,,the ,,appreciation ,,of ,,music ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,the ,,appreciation ,,of ,,music ,,cloth #a4ej ,by ,thomas ,whitney ,surette and ,daniel ,gregory ,mason ,,supplementary ,,volume ,,of ,,musical ,,illustrations #a4jj ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,great ,,modern ,,composers ,,cloth #a4ej ,by ,daniel ,gregory ,mason ,,vol4 ,,iii4 ,,short ,,studies ,,in ,,great ,,masterpieces ,by ,daniel ,gregory ,mason ,,other ,,works ,,by ,,daniel ,,gregory ,,mason ,a ,,guide ,,to ,,music4 ,a ,,book ,,for ,,beginners ,,cloth #a4be ,,orchestral ,,instruments ,,and ,,what ,,they ,,do1 ,,with ,,twenty-,,seven ,,illustrations ,,and ,,orchestral ,,chart ,,cloth #a4be ,,the ,,appreciation ,,of ,,music ,,volume ,i ,,by ,,thomas ,,whitney ,,surette ,,and ,,daniel ,,gregory ,,mason ,,ninth ,,edition ,supplementary ,volume of ,musical ,illustrations ,price #a4jj ,,new ,,york ,,the ,h4 ,w4 ,,gray ,,co4 ,,sole ,,agents ,,for ,,novello ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,,copyright1 #aijg1 ,,by ,,the ,h4 ,w4 ,,gray ,,company ,the ,knickerbocker ,press1 ,new ,york ,,prefatory ,,note4 ,this book has been prepared in order to provide readers who wish to listen to music intelligently1 yet without going into technicalities1 with a simple and practical guide to musical appreciation written from the listener's rather than from the professional musician's standpoint4 ,the authors believe that there is at the present moment a genuine need for such a book4 ,teachers in schools1 colleges1 and universities1 educators in all parts of the country1 and the music-loving public generally1 are every day realizing more vividly the importance of applying to music the kind of study which has long been fruitfully pursued in the other arts2 and with the adoption1 in #aijf1 by the ,college ,entrance ,examination ,board1 of musical appreciation as a subject which may be offered for entrance to college1 this mode of studying music has established itself firmly in our educational system4 ,yet its progress is still hampered by the lack of suitable text-books4 ,the existing books are for the most part either too technical to be easily followed by the general reader1 or so rhapsodical and impressionistic as to be of no use to him4 ,in the following pages an effort has been made1 first1 to present to the reader in clear and untechnical language an account of the evolution of musical art from the primitive folk-song up to the symphony of ,beethoven2 second1 to illustrate all the steps of this evolution by carefully chosen musical examples1 in the form of short quotations in the text and of complete pieces printed in a supplement2 third1 to facilitate the study of these examples by means of detailed analysis1 measure by measure1 in many cases put into the shape of tabular views2 and fourth1 to mark out the lines of further study by suggesting collateral reading4 ,too much stress cannot be laid on the fact that the music itself is the central point of the scheme of study1 to which the reader must return over and over again4 ,carefully attentive1 concentrated listening to the typical pieces presented in the supplement is the essence of the work1 to which the reading of the text is to be considered merely as an aid4 ,these pieces are for the most part not beyond the reach of a pianist of moderate ability4 ,at the same time1 the authors have realized that some readers who might profit much by such study will not be able to play1 or have played for them1 even these pieces4 ,for them1 however1 the music will still be accessible through mechanical instruments4 ,in view of the fact that one of the chief difficulties in the study of musical appreciation is the unfamiliarity of classical music to the ordinary student1 the use of an instrument by the students themselves should form an important part of the work in classes where this book is used as a text-book4 ,it is hoped that with such practical laboratory work by all members of the class1 and with the help of collateral reading done outside the class under the direction of the teacher1 and tested by written papers on assigned topics1 the course of study outlined here will be found well-suited to the needs of schools and colleges1 as well as of general readers4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,,elements ,,of ,,musical ,,form4 #a ,i4 ,,introductory #a ,,ii4 ,,what ,,to ,,notice ,,first #c ,,iii4 ,,musical ,,motives #d ,,iv4 ,,what ,,the ,,composer ,,does ,,with ,,his ,,motives #f ,v4 ,,the ,,first ,,steps ,,as ,,revealed ,,by ,,history #aj ,,vi4 ,a ,,spanish ,,folk-,,song #ab ,,vii4 ,,balance ,,of ,,phrases #ac ,,viii4 ,,summary #ad ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,folk-,,songs4 #af ,i4 ,,folk-,,songs ,,and ,,art ,,songs #ag ,,ii4 ,,an ,,english ,,folk-,,song #bj ,,iii4 ,,key ,,and ,,modulation #ba ,,iv4 ,,barbara ,,allen #bb ,v4 ,,national ,,characteristics ,,in ,,folk-,,songs #be ,,vi4 ,,an ,,irish ,,folk-,,song #bf ,,vii4 ,a ,,german ,,folk-,,song #bh ,,viii4 ,,summary #cj ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,polyphonic ,,music ,,of ,,bach4 #ca ,i4 ,,what ,,is ,,polyphony #cb ,,ii4 ,,an ,,invention ,,by ,,bach #cc ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #a4 ,bach3 ,two-voice1 ,invention4 ,no1 ,,viii1 in ,f-major #cd ,,iii4 ,a ,,fugue ,,by ,,bach #cg ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #b4 ,bach3 ,fugue ,no4 #b1 in ,c-minor1 in three voices4 ,well-tempered ,clavichord1 ,book ,i #ch ,,iv4 ,,general ,,qualities ,,of ,,bach',s ,,work #dc ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,dance ,,and ,,its ,,development4 #dh ,i4 ,,musical ,,character ,,of ,,dances #dh ,,ii4 ,,primitive ,,dances #eb ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #c4 ,corelli3 ,gavotte in ,f-major #ef ,,iii4 ,a ,,bach ,,gavotte #eg ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #d4 ,bach3 ,gavotte in ,d-minor1 from the ,sixth ,english ,suite #eg ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,suite4 #fb ,i4 ,,derivation ,,of ,,the ,,suite #fb ,,ii4 ,,the ,,suites ,,of ,,bach #fe ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #e4 ,bach3 ,prelude to ,english ,suite1 ,no4 #c1 in ,g-minor #fe ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #f4 ,bach3 ,sarabande in ,a-minor1 from ,english ,suite1 ,no4 #b #fh ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #g4 ,bach3 ,gigue1 from ,french ,suite1 ,no4 #d1 in ,e-flat #ga ,,iii4 ,,the ,,historic ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,suite #gb ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,rondo4 #gd ,i4 ,,derivation ,,of ,,the ,,rondo #ge ,,ii4 ,a ,,rondo ,,by ,,couperin #gi ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #h4 ,couperin3 ,les ,moissonneurs 7,the ,harvesters7 #hj ,,iii4 ,,from ,,couperin ,,to ,,mozart #hc ,,iv4 ,a ,,rondo ,,by ,,mozart #hf ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #i4 ,mozart3 ,rondo from ,piano ,sonata in ,b-flat major #hg ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,variation ,,form--,,the ,,minuet4 #ic ,i4 ,,variations ,,by ,,john ,,bull #id ,,ii4 ,a ,,gavotte ,,and ,,variations ,,by ,,rameau #ig ,,iii4 ,,handel',s ,,harmonious ,,blacksmith #ajj ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #aj4 ,handel3 ,the ,harmonious ,blacksmith1 from the ,fifth ,suite for ,clavichord #aja ,,iv4 ,,haydn',s ,,andante ,,with ,,variations1 ,,in ,f-,,minor #ajc ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #aa4 ,haydn3 ,andante with ,variations1 in ,f-minor #ajd ,v4 ,,the ,,minuet #ajh ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,sonata-,,form1 ,i4 #aaj ,i4 ,,composite ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,sonata #aaj ,,ii4 ,,essentials ,,of ,,sonata-,,form #aaa ,,iii4 ,a ,,sonata ,,by ,,philip ,,emanuel ,,bach #aad ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ab4 ,philip ,emanuel ,bach3 ,piano ,sonata in ,f-minor1 first movement #aae ,,iv4 ,,harmony ,,as ,a ,,part ,,of ,,design #abe ,v4 ,,summary #abf ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,sonata-,,form1 ,,ii4 #abh ,i4 ,,haydn ,,and ,,the ,,sonata-,,form #abh ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ac4 ,haydn3 ,surprise ,symphony1 first movement #aca ,,ii4 ,,mozart ,,and ,,the ,,sonata-,,form #acd ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ad4 ,mozart3 ,symphony in ,g-minor1 first movement #acf ,,iii4 ,,mozart',s ,,artistic ,,skill #ach ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,slow ,,movement4 #adc ,i4 ,,varieties ,,of ,,form #adc ,,ii4 ,,slow ,,movements ,,of ,,piano ,,sonatas #ade ,,iii4 ,,the ,,string ,,quartet #adh ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ae4 ,haydn3 ,adagio in ,e-flat major1 from the ,string ,quartet in ,g-major1 op4 #gg1 ,no4 #a #adi ,,iv4 ,,general ,,characteristics #aea ,v4 ,,form ,,of ,,haydn',s ,,adagio #aeb ,,vi4 ,,mozart ,,and ,,the ,,classic ,,style #aec ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #af4 ,mozart3 ,andante from ,string ,quartet in ,c-major #aef ,,vii4 ,,form ,,of ,,mozart',s ,,andante #aei ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,beethoven--,i4 #afa ,i4 ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,beethoven',s ,,work #afa ,,ii4 ,,analysis ,,of ,a ,,beethoven ,,sonata #aff ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ag4 ,beethoven3 ,pathtique ,sonata1 first movement #aff ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ah4 ,beethoven3 ,pathtique ,sonata1 second movement #agj ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ai4 ,beethoven3 ,pathtique ,sonata1 third movement #aga ,,iii4 ,,summary #agd ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,beethoven--,,ii4 #agf ,i4 ,,form ,,and ,,content #agf ,,ii4 ,,beethoven',s ,,style #agh ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #bj4 ,beethoven3 ,the ,fifth ,symphony1 first movement #aha ,,iii4 ,,the ,,dramatic ,,element ,,in ,,beethoven',s ,,music #ahe ,,iv4 ,,the ,,significance ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,movement ,,of ,,the ,,fifth ,,symphony #ahg ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,beethoven--,,iii4 #aia ,i4 ,,the ,,slow ,,movement ,,before ,,beethoven #aia ,,ii4 ,,the ,,slow ,,movements ,,of ,,beethoven',s ,,early ,,symphonies #aib ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ba4 ,beethoven3 ,the ,fifth ,symphony4 ,slow movement #aie ,,iii4 ,,individuality ,,of ,,the ,,andante ,,of ,,the ,,fifth ,,symphony #aih ,,iv4 ,,the ,,harmonic ,,plan #bja ,v4 ,,the ,,universality ,,of ,,beethoven',s ,,genius #bjc ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,beethoven--,,iv4 #bje ,i4 ,,beethoven',s ,,humor #bje ,,ii4 ,,scherzos ,,from ,,beethoven',s ,,sonatas #bji ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #bb4 ,beethoven3 ,scherzo from the ,twelfth ,sonata #bji ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #bc4 ,beethoven3 ,scherzo from the ,fifteenth ,sonata #baj ,,iii4 ,,the ,,scherzos ,,of ,,beethoven',s ,,symphonies #baa ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #bd4 ,beethoven3 ,scherzo from the ,fifth ,symphony #bah ,,iv4 ,,general ,,summary #bba ,,the ,,appreciation ,,of ,,music ,,chapter ,i4 ,,elements ,,of ,,musical ,,form4 ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,of the thousands of people who consider themselves lovers of music1 it is surprising how few have any real appreciation of it4 ,it is safe to say that out of any score of persons gathered to hear music1 whether it be hymn1 song1 oratorio1 opera1 or symphony1 ten are not listening at all1 but are looking at the others1 or at the performers1 or at the scenery or programme1 or are lost in their own thoughts4 ,five more are basking in the sound as a dog basks in the sun--enjoying it in a sleepy1 languid way1 but not actively following it at all4 ,for them music is1 as a noted critic has said1 a drowsy reverie1 relieved by nervous thrills4 ,then there are one or two to whom the music is bringing pictures or stories3 visions of trees1 cascades1 mountains1 and rivers fill their minds1 or they dream of princesses in old castles1 set free from magic slumber by brave heroes from afar4 ,perhaps also there is one who takes a merely scientific interest in the music3 he is so busy analysing themes and labelling motives that he forgets to enjoy4 ,only two out of the twenty are left1 then1 who are actively following the melodies1 living over again the thoughts of the composer1 really appreciating1 by vigorous and delightful attention1 the beauties of the music itself4 ,can we not1 you and ,i1 join the ranks of these true lovers of music8 ,can we not learn to free our minds of all side issues as we listen--to forget audience1 performers1 and scene1 to forget princesses and heroes1 to forget everything except this unique experience that is unfolding itself before our ears8 ,can we not1 arousing ourselves from our drowsy reverie1 follow with active co-operation and vivid pleasure each tone and phrase of the music1 for itself alone8 ,one thing is sure3 ,unless we can do so1 we shall miss the keenest enjoyment that music has to offer4 ,for this enjoyment is not passive1 but active4 ,it is not enough to place ourselves in a room where music is going on2 we must by concentrated attention2 absorb and mentally digest it4 ,without the help of the alert mind1 the ear can no more hear than the eye can see4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 asked how he had made his wonderful discoveries1 answered1 ,by intending my mind4 ,in no other way can the lover of music penetrate its mysteries4 ,knowledge of musical technicalities1 on the other hand1 is not necessary to appreciation1 any more than knowledge of the nature of pigments or the laws of perspective is necessary to the appreciation of a picture4 ,such technical knowledge we may dispense with1 if only we are willing to work for our musical pleasure by giving active attention1 and if we have some guidance as to what to listen for among so many and such at first confusing impressions4 ,such guidance to awakened attention1 such untechnical direction what to listen for1 it is the object of this book to give4 ,,ii4 ,,what ,,to ,,notice ,,first4 ,it is no wonder1 when one stops to think of it1 that music1 in spite of its deeply stirring effect upon us1 often defeats our best efforts to understand what it is all about1 and leaves us after it is over with the uncomfortable sense that we have had only a momentary pleasure1 and can take nothing definite away with us4 ,it is as if we had been present at some important event1 without having the least idea why it was important1 or what was its real meaning4 ,all of us1 at one time or another1 must have had this experience4 ,and1 indeed1 how could it be otherwise8 ,music gives us nothing that we can see with our eyes or touch with our hands4 ,it does not even give our ears definite words that we can follow and understand4 ,it offers us only sounds1 soft or loud1 long or short1 high or low1 that flow on inexorably1 and that too often come to an end without leaving any tangible impressions behind them4 ,no wonder we are often bewildered by an experience so peculiar and so fleeting4 ,yet these sounds1 subtle as they are1 have a sense1 a logic1 an order of their own2 and if we can only learn how to approach them1 we can get at this inner orderliness that makes them into music4 ,the process of perception which we have to learn here is somewhat akin to certain more familiar processes4 ,for example1 what comes to our eyes from the outer world is simply a mass of impressions of differently colored and shaped spots of light2 only gradually1 as we grow out of infancy1 do we learn that one group of these spots of light shows us a house1 another a tree1 and so on4 ,similarly words1 as we easily realize in the case of a foreign language1 are to the untrained ear mere isolated sounds of one kind or another2 only with practice do we learn to connect groups of them into intelligible sentences4 ,so it is with music4 ,the sounds are at first mere sounds1 separate1 fragmentary1 unrelated4 ,only after we have learned to group them into definite melodies1 as we group spots of lights into houses or trees1 and words into sentences1 do they become music for us4 ,to approach sounds in such a way as to make sense of them--that is the art of listening to music4 ,,iii4 ,,musical ,,motives4 ,the first step in making sense of any unfamiliar thing is to get quite clearly in mind its central subject or subjects1 as1 for example1 the fundamental idea of a poem1 the main contention of an essay1 the characters of a novel1 the text of a sermon4 ,all music worthy of the name has its own kind of subjects2 and if we can learn to take note of1 remember1 and recognize them1 we shall be well on the road to understanding what at first seems so intangible and bewildering4 ,a possible confusion1 due to the use of terms1 must here be guarded against4 ,the word subject is used in a special sense1 in music1 to mean an entire theme or melody1 of many measures' duration--thus we speak of the first subject of ,beethoven's ,fifth ,symphony1 meaning the entire contents of measures #f-ba4 ,now this is obviously a different meaning of the word subject from the general one we use when we speak of the subject of a poem or a picture1 as the fundamental idea about which it all centers4 ,this long musical subject all centers about a little idea of four notes1 announced in the first two measures of the symphony3 ,music3 score ,but as we are already using the word subject to mean something else1 we must have another name for this brief characteristic bit out of which so much is made1 and for this the word motive is used4 ,here again there is a difference of usage which must be noted4 ,when we speak of a motive or leading motive of ,wagner1 we mean not a short group of this kind1 but an entire melody associated with some special character or idea2 e4 g41 the ,siegfried motive4 ,let us here1 however1 keep the word motive to mean a short characteristic group of tones or figure1 and the word subject to mean a complete melody or theme built up out of one or more motives4 ,the smallest elements into which we can analyze the subject-matter of music are motives--that is1 bits of tune1 groups of from two to a dozen tones1 which have an individuality of their own1 so that one of them cannot possibly be confused with another4 ,yankee ,doodle1 for instance1 begins with a motive of seven notes1 which is quite individual1 and wholly different from the motive of six notes at the beginning of ,god ,save the ,king1 or the motive of five notes at the beginning of the ,blue ,danube waltz4 ,the three motives are so different that nobody of ordinary musical intelligence would confound them one with another1 any more than he would confound the subject of ,longfellow's ,psalm of ,life with that of ,browning's ,incident of the ,french ,camp1 or the characters in ,dombey and ,son with those in ,tom ,jones4 ,the whole musical individuality of each of the three tunes grows out of the individuality of its special motive4 ,here1 evidently1 is a matter of primary importance to the would-be intelligent music lover4 ,if he can learn to distinguish with certainty whatever motives he hears1 half the battle is already gained4 ,four points will be noticeable in any motive he may hear4 ,its notes will vary as to 7#a7 length1 7#b7 accent1 7#c7 meter or grouping into regular measures of two1 three1 or four notes1 and 7#d7 pitch4 ,if he can once form the habit of noticing them1 he will have no further difficulty in recognizing the themes of any music1 and1 what is even more important1 following the various evolutions through which they pass as the composer works out his ideas4 ,the importance of such active participation in the composer's thought cannot be exaggerated4 ,without it there cannot be any true appreciation of music2 through it alone does the listener emerge from drowsy reverie1 relieved by nervous thrills into the clear daylight of genuine artistic enjoyment4 ,,iv4 ,,what ,,the ,,composer ,,does ,,with ,,his ,,motives4 ,let us put ourselves now in the place of a composer who has thought of certain motives1 and who wishes to make them into a complete piece of music4 ,what shall we do next with these scraps of melody1 attractive but fragmentary8 ,now1 one thing we can see at once from our knowledge of arts other than music4 ,we must somehow or other keep repeating our central ideas1 or our piece will wander off into mazes and fail to have any unity or intelligibility2 yet we must also vary these repetitions1 or they will become monotonous1 and the finished piece will have no variety or sustained interest4 ,the poet must keep harking back to the main theme of his poem1 or it will degenerate into an incoherent rhapsody2 but he must present new phases of the root idea1 or he will simply repeat himself and bore his readers4 ,the architect1 having chosen a certain kind of column1 say1 for his building1 must not place next to it another style of column1 from a different country and period1 or his building will become a mess1 a medley1 a nightmare2 but neither must he make his entire building one long colonnade of exactly similar columns1 for then it would be hopelessly dull4 ,in short1 every artist has to solve in his own way the problem of combining unity of general impression with variety of detail4 ,without either one of these essentials1 no art can be beautiful4 ,here we are1 then1 with our motive and with the problem before us of repeating it with modifications sufficient to lend it a new interest1 but not radical enough to hide its identity4 ,if we are making our music for several voices or instruments1 or for several parts all played on one instrument like the organ or the piano1 we can let these different voices or parts sound the motive in succession4 ,if1 while the new voice takes the motive1 the voice previously brought in goes on with something new1 then we shall have a very agreeable mingling of unity and variety4 ,this is the method used in all canons1 fugues1 inventions1 and so on1 and in vocal rounds4 ,for an example1 take the round called ,three ,blind ,mice 7see ,figure ,i74 ,music3 score ,,figure ,i4 ,,three ,,blind ,,mice4 ,three blind mice1 three blind mice1 ,see how they run1 see how they run1 ,they all ran af - ter the farm - er's wife1 ,who cut off their tails with a carv - ing knife4 ,did you ev - er see such a sight in your life as three blind mice4 ,one person1 ,a1 begins this melody alone1 and sings it through4 ,when he has reached the third measure1 ,b strikes in at the beginning4 ,when ,b in his turn has reached the third measure 7,a being now at the fifth71 ,c comes in in the same way4 ,in a word1 the three people sing the same tune in rotation 7whence the name1 round74 ,and the tune1 of course1 is so contrived that all its different sections1 sounded simultaneously by the various voices1 merge in harmony4 ,this kind of literal repetition by one part of what another has just done is called imitation1 and is a fundamental principle of all that great department of music known as the polyphonic1 or many-voiced4 ,but now1 notice another kind of repetition in this little tune4 ,measures #c and #d practically repeat1 though at a different place in the scale1 the three-note motive of measures #a and #b4 7,in order to conform to the words1 the second note is now divided into two1 but this is an unimportant alteration47 ,the naturalness of this kind of repetition is obvious4 ,having begun with our motive in one place1 it easily occurs to us to go on by repeating it1 in the same voice1 but higher or lower in pitch than at first4 ,the mere fact that it is higher or lower gives it the agreeable novelty we desire1 yet it remains perfectly recognizable4 ,we may call this sort of repetition1 which1 like imitation1 is of the greatest utility to the composer1 transposition1 to indicate that the motive is shifted to a new place or pitch4 ,but suppose we do not wish either to imitate or to transpose our motive1 is there any other way in which we can effectively repeat it8 ,yes3--we can follow its first appearance with something else1 entirely different1 and after this interval of contrast1 come back again and restate our motive just as it was at first4 ,looking at ,three ,blind ,mice again1 we see that this device1 as well as the other two1 is used there4 ,after the fifth1 sixth1 and seventh measures1 which contain the contrast1 the eighth measure returns literally to the original motive of three notes1 thus rounding out and completing the tune4 ,this third kind of repetition1 which may be called restatement after contrast1 or simply restatement1 is also widely in use in all kinds of music4 ,a most familiar instance occurs in ,way ,down upon the ,suwanee ,river4 ,let us keep distinctly in mind1 in all our study1 these three modes of repetition1 which are of radical importance to musical design3 #ast1 the imitation of a motive in a different voice or part2 #b;d1 the transposition of a motive1 in the same voice1 to a higher or lower place in the scale2 #c;d1 the restatement of a motive already once stated1 after an intervening contrast4 ,we shall constantly see these kinds of repetition--imitation1 transposition1 and restatement--used by the great composers to give their music that unity in variety1 that variety in unity1 without which music can be neither intelligible nor beautiful4 ,v4 ,,the ,,first ,,steps ,,as ,,revealed ,,by ,,history4 ,it must not be thought that these ways of varying musical motives without destroying their identity were quickly found out by musicians4 ,on the contrary1 it took centuries1 literally centuries1 to discover these devices that seem to us so simple4 ,all savage races are musically like children2 they cannot keep more than one or two short bits of tune in mind at the same time1 and these they simply repeat monotonously4 ,the first two examples in ,figure ,,ii1 taken from ,sir ,hubert ,parry's ,the ,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 give an idea of the first stage of the savage musician4 #a4 ,music3 score #b4 ,music3 score #c4 ,music3 score #d4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,ii4 ,,tunes ,,of ,,primitive ,,savages4 ,the first is from ,australia1 the second from ,tongataboo4 ,both are made of a single motive endlessly repeated without relief4 ,in a slightly higher stage1 two motives are used1 but with little more skill4 ,number #c1 in ,figure ,,ii1 is an example4 ,then come tunes in which one or more motives1 repeated literally1 are still the main feature of the design1 but in which a certain amount of variety is introduced between the repetitions 7see ,number #d1 in ,figure ,,ii1 a ,russian tune74 ,here the little characteristic figure of four short notes and a long1 marked ,n4,b41 is agreeably relieved by other material4 ,,vi4 ,a ,,spanish ,,folk-,,song4 ,from such primitive music as this to the beautiful folk-song of the modern nations is a long step indeed4 ,even in the simplest real folk-songs1 the means of varied repetition of ideas that we have been discussing are used with an ingenuity which places them on an infinitely higher level than these primitive efforts of savages4 ,it is true that in folk-songs1 which were sung by a single voice instead of a group of voices1 the device of imitation was used hardly at all3--that is available only where there are several different voices to imitate one another4 ,but in order to see what good use was made of transposition and restatement we need take only a single example1 from ,galicia in ,spain 7see ,figure ,,iii74 ,let us examine this tune in some detail1 as a preparation for a further study of folk-songs in a later article4 ,music3 score ,from ,galicia in ,spain4 ,,figure ,,iii4 ,,folk-,,song4 ,the tune1 in spite of its impression of considerable variety1 is founded entirely on two motives-- ,music3 score ,music3 score ,in the sixth and seventh measures1 7#a7 is so altered and transposed that it ends on ,d instead of on ,c1 and in the eighth1 ninth1 and tenth measures 7#b7 is transposed so as to end on ,g instead of on ,c4 ,by these transpositions the important element of contrast is introduced1 and when therefore we have1 at the end1 the two motives given again almost exactly as to first1 we get1 by this restatement after contrast1 a delightful sense of unity and completeness4 ,the means here are wonderfully simple1 but the effect is truly artistic4 ,,vii4 ,,balance ,,of ,,phrases4 ,an important principle of musical design is introduced to our notice by this little melody4 ,it will be observed that it divides itself into three equal parts3 the statement1 measures #a-e2 the contrast1 measures #f-aj2 and the restatement1 measures #aa-ae4 7,we may represent these by the letters ,a1 ,b1 and ,a47 ,now these three parts1 being of equal length and similar material1 balance each other just as lines in poetry do4 ,one makes us expect another1 which1 when it comes1 fulfills our expectation4 ,thus we get the impression of regularity1 order1 symmetry4 ,this element of symmetry1 or the balancing of one phrase of melody by another1 like the balancing of one line of poetry by another1 as in the verses ,the lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea1 ,and leaves the world to darkness and to me4 is a most important one1 as we shall soon see1 in all modern music4 ,this balance of one large section of a melody by another is often referred to by the term rhythm1 owing to its analogy with rhythm in architecture 7in the symmetry1 for example1 of two halves of a building74 ,but it is simpler to keep the word rhythm1 in music1 to mean rather a characteristic combination of tones1 as regards their relative length and accent1 as1 the rhythm of the first motive in ,beethoven's ,fifth ,symphony 7see motive quoted on page #e74 ,in the present articles the word will be used in this latter sense4 ,,viii4 ,,summary4 ,in this chapter we have seen how music1 in spite of its subtle1 intangible nature1 has certain definite features called motives1 which we can learn to recognize and follow by noticing the length1 accent1 metrical arrangement1 and movement up or down1 of the tones of which they are composed4 ,we have seen that these primary motives are worked up into complete pieces of music by being repeated with such alterations as serve to vary them pleasantly without disguising them beyond recognition4 ,the chief kinds of modified repetition we have noticed are imitation1 transposition1 and restatement after contrast4 ,all of these we have seen illustrated in ,three ,blind ,mice4 ,we have remarked how very gradually musicians got away from monotonous harping on their ideas by using these devices4 ,in connection with the ,spanish folk-song1 we have noted that1 although imitation was not available1 transposition and restatement were most effectively used4 ,finally1 we have seen that music1 like poetry1 has its larger balance of phrases1 by which whole parts of a melody are set off against one another and made to balance1 just as lines do in verse4 ,in succeeding chapters we shall trace out all these principles in more detail4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading4 ,parry3 ,the ,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapters ,i and ,,ii2 ,dickinson3 ,the ,study of the ,history of ,music1 ,chapter ,i2 ,grove3 ,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 article ,form4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,folk-,,songs4 ,in the first chapter we have traced the evolution of the formal element in music1 the element through which it gradually attained coherence4 ,we have seen that this element is an expression of that common sense which rules in all things2 that the various expedients adopted in music as means of keeping the central idea before the listener1 and1 at the same time1 providing him with sufficient variety to retain his interest1 are dictated by that sense of fitness that operates everywhere in life4 ,and these simple formal principles1 so conceived1 will be found to underlie the larger musical forms that will engage our attention in succeeding chapters4 ,let us always keep in mind that1 while the psychological effect of music remains a considerable mystery1 and the appreciation of great music must be a personal and individual act involving a certain receptivity and sensitiveness to musical impressions1 yet the perception of the logic or sense in a piece of music is a long step towards understanding it1 and one of the best means of cultivating that receptivity and sensitiveness4 ,folk-songs have been described by an eminent writer#a as the first essays made by man in distributing his notes so as to express his feelings in terms of design4 ,we shall shortly examine some typical folk-songs in order to see how this design gradually became larger and more various1 and how1 through this process1 the foundations were laid for the masterpieces of modern instrumental music4 ,we shall see that this advance has accompanied an advance in civilization2 that as men's lives have become better ordered1 as higher standards of living and thinking have appeared1 the sense of beauty has grown until1 finally1 this steady progress has resulted in the creation of certain permanent types4 ,it must be kept in mind1 however1 that these primitive types are largely the result of instinctive effort1 and not of conscious musical knowledge4 ,the science of music1 as we know it1 did not exist when these songs were written4 ,i4 ,,folk-,,songs ,,and ,,art ,,songs4 ,in order to distinguish between ,folk-songs and songs like those of ,schubert and ,schumann1 musicians call the latter ,art songs4 ,the folk-song is a nave product1 springing almost unconsciously from the hearts of simple people1 and not intended to convey any such definite expression of the meaning of the words as is conveyed in modern songs4 ,while there are specimens#b of the art song that closely approach the simplicity and beauty of the folk-song1 the art song in general is not only of wider range and of wider application to men's thoughts and feelings1 but it also has1 as an integral part of it1 an accompaniment of which the folk-song1 in its pure state1 is entirely devoid4 ,a further distinguishing characteristic of the folk-song is that it is often composed in one of the old ecclesiastical modes4 ,these modes were old forms of the scale that existed before our modern harmonic system came into use4 ,the following ,english folk-song1 called ,salisbury ,plain1 is in the ,aeolian mode4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,iv4 ,this song is written in the scale represented by the white keys of a pianoforte beginning on ,a1 and the peculiarly quaint effect of it is due to the unusual intervals of that scale as compared with our common scale forms4 ,there are various modes#c called ,phrygian1 ,dorian1 etc41 each having its own peculiar quality4 ,this quaintness and characteristic quality to be observed in modal folk-songs almost entirely disappears when an accompaniment of modern harmony is added1 as is often done4 ,folk-songs occupied a much more important place in the lives of the people who used them than is commonly supposed4 ,when we consider that at the time the earliest of them were written few people could read or write1 that books were printed in ,latin1 and that there were no newspapers1 railways1 or telegraphs1 we can understand how large a part these old songs played in the scheme of life4 ,the strolling singer was the newspaper of the time4 ,furthermore1 the general illiteracy of the people made of the folk-song a natural vent for their feelings4 ,with a limited vocabulary at their disposal1 it was natural that they should use the song as a medium of expression for their joys and sorrows4 ,gesture was also part of their language1 and in a modified way1 as a means of expression1 may be said to have performed something of the function of song4 ,many of the oldest melodies existed as an adjunct to dancing and religious ceremonials1 and were1 therefore1 to some extent utilitarian4 ,but so intimate was their relation to the ideas and feelings of the people who used them that1 in spite of the crudeness and simplicity of the medium employed1 the songs of the various nations are entirely distinct from each other1 and to a remarkable degree express the characteristics of the people who produced them4 ,the songs used with this chapter are chosen chiefly to illustrate the various methods 7already described7 of attaining variety and unity in music4 ,if little space is devoted here to other considerations1 the reader must bear in mind that our purpose is to lead him finally to as complete an appreciation as possible of the masterpieces of instrumental music1 and that this appreciation must begin with a perception of the relationships between the various parts of a primitive piece of music4 ,,ii4 ,,an ,,english ,,folk-,,song4 ,in ,figure ,v is shown the old ,english song ,polly ,oliver4#d ,music3 score ,,figure ,v4 ,this is a traditional song handed down without any record of its origin1 from generation to generation4 ,its unknown composer has managed very deftly to make it hang together4 ,a good deal is made1 in particular1 of the characteristic little motive of three notes which first occurs at the beginning of the third measure4#e ,in the very next measure1 the fourth1 this is transposed to a lower position4 ,going on1 we find it coming in again1 most effectively1 in measure #g1 this time transposed upwards2 and it occurs again twice at the end of the melody4 ,thus a certain unity is given to the entire tune4 ,again1 the device of repetition after contrast is well used4 ,after measures #a-i1 which state the main idea of the melody1 measures #i-ac come in with a pronounced contrast2 but this is immediately followed up1 in measures #ac-ag1 by a literal repetition of the first four measures1 which serves to round out and satisfactorily complete the whole4 ,we thus see illustrated once more the scheme of form which1 in the last chapter1 we denoted by the letters ,a-,b-,a4 ,this song presents a further element of form by means of which much variety is imparted to music4 ,,iii4 ,,key ,,and ,,modulation4 ,it will be noticed that the first phrase of ,polly ,oliver 7measures #a-e7 moves about the tone ,e-flat and ends upon it with the effect of coming to rest1 and that the second phrase 7measures #e-i7 similarly moves about and comes to rest on the tone ,b-flat4 ,the last phrase 7#ac-ag71 like the first1 moves about ,e-flat4 ,this moving about a certain tone1 which is1 so to speak1 the center of gravity of the whole phrase1 is called by musicians being in the key of that tone2 and when the center of gravity changes1 musicians say that the piece modulates from one key to another4 ,thus1 this first phrase is in the key of ,e-flat1 the second modulates to the key of ,b-flat1 and the song later modulates back again to the key of ,e-flat4 ,here we have another very important principle in modern music1 the principle of key or tonality1--important because it makes possible a great deal of variety that still does not interfere with unity4 ,by putting the first part of a piece in one key1 the second part in another1 and finally the last part in the original key1 we can get much diversity of effect1 and at the same time end with the same impression with which we began4 ,we shall only gradually appreciate the immense value to the musician of this arrangement of keys4 ,a further element of form is found in ,polly ,oliver1 namely1 the balance of phrases4 ,this balance of phrases one against another is derived ultimately from the timed motions of the body in dancing1 or from the meter of the four line verse to which the music was sung4 ,and this balance of phrases1 derived from these elemental sources1 still dominates in the melodies of the great masters1 although it is managed with constantly increasing freedom and elasticity1 so that we find in modern music little of that sing-song mechanical regularity which we may note in most folk-songs and dances4 ,,iv4 ,,barbara ,,allen4 ,let us now examine another old ,english song1 ,barbara ,allen4 ,score3 music ,,figure ,,vi4 ,in ,scar-let ,town where ,i was born1 ,there was a fair maid dwellin'1 ,made ev' - ry youth cry well-a-day1 ,her name was ,barbara ,allen4 ,all in the merry month of ,may1 ,when green buds they were swellin'1 ,young ,jemmy ,grove on his death bed lay ,for love of ,barbara ,allen4 ,then slowly1 slowly she came up1 ,and slowly she came nigh him1 ,and all she said when there she came3 ,young man1 ,i think you're dying4 ,when he was dead1 and laid in grave1 ,her heart was struck with sorrow4 ,o mother1 mother6--make my bed1 ,for ,i shall die to-morrow6 ,she1 on her death bed as she lay1 ,begg'd to be buried by him1 ,and sore repented of the day ,that she did e'er deny him4 ,farewell6 she said1 ye maidens all1 ,and shun the fault ,i fell in4 ,henceforth take warning by the fall ,of cruel ,barbara ,allen4 ,this also is a traditional song4 ,the words celebrate the emotion of unrequited love1 a favorite subject with the old ballad writers4 ,in the music1 we shall find a further illustration of the use of the devices already referred to4 ,we note first of all that there is throughout the melody a constant use of one rhythmic motive4 ,this figure appears in the first four notes of the song1 and is found at the beginning of every other measure save the fifth and the last4 ,while these transpositions are not so literal as is that at the beginning of ,polly ,oliver1 they are nevertheless sufficiently close to serve the purpose of preserving unity while still providing variety4 ,the tune is held together by this insistence on the motive2 there is considerable variety in the melody of the various phrases1 but through it all runs this persistent rhythm4 ,although ,barbara ,allen does not1 strictly speaking1 contain a modulation1 since there is in the melody no note foreign to the key in which the song is written1 yet the first and last phrases center round ,d1 the key-note1 while the second phrase 7to the words ,there was a fair maid dwellin'7 centers round and comes to rest on ,a1 thus producing the effect of a half pause1 as if punctuated with a semicolon4 ,a very important point should be noted in reference to these half pauses or modulations in a melody1 namely1 that they usually occur on the fifth note of the scale of the original key1 called by musicians the dominant4 ,in the three songs we have considered thus far the second phrase has so ended4 ,this modulation to the dominant is the most common one in music1 and we shall often have occasion to refer to it in later chapters4 ,finally1 a comparison of the third phrase of the music--there was a fair maid dwellin'--with the last--her name was ,barbara ,allen--will reveal a considerable similarity in both rhythm and melodic contour or curve4 ,by means of this similarity1 and by the return1 in the last phrase1 to the original key1 our sense of proportion is satisfied and a certain logic is imparted to the tune4 ,it should also be noticed that the melody is a perfect example of that balance of phrases already referred to1 the two halves 7#a-e and #e-i7 being of precisely the same length4 ,v4 ,,national ,,characteristics ,,in ,,folk-,,songs4 ,barbara ,allen is like many other ,english tunes in being straightforward1 positive1 and1 in a measure1 unromantic4 ,it lacks the soft1 undulating1 and poetic element to be observed in the ,spanish folk-song 7see ,chapter ,i71 but has a vigor and somewhat matter-of-fact quality characteristic of the race that produced it4 ,the story was evidently popular in the olden time1 as many versions of it with different music have been found all over ,england4 ,all the important events of the times were celebrated in song4 ,there were1 for example1 many songs about ,napoleon and the danger of an invasion of ,england1 such as ,boney's ,lamentation4 ,songs were written about political affairs and about religion1 and there were many dealing with popular characters such as ,robin ,hood4 ,celebrated criminals became the subjects of songs1 while poaching and other lawless acts committed by the peasants--which in those days were punished with the greatest severity--were frequently used as the basis for the strolling singers' ballads4 ,such titles as ,here's adieu to all ,judges and ,juries1 ,the ,gallant ,poachers1 and ,botany ,bay are frequently to be found4 ,from a perusal of a large number of the old songs one gathers a quite comprehensive idea of the ways of life and the thoughts and feelings of the people of ,merrie ,england4 ,a kind of rude philosophy seems to have evolved itself out of the mass of common sentiment4 ,and the verses1 rude as they are1 have a characteristic directness and vigor that gives them a value of their own4 ,plain1 definite narrative characterizes most of the ,english songs4 ,the name of the hero and heroine are usually given with the greatest accuracy1 as are all the other details of the story4 ,one old ,english song1 for example1 begins as follows3 ',twas the eighteenth of ,august1 ,the eighth month of the year4 while another is entitled3 ,the ,three ,butchers2 or1 ,gibson1 ,wilson1 and ,johnson4 ,still another begins3 ,eli ,sykes1 in the town of ,batley1 ,killed his sweetheart1 ,hannah ,brooke4 ,this quality is in marked contrast to the more romantic and poetic element to be found in the songs of many ,european nations4 ,this energetic and straightforward quality in old ,english melodies does not prevent them from being beautiful2 they are true to human nature and unspoiled by sophistry4 ,,vi4 ,,an ,,irish ,,folk-,,song4 ,our next illustration is an ,irish song called ,the ,flight of the ,earls1 one of the most beautiful of melodies4 7,see ,figure ,,vii47 ,in this illustration the curved lines represent the phrases and correspond to the lines of the poem1 while the brackets show the larger formal structure of the melody1 ,a being the statement1 or clause of assertion1 ,b the clause of contrast1 and ,a the restatement4 ,a mere glance at this music will show how certain phrases are used throughout to hold the melody together4 ,the first and second measures1#f for example1 contain a phrase of which one part or the other will be found in almost every measure of the song4 ,the first half of the song ends at #i with a modulation to the fifth above1 or dominant1 while the restatement after contrast 7beginning on the last note of measure #ac7 is quite clear4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,vii4 ,certain details may be pointed out for the benefit of the student4 ,the first phrase1 ending on the note ,d 7#e71 gives a sense of being poised for a moment before proceeding to the next note1 ,d not being a point of rest such as is supplied by the ,c with which the second phrase ends--at #i4 ,the same device is used at the end of the third phrase 7#ac74 ,the clause of contrast 7#i-ac71 while based on the rhythm of the motive of three notes at the beginning of the song1 is distinguished from either of the other two parts by the absence of the characteristic sixteenth-note figure of measure two4 ,this song justifies all that we have said about the poetic beauty of folk-songs4 ,within its short compass are contained elements of perfection that may well astonish those who look on folk-songs as immaterial to the development of the art of music4 ,for this melody is as complete and perfect an expression of that natural idealism that seems to have animated human beings from the earliest times as is the present day music of our own ideals4 ,,vii4 ,a ,,german ,,folk-,,song4 ,the next illustration is a well known ,german folk-song called ,sister ,fair4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,viii4 ,this melody is one of great beauty and tenderness4 ,like many other ,german folk-songs1 it is full of quiet sentiment1 not over-strained1 but sweet and wholesome4 ,it contains certain formal elements with which we are already familiar3 7#a7 ,repetition1 between the first motive in measures #a and #b1 between measures #e-f and #g-h1 and between measures #c-d and #aa-ab2 7#b7 transposition1 where the motive in measure #i is inverted in measure #aj 7this is an imitation of rhythm but not of melody72 7#c7 restatement after contrast1 the last four measures being1 in effect1 a repetition of the first four with the first motive from measure #i inverted2 7#d7 modulation1 the first phrase being in ,a-minor1 the second in ,c-major1 and the last in ,a-minor again4 ,this is a particularly clear example of a modulation1 as the three phrases distinctly centre round their respective key-notes1 or tonal centres4 ,it should be noted that the modulation is not to the fifth above the key-note1 as in most of the other examples1 but to the third above4 ,this is common in songs in the minor key4 ,quite a distinct charm is imparted to the first phrase of this melody by the use at the end of measure #b of the little rhythmic figure that has already appeared at the beginning of the first and second measures4 ,there is an unexpected charm in this shifting of a motive from one part of a measure to another4 ,we shall see this device of musical construction in many of the larger works that are dealt with in later chapters4 ,there are a great many beautiful ,german folk-songs which would be well worth study here did space permit4 ,the student is referred to such collections as ,reimann's ,das ,deutsche ,lied1 where the best of them will be found4 ,,viii4 ,,summary4 ,in this brief study of folk-songs we have noted that the stream of pure native melody was independent of the art-song and followed its own natural channel1 but that1 in spite of its limitation1 presents to us some well developed formal types4 ,we have seen how important a part modulation plays in the plan of a piece of music1 and how1 by means of a change of key1 a new kind of variety may be imparted to a melody4 ,we have observed how closely the old songs reflect the characteristics of the people who produced them1 and how intimate was the connection between the songs--with the verses to which they were set--and the thoughts and feelings of those who used them4 ,in studying the ,german folk-song we have observed a subtle element of form1 namely1 the shifting of a motive from one part of a measure to another4 ,in the next chapter we shall take up the study of simple polyphonic pieces1 such as have already been referred to in dealing with the round1 ,three ,blind ,mice4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading4 ,parry3 ,the ,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapter ,,iii2 ,grove's ,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 articles ,song and ,form4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,sir ,hubert ,parry in ,the ,evolution of the ,art of ,music4 #b ,such as ,schubert's ,haiden-,rslein4 #c ,the reader will find an account of these modes in ,grove's ,dictionary of ,music under ,modes1 ,ecclesiastical4 #d ,in ,hadow's ,songs of the ,british ,islands 7,curwen ,co41 ,london74 #e ,the first partial measure is counted as one4 #f ,the partial measure at the beginning is counted as one4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,polyphonic ,,music ,,of ,,bach4 ,we have seen in the last chapter some typical examples of folk-songs1 which have served to give us an impression of folk-music in general1 since it always conforms1 in all essentials1 to the type they illustrate4 ,folk-music is generally simple and unsophisticated in expression2 it is generally cast in short and obvious forms2 and it generally consists of a single melody1 either sung alone or accompanied1 on some primitive instrument1 by a few of the commonest chords4 ,the prominence given to a single melody by music of this type1 however1 makes it unsuitable for groups of different voices1 such as a vocal quartet or a chorus2 and therefore when musicians began to pay attention to music intended for church use they had to work out a different style1 in which several parts1 sung by the various voices1 could be strongly individualized4 ,this led to what is called the polyphonic1 or many-voiced style4 ,another reason why the ecclesiastical style always remained unlike the secular was that the learned church musicians disdained any use of those methods which grew up in connection with folk-songs and dances1 considering them profane or vulgar4 ,had they been willing to study them1 they might have added much vitality to church music2 but they maintained an attitude of aloofness and of contempt for the popular music4 ,i4 ,,what ,,is ,,polyphony8 ,the peculiarity of the polyphonic style is that that portion of the music which accompanies the chief melody is no longer a series of chords as in folk-music1 but a tissue of secondary melodies1 like the chief one1 and hardly less important4 7,this arises1 as we have just suggested1 from the necessity of giving each of the four voices or groups of voices1--soprano1 alto1 tenor1 and bass1--something individual and interesting to do47 ,the difference between the two styles is apparent even to the eye1 on the printed page4 ,a folk-song1 or any other piece in homophonic or one-voiced style1 has the characteristic appearance of a line of notes on top 7the melody71 with groups of other notes hanging down from it here and there1 like clothes from a clothes line 7the accompaniment74 ,a ,bach fugue1 in print1 presents the appearance of four 7or more7 interlacing lines of notes4 7,see ,figure ,,ix47 ,music3 score 7a7 ,beginning of ,polly ,oliver4 ,while the dawn on the mountain was mist - y and grey1 ,music3 score 7b7 ,passage from ,bach ,fugue in ,g-minor ,well-,tempered ,clavichord1 ,book ,i4 ,,figure ,,ix4 ,,difference ,,between ,,homophonic ,,and ,,polyphonic ,,style4 ,historically speaking1 the first great culmination of the polyphonic style is found in the ecclesiastical choruses of ,palestrina 7#aebh-aeid72 but it was not until somewhat later that this style was applied to instrumental music4 ,in the inventions1 canons1 preludes1 toccatas1 and fugues of ,johann ,sebastian ,bach 7#afhe-agej71 we get the first great examples of polyphony as applied1 not to merely ecclesiastical music1 but to music which by its secular character and its variety of emotional expression is universal in scope4 ,,ii4 ,,an ,,invention ,,by ,,bach4 ,such is the ingenuity and the perfection of detail in ,bach's works in the polyphonic style that a life-time might be spent in studying them4 ,they have that delicacy of inner adjustment more usually found in the works of nature than in those of man2 their melodies grow out of their motive germs as plants put forth leaves and flowers2 their separate voices fit into one another like the crystals in a bit of quartz2 and the whole fabric of the music stands on its elemental harmonies as solidly as the mountains on their granite bases4 ,we can hope to see as little of this august country of ,bach's mind by analyzing a few pieces as a man may see of the hills and moors in a day's excursion--but1 nevertheless1 a beginning must be made4 ,the essential features of this music may be seen in even so simple a piece as the ,invention in ,f-major1 number #g1 in the two-voiced inventions1 though it is written for only two voices and is but thirty-four measures long4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #a4 ,bach3 ,two-voice ,invention ,no4 ,,viii41 in ,f-,major4 ,the subject or theme of this invention is a melody of two measures' length1 first given out by the soprano1 and consists of two motives or characteristic figures1 one in eighth-notes1 staccato1 making a series of leaps1 thus3 ,music3 score and one a graceful descending run in sixteenth-notes1 thus ,music3 score ,notice how charmingly the staccato and the legato are contrasted in these motives4 ,the entire invention is made out of this subject by means of those methods of varied repetition discussed in ,chapter ,i41 especially imitation and transposition4 ,for example1 the lower voice1 which we will call the bass1 imitates1 almost exactly1 through the first eleven measures1 what the soprano says a measure before it4 ,on the other hand1 in measure #ab the bass starts the ball a-rolling by giving the subject 7this time in the key of ,c71 and the soprano takes its turn at imitating4 ,then1 from measure #bi to the end1 it is again the soprano which leads and the bass which imitates4 ,the student should trace out these imitations in detail1 admiring the skill with which they are made always harmonious4 ,there are many instances of transposition also1 most of them carried out so systematically that they form what musicians call sequences4 ,a sequence is a series of transpositions of a motive1 shifting it in pitch either upward or downward1 and carried out systematically through several repetitions4 ,examples3 measures #d1 #e1 and #f1 transposition of the motive in soprano1 three repetitions2 measures #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 transposition of motives of both voices1 three repetitions2 measures #bd1 #be1 transposition of motives of both voices1 two repetitions4 ,the second of these sequences is shown in ,figure ,x4 ,it will be noted what a strong sense of regular1 orderly progress these sequences impart to the melodies4 ,it is interesting to see that the same general scheme of keys is embodied in this invention that we have observed in folk-songs3 i4 e41 the modulation to the dominant in the middle 7measure #ab71 and the return at the end to the original key4 ,this divides the piece into two unequal halves1 the first making an excursion away from the home key1 the second returning home--much as the ,king of ,france1 with twenty thousand men1 marched up the hill and then marched down again4 ,such a two-part structure is observable in thousands of short pieces1 and is called by musicians binary form4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,x4 ,sequence from ,bach's ,invention in ,f-,major4 ,the difference in texture between this piece and any folk-song or dance will best be appreciated by playing over the bass part alone1 when it will be seen that1 far from being mere filling or accompaniment1 it is a delightful melody in itself1 almost as interesting as its more prominent companion4 ,indeed1 in the whole invention there are only two tones 7the ,c and the ,a in the final chord7 which are not melodically necessary4 ,such is the splendid economy and clearness of ,bach's musical thinking4 ,before going further1 the reader should examine for himself several typical inventions1 as1 for example1 ,no4 ,i1 in ,c-major2 ,no4 ,,ii1 in ,c-minor2 ,no4 ,x1 in ,g-major1 and ,no4 ,,xiii1 in ,a-minor1 in this set by ,bach1 noting in each case3 7#a7 the individuality of the motives used1 7#b7 the imitations from voice to voice1 7#c7 the sequences1 7#d7 the modulations1 7#e7 the polyphonic character1 as evidenced by the self-sufficiency and melodic interest of the bass1 and 7#f7 the structural division of the entire invention into more or less distinct sections4 ,,iii4 ,a ,,fugue ,,by ,,bach4 ,the same general method of composing that is exemplified in the inventions we see applied on a larger scale in the fugues of ,bach4 ,the definition of a fugue given by some wag--a piece of music in which one voice after another comes in1 and one listener after another goes out--is true only when the listeners are uneducated4 ,for a trained ear there is no keener pleasure than following the windings of a well written fugue4 ,it is1 at the same time1 true that a fugue presents especial difficulties to the ear1 because of its intricately interwoven melodies4 ,in a folk-song there is not only but one melody1 with nothing to distract the attention from it1 but it is composed in definite phrases of equal length1 like the lines in poetry1 with a pause at the end of each1 in which the mind of the listener can take breath1 so to speak1 and rest a moment before renewing attention4 ,not so in the fugue1 where the bits of tune occur all through the whole range of the music1 are of varying lengths and character1 and overlap in such a way that there are few if any moments of complete rest for the attention4 ,perhaps this is the chief reason why fugues have the reputation of being dry4 ,as is suggested by the derivation of the word fugue1 from the ,latin fuga1 a flight1 the characteristic peculiarity of the form is the entrance1 one after another1 of the several voices1 which thus seem to pursue or chase one another1 to go through a sort of musical game of tag1 in which first one and then another is ,it4 ,first one voice begins with the subject of the fugue1 in the tonic key 7key in which the piece is written74 ,next enters a second voice1 imitating the first1 but presenting the subject not in the tonic1 but in the dominant key4 ,then a third1 once more in the tonic1 and finally the fourth1 again in the dominant4 ,after these entrances all four voices proceed to play with the subject1 transposing it in all sorts of ingenious ways1 and straying off at times into episodes1 generally in sequence form1 but finally coming back1 towards the end of the fugue1 with renewed energy to the subject itself4 ,all this may be seen in such an example as the ,fugue in ,c-minor in ,bach's ,well-,tempered ,clavichord4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #b4 ,bach3 ,fugue ,no4 #b1 ,c-minor1 in three voices4 ,well-,tempered ,clavichord4 ,book #a4g ,like all the fugues in ,bach's ,well-,tempered ,clavichord1 this fugue is preceded by a prelude1 in free style1 like a series of embroideries on chords1 intended to prepare the nearer for the more active musical enjoyment of the fugue to come4 ,parry1 in the ,oxford ,history of ,music1 says of the ,prelude of ,bach and ,handel3 ,it might be a simple series of harmonies such as a player might extemporize before beginning the ,suite or the ,fugue1 such is the case in the present prelude2 or1 its theme might be treated in a continuous consistently homogeneous movement unrestricted as to length1 but never losing sight of the subject 444 etc4 ,a fugal subject is usually longer and more pretentious than an invention subject1 and more nearly approaches what we should call a complete melody4 ,it may contain several motives4 ,moreover1 while the second voice is answering the subject1 the first voice continues with further melody1 and if this is of definite1 individual character it may easily assume almost as great importance as the subject itself1 in which case we may give it the name of counter-subject4 ,in ,figure ,,xi the subject and counter-subject of this fugue are shown4 ,the long brackets show subject and counter-subject2 the short brackets show the three chief motives1 marked a1 b1 and c4 ,the simplicity of the melodic material is noticeable4 ,motive a1 which1 with its three repetitions1 forms most of the subject1 consists of five tones1 in a charming and unforgettable rhythm of two shorts and three longs4 ,motive b is simply a descending scale1 in equal short notes4 ,motive c is four equal long notes4 ,play the subject and counter-subject through separately1 several times1 and get them well by heart before going farther4 ,this fugue is a wonderful example of what a master-composer can make out of simple materials2 the whole piece is built from these three motives4 ,our analysis may conveniently be made in tabular form1 the student being expected to trace out the development for himself1 measure by measure4 ,music3 score ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xi4 ,,subject ,,and ,,counter-,,subject ,,of ,,bach',s ,,fugue ,,in ,c-,,minor 7,,well-,,tempered ,,clavichord7 ,,table ,,of ,,thematic ,,treatment ,,of ,,fugue ,,in ,c-,,minor ,measures4 #a- #b ,subject in ,alto4 #c- #d ,subject answered in ,soprano 7imitation71 counter-subject in ,alto4 #e- #f ,episode #a3 ,motive a prominent in ,soprano4 #g- #h ,subject in ,bass1 counter-subject in ,soprano1 fragments of motive c in ,alto4 #i-aj ,episode #b3 ,motive a tossed between ,soprano and ,alto1 motive b in ,bass4 #aa-ab ,subject1 in key of ,e-flat major1 in ,soprano1 counter-subject in ,bass4 #ac-ad ,episode #c3 ,motive b in ,soprano1 motive c in other two voices4 #ae-af ,subject in ,alto1 counter-subject in ,soprano1 motive c in ,bass4 #ag-ai ,episode #d3 ,motives a and b variously distributed between all three voices4 #bj-ba ,subject in ,soprano1 in tonic key again1 counter-subject in ,alto1 motive c in ,bass1 #bb-be ,episode #e3 ,motives a and b in all voices4 #bf-bh ,climax3 ,subject in ,bass1 motives b and c in other voices4 #bi-ca ,coda3 ,subject in ,soprano4 ,note that all the episodes take the form of sequences1 as1 for example1 in the following instance 7measures #i-aj73 ,music3 score ,,figure ,x,ia4 ,a ,,sequence ,,from ,,bach',s ,,fugue ,,in ,c-,,minor4 ,the general form of this fugue illustrates the same principles of modulation1 and of restatement of subject after contrast1 that we noticed in the folk-songs and in the invention4 ,this may be tabulated thus3 ,,table ,,showing ,,structure ,,of ,,fugue ,,in ,c-,,minor4 ,a4 ,b4 ,a4 ,,statement4 ,,contrast4 ,,restatement4 ,measures #a-aj in ,measures #aa-ai in various ,measures #bj-ca key of ,c-minor4 keys1 beginning with ,e-flat4 in ,c-minor4 ,the modulation in this case1 however1 is not to the dominant key1 but to what is called the relative major key1 as is usual in pieces written in minor keys1 7see the folk-song1 ,sister ,fair1 in ,chapter ,,ii71 the reason being that the relative major affords the most natural contrast to a minor key1 just as the dominant affords the most natural contrast to a major key4 ,the conclusion is emphasized by the finely rugged statement of the subject in ,bass at measure #bf4 ,the treatment of this fugue1 for all its consummate skill1 is comparatively simple4 ,it does not employ the more subtle devices often employed in fugues1 of which may be mentioned the following3 #a4 ,inversion3 ,the subject turned upside down1 while retaining its identity by means of its rhythm4 ,music3 score ,original ,subject4 ,music3 score ,inversion4 ,,figure ,,xii4 ,,the ,,device ,,of ,,inversion4 ,music3 score ,original ,subject4 ,music3 score ,augmentation4 ,music3 score ,original ,subject4 ,music3 score ,diminution4 ,,figure ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,devices ,,of ,,augmentation ,,and ,,diminution4 #b4 ,augmentation and ,diminution3 ,the length of the notes doubled or halved1 while their relative length1 or rhythm1 is carefully maintained4 7,figure ,,xiii47 #c4 ,shifted rhythm3#h ,the subject shifted as regards its position in the measure1 so that all the accents fall differently4 ,music3 score ,original ,subject4 ,music3 score ,shifted4 ,,figure ,,xiv4 ,,device ,,of ,,shifted ,,rhythm4 #d4 ,stretto3 ,the imitation of the subject by a second voice occurring prematurely1 before the first voice has completed the subject1 frequently with highly dramatic effect4 7b7 in ,figure ,,ix is an example of stretto4 ,these devices are mentioned here not only because they occur in many fugues1 but because they are used in the symphonic music of ,mozart and ,beethoven1 as we shall later have occasion to see4 ,,iv4 ,,general ,,qualities ,,of ,,bach',s ,,work4 ,perhaps the most exacting of all tests applicable to music is the test of economy4 ,are there superfluous tones that do not enrich the harmony8 ,are there unnecessary subjects not needed to fill the scheme of design8 ,if so1 no matter how beautiful the music1 it is defective as art4 ,bach bears this test victoriously4 ,there is not a note of his writing which one would willingly sacrifice4 ,there is not a melody that is not needed4 ,each subject is not merely introduced and dismissed1 but is developed to the utmost1 so that all that was implicit in its germ becomes explicit in its final form4 ,there is no confusion of the outline1 no overcrowding of the canvas1 no blotchiness in the color4 ,as ,giotto proved his supremacy among draughtsmen by the apparently simple but really enormously difficult feat of drawing a complete1 perfect circle with one stroke of the pencil1 so ,bach constantly proves his supremacy among musicians by making two voices satisfy the ear like an orchestra4 ,and this purity of texture is quite compatible with the utmost richness4 ,indeed1 ,bach's polyphonic scores are inimitably rich1 since each voice sings its own melody1 and the melodies all interplay harmoniously like the lines of a well-composed picture4 ,those who call ,bach's fugues dry make an astonishing confession of their own insensibility or crudity of taste4 ,bach's melodies are not1 to be sure1 like ,annie ,laurie or ,home1 ,sweet ,home4 ,but neither is daylight like candle light2 yet we do not call it darkness because it is diffused through all the atmosphere instead of concentrated in a single visible ray4 ,bach's daring has been the subject of the endless admiration of students4 ,especially in the matter of harmony he did things in the eighteenth century1 and entirely on his own responsibility1 that whole schools of composers band together with a sense of revolutionary courage to do in the twentieth4 ,he is truly one of the most modern of composers1 and will always remain so4 ,composers who might have been his grandsons are now antiquated1 while he is always contemporary with the best musical thought4 ,brahms1 irritated at ,rubinstein's persistent patronizing of ,papa ,haydn in his book1 ,a ,conversation on ,music1 remarked in his dry way3 ,rubinstein will soon be ,great-grandfather ,rubinstein1 but ,haydn will then be still ,papa ,haydn4 ,the same might be said even more truly of ,bach1 who will always be the father of musicians4 ,another way in which ,bach is modern is in the variety of his musical expression4 ,it is not only that his range of different species of works is so great1 reaching from the ecstatically tender and exalted religious choral compositions1 such as cantatas1 motets1 oratorios1 and passions1 through the grand and monumental organ toccatas and fugues1 to the intimate1 colloquial suites and sonatas for orchestra and for clavichord2 it is even more wonderful that in a single work1 such as the ,well-,tempered ,clavichord1 he knows how to sound the whole gamut of human feeling1 from the deep and sombre passions of the soul to the homely gaiety or bantering humor of an idle moment4#i ,bach might have boasted1 had it been in his nature to boast1 that in this work he had not only written in every key known to musicians1 but in every mood known to men4 ,it is the musical ,comdie ,humaine4 ,bach lived quietly and in almost complete obscurity2 for the last quarter-century of his life he held a post as teacher of music and church-music director in ,leipsic4 ,he travelled little1 sought no worldly fame1 took no pains to secure performances of his works1 and1 above all1 made no compromise with the popular taste of his day4 ,he produced his great compositions1 one after another1 in the regular day's work1 for performance in his church or by local orchestras and players4 ,he never pined for a recognition that in the nature of things he could not have2 he wrote the music that seemed good to him1 and thought that his responsibility ended there1 and that his reward lay there4 ,the cynic who said ,every man has his price was evidently not acquainted with the life of ,bach4 ,steadily ignoring those temptations to prostitute his genius for the public's pleasure1 which so materially affected the life course of his great contemporary ,handel1 he followed his own ideals with an undivided mind4 ,as always happens in such cases1 since it takes decades for the world to comprehend a sincere individual1 or even centuries if his individuality is deep and unique1 he was not appreciated in his life-time1 nor for many years after his death4 ,indeed1 he is not appreciated now1 for a man can be appreciated only by his equals4 ,but we have at last got an inkling of the treasure that still lies hidden away in ,bach2 and while ,handel and the other idols of the age sound daily more thin and archaic1 ,bach grows ever richer as the understanding we bring to him increases1 and still holds out his promise of novel and perennial artistic delights4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading4 ,w4 ,r4 ,spalding3 ,tonal ,counterpoint4 ,edward ,dickinson3 ,study of the ,history of ,music1 ,chapter ,,xx4 ,c4 ,h4 ,h4 ,parry3 ,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,,footnotes3 #g ,number the measures1 and call the voices soprano1 alto1 and bass4 #h ,the reader should examine the example of shifted rhythm given in the second chapter in dealing with the ,german song1 ,sister ,fair4 #i ,in ,book ,i1 for example1 ,fugue ,,ii is as light and delicate as ,,xii is serious and earnest2 ,,xvi is pathetic1 ,,xvii vigorous and rugged1 ,,xviii thoughtful and mystical1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,dance ,,and ,,its ,,development4 ,i4 ,,musical ,,character ,,of ,,dances4 ,in the last chapter we studied the most important applications of the polyphonic style1 which originated in music for voices1 to the music of instruments4 ,we saw how in such music the attention of the composer was divided among several equally important voices or parts1 and how much he made of the principle of imitation2 and in connection with the fugue we remarked that the very complex interweaving of the different voices in such music1 one beginning before another leaves off1 and all together making an intricate web1 presented certain difficulties to the listener accustomed to the more modern style1 in which a single voice has the melody1 and stops short at regular intervals1 giving the hearer a chance to draw breath1 as it were1 and renew attention for what is coming next4 ,listening to modern music is like reading a series of short sentences1 each clearly and definitely ended by its own full stop4 ,listening to the old polyphony is more like reading one of those long and involved sentences of ,de ,quincey or ,walter ,pater1 in which the clauses are intricately interwoven and mutually dependent1 so that we can get the sense only by a long-sustained effort of attention4 ,this more involved style1 suitable to voices1 but less natural to instruments1 had historically a very long life4 ,much of the instrumental music of the sixteenth1 seventeenth1 and eighteenth centuries was in fact nothing but a transference to instruments of music really conceived for voices4 ,thus1 for example1 in the sixteenth century1 when madrigals and canzonas1 which were compositions for voices in the polyphonic style but of a more secular character than church music1 were exceedingly popular1 the composers for stringed instruments and for the then very fashionable lutes1 when they wanted something of a superior order1 444 simply played madrigals1 or wrote music in imitation of any of the varieties of choral music1 not realizing that without the human tones 444 which gave expression to the rising and falling of the melodic material1 the effect was pointless and flat4#aj ,even ,bach and ,handel1 in the eighteenth century1 were1 by their deeply-rooted habit of thinking vocally1 in some degree hampered in the search for a purely instrumental style4 ,instrumental music1 having to get along without words1 must find some principle of coherence1 some kind of definite design1 which will make it intelligible without the help of words1 and enable it to stand on its own feet4 ,and here comes in the importance of folk-song1 and of the folk-dance which grew up beside it1 to our modern instrumental music4 ,for both song and dance pointed the way to such a principle of independent intelligibility1 through definite balance of phrases 7see ,chapter ,i71 and through contrasts and resemblances of key in the various phrases and sections of a composition4 ,music intended to accompany songs or dances had to consist of balanced phrases of equal length--in the case of songs1 because it had to reproduce the verse structure of the words1 which of course were composed in regular stanzas of equal lines1 and in the case of dances1 because it had to afford a basis for symmetrical movements of the body4 ,and when once it was thus divided up into equal phrases1 it took musicians but a short time to find that these phrases could be effectively contrasted1 and made the parts of larger musical organisms1 by being put into different keys 7as we have seen in the instances of modulation cited in ,chapters ,,ii and ,,iii74 ,how vital these principles of structure in balanced phrases and sections1 and of contrast of keys1 are to the entire modern development of music1 we shall realize fully only as we proceed4 ,again1 both song and dance have proved supremely important to the development of the homophonic style 7one melody1 with accompaniment not itself melodic74 ,in the case of song the reason is obvious4 ,a song rendered by a solo voice1 with instrumental accompaniment1 naturally takes the homophonic style1 since it would be highly artificial to make the subordinate element in the combination as prominent as the chief one4 ,dance is less inevitably homophonic than song2 indeed many dances1 as we shall see1 are to a greater or less degree polyphonic2 but nevertheless the tendency toward homophony is always apparent4 ,in the first place1 the interweaving of many melodies would tend to obscure the division into definite phrases1 since an inner melody might sometimes fill up the pause in the main one1 as we saw it constantly doing in the fugue4 ,secondly1 the mode of performing dances tends to give prominence to a single melody4 ,the old dances were generally played by one melodic instrument1 such as a violin or hautboy1 accompanied by chords on an instrument of the lute or guitar family1 and frequently by a drum to strengthen the accents4 ,such a combination affords but one prominent voice1 and does not lend itself naturally to polyphonic writing4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xv4 ,viens dans ce bo- ca- ge1 belle ,a- min - te1 ,sans contrain - te ,l'on y for - me des vux2 ,viens1 ,viens dans ce bo - ca - ge1 belle ,a- min - te1 ,il est fait pour les plai-sirs et les jeux3 ,the ,tambourin1 for instance1 an old ,french dance of ,provence1 was played by one performer1 the melody with one hand on the galoubet1 a kind of pipe or flageolet1 and the accompanying rhythm with the other on a small drum4 ,the quotation in ,figure ,,xv1 taken from ,wekerlin's collection1 ,echos du ,temps ,pass 7,vol4 ,,iii71 is a good example of this ancient dance4 ,in this arrangement for piano1 the left hand imitates the drum1 and the right hand the galoubet or pipe4 ,this quotation illustrates the common use of dance melodies in songs4 ,many primitive airs were so used in the olden times4 ,,ii4 ,,primitive ,,dances4 ,the rude dances which spring up spontaneously in all communities1 savage as well as civilized1 and of which we in ,america have examples in the war-dances of ,indians and the cake-walks of negroes1 are thus seen to be pregnant of influence on developed musical art1 no less than the folk-songs which we discussed in the second chapter1 and the more academic music in the polyphonic style which we treated in the third4 ,both songs and dances1 indeed1 sometimes enter into artistic music even in their crude form1 but in most cases composers treat them with a certain freedom1 and in various ways enhance their effectiveness1 as ,haydn1 for instance1 treats the ,croatian folk-tune ,jur ,postaje1 in the ,andante of his ,paukenwirbel ,symphony4 ,in ,figure ,,xvi the reader will see both the crude form of the tune and the shape into which ,haydn moulds it for his purposes4 ,music3 score ,jur ,postaje4 ,music3 score ,,haydn',s ,version4 ,,figure ,,xvi4 ,in the long process of development which songs and dances thus undergo at the hands of composers1 they of course lose to some extent their contrasting characters1 until in modern music the dance and the song elements are as inextricably interwoven as the warp and the woof of a well-made fabric4 ,as imitation is only slightly available in homophonic music1 the unity so vital to all art is attained in dances chiefly by transpositions of motives1 often in systematic sequences1 by more or less exact balance of phrases1 and by restatement after contrast4 ,in crude examples these means are crudely used2 in the work of masters they are treated with more subtlety and elasticity2 but always a careful analysis will discover them4 ,it will now prove enlightening to compare1 from this point of view1 three dance tunes of very different degrees of merit4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xvii4 ,a ,branle or ,brawl from ,arbeau's ,orchesographie1 7#aede74 ,figure ,,xvii shows an ancient ,branle or ,brawl of the sixteenth century1 taken from ,arbeau's ,orchesographie1 published in #aede4 ,the strong meter1 causing a distinct accent on the first note of each measure1 will at once be noted1 especially if it be contrasted with the more moderate accentuation of the folk-songs of ,chapter ,,ii4 ,such strong meter is naturally characteristic of all dance tunes1 intended as they are to guide and stimulate the regular steps of the dancer4 ,the phrase balance1 though marked1 is not absolutely regular1 but the two two-measure phrases at the beginning and the single one at the end suffice to give an impression of pronounced symmetry4 ,the six-measure phrase after the double-bar is generated by the sequential treatment of the little motive of measure #e4 ,this sequence 7measures #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i7 is worthy of note because of the excessive length to which it is carried4 ,five repetitions are too many1 and grow monotonous4 ,a more skilful composer would have secured his unity without so great a sacrifice of variety--in a word1 he would have treated a device good in itself with less crudity4 ,the exact repetition of measures #c-d at the end is an effective use of restatement after contrast4 ,although the whole of the original theme is not given1 there is enough of it to give the sense of orderliness in design4 ,a ,gavotte in ,f-major by ,arcangelo ,corelli 7#afec-agac71 the famous violin virtuoso of the seventeenth century1 printed in ,augener's edition of ,pieces by ,corelli1 will illustrate a distinctly higher stage in the treatment of a dance form4 ,this is well worth a brief analysis4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #c4 ,corelli3 ,gavotte in ,f-,major4 ,here the phrase balance1 though entirely satisfying to the sense of rhythm1 is much more elastic than in the brawl4 ,the measure-lengths of the phrases are not all the same2 they are as follows3 #a1 #a1 #b1 #a1 #a1 #a1 #b1 #b4 ,this gives the tune an agreeable variety4 ,it will be noted1 however1 that the sequence is still treated rather fumblingly4 ,in the three measures after the double-bar1 the same motive is repeated thrice1 each time higher than before1 and to a fastidious ear the third repetition grows slightly wearisome4 ,on the whole1 nevertheless1 the gain in elasticity and freedom over the last example is marked4 ,the general structure and scheme of modulation in this little ,gavotte of ,corelli deserves careful attention1 because it is in these respects typical of a very great number1 indeed of the majority of the short dances of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,it is divided into two distinct halves1 and while each deals with the same musical material1 the two are strongly contrasted in the matter of key4 ,the first begins in the home key and leaves it to end in a contrasted key1 in the present case the dominant4 ,the second1 beginning in the dominant1 modulates back again to the home key1 and ends there4 ,this scheme1 called by musicians binary or two-part form1 is a very simple and natural one for short pieces of this kind1 and is to be found in thousands of the movements of ,corelli1 ,scarlatti1 ,couperin1 ,rameau1 ,purcell1 ,handel1 ,bach1 and other masters of their day4 ,it is even more common than the ternary form to which we shall come in a moment4 ,,iii4 ,a ,,bach ,,gavotte4 ,if the reader will now compare with these two dances the ,gavotte in the sixth ,english ,suite of ,j4 ,s4 ,bach1 who had the advantage of living half a century later than ,corelli 7besides being an immeasurably greater genius71 he will be amazed to see the power and originality with which a master can treat a traditional form4#aa ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #d4 ,bach3 ,gavotte in ,d-,minor from the ,sixth ,english ,suite4 ,before looking at matters of detail1 we must notice the structure of the piece as a whole1 since it is not only highly interesting in itself1 but is an example--the first we have had on a large scale--of a type of construction that is perhaps more popular with musicians of all schools than any other4 ,this structural type is nothing but an application to an entire piece of that three-part form which we have seen in little in the ,galician folk-song of ,chapter ,i and in ,polly ,oliver in ,chapter ,,ii1 and to which we may now give the name of ternary form1 to distinguish it from the binary form discussed in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,bach here writes two distinct gavottes1 repeating the first after the second3 so that ,gavotte ,i is a statement1 ,gavotte ,,ii a contrast 7emphasized by change of key from minor to major71 and the repeated ,gavotte ,i a restatement4 ,this practice is very frequent in ,bach's suites1 where we often find two courantes1 two bourres1 two passepieds1 two minuets1 etc41 combined in this way1 the function of the second being to afford contrast to the first4 ,in some instances the second of the pair is called trio1 probably because the earliest examples were written in three-voice harmony1 or musette1 from the ,french word for bagpipe1 in reference to the drone bass imitating that instrument4 7,this is the case in the present gavotte1 where the gavotte ,,ii bears the alternative name of musette47 ,in the sonatas and symphonies of ,haydn1 ,mozart1 and ,beethoven1 as we shall see later1 this three-section structure is found in the minuet with trio1 and in the scherzo with trio4 ,nor is it less common in modern music1 occurring notably in the marches of ,schubert1 many of the short pieces of ,schumann1 in the polonaises and some of the nocturnes of ,chopin1 in the rhapsodies and intermezzos of ,brahms1 and in the lyric pieces of ,grieg4 ,indeed1 its naturalness and clearness inevitably commend it to all composers4 ,looking more closely we see1 again1 that the same scheme is used by ,bach in each of the two gavottes1 considered separately4 ,in the first1 we note the structure ,a measures #a-aj1 ,b measures #aa-bg1 ,a measures #bg-ce2 in the second we find1 ,a measures #a-aj1 ,b measures #aa-ai1 ,a measures #ai-bh4 ,the student should verify this analysis for himself4 ,proceeding now to details1 we notice first that ,bach1 supreme master of polyphony that he is1 writes even a gavotte in such a way that each of its voices has its own melodic value4 ,the gavotte itself is in three voices throughout1 and the musette in two1 and while these voices are not so purely melodic as in an invention or a fugue1 and there is little strict imitation1 yet the general effect is polyphonic rather than homophonic4 ,in measures #bg-ca the alto voice even has the theme4 ,the phrase balance is freer than even ,corelli's1 because ,bach's mind is quicker to seize upon and work out the latent possibilities of his melodies4 ,all begins regularly enough3 the first four phrases are each two measures in length2 but after the double-bar the plot begins to thicken4 ,first we find two more phrases just like the preceding ones 7measures #aa-ac and #ac-ae72 but in the next phrase1 begun in the same way1 in measure #ae1 the yeast of ,bach's fancy begins to work1 and the melody broadens out in a series of evolutions1 first in the soprano and later in the alto1 not coming again to a point of rest 7end of a phrase7 until measure #bc4 ,this extension of a phrase through the germination or blossoming of the thought 7in this case it all comes from the bit of melody in measure #g7 is a matter of supreme importance in composition1 and this instance of it1 as well as another in measures #bc-bg1 should be carefully studied by any one who desires to understand music4 ,the power thus to develop or draw forth the hidden potentialities of his motives is one of the most important of all the gifts which go to make a composer4 ,still further instances of it should now be found by the student himself in the musette4 ,the artistic freedom and felicity of ,bach's way of working is further illustrated by the manner in which1 while using the general principle of the sequence as a means of giving his music unity of idea1 he avoids those overliteral1 mechanical transpositions of motive which we found in the more primitive dances4 ,there is just the contrast here that there is between a poor speaker1 who keeps repeating the same word or phrase with futile emphasis1 and the man of real eloquence1 who follows a train of thought no less closely1 but manages constantly to cast his ideas in new phraseology and fresh figures of speech1 so that the variety of what he says is quite as striking as its fundamental unity4 ,the element of variety introduced into the contrast-section of the gavotte 7#aa-bg71 by the free modulation through several keys1 should also be remarked4 ,the plan of modulation is different from any we have yet had4 ,instead of beginning in the relative major 7which would be the key of ,f71 the section begins in the dominant minor 7,a-minor74 ,a good many keys are then touched upon before the tonic or home key is reached at the restatement 7#bg-ce71 which1 by a charming subtlety1 begins with the theme in the alto instead of the soprano voice4 ,in all these matters we detect the workings of an original and inventive mind1 which1 far from being hampered by working in a traditional form1 is stimulated to constantly new solutions of old problems1 and so produces a piece of music at once perfectly clear and fascinatingly interesting4 ,in the next chapter we shall see how composers combined groups of such dances as this1 with other pieces of a different character1 into those suites which were the most popular forms of instrumental music in the eighteenth century4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading4 ,grove's ,dictionary3 article ,rhythm1 and articles under names of various dances1 as ,gavotte1 ,allemande1 ,courante1 ,minuet1 ,gigue1 etc4 ,other examples of dances may be found in a collection of twenty-five old gavottes1 published by ,breitkopf and ,hrtel1 and in a volume of miscellaneous old dances in the ,litolff ,edition4 ,,footnotes3 #aj ,parry3 ,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 page #aae4 #aa ,for this analysis1 number all the measures and parts of measures consecutively1 which will give #ce measure numbers in the ,gavotte proper1 and #bh in the second ,gavotte or ,musette4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,suite4 ,i4 ,,derivation ,,of ,,the ,,suite4 ,once musicians had begun to realize how dances could be developed into finished pieces1 like the gavotte of ,bach1 which we discussed in the last chapter1 they were quick to avail themselves of this advantage by combining several such dances into a group1 thus making a composition of some length and dignity and yet of popular1 easily comprehensible style4 ,such compositions1 known in ,england as ,lessons1 in ,france as ,ordres1 and in ,germany as ,suites and ,partitas1 became numerous in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,the first historical step in the development of the suite was taken when the great violin-makers of ,cremona and ,brescia1 in ,italy1 brought the violin to a wonderful mechanical perfection early in the seventeenth century4 ,virtuosos on this brilliant instrument were not slow to appear1 and they dazzled their audiences with pieces known as sonatas1 though having little in common with what we nowadays call a sonata4 ,their sonata da chiesa1 or church sonata1 was a group of pieces1 all polyphonic in character and derived from the old choral madrigals and canzonas2 the sonata da ballo1 or dance sonata1 was a group of dance tunes2 the sonata da camera1 or chamber sonata1 combined both types4 ,gradually the first become obsolete1 and the second and third took respectively the names suite and partita1 although the nomenclature was inexact1 as suites often contained movements of strict and severe polyphonic style as well as dances4 ,the greatest of the violin virtuosos was ,arcangelo ,corelli1 whose sonatas retain their charm even for our modern ears1 as may be seen from the sample of his work studied in the last chapter4 ,about the end of the seventeenth century the keyed instruments1 such as the harpsichord1 the clavichord1 the spinet1 and other precursors of our modern pianoforte1 first reached the degree of mechanical perfection which enabled them to rival the violin2 and it was accordingly not until then that important pieces for such keyed instruments began to be written4 ,at the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth centuries1 however1 we find interesting music for these instruments by composers of several nations4 ,in ,france ,couperin 7#affh-agcc7 wrote what he called ,ordres1 short series of pieces in dance style1 piquant in rhythm1 melodiously graceful1 profusely embroidered with embellishment2#ab and he was followed by ,rameau 7#afhc-agfd7 with similar works4 ,a curious whim of these ,french masters was the appending of picturesque titles to their pieces1 such as ,the ,tambourine1 ,the ,hen1 ,the ,return of the ,birds1 etc4--a practice which anticipates the program music of to-day4 ,italy had one extraordinary genius in this department of music1 ,domenico ,scarlatti 7#afhc-ageg74 ,he was a most brilliant performer on the harpsichord1 delighted in all feats of agility1 and loved to surprise and astonish his audience4 ,in short he was a virtuoso1 and his performances must have created the kind of sensation in the seventeenth century that ,liszt's did in the nineteenth4 ,for vivacity1 wit1 irony1 mischief1 mockery1 and all the category of human traits which ,beethoven's scherzo served so brilliantly to express1 says ,parry1 the world had to wait for a full century to see ,scarlatti's equal again4 ,some of the preludes1 sarabandes1 minuets1 courantes1 etc41 composed by him1 still retain their interest4 ,his beautiful ,pastorale in ,e-minor1 and his ,cat fugue1 written on a theme played by a pet cat running across the keyboard1 are sometimes heard in recitals4 ,it was in the hands of the ,german masters1 ,bach and ,handel1#ac however1 that the suite reached its highest state4 ,these two great composers1 born in the same year1 #afhe1 possessed not only the sense of technical effect which made ,scarlatti great1 and the high spirits1 enthusiasm1 and sense of proportion which are needed for the production of idealized dance movements such as ,couperin and ,rameau have given us1 but they had great musical learning1 and much experience in the use of the strict choral style of polyphonic writing1 which they showed by introducing into their suites certain movements much more serious in style and exalted in sentiment than dances4 ,the ,english and ,french ,suites1 so called1 of ,bach1 and the ,twelve ,harpsichord ,suites1 or ,lessons1 as they were called in ,england1 of ,handel1 deserve to rank among the great masterpieces of musical art4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,suites ,,of ,,bach4 ,the six ,english and six ,french ,suites of ,bach1 which deserve a more detailed study than any others1 consist generally of from five to eight separate pieces or movements4 ,the first1 derived from the severer type of the sonata da chiesa1 and thus1 more remotely1 from the choral madrigal and canzona 7see above71 is always more intricate and elaborate than the others4 ,in the ,english ,suite it is a long contrapuntal prelude1 with imitations and sequences such as we studied in the invention and the fugue4 ,in the ,french ,suites it is an allemande1 less elaborate but still dignified and impressive4 ,we see this to be appropriate when we remember that the hearer is best able to follow intricacies when his mind is fresh and unjaded4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #e4 ,bach3 ,prelude to ,english ,suite1 ,no4 #c1 in ,g-,minor4 ,the ,motives3 ,the thematic material out of which this prelude is developed is very simple1 consisting of just two motives1 which we will call 7a7 and 7b74 ,music3 score ,motive 7a7 7imitated through four voices47 ,music3 score ,motive 7b7 7imitated by a second voice7 measures #cc-cf4 ,,figure ,,xviii4 ,,motives ,,of ,,bach ,,prelude ,,in ,g-,,minor ,note the effective contrast between the bold1 assertive character of motive 7a7 and the more graceful character of 7b74 ,structure3 ,the prelude divides itself into seven clearly marked sections1 each ended by a well-marked cadence4 ,let us examine these briefly in turn4 ,section ,i1 measures #a-cb1 key of ,g-minor3 ,founded on motive 7a71 with many sequences which the reader should now be able to trace for himself4 ,section ,,ii1 measures #cc-ff3 ,begins in ,g-minor1 modulates to ,b-flat major1 the relative major4 ,motive 7b7 in soprano1 measures #cc-cd2 in alto1 measures #ce-cf2 in bass1 measures #dc-dd4 ,motive 7a71 measures #ce1 #cf1 #cg 7alto71 #ch1 #ci1 #dc1 #dd1 #ec1 #ed1 etc4 ,section ,,iii1 measures #fg-ih1 key of ,b-flat3 ,an almost exact copy of ,section ,i1 in a different key4 ,section ,,iv1 measures #ii-abd3 ,begins in ,b-flat major1 modulates to ,d-minor1 the dominant of the original key4 ,both motives tossed about from voice to voice4 7,the reader should locate each instance for himself47 ,section ,v1 measures #abe-afj3 ,begins in ,d-minor1 modulates to ,e-flat major1 thus giving variety of key in the middle part of the composition1 which we begin to see is an important principle of form4 7,compare the ,gavotte of the last chapter47 ,very similar in treatment to ,section ,,ii4 ,section ,,vi1 measures #afa-agi3 ,modulates back from ,e-flat major to the home key1 thus preparing the way for the final statements and conclusion4 ,in measures #age-agh the insistence of the bass on the tone ,d1 the dominant of the original key1 will be noticed4 ,such an insistence on one tone is called a pedal point1 because so frequently found in the pedal part of organ music1 and serves admirably here to prepare the mind for the triumphant return to ,g-minor in the final section4 ,the rest of ,section ,,vi is made up of sequences1 thus3 #afb-afe1 #aff-afi1 #agj-agc2 and then1 #agc1 #agd1 #age1 #agf1 #agg1 #agh4 ,section ,,vii1 measures #ahj-bac3 ,almost entirely in the home-key1 thus emphasizing the sense of finality4 ,the bulk of this section is furthermore identical with ,section ,i1 thus affording a fine example of the principle of restatement after contrast4 ,altogether this is a most interesting movement4 ,in the great effect made with simple means we recognize again1 as we did in the case of the invention and the fugue1 the splendid power of ,bach's mind4 ,the principles of imitation of motives from voice to voice1 of transpositions of a single motive in a single voice giving rise to the many sequences1 and of restatement after contrast1 all discussed in the first chapter1 are illustrated more brilliantly than by any other composition we have thus far examined4 ,finally1 in the variety of key of ,section ,v1 placed in the middle of the piece1 and in the unity of key of the first and last sections1 we get a striking anticipation of a principle of construction which we shall later see to be at the root of the most important of modern forms1 the sonata-form4 ,after listening to such a movement as this we naturally wish to relax a little2 and we are1 therefore1 pleased to hear a series of dances of various rhythms and qualities of expression1 cast in simple binary or ternary forms1 and either frankly homophonic in style or not too elaborately polyphonic4 ,it is impossible to describe in detail here all the dances found in suites1 but the table on page #fh will give an idea of the more important ones4 ,the gavotte studied in the preceding chapter gives an excellent general impression of the livelier dances used1 which may be farther defined by a glance at such typical pieces as the bourres of the first and second ,english ,suites1 and the gavottes of the third ,english and fifth ,french ,suites4 ,there is generally also to be found in ,bach's suites1 introduced for the sake of contrast and in order to represent the more emotional side of musical expression1 a sarabande or other such slow1 stately1 and sometimes truly noble movement4 ,let us take1 as an example of this element1 the ,sarabande from the second ,english ,suite4 ,,figure ,,xix4--,,the ,,chief ,,dances ,,used ,,in ,,suites ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,name ,,origin ,,meter ,,form ,,character ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,allemande,german #d-d ,usually binary ,brisk1 fluent4 ,courante ,french #c-b or #c-d binary ,merry1 energetic4 ,sarabande,spanish #c-b1 #c-d binary ,stately1 serious1 sometimes noble4 ,bourre ,french #d-d1 #b-d ternary,lively4 ,gavotte ,french #d-d ternary,moderately quick1 well-marked4 ,minuet ,french #c-h1 #c-d ternary,well-regulated gaiety1 courtly4 ,passepied,french #c-d ,animated1 brisk4 ,loure ,old ,french#f-d ,slow1 stately4 ,anglaise ,french #b-d ,lively1 energetic4 ,polonaise,polish #c-d ,dignified1 but animated4 ,pavane ,french #b-d ,stately4 ,rigaudon ,french #b-d1 #d-d ,very lively1 gay4 ,gigue ,doubtful #f-h1 #ab-h binary ,very rollicking and merry4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #f4 ,bach3 ,sarabande in ,a-,minor from ,english ,suite ,,ii ,the melodic germ from which the piece is developed is the following very serious and earnest phrase3 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xx4--,,theme ,,of ,,bach ,,sarabande a phrase in which great depth of almost tragic feeling is expressed4 ,against this is set1 for the sake of relief1 the lighter and more suave melody of measures #e and #f1 treated in freely sequential fashion4 ,the whole sarabande is built from these two brief melodic figures4 ,this sarabande serves as an admirable illustration of the type of beauty common in the music of ,bach4 ,its phraseology1 if we may use the term1 is quite different from that in use in the music of to-day2 it is full of quaint and archaic turns of musical speech--formal sequences1 little motives that sound to us almost mechanical4 ,it is like an etching of ,drer's1 full of detail1 each line carefully drawn1 and the whole picture instinct with life4 ,thus its type of beauty differs so materially from that to which we are accustomed that it often fails in its appeal4 ,only by using our imagination are we able to project ourselves1 so to speak1 into another milieu1 another time1 another point of view4 ,and this is the test with which any archaic work of art confronts us4 ,without imagination in the beholder a picture by ,botticelli1 for example1 is a curiosity rather than a work of art4 ,its strange allegory1 its quaint idea of landscape1 its figures with their unusual posing--all these are beautiful or merely curious according as we look at them4 ,beauty is in the eye of the beholder4 ,the repetition at a higher pitch of the main motive in measures #c-d is highly poignant2 and throughout the expression is intensified by the use of rich and often complex harmony1 as particularly in the last four measures of all4 ,notwithstanding the earnest and impassioned character of this sarabande1 its derivation from the dance is clearly revealed in the regularity of the balance of phrases consisting of equal measure groups1 which divide up as follows3 #b1 #b1 #d1 #d 7double-bar72 #b1 #b1 #d1 #b1 #b1 #d4 ,the symmetry is much more precise than in an invention or a fugue4 ,the form is binary or two-part4 ,part one1 measures #a-ab1 begins in ,a-minor and ends in the relative major1 the key of ,c4 ,part two1 measures #ac-bh1 begins 7with the original motive7 in ,c-major1 and returns to ,a-minor4 ,the sequence of measures #bc-bd1 with measures #ba-bb1 is very beautiful and deserves special notice4 ,following the sarabande the reader will observe a more florid version of it1 bearing the caption1 ,les agrments de la mme ,sarabande--,ornaments for the same ,sarabande4 ,this is an example of the practice1 common in ,bach's day1 of weaving a net-work of grace-notes1 trills1 and other decorations about a melody1 a practice due in part to the natural fondness of all musicians for effect1 and in part to the fact that the instruments of that day were so small and poor that a tone could only be sustained by being struck many times4 ,this custom of ornamenting melodies with all manner of embroidery gave rise to the theme and variations1 a form which we shall study later4 ,all the other ,english ,suites of ,bach contain very beautiful sarabandes2 those in the ,french ,suites are less interesting1 though the first contains a fine example4 ,all of ,bach's twelve suites end with gay and vigorous gigues1 the most rollicking of all the dances used4 ,this is natural enough1 in view of the desirability of closing the suite with an impression of energetic vitality4 ,these gigues are in the headlong #f-h or #ab-h meter2 they are polyphonic in texture1 and constructed in the binary form4 ,often-times a high degree of contrapuntal skill is shown in their composition1 but usually this does not interfere with their light and almost careless character4 ,a curious feature of most of them is that in the second half the motive is inverted or turned upside down4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #g4 ,bach3 ,gigue1 from ,french ,suite ,,iv in ,e-,flat4 ,music3 score ,theme of ,gigue1 ,bach's ,french ,suite ,,iv1 and its ,inversion4 ,music3 score ,inversion of theme1 beginning of second half4 ,,figure ,,xxi4 ,the gay little theme is composed of two motives1 as indicated in ,figure ,,xxi1 in which the long brackets show the theme and its imitation by the second voice to enter1 and the short brackets show its component motives1 of contrasting character4 ,in measures #e and #f the theme is again imitated by the third voice 7left hand part74 ,in the course of the development a still more lively figure makes its appearance in measures #ai1 #bc1 #bd and #be4 ,the now familiar sequences are found at every turn4 ,the form is binary 7,part ,i1 measures #a-bf2 ,part ,,ii1 measures #bg-fj74 ,the inversion of the theme1 shown in ,figure ,,xxi1 makes the subject of the second half4 ,the key-system is perfectly simple4 ,part ,i modulates from the tonic1 ,e-flat1 to the dominant1 ,b-flat2 ,part ,,ii begins there and returns to the home-key4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,historic ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,suite4 ,in the course of the eighteenth century the suite gradually waned in popularity1 and gave place to the more highly organic sonata4 ,modern suites1 notable among which are such delightful works as ,bizet's ,l',arlesienne1 ,grieg's ,peer ,gynt1 ,dvork's ,suite for small orchestra1 opus4 #ci1 ,tschaikowsky's ,nut-,cracker ,suite1 and ,brahms's ,serenades for orchestra1 are1 after all1 exceptional and infrequent1 and not the inevitable mould in which the composer casts his ideas4 ,but the historical importance of the suite was great1 and it fell into disuse only after its lessons had been thoroughly learned4 ,through it musicians developed the dance element which must always be one of the two main strands of all music2 through it they learned to substitute for the ancient polyphonic style which is suitable to voices the homophonic style best adapted to the capacities and the limitations of instruments2 and through it they became familiar with those simple binary and ternary forms in which such instrumental music is most conveniently and effectively cast4 ,thus the suite formed the bridge between1 on the one hand1 7a7 crude folk-songs1 7b7 primitive dances1 and 7c7 strict polyphonic forms such as the invention and the fugue1 and on the other1 the sonatas1 quartets1 concertos1 and symphonies of ,haydn1 ,mozart1 and ,beethoven4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading4 ,dickinson3 ,the ,study of the ,history of ,music1 ,chapters ,,xiii and ,,xiv4 ,parry3 ,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapters ,,viii and ,,ix2 ,mason3 ,beethoven and ,his ,forerunners1 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,,footnotes3 #ab ,edward ,dickinson1 ,the ,study of the ,history of ,music1 page #hd4 #ac ,handel1 though he lived in ,england1 was in his music a ,german4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,rondo4 ,the study of the suite contained in the last chapter has brought us for the first time into contact with a cyclic form4 ,we have seen that1 as instruments developed1 as the technique of playing them advanced1 and as the themes and their harmonies became more plastic1 composers naturally sought some larger plan than that afforded by a single dance form2 they thus arrived at the suite4 ,but the suite was inclined to be monotonous4 ,the same key was used for all the separate movements1 there was an almost invariable stated length for each1 and the rhythms were too insistent to admit of great variety of expression4 ,so composers began to experiment with other forms1 chief among which was the sonata4#ad ,through all the rest of this book we shall be dealing directly or indirectly with the musical forms that go to make up the complete sonata4 ,in the present chapter we shall deal with one of its simplest and most primitive types of structure1 the rondo4 ,sonatas were written as far back as the seventeenth century4 ,kuhnau's celebrated ,bible ,sonatas1 crude attempts at program music1 are among the notable examples of primitive sonatas4 ,these were indeed sound-pieces1 but their resemblance to a real sonata1 as we understand the term1 is slight4 ,bach and ,handel each wrote sonatas2 and some of ,bach's are masterly examples of the then prevailing style4 ,his sonata for violin and piano in ,f-minor 7number ,v in ,peters' edition7 may be studied as an example of the form4 ,it contains four movements1 the first1 second1 and fourth of which are purely polyphonic1 the third being one of those beautiful meditative pieces of a somewhat rhapsodical style in which ,bach seems to have specially delighted4 ,italian contemporaries of ,bach also wrote sonatas1 and some of those by ,d4 ,scarlatti 7#afhc-ageg7 and ,a4 ,corelli 7#afec-agac7 were of considerable importance in the development of the form4 ,all these early specimens1 however1 were either vague and indeterminate in form1 or were hampered in their expression by the old polyphonic methods4 ,the modern sonata first begins to emerge in the work of ,philip ,emanuel ,bach1 son of ,john ,sebastian1 and his compositions in this style will be the subject of a later chapter4 ,i4 ,,derivation ,,of ,,the ,,rondo4 ,our investigations into the formal element of early dance music have thus far revealed two plans1 binary and ternary1 i4 e41 two-part and three-part4 ,for such short pieces as the inventions of ,bach1 and for many of the separate dances in suites1 the two-part form was adequate1 but when instrumental music began to develop on broader lines1 so that each of the halves was extended to a considerable length1 the advantage of the three-part form with its restatement after contrast was readily perceived1 and it came to be frequently used4 ,among the early experiments in form we find a kind of extension of ternary form by the repetition of its separate parts4 ,such pieces sometimes consist of but one stable phrase 7,a7 with alternating phrases of an indefinite character1 while others alternate two set phrases1 as3 ,a1 ,b1 ,a1 ,b1 ,a1 ,b1 ,a1 etc4 ,the one fixed principle in these pieces seems to be that they should end with the phrase with which they began4 ,in primitive songs this fixed part constituted the chorus1 with which the solo melody alternated1 having1 of course1 different words for each verse4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xxii4 ,,nouel ,,de ,,las ,,flous4 7,,carol ,,of ,,the ,,flowers7 ,chorus4 ,come with us1 sweet flowers1 and worship ,christ the ,lord1 ,let your perfumes hover round the ,babe adored4 #ast #bnd ,sopranos4 #a4 ,modest violet1 hiding in the grassy shade1 ,thou canst say how humble ,he for us is made4 ,chorus4 ,come with us1 c4 7,d4,c47 #b4 ,lily fair1 low bending in the sun's warm light1 ,thou dost tell that ,he is pure as thou art white4 ,come with us1 c4 #c4 ,as thou1 ,pansy1 shinest forth in bright array1 ,so doth ,he ,his majesty to man display4 ,come with us1 c4 #d4 ,as thou1 ,rose1 wide-opening dost thy scent impart1 ,so ,his love expanding1 draws each sinful heart4 ,come with us1 c4 ,the question is sometimes raised whether in the primitive carol the chorus began1 or whether1 as in many of our own popular songs1 it waited until the end of the first solo verse4 ,probably the former is of the greater antiquity2 in any case1 it is from it that the rondo#ae is derived4--,hadow1 ,sonata ,form4 ,an example of this primitive type of carol will be found in ,figure ,,xxii4 ,this is an ancient carol from the old province of ,bas-,quercy 7now ,lot-et-,garonne7 in the southwestern part of ,france4 ,the obvious weakness of this form1 when applied to instrumental music1 is its monotony4 ,one would soon weary of a bald repetition over and over again of two phrases or two melodies to which no variety was imparted1 such as the change of words supplies in the foregoing carol4 ,in order to avoid this disadvantage the natural step to take would be to impart1 by some means or other1 variety to the music2 and this was soon perceived by composers4 ,the idea of a fixed part remained1 i4 e41 the chief musical idea was retained in its original form1 but the secondary melodies were varied4 ,once this change had taken place the rondo became a frequent medium of musical expression4 ,specimens of the early rondo may be found in ,purcell's song1 ,i ,attempt from ,love's ,sickness to ,fly1 and in ,bach's1 ,passepied en ,rondeau1 from the fifth ,english ,suite4 ,the formula for these two pieces is ,a1 ,b1 ,a1 ,c1 ,a4 ,another interesting point is the plan of the harmony of the contrasting sections in the rondo4 ,the first of these 7,b7 would naturally follow the prevailing custom for sections of contrast1 and be in the dominant1 or1 if the piece were in minor1 in the relative major 7see ,chapter ,,ii472 but the second 7,c7 offered a further means of variety1 and the instinct of composers led them to treat it in a free manner and not confine it to any one key4 ,each of the examples of rondo form referred to above adopts this method of procedure4 ,while this early form of the rondo possessed a certain charm1 it was somewhat rigid in effect1 since the various sections were separated from each other by a full close or complete pause4 ,they were like little blocks that fitted together into a definite1 if somewhat stiff pattern4 ,,ii4 ,a ,,rondo ,,by ,,couperin4 ,the primitive rondo was chiefly cultivated by the ,french harpsichord composers of the early eighteenth century1 of whom ,couperin 7#affh-agcc7 and ,rameau 7#afhc-agfd7 were the most distinguished4 ,reference has been made in our chapter on ,the ,suite to the ,ordres of these composers1 and to the perfecting1 at the end of the seventeenth century1 of the instrument for which they were written1 the harpsichord4 ,the strings of the harpsichord were not struck by hammers1 as in the modern pianoforte1 but plucked by quills1 as the strings of a banjo are plucked by the fingers of the player4 ,it has been said of the harpsichord that it produced a scratch with a tone at the end of it4 ,the tone produced in this primitive way was weak and of brief duration1 so that composers not only had to keep re-enforcing a tone by striking it again1 as in the trills and other ornaments so characteristic of their music1 but had to avoid altogether any long sustained passages such as are common in modern music4 ,they had also to substitute for the polyphonic style1 the entire effectiveness of which depends upon the sustainment of its melodies1 a homophonic or one-voiced style which1 while distinct from that usual in modern piano music1 was historically an important factor in its development4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #h4 ,couperin3 ,les ,moissonneurs 7,the ,harvesters74 ,this nave and delightful piece is a good example of the prevailing style of ,french domestic music in the eighteenth century4 ,it is notable for its character of elegance2 it is salon music1 but at the same time it reveals a certain mimetic quality common among the ,french4 ,the swing of its rhythm seems to catch a little of the idea conveyed by the title4 ,couperin's pieces have been called a sort of refined ballet music1 and they are1 as a whole1 based on well defined rhythmic movement4 ,but we may trace in them the gradual progress away from dance forms and towards a freer and more idealized expression4 ,couperin was called by his contemporaries ,le ,grand1 and was an important figure in the musical life of ,paris during the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,his influence extended beyond ,france2 even ,john ,sebastian ,bach adopts some of his methods in writing his ,french suites4 ,les ,moissonneurs may be formally tabulated as follows3 ,,figure ,,xxiii4 ,,structural ,,plan ,,of ,,couperin',s ,,les ,,moissoneurs4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,section ,measures ,notes ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,a #afa-i ,entirely in tonic key with pause at end4 7,the key is ,b-flat major47 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,b #aj-ad ,modulating to the dominant and ending thereon4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,a #ae-bc ,an exact repetition of the first ,a4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,c #bd-cb ,entirely in relative minor key with pause at end4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,a #cc-da ,an exact repetition of the first ,a4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,d #db-ef ,beginning in tonic2 modulating to ,c minor and back again4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,a #eg-fe ,an exact repetition of the first ,a4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,an examination of this rondo will reveal that the subsidiary portions--,b4 ,c4 and ,d4--are episodes rather than distinct themes4 ,their melodies1 instead of being entirely new as in the more highly developed rondos of ,haydn and ,mozart1 are either literal copies of the chief melody1 or close imitations of it1 in related keys2 so that the chief variety imparted by them is a variety of harmony4 ,the plan of these harmonies should be carefully noted1 particularly the use of the home key in the section marked ,d4 ,this method of unifying a melody or a whole piece1 by coming back to the original key at the end1 embodying as it does an important sthetic principle1 has been pointed out several times already4 ,we may say1 then1 that the structure of this piece is harmonic rather than thematic4 ,in all instrumental music of any consequence this harmonic element is of great importance4 ,the use of the word ,couplet to describe the episodes seems to indicate the derivation of these rondos from the old song and chorus like the ,carol of the ,flowers4 ,in fact1 one gets from this piece a decided impression as of a fixed#ag part in somewhat rigid form1 and with comparatively full harmonies1 alternating with verses 7couplets7 in which the right hand plays1 as it were1 a solo melody against an unobtrusive accompaniment4 ,,iii4 ,,from ,,couperin ,,to ,,mozart4 ,this form of the rondo#ah persisted until the time of ,haydn and ,mozart1 and our next example for analysis is from that period4 ,during the century that elapsed between ,couperin and ,mozart the piano was so perfected as to displace the harpsichord4 ,the invention of the damper pedal entirely changed the style of writing for the piano1 and the necessity for filling out the melody with elaborate ornamentation no longer existed4 ,the greater power and better action of the new instruments also afforded composers a much wider scope4 ,but more important still1 during this century ,philip ,emanuel ,bach 7#agad-aghh7 had written some pianoforte works that advanced the art into a new realm4 ,in the eighth chapter we shall study one of his pianoforte sonatas1 but it may be said here that both ,haydn and ,mozart freely acknowledged their great debt to him4 ,this study is postponed for the moment because he did not affect the form of the rondo4 ,franz ,josef ,haydn 7#agcb-ahji71 who spent many years as ,kapellmeister to ,prince ,esterhazy and who1 in consequence1 lived more or less isolated from the world1 made many interesting experiments with musical forms4 ,he may be said to be the father of the symphony and the string quartet1 and several of his piano sonatas contain movements that are obviously attempts at creating new forms or combining old ones in new ways4 ,his ninth#ai piano sonata1 for example1 has for its finale a curious and interesting combination of the rondo and the variation form1 while the finale to the third sonata is marked ,tempo di ,minuetto4 ,such experiments are always to be found when we examine the work of creative minds4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xxiv4 ,haydn's sonatas thus provide us with a link in the chain that binds ,mozart to his predecessors4 ,the foregoing quotation from ,haydn's second sonata will illustrate the primitive nature of some of his rondo themes 7,figure ,,xxiv74 ,this theme is1 in effect1 a jolly dance tune without pretensions to dignity1 and against it is placed a conventional pattern accompaniment4 ,another rondo theme from ,haydn may be cited to illustrate his gentle humor4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xxv4 ,this has for its first episode1 or secondary theme1 the following vividly contrasting passage3 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xxvi4 ,these two quotations illustrate the childlike navet of ,haydn's nature4 ,he is never tragic2 his pieces are like delightful pictures of rural life painted by an artist who was himself country born and bred and who feels the natural charm of the simplest1 commonest things4 ,haydn's pictures are flooded with sunlight4 ,,iv4 ,a ,,rondo ,,by ,,mozart4 ,wolfgang ,amadeus ,mozart 7#agef-agia71 aside from his supreme greatness as a composer1 represents the culmination of what is called the ,classical period4 ,the tendency away from strict polyphony and towards a free homophonic style has already been noted4 ,it was the peasant-born ,haydn who first subordinated polyphony1 producing long instrumental pieces based on song melodies4 ,his symphonies and string quartets are bubbling over with melodiousness4 ,often frankly adopting folk tunes1 or inventing themes in the same style1 he produced great works that depend hardly at all on the interweaving of themes1 but have as their basis rather the exposition of single melodies as the raison d'tre of the music4 ,not by any means lacking in erudition1 ,haydn turns to nave melody as his natural means of expression4 ,along with this element1 and as a component part of what we call classic1 is that perfection of form and style that particularly distinguishes the music of ,mozart4 ,his works are often cited as the most perfect illustrations of the classic idea in music1--this term referring in a general way to the absence of individualism in conformity to a general type of style and form1 navet as opposed to self-consciousness1 symmetry of outline1 highest finish of detail1 purity of sound1 loftiness and serenity of mood4--,dickinson1 ,the ,study of the ,history of ,music4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #i4 ,mozart3 ,rondo from ,piano ,sonata in ,b-flat major4 ,this rondo is the last of the three movements of this characteristic sonata4 ,mozart's piano sonatas seldom have more than three movements1 and of these the rondo is last1 the plan being to present the more highly organized movements first1 and to end1 as in the suite1 with a bright and cheerful piece4 ,the rondos of this period were lively and rhythmically energetic4 ,while not essentially dance-like1 they nevertheless were ultimately derived from the dance1 and lacked the meditative and sentimental qualities to be found in slow movements4 ,it is from one of these two sources--the dance tune and the folk-song--that all these sonata movements sprang4 ,contributory streams entered here and there--the polyphonic influence is discernible2 ,italian opera lends its fluent vocal style and occasionally its love of display in elaborate cadenzas2 and1 of course1 the idiom of the piano--the peculiar manner of writing that the instrument requires--is always present4 ,the first theme of this movement1 for example1 suggests motion2 one can almost imagine the opening section 7measures #a-af7 as suited to the first evolution in a dance1 and the second 7beginning at measure #af7 as the strain intended for a new set of dancers1 while the chords in measure #ag quite vividly suggest the steps of a dance4 ,the left hand part is largely in the familiar idiom of the piano of ,mozart's time1 though there is occasionally polyphonic treatment--as in measures #a-h4 ,the various divisions of the piece are strongly marked by cadences1 sometimes preceded by formal patterns of scales1 or other meaningless passages1 as at #add-adg1 such as ,wagner likened to the clatter of dishes at a royal banquet4 ,sequences1 so familiar in the music of ,bach1 frequently appear here1 and were1 indeed1 a part of the phraseology of the time4 ,the passage between measures #ahi and #aic is1 in this respect1 especially notable because of the harsh dissonance between ,e-flat and ,d at measure #aia4 ,the cadenza is an interesting and unusual factor in this rondo4 ,a cadenza always occurred in certain types of operatic arias1 and in the concerto was introduced to display the skill of the performer1 but it is unusual to find one in a rondo4 ,,figure ,,xxvii4 ,,structural ,,plan ,,of ,,mozart',s ,,rondo ,,in ,b-,,flat ,,major4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,section ,measures ,notes ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,a #a-bd ,chief theme in two sections 7#a-h and #i-bd71 the last slightly extended4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,b #bd-dj ,first contrasting theme in dominant4 ,measures #cf-dj constitute a codetta to this section4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,a #da-fd ,chief theme as before1 but modulating 7#fb7 to the relative minor4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,c #fd-aaa ,second contrasting theme in two parts3 #ast in ,g-minor 7#fd-ge71 #bnd in ,e-flat major 7#gf-ij74 ,this section is concluded by a passage in ,c-minor based on motive from chief theme1 and by a codetta 7#aje-aaa7 similar to that in ,b4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,a #aab-adh ,chief theme as before1 but extended4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,b #adh-agb ,first contrasting theme now in tonic1 and with an extended codetta4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,a #agc-bbd ,free treatment of chief theme1 and other material3 motive from codetta extensively used 7#agi-aif72 cadenza 7#aih72 epilogue1 or coda 7#bac74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,this rondo flows on happily from beginning to end without touching either great heights or depths4 ,it is a good example of a style of piano music intended more for the domestic circle than for the concert room4 ,it shows that absence of individualism in conformity to a general type of style and form referred to by ,dickinson1 i4 e41 one does not feel in listening to it the obtrusion of a personal point of view2 there are no idiosyncrasies such as are continually appearing in more modern music4 ,there is here also that purity of sound that characterizes ,mozart's music4 ,there are no elisions1 no subtleties of musical language1 no suggested meanings such as one finds1 for example1 in ,schumann4 ,there is the same placidity1 the same clearness of meaning1 the same lucidity of diction that we find in the poetry of ,mozart's day4 ,musical language was not then overlaid with secondary significance as it has since become4 ,an examination of ,figure ,,xxvii will reveal a considerable advance in this rondo over that of ,couperin4 ,the last section 7,a7 in particular fulfills its office of providing1 as it were1 a kind of denouement to the whole piece2 the interest is skillfully made to center or come to a climax here1 and the stiff angularity that characterizes the older rondo is conspicuously absent4 ,and while the scheme of harmonies in this rondo has many elements in common with that of ,les ,moissonneurs1 there are here excursions1 by the way1 into other keys giving variety and warmth of color4 ,but1 most important of all1 the recurrence of the first contrasting theme 7at measure #adh7 in the tonic key after having first appeared in the dominant 7measure #bd7 gives to this piece a real strength1 or stoutness of construction4 ,it is as though there were certain strands in the fabric that run entirely through it and make it firm1 whereas the ,couperin rondo seems to be made by putting together a series of little blocks4 ,another important point of contrast between these two rondos is in the matter of themes4 ,where ,couperin has only one1 which he presents in a variety of charming forms1 but from which little that is new is evolved1 ,mozart has three distinct contrasting themes1 and a little codetta motive2 and all these germinate1 even if but slightly1 into new musical developments4 ,the codetta passage1 in particular1 sprouts and blossoms 7#agi-aif7 in a most delightful manner1 the little germ having first appeared 7#cf7 as an unpromising and monotonous succession of single notes4 ,we referred at some length1 in the chapter on ,the ,dance and ,its ,development1 to this germination of musical thought as of the greatest importance in composition4 ,the reader will readily understand that the highest form of an art like music1 in which the element of time enters as a vital matter--in which the message of the composer comes to us in successive sounds--must depend on something more than the beauty of its several and successive melodies4 ,in the first place1 the limit of such a succession would soon be reached2 the mind1 after having taken in a certain number of melodies1 would lose track of the first ones and be left in utter confusion4 ,the obvious device of repeating the first phrase or melody at the point where1 otherwise1 this confusion would result1 has been the determining motive of many of the simple forms we have thus far studied4 ,but this1 after all1 is a primitive method1 and it is obvious that its possibilities are limited4 ,the rondo is1 in effect1 the furthest point to which this plan can go4 ,the fundamental quality in anything living--be it the state1 the church1 the family or the human body--is organism1 the relation of all the parts to the whole4 ,so in the greatest music as in the greatest literature1 everything germinates from certain fundamental ideas1 and nothing is extraneous4 ,this rondo of ,mozart represents a certain tendency of his to string beautiful melodies together--for his fund of melodies was well nigh inexhaustible4 ,but he was too great a master not to see the weakness of such a procedure1 and in works like his ,g-minor symphony he has left nearly perfect examples of this higher form of musical development2--perfect1 that is1 within his own horizon--a wider view was to unfold itself from that height to which ,beethoven finally struggled4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading4 ,parry3 ,the ,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 pp4 #eb and #bda4 ,dickinson3 ,the ,study of the ,history of ,music1 ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,goetschius3 ,the ,homophonic ,forms of ,musical ,composition1 p4 #bjc4 ,mason3 ,beethoven and ,his ,forerunners1 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,hadow3 ,sonata ,form1 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,,list ,,of ,,supplementary ,,pieces ,,for ,,study4 ,haydn3 ,finale of ,sonata in ,d-major1 ,no4 #g 7,schirmer ,ed474 ,finale of ,sonata in ,d-major1 ,no4 #i 7,schirmer ,ed474 ,mozart3 ,finale of ,sonata in ,f-major1 ,no4 #ag 7,schirmer ,ed474 ,,footnotes3 #ad ,sonata1 originally from ,italian ,suonare1 to sound1 as ,cantata was from ,italian ,cantare1 to sing4 ,later the word ,sonata took on a more precise meaning1 which we shall study in later chapters4 #ae ,the name ,rondo 7,fr4 ,rondeau7 is derived from round1 and its application to pieces of the type we are considering was due to the constant recurrence of one principal melody4 #af ,the first partial measure and all the other half measures where the double bars occur are counted separately1 making #fe measures in the whole piece4 #ag ,the fixed part 7,a7 in the ,rondo of this period usually entered but three times instead of four as is the case here4 ,couperin's ,la ,bandoline 7in ,les ,maitres du ,clavecin7 is another example of the extended form of the ,rondo4 #ah ,pauer's ,alte ,meister 7,breitkopf and ,hrtel7 contains several interesting ,rondeaus by ,couperin and ,rameau4 ,les ,maitres du ,clavecin1 edited by ,kohler 7,litolff71 ,vols4 ,x and ,,xi1 may also be consulted4 #ai ,the numbers referred to here are those of the ,schirmer edition4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,variation ,,form--,,the ,,minuet4 ,the process of musical development we have been considering in previous chapters has tended gradually but surely towards freedom of expression and1 at the same time1 definiteness of form4 ,as this process has advanced1 melodies have become less and less constrained1 yet the forms themselves have crystallized into certain accepted types4 ,the ideal of all this progress was unity and variety2 in other words1 composers felt the desire to expand their powers of expression and saw that this expansion must in the nature of things conform to certain sthetic principles and obey certain laws4 ,mere luxuriance of speech without order or system means confusion2 but order and system without living feeling means aridity4 ,these two elements must go hand in hand1 and in the music of masters like ,bach1 ,beethoven1 and ,brahms they do4 ,the so-called variation form admirably illustrates these tendencies4 ,from its very beginning down to the present day there has been a constant re-adjustment of its expressiveness and its formal interest2 a constant attempt to strike the right balance between the two qualities4 ,the form is almost as old as music itself4 ,from the earliest times composers have felt the necessity of varying their tunes by one device or another4 ,even before the other primitive forms had crystallized1 crude variations existed1 and we find old hymn tunes or popular songs repeated over and over again with elaborate changes of phraseology or with contrapuntal devices4 ,certain arid processes--such as writing a tune backwards--were sometimes employed1 and a study of the whole range of the variation form in its early stages reveals a constant fluctuation4 ,i4 ,,variations ,,by ,,john ,,bull4 ,among the most interesting of these early attempts to solve the problem are certain pieces by the ,english composers for the harpsichord who lived in the latter part of the sixteenth century4 ,john ,bull 7#aefc-afbh71 a chorister in the ,chapel ,royal of ,queen ,elizabeth1 was one of the most famous of these1 and he has left us several pieces in variation form1 one of which1 ,courante ,jewel1 is well worth our attention4 ,the courante 7,fr4 courir1 to run7 is one of the old dance forms that became imbedded in the suite1 where it followed the opening#bj ,allemande4 ,this particular example of the courante illustrates the habit1 common at that time1 of writing pieces based on well known dance rhythms such as we have studied in ,chapters ,,iv and ,v4 ,composers attempted to provide further interest in their pieces by giving them special titles4 ,we find1 for example1 one of ,byrd's harpsichord pieces called ,galiardo1 ,mrs4 ,mary ,brownlo1 and one of ,bull's entitled ,pavana1 ,st4 ,thomas ,wake4 ,this tendency in ,english music towards definiteness of idea1 and away from all that is vague1 has been already noted in our chapter on ,folk ,songs4 ,the ,courante ,jewel is an interesting example of a form of variation that has now become practically obsolete4 ,it consists of four separate melodies1 each immediately followed by its variation4 ,the plan might be expressed by the following formula3 ,a1 a2 ,b1 b2 ,c1 c2 ,d1 d1 the large letters representing the themes and the small letters the variations4 ,the first theme begins as follows3 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xxviii4 ,from first theme of ,bull's ,courante ,jewel4 ,the complete theme is sixteen measures long and is divided off into phrases of regular length4 ,this is immediately followed by the variation1 the corresponding portion of which will be found in ,figure ,,xxix4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xxix4 ,part of the variation4 ,in ,figure ,,xxx are shown the first phrases of the second1 third and fourth melodies1 in order that the reader may see how distinct is each one4 ,music3 score ,,ii ,music3 score ,,iii ,music3 score ,,iv ,,figure ,,xxx4 ,this little piece illustrates what has been already said about freedom of expression4 ,it does not impress us as strictly dance music2 it is manifestly written for its own sake and represents that natural tendency to create something beautiful which underlies art everywhere4 ,but in respect of order and design we find here a decided weakness4 ,four separate and successive ideas1 each followed by an elaboration of itself1 would make a poor model for any art4 ,one feels a sense of vagueness after listening to a piece so constructed2 no single idea dominates2 one longs for some point upon which the attention may be centered4 ,,ii4 ,a ,,gavotte ,,and ,,variations ,,by ,,rameau4 ,pauer's ,alte ,meister1 ,vol4 ,i1 contains another interesting experiment in the variation form1 a ,gavotte and ,variations by ,rameau 7#afhc-agfd74 ,the opening phrase of this ,gavotte runs as follows3 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xxxi4 ,first phrase of ,gavotte by ,rameau4 ,in the variation of the above1 which will be found in ,figure ,,xxxii1 the theme is presented less definitely than in the original1 while the upper part in sixteenth notes makes a kind of free counterpoint4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xxxii4 ,first phrase of ,variation by ,rameau4 ,what has been said in our last chapter of ,couperin's harpsichord pieces applies to these variations of ,rameau4 ,there is in them a kind of refinement and delicacy that characterizes all the ,french music of that period4 ,the theme itself is less nave than that of the ,courante ,jewel1 and more suggestive of the slow movement themes of the sonatas of later composers4 ,in fact1 this has in it little of the real ,gavotte1 its meditative quality is too strong and its rhythms too weak4 ,these two compositions admirably illustrate the general striving for some ordered means of expression in secular music that characterizes the seventeenth century4 ,it was a time of groping4 ,sacred music had largely occupied the attention of composers1 and few paths had been opened for those who desired other means of expression1 so that the problem of secularization was the all-important one4 ,it must also be kept in mind that this particular advance could not take place until musical instruments and the technique of playing them had been perfected4 ,as late as #aega ,ammerbach's ,orgel oder ,instrument ,tabulatur was published1 forbidding the use of either the thumb or little finger in organ playing1 and writers of the seventeenth century speak of certain uses of the thumb in playing as daring innovations4 ,couperin in his ,l',art de ,toucher le ,clavecin1 published in ,paris in #agag1 advocates a system of fingering that still uses the thumb in a clumsy manner1 and it was not until ,john ,sebastian ,bach's method of tuning by equal temperament and his new system of fingering came into use that music for the harpsichord and clavichord was freed from the old incubus of an awkward mechanical technique4 ,for it is obvious that an art can never reach anything like perfection as long as its working materials are inadequate4 ,in piano playing1 for example1 one could not use chords spread out far beyond the grasp of the hands until the sustaining pedal had been invented4 ,while these conditions existed1 composers naturally turned their attention to sacred music and to the opera1 where there were fewer limitations4 ,among the many examples of the variation form produced in the time of ,couperin and ,rameau the most important are those of ,bach and ,handel4 ,since we are here dealing with the precursors of the sonata and symphony and with the development of homophonic music1 we shall not discuss ,bach's celebrated ,goldberg ,variations1 which are masterly examples of his intricate and vivid polyphony1 but shall turn to a set of variations in more modern form by ,handel4 ,the reader may1 however1 consult the second ,sarabande accompanying ,chapter ,v for an example of ,bach's method of elaborating a given theme4 ,,iii4 ,,handel',s ,,harmonious ,,blacksmith4 ,our chapter on the suite has given the order in which the various dances usually appeared1 and mention was there made of the exceptions occasionally to be found among the works of adventurous composers4 ,george ,frederic ,handel 7#afhe-agei7 composed a set of ,suites de ,pices pour le ,clavecin containing several movements not usually found in the suite form4 ,among these are ,allegros1 ,prestos1 and ,arias con ,variazioni1 while in ,handel's ,sonatas are to be found sarabandes1 gavottes1 and bourres4 ,in other words1 the suite and the sonata1 as conceived by ,handel1 are more or less convertible forms2 it is not until the next generation that the modern sonata begins to emerge in the pianoforte works of ,philip ,emanuel ,bach4 7,see ,chapter ,,viii47 ,these distinctive pieces represent the groping of composers after some new and more flexible medium of expression than that provided by stiff dance forms4 ,and this same fundamental principle of growth is what1 many years later1 led ,beethoven to enlarge the scope of the sonata1 and still later produced the symphonic poem of ,liszt and other modern composers4 ,each phase of an art has its culmination where a medium becomes perfected--and therefore exhausted2 where the flower blooms and dies4 ,this point is reached when some great master unites in his works two essential qualities complementary to each other1 namely1 the idea and its formal investiture4 ,such a point was reached in ,bach's ,fugues1 in ,mozart's ,symphonies1 and in ,beethoven's ,string ,quartets2 in all these the two great elements of perfection were united4 ,in ,mozart's ,g-minor ,symphony1 for example1 the thing said1 and the manner of saying it--the design1 the orchestral expression1 etc4--are identical1 but in the instrumental works of ,handel the matter was still in process4 ,the ,harmonious ,blacksmith is in the fifth of the ,suites de ,pices pour le ,clavecin1 commonly known as ,lessons1 and composed for ,princess ,anne1 ,handel's royal pupil1 daughter of the ,prince of ,wales4 ,this suite consisted of the following pieces3--,i4 ,prelude1 ,,ii4 ,allemande1 ,,iii4 ,courante1 ,,iv4 ,air4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #aj4 ,handel3 ,the ,harmonious ,blacksmith1 from the ,fifth ,suite for ,clavichord4 ,the biographies of ,handel give several versions of the story supposed to be connected with this little piece4 ,it seems to be quite certain that the composer never used the title1 and that it has one at all is probably due to the fact that the public seems to like a piece better if it is supposed to be about something4 ,many similar uses of supposititious titles will occur to the reader1 as1 for example1 the ,moonlight sonata of ,beethoven1 and the ,rain-drop prelude of ,chopin1 neither of which grotesque names was ever sanctioned by the composer4 ,if this tune of ,handel's ever was sung by a burly smith at his forge he was indeed an harmonious blacksmith4 ,in any case1 it is a matter of record that the identical anvil was finally discovered by a ,mr4 ,clark and found a resting place as a curio in an ,egyptian ,hall in ,london4 ,the tune itself has qualities familiar enough to students of ,handel's instrumental music4 ,its final cadence1 in particular1 is thoroughly ,handelian1 and all through it there is that decisive and assertive manner that characterizes the melodies of this great man4 ,there is nothing of the mystic about ,handel2 his oratorios and nearly all his smaller pieces have a straightforward and uncompromising style4 ,he never gropes2 his music speaks of an unfaltering self-confidence1 unclouded by doubts4 ,the methods of treatment in the variations is a simple one4 ,the harmonies remain the same throughout1 while the melody is changed in various ways4 ,in variation ,i1 for example1 the first two notes of the original melody have been made into an arpeggio1 or broken chord1 and this treatment persists throughout4 ,in variation ,,ii the melody loses something of its physiognomy1 and is only suggested by occasional notes in the upper or lower part for the right hand1 while the left hand plays a familiar pattern accompaniment4 ,variation ,,iii plays lightly with the original theme1 hovering around it with delicate scale passages4 ,this variation illustrates an important principle of musical appreciation4 ,played by itself1 without reference to what has preceded it1 it would be so lacking in definiteness as to be uninteresting2 its connection with the original theme1 however1 lends to it a certain charm and significance4 ,so in the longer instrumental pieces of the great masters who followed ,handel1 we find whole sections whose meaning depends on their relation to what has preceded them1 and our appreciation of the significance of such passages is in exact proportion to our powers of co-ordinating in our own minds these various sections of a work1 often separated from each other by a considerable lapse of time4 ,the fourth variation is like an inversion of the third1 the left hand now taking the rapid scale passages4 ,variation ,v is the least definite of them all1 being made of scales played against chords that dimly outline the original melody4 ,the ,harmonious ,blacksmith is not a highly developed piece of music1 for it lacks one essential element--in an instrumental piece as long as this there should be some germination4 ,the several variations of this melody are merely slightly altered versions of the original idea2 in highly developed specimens of this form each variation is a new creation germinated from the parent thought4 ,,iv4 ,,haydn',s ,,andante ,,with ,,variations ,,in ,f-,,minor4 ,reference has already been made in our chapter on ,the ,rondo to the great advance in pianoforte music brought about by ,philip ,emanuel ,bach and ,haydn1 but ,haydn's ,andante with ,variations in ,f-minor is still more mature than any of the pieces to which we referred4 ,in fact1 this ,andante is ,haydn's most charming pianoforte piece1 uniting as it does the best of his qualities4 ,it is the first composition in homophonic style we have studied in which the interest of the listener is constantly engaged from beginning to end4 ,there are here no bald repetitions1 as in the ,rondo of ,mozart1 no meaningless accompaniment figures1 no conventional endings1 but from first to last ,haydn tempts us onward by constantly unfolding new beauties1 yet never leaves us vaguely wandering1 doubtful of our starting point4 ,in short1 this andante is a fine example of a well organized piece of music2 it is full of variety1 yet its unity is unmistakable4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #aa4 ,haydn3 ,andante with ,variations in ,f-,minor4 ,it is unusual for a variation theme to be in two distinct parts1 as is the case here4 ,the chief theme in ,f-minor is followed by a trio theme in ,f-major of quite a distinct character4 ,this is one of the many interesting experiments of ,haydn in devising new forms or combining old ones4 ,the weakness of this arrangement is that the whole theme is a little too long2 it lacks the conciseness that is necessary to a theme that is to be treated in a long series of variations4 ,the trio theme is also less interesting than the first theme and does not lend itself so readily to variations4 ,an important principle of musical development is involved here4 ,it will be found from an examination of the music of the great composers that the most perfect lyric melodies do not germinate1 whereas themes like the first theme of this andante1 the first theme of ,beethoven's ,fifth ,symphony--which are not by any means beautiful lyric melodies--are pregnant with possibilities4 ,any perfect melody like ,annie ,laurie1 for example1 is a complete thing2 nothing can be added to it or taken away from it4 ,the two themes just mentioned1 on the contrary1 are made up of motives which are characterized by some individual quality and which contain certain potentialities that are realized only as the piece progresses4 ,and in general it may be noted that the distinctly lyric composers1 such as ,schubert1 ,schumann1 and ,grieg1 have not been conspicuously successful in those larger forms where this principle is most operative4 ,the little motive of five notes with which the right hand part of the andante by ,haydn begins illustrates this4 ,there is hardly a measure of the original theme and of its variations in which this motive is not heard1 and the variety ,haydn imparts to it is quite remarkable4 ,the trio theme1 on the other hand1 is more lyric--more song-like1 and1 as a consequence1 we find the variations consist of elaborate ornamentations of the theme rather than of new ideas germinated from it4 ,variation ,i is a particularly interesting example of ,haydn's style4 ,the syncopation in the right hand part1 with its delicacy of utterance1 and its occasional tender poignancy 7as at measure #eb7 gives to this portion of the piece an unusual charm4 ,the transposition of the syncopation to the left hand 7at measure #ef7 is particularly interesting because of the delicate dissonances that result4 ,the passage at measures #hc-hh might almost have been written by ,rameau or ,couperin1 so full is it of trills and other ornaments4 ,this is in the old harpsichord style of the generation before ,haydn4 ,variation ,,ii preserves the harmony of the original theme1 but supplants its melody by a fluent and interesting passage in sixteenth notes that passes at will from one hand to the other4 ,these two free variations1 through which the original theme has dimly shone1 are now succeeded by a finale1 so called1 in which the theme is presented in its simple form as if to bring the listener home again after his excursions afield4 ,and here1 it should be specially noted1 ,haydn omits all reference to the trio theme1 as if conscious of its inferiority4 ,the whole finale 7from measure #adg7 is a kind of dramatic summing up of the story1 and serves much the same purpose as that of the restatement in ternary form4 ,the passage between measures #aie and #bjj is an interesting example of a process common in pure music4 ,here the motive of three notes 7in right hand71 derived from the original five note motive in measure #a1 gradually loses its physiognomy until its characteristic outline has entirely disappeared and it has become a purely conventional figure4 ,a celebrated example of this process is shown in ,figure ,,xxxiii from the first movement of ,beethoven's ,string ,quartet1 op4 #ei1 ,no4 #a4 ,music3 score ,first phrase of ,theme from ,beethoven's ,quartet1 op4 #ei1 ,no4 #a4 ,music3 score ,passage from ,development ,section4 ,,figure ,,xxxiii4 ,the passage from which the second of the quotations is taken is one of the most beautiful in all chamber music1 and the whole development section in this wonderful movement will repay the closest study4 ,haydn's andante ends with a few tender allusions to the persistent motive of the original theme1 which faintly echoes in pathetic cadence4 ,such passages endear ,haydn to us because of their genuineness4 ,there is nothing false in his sentiment2 he is always straightforward1 he always writes unaffectedly4 ,among the great composers he stands apart as a simple-hearted man1 who was without guile1 and who retained to the end of his life the same childlike navet4 ,v4 ,,the ,,minuet4 ,the general characteristics of dances like the minuet1 gavotte1 etc41 have been referred to in ,chapter ,,iv1 where the inclusion of the minuet in the sonata and symphony of the classical period was noted4 ,we are here chiefly concerned with the effect of this inclusion on the minuet itself and with its status in the group of movements that made up the cyclic form4 ,the minuet is a dance of ,french origin1 characterized by stateliness and grace4 ,the earliest music written for it consisted of one melody containing two eight measure phrases4 ,these were gradually lengthened1 and finally a second minuet was added as in the gavotte4 ,bach used the minuet sparingly in his suites4 ,the reader is referred to the fourth ,english ,suite1 which contains a minuet followed by minuet ,,ii1 not called ,trio4 ,handel occasionally incorporates the minuet in his suites and frequently uses it as the last movement in his oratorio overtures4 ,all these old minuets were in slow tempo1 but the desire for freedom of expression impelled composers not only to expand them in various ways1 but1 finally1 to increase their speed4 ,this important change was doubtless largely inspired by the desire for contrast in the movements of the symphony1 for in the sonatas of ,haydn and ,mozart we find the middle movement usually an andante or adagio1 and when the minuet#ba is incorporated it is in slow tempo4 ,practically all the minuets of ,bach and ,handel as well as those of the ,haydn-,mozart-,beethoven period were written in what we have called simple ternary form1 the second minuet1 or trio1 constituting the middle section1 ,b4 ,occasionally a minuet with two trios appears1 in which case the form becomes ,a1 ,b1 ,a1 ,c1 ,a4 ,marches 7which are commonly in simple ternary form7 are quite frequently written with two trios1 the most familiar example being the well known wedding march by ,mendelssohn4 ,the symphonic minuet is the only relic of the suite retained in the sonata and symphony4 ,the changes it underwent through this promotion from the ranks of the old dances were not only changes of tempo1 but of spirit or essence4 ,for whereas it had been demure1 conventional1 and stately1 as if pervaded by a kind of courtly grace1 it became in ,haydn's time a wayward1 humorous1 and even frolicsome member of musical society1 and provided a certain lightness and spontaneity much needed in the sober symphonic family4 ,the reader is urged to consult any of the minuets to be found in the string quartets or symphonies of ,haydn and ,mozart4 ,these popular short movements are so available in arrangements for the piano that it is not thought necessary to incorporate one here4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading4 ,grove's ,dictionary3 articles ,minuet1 ,sonata1 and ,symphony4 ,shedlock3 ,the ,pianoforte ,sonata4 ,mason3 ,beethoven and ,his ,forerunners4 ,,footnotes3 #bj ,in ,bach's ,english ,suites a ,prelude is placed before the ,allemande4 #ba ,see the ,minuet in ,haydn's piano sonata in ,e-flat 7,no4 #c in ,schirmer edition7 and the ,minuet in ,mozart's well known piano sonata in ,a-major 7with the ,theme and ,variations74 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,sonata-,,form ,i4 ,i4 ,,composite ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,sonata4 ,undoubtedly the most important of all musical forms to-day is the sonata1 as will easily be recognized if we remember that not only the pieces which bear this name as a title1 but also the numerous symphonies1 overtures1 concertos1 and trios1 quartets1 quintets1 and so on1 are examples of this form4 ,the symphony is simply a sonata1 on a large scale1 for orchestra2 the overture is a similar piece for orchestra1 in one movement2 the concerto is1 as it were1 a symphony with a solo instrument emphasized or placed in the foreground2 trios1 quartets1 quintets1 etc41 are sonatas for various groups of string and wind instruments4 ,thus it will be seen that the bulk of all instrumental music is cast in this ever available and useful form of the sonata4 ,at this point1 however1 a confusion is likely to arise from the fact that the term sonata is used in two senses4 ,it means sometimes a complete piece of music in three or more distinct movements2 at other times it means a scheme or plan of musical structure exemplified in one or more of these movements1 usually the first4 ,when used in this sense it is generally coupled with the word form3 this is the way in which we shall use it here1 letting sonata-form mean this peculiar type of musical structure1 to be described in detail presently1 while using sonata alone to name a complete composition of which one or more movements are in sonata-form4 ,the sonata1 as written by ,philip ,emanuel ,bach1 ,haydn1 ,mozart1 ,beethoven1 and modern composers1 usually contains some movements in forms more primitive than sonata-form1 and already familiar to us4 ,thus the minuet1 which often appears as the second or third movement of a sonata1 has changed little since ,mozart's day2 the rondo1 frequently used in the finale of a sonata1 remains in all essentials as it is presented in the last diagram of ,chapter ,,vi2 and the theme and variations1 so far as its formal plan is concerned1 has remained very much as ,haydn left it1 although1 in common with the rondo1 it has been vastly enriched in content and diversified in style by the genius of ,beethoven4 ,,ii4 ,,essentials ,,of ,,sonata-,,form4 ,the element of true novelty in sonatas is to be found1 not in these primitive movements1 but rather in those movements which are in sonata-form1 and which show a breadth of conception and an elaboration in development never found in simple lyric forms like the minuet4 ,this breadth and elaboration is always the result of a germination of musical thought1 such as we have already often mentioned1 and by virtue of which alone a composition can take on real grandeur of proportions4 ,the essentials of sonata-form are 7#a7 the presentation of two or more themes or subjects in that section known as the ,exposition1 and symbolized in our diagrams by the letter ,a2 7#b7 the evolution of these themes1 by means of melodic germination1 in that section known as the ,development1 and symbolized by ,b2 and 7#c7 the restatement of the original themes1 rounding out the movement symmetrically1 in the section known as the ,recapitulation1 and symbolized again by ,a on account of its practical identity with the ,exposition4 ,it matters not which movement of a sonata takes this characteristic form1 whether1 as in the majority of cases1 it is the first 7whence the term first-movement form1 often used as a synonym for sonata-form7 or the slow movement1 as often happens1 or the finale4 ,wherever sonata-form exists we find this three-part sectional structure1 resulting from the natural germination in the middle section of the musical ideas stated in the first1 followed by their restatement in the third section4 ,the reader may ask at this point1 in what respect such a form differs from the simple ternary form illustrated in a minuet1 for example1 wherein the second section usually contains some development of the theme1 and the third some recapitulation4 ,the answer is that in the sonata-form the enlargement of the proportions throughout results1 first1 in the substitution of complete and more or less contrasting themes1 for the rather slight musical subject of a minuet1 and second1 in the substitution of a long and elaborate development of these themes for the rather casual and superficial modification of the subject which forms the second section of a minuet4 ,moreover1 in the sonata-form a novel feature is the contrast introduced by making the first section embody duality of key 7first theme in tonic1 second in related key7 while the third section1 by presenting both themes in the tonic1 embodies unity of key4 ,nevertheless it remains true that sonata-form is1 both logically and historically1 a development of such simple forms as we have in the minuet1 as is indicated by the name of developed ternary form often given to it4#bb ,sonata-form is thus but an extreme application of certain essential principles of structure exemplified in simple ways in other more primitive musical forms1 and for that matter in many other departments of life4 ,it is perhaps not over-fanciful to discover the same principles in the construction of a novel1 in which we often find3 first1 the presentation of certain characters1 more or less in antagonism2 second1 the development of the plot and of the characters themselves2 and third1 the reconciliation of the characters in the denouement4 ,similarly1 a sermon consists of 7#a7 the assertion of a text or subject of discourse1 7#b7 the illustration of its truth by examples and other elucidations of what is implied in it1 and 7#c7 a final restatement of it with the greater force made possible by its discussion4 ,or again1 we may see striking analogies to the artistic form we are considering in such processes of nature as the budding1 flowering1 and death of a plant1 or in human life with its youth1 its period of activity1 and its time of retrospect4 ,,iii4 ,a ,,sonata ,,by ,,philip ,,emanuel ,,bach4 ,sonata-form1 historically speaking1 first takes definite shape in the work of ,philip ,emanuel ,bach 7#agad-aghh71 the most distinguished of the sons of the great ,sebastian ,bach4 ,though not a man of the highest creative genius1 ,c4 ,p4 ,e4 ,bach possessed an ingenuity and a pioneering spirit which led him to make innovations so important that ,haydn and ,mozart freely acknowledged their debt to him4 ,feeling that music in the polyphonic style had reached its full development1 he was original and adventurous enough to seek new means of expression and a novel combination of features of style already familiar4 ,in order to understand the situation that confronted him we must put aside temporarily the impressions we have received from the ,andante of ,haydn and the ,rondo of ,mozart1 since both these compositions were produced at a time when his influence had already made itself felt4 ,he had to face the problem of writing instrumental music that should be free from the constraining influence of the dance1 of polyphonic style1 and of the elaborately ornamented style of operatic music4 ,he had also to find out how to unify a long piece of instrumental music by co-ordinating all its parts4 ,the only solution of these problems lay in inventing what might be called pure instrumental melody3 i4 e41 melody that was essentially expressive in the particular medium employed--the piano1 the violin1 the orchestra--and that was unhampered either by strict poetic or dance forms1 or by the peculiar phraseology of polyphony4 ,he did not1 to be sure1 entirely achieve this2 we find evidences of both the older styles in his music4 ,but an examination of any instrumental masterpiece of ,beethoven will reveal how much he owed to the pioneer labors of ,c4 ,p4 ,e4 ,bach4 ,we must here caution the reader against the supposition that music at this particular time leaped suddenly forward4 ,the tendencies that we have been speaking of were latent long before ,philip ,emanuel ,bach appeared1 and there was no strict line of demarcation where one kind of music stopped and another began4 ,organic development never progresses in that way2 each phase of it begins slowly1 becomes eventually operative1 and dies as slowly as it began4 ,and there were other composers working at that time on the same problems2 composers who were of considerable importance then1 but whose names are now forgotten4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ab4 ,philip ,emanuel ,bach3 ,piano ,sonata#bc in ,f-,minor1 ,first ,movement4 ,this ,sonata has three movements3 #a4 ,fast 7,allegro assai72 #b4 ,slow 7,andante cantabile72 #c4 ,slow 7,andantino grazioso74 ,the third of these is marked attacca to indicate that the usual pause between the movements is to be omitted4 ,in the second and third movements the themes themselves and their treatment reveal the tentative nature of ,bach's efforts4 ,each of these themes is over-embellished2 each has something of the vagueness usual in piano music of his time1 and yet there is a distinct tendency towards definite1 strophic melody such as is common in the sonatas of ,haydn and ,mozart4 ,but the first movement of this sonata of ,philip ,emanuel ,bach's is quite remarkable4 ,its theme is definite1 its phraseology clear and concise1 and its form well rounded4 ,in fact a comparison of the opening measures with those of the theme from ,beethoven's first sonata will reveal a decided similarity4 ,beethoven's theme is constructed from a figure or phrase1 ascending like an arpeggio higher and higher1 until a climax is reached1 after which the melody dies down to a pause or half cadence on the dominant chord4 ,this is precisely what happens with the theme of ,philip ,emanuel ,bach1 although the second half of the theme is more regular than ,beethoven's1 the complete melody being in what might be called verse form1 each two-measure phrase corresponding to a line of verse4 ,more important still1 however1 is the quality of the melody itself4 ,it is distinctly in the style suitable for the piano2 there is no evidence of the old song melody1 nor of polyphonic phraseology1 nor of dance tunes4 ,this is1 in short1 one of the earliest examples of pure pianoforte music1 using the term in a modern sense4 ,another interesting point in this movement is the presence of two contrasting themes in the ,exposition4 ,the principle of alternately stating two contrasting themes1 which found its ultimate expression in the successive presentation of first and second subjects1 had been familiar to the musical world as long as minuets and trios1 gavottes1 musettes1 and the like1 had been in vogue1 but the process by which the two subjects are allowed to be interwoven with each other1 or to generate1 as it were1 new material having its origin in something that has gone before1 opened out a world of fresh possibilities to the composers of the later times1 and gave them opportunities which had been altogether withheld from ,bach and his contemporaries4 ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ada4 ,the two themes constitute the material out of which the whole movement grows or germinates1 so that they somewhat resemble characters in a story1 and this analogy is further carried out in the quality of the themes themselves1 the first being usually vigorous and to a certain degree non-lyric1 while the second is lyric and more sentimental2 as if one were masculine and the other feminine4 ,but in this movement of ,philip ,emanuel ,bach's ,sonata the second theme is hardly more than an embryo4 ,it begins at measure #af1 and occupies only ten measures1 the last five of which are somewhat vague and rhapsodical4 ,thus its entire effect is somewhat indefinite1 and if we compare it with the second theme of any modern sonata we shall realize that it is very imperfectly individualized4 ,the second theme did not become an essential and distinct element of sonata-form until somewhat later2 in ,philip ,emanuel ,bach1 and even in many movements of ,haydn1 it remains completely subordinate to its more important companion1 the first theme4 ,following the second theme--at measure #bf--;a coda ensues4 ,this important factor in musical form has been already referred to in our chapters on ,the ,rondo and ,the ,variation4 ,its office here is the same as in former examples1 namely1 to round out this part of the movement properly and to emphasize the close of the first section4 ,the exposition 7,a7 extends through measure #cd and is concluded with a double-bar4 ,during the period from ,philip ,emanuel ,bach to ,mozart this portion of the movement was always repeated in order to make it perfectly familiar to the listener4 ,the development section begins immediately after the double-bar and extends to the point where the first theme returns in its original form2 in this movement that point is reached at measure #ff4 ,we have already pointed out certain simple methods of generation in music1 as in the ,bach ,gavotte discussed in ,chapter ,,iv1 but we now have to consider the growth of a long section of a composition from certain germs contained in the original theme4 ,and this brings up an important question3 ,how do musical themes generate8 ,in the ,bach ,gavotte a brief phrase of one measure duration blossoms out into a passage six measures long4 ,this may be observed by reference to ,figure ,,xxxiv1 in which 7a7 represents the original phrase and 7b7 the expansion of it4 ,music3 score 7a47 ,music3 score 7b47 ,,figure ,,xxxiv4 ,this development1 however1 is hardly more than an extension of the original phrase4 ,for the purposes of sonata-form something more radical and far reaching1 something more like new creation is necessary4 ,without going into detail#bd we may be content with pointing out the essential principle of this more radical development4 ,analysis shows that it always depends on the selection of certain salient characteristics of the original themes and representation of them under new guises1 or under new conditions4 ,just as a novelist develops his characters by letting their fundamental peculiarities manifest themselves in all sorts of ways and among all kinds of circumstances1 meanwhile paying but scant attention to their more accidental or superficial traits1 so the composer of a sonata seizes upon whatever is individual in his themes--a strong rhythm1 a peculiar turn of phrase1 a striking bit of harmony--and repeats and insists upon it tirelessly1 with whatever variation of minor details his ingenuity may suggest4 ,an examination of this process of generation in the works of ,haydn and ,mozart will make these important points clear4 ,in ,figure ,,xxxv 7a71 is shown a brief quotation from the beginning of the first movement of ,haydn's ,symphony in ,d-major4 ,although this theme has no pronounced rhythmic figures the four repeated notes in measure #c are unusual in a simple melody of this type1 and ,haydn chooses them 7with the first two notes in the next measure7 as the first subject of his development section4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,,figure ,,xxxv4 ,at b in the above quotation will be found a short passage from the beginning of the development section of the same movement4 ,this passage illustrates the detachment of a characteristic motive in a melody1 and here the use of it in various keys as a means of setting forth1 as it were1 its latent possibilities4 ,here a certain element in the theme is freed and takes on an existence of its own1 and until the very end of the section we hear it over and over again in different parts of the orchestra4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,music3 score 7c7 ,,figure ,,xxxvi4 ,the methods of germination employed by ,haydn in the foregoing illustration were typical of his time4 ,mozart commonly relies1 in his development sections1 on the interest provided by presenting some salient motive in a variety of keys and with polyphonic treatment4 ,examples of this are to be found in ,figure ,,xxxvi1 containing 7a7 the original motive from the first movement of his string quartet in ,c-major1 dedicated to ,haydn1 and 7b71 7c71 short excerpts from the development section of the same movement4 ,it will be observed that in 7b71 the viola imitates the first violin while the second violin and 'cello reiterate the four eighth-notes of the original motive1 and that1 in 7c71 the 'cello takes the motive1 while each of the three upper parts sounds the eighth-notes1 staccato2 the contrasts of key should also be observed4 ,this is a very concise and logical example of the methods of generation employed by ,haydn and ,mozart4 ,the first theme of the movement by ,philip ,emanuel ,bach has two salient qualities3 it progresses by leaps upward1 and it has a peculiarly noticeable rhythm4 ,these two properties are brought into play almost immediately4 ,after a brief statement of the opening phrase of the theme 7#cf-ci7 in the relative major key--as if to tell us what is to be the subject of this part of the movement--the composer proceeds to evolve a passage 7#dj-dd7 with chords 7in the right hand7 in the rhythm of the theme1 and against them 7in the left hand7 a passage containing the leaps upward4 ,this is further varied by free changes in harmony4 ,the initial phrase of the first theme and a brief quotation from this passage in the development section are shown in ,figure ,,xxxvii4 ,this development is1 however1 all too short4 ,after measure #dd the music becomes discursive1 showing no longer any definite bearing on the original subject matter4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,,figure ,,xxxvii ,this discursiveness is a natural characteristic of the formative period in the evolution of sonata-form1 before composers had learned the necessity of a close logical development throughout4 ,the restatement after contrast in sonata-form is commonly known as the recapitulation4 ,in the early specimens of the form the recapitulation was1 except in its harmonies1 almost identical with the exposition4 ,here the first theme is reduced to one half its original length1 which is rather an unusual abbreviation4 ,mr4 ,hadow1 in his ,sonata ,form1 lays down the following rule for this portion of the movement3 ,the recapitulation should not contain any noticeably fresh material2 it should follow the main thought of the exposition with no important parentheses or divergences1 and1 when it varies1 should do so in a manner which does not obscure the subjects1 but only sets them in a new light4 ,in ,figure ,,xxxviii is shown the foregoing plan in the form of a diagram4 ,this should be compared with the similar diagrams in ,chapter ,,ix4 ,,figure ,,xxxviii4 ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,sonata-,,form1 ,,or ,,first-,,movement ,,form4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,a ,b ,a ,exposition ,development ,recapitulation ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,introduction 7optional7 ,this section is based on,theme ,i4 ,theme ,i1 usually followed by themes already presented,transition 787 a short transition1 or linkin the ,exposition ,theme ,,ii in tonic or ,theme ,,ii in contrasting key home key ,coda ,coda 7,duality of harmony7 7,plurality of ,harmony7 7,unity of ,harmony7 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,iv4 ,,harmony ,,as ,a ,,part ,,of ,,design4 ,there remains to be considered the important factor of harmony1 or arrangement of keys4 ,this arrangement is shown in the diagram1 ,figure ,,xxxviii2 but the principle involved is an important one1 and the mere statement of ,duality1 ,plurality and ,unity hardly suffices to explain it4 ,there seems to be no doubt that the subtle uses composers make of harmony are less intelligible to the average listener than are the uses of themes4 ,a theme represents1 as it were1 a line1 and since it is the tune that1 for most listeners1 constitutes the music the attention of the listeners is readily drawn to changes which materially affect it4 ,harmonic design1 on the other hand--the setting of one key or series of keys against another--is often only dimly recognized1 if at all1 although it is of the greatest importance in all modern music4 ,in sonata-form the harmonic plan 7described above by the terms ,duality1 ,plurality and ,unity7 adds an important element since it unifies the last section by stating both first and second theme in the same key4 ,and in the middle1 or development section1 the freedom of harmonic progression--the multitude of keys--gives great variety and enables the composer freely to indulge his fancy4 ,in the present movement ,bach chooses at times certain remote keys that impart to this section of the piece a charm of their own4 ,the passage beginning on the second beat of measure #ed illustrates this3 the four measures that follow are all in the remote key of ,f-flat major4 7,the reader should examine each of the modulations that occurs in the development section47 ,however unconscious of the charm of harmonic variety the average listener may be1 he would surely be conscious of monotony were the piece all in one or even two keys4 ,and since the tendency of the music of to-day is to exalt harmony at the expense of melody1 it is desirable that the student should pay particular attention to these early phases of harmonic structure1 so as to be able to appreciate this important element in modern music4 ,in fact the whole progress of music since ,haydn has been steadily onward towards a free use of the different keys1 and as our ears have become accustomed to new combinations of chords1 we have gradually come to feel the beauty that lies in glowing musical colors1 and to accept them as a legitimate means of expression4 ,in our chapters on ,beethoven this phase of musical development will receive fuller attention4 ,v4 ,,summary4 ,in this movement of ,c4 ,p4 ,e4 ,bach1 despite its many crudities1 there is taken a long step toward the establishment of modern sonata-form4 ,the main divisions of the form1 exposition1 development1 and recapitulation1 appear clearly2 solid harmonic structure is attained by the sequence of duality1 plurality1 and unity2 there are two contrasting themes1 though the second is rudimentary2 the general principle of development of themes through insistence on salient features is illustrated2 and the whole movement is written in a style well suited to the piano1 and emancipated from the influence of polyphony and of the short dance and song forms4 ,in the next chapter we shall see how ,haydn and ,mozart proceeded to build more elaborate structures on the foundation thus laid by ,c4 ,p4 ,e4 ,bach4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading4 ,dickinson3 ,the ,study of the ,history of ,music1 ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,grove3 ,dictionary of ,music1 articles on ,bach1 ,philip ,emanuel1 ,sonata1 ,form4 ,c4 ,h4 ,h4 ,parry3 ,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapters ,,vii and ,,ix 7,appleton74 ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,volume ,,iv4 ,,footnotes3 #bb ,it will be noted that there are three names for this one type of structure3 ,sonata-form1 ,first-movement form1 and ,developed ternary form4 #bc ,no4 #a in the edition by ,peters1 ,leipzig4 #bd ,see ,hadow's ,sonata-,form 7,novello7 ,chapter ,,vii1 for a discussion of the various methods of theme-development4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,sonata-,,form ,,ii4 ,i4 ,,haydn ,,and ,,the ,,sonata-,,form4 ,the type of musical structure which first took on definite shape in the work of ,philip ,emanuel ,bach1 the type which may be defined as consisting essentially of the exposition1 development1 and restatement of two contrasted themes1 and to which the name of sonata-form is given1 was not reduced to perfect clearness until the time of ,haydn 7#agcb-ahji71 who because of his labors in this field is often called ,the father of the symphony4#be ,having the inestimable advantage of being concert-master1 for a period of thirty years 7#agfa-agia71 to the princely house of the ,esterhazys1 where he had a small but good orchestra under his direction1 and was expected constantly to produce new pieces for it to play1 he was practically forced to write an astonishing amount of music1 in all of which this form figured prominently4 ,hardly one of his hundred and twenty-five symphonies1 and his seventy-seven string quartets1 etc41 is without one or more examples of sonata-form4 ,such constant practice enabled him to carry it far beyond the rather indeterminate state in which ,philip ,emanuel ,bach left it1 and to crystallize it as a structural type for all time4 ,among the most important advances made by ,haydn over the practice of his predecessor1 as we saw it illustrated in the last chapter1 were 7#a7 the greater importance and individuality given to the second theme#bf2 7#b7 the abolishment of merely rhapsodical passages1 and the substitution of successions of chords marking off unmistakably the various sections of the movement2 7#c7 increased definition at the end of the exposition section1 in the codetta1 which1 in some instances1 even has a definite theme or themes of its own1 called conclusion-themes2 7#d7 greater clearness in the key-system of the whole movement1 according to the principle of ,duality-,plurality-,unity already discussed2 7#e7 increased importance and extent of the coda1 which sometimes grows to the proportions of a fourth section to the movement2 7#f7 use of an introduction1 generally in slow time and of a stately character1 preparing the mind for serious attention4 ,it will be noted that all these advances are in the direction of making the form more definite1 clear-cut1 and readily intelligible1 as it was most important that it should be made in its early existence until it was perfectly familiar to the audience4 ,increased variety came later1 in the work of ,mozart and ,beethoven1 and could come only after the typical structure was thoroughly understood by the public4 ,thus ,haydn's function was that of a systematizer1 an establisher of sure foundations on which more elaborate and free superstructures may later be built2 and for this work his clear1 simple1 well-disciplined mind and his thorough rather than brilliant artistic technique admirably fitted him4 ,these points will be made clear by an analysis of an example of sonata-form1 taken from the ,surprise ,symphony which he wrote for ,london audiences in #agia1 toward the close of his career4 ,the general structure1 as regards both themes and larger sections1 may be conveniently shown in tabular form1 thus3-- ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,movement ,,of ,,haydn',s ,,surprise ,,symphony4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,main ,divisions4 ,themes4 ,measures4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,slow ,introduction #a-ag ,exposition 7,a7 ,first theme1 ,g-major #ah-bb ,passage work #bb-ci ,first theme1 repeated #dj-dd ,duality of ,harmony ,transition to key of ,d-major 7,dominant7 #dd-fg ,second theme1 ,d-major #fg-hj ,third1 or ,conclusion theme1 ,d-major #ha-ic ,cadences1 emphasizing close in this key #ic-ajh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,development 7,b7 ,plurality of ,harmony #aji-aef ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,recapitulation 7,a7 ,first theme1 ,g-major #aef-afj ,passage work #afj-ahe ,second theme1 now in ,g-major #ahe-aif ,unity of ,harmony ,further working of ,first theme #aif-bca ,conclusion theme1 now in ,g-major #bca-bdd ,cadences1 emphasizing the home key of ,g-major #bdd-bei ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ac4 ,haydn3#bg ,surprise ,symphony the first movement4 ,two-hand piano arrangement of twelve ,symphonies of ,haydn4 ,the first thing that strikes us about the general character of this movement is its admirable clearness1 in which it is representative of all ,haydn's work4 ,in spite of its being so much larger and more complex than the sonata of ,philip ,emanuel ,bach1 its structure is so obvious that a child could hardly go astray in following it4 ,this is in large measure due to the pains the composer takes to emphasize each key and each change of key by means of scale-passages and chords4 7,see1 for example1 measures #ei-fg1 emphasizing the key of ,d-major1 and the entire conclusion-portions of both the exposition and the recapitulation 7#fg-ajh7 and 7#ahe-bei71 one insisting on ,d-major1 the other on ,g-major47 ,such passages as these have been much criticised for their conventionality and lack of melodic interest1 but when we realize how they punctuate the movement1 so to speak1 and what a perfect clearness they give it1 we realize how important they were to the early stage of development of the sonata-form1 when its principles had not become as universally familiar as they are now4 ,they are an immense advance over the vague rhapsodizings of ,philip ,emanuel ,bach in parallel places4 ,the key-relationships of the movement follow the usual practice4 ,in the exposition we find duality of key3 ,g-major and ,d-major4 ,in the development there is ample plurality4 ,in the recapitulation the home key1 ,g-major1 dominates throughout4 ,haydn's second theme1 though more definite than ,philip ,emanuel ,bach's1 is still somewhat lacking in individuality4 ,it is hardly more than a string of chords and scales having more tonal interest than melodic life4 ,it is certainly far from being a lyrical melody strikingly contrasted with the more energetic first theme4 ,the conclusion theme1 full of ,haydnish amiability1 grace1 and good cheer1 is much more definitely melodious4 ,another symptom of the crudity inseparable from early stages of artistic evolution is the shortness and rather mediocre interest of the development section4 ,the first theme is briefly but monotonously treated in measures #aji-abf4 ,then comes 7#abg-acb7 a little playing1 in the bass1 with the small figure which first appeared in 7#dd-de73 ,music3 score ,germ 7measures #dd-de47 ,music3 score ,development 7#abg seq47 ,,figure ,x,x,x,v,i,i,ia4 and later 7#acc-ace71 an inversion of this3 ,music3 score ,inversion 7#acc seq47 ,music3 score ,later 7#acf seq47 ,,figure ,,xxxix4 ,the rhythmic figure thus established is made to do duty in the extended modulation that immediately follows 7#acf-adc71 after which comes 7#add-aee7 a reminiscence of the passage first used just before the second theme2 and with this ,haydn returns to his first theme and enters on the recapitulation4 ,it is thus almost as if1 after stating his themes1 he was at a loss what to do with them1 and after a brief dalliance1 from which little novelty results1 hurried on to the restatement1 much as an unimaginative preacher tries to make up by the vehemence with which he reasserts his text for his failure to give it vivid illustration and suggestive elucidation4 ,in ,beethoven's symphonies the development is usually the point of greatest interest4 ,but it is of course not fair to expect of a pioneer the last fruits of culture4 ,haydn lays down in such movements as the present one the essential principles of form in instrumental music2 to have done that1 with whatever minor shortcomings1 is a sufficient claim upon our admiration and gratitude4 ,the shortcomings of ,haydn's work are those natural to his circumstances as a pioneer and to certain emotional limitations of his temperament4 ,compared with ,beethoven he is lacking both in profundity of feeling and in variety of style2 he is less brilliant and less polished than ,mozart4 ,but on the other hand1 ,haydn has a homely simplicity1 a sort of childlike charm1 all his own2 he lives in a world of artistic truth untainted by sophistry1 uncomplicated by oversubtlety2 he is always clear1 sincere1 straightforward1 and he often rises to nobility and true dignity4 ,above all1 he has the peculiar merit of having taken up a sort of music which was fragmentary and immature1 and of having elevated it into a new1 an essentially modern1 and an infinitely promising type of art4 ,such a fundamental work can never be discredited by the more brilliant exploits of later workers who have the indispensable advantage of building upon it4 ,,ii4 ,,mozart ,,and ,,the ,,sonata-,,form4 ,though ,haydn 7#agcb-ahji7 was not only by many years the senior of ,mozart 7#agef-agia71 but also outlived him1 the relations between the two were most cordial and close4 ,haydn had done much of his best work before #aghh1 when ,mozart wrote his three greatest symphonies1 and so may be said to have served as ,mozart's model4 ,yet he in turn learned much from his younger but more brilliant friend1 and did not write his own greatest symphonies 7the twelve so-called ,salomon symphonies1 which were written for ,salomon1 a ,london orchestral conductor1 in #agia and #agid1 and of which the ,surprise is one7 until after ,mozart's untimely death4 ,how thoroughly each man respected the other1 we know from their own words4 ,mozart in dedicating his six finest string quartets to ,haydn1 said3 ,it was due from me1 for it was from him that ,i learned how quartets should be written4 ,as for ,haydn1 he once put an end to an argument on the merits and defects of ,don ,giovanni by remarking3 ,i cannot decide the questions in dispute1 but this ,i know1 that ,mozart is the greatest composer in the world4 ,mozart not only had the great advantage of building on ,haydn's secure foundations1 but he brought to the task a genius much more supreme than his predecessor's4 ,from his earliest composition1 a minuet written when he was only five years old1#bh to the three great symphonies in ,g-minor1 ,e-flat major1 and ,c-major 7,jupiter7 produced at the end of his career1 a movement from the first of which we shall presently study1 all his work shows a spontaneity of inspiration1 a graciousness of melody1 a stoutness and symmetry of musical construction1 a finish of style1 a depth of emotional expression1 and a classical lucidity and purity1 perhaps not to be found all together in the work of any other musician4 ,especially does he excel ,haydn in profundity of feeling1 versatility of resource1 and a certain aristocratic distinction4 ,all these qualities are shown in his great ,g-minor ,symphony1 one of his supreme masterpieces4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ad4 ,mozart3 ,symphony in ,g-minor1 the first movement4#bi ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,movement ,,of ,,mozart',s ,g-,,minor ,,symphony4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,main ,divisions4 ,themes4 ,measures4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,exposition 7,a7 #a-ajj comprising ,first theme #a-bg ,transition1 on a subsidiary theme #bh-db ,second theme1 in relative major key #dd-gb ,duality of ,harmony ,conclusion theme1 built on first theme #gb-hh ,cadence formulas emphasizing the key of ,b-flat #hh-ii ,modulation #ajj4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,development ,section1 or ,free ,fantasia 7,b7 #aja-afe ,modulation continued #aja-ajc ,first theme in various keys #ajd-aae ,plurality of ,harmony,first theme1 alternating between bass and treble1 with contrapuntal treatment of the transition theme in diminution4 #aae-acd ,cadence in dominant of original key emphasized #ace-ach ,rhythm of ,first theme variously used #aci-afe ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,recapitulation 7,a7 #afe-bic ,first theme #afe-aia ,unity of ,harmony ,transition1 on subsidiary theme #aia-bbe ,second theme1 in ,g-minor 7tonic7 #bbg-bfj ,conclusion theme1 ,first theme #bfj-bge ,cadences-formulas1 emphasizing ,g-minor #bge-bhe ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,coda ,on ,first theme #bhf-bii ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,there is no slow introduction1 as in ,haydn's ,surprise ,symphony1 but there is a short coda4 ,a little detailed comparison with the ,haydn movement will prove interesting4 ,there is none of the rather meaningless passage work which ,haydn uses in his transition from the first to the second theme2 instead there is a subsidiary theme 7measures #bh-db7 which in spite of its secondary formal importance is vigorous1 strongly characterized music4 ,instead of an entirely new theme for conclusion 7,haydn1 #ha-ic7 we find an adaptation of the characteristic rhythm of the first theme 7#gb-hh7 fulfilling the function of conclusion theme--to emphasize the close of the first section of the movement--by harping constantly on the tonic and dominant chords4 ,this adaptation of familiar matter to a new purpose is ingenious4 ,the return to the first theme1 after the development section1 is beautifully managed4 ,over a held ,d in the bass1 beginning at measure #afj1 the upper voices weave a gradually descending passage out of the motive of the first theme 7three notes only74 ,there is a slight retarding1 a sense of decreasing momentum1 until1 with the unobtrusive entrance of the theme in measure #afe1 a new start is taken1 and the recapitulation goes merrily onward4 ,the apparently unpremeditated nature of this entrance 7though of course it was carefully planned7 is charming4 ,in the recapitulation1 the subsidiary theme which first appeared at #bh-db1 enters at #aia1 and is made the subject of a considerable episode4 ,it appears in the bass at #aih4 ,note the sequence at #bjb-bjc1 and #bjd-bje4 ,the second theme1 on its second appearance 7#bbg71 is not only put in the tonic key of ,g1 but is changed from major to minor4 ,this gives rise to an interesting change in its expression4 ,instead of being merely tender and ingenuous1 as its first and major form was1 it takes on now a certain air of mystery and of resignation or controlled pathos4 ,the conclusion theme 7#bfj7 is also now put into the minor mode4 ,the coda is short1 and contains first a final suggestion of the main subject of the movement1 and the necessary cadences for closing it firmly in the home key4 ,,iii4 ,,mozart',s ,,artistic ,,skill4 ,this movement affords a remarkable example of ,mozart's power to infuse endless variety into the details of his work1 without ever impairing its coherence and fundamental unity4 ,he shows here1 in short1 that remarkable fecundity of imagination1 constantly subordinated to the demands of clearness and musical logic1 which gives all his music a fascinating variety that never degenerates into miscellaneousness4 ,for convenience in analysis1 we may briefly examine first the elements of variety and later the underlying unity 7though it should be remembered throughout that in the work itself the two qualities are intertwined1 so to speak1 and affect us co-operatively74 ,thus in the capital matter of rhythm1 for example1 the real master of construction always takes care to maintain the unity of the fundamental meter with which he starts out1 and builds up a variety of rhythms on this uniform basis by making different themes group the elementary beats in different ways3 as ,mozart1 in this movement1 keeps his measure of four quarter-notes throughout1 but makes the rhythm of his first theme out of quarters and eighths1 and that of his second theme largely out of dotted halves and quarters4 ,an actual change of measure in a new theme1 such as we find in many modern composers1 is often a sign of deficient mental concentration1 a kind of incoherence in which variety is secured at the expense of unity4 ,the true masters drive their unity and their variety1 so to speak1 abreast4 ,note then in the first place1 the contrasts between the three chief themes of the movement1 viz43 the first theme1 the subsidiary theme that does duty in the transition 7#bh-db71 and the second theme4 ,their rhythmic diversity may be noted at a glance in the following comparative table1 in which the rhythm only of four measures of each theme is set down4 ,music3 score ,first4 ,music3 score ,subsidiary4 ,music3 score ,second4 ,,figure ,,xl4 ,a reference back to the first movement of the ,haydn ,surprise ,symphony will show ,mozart's advance in respect of rhythmical diversity4 ,a parallel advance in diversity of style is noteworthy4 ,haydn's movement is steadily homophonic in style1 and grows somewhat monotonous for that reason4 ,mozart sets off against his homophonic exposition section a delightfully clean-cut and vigorous polyphonic passage founded on the first theme in the development section of the movement 7#aae-acd71 and another similar passage in the recapitulation 7the new treatment of the subsidiary1 #aia-bag474 ,again1 ,mozart uses skillfully the possibilities for variety opened up to the composer by modulation and setting off against one another of different keys4 ,a radical and fascinating change of coloring is also obtained by transposing the second and conclusion themes1 on their final appearance 7#bbg and #bfj71 from major to minor4 ,they are thus exhibited1 as it were1 in a new light1 while retaining their essential character sufficiently to be perfectly recognizable4 ,underneath all this charming play of fancy1 the fundamental plan of the movement is as clear as the outline of a mountain range under all the luxuriant foliage that clothes its slopes4 ,this clearness of form is due chiefly to two causes1 a fine logic in the use of themes1 and a careful adjustment of keys4 ,the closeness with which ,mozart sticks to his thematic texts may in some cases at first sight escape us1 but when we come to realize it through careful dissection1 we cannot but be profoundly impressed by the intellectual grasp it indicates4 ,thus1 the passage at measures #ff-fg is not new1 but is made from that of #dh-di inverted4 ,the conclusion theme 7#gb-hh7 is not made from new matter1 as is usual with ,haydn1 but is derived from the little three-note motive of the first theme4 ,the entire development is wrought out of new manipulations of the same theme1 as is also the coda4 ,the long transition in the recapitulation 7#aia-bbe7 is made entirely from the subsidiary4 ,there is here1 in a word1 none of that clattering of the dishes between the courses4 ,the economy of the master is everywhere observable2 irrelevancies are excluded2 there is no superfluity1 no surplusage1 no prolixity and wordiness4 ,every measure fulfils its purpose in the simplest and most direct way1 and justifies its presence by its reference to the essential thematic ideas of the work4 ,unity of key is secured by a careful observation of the main traditions of the sonata-form in the matter of the distribution of tonalities4 ,the exposition shows the customary quality of key1 tonic 7,g-minor7 being contrasted with relative major 7,b-flat major74#cj ,the development1 as we have already seen1 exemplifies plurality of key4 ,the recapitulation emphasizes throughout the home key of ,g-minor1 thus ending the movement with the fitting impression of tonal unity4 ,a glance at measures #ch-db1 #gb-ii1 #acd-ach1 #adf-afe1 #bba-bbe1 and #bfj-cjg will show how much pains ,mozart has taken to emphasize his keys at all important points in the design4 ,the emphasis1 as in the case of ,haydn1 is superfluous for modern ears1 but was very necessary for the audiences addressed by the early advocates of so complex a scheme of musical design4 ,altogether then1 we see in such a movement as the present1 ,mozart taking the sonata-form a step in advance of where ,haydn had left it1 and while preserving its essential outline1 filling it with the wealth of detail which his luxuriant fancy suggested4 ,later it will become clear that he was thus preparing it for the still further elaboration of an even greater master of construction--,beethoven4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading4 ,d4 ,g4 ,mason3 ,beethoven and ,his ,forerunners1 ,chapters ,v and ,,vi4 ,c4 ,h4 ,h4 ,parry3 ,the ,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapter ,,xi4 ,e4 ,dickinson3 ,the ,study of the ,history of ,music1 ,chapters ,,xxiv and ,,xxv4 ,w4 ,h4 ,hadow3 ,sonata ,form4 ,,footnotes3 #be ,a symphony1 as we have seen1 is only a sonata1 on a large scale1 for orchestra4 #bf ,even in ,haydn1 however1 the second themes remain generally rather rudimentary 7see the analysis of his ,surprise ,symphony1 later in this chapter74 ,in many cases his second theme is hardly more than a variant of the first2 as for example in the two pianoforte sonatas in ,e-flat major4 ,in the first movement of his ,paukenwirbel ,symphony1 however1 there is a very distinct second theme1 and in many other movements the student will note a marked tendency toward definition4 #bg ,published for piano1 two or four hands1 by ,peters1 ,leipzig4 ,for convenience of reference number all measures1 and parts of measures1 consecutively4 ,the numbers will run to #beh4 #bh ,see ,mason's ,beethoven and ,his ,forerunners1 page #bah4 #bi ,arrangement for piano1 two hands1 in the ,peters edition4 ,number the measures throughout4 ,there are three hundred and seven4 ,the general structure will be seen at a glance in the appended tabular view4 #cj ,this is according to custom in movements written in minor keys4 ,the second theme is in such cases usually put in the relative major instead of in the dominant4 7,see the chapter on ,folk-,song47 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,slow ,,movement4 ,i4 ,,varieties ,,of ,,form4 ,in the classical sonata the usual arrangement of movements was as follows3 7#a7 ,allegro 7in ,sonata-form73 7#b7 ,adagio or ,minuet3 7#c7 ,finale 7usually a rondo74 ,occasionally--as in ,mozart's ,piano ,sonata in ,a-major--the slow movement1 in the form of a theme and variations1 was placed at the beginning1 and in that case the order would be 7#a7 ,theme and ,variations1 7#b7 ,minuet 7#c7 ,finale4 ,the symphony1 which1 it must be remembered1 was a sonata on a large scale--always began with a movement in sonata-form1 and had four movements4 ,although the sonata was subject to many outside influences--most important of which were polyphony and the old overture and other operatic forms--its two main sources were dance tunes and folk-songs4 ,the evolution of the dance tune through ,bach's polyphonic gavottes1 sarabandes1 etc41 has already been traced in ,chapters ,,iv1 ,v1 and ,,vi1 and the influence of the dance on the first movement in ,chapters ,,viii and ,,ix4 ,the slow movement is ultimately derived from the folk-song1 and1 while more subject to operatic influence than were the other movements1 it still retains something of that simple lyric quality that distinguished it in its primitive form4 ,unlike the other movements of the sonata and symphony1 however1 the slow movement has no settled form3 i4 e41 while we speak of first-movement1 or sonata-form1 of the rondo form1 and of the minuet form1 we do not speak thus of slow movement form4 ,for in the slow movement style rather than form is of greatest importance4 ,on account of its slow tempo it is shorter than the first movement1 and consequently not so dependent for intelligibility on formal structure4 ,its themes1 also1 are song-like in character1 and song themes1 being in themselves complete1 do not lend themselves readily to development--do not generate new material--as has already been pointed out4 ,as a consequence the slow movement is usually written in what we call a sectional form3 i4 e41 a series of sections following one another according to whatever order or system the composer may choose4 ,the most common use is1 however1 the form employed in the minuet4 ,but in slow movements the long song themes1 somewhat elegiac in style and full of sentiment1 make the mood of each section of supreme importance1 and throw the formal element into the background4 ,so that1 while the slow movement usually falls under some one of the common forms already discussed1 it often modifies them in one way or another4 ,there are rare instances of developed ternary form in the slow movements of ,mozart's pianoforte sonatas4 ,the ,andante of the ,sonata in ,b-flat 7no4 #aj in ,schirmer's edition71 has a development section4 ,it comprises only nineteen measures1 however1 and its effect as a section germinating from the exposition is somewhat lessened by the scheme of repeats1 which is as follows3 ,a 33 ,b4 ,a4 34 ,the use of rondo form in the slow movement will be discussed in a later chapter4 ,,ii4 ,,slow ,,movements ,,of ,,pianoforte ,,sonatas4 ,reference has already been made in ,chapters ,,vi and ,,vii to the lack of sustaining power in the tone of the pianoforte of ,haydn and ,mozart's day1 and the consequent use of ornament in their pianoforte music4 ,in ,figure ,,xli 7a7 is shown the beginning of the andante of ,mozart's sonata referred to above1 and at 7b7 will be found the corresponding portion of the restatement in the same movement4 ,these two quotations should be compared with the corresponding portions of the two pieces that serve as examples for analysis with this chapter4 ,this comparison will reveal how much more highly ornamented was the music written for the piano than that for instruments with sustained tone4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,,figure ,,xli4 ,it will be observed that this quotation from ,mozart is in strophic form2 each phrase of two measures constitutes1 as it were1 a poetic line1 the second of which closes with a half cadence1 and the last with a full cadence or period4 ,in this respect it follows the old folk-song type1 and1 indeed1 that model serves for the great majority of lyric themes in sonatas and symphonies4 ,but in its initial qualities this melody shows a great advance over tunes like ,barbara ,alien and ,polly ,oliver1 an advance due to the flexibility to which both melody and harmony had attained in ,mozart's time1 and to that freedom of technique provided by the piano as compared with the voice4 ,these quotations from ,mozart are from a sonata movement which is1 on the whole1 above the formal average of the pianoforte pieces of that period4 ,many of them were excessively ornamented4 ,in ,figure ,,xlii are shown two quotations from a sonata of ,haydn1 in the latter of which the ornaments are profuse4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,,figure ,,xlii4 ,in spite of the somewhat artificial atmosphere that surrounds much of the pianoforte music of this period there is1 in the best specimens of it1 a charming formal beauty4 ,it is within its own sphere genuine and true to life4 ,one has to consider the kind of society that it represents1 as well as the status of music in that society4 ,the art was not1 at that time1 free enough1 nor practical enough1 to deal with deep emotions2 people looked on it as a refined sort of amusement4 ,not until ,beethoven had written his music did its possibilities as a vehicle for deep human feeling and experience become evident4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,string ,,quartet4 ,it was not until the time of ,haydn that the string quartet#ca came into being2 a fact for which we may easily account by examining the instrumental parts of orchestral compositions before ,haydn's time4 ,we shall find the 'cello1 for example1 playing for the most part merely the bass notes that support the superstructure of the orchestra1 and consequently entirely unaccustomed to individual parts of any difficulty4 ,another obstacle in the path of the string quartet was the slow development of the viola1 which only gradually emerged from the older and more cumbersome types1 such as the viola d'amour and viola da braccio4 ,haydn began by writing little quartets of the simplest possible kind--the first movement of the first quartet contains only twenty-four measures--but by constant practice throughout his long life he attained a complete mastery of the form4 ,in his early quartets he usually wrote five movements1 two of them minuets1 but he soon settled on the regular four movement form which has remained ever since as the usually accepted model4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ae4 ,haydn3 ,adagio in ,e-flat major from the ,string ,quartet#cb in ,g-major1 op4 #gg1 ,no4 #a4 ,this ,adagio is thoroughly characteristic of ,haydn's best style of writing4 ,it is without the elaborate and somewhat diffuse treatment we observed in the trio of his ,andante with ,variations 7,see ,chapter ,,vii71 nor does it depend for its effect on the much more artistic use of ornament employed by ,mozart in the ,andante quoted in ,figure ,,xli4 ,almost everything in this composition germinates from the two motives given out in measures #a-b and #c-d1 and it should be noted that each of these motives is sufficiently pronounced in character to serve the purposes of generation1 and that the theme1 as a whole1 is not by any means a perfect lyric melody such as will be found in our second example for analysis4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xliii4 ,the first of these motives 7see ,figure ,,xliii1 measures #a-b7 is easily traced throughout the whole composition1 since the changes that are made in it are largely changes in key1 but the second motive 7measures #c-d7 almost immediately evolves into something new4 ,this may be observed in measure #aa1 where the rhythm of the passage at measure #c is changed1 the melody being given to the left hand4 ,the second part 7or stanza7 of the melody1 beginning at measure #ac1 uses chiefly the phrase from measure #b1 which will be found again in the dominant--to which key this section tends--at measures #ba-bb4 ,even the passage at #bc is an elaboration of that at #aa1 and this same original motive is lengthened into a delightful bit of by-play at measures #ce-cg4 ,the close in ,c-major at #db1 with its accents transferred to the fourth beat of the measure1 should be noted1 while the sudden change of key after the pause was1 at that time1 almost a revolutionary modulation1 and sounds more like ,beethoven than ,haydn 7see1 for example1 the sudden and complete change of key in the coda of the first movement of the ,eroica ,symphony74 ,the use of the motive from measure #b at #de-ed and the gradual elimination of its melodic quality until only its rhythm remains 7#ec-ed7 is an interesting example of a familiar process in music 7see ,chapter ,,viii74 ,this gradual dying away and ceasing of motion is also a familiar process at this point in a movement1 providing as it does a sense of expectancy and preparation for the re-entrance of the main theme4 ,the restatement begins at measure #ee and as is customary retains the original key instead of modulating to the dominant as did the first section4 ,the coda begins at #hb and1 according to ,haydn's usual plan1 presents a kind of reminiscence of the main subject1 as if in tender farewell4 ,,iv4 ,,general ,,characteristics4 ,while this movement does not reach the heights of lyric beauty attained by ,mozart in the ,andante which we shall analyze in a moment1 it is1 nevertheless1 a thoroughly interesting and really beautiful piece of music4 ,our attention is constantly enlisted by fresh glimpses of the theme1 or by new harmonies2 the ornamentation all grows naturally out of the structure and is not laid on for its own sake1 and the melody itself is expressive and tender4 ,furthermore1 the themes and their treatment are characterized by a perfect adaptability to the string quartet1 for even in the pianoforte version1 we can observe how interesting is the part given to each instrument4 ,here1 just as in a perfect story or a perfect poem1 there is nothing redundant1 nothing that has not some part in the main purpose of the work4 ,and this combination of placid beauty with perfection of form makes what is called the ,classic in music4 ,especially do we find here an entire absence of those perfunctory passages that occur in the movement of the ,surprise ,symphony discussed in the last chapter4 ,taken as a whole1 this piece is immeasurably finer than any movement of its kind produced up to that time1 save alone those of ,mozart2 and the advance is not only in method but in the essence of the idea itself4 ,there is a geniality and warmth about this music that marks a new era4 ,bach was more profound1 but more isolated2 here we have simple human sentiment and a kind of nave charm that distinguished ,haydn's music from that of all other composers4 ,v4 ,,form ,,of ,,haydn',s ,,adagio4 ,this ,adagio of ,haydn is a good illustration of what we have called sectional form4 ,it may be tabulated as follows3 ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,sections ,,in ,,haydn',s ,,adagio4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- #a #b #c #d ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,section in ,e-flat ,section in the ,section of free ,double ,section measures #a-af dominant 7,b-flat7 modulation #cj-ed in ,e-flat #ee-hb #af-cj ,coda #hc-ia ,duality ,plurality ,unity ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,section four contains practically the same material as ,sections #a and #b1 with its last half in the tonic instead of the dominant4 ,it will be observed that the harmonic plan of the movement is that of sonata-form1 but that the first two sections 7which would constitute the exposition7 are not repeated1 as was the invariable custom in ,haydn's first movements4 ,yet the resemblance is quite close1 for the third part is like a development section and the fourth like a restatement4 ,still there is not here that decided difference between the three sections of exposition1 development1 and recapitulation that is essential to sonata-form4 ,,vi4 ,,mozart ,,and ,,the ,,classic ,,style4 ,the slow movements of the symphonies and string quartets of ,mozart1 who represents the culmination of the classic type in music1 are thoroughly characteristic of the ideals of the classical period4 ,unlike the rustic ,haydn1 ,mozart was accustomed from his childhood to the atmosphere of courts and lived in the favor of princes4 ,his music is never brusque1 nor does it have the homely wit and sentiment of ,haydn--it does not smack of the soil--but it possesses a certain ideal beauty and elegance1 a certain finesse and finely pointed wit that were beyond ,haydn's powers4 ,yet these ideally beautiful compositions of ,mozart are absolutely spontaneous4 ,we are never admitted into his work-shop2 we never trace a sign of his labor2 his music seems to have sprung full born from his brain4 ,he is the type of the consummate artist who deals with the language of music as easily as an ordinary mortal deals with his native tongue4 ,he was not a philosopher like ,bach1 nor a great man like ,beethoven4 ,we find no evidences of his having been1 outside his music1 particularly distinguished from his fellows1 for his improvidence and fondness for amusement are matters of record4 ,when we think of ,beethoven's music we think of ,beethoven2 ,mozart and his art are distinct and separate4#cc ,at this point the question naturally arises3 ,just what do we mean by classic beauty8 ,in a general way a book1 a picture or a piece of music becomes a classic when it is universally accepted as a model of its kind4 ,in this sense ,grey's ,elegy in a ,country ,churchyard is a classic2 so are ,lincoln's ,gettysburg ,address1 the ,sistine ,madonna1 and the ,apollo ,belvedere4 ,the same term is applied to ,beethoven's ,fifth ,symphony1 and to ,schumann's ,trumerei4 ,these works of art represent many varieties of mood1 of style1 and of structure1 and the application to them all of the term classic is a very broad usage4 ,classic1 as opposed to ,romantic1 in music1 means something quite different and much more definite4 ,it refers to purity of outline and simplicity of harmony2 to pure beauty of sound as opposed to luxuriance or the poignancy produced by dissonances2 to clear and translucent colors and definite lines curved in beauty1 rather than to picturesqueness4 ,classical music tells its story clearly and definitely and does not depend on suggestion1 as does1 for example1 the romantic music of ,schumann4 ,our illustrations from ,haydn have revealed how this classic spirit gradually approached its culmination4 ,in his ,andante with ,variations there is something of the classic spirit1 though the occasional diffuse ornamentation of the trio theme mars the purity of the composition4 ,in the movement from the ,surprise ,symphony there is too much that is rustic to admit of its being considered altogether classic4 ,but a fine example of the classic type is afforded by the first movement of ,mozart's ,g-minor ,symphony1 discussed in ,chapter ,,ix4 ,the distinction may be made still more clear by reference to ,figure ,,xliv1 containing 7a7 the opening phrases of the ,finale of ,tschaikowsky's ,pathtique ,symphony1 and 7b7 a short quotation from ,schumann's ,novelette1 op4 #ba1 ,no4 #a4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,,figure ,,xliv4 ,the poignancy of the passage from ,tschaikowsky is remarkable1 and the opening chord1 modulating at once to another key than the tonic1 produces a feeling of unrest which is further intensified1 as the piece proceeds1 by harsh dissonances4 ,the quotation from ,schumann's ,novelette is notable for its brusqueness1 and for the roughness of its dissonances4 ,effects like these would not have been tolerated in ,mozart's time1 and illustrate the tendency of music to become more personal and to seek to express a wider range of human feeling4 ,a comparison of these two quotations with the opening of the andante by ,mozart will reveal how far apart are the ideals of classic and romantic music4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #af4 ,mozart3 ,andante from ,string ,quartet#cd in ,c-major1 dedicated to ,haydn4 ,in ,chapter ,,ix reference has been made to the influence of ,haydn and ,mozart on each other4 ,mozart undoubtedly profited by ,haydn's labors in the quartet form1 and ,haydn1 in turn1 shows in his latest quartets that he had learned something from his younger contemporary4 ,ever since this form came into being it has been a favorite one with composers1 for in it they are able to express musical ideas in all their purity and divested of extraneous influences4 ,for this reason the quartet became the medium for their most advanced ideas4 ,both ,mozart and ,beethoven wrote quartets that were far in advance of their time1 and that were subjected to harsh criticism by their contemporaries4 ,the introduction to the quartet from which this andante is taken is a case in point4 ,the harmonies1 within the space of a few measures1 wander far from the home key1 and commit what were then unpardonable sins of cacophony4 ,a brief quotation from the beginning of this introduction is shown in ,figure ,,xlv4 ,the harsh dissonances between the ,a-flat in the first measure of the viola part and the succeeding ,a-natural in the first violin part should be noted4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,,figure ,,xlv4 ,the vague harmonies of this introduction serve as an admirable foil to the bright opening of the first movement4 ,the sthetic purpose they serve is one of which ,beethoven also made constant use when he desired to enhance the charm of a passage by vivid contrast of color4 ,the opening theme of the movement 7shown at 7b7 in ,figure ,,xlv7 will be seen to be foreshadowed in the introduction 7,figure ,,xlv 7a72 viola part1 measure #c1 first violin part1 measures #d-e74 ,from the point of view of both harmony and thematic development this introduction is therefore extremely modern4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xlvi4 ,of this andante by ,mozart we can say unreservedly that it is a perfect specimen of pure classic beauty4 ,its translucent harmonies1 its exquisite curve of melody1 its clear outlines1 all make it a model of its kind4 ,the chief theme1 extending to measure #ab 7see ,figure ,,xlvi71 should be compared with those of ,handel1 ,haydn and ,mozart shown in previous chapters4 ,this comparison will reveal an important element in the present theme1 namely1 the element of organization4 ,in our earliest musical examples quoted in the first two chapters there was a conspicuous lack of variety4 ,three ,blind ,mice contented itself with two motives1 which were repeated over and over again4 ,barbara ,allen was made up of one rhythmic figure1 constantly reiterated1 and even in the themes of ,philip ,emanuel ,bach and ,haydn there were many rhythmic repetitions4 ,in the ,haydn quartet movement there were but two motives1 and while they were used with the greatest skill1 the theme itself was entirely constructed from them4 ,in ,mozart's theme1 on the contrary1 there is hardly a single repetition of rhythm4 ,an examination of the melody will reveal how great a variety is imparted to it by the many different rhythmic figures4 ,yet there is no sense of vagueness about it2 it holds together firmly4 ,this quality distinguishes all highly organized melodies1 and is never found in folk-music4 ,the same element may be observed in a developed language in which words have come to be flexible in their meaning1 and more or less complicated sentences are possible4 ,in this theme one does not get the sense of what the composer is trying to say until the melody ends2 in simple themes1 made up by repeating the same motive1 one can foresee the end long before it is reached4 ,themes like this beautiful one of ,mozart are possible only after art has become well developed1 and after people in general have become sufficiently familiar with the phraseology of music to be able to follow complicated musical sentences4 ,a further charm is added to this movement by the free and flowing counterpoint of the several parts4 ,this is an essential element in the string quartet1 since without it1 there being little variety in the tone of the four instruments1 monotony would result4 ,,vii4 ,,form ,,of ,,mozart',s ,,andante4 ,here1 as in the ,haydn slow movement1 we find another example of sectional form4 ,it may be tabulated as follows3 ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,sections ,,in ,,mozart',s ,,andante4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,i4 ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,modulating from tonic to dominant ,modulating from dominant back to and containing theme ,i1 episode theme tonic with the same succession of 7#ac7 and theme ,,ii 7#bf71 #a-dd4 themes4 ,coda 7#ajb71 #ed-aad4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,the sub-divisions of the above should be carefully noted 7as indicated by the entrance of the different themes74 ,these sub-divisions break the piece up into smaller sections1 each distinct from the others4 ,a particularly interesting and beautiful effect is produced in the coda 7measures #ajc-e7 by the augmentation of the phrase from measures #a-b1 which is reproduced in longer notes against a familiar counterpoint4#ce ,,suggestions ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading4 ,c4 ,h4 ,h4 ,parry3 ,the ,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapters ,,xi and ,,xii4 ,w4 ,h4 ,hadow3 ,sonata ,form1 ,chapter ,x4 ,d4 ,g4 ,mason3 ,beethoven and ,his ,forerunners1 ,chapters ,v and ,,vi4 ,,footnotes3 #ca ,the instruments employed in the string quartet are two violins 7first and second7 viola1 and violoncello4 #cb ,published in miniature score1 ,payne edition1 price #bj cents4 ,this quartet also appears among ,haydn's works in the form of a sonata for violin and piano4 #cc ,see ,mason's ,beethoven and his ,forerunners1 pages #bcb-bdj4 #cd ,published in miniature score1 ,payne edition1 price #bj cents4 #ce ,a reference to the full score of this movement will reveal certain crossings of the lower instruments over the upper by which interesting effects of tone color are produced4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,beethoven--,i4 ,i4 ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,beethoven',s ,,work4 ,the reader who has attentively followed the story of the long and gradual development of music from the folk-song and peasant dance up to the point we have now reached1 cannot but have been impressed by the character of preparation for some supreme achievement of which this development seems to partake throughout4 ,all the laborious steps lead on toward a goal which even in the splendid work of ,haydn and ,mozart is not quite reached4 ,haydn crystallizes the form and style of instrumental music2 ,mozart adds his peculiar aristocratic grace of manner and classical beauty of substance1 yet even in his work there remains a certain coldness and conventionality--the body of the art is perfect1 but the spiritual passion of modern music as we know it is still lacking4 ,even during the life-times of these great musicians1 however1 the supreme genius who was to bring to its perfect flowering the plant they had so carefully tended was preparing for his work4 ,in #agia1 when ,mozart died1 and when ,haydn made his first journey to ,london to produce his ,salomon symphonies1 ,ludwig van ,beethoven1 born in #aggj1 was just entering on his young manhood4 ,in order to understand the character and work of ,beethoven1 it is necessary constantly to bear in mind the two-sided truth that the greatest men are those who combine the utmost receptivity and teachableness with a perfect self-dependence and fearless initiative4 ,beethoven1 who is equally remarkable for both1 could never have done what he did had he lacked either4 ,had he been merely original he could not have securely founded himself on the work of his predecessors1 and1 therefore1 would probably not have surpassed them4 ,had he been content always to imitate1 had he never ventured beyond what was sanctioned by tradition1 he would never have inaugurated a new epoch in music4 ,it becomes1 therefore1 a matter of great interest to trace these opposed but complementary traits of docility and unconventionality1 first in his character1 and secondly in his music4 ,in what has been written of ,beethoven1 his eccentricities have been so dwelt upon that his capacity for laborious study has hardly been appreciated4 ,it is true that he was a restive pupil4 ,he was taught for a while by ,haydn1 but soon quarreled with him4 ,his teacher in counterpoint1 the learned pedagogue ,albrechtsberger1 said of him3 ,he will never do anything according to rule2 he has learnt nothing4 ,but ,beethoven was essentially self-taught2 and in his efforts1 under his own guidance1 to master all the technical difficulties of his art1 he showed the most inexhaustible patience and subjected himself to the most tireless labor4 ,never did the veriest dolt drudge more faithfully at the ,a1 ,b1 ,c of his art than the divine ,beethoven4 ,we have proof of this in his sketch-books1 many of which have been edited and printed by ,nottebohm4 ,in them we see him jotting down his ideas1 often surprisingly trite in the first instance1 and then returning1 day after day1 to the task of developing them into the perfect themes of his finished compositions4 ,nothing could be more salutary to those who fancy that musical creation is entirely a matter of inspiration than a perusal of these endless pages in which ,beethoven slowly and painfully separates the pure metal from the ore of his thought and refines it to complete purity4#cf ,beethoven's wonderful certainty of touch1 economy of material1 and logical coherence of ideas were doubtless attainable only by this laborious method of working4 ,he learned1 by careful imitation1 all that the models left by his predecessors could teach him before he ventured to push beyond them4 ,yet even in his early 'prentice work1 like the first two symphonies and the earlier piano sonatas1 in which the influence of ,haydn and ,mozart are constantly evident1 there is a vigor of execution1 a ruggedness of style1 and a depth of feeling1 that are all his own4 ,in other words1 his strong originality was already coloring all that he did2 even when he imitated1 it was with a subtle difference4 ,later1 as his powers developed and self-confidence grew1 he became more and more indifferent to tradition1 more and more singly bent on following his own genius wherever it might lead him4 ,a strong dramatic instinct began to possess him1 showing itself in a love for sudden changes of harmony and rhythm1 for unexpected transitions from loud to soft or from soft to loud1 and in other such eccentricities4 ,his rhythms became more striking1 his melodies broader and more various1 his harmonies and modulations so daring and unprecedented that the conservatives of the day held up their hands in horror4 ,his sense of musical structure1 of that combining of themes in long movements which is akin to the architect's combination of pillars1 arches1 windows1 buttresses and colonnades in great buildings1 became so powerful and unerring that he created works of vaster proportions and more subtle symmetry than had ever been dreamed of before--so great and complex that they could be followed only by the highly trained ear and mind4 ,such were the works of his maturity4 ,later still1 as he became more and more thrown in upon himself by poverty1 pride1 the terrible affliction of deafness1 and the failure of his contemporaries to understand him1 he came to live entirely in his own ideal world1 and his music became more and more markedly individual1 and in some cases almost perversely so4 ,his latest works are not thoroughly understood1 even to-day1 except after the most patient1 exhaustive study4 ,the customary division of ,beethoven's artistic life into three periods#cg is based on these internal differences observable in his works4 ,those of the first period1 extending to about #ahjc1 of which the most important are the piano sonatas up to opus #ec1 the first three piano concertos1 the string quartets1 opus #ah1 and the first and second symphonies1 show him under the influence of ,haydn and ,mozart1 though already more poignant1 impassioned1 and forcible than his models4 ,in the second period1 the period of full and vigorous maturity1 extending from #ahjc to #ahac1 he throws off all restricting traditions1 and stands forth a heroic figure1 the like of which music had never seen1 and may never see again4 ,the compositions of this decade1 among which may be specially mentioned the piano sonatas from the ,waldstein to opus #ij1 the fourth and fifth piano concertos1 the unique concerto for violin1 the string quartets1 opus #ei and opus #gd1 the overtures ,coriolanus and ,egmont1 the opera ,fidelio1 the great ,mass in ,c1 and above all the six magnificent symphonies from the ,eroica to the eighth1 are among the supreme achievements of human art4 ,they combine the utmost variety of form and style with a perfect unity2 they are models of structure for all time2 and as to expression1 one knows not what to marvel at most1 their rugged virility and intensity of passion1 their deep pathos and tender sentiment1 their moods of effervescent merriment1 humor1 and whimsical perversity1 or their almost superhuman moments of mystical elevation4 ,the third period1 extending from #ahac to ,beethoven's death in #ahbg1 is as we have said characterized by an almost excessive individuality1 and is difficult to relate to the normal progress of musical art4 ,nevertheless it contains some of his greatest works--notably the ,ninth ,symphony1 the ,mass in ,d1 and the final sonatas and quartets4 ,the detailed study of it falls outside the province of this book4 ,with this brief and necessarily cursory survey of ,beethoven's achievement in its entirety1 we may pass on to the examination of a single typical work1 hoping in the course of it to make clearer to the student the two main facts about ,beethoven on which we have been trying to insist3 his indebtedness to his predecessors in the matters of general structure and style1 and the indomitable originality by virtue of which all that he does is infused with a novel beauty and an unparalleled profundity of feeling4 ,we shall choose for our first example one of the finest compositions of his first period--the ,pathtique ,sonata1 for piano1 opus #ac1 taking up in later chapters some typical examples of his more advanced style4 ,,ii4 ,,analysis ,,of ,a ,,beethoven ,,sonata4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ag4 ,beethoven3 ,piano ,sonata1 ,opus #ac4 ,first movement4 ,it will be noted that ,beethoven adds to the three traditional sections of the sonata-form an introduction in slow tempo 7of which we saw an earlier example in ,haydn's ,surprise ,symphony7 and a brief coda1 based on the main material of the movement1 to round out the complete movement satisfactorily4 ,in his later work both of these additional sections came often to figure very prominently1 the increased development he gave to them being indeed one of his most important contributions to sonata-form4 ,we shall see in his ,fifth ,symphony a fine example of his treatment of the coda1 which raises it to a dignity equal to that of the other organic sections4 ,the introduction of the ,fourth ,symphony extends to thirty-eight measures of slow tempo1 that of the ,seventh ,symphony to sixty-two measures1 with great variety of treatment4 ,the general structure of this movement1 which is in extended sonata-form1 is shown in the following tabular view3 ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,structure ,,of ,,first ,,movement ,,of ,,the ,,path,,tique ,,sonata4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,sections4 ,themes4 ,measures4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,slow ,introduction #a-aj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,exposition 7,a7 ,first theme1 ,c minor #aa-bg ,transition1 based on first theme #bg-ej ,duality of ,second theme1 ,e-flat minor #ea-hh ,harmony ,codetta or ,conclusion section1 ,e-flat major #hi-acd ,consisting of ,conclusion-theme ,i #hi-aab ,conclusion-theme ,,ii #aac-abj ,reminiscence of theme ,i #aba-acd ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,development 7,b7 ,introduction-motive #ace-ach ,plurality of ,theme ,i and ,introduction-motive treated #aci-aif ,harmony ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,recapitulation 7,a7 ,first theme1 ,c minor #aig-bji ,new transition #bji-bbb ,unity of ,second theme1 ,f minor #bbc-bed ,harmony ,codetta1 ,c minor #bee-bif ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,coda #big-cab ,consisting of ,introduction motive #big-cjj ,first theme1 reminiscence #cja-caa ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,the motive of the introduction1 shown in ,figure ,,xlvii1 is a deeply expressive bit of melody which at once establishes the mood to which the sonata owes its name of ,pathetic4 ,how incisive and seizing is this very first measure6 ,what a different world it takes us into--a romantic world of personal feeling--from the classic realms of ,haydn and ,mozart6 ,the emotion thus suggested at the outset becomes deeper1 too1 as we proceed1 first with the higher utterance of the same motive in the second measure1 and then with the fragments of it in the third and fourth1 urging us on to a climax on the high ,a-flat4 ,finally1 in the fifth and succeeding measures1 the pulsating rhythm of the accompaniment adds a still greater agitation1 while the melody climbs ever higher and higher until it reaches the ,f of measure #i1 after which it dies away in preparation for the main theme4 ,the intensity of ,beethoven's expression1 by which his claim to the title of romantic is most surely indicated1 could hardly be better shown than by this brief introduction of ten measures4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,motive of the ,introduction1 ,pathtique ,sonata4 ,music3 score 7b7 ,treatment of this motive in the ,development4 ,,figure ,,xlvii4 ,the body of the movement begins energetically1 yet sombrely1 with the first theme1 in minor key and strongly pronounced rhythm4 ,this merges quickly in the transition 7#bg-ej71 which is neither a bit of empty passage-work as often with ,haydn1 nor a new melody as with ,mozart1 but contains constant references to the main theme 7#ce-cg1 #ci-da1 #dc-de74 ,the second theme is both more lyrical in character and more extended than the first4 ,it is not in the traditional key of the relative major 7see ,chapters ,,ii and ,,iii71 but oscillates between ,e-flat minor and ,d-flat1 coming into ,e-flat major 7the relative of ,c-minor7 only as it closes and debouches into the first conclusion theme 7#hi-aab74 ,the closing section or codetta is1 however1 almost entirely in ,e-flat1 and is moreover fairly long and important4 ,it consists of two independent themes and of a reminiscence of the first theme at measures #aba-ace4 ,a fine instance of melodic germination is found in the first conclusion theme1 where the gradually rising melody twice builds itself up into a long phrase of eight measures 7#ic-ajj1 and #aje-aab7 with splendidly sustained effect4 ,the great variety of rhythm embodied in the codetta should be especially noticed4 ,the development begins with a restatement of the poignant introduction-motive1 so managed that it leads into the remote key of ,e-minor4 ,now begins1 with the resumption of the allegro tempo1 a rather short but most interesting treatment of the first theme1 continued with an ingenious variant of the introduction-motive 7measures #adb-adc1 #adh-adi3 see ,figure ,,xlvii 7b771 followed by the transference of the fragment of the first theme to the bass1 where it is thrice repeated1 amid constant modulation4 ,then1 in the measure following #afi1 comes one of those inimitably hushed1 mysterious passages so peculiar to ,beethoven1 through which1 like fountains from a sombre pool1 rise fragments of the first theme4 ,then1 with a rapidly descending passage1 the movement plunges into its recapitulation4 ,this section the reader will have no difficulty in analyzing for himself1 not failing to note the felicity with which a new transition1 from first to second themes 7#bji-bbb71 is made to germinate from the last two measures of the main theme4 ,the coda1 very brief1 contains nothing but a final announcement of fragments of the introduction-motive and a single sentence of the first theme4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ah4 ,beethoven3 ,piano ,sonata1 opus #ac4 ,second movement4 ,this slow movement1 a beautiful adagio cantabile in ,beethoven's tranquilly serious mood1 takes on the sectional form of the rondo1 consisting of a theme 7,a71 an episode 7,b71 recurrence of the theme 7,a71 a second episode 7,c71 second recurrence of the theme 7,a71 and brief codetta4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xlviii4 ,the theme itself1 filling only eight measures1 but repeated at a higher pitch in the second eight measures1 is a fine example of the variety in unity of ,beethoven's melodies1 secured only after much laborious sketching4 ,it is shown in ,figure ,,xlviii1 and should be examined carefully4 ,almost every measure of it presents a new rhythm1 so that there is none of the monotony of those themes which endlessly repeat a single rhythmic figure4 7,compare the tunes of primitive savages shown in ,chapter ,i47 ,yet the whole melody is so deftly composed that its final impression of unity is perfect4 ,the sequence form which the harmonies of the last four measures take contributes in no small degree to this impression of unity4 ,the theme being in the key of ,a-flat1 both episodes are planned to give variety of key1 the first 7,b--measures #ag-bh7 being in the relative minor1 ,f-minor1 and the second 7,c--measures #cg-ej71 beginning in ,a-flat minor and modulating1 through ,e-major1 back to the home-key4 ,with the third entrance of the main theme1 the accompaniment takes the more animated rhythm of triplets2 and these continue through the brief but delightful codetta 7#ff-gc74 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ai4 ,beethoven3 ,piano ,sonata1 opus #ac4 ,third movement4#ch ,this movement is an example of rondo form1 being1 like the ,mozart rondo we have already studied1 based on the alternation of a chief theme1 with sections containing other material4 ,the tabular view on the next page exhibits the complete structure4 ,the first theme1 sprightly and energetic1 and recalling in its melodic curve the second theme of the first movement1 is in strophic form1 with its last half repeated1 and the cadence extended for greater emphasis4 ,the sequences in measures #f-g and #aj-aa should be noted4 ,the transition also starts off with a sequence1 measures #bc-bf1 corresponding to #ai-bb4 ,our old familiar1 the device of imitation1 also figures in measures #ch and #ci4 ,it is interesting to see ,beethoven using these tools of the polyphonic style 7see ,chapters ,i and ,,iii7 in a work so far removed from it1 and with such ingratiating freshness4 ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,finale ,,of ,,the ,,path,,tique ,,sonata4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,sections4 ,themes4 ,measures4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,a4 ,first theme1 ,c-minor #a-ah ,transition #ai-bf ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,b4 ,second theme1 ,e-flat major #bf-dd ,closing theme 7,codetta7 #dd-eb ,transition 7on motive from close of second theme7 #eb-fb ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,a4 ,first theme1 ,c-minor #fb-gi ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,c4 ,third theme1 ,a-flat #hj-ajh ,florid passage work #ajh-aba ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,a4 ,first theme1 ,c-major #aba-ace ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,b4 ,second theme1 ,c-minor #ace-aed ,closing theme 7codetta7 #aee-aga ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,a4 ,first theme1 ,c-minor #agb-ahc ,codetta1 extended #ahc-bjc ,final suggestions of first theme #bjc-baa ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,the second theme enters for only eight measures1 after which the gay little imitations are again resorted to1 and carry us to the re-entrance of the main theme4 ,the episode 7,c71 based on a new theme in the key of ,a-flat major1 for the sake of the harmonic variety so essential to the middle part of a movement1 is again in sequence form1 and in strict polyphonic style1 first with two voices and later with three4 ,in measures #ajj-ajc we have the theme in the right hand1 and set against it in the left a staccato counterpoint in eighth-notes2 in the next four measures this scheme is just reversed4 ,a rather florid passage1 which may be compared to the cadenza in the rondo from ,mozart analyzed in ,chapter ,,vi1 leads over to the return of the first theme4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,xlix4 ,the appearance of the second theme1 on its return1 in the key of ,c-major instead of ,e-flat major1 imparts organic solidity to the movement by its insistence on the tonic key1 as in similar cases in the sonata-form 7compare again ,chapter ,,vi74 ,it is also this time made to germinate into eight additional measures 7see ,figure ,,xlix74 ,in the final section ,a 7#agb-;end7 the little motive of the transitions does further duty1 and a new figure is introduced in measure #aid4 ,after the pause of measures #bjb-bjc1 we have brief hints1 piano1 of the main theme1 and then with one of the sudden fortissimos ,beethoven loves so well1 a precipitous downward scale ends the movement with vigor4 ,,iii4 ,,summary4 ,the ,pathtique ,sonata illustrates most vividly the general truths about its composer's first period which we have tried to bring out above4 ,the similarity to the style of ,haydn and ,mozart is most striking4 ,not only do we find the general types of structure developed by them applied with great fidelity1 but there are many details of style1 such as the accompaniment figures and the ornamentation1 which recall them4 ,yet the strings1 so to speak1 are all tightened1 there is not a trace of flabbiness or diffuseness1 everything irrelevant is omitted1 and the style is at once more varied and more unified than theirs4 ,the vigor and individuality of all the themes is consummate2 the organic beauty of such themes as that of the ,adagio is supreme4 ,the transitions are notable for their pertinency and derivation from the thematic materials of the movement--there are no empty scales and arpeggios4 ,the developments give the impression of inevitability1 of growing from the primary motives as naturally as plants grow from their seeds4 ,contrast in rhythm1 in melody1 in harmony1 and in style 7as exemplified in the use of polyphonic style in the finale7 abounds4 ,there is never a dull moment1 yet interest is never secured at the expense of unity4 ,above all1 the virility1 profundity1 and earnestness of the expression1 surprise us2 there is here none of the detachment1 the cool remoteness1 of classic art2 every note throbs with personal feeling--music has left the innocence and transparent gaiety of childhood behind it1 and begun to speak with the deeper and more moving1 if less serene1 accents of maturity4 ,in the next chapters we shall trace this progress further4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading4 ,e4 ,dickinson3 ,the ,study of the ,history of ,music1 ,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,c4 ,h4 ,h4 ,parry3 ,the ,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapter ,,xii4 ,d4 ,g4 ,mason3 ,beethoven and ,his ,forerunners1 ,chapters ,,vii1 ,,viii1 and ,,ix4 ,,footnotes3 #cf ,see for quotations from the sketch-books1 ,mason's ,beethoven and ,his ,forerunners1 pp4 #cjd-cad4 ,several of the complete sketch-books1 edited by ,nottebohm1 are published by ,breitkopf and ,hrtel4 #cg ,see ,von ,lenz's ,beethoven et ses trois styles4 #ch ,in numbering the measures1 begin with the first 7partial7 measure1 even though it is incomplete4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,beethoven--,,ii4 ,i4 ,,form ,,and ,,content4 ,our study of the ,pathtique ,sonata has shown how closely ,beethoven followed the models of ,haydn and ,mozart1 at the same time infusing into them a new spirit4 ,the first movement of that sonata does not differ materially in form from the first movement of ,mozart's ,g-minor ,symphony1 discussed in ,chapter ,,ix1 yet ,beethoven takes us into a new world1 far removed from that world of pure impersonal beauty in which ,mozart dwelt4 ,beethoven is the man struggling1 fighting1 working out his own individuality1 learning through bitter experience2 ,mozart is the artist not so much turning his own experience into music1 as creating outside himself imperishable works of an almost superhuman beauty4 ,in many of ,beethoven's works there is this same regularity of form coupled with freedom of expression4 ,the brusqueness of his style led his contemporaries to think him an iconoclast2 and it was not till many years after works like the ,fifth ,symphony were produced that the public began to understand how orthodox they are4 ,this free individual expression1 now a characteristic of art generally and evident enough in all phases of human life--this assertion of the personal point of view--began with ,beethoven and has been increasing ever since his day1 until we now have music in which certain phrases or themes no longer please us as beautiful sounds1 but exist for some ulterior and individual purpose4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,,figure ,l4 ,this change was perhaps only a part of that more general transformation of society by which the composer1 who had previously been subject to the favor of princely patrons1 became an independent individual1 living in direct contact with the public at large4 ,music1 thus freed and given an independent existence1 became an expressive art and took deeper root in human experience4 ,it lost1 in this process1 something of that calm1 ethereal beauty it had possessed1 but it gained greatly in expressiveness4 ,in ,beethoven's hands it became plastic2 he enlarged the range of harmonic combinations far beyond that of ,mozart1 and created themes that were of wider application to human feeling4 ,in illustration of this there will be found in ,figure ,l1 7a7 a quotation from the slow movement of ,beethoven's piano sonata1 op4 #b1 no4 #b1 and in 7b7 a quotation from the slow movement of his sonata1 op4 #aj1 no4 #c4 ,these should be compared with the theme from ,mozart's piano sonata in ,figure ,,xli4 ,the difference between the themes of ,beethoven and that of ,mozart is in their content rather than in their form4 ,the purpose of ,mozart's theme is beauty2 the purpose of ,beethoven's themes is expressiveness1 the conveyance of deep emotion4 ,they are lacking in one essential quality of melodic beauty1 namely1 outline1 or curve4#ci ,these two quotations are not representative of ,beethoven's lyric genius1 for he has left us many fine melodies1 but they reveal a general tendency of his to seek in music an outlet for his deepest thoughts and feelings1 and to sacrifice1 if necessary1 that beauty of outline that characterizes ,mozart's finest tunes4 ,,ii4 ,,beethoven',s ,,style4 ,one peculiarity of ,beethoven's music1 due to his constant search after expressiveness rather than mere formal symmetry1 is a unity and conciseness of style notably superior to that of ,mozart4 ,many of his themes lack the perfect balance of phrases1 in exact thesis and antithesis1 found in ,mozart's1 their structure resulting rather from a logical development of the leading motive1 which1 by a favorite device of his1 presses on1 in constant repetition and with increasing vigor1 to an emotional climax4 ,the contrast between this method of treating a theme and the method of ,mozart may be seen in ,figure ,,li4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,from ,mozart's ,g-minor ,symphony4 ,music3 score 7b7 ,from ,beethoven's first piano ,sonata4 ,music3 score 7c7 ,from ,beethoven's ,string ,quartet1 op4 #ei1 ,no4 #a4 ,,figure ,,li4 ,in the quotation from ,mozart's symphony it will be observed that the two-measure phrases exactly balance each other1 but that the second phrase is melodically unrelated to the first1 and is1 furthermore1 a somewhat trivial figure4 ,one feels in listening to the whole theme that the real significance of it lies in the opening phrase1 and this conclusion is justified by reference to the development section of the movement1 where the composer altogether discards the second phrase4 ,the style of this theme is1 therefore1 largely dictated by the convention of perfect phrase balance4 ,the style of the two ,beethoven themes1 on the contrary1 is vigorous and terse4 ,the outward symmetry is dictated by the inner sense4 ,in the sonata theme ,beethoven presses home his idea with greater and greater intensity until the climax is reached1 after which the tension is gradually abated2 in the theme from the string quartet an almost identical method is pursued4 ,for a further illustration of the terseness of ,beethoven's style reference may be made to the development sections of this sonata and string quartet1 where most interesting use is made of the short motives from which these themes are derived4 ,these methods of writing give evidence of the fine economy ,beethoven continually displays4 ,there is1 in his music1 nothing redundant--no unnecessary word--and it is this quality of style that produces such an effect of life and vigor4 ,beethoven carries out these methods in whole movements1 and even in complete symphonies4 ,we have already seen how1 in the ,pathtique ,sonata1 a theme in the finale is derived from one in the first movement1 but a much more interesting example of the process#dj may be found in the ,fifth ,symphony4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #bj4 ,beethoven3 ,the ,fifth ,symphony4#da ,first movement4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,music3 score 7c7 ,music3 score 7d7 ,from the ,scherzo4 ,,figure ,,lii4 ,in ,figure ,,lii will be found quotations from the three themes of the first movement of the ,fifth ,symphony1 and from the secondary theme of the scherzo4 ,it will be observed that the first motive in theme ,i--consisting of three short notes followed by a long one--is the germ from which both the conclusion theme and scherzo theme spring1 and that the same motive serves as the bass to the second theme4 ,this motive1 in fact1 dominates the entire first movement1 the extraordinary vitality of which is largely due to the incisive quality of the motive itself and to the occasional thunderous proclamations of it by the entire orchestra4 ,here we have the virility of ,beethoven's style admirably illustrated2 no time is given to platitudes1 no single measure wanders away from the chief issues4 ,at times this first motive is extended into a succession of loud chords from the full orchestra2 again the prevailing two-measure rhythm is interrupted by a measure of silence that shifts the accents dramatically from one place to another1 dislocating the whole passage4#db ,this intensity of utterance--each phrase hammered home--gives to the whole work a quite unique place among symphonies4 ,the complete movement may be tabulated as follows3 ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,structure ,,of ,,first ,,movement ,,of ,,beethoven',s ,,fifth ,,symphony4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,sections4 ,themes4 ,measures4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,introduction4 ,on motive from theme ,i #a-e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,exposition 7,a7 ,first theme1 ,c-minor #f-ef ,transition consisting of a chord of modulation #eh ,duality of ,introduction to theme ,,ii based on original motive #ei-fb ,harmony ,second theme in ,e-flat major #fc-ie ,codetta or ,conclusion-section consisting of ,conclusion-theme #ie-aai ,reminiscence of theme ,i #aaj-abd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,development 7,b7 ,motive from theme ,i treated #abe-agi ,introduction to theme ,,ii lengthened and treated in sequence 7,g-minor and ,c-minor7 #agi-aie ,plurality of ,half note phrase pass the same extended into ,harmony long passage finally losing its contour and retaining only its rhythm #aie-bdj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,recapitulation ,further treatment of theme ,i #bdj-beb 7,a7 ,first theme1 ,c-minor #bec-cjj ,transition leading to ,c-major #cjb ,unity of ,introduction to theme ,,ii #cjc-cjf ,harmony ,second theme in ,c-major #cjg-cdf ,conclusion-theme ,c-major #cdf-cgd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,coda ,theme ,i treated #cgd-cig ,introduction to theme ,,ii with new counterpoint #cih-djf ,motive from the same in diminution 7basses7 #djf-dae ,motive from theme ,,ii treated #daf-dfi ,motive from theme ,i treated #dfi-ejb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,the foregoing table should be compared with those in ,chapters ,,viii and ,,ix in order to get a comprehensive view of the gradual development of sonata-form4 ,it will be seen that ,beethoven destroys nothing1 but that the changes he makes in the older models are changes such as the nature of his themes and the length of the movement demand4 ,the chief difference in themes is that the first theme is less lyric than those of ,mozart1 and more suited to development2 a better contrast between themes ,i and ,,ii is thereby provided4 ,the coda is extended far beyond that of the old model1 and becomes an important part of the structure--important1 because at this stage of the development of sonata form 7audiences having become accustomed to listening to long pieces of pure music7 the repetition of the whole first section 7,a7 is a little too obvious1 and the introduction of a dramatic coda after the recapitulation section provides fresh interest at the point where it is most needed4 ,sir ,hubert ,parry#dc writes of ,beethoven's innovations in this phase of musical development as follows3 ,it was his good fortune that the sonata-form had been so perfectly organized and that the musical public had been made so perfectly familiar with it1 that they were ready to follow every suggestion and indication of the principle of form2 and even to grasp what he aimed at when he purposely presumed on their familiarity with it to build fresh subtleties and new devices upon the well known lines2 and even to emphasize the points by making progressions in directions which seemed to ignore them4 ,but most important of all is the close reasoning 7if we may use the term7 displayed throughout this movement4 ,there is hardly a single note in it that has not some direct bearing on the subject matter1 the two chords in the transitions being the only portions not derived from the themes proper4 ,with all these elements of strength1 and the added cohesion resulting from the similarity of themes1 this movement stands as a model of what a symphonic first movement should be4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,dramatic ,,element ,,in ,,beethoven',s ,,music4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,music3 score 7c7 ,,figure ,,liii4 ,we have referred in ,chapter ,,viii to that process of development whereby a theme becomes gradually changed1 losing its physiognomy little by little until it is only a shadow of its former self4 ,in the quotation in ,figure ,,liii this process might almost be said to be the opposite of development1 since the theme is gradually denuded of its melodic curve1 until nothing but its rhythm remains2 but the effect1 at least1 is to produce something quite new out of a germinal motive1 and to relieve1 for a moment1 that insistence on melody that characterizes the first section4 ,the device is a favorite one with ,beethoven1 and in this movement he makes interesting use of it4 ,the passage begins at measure #aie 77a7 in the figure7 with the phrase used to introduce the second theme1 as if it intended going on with the theme as before1 but instead there enters a long passage of half-notes1 7b71 in which the outline of the half-note phrase is preserved for a while1 after which the rhythm only is retained1 and the passage becomes a series of chords floating mysteriously1 and dimly outlined as in a cloud 77c7 in the figure74 ,the original motive crashes through 7measure #bbh7 for a moment1 the soft chords sound again1 and then the whole orchestra rushes rapidly to the end of the section4 ,the effect of this cessation of the rapid movement that has thus far animated the music is very dramatic1 and the startling interruption of its peaceful flow by the loud chords at measures #bbh-bca--;as if they were impatient to begin the turmoil again--gives the whole passage a peculiarly vivid effect4 ,this device is analogous to that employed in the novel when the author prepares his readers1 by a page or two of peaceful narrative1 for his most dramatic episode4 ,the significance of this passage is1 of course1 due to its connection with the introductory phrase from which it sprang1 but it should be noted that the whole passage is a re-creation from the original motive and not a restatement of it in another key4 ,and its position in the movement is exactly at the point where some relief is needed from what might otherwise be a too great insistence on the first theme1 and just before the beginning of the recapitulation1 where the first theme is to appear in its original form4 ,it will be found that such passages are usually placed in this position4 ,the themes in ,beethoven's finest works are not only hammered out1 as it were1 from the rough metal1 but we may say of them--as we cannot say of those of ,haydn's and ,mozart's--that they are pregnant with possibilities which are not fully realized until the composition is finished4 ,with ,haydn and ,mozart the development section is usually a string of different versions of the original theme--as is the latter's ,g-minor symphony1 first and last movements4 ,with ,beethoven the development section reveals what was latent in the original theme1 but what had not been before realized4 ,in the development section of the ,fifth ,symphony he not only convinces us by his logic1 but overpowers us by the sweep of his eloquence4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,significance ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,movement ,,of ,,the ,,fifth ,,symphony4 ,it is impossible to express in words the significance of this music1 but it runs almost the complete gamut of human feeling4 ,the opening theme is so incisive and has such a tremendous energy that it takes us into a new world4 ,if we compare it with ,mozart's first movement themes we realize at once that it deals with things that music had never attempted to express before4 ,the second theme is not by any means a fine melody1 being made up of a constantly reiterated phrase1 but it has an appealing beauty of its own that we would not exchange for perfection4 ,occasionally the terrible asserts itself1 as in those ominous chords with empty fifths in the coda 7measures #dha-dhb71 while the whole movement seems to have been struck off at white heat4 ,that this was not the case1 however1 but that on the contrary even the first theme itself took its present shape only after a laborious effort of the composer's mind1 we know from the evidence of his sketch-book4 ,the theme first appears there in the following form4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,liv4 ,this commonplace theme evidently lay generating in ,beethoven's mind for a long period4 ,various sketches on it appear from time to time1 and it was only after much thought that it finally emerged in its permanent form4 ,this was always his method of composition4 ,unlike ,mozart1 who wrote music with the utmost fluency and rapidity1 ,beethoven rewrote his themes many times before they satisfied him1 and the process caused him actual mental agony4 ,with him composing was a struggle1 a fight2 he stamped1 and sang1 and shouted over the composition of some of his larger works1 and finally emerged from his solitude exhausted4 ,there is no doubt but that ,beethoven was affected by the prevailing social unrest of his time--by the revolutionary ideas that were then stirring4 ,although we cannot attempt to translate into words the significance of the fifth symphony1 there is no mistaking its language as that of independence and freedom from conventional shackles4 ,writing in a period of revolution1 says ,mr4 ,hadow1#dd himself an ardent revolutionary1 he broke in upon the politeness of the ,austrian court with an eloquence as tempestuous as that of ,mirabeau or ,danton4 ,so that1 looking at his music as a whole1 we are not only struck by its significance1 but by the close relation in which it stands to the life of ,beethoven's period4 ,never before had music been so untrammeled1 so free4 ,the medium itself--harmony1 melody1 rhythm--had become more plastic1 and the old incubus of tradition had been thrown off4 ,not only that1 but the various elements in composition were fused for the first time in ,beethoven's music4 ,polyphony takes its place as a means and not an end2 pure melody--even folk-melody--becomes a part of the larger scheme in which its beauty is set off against contrasting elements--and is thereby enhanced2 rhythm becomes a means of expression in itself1 and not merely a vehicle2 harmony is made an important part of the general design1 and its latent possibilities as a means of expression are realized4 ,all these threads were gathered together by ,beethoven1 and woven into the complex fabric of his music4 ,great men are usually born at just the right moment1 and ,beethoven was no exception to the rule2 for he found the art at just the point where a master spirit was needed to take its various elements and fuse them4 ,under his hands all the inessential parts dropped away1 and the essentials were placed in such relation to each other that a completely organic work of art resulted4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading4 ,oxford ,history ,vol4 ,,iii3 ,chapters ,x and ,,xi4 ,grove's ,beethoven and ,his ,nine ,symphonies4 ,grove's ,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians3 articles ,beethoven1 ,symphony1 and ,form4 ,mason's ,beethoven and ,his ,forerunners1 ,chapters ,,vii1 ,,viii1 and ,,ix4 ,,footnotes3 #ci ,an examination of any one of the best folk-songs quoted in ,chapter ,,ii1 or the melodies of ,bach1 ,handel1 ,haydn or ,mozart quoted in succeeding chapters1 will show how important an element of melody is this curve or outline4 #dj ,the themes in the minuet and finale of ,haydn's ,emperor quartet have a slight similarity of contour4 #da ,published for piano1 two or four hands1 by ,peters1 ,leipzig4 ,for convenience of reference1 number all measures and parts of measures consecutively4 #db ,the presence of measure #chi--which is silent--has been a subject of discussion among musicians3 it is sometimes omitted in performance4 #dc ,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapter ,,xii4 #dd ,oxford ,history of ,music4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,beethoven--,,iii4 ,i4 ,,the ,,slow ,,movement ,,before ,,beethoven4 ,the slow movements of the sonatas and symphonies of ,haydn and ,mozart were essentially lyric pieces in which the composer relied for his effect on the beauty of his melodies4 ,these melodies1 usually two in number1 were varied by being presented in different keys and by being ornamented with passing-notes1 scale passages1 trills1 etc4 ,each section was clearly separated from the others by cadence chords1 so that the total effect was of a series of separate divisions1 each1 as it were1 independent and complete in itself4 ,there are1 of course1 exceptions to this method of procedure1 particularly in the string quartets of ,haydn and ,mozart1 which are more highly developed than is usual in their piano sonatas1 but as a general rule this was their way of treating slow movements4 ,this lyric1 sectional form of slow movement served as a foil to the more involved first movement4 ,the lovely1 serene melodies were not disturbed by passion1 nor sacrificed for picturesque effect of any kind4 ,in the string quartets and symphonies they were enlivened by a certain amount of polyphony 7see ,chapter ,x71 and in the piano sonatas they occasionally departed from the simple regular form1 but they seldom dealt with tragedy and seldom presented any evidence of that idiosyncrasy and intense individuality that marks the slow movement of later times4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,slow ,,movements ,,of ,,beethoven',s ,,early ,,symphonies4 ,the early sonatas and symphonies of ,beethoven are largely constructed on the old model4 ,the first piano sonata1 referred to in ,chapter ,,xii1 has a sectional slow movement that might almost have been written by ,mozart4 ,the slow movement of the first symphony is simplicity itself1 both in form and content2 and even the adagio of the ,pathtique ,sonata 7see ,chapter ,,xi7 is a straightforward sectional piece with a lyric melody presented several times1 with varying accompaniment1 and with the usual contrasting middle section4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,music3 score 7c7 ,music3 score 7d7 ,music3 score 7e7 ,music3 score 7f7 ,music3 score 7g7 ,,figure ,,lv4 ,in ,figure ,,lv is shown the first theme of the andante of the first symphony1 7a7 themes from the larghetto of the second symphony1 7b7 and 7e7 and portions of the middle section of the same 7c71 7d71 7f71 and 7g74 ,each of these themes is distinctly strophic2 each has perfect phrase balance1 charm of contour or outline1 and simplicity of harmonization4 ,not so highly organized as the theme from the ,pathtique ,sonata 7see ,chapter ,,xi1 ,figure ,,xlvii7 they resemble the themes of the older masters1 but bear1 nevertheless1 some evidence of the individuality that so fully characterizes ,beethoven's later music4 ,but in the treatment of the theme from the second symphony that individuality is clearly manifested4 ,instead of a mere restatement varied by new harmonization or by elaboration of the theme itself1 there is a free play of fancy1 one or two short motives from the first theme being tossed about in the orchestra from one instrument to another in delightful by-play4 ,all sorts of devices are resorted to to keep the interest of the listener at its height4 ,the chief motive 7,figure ,,lv1 7b77 passes from calm serenity to playfulness1 and again to splendid sonorous grandeur2 a phrase from this same motive becomes the subject of an almost crabbed discussion 7,figure ,,lv1 7d771 while the charming secondary theme 7,figure ,,lv1 7e771 whose whimsical gayety animates the early part of the movement1 is given a plaintive quality by a change to minor 7,figure ,,lv1 7f77 and the touching contrapuntal phrases that are set against it4 ,a little later a single phrase from the same theme becomes the subject of a bit of vigorous by-play between the different instruments 7,figure ,,lv1 7g774 ,thus the slow movement1 even in ,beethoven's early works1 becomes vivified by his intense individuality4 ,in his more mature compositions in this form the whole body of the music pulsates with life--no single part stagnates4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #ba4 ,beethoven3 ,the ,fifth ,symphony1 ,slow movement4 ,we have already pointed out in ,chapter ,x that the slow movement is usually written in some sectional form4 ,beethoven followed the old models in this respect in the majority of his slow movements1 but his enrichment of the content of the music and his skill in avoiding conventional endings and other platitudes makes his pieces less rigid in effect than those of ,haydn and ,mozart4 ,he was particularly fond of leaving his listeners until the last moment in doubt of the ultimate conclusion of a passage1 leading them away from his point and coming back to it by an unexpected modulation or turn of phrase2 he frequently ends the section of a movement with one or two brusque chords suddenly inserted after a passage full of sentiment4 ,in short1 his sectional movements are less obvious in design1 and more flowing and continuous1 than was the custom before his day4 ,the andante of the ,fifth ,symphony is in free variation form1 the divisions--unlike those in the variations referred to in ,chapter ,,vii--not being clearly marked nor regular in form4 ,the theme has two parts1 but ,beethoven skillfully avoids that prolixity sometimes evident in ,haydn's ,andante with ,variations2 nor does he lengthen his two themes to such an extent as to make them a little doubtful as proper subjects for variation treatment1 as did ,haydn4 ,furthermore1 although the second part of ,beethoven's theme is a better subject than ,haydn's ,trio theme1 being more terse and more characteristic1 ,beethoven presents it in nearly its original form each time it appears1 making the first and more important subject serve as the basis of his variations4 ,such changes as do occur in the second theme will be noted later4 ,the complete movement may be tabulated as follows3 ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,andante ,,of ,,the ,,fifth ,,symphony4#de ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,sections4 ,themes4 ,measures4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #a4 ,theme ,i in ,a-flat major #a-bc ,theme ,,ii in ,a-flat and ,c-major #bc-ej ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #b4 ,first variation of theme ,i1 ,a-flat major #ej-gb ,second part of theme ,i as before but with more elaborate accompaniment #gb-ii ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #c4 ,second variation of theme ,i1 ,a-flat major 7theme given out three times3 cellos1 #ii-abd violins and basses7 ,episode1 founded on initial motive from theme ,i #abd-adh ,theme ,,ii in ,c-major 7first two phrases lengthened7 #adh-aeh ,episode1 founded on motive from theme ,i #aeh-afg ,theme ,i in ,a-flat minor #afg-agg ,transition passage leading to return of theme ,i #agg-ahf ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #d4 ,theme ,i1 ,a-flat major #ahf-bjf ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #e4 ,coda #bjf-bdh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,the foregoing table may be compared with that of the ,haydn variations in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,while the general scheme is the same--for the two themes are in each case presented several times--the ,beethoven variations are much more concise1 and at the same time much more fully expressive and illustrative of the original theme4 ,haydn's variations are nave2 ,beethoven's are conscious4 ,beethoven presents his themes from widely different points of view2 ,haydn presents charmingly elaborate versions of the same melodies4 ,composers did not for a long while1 says ,parry1#df find out the device of making the same tune or 'theme' appear in different lights1 so as to make studies of different aspects of the same story under changing conditions1 as in ,robert ,browning's ,ring and the ,book4 ,these entirely distinct presentations of the original idea give to this movement an especial charm1 placing it far above any of ,haydn's or ,mozart's variations4 ,,iii4 ,,individuality ,,of ,,the ,,andante ,,of ,,the ,,fifth ,,symphony4 ,the peculiar charm of this andante lies not so much in its melodies1 beautiful as they are1 as in the individuality of their treatment4 ,the first version of the theme as it appears in ,beethoven's sketch-book is shown in ,figure ,,lvi 7a71 and at 7b7 is given the first part of the completed theme4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,,figure ,,lvi4 ,it will be observed that the original idea was somewhat mechanical in its rhythm1 and lacked that variety imparted to the completed theme by the tied note at the beginning of measure #c and at the middle of measure #e4 ,beethoven's original intention must have been quite at variance in other ways with what he finally evolved1 for he marks his first sketch1 ,andante quasi ,minuetto1 i4 e4 in the style of the minuet1 and of this there is left no evidence whatever4 ,each variation of this theme is quite distinct from the original1 particularly in its mood4 ,while the original theme has a calm and even pensive beauty1 full of sentiment1 the two variations of it are less serious and1 at times1 verge on the humorous and playful 7as at measure #ajh71 or on the grotesque 7as at measure #aae74 ,but in the episodes that occur between the variations--in the transitions or links between the different parts--,beethoven's fancy has fullest play4 ,he ranges all the way from comedy to tragedy1 from delicate gaiety to lumbering1 ,brobdingnagian heaviness4 ,simple raillery seizes him when1 at measure #afj1 he allows the violin to take up the familiar motive and toss it to the basses and take it back again1 or when he amuses himself with weaving thirds up and down 7#acd71 crossing and recrossing1 spinning out the little three-note motive into a fine web1 which is finally torn apart as the whole orchestra thunders out the secondary theme 7#adh74 ,these two passages 7portions of which are shown in ,figure ,,lvii7 in their freedom from restraint and their expression of the composer's idiosyncrasies1 are quite beyond what had ever been attempted before4 ,we see working here a mind full of resource and capable of sounding the greatest depths of the subject4 ,music3 score ,music3 score ,,figure ,,lvii4 ,and this highly imaginative method of treating the transitions or connecting passages is one of the fundamental differences between the variations of ,haydn and ,mozart and those of ,beethoven ,a priori1#dg says ,mr4 ,hadow1 it would be easy to conjecture that the variation form is unsatisfactory4 ,it affords little scope for structural organization1 little for episode or adventure1 it seems to have no higher aim than that of telling the same story in the largest possible number of different words4 ,indeed1 composers before ,beethoven are often in evident straits to maintain its interest4 ,an examination of any set of variations by an inferior composer will reveal just the defects ,mr4 ,hadow refers to4 ,but ,beethoven not only tells the story in quite different words1 but finds opportunity for all sorts of interesting episodes and adventures1 so that the structural weakness of the form is quite lost sight of4 ,with him the connecting passages skillfully avoid too great stress on pure melody--with which the listeners would otherwise be surfeited--and1 at the same time1 they never degenerate into unmeaning passages of empty chords and scales such as often occurred in the music of ,haydn and ,mozart4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,harmonic ,,plan4 ,the recurrence in the same key of the theme in the variation form gives to it a certain monotony of harmonization unless the episodes are treated with great harmonic freedom4 ,as was pointed out in ,chapter ,,ii1 harmony sometimes becomes an important element of structure1 particularly in the rondo and variation forms1 and in ,haydn's and ,mozart's variations the harmonic plan is not sufficiently varied to provide this much needed contrast4 ,beethoven1 however1 always much more free in the use of modulation than his predecessors1 imparts to these variations almost at the outset great variety of key1 and in all his episodes ranges freely about1 unhampered by limitations4 ,in measure #bh1 for example1 he suddenly starts towards the key of ,b-flat minor1 only to emerge a moment later in ,c-major4 ,the passage1 beginning at measure #ci1 not only provides that relief from too great insistence on melody which we have already referred to as characteristic of his episodes1 but its harmonies are purposely vague1 leaving us in doubt until the last moment as to their ultimate conclusion4 ,an interesting and beautiful effect is again produced1 at measures #afg-agg1 by the changes of key1 while the scale passages that follow introduce further harmonic variety4 ,at measure #bjf begins a passage that seems to intend the key of ,d-flat1 but again our expectations are not realized4 ,so that the total impression we receive from the harmony of this movement is of a more complete unity and variety than is produced by the themes themselves4 ,it must also be noted in general that this freedom of harmony is one of the signs of advancement in the art of music1 and that at the present time the combination of chords is much less restricted than was the case in ,beethoven's day4 ,and this steady advance has been as steadily opposed by theorists4 ,when we remember that ,monteverde 7#aefg-afdc7 was bitterly criticised for introducing in a chord the unprepared dominant seventh1 making thereby a dissonance almost as familiar to modern ears as is the simple major triad--we can easily realize how difficult it was for people in ,beethoven's time to understand his far-reaching modulations4 ,the steady progress is further illustrated by ,wagner's music-dramas1 which were considered when they first appeared as almost cacophonous in their harmonization1 but which now seem perfectly simple and normal4 ,v4 ,,the ,,universality ,,of ,,beethoven',s ,,genius4 ,a piece of music like this is a human document4 ,it embraces so many phases of human feeling1 and it places them all1 as it were1 in such proper focus that we feel in listening to it as though we had come in contact with elemental human experience4 ,this music is not unapproachably grand2 we hear in it echoes of our own strivings1 hopes1 and despairs4 ,and it is this sense of proportion1 this wideness of vision1 that makes ,beethoven's music so universal4 ,for in the last analysis the effect of any work of art depends on the artist's sense of values2 a fine situation in a novel is all the finer for being set against a proper background2 a tragedy must have moments of relief2 beauty alone1 whether in a painting or a piece of music1 soon palls upon us2 in the greatest works of art this sense of values--this feeling for proportion--is always present to save the situation 7whatever it may be7 from the deadly sin of being uninteresting4 ,beethoven continually gives evidence of his mastery over this important element in composition4 ,the beauty of his melodies never palls4 ,before that point is reached there is some sudden change of feeling1 some unexpected turn of melody or modulation1 some brusque expression that shocks us out of our dream4 ,he is particularly fond of the latter device1 and frequently lulls us into a fancied quiet only to awaken us abruptly when we least expect it4 ,with him everything has its proportionate value1 so that we get a clearly defined impression of the whole work1 just as in a fine novel the values are so carefully preserved that we feel the locality of every incident1 and come to know the characters as we know our own friends4 ,one who is thoroughly familiar with the andante of the ,fifth ,symphony feels this quality as predominant4 ,we are not enraptured by the theme itself1 as we are by that of ,mozart's andante from the string quartet 7referred to in ,chapter ,x71 but we feel the charm of incident and by-play1 we are just as much interested in the connecting passages as we are in any other part of the piece2 and we think of it all as we do of a finely written play1 where one incident hangs on another1 and nothing happens that does not bear on the plot4 ,thus1 judging music from the standpoint of universal human feeling1 ,beethoven reaches the highest point in its development4 ,no other composer1 before or since1 has equalled him in this particular1 and the more we study him the more we find in him4 ,repeated hearings do not dim the luster of his genius1 nor have the great composers who have followed him had as broad a survey of human life as he possessed4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,collateral ,,reading4 ,hadow3 ,oxford ,history1 ,vol4 ,v4 ,parry3 ,studies of ,great ,composers4 ,mason3 ,beethoven and ,his ,forerunners1 ,chapters ,,vii1 ,,viii1 and ,,ix4 ,,footnotes3 #de ,number the measures and parts of measures consecutively from beginning to end--making #bdh measures in all4 #df ,oxford ,history1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #he4 #dg ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #bgb4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,beethoven--,,iv4 ,i4 ,,beethoven',s ,,humor4 ,one of ,beethoven's most prominent characteristics1 without a special consideration of which no account of him would be at all complete1 was his humor4 ,in the three foregoing chapters we have had passing glimpses of it3 we have noted his distaste for the obvious1 the trite1 the conventional1 and his fondness for breaking in on the tranquillity of his audience1 sometimes in danger of lapsing into inattentive dullness1 with all manner of shocks and surprises--clashing chords in the midst of soft passages1 unexpected modulations to distant keys1 piquant interruptions of rhythm1 long holds1 sudden spasms of wild speed4 ,all such tricks were dear to him as means of avoiding the monotony which is the one unpardonable sin of an artist1 and of attaining constant novelty and a kaleidoscopic diversity of effect4 ,none of his predecessors1 and perhaps none of his successors1 carried to such lengths as he did this peculiar kind of musical humor4 ,it is one of the most essentially ,beethovenish of all his qualities4 ,the particular form of movement in which his humor attained its freest scope 7though it is hardly ever entirely absent in anything that he wrote7 was the minuet of his earlier1 and the scherzo of his later sonatas and symphonies4 ,the minuet of ,haydn and ,mozart1 which we have discussed in ,chapter ,,vii1 though not entirely lacking in the element of whim and perversity which gives rise to humor1 was primarily stately1 formal1 and suave4 ,when we listen to a minuet of this old school1 our mind's eye conjures up the picture of a group of eighteenth century dames and cavaliers1 hoop-skirted and bewigged1 gravely going through the set evolutions of their dance with unfailing dignity and courtly grace4 ,from such a scene a ,beethoven scherzo whisks us in a moment to some merry gathering of peasants1 where all is wild conviviality1 boisterous rejoicing1 and unrestrained high spirits4 ,doubtless this contrast was in some measure due1 as ,sir ,george ,grove points out in an interesting passage1 to the differences of the social conditions under which the composers lived4 ,the musicians of the eighteenth century1 he says1 were too commonly the domestic servants of archbishops and princes1 wore powder and pigtails1 and swords1 and court dresses1 and gold lace1 dined at the servants' table1 and could be discharged at a moment's notice like ordinary lackeys4 ,being thus forced to regulate their conduct by etiquette1 they could not suddenly change all their habits when they came to make their music1 or give their thoughts and feelings the free and natural vent which they would have had1 but for the habits engendered by the perpetual curb and restraint of their social position4 ,but ,beethoven had set such social rules and restrictions at naught4 ,it was his nature1 one of the most characteristic things in him1 to be free and unrestrained4 ,almost with his first appearance in ,vienna he behaved as the equal of everyone he met1 and after he had begun to feel his own way his music is constantly showing the independence of his mind4#dh ,whatever the causes of this mental independence of ,beethoven1 whatever part of it was due to changed social conditions1 and what to his purely personal character1 there is ample testimony to its existence in his biography4 ,the man who could throw a badly cooked stew at the head of the waiter1 who could in a fit of temper publicly shake his fist under the window of one of his best friends and patrons1 who could haughtily refuse to make the ordinary salutations to his emperor and empress on a chance meeting1 lest he appear servile1 and who when he was asked whether he were of noble blood answered proudly that his nobility lay in his head and in his heart1 was not likely to pay exaggerated respect to traditions1 whether in life or in art4 ,indeed1 perhaps the deepest secret of his greatness was that while1 as his sketch-books signally prove1 he spared no pains or labor to conform his work to those great natural laws which are above all individual wills1 he paid not the slightest respect to mere rules and conventions1 and held especially in contempt the arbitrary codes of pedants and pedagogues4 ,it is not allowed8 he inquired quizzically1 when some such dogmatist objected to a passage he had written3 ,very well1 then1 ,i allow it4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,,figure ,,lviii4 ,little wonder is it1 then1 that such a daring spirit1 such a hater of the timid and the droning1 such a passionate lover of the individual1 the striking1 the bizarre1 and even the grotesque1 found a congenial task in infusing humor and irresponsibility into the classic minuet4 ,this form1 already the lightest part of the sonata and symphony1 already consecrated to the expression of the composer's gayest and most graceful thoughts1 needed only to be made plastic enough to include fantasy and banter in order to give free scope to ,beethoven's most frolicsome moods4 ,to the task of thus aerating the symphonic minuet he applied himself very early4 ,take1 as an instance1 the minuet of the very first piano sonata1 opus #b1 number #a4 ,as a whole it breathes the polite graciousness of ,mozart4 ,the first cadence1 especially1 recalls the sweetly formal manner of the old school4 7,see ,figure ,,lviii 7a747 ,yet a moment later ,beethoven begins to play with this very cadence in true scherzo fashion1 like a cat with a mouse1 twice pawing it gently1 so to speak1 and then pouncing on it with fury3 77b7 in the same figure47 ,in the other two sonatas bearing the same opus number he adopts the name scherzo--which is an ,italian word meaning joke or jest--and with it introduces still more of the playful spirit2 and as the sonatas progress we find this tendency growing1 until in opus #bf and opus #bh we have full-fledged1 though rather brief1 examples of the real ,beethoven scherzo4 ,let us look at these more carefully4 ,,ii4 ,,scherzos ,,from ,,beethoven',s ,,sonatas4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #bb4a ,beethoven3 ,scherzo#di from the ,twelfth ,sonata1 opus #bf4 ,we note first of all that though the time-signature is three-four1 as in the old minuet1 the pace is much more rapid--allegro molto--so that a sense of bustle and restless activity is substituted for the well-bred deliberateness of the minuet4 ,this acceleration of time is observable in most of the scherzos4 ,again1 the theme 7measures #a-ag7 is of most energetic character1 which is even further intensified1 on its re-entrance in the bass at measure #df1 by a rushing accompaniment in eighth-notes4 ,a characteristic passage precedes this return of the theme4 ,to make the excitement more welcome when it comes ,beethoven has one of his lulls for sixteen measures 7#ca-df71 during which the motion dies out and all seems to stagnate for a moment4 ,this sort of quiescence1 in which one takes breath for a new access of energy1 is always consummately managed by ,beethoven1 who has made the lull a famous device4 ,the trio calls for no particular comment4 ,it is in binary form1 while the scherzo itself is ternary4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #bc4 ,beethoven3 ,scherzo from the ,fifteenth ,sonata1 opus #bh4 ,the tempo is again brisk--allegro vivace4 ,the theme is exceedingly whimsical3 long notes jumping down through four octaves--first single notes1 then thirds1 then sixths--followed each time by a quaint little cadence in which the staccato touch is prominent4 ,the section of contrast after the double-bar 7measures #cc-dh7 takes the form of a sequence1 in which the left hand part carries the original theme4 ,in the return of the theme we find one of those violent dynamic contrasts so beloved by ,beethoven1 the theme in measures #di-ec being sounded in a mild piano and then1 without warning1 in measures #eh-fa1 pealed forth fortissimo in large chords4 ,the trio is again inconspicuous1 save for its charming harmonization4 ,these two scherzos give a good idea of how ,beethoven gives play to his whimsicality in his piano sonatas1#ej but to get the ,beethoven scherzo at its highest power we must go to the symphonies4 ,there he has all the wondrous potentialities of instrumental coloring to fire his imagination1 and a canvas broad enough to afford scope for endless ingenuity4 ,it is a fascinating study to trace out how he gradually advanced in the power to utilize all these possibilities4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,scherzos ,,of ,,beethoven',s ,,symphonies4 ,the third movement of the first symphony1 though called ,minuetto1 is marked allegro molto e vivace1 and with its spirited theme1 fascinating harmonies1 and striking rhythms1 is essentially a scherzo4 ,perhaps the most interesting single feature of it is the completely ,beethovenish means adopted for getting back to the theme and the home key of ,c-major after the section of contrast4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,lix4 ,the passage is shown in ,figure ,,lix1 and merits careful study4 ,from ,d-flat major1 a key far distant from ,c1 return is made by imperceptible degrees4 ,at the same time there is a crescendo of power1 until finally the theme breaks out vigorously in the home-key4 ,it will be noted that the brief phrases played by the left hand in this passage are made from the first two notes of the theme itself4 ,thus closely does ,beethoven stick to his text4 ,the forcible syncopated rhythms and dissonant harmonies near the end of this movement also deserve notice4 ,they give it a rugged character strangely at variance with its title of minuet4 ,in the second symphony the name scherzo is adopted1 and the phials of mirth are freely opened4 ,sudden alternations of loud and soft are especially conspicuous1 as will be seen by referring to the theme1 quoted in 7a7 in ,figure ,,lx4 ,each new measure1 here1 brings something unexpected and deliciously piquant4 ,violent shifts of accent on to ordinarily unimportant parts of the measure will be noticed in the twenty-first and twenty-fifth measures1 affording relief from what might without them become monotonous4 ,a little later1 after the reappearance of the theme1 ,beethoven indulges in one of those passages which puzzle us and pique our curiosity 7,figure ,,lx 7b747 ,where is he going8 we ask ourselves1 what will he do next8 ,but after a few moments' suspense1 in which the music seems to be spinning about in an eddy1 so to speak1 it falls into the current again1 and all goes cheerfully to the end4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,,figure ,,lx4 ,in the trio1 the student should note the whimsicality of the long hold on an ,f-sharp through six entire measures1 pianissimo1 followed by a sudden loud chord on ,a4 ,indeed1 the prankishness of the entire movement is inexhaustible4 ,we do not reach the full stature of the ,beethoven scherzo1 however1 until we get to that of the third or ,eroica symphony4 ,in this wonderful movement we have a perfect masterpiece of irresistible1 tireless1 kaleidoscopic humor1 a great epic of irresponsibility which must be ranked with such unique expressions of the humorous spirit in literature as ,shakespeare's ,falstaff plays1 ,sterne's ,sentimental ,journey1 or ,stevenson's ,new ,arabian ,nights4 ,well may ,sir ,george ,grove say of it1 that it is perhaps the most ,beethovenish of all his compositions1 and that in it the tragedy and comedy of life are startlingly combined4 ,it begins with a stealthy1 soft succession of staccato chords in the strings1 uniformly pianissimo and yet most insistent in rhythm4 ,against this is presently outlined the most piquant little theme by the oboe 77a7 in ,figure ,,lxi72 the chords go on again1 and then sounds above them once more this incisive little theme4 ,in the contrast section after the double-bar comes first more playing with the rapid soft chords1 and then a charming bit of imitation of the theme from one voice to another 77b7 in ,figure ,,lxi74 ,the note ,d is finally reached in this way1 and then ,beethoven1 instead of making some trite and uninteresting modulation back to ,e-flat1 whither he wishes to go in order to begin his restatement1 simply goes on sounding ,d for ten measures1 piano1 and then without warning drops down to ,b-flat1 pianissimo1 for four measures1 and therewith proceeds with his theme again4 ,the mystery and charm of this return to key are indescribable2 the persistent pianissimo adds much to its extraordinary effectiveness4 ,music3 score 7a7 ,music3 score 7b7 ,music3 score 7c7 ,music3 score 7d7 ,,figure ,,lxi4 ,now1 however1 with the return of the theme1 we at last get a good ear-filling fortissimo1 the whole orchestra taking part in a vigorous game of musical tag 7the theme made into a canon--7c7 in ,figure ,,lxi74 ,a fine climax is reached in a passage of bold leaping melody in the strings1 in which the accents are dramatically placed on the second instead of the first beats of the measures1 followed and completed by staccato chords on the wood-wind instruments 77d7 in ,figure ,,lxi74 ,this is enormously vigorous1 and makes a fitting culmination for this first part of the movement1 besides giving an opportunity for still greater effect later1 as we shall see in a moment4 ,after it1 a cadence is soon reached1 though not before the strings and wood-wind instruments have had a brief whimsical dialogue on the subject of the staccato chords4 ,so far all is bantering merriment1 iridescent color1 and energetic high spirits4 ,but in the trio1 one of the most wonderful of all ,beethoven's strokes of genius1 the mood changes1 and while the quick three-four measure is still felt underneath1 the long notes1 and the deep mellow tones of the horns1 give an almost tragic quality to the music4 ,the theme1 given out by three horns alone1 with a brief cadence by the strings1 does not reach its full stature until its recurrence near the end of the trio4 ,in its second phrase the lowest horn reaches1 and holds for two measures1 a ,d-flat which is of almost unearthly solemnity of effect4 ,this passage repays careful study1 so wonderfully does it use the simplest means to gain the highest beauty4 ,sir ,george ,grove well says of it3 ,if ever horns talked like flesh and blood1 they do it here4 ,the scherzo1 on its return1 goes on much as at first4 ,yet ,beethoven still has one last shot in reserve1 as we suggested a moment back4 ,when he comes to that splendidly proud passage of descending leaps in the strings 7,figure ,,lxi1 d471 instead of repeating it1 as he did at first1 in the same rhythm1 he suddenly transforms it into even half notes1 which crash downwards like an avalanche1 quite irresistible4 7,see ,figure ,,lxii47 ,the effect is again indescribable in words2 its gigantesque vigor is of a kind to be found nowhere but in ,beethoven1 and in him only in his inspired moments4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,lxii4 ,in this wonderful movement the ,beethoven scherzo first reaches its full stature4 ,it may be questioned whether he ever achieved anything finer4 ,yet in its own way the scherzo of the ,fifth ,symphony#ea is equally original and characteristic1 and as we have already analyzed two movements of that symphony we will now make a detailed analysis of this movement too4 ,,example ,,for ,,analysis1 ,no4 #bd4 ,beethoven3 ,scherzo from the ,fifth ,symphony4 ,this scherzo is interlinked with the finale1 into which it is merged by a famous passage derived from the scherzo itself1 and leading up from the softest pianissimo to a grand outburst of the full orchestra4 ,we shall1 however1 end our analysis where this passage begins4 ,the complete scherzo1 therefore1 omitting this link-passage1 will have three hundred and thirty measures1 which should be numbered continuously for easy reference 7counting the first partial measure as one1 as well as the incomplete measures at the beginning of the trio74 ,the theme is of a very curious character1 certainly nothing like the usual bustling scherzo theme1 but on the contrary mysterious1 vague1 groping4 ,berlioz says of it3 ,it is as fascinating as the gaze of a mesmerizer4 ,after seventeen measures of this1 a more energetic1 rhythmic theme succeeds 7#bj-de7 given out by the horns1 fortissimo1 with rugged chords in accompaniment1 in which we recognize a new variant of that motive of three short notes and a long1 which was so prominent in the first movement 7see ,chapter ,,xii74 ,the remainder of the scherzo proper is worked up out of these two contrasting strains1 thus3 #df-ga1 from the first1 mysterious one2 #gb-ig1 from the second1 energetic one2 #ih-acc1 beginning softly in mystery with the first1 and later 7#aaf7 continuing with it a new1 more lively melody 7note how the phrase of measures #c and #d persists in the bass all through this part72 #acd-ada1 concluding cadence1 on the second strain4 ,the trio1 measures #adb to #bch1 is irresistibly ludicrous in the elephantine antics through which the unwieldy double-basses are put4 ,they announce 7#adb-adh7 a scrambling fugue theme1 which is answered--in imitation--several times at higher pitches 7measures #adh1 #aed1 #aef7 by the other and more agile stringed instruments4 ,a sonorous close is reached at the double bar4 ,then comes a most grotesque and amusing passage1 in which1 three several times1 these poor lumbering double basses hurl themselves upon the theme1 twice only to give up in despair after the first measure and pause as if for breath4 ,the effect of this brave attack and utter failure to keep up the pace is irresistibly comic4 ,but the third time proverbially never fails1 and in the measures following #afh they hold to their effort with bull-dog tenacity1 and succeed in reaching a safe haven in the ,g of measure #agc4 ,thereupon the theme enters once more above them1 and is once more carried through an exciting fugal chase1 the entrances1 which the student should trace out carefully1 occurring in measures #agf1 #ahj1 #ahb1 and #ahd1 each time a little higher up4 ,the cadence is reached in #bjj1 and the entire passage from the inept onslaughts of the basses is almost literally repeated 7#bjj-bbg71 except that now it becomes quieter and quieter1 and finally leads back to the mysterious scherzo theme 7#bci-beg74 ,this time the ruggedness of the second strain of the scherzo has all disappeared1 and it remains delicate1 almost ethereal1 through measures #beh to #ccj1 with which the scherzo proper ends4 ,as has been stated1 no complete pause is reached before the finale1 but instead of the cadence we have placed at the end1 there is a long passage leading over into the splendid march-like theme of the last movement4 ,how this passage is made out of the themes of the scherzo itself will be seen by referring to ,figure ,,lxiii4 ,music3 score ,,figure ,,lxiii4 ,with this scherzo from the ,fifth ,symphony we may take our farewell of ,beethoven for the present1 and also of the art in which he represents one of the great culminating points4 ,after him it seemed to musicians for a while as if the triumphs of organic musical structure could no further go1 and they turned their attention in other directions1 and sought for other kinds of interest4 ,but to follow them on these new paths is not a part of our present undertaking4 ,,iv4 ,,general ,,summary4 ,we have now followed the continuous and unbroken course of the development of music from the most primitive sounds grouped together in rude patterns by savages1 up to the symphonies of ,beethoven1 which must always remain among its most wonderful and perfect monuments4 ,we have seen how all music1 which has any beauty or interest1 is based on certain short characteristic groups of tones called motives1 and how these are made to take on variety1 without losing unity1 by being imitated1 transposed1 restated after contrast1 inverted1 augmented or diminished1 shifted in rhythm1 and otherwise manipulated4 ,we have examined simple cases of this treatment of musical ideas in representative folk-songs4 ,we have seen how the polyphonic style of ,bach1 in which these bits of melody occur everywhere throughout the tissue of the music1 arose and reached its perfection4 ,we have studied the simple dances which1 adopted by the musicians of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 were developed by them and combined in suites4 ,then1 proceeding to a higher stage of artistic evolution1 we have examined the various plans which composers devised for making longer pieces in which variety and unity were still able to coexist--such forms as the minuet1 the theme and variations1 the rondo1 and the sonata-form4 ,in conclusion1 we have analyzed representative examples of music composed in these typical forms during the great classical period of ,haydn1 ,mozart1 and ,beethoven4 ,yet all this study and analysis1 which may often have seemed to the reader uselessly detailed and dully scientific1 has been made with an ulterior aim in view1 and unless that aim has been in some degree attained1 our work has been futile indeed4 ,the great object of musical analysis must always be to concentrate the attention of the music-lover1 to focus his mind as well as his ears on the melodies1 and their developments1 which he hears1 and so eventually to increase his pleasure in music1 and to help him to substitute for that drowsy reverie1 relieved by nervous thrills1 an active1 joyful1 vigorous co-operation with composers1 through which alone he can truly appreciate their art4 ,that1 and that alone1 is the object of the analytic study of music4 ,for what shall it profit a man if he can tell a second theme from a transition-passage1 or a minuet from a set of variations1 if he has not meanwhile1 through this exercise1 got into vital contact with the music itself8 ,but that he can do1 no matter how great his natural sensibility to sound1 only by learning how to listen4 ,,footnotes3 #dh ,grove's ,beethoven and ,his ,nine ,symphonies1 page #ce4 #di ,for convenience of reference number the measures and partial measures consecutively4 ,there will be #fi in the scherzo proper1 and #ca in the trio4 #ej ,the student should also study the interesting scherzo of the ,eighteenth ,sonata1 which is not in minuet form but in regular sonata-form4 ,it is carried out with immense spirit4 #ea ,the ,fourth ,symphony has again1 like the ,first1 a minuet1 though a most active one4 ,,novello ,,co4',s ,music ,primers and ,educational ,series ,,edited ,,by ,,john ,,stainer and ,c4 ,,hubert ,h4 ,,parry ,a ,complete ,library in ,itself #a4 ,the ,pianoforte ,e4 ,pauer #a4jj #b4 ,the ,rudiments of ,music ,w4 ,h4 ,cummings 4#ej #c4 ,the ,organ ,j4 ,stainer #a4jj #d4 ,the ,harmonium ,king ,hall #a4jj #e4 ,singing 7,paper boards1 #b4ej7 ,a4 ,randegger #b4jj #f4 ,speech in ,song 7,singer's ,pronouncing ,primer7 ,a4 ,j4 ,ellis1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 #a4jj #g4 ,musical ,forms ,e4 ,pauer 4#ge #h4 ,harmony ,j4 ,stainer 4#ge #i4 ,counterpoint ,j4 ,f4 ,bridge 4#ge #aj4 ,fugue ,james ,higgs #a4jj #aa4 ,scientific ,basis of ,music ,w4 ,h4 ,stone 4#ej #ab4 ,double ,counterpoint ,j4 ,f4 ,bridge #a4jj #ac4 ,church ,choir ,training ,rev4 ,j4 ,troutbeck 4#ej #ad4 ,plain ,song ,rev4 ,t4 ,helmore #a4jj #ae4 ,instrumentation ,e4 ,prout 4#ge #af4 ,the ,elements of the ,beautiful in ,music ,e4 ,pauer 4#ej #ag4 ,the ,violin ,berthold ,tours 4#ge #ah4 ,tonic ,sol-fa ,j4 ,curwen 4#ej #ai4 ,lancashire ,sol-fa ,james ,greenwood 4#ej #bj4 ,composition ,j4 ,stainer #a4jj #ba4 ,musical ,terms ,stainer and ,barrett 4#ej #bb4 ,the ,violoncello ,jules de ,swert #a4jj #bc4 ,two-part ,exercise 7#cif7 ,james ,greenwood 4#ej #bd4 ,double ,scales ,franklin ,taylor 4#ej #be4 ,musical ,expression ,mathias ,lussy #a4ej #bf4 ,solfeggi 7,paper boards1 #b4ej7 ,florence ,marshall #b4jj #bg4 ,organ ,accompaniment ,j4 ,f4 ,bridge #a4jj #bh4 ,the ,cornet ,h4 ,brett #a4jj #bi4 ,musical ,dictation4 ,part ,i4 ,dr4 ,ritter 4#ej #cj4 ,musical ,dictation4 ,part ,,ii4 ,dr4 ,ritter #a4jj #ca4 ,modulation ,james ,higgs #a4jj #cb4 ,double ,bass ,a4 ,c4 ,white #a4ej #cb;,a4 ,appendix to ,double ,bass ,a4 ,c4 ,white #a4ej #cc4 ,extemporization ,f4 ,j4 ,sawyer #a4jj #cd4 ,analysis of ,form ,h4 ,a4 ,harding #a4jj #ce4 #ejj ,fugue ,subjects and ,answers ,a4 ,w4 ,marchant #a4ej 7,paper boards1 #c4jj7 #cf4 ,hand ,gymnastics ,t4 ,ridley ,prentice 4#ge #cg4 ,musical ,ornamentation4 ,part ,i4 ,e4 ,dannreuther #b4ej #cg;,a4 ,musical ,ornamentation4 ,part ,,ii4 7,paper boards1 #c4jj7 ,e4 ,dannreuther #b4ej #ch4 ,transposition ,j4 ,warriner #a4jj #ci4 ,the ,art of ,training ,choir ,boys ,g4 ,c4 ,martin #a4ej #ci;,a4 ,double4 7,exercises only7 ,g4 ,c4 ,martin 4#ej #dj4 ,biographical ,dictionary of ,musicians ,w4 ,h4 ,cummings #a4jj #da4 ,examples in ,strict ,counterpoint4 ,part ,i4 ,gordon ,saunders #a4ej #da;,a4 ,examples in ,strict ,counterpoint4 ,part ,,ii4 ,gordon ,saunders #a4ej #db4 ,summary of ,musical ,history ,c4 ,h4 ,h4 ,parry #a4jj #dc4 ,musical ,gestures ,j4 ,f4 ,bridge #a4jj #dc;,a4 ,rudiments in ,rhyme ,j4 ,f4 ,bridge 4#ce #dd4 ,basses and ,melodies ,ralph ,dunstan #a4be #de4 ,first ,steps at the ,pianoforte4 ,francesco ,berger #a4be #df4 ,a ,dictionary of ,pianists and ,composers for the ,pianoforte ,e4 ,pauer #a4jj #dg4 ,organ ,pedal ,technique4 ,part ,i4 ,b4 ,w4 ,horner #a4jj #dg;,a4 ,organ ,pedal ,technique4 ,part ,,ii4 ,b4 ,w4 ,horner #a4jj #dh4 ,twelve ,trios by ,albrechtsberger ,a4 ,w4 ,marchant 4#ge #di4 ,fifty ,three-part ,studies ,j4 ,e4 ,vernham 4#ge #ej4 ,choral ,society ,vocalisation ,j4 ,stainer #a4jj #ej;,a4 ,choral ,society1 the ,exercises arranged and adapted for ,female ,voices ,a4 ,w4 ,marchant 4#ge #ea4 ,two-part ,solfeggi ,james ,higgs 4#ej #eb4 ,short ,history of the ,pianoforte ,a4 ,j4 ,hipkins #a4be #ec4 ,scales and ,arpeggios ,franklin ,taylor #a4jj #ed4 ,sonata-,form ,w4 ,h4 ,hadow #a4be #ee4 ,a ,dictionary of ,violin ,makers ,c4 ,stainer #a4be #ef4 ,the ,forty-eight ,preludes and ,fugues of ,j4 ,s4 ,bach 7or in #d parts1 #ej cents each7 ,f4 ,iliffe #a4ej #eg4 ,appendix to ,analysis of ,form ,h4 ,a4 ,harding 4#be #eh4 ,harmonization of ,melodies ,j4 ,e4 ,vernham 4#ej #ei4 ,braille ,music ,notation 7,boards7 ,e4 ,watson #c4ge #fj4 ,five-part ,harmony ,f4 ,e4 ,gladstone #a4jj #fa4 ,the ,viola ,berthold ,tours #a4jj #fb4 ,harmonics and ,resultants ,c4 ,e4 ,lowe 4#ej #fc4 ,breathing for ,voice ,production 7,cloth7 ,h4 ,h4 ,hulbert #a4jj #fd4 ,the ,choir-boy's ,elements of ,music ,g4 ,j4 ,bennett 4#ej #fe4 ,first ,steps for the ,violin ,e4 ,kreuz 4#ge #fe;,a4 ,first ,steps for the ,violin1 ,part ,,ii4 ,the pieces for ,violin1 with ,pianoforte accompaniment ,e4 ,kreuz #a4be #ff4 ,score-,reading ,exercises ,emily ,r4 ,daymond 4#ge #ff;,a4 ,ditto4 ,book ,,ii ,emily ,r4 ,daymond 4#ge #fg4 ,a ,method of ,singing ,j4 ,stockhausen #b4jj #fh4 ,a ,treatise on ,strict ,counterpoint4 ,part ,i 4#ge ,f4 ,e4 ,gladstone #fi4 ,a ,treatise on ,strict ,counterpoint4 ,part ,,ii ,f4 ,e4 ,gladstone 4#ge #gj4 ,examination ,questions and ,how to ,work ,them ,cuthbert ,harris #a4jj #ga4 ,voice ,culture for ,children4 ,part ,i4 ,instructions ,james ,bates 4#ge #gb4 ,voice ,culture for ,children4 ,part #aa4 ,exercises ,james ,bates 4#ge #gc4 ,voice ,culture for ,children4 ,part ,,iii4 ,appendix ,james ,bates 4#cj 7,the #c ,parts complete7 #a4ge 7,paper ,boards1 #b4be7 #gc;,a4 ,voice ,culture for ,children in ,tonic ,sol-fa ,notation ,james ,bates 4#ae #gd4 ,the ,choir-boy's ,guide to the ,cathedral ,psalter ,ernest ,newton 4#ce #ge4 ,twelve ,elementary ,duets for ,pianoforte ,emma ,mundella 4#ej #gf4 ,harmony for ,schools ,f4 ,e4 ,gladstone #a4be #gg4 ,key to ditto 4#ge #gh4 ,elementary ,score ,reading ,a4 ,h4 ,peppin 4#ge #gi4 ,figured-,bass ,playing ,j4 ,r4 ,tobin 4#ge #hj4 ,tenor ,voice ,exercises ,e4 ,d4 ,palmer 4#ej #ha4 ,three-part ,studies ,hugh ,blair 4#ce #hb4 ,music in its ,relation to the ,intellect and the ,emotions ,john ,stainer 4#ej #hc4 ,a ,military ,band ,primer ,george ,miller #a4jj #hd4 ,equal ,temperament ,h4 ,spain 4#ej #he4 ,guide to ,solo ,singing ,g4 ,garcia #a4jj #hf4 ,theory of ,music ,j4 ,a4 ,o',neill 4#ej #hg4 ,self-help for ,singers ,d4 ,c4 ,taylor #a4jj ,any of the above may be had strongly bound in boards1 price #be cents each extra1 with the exception of ,nos4 #e1 #bf1 #cg1 #cg;a and #ef1 which are #ej cents each extra1 and ,nos4 #dc;a1 #dg;a1 #ea1 #eg1 #fe1 #fe;a1 #ff1 #ff;a1 #gc1 #gg1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 #hd and #hf1 which are only published in paper covers4 ,school ,libraries and ,conservatories supplied at a special price4 ,h4 ,w4 ,,gray ,,co41 #b ,west #deth ,street1 ,new ,york ,,sole ,,agents ,,for ,,novello ,,co41 ,,limited 99 99 99 99 99 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,a number of words in this book have both hyphenated and non-hyphenated variants4 ,it was also detected that some words have two different spellings1 both of which are correct4 ,for the words with both variants present the one used more times has been kept4 ,obvious punctuation and other printing errors have been corrected4 ,it was noted that the label ,,figure ,,xxxviii was used in two different places in the original book4 ,the label was used in page #abd and in page #acb of the original4 ,in this transcription the latter was changed to ,,figure ,x,x,x,v,i,i,ia4 ,the reference made in the text to the latter figure was consistently changed to take into account the modification made4 ,during the formatting process some of the tables have been transposed from their original lay-out due to their width4 ,this was done to avoid excessively long lines or unsupported display4