,the transcribers' notes follow the text4 ,,fences1 ,,gates ,,and ,,bridges4 ,a ,,practical ,,manual4 ,,edited ,,by ,,george ,a4 ,,martin4 ,,three ,,hundred ,,illustrations4 ,illustration ,,new ,,york3 ,,orange ,,judd ,,company1 #ahib4 ,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahhg1 by the ,o4 ,,judd ,,co41 ,in the ,office of the ,librarian of ,congress1 at ,washington4 ,,prefatory ,it is authoritatively stated that the building and maintenance of the farm fences in the ,united ,states have cost more than the construction of the farm buildings4 ,be this as it may1 while large numbers of works have been written upon rural architecture we believe this is the first publication specially devoted to ,fences1 ,gates and ,bridges4 ,it aims to be a practical work1 showing the 8evolution0 of the fence from the road barrier of logs1 brush or sods to the latest improved forms of barbed wire4 ,the numerous illustrations are mainly representations of fences1 gates1 etc41 in actual use4 ,the chapter on fence law is necessarily condensed4 ,the various judicial decisions upon the subject alone would fill a large volume4 ,this little work1 the first and only one of its character1 is given to the public in the confident hope that it will prove specially useful to farmers and village residents4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,rail and other ,primitive ,fences #g-ag ,virginia ,rail ,fence2 ,laying a ,rail ,fence2 ,staking and ,wiring2 ,a ,fence of ,stakes and ,riders2 ,a ,pole ,fence2 ,fences for ,soil ,liable to ,heave2 ,other ,primitive ,fences4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,stone and ,sod ,fences #ah-bc ,how a ,stone ,wall ,should be ,built2 ,building a ,stone ,fence2 ,truck for ,moving ,stones2 ,re-inforcing a ,stone ,wall2 ,a ,composite ,fence2 ,a ,prairie ,sod ,fence4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,board ,fences #bd-cj ,building ,board ,fences2 ,fences for ,land ,subject to ,overflow2 ,a ,fence-,board ,holder2 ,re-inforcing a ,board ,fence4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,picket ,fences #ca-db ,a ,good ,garden ,fence2 ,a ,southern ,picket ,fence2 ,fences of ,split ,pickets2 ,ornamental ,picket ,fences2 ,rustic ,picket ,fences2 ,light ,picket ,fences2 ,hand-made ,wire and ,picket ,fences2 ,fence of ,wire and ,pickets4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,barb-,wire ,fence #dc-fa ,statistics and ,forms of ,barb ,wire2 ,how to ,set ,barb ,wire ,fence2 ,unreeling and ,stretching ,barb ,wire2 ,wire-,stretchers2 ,building ,wire ,fence on ,uneven ,ground4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,fences of ,barb ,wire and ,boards #fb-fg ,combined ,wire and ,board ,fence2 ,a ,bracketed ,fence2 ,dog-,proof ,fence4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,hedges #fg-ge ,the ,best ,hedge ,plants2 ,planting and ,care of ,osage ,hedges2 ,hedges for the ,south2 ,ornamental ,hedges and ,screens4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,portable ,fences and ,hurdles #ge-he ,portable ,board ,fences2 ,portable ,fences of ,poles and ,wire2 ,portable ,fences for ,windbreaks2 ,portable ,poultry ,fences2 ,portable ,folding ,fence2 ,temporary ,wire and ,iron ,fences4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,fences for ,streams and ,gullies #he-ie ,flood ,fences2 ,portable ,wire ,fence2 ,watering ,place in a ,creek4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,making and ,setting ,posts #ie-aag ,making ,fence ,posts2 ,a ,post ,holder2 ,driving ,fence ,posts by ,hand2 ,to ,drive ,posts ,without ,splitting2 ,a ,powerful ,post ,driver2 ,setting a ,gate ,post2 ,live ,posts2 ,mending a ,split ,post2 ,hook for ,wiring ,posts2 ,drawing ,fence ,posts2 ,lifting ,posts by ,hand2 ,splicing ,fence ,posts2 ,application of ,wood ,preservatives2 ,iron ,fence ,posts4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,gates and ,fastenings #aag-afd ,wooden ,gates2 ,a ,very ,substantial ,farm ,gate2 ,a ,strong and ,neat ,gate2 ,light ,iron ,gates2 ,self-closing ,gates2 ,gate for a ,village ,lot2 ,a ,chinese ,door or ,gate ,spring2 ,lifting ,gates2 ,rustic ,gates2 ,balance ,gates2 ,gate for ,snowy ,weather2 ,west ,india ,farm ,gates2 ,gate ,hinges of ,wood2 ,double ,gates2 ,double ,latched ,gates2 ,improved ,slide ,gate2 ,a ,combined ,hinge and ,sliding ,gate2 ,gates of ,wood and ,wire2 ,a ,good and ,cheap ,farm ,gate2 ,an ,improved ,wire ,gate2 ,taking up the ,sag in ,gates2 ,good ,gate ,latches2 ,top ,hinge of ,farm ,gate2 ,gateways in ,wire ,fence4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,wickets and ,stiles #afd-agj ,iron ,wickets2 ,wooden ,wickets2 ,stiles for ,wire ,fences4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,fence ,law #agj-agf ,fencing ,out or ,fencing ,in2 ,division ,fences2 ,highway ,fences2 ,what is a ,legal ,fence8 ,railroad ,fences4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,country ,bridges and ,culverts #agf-ahh ,strength of ,bridges2 ,braces and ,trusses2 ,abutments1 ,piers and ,railings2 ,bridges for ,gullies2 ,road ,culverts4 ,,fences1 ,,gates ,,and ,,bridges4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,rail ,,and ,,other ,,primitive ,,wood ,,fences4 ,,virginia ,,rail ,,fence4 ,the zigzag rail fence was almost universally adopted by the settlers in the heavily timbered portions of the country1 and countless thousands of miles of it still exist1 though the increasing scarcity of timber has brought other styles of fencing largely into use4 ,properly built1 of good material1 on a clear1 solid bed1 kept free from bushes and other growth to shade it and cause it to rot1 the rail fence is as cheap as any1 and as effective and durable as can reasonably be desired4 ,good chestnut1 oak1 cedar1 or juniper rails1 or original growth heart pine1 will last from fifty to a hundred years1 so that material of this sort1 once in hand1 will serve one or two generations4 ,this fence1 ten rails high1 and propped with two rails at each corner1 requires twelve rails to the panel4 ,if the fence bed is five feet wide1 and the rails are eleven feet long1 and are lapped about a foot at the locks1 one panel will extend about eight feet in direct line4 ,this takes seven thousand nine hundred and twenty rails1 or about eight thousand rails to the mile4 ,for a temporary fence1 one that can be put up and taken down in a short time1 for making stock pens and division fences1 not intended to remain long in place1 nothing is cheaper or better4 ,the bed for a fence of this kind should not be less than five feet across1 to enable it to stand before the wind4 ,the rails are best cut eleven feet long1 as this makes a lock neither too long nor too short2 and the forward end of each rail should come under the next one that is laid4 ,the corners1 or locks1 as they are called1 should also be well propped with strong1 whole rails1 not with pieces of rails1 as is often done4 ,the props should be set firmly on the ground about two feet from the panel1 and crossed at the lock so as to hold each other1 and the top course of the fence firmly in place4 ,they thus act as braces to the fence1 supporting it against the wind4 ,both sides of the fence should be propped4 ,the top course of rails should be the strongest and heaviest of any1 for the double purpose of weighting the fence down1 and to prevent breaking of rails by persons getting upon it4 ,the four courses of rails nearest the ground should be of the smallest pieces1 to prevent making the cracks1 or spaces between the rails1 too large4 ,they should also be straight1 and of nearly even sizes at both ends4 ,this last precaution is only necessary where small pigs have to be fenced out or in1 as the case may be4 ,the fence1 after it is finished1 will have the appearance of figure #a1 will be six rails high1 two props at each lock1 and the worm will be crooked enough to stand any wind1 that will not prostrate crops1 fruit trees1 etc4 ,a straighter worm than this will be easy to blow down or push over4 ,the stability of this sort of fence depends very largely on the manner of placing the props1 both as to the distance of the foot of the prop rail from the fence panel1 and the way it is locked at the corner4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,,virginia ,,zigzag ,,fence ,,complete4 ,,laying ,a ,,rail ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,,the ,,fence ,,begun4 ,it is much better1 both for good looks and economy1 to have the corners of a rail fence on each side in line with each other4 ,this may be accomplished by means of a very simple implement1 shown in figure #b4 ,it consists of a small pole1 eight feet long1 sharpened at the lower end4 ,a horizontal arm of a length equal to half the width of the fence from extreme outside of corners1 is fastened to the long pole at right angles1 near the lower end4 ,sometimes a sapling may be found with a limb growing nearly at right angles1 which will serve the purpose4 ,before beginning the fence1 stakes are set at intervals along the middle of the line it is to occupy4 ,to begin1 the gauge1 as shown in figure #b1 is set in line with the stakes1 and the horizontal arm is swung outwardly at right angles to the line of fence4 ,a stone or block to support the first corner is laid directly under the end of the horizontal arm1 and the first rail laid with one end resting on the support4 ,in the same way the next corner and all others are laid1 the gauge being moved from corner to corner1 set in the line of fence1 and the arm swung alternately to the right and left4 ,,staking ,,and ,,wiring4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,,stakes ,,in 8,,lock40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,,stakes ,,in ,,angles4 ,a neater and more substantial method of securing the corners of a worm fence is by vertical stakes and wires1 as shown in the accompanying illustrations4 ,when the lower three rails are laid1 the stakes are driven in the angles close to the rails1 and secured by a band of annealed wire4 ,the work of laying the rails proceeds1 and when within one rail of the top1 a second wire band is put in place4 ,or the upper wire may be put on above the top rail4 ,annealed wire is plentiful and cheap4 ,a ,,fence ,,of 8,,stakes ,,and ,,riders40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,a ,,stake ,,and ,,rider ,,fence4 ,a very common method with the 8worm0 or 8,virginia0 rail fence is to drive slanting stakes over the corner in saw-horse style1 and lay the top rail into the angle thus formed4 ,the stakes1 resting on the rails and standing at angle1 brace the fence firmly4 ,but the feet of the stakes extending beyond the jagged corners formed by the ends of the rail are objectionable4 ,this is remedied in part by putting the stakes over the middle of the panel--at considerable distance apart--and laying in them long poles horizontally4 ,in this case the stakes should be set at such an angle as to prevent their moving sidewise along the top rail1 which should be a strong one4 ,these stakes and long riders are frequently used to raise the height of low stone walls4 ,figure #f shows a fence nearly all composed of stakes and riders1 which is straight and requires fewer rails than a worm fence4 ,first1 crotched stakes1 formed by the forks of a branching tree limb1 a foot or more long1 are driven a foot or so into the ground at a distance apart corresponding to the length of poles used4 ,the bottom poles are laid into these1 and two stakes1 split or round poles1 are driven over these and the next poles laid in4 ,then two more stakes and another pole1 and so on as high as the fence is required4 ,this will answer for larger animals1 and be strong and not expensive4 ,for swine1 and other small livestock1 the crotch stakes may be replaced by blocks or stones1 and the lower poles be small and begin close to the ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,a ,,pole ,,fence4 ,a ,,pole ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--,,withe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,,withe ,,in ,,place4 ,a fence which is cheaply constructed in a timbered region1 and calls for no outlay whatever1 besides labor1 is illustrated at figure #g4 ,the posts are set in a straight line1 having previously been bored with an inch augur to receive the pins4 ,when they are set1 the pins are driven diagonally into the posts1 and the poles laid in place4 ,it would add much to its strength1 if the poles were laid so as to 8break joints40 ,a modification of this fence is sometimes made by using withes instead of pins to hold the poles in place4 ,the withe is made of a young sapling or slender limb of beech1 iron-wood1 or similar tough fibrous wood1 with the twigs left on4 ,this is twisted upon itself1 a strong loop made at the top1 through which the butt is slipped4 ,when in place1 the butt end is tucked under the body of the withe4 ,,fences ,,for ,,soil ,,liable ,,to ,,heave4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,,end ,,view ,,of ,,fence4 ,the main point in such a fence is either to set the posts and place a pin through them near the bottom1 so that the frost may not throw them out1 or to so attach the boards that the posts may be re-driven1 without splitting them1 or removing the rails from the fence4 ,the latter is1 perhaps1 the best plan1 and may be accomplished in several ways1 the most desirable of which is shown in figures #aj and #aa4 ,the post1 h1 is driven in the usual manner1 when a strip of board1 g1 is fastened to it by three or four spikes1 depending upon the hight of the fence4 ,a space just sufficient to insert the ends of boards a1 e1 figure #aa1 is left between the post and outside strip1 the ends of the boards resting upon the spikes4 ,many miles of this fence are in use4 ,it looks neat2 besides any portion is easily removed1 making a passage to and from the field4 ,a new post is easily put in when required1 and any may be re-driven when heaved by the frost4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,,side ,,view ,,of ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,,fence ,,with ,,iron ,,hooks4 ,where iron is cheap1 a rod about three-eighths of an inch in diameter is cut in lengths of about seven and a half inches2 one end is sharpened1 while the opposite end1 for three inches1 is bent at right angles4 ,after the boards are placed in position1 the hooks should be driven in so that they will firmly grasp the boards and hold them in place4 ,the general appearance of the finished fence is shown in figure #ab1 and is one adapted to almost any locality4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--;,,horizontal ,,section4 ,a much better method is to fasten the boards temporarily in place1 and then bore a half inch hole through both boards and the post1 into which a common screw bolt is then inserted and the nut screwed on firmly4 ,the two ends should1 however1 be put on opposite sides of the post4 ,one bolt thus holds the ends of both boards firmly to the post1 as shown in figure #ac4 ,with this style of fence1 old rails or round poles may be used instead of boards4 ,,other ,,primitive ,,fences4 ,in the heavily timbered parts of the country1 where the settlers a few years ago were making farms by felling and burning the huge pine trees1 a fence was constructed like the one shown in figure #ad4 ,sections of trees1 about four and a half feet long and often as thick1 were placed in line and morticed to receive from three to five rails4 ,this style of fence could be used by the landscape gardener with fine effect for enclosing a park or shrubbery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,,log ,,posts4 ,in the same regions1 when a farmer has pulled all the stumps from a pasture that slopes toward the highway1 the stumps may be placed in line along the road with the top ends inside of the field4 ,the gaps between where the stumps cannot be rolled close together1 are filled with brushwood4 ,a portion of this fence is shown in figure #ae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,,stump ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,,wicker ,,fence4 ,where other material is costly1 or not to be obtained1 the wicker fence1 constructed of stakes and willows1 is much used4 ,in the far ,west it is to be seen in every town1 generally built on a small embankment of earth from one to two feet deep4 ,in this climate1 with occasional repairs1 it lasts from ten to fifteen years4 ,figure #af shows the style of construction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--;,,brush ,,fence4 ,throughout the forest regions is found the staked and ridered brush growing on the line where the fence is constructed4 ,figure #ag illustrates a few rods of brush fence--such fencing being met with in our ,southern ,states4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,stone ,,and ,,sod ,,fences4 ,,how ,a ,,stone ,,wall ,,should ,,be ,,built4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,,well ,,laid ,,wall4 ,to build a stone wall1 some skill is required4 ,the foundation should be dug out a foot deep1 and the earth thrown upon each side1 which serves to turn water from the wall4 ,large stones are bedded in the trench1 and long stones placed crosswise upon them4 ,as many whole stones as possible should be used in this place4 ,the stones are then arranged as shown in the engraving1 breaking joints1 and distributing the weight equally4 ,any small spaces should be filled with chips broken off in dressing the larger stones1 so as to make them fit snugly4 ,as it is a work that will last a century1 it is worth doing well4 ,,building ,a ,,stone ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,,laying ,,up ,a ,,stone ,,fence4 ,a permanent stone fence should be built from four to five feet high1 two feet wide at the base and one foot at the top1 if the kind of stones available allow this construction4 ,if a higher fence is desired1 the width should be correspondingly increased4 ,the surface of the soil along the line of the fence should be made smooth and as nearly level as possible4 ,the hight will depend upon the situation1 the animals1 the smoothness of the wall 7whether sheep can get foot-holds to climb over71 and the character of the ground along each side4 ,if the earth foundation be rounded up previously1 sloping off to an open depression or gully1 less hight will be needed4 ,such an elevation will furnish a dry base not heaved by frost like a wet one4 ,without this1 or a drain alongside or under the wall1 to keep the soil always dry1 the base must be sunk deeply enough to be proof against heavy frosts1 which will tilt and loosen the best laid wall on wet soil4 ,the foundation stones should be the largest2 smaller stones packed between them are necessary to firmness4 ,the mistake is sometimes made of placing all the larger stones on the outside of the wall1 filling the center with small ones4 ,long bind-stones placed at frequent intervals through the wall add greatly to its strength4 ,the top of the fence is most secure when covered with larger close-fitting1 flat stones4 ,the engraving shows a wooden frame and cords used as a guide in building a substantial stone fence4 ,two men can work together with mutual advantage on opposite sides of the stone wall4 ,,truck ,,for ,,moving ,,stones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,,truck ,,for ,,stone4 ,the small truck 7figure #bj7 is not expensive1 and may be made to save a great amount of hard lifting in building a stone wall4 ,it is a low barrow1 the side bars forming the handles like a wheel-barrow4 ,it rests upon four low iron wheels4 ,a broad plank1 or two narrow ones1 are laid with one end against the wall and the other resting on the ground4 ,a groove is cut at the upper end for the wheels to rest in4 ,the stone is loaded on the truck1 moved to the place1 and pushed up the plank until the wheels fall into the groove2 when1 by lifting on the handles1 the stone is unloaded4 ,,reinforcing ,a ,,stone ,,wall4 ,a stone wall which affords ample protection against sheep and hogs1 may be quite insufficient for horses and cattle4 ,the deficiency is cheaply supplied in the manner indicated by the illustration1 figure #ba4 ,round poles or rails are used1 and if the work is properly performed1 the fence is very effective4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,,stone ,,wall ,,reinforced4 ,a ,,composite ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--;,,composite ,,fence4 ,the fence illustrated at figure #bb is quite common in some parts of ,new ,england4 ,a ridge is thrown up by back-furrowing with a plow1 and both that and the ditches finished by hand with a shovel4 ,light posts are easily driven through the soft earth1 and a board fence1 only three boards high1 made in the usual manner4 ,then the stones1 as they are picked up in the field1 are hauled to the fence and thrown upon the ridge4 ,this clears the field1 strengthens the ridge1 prevents the growth of weeds1 and assists in packing the earth firmly around the bottom of the posts4 ,a ,,prairie ,,sod ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--,,sod ,,cutter4 ,a sod fence1 beside its other value1 is a double barrier against the prairie fires which are so sweeping and destructive to new settlers1 if unobstructed1 for a wide strip is cleared of sods1 the fence standing in the middle of it4 ,a very convenient implement for cutting the sod is shown at figure #bc4 ,it is made of planks and scantling1 the method of construction being clearly shown4 ,the cutting disks are four wheel-coulters from common breaking plows1 all attached to an iron shaft sixteen inches apart4 ,they are set to cut three or four inches deep4 ,this is run three times along the line of the fence1 making nine cuts1 the cutters being held down by a man riding on the rear of the apparatus4 ,then with a breaking plow one furrow is turned directly in the line of the fence1 completely inverting the sod1 the team turned to the right1 and a second or back-furrow is inverted on top of the first4 ,additional furrows are cut1 diminishing in width to five or six inches on the outer side1 as shown in the diagram1 figure #bd4 ,after the two inner sods are turned1 the rest are carried by hand1 wheel-barrow or a truck1 7figure #bj71 and laid on the sod wall1 care being used to 8break joints0 and to taper gradually to the top4 ,if a more substantial fence is wanted1 a strip thirty-two inches wide may be left as a part for the fence1 the first two furrows inverted upon the uncut portion1 so that their edges just touch4 ,the sod fence is then continued to the summit just twice as thick as it would be by the process just described4 ,after the fence is laid1 a deep furrow should be run on each side1 throwing the earth against the base of the fence4 ,a very effective and cheap fence is made by laying up a sod 8dyke10 as above described1 three feet high1 then driving light stakes along the summit1 and stringing two strands of barbed wire to them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--,,the ,,sod ,,cut4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,board ,,fences4 ,,building ,,board ,,fences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--,,properly ,,constructed ,,board ,,fence4 ,in building a board fence1 always start right1 and it will be little trouble to continue in the same way4 ,much of the board fencing erected is put together very carelessly1 and the result is a very insecure protection to the field or crops4 ,a fence-post should be set two and a half or three feet in the ground1 and the earth should be packed around it as firmly as possible4 ,for packing the soil there is nothing better than a piece of oak1 about three inches square on the lower end1 and about six feet long1 rounded off on the upper part to fit the hands easily4 ,properly used1 this instrument will pack the soil around a post as it was before the hole was dug4 ,in putting on fence boards1 most builders use two nails on the ends of each board1 and one in the middle4 ,each board should have at least three nails at the ends1 and two in the middle1 and these nails should never be less than ten-pennys4 ,smaller nails will hold the boards in place for awhile1 but when they begin to warp1 the nails are drawn out or loosened1 and the boards drop off4 ,this will rarely be the case where large nails are used1 and a much stiffer fence is secured4 ,many fence builders do not cut off the tops of the posts evenly1 but this should always be done1 not only for the improvement that it makes in the looks of the fence2 but also for the reason that there should always be a cap put on1 and to do this1 the posts must be evened4 ,the joints should always be 8broken10 as is shown in the engraving1 figure #be1 so that in a four-board fence but two joints should come on each post4 ,by this means more firmness and durability is secured1 there being always two unbroken boards on each post to hold it in place1 preventing sagging4 ,on the face of the post immediately over where the rails have been nailed on1 nail a flat piece of board the width of the post and extending from the upper part of the top rail to the ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--;,a ,,durable ,,board ,,fence4 ,figure #bf shows a slight modification1 which consists in setting the posts on alternate sides of the boards1 securing additional stability4 ,the posts are seven feet long1 of well seasoned red cedar1 white oak1 chestnut1 or black locust1 preference being accorded to order named4 ,the boards are sixteen feet long1 fastened with ten-penny steel fence nails4 ,the posts for a space of two and a half feet from the lower end are given a good coat of boiled linseed oil and pulverized charcoal1 mixed to the consistency of ordinary paint1 which is allowed to dry before they are set4 ,when the materials are all ready1 stretch a line eighteen inches above the ground1 where it is proposed to build the fence4 ,dig the post holes1 eight feet apart from centers1 on alternate sides of the line4 ,the posts are set with the faces inward1 each half an inch from the line1 to allow space for the boards4 ,having set the posts1 the boards of the lower course are nailed on4 ,then1 for the first length1 the second board from the bottom and the top board are only eight feet long1 reaching to the first post4 ,for all the rest the boards are of the full length1 sixteen feet4 ,by this means they 8break joints40 ,after the boards are nailed on1 the top of the posts are sawed off slanting1 capped1 if desired1 and the whole thing painted4 ,a good coat of crude petroleum1 applied before painting1 will help preserve the fence1 and save more than its cost in the paint needed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--;,a ,,neat ,,farm ,,fence4 ,we see another style of board fence now and then that is rather preferable to the ordinary one2 it looks better than the old straight fence4 ,it saves one board to each length2 and by nailing on the two upper boards1 as shown in the illustration1 figure #bg1 great extra strength is given4 ,these boards not only act as braces1 but ties also1 and a fence built on well set posts1 and thoroughly nailed1 will never sag or get out of line until the posts rot off4 ,,fences ,,for ,,land ,,subject ,,to ,,overflow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--,,panel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,the fence illustrated in figures #bh1 #bi and #cj has posts the usual distance apart1 which are hewed on the front side1 and on this are nailed three blocks1 three by four inches thick and six inches long2 the first one1 with its top just level with the ground1 the second one1 ten inches in the clear above1 and the third one1 four inches less than the desired height of the fence1 measuring from the top of the first block4 ,after the panel is put in place1 the rounded ends resting on the bottom blocks1 nail a piece of board one and one-half by six inches on the blocks1 as shown in the illustrations4 ,this board must project four inches above the upper block1 forming with it the rest and catch for the top framing piece of the panel4 ,the panel is made of a top and bottom piece of three by four scantling1 on which are nailed palings4 ,the top piece is left square1 and projects three inches on each side1 but on the bottom piece the projections are cut round1 so as to turn in the slot4 ,the water will raise the panel up out of the upper catch1 allowing it to fall down1 as seen at figure #cj1 so as to offer no obstruction to the water1 nor will it catch drift1 as fences hung from the top do4 ,figures #ca to #ce represent a fence made somewhat like the trestle used for drying clothes4 ,the posts are the usual distance apart1 but only extend a few inches out of the ground1 just sufficient to nail a hinge upon4 ,they must1 however1 be wide enough to admit of nailing two hinges on each post4 ,the fence consists of two parts--,e in figure #ca represents a cross-section of the fence proper1 two panels of which are seen in figure #cd2 ,d represents the back part of the fence1 a section of which is shown in figure #ce2 a in figure #ca is the post and b b the hinges4 ,the panel1 ,e1 should always slope with the current of the stream1 that the water rushing against it will place it in the position shown by figure #cc1 lying flat on the ground1 and out of the way of both water and drift4 ,the hinges may be ordinary strap kind1 which can be bought very cheap by the dozen1 or they may be made of heavy iron hoop doubled1 as shown at figure #cb1 which can be made in any blacksmith shop4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,a ,,fence ,,board ,,holder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--;,,fence ,,board ,,holder4 ,figure #cf shows a contrivance for holding fence boards against the posts1 at the right distances apart when nailing4 ,a two and a half by two and a half inch piece of the desired length is taken for the upright1 a4 ,about its center is hinged the brace1 c4 ,a strap-hinge1 b1 or a stout piece of leather for a hinge1 will answer4 ,blocks or stops1 d1 d1 d1 d1 are nailed on the upright a1 at the required distances1 according to the space between the boards on the fence4 ,the bottom boards of the fence are nailed on first4 ,the bottom block of the board holder rests upon the bottom board1 and is held in position by the brace c4 ,the boards can be placed in the holder like putting up bars1 and are guided to their places on the post by the blocks1 d1 d4 ,the boards can now be nailed on the posts1 and the holding devices moved for another length4 ,when the boards are too long1 they can be pulled forward a little1 and the end sawed1 and pushed back to place4 ,one man using the contrivance1 can nail on nearly as many boards in a day1 as two persons with one to hold the boards in the old way4 ,figure #cg shows the manner of using the fence board holders4 ,,reinforcing ,a ,,board ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,,strengthening ,a ,,board ,,fence4 ,the old method of topping out a low board fence is shown at figure #ch4 ,since barbed wire has become plenty1 it is more usual to increase the height of the fence by stringing one or two strands of that on vertical slats nailed to the tops of the posts4 ,yet1 in cases where there are plenty of sound rails left from some old fence1 or plenty of straight saplings1 the old method is still a very cheap and convenient one4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,picket ,,fences4 ,a ,,good ,,garden ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--;,a ,,lath ,,and ,,picket ,,fence4 ,the engraving1 figure #ci1 represents a good1 substantial garden fence1 that1 while somewhat more serviceable than the ordinary kind1 may be constructed at less cost4 ,it does not materially differ from the common picket fence1 further than that the pickets are put five inches apart1 with strips of lath nailed between4 ,the pickets give the necessary strength1 while the lath1 as a shield against poultry1 or rabbits and other vermin1 is equally as good at one-sixth the cost4 ,an old picket fence surrounding a garden or yard1 may be 8lathed0 in the manner here indicated at little expense4 ,a ,,southern ,,picket ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,,southern ,,picket ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--;,,bench ,,for ,,sawing ,,pickets4 ,the picket fence in very general use in the ,southern ,states1 is shown in figure #dj4 ,it will be observed that the pickets1 instead of terminating in an equal-sided point1 have but one slanting side1 while the other is straight4 ,such a fence looks quite as well as one with the other style of points1 and is exceedingly neat and serviceable along the line of the street1 or to mark the boundary between two estates4 ,to facilitate the sawing of the pickets1 the bench or horse represented in figure #da is employed4 ,this has a stop at one end1 while near the other end are two upright pieces to serve as guides in sawing4 ,the edge of one of these is far enough in the rear of the other to give the desired slope4 ,in sawing1 the saw rests against these guides1 as shown by the dotted lines4 ,in a picket fence1 the point where decay commences1 is where the pickets cross the string pieces4 ,water enters between the two1 and decay takes place which is unsuspected until the breaking of a picket reveals the state of affairs4 ,the string pieces and the pickets1 at least upon one side1 should be painted before putting them together1 and nailed while the paint is fresh4 ,,fences ,,of ,,split ,,pickets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--;,a ,,fence ,,of ,,split ,,stuff4 ,in localities where sawed timber is expensive1 and split timber is readily obtained1 a very neat picket fence may be made with very little outlay1 by using round posts1 split stringers1 and rived pickets1 as shown in the engraving1 figure #db4 ,the stringers are eight to twelve feet in length1 and usually one of the flat sides is sufficiently smooth for receiving the pickets4 ,let the stringers project a few inches beyond each post1 adding strength to the fence1 and should the posts decay1 new ones may be driven in on either side1 and the stringers readily attached by heavy nails or spikes4 ,with timber that splits freely1 a man can rive out five or six hundred pickets in a day4 ,the construction of the fence is plainly shown in the above engraving4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--;,,cheap ,,fence ,,of ,,split ,,timber4 ,figure #dc represents a fence made entirely of split timber1 the only cash outlay being for nails4 ,this may be made so as to turn1 not only all kinds of stock1 but rabbits1 etc4 ,the pickets are sharpened1 and driven six or eight inches into the ground1 and firmly nailed to a strong string-piece at top4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--;,,common ,,picket ,,fence4 ,another good substantial fence is represented by figure #dd1 which1 though somewhat expensive1 is especially adapted for yard1 orchard and vineyard enclosure4 ,this needs no explanation4 ,the posts should not be set further than eight feet apart2 two by four-inch scantlings should be used to nail to1 and split palings should be nailed on with annealed steel nails4 ,,ornamental ,,picket ,,fences4 ,the fence shown in figure #de may be constructed with flat pickets1 three inches wide and three feet five inches long4 ,the notches in the pickets are easily made with a compass saw1 or a foot-power scroll-saw4 ,the top and bottom pieces between the pickets may be painted some other color than the fence1 if so desired4 ,any carpenter should be able to construct it at a small advance over a fence made from plain pickets1 making the pattern as in figure #df4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--,,ornamental ,,picket ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--;,a ,,plainer ,,picket ,,fence4 ,a plainer1 but still very neat form of picket fence is illustrated at figure #dg4 ,the intermediate pieces are notched at one end and square at the other4 ,,rustic ,,picket ,,fences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,,rustic ,,sapling ,,fence4 ,when the farmers on the prairies prevent the spreading of the prairie fires1 young oak and hickory saplings spring up as if by magic near all the wooded streams4 ,these saplings come from huge roots whose tops have yearly been destroyed by fire4 ,in that section farmers often construct a very neat rustic fence from two or three year old saplings1 having the appearance of figure #dh4 ,the rustic pickets are trimmed so as to leave the branches projecting about two inches1 and are nailed on with four-penny nails4 ,a fence of this kind would not last long1 unless the pickets1 posts1 and rails were free of bark1 or saturated with crude petroleum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--,,rustic ,,picket ,,fence4 ,a very neat and picturesque fence for a garden or a lawn is shown at figure #di4 ,it is made of round poles1 with the bark on1 the posts being of similar material4 ,three horizontal bars are nailed to the posts at equal intervals1 the slats or pickets woven into them and then nailed in place4 ,one or two coats of crude petroleum1 applied to this and other rustic work at first1 and renewed every year1 adds to its appearance and greatly increases its durability4 ,,light ,,picket ,,fences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--,,panel ,,of ,,picket ,,fence4 ,for enclosing poultry yards1 garden and grounds1 a cheap fence with pickets of lath often serves a good purpose4 ,if not very durable1 the cost of repair or renewal is light4 ,figure #ej shows one of this kind1 which is sufficiently high for the ,asiatic and other heavy and quiet fowls4 ,the panels are sixteen feet long1 and are composed of two pieces of ordinary six-inch fencing1 for top and bottom rails1 with lath nailed across two and a half inches apart2 the top ends of the lath extending ten inches above the upper edge of the top rail4 ,posts1 three or four inches through at the top end1 are large enough1 and1 after sharpening well1 can be driven into the ground by first thrusting a crow-bar down and wrenching it back and forth4 ,a post is necessary at the middle of each panel4 ,both rails of the panel should be well nailed to the posts4 ,these panels may be neatly and rapidly made in a frame1 constructed for that purpose4 ,this frame1 shown in figure #ea1 consists simply of three cross-pieces of six by six1 four feet long1 upon which are spiked two planks one foot wide and three feet apart1 from outside to outside4 ,four inches from the inner edge of each plank is nailed a straight strip of inch stuff1 to keep the rails of the panel in place while the lath are being nailed on4 ,against the projecting ends of the cross-pieces1 spike two by six posts twelve inches long2 on the inside of these posts nail a piece of six-inch fencing1 to serve as a stop1 for the top ends of the laths to touch1 when nailing them to the rails4 ,these panels can be made in the shop or on the barn floor at odd times1 and piled away for future use4 ,nail a wide bottom board around on the inside of the enclosure after the fence is in position4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--;,,frame ,,for ,,making ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,figures #eb and #ec show lath fences high enough for all kinds of poultry4 ,the posts in figure #eb are eight feet apart4 ,a horizontal bar is nailed to the posts six inches above the ground1 a second one eighteen inches1 and a third four and a half feet4 ,to two lower strips nail laths that have been cut to half length1 first driving the lower part of the laths two inches into the ground4 ,one advantage of this fence is1 that the two strips near the bottom1 being so close together1 sustain pressure from dogs or outside intruders better than any other fence constructed of lath1 and dispenses with a foot-wide board1 so generally used4 ,the cheapest lath fence is made with the posts four feet apart1 first sawing them in two lengthwise at a sawmill1 and nailing the lath directly to the posts without the use of strips4 ,the two upper laths have short vertical pieces fastened to them with cleat nails1 and present points to prevent fowls alighting on the fence4 ,such a fence 7figure #ec7 will cost1 for four feet1 one-half post1 three cents2 twenty laths1 eight cents2 and the nails1 three cents1 per running foot1 six feet high1 or one-half cent per square foot4 ,,hand-,,made ,,wire ,,and ,,picket ,,fences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,,side ,,view ,,of ,,bench4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,,top ,,view ,,of ,,bench4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,fence4 ,a very desirable and popular fence is made of pickets or slats woven into horizontal strands of plain wire4 ,several machines have been invented and patented for doing this work1 but it can be done by hand with the aid of the bench illustrated herewith4 ,the wire should be a little larger than that used on harvesting machines1 and annealed like it4 ,the bench1 of which figure #ed is a side view1 and figure #ee a top view1 should be about sixteen feet long and have a screw at each corner for raising and lowering the holding bars4 ,for the screws at the ends of the frame one-half to three-fourth-inch iron rod will answer4 ,the wire is twisted close and tight to the slats1 and given two or three twists between them4 ,if the slats are of green stuff1 fasten the wire to them with small staples1 to prevent their slipping when they shrink4 ,the fence is fastened to the post with common fence staples4 ,when this style of fence is used on one side of a pasture or highway1 its effectiveness may be increased by a single strand of barbed wire stapled to the posts above the pickets1 and a strand of plain wire strung along the bottom to stiffen it4 ,the fence will then be as in figure #ef4 ,such a fence will last many years1 and for most sections of the country is the best and cheapest combined cattle and hog fence that can be made4 ,for a garden fence it is equal to the best picket1 and at one third of the cost4 ,by having the slats sawed about one-half inch thick1 two inches wide1 and five to six feet long1 it makes an excellent fence for a chicken yard1 as it can be readily taken down1 moved1 and put up again without injuring it in the least4 ,for situations where appearances are secondary importance1 round slats are equally as good as pickets4 ,a farmer in ,wisconsin planted a few white willow trees the year that he made some fences of this kind4 ,when the fence began to need repairs1 the willows had attained such a growth that their trimmings furnished all the material needed then and each year thereafter4 ,,fence ,,of ,,wire ,,and ,,pickets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4--;,,fence ,,of ,,wire ,,and ,,pickets4 ,the fence shown in figure #eg has been introduced in some sections1 and is becoming more popular every year4 ,the posts are set ten feet apart1 and are so placed that they will come on the right and left side of the fence1 alternately4 ,the pickets are split from oak1 or any other hard wood1 and are four or five feet long1 and an inch and a half or two inches wide4 ,when the posts are set1 brace the one at the end of the line1 and fasten the ends of two number nine1 unannealed wires to it4 ,stretch the wires along to the other end of the line1 and a few feet beyond the last post4 ,one pair is to be stretched near the top of the posts and one near the ground4 ,when the wires are stretched taut1 fasten them to some posts or other weight that will drag on the ground2 the upper and lower wires should be fastened to separate weights1 and these should be heavy enough to keep the wires at a great tension4 ,having done this1 you are ready to commence building the fence4 ,one man spreads the strands1 while another places the picket between them2 the other end of the picket is then raised up and placed between the upper wires1 and then driven up with an axe or mallet4 ,in inserting the pickets1 the wires are to be crossed alternately1 as shown in the engraving4 ,the pickets should be dry and should be about three inches apart4 ,it takes two persons to build this fence successfully1 but it can be built more rapidly by three2 one to spread the wires1 one to place the picket in position1 and one to drive it home4 ,this is especially adapted1 for a line or other fence which is not required to be often moved4 ,it is fastened to the post by nailing one of the pickets to it with common fencing nails4 ,fences of this kind are also made with straight1 round limbs of willow or other trees in place of the split pickets4 ,several different machines have been patented for making this style of fence4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,barb-,,wire ,,fence4 ,the invention of barb wire was the most important event in the solution of the fence problem4 ,the question of providing fencing material had become serious1 even in the timbered portions of the country1 while the great prairie region was almost wholly without resource1 save the slow and expensive process of hedging4 ,at this juncture came barb wire1 which was at once seen to make a cheap1 effective1 and durable fence1 rapidly built and easily moved4 ,the original patent for barb wire was taken out in #ahfh1 but it was not until six years later that an attempt was made to introduce it into general use1 and more than ten years elapsed before the industry attained any considerable magnitude4 ,the rapidity and extent of its subsequent growth will be seen by the following table1 showing the estimated amount of barb wire manufactured and in use during the years named1 the estimated length being in miles of single strand3 ,,year4 ,,tons4 ,,miles4 #ahgd #e #aj #ahge #cjj #fjj #ahgf #a1ejj #c1jjj #ahgg #g1jjj #ad1jjj #ahgh #ac1jjj #bf1jjj #ahgi #be1jjj #ej1jjj #ahhj #dj1jjj #hj1jjj #ahha #fj1jjj #abj1jjj #ahhb #hj1jjj #afj1jjj #ahhc #ajj1jjj #bjj1jjj #ahhd #abe1jjj #bej1jjj #ahhe #acj1jjj #bfj1jjj #ahhf #ace1jjj #bgj1jjj ------- --------- ,,totals #gaf1hje #a1dcc1faj ,there are now fifty establishments engaged in the manufacture1 and the output for #ahhg is estimated at #adj1jjj tons4 ,barb wire is not without its drawbacks as a fencing material1 the most common one being the liability of serious injury to valuable domestic animals coming in contact with the sharp barbs4 ,many means have been devised for overcoming this evil4 ,some of them are illustrated in the next chapter4 ,the direct advantages of barb wire are3 ,first--economy1 not only in the comparative cheapness of its first cost1 but also in the small amount of land covered by it4 ,second--effectiveness as a barrier against all kinds of stock1 and a protection against dogs and wild beasts4 ,third--rapidity of construction and ease of moving4 ,fourth--freedom from harboring weeds1 and creating snow drifts4 ,fifth--durability4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--,,the ,,kelly ,,barb ,,wire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--;,,horse-,,nail ,,barb4 ,barb wire1 like the harvester1 the sowing machine1 and most other valuable inventions1 has attained its present form from very crude beginnings4 ,the original barb wire consisted of double-pointed metallic discs1 strung loosely upon plain wire4 ,the next step was to twist this with another wire1 as shown in figure #eh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--;,,crandall ,,barb ,,wire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--,,sterling ,,barb ,,wire4 ,another crude beginning was the 8horse-nail barb10 which consisted of a common horseshoe nail bent around a plain wire1 and the whole wrapped spirally with a smaller wire1 as shown in figure #ei4 ,various forms of two-pointed and four-pointed barb wire are manufactured1 the principal difference being the shape of the barbs and the manner of coiling them around one or both of the strands4 ,a few of the leading styles are illustrated herewith4 ,figures #fj and #fa show two varieties of two-pointed barb wire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,,quadrated ,,barb ,,wire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--;,,iowa ,,four-,,pointed ,,barb ,,wire4 ,of the numerous styles of four-pointed wire1 three typical forms are illustrated in figures #fb1 #fc1 and #fd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--,,lyman ,,barb ,,wire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4--;,,glidden ,,patent ,,steel ,,two-,,point4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4--;,,glidden ,,patent ,,steel 8,,thick ,,set40 ,the ,glidden patent steel barb wire is made in three styles1 as shown in figures #fe1 #ff1 and #fg4 ,figure #fe shows the two-point wire1 in which1 like the others1 the barb is twisted around only one of the wires4 ,figure #ff shows the 8thick-set0 which has barbs like the other1 but set closer together for such purposes as sheep folds1 gardens1 or other places1 which require extra protection4 ,the four-point barb wire1 figure #fg1 has barbs of the same form as the two other styles1 that is a sharply pricking barb attached to one of the wires of the fence strand1 upon which the other wire is twisted1 holding the barb firmly in place4 ,the barb is at right angles to the wire1 and does not form a hook1 but a straight short steel thorn4 ,a sharp point which inflict an instantaneous prick repels an animal more safely than a longer and duller barb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--;,,glidden ,,patent ,,four-,,point4 ,barb wire of nearly1 if not quite all the popular kinds1 is shipped from the factory on strong spools1 each holding one hundred pounds in weight1 or eighty rods in length4 ,these spools are bored through the center to admit a stick or bar1 which can be used as an axle in unreeling the wire4 ,the following table shows the weight of wire required for fencing the respective areas named3 ,,weight ,,of ,,wire4 ,,length ,,of --------------------- ,,area4 ,,boundary4 ,strand4 #c ,strand4 ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ---------------------------------------- --- #a ,acre #fj ,rods4 #fg #bjb #e ,acres #c_/h ,mile4 #afg #djj #aj ,acres #a_/b ,mile4 #ahc #edh #bj ,acres #c_/d ,mile4 #bgc #hbj #dj ,acres #a ,mile4 #cfe #ajie #hj ,acres #a-a_/b ,mile4 #edg #afdb #afj ,acres #b ,miles4 #gcj #baij ,it will be observed that the larger the area enclosed1 the smaller is the amount of fence required per acre4 ,the cost of fence complete can be estimated by adding to the amount of wire indicated in the last column1 the cost of sixty posts1 and three and three-quarter pounds of staples1 for every sixty rods4 ,to ascertain the weight of wire required for any desired number of strands1 multiply the figures of the first column of 8weight of wire0 by the number of strands proposed to be used4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--;,,brinkerhoff ,,steel ,,strap ,,and ,,barb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4--;,,allis ,,patent ,,barb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4--;,,brinkerhoff ,,fencing ,,twisted4 ,there is a kind of barb fencing in which flat steel straps are employed instead of wire4 ,in the form shown in figure #fh1 the barbs are bent around a plain strap and the whole is then galvanized1 which firmly fixes the barb4 ,another form shown at figure #fi consists of a solid piece of steel1 ribbed through the middle1 and with barbs cut on both edges4 ,these and similar forms are more expensive than wire1 and are employed only in limited quantities for enclosing lawns1 paddocks1 etc4 ,still another form is like that shown in figure #gj1 without barbs1 and twisted4 ,this is much used to enclose lawns and ornamental grounds4 ,it is light1 neat and strong1 does not harbor weeds or make snow drifts1 but is comparatively expensive1 as five or six strands are required to make an effective fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4--,,two ,,strand ,,twisted ,,wire ,,fencing4 ,still another form of unarmed fencing is shown in figure #ga4 ,it is simply the ordinary wire without barbs1 and is used in limited quantities for fencing ornamental grounds1 barnyards1 etc4 ,,steel ,,fence ,,staples4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4--a-a_/d-;,,inch ,,staple4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4--a-c_/d-;,,inch ,,staple4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4--,,square ,,top ,,staple ,,for ,,brinkerhoff ,,fencing4 ,for fastening barb-wires to the post nothing has been found so satisfactory as staples made for the purpose from ,no4 #i steel wire4 ,they are cut with sharp points to drive easily into the posts1 and are of different lengths1 from one inch and a quarter to one and three-quarters4 ,figures #gb and #gc show the usual staples for wire1 and figure #gd a staple made specially for strap fencing4 ,,how ,,to ,,set ,,barb ,,wire ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,,well-,,braced ,,barb-,,wire ,,fence4 ,the timber for posts should be cut when the sap is dormant4 ,midwinter or ,august is a good time to cut post timber4 ,they should be split and the bark taken off as soon as possible after cutting the timber4 ,for end posts1 select some of the best trees1 about sixteen inches in diameter1 from which take cuts eight and a half feet in length1 splitting them in quarters for brace posts4 ,they should be set three feet in the ground1 which is easily done with a post-hole digger4 ,when setting the brace posts1 take a stone eighteen inches to two feet long1 twelve inches wide1 and six inches thick1 which is put down against the post edgewise1 on the opposite side to the brace1 as seen in figure #ge1 putting it down about even with the surface of the ground4 ,this holds the post solid against the brace4 ,a heart-rail1 ten feet in length makes a good brace4 ,put one of the long posts every sixteen or twenty rods along the line of fence1 as they help to strengthen it1 and set lighter and shorter posts along the line about sixteen feet apart4 ,after the posts are set1 two or three furrows should be turned against them on each side1 as it helps to keep stock from the wire4 ,such a fence should be built of a good height4 ,it is better to buy an extra wire than have stock injured4 ,there is no pulling over end-posts or sagging wire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4--;,a ,,wire ,,fence ,,well ,,braced4 ,to make an extra solid wire fence1 brace the posts1 as shown in figure #gf1 on both sides1 in order to resist the tension in either direction4 ,every eighth post should be thus braced1 and it makes a mark for measuring the length of the fence1 for eight posts set one rod apart1 make eight rods1 or a fortieth of a mile for each braced post4 ,the braces are notched into the top of the posts1 just below the top wire1 and a spike is driven through both the brace and the post4 ,the braces abut upon large stones which give them great firmness4 ,,unreeling ,,and ,,stretching ,,barb ,,wire4 ,the general introduction of barb wire fencing has brought out a great variety of devices for handling the wire4 ,one of these is shown in the illustrations4 ,two pieces of scantling are attached to the rear end of a wagon from which the box has been removed1 as shown in figure #gg4 ,a slot near the end of each admits the round stick thrust through the reel of barb wire1 to serve as an axle4 ,the end of the barb wire is fastened to the fence post1 the team in front of the wagon started up1 and some three yards of wire unreeled4 ,then the hind axle of the wagon is made fast by a chain or rope to the nearest fence-post1 the hind wheel nearest the fence lifted from the ground and held there by a wagon-jack or piece of board4 ,one turn is then made in the barb wire1 as shown at ,a1 figure #gh1 to which is attached one end of a piece of smooth wire1 some ten feet long4 ,the other end is placed between two screws1 b b1 in the end of the hub1 as shown in the illustration4 ,the wire thus fastened is coiled around the hub1 and the operator can tighten it and the barb wire to which it is attached1 by employing the leverage of the spokes and felloes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4--;,,device ,,for ,,unrolling ,,wire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4--;,,fastening ,,the ,,wire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4--;,a ,,sulky ,,wire-,,holder4 ,a lighter form of reel holder is shown at figure #gi4 ,it is made of two pieces of two by four scantlings fastened to the axle of a sulky corn plow4 ,they must be placed far enough apart to allow the reel or spool to run between them4 ,make a square axle1 figure #hj1 of some hard tough wood1 rounding it where it runs in the slots of the scantling2 drive it through the hole in the spool1 and attach the crank4 ,in moving fence1 place the spool on the frame2 remove one end of the wire from the post1 fasten it to the spool1 and while one man holds the pole and steers and steadies the sulky--he will have to pull back a little--another turns the spool and winds up the wire4 ,when a corner is reached1 the wire is loosened1 the sulky turned1 and the winding continued4 ,when the end of the wire is reached1 it is carefully loosened from the post1 and firmly fastened to the spool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4--,,the ,,axle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4--;,a ,,sled ,,wire-,,holder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4--;,,another ,,sled ,,for ,,wire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4--,,tightening ,,the ,,wire4 ,it is best to have a separate spool for each wire1 especially if they are of great length4 ,the same contrivance may be used for unreeling the wire4 ,attach a gentle horse to the sulky1 fasten the pole securely to the hames1 and have a boy lead him slowly along the fence line4 ,once in fifty yards stop the horse1 grasp the handle1 move forward very slowly1 and draw the wire straight and taut4 ,if no sulky plow is at hand1 a light 8double-ended0 sled1 shown in figure #ha1 may be used4 ,a man holds the short pole extending from one end1 steadying and pushing a little1 while the other winds the reel4 ,the sled is drawn forward by the wire as it is wound on the reel4 ,to unreel1 attach a slow horse to a chain or rope fastened to the opposite end of the sled4 ,a man must walk behind the horse and hold the pole to steady the sled4 ,managed in this way1 the removal of a barbed wire fence is not at all the formidable operation that has been supposed2 it can be taken down and set up again1 easily1 safely1 and quite rapidly4 ,figure #hb shows another form of home-made sled1 which is very useful for carrying rolls of wire for making a fence4 ,the roll is supported on a rod1 which has round ends to fit into the uprights1 and which turns in the slots4 ,when the wire is run out1 the end is fastened to the clevis on the centre beam1 and a notched stake1 figure #hc1 being put under the wire1 the sled is drawn up to tighten the wire1 which is then stapled4 ,this sled is useful for many other purposes1 and is large enough to carry five rolls of the wire1 so that by going back and forth1 the whole of the fence can be put up very quickly4 ,it is drawn by one horse1 the draft chain being fastened to the front beam4 ,,wire ,,stretchers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4--,,the ,,clark ,,stretcher4 ,for stretching barb wire there are various implements in the market1 and other quite simple and effective devices can be made on the farm4 ,figure #hd shows the ,clark stretcher and the manner of using it4 ,another stretcher1 called the 8,come ,along0 stretcher1 figure #he1 is used not only for tightening the wires1 but also for handling it1 in building or moving fences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4--,,the 8,,come ,,along0 ,,stretcher4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4--;,,home-,,made ,,wire-,,stretchers4 ,the useful wire-stretcher1 figure #hf1 consists of a mowing machine knife-guard1 bolted to a stout stick2 one curved1 as shown in the lower engraving1 is preferable to a straight one1 as it will not turn in the hand4 ,when using it1 the wire is held firmly in the slot1 and may be easily stretched by applying the stick as a lever4 ,another kind of a wire-stretcher may be made of hard wood or of iron or steel bars4 ,it consists of three pieces1 two arms and a splicer1 fastened together in the manner shown in figure #hg1 leaving a slot near one end to hold the wire4 ,the longer arm is made immovable upon the splice by means of two or more heavy bolts1 while the shorter arm is pivoted by one bolt4 ,this allows the slot to be opened to receive the wire4 ,the short arm is sharpened so that it may be stuck into a post1 or the side of a building1 if convenient4 ,by placing this lever behind a post1 one man can stretch thoroughly a long string of wire4 ,when one man is doing the work alone1 he can stretch the wire1 fasten the lever back by means of a stick driven into the ground before it1 and then go back and drive the staples4 ,the short end of the lever should be about twelve inches long1 and the long arm three or four feet1 or even longer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4--,,stretcher ,,and ,,gauge4 ,the stretcher shown in figure #hh is made of hard tough wood or iron4 ,the wire is passed through the slot1 the barbs preventing it from slipping4 ,the arm at right angles to the lever is used to measure the distance of the strands4 ,when the lever is set against the post1 the arm rests on the strand below4 ,by sliding it up or down1 the distance between the strands is regulated4 ,figure #hi shows another stretcher1 that can be made by any blacksmith4 ,the toothed cam holds the wire so that it will not slip4 ,a block and tackle are often found useful to draw the wires with4 ,the rolls of wire are paid out of a wagon body1 and when the wire is to be drawn up1 the grip is put on at any point1 the tackle is attached1 and one horse draws it as tight as it needs be4 ,a wire fence needs frequent drawing up or it sags and becomes useless4 ,the alternate contraction and expansion caused by change of temperature soon stretch the wire1 to say nothing of other causes4 ,the cheap and effective method employed by telegraph companies is illustrated in figure #ij4 ,it consists of a pair of grip tongs and a set of small tackle-blocks4 ,the tongs may be made by any blacksmith1 and the blocks are sold at all hardware and tool stores4 ,an iron hook is used to couple the tongs to the block1 and as the wire is drawn up1 the free end of the rope may be given a turn around the same post1 to hold it while the staple is tightened to hold the wire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4--;,,grip ,,for ,,fence ,,wire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,,splicing ,,barb ,,wires4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #ia and #ib4--,,the ,,splicer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4--,,making ,,the ,,splice4 ,the accompanying engravings show an iron implement for splicing wire and the manner of using it4 ,to make this splicer take a bar of half inch round iron1 nine inches long4 ,heat about three inches of one end and hammer it flat until it is one inch wide4 ,with a cold chisel cut a one-fourth inch slot a quarter of an inch from the right side and an inch deep1 as seen in figure #ia4 ,bend the part marked d1 so that it will be a quarter inch from the flat part1 as shown in figure #ib4 ,the lower part of the slot c should be about a half inch from the bend at d4 ,smooth with a file4 ,to use it let e and f1 figure #ic represent two wires to be joined4 ,bend the ends so they are nearly at right angles4 ,hold them with pincers at g2 place the hook of the splicer on the wire1 f1 while the wire e falls into the slot4 ,twist the pieces around the wire f1 when one half of the splice is made4 ,repeat the operation for the other end4 ,use about four or five inches of each wire to twist around the other4 ,another form of splicer1 shown in figure #id1 is made of cast iron1 and is used in the same manner as the first4 ,figure #ie shows the manner of holding the wire with nippers made for the purpose1 and the finished splice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,,building ,,wire ,,fences ,,on ,,uneven ,,ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4--;,,fence ,,on ,,uneven ,,ground4 ,one of the great perplexities about building wire fences on rolling ground1 is how to make the posts in the hollows remain firm1 for the pull of the wire in wet weather1 or when the frost is coming out1 lifts them and causes the wire to sag1 and they cease to be an effective barrier4 ,posts should not be used in the lowest depressions1 but in their place at the lowest spots a heavy stone should be partially sunk into the ground1 about which a smooth fence wire has been wrapped1 as seen in figure #if4 ,when the fence is built1 the fence wires are brought down to their place and the wire about the stone is twisted first about the lower wire1 then the next1 and so on to the top4 ,this prevents the wire from raising1 and does away with all trouble of the posts being pulled out by the wires4 ,in fencing across small streams the same plan is successful4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,fences ,,of ,,barb ,,wire ,,and ,,boards4 ,,combined ,,wire ,,and ,,board ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4--,,manner ,,of ,,bracing ,,end-,,post4 ,a very cheap fence is made of two boards below and three strands of barb wire4 ,to make the fence pig-proof without the boards1 five strands of wire1 three inches apart1 would be required at the bottom4 ,two common fencing boards will occupy the same space1 when placed three inches apart1 and cost less4 ,but for the upper part of the fence1 wire is much cheaper than boards4 ,the most considerable item in this greater economy is the saving of posts4 ,the wire requires a post every sixteen feet2 hence half the posts are saved4 ,a stout stake1 driven midway between the posts1 holds the center of the boards in place4 ,these stakes need extend only eighteen inches above ground4 ,posts that have rotted off in the ground will be long enough for these stakes4 ,some say that the posts can be set thirty feet apart1 but sixteen feet is better4 ,the posts should be at least thirty inches in the ground and well tamped4 ,it is easy to stretch the wire4 ,its durability depends upon the quality of the wire and posts1 and the proper setting of them4 ,nail on the two boards1 three inches apart2 the first strand is six inches above the top board1 the second strand is twelve inches above the first1 and the third sixteen inches above the second4 ,when banked up1 as hereafter described1 this fence will turn all farm stock4 ,an important point is the bracing of the end-posts4 ,if this be neglected or improperly done1 the fence will be a failure4 ,figure #ig shows how the end-post should be braced4 ,it should be a large post and set at least three feet in the ground4 ,the short post which holds the lower end of the brace1 should also be well set4 ,wrap the wire around the end-post several times1 and drive staples to hold it on all sides4 ,if the line of fence is more than forty rods long1 at least two posts at each end should be braced4 ,after the posts are set1 and before attaching the boards or wire1 plow a deep furrow along each side1 throwing the earth inward4 ,this makes a bank along the line1 allowing the fence to be several inches higher2 and the furrow drains the water away from the posts1 and also restrains an animal that may be tempted to jump the fence4 ,a section of the completed fence is shown in figure #ih4 ,do not hang pieces of tin1 etc41 upon the top strands of wire1 as often recommended1 that the animals may see the fence1 and be able to avoid it1 because it is never necessary4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4--,,section ,,of ,,fence ,,completed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4--;,a ,,cheap ,,and ,,good ,,fence4 ,a modification of this combined fence is shown in figure #ii4 ,it is made of one rail along the top1 and three wires below4 ,after setting the posts plow a furrow two feet from the posts on each side1 throwing the furrow slice towards the fence1 and forming up the ridge neatly with a spade2 then stretch the three wires1 and nail a two by four scantling edgewise4 ,to prevent an unpleasant sagging of the rails1 the posts should be eight feet apart1 and the rails sixteen feet long4 ,for common fencing1 good straight poles will answer well4 ,a ,,bracketed ,,fence4 ,the features shown in figure #ajj are3 first1 in having two six-inch boards at the bottom4 ,second1 in placing the wires very close together4 ,it being necessary to have barbs only on one side of each space between the wires1 plain galvanised wire may be used for every alternate strand1 thus greatly lessening the expense4 ,third1 by the use of strips and short stakes1 the posts may be placed sixteen feet apart1 and the fence remain as perfect as if there were posts every eight feet4 ,fourth1 to make the fence man-proof1 make use of a bracket of three-eighth-inch iron1 or of one by two-inch wooden strips4 ,the form of the brackets is shown in figures #aja1 #ajb and #ajc4 ,a barb-wire is attached to the short arm of the brackets1 which are fastened to the posts in such a manner as to stretch two wires on the same horizontal plane1 and fifteen inches apart4 ,the material required for each panel of the fence shown in figure #ajj1 are3 ,two posts1 three barb-wires1 two plain wires of ,no4 #ab galvanized iron1 two six-inch boards1 sixteen feet long1 three stakes about three feet long1 and sharpened at one end1 four strips1 four feet long and one and one-half inch square4 ,to build the fence3 ,lay off the ground by setting small pegs eight feet apart1 then dig the holes1 and set the posts at every fourth peg4 ,drive the sharpened stakes into the ground at the three pegs between the posts1 so that the top of the stakes will be nineteen inches above the ground4 ,nail the boards on the first stake near the ground1 and the second one three inches above the first4 ,then mark off the place for each wire on the first post1 fasten the bottom wire1 and put up as far as the first stretching post2 then add the other wires1 using first a barb-wire1 and then a smooth one4 ,the wires should be fastened to the posts with long staples4 ,the strips are to go in the middle of the eight foot spaces2 they should not quite touch the ground2 fasten them to the boards with nails and to the wire with short staples4 ,these strips can be made of poles or saplings1 and the stakes of short or crooked pieces from the posts4 ,to attach the man-proof part3 ,if the brackets are of wood1 nail them to the posts1 sawing off the horizontal arm to fifteen inches from the top wire1 as in figure #ajc2 stretch the wire and fasten to the end4 ,if the brackets are of iron1 figure #ajb1 spike the horizontal arm to the top of the post1 then put up the barb-wire loose under the oblique arm1 and stretch it4 ,then spike the foot of the oblique arm to the post1 and slip the wire into the angle1 and close the bracket by closing the arms on the wire4 ,figure #ajb shows the method of attaching the iron bracket to the post4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--,,one ,,panel ,,of ,,improved ,,wire ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4--;,,iron ,,bracket4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4--;,,attached ,,bracket4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--,,wooden ,,bracket4 ,,dog-,,proof ,,fences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4--;,a ,,fence ,,against ,,dogs4 ,figure #ajd shows a sheep-yard fence1 built of wire and boards1 as a safeguard against vicious dogs4 ,it consists of ordinary posts1 and three lengths of boards1 with an equal number of barb-wires for the upper portion1 and a single strand placed near the ground4 ,the sheep are in no danger of injuring themselves with such a fence1 and it is an effective barrier to blood-thirsty dogs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4--;,a ,,cheaper ,,fence4 ,figure #aje shows a cheaper fence for the same purpose4 ,it has one strand of barb wire below the boards1 which prevents attempts of dogs to dig under it4 ,for fencing sheep against dogs1 the 8thick-set0 barb wire is the most effective of any4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,hedges4 ,,the ,,best ,,hedge ,,plants4 ,the first emigrants from ,england to the ,american shores brought with them memories of green hedge-rows1 like those which still adorn the motherland4 ,but they found the country whither they had come covered with a dense growth of timber1 which furnished abundant material for fences4 ,hedges were almost unknown in this country until after civilization had reached the treeless prairies4 ,then1 the want of fencing material turned attention to hedges1 and they became so popular that many miles of them were planted1 not only in the prairie region1 but also in the more eastern ,states1 where cheaper fencing material was plenty4 ,now the invention of barbed wire supplies a material so cheap and easily put in place1 that hedges have ceased to be regarded as economical for general farm purposes4 ,but they have by no means gone wholly out of use4 ,as a boundary fence1 especially upon the roadside1 there is much to be said in favor of the hedge4 ,nothing gives a neighborhood such a finished rural aspect1 as to have the roads bordered by hedges4 ,the grounds around the summer cottages on the ,new ,jersey coast1 and other popular summer resorts1 are largely enclosed with hedges4 ,for interior divisions1 as they cannot be removed1 they are not to be commended4 ,an orchard1 the most permanent of all the plantations upon the farm1 may be appropriately enclosed by a live fence4 ,hedges are either protective barriers1 really live fences1 or merely ornamental4 ,in properly regulated communities1 where cattle are not allowed to run at large1 the roadside hedge may be ornamental1 while one around an orchard should be able to keep out animals and other intruders4 ,after many experiments and failures1 the ,osage ,orange 7,maclura aurantiaca71 has been found to make the best hedges4 ,being a native of ,arkansas1 it has been found to be hardy much farther ,north1 and may be regarded as the most useful hedge plant in all localities where the winter is not severe4 ,where the ,osage ,orange is not hardy1 ,buckthorn1 ,japan ,quince and ,honey ,locust are the best substitutes4 ,honey ,locust is a most useful hedge plant1 as it is readily raised from seed1 grows rapidly1 bears cutting well1 and in a few years will make a barrier that will turn the most violent animal4 ,,planting ,,and ,,care ,,of ,,osage ,,hedges4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4--;,,badly ,,plowed ,,ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4--;,,hedge ,,plant ,,on ,,hard ,,ridge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4--,,properly ,,plowed ,,ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4--;,,hedge ,,plant ,,in ,,mellow ,,soil4 ,the first requisite for a hedge of any kind is to secure thrifty plants of uniform size4 ,osage ,orange plants are raised from seeds by nurserymen1 and when of the right size1 should be taken up in autumn and 8heeled in40 ,the ground1 which it is proposed to occupy by the hedge1 should be broken up in autumn and then replowed in spring1 unless it is a raw prairie sod1 which should be broken a year before the hedge is planted4 ,it is a very usual1 but very bad practice1 to plow a ridge with a back-furrow1 as shown in figure #ajf4 ,this leaves an unplowed strip of hard soil directly under the line upon which the hedge is to stand4 ,when harrowed1 it appears very fair on the surface1 but it is useless to expect young plants to thrive on such a bed of hard soil1 and its result will be as seen in figure #ajg4 ,the first growth is feeble1 irregular1 and many vacant spots appear4 ,the land should be plowed as in figure #ajh4 ,when the sod is rotted1 the land should be harrowed lengthwise of the furrows1 and the dead furrow left in the first plowing closed by twice turning back the ridge4 ,there is then a deep1 mellow1 well-drained bed for the plants in which the roots have room to grow and gather ample nutrition4 ,figure #aji shows the effect of this kind of cultivation4 ,as a barrier against stock1 or a windbreak1 it is best to plant in double rows1 each row being set opposite the spaces in the other1 thus3 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is highly desirable that the hedge should be in true1 uniform rows1 either straight or in regular curves4 ,this can be done only by setting closely to a line4 ,osage ,orange plants may be raised from seed1 but as this is a difficult operation1 it is usually best to buy young plants from a reliable nurseryman4 ,they are best cut down to about six inches high1 and the roots partially trimmed4 ,it is an advantage to 8puddle0 the roots1 which is done by dipping them in a mixture composed of one-half earth and half fresh manure from the cow stable1 wet to the consistency of a thin paste4 ,there are various methods of setting the plants4 ,some use a trowel with a blade about ten inches long2 others a dibble1 and a larger number than either of the others1 a spade4 ,for setting long lines1 in situations where appearances are of secondary importance1 young ,osage plants are set very rapidly by running a furrow where the rows are to stand1 laying the plants with their roots spread on the mellow soil1 one side of the furrow4 ,a furrow is next turned upon the roots1 and the plants which may have been disarranged are restored by hand4 ,a tread of the foot will consolidate the earth around each plant4 ,unless the subsoil is naturally very porous1 the ground must be thoroughly underdrained4 ,a line of tiles should be laid six or eight feet from the line of the hedge4 ,the ground for four or five feet on either side of the hedge1 should be kept thoroughly cultivated the first three or four years after planting4 ,this cultivation is to be done early each season and cease the first of ,july1 to give the new wood a chance to ripen4 ,the plants should be permitted to grow the first year undisturbed4 ,the following spring1 the hedge should be cut off close to the ground with a scythe or mowing machine1 and all vacancies where plants have died out or been thrown out by frost1 should be filled4 ,the ground on both sides of the ridge is to be kept well cultivated4 ,figure #aaj shows the difference in root growth in cultivated and uncultivated ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4--;,,effect ,,of ,,cultivation4 ,a thick growth of young shoots will appear1 and these are to be cut back to four inches high1 the middle of summer and again in ,september4 ,the object is to obtain a dense growth close to the ground4 ,the third year the pruning is to be repeated1 only the shoots must be left four to six inches above the last previous cutting4 ,the lateral shoots which are near the ground1 are to be left undisturbed4 ,the trimming should be such as to leave the hedge broad at the base1 with a regular slope to the summit like a double-span roof4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--;,,hedge 8,,plashed40 ,another method is to permit the hedge to grow untrimmed for four or five years4 ,it is then plashed1 or laid over sidewise4 ,this is done by cutting the plants about half through on one side with a sharp axe1 and bending them over as shown in figure #aaa4 ,the hedge is first headed back and trimmed up to reduce the top4 ,in a short time new shoots will spring from the stubs and stems1 making a dense growth of interlacing stems and branches4 ,another method of laying a hedge1 is to dig away a few inches of earth on one side of each plant to loosen the roots1 then lay the plant over to the desired angle and fasten it there4 ,the earth is then replaced around the roots1 and tread down firmly4 ,we believe that a patent is claimed for this process1 but its validity is seriously questioned4 ,it is essential that hedges1 whether planted for ornament or utility1 shall be kept in shape by trimming every year4 ,it is less labor to trim a hedge three times during the year1 when the branches are small and soft1 than once when the branches have made a full season's growth4 ,if the hedge is trimmed once in ,june and again in ,august1 it will be kept in good shape1 and the labor will be less than if the trimming was put off until spring4 ,in ,august the branches can be cut with shears or a sharp corn knife4 ,the foliage on them will aid in their burning1 when they have dried a few days in the sun4 ,the thorns are not so hard as in the spring4 ,the brush will be less1 and on account of their pliability and greater weight1 will pack into the heap much better4 ,if trimmed in ,august1 the hedge will not make any considerable growth during the fall4 ,august trimming does not injure the hedge1 rather helps it1 as it tends to ripen the wood1 preventing a late ,autumn growth to be injured by the winter4 ,the loss of sap is less than when the trimming is done in the early spring1 as then the wounds are larger1 and do not heal before the sap flows4 ,do not neglect to burn the brush as soon as it has dried sufficiently4 ,if allowed to remain on the ground1 it will harbor mice and other vermin4 ,trim the hedge in ,august and burn the brush4 ,the trimming should be done in such a manner as to expose the greater amount of foliage to the direct action of the light1 air1 rain and dew4 ,this is attained by keeping the sides at every trimming in the form of sloping walls from the broad base to the summit like a double-span roof4 ,they are sometimes trimmed with vertical sides and broad1 flat top1 but this is not a favorable plan for permanency4 ,the lower leaves and stems die out1 leaving an unsightly open bottom of naked stems1 with a broad roof of foliage above4 ,such trimming and its results have done much to bring hedges into disrepute4 ,,hedges ,,for ,,the ,,south4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4--;,,cactus ,,hedge4 ,the ,osage ,orange is a native of the ,southwestern ,states1 and flourishes on good soil anywhere in the ,south4 ,yet there are certain succulent plants which grow so rapidly in the ,south1 and require so little care1 that they are very successfully employed for hedges in the ,gulf ,states4 ,one of these is the ,yucca gloriosa1 or ,spanish ,bayonet4 ,its natural habit of growth is to produce a dense mass of leaves on a long stem4 ,but by cutting back the growth of the stiff1 armed leaves is produced low down1 and a hedge of this soon becomes an impassable barrier4 ,large panicles of beautiful white blossoms are produced at the summit1 making such a hedge very ornamental during the flowering season4 ,various species of cactus are also employed in the ,southwest for hedges4 ,in some of the ,middle-,western ,states may be seen a hedge like figure #aab4 ,at some distance from the highway1 a field had been enclosed with the tree cactus1 which there grows only from four to ten feet high4 ,the plants that were in the line of the fence were left growing1 and those cleared from the field were woven into a formidable barrier to anything larger than a rabbit4 ,while no two rods in this fence are alike1 its general appearance is like that shown in the engraving4 ,,ornamental ,,hedges ,,and ,,screens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4--;,,branch ,,of ,,japan ,,quince4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4--;,,fruit ,,and ,,flower4 ,hedges and screens for ornamental purposes alone1 do not come strictly within the scope of this work1 but we will briefly mention a few desirable plants for the purpose4 ,the ,japan ,quince1 ,cydonia ,japonica1 of which figures #aac and #aad show a branch1 flower and fruit1 is one of the best deciduous plants for an ornamental hedge4 ,it will grow in almost any soil2 if left to itself it forms a dense1 strong bush1 but it may be clipped or trained into any desired form4 ,its leaves are of dark glossy green1 they come early in spring and remain until late in ,autumn4 ,this is one of the earliest shrubs to bloom in spring2 its flowers are generally intense scarlet1 though there are varieties with white1 rose-colored1 or salmon-colored flowers4 ,a hedge of this plant is not only highly ornamental1 but its abundant thorns make a good barrier4 ,privet1 ,ligustrum vulgare1 makes a very neat screen1 but will not bear severe cutting back1 and is therefore suitable only for grounds of sufficient extent to admit of its being allowed to make unrestrained growth4 ,the common ,barberry1 ,berberis vulgaris1 also makes an exceedingly pretty screen in time1 but it is of slow growth4 ,the ,buffalo ,berry1 ,sheperdia argentea1 has been tried for hedges1 but for some reason it has never attained any popularity4 ,in the ,southern ,states1 the ,cherokee ,rose has been found quite successful for the purpose1 and nothing in the shape of a hedge can exceed1 in striking effect1 one of these in full bloom4 ,for evergreen screens nothing is better than the ,hemlock1 ,tsuga ,canadensis4 ,the ,norway ,spruce is of rapid growth and bears cutting well4 ,the ,arbor ,vit1 ,thuja occidentalis1 is also very successfully employed for the purpose4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,portable ,,fences ,,and ,,hurdles4 ,,portable ,,board ,,fences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4--,,the ,,posts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4--8;,,horses0 ,,for ,,making ,,the ,,fence4 ,figure #aah shows a very strong and secure board fence1 composed entirely of ordinary fence boards4 ,the triangular frames1 which serve as posts1 are each of two pieces of inch boards1 crossed and braced as shown in figure #aae4 ,the panels1 figure #aag1 are sixteen feet long1 each composed of four boards1 six inches wide4 ,the space between the lower two boards is two and a half inches1 second space three and a half inches4 ,a convenient way of making the panels is to use three horses1 like that shown in figure #aaf1 the length of each being equal to the total width of the panel1 and the three short upright strips marking the respective spaces between the boards4 ,the top is covered with iron to clinch the nails used in putting the panel together4 ,the boards are laid on these horses1 and the upright cross-pieces nailed on4 ,the second board from the top of each panel is notched at both ends1 as shown in figure #aag4 ,a good way to make the triangular frames alike1 is to cut the pieces by a uniform pattern4 ,then make one frame of the size and form desired1 and at each of the three places where they are nailed together1 fasten a plate of iron1 thick enough to prevent the penetration of a common wrought nail driven against it4 ,now lay this pattern frame on the floor with the iron bolts uppermost4 ,then lay three pieces on this in exactly the right position1 drive wrought nails through the two pieces and against the iron plates1 which will clinch the nails firmly as fast as they are driven4 ,this will enable the man to nail the frames together quite rapidly4 ,in setting up the fence1 each triangular frame supports the ends of two panels4 ,the upper and lower boards of each panel interlock with the frame1 as shown in figure #aah1 making a very strong fence4 ,on open prairie or other wind-swept situations1 it may be necessary to stake down some of the frames1 to prevent their blowing over4 ,this is quickly done by sharpening pieces of inch boards1 twelve inches long1 and one inch wide1 and driving one beside the foot of the triangle1 where it rests on the ground1 and putting an eight-penny nail through both4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4--;,a ,,single ,,panel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4--,,the ,,fence ,,in ,,position4 ,,portable ,,fences ,,of ,,poles ,,or ,,wire4 ,figures #aai and #abj show styles of portable fences1 which are used to some extent in the territories4 ,the base of each is the half of a small log1 split through the center4 ,for the fence shown in figure #aai1 two augur holes are bored a few inches apart1 and small poles driven to serve as posts4 ,rails or round poles of the usual length are laid to the desired height1 and the top of the posts tied together with wire4 ,in situations where timber is less plentiful1 a single stake is set into the base1 as in figure #abj1 braced1 and barbed or plain wire attached by staples4 ,besides the advantage of being easily moved1 these fences can be prepared in winter1 when there is little else to do1 and rapidly set in place at any time when the ground is clear of snow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4--,,portable ,,pole ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4--,,portable ,,wire ,,fence4 ,figure #aba is a fence made of either sawed stuff1 or of rails or poles1 having their ends flattened and bored4 ,an iron rod1 or piece of gas-pipe1 anywhere from half an inch to an inch in diameter1 is run through the holes1 and through a base block into the ground as far as necessary4 ,a round stick of tough durable wood1 an inch or more in diameter1 will answer4 ,the size of this rod and its strength will depend upon the amount of zigzag that is given to the lengths4 ,if the corners are one foot on each side of a central line1 the fence firmly held together by the rods1 will in effect stand on a two feet wide base4 ,less than this would perhaps sometimes answer1 and there are no sharp corners1 or deep recesses for weeds and rubbish4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4--,,portable ,,fence ,,of ,,poles ,,or ,,rails4 ,,portable ,,fences ,,for ,,windbreaks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4--,,portable ,,fence4 ,a fence that can be easily moved and quickly set up is shown in figure #abb4 ,it consists of panels made of strips eight or ten feet long1 nailed to two by four posts1 which are beveled to a sharp corner at the lower end4 ,these panels are supported by posts1 placed as shown in the engraving1 and pinned to the fence posts by wooden pins1 driven in by a light mallet4 ,the panels are light and can be loaded upon a wagon from which the sides and ends of the box are removed4 ,a box of pins and the mallet are all the tools required to set up the fence4 ,this fence is not easily overthrown by the wind1 which holds it down firmly when blowing on the face of it4 ,for this reason in windy localities1 the fence should be set facing the windy quarter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4--,,railroad ,,windbreak4 ,another good form of movable fence is seen in figure #abc4 ,it is made of common fence-boards1 securely nailed on very light posts or on the edge of narrow boards and braced as shown in the engraving4 ,this style of panel is largely employed by railroads as windbreaks in winter to keep the tracks from becoming covered with drifted snow4 ,it is equally convenient on the farm1 when a temporary inclosure is needed4 ,,portable ,,poultry ,,fences4 ,it is often very convenient when poultry are inclosed during the growing season1 to have a fence for the henyard which can be readily moved from place to place4 ,the illustration1 figure #abd1 shows one of these4 ,cut the posts the same length as the pickets1 and to the inner side of each attach two strong iron hoops bent into a semi-circle1 one near the bottom and the other half way up4 ,through these hoops drive stakes fitted to fill them closely1 with sharpened points for easily entering the ground4 ,when removing the fence the posts can be slipped off4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4--,,portable ,,poultry ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4--,,movable ,,fence ,,for ,,turkeys4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4--;,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,movable ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4--;,,cross-,,block ,,for ,,fence4 ,turkeys1 even when they have attained a considerable size1 should be shut up until after the dew is off the grass1 and other fowls must be confined in limited runs1 while the young are small4 ,it is quite an advantage if these runs can be changed easily1 and this can be accomplished only when they are enclosed in a light movable fence4 ,such a fence is shown in figure #abe1 on preceding page4 ,it is made in twelve or sixteen feet sections by nailing laths to light pieces of the proper length4 ,the upper end of the laths is sharpened2 the end ones are of double thickness4 ,the sections are placed with the end-laths intercrossing at the top1 and about six inches apart at the bottom1 as in cross-section1 figure #abf4 ,they are held apart by blocks1 figure #abg1 which rest on the upper edges of the cross-pieces and against the laths4 ,they are held together1 and to the ground1 by stakes driven against the outer side of the end laths4 ,as these stakes have the same angle as the laths1 they hold the sections together1 and also the fence in its place and down to the ground4 ,the triangular space where the sections join is closed by a lath driven in the ground or tacked to the block between the cross-pieces4 ,corners must be formed of two sections inclined inward1 and in the same way that sections are joined4 ,the stakes are readily withdrawn1 and the sections are so light that they are easily handled4 ,,portable ,,folding ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4--;,,fence ,,in ,,position4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4--;,,fence ,,folded4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4--;,,as ,a ,,side ,,hill ,,fence4 ,a very convenient form of portable fence or hurdle is illustrated in figures #abh1 #abi and #acj1 which was brought out some five or six years ago4 ,it may be constructed with two or three upright pieces of two-by-four-inch scantling1 and four bars1 figure #abh1 held together by carriage bolts in such a manner1 that each panel can be closed when desired1 as a parallel ruler is folded together4 ,as the bars are on alternate sides1 the panel1 when closed1 takes up the space of two bars only1 figure #abi4 ,the fence may easily be removed1 and fits itself to rolling ground or side-hill1 as shown in figure #acj4 ,when in position it may be supported by stakes of the same thickness as the upright bars1 and driven close beside them4 ,,temporary ,,wire ,,and ,,iron ,,fences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4--,,temporary ,,wire ,,fence4 ,several kinds of wire and iron fences are used in ,france to make temporary enclosures for exhibition purposes4 ,two forms are illustrated herewith4 ,figure #aca is made of plain iron wire with cast or wrought iron posts4 ,each post has a plate on its lower end1 which is set eighteen inches below the surface of the ground1 and the earth filled in compactly about it4 ,the front of the engraving shows the holes in section1 with the plates4 ,the top strand is a wire rope made by twisting several strands together4 ,the fence seen at figure #acb is made of narrow strips of sheet iron attached to iron posts driven into the ground4 ,the gate1 like that of the other form1 is provided with small wheels1 which run on a track4 ,the two fences may be modified by using wooden posts sharpened at the lower end1 and driven into the ground1 then fastening to them with suitable staples strips of rather broad hoop-iron at the top1 with plain wire below4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4--,,temporary ,,iron ,,fence4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,fences ,,for ,,streams ,,and ,,gullies4 ,,flood ,,fences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4--,,strong ,,flood-,,gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4--;,a ,,cheaper ,,flood-,,gate4 ,in a situation where a line of fence crosses a stream or a gully liable to be flooded1 it is necessary to make special provision for it4 ,a fence extending down near the surface and sufficiently rigid to withstand the current1 would arrest the driftwood and other objects floated down on the flood1 and soon become a dam4 ,the right kind of a fence must therefore yield to the force of the flood1 and renew its position1 or be easily replaced after it has subsided4 ,figure #acc is a very effectual flood-gate for a running stream4 ,the posts1 ,b1 ,b1 are firmly set on the bank1 and a stick of timber1 ,a1 mortised on the top of them4 ,the three uprights1 ,c1 ,c1 ,c1 are hinged to the cross-timber1 and the boards1 ,f1 fastened in place by ten-penny steel fence nails4 ,the gate easily swings with the current1 ,d4 ,figure #acd shows a form which operates in a similar manner like the other4 ,it consists of two stout posts1 five feet high1 bearing a heavy cross-bar1 rounded at each end1 and fitted into sockets1 in which the bar with gate attached can swing4 ,the construction of the gate is easily seen from the engraving4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4--;,,fence ,,for ,a ,,forest ,,stream4 ,the above forms are self-acting1 and swing back to their places as the water subsides4 ,for larger streams1 it is necessary to construct fences that give way before the flood1 and can be brought into position again when it is over4 ,one of these1 for a stream which is liable to bring down much driftwood1 is shown in figure #ace4 ,the logs are the trunks of straight trees1 about eighteen inches in diameter1 which are hewed on two sides2 posts are mortised in each of these logs1 and on them planks are firmly nailed4 ,the logs are then linked together with inch iron rods1 and the first one connected by means of a long link to a tree or post firmly set in the ground upon the banks of the stream4 ,the links must all work freely4 ,when high water occurs1 the fence is washed around and left on the bank2 after the water has subsided sufficiently1 the logs may be dragged back to their places1 as shown in the engraving1 by means of a horse1 hitched to a staple in the end of the log4 ,figure #acf shows a lighter fence made of poles or rails1 held by interlinking staples to the posts on the side of the stream4 ,as the floods come down1 the rails are washed from the center1 and float freely at either side of the stream4 ,they can be laid up in place again when the water subsides4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4--;,,fence ,,of ,,movable ,,rails4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4--;,,an ,,extemporised ,,flood-,,fence4 ,the fence shown in figure #acg1 though rather rude and primitive1 has the advantage of being cheaply constructed and permanent4 ,two strong posts are driven into the banks on the margin of the stream1 to which a log1 a foot or more in diameter1 is fastened by pins1 spikes or withes1 about twenty inches above low water mark4 ,then fence rails are sharpened at one end1 driven into the stream above the log1 upon which the other ends rest1 projecting about a foot4 ,they are then securely spiked or pinned to the log1 and the work is done4 ,the pointed ends of the rails are up the stream1 and in case of flood1 the water pours over the obstruction1 carrying with it brush1 driftwood1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4--;,,automatic ,,flood-,,gate4 ,the flood-gate1 figure #ach1 is designed to prevent small stock from passing from one field to another through a water-course under a fence where there is low water1 while in time of high water the gate will rise sufficiently to allow the floating trash to pass through1 but not higher1 as it is self-fastening4 ,the invention consists of a gate constructed of perpendicular slats hinged above1 and moving4 ,this hangs across a stream or ditch4 ,on the down-stream side of the gate a swing paddle is fixed1 which hangs in the water4 ,this1 marked a in the illustration1 is attached to an angular bar1 b1 which is moved when the flow of water presses with force against the paddle4 ,two notched pieces1 c c1 attached to the gate1 rest upon the angular bar1 b1 at low water2 when both the paddle and the gate hang at rest1 perpendicularly1 these notched pieces1 c c1 hold the gate firmly shut2 when1 however1 the water rises and the paddle is moved sufficiently to disengage the notches1 the gate will be moved by the force of the water1 and if sticks or rubbish of any kind float down against it they will be swept under it by the water4 ,when the water subsides1 the paddle swings back1 the pieces1 c c1 catch and keep the gate closed at any height it may fall to4 ,let the cross-piece1 d1 that is halved into the posts1 be about one foot above the banks of the ditch4 ,the pieces1 f f f f1 represent the fence above the ditch1 the small posts1 g g1 with the pieces nailed to them1 are to prevent the stock from passing when the gate is partly closed1 at the same time bracing the posts1 e e2 the holes at h are to raise and lower the paddle a2 if small1 a cleat on one of the arms upon which the piece ,b is hung1 prevents the paddle from swinging towards the gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4--;,a ,,missouri ,,flood-,,fence4 ,figure #aci shows a kind of fence used in ,missouri to put across sloughs4 ,it is in effect two panels of portable fence4 ,the posts are set three to four feet deep1 with the tops about one foot above ground2 the other posts1 to which the planks are nailed1 are bolted to the top of the inserted posts4 ,the ends of the panel that connect with the post on the bank are slightly nailed with cross-strips near the top1 so as to be easily broken loose when the flood comes4 ,there are also temporary braces bearing upstream1 put in to prevent the fence from falling1 but are easily washed out1 when the fence falls down stream1 and logs and other obstructions pass by readily4 ,as soon as the flood goes down1 the fence is easily raised1 a panel at a time1 to a proper place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4--;,,freshet ,,fence4 ,figure #adj shows a cheap and effective form of flood fence4 ,the material used are square-hewn timbers1 seven or eight inches for sills1 stone pillars1 split rails about ten feet long4 ,the rails are driven in the ground about two feet deep2 the upper ends project above the sill two or three feet1 and are spiked down to the sill with large spikes2 when the freshet comes1 logs and driftwood are carried over1 and the fence will be left in as good order as before the high water4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4--;,,california ,,gulch ,,fence4 ,figure #ada represents a gulch fence or gate which is in common use in some parts of the ,pacific ,slope4 ,it is particularly adapted to the gulches of the foot hills and the irrigating ditches of the plains4 ,the whole gate swings freely by the upper pole1 the ends of which rest in large holes in posts on either bank1 or in the cross of stakes4 ,the upright pieces may be of split pickets or sawed lumber1 as may be the most convenient4 ,if the stream is likely to carry floating brush1 logs1 etc41 the slats should be of heavier material than is necessary when this is not the case4 ,when constructed properly the gate will give1 allowing rubbish and freshets to pass1 and then resume its proper position4 ,the principal advantage claimed for this gate is that it is not apt to gather the passing debris4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4--;,,fence ,,for ,a ,,dry ,,gully4 ,a gully is sometimes difficult to fence properly1 but by hanging a frame over it1 as is seen in figure #adb1 the object may be quickly accomplished4 ,the frame can be spiked together in a short time1 or framed together if a more elaborate one is desired4 ,to make it serve its purpose completely1 the rails must be closer together near the bottom than at the top of the frame1 in order to prevent small animals from going through it4 ,a modification of this last named device1 seen at figure #adc1 gives greater space for the passage of brushwood or other large objects1 which may be swept down on the flood4 ,the width1 strength and size of the bases supporting the side posts1 and of the braces1 will depend upon the width and depth of the channel4 ,the base pieces can be firmly anchored by stakes driven slanting over the ends and outsides1 or by stones piled on4 ,for wide1 shallow streams1 three or even more braced uprights can be anchored eight or ten feet apart in the bed with heavy stones1 with two or more swinging sections4 ,if small trees or long timbers are likely to float down1 the swinging gate may be twelve or fifteen feet wide4 ,for smaller streams1 with strong high banks1 five or six feet will suffice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4--;,a ,,freshet ,,fence4 ,,portable ,,tide ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4--,,section ,,of ,a ,,tide ,,fence4 ,figure #add represents a fence for tide-creeks4 ,it is made usually of pine1 the larger pieces1 those which lie on the ground and parallel with the run of the fence1 are three by four-inch pieces1 hemlock or pine1 and connected by three cross-bars1 of three by four-inch pieces1 mortised in three feet apart4 ,into the middle of these three cross-pieces1 the upright or posts are securely mortised1 while two common boards are nailed underneath the long pieces1 to afford a better rest for the structure1 when floating on the water or resting on the ground4 ,barbed or plain wires are stretched along the posts1 which are four feet high4 ,,watering ,,place ,,in ,a ,,creek4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4--;,a ,,clean ,,watering ,,place4 ,cattle naturally select a certain place in a water-course to drink at1 where the bank is not precipitous4 ,during a good part of the year this bank is muddy1 on account of its moisture and trampling of the animals4 ,as a result1 the horses get the scratches1 the cows come to the milking pen with muddy udders1 and frequently animals are injured by the crowding in the mud4 ,hogs are often seriously injured1 because the mud becomes so deep and tough1 that they are well nigh helpless in it4 ,another objection is that the animals wade to the middle of the creek1 and soon make its bottom as muddy as the bank1 and the water becomes unfit for drinking4 ,the arrangement shown in our illustration1 which may be built of heavy plank1 brick1 or flat stones1 prevents all this4 ,it is constructed by first making an incline to a level platform for the animals to stand on while drinking4 ,this plane terminates in an abrupt descent1 forming a trough for the water to flow through4 ,the trough should not be more than two feet wide1 that the animals may easily get across it4 ,the level floor permits the animals to drink at their ease1 often a matter of importance4 ,such a drinking place should be made at the upper end of the creek1 where it passes through a field to prevent the animals from soiling the water by standing in it above where they drink4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,making ,,and ,,setting ,,posts4 ,,making ,,fence ,,posts4 ,there is quite an art in splitting logs into posts4 ,every post should have some heart wood1 which lasts the longer1 for two reasons3 ,that there may be durable wood into which to drive the nails1 and without it some of the posts1 composed entirely of sap-wood1 will rot off long before others1 making the most annoying of all repairing necessary4 ,if the log is of a size to make twelve posts1 split along the lines of figure #adf1 which will give each post a share of heart wood4 ,this will make a cross section of the posts triangular1 the curved base being somewhat more than half of either side4 ,this is a fairly well shaped post1 and much better than a square one having little or no heart wood4 ,although the log may be large enough to make sixteen or eighteen posts1 it is better to split it the same way4 ,it should first be cut into halves1 then quarters1 then twelfths4 ,if it is attempted to split one post off the side of a half1 the wood will 8draw out10 making the post larger at one end than the other--not a good shape1 for there will be little heart wood at the small end4 ,when the log is too large to admit of it being split in that way1 each post may nevertheless be given enough heart wood by splitting along the lines1 shown in figure #adg4 ,first cut the logs into halves1 then quarters1 then eighths4 ,then split off the edge of each eighth1 enough for a post--about one-fourth only of the wood1 as it is all heart wood1 and then halve the balance4 ,a good post can be taken off the edge1 and yet enough heart wood for the remaining two posts remain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,a ,,post ,,holder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4--;,a ,,post ,,holder4 ,a simple arrangement for holding a post while it is being bored or mortised1 is shown in figure #adh4 ,it consists of two long pieces of round or square timber1 lying parallel upon the ground1 and two shorter sticks resting upon them at right angles4 ,the upper pieces have saddles cut out for the posts to fit into4 ,a staple with a large iron hook or 8dog10 is fastened into one end of each cross-piece1 as shown in the engraving4 ,when the post is laid in position1 the hooks are driven into it holding it firmly4 ,,driving ,,fence ,,posts ,,by ,,hand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4--;,,driving ,,fence ,,posts4 ,where the soil is soft1 loose1 and free from stone1 posts may be driven more easily and firmly than if set in holes dug for the purpose4 ,an easy method of driving is shown in figure #adi4 ,a wagon is loaded with posts and furnished with a stage in the rear end of the box1 upon which a person can stand to give the posts the first start4 ,another man holds the posts upright while they are driven4 ,when one post is driven to its place1 the wagon is moved to the next place1 and this operation repeated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej4--,,maul ,,for ,,driving ,,posts4 ,to drive posts1 a wooden maul should be used4 ,this is made of a section of an elm trunk or branch1 eight or nine inches in diameter1 figure #aej4 ,an iron ring is driven on each end1 and wedged all around1 the wood at the edge being beaten down over the rings with a hammer or the poll of an axe4 ,to prevent the posts from splitting or being battered too much1 the ends of the maul should be hollowed a little1 and never rounded out1 and the ends of the posts should be beveled all around4 ,the hole in the maul for the handle should be made larger on one side1 and lengthwise of the maul1 and the handle spread by two wedges driven in such a way as not to split the maul4 ,,to ,,drive ,,posts ,,without ,,splitting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aec4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4--,,scantling ,,with ,,handle ,,in ,,position4 ,posts are very liable to split in driving1 unless some precaution is used4 ,this damage and loss can be avoided in a great measure by proper preparation of the posts before they are driven4 ,the tops of sawed posts should have the sides cut off1 as in figure #aea1 or simply cut off each corner1 as in figure #aec1 while a round post should be shaped as in figure #aeb4 ,the part of the post removed need not be more than half an inch in thickness1 but when the corners only are cut away1 the chip should be thicker4 ,in driving1 it is very important to strike the post squarely on the top1 and not at one corner or side4 ,in most soils at the ,north1 the frosts heave posts more or less each season1 and they need to be driven down to the usual depth4 ,to do this with little injury to the post1 the device shown in figure #aed may be used4 ,it is a piece of tough hard wood scantling1 e1 eighteen inches in length1 with tapering ends4 ,it is provided with a handle1 h1 three feet in length1 of quite small size1 and if possible1 of green timber4 ,in using it1 let one person 7a boy will do7 lay the bit of scantling on top of the post to be re-driven1 when1 with the beetle or sledge1 the scantling1 instead of the post is struck1 thus preventing the splitting of the post4 ,when the top of a fence is surmounted by a stringer1 as in the engraving1 the effect of the blow is distributed over a large space1 and both stringer and post escape injury4 ,the attendant should keep hold of the handle1 h1 while the posts are being driven1 and move the scantling from post to post as required4 ,a ,,powerful ,,post ,,driver4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4--,,the ,,post-,,driver4 ,for a farmer who has a large number of posts to set1 a special apparatus for driving them will be found useful4 ,the accompanying illustrations show a machine of this kind4 ,an axle1 a1 figure #aee1 of hard wood1 eight and one-half feet long2 a hickory sapling will do4 ,it has spindles shaved to fit the hind wheels of a wagon1 which are fastened by linch-pins1 leaving about six feet space between the hubs4 ,a coupling-pole1 b1 thirteen feet long1 is framed in and strongly braced at right angles with the axle1 and connects in front with the forward axle of a common wagon4 ,the main sill1 d1 figure #aef1 is one stick of timber1 six by eight inches1 by fourteen feet long and has a cross-piece1 e1 framed in the end4 ,two side-pieces1 f1 two by four inches by five feet long1 are pinned or bolted to the main sill at g1 and cross-pieces framed into them1 as shown in figure #aef1 so framed that the lower edges of the side-pieces will be two inches from the axle1 when the main sill rests on the axle4 ,the side-pieces1 f1 should be twenty-two inches apart at the ends4 ,the front end of the main sill rests on the front axle1 in place of a bolster1 and the 8king-bolt0 passes through it at h2 the upright guides1 i1 are two by four inches by fourteen feet long1 bolted to the side-pieces1 f1 with a space of fourteen inches between2 a cap1 j1 two by three by twenty-six inches long1 is framed on top4 ,two braces1 k1 two by four inches by sixteen feet long1 are bolted to the upright guides1 two feet below the cap1 and connect at the bottom with a cross-piece1 l1 two by eight by twenty-two inches long1 between the braces4 ,it has rounded ends passing through two-inch holes in the braces1 and fastened by a pin outside1 to form a loose joint4 ,this cross-piece1 l1 is held down on the main sill by a strip1 m1 and steadied by cleats2 it is free to slide back or forward1 and is held in place by a short pin4 ,by moving this cross-piece1 the upright guides1 i1 are kept perpendicular when going up or down hill4 ,a small windlass1 o1 figure #aee1 is placed under the axle1 a1 between hangers framed into the axle1 close to the hubs4 ,two brace-ropes1 or wires1 p1 are fastened to this windlass at the extreme ends1 and wound around it a turn or two in opposite directions1 drawn tight and fastened to the main braces near the top4 ,by turning the windlass1 o1 slightly1 by means of a short bar1 the machine may lean to either side1 to conform to sliding ground1 thus being adjustable in all directions4 ,the maul1 r1 figure #aeg1 of tough oak1 fourteen by eighteen inches1 by two feet long1 weighs about two hundred pounds1 is grooved to fit smoothly between the guides2 the follower1 s1 is more plainly shown in the engraving1 also the simple latch1 by which the follower and maul are connected and disconnected4 ,the square clevis1 t1 is of three-quarter inch iron1 suspended from the same iron pin1 u1 on which the pulley1 v1 is placed4 ,it is partly imbedded in the wooden casing1 w1 which is eight by eighteen inches2 this casing serves to inclose the pulley1 v1 and also to trip the latch when brought together2 the clevis1 t1 is caught under the hook fastened in the maul1 is pressed into place by a small hickory spring1 y1 acting on a small iron pin1 z2 when it reaches the top1 the crotch1 #a1 suspended from the top1 comes in contact with the pin1 #b1 and the clevis1 t1 is pressed back1 and releases the hook1 x1 when the maul drops4 ,the windlass1 #c1 figure #aee1 has two cranks1 and a ratchet for convenience4 ,the rope passes from the windlass over the pulley at the top1 down and under the pulley1 v1 then up1 and is fastened at #g1 on the cap1 j1 wire braces at #h4 ,by releasing the cranks and ratchet1 the follower will run down the guides1 and1 striking the maul1 will 8click0 the latch into place1 ready for another hoist4 ,for two men it is easy work1 and can be handled quite rapidly4 ,drive astride the proposed line of fence2 lay a measuring-pole on the ground to mark the spot for the next post2 drive forward with the post driver1 having the maul partly raised1 set up a post1 and proceed to drive it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4--;,,bottom ,,of ,,driver4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4--,,top ,,of ,,upright4 ,,setting ,a ,,gate ,,post4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4--;,a ,,gate ,,post ,,set ,,in ,,cement4 ,no matter how strong or how well braced a gate may be1 it will soon begin to sag and catch on the ground1 if the gate post is not firmly planted4 ,sometimes1 owing to the soft nature of the ground1 it is almost impossible to plant the post firmly1 but in such cases the work can generally be done satisfactorily by packing medium-sized stones around the post1 in the hole1 as shown in figure #aeh4 ,if it is thought that this will not insure sufficient firmness1 add good cement4 ,place in a layer of stones1 then cement enough to imbed the next layer of stones1 and so on1 until the hole is full and the post planted4 ,do not cover up the stones with earth or disturb the post for a few days1 until the cement has 8set40 ,remember that the post must be set plumb while the work is going on1 as it can never be straightened after the cement has 8set40 ,only durable posts should be used1 and this method of setting should only be followed with gate posts which are supposed to be permanent1 and not with posts liable to be changed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4--;,,gate ,,post ,,braced ,,with ,,stones4 ,a still better method is shown in figure #aei4 ,before the post is set into the hole1 a flat stone is laid edgewise in the bottom1 on the side which is to receive the greatest pressure from the foot of the post4 ,when the post is set1 and the hole half filled with earth1 a second stone is placed against the post on the side to which it will be drawn by the weight of the gate4 ,the stones receive the pressure and hold the post firmly in position4 ,,fence ,,posts ,,for ,,wet ,,lands4 ,low meadow and other marsh land is subject to heaving by the frost1 and much difficulty is experienced in securing firm fences upon such ground1 as the posts are drawn up by the freezing of the surface4 ,to avoid this1 much may be done in the way of selecting posts that are larger at one end than the other4 ,it will help very much to put a strong1 durable pin through the bottom end of the post1 or to notch it at each side1 as in figure #afj1 and to brace the bottom with a flat stone1 driven well into the side of the hole with the rammer4 ,when the soil is very soft and mucky1 it is best to drive the posts and to make them hold well in the ground1 to spike wedge-shaped pieces to them on either side1 by which they are held firmly in their places4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4--;,,different ,,methods ,,of ,,treating ,,posts4 ,,live ,,posts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4 ,a living tree which stands in the right place1 makes a very durable and substantial fence-post4 ,in the great treeless regions of the ,mississippi ,valley1 where it is difficult to obtain timber for posts1 it is not an unusual practice to plant trees for the purpose on street boundaries1 and other places where the fence is to be permanent4 ,white willow is well adapted for the purpose on suitable soils1 as it grows rapidly and bears close pruning4 ,in situations where the soil is even moderately damp1 white willow posts1 four inches in diameter1 cut green and set in spring1 will take root and grow4 ,the new branches soon form a bushy head1 which may be cut back from time to time4 ,it is not advisable to nail boards or drive staples directly into the tree4 ,with a board fence1 the swaying of the tree loosens the nails1 and if barbed wire is stapled to the tree1 the bark and wood will in time grow over them as in figure #afa4 ,to obviate this1 a stick is nailed to the tree as in figure #afb1 and to this the fence is attached4 ,a still better method is to secure the strip of wood to the tree by two or three pairs of interlocking staples4 ,,mending ,a ,,split ,,post4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4--,,mending ,a ,,split ,,post4 ,fence posts split from a variety of causes1 and when they are in this condition they make a very insecure fence4 ,the usual way is to merely nail an old horseshoe or two across the split part1 just below the holes in the posts4 ,this answers fairly well1 but does not draw the cleft together1 and horseshoes are not always on hand4 ,a better method of doing this is shown in figure #afc4 ,a short1 stout chain is put around the top of the post1 just tight enough to admit of a strong lever4 ,the parts of the posts are then brought together by a heavy downward pressure of the lever and held there1 while a strip of good tin1 such as can be cut from the bodies of tin cans1 is put around and securely nailed4 ,if the post is a heavy one and the cleft large1 it is well to take the entire body of a can and double it1 to give it additional strength before nailing it on4 ,the dotted lines show where the tin is nailed4 ,,hook ,,for ,,wiring ,,posts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4--;,a ,,stake ,,drawer ,,used ,,in ,,wiring ,,fences4 ,figure #afd shows a modified cant-hook for drawing together the upper extremities of fence stakes that are to be wired1 as in the engraving4 ,the half-moon shaped iron1 a1 is riveted fast to the top end of the lever1 and is to prevent the end of the lever from slipping off the stake when in use4 ,the second iron from the top1 b1 is twenty-five inches long1 with two hooks at the end1 though one will do2 this is to catch the stake on the opposite side of the fence4 ,this iron is fastened in the lever by a bolt in a long mortise1 in the same way1 as the hook in an ordinary cant-hook4 ,the iron rod1 c1 has a hole in one end1 and is drawn out to a point at the other--this is fastened to the lever by a bolt in a long mortise1 and serves to catch in the stake or rail1 and hold the stakes together1 while the man adjusts the iron around the stakes4 ,when the stakes are drawn tightly to the fence1 this rod is drawn up until it strikes the stake or one of the rails1 when the man can let go of the 8drawer10 and it holds itself4 ,the lever is four feet and three inches long1 and two inches square1 with the corners taken off part of the way down1 the lower end being rounded for a handle1 as shown in the engraving4 ,,drawing ,,fence ,,posts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4--;,,drawing ,,fence ,,posts4 ,figure #afe shows a practicable method of drawing out fence posts by the aid of an ox team4 ,a stout piece of timber with a large flat 8foot0 is placed under the chain to change the direction of the draft4 ,two men and a steady yoke of oxen can extract fence posts very quickly and easily by this method4 ,a good steady team of horses will do quite as well as oxen4 ,,lifting ,,posts ,,by ,,hand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4--;,a ,,convenient ,,post ,,lifter4 ,a convenient and sensible implement1 for taking up fence posts without the aid of a team1 is shown at figure #aff4 ,it consists of a stout pole of the size and shape of a wagon tongue4 ,the thicker part of this pole1 for about fifteen inches from the end1 is shaped into a wedge4 ,this is sheathed with a frame made of iron1 half an inch thick and two and a half inches wide1 and securely fastened with screws or bolts4 ,the end should be pointed and slightly bent upwards4 ,the manner of using this convenient implement is shown in the illustration4 ,frequently a farmer has occasion to lift posts1 and has not time to wait for the construction of an iron-shod lever4 ,figure #afg shows a very simple1 inexpensive contrivance for such cases4 ,a spadeful of earth is taken from each side of the post1 and a short1 strong chain loosely fastened around the lower end of the post1 as far down as it can be placed4 ,a strong lever--a stout rail will answer the purpose--is passed through the chain1 as shown in the engraving1 until the end of the rail catches firm soil4 ,by lifting at the other end of the lever the post is raised several inches1 when both chain and lever are pushed down again for a second hold1 which generally brings the post out4 ,the chain is furnished with a stout hook at one end1 made to fit the links1 so that it can be quickly adjusted to any ordinary post4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4--,,lifting ,a ,,post4 ,,splicing ,,fence ,,posts4 ,there are places1 as crossing over gullies1 etc41 where unusually long posts are desirable1 though not always easy to obtain4 ,in such cases properly spliced posts are almost as durable as entire ones4 ,the engraving of the front and side views1 figure #afh1 shows how the splice may be made to secure strength and durability4 ,the splices should be made with a shoulder at the lower end1 and well nailed together1 after which one or two bands of hoop-iron may be passed around the splice and securely fastened4 ,the hoop-iron band is one of the most important points in a splice of this kind4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4--,,splicing ,,fence ,,posts4 ,,application ,,of ,,wood ,,preservatives4 ,to prevent decay at the center1 as well as of all that part of the post placed below ground1 by use of wood preserving solutions1 the following system is both novel and valuable3 ,it is to have a hole in the center of the post1 from the bottom upward1 to a point that shall be above the ground when the post is in position4 ,then bore another hole in the side of the post with a slight inclination downward1 making an opening in the center hole1 as shown in figure #afi4 ,a wooden plug1 two or three inches long1 should be driven snugly into the hole at the bottom of the post1 in order to prevent the escape of any liquid that may be used in the operation4 ,when the posts are set in an upright position1 a preservative solution may be introduced into the hole in the side and the centre one filled with it1 after which a cork plug of some kind should be inserted in the side hole1 to prevent evaporation1 as well as to keep out dust and insects4 ,the solutions thus introduced will gradually be absorbed by the surrounding wood1 until all parts along the entire length of the central cavity must become completely saturated4 ,when the solutions used have been taken up by the surrounding wood1 it will only be necessary to withdraw the cork or plug1 and apply more1 if it is thought desirable4 ,a common watering pot with a slender spout will be a handy vessel to use in distributing the solutions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4--,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,bored ,,post4 ,petroleum1 creosote1 corrosive sublimate1 or any other of the well known wood preservatives may be used in this way4 ,telegraph posts might be prepared in the same way1 and if the central reservoirs were kept filled with petroleum1 they would last a hundred years or more4 ,where a large number of posts or poles are to be prepared1 it would be cheaper to have the holes bored by steam or horse power than by hand4 ,with very open and porous wood it is quite probable that a hole bored in the side of the post and above the ground1 and deep enough to hold a half pint or more of creosote or some other similar solution1 would answer1 but a central cavity reaching to the bottom1 would perhaps1 be best4 ,,iron ,,fence ,,posts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4--,,post4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4--;,,disc4 ,the advent of wire fences was followed by a call for posts in the prairie regions1 where timber is scarce4 ,several forms of iron posts have been devised1 of which the leading ones are illustrated herewith4 ,figure #agj is of iron1 one-quarter of an inch thick and two and a half inches wide1 rolled to a curve and pierced at the proper intervals for the staples1 which are to be clinched on the concave side4 ,the disc1 figure #aga1 is swedged out of one fourth inch iron4 ,it is sunken a little below the ground1 and the post driven through the curved opening1 into which it fits closely4 ,figure #agb is a flat iron bar1 with slots cut diagonally into one side to receive the wire4 ,the post is supported by two tiles with holes to fit the post1 which is thrust through them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4--,,post ,,with ,,tiles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4 ,figure #agc is made of angle iron braced at the surface of the ground1 with an angular iron plate rolled for the purpose1 and driven to its place4 ,figure #agd shows an iron post1 with the ground-piece and driving tube to the left of it4 ,the post is a round iron bar or tube1 with notches for the wires1 which are held in place with short pieces of binding-wire1 wound around the post4 ,the ground-piece1 which is shown in the middle of the engraving1 is of cast iron1 eleven inches long1 and five inches across the top1 with two loops for inserting the iron post4 ,this is driven into the ground1 and the iron post driven through it4 ,at the left of the engraving is shown the device for driving the post4 ,it is a piece of common gas-pipe1 just large enough to slip easily over the top of the post1 and provided on the top with an iron cap to receive the blow of the large hammer or maul used in driving4 ,figure #age shows a cast iron ground piece1 and at the right is the lower end of a post resting in one of them4 ,the three flanges are cast in one solid piece1 with a hole through the centre of any desired form and size4 ,the wings or flanges are three inch plates1 running to sharp edges on the bottom1 so that they can easily be driven into the ground4 ,they may be of any desired size1 larger sizes being required for a light yielding soil than for a stiff one4 ,figure #agf is an iron post on a wooden base1 for situations where the ground is soft and wet4 ,the base is preferably of cedar1 three to four feet long1 four inches thick1 and four to six inches wide4 ,it is to be sunken in the ground crosswise with the line of fence4 ,the post is of iron1 set and stapled into the end-piece1 as shown in the engraving4 ,before being put in place1 the whole is saturated with hot coal tar1 as a preservative4 ,there is less call for iron posts than was anticipated when wire fences first came into general use4 ,it is found that wooden posts can be delivered in any location reached by railway at less cost than iron posts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4--,,post ,,with ,,iron ,,ground ,,piece4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4--;,,cast-,,iron ,,ground-,,piece4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,gates ,,and ,,fastenings4 ,,wooden ,,gates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,as board and picket fences have gradually replaced rail and other primitive fences1 useful but inconvenient 8bars0 have begun to disappear1 and tidy gates are seen4 ,the saving in time required to take down and put up bars1 rather than open and close gates1 amounts to a good deal4 ,a good wooden gate will last a long time4 ,gateways should be at least fourteen feet wide4 ,all the wood used in the construction of the gate should be well seasoned4 ,it is best to plane all the wood-work1 though this is not absolutely necessary4 ,cover each tenon with thick paint before it is placed in its mortise4 ,fasten the brace to the cross-piece with small bolts or wrought nails well clinched4 ,mortise the ends of the boards into the end-posts1 and secure them in place with wooden pins wedged at both ends1 or iron bolts4 ,the best are made of pine fence-boards six inches wide2 the ends should be four by twenty-four inch scantling1 although the one at the latch may be lighter4 ,five cross-pieces are enough4 ,the lighter the gate in proportion to strength1 the better it is4 ,there is but one right way to brace a gate1 and many wrong ones4 ,the object of bracing is to strengthen the gate1 and also to prevent its sagging4 ,gates sag in two ways2 by the moving to the one side of the posts upon which the gates are hung1 and the settling of the gates themselves4 ,unless braced the only thing to hold the gate square is the perfect rigidity of the tenons in the mortises2 but the weight of the gate will loosen these1 and allow the end of the gate opposite the hinges to sag4 ,it is plain that a brace placed like that shown in figure #agg will not prevent this settling down4 ,the only opposition it can give is the resistance of the nails1 and these will draw loose in the holes as readily as the tenons in the mortises4 ,a brace set as shown at figure #agh is not much better1 as the resistance must depend upon the rigidity of the upright piece in the middle1 and the bolts or nails holding it will give way enough to allow the gate to sag4 ,the method shown in figure #agi is fully as faulty1 while the form shown in figure #ahj is even worse4 ,it seems strange that any one should brace a gate in these ways1 but it is quite frequently seen attempted4 ,the only right way to brace a gate is shown in figure #aha4 ,the gate may be further strengthened as shown in figure #ahb4 ,before the gate can sag1 the brace must be shortened2 for as the gate settles1 the points a and b must come closer together1 and this the brace effectually prevents4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,the posts should be set in such a way that they will not be pulled to one side and allow the gate to sag4 ,the post should be put below the line of frost1 or else it will be heaved out of position2 three feet in the ground is none too deep4 ,have a large post and make a big hole for it4 ,be careful to set the post plumb and stamp the earth firmly in the hole--it cannot be stamped too hard4 ,while stamping1 keep walking around the post1 so that the earth will be firmed on all sides4 ,blocks may be arranged as shown in figure #ahc2 but this is not really necessary1 when the posts have been rightly set1 although it may be advisable to take this further precaution4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,to remove the pulling weight of the gate when closed1 the swinging end may rest upon a block2 or a pin inserted in the end-piece of the gate may rest in a slot sawed in the post1 or on a shoulder of the post4 ,figure #ahd shows one end of a combination of two plans--the iron rod from near the top of the high post holds the gate while the strain upon the post is lessened by the opposite end of the closed gate being supported on the other post4 ,for hanging the gate the best hinges are doubtless those shown in figure #ahe4 ,one part passes through the end-piece of the gate1 and is secured by a nut on the end4 ,the other piece is heated and driven into the post1 following the path of a small augur-hole4 ,next to this comes the strap hinge1 which should be fastened with bolts or screws4 ,three easy1 cheap ways of supporting the gate are shown in figures #ahf1 #ahg1 and #ahh4 ,in figure #ahf1 a stout band of wood1 or one of iron1 may be used in place of the chain4 ,and in place of the stool for the reception of the lower end of the end-piece1 a block resting on the ground1 or a shoulder on the post1 may be substituted4 ,the mode shown in figure #ahg is common in the ,west4 ,its construction needs no explanation4 ,by sliding the gate back until it almost balances it may be carried around with ease4 ,in figure #ahh1 the fastening1 or latch1 must be so arranged as to hold the lower part of the gate in position4 ,the box of stone renders it easier to move the gate4 ,a heavy block of wood serves the same purpose4 ,a ,,very ,,substantial ,,farm ,,gate4 ,figure #ahi shows a gate which combines great durability with much rustic beauty4 ,the cedar posts1 ,a ,a1 should be four feet in the ground1 and at least ten feet out of the ground4 ,b represents a piece of #b by #f hard pine1 into which the posts are mortised4 ,c is a #d by #d clear pine1 turned at both ends and mortised as shown in figure #aia4 ,d ,e ,f are #a by #d pine strips4 ,g is a #a by #f pine strip1 a sectional view being given in figure #aij4 ,it is best to use one piece each of ,d and ,e1 letting ,f come between them1 as it gives more stiffness to the gate4 ,h is a block of cedar with a hole bored or dug large enough to receive the post1 ,c1 and to make it more lasting1 a small hole should be bored through the block1 so as to let whatever water collects in it pass away2 the block should not be less than eighteen inches long--four inches above ground4 ,i shows wire fence connected4 ,j is a strong wire carried and secured to the bottom of the first fence-post4 ,k ,k are cleats attached to posts to keep them more firmly in the ground4 ,l are stones for posts1 ,a ,a1 to stand on4 ,m shows the hinge1 made so as to take up the sag after the gate settles1 and as the wood wears out4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4--;,a ,,substantial ,,gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4 ,a ,,strong ,,and ,,neat ,,gate4 ,the posts1 a1 a1 figure #aib1 of oak or other durable wood1 are eight inches square1 and stand five and one-half feet above the ground4 ,the posts1 b1 b1 three and one third inches thick1 four and three-quarter feet long1 are mortised to receive the slats1 c1 c1 which are of inch stuff1 three inches wide and ten feet four and three-quarter inches long4 ,they are let into posts1 b1 b1 at the distance marked in the engraving4 ,the slats1 d1 are three inches wide1 and one inch thick1 and are placed opposite each other on front and back of the gate as braces2 e1 e1 are simply battens to make a straight surface for the hinges1 f1 f2 all except the upper and lower ones are very short and carried back to the post4 ,the hinges1 made by a blacksmith from an old wagon tire1 are one and one-half inch wide1 three-sixteenth inch thick1 and are fastened by light iron bolts through the battens at e1 and to the rear post4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4--;,a ,,well-,,made ,,gate4 ,the above describes a cheap1 light1 durable gate1 which in over twenty-three years' use has never sagged1 though standing in the thoroughfare of three farms1 and also1 for years past1 used for access to a sawmill4 ,it is made of the best pine4 ,the hinge is an important point4 ,it is not only cheap and easily made1 but acts as a brace for the gate at every point1 and thus permits the gate to be lightly made4 ,with this hinge sagging is impossible4 ,a gate of this kind will rot down first4 ,,light ,,iron ,,gates4 ,the gate shown in figure #aic may be made of wrought iron an inch and a half wide and half an inch thick1 or preferably of iron gas-pipe of any diameter from half an inch to an inch4 ,in the vicinity of the oil-regions1 pipe can be bought very cheaply1 which is in condition good enough for this purpose4 ,for guarding against hogs1 it should be hung near the ground1 and have one or two more horizontal pipes near the bottom4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4--;,a ,,light ,,iron ,,gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4--;,a ,,wrought ,,iron ,,gate4 ,figure #aid shows the construction of a gate intended for situations much exposed to trespassers4 ,it is made of upright strips of flat iron1 pointed at the top1 and fastened by rivets to a stout frame-work of iron4 ,the 8pickets0 are placed two to three inches apart1 as desired1 for the appearance of the gate1 or according to the size of the poultry or animals to be kept from passing4 ,,self-,,closing ,,gates4 ,every self-closing gate should be provided with a drop or spring catch1 a suitable bevel for it to strike against and notch to hold it4 ,gates opening into the garden or out upon the street1 should be so hung that they will swing either way4 ,figure #aie shows a hinge and slide for such a gate4 ,in opening the gate from either side1 the arm of the upper hinge slides upon the iron bar1 raising the gate a little as it swings around4 ,when loosed1 it slides down without help1 and closes by its own weight4 ,figure #aif shows another form of the iron slide1 suitable for a wide gate post1 and more ornamental than the plain slide in figure #aie4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4--;,,hinge ,,and ,,slide ,,for ,,gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,figure #aig shows a very good and common hanging4 ,the upper hinge consists of a hook in the post and a corresponding eye in the hinge-stile of the gate4 ,the lower hinge is made of two semi-circular pieces of iron1 each with a shank1 one of which is shown above the gate in the engraving4 ,they are made to play one into the other4 ,this style of hanging may be used on any ordinary kind of gate1 but is specially useful for a small street gate opening into a door-yard4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4--,,self-,,closing ,,farm ,,gate4 ,there is a style of gate for foot-paths1 which is not uncommon1 that keeps itself always closed and latched1 by means of a single upper and double lower hinge1 which are to be obtained at most hardware stores4 ,the lower hinge has two 8thumbs10 which are embraced by two open sockets4 ,when the gate is opened1 it swings upon one socket and its thumb1 and being thrown off the center1 the weight of the gate draws it back1 and swinging too1 it latches4 ,a farm gate1 entirely home-made1 may be constructed1 of which figures #aih and #aii show the gate and the hinge4 ,the gate is braced and supported by a stay-strip1 extending to the top of the upright1 which forms the upper hinge1 f being attached to the top of the gate-post1 by an oak board with a smooth hole in it4 ,the lower hinge is separately shown at figure #aii4 ,it consists of an oak board1 c1 an inch and a half thick1 into which the upright1 e1 is mortised4 ,in this1 two sockets are cut1 a foot from center to center4 ,the sockets in this case are three inches in diameter1 and when the gate is in place and shut1 they fit against two stakes of hard wood 7locust71 two and a half inches in diameter1 d1 which being curved1 are nailed to the gate-post1 a4 ,a smooth stone1 laid across in front of these stakes1 takes the weight of the gate1 and relieves in a measure the pressure on the top of the post4 ,the hinges must be kept well greased1 and it is well to black-lead them also1 to prevent creaking4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4--,,lower ,,hinge ,,of ,,gate4 ,,gate ,,for ,,village ,,lot4 ,figure #bjj shows a light1 strong gate made of wood and wire4 ,the top wire is barbed to prevent stock from pressing against it1 and beaux and belles from hanging over it4 ,the bottom wires are also barbed to prevent cats1 dogs1 and fowls from creeping under4 ,this gate is cheap1 may be easily constructed1 and is suitable for either front or back yard4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4--;,,convenient ,,gate4 ,a ,,chinese ,,door ,,or ,,gate ,,spring4 ,figure #bja shows the manner in which the ,chinese use a bow as a spring for closing the light doors and gates4 ,the bow is fastened to the gate by a cord or chain4 ,another cord or chain is attached to the middle of the bow-string by one end1 and the other end is made fast to the gate post1 in such a manner that when the gate is opened1 the bow will be drawn1 and its elasticity will serve to shut the gate when released4 ,our artist has shown the ,chinese invention attached to a gate of ,yankee pattern4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bja4--;,,chinese ,,door ,,or ,,gate ,,spring4 ,,lifting ,,gates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjb4--;,,gate ,,shut4 ,there are various forms of gates not hung on hinges at all1 but either suspended from above to lift1 and provided with counterweights1 or made in the form of movable panels4 ,figure #bjb represents a gate for general use1 which is peculiarly well adapted to a region visited by deep snows in winter4 ,the post1 firmly set1 extends a little higher than the length of the gate4 ,in front of this and firmly fastened to it at bottom and top1 is a board at sufficient distance from the post for the gate to move easily between them4 ,an iron bolt through the large post and the lower end of the tall1 upright gate bar1 serves as a balance for the gate to turn on4 ,a rope attached to the bottom of the gate runs over the pulley and has a weight of iron or stone that nearly balances the gate4 ,the opened gate is shown in figure #bjc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4--;,,gate ,,open4 ,figure #bjd shows a gate balanced in a similar manner1 and arranged so it can be opened by a person desiring to drive through1 without leaving the vehicle4 ,it is suspended by ropes which pass over pulleys near the top of long posts1 and counterpoised by weights upon the other ends of the ropes4 ,small wheels are placed in the ends of the gate to move along the inside of the posts1 and thus reduce the friction4 ,the gate is raised by means of ropes attached to the center of the upper side of the gate1 from which they pass up to pulleys in the center of the archway1 and then out along horizontal arms at right angles to the bars which connect the tops of the posts4 ,by pulling on the rope1 the gate1 which is but a trifle heavier than the balancing weights1 is raised1 and after the vehicle has passed1 the gate falls of itself4 ,in passing in the opposite direction1 another rope is pulled1 when the gate is raised as before4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjd4--;,a 8,,self-,,opening0 ,,gate4 ,figures #bjf and #bjg show a gate specially designed for snowy regions4 ,the latch-post1 figure #bje1 is fixed in the ground and connected with the fence4 ,it is an ordinary square fence-post1 to the side of which a strip of board is nailed1 with a space of an inch between the board and the post4 ,at the opposite extremity of the gate a heel-post is set slanting1 as shown in figures #bjf and #bjg4 ,the gate is made by laying the five horizontal bars on a barn floor or other level place1 with one of the sloping cross-bars under them and the other above them4 ,half inch holes are bored through the three thicknesses1 carriage bolts inserted from below1 and the nuts screwed on4 ,the gate1 thus secured at one end1 is carried to the place where it is to remain and the other ends of the horizontal bars secured to the heel-post by similar bolts4 ,these should work freely in the holes4 ,the lower bar is four feet long and the upper bar seven feet4 ,to the heel of the upper bar is hung a weight nearly heavy enough to balance the gate1 so that it may easily be swung up1 as shown in figure #bjf1 and the weight will keep it raised4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bje4--,,latch-,,post4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4--,,the ,,gate ,,open4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjg4--,,the ,,gate ,,closed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjh4--,,the ,,gate ,,in ,,position4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4--,,the ,,gate ,,open4 ,figures #bjh and #bji illustrate a very cheap way of making a hole through a picket fence in a place where there is not sufficiently frequent occasion for passing1 to call for a more elaborate gate4 ,strips of inch board1 as wide as the rails of the fence1 and five or six feet long1 are nailed to the upper side of the rails and three pickets are nailed to the strips4 ,the pieces are then sawed off1 beveling1 and the pickets detached from the fence-bars by drawing or cutting the nails4 ,the gate can be lifted up and set at one side1 but cannot be pushed in or pulled out4 ,no rope or other fastening is required1 besides it is almost invisible1 which is many times an advantage4 ,the gate1 as lifted out of the fence and set on one side1 is shown in figure #bji4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4--;,a ,,small ,,gate ,,in ,a ,,picket ,,fence4 ,figure #baj shows an improved form of this gate without posts4 ,in this case the small board strips are cut only as long as the gate is to be made wide1 and a diagonal cross-brace running between them1 as shown in the engraving4 ,the hinges are fastened to the horizontal bars of the fence by wooden pins shown at a and b4 ,a piece of rope or a short wire passing over the ends of two of the pickets serves to keep the gate securely fastened4 ,these openings are not designed for a regular gate1 and could not be used for the passage of any vehicle1 as the horizontal bars would be in the way4 ,for a back gate to the garden such an opening would frequently be found convenient and save many steps4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baa4--,,movable ,,panel4 ,figure #baa shows a lifting-gate1 or rather1 a movable panel1 wide enough to permit the passage of a team and vehicle4 ,this might be useful in places where it was not desired to pass frequently4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bab4--;,a ,,gate ,,not ,,clogged ,,with ,,snow4 ,figure #bab shows another very convenient form of gate for use in a country where the snow is deep4 ,it is fitted in a strong frame1 and is balanced by weights1 so that it can be easily raised4 ,the engraving sufficiently explains how this very useful gate is made and hung in the frame4 ,,rustic ,,gates4 ,a picturesque rustic gate is shown in figure #bac4 ,the fence and posts are made to correspond4 ,its manner of construction is clearly shown in the illustration4 ,the vases on the top of the posts may be omitted1 unless time can be taken to keep them properly watered4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4--,,ornamental ,,gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4--,,light ,,rustic ,,gate4 ,a very neat1 cheap1 and strong rustic gate is shown in figure #bad4 ,the large post and the two uprights of the gate are of red cedar4 ,the horizontal bars may be of the same or other wood4 ,the longer upright is five and a half feet long1 the shorter one four and a half feet4 ,the ends of the former are cut down to serve as hinges1 as shown in the engraving4 ,five holes are bored through each of the upright pieces1 two inches in diameter1 into which the ends of the horizontal bars are inserted and wedged securely4 ,for the upper hinge a piece of plank is bored to receive the gate1 and the other end reduced and driven into a hole in the post1 or nailed securely to its top4 ,a cedar block1 into which a two-inch hole has been bored1 is partially sunk in the ground to receive the lower end of the upright piece4 ,a wooden latch is in better keeping with the gate than an iron one4 ,,balance ,,gates4 ,figure #bae is a modernized form of a gate which has for generations been popular in ,new ,england and the ,middle ,states4 ,in the primitive method of construction1 the top bar consisted of the smoothly trimmed trunk of a straight young tree1 with the butt end projecting like a 8heel0 beyond the post upon which it turned4 ,upon its extremity a heavy boulder1 or box of smaller stones1 served as a counterweight4 ,in the gate represented herewith the top stick is of sawn timber1 upon the heel of which the large stone is held by an iron dowel4 ,the other end of the top bar rests1 when the gate is closed1 upon an iron pin1 driven diagonally into the post1 as shown in the illustration4 ,a smaller iron pin is pushed into the post immediately above the end of the top bar1 to secure the gate against being opened by unruly animals1 which may attempt to get in4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4--;,,balance ,,gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4--;,,carolina ,,balance ,,gate4 ,figure #baf shows a balance gate which is used in some parts of ,north ,carolina4 ,it is a picket gate framed into the lower side of a long pole1 which is hung near its middle to a pivot driven into the top of the gate-post4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag4--;,a ,,tidy ,,balance ,,gate4 ,figure #bag shows a more elegant form1 the 8heel0 of the gate remaining on a level with the top line of the fence4 ,,gate ,,for ,,snowy ,,weather4 ,the gate shown in figure #bah is suitable for all weather1 but especially useful when there is a deep snow2 for it is easily lifted up above the snow1 and kept in place by putting a pin through holes in the hinge-bar1 which is firmly fastened to the gate post4 ,the hinge-bar should be of good1 tough wood1 and made round and smooth1 so that the gate can swing and slide easily4 ,boards can be used in place of pickets if preferable4 ,the latch-post to the right1 has a long slot for the latch to work in1 instead of a hasp1 so that it can be fastened when the gate is at any height4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bah4--;,,gate ,,for ,,snowy ,,weather4 ,,west ,,india ,,farm ,,gates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bai4--,,wide ,,farm ,,gate4 ,the illustrations1 figures #bai and #bbj1 show two forms of gates used on the island of ,jamaica4 ,these gates are twenty-one feet long1 each1 and cannot possibly sag1 even if any number of small boys swing on them4 ,in gate figure #bbj the main post is nine by six inches2 the bars--marked #b1 #c1 #e and #g--;are let in the wood three inches on the upper side and one and a half inches on the lower4 ,the tenons1 indicated by the dotted lines1 go entirely through the posts1 and are fastened with pins4 ,brace #f is attached to the upper bar eighteen inches beyond the center1 ,f2 ,d is a stout fence wire fastened by a screw nut at ,e2 the wire1 ,b1 is held tightly by the screw hook1 ,a2 the iron band1 #i1 is an inch thick and is bolted to the post4 ,it works on a pivot one and a quarter inches in diameter1 and which turns on a flat piece of iron at the bottom of a piece of a one and a half inch iron pipe1 which is soldered with molten lead in the stone1 #aj4 ,only hard wood is used in the construction4 ,in the gate shown in figure #bai1 the construction differs from the one just described in that it has a light chain fastened in the shackle1 ,c1 and is screwed firmly at ,a4 ,it is attached to the post1 ,h1 by a pivot1 as seen in our illustration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4--;,,another ,,wide ,,farm ,,gate4 ,,gate ,,hinges ,,of ,,wood4 ,it is often convenient and economical1 especially in newly settled regions1 where blacksmiths and hardware stores are not at hand1 to supply hinges for gates1 to make them of wood4 ,the simplest and most primitive form is shown in figure #bba4 ,a post is selected having a large limb standing out nearly at right angles4 ,a perpendicular hole in this secures the top of the rear gate standard4 ,the foot rests in a stout short post1 set against the main post4 ,a small gimlet hole should extend outward and downward from the lowest side or point in the hole in the short post1 to act as a drain1 or the water collecting in it would be likely to soon rot both the standard and the short post itself4 ,another form is to hold the top by a strong wooden withe4 ,a third form is illustrated in figure #bbb1 in which the top of the standard passes through a short piece of sawed or split plank1 spiked or pinned upon the top of the post4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bba4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,the form shown at figure #bbc is made of a stout lithe sapling or limb of beech1 hickory or other tough hard wood or1 if it is attainable1 a piece of iron rod4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbc4--;,a ,,withe ,,hinge4 ,a gate can be made without hinges by having the hanging stile somewhat longer than the front stile1 and making both ends rounded4 ,the lower one is to work in a hole in the end of a short post raised so that the soil will not readily get in1 and the upper one works in a hole made in an oak piece attached to the top of the gate post4 ,gates of this kind can be made and hung with but little more expense than bars1 and will be found far more convenient and saving of time than the latter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd4--;,,gate ,,without ,,hinges4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbe4--,,socket ,,hinges4 ,figure #bbe represents a small hand-gate hung upon an iron pin driven into a hole bored in the bottom of the hinge-post1 and one of similar size and material bent to a sharp angle1 and fitted in the top4 ,the lower pin rests in the sill and the upper one extends through the post to which the gate is hung4 ,,double ,,gates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbf4--;,a ,,double ,,gate4 ,figure #bbf shows a substantial method of hanging two gates to the same post4 ,the post may be of masonry and the hinge bolts pass through the post1 thus preventing any sagging4 ,it is frequently convenient to have gates in the barnyard hung in this manner1 then yards may be shut off one way or the other by simply swinging the gates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbg4--;,,double ,,balance ,,gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4--;,,double ,,balance ,,gate ,,with ,,stone ,,post4 ,figure #bbg represents a balanced gate for a double driveway4 ,the total length is thirty feet--sixteen feet on one side of the supporting post and fourteen feet on the other4 ,the horizontal top-piece may be of sawn timber1 or better still1 of a round pole cut from a straight young tree1 the larger end being on the short side1 its additional thickness serving to counterbalance the longer extremity of the gate4 ,the vertical strips of the original gate1 from which the sketch was made1 were lag-sticks from an old tread horse-power1 and the chain was a part of the remains of a worn-out chain pump4 ,it is held in place by staples driven into the vertical pieces1 as shown in the illustration4 ,a pin pushed into the post at either end of the large top bar fastens it securely when closed4 ,figure #bbh is a gate which combines some of the features of the preceding two4 ,the stone pillar is round1 three feet across and four and a half feet high4 ,a post is placed in the center1 upon the end of which the bar rests1 bearing the two gates4 ,the fence is arranged in a sweeping curve1 so that only one passageway can be open at once4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4--,,the ,,gate ,,latch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4--;,a ,,double ,,hingeless ,,gate4 ,figure #bcj shows a style of double gate1 which has been found very useful on large stock farms1 where it is necessary to drive herds of cattle through it4 ,two high posts are set in the ground about twenty feet apart1 and a scantling is put on1 which extends from the top of one post to that of the other4 ,a two-inch hole is bored in the center of this scantling1 and a similar hole in a block of wood1 planted firmly in the ground in the center of the gateway4 ,the middle post of the gate-frame is rounded at each end to fit these holes1 and this post is the pivot on which the gate turns4 ,with this gate one cow cannot block the passage1 besides there is no sagging of gate posts1 as the weight of the gate is wholly upon the block in the center4 ,to make the latch1 figure #bbi1 a bar of iron one and a half inch wide and eighteen inches long is bolted to one of the end uprights of the gate1 and a similar bar to one of the posts of the gateway4 ,for a catch1 a rod of three-eighth inch iron passes through a half-inch hole near the end of the bar upon the gateway4 ,this rod is bent in the form shown in the engraving1 and welded4 ,it will be seen that the lifting of this bent rod will allow the two bars to come together1 and when dropped it will hold them firmly4 ,,double-,,latched ,,gates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca4--;,a ,,double-,,latched ,,farm ,,gate4 ,figure #bca represents a substantial farm gate with two latches4 ,this is a very useful precaution against the wiles of such cattle as have learned to unfasten ordinary gate-latches4 ,the latches work independently of each other1 the wires1 b1 b1 being fastened to the hand lever a1 and then to the latches e1 e4 ,a roguish animal will sometimes open a gate by raising the latch with its nose1 but if one attempt it with this1 it can only raise one latch at a time1 always the upper one1 while the lower one remains fastened4 ,as soon as the animal lets go1 the latch springs back and catches again4 ,a hog cannot get through1 for the lower latch prevents the gate from opening sufficiently to allow it to pass4 ,a cow will find it difficult to open the gate1 because she cannot raise the gate high enough to unlatch it4 ,the latches e1 e1 work up and down in the slides c1 c1 and when the gate is fastened they are about half-way between the top and bottom of the slides4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcb4--;,a ,,gate ,,for ,,all ,,livestock4 ,figure #bcb shows another form of double latches1 which are closed by absolute motion1 instead of depending upon their own weight4 ,there are two latches fastened to a jointed lever1 so that when the upper end or handle is pushed backward or forward1 the latches both move in the same direction4 ,the construction of the gate1 and the form and arrangement of the latches and lever1 are plainly shown4 ,,improved ,,slide ,,gate4 ,the old style slide gate is an unwieldly contrivance1 and the only excuse for its use is its simplicity and cheapness4 ,numerous devices have been invented and patented to make it slide easier and swing easier1 but their cost has prevented them from coming into general use1 and the old gate still requires the same amount of tugging and heaving to open and close it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,figure #bcc shows the attachment4 ,the blocks at top and bottom are hard wood1 one inch and a quarter thick4 ,the two boards should also be of hard wood4 ,between the boards are one or two small iron or hard wood wheels1 turning upon half inch bolts1 which pass through both boards4 ,the bars of the gate run on these wheels4 ,the gate complete1 with attachment1 is shown in figure #bcd1 the gate being closed4 ,to open the gate1 run it back nearly to the middle bar1 then swing open4 ,as the attachment turns with the gate1 the lower pivot should be greased occasionally4 ,it is well to fasten a barbed wire along the upper edge of the top bar1 to prevent stock from reaching over and bearing down on the gate4 ,where hogs are enclosed1 it is advisable to fasten a barbed wire along the lower edge of the bottom bar1 as it keeps small pigs from passing under1 and prevents large ones from lifting the gate up1 or trying to root under4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd4--,,the ,,gate ,,complete4 ,a ,,combined ,,hinge ,,and ,,sliding ,,gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bce4--,,the ,,gate ,,open4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcf4--,,the ,,gate ,,closed4 ,the illustrations1 figures #bce and #bcf1 show a gate very handy for barnyards4 ,it is fourteen feet wide for ordinary use1 and has three short posts4 ,the middle one is movable4 ,a box of two-inch boards made to fit the post is planted in the ground2 in this the post is set1 and can be removed at pleasure4 ,this post is placed three feet from the outside one4 ,the hinge is made of hard wood1 with a wheel six inches in diameter1 as shown in the engraving4 ,it should be so constructed that the gate will move freely1 but not too loosely4 ,it is supported at the top by a cap1 placed diagonally across1 and at the bottom by a block of locust or cedar under it4 ,the middle uprights of the gate should be placed a little to one side of the center1 so that the gate can be balanced under the roller4 ,wooden catches are placed in the middle post1 upon which the gate rests4 ,to open the gate1 push it back to the middle post1 elevate the gate slightly1 and it will roll down to the center1 where it can be readily opened4 ,figure #bce shows the gate open1 and in figure #bcf it is seen closed4 ,this gate has no latch4 ,a barnyard gate is not usually opened wide4 ,a space large enough to admit a man or horse is all that is necessary in most cases4 ,it is more easily opened than the ordinary gate1 and it will stay where it is placed4 ,by cutting a notch in the third board1 and elevating it to the upper catch on the middle post1 a passage is made for hogs and sheep1 excluding larger animals4 ,,gates ,,of ,,wood ,,and ,,wire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcg4--;,a ,,neat ,,gate ,,of ,,scantling ,,and ,,wire4 ,one of the cheapest and most popular styles of farm gate is made of plain or barbed wire1 supported by wooden frames4 ,figure #bcg shows a very neat form of combination gate4 ,to make it1 obtain three uprights1 three inches by one and a half inches1 five and a half feet long1 and four strips1 three inches by one inch1 eleven feet long4 ,cut shoulders in the ends of the strips1 and saw out corresponding notches in the uprights2 make these one and a half inch1 or half the width of the strips4 ,the bottom notch is two and a half inches from the end of the upright1 and the upper one nine and a half inches from the top end4 ,fit the strips into the notches4 ,there is then a space of one inch between the strips1 into which put inch strips1 so as to make all solid1 and fasten together with carriage bolts4 ,braces three by one and a half inches are inserted1 and held in place by bolts or wrought nails4 ,bore as many holes in the end-pieces for one-quarter inch eye-bolts1 as it is desired to have wires4 ,twist the wire firmly into the bolts on one upright1 and secure the other end to the corresponding bolts on the upright at the opposite end4 ,in stretching the wires1 pass them alternately on opposite sides of the center piece1 and fasten in place by staples4 ,this will1 in a measure1 prevent warping4 ,by screwing down the bolts with a wrench1 the wires may be drawn as tightly as desired4 ,the hinges are to be put on with bolts1 and any sort of fastening may be used that is most convenient4 ,barbed or smooth wire may be used4 ,a ,,good ,,and ,,cheap ,,farm ,,gate4 ,figure #bch shows a gate of common fence boards and wire1 which can be made by any farmer4 ,the longer upright piece1 seven feet long1 may be made of a round stick1 flattened a little on one side4 ,the horizontal bars are of common fence boards cut to the desired length1 and the shorter1 vertical piece may be made of scantling1 two by four inches4 ,three wires1 either plain or barbed1 are stretched at equal intervals between the upper and lower bar4 ,a double length of wire is extended from the top of the long upright to the opposite lower corner of the gate4 ,a stout stick is inserted between the two strands of this diagonal brace1 by which it is twisted until it is sufficiently taut4 ,if the gate should at any time begin to sag1 a few turns brings it back4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bch4--;,,good ,,and ,,cheap ,,farm ,,gate4 ,,an ,,improved ,,wire ,,gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4--;,,improved ,,wire ,,gate4 ,figure #bci shows an improved form of wire farm gate1 in which the wires can be made tight at pleasure4 ,instead of attaching the wires to both of the end standards of the gate1 a sliding standard is put on near the end1 to which the wires are fastened4 ,this is secured to the main standard by two long screw bolts1 leaving a space between the two of five or six inches4 ,the wires are tightened by turning up the nuts4 ,a plainer but very effective gate is shown in figure #bdj4 ,the uprights are three and one-quarter by two inches1 the horizontals twelve or thirteen feet long1 by three and a half by two inches1 all of pine4 ,the horizontals are mortised into the uprights1 the bolts of the hinges strengthening the joints4 ,the barbed wires prevent animals from reaching over and through the gate4 ,to put in and tighten the wires1 bore a three-eighth inch hole in the upright1 pass the wires through1 one or two inches projecting1 plug up tightly with a wooden pin1 and bend down the ends of the wire4 ,measure the distance to the other upright1 and cut the wire two inches longer4 ,pass the wire through the whole and tighten with pincers4 ,when the wire is stretched1 plug up with a wooden pin1 and then bend down the wire4 ,if the wire stretches1 it can be tightened very easily4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdj4--;,,gate ,,of ,,wood ,,and ,,wire4 ,figure #bda represents a light gate1 that a child can handle1 which does not sag or get out of repair1 and is cattle proof4 ,the materials are two boards1 twelve or fourteen feet long1 three uprights1 the end-piece three and one-half feet and the center four and one-half feet1 two strands of barbed wire1 one between the boards1 and the other at the top of the uprights4 ,it is hung the same as the common form of gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bda4--;,,barbed ,,wire ,,in ,a ,,gate4 ,,taking ,,up ,,the ,,sag ,,in ,,gates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdb4--,,remedy ,,for ,a ,,sagging ,,gate4 ,various means have been devised for overcoming the sagging of gates4 ,in figure #bdb the hinge-post of the gate-frame extends somewhat above the upper bar of the gate4 ,a board is fastened to the top of this post1 a1 which runs downward to b1 near the middle of the upper cross-bar1 and then connects with a short double band--one on each side of the long board--which is provided with a bolt fitting into notches1 c1 cut in the under side of the upper bar of the gate4 ,the form of the double-latch piece1 with its bolts1 and its attachment to the board is shown at d4 ,figure #bdc represents an arrangement which not only provides for taking up the sag1 but also for raising the gate above encumbering snow4 ,the gate is made of ordinary inch boards put together with carriage bolts1 upon which the joints play freely4 ,the end of the gate1 a1 is made of two boards1 and the post1 b1 is four by six inches4 ,one board of the end1 a1 is notched4 ,the diagonal piece1 c1 is fastened at d1 by means of a bolt through it and the lower board4 ,the end1 a1 of the diagonal piece1 is shaped to fit the notches1 by means of which the gate can be raised and lowered4 ,it can also be used as a passage for pigs between fields1 by simply raising the gate sufficiently to let them go through4 ,a board1 not shown in the engraving1 is tacked to the notched board1 to prevent the diagonal piece from slipping out of its place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdc4--;,a ,,lift-,,bar ,,for ,a ,,gate4 ,a much firmer gate is shown in figure #bdd4 ,the hinge-post is about twice the height of the gate1 and has a cap-piece1 a1 near the top4 ,this cap is of #b by #f hard wood1 strengthened by two bolts1 e1 e1 and held in place by two wooden pins1 driven just above it and through the tenon end of the post4 ,wedges c and d are driven in the cap on each side of the post4 ,should the gate sag1 the wedge1 d1 may be loosened1 and c driven further down4 ,the lower end of the gate turns in a hole bored in a hard wood block placed in the ground near the foot of the post4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdd4--;,a ,,remedy ,,for ,a ,,sagging ,,gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bde4 ,figure #bde shows a gate similarly hung on pivots driven into the ends of the hinge-bar4 ,these play in eye-bolts which extend through the post to which the gate is hung1 and are fastened by nuts on the other side4 ,as the gate sags1 the nut on the upper bolt is turned up1 drawing the upper end of the hinge-bar toward the post1 and lifting the gate back to a horizontal position4 ,,good ,,gate ,,latches4 ,some cows become so expert1 they can lift almost any gate latch4 ,to circumvent this troublesome habit1 latches made as shown in figure #bdf will fill this bill exactly4 ,it is a piece of iron bar1 drawn down at one end1 and cut with a thread to screw into the gate post4 ,a stirrup1 or crooked staple1 made as shown1 is fitted by a screw bolt and nut to the bar4 ,a small bolt must be driven in to keep the stirrup from being thrown over4 ,a projecting slat on the gate1 when it is shut1 lifts the stirrup and holds the gate4 ,this latch is too much for breechy cows1 and they are never able to get 8the hang of it40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdf4--;,,gate ,,latch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdg4--,,spring ,,gate ,,catch4 ,a simple catch for a gate may easily be made from a piece of seasoned hickory1 or other elastic wood1 cut in the shape as shown at a in figure #bdg4 ,this is fastened strongly to the side of the gate1 with the pin1 c1 working through the top loosely1 so that it will play easily4 ,the catch1 b1 is fastened to the wall or post1 as the case may be4 ,the operation will be easily understood from the illustration1 and it will be found a serviceable1 sure1 and durable contrivance4 ,the gate cannot be swung to without catching1 and it may swing both ways4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdh4--,,latch ,,in ,,position4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bej4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdi4 ,a very simple and convenient style of fastening is illustrated in figures #bdh to #bea4 ,it can be made of old buggy springs1 or any flat steel1 and should be one inch broad by three six-tenth inch thick1 and about eighteen inches long1 at the distance of four inches from the lower end4 ,the lever is slightly bent1 and has two screw or bolt holes for fastening1 figure #bdi4 ,eight inches of the top portion is rounded and bent at right angles4 ,the upper part passes through a narrow mortise in the head-post of the gate figure #bdh4 ,a flat staple1 large enough to go over the spring holds it in place4 ,an iron hook1 figure #bej1 driven into the post1 holds the latch4 ,a wooden lever1 bolted to the top board of the gate1 figure #bea1 enables a person on horseback to open or close the gate4 ,this latch can be applied to any kind of a gate1 and is especially desirable in yards or gardens1 when1 by the addition of a chain and weight1 one may always feel that the gate is securely closed4 ,the latch does not cost more than fifty cents1 and if properly made and put on will last as long as the gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bea4--,,latch ,,with ,,top ,,lever4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beb4--;,,gate ,,latch4 ,in figure #beb is represented a style of gate latch in use in some ,southern ,states4 ,it possesses marked advantages1 for certain purposes1 over others4 ,it holds to an absolute certainty1 under all circumstances1 and by allowing the latch pin to rest on the bottom of the slot in the post1 it relieves the hinges and post from all strain4 ,the latch may be formed by a common strap-hinge1 made to work very easily1 and the pin should be either a strong oak one or an iron bolt or 8lag screw40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bec4--,,latch ,,and ,,pin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bed4--;,,gate ,,latch4 ,figure #bec shows a latch which cannot be opened by the most ingenious cow or other animal4 ,the latch of wood slides in two iron or wood bands screwed to the gate4 ,it is moved by a knob between the bands1 which also prevents it from going too far4 ,the outer end is sloping and furnished with a notch4 ,it slides through a mortise in the gate post1 indicated by dotted lines4 ,when the gate is closed1 the latch is slid through the mortise1 and the drop-pin1 which plays vertically in two iron bands1 is lifted by the slope on the latch1 and drops into the notch4 ,it can be opened only by lifting the drop-pin1 and sliding back the latch at the same time4 ,figure #bed shows a very ingenious and reliable form of latch4 ,the curved tail must be thin enough and sufficiently soft to admit of bending1 either by a pair of large pincers or a hammer1 just so as to adapt it to the passage of the pin bolted through the front stile of the gate4 ,as the gate closes1 the latch lifts out and the tail-piece advances4 ,the catch-pin cannot possibly move out1 unless the whole end of the gate moves up and forward4 ,,top ,,hinge ,,of ,,farm ,,gate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bee4--,,top ,,hinge ,,of ,,farm ,,gate4 ,continual use1 more or less slamming1 and the action of the weather1 make the gate settle somewhat1 but the illustration1 figure #bee1 shows a hinge which obviates this trouble4 ,the upper hinge is made of a half-inch rod1 about sixteen inches long1 with an eye on one end1 and a long screw-thread cut upon the other4 ,this thread works in a nut1 which nut has a bolt shank and nut1 whereby it is firmly attached to the top bar of the gate4 ,if the gate sags at all1 it must be simply lifted off the thumbs1 and the hinge given a turn or two in the nut2 and the same is to be done in case of subsequent sagging4 ,the hinge bolt must1 of course1 have some opportunity to move in the stile1 and must be set long enough at first to allow the slack to be taken up whenever found necessary4 ,,gateways ,,in ,,wire ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bef4--;,,gateway ,,in ,a ,,wire ,,fence4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #beg and #beh4--;,,buckle ,,and ,,snap ,,hook ,,for ,,chain ,,gate4 ,regular posts and bars at a passageway through a wire fence are inconvenient and unsightly4 ,a good substitute for a gate is illustrated in figure #bef4 ,light galvanized iron chains have a 8swivel0 near the end1 by which they may be loosened or tightened1 so as to be of just the right length1 and a snap-hook at the other4 ,these are both shown of larger size in figures #beg and #beh4 ,the chains are attached by screw-eyes to the posts1 and should correspond in number1 as well as in position1 with the wires4 ,thus they appear to be a continuation of the same1 and as they are larger1 they appear to the animals to be stronger1 and even more dangerous than barbed wire--hence are avoided4 ,a short rod of iron may be made to connect them at the hook-ends1 and so in opening and closing the way1 they may all be moved at once4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bei4--,,the ,,gate ,,closed4 ,a cheaper and simpler form of wire gate is shown in figures #bei and #bfj4 ,it consists of the same number of strands as in the adjoining fence1 attached to a post in the ordinary way at one end1 while the other wire ends are secured to an iron rod4 ,this rod is pointed at the lower end1 and when the gate is closed1 as seen in figure #bei1 this end passes down through a loop1 and the upper end is secured to a hook4 ,in opening the gate1 the rod is loosened and swings out1 when the sharp end is thrust into the earth1 or a hole in a wooden block set in the ground at the proper place to receive it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfj4--,,the ,,gate ,,open4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfa4--;,a ,,wire ,,gate4 ,figure #bfa shows a somewhat similar arrangement4 ,the gate wires are fastened to one post with staples1 and attach the loose ends to a five-foot pole4 ,to shut the gate1 take this pole or gate-head and put the lower end back of the lower pin1 and spring the upper end behind the one above4 ,if the wires are all of the right length1 they will be taut and firm4 ,two slats fastened to the gate wires will keep them from tangling4 ,a short post set at one side of the gateway may be found convenient to hold the gate when open4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,wickets ,,and ,,stiles4 ,,iron ,,wickets4 ,wickets and stiles are convenient passageways through or over fences crossing foot-paths4 ,the bow wicket has the advantage of providing a gate 8always open and always shut10 and not apt to get out of repair4 ,a wrought iron bow wicket1 with short vertical bars1 is shown in figure #bfb4 ,figure #bfc has the bars horizontal1 and folds in the middle for a wheel-barrow or small animals to pass4 ,to go through it1 a person simply steps into the bow1 swings the gate away from him1 and swings it back in passing out4 ,there is no latch to fasten1 and no fear of the entry of livestock4 ,similar wickets may be constructed of wood for board fences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfb4--,,wicket ,,with ,,hinge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfc4--,,wicket ,,with ,,upright ,,bars4 ,,wooden ,,wickets4 ,figure #bfd shows a wicket gate common in ,england1 where it is much used in foot-paths across fields1 etc4 ,it is an ordinary small gate1 which swings between two posts1 set far enough apart to permit the passage of a person4 ,these two posts are the two ends of a ,v-shaped end in the fence4 ,the engraving shows the construction of the end of the fence1 with the two posts1 between which the gate swings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfd4--;,a ,,gate ,,for ,,foot-,,path4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bfe and #bff4--;,,common ,,and ,,improved ,,wickets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfg4--;,a ,,convenient ,,stile4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfh4--;,a ,,gate ,,stile4 ,figure #bfe is another form of gate1 which consists of a ,v-shaped panel1 filling the opening in the fence--the open ends of the ,v being fixed to posts equally distant from and in a line with one of the posts in the fence1 and at right angles to it4 ,this is improved by using bent wheel-rims1 figure #bff1 instead of the straight pieces forming the ,v-shaped panel4 ,kept well painted1 the hickory rims will bear the exposure to the weather perfectly4 ,the palings should be of oak1 an inch wide and half an inch thick1 fastened on with screws4 ,the opening in these stiles must be sufficient to allow a corpulent person to pass easily1 even if a frisky bull is in uncomfortable proximity1 and for this figure #bff is really the most convenient form4 ,the objection to both of these stiles is1 that there is no actual closing of the passage4 ,calves1 sheep and pigs1 not to mention dogs1 work their way through4 ,to prevent this1 the gate-stile1 figure #bfg1 was invented4 ,it has a small gate swinging on the middle post1 but stopped in its movement by the end-posts of the ,v4 ,a person can pass by stepping well into the ,v and moving the gate by him1 where he has free exit4 ,this form is efficient1 but inconvenient4 ,a fourth form1 the best of all1 is the swinging ,a-stile1 figures #bfh and #bfi4 ,in this there are two light gates1 made upon the same hinge-post1 spreading like the letter ,a1 and braced with a cross-piece between the rails of each side1 like the center part of the ,a4 ,this gate is set to swing on each side of the center-post1 as shown4 ,it is so much narrower than the ,v-stiles1 that it is almost impossible for small animals to pass1 but it is easily hung so that it will always remain closed1 and so offer no temptation to animals on the outside4 ,at night1 or when not in use1 a wire ring or withe-hoop thrown over the top of the post and the upright part of the gate-frame1 will securely fasten it4 ,to make the gate swing shut1 all that is necessary is to set the eye of the lower hinge of the gate well out towards the outside4 ,in figure #bgj we give a neat ,a-gate1 made of pine or any strong and light wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfi--,,swinging ,,stile4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgj4--;,a ,,neat ,,gate4 ,,stiles ,,for ,,wire-,,fences4 ,the extensive use of wire-fences calls for a farm convenience1 heretofore but little known in this country--the stile4 ,the manner of constructing one suitable for barb-wire fence is shown so plainly in the engraving1 figure #bga1 that no description is necessary4 ,the cross-piece1 upon which one passes from one flight of steps to the other1 may be of any desired width4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bga4--,,stile ,,for ,,barb ,,wire ,,fence4 ,stiles of convenient forms for wire fences are shown in figures #bgb and #bgc4 ,the one seen in figure #bgb takes less space on each side of the fence1 but it is not so simple as that shown in figure #bgc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgb4--;,,fence ,,stile4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgc4--;,,another ,,stile4 ,figure #bgd shows a passageway in a wire fence1 which requires no climbing1 and while it presents an effectual barrier to large animals1 is readily passed by any but very corpulent persons4 ,it originated and was patented in ,england1 but we believe there is no restriction on its construction and use in this country4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgd4--,,wire ,,fence ,,passage4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,fence ,,law4 ,,fencing ,,out ,,or ,,fencing ,,in4 ,the common law of ,england1 which to a large extent became the law of the original ,states1 bound no one to fence his land at all4 ,every person is bound under that law to fence his own cattle in1 but not bound to fence other cattle out4 ,every owner of domestic animals is liable for injury committed by them on the lands of others1 even though the land was wholly unfenced4 ,but this feature of the ,english common law was not suited to the conditions which surrounded the early settlers in any part of this country4 ,so long as any region is sparsely settled1 the amount of unoccupied land is so much greater than the occupied1 that it is cheaper to fence stock out1 than to fence it in4 ,hence the ,english common law in regard to fencing has been superseded by statute in many of the ,states4 ,in others it has always remained in force1 or has been revived by later statutes4 ,there is such great diversity on this point in the statutes of the several ,states1 that1 to quote from ,henry ,a4 ,haigh's excellent 8,manual of ,farm ,law10 8every one having occasion to look up any point of law1 should ascertain the statutory provisions concerning it from some official source4 ,do not depend upon this book or any other book for them1 because they are liable to change1 and do change from year to year2 but go to your town clerk or justice of the peace1 and examine the statutes themselves40 ,,division ,,fences4 ,the legal obligations of adjoining owners to build and maintain division fences1 rests entirely upon the statutes of the respective ,states1 save in cases where long usage has created prescriptive rights1 or special agreement exists4 ,such fences are to be built on the boundary line1 the expense to be borne equally by the parties1 or each one shall make and maintain half the fence4 ,if they cannot agree1 or either refuses or neglects to do his share1 the statutes provide methods by which the matter may be determined4 ,in some of the ,states1 two or more public officers1 called fence-viewers1 are elected annually in each township1 whose duties1 as prescribed by statute1 are1 when called upon1 to hear and decide questions relating to fences in their respective towns4 ,in other ,states1 these duties are performed by overseers of highways or selectmen1 ex-officio4 ,whenever any owner or occupant of land refuses to build or maintain half the division fence1 or cannot agree with his adjoining neighbor as to which portion they shall respectively maintain1 the fence-viewer may be called4 ,upon being so called1 the fence-viewer shall upon reasonable notice1 and after viewing the premises1 determine and assign the respective portions of the fence to be maintained by each4 ,the assignment when so made and recorded by the proper officer1 becomes binding upon the present and all subsequent owners of the land4 7#b ,wis4 #ad74 ,when by reason of a brook1 water-course1 or natural impediment1 it is impracticable or unreasonably expensive to build a fence on the true line between adjacent lands1 and the owners thereof disagree respecting its position1 the fence viewers may1 upon application of either party1 determine on which side of the true line1 or whether partly on one side and partly on the other1 and at what distances1 the fence shall be built and maintained1 and what portions by either party1 and if either party refuses or neglects to build and maintain his part of the fence1 the other shall have the same remedy as if the fence were on the true line4 ,when a division fence shall be suddenly destroyed or prostrated by fire1 winds or floods1 the person who ought to repair or rebuild the same should do so in ten days after being notified for that purpose1 and in the meantime he will be liable for damages done by estrays4 ,there is no legal obligation in any of the ,states1 upon any proprietor of uncultivated1 unimproved and unoccupied land1 to keep up division fences4 ,when a proprietor improves his land1 or encloses land already improved1 the land adjoining being unimproved1 he must make the whole division fence1 and if the adjoining proprietor afterward improves his land1 he is required to pay for one half the division fence1 according to the value thereof at that time4 ,the laws of the respective ,states are not uniform touching the obligations to maintain one half a division fence after the owner of the land ceases to improve it4 ,in ,rhode ,island and some other ,states1 the proprietors are required to maintain these respective proportions1 whether they continue to improve their land or not4 ,in ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,vermont and several other ,states1 it is provided that if one party lays his lands common1 and determines not to improve them1 he may1 upon giving due notice1 cease to support such fences4 ,but in most of the ,states1 he must not take away any part of the division fence belonging to him and adjoining the next enclosure1 provided the other party will allow and pay for his part of such fence4 ,if the parties cannot agree as to its value1 it may be decided by two or more fence-viewers4 ,where adjacent land is owned in severalty and occupied in common1 and either party desires to occupy his in severalty1 and the parties disagree1 either party may have the line divided by the fence-viewers1 as in other cases4 ,owners of adjoining lands may agree between themselves as to the building and maintenance of division fences1 and such agreements are valid1 whether they are in accordance with the law or not4 ,in some ,states such an agreement1 if in writing1 and filed with the clerk of the township1 becomes binding upon all subsequent holders of the land4 ,if not in writing1 however1 such an agreement may be terminated by either of the parties at pleasure4 ,,highway ,,fences4 ,under the common law1 the land owner is under no obligation to fence his land along a public highway4 ,but in ,missouri1 ,iowa1 ,illinois1 ,oregon1 and some other ,western and ,southern ,states1 the common law rule has been modified by statutes depriving the land-holder of his action for trespass1 unless he maintains sufficient fences around his land4 ,in these ,states1 the owner of land must enclose it with sufficient fences if he would cultivate it4 ,even where there is no such statutory provisions1 it is practically necessary to maintain highway fences1 as a protection against cattle which are driven along the highway4 ,the use of barb wire for fencing along the public roads has given rise to questions for which there were no precedents4 ,a case was decided in the ,united ,states ,circuit ,court1 at ,watertown1 ,new ,york1 ,december #ag1 #ahhe4 ,the action was brought by a horse breeder to recover damages from his neighbor for injuries sustained by the plaintiff's horse from a barbed wire fence1 stretched along the roadside in front of the defendant's premises4 ,a non-suit was granted on the ground that the animal received the injuries through the contributory negligence of its owner4 ,among the rulings of the court was one permitting the plaintiff to be questioned1 to show the fact that he had on his own farm a similar fence1 but of sharper form of barb4 ,the court further held that it might be a question whether it would not be competent testimony to show the common employment of barb wire fence in that region1 and held that for the purpose of this case1 a barbed wire fence1 if properly constructed upon the highway1 must be deemed a legal fence4 ,it may be said in a general way1 that though there is no legal obligation resting on the land-holder to maintain fences along the public highway1 he neglects to do so at his own risk and peril4 ,,what ,,is ,a ,,legal ,,fence8 ,what shall be necessary to constitute a legal and sufficient fence is specifically defined by the statutes of the several ,states1 but there is no uniform rule among all4 ,in ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,massachusetts and many other ,states1 it is provided that all fences four feet high1 and in good repair1 consisting of rails1 timber1 boards1 or stone wall1 and all brooks1 rivers1 ponds1 creeks1 ditches1 hedges1 and other things deemed by the fence viewers to be equivalent thereto1 shall be accounted legal and sufficient fences4 ,in ,vermont1 ,connecticut1 ,michigan1 and some other ,states1 a legal fence must be four and a half feet high4 ,in ,missouri post fences must be four and one half feet high1 hedges four feet high1 turf fences four feet high1 with ditches on each side three feet deep in the middle and three feet wide2 worm fences must be five and one-half feet high to the top of the rider1 or if not ridered1 five feet to the top of the top rail1 and must be rocked with strong rails1 poles or stakes2 stone or brick fences must be four and one-half feet high4 ,in ,new ,york the electors of each town may1 by vote1 decide for themselves how fences shall be made1 and what shall be deemed sufficient4 ,no part of the fence law is so definitely regulated by the statutes of the respective ,states as the requirements of a legal fence4 ,in all cases where practical questions arise involving this point1 it is best to consult the statutes1 which will be found in the office of the township clerk4 ,,railroad ,,fences4 ,in nearly every ,state1 railroad companies are required by statute to construct and maintain legal and sufficient fences on both sides of their roads1 except at crossings of public highways1 in front of mills1 depots1 and other places where the public convenience requires that they shall be left open4 ,the legal obligations of railroad companies to fence their roads rest wholly upon such statutes4 ,in ,new ,hampshire it is provided that if any railroad company shall neglect to maintain such fences1 the owner of adjoining land may build them1 and recover double the cost thereof of the company4 ,it is generally held by the courts in all the ,states that1 in the absence of such fences the railroad company is liable for all resulting damage to livestock1 and no proof of contributory negligence on the part of the owner of livestock is allowed as a plea in defence1 the statute requiring such fences being a police regulation4 ,when the railroad company has built a sufficient fence on both sides of its road1 it is not liable for injuries which may occur without negligence on its part4 ,if the fence is overthrown by wind or storms1 the company is entitled to reasonable time in which to repair it1 and if cattle enter and are injured1 without fault on the company's part1 it is not liable4 ,if cattle stray upon the track at a crossing of a public road1 and are killed1 the owners cannot recover damages1 unless the railroad company is guilty of gross negligence or intentional wrong4 ,a law in ,alabama making railroad companies absolutely liable for all stock killed on the tracks1 was held to be unconstitutional4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,country ,,bridges ,,and ,,culverts4 ,,strength ,,of ,,bridges4 ,bridge building is a profession of itself1 and some of the great bridges of the world are justly regarded as among the highest achievements of mechanical science and skill4 ,but it is proposed to speak in this work only of the cheap and simple structures for spanning small streams4 ,the measure of the strength of a bridge is that of its weakest part4 ,hence1 the strength of a plain wooden bridge resting upon timber stringers or chords1 is equivalent to the sustaining power of the timbers in the middle of the span4 ,the longer the span1 other things being equal1 the less its strength4 ,the following table shows the sustaining power of sound spruce timber1 of the dimensions given1 at a point midway between the supports3 ,,width ,,and ,,thickness ,,of ,,timber4 ,,length ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,of ,,span4#f by #h inches4#f by #i inches4#f by #aj inches4#f by #ab inches4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,feet4 ,pounds4 ,pounds4 ,pounds4 ,pounds4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #aj #b1hjj #b1fib #d1ejj #f1dhj #ab #b1djj #c1jdb #c1gej #e1djj #ad #b1jeh #b1fjd #c1baf #d1fcb #af #a1hjj #b1bhj #b1hjh #d1jej ,a stick of timber twenty feet between supports1 will bear a load in its center only one half as great as a timber of the same dimensions1 ten feet between supports4 ,thus four timbers six by twelve inches1 in a span of sixteen feet1 would bear a load of eight tons2 in a twelve foot span1 the same timbers would support a weight of nearly twelve tons4 ,,braces ,,and ,,trusses4 ,the above is the initial strength of the timbers which support the weight of the superstructure1 and any load that it may have to sustain4 ,but in bridge building these timbers are reinforced by trusses or braces1 which add greatly to the sustaining power of the bridge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bge4--;,a ,,simple ,,form ,,of ,,bridge ,,span4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgf4--;,a ,,stronger ,,span4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgg4--;,a ,,short ,,bridge4 ,figure #bge shows the simplest form of a self-supporting bridge1 which will answer for spans of from ten to fifteen feet in length4 ,the braces1 c1 c1 reach from near the end of the sill to about four feet above the center4 ,the truss rod1 d1 is one inch in diameter for short bridges up to two inches for longer spans2 it is provided with an iron washer at the top4 ,the rod passes through the sill1 and a cross-sill1 e1 which passes under the main sills1 thus adding firmness to the whole structure4 ,logs1 f1 f1 are placed against the ends of the sills to keep them in place1 and where the wheels will first strike them instead of the floor plank1 thus greatly equalizing the pressure4 ,figure #bgf represents a modification of the above4 ,the two truss-rods and braces give the structure greater strength and solidity1 adapting it for spans eighteen feet in length4 ,for the latter length1 sills should be of good material1 ten inches wide and fourteen inches deep1 with three middle sills of about the same size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgh4--;,a ,,bolt ,,truss4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgi4--;,,bridge ,,braced ,,from ,,below4 ,figure #bgg is a more improved style of bridge1 the truss serving both to support the structure1 and as a parapet4 ,the top railing is of the same width as the sill1 about one foot4 ,the lower side may be cut away1 giving the bridge a more finished appearance4 ,the railing at the center is six inches thick1 and three inches at the ends4 ,the tie1 h1 is full width and four inches thick4 ,a bridge of this kind will answer for heavy traffic1 even if twenty feet in length4 ,the bolt truss1 in figure #bgh1 is adapted for a span of twenty-five feet4 ,this makes a bridge of great firmness4 ,each set of truss-rods support a cross-sill4 ,the road planks are laid crosswise of the bridge4 ,the middle sills are sometimes half an inch lower than those along the sides1 and should be four or five in number4 ,the ends of the planks fit closely against the inside of the truss sills1 thereby keeping the planks securely in place4 ,a common method of bracing is from below as shown in figure #bgi4 ,this is not usually a good practice1 as the braces are liable to be carried away by ice or floods4 ,,abutments1 ,,piers ,,and ,,railings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhj4--;,,end ,,of ,a ,,bridge4 ,if the sills of a bridge are laid directly upon the dry walls of an abutment1 or upon a heavy plank1 the jar of passing teams soon displaces some of the stones1 and brings undue strain upon certain portions of the wall4 ,to avoid this1 abutments are best made of cut stones1 and laid in cement4 ,a wooden bent for the support of the ends of the bridge may be made as shown in figure #bhj4 ,the whole should be constructed of heavy timber1 pinned together4 ,a coat of white lead should cover the interior surface of all joints4 ,the number and position of the posts of the wooden abutment are seen in the engraving4 ,a log should be laid upon the wall at m1 to relieve the bridge from the shock of the passing wagons4 ,a center pier should be avoided as much as possible1 as it offers serious obstruction in floods1 and ice1 drift wood and other floating matter become piled against it1 seriously imperiling the entire structure4 ,but in cases where the length of the bridge is so great as to require one or more piers1 they may be constructed on the plan shown in figure #bha1 or in case the bottom is so soft as to render the mudsill insecure1 a line of piles supporting a cross-timber1 as in figure #bhb4 ,a strong1 reliable parapet or railing should always be provided4 ,the want of one may be the cause of fatal accidents to persons and horses4 ,figure #bhc gives a side view of a good railing1 and figure #bhd shows the manner of bracing the posts to the ends of the cross-beams4 ,they should be thus braced at every alternate post of the railing4 ,the floor should be double1 as shown in figure #bhe1 the lower planks laid diagonally1 and the upper layer crosswise4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bha4--;,,framed ,,pier4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhb4--;,,bridge ,,supported ,,by ,,piles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhc4 ,,railing ,,of ,,bridge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhd4 ,,railing ,,of ,,bridge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhe4--,,plank ,,floor ,,of ,,bridge4 ,,bridges ,,for ,,gullies4 ,for small gullies which cross roadways or lanes in farms1 and are not the beds of constant streams1 but are occasionally filled with surface water1 a very simple bridge is sufficient4 ,one like that shown in figure #bhf is as good as any4 ,the sills1 a1 a1 are sunk in a trench dug against the bank and at least to the level of the bed of the creek4 ,the cross-sills1 b1 b1 are not mortised into them1 but simply laid between them4 ,the pressure is all from the outside1 hence it will force a1 a1 tighter against the ends b1 b1 which must be sunk a little into the bed of the creek at its lowest point4 ,the posts are mortised into the sills1 a1 a1 and plates1 c1 c1 and d1 d1 upon which the planks are laid4 ,props may be put against the lower sides of the posts to hold the bridge against the stream4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhf4--;,,frame ,,for ,,bridge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhg4--;,,convenient ,,farm ,,bridge4 ,a cheap but practicable bridge is shown in figure #bhg4 ,two logs are laid across the gully1 their ends resting on the banks1 and to them puncheons or planks are spiked to form the bridge4 ,stout posts1 well propped and reaching above the highest water mark1 are placed against the lower side of the logs4 ,if the creek rises1 the bridge1 being free1 will be raised on the surface of the water1 while the posts will prevent its being carried away4 ,should it not rise with the water1 it opposes so little surface to the current that the posts will hold it fast4 ,,ornamental ,,bridges4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhh4--,,rustic ,,bridge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhi4--;,a ,,bridge ,,of ,,rocks4 ,no feature adds more to the appearance of ornamental grounds than tasteful bridges4 ,a stream or narrow channel connecting two parts of a small sheet of water1 affords an opportunity for the introduction of a bridge4 ,in the absence of such features a bridge may be thrown across a dry ravine4 ,whatever style may be adopted1 should harmonize with the general character of the surroundings4 ,an elaborate bridge of wood or masonry would be as much out of place on grounds unadorned by other structures1 as a rude rustic one would be near highly finished summer-houses and other architectural features4 ,on most grounds a neat rustic bridge1 something like the one shown in figure #bhh1 would be in good keeping with its environments4 ,such bridges may be made of red cedar logs and branches1 resting upon stone abutments4 ,where boulders are abundant1 a stone bridge1 something like figure #bhi1 may be built at very little cost1 and will last for generations4 ,the pleasing effect of rustic or other ornamental bridges is enhanced by training ,virginia creeper or other climbing plants upon them4 ,,road ,,culverts4 ,a culvert under a road is1 in effect1 a short bridge4 ,the simplest form of plank culvert1 resting upon stone abutments1 is shown in figure #bij4 ,such a structure is cheaply built1 and serves a good purpose while the wood-work remains sound4 ,but the planks wear out and the timbers decay1 requiring frequent renewing4 ,where stone is abundant it is much cheaper in the end to build wholly of stone1 as in figure #bia4 ,after the abutments are built1 a course of flat stone1 along each side1 projects inward from six to ten inches1 as at a1 a1 which are covered with a broad stone1 b4 ,where the stream to be crossed is so narrow that a row of single stones is sufficient to cover the opening1 a culvert like that seen in figure #bib is cheaply made4 ,such structures will remain serviceable for a generation1 if the foundations are not undermined by the action of the water4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bij4--;,,culvert ,,with ,,plank ,,floor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bia4--,,stone ,,culvert4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bib4--;,,cheaper ,,stone ,,culvert4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bic4--;,,arched ,,concrete ,,culvert4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bid4--;,,angular ,,concrete ,,culvert4 ,where flat stones enough cannot be easily procured1 culverts may be built of concrete4 ,the abutments are first made1 as in other cases2 then empty barrels or sugar hogsheads1 according to the capacity of the opening1 are fitted in1 or better still1 a temporary arch is made of rough1 narrow boards4 ,the concrete of cement1 sand and gravel1 is then prepared and poured in1 temporary supports of lumber having been fixed across each end of the culvert to keep the concrete in place until it hardens4 ,small stones may be mixed with the concrete as it is poured into place1 and the whole topped off with a row of them4 ,this protection of stones on the top is valuable1 in case the covering of earth is worn or wasted away at any time while it is in use4 ,for a longer culvert a flattened arch is made of concrete1 as shown in figure #bic4 ,light timbers are laid across1 the ends resting lightly on the abutments4 ,across the middle of these a round log is placed to support the crown of the arch4 ,elastic split poles are sprung over all1 and upon these are nailed thin narrow boards1 extending lengthwise of the culvert4 ,the ends being temporarily protected1 the concrete is mixed and poured on1 as before4 ,as soon as the concrete has become thoroughly well 8set10 the light cross-sticks are cut in two and the temporary work removed4 ,a cross-section1 showing another form of concrete culvert1 and the method of construction1 are shown in figure #bid4 ,such a culvert is more easily built than the last1 but is not as strong4 ,the best and most durable culvert is of stone1 with a regular half-round arch4 ,such work can only be done properly by a regular mason1 but in the end it is cheaper1 where the stone can be obtained1 than any kind of make-shift4 ,illustration ,transcribers' ,notes ,italics are rendered between underscores 7low line characters7 e4g4 italics4 ,small caps are rendered as ,,all ,,caps4 ,the term #8barb wire' appears #bf times4 ,the term #8barb-wire' appears #aa times4 ,both variants have been have been left as printed4 ,other hyphenation inconsistencies and various other errors have been corrected as listed on the following table4 ------------------------------------ ,transcribers' ,changes ---------------------------------- ,page ,as printed ,changed to ---------------------------------- #e ,wire ,stretchers,wire-,stretchers #f #afi #agj #aj to-the to the #aa hight height #ab live-stock livestock #af can not cannot #bj wheelbarrow wheel-barrow #bc back furrow back-furrow #bc wheelbarrow wheel-barrow #bi strap hinge strap-hinge #cd four inch four-inch #da half-inch half inch #de horse-shoe horseshoe #dh three quarter three-quarter #di live stock livestock #ej injured injured4 #ej end posts end-posts #eb fence post fence-post #ec once ,once #eh hard-wood hard wood #fe iron iron1 #fh hedge-plant hedge plant #gc if is #gh any where anywhere #hj ,figure figure #he drift wood driftwood #he hoop iron hoop-iron #hf tenpenny ten-penny #hg drift wood driftwood #ij crosspiece cross-piece #ia drift-wood driftwood #ib brush wood brushwood #ajc post- post #ajh extremeties extremities #aad one quarter one-quarter #aaf ground piece ground-piece #aag cross-wise crosswise #aag ,gate-ways ,gateways #aah end posts end-posts #abj end piece end-piece #abb fence post fence-post #abb three quarter three-quarter #abb one half one-half #acc can not cannot #adf gate frame gate-frame #adi two inch two-inch #aec one quarter one-quarter #aec #bdj #bdj4 #aec end piece end-piece #aef hard-wood hard wood #afb passage-way passageway #afe wheelbarrow wheel-barrow #afe live stock livestock #afg end posts end-posts #afh gate frame gate-frame #afi cross piece cross-piece #agb watercourse water-course #agd land holder land-holder #agf live stock livestock #agh cross sill cross-sill #agi #bgi #bgi4 #agi truss rods truss-rods ----------------------------------