages in length1 is devoted
 to a searching and admirable           
presentation of the characteristics of  
the incorporative plan as shown in      
,american languages4 ,but ,i may give   
with brevity what he regards as the most
 striking features of this plan4 ,these 
are especially three3--  #a4 ,the       

construction of words by a mixed system 
of derivation and new formation4  #b4   
,the objective relation is treated as a 
species of possession2 and  #c4 ,the    
possessive relation is regarded as the  
leading and substantial one1 and        
controls the form of expression4  ,the  
first of these corresponds to what ,i   
should call polysynthesis2 the others to
 incorporation in the limited sense of  
the term4  ,some special studies on this
 subject have been published by ,m4     
,lucien ,adam1 and he claims for them   
that they have refuted and overturned   
the thesis of ,duponceau1 ,humboldt1 and
 ,steinthal1 to the effect that there is
 a process called incorporative or      
polysynthetic1 which can be traced in   
all ,american languages1 and though not 
in all points confined to them1 may     
fairly and profitably be taken as       
characteristic of them1 and indicative  
of the psychological processes which    
underlie them4 ,this opinion ,m4 ,adam  
speaks of as a 8stereotyped phrase which

 is absolutely false40#bia  ,so rude an 
iconoclasm as this must attract our     
careful consideration4 ,let us ask what 
,m4 ,adam understands by the terms      
polysynthesis and incorporation4 ,to our
 surprise1 we shall find that in two    
works published in the same year1 he    
advances definitions by no means        
identical4 ,thus1 in his 8,examination  
of ,sixteen ,american ,languages10 he   
says1 8,polysynthesis consists          
essentially in the affixing of          
subordinate personal pronouns to the    
noun1 the preposition and the verb40 ,in
 his 8,study of ,six ,languages10 he    
writes3 8,by polysynthesis ,i understand
 the expression in one word of the      
relations of cause and effect1 or of    
subject and object40#bib  ,certainly    
these two definitions are not           
convertible1 and we are almost          
constrained to suspect that the writer  
who gives them was not clear in his own 
mind as to the nature of the process4   
,at any rate1 they differ widely from   

the plan or method set forth by         
,humboldt and ,steinthal as             
characteristic of ,american languages4  
,m4 ,adam in showing that polysynthesis 
in his understanding of the term is not 
confined to or characteristic of        
,american tongues1 missed the point1 and
 fell into an ignoratio elenchi4        
,equally narrow is his definition of    
incorporation4 ,he writes1 8,when the   
object is intercalated between the      
subject and the verbal theme1 there is  
incorporation40 ,if this is to be       
understood as an explanation of the     
,german expression1 ,einverleibung1 then
 it has been pared down until nothing   
but the stem is left4  ,as to ,dr4      
,lieber's suggestion of holophrastic as 
an adjective expressing the plan of     
thought at the basis of polysynthesis   
and incorporation1 ,m4 ,adam summarily  
dismisses it as 8a pedantic succedaneum0
 to our linguistic vocabulary4  ,i      
cannot acknowledge that the propositions
 so carefully worked up by ,humboldt and

 ,steinthal have been refuted by ,m4    
,adam2 ,i must say1 indeed1 that the    
jejune significance he attaches to the  
incorporative process seems to show that
 he did not grasp it as a structural    
motive in language1 and a wide-reaching 
psychologic process4  ,professor        
,friedrich ,mller1 whose studies of     
,american languages are among the most  
extended and profitable of the present  
time1 has not given to this peculiar    
feature the attention we might          
reasonably expect4 ,indeed1 there       
appears in the standard treatise on the 
science of language which he has        
published1 almost the same vagueness as 
to the nature of incorporation which ,i 
have pointed out in the writings of ,m4 
,adam4 ,thus1 on one page he defines    
incorporating languages as those which  
8do away with the distinction between   
the word and the sentence20 while on    
another he explains incorporation as    
8the including of the object within the 
body of the verb40#bic ,he calls it 8a  

peculiarity of most ,american languages1
 but not of all40 ,that the structural  
process of incorporation is by no means 
exhausted by the reception of the object
 within the body of the verb1 even that 
this is not requisite to incorporation1 
,i shall endeavor to show4  ,finally1 ,i
 may close this brief review of the     
history of these doctrines with a       
reference to the fact that neither of   
them appears anywhere mentioned in the  
official 8,introduction to the ,study of
 ,indian ,languages10 issued by the     
,united ,states ,bureau of ,ethnology6  
,how the author of that work1 ,major ,j4
 ,w4 ,powell1 ,director of the ,bureau1 
could have written a treatise on the    
study of ,american languages1 and have  
not a word to say about these doctrines1
 the most salient and characteristic    
features of the group1 is to me as      
inexplicable as it is extraordinary4 ,he
 certainly could not have supposed that 
,duponceau's theory was completely dead 
and laid to rest1 for ,steinthal1 the   

most eminent philosophic linguist of the
 age1 still teaches in ,berlin1 and     
teaches what ,i have already quoted from
 him about these traits4 ,what is more1 
,major ,powell does not even refer to   
this structural plan1 nor include it in 
what he terms the 8grammatic processes0 
which he explains4#bid ,this is indeed  
the play of 8,hamlet0 with the part of  
,hamlet omitted6  ,i believe that for   
the scientific study of language1 and   
especially of ,american languages1 it   
will be profitable to restore and       
clearly to differentiate the distinction
 between polysynthesis and              
incorporation1 dimly perceived by       
,duponceau and expressed by him in the  
words already quoted4 ,with these may be
 retained the neologism of ,lieber1     
holophrasis1 and the three defined as   
follows3  ,polysynthesis is a method of 
word-building1 applicable either to     
nominals or verbals1 which not only     
employs juxtaposition with aphresis1    
syncope1 apocope1 etc41 but also words1 

forms of words and significant phonetic 
elements which have no separate         
existence apart from such compounds4    
,this latter peculiarity marks it off   
altogether from the processes of        
agglutination and collocation4          
,incorporation1 ,einverleibung1 is a    
structural process confined to verbals1 
by which the nominal or pronominal      
elements of the proposition are         
subordinated to the verbal elements1    
either in form or position2 in the      
former case having no independent       
existence in the language in the form   
required by the verb1 and in the latter 
case being included within the specific 
verbal signs of tense and mood4 ,in a   
fully incorporative language the verbal 
exhausts the syntax of the grammar1 all 
other parts of speech remaining in      
isolation and without structural        
connection4  ,holophrasis does not refer
 to structural peculiarities of         
language1 but to the psychologic impulse
 which lies at the root of polysynthesis

 and incorporation4 ,it is the same in  
both instances--the effort to express   
the whole proposition in one word4 ,this
 in turn is instigated by the stronger  
stimulus which the imagination receives 
from an idea conveyed in one word rather
 than in many4  ,a few illustrations    
will aid in impressing these definitions
 on the mind4  ,as polysynthetic        
elements1 we have the inseparable       
possessive pronouns which in many       
languages are attached to the names of  
the parts of the human body and to the  
words for near relatives2 also the      
so-called 8generic formatives10         
particles which are prefixed1 suffixed1 
or inserted to indicate to what class or
 material objects belong2 also the      
8numeral terminations0 affixed to the   
ordinal numbers to indicate the nature  
of the objects counted2 the negative1   
diminutive and amplificative particles  
which convey certain conceptions of a   
general character1 and so on4 ,these are
 constantly used in word-building1 but  

are generally not words themselves1     
having no independent status in the     
language4 ,they may be single letters1  
or even merely vowel-changes and        
consonantal substitutions2 but they have
 well-defined significance4  ,in        
incorporation the object may be united  
to the verbal theme either as a prefix1 
suffix or infix2 or1 as in ,nahuatl1    
etc41 a pronominal representative of it 
may be thus attached to the verb1 while 
the object itself is placed in isolated 
apposition4  ,the subject is usually a  
pronoun inseparably connected1 or at    
least included within the tense-sign2 to
 this the nominal subject stands in     
apposition4 ,both subjective and        
objective pronouns are apt to have a    
different form from either the          
independent personals or possessives1   
and this difference of form may be      
accepted as a priori evidence of the    
incorporative plan of structure--though 
there are other possible origins for it4
 ,the tense and mode signs are generally

 separable1 and1 especially in the      
compound tense1 are seen to apply not   
only to the verb itself1 but to the     
whole scope of its action1 the tense    
sign for instance preceding the subject4
  ,some further observations will set   
these peculiarities in a yet clearer    
light4  ,although in polysynthesis we   
speak of prefixes1 suffixes1 and        
juxtaposition1 we are not to understand 
these terms as the same as in connection
 with the ,aryan or with the            
agglutinative languages4 ,in            
polysynthetic tongues they are not      
intended to form words1 but sentences2  
not to express an idea1 but a           
proposition4 ,this is a fundamental     
logical distinction between the two     
classes of languages4  ,with certain    
prefixes1 as those indicating           
possession1 the form of the word itself 
alters1 as in ,mexican1 amatl1 book1 no1
 mine1 but namauh1 my book4 ,in a       
similar manner suffixes or postpositions
 affect the form of the words to which  

they are added4  ,as the holophrastic   
method makes no provision for the syntax
 of the sentence outside of the         
expression of action 7i4 e41 the verbal 
and what it embraces71 nouns and        
adjectives are not declined4 ,the       
8cases0 which appear in many grammars of
 ,american languages are usually        
indications of space or direction1 or of
 possession1 and not case-endings in the
 sense of ,aryan grammar4  ,a further   
consequence of the same method is the   
absence of true relative pronouns1 of   
copulative conjunctions1 and generally  
of the machinery of dependent clauses4  
,the devices to introduce subordinate   
propositions ,i have referred to in a   
previous essay 7above1 p4 #cdf74  ,as   
the effort to speak in sentences rather 
than in words entails constant variation
 in these word-sentences1 there arise   
both an enormous increase in verbal     
forms and a multiplication of           
expressions for ideas closely allied4   
,this is the cause of the apparently    

endless conjugations of many such       
tongues1 and also of the exuberance of  
their vocabularies in words of closely  
similar signification4 ,it is an ancient
 error--which1 however1 ,i find repeated
 in the official 8,introduction to the  
,study of ,indian ,languages10 issued by
 our ,bureau of ,ethnology--that the    
primitive condition of languages is one 
8where few ideas are expressed by few   
words40 ,on the contrary1 languages     
structurally at the bottom of the scale 
have an enormous and useless excess of  
words4 ,the savage tribes of the plains 
will call a color by three or four      
different words as it appears on        
different objects4 ,the ,eskimo has     
about twenty words for fishing1         
depending on the nature of the fish     
pursued4 ,all this arises from the      
8holophrastic0 plan of thought4  ,it    
will be seen from these explanations    
that the definition of ,incorporation as
 given by ,m4 ,lucien ,adam 7quoted     
above7 is erroneous1 and that of        

,professor ,mller is inadequate4 ,the   
former reduces it to a mere matter of   
position or placement2 the latter either
 does not distinguish it from           
polysynthesis1 or limits it to only one 
of its several expressions4  ,in fact1  
,incorporation may take place with any  
one of the six possible modifications of
 the grammatical formula1 8subject  verb
  object40 ,it is quite indifferent to  
its theory which of these comes first1  
which last2 although the most usual     
formula is either1                      
subject  object  verb1 or1              
object  subject  verb2  the verb being  
understood to be the verbal theme       
only--not its tense and mode signs4     
,where either of the above arrangements 
occurs1 we may consider it to be an     
indication of the incorporative         
tendency2 but as mere position is       
insufficient evidence1 incorporation may
 be present in other arrangements of the
 elements of the proposition4  ,as a    
fair example of polysynthesis in nouns1 

we may select the word for 8cross0 in   
the ,cree4 ,the ,indians render it by   
8praying-stick0 or 8holy wood10 and     
their word for 8our praying-sticks0     
7crosses7 is3                           
,n't'ayamihewttikuminnak4  ,this is     
analyzed as follows3  n't'1 possessive  
pronoun1  person plural4  ayami1        
something relating to religion4  he1    
indicative termination of the foregoing4
  w1 a connective4  ttik1 suffix        
indicating wooden or of wood4  u1 a     
connective4  m1 sign of possession4  i1 
a connective4  nn1 termination of       
person plural4  ak1 termination of      
animate plural 7the cross is spoken of  
as animate by a figure of speech74  ,not
 a single one of the above elements can 
be employed as an independent word4     
,they are all only the raw material to  
weave into and make up words4  ,as a    
characteristic specimen of incorporation
 we may select this ,nahuatl            
word-sentence3                          
onictemacac1                    ,i have 

given something to somebody3  which is  
analyzed as follows3             o1     
augment of the preterit1 a tense sign4  
ni1 pronoun1 subject1 #ast person4      
c1 8semi-pronoun10 object1 #c;d person4 
te1 8inanimate semi-pronoun10 object1   
#c;d person4            maca1 theme of  
the verb1 8to give40            c1      
suffix of the preterit1 a tense sign4   
,here it will be observed that between  
the tense-signs1 which are logically the
 essential limitations of the action1   
are included both the agent and the near
 and remote objects of the action4  ,in 
the modifications of meaning they       
undergo1 ,american verbal themes may be 
divided into two great classes1 either  
as they express these modifications 7#a7
 by suffixes to an unchanging radical1  
or 7#b7 by internal changes of their    
radical4  ,the last mentioned are most  
characteristic of synthetic tongues4 ,in
 all pure dialects of the ,algonkin the 
vowel of the verbal root undergoes a    
peculiar change called 8flattening0 when

 the proposition passes from the        
8positive0 to the 8suppositive0         
mood4#bie ,the same principle is        
strikingly illustrated in the ,choctaw  
language1 as the following example will 
show3#bif     takchi1 to tie 7active1   
definite74    takchi1 to be tying       
7active1 distinctive74    tak'chi1 to   
tie 7active1 emphatic74    taiakchi1 to 
tie tightly 7active1 intensive74        
tahakchi1 to keep tying 7active1        
frequentative74    tahkchi1 to tie at   
once 7active1 immediate74    tullakchi1 
to be tied 7passive1 definite74         
tallakchi1 to be the one tied 7passive1 
distinctive71 etc41 etc4  ,this example 
is1 however1 left far behind by the     
,qquichua of ,peru1 which by a series of
 so-called 8verbal particles0 affixed to
 the verbal theme confers an almost     
endless variety of modification on its  
verbs4 ,thus ,anchorena in his ,grammar 
gives the form and shades of meaning of 
#fge modifications of the verb munay1 to
 love4#big  ,these verbal particles are 

not other words1 as adverbs1 etc41      
qualifying the meaning of the verb and  
merely added to it1 but have no         
independent existence in the language4  
,von ,tschudi1 whose admirable analysis 
of this interesting tongue cannot be too
 highly praised1 explains them as       
8verbal roots which never reached       
independent development1 or fragments   
handed down from some earlier epoch of  
the evolution of the language40#bih     
,they are therefore true synthetic      
elements in the sense of ,duponceau's   
definition1 and not at all examples of  
collocation or juxtaposition4  ,while   
the genius of ,american languages is    
such that they permit and many of them  
favor the formation of long compounds   
which express the whole of a sentence in
 one word1 this is by no means          
necessary4 ,most of the examples of     
words of ten1 twenty or more syllables  
are not genuine native words1 but       
novelties manufactured by the           
missionaries4 ,in ordinary intercourse  

such compounds are not in use1 and the  
speech is comparatively simple4  ,of two
 of the most synthetic languages1 the   
,algonkin and the ,nahuatl1 we have     
express testimony from experts that they
 can be employed in simple or compound  
forms1 as the speaker prefers4 ,the ,abb
 ,lacombe observes that in ,cree        
8sometimes one can employ very long     
words to express a whole phrase1        
although the same ideas can be easily   
rendered by periphrasis40#bii ,in the   
syllabus of the lectures on the ,nahuatl
 by ,prof4 ,agustin de la ,rosa1 of the 
,university of ,guadalaxara1 ,i note    
that he explains when the ,nahuatl is to
 be employed in a synthetic1 and when in
 an analytic form4#cjj  ,i shall now    
proceed to examine those ,american      
tongues which have been authoritatively 
declared to be exceptions to the general
 rules of ,american grammar1 as being   
devoid of the incorporative and         
polysynthetic character4                
,,the ,,othomi4#cja  ,as ,i have said1  

the ,othomi was the stumbling block of  
,mr4 ,duponceau1 and led him to abandon 
his theory of polysynthesis as a        
characteristic of ,american tongues4    
,although in his earlier writings he    
expressly names it as one of the        
illustrations supporting his theory1    
later in life the information he derived
 from ,seor ,emmanuel ,naxera led him to
 regard it as an isolating and          
monosyllabic language1 quite on a par   
with the ,chinese4 ,he expressed this   
change of view in the frankest manner1  
and since that time writers have spoken 
of the ,othomi as a marked exception in 
structure to the general rules of       
synthesis in ,american tongues4 ,this   
continues to be the case even in the    
latest writings1 as1 for instance1 in   
the recently published ,anthropologie du
 ,mexique1 of ,dr4 ,hamy4#cjb  ,let us  
examine the grounds of this opinion4    
,the ,othomis are an ancient and        
extended family1 who from the remotest  
traditional epochs occupied the central 

valleys and mountains of ,mexico north  
of the ,aztecs and ,tezcucans4 ,their   
language1 called by themselves nhin hi1 
the fixed or current speech#cjc 7nhin1  
speech1 hi1 stable1 fixed71 presents    
extraordinary phonetic difficulties on  
account of its nasals1 gutturals and    
explosives4  ,it is one of a group of   
related dialects which may be arranged  
as follows3                         ,the
 ,othomi4                        ,the   
,mazahua4                        ,the   
,pame and its dialects4                 
,the ,meco or ,jonaz4  ,it was the      
opinion of ,m4 ,charencey1 that another 
member of this group was the ,pirinda or
 ,matlazinca2 a position combatted by   
,seor ,pimentel1 who acknowledges some  
common property in words1 but considers 
them merely borrowed4#cjd  ,naxera made 
the statement that the ,mazahua is      
monosyllabic1 an error in which his     
copyists have obediently followed him2  
but ,pimentel pointedly contradicts this
 assertion and shows that it is a       

mistake1 both for the ,mazahua and for  
the ,pame and its dialects4#cje  ,we may
 begin our study of the language with an
 examination of the                     
,,tense-,,signs ,,in ,,othomi4          
,,present ,,tense4                  #a4 
,i wish1                di nee4         
#b4 ,thou wishest1          gui nee4    
#c4 ,he wishes1             y nee4      
,,past ,,aorist4                  #a4 ,i
 wished1              da nee4           
#b4 ,thou wished1           ga nee4     
#c4 ,he wished1             bi nee4     
,,perfect4                  #a4 ,i have 
wished1         xta nee4                
#b4 ,thou hast wished1      xca nee4    
#c4 ,he has wished1         xpi nee4    
,,pluperfect4                  #a4 ,i   
had wished1          xta nee hma4       
#b4 ,thou hadst wished1     xca nee hma4
                 #c4 ,he had wished1    
xpi nee hma4                            
,,first ,,future4                  #a4  
,i shall wish1          ga nee4         
#b4 ,thou wilt wish1        gui nee4    

#c4 ,he will wish1          da nee4     
,,second ,,future4                  #a4 
,i shall have wished1   gua xta nee4    
#b4 ,thou wilt have wished1 gua xca nee4
                 #c4 ,he will have      
wished1   gua xpi nee4  ,the pronouns   
here employed are neither the ordinary  
personals nor possessives 7though the   
,othomi admits of a possessive          
conjugation71 but are verbal pronouns1  
strictly analogous to those found in    
various other ,american languages4 ,the 
radicals are3                           
,i1      d--4                           
,thou1   g--4                           
,he1 it1 b--4  ,in the present1 the     
first and second are prefixed to what is
 really the simple concrete form of the 
verb1 y-nee4 ,in the past tenses the    
personal signs are variously united with
 particles denoting past time or the    
past1 as a1 the end1 to finish1 ma and  
hma1 yesterday1 and the prefix x1 which 
is very noteworthy as being precisely   
the same in sound and use which we find 

in the ,cakchiquel past and future      
tenses4 ,it is pronounced sh 7as in     
shove7 and precedes the whole verbal1   
including subject1 object1 and theme2   
while in the pluperfect1 the second sign
 of past time hma is a suffix to the    
collective expression4  ,the future     
third person is given by ,neve as da1   
but by ,perez as di1 which latter is    
apparently from the future particle ni  
given by ,neve4 ,in the second future1  
the distinctive particle gua precedes   
the whole verbal1 thus inclosing the    
subject with the theme in the           
tense-sign1 strictly according to the   
principles of the incorporative         
conjugation4  ,this incorporative       
character is still more marked in the   
objective conjugations1 or              
8transitions40 ,the object1 indeed1     
follows the verb1 but is not only       
incorporated with it1 but in the        
compound tense is included within the   
double tense signs4  ,thus1 ,i find in  
,perez's ,catechism1                    

di    n-ba  magetzi1                    
,he will give-them  heaven4  ,in this   
sentence1 di is the personal pronoun    
combined with the future sign2 and the  
verb is n-ni1 to give to another1 which 
is compounded with the personal ba1     
them1 drops its final syllable1 forming 
a true synthesis4  ,in the phrase1      
xpi   n-ba  hma magetzi1                
he had give them 7had7  heaven1  both   
subject and object1 the latter inclosed 
in a synthesis with the radical of the  
theme1 the former phonetically altered  
and coalesced with a tense particle1 are
 included in the double tense-sign1     
x-hma4 ,this is as real an example of   
incorporation as can be found in any    
,american language4  ,ordinary synthesis
 of words1 other than verbs1 is by no   
means rare in ,othomi4 ,simple          
juxtaposition1 which ,naxera states to  
be the rule1 is not all universal4 ,such
 a statement by him leads us to suspect 
that he had only that elementary        
knowledge of the tongue which ,neve     

refers to in a forcible passage in his  
,reglas4 ,he writes3 8,a good share of  
the difficulty of this tongue lies in   
its custom of syncope2 and because the  
tyros who make use of it do not         
syncopate it1 their compositions are so 
rough and lacking in harmony to the ears
 of the natives that the latter count   
their talk as no better than that of    
horse-jockeys1 as we would say40#cjf    
,the extent of this syncopation is      
occasionally to such a degree that only 
a fragment of the original word is      
retained4 ,as3                     ,the 
charcoal-vendor1 na mthi4  ,here na is a
 demonstrative particle like the ,aztec 
in1 and mthi is a compound p1 to sell1  
and thh1 charcoal4  ,the expression1    
y mahny oqha1 he loves ,god1  is to be  
analyzed1                         y mhd 
nuny oqha2                        he    
loves   him    ,god2  where we perceive 
not only synthesis1 but the object      
standing in apposition to the pronoun   
representing it which is incorporated   

with the verb4  ,so3 yot-gua1 light     
here2 from yotti1 to light1 nugua1 here4
  ,these examples from many given in    
,neve's work seem to me to prove beyond 
cavil that the ,othomi exhibits1 when   
properly spoken1 precisely the same     
theories of incorporation and           
polysynthesis as the other ,american    
languages1 although undoubtedly its more
 monosyllabic character and the extreme 
complexity of its phonetics do not      
permit of a development of these        
peculiarities to the same degree as     
many4  ,nor am ,i alone in this opinion4
 ,it has already been announced by the  
,count de ,charencey1 as the result of  
his comparison of this tongue with the  
,mazahua and ,pirinda4 8,the ,othomi10  
he writes1 8has all the appearance of a 
language which was at first             
incorporative1 and which1 worn down by  
attrition and linguistic decay1 has at  
length come to simulate a language of   
juxtaposition40#cjg  ,some other        
peculiarities of the language1 though   

not directly bearing on the question1   
point in the same direction4 ,a certain 
class of compound verbs are said by     
,neve to have a possessive declension4  
,thus1 of the two words puengui1 he     
draws1 and hi1 breath1 is formed the    
verb buehi1 which is conjugated by using
 the verb in the indefinite third person
 and inserting the possessives ma1 ni1  
na1 my1 thy1 his2 thus1                 
ybuemahia1 ,i breathe4                  
ybuenihia1 thou breathest4              
ybuenahia1 he breathes4#cjh  ,literally 
this would be 8it-is-drawing1 my        
breath10 etc4  ,in the ,mazahua dialects
 there is a remarkable change in the    
objective conjugations 7transitions7    
where the whole form of the verb appears
 to alter4 ,in this language ti  ,i2 ki 
or khe  thou4                     ,i    
give1 ti une4                    ,i give
 thee1 ti dakke4                    ,he 
will give us1 ti yakme4#cji  ,the last  
example is not fully explained by my    
authorities2 but it shows the verbal    

change4  ,something like this occurs in 
the ,pame dialects4 ,they reveal a      
manifest indifference to the integrity  
of the theme1 characteristic of         
polysynthetic languages4 ,thus1 our only
 authority on the ,pame1 ,father ,juan  
,guadalupe ,soriano1 gives the preterit 
forms of the verb 8to aid30             
,ku pait1 ,i aided4                     
,ki gait1 thou aidedest4                
,ku mait1 he aided4  ,so1 of 8to burn30 
,knu aum1 ,i burned4  ,kuddu du taum1   
they burned4#caj  ,a large number of    
such changes run through the            
conjugation4 ,pimentel calls them       
phonetic changes1 but they are          
certainly1 in some instances1 true      
syntheses4  ,all these traits of the    
,othomi and its related dialects serve  
to place them unquestionably within the 
general plan of structure of ,american  
languages4                              
,,the ,,bri-,,bri ,,language4  ,the late
 ,mr4 ,wm4 ,m4 ,gabb1 who was the first 
to furnish any satisfactory information 

about it and its allied dialects in     
,costa ,rica1 introduces the ,bri-,bri  
language1 spoken in the highlands of    
that ,state1 by quoting the words of    
,alexander von ,humboldt to the effect  
that 8a multiplicity of tenses          
characterizes the rudest ,american      
languages40 ,on this1 ,mr4 ,gabb        
comments3 8,this certainly does not     
apply to the ,costa ,rican family1 which
 is equally remarkable for the          
simplicity of its inflections40#caa     
,this statement1 offered with such      
confidence1 has been accepted and passed
 on without close examination by several
 unusually careful linguists4 ,thus     
,professor ,friedrich ,mller1 in his    
brief description of the ,bri-,bri      
7taken exclusively from ,gabb's work71  
inserts the observation--8,the simple   
structure of this idiom is sufficient to
 contradict the theories generally      
received about ,american languages40#cab
 ,and ,m4 ,lucien ,adam has lately      
instanced its verbs as notable examples 

of inflectional simplicity4#cac ,the    
study of this group of tongues becomes1 
therefore1 of peculiar importance to my 
present topic4  ,since ,mr4 ,gabb       
published his memoir1 some independent  
material1 grammatical as well as        
lexicographical1 has been furnished by  
the ,rt4 ,rev4 ,b4 ,a4 ,thiel1 ,bishop  
of ,costa ,rica1#cad and ,i have        
obtained1 in addition1 several ,,ms4    
vocabularies and notes on the language  
prepared by ,prof4 ,p4 ,j4 ,j4          
,valentini and others4  ,the stock is   
divided into three groups of related    
dialects1 as follows3--  ,i4 ,the       
,brunka1 ,bronka or ,boruca1 now in     
southwestern ,costa ,rica1 but believed 
by ,gabb to have been the earliest of   
the stock to occupy the soil1 and to    
have been crowded out by later arrivals4
  ,,ii4 ,the ,tiribi and ,terraba1      
principally on the head-waters of the   
,rio ,telorio and south of the          
mountains4  ,,iii4 ,the ,bri-,bri and   
,cabecar on the head-waters of the ,rio 

,tiliri4 ,the ,biceitas 7,vizeitas7 or  
,cachis1 near the mouth of the same     
stream1 are off-shoots of the           
,bri-,bris2 so also are the small tribes
 at ,orosi and ,tucurrique1 who were    
removed to those localities by the      
,spaniards4  ,the ,bri-,bri and         
,cabecar1 although dialects of the same 
original speech1 are not sufficiently   
alike to be mutually intelligible4 ,the 
,cabecars occupied the land before the  
,bri-,bris1 but were conquered and are  
now subject to them4 ,it is probable    
that their dialect is more archaic4     
,the ,bri-,bri is a language of extreme 
poverty1 and as spoken at present is    
plainly corrupt4 ,gabb estimates the    
whole number of words it contains as    
probably not exceeding fifteen hundred4 
,some of these1 though ,gabb thinks not 
very many1 are borrowed from the        
,spanish2 but it is significant1 that   
among them is the pronoun 8that10 the   
,spanish ese4  ,let us now examine the  
,bri-,bri verb1 said to be so singularly

 simple4 ,we are at once struck by ,mr4 
,gabb's remark 7just after he has been  
speaking of their unparalleled          
simplicity7 that the inflections he     
gives 8have been verified with as much  
care as the difficulties of the case    
would admit40 ,evidently1 then1 there   
were difficulties4 ,what they are1      
becomes apparent when we attempt to     
analyze the forms of the eighteen brief 
paradigms which he gives4  ,the personal
 pronouns are                       je1 
,i4       sa1 we4                       
be1 thou4    ha1 you4                   
ye1 he1 etc4 ye-pa1 they4  ,these are   
both nominative and objective1 personal 
and1 with the suffix cha1 possessives4  
,the tenses are usually1 not always1    
indicated by suffixes to the theme2 but 
these vary1 and no rule is given for    
them1 nor is it stated whether the same 
theme can be used with them all4 ,thus1 
,to burn1 -norka1  present1             
i-nyor-ket-ke4              ,to cook1   
i-lu'4       8     -luk4                

,to start1 i-be-te4    8     i-be-te4   
,here are three forms for the present1  
not explained4 ,are they three          
conjugations1 or do they express three  
shades of meaning1 like the three       
,english presents8 ,i suspect the       
latter1 for under ikiana1 to want1 ,gabb
 remarks that the form in -etke1 means  
8he wants you10 i4 e41 is emphatic4     
,the past aorist has two terminations1  
one in -na1 and one in -e1 about the    
uses and meanings of which we are left  
equally in the dark4  ,the future is    
utterly inexplicable4 ,even ,prof4      
,mller1 just after his note calling     
attention to the 8great simplicity0 of  
the tongue1 is obliged to give up this  
tense with the observation1 8the        
structural laws regulating the formation
 of the future are still in obscurity60 
,was it not somewhat premature to dwell 
on the simplicity of a tongue whose     
simplest tenses he acknowledges himself 
unable to analyze8  ,the futures of some
 verbs will reveal the difficulties of  

this tense3--              ,to burn1    
i-nyor-ka2 future1 i-nyor-wane-ka4      
,to cook1 i-lu'2        0    i-lu'4     
,to start1 i-bete2      0    i-bete4    
,to want1 i-ki-ana2     0    i-kie4     
,to count1 ishtaung2    0    mia        
shta'we4  ,in the last example mia is   
the future of the verb imia1 to go1 and 
is used as an auxiliary4  ,the          
explanation ,i have to suggest for these
 varying forms is1 either that they     
represent in fact that very             
8multiplicity of tense-formations0 which
 ,humboldt alluded to1 and which were   
too subtle to be apprehended by ,mr4    
,gabb within the time he devoted to the 
study of the language2 or that they are 
in modern ,bri-,bri1 which ,i have shown
 is noticeably corrupted1 survivals of  
these formations1 but are now largely   
disregarded by the natives themselves4  
,signs of the incorporative plan are not
 wanting in the tongue4 ,thus in the    
objective conjugation not only is the   
object placed between subject and verb1 

but the latter may undergo visible      
synthetic changes4 ,thus3               
,je be sueng4                         ,i
 thee see4                         ,ke  
je be wai su-na4                        
,not ,i thee 787 see-did4  ,in the      
latter sentence na is the sign of the   
past aorist1 and the verb in synthesis  
with it drops its last syllable4 ,the   
wai ,gabb could not explain4 ,it will be
 noticed that the negative precedes the 
whole verbal form1 thus indicating that 
it is treated as a collective idea      
7holophrastically74  ,prepositions      
always appear as suffixes to nouns1     
which1 in composition1 may suffer       
elision4 ,this is strictly similar to   
the ,nahuatl and other synthetic        
tongues4  ,other examples of developed  
synthesis are not uncommon1 as--        
away1 imibak1 from imia to go1 jebak1   
already4           very hot1 palina1    
from ba  ilinia4  ,the opinion that the 
,bri-,bri is at present a considerably  
corrupted and worn-down dialect of a    

group of originally highly synthetic    
tongues is borne out by an examination  
of the scanty materials we have of its  
nearest relations4  ,thus in the        
,terraba we find the same superfluous   
richness of pronominal forms which      
occurs in many ,south ,american tongues1
 one indicating that the person is      
sitting1 another that he is standing1 a 
third that he is walking4#cae  ,the     
,brunka has several distinct forms in   
the present tense3             ,i eat1  
cha adeh1 and atqui chan 7atqui  ,i74   
,although ,bishop ,thiel supplies a     
number of verbal forms from this        
dialect1 the plan of their construction 
is not obvious4 ,this is seen from a    
comparison of the present and perfect   
tenses in various words4 ,the pronouns  
are--                                   
atqui1 ,i4                              
7ique1 he4  ,for instance3              
,,brunka ,,verbal ,,forms4              
,to kill 7radical1 ai74                 
,present1 ,i kill1 cha atqui i ara4     

,perfect1 he has killed1 iang i ac4     
,to die 7radical1 cojt74                
,present1 ,i die1 cjo drah4             
,perfect1 he has died1 cojt crah4       
,to hear 7radical1 dj74                 
,present1 ,i hear1 aari dj ograh4       
,perfect1 ,i have heard1 aqui dj crah4  
,to forget4               ,present1 ,i  
forget1 asqui chita uringera4           
,perfect1 ,i have forgotten1 ochita     
uringea4  ,these examples are sufficient
 to show that the ,brunka conjugations  
are neither regular nor simple1 and such
 is the emphatic statement of ,bishop   
,thiel1 both of it and all these allied 
dialects4 ,in his introduction he states
 that he is not yet ready to offer a    
grammar of these tongues1 though well   
supplied with lexicographical materials1
 and that 8their verbs are especially   
difficult40#caf  ,the ,cabecar dialect1 
in which he gives several native funeral
 poems1 without translations1 is        
apparently more complicated than the    
,bri-,bri4 ,the words of the songs are  

long and seem much syncopated4          
,,the ,,tupi-,,guarani ,,dialects4      
,several writers of the highest position
 have asserted that these dialects1     
spoken over so large a portion of the   
territory of ,brazil1 are neither       
polysynthetic nor incorporative4 ,thus  
the late ,prof4 ,charles ,f4 ,hartt in  
his 8,notes on the ,lingoa ,geral or    
,modern ,tupi10 expressed himself3      
8,unlike the ,north ,american ,indian   
tongues1 the languages of the           
,tupi-,guarani family are not           
polysynthetic in structure40#cag ,with  
scarcely less positiveness ,professor   
,fredrich ,mller writes3 8,the objective
 conjugation of the ,tupi-,guarani does 
not show the incorporation usually seen 
in ,american languages1 but rather a    
mere collocation40#cah  ,it is1 ,i      
acknowledge1 somewhat hazardous to      
venture an opinion contrary to such     
excellent authorities4 ,but ,i must say1
 that while1 no doubt1 the ,tupi in its 
structure differs widely from the       

,algonkin or ,nahuatl1 it yet seems to  
present unmistakable signs of an        
incorporative and polysynthetic         
character1 such as would be difficult to
 parallel outside of ,america4  ,i am   
encouraged to maintain this by the      
recent example of the erudite ,dr4      
,amaro ,cavalcanti1 himself well and    
practically versed in the spoken ,tupi  
of to-day1 who has issued a learned     
treatise to prove that 8the ,brazilian  
dialects present undoubtedly all the    
supposed characteristics of an          
agglutinative language1 and belong to   
the same group as the numerous other    
dialects or tongues of ,america40#cai   
,dr4 ,cavalcanti does not1 indeed1      
distinguish so clearly between          
agglutinative and incorporative         
languages as ,i should wish1 but the    
trend of his work is altogether parallel
 to the arguments ,i am about to        
advance4  ,fortunately1 we do not suffer
 from a lack of materials to study the  
,tupi1 ancient and modern4 ,there are   

plenty of dictionaries1 grammars and    
texts in it1 and even an 8,ollendorff's 
,method10 for those who prefer that     
intellectual 767 system4#cbj  ,all      
recent writers agree that the modern    
,tupi has been materially changed by    
long contact with the whites4 ,the      
traders and missionaries have exerted a 
disintegrating effect on its ancient    
forms1 to some of which ,i shall have   
occasion to refer4  ,o ,selvagem i      
,curso da ,lingua ,geral4 ,by ,dr4      
,couto de ,magalhaes 7,rio de ,janeiro1 
#ahgf74  ,turning our attention first to
 its synthetic character1 one cannot but
 be surprised after reading ,prof4      
,hartt's opinion above quoted to find   
him a few pages later introducing us to 
the following example of 8word-building 
of a more than usually polysynthetic    
character40#cba                 akyu1   
head2 ay1 bad4                 akayay1  
crazy4                 muakayayu1 to    
seduce 7make crazy74                    
xayumuakayay1 ,i make myself crazy1 etc4

  ,such examples1 however1 are not rare1
 as may be seen by turning over the     
leaves of ,montoya's ,tesoro de la      
,lengua ,guarani4 ,the most noticeable  
and most ,american peculiarity of such  
compounds is that they are not          
collocations of words1 as are the       
agglutinative compounds of the          
,ural-,altaic tongues1 but of particles 
and phonetic elements which have no     
separate life in the language4  ,father 
,montoya calls special attention to this
 in the first words of his ,advertencia 
to his ,tesoro4 ,he says3--8,the        
foundation of this language consists of 
particles which frequently have no      
meaning if taken alone2 but when        
compounded with the whole or parts of   
others 7for they cut them up a great    
deal in composition7 they form          
significant expressions2 for this reason
 there are no independent verbs in the  
language1 as they are built up of these 
particles with nouns or pronouns4 ,thus1
 embo is composed of the three particles

 e1 mo1 e4 ,the e is reciprocal2 mo an  
active particle2 e indicates skill2 and 
the whole means #8to exercise oneself1' 
which we translate1 #8to learn1' or #8to
 teach1' indeterminately2 but with the  
personal sign added1 anemboe1 #8,i      
learn4'0  ,this analysis1 which ,montoya
 carries much further1 reminds us       
forcibly of the extraordinarily acute   
analysis of the ,cree 7,algonkin7 by    
,mr4 ,james ,howse4#cbb ,undoubtedly the
 two tongues have been built up from    
significant particles 7not words7 in the
 same manner4  ,some of these particles 
convey a peculiar turn to the whole     
sentence1 difficult to express in our   
tongues4 ,thus the element  attached to 
the last syllable of a compound gives an
 oppositive sense to the whole          
expression2 for example1 ajur1 8,i come0
 simply2 but if the question follows3   
8,who ordered you to come80 the answer  
might be1 ajur1 8,i come of my own      
accord2 nobody ordered me40#cbc         
,cavalcanti observes that many of these 

formative elements which existed in the 
old ,tupi have now fallen out of        
use4#cbd ,this is one of several        
evidences of a change in structure in   
the language1 a loss of its more pliable
 and creative powers4  ,this synthesis  
is also displayed in the ,tupi1 as in   
the ,cree1 by the inseparable union of  
certain nouns with pronouns4 ,the latter
 are constantly united with terms of    
consanguinity and generally with those  
of members of the body1 the form of the 
noun undergoing material modifications4 
,thus3        tete1 body2 cete1 his     
body2 xerete1 my body4        tuba1     
father2 oguba1 his father2 xerub1 my    
father4        mymbaba1 domestic animal2
 gueymba1 his domestic animal4          
tera1 name2 guera1 his name4            
,postpositions are in a similar manner  
sometimes merged into the nouns or      
pronouns which they limit4 ,thus3       
tenonde1 before2 guenonde1 before him4  
,it appears to me that the substratum1  
the structural theory1 of such a tongue 

is decidedly polysynthetic and not      
agglutinative1 still less analytic4     
,let us now inquire whether there are   
any signs of the incorporative process  
in ,tupi4  ,we are at once struck with  
the peculiarity that there are two      
special sets of pronouns used with      
verbals1 one set subjective1 and the    
other objective1 several of which cannot
 be employed in any other               
construction4#cbe ,this is almost       
diagnostic of the holophrastic method of
 speech4 ,the pronouns in such cases are
 evidently regarded by the              
language-faculty as subordinate         
accessories to the verbal1 and whether  
they are phonetically merged in it or   
not is a secondary question4  ,the ,tupi
 pronouns 7confining myself to the      
singular number for the sake of brevity7
 are as follows3                        
,verbal affixes4    ,independent        
personals4 ,possessives4     ,subject4  
,object4    ixe or xe4         se or xe4
 a4            xe4    inde or ne4       

ne or re4 re1 yepe4   oro4    ae or o4  
ae or i4  o4            ae or i4  ,the  
verbal affixes are united to the theme  
with various phonetic changes1 and so   
intimately as to form one word4 ,the    
grammars give such example as3--        
areco1 ,i hold2        guereco1 they    
hold him4            ahenoi1 ,i call2   
xerenoi1 they call me4            ayaca1
 ,i dispute him2 oroaca1 ,i dispute     
thee4  ,in the first person singular1   
the two pronominal forms xe and a are   
usually merged in the synthesis xa2 as  
xamehen1 ,i love4  ,another feature     
pointing to the incorporative plan is   
the location of the object4 ,the rule in
 the old language was to place the      
object in all instances before the verb1
 that is1 between the verb and its      
subject when the latter was other than a
 personal suffix4 ,dr4 ,cavalcanti says 
that this is now in a measure changed1  
so that when the object is of the third 
person it is placed after the verb1     
although in the first and second persons

 the old rule still holds good4#cbf     
,thus the ancient ,tupis would say3     
boia a o-sou1                           
snake  him  he-bites4  ,but in the      
modern tongue it is3                    
boia o-sou  a                           
snake  he-bites him4  ,with the other   
persons the rule is still for the object
 to precede and to be attached to the   
theme3                       xeoroinca1 
,i thee kill4                           
xepeinca1 ,i you kill4                  
xeincayepe1 me killest thou4  ,many     
highly complex verbal forms seem to me  
to illustrate a close incorporative     
tendency4 ,let us analyze for instance  
the word1                               
xeremimboe1  which means 8him whom ,i   
teach0 or 8that which ,i teach40 ,its   
theme is the verbal mboe1 which in the  
extract ,i have above made from ,montoya
 is shown to be a synthesis of the three
 elementary particles e1 mo1 and e2 xe  
is the possessive form of the personal  
pronoun1 8my02 it is followed by the    

participial expression temi or tembi1   
which1 according to ,montoya1 is        
equivalent to 8illud quod facio20 its   
terminal vowel is syncopated with the   
relative y or i1 8him1 it02 so the      
separate parts of the expression are3-- 
xe  tembi  y  e  mo  e4  ,i shall not   
pursue the examination of the ,tupi     
further4 ,it were1 of course1 easy to   
multiply examples4 ,but ,i am willing to
 leave the case as it stands1 and to ask
 linguists whether1 in view of the      
above1 it was not a premature judgment  
that pronounced it a tongue neither     
polysynthetic nor incorporative4        
,,the ,,mutsun4  ,this is also one of   
the languages which has been announced  
as 8neither polysynthetic nor           
incorporative10 and the construction of 
its verb as 8simple to the last         
degree40#cbg  ,we know the tongue only  
through the ,grammar and ,phrase-,book  
of ,father de la ,cuesta1 who           
acknowledges himself to be very         
imperfectly acquainted with it4#cbh     

,with its associated dialects1 it was   
spoken near the site of the present city
 of ,san ,francisco1 ,california4       
,looking first at the verb1 its 8extreme
 simplicity0 is not so apparent as the  
statements about it would lead us to    
expect4  ,in the first place1 the naked 
verbal theme undergoes a variety of     
changes by insertion and suffixes1 like 
those of the ,quiche and ,qquichua1     
which modify its meaning4 ,thus3        
,ara1   to give4                ,arsa1  
to give to many1 or to give much4       
,arapu1 to give to oneself4             
,arasi1 to order to give1 etc41 etc4    
,again3                       ,oio1  to 
catch4                      ,oii1 to    
come to catch4                          
,oimu1 to catch another1 etc4  ,the     
author enumerates thirty-one forms thus 
derived from each verb1 some conjugated 
like it1 some irregularly4 ,with regard 
to tenses1 he gives eight preterits and 
four futures2 and it cannot be said that
 they are formed simply by adding       

adverbs of time1 as the theme itself    
takes a different form in several of    
them1 aran1 aras1 aragts1 etc4 ,in the  
reflexive conjugation the pronoun       
follows the verb and is united with it3 
,as1                         aragneca1  
,i give myself1  where ca is a suffixed 
form of can1 ,i2 ne represents nenissia1
 oneself2 the g is apparently a         
connective2 and the theme is ara4 ,this 
is quite in the order of the            
polysynthetic theory and is also        
incorporative4  ,such syntheses are     
prominent in imperative forms4 ,thus    
from the above-mentioned verb1 oio1 to  
catch1 we have1                         
oiomityuts1 ,gather thou for me1  in    
which mit is apparently the second      
person men1 with a postposition tsa1    
mintsa2 while yuts is a verbal fragment 
from yuyuts1 which the author explains  
to mean 8to set about10 or 8to get      
done40 ,this imperative1 therefore1 is a
 verbal noun in synthesis with an       
interjection1 8get done with thy        

gathering40 ,it is a marked case of     
polysynthesis4 ,a number of such are    
found in the ,mutsun phrases given1 as3 
,rugemitithsyuts cannis1 ,give me       
arrows4  ,in this compound cannis1 is   
for can  huas1 me  for2 yuts is the     
imperative interjection for yuyuts2 the 
remainder of the word is not clear4 ,the
 phrase is given elsewhere              
,rugemitit1 ,give 7thou7 me arrows4     
,without going further into this        
language1 of which we know so little1 it
 will be evident that it is very far    
from simple1 and that it is certainly   
highly synthetic in various features4   
,,conclusions4  ,the conclusions to     
which the above study leads may be      
briefly summarized as follows3  #a4 ,the
 structural processes of incorporation  
and polysynthesis are much more         
influential elements in the morphology  
of language than has been conceded by   
some recent writers4  #b4 ,they are     
clearly apparent in a number of         
,american languages where their presence

 has been heretofore denied4  #c4       
,although so long as we are without the 
means of examining all ,american        
tongues1 it will be premature to assert 
that these processes prevail in all1    
nevertheless it is safe to say that     
their absence has not been demonstrated 
in any of which we have sufficient and  
authentic material on which to base a   
decision4  #d4 ,the opinion of          
,duponceau and ,humboldt1 therefore1    
that these processes belong to the      
ground-plan of ,american languages1 and 
are their leading characteristics1 must 
still be regarded as a correct          
generalization4                         
,,addendum4                 ,critique by
 ,m4 ,lucien ,adam on the above4        
,shortly after the above essay appeared 
in the ,proceedings of the   ,american  
,philosophical ,society1 its arguments  
and conclusions were   vigorously       
attacked by ,m4 ,lucien ,adam in the    
,revue de ,linguistique   et de         
,philologie ,compare1 ,tome ,,xix       

7,paris1 #ahhf74 ,he begins by          
pointing out that examples of           
incorporation may be found in tongues   
of the ,old ,world--which has never been
 denied 7see above1 pp4 #cec-d74        
,having acknowledged the incompleteness 
of his own definitions1 he   intimates  
that those ,i give are calculated rather
 to sustain my   theory than to prove a 
linguistic trait4 ,he then proceeds to  
lengthy   and minute criticisms of the  
analyses ,i have made of the examples   
given under the several languages       
discussed4 ,i am quite willing to       
concede that with the imperfect grammars
 and lexicons of these   tongues so far 
published1 ,i may have tripped at times 
in such   analyses2 but ,i am far from  
acknowledging that all those of ,m4     
,adam   are correct1 and ,i am quite    
certain that in some he is mistaken4    
,the   question1 however1 is one not    
possible to discuss in this place1 and  
,i must leave it2 but ,i would refer the
 earnest student to the acute   and     

learned article of ,m4 ,adam1 which is  
much the most thorough yet   written on 
the negative side of the debate4        
,,the ,,earliest ,,form ,,of ,,human    
,,speech1 ,,as ,,revealed ,,by          
,,american ,,tongues4#cbi               
,archologists tell us that the          
manufacturers of those rude stone       
implements called paloliths wandered up 
and down the world while a period of    
something like two hundred thousand     
years was unrolling its eventless       
centuries4 ,many believe that these     
early artisans had not the power of     
articulate expression to convey their   
emotions or ideas2 if such they had1    
they were confined to inarticulate      
grunts and cries4  ,haeckel proposed for
 the species at this period of its      
existence the designation ,homo alalus1 
speechless man4 ,anatomists have come   
forward to show that the inferior       
maxillary bones disinterred in the caves
 of ,la ,naulette and ,schipka are so   
formed that their original possessors   

could not have had the power of         
articulation4#ccj ,but the latest       
investigators of this point have reached
 an opposite conclusion4#cca ,we must1  
however1 concede that the oral          
communication of men during that long   
epoch was of a very rudimentary         
character2 it is contrary to every      
theory of intellectual evolution to     
suppose that they possessed a speech    
approaching anything near even the      
lowest organized of the linguistic      
stocks now in existence4 ,by an         
attentive consideration of some of these
 lowest stocks1 can we not form a       
somewhat correct conception of what was 
the character of the rudimentary        
utterances of the race8 ,i think we can1
 but1 as ,i believe ,i am the first to  
attempt such a picture1 ,i offer it with
 becoming diffidence4  ,the             
physiological possibility that          
palolithic man possessed a language has1
 as ,i have said1 been already          
vindicated2 and that he was             

intellectually capable of speech could1 
,i think1 scarcely be denied by any one 
who will contemplate the conceptions of 
symmetry1 the technical skill1 and the  
wise adaptation to use1 manifested in   
some of the oldest specimens of his art2
 as for example the axes disinterred    
from the ancient strata of ,san ,isidro1
 near ,madrid1 those found forty feet   
deep in the post-glacial gravels near   
,trenton1 ,new ,jersey1 or some of those
 figured by ,de ,mortillet as derived   
from the beds of the ,somme in          
,france4#ccb ,we have evidence that at  
that period man made use of fire2 that  
he raised shelters to protect himself   
from the weather2 that he possessed some
 means of navigating the streams2 that  
he could occasionally overcome powerful 
and ferocious beasts2 that he already   
paid some attention to ornamenting his  
person2 that he lived in communities2   
and that his migrations were            
extensive4#ccc ,in view of all this1 is 
it not highly improbable that he was    

destitute of any vocal powers of        
expressing his plans and desires8 ,i    
maintain that we should dismiss the     
,homo alalus1 as a scientific romance   
which has served its time4  ,more than  
this1 ,i believe that by a judicious    
study of existing languages1 especially 
those which have suffered little by     
admixture or by distant removals1 we can
 picture with reasonable fidelity the   
character of the earliest tongues spoken
 by man1 the speech of the ,palolithic  
,age4  ,this primitive utterance was1 of
 course1 not the same everywhere4 ,it   
varied indefinitely4 ,but for all that  
it is almost certain that in all        
localities it proceeded on analogous    
lines of development1 just as languages 
have everywhere and at all times since4 
,by studying simple and isolated        
languages1 those which have suffered    
least by contact with others1 or by     
alterations in conditions of culture1 we
 can catch some glimpses of the         
character of man's earliest significant 

expression1 the 8baby-talk of the race10
 if ,i may use the expression4 ,i have  
gleaned a certain number of such traits 
in the field of ,american linguistics1  
and present them to you as curiosities1 
which1 like other curiosities1 have     
considerable significance to those who  
will master their full purport4  ,the   
question ,i am about to consider1 is1   
you will observe1 quite different from  
that which concerns itself with the     
origin of linguistic stocks4 ,many of   
these unquestionably arose long after   
man had acquired well-developed         
languages1 and when the cerebral        
convolutions whose activity is          
manifested in articulate expression had 
acquired a high grade of development    
through hereditary training4 ,how such  
stocks may have arisen has been lucidly 
set forth by my learned friend ,mr4     
,horatio ,hale4 ,he demonstrates by many
 examples that in the present cerebral  
evolution of man1 infants develop an    
articulate language with the same       

natural facility that any other species 
of animal does the vocal utterances     
peculiar to its kind4#ccd  ,but in this 
essay ,i am contemplating man as he was 
before hundreds of generations of       
speaking ancestors had evolved such     
cerebral powers4  ,i begin with some    
observations on the phonetic elements4  
,these are no other than what we call   
the alphabet1 the simple sounds which   
combined together make up the words of a
 language4 ,in all ,european tongues1   
the mere letters of the alphabet1 by    
themselves1 have no meaning and convey  
no idea2 furthermore1 their value in a  
word is fixed2 and1 thirdly1 arranged in
 a word1 they are sufficient to convey  
its sound and sense to one acquainted   
with their values4  ,judged by certain  
,american examples1 all three of these  
seemingly fundamental characteristics of
 the phonetic elements were absent in   
primitive speech1 and have become stable
 only by a long process of growth4 ,we  
find tongues in which the primary sounds

 are themselves significant1 and yet at 
the same time are highly variable2 and  
we find many examples in which they are 
inadequate to convey the sense of the   
articulate sound4  ,as exemplifying     
these peculiarities ,i take the ,tinn or
 ,athapascan1 spoken widely in ,british 
,america1 and of which the ,apache and  
,navaho in the ,united ,states are      
branches4 ,you know that in ,english the
 vowels ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o1 ,u1 and the     
consonants1 as such1 ,f1 ,s1 ,k1 and the
 others1 convey to your mind no meaning1
 are not attached to any idea or train  
of ideas4 ,this is altogether different 
in the ,tinn4 ,we are informed by       
,bishop ,faraud1#cce a thorough master  
of that tongue1 that its significant    
radicals are the five primitive vowel   
sounds1 ,a1 ,e1 ,i1 ,o1 ,u4 ,of these ,a
 expresses matter1 ,e existence1 ,i     
force or energy1 ,o existence doubtful1 
and ,u existence absent1 non-existence1 
negation or succession4 ,these vowels   
are 8put in action10 as he phrases it1  

by single or double consonants1 8which  
have more or less value in proportion as
 the vowel is more or less strong40     
,these consonantal sounds1 as we learn  
at length from the works on this        
language by ,father ,petitot1 are also  
materially significant4 ,they are       
numerous1 being sixty-three in all1 and 
are divided into nine different classes1
 each of which conveys a series of      
related or associated ideas in the      
native mind4  ,thus1 the labials express
 the ideas of time and space1 as age1   
length1 distance1 and also whiteness1   
the last mentioned1 perhaps1 through    
association with the white hair of age1 
or the endless snowfields of their      
winter4 ,the dentals express all that   
relates to force terminating1 hence     
uselessness1 inanity1 privation1        
smallness1 feebleness2 and also         
greatness1 elevation1 the motor power4  
,the nasals convey the general notion of
 motion in repetition2 hence1 rotation1 
reduplication1 gravitation1 and1 by a   

singularly logical association1 organic 
life4 ,the gutturals indicate motion in 
curves2 hence1 sinuousness1 flexibility1
 ebullition1 roundness1 and by a linear 
figure different from that which        
underlies the ,latin rectitudo1         
justness1 correctness4 ,the ,h1 either  
as an aspirate or an hiatus1 introduces 
the ideas of command and subjection1    
elevation and prostration1 and the      
like4#ccf  ,you will observe that in    
some of these cases the signification of
 a sound includes both a notion and its 
opposite1 as greatness and smallness4   
,this is an interesting feature1 to     
which ,i shall refer later4  ,turn now  
to another language1 the ,cree4         
,geographically it is contiguous to the 
,tinn2 but1 says ,bishop ,faraud1 who   
spoke them both fluently1 they resemble 
each other no more than the ,french does
 the ,chinese4 ,nevertheless1 we        
discover this same peculiarity of       
materially significant phonetic         
elements4 ,howse1 in his ,cree ,grammar1

 observes that the guttural ,k and the  
labial ,w constitute the essential part 
of all intensive terms in that language1
 8whether the same be attributive1      
formative1 or personal accident40       
,indeed1 he maintains that the          
articulate sounds of the ,cree all      
express relative powers1 feebleness or  
force1 independent of their position    
with reference to other sounds4  ,you   
may inquire whether in the different    
groups of ,american tongues the same or 
a similar signification is attached to  
any one sound1 or to the sounds of any  
one organ4 ,if it were so1 it would give
 countenance to those theories which    
maintain that there is some fixed       
relation between sound and sense in the 
radicals of languages4 ,i must reply    
that ,i have found very little evidence 
for this theory2 and yet some4 ,for     
example1 the ,n sound expresses the     
notion of the ego1 of myself-ness1 in a 
great many tongues1 far apart           
geographically and linguistically4 ,it  

is found at the basis of the personal   
pronoun of the first person and of the  
words for man in numerous dialects in   
,north and ,south ,america4 ,again1 the 
,k sound is almost as widely associated 
with the ideas of otherness1 and is at  
the base of the personal pronoun of the 
second person singular and of the       
expressions for superhuman              
personalities1 the divine existence4#ccg
 ,it is essentially demonstrative in its
 power4  ,again1 in a long array of     
tongues in various parts of the world1  
the subjective relation is expressed by 
the ,m sound1 as has been pointed out by
 ,dr4 ,winkler2 and other examples could
 be added4 ,many of these it is         
impossible to attribute to derivation   
from a common source4 ,some writers     
maintain that sounds have a subjective  
and fixed relation to ideas2 others call
 such coincidences 8blind chance10 but  
these should remember that chance itself
 means merely the action of laws not yet
 discovered4  ,you might suppose that   

this distinction1 ,i mean that between  
self and other1 between ,i1 thou and he1
 is fundamental1 that speech could not  
proceed without it4 ,you would be       
mistaken4 ,american languages furnish   
conclusive evidence that for unnumbered 
generations mankind got along well      
enough without any such discrimination4 
,one and the same monosyllable served   
for all three persons and both numbers4 
,the meaning of this monosyllable was   
undoubtedly 8any living human being40   
,only after a long time did it become   
differentiated by the addition of       
locative particles into the notions1    
8,i--living human being10 8,thou--living
 human being10 8,he--living human       
being10 and so on4 ,even a language     
spoken by so cultured a people as the   
ancient ,peruvians bears unmistakable   
traces of this process1 as has been     
shown by ,von ,tschudi in his admirable 
analysis of that tongue2 and the        
language of the ,baures of ,bolivia     
still presents examples of verbs        

conjugated without pronouns or          
pronominal affixes4#cch  ,the           
extraordinary development of the        
pronouns in many ,american              
languages--some have as many as eighteen
 different forms1 as the person is      
contemplated as standing1 lying1 in     
motion1 at rest1 alone1 in company1     
etc41 etc4--this multiplicity of forms1 
,i say1 is proof to the scientific      
linguist that these tongues have but    
recently developed this grammatical     
category4 ,wherever we find overgrowth1 
the soil is new and the crop rank4  ,in 
spite of the significance attached to   
the phonetic elements1 they are1 in many
 ,american languages1 singularly vague  
and fluctuating4 ,if in ,english we were
 to pronounce three words1 loll1 nor1   
roll1 indifferently as one or the other1
 you see what violence we should do to  
the theory of our alphabet4 ,yet        
analogous examples are constant in many 
,american languages4 ,their consonants  
are 8alternating10 in large groups1     

their vowels 8permutable40 ,m4 ,petitot 
calls this phenomenon 8literal          
affinity10 and shows that in the ,tinn  
it takes place not only between         
consonants of the same group1 the       
labials for instance1 but of different  
groups1 as labials with dentals1 and    
dentals with nasals4 ,these differences 
are not merely dialectic2 they are found
 in the same village1 the same family1  
the same person4 ,they are not peculiar 
to the ,tinn2 they recur in the         
,klamath4 ,dr4 ,behrendt was puzzled    
with them in the ,chapanec4 8,no other  
language10 he writes1 8has left me in   
such doubt as this one4 ,the same person
 pronounces the same word differently2  
and when his attention is called to it1 
will insist that it is the same4 ,thus1 
for devil he will give ,tixambi and     
,sisaimbui2 for hell1 ,nakupaju and     
,nakapoti40#cci ,speaking of the        
,guarani1 ,father ,montoya says3 8,there
 is in this language a constant changing
 of the letters1 for which no sufficient

 rules can be given40#cdj ,and ,dr4     
,darapsky in his recently published     
study of the ,araucanian of ,chile gives
 the following equation of permutable   
letters in that tongue3                 
,b,w,f,u,i,e,g,,gh,,hu4#cda  ,the laws  
of the conversion of sounds of the one  
organ into those of another have not yet
 been discovered2 but the above         
examples1 which are by no means isolated
 ones1 serve to admonish us that the    
phonetic elements of primitive speech   
probably had no fixedness4  ,there is   
another oddity about some of these      
consonantal sounds which ,i may notice  
in passing4 ,some of them are not true  
elementary sounds2 they cannot stand    
alone1 but must always have another     
consonant associated with them4 ,thus1  
the labial ,b is common in ,guarani2 but
 it must always be preceded by an ,m4   
,in ,nahuatl the liquid ,l is frequent2 
but it is the initial of no word in that
 language4 ,the ,nahuas apparently could
 not pronounce it1 unless some other    

articulate sound preceded it4           
,albornoz1 in his ,grammar of the       
,chapanec ,tongue1#cdb states that the  
natives cannot pronounce an initial ,b1 
,g1 ,y1 or ,d1 without uttering an ,n   
sound before it4  ,the third point in   
the phonology of these tongues to which 
,i alluded is the frequency with which  
the phonetic elements1 as graphically   
expressed1 are inadequate to convey the 
idea4 ,i may quote a remark by ,howse in
 his ,cree ,grammar1 which is true      
probably of all primitive speech1       
8,emphasis1 accent and modifications of 
vocal expression2 which are inadequately
 expressed in writing1 seem to          
constitute an essential1 perhaps the    
vital part of ,indian language40 ,in    
such modifications ,i include tone1     
accent1 stress1 vocal inflection1       
quantity and pause4 ,these are with much
 difficulty or not at all includable in 
a graphic method1 and yet are frequently
 significant4 ,take the pause or hiatus4
 ,i have already mentioned that in ,tinn

 it correlates a whole series of ideas4 
,m4 ,belcourt1 in his ,grammar of the   
,sauteux1 an ,algonkin dialect1 states  
that the pause may completely change the
 meaning of a word and place it in      
another class2 it is also essential in  
that language in the formation of the   
tenses4#cdc ,this is the case in the    
,guarani of ,south ,america4 ,montoya   
illustrates it by the example3 ,peru    
o'u1 ,peter ate it2 but ,peru ou1 ,peter
 came2 quite another thing1 you will    
observe4#cdd  ,the stress laid on a     
vowel-sound often alters its meaning4   
,in the ,sauteux1 ,belcourt points out  
that this constitutes the only          
distinction between the first and second
 persons in participles4 ,in the        
,nahuatl this alone distinguishes many  
plural forms from their singulars2 and  
many similar examples could be cited4   
,with difficulties of this nature to    
encounter1 a person accustomed to the   
definite phonology of ,european tongues 
is naturally at a loss4 ,the ,spanish   

scholar ,uricoechea expresses this in   
relating his efforts to learn the       
,chibcha of ,new ,granada1 a tongue also
 characterized by these fluctuating     
phonetics4 ,he visited the region where 
it is still spoken with a grammar and   
phrase-book in his hand1 and found to   
his disappointment that they could not  
understand one word he said4 ,he then   
employed a native who spoke ,spanish1   
and with him practiced some phrases     
until he believed he had them perfect4  
,another disappointment--not one of them
 was understood4 ,he returned to his    
teacher and again repeated them2 but    
what was his dismay when not even his   
teacher recognized a single word6 ,after
 that ,uricoechea gave up the           
attempt4#cde  ,leaving now the domain of
 phonology and turning to that of       
lexicography1 ,i will point out to you a
 very curious phenomenon in primitive   
speech4 ,i have already alluded to it in
 quoting ,m4 ,petitot's remark that in  
,tinn a sound often means both a notion 

and its opposite2 that1 for instance1   
the same word may express good and bad1 
and another both high and low4 ,to use  
,m4 ,petitot's own words1 8a certain    
number of consonants have the power of  
expressing a given order of ideas or    
things1 and also the contradictory of   
this order40 ,in ,tinn1 a great many    
words for opposite ideas are the same or
 nearly the same1 derived from the same 
significant elements4 ,thus1 son good1  
sona bad2 tezo1 sweet1 tezon bitter2 ya 
immense1 ya very small2 inla one time1  
inlasin every time2 and so on4  ,this   
union of opposite significations        
reappears in the ultimate radicals of   
the ,cree language4 ,these1 says ,mr4   
,howse1#cdf whose ,grammar ,i again     
quote1 express ,being in its positive   
and negative modes3 8,these opposite    
modes are expressed by modifications of 
the same element1 furnishing two classes
 of terms widely different from each    
other in signification40 ,in ,cree the  
leading substantive radical is eth1     

which originally meant both ,being and  
,not-,being4 ,in the present language   
eth remains as the current positive1 ith
 as the current privative4 ,it means    
within1 ut without2 and like            
parallelisms run through many           
expressions1 indicating that numerous   
series of opposite ideas are            
developments from the same original     
sounds4  ,i have found a number of such 
examples in the ,nahuatl of ,mexico1 and
 ,i am persuaded that they are very     
usual in ,american tongues4 ,dr4 ,carl  
,abel has pointed out many in the       
ancient ,coptic1 and ,i doubt not they  
were characteristic of all primitive    
speech4  ,to explain their presence we  
must reflect on the nature of the human 
mind1 and the ascertained laws of       
thought4 ,one of these fundamental and  
necessary laws of thought1 that usually 
called the second1 was expressed by the 
older logicians in the phrase ,omnis    
determinatio est negatio1 and by their  
modern followers in the formula1 8,a is 

not not-,a20 in other words1 a quality1 
an idea1 an element of knowledge1 can   
rise into cognition only by being       
limited by that which it is not4 ,that  
by which it is limited is known in logic
 as its privative4 ,in a work published 
some years ago ,i pointed out that this 
privative is not an independent thought1
 as some have maintained1 but that the  
positive and its privative are really   
two aspects of the same thought4#cdg    
,this highly important distinction      
explains how in primitive speech1 before
 the idea had risen into clear          
cognition1 both it and its privative    
were expressed by the same sound2 and   
when it did rise into such cognition1   
and then into expression1 the original  
unity is exhibited by the identity of   
the radical4 ,thus it happens that from 
such an unexpected quarter as an        
analysis of ,cree grammar do we obtain a
 confirmation of the starting point of  
the logic of ,hegel in his proposition  
that the identity of the ,being and the 

,not-being is the ultimate equation of  
thought4  ,the gradual development of   
grammar is strikingly illustrated in    
these languages4 ,their most prominent  
trait is what is called incorporation4  
,subject1 verb1 direct object and remote
 object1 are all expressed in one word4 
,some have claimed that there are       
,american languages of which this is not
 true2 but ,i think ,i have shown in an 
essay published some time ago1#cdh that 
this opinion arises from our            
insufficient knowledge of the alleged   
exceptions4 ,at any rate1 this          
incorporation was undoubtedly a trait of
 primitive speech in ,america and       
elsewhere4 ,primitive man1 said ,herder1
 was like a baby2 he wanted to say all  
at once4 ,he condensed his whole        
sentence into a single word4 ,archdeacon
 ,hunter1 in his ,lecture on the ,cree  
,language1 gives as an example the      
scriptural phrase1 8,i shall have you   
for my disciples10 which1 in that       
tongue1 is expressed by one word4#cdi   

,so far as ,i have been able to analyze 
these primitive sentence-words1 they    
always express being in relation2 and   
hence they partake of the nature of     
verbs rather than nouns4 ,in this       
conclusion ,i am obliged to differ with 
the eminent linguist ,professor         
,steinthal1 who1 in his profound        
exposition of the relations of          
psychology to grammar1 maintains that   
while the primitive sentence was a      
single word1 that word was a noun1 a    
name4#cej  ,it is evident that the      
primitive man did not connect his       
sentences4 ,one followed the other      
disjointedly1 unconnectedly4 ,this is so
 plainly marked in ,american tongues    
that the machinery for connecting       
sentences is absent4 ,this machinery    
consists properly of the relative       
pronoun and the conjunction4 ,you will  
be surprised to hear that there is no   
,american language1 none that ,i know1  
which possesses either of these parts of
 speech4 ,that which does duty for the  

conjunction in the ,maya and ,nahuatl1  
for instance1 is a noun meaning         
associate or companion1 with a prefixed 
possessive4#cea  ,equally foreign to    
primitive speech was any expression of  
time in connection with verbal forms2 in
 other words1 there was no such thing as
 tenses4 ,we are so accustomed to link  
actions to time1 past1 present1 or      
future1 that it is a little difficult to
 understand how this accessory can be   
omitted in intelligible discourse4 ,it  
is perfectly evident1 however1 from the 
study of many ,american tongues1 that at
 one period of their growth they        
possessed for a long interval only one  
tense1 which served indifferently for   
past1 present1 and future2#ceb and even 
yet most of them form the past and      
future by purely material means1 as the 
addition of an adverb of time1 by       
accent1 quantity or repetition1 and in  
others the tense relation is still      
unknown4#cec  ,in some tongues1 the     
,omagua of the upper ,orinoco for       

example1 there is no sort of connection 
between the verbal stem and its signs of
 tense1 mode or person4 ,they have not  
even any fixed order4 ,in such languages
 there is no difference in sound between
 the words for 8,i marry10 and 8my      
wife20 8,i eat10 and 8my food20 between 
8,paul dies10 8,paul died10 8,paul will 
die10 and 8,paul is dead40#ced ,through 
such tongues we can distinctly perceive 
a time when the verb had neither tense1 
mode1 nor person2 when it was not even a
 verb nor yet a verbal1 but an epicene  
sound which could be adapted to any     
service of speech4  ,it is also evident 
that things were not thought of1 or     
talked of1 out of their natural         
relations4 ,there are still in most     
,american tongues large classes of      
words1 such as the parts of the body and
 terms of kinship1 which cannot stand   
alone4 ,they must always be accompanied 
by a pronoun expressing relation4  ,few 
,american tongues have any adjectives1  
the ,cree1 for instance1 not a dozen in 

all4 ,prepositions are equally rare1 and
 articles are not found4 ,these facts   
testify that what are called 8the       
grammatical categories0 were wholly     
absent in the primitive speech of man4  
,so also were those adjectives which are
 called numerals4 ,there are ,american  
tongues which have no words for any     
numerals whatever4 ,the numerical       
concepts one1 two1 three1 four1 cannot  
be expressed in these languages for lack
 of terms with any such meaning4#cee    
,this was a great puzzle to the         
missionaries when they undertook to     
expound to their flocks the doctrine of 
the ,trinity4 ,they were in worse case  
even than the missionary to an ,oregon  
tribe1 who1 to convey the notion of soul
 to his hearers1 could find no word in  
their language nearer to it than one    
which meant 8the lower gut40  ,a very   
interesting chapter in the study of     
these tongues is that which reveals the 
evolution of specific distinctions1     
those inductive generalizations under   

which primitive man classified the      
objects of the universe about him4      
,these distinctions were either         
grammatical or logical1 that is1 either 
formal or material4 ,that most widely   
seen in ,america is a division of all   
existence into those which are          
considered living and those considered  
not living4 ,this constitutes the second
 great generalization of the primitive  
mind1 the first1 as ,i have said1 having
 been that into ,being and ,not-being4  
,the distinctions of ,living and        
,not-living gave rise to the animate and
 inanimate conjugations4 ,a grammatical 
sex distinction1 which is the prevailing
 one in the grammars of the ,aryan      
tongues1 does not exist in any ,american
 dialect known to me4#cef  ,it is true  
that abstract general terms are absent  
or rare in the most primitive tongues4  
,on the other hand1 we find in them a   
great many classificatory particles4    
,these correspond only remotely to      
anything known in ,aryan speech1 and    

seem far more abstract than generic     
nouns4 ,i will illustrate what they are 
by an example taken from the ,hidatsa1 a
 dialect of the ,dakota4  ,the word for 
sled in that dialect is midu-maidutsada4
 ,the first part of this compound1 midu1
 means anything of wood or into which   
wood enters4 ,fire is mid because it is 
kept up with wood4 ,with the phonetic   
laxity which ,i have before noted1 the  
first syllable mi may as correctly be   
pronounced bi or wi4 ,it is a common    
nominal prefix1 of vague significance1  
but seems to classify objects as        
distinctives4 ,ma designates objects    
whose immediate use is not expressed2 i 
denotes instrument or material2 du1     
conveys that the cause of the action is 
not specified2 tsa intimates the action 
is that of separating2 da1 that this is 
done quickly 7tsa-da1 to slide74#ceg    
,thus by the juxtaposition of one       
classificatory particle after another1  
seven in number1 all of them logical    
universals1 the savage makes up the name

 of the specific object4  ,this system  
was probably the first adopted by man   
when he began to set in order his       
perceptions within the categories of his
 understanding1 with the aim of giving  
them vocal expression4 ,it is a plan    
which we find most highly developed in  
the rudest languages1 and therefore we  
may reasonably believe that it          
characterized prehistoric speech4  ,the 
question has been put by psychological  
grammarians1 which one of the senses    
most helped man in the creation of      
language--or to express it in modern    
scientific parlance1 was primitive man a
 visuaire or an auditaire8 ,did he model
 his sounds after what he heard1 or what
 he saw8 ,the former opinion has been   
the more popular1 and has given rise to 
the imitative or 8onomatopoetic0 theory 
of language4 ,no doubt there is a       
certain degree of truth in this1 but the
 analysis of ,american tongues leans    
decidedly toward classing primitive man 
among the visuaires4 ,his earliest      

significant sounds seem to have been    
expressive of motion and rest1 energy   
and its absence1 space and direction1   
color and form1 and the like4 ,a        
different opinion has been maintained by
 ,darwin and by many who have studied   
the problems presented by the origin of 
words from a merely physical or         
physiological standpoint1 but a careful 
investigation shows that it was the     
sense of sight rather than of hearing   
which was the prompter to vocal         
utterance4 ,but the consideration of the
 source of primitive significant sounds 
lies without the bounds of my present   
study4  ,it will be seen from these     
remarks that the primitive speech of man
 was far more rudimentary than any      
language known to us4 ,it had no        
grammatical form2 so fluctuating were   
its phonetics1 and so much depended on  
gesture1 tone1 and stress1 that its     
words could not have been reduced to    
writing1 nor arranged in alphabetic     
sequence2 these words often signified   

logical contradictories1 and which of   
the antithetic meanings was intended    
could be guessed only from the accent or
 sign2 it possessed no prepositions nor 
conjunctions1 no numerals1 no pronouns  
of any kind1 no forms to express        
singular or plural1 male or female1 past
 or present2 the different vowel-sounds 
and the different consonantal groups    
conveyed specific significance1 and were
 of more import than the syllables which
 they formed4 ,the concept of time came 
much later than that of space1 and for a
 long while was absent4                 
,,the ,,conception ,,of ,,love ,,in     
,,some ,,american ,,languages4#ceh      
8,the words which denote love1          
describing a sentiment at once powerful 
and delicate1 reveal the inmost heart of
 those who created them4 ,the vital     
importance attached to this sentiment   
renders these beautiful words especially
 adapted to point out the exceeding     
value of language as a true             
autobiography of nations40  ,this       

quotation is from an essay by a         
thoughtful writer1 ,dr4 ,carl ,abel1 in 
which he has gathered from four         
languages1 the ,latin1 ,english1 ,hebrew
 and ,russian1 their expressions for    
this sweet emotion1 and subjected them  
to a careful analysis4#cei ,the perusal 
of his article has led me to make some  
similar examinations of ,american       
languages2 but with this difference in  
method1 that while ,dr4 ,abel takes the 
languages named in the fullness of their
 development and does not occupy himself
 with the genesis of the terms of       
affection1 ,i shall give more particular
 attention to their history and         
derivation as furnishing illustrations  
of the origin and growth of those       
altruistic sentiments which are revealed
 in their strongest expression in the   
emotions of friendship and love4  ,upon 
these sentiments are based those acts   
which unite man to man in amicable      
fellowship and mutual interchange of    
kindly offices1 thus creating a nobler  

social compact than that which rests    
merely on increased power of defence or 
aggression4 ,these sentiments are those 
which bind parent to child and child to 
parent1 and thus supply the foundation  
upon which the family in the true       
significance of the term should rest4   
,these are they which1 directed toward  
the ruler or the state1 find expression 
in personal loyalty and patriotic       
devotion4 ,surpassing all in fervor and 
potency1 these sentiments1 when         
exhibited in love between the sexes1    
direct the greater part of the activity 
of each individual life1 mould the forms
 of the social relations1 and control   
the perpetuation of the species4        
,finally1 in their last and highest     
manifestations1 these sentiments are    
those which have suggested to the purest
 and clearest intellects both the most  
exalted intellectual condition of man1  
and the most sublime definition of      
divinity4#cfj ,these are good reasons1  
therefore1 why we should scan with more 

than usual closeness the terms for the  
conception of love in the languages of  
nations4  ,another purpose which ,i     
shall have in view will be to illustrate
 by these words the wonderful           
parallelism which everywhere presents   
itself in the operations of the human   
mind1 and to show how it is governed by 
the same associations of ideas both in  
the new and the old worlds4  ,as a      
preparation for the latter object1 let  
us take a glance at the derivation of   
the principal words expressing love in  
the ,aryan languages4 ,the most         
prominent of them may be traced back to 
one of two ruling ideas1 the one        
intimating a similarity or likeness     
between the persons loving1 the other a 
wish or desire4 ,the former conveys the 
notion that the feeling is mutual1 the  
latter that it is stronger on one side  
than on the other4  ,these diverse      
origins are well illustrated by the     
,french aimer and the ,english love4    
,aimer1 from the ,latin amare1 brings us

 to the ,greek 1 1 both of which spring 
from the ,sanscrit som2 from which in   
turn the ,germans get their words sammt1
 along with1 and zusammen1 together2    
while we obtain from this root almost   
without change our words similar and    
same4 ,etymologically1 therefore1 those 
who love are alike2 they are the same in
 such respects that they are attracted  
to one another1 on the proverbial       
principle that 8birds of a feather flock
 together40  ,now turning to the word   
love1 ,german liebe1 ,russian lubov1    
lubity1 we find that it leads us quite a
 different road4 ,it is traced back     
without any material change to the      
,sanscrit lobha1 covetousness1 the      
ancient ,coptic 1 to want1 to desire4   
,in this origin we see the passion      
portrayed as a yearning to possess the  
loved object2 and in the higher sense to
 enjoy the presence and sympathy of the 
beloved1 to hold sweet communion with   
him or her4  ,a class of ideas closely  
akin to this are conveyed in such words 

as 8attached to10 8attraction10         
8affection10 and the like1 which make   
use of the figure of speech that the    
lover is fastened to1 drawn toward1 or  
bound up with the beloved object4 ,we   
often express this metaphor in full in  
such phrases as 8the bonds of           
friendship10 etc4  ,this third class of 
words1 although in the history of       
language they are frequently of later   
growth than the two former1 probably    
express the sentiment which underlies   
both these1 and that is a dim1          
unconscious sense of the unity which is 
revealed to man most perfectly in the   
purest and highest love1 which at its   
sublimest height does away with the     
antagonism of independent personality1  
and blends the ,i and the thou in a     
oneness of existence4  ,although in     
this1 its completest expression1 we must
 seek examples solely between persons of
 opposite sex1 it will be well to       
consider in an examination like the     
present the love between men1 which is  

called friendship1 that between parents 
and children1 and that toward the gods1 
the givers of all good things4 ,the     
words conveying such sentiments will    
illustrate many features of the         
religious and social life of the nations
 using them4                            
,i4 ,,the ,,algonkin4  ,i begin with    
this group of dialects1 once widely     
spread throughout the ,st4 ,lawrence    
valley and the regions adjoining2 and   
among them ,i select especially the     
,cree and the ,chipeway1 partly because 
we know more about them1 and partly     
because they probably represent the     
common tongue in its oldest and purest  
type4 ,they are closely allied1 the same
 roots appearing in both with slight    
phonetic variations4  ,in both of them  
the ordinary words for love and         
friendship are derived from the same    
monosyllabic root1 sak4 ,on this1       
according to the inflectional laws of   
the dialects1 are built up the terms for
 the love of man to woman1 a lover1 love

 in the abstract1 friend1 friendship1   
and the like4 ,it is also occasionally  
used by the missionaries for the love of
 man to ,god and of ,god to man4#cfa    
,in the ,chipeway this root has but one 
form1 sagi2 but in ,cree it has two1 a  
weak and a strong form1 saki and sakk4  
,the meaning of the latter is more      
particularly to fasten to1 to attach to4
 ,from it are derived the words for     
string or cord1 the verbs 8to tie10 8to 
fasten10 etc42 and also some of the     
coarsest words to express the sexual    
relation4#cfb ,both these roots are     
traced back to the primary element of   
the ,algonkin language expressed by the 
letters sak or s--k4 ,this conveys the  
generic notion of force or power exerted
 by one over another1#cfc and is        
apparently precisely identical with the 
fundamental meaning of the ,latin       
afficio1 8to affect one in some manner  
by active agency10#cfd from which word1 
,i need hardly add1 were derived        
affectus and affectio and our           

8affection20 thus we at once meet with  
an absolute parallelism in the working  
of the ,aryan ,italic and the ,american 
,algonkin mind4  ,the ,cree has several 
words which are confined to parental and
 filial love and that which the gods    
have for men4 ,these are built up on the
 disyllabic radical espi or aspi1 which 
is an instrumental particle signifying  
8by means of1 with the aid of40#cfe     
,toward the gods1 such words refer to   
those who aid us2 toward children those 
whom their parents aid2 and from        
children toward parents1 again1 those   
from whom aid is received4  ,for love   
between men1 friendship1 the ,cree      
employs some words from the radical ski2
 but more frequently those compounded   
with the root wit or witch1 which means 
8in company with10#cff and is the       
precise analogue of the syllable com    
7,latin1 con7 in the ,english words     
companion1 comrade1 compeer1            
confederate1 etc42 it conveys the idea  
of association in life and action1 and  

that association a voluntary and        
pleasure-giving one4  ,in the ,chipeway 
there is a series of expressions for    
family love and friendship which in     
their origin carry us back to the same  
psychological process which developed   
the ,latin amare from the ,sanscrit sam 
7see above74 ,they may be illustrated by
 the melodious term1 which in that      
dialect means both friendship and       
relationship1 inawendawin4 ,this is an  
abstract verbal noun from the theme ni  
inawa1 ,i resemble him1 which is built  
up from the radicle in4 ,this particle  
denotes a certain prevailing way or     
manner1 and appears both in ,cree and   
,chipeway in a variety of words4#cfg    
,the principle of similarity is thus    
fully expressed as the basis of         
friendship4 ,to see how apparent this is
 we have but to remember the ,english1  
8,i like him10 i4 e41 there is something
 in him like me4  ,the feebler sentiment
 of merely liking a person or thing is  
expressed in the ,chipeway by a         

derivative from the adjective mino1     
good1 well1 and signifies that he or it 
seems good to me4#cfh  ,the highest form
 of love1 however1 that which embraces  
all men and all beings1 that whose      
conception is conveyed in the ,greek 1  
we find expressed in both the dialects  
by derivation from a root different from
 any ,i have mentioned4 ,it is in its   
dialectic forms kis1 keche1 or kiji1 and
 in its origin it is an intensive       
interjectional expression of pleasure1  
indicative of what gives joy4#cfi       
,concretely it signifies what is        
completed1 permanent1 powerful1         
perfected1 perfect4 ,as friendship and  
love yield the most exalted pleasure1   
from this root the natives drew a fund  
of words to express fondness1           
attachment1 hospitality1 charity2 and   
from the same worthy source they        
selected that adjective which they      
applied to the greatest and most        
benevolent divinity4#cgj                
,,ii4 ,,the ,,nahuatl4  ,the ,nahuatl1  

,mexican or ,aztec language was spoken  
extensively throughout ,mexico and      
,central ,america1 and every tribe who  
used it could boast of a degree of      
culture considerably above that of any  
of the ,algonkin communities4 ,such     
being the case1 it is rather surprising 
to note how extremely poor in comparison
 is the ,nahuatl in independent radicals
 denoting love or affection4 ,in fact1  
there is only one word in the language  
which positively has this signification1
 and it1 with its derivatives1 is called
 upon to express every variety of love1 
human and divine1 carnal and chaste1    
between men and between the sexes1 and  
by human beings toward inanimate things4
  ,this word is tlaztla1 he loves4 ,it  
is no easy matter to trace its history4 
,by well known laws of ,nahuatl         
etymology we know that the root is zo4  
,we have from this same root several    
other words of curiously diverse        
meanings4 ,thus1 izo1 to bleed1 to draw 
blood1 either for health1 or1 as was the

 custom of those nations1 as a sacrifice
 before idols2 izolini1 to grow old1 to 
wear out1 applied to garments2 tlazoti1 
to offer for sale at a high price2 and  
zozo1 to string together1 as the natives
 did flowers1 peppers1 beads1 etc4 ,now1
 what idea served as the common         
starting-point of all these expressions8
 ,the answer is that we find it in the  
word zo as applied to a sharp-pointed   
instrument1 a thorn1 or a bone or stone 
awl1 used in the earliest times for     
puncturing or transfixing objects4 ,from
 this came zozo1 to transfix with such  
an instrument1 and string on a cord2    
izoliui1 to be full of holes1 as if     
repeatedly punctured1 and thus worn out2
 and izo1 to bleed1 because that was    
done by puncturing the flesh with the   
thorns of the maguey or sharp obsidian  
points4#cga  ,but how do we bring these 
into connection with the sentiment of   
love and its verbal expression8 ,we     
might indeed seek an illustration of the
 transfer from classical mythology1 and 

adduce the keen-pointed arrows of       
,cupid1 the darts of love1 as pointing  
out the connection4 ,but ,i fear this   
would be crediting the ancient ,nahuas  
with finer feelings than they deserve4  
,i gravely doubt that they felt the     
shafts of the tender passion with any   
such susceptibility as to employ this   
metaphor4 ,much more likely is it that  
tlaztla1 to love1 is derived directly   
from the noun tlaztl1 which means       
something strung with or fastened to    
another4 ,this brings us directly back  
to the sense of 8attached to0 in        
,english1 and to that of the root saki  
in ,algonkin1 the idea of being bound to
 another by ties of emotion and         
affection4  ,but there is one feature in
 this derivation which tells seriously  
against the national psychology of the  
,nahuas2 this1 their only word for love1
 is not derived1 as is the ,algonkin1   
from the primary meaning of the root1   
but from a secondary and later          
signification4 ,this hints ominously at 

the probability that the ancient tongue 
had for a long time no word at all to   
express this1 the highest and noblest   
emotion of the human heart1 and that    
consequently this emotion itself had not
 risen to consciousness in the national 
mind4  ,but the omissions of the fathers
 were more than atoned for by the       
efforts of their children4 ,i know no   
more instructive instance in the history
 of language to illustrate how original 
defects are amended in periods of higher
 culture by the linguistic faculty1 than
 this precise point in the genesis of   
the ,nahuatl tongue4 ,the ,nahuas1 when 
they approached the upper levels of     
emotional development1 found their      
tongue singularly poor in radicals      
conveying such conceptions4 ,as the     
literal and material portions of their  
speech offered them such inadequate     
means of expression1 they turned toward 
its tropical and formal portions1 and in
 those realms reached a degree of       
development in this direction which far 

surpasses that in any other language    
known to me4  ,in the formal portion of 
the language they were not satisfied    
with one1 but adopted a variety of      
devices to this end4 ,thus3 all verbs   
expressing emotion may have an intensive
 termination suffixed1 imparting to them
 additional force2 again1 certain       
prefixes indicating civility1 respect   
and affection may be employed in the    
imperative and optative moods2 again1 a 
higher synthetic construction may be    
employed in the sentence1 by which the  
idea expressed is emphasized1 a device  
in constant use in their poetry2 and    
especially the strength of emotion is   
indicated by suffixing a series of      
terminations expressing contempt1       
reverence or love4 ,the latter are      
wonderfully characteristic of ,nahuatl  
speech4 ,they are not confined to verbs 
and nouns1 but may be added to          
adjectives1 pronouns1 participles1 and  
even to adverbs and postpositions4 ,thus
 every word in the sentence is made to  

carry its burden of affection to the ear
 of the beloved object6  ,add to these  
facilities the remarkable power of the  
,nahuatl to impart tropical and         
figurative senses to words by the       
employment of rhetorical resources1 and 
to present them as one idea by means of 
the peculiarities of its construction1  
and we shall not consider as overdrawn  
the expression of ,professor ,de la     
,rosa when he writes3 8,there can be no 
question but that in the manifestation  
in words of the various emotions1 the   
,nahuatl finds no rival1 not only among 
the languages of modern ,europe1 but in 
the ,greek itself40#cgb  ,the ,nahuatl  
word for friendship is icniuhtli4 ,this 
is a compound of the preposition ic1    
with2 the noun-ending tli2 and the      
adverbial yuh1 or noyuh1 which means 8of
 the same kind40 ,the word1 therefore1  
has the same fundamental conception as  
the ,latin amicus and the ,cree inawema1
 but it was not developed into a verbal 
to express the suffering of the passion 

itself4#cgc                             
,,iii4 ,,the ,,maya4  ,the whole        
peninsula of ,yucatan was inhabited by  
the ,mayas1 and tribes speaking related 
dialects of their tongue lived in       
,guatemala1 ,chipapas1 and on the ,gulf 
,shore north of ,vera ,cruz4 ,all these 
depended chiefly on agriculture for     
subsistence1 were builders of stone     
houses1 and made use of a system of     
written records4 ,their tongue1         
therefore1 deserves special             
consideration as that of a nation with  
strong natural tendencies to            
development4  ,in turning to the word   
for love in the ,maya vocabulary1 we are
 at once struck with the presence of a  
connected series of words expressing    
this emotion1 while at the same time    
they1 or others closely akin to them and
 from the same root1 mean pain1 injury1 
difficulty1 suffering1 wounds and       
misery4 ,both are formed by the usual   
rules from the monosyllable ya4#cgd     
,were the ancient ,mayas so sensitive to

 love's wounds and the pangs of passion 
as to derive their very words for       
suffering from the name of this         
sentiment8  ,no2 that solution is too   
unlikely for our acceptance4 ,more      
probable is it that we have here an     
illustration of the development of      
language from interjectional cries4 ,in 
fact1 we may be said to have the proof  
of it1 for we discover that this        
monosyllable ya is still retained in the
 language as a verb1 with the           
signification 8to feel anything deeply1 
whether as a pain or as a pleasure40#cge
 ,its derivatives were developed with   
both meanings1 and as love and          
friendship are the highest forms of     
pleasure1 the word ya in its happier    
senses became confined to them4  ,it    
seems to have sufficed to express the   
conception in all its forms1 for the    
writers in the language apply it to the 
love of the sexes1 to that between      
parents and children1 that among        
friends1 also to that which men feel    

toward ,god1 and that which ,he is      
asserted to feel toward men4#cgf  ,the  
,mayas1 therefore1 were superior to the 
,nahuas in possessing a radical word    
which expressed the joy of love2 and    
they must be placed above even the early
 ,aryans in that this radical was in    
significance purely psychical1 referring
 strictly to a mental state1 and neither
 to similarity nor desire4  ,it is      
noteworthy that this interjectional     
root1 although belonging to the         
substructure of the language1 does not  
appear with the meaning of love in the  
dialects of the ,maya stock4 ,in them   
the words for this sentiment are derived
 from other roots4  ,thus among the     
,huastecas1 residing on the ,gulf of    
,mexico1 north of ,vera ,cruz1 the word 
for love is canezal4 ,it is employed for
 both human and divine love1 and also   
means anything precious and to be       
carefully guarded as of advantage to the
 possessor4#cgg ,there is no difficulty 
in following its development when we    

turn to the ,maya1 which preserves the  
most numerous ancient forms and meanings
 of any dialect of this stock4 ,in it we
 discover that the verb can means 8to   
affect another in some way1 to give     
another either by physical contact or   
example a virtue1 vice1 disease or      
attribute40#cgh ,here again we come upon
 the precise correlative of the ,latin  
afficio1 from which proceeds our        
8affection10 etc4  ,the ,guatemalan     
tribes1 the principal of which were and 
are the ,quiches and ,cakchiquels1 did  
not accept either ya or can as the root 
from which to build their expressions   
for the sentiment of love4 ,in both     
these dialects the word for to love is  
logoh4 ,it also means 8to buy10 and this
 has led a recent writer to hold up to  
ridicule the ,spanish missionaries who  
chose this word to express both human   
and divine love4 ,dr4 ,stoll1 the writer
 referred to1 intimates that it had no  
other meaning than 8to buy0 in the pure 
original tongue1 and that the only word 

for the passion is ah1 to want1 to      
desire4#cgi ,in this he does not display
 his usual accuracy1 for we find logoh  
used in the sense 8to like10 8to love10 
in the ,annals of the ,cakchiquels1     
written by a native who had grown to    
manhood before the ,spaniards first     
entered his country4#chj  ,that the verb
 logoh means1 both in origin and later  
use1 8to buy10 as well as 8to love10 is 
undoubtedly true4 ,its root logh is     
identical with the ,maya loh1 which has 
the meanings 8to exchange1 to buy1 to   
redeem1 to emancipate40 ,it was the word
 selected by the ,franciscan            
missionaries to express the redemption  
of the world by ,christ1 and was applied
 to the redemption of captives and      
slaves4 ,it might be suggested that it  
bears a reference to 8marriage by       
purchase20 but ,i think that 8to buy10  
and 8to love10 may be construed as      
developments of the same idea of prizing
 highly4 ,when we say that a person is  
appreciated1 we really say that he has  

had a proper price put upon him4 ,the   
,latin carus1 which ,cicero calls ipsum 
verbum amoris1#cha means costly in price
 as well as beloved2 and the tender     
,english 8dear0 means quite as often    
that the object is expensive to buy1 as 
that we dote very much upon it4 ,nor    
need we go outside of ,american         
languages for illustrations2 in ,nahuatl
 tlazti means to offer for sale at a    
high price2 and in ,huasteca canel1 from
 the same root as canezal1 to love1     
means something precious in a pecuniary 
sense1 as well as an object of the      
affections4 ,other instances will       
present themselves when we come to      
examine some of the ,south ,american    
tongues4 ,but from what ,i have already 
given1 it is evident that there is      
nothing contradictory in the double     
meaning of the verb logoh4              
,,iv4 ,,the ,,qquichua4  ,the ancient   
,peruvians who spoke the ,qquichua      
language had organized a system of      
government and a complex social fabric  

unsurpassed by any on the continent4    
,the numerous specimens of their arts   
which have been preserved testify       
strongly to the licentiousness of their 
manners1 standing in this respect in    
marked contrast to the ,aztecs1 whose   
art was pure4 ,it must be regarded as   
distinctly in connection with this that 
we find a similar contrast in their     
languages4 ,we have seen that in the    
,nahuatl there appears to have been no  
word with a primary signification 8to   
love0 or any such conception4 ,the      
,qquichua1 on the contrary1 is probably 
the richest language on the continent1  
not only in separate words denoting     
affection1 but in modifications of these
 by imparting to them delicate shades of
 meaning through the addition of        
particles4 ,as an evidence of the       
latter1 it is enough to cite the fact   
that ,dr4 ,anchorena1 in his grammar of 
the tongue1 sets forth nearly six       
hundred combinations of the word munay1 
to love6#chb  ,the ,qquichua is         

fortunate in other respects2 it has some
 literature of its own1 and its         
structure has been carefully studied by 
competent scholars2 it is possible1     
therefore1 to examine its locutions in a
 more satisfactory manner than is the   
case with most ,american languages4 ,its
 most celebrated literary monument is   
the drama of ,ollanta1 supposed to have 
been composed about the time of the     
conquest4 ,it has been repeatedly edited
 and translated1 most accurately by     
,pacheco ,zegarra4#chc ,his text may be 
considered as the standard of the pure  
ancient tongue4  ,of ,qquichua words for
 the affections1 that in widest use is  
the one above quoted1 munay4 ,it is as  
universal in its application as its     
,english equivalent1 being applied to   
filial and parental love as well as to  
that of the sexes1 to affection between 
persons of the same sex1 and to the love
 of ,god4 ,no other word of the class   
has such a wide significance4 ,it ranges
 from an expression of the warmest      

emotion down to that faint announcement 
of a preference which is conveyed in the
 ,english1 8,i should prefer40#chd  ,on 
looking for its earlier and concrete    
sense1 we find that munay expressed     
merely a sense of want1 an appetite and 
the accompanying desire of satisfying   
it1 hence the will1 or the wish1 not    
subjectively1 but in the objective      
manifestation4#che ,therefore it is in  
origin nearly equivalent to the earliest
 meaning of 8love10 as seen in the      
,sanscrit and the ,coptic4  ,while munay
 is thus to love on reasonable grounds  
and with definite purpose1 blind1       
unreasoning1 absorbing passion is       
expressed by huaylluni4 ,this is nearly 
always confined to sexual love1 and     
conveys the idea of the sentiment       
showing itself in action by those sweet 
signs and marks of devotion which are so
 highly prized by the loving heart4 ,the
 origin of this word indicates its      
sentient and spontaneous character4 ,its
 radical is the interjection huay1 which

 among that people is an inarticulate   
cry of tenderness and affection4#chf    
,the verb lluylluy means literally to be
 tender or soft1 as fruit1 or the young 
of animals2 and applied to the          
sentiments1 to love with tenderness1 to 
have as a darling1 to caress lovingly4  
,it has less of sexuality in it than the
 word last mentioned1 and is applied by 
girls to each other1 and as a term of   
family fondness4 ,it is on a parallel   
with the ,english 8dear10 8to hold      
dear10 etc4#chg  ,in the later          
compositions in ,qquichua the favorite  
word for love is ccuyay4 ,originally    
this expression meant to pity1 and in   
this sense it occurs in the drama of    
,ollanta2 but also even there as a term 
signifying the passion of love apart    
from any idea of compassion4#chh ,in the
 later songs1 those whose composition   
may be placed in this century1 it is    
preferred to munay as the most          
appropriate term for the love between   
the sexes4#chi ,from it also is derived 

the word for charity and benevolence4   
,as munay is considered to refer to     
natural affection felt within the mind1 
mayhuay is that ostentatious sentiment  
which displays itself in words of       
tenderness and acts of endearment1 but  
leaves it an open question whether these
 are anything more than simulated signs 
of emotion4#cij  ,this list is not      
exhaustive of the tender words in the   
,qquichua2 but it will serve to show    
that the tongue was rich in them1 and   
that the ancient ,peruvians recognized  
many degrees and forms of this moving   
sentiment4  ,what is also noteworthy is 
the presence in this language of the    
most philosophical term for friendship  
in its widest sense that can be quoted  
from any ,american language4 ,it is     
runaccuyay1 compounded of ccuyani1      
mentioned above1 and runa1 man--the love
 of mankind4 ,this compound1 however1   
does not occur in the ,ollanta drama1   
and it may have been manufactured by the
 missionaries4 ,the usual term is maciy1

 which means merely 8associate10 or     
kochomaciy1 a table-companion or        
convive4                             ,v4
 ,,the ,,tupi-,,guarani4  ,the          
linguistic stock which has the widest   
extension in ,south ,america is that    
which is represented in ,southern       
,brazil by the ,guarani1 and in ,central
 and ,northern by the ,tupi or ,lingoa  
,geral4 ,the latter is spoken along the 
,amazon and its tributaries for a       
distance of twenty-five hundred miles4  
,it is by no means identical with the   
,guarani1 but the near relationship of  
the two is unmistakable4 ,the ,guarani  
presents the simpler and more primitive 
forms1 and may be held to present the   
more archaic type4  ,the word for love  
in the ,guarani is aihu1 in another form
 haihu1 the initial h being dropped in  
composition4 ,this expression is        
employed for all the varieties of the   
sentiment1 between men1 between the     
sexes1 and for that which is regarded as
 divine4#cia ,for 8a friend10 they have 

no other term than one which means a    
visitor or guest2 and from this their   
expression for 8friendship0 is derived1 
which really means 8hospitality40#cib   
,verbal combinations in ,guarani are    
visually simple1 and ,i do not think we 
can be far wrong in looking upon aihu as
 a union of the two primary words ai and
 hu4 ,the former1 ai1 means self or the 
same2 and the latter1 hu1 is the verb to
 find1 or1 to be present4#cic 8,to      
love10 in ,guarani1 therefore1 would    
mean1 8to find oneself in another10 or1 
less metaphysically1 8to discover in    
another a likeness to one's self40 ,this
 again is precisely the primary         
signification of the ,latin amare2 and  
if the sentiment impressed in that way  
the barbarous ancient ,aryans1 there is 
no reason why it would not have struck  
the ,guaranis in the same manner4  ,in  
the ,tupi or ,lingua ,geral the word for
 love is evidently but a dialectic      
variation of that in ,guarani4 ,it is   
given by some authors as aiu1 plainly a 

form of haihu2 and by others as auu4#cid
 ,these forms cannot be analyzed in the 
,tupi itself1 which illustrates its more
 modern type4  ,there are other dialects
 of this widespread stem1 but it would  
not be worth while to follow this       
expression further in its diverse forms4
 ,it is interesting1 however1 to note   
that which appears in the ,arawack1     
spoken in ,guiana4 ,in that tongue to   
love is kanisin1 in which the radical is
 ani or ansi4 ,now we find that ani     
means 8of a kind10 peculiar to1         
belonging to1 etc4 ,once more it is the 
notion of similarity1 of 8birds of a    
feather10 which underlies the expression
 for the conception of love4#cie        
,,conclusions4  ,if1 now1 we review the 
ground we have gone over1 and classify  
the conception of love as revealed in   
the languages under discussion1 we find 
that their original modes of expression 
were as follows3  #a4 ,inarticulate     
cries of emotion 7,cree1 ,maya1         
,qquichua74  #b4 ,assertions of sameness

 or similarity 7,cree1 ,nahuatl1 ,tupi1 
,arawack74  #c4 ,assertions of          
conjunction or union 7,cree1 ,nahuatl1  
,maya74  #d4 ,assertions of a wish1     
desire or longing 7,cree1 ,cakchiquel1  
,qquichua1 ,tupi74  ,these categories   
are not exhaustive of the words which ,i
 have brought forward1 but they include 
most of them1 and probably were this    
investigation extended to embrace       
numerous other tongues1 we should find  
that in them all the principal          
expressions for the sentiment of love   
are drawn from one or other of these    
fundamental notions4 ,a most instructive
 fact is that these notions are those   
which underlie the majority of the words
 for love in the great ,aryan family of 
languages4 ,they thus reveal the        
parallel paths which the human mind     
everywhere pursued in giving articulate 
expression to the passions and emotions 
of the soul4 ,in this sense there is a  
oneness in all languages1 which speaks  
conclusively for the oneness in the     

sentient and intellectual attributes of 
the species4  ,we may also investigate  
these categories1 thus shown to be      
practically universal1 from another     
point of view4 ,we may inquire which of 
them comes the nearest to the correct   
expression of love in its highest       
philosophic meaning4 ,was this meaning  
apprehended1 however dimly1 by man in   
the very infancy of his speech-inventing
 faculty8  ,in another work1 published  
some years ago1 ,i have attempted a     
philosophic analysis of the sentiment of
 love4 ,quoting from some of the        
subtlest dissectors of human motive1 ,i 
have shown that they pronounce love to  
be 8the volition of the end10 or 8the   
resting in an object as an end40 ,these 
rather obscure scholastic formulas ,i   
have attempted to explain by the        
definition3 8,love is the mental        
impression of rational action whose end 
is in itself40#cif ,as every end or     
purpose of action implies the will or   
wish to that end1 those expressions for 

love are most truly philosophic which   
express the will1 the desire1 the       
yearning after the object4 ,the fourth1 
therefore1 of the above categories is   
that which presents the highest forms of
 expression of this conception4 ,that it
 also expresses lower forms is true1 but
 this merely illustrates the evolution  
of the human mind as expressed in       
language4 ,love is ever the wish2 but   
while in lower races and coarser natures
 this wish is for an object which in    
turn is but a means to an end1 for      
example1 sensual gratification1 in the  
higher this object is the end itself1   
beyond which the soul does not seek to  
go1 in which it rests1 and with which   
both reason and emotion find the        
satisfaction of boundless activity      
without incurring the danger of satiety4
                ,,the ,,lineal          
,,measures ,,of ,,the ,,semi-,,civilized
 ,,nations                   ,,of       
,,mexico ,,and ,,central ,,america4#cig 
,positive progress in constructive art  

can be accurately estimated by the kind 
and perfection of the instruments of    
precision employed by the artists4 ,a   
correct theory of architecture or of    
sculpture must have as its foundation a 
correct system of weights and measures1 
and recognized units and standards of   
gravity and extension4 ,where these are 
not found1 all is guess-work1 and a more
 or less haphazard rule-of-thumb4  ,in a
 study of the art-products of ,mexico   
and ,central ,america1 it has occurred  
to me that we may with advantage call   
linguistics to our aid1 and attempt to  
ascertain1 by an analysis of the words  
for weights and measures1 what units1 if
 any1 were employed by those who        
constructed the massive works in that   
region1 which still remain for our      
astonishment4 ,the tongues ,i shall     
examine are the ,maya of ,yucatan1 its  
related dialect the ,cakchiquel of      
,guatemala1 and the ,nahuatl or ,aztec  
of ,mexico4 ,the most striking monuments
 of art in ,north ,america are found in 

the territories where these were spoken 
at the time of the ,conquest4 ,the      
,cakchiquel may be considered to include
 the ,quiche and the ,tzutuhil1 both of 
which are closely associated to it as   
dialects of the same mother tongue4     
,,the ,,mayas4  ,the generic word in    
,maya for both measuring and weighing1  
and for measures and weights1 is at     
present ppiz1 the radical sense of which
 is 8to put in order10 8to arrange      
definite limits40 ,its apparent         
similarity to the ,spanish pesar1       
,french peser1 etc41 seems accidental1  
as it is in ,maya the root of various   
words meaning battle1 to fight1 etc41   
from the 8order of battle10 observed on 
such occasions4 ,any weight or measure  
is spoken of as ppizib1 to measure land 
is ppiz-luum1 a foot measure ppiz-oc    
etc4 ,but ,i am quite certain that the  
original scope of the word did not      
include weight1 as there is no evidence 
that the ancient ,mayas knew anything   
about a system of estimating quantity by

 gravity4 ,if the word is not from the  
,spanish pesar1 it has extended its     
meaning since the conquest4  ,the ,maya 
measures are derived directly1 and      
almost exclusively1 from the human body1
 and largely from the hand and foot4    
,oc1 the foot2 chekoc1 the footstep1 the
 print or length of the foot1 is a      
measure of length4 ,other forms of the  
same are chekel1 chekeb1 chekeb-oc1     
etc42 and this abundance of synonyms    
would seem to show that the measure of a
 foot was very familiar and frequent4   
,the verb is chekoc 7tah1 t71 as in the 
phrase3                     ,chekoct    
y-otoch ,ku4                    ,he     
measured by feet ,his house ,god4  i4 e4
 ,he measured by feet the church4 ,from 
this was distinguished--  ,xukab1 paces 
or strides1 a word confined to the paces
 of man4 ,the verb is ,xukab 7tah1 t71  
to step off1 to measure by paces4       
,quite a series of measures were        
recognized from the ground 7or1 as some 
say1 from the point of the foot7 to the 

upper portions of the body4  ,hun cal   
coy u-xul 7one to the neck of the ankle 
its-end71 extending from the ground to  
the narrowest portion of the ankle4     
,hun ppuloc u-xul 7one calf-of-the-leg  
its-end71 from the ground to the highest
 portion of the calf of the leg4 ,the   
word xul means end or limit1 and is used
 often adverbially1 as in the phrase uay
 u-xul1 literally 8here its end10 or    
8thus far0 7,span4 hasta aqui74  ,hun   
pixib1 the distance from the ground 7or 
point of the toes7 to the knee-cap1 from
 piix1 the knee4 ,also called hun hol   
piix1 from hol1 head1 the knee-cap being
 called 8the knee-head40  ,hun hachabex1
 one girdle1 from the ground to the belt
 or girdle1 to which the skirt was      
fashioned 7from hach1 to tie1 to        
fasten74 ,the same measure was called   
hun theth1 the word theth being applied 
to the knot of the girdle4  ,hun tanam1 
from the ground to the border of the    
true ribs2 from tanam1 the liver4 ,the  
,diccionario de ,motul gives the        

example1 hun tanam in ual1 one tanam    
7is7 my corn1 i4 e41 my corn reaches to 
my chest4 ,it adds that the measure is  
from the point of the foot to the chest4
  ,hun tzem1 a measure from the ground  
to a line drawn from one mamma to the   
other4  ,hun cal u-xul1 one neck        
its-end1 from the ground to the border  
7upper or lower7 of the neck4  ,hun chi1
 from the mouth1 chi1 to the ground4    
,hun holom1 one head1 from the top of   
the head to the ground4 ,this is also   
called hun uallah1 one time the stature 
or height of a man1 from a root meaning 
8to draw to a point10 8to finish off40  
,the ,spanish writers say that one      
uallah was equal to about three varas1  
and was used as a square measure in     
meting corn fields4#cih ,the ,spanish   
vara differed as much as the ,english   
ell1 and to the writer in question could
 not have represented quite two feet4   
,elsewhere he defines the vara as half a
 braza or fathom4 7,see below1 betan47  
,the hand in ,maya is expressed by the  

word kab1 which also means the arm1 and 
is more correctly therefore translated  
by the anatomical term 8upper           
extremity40 ,this is not an uncommon    
example in ,american tongues4 ,when it  
is necessary to define the hand         
specifically the ,mayas say u cheel kab1
 8the branch of the arm10 and for the   
fingers u nii kab1 8the points          
7literally1 noses7 of the arm0 or upper 
extremity4  ,the shortest measurements  
known to them appear to have been       
finger-breadths1 which are expressed by 
the phrase u nii kab4 ,the thumb was    
called u n kab1 literally 8the mother of
 the hand0 or arm1 and as a measure of  
length the distance from the first joint
 to the end of the nail was in use and  
designated by the same term4  ,with the 
hand open and the fingers extended1     
there were three different measures or  
spans recognized by the ,mayas4  #a4    
,the nb1 from the tip of the thumb to   
the tip of the middle finger4  #b4 ,the 
oecnab1 or little nb1 from the tip of   

the thumb to the tip of the index       
finger4 ,this is the span yet most in   
use by the native inhabitants of        
,yucatan 7,dr4 ,berendt74  #c4 ,the chi 
nb1 or the nb which extends to the edge1
 from the tip of the thumb to the tip of
 the little finger 7,pio ,perez74  ,the 
kok was a hand measure formed by closing
 the fingers and extending the thumb4   
,measuring from the outer border of the 
hand to the end of the thumb1 it would  
be about seven inches4  ,the cuc or noch
 cuc 7noch is a term applied to a bony  
prominence1 in this instance to the     
olecranon7 was the cubit1 and was       
measured from the summit of the         
olecranon to the end of the fingers1    
about eighteen inches4  ,the most       
important of the longer measures was the
 zap or zapal4 ,it was the distance     
between the extremities of the extended 
arms1 and is usually put down at a      
fathom or six feet4  ,the half of it was
 called betan or ptan1 meaning 8to the  
middle of the chest40 ,canes and cords  

were cut of the fixed length of the zap 
and bore the name xapalche1 zapsticks1  
as our yard-stik 7che  stick71 and      
hilppiz1 measuring rods 7hil1 a species 
of cane1 and ppiz1 to measure1 ,dicc4   
,motul74  ,on this as a unit1 the       
customary land measure was based4 ,it   
was the kaan1 one shorter1 hun kaan tah 
ox zapalche1 a kaan of three zap1 and   
one longer1 hun kaan tah can zapalche1 a
 kaan of four zap4 ,the former is stated
 to be thirty-six fathoms square1 the   
latter forty-eight fathoms square4      
,twenty kaan made a vinic1 man1 that    
amount of land being considered the area
 requisite to support one family in     
maize4  ,the uncertainty about this     
measure is increased by the evident     
error of ,bishop ,landa1 or more        
probably his copyist1 in making the     
vinic equal to #djj square feet1 which  
even in the most favored soils would    
never support a family4 ,he probably    
said 8#djj feet square10 which in that  
climate would be sufficient4 ,the kaan  

is said by ,spanish writers to be equal 
to the ,mexican mecate1 which contains  
#eahd square feet4 ,i acknowledge1      
however1 that ,i have not reconciled all
 the statements reported by authors     
about these land measures4  ,greater    
measures of length are rarely mentioned4
 ,journeys were measured by lub1 which  
the ,spaniards translated 8leagues10 but
 by derivation it means 8resting        
places10 and ,i have not ascertained    
that it had a fixed length4  ,the ,mayas
 were given to the drawing of maps1 and 
the towns had the boundaries of their   
common lands laid out in definite lines4
 ,i have manuscripts1 some dated as     
early in #aedb1 which describe these    
town lands4 ,in most of them only the   
courses are given1 but not the          
distances4 ,in one1 a title to a domain 
in ,acanceh1 there are distances given1 
but in a measure quite unknown to me1   
sicina1 preceded by the numeral and its 
termination indicating measures1        
hulucppiz sicina1 eleven sicinas4#cii   

,the maps indicate relative position    
only1 and were evidently not designed by
 a scale1 or laid off in proportion to  
distance4 ,the distinguished ,yucatecan 
antiquary1 the ,rev4 ,don ,crescencio   
,carrillo1 in his essay on the          
cartography of the ancient ,mayas1#djj  
apparently came to the same conclusion1 
as he does not mention any method of    
measurement4  ,i do not know of any     
measurements undertaken in ,yucatan to  
ascertain the metrical standard employed
 by the ancient architects4 ,it is true 
that ,dr4 ,augustus ,le,plongeon asserts
 positively that they knew and used the 
metric system1 and that the metre and   
its divisions are the only dimensions   
that can be applied to the remains of   
the edifices4#dja ,but apart from the   
eccentricity of this statement1 ,i do   
not see from ,dr4 ,le,plongeon's own    
measurements that the metre is in any   
sense a common divisor for them4  ,from 
the linguistic evidence1 ,i incline to  
believe that the oc1 the foot1 was their

 chief lineal unit4 ,this name was also 
applied to the seventh day of the series
 of twenty which made up the ,maya      
month2 and there may be some connection 
between these facts and the frequent    
recurrence of the number seven in the   
details of their edifices4#djb          
,,the ,,cakchiquels4  ,the root-word for
 measuring length is1 in ,cakchiquel1   
et4 ,its primitive meaning is1 a sign1 a
 mark1 a characteristic4 ,from this root
 are derived the verbal etah1 to measure
 length1 to lay out a plan1 to define   
limits2 etal1 a sign1 mark1 limit2      
etabal1 measuring field2 etamah1 to     
know1 i4 e41 to recognize the signs and 
characters of things2 etamanizah1 to    
cause to know1 to teach1 to instruct1   
etc4  ,my authorities do not furnish    
evidence that the ,cakchiquels used the 
foot as the unit of measurement1        
differing in this from the ,mayas4 ,they
 had1 however1 like the latter1 a series
 of measurements from the ground to     
certain points of the body1 and they    

used a special terminal particle1 bem   
7probably from be1 to go71 8up to0 to   
indicate such measurements1 as vexibem1 
up to the girdle 7vex1 girdle1 i1       
connective1 bem1 up to1 or 8it goes     
to074  ,these body measures1 as far as  
,i have found them named1 are as        
follows3  quequebem1 from the ground to 
the knee4  ru-vach a1 from the ground to
 the middle of the thigh2 literally 8its
 front1 the thigh10 ru1 its1 vach1 face1
 front1 a1 the muscles of the thigh4    
vexibem1 from the ground to the girdle1 
vex4  qaalqaxibem1 from the ground to   
the first true ribs4  kulim1 from the   
ground to the neck 7kul74  ,the more    
exact ,cakchiquel measures were derived 
from the upper extremity4 ,the smallest 
was the finger breadth1 and was spoken  
of as one1 two1 three1 four fingers1 han
 ca1 cay ca1 ox ca1 cah ca 7cafinger74  
,this was used in connection with the   
measure called tuvic1 the same that ,i  
have described as the ,maya kok1        
obtained by closing the hand and        

extending the thumb4 ,they combined     
these in such expressions as ca tuvic   
raqin han ca1 two tuvics with 7plus7 one
 finger breadth4#djc  ,the span of the  
,cakchiquels was solely that obtained by
 extending the thumb and fingers and    
including the space between the         
extremities of the thumb and middle     
finger4 ,it was called qutu1 from the   
radical qut1 which means to show1 to    
make manifest1 and is hence akin in     
meaning to the root et1 mentioned above4
  ,the cubit1 chumay1 was measured from 
the point of the elbow to the           
extremities of the fingers4 ,we are     
expressly informed by ,father ,coto that
 this was a customary building measure4 
8,when they build their houses they use 
this cubit to measure the length of the 
logs4 ,they also measure ropes in the   
same manner1 and say1 ,tin chumaih      
retaxic riqam1 ,i lay out in cubits the 
rope with which ,i am to measure40  ,the
 different measures drawn from the arms 
were3  chumay1 from the elbow to the end

 of the fingers of the same hand4       
hahmehl1 from the elbow to the ends of  
the fingers of the opposite hand1 the   
arms being outstretched4  telen1 from   
the point of the shoulder of one side to
 the ends of the fingers of the         
outstretched arm on the other side4     
tzam telen1 from the point of the       
shoulder to the ends of the fingers on  
the same side4 ,tzam means nose1 point1 
beak1 etc4  ru vach qux1 from the middle
 of the breast to the end of the        
outstretched hand4  hah1 from the tips  
of the fingers of one hand to those of  
the other1 the arms outstretched4       
,another measure was from the point of  
the shoulder to the wrist4  ,the hah1 or
 fathom1 was one of the units of land   
measure1 and the corn fields and cacao  
plantations were surveyed and laid out  
with ropes1 qam1 marked off in fathoms4 
,the fields are described as of five    
ropes1 ten ropes1 etc41 but ,i have not 
found how many fathoms each rope        
contained4  ,another unit of land       

measure in frequent use was the maaoh4  
,this was the circumference of the human
 figure4 ,a man stood erect1 his feet   
together1 and both arms extended4 ,the  
end of a rope was placed under his feet 
and its slack passed over one hand1 then
 on top of his head1 then over the other
 hand1 and finally brought to touch the 
beginning4 ,this gives somewhat less    
than three times the height4 ,this      
singular unit is described by both      
,varea and ,coto as in common use by the
 natives4  ,there were no accurate      
measures of long distances4 ,as among   
the ,mayas1 journeys were counted by    
resting places1 called in ,cakchiquel   
uxlanibal1 literally 8breathing places10
 from uxla1 the breath1 itself1 a       
derivative of the radical ux1 to exist1 
to be1 to live1 the breath being taken  
as the most evident sign of life4       
,there was originally no word in        
,cakchiquel meaning 8to weigh10 as in a 
balance1 and therefore they adopted the 
,spanish peso1 as tin pesoih1 ,i weigh4 

,nor1 although they constructed stone   
walls of considerable height1 did they  
have any knowledge of the plumb line or 
plummet4 ,the name they gave it even    
shows that they had no idea what its use
 was1 as they called it 8the piece of   
metal for fastening together10 supposing
 it to be an aid in cementing the stone 
work1 rather than in adjusting its      
lines4#djd                              
,,the ,,aztecs4  ,in turning to the     
,mexicans or ,aztecs1 some interesting  
problems present themselves4 ,as far as 
,i can judge by the ,nahuatl language1  
measures drawn from the upper extremity 
were of secondary importance1 and were  
not the bases of their metrical         
standards1 and1 as ,i shall show1 this  
is borne out by a series of proofs from 
other directions4  ,the fingers1        
mapilli1 appear to have been customary  
measures4 ,they are mentioned in the    
early writers as one equal to an inch4  
,the name mapilli1 is a synthesis of    
maitl1 hand1 and pilli1 child1          

offspring1 addition1 etc4  ,the span was
 called miztetl or miztitl1 a word of   
obvious derivation1 meaning 8between the
 finger nails10 from iztetl1 finger     
nail4 ,this span1 however1 was not like 
ours1 from the extremity of the thumb to
 the extremity of the little finger1 nor
 yet like that of the ,cakchiquels1 from
 the extremity of the thumb to that of  
the middle finger1 but like that now in 
use among the ,mayas 7see above71 from  
the extremity of the thumb to that of   
the index finger4#dje  ,there were four 
measures from the point of the elbow2   
one to the wrist of the same arm1 a     
second to the wrist of the opposite arm1
 a third to the ends of the fingers of  
the same arm1 and the fourth to the ends
 of the fingers of the opposite arm1 the
 arms always considered as extended at  
right angles to the body4 ,the terms for
 these are given somewhat confusedly in 
my authorities1 but ,i believe the      
following are correct4  #a4 ,from the   
elbow to the wrist of the same arm2     

cemmatzotzopatzli1 8a little arm        
measure10 from ce1 a1 one1 ma from      
maitl1 arm or hand1 tzotzoca1 small1    
inferior1 patzoa1 to make small1 to     
diminish4  #b4 ,from the elbow to the   
wrist of the opposite arm1 cemmitl1 an  
arrow1 a shaft1 from ce1 and mitl1      
arrow1 this distance being the approved 
length of an arrow4 ,we may compare the 
old ,english expression1 a 8cloth-yard  
shaft40  #c4 ,from the elbow to the ends
 of the fingers of the same arm1        
cemmolicpitl1 one elbow1 ce1 one1       
molicpitl1 elbow4 ,this is the cubit4   
#d4 ,from the elbow to the ends of the  
fingers of the opposite arm4  ,the      
following were the arm measures3        
,cemaolli1 from the tip of the shoulder 
to the end of the hand 7ce1 one1 maoa1  
to extend the arm74  ,cemmatl1 from the 
tip of the fingers of one hand to those 
of the other4 ,although this word is    
apparently a synthesis of ce1 one1      
maitl1 arm1 and means 8one arm10 it is  
uniformly rendered by the early writers 

una braza1 a fathom4  ,cenyollotli1 from
 the middle of the breast to the end of 
the fingers 7ce1 one1 yollotl1 breast74 
,it is known that the ,aztecs had a     
standard measure of length which they   
employed in laying out grounds and      
constructing buildings4 ,it was called  
the octacatl1 but neither the derivation
 of this word1 nor the exact length of  
the measure it represented1 has been    
positively ascertained4 ,the first      
syllable1 oc1 it will be noticed1 is the
 same as the ,maya word for foot1 and in
 ,nahuatl xocopalli is 8the sole of the 
foot40 ,this was used as a measure by   
the decimal system1 and there were in   
,nahuatl two separate and apparently    
original words to express a measure of  
ten foot-lengths4 ,one was3             
,matlaxocpallatamachiualoni1 which      
formidable synthesis is analyzed as     
follows3 matla1 from matlactli1 ten1    
xocpal1 from xocpalli1 foot-soles1      
tamachiuia1 to measure 7from machiotl1 a
 sign or mark1 like the ,cakchiquel     

etal7 l1 for lo1 sign of the passive1   
oni1 a verbal termination 8equivalent to
 the ,latin bilis or dus40#djf ,thus the
 word means that which is measurable by 
ten foot-lengths4  ,the second word was 
matlacyxitlatamachiualoni4  ,the        
composition of this is similar to the   
former1 except that in the place of the 
perhaps foreign root xoc1 foot1 yxitl1  
foot1 is used1 which seems to have been 
the proper ,nahuatl term4  ,as these    
words prove that the foot-length was one
 of the standards of the ,aztecs1 it    
remains to be seen whether they         
enlighten us as to the octacail4 ,i     
quote in connection an interesting      
passage by the native historian1        
,fernando de ,alva ,ixtlilxochitl in his
 ,historia ,chichimeca1 published in    
,lord ,kingsborough's great work on     
,mexico 7,vol4 ix41 p4 #bdb74           
,ixtlilxochitl is describing the vast   
communal dwelling built by the ,tezcucan
 chieftain ,nezahualcoyotl1 capable of  
accommodating over two thousand persons4

 ,he writes3 8,these houses were in     
length from east to west four hundred   
and eleven and a half native measures1  
which reduced to our ,spanish measures  
make twelve hundred and thirty-four and 
a half yards 7varas71 and in breadth1   
from north to south three hundred and   
twenty-six measures1 which are nine     
hundred and seventy-eight yards40  ,this
 passage has been analyzed by the       
learned antiquary1 ,seor ,orozco y      
,berra4#djg ,the native measure referred
 to by ,ixtlilxochitl was that of       
,tezcuco1 which was identical with that 
of ,mexico4 ,the yard was the vara de   
,burgos1 which had been ordered to be   
adopted throughout the colony by an     
ordinance of the viceroy ,antonio de    
,mendoza4 ,this vara was in length      
#j4hch metre1 and1 as according to the  
chronicler1 the native measurement was  
just three times this 7#daa x #c  #abcd1
 and #cbf x #c  #igh71 it must have been
 #b4ead metre4 ,this is equal in our    
measure to #i4hdb feet1 or1 say1 nine   

feet ten inches4  ,this would make the  
octacatl identical with those long-named
 ten-foot measures1 which1 as ,i have   
shown1 were multiples of the length of  
the foot1 as is proved by an analysis of
 their component words4  ,this result is
 as interesting as it is new1 since it  
demonstrates that the metrical unit of  
ancient ,mexico was the same as that of 
ancient ,rome--the length of the        
foot-print4  ,some testimony of another 
kind may be brought to illustrate this  
point4  ,in #ahfd1 the ,mexican         
government appointed a commission to    
survey the celebrated ruins of          
,teotihuacan1 under the care of ,don    
,ramon ,almaraz4 ,at the suggestion of  
,seor ,orozco1 this able engineer ran a 
number of lines of construction to      
determine what had been the metrical    
standard of the builders4 ,his decision 
was that it was 8about0 met4 #j4h1 or1  
say1 #ca inches4#djh ,this is very close
 to an even third of the octacatl1 and  
would thus be a common divisor of       

lengths laid off by it4  ,i may here    
turn aside from my immediate topic to   
compare these metrical standards with   
that of the ,mound-,builders of the     
,ohio valley4  ,in the ,american        
,antiquarian1 ,april1 #ahha1 ,prof4 ,w4 
,j4 ,mc,gee applied ,mr4 ,petrie's      
arithmetical system of 8inductive       
metrology0 to a large number of         
measurements of mounds and earthworks in
 ,iowa1 with the result of ascertaining 
a common standard of #be4gaf inches4    
,in #ahhc1 ,col4 ,charles ,whittlesey1  
of ,cleveland1 analyzed eighty-seven    
measurements of ,ohio earthworks by the 
method of even divisors and concluded   
that thirty inches was about the length1
 or was one of the multiples1 of their  
metrical standard4#dji  ,moreover1      
fifty-seven per cent of all the lines   
were divisible without remainder by ten 
feet4 ,how much of this may have been   
owing to the tendency of hurried        
measurers to average on fives and tens1 
,i cannot say2 but leaving this out of  

the question1 there is a probability    
that a ten foot-length rule was used by 
the 8mound-builders0 to lay out their   
works4  ,it may not be out of place to  
add a suggestion here as to the         
applicability of the methods of         
inductive metrology to ,american        
monuments4 ,the proportions given above 
by ,ixtlilxochitl1 it will be noted1 are
 strikingly irregular 7#daa1 #cbf74 ,was
 this accident or design8 ,very likely  
the latter1 based upon some             
superstitious or astrological motive4   
,it is far from a solitary example4 ,it 
recurs everywhere in the remarkable     
ruins of ,mitla4 8,careful attention10  
says ,mr4 ,louis ,h4 ,aym1 8has been    
paid to make the whole asymmetrical4 99 
99 99 ,this asymmetry of ,mitla is not  
accidental1 ,i am certain1 but made     
designedly4 ,m4 ,desir ,charnay tells me
 he has observed the same thing at      
,palenque40 ,these examples should be a 
warning against placing implicit        
reliance on the mathematical procedures 

for obtaining the lineal standards of   
these forgotten nations4#daj  ,whatever 
the lineal standard of the ,aztecs may  
have been1 we have ample evidence that  
it was widely recognized1 very exact1   
and officially defined and protected4   
,in the great market of ,mexico1 to     
which thousands flocked from the        
neighboring country 7seventy thousand in
 a day1 says ,cortes1 but we can cut    
this down one-half in allowance for the 
exaggeration of an enthusiast71 there   
were regularly appointed government     
officers to examine the measures used by
 the merchants and compare them with the
 correct standard4 ,did they fall short1
 the measures were broken and the       
merchant severely punished as an enemy  
to the public weal4#daa  ,the           
road-measures of the ,aztecs was by the 
stops of the carriers1 as we have seen  
was also the case in ,guatemala4 ,in    
,nahuatl these were called neceuilli1   
resting places1 or netlatolli1 sitting  
places2 and distances were reckoned     

numerically by these1 as one1 two1      
three1 etc41 resting places4 ,although  
this seems a vague and inaccurate       
method1 usage had attached comparatively
 definite ideas of distance to these    
terms4 ,father ,duran tells us that     
along the highways there were posts or  
stones erected with marks upon them     
showing how many of these stops there   
were to the next market-towns--a sort of
 mile-stones1 in fact4 ,as the          
competition between the various markets 
was very active1 each set up its own    
posts1 giving its distance1 and adding a
 curse on all who did not attend1 or    
were led away by the superior           
attractions of its rivals4#dab  ,so far 
as ,i have learned1 the lineal measures 
above mentioned were those applied to   
estimate superficies4 ,in some of the   
plans of fields1 etc41 handed down1 the 
size is marked by the native numerals on
 one side of the plan1 which are        
understood to indicate the square       
measure of the included tract4 ,the word

 in ,nahuatl meaning to survey or       
measure lands is tlalpoa1 literally 8to 
count land10 from tlalli land1 poa to   
count4  ,the ,aztecs were entirely      
ignorant of balances1 scales or weights4
 ,cortes says distinctly that when he   
visited the great market of             
,mexico-,tenochtitlan1 he saw all       
articles sold by number and measure1 and
 nothing by weight4#dac ,the historian  
,herrera confirms this from other       
authorities1 and adds that when grass or
 hay was sold1 it was estimated by the  
length of a cord which could be passed  
around the bundle4#dad  ,the plumb-line 
must have been unknown to the ,mexicans 
also4 ,their called it temetztepilolli1 
8the piece of lead which is hung from on
 high10 from temetzli1 lead1 and piloa1 
to fasten something high up4 ,lead was  
not unknown to the ,aztecs before the   
conquest4 ,they collected it in the     
,provinces of ,tlachco and              
,itzmiquilpan1 but did not esteem it of 
much value1 and their first knowledge of

 it as a plummet must have been when    
they saw it in the hands of the         
,spaniards4 ,hence their knowledge of   
the instrument itself could not have    
been earlier4  ,the conclusions to which
 the above facts tend are as follows3   
#a4 ,in the ,maya system of lineal      
measures1 foot1 hand1 and body measures 
were nearly equally prominent1 but the  
foot unit was the customary standard4   
#b4 ,in the ,cakchiquel system1 hand and
 body measures were almost exclusively  
used1 and of these1 those of the hand   
prevailed4  #c4 ,in the ,aztec system1  
body measurements were unimportant1 hand
 and arm measures held a secondary      
position1 while the foot measure was    
adopted as the official and obligatory  
standard both in commerce and           
architecture4  #d4 ,the ,aztec terms for
 their lineal standard being apparently 
of ,maya origin1 suggest that their     
standard was derived from that nation4  
#e4 ,neither of the three nations was   
acquainted with a system of estimation  

by weight1 nor with the use of the      
plumb-line1 nor with an accurate measure
 of long distances4                     
,,the ,,curious ,,hoax ,,of ,,the       
,,taensa ,,language4   ,one might think 
it a difficult task to manufacture a new
 language 8from the whole cloth20 but1  
in fact1 it is no great labor4 ,we have 
but to remember that within the last    
dozen years more than a dozen           
8world-languages0 have been framed and  
offered for acceptance1 and we at once  
perceive that a moderate knowledge of   
tongues and some linguistic ingenuity   
are all that is required4  ,it is an    
innocent amusement so long as no        
fraudulent use is made of the           
manufactured product2 but the temptation
 to play a practical joke1 and to palm  
off a deception on overeager linguists1 
is as great in languages as it is in    
archology--and every antiquary knows how
 suspiciously he has to scrutinize each 
new specimen4  ,a curious hoax1 which   
deceived some of the best linguists of  

,europe and ,america1 was perpetrated   
about a decade ago by two young ,french 
seminarists1 ,jean ,parisot and ,a4     
,dejouy4 ,interested by reading         
,chteaubriand1 and by various           
publications on ,american languages     
which appeared in ,france about that    
time1 they made up a short grammar and a
 list of words of what they called the  
,tansa language1 from a name they found 
in ,chteaubriand's ,voyage en ,amerique1
 and into this invented tongue they     
translated the ,lord's ,prayer1 the     
,creed1 an ,algonkin hymn published in  
,paris1 and other material4  ,at first1 
the two students pursued this occupation
 merely as an amusement1 but it soon    
occurred to them that more could be made
 of it2 so ,m4 ,parisot sent a batch of 
the alleged 8fragments0 of the 8,tansa0 
to the publishers1 ,maisonneuve et ,cie1
 ,paris1 for publication4 ,the          
manuscripts were passed over to ,m4     
,julien ,vinson1 editor of the ,rvue de 
,linguistique1 who addressed the young  

author for further particulars4 ,m4     
,parisot replied that these pieces were 
copies of originals obtained many years 
before by his grandfather1 from what    
source he knew not1 and on the strength 
of this vague statement1 they duly      
appeared in the ,rvue4  ,their          
publication attracted the attention of  
the eminent ,french linguist1 ,m4       
,lucien ,adam1 who had long occupied    
himself with ,american tongues1 and he  
entered into correspondence with ,m4    
,parisot4 ,the latter's stock meanwhile 
had considerably increased4 ,he and his 
friend had published at ,epinal1        
apparently privately1 a small pamphlet1 
with an introductory note in bad        
,spanish1 containing a number of 8songs0
 in the 8,taensa10 as they now called   
their language4 ,they claimed in the    
note that the songs had been obtained by
 a traveler in ,america1 in the year    
#ahbg or #ahbh1 8in the ,taensa town1 on
 the banks of the ,mississippi or the   
,alabama0767#dae  ,with this abundant   

material at hand1 young ,parisot replied
 cheerfully to ,m4 ,adam1 and supplied  
that scientist with 8copy0 from the     
alleged ancestral ,,mss4 quite enough to
 fill a goodly volume of grammar1 songs1
 lexicon1 and the various paraphernalia 
of a linguistic apparatus1 all of which 
eager ,m4 ,adam and his collaborator1   
,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,gatschet1 the expert      
linguist attached to our ,bureau of     
,ethnology1 received in good faith and  
without a suspicion of the joker who    
victimized them2 and what is more       
singular1 without having a doubt excited
 by the many and gross blunders of the  
young seminarist4  ,their joint work    
reached the ,united ,states in #ahhc1   
and for two years was received both here
 and in ,europe as a genuine production4
 ,my attention was first attracted to it
 in #ahhc1 and then ,i referred to it as
 a 8strange0 production2 but ,i did not 
give it a close examination until the   
close of #ahhd4 ,this examination led me
 to prepare the following article1 which

 was published in the ,american         
,antiquarian for ,march1 #ahhe3         
,,the ,,taensa ,,grammar ,,and          
,,dictionary4                           
,a ,deception ,exposed4  ,the student of
 ,american languages is under many      
obligations to the editors and          
publishers of the ,bibliothque          
,linguistique ,amricaine1 nine volumes  
of which have been issued by the firm of
 ,maisonneuve et ,cie41 ,paris4 ,most of
 these contain valuable authentic       
original material1 from approved        
sources1 and edited with judgment4 ,the 
exception to this rule is the volume    
last issued1 which from its character   
deserves more than a passing criticism4 
,this volume bears the following title3 
,grammaire et ,vocabulaire de la ,langue
 ,taensa1 avec ,textes ,traduits et     
,comments par ,j4 ,d4 ,haumont1         
,parisot1 ,l4 ,adam4 ,pp4 #ai1 ,,iii4   
,it contains what professes to be a     
grammar of the ,taensas ,indians1 who   
lived near the banks of the lower       

,mississippi1 in the parish of that name
 in ,louisiana1 when it was first       
discovered1 but who have long since     
become extinct4 ,following the grammar  
are the 8,texts10 a remarkable series of
 native songs in the alleged ,taensa    
tongue1 with a ,french translation1     
accompanied by a commentary and a       
vocabulary4  ,all this array has been   
received by scholars without question4  
,it looks so extremely scientific and   
satisfactory that no one has dared      
assail its authenticity4 ,moreover1 the 
book appears with an historical         
introduction by ,mr4 ,albert ,s4        
,gatschet1 of our ,bureau of ,ethnology1
 and one of the editors is ,m4 ,lucien  
,adam1 a gentleman who stands at the    
head of ,european ,americanists4 ,mr4   
,gatschet1 moreover1 fully recognizes   
the authenticity of the whole in his    
latest work1 and up to the present ,i   
know of no one who has doubted it1      
either in this country or in ,europe4   
,it is1 therefore1 only after a great   

deal of consideration and hesitation    
that ,i now give publicity to the       
opinion ,i have long entertained1 that a
 gross deception has been somewhere     
practiced in the preparation of this    
book1 and that it is not at all what it 
purports to be4 ,let it be understood   
that ,i distinctly exculpate the        
gentlemen ,i have named from any share  
in this2 they can only be charged with  
the venial error of allowing their      
enthusiasm for knowledge to get the     
better of their critical acumen4  ,i    
shall proceed to give with as much      
brevity as possible the reasons which   
have led me to reject the pretended     
character of this work4  ,and first ,i  
may note that both the history of the   
alleged original manuscript and the     
method in which it has been presented   
are to the last degree unsatisfactory4  
,about the former1 ,m4 ,haumont tells us
 that among the papers of his           
grandfather1 who died as mayor of       
,plombres1 in #ahgb1 he found a         

manuscript in ,spanish1 without date or 
name of author1 and that it is this     
manuscript 8translated and arranged10   
which is the work before us4 ,m4 ,adam  
adds that for his part he had revised   
this translation and advised the        
omission of certain passages not        
8profitable to science40 ,i have been   
informed by a private source that ,m4   
,adam was not shown the original        
,spanish manuscript1 although he asked  
to see it4 ,we are deprived therefore of
 any expert opinion as to the age of the
 manuscript1 or its authorship4  ,we    
naturally ask1 how did this manuscript  
come to be in ,spanish8 ,no one has been
 able to point out in the voluminous    
histories of the ,spanish ,missions a   
single reference to any among the       
,taensas4 ,moreover1 this tribe was     
constantly under ,french observation    
from its first discovery by ,la ,salle  
in #afhb1 until its entire destruction  
and disappearance about #agcj-dj1 as is 
minutely recorded by ,charlevoix1 who   

even adds the name of the planter who   
obtained the concession of their lands4 
,with the knowledge we have of the early
 ,louisiana colony1 it would have been  
next to impossible for a ,spanish monk  
to have lived with them long enough to  
have acquired their language1 and no    
mention to have been made of him in the 
,french accounts4 ,that a ,spaniard1 not
 a monk1 should have attempted it1 would
 have excited still more attention from 
national distrust4  ,this preliminary   
ground of skepticism is not removed by  
turning to the grammar itself4 ,as ,m4  
,adam remarks1 the language is one 8of  
extreme simplicity10 such simplicity    
that it excites more than the feeling of
 astonishment4 ,how much liberty ,m4    
,haumont allowed himself in his         
translation he unfortunately does not   
inform us2 but ,i suppose that he       
scarcely went so far as to offer        
original opinions on the pronunciation  
of a language which no man has heard    
spoken for more than a century4 ,if he  

did not1 then the writer of the original
 manuscript must have been a pretty good
 linguist for his day1 since he explains
 the pronunciation of the ,taensa by the
 ,french1 the ,english1 the ,german1 and
 the ,spanish66 7p4 #d74 ,i suppose the 
references on p4 #aa1 to the ,nahuatl1  
,kechua and ,algonkin tongues are by the
 translator1 though we are not so told2 
at any rate1 they are by some one who   
has given a certain amount of study to  
,american languages1 and could get up   
one not wholly unlike them4 ,there is1  
however1 just enough unlikeness to all  
others in the so-called ,taensa to make 
us accept it 8with all reserves10 as the
 ,french say4 ,that an ,american        
language should have a distinctively    
grammatical gender1 that it should have 
a true relative pronoun1 that its       
numeral system should be based on the   
nine units in the extraordinarily simple
 manner here proposed1 that it should   
have three forms of the plural1 that its
 verbs should present the singular      

simplicity of these1--these traits are  
indeed not impossible1 but they are too 
unusual not to demand the best of       
evidence4  ,but the evidence which      
leaves no doubt as to the hum-buggery in
 this whole business is found in the    
so-called 8,cancionero ,taensa10 or     
,taensa ,poems4 ,there are eleven of    
these1 and according to ,m4 ,adam1 8they
 give us unexpected information about   
the manners1 customs and social         
condition of the ,taensas40 ,if he had  
also added1 still more unexpected       
information about the physical geography
 of ,louisiana1 he would have spoken yet
 more to the point4 ,for instance1 our  
botanists will be charmed to learn that 
the sugar maple flourishes in the       
,louisiana swamps1 and that it furnished
 a favorite food of the natives4 ,it is 
repeatedly referred to 7pp4 #ca1 #cd1   
#de1 #fg74 ,they will also learn that   
the sugar cane was raised by the        
,taensas1 although the books say it was 
introduced into ,louisiana by the       

,jesuits in #agfa 7p4 #de74 ,the potato 
and rice1 apples and bananas1 were also 
familiar to them1 and the white birch   
and wild rice are described as          
flourishing around the bayous of the    
lower ,mississippi6 ,it may be urged    
that these are all mistranslations of   
misunderstood native words4 ,to this ,i 
reply1 what sort of editing is that     
which not only could commit such        
unpardonable blunders1 but send them    
forth to the scientific world without a 
hint that they do not pretend to be     
anything more than guesses8  ,but no    
such apology can be made4 ,the author of
 this fabrication had not taken the     
simplest precaution to make his         
statements coincide with facts4 ,how    
dense was his ignorance of the climate  
of ,louisiana is manifested in the      
pretended 8,calendar of the ,taensas10  
which is printed on p4 #da of his book4 
,he tells us that their year began at   
the vernal equinox and consisted of     
twelve or thirteen months named as      

follows3              #a4 ,moon of the  
sugar maples 7,april74             #b4  
,moon of flowers 7,may74             #c4
 ,moon of strawberries 7,june74         
#d4 ,moon of heat 7,july74              
#e4 ,moon of fruits 7,august74          
#f4 ,moon of the summer hunts           
7,september74             #g4 ,moon of  
leaves1 7falling leaves7 7,october74    
#h4 ,moon of cold 7,november74          
#i4 ,moon of whiteness 7i4 e4 of snow7  
7,december74            #aj4 ,moon of   
fogs 7,january74            #aa4 ,moon  
of winter hunts 7,february74            
#ab4 ,moon of birds 7returning74        
7,march74            #ac4 ,moon of green
 7returning green74    ,how absurd on   
the face of it1 such a calendar would be
 for the climate of ,tensas ,parish1    
,la41 need not be urged4 ,the wonder is 
that any intelligent editor would pass  
it over without hesitation4 ,the not    
infrequent references to snow and ice   
might and ought to have put him on his  
guard4  ,the text and vocabulary teem   

with such impossibilities2 while the    
style of the alleged original songs is  
utterly unlike that reported from any   
other native tribe4 ,it much more       
closely resembles the stilted and tumid 
imitations of supposed savage           
simplicity1 common enough among ,french 
writers of the eighteenth century4  ,as 
a fair example of the nonsense of the   
whole1 ,i will translate the last song  
given in the book1 that called          
,,the ,,marriage ,,song4    #a4 ,the    
chief of the ,chactas has come to the   
land of the warriors 8,i   come40 8,thou
 comest40    #b4 ,around his body is a  
beautiful garment1 he wears large       
leggings1   sandals1 tablets of white   
wood1 feathers behind his head and      
behind   his shoulders1 on his head the 
antlers of a deer1 a heavy war club   in
 his right hand4    #c4 ,what is the    
wish of the great warrior who has come8 
#d4 ,he wishes to speak to the chief of 
the numerous and powerful   ,taensas4   
#e4 ,let the warrior enter the house of 

the old men4 ,the chief is   seated in  
the midst of the old men4 ,he will      
certainly hear thee4   ,enter the house 
of the old men4    #f4 ,great chief1 old
 man1 ,i enter4 ,thou comest4 ,enter2   
bring him in4   ,what wishes the foreign
 warrior8 ,speak1 thou who hast come4   
#g4 ,old men1 ancient men1 ,i am the    
chief of many men2 at ten days'         
journey up the river there lies the land
 of poplars1 the land of the   wild     
rice1 which belongs to the brave        
warriors1 the brothers of the           
,taensas4    #h4 ,they said to me--since
 thou hast not chosen a bride1 go to the
   ,taensas our brothers1 ask of them a 
bride2 for the ,chactas are   strong2 we
 will ask a bride of the ,taensas4      
#i4 ,that is well2 but speak1 warrior1  
are the ,chactas numerous8    #aj4      
,count2 they are six hundred1 and ,i am 
stronger than ten4    #aa4 ,that is     
well2 but speak1 do they know how to    
hunt the buffalo   and the deer8 does   
the squirrel run in your great forests8 

#ab4 ,the land of the wild rice has no  
great forests1 but cows1 stags   and    
elks dwell in our land in great numbers4
    #ac4 ,what plants grow in your      
country8    #ad4 ,poplars1 the slupe    
tree1 the myrtle grow there1 we have the
   sugar maple1 ebony to make collars1  
the oak from which to make war   clubs2 
our hills have magnolias whose shining  
leaves cover our   houses4    #ae4 ,that
 is well2 the ,taensas have neither the 
slupe tree nor the   ebony1 but they    
have the wax tree and the vine3 has the 
land of the   wild rice these also8     
#af4 ,the ,taensas are strong and rich1 
the ,chactas are strong also1   they are
 the brothers of the ,taensas4    #ag4  
,the ,taensas love the brave ,chactas1  
they will give you a bride2   but say1  
dost thou come alone8 dost thou bring   
bridal presents4    #ah4 ,twenty        
warriors are with me1 and bulls drag a  
wain4    #ai4 ,let six1 seven1 twenty   
,taensa warriors go forth to meet those 
who come4 ,for thee1 we will let thee   

see the bride1 she is my   daughter1 of 
me1 the great chief2 she is young2 she  
is beautiful as   the lily of the       
waters2 she is straight as the white    
birch2 her eyes   are like unto the     
tears of gum that distil from the trees2
 she knows   how to prepare the meats   
for the warriors and the sap of the     
sugar   maple2 she knows how to knit the
 fishing nets and keep in order the     
weapons of war--we will show thee the   
bride4    #bj4 ,the strangers have      
arrived1 the bulls have dragged up the  
wain4   ,the warrior offers his presents
 to the bride1 paint for her eyes1      
fine woven stuff1 scalps of enemies1    
collars1 beautiful bracelets1   rings   
for her feet1 and swathing-bands for her
 first born4    #ba4 ,the father of the 
bride and the old man receive skins1    
horns of   deer1 solid bows and         
sharpened arrows4    #bb4 ,now let the  
people repose during the night2 at      
sunrise there   shall be a feast2 then  
you shall take the bride in marriage4   

,and this is the song of the marriage4  
,the assurance which has offered this as
 a genuine composition of a ,louisiana  
,indian is only equalled by the docility
 with which it has been accepted by     
,americanists4 ,the marks of fraud upon 
it are like ,falstaff's lies--8gross as 
a mountain1 open1 palpable40 ,the       
,choctaws are located ten days' journey 
up the ,mississippi in the wild rice    
region about the head-waters of the     
stream1 whereas they were the immediate 
neighbors of the real ,taensas1 and     
dwelt when first discovered in the      
middle and southern parts of the present
 ,state of ,mississippi4 ,the sugar     
maple is made to grow in the ,louisiana 
swamps1 the broad-leaved magnolia and   
the ebony in ,minnesota4 ,the latter is 
described as the land of the myrtle1 and
 the former of the vine4 ,the northern  
warrior brings feet-rings and infant    
clothing as presents1 while the southern
 bride knows all about boiling maple    
sap1 and is like a white birch4 ,but the

 author's knowledge of aboriginal       
customs stands out most prominently when
 he has the up-river chief come with an 
ox-cart and boast of his cows6 ,after   
that passage ,i need say nothing more4  
,he is indeed ignorant who does not know
 that not a single draft animal1 and not
 one kept for its milk1 was ever found  
among the natives of the ,mississippi   
valley4  ,i have made other notes       
tending in the same direction1 but it is
 scarcely necessary for me to proceed   
further4 ,if the whole of this pretended
 ,taensa language has been fabricated1  
it would not be the first time in       
literary history that such a fraud has  
been perpetrated4 ,in the last century1 
,george ,psalmanazar framed a grammar of
 a fictitious language in ,formosa1     
which had no existence whatever4 ,so it 
seems to be with the ,taensa2 not a     
scrap of it can be found elsewhere1 not 
a trace of any such tongue remains in   
,louisiana4 ,what is more1 all the old  
writers distinctly deny that this tribe 

had any independent language4 ,m4 ,de   
,montigny1 who was among them in #afii1 
,father ,gravier1 who was also at their 
towns1 and ,du ,pratz1 the historian1   
all say positively that the ,taensas    
spoke the ,natchez language1 and were   
part of the same people4 ,we have ample 
specimens of the ,natchez1 and it is    
nothing like this alleged ,taensa4      
,moreover1 we have in old writers the   
names of the ,taensa villages furnished 
by the ,taensas themselves1 and they are
 nowise akin to the matter of this      
grammar1 but are of ,chahta-,muskoki    
derivation4  ,what ,i have now said is  
,i think sufficient to brand this       
grammar and its associated texts as     
deceptions practiced on the scientific  
world4 ,if it concerns the editors and  
introducers of that work to discover who
 practiced and is responsible for that  
deception1 let the original manuscript  
be produced and submitted to experts2 if
 this is not done1 let the book be      
hereafter pilloried as an imposture4    

99       99       99       99       99  
,as soon as ,i could obtain reprints of 
the above article ,i forwarded them to  
,m4 ,adam and others interested in      
,american languages1 and ,m4 ,adam at   
once took measures to obtain from the   
now 8,abb0 ,parisot the original ,,mss4 
,that young ecclesiastic1 however1      
professed entire ignorance of their     
whereabouts2 he had wholly forgotten    
what disposition he had made of this    
portion of his grandfather's papers6 ,he
 also charged ,m4 ,adam with having     
worked over 7remani7 his material2 and  
finally disclaimed all responsibility   
concerning it4  ,in spite1 however1 of  
his very unsatisfactory statements1 ,m4 
,adam declined to recognize the         
fabrication of the tongue1 and expressed
 himself so at length in a brochure     
entitled1 ,le ,taensa a-t-il t forg de  
toutes ,pices8 ,rponse  ,m4 ,daniel ,g4 
,brinton 7pp4 #bb1 ,maissonneuve ,frres 
et ,ch4 ,leclerc1 ,paris1 #ahhe74 ,the  
argument which he made use of will be   

seen from the following reply which ,i  
published in ,the ,american             
,antiquarian1 ,september1 #ahhe3        
,,the ,,taensa ,,grammar ,,and          
,,dictionary4  ,the criticism on the    
,taensa ,grammar published in the       
,american ,antiquarian last ,march has  
led to a reply from ,m4 ,lucien ,adam1  
the principal editor1 under the         
following title3 8,le ,taensa a-t-il-t  
forg de toutes ,pices80 ,as the question
 at issue is one of material importance 
to ,american archology1 ,i shall state  
,m4 ,adam's arguments in defense of the 
,grammar4  ,it will be remembered that  
the criticism published last ,march     
closed with an urgent call for the      
production of the original ,,ms41 which 
,m4 ,adam himself had never seen4 ,to   
meet this1 ,m4 ,adam as soon as         
practicable applied to ,m4 ,parisot1 who
 alleged that he had translated the     
,grammar from the ,spanish original1 to 
produce that original4 ,this ,m4        
,parisot professed himself unable to do2

 although only two or three years have  
elapsed1 he cannot remember what he did 
with it1 and he thinks it possible that 
it is lost or destroyed6 ,the           
investigations1 however1 reveal two     
facts quite clearly3 first1 that the    
original ,,ms41 if there was one1 was   
not in ,spanish as asserted1 and was not
 in the handwriting of ,m4 ,parisot's   
grandfather1 as was also asserted1 as   
the latter was certainly not the kind of
 man to occupy himself with any such    
document4 ,he kept a sort of            
boardinghouse1 and the suggestion now is
 that one of his temporary guests left  
this supposed ,,ms4 at his house4 ,as   
its existence is still in doubt1 this   
uncertainty about its origin need not   
further concern us4  ,the more important
 question is whether the language as    
presented in the ,grammar and texts     
bears internal evidence of authenticity 
or not4  ,m4 ,adam begins with the      
texts1 the so-called poems4 ,to my      
surprise1 ,m4 ,adam1 so far as they     

pretend to be native productions1 tosses
 them overboard without the slightest   
compunction4 8,in my own mind10 he      
writes1 8,i have always considered them 
the work of some disciple of the ,jesuit
 ,fathers1 who had taken a fancy to the 
,taensa poetry40 ,this emphatic         
rejection of their aboriginal origin has
 led me to look over the volume again1  
as it seemed to me that if such was the 
opinion of the learned editor he should 
certainly have hinted it to his readers4
 ,not the slightest intimation of the   
kind can be found in its pages4  ,the   
original ,,ms4 having disappeared1 and  
the texts having been ruled out as at   
best the botch-work of some ,european1  
,m4 ,adam takes his stand on the        
,grammar and maintains its authenticity 
with earnestness4  ,i named in my       
criticism six points in the grammatical 
structure of the alleged ,taensa1       
specifying them as so extremely rare in 
,american languages1 that it demanded   
the best evidence to suppose that they  

all were present in this extraordinary  
tongue4  ,these points are discussed    
with much acuteness and fairness by ,m4 
,adam1 and his arguments within these   
limits are considered convincing by so  
eminent an authority as ,professor      
,friederich ,mller1 of ,vienna1 to whom 
they were submitted1 and whose letter   
concerning them he publishes4 ,what ,m4 
,adam does is to show that each of the  
peculiarities named finds a parallel in 
other ,american tongues1 or he claims   
that the point is not properly taken4   
,as ,i never denied the former1 but     
merely called attention to the rarity of
 such features1 the question is1 whether
 the evidence is sufficient to suppose  
that several of them existed in this    
tongue2 while as to the correctness of  
my characterization of ,taensa ,grammar1
 scholars will decide that for          
themselves4  ,it will be seen from the  
above that1 even if some substructure   
will be shown to have existed for this  
,taensa ,grammar and texts 7which1      

individually1 ,i still deny71 it has    
been presented to the scientific world  
under conditions which were far from    
adequate to the legitimate demands of   
students4  ,m4 ,adam in the tone of his 
reply is very fair and uniformly        
courteous1 except in his last sentence1 
where he cannot resist the temptation to
 have a fling at us for the supposed    
trait which ,barnum and his compeers    
have conferred upon us among those who  
do not know us4 8,permettezmoi de vous  
dire10 he writes1 8que la ,france n'est 
point la terre classique du humbug40    
,has ,m4 ,adam forgotten that ,george   
,psalmanazar1 he who in the last century
 manufactured a language out of the     
whole cloth1 grammar and dictionary and 
all1 was a ,frenchman born and bred8    
,and that if the author of the ,taensa  
volume has done the same1 his only      
predecessor in this peculiar industry is
 one of his own nation8                 
99       99       99       99       99  
,m4 ,adam continued his praiseworthy    

efforts to unearth the imaginary        
originals of the ,abb ,parisot's hoax1  
but with the results one can easily     
anticipate--they were not               
forthcoming4#daf  ,the discussion       
continued in a desultory manner for some
 time1 and ,mr4 ,gatschet made the most 
strenuous efforts during his official   
journeys as government linguist in the  
southwest and in the ,indian territory  
to find evidence showing that he had not
 been taken in by the ingenious ,french 
seminarists2 but his continued silence  
was evidence enough that none such came 
to his ken4  ,in #ahhf ,professor       
,julien ,vinson reviewed the question   
for the ,rvue de ,linguistique1 and     
delivered what may be considered the    
final verdict in the case4 ,it is to the
 effect that the whole alleged language 
of the ,taensas1--grammar1 vocabulary1  
prose and poetry--is a fabrication by a 
couple of artful students to impose on  
the learned4 ,i may close with the      
,professor's own closing words3  8,que  

restera-t-il du taensa8 ,a mon avis1 une
 mystification sans grande porte et much
 ado about nothing40                    
,,index ,,of ,,authors ,,and            
,,authorities4    ,abbot1 ,c4 ,c41 #bg1 
#cb1 #ec1 #ahe4   ,abel-,remusat1 #cci4 
,abel1 ,carl1 #djb1 #daj4   ,adair1     
,james1 #ga1 #gh4   ,adam1 ,lucien1 #cf1
 #cee-g1 #cgd1 #cgi1 #chi1 #dje1 #djf1  
#dec1 sq4   ,adler1 ,c4 ,j41 #cbh1 #cbi4
   ,aglio1 ,agostino1 #bej4   ,aguilar1 
,pedro ,sanchez de1 #bcf4   ,albornoz1  
,r4 ,f41 #cii4   ,alcazar1 ,padre1 #gf4 
,almaraz1 ,ramon1 #ddf4   ,ameghino1    
,fiorentino1 #ca4   ,anales de          
,chimalpahin1 #bhc4   ,anales de        
,cuauhtitlan1 #hf1 #ij1 #baj1 #bhc4     
,anales del ,museo ,nacional1 #baj1     
#dci4   ,anchieta1 ,joseph de1 #cha1 sq4
   ,anchorena1 ,jose ,d41 #cfe1 #dbe1   
#dbh4   8,ancient ,nahuatl ,poems10 #ig1
 #aed4   ,ancona1 ,eligio1 #beh4        
,andrews1 #dad4   ,angrand1 ,leonce1    
#hd1 #bec4   ,annals of the             
,kakchiquels1 #ajj1 #dbc4   ,anthony1   

,a4 ,s41 #aha-aib4   ,archives          
palographiques de l',orient et de       
l',amrique1 #bec4   ,aubin1 ,j4 ,m4 ,a41
 #aif1 #bji1 #baj1 #bab1 #bbj1 #bca1    
#bhb4   ,av ,lallemant1 ,dr4 ,r41 #fd4  
,aym1 ,louis ,h41 #ddh4    ,babbitt1    
,frances1 #ed4   ,baeza1 ,bart4 ,g4 de1 
#afd1 #aff4   ,baker1 ,theodore1 #bic4  
,bandelier1 ,a4 ,f41 #bge1 #bgh4        
,baraga1 ,frederic1 #aca1 #cfd1 #dad4   
,bartram1 ,john1 #ge4   ,bartram1       
,william1 #ga1 #gf1 #gh4   ,beach1 ,w4  
,w41 #de4   ,beauvois1 ,e41 #adh4       
,belcourt1 ,pere1 #cii1 #djj4           
,berendt1 ,c4 ,h41 #aai1 #afd1 #aga1    
#age1 #agi1 #bcg1 #bgb1 #bhh1 #bie1     
#cih4   ,beverly1 ,robert1 #gj4         
,bibliothque ,linguistique ,amricaine1  
#ded4   ,bichat1 #eg4   ,biedma1 his    
narrative1 #gb1 #gd4   ,bienvenida1     
,lorenzo de1 #bf4   ,blomes1 ,richard1  
#gf4   ,blumenbach1 ,f4 ,j41 #ch1 #ef1  
#eg4   ,boas1 ,franz1 #bb1 #fd1 #bhf4   
,books of the ,jew1 ,,ms41 #bgc4        
,boole1 ,professor1 #djb4   ,borde1 ,m4 

de la1 #abc4   ,boturini1 ,b41 #aaf4    
,bourbourg1 ,brasseur de1 see ,brasseur4
   ,brasseur 7de ,bourbourg71 ,c41 #hd1 
#aje1 #ajg1 #abj1 #abf1 #abh1 #afg1     
#agj1     #aii1 #baj1 #bbg1 #bca1 #bdc1 
#bfc1 #bhb4   ,bristock1 his fabulous   
narrative1 #gf4   ,buenaventura1        
,gabriel de ,san1 #bcg1 #bdi4           
,buschmann1 ,j4 ,c4 ,e41 #bc1 #ib1 #ic4 
,byington1 ,cyrus1 #cfd4    ,campanius1 
,thomas1 #cae4   ,cancionero1           
,americano1 #dec4   ,carochi1 ,horacio1 
#cbe1 #dah4   ,carrillo1 ,crescencio1   
#beh1 #bfe1 #dci4   ,carrillo1          
,estanislao1 #afd4   ,cartailhac1 ,emile
 de1 #cia4   ,casas1 ,bartolome de las1 
#abd1 #bcd4   ,catherwood1 ,frederick1  
#bed4   ,cavalcanti1 ,amaro1 #chj-che1  
#dcj4   ,ceron1 ,francisco1 #ajg4       
,champollion1 #bbg4   ,charencey1 ,h4   
de1 #ei1 #hd1 #afg1 #aif1 #cgb4         
,charlevoix1 ,p4 ,f4 ,x41 #fi1 #def4    
,charnay1 ,d41 #hc1 #hf1 #hi1 #ig1 #ddh4
   ,chateaubriand1 #deb4   ,chilan      
,balam1 ,book of1 #bdh1 #bed sqq41 #cjc4

   ,chimalpahin1 ,d4 ,f4 de1 #bhc4      
,chronicles of the ,mayas1 #ii1 #ajj4   
,cicero1 ,m4 ,t41 #abg1 #dbd4           
,clavigero1 ,f41 #hd4   ,codex          
,bolognensis1 #aeh4   ,codex            
,chimalpopoca1 #baj1 #bba4   ,codex     
,cortesianus1 #aih1 #bec4   ,codex      
,dresdensis1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bej1 sq4      
,codex ,mexicanus1 ,no4 ,,ii41 #beb4    
,codex ,peresianus1 #beb1 #bfe4   ,codex
 ,poinsett1 #aed4   ,codex ,ramirez1    
the1 #hd1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib4   ,codex  
,telleriano-,remensis1 #bhj4   ,codex   
,troano1 #aad1 #bjj1 #bjb1 #bcj1 #bec1  
#bfe4   ,codex ,vaticanus1 #aee1 #bhj4  
,codex ,zumarraga1 #bej4   ,codice      
,perez1 #bfe4   ,cogolludo1 ,d4 ,l41    
#abg1 #afh1 #bce1 #bch1 #bfh4   ,colden1
 ,c41 #fh4   ,coleccion de ,documentos  
para la ,historia de ,espaa1 #bce4      
,comte1 ,auguste1 #eg4   ,copway1       
,george1 #aed4   ,cortes1 ,h4 de1 #ddh1 
#ddi4   ,coto1 ,thomas1 #ajf1 #ajg1     
#aaj1 #aaa sq41 #ddj sq4   ,cresson1 ,h4
 ,t41 #da1 #ec4   ,cuesta1 ,arroyo de   

la1 #chf-chh4   ,culin1 ,stewart1 #aea4 
,cuoq1 ,j4 ,a41 #acb4   ,cushing1       
,frank1 #ajh4   ,cuvier1 ,g41 #ch1 #eg1 
#fa4    ,darapsky1 ,dr41 #cih4          
,darwin1 ,charles1 #ci1 #dc1 #djh4      
,dawson1 ,j4 ,william1 #dd4   ,dawson1  
,george ,m41 #cie4   ,dead1 ,book of    
the1 #acf-adj4   ,dejouy1 ,a41 #deb sq4 
,dias1 #dcj4   ,diccionario ,historico  
de ,yucatan1 #bfc4   ,diccionario       
,huasteca-,espaol1 ,,ms41 #bba4         
,diccionario ,maya-,espaol de ,motul1   
,,ms41 see ,motul4   ,dictionaire       
,galibi1 #abc4   ,distel1 ,theodore1    
#ccj4   ,d',orbigny1 ,alcide1 #ci4      
,dorsey1 ,j4 ,o41 #ajh4   ,dumont1 ,m41 
#gg1 #gh4   ,dumoutier1 ,m41 #aej4      
,dunbar1 ,john ,b41 #bia4   ,dupaix1    
,captain1 #bge1 #bgf4   ,duponceau1 ,p4 
,s41 #cf1 #id1 #aia1 #cba1 #cea1 #chi4  
,du ,pratz1 ,le ,page1 #dfb4   ,duran1  
,diego1 #hh1 #hi1 #ii1 #aei1 #ddi4      
,ehrenreich1 ,paul1 #ch1 #fe4   ,eliot1 
,john1 #aij4   ,el ,siglo que ,acaba1   
#bgd4   ,ettwein1 ,j41 #ahc1 #aia4      

,faraud1 ,henry1 #ba1 #cid1 #cie4       
,fernandez1 ,alonzo1 #abd4   ,finch1    
,prof41 #gj4   ,flint1 ,earl1 #bh1 #db4 
,foley1 ,dr41 #eg4   ,forneri1 ,r4 ,p41 
#cbi4   ,frstemann1 ,dr4 ,e41 #bjj1     
#bdc1 #bea4   ,foster1 ,j4 ,w41 #fg4    
,frana1 ,e4 ,f41 #dcj4    ,gabb1        
,william ,m41 #cgd-cgh4   ,gage1        
,thomas1 #agj4   ,gallatin1 ,albert1    
#hh1 #ajj4   ,garcia y ,garcia1 ,ap4    
#afe4   ,gatschet1 ,a4 ,s41 #ge1 #ded   
sq4   ,gayangos1 ,p4 de1 #ddi4   ,gthe1 
,j4 ,w4 von1 #bfj1 #bhd1 #caf4          
,granados y ,galvez1 ,i4 ,j41 #aag4     
,gravier1 ,p41 #dfb4   ,guzman1         
,pantaleon de1 #ajg1 #abh4    ,haeckel1 
,e41 #cij4   ,hale1 ,horatio1 #ce1 #cic4
   ,hamann1 #bhd4   ,hamy1 ,e4 ,t41     
#adh1 #adj1 #baj1 #cfg4   ,harpe1 ,m4 de
 la1 #gg4   ,hartmann1 ,w41 #ahi4       
,hartt1 ,charles ,f41 #chj1 #chb4       
,haumont1 ,j4 ,d41 #dee sq4   ,haynes1  
,h4 ,w41 #ah1 #ca4   ,heckewelder1      
,john1 #aia1 #cae4   ,hegel1 #djc4      
,henry1 ,v41 #dje1 #dfg4   ,herder1     

#bhd1 #djc4   ,herrera1 ,antonio de1    
#hi1 #ia1 #ib1 #ddh1 #dej4   ,hervas1   
,abb1 #ccj4   ,herv1 ,georges1 #fb4     
,holden1 #aif1 #aig4   ,holguin1 ,r4    
,p41 #dbf1 #dbh4   ,holmes1 ,w4 ,h41    
#adh4   ,hovelacque1 ,abel1 #fb4        
,howse1 ,james1 #cf1 #chc1 #cie1 #cii1  
#dja1 #dad1 #dae4   ,humboldt1          
,alexander von1 #bj1 #cc1 #fj1 #bea1    
#cch1 #cgd1 #cgg4   ,humboldt1 ,wilhelm 
von1 #cf1 #bhd1 #cah1 #cbh-cdh1 #cec1   
#dje4   ,hunter1 ,archdeacon1 #djc4     
,iconographic ,encyclopdia1 ,the1 #eb4  
,ixtlilxochitl1 ,f41 #hd1 #hg1 #ij1 #ib1
 #ig1 #bhc1 #dde4    ,jesuits1          
,relations des1 #gh4   ,jones1 ,c4 ,c41 
#gi1 #hj4    ,kalm1 ,peter1 #ahe4       
,kane1 ,paul1 #fi4   ,kingsborough1     
,lord1 #hd1 #hg1 #ij1 #ii1 #aee1 #baj1  
#bba1 #bca1 #bea1 #bhj1 #dde4           
,kollmann1 ,j41 #dj4    ,lacombe1 ,al41 
#aca1 #cfd1 #cff1 #dad4   ,lafitau1 ,j4 
,f41 #fi4   ,landa1 ,diego de1 #aai1    
#abg1 #aei1 #aff1 #aii1 #bbg1 #bdj sq41 
#bef1 #beg1     #bfe1 #dch4   ,lang1    

,andrew1 #ajb4   ,leland1 ,charles ,g41 
#acj1 #acc4   ,le,plongeon1 ,a41 #dci4  
,lieber1 ,francis1 #cee1 #ceg4          
,lindstrom1 #ahc4   ,linnus1 ,c41 #ch1  
#cdi4   ,lizana1 ,bernardo de1 #bce1    
#bfj1 #bfa4   ,lower1 ,m4 ,a41 #bai4    
,lopez1 ,j4 ,m41 #afd4   ,luchan1 von1  
#adi4   ,lund1 ,dr41 #bi4    ,macedo1   
,f4 de1 #adh1 #aeg1 #aei4   ,mac,lean1  
,j4 ,p41 #fg4   ,magalhaes1 ,dr4 ,couto 
de1 #cha1 #dcj4   ,magio1 ,r4 ,p41 #cig4
   ,mallery1 ,garrick1 #aef1 #aei4      
,manuscrito ,hieratico1 #bbe4   ,martyr1
 ,peter1 #bcc4   ,matthews1 ,washington1
 #fb1 #djg4   ,mc,gee1 ,w4 ,j41 #ddg4   
,meigs1 ,james ,a41 #fc4   ,mendoza1    
,gumesindo1 #ei4   ,michel1 ,f41 #ba4   
,mitre1 ,bartolome1 #bf1 #bg4   ,molina1
 ,alonso de1 #ic1 #cbe1 #dah1 #ddc4     
,montesinos1 ,h41 #bc4   ,montigny1 ,m4 
de1 #dfb4   ,montoya1 ,ruiz de1 #cha-e1 
#cih1 #djj1 #dbi4   ,morgan1 ,lewis ,a41
 #dd1 #de1 #fj4   ,morgues1 ,le ,moyne  
de1 #ge4   ,morse1 ,e4 ,g41 #fj4        
,mortillet1 ,g4 de1 #cij1 #cia4         

,motolinia1 ,p41 #he1 #ii4   ,motul1    
,diccionario de1 ,,ms41 #aai1 #abg1     
#agg1 #bej1 #cbe1 #dba sq41 #dce     sq4
   ,mller1 ,frederick1 #bcj1 #ceg1 #cgd1
 #cgi1 #chj1 #chf1 #dfe4   ,mller1 ,max1
 #cch4    ,narvaez1 ,pamfilo de1 #gb4   
,naxera1 ,emanuel1 #cff1 #cga4   ,neve y
 ,molina1 ,luis de1 #cff1 #cgj1 #cga4   
,nikkanoche1 ,occola1 his narrative1    
#gg4   ,nogueira1 ,d4 ,c4 ,da41 #cha4   
,nostradamus1 ,michael1 #cja4           
,ollanta1 ,drama of1 #cjj1 #dbe sq4     
,olshausen1 #adi4   ,orozco y ,berra1   
#bc1 #hd1 #hg1 #ij1 #ie1 #aif1 #baj1    
#bca1 #bgg1 #bhb1 #ddf4   ,ossado1      
,ricardo1 #bgc4    ,paredes1 ,r4 ,p41   
#dbj4   ,parisot1 ,j41 #deb sq4         
,peafiel1 ,antonio1 #baj4   ,perez1     
,francisco1 #cff1 #cgj4   ,perez1 ,pio1 
#abj1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bgb4   ,peschel1     
,oscar1 #fd4   ,petit1 ,pere ,c41 #gg4  
,petitot1 ,emile1 #ba1 #eh1 #cid1 #cih1 
#dja4   ,petrie1 ,prof41 #ddg4          
,piccolomini1 ,count1 #cfg4             
,pickering1 ,charles1 #cc4   ,pickett1  

,thomas ,e41 #hb4   ,pierret1 ,paul1    
#ach4   ,pimentel1 ,francisco1 #cfh1    
#cgc4   ,platzmann1 ,julius1 #eh4       
,ponce1 ,alonzo1 #bcd1 #bee4   8,popol  
,vuh10 the1 #aje sq41 #aga1 #dbd4       
,powell1 ,j4 ,w41 #fh1 #cai1 #ceh4      
,pratz1 ,le ,page du1 #gh4   ,prescott1 
,w4 ,h41 #hd4   ,psalmanazar1 ,george1  
#dfb1 #dff4   ,putnam1 ,f4 ,a41 #ec4    
,rada y ,delgada1 ,j4 de ,d41 #bbf1     
#bbg4   ,rajendalala1 #adf4   ,ramirez1 
,j4 ,f41 #bc1 #hh1 #aif1 #baj4          
,ramusio1 #gb1 note4   ,rand1 ,s4 ,t41  
#acj4   ,ranke1 ,dr41 #fd4   ,rau1      
,charles1 #ca4   ,recetarios de ,indios1
 ,,ms41 #bgb4   ,reichelt1 ,g4 ,h41     
#dcj4   ,registro ,yucateco1 #afd1 #bfc4
   ,rennenkampff1 ,a4 von1 #ccj4        
,rink1 ,heinrich1 #bhg1 #bhi4   ,romans1
 ,bernard1 #gh4   ,rosa1 ,agostin de la1
 #cbf1 #cff1 #dbj4   ,rosny1 ,leon de1  
#aif1 #aii1 #bbf1 #beb1 #bec1 #bfe4     
,ruiz de ,montoya1 ,antonio1 #cha sq4   
,saint ,hilaire1 ,j4 ,g4 de1 #afd4      
,santa ,rosa1 ,beltran de1 #bch4        

,sahagun1 ,bernardino de1 #hd1 #hf1 #hh1
 #ic1 #id1 #ig1 #adb1 #bhj1 #bih4       
,saz1 ,p41 #abb4   ,schasler1 ,max1     
#cbi4   ,schellhas1 ,dr41 #aif1 #bjj1   
#bjb4   ,scherzer1 ,karl1 #aad4         
,schoolcraft1 ,h4 ,r41 #fi1 #acc1 #bid1 
#ced4   ,schuhmann1 ,t4 ,s41 #dcj4      
,schweinitz1 ,e4 de1 #dcj4   ,seler1    
,ed41 #aif1 #bdd4   ,sequoyah1 #aih4    
,shakespeare1 ,w41 #abg1 #bai1 #bbj1    
#cbj4   ,shea1 ,john ,g41 #chf4         
,short1 ,john ,t41 #fg4   ,simon1 ,rmi1 
#id1 #bhc4   ,smith1 ,spencer1 #ha4     
,solana1 ,alonso de1 #bce4   ,soriano1  
,juan ,g41 #cgc4   ,sosa1 ,f4 de ,p41   
#afd4   ,sotomayor1 ,damaso1 #bgb1 #bgg4
   ,sotomayor1 ,j4 de ,villagutierre de1
 #bci1 #bdg4   ,spinoza1 ,b41 #daa4     
,squier1 ,e4 ,g41 #fi1 #ha1 #acc4       
,steinen1 ,karl von den1 #cd4           
,steinthal1 ,h41 #cbi1 #cee1 #cij1 #djc4
   ,stephens1 ,j4 ,l41 #afd1 #afh1 #bfc4
   ,stoll1 ,dr4 ,otto1 #ce1 #ajj1 #aji1 
#aab1 #abb1 #dbc4   ,storm1 ,gustav1    
#bb4   ,strebel1 ,m4 ,h41 #bge4         

,sungimoto1 ,k41 #aea4    ,tanner1      
,john1 #aeg4   ,tapia ,zenteno1 ,carlos 
de1 #dbc4   ,taylor1 ,s41 #gj4   ,ten   
,kate1 ,dr4 ,h4 ,f4 ,c41 #ff4           
,testera1 ,jacobo de1 #bcc4   ,tetlapan 
,quetzanitzin1 #bii4   ,teza1 ,e41 #ccb4
   ,tezozomoc1 ,a41 #bc1 #hi1 #ic1 #adc1
 #bhc4   ,thavenet1 ,abb1 #ccb4         
,thiel1 ,b4 ,a41 #cge1 #cgi4   ,thomas1 
,cyrus1 #hb1 #ajf1 #bjj1 #bjd1 #bcj1    
#bfi4   ,timberlake1 ,lieutenant1 #ga4  
,tolmie1 ,w4 ,f41 #cif4   ,topinard1    
,paul1 #fd4   ,torquemada1 ,j4 de1 #id1 
#bcd4   ,tro y ,ortolano1 ,juan de1     
#beb4   ,tschudi1 ,j4 ,j4 von1 #cfe1    
#cig1 #djd4    ,uricoechea1 ,e41 #djj1  
#dja4    ,vaca1 ,cabeza de1 #gb4        
,valades1 ,d41 #bjf4   ,valentini1 ,p4  
,j4 ,j41 #aig1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bdc1 #bfc1  
#cge4   ,varea1 ,francisco1 #ajf1 #aaj1 
#abi1 #ddb4   ,vedas1 the1 #adb4        
,vega1 ,garcilasso de la1 #gc1 #gg4     
,veitia1 ,e41 #hd1 #ij1 #ig4   ,vico1   
,r4 ,p41 #aaj4   ,villacaas1 ,benito de1
 #ajg4   ,villalpando1 ,r4 ,p41 #bej4   

,villagutierre ,soto-,mayor1 ,juan de1  
#bci1 #bdg4   ,vinson1 ,julien1 #dec1   
#dfg4   ,virchow1 ,rudolph1 #fc1 #fd1   
#aec1 #aeh4    ,waitz1 ,theo41 #bfj4    
,waldeck1 ,baron de1 #bed4   ,whitney1  
,william ,d41 #cbg4   ,whittlesey1      
,charles1 #ddg4   ,williams1 ,roger1    
#aca4   ,winkler1 ,heinrich1 #eh1 #cej1 
#cea1 #chf1 #cii4   ,winsor1 ,justin1   
#ah4   ,woodham1 #bai4   ,worsaae1 ,j4  
,j4 ,a41 #aec1 #aeh4   ,wuttke1 ,dr41   
#bej1 #beb4   ,wyman1 ,jeffries1 #bh4   
,ximenez1 ,francisco1 #aje1 #aaa1 etc4  
,zegarra1 ,g4 ,pacheco1 #dbf4           
,zeisberger1 ,d41 #ahg1 #ahi4   ,zetina1
 ,lic41 #afd1 #agb1 #age4               
,,index ,,of ,,subjects4    ,abaenga1   
language1 #cha4   ,abipones1 language   
of1 #ccf4   ,abundance1 the house of1   
#ade4   ,acheron1 the river of ,hades1  
#ada4   ,acolhuacan1 #hf4   ,acozpa1    
hieroglyph of1 #bbd4   ,adjectives1     
absence of1 #dje4   ,adjidjiatig1 or    
grave posts of ,chipeways1 #bbh4   ,age 
of ,iron1 ,bronze1 and ,stone1 #di4     

,agglutination in language1 #cdj1 #cfa4 
,ahau katuns of ,mayas1 #bfd1 #bfh1     
#bfi4   ,ahkul ,chel1 a ,maya priest1   
#bdh4   ,ahpu1 magicians1 #aah4         
,ah-raxa-lak1 a sacred name1 #aag4      
,ah-raxa-sel1 a sacred name1 #aag4      
,ahuitzotzin1 ,emperor of ,mexico1      
#bha-c4   ,akahal tribe1 #dbc4          
,algonkin grammar1 remarks on1 #aij1    
#cfd1 #cff4   ,algonkin language1       
extension of1 #ce2    radicals of1 #cf1 
#ccb1 #djj2    8love words0 in1 #dac4   
,algonkins1 hero-god of1 #acj-acd4      
,algonkin stock1 area of1 #caa4         
,algonkin tribes1 their 8grandfather10  
#ahd2    as mound-builders1 #gj2        
legendary origin of1 #bd4               
,alliteration1 rare in primitive poetry1
 #bhe4   ,allibamons1 #ga4   ,alphabet1 
of ,cherokees1 #aii2    of ,valades1    
#bjj2    in early speech1 #cic2    of   
,landa1 #aii1 #bdj-bde2    of ,chinese1 
etc41 #bad4   ,alternating consonants1  
#cih4   ,amenti1 the ,egyptian ,hades1  
#acg4   ,american languages1 tenacity   

of1 #ce2    diversity of1 #ce2    traits
 of1 #cf2    study of1 #cg1 #cjh sq4    
,american ,indians1 origin of1 #ag4     
,anahuac1 #hd4   ,analts1 sacred books  
of ,itzas1 #bci1 #bdg4   ,andover1 a    
rebus of1 #bbc4   ,animals1             
transformation into1 #aad1 #agj1 #aga4  
,animate and inanimate conjugations1    
#djf4   ,animism1 doctrine of1 #aag4    
,anthropoid apes1 not found in          
,america1 #dc4   ,anthropology1         
classification in1 #cdi4   ,apaches1    
language of1 #ce1 #cid4   ,apalacha1    
fabulous description of1 #gf4   ,apap1  
god of evil1 in ,egypt1 #acg4           
,araucanian language1 #cih4             
,araucanians1 skulls of1 #ci4           
,arawacks1 tribe1 #dj2    language1     
#dcj4   ,argillite implements1 #da4     
,arithmetic of ,mayas1 #bfh4   ,arizona1
 ruins in1 #be4   ,arrhenic gender1     
#djf4   ,arrow1 in ,lenape1 #ahc4       
,arrow heads1 ancient forms of1 #ca4    
,arrow-release1 the ,american1 #fj4     
,arsut1 a song of1 #bij4   ,art1        

,american1 wholly indigenous1 #fj4      
,arthur1 ,king1 story of1 #acj1 #adb4   
,artificial shell-heaps1 age of1 #bg4   
,aryan languages1 the1 #cab1 #cbc1 #cdd1
 #ceh2    dialects1 alleged1 in         
,america1 #ei2    nations1 mythology of1
 #ada4   ,assumptive arms1 in heraldry1 
#bai4   ,astrology1 native ,yucatecan1  
#bei4   ,astronomic cycles of ,mexicans 
and ,mayas1 #bc4   ,asymmetry1          
intentional1 #ddh4   ,athapascan        
language1 the1 #ba1 #eh1 #cid2          
extension of the1 #ce2    elements of1  
#cf4   ,atecpanamochco1 #hf4            
,atlantis1 the fabled1 #dc4   ,atoyac1  
the river1 #hf4   ,auroral gods1 #aaa1  
#aac4   ,autochthony of ,american       
culture1 #fj4   ,avalon1 the ,isle of1  
#adb4   ,aymarian depression in         
,american skulls1 #fb4   ,azteca or     
,aztecs1 #he1 #hg1 #cfg4   ,aztec       
calendar explained1 #bgf-i2    codices1 
#bba2    love songs1 #bie-g2    war     
songs1 #bih2    year cycles of1 #aei1   
see ,nahuatl1 ,mexican4   ,aztlan1      

derivation of1 #hh4    ,bacab1 ,maya    
deities1 #agc4   ,baffin's ,land1       
natives of1 #bhf4   ,balam1 meaning of1 
#abh1 #beh2    the ,maya prophet1 #bdh4 
,balams1 ,maya deities1 #agb-agf4       
,ball play in ,mexico1 #hi4   ,banana1  
not an ,american plant1 #cc1 #cd4       
,basque language1 the1 #caf1 #cea4      
,bat1 as a totemic animal1 #aad4        
,baures1 language of1 #cig4   ,beard in 
,american ,indians1 #ci4   ,being and   
,not-,being1 in language1 #dja4         
,biceitas1 tribe1 #cge4                 
,bilderschrift1 #bjg4   ,birds as winds1
 #abc1 #age2    symbolism of1 #afi1     
#agi4   ,bi-sexual divinities1 #if1     
#aji4   ,blackfeet1 myths of1 #aca4     
,black-tail1 a fabulous snake1 #agh4    
,blood1 in myths1 #aad1 #abd4           
,blowpipe1 use of1 #aji4   ,blue1 as    
sacred color1 #ie1 #aah4   ,boat of the 
,sun1 #ach2    of ,charon1 #ada4        
,bokol h'otoch1 a ,maya imp1 #agh4      
,bones1 collection of1 #gh4   ,book1    
,maya word for1 #bdg4   ,books of       

,chilan ,balam1 #bee sqq4   ,books of   
,mayas described1 #bcb1 #bce1 #bcg4     
,bolivia1 tribes of1 #cig1 #dje4        
,boruca language1 the1 #cge sq4         
,botocudos1 traits of1 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1   
#fe4   ,bow-and-arrow1 modern use of1   
#ca1 #ahc4   ,brachycephalism in        
,america1 #fc4   ,brazil1 designs of    
pottery from1 #aeg1 #aei2               
mound-builders from1 #fg2    ethnology  
of1 #ch1 #dj2    languages  of1 #chj    
sq41 #dbh sq42    shell heaps in1 #bh4  
,bri-bri language1 the1 #cgd sq4        
,bronka or ,brunka language1 #cge sq4   
,bronze1 ,age of1 #di1 #ej4             
,brush-net1 use of1 #ahd4   ,buenos     
,ayres1 archology of1 #ca1 #dj4         
,buffalo1 ,lenp name for1 #ahd4         
,burial customs1 #ge1 #gg1 #gh1 #aai4   
,burial mounds in ,florida1 #ge4        
,cabecar language1 the1 #cge sq4        
,cabrakan1 god of earthquakes1 #aba1    
#abb4   ,cachis1 tribe1 #cge4           
,cahokia1 pyramid at1 #ha4              
,cakchiquels1 totemic animals1 #aad2    

language1 #ce1 #ajd1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #cde1  
#cdg1 #cgj1 #dbc2    lineal measures of1
 #dcc1 #dci2    writing of1 #bbh4       
,cakulha-,hurakan1 a ,quiche god1 #abj1 
#aba4   ,calaveras skull1 the1 #dj4     
,calculiform writing explained1 #bdc1   
#bec4   ,calendar1 mystic relations of1 
#ii1 #abi2    of ,mexicans1 #bgf-h2     
the ,quiche-,cakchiquel1 #abi2    of the
 ,taensas1 #dfi4   ,california1         
languages of1 #chf2    auriferous       
gravels of1 #ca2    remains from1 #dj4  
,campeachy1 ,bay of1 #bcc4   ,canals1   
ancient1 in ,florida1 #gc4   ,canek1    
chief of ,itzas1 #bci4   ,cannibalism1  
unknown in ,yucatan1 #bce4   ,canoes1   
manufacture of1 #ahe4   ,cantico1       
meaning of1 #ahg4   ,canting arms1 in   
heraldry1 #bah4   ,capaha1 the village  
of1 #gc4   ,caracaracol1 a ,haytian     
divinity1 #aaf4   ,cardinal points1     
sacred characters1 #aed1 #afa1 #aff1    
#afg1 #agb1 #age2    signs for in ,maya1
 #bjc4   ,carib language1 #cca1 #ccg4   
,caribs1 mythology of1 #abc4   ,carvara1

 the dog1 #ada4   ,catarrhine monkeys   
not found in ,america1 #dc4   ,ceh      
,pech1 a province of ,yucatan1 #bcc4    
,central ,america1 poetry of1 #bhh4     
,centzon ,huitznahua1 the1 #id4         
,cerberus1 the dog1 #ada1 #adf4         
,chiapas1 dialects of1 #dbj4            
,cincalco1 in ,aztec myth1 #ade4        
,civilization1 centers of1 #fa4   ,chac1
 ,maya deities1 #agc4                   
,chahta-,muskokee family1 the1 #ga1 #gi4
   ,chahta tribes1 the1 #hj1 #ha2    see
 ,choctaws4   ,chan ,pal1 a ,maya imp1  
#agg4   ,chapallan1 ,lake1 #hh4         
,chapanec language1 #cih4   ,charon1 the
 ferryman1 #ada4   ,chelles1 objects    
from1 #cb4   ,cherokees1 wars with      
,iroquois1 #fi2    as mound-builders1   
#ga1 #hb2    alphabet1 #aih4   ,che     
,vinic1 a ,maya ogre1 #agf4   ,chibcha  
language1 #djj4   ,chicagua1 a village1 
#gc4   ,chichen ,itza1 #bed1 #cjb4      
,chichimecs1 tribe1 #ij1 #bih4          
,chicomoztoc1 land of1 #bc4             
,chikasaws1 #ga4   ,chilan1             

signification of1 #beh1 #bfj1 #bgb2     
prophecy of1 #cjc4   ,chilan ,balam1    
books of1 #bee4   ,chile1 languages of1 
#cih4   ,chimalman1 the virgin1 #if4    
,chinese1 alphabet of1 #bad1 #bae2      
language1 the1 #cbc1 #ccf2    supposed  
presence in ,america1 #ei2    philosophy
 and symbolism1 #aej1 #aea4             
,chipi-cakulha1 a ,quiche god1 #abj4    
,chipeways1 build mounds1 #gj2    myths 
of1 #aca4   ,chipeway pronouns1 #cbd2   
pictography1 #bbh4   ,chipeways1 their  
8grandfather10 #ahh4   ,chipeway love   
song1 #bid2    love words1 #dah4        
,chipped ,stone1 period of1 #ej4        
,chiquita language1 #dje4   ,chirakan   
,xmucane1 a ,quiche goddess1 #abb4      
,choctaws1 #bd1 #ga1 #gg1 #dfa2    see  
,chahta4   ,choctaw language1 the1 #cfd4
   ,chronological system of ,mayas1     
#bfc4   ,chumayel1 book of1 #bdh1 #beg1 
#bia4   8,chunk yards0 of the ,creeks1  
#gf4   ,clark's ,works1 mounds at1 #ha4 
,classification of languages1 #cci4     
,coatepetl1 the1 #hf1 #hi4   ,coatlan   

,tonan1 an ,aztec goddess1 #id4         
,codices1 the existing ,maya1 #bej4     
,coatlicue1 an ,aztec goddess1 #id1 #ie4
   ,colhua1 ,colhuacan1 #he4   ,color of
 ,american ,indians1 #ci1 #fa4   ,colors
 in races of men1 #ch2    phonetic value
 in hieroglyphs1 #bbc2    symbolism of1 
#aff1 #afg4   ,columbian gravel1 relics 
found in1 #ec4   ,communal burial1 #gh4 
,communal dwellings1 #ahe1 #dde4        
,conjunctions1 in ,american languages1  
#cde1 #djd4   ,connecticut1 ,indian     
names in1 #cji4   ,consonants1          
alternating1 #cih2    significance of1  
#cid4   ,copan1 calendar stone from1    
#aee1 #bed4   ,coptic1 ancient1 #bae1   
#djb4   ,cordova1 ,hernandez de1 his    
expedition1 #bcb4   ,cortes1 ,h41 his   
conquest1 #bhj1 #bhb4   ,costa ,rica1   
age of shell-heaps in1 #bh1 #ca2        
languages of1 #cgd sq4   ,counter-sense 
in language1 #dja4   ,courous1 tribe1   
#gg4   ,coyote1 as sacred animal1 #aab4 
,cozumel1 island of1 #bcb4   ,cranial   
characteristics of red race1 #fb1 #fc4  

,craniologic data from the mounds1 #hb4 
,cranioscopic formulas of ,american     
,indians1 #dj4   ,cree1 language1 #ba1  
#cfc1 #chc1 #cie1 #dja1 #djc2    love   
words in1 #dac4   ,crees1 myths of1     
#aca4   ,creeks1 #bd1 #ga1 #gf4         
,criteria of languages1 #ccf4   ,cross1 
as a sacred symbol1 #adh sqq4   ,cubit1 
as a measure1 #dda4   ,cukulkan1 #hd4   
,culcalkin1 a ,maya ogre1 #agg4         
,culture-heroes1 ,american1 #acj4       
,cycles1 of ,aztecs and ,mayas1 #aei1   
#bfd4    ,dakotas1 #gi2    winter counts
 of1 #aei2    dialects1 #djg4   ,dawn1  
master of the1 #aac4   ,day-maker1 the1 
#aaa1 #abi4   ,days1 signs of1 in ,maya 
,,mss41 #bgj4   ,death1 prognostics of1 
#afi2    lord of1 #agj2    primitive    
notion of1 #adc2    river of1 #adg4     
,deer1 as totemic animal1 #aad1 #abh4   
,delaware1 ,state1 discoveries in1 #cb1 
#ec4   ,delaware river1 relics from1    
#da1 #ec4   ,delaware ,indians1 see     
,lenp4   ,dn ,dindji1 tribe1 #ba2       
language1 #cie4   ,dependent clauses1   

#djd4   ,determinatives1 their use in   
writing1 #baf4   ,devil1 words for1     
#abf4   ,diluvial epoch1 human remains  
in1 #bi4   ,divination1 by beans1 #aah2 
by thorns1 #id2    by stones1 #afe4     
,diviners1 of ,mayas1 #afe4   ,dogs1 as 
sacred animals1 #adj1 #ada1 #add1 #adf4 
,dresden1 the ,maya ,,ms4 at1 #bej4     
,dwarfs1 fabulous1 of ,mayas1 #agg4     
,dyes used by the ,mayas1 #bdf4         
,earth1 the heart of the1 #abf4   ,ego1 
phonetic element of1 #cif4   ,egyptian  
theory of the soul1 #acf-adj2           
hieroglyphic origin of1 #baf2           
alphabet1 #bag4   ,eight1 as sacred     
number1 #adj1 #adf4   ,ekoneil1 a       
fabulous snake1 #agi4   ,elephant1 the  
,american1 #cb4   ,elysium1 fields of1  
#ada4   ,epicanthus1 in ,america1 #fd4  
,english language1 the1 #ccf4   ,epochs 
of the ,palolithic ,period1 #ea4        
,escamela1 inscribed stone at1 #bgd4    
,eskimo1 skulls of1 #fc2    physical    
traits of1 #fe2    songs of1 #bhf-bij2  
language1 #eh1 #cch1 #cdj4   ,etowah    

valley1 mound in1 #hj4   ,eye1 oblique  
or ,mongolian1 in ,america1 #fc1 #fd4   
,fac-simile of ,landa's ,,ms41 #bdb4    
,father1 the great1 #age4   ,feathers1  
as symbolic ornaments1 #aaf4   ,female  
line1 hereditary1 #ahi4   ,fire1        
earliest knowledge of1 #cia2    festival
 of1 among ,mayas1 #afh4   ,fish1 the1  
in ,aztec calendar1 #bhc4   ,fishing1   
ancient methods of1 #ahd                
,fleur-de-lys1 origin of1 #bbj4         
,flores1 island1 capture of1 #bci4      
,florida1 ancient mounds in1 #gc1 #ge1  
#gg2    shell heaps in1 #bh1 #ca2       
limonite skeletons from1 #da4           
,folk-lore of ,yucatan1 #afc2    of     
,lenp1 #aha4   ,food-plants of native   
,americans1 #cc4   ,foot1 as measure of 
length1 #dcd sq41 #ddd4   ,four1 as     
sacred number1 #adj1 #adf1 #aeg4   ,four
 ,ages of ,world1 #afa4   ,four hundred1
 meaning of1 #id4   ,friendship1 native 
words for1 #dbj1 #dbh4   ,fuegians1     
appearance of1 #ci2    language1 #cch4  
,games1 of ,lenap1 #ahf4   ,generation1 

gods of1 #abj4   ,georgia1 antiquities  
in1 #hj4   ,ghosts1 superstitions about1
 #abg4   ,giant bison1 the ,american1   
#da1 note4   ,giant ,grab1 #agf2        
,stone of the1 #bgd sq4   ,glacial age  
in ,north ,america1 date of1 #da1 #dd1  
#ed2    in ,south ,america1 #db1 #ee4   
,gluskap the ,liar1 a ,micmac hero1     
#acj4   ,grammatic forms1 origin of1    
#cca4   ,grammatical categories1 the1   
#dje4   ,graphic systems1 phonetic      
elements of1 #aie sq4   ,graphic system 
of ,mayas1 #bde4   ,greek language1 the1
 #cdd1 #cdh4   ,green1 as a color       
symbol1 #aah4   ,greenland1 poetry from1
 #bhg-bij4   ,grijalva1 ,juan de1 his   
expedition1 #bcb4   ,guadalajara1       
,university of1 #cbf4   ,guarani1       
language1 #ce1 #chj sq41 #cih1 #cii1    
#djj2    love words in1 #dbh4           
,guarayos1 bearded ,indians1 #ci1 note4 
,guatemala1 dialects in1 #ajd2    tribes
 of1 #aje1 #dbj4   ,gucumatz1 derivation
 of1 #aaf2    transformations of1 #aga4 
,gucumatz ,cotuha1 a king1 #aad4        

,guiana1 shell-heaps in1 #ca2           
ethnology of1 #ci1 #dj4   ,gulf ,states1
 antiquities of1 #gb-hj4    ,hades1     
derivation of1 #ada2    descent to1     
#abe-f4   ,hair1 of ,american ,indians1 
#fb2    of the ,sun-god1 #ii1 #adj1     
#adf2    long1 as symbol1 #adf1 #bhj4   
,hare1 the ,great1 #acb4   ,harmachis1  
,egyptian divinity1 #ach4   ,hatchet1   
burying the1 #ga4   ,haiti1 mythology   
of1 #aaf1 #aba4   8,heart of the ,lake10
 a sacred name1 #aaf4   ,heart1 as a    
symbol1 #aag4   ,hell1 words for1 #abf1 
#abg2    descent to1 #abc-acj4          
,hemenway ,exploring ,expedition1 #be4  
,heraldry1 methods of1 #bah1 #bai4      
,hermapolis1 eight gods of1 #adj4       
,hesperides1 garden of the1 #adb4       
,hidatsa language1 #djg4   ,hieroglyphs1
 ,maya1 #bja1 #bfe-g4   ,hog1 the1 as a 
god1 #aac4   ,holophrasis1 explained1   
#cbb1 #ced sq4   ,homo alalus1 the1     
#cij-cib4   ,homophones in languages1   
#aih1 #bae1 #baf4   ,hooks1 used in     
fishing1 #ahd4   ,horus1 the ,egyptian1 

#ach4   ,horse1 ,delaware word for1     
#cba2    fossil1 in ,america1 #ca1 #cb1 
#db4   ,houses1 of beams1 #ig2          
communal1 #ahe4   ,huasteca language1   
the1 #bba1 #cca1 #cdc2    love words in1
 #dbb4   ,hueman1 an ,aztec hero-god1   
#if4   ,huguenots1 settlement of1 #gd4  
,huitzilopochtli1 an ,aztec god1 #he1   
#hh2    derivation of1 #ie2    birth of1
 #if2    temple of1 #be4   ,huitznahua1 
,aztec divinities1 #id1 #ie4   ,human   
species1 divisions of1 #ch4   ,humor1   
among native ,americans1 #bhh4          
,hun-ahpu1 birth of1 #abe4              
,hun-ahpu-utiu1 derivation1 #aab4       
,hun-ahpu-vuch1 derivation of1 #aji4    
,hun-came1 a ,quiche god1 #abd4         
,hunhun-ahpu1 a ,quiche god1 #abd4      
,hunting1 ancient methods of1 #ahd4     
,hunyecil1 meaning of1 #bcg4   ,hurakan1
 god of the storm1 #abj-abc4   ,hurons1 
burial customs1 #fi4   ,hurricane1      
derivation of1 #aba1 #abb2    lord of1  
#afg4    ,ichcanziho1 ancient name of   
,merida1 #bcc4   ,ideograms in phonetic 

writing1 #aig2    of ,mayas1 #bdh4      
,idols of ,lenp1 #ahg2    of ,itzas1    
#bdj2    priest of1 #bdh4   ,idols1     
superstitions concerning1 #agg4         
,ikonographic writing1 #bac4            
,ikonomatic method of phonetic writing1 
#hf1 #hi1 #bjg1 #baa1 #bac-bbi1 #bha4   
,illinois1 archology of1 #dj1 #ha4      
,implements1 simple and compound1 #cj1  
#ea1 #eb4   ,inca bone1 the1 #fb4       
,incas of ,peru1 false lists of1 #bc4   
,incorporative character of ,american   
languages1 #cf4   ,incorporation1       
explained1 #cba1 #cdj1 #cda1 #ceb-ceg1  
#djc4   ,indo-,aryans1 myths of1 #adf4  
,industrial art in ancient ,america1    
#bi4   ,ioskeha1 ,iroquois hero-god1    
#acj4   ,iron1 ,age of1 #di1 #ej4       
,iroquois1 #bd1 #fh1 #fi2    ,lenp name 
for1 #ahd4   ,itza1 town in ,yucatan1   
#cjb4   ,ytzamal1 temples of1 #bcf4     
,itzamna1 hero-god of ,mayas1 #bch4     
,itzas1 the tribe of1 #bci4             
,itzmiquilpan1 hieroglyph of1 #bbc4     
,jaguar1 as sacred animal1 #abh4        

,japanese writing1 #bca4   ,jesuits1    
settlement near ,savannah1 #gf4   ,jew1 
,book of the1 #bgc4   ,jonaz language1  
the1 #cfh4    ,katun1 lord of the1 #bdi2
    of ,mayas1 #bfj4   ,katuns1 of      
,mayas1 #aei4   ,kua1 ,book of ,chilan  
,balam of1 #bfh4   ,kentucky1 archology 
of1 #hb4   ,khetsua language1 see       
,qquichua4   ,kiches1 see ,quiches4     
,kichigouai1 ,algonkin divinities1 #aaa4
   ,kin ,ich1 a ,maya deity1 #agj4      
,kinich-ahau1 hero-god of ,mayas1 #bch4 
,kioways1 songs of1 #bic4   ,klamath    
language1 the1 #cba1 #cih4   ,koonak1   
,mt41 poem about1 #bij4                 
,kitchen-middens1 in ,america1 #bg4     
,labrador1 natives of1 #caa4            
,lacandon1 province of1 #bci4   ,lagoa  
,santa1 skulls from1 #dj4   ,la         
,naulette1 jaw from1 #cij4   ,language1 
ethnologic value of1 #aic2    origin of1
 #cij4   ,languages discussed3 ,see     
tribal names4   ,laws of ,thought1 #djb4
   ,lead1 known to ,mexicans1 #dej4     
,leif ,erikson1 his voyage1 #bb4   ,left

 hand1 as stronger1 #ie4   ,legends1    
value in savage tribes1 #bd4   ,lenp1   
,folk-lore of the1 #aha2    derivation  
of1 #ahc4   ,lenp dialect1 pronunciation
 of1 #ahi2    grammar of1 #aij1 #aia1   
#cac4   ,letters1 single1 significant1  
#cid4   ,life1 the ,tree of1 #afa4      
,light1 the mother of1 #aai2    divinity
 of1 #aab1 #abi4   ,lightning1 as a     
deity1 #aba1 #acc1 #agd4   ,lingoa      
,geral1 of ,brazil1 #chj4   ,limonite   
skeletons from ,florida1 #da4   ,lineal 
measures1 ,american1 #dcc sq4           
,linguistic stocks1 number of in        
,america1 #cd2    origin of1 #cib4      
,lithuanian dialect1 the1 #caf4         
,lorelei1 an ,american1 #agh4   ,love1  
songs of1 #bic-g2    conceptions of in  
,american languages1 #daj sq42          
definition of1 #dcb4   ,lule language1  
the1 #cca1 #cdb4    ,mbaya language1    
the1 #cca1 #cdb1 #cdc4   ,mackenzie     
,river1 tribes of1 #ce4   ,madrid1 ,maya
 ,,mss4 at1 #bec4   ,maguey1 the1 a     
sacred plant1 #hh2    paper1 #bec4      

,maize1 origin and extension of1 #cc4   
,malayan race1 the1 #cdi4               
,malinalxochitl1 an ,aztec goddess1 #hh4
   ,mammoth1 remains of1 #cb4           
,manabozho1 a ,chipeway hero1 #aca1     
#acc4   ,man1 not developed in ,america1
 #dc2    oldest remains of1 in ,america1
 #ec2    a singing animal1 #bhd2        
subdivisions of1 #cdh4   ,manco ,capac1 
his date1 #bb4   ,mandioca1 a native    
food-plant1 #cc4   ,manhattan1          
derivation of1 #ahc4   ,mani1 the ,book 
of ,chilan of1 #bfd4   ,manuscripts in  
,maya characters1 #bej4   ,mapachtepec1 
hieroglyph of1 #bbb4   ,maps of ,mayas1 
#dch4   ,markets1 ,mexican1 #ddi4       
,marriage song1 #dfj4   ,masks1 used in 
rites1 #aad1 #ahg4   ,mass1 the field1  
#afe4   ,maya language1 the1 #aha1 #cde2
    love words in1 #dbj2                
civilization1 #hd2    witch story1 #aga2
    year-counts1 #aei2    phonetic      
characters1 #aii1    hieroglyphic       
system1 #bbg1 #bbh2   ,mayas1 ancient1  
writings and records of1 #bcj-bed2      

earliest ancestors of1 #bd2    the1     
traditions of1 #bb2    conversion of1   
#afd2    folk-lore of1 #afb2    burial  
customs of1 #aai2    lineal measures of1
 #dcd2    maps of1 #dch4   ,mayacimil1  
meaning of1 #bcg4   ,mayapan1 ancient   
city of1 #bci4   ,maya-,quiche          
linguistic stock1 #ajd4   ,mazahua      
language1 the1 #cfh1 #cgb sq4   ,meco   
language1 the1 #cfh4   ,meconetzin1 a   
name of ,quetzalcoatl1 #hh4   ,meday    
magic1 figures in1 #aeg4   ,meda sticks 
of ,chipeways1 #bbh4   ,medical practice
 among ,delawares1 #ahg4   ,medicines of
 the ,mayas1 #bgb4   ,medicine-songs1   
native1 #bib4   ,mengwe1 name of        
,iroquois1 meaning of1 #ahd4   ,merida1 
ancient ruins at1 #bf1 #bcc4   ,messier 
,mound1 the1 #hj4   ,messianic hope1    
among natives1 #ahc4   ,messou1 see     
,michabo4   ,meta river1 tribes of1     
#cbi4   ,metrical standards1 native1    
#ddf-h4   ,mexcalla1 an island1 #hh4    
,mexi or ,mexica1 #he1 #hg4   ,mexican  
phonetic writing1 #bje4   ,mexitl1 an   

,aztec chief1 #hh4   ,mexico1 ancient1  
#bc1 #hd1 #hh1 #bhb2    human remains   
in1 #db4   ,mexican grammar1 #cbd1 #cda1
 #cdd1 #cdf4    ,see ,aztec1 ,nahuatl4  
,mexico-,tenochtitlan1 #he4   ,micmacs1 
mythology of1 #acj4   ,michabo1 a       
,chipeway deity1 #aca1 #acb-d4          
,michoacan1 #hh4   ,mictlan1 the ,aztec 
,hades1 #adc4   ,mictlantecutli1 the    
,aztec ,pluto1 #ade4   ,migration1 lines
 of in ,america1 #dd1 #de4   ,minsi     
tribe1 #aha2    derivation of1 #ahi4    
,mississippi1 the1 #gd1 #gg4   ,mitla1  
ruins of1 #ddh4   ,mixteca language1    
the1 #cca1 #cde4   ,mongolian           
affinities1 alleged1 of the ,american   
race1 #ef4   ,mongolian eye1 the1 in    
,america1 #fc4   ,mongoloid traits in   
,americans1 #ch1 #ci1 #ef4              
,monosyllabism in languages1 #bae4      
,montejo1 ,francisco de1 #bcc4          
,montezuma1 his hieroglyphs1 #bjh1 #bji1
 #bhb2    his forebodings1 #cjb4        
,montezuma1 ,rio de1 #hf4   ,months1    
hieroglyphs of1 of ,mayas1 #bfe-g4      

,moon1 origin of1 #abe4   ,moraines1 the
 line of1 in ,north ,america1 #ed4      
,moteuczomatzin1 #bhc4                  
,mound-,builders1 their nationality1    
#fg2    their metrical standard1 #ddg4  
,mounds in ,ohio and ,mississippi       
valleys1 age of1 #bg4   ,mural          
paintings1 of ,mayas1 #bed4             
,muskokees1 #ga1 #ge4   ,mutsun         
language1 #chf sq4   ,mythology1        
interpretations of1 #aja4    ,nabula1   
the book of1 #bei4   ,nagualism1 in     
,central ,america1 #agj4   ,nahua ollin1
 the1 #afa4   ,nahuatl hieroglyphs1     
dictionary of1 #baj2    geographic      
names1 #baj2    lineal measures1 #ddd4  
,nahuatl language1 #bc1 #ei1 #bje1 #cfc1
 #cff1 #cii2    love words in1 #dag4    
,nahuas1 tribes of1 #bb1 #he1 #dah4     
,see ,aztecs1 ,mexicans4   ,names1      
bestowal of1 #aad4   ,nanabojoo1 a      
,chipeway hero1 #aca4   ,nanahuatl1 an  
,aztec divinity1 #aaf4   ,nanih ,waiya1 
the ,sloping ,hill1 #hj4   ,nanticokes1 
native name of1 #ahi4   ,napiw1 a       

,blackfoot hero1 #aca4   ,nasal index in
 ,american ,indians1 #ci1 #fd4          
,natchez1 #ga1 #gg1 #gh1 #dfc4   ,navaho
 language1 #cid4   ,nebraska1 ancient   
lake-beds of1 #ca4   ,nenaboj1 a        
,chipeway hero1 #aca4   ,neolithic      
period1 the1 #cj1 #ea4   ,new ,england  
,indians1 #aca4   ,newfoundland1 natives
 of1 #caa4   ,new ,granada1 tribes of1  
#ccj2    languages1 #djj4   ,new        
,jersey1 archology of1 #cb1 #ec4   ,new 
,mexico1 ruins in1 #be4   ,new ,york    
,state1 earthworks in1 #fi4             
,nezahualcoyotl1 a chief1 #dde4         
,nicaragua1 ancient human footprints in1
 #db4   ,night1 master of the1 #aac4    
,nim-ak1 meaning of1 #aac4   ,nine      
,waters1 river of1 #adc4   ,nith songs  
of ,eskimo1 #bhg4   ,norsemen1 myths of1
 #adb4   ,north ,pacific coast1 tribes  
of1 #fe4   ,northmen1 voyages of1 #bb1  
note4   ,nova ,scotia1 discovered by    
,northmen1 #bb4   ,nun1 the celestial   
river1 #acg1 #aci4   ,numbers1 sacred or
 mystic1 #ii4    ,see ,four1 ,seven1    

,twelve1 etc4   ,numerals1 deficiency   
of1 #cbf4   ,numeration1 ,maya signs of1
 #bfh2    words for1 #djf4    ,oblique  
eye as racial trait1 #ci1 #fc1 #fd4     
,obsidian found in ,ohio1 #cb4          
,occipital bone in ,american skulls1    
#fb4   ,ocelotl1 or jaguar1 in myths1   
#abh4   ,ocnakuchil1 meaning of #bcg4   
,ogier the ,dane1 #adb4   ,ohio1 mounds 
in1 #bg1 #fg-ha2    obsidian in1 #cb4   
,ojibway picture writing1 #aec1 #aed4   
,offogoula1 tribe1 #gg4   ,ollanta1     
drama of1 #cjj4   ,omagua language1     
#dje4   ,oriental symbols in ,america1  
#adh sqq4   ,origin of language1 #cag4  
,orinoco1 tribes of1 #dje4   ,orizaba1  
inscribed stone at1 #bgd4   ,orosi1     
natives at1 #cge4   ,os ,inc1 the1 in   
,americans1 #fb4   ,osiris1 the         
,egyptian god1 #acg-adj4   ,otchipwe    
language1 the1 #cfd4   ,otherness1 how  
expressed1 #cif4   ,otomis1 or ,othomis1
 the tribe1 #aag2    war songs1 #bih4   
,otomi language1 the1 #ei1 #cff sq4     
,ouspie1 tribe1 #gg4   ,owl1            

superstitions concerning1 #aad1 #afi4   
,pacaha1 a province1 #gd4   ,paducas1   
tribe of1 #bia4   ,pah ah tun1 ,maya    
deities1 #aff1 #agc4   ,paloliths1      
,american and other1 #dh4   ,palolithic 
period1 the1 #cj1 #ea1 #cij4            
,palolithic man1 his habitat1 #ed2      
language1 #cij sq4   ,palenque1 the     
ruins of1 #bf1 #hd1 #abf1 #bed1 #ddh4   
,palpan1 a place name1 #hg4   ,pame     
language1 the1 #cfh1 #cgc4   ,pampas1   
lacrustine deposits of1 #ca2    skulls  
from1 #dj4   ,papa1 name of             
,quetzalcoatl1 #ii4   ,paper of ,maya   
,,mss41 #bec4   ,paradise1 the ,aztec1  
#add4   ,patagonians1 height of1 #ci4   
,patine1 as a sign of age1 #ea4         
,pavant ,indians1 the1 #cba4   ,pawnees1
 poetry of1 #bia-b4   ,pech1 a ,maya    
priest1 #cjb4   ,pennsylvania1 ancient  
works in1 #gj2    ,indian names in1     
#cji2    relics found in1 #ec4          
,penobscots1 mythology of1 #acj4        
,personality1 idea of in language1 #cbj4
   ,peru1 ruined cities of1 #bf4        

,peruvians1 language of1 #cig2    songs 
of1 #cjj4   ,peten1 ,lake1 conquest of1 
#bci4   ,petroglyph1 near ,orizaba1     
#bgd4   ,philosophy of language1 #cbh4  
,phonetic elements1 origin of1 #cic4    
,phonetics of ,mexican and ,maya        
writing1 #aie4   ,phoneticism in        
writing1 origin of1 #baf4   ,picture    
writing1 #bac1 #bca2    ,ojibways1 #aec1
 #aed1 #bbh2    of ,mexicans1 #bba sq4  
,pirinda language1 the1 #cfh1 #cgb4     
,pisote1 the white1 #aac4   ,pleasure1  
physiological principle of1 #bhe4       
,pleistocene epoch1 human remains in1   
#bi4   ,plumed serpents1 house of1 #ig4 
,plummet1 unknown in ,america1 #ddb1    
#dej4   ,pluto1 the ,greek god1 #ada4   
,poetry1 native ,american1 #bhd sq4     
,pokonchi dialect1 the1 #ajd1 #aab4     
,polished stone1 period of1 #ej4        
,polychromatic hieroglyphs1 #bbc4       
,polynesians1 alleged migrations of1    
#ah1 #dc4   ,polysynthesis1 explained1  
#cf1 #cba1 #cea sq4   ,pontemelo1       
ancient skull from1 #dj4   ,pop1 name of

 a ,maya month1 #bdi4   ,popol ,vuh1    
the1 #aje sq4   ,potato1 the1 its       
extension1 #cc4   ,pottery1 designs on1 
#aeg1 #aei2    of ,lenp1 #ahe4          
,pound-the-stones1 ,miss1 #agi4         
,prehistoric archology1 #cib4           
,prepositions1 in ,american languages1  
#cde4   ,pronominal languages1 #cbj4    
,pronouns1 in ,american languages1      
#cif-h4   ,proper names1 in early times1
 #bah4   ,prophecies of ,mexicans and   
,mayas1 #cjb4   ,pueblo ,indians1 #be1  
#hg4   ,pulque1 liquor made from1 #bed4 
,quetzalcoatl1 #bd1 #hd sq42    baths   
of1 #hf2    absent1 #ade4   ,quiches1   
myths of1 #ajd sq41 #abd1 #aga2         
dialect of the1 #ajd1 #dbc2    king of1 
#aad2    lineal measures of1 #dcc2      
writing of1 #bbh2    sacred book of1    
#aje sq41 #aga4   ,qquichua language1   
the1 #cdf1 #cfe1 #dbe2    traditions1   
#bb2    love-words in1 #dbe sq4   ,qux  
cah1 a sacred name1 #aaf4   ,qux cho1 a 
sacred name1 #aaf1 #abj4   ,qux palo1 a 
sacred name1 #aaf4    ,ra1 the sun-god1 

#acg1 #adj4   ,rabbit myths1 #aab1 #acb1
 #agi1 #bgf4   ,races of men1 #cdh4     
,rain1 the gods of1 #age4   8,rakan10   
meaning of1 #abb4   ,rattlesnake bites1 
cure for1 #ahh4   8,rax10 in ,quiche1   
meaning of1 #aah4   ,raxa-cakulha1 a    
,quiche god1 #abj4   ,rebus1 method of  
writing by1 #baa1 #bae1 #bai4   ,red1 as
 sacred color1 #add1 #aff1 #agf4        
,refref1 serpent in ,egyptian myth1     
#acg4   ,relative pronouns1 in ,american
 languages1 #cdf4   ,religious          
sentiment1 the1 #dcb4   ,remedies1      
native1 #bgb4   ,repetition1 in poetry1 
#bhe4   ,reproductive principle1 worship
 of1 #aai4   ,rhyme1 unknown in native  
poetry1 #bhe4   ,ring-cross1 the1 #aeh4 
,rio de ,montezuma1 #hf4   ,rio de      
,tula1 #hf4   ,ritual of the dead1 in   
,egypt1 #aci4   ,rituals of ,mayas1     
#bdg4   ,river1 the celestial and       
infernal1 #acg-ade4   ,rock ,bluff1     
skulls from1 #dj4   ,rosetta stone1 the1
 #bah4    ,st4 ,augustine1 ,florida1    
#gd1 #ge1 #gg4   ,st4 ,john ,river1 #gd4

   ,st4 ,louis1 8big mound0 at1 #ha4    
,san ,isidro1 stone relics from1 #cia4  
,sacred book of the ,quiches1 #aje1     
#ajg4   ,saliva1 in myths1 #abd4        
,salonge1 an ogre1 #agf4   ,salt1 magic 
power of1 #aga4   ,sanscrit language1   
the1 #cdj1 #cdd1 #dae2    alleged       
affinity with ,nahuatl1 #eg4            
,sambaquis1 shell heaps in ,brazil1 #bh1
 #bi4   ,sarbacane1 the1 #aji4          
,sauteux1 language of1 #djj4   ,savacon1
 a ,carib deity1 #abc4   ,schipka cave1 
bones from1 #cij4   ,sciences of the    
,mayas1 #bde4   ,seminoles1 #ga1 #gg4   
,semitic traditions1 supposed in        
,america1 #ba4   ,serpent1 as sacred    
animal1 #aaf1 #acb1 #acc4   ,serpent    
mount1 the1 #hf4   ,serpent1 fabulous1  
of ,mayas1 #agi4   ,seven1 as sacred    
number1 #abd1 #abi1 #aga1 #dci4   ,seven
 ,caves1 land of the1 #bc4   ,sex       
distinctions in grammar1 #djf4          
,shell-heaps1 the age of1 #bg2    in    
,florida1 ,tennessee1 ,costa ,rica1     
,brazil1 #bh2    in ,gulf ,states1 #gb4 

,shooting stars1 in myths1 #agd4        
,shoshonian family1 languages of1 #bc4  
,signatures of natives1 #bcd4   ,skin1  
color of1 in ,american ,indians1 #ci4   
,skull1 shape of1 in ,americans1 #fc4   
,skulls1 types of1 in ,brazil1 #bi4     
,sky1 soul of the1 #abj4   ,snake-,hill1
 the1 #hf4   ,sodomy1 not found in      
,yucatan1 #bce4   ,sonora1 languages of1
 #bc4   ,soto1 ,hernando de1 his        
expedition1 #gb1 #gd4   ,soul1 seat of1 
#aag2    food of the1 #afh2    ,journey 
of the1 #ace-ade4   ,sound-writing1     
#bac1 #bcj4   ,span1 as measure1 #dda4  
,speech1 earliest form of1 #cij sq4     
,speechless man1 #cij-cib4   ,spiral1   
development of the1 #aei1 note4         
,spittle1 as genetic fluid1 #abd4       
,squaw1 word for1 #aha4   ,stars1 origin
 of1 #abe4   ,stature of ,american      
,indians1 #ci4   ,stone1 age of1 its    
subdivisions1 #ej2    survivals of1     
#ahc4   ,stone and brick edifices1 #be4 
,stone of the ,giants1 #bgd sq4   ,stone
 implements1 oldest specimens1 #cia4    

,stone1 the clear1 divination by1 #afe4 
,stones1 adoration of1 #dj2    column   
of1 #gj4   ,storm1 ,quiche gods of1     
#abj4   ,straw bird1 the1 #agi4         
,sun-god1 ,aztec myth of1 #aaf2    in   
,yucatan1 #afg4   ,sun1 origin of1 #abe2
    worship in ,egypt1 #acg-adj2    in  
,america1 #adf2    in picture writing1  
#aef-h4   ,sun worship in ,apalacha1    
#gf2    8brother of10 #gg1 #gh2    the  
mother of1 #aai2    four motions of1    
#aeg1 #afa2    worship1 #agj2    place  
of the1 #ic2    creation of1 #ie2       
rays of in symbolism1 #adf1 #bhj4       
,svastika1 the1 as a symbol1 #adh sqq4  
,sweat lodge1 of ,lenp1 #ahg4           
,syllabic writing1 #bca4   ,symbols1    
phonetic1 #aig2    the sacred1 in       
,america1 #adi sqq4   ,symbolic writing1
 #bac4   ,syncope in ,american          
languages1 #cga4   ,syphilis1 sacred    
associations of1 #aae1 #aaf1 #add4      
,taensa language1 the hoax of1 #deb sq4 
,ta ,ki1 a ,chinese symbol1 #adh sqq4   
,tales1 ,indian1 #ahb4   ,tamanaca      

language1 the1 #cca4   ,tamaulipas1     
,sierra of1 #bie4   ,tampa ,bay1 mound  
at1 #ge4   ,tamuch1 a ,huasteca town1   
#bba4   ,tarascas1 a tribe1 #bbh4   ,tat
 ,acmo1 a ,maya deity1 #age4   ,tata    
,polin1 a ,maya sprite1 #agj4   ,tat    
,ich1 a ,maya sprite1 #agj4   ,tennessee
 ,river1 shell heaps on1 #bh4           
,tenochtitlan1 #be1 #he1 #ajj4          
,tenochtitlan1 state of1 #bc1 #bhc4     
,teotihuacan1 ruins of1 #ddf4   ,tepeu1 
sacred name1 meaning of1 #aae4          
,terminos1 ,bahia de1 #bcb4   ,terraba  
language1 the1 #cge sq4   ,tertiary1    
human remains in1 #dc4   ,tezcatlipoca1 
#he1 #ij2    the black and white1 #if2  
contests of1 #ih4   ,tezcuco1 ,state of1
 #bc1 #be1 #hf1 #dde4   ,tezcucans1 the1
 #cfg2    philosophy of1 #aed4          
,thirteen1 as sacred number1 #afa1 #afg4
   ,t',ho1 native name of ,merida1 #bf4 
,thought-writing1 #bac1 #bcj4           
,three-legged figures1 #adi4   ,thunder1
 in mythology1 #agd4   ,tiahuanaco1     
ruins near1 #bf4   ,tiger1 as totemic   

animal1 #aad1 #abh4   ,time1 idea of1   
absent1 #djd4   ,time-wheel1 ,mexican1  
#afj1 #afa4   ,timuquana tribe1 #ge4    
,tin1 use of1 #hf4   ,tinn language1    
#ce1 #cid1 #djj4   ,tiribi language1    
the1 #cge sq4   ,titicaca1 ,lake1 ruins 
near1 #bf4   ,tlacopan1 ,state of1 #bc1 
#bii4   ,tlalocan1 the ,aztec ,paradise1
 #add4   ,tlalocs1 ,aztec rain-gods1    
#add4   ,tlamapa1 hieroglyph of1 #bbe4  
,tla-pallan1 the place of colors1 #hg4  
,tlapan1 hieroglyph of1 #bbd4           
,tobacco1 its origin and extension1 #cc4
   ,tollan1 #ic4   ,tollanatl1 the1 #hf1
 #if4   ,toltecs1 supposed              
mound-builders1 #fg2    their fabulous  
history1 #bd1 #hc-ajj2    their mythical
 home1 #ade4   ,tomahawk1 word for1     
#ahc4   ,tomaka1 a town1 #gg4           
,tonacatecutli1 an ,aztec god1 #if4     
,tonalan1 the sunny place1 #ic4         
,topiltzin1 king of ,tula1 #hd4   ,totem
 marks1 as autographs1 #bcd4   ,totemic 
deities1 #hh1 #aac1 #aad2    divisions  
of ,lenp1 #ahi4   ,tradition1 permanence

 of1 in savages1 #bb4   ,transitions in 
verbs1 #cgj4   ,tree of ,life1 in ,maya 
and ,mexican art1 #afa4   ,trenton      
gravels1 objects discovered in1 #cb1    
#ec4   ,trepanned skulls from ,peru1    
#ahh4   ,trephining1 among the ,lenp1   
#ahh4   ,tribute rolls of ancient       
,mexicans1 #bca4   ,triplicate          
constitution of things1 #aed4   ,triple 
division of the human race1 #eg4        
,triquetrum1 as a symbol1 #adi sqq4     
,triskeles1 a sacred symbol1 #adi sqq4  
,tucurrique1 tribes at1 #cge4   ,tula1  
the story of1 #hc-ajj2    derivation1   
#ic4   ,tupi1 the language1 #cbc1 #cdc1 
#chj sq41 #djj2    love words in1 #dbh4 
,turanian languages1 #eh4   ,turtle     
totem of ,lenp1 #ahi4   ,twins1 the     
divine1 #abe4   ,twelve1 as sacred      
number1 #ahg4   ,tzendal dialect1 #abf4 
,tzontemoc1 ,aztec deity1 #adf4         
,tzontemoc mictlan tecutli1 #bgh-i4     
,tzutuhil dialect1 the1 #ajd1 #dcd4     
,ua ua pach1 a ,maya god1 #agf4         
,ucita1 a town in ,florida1 #ge4        

,underworld1 the1 in ,quiche myth1 #abe2
    in other tribes1 #abh4   ,uniter1   
the ,great1 #aej4   ,unwritten          
languages1 study of1 #cje4              
,ural-,altaic languages1 #eh4   ,ursua1 
,general1 expedition of1 #bci4          
,usumasinta1 river1 #abf4   ,ute        
language1 the1 #cbc4   ,utlatlan1 a     
,quiche city1 #abd4    ,vaku1 a ,quiche 
god1 #abc4   ,valladolid1 in ,yucatan1  
#bcf4   ,vancouver's ,island1 tribes on1
 #bb2    black slate from1 #cb4   ,vara1
 ,spanish1 length of1 #dcf1 #ddf4       
,verb1 the ,american1 #cdg1 #dje4       
,verb1 in ,algonkin grammar1 #aij4      
,vineland1 its position1 #bb1 note4     
,virginia1 antiquities of1 #gj4         
,virginia1 ,west1 ,cherokees in1 #hb4   
,virgin-mother1 the myths of1 #ie1 #if1 
#abd1 #abe4   ,visuaires1 primitive men 
were1 #djh4   ,vizeitas1 tribe1 #cge4   
,vowels1 permutable1 #cih2              
significance of1 #cid4   ,vuch1 the     
opossum1 etc41 #aaa4   ,vukub-came1 a   
,quiche god1 #abd4   ,vukub-hun-ahpu1 a 

,quiche god1 #abd4    ,wampum1 use among
 ,lenap1 #ahh4   ,warraus1 height of1   
#ci4   ,war clubs1 #ahc4   ,war ,songs  
of ,aztecs1 #bii sq4   ,war-whoop1 name 
for1 #ahd4   ,way cot1 a ,maya imp1     
#agh4   ,weighing1 unknown in ,america1 
#dcd1 #ddi4   ,west1 as abode of souls1 
#ada-add4   ,west ,indies1 no paloliths 
in1 #db1 #ee2    native tribes of1 #caj4
   ,wetucks1 a hero-god1 #aca4          
,wheels1 of ,mayas1 for computing time1 
#bfd4   ,wheel-cross1 the1 #aeh4        
,white1 as sacred color1 #aac1 #acb1    
#aff1 #ahf1 #ahh4   ,wigwams of ,lenp1  
#ahe4   ,winds1 the gods of1 #abc1 #age4
   ,winter-counts1 of ,dakotas1 #aci4   
,wisakketjk1 a ,cree hero1 #aca1 #acb4  
,wives1 buying1 #dbd4   ,wooden utensils
 of ,lenp1 #ahe4   ,woods1 the ,man of  
the1 #agf4   ,words1 number of in       
,american tongues1 #cbe4   ,writing1    
different methods of1 #bac1 #bcj4       
,xbalanque1 the ,quiche hero-god1       
#abc-abi4   ,x bolon thoroch1 a ,maya   
imp1 #agh4   ,x',kanleox1 a ,maya       

goddess1 #aff4   ,xibalba1 the ,quiche  
,hades1 #hd1 #abc-abi4   ,xipacoyan1 a  
river1 #hf4   ,xmucane1 a ,quiche       
goddess1 #aah1 #aai1 #abb1 #abd4        
,xocotitlan1 a place name1 #ic4         
,xochicalco1 hieroglyph of1 #bhb4       
,xpiyacoc1 a ,quiche deity1 #aah1 #aai1 
#abd4   ,xquiq1 the ,virgin mother1     
#abd4   ,x tabai1 a ,maya sprite1 #agh4 
,x ,thoh ,chaltun1 a ,maya sprite1 #agh4
    ,yancopek1 a ,maya imp1 #agh4       
,yasous1 tribe1 #gg4   ,ycasqui1 a      
province1 #gd4   ,year counts1 of       
natives1 #aei1 #afj4   ,yellow1         
symbolism of1 #aff1 #afg4   ,yin and    
,yang1 #aea4   ,yucatan1 ancient1 #cjb2 
folk-lore of1 #afc2    dialects in1     
#ajd2    civilization of1 #hd2    ruins 
in1 #bf2    legendary peopling of1 #bd4 
,yum cim-il1 a ,maya divinity1 #afi4    
,yurari1 the language1 #cbi4            
,zaki-nim-ak1 name of a god1 #aac4      
,zaki-nima-tzyiz1 #aac4   ,zapote1      
superstition concerning1 #afi4          
,zapotecs1 a ,mexican tribe1 #bbh4      

,zaztun1 the1 of ,mayas1 #afe4   ,zohol 
chich1 a phantom bird1 #agi4   ,zuis1   
the1 #ajh4  -----  ,footnote #a3        
,prof4 ,h4 ,w4 ,haynes1 in ,the         
,narrative and ,critical ,history of    
,america1 p4 #cbi4 ,edited by ,justin   
,winsor4 ,boston1 #ahhi4  ,footnote #b3 
,this paper was my address as           
vice-president of the ,american         
,association for the ,advancement of    
,science1 before the ,section of        
,anthropology1 at the meeting in #ahhg4 
,i have added the foot notes1 and       
revised the text4  ,footnote #c3        
,vues des ,cordillires1 et ,monumens des
 ,peuples ,indignes de   l',amrique4    
,introduction4  ,footnote #d3    ,see   
,f4 ,michel1 ,dix-huit ,ans chez les    
,sauvages4 ,voyages et ,missions de     
,mgr4 ,henry ,faraud 7,paris1 #ahff71   
and ,emile ,petitot1 ,monographie des   
,dn-,dindji8 7,paris1 #ahgf74  ,footnote
 #e3    ,professor ,gustav ,storm has   
rendered it probable that the ,vineland 
of   the ,northmen was not further south

 than ,nova ,scotia4 ,see his ,studies  
on the ,vineland ,voyages1 in ,mems4 de 
la ,socit ,royale des   ,antiquaires du 
,nord41 #ahhh4  ,footnote #f3    ,such  
was the opinion of the late ,jos        
,fernando ,ramirez1 one of the   most   
acute and learned of ,mexican           
antiquaries4 ,see his words in ,orozco  
y ,berra's ,introduction to the ,cronica
 of ,tezozomoc1 p4 #bac 7,mexico1       
#ahgh74  ,footnote #g3    ,die ,spuren  
der ,aztekischen ,sprache in ,nrdlichen 
,mexiko1 etc4   7,berlin1 #ahei47       
,footnote #h3    ,i would refer the     
reader who cares to pursue this branch  
of the   subject to my analysis of these
 stories in ,the ,myths of the ,new     
,world 7second ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahgf71 
and ,american ,hero-,myths              
7,philadelphia1 #ahhb74  ,footnote #i3  
,the results of the recent 8,hemenway   
,south-western ,exploring   ,expedition0
 do not in the least invalidate this    
statement4  ,footnote #aj3    ,a brief  
but most interesting description of     

these monuments is   preserved in a     
letter to the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 by  
the ,friar ,lorenzo   de ,bienvenida1   
written from ,yucatan in #aedh4         
,footnote #aa3    ,las ,ruinas de       
,tiahuanaco4 ,por ,bartolom ,mitre4     
7,buenos ,ayres1 #ahgi47  ,footnote #ab3
    ,this assertion was attacked by ,dr4
 ,c4 ,c4 ,abbott1 in an address before  
the ,american ,association in #ahhh     
7,proceedings1 ,vol4 ,,xxxvii1 p4 #cjh74
   ,but if we assume the medival period 
of ,european history to have begun      
with the fall of the ,western ,empire1  
,i do not retire from my position4      
,footnote #ac3    ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton1 ,the
 ,floridian ,peninsula1 its ,literary   
,history1 ,indian   ,tribes and         
,antiquities1 p4 #agg-aha               
7,philadelphia1 #ahei74 ,the            
shell-heaps along the ,tennessee ,river 
,i described in the ,annual   ,report of
 the ,smithsonian ,institution1 for     
#ahff1 p4 #cef4  ,footnote #ad3    ,his 
accounts were principally in the ,fourth

 and ,seventh ,reports of   the ,peabody
 ,museum4  ,footnote #ae3    ,see the   
,verhandlungen der ,berliner            
,gesellschaft fr ,anthropologie1        
#ahhf1 #ahhg1 #ahhh4  ,footnote #af3    
,i have brought out the distinction     
between the epoch of simple   implements
 and that of compound implements in an  
article which is   reprinted in this    
collection4 ,the expressions 8early0 and
 8late0   applied to these epochs do not
 refer to absolute periods of time1 but 
are relative to the progress of         
individual civilizations4  ,footnote    
#ag3    ,exceptions are some of the     
,floridian shell-heaps and a limited    
number   elsewhere4  ,footnote #ah3     
,florentine ,ameghino1 ,la ,antiguedad  
del ,hombre en el ,plata1 ,tomo ,,ii1   
p4 #dcd1 et al4 7,buenos ,ayres1 #ahha47
 ,the bow and arrow1 being a   compound 
implement1 nowhere belonged to the      
earliest stage of human   culture4 ,see 
also ,h4 ,w4 ,haynes' article1 8,the    
,bow and ,arrow unknown to   ,palolithic

 ,man10 in ,proceedings of ,boston ,soc4
 ,nat4 ,history1 ,vol4   ,,xxiii4       
,footnote #ai3    ,dr4 ,c4 ,c4 ,abbott1 
the discoverer and principal explorer of
 these   gravels1 reported his          
discoveries in numerous papers1 and     
especially   in his work ,primitive     
,industry1 chap4 xxxii4  ,footnote #bj3 
,expedition durch ,central-,brasilien1  
pp4 #caj-cad 7,leipzig1 #ahhf74         
,footnote #ba3    ,the reference is to  
,mr4 ,horatio ,hale's ,address 8,on the 
,origin of   ,language and the          
,antiquity of ,speaking ,man40 ,see     
,proc4 of the ,am4   ,assoc4 for the    
,adv4 of ,science1 vol4 xxxv41 p4 #bci1 
sq4  ,footnote #bb3    ,ethnographie der
 ,republik ,guatemala1 p4 #aeg 7,zurich1
 #ahhd74  ,footnote #bc3    ,see ,howse1
 ,grammar of the ,cree ,language1 p4    
#adc1 sqq4  ,footnote #bd3    ,this     
question is discussed in more detail in 
the next essay4  ,footnote #be3         
,l',homme ,americain1 ,tome ,i1 p4 #abf4
 ,the tribe is the ,guarayos1 an        

offshoot of the ,guaranis4  ,footnote   
#bf3    ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1    
#ahhd1 p4 #aha4  ,footnote #bg3         
,since this address was delivered ,mr4  
,h4 ,t4 ,cresson has reported the       
finding of chipped implements made of   
argillite in a deposit of   mid-glacial 
age on the banks of the ,delaware       
,river--,proc4 ,boston ,soc4   ,nat4    
,hist4 vol4 xxiv2 and portions of two   
skeletons completely   converted into   
limonite have been exhibited at the     
,academy of ,natural   ,sciences1       
,philadelphia1 from a deposit in        
,florida1 below one   containing the    
remains of the extinct giant bison4     
,footnote #bh3    ,i have discussed this
 fully in a paper in the ,proceedings of
 the   ,amer4 ,philosoph4 ,soc4 for     
#ahhg1 entitled 8,on an ,ancient ,human 
,footprint from ,nicaragua40  ,footnote 
#bi3    ,man must have descended from   
the catarrhine division of the          
anthropoids1 none of which occur in the 
,new ,world4 ,see ,darwin1 ,the         

,descent of ,man1 p4 #aec4  ,footnote   
#cj3    ,address at the ,british        
,association for the ,adv4 of ,science1 
#ahhg4  ,footnote #ca3    ,his article1 
which was first printed in the ,north   
,american ,review1   #ahgj1 may be found
 in ,beach's ,indian ,miscellany1 p4    
#aeh 7,albany1   #ahgg74  ,footnote #cb3
    ,the subject of an address before   
the ,american ,association for the      
,advancement of ,science in #ahhh1 with 
revision4  ,footnote #cc3    ,the       
earliest publication ,i made on this    
subject was in an article on            
,pre-historic ,archology1 contributed to
 ,the ,iconographic   ,encyclopdia      
7,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bh1 ,philadelphia1     
#ahhf74  ,footnote #cd3    ,a possible  
exception may have been along the line  
of the ,mississippi   ,river1 where a   
palolithic workshop appears to have been
 discovered   above ,st4 ,paul1 by ,miss
 ,babbitt4  ,footnote #ce3    ,this     
,paper was read before the ,american    
,association for the   ,advancement of  

,science1 at its meeting in ,cleveland1 
#ahhh4  ,footnote #cf3    ,see ,foley1  
,des ,trois ,grandes ,races ,humaines1  
,paris1 #ahha4  ,footnote #cg3          
,uralaltaische ,vlker und ,sprachen1 p4 
#afg4 ,i do not think that the   verbal 
coincidences pointed out by ,petitot in 
his ,monographie des   ,dn ,dindj1 and  
by ,platzmann in his                    
,amerikanisch-,asiatische               
,etymologien1 merit serious             
consideration4  ,footnote #ch3          
,brinton1 in ,proceedings of the        
,american ,philosophical ,society1 for  
#ahhe2 ,charencey1 ,mlanges de          
,philologie et ,palaographie ,amricaine1
   p4 #hj 7,paris1 #ahhc74 ,see also a  
later ,essay in this volume4  ,footnote 
#ci3    ,this example of misdirected    
erudition may be seen in the ,anales del
   ,museo ,nacional de ,mexico4 ,tomo   
,i4  ,footnote #dj3    ,prof4 ,morse has
 also pointed out to me that the        
,mongolian   arrow-release--one of the  
most characteristic of all releases--has

 been   nowhere found on the ,american  
continent4 ,this is an important fact1  
proving that neither as hunters nor     
conquerors did any stray ,mongols       
leave a mark on ,american culture4      
,footnote #da3    ,hovelacque et ,herv1 
,anthropologie1 pp4 #bca1 #bcd1 #bcf2   
and on the   ,inca bone1 see ,dr4       
,washington ,matthews in the ,american  
,anthropologist1 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #ccg4   
,footnote #db3    ,in ,verhandlungen der
 ,berliner ,anthrop4 ,gesellschaft1     
#ahha-hb4  ,footnote #dc3    ,dr4 ,franz
 ,boas1 whose accurate studies of the   
,indians of the ,northwest   coast are  
well known1 informs me that he has      
rarely or never noted the   oblique eye 
among them4 ,yet precisely on that coast
 we should look for   it1 if the        
,mongolian theory has any foundation4   
,dr4 ,ranke's recent   studies have     
proved the oblique eye to be merely an  
arrest of   development4  ,footnote #dd3
    ,elements d' ,anthropologie1 p4     
#ajjc4  ,footnote #de3    ,when this    

paper appeared in ,science 7,september  
#adth1 #ahhh71 it led   to a reply from 
,dr4 ,h4 ,f4 ,c4 ,ten ,kate1 of ,leyden1
 who had published   various studies    
endeavoring to prove the ,mongoloid     
character of the   ,american race4 ,his 
arguments1 however1 were merely a       
repetition of   those which ,i believe  
,i have refuted in the above article1   
and for   that reason ,i do not include 
the discussion4  ,footnote #df3    ,the 
,north ,americans of ,antiquity1 p4     
#ajf1 7#ahhj47  ,footnote #dg3    ,the  
,mound-,builders1 chap4 xii1 7,cinn41   
#ahgi47  ,footnote #dh3                 
,pre-,historic ,races of the ,united    
,states of ,america1 pp4 #chh1 #cdg1    
7,chicago1 #ahgc47  ,footnote #di3      
,transactions of the ,anthropological   
,society of ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 p4    
#aaf1 7#ahha47  ,footnote #ej3          
,history of the ,five ,nations1         
,introduction1 p4 #af 7,london1 #agej74 
,footnote #ea3    ,meurs des ,sauvages  
,amricains compars aux ,meurs du        

,premiers ,temps1   chap4 xiii4         
,footnote #eb3    ,journal ,historique1 
p4 #cgg4  ,footnote #ec3    ,wanderings 
of an ,artist among the ,indians of     
,north ,america1 p4 #c   7,london1      
#ahei74  ,footnote #ed3    ,h4 ,r4      
,schoolcraft1 ,notes on the ,iroquois1  
pp4 #afb1 #afc1 compare pp4   #ff1 #fg4 
,footnote #ee3    ,squier and ,davis1   
,ancient ,monuments of the ,mississippi 
,valley1 p4   #dd4  ,footnote #ef3      
,aboriginal ,monuments of the ,state of 
,new ,york1 p4 #aa4  ,footnote #eg3     
,mr4 ,s4 ,taylor1 ,american ,journal of 
,science1 vol4 xliv1 p4 #bb4  ,footnote 
#eh3    ,history of ,virginia1 book ii1 
chap4 iii1 ch4 viii4  ,footnote #ei3    
,see a well-prepared article on this    
subject by ,prof4 ,finch1 in the        
,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4    
vii1 p4 #aec4  ,footnote #fj3           
,history of ,virginia1 bk4 iii1 chap4   
vii4  ,footnote #fa3    ,travels1 p4    
#cfg 7,dublin1 #agic74  ,footnote #fb3  
,history of the ,north ,american        

,indians1 p4 #ahd4 ,see note at end of  
this ,essay4  ,footnote #fc3            
,relatione que fece ,alvaro ,nurez1     
detto ,capo di ,vacca1 ,ramusio1        
,viaggi1 tom4 iii1 fol4 #cag1 #cbc      
7,venice1 #aeef47  ,footnote #fd3    ,la
 ,vega1 ,historia de la ,florida1 ,lib4 
ii1 cap4 xxii4  ,footnote #fe3    ,ibid1
 ,lib4 vi1 cap4 vi4 ,see for other      
examples from this work3 ,lib4   ii1    
cap4 xxx1 ,lib4 iv1 cap4 xi1 ,lib4 v1   
cap4 iii1 etc4  ,footnote #ff3          
,relation de ce qui arriva pendant le   
,voyage du ,capitaine ,soto1 p4 #hh     
7,ed4 ,ternaux ,compans74  ,footnote    
#fg3    ,proceedings of the ,american   
,philosophical ,society1 #ahgi-ahhj4    
,footnote #fh3    ,histoire ,notable de 
la ,floride1 pp4 #ach1 #afd1 etc4       
,footnote #fi3    ,brevis ,narratio1 in 
,de ,bry1 ,peregrinationes in ,americam1
 ,pars4 ii1   ,tab4 xl1 7#aeia47        
,footnote #gj3    ,alcazar1             
,chrono-,historia de la ,compania de    
,jesus en la ,provincia de   ,toledo1   

,tom4 ii1 ,dec4 iii1 cap4 vi1 7,madrid1 
#agaj47  ,footnote #ga3    ,the ,present
 ,state of ,his ,majestie's ,isles and  
,territories in   ,america1 p4 #aef1    
7,london1 #affg47  ,footnote #gb3       
,the ,floridian ,peninsula1 p4 #ie1 sqq4
 7,phila4 #ahei47  ,footnote #gc3       
,bartram ,,mss41 in the ,library of the 
,pennsylvania ,historical ,society4     
,footnote #gd3    ,narrative of ,occola 
,nikkanoche1 ,prince of ,econchatti1 by 
his   ,guardian1 pp4 #ga-b1 7,london1   
#ahda47  ,footnote #ge3    ,annals1 in  
,louisiana ,hist4 ,colls41 p4 #aif4     
,footnote #gf3    ,memoires ,historiques
 de la ,louisiane1 ,tome ii1 p4 #aji4   
,footnote #gg3    ,letters ,edifiantes  
et ,curieuses1 ,tome4 i1 p4 #bfa4       
,footnote #gh3    ,history of           
,louisiana1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ahh1 7,eng4    
,trans41 ,london1 #agfc47  ,footnote    
#gi3    ,adair1 ,history of the ,north  
,american ,indians1 pp4 #ahd1           
#ahe3--,william   ,bartram1 ,travels1 p4
 #efa3 ,dumont1 ,memoires ,historiques  

de la   ,louisiane1 ,tome i1 pp4 #bdf1  
#bfd1 et al43 ,bernard ,romans1 ,natural
 and   ,civil ,history of ,florida1 pp4 
#hh-ij1 7a good account47    ,the       
,relations des ,jesuits describe the    
custom among the ,northern   ,indians4  
,footnote #hj3    ,antiquities of the   
,southern ,indians1 particularly the    
,georgian   ,tribes1 p4 #ace1 7,new     
,york1 #ahgc47  ,footnote #ha3    ,for  
particulars of this see my ,myths of the
 ,new ,world1 pp4 #bda-b1   7,new ,york1
 #ahgf47  ,footnote #hb3    ,c4 ,c4     
,jones1 ,monumental ,remains of         
,georgia1 p4 #cb4  ,footnote #hc3       
,ibid41 ,antiquities of the ,southern   
,indians1 p4 #afi4  ,footnote #hd3      
,squier  ,davis1 ,ancient ,monuments of 
the ,mississippi ,valley1 p4 #bi4       
,footnote #he3    ,origin of the ,big   
,mound of ,st4 ,louis1 a paper read     
before the ,st4   ,louis ,academy of    
,science4  ,footnote #hf3    ,thomas ,e4
 ,pickett1 ,the ,testimony of the       
,mounds3 ,considered with   especial    

reference to the ,pre-historic          
,archology of ,kentucky and the         
,adjoining ,states1 pp4 #i1 #bh1        
7,maysville1 #ahgf47  ,footnote #hg3    
,myths of the ,new ,world4 ,by ,d4 ,g4  
,brinton1 chap4 vi4 passim4  ,footnote  
#hh3    ,especially in ,american ,hero  
,myths1 a study in the ,native          
,religions of   the ,western ,continent1
 pp4 #ce1 #fd1 #hb1 etc4 7,philadelphia1
 #ahhb47  ,footnote #hi3    ,m4         
,charnay1 in his essay1 ,la             
,civilisation ,toltque1 published in the
   ,revue d' ,ethnographie1 ,t4 iv41 p4 
#bha1 #ahhe1 states his thesis as       
follows3 8,je veux prouver l'existence  
du ,toltque que certains ont   nie2 je  
veux prouver que les civilisations      
,amricaines ne sont qu'une   seule et   
mme civilisation2 enfin1 je veux prouver
 que cette   civilisation est toltque40 
,i consider each of these statements an 
utter error4 ,in his ,anciennes ,villes 
du ,nouveau ,monde1 ,m4 ,charnay   has  
gone so far as to give a map showing the

 migrations of the ancient   ,toltecs4  
,as a translation of this work1 with    
this map1 has recently   been published 
in this country1 it appears to me the   
more needful that   the baseless        
character of the ,toltec legend be      
distinctly stated4  ,footnote #ij3      
,ixtlilxochitl1 in his ,relaciones      
,historicas 7in ,lord ,kingsborough's   
,antiquities of ,mexico1 ,vol4 ix41 p4  
#ccc71 says that during the reign   of  
,topiltzin1 last king of ,tula1 the     
,toltec sovereignty extended a          
thousand leagues from north to south and
 eight hundred from east to   west2 and 
in the wars that attended its downfall  
five million six   hundred thousand     
persons were slain66  ,footnote #ia3    
,sahagun 7,hist4 de la ,nueva ,espaa1   
,lib4 viii1 cap4 #e7 places the         
destruction of ,tula in the year #cai   
,b4 ,c42 ,ixtlilxochitl 7,historia      
,chichimeca1 iii1 cap4 #d7 brings it    
down to #ifi ,a4 ,d42 the ,codex        
,ramirez 7p4 #be7 to #aafh2 and so on4  

,there is an equal variation about   the
 date of founding the city4  ,footnote  
#ib3    ,since writing the above ,i have
 received from the ,comte de ,charencey 
a   reprint of his article on ,xibalba1 
in which he sets forth the theory   of  
the late ,m4 ,l4 ,angrand1 that all     
ancient ,american civilization was   due
 to two 8currents0 of ,toltecs1 the     
western1 straight-headed   ,toltecs1 who
 entered ,anahuac by land from the      
north-west1 and the   eastern1          
flat-headed ,toltecs1 who came by sea   
from ,florida4 ,it is to   criticise    
such vague theorizing that ,i have      
written this paper4  ,footnote #ic3     
,motolinia1 in his ,historia de los     
,indios de ,nueva ,espaa1 p4 #e1   calls
 the locality 8el puerto llamado        
,tollan10 the pass or gate called       
,tollan4 ,through it1 he states1 passed 
first the ,colhua and later the         
,mexica1 though he adds that some       
maintain these were the same people4    
,in fact1 ,colhua is a form of a word   

which means 8ancestors30 colli1         
forefather2 no-col-huan1 my forefathers2
 ,colhuacan1 8the place of   the        
forefathers10 where they lived4 ,in     
,aztec picture-writing this is          
represented by a hill with a bent top1  
on the 8ikonomatic0 system1 the   verb  
coloa1 meaning to bend1 to stoop4 ,those
 ,mexica who said the   ,colhua         
proceeded them at ,tula1 simply meant   
that their own ancestors   dwelt there4 
,the ,anales de ,cuauhtitlan 7pp4 #bi1  
#cc7 distinctly   states that what      
,toltecs survived the wars which drove  
them southward   became merged in the   
,colhuas4 ,as these wars largely arose  
from civil   dissensions1 the account no
 doubt is correct which states that     
others   settled in ,acolhuacan1 on the 
eastern shore of the principal lake in  
the ,valley of ,mexico4 ,the name means 
8,colhuacan by the water10 and was   the
 ,state of which the capital was        
,tezcoco4  ,footnote #id3    ,this      
description is taken from the map of the

 location in ,m4 ,charnay's   ,anciennes
 ,villes du ,nouveau ,monde1 p4 #hc4    
,the measurements ,i have   made from   
the map do not agree with those stated  
in the text of the   book1 but are1 ,i  
take it1 more accurate4  ,footnote #ie3 
,sometimes called the ,rio de           
,montezuma1 and also the ,tollanatl1    
water of ,tula4 ,this stream plays a    
conspicuous part in the   ,quetzalcoatl 
myths4 ,it appears to be the same as the
 river ,atoyac 7   flowing or spreading 
water1 alt1 toyaua71 or ,xipacoyan 7    
where   precious stones are washed1 from
 xiuitl1 paca1 yan71 referred to   by   
,sahagun1 ,hist4 de la ,nueva ,espaa1   
,lib4 ix41 cap4 #bi4 ,in it were   the  
celebrated 8,baths of ,quetzalcoatl10   
called ,atecpanamochco1 8the   water in 
the tin palace10 probably from being    
adorned with this metal   7,anales de   
,cuauhtitlan74  ,footnote #if3    ,see  
the ,codez ,ramirez1 p4 #bd4 ,why called
 ,snake-,hill the legend says   not4 ,i 
need not recall how prominent an object 

is the serpent in ,aztec   mythology4   
,the name is a compound of coatl1 snake1
 and tepetl1   hill or mountain1 but    
which may also may mean town or city1 as
 such   were usually built on           
elevations4 ,the form ,coatepec is this 
word   with the postposition c1 and     
means 8at the snake-hill10 or1 perhaps1 
8at ,snake-town40  ,footnote #ig3    ,or
 to one of them4 ,the name is preserved 
by ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,relaciones          
,historicas1 in ,kingsborough1 ,mexico1 
,vol4 ix41 p4 #cbf4 ,its   derivation is
 from palli1 a color 7root pa71 and the 
postposition   pan4 ,it is noteworthy   
that this legend states that            
,quetzalcoatl in   his avatar as ,ce    
,acatl was born in the ,palpan1 8,house 
of ,colors20   while the usual story was
 that he came from ,tla-pallan1 the     
place of   colors4 ,this indicates that 
the two accounts are versions of the    
same   myth4  ,footnote #ih3     ,there 
are two ancient ,codices extant1 giving 
in picture-writing the   migrations of  

the ,mexi4 ,they have been repeatedly   
published in part or   in whole1 with   
varying degrees of accuracy4 ,orozco y  
,berra gives their   bibliography in his
 ,historia ,antigua de ,mexico1 ,tom4   
iii4 p4 #fa1   note4 ,these ,codices    
differ widely1 and seem contradictory1  
but ,orozco   y ,berra has reconciled   
them by the happy suggestion that they  
refer to   sequent and not synchronous  
events4 ,there is1 however1 yet much to 
do   before their full meaning is       
ascertained4  ,footnote #ii3    ,the    
name ,aztlan is that of a place and     
,mexitl that of a person1 and   from    
these are derived ,aztecatl1 plural1    
,azteca1 and ,mexicatl1   pl4 ,mexica4  
,the ,azteca are said to have left      
,aztlan under the   guidance of ,mexitl 
7,codex ,ramirez74 ,the radicals of both
 words have   now become somewhat       
obscured in the ,nahuatl4 ,my own       
opinion is that   ,father ,duran 7,hist4
 de ,nueva ,espaa1 ,tom4 i1 p4 #ai7 was 
right in   translating ,aztlan as 8the  

place of whiteness10 el lugar de        
blancura1 from the radical iztac1 white4
 ,this may refer to the   ,east1 as the 
place of the dawn2 but there is also a  
temptation to look   upon ,aztlan as a  
syncope of a-izta-tlan1  8by the salt   
water40    ,mexicatl is a nomen gentile 
derived from ,mexitl1 which was another 
name for the tribal god or early leader 
,huitzilopochtli1 as is   positively    
stated by ,torquemada 7,monarquia       
,indiana1 ,lib4 viii1 cap4   xi74       
,sahagun explains ,mexitl as a compound 
of metl1 the maguey1 and   citli1 which 
means 8hare0 and 8grandmother0 7,hist4  
de ,nueva   ,espaa1 ,lib4 x4 cap4 #bi74 
,it is noteworthy that one of the names 
of   ,quetzalcoatl is ,meconetzin1 son  
of the maguey 7,ixtlilxochitl1 ,rel4    
,hist41 in ,kingsborough1 ,vol4 ix1 p4  
#bch74 ,these two gods were   originally
 brothers1 though each had divers       
mythical ancestors4  ,footnote #ajj3    
,orozco y ,berra1 ,historia ,antigua de 
,mexico1 ,tom4 iii1 cap4 #d4 ,but       

,albert ,gallatin was the first to place
 ,aztlan no further west than           
,michoacan 7,trans4 ,american ,ethnolog4
 ,society1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bjb74   ,orozco
 thinks ,aztlan was the small island    
called ,mexcalla in ,lake   ,chapallan1 
apparently because he thinks this name  
means 8houses of the   ,mexi20 but it   
may also signify 8where there is        
abundance of maguey   leaves10 this     
delicacy being called mexcalli in       
,nahuatl1 and the   terminal a          
signifying location or abundance4 7,see 
,sahagun1 ,historia   de ,nueva ,espaa1 
,lib4 vii1 cap4 #i47 ,at present1 one of
 the smaller   species of maguey is     
called mexcalli4  ,footnote #aja3    ,it
 is quite likely that the stone image   
figured by ,charnay1 ,anciennes         
,villes du ,nouveau ,monde1 p4 #gb1 and 
the stone ring used in the   tlachtli1  
ball play1 which he figures1 p4 #gc1 are
 those referred to   in the historic    
legend4  ,footnote #ajb3    ,the ,codex 
,ramirez1 p4 #bd1 a most excellent      

authority1 is quite   clear4 ,the       
picture-writing--which is really        
phonetic1 or1 as ,i have   termed it1   
ikonomatic--represents the ,coatepetl by
 the sign of a hill   7tepetl7 inclosing
 a serpent 7coatl74 ,tezozomoc1 in his  
,cronica   ,mexicana1 cap4 #b1 presents 
a more detailed but more confused       
account4   ,duran1 ,historia de las     
,indias de ,nueva ,espaa1 cap4 #c1 is   
worthy of   comparison4 ,the artificial 
inundation of the plain to which the    
accounts refer probably means that a    
ditch or moat was constructed to        
protect the foot of the hill4 ,herrera  
says3 8,cercaron de agua el cerro       
llamado ,coatepec40 ,decadas de ,indias1
 ,dec4 iii1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 #aa4         
,footnote #ajc3    ,the ,annals of      
,cuauhtitlan1 a chronicle written in the
 ,nahuatl   language1 gives #cji years  
from the founding to the destruction of 
,tula1 but names a dynasty of only four 
rulers4 ,veitia puts the   founding of  
,tula in the year #gac ,a4 ,d4          

7,historia de ,nueva ,espaa1   cap4     
#bc47 ,let us suppose1 with the         
laborious and critical ,orozco y        
,berra 7notes to the ,codex ,ramirez1 p4
 #baj7 that the ,mexi left ,aztlan   ,a4
 ,d4 #fdh4 ,these three dates would fit 
into a rational chronology1             
remembering that there is an            
acknowledged hiatus of a number of years
   about the eleventh and twelfth       
centuries in the ,aztec records 7,orozco
   y ,berra1 notes to ,codex ,ramirez1  
p4 #bac74 ,the ,anales de   ,cuauhtitlan
 dates the founding of ,tula after that 
of ,tlaxcallan1   ,huexotzinco and      
,cuauhtitlan 7p4 #bi74  ,footnote #ajd3 
,as usual1 ,ixtlilxochitl contradicts   
himself in his lists of rulers4   ,those
 given in his ,historia ,chichimeca are 
by no means the same as   those         
enumerated in his ,relaciones           
,historicas 7,kingsborough1   ,mexico1  
,vol4 ix1 contains all of               
,ixtlilxochitl's writings74 ,entirely   
different from both is the list in the  

,anales de ,cuauhtitlan4 ,how           
completely euhemeristic ,ixtlilxochitl  
is in his interpretations of   ,mexican 
mythology is shown by his speaking of   
the two leading ,nahuatl   divinities   
,tezcatlipoca and ,huitzilopochtli as   
8certain bold warriors0   78ciertos     
caballeros muy valerosos40 ,relaciones  
,historicas1 in   ,kingsborough1 ,vol4  
ix1 p4 #cbf74  ,footnote #aje3    ,see  
the note to page #hd4 ,but it is not at 
all likely that ,tula was   absolutely  
deserted4 ,on the contrary1 ,herrera    
asserts that after the   foundation of  
,mexico and the adjacent cities 7despues
 de la fundacion   de ,mexico i de toda 
la tierra7 it reached its greatest      
celebrity for   skilled workmen4        
,decadas de ,indias1 ,dec4 iii1 ,lib4   
ii1 cap4 #aa4 ,the   general statement  
is that the sites on the ,coatepetl and 
the adjacent   meadows were unoccupied  
for a few years--the ,anales de         
,cuauhtitlan   says nine years--after   
the civil strife and massacre1 and then 

were   settled again4 ,the ,historia de 
los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas1 cap4  
#aa1 says1 8y ansi fueron muertos todos 
los de ,tula1 que no qued   ninguno40   
,footnote #ajf3    ,see ,buschmann1     
,ueber die ,aztekischen ,ortsnamen1 ss4 
#fhb1 #ghh4 ,orozco   y ,berra1         
,geografia de las ,lenguas de ,mejico1  
pp4 #bdh1 #bee4  ,footnote #ajg3        
,historia de las ,indias ,occidentales1 
,dec4 iii1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 ,,ii4         
,footnote #ajh3    ,relaciones          
,historicas1 in ,kingsborough's ,mexico1
 ,vol4 ix1 p4 #cib4   ,compare his      
,historia ,chichimeca4  ,footnote #aji3 
,buschmann1 ,ueber die ,aztekischen     
,ortsnamen1 ss4 #fhb1 #gig4  ,footnote  
#aaj3    ,cronica ,mexicana1 cap4 #a1   
8,partieron de alli y vinieron  la parte
   que llaman ,coatepec1 trminos de     
,tonalan1 lugar del sol40 ,in ,nahuatl  
tonallan usually means summer1 sun-time4
 ,it is syncopated from   tonalli and   
tlan2 the latter is the locative        
termination2   tonalli means warmth1    

sunniness1 akin to tonatiuh1 sun2 but it
   also means soul1 spirit1 especially  
when combined with the possessive       
pronouns1 as totonal1 our soul1 our     
immaterial essence4 ,by a further       
syncope tonallan was reduced to ,tollan 
or ,tullan1 and by the   elision of the 
terminal semi-vowel1 this again became  
,tula4 ,this name   may therefore mean  
8the place of souls10 an accessory      
signification   which doubtless had its 
influence on the growth of the myths    
concerning the locality4    ,it may be  
of some importance to note that ,tula or
 ,tollan was not at   first the name of 
the town1 but of the locality--that is1 
of the warm   and fertile meadow-lands  
at the foot of the ,coatepetl4 ,the town
 was at   first called ,xocotitlan1 the 
place of fruit1 from xocotl1 fruit1     
ti1 connective1 and tlan1 locative      
ending4 7,see ,sahagun1 ,historia   de  
,nueva ,espaa1 ,lib4 x1 cap4 #bi1 secs4 
#a and #ab47 ,this name was also        
applied to one of the quarters of the   

city of ,mexico when conquered by       
,cortes1 as we learn from the same      
authority4  ,footnote #aaa3             
,buschmann1 ,ueber die ,aztekischen     
,ortsnamen1 ss4 #gid1 #gig1 7,berlin1   
#aheb47  ,footnote #aab3    ,the verbal 
radical is tona1 to warm 7hazer calor1  
,molina1   ,vocabulario de la ,lengua   
,mexicana1 s4 v472 from this root come  
many   words signifying warmth1         
fertility1 abundance1 the sun1 the east1
 the   summer1 the day1 and others      
expressing the soul1 the vital          
principle1   etc4 ,simon1 ,dict4 de la  
,langue ,nahuatl1 s4 v4 tonalli4 ,as in 
the   ,algonkin dialects the words for  
cold1 night and death are from the      
same root1 so in ,nahuatl are those for 
warmth1 day and life4 7,comp4           
,duponceau1 ,mmoire sur les ,langues de 
l',amrique du ,nord1 p4 #cbg1   ,paris1 
#ahcf47  ,footnote #aac3    ,coatlan1   
to-nan1 from coatl1 serpent2 tlan1      
among2 to-nan1 our   mother4 ,she was   
the goddess of flowers1 and the florists

 paid her   especial devotion 7,sahagun1
 ,historia1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 #bb74 ,a     
precinct   of the city of ,mexico was   
named after her1 and also one of the    
edifices in the great temple of the     
city4 ,here captives were   sacrificed  
to her and to the ,huitznahua4 7,ibid41 
,lib4 ii4 ,appendix4   ,see also        
,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana1 ,lib4 
x4 cap4 #ab47  ,footnote #aad3          
,centzon ,huitznahua1 8the ,four        
,hundred ,diviners with ,thorns40 ,four 
hundred1 however1 in ,nahuatl means any 
indeterminate large number1 and   hence 
is properly translated myriad1 legion4  
,nahuatl means wise1   skillful1 a      
diviner1 but is also the proper name of 
the   ,nahuatl-speaking tribes2 and as  
the ,nahuas derived their word for      
south from huitzli1 a thorn1 the        
,huitznahua may mean 8the southern      
,nahuas40 ,sahagun had this in his mind 
when he said the ,huitznahua were       
goddesses who dwelt in the south        
7,historia de ,nueva ,espaa1 ,lib4      

vii1 cap4 #e74 ,the word is taken by    
,father ,duran as the proper name of    
an individual1 as we shall see in a     
later note4  ,footnote #aae3            
,huitzilopochtli1 from huitzilin1       
humming-bird1 opochtli1 the   left side 
or hand4 ,this is the usual derivation2 
but ,i am quite sure   that it is an    
error arising from the ikonomatic       
representation of the   name4 ,the name 
of his brother1 ,huitznahua1 indicates  
strongly that the   prefix of both names
 is identical4 ,this1 ,i doubt not1 is  
from   huitz-tlan1 the south2 ilo1 is   
from iloa1 to turn2 this gives us   the 
meaning 8the left hand turned toward the
 south40 ,orozco y ,berra   has pointed 
out that the ,mexica regarded           
left-handed warriors as the   more      
formidable 7,historia ,antigua de       
,mexico1 ,tom4 i1 p4 #abe74 ,along      
with this let it be remembered that the 
legend states that   ,huitzilopochtli   
was born in ,tula1 and insisted on      
leading the ,mexica   toward the south1 

the opposition to which by his brother  
led to the   massacre and to the        
destruction of the town4  ,footnote     
#aaf3    ,this myth is recorded by      
,sahagun1 ,historia de ,nueva ,espaa1   
,lib4   iii1 cap4 #a1 8,on the ,origin  
of the ,gods40 ,it is preserved with    
some   curious variations in the        
,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus     
,pinturas1 cap4 #aa4 ,when the gods     
created the sun they also formed   four 
hundred men and five women for him to   
eat4 ,at the death of the   women their 
robes were preserved1 and when the      
people carried these to   the ,coatepec1
 the five women came again into being4  
,one of these was   ,coatlicue1 an      
untouched virgin1 who after four years  
of fasting placed   a bunch of white    
feathers in her bosom1 and forthwith    
became pregnant4   ,she brought forth   
,huitzilopochtli completely armed1 who  
at once   destroyed the ,huitznahua4    
,father ,duran translates all of this   
into   plain history4 ,his account is   

that when the ,aztecs had occupied      
,tollan   for some time1 and had        
fortified the hill and cultivated the   
plain1 a   dissension arose4 ,one party1
 followers of ,huitzilopochtli1 desired 
to   move on2 the other1 headed by a    
chieftain1 ,huitznahua1 insisted on     
remaining4 ,the former attacked the     
latter at night1 massacred them1        
destroyed the water-dams and buildings1 
and marched away 7,historia de   las    
,indias de ,nueva ,espaa1 ,tom4 i1 pp4  
#be1 #bf74 ,according to several        
accounts1 ,huitznahua was the brother of
 ,huitzilopochtli4 ,see my   ,american  
,hero ,myths1 p4 #ha4  ,footnote #aag3  
,i have discussed both these accounts in
 my ,american ,hero ,myths1   chap4     
iii41 and need not repeat the           
authorities here4  ,footnote #aah3      
,the most highly-colored descriptions of
 the mythical ,tula are to be   found in
 the third and tenth book of ,sahagun's 
,historia de ,nueva   ,espaa1 in the    
,anales de ,cuauhtitlan1 and in the     

various writings   of ,ixtlilxochitl4   
,later authors1 such as ,veitia1        
,torquemada1 etc41   have copied from   
these4 ,ixtlilxochitl speaks of the     
8legions of   fables0 about ,tulan and  
,quetzalcoatl which even in his day were
 still   current 78otras trescientas    
fabulas que aun todavia corren40        
,relaciones ,historicas1 in             
,kingsborough1 ,mexico1 ,vol4 ix1 p4    
#ccb74  ,footnote #aai3    ,in the      
collection of ,ancient ,nahuatl ,poems1 
which forms the seventh   volume of my  
,library of ,aboriginal ,american       
,literature1 p4 #ajd1 ,i   have printed 
the original text of one of the old     
songs recalling the   glories of ,tula1 
with its 8house of beams10 huapalcalli1 
and its   8house of plumed serpents10   
coatlaquetzalli1 attributed to          
,quetzalcoatl4  ,footnote #abj3    ,les 
,anciennes ,villes du ,nouveau ,monde1  
p4 #hd 7,paris1 #ahhe74  ,footnote #aba3
    ,historia de ,nueva ,espaa1 ,lib4   
viii1 cap4 #e4  ,footnote #abb3         

,father ,duran relates1 8,even to this  
day1 when ,i ask the ,indians1 #8,who   
created this pass in the mountains8 ,who
 opened this spring8 ,who   discovered  
this cave8 or1 ,who built this edifice8'
 they reply1 #8,the   ,toltecs1 the     
disciples of ,papa4'0 ,historia de las  
,indias de ,nueva   ,espaa1 cap4 #gi4   
,papa1 from papachtic1 the bushy-haired 
was one   of the names of ,quetzalcoatl4
 ,but the earlier missionary1 ,father   
,motilinia1 distinctly states that the  
,mexica invented their own arts1   and  
owed nothing to any imaginary teachers1 
,toltecs or others4 8,hay   entre todos 
los ,indios muchos oficios1 y de todos  
dicen que fueron   inventores los       
,mexicanos40 ,historia de los ,indios de
 la ,nueva   ,espaa1 ,tratado iii1 cap4 
viii4  ,footnote #abc3    ,quetzalcoatl 
announced that his return should take   
place #ejab years   after his final     
departure1 as is mentioned by           
,ixtlilxochitl 7in   ,kingsborough1     
,mexico1 ,vol4 ix1 p4 #ccb74 ,this      

number has probably   some mystic       
relation to the calendar4  ,footnote    
#abd3    ,american ,hero ,myths1 p4 #ce4
 ,the only writer on ancient ,american  
history before me who has wholly        
rejected the ,toltecs is1 ,i believe1   
,albert ,gallatin4 ,in his able and     
critical study of the origin of         
,american civilization 7,transactions of
 the ,american ,ethnological   ,society1
 ,vol4 i1 p4 #bjc7 he dismissed them    
entirely from historical   consideration
 with the words3 8,the tradition        
respecting the ,toltecs   ascends to so 
remote a date1 and is so obscure and    
intermixed with   mythological fables1  
that it is impossible to designate      
either the   locality of their primitive
 abodes1 the time when they first       
appeared   in the vicinity of the       
,valley of ,mexico1 or whether they were
 preceded   by nations speaking the same
 or different languages40 ,had this     
well-grounded skepticism gained the ears
 of writers since #ahde1 when   it was  

published1 we should have been saved a  
vast amount of rubbish   which has been 
heaped up under the name of history4    
,dr4 ,otto ,stoll 7,guatemala2 ,reisen  
und ,schilderungen1 ss1 #djh1 #dji1     
,leipzig1 #ahhf7 has joined in rejecting
 the ethnic existence of the   ,toltecs4
 ,as in later ,nahuatl the word         
toltecatl meant not only   8resident of 
,tollan10 but also 8artificer0 and      
8trader10 ,dr4 ,stoll   thinks that the 
,central ,american legends which speak  
of 8,toltecs0   should be interpreted   
merely as referring to foreign mechanics
 or   pedlers1 and not to any particular
 nationality4 ,i quite agree with   this
 view4  ,footnote #abe3    ,andrew      
,lang1 ,custom and ,myth1 p4 #bh4       
,footnote #abf3    ,revised extracts    
from an article read before the         
,american   ,philosophical ,society in  
#ahha4  ,footnote #abg3    ,las         
,historias del ,origen de los ,indios de
 esta ,provincia de   ,guatemala4 ,por  
el ,r4 ,p4 ,f4 ,francisco ,ximenez4     

,footnote #abh3    ,see ,dr4 ,otto      
,stoll1 ,ethnographie der ,republik     
,guatemala1 p4 #aah4 ,i   regret to     
differ from this able writer1 whose     
studies of the ,quiche   und ,cakchiquel
 are the most thorough yet made1 and    
from whose version   the above          
translation of the opening lines of the 
,popol ,vuh is   taken4  ,footnote #abi3
    ,in his ,,ms4 ,dictionary is the    
following entry3    8,,poder3           
vtziniabal1 vel vtzintaibal2 deste      
nombre usa la   ,cartilla en el ,credo  
para decir por obra vel poder del       
,spirito   ,santo4 ,al poder que tienen 
los ,sacerdotes de perdonar pecados y   
dar   sacramentos1 se llaman1 o an      
llamado1 puz1 naual4 ,asi el ,ph4 ,varea
   en su ,diccionario y el ,sancto ,vico
 en la ,theologia ,indorum usa en       
muchas partes destos vocablos en este   
sentido4 ,ya no estan tan en uso1   pues
 entienden por el nombre poder y        
vtzintaibal2 y son vocablos   que       
antiguamente aplicaban a sus idolos1 y  

oy se procura que vayan   olbidando todo
 aquello con que se les puede hacer     
memoria dellos40  ,footnote #acj3       
,coto says1 8,vugh2 nota que esta mesmo 
nombre tiene un genero de   baile en que
 con los pies dan bueltas a un palo2    
tambien signfica el   temblor de cuerpo 
que da con la terciana1 o la misma      
cission2   significa asi mesmo quando   
quiere ya amanescer aquel ponerse escuro
 el   cielo2 tambien quando suele estar 
el agua del rio o laguna1 por           
antiparastassis1 caliente1 al tal       
calorsillo llaman ,vugh40  ,footnote    
#aca3    ,i have traced the growth of   
this myth in detail in ,the ,myths of   
the   ,new ,world1 a ,treatise on the   
,symbolism and ,mythology of the ,red   
,race   of ,america1 chap4 vi1 7,new    
,york1 #ahgf47 ,dr4 ,otto ,stoll in his 
most   recent discussion of the myth of 
,hunahpu does not urge the meaning      
8opossum hunter10 and remarks that in   
the ,pokonchi dialect henahpo   means   
8moon-man10 and 8month10 referring      

therefore to a night-god4   ,ethnologie 
der ,indianer ,stmme von ,guatemala1 p4 
#cb1 7,leyden1 #ahhi47  ,footnote #acb3 
,popol ,vuh1 p4 #dj4  ,footnote #acc3   
,ibid4 pp4 #bbe1 #bdi4  ,footnote #acd3 
,ibid4 p4 #cad4  ,footnote #ace3    ,die
 ,indianer von ,santa ,catalina         
,istlavacan2 ein ,beitrag zur           
,culturgeschichte der ,urbewohner       
,central ,amerikas4 ,von ,dr4 ,karl     
,scherzer1 p4 #i 7,wien1 #ahef74        
,footnote #acf3    ,ibid41 p4 #aa4      
,footnote #acg3    ,escolios  las       
,historias del ,origen de los ,indios1  
p4 #aeg4  ,footnote #ach3    ,to quote  
his words3    8,,bubas3 galel vel tepex4
 99 99 ,quando an pasado dicen xin colah
   ahauarem1 id est1 ya an dejado su    
seoria1 porque el que las tiene se      
esta sentado1 sin hacer cosa1 como si   
fuese seor  seora4    8,,se,,ora3       
xogohau2 ,seoria1 xogohauarem4 99 99    
,deste nombre xogohau   vsan            
metaphoricamente para decir que una     
muger moza tiene bubas2   porque se esta

 sin hacer cosa1 mano sobre mano1 99 99 
y quando a anado   de la enfermedad1    
dicen1 si es varn3 xucolah rahauarem    
achi rumal   tepex4 ,tepex es la        
enfermedad de bubas40  ,footnote #aci3  
,sahagun1 ,historia de ,nueva ,espaa1   
,lib4 vii1 cap4 #b4 ,he translates      
,nanahuatzih1 8el buboso10 ,comp4       
,boturini1 ,idea de una ,nueua          
,historia de la ,america1 pp4 #cg1 #ch4 
,footnote #adj3    ,the ,,ms4           
,dictionary of ,coto says1 s4 v4        
,corazon3 8,attribuenle todos los       
affectos de las potencias1 memoria y    
entendimiento y voluntad1 99 99   unde  
ahgux1 el cuidadoso1 entendido1         
memorioso 99 992 toman este   nombre gux
 por el alma de la persona1 y por el    
spirito vital de todo   viviente1 v4 g4 
xel ru gux ,pedro1 muri ,pedro1 vel1    
salio el alma de   ,pedro1 99 99 deste  
nombre gux se forma el verbo tin gux    
lah1 por   pensar1 cuidar1 imaginar40   
,footnote #ada3    8,de adonde10 remarks
 ,granados y ,galvez1 8viene que mis    

,otomites1 de   una misma manera llaman 
la alma que al corazon1 aplicandoles    
entrambos la voz muy40 ,tardes          
,americanas1 ,tarde iv1 p4 #aja4        
7,mexico1 #aggh47  ,footnote #adb3      
,ximenez1 ,gramatica de la ,lengua      
,quiche1 p4 #ag4  ,footnote #adc3       
,popol ,vuh1 pp4 #ah1 #bj1 #bc1 #fi1    
etc4  ,footnote #add3    8,cosa que esta
 encubierta  enterrada40 ,the           
,diccionario de ,motul is   the most    
complete dictionary of the ,maya ever   
made4 ,it dates from   about #aeij and  
has its name from the town of ,motul1   
,yucatan1 where it   was written4 ,the  
author is unknown4 ,only two copies of  
it are in   existence1 one1 very        
carefully made1 with numerous notes1 by 
,dr4   ,berendt1 is in my possession4   
,it is a thick #dto of #aejj pages4     
,footnote #ade3    ,relacion de las     
,cosas de ,yucatan1  ,,xxxiii4          
,footnote #adf3    8,r'atit zih1 r'atit 
zak10 ,popol ,vuh1 pp4 #ah1 #bj4        
,footnote #adg3    ,especially the      

membrum virile1 ,pio ,perez1            
,diccionario de la ,lengua   ,maya1 s4  
v4  ,footnote #adh3    8,entrar1        
juntarse el macho con la hembra40       
,brasseur1 ,vocabulaire ,maya   vancais1
 s4 v4  ,footnote #adi3    ,popol ,vuh1 
pp4 #h1 #ad4  ,footnote #aej3    ,i take
 the following entries from ,coto's     
,,mss43    8,,larga ,,cosa3 ,lo         
ordinario es poner rakan para significar
 la largura   de palo1 cordel1 etc4     
8,,gigante3 hu rapah rakan chi vinak1 hu
 chogah rakan chi vanak2 este   nombre  
se usa de todo animal que en su specie  
es mas alto que los   otros4 ,meo4 ,pe  
,saz1 serm4 de circumsciss1 dice del    
,gigante ,golias3   tugotic rogoric     
rakan chiachi ,gigante ,golias40        
,ignorant1 apparently1 of this meaning1 
,dr4 ,stoll continues in his   latest   
work to interpret ,hurakan 8with one    
foot40 ,die ,ethnologie der   ,indianer 
,stmme von ,guatemala1 p4 #ca1 7,leiden1
 #ahhi47 ,the chapter on   mythology is 
the least satisfactory in this important

 work4  ,footnote #aea3    ,de la       
,borde1 ,relation de l'origine1 etc41   
des ,caraibes1 p4 #g4   7,paris1 #afgd47
  ,footnote #aeb3    ,las ,casas1       
,historia ,apologetica de las ,indias   
,occidentales1 cap4   cxxiv 7,madrid    
edition73 ,p4 ,f4 ,alonzo ,fernandez1   
,historia   ,ecclesiastica de ,nuestros 
,tiempos1 p4 #acg 7,toledo1 #afaa74     
,footnote #aec3    ,dissertation sur les
 ,mythes de l',antiquit ,americane1  #h 
7,paris1   #ahfa72 see also his note to 
the ,popol ,vuh1 p4 #gj4  ,footnote     
#aed3    ,ch'u qux uleu1 8in its heart  
the earth40 7,coto1 ,dicc4 s4 v47       
,coto adds that the ancient meaning of  
the word was a ghost or vision   of a   
departed spirit--8antiguamente este     
nombre ,xibalbay significaba   el       
demonio1 vel los diffuntos  visiones que
 se les aperescian1 y asi   decian1 y   
aun algunos ay que lo dicen oy xuqutzii 
xibalbay ri cetzam   chi nu vach1 se me 
apereci el diffunto40  ,footnote #aee3  
8,el ,demonio se llamaba ,xibilha1 que  

quiere decir el que se desparece        
desbanece40 ,historia de ,yucatan1 ,lib4
 iv1 cap4 vii4 ,cogolludo had   lived in
 ,yucatan twenty-one years when he was  
making the final   revision of his      
,history1 and was moderately well       
acquainted with the   ,maya tongue4     
,footnote #aef3    ,the ,diccionario de 
,motul1 ,,ms41 gives3    8,,xibil1 xibi1
 xibic3 cundir como gota de aceita2     
esparcirse la   comida en la digestion1 
y deshacerse la sal1 nieve  yelo1 humo  
niebla4 ,item3 desparecerse una vision  
fantasma4 ,item3 temblar de   miedo y   
espantarse40  ,footnote #aeg3    ,de    
,legibus1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 #b4  ,footnote 
#aeh3    8,les petits ,tigres10 ,mythes 
de l',antiquit ,americane1  viii1 ,popol
   ,vuh1 p4 #cd1 note4  ,footnote #aei3 
,compendio de ,nombres en ,lengua       
,cakchiquel1 ,,ms4  ,footnote #afj3     
,las ,historias del ,origen de los      
,indios1 p4 #af4  ,footnote #afa3       
,father ,varea1 in his ,calepino de la  
,lengua ,cakchiquel4 ,,ms41 gives   the 

following entries3    8,,balam3 el      
tigre1 zakbalam1 tigre pequeo de su     
naturelezo2 gana   balam1 el grande1    
tainbein siga un signo de los ,indios4  
,maceval gih   ,po balam1  ,maria       
xbalam4 ,balam se llama el echizero40   
8,queh3 el venado4 ,siga un cierto dia2 
otras veces dos dias2 otras   veces es  
signo de trece1 otras veces cinco  seis 
dias  la quenta de   los ,indios3 xa hun
 queh v gih1 1 cay queh1 voo queh1      
vahaki1   1 oxlahuh queh40  ,footnote   
#afb3    ,published in the ,american    
,antiquarian1 for ,may1 #ahhe4          
,footnote #afc3    ,the ,algonquin      
,legends of ,new ,england1 7,boston1    
#ahhd47  ,footnote #afd3    ,the ,micmac
 word klooskbwe1 means 8he is a cheat10 
probably one   who cheats by lying4 ,see
 ,rand1 ,micmac ,dictionary1 s4 v4 ,a   
cheat4  ,footnote #afe3    ,dictionnaire
 de la ,langue des ,cris1 sub4 voce     
,wisakketjk4 8,homme   fabuleux des     
diffrentes tribus du ,nord1 auquel elles
 attribuent une   puissance             

surnaturelle1 avec un grand nombre de   
ruses1 de tours1 et de   folies4 ,il est
 regard comme le principal gnie et le   
fondateur de ces   nations4 ,chez les   
,sauteux on l'appelle ,nenaboj1 chez les
   ,pieds-,noirs1 ,npiw4 ,wisakkeljakow1
 ,c'est un fourbe1 un trompeur40        
,footnote #aff3     ,baraga1 ,otchipwe  
,dictionary4  ,footnote #afg3    ,key   
into the language of ,america1 p4 #bd4  
,footnote #afh3    ,lexique de la       
,langue ,algonquine1 p4 #ddc4           
7,montreal1 #ahhf47  ,footnote #afi3    
,see his article in ,the ,american      
,review1 for #ahdh1 entitled            
8,manabozho and the ,great ,serpent1 an 
,algonquin legend40  ,footnote #agj3    
,algic ,researches1 ,vol4 #a1 p4 #acd4  
,footnote #aga3    ,an address delivered
 at the annual meeting of the           
,numismatic and   ,antiquarian ,society 
of ,philadelphia1 and published in its  
,proceedings for #ahhc4  ,footnote #agb3
    ,this paper was read before the     
,american ,philosophical ,society in    

,december1 #ahhh1 and was printed in its
 ,proceedings4  ,footnote #agc3    ,dr4 
,e4 ,t4 ,hamy1 ,an ,interpretation of   
one of the ,copan ,monuments1 in        
,journal of the ,anthropological        
,institute1 ,february #ahhg2 also1      
,revue d' ,ethnographie1 #ahhf1 p4 #bcc2
 same author1 ,le ,svastika et la       
,roue ,solaire en ,amrique1 ,revue d'   
,ethnographie1 #ahhe1 p4 #bb4 ,e4       
,beauvois1 in ,annales de ,philosophie  
,chretienne1 #ahgg1 and in various      
later publications4 ,ferraz de ,macedo1 
,essai ,critique sur les ,ages          
,prehistorique de ,bresil1 ,lisbon1     
#ahhg1 etc4  ,footnote #agd3    ,see his
 article1 8,art in ,shell of the        
,ancient ,americans10 ,second   ,annual 
,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 p4
 #bgj4  ,footnote #age3    ,see his     
article in ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 
#ahhf1 p4 #bbc4  ,footnote #agf3    ,von
 ,luchan1 in ,zeitschrift fr            
,ethnologie1 #ahhf1 p4 #cja4  ,footnote 
#agg3    ,see ,dumoutier1 ,le ,svastika 

et la ,roue ,solaire en ,chine1 in      
,revue d'   ,ethnologie1 #ahhe1 pp4     
#ccc1 sq4  ,footnote #agh3    ,i am     
indebted for some of these explanations 
to ,mr4 ,k4 ,sungimoto1 an   intelligent
 ,japanese gentleman1 well acquainted   
with ,chinese1 late   resident in       
,philadelphia4  ,footnote #agi3         
,george ,copway1 ,traditional ,history  
of the ,ojibway ,nation1 p4 #acd4 ,it   
will be noted that in the sign for      
sunrise the straight line meets the     
curve at its left extremity1 and for    
sunset at its right4 ,this   results    
from the superstitious preference of    
facing the south rather   than the      
north4  ,footnote #ahj3    ,the         
triplicate constitution of things is a  
prominent feature of the   ancient      
,mexican philosophy1 especially that of 
,tezcuco4 ,the visible   world was      
divided into three parts1 the earth     
below1 the heavens   above1 and man's   
abode between them4 ,the whole was      
represented by a   circle divided into  

three parts1 the upper part painted     
blue1 the   lower brown1 the centre     
white 7,see ,duran1 ,historia1 ,lam4    
#ae;a1 for   an example74 ,each of these
 three parts was subdivided into three  
parts1 so that when the ,tezcucan king  
built a tower as a symbol of the        
universe1 he called it 8,the ,tower of  
,nine ,stories0 7see my ,ancient        
,nahuatl ,poetry1 ,introduction1 p4     
#cf74  ,footnote #aha3    ,mallery1     
,pictography of the ,north ,american    
,indians1 in ,fourth   ,annual ,report  
of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 p4 #bci4  
,footnote #ahb3    ,captivity and       
,adventures of ,john ,tanner1 pp4 #cei1 
#cfj4  ,footnote #ahc3    ,dr4 ,ferraz  
de ,macedo1 ,essai ,critique sur les    
,ages ,prehistorique de   ,bresil1 p4   
#ch 7,lisbonne1 #ahhg74  ,footnote #ahd3
    ,op4 cit41 p4 #ch4  ,footnote #ahe3 
,see ,worsaae1 ,danish ,arts1 and       
,virchow1 in various numbers of the     
,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie4 ,the       
ring-cross is a common figure in        

,american symbolism and decorative art4 
,it frequently occurs on the   shields  
depicted in the ,bologna ,codex1 and the
 two codices of the   ,vatican          
7,kingsborough's ,antiquities of        
,mexico1 ,vols4 ii4 and iii74   ,dr4    
,ferraz de ,macedo says that the most   
common decorative design on   both      
ancient and modern native ,brazilian    
pottery is the ring-cross in   the form 
of a double spiral1 as in ,fig4 #ai     
7,essai ,critique sur les   ,ages       
,prehistorique de ,bresil1 p4 #dj74 ,a  
very similar form will be   found in the
 ,bologna ,codex1 pl4 xviii1 in         
,kingsborough's ,mexico1   ,vol4 ii4    
,footnote #ahf3    ,see ,mallery1       
,pictography of the ,north ,american    
,indians1 pp4 #hh1 #hi1   #abh1 etc4    
,footnote #ahg3    ,this name is given  
in ,landa1 ,relacion de las ,cosas de   
,yucatan1 p4   #cac4  ,footnote #ahh3   
,historia de la ,nueva ,espaa1 ,trat4   
,,iii1 cap4 i4  ,footnote #ahi3         
,printed originally in ,the ,folk-,lore 

,journal1 ,london1 #ahhc4  ,footnote    
#aij3    ,informe del ,seor ,cura de    
,yaxcab1 ,don ,bartolom del ,granado    
,baeza1   in the ,registro ,yucateco1   
tomo i1 pp4 #afe et seq4    ,the ,rev4  
,estanislao ,carrillo was cura of       
,ticul1 where he died in #ahdf4   ,he   
was a zealous archologist1 and is       
frequently mentioned by ,mr4   ,stephens
 in his travels in ,yucatan4 ,he is     
deservedly included in the   ,manual de 
,biografia ,yucateca of ,don ,francisco 
de ,p4 ,sosa 7,merida1   #ahff74 ,his   
article on the subject of the text      
appeared in the   ,registro ,yucateco1  
tomo iv4 p4 #ajc4  ,footnote #aia3      
8,de idolatras paganos que eran1 solo se
 ha conseguido que se   conviertan en   
idolatras cristianos40--,apolinar       
,garcia y ,garcia1   ,historia de la    
,guerra de ,castas en ,yucatan1         
,prologo1 p4 xxiv   7,merida1 #ahfe74   
,footnote #aib3    ,landa1 ,relacion de 
las ,cosas de ,yucatan1 pp4 #bjh et seq4
 ,the work   of ,landa was first printed

 at ,paris in #ahfd4  ,footnote #aic3   
,charencey1 ,des ,couleurs considres    
comme ,symboles des ,points de          
l',horizon chez les ,peuples du         
,nouveau-,monde1 in the ,actes de la    
,socit ,philologique1 tome vi 7,octobre 
#ahgf74  ,footnote #aid3                
,chrestomathie de ,litrature ,maya1 p4  
#aja1 in the second volume of   the     
,etudes sur le ,systme ,graphique et la 
,langue des ,mayas 7,paris1   #ahgj74   
,footnote #aie3    8,la fiesta de fuego1
 que hasta ahora en esta provincia se   
hacia40--,fr4   ,diego ,lopez           
,cogolludo1 ,historia de ,yucatan1 tomo 
i1 p4 #dhc 7#c;d ed4   ,merida1 #ahfg74 
,footnote #aif3    ,thomas ,gage1 ,a    
,new ,survey of the ,west ,indis1 pp4   
#cgg et seq4   7,london1 #afii74 ,the   
,abb ,brasseur is willing to consider   
these tales   fictitious1 8suppos qu'ils
 n'eussent eu1 en realit1 aucune        
communication avec les puissances du    
monde invisible10 about which1          
however1 he is evidently not altogether 

sure4--,voyage sur l',isthme de         
,tehuantepec1 p4 #age 7,paris1 #ahfb74  
,footnote #aig3    ,popol ,vuh1 le      
,livre ,sacr des ,quiches1 p4 #cae      
7,paris1 #ahfd74  ,footnote #aih3       
,the derivation of this word is from    
kat1 which in the ,dicionario           
,maya-,espaol del ,convento de ,motul1  
,,ms4 of about #aehj1 is defined as     
8la tierra y barro de las olleras10 but 
which ,perez in his modern ,maya        
dictionary translates 8ollas  figuras de
 barro02 ob1 is the plural              
termination2 lox1 is strong1 or the     
strength of anything2 h' or   ah1 as it 
is often written1 is the rough breathing
 which in ,maya   indicates the         
masculine gender4  ,footnote #aii3      
,from the ,journal of ,american         
,folk-lore1 #ahhh4  ,footnote #bjj3     
,the form from which he derives it is   
lenni-peu4  ,footnote #bja3    ,read    
before the ,anthropological ,section of 
the ,american ,association   for the    
,advancement of ,science1 at ,buffalo1  

,august1 #ahhf1 and   published in the  
,american ,antiquarian in ,november of  
the same year4  ,footnote #bjb3         
,study or the ,,ms4 ,troano1 p4 #ada4   
,footnote #bjc3    ,erluterungen der    
,maya ,hand-schrift1 etc41 p4 #b4       
7,dresden1 #ahhf47  ,footnote #bjd3     
,die ,maya ,hand-schrift der ,knig4     
,bib4 zu ,dresden1 p4 #gg2 7,berlin1    
#ahhf47  ,footnote #bje3    ,die ,maya  
,hand-schrift1 etc41 p4 #dg4  ,footnote 
#bjf3    ,american ,antiquarian1 ,march1
 #ahhf4  ,footnote #bjg3    ,the first  
of ,m4 ,aubin's ,memoirs appeared in    
#ahdi1 and was the result   of studies  
begun in #ahcj4 ,a new and enlarged     
edition has lately been   edited by ,dr4
 ,hamy3 ,mmoires sur la ,peinture       
,didactique et l',ecriture   ,figurative
 des ,anciens ,mexicains4 ,par4 ,j4 ,m4 
,a4 ,aubin 7,paris #ahhe47   ,but ,dr4  
,hamy has traveled very far beyond the  
limits of a sober   appreciation of ,m4 
,aubin's results when he writes3 8,les  
recherches de   ,m4 ,aubin ont russi    

resoudre presque toutes les difficults  
que   presentait la lecture des         
hieroglyphes nahuas40 7,introduction1 p4
   viii47 ,he is also in error in       
supposing 7in a note to same page7 that 
,aubin's theory is not well-known to    
,americanists4 ,brasseur popularized    
it in his introductions to his ,histoire
 du ,mexique4 ,aubin1 in fact1   guided 
by the ,spanish writers of the #afth    
century and the annotators   of the     
,codices1 first clearly expressed the   
general principles of the   phonetic    
picture writing2 but his rules and      
identifications are   entirely          
inadequate to its complete or even      
partial interpretation4  ,footnote #bjh3
    ,orozco y ,berra1 ,historia ,antigua
 de ,mexico1 7,mexico1 #ahhj74 ,the     
,atlas to this work contains a large    
number of proposed identifications   of 
hieroglyphics4 ,see also by the same    
writer1 ,ensayo de ,descifracion        
,geroglifica in the ,anales del ,museo  
,nacional1 tom4 ,,ii4 ,much of this   is

 founded on ,ramirez's studies1 who1    
however1 by his own admission1   knew   
little or nothing of the ,nahuatl       
language 7as he states in his           
introduction to the ,codex ,chimalpopoca
 or ,anales de ,quauhtitlan74   ,dr4    
,peafiel's praiseworthy collection is   
entitled ,catalogo   ,alfabetico de los 
nombres de ,lugares pertenecientes al   
,idioma ,nahuatl1   ,estudio            
,jeroglifico4 7,mexico1 #ahhe47         
,footnote #bji3    ,this paper was      
originally read before the ,american    
,philosophical   ,society in ,october1  
#ahhf1 and was published in their       
,proceedings4  ,footnote #baj3    ,the  
following elements occur in the old     
,egyptian writing3                #a4   
,ideographic4--7a7 ,pictures or         
ikonographs4                            
7b7 ,symbols4                           
7c7 ,determinatives4                    
#b4 ,phonetic4--7a7 ,words4             
7b7 ,syllables4                         
7c7 ,letters4  ,footnote #baa3    ,see  

,m4 ,a4 ,lower1 ,curiosities of         
,heraldry1 ,chap4 vi 7,london1 #ahde74  
,an appropriate motto of one of these   
bearings was3 8,non verbis sed   rebus  
loquimur40  ,footnote #bab3    ,tam1    
near2 uch1 scorpion4 ,diccionario       
,huasteca-,espaol1 ,,ms41 in   my       
possession4 ,this and most of the other 
instances quoted are to be   found in   
,lord ,kingsborough's great work on     
,mexico1 and also in ,dr4   ,peafiel's  
,catlogo ,alfabetico de los ,nombres de 
,lugares   pertenecientes al ,idioma    
,nahuatl 7,mexico1 #ahhe74  ,footnote   
#bac3    ,it is given in the appendix to
 the ,ensayo sobre la ,interpretacion de
   la ,escritura ,hieratica de la       
,america ,central1 by ,de ,rosny1       
translated   by ,d4 ,juan de ,dios de la
 ,rada y ,delgada 7,madrid1 #ahhd74     
,footnote #bad3    ,valentini's ,essay  
appeared in the ,proceedings of the     
,american   ,antiquarian ,society1      
,april1 #ahhj4 ,landa's work was        
originally   published by the ,abb      

,brasseur 7de ,bourbourg7 at ,paris1    
#ahfd1 and more   accurately at ,madrid1
 #ahhd1 under the supervision of ,don   
,juan de ,dios   de la ,rada y ,delgada4
  ,footnote #bae3    ,originally        
published as an introduction to ,dr4    
,cyrus ,thomas' ,study of   the         
,manuscript ,troano1 issued by the ,u4  
,s4 ,geographical and   ,geological     
,survey of the ,rocky ,mountain ,region1
 ,washington1 #ahhb1   7revised with    
additions for the present volume74      
,footnote #baf3    ,dr4 ,friedrich      
,mller1 ,grundriss der                  
,sprachwissenschaft1 ,band i1 pp4       
#aea-aef4  ,footnote #bag3    ,aubin4   
,mmoire sur la ,peinture didactique et  
l'criture figurative   des anciens      
,mexicains1 in the introduction to      
,brasseur 7de   ,bourbourg7's ,histoire 
des ,nations civilises du ,mexique et de
   l',amrique ,centrale1 tom4 i2 ,manuel
 ,orozco y ,berra ,ensayo de            
,descifracion geroglifica1 in the       
,anales del ,museo ,nacional de         

,mxico1 tom4 i1 ii4  ,footnote #bah3    
,peter ,martyr1 ,decad4 iv1 cap4 viii4  
,footnote #bai3    8,se sujetaron de su 
propria voluntad al ,seorio de los      
,reies de   ,castilla1 recibiendo al    
,emperador1 como ,rei de ,espaa1 por    
,seor   supremo y universal1 e hicieron 
ciertas seales1 como ,firmas2 las       
quales1 con testimonio de los           
,religiosos ,franciscos1 que alli       
estaban1   llev consigo el buen ,obispo 
de ,chiapa1 ,don ,fr4 ,bartolom de las  
,casas1 amparo1 y defensa de estos      
,indios1 quando se fu  ,espaa40         
,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana1 lib4  
xix1 cap4 xiii4  ,footnote #bbj3        
8,letreros de ciertos caracteres que en 
otra ninguna parte40 ,las ,casas1       
,historia ,apologetica de las ,indias   
,occidentales1 cap4 cxxiii4  ,footnote  
#bba3    ,relacion ,breve y ,verdadera  
de ,algunas ,cosas de las muchas que    
sucedieron al ,padre ,fray ,alonso      
,ponce1 ,commissario ,general1 en las   
,provincias de la ,nueva ,espaa1 in the 

,coleccion de ,documentos para   la     
,historia de ,espaa1 tom4 lviii1 p4     
#cib4 ,the other traits he   praises in 
the natives of ,yucatan are their       
freedom from sodomy and   cannibalism4  
7,for the text see later1 p4 #bee47     
,footnote #bbb3    ,bernardo de ,lizana1
 ,historia de ,yucatan4 ,devocionario de
 ,nuestra   ,seora de ,izamal1 y        
,conquista ,espiritual1 #hvo4 ,pinci    
7,valladolid71   #afcc4  ,footnote #bbc3
    ,for these facts see ,diego ,lopez  
,cogolludo1 ,historia de ,yucatan1 lib4 
ix1 cap4 xv4 ,cogolludo adds that in his
 time 7#afej-'fj7 ,solana's ,,mss4      
could not be found2 ,lizana may have    
sent them to ,spain4  ,footnote #bbd3   
,i add the original of the most         
important passage3 8,la historia y      
autores que podemos alegar son unos     
antiguos caracteres1 mal   entendidos de
 muchos1 y glossados de unos indios     
antiguos1 que son   hijos de los        
sacerdotes de sus dioses1 que son los   
que solo sabian   leer y adivinar1 y a  

quien creian y reverenciavan como       
,dioses   destos40  ,footnote #bbe3     
,pedro ,sanchez de ,aguilar1 ,informe   
contra ,idolorum cultores del           
,obispado de ,yucatan4 #dto4 ,madrid1   
#afci1 ff4 #abd4  ,footnote #bbf3       
8,el primero quo hall las letras de la  
lengua ,maya  hiz el cmputo   de los    
aos1 meses y edades1 y lo enseo todo a  
los ,indios de esta   ,provincia1 fu un 
,indios llamado ,kinchahau1 y por otro  
nombre   ,tzamna40 ,fr4 ,pedro ,beltran 
de ,santa ,rosa ,maria1 ,arte del       
,idioma   ,maya1 p4 #af 7#b;d ed41      
,mrida de ,yucatan1 #ahei74  ,footnote  
#bbg3    ,diego ,lopez ,cogolludo1      
,historia de ,yucatan1 lib4 iv1 cap4    
,,iii4 ,the   original is3 8,no         
acostumbraban escribir los pleitos1     
aunque tenian   caracteres con que se   
entendian1 de que se ven muchos en las  
ruinas de   los edificios40  ,footnote  
#bbh3    8,porque lo leia su ,rey en sus
 ,analtehes1 tenian ,noticias de        
aquellas   ,provincias de ,yucatan 7que 

,analtehes1  ,historias1 es una misma   
cosa7   y de que sus ,pasados avian     
salido de ellas40 ,historia de la       
,conquista   de la ,provincia de el     
,itza1 ,reduccion y ,progressos de la de
 el   ,lacandon1 etc41 7folio1 ,madrid1 
#agja7 lib4 vi1 cap4 iv4  ,footnote     
#bbi3    ,ibid41 lib4 vii1 cap4 i4      
,footnote #bcj3    8,y en su casa       
tambien tenia de estos ,idolos1 y ,mesa 
de ,sacrificios1 y   los ,analtehes1    
,historias de todo quanto los avia      
sucedido40 ,ibid41   lib4 viii1 cap4    
xiii4  ,footnote #bca3    ,diego de     
,landa1 ,relacion de las ,cosas de      
,yucatan1 pp4 #caf1 #cah1   seq4        
,footnote #bcb3    ,dr4 ,valentini's    
article was published in the            
,proceedings of the   ,american         
,antiquarian ,society1 #ahhj4 ,more     
recently ,dr4 ,ed4 ,seler has           
condemned the ,landa alphabet as 8ein   
,versuch von ,ladinos1 von in die       
,spanische ,wissenschaft eingeweihten   
,eingebornen in der ,art1 wie sie   die 

,spanier ihre ,lettern verwenden sahen1 
auch mit den ,eingebornen   gelufigen   
,bildern und ,charaktern zu hantiren40  
,verhandlungen der   ,berliner          
anthropologischen ,gesellschaft1 #ahhg1 
s4 #bbg4 ,i am far from   adopting this 
sweeping statement1 which ,i believe is 
contradicted by   the whole tenor of    
,landa's words and the testimony of     
other writers4  ,footnote #bcc3         
,diego de ,landa1 ,relacion de las      
,cosas de ,yucatan1 p4 #dd4  ,footnote  
#bcd3    ,i add a few notes on this     
text3    ,enhi is the preterit of the   
irregular verb1 hal1 to be1 pret4       
enhi1 fut4 anac4 ,katun yum1 father or  
lord of the ,katun or   cycle4 ,each    
,katun was under the protection of a    
special deity or lord1   who controlled 
the events which occurred in it4 ,tu co 
pop1 lit41   8for the rolling up of     
,pop10 which was the first month in the 
,maya   year4 ,holom is an archaic      
future from hul2 this form in om is     
mentioned by ,buenaventura1 ,arte de la 

,lengua ,maya1 #afhd1 and is   frequent 
in the sacred language1 but does not    
occur elsewhere4 ,tucal   ya1 on account
 of his love2 but ya means also         
8suffering10 8wound10   and 8strength10 
and there is no clue which of these     
significations is   meant4 ,ahkinob2 the
 original has lukinob1 which ,i suspect 
is an   error2 it would alter the phrase
 to mean 8,in that day there are        
fathers0 or lords1 the word yum1 father1
 being constantly used for   lord or    
ruler4 ,the ahkin was the priest2 the   
ahbobat was a diviner   or prophet4 ,the
 #ith ,ahau ,katun was the period of #bj
 years which began   in #aeda1 according
 to most native authors1 but according  
to ,landa's   reckoning in the year     
#aefa4  ,footnote #bce3    ,in quoting  
and explaining ,maya words and phrases  
in this article1 ,i   have in all       
instances followed the ,diccionario     
,maya-,espaol del   ,convento de ,motul 
7,yucatan72 a copy of which in          
manuscript 7one of   the only two in    

existence7 is in my possession4 ,it was 
composed about   #aehj4 ,the still older
 ,maya dictionary of ,father            
,villalpando1 printed   in ,mexico in   
#aega1 is yet in existence in one or two
 copies1 but ,i   have never seen it4   
,footnote #bcf3    ,read before the     
,numismatic and ,antiquarian ,society of
 ,philadelphia1 at   its twenty-fourth  
annual meeting1 ,january #eth1 #ahhb1   
and published in   ,the ,penn ,monthly4 
,footnote #bcg3    ,of the numerous     
authorities which could be quoted on    
this point1 ,i   shall give the words of
 but one1 ,father ,alonso ,ponce1 the   
,pope's   ,commissary-,general1 who     
traveled through ,yucatan in #aehf1 when
 many   natives were still living who   
had been born before the ,conquest      
7#aeda74 ,father ,ponce had traveled    
through ,mexico1 and1 of course1 had    
learned about the ,aztec picture        
writing1 which he distinctly contrasts  
with the writing of the ,mayas4 ,of the 
latter1 he says3 8,son alabados   de    

tres cosas entre todos los demas de la  
,nueva ,espaa1 la una de que   en su    
antiguedad tenian caracteres y letras1  
con que escribian sus   historias y las 
ceremonias y orden de los sacrificios de
 sus idolos y   su calendario1 en libros
 hechos de corteza de cierto arbol1 los 
cuales   eran unas tiras muy largas de  
quarta  tercia en ancho1 que se         
doblaban y recogian1 y venia  queder    
manera de un libro   encuardenado en    
cuartilla1 poco mas  menos4 ,estas      
letras y caracteres   no las entendian1 
sino los sacerdotes de los idolos4 7que 
en aquella   lengua se llaman           
#8ahkines1'7 y algun indio principal4   
,despues las   entendieron y supieron   
ler algunos frailes nuestros y aun las  
escribien40--78,relacion ,breve y       
,verdadera de ,algunas ,cosas de las    
,muchas que ,sucedieron al ,padre ,fray 
,alonso ,ponce1 ,comisario-,general en  
las ,provincias de la ,nueva ,espaa10   
page #cib74 ,i know no other author     
who makes the interesting statement that

 these characters were   actually used  
by the missionaries to impart           
instruction to the   natives2 but ,i    
have heard that an example of one such  
manuscript has   been discovered1 and is
 now in the hands of a well-known       
,americanist4  ,footnote #bch3    8,se  
les quemamos todos10 he writes1 8lo qual
  maravilla sentian y   les dava        
pena40--8,relacion de las ,cosas de     
,yucatan10 page #caf4  ,footnote #bci3  
,relacion de las ,cosas de ,yucatan1    
page #afj4  ,footnote #bdj3    ,see     
above1 pp4 #abh and #agb4 ,the terminal 
letter in both these   words--8chilan10 
8balam10--may be either 8n0 or 8m10 the 
change   being one of dialect and local 
pronunciation4 ,i have followed the     
older authorities in writing 8,chilan   
,balam10 the modern preferring          
8,chilam ,balam40 ,seor ,eligio ,ancona1
 in his recently published   ,historia  
de ,yucatan1 7,vol4 i41 page #bdj1 note1
 ,merida1 #ahgh71 offers   the absurd   
suggestion that the name 8balam0 was    

given to the native   soothsayers by the
 early missionaries in ridicule1        
deriving it from   the well-known       
personage in the ,old ,testament4 ,it is
 surprising that   ,seor ,ancona1       
writing in ,merida1 had never acquainted
 himself with the   ,perez manuscripts1 
nor with those in possession of ,bishop 
,carrillo4   ,indeed1 the most of his   
treatment of the ancient history of his 
country is disappointingly superficial4 
,footnote #bda3    ,for example1 in the 
,registro ,yucateco1 ,tome ,,iii3       
,diccionario   ,universal de ,historia y
 ,geografa1 ,tome ,,viii4 7,mexico1     
#ahee72   ,diccionario ,historico de    
,yucatan1 ,tome ,i4 7,merida1 #ahff72 in
 the   appendix to ,landa's ,cosas de   
,yucatan 7,paris1 #ahfd71 etc4 ,the     
epochs1   or katuns1 of ,maya history   
have been recently again analyzed by    
,dr4   ,felipe ,valentini1 in an essay  
in the ,german and ,english languages1  
the   latter in the ,proceedings of the 
,american ,antiquarian ,society1 #ahhj4 

,footnote #bdb3    ,the ,abb's criticism
 occurs in the note to page #djf of his 
edition of   ,landa's ,cosas de         
,yucatan4  ,footnote #bdc3    ,it is    
described at length by ,don ,crescencio 
,carrillo y ,ancona1 in his1            
#8,disertacion sobre la ,historia de la 
,lengua ,maya' 7,merida1 #ahgj74        
,footnote #bdd3    8,je dois dclarer que
 l'examen dans tous leurs dtails du     
#8,codex   ,troano' et du #8,codex      
,peresianus' m'invite de la faon la plus
 srieuse    n'accepter ces signes1 tout 
au moins au point de vue de l'exactitude
   de leur trac1 qu' avec une certaine  
rserve40--,leon de ,rosny's ,essai   sur
 le ,dchiffrement de l',ecriture        
,hiratique de l',amrique ,centrale1     
page #ba 7,paris1 #ahgf74 ,by the       
8,codex ,peresianus10 he does not mean  
the 8,codice ,perez10 but the ,maya     
manuscript in the ,bibliothque          
,nationale4 ,the identity of the names  
is confusing and unfortunate4  ,footnote
 #bde3    8,the ,manuscript ,troano10   

published in ,the ,american ,naturalist1
   ,august1 #ahha1 page #fdj4 ,this     
manuscript or codex was published in    
chrome-lithograph1 ,paris1 #ahgi1 by the
 ,french ,government4  ,footnote #bdf3  
8,declarar las necesidades y sus        
remedios40--,relacion de las ,cosas de  
,yucatan1 page #afj4 ,like much of      
,landa's ,spanish1 this use of the word 
8necesidad0 is colloquial1 and not      
classical4  ,footnote #bdg3    ,a       
,medicina ,domestica1 under the name of 
8,don ,ricardo ,ossado1 7alias1   el    
,judio170 was published at ,merida in   
#ahcd2 but this appears to   have been  
merely a bookseller's device to aid the 
sale of the book by   attributing it to 
the 8great unknown40  ,footnote #bdh3   
,read before the ,numismatic and        
,antiquarian ,society of ,philadelphia  
in   #ahhi4  ,footnote #bdi3    ,los    
,aztecas1 ,mexico1 #ahhh4  ,footnote    
#bej3    ,dupaix1 ,antiquits            
,mexicaines4 #ast ,exped41 p4 #g1 ,pl4  
vi1 vii1 fig4   #f1 #g4 ,at that time   

the flat surface of the rock was the    
floor of a   cabin built upon it4 ,at   
present the cabin has disappeared1 ,mr4 
,bandelier does not seem to have visited
 this stone when he was at   ,orizaba1  
although he refers to ,dupaix's         
explorations4 ,report of an             
,archological ,tour in ,mexico in #ahha1
 p4 #bf 7,boston1 #ahhd74 ,nor does     
,m4 ,h4 ,strebel1 though he also refers 
to it1 give any fresh information       
about it4 ,see his ,alt-,mexiko1 ,band  
,i1 s4 #cj4  ,footnote #bea3    ,one    
appears to be a gigantic full face2     
another an animal like a frog1   with   
extended legs2 two others are           
geometrical designs1 the outlines   of  
which have evidently been recently      
freshened with a steel   implement4     
,future observers should be on their    
guard that this   procedure shall not   
have mutilated the early workmanship4   
,footnote #beb3    ,it is needless to   
expand this explanation of the ,aztec   
,calendar2 but   it is worth while to   

warn the student of the subject that the
 problem   is an intricate one and has  
never yet been satisfactorily solved1   
because the information presented is    
both incomplete and   contradictory4 ,i 
consider the most instructive discussion
 of the   ,calendar is that in ,orozco y
 ,berra1 ,historia ,antigua de ,mexico1 
,lib4   iv41 ,cap4 #a-f4  ,footnote     
#bec3    ,father ,sotomayor1 in the     
newspaper account above referred to1    
states   that tradition assigned the    
inscription to the time of ,cortes'     
march   to the ,city of ,mexico2 a date 
which he quite properly ridicules as    
impossible4 ,the vicinity of ,orizaba   
was1 moreover1 not a part of the        
,mexican ,state until some time after   
the middle of the #aeth century4   ,see 
,bandelier1 ,archological ,tour in      
,mexico1 pp4 #bb1 sqq4  ,footnote #bed3 
,tzontemoc1 a compound of tzontli1 hair1
 and temoa1 to fall2   mictlan1 locative
 from mictli1 to die2 tecutli1 lord1    
noble4 ,for   a description of this     

deity see ,sahagun1 ,historia de la     
,nueva   ,espaa1 ,lib4 iii1 ,appendix1  
chap4 ,i4 ,i have elsewhere suggested   
that   the falling hair had reference to
 the long slanting rays of the   setting
 sun4 ,see above1 p4 #adf4  ,footnote   
#bee3    ,both are reproduced in        
,kingsborough's ,mexican ,antiquities4  
,but ,i   would warn against the        
explanations in ,spanish of the ,codex  
,telleriano-,remensis4 ,they are the    
work of some ignorant and careless      
clerk1 who often applies the explanation
 of one plate and date to   another1    
through sheer negligence4  ,footnote    
#bef3    ,i would refer to an           
explanation of this system published by 
me in the   ,proceedings of the         
,american ,philosophical ,society1 for  
#ahhf4  ,footnote #beg3    ,the phonetic
 significance of this symbol is well    
established4 ,see   ,aubin in the       
,introduction to ,brasseur1 ,histoire   
des ,nations   ,civilises de la         
,mexique1 ,tome ,i1 p4 lxix4  ,footnote 

#beh3    ,historia ,antigua de ,mexico1 
,tomo ,,iii1 p4 #dbf4  ,footnote #bei3  
,ixtlilxochitl1 ,historia ,chichimeca1  
cap4 #gj4 ,he errs in assigning it   to 
the year #aejc1 as all the other        
narratives of importance are   against  
him4  ,footnote #bfj3    ,annales de    
,chimalpahin1 p4 #agc 7,ed4 ,simon1     
,paris1 #ahhi74 ,his words   are 8auh a 
niman ihcuac oncan in hual motlatocalli 
in   ,moteuhcomatzin10 which ,simon     
renders 8,immdiatement apres10 etc4     
,footnote #bfa3    ,tezozomoc1 ,cronica 
,mexicana1 cap4 #ha4 ,this writer adds  
that the   emperor expected his         
approaching end1 and made a number of   
preparations with regard to it4 ,the    
,anales de ,cuauhtitlan1 p4 #hj1        
places the events of #aj tochtli under  
the following year #aa acatl1   and the 
reverse4 ,it reads 8murio el seor de    
,tenochtitlan1   ,ahuitzotzin1 le       
sucedio immediatamente ,moteuczomatzin40
  ,footnote #bfb3    ,selections from an
 ,address read before the ,numismatic   

and ,antiquarian   ,society of          
,philadelphia1 in #ahhf4  ,footnote     
#bfc3    ,an ,address delivered by      
request before the ,historical          
,societies of   ,pennsylvania and ,new  
,york1 in #ahhe4 ,it was printed in the 
,pennsylvania ,magazine of ,history and 
,biography for that year4  ,footnote    
#bfd3    ,for another derivation1 see   
ante1 p4 #ahb4  ,footnote #bfe3         
,introduction to the ,study of ,indian  
,languages4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,powell         
7second edition1 ,washington1 #ahhj74   
,footnote #bff3    ,this essay is       
extracted from a more general discussion
 of ,humboldt's   linguistic philosophy 
which ,i read before the ,american      
,philosophical   ,society in #ahhe1 and 
which was printed in their ,proceedings 
for that   year4 ,humboldt's great work 
was his ,introduction to his essay on   
the   ,kawi language under the title3   
,ueber die ,verschiedenheit des         
menschlichen ,sprachbaues und ihren     
,einfluss auf die geistige              

,entwickelung des ,menschengeschlechts4 
,prof4 ,adler translates this1   8,the  
,structural ,differences of ,human      
,speech and their ,influence on the     
,intellectual ,development of the ,human
 ,race40 ,the word geistige1   however1 
includes emotional as well as           
intellectual things4 ,of the   many     
commentators on this masterly           
production1 ,i have used   particularly 
the following3    ,die ,elemente der    
,philosophischen ,sprachwissenschaft    
,wilhelm von   ,humboldt's4 ,in         
systematischer ,entwicklung dargestellt 
und kritisch   erlutert1 von ,dr4 ,max  
,schasler1 ,berlin1 #ahdg4    ,die      
,sprachwissenschaft ,wilhelm von        
,humboldt's und die ,hegel'sche         
,philosophie1 von ,dr4 ,h4 ,steinthal1  
,berlin1 #ahdh4 ,the same eminent       
linguist treats especially of           
,humboldt's teachings in ,grammatik1    
,logik und ,psychologic1 ihre           
,principien und ihr ,verhltniss zu      
einander1 pp4 #abc-ace 7,berlin1 #ahee72

 in his well-known volume               
,characteristik der ,hauptschlichsten   
,typen des ,sprachbaues1 pp4   #bj-gj   
7,berlin1 #ahfj72 in his oration ,ueber 
,wilhelm von ,humboldt   7,berlin1      
#ahhc72 and elsewhere4    ,wilhelm von  
,humboldt's ,linguistical ,studies4 ,by 
,c4 ,j4 ,adler1 ,a4 ,m4   7,new ,york1  
#ahff74 ,this is the only attempt beside
 my own1 so far as ,i   know1 to present
 ,humboldt's philosophy of language to  
,english readers4   ,it is meritorious1 
but certainly in some passages ,prof4   
,adler failed   to catch ,humboldt's    
meaning4  ,footnote #bfg3    ,ueber die 
,verschiedenheit1 etc41 ,bd4 vi1 s4     
#bga1 note4 ,i may say1   once for all1 
that my references1 unless otherwise    
stated1 are to the   edition of         
,humboldt's ,gesammelte ,werke1 edited  
by his brother1   ,berlin1 #ahda-aheb4  
,footnote #bfh3    ,aus ,wilhelm von    
,humboldt's letzten ,lebensjahren4 ,eine
 ,mittheilung   bisher unbekannter      
,briefe1 von ,theodor ,distel1 p4 #ai   

7,leipzig1 #ahhc74  ,footnote #bfi3     
,from his memoir ,ueber das             
vergleichende ,sprachstudium in         
,beziehung   auf die verschiedenen      
,epochen der ,sprachentwicklung1 ,bd4   
iii1 s4 #bdi4  ,footnote #bgj3    ,he   
draws examples from the ,carib1 ,lule1  
,tupi1 ,mbaya1 ,huasteca1   ,nahuatl1   
,tamanaca1 ,abipone1 and ,mixteca2      
,ueber das ,entstehen der               
grammatischen ,formen1 und ihren        
,einfluss auf die ,ideenentwicklung1    
,bd4 iii1 ss4 #bfi-cjf4  ,footnote #bga3
    ,ueber die ,buchstabenschrift und   
ihren ,zusammenhang mit dem             
,sprachbau1 ,bd4 vi1 s4 #ebf4  ,footnote
 #bgb3    ,this letter is printed in the
 memoir of ,prof4 ,e4 ,teza1 ,intorno   
agli   ,studi del ,thavenet sulla       
,lingua ,algonchina1 in the ,annali     
delle   ,universit toscane1 ,tomo xviii 
7,pisa1 #ahhj74  ,footnote #bgc3        
,compare ,prof4 ,adler's ,essay1 above  
mentioned1 p4 #aa4  ,footnote #bgd3     
,this is found expressed nowhere else so

 clearly as at the beginning of    #ac1 
where the author writes3 8,der ,zweck   
dieser ,einleitung1 die   ,sprachen1 in 
der ,verschiedenartigkeit ihres ,baues1 
als die nothwendige   ,grundlage der    
,fortbildung des menschlichen ,geistes  
darzustellen1 und   den wechselseitigen 
,einfluss des ,einen auf das ,andre zu  
errtern1 hat   mich genthigt1 in die    
,natur der ,sprache berhaupt            
einzugehen40 ,bd4   vi1 s4 #ajf4        
,footnote #bge3    8,das ,studium der   
verschiedenen ,sprachen des ,erdbodens  
verfehlt seine   ,bestimmung1 wenn es   
nicht immer den ,gang der geistigen     
,bildung im ,auge   behlt1 und darin    
seinen eigentlichen ,zweck sucht40      
,ueber den   ,zusammenhang der ,schrift 
mit der ,sprache1 ,bd4 vi1 s4 #dbh4     
,footnote #bgf3    8,eine ,gedankenwelt 
an ,tne geheftet40 ,ueber die           
,buchstabenschrift und   ihre           
,zusammenhang mit dem ,sprachbau1 ,bd4  
vi1 s4 #ecj4  ,footnote #bgg3    ,this  
cardinal point in ,humboldt's philosophy

 is very clearly set forth   in his     
essay1 ,ueber die ,aufgabe des          
,geschichtschreibers4 ,bd4 i1 s4   #bc1 
and elsewhere4  ,footnote #bgh3    ,this
 reasoning is developed in the essay1   
,ueber das ,vergleichende               
,sprachstudium1 etc41 ,gesammelte       
,werke1 ,bd4 iii1 ss4 #bda-bfh2 and     
see ,ibid41 s4 #bgj4  ,footnote #bgi3   
,see the essay ,ueber die               
,buchstabenschrift und ihren            
,zusammenhang mit   dem ,sprachbau1     
,ges4 ,werke1 ,bd4 vi1 ss4 #eea-b4      
,footnote #bhj3    ,ueber das ,entstehen
 der grammatischen ,formen1 etc41       
,werke1 ,bd4   iii1 s4 #bib4  ,footnote 
#bha3    ,speaking of such 8imperfect0  
languages1 he gives the following wise  
suggestion for their study3 8,ihr       
einfaches ,geheimniss1 welches den ,weg 
anzeigt1 auf welchem man sie1 mit       
gnzlicher ,vergessenheit unserer        
,grammatik1 immer zuerst zu entrthseln  
versuchen muss1 ist1 das in   sich      
,bedeutende unmittelbar an einander zu  

reihen40 ,ueber das   ,vergleichende    
,sprachstudium1 etc41 ,werke1 ,bd4 iii1 
s4 #bee2 and for   a practical          
illustration of his method1 see the     
essay1 ,ueber das   ,entstehen der      
grammatischen ,formen1 etc41 ,bd4 iii1  
s4 #bgd4  ,footnote #bhb3    ,his       
teachings on this point1 of which ,i    
give the barest outline1 are   developed
 in sections #ab and #ac of his         
,introduction1 ,ueber die               
,verschiedenheit1 etc4 ,steinthal's     
critical remarks on these sections   7in
 his ,charakteristik der haupt4 ,typen  
des ,sprachbaues7 seem to me            
unsatisfactory1 and he even does not    
appear to grasp the chain of            
,humboldt's reasoning4  ,footnote #bhc3 
,lettre  ,m4 ,abel-,remusat1 ,werke1    
,bd4 vii1 s4 #cec4  ,footnote #bhd3     
8,daher ist das ,einschliessen in ,ein  
,wort mehr ,sache der                   
,einbildungskraft1 die ,trennung mehr   
die des ,verstandes40 ,ueber die        
,verschiedenheit1 etc41 s4 #cbg4        

,compare also1 s4 #cbf and #aff4        
,footnote #bhe3    8,der ,mexikanischen 
kann man am ,verbum1 in welchem die     
,zeiten durch   einzelne ,endbuchstaben 
und zum ,theil offenbar symbolisch      
bezeichnet   werden1 ,flexionen und ein 
gewisses ,streben nach ,sanskritischer  
,worteinheit nicht absprechen40 ,ueber  
die ,verschiedenheit1 etc41   ,werke1   
,bd4 vi1 s4 #agf4  ,footnote #bhf3      
,read before the ,american              
,philosophical ,society in #ahhe1 and   
revised   from the ,proceedings of that 
year4  ,footnote #bhg3    8,diese       
thatsachen scheinen darauf hinzudeuten1 
dass jeder grssere in   sich            
zusammenhngende lndercomplex nur einen  
oder doch nur ganz   wenige             
sprachgrundtypen herausbildet1 so       
eigenartig1 dass selten eine   sprche   
ganz aus dem allgemeinen rahmen         
heraustritt40 ,dr4 ,heinrich   ,winkler1
 ,uralaltaische ,vlker und ,sprachen1 s4
 #adg 7,berlin1 #ahhd74  ,footnote #bhh3
    ,report of the ,corresponding       

,secretary to the ,committee1 of his    
progress in the ,investigation committed
 to him of the ,general   ,character and
 ,forms of the ,languages of the        
,american ,indians4 ,read   7#abth      
,jan41 #ahai7 in the ,transactions of   
the ,historical and ,literary           
,committee of the ,american             
,philosophical ,society4 ,vol4 i1 #ahai1
 pp4   xxx1 xxxi4  ,footnote #bhi3      
,see ,ueber die ,verschiedenheit1 etc41 
pp4 #agj-agc1 #cbe-f1 etc4  ,footnote   
#bij3    ,published in ,h4 ,r4          
,schoolcraft's ,history and ,statistics 
of the ,indian   ,tribes of the ,united 
,states4 ,vol4 ii1 pp4 #cdf-cdi         
7,washington1 #ahec74  ,footnote #bia3  
8,je suis donc autoris  conclure qu'il  
faut tenir pour absolument   fausse     
cette proposition devenue faute d'y     
avoir regard de prs1 une   sorte de     
clich3 que si les langues ,amricaines   
diffrent entre elles   par la lexique1  
elles possedent nanmoins en commun une  
seule et mme   grammaire40 ,examen      

grammatical compar de seize langues     
,amricaines1   in the ,compte-rendu of  
the ,congrs international des           
,amricanistes1   #ahgg1 ,tome ii1 p4    
#bdb4 ,as no one ever maintained the    
unity of ,american   grammar outside of 
the ,einverleibungssystem1 it must be to
 this   theory only that ,m4 ,adam      
alludes4  ,footnote #bib3    ,etudes sur
 ,six ,langues ,amricaines1 p4 #c       
7,paris1 #ahgh72 and compare   his      
,examen ,grammatical above quoted1 p4   
#bd1 #bdc4  ,footnote #bic3             
,grundriss der ,sprachwissenschaft1 ,von
 ,dr4 ,friedrich ,mller4 ,compare   ,bd4
 i41 s4 #fh1 und ,bd4 ii1 s4 #ahb4      
,footnote #bid3    ,introduction to the 
,study of ,indian ,languages4 ,by ,j4   
,w4 ,powell1 p4   #ee1 ,second edition4 
,washington1 #ahhj4  ,footnote #bie3    
,this obscure feature in ,algonkin      
,grammar has not yet been               
satisfactorily explained4 ,compare      
,baraga1 ,grammar of the ,otchipwe      
,language1 p4 #aaf 7,montreal1 #ahgh71  

and ,a4 ,lacombe1 ,grammaire de la      
,langue des ,cris1 p4 #aee 7,montreal1  
#ahgd74  ,footnote #bif3    ,see        
,grammar of the ,chctaw ,languages4 ,by 
the ,rev4 ,cyrus ,byington4   ,edited by
 ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton1 pp4 #ce1 #cf         
7,philadelphia1 #ahgj74  ,footnote #big3
    ,gramtica ,quechua1  del ,idioma del
 ,imperio de los ,incas4 ,por el ,dr4   
,jos ,dionisio ,anchorena1 pp4 #afc-agg 
7,lima1 #ahgd74  ,footnote #bih3        
,organismus der ,khetsua ,sprache4 ,von 
,j4 ,j4 von ,tschudi1 p4 #cfh           
7,leipzig1 #ahhd74  ,footnote #bii3     
8,ces exemples font comprendre combien  
quelquefois on peut rendre des   mots   
tres longs1 pour exprimer toute une     
phrase1 quoiqu' aussi on   puisse       
facilement rendre les mmes ides par des 
priphrases40   ,lacombe1 ,grammaire de  
la ,langue des ,cris1 p4 #aa 7,montreal1
 #ahgd74  ,footnote #cjj3    8,se       
explicara la razon filosfica de los dos 
modos de usar las   palabras en         
,mexicano1 uno componiendo de varias    

palabras uno solo1 y   otro dejandolas  
separadas y enlazandolas solo por       
regimen40 ,from the   programme of      
,prof4 ,a4 de la ,rosa's course in      
#ahgj4  ,footnote #cja3    ,the original
 authorities ,i have consulted on the   
,othomi are3    ,reglas de              
,orthographia1 ,diccionario1 y ,arte del
 ,idioma ,othomi4 ,by   ,luis de ,neve y
 ,molina 7,mexico1 #agfg74    ,de ,linga
 ,othomitorum ,dissertatio4 ,by         
,emmanuel ,naxera 7,philadelphia1       
#ahce74    ,catecismo en ,lengua ,otomi4
 ,by ,francisco ,perez 7,mexico1 #ahcd74
  ,footnote #cjb3    ,he speaks of the  
,othomi in these terms3--8,une langue   
aux allures toutes   spciales1          
fondamentalement distincte de toutes les
 langues qui se   parlent aujourd' hui  
sur le continent amricain40 ,mission    
,scientifique au ,mexique4 ,pt4 i4      
,anthropologie1 p4 #cb 7,paris1 #ahhd74 
,this is the precise opinion1 strongly  
expressed1 that it is my object   to    
controvert4 ,many other writers have    

maintained it4 ,thus ,count             
,piccolomini in the ,prolegomena to his 
version of ,neve's ,othomi   ,grammar   
says3 8,la loro lingua che con nessuna  
altra del mondo   conosciuto ha la      
menoma analogia1  semplice4 99 99 99 ,la
 formazione del   loro verbi1 nomi ed   
altri derivati ha molta semplecit10 etc4
   ,grammatica della ,lingua ,otomi1 p4 
#c 7,roma1 #ahda74 ,this writer also    
offers an illustration of how           
imperfectly ,duponceau's theory of      
polysynthesis has been understood4 ,not 
only does ,piccolomini deny it   for the
 ,otomi1 but he denies that it is       
anything more than merely   running     
several words together with some        
phonetic syncopation4 ,see the          
,annotationi at the close of his ,othomi
 ,grammar4  ,footnote #cjc3    ,this is 
the orthography of ,neve4 ,the terminal 
vowels are both nasals2   nhian is from 
the radical hia1 to breathe1 breath4    
,footnote #cjd3    ,see the             
8,comparacion del ,othomi con el        

,mazahua y el ,pirinda10 in the         
,cuadro ,descriptivo y ,comparativo de  
las ,lenguas ,indigenas de ,mexico1     
por ,francisco ,pimentel4 ,tomo iii1 pp4
 #dca-dde 7,mexico1 #ahge74  ,footnote  
#cje3    ,see ,pimentel1 ,cuadro        
,descriptivo1 etc4 ,tomo iii1 pp4 #dbf  
and #dee4  ,footnote #cjf3    8,parte de
 la dificultad de este idioma consiste  
en la syncopa1 pues el   no syncopar los
 principiantes artistas1 es causa de que
 sus periodos y   oraciones sean tan    
rispidos1 y faltos de harmonia1 por cuyo
 motivo los   nativos los murmuran1 y   
tienen 7como vulgarmente decimos71 por  
quartreros40 ,reglas de ,orthographia1  
etc41 p4 #adf4  ,footnote #cjg3         
8,l',othomi nous a tout l'air d'une     
langue primitivement incorporante1   et 
qui1 parvenu au dernier degr d'usure et 
dlabrement1 a fini par   prendre les    
allures d'un dialecte  juxtaposition40  
,melanges de   ,philologie et de        
,palographie ,amricaine4 ,par le ,comte 
de ,charencey1   p4 #hj 7,paris1 #ahhc74

  ,footnote #cjh3    ,neve1 ,reglas     
etc41 pp4 #aei1 #afj4  ,footnote #cji3  
,pimentel1 ,cuadro ,descriptivo1 ,tom4  
iii1 p4 #dbd4  ,footnote #caj3          
,pimentel1 ,cuadro ,descriptivo1 ,tomo  
iii1 p4 #dfb4  ,footnote #caa3    ,wm4  
,m4 ,gabb1 ,on the ,indian ,tribes and  
,languages of ,costa ,rica1 in   the    
,proceedings of the ,american           
,philosophical ,society for #ahge1 p4   
#ecb4  ,footnote #cab3    8,dessen      
einfacher ,bau die ber die              
,amerikanischen ,sprachen im            
,allgemeinen verbreiteten ,theorien zu  
widerlegen im ,stande ist40   ,grundriss
 der ,sprachwissenschaft1 ii ,band1 s4  
#cah 7,wien1 #ahhb74  ,footnote #cac3   
,le ,taensa a-t-il t forg de toutes     
,pices8 ,rponse  ,m4 ,daniel ,g4        
,brinton1 ,par ,lucien ,adam1 p4 #ai    
7,paris1 ,maisonneuve et ,cie1 #ahhe74  
,footnote #cad3    ,apuntes             
,lexicograficos de las ,lenguas y       
,dialectos de los ,indios de            
,costa-,rica4 ,por ,bernardo ,augusto   

,thiel1 ,obispo de ,costa-,rica1 7,san  
,jos de ,costa-,rica1 #ahhb4 ,imprenta  
,nacional74  ,footnote #cae3    ,gabb1  
ubi supra1 p4 #eci4  ,footnote #caf3    
8,especial dificultad ofrecen los       
verbos40 ,apuntes ,lexicograficos1      
etc4 ,introd4 p4 iv4 ,this expression is
 conclusive as to the   incorrectness of
 the opinion of ,m4 ,adam1 and ,prof4   
,mller above   quoted1 and shows how    
easily even justly eminent linguists may
 fall   into error about tongues of     
which they have limited means of        
knowledge4 ,the proper course in such a 
case is evidently to be   cautious about
 venturing positive assertions4         
,footnote #cag3    ,transactions of the 
,american ,philological ,association1   
#ahgb1 p4 #eh4  ,footnote #cah3         
,grundriss der ,sprachwissenschaft1 ,bd4
 ii1 p4 #chg4  ,footnote #cai3    ,the  
,brazilian ,language and its            
,agglutination4 ,by ,amaro ,cavalcanti1 
,,ll4 ,b41 etc41 p4 #e 7,rio ,janeiro1  
#ahhc74  ,footnote #cbj3    ,the most   

valuable for linguistic researches are  
the following3    ,arte de ,grammatica  
da ,lingua mas usada na ,costa do       
,brazil4 ,by   ,joseph de ,anchieta4    
,this is the oldest authority1 ,anchieta
 having   commenced as missionary to the
 ,tupis in #aeef4    ,arte1 ,vocabulario
 y ,tesoro de la ,lengua ,guarani1  mas 
bien ,tupi4 ,by   ,antonio ,ruiz de     
,montoya4 ,an admirable work            
representing the southern   ,tupi as it 
was in the first half of the seventeenth
 century4    ,both the above have been  
republished in recent years4 ,of modern 
writings ,i would particularly name3    
,apontamentos sobre o ,abaenga tambem   
chamado ,guarani on ,tupi4 ,by   ,dr4   
,b4 ,c4 ,d',a4 ,nogueira 7,rio ,janeiro1
 #ahgf74  ,footnote #cba3    ,notes on  
the ,lingoa ,geral1 as above1 p4 #ga4   
,footnote #cbb3    ,james ,howse1 ,a    
,grammar of the ,cree ,language         
7,london1 #ahdd74 ,a   remarkable       
production which has never received the 
attention from   linguists which it     

merits4  ,footnote #cbc3    ,anchieta1  
,arte de ,grammatica1 etc41 p4 #ge4     
,footnote #cbd3    ,the ,brazilian      
,language1 etc41 pp4 #dh-i4  ,footnote  
#cbe3    ,see ,anchieta1 ,arte de       
,grammatica1 etc41 p4 #eb4  ,footnote   
#cbf3    ,the ,brazilian ,language1     
etc41 p4 #aaa4  ,footnote #cbg3         
8,kein polysynthesis und keine          
incorporation10 says ,dr4 ,heinrich     
,winkler 7,uralaltaische ,vlker und     
,sprachen1 p4 #adi71 who apparently     
has obtained all his knowledge of it    
from the two pages devoted to it   by   
,professor ,friedrich ,mller1 who       
introduces it as 8usserst   einfach40   
,grundriss der ,sprachwissenschaft1 ,bd4
 ii1 p4 #beg4  ,footnote #cbh3          
,grammatica ,mutsun2 ,por el ,r4 ,p4 ,f4
 ,f4 ,arroyo de la ,cuesta2 and         
,vocabulario ,mutsun1 by the same1 both 
in ,shea's 8,library of ,american       
,linguistics40  ,footnote #cbi3    ,read
 before the ,american ,philosophical    
,society in #ahhh1 and published   in   

their ,proceedings under the title 8,the
 ,language of ,palolithic   ,man40      
,footnote #ccj3    8,l'homme chelleen n'
 avait pas la parole10 ,mortillet1 ,la  
,prehistorique ,antiquit de l' ,homme1  
p4 #bej 7,paris1 #ahhc74  ,footnote     
#cca3    ,see ,dr4 ,h4 ,steinthal1 ,der 
,ursprung der ,sprache1 s4 #bfd1 et seq4
   7,berlin1 #ahhh71 who rehearses the  
discussion of the point with            
sufficient fullness4  ,footnote #ccb3   
,see1 for instance1 ,plate ,x of        
,mortillet1 ,muse ,prhistorique3        
,cartailhac1 ,ages ,prhistoriques de l' 
,espagne1 plate on p4 #bg4  ,footnote   
#ccc3    ,i have collected the evidence 
for this in an ,essay on ,prehistoric   
,archology1 in the ,iconographic        
,encyclopedia1 ,vol4 ii4  ,footnote     
#ccd3    ,see his address on 8,the      
,origin of ,languages and the ,antiquity
 of   ,speaking ,man10 in the           
,proceedings of the ,american           
,association for the   ,advancement of  
,science4 ,vol4 xxxv1 p4 #bgi4          

,footnote #cce3    ,dix-huit ,ans chez  
les ,sauvages1 p4 #he4  ,footnote #ccf3 
,petitot1 ,dictionnaire de la ,langue   
,dn ,dindji1 ,introduction4  ,footnote  
#ccg3    ,on the astonishingly wide     
distribution of the n and k sounds as   
primitive demonstratives1 compare ,h4   
,winkler1 ,uralaltaische ,vlker   und   
,sprachen1 s4 #hf1 #hg1 7,berlin1       
#ahhd74 ,for other comparisons1 see     
,tolmie and ,dawson1 ,vocabularies of   
,inds4 of ,british ,columbia1 p4   #abh4
  ,footnote #cch3    8,es hat offenbar  
eine ,zeit gegeben1 in der ka alleiniges
 ,pron4 pers4   fr alle drei ,personen  
war1 erst allmhlig entwickelten sich o  
ka1   ego1 ka m1 tu1 ka y1 ille40 ,j4   
,j4 von ,tschudi1 ,organismus der       
,khetsua ,sprache1 s4 #ahd 7,leipzig1   
#ahhd74 ,in the language of the         
,baures of ,bolivia when the verb takes 
the negative termination   apico1 the   
pronominal signs are discarded2 thus1   
era1 to drink1 a   drink2 erapico--,i1  
thou1 he1 we1 you1 they1 do not drink4  

,magio1   ,arte de la ,lengua de los    
,indios ,baures1 p4 #hb 7,paris1 #ahhj74
 ,this   reveals a time when both       
affirmative and negative verbals        
dispensed   with pronouns altogether4   
,footnote #cci3    ,apuntes sobre la    
,lengua ,chapaneca1 ,,ms4  ,footnote    
#cdj3    ,arte de la ,lengua ,guarani1  
p4 #ic4  ,footnote #cda3    ,la ,lengua 
,araucana1 p4 #ae 7,santiago de ,chile1 
#ahhh74  ,footnote #cdb3    ,albornoz1  
,arte de la ,langua ,chapaneca1 p4 #aj4 
,footnote #cdc3    ,principes de la     
,langue des ,sauvages appells ,sauteux4 
,introd4  ,footnote #cdd3    ,arte de la
 ,lengua ,guarani1  mas bien ,tupi4 ,por
 el ,p4 ,antonio ,ruiz   de ,montoya1 p4
 #ajj4  ,footnote #cde3    ,grammatica  
de la ,lengua ,chibcha4 ,introd4        
,footnote #cdf3    ,see ,howse4 ,grammar
 of the ,cree ,language1 pp4 #af1 #acd1 
#ace1 #afi1 etc4  ,footnote #cdg3       
,the ,religious ,sentiment2 ,its ,source
 and ,aim4 ,a ,contribution to the      
,science of ,religion4 ,by ,d4 ,g4      

,brinton1 p4 #ca 7,new ,york1 #ahgf74   
,the   statement in the text can be     
algebraically demonstrated in the       
mathematical form of logic as set forth 
by ,prof4 ,boole1 thus3 ,anot           
7not-,a72 which1 in its mathematical    
expression becomes1 xx#b4   ,whence by  
transposition and substitution we       
derive1 x#ba2 in which   equation #a;,a4
 ,see ,boole4 ,an ,investigation into   
the ,laws of ,thought   7,london1       
#ahed74  ,footnote #cdh3    ,on         
,polysynthesis and ,incorporation1 in   
,proceedings of the ,american           
,philosophical ,society1 #ahhe4 7,see   
the preceding essay47  ,footnote #cdi3  
,on the ,grammatical ,construction of   
the ,cree ,language1 p4 #ab 7,london1   
#ahge74  ,footnote #cej3    ,steinthal1 
,gramatik1 ,logik und ,psychologie1 s4  
#cbe4  ,footnote #cea3    ,in ,maya the 
conjunction 8and0 is rendered by yetl1 a
 compound of the   possessive pronoun1  
third person singular y1 and etl1       
companion4   ,the ,nahuatl1 ihuan1 is   

precisely the same in composition4      
,footnote #ceb3    8,die meisten        
amerikanischen ,sprachen haben die      
,eigenthmlichkeit1 dass   in der ,regel 
die ,haupttempora in ,auwendung kommen  
und unter diesen   besonders das        
,prsens1 selbst wenn von einer          
bestimmten1 besonders   aber von einer  
unbestimmten ,vergangenheit gesprochen  
wird40 ,j4 ,j4 von   ,tschudi1          
,organismus der ,khetsua ,sprache1 s4   
#ahi4 ,the same tense is   also employed
 for future occurrences4 ,what classical
 grammarians call   8the historical     
present10 will illustrate this          
employment of a single   tense for past 
and future time4  ,footnote #cec3       
,the ,chiquita of ,bolivia is an extreme
 example4 8,la distinction du   pass1 du
 prsent et du futur n'existe pas dans   
cette langue trange40   ,arte y         
,vocabulario de la ,lengua ,chiquita4   
,por4 ,l4 ,adam1 y ,v4 ,henry1   p4 x4  
,footnote #ced3    ,on the ,verb in     
,american ,languages4 ,by ,wilhelm von  

,humboldt4   ,translated by ,d4 ,g4     
,brinton1 in ,proceedings of the        
,american   ,philosophical ,society1    
#ahhe4  ,footnote #cee3    ,a striking  
example is the ,chiquita of ,bolivia4   
8,no se puede en   chiquito1 ni contar  
dos1 tres1 cuatro1 etc41 ni decir       
segundo1   tercero1 etc40 ,arte y       
,vocabulario de la ,lengua ,chiquita1 p4
 #ai   7,paris1 #ahhj74  ,footnote #cef3
    ,those distinctions1 apparently of  
sex1 called by ,m4 ,lucien ,adam        
anthropic and metanthropic1 arrhenic and
 metarrhenic1 found in   certain        
,american tongues1 belong to the        
material1 not the formal part   of the  
language1 and1 strictly speaking1 are   
distinctions not really   based on      
sexual considerations4 ,see ,adam1 ,du  
,genre dans les ,diverses   ,langues    
7,paris1 #ahhc74  ,footnote #ceg3       
,washington ,matthews1 ,grammar and     
,dictionary of the ,language of the     
,hidatsa 7,new ,york1 #ahgc7 ,in a      
letter received since the first         

publication of this essay1 ,dr4         
,matthews writes that the analysis in   
the text is quite correct4  ,footnote   
#ceh3    ,extract from a paper read     
before the ,american ,philosophical     
,society in   #ahhf4  ,footnote #cei3   
,linguistic ,essays1 by ,carl ,abel1    
,ph4 ,d4 7,london1 #ahhb74  ,footnote   
#cfj3    ,i scarcely need say that ,i   
refer to the marvelous words of ,st4    
,john3     4    1      7#a ,john iv1    
#h72   and to the amor intellectualis1  
the golden crown of the philosophy   of 
,spinoza as developed in the last book  
of his ,ethica4  ,footnote #cfa3        
,chipeway3 nin sagiiwin1 ,i love2       
sagiiwewin1 love2 saiagiiwed1 a   lover4
    ,cree3 skihituwin1 friendship2      
manitowi skihewewin1 the love of   ,god4
 ,the words from the ,chipeway are from 
,baraga's ,otchipwe   ,dictionary2 those
 from the ,cree from ,lacombe's         
,dictionnaire de la   langue des ,cris1 
except when otherwise noted4  ,footnote 
#cfb3    ,chipeway3 sagibidjigan1 a     

string or cord4    ,cree3 sakkappitew1  
he fastens1 he ties2 sakkahigan1 a nail2
   sakkistiwok1 coeunt1 copulati sunt4  
,footnote #cfc3    ,see ,joseph ,howse1 
,grammar of the ,cree ,language1 p4     
#afe4  ,footnote #cfd3    ,see the      
remarks in ,andrew's ,latin ,lexicon1 s4
 v4  ,footnote #cfe3    ,cree3          
espiteyimit kije-manito1 for the love of
 ,god2   espiteyimatijk1 for the love of
 the children4  ,footnote #cff3         
,cree3 ni wittjiwgan1 my friend2        
wi'chettuwin1 a confraternity1 or       
society4  ,footnote #cfg3    ,chipeway3 
inawema1 ,i am his relative1 or1 his    
friend4    ,cree3 ijinkusiw1 he has such
 an appearance4 ,this particle of       
similarity is considered by ,howse to be
 8one of the four primary   generic     
nouns0 of the ,algonkin language4       
,grammar of the ,cree   ,language1 p4   
#ace4  ,footnote #cfh3    ,chipeway3 nin
 minenima1 ,i like 7him1 her1 it74      
,footnote #cfi3    ,see ,howse1 ,grammar
 of the ,cree ,lang41 p4 #aeg4 ,keche   

7kees7 as an   interjection of pleasure1
 he considers in antithesis to ak       
7compare   ,german ach67 as an          
interjection of pain1 and cites abundant
   examples4  ,footnote #cgj3           
,chipeway3 nin kijewadis1 ,i am         
amicable1 benevolent2 kijewadisiwin1    
charity1 benevolence1 benignity1        
compassion2 kije manitowin1   ,god-head1
 divine nature4    ,cree3 kisatew1 he is
 devoted to 7him1 her72 kisew1 she loves
 7her   children72 kisewatisiwin1       
charity1 the highest virtue2 kise       
manito1 8l'esprit charitable1 ,dieu10   
and numerous others4  ,footnote #cga3   
,the following words and meanings are   
from ,carochi's ,grammar and   ,molina's
 ,dictionary of this tongue3            
o1 punzar1 sangrar4                oo1  
ensartar1 como flores1 cuentas1 etc4    
otica1 estar ensartada la cuenta1 etc4  
tlaotl1 cosa ensartada4    ,the original
 meaning of zo1 a pointed tool or awl1  
is not given by   ,molina1 but is       
repeatedly expressed in the phonetic    

picture-writing of   the ,aztecs4       
,footnote #cgb3    ,estudio de la       
,filosofia y ,riqueza de la ,lengua     
,mexicana4 ,par ,agostin   de la ,rosa1 
p4 #gh 7,guadalajara1 #ahgg74  ,footnote
 #cgc3    ,there is another word in     
,nahuatl of similar derivation4 ,it is  
pohui1   to make much of a person1 to   
like one4 ,the root is po1 which carries
   with it the idea of sameness1        
similarity or equality2 as itelpocapo1  
a boy like himself4 7,paredes1          
,promptuario ,manual ,mexicano1 p4      
#adj47  ,footnote #cgd3    ,thus3     ya
 or yail1 love2 pain1 sickness1 a wound2
 difficult1 laborious4    yate1 to love4
    yacunah1 to love4    yaili1         
painfully1 laboriously4    yalal1 to    
taste2 to have relations with a woman4  
yatzil1 love1 charity2 something        
difficult or painful4  ,footnote #cge3  
8,ya3 sentir mucho una cosa4   yamab3   
sin sentir the ma is the negative40     
,diccionario ,maya-,espaol del ,convento
 de ,motul4 7,,ms4 in my                

possession74  ,footnote #cgf3    ,thus3 
yahtetabal cah tumen ,dios1 we are loved
 by ,god4            u yacunah ,dios    
toon1 the love of ,god to us4           
yacunahil ,dios1 the love with which    
,god is loved4            mehenbit      
yacunah1 filial love4            bakil  
yacunah1 carnal love4    ,all from the  
,diccionario de ,motul 7,,ms474         
,footnote #cgg3    ,thus3    tatu canel 
ixall1 my beloved wife4   ma a canezal a
 ,dios1 dost thou love ,god8            
,diccionario ,huasteca-,espaol1 por     
,carlos de ,tapia ,zenteno 7,mex41      
#agfg74  ,footnote #cgh3    ,a number of
 examples are given in the ,diccionario 
de ,motul 7,,ms474  ,footnote #cgi3     
8,der blosse ,begriff derjenigen ,liebe1
 welche das lateinische ,zeitwort       
amare ausdrckt1 dem ,cakchiquel         
,indianer fremd ist40 ,zur              
,ethnographie der ,republik ,guatemala4 
,von ,otto ,stoll1 ,m4 ,d41 p4 #adf     
7,zrich1 #ahhd74  ,footnote #chj3       
,xelogox ka chiri ruma ,akahal vinak1   

8they were loved by the ,akahal   men40 
,annals of the ,cakchiquels1 p4 #abf    
7,vol4 ,,vi of ,brinton's   ,library of 
,aboriginal ,american ,literature74 ,in 
the ,quiche ,popol ,vuh   the word has  
the same meaning1 as 7page #ajb73       
chi log u vach1 their beloved face4     
,in fact1 the word ,dr4 ,stoll gives as 
that now usual among the   ,cakchiquels 
for 8to love0--to desire1 in the ,popol 
,vuh is applied to   the price paid for 
wives 7p4 #cjd73                rahil pu
 mial1 the price of their daughters4    
,this word may be a derivative from the 
,maya ya1 above mentioned4  ,footnote   
#cha3    ,de ,natur ,deorum1 ,i1 #dd4   
,footnote #chb3    ,gramtica ,quechua1  
por ,dr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,anchorena1 pp4        
#afc-agg 7,lima1   #ahgd74  ,footnote   
#chc3    ,ollanta3 ,drame en vers       
,quechuas du ,temps des ,incas4 ,traduit
 et   comment par ,gavino ,pacheco      
,zegarra 7,paris1 #ahgh74  ,footnote    
#chd3    ,thus1 from the ,ollanta3      
,ollantaytan munar ccanqui1 thou lovest 

,ollanta6 7line #bgg74   munacusccallay1
 my well beloved6 7the ,inca to his     
daughter1 line      #cdd74   munayman1  
,i should prefer 7line #afjf74          
,holguin1 in his ,vocabulario de la     
,lengua ,qquichua1 gives3               
,dios munay1 the love of ,god4          
munaricuy1 unchaste love4  ,footnote    
#che3    ,holguin 7u4 s47 gives the     
definitions3     munana1 la voluntad que
 es potentia4    munay1 voluntad1 el    
querer1 el gusto1 appetito  amor que es 
acto4  ,footnote #chf3    ,from the     
,ollanta3                    ,huay      
ccoyailay1 ,huay mamallay1              
,ay1 huayllucusccay ccosallay4          
,oh1 my queen6 ,oh my mother6           
,oh1 my husband so beloved6 7#cje1      
#cjf74    ,these lines show both the    
word and its derivation4  ,footnote     
#chg3    ,from the ,ollanta3            
a llulluspa1 caress thee1 are fond of   
thee 7#icd74  ,footnote #chh3    ,from  
the ,ollanta3                           
ccuyaccuscallay1 my beloved one 7#ageh74

                 ccuyaska1 compassionate
 7#agfe74  ,footnote #chi3    ,see the  
,qquichua love songs1 harahui and       
huaynu1 as they are   called1 given by  
,anchorena in his ,gramtica ,quechua1   
pp4 #aca-ace4  ,footnote #cij3    ,see  
,holguin1 ,vocabulario ,qquichua1 s4 v4 
mayhuay and   mayhuayccuni4  ,footnote  
#cia3    ,thus3             ,tupa nande 
raihu1 ,god loves us4            ,tupa  
nande haihu1 the love which we have for 
,god4            ahaihu1 ,i love her    
7him1 it74  ,footnote #cib3             
yecotiaha1 friend2 compounded of coti1 a
 dwelling1 and aha1 to   go1--a goer to 
a dwelling1 a visitor4 ,this1 and the   
other ,guarani words   given1 are taken 
from ,ruiz de ,montoya's ,tesoro de la  
,lengua ,guarani   7ed4 ,vienna1 #ahgf74
  ,footnote #cic3    ,another possible  
derivation would be from ahii1 desire1  
appetite   7,spanish1 gana72 and hu1 in 
the sense of being present4 ,this would 
express a longing1 a lust1 like love    
7see above74  ,footnote #cid3    ,i find

 aiu given by ,dr4 ,couto de ,magalhaes 
in his ,cours da ,lingoa   ,geral       
segundo ,ollendorf 7,rio de ,janeiro1   
#ahgf72 saisu by ,dr4 ,amaro            
,cavalcanti in ,the ,brazilian ,language
 and its ,agglutination 7,rio           
,janeiro1 #ahhc72 auub by ,dias1        
,diccionario da ,lingua ,tupy           
7,leipzig1 #aheh71 and by ,dr4 ,e4 ,f4  
,frana in his ,chrestomathia da         
,lingua ,brasilica 7,leipzig1 #ahei74   
,footnote #cie3    8,ani1 es gehrt1 ist 
eigen2 ta ani1 nach seiner ,art40       
,arawackisch-,deutsches ,wrterbuch4     
,this dictionary1 published             
anonymously at ,paris1 in #ahhb1 in     
,tome viii of the ,bibliotheque         
,linguistique ,amricaine1 is the        
production of the ,moravian             
,missionary1 ,rev4 ,t4 ,s4 ,schuhmann4  
,see ,the ,literary ,works of the       
,foreign ,missionaries of the ,moravian 
,church4 ,by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,h4          
,reichelt4 ,translated and annotated by 
,bishop ,edmund de ,schweinitz1 p4   #ac

 7,bethlehem1 #ahhf74  ,footnote #cif3  
,the ,religious ,sentiment1 its ,source 
and ,aim2 a ,contribution to the        
,science and ,philosophy of ,religion1  
p4 #fj 7,new ,york1 #ahgf74  ,footnote  
#cig3    ,from the ,proceedings of the  
,american ,philosophical ,society for   
#ahhe4  ,footnote #cih3    ,diccionario 
del ,convento de ,motul1 ,,ms41 s4 v4   
,footnote #cii3    ,acanceh ,cheltun4   
,titulo de un solar y ,monte in         
,acanceh1 #agfg1 ,,ms4  ,footnote #djj3 
,geografia ,maya4 ,anales del ,museo    
,nacional de ,mexico1 ,tomo ii1 p4      
#dce4  ,footnote #dja3    8,the metre is
 the only measure of dimension which    
agrees with that   adopted by these most
 ancient artists and architects40--,dr4 
,le,plongeon4   ,mayapan and ,maya      
,inscriptions1 in ,proceedings of the   
,american   ,antiquarian ,society1      
,april1 #ahha4  ,footnote #djb3         
8,nearly all the monuments of ,yucatan  
bear evidence that the ,mayas had   a   
predilection for the number seven10 etc4

 ,le,plongeon1 ,vestiges of   the       
,mayas1 p4 #fc 7,new ,york1 #ahha74 ,of 
course1 this may have other   symbolic  
meanings also4  ,footnote #djc3         
,coto1 ,diccionario de la ,lengua       
,cakchiquel1 ,,ms4  ,footnote #djd3     
,coto1 ,diccionario1 ,,ms41 s4 v4       
8,ploma de albail40  ,footnote #dje3    
8,cuanto se mide con el pulgar y el     
indice40 ,molina1 ,vocabulario de la    
,lengua ,mexicana4  ,footnote #djf3     
,carochi1 ,arte de la ,lengua ,mexicana1
 p4 #abc4  ,footnote #djg3    ,orozco y 
,berra1 ,historia ,antigua de la        
,conquista de ,mexico1 ,tomo i1   pp4   
#eeg-h1 7,mexico1 #ahhj74  ,footnote    
#djh3    ,memoria de los ,trabajos      
ejecutados por la comision scientifica  
de   ,pachuca en el ao de #ahfa1 p4     
#ceg1 quoted by ,orozco4 ,almaraz's     
words   are not at all precise3 8la     
unidad lineal1 con pequeas              
modificaciones1 debi ser cosa de o1 m   
#h1  cuatro palmos   prximamente40      
,footnote #dji3    ,the ,metrical       

,standard of the ,mound-,builders4      
,reduced by the ,method   of ,even      
,divisors4 ,by ,col4 ,chas4 ,whittlesey 
7,cleveland1 #ahhc74  ,footnote #daj3   
,notes on ,mitla1 in ,proceedings of the
 ,american ,antiquarian   ,society1     
,april1 #ahhb1 p4 #ig4  ,footnote #daa3 
,see ,herrera1 ,decadas de ,indias1     
,dec4 ii1 ,lib4 vii1 cap4 xvi1 and      
,dec4 iii1 ,lib4 iv4 cap4 xvii4         
8,castigaban mucho alque falseaba       
medidas1 diciendo que era enemigo de    
todos i ladron publico10 etc4  ,footnote
 #dab3    8,habian terminos sealados de 
cuantas leguas habian de acudir  los    
mercados10 etc4 ,diego ,duran1 ,historia
 de la ,nueva ,espaa1 ,vol4 ii1   pp1   
#bae1 #bag4 ,both the terms in the text 
are translated legua in   ,molina's     
,vocabulary1 so that it is probable that
 the resting places   were something    
near two and a half to three miles      
apart4  ,footnote #dac3    8,todo lo    
venden por cuenta y medida1 excepto que 
fasta agora no se ha   visto vender cosa

 alguna por peso40 ,cartas y ,relaciones
 de ,hernan   ,cortes1 p4 #aje4 7,ed4   
,gayangos47  ,footnote #dad3    8,tenian
 medida para todas las cosas2 hasta la  
ierva1 que era tanta1   quanta se podia 
atar con una cuerda de una braza por un 
tomin40   ,herrera1 ,decadas de ,indias1
 ,dec4 ii1 ,lib4 vii1 cap4 xvi4 ,in     
another   passage where this historian  
speaks of weights 7,dec4 iii1 ,lib4 iv1 
cap4 xvii71 it is one of his not        
infrequent slips of the pen4  ,footnote 
#dae3    ,a copy of this curious        
production called ,cancionero ,americano
 is in   the ,library of the ,bureau of 
,ethnology at ,washington4 ,the         
introductory   note is as follows3      
8,esos cantos1 escogidos en el ao mil y 
ocho cientos veinte y siete1    veinte y
 ocho1 por un viagero en ,america1 y    
despues hallados en sus   papeles1 no   
vinieron jams1 siquiera por lo que      
podemos saber1   conocidos del publico  
sabio4 ,estos son los mismos cantos del 
,pueblo   ,taensa1 para las orillas del 

,misisipi  del ,alabama1 todos escritos 
en   el dulce y pulido dialecto de aquel
 pueblo4 ,todos los amigos de la        
ciencia han de sentir el precio de esta 
pequea colleccion40    ,it will be      
noticed that the ,spanish is full of    
errors1 as esos for   estos1 hallados   
for encontrados1 para las orillas for   
por las   orillas2 and sentir el precio 
does not mean appreciate1 as the        
author would say1 but 8regret the       
price40  ,footnote #daf3    ,the        
discussion elicited the following       
additional brochures from ,m4   ,adam3  
,le ,taensa n'a pas t forg de toutes    
piecs4 ,lettre de ,m4   ,friedrich      
,mller  ,lucien ,adam1 pp4 #d4    ,dom  
,parisot ne produira pas le ,manuscrit  
,taensa4 ,lettre  ,m4 ,victor   ,henry1 
pp4 #ac4                                
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,transcriber',s ,,notes    #a4 ,p4 #fg1
 changed 8has certain0 to 8has a        
certain04  #b4 ,p4 #acb1 changed        

8,leixque de la ,langue ,algonquine0 to 
8,lexique de la       ,langue           
,algonquine04  #c4 ,p4 #agb1 changed    
#8yalahi3 ,zazaba' to #8yalahi3         
8,zazaba'4  #d4 ,p4 #bee1 changed 8qus  
se doblaban0 to 8que se doblaban04  #e4 
,p4 #bee1 changed 8de un libo           
encuardenado0 to 8de un libro           
encuardenado04  #f4 ,p4 #bic1 changed   
8,a maiden who loves me we0 to 8,a      
maiden who loves me       well04  #g4   
,p4 #cja1 changed 8allegiance turn to   
hatred0 to 8allegiance turns to         
hatred04  #h4 ,p4 #dcc1 changed 8these  
where spoken0 to 8these were spoken04   
#i4 ,p4 #deb1 removed footnote anchor   
from the end of 8,,the ,,curious ,,hoax 
,,of       ,,the ,,taensa ,,language0 as
 there was no corresponding footnote4   
#aj4 ,silently corrected typographical  
errors and also variations in           
spelling4 #aa4 ,retained anachronistic1 
non-standard1 and uncertain spellings as
       printed4 #ab4 ,enclosed italics  
font in underscores4