,transcriber's ,notes3 ,underscores 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate italics in the original text4 ,illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs4 ,old or antiquated spellings have been preserved4 ,typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered4 ,,copyright ,,by ,,the ,,commercial ,,advertiser ,,ass',n4 ,a4 ,d4 #ahih4 ,,the ,,modern ,,bicycle ,,and ,,its ,,accessories ,a ,,complete ,,reference ,,book ,,for ,,rider1 ,,dealer ,,and ,,maker ,republished from the ,series of ,articles ,written for ,the ,commercial ,advertiser by ,alex4 ,schwalbach and ,julius ,wilcox ,under the ,caption of 8,bicycles for #ahih10 ,setting ,forth the ,improvements and ,changes in ,manufacture ,since #ahaf4 ,,the ,,commercial ,,advertiser ,,association1 #bi ,park ,row1 ,new ,york1 ,publishers4 #ahih4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,bicycle1 #ahaf ,,to #ahii ,the ,year #ahih a ,memorable ,one in ,its ,history2 ,improvement in ,quality1 ,reduction in ,price1 the ,reincarnation of the ,chainless1 and the ,abolition of the ,national ,cycle ,show--,tendencies ,toward ,fixity1 and ,reversion to ,type--,the ,earliest ,creations in ,bicycle ,construction and the ,steady ,march ,toward ,improvement--,a ,brief ,sketch of ,development--,marked ,characteristics and ,changes ,adopted with the ,season of #ahih4 ,pages #a-i ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,chainless ,,wheel4 ,its ,advent ,upon the ,american ,market1 ,after ,long and ,costly ,experiments--,the ,various ,methods ,employed to ,transmit ,power--,a ,single ,successful ,foreign ,wheel of ,this ,type--,the ,bevel ,gear1 ,spur ,gear and ,pin-,roller ,gear--,a ,study of the ,chainless ,type1 with ,illustrations and ,descriptions of ,popular ,models4 ,pages #aj-bg ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,chainless ,,vs4 ,,chain4 ,the ,advantages ,claimed for ,each ,compared--,summary of ,early ,attempts in 8,safety0 ,types--,modes of ,power ,transmission--,demands ,upon ,chainless ,construction--,the ,problems of ,end-,thrust and ,side-,thrust--,the ,question of ,strain ,upon ,bearings and ,gear ,teeth--,charges ,brought ,against the ,chain ,wheel--,effect of the ,chainless ,upon the ,trade4 ,pages #bh-cf ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,frame ,,and ,,fork ,,construction4 ,the ,frame1 ,essentially a 8,bridge ,upon ,wheels0--,evolution of ,shape in ,frames--,drop ,forgings and ,stampings--,flush ,joints--,drop ,frames--,juveniles--,styles of ,forks and ,crowns--,how ,tubing ,is ,made--,the ,adoption of ,sheet-,steel ,parts4 ,pages #cg-eb ,illustration ,,chapter ,v4 ,,chain ,,protection4 ,the ,gear ,case an ,english ,device--,its ,improved ,construction in ,america--,its ,practical ,advantages--,various ,styles ,described4 ,pages #ec-eg ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,chain ,,and ,,its ,,functions4 ,a ,greater ,knowledge and ,care of ,chains ,desirable--,evolution and ,operation--,attempts to ,reduce ,chain ,friction--,roller ,sprockets and ,roller ,chains--,various ,points and ,kinds of ,friction--,the ,several ,types of ,chain ,now in ,use--,improved ,sprockets--,results of ,actual ,tests--,chain ,adjusters--,chain ,bolts and ,repairs4 ,pages #eh-ff ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,hubs1 ,,spokes ,,and ,,rims4 ,improvements in ,construction--,the ,suspension ,wheel ,described--,construction of ,hubs and ,spokes--,the ,strains to ,which ,they ,are ,subjected--,the ,different ,styles in ,use--,the ,wood ,wheel--,steel ,rims and ,wood ,rims1 with ,some ,popular ,examples4 ,pages #fg-gc ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,tire4 ,the ,tire from #ahhh to #ahih--,solid1 ,cushion1 ,inner-,tube and 8,hose-,pipe0--,the ,various ,makes of ,tire and ,rim--,early ,methods of ,repair--,modern ,repair ,methods and ,kits--,plugs1 ,patching1 ,strips and ,vulcanizing--,some ,valuable ,hints to ,riders4 ,pages #gd-ha ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,bearings4 ,the ,great ,improvement in ,bicycle ,bearings--,points of ,contact--,the ,evil ,results of ,careless ,construction and ,assembling--,ballmaking--,the ,cup ,adjustment and ,its ,advantages--,lubrication and ,dust ,exclusion--,methods in ,bearings as ,made in #ahih4 ,pages #hb-hg ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,,chapter ,x4 ,,cranks1 ,,pedals ,,and ,,axles4 ,the ,early and ,modern ,hub--,the ,divided-,axle ,mania--8,one-,piece0 ,construction--,crank ,throw and ,variable ,gear--,gear ,ratio--,crank ,drop--,shapes of ,crank and ,sprocket--,evolution of the ,pedal and ,axle--,ankle ,motion and ,its ,advantages--,the ,ramsey ,swinging ,pedal4 ,pages #hh-id ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,saddle4 ,until ,late ,years a ,knotty ,problem for ,makers and ,riders--,some ,recent ,improvements--,saddles and 8,seats0--,use and ,misuse of ,springs--,a ,strictly ,universal ,saddle ,impossible--,various ,types and ,makes--,wide ,range of ,choice--,the ,seat ,post4 ,pages #ie-ajb ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,handlebars1 ,,grips ,,and ,,brakes4 ,successive ,modifications--,long vs4 ,short ,bars--,wood ,bars--,grips of ,various ,sorts--,the ,question of ,brakes--,rear and ,front ,brakes--,back-,pedalling and ,rear ,brakes--,the ,spencer ,brake4 ,pages #ajc-ajh ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,lamps ,,and ,,lamp ,,brackets4 ,evolution of the ,lamp--,excellence of the ,american ,kerosene ,lamp--,description of ,various ,makes--,electric ,lamps--,the ,new ,carbide ,illuminant--,descriptions of ,carbide ,lamps--,lamp ,brackets4 ,pages #aji-aag ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,cyclometers ,,and ,,other ,,sundries4 ,early ,cyclometers--,dial and ,barrel ,types--,various ,styles of the ,latter--,bells1 ,ringing by ,tire ,contact and ,otherwise--,bell-,brakes--,toe-,clips-- ,luggage-,carriers--,children's ,seats--,pumps--,accessories and ,novelties4 ,pages #aah-abe ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,freaks ,,and ,,useless ,,devices4 ,constantly ,recurring ,fallacies--,weight for ,obtaining ,perpetual ,motion--,some ,examples of ,vain ,contriving--,examples of ,patents ,applied ,for--,building 8,to ,order0--,cutting ,down ,frames--,the 8,drop0 ,craze4 ,pages #abf-aca ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,tandems ,,and ,,multicycles4 ,increased ,use of the ,tandem--,tandem ,evolution--,various ,makes ,described--,tricycles1 ,multicycles and ,juvenile ,tandems4 ,pages #acb-ach ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,motor ,,vehicles4 ,bicycles and ,tricycles--,evolution of the ,motor ,carriage--,air as ,motive ,power--,electricity in ,actual ,use--,various ,electrical ,vehicles ,described--,gas ,motors4 ,pages #aci-adc ,illustration ,,illustrations4 ,,the ,,bicycle--,,early ,,and ,,modern ,,types4 ,page4 ,draisine in action--#ahah #b 8,boneshaker0--#ahfh #c ,the 8,ordinary0--#ahgh #c ,rear ,driver--#ahic #e ,the 8,rover0--#ahgh #f ,chainless type1 #ahih 7bevel-gear7 #g ,extreme type of #ahih ,chain model1 combining all late features #i ,,chainless ,,types ,,and ,,driving ,,gear4 ,columbia ,chainless #aj ,columbia ,chainless--,mechanism and ,frame #aa ,spalding ,chainless #ab ,spalding ,chainless--,driving ,gear #ac ,stearns ,chainless #ac ,monarch ,chainless #ad ,humber ,chainless #ae ,sterling ,chainless--,crank ,bracket #af ,sterling ,chainless--,connecting ,shaft #af ,bayvelgere ,jointed ,shaft #ag ,hildick ,chainless ,driving ,gear #ah ,crescent ,chainless--,driving ,gear #ai ,featherstone 8,change ,gear0 ,chainless #bj ,featherstone ,chainless ,crank ,hanger #ba ,dayton ,chainless--,driving ,gear #bb ,pine 8,square-,tooth0 ,chainless #bc 8,english0 ,chainless #bd 8,english0 ,chainless--,driving ,gear #be ,bantam ,chainless--#ahih #be ,bantam ,chainless--,driving ,gear #bf ,acatene ,chainless--,driving ,gear #bf ,lloyd's ,cross ,roller ,driving ,gear #bg ,geared ,ordinary #bg ,,types ,,of ,,the ,,chain ,,wheel--,,mechanism ,,and ,,operation4 ,first ,humber model #bi ,golden ,era--,model #bi ,victor--,first ,american ,safety--#ahhg #cj ,diagram--,one-sided ,chain ,pull #ca ,first ,columbia ,rear ,driver--#ahhh #cb ,defender ,midget--#ahih #cd ,keating--,model #cg ,union--,model #cg ,victor--,model #ch ,liberty--,model #ch ,cygnet--,model #ch ,victor--,single ,loop--,model #ci ,victor--,racquet ,frame--#ahib #df ,stearns--,model #df ,cleveland--,model #dg ,kangaroo--,model #ea ,,frames1 ,,fork ,,crowns ,,and ,,joints4 ,three-,crown ,frame #ci ,chilion ,wood ,frame #ci ,crescent ,flush ,joint #dj ,wolff-,american ,flush ,joint #dj ,columbia ,fork ,crown #dj ,crescent ,fork ,crown #da ,lyndhurst ,fork ,crown #da ,arch ,fork ,crown #da ,crawford ,fork ,crown #db ,humber ,fork ,crown #db ,monarch ,fork ,crown #dc ,orient ,fork ,crown #dc ,union ,fork ,crown #dc ,liberty ,fork ,crown #dd ,world and ,adlake ,fork ,crown #dd ,cleveland ,fork ,crown #de ,eagle ,drop-,forged ,flush ,joint #ea ,wolff-,american ,lapped ,joint #dg ,remington ,flush ,joint #dg ,working ,drawing--,diamond ,frame model #di ,working ,drawing--,drop ,frame model #ej ,,gear ,,cases4 ,frost ,gear ,case #ed ,racycle ,gear ,case #ed ,safety ,gear ,case #ee ,rambler ,gear ,case #ee ,cleveland ,gear ,case #ef ,,sprockets1 ,,chains ,,and ,,chain ,,adjusters4 ,brown ,roller ,sprocket #eh ,chantrell ,chain #eh ,keating ,twin ,roller ,chain #ei ,types of ,english ,chains #ei ,diamond 8,b0 ,chain #fj ,thames ,twin ,roller ,chain #fj ,morse ,roller ,joint ,chain #fj ,baldwin ,detachable ,chain #fa ,ewart ,chain--#ahhh #fa ,bridgeport ,detachable ,chain #fa ,liberty ,sprocket #fb ,crescent ,chain ,adjuster #fb ,victor ,chain ,test--,diagram #fc ,wolff-,american ,chain ,adjuster #fd ,crescent ,chain and ,bolt #fd ,lefevre ,chain #fd ,circular ,chain #fe ,remington ,chain #fe ,missing ,link #fe ,victor ,straight-,line ,sprocket #ff ,humber ,chain ,adjuster #ff ,,hubs4 ,crescent ,hub #fh ,columbia ,hub #fh ,keating ,hub #fi ,sterling ,hub #fi ,wolff-,american ,hub #fi ,cleveland ,hub #gj ,liberty ,hub #gj ,,rims1 ,,tires ,,and ,,repair ,,tools4 ,plymouth ,rim ,joint #gj ,plymouth ,rim #gb ,kundtz ,rim #gb ,buckeye ,rim #ge 8,m4 ,w40 ,tire #ge ,indian ,arrow-,head ,tire #gf ,dreadnaught ,tire #gg ,straus ,protected ,tire #gg ,kangaroo ,tire #gh ,goodrich 8,jiffy0 ,repair ,tool #gi 8,sure ,thing0 ,repair ,tool #hj ,,bearings4 ,old ,double-,row ,ball ,bearing #hc ,lower ,half of ,double-,row ,ball ,bearing #hc ,four-,point ,bearing #hd ,four-,point ,bearing--8,e4 ,d40 pattern #hd ,common ,three-,point ,bearing #hf ,three-,point ,bearing--,improved #hf ,two-,point ,bearing #hg ,,pedals4 ,extension ,pedals--,american-,waltham #hi ,rat-,trap ,pedal--,american-,waltham #hi ,straus ,removable ,pedal ,rubbers #hi ,ramsey ,pedal #ij ,ordinary ,pedal--8,clock0 diagram #ij ,ramsey ,pedal--8,clock0 diagram #ia ,,crank ,,axles ,,and ,,crank ,,hangers4 ,crescent ,crank ,hanger1 ,stages #a to #e #dh ,stearns ,crank ,hanger ,mechanism #ga ,wolff-,american ,crank ,axle #ib ,gard ,crank and ,divided ,axle #ic ,,saddles4 ,christy--,men's model #if ,christy--,women's model #if ,christy--,racing model #ig ,christy--,view of under side #ig ,safety ,poise #ig 8,rubber-,neck0 #ih ,bernasco #ih ,garford--,model 8#abh0 #ih ,tillinghast--and ,frame #ii ,dr4 ,richmond 8,universal0 #ajj ,brown #ajj ,gilliam--and ,frame #aja ,la ,tulip #ajb ,,handlebars ,,and ,,brakes4 ,kelly ,adjustable ,bar #ajc ,plymouth ,wood ,bar #ajc ,lyndhurst ,adjustable ,bar #ajd ,barret's ,detachable ,brake #ajd ,detachable ,rear ,brake #aje ,stewart ,roller ,brake #aje ,back-,pedalling ,brake 7,hay ,willits7 #ajf ,back-,pedalling ,brake 78,new ,departure07 #ajg ,duck's ,roller ,brake #ajg ,,lamps ,,and ,,lamp ,,brackets4 ,bridgeport ,searchlight 7oil7 #aaj ,twentieth ,century 7oil7 #aaj 8,m4 ,w40 7,mathews ,willard7 7oil7 #aaj ,bragger 7oil7 #aaa ,columbia 7oil7 #aaa 8,x ,rays0 7oil7 #aaa ,manhattan ,brass ,co4 product 7oil7 #aab ,acme 7electric7 #aad ,klondike 7oil7 #aad ,solar 7carbide7--,interior view #aae ,electro 7carbide7 #aae ,electro--,interior view #aaf ,helios 7carbide7 #aaf ,calcium ,king 7carbide7 #aag ,combination ,bracket #aac ,u4 ,s4 ,detachable ,bracket #aac ,,cyclometers4 ,twentieth ,century ,cyclometer #aah ,veeder ,cyclometer #aah ,shepherd ,cyclometer #aai ,standard ,cyclometer #aai ,new ,departure ,cyclometer #aai ,trump ,cyclometer #abj ,,bells4 ,lord ,bell #abj ,bevin ,bell #abj ,l4 ,a4 ,w4 ,bell #aba ,combination ,bell and ,brake #aba ,,toe ,,clips4 ,,carriers ,,and ,,sundries4 ,howard ,toe ,clip #abb ,combination ,toe ,clip #abb ,kalamazoo ,carrier #abc ,lamson ,carrier #abc ,fairy ,child's ,seat #abc 8,ideal0 ,foot ,pump #abd ,lubricants--8,pacemaker0 and 8,three in ,one0 #abd ,,freaks ,,and ,,odd ,,inventions4 ,weight ,driven ,model #abf ,the 8,sweeper0 ,idea #abg ,a ,notion of #ahha #abh ,mahoney's ,model1 #ahic #abi ,a 8,dream0 ,motor #acj ,wind ,driven ,model #acj ,,multicycles4 ,stearns ,septuplet #acb ,stearns ,convertible ,tandem #acc ,tinkham ,tricycle #acc ,wolff-,american ,triplet #acd ,cleveland ,tandem #ace ,wolff-,american ,tandem #ace ,tinkham ,cab #acf ,andrae ,tandem #acf 8,oriten0 #acf ,wolff-,american ,duplex #acg ,tinkham ,carrier #ach ,,motor ,,vehicles4 ,motor ,tricycle #adj ,pope ,electric ,phaeton #ada ,pope ,electric ,phaeton1 under test #adc ,bicycle with ,motor ,attachment #adb ,,preface4 ,to the ,cyclist who appreciates the advantage of understanding his wheel1 its mechanism and its construction1 for the same reason and because of the same interest felt by a horseman in his roadster1 an engineer in his locomotive1 or a yachtsman in his boat1 the following pages can scarcely fail to be of interest and value4 ,bicycles without number have been consigned to the scrap heap or discarded for new mounts1 as the result of abuse and the lack of proper care1 due solely to the ignorance of riders as to a wheel's construction and requirements1 while disappointments have resulted1 in many instances1 because the same lack of knowledge has prevented the wise selection of a well constructed and properly adjusted mount at the outset4 ,a bicycle can no more be expected to run smoothly without a proper adjustment of its parts and their maintenance in perfect running condition than can any other piece of machinery1 and while the chain and chainless productions of #ahih are admirable for their simple mechanism1 such points as the bearings and running gear require periodical inspection and attention to insure satisfactory service4 ,this cannot be adequately given by a rider who has no conception as to the details of construction of his machine1 and so it frequently happens that a bicycle sinks into an early grave because its rider persists in calling upon it for continued service1 while utterly indifferent to its construction and requirements4 8,know thy wheel0 is an excellent maxim for every rider to follow2 for those who heed it the matter of emergency repair will be a simple thing1 a smooth running wheel will be assured1 the chance of accident reduced to the minimum1 and the life of the machine extended throughout its fullest period4 ,it is partly with a view to bringing about a better acquaintance between the average rider and his wheel that the following pages are presented4 ,to the bicycle manufacturer and to the repair man and dealer--who are frequently called upon for advice and service concerning any and all makes of wheels--to the student of cycle construction1 and to the mechanical expert1 the volume will scarcely fail to be regarded as a valuable reference book for many years to come4 ,the idea of presenting to riders--through the columns of 8,the ,commercial ,advertiser0--an illustrated description of the lines1 parts and improvements of the bicycle for #ahih was conceived chiefly because of the absence during the winter of #ahig-ih of a ,national ,cycle ,show4 ,just prior to the opening of preceding seasons tens of thousands of riders throughout the country were able to see at the annual shows1 and at those held under the auspices of the various local cycle trade organizations1 all that the maker had to offer in changes and improvements for the new year4 ,this opportunity was also furthered by the columns of descriptive matter published by the daily press and cycle trade journals in their reports of these shows and their exhibits4 ,riders were to have none of these advantages for the season of #ahih1 however1 and 8,the ,commercial ,advertiser0 accordingly began the work of collecting and presenting the information which appeared in its columns in serial form during ,february1 ,march and ,april of #ahih1 and which is now presented in this volume4 ,it is not claimed that all of the new features and changes evolved by the master mechanics of the cycle building industry have been embodied4 ,it is believed1 however1 that none having an important bearing upon1 or any way likely to cause material changes in1 the methods of bicycle construction have been overlooked4 ,further than this1 the gradual processes through which these changes and improvements have been evolved are shown throughout the periods of distinct advancement1 also those of reversion1 as they have followed1 one upon the other1 until the present state of the industry is reached1 and its product set forth as the most advanced1 from every standpoint1 in the history of bicycle building4 ,likewise the progress and improvement made in the manufacture of tires1 saddles1 lamps1 bells1 brakes1 and the many other articles common to the well-equipped modern bicycle1 have received careful attention1 with the result that the work of presenting this amount of information to the readers of 8,the ,commercial ,advertiser0 has1 we believe1 been as complete and thorough as it has been practicable to make it4 ,,the ,,publishers4 ,illustration3 ,,names ,,of ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,a ,,bicycle4 #a4 ,handles or grips4 #b4 ,handle bar4 #c4 ,handle bar stem4 #d4 ,fork crown4 #e4 ,fork side4 #f4 ,lamp bracket4 #g4 ,handle bar clamp1 binder1 or 8pinch bind40 #h4 ,brake lever4 #i4 ,brake joint and screw4 #aj4 ,brake rod or plunger4 #aa4 ,brake collars and screws4 #ab4 ,brake tube4 #ac4 ,brake spoon4 #ad4 ,head4 #ae4 ,upper1 horizontal or top tube4 #af4 ,lower1 head to bracket1 tube4 #ag4 ,seat mast1 diagonal1 or saddle-post tube4 #ah4 ,rear or back stays4 #ai4 ,rear or back forks4 #bj4 ,head lugs or connections4 #ba4 ,saddle post frame--connection or cluster4 #bb4 ,saddle post clamp or binder1 bolt and nut4 #bc4 ,rear or back fork-end4 #bd4 ,crank hanger or bottom bracket4 #be4 ,chain--,humber or block pattern4 #bf4 ,rear or small sprocket or chain wheel4 #bg4 ,front1 or large sprocket or chain wheel4 #bh4 ,crank axle1 shaft or spindle4 #bi4 ,cranks4 #cj4 ,crank key1 or cotter pin4 #ca4 ,front1 or steering1 wheel4 #cb4 ,rear1 or driving1 wheel4 #cc4 ,tires4 #cd4 ,rims4 #ce4 ,spokes4 #cf4 ,spoke nipples4 #cg4 ,front mud guard4 #ch4 ,rear mud guard4 #ci4 ,mud guard stays1 arms or braces4 #dj4 ,front hub4 #da4 ,rear1 or back hub4 #db4 ,top head cup4 #dc4 ,bottom head cup4 #dd4 ,step4 #de4 ,head lock-nut4 #df4 ,chain adjuster4 #dg4 ,pedals4 #dh4 ,pedal end plate4 #di4 ,pedal side plate4 #ej4 ,pedal axle1 or spindle1 and centre tube4 #ea4 ,head adjusting cone4 #eb4 ,outside1 or small1 pedal nut4 #ec4 ,inside1 or large1 pedal nut4 #ed4 ,saddle1 seat or ,l post or pillar4 #ee4 ,arm or top piece of pillar4 #ef4 ,saddle4 #eg4 ,saddle adjusting screw4 #eh4 ,saddle spring4 #ei4 ,saddle clamp or clip4 #fj4 ,brake spring4 #fa4 ,rear axle nut4 #fb4 ,valves4 #fc4 ,hub oil cup4 #fd4 ,crank hanger1 or bottom bracket1 oil cup4 #fe4 ,sprocket wheel tooth4 #ff4 ,braces1 stays or bridges of rear frame4 #fg4 ,brake guide4 #fh4 ,mud guard clip4 #fi4 ,coaster or foot rest4 #gj4 ,fork stem or neck tube4 #ga4 ,centre block of chain4 #gb4 ,side plate4 #gc4 ,chain rivet4 #gd4 ,front fork4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,bicycle--#ahaf ,,to #ahii4 8,the nothing of the day is a machine called the ,velocipede4 ,it is a wheel carriage to ride cock-horse upon1 sitting astride and pushing it along with the toes1 a rudder wheel in the hand4 ,they will go seven miles in an hour4 ,a handsome #8gelding' will come to #h guineas2 however1 they will soon be cheaper unless the army takes to them40--,letter of ,john ,keats to a friend1 about #ahah4 ,the future historian of cycledom will clearly note that #ahih was memorable for the reincarnation of the chainless2 that the chain models were improved in quality and reduced in price1 and that the trade did not hold a show1 this being the first lapse since those events began in this country in #ahij4 ,conservative old ,england1 where shows were first held and the bicycle really began to succeed1 has just closed her twenty-first or 8coming-of-age0 show in ,london1 and the other large cities of the kingdom are1 in their turn1 pushing the show around the circuit as usual4 ,america--progressive and enthusiastic--after less than one decade of it1 exhausted itself for the time1 and the ,national ,board of ,trade of ,cycle ,manufacturers decided to pass #ahih1 refusing to give sanction to either national or local exhibitions4 ,from the stand of the riding public much might be said on the affirmative side of the show question4 ,the show brings under one roof all the new models and accessories for the coming year1 affording ready means of comparisons1 instructive1 even if sometimes odious2 maker and rider come together1 and the latter especially1 has opportunity to renew old friendships2 the copious reports and illustrations in the daily and trade press arouse expectation in the cycling public1 and undoubtedly make many new converts2 the gap between riding seasons is bridged across 8the winter of our discontent10 and things are kept on the move4 ,not denying aught of this1 the makers reply that they are not in the amusement business2 that this is a costly form of advertising directly1 also delaying trade both by inducing buyers to wait to see it all and by tying up their representatives when they ought to be on the road visiting agents2 that no other business has or needs such gatherings2 and that shows were originally intended to bring together maker and dealer1 not maker and rider4 ,intelligent and impartial observers who have studied the question from both sides1 say that all the trouble has come from the ,american habit of overdoing1 and that the makers are to blame for deviation from the original idea1 and for going into gorgeous competitions in electric lighting1 costly furnishings and decorations and a prodigal waste of printed matter2 that when aisles are packed and the week is a society event1 the greatest thing in a show1 the one chiefly cared for1 and really about the only one that can be seen1 is the show itself1 the crowd itself being what the crowd attends2 that the thing becomes a grab for 8souvenirs0 and a spectacular waste1 instead of an exhibit of cycles and accessories to those who really want to see them4 ,,transformation ,,of 8,,the ,,show40 ,there has been a divergence from the original idea1 certainly1 even in ,england4 ,the ,stanley ,show was at first the happy thought of some member of the ,stanley ,club1 one of the oldest if not quite the oldest of cycle clubs1 in a time of cycle feebleness1 when the young sport needed all the aid it could command4 ,to help things along through the winter1 and doubtless largely on the strictly social side1 it was proposed to get together in one place as many patterns of cycle and as many kindred articles as could be got4 ,from that feeble start the thing has grown1 as cycling grew4 ,in a like feeble way1 though with a model to follow1 cycle showing began in this country1 at ,philadelphia4 ,during the years that have followed it has brought the public into line1 until in ,new ,york there is now only one building large enough to hold it--and that none too large for such an event4 ,in ,chicago there was one vast enough1 but so vast that it had to be placed so far away from business and residence that it was as if a show were to be held out at ,jamaica1 on ,long ,island4 ,reaching the spot was certainly none too easy1 and the cold was apt to be very bitter4 ,here in ,new ,york1 it is urged1 had the makers1 through the ,national ,board1 chosen and decided to revert to the plan of a simple trade exhibition1 and had the date been in ,november or ,december1 instead of ,january or ,february1 the cost would have been small1 and all interests really concerned would have been benefited1 even while allowing1 although not pressing1 the public to attend4 ,a ,,cycle ,,opening ,,day4 ,it is to be expected that shows will come again1 with some lessons learned and surer warrant of having the net balances more on the right side all around4 ,meanwhile1 and as an immediately timely matter1 observe that cyclists have from the first gradually taken as theirs all seasonable outdoor holidays1 and a sensible custom has grown up in ,boston and other ,new ,england towns of making ,washington's ,birthday1 ,feb4 #bb1 an 8opening day0 among the retail cycle dealers1 who hold open house1 utilize flowers1 decorations and other pleasant things2 array their new models for view and invite the public to call4 ,needless to say1 the invitation on this cycle 8,new ,year calls0 day is largely accepted and cyclists1 real and expectant1 with their sisters and their cousins and their aunts1 go the rounds at pleasure1 comparing models1 anticipating the full riding season and enjoying good cheer4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,draisine 8,,in ,,action0--#ahah4 ,the retail cycle dealers in ,new ,york1 lesser and greater1 propose to adopt this good ,yankee custom hereafter and will keep latchstrings out on ,feb4 #bb1 so that instead of one great central show there will be a thousand miniature ones scattered throughout the metropolis2 it is estimated--of course there can never be an accurate census--that there are #bej1jjj cyclists in ,new ,york ,city alone4 ,the #agth of ,march1 ,st4 ,patrick's ,day1 has generally been considered the opening of the riding season1 the round of day and night being then equally divided3 the 8opening day0 adopted for ,feb4 #bb will naturally and easily fall in with this customary notion as to ,march #ag4 ,,the ,,swift ,,march ,,of ,,improvement4 ,illustration3 8,,boneshaker0--#ahfh4 7,the ,rider is ,john ,mayall1 who made the first road record1 by riding 7as shown in cut7 from ,london to ,brighton1 #ec miles1 in one day1 ,february1 #ahfi47 ,so rapid has been the march of improvement in cycle-making during the last seven years that the approach to fixity and uniformity of pattern--all bicycles now looking alike to the casual glance--has almost lost to us one of our most charming senses1 the sense of delighted surprise4 ,the most ingenious efforts of our master mechanics1 accomplishing what would have been impossible only a short time ago1 are now received as matters of course4 ,the crude conditions and mechanical product of no more than ten years ago are rarely recalled2 the vast majority of riders do not even know about them4 ,the strength1 lightness and beauty of the later bicycle have come out of long and toilsome and costly evolution1 in which many have fallen by the way1 and reward has not always been according to real merit4 ,the careful student of the principles of cycle construction--the making of 8a poem of steel0--cannot appreciatively examine the details in the advance shown in this year's models without being glad that he is permitted to see such achievements4 ,it is one thing to push and misuse the bicycle1 another to ride it with intelligent care1 another to understand it1 another to love it and to honor the long cumulative skill which has made it possible and practical4 ,the rabid seeker for extreme and radical novelties in type1 form and modes of propulsion may care little for the niceties of mechanical accomplishment and may declare that the standstill has been reached4 ,but this pessimistic and blas view is unwarranted1 for undoubtedly many of the most perfected and nearest perfect details now in vogue will be used on the cycle of the future1 regardless of its general type4 ,,the ,,tendency ,,to ,,fixity4 ,as in a number of past years1 the art of cycle-making in #ahih exhibits distinct signs of two irresistible tendencies4 ,one is toward fixity of type2 the other is toward reversion to type4 ,fixity of type means the condition when--although there may be several widely different patterns of bicycle in use1 as there always are of other wheeled vehicles--all of one pattern are substantially alike1 varying only in trivial details1 the product of all makers bearing the same appearance to the casual eye1 however varying in real quality4 ,when that time comes bicycles will resemble cut nails in being staple1 standard1 uniform and all alike4 ,such a time has not yet arrived1 and it is not necessary to try to name the date in the new century when it will arrive2 nevertheless the signs of its approach are unmistakable4 ,,the ,,tendency ,,to ,,reversion4 ,reversion to type--a well-known phrase of the scientific evolutionist--means here a return to earlier and once-discarded forms of construction4 ,very few notice the process1 yet it constantly goes on4 ,the inquirer for novelties often has the old presented to him and is satisfied1 supposing he is looking on a new up-to-date production2 it is a common experience to find alleged new devices brought out and rapturously received by the quidnuncs which the veteran instantly recognizes as among the things he saw tossed1 years ago1 into the refuse of the scrapheap4 ,that unhappy and irrepressible person1 the 8born inventor0--one of whom1 like the 8sucker10 is born every minute--is perpetually doing this in cycle matters1 because the cycle is so much in the public eye that it draws him as the lamp flame draws the moth2 he cannot keep away from it4 ,twenty years ago1 at the very beginning of the bicycle in this country1 he was eagerly on hand with his multiple-speed1 mile-a-minute contraption2 he has been doing the same ever since1 and is just as industriously as ever reinventing the old folly2 the ,patent ,office is flooded with his lumber4 ,this1 however1 is repetition rather than reversion4 ,reversion to old forms comes about for several reasons4 ,we must always remember that the bicycle1 like the piano1 the violin and some other things which could be cited1 belongs to nobody4 ,nobody invented it2 it is the product of many minds1 and has been wrought out by a long and gradual evolution1 in which every step1 freaky ones excepted1 has been suggested and tested by practical use4 ,hence a device may be abandoned in the hope of escaping the inevitable drawback which besets all earthly things2 or a device may be dropped because it cannot be made well enough or easily enough in the existing state of the art2 or the conditions of public demand1 or the state of the roads1 or the caprice of fashion may change4 ,changes also come about to gratify the craving for novelty1 and when the list of possibles comes to its end the maker goes back to or toward the beginning again1 like the preacher who tips over his barrel of sermons and starts in afresh on the other end4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,ordinary0--#ahgh4 ,for illustration1 suppose the following3 ,the chain has some drawbacks1 and therefore it is gradually displaced by the bevel-gear and entirely goes out4 ,that gear develops drawbacks in turn1 provoking fresh complaint1 and after some years of suffering under it1 some maker brings out a chain wheel1 which is hailed with delight1 and widely written up as the novelty of the year4 ,one by one makers follow suit1 until the gear is again quite displaced2 improvement has then gone around and has come back upon its own path1 the disadvantages of the old form having been found by trial to be less than those of the newer4 ,this supposed case1 which is partly real1 would illustrate progress by reversion4 ,a ,,brief ,,sketch ,,of ,,development4 ,the early history of bicycle development has been told even to weariness1 perhaps because not always well told4 ,we shall not go over the course again1 and yet it may not be amiss to show briefly and connectedly how the wheel of today grew out of the three preceding ones1 especially since this strikingly illustrates the reversion process just explained4 ,the earliest vehicle for making oneself horse as well as rider was a three-wheeler1 and was known at least1 as early as #aggi2 the two-wheeler began in #ahaf1 as far as records show1 with the ,draisine1 a front-steerer1 which was all ready to develop into either a front-driver or a rear-driver1 according to the method of attaching the cranks1 which so long remained the missing link4 ,of course it quickly went out1 and after nearly a half century of oblivion it was dragged down from the garret and the cranks were added--to the front wheel1 as that was then the easier way4 ,the revival is generally credited to ,france and to ,pierre ,lallement1 although ,michaux1 for whom he had been working in ,paris1 is probably more entitled to the credit than he2 the name of the man really the first to take the new step1 however1 is hopelessly lost in obscurity4 ,lallement did ride the thing in ,paris1 and did afterward make one in ,connecticut4 ,the patent on 8oppositely projecting cranks0 issued to him in #ahff became the most valuable one on which suits were afterward fought and royalties were collected1 yet ,lallement invented nothing1 and it is worth putting on record here that ,mr4 ,wilcox saw the velocipede of that day publicly ridden in ,brooklyn nearly two years before the issue of that patent1 and more than a year before ,lallement came to this country4 ,a few years of decline as a curiosity and the 8boneshaker0 had gone into forgetfulness after the ,draisine4 ,aside from its intolerable weight and its crude and clumsy construction1 what killed it was its lack of speed1 for it was 8geared level10 that is1 not geared at all4 ,england1 however1 did not give up the subject1 but kept pegging away at it4 ,to get a longer run for each foot-stroke1 a larger wheel was necessary2 so the rider was gradually brought 8over his work10 and the front wheel became as large as he could reach1 on a 8close built0 construction2 necessarily the back wheel shrunk to a smaller size1 ranging from #af to #ah inches1 or else the thing could have been neither mounted nor managed4 ,wood had given place to metal2 the tubular steel frame1 the suspension wheel with wire spokes1 the steel rim and the solid rubber tire came in nearly together1 and so1 as the third great step1 was evolved the high wheel1 or the 8good old ordinary10 still held more or less affectionately in the memory of all who ever rode it4 ,a specimen or two appeared in the ,centennial ,exhibition at ,philadelphia in #ahgf4 ,in the following year the new type commenced to go in this country1 beginning thus the bicycle era1 and it made its pioneer way without any rival until #ahha4 ,in #ahhj1 however1 ,mc,kee ,harrington of this city1 one of the pioneer makers1 received a diploma and a bronze medal for 8a steel bicycle0 exhibited at the fair of the ,american ,institute4 ,but the faults of the new construction were as positive as its virtues4 ,it was heavy1 averaging twice the weight of the bicycle of today2 the size which fitted depended on the rider's length of leg1 not at all on his strength or his preference2 worst of all1 it was an acrobatic and unsafe thing1 and was not a practical vehicle1 although those who then sold and used it tried to make it out so4 ,under the demand for safety1 invention went back to the 8boneshaker10 and put on the cranks and sprockets which could have been put on earlier1 producing in a clumsy form the now universal geared rear driver4 ,an earlier specimen under the name of 8,bicyclette0 appeared as far back as #ahgi1 but the 8,rover0 7nearly identical with that7 succeeded in giving its name to the type4 ,yet this name failed to survive1 because the type drove out every other1 and no specific name was required to distinguish it4 ,to the great majority of present riders1 this is 8the bicycle10 the only one they ever knew2 before it had driven out all others it was spoken of as 8the safety10 and yet there were many other forms of safety bicycles1 of which one antedated the rear driver in this country by some six years1 and two originated here4 ,all this was reversion to type4 ,the ,draisine went out of existence1 then received cranks on its front wheel and revived as the 8boneshaker10 or velocipede4 ,that went out as quickly in its turn1 and gradually grew into the ordinary4 ,then reappeared the ,draisine1 with cranks in the other places1 and drove out the high wheel after a hard contest4 ,will any such complete reversion occur again8 ,it does not seem likely2 yet when we remember the long and persistent battle of the types1 and the number of forms which have been tried1 it would be unwarranted to pronounce this impossible2 the front driver still survives1 although little is heard of it1 and if it should possess the field once more that would be no more remarkable than the changes which have already occurred4 ,,tendencies ,,in ,,general4 ,the mechanical tendencies of the ,american cycle makers and their product for #ahih are sharp and clearly defined4 ,indeed1 the past year marks the close of a decade of construction of the rear-driving bicycle4 ,before proceeding to analyze in detail the constructional features for #ahih1 a bird's eye view of the tendencies over the whole field will not be amiss4 ,illustration3 ,,rear-,,driver--#ahic4 ,the most striking characteristic tendency is the effort to introduce chainless rear driving1 not altogether1 however1 by the bevel-gear4 ,a careful census of the makers shows that some thirty prominent makers had perfected plans to place a chainless cycle of some sort on the market in #ahih4 ,thus the season offers debatable ground between the advocates of the chainless and the chain-driven cycle4 ,during #ahih is being fought the battle for supremacy between them1 the chain-driven cycle being ably reinforced by its great and coming ally the gear-case1 and the bevel-gear and other forms of chainless construction coming away from the realm of theory and the special pleas of the makers' catalogues1 and in the hands of the riding public will be put through that great crucible of public test1 use on the road1 under load1 and under all sorts of conditions4 ,the introduction of the chainless method of propulsion has1 however1 not radically changed the prevailing popular type of frame construction1 and therefore the general tendency of construction1 except the methods of propulsion1 may be here surveyed as a whole4 ,,drop ,,of ,,the ,,crank ,,bracket4 ,one of the most prominent tendencies of the season is the dropping of the crank-hanger bracket to a point from #b inches to #d inches below a line drawn through the centre of the wheel axles1 the average drop on road wheels being #b inches1 on light road wheels #b inches1 and on road-racing and track wheels1 from these to the extreme limit4 ,this lowering of the crank-hanger bracket has also necessarily brought with it a shortening of the steering head1 in order to maintain the top tube horizontal or parallel with the ground4 ,lengths of head run from #d to #h inches1 a fair average in length being about #f inches1 a change indeed from the long-head fad of a few years ago1 under which heads have reached a length of over #ac inches4 ,just what effect the shortening of the head will have on the steering remains to be found out by actual use1 the makers who have used long heads having always claimed ease of steering for them4 ,another point to be borne in mind in noting this tendency toward short heads1 is that their use will necessitate the use of longer and therefore weaker handlebar stems1 for those who use a medium or upturned bar1 as well as long seat posts1 more withdrawn from the frame4 ,of course1 the scorcher with his drop bar will like the short head1 and therefore its popularity may be wholly confined to this class of riders4 ,the most peculiar feature in connection with this drop of the frame is the very marked tendency toward the use of longer cranks and higher gears4 ,in former years the average length of crank was #f inches for a man's roadster1 and #e to #f inches for a lady's wheel4 ,a notable departure in this crank length this season is that three or four of the largest makers are equipping their ladies' wheels with #f inch cranks1 and men's wheels with #g and #g inch cranks4 ,while this may be commendable in a cycle for men's use1 having a high gear1 such crank length is positively objectionable on a ladies' cycle1 for several reasons1 one of the chief ones being the increased knee action4 ,,height ,,and ,,shape ,,of ,,frame4 ,the length of wheel base--that is1 the extreme measurement between the points where the two wheels rest on the ground--is not noticeably changed1 the average being still about #dc inches2 this measurement has a close but not a quite fixed relation to the shape and angles of the frame4 ,the rake or backward inclination of the diagonal stay is in most cases somewhat lessened1 not now being in complete harmony with the rake of the front forks and head4 ,this may be considered a change in the preferred direction1 the forward position of the rider1 nearly over the crank axle1 being an extremely popular one2 to indulge this preference on position1 in cases where this diagonal tube1 which also carries the saddle1 was well raked backward1 the use of a long saddle-post in the form of an inverted ,l was necessary4 ,this changed construction also shortens the upper horizontal tube1 and thus1 it is claimed1 tends to stiffen the frame4 ,the craze for riding exceedingly high frames has shifted to the other extreme1 the average scorcher now calling for a very low frame with a short head1 and a crank-hanger dropped well down below a line drawn between the wheel axles1 obtaining leg-reach by raising the saddle above the frame4 ,a peculiar and typical combination consists of the use of an extremely low crank-hanger together with long cranks2 this obviously brings the pedal very near the ground at the bottom of its travel1 especially when toe-clips are put on1 and there must be danger of coming to sudden and sharp grief when going on stony or rutty roads or in swinging rapidly around sharp corners1 which requires leaning to one side to preserve balance4 ,if not carried to extremes1 however1 the drop of the crank-hanger may be considered a good point mechanically4 ,it brings the centre of gravity lower1 and makes mounting and dismounting easier1 this last consideration being of especial consequence for ladies4 ,here it may be remarked that1 a year ago1 ladies who desired to use the double-loop frame1 either with or without the low drop1 were obliged to purchase the highest-priced makes in order to obtain it2 this year1 all the great makers of medium-priced grades1 as well as makers of the highest-priced1 furnish the double-looped drop-frame1 thus showing not only the popularity of the double-loop but a keener desire and a better understanding to cater to public wants4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,rover--#ahgh4 ,,sizes ,,and ,,sections ,,of ,,tubing4 ,the use of large tubing seems to have reached its limit during #ahig1 a majority of the makers now using #a inch tubing in the front part of the frame4 ,other makers vary this1 of course1 by using #a inch tubing in the lower main frame1 and in the diagonal stay which runs from the crank-hanger bracket to the seat-pillar cluster2 ,d-shaped tubing1 however1 is much more largely used than before for rear forks and back stays4 ,front forks are also largely made of ,d-shaped tubing1 many of the makers using a front fork made of an internally tapered continuous piece of ,d-shaped tubing4 ,rear forks are also made in this same manner1 and are connected to the crank-hanger by a single large round stem1 which avoids the necessity of offsetting the fork on the chain side4 ,back stays are also connected to the main part of the frame in this same manner4 ,this idea1 when used in connection with the arch-front fork crown1 which is the most popular one of the day1 and which seems destined to supersede entirely in popular favor the old two-piece crown1 makes a very taking looking construction4 ,there is1 however1 a question as to whether this method of joining the continuous rear forks to a single stem is as rigid as would be two separate forks1 run either straight or with an offset to the crank-hanger4 ,internally tapered tubing is very largely used in frame construction generally1 thus avoiding all need of employing internal reinforcements or liners1 as formerly1 which are liable to cause the tube to give way under strain at the exact place where they come to an end4 ,this is considered a step in the right direction4 ,,reinforcements ,,and ,,joints4 ,the use of external reinforcements is not growing1 and as the use of large tubing necessitates the employment of flush or invisible joints1 in order to make a neat finish1 such joints appear to be more largely in vogue than ever4 ,even the popular priced models use them largely4 ,some fear was expressed as to their durability and strength1 at the opening of last season1 but the makers have now had last year's experience to guide them1 and may be assumed to know how to make them strong1 so that no trouble need be apprehended on that score4 ,external joints are1 however1 largely used still1 as are also lap-brazed joints4 ,these variations may1 however1 be considered as mere 8talking-points10 and as evidences of finish and detail rather than as the distinctive features of the frame4 ,for instance1 a maker who used flush joints last year on his chain wheels now produces his chainless wheel with outside joints4 ,another maker who used lap joints on all his models last year1 now makes his latest model with flush joints1 and so the variation goes on4 ,these changes back and forth1 may be in some measure reckoned among those made for the sake of change4 ,sheet metal stampings are used for connections more largely than ever2 many of the detailed parts of these are wonderful evidences of the excellence of the art and show the advanced stages of what might be more properly termed drawing1 forming1 and stamping processes4 ,illustration3 ,,chainless ,,type1 #ahih 7,,bevel ,,gear74 ,,hubs ,,and ,,spokes4 ,in the construction of the wheel hubs1 the use of the 8barrel0 pattern1 which has been for several years making its way1 is more notable than ever1 the old pattern with definite flanges thereon for the spokes1 having nearly disappeared4 ,this is in good part because the cup-adjustment bearing1 which requires the barrel hub to go with it1 has greatly gained ground1 a large number of the leading makers having now adopted it for all1 or nearly all bearings4 ,self-oiling devices and hollow axles containing oil and wick are also popular1 the old projecting 8lubricator0 or cup for receiving oil1 being wholly extinct4 ,it is safe to say that this is an old device which reversion will never bring back4 ,the use of hubs having flanges1 of a peculiar shape1 made and drilled to receive the usual tangent spoke made straight from end to end without a hooked end to attach to the hub1 is very largely on the increase1 more than twenty of the leading makers now following that method4 ,spokes are still enlarged at both ends by the process of swaging or drawing down1 instead of upsetting4 ,not a few makers are increasing their number1 of course using a thinner wire4 ,,cranks ,,and ,,crank ,,axles4 ,there is a distinct reversion toward square-section cranks4 ,in crank-axles1 the one-piece type has evidently come to stay1 and it is followed closely in popularity by the two-piece crank and axle4 ,very few of the makers use the three-piece construction1 and even in these there are peculiar and odd forms of fastening the crank to the axle1 the use of the good old cotter pin being nearly abandoned4 ,this may be accounted for mostly because the makers desired 8something different10 and also on the ground of neatness4 ,the main objection1 however1 to the use of these various types of crank fastenings is their entire lack of interchangeability1 so that the rider who has one of them and breaks or loses a part of his crank fastening1 cannot obtain this part or any repair thereto1 except through the maker or dealer who handles this particular pattern of wheel4 ,under the old system of using the cotter pin the cranks and cotter pins were readily interchangeable1 and therefore this tendency to variations in these parts is to be regretted4 ,,seat-,,posts ,,and ,,handlebar ,,fastenings4 ,internal or semi-concealed seat-post and handlebar fastenings of all descriptions are very much in vogue1 the reason for their popularity being their great neatness1 as compared with the old method of clamping1 and their lack of projecting parts2 still there is not uniformity in this particular1 many of the great makers adhering yet to the familiar method of fastening by 8pinch-bind0 bolts4 ,handlebars show a decided tendency to go back to the length between grips which prevailed when the bar was straight4 ,the steel bar1 of tubing1 still reigns supreme1 some times covered with rubber or celluloid coatings1 or imitations thereof1 for the sake of protection from rust and for showy appearance1 as well as to be more agreeable to the touch4 ,the wood bar is by no means extinct1 but does not make progress1 not having caught the public fancy1 as its friends expected it would4 ,,gearcases1 ,,pedals ,,and ,,brakes4 ,nearly all the makers are providing sufficient clearance at the crank axle and rear fork-end1 so that a gear-case can be used4 ,many of the makers have gearcases of their own production1 and there are two or three detachable ones on the market which are composed of hard and soft rubber1 metal and leather combined4 ,more gearcases will probably be sold this year than ever before in the history of the trade1 public attention having been largely called to them by the neatness and desirability of the case as used on the bevel-gear cycles4 ,the average width of tread on this year's cycles is about #d inches4 ,pedals are made stronger and larger1 and are screwed directly into the end of the crank1 the use of the lock-nut on the end of the pedal shaft being almost entirely abandoned4 ,brakes of some kind will be more largely used than ever before4 ,external brakes with levers on the handlebars are not as popular as in former years1 many of the makers extending the brake stem down through the steering head1 thus making a neater and more stylish appearing brake4 ,brake spoons are mostly fitted with a rubber shoe2 and there is a decided tendency toward back-pedaling brakes1 many of which are supplied by the cycle makers without extra charge4 ,weights run from #bc to #bf pounds1 the average weight of roadsters being #bd pounds1 and ladies' wheels averaging in weight about #be pounds4 ,,chains ,,and ,,chain ,,adjusters4 ,large sprockets have evidently come to stay1 front sprockets having from #ah to #cb teeth and rear sprockets having from #g to #ab2 a combination made up of these will produce almost any gear ratio desired4 ,chains seem to have settled down to a standard width of #c_/af of an inch1 and there are many varieties1 all having1 however1 one inch pitch and solid blocks2 there are also roller chains1 having longer or shorter pitch1 but rollers instead of blocks do not yet seem to have taken hold here1 as in ,england4 ,chain adjustments--i4e41 means for moving the back wheel slightly to or from the crank axle--have been much simplified and improved4 ,a number of variations of the well-known eccentric adjustment are on the market2 a few makers are even using the eccentric adjustment at the crank bracket1 on singles as well as on tandems4 ,here is an instance of reversion1 the early 8safeties0 with chain-driving having been constructed in exactly this manner4 ,,wood ,,guards ,,and ,,rims4 ,the use of wood or bamboo in frames seems to have almost dropped out of sight1 only two or three makers producing bicycles thus made4 ,the dress-guards on the back wheel on ladies' bicycles are made of wood and are so furnished by all the makers1 the metal styles having gone out of use altogether4 ,the same cannot be said1 however1 of chain guards4 ,wooden chain guards are not so largely used as last year1 the tendency being to use aluminum guards1 either plain1 nickeled or enameled1 to match the frame in color2 guards of stamped metal are also used4 ,this return to metal may be ascribed in part to the notion that wood is heavy because it looks so1 and to the temptation aluminum presents because of its extraordinary lightness4 ,this1 however1 looks like a step backward4 ,aluminum1 considered as material1 has very poor claims1 and it will be very difficult1 by any practical lining and buffing1 to break the persistent habit of metal chain guards to rattle when going over rough places2 wood guards1 on the contrary1 if properly made1 are strong1 noiseless1 and not heavy4 ,the wood rim is the only one used1 and is now made thicker through its section and broader across its face1 and while it is true that these rims do not now possess the life and resiliency they had when they were made of the thinner section1 and narrower1 they are now stiffer1 truer1 and not so liable as formerly to warp and twist or to break in a collision4 ,originally1 wood rims were largely used1 in good part1 on account of their extreme lightness4 ,making them heavier now and painting them in dark colors might suggest a tendency to return to the use of steel rims1 it being impossible now1 owing to the large use of colored rims1 to tell by their appearance of what material they are made4 ,rims of three-piece or laminated construction are fitted to nearly all of the high-grade wheels1 but great improvements have also been made in the one-piece variety4 ,as in coach and carriage building1 black still seems to be the standard color1 but where colors are used many of the makers are enamelling rims to match4 ,striping seems to have fallen into disfavor1 but scroll transfers1 with illuminated corners with flowers and colors1 appear to have gained a strong foothold4 ,,tires4 ,the field is still contested between the double or inner-tube and the single-tube or hosepipe tire1 and at times1 leading makers of each have claimed that their class were used on two-thirds1 or thereabouts1 of all the cycles made in ,america4 ,the regulation size for full roadsters is #a inch1 in either class2 the most popular at present are tires having a serrated or corrugated tread4 ,there are1 of course1 a great many variations in surface in tires with rough treads1 and also of smooth-tread tires4 ,very few marked novelties in tires are now seen in the market2 this is quite in contrast with one and two years ago4 ,average weights are about #d lbs4 to the pair4 ,,saddles4 ,saddles may be divided pretty accurately into three classes4 ,first are those having a fixed and unyielding metal base and a short pommel1 which is not intended to be touched by the rider's body1 the seat portion being fitted with raised pads2 second1 saddles with a fixed base of either wood or metal1 the edges being inflexible but the ease of use depending upon a more exact shaping of the whole1 this form of saddle being sometimes varied by being slightly padded near the cantle or back edge1 or either padded or inflated at the pommel2 third1 the saddles which are made by lacing firmly from cantle to pommel1 the lacing being then provided with a flexible leather cover4 ,the last named1 which is a popular type1 is also varied by having pads built on it1 and the varieties of saddle under these three types are so great and so different that almost every peculiarity and whim of the rider ought to be met and satisfied this year4 ,,tricycles ,,and ,,multicycles4 ,tricycles are largely made by only one maker1 and there is no apparent reason why they should not be more largely used by those who will not or can not venture to use the two-wheeler4 ,all the makers are producing tandems1 and the peculiarities noted in constructing single models are carried into these also4 ,variations in tandems1 however1 consist of a diamond frame in front and a loop frame in the rear1 or loop frame in front and diamond frame in the rear1 but some have two loop frames so that two ladies can ride them4 ,multicycles1 such as triplets1 quads quintuplets and sextuplets1 cannot strictly be said to be for popular use1 the makers only building a few of these yearly for advertising and racing purposes4 ,,prices ,,and ,,values4 ,in concluding this review of the mechanical tendencies of the trade for #ahih the irresistible conviction is forced upon the mind of the critical observer that noblesse oblige evidently seems to have been the motto of every cycle maker for #ahih1 for never before have cycles been produced so good in design1 style1 finish1 workmanship1 material1 stanchness and running qualities4 ,even the lowest-priced models quoted are superior in these respects to those offered in some previous years1 and listing from #ajj to #abe and #aej1 and the riding public is to be congratulated on this fact1 because it places the bicycle1 the vehicle of modern democracy and personal rapid transit1 in the hands of the masses1 at a popular price1 and thus relegates the gaspipe cycle and its maker to well-deserved oblivion4 ,undoubtedly the great reduction in price and the great increase in quality1 a seeming paradox indeed1 are due to what is known as fixity of pattern4 ,close observers of the trend of the trade and sport say1 in addition1 that the present conditions and popular prices are caused by the bicycle being no longer a fad of the classes1 but a necessity of the masses2 that their demand for a well-made and well-known product to meet their wants and purses1 has caused this reduction to popular price1 and that the needs of the makers in order to meet this want have been fulfilled by improved processes of manufacture1 increased efficiency of the labor employed1 lessened cost of component parts1 and other economies of making and marketing1 as well as by the increased quantity of the output4 ,this is true of not only the cycle-making industry1 but is also the history of every great ,american product of manufacture for which there is a great popular demand that leads to competition for popular favor4 ,on the other hand1 the makers have also well provided for that class of the riding public who will be satisfied with nothing less than what might be termed a model de luxe1 and who are willing to pay an increased price for this extra finish in construction and detail1 so that the mechanical tendencies of the trade may well be summed up by quoting that epigram of ,macaulay's--8in every experimental science there is a tendency toward perfection40 ,illustration3 ,,extreme ,,type ,,of #ahih ,,model ,,combining ,,all ,,late ,,features4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,chainless ,,wheel4 8,sans ,chaine sans ,gne10 literally 8without ,chains without ,care10 or even 8,chainless and ,careless10 is the happy motto chosen by an ,english maker of chainless bicycles2 some thirty ,american makers are offering or promising to offer a chainless bicycle of some kind this year1 although whether they will all realize the declaration of the motto time alone will show4 ,there are a number of methods for transmitting power from the crank axle of a bicycle to the driven wheel--possible theoretically1 but the number practically available is very small4 ,the possession of the field by the chain is now contested1 mainly by the bevel-gear or its equivalent2 the chain has the field1 but changes are sometimes so rapid that this fact alone will not effectually bar out a really better driving method4 ,the elements of bevel-gear construction will readily be seen from the cuts following4 ,the usual front sprocket has teeth1 which mesh into a pinion on a shaft that carries power to the wheel through a pair of pinions at the rear4 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,bevel-,,gear ,,chainless4 ,in ,april1 #ahhe1 a patent for the application of bevel-gears to the bicycle was taken out4 ,before #ahig more than one hundred such patents had been issued in the ,united ,states and ,england1 in addition to those granted in ,france and ,germany1 and there had been much experimental construction1 in which the difficulty and expense of gear cutting was great1 and the springy frames and inaccurate workmanship almost invariably encountered were additional sources of trouble4 ,of the foreign-made chainless bicycles the ,acatene1 built in ,france1 is the only one that has been brought to anything like perfection4 ,the ,acatene is a bevel-gear1 and in many features is quite equal to the best ,american workmanship4 ,in this country a number of bevel-gear cycles have been put forward1 and some of them are still in use4 ,the difficulties they have encountered have been mostly due to lack of capital and the practical impossibility of getting accurate gears cut except very slowly and at a very great cost4 ,in #ahib the ,league ,cycle ,company of ,hartford1 ,conn41 began making a bevel-gear bicycle1 and at the ,new ,york ,show of #ahig a number of their models were shown as curios4 ,they were chiefly interesting from a historical point of view4 ,an #ahib model shown was a lady's single-loop drop frame1 fitted with one-inch cushion tires4 ,it weighed about #ge pounds and had an eight-inch tread4 ,an #ahic model was a diamond frame1 having double tubes from the lower part of the head to the crank-hanger1 and having also double diagonal stays4 ,it was fitted with pneumatic tires1 had a #g inch tread and weighed #de pounds4 ,an #ahid model shown was of the same construction1 but having a high frame4 ,the tread was reduced to #g inches and the weight to about #cb pounds4 ,illustration3 ,,columbia ,,chainless4 ,an #ahie model was of the regulation high frame diamond pattern1 single-tube style1 excepting double diagonal stays from seat pillar to crank-hanger4 ,it had a #e-;inch tread and weighed about thirty pounds4 ,the #ahif models were a lady's frame1 double-loop1 full nickeled1 and a man's diamond frame1 each having #e inch tread and weighing about twenty-four pounds4 ,all these models carried the large front driving gear on the centre of the crank axle between the bearings1 the teeth facing outwardly instead of inwardly1 as on the earlier samples4 ,this company failed early in #ahif1 and there were some spasmodic attempts by ,howard ,nichols of ,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 and the ,bayvelgere ,cycle ,company to introduce bevel-gear bicycles4 ,the ,pope ,manufacturing ,company saw this object lesson1 and all the old patents went into the hands of the makers of the ,columbia4 ,they began experimenting forthwith1 and for two years they have built and tried1 and made model after model1 more than a dozen distinct variations having been tested1 besides gathering the costly equipment to cut bevel-gears and produce them in quantities4 7,it will be observed that the following descriptions of chainless cycles are from the respective makers1 not necessarily in their own language1 in every instance1 but substantially so4 ,for these descriptions1 and still more for any statements regarding the merits of any and the comparative value of chainless driving4 ,the ,commercial ,advertiser is not responsible1 nor does anything in this article preclude the writers from any criticism or any expression of opinion hereafter4 ,it has seemed fairest and best to allow the several makers to present their own side freely1 and this paragraph is a disclaimer upon the part of the compilers1 rather than a notice of dissent4 ,the ,bayvelgere1 the ,english1 the ,quadrant1 the ,hildick1 the ,monarch and the ,bantam1 however1 are described by our own representatives47 ,,the ,,columbia ,,chainless4 ,this is a ,columbia of the very highest grade in every respect2 the same wheel1 including the well-known ,hartford single-tube tires1 the same forks and handlebar1 the same seat-post and choice of saddle1 the same unsurpassed frame of nickel steel1 the same pedals and cranks4 ,the difference is entirely confined to the driving mechanism1 to three sides of a parallelogram having the rear axle and the crank axle as its ends1 and the shaft as one side4 ,on this driving mechanism the very best thought1 the very best work1 and every resource of the manufacturers have been centred4 ,there was long1 costly and careful experimenting before the exact relative proportions of the two members of the front gear could be determined4 ,these proportions1 however1 are now invariable--one turn of the axle giving #b #d_/e turns to the shaft4 ,the relative size of the rear members is varied to produce the required 8gear40 ,friction in bevel-gears is dependent upon the harmonic mean of the teeth in both wheels1 and in this model theory and experiment have joined hands to make the adopted proportion exactly right4 ,wherever ball bearings could be introduced to advantage they have been placed4 ,the side shaft is supplied with such bearings near each end1 the strength and firmness of the nickel steel tubing permitting the utmost precision in placing them and insuring perfect work under any strain4 ,the wonder is that all this excellence has been attained with such complete absence of complicated devices4 ,illustration3 ,,mechanism ,,and ,,frame ,,of ,,columbia ,,chainless4 ,the regulation equipment of the ,columbia ,chainless is3 #bd inch frame1 of #e per cent4 nickeled steel tube2 nine inch steering head2 outside joints1 #b inch crank-hanger drop2 #e inch tread2 #ff and #gb inch gear2 weight #bf pounds2 ,hartford tires4 ,the model made for ladies' use is the well-known double loop drop frame pattern2 #e tread1 #f round cranks1 #ff or #gb gear1 and weighs1 without brake and rear guard1 #bf pounds4 ,an illustration of the great simplicity of the ,columbia bevel-gear construction is the fact that when a ,league wheel was entirely dismembered as to its driving portion only a skilled mechanic was able to reassemble the parts satisfactorily1 and that after hours of the most careful work1 while a ,columbia ,chainless can be taken apart and put together by any person of ordinary intelligence in less than twenty minutes4 ,the entire absence of back lash in the ,columbia ,chainless is very marked4 ,in response to the slightest motion of the pedals the bicycle begins to move2 whether forward or backward this is equally true4 ,the marvel of this construction becomes more and more apparent as tests are varied4 ,lift a bevel-gear bicycle free from the ground1 give one of the pedals a sharp push1 and the wheel spins with such ease1 rapidity and smoothness that the novice is always surprised4 ,there is no swaying and jump2 there is no noise4 ,even neglect can have no influence on the effectiveness of the bevel-gear wheel1 but will simply concern its appearance4 ,it should be said here that the ,columbia pattern is distinctive--as the cuts show--in a very novel method of attaching the rear wheel to the frame and providing for its easy removal and replacement4 ,,the ,,spalding ,,chainless4 ,in the ,spalding ,chainless the mechanism consists of a series of four bevel-gears used in conjunction with a tubular gear shaft4 ,it is simple in construction and can be readily taken apart and reassembled whenever necessity requires4 ,illustration3 ,,spalding ,,chainless4 ,the main driving gear1 the largest of the series1 is fastened to the centre of the crank axle1 the power being transmitted from this by a smaller intermediate gear to the tubular shaft running through the right fork-tube1 and this in turn transmits the power to the rear intermediate gear1 which directly engages the gear secured to the rear wheel in place of the usual sprocket4 ,the location of the main driving gear being in the centre of the crank axle1 brings its position also in the centre of the crank-hanger barrel1 and adds greatly to the appearance and symmetry of the machine2 it also insures greater strength and divides the strain more equally on the bearings4 ,the intermediate gears are securely locked to each end of the tubular gear shaft by a simple locking device1 which makes it possible to remove and replace the gears conveniently and without the necessity of any special tools and appliances4 ,the tubular gear shaft rotates on ball bearings specially constructed and designed to receive the thrust of the driving gear1 and transmits the power to the rear hub4 ,the lines of the rear portion of the frame present the same appearance as in bicycles of the ordinary chain type1 the only perceptible difference being in the small aluminum cases which cover the gears4 ,in this particular the ,spalding ,chainless differs from some others1 presenting nothing unsightly to detract from the appearance of the machine4 ,illustration3 ,,driving ,,gear ,,of ,,spalding ,,chainless4 ,the method of fastening the main driving gear to the crank shaft1 and the front and rear intermediate gears to the tubular driving shaft1 is original4 ,the customary method of attaching these gears is to screw them on2 but this method is impracticable1 for the reason that the constant strain in hill climbing or in heavy work kept screwing the gears tighter and tighter on the shafts1 thus making removal difficult4 ,in the ,spalding ,chainless these gears are constructed with a tongue projecting from the back side of the gear4 ,the gears fit snugly to their respective shafts1 and this tongue is received in a recessed collar which is solid with the shaft1 and which prevents any rotation of the gear on its axis4 ,the gears are then securely locked in place by an ordinary lock-nut1 which1 when set up1 makes a positive fastening that cannot work loose under any conditions1 and one that can always be readily removed and adjusted4 ,the gears are cut by special machinery2 they are theoretically correct1 and are as absolutely perfect as it is possible to make bevel-gears4 ,it is now nearly two years since ,spalding ,bros4 first undertook the matter of building chainless bicycles1 and more than a year since their first complete bicycle was put into actual use upon the road4 ,this same bicycle is in use today1 and if anything1 is better1 after having been ridden over #be1jjj miles1 than it was originally4 ,its working parts show no perceptible wear1 the frictional parts in the gears being polished more smoothly through use1 and running better today than when the machine was first put on the road4 ,the ,spalding ,chainless has a #c-;inch drop at the crank-hanger4 ,the upper and lower main tubes are #a-;inch1 the rear forks -inch1 the rear stays are -inch reinforced2 wheel base is #dd-;inch4 ,the front fork has an arched crown2 the fork sides are reinforced4 ,the makers continue to use their well-known hub with straight tangent swaged spokes1 #bh in the front and #cb in the rear4 ,the cranks are #f-;inch round spring steel1 with a #gb-;gear4 ,the ,spalding lady's ,chainless contains the same mechanical features found in the man's model4 ,the frame is the double loop drop1 and has evidently been carefully studied4 ,the cranks are #f inches of round spring steel and geared to #ff inches4 ,some variations in gears are furnished4 ,,the ,,stearns ,,chainless4 ,e4 ,c4 ,stearns ,co4 have been entirely successful in securing an ideal construction in their bevel-gear cycles4 ,the accompanying illustrations1 while giving but hints of the complete machine1 indicate that the graceful lines which have always been characteristic of the 8,yellow ,fellow0 have been retained1 and that the bevel gears and the shaft in their dust-proof cases are exceedingly neat and attractive4 ,illustration3 ,,stearns ,,chainless4 ,the bearings are of an improved type4 ,the balls are so laid between the cones that they roll without sliding or side motion1 and are practically frictionless4 ,by turning a cap nut and sliding back the nickeled caps at either end of the shaft case1 the bearings are brought into full view1 and1 with the bevel-gears1 may be adjusted with perfect ease4 ,the running gear is absolutely noiseless1 and is so exactly assembled that the rear wheel will balance for several minutes under the weight of the rim alone4 ,in as much as there is no lost motion1 the maximum of speed is assured for the minimum of power applied4 ,the gears on the ,stearns ,chainless are cut by the most modern machinery and by the most expert workmen4 ,they are as correct in pitch and face as the wheels of an expensive watch1 and are made of the best quality of steel obtainable4 ,unlike other well-known types1 both a vertical and lateral adjustment of the gears is possible4 ,so far as wearing qualities go1 the bevel gears in the ,stearns ,chainless are almost as free from friction as are the bearings4 ,the cases that cover the gears are entirely dust proof2 the lower fork tube which incloses the shaft is enamelled either orange or black to match the frame4 ,one of the strongest features of this model is the ease with which the rear wheel can be removed and the driving mechanism taken apart4 ,the crank-hanger gears are of #aj pitch1 with #db teeth1 and #aj pitch with #af teeth2 the rear hub gears are #aj pitch1 with #ba teeth1 the resulting gear ratio being #gc4 ,the connecting shaft is of diameter1 #af inches long1 and made of #aj-;gauge special tubing2 its bearings are self-oiling4 ,front and back gears are detachable2 the crank-hanger drop is #b inches2 wheel base is #dc inches2 weight is twenty-six pounds4 ,the tubing in the frame is #a in the head1 #a in upper and lower main tubes1 in back stays1 in rear forks4 ,the fork crown is two-piece1 flat2 the cranks are flat1 #g inches long2 options are offered on length of cranks and gear ratio4 ,the ,stearns chainless for ladies is similar in general construction to the man's model1 the only variations being in the shape of the frame and a lower gear of #ff inches4 ,the crank-hanger is dropped #b inches below the wheel centres1 which makes it a very convenient wheel to mount and dismount from4 ,the absence of the usual chain guard gives it a very neat appearance4 ,it has a straight lower main tube and slightly curved upper tube4 ,,the ,,monarch ,,chainless4 ,the ,monarch ,chainless has regulation diamond frame1 with flush joints and drop-forged connections4 ,the upper main tube is #a inches1 lower main tube #a4 ,the diagonal tube is #a inches1 tapered to #a at seat-post4 ,the rear stays are inch1 tapered to at the seat-post4 ,the rear fork on the lefthand side is of round section tubing1 #bj gauge1 diameter4 ,the rear fork on the right side is of #af gauge1 #h inch in diameter1 over which is fitted a #h tube of #bj gauge1 and which carries the gears at each end1 and it will be noted that this is a radical change in construction from the other types of chainless cycles on the market4 ,all makes of bevel-gear construction or others1 using a shaft to convey the power from its centre of production to the rear driving hub1 insert the shaft inside of the rear fork on the right-hand side4 ,in this construction1 however1 the rear fork is inside of the hollow shaft or tubing which envelops wholly the rear fork1 and is carried at both ends by a set of ball bearings4 ,the tread is #e inches in width4 ,the frame has a #b-;inch drop at the crank-hanger4 ,cranks have #f-;inch throw4 ,seatpost and handlebar connections are of the internal fastening style1 and the wheels have laminated wood rims1 rosewood finish1 nickeled eyelets in spokeholes4 ,the weight is about twenty-six pounds4 ,the gear is the pin-roller type1 as shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,monarch ,,chainless4 ,the ladies' model is of the same general construction1 excepting that the frame is of the double loop variety with a straight lower tube and a partially curved upper tube4 ,it is exceedingly graceful in lines1 and in general appearance as comely a model of the drop frame chainless wheel as any yet offered by ,american makers4 ,the gears on the crank axle and hub resemble in a degree the well-known sprocket wheels1 the main difference1 however1 being the teeth1 which are closer together and ,v-shaped in cross section1 instead of four-sided4 ,the driving shaft1 which fits over the rear fork of the frame1 as before described1 is furnished at each end with a pinion having roller-pin teeth1 which run in and out of the wide angle pinions between the gear teeth4 ,it is claimed for this construction that1 even should the frame become twisted out of line1 there would be no binding of the gears4 ,the makers also claim for it high efficiency on account of its direct lifting action as against the end thrust of the bevel-gear4 ,another argument made in its favor is that it is not of a delicate construction1 though light in weight4 ,there is1 indeed1 good authority for believing that this type of gear1 which is a modification of ,lloyd's pin-roller gear as used on the quadrant in ,england1 may become a popular one4 ,grant1 the well-known authority on gears1 says3 8,the pin gear is particularly valuable when the pins are made in the form of rollers1 for then the minimum of friction is reached1 the friction between the tooth and pin1 otherwise a sliding friction at a line bearing is1 with a roller-pin1 a rolling friction4 ,when properly made there is no form of tooth that is superior to the pin tooth40 ,the price of this chainless bicycle will be #ajj4 ,it is furnished complete1 with a neat case over the gears4 ,in the sample shown the transmitting shaft has eight rollers at each end4 ,the wheel hub has thirteen of the ,v-shaped teeth2 the large wheel on the crank shaft has thirty-seven1 this wheel being -inch wide at the base of the teeth and overhanging somewhat on its inner side4 ,the surfaces of the ,v-teeth are not quite flat1 but have a slight twist in order to obtain a more smooth and rolling action4 ,the frame is also peculiar at the driving-wheel4 ,the usual slot is present1 through which to remove and replace the wheel1 but there is nothing resembling a chain-adjuster4 ,the back stays are lapped and jointed just above the hub2 the rear forks are also separable near the axle4 ,the wheel being thus readily removed1 the hollow revolving shaft can be slipped off the fork which it encloses4 ,it is obvious that the teeth of these gears have great strength1 and the contrivance is certainly ingenious4 ,,the ,,humber ,,chainless4 ,the riders of ,humber bicycles now have an opportunity of experimenting at comparatively small cost1 because the makers of the ,humber will convert an #ahih chain ,humber into a ,humber ,chainless for #dj1 an #ahig for #ej and an #ahif for #fe1 or they will convert an #ahih ,humber ,chainless into a ,humber chain cycle for #ah at any time during the season of #ahih1 should the buyer not be satisfied with the chainless1 which is thought highly improbable1 because the cycles they have made for testing purposes run easily and smoothly and have proven strong and durable under severe usage4 ,illustration3 ,,humber ,,chainless4 ,the makers of the ,humber ,chainless do not claim that it runs more easily than the chain ,humber1 the chain of which is accurately made and the sprockets accurately cut4 ,nor do they claim that the gears will not wear in time4 ,it is customary in all well regulated factories to write off #aj per cent4 each year for wear and tear on machinery1 but they are sure that the spur gear chainless runs easily1 is simple of construction and adjustment1 and is not likely to get out of order4 ,the details of the construction of this model do not differ from the regulation chain model4 ,the front gear is #aj inches in diameter and has #abf teeth4 ,the rear gear is #d inches in diameter and has #ej teeth4 ,between them is an intermediate and connecting gear of #aa inches in diameter1 with #abg teeth4 ,the resulting gear ratio is #gj4 ,as two large gears of #abe teeth each will produce an exact ratio of #gj1 this uneven combination is intended to lessen the frequency of contact between the same teeth1 on the 8odd-tooth0 rule of mechanics4 ,the intermediate gear is borne in a small fork built from the rear stay to the back fork1 the back fork on that side being of ,d section1 though round on the other side4 ,the workmanship is of the highest quality1 and the easy movement of this model is very interesting4 ,it is very hard to find a bicycle of any sort to beat this in ease1 quiet and smoothness1 spinning clean and without load4 ,a gear case is offered at #i extra2 a skeleton case is also offered at #b4 ,the device is the well-known ,carroll spur gear1 the same as used by ,starbuck1 the middle-distance racer1 on the track not very long ago4 ,at first sight1 it might appear that sand and mud might create a disturbance by edging themselves into these small gears1 but the makers maintain that a gear case is unnecessary1 because the gears practically clean themselves1 in consequence of each gear wheel running in direction opposite to that of its neighbor4 ,in actual use upon muddy roads1 through all sorts of weather1 and under all conditions1 it is claimed that the spur gears not only did not collect mud and dirt1 but that they actually cleaned themselves1 and while it is possible that a pebble or a piece of metal thrown in among the teeth might cause a breakage1 it can only be said that in many hundred miles riding1 the tests having been made under extremely unfavorable conditions1 during rain1 mud1 storm and snow1 no such difficulty was apparent4 ,the tests developed unusual and unexpected qualities1 and all the riders were fully convinced of its thorough practicability4 ,,the ,,sterling ,,chainless4 ,illustration3 ,,sterling ,,chainless ,,crank ,,bracket4 ,in keeping apace with the times1 the ,sterling ,cycle ,works of ,chicago has produced a novel chainless bicycle of the bevel gear type4 ,in its construction are incorporated ideas which are departures from the chainless models that have already appeared4 ,in the ,sterling model the main driving-gear wheel is located at the centre of the crank axle4 ,the small pinion on the forward end of the driving shaft meshes on the right side of the driving wheel4 ,that necessitates the near pinion to engage the teeth on rear hub1 back of the axle instead of in front of it1 as in some other forms of chainless wheels4 ,this permits the use of the entire lower right rear tube as a container for the connecting shaft1 instead of building a frame work for the support of the gears4 ,the rear wheel may be taken out by removing the step nut and unscrewing the rear axle4 ,the two rear gears are made interchangeable1 giving the rider the advantage of seventy-two or seventy-eight geared wheel1 as may be desired1 with one set of gears4 ,this will be the standard equipment1 but another option will be offered by which the rider can have a combination of sixty-four and eighty-eight1 if he prefers4 ,illustration3 ,,sterling ,,chainless ,,connecting ,,shaft4 ,these special features of the ,sterling chainless construction are shown in the accompanying illustrations4 ,the rear fork on the gear side has a boss in which the axle is screwed4 ,the opposite fork end has a circular opening larger than the cross section of the axle and a short slot for inserting the axle4 ,a threaded sleeve fills the circular opening1 which is also threaded1 abutting against the outside face of the fork end with a shoulder4 ,a lock-nut fits upon the inner projecting portion of the sleeve4 ,in assembling1 the wheel is first mounted on the axle2 the latter is then screwed into the fork end on the gear side by applying a wrench on the hexagonal portion of the axle projecting beyond the hub on the opposite side4 ,when the gears mesh properly and the lock-nut has been placed on the left side end of the axle1 the threaded sleeve is placed in position and the lock-nut is tightened4 ,the lines of mesh along the teeth of bevel-gears or radial gears1 as they are more properly called1 always point to a common centre when the gears are in proper engagement4 ,the common centre in the front row gears of a chainless bicycle is at a point in the axis of the crank shaft2 but if the two front pinions were interchanged they would cease to have a common apex1 and could not be made to co-operate4 ,with the driving shaft at right angles with the crank shaft and the rear axle1 the pinions in front as well as in the rear could be made interchangeable only at a pitch of forty-five degrees1 which would make the interchangeability of no value4 ,with the driving shaft at another angle with the rear axle1 as in all chainless bicycles1 it is possible to so proportion the two rear pinions that the mesh lines point to the same centre whether the smaller pinion is on the hub or on the driving shaft4 ,the possibility is limited to two sets of interchangeable gears for any given angle of the driving shaft1 which has been taken advantage of by the ,sterling ,company4 ,the ,sterling ,chainless will be made in two models2 one for men and a drop frame design for women4 ,each lists at #abe4 ,,the ,,dayton ,,chainless4 ,this chainless wheel is constructed on an entirely new and distinct principle by which all bearing points of the transmitting mechanism are incased and made absolutely proof against dust1 dirt and weather conditions4 ,the most noticeable part of this construction is the transmission of motive power to the rear hub1 equally on both sides of the frame1 this action being continuous at all times4 ,it therefore gains over a bevel-gear construction not only the advantage of eliminating the friction always present in a cog gear1 but also removes the danger of springing the rear forks out of line by a sudden strain1 which has been so difficult in all chainless wheels heretofore produced4 ,the crank-hanger of this wheel consists of a steel box in which is located the gearing mechanism4 ,within this box are two double-flanged1 notched pulleys1 over which runs a link belt especially made and designed for this construction4 ,these pulleys are placed on the central line of the bicycle1 the larger or front pulley which corresponds to the driving sprocket on the chain wheel1 being secured to the driving crank axle by means of a thread and held in place by a reversed threaded lock-nut4 ,the smaller or rear pulley is made in one piece with a crank axle1 having on each end short cranks set quartering4 ,on each side of the frame1 a ,pitman or connecting rod extends from the short crank on the auxiliary axle in the crank box to a similar crank attached to each side of the rear hub1 a dust-proof ball bearing being provided at each end of the ,pitman rod4 ,the rear hub being journaled in ball bearing in the rear fork and fittings1 is forced to revolve in unison with the auxiliary axle by the connection formed through the corresponding cranks and connecting rod on each side4 ,a dead centre is prevented by the ,pitman crank being set quartering1 as explained4 ,an eccentric adjustment is provided at the front bearing of each ,pitman rod1 making it possible to slightly vary the length of the rod when necessary4 ,this adjustment can be effected as easily as the adjustment of a chain on the ordinary type of wheel4 ,the adjustment of the driving belt is also readily effected by mounting the front or driving crank shaft in an eccentric on the hanger boxing4 ,the tread of the machine is made as narrow as possible by the use of flattened tubing in the rear forks1 and by cranking the driving rods1 the crank portion being reinforced by a forged connection4 ,the outward appearance of the wheel is attractive1 and in quality of material and workmanship1 and elegance of finish1 it upholds the standard heretofore maintained on all products of the ,dayton factory4 ,it is claimed that this construction produced less friction than any bevel-gear chainless wheel1 in addition to the other important features noticed4 ,,the ,,bayvelgere ,,chainless4 ,the ,bayvelgere1 which was at last year's show and impressed us as the most decided step in chainless driving up to that time1 appears now in a rebuilt and materially improved form4 ,in a general way1 it looks externally much like other chainless bicycles of the bevel-gear class1 and therefore does not need to be shown by a cut as a whole4 ,the connecting shaft1 as before1 is made separate from the two ends which carry the bevel pinions4 ,the shaft proper terminates at each end in four short pins with rounded and slightly enlarged ends2 these pins enter corresponding receptacles in the two pieces which carry the pinions1 and when in position thus the entire shaft is complete4 ,illustration3 ,,bayvelgere ,,jointed ,,shaft4 ,the effect is a sort of ball-and-socket joint2 the pins and receptacles together form a semi-universal or toggle joint1 technically called a 8four-pinion toggle40 ,so long as the frame is in line1 this device remains inert and the working is the same as that of a rigid shaft2 but if the frame should become sprung by straining or accident the flexibility comes into action and the power is carried from crank axle to wheel axle without the slightest twisting or binding1 whereas any such condition of disturbed alignment will necessarily cause serious binding on any construction with a rigid shaft4 ,in both design and carrying out1 this device is thoroughly mechanical and practical4 ,it is shown in the accompanying cut4 ,when power is applied to the crank axle1 it is claimed1 there is a tendency to push the small pinion rearward1 because the faces of the two bevels at that place are inclined toward each other1 and so one presses on the other like two wedges4 ,other bevel-geared patterns have only a single row of balls at each end of the shaft1 and it is claimed by the ,bayvelgere people that when the shaft is thus pressed rearward there is nothing to hold it1 and the pinion on its end is crowded hard against the pinion on the wheel hub1 thus producing extra friction and perhaps a deadlock2 such a deadlock of the gears is also liable to occur if the bicycle falls over and the blow drives the gear on the crank axle sharply against the pinion which meshes with it4 ,conceding this to be so1 the precaution against it taken on the ,bayvelgere1 and forming an important point in its patent claim1 is certainly practical4 ,this precaution consists in placing a double row of balls at each end of the shaft 7i4e41 on each of the pinions7 and as these rows face in opposite directions any rearward thrust on the shaft is met by one of the rows of balls on the back pinion2 moreover1 there is a little space at each of the toggle joints above described1 and this space must be taken up before any end thrust on the shaft can affect the meshing of the gears4 ,this construction1 together with the manner of fixing the gears in the frame--a method which cannot be shown without too much detail and several cuts--is claimed to greatly facilitate placing the parts together and to make their action easier and their endurance better4 ,to put it in another way1 each pair of bevels is claimed to be independent and to be capable of taking care of itself in adjustment and running1 while the flexible shaft merely carries power from one to the other without any effect to disturb either4 ,mr4 ,l4 ,d4 ,munger is in charge of the works as designer4 ,the price of the ,bayvelgere is #ajj4 ,,the ,,hildick ,,chainless4 ,the ,hildick is a spur gear1 an evolution from the ,gentry of last year's show4 ,it has only one intermediate gear1 which is very novel in being a wheel without spokes or hub1 so to speak1 since it is rim only4 ,the front sprocket becomes a spur gear of #h inches diameter and #ie teeth2 the rear sprocket becomes one of #c inches diameter and #ce teeth2 the two are connected by an intermediate of #ac inches diameter and #aef teeth4 ,this large gear consists of a rather light ring which is held on the right fork by a small clip with screw-bolt and nut at either side2 this ring1 which of course is stationary1 is grooved around its outer edge4 ,the toothed ring1 similarly grooved on its inner edge1 runs around upon the fixed ring1 #ajh #c_/af balls being placed within to make a ball bearing4 ,as the toothed ring is continuous1 no way of getting the balls in appears at first2 but a closer inspection shows that on the back side there is a small opening in the fixed ring1 covered by a removable plate1 through which the balls are introduced4 ,there is no adjustability provided for this ball bearing1 but the three gears can be set into exact distances at the pitch line by the usual chain-adjuster at the rear4 ,the gear ratio upon the sample is #gf1 but variations in ratio can be obtained with this arrangement with less difficulty than with other forms of chainless4 ,another feature is that the device is easily removable4 ,the front gear can be interchanged with the usual sprocket1 since it goes on the regular 8spider20 the back gear is almost as readily substituted for the back sprocket2 the fixed ring1 with its running toothed ring on it1 can be put on the fork or removed by handling the simple fastenings4 ,a claim is therefore made that the device is applicable to any bicycle 7with the usual distance between axles1 of course7 so that whoever wants to try chainless driving can do it without being committed thereto4 ,illustration3 ,,driving ,,gear ,,of ,,hildick ,,chainless4 ,the price of the ,hildick chainless bicycle complete is #fj1 and the intention is also to sell the special parts necessary to convert a chain-driver for #be4 ,the intermediate gear has the advantage of a bearing of extraordinary diameter1 which will be a help when wrenching strains come4 ,the construction is certainly clever and ingenious and a vast advance on the former effort of its inventor4 ,how well this device for chainless driving will stand the rack and test of actual use in the bands of all sorts of people time will show1 as it will 7and as nothing else can7 in the case of all devices which are not hopeless from the start4 ,we think the ,hildick worth entering for trial with the rest4 ,,the ,,crescent ,,chainless4 ,illustration3 ,,driving ,,gear ,,of ,,the ,,crescent ,,chainless4 ,the ,crescent chainless is of the bevel-gear class1 having its rear pinion on the forward side of the wheel hub1 the shaft passing through the right fork4 ,its most distinctive visible feature is the broad ,u which holds the wheel4 ,this broad ,u or latch-piece has the wheel spindle carried in an open hole or slot in the bridge over it1 so that the wheel can be withdrawn and replaced as readily and in the same manner as on the usual chain models2 the appearance at this point will at once distinguish the ,crescent from all others1 at a glance4 ,another peculiarity is that the rear wheel is readily adjusted laterally on its spindle1 so that the fit of the two gears is in easy control4 ,by loosening the two nuts outside the wheel1 the rear wheel slips out1 and by loosening the nuts on the spindle itself its position is adjustable so as to make a proper fit of the two gears4 ,the wheel can be removed and replaced without disturbing the bearing adjustment1 and the hub gear goes on interchangeably with the usual sprocket1 so that if the wheel itself should break down a chain wheel could be taken off another bicycle and substituted2 the crank axle1 bearing nuts1 etc41 are similarly interchangeable between the chainless and the chain models4 ,the rear hub has twenty-four teeth2 the shaft has twenty-three at the rear and fifteen at the front1 where it meshes with forty on the crank axle gear4 ,ball retainers are used throughout1 and the gears themselves form cones for the bearings4 ,felt washers are fitted1 except that the bearings in front are protected by the washer directly behind the circular cover plate which is set into the enlarged end of the crank hanger4 ,several of the wheels have been subjected to severe tests under both ordinary and extraordinary road and weather conditions1 and we learn have responded admirably in every instance4 ,the price is #ge4 ,,the ,,crawford ,,chainless4 ,the ,crawford chainless is of the bevel type1 and has its driving members in the same positions relative to each other as most of the other models1 but it is distinctive in having1 apparently1 the fork drive instead of the central shaft4 ,that is1 as is sometimes on the ,french ,acatene and in the models with the ,sager pin-roller gear as thus far made1 the driving shaft is tubular and takes the place of the usual fork1 carrying the pinions on its ends1 while the stay is a stout rod paralleling this shaft and within it1 running from crank axle to wheel hub and fastening at each end with a nut4 ,the lefthand side has a similar stay rod within the fixed tube1 so that the frame is especially stiff4 ,the wheel hub has twenty-four teeth and the shaft has twenty-three at the rear1 as usual2 but at the front are eighteen1 driven by forty-eight4 ,as the ,crawford chainless is under license from the ,pope ,company1 some comment has been caused by its announced price of #ge1 but the explanation is offered that an exception was made in case of this model because it uses only some of the patents held by the ,pope ,company4 ,,the ,,dayton ,,chainless4 ,the ,dayton chainless has been already described1 but we are now able to furnish cuts4 ,it is of the locomotive or double-crank construction1 substantially as shown two years ago under the name of the ,loco or ,twentieth ,century4 ,a double-flanged notched pulley1 with a link belt1 equivalent to a centrally notched sprocket and chain1 runs within the crank bracket1 working centrally and tightly enclosed4 ,this is necessary to obtain speeding up and to preserve motion in the forward direction4 ,adjustment of tension is by an eccentric on the crank axle4 ,the small pulley is one piece with a pair of short cranks set at right angles or quartering1 and these work connecting rods1 whose length is slightly variable when necessary by means of an eccentric adjustment at the forward end4 ,every bearing is a ball bearing1 of course4 ,the rear forks are of ,d tubing1 and narrowness of tread is further attained by 8cranking0 the connecting rods1 the portion thus bent being reinforced to avoid weakening4 ,for this type of chainless the following is claimed3 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dayton ,,chainless4 8,its most important advantage is derived from the equal transmission of motive power on both sides of the frame from the crank-hanger to the rear hub4 ,this equal division of power transmission is both constant and continuous4 ,not only is much of the friction of a bevel-gear eliminated1 but the danger of springing the rear fork out of line by a sudden strain is completely removed4 ,all bearing points of the transmitting mechanism are encased and made absolutely weather proof40 ,whatever view is held regarding the mechanical advantage or disadvantage of this method of transmitting power for bicycle purposes1 there can be no doubt that there is some benefit from the alternation of driving strains from one side to the other1 instead of having them only on one side1 and also that the complete inclosure of the driving parts is a benefit4 ,but users of this type of bicycle must learn to mount without a step1 since none can be fitted1 on account of the crank action on the rear wheel4 ,,the ,,featherstone ,,chainless4 ,the ,featherstone chainless1 called the 8,king10 in order to match with the name borne by the line of bicycles made by this concern1 is of the same type as the foregoing in respect of driving1 but embodies new and peculiar features1 which are in the patent recently issued to ,michael ,mc,ameny of ,denver4 ,double driving rods are used with two pairs of short cranks1 and the rods are made slightly adjustable in length at their rear ends as indicated in the cut4 ,it is claimed1 however1 that when these rods are once properly adjusted1 they will need no further attention1 8as the driving connection itself adds to the rigidity of the lower frame members of the machine and prevents any variation in the distance from rear wheel hub to the crank shaft and the other shafts in the crank-hanger case40 ,as the cut shows1 this hanger contains three shafts instead of two4 ,the third one is necessary because--since a spur gear is used instead of a 8link belt0 or chain--a second reversing of the direction of movement is completed in order to avoid the dilemma which one of the witless inventors whose contrivances were described in our article of a week ago accepted without hesitation1 namely1 that either the bicycle wheel must travel backward or the rider must pedal backward4 ,the pedals being run in the forward direction1 the crank shaft is driven forward and the shaft gearing with it runs backward2 the third shaft gearing with that1 of course1 runs forward again1 and this carries the pairs of cranks which work the wheel4 ,this introduction of a third shaft within the hanger 7which is avoidable only by using a belt or an internal gear7 is cleverly utilized to produce the novelty of chainless driving1 combined with a changeable gear having two speeds and the old notion of making the pedals footrests at will4 ,illustration3 ,,featherstone 8,,change ,,gear0 ,,chainless4 ,the manner in which these results are accomplished can be made out by a careful examination of the sectional cut of the interior of the crank hanger1 for which cut 7exclusive of the lettering and description7 we are indebted to the ,cycle ,age4 ,gear marked #a is firmly attached to the crank shaft and stands at the top1 as shown in the cut of the bicycle4 ,this gear #a meshes into the one marked x-#a-x1 and this latter one1 it must be understood1 is placed between gears #b and #bx1 which are on the same shaft2 the three are on one shaft 7the one indicated just forward of the crank71 but are not in any way fast to one another except by a device to be presently mentioned4 ,gear #b 7the larger of the two whose teeth are shown1 the gear x-#a-x being concealed between them7 meshes with gear #cx on the third and rearward shaft1 this gear being shown in dotted lines because it is hidden behind its larger fellow1 gear #c2 gear #bx in its turn meshes with gear #c4 ,there are in all six spur pinions or gears within the crank-hanger4 ,the pair on the rearward shaft1 gears #c and #cx1 are fast on the same shaft1 and hence must revolve at the same speed4 ,the shaft marked ,c is hollow or slotted and contains what is known as a sliding clutch1 operated by the small rod or cord and little crank shown reaching up to the top bar of the bicycle4 ,gear #a1 being fast on the pedal shaft1 runs with the pedals1 and of course carries with it gear x-#a-x4 ,now if the clutch just mentioned makes gear #b fast to x-#a-x1 the motion of gear #b is carried to gear #cx and to the shaft of this latter gear are attached the pair of outside cranks which drive the other pair on the rear wheel by means of the connecting rods1 so the bicycle is driven at a certain speed4 ,if the clutch makes gear #bx fast to x-#a-x1 then the motion of #bx is carried to gear #c1 and the drive cranks and drive rods are run at another rate of speed1 slower than before4 ,when the clutch makes x-#a-x fast to either gear #b or gear #bx1 it causes it to let go of the other one1 and that other one1 thus released1 runs around on the shaft independently1 at the rate it is carried by its connection with the gear back of it4 ,when the clutch is moved into the 8midway0 position gear x-#a-x does not grip either of its neighbors on the shaft2 then the feet can be held still on the pedals1 gears #a and x-#a-x being stationary while the other four run along with the bicycle until another movement of the shifting clutch locks either #b or #bx with gear #a and the pedal shaft as already described4 ,of course1 this arrangement does not interfere with back pedalling1 as usual1 unless the clutch is moved so as to throw the gears out of mesh4 ,illustration3 ,,featherstone ,,chainless ,,crank ,,hanger--,,sectional ,,view4 ,the gear ratios provided are regularly to be seventy-four and fifty-three4 ,it will perhaps be fair1 having described the working of this device1 to allow the makers to state their own general description and their claims for it3 ,illustration3 ,,driving ,,gear ,,of ,,dayton ,,chainless4 8,the whole machine in general construction--frame1 front forks1 handlebars1 wheel1 front hub1 cranks and pedals--is our own regular highest grade work1 as used on the ,road ,king4 ,the rear hub is so constructed that the wheel can be removed or returned to frame for repairing tire without disturbing the adjustment of the bearings4 ,the front wheel is removable1 same as in other bicycles4 ,all bearings1 including connections on side rods1 are ball bearings4 8,as the power is applied evenly from both sides1 and the gears used for driving are at centre of crank-hanger box in frame1 the centre of gravity is forward of the rider1 where it should be1 same as in regular chain wheels4 ,this is a very important feature1 and insures for this system a very material point of superiority over other chainless bicycles--that of lightness1 perfection of balance and great strength4 ,another very important feature is the durability and lack of attention required4 ,the chain on chain wheels requires a great deal of attention1 while the driving mechanism of this wheel requires only proper adjustment at first1 and then very limited attention at long intervals4 8,the driving rods in connection with the divided crank axle being easily and entirely detachable from either side1 in case of accident1 should one pedal1 crank or driving rod on same side be broken1 the broken parts can be immediately detached and the rider can continue his journey without trouble or delay1 using the remaining drives on opposite side4 ,the machine is a marvel of fine mechanical skill1 carried to a point described best by the word #8frictionless4'0 ,,some ,,deductions4 ,whatever peculiarities are involved in driving a bicycle by this method will be shared equally by the ,dayton and the ,featherstone1 the change gear of the latter1 of course1 excepted2 and what inconvenience may be found from lack of a step will pertain to both4 ,the statement in the ,featherstone catalogue1 above quoted1 that in case of breakage of the driving gear on one side the rider can continue his journey without trouble or delay by using the drivers on the remaining side was evidently made without having tried the experiment or having talked with a locomotive engineer about it4 ,in any change of gear which shifts a pinion into or out of engagement with another1 there is always liability to a shock or jar as the teeth of one slip into the spaces in the other1 and this will occur whether the engaging pinion is moved directly forward in the same plane with the other or from one side4 ,the shifting clutch on the ,featherstone chainless probably resembles a pinion with only a single tooth1 which tooth is to enter and catch in a single space4 ,how far this clutch will be able to avoid the usual drawbacks of shifts in practice time must determine2 we cannot speak from observation1 for no specimen of the bicycle has come eastward as yet4 ,as illustrating the somewhat uncertain operation of change gears1 an incident which occurred to a certain rider comes to mind4 ,some years ago he was convoying a small party over a country road1 being himself mounted on a bicycle fitted with a 8,hy-,lo0 gear which he was testing4 ,while climbing a hill and nearly at its top1 the jolt by unexpectedly striking a brick caused his knee to hit the tripping device which governed the shift1 and this moved the gear into midway position2 the pedals then 8became footrests10 and the bicycle began to back with its rider down the hill1 pawing the air ineffectually with his feet1 until he was landed in a blackberry bush at the bottom1 greatly to the amusement of his companions and to his own discomfiture1 as he had just been kindly 8coaching0 one of them as to the best way to overcome a grade4 ,there may be some question1 in general1 as to whether changing gear at will might not1 in practice1 prove less desirable than we are all disposed to imagine1 and for this reason3 the learner finds the bicycle very fatiguing1 partly from the nervous strain and partly because the muscles are put to a strange service2 they become wonted to that service in time and cease to trouble1 but if the gear ratio could be readily changed while riding 7as theoretically seems desirable7 the rhythm of pedalling might be so disturbed as to measurably bring back the original fatigue4 ,,the ,,pine ,,chainless4 ,the ,pine chainless1 located at #bc ,duane street1 is a model still behind1 so that we have not been able to see a finished sample or even any working part4 ,the general appearance is that of the ,sager gear1 the shaft being tubular and revolving outside the stay as in that type4 ,the gears are claimed to be really spur gears with teeth cut square2 that is1 essentially so1 for there must be some slight modification1 as it is not as if two ordinary spur gears were placed at right angles and made to mesh in that position4 ,the teeth1 however1 are said to be square-cut1 not radial2 their sides are parallel1 hence not pointing to the centre2 the teeth are cut in a sort of trough1 leaving a margin or hollow at their ends4 ,the inventor terms his gear a 8face0 gear1 and makes for it a number of claims1 one of which is that he can and will convert any chain wheel into a ,pine chainless at a cost of about #bj4 ,he likens his gear1 in working1 to the familiar breast drill1 except that the drill has its teeth somewhat bevelled4 ,if simplicity coupled with great strength and rigidity of frame1 together with cheap construction and smooth and quiet action1 are attained by this gear1 as expected1 it will evidently score a point among chainless models2 but that straight-cut teeth can interact successfully at all with gears set at right angles or nearly so is contrary to all ideas heretofore1 and in the lack of a model for examination we must forbear any opinion4 ,the inventor's own description is appended in justice to him3 ,illustration3 ,,pine 8,,square-,,tooth0 ,,chainless4 8,this invention relates to driving or propelling mechanism applicable to various machines or vehicles1 but intended particularly for bicycles4 ,it comprises mainly a sprocket wheel carried by the crank shaft with straight teeth on the inner face on a raised edge1 so cut upon a new principle and arranged to mesh with a spur or pinion fixed at one end of a tube1 which revolves on ball bearings arranged on rear-fork sides or rod with another gear or sprocket1 the opposite end of said tube having also a spur or pinion meshing with another sprocket secured to rear hub cut in a similar manner as front sprocket4 ,the driving power being transmitted from front sprocket or gear by shaft tube to rear gear or sprocket1 all being suitably secured as above stated to frame upon rear fork rotatably supported by ball bearings connected to the frame and forks4 8,this does precisely what has always been accounted to be out of the question and confutes both theoretical and practical mechanics4 ,it is a gear that turns the corner by means of square cut teeth that mesh directly instead of by means of bevel teeth1 and we call it a face gear4 ,it has generally been the accepted rule that in order to transmit power from one shaft to another running at right angles by means of cogs the cogs must be ,v-shaped and cut on a bevel plane4 ,spur gears have hitherto been used only for engagements between wheels turning in a direct line with each other2 our new chainless looks much like a bevel-gear wheel at first glance1 but a closer inspection shows that the teeth on the inside of front sprocket or pinion wheel as well as those on the driving shaft are perfectly square and mesh together as spur gears40 ,,the 8,,english0 ,,chainless4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,english of ,no4 #ada ,centre street1 this city1 formerly of ,edison's staff1 has produced a sample of a chainless for which he has neither name nor facilities for production as yet4 ,it uses the ,crypto internal gear in principle of operation1 the same as on the ,bantam4 ,the principle of this gear is that when a pinion on a crank or arm is carried around while in mesh with an internally-toothed rack or ring1 which is itself held fast against revolving1 the pinion rotates on its own axis with an accelerated velocity1 and of course it must impart such increased velocity to any wheel with which it is 8in touch40 ,this may sound complicated1 but if the reader will carefully examine the cut he will not find it hard to understand4 ,here the gearing is within what appears to be a box-like hub4 ,the disk in which the spokes are headed is independent of the toothed rack1 but is fast to the central pinion2 the toothed rack is a part of the framework and cannot turn4 ,now1 when the pinion which meshes in the rack is carried around the circle by the short arm or crank which holds it 7within the 8box07 it is plain that this pinion rolls around upon the teeth of the rack4 ,rolling thus1 as the rack is larger than the pinion1 having #c times as many teeth1 the pinion must make #c turns on its own axis while it is carried once around upon the rack4 ,but this pinion cannot turn without turning the central pinion with which it is in mesh 7just as on the ,bantam71 and the central pinion is fast to the driving wheel2 so the wheel itself is driven1 too4 ,the sample gear ratio is #ic4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,english0 ,,chainless4 ,illustration ,the lever measures #d inches between its fulcrum and the point of attachment to the crank1 and #ad inches between the crank pin and the pedal4 ,the crank itself is only #a inches long1 being singularly short as compared with usual crank lengths in direct driving4 ,the pinion on the crank is #a inch in diameter1 with #ad teeth2 the central pinion is #a inches in diameter1 with #ba teeth2 the fixed rack is #c inches in diameter1 with #di teeth1 all the teeth used thus being of 8#ad pitch40 ,the stroke of the pedal is #g inches in each direction4 ,having a rocking movement necessarily1 the path of the pedal is not an arc of a circle1 but is peculiar1 being somewhat like a bow and its string in shape1 the down stroke being in the 8bow0 and the return stroke in the 8string10 as shown in the accompanying cut4 ,the pedal also has the somewhat irregular motion and the 8quick return0 characteristic of the old ,facile1 and of all levers which are attached to cranks4 ,the fulcrum of this lever1 as appears in the cut1 and as evidently must be the case1 is not fixed in all directions1 but slides back and forth1 giving the pedal a part of the peculiar motion of the latter4 ,summing up this device1 we must say that its disadvantages are in the direction of some complexity of structure1 weight1 and what seems at present view insufficient crank throw1 with the inseparable drawbacks of lever-driving4 ,on the other hand1 the lever has some good points1 among them all that is in the vertical position of the rider1 the gear construction supplies its own enclosure against dirt1 and the gears are of the simple spur variety1 thus escaping any distinctive troubles of the bevel-gear4 ,arguing from the full trial on the ,bantam1 this gear may be expected to run well and have good endurance if properly made4 ,,chainless ,,evolution ,,in ,,england4 ,as already remarked1 ,england has thus far taken little interest in the present movement to revive chainless driving4 ,one of the leading trade journals 7the first one founded after the cycle era really began1 some twenty years ago7 hardly conceals its contempt of the movement1 especially of bevel-gears2 another1 in a paragraph quoted further on1 admits that such gears have not yet had a conclusive practical test1 and that there may be a future for them in cycling1 now that their construction is so much improved4 ,the reason why so little interest has been taken in the subject is that ,england1 in common with other cycling countries of ,europe1 has been1 on the whole1 satisfied with chain-driving4 ,as an illustration1 one maker now takes occasion to advertise 8,the ,english ,sunbeam--eight years ahead of ,american cycles10 and then he proceeds to explain thus3 8,a leading ,american firm have just issued their #ahih ,catalogue1 giving reasons why their new ,chainless ,cycle is an improvement on all existing ,american machines4 ,they say the new mechanism is easier to keep clean--has no backlash--no teeth to catch--is thoroughly lubricated--is weather-proof--does not wear--does not lose pitch4 ,now the ,sunbeam1 thanks to its little oil-bath dust-proof gear case1 has had all these advantages since #ahij4 ,now you know why ,sunbeams go60 ,yet1 as one of these journals puts it1 8the vogue which has been given to the chainless bicycle by the booming of the ,columbia bevel-gear has brought out all sorts of expedients for suppressing the chain40 ,a few of these appeared at the recent exhibition in ,paris1 which1 however1 was almost exclusively ,american2 at the ,english shows this winter the ,columbia and the ,quadrant were the sole specimens of any consequence4 ,illustration3 8,,english0 ,,chainless ,,driving ,,gear ,when the rear-driving chain wheel began to press the 8good old ordinary0 out of the field the latter endeavored to compromise upon a modified pattern called the 8,rational40 ,the changes were few and simple4 ,the back wheel was enlarged to #bb inches diameter and finally to #bd2 the backward 8rake0 of the front fork was made #b and next #d inches2 the saddle was placed further back1 and thus1 with a crank lengthened to #g inches1 the rider was able to use a wheel two sizes smaller than formerly4 ,this construction was much nearer to safety from 8headers10 but after three or four years the rationalized 8ordinary0 had to give up the struggle4 ,it was succeeded by the geared ordinary1 which favored safety by further reducing the size of wheel1 obtained leg-room by placing the saddle further back and raising it above the backbone1 and retained speed by gearing up4 ,a number of spur gears for this purpose were in the market five years ago4 ,the best pattern of this type of bicycle is shown in the cut4 ,this had a #bd-;inch back wheel2 a #d-;inch rake1 with the saddle from #ab to even #af inches behind the head2 #g-;inch cranks2 a #df-;inch wheel1 geared to #fb1 although #dd and #dh were made2 weight about thirty-six pounds1 which was moderate in those times4 ,the gear was the ,crypto1 brought out in #ahhc2 being hidden out of sight and closed against dirt in one of the hubs1 it formed its own gear case4 ,in conformity to the growing use of small wheels1 the geared ordinary went on shrinking in size to #db1 #ch1 #cf1 #cd1 #cb1 #cj1 the gear being modified to retain a proper ratio4 ,the name was changed to the ,bantam1 and with the #ahih model shown in the cut1 with its peculiar 8,alpha0 frame1 the long evolution process comes down to this present date4 ,,the ,,bantam ,,chainless4 ,illustration3 ,,bantam ,,chainless--#ahih4 ,the ,bantam1 an ,english front-driving chainless1 with a ,crypto gear inclosed in one of the front hubs1 has been modified for #ahih4 ,all the frame lines have become straight1 and the frame is made up of one vertical and two horizontal tubes1 with a diagonal one that holds the saddle stem4 ,the rear wheel is now brought to the size of the front1 increasing the resemblance to the prevailing type2 the wheel base1 however1 still remains singularly short4 ,this gives great handiness1 the ,bantam needing little space for stowing1 and being so light and handy that it can be taken almost anywhere4 ,its wheel is from #bb to #bd or even #bf inches in diameter1 geared from #fj to #gb2 it is easily mounted without a step4 ,as to safety1 two-fifths of the rider's weight rests on the rear wheel4 ,the gear1 which was used some years ago by ,frank ,shorland in making what were then astonishing road records1 is in principle the same as that on a rear-driver described further on1 and one of its good points is that its operation and endurance are independent of what happens to the frame4 ,it is not adjustable for wear1 but this is true of all gears and of the chain and sprocket1 except that the chain may be tightened in the familiar manner4 ,the large internally toothed ring is part of the frame and does not move4 ,the central gear is fast to the wheel and carries that with it4 ,the small pinions are carried around by the crank 7there are four in order to lessen wear1 but one would work alone71 and as they roll upon the fixed ring they are speeded up1 giving a faster motion to the large pinion and the wheel4 ,their endurance under use has been well established1 this form of gearing having had years of trial1 and they run easily and smoothly4 ,the maker figures that they ought to last1 with fair care1 from #bj1jjj to #ej1jjj miles of travel4 ,illustration3 ,,driving ,,gear ,,of ,,bantam ,,chainless4 ,the ,bantam is also made with a drop frame1 for ladies' use4 ,the chief drawback to its popularity in this country1 in either form1 is that the position of the rider with reference to the pedals does not and cannot conform to the ,american custom4 ,the ,bantam is the only front-driver now surviving1 so far as can be ascertained4 ,,the ,,acatene ,,chainless4 ,illustration3 ,,driving ,,gear ,,of ,,acatene ,,chainless4 ,the ,french ,acatene is the only ,european bevel-gear chainless which has made any stir abroad as yet1 and it was on a bicycle of this make that ,rivierre1 the long-distance ,french crack1 rode #ecc miles within twenty-four hours1 in ,paris1 in ,june of #ahif1 making the world's record which is now cited as evidence of the suitability of such gears for driving bicycles4 ,soon after that date an ,english trade journal said of it that 8for military purposes we think the ,acatene is especially suited1 and while we do not think it is destined to revolutionize the cycling world1 as some ,americans seem to think1 we feel fully confident that there is a future for it if well handled40 ,it is said that at least one reason for putting the transmitting shaft outside instead of within the back fork in the ,sager gear--now on exhibition on the ,monarch chainless--was in order to avoid an existing patent which claims a shaft carried through that fork4 ,this outside position of the hollow shaft was used on the ,acatene1 and we give a cut of it1 mainly for that reason1 since in other respects it is not unlike other bevel-gear models4 ,in this cut1 taken from an ,english journal published in ,november of #ahif1 the relative positions of the shaft and the fork are seen2 the accompanying description also says that 8undoubtedly the chief point of success in the ,acatene gear is the utilization of the ball bearing principle to take up the end-thrust on the cog shaft connecting the crank axle and the driving-hub cogs1 as well as fitting that shaft outside the usual bottom fork in such a way as affords a very considerable support against the disaligning action of the cogs themselves40 ,we also recall having seen a specimen of the ,acatene in ,new ,york1 about a year ago1 and having noted the peculiar appearance of the shaft4 ,if the ,sager claim covers putting the shaft outside the fork this apparent anticipation may have a bearing on the value of such claim4 ,,the ,,quadrant ,,chainless4 ,at the ,stanley and the ,national shows in ,london1 chainless driving--with the exception of a few which are close upon or within the freak line and do not need mention here--was represented by the ,columbia bevel-gear and by the ,lloyd cross-roller as exhibited by the 8,quadrant0 makers4 ,this latter is like the bevel in using a shaft to reach from crank axle to rear-wheel axle1 and so might in a general way be classed in the bevel-gear type2 yet in important details it is materially different1 the gears themselves being replaced by roller-and-pin wheels4 ,this is an adaptation1 with some changes in the shape of the rubbing parts1 of the old crown wheel and of its pinion constructed of wire pins instead of cut teeth1 this form of pinion being now in use in clock trains by the million4 ,the large wheel on the crank axle has horizontal pins or studs projecting from its rim1 the bottom ends of the pins being seen in the cut but the pins themselves being behind the wheel2 these pins mesh into a roller pinion on the shaft1 the common fixed pins being replaced by rollers turning on pins in order to substitute rolling for rubbing friction4 ,the same construction is at the rear end1 only reversed in position4 ,in front1 the pins drive the roller pinion2 at the back end of the shaft1 the roller-pinion drives the wheel by meshing with the pins on its hub4 ,it is impossible1 from only the cuts and descriptions in the ,english trade journals1 to be entirely sure of the precise shape of the engaging portions of this device1 but the foregoing is substantially correct4 ,the best authority in those journals1 which expresses a high opinion of it1 says3 8,the cross rollers act in practice more smoothly than the idea would seem to suggest4 ,the gear is in effect almost the same thing as a bevel-gear1 since the ends of the rollers which impinge nearest upon each other are slightly tapered and rounded4 ,there seems1 however1 to be less tendency for the gear to force itself apart than when bevels are used1 and the rollers of course remove a lot of the rubbing friction inseparable from plain bevel-gears40 ,on the other hand1 the same writer says of the bevel3 8,bevel gearing has been almost universally condemned by experts generally1 but we do not think that the latest patterns of bevel-geared machines have been put to a really practical test4 ,taking the ,columbia as one of the most perfect examples of this class of machine1 the cutting of the teeth and the general construction of the gear is so vastly superior to anything before turned out that previous tests are really very little guide4 ,no other firm has given so much attention to the matter as the ,columbia people1 and we hope at an early date to have an opportunity of testing one of their machines4 ,if the loss from increased friction is only slight1 bevel-gears will have a considerable run--it all hinges on that40 ,,the ,,lloyd',s ,,roller-,,pin ,,gear4 ,the ,quadrant ,cycle ,company make for the ,lloyd's roller-pin gear construction the following claims3 #a4 ,obviates all the troubles of the chain4 #b4 ,minimum of working friction4 ,spins free of the ground from three to six times as long as a chain gear4 #c4 ,does not distort the frame or crossbind the bearings1 consequently #d4 ,it climbs with about two-thirds the usual exertion4 #e4 ,responds instantly to the pressure of the foot4 #f4 ,is not a bevel-gear1 consequently #g4 ,no spreading1 no friction of cogs1 no noise1 no jar to the feet4 #h4 ,extremely durable1 no backlash1 no adjustment1 ever required4 ,illustration3 ,,lloyd',s ,,cross ,,roller ,,driving ,,gear ,,on ,,quadrant ,,chainless4 ,the appearance of the crank-axle wheel in the cut suggests that the wheel is provided with pins of a generally round shape rather than with any such ,v-tooth as in the ,sager device now shown on the ,monarch4 ,application was filed by ,fitzgerald and ,clement in ,december last for an ,english patent on a device somewhat resembling the ,quadrant4 ,the crank axle clearly shows a central gear wheel1 with regular crown-wheel teeth2 and although the cuts in the specification are difficult to make out1 the text describes a roller-toothed pinion on the forward end of the shaft1 a crown-wheel toothed pinion on the rear end1 and a wheel hub provided with roller teeth4 ,the teeth thus described would not act precisely like those which appear to be on the ,quadrant4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,harell of this city has produced a specimen which is apparently identical with the ,quadrant1 except that in the former the driving is applied to the back side of the wheel hub1 as on the ,spalding ,chainless1 while on the ,quadrant the position of the driving parts is as on the ,columbia4 ,the pins which engage the rollers are rounded off and slightly tapered1 resembling the shape of the bullet in ordinary fixed ammunition2 but in the lack of more precise information as to the form of the pins on the ,quadrant it is not certain that ,mr4 ,harell has made any improvement4 ,illustration3 ,,geared ,,ordinary--#ahib4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,chainless vs4 ,,chain4 ,the possible changes in the future of cycling involve the shape of the cycle as well as the mode of driving it4 ,indeed1 the mode of applying the power has influenced the shape of the structure more than the shape of the structure has influenced the mode of driving4 ,at present1 rear-driving has the field2 will front-driving ever return8 ,possibly4 ,as bearing on this possibility1 it may not be amiss to briefly describe some of the most important attempts to make a safe and practical bicycle 7in nearly every instance out of the front-driver71 without trying to follow exact chronological order4 ,a ,,brief ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,principal 8,,safety0 ,,types4 ,one of the most peculiar was the 8,xtra-ordinary10 or 8,xtra10 familiarly dubbed the 8,camel40 ,taking the high ,ordinary1 it enlarged the back wheel to #bb inches2 then1 as its main feature1 sloped the front forks back very much in a great 8rake10 so that the rider's weight rested more on the rear1 and he was thus much less liable to be pitched forward over the front in a 8header10 or a 8cropper10 as it was called in ,england4 ,the cranks being thus out of direct reach1 they were driven by a pair of long bent levers1 which were hinged by a short arm to the front forks1 and came back behind and below the wheel axle1 bearing pedals on their ends2 this contrivance was effective as to safety1 but was heavy and clumsy4 ,other patterns used the usual 8rake10 but had swinging levers attached to the cranks1 the idea being that the pedals 7and consequently the driving pressure7 should always be behind the axle4 ,one of these was ,american--the 8,springfield0--and this drove by levers1 bearing pedals behind the axle1 but used ratchets1 and had no cranks4 ,the 8,star10 also ,american1 drove by levers and ratchets1 but turned about and had the small wheel forward1 being very distinctive4 ,others had the small wheel first1 driving the other by cranks thereon1 and worked by long swinging levers hinged to the extreme front of the frame1 thus going back to an early contrivance nearly half a century before1 and much like some children's velocipedes of today4 ,one of the queerest of all was the 8,otto10 a true bicycle in having only two wheels1 yet resembling the tricycle in having those side by side on a long axle2 the rider sat between1 above and a little behind the axle1 swinging freely from it1 driving by pedals and chains1 and steering somehow with great ease4 ,in smaller bicycles1 then called 8safeties0 for distinguishing them1 the 8,pony0 was simply small sized1 with secondary cranks jointed on the first1 so that leg-reach could be obtained1 the two cranks being out at full length at the bottom of the stroke and shut over like the blade of a knife in its handle at the top of the stroke4 ,the 8,kangaroo0 type1 which had for a time a great run1 had their front forks prolonged down1 so as to carry pedals and cranks1 working on the axle by sprockets1 and 8gearing up40 ,the 8,facile0--which was the pioneer of small-sized bicycles in ,america1 also had its front forks prolonged1 but curved well forward2 to the ends of these were hinged levers which came well behind and below the axle1 having pedals on the ends1 and being attached by connecting-rods to very short cranks1 thus working much like the tread of the common foot lathe2 it was extremely safe1 but was geared 8level10 and therefore was not speedy1 requiring rapid though short movements of the foot4 ,it was afterward 8geared up0 so as to be faster1 but was gradually displaced by various patterns of 8,geared ,ordinary40 ,these used the familiar rotary action with direct cranks1 but employed spur gears--not bevel-gears as stated in a recent article in a trade journal4 ,of this class1 one distinctive pattern is the sole present survivor of the front driving type4 ,if reversion ever does bring front driving wheels back on a general or even a comparatively large scale1 this seems likely to be the one4 ,yet prophecy is too unsafe to be hazarded1 sweeping though past changes have been4 ,as the illustrations in this chapter are of such a nature as to require a more detailed description than can be given in a mere line of title1 the descriptive matter concerning them is placed together1 as follows3 ,the original ,humber--meaning by 8original0 merely the first bicycle of the rear-driving type produced by the ,humber factory--is interesting as showing the beginnings of the 8diamond0 frame4 ,the steering head was as remarkably long as it afterward became short1 but if the fork had been carried forward in a curve instead of dropping straight down1 the wheel base would have been longer and the general outline more like the construction of today4 ,the ,golden ,era is reproduced as a curiosity in frames and as suggesting--since to illustrate them all would require too much space and would not have sufficient interest--the number and variety of frame shapes which have resulted in the familiar one of the present1 although it would be rash to affirm that finality in frames is reached even now4 ,illustration3 ,,first ,,humber ,,model4 ,the ,victor of #ahhg was the first of the type made in ,america4 ,there may be some question whether a bicycle with a drop frame was not produced in ,washington somewhat earlier1 but it was not done commercially4 ,the wheels of the ,victor were #cj-;inch1 with a solid tire on the rear and a tire on the front4 ,it was made in only one size4 ,the gear was #ed2 the weight was not stated2 the price was #adj4 ,it had ball bearings all over1 including the steering1 which was a 8socket10 and was in both these particulars rather advanced at that time4 ,its chief peculiarity was that the entire front forks consisted of two pairs of curved springs1 attached to the frame by ingenious rocking joints1 which at first had cone bearings1 but were changed to balls in the next year4 ,as more elastic tires came in1 this peculiar fork went out1 the pattern being made in both ways for several years2 but the ,overman ,company is entitled to the credit of having been the first ,american concern to make the now prevailing type of bicycle1 and of having also improved upon it as they found it4 ,the frame shown in the cut1 which was a common one up to that date1 was changed in the following year to a stronger one of the early 8diamond0 type4 ,the ,veloce of #ahhh was the first rear-driver produced at the ,columbia factory1 although a pattern of the ,kangaroo had been for two years in the company's line4 ,the ,veloce had a #cj-;inch front wheel and a #ca-;inch driver1 both having solid tires4 ,the cranks were of the usual slotted style1 giving a throw of #e to #f inches4 ,the steering was cone1 #d inches between centres4 ,the handlebar was hollow1 #bh inches long4 ,one size only was built1 geared to #eb1 weighing #ea pounds1 and selling at #ace4 ,a peculiarity of the construction was that a single curved cross-tube intersecting the straight 8backbone0 or 8perch0 formed the support for the crank-axle and sprockets1 and then was carried up over the wheel1 where it did duty as a mud-guard4 ,the wheels had #dj and #cf spokes1 which were 8direct10 as against the tangent which the ,victor people had been using and insisting upon for several years4 ,referring to the direct spoke1 the ,columbia catalogue of this year 7#ahhh7 says3 8,we have shown the desirability of this construction too often to make a repetition necessary1 particularly in the case of a small-wheel machine for use at all times and places4 ,it is a matter of satisfaction to us to observe a growing recognition of our arguments on this point1 even in ,england1 where1 if in any part of the world1 the roads are suited to full tangent spokes40 ,this shows how easily the best judges and prophets may sometimes be mistaken4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,golden ,,era4 ,the ,defender ,midget is an 7page #cd7 illustration of all that is extremely advanced and radical in bicycle construction for #ahih4 ,the steering head is of the shortest1 only #d inches in length4 ,the frame is #bb-;inch1 with flush joints and stamped internal connections4 ,the top tube is horizontal4 ,the crank-hanger has a #d-;inch drop2 the cranks are #g inches1 with a #d-;inch tread1 these three particulars being extreme4 ,the cranks are the ,fauber patent1 a single piece forming both cranks and axle1 which are passed into place through the large opening in bracket before putting in the bearings4 ,the chain is adjusted at the bracket by an eccentric1 instead of at the wheel as usual4 ,the rear forks are a continuous piece of ,d-tubing1 of section tapered to 4 ,they are joined to the crank bracket by a single large oval stem1 thus allowing clearance1 without cranking or offsetting the fork1 for the very large front ,fauber 8star0 sprocket of #cb teeth4 ,the rear sprocket has #ab teeth1 thus making a gear of only #gd #b_/c1 notwithstanding the large size of the front one4 ,front forks are of tapered ,d-tubing in one piece1 with an arched crown1 and forks and crown are both nickeled4 ,the wheels have ,thor patent hubs1 and the saddle post is fastened with the ,thor expander1 the saddle1 of course1 being a ,brown4 ,the handlebar is extremely wide and light1 made of octagon tubing on the ,schinneer patent1 and the fastening is internal4 ,the chain is #f per cent4 nickel steel in the block1 and tool steel in the side-plates4 ,rims are laminated1 and tires are light road ,palmer4 ,this model is very striking in appearance1 and includes the patented specialties of half a dozen makers of component parts1 thus indicating clearly that it is the product of a small maker4 ,this remark1 however1 is not made in any derogatory sense4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,victor--,,first ,,american ,,safety--#ahhg4 ,from the forward thrust on the old 8boneshaker0 velocipede of #ahfh1 which was compelled by its structure1 the cyclist next went to the nearly downward action on the 8high ordinary0 of #ahgh2 this change was made to get speed by a larger wheel1 and he had to sit near its centre in order to reach the pedal4 ,the ,facile1 a lever-driving 8safety10 which soon followed1 had as its distinctive feature the most vertical position of driving ever obtained1 and its maker was naturally very strenuous for that position1 contending that on the ,facile the rider was always and all the time 8over his work10 with his pedal directly under him1 where the ,ordinary rider always tried to get but could not4 ,this was strictly true1 and although the same maker1 under changed trade conditions1 has since argued for a position considerably 8behind the work10 this is not against his sincerity1 for really there is considerable to be said on both sides4 ,it will readily be seen that the lever favors the 8over-the-work0 position1 because the pedal can thus be placed at a distance from the driven axle2 but rotary pedaling1 as against the peculiar stroke of a lever1 seems now fixed1 if anything can be affirmed to be4 ,with any type using two equal-sized wheels and rotary action1 the rider must sit over the back wheel 7as on the abandoned 8,broncho0 of a few years ago7 or else substantially as on the present type4 ,then he must have some means of carrying his power back to the axle2 what shall that means be8 ,the foregoing analysis is partly to lead up to the issue between chain and no-chain1 and partly to suggest how many and how important considerations are involved in the relative position of the saddle in the whole structure4 ,,modes ,,of ,,power ,,transmission4 ,the crank-axle1 and crank-bracket1 the 8heart0 of the bicycle1 is now the place where the power is first exerted1 and from this it must be transmitted to the wheel4 ,there are a number of possible methods of transmission1 thus3 #a4 ,a leather belt4 #b4 ,a metallic band with holes to engage projections on the sprockets1 or provided with projections to enter holes therein4 #c4 ,a chain4 #d4 ,a wire rope1 with or without projections4 #e4 ,clutch or ratchet action1 at one or both ends1 operated by a lever4 #f4 ,lever and crank1 with or without an oscillating fulcrum4 #g4 ,a connecting-shaft1 carrying bevel gears at each end4 #h4 ,a connecting-shaft1 working pin-and-roller gears4 #i4 ,a connecting-shaft1 with universal joints4 #aj4 ,a row of spur gears to close the gap between the two axles4 #aa4 ,cranks and connecting-rods1 working double1 locomotive-fashion4 #ab4 ,friction wheels1 with or without spur gears4 #ac4 ,pneumatic or hydraulic transmission1 with some choice of fluids4 #ad4 ,a combination of cams and rollers4 #ae4 ,balls working in spiral grooves on axles4 ,this does not exhaust the list of theoretical possibilities1 nor mention all the combinations which could be formed4 ,a sufficiently wild inventor could fix up a contrivance1 beginning at one axle and ultimately reaching the other1 which involved the whole list1 and he might then be confident that he had met the long-felt want4 ,nos4 #b to #d are modifications of ,no4 #a2 ,no4 #e involves giving up back-pedalling2 ,no4 #i cannot 8gear up20 ,nos4 #ab to #ae are not practical4 ,and the whole list--just as the large number of 8mechanical powers0 named in old text-books are really only two--8boils down0 to five3 the endless belt1 the spur gear1 the shaft with bevel or pin-roller gears1 cranks and connecting-rods1 and the lever4 ,the fourth of these appears on only one make thus far2 it involves practical difficulties1 is not strictly chainless1 and hardly need be considered as a rival to the chain4 ,the lever is not seriously contesting now4 ,the spur gear is in market2 yet it is offered in only two or three patterns now1 one of them the ,hildick1 which has distinctive claims of its own--and so it can be passed4 ,the third of these just named is the contestant of the old chain1 against which it has brought an action for ejectment1 to be tried1 and probably sustained or dismissed1 in this year #ahih4 ,,the ,,stress ,,of ,,the ,,chain-,,pull4 ,it is true1 as alleged by the plaintiff in this action1 that a severe strain is put by the driving on the frame of a chain-driver1 increasing enormously as the load or resistance increases4 ,it is true that by the laws of materials the yield is always in the direction of least resistance2 this was understood by ,autocrat ,holmes's old deacon1 who reasoned1 when about to construct his 8one-hoss shay10 that 8it's mighty plain thet the weakes' place must stan' the strain0 and if that does not stand the whole construction goes4 ,the trouble with the bicycle frame is that it is a triangle1 and 7as shown in the small sketch7 the line of draught is not parallel to the line of resistance4 ,suppose the resistance under trying conditions of grade and road is represented by a weight of #ajj2 then it's pedal1 or crank1 or axle or sprocket1 or any piece in chain1 or the spokes in the back wheel1 or the frame itself1 had a strength below #ajj1 instead of the bicycle's advancing along the road the rider's power would expend itself in breaking or bending such weak part4 ,the pull is a one-sided pull1 necessarily tending to drag the frame around toward the side where the chain is1 and frames have not always been made strong enough to resist entirely4 ,ten years ago1 when the present type of bicycle was beginning to come in1 a dealer whose interests were opposed made the most of this objection of side-drag1 quoting the recent admissions of several ,english makers1 thus3 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,showing ,,one-,,sided ,,chain ,,pull4 8,there is a great deal more strain between the two chain wheels than is generally understood1 and experience has proved the necessity of a direct and rigid connection between these points40 7,starley ,sutton of ,coventry1 #ahhh catalogue47 8,we would draw the reader's special attention to our pattern for this year1 as every one who has had experience in this type of machine knows that the bearings are of the utmost importance1 the wear and tear being so much greater than on an ordinary bicycle4 ,this has caused us to discard the old pattern pin-and-cone ball bearing1 in which the cones and cups are continually going wrong1 owing to the smallness of the bearing surfaces and the enormous strain upon them4 ,as in all pin-and-cone ball bearings1 the cone wears flat on the chain side1 but in the bearings we have introduced it is impossible to do so4 ,they are the same as fitted to the front wheel of our bicycles40 7,rudge ,cycle ,company of ,coventry1 #ahhh catalogue47 ,this was quite true4 ,bearings have since been modified to meet the case1 and frames have been strengthened2 yet a light frame may waste power1 under trying conditions1 by springing out of line without getting a permanent bend1 and something more can probably be done in frame strengthening4 ,the reader will observe1 on referring again to the cuts of the first ,columbia1 where it happens to show more distinctly1 that the frame is substantially two tubes crossing at right angles4 ,construction began in this manner in ,england1 and the reason was that makers followed the 8ordinary10 to which they were accustomed4 ,they took the familiar curved backbone1 and made it straight1 attaching it to the wheel in the old way by mortise and tenon1 with a bolt passed through1 as the cut clearly shows4 ,they did not foresee the chain-pull1 and 7strange as it seems7 actually did not at first always put on even the single tie-rod used in the ,victor2 later1 a second tie-rod was carried to the rear wheel1 thus making a truss1 and then a second pair were placed above the backbone1 thus further approaching the diamond4 ,now it was this identical construction of frame1 as shown in the ,columbia most distinctly1 which caused ,starley ,sutton 7as just quoted above7 to say that 8there is a great deal more strain between the two chain wheels than is generally understood1 and experience has proved the necessity of a direct and rigid connection between these points40 ,this strain had not only not been 8generally understood10 but had apparently hardly been thought of at all4 ,yet the direct fork which those old ,coventry makers called for was soon supplied1 and the moral for which we relate this bit of history is the fact that the present frame of the chain-driver and the chain itself are the result of a long evolution process1 in which every step has been suggested and proved by practical experience4 ,,demands ,,upon ,,chainless ,,construction4 ,from this tendency to draw the two axles toward each other--which has to be resisted by the frame before there can be any effect to revolve the wheel--the chainless is wholly free4 ,in so much as this1 its case is proved at once4 ,yet1 if it would be frank1 it must repeat the common remark3 8,i have troubles of my own40 ,making bevel-gears is a detail and may be waived2 but when they are finished1 other problems arise4 ,these problems cannot be better stated than in the five sentences following1 which come officially from the chief advocate of these gears and should be carefully considered3 8,the maker must place them in the machine with perfect exactness4 ,the front and the rear axle1 with their gear attachments1 should lie precisely in the same plane and exactly parallel with each other4 ,any failure to do this will result in binding1 cramp1 strain and unsatisfactory work4 ,not only must these conditions exist in the wheel as it comes from the workman's hands1 but they must be maintained under load and shock1 under the severest uses4 ,the frame construction must be so rigid that there will be no spring or yield under any strain40 ,this is a statement of the contestant's own advocate1 who adds that the extraordinary weight of the old 8,league0 chainless 7seventy-five pounds at first1 the reader will remember7 was unavoidable because the makers had no way of getting frame stiffness except by putting in metal2 he then argues that nickel steel now supplies the strength without sacrifice of lightness4 ,another advocate--an over-zealous one whom it is difficult to take seriously--declares that this make of chainless will never get out of line1 and that if it ever does the running will remain unaffected4 ,the jointed shaft of the ,bayvelgere is designed to meet just this contingency4 ,we do not predict1 save to say that if the frame of any chainless with a rigid connecting shaft ever does get out of line there will be serious trouble necessarily4 ,make the 8if0 as emphatic as anybody pleases1 and consider the danger of springing the frame however remote2 the chance of this occurring1 under some sort of conditions and usage1 is one which the chainless1 especially those of the bevel class1 must encounter4 ,illustration3 ,,first ,,columbia ,,rear-,,driver--#ahhh4 ,as to any kind of construction1 whether of frame or of driving parts1 there is no trouble when spinning on a stand without a load2 the question begins when power is put upon it against a heavy resistance in actual use4 ,a maker who has criticised the bevel chainless more severely than any one else insists that bevel-gears are especially wasteful by friction4 ,in his factory1 he says1 a power drill working with such gears will make only an inch hole through a certain piece of metal1 while a similar drill without the bevels and run from the same shaft will make a #a-;inch hole through the same metal4 ,but this is not entirely conclusive1 and the appeal to general practice in machine shops does not count very much4 ,it could just as well be taken against the chain1 and against the spur gear1 for the fact is that no gear is used there except when necessary4 ,whenever the shafts are a considerable distance apart the belt is used1 which is simple1 cheap and effective1 developing a surprising amount of 8bite0 even on quite smooth surfaces4 ,when the shafts are close together the spur gear is used1 nothing else being available4 ,when there is a distance and no slippage can be permitted the chain is the thing4 ,when power must turn a corner it is a choice between belt or bevel gears4 ,but to say that a thing is not good on a bicycle because it is not used to drive machinery in shops is poor reasoning4 ,we might as well say that ball bearings are not good because they are never used on locomotives4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of 8,,end-,,thrust40 ,the objection of 8end-thrust0 is raised against the bevel-driver4 ,if the reader will look at a cut showing the shaft in position with the two axles1 he will understand that the large beveled wheel on the crank axle tries to push the pinion and shaft backward1 so that it may free itself and turn as the rider is forcing it to do4 ,this backward pressure is because the face of the tooth is sloping1 and before the load can be moved this pressure back must be resisted solidly somewhere4 ,so 7it is said7 the rear pinion of the shaft is liable to be forced hard against the one on the hub1 thus causing friction and possibly 8bind10 especially on hills and bad roads4 ,but this peculiar action between the interacting teeth at the crank shaft is necessarily duplicated at the other end of the shaft1 so that the backward thrust at the front is met by a forward thrust at the rear1 the two thrusts thus counteracting each other4 ,it should be said here that the pin-roller gear1 already described1 as used on the ,monarch and others1 is free from any possible objection of 8end-thrust10 as there is no tendency to shove the shaft either backward or forward4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,effect ,,upon ,,bearings4 ,a question arises as to the effect upon the bearings and the balls in them when any sort of shaft is used for chainless driving4 ,looking again at the cut of the shaft and adjacent parts1 the reader will see that power applied on the pedal tends to roll the pinion directly away from the large gear1 because if the pinion could roll clear away the axle would then be left free to turn2 similarly1 pressure at the back end tends to push apart those two pinions also4 ,this pressure to separate comes upon the balls and the bearing surfaces1 there being nothing else to take it4 ,it is true that the draw of the chain1 already explained1 is thrown at once directly on the balls and the bearing surfaces1 and that no large amount of trouble has been caused thereby1 in all the last six years of use of chain driving4 ,but it seems well settled that the old 8,league0 bevel chainless did develop an experience of breaking balls and cups and cones1 and it is claimed that bevel-gears produce a peculiar twisting strain on bearings4 ,how much there is in this claim1 and what precautions have been or can be taken by makers to meet the difficulty1 time will show4 ,yet it should be said that the pin-roller gear1 while free from any exposure to 8end-thrust10 must take its chances with the other chainless models which have connecting shafts in respect to 8side-thrust0 on the bearings4 ,,effect ,,of 8,,side-,,thrust0 ,,upon ,,the ,,frame4 ,a question arises as to the effect of 8side-thrust0 as distinguished from 8end-thrust0 upon the frame 7as well as the bearings7 in chainless driving4 ,this 8side-thrust0 is under new conditions and in a somewhat different way2 but it is not a new thing--it exists in chain driving1 because it always exists4 ,when power is applied to any structure consisting of several movable parts put together1 the part to which the impulse is directly applied pushes first on the parts next to it2 they pass the push to other parts1 and so along the line 7as if the several parts were links in a chain7 until at last1 all the parts having refused to either break or be shoved out of place1 the load aimed at is moved4 ,in case of the bicycle this load is the moving of the structure and its rider along the ground4 ,if any of the parts involved could break more easily than the movement along the ground is accomplished that breakage would occur1 instead of the movement intended4 ,this is only one example of the law1 already stated1 that the yield is always in the direction1 or at the place1 of least resistance--the weakest thing gives up4 ,it was said just now that the pinion on the forward end of the shaft tries to roll away from the gear wheel which pushes it2 the pinions at the rear also try to roll away from each other4 ,thus they put a side pressure on their bearings1 as stated1 but the same pressure comes on the frame which holds the bearings4 ,at the crank axle this tends to crowd the fork sides toward or from each other1 according as the teeth on the large gear face in one direction or the other2 at the rear the tendency is to separate the forks4 ,this tendency is to simultaneously crowd upon the balls1 to spread open the forks and to press the teeth of the gears into closer contact4 ,since the roller-geared and the bevel-toothed types must meet the same pressure on the bearings1 they are alike in this pressure on the frames4 ,as already remarked1 each of them escapes entirely the heavy pressure which the pull of the chain puts on the axles and their bearings2 in place of this they get other and different strains1 as just described4 ,observe that we do not say these strains will not be successfully resisted--that would be prediction4 ,some further strengthening of the frame might perhaps be had1 and in fact the doubling of the fork on the chain side of chain-drivers1 to get additional stiffness1 is not unknown in present ,english practice4 ,it might even be suggested as a fair question1 whether a new or somewhat modified form of frame ought not to have been devised for chainless driving instead of applying it to a form never intended for it4 ,,the ,,question ,,of ,,the ,,gear ,,teeth4 ,the endurance of the gear teeth is also a question to be decided by use4 ,it has been said that 8the teeth are so designed as to be relatively stronger than the cranks and under excessive strain the cranks will break first20 also that 8the individual parts are stronger than the elementary parts of the chain40 ,we have seen cranks tested1 in regular shop routine1 by samples taken out of each small lot1 under a measured load of #a1jjj pounds1 and have seen them show their quality by returning to the straight line when the load was removed4 ,the cross-section of an average crank is three to five times that of a bevel or radial tooth4 ,in practice1 cranks do not break2 some other part1 less strong1 breaks when something must1 and so the statement that the bevel tooth is stronger than the crank which is to be measured against it under load seems rather too forcible4 ,the comparatively slight tooth must bear the same strain which comes on other parts and the very small though real bit of elasticity or 8give0 which the chain possesses1 by virtue of being made up of many parts joined together1 is lacking in gears of any kind2 the strain on those is 8solid0 and unrelieved4 ,the fact that breakage of a sprocket 7unless by some collision or extraordinary fall7 is a mishap almost unheard of does not insure the gear tooth in the least--the two are not the same case4 ,the sprocket tooth is very thick in the direction of the strain1 and the pull of the chain comes on not less than five teeth at once on the rear sprocket and twice as many on the front1 thus dividing the load2 the gear teeth1 on the contrary1 are thin1 and the strain is concentrated on not more than two at a time1 practically upon one4 ,yet we must distinguish here the bevel and the spur-gear tooth from the peculiar teeth on the pin-roller gear2 the latter are so thick that no doubt of their strength need be raised4 ,illustration3 ,,defender ,,midget--#ahih4 ,the last paragraph is not to affirm or to imply that the teeth will not prove equal to their task4 ,but such gearing has never been used on cycles2 the bevel wheels of the tricycle 8balance-gear0 were larger and were not common enough to constitute an exception4 ,spur gears have been successfully used for many years on the ,crypto gear already described1 but four pinions are employed on that instead of one1 for the express purpose of dividing the strain4 ,so it is fair and well to note that when we resort to gearing as an escape from the chain we are going from the long-tried to the untried4 ,here it may be in point to quote from the current advertisement of one of the oldest concerns in the ,english trade1 the ,centaur ,company of ,coventry3 8,the pioneers in the cycle trade can afford to view with equanimity the appearance of the faddist who1 from time to time1 tries to resuscitate some obsolete and exploded notion which1 in the early days1 has already been thoroughly tested and abandoned4 ,the ,chainless ,safety1 with which we have been threatened during the past two years1 is an example of this4 ,bevel-gears1 spur-gears1 roller-gears1 rod-and-piston-gears1 intermediate wheels1 and every conceivable form of gearing were experimented with by ourselves and many of the older makers in the early '#hj's1 for the purpose of dispensing with the chain4 ,if1 as a medium for transmitting power1 they were then found to be inferior to the crude and imperfect chain available at that period1 it must be manifest to everyone who is familiar with cycle construction that1 with the perfect chain of today1 the comparison must be still less favorable to the chainless methods40 ,this is not quoted as endorsing it1 nor do we regard the experimenting mentioned as conclusive2 the point lies in the last sentence4 ,for while it is true that the cutting of bevel or radial gears has been so much improved that the results of trials long ago do not signify 7as is frankly admitted by not over-friendly ,english trade journals in commenting on the ,columbia71 it is equally true that the chain also is greatly improved4 ,,the ,,charges ,,against ,,the ,,chain4 ,in the action for ejectment1 which we have supposed the chainless to be bringing1 the worst counts which can be brought against the chain are that it is 8lubricated0 with grit1 being left exposed2 that it clogs with mud and is a fair-weather device only2 that it is very dirty and troublesome to keep clean1 and that chain and sprockets wear rapidly4 ,all this is thus far quite true1 and yet quite answerable4 ,the chain very rarely breaks1 and whenever it does the reason is that it has been so neglected that the joints could no longer bend4 ,a great deal is said about 8backlash10 or the back-and-forth looseness of moving parts between themselves4 ,a little slack is necessary in a chain1 and if it is excessive that is by the rider's fault1 as it is a matter entirely within his control4 ,if the rider 8jerks up0 the slack of his chain when passing over the centre that only shows that he does not pedal properly1 or perhaps that his chain needs a little tightening4 ,if a chain does break1 chain parts are fast becoming staple goods1 procurable anywhere almost as readily as nails2 a temporary repair on the road is not difficult1 and there are also spare pieces which can be carried in a vest-pocket and applied almost without tools4 ,on the other hand1 repair on a chainless cannot be made on the road1 and will in any case be very much greater1 in cost and trouble1 than any which are called for on a chain or a sprocket4 ,every mechanic knows that a shaft 8out of line0 cannot operate properly1 if at all1 on any construction1 from an ocean liner down to delicate machinery for watchmaking4 ,a chainless bicycle--although this requirement is not quite so severe on those with the roller gear1 since that has a semi-flexibility--must have its shaft and gears laid in exactly right at first1 and then they must stay so4 ,the chain-driver is the opposite in this respect4 ,the frame may be considerably sprung out of line1 and the front sprocket may even have quite a twist1 and yet the driving not be noticeably affected4 ,the reason is that the chain1 instead of being rigid and unyielding1 is jointed and can bend1 accommodating itself to any little irregularity4 ,this is the reason why bicycles have been able to run1 even when not in very good condition1 all these years1 while frames have been undergoing tests and have been having their weak places strengthened4 ,it is said that 8the weak part of a chain-and-sprocket bicycle is the chain10 and that the chain is 8the one serious source of danger that every bicycler realizes40 ,yet it is the last thing about which the average rider troubles himself1 either to be anxious for or to take care of1 and dealers and repairmen will almost unanimously testify that the chain and the sprockets have figured less frequently and less importantly in their repair shop than any other part of the bicycle4 ,,gear ,,cases ,,and ,,improvements ,,in ,,chains4 ,english makers think ,americans slow and dull in not using a gear case1 which is a regular part of the cycle with them2 but the difference in climate accounts for that--it has not been thought needful here4 ,the strongest point for the chainless 7those with spur gear excepted7 is the ease and neatness of inclosing its driving parts2 yet the case to inclose the chain is coming1 and when the chain is covered the objections to it above noted and admitted are substantially removed4 ,there is little experience of the case here as yet1 but we can testify to an instance in which the case was taken off for examination1 after some months' use1 and the oil and graphite were found apparently as fresh and unimpaired as when applied4 ,as further defence against the ejectment action it should be noted that comparatively little attention has been given to improvement in sprockets and chains1 but that now these parts are no longer neglected4 ,the quality1 accuracy and finish of chains have been greatly improved of late years1 and this is especially noticeable on the #ahih product4 ,new patterns of chain are coming into market1 and new shapes of sprocket tooth as well4 ,these will be considered later in their place2 we can only say now that these changes are not mere alterations for 8talking-points10 but are veritable improvements4 ,of course1 the chainless movement stimulates and requires these improvements1 and will be met and opposed by them4 ,,the ,,outlook ,,for ,,the ,,chainless4 ,when we come to consider the trade outlook for the chainless1 and the trade outlook as affected by the chainless 7for these are different things and in some degree opposed to each other7 the first point observable is that every maker of a chainless1 with the exception of the ,bayvelgere people1 proposes to market chain wheels as formerly2 even the powerful concern which has started the chainless movement and has carried enthusiastic praise of its new product so far as to dispraise chain drivers1 by natural implication and almost by direct statement1 is preparing to market the chain wheel just as before4 ,it is also a peculiar feature of the situation that only one or two of the other makers who are bringing out the chainless have much to say for it2 on the contrary1 most of them seem to regard it as a doubtful experiment1 and two have openly pronounced against it1 one of them announcing that 8notwithstanding these stubborn facts1 however1 we have decided to meet the demand on the part of some riders for chainless bicycles1 although we do not recommend them40 ,the first price announced1 #abe1 seemed to be prohibitory of any large sale for the chainless in #ahih as against the chain drivers at current market values4 ,but the later announcement of models at #ajj1 at #ge1 and even at #fj1 puts a different face upon that1 and the chainless will make its way as it can1 in the market1 and will find its place according to its comparative merits or demerits4 ,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,chainless ,,upon ,,the ,,cycle ,,trade4 ,the probable effect of the newcomer upon the trade in general is a puzzling factor in the outlook4 8,the chainless is an inspiration2 it is a piece of folly2 it will induce people to buy2 it will hold people back from buying2 it is and has been a trade disturber2 it is just the tonic the trade needs0--one can take his choice of these opinions1 for it is a matter of the point of view4 ,perhaps the real truth and the best course1 as usual1 lie somewhere between the extremes4 ,this seems the more likely to be so1 because the bicycle has been suffering from extremes in the form of a large overdose of 8boom20 it might be more euphemistically put by saying that the industry has been fostered and stimulated too fast4 ,the 8pace0 of competition has been too hot1 and the result is a part of the evolution through which this marvellous product of skill must pass4 ,,evolution ,,in ,,the ,,trade4 ,evolution works not only in the cycle itself1 but in the methods of production and sale1 in the ranks of the producers themselves1 and in all included in the term 8the trade40 ,the swift rise of the bicycle as an article of merchandising importance1 together with sensational attempts by uninformed press writers to expose the alleged exorbitant profits1 has produced a natural effect within the last three years4 ,to make a bicycle for #bj and sell it for #ajj was so sure and easy a method of amassing a fortune within1 say1 five years' time1 that the imagination of our ever-quick ,americans was fired4 ,it is not necessary just now to point out the defects of this picture1 sketched and held up2 the most serious defect was that it was untrue to fact4 ,there was1 however1 a rush to get into 8the swim0 while there was time4 ,people without capital1 without experience1 without mechanical training1 without even any knowledge of the materials of which bicycles are constructed1 hastened to advertise themselves as bicycle makers1 and for a full year the news columns went on announcing the building of new factories4 ,thus the bargain counter got its supplies1 and the natural reaction followed1 the news columns soon having items of quite another character4 ,it must not be supposed1 however1 that recent reductions in price mean simply relinquishment of former profit margins1 whether those were large or small2 some of the decline in price does mean a lower rate of profit1 partly atoned for by larger sales1 but a great deal is covered by economies in handling and marketing1 and notably by reduced costs of production1 which are made possible by various means as above suggested1 one of the chief of these being automatic machinery4 ,the disturbed condition of the bicycle market has been adjusting itself and will continue to do so--all the sooner and better for all concerned if volunteer assistants will remember that 8it is better not to know so much than to know so much that isn't so40 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,frame ,,and ,,fork ,,construction4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,keating4 ,it is a trite but true remark that the modern bicycle is a marvel of mechanical construction1 and certainly no part of it has received more attention during the past decade than the frame4 ,the frame1 with its braces1 rods1 diagonal struts1 chords and ties1 is really a bridge on wheels built to carry man over the ground4 ,the frame usually consists of eight pieces of tubing1 brazed to either drop-forged or sheet steel connections2 but the latest fads of up-to-date construction vary even this rule by making the rear forks and also the back stays of a continuous one-piece construction1 these1 however1 being connected to the frame by short lugs projecting from the crank-hanger bracket and seat-pillar bracket4 ,this style1 here illustrated1 is used by the makers of the ,manson1 ,iroquois1 ,hudson1 ,globe1 ,colton1 and is known as the three-crown construction4 ,this style of frame has become very popular4 ,there are no striking novelties in frame construction for '#ih1 the few changes made being in the line of refinement rather than of newness4 ,high frames are altogether out of style1 low frames being the proper thing1 cyclists evidently preferring to ride a low frame with a short head and dropped crank-hanger and getting the necessary reach by raising the seat-post4 ,originally all bicycles were built with drop-forged connections1 or connections made from steel stampings4 ,during the last three years sheet steel stampings have been very largely used1 but after the frame is enamelled it is impossible to say what these connections are4 ,on the old 8,ordinary0 construction the use of large tubing for the backbone necessitated the insertion of the forgings into the backbone1 thus producing flush joints4 ,when the lowly ,safety came in1 with its tubing of small diameter and thick gauge1 external connections were used altogether1 and the tubing was inserted into the connections2 but with the growing use of large tubing1 flush joints came into vogue again1 and they are undoubtedly the most popular today4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,union4 ,the joints used in bicycle frame construction are of three kinds1 the most popular at present being the flush or butted joint1 outside joints and lapped joints4 ,the flush joint1 as its name indicates1 is one showing no connection on the outside1 being perfectly smooth and apparently jointless1 and is made by brazing the tube over the connections1 which are made of forgings or stampings4 ,the outside joint is produced by inserting the tube inside of the connecting lugs or brackets1 which are therefore necessarily larger in diameter than the tubing4 ,when large tubing is used it does not make as neat a joint as when tubing of smaller diameter is used1 hence the outside joint1 although a good one1 has fallen into disfavor since the advent of large tubing4 ,the lapped joint is made by splitting the tube and cutting away the centre portion of the tube where split and cutting and brazing it to and around the other tubes of the frame4 ,all three of the styles of joints described are pinned or riveted before brazing to hold them in place while being brazed1 and they all are usually reinforced internally1 especially the flush and lapped joints4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,victor4 ,as noted in the previous article on 8,tendencies for '#ih10 the use of the dropped crank-hanger bracket is universal4 ,it might be said1 in addition1 that if this crank-hanger drop is carried to a much greater extreme1 it will necessitate reversion to the old type--that is1 not having the upper tube horizontal or parallel with the ground4 ,in fact1 there are some signs of that reversion in both directions now1 two or three of the makers not making the upper tube entirely horizontal1 slanting it from the head to the seat-pillar bracket4 ,one or two of the makers have taken a backward step and slant the upper tube from the seat-pillar bracket to the head1 which has the effect of throwing the weight of the rider where it does not belong4 ,with the drop of the crank-hanger has come1 however1 a shortening of the head4 ,this was necessary1 of course1 in order to maintain the horizontal position of the main tube4 ,as is usual1 however1 in ,american bicycle construction1 a few of the makers are carrying this shortening of the head to an extreme point4 ,the use of flush joints has brought about a refinement1 so to speak1 in the method of joining the cluster of tubes at the seat pillar bracket1 the rear stays being offset and cranked1 or tapered in many instances1 at this point1 which produces a very neat cluster or group4 ,frame construction has passed through many eras of faddism4 ,we have had the heavy-weight fad1 the narrow tread fad1 and the light-weight fad1 which might strictly be called a craze4 ,the frame1 however1 has survived all these1 and '#ih frames are to be commended for their medium weight and medium tread1 the only prominent fad on them being a dropped crank-hanger and short head4 ,for a long while a great deal of discussion went on both in this country and in ,england as to the merits and demerits of a long wheel base4 ,wheel bases in #ahih have settled down to from #db to #de inches1 a fair average being about #dc inches4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cygnet4 ,the first rear driving safety bicycle constructed1 the ,rover1 was built out of parts such as were used in constructing the 8,ordinary10 as will be noted by referring to the illustration of the ,rover used in a previous article4 ,for three or four years after that the cycle makers of ,england and ,america used the most fantastic shapes and curves in frame construction1 one of the most popular of the straight line variety being that known as the ,t-shape2 a single bar or stem ran from the head 7which was usually an open one7 and was connected to another bar which crossed it at right angles in front of the rear wheel1 the upper part of this last-named bar or diagonal being used for the seat-pillar bracket1 and the lower part carrying the crank-hanger bracket1 the main tube continuing but divided to form the rear forks4 ,necessarily there were no back stays or braces connecting the seat-pillar with the rear forks4 ,but all the various forms and shapes were superseded when1 in #ahia1 ,thomas ,humber brought out the type which has since then been known as the ,humber diamond frame4 ,this type of frame was first shown at the cycle show in #ahib by the makers of the ,liberty1 and it attracted an enormous amount of attention4 ,at that time the frame was1 of course1 much heavier than it is now4 ,round tubes were solely used2 the rear forks were not offset or cranked2 and the upper or main tube did not run horizontal or parallel with the ground4 ,in #ahic and #ahid the crank-hanger bracket was slightly raised1 the original ,humber frame having a dropped crank-hanger bracket1 such as is now so popular4 ,with the raising of the crank-hanger bracket at that time came the making of the upper part of the frame horizontal4 ,that style has prevailed ever since4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,liberty4 ,the makers of the ,cleveland introduced the use of large tubing in #ahie1 and in #ahif at the ,new ,york ,cycle ,show the makers of the ,singer1 the only ,english bicycle represented at that show1 exhibited a bicycle having ,d-shaped rear forks and back stays1 and it was predicted at that time by the experts of the trade that in #ahig this ,d-shaped tubing for use in the back part of the frame would be the coming thing4 ,this prediction1 however1 was not as fully realized as anticipated1 but in #ahih the prediction has come to a full realization1 a careful census of the makers showing that more than #ej per cent4 of them use ,d-shaped tubing for either rear forks or back stays1 and some of them use it wholly in the rear part of the frame4 ,among the variations in frame construction might be mentioned the aluminum frame1 which is cast in one piece from an aluminum alloy4 ,nothing1 however1 has been gained by this construction excepting peculiarity1 as the frame is no lighter and is no stronger 7if it is as strong7 than the regular frame made of tubing2 the makers also produce a frame having a gear case as part of the frame4 ,illustration3 ,,victor ,,single ,,loop4 ,the ,chilion frame is of wood1 with steel connections1 and built of solid rods of seasoned second growth hickory1 oak1 ash or maple1 and the connections are made of aluminum-bronze of a special composition1 which the makers think is a metal lighter and tougher than steel4 ,the wooden rods are rivetted to the connection with phosphor bronze rivets4 ,the principle of the joint is similar to a shovel handle1 and it is here to be noted that no one ever yet saw a shovel handle work loose4 ,the makers claim that no shocks or vibration will affect the frame1 because the wood fibre absorbs the vibration1 and that the frame will stand up under treatment which would ruin a steel frame1 it being impossible to bend1 crush or buckle the wooden rods1 and that should the frame be broken repairs can be made at a fraction of the expense necessitated by the steel frame4 ,while all this may be true1 somehow or another the wood frame has not caught on1 and we are still in the 8steel age0 of cycle construction4 ,the coming of the gear case has evidently caused the makers of the ,racycle to adapt their frame to it4 ,they have1 therefore1 produced a frame in which the gear case is an integral part of the frame1 since the frame of the gear case consists of a loop of ,d-shape tubing brazed on and made part of the frame in place of the rear fork on the chain side1 which is thus dispensed with4 ,they claim that this gear case also adds greatly to the strength of the entire frame4 ,illustration3 ,,three ,,crown ,,frame4 ,the makers of the ,andrae make their entire frame out of tapered gauge tubing1 which is #ah-;gauge at each end for two inches1 then tapered to #bb-;gauge through the intermediate portion1 while the exterior surface is uniform in diameter4 ,they make the following claims for this3 8,at the very inception of cycle construction1 cycle engineers were aware that a straight tube of uniform thickness was not right when made up into a cycle frame1 as such a tube is apt to be thin at the connections because of the operations of filing a brazed joint and cleaning it by the use of a sand blast before going to the filer4 ,the consequence is that a thin tube1 when brazed and cleaned up at the joints1 may be cut away to a mere film at some portions of its circumference1 and so made liable to break under a very light portion of the load which the tube at its original thickness could safely sustain4 ,until the idea of tapered-gauge tubing was conceived1 mechanics were forced to use the ordinary tubes and had no means of reducing the total weight of the frame without at the same time reducing its strength1 because the only lighter tube obtainable was one thinner in every part1 and it is not considered safe to make a braze on tubing much less than #ah-;gauge in thickness4 ,the tapered tube avoids all this and gives a distribution of metal perfectly adapted to the manufacture of bicycle frames1 as all structures designed to bear the maximum of a load with the minimum of weight must have their long members of varying thicknesses of metal40 ,illustration3 ,,chilion ,,wood ,,frame4 ,the makers of the ,eagle still continue to use what they call their cold-swaged process in all the joints of the tubing they use4 ,the process consists of placing a tube inside of a tube1 and then cold swaging the double tube to the required thickness and length4 ,the ,eagle people say that through this method they know exactly how thick their tube is at every point1 and which the makers of tubing as ordinarily swaged do not4 ,the ,luthy frame is made with outside lap-joint1 taper-tongued reinforcements1 which extend along the sides of the uprights and reaches and brace the frame against both perpendicular and colliding strain and prevent granulation at the corners by transmitting the vibration to the centres of the reaches1 where the vibrations are thrown off4 ,the ,iroquois frame is fitted with three-inch eccentric chain adjuster at the crank-hanger group4 ,the rear wheel is always centred and provided with two sprockets to allow a change of gear4 ,a peculiar feature of this frame is that while it is of the three-crown construction1 with forged arched crowns front and rear1 and ,d shape tubing in the backstays and rear forks1 the joints are not flush but outside joints and nickel-plated4 ,illustration3 ,,wolff-,,american ,,flush ,,joint4 ,a few makers are still making cushion frames1 which were largely shown by a number of makers at the cycle shows of #ahig4 ,before the advent of the pneumatic tire there was some reason for the use of cushion and spring frames1 but certainly with the comfortable seats now made and the pneumatic tire in addition1 cushion frames of any sort are uncalled for4 ,the ,carlisle ,manufacturing ,company1 in order to give increased drop to the hanger1 are producing a cycle having a thirty-inch rear wheel4 ,the makers of the ,rambler are making a man's heavy-weight roadster having thirty-inch wheels both front and rear4 ,illustration3 ,,crescent ,,flush ,,joint4 ,the makers of the ,clipper show a variation of the three-crown construction1 inasmuch as they do not use the continuous one-piece rear fork construction1 and use what they call a blade reinforcement straight tapered rear fork1 the rear forks being brazed to a lug which forms part of their patent elliptical truss crank-hanger1 and they claim that through this construction they have sufficient clearance for a tire as large as #a inch1 that a front sprocket as large as twenty-five tooth can be used1 fitted to a #d-;crank axle1 with ball races three inches apart1 and with tread #d inches over all4 ,they claim that this method of construction is an improvement over the old method1 where in order to get a tread less than #e inches the rear forks must be bent1 which prevented properly reinforcing a vital point and consequently weakened the frame4 ,they also claim that under the old method the crank bracket would have to be extended1 a process which is undesirable because more length must be added to the chain1 and the wheel base must also be lengthened1 thus adding weight without strength2 also that there was a coming demand for larger tires and sprockets1 neither of which could clear the forks of a wheel with forty-four-inch wheel base and straight forks1 both of these last being1 for good reasons1 mechanical features of no little value4 ,the ,keating frame curves the diagonal stay just before it reaches the crank-hanger and the ,racycle also show one model of this style4 ,in the ,luthy frame the diagonal stay instead of being brazed to the crank-hanger bracket is brazed forward of it1 on the lower main tube4 ,illustration3 ,,columbia ,,fork ,,crown4 ,the makers of the ,wolff-,american and the ,howard do not believe in raking the diagonal stay as much as some others do4 ,both of these makers make the head of the frame at an angle of twenty degrees from the perpendicular in order to produce easy steering qualities1 and they bring the angle of the diagonal stay only sixteen degrees from the perpendicular1 thus bringing the rider more directly over the pedals1 which is the popular position at present4 ,illustration3 ,,crescent ,,fork ,,crown4 ,the truss frame1 as used on the ,fowler and ,america1 is produced by dividing the diagonal stay midway between the seat-pillar bracket and crank-hanger bracket into two parts1 these two parts running down to the crank-hanger bracket4 ,the ,cygnet is another peculiar frame1 and is best described by the illustration1 but is interesting mainly as a novelty4 ,it makes a very taking and graceful looking ladies' wheel1 the entire frame having two tubular connections1 as against twelve in the old diamond frame4 ,the rear portion of the frame is constructed of two sections of tubing only4 ,no wood or metal chain or wheel guards are necessary on it1 the rear wheel and all the driving mechanism being within two sections of frame1 so that the skirts of the rider are fully protected4 ,the makers of the ,wolff-,american still continue to use their process of spring tempering to which every frame is subjected4 ,the process has not been publicly revealed1 but they state that the finish and temper are the same as they put upon the finest clock and watch springs2 that their frames are treated with the same care and delicacy as those springs are1 and that repeated tests have proved the increased strength resulting from this process of spring tempering1 which also renders every tube in the frame 7their tempers always varying originally7 of an equal temper and gives life to the frame and at the same time preserves its rigidity4 ,the makers of the ,northampton claim to drop the top tube one inch from seat-post to head1 their only claim for this being that it enables the rider to use a high frame if desired1 and gives a very graceful appearance to the wheel4 ,illustration3 ,,lyndhurst ,,fork ,,crown4 ,illustration3 ,,arch ,,fork ,,crown4 ,,juvenile ,,bicycles4 ,the ,western ,wheel ,works1 the ,crawford and the ,featherstone all produce miniature models of their regular product for juvenile use4 ,only one concern 7the makers of the 8,elfin07 confine themselves strictly to making juvenile bicycles4 ,they build a cute little diamond frame for boys in four sizes of frames and wheels1 and a double-loop drop frame for girls' use in the same number of sizes2 they also build a diamond tandem and a combination tandem4 ,their product is distinctively juvenile in every particular1 even to the cork grips at the ends of the little handlebars4 ,they use a reversible crank bracket and chain adjuster1 by means of which an adjustment of #b inches in the distance between seat-post and pedals is effected1 so that an 8,elfin0 may be made to last a growing child for several seasons4 ,this is a decided advantage in this type of construction1 because in a year or two the youngsters outgrow the regular type of child's cycle4 ,,ladies ,,bicycle ,,frames4 ,illustration3 ,,crawford ,,fork ,,crown4 ,there are no novelties in frame construction of bicycles for ladies' use4 ,the double-loop frame1 like the arched crown1 seems to be the most popular one with all the makers1 both ,east and ,west1 only one other pattern being largely used1 and that having a straight lower main tube and a curved upper tube1 as used by the makers of the ,humber1 ,stearns and others4 ,the makers of the ,columbia1 ,liberty1 ,wolff-,american1 ,keating1 ,crescent1 ,crawford1 ,eagle and many others use the double-loop style altogether4 ,the ,victoria seems to be the only single-loop frame in the market1 but even the makers of the ,victoria make a double-loop frame this year4 ,many reasons have been advanced why bicycling is so popular1 but certainly nothing added so much to its popularity as the invention of the drop-frame safety for ladies' use by ,owen of ,washington in #ahhh4 ,the old 8,ordinary10 of course could be ridden by men only1 and therefore cycling was always regarded by the feminine portion of the community as a selfish sport1 but with the invention of the ladies' bicycle this objection was removed1 and the sport became one for all people4 ,in former years makers made about #aj per cent4 of their product for ladies' use4 ,it is safe to say now that #dj per cent4 of the product is now made for ladies' use1 and a great deal of attention has been paid to constructing a bicycle1 particularly among the ,eastern makers1 that a lady could mount and dismount from readily4 ,the majority of the ,western makers have for some years past failed to note these tendencies1 and continued building all sorts of straight-frame cycles for ladies' use with a very high crank-hanger2 these could not be marketed readily in the ,east1 but for the coming season all the makers have seen the handwriting on the wall and they are all building with low-dropped crank-hangers in both styles of frames4 ,,front ,,forks4 ,illustration3 ,,humber ,,fork ,,crown4 ,front-fork construction in #ahih shows a decided reversion to the old type used on the 8,ordinary10 where all the front forks were of the arched crown construction4 ,the makers of the ,rambler1 who also built an 8,ordinary10 have persistently and consistently used this arched fork construction1 and to them must be given the credit for its reintroduction4 ,it has not only taken the ,western makers by storm1 but it has captured the fancy of very nearly all the ,eastern makers4 ,a careful census of over one hundred makers shows that fully #ge per cent4 of them are using some form of arched crown construction1 but even in this arched-fork construction there are a few variations4 ,the ,rambler1 the originators of it1 use it with outside spearhead reinforcements4 ,a notable departure in this form of construction is shown by the illustration as one patented by ,fauber1 who is also the inventor of the one-piece crank axle4 ,he makes the front fork1 crown and stem of two pieces of ,d-shape tubing1 bent to shape1 and brazed together the full length of the stem1 one of the most taking and strongest forms of stem connections known4 ,some of the makers use a drop-forged arched crown1 to which the stem and fork sides are brazed4 ,the ,western ,wheel ,works1 the makers of the ,crescent1 who first introduced sheet steel stampings in bicycle construction1 and still continue to use them1 make their fork crown of three pieces drawn and stamped together4 ,a few of the makers still continue to use the good old-fashioned two-piece flat plate crown1 which was invented by ,thomas ,humber a quarter of a century ago2 and among the distinctive fork crowns to be noted are the 8,columbia10 8,liberty10 8,orient10 8,union10 8,victor0 and 8,lyndhurst40 ,the ,world and ,adlake use three-piece flat crowns4 ,the ,victor fork sides are remarkable1 because for many years past all the great makers have invariably advertised their fork sides as being made of cold-drawn tubing1 flattened to an oval shape4 ,the ,victor people claim1 however1 that for years past they have made their fork sides of crucible sheet steel1 which are brazed together and reinforced by a steel wire running the entire length of the rear end1 and are brazed to a solid forged steel crown4 ,but this is the first season they have announced in their catalogues that they use it4 ,illustration3 ,,monarch ,,fork ,,crown4 ,another popular method is to make front forks of continuous tapered one-piece tubing1 which is brazed to the fork crown4 ,the majority of forks of this shape1 however1 are of ,d-shape section on the inside and flat on the outside4 ,the most prominent people using this method of construction are the makers of the 8,union10 used by ,jimmie ,michael in all his rides1 an illustration of which is given herewith4 ,one-piece forks are tapered as follows3 ,sixteen-gauge at the top where the crown sets1 #bj-;gauge in the middle of the fork side and #ah-;gauge at the fork or axle ends4 ,in the earlier forms of fork construction some peculiarities were noted2 the ,warwick ,company1 for instance1 made front forks that were perfectly vertical4 ,now all forks are built with considerable rake to them4 ,on some of the ordinaries forks were built known as the 8double hollow0 fork1 being fluted4 ,variations in this consisted of two small tubes brazed together4 ,the rear forks of some of the ordinaries first built were known as semi-hollow1 being really nothing but a piece of sheet steel having flanged edges1 and on some of the early types of old velocipedes built the fork was only on one side of the wheel and the elevating influence of the stage was felt at that early period of its history1 because ,hanlon1 the actor1 in #ahfh took out a patent for a bifurcated fork4 ,illustration3 ,,orient ,,fork ,,crown4 ,a few makers still use the old-fashioned single piece straight fork crown1 the corners of which1 however1 are rounded so that they more closely resemble the popular arched crown4 ,the arched crown has a great deal to commend it to popular favor1 following as it does the shape of the lines of the tire and rim1 and it is now made broader and more proportionate to the size of the tubing used in the frame4 ,the arched crown has always been very popular not only in the bicycle1 but in other mechanical and architectural constructions1 the ,etruscans having early introduced the use of the arch4 ,the ,sterling ,company have always used the arched crown and have done much to popularize it4 ,indeed1 it would not be too much to say that the ,sterling people are entitled to whatever credit is due the popularity of this idea in fork crowns4 ,it has been used in ,sterling wheels continuously for several years past1 and will unquestionably be adopted by many leading makers during the present season4 ,when properly made1 the arch fork crown has everything to commend it--strength1 style1 and grace and beauty of line4 ,that its largely increased use this year is due to a direct demand upon the part of riders is undoubtedly true4 ,illustration3 ,,union ,,fork ,,crown4 ,tubing of #af-;gauge is used to make a fork stem1 and some of the makers1 for safety1 are using as thick a gauge as #ac this year4 ,the makers of the ,lyndhurst show what they call a 8,triple ,front ,fork10 for which they make the following claims3 8,by pressing with your foot on the pedal of a wheel made with a single front fork you will be surprised to see how much sway or side strain there is2 this is because the power is not applied on a direct line1 but at right angles2 this side strain does not stay there1 but travels through the tube up to the front fork1 which1 having only a single stem1 rocks and has side play4 ,with the square truss in the triple front fork we claim to stiffen the neck and fork sides so that a great deal of the side play is overcome4 ,illustration3 ,,liberty ,,fork ,,crown4 8,in a single front fork the handlebar is clamped to the fork-stem1 which goes through the neck of the frame1 and as you pull and haul in climbing or against a head wind1 the power applied is not felt until the twisting strain is taken up inside of the neck and localizes at top of fork crown4 ,by using the truss crown in the triple front fork it enables us to lock the stem of the fork crown1 and the strain localizes at the top of the triple fork1 instead of at the lower end1 insuring greater rigidity and power4 8,sit down violently on the saddle and a single fork springs forward fully half an inch2 the triple front fork carries the strain in a direct line up to the top of the crown and the strain is diffused throughout the entire fork and frame4 8,in turning corners or upon a lumpy road1 a stiff front fork has a decided advantage1 but we claim it is good on asphalt1 because of the decrease in twisting strain1 enabling the wheels to track and not sway out of alignment4 8,the above claims are for increase of power1 but the strength of the triple fork is three times that of the single fork1 which is a source of satisfaction in coasting a steep hill40 ,illustration3 ,,world ,,and ,,adlake ,,fork ,,crown4 ,,tube ,,making4 ,the air is filled with the vocabulary of the bicycle makers and their agents and salesmen4 ,every one of them talks of cold drawn weldless steel tubing1 drop forgings1 stampings and brazing4 ,their catalogues and their advertisements teem with the same thing1 and the cyclist who has heard and read these terms necessarily feels as if he would like to know what they all mean4 ,tube in its original shape consists of a solid billet of ,swedish steel1 this being the only quality that can be used4 ,when the tube is made from a solid1 the billet is about four inches in diameter and six inches in length4 ,when it is made from a hollow ingot1 a piece about three feet long and about four inches in diameter1 with about half-inch walls1 is used4 ,these pieces are cast4 ,when solid billet is used1 the core is practically either pushed out or drilled out to produce a rough tube4 ,this is done while hot1 and the hot pressure is continued until the tube is about four or five feet long2 the diameter then is about #b inches1 with proportionate thickness of walls4 ,the tube is then taken to the cold draw benches4 ,draw benches1 so called1 are of two kinds1 either operated by hydraulic or chain power4 ,in the case of the hydraulic bench1 an immense plant is required to produce the enormous pressure required1 approximated at about #b1ejj pounds to the square inch4 ,this power is applied through a cylinder three or four inches in diameter and about eighteen feet long1 operating a piston4 ,the power is so arranged that the piston can be made to either go forward or backward4 ,the operator crushes down one end of the tube to be drawn1 to make it small enough to pass through a die1 and the tube is then grasped in a grip held by the piston4 ,as the bench moves the tube passes through the die and becomes smaller4 ,inside of the tube and flush up against the die is kept a mandrel1 over which the shell of the tube passes in going through the die4 ,this mandrel is placed in the tube to keep the shell or gauge from thickening up1 and also to produce a thinner gauge when required4 ,each operation reduces the diameter about an eighth of an inch4 ,it is not possible to reduce the gauge at the most more than #e_/ajjj of an inch at a time1 and this is very severe treatment4 ,between each drawing in the cold process the tubes are annealed1 the operation of drawing hardening them4 ,after annealing they are pickled in a solution of acid and water4 ,the tubes are then washed in clear water2 then they are immersed in oil1 and are ready to be drawn over again4 ,this process is repeated until such time as the tube reaches the desired gauge and outside diameter4 ,the tubes are then straightened and the ends cut off1 and they are ready for delivery4 ,the ,pope ,tube ,company hold the exclusive license in the ,united ,states1 however1 for a process of annealing steel tubes in iron cylinders about a foot in diameter and #ab feet in length4 ,these retorts hold about #ajj to #aej tubes1 and being charged with these are sealed up at the end and placed in a furnace4 ,the advantage of this method consists in that the tubes being placed in the retort do not come in direct contact with the flames1 which form a scale upon the surfaces and require the subsequent operation of pickling the tubes in large vats of acid in order to remove the scale4 ,this process of annealing in the retorts usually takes about forty minutes1 and necessarily in the process of drawing a tube before it reaches the proper size it must go through the process of annealing from five to eight1 or even ten1 times before being finished4 ,the only difference between the operation of a hydraulic draw bench and of a chain bench is that in the chain bench there is a continuous chain1 operated by steam power1 and the grip is so arranged that it will catch in any link desired4 ,seamless tubes are made from #a_/cb to #aj inches in diameter4 ,gauge1 or thickness of shell1 is measured according to the standard ,british wire gauge4 ,bicycle tubes run from #bf to #aj gauge4 ,the standard gauges used in bicycle construction for #ahih run from about #af to #bb4 ,illustration3 ,,cleveland ,,fork ,,crown4 ,it takes fifty thicknesses of #bb-;gauge tubing to make an inch4 ,experts in the trade say that tapered gauge tubing is the coming thing in bicycle construction4 ,by this term is meant that style of tubing which is heavy where strain is greatest and light in weight where there is not so much strain4 ,the outside diameter of the tubing1 however1 remains the same all the way through4 ,this is opposed to the ordinary even-gauge tubing or tubing of uniform thickness of shell4 ,weldless steel fork sides are made out of the straight tubing already described1 the first operation consisting in drawing the tube to the proper tapered design4 ,it is then1 by a series of operations1 brought to the flattened or oval shape4 ,other operations are also necessary to produce the required curve in the fork4 ,the smaller end which receives the axle of the wheel is flattened together by another operation4 ,the making of a weldless steel fork side usually takes from five to seven operations1 according to the shape desired4 ,the ,mannesman tubing1 which is made in ,germany and was the first kind known to be used for bicycles in this country1 is made by an entirely different method from any other4 ,until recently the making of tubing was so restricted that those owning tubing mills were very secretive about their processes1 and not one cycle rider or manufacturer out of a hundred has ever seen the material made out of which the frame of his machine is constructed4 ,they begin with the billet of steel like the ,english-,american makers1 but it is not exactly the same material4 ,they do not use the ,swedish steel1 but a metal turned out by themselves4 ,it is1 however1 a soft form of steel1 like the ,swedish or ,norway article4 ,the billets are made up in lengths of three feet and are about two inches in diameter4 ,first the metal is heated and then put into a rolling machine4 ,this is a special device used only in their plant under patents4 ,it consists not only of the ordinary roller but of two conical rolls1 and they are set together on axles1 which instead of being parallel are oblique4 ,the points of these conical rollers are in opposite directions1 of course1 and by the peculiar action thus obtained the outside skin of the heated metal is peeled and spun over the inside in a spiral fashion1 much as a rope is twisted4 ,it is practically a huge spinning with hot metal4 ,after this single rolling process1 the new formed tube is subjected to two drawings in a mandrel1 in practically the same fashion that ,american tubing is treated1 until it is reduced to the required diameter and gauge4 ,a billet of the size described makes a piece of tubing an inch and a quarter in diameter1 of gauge fourteen1 or about one-twelfth of an inch thick4 ,an essential difference between this process and the one used in this country is that here there are only two drawings and no annealing1 where other processes necessitate a dozen and sometimes a score of solid drawings4 ,it is claimed that with only two drawings the fibre of the steel is better preserved4 ,the fibres are not shortened or made brittle1 as they are by repeated drawings4 ,illustration3 ,,victor ,,racquet ,,frame--#ahib4 ,very little tubing is now imported to this country1 our ,american makers now being able to supply all the demand1 and of the highest quality4 ,with the improved methods of manufacture has come an improvement in the quality of the steel for making tubing4 ,it was formerly necessary to use a very soft steel in making tubing1 but the ,american makers are now able to turn out tubing from fifteen to fifty point carbon4 ,right here1 however1 should be explained the meaning of this trade phraseology4 ,for instance1 the term 8fifteen point0 carbon is applied to steel which contains carbon to the extent of #ae_/ajj of #a per cent41 and other numbers are used in the same way4 ,unquestionably the high grade carbon tubes possess a great superiority over the lower carbon grades because they possess a maximum of endurance under vibratory strain1 and still are soft enough to resist the shattering effects of a heavy blow4 ,popular interest in tubing now centres very largely in the tubing known as the #e per cent4 nickel tubing1 and its method of manufacture is described in ,mc,clure's ,magazine by ,mr4 ,cleveland ,moffett1 in a visit to the ,pope ,tube ,company's works at ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,he says3 8,the company has recently concluded1 after exhaustive experiments in the testing department1 that it is possible to obtain the very best results from the use of tubing drawn from steel containing #e per cent4 nickel1 an alloy of the same class as the famous nickel-steel used in armor plate constructions for the ,government40 ,of course1 the exceptional hardness and toughness of this kind of steel occasion great difficulties in its reduction1 and call for special and powerful machinery1 and for special skill for all stages of manufacture4 ,so slow and expensive has been the drawing of this nickel-steel tubing that up to date the product has been exceedingly limited1 so much so that the mill has undertaken to supply only the ,pope ,manufacturing ,company with steel of this quality4 ,the main difficulties in working this nickel-steel come in preparing it for the draw benches4 ,in them it is treated very much as the 8fifty0 carbon billets are1 but before reaching them it requires almost as much handling with as many elaborate processes as the ,swedish billets receive in their entire journey through the mill4 ,the nickel-steel comes from the works of the ,bethlehem ,iron ,company1 and is rolled into plates about two feet long1 one foot wide and one-tenth of an inch thick4 ,these plates are first punched into disks about a foot in diameter in a blanking machine that weighs four tons1 and bites through the cold steel as a housewife stamps out biscuits4 ,these disks are then put through a number of hydraulic presses1 even heavier than the blanking machine1 and are forced through dies by powerful rams4 ,the first operation brings the disks to the shape of a shallow basin2 the next makes it an elongated cup2 the next makes it still longer1 and so on1 until finally it is reduced to the form of a tube1 two feet or more in length4 ,then the rounded end of the tube is sliced off1 and the nickel-steel is in the form of a billet ready for the draw benches4 8,simple enough these processes seem when one sees them going smoothly2 but it took months of patient toil1 with many mistakes and disappointments1 before the company learned the right way of #8cupping' these disks into billets4 ,and today the museum of the tube department bears record of the many failures in cups crushed into fantastic shapes1 some with ragged sides1 and in tubes of nickel-steel deformed in many ways and torn apart in drawing40 ,,making ,,drop ,,forgings4 ,a drop-forging differs from a hand-made forging because it is made from a bar of steel suitable for the purpose required and formed in dies placed in drop hammers1 this bar of steel having been previously heated to the proper degree in a furnace adjacent to the drop hammer which is used4 ,a drop hammer may be described as follows3 ,the main part of the machine consists of a heavy anvil1 or base1 weighing from #g1jjj to #cj1jjj pounds1 depending on the size of the hammer4 ,to this is attached two vertical uprights1 between which the head or ram of the hammer works4 ,on the top of these uprights is the lifting mechanism1 a board being attached to the hammer and the rolls that revolve in the head act upon this board and lift the weight by friction4 ,in the base first mentioned are fastened the lower dies1 the upper die being attached to the hammer4 ,in these dies the impression for the forging wanted is cut by skilled mechanics1 the dies afterward being tempered to make them as hard and durable as possible4 ,the piece of steel having already been heated to a white heat1 is held on the lower die by the workman1 who then operates the drop hammer by means of a foot treadle1 the hammer with the upper die dropping by gravity and forcing the heated metal into the impressions cut in the dies4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,stearns4 ,the surplus metal which has protruded between the lower and upper dies resembles a fin or web2 this has caused the forging to be mistaken for a casting of iron1 because the fin resembles in no small degree the gate or connection between castings when moulded4 ,this fin of metal is trimmed off from the forging by means of another machine1 called the trimming press1 to which are fitted dies for this purpose4 ,experts in the trade say that no 8hand-made0 forgings or 8castings0 can ever wholly take the place of drop forgings in bicycle construction4 ,drop-forging manufacturers say that hand-made forgings are obsolete1 owing to the enormous cost of manufacture4 ,illustration3 ,,wolff-,,american ,,lapped ,,joint4 ,malleable iron castings1 or steel castings1 are used by some of the makers1 but entirely sub rosa4 ,they are apt to be full of blow holes and other defects and not at all reliable1 and the maker of high-grade bicycles who advertises that he uses such castings in his bicycles will soon find himself out of the market with his product entirely on his hands4 ,,sheet ,,steel ,,parts4 ,sheet steel parts1 such as are used in bicycle construction1 consisting of cups1 brackets1 crown heads1 etc41 when made from sheet metal are stamped in presses from dies4 ,these presses stand about #f feet high1 #b feet square1 and weigh about #d1jjj pounds4 ,they are operated by a large driving pulley and belt1 the motion being given by means of an automatic clutch4 ,they can be placed on the floor of any building1 owing to the fact that they do not have the jar that is incident to 8drop0 press work4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cleveland4 ,the blanks are first cut out of cold sheet steel1 thereby avoiding the expense of heating them4 ,they are then placed between dies which have been previously made to form the required design and shape1 but are not as a rule completely struck up or formed at one operation1 the minimum number of operations necessary to form the complete article being one or two1 and the maximum being from five to seven4 ,the parts are often annealed between the operations1 as the pressure has a tendency to harden the metal4 ,illustration3 ,,remington ,,flush ,,joint4 ,the makers and users of sheet steel parts claim for them as advantages over drop forgings that they are of uniform size1 shape and gauge2 that they weigh less2 that there is but little waste of material1 and that as many as ten thousand operations can be done by one operator in a day4 ,of course1 the cost of production is thus made lower as compared with the cost of production of drop forgings1 which require a large amount of machining on lathes and other milling machines1 necessarily slow in operation4 ,the makers of these stamped form-drawn parts claim that through the largely increased use of their goods ,american makers have been able to produce lighter bicycles than they were formerly able to produce with the use of drop forgings for their connections1 that the popularity of the bicycle in this country is due to the present popular prices at which they are sold1 and that these popular prices are largely due to the low cost of sheet metal parts4 ,they also claim that after the sheet metal parts and the tubes of the bicycle are brazed together1 they then form one continuous piece1 to all intents and purposes as good as if a solid drop forging were used4 ,the average thickness of the sheet steel used in making these stampings is from #a_/af to of an inch4 ,some very remarkable forms are produced in steel stampings1 notably a crank-hanger of #b inches in diameter1 having two projections or lugs to carry the rear forks1 and the two outer projections or lugs to carry the large lower main tubes and the large diagonal stay of the bicycle frame4 ,,crescent ,,sheet ,,steel ,,parts4 ,until the cycle show of #ahie but little else had been heard of for making frame connections except drop forgings1 but a revelation was placed before the eyes of the master mechanics of rival cycle making concerns who visited the show when they inspected the '#ie models of the ,crescent1 made by the ,western ,wheel ,works of ,chicago4 ,here were shown for the first time steering head connections1 crank-hanger1 seat pillar and rear fork ends all made of sheet steel and brought to perfection by a combination of the methods of stamping1 drawing and forming4 ,but even these parts did not surprise these experts of the trade so much as a sprocket wheel shown4 ,here was a sprocket wheel struck up out of a flat disk of sheet steel1 its edge turned and drawn over1 thus doubling the width of its face1 and on this double edge were afterward milled the teeth4 ,of course1 the parts shown in those days conformed in general outline to the construction then in vogue4 ,the ,crescent people1 however1 have continued to use this method of making frame connections2 and while a large number of other makers have adopted this form of construction1 they1 as the pioneers of it1 are still the leaders4 ,their production is enormous1 their gross sales last year being #hc1jjj bicycles1 and certainly if this method of making frame connections were not closely akin to absolute perfection their troubles under the guarantee would be enormous1 and would swamp them4 ,this year their frame connections are all of the flush joint style4 ,the head connections are formed out of sheet steel reinforcements1 having a large bearing and brazing surface4 ,their crown is formed of two pieces of sheet steel drawn to a hollow arch shape4 ,these two pieces are placed together and the ends come into a spearhead of capital letter ,a shape1 two holes being drilled on each side in order to allow the brazing spelter to flow through the crown freely when the forksides are brazed to them4 ,before these forksides are brazed to the crown1 however1 a third piece of arch shape steel is forced down over the two pieces forming the crown4 ,this third piece of sheet steel is lapped underneath the bottom of the crown1 so that when the three pieces are brazed together they practically form one continuous piece4 ,a drawn lug projects over the top of the crown1 and into this the fork stem1 the end of which is shaped to conform1 is set on top of the crown and pinned and brazed to the lug and crown4 ,inside of this fork stem1 in order to strengthen it1 is also placed a sheet steel liner1 extending six inches into the length of the stem4 ,the whole construction of this fork crown and stem is one of the strongest in use4 ,a test made of this form of fork construction at their works showed that by supporting it horizontally on a frame1 the supports being about six inches above and below the crown1 it sustained a weight of #c1ejj pounds without deflection4 ,,the ,,crank ,,hanger4 ,the crank-hanger is of the one-piece construction1 and is made from a five-inch disk of sheet steel1 which is drawn into the shape of a tube through the medium of five separate operations2 and this tube1 when finished1 is about two and a half inches in diameter4 ,the four lugs to carry the rear forks1 lower main tube and diagonal stay1 are then drawn and formed upon it1 this1 however1 requiring a total of twelve operations to complete it4 ,the part requires annealing after every operation1 the process of drawing and forming having a tendency not only to lengthen the fibre of the metal1 but to harden it4 ,the quality of the metal used in making this hanger must necessarily be of the best1 and after the metal has survived all these operations it must also necessarily be perfect1 for any crack1 seam or flaw in it makes it useless and consigns it to the scrap heap4 ,illustration3 ,,making ,,crescent ,,crank ,,hanger4 ,,stage #a4 ,illustration3 ,,making ,,crescent ,,crank ,,hanger4 ,,stage #b4 ,illustration3 ,,making ,,crescent ,,crank ,,hanger4 ,,stage #c4 ,illustration3 ,,making ,,crescent ,,crank ,,hanger4 ,,stage #d4 ,illustration3 ,,making ,,crescent ,,crank ,,hanger4 ,,stage #e4 ,the seat-pillar lug or group1 while not altogether seamless1 is of the one-piece construction1 also having the three lugs drawn and formed upon it4 ,the rear fork jaws are also stamped out of crucible sheet steel1 and are of what is known of the semi-hollow construction4 ,the little brace which is usually placed between the rear forks and back of the crank-hanger and called a bridge1 is generally made by a short piece of tubing and brazed to the two rear forks4 ,the makers of the ,crescent1 who use a ,d-shaped rear fork1 which is drawn to a round shape where it is offset and where it joins the rear lugs on the bottom bracket1 make this bridge of two pieces of sheet steel1 which are pinned and brazed together and are carried down on each side of the rear forks for several inches in a peculiar lipped shape4 ,it is an expensive method of bridging the rear forks1 but greatly adds to the strength at this point and prevents any serious lateral deflection of the frame when the pressure is applied to the cranks on either side4 ,they are the only makers who form their sprockets out of a piece of crucible sheet stamped steel4 ,as it is now made to fit a three-sixteenth chain1 which is so popular and which they use1 they do not show the wide opening on the flanges of the sprocket between the teeth4 ,illustration3 ,,working ,,drawing ,,diamond ,,frame ,,model4 7,see ,page #eb74 ,fig4 #a shows the circular steel blank as made by the first operation on a large double action drawing press4 ,it is then drawn into a cup shape as shown in fig #b4 ,the practicability of the result obtained is noticeable at once4 ,the edge of the cup is smooth1 and there is no wrinkling1 cracking or buckling in the steel1 and it is still of the same thickness as the original sheet4 ,it is again drawn by successive operations into a cylindrical shape as shown in fig4 #c4 ,the end is cut off1 and the next operations form the lugs as shown in fig4 #d1 until the final operation gives the result as in fig4 #e1 when the crank-hanger is ready for the joining of the frame tubes4 ,it requires ten days to complete a finished crank-hanger4 ,a marvellous piece of work this certainly is1 and it is doubtful if the result obtained in stamping this crank-hanger can ever be equalled by the working of forgings1 and the whole result might be summed up by saying that it is 8distinctively ,crescent40 ,,brazing4 ,after the drop forgings or stampings are carefully finished by hand or machine1 they are carefully cleaned to remove any scale or oil4 ,the tubes having been cut to a proper length1 are then closely fitted into the open joint of the forging or stamping connection4 ,in order1 however1 to hold them securely in place they are pinned through4 ,they are then taken to the brazing furnace4 ,this furnace consists of an open stand1 about three feet high1 covered with fire brick1 pumice stone or coke the purpose of which is to retain the heat4 ,the heat is produced by a mixture of atmospheric air and gas or gasoline1 which is controlled by the operator1 and supplied by a blower or fan4 ,the flame is applied directly to the joint which is to be brazed by a steel tube1 resembling a ,bunsen burner1 and uses about nine parts of air and one of gas4 ,the combustion or air and gas in the brazing apparatus is about the same mixture as is used in a gas engine4 ,the joint having been brought to the necessary heat1 which must in a large measure be left to the judgment and experience of the operator1 powdered borax is applied first1 the object being to remove any oil or other foreign substance which might interfere with the uniting of the two metals4 ,the borax on being applied flows almost like water4 ,the spelter is then applied1 producing a flux1 and owing to the expansion of the connection and the tube it readily flows between the joints4 ,the whole operation after the required heat is obtained usually occupies five or six seconds1 the object being to secure a joint as rapidly as possible1 provided the brazing metal is equally distributed4 ,the gas is then shut off4 ,the supply of air is continued only in order to rapidly cool the joint1 the object of this being to prevent the flux from disintegrating and losing its position in the joint4 ,if a brazing has not been rapidly and properly cooled the jar and vibration which the frame receives when in use on a bicycle is apt to cause particles of the flux used in brazing to become loose and rattle in the tube4 ,necessarily under this operation what might be termed a congregation of scale and the brazing flux is gathered on the outside of the joint4 ,this is afterwards removed by the use of sand blast or pickle1 and last1 but not least1 by hand filing4 ,illustration3 ,,working ,,drawing ,,drop ,,frame ,,model4 7,see ,page #eb47 ,what is known as 8brazing spelter0 is really a misnomer1 and should be called brazing solder4 ,spelter is the crude product from which refined zinc results4 ,brazing solder is a combination of copper and spelter first cast into slabs or ingots1 then placed into large mortars and pounded by a heavy pestle by hand1 and1 strange to say1 that in all our recent developments in metal work no method can be found to supersede this method of manufacture1 as this is the original method of making it4 ,there are altogether about eight grades of brazing solder1 ranging from what is known as the coarse long grain to extra fine grain4 ,the first result of the pounding operation is the coarse long grain which comes out almost in shreds2 by further pounding the shreds are produced1 and the result is the fine long grain4 ,from this operation comes the rough grain1 the first being coarse long grain1 the next medium1 then fine and finally extra fine4 ,the proportion of extra fine long grain to the other coarser grades or varieties is only about ten per cent4 of the total1 consequently making the latter grade the highest in price4 ,the various grades are separated by sifting through a sieve4 ,the running qualities of this solder are affected by the larger or smaller proportion of copper used in the composition4 ,the more copper used the more heat required to melt it1 the reverse being the case where more spelter than copper is used4 ,on bicycle frame work where the surface is largely exposed1 the coarse varieties can be successfully used1 but for the fine work where little heat can be used1 and where the tubing is of extremely light gauge the extra fine grade1 which is known also as the quick running solder1 gives the best results4 ,wire spelter1 which comes in coils1 has become very popular on account of its lessened cost1 its cleanliness1 and also because it is not so wasteful as loose spelter1 and can be conveyed directly into the joint by the operator as soon as it has reached the melting point4 ,illustration3 ,,eagle ,,dropped ,,forged ,,flush ,,joint4 ,another method that is somewhat new is known as liquid brazing1 which is nothing really but a special treatment of the joint plunged into molten spelter1 and out of which the joint comes surprisingly free from scale1 a cleaning by a wire brush being about all the after treatment necessary4 ,the process is a secret one1 and the surrounding joints are covered with what is known as the anti-flux1 so that the spelter will not adhere there1 but joints to be united1 of course1 are covered with a liquid flux as in the old way4 ,the makers of the ,union produce their flush joints by using what they call pocket brazing4 ,this mode requires the forming of a series of pockets in the projecting ends of the brackets1 which may be oval1 circular or of any desired shape1 although the oval has been found the most convenient4 ,before the tubing is completely fitted over the bracket arm the pockets are filled with flux1 and immediately upon the application of the heat the brass begins to flow and with astonishing evenness1 so much so1 in fact1 that when after cooling1 joints are cut out1 the brass is found as uniformly distributed as if laid on with a brush4 ,moreover1 no considerable amount of brass flows out of the joint and no filling is necessary4 ,less heat is required for the reason that the brass is placed where necessary and the parts need not be dangerously heated to cause the brass to flow in4 ,the pocket corrugations are found to stiffen the machine to a marked degree4 ,taken all in all it is a sure1 clean and highly ingenious braze4 ,,kangaroo ,,frame4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,kangaroo4 ,apropos of frames1 we reproduce here a cut of the ,kangaroo1 which was the first bicycle driven by chains4 ,the earliest samples of the ,rover type antedated it1 but there had been no previous commercial use of a chain on a two-wheeler1 for the ,otto accomplished nothing commercially4 ,the ,kangaroo was brought out in #ahhd1 and attracted attention because its makers were fortunate enough to break with it the #bd-;hour record1 which had been standing unchanged since the early years of bicycling4 ,this success1 together with energetic pushing1 gave the ,kangaroo quite a run for a couple of years1 when the rear-driver put an end to its career4 ,it was brought to this country in #ahhe1 but hardly obtained a firm foothold for even the time being4 ,the forks were bowed out widely1 there being no attempt to reduce width by lessening the 8dish0 of the wheel1 and consequently the tread was what would have been considered in later years outlandishly wide4 ,the wheel was usually #cf1 geared to #ed1 with a #bb-;inch wheel behind4 ,the chief drawbacks were that the sprocket bearings were ill-supported1 as a shaft could not be run through the wheel1 and so they did not stand well under the twisting strain2 the backlash was unusual1 all the objectionable features of chain driving1 which had not at that time been modified by improved construction1 being increased by having it on both sides4 ,the ,kangaroo was also heavy and clumsy1 and for some reason never satisfactorily explained it had a peculiar liability to side-slip4 ,,exit ,,the ,,wood ,,frame4 ,a difficulty which has hung about wood frames from the first is that of the joints1 nor could it ever be questioned that appearance was not in favor of the wood frame1 although1 on the other hand1 it must be admitted that objections to appearance are soon overcome in cycling construction if there is a good balance of points on behalf of a thing4 ,perhaps the best-looking of the wood frames was that produced by the 8,old ,tonk0 people1 who turned to account the beauty which may be had from several layers of wood placed together4 ,the wood frame has succeeded quite as poorly abroad1 and it will probably remain forgotten until1 some years hence1 it comes up again as a novelty of the season4 ,the ,bamboo ,cycle ,company has just failed in ,london1 and the ,irish ,cyclist expresses surprise that it remained afloat so long as it did4 ,not a single expert or a single cycling journal1 says the writer1 ever referred to the bamboo frame except with disapproval1 although it was well advertised and the parties interested were ready to pay for opinions4 ,a considerable number of the bicycles were sold1 but the rarity of their appearance on the road suggests that even those who bought them did not use them much4 ,now that the company has failed1 this writer says3 8,it is to be hoped that no one else will be so foolish as to endeavor to accomplish the impossible task of proving that a bamboo stick is as useful as a steel tube40 ,the two working drawings of frame are from ,w4 ,c4 ,boak of ,buffalo1 and are reproductions of his blue-print drawings used in designing and drafting #ahih frames1 and show on the men's model the exact drop 7#c inches7 of the crank-hanger from a line drawn between the front and rear axles4 ,the length of head is five inches1 and the wheel base--the distance between front and rear axles--is #da-aa_/af inches4 ,on the ladies' model the crank-hanger is dropped #b inches1 and the head is #g inches1 the wheel base being #da inches4 ,the height of both frames is #bb inches4 ,the small numbers in the illustrations show the angles of the frame and indicate the sizes of the tubing used4 ,the designs call for the use of ,d-shape tubing for the front and rear forks and backstays and round tubing throughout the rest of the frame4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,v4 ,,chain ,,protection4 ,all through the preceding articles of this series the words 8gear case0 appear here and there1 and with good reason1 too1 for the year #ahih marks the beginning of the era in this country of enclosed chains by the use of what are called gear cases4 ,they cannot1 however1 be strictly classed as a novelty1 because they have been known and largely used abroad1 particularly in ,england1 for some years past4 ,at the ,new ,york ,cycle ,show of #ahif the only bicycle having a gear case on it was one shown by the makers of the 8,singer10 a bicycle-making company of ,coventry1 ,england1 who showed a gear case made of metal1 leather and transparent celluloid4 ,since that time a few returning tourists have brought with them foreign models with gear cases attached1 which1 unfortunately for the rider's comfort and pleasure1 were received with a great deal of ridicule and derision1 so that even the riders of these cycles bearing the imported gear cases1 not being made of that 8stern stuff0 that pioneers should be1 surrendered to public criticism1 and1 while they knew a gear case is a good thing1 took it off in order to avoid being used as the butts of the wit of their facetious friends4 ,the introduction of the bevel-geared cycle1 with its neat gear case1 has done much and will do more toward enforcing the necessity for a gear case on all of our chain-driven cycles4 ,in ,england no bicycle is considered complete without a gear case1 but1 notwithstanding the fact that all the authorities on the sport and mechanics of the trade of this country have approved of it1 not until this season has it gained a foothold here4 ,it certainly cannot be because 8it is ,english1 you know10 for everything on the ,american cycle today1 excepting the wood rim1 originated in ,england4 ,the imported gear cases are clumsy and heavy1 and1 being made mostly of metal1 are apt to be noisy4 ,the #ahih gear cases of ,american make are made of a combination of rubber1 leather and metal1 and are light1 noiseless and graceful1 and most of the leading makes of the chain cycles for the coming season are built with sufficient clearance to take a gear case4 ,the cases are catalogued and offered as an option at an average cost of #e extra1 and this last item suggests that the case might have been more popular before but that the makers did not care to add the cost of it to their product in the face of a falling market price4 ,many of the great retailers will1 however1 place them on their #ge models without any extra charge to the purchaser4 ,,cleanliness ,,insured4 ,the enclosed chain1 obtained by adding a gear case to the chain wheel1 provides every advantage in one respect claimed for the chainless4 ,it has been shown by extensive tests of ,prof4 ,carpenter of ,cornell ,university and ,prof4 ,goodman of the ,yorkshire ,college in ,england that when a chain is clean and not worn it loses less than #a per cent4 in friction1 thus realizing over #ii per cent4 of the applied power4 ,how is it possible to obtain any better mechanical movement8 ,these same authorities agree that beveled gears under the best conditions must develop from five to ten times the friction of the chain4 ,this low percentage of friction1 however1 is obtained only with clean chains4 ,they find that as the chain becomes filled with grit or mud it rapidly increases the friction1 running up as high as #aj per cent4 ,your bicycle comes to you from the dealer with the case attached1 chain lubricated and adjusted ready for immediate use1 and from that time on you learn to forget that there is a chain on your bicycle4 ,it runs easily1 smoothly1 through rain and mud1 over roads thick with dust1 in the penetrating moisture-laden air of the seashore1 under all conditions of road and weather the same easy running wheel1 always ready1 doing away absolutely with all care of the chain2 the chain and sprockets always in perfect condition1 realizing #ii per cent4 of the power applied1 never 8stretching0 or wearing appreciably4 ,illustration3 ,,frost ,,gear ,,case4 ,if in business costume the wheel may be used1 as there is no dirty chain to soil the clothing4 ,one finds that he can ride longer distances with less fatigue than formerly4 ,hills are more easily surmounted4 ,the disagreeable sensation of a slack chain is done away with1 the chain remaining exactly as it is adjusted1 and there is a new sensation of absolute control over the wheel4 ,long distance trips become a new source of pleasure1 for you come home with the same easy running wheel with which you started4 ,men who ride for speed find that they can push a much higher gear with the same expenditure of power4 ,the lubricant rests unused in the tool bag1 the chain brushes and cleaning paraphernalia gather cobwebs4 ,in addition to all these comforts the lady rider finds herself independent of the small brother's high-priced services4 ,she mounts and rides with perfect confidence1 knowing that by no possible means can her skirt catch in the sprocket or her heel be hung in the chain guard lacings1 while her skirts remain clean and free from greasy streaks of an exposed chain4 ,she may be a business woman with but limited time for riding4 ,every moment is available with the enclosed chain4 ,the silent steed standing groomed and ready4 ,so far as its care is concerned the chain ceases to exist4 ,a neat1 stylish cycle1 with all running parts covered and protected1 and with a decidedly smart appearance1 takes the place of the half-finished cycle of the past1 with its greasy1 dirty1 bare-looking chain4 ,century riders1 tourists1 military cyclists1 pleasure riders1 and1 in fact1 wheelmen and wheelwomen of every description1 have found pleasure and comfort hitherto unattained4 ,,its ,,other ,,advantages4 ,to sum up the advantages of the enclosed chain model as demonstrated by the experience of riders during #ahig with a gear case attached to their cycles 7the latter comprising almost every make of bicycle in this country71 riders have found that a gear case3 ,first--,actually excludes dust1 driving rain1 mud and all foreign matter1 keeping the chain1 sprockets and the bearing absolutely clean1 meaning an easy running bicycle1 always ready for service1 and requiring no attention to the running gear for an entire season4 ,second--,its use allows the bicyclist to ride in business costume1 it being impossible for the chain to soil the trousers1 and there being no danger of catching the clothing between the chain and sprocket4 ,this feature also strongly recommends it to lady riders4 ,third--,the bicycle is always ready for service4 ,this is an important matter with many people1 especially those who use the bicycle every day for business purposes4 ,fourth--,it adds to the appearance of the bicycle1 giving a style and finish impossible with the dirty chain and sprocket in view4 ,fifth--,by reason of its construction1 it is practically noiseless1 the most important feature to cyclists4 ,sixth--,it transforms the bicycle from an article of luxury useable only under certain conditions1 to a practical vehicle useable under every condition of the road and weather4 ,seventh--,it has been found of great value by military cyclists1 as it enables troops to move with twice the celerity possible under the ordinary open chain1 to say nothing of the time saved in not having to clean the gear4 ,illustration3 ,,racycle ,,gear ,,case4 ,at the '#ig ,cycle ,show1 held in ,chicago1 an ,american gear case was exhibited for the first time1 and this exhibit was noted with a great deal of satisfaction by all the mechanical writers of the cycle trade press1 who had long labored1 written and talked a great deal for this desirable accessory4 ,among the gear cases exhibited at ,chicago at that time was one invented by ,w4 ,h4 ,frost of ,new ,york ,city2 another by ,s4 ,d4 ,childs ,co41 and another by ,h4 ,lauter of ,indianapolis4 ,the makers of the ,ben ,hur showed a model fitted with what they called the ,wainwright gear case4 ,the ,stearns ,company also had a gear case attached to one of their models1 and a ,falcon exhibited was also provided with one4 ,the makers of the ,cleveland showed a gear case of their own production1 and a ,wolff-,american was shown fitted with a ,blumel celluloid gear case1 but this last was of ,english manufacture4 ,since that time a careful census of all the catalogues that the makers have sent out this year shows that nearly every cycle maker of prominence has arranged sufficient clearance at the crank shaft and rear wheel so that a gear case of some kind can be fitted to it1 and a few of the makers are turning out gear cases of their own1 the notable ones being the makers of the ,racycle1 ,rambler1 ,cleveland1 ,humber and ,aluminum1 and there are three makers of gear cases who supply them to the trade1 these being known as the ,frost1 ,centliver and ,safety gear cases4 ,,leading '#ih ,,gear ,,cases4 ,the ,rambler case offers practically all that is claimed for a chainless wheel with enclosed gear1 with none of its objections and uncertainties4 ,it is absolutely mud and dust proof1 and is one of the neatest1 least obtrusive and most practical of all gear cases we have seen1 being easily attached and detached4 ,it is made of cold rolled drawing steel1 and is light and noiseless4 ,all seams are locked and no rivets are used4 ,the entire chain is enclosed1 as are also the front sprocket teeth4 ,the centre and arms of the front sprocket are not covered1 but the dust is excluded from the front sprocket teeth1 and chain passing over them1 by two large felt washers 7much like those used in bearings1 only larger7 placed one on either side of the sprocket4 ,the rear axle nut may be loosened1 and the chain adjusted without disturbing the case4 ,illustration3 ,,safety ,,gear ,,case4 ,the ,cleveland case is made of aluminum1 patent leather and transparent celluloid1 and while it is a very light and attractive gear case1 it is a desireable one1 and wholly dust and storm proof4 ,the ,st4 ,louis ,aluminum ,casting ,company is now showing its models of the #ahih ,lu-,mi-,num4 ,the special feature1 which is rendered practical by the company's special process of frame manufacture is the fixed gear case4 ,this is an integral part of the frame1 being cast in one piece with it4 ,the back wall of the gear case takes the place of the right hand rear fork1 thereby adding very materially to the strength of the frame4 ,the front of the case is composed of a celluloid plate1 which is sprung into it and fastened securely by two screws4 ,it can be removed from its place readily1 and consists of only three pieces4 ,the celluloid being transparent1 the working of the chain and sprocket may be seen1 and the chain may be oiled from the top of the case1 immediately over the front sprocket4 ,on the ,special ,racycle the gear case weighs only a few ounces more than the same model without it4 ,the case consists of a section of ,d tubing1 three-quarters inch wide1 brazed on1 and made part of the frame in place of the right side rear fork1 which is dispensed with4 ,the right hand rear stay1 however1 is carried down at an angle below the line of the rear wheel axle to the bottom part of the gear case1 thus forming a brace for the upper and lower part of the gear case1 and the gear case as thus constructed adds greatly to the strength of the entire frame4 ,the sides of the gear case are made of transparent sheets of tough1 pliable celluloid4 ,they are strong enough to withstand any ordinary accident1 and being detachable can be renewed at any time at a small cost4 ,the construction of this frame and gear case is certainly unique and original1 and may be said to be one of the few novel features shown in #ahih4 ,the ,centliver gear case1 which is detachable and can be fitted to any make of bicycle1 is made by the ,l4 ,a4 ,centliver ,manufacturing ,company of ,fort ,wayne1 ,ind4 ,this case is made entirely of metal4 ,no rubber or leather is used in its construction4 ,sheet aluminum is used1 shaped under heavy drawing presses1 by which operation the metal gains great strength and rigidity1 besides being lighter than any other metal or material that could be used4 ,cases are furnished either nickel-plated or enamelled1 as preferred4 ,the simplicity of attachment is remarkable1 as it does not require any mechanic to attach it4 ,any one familiar with handling a bicycle can do it in a few minutes in the following manner3 ,remove the chain1 then place the two parts together over the sprockets1 forming an interlocking union4 ,set the case in position and adjust clamps4 ,replace the chain1 inserting the chain bolt at front end by springing the case slightly4 ,keep the band in original shape4 ,be sure to have it in its proper place before tightening4 ,the bolt can then be set with a small wrench4 ,the #ahig ,humber had a metal case which very much resembled the metal cases used in ,england4 ,this same case is furnished in #ahih by the ,humber ,company1 and is a very practical one4 ,it was quite largely used last year in ,new ,york and ,brooklyn4 ,illustration3 ,,rambler ,,gear ,,case4 ,the ,safety ,gear ,case is the patent of ,james ,parkes of ,toledo1 ,o41 and the essential features are as follows3 ,the best quality of harness leather is used in its manufacture1 and is first treated with a solution of their own1 which renders the leather very hard and impervious to water4 ,the leather is then pressed in an iron form1 in two similar sections1 one of which fits over the upper half1 and one over the lower half of the sprockets and chain4 ,these two sections are held together by means of two patent hook fasteners at the ends and a system of lacers down the side of the case4 ,on the inner side of the case an aluminum plate1 through which the rear hub passes1 is arranged to slide freely with the rear wheel1 thus permitting the chain to be lengthened or shortened without removing the gear case4 ,the case is light1 noiseless and dust-proof4 ,a large variety of patterns are made1 and the case is made in sizes to fit any style of bicycle4 ,the leather is finally enamelled in any desired color1 thus making a beautiful and attractive addition to any bicycle4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,gear ,,case4 ,with the ,englishman's idea of utility1 the first thought was to completely cover sprockets and chain with a large sheet metal case1 upon the same plan as gear cases had been previously used in mills and factories for enclosing running chains4 ,various devices for gear cases were in use when1 in #ahhf1 ,j4 ,h4 ,carter patented in ,england an oil-containing gear case for bicycles4 ,this was a standard in gear case construction for some years1 riders thinking it necessary to keep their chains running through a bath of oil in order to insure easy movement of the joints2 however1 it was discovered a few years later that a chain would run equally well without the oil bath1 and1 in fact1 there were many disadvantages about keeping a chain constantly soaked in oil1 especially because the oil would gum and thus retard rather than assist4 ,in the early nineties gear cases were brought out1 of many constructions1 but the standard set up by ,carter remains to this day the ,english idea of a case1 and1 with all of their improvements in case construction1 they have not gotten very far beyond it4 ,to the ,english mind a gear case must be made entirely distinct from the bicycle itself1 not a part of it1 but an accessory that shall be quickly removable or attachable after it is once fitted4 ,this1 of course1 necessitates a great many joints1 and as joints of thin material1 whether sheet metal or celluloid1 cannot be perfectly made to exclude dust and driving rains1 and as such joints are always more or less noisy when a bicycle is in use1 they are not even yet satisfied with the gear case1 but realize its great usefulness1 even when only partially efficient1 so that it has become a fixture on nearly every ,english wheel4 ,several attempts were made to introduce ,english cases into this country1 but with lamentable failure1 for several causes4 ,in the first place ,american bicycles are not built to take ,english cases4 ,,essential ,,qualities4 ,every ,american bicycle has individualities of its own1 and especially in the running gear4 ,no clearances have been allowed1 and it is simply out of the question to attach the foreign type of case unless the bicycle is built for it4 ,however1 in some instances1 bicycles were made with that end in view and the cases were attached1 but ,american riders found that their unsightliness1 excessive weight and inefficiency made them more of a nuisance than a help1 and the gear case came into public disfavor4 ,however1 in spite of these discouragements1 the necessity of a clean chain appealed so strongly to an ,american mechanic that1 without any knowledge of the gear case constructions of ,europe1 he set to work to devise a method of thoroughly protecting the chain1 and during the season of '#if made many experiments to ascertain the construction that could be successfully applied to ,american bicycles and appeal to ,american riders4 ,the study of road conditions showed that a gear case must be not simply a protection for mud1 but every joint must be dust-tight and rain-proof4 ,in a country like ,england1 where mud is the prevailing condition1 these absolutely tight joints are not so essential1 but in this country they took first place4 ,again1 the case must have good appearance and be comparatively light in weight1 and1 as the worst problem of all1 it must be adaptable to some few hundred distinct makes of bicycles1 no two of them alike in the running gear4 ,illustration3 ,,cleveland ,,gear ,,case4 ,the inventor started with the idea of covering the chain with an endless rubber tube1 which should be split in its inner length and run with the chain4 ,as it reached the sprockets it would be separated by a separator and follow around the sprocket over the chain1 clinging to either side of the sprocket4 ,this was theoretically a very good idea1 but in practice developed many serious objections4 ,in the first place1 the tube was liable to catch between chain and sprocket teeth4 ,it increased the friction of the machine and could not be made to be of very long life4 ,it was also neither dust nor rain tight1 and proved a nuisance instead of a blessing4 ,still following up the idea of utilizing rubber1 a case was devised having rubber chain runs with rubber box over front and rear sprocket1 this rubber box suitably supported by metallic parts4 ,the only objection to this was the quick wearing out of the chain runs by the constant friction of the chain4 ,still retaining the rubber boxes1 light metallic chain runs were substituted for the rubber1 and it was then found that an ideal construction as regards strength and tightness of joints was obtained4 ,these cases were put in public use after being exhibited at the ,chicago and ,new ,york cycle shows of #ahig1 and have been sold and used quite extensively during the past season4 ,they have been very much improved1 so that all objections to the early models have been completely done away with1 and today an ,american gear case1 known as the ,frost1 is to be had upon any first class '#ih bicycle1 being offered by nearly every bicycle maker4 ,as it can be attached to old bicycles1 there is no reason why every rider cannot have an up-to-date feature1 with the comfort and pleasure assured by a clean chain4 ,it has been actually proven that they will stand driving rains1 snow storms1 blizzards1 dust storms1 constant use on the dustiest of roads1 and1 in fact1 have proven absolutely impervious to all foreign substances1 keeping the chain and running gear perfectly clean and in condition for an entire season without any attention being given4 ,these desirable features are obtained by the use of an elastic rubber joint1 the case itself being built of steel1 but all the joints closed with this soft elastic rubber1 on the same principle as a rubber gas tube is connected with a fixture4 ,this case1 to look at1 is very compact and solid1 but it can be almost instantly separated1 either for changing sprockets1 getting at the chain1 or removing rear wheel4 ,the operation is very brief1 and even that has to be gone through with seldom a change of tires or renewal of broken spokes being almost the only occasion for separating the case4 ,the chain can be taken out if desired1 but as a matter of fact one always forgets that there is a chain when riding the 8,enclosed ,chain ,model10 as this construction is now called4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,chain ,,and ,,its ,,functions4 ,there are few1 if any1 parts of the modern bicycle that have played a more important rle in its development1 than has the chain1 and yet it is safe to say that there is no part of the vehicle to which the average rider pays less attention1 save to occasionally clean it of its accumulated impediments1 or which he understands so little4 ,illustration3 ,,brown ,,roller ,,sprocket4 ,every rider1 of course1 understands how important is the office of the chain in the propulsion of his wheel--that without it his machine is an utterly useless structure of metal1 wood and rubber4 ,as to its parts1 however1 and their relation to one another1 he is oftener than not carelessly indifferent4 ,while as to the mechanical skill and genius that has overcome1 one by one1 the past difficulties of chain and sprocket propulsion1 as applied to the bicycle1 bringing it in the end1 to its present state of perfection1 he is wholly uninformed4 ,many riders have been inconvenienced and annoyed to the extent of exasperation1 upon discovering that 8something was wrong0 about their wheels4 ,just what1 they have been utterly at a loss to tell or understand1 but the fact has remained that 8something was wrong10 and so1 cutting their rides short1 they have despatched their wheel forthwith to the repair shop4 ,had they known1 as the repair man knew1 that it was their own lack of familiarity and consequent sense of appreciation of that apparently simple1 yet sensitive part of their machines--the chain1 to which their misfortunes were due1 how great would have been their astonishment4 ,it is with a thorough appreciation of how large a percentage of the wheelman's misfortunes are chargeable to a lack of knowledge of chain construction and action1 that the writer has deemed the subject one well worthy of special treatment in these columns4 ,that many readers will admit1 after perusal1 that however well they may have understood their wheels in other and less important parts1 they still had much to learn of its most vital and intricate parts1 is altogether likely4 ,a study of cycle chain construction will show the regulation chain to be1 simply speaking1 an endless belt provided with holes which engage projections on a form of pulley called a sprocket4 ,it is composed of blocks alternating with and joined by a pair of links or side-plates2 the blocks drop down into the spaces between the teeth on the sprocket1 and those teeth come up through the spaces or openings between each two side links1 these links of course holding the whole together by pins through their ends4 ,the 8pitch0 of a sprocket1 as of any toothed wheel1 means usually the number of teeth cut upon it for each inch of its diameter4 ,the 8pitch-line0 is circumferential1 though not at the extreme ends of the teeth2 it is the line where the teeth of two engaging gear wheels come together1 or the line passing through the contact or acting surfaces of the teeth4 ,as a chain lies on the sprockets1 this pitch line passes almost exactly through the centre of the teeth1 and the rivets of the chain4 ,illustration3 ,,chantrell ,,chains4 ,to speak of a chain as 8one-quarter-inch0 or as a 8three-sixteenths chain0 means that such is its measure in width between the plates of the links4 ,this is also the thickness of the sprocket1 barring a very slight difference to prevent too tight a fit4 ,to speak of a chain as having an 8inch pitch0 7which is the regular standard in this country7 means that the distance between the centres of the spaces through which the sprocket teeth come 7as above stated7 is one inch1 and of course the same measurement applies to the sprocket2 the spaces on that1 measured between the centres of two adjacent teeth1 must be an inch4 ,it is plain that sprocket and chain must correspond in order to work properly4 ,a chain of a half-inch pitch would not fit a sprocket of one-inch pitch1 or vice versa4 ,if the chain were made just a little too 8long10 it might go part way around the sprocket1 but a disagreement would soon be found4 ,it is charged against the chain1 and correctly1 that use 7helped by dirt under the condition of being uncovered7 wears chain and sprocket both1 so that they gradually cease to match together1 as at first4 ,when this occurs1 the chain is said to be 8out of pitch40 ,on the other hand1 a chain will work a long time and very well after it has considerably lost its first exactness of fit1 whereas gears which have worn grind and complain dismally4 ,illustration3 ,,keating ,,twin-,,roller4 ,to arrange the lines of gear teeth1 either straight or by various gentle curves1 so that when the teeth are in operation they will close together and then separate with a rolling motion1 with no slipping or grinding1 with no friction1 has been a mechanical problem for a hundred years4 ,this has not been accomplished on the bevel geared chainless bicycle1 and it can never be fully accomplished anywhere4 ,press the palms of your hands together firmly1 then slide one hand off the other while so pressed--that is rubbing friction2 now lay the backs of your hands together1 pressing as before1 and roll them away from each other until they part at the ends of the fingers4 ,that is rolling friction1 and if we could only manage to make gears and other contacting surfaces in machinery meet and part company exactly thus1 we could avoid friction almost altogether4 ,,operation ,,and ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,chain4 ,illustration3 ,,some ,,english ,,chains4 ,in considering the chain most people forget that although made up of many pieces of metal only a few are in action at a time4 ,only the upper half is in tension 7the action is1 of course1 reversed in back-pedalling71 and if the chain is opened and allowed to drop down it will for the moment act just the same4 ,it is full of joints1 but few are bending at any instant4 ,as the chain runs upon the sprocket1 its joints bend to conform to the circle1 and they similarly bend back to an approximately straight line when leaving it4 ,on the lower side1 the joints bend easily2 on the upper1 they do so under tension4 ,press your thumb on the palm of the other hand1 and1 while pressing hard1 draw it off2 this gives some idea of the rubbing friction when the chain block leaves the tooth against which it is pulling4 ,there is also some rub on the tooth where the chain is coming on the sprocket2 and unless it is avoided by devices to be presently described1 there is a rubbing between the tooth and the ends of the bending links1 as well as within the joints themselves when they bend under pull4 ,the effect of this friction is shown in the wear which comes on portions of the teeth2 it also shows by flat places worn on the chain blocks1 and the wear within the joints causes what is called 8stretch10 the chain appearing to have grown longer4 ,in a very slight degree there is a yielding between the parts which is called 8set10 parts which are already in contact being pressed into still closer contact2 this 8set0 supplies the trifle of elasticity1 already mentioned1 which tends to save the chain from fracture under heavy stress4 ,chain and sprocket act on each other much as the teeth of gears act1 and in effect they are a peculiar form of gears1 for if you can imagine one of a pair of gear wheels flexible and flattened out like a chain1 and thus running1 it is evident that this action is really that of gearing4 ,chains were used on the tricycle before they were required for bicycles1 and as long ago as #ahha there was a substitute attempted which was described thus3 8,the ,queen driving bands are made very thin and neat1 of a compound of silk and other strong substances1 and are substituted for chains to save both weight1 noise1 and appearance40 ,the early chains were heavy and wide1 at least -inch1 and crudely made4 ,the ,ewart1 as used on the ,columbia ,veloce ten years ago1 was ingenious and simple2 block and side-link were one1 there was neither special joint nor rivet1 and the chain could be opened at any point by turning it 7see cut on page #fa7 and sliding to one side4 ,width of chain and thickness of sprocket gradually lessened2 a few years ago1 was the standard1 but now it has settled to #c_/af1 even on tandems1 and on racing wheels a chain has been used in a few instances4 ,the 8,b0 chain has almost displaced the 8#h40 ,illustration3 ,,diamond 8,b40 ,quality of steel used1 accuracy of pitch and fineness of fit and finish have steadily improved1 and were never at so high a standard as in #ahih2 accuracy of cutting and scientific shaping of the sprocket teeth have also been constantly studied and show greater advance than ever1 so that1 as a result1 the chains on this year's product run with a smoothness and 8sweetness0 not before attained4 ,the chainless movement has naturally contributed to this advance1 which is a substantial fact4 ,quality has improved while cost of production and market price have declined1 and the high-grade chain of #ahih may without extravagance of language be called 8beautiful40 ,for instance1 in a specimen before us the blocks are nickel steel1 straw color1 and the links are of bright tool steel2 the inner edges of the links are chamfered or beveled to lessen the chance of the chain's ever 8mounting the sprocket0 if it is run when too slack1 and the ends of the pins are so perfectly headed that the operation has left no trace4 ,this finely finished specimen happens to be from the ,lefevre ,arms ,company of ,syracuse1 but like praise can be given to the best product of several other makers4 ,as to strength1 chains used to be made with a breaking strain as high as #a1hjj pounds2 we suppose the average with the narrower and lighter product of today is about #a1jjj pounds1 which is far beyond any driving strain it can receive4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,deal ,,with ,,chain ,,friction4 ,illustration3 ,,thames ,,twin-,,roller4 ,the friction of the chain is of three sorts and at three places4 ,first is the 8block0 friction1 where and when a few blocks at a time enter and leave contact with the sprockets on the upper side1 the action on the lower side 7except in back-pedalling7 being so free that it need not be taken into account2 the second is the 8pin0 friction1 made by the side links as they turn on the rivets2 the third is where and when the ends of the links rub on the sprockets while bending4 ,illustration3 ,,morse ,,roller-,,joint ,,chain4 ,there have been many attempts to turn these rubbing frictions into rolling movements4 ,only a few months ago application was filed for an ,english patent on putting balls into the chain joints2 but the great number of joints and the small size of the parts make this plainly impracticable4 ,a far better and really practical thing is the ,morse roller-joint chain1 made in ,trumansburg1 ,n4 ,y41 and now in use on several makes1 among them the ,sterling2 it would undoubtedly make its way faster into use except that the parts have to be a little larger1 and therefore the pitch a little more than the regular inch1 and so the sprockets must be cut specially2 sprockets of inch pitch can1 however1 be recut to fit4 ,as the illustration shows1 the principle of this joint is the same as that of scales--the knife-edge bearing4 ,the pin with the two edges is fast to the side link2 the pin with one edge is dropped in loosely and the two rock on each other instead of rubbing1 producing no wear and so not needing lubrication4 ,the maker claims a frictional loss by his chain of less than one per cent4 of the power developed2 there is always some loss1 it should be observed1 and so the advertisement of the ,eadie roller-chain1 that 8it transmits practically #ajj per cent4 of the force applied10 is somewhat too enthusiastically worded4 ,,the ,,brown ,,roller-,,sprocket4 7,see page #eh47 ,while giving due credit to the ,morse chain1 we must point out that it attempts to deal with only the second of the sources of friction above stated4 ,the ,brown roller-sprocket apparently attempts to deal with all three1 involving an action unlike any other4 ,it has a rim with a double flange1 in which are inserted hardened steel rollers three-quarters of an inch in diameter1 running on hardened steel bushings1 which in turn are free to revolve on hard steel rivets4 ,the chain is #c_/af and of #a inches pitch2 it is reversible and the side links are longer than the blocks1 which in action ride over the rollers1 reaching from one roller to another without touching the rim of the sprocket4 ,instead of the block rubbing on the tooth as it leaves the sprocket1 it turns the roller and rolls off2 thus1 if the stress of use develops no other action of the parts than is claimed1 the only rubbing friction is at the axes of the rollers1 where the motion is comparatively slight4 ,a drawback is that the sprockets must be very large in order to get a goodly number of rollers in the rear one1 and the same difficulty of being special in both sprocket and chain1 which retards some other devices in the market probably affects this one4 ,,various ,,roller-,,chains4 ,the twin roller has entirely displaced the single4 ,the value of the roller depends upon the difference in diameter between the roller itself and the axis on which it turns1 the theory being that although there is a rubbing friction on the axis1 the motion there is so slight as to be insignificant as respects wear4 ,the smaller the roller the less this theory applies and the less the practical effect in reducing friction4 ,rollers in a chain are necessarily small2 yet when the roller pulls off the sprocket tooth under pressure it is free to turn1 and so there must be some lessening of friction--at least1 the rollers cannot wear into flat spots as the blocks usually do4 ,the twin-roller was hailed with satisfaction in ,england1 a year ago1 the chief mechanical authority in the trade press saying that 8after using it for weeks in all sorts of weather we are firmly convinced that it is the chain of the future2 in a gear-case it runs as smooth as oil1 and even when unprotected and smothered in mud1 dirt and grit seem to have little effect on it40 ,since then some doubtful or dissentient opinions have been expressed1 perhaps because some makers cut up this chain into a shorter pitch1 and therefore get it slighter and more exposed to clogging4 ,without having practical experience of the twin-roller as yet1 we strongly incline to agree with the opinion of it just quoted1 and all theory is certainly in its favor4 ,it has been regularly used on the ,keating during #ahig1 and seems to be coming on4 ,illustration3 ,,baldwin ,,detachable4 ,the ,thames chain1 which is called a 8roller block0 instead of a twin-roller1 has the peculiarity of a fixed cross-bar 7very poorly shown in the cut7 between each pair of rollers constituting a 8block40 ,thus the 8centre block0 is claimed to be rigid and the rollers to be kept more free to work2 it seems to us1 however1 that the roller is slightly too small to be in the best proportion to the side plates4 ,,the ,,link ,,friction ,,on ,,sprocket ,,and ,,pin4 ,illustration3 ,,ewart ,,chain4 7,used by the ,pope ,co41 #ahhh47 ,as to the third of the three chain frictions above described--that of the ends of the links on the sprocket as they bend into or out of the straight line--a serious practical question is involved4 ,plainly1 as the chain is pulled hard toward the centre of the sprocket1 it must come to a firm rest on something2 what shall that something be8 ,the ends of two adjacent blocks may come to a stop on the sloping sides of the tooth or either the ends of the blocks or the ends of the side-plates 7or possibly both7 may rest on the space on the sprocket between the teeth2 or the side-plates may have a resting place outside the teeth4 ,there has been a flange on the sprocket1 just at the base of the teeth1 sometimes on both sides and sometimes on only one2 this flange1 called a 8shroud0 in ,england1 has been quite a subject of discussion there1 as to its proper purpose1 and even whether it should be on the sprocket at all4 ,all agree that it is useful in stiffening the sprocket laterally1 and some1 including some of the best chain makers1 argue that it ought to be placed below the reach of the chain1 for if the chain touches it and wears it away1 the chain will sink below its correct pitch line and cause trouble4 ,others claim that the chief object of making a shroud was to give the chain as much bearing surface as possible4 ,practice is not uniform in either country4 ,sometimes the shroud has helped support the chain2 sometimes it has been kept out of reach of the chain1 and sometimes it has been cut away where the ends of the side-plates come4 ,illustration3 ,,bridgeport ,,detachable4 ,the pins are1 of course1 fixed in the links1 but form a bearing within the ends of the blocks4 ,to have these pins hard and yet be able to 8upset0 their ends to make a 8head0 has been a matter of difficulty4 ,some of the best ,english makers avoided this by using a soft pin and putting a hard bushing of pen steel over it to make a bearing4 ,as the links do not need to be hard1 the makers of the ,cleveland use a hard pin with a groove at the end1 and force the end of the side-plates into this groove to hold the pin in place4 ,other chain makers have contrived methods of getting the pin hard and still having its ends capable of being headed over4 ,the ,myers ,detachable1 made by the ,bridgeport ,chain ,company of ,bridgeport1 ,conn41 and the ,baldwin ,detachable1 made by the ,baldwin ,chain ,company of ,worcester1 ,mass41 avoid the difficulty by hardening the entire pin and slotting the link plates1 as shown in the illustration4 ,any broken piece can thus be replaced1 or the chain can be made longer or shorter at will1 without needing any tools4 ,the ,baldwin pattern is reversible1 and the makers publish a certificate of one of their chains1 which has a record of #bi1egc miles2 of this1 #ac1gga miles were done without any attention or repairs being required1 the remaining mileage requiring replacement of a broken part but twice4 ,illustration3 ,,liberty ,,sprocket4 ,we find in one of the ,british trade journals a mention of a 8spring chain10 but there is neither cut nor detailed description4 ,the maker claims that by inserting a dozen or so of his spring links in any suitable chain 8it will be made to run as easily and smoothly as a leather driving band1 and that it may be adjusted so tightly as to practically do away with all slackening on top1 so that every ounce of driving pressure applied to the pedals will be reproduced on the rear sprocket wheel1 thus getting rid of all backlash and consequent friction and waste of power1 even when ridden over the roughest roads and by the most inexperienced pedallers40 ,the editor thinks it impossible1 without some dynamometer test1 to say whether there is any gain in driving ease1 but after having one of the chains in use for a good many months he can bear out the claim of smooth running1 and has found that it can be run on a tighter adjustment than the usual chain2 so 8it certainly seems to be satisfactory40 ,illustration3 ,,crescent ,,chain ,,adjuster4 ,the circular chain is another peculiar ,english device1 and is pronounced by its maker to be the best and easiest running1 wear-resisting and cleanest he has ever tried4 ,his claim is3 8,the circumferential speed of the block chain is in excess of the corresponding speed of its chain wheel teeth1 hence the contradictory friction between tooth and block4 ,the circumferential speed of this chain and its wheel are similar2 entirely does away the frictional contact between the teeth of the chain wheel and the chain blocks40 ,his first statement cannot possibly be correct so long as the pitch line of the sprocket and of the chain correspond1 as is the case with any reasonably good fit4 ,his chain consists of simple and uniform links1 turned from the solid and joined by rivets4 ,it suggests the old chain of the chain pump1 and1 of course1 requires a peculiar sprocket4 ,the ,tacagni standard pivot or rivetless is a recently offered ,english article4 ,it is light1 weighing #g ounces1 against the usual #ad4 ,less friction and greater strength are also claimed for it1 the maker offering the report of a testing firm that the elastic limit of the sample used was #ijj pounds and its breaking stress was #addj4 ,of course1 a special sprocket grooved in the rim must be made for it4 ,,the ,,remington ,,chain4 ,the chain brought out by the ,remington people for their #ge model suggests the ,tacagni1 but is not quite like that4 ,the illustration shows its construction4 ,the block is done away with1 since it runs in a groove on the sprocket rim2 the usual link does the pulling instead1 bearing on the flanges4 ,another style of description is to say that the construction is reversed1 the link being one piece and central1 being converted into a block1 a space being cut out so that it does not touch the sprocket in bending1 while the usual block is doubled and runs on the flanges4 ,the same quality of steel is used throughout1 and the grain all runs lengthwise4 ,strength1 great endurance and a reduction of a fourth in friction are claimed4 ,use must decide the degree of improvement1 but the chain certainly runs smoothly and attractively4 ,,the ,,liberty ,,sprocket4 7,see page #fb47 ,the ,liberty makers have brought out a sprocket with a change in the form of the teeth which is so slight that it hardly shows in a cut and is not even noticed on the bicycle itself at a careless glance4 ,the change consists in cutting down most of the teeth in height and thickness1 so that only each fifth tooth acts in the driving1 the intermediate teeth serving only as guides to keep the chain in track4 ,concerning the new sprocket1 the makers say3 8,the old method of having each and every sprocket tooth engage the chain has been abandoned by us1 the friction occasioned by so much contact being unnecessary1 and the wear and strain on the chain intensified4 ,our new sprocket has been tested under all conditions with the most satisfactory results4 ,it permits a chain to run as smoothly covered with mud and dust as it does when thoroughly lubricated1 and the cracking noise so prevalent when an ordinary sprocket is used on muddy roads is entirely absent4 ,the ease of propulsion is marked 7particularly noticeable in hill-climbing7 and enables the rider to attain speed instantly and with the highest gear4 ,with this improved sprocket the rider can use with ease a gear considerably higher than he could attempt with sprockets of the ordinary pattern40 ,,the ,,victor ,,straight-,,line ,,sprocket4 7,see page #ff47 ,the ,victor straight-line sprocket is peculiar in the shape of the teeth or in the shape of the spaces between the teeth4 ,on the back side of each tooth on the front sprocket and the front side of each tooth on the rear sprocket a space is hollowed out1 as shown in the cut4 ,ordinarily1 each block and each pair of side-plates or links is deflected from a straight line when wrapped around the sprocket2 but on this sprocket1 as will be seen1 each block and adjacent pair of side-plates form a straight line4 ,the joints at ,e--,e and ,f--,f do not touch the sprocket1 as it is cut away beneath them4 ,as those portions of the chain are always in a straight line1 no motion is produced in the joints there1 the effect of the change being to greatly lessen friction1 especially under trying conditions4 ,illustration3 ,,victor ,,chain ,,test4 ,illustration3 ,,victor ,,chain ,,test4 ,if an accurate measure of the pressure required on the pedal in order to overcome the varying resistances of surface1 grade and wind1 or what not1 could be found1 then the resistance in each case could be weighed and recorded in pounds4 ,the ,victor dynamometer--which is a peculiar pedal1 containing a pair of springs1 with a recording pencil and a moving roll of paper for making a record--does this weighing4 ,obviously the first effect of pressure on this box-like pedal is to depress the springs2 and the wheel will not be moved at all until the springs have been depressed enough to represent the resistance4 ,suppose the total resistance is equal to lifting a weight of ten pounds1 then press on the pedal2 the springs will first yield until the equivalent of ten pounds is reached1 then the pedal will move and the wheel will turn4 ,if the resistance changes to fifteen and then to five pounds1 the springs will yield more and then less1 and the pencil attached will register accordingly1 the result being an irregular line similar to that on the steam engineer's 8indicator card40 ,if the dynamometer pedal were used on the road the irregular line on the card would show resistance fluctuations1 but would not show the various times and causes of resistance encountered4 ,so1 for a test of the peculiar sprocket1 a bicycle fitted with it was put on a stand and a resistance equal to seven and six-tenths pounds at the rim of the wheel was arranged4 ,then mud was daubed on the chain1 and pressure was put on the dynamometer pedal4 ,the height of the wave line above the straight or zero line in the diagram indicates the power required to turn the wheel4 ,it ranged from #hh to #id pounds1 and was nearly uniform4 ,then another bicycle1 with usual sprockets1 was set on the stand1 with the same resistance at the wheel rim4 ,the same chain used before was put on 7for this is a matter of sprocket only1 and any usual chain both fits and answers the purpose71 mud was again daubed on the chain1 and the test was made4 ,the pull required to turn each ranged from #if to #afj pounds1 and fluctuated greatly1 as indicated in the other diagram4 ,when the tests were carried further and the resistance at the tire was brought up to #aa pounds the ordinary sprocket clogged under the mud and could not be turned at all1 while the straight-line sprocket moved about as before1 the card indicating a pull of #abh to #aca pounds applied4 ,illustration3 ,,wolff-,,american ,,chain ,,adjuster4 ,at the ,victor branch in ,warren street1 a bicycle with these sprockets rests on a stand1 with a box of ,jersey mud and a dish of water and a trowel underneath2 anybody is free to mix the compound to suit1 and to load on all the chain will carry4 ,then he may get on the saddle1 there being an adjustable brake for the rear wheel to represent road resistance1 and pedal away2 or he may turn by hand4 ,when the mudded slack of chain reaches the rear sprocket1 the first effect is a crunching noise and a partial stoppage2 this ceases when one revolution has been made1 and directly the wheel 7the brake being off7 spins as freely and quietly as does another bicycle with the like sprockets which is mounted1 all clean1 on another stand4 ,the mud test is actual and fair4 ,the snapping noise which every rider knows is produced by mud on the chain1 especially when the bicycle is new and the fit is at its best1 comes because the mud acts as a wedge between sprocket and chain and the latter is temporarily put 8out of pitch40 ,the surprising performance of this sprocket under the severest possible mud test can have only this explanation3 that the spaces cut away allow some room for mud without jamming1 and that the sprocket clears itself by throwing out the intruder4 ,it is certainly one of the most remarkable things of the season1 and seems quite independent of outside disturbance1 hardly needing a case except for cleanliness and length of wear4 ,,chain ,,bolts ,,and ,,repairs4 ,of course1 the ends of the chain have to be joined1 and sometimes they need to be separated for removal4 ,the customary way has been to use a screw-bolt1 threaded into the link-plate on one side1 and fastened with a small lock-nut4 ,as this small nut was liable to loosen and be lost1 and as there was also a possibility of the screw itself working out 7in which case it might strike something as the chain moved or might drop out on the road7 some securer fastening became desirable4 ,the 8,diamond0 ,b chain now dispenses with the nut 7as shown in the cut of that make of chains7 using in place of it a swinging 8latch0 of thin steel2 the head of the screw fits nearly flush into the side-link1 and the latch has a place raised up in one end to fit the screw head1 so that when this latch is turned down it snaps into place1 preventing the screw from backing out and being itself held fast by its own elasticity4 ,the ,humber carries on its chain a similar latch1 but slightly different in shape at the end1 which has a hexagonal hole that fits the head of the screw4 ,the ,crescent meets the case by dispensing with the screw-bolt4 ,as shown in the cut1 the side links are slotted1 and in the centre of the slot is an enlarged place through which a special pin with grooved ends can be slipped in or out by slacking the chain for the purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,crescent ,,chain ,,and ,,bolt4 ,illustration3 ,,lefever ,,chain4 ,these several devices go to further lessen the troubles with chains which are so great now1 in the argument of some people1 but have been so slight in practice notwithstanding4 ,illustration3 ,,circular ,,chain4 ,illustration3 ,,remington ,,chain4 ,in the very rare event of a chain's breaking on the road1 the ,missing ,link will be handy2 it costs but a few cents1 and can be carried in a vest pocket4 ,the cut explains its use4 ,a break is most liable to be in the block1 but if a link goes the rider need not tear his hair2 there are devices to meet that case1 and to get another piece in is not very severe1 even without their aid4 ,chains are 8stretching1 breaking10 etc41 in their habits1 we are told4 ,yet each rider may consider the chance of the trick's being played on him nearly the same as of lightning's striking him1 and if he will only take a little care of his chain1 he can count himself insured4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,missing ,,link4 ,,chain ,,adjustments4 ,some form of adjuster will always be necessary to adjust the chain on a chain driven bicycle4 ,on the early models of the safety type of bicycles made in this country the adjustment was produced by a swinging crank bracket4 ,the crank bracket was not an integral part of the frame1 but was bolted to it and was held in position by a set screw and lock-nut4 ,somewhat later an improved form1 which by the usual form of reversion has now come into use again1 consisted in making the crank bracket an integral part of the frame and fitting an eccentric adjustment inside of it4 ,the ,remington ,company varied this somewhat by making the rear forks a detachable part of the frame and having them bolted through and locked by a threaded lock-nut and bolt at the crank hanger1 and they thus produced their adjustment by shifting the rear forks out backward or drawing them forward4 ,since that time the makers of the ,remington have always used the rear fork-end adjustment1 but this season they have a new feature4 ,the crank-hanger ball pocket is eccentric and turns in the bracket either forward or backward when the set bolts are loosened4 ,the whole arrangement is a very simple one and prevents the liability of the rear wheel getting out of alignment4 ,the makers of the ,iroquois also use a #c-;inch eccentric hanger4 ,the rear wheel is always centred by this method1 and is provided with two sprockets1 so as readily to allow a change of gear4 ,on the ,defender is shown an eccentric crank-hanger1 on which neither the wheel1 nuts or bearings are disturbed to make the adjustment4 ,the ,shirk bicycles have a new rear fork and chain adjustment1 the advantage of which is that the rear wheel can be removed without disconnecting the chain4 ,the sides of the rear fork ends are machined with teeth1 which fit into the teeth of the washer1 and by simply unscrewing nut and withdrawing the axle bolt the wheel drops out of frame4 ,absolute equality of adjustment on both sides is obtained1 as the wrench is only used to loosen the axle nut1 and as the outward opening the rear fork ends is done away with1 strength and rigidity is thus added to this end of the frame4 ,the makers of the ,northampton made a new chain adjuster consisting of a small round steel plate on the outside of the rear forks1 with scroll cut on the inside which follows steel lug on the forks1 making it easy to adjust chain to any tension and set the wheel true in the frame rapidly4 ,the chain adjuster used on the ,globe is of very neat and simple construction4 ,a threaded adjuster1 having an open hook end is pivoted to the upper part of the rear fork end1 and is operated as follows3 ,loosen the axle nuts and turn the thumb screw either way1 as the case may be1 until the chain has the right tension and then tighten the axle nuts again4 ,to take the rear wheel out1 loosen the axle nuts and swing the hooks off the axle4 ,to replace the wheel slip the hooks back over the axle1 tighten the nuts and the whole adjustment is complete4 ,on the ,relay is shown a patent chain-adjusting device which enables the rider by simply loosening the nuts on either side of the rear wheel to remove the rear wheel without taking the chain apart4 ,the fork ends are of cold rolled steel1 corrugated1 with the washer corrugated to correspond1 allowing accurate adjustment of the chain4 ,illustration3 ,,victor ,,sprocket4 ,on the model #d ,humber is shown a rear fork chain adjuster1 which is similar in construction to the chain adjusters in use on the ,humbers made in ,england4 ,the rear fork ends instead of being carried horizontal as before now slant upward at an oblique angle1 and the backstays instead of being brazed to the rear forks as heretofore are separate and are carried backward or forward1 as the case may be1 with the rear axle to tighten or loosen the chain1 the object of this change in construction being to cause the backstays to help carry with the rear forks the weight of the rider on the axle4 ,the ,wolff-,american patent eccentric chain adjuster is almost too well known to need describing4 ,still it is such a radical departure1 and withal such a good one1 that it will bear describing here again4 ,a square groove or spline is cut on the sides of the rear axle1 running about an inch from the end4 ,a pair of eccentric disks1 having a tongue or key to fit this groove1 are slipped on the axle1 thus becoming1 as it were1 a part of the rear axle4 ,they are then placed and held in the frame by semi-circular braces1 which are a part of the frame4 ,the chain is adjusted from one side1 the eccentrics acting together4 ,by loosening one nut on each side the eccentrics are free to move either way4 ,this completes the operation1 and1 it is needless to say1 one need not worry about getting the rear wheel out of line or readjusting the bearings1 because with this eccentric adjuster neither is disturbed4 ,they use the same method of adjustment on the rear wheel of their tandems1 but the front chain on the tandems is adjusted with an eccentric at the front crank-hanger1 same as most of the other makers use in tandem construction4 ,nearly all the makers who make tandems adjust their rear wheel1 however1 with their regular form of chain adjuster as used on their singles1 a variation of this1 however1 being to adjust both chains at the crank-hanger brackets with an eccentric adjustment4 ,another variation in chain adjustments on tandems consists of bolting the crank bracket to the frame so that by moving the crank bracket forward or backward the chain can be adjusted to the proper tension4 ,the makers of the juvenile 8,elfin0 not only use this form of construction on their juvenile tandems1 but also on their single models1 and have in addition to that a method of reversing the bracket1 so that it can be either bolted on top or underneath the rear forks which permits an adjustability of two inches between the seat posts and pedals1 by which an ,elfin may be made to last a growing child for several seasons4 ,illustration3 ,,humber ,,chain ,,adjuster4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,hubs1 ,,spokes ,,and ,,rims4 ,the wheels of the #ahih bicycle do not present any very remarkable or striking novelties in construction4 ,the old style of slender cylinder hub with broad flanges has1 however1 disappeared1 and the tubular or barrel hub1 with or without flanges1 is the only one in use4 ,but before surveying the state of the art for this season let us take a look backward and see what led up to the present types4 ,at the ,crystal ,palace1 ,london1 ,england1 was exhibited in #ahhi a bicycle that was built by ,gavin ,dalzell1 a ,scotchman1 some time previous to #ahdf4 ,this was described as 8being wonderfully strong1 especially in the wheels10 these seeming to have stood the ravages of time and rough usage much better than the framework4 ,the rear wheel1 or driver1 was of wood shod with iron1 about #dj inches in diameter1 and had twelve spokes1 each about one inch in diameter4 ,the front wheel was of similar construction1 but only about #cj inches in diameter4 ,the wooden velocipede of #ahff usually had wooden spokes and flat iron tires1 and about that time a very crude high wheel was built in ,england by ,s4 ,madison1 and this in #ahfh was improved upon by ,edward ,cooper4 ,in #ahfi the bicycle called the 8,phantom0 was put upon the market4 ,it had wooden rims with rubber tires nailed on4 ,on the inside of the rim were staples1 through which the wires were passed and screwed at the centre of the wheel4 ,it was really the first practical suspension wheel ever built1 its one fault being its liability to get out of order and the inability of the mechanics of that time to true it up again4 ,james ,starley brought out a bicycle a little later called the 8,ariel10 which had 8lever tension0 wheels and was popular4 ,it had double wire spokes and steel rims1 and at the axle of each wheel was placed a lever bar4 ,he next designed one called the 8,spider0 and for a long while all bicycle wheels were therefore called spider wheels4 ,in #ahgf ,singer's 8,challenge0 appeared in ,london1 which had lock-nut spokes1 with a nipple attached4 ,nipple and lock-nutted spokes long outlasted the construction of that day1 and they were certainly very far better than the butt-ended direct spokes used later on4 ,the first tangent spokes were those made by the ,coventry ,tangent ,company1 in ,england1 and placed upon their bicycles and tricycles4 ,a singular fact is that for some years after that1 however1 tangent spokes almost wholly disappeared1 not only in this country1 but in ,england1 and1 while we were importing ,english safety bicycles1 all of them had direct spokes2 but the first ,american safety bicycle built1 the ,victor1 had tangent spokes1 and so had the high wheels previously made by the ,victor ,company4 ,in ,england1 until two years ago1 direct spokes were very largely used4 ,,the 8,,suspension0 ,,wheel4 ,here ,american makers used direct spokes at first1 but at present all the ,american makers without exception use a tangent spoke1 and there are indeed very good reasons for the use of the tangent spoke in a suspension wheel1 which is a structure radically unlike the ordinary wagon wheel4 ,any vehicle wheel receives the load of the weight carried directly at its hub1 through the axle1 and this weight1 of course1 tends to bear the hub down to the ground4 ,the wagon wheel has stout spokes1 as they are planned to sustain the crushing downward strain2 this strain is wholly borne by the few spokes at any particular instant below the hub1 the rest of them at that instant having no work to do4 ,in order to avoid the weight and clumsiness inevitable if the bicycle wheel were made to carry the load in this way1 the load is 8suspended10 in effect1 instead of being above and upon the spokes4 ,that is1 the load applied at the hub is hung from the few spokes which at the instant are directly over the hub2 the pull down on these spokes tends to depress the upper part of the rim and thus to flatten down the wheel from a circular to an elliptical shape2 but this flattening is resisted by the spokes which are then horizontal1 or nearly so1 and thus the wheel retains shape4 ,the thin wire spokes1 which would instantly double up under a 8crushing0 strain1 resist tremendously the tensile pull4 ,imagine a thick-spoked wheel with all spokes gone except those in say an eighth of its circle directly underneath the hub and you have the ordinary wheel2 then imagine a bicycle wheel with all spokes gone except a few directly above the hub and the few horizontal ones on each side of the hub1 and you have the 8suspension0 wheel illustrating its own principle1 it being supposed that the wheel in each case is not moving but simply holding up its load4 ,illustration3 ,,crescent ,,hub4 ,the wagon wheel is 8dished10 that is1 the spoke ends at the hub are not quite in the same plane with the rim2 the spokes are also often 8staggered10 that is1 one-half are in one plane at the hub and the rest in another1 the object being that the wood may have room to expand and contract somewhat1 under changes in moisture1 without putting the wheel out of shape4 ,the suspension wheel is also dished1 but the dish is a double one1 the wheel in section being like two capital ,v's1 end to end1 being somewhat wide at the hub1 the spokes being carried from the rim alternately to one side of the hub and the other4 ,the object is to strengthen the wheel laterally1 for if it were made all in one plane from top to bottom it might sustain a heavy load in a vertical direction1 but would twist into pieces under the first side strain4 ,this explanation may not only give the uninitiated a better idea of bicycle construction but may illustrate the fact that new problems have had to be met and new devices thought out and worked out at every stage of that construction4 ,,construction ,,and ,,strains ,,of ,,hub ,,and ,,spokes4 ,the pressure applied on the pedals of the bicycle causes a transverse strain on direct spokes which sometimes causes them to snap at the rim or hub2 but spokes which are set at a tangent to the hub receives this strain directly1 and in the tangent-spoke wheel1 where the spoke is bent or hooked in order to pass through the side of the hub1 it is necessary that the very best material and workmanship be used to prevent it from breaking at this point4 ,the tangent-spoked wheel being almost absolutely rigid1 is the best hill-climber1 for there is no waste of power as in the direct-spoke wheel1 the transverse strain on the spokes of which causes a certain amount of 8give40 ,on the first safety bicycles built in this country #cj and #cb inch wheels were used4 ,afterward we settled down to the use of #bh-;inch wheels as a standard4 ,there is now1 however1 a slight tendency to reversion toward using #cj-;inch wheels4 ,the makers of the ,cleveland wheel have announced that they will market a bicycle having #cj-;inch wheels4 ,probably the only reason for this step lies in the dropped crank-hanger fad2 so that1 by using larger wheels1 they can still maintain the upper tube horizontal1 and get the required drop of from three to four inches4 ,viewed in another aspect1 however1 it will be found a source of annoyance and expense to the makers and riders as necessitating an extra stock of spokes1 rims and tires to fit the same1 and where they are not to be had promptly delays will be sure to occur in repairing4 ,the ruling size of wheel is not arbitrary1 but has been arrived at as the best net adjustment of all the conditions1 and any change to what has been thoroughly tested and abandoned is to be strongly disapproved1 unless 7which is not the case in this7 substantial reasons can be shown4 ,illustration3 ,,columbia ,,hub4 ,few people realize the torsional strain exerted on the rear hub when full power is applied to the pedals in climbing a steep hill where the momentum is not sufficient to carry the rider far and where the pull is more or less continuous on successive groups of spokes as the wheel revolves4 ,in addition to this pull on the spokes is to be considered the weight of the rider1 the greater proportion of which is sustained by the upper half of the rim and the corresponding spokes and not by the portion of the wheel nearest the ground as just explained4 ,it will be understood that each group will be subjected for an infinitesimal space of time to a maximum pull as the chain passes over the sprockets1 the strain being accentuated at each downward stroke of the pedals1 so that a single spoke when at a very high tension as compared with its neighbor frequently snaps when directly in line with the chain at the proper instant of time4 ,originally all hubs were made of what is known as gun metal1 the flanges of the hubs were very thick and tapered toward the centre of the hub4 ,they were made in this manner to provide sufficient room for tapping and threading the hub flanges so that the direct spokes which were in use at that time could be directly threaded into the hub4 ,illustration3 ,,keating ,,hub4 ,the #ahih tubular and barrel hubs are1 of course1 the result of many processes4 ,some of them are turned whole from bar steel2 others are stamped out of sheet metal2 some of them are formed out of tubing1 and a few of the cheaper makers use malleable iron or cast steel for this purpose4 ,all of the spokes used are made of either a special drawn steel wire or a piano wire4 ,they all possess great torsional or twisting strength1 and the tensile strength or stretch is from #ejj to #hjj pounds4 ,they average in gauge of thickness from #ac gauge1 which is expressed by the figures 4#jie1 to #ae gauge1 which is expressed by the figures 4#jgb4 ,front wheels have from twenty-four to thirty-six spokes and rear wheels from #bh to #dj spokes1 and while it is true that all the makers now use a tangent spoke there are a great many variations in its use4 ,the majority of them tie their spokes to each other where they cross4 ,there are a great many of the makers who do not tie them at all1 there being some difference of opinion as to the benefit to be derived from this treatment4 ,those in favor of tying spokes say that tying two or more spokes together at the crossing some distance above the hub shortens the leverage from the rim and practically gives the wheel an additional hub2 that they are also stiffer against side or lateral strain1 and that the only good tangent spoke is one that is tied at the crossing with its mates4 ,those who are opposed to tying spokes say that tying them together makes them too rigid and inflexible1 and that the process of wiring them and soldering them together has a tendency to crystallize the spokes at this point owing to the heat required to solder them4 ,this part of the argument1 however1 has been met by not wiring and soldering the spokes at the crossing1 but by pinching on them at this point a metal clamp such as is used on the ,humber wheel4 ,the opponents of tying the spokes assert that the very stiffness and rigidness which the wheel possesses when the spokes are tied has a tendency to also crystallize them at the hub flanges as well as cause them to break4 ,it may1 however1 be here stated that the pneumatic tire acts as a buffer1 and that the use of heavier rims and more spokes1 which are prominent characteristic features of #ahih wheel construction1 insures the whole wheel a greater factor of safety than heretofore known in construction1 and therefore less liability to get out of true4 ,illustration3 ,,sterling ,,hub4 ,the ,raleigh cycle1 an ,english production1 and which came into prominence in this country because it was ,arthur ,zimmerman's great mount1 had wheels in which two-thirds of the spokes were direct from hub to rim1 and the remaining third were crossed at a tangent4 ,it was1 however1 a sort of a compromise between the direct and tangent spokes1 and ultimately led the makers to use tangent spokes only4 ,,the ,,wood ,,wheel4 ,a number of attempts were made a few years ago to introduce hickory wheels in place of the wire suspension wheels1 among the most notable being a bicycle built by ,sterling ,elliott1 and called the 8,hickory40 ,the frame was built of tubing as was usual1 but the wheels--hubs1 spokes and rims--were made of hickory1 the spokes being known as radial spokes4 ,in order to maintain its rigidness and to carry the pneumatic tire the rim was surrounded by a metallic band in which the tire was placed4 ,the public did not take to this style of bicycle wheel1 and their manufacture was discontinued1 not however before ,mr4 ,elliott placed a pair of these ball bearing hickory wheels with pneumatic tires on a high wheel sulky1 which had been converted to carry these wheels4 ,the result was astonishing1 and today no other wheels are used on sulkies but #bh and #cj-;inch bicycle wheels with ball bearings and pneumatic tires1 and the result of their use had been that the times of the trotting horses have been reduced six to ten seconds per mile4 ,of course the present type of sulky is built specially with arched axles and frames to carry these wheels1 and the old high wooden wheel is as rarely seen on the trotting track as the good old 8ordinary0 is seen on the bicycle track4 ,illustration3 ,,wolff-,,american ,,hub4 ,hubs using a spoke having a hooked end with a rivet head on the end thereof1 which are drawn through the holes in the flanges of the hubs are not as popular as formerly1 a great many of the makers having departed from this method1 now using a spoke which is straight from the hub to the nipple4 ,they claim for this method that the absence of the bend in the spoke minimizes the liability of crystallization which is so apt to exist in spokes of the bent variety4 ,this style of direct tangent spoke was first shown in this country in #ahib by the makers of the ,liberty1 and among the most prominent users of this style of hub are the makers of the ,spalding1 ,victor1 ,crawford and the ,iroquois1 and which are almost duplicates of the ,liberty hub4 ,the ,keating differs somewhat from these1 inasmuch as the projections from the sides of the flanges are not opposite each other1 but are placed alternatively to receive a single spoke4 ,the ,liberty hub may be best described as follows3 ,it is a one-piece hub1 with lateral projections from the sides1 or flanges1 and these projections are drilled to carry the heads of two straight spokes1 each spoke running in a straight line to the opposite side of the rim4 ,the usual style of hub has a plain circular flange with holes drilled in it to receive the spokes2 this makes it necessary to bend the spokes at a right angle at the end1 where they are inserted over the face of the hub4 ,this sometimes rendered them liable to break1 and1 therefore1 what is known as the direct tangent spoke was invented4 ,illustration3 ,,cleveland ,,hub4 ,illustration3 ,,liberty ,,hub4 ,illustration3 ,,plymouth ,,rim ,,joint4 ,in this method of construction the hub end of the spoke is not bent1 but has a head made upon it like that of a rivet2 the strain comes in a direct line from end to end of the spoke1 and the entire spoke is in tension4 ,the early makers of direct tangent spokes found it necessary to make these of a somewhat heavier and softer wire than the tangent spokes which were bent at right angles to form a hook4 ,the use of this soft thick wire proved rather objectionable1 as it was with difficulty that the wheels could be kept true1 and the spokes were apt in compression to slide through the end of the flanges on the hub and make a noise4 ,however1 all makers who use direct tangent spokes are making them very much thinner than heretofore1 and of a harder quality of wire4 ,in fact1 the makers of the ,crescent 7also having these direct spokes7 use probably as light and as thin a wire as any of the makers who use a spoke with a bend at the end4 ,the makers of the ,wolff-,american 7who are also renowned as great makers of wire7 claim that there is no necessity for the use of a direct tangent spoke if the proper quality of wire is used for making the spoke which has its end bent at right angle1 and that while it is undoubtedly true that the spoke bent at right angles at the end does stretch its fibres on one side of the bend and compress them on the other1 still1 if the spoke flanges and spoke holes and the nipple holes at the rim were only drilled at a proper angle to each other1 there would be no danger of a broken spoke4 ,all #ahih spokes are swaged and butt-ended4 ,formerly spokes were known as upset and butt-ended4 ,upsetting a spoke consists in heating the ends and driving it backwards1 thus making it thicker than the rest of the spoke4 ,the objection to this practice consisted in its tendency to crystallization where the 8upset0 ended4 ,swaging a spoke consists in leaving the butt ends of the spoke the original thickness of the wire1 and reducing the diameter between the ends by a hammering process in a machine built for the purpose1 to a gauge or two smaller than the original thickness4 ,this method of making spokes reduces the weight1 leaves the heavy portion where it is most needed1 and adds great tensile strength to the spoke4 ,in making a spoke by this method the wires are at first made somewhat shorter than the length required1 as the swaging has a tendency to draw them out in length1 and in the best of modern practice of spoke making the threads are rolled on by machinery instead of having them cut on by a die1 as formerly4 ,the rolling process has this advantage1 that it does not reduce the diameter of the spoke and cut away so much material as the die threading process4 ,,various ,,styles ,,of ,,hub ,,and ,,self-,,oiling ,,devices4 ,the makers of the ,sterling1 who have always used a direct tangent spoke in connection with a hub having a corrugated flange1 show a new hub this season4 ,it is machined from a piece of bar steel4 ,the flanges or teeth are somewhat like a small rear sprocket4 ,they are1 however1 of the double hollow construction1 and on the rear hub on the sprocket side part of the flange is cut away on the outside1 leaving a large opening in the tooth1 which sits between the teeth of the sprocket wheel1 so that a spoke can be readily inserted without removing the sprocket wheel1 and through the first-mentioned hole the spoke is pushed forward and upward through a buttonhole1 and is then slid in a ,t-slot either right or left to its seat1 each tooth in the flange thus carrying two spokes1 one to each side of the rim4 ,on the left hand side of the rear hub the construction is reversed1 the flanges not being cut away as on the right hand side1 and the spokes are inserted through a similar opening as before described on the inside portion of the hub and flange4 ,on both sides of the front hub a similar construction is employed as that in use on the left side of the rear hub4 ,illustration3 ,,stearns ,,self-,,oiling ,,crank-,,hanger ,,mechanism4 ,the ,windsor hub is of the corrugated pattern1 having a double flange in which the spoke holes are drilled1 and with a buttonhole device for inserting the same4 ,the ,crescent hub is built with a straight flange over the body of the hub1 and this hub flange is turned over1 forming a wide bearing surface1 which is drilled for the spoke holes1 and underneath this outer edge a buttonhole device is placed in the body of the flange by which the spokes can be easily removed and replaced1 and without the removal of the rear sprocket4 ,the ,columbia hub has a series of studs inserted in the body of the hub and through these studs holes are drilled1 and the direct tangent spokes are inserted therein4 ,the ,eclipse hub is turned from the solid bar of steel and has two flanges at each end2 these flanges have alternate slots and holes4 ,a ,t-head spoke is inserted by passing the head down the slot and pushing it sideways down the opposite hole in the adjoining flange4 ,the ,wolff-,american hub1 which was one of the first large tubular hubs shown in this country1 is made of steel tubing without either projection or flanges1 but has a buttonhole device which greatly simplifies the replacing of spokes4 ,inside the hub and underneath the spoke holes is placed a dust-proof ring which prevents the intrusion of dust into the bearings4 ,they use a hollow axle containing an absorbent wick saturated with oil4 ,in the axle over the wick is a minute hole on each side1 through which the oil is drawn by centrifugal force by the revolving of the balls1 and thus is supplied to the bearings in the crank-hanger in the same way and automatically the supply is regulated by the demand4 ,the makers of the ,cleveland also have an automatic oiling device on their hubs4 ,the wheel and crank axles are tubular and hollow4 ,this space forms an oil receiver4 ,in order to prevent the oil from escaping from the hollow axles the end is plugged with a screw2 under the head of the screw is a piece of packing1 making the joint perfectly tight4 ,the flow of oil is regulated by wicking drawn through small holes drilled in the axles close to the bearings4 ,these holes are plugged so tightly that the oil will not escape when the bicycle is not in use4 ,the moment the wheel begins to revolve capillary attraction produces a drop of oil at the end of the wicking4 ,there is this to be said in favor of both the ,wolff-,american and ,cleveland devices that there is no danger of losing any oil cups1 and that after a long1 dusty ride oil has not surrounded the hubs and crank hanger bracket to which the dust can be attracted1 and the bicycle is therefore very much easier to keep clean4 ,the makers of these styles of automatic oiling devices claim that they will carry a season's supply of oil1 but even if this should not prove to be true1 it is only necessary to lay the bicycle on its side1 remove the plugs in the ends of the axles and pour oil into the reservoir4 ,,wood ,,rims4 ,as has been already noted in the article on tendencies1 the wood rim has undisputed possession of the field1 not a single ,american maker cataloguing a steel or other metal rim4 ,even the makers of the ,eagle1 who formerly used an aluminum rim1 now offer it as an option only1 and show all their samples with wood rims1 and this may again be regarded as a reversion1 the original type of the old 8,dandy ,horse0 velocipede having been built with wood rims and shod with iron1 the only difference now being that we use wood rims shod with air1 and when the 8good old ordinary0 came in vogue steel rims were introduced4 ,on the ordinary1 however1 which had only small solid tires1 the rim was a narrow grooved one1 and possessing1 as it did1 very little lateral strength1 it had a great tendency to buckle under the force of a blow or a collision1 and when the safety came in vogue this same idea of rim construction was carried into it4 ,an improvement was made1 however1 in their construction in making them of a double hollow construction which increased its lateral resistance1 but in case of accident made them extremely difficult to repair4 ,a little later1 when the cushion tire arrived1 the single rim and the double-hollow rim were used1 making them1 of course1 of a larger cross-section to fit the tires used1 and when the pneumatic tire was invented the steel rims first used very much resembled a band of hoop iron used on an ordinary washtub4 ,afterward double-hollow rims were used on bicycles with pneumatic tires1 and single rims which were fluted or corrugated in order to give them additional stiffness were also used4 ,in #ahia ,mc,kee ,harrington of ,new ,york ,city1 the makers of the ,lyndhurst1 introduced a bicycle having wood rims4 ,these rims were made of second-growth white ash and were of the single-piece variety1 joined together with a long1 tapering 8skive10 and the entire rim and joint were covered with natural color ,pongee silk1 which was glued on1 producing a watertight rim4 ,this rim was the production of ,mr4 ,charles ,harrington of this firm1 who for many years before entering the bicycle business had been known as a practical wood worker4 ,makers and riders were very skeptical of the value of the wood rim1 but after a few well-known racing men had won a few track and road events on them and the wood rim had shown its utility and value by its increased resiliency and speed1 and that it was stronger across its lateral plane than a steel rim of any type could ever hope to be1 and with its non-liability1 therefore1 to buckle in a collision1 it became a popular thing1 and in less than two years1 as has been seen1 it has completely routed the steel rim out of the ,american market4 ,in ,england1 however1 owing to the large use of the detachable tire and the moist climate1 its advance has not been so rapid1 but it is coming along even there1 and it bids fair to supplant the steel rim there in another season or two4 ,one-piece rims are not so largely used as heretofore4 ,the laminated rim as now made1 which was originated in #ahic1 seems to be the most popular one on a majority of the high cost bicycles on the market4 ,it is to be noted1 however1 that the rims of this season1 almost without exception1 are broader across their face and thicker through in section1 which is an especially good feature1 inasmuch as it gives the tire a larger and firmer bed to rest upon1 so that it is not so liable to be cut by the edges of the rim4 ,of course1 making the rim broader and thicker and heavier takes away some of the points which were formerly used in its favor1 notably those of light weight and resiliency4 ,the up-to-date wood rim more closely approaches in weight the lightest possible form of steel rim1 and it is a notable fact that the wood rim is the only prominent contribution in bicycle construction that ,america has presented to the world1 and there is good reason for this1 however1 because our ,yankee and our ,western wood workers have long been famous for their progress in the art of wood working and wood bending4 ,one of the most famous wood benders is ,mr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,shepard of ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 ,in #ahhi he had the temerity to send to the ,paris ,exposition1 in the care of a ,french exhibitor1 not wishing to go to the expense of a personal representation1 some samples of his wood bending4 ,these samples came in direct competition with the great ,vienna1 ,german and ,french wood benders1 and although ,mr4 ,shepard1 as before stated1 was not personally represented1 to his great surprise the ,commissioners unanimously awarded him the only solid silver medal for superior excellence in that department4 ,illustration3 ,,plymouth ,,rim4 ,illustration3 ,,kundtz ,,rim4 ,this same ,mr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,shepard 7who1 by the way1 is a six-footer and bearded like a patriarch71 in a lecture in ,new ,york ,city on wood-bending before the master mechanics of the ,carriage ,makers' ,association1 placed his audience in good humor with him when he declared that his earliest recollections of bending were when1 while a boy1 his mother bent him over her knee to keep him straight4 ,the ,shepard is a one-piece wood rim of second growth white ash4 ,the ends are butted together and an ovoid piece of hardwood is inserted over the butt ends on the inside of the joint4 ,this insert extends about three inches each side of the butt-ended joint and is flush with the remainder of the rim4 ,these rims are bent by compressing the inner surface in a hydraulic press without stretching the outer periphery of the rim4 ,this method shortens the inner surface about six inches1 thereby greatly toughening the inner surface of the wood4 ,the average weight of the steel rim formerly used was about #bd ounces4 ,the average weight of the wood rim used for a cemented-on tire as first made was about #ad ounces4 ,the average weight of the wood rim in use today is probably about #ah ounces4 ,,various ,,makes ,,of ,,wood ,,rims4 ,another popular rim is called the ,winona4 ,the process of making the ,winona rim is as follows3 ,there is about six inches difference in the circumference between the inside and outside of the rough rim4 ,the bars being straight before they are bent1 it is obvious the inside must stretch or the outside upset4 ,the process used prevents stretching of the outside fibre of the rim1 and actually upsets the outside as well as the inside1 thereby interlocking the entire fibre and doubling its original strength4 ,they use a plain beveled dovetail joint4 ,they also make a laminated rim1 and what they call a screwed rim4 ,this rim has screws at stated intervals running crosswise of the rim1 coming just under the seat of the groove1 as the greatest strain on the rims is caused by the spokes1 which sometimes result in splitting the rim4 ,they have undertaken to overcome this1 or1 rather1 to strengthen the rim by putting in these screws4 ,the illustration shows a sectional end view of the rim and the manner of inserting the screw from side to side4 ,the ,winona rims are made of butt cuts1 and they use what is known as a second cut rock elm only for their rims4 ,rock elm has dark streaks running through and is dark in color1 differing1 therefore1 from second growth white ash1 which is very light in color4 ,a well known wood rim is that known as the ,plymouth1 which consists of a single piece of rock elm bent1 jointed and turned on a lathe4 ,the joint in the ,plymouth rim is so constructed that the ends come together square across4 ,it consists of a series of tongues and grooves interlocking1 the tension of the spokes making them tighter instead of straining them apart4 ,one of the special features of the ,plymouth rim is the fact that the spoke holes are eyeletted and are thus made waterproof4 ,the illustration shows their reinforced joint4 ,the ,kundtz is known as a double reinforced rim4 ,it requires two rims to make one1 and the manner of cementing one rim into the other1 with a section of thin wood between them1 which has its grain running crosswise to the two main sections1 as shown in the illustration1 produces one of the strongest wood rims made4 ,another improvement in this make is the fact that its glued joints are not exposed to the weather1 which has been considered a detriment in building up rims of the old style4 ,one of the most popular rims is that which is known as the ,fairbanks-,boston4 ,a laminated wood rim is one1 as is now quite generally known1 formed of curvilinear maple segments1 indissolubly cemented into perfect unity under enormous hydraulic pressure1 which1 because of this principle of jointure1 remains perfectly true both laterally and in periphery1 while the transverse grains of the adjoining segments or lamin absolutely prevent splitting along the line of spokes in the impact of collision or shock4 ,the fact that no single joint extends through the rim effectually overcomes any tendency to break off in any direction or manner4 ,the makers use three curvilinear segments of ,pennsylvania rock maple4 ,each segment is planed on both sides to a thickness of mathematical exactness throughout the entire length1 thus insuring absolute unbroken contact when cementing to the adjoining segments4 ,the overlapping ends of each segment are by special machinery then 8scarfed0 to feather edges1 obtaining laps equal in length tapering on an angle which experience has proven correct4 ,by this process of bending the rims do not require steaming1 which disintegrates the fibre of the wood1 and in cementing the joints the three laps are placed at points of the circumference of equal distance apart1 rendering the tensile strength absolutely uniform in all parts4 ,in compressing the segments of the rim together hydraulic pressure is applied to the periphery of the rim after the application of the cement4 ,an enormous pressure is applied equally at all circumferential points1 and it is maintained until the cement has completely solidified the three independent segments into the form of a permanent circle4 ,they also make what is known as a covered laminated rim1 the enveloping fabric1 which is a special quality of pure ,irish linen1 fitted exactly on the rim and secured permanently with liquid cement1 and it is estimated that enclosing the rim in this manner imparts at least #cj per cent4 to its strength1 with a corresponding increase in is resiliency1 and these rims are therefore recommended in damp climates1 and for use on tandems and other multicycles4 ,all the makers furnish their rims in a natural varnish1 and also stained in imitation of rosewood and other woods1 and many of the makers in addition to this furnish the rims painted and striped in different colors1 in many instances matching the colors of the enamels used on the frames4 ,at the '#if ,cycle ,show papier-mach rims were shown1 for which great claims were made and a great deal expected1 but none of the well-known manufacturers adopted them1 and the company that brought them out has since gone out of existence4 ,trials within the knowledge of the writers proved that these rims as made then were not practical4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,tire4 ,at all times through the history of the art of cycle construction distinct efforts were made to decrease the vibration and to increase the velocity1 and none of these efforts were successful with the exception of the pneumatic tire4 ,indeed the pneumatic tire has been well described as being 8the great marvel of bicycle making1 both literally and figuratively1 and the foundation upon which the modern bicycle rests40 ,spring forks1 spring frames and springy saddles were at one bound replaced by it4 ,invented late in #ahhh by ,john ,dunlop1 a veterinary surgeon of ,belfast1 ,ireland1 it was tested quietly for nearly a year in and around ,belfast before being launched on the ,british and foreign cycle markets1 and its success in #ahhi and '#ij was so remarkable that it was regarded as the distinctive feature of the decade4 ,the first pneumatic tires were received in this country in the fall of #ahhi on some ,english bicycles4 ,they were placed on a flat steel rim1 were about #b inches in diameter1 and the outer shoe or cover had a heavy1 thickened tread1 and was fastened to the rim by two canvas flaps1 which were slit to pass the spokes1 thus completely enveloping the rim4 ,the inner tube was a very heavy one1 not nearly so resilient as those in use at the present time4 ,the great features of this tire were1 however1 its strength and its non-liability to puncture4 ,its chief objections were its great cost1 its enormous weight1 and the difficulty to repair when once punctured4 ,it was almost a day's work to soften with naphtha the cemented flaps1 remove them carefully from the rim1 withdraw the inner tube from its enveloping tube of seamless constricted canvas which enveloped it to repair the puncture and to replace the tube and to recement the flaps to the rim4 ,this type of tire is1 however1 now extinct1 save that ,dunlop's fundamental idea of the pneumatic tire still prevails with modifications only in methods of attachment1 material and details of construction4 ,the advantages which the pneumatic tire possesses are so many and so well known that it is not here necessary1 however1 to enumerate them4 ,comfort to the rider is1 of course1 its greatest point4 ,vibration is intercepted at the best possible point1 namely at the point of contact between the tire and the ground1 and thus the vibration is not distributed through the entire structure of the bicycle1 the air cushion of the tire being really a spring which is always ready for use1 and which works without rubbing surfaces4 ,when an obstruction is encountered it sinks into the tire and the bicycle rides over it without vibration or jolt being communicated to the rider4 ,its next great point of advantage is of course its speed4 ,the invention of the ,dunlop1 or inner1 tube tire in ,england1 was followed in ,england by the invention of a type of tire known familiarly here as the hosepipe tire4 ,the hosepipe or single tube tire was first suggested and fully described by ,i4 ,w4 ,boothroyd of ,london1 ,england1 in a letter to the ,cyclist in #ahij4 ,he did not1 however1 patent the tire1 and he has1 unfortunately1 no pecuniary interest whatever in the single tube tire4 ,the old ,draisene1 the wooden and iron 8,boneshakers0 or velocipedes all had iron tires on wooden rims4 ,the ,phantom1 an ,english production1 was the first bicycle put upon the market that had wooden rims and rubber tires4 ,its rubber tires1 however1 were nailed on4 ,when the ordinary came into vogue1 ,u and ,v shaped steel rims were used4 ,these were usually made solid1 although some of the makers made them hollow4 ,into these rims solid rubber tires were cemented1 and a few of the ,english makers had an arrangement for fixing them in mechanically1 with corrugated wires4 ,they averaged and #a inch in size and were very comfortable riding1 although they were somewhat heavy4 ,between #ahgf and #ahhb there was a tendency to decrease the thickness of the rubber tire and a perfect fad ensued for thin tires4 ,this1 however1 like other fads in bicycle construction did not last very long1 and a few years later there was a distinct tendency to return to tires of a larger diameter4 ,shortly after the safety bicycle was introduced in this country the cushion tire was invented4 ,this was usually a large round rubber tire1 which was moulded with a core in the centre and which1 when withdrawn1 left a hole varying in size from to of an inch1 according to the size of the core4 ,the ends were then lapped and then vulcanized together1 forming a complete circle and having an unpuncturable air cushion of small diameter4 ,the objections to this style of tire were its weight and cost4 ,it was1 of course1 superior to the solid tire1 but greatly inferior to the pneumatic tire in every way1 and1 coming1 as it did1 into existence at about the same time that the pneumatic tire did1 of course1 it did not survive4 ,one of the most popular ,american cushion tires at that time was the ,victor4 ,they used a hollow rim and the tire was a simple arch of rubber extending from edge to edge of the rim4 ,its side walls were held against spreading by side flanges having rounded edges1 and which the tire covered and protected4 ,the base of the tire rested upon a horizontal rim bed1 and which added greatly in giving lateral stiffness to the tire and strength to the hollow rim4 ,like the pneumatic tire1 this tire displaced inwardly under pressure1 and the movement of the rubber was1 therefore1 wholly radial1 which accounted for the great elasticity of the ,victor cushion tire4 ,these tires were not1 however1 cemented to the rim or stretched over the rim1 but were compressed to the rim by a peculiar process of their own1 and it was almost impossible to pull a ,victor tire from the rim4 ,in #ahij ,t4 ,b4 ,jeffery of the ,gormully ,jeffery ,manufacturing ,company of ,chicago1 who had invented a detachable tire in the days of the use of the solid tire1 conceived the idea of applying his previous ideas in regard to detachable tires to the pneumatic tire1 and the result was the invention of the ,g4 ,j4 tire with a corrugated tread4 ,from year to year it has been improved in detail1 always retaining the corrugations1 the number of which is changed annually to indicate the year of manufacture1 but the principle of the tire remains unchanged4 ,the ,g4 ,j4 tire1 as adapted to wooden rims1 has proven a great success4 ,the wood rim is made with a square central groove1 with a supplementary groove at each side with double beads at each edge of the outer case of the tire1 which fit into the grooves of the rim4 ,the tire is so constructed that the entire strain of the air pressure comes upon the square central groove1 where the rim is strongest4 ,the outer cover is made with a supplementary flap4 ,in applying the tire the edge of the case having the flap is placed on the rim first4 ,the flap extends a little past the edge of the rim and the other edge is easily slipped under the supplementary flap into its place in the rim4 ,illustration3 ,,morgan ,,wright ,,tire4 ,a tire somewhat similar to this was invented in ,england about the same time1 known as ,bartlett's ,clincher1 and manufactured by the ,north ,british ,rubber ,co41 under ,bartlett's patents1 and a tire largely used in this country in #ahia to #ahic was that known as the ,bidwell-,thomas tire1 and which was similar in construction to the ,dunlop tire already described2 and among the early ,american tires in addition to those already mentioned were the hosepipe tires known as the ,columbia1 ,ideal1 the ,new ,york ,belting and ,packing ,co4's ,protective ,strip and the ,palmer4 ,but even of these1 some that have survived have undergone some radical changes in their construction4 ,the ,dunlop tire1 for instance1 now has an endless wire in each side of its outer shoe4 ,the inner tube lies in the base of the rim1 and when the inner tube is inflated the air pressure holds the outer shoe to the rim4 ,the ,dunlop1 although it is largely used in this country1 is still more largely used in ,england1 although plans have been laid by the ,american makers of hosepipe tires to increase the sale of their product in ,england this year4 ,to the makers of the ,columbia1 however1 must be given the credit of introducing the hosepipe tire in this country1 for in #ahib they were practically alone in their belief that the single tube tire was the coming tire4 ,the hosepipe tires made at that time were1 of course1 very heavy and difficult to repair1 but they continued to manufacture them and gradually became skilful in their processes of manufacture1 and developed repair methods that are still in use4 ,at the ,chicago ,cycle ,shows of #ahie there were only two tire makers who exhibited hosepipe tires1 but a year later at the shows nearly every great tire maker in the country exhibited hosepipe tires1 and since that time they have been the most popular tires in use in this country4 ,illustration3 ,,buckeye ,,rim4 ,mention here should be made1 however1 of the invention in this country at this time of what has been popularly known as the ,morgan ,wright inner tube tire1 and which differed from the detachable inner tube tires in its construction1 the outer shoe resembling a hosepipe tire with the exception that on its inner or rim side it is slit open for about six inches each side of the valve stem1 and the inner tube is drawn into the shoe through this opening4 ,when the tube is placed in position the slits1 which have eye-holes on their sides1 are laced together1 and the tire is cemented to the rim4 ,the ,morgan ,wright tire is one of the most popular on the market1 and has been improved by placing in the inside of the inner tube what is known as a quick repair strip4 ,the ,quick ,repair strip is simply the addition of a thin web or film of rubber which lies inside of the inner tube next to the rim4 ,they also make this year1 for the first time1 a single tube tire containing this quick repair strip1 so that punctures can be easily repaired without plugs and with the added advantage of permanence4 ,this tire also has a valve which can be removed so that a defective valve stem does not mean a ruined tire4 ,in making the tire the inner rubber lining is vulcanized before the tire is built up instead of afterward1 so that it is much less likely to have holes in it or leak4 ,another advantage of this type of single tube tire is that large cuts in it can be readily vulcanized4 ,the ,palmer tire is also one of the original tires that has survived4 ,in construction the ,palmer tire differs from other pneumatics in that linen threads are used instead of woven cotton fabric4 ,to use the language of the inventor1 8,upon a pure gum tube is wound spirally two layers of thread2 each thread imbedded in rubber and out of contact with its neighbors1 the two layers separated from each other by a wall of pure rubber1 and one wound at an angle of forty-five degrees to the other4 ,this method makes a seamless1 endless1 spirally laid tube1 unequalled in strength1 speed and durability1 in combination with resiliency4 ,its advantages are summed up as follows3 ,each thread being laid straight under high tension and at a tangent to the rim of the wheel1 power is transmitted without loss4 ,each thread being separated from all neighboring threads by an elastic body of rubber1 they are free to move over each other without friction to the limits of the elasticity of the said rubber4 ,this1 in combination with the construction described1 gives the greatest possible speed and resiliency4 ,by reason of the threads being separately cushioned by soft rubber1 the whole strength of the fibres is utilized4 ,as there is absolutely no friction between the threads1 they cannot wear each other out4 ,hence durability is assured4 ,as there are but one hundred and twenty threads in the whole tube each extending spirally around its entire length and imbedded in an elastic body1 any inequality in tension adjusts itself4 ,as the tube is seamless there is no chance of its bursting through bad joints40 ,a well-known detachable inner tube tire is that known as the ,liberty4 ,it resembles the ,dunlop in its general construction1 save that the wires instead of being endless are joined together at their ends by a turnbuckle1 having right and lefthand threads1 and after the outer shoe is placed in the steel rim these turnbuckles are slipped into holes cut into the edges of the rim on the opposite side1 and operated and adjusted by inserting a wire key into the holes in the turnbuckles4 ,in using this tire on a wooden rim1 however1 the turnbuckles are not exposed1 but lie on the interior edge of the rim1 so that by deflating the tire slightly and pushing the shoe back the turnbuckles are exposed and can be readily operated4 ,among the old tire makers who are still in the field are the ,new ,york ,belting and ,packing ,company4 ,their ,league ,special single tube tire is a high speed road tire1 constructed of precisely the same rubber and fabric used in the ,league racing tire1 the quantity of each being practically doubled1 to give the strength and wear required for road service4 ,the rubber is fine ,para1 the fabric ,sea ,island1 strong and light1 woven so that each individual thread has free play in every direction4 ,this elasticity of texture permits the tire to yield instantly to obstructions1 carries it over small obstacles without jolt or jar and reduces vibration to a marked degree4 ,the ,vim tire people1 who were the first in the field with the famous pebble tread tire1 are this year showing a new design which they call the 8,vim ,serrate40 ,this tire has a narrow strip of perfectly smooth rubber about three-eighths of an inch wide encircling the tire on the tread4 ,on either side of this strip are eight fine and accurately moulded corrugations4 ,the effect of this construction is to produce a tire which has a perfectly smooth tread when the tire is vertical1 but which when the wheel is inclined at an angle in rounding corners will bring these serrations in contact with the ground1 thus counteracting the natural tendency of the tire to slip in turning corners at speed4 ,this design combines the advantages of both the smooth and pebble tread1 and in addition to its utility in this direction gives the tire a very stylish appearance4 ,the ,serrate is being fitted to a very generous number of the early '#ih model sample wheels4 ,its appearance is certainly in its favor1 but it remains to be seen how well it will take with the public4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,arrow ,,tread ,,tire4 ,the '#ih ,defender ,special single tube tire is manufactured by the ,kokomo ,rubber ,company1 ,kokomo1 ,ind4 ,the material used in the construction of this tire is the same as was used in the '#ig ,defender1 being the finest of ,sea ,island cotton fabric and ,old ,upriver ,para4 ,the tire itself does not differ materially from the ,defender single tube1 aside from the tread1 which has a corrugation about one-half inch on either side of the centre of the tread1 and is entirely new and very sightly4 ,a novelty in treads is a tire called the 8,won't ,slip10 which was invented by ,c4 ,j4 ,bailey1 the inventor and patentee of ,bailey's rubber brushes4 ,the entire tread of the tire is covered with round teeth closely set together4 ,the makers say it will not slip under any conditions of surface1 such as wet car rails1 asphalt or macadam1 and that it is #ij per cent4 puncture proof when under pressure4 ,the ,b4 ,f4 ,goodrich ,company of ,akron1 ,o41 make a corrugated rubber tread band which is endless and which can be applied with rubber cement to the worn treads of all kinds of pneumatic tires4 ,a pair of these treads cost only #a4ej4 ,they look as if they might be a practical thing4 ,the ,hodgman tire1 style ,f1 has a fleur-de-lis design on the tread4 ,this may be regarded simply as a novelty in roughened tread construction4 ,the ,american ,tire ,company of ,new ,york are marketing a new tire called the ,apex1 the base of which is round1 but the whole construction of the tire somewhat resembles an arrow or spearhead1 and on the point of which is a very thickened tread preventing puncture1 but having thin flexible side walls4 ,the ,india ,rubber ,company of ,akron1 ,o41 have a tire presenting what they call an 8arrow0 tread4 ,it has a small arch or rib on the centre of the tread of the tire1 from which run tapering ribs to the sides somewhat resembling an arrow in shape1 the idea of this being to prevent side slip on wet or greasy pavement1 and on turning corners4 ,illustration3 ,,dreadnaught ,,tire4 ,the ,dreadnaught tire is a peculiar one1 its peculiarity consisting in having an articulated tread band1 which consists of pieces of wood having concave sides and pivots between them which enables freedom of yield with the give of the tire1 but preventing sharp pointed projections from passing between the joints1 and this articulated band is enveloped in a bed of rubber that is coated with a suitable fabric1 the arrangement being such that the individual members of the band have free movement1 enabling the pneumatic cushion behind to yield to the same extent as it would without this band1 but the manner of yielding is different4 ,for whereas the ordinary pneumatic tire absorbs at its point of contact the ,dreadnaught yields at its tread over an extended surface1 and also yields freely at its side walls4 ,they claim that this tire possesses great speed owing to the very slight frictional contact of the surface and that upon a loose or sandy road its broad flat surface will ride upon the top of the sand and not sink down in it like the ordinary round tread tire would4 ,side slip is also avoided by the use of the rib and the edge of the tread4 ,illustration3 ,,straus ,,protected ,,tire4 ,every one actively interested in the subject of tires will readily admit that the puncture proof tire is the tire of the future4 ,inventors are aiming to that end1 and it is unfortunately true that the aim of most of them1 while high1 has not been straight or true4 ,the result has been a confusion of so-called puncture proof tires1 the non-utility and impracticability of which are observable at a glance4 ,steel1 iron1 wood1 cork and chemical compounds have all been brought into use1 and in such ludicrous shapes as to make the average puncture proof tire an object of deserved ridicule4 ,in common with other interested people1 the inventor of the ,straus protected tire has for years sought the end in view--a practical puncture proof tire4 ,he was one of the very first to engage in the tire trade1 and since the year #ahij has been continuously and prominently identified with the business in expert capacities as inventor1 manufacturer and seller4 ,his extensive knowledge has been concentrated in the ,straus protection tire4 ,it is composed entirely of rubber and fabric1 the same as all of the practical tires now in universal use4 ,as the single tube tire is now the leading tire in use in this country1 and as for easy riding and speed it cannot be excelled1 the ,straus protected tire is made in the single tube form4 ,it can be produced1 however1 in double and detachable forms4 ,it is called a 8protected tire0 because the tire proper is protected by a shoe1 which is made with six plies of fabric and which surrounds the tire proper loosely when fully inflated4 ,this protector is not a part of the tire proper1 but a fixed attachment thereto1 affording a surface over which the tire rides4 ,the tire proper is a highly resilient single tube tire1 actually a racing tire1 which gives the tire its life4 ,the cover or protector does not in any way subtract from its resiliency for the reason that the outer cover does not come in contact with it any more than the ground does with any tire1 the cover being simply the road over which the tire proper travels4 ,in fact1 the 8,straus protected tire0 carries its own road1 so to speak4 ,in other words1 the protector acts the same as if it were laid on the ground and the tire proper passed over it4 ,we have found that the tire does not slip on wet pavements or wet asphalt1 and that it prevents cutting on the rim4 ,in coasting tests the tire complete has coasted as far as the same tire with the cover removed1 sufficiently proving that the protector does not take away any of the life of the tire proper4 ,it is proof against nails1 thorns1 pins1 glass and all other of the 8ills0 which a tire encounters on the road in everyday use1 and the result is obtained without a resort to freakdom or without affecting the life and practical utility of the tire4 ,in appearance the tire is just the same as any other single tube tire1 and is applied to the rim in exactly the same way4 ,in case of puncture remove the protector1 the protector being only cemented to the tire with rubber solution and easily removed4 ,it is very necessary that the space between the tire proper and the protector is not too great1 else the tire will drag4 ,it should be just loose enough to be felt when the tire is fully inflated1 and no more4 ,the weight of a pair of the regulation #a in4 tires is about #d pounds4 ,the ,buckeye tire has a square base and is held to the rim by steel toothed washers which are held in place by the heads of the spoke nipples1 and the teeth of these washers prevent creeping of the tire1 making cementing unnecessary1 and there is no possibility of the tire ever creeping and cutting the valve stem off4 ,the outer cover is open at its base and laced all around in sections1 so that when punctured only one section needs to be unlaced4 ,the lacing holes through the base and the side screws which enditch the cord are vulcanized in a mould4 ,the inner air tube is endless and is entirely surrounded by the outer cover1 thus giving an even pressure of air all around1 which sometimes butt ended tubes do not4 ,in producing a tire that has all the qualities demanded by experienced riders1 namely1 speed1 resilience1 strength and durability1 the manufacturers of the ,kangaroo1 the ,national ,india ,rubber ,company1 have made a radical departure in the construction of their tire4 ,the ,kangaroo tire is made to conform to the prevailing weight in tires1 but in doing so it has been necessary to use more rubber1 owing to the fact that only about one-half the quantity of thread is used4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,kangaroo4 ,one of the principal objects sought in designing the ,kangaroo tire was to reduce to the lowest possible point consistent with strength the inelastic material 7thread or fabric7 employed1 and to this end a special yarn or thread of ,sea ,island cotton of a tensile strength of seven and one-quarter pounds each was obtained4 ,to secure greater elasticity in the fabric continuous threads1 coated with rubber1 are wound spirally from one end of the tire to the other1 doing away with the friction of thread upon thread and stiffness to the ordinary fabric4 ,the inner tube is placed on the mandrel of the tire machine1 and the threads are wound spirally around it at an angle of #de degrees1 after first being immersed in a solution of rubber4 ,an intermediate inner tube is then put on1 and a second layer of thread wound about it at the same angle1 but in an opposite direction1 making an angle of #ij degrees between the two layers4 ,it will be readily seen that only one-half as much thread is used as is contained in two-ply of woven fabric1 and yet the peculiar construction gives1 among other advantages1 nearly twice the strength of any other make of tire4 ,the next step is the application of the tread strip1 which serves a double purpose4 ,in the road tire it is used to thicken the tire at its most vulnerable points1 and in the track racing tire serves as a tread and as a protector of the threads4 ,the outer cover is now put on1 the ends spliced and the tire is ready for the mold4 ,a great increase of speed is obtained by this method of construction1 and the pliability1 elasticity and yielding qualities of the ,kangaroo tire lend an additional pleasure to road riding4 ,its constructive features make punctures exceedingly rare and easily repaired4 ,the intermediate inner tube1 it is claimed1 positively prevents porosity4 ,the method of manufacture1 as above described1 produces their road tire4 ,the only difference between their track tire and road tire is that in the racing tire the outer shoe is omitted4 ,in all other respects they are the same4 ,,repair ,,tools4 ,next to the make of tire1 its resilient and lasting qualities1 the efficiency of the valve and the merit of the various claims for advantage set forth by the different makers1 the question of emergency repair in case of puncture1 is equal1 in importance with any of the foregoing considerations4 ,in the early days of the pneumatic1 a puncture upon the road was a matter of grave moment1 and the more serious accident of the tearing off of the valve stem1 or the cracking of the shoe itself1 was a cause for lamentation1 indeed4 ,repair shops were not then equipped with the necessary means to quickly set such conditions to right1 and the emergency repair kits furnished riders were exceedingly crude compared with those now provided by every first-class tire manufacturer4 ,today1 however1 the rider1 by virtue of the improved puncture repairing tools carried in his tool bag1 regards the average puncture merely as a possible incident of his spin1 and more serious mishaps to either tire or valve stem are handled by the ordinary repair man1 where1 not many years ago1 they necessitated the sending of the tire to the makers and a consequent long and tedious delay1 with the alternative of purchasing a new tire4 ,illustration3 ,,goodrich ,,jiffy ,,tool4 ,of course the old solid tires that were so long in use on the ordinary and on the first safeties did not need many repairs4 ,not being air cushions1 they could not be punctured1 their main trouble being usually their liability to get detached from the rim and the tendency to stretch4 ,the usual method of relieving this excess in length caused by stretching was to cut them1 take out a piece and revulcanize them together again1 but even this was not done very often4 ,when the cushion tire came in vogue1 considerable difficulty was experienced1 owing to the fact of their wearing in a peculiar manner4 ,they did not break1 as might be expected1 on the outside1 but they broke from the walls1 as the hollow core itself did not offer sufficient support1 and many efforts were made to solve this problem4 ,the first ,dunlop pneumatic tires used in this country1 as before stated1 were very difficult to repair1 but when once the tube was brought to light1 patching it was an easy thing4 ,in fact1 the same method of repairing the inner tube is today in use4 ,a portion of the tube immediately surrounding the puncture is roughened with sandpaper to remove the sulphur bloom1 a little rubber solution is smeared around the spot1 a piece of sheet rubber1 or material similar to that of which the tube is constructed is similarly smeared with solution1 and when this solution reaches what is called a 8tacky0 condition1 the patch is pressed over the puncture until it gets 8set10 and the only improvement in repairing inner tube tires is what is known as the ,morgan ,wright quick repair method4 ,in this method the inner tube has an addition of a thin web or film of rubber which lies inside of the inner tube1 next to the rim1 and adds about #a ounces to the weight of the tire1 and yet does not affect the resiliency of the tire in any way4 ,should1 however1 a repair in this method fail1 the old method of withdrawing the tube from the casing can still be adopted4 ,one method of repairing this style of inner tube is as follows3 ,a repair tool1 having a hollow needle point containing thick rubber solution1 is inserted through the outer casing and the inner tube2 the top of the tool containing the solution is then withdrawn1 and this top contains a slender wire1 which1 when in place1 was in the hollow needle4 ,the butt end of this hollow needle plug is then screwed into the tube1 which1 therefore1 forces the cement through the needle point and down on top of the web or film of rubber inside of the tube4 ,the needle and needle plug are then withdrawn2 the tire is then pressed together1 and upon releasing it the quick repair strip adheres to the punctured spot1 and the tire is permanently repaired4 ,the first hosepipe tires used in this country were extremely difficult to repair1 and it looked for a time as if the repair of this type of tire could not be made a success4 ,when punctured it was extremely hard to locate the leak and still harder to repair it properly4 ,after numerous abortive attempts to produce a repair kit that would be satisfactory in every way1 the mushroom patch was introduced4 ,the next great step forward in repairing tires was that of vulcanizing them where punctured1 but at that time this necessitated their being returned to the rubber works to be repaired4 ,at present every bicycle repairer of any consequence does his own vulcanizing1 and there is now a neat little vulcanizer on the market by which every rider can do his own vulcanization4 ,but of the process of vulcanization we will treat later on4 ,a peculiar fact1 however1 is that when ,mr4 ,boothroyd suggested building a hosepipe tire he at the same time suggested the use of plugs for repairs1 and the use of plastic compounds also4 ,there are a number of repair kits on the market today1 and among the most popular is one called the ,hartford4 ,this kit contains the usual mushroom plugs1 a pair of light steel plyers to hold the plugs and to force them through the tire1 with the necessary solution1 and among the plastic compounds that are popular are those known as the ,vimoid1 the ,goodrich ,jiffy1 the ,palmer1 the ,chase1 the 8,kokomo ,korker10 and the ,amazon4 ,all these plastic compound repair kits are operated on the one principle4 ,the puncture is first located1 and the wheel is then turned so as to work from the under side4 ,the compound is contained in a collapsible tube1 which is inserted into a nickel-plated holder1 which has a hollow needle point4 ,this needle point is inserted in the puncture and the compound is forced through the puncture1 which operation leaves a mass resembling a large button over the puncture4 ,the instrument is then withdrawn with a twisting motion4 ,these compounds are necessarily very quick drying1 and after two or three moments of waiting the tire is inflated1 and1 if the operation has been a success1 the puncture is permanently repaired4 ,the ,common ,sense ,repair ,kit has a cutter which cuts a clean hole through the puncture in the tire1 instead of burning the same out1 and also avoids the tearing caused by expanding tools4 ,the plugs in use with this repair kit have a tapered stem1 to which is attached a strong linen loop4 ,the back of the plug also has a slight indentation to guide the pointer while pushing it through the tire4 ,the kit is used as follows3 ,after the hole has been cut and the parts thoroughly cleaned and cement applied1 the plug is forced in the tire up to the flange1 the linen loop being retained on the outside by passing it over the thumb4 ,the plug is then forced inside the tire with the pointer1 after which it is drawn up against the tire by means of the linen loop4 ,the ,griswold ,repair ,tool takes the ordinary mushroom plug and inserts it in easily and perfectly4 ,the tool itself is a pointed sliding expansion holder1 which carries the plug on the inside of it and forces the head of the plug through the tire1 and upon withdrawing the tool leaving one end of the plug sticking through the puncture4 ,this end is then cut off smoothly with the tread of the tire4 ,the ,minute ,repair ,kit can be used on either an inner tube or a hosepipe tire4 ,it does not1 like some other repair kits1 cut and impair the strength of the fabric1 but simply forces and holds the threads apart while the patch is inserted and cemented1 when the threads are allowed to assume their normal positions4 ,the repair is not made with a plug as usual1 which is sometimes liable to become displaced when in use1 or leak air when the tire is inflated and the fabric distended1 but is made with a flat patch or disk of pure rubber1 strengthened by a cloth backing1 and is placed on the inside or inner wall of the tire4 ,the ,newton ,puncture ,repair ,tool somewhat resembles the other plastic repair tools previously mentioned1 with the exception that the solution is not carried in collapsible tubes1 but is contained in the tool itself1 the tool holding sufficient cement to repair three punctures4 ,in case of large punctures1 however1 where a plug is necessary1 they use a plug which differs from the ordinary mushroom plug because it has two heads to it1 one head being very much larger than the other4 ,in inserting these plugs the small head of the plug is firmly gripped with a pair of plyers1 and both the plug and the jaws of the plyers are liberally coated with cement4 ,the end of the plug gripped by the plyers is then forced into the puncture1 leaving the large flange remaining on the tread of the tire1 and to which it will adhere firmly4 ,the 8,sure ,thing0 ,tire ,mender repairs punctures in single tube tires without either cement or patent solution1 using small rubber bands which are plugged and rivetted inside and out4 ,a long steel needle1 having on one end a large ring to hold it by1 and on the other end a long slit or eye1 with an opening in it1 is used as a tool4 ,on this tool ten or twelve little elastic rubber bands are slipped in order to repair an ordinary puncture4 ,for large punctures more bands are added4 ,the needle end of the tool is then inserted into the tire1 leaving the opening of the eye outside of the tire4 ,one repair band at a time is then pushed into the slit of the tool and then pushed through the puncture4 ,the tool is then withdrawn1 and this operation is then repeated until all the bands are inside the tire4 ,a third operation consists in drawing the bunch of bands out through the puncture until nearly half of their length is outside4 ,this causes them to stretch to almost their full tension without pulling clear out4 ,a head of rubber bands like a rivet remains on the inside as well as on the outside of the tire4 ,illustration3 ,,sure ,,thing ,,repair ,,tool4 ,the constant tendency of the bands to expand sideways and contract lengthwise forms a positive and permanent stoppage of the leak4 ,the fourth operation consists in releasing the bands through the opening of the eye4 ,the ends of the bands can be trimmed down to a sixteenth of an inch without danger of their drawing back into the tire4 ,it is better to ride the tire a few minutes before doing so1 as the bands will then have settled into place4 ,very often the bands are not cut off at all4 ,one of the main and good features of this repair is that no solution or cement of any kind is required1 and therefore the tool is always ready for use4 ,,vulcanizing4 ,the riding public as a rule knows very little about the process of vulcanization1 and very often have objected to the time taken and the charges made by repairers for vulcanizing1 and perhaps after reading what is here stated as to the necessary operations in vulcanization of a tire the riding public will be more gracious as regards the time allowed and be more willing to pay the charges asked for vulcanization4 ,the first principle to be employed to vulcanize a tire is cleanliness4 ,a successful result cannot be expected if the hands of the operator are oily or greasy4 ,four ingredients are used in the vulcanization process1 viz41 naphtha1 vulcanizing cement1 friction or coated fabric and pure gum4 ,naphtha is used to clean the surfaces to be united4 ,vulcanizing cement is used to cement the surfaces to be united firmly4 ,friction or coated fabric is employed as a strain resisting agent1 and the pure gum is used to make the hole airtight1 and also to make the rubber cover as it was originally4 ,the vulcanizing cement is nothing but dissolved pure gum of the same consistency as the pure gum4 ,the first operation in vulcanizing a tire is to cut a round hole in the tire where the puncture is1 making the hole as small as possible2 then the rubber cover which is around the hole is peeled off1 so that the canvas of the tire for about three-quarters of an inch around the hole is exposed4 ,then the inside1 as well as the outside of the tire is cleaned thoroughly with a clean rag saturated with naphtha2 the naphtha is allowed to evaporate1 and then the vulcanizing cement is used in the same way4 ,the cement is allowed to dry1 and when dry the cementing operation is repeated1 so as to give the surfaces two coats of cement4 ,it is important that both coats of cement are thoroughly dry before inserting the rubber patch1 and before doing so soapstone is rubbed on the underside of the patch4 ,care should be taken not to have any soapstone on the part of the patch which is to be united to the tire4 ,the best way to insert the patch is to roll it around a stiff wire about one-eighth inch thick1 holding it closed with the fingers1 and when in this position it should be dipped into the naphtha and slipped into the hole quickly2 as soon as it enters the hole the patch will open4 ,the patch remains in the tire1 and the hole in the tire is sewed up4 ,after this the upper side of the tire is pressed firmly against the patch 7which lies on the inside of the tire7 with the fingers1 or better still1 as is done in rubber factories1 with a stitcher4 ,this tool resembles a pinker without teeth1 and is about one-sixteenth of an inch on its periphery4 ,then the surface to be vulcanized is covered with uncured gum1 flush with the tire and no more4 ,naphtha should always be used to clean the uncured gum1 as well as the part of the tire to which it is to be applied1 but before this is done it is cemented as before and the cement allowed to dry4 ,soapstone is then rubbed over the patched part and then 8baked40 ,the utmost care should be taken to have the proper degree of heat and the time required4 ,a thermometer which registers the heat correctly should be employed1 and not a pressure gauge1 as with the latter there may be fifty pounds pressure1 but not the required heat4 ,if a thermometer is used1 the heat can always be ascertained as a rule4 ,three hundred and ten degrees of heat for twenty minutes will vulcanize a tire4 ,the patch to be inserted in a tire is made up as follows3 7#a7 a layer of uncured gum2 7#b7 one or two layers of frictioner or coated duck2 7#c7 another layer of uncured gum4 ,the surfaces to be united should always be wiped with naphtha1 and care should be taken that no air is enclosed in the patch when preparing it4 ,many repairers do not sew the puncture to be vulcanized1 and in such a case at least two layers of canvas should be used1 or three is still better4 ,it is not always desirable to vulcanize a valve stem4 ,the better way to repair a defective valve stem is as follows3 ,a new hole is cut1 a brass or shoe valve is inserted1 and the old hole is plugged up the same as a puncture is repaired4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,bearings ,,and ,,points ,,of ,,contact4 ,friction gives us a grip on the earth1 and is indispensable for propulsion1 but it is not in the least wanted in cycle bearings or in any other bearings1 and one of the problems of mechanics is how to reduce it as much as possible in places where it consumes power as well as produces wear4 ,no material thing1 however polished1 is quite smooth2 every surface may therefore be considered as covered with irregular hooks or teeth1 however flat and smooth it appears to the unassisted eye1 and these catch and hold one another1 producing the hang or drag called friction4 ,oil1 being a fluid1 fills up the spaces between these invisible teeth and levels off the surface2 the office of lubrication is1 therefore1 to get between the contact surfaces and keep the hooks or teeth thereon from touching4 ,when surfaces are desired to slip and slide on each other easily1 oil is helpful2 when the hooks or teeth are to catch into each other1 as between locomotive driving wheels and the rail1 grease is out of place1 whether it is oil or grasshoppers1 for it spoils the 8adhesion40 ,the earliest mode of reducing friction is doubtless as old as the ,tower of ,babel1 for the idea must have occurred to the primitive man4 ,it is simply to put a roller underneath and convert sliding into rolling motion4 ,this is in principle equivalent to mounting the weight on wheels1 and it is the solitary and final way of dealing with the problem of friction4 ,the common grindstone bearing is a familiar example2 the axle of the stone rests on the rims of a pair of small wheels which stand so as to lap past each other4 ,here the axle rolls the wheels as it turns1 and their motion at their centres is so slight that friction is nearly eliminated4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,bearing4 ,in cycle construction1 the first bearing was the 8plain0 one in common use elsewhere2 then a nicely fitted and hardened sleeve was added1 and this was known as the 8parallel0 bearing4 ,rollers were also tried1 but rollers have a determined habit of going askew1 one end moving faster than the other1 and as soon as they get out of parallel thus1 they set up a great resistance4 ,to meet this difficulty1 the ends were sometimes made so as to overlap and match into one another1 or the ends were loosely passed through thin rings1 which revolved with the rollers around the axle2 but the rollers still tried to run askew1 and the efforts of the rings to prevent them caused another friction1 so that the roller was abandoned4 ,about the same time1 the 8adjustable cone0 was tried4 ,this was a male cone1 threaded on the axle and fitting into a female coned space in the hub4 ,the character of the rubbing action was not changed by this device1 which was called a device to make wear in order that wear might be taken up1 but the parts could obviously be kept in contact 7though not in nice fit7 by screwing the cone further in4 ,the next and final step was to interpose steel balls between these coned faces2 and as the ball is a very short roller1 with ends rounded off1 it can go in any direction it pleases4 ,the principle of lateral adjustment by moving a coned surface to or from another coned surface opposed thereto1 with balls placed between1 was patented more than twenty years ago and is still in universal use2 yet1 as just remarked1 this is the adjustable cone modified4 ,it is to be borne in mind that the only possible service of the cone1 as before1 is still to take up wear1 and also that the retention of the cone for adjustment introduces new difficulties4 ,note also that on the old high 8,ordinary0 the large wheel had its bearing cases fixed and the axle revolving1 because the power was applied to the axle1 while the rear wheel had its axle fast and the wheel hubs revolved around it4 ,on the modern bicycle the method reverses1 both wheels revolving around fixed axles1 while the crank shaft1 which is the part receiving the driving power1 revolves within a fixed bearing-case4 ,the revolving axle used to have two grooves1 matching grooves within the fixed case1 and the balls were held in holes in loosely fitting rings which slowly travelled around with them1 these rings having no use except to aid while putting parts together4 ,this double row bearing was called non-adjustable1 because the sole way of tightening it up was to move the two halves of the bearing-case closer together2 for this purpose the case was made in halves1 as a 8split lug10 and held by screw bolts4 ,yet this construction1 if well made1 solved the difficulty of the 8points0 in bearings and gave the balls a correct rolling motion4 ,,the ,,question ,,of 8,,points0 ,,of ,,contact ,the ball may be regarded as a number of tiny thin wheels or disks1 borne on a common axis4 ,obviously1 the larger the wheel the more easily it will roll2 hence we reach the first rule1 namely3 the ball should rest and roll on its largest diameter1 if possible1 and1 as a corollary1 large balls 7within reasonable limits7 are better than small ones4 ,in order to fully carry out this rule and use the largest diameter1 the ball must be placed between two plain cylinders or rings1 and the weight must bear in a direction at right angles to the plain surfaces2 the ball will then roll at its best1 and yet this construction is not practicable4 ,this is so because there would be no means of keeping the balls in one track and because the surfaces and the balls would not stay in contact1 there being no 8adjustability0 or means of moving them closer together4 ,coming1 then1 to the usual construction of a fixed axle having on it a stationary cone1 and a wheel hub revolving about this1 we reach the important practical but not half-considered question of 8points40 ,that is1 on how many points in its surface shall the ball rest8 ,the hub is commonly called the 8case0 or the 8cup40 ,if the ball rests on the cup at one spot and on the cone at another1 the bearing is called 8two-point10 or 8spot0 is more nearly accurate than 8point10 if by the latter the literal mathematical point is meant2 if the ball rests on the cup at two places and on the cone at one1 the bearing is called 8three point20 if the ball rests at two places on cup and cone both1 the bearing is called 8four point40 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,double-,,row ,,ball ,,bearing4 ,referring to the cut of the two-point1 it is plain that one of the coned surfaces shown1 revolving in a plane at right angles with the axle1 must roll the ball on the other cone1 the ball running on both in planes parallel to the plane of motion of the revolving cone1 as is indicated by the dotted lines2 hence the ball will roll1 and not slip or slide4 ,to a very limited extent the two-point bearing has been used in this country4 ,we can at the moment name only one make which we are sure has had this form really so made1 and well made1 with the surfaces accurately curved so as to place the balls correctly and with grinding after shaping4 ,this make is the ,humber1 which deserves honorable mention for the importance attached to the bearings and for the intelligent care with which they have been constructed4 ,this remark1 however1 is by no means meant as exclusive or as implying that no other makes have excellent bearings4 ,illustration3 ,,lower ,,half ,,of ,,double-,,row ,,ball ,,bearing4 ,an interesting form of two-point bearing is the ,lake1 made by the ,c4 ,s4 ,caffrey ,company of ,camden1 ,n4 ,j4 ,it makes the coned faces of cone and cup parallel and flat1 inclined at an angle of #de degrees to the axle4 ,here it is evident that the ball will run without twisting or skewing1 and in order to keep the balls in place the old device of putting them in a perforated loose ring is employed4 ,the holes in this ring for the balls are made oval instead of round1 in what does not seem a very well grounded expectation of thus removing the slight friction between ball and ring4 ,the holes are also 8staggered10 so that the balls do not run on exactly the same tracks4 ,it is claimed that1 on a test1 a front wheel with this bearing1 being whirled by the hand1 ran an hour and five minutes4 ,this must be admitted to be a remarkable performance1 even if the adjustment were loose4 ,far the commonest construction1 however1 has been the three-point1 partly because1 by a confusion of ideas1 a three-point bearing has seemed as if it must be firmer than a two-point1 and partly because the former can be turned out at a very moderate cost4 ,as in almost universal use during several years past1 and as produced by the parts-makers almost without exception1 the form of this is as shown in the cut4 7,see page #hf47 ,turn the page so as to bring the surface ,c on the cone horizontal1 and if you then imagine this surface ,c in the same plane as line ,,cd1 it is easy to see that the ball will roll upon the case at ,a and ,b both2 and as the diameters of the ball at ,a and ,b are equal1 it will roll around the circle easily and without skewing4 ,as the inter-action of the parts is not changed thereby1 we for the moment1 as a matter of convenience1 assume that the cup is stationary and the axle turns1 which is the reverse of the fact4 ,in actual position and working it is evident that under the weight of the load the ball will slip down the slope at ,c and be pressed hard against the side ,b as well as against the bottom ,a4 ,the relative pressure on these two points will depend on the flatness or steepness of the surface ,c1 but ordinarily the pressure on the two will be nearly equal4 ,the action at ,c tries to roll the ball on a horizontal axis1 parallel with the wheel axle2 the action of ,b upon the ball tries to roll it on a vertical axis1 parallel with ,,cc4 ,moved by ,c1 the ball may roll on ,a and slide on ,b1 or it may stick fast to ,c and slide on ,a and ,b both1 or it may stick fast to both ,a and ,b and slide on ,c4 ,certainly it cannot have more than one of these movements at any time1 and hence the ball cannot possibly roll in two directions at once4 ,to make this more clear1 imagine the ball and the two surfaces to be toothed where they come in contact1 thus being visibly gear wheels2 if these teeth are spur-teeth1 the cone will impel the ball in its own plane of motion1 namely1 line ,,cc1 and the ball will then roll on side ,a and rub on side ,b2 if the teeth are bevel1 the ball will roll on ,b and rub on ,a4 ,illustration3 8,,four-,,point0 ,,bearing--,,two ,,possible ,,forms4 ,illustration3 ,,actual 8,,four-,,point0 ,,bearing--8,e ,,and ,d0 ,,pattern4 ,,heedless ,,construction4 ,for this reason--that this 8jammed in a corner0 pattern of bearing requires the ball to perform a physical impossibility--it must be unsparingly condemned4 ,indeed1 if there is one form of polite and parliamentary phrase more decisive than another1 we wish to be understood as using such form in condemning this particular construction4 ,it does not violate any statute law1 but it does violate laws of mechanics and good sense4 ,what the ball actually does under such conditions is to 8get around0 as best it can1 rolling somewhat1 sliding somewhat1 and slipping and skewing between times4 ,the balls rub a little on each other and their contacting surfaces are moving in opposite directions2 hence it is not to be supposed that they invariably roll1 under even the best conditions1 the only certainty being that they always follow the line of least resistance4 ,here we might say that exhibitions of a transparent bearing on a large scale1 such as were at the recent shows1 amuse visitors but prove little1 and yet a close scrutiny of them will show that the balls have an irregular action2 moreover1 such a device as the 8dynagraph10 professing to show graphically on an indicator card the frictional resistance of bearings1 is a waste of ingenuity and construction1 because it cannot be worked under actual practical conditions as when the wheel is in use4 ,the difficulty with bearings as generally made hitherto has been that notwithstanding much talk in catalogues about 8tool steel0 and smooth grinding the common way has been to press the cups into the hubs1 screw cones on the axle1 drop in balls1 turn up to place1 and let it go so4 ,even in #ahih1 many catalogues furnish no information1 either by text or by cuts1 as to construction of bearings1 and when we have had no other means of knowledge it has been in not a few cases impossible to find out certainly even such a distinct and practical matter as whether the adjustment is 8cup0 or 8cone10 in such a heedless way has this part of the bicycle been passed over4 ,makers have been too prone to count anything with balls and a cone as a ball bearing1 and they have had a good degree of liberty allowed them to so consider by these two facts3 the rider does not know and the repairman does not care1 and if a bearing is not screwed up too hard and run entirely dry it will move with a fair degree of ease even though the balls can not roll much4 ,and yet in all such cases the defect makes its own witness by the 8flats0 made on cone and balls and by the ball track cut into the cup4 ,,ball-,,making4 ,about eighteen years ago ,col4 ,pope said to the writer1 referring to the first ,columbia1 then in market and the first ,american product1 that it would cost #be to put ball bearings on the back wheel 7or possibly it was on both wheels74 ,the usual extra on ,english makes at that time for balls to back-wheel was one pound sterling2 the first ball pedals were also expensive1 but for some years past any bearing without balls1 even on the lowest-priced wheels1 would have been rejected by every buyer4 ,the difference has come largely by cheapened processes of ball-making1 and1 as in other things1 reduction in cost and betterment in quality have come together4 ,there are several ways of producing balls4 ,according to one of the best1 the ,simonds ,rolling ,machine ,co4 of ,fitchburg use forging machines1 which are substantially two uprights1 a half-die on each upright1 and work automatically4 ,heated rods of tool steel are inserted in this machine1 which forges a ball rough and at the same moment bites off the bit from the rod with the die4 ,next follow grinding and polishing automatically between horizontal disks about three feet in diameter in conjunction with emery wheels2 finally come tempering1 the last polishing and gauging automatically4 ,ordinarily a maximum variation of #a_/ajjj of an inch has been considered close enough1 but this ,company are able to guarantee a variation not over #d_/aj1jjj1 the highest accuracy and uniformity being naturally considered somewhat in the price4 ,the machines used are patented1 and this bare outline is all we are permitted to publish4 ,there remains to be considered the four-point bearing1 and no better example of this can be given than in the cut of one as used on the used on the 8,e4 ,d40 as made by the ,canadian ,typograph ,company of ,windsor1 ,ontario4 ,it is proper to say here that only minor details on this are patentable1 for the principle is old and was in the old ,bown ,eolus bearing as long ago as #ahgg4 ,reference to the cut shows clearly that the ball rests on two points on cone and cup each1 that its diameters are equal at these places of contact1 and 7most important of all7 that the direction of pressure on the ball is at right angles to the axle1 and hence that the ball will roll on an axis parallel to the axle2 therefore there can be no sliding or skewing4 ,the contact surfaces are a right angle ,v in section1 or can be made by cutting open a square diagonally4 ,at the last show in ,new ,york1 as a test1 ten single wheels of this make were suspended in pyramidal form1 and these were all run1 day after day1 by a single length of ,no4 #ajj sewing silk4 ,a wheel was also shown with the balls removed from one bearing and tightly screwed in the other4 ,this wheel was then whirled1 being supported by one end of the axle on the finger1 gyroscope fashion1 to show the extraordinary absence of friction4 ,,the 8,,cup0 ,,or 8,,disk0 ,,adjustment4 ,of the highest importance is also 8cup0 adjustment1 as opposed to the usual 8cone40 ,as seen in the cut of the three-point bearing1 in the latter form the cup is pressed into the hub and stays fast there1 as a seat for the balls1 with its coned surface facing outward4 ,the adjusting cone faces inward and screws on the axle4 ,the 8cup0 form reverses this1 facing the axle cone outward and leaving it fast on the axle2 the cup faces inward and adjusts by screwing into the hub end1 as shown in cut of the bearing last described4 ,the practical advantages of this method are very real and are these1 as may be indicated by the somewhat rude cut3 #a4 ,when the cup is pressed into the hub it may not be quite true across the axle line--all the more if it is afterward removed and replaced1 as in changing the rear sprocket4 ,any nut has some degree of side-to-side movement on its thread1 however nicely fitted2 an adjustment cone on the axle can also never be held quite firmly in position1 and the grip of the fork ends upon it is even liable to cant it to one side to the slight extent of its looseness in the thread4 ,this interferes with accuracy in the bearing4 ,but the cup is of larger diameter and hence is steadier in the fit of its thread1 and it is also practicable to lock the adjustment more firmly on the cup4 ,moreover1 in the 8cone0 form the cone has to run on the same thread with the outer nuts which hold the wheel in the fork1 and this thread must be coarse1 because a fine one would not have sufficient strength to bear the strain of locking the wheel2 so the adjustment must be on the coarse thread4 ,but when the cup screws into the hub as proposed1 it has its own separate thread1 which may be as fine as desired2 thus it gains in steadiness by fineness of thread as well as by larger diameter4 #b4 ,dirt cannot enter through the thread1 but only through the open joint4 ,the opening close to the axle is obviously a smaller circle than at the edge of the movable cone on the old method2 hence the cup form excludes dirt better1 and if a felt washer is used the friction from that is less when put close to the axle than when farther away4 #c4 ,the cup adjustment has the great and obvious advantage that the adjustment is wholly independent of the fork1 being only on the hub itself2 hence the adjustment can be made more easily and accurately1 and after being so made once for all the wheel can be removed and replaced without danger of disturbing it4 #d4 ,in the other form of hub1 oil naturally runs out2 with the cup adjustment1 the parts are readily and naturally arranged so that oil is held at the bottom as in a reservoir1 and the balls can run in it4 ,reservoir hubs of this pattern are quite well known in ,england1 and the makers of the 8,e4 ,d410 who use a felt washer as indicated in the cut1 claim such a perfect exclusion of dirt and retention of oil that the latter is found still in its place at the bottom1 not discolored1 after over a thousand miles' running4 ,in ,england the cup adjustment has long been standard1 although perhaps not invariable2 the tardiness of its adoption in this country must be ascribed to an insufficient study and appreciation of the practical importance of bearings1 and to the considerable investment already made in parts and tools on the other plan4 ,the first step in adopting the cup form here was at the crank-hanger1 where it has been quite largely in use for several years2 but it is being applied to the wheels as well1 and among the makers using it all over we note such well-known concerns as the ,liberty1 the ,sterling1 ,humber1 ,victor1 ,howard and ,lyndhurst4 ,this is not an exhaustive list1 for we have not studied every catalogue2 moreover1 it is impossible to determine the point in all instances1 and many who do not use this form on wheels have it on the crank bearings1 as also some others screw the cup into the wheel hub and 8back out0 the axle cone for adjustment--this last is good as far as it goes and is a half-way step4 ,after having constantly advocated the cup adjustment for several years past it is a gratification to find it thus making progress1 and we note this as the chief step in improvement of bearings in #ahih4 ,,general ,,improvement ,,in ,,bearings4 ,yet it should be said that there is betterment in bearings generally--in accuracy and temper of balls1 in fitting and grinding of cones and cups1 and also in the means of adjustment4 ,but excellence in details may also have some effect to conceal errors in plan1 and it should be clearly noted that easy spinning of a bearing may even mislead4 ,the parts being hard and smooth1 and oil being present also1 the balls will get around with slight resistance1 whether rolling or sliding2 but the test comes only under load1 especially under the heavy strains which tend to cross-twist frames4 ,the two-point bearing1 provided it is really designed and made in the best manner as such--and the proviso means a good deal--will work satisfactorily2 the three-point also can be so designed and made as to allow rolling of the balls1 although it is less facile and manageable than the others2 the four-point is the best theoretically and seems easiest to construct4 ,the 8corner0 pattern we have felt obliged to condemn will 8go0 after a fashion1 as above admitted2 but bicycle evolution is toward uniformity and simplicity1 and as it has been proved just as economical to construct right as to construct wrong1 after the preparations are once made1 there ought to be positive insistence on one thing always1 and that thing 8the best40 ,illustration3 8,,three-,,point0 ,,bearing3 ,,common ,,form ,,at ,,left--,,possible ,,improvement ,,at ,,right4 ,,lubrication ,,and ,,dust ,,exclusion4 ,it is always a mistake to suppose that even a ball bearing can successfully and wisely be run without lubrication1 under load1 although the feasibility of so doing has been declared on what ought to be pretty fair authority4 ,but the rolling movement can never be made absolutely constant and the sliding perfectly gotten rid of2 even if this could be1 the contact sides of the balls move in opposite directions1 and1 therefore1 must rub slightly on one another2 if the balls are held apart by a perforated collar they cannot touch each other1 but they touch the collar instead and rub on that--so a little friction will remain in the most favorable circumstances4 ,by the way1 some stick vaseline in bearings1 but we must disapprove this2 we do not regard that substance as a lubricant in any proper sense1 and the very quality of adhesiveness which makes it convenient sometimes for holding balls in place while assembling a bearing also makes its presence objectionable after the assembling is done4 ,it has the property of staying in place and not flowing out1 not being fluid2 but this property is possessed by other substances--by tar1 for instance4 ,of course1 there must always be an open joint in every bearing 7the outer end of the pedal excepted7 where a moving part passes a fixed one4 ,nicety of fit1 so that these two parts shall be almost in contact1 is the first requisite1 and is not to be found on 8cheap0 wheels1 albeit such wheels 7on paper7 have tool steel and dust-proof bearings1 like all others4 ,hard-rubber washers cannot close these joints2 soft rubber would quickly be destroyed by the oil4 ,felt and velvet have been the only recourse1 and this not an entirely satisfactory one1 although if dust and mud could be perfectly excluded the oil might retain color almost indefinitely4 ,for this1 at the risk of repetition1 we must say that the cup adjustment--called disk adjustment generally in ,england1 and sometimes here--is exactly adapted1 and that the four-point serves best4 ,these soft packings are still retained by quite a number of makers4 ,for instance1 the ,monarch puts on the left side of the rear wheel an octagonal-faced dust cap1 and next to that a felt washer1 and next to that the usual ball retainer2 the front hub has this construction on both sides1 and the crank bearings are fitted with cup adjustment4 ,,some ,,distinctive #ahih ,,features4 ,the ,crescent has a new mode of adjusting the bearings at the crank bracket4 ,a loose collar1 with a projection which fits in a slot in the edge of the adjusting bush and has its own inner edge finely scalloped goes over the bracket2 the lock-nut having been loosened1 this bush is free to turn to the right point1 when the sliding collar is simply slid back until one of its scallops catches on a pin set on the bracket1 and then turning up the lock-nut makes all fast4 ,on the wheel axles1 a separate nut is added to lock the adjustment cones1 so that this can be done with the wheel either in or out of the frame1 and tightening up the fork nuts cannot affect the adjustments4 ,felt washers and ball retainers are used throughout4 ,the ,magnet ,bicycle ,company of ,chicago1 makers of materials and fittings1 offer in the ,magnet hub a novelty in a combination of a concave and convex lock-nut and washers1 which1 when the parts are screwed home1 avoids one of the defects of a cone adjustment1 namely1 the liability of the axle cone to tilt or tip on its thread under a not parallel approach of the fork end3 the adjustment is also not affected by handling the hub4 ,illustration3 ,,common ,,three-,,point ,,bearing4 ,the ,shirk shows several peculiarities4 ,not only are all bearings of the cup adjustment pattern1 but the axle cones 7which are on a sleeve7 are two-faced and reversible1 so that each hub has two reserve cones or cone faces2 moreover1 as the axle is independent and serves only as a support it can be pulled entirely through and out1 after removing the outside nuts1 so that the front fork does not have to be spread to put in or remove the wheel1 and the rear wheel can be dropped out of the frame without disturbing the chain4 ,it is quite the way to make the crank-hanger only a shell or a support for the working parts within1 without having them directly fastened to it4 ,the ,phnix follows this fashion by inclosing the bearings in a separate sleeve1 splitting the bracket itself on the under side1 and providing it with projecting lugs and screw bolts1 so that it can be pinched up to grip the bearing shell and hold it in position4 ,but the peculiarity goes further1 for the opening underneath is so wide that by turning these bolts out of the way and bringing the left crank opposite the opening the cranks and axle with sprocket on--indeed1 the entire contents--can be slid to the right clear out of the hanger4 ,the ,relay has a dust cap at the crank axle bearing1 with a portion of it consisting of translucent celluloid1 and claims the makers' catch phrase 8you see the balls40 ,illustration3 ,,ball ,,contact ,,in 8,,two-,,point0 ,,bearing4 ,besides using the cup adjustment1 as already noted1 the ,howard--made by the ,e4 ,howard ,watch and ,clock ,company--has a peculiarity in that the adjusting cone slides on the axle without being threaded4 ,on the crank axle is a nut working on a thread at the axle centre and bearing against the end of the short sliding sleeve which constitutes the acting cone4 ,a set screw in this central nut is loosened by inserting a wire or a nail through a hole in the bracket2 the nut is held fast by putting this wire or nail into a slot therein2 then a slight turn of the crank forward or back tightens or loosens the bearings at both ends simultaneously by causing the nut1 thus held from turning1 to move the axle to right or left instead2 then the set screw is again fastened4 ,a similar nut is on the wheel hubs1 and the wheel is turned back or forth a little to adjust the bearings1 the single nut at the left side of the frame then locking the adjustment4 ,on behalf of this peculiar device it is claimed1 with evident justice1 that the operation is both quick and sure1 and that as the coned sleeve slides on the axle instead of being threaded the bearings are bound to be true and in line4 ,we ought to add that although we have classed this form as a cup adjustment1 it is not literally quite so1 the sole difference being that it belongs in the class of bearings which face cones and cups in the way proper to that form1 but screw the cup into place once for all and adjust by 8backing out0 the cone4 ,last year the ,humber wheel bearings were of this type1 and so are the ,lyndhurst now1 although that make we have also classed with the cup adjustment type1 the difference being so small4 ,the ,lyndhurst makers1 by the way1 while using the cup adjustment strictly at the crank bracket1 with an admirably made sleeve having the cones slipped thereon1 lay great stress--as relating to accuracy of fit--upon making bearing parts 8from the centre0 in the old-fashioned screw lathe1 as against the monitor or automatic lathe2 they aver that the special hardness of tool steel forbids working it on the automatic lathe1 and that 8there are not over six makes of bicycles in the ,united ,states with centred axles1 cones and shells turned from tool steel40 ,especial significance here attaches to the word 8centred20 and every cone is separately ground in a lathe upon its own axle4 ,the makers of the ,national of ,bay ,city1 ,mich41 have all bearings on their best models1 removable by sliding out intact1 using also a peculiar form of cup adjustment4 ,at the #ahig cycle shows1 the ,indiana ,bicycle ,company1 makers of the ,waverley bicycles1 exhibited their bicycles with cones sliding on the axles instead of threading and screwing the cones or cups for adjustment in the usual way4 ,they used this system during the past year upon many thousand ,waverley bicycles1 and the results have demonstrated that this method is one by which absolutely true bearings can be obtained2 the cones and cups remaining always in the precise relative positions in which they were ground1 the cones in adjustment sliding to or from the cups4 ,in this season's construction they have made a slight change1 however1 and which may be regarded as a good step toward the long sought for interchangeability in construction4 ,the change consists in having universal cones fitting either side of the front or rear wheel hubs and having a double face with two ball races they can be put on the axles in eight different places or ways1 thus making it impossible to assemble the bearings incorrectly4 ,the construction is also such that the bearings are as nearly dust proof as it is possible to make them without binding friction4 ,a bicycle adjusting cone or cup that is threaded1 no matter whether the thread be fine or coarse1 must necessarily have some sort of a spiral twist to it which prevents the cone or cup from setting perfectly true as ground4 ,the sliding method1 however1 obviates this difficulty4 ,it is worth noting--especially as being a step toward simplicity and uniformity in construction--that the ,humber is now made with the bearing cups of the rear wheel interchangeable with those of the crank hanger4 ,another novelty in its way is the insertion of ball retainers in pedals made by the ,american ,watch ,tool ,co4 ,the ,sartus pedal1 made by the ,warwick ,stockton ,co41 also uses a somewhat peculiar retainer4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,cranks1 ,,pedals ,,and ,,axles4 ,second only in importance to the bearings1 sprockets and chain of the modern bicycle1 as affecting the smooth running qualities of the machine1 are the axles1 cranks and pedals4 ,many have been the changes and rapid the march of improvement in these points within the past three years1 until1 with the advent of the season of #ahih1 there seems little that is desirable left for attainment in this direction4 8,the hub is composed of two parts1 viz41 the axle and the collars or flanges4 ,the former is a stout bar of iron or steel1 forming the true centre of the wheel4 ,it varies from inch to #a inch in thickness1 and should not be less than #aj inches in length4 ,the collars are circular plates of metal1 varying in thickness from #c_/af to inch at the edges and from inch to #b inches in the centre4 ,these are firmly secured to the axle by different methods4 ,in some makes both collars and axle are one solid piece2 but most are constructed separately1 and are firmly united by brazing1 increased facilities being thereby obtained for case-hardening the axle4 ,for nutted spokes the collars are generally of steel or iron1 wide at the edges in order to take the width of the nipple2 out when direct-action spokes are used they are usually of gun-metal or brass 7some few use steel71 thin at the edges and gradually spreading out inward until they reach the axle4 ,this is in order to give a large surface against the axle1 as1 unless a firm hold is obtained and the brazing well done1 they are apt to work loose4 ,these gun-metal flanges have1 or ought to have1 the exterior lower portion recessed to the depth of about inch1 the indentations extending some #a inches around the axle1 and the holes for the spokes drilled right through4 ,by this a little weight is saved1 and the spokes may easily be tapped out in case of breakage on the worm and a portion remaining in the hub4 ,the pedals are thus brought closer together without decreasing the distance between the flanges1 which should never1 unless on very small wheels1 be less than six inches apart1 as1 with a less amount of #8dish1' as it is called1 the wheel is liable to buckle4 ,the hubs for the back wheel are usually constructed solid1 of either steel1 iron or gun-metal1 but occasionally they are complex4 ,they are hollow1 simply having a hole drilled longitudinally through them for the reception of the back wheel pin4 ,if composed of gun-metal or brass1 they should have a steel core to receive the friction1 or they will soon wear out40 ,this extract is given complete because it so well describes the regular construction at wheel centres twenty years ago4 ,the gun-metal flange1 ordinarily written in ,english catalogues as 8gum hubs10 long ago disappeared2 the back wheel1 and the non-driven hub of early 8safeties0 were gum1 with the bearing cups pressed into the ends1 much as in the present fashion4 ,the driven hub was fastened to the steel axle by 8sweating10 aided by a key driven in flush between4 ,in this country the ,g ,m hub did not prevail4 ,the ,columbia front hub1 for example1 comes up before the mental eye--a great spool of excessive strength and weight1 both threaded and pinned on1 so that parting from the axle was not to be thought of4 ,in the present type the driving axle is a third1 independent of the wheels1 and the wheel hubs are either turned from the solid steel bar or drop-forged from steel1 or formed from steel tube1 the 8bike metal0 casting being kept very quiet in this as in other portions1 or else reserved for the people who suggest that the cheapest way to procure a bicycle is to buy ready made parts and 8build0 one's own4 ,,the 8,,divided ,,axle40 7,see ,page #ic47 ,cranks were sometimes shrunk on1 sometimes threaded on1 and sometimes held on by wedging keys4 ,of the many ways1 the survivors are the transverse key known now as the plain 8cotter pin and nut10 and the ,d-shaped end1 the latter being sometimes made like a square with three corners rounded1 as recently on the ,wolff-,american and ,remington1 for example4 ,a shape quite in vogue now is a tapered round1 with one or two sides shaved to a flat and also tapered4 ,up to the time of the last ,garden ,show1 two years ago1 axles had been made in one piece1 and the separate cranks had been attached in some of these above-mentioned ways1 with a very few exceptions4 ,it may also be said that this was the most ordinary and obvious mode of construction4 ,but at that show appeared a very simple and good specimen of divided axle1 the ,gard1 although not the first1 for the ,columbia had been trying the idea for a year or two1 and had set the fashion4 ,for some reason the ,gard axle--which was joined at the centre by mortice-and-tenon1 each half axle being one piece with its corresponding crank--has not gone much into use4 ,this is probably because makers have desired to have devices of their own2 at least1 there has since that time been a raging epidemic of 8divided axle40 ,it is quite within bounds to say that at least a page of this journal would be required to intelligently describe and illustrate the manifold devices of perverted and costly ingenuity for cutting the crank axle into two parts and then sticking the sundered parts together again4 ,there are axles cut on single-tenon and on double-tenon2 axles with straight bevel1 zig-zag bevel1 circular-notch lap1 and with a long 8skived0 lap1 as if glueing were proposed and a lot of surface were required for a joint2 there are sleeves threaded and sleeves not threaded2 there are halved hollow axles1 to be held together by a screw bolt lengthwise through them4 ,some of these may perhaps have fallen1 together with the makes of which they were a part1 in the conflict of last season1 but mostly they are still extant4 ,generally1 the division is at or near the centre1 but sometimes it is well at one side1 thus approaching a more reasonable and quite common form which has axle and one crank in one piece and attaches to them the other crank removably4 ,it is admitted that occasion to remove a crank may occur1 and the wearing strain and exposure to dirt are so great on the present crank bracket that some device for detachability is almost necessary2 yet only the seeking for peculiarity and the feeling on the part of designers that they must appear to be earning their pay can account for these constructional frenzies which it is not practicable to describe in detail4 ,here we may say that the ,humber still adheres to the ancient and substantial device of separable cranks1 held on by the transverse 8cotter pin40 ,illustration3 ,,extension ,,pedal--,,american ,,waltham4 ,illustration3 ,,american ,,waltham ,,pedal4 ,,strict 8,,one-,,piece0 ,,construction4 ,in strong contrast with this may be mentioned the ,fauber one-piece construction1 by which both the cranks and the axle are made of a single piece1 being passed into place endwise into the open bracket1 the bearing parts and fastenings being next put on and finally the pedals4 ,this patent is a radical departure in the direction of extreme simplicity and strength1 having obviously no chances of getting loose and giving the desired absence of nuts and projections about the bracket ends4 ,it seems to be steadily working its way into use1 and it may be easily recognized by the 8star0 sprocket1 which is commonly used1 in connection with it1 although not a necessary part of it4 ,heinz ,munschaur of ,buffalo1 working under a license from ,fauber and some pending patent of their own1 describe their own one-piece construction as being from steel of high carbon1 and say they will replace any which may be broken from any cause whatever4 ,they fasten the spider to the crank mechanically1 not by brazing2 the sprocket rim is firmly held1 but is readily detachable2 the ball cases contain fifteen #e_/af balls with retainers1 8and fit to a shoulder in the hanger1 doing away with any threads1 which are liable to give trouble40 ,illustration3 ,,straus ,,removable ,,pedal ,,rubbers4 ,among makers using the ,fauber construction are the ,winton1 ,world1 ,defender1 ,fenton1 ,outing and ,union 7the last-named on their special74 ,,crank ,,throw ,,and ,,variable ,,gear4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,ramsey ,,pedal4 ,the crank1 like the axle and most other parts1 used to be very thick and heavy4 ,as the quality of steel was improved and a more exact knowledge was obtained of the relative strength required through the parts of the structure1 the metal was gradually pared away2 in fact1 there could be no better object lesson of bicycle evolution as a problem in mechanical work than to compare1 side by side1 the axles1 cranks1 hubs and pedals of today with those used in #ahgh4 ,the old slot for variation of crank throw1 sometimes replaced by three holes1 disappeared from the crank long ago4 ,right here we might say--without stopping to consider the topic at my length1 because it is not at present in agitation--that two-speed or three-speed gear and variable pedal stroke1 while a tempting subject for inventors1 are not and never can be really practical in the complete sense4 ,to exchange power for speed or vice versa at will1 so that one may vary his 8gear ratio0 to suit surface and circumstances1 is indeed desirable2 it is not in question that if one could drive the driving-wheel as fifty or as #abj or as anything between at pleasure it would be a consummation devoutly to be wished--but this cannot be done4 ,if lever-driving is used1 which is the most manageable mode for this particular object1 a variable leverage can be obtained2 but the offsetting disadvantages1 which are not small1 must be accepted too4 ,as for shifting gears1 they allow only two speeds1 and it is not wholly easy to decide in advance what two are on the whole best2 when the choice has been made one is sure to want more than two and almost sure to be as little satisfied as before4 ,moreover1 the weight1 complication1 wear and cost of these devices are obstacles which must ever bar them out4 ,,crank ,,drop ,,and ,,crank ,,throw4 ,there seems to be some disposition to substitute 8what is the drop0 for the recent question 8what does it weigh80 ,it is not certain that most people understand that 8drop0 means anything more than a lowering of the crank-hanger and a relatively slight lowering of centre of gravity2 it does in fact mean more4 ,the drop is the lowering of the crank axle below a line drawn between the two wheel axles4 ,this line is fourteen inches from the ground4 ,if one will stop to consider that from this must be taken1 in use1 the drop of axle1 the crank throw1 the dip of pedal below its own pivot1 and the further dip of the toe-clip which no strictly up-to-date scorcher can omit without endangering his caste1 he will see that to combine 7as some wish and propose to do7 a #c-;inch drop with a #g-;inch crank is to invite disaster4 ,not more than a single inch of clearance from the ground remains4 ,this inch is as good as a yard while it lasts1 but can anybody carry it in his pocket and thus make sure of always having it8 ,there is the inclination on curves1 and ruts and stones may be encountered1 even if riding is confined strictly to the asphalt4 ,the length of crank throw is periodically discussed1 and there is a disposition to jump to the conclusion that excessively high gear ratios may be made easy by increasing throw to #g or #h or even to #h inches4 ,we do not think it worth while to go into this discussion at present1 but will state five propositions3 #a4 ,the customary crank throw1 like the size of wheel and some other factors1 has not been obtained arbitrarily1 but as a compromise between opposing considerations4 #b4 ,the labor of high gears is not thus easily disposed of1 because the increased leverage involves a longer circle of travel1 a change in the position of seat relative to pedal1 and different angles in the muscular action4 #c4 ,the throw is closely related to the length of argument set up by some that proper crank upper and lower leg and the length of foot is fanciful rather than sound4 #d4 ,the question of crank throw1 like that of vertical or forward thrust1 must be counted among individual matters and is not to be disposed of by the dictum of any one person set up against the rest of mankind4 #e4 ,a long crank is1 however1 positively wrong for use by women1 because it increases the high rise of the knee which1 for them1 is so ungraceful and is both mechanically and hygienically wrong4 ,illustration3 8,,clock0 ,,diagram--,,ordinary ,,pedal4 ,,gear ,,ratio4 ,this is a proper place to explain gear ratio or 8gear10 which is a phrase not generally well understood1 although in constant use2 for instance1 women have been known to ask dealers for a wheel with low gear1 because they liked to be seated near the ground4 ,the term gear1 which is an adaptation from the old high wheel1 expresses the ratio of forward travel of the bicycle for each pedal revolution1 and yet this has nothing to do with either the height of the rider or the length of his leg1 or the length of the crank4 ,it depends--with a given size of wheel--solely on the relative size of the two sprockets1 as measured by the number of their teeth4 ,for example1 if the front sprocket has #bj teeth and the rear has #h1 it is plain that each tooth of the former will pull a tooth of the latter2 so when the former has made one turn it has pulled #bj teeth on the latter1 thus causing the rear sprocket and wheel to make two and a half revolutions2 as two and a half times #bh are #gj1 we say that a bicycle with such sprockets has a #gj gear1 meaning that one revolution of the pedal drives it as far as one pedal revolution would drive a wheel actually #gj inches in diameter4 ,illustration3 8,,clock0 ,,diagram--,,ramsey ,,pedal4 ,computation of this ratio is by the rule of three4 ,thus as the number of teeth in the small sprocket is to the number in the large one1 so is the actual to the equivalent or running diameter of the wheel4 ,multiply the wheel diameter in inches by the number of teeth in the large sprocket1 and divide the product by the number in the small one4 ,or1 for each size of rear sprocket1 multiply the number of teeth in the front one by a certain number 7which is a constant factor7 and the result is the gear4 ,thus1 if the rear sprocket has #g teeth1 multiply by four2 if it has #h multiply by three and a half2 if it has #i multiply by three and one-ninth2 if it has #aj1 multiply by two and four-fifths2 if it has #aa1 multiply by two and six-elevenths2 if it has #ab1 multiply by two and one-third4 ,this is for a twenty-eight-inch wheel2 other sizes require slightly different factors4 ,for a bevel-gear chainless the method is to multiply the number of teeth in the crank-shaft gear by the number in the rear pinion on the shaft and multiply this product by the number of inches of diameter of the rear wheel2 then divide this product by the product of multiplying the number on the wheel hub by the number on the forward pinion on the shaft4 ,,shapes ,,of ,,crank ,,and ,,sprocket4 ,the original crank or rectangular section has for some years been generally round1 or of an elliptical section tapering to round at its slightest portion at the end2 a few makers have used a bayonet section1 or have chamfered out the inner side2 fluted sections have also been used1 and one or two have brought out a crank in the shape of an ,s1 in the not well-founded notion that it is a good point to depart from rigidity in the driving1 or perhaps imagining that a longer throw is thus obtained in the effective portion of the stroke4 ,but there is now a decided reversion to the rectangular and even to the tapered square crank2 cranks of bayonet or flattened diamond section are also quite in vogue1 notably on the ,fauber one-piece construction4 ,there does not seem any considerable reason for choice between round and square1 on the score of strength1 but the round should hold nickel better1 which always shows an inclination to peel on an edge4 ,still another shape may be mentioned1 which has some novelty and neatness--a square or rectangular crank that smooths off into round a few inches from the axle4 ,although not new this year1 we may mention the peculiar ,victor reversal of usual construction by putting the axle on the crank1 so to speak1 instead of the crank on the axle2 the axle is hollow1 and the crank stands through instead of over its end4 ,the ,spalding crank has on its end a lug or boss which fits a sort of heart-shaped end on the axle1 the crank proper being very slightly outside the line of the axle instead of exactly across that4 ,the ,racycle continues its well known peculiarity of putting the bearings of the crank axle within the crank ends1 so as to increase the distance between the two ball rows and bring the line of chain pull between them4 ,the ,cleveland has a similar arrangement for the same purpose4 ,there is a disposition to return to the fixed front sprocket in a single piece1 as was the construction before the central 8spider0 with a removable rim attached came into use4 ,the spider itself has been strong enough1 but the portions to which its arms were screwed and the rim itself have been rather slight of late1 and the toothed rim has not always had support enough4 ,there has therefore been a liability in the sprocket to spring under strain or even to take a 8set0 out of line1 and the change is to be approved on the whole1 especially as a very easy detachability in the front sprocket is rather a 8talking point0 than otherwise1 since it is rare that any rider avails himself of it in order to make a change of gear ratio4 ,hewitt ,brothers1 of ,cumberland1 ,md41 have a form of sprocket in which the central portion1 which comprises the whole except a rim just large enough to have the teeth on it1 remains fast and immovable on the crank bracket4 ,this rim1 being coned on its inside edge to match a coned recess on the outer edge of the fixed central portion1 has a row of balls between and runs around on those balls1 just as the intermediate spur gear wheel does on the ,hildick chainless1 already described and illustrated4 ,for this sprocket device the usual claim is made that it so increases ease of movement that a gear of #abj with it requires no more power to drive than one of #gj without it4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,pedal4 ,the old pedal was two elliptical disks of sheet steel1 joined in the centre by a tube to pass over the pedal shaft1 and having two round rubbers for the tread1 on rods which were riveted into the ends of the side plates4 ,the bearing was either plain or the wretched 8adjustable cone0 already described4 ,later1 corrugated or ovoid rubbers came in2 still later1 the sensible 8square rubber10 for which the ,overman people may claim the credit4 ,the same pedals went on the early rear-driving 8safeties10 for those not only followed the manner of the high bicycle in general construction as far as could be done1 but utilized its actual parts considerably4 ,probably in the process of paring off ounces of weight1 the fixed rubber1 of whatever shape1 disappeared from the pedal2 the serrated-edged or 8rat-trap10 which used to be thought fit only for the race track1 took possession1 and rubber is to this day used only in the form of light and removable slips4 ,these have commonly been of a section like two ,t's set end to end1 the flat portion being on the inner sides of the tread plates and the roughened ,t sides forming the rest for the foot4 ,the ,wolff-,american now offers slips of a triangular section1 four for each pedal1 which are held by a sheet steel clip screwed on the side plates1 and have three edges each1 so that they can be turned in their seats to present a fresh surface until worn out4 ,the ,straus removable rubber is also simple and practical2 it can be slipped over the pedal plate or removed at will1 without need of tools1 and another form of it can also be slipped over the outer ends of the pedal to take any blow from falls4 ,it does not interfere with a toe-clip4 ,the pedal shaft grew more slender with other portions4 ,the early ball pedals1 by a strange slip backward1 were made without a tube to connect the bearings and keep off dirt from the foot1 nor did this bad method quite disappear until about a year ago4 ,a recent bad construction which has not yet wholly gone out is the very thin connecting arm and the very light side plate1 the whole put together so poorly as to be liable to twist4 ,this has been dubbed the 8tin pedal10 and there are pedals today1 even on some well-known makes1 which have too much of this characteristic4 ,the ,wolff-,american pedal of #ahih is an example of what a pedal should be in point of quality of steel used and firmness and durability of construction2 yet this is not mentioned as if it were the only praise-worthy one1 but only as a good example of high quality which comes to mind4 ,no very low-priced bicycle can be found in market with such quality running through it4 ,the most decisive step in pedal improvement was the appearance of the ,record type1 patented by ,a4 ,c4 ,davison1 an ,englishman1 consisting essentially of a central core with two cross-arms thereon1 drop-forged in one piece4 ,this secures strength and permanent alignment of the bearings1 and a single piece of spring steel is brought around to form the tread4 ,as now made1 this continuous plate itself forms an end to take any blows from side falls and a guard to keep the foot from slipping off4 ,so long as the pedal remains two faced and rotary it is hard to conceive how this can be materially bettered4 ,it is a long step from the original pedal of thirty years ago to the light but strong one of #ahih4 ,the earliest one was a round spool2 then triangular in section2 then improved by having a balance weight of acorn shape hung below to keep it presented to the foot4 ,in lever-driven bicycles it was a plain flat top1 as on the ,american ,star1 or a round rubber-covered bar1 as on the ,facile4 ,illustration3 ,,wolff-,,american ,,crank ,,axle4 ,the early fastening to the crank was the natural large nut1 screwed up against the inner side of the crank4 ,demand for reduction of tread abolished this in favor of the now almost invariable method of simply screwing into the crank4 ,but the use of right and left hand threads for this ought to be discontinued4 ,in effect1 the pedal revolves toward the rear wheel1 so that1 in theory1 if the bearing should bind there would be a tendency to turn the pedal shaft in that same direction within the crank end2 to meet this1 the right pedal crank was tapped with a left hand thread1 so that the revolution of the pedal might always tend to screw the pedal shaft in and not out4 ,but experience has quite satisfied us that if a pedal loosens 7as it not infrequently does7 it is as often one as the other1 and the reason is that the force which loosens is not the tendency of the pedal to carry the shaft with it1 but the downward pressure coming on the shaft itself4 ,if1 therefore1 the fit of thread between shaft and crank is good1 and if the shaft is screwed firmly home1 and if 7very particularly7 the outer edge of the hole in the crank is turned out so as to allow the pedal shaft's being driven close up against the face of the crank1 nothing more can be done to prevent loosening1 nor need anything be4 ,the objection to making a left hand thread on one pedal is that by this common method each pedal must have its own shaft2 this bothers dealers and repairers1 and if a rider about to take a long tour wants to provide against the chance of a break here by carrying a spare pedal shaft he must carry two instead of one4 ,simplicity1 uniformity and convenience would gain by making all pedals and cranks with right hand threads4 ,,ankle ,,motion ,,in ,,pedalling4 ,the early pedal already mentioned1 consisting of a round spool on a plain wagon bolt1 with an outside nut1 preceded any knowledge of 8ankle motion10 or rather1 it might be said1 the extreme forward thrust then made necessary by the position of the rider with reference to the pedal made ankle motion impossible2 the thrust was with the sole of the foot and the heel came against the spool as a stop against pushing off4 ,the ,ramsey swinging pedal--or1 as the inventor prefers to call it1 the under-swinging pedal--is the farthest possible departure from the original pedal1 its sole suggestion of old-time devices being that it always keeps itself in the position of presentation for the foot1 because the weight hangs below the centre1 as on the balance weight pattern of #ahfi4 ,the ,ramsey can never be caught by the foot on the edge1 as the usual pedal so often is when mounting2 even if the toe-clip 7which seems less necessary with this pedal7 is insisted on1 it is readily attached and still the tread surfaces remain horizontal and ready for the foot4 ,but these are comparatively trifling matters2 the claims for this pedal relate to ankling and a more favorable use of the crank leverage4 ,when a crank is turned by a mere reciprocal or back-and-forth movement1 the radius or leverage of the crank is constantly varying from full length to zero and back again2 the zero position is called 8dead centre10 because all power applied at that point is pushing upon the axle and has no tendency to rotate the crank4 ,if the hollow of the foot is placed on a pedal1 so that the line of thrust is directly in line with the lower leg1 the calf muscles do no work and the thrust is a straight leg-thrust1 as if the foot were lacking or the leg were wood2 the same result would be obtained if the ankle joint were anchylosed or if the rider habitually maintained his foot at a right angle to the lower leg--in each of these cases there would be no ankle motion whatever4 ,here we may remark that although lever-driving has its claims its worst defect is that very little ankle motion is possible when the fulcrum is a swinging one and when the fulcrum is stationary there can be none at all4 ,in turning a grindstone with the hand1 the crank is easily followed around the circle and thus the full leverage of the crank is used 7subject to some disadvantage from the position of the arm7 all the way around4 ,if we could clasp our toes about the pedal--as the evolutionists say our ancestors clasped theirs about tree branches--we might pull the pedal clear around4 ,ankling1 as it is called1 consists in alternately raising and dropping the heel so as to give the foot some hold on the pedal1 and then in pushing forward or 8clawing0 backward1 so as to apply some power during the greater part of the circle1 instead of merely shoving down on the pedal after it has passed the upper centre4 ,the more this can be done the more nearly the full leverage of the crank is retained and the more nearly 8dead centre0 is abolished4 ,constant and uniform application of power--that is to say1 effective application--largely depends on this4 ,for example1 the writer 7who counts himself not more than up to good average as to ankling7 can climb a pretty fair grade1 on a good surface1 with only the forward push over the upper centre4 ,of course1 people differ in pedalling1 as in other features of riding1 but ankle motion must be deemed one of the best tests of correct pedalling and therefore of good riding2 it is no fad1 but in the utmost degree practical1 and whatever contributes to it is1 so far1 valuable4 ,illustration3 ,,gard ,,crank ,,and ,,divided ,,axle4 ,,the ,,ramsey ,,swinging ,,pedal4 7,see ,pages #ij and #ia47 ,the usual pedal has its tread above the pivotal point2 the ,ramsey pedal reverses this and always has the tread below that point4 ,its great claim is that 8it transmits automatically1 in conformity with the arc of the circle described by the pedal1 the applied power of the rider1 thus maintaining the full leverage of the crank over a vastly increased arc of the circle2 in other words1 it converts the straight push into an improved and automatic ankle motion and renders possible a higher development of foot power than has hitherto been obtained40 ,the ingenious 8clock0 diagrams1 the circle being cut into twelve divisions representing hours and of #cj degrees each1 illustrate this4 ,as the inventor is pleading his own cause it need not be counted against him that he unconsciously exaggerates the foot positions somewhat1 and when he says that a continual pressure may be applied 8from #aa4cj to #h1 or #h hours out of #ab10 our comment is that we think it possible for a good rider who pays attention to doing it to apply pressure thus on the usual pedal4 ,but the difference is that the ,ramsey gives a better hold to the foot1 thus applying mere pressure instead of merely 8some0 pressure1 and makes the ankling semi-unconscious and automatic2 this forms a substantial improvement1 and1 as the inventor puts it1 8it gives ankle motion where there was none before1 and those who ankled some now ankle more40 ,incidentally1 the twitch which many riders give to the chain slack by incorrect pedalling is more easily avoided with this pedal1 and1 of course1 there is less trouble about being 8caught on the centre10 hence hill climbing and control in crowded places are favored2 as one trouble with a high gear is in passing over the centre at slow speed1 the ,ramsey pedal has an advantage in control for this reason4 ,the 8pick-up10 either when mounting or when quickly spurting ahead1 is also particularly good with it4 ,another peculiarity of this remarkable pedal is that its tread is as much below the pivot at the top as at the bottom1 so that the leg reach is increased near the ground and decreased at the top4 ,this will be valued in practice1 according as the riders find it comfortable to drive 7as does the writer7 with a full leg reach1 or not2 yet it is plain that the ,ramsey must be a very desirable pedal for women1 because it decreases the objectionable rise of the knee4 ,the construction is clearly shown in the cut4 ,a removable screw replaces the usual pedal shaft1 and the pedal will fit any wheel1 but it requires lowering the saddle or using a lower frame1 and it therefore rather strikingly suits the present fad for reduced frame heights4 ,although a single row of balls has to be used1 they are one-quarter inch1 eighteen in number1 and two-thirds are claimed to be always under pressure4 ,as to durability1 the inventor says that after some thousand miles' use under average conditions1 the nickel on the cones has been found intact2 this must be explained by the large number and size of the balls1 the large diameter of their track1 the correct construction of the bearing 7which is a four-point of right-angled ,v section71 and the complete exclusion of dirt and retention of oil4 ,in the last particular nothing could be more perfect4 ,after careful practical test1 we think the inventor's claims are well sustained4 ,the ,ramsey pedal is certainly fast1 and distinctly good on hills4 ,other conditions being equal1 it should beat the ordinary pedal in pace and endurance1 and we regard it as one of the most practical contributions of the season4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,saddle4 ,naturally1 the saddle for the steel horse followed that long used on the living one4 ,it began as a pear-shaped sheet metal plate1 inclosed between two pieces of pigskin1 sometimes with a thin padding of hair and sometimes without4 ,of course1 this was hard underneath and rigid on the edges1 and gradually there was enforced consideration of the practical difference between sitting on a broad-surfaced horse saddle1 with nothing for the legs to do1 and a concentration of pressure on a small surface1 with the legs compelled to be in constant working up and down4 ,take a chair--not a big1 stuffed ,turkish chair1 but any decent1 ordinary one--and observe how large a portion of the body the support is spread over2 then assume the nearly vertical position and observe how small the available surface left for support1 and it will not seem strange that the saddle is a serious problem in cycling1 and one not wholly solved yet4 ,the first step in advance was the appearance of the 8suspension10 the upper plate being left off and the leather being hung from three points of support1 without padding2 this left the edges flexible4 ,in later years the so-called 8hammock0 type appeared1 and in essence this is still in vogue in all the saddles bearing the name of 8hygienic10 the leather being hung from the front as one point of support1 and a cantle 7formerly of steel1 but now largely of wood71 serving to give the needed breadth at the rear4 ,yet the principle is the same as originally used1 many years ago1 by ,lamplugh ,brown of ,birmingham in their 8suspension10 and afterward in their 8,long ,distance0 suspension4 ,and this principle can never be quite abandoned4 ,the early saddles had some form of spring under them1 and were not made to attach without one4 ,the 8boneshaker0 saddle rested flatly on a very long plate1 like a leaf from an ordinary wagon spring1 extending from the head clear back to the rear wheel2 but this was not so much from choice as dictated by the construction as a whole4 ,on the high wheel the usual support was a flat spring1 hinged at the head1 and curving back to slide slightly on the backbone by some sort of movable clip4 ,this was varied in several ways--by curved or spiral springs1 and even by suspension from enormously thick rubber bands2 but the most notable one was the ,arab ,cradle1 a spring formed of a single piece of steel rod1 bent about into four acting single coils1 which had an open-and-shut work like that of the familiar safety pin of the nursery4 ,the early rigid saddle survives substantially in the 8hard0 saddle of the ,brown type2 the old 8suspension0 is in the type with hard nose1 steel cantle and stiff sides2 the 8hammock0 is represented by the soft-nosed and flexible-sides saddle of the ,hunt ,x type1 having wood cantle and aiming to support gently everywhere2 the air saddle1 one of the oldest1 reappears in pneumatics of various sorts2 the old 8pan0 seat is now in the ,christy1 with solid metal base1 which does not touch the body1 but supports by raised pads2 the 8cradle0 is represented by various looped wire springs1 usually of a few wound coils1 which are to yield by compression4 ,the term 8pigskin10 as designating the bicycle saddle1 seems1 however1 to have entirely dropped out1 as has also the use of that material itself4 ,cycle saddles are now made almost exclusively of tanned leather1 and it may be suggested that the increase in the number of cyclers has outrun the increase in the number of pigs2 but probably the saddle maker has some commercial reason for the change4 ,,safety ,,saddles4 ,a popular type of saddle on the early safety was the ,garford4 ,it had a leather top1 which was mounted on a ,u-shaped spring1 the open part of the ,u being in the rear4 ,necessarily this spring was a very heavy one1 but it undoubtedly served the purpose for which it was designed1 as1 owing to its great height1 it was particularly useful on the low frames then in use by those who desired a longer reach4 ,in ,england1 all bicycle saddles are made larger1 longer and heavier in every way than our ,american models1 and they are fitted with some sort of a flat or coiled spring4 ,a little later again1 these large saddles were abandoned for the saddle of a smaller size1 having a hooked pommel and steel cantle fastened to a very rigid and unyielding spring1 and had leather tops1 and of which the type known as the ,sager was very popular4 ,another popular type still in use was known as the ,mesinger1 the base of which consisted of strands of rattan woven into a style resembling chair seats1 and which was covered by a layer of stitched felt and leather1 suitably mounted on round wire springs4 ,the leather portion of this had an opening of a somewhat irregular ,v shape4 ,the ,climax saddle1 which had a small degree of popularity also1 was made of a series of small coiled wire springs which were nickel plated1 but even this style of saddle was sometimes covered with thin pieces of leather4 ,the next change in construction1 as a variation on these1 was produced by the makers of the ,hunt saddle4 ,their saddle had a leather cover lined with all wool felt1 which rested upon a laced framework of leather strands1 these being fastened like the ,mesinger1 and having a bent wood cantle instead of one of sheet steel4 ,the makers of the ,sager saddle also made a pneumatic saddle which had a flat wooden base1 through which protruded two valves1 which were connected to two small rubber inner tubes1 and these were covered by a leather covering which was laced to the wooden base4 ,this pattern with some modifications is still made by the ,sager ,company4 ,the above list1 of course1 is somewhat incomplete from the fact that of the many freak saddles that were introduced few survived1 and therefore are hardly worth considering here as leading up to the present types of saddles shown in #ahih4 ,,the ,,christy ,,type4 ,at the #ahie cycle show was shown for the first time by ,messrs4 ,a4 ,g4 ,spalding ,bros41 the distinctive type of saddle now so well known as the ,christy4 ,at that time the base was of cast aluminum1 having a smooth edge1 but the body of the plate was perforated with holes1 and it had a long peak or pommel4 ,it was mounted upon a flat steel spring4 ,within the past two years the saddle has become justly popular1 not only among riders1 but among physicians who have made a study of the cycle saddle question4 ,over five thousand well-known physicians and surgeons in this country have given favorable written opinions concerning it4 ,the changes in this year's type are mainly in the details of construction1 the same broad1 general principles prevailing4 ,the metal frame is now constructed of sheet steel1 which is highly polished and nickel plated4 ,the leather pads have been lengthened and thickened4 ,the springs are made of a continuous piece of round wire spring steel1 and the seat-post clamp has two sets of screws1 one on each side of the clamp4 ,the bolt in the pommel of the saddle1 which formerly had a round head1 is now made with a head of a flattened ,l shape1 thus covering more surface1 and the lock-nut underneath the saddle is prevented from loosening or falling off by being struck with a centre punch after it is set in place4 ,one of the illustrations shows for the first time their latest model of ,christy saddles1 known as the racing ,christy4 ,as will be noted the usual construction has been somewhat departed from4 ,instead of the metal edge or flange being turned down as in the other models this flange is turned up1 and the saddle pads run continuously on each side from the cantle to the ends of the long pommel4 ,the entire model of course is very narrow1 and the object of the long pommel is to permit the track or the road racer to slide forward on the pommel in starting to sprint1 or climbing a hill1 only using the pommel to hold himself in place1 and thus prevent lateral displacement of the body while under rapid pedalling movement4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,christy--,,men',s4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,christy--,,women',s4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,christy--,,under ,,side4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,safety ,,poise40 ,the hygienic feature of the ,christy saddle has been universally recognized and confirmed by testimonials from all the leading physicians and surgeons in the country4 ,it is moulded in anatomical conformity to the parts1 and comfortable cushions are so placed as to receive the bony prominence of the pelvis1 sustaining the weight of the body1 the open centre protecting those tender parts susceptible to injury4 ,the frame being constructed of metal1 maintains its correct shape under all circumstances4 ,by slight changes here and there1 more saddle than ever has been embodied in the #ahih models1 although the general lines of the saddle are unchanged4 ,all models are made with the continuous wire spring1 greatly simplifying the construction and materially strengthening the entire saddle4 ,the cushions are upholstered with the finest curled hair moulded to proper form1 and always retain their elasticity and shape4 ,the five models or styles comprise different widths and vary sufficiently to satisfy all tastes4 ,many of the prominent bicycle manufacturers of the country now equip their cycles with the ,christy1 or list it as an option4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,christy ,,racing ,,saddle4 ,,the ,,sager ,,line4 ,the ,sager ,manufacturing ,co4 of ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 one of the oldest makers of saddles in this country1 are showing this year a new saddle which they call the 8,flexible40 ,they also say that they 8are willing to stake their reputation that the flexible line of saddles comes nearer to a solution of the much discussed saddle problem than anything heretofore presented40 ,they are entirely new in construction and appearance1 and are very simple1 and beyond question they will suit a greater variety of riders than anything heretofore produced4 ,one of their saddles has a solid leather base1 on which are placed pads covered with leather1 and stitched to the lower base4 ,the pads are made in two forms4 ,in one form the pads extend from the pommel to the cantle1 having an open centre1 however1 from the cantle to a point about midway of the saddle4 ,in the other form of construction the pads are on each side of the base1 and the pommel is not covered1 but it is depressed below the line of the pads1 with an opening running from the end of the pommel between the pads to the cantle4 ,they have also improved their ,hygienic saddles by adding to the seating surface2 also a new take up1 and improved edge binding1 and also say that they will retain their shape as well as the old hard leather tops did--something1 it is claimed1 no hygienic saddle has ever done before4 ,they also show a pneumatic moulded saddle1 which is moulded to fit the body1 and the entire seating surface is padded with air4 ,a deep depression in the centre prevents any possibility of any uncomfortable pressure4 ,they also make a racing saddle1 which is composed of veneered wood1 cross grained1 and glued together1 and covered1 of course1 with leather4 ,another form of anatomical pattern of theirs has a solid wooden base on which are placed two leather pads which are fastened to the base by a strap of nickel-plated steel which is screwed thereto4 ,a nickel-plated steel plate also extends between the pads from the pommel to the cantle4 ,the ,sager ,pneumatic saddle consists of a three-ply wood base to which is fitted a leather cover4 ,its peculiarity lies in the use of two separate air tubes1 which are inflated with a regulation tire pump1 but these tubes are entirely independent of each other1 thus preventing any rolling or side motion and giving perfect steadiness4 ,there are two holes through the saddle in the centre of the depressions on the rear part of the seat1 which serve the double purpose of ventilation and also to retain the base of the pelvis1 and the saddle is laced down the centre1 which prevents any undue pressure there2 the present style may be considered a decided improvement over their former models of pneumatic saddles4 ,the ,sager ,co4 also make a saddle called the ,peck1 but it may more properly be called a seat1 being radically different from anything in the market4 ,the rider sits upon a formed cushion seat and not astride4 ,the body finds a steady support1 the reciprocating parts of the seat support while giving free movement to the limbs4 ,there is no pommel to this seat1 and therefore this saddle is particularly suitable to those riders of either sex who desire to sit upright4 ,if properly adjusted it is claimed that there is not the slightest danger of sliding off the seat1 and that the absence of the pommel does not in anyway interfere with steadiness in riding4 ,,the ,,mesinger ,,saddle4 ,the ,mesinger ,saddle ,company show by far the best model line yet made of this well-known make for #ahih4 ,it is softer1 both in the back and on the pommel1 than any of their previous styles1 and softer on the pommel than any saddle ever shown by them4 ,the reason for this is that the weaving of the rattan gives the strength1 durability and elasticity1 while1 being wood fibre1 it is not affected by water1 and cannot stretch or sag4 ,on this springy1 but non-stretchable base is a cover of felt1 over which is leather to waterproof it and give it a finished appearance4 ,a ,v-shaped opening is cut in the centre of the cover1 anatomically formed to relieve all injurious pressure1 ventilate1 prevent numbness1 or any possible injury to the delicate parts of the body4 ,the general shape of the saddle is made to conform to the anatomical requirements of the body1 the ends of the pelvis bones being supported on the felt on each side of the anatomically shaped opening and the curves of the outer sides of the saddle conforming to the folds of the flesh naturally formed in pedalling4 ,illustration3 8,,rubber ,,neck40 ,the ,mesinger people are now manufacturing a saddle with an upturned cantle1 model ,h1 which is an excellent specimen of this shape of saddle4 ,they have not only obtained the desirable features of this style of saddle but have produced a very soft seat4 ,the base is made of woven rattan1 which cannot sag1 and this saddle will always retain its shape4 ,the rattan is woven in such a manner as to give a peculiar flexibility to the sides2 presents a soft1 yielding side surface to the leg when pedalling4 ,the ,mesinger hygienic saddle is made with an outer finish like their regular saddle1 but the base of this saddle1 instead of rattan1 is made of rawhide4 ,the base is made of one continuous strip of rawhide1 interwoven with leather1 and passing through the wood cantle4 ,the interweaving is made in such a manner that the weight of the body1 resting upon the leather1 always keeps the central strands tight and firm4 ,the peculiar shape of their spring with its tension actually takes up any stretch4 ,the saddle is light and of good appearance4 ,illustration3 ,,bernasco4 ,the principal points of the new ,mesinger saddles are found in the new base1 which consists of a very strong woven strap 7web71 specially made for this purpose1 laced through the cantle and nose1 and also a very strong and effective stretcher1 by which the saddle can be made hard or soft1 as desired by the rider1 without removing the saddle from the bicycle4 ,from a mechanical standpoint their saddles will recommend themselves everywhere2 they are soft and pliable from the tip of the nose to the edge of the cantle1 and having an anatomical shape there can be absolutely no pressure on the tender parts of the body4 ,some materials used in hygienic saddles are not pliable enough1 others stretch out of shape4 ,the woven strap which is used in the base of their saddles yields sufficiently and conforms to the body4 ,being seven-eighths of an inch wide it cannot show through the felt and leather cover1 as narrow leather strips or other materials do after having been ridden for a length of time4 ,they also make a padded saddle for racing on the plan of their regular saddles1 with the exception that it has a concave wooden cantle4 ,,the ,,garford ,,saddles4 ,illustration3 ,,garford--8#abh40 ,the ,garford ,manufacturing ,company show seven models of padded saddles1 furnished with various styles of pads and springs4 ,their leading saddle this year is one known as the 8,cavalry40 ,it has a wood base which is finished with shellac and varnish and the rear part covered with leather1 corresponding with the top4 ,the top has raised pads1 with a decided upward curve at the rear4 ,the pommel drops over from the front edge of the pads1 giving a very racy appearance4 ,this is made with either a plain flat spring1 or a spring with two rear coils4 ,the women's model is about one inch shorter in the pommel4 ,their hygienic saddle is made with raw hide strands from the pommel to the wooden cantle in the rear1 and has an adjustment so arranged as to permit tightening of the strands alone1 or the strands and the leather top together4 ,the top is made of two thicknesses of leather with felt between1 and has a large opening in the centre4 ,another one of their models has a wood base somewhat similar to their ,cavalry saddle1 but the curve of the saddle from the front to the rear somewhat resembles the ,t or ,truss saddle made by this company during the past four years1 which was one of the most popular saddles ever made4 ,this new model has a padded top1 the pad extending to the top of the pommel1 and having a deep impression in the centre opening out at the back1 thus forming two raised pads at the rear4 ,illustration3 ,,tillinghast4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tillinghast ,,frame4 ,,the ,,gilliam ,,line4 ,the ,gilliam saddles for #ahih present a wide variety of styles and shapes1 sufficient to meet the demands of every kind of rider4 ,their ,no4 #gf is a road or racing saddle1 made with a light steel base as foundation1 over which is glued thick all-wool felt1 the whole being covered top and bottom with the best quality leather4 ,their ,no4 #gf is a woman's saddle made on the same lines4 ,they furnish both these saddles with cantle raised somewhat giving more dip or curve to the seat4 ,the ,gilliam ,hygienic laced saddle has a truss spring bolted to a hickory cantle 7bent by special process71 over which is stretched a stripped single piece rawhide frame as shown in cut4 ,by folding and stitching the rawhide in front they obtain the same amount of strength in material as in the rear or broader portion4 ,this at the same time gives a narrower pommel4 ,the top or cover of their ,nos4 #gj and #ge saddles is made of boarded pebble leather1 and being lined with all-wool felt1 makes a firm and pliable cushion over the frame4 ,the front end of the soft top covering is not fastened to the frame1 as is some times seen in this style of saddle4 ,the advantage in not attaching the top to the frame proper is that it assumes the shape of the rider without stretching or wearing the top4 ,the ,gilliam ,company also make a padded saddle1 which has a continuous laminated open frame1 and which is covered with rawhide drawn tightly over it1 thus making a pliable base upon which are built pads of all-wool felt4 ,this pliable base prevents the pads from matting and getting out of shape1 and from the nature of the construction the weight of the rider is made to force the pads toward the centre instead of toward the sides4 ,they furnish it with either coiled or truss springs4 ,,the ,,brown ,,type4 ,one of the most popular saddles of the day is that known as the ,brown4 ,the base is of three pieces of wood firmly joined together4 ,after being thoroughly sized with glue1 this is covered with a strong linen and waterproofed with two coats of lead paint4 ,over this is stretched a cover of oak-tanned saddle leather1 which is hand-sewed and finely finished4 ,it is built upon absolutely correct anatomical lines and never loses its shape4 ,it is strong1 light and very handsome and finished in black or russet4 ,it is entirely a hand-made saddle and made by skilled workmen4 ,the design of the ,brown saddle is one of perfect curves in all its parts4 ,variations in this type consist in furnishing them with either flat or wire spring and also with an easy coil spring in the rear4 ,the saddle tops are also furnished in broader pattern and with wool felt between the lining1 making a soft easy seat for road riding4 ,the type is also produced in juvenile models and models for ladies' use1 and a broad1 heavy padded one1 which they call their 8fat man's0 saddle4 ,,the 8,,universal0 ,,saddle4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,universal40 ,the 8,universal0 saddle1 into the construction of which rubber and aluminum alone enter1 is built upon the principle that the weight of the rider should rest upon the flesh covering the pelvic bones as well as upon the bones themselves4 ,the surface of the saddle is a perforated aluminum plate ten inches broad1 with depressions to conform anatomically to the positions assumed by both the male and female pelvis when the body is in a sitting posture4 ,there is no pommel1 and the centre opening prevents the pressure calculated to work injurious results4 ,aluminum being a heat dispellor1 the surface of the saddle is cool at all times4 ,instead of spiral steel springs the seat plate is supported upon pneumatic rubber bulbs4 ,these completely separate the metal post springs from the seat proper1 and by thus avoiding contact between the metal of the wheel and the seat plate1 effectually do away with vibration1 which1 it is claimed1 is responsible for the nervousness and headaches experienced by the users of some saddles4 ,these1 briefly stated1 are the leading claims of the ,dr4 ,richmond 8,universal10 set forth in a circular letter to the manufacturers by several well known ,new ,york physicians4 ,a good idea of its design and construction may be gained from a glance at the accompanying cuts4 ,,the ,,hunt ,,saddles4 ,illustration3 ,,brown4 ,the saddles made by the ,hunt ,manufacturing ,company of ,westboro1 ,mass41 have long been deservedly popular1 not only on account of their design1 but also because of the excellent material used in their construction4 ,one of their most popular saddles is known as their 8,hygienic10 and of this they were the introducers4 ,the leather cover is lined with all-wool felt and rests upon a laced framework of leather strands4 ,these strands are not raw hide or alum-tanned leather1 which readily absorb moisture and also stretch and become brittle and hard when dry1 but a specially tanned leather which is elastic and impervious to moisture4 ,this leather is1 of course1 much more expensive than raw hide or alum-tanned leather used by the makers of cheap saddles who imitate their construction4 ,their '#ih ,hygienic saddles have a depression in the middle in the rear1 the object of which is to prevent danger to the spinal column by jolt4 ,the leather top has an opening in the centre to afford ventilation and prevent perineal pressure4 ,a modification of their ,hygienic pattern consists in placing pads on the top of them1 the saddle1 of course1 having the same laced framework found in their other patterns1 so that in this construction framework as well as pads yield under the rider's weight4 ,for those riders who do not care for the padded saddle with a depression running between the pads1 they furnish a pattern of padded saddle which only has a depression on the front and rear of the padded portion and not through the centre4 ,another variation in their ,hygienic pattern consists in using strands of a special woven fabric instead of leather1 making the whole leather smaller than their other styles1 thus adapting it to young and light weight riders who only require small sitting space4 ,they also make a rigid saddle1 which is constructed of two plates of sheet steel so shaped that the edges of the leather cover1 which is lined with thick felt1 are firmly held by the two plates when assembled1 without stitching or rivets4 ,another new type of saddle made by this company is a saddle absolutely without a pommel4 ,it is of the padded pattern1 with leather strand supports1 similar to their ,hygienic padded saddle1 but without pommel4 ,this model is said to be very comfortable for riders who have no difficulty in maintaining their balance without the pommel4 ,,sundry ,,other ,,makers4 ,the 8,stylish ,gordon0 saddle1 made by the ,beckley-,ralston ,co41 ,chicago1 is one that has made a reputation for itself during the past two seasons4 ,it is a well-made saddle and has a racy appearance1 with no edges to pedal over or retard the circulation in long distance riding4 ,the same dish that gives the racing man a brace affords in solid comfort models rooms for a thick sanitary felt padding4 ,the ,gordon has a steel base covered with felt and leather1 and this steel base 7which was made from a master plate7 was the result of long experiment1 to produce a perfect model1 nearly fifty hand-made models being rejected before one that was considered perfect was produced4 ,the ,perry ,pneumatic saddle was placed on the market last year4 ,it was one of the first to combine anatomical formation with the added feature of a pneumatic air cushion4 ,one of its peculiarities is that it can be ridden deflated as well as inflated4 ,the saddle is constructed by placing upon a steel plate1 which is covered with a layer of felt to prevent friction1 an inflated rubber air cushion1 the whole being covered with leather above and below sewed together by hand4 ,illustration3 ,,gilliam ,,frame4 ,illustration3 ,,gilliam4 ,the ,phillips ,hammock saddle has the base made of linen cord covered with leather4 ,this cord of course is not of unyielding texture1 and therefore conforms to the movements of the rider and the bicycle4 ,it permits an easy oscillating motion corresponding to the natural action of the limbs in pedalling4 ,this saddle presents somewhat peculiar features in construction4 ,instead of the cantle being round as in the usual saddle construction the back of the saddle is perfectly square or straight4 ,it is made entirely without rivets or screws and the leather portion of the saddle only extends about two-thirds of the distance between the pommel and the cantle4 ,the base is made of one continuous cord looped to the pommel and cantle1 a sliding loop changing the shape or width of the saddle to the liking of the rider without the use of any tools4 ,the adjusting of the rods forming a universal joint at the centre of the cantle is one of the peculiar features of this invention4 ,it is also to be noted that each cord on the top of the saddle has a return strand beneath with a free motion over to the cantle1 so that the extent of the saddle's flexibility is measured by twice its length4 ,the ,safety ,poise ,saddle is the invention of ,dr4 ,otis ,k4 ,newell of ,boston4 ,the perineal or middle flesh pressure is entirely eliminated by its use4 ,it is the only open frame saddle in the market1 and the cut gives an excellent idea of its construction4 ,they show a new model for #ahih1 which is about two-thirds of the size of the regular pattern1 and is constructed so that the rider sits more on the saddle than in it4 ,this change has been made so that the rider at once accustoms himself to the saddle4 ,the makers of the ,rusch have departed entirely from the idea of using for the foundation of a saddle a metal or wooden base1 and construct the base of their saddles of specially prepared oak tanned leather4 ,it has an indentation in the centre which is one of their patented mechanical features4 ,this centre depression is sufficiently deep to prevent irritation and allows the use of sloping sides4 ,the cantle is so placed under the body of the saddle that it is almost impossible to strike against it either in mounting or in pedaling4 ,the ,bernasco ,adjustable ,saddle is built in two parts1 so that it is adjustable to the form of all riders4 ,the ,tillinghast ,hygienic saddle has a continuous open frame work of bent ash1 on top of which are fastened leather straps covered with a padded leather top4 ,the ,p4 ,f4 ,anatomical saddle has a rigid base covered all over1 in the pommel of which is constructed a mechanical pneumatic device which does not require any valves1 and cannot get punctured4 ,it gives the effect of a full pneumatic construction without using a depressed pommel or raised pads4 ,the ,la ,tulip saddle is made wholly of raw hide1 which the makers claim will not stretch or sag2 also that it weighs less than one pound4 ,it is made on some new ideas of anatomical construction4 ,the 8,rubber ,neck0 saddle has a steel base covered with a rubber cushion in the shape of vertical rubber tubes forming a honeycomb which yields to every motion4 ,this honeycomb also produces air spaces or cells extending from the plate to the cover1 which keep the saddle cool and thoroughly ventilated4 ,the ,bunker ,pneumatic saddle is similar in shape to a flattened crescent1 and is used transversely to the frame4 ,a variation of it is somewhat of the regulation shape1 and is provided with a yielding rubber cushion an inch thick over its entire surface1 having at each side of the centre a depression to receive the pelvis bones1 and an opening from the centre to the front to relieve all pressure4 ,they also make a pneumatic saddle which is open in the centre1 the whole construction being only a rim which is inflated4 ,the ,glover ,perfection ,saddle has a platform of crucible steel so shaped and coiled that a diamond-shaped opening is left in the central and front parts of the saddle1 thus preventing any pressure at these points and also affording proper ventilation4 ,instead of having a horn or protuberance in front to bump against the ,glover saddle drops away from the plane on which the rider sits1 making it impossible to strike it in riding4 ,the ,glover saddle can also be ridden without tilting it up at an angle4 ,the springs are reversible1 and the leather cover is easily removable4 ,the coiled steel platform is padded with felt4 ,this saddle was designed by a physician who has long been an enthusiastic wheelman4 ,,in ,,general4 ,it is practically impossible to construct a bicycle saddle which will meet the views and requirements of all riders4 ,the style of riding and the rider determine the pattern of saddle best suited to each individual4 ,care should be taken in the adjustment and tilt of the saddle4 ,it will often be found that a slight change in the tilt will render comfortable a saddle which has been the cause of much complaint4 ,for average riders and riding a nearly horizontal position is advised4 ,for racing and fast road riding1 however1 lower the nose of the saddle in order that the weight of the rider may be thrown more on the pedals4 ,illustration3 ,,la ,,tulip4 ,to get perfect comfort the saddle must be properly adjusted4 ,it all depends on whether you want a seat or a saddle4 ,a seat is to sit on4 ,a saddle is simply a support4 ,if you put your weight all on your seat you lose the power of your weight4 ,it is harder work to go fast1 but perhaps it is easier for those who do not want to ride far and fast4 ,with a saddle it is best to tip up the cantle and put more weight on the pedals4 ,you can ride fast this way1 but it involves more muscular exertion4 ,as a general rule ladies prefer the seat2 gentlemen1 the saddle4 ,the saddle must not be placed too far back or front1 but well toward the pedals1 to give more weight to the stroke4 ,as to height1 the right height is when the rider1 sitting on the saddle and his foot parallel with the ground1 can just rest the heel on the pedal at its lowest position4 ,this leaves room for the necessary ankle play4 ,the rider of the bicycle must remember that not only are the legs affected by riding1 but the exercise benefits nearly every portion of the human body4 ,this seems at first to be rather odd1 but at the same time it is perfectly true1 and has been proven by the best experiments4 ,the new rider1 after taking a ten-mile jaunt1 expects to feel tired in the legs1 and is considerably1 not to say disagreeably1 surprised to find himself aching all over4 ,probably he has more discomfort in the thighs than anywhere else1 or maybe the ache is in the loins1 back or between the shoulder blades4 ,a number of muscles in the arms1 shoulders and chest begin to ache1 and he is quite unable to explain it4 ,in fact1 the thought that his fatigue is due to the character of the saddle of his wheel is probably the last thing to enter his mind4 ,to ride a bicycle and avoid the discomforts mentioned1 you want a saddle which conforms to the shape of the body and prevents pressure on the sensitive parts4 ,as a rule1 sufficient care is not taken in selecting a saddle suited to the rider4 ,many people in purchasing a bicycle accept unquestioned the saddle found on the cycle at the time of purchase without stopping to determine whether or not it is adapted to their use4 ,some actual trial of a saddle should be insisted upon1 for a saddle that 8fits anybody0 is really a saddle that fits nobody4 ,no saddle is perfect4 ,the perfect saddle1 as the public looks at it1 is the saddle that fits everybody4 ,it will never be made1 for 8people are different40 ,the true wisdom of saddle buying is to get one that will fit you4 ,choose a saddle as you choose a pair of shoes4 ,wrong shoes cause corns4 ,so do wrong saddles4 ,saddle corns are decidedly uncomfortable4 ,during the season of #ahih the rider will1 more than ever before1 be allowed the privilege of stipulating the make of saddle he will have furnished on the cycle he buys1 because competition in the cycle trade has reached such a stage that only cycles with exceptional advantages in the way of equipment will sell easily4 ,with the reduction in price of bicycles has come a reduction in the price of saddles1 so that at present the difference in price between saddles of recognized merit and inferior imitations is not so great as the difference in actual value4 ,,seat ,,posts4 ,of seat posts little need be said4 ,such adjustability in height as once existed was had by the slot in crank1 the saddle position being fixed4 ,the rear-driver allows a large vertical adjustment1 which is still obtained by telescoping one tube into another4 ,in this there is no recent change save in the modes of fastening1 which are more in the direction of internal binders1 nearly all working on the principle of expanding one of the tubes to bind on the other by the use of a wedge4 ,many of these devices are neat1 convenient and invisible4 ,a peculiarity is the one on the ,wolff-,american1 working by an external lever and using an internal 8thumb-latch10 which jams of itself when borne down to the horizontal4 ,the goose-neck spring stem1 of the day when saddles were borne high above the frame1 has disappeared2 but if the present craze for short heads and extreme drop continues the tall rider will be compelled to return gradually to this or some other device for raising up1 including the long draw-out of the stem which used to be characteristic about six years ago4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,handlebars1 ,,grips ,,and ,,brakes4 ,illustration3 ,,kelly ,,adjustable ,,bar4 ,the old-time handlebar was almost invariably passed directly through projecting lugs on the 8head10 made for the purpose of holding it4 ,for a number of years it was straight and solid1 varying from fifteen inches in length to the other extreme of even thirty or thirty-two4 ,the usual handle or grip was pear-shaped1 although in a few instances round2 the common material was horn1 but wood and rubber were sometimes used4 ,the common mode of fastening was to work the end of the bar into a sort of 8tang0 like the end of a caseknife or similar tool and hold the grip on by a thin nut run on the bar and let down into a cavity in the end of the handle4 ,this illustrates again adaptation of old devices to new uses4 ,as lightness came to be more considered1 makers having also found it easier to manipulate hollow steel tubing1 the hollow bar was introduced4 ,the dropped and the cow-horn pattern were not long in coming4 ,the present type of bicycle compelled the ends of the bar to be carried backward in order to bring the grips within reach of the rider2 but the various curves upward and downward1 with ramshorn and other twists which have sometimes seemed almost humorous1 are of such recent date that they need not be referred to in detail4 ,the straight pear-shaped grip became a ,t1 then a spade1 then a shape resembling the short and chunky pistol stock2 then--on the rear driving safety--settled into the oblong shape1 slipped upon the end of the hollow tube1 which has become so familiar and has hardly changed except in the material used to make it4 ,illustration3 ,,plymouth ,,wood ,,bar4 ,concerning the length of bar--more properly1 width1 since the point is the measurement in a direct line between the grips--the ,london ,cyclist1 in a long and ponderous article about three years ago1 argued against the short bar1 declaring that 8its absurdity is apparent40 ,the reasons given were two3 that a bar less than what the editor dictatorially pronounced the proper length 7about #bc inches7 brings the grip around in the way of the thigh in making a short turn1 and that a short bar is hygienically wrong4 ,the hands should not be brought nearer than when they hang at the sides4 8,by measuring the distance between the shoulders1 or between the seams of the coat1 and then throwing the handle grips #a to #b inches farther out on each side1 or by measuring the distance between the shoulders over all from outside to outside of the shoulders1 riders will obtain the proper length of bar for their own individual requirements40 ,the writer proceeded to say that men put their hands on the bar not because the grips are too far apart1 but because the grips are set too low1 and he found a supporter in a ,coventry firm who said they had always adhered to #bc inches and wished 8manufacturers as a body would follow their own convictions more and not be so led by a few riders who think they are authorities on cycle construction40 ,illustration3 ,,lyndhurst ,,adjustable ,,bar4 ,as to this1 a maker may well take a stand and stick to it when impossibilities are demanded1 as when the craze for lightness called for steady reduction in weight without impairment of strength1 or when1 as now1 people seem to call for such excess of crank-hanger drop as involves risk of 8drop0 of a disagreeable nature2 short of such positive folly1 and in general1 the maker will do well to keep in touch with the public and provide what is wanted1 even if it be not the most rational and if he reserve the right of having his private judgment4 ,as to length of handlebar1 we count this1 along with crank-throw and saddle1 a matter for individual choice rather than for the dictum of any individual authority4 ,a long bar is certainly a plague in passing through doors and in leaning a wheel safely2 it is probable that women more or less err in having saddle too low and handles too high2 it is certain that fashion 7apparently set by the scorcher class7 governs the bar and the grips2 and yet the better course for 8authority0 is to let the rider do as he pleases1 which he is pretty sure to do willy-nilly4 ,,the ,,modern ,,handlebar4 ,as above remarked1 the plain straight bar of the high wheel could not be used on the modern type4 ,the first bend was the simple one of pulling the grips back in the same plane with the bar1 until they pointed straight back or nearly so2 then the intermediate curving set in4 ,now1 the commonest form is a simple bend1 which brings the grips below the top tube1 and whether the wheel will turn around on the steering or strikes on the bar seems to be the test that divides the true up-to-date pacer as a class from the unclassed 8citizens and strangers40 ,but between the head and the grip the bar may wander variously in length consumed and in vagary of curve1 the very latest being a downward-slanted reversed ,v form1 which joins with the short head in showing that the rider 8has a new '#ih40 ,illustration3 ,,barret',s ,,detachable ,,brake4 ,in connection with the distinctive triple front fork already described1 the ,lyndhurst has a bar arranged to slide on the upper tubes of the fork1 instead of inside the head2 it is also reversible1 thus giving several positions4 ,many forms of bar adjustable at the head are also in the market4 ,that of the ,kelly ,company of ,cleveland is hinged at the centre1 and the grips may be moved up or down directly1 with an extreme travel1 each position being capable of being firmly locked1 the stem being reversible for further variety in shape4 ,in most cases the entire bar rotates at the centre4 ,the ,burt bar has a small toothed ring at the centre1 engaged by a lever shaped like the hammer of a gun4 ,this can be drawn back and the bar shifted1 while riding1 without need of tools4 ,the ,claus bar has a taper-toothed ring1 held in a corresponding toothed band and fastened on the opposite side of the stem by a nut working on a tapered thread2 no wrench is required4 ,the ,standard non-vibrating bar1 made by the ,rumbarger ,company of ,dayton1 ,o41 adjusts at the head in a similar manner and claims forty-two different positions4 ,the ,chicago ,handle ,bar ,company1 which makes a specialty of the 8,schinneer0 bar and uses that term as its trade mark1 has also a bar borne on a 8,u0 spring on top of the head as an 8anti-vibration40 ,the ,brennan ,company of ,syracuse has a bar adjustable by sliding a toothed ring into or out of engagement with a ring internally toothed1 held in place by an internal expander4 ,,the ,,wood ,,bar4 ,illustration3 ,,detachable ,,rear ,,brake4 ,the wood bar is still in market4 ,louis ,rastetter ,son of ,fort ,wayne make as their specialty a ferrule of steel tubing shrunk on the bar at the centre1 the fastening being by a screw in a ,u-shaped clamp4 ,the ,wood ,manufacturing ,company of ,toledo offer the ,la ,fave bar1 adjustable by means of serrations on one edge of the slip on the stem1 the serrations engaging a fixed pin and fastened by a lock-nut4 ,yet the wood bar shows no distinct progress in use1 and makers do not as generally as in #ahig include it among their options4 ,it is not so easily marred as the steel bar2 it is less disagreeable to the touch in cold weather1 and it undeniably has the power of considerably absorbing vibration4 ,yet the last-named service is largely lost by the habit of not keeping the hands on the grips1 and thus losing the leverage of the full length of the bar2 even the writer1 who still cleaves to the wood1 has fallen1 with the rest1 into the habit of never touching the grips4 ,probably this very quality of springiness1 which gives the wood its distinctive value1 gives riders an unfounded suspicion of weakness in the wood bar1 especially if of fashionable length and if held by its ends2 thus held1 it springs in a degree which possibly impairs certainty of steering control and makes it unfit for a heavy pull for driving power4 ,hence it must be admitted ill-suited for such pull2 yet this should not be counted against the wood bar under ordinary road service1 where the use of a bar is really rather more for its share in supporting the body than for actual pull4 ,justly or unjustly1 however1 the wood bar seems at present likely to go out4 ,illustration3 ,,stewart ,,roller ,,brake4 ,internal fastenings1 usually on the principle of slightly expanding the stem of the bar1 which is sawn open a short distance for the purpose1 are much in vogue4 ,the ,ideal ,plating ,company of ,boston has one which by one operation tightens the stem in its place and also tightens upon the bar itself the split ring which holds it4 ,the ,wolff-,american has a peculiar one which works in connection with a slot to keep the bar in proper line and a serrated edge on the adjusting cone to hold the head adjustment4 ,others work on the expansion principle1 sometimes by turning a nut under the fork crown1 sometimes by a nut on top of the bar itself2 others by a nut on top of the head2 the tendency is thus quite general to do away with the split lug and pinch-bolt1 and there can be no practical difficulty in so doing if the devices are constructed in a mechanical manner in detail4 ,,grips4 ,in grips1 the corkaline composition still holds place as against the grip of actual cork in sections1 and the composition tip1 in colors to suit1 retains place as against the metal tip4 ,a new thing is a thin wood shell1 covered with a narrow strip of leather1 wound on spirally1 and tipped in the usual manner4 ,there is no apparent objection to this1 unless it becomes unpleasant under perspiration from the hand4 ,spring grips can still be had1 but do not seem to take4 ,rubber grips1 having a slot along their length so as to be capable of opening1 and similar to the clasps to be put on the top bar as buffers when the grip whirls about and bumps it1 are made for the centre or other part of the bar1 and can be shifted at pleasure4 ,a very neat grip for this purpose is made of celluloid1 slotted along part of its length1 after the manner of a barrel1 with thin openings between its staves1 the object of the slotting being to allow some elasticity4 ,the ,rambler fits on one style of bar a grip of 8unbreakable fibre10 made detachable on one side only1 the other grip being cemented on4 ,by pulling out a soft rubber plug from the end of the bar a tapered screw can be reached2 this screw presses outwardly on three triangular flaps made by partly sawing through the bar in three cuts1 and thus holds the grip by expansion4 ,the expansion principle is similarly applied to seat-posts1 the ,l-top being also in some cases made to take out and reverse1 for either forward or backward position1 and in others being made to slide through the end of the stem of the post1 where it can be locked at any point4 ,one of the most peculiar adjusting posts is the ,watson2 the ,l-top of this is hinged to the lower part1 which lower part is split in half and tapered4 ,a tap of the hand underneath the saddle releases the 8bite0 of the tapered halves against the tube1 and the saddle can be withdrawn2 on replacing the saddle1 a downward push slides the tapered halves outward again1 gripping the tube on the inside by expansion4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,brake4 ,the earliest form of brake was probably applied to the back wheel1 and consisted of either a 8spoon0 or a roller1 to be drawn against the tire and operated by a cord running back from the handlebar1 which was in such cases not fixed in the head lugs1 but capable of being rotated to wind up the cord4 ,other forms1 semi-automatic in operation1 soon followed4 ,in one1 two short arms carrying a roller between them were pivoted on the back fork just above the wheel axle2 this brake was brought into contact with the tire by drawing upward with a cord1 and in case the cord broke the brake dropped down by its own weight1 and as the arms bearing the roller were shorter than the radius of the back wheel1 the forward movement of the wheel immediately drew the roller into wedging contact with the tire1 and the wheel dragged1 thus producing maximum efficiency4 ,the ground or trailing brake was another class1 a long1 curved fork being attached1 and being so worked by a cord as to bring a notched or roughened end into biting contact with the ground2 this was not wholesome for the road surface1 but it served fairly well for retarding1 and if pressure enough were applied the back wheel 7which bore only a small load7 could even be lifted off the ground1 the brake taking its place as carrier4 ,the cord was made very thick and strong2 yet as there was a chance of its snapping1 other forms of brake were devised to meet that chance4 ,in one1 the cord was slackened instead of tightened1 allowing the short arms to drop down in front of the back wheel1 which forthwith ran up off the ground and directly upon a small flat shoe borne by these arms1 so that the wheel stopped turning and rode on a 8drag0 instead4 ,another pattern made the brake arm long enough to go quite over the wheel2 this was worked by drawing upward with the cord until the back extremity bore on the ground2 if the cord broke1 a spring pulled the arm in the other direction1 and the forward end1 carrying a shoe upon which the wheel ran up1 dropped down before the wheel4 ,the front wheel brake was the common one1 however4 ,sometimes it was in roller form1 as sometimes now1 and this was sometimes worked by a rack and pinion1 the handlebar being rotated for the purpose4 ,more generally the brake was a simple ,l-shaped lever with a spoon at its end1 worked by a hand lever on the bar1 as today4 ,as old riders remember1 the brake on the high wheel was very sensitive and hazardous1 as an excess of pressure would lock the wheel in its bearings and send everything over headlong4 ,illustration3 ,,hay ,,willits ,,back ,,pedalling ,,brake4 ,illustration3 ,,hay ,,willits ,,back ,,pedalling ,,brake4 ,,brake ,,or ,,no ,,brake4 ,the modern type removes that danger and yet the modern wheel1 the drop frame excepted1 is brakeless to this day1 all discussion about brakes in the press and before city governing boards1 enforced by not a small number of cases of disastrous run-away mishaps1 having failed to bring about the adoption of a brake as a regular part of construction4 ,there are some mechanical reasons for this1 and some reasons in custom and fashion4 ,the head being longer than in the old days1 it is impracticable to use the ,l spoon1 and the direct 8plunger0 pattern is necessary4 ,this requires a long connection down from the bar1 and it has been difficult to keep the brake parts in smooth working order1 especially as adjustability for height of the bar must be included4 ,later1 makers have begun to put the downward connection within the head and work the brake directly under the fork crown2 but even then the lever upon the bar is a clumsy fixture and constantly interferes with changing position of the bar4 ,with the front wheel brake at its best1 and however necessary some brake may be deemed to be1 it is still an expensive and troublesome fixture4 ,the effect on the tire is also to be considered4 ,the old solid tire could submit to anything1 but the stress and wear on the pneumatic are so great that it really ought not to be subjected to brake friction4 ,if it is urged that the back wheel is the proper and effective place for brake application it may justly be said that the back tire1 having to carry most of the load and bear all the driving traction1 ought to be kept free from further demands from a brake4 ,on behalf of the front tire it should be said that when a brake spoon has cut into the rubber on the tire tread not only is there liability to leakage of air but moisture may reach the fabric and disintegration by rotting may set in4 ,as women are the chief possessors of the front plunger brake1 and1 moreover1 are most likely to use it1 because generally more timid and also less practised and confident in back pedalling1 it is fair to warn them against unnecessary use of the brake 7which really ought to be reserved for emergencies71 especially when on wet surfaces1 since rubber cuts and tears more readily when wet4 ,illustration3 8,,new ,,departure0 ,,back ,,pedalling ,,brake4 ,the foot brake1 attached to the forks and pressed by the heel1 has the same objection as all other tire brakes as to effect on the tire4 ,but every rider always has an emergency brake at command in the simple use of the foot itself4 ,place the toe on the front tire back of the fork crown1 and the wheel itself will instantly carry it up against the crown1 when it can be applied with any pressure required4 ,it leaves only one foot for back pedalling1 yet check enough can be had thus to enable the rider to tumble off without injury if a regular and orderly dismount cannot be managed4 ,it is1 therefore1 not necessary1 in case of the wheel's escaping control on an unexpectedly sharp grade1 to run into wreck at the bottom4 ,all that is necessary1 having previously tried the trick enough to get the knack of placing the foot1 is to think of it--in other words1 to keep presence of mind and not be 8rattled40 ,no brake should be expected to serve for a 8short stop0 or as a substitute for care in riding4 ,an unexpected obstruction1 such as another bicycle or a wagon suddenly stopping close in front or a pedestrian running in the way1 cannot be escaped by brake action if at close range and high speed4 ,the rider who persists in 8rushing0 street crossings where there is no clear view of the intersecting points and generally seems to expect all creation to clear the way1 endangers himself and others1 brake or no brake2 and that mishaps are not more frequent is to the credit of the guardian angels or the carefulness of more rational persons1 not to his4 ,a simple way of avoiding grief on hills is that followed by the writer last season in going back and forth across the ,white ,mountains1 namely1 not to start1 in the saddle1 down any hill which cannot be seen and its grade perceived all the way down4 ,this compelled frequent dismounts2 but it took a light and brakeless wheel through a rugged country without mishap4 ,,various ,,tire ,,brakes4 ,illustration3 ,,duck',s ,,roller ,,brake4 ,there are a variety of tire brakes1 some for one wheel and some for the other1 differing in the mode of application4 ,one of the former is the ,bell brake1 combining a bell which rings by being pushed down into contact with the tire and a brake-shoe which comes on the front tire by a harder push and bears on the sides instead of the top of the tread4 ,the device may also be tipped so that the brake may be used without the bell1 for coasting4 ,the ,automatic ,coaster and ,brake is attached directly behind the crank bracket1 and consists of a spoon which is brought in contact with the tire by the act of back pedalling1 the lift of the chain slack being employed for that purpose4 ,the ,stuart brake is attached back of the crank bracket1 but is put in operation by pressing the heel on a short lever2 it applies a spoon to the back tire4 ,an alternative form of this brake uses a cord running over three small pulleys and coming up within reach near the steering head4 ,the ,body ,automatic brake1 as the name suggests1 is operated by bringing the body back upon the lever1 and works on the rear tire4 ,the ,tourist ,detachable is a small brake attached behind the crank bracket and readily removable1 being worked by a long cord1 which can be passed around the head1 the grips1 or the saddle itself4 ,the ,eureka and ,bulldog are also applied to the rear tire2 one is on the seat-post tube1 and is worked by pushing down a small frame carrying the spoon1 while the other is similarly placed1 but worked by a cord4 ,attempts are often made to avoid injury to the tire by covering the brake-shoe with rubber1 or by using a roller instead1 the intent being that the tire shall turn the roller without any sliding friction1 while the operative resistance shall be in the roller itself4 ,in a good degree these modes of saving the tire are or may be effective2 yet wear on the tire cannot be wholly avoided4 ,,automatic ,,rear ,,hub ,,brakes4 ,the old hand brake1 common on the tricycle1 was even used on the rear-driving bicycle1 the ,columbia and ,new ,mail having once been made with it4 ,the latest type1 however1 is the 8automatic10 placed on the hub of the driving wheel1 and put into action by back-pedalling4 ,of this type are the ,doolittle1 the ,new ,departure1 the ,willits1 and others4 ,in back-pedalling1 the sprockets and chain never actually run backward1 but the forward movement is resisted1 and thus there is a 8tendency0 for them to move a little more slowly than the wheel4 ,this tendency is employed in this type of brake1 and the principle is that the rear sprocket1 being so mounted as to allow a very slight backward slip with relation to its axle 7which is what occurs as soon as attempt is made to stop the sprocket by backing on the pedal7 slips just enough to put the brake 8on10 the friction being between either a cam disk or a split ring and a brake shoe which is held immovable by the frame4 ,the first attempt to back-pedal sets the brake1 its pressure depending on the force applied to the pedal4 ,the brake remains set of itself until pressure forward comes on the pedal again1 when it automatically releases4 ,under proper operation1 as intended1 the rider is hardly aware of this brake1 noticing only that his back-pedalling is very effective4 ,,the ,,spencer ,,brakes4 ,the ,spencer ,brake ,co4 has two brakes on the market1 the ,spencer ,concealed 8,plunger0 ,brake and the ,spencer 8,coil0 ,brake4 ,both of these are worked from the handlebar by twisting the right grip2 this draws on a small chain1 which in the 8,plunger0 connects with mechanism acting on the front tire by means of a spoon1 which forms a special feature of the brake1 and in the 8,coil0 acts directly on the crank axle4 ,the 8,plunger0 has been more in demand1 and to meet the popular taste is the one now chiefly manufactured4 ,it is practically invisible1 the only noticeable features being a small button protruding slightly from the right grip and the spoon appearing under the fork crown4 ,all the brake mechanism is contained in the handlebar and head post4 ,the brake can be put on lightly or hard1 as desired1 and will remain exactly as put1 so that the claim made for it--8the control of the wheel0--is well sustained4 ,this brake is ingenious1 really mechanical and excellent in every way4 ,the brake spoon1 which is also covered by patents1 deserves special mention4 ,its contact with the tire is made with rubber blocks1 one on each side of the under surface of the spoon4 ,these blocks bear on the tire at the side of the tread1 and not on the centre of it1 so that not only is there no danger of a puncture from the brake itself1 but if the tire should be otherwise punctured the brake is still efficient4 ,wear on the tire also is thus reduced to a minimum4 ,the rubber blocks can be readily detached with the fingers and renewed4 ,on the whole1 this brake is steadily gaining in popular favor1 and has made for itself many friends4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,lamps ,,and ,,lamp ,,brackets4 8,mehr ,licht10 ,goethe's last words1 seem to express the unfilled want of the touring wheelmen at night1 but this want bids fair to be fulfilled at last4 ,some differences of opinion have existed as to the advisability of the wheelman carrying a light at night1 and the necessity for local ordinances in regard thereto1 but undoubtedly it is well that such a noiseless vehicle as the bicycle should carry a light1 not only so that it can be seen1 but that the bicyclist can see what he is approaching4 ,the time1 we hope1 is soon coming when the cry of 8universal lights0 will come into favor and all classes of vehicles will be compelled to carry a light from sunset to sunrise1 when in use4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,lamp4 ,the old-time lamp was usually a hub lamp1 carried on the front axle2 head lamps were made1 but had the drawback of being too high above the ground1 and were also disagreeably odorous1 the rider being seated so nearly over the steering4 ,the hub lamp was large and cumbrous1 sometimes having at the top a clip which opened to go over the axle1 but more commonly being made to open in halves2 the largest lamps--which were of the ,lucas 8,king of the ,road0 pattern--were necessarily so made1 in order to reduce their thickness so as to get them into the wheel4 ,even then it was sometimes a trick to get them in1 requiring that a spoke or two be sprung to one side4 ,to keep them steady and prevent their being struck by the spokes guides had to be run out against the sides of the great 8,g4 ,m40 or steel hub4 ,sometimes there would be a catching1 and the lamp would turn over instead of hanging4 ,the wheel always cast its shadow1 and with every jolt the lamp converted itself into a pendulum for the nonce and took on a trick of swinging1 to the impairment of such illumination as it was ever capable of affording4 ,sperm or lard oil had to be used1 kerosene being quite unmanageable4 ,english lamps held the market here for some years after the rear-driver came in1 the patterns offered by ,american makers under other names being either made to order in ,england or copied from ,english models4 ,the market is not yet bare of imported lamps1 offered at low prices to clear them1 and the persistence of burning oils as an article in the list of sundries is due to the declining existence of 8,comets10 8,meteors10 8,cyclones0 and others of ,english origin and fit only for heavy oils4 ,the genuine ,american lamp1 of course1 burns kerosene1 and is nickel-plated4 ,the best-known patterns are the ,searchlight1 8,m4 ,w410 ,tallyho1 ,neverout1 ,bragger1 ,banner1 ,aladdin and ,twentieth ,century4 ,electricity and acetylene gas have recently come into use quite prominently for use in bicycle lamps1 but of these mention will be made further on4 ,,the ,,searchlight4 ,illustration3 ,,bridgeport 8,,searchlight40 ,the #ahih ,searchlight is certainly one of the handsomest lamps on the market1 both as regards its design and ornamentation1 while its weight is as light as possible consistent with thorough construction4 ,its makers make the bold statement that 8it cannot blow out nor jar out40 ,the ,searchlight was the first brass nickeled bicycle lantern to introduce the now almost universal custom of burning kerosene oil1 which as an illuminant for this particular purpose is unexcelled1 not only on account of its safety and brilliancy1 but also for the ease with which it can be procured anywhere and at any time4 ,the ,searchlight reflectors are covered with close fitting crystals which protect them from oil1 smoke or dust4 ,these crystals can be rubbed off without touching the reflectors1 which can be removed and replaced if necessary4 ,the ,searchlight also has a reflector lens cone and a powerful magnifying lens to concentrate and intensify the light4 ,the wick is set at an angle in such a manner that a wide flame is produced1 and the adjustment is an exceedingly simple one4 ,the oil receptacle is self-locking1 and the lamp can be fitted to either the right or left hand side of the bicycle and yet bring the wick lift on the outside where it can be readily reached4 ,it carries oil enough to last for twelve hours4 ,the side lights are jewelled and will not rattle or work loose4 ,the bracket is a rigid one and can be attached to the head or either side of the forks4 ,all the parts of the lamp are interchangeable1 and can be readily procured from the makers4 ,,the ,,twentieth ,,century4 ,illustration3 ,,twentieth ,,century4 ,the #ahih model of the ,twentieth ,century lamp has a number of changes in construction in the line of simplicity and efficiency4 ,the reflector is increased in size somewhat between the ,standard and the ,tandem sizes of their #ahig models2 the glass in the front has been improved in quality and is now hinged1 and the aluminum parabola reflector is removable2 an outside filler has been added so that it is rarely necessary to remove the oil font from the lamp1 and the method of attaching the oil font if needed to justify has been altered by the addition of a new sliding lock4 ,one of the best of the changes consists in using a rigid lamp bracket which is adjustable at any angle on the head or handlebar post1 not even interfering in this position with the brake1 and it can also be attached to either fork side4 ,the lamp can also be used for driving purposes1 being readily attachable to any style of carriage dash board1 thus making it a complete driving lamp4 ,the lamp retains1 however1 the folding bail handle which makes it available as a house lamp also4 ,,various ,,other ,,oil ,,lamps4 ,the ,neverout1 another popular lamp1 has an insulated kerosene reservoir4 ,it also has a reversible rigid bracket4 ,the lamp is fitted with a rear danger signal1 which decreases the liability of rear collisions1 as the rider can be seen from behind4 ,a wick lock is fitted for #ahih which renders the wick jar-proof4 ,the reflector is all ,german silver4 ,illustration3 8,m4 ,w40 ,the 8,m4 ,w40 ,lamp is made by the ,matthews ,willard ,manufacturing ,company1 and has been considerably improved for #ahih4 ,it is a medium-sized lamp of light weight4 ,the oil font1 which has a large capacity1 is locked to the lamp by a very ingenious device1 so that it can be instantly detached4 ,the wick lock is a simple push button1 which is self-acting1 and it is released by simply pushing the button1 and is instantly relocked when the pressure is removed4 ,the oil font can be reversed so that the wick can be adjusted from either side of the bicycle4 ,like the other lamps previously mentioned1 they also use the rigid bracket1 which is readily adjusted to any height or angle desired1 and can be also attached to the forks or steering head4 ,the reflector can be removed complete for cleaning or polishing through the lens opening4 ,it has a double convex lens1 which is large and powerful4 ,the whole lamp can be readily taken apart1 cleaned and reassembled4 ,ham's ,diamond ,tubular ,bicycle ,lamp has a double ratchet burner so that the wick can be regulated from either side of the lamp1 and it also has an outside filler4 ,the lens is a double convex4 ,the top and bottom of the lamp and the silver-plated reflector are removable4 ,a peculiarity of its construction consists in its having four nickel-plated tubes on the outside of the lamp through which the air is taken through the burner4 ,an extra head holder is furnished with each lamp without extra charge4 ,the makers claim that the best results are obtained when the lamp is used with this holder4 ,illustration3 ,,bragger4 ,the ,bragger ,cycle ,lamp is made by the ,hitchcock ,lamp ,company1 and the makers say that 8the ,bragger is warranted not to smoke1 chew1 or go out nights10 all of which1 excepting the chewing part thereof1 are very desirable features in any lamp4 ,the lamp is made of rolled sheet brass throughout and finished in nickel1 gold or bronze4 ,it has a round body1 red and green side lights for lighting1 a powerful lens1 and is fitted with a perfect reflector4 ,the reflector is so made that it cannot be put in a wrong position4 ,the oil feeder is on the outside of the font2 the top of the lamp is held in place by a bayonet lock4 ,the oil-font is screwed to the bottom of the lamp by a front and back catch1 and is reversible4 ,the lens is held in place by a knurled threaded ring which screws into the hood and against the lens4 ,the wick-raising device is so constructed that all parts of the wick may be evenly turned up1 and the wick cannot move up or jar down4 ,they have followed the popular idea of fitting the lamp so that it can be used either on head1 fork or handlebar in any desired position4 ,an attachment also allows its use on the side or top of a dashboard1 or the side of a buggy top without an extra bracket4 ,another popular lamp is the ,aladdin4 ,it is somewhat smaller than some other lamps that are well known1 and is made of drawn brass nickel plated4 ,the oil font is now hinged1 as is also the door1 and the devices for these purposes are such that it is impossible for them to jolt loose4 ,it differs1 however1 from some other lamps on the market in that it has a double spring back clamp4 ,a new lamp is the ,dietz ,bicycle1 which is made by the makers of the well known ,dietz ,lanterns4 ,they claim that it represents the wisdom gained in fifty years of lamp making4 ,it is made of brass nickel plated1 and weighs about twelve ounces4 ,no solder is used in its construction except on the bottom of the oil font4 ,the reflector is parabolic1 thus throwing the rays of light straight ahead4 ,the lamp can be readily taken apart for cleaning purposes1 and they do not provide a sliding door on the side to light the lamp because they claim that every time a lamp is so lighted the reflector becomes more or less tarnished by the match4 ,the glass front is hinged so that the lamp can be conveniently lighted from the front4 ,illustration3 ,x-,,rays4 ,the 8,x-,rays0 is an ,aluminum ,bicycle ,lamp1 and weighs1 including the bracket1 about sixteen ounces4 ,the peculiarity of its construction consist in its having a metal chimney1 which the makers say gives an increased draught1 improves combustion and insures a bright1 smokeless flame1 the theory being that the metal chimney heats the air as it comes in contact with its surface1 and that warm air gives better combustion and a brighter light and that the metal chimney protects the flame from sudden gusts of wind1 prevents flickering and smoking4 ,it is to be noted1 however1 that the chimney has four large1 round openings on its sides near the bottom4 ,they use a lens of strong magnifying power1 and this lens1 front reflector1 side lens and reflector are removable4 ,the lamp has a double burner ratchet for raising or lowering the wick from either side of the lamp1 and a lock for locking the wick in position either side of the lamp4 ,the oil font1 like all other kerosene lamps now in use1 is packed with an absorbent material to prevent swashing of the oil when riding over rough roads4 ,illustration3 ,,columbia4 ,the ,columbia ,cycle ,lamp ,manufacturing ,company show two new models for #ahih4 ,they use a pneumatic-action spring on the bracket4 ,they also make an adjustable and detachable bracket1 of malleable iron1 nickel plated4 ,this bracket can be used not only on their own lamps1 but on any other make of lamp1 and it is undoubtedly one of the best things of the kind on the market4 ,the lamp of their make1 8,illuminant0 is made of aluminum and weighs seven ounces4 ,it is claimed to be the lightest practical bicycle lamp made4 ,it has a powerful lens1 #b inches in diameter4 ,it has ruby and emerald cut glass side lights1 so that it may be lighted from either side4 ,the burners are provided with a wick lock4 ,the ,kitsee lamp is a novelty inasmuch as it is a lamp of twenty-candle power1 and yet not a gas lamp4 ,it has no wick and the light is produced by an oil called 8safol40 ,it makes a rather brilliant1 display through the side perforations1 and also has a clever attachment for holding matches1 and being used without a wick1 its makers claim it is therefore free from smoke1 soot and disagreeable odor1 and that the lens cannot be smoked up as in the usual construction4 ,the ,manhattan ,brass ,company of ,new ,york1 who have been making kerosene lamps and burners for thirty-three years1 are making a specialty of bicycle lamps1 and the good points which have distinguished their former models and which have been preserved and are presented in their #ahih product1 called the ,frontlight4 ,powerful ground glass lens1 automatic wick lock1 and other improvements for '#ih consist of a new thumb-screw bracket fitted with double springs1 an improved method of fastening the front and a wide tube burner1 which takes a inch wick and gives a broad1 strong light4 ,they also make a lamp called the ,leader1 which1 while not quite so expensive in construction as the ,frontlight1 is1 however1 one of the most satisfactory lamps on the market4 ,they make a lamp also called the ,dazzler1 which they call the 8,king of low priced lamps40 ,it has a polished convex lens and reflector1 automatic wick lock1 and is small in size1 substantial in construction and well finished4 ,one of their novelties is a lamp called the ,queen4 ,the body is spherical in form1 divided diagonally and so hinged as to open like a watch case1 thus making it possible to clean lens1 burner1 reflector1 etc41 and trim the wick in less time than it usually takes to take apart an ordinary lamp4 ,ruby and green jewels are placed at such an angle as to be visible from the rear as well as from the sides4 ,one ,english lamp has survived the conditions of the trade1 but even that is made in this country by the ,new ,departure ,bell ,company4 ,we refer to the ,lucas pattern of lamp1 known as the 8,silver ,king of the ,road40 ,this lamp is so well known1 however1 that a general description of it is not necessary4 ,like all the ,american lamps previously mentioned it is nickel plated1 but differs from them in the fact that while it is detachable1 all the parts are hinged together1 and that it is arranged to burn either the heavy oils or kerosene1 as desired4 ,the reflector is covered and protected by a double convex lens1 which improves the light and keeps the reflector clean1 so that in order to keep the reflector bright it is only necessary to wipe off the glass lens4 ,the lamp is very compact in size1 and in finish and material it certainly cannot be excelled4 ,it is retailed at a very much lower price than formerly4 ,the #ahih 8,tally-,ho0 lamp1 manufactured by the ,bridgeport ,gun ,implement ,company of this city is similar in general design to the #ahig model1 having the same lens1 reflector1 wicklock and oil-feed4 ,it is fitted this year with a rigid bracket1 which can be attached to head or forks of the bicycle1 and a desirable feature is that the lamp can be readily detached from the bracket and the latter left on the wheel4 ,the clamping bolt of the bracket is in two pieces1 one telescoped into the other1 so that the lamp can be attached to either a large head or small fork without leaving a long end of the bolt protruding4 ,this necessarily dispenses with a nut4 ,the manufacturers of this lamp did not intend to market a lamp this year1 on account of the demand made upon their facilities in other lines1 but because of the inquiries received from their patrons they have decided to make a limited quantity4 ,,lamp ,,lighters4 ,there are two lamp lighters on the market that are extremely useful4 ,one is called the ,cyclists' ,match ,gun4 ,it is made of brass1 nickel plated1 and resembles the end of a tool bag pump4 ,the match is placed in the end of the tool and the gun is inserted in the lamp4 ,the match is then forced out by pressing on the plunger and ignites at the same time inside the lamp1 thus protecting it from the wind4 ,the other lighter is called the ,r4 ,k4 ,lighter1 and can be attached to any bicycle lamp in a few moments4 ,the lighter consists of a pair of corrugated jaws to screw to the lamp2 the match is then quickly pushed between the jaws of the lighter1 which ignites the match from friction1 and the burnt match is then withdrawn sideways in an opposite direction to remove it4 ,illustration3 8,,queen0 8,,frontlight0 8,,leader0 8,,dazzler0 7,all ,made by ,manhattan ,brass ,co47 ,,lamp ,,brackets4 ,there are very few things that are new in lamp brackets1 all the old types being still largely used but improved somewhat in detail4 ,the only novelty is the ,united ,states ,detachable ,lamp ,bracket4 ,it is made reversible to fit either the right or left hand side of the axle1 and is so constructed that the bracket is readily removed1 leaving only a small clip attached under the axle nut4 ,the bracket is held in place by a strong spring catch1 which can be bent and thus made as firm as desired4 ,the bracket has corrugations to prevent the lamp from being jolted off1 and will fit any bicycle lamp ,in the market4 ,,electric ,,lamps4 ,illustration3 ,,combination ,,bracket4 ,electricity is1 of course1 a very enticing method of light supply for cycles1 and many attempts have been made to produce a practical lamp1 no cycle show during the last three or four years having failed to exhibit at least one pattern1 which was positively proclaimed as the effectual solution of the problem4 ,the difficulties are cumbrousness1 cost and the lack of sufficient current under tolerable conditions4 ,a storage battery is quite impracticable4 ,we recall at least one attempt which worked on the plan of recharging from stationary battery cells1 but the usual plan counts upon carrying dry cells attached to the lamp4 ,here the only difficulty is the old one of getting sufficient current without lugging around an excessive load of dry cells1 which are rather heavy in proportion to the work performed4 ,a much heralded lamp of the past had a case made of hard rubber1 and the lamp was charged with what was called electric sand1 being in reality nothing but a mixture of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid1 combined with a soluble base1 and water1 and placed in the lamps in connection1 of course1 with the usual carbon and zinc plugs4 ,it was found in use that this lamp lost its power rapidly1 and that even when the plugs were withdrawn1 as is usual with wet solutions1 the solution lost its life and became valueless upon a second attempt to use it1 necessitating charging every night before using4 ,illustration3 ,u4 ,s4 ,,detachable ,,bracket4 ,a practical electric bicycle lamp of the dry cell variety is now made by the ,ohio ,electric ,works4 ,they are made in three sizes1 having three and four cells4 ,the battery is #fb inches1 and weighs eleven ounces1 and will maintain a potential of not less than #e4be volts for more than three hours on each charge1 costing #b cents4 ,the lamp is of double the efficiency of ordinary incandescent lamps1 taking only one and a half watts to the candle power1 and is backed by a powerful reflector4 ,by riders who have used it1 this lamp is looked upon as one of the most satisfactory among electric lamps2 they regard its efficiency as all that is claimed for it4 ,one of the most popular lamps on the market today is the ,acme1 made by the ,acme ,electric ,lamp ,company of this city4 ,it is composed of two parts1 the metal case which contains the battery and the reflector in which is inserted the incandescent bulb4 ,the metal case is #ad inches in length by #a inches in diameter1 and is covered with seal leather1 having three strips to hold it in a rigid position on the wheel frame4 ,the reflector is connected to the battery case by flexible silk cords1 and is #b inches in diameter1 and weights but #c ounces4 ,it can be carried either on the fork or head of the wheel4 ,the battery is composed of four cells1 each with a strength of one and one-half volts1 making six volts in all4 ,when the lamp is lighted all the cells are in operation2 but by the adjustment of a resistance wire under the cover of the case and four contact points on the outside the switch which controls the battery permits only a sufficient amount of current to be used to give a brilliant light without exhausting the battery too rapidly or burning out the incandescent bulb2 and1 unlike any other lamp on the market1 the last hour of light is as brilliant as the first1 and with ordinary use will give a satisfactory light for twelve hours4 ,the batteries are guaranteed to give as good service sixty days from the date of their manufacture as when first made4 ,it is not a storage battery and cannot be recharged4 ,all storage batteries are of a liquid form and must in time cause1 from the strong elements they contain1 a leakage which will destroy anything with which it comes in contact4 ,the battery is renewed by the purchase of a new one1 the exhausted battery being thrown away1 the same as a cartridge shell after firing of the gun4 ,the cost of the light is little more than that of oil4 ,the incandescent bulb has a capacity of carrying four volts1 and when the switch is on the first contact point the voltage of the battery is reduced by the resistance coil to a point of safety1 at the same time giving a brilliant light4 ,there is no heat1 odor or liquid annoyances4 ,jar or concussion will not extinguish it1 and judging from the success it has had at this early period of the season it will no doubt be a popular lamp for '#ih4 ,,the ,,klondike ,,electric ,illustration3 ,,acme ,,electric4 ,combines batteries and lamp in one case1 which is neither cumbrous nor very heavy1 and resembles nothing so much as the small carriage clock4 ,the lamp is1 of course1 a small incandescent bulb2 the battery is the long cylindrical cell cut up into three short ones and carried in the lamp case1 as shown4 ,turning down the handle on top closes the circuit and starts the lamp2 lifting the handle cuts the lamp out4 ,the cells are furnished with wire connections on1 and the rider does not have to make a single attachment1 nor need he have the slightest knowledge of electricity or any conjecture how the lamp operates4 ,he has only to slip his fresh cells 7which are joined as one piece7 into the case1 observing that he puts them right side up4 ,they make their own connections by being pushed into place1 and the lamp 8does the rest40 ,one charging runs eight hours4 ,in favor of this lamp is its freedom from odor and trouble of filling and care1 absence of smoke to dull the reflector and its independence of jars and wind1 for nothing can extinguish it so long as the current remains and is turned on4 ,,acetylene ,,gas ,,lamps4 ,although nearly two years have elapsed since the introduction of acetylene for purposes of general illumination1 yet the present season is the first one in which this new illuminant has been used in bicycle lamps1 and it seems eminently fit and proper that this gas should be appropriated to the uses of wheelmen1 because it was in #ahhh1 at ,spray1 ,n4 ,c41 that ,mr4 ,thomas ,l4 ,willson1 a member of the ,kings ,county ,wheelmen of ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y41 who was famous in his day as a hardy road rider of the old 8ordinary0 and presented to his club the trophy that bears his name1 while experimenting on the reduction of refractory metallic oxides of carbon in an electric furnace came upon the happy but unexpected outcome of producing by a cheap and simple method calcium carbide1 so that the use of acetylene became at once a commercial possibility4 ,he was trying to obtain the metal calcium by reducing lime with pulverized charcoal1 but the temperature of the arc fused the mass1 and it solidified into an extremely hard1 gray crystalline rock4 ,as this was not the substance that ,willson sought to produce1 it was thrown into a stream near by1 and there was an instant evolution of gas in large quantities which1 when lighted1 burned with a smoky1 luminous flare4 ,chemical analysis showed the rock to be carbide of calcium 7,ca ,c7 containing #fj parts by weight of calcium and #dj parts of carbon1 and its gaseous offspring to be acetylene4 ,this generation of acetylene by means of the immersion of carbide of calcium in water is the result of two exceedingly simple chemical reactions4 ,the carbon in the carbide unites with the hydrogen in the water to form acetylene1 and the calcium in the carbide takes up the oxygen of the water to form slaked lime1 the only by-product of the double reaction4 ,acetylene is a gaseous compound of #bd parts by weight of carbon and two of hydrogen4 ,although it was first discovered and isolated by ,davy in #ahcf1 it was twenty-three years later before the scientific world obtained a clear conception of its interesting character and properties through the investigations of ,m4 ,berthelot4 ,since that time1 and up to the discovery as before stated by ,mr4 ,willson1 it had been produced only in small quantities as a laboratory product by tedious and costly processes4 ,acetylene1 when burning1 gives a flame of intense brilliancy1 and owing to its richness it can only be consumed in small burners4 ,it possesses not only great luminosity1 but great diffusive qualities4 ,the light produced by acetylene is of a pure white color1 soft and agreeable in tone4 ,it resembles sunlight more closely than any other known luminant4 ,pure acetylene is not explosive4 ,mixed with air in certain proportions it can be detonated1 and the same can be said of every known gas2 but in a bicycle lamp1 containing an ounce and a half1 or two ounces at the utmost1 of the calcium carbide1 there cannot be produced enough gas to cause an explosion4 ,illustration3 ,,klondike 7,,kerosene74 ,calcium carbide is a hard1 porous1 grayish-black or bluish-gray incombustible material somewhat crystalline in form1 odorless and unchangeable in a dry atmosphere1 but when subjected to moisture gives off more or less acetylene gas4 ,carbide cannot be ignited and when well packed to prevent its coming in contact with water it is safe as regards all the conditions of transit and storage4 ,when a piece of carbide is exposed to the moisture of the air a slight decomposition on the surface of the lump causes the formation of a thin layer of lime dust1 which retards further deterioration4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,solar0 7,,acetylene74 ,interior ,view4 ,its combustion is perfect4 ,there are no noxious products1 no odor1 and no smoke4 ,the vitiation of the air in a room compared with the ordinary gas is as #a to #h4 ,it produces a distinctively cool flame4 ,the same amount of light has only one-sixth the heat of city gas4 ,its cost is far less than that of any known illuminant4 ,it is made of cheap and almost universal materials1 coal and lime1 fused by electric heat4 ,it will be in this respect the light of the masses4 ,it will not freeze1 being unaffected by heat or cold4 ,it can be cooled to #ajj degrees below zero1 or heated to #fjj above1 without impairing its illuminating power4 ,if through ignorance or accident an acetylene gas jet should be blown out or the burner left open1 the gas1 being rather irritating1 can be easily detected1 even in the smallest quantities1 on account of its penetrating odor1 which resembles that of garlic4 ,so pungent is this odor that it would be practically impossible to go into a room which contained any quantity of acetylene gas4 ,the carbide group is by no means unfamiliar to the average man2 cast iron and steel are iron carbides of a peculiar form1 and not a few others are daily used1 for instance1 ,harveyized armor plates4 ,they are all characterized by an almost adamantine hardness1 and at the same time a certain instability4 ,this instability reaches its maximum in the group of substances which are capable of making what chemists call hydroxides4 ,they are all unions of a base with carbon1 made in the electric furnace1 and all give off gases when brought in contact with water4 ,when broken into pieces suitable for shipment the carbide is packed in cans1 the space between filled with sawdust1 or some such substance to prevent waste by the rubbing of piece against piece1 and the can sealed airtight to protect its contents from the moisture of the atmosphere4 ,this is the shape in which it comes to the consumer4 ,on opening the can one often finds most beautiful crystalline structures on the fractured surfaces1 but they are instantly attacked by the dampness of the air1 and one sees the beauty give way to a dirty gray powder with a feeling of disappointment which is very real4 ,very little has been written about acetylene gas1 and very few wheelmen have had any experience with acetylene gas lamps on their bicycles4 ,the writers1 however1 have thoroughly investigated the subject of producing the carbide and the gas1 and have for some time past had in daily use two of the lamps mentioned in this article1 namely the 8,electro0 and the 8,calcium ,king40 ,they have been used1 of course1 with the usual care that it is necessary to use with any bicycle lamp1 whether it uses oil1 electricity or gas1 and the results have been satisfactory in every way1 and the lamps have done all that the makers claim for them4 ,this mention has been made to show that what has been written here concerning acetylene gas and portable bicycle lamps is founded upon scientific data1 and it is1 therefore1 not wholly an empirical result4 ,,carbide ,,lamps ,,in ,,market4 ,as none of the makers of kerosene lamps seems to have ventured into producing an acetylene lamp1 the making of acetylene lamps for bicycle use may therefore be classed as being a distinctive one and the trade of this city are showing the following makes3 ,the ,electro1 the ,solar1 the ,helios and the ,calcium ,king4 ,the ,electro lamp is made by the ,electro ,lamp ,company1 and while it is retailed at a lower price than any of the others1 as shown by the illustration it is of very neat construction as regards weight and size4 ,its reflector is parabolic in shape1 and the light is not focused4 ,it is charged by inserting a metal case1 containing carbide1 into the chamber of the lamp1 and when this carbide is exhausted1 after burning four hours1 the case may be removed and thrown away and a fresh one inserted4 ,this takes but a moment's time4 ,the gas is generated within the lamp by the slow dropping of water on the carbide1 and the water is so controlled that the gas is produced only as fast as it is consumed1 and when the water valve is closed generation of gas ceases at once4 ,by a slight turning of the valve screw at the top of the lamp the water in the upper chamber is made to drop on the carbide and the lamp is ready to light1 and by turning in the opposite direction the water is shut off and the light goes out as soon as the water remaining in the chamber of the lamp is consumed4 ,the carbide charges used in this lamp are made only by the ,electro ,lamp ,company1 and are packed in cartons of six charges each4 ,six of these cartons are packed in a box1 making three dozen charges per box1 each charge at a cost of about #c cents1 giving a service of from three and a half to four hours' duration4 ,this method of handling the carbide in cartridge form avoids the necessity of washing out the gas chamber to remove the residum1 and it is to be commended on the score of cleanliness in handling4 ,the lamp bracket is a rigid one1 and is adjustable to various positions either on the forks or the head of a bicycle4 ,illustration3 ,,electro 7,,acetylene74 ,illustration3 ,,electro 7,,acetylene74 ,interior ,view4 ,by contract with the ,electro ,gas ,company1 the parent company for the manufacture of carbides in this country1 and which1 it is stated1 largely controls the home output1 the ,electro ,lamp ,company has the sole right of sale of carbide for use in bicycle and other portable lamps in the ,united ,states4 ,this lamp company stated early in the season that it had then sold #cj1jjj lamps for the season of '#ih1 and that this number would doubtless be largely increased4 ,estimating that #be1jjj of these lamps will be used at night1 the consumption of carbide by the users of this lamp alone would exceed #aj tons per week4 ,illustration3 ,,helios 7,,carbide74 8,the brightest light that ever came over the pike0 is the phrase that the ,badger ,brass ,manufacturing ,company of ,kenosha1 ,wis4 7,hermann ,boker ,co41 ,new ,york1 agents71 has decided upon as best in describing their ,solar acetylene gas lamp for '#ih4 ,as will be seen from the illustration the ,solar is symmetrical in its lines1 combining strength in construction and simplicity in operation4 ,the lamp is made entirely brass1 handsomely nickel plated1 and is #g inches high4 ,it is fitted with an extra fine specially ground double convex lens1 #b inches in diameter1 with a #e inch focus1 which is removable by means of a spring4 ,the reflector is made of aluminum and removable for cleaning1 as is also the head1 which is fastened with a bayonet joint4 ,the jewel sidelights are especially large1 being #a inches in diameter4 ,each lamp is fitted with a universal adjustable bracket1 which fits the head1 handlebar1 or either fork of a bicycle1 and is so constructed that the lamp can be removed with removing the bracket4 ,the tip is what is known as a quarter foot1 removable and easily cleaned4 ,it produces a fish-tail flame1 which throws a penetrating light of about one hundred candle power fully #aej feet ahead4 ,as will be seen from the cross-section cut and the following explanation1 the lamp is very simple in operation4 ,the water tank 8,j0 being filled and the valve 8,l0 being open1 the water passes into the tube 8,f10 which is filled with the fibre 8,g10 through which it percolates1 vaporizing from the end into the screen tube 8,b10 saturating the fibre in contact with the carbide in the tank 8,a10 forming instantly gas1 which passes out of the tip 8,l40 ,the amount of gas generated is due to the amount of water supplied4 ,suppose1 for example1 the lamp be so severely jarred an excess of water be forced in the wick tube1 thus generating an excess of gas for the moment 7by excess is meant more pressure than the quarter foot tip 8,l0 can consume71 the result is that the gas having but one other outlet1 that is1 through the water tube1 stopping any further supply of water until the pressure ceases1 when it is again required4 ,the gas and water pressure being always in balance1 there is an automatic water pressure feed generator1 which with the outlet at the top of the tank makes it absolutely inexplosive4 ,one of the special features of this lamp is that it burns any form of carbide from dust to lump1 and requires no specially packaged or prepared carbide1 which is a very great convenience to the rider4 ,the makers claim for the lamp that it is the only automatic gas lamp made1 as it has no valves requiring constant adjustment2 they also claim that it is absolutely inexplosive4 ,the price1 #d1 including the adjustable bracket and one can of carbide1 is exceedingly low4 ,extra carbide in two-pound cans1 #be cents per can1 making the cost of operating about one-third of a cent an hour4 ,the ,helios lamp differs from some of the others in construction because the water reservoir is away from the heat and cannot even get warm4 ,no steam being generated the water must therefore be consumed by the actual demand made by the light4 ,the gas cock is independent of the water cock1 thus enabling the user to turn the water cock off and burn the gas already generated until it is all consumed1 the advantage of this feature being that the gas already generated can be stored1 and the lamp is therefore ready to light at any moment4 ,the water feed to the carbide is controlled by a check valve4 ,the small pipe shown in cut of lamp leading over the top of water reservoir and to check valve is a pressure pipe1 which regulates the check valve4 ,when the gas in the reservoir of the lamp has attained a pressure equal to or greater than the water in the reservoir1 the pressure through this small pipe acts vertically on the check valve1 shutting off the water supply2 when the gas is below this pressure the water1 then being of greater weight1 causes the check valve to rise1 allowing the water to feed to the carbide and generation to again commence4 ,this check valve may be regarded as an important feature of this lamp1 because in a lamp without a check valve the odor of the gas is emitted after the gas is extinguished1 as the gas must have an outlet or escape1 which cannot be controlled without a check valve4 ,there is also an additional water cock attached to the water pipe which regulates the supply of water1 so that the quantity of gas used is only that which is consumed and required4 ,the burner is of the bulb pattern1 giving a square light1 perfectly white1 and the carbide is used in lump form1 and it is claimed that when the carbide is used in this form there is no danger whatever attached to its use4 ,the makers of this lamp claim that it has a lighting power equal to #hf candle power1 and if carefully used the cost of maintaining will not exceed five or six cents per week at a riding average of three hours per night4 ,any carriage lamp using either candles or oil can be altered at a nominal cost to employ this method of lighting4 ,illustration3 ,,calcium ,,king 7,,acetylene74 ,the ,calcium ,king lamp1 made by the ,george ,h4 ,clowes ,manufacturing ,company1 of ,waterbury1 ,conn41 is made entirely of brass1 nickel plated1 and the carbide is in the form of cakes1 which they call 8carbophene10 which costs five cents each1 and afford an intense light for an evening's ride4 8,carbophene0 is placed on the bottom of the reservoir1 and the gas cannot form in this reservoir faster than it is needed hence there can be no over-accumulation4 ,the water valve of this lamp answers two purposes1 as it controls the generation of the gas and the flame itself1 there being no other gas cocks or valves to close and create pressure4 ,when the valve shuts off the water supply the flame1 after consuming the balance of the gas in the reservoir1 must of necessity go out4 ,this lamp1 like all others described1 has a rigid adjustable bracket1 which can be attached to any part of the bicycle4 ,to sum up the advantages of acetylene lamps briefly1 it may be stated that they do not possess the tendency to blow out or jar out1 and that they give an intense white light1 and that vibration and jar of the lamp increases the light instead of extinguishing it1 as with any form of lamp that uses a wick4 ,there will be undoubtedly other forms of acetylene lamps made1 and it is not claimed that the lamps made at present upon the market are absolutely perfect1 but that they are as nearly perfect as present conditions and knowledge of the wants of wheelmen will warrant1 and we may therefore reasonably expect that if the acetylene lamp fulfils all that is claimed for it that this season will show whether it is the coming light or not4 ,considerable space has been devoted to describing bicycle lamps for '#ih1 because we believe that until we have perpetual day the best substitute for the sun's rays will be a theme of interest to mankind in general and bicyclists in particular4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,cyclometers ,,and ,,other ,,sundries4 ,illustration3 ,,twentieth ,,century ,,cyclometer4 ,the cyclometers first in memory of the oldtimer were about two and a half inches in diameter and one and three-quarter inches thick1 and were attached by a clamp to the axle of the wheel of the high bicycle1 where they turned with the wheel eccentrically1 the clamp and not the cyclometer being the centre of the circle traversed4 ,the motive power within was a short and heavy pendulum1 which of course hung vertical as the whole went around1 the case 7in effect7 revolving while the pendulum remained stationary1 thus communicating motion to the hands on the dial4 ,in one ,english make a single hand traversed the dial circle1 registering up to seventy miles only2 another ,english pattern had four small dials and hands like a gas meter1 counting by tens1 and registering up to #aj1jjj--whether of miles or of revolutions does not clearly appear4 ,these were all heavy1 weighing two or three pounds1 and clumsy and costly as well4 ,all had the disadvantage of requiring a dismount for reading1 but one pattern was carried in sight1 at the top of the fork1 and was worked by a wire carried in two bearings on the fork and actuated by a 8striker0 on a spoke1 which hit little arms at the bottom of the wire4 ,the ,victor of ten years ago1 like the ,butcher of an earlier date1 hung without revolving1 motion being given by a clamp in the centre which turned with the axle4 ,the ,butcher was listed at #ab2 the ,victor which had a separate trip dial for #ajj miles1 was #aj2 the ,victor spoke cyclometer of the same year1 at #f1 was carried on the spoke and had a projecting arm which struck the fork or other fixed part4 ,the ,lakin and the ,brooks were also popular types4 ,illustration3 ,,veeder ,,cyclometer4 ,the appearance of the ,standard1 in #ahid1 priced at #b1 was the first step toward the popular use of cyclometers1 and its great success brought in competing makes1 at reduced prices and with a total registry up to #aj1jjj miles4 ,these were all dial or watch instruments1 and served well1 but the search for novelty and lightening of even ounces led to the barrel type with the figures of denomination showing side by side after the manner of the old printing press counter1 but with the edges and not the sides of the wheels in sight4 ,the ,united ,states1 introduced in #ahid1 had the field to itself in this type for a while1 but now the dial form has been almost entirely driven out by the tiny barrel1 and the makes of the latter may almost be reckoned by the dozen2 the most prominent are the ,veeder1 ,united ,states1 ,leader1 ,new ,departure1 ,twentieth ,century1 ,new ,era1 ,shepard1 ,burdick1 ,trump1 ,seth ,thomas and ,standard4 ,they hardly exceed a nickel in diameter2 they are dainty little trifles1 yet strong and effective1 and are such triumphs of ,american ingenuity that there seems nothing left to be done in this line4 ,the usual registry is by miles in four places1 up to #i1iii1 with another place for tenths1 yet the ,shepard 7which is peculiar in using bevel-gears7 also shows yards4 ,the ,united ,states has a #ajj mile trip register1 which can be set back to zero1 and 8carries0 each trip forward upon the separate total1 making practically two distinct cyclometers in one4 ,the gears for the two meters are run by two pinions solid on one shaft1 and the shaft is moved by a worm1 therefore while each part of the meter registers independent of the other1 both must register exactly alike4 ,they are finished in nickel and antique copper for wheels from twenty to sixty inches in diameter1 to register miles1 kilometers and ,russian versts4 ,the figures used are somewhat larger than those used on other makes of cyclometers1 and the clamp1 which is curved1 throws the meter up and back1 close to the fork1 out of the way1 and protects it from injury4 ,the ,twentieth ,century cyclometer1 made by the makers of the ,twentieth ,century lamp1 is also made to register miles and kilometers4 ,illustration3 ,,shepard ,,bevel ,,gear ,,cyclometer4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,departure ,,cyclometer4 ,the well-known ,veeder cyclometer has been very much improved for '#ih4 ,the figures are larger1 occupying the entire length of the case1 and are close to the glass4 ,it registers to #aj1jjj miles and then repeats4 ,the right-hand ring shows the decimals of the mile divided into tenths4 ,the mechanism of the cyclometer is the same as has been used heretofore1 and is a compound differential combination of gears1 which are without small parts and yet occupy small space4 ,the clip for attaching the cyclometer to the axle gives a maximum range of adjustment4 ,the spoke pin1 which is exceedingly simple and neat1 is attached to the spoke by two substantial screws1 and cannot be jarred off4 ,they also make a trip cyclometer1 which is practically two cyclometers alongside of each other and having two separate dials1 the whole construction being double1 and is a decided novelty in cyclometer construction4 ,illustration3 ,,standard ,,cyclometer4 ,the ,shepard cyclometer1 a new cyclometer manufactured by ,a4 ,g4 ,spalding ,bros41 is made on an entirely new principle1 it being constructed with bevel-gears1 an improvement which is at once apparent1 as there are no springs to get out of order4 ,another new feature introduced is a detachable holder1 by which the cyclometer is instantly removed--a feature that will be appreciated by those who have had their cyclometers broken on railroad trains1 etc4 ,the barrel is eleven-sixteenths of an inch in diameter1 and weighs but one and a quarter ounces4 ,every part is made from hardened brass and bronze1 and nickel-plated1 making it dust and rust proof4 ,the ,shepard will run #aj1jjj miles1 and requires no lubricant of any kind4 ,the ,shepard cyclometer has been submitted to the most convincing tests by the makers1 and they are satisfied that it is one of the most perfect cyclometers made4 ,the ,burdick cyclometer is made by ,edward ,miller ,co41 the makers of the well-known ,miller lamps4 ,they claim that it is made on entirely new principles1 and that it contains less than one-quarter of the parts of any other cyclometer on the market4 ,the bar is turned out of solid rod metal on a turret lathe4 ,the figures are enamelled on silver-plated cylinders4 ,these figures are always in perfect alignment1 and do not change gradually as in some other cyclometers1 but instantly4 ,it registers tenths of a mile in the red-lettered right hand cylinder2 the total registration is #aj1jjj miles4 ,this cyclometer will register forward only1 and reversing the action of the wheel has no effect on the figures4 ,they claim that their six-tooth 8star0 wheel used in connection with their patent striker will register infallibly1 and that in any cyclometer with eight teeth in the sprocket wheel there is danger of constant false registration4 ,the cyclometer is made to record #gbj revolutions1 based upon the number of revolutions that a #bh-;inch wheel will make in a mile4 ,the bracket is a novel and ingenious device1 and has a great range of adjustability4 ,illustration3 ,,lord ,,bell4 ,the ,waterbury ,watch ,company make the ,trump cyclometer4 ,the arrangement of the mechanism is entirely by gearing1 and can only be changed by revolving the wheel4 ,it registers up to #aj1jjj miles1 and then jumps back to zero4 ,like some other makes of cyclometers1 the tenths of a mile are shown on the inner end in large figures4 ,it registers backward and forward1 and no harm can result in turning it either way4 ,the usual finish is nickel plated1 but they are also made with sterling silver casings and gold casings2 this latter in a satin-lined case makes a handsome and unique gift4 ,the spoke clip is an ingenious little device consisting of a little roller which fastens to the spoke on the wheel1 and engages with the little 8star0 wheel of the cyclometer as the wheel of the bicycle revolves4 ,it is adjustable1 and can be fastened at any angle4 ,the clip screw is large1 so that an ordinary screw-driver will fit it4 ,the ,leader cyclometer1 which is of the #aj1jjj-mile type1 has enamelled registering wheels1 doing away with paper4 ,the mechanism is without springs4 ,it has red figures for the tenths of a mile4 ,it is made in three sizes1 for #bf1 #bh and #cj inch wheels1 to register miles1 kilos and versts4 ,they have a new bracket this year1 which is made of very heavy stock1 so that it cannot be broken with ordinary use4 ,the whole cyclometer is a very compact one1 and weighs only #a ounces4 ,the ,new ,departure cyclometer is made of a special nickel silver metal1 which cannot rust or corrode4 ,it has direct gearing2 the figures are large and bold4 ,this cyclometer registers #aj1jjj miles and repeats1 showing the fraction of tenths of a mile4 ,illustration3 ,,trump ,,cyclometer4 ,the ,new ,era is a new barrel-shape1 #aj1jjj-mile cyclometer1 made by the makers of the ,standard4 ,they have had a long experience in making cyclometers1 and therefore it can be confidently asserted that this cyclometer will prove satisfactory4 ,they continue1 however1 to make the ,standard ,midget1 and the ,no4 #b and ,no4 #c ,standard1 which are of the open-face watch-dial style1 differing only in size4 ,they also make what they call a ,tachometer1 or ,speed ,indicator1 which weighs only #b ounces1 and is attached to the front fork near the crown4 ,a small wheel bears against the rubber tire operating an open-face dial4 ,it can be swung either in or out of position while riding4 ,the ,trenton cyclometer is of the open watch-face style4 ,the dials are of satin finished aluminum1 and the case is of polished aluminum1 which is but one-third the weight of nickeled brass4 ,the cyclometer can be run either forward or backward1 and the system of interlocking wheels which carry the small registering dials which can be seen from the top1 prevents jumping or inaccurate registration4 ,it registers #aj1jjj miles and repeats4 ,the weight is only one ounce4 ,illustration3 ,,bevin ,,bell4 ,the ,buffalo ,meter ,company also make a cyclometer of the barrel type1 and which does not differ in general details from the others in the market4 ,the most interesting collection of cyclometers that was ever gathered together was shown at the last cycle show in ,chicago4 ,models were shown of all the old types that have ever been used1 showing the evolution of cyclometer construction up to that time4 ,this unique collection was in charge of ,mr4 ,bernard ,schultz1 the mechanical expert of ,bearings of ,chicago4 ,,bells4 ,custom and local ordinances have made the use of a bell a necessity1 and therefore bells have always been used by wheelmen since the early days of the sport4 ,all the well-known and popular makes of bells are still largely used1 and there are a number of new things on the market this season1 one of the most taking being a bell made by the ,bristol ,bell ,company1 makers of the 8,corbin0 bells4 ,this bell has a raised emblem of the ,l4 ,a4 ,w4 cast in the top part of the gong1 which was an extremely difficult thing to do in order to get an even thickness of metal all through the surface of the gong4 ,the bell has a beautiful clear tone and is handsomely finished4 ,illustration3 ,l4 ,a4 ,w4 ,,bell4 ,the ,bevin ,brothers ,manufacturing ,company make a bell they call the 8,tie ,bell10 which has either a single ring or a continuous ring at pleasure4 ,it is fitted with a band clamp adjustable to any size fork aid is operated by pressing a spring lever attached to the handlebar1 which in turn pulls up a cord1 which throws a small hard rubber disk against the tread of the tire and places the bell in operation4 ,they also make a double stroke tandem bell1 which they call the 8,clear the ,road ,alarm40 ,it has a large gong of from four to six inches in diameter1 which is attached to the rear forks1 a string passing from there up and along the main upper tube to the head1 an arrangement being rigged on the end of the seat post to carry the cord to the bell4 ,the ,hardware ,specialty ,company of ,newark make both a double stroke and a rotary hammer bell1 which are operated by pushing a button instead of being operated in the usual way4 ,the ,b4 ,r4 bell is also of the same type1 using a push-button instead of a lever4 ,the advantages claimed for this type of bell are that the rider is enabled to use the bell on either side of the handlebar without reversing4 ,the ,ericson ,automatic ,bicycle bell is attached to the front forks by a clamp-bracket and operated by a friction pulley thrown in contact with the tire of the front wheel and connected by a small lever on the left side of the handlebar1 which can be pressed by the forefinger without moving the hand out of position4 ,the lever is connected with the bell by a short piece of cord4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,bell-,,brake40 ,the ,saks ,continuous ,ringing ,bell will ring continuously from ten to fifteen minutes as desired4 ,the bell is wound up by taking hold of the top part of the bell and turning it to the right1 and to ring the bell a knob is pushed to the left1 to silence the bell the knob is pushed to the right4 ,the ,t4 ,k4 ,bell rings automatically1 either continuously or a short ring at the pleasure of the rider4 ,the bell is attached to the front fork and swings under the lower part1 and therefore does not interfere with coasters1 brake1 lamp bracket or cyclometer4 ,it is operated by pulling a cord which is attached to the handlebar and connected to the bell and which throws a rotating disk in operation on the tire4 ,the ,lord ,bicycle ,bell is attached to the right side of the front fork directly above the tire4 ,the bell has an aluminum rim or flange underneath the gong1 and has a thumb piece or lever attached in a convenient position near the grip2 a string is fastened to the lever of the bell proper1 which is passed through a sheave on the handle bar stem and fastened to the thumb lever1 making the string taut4 ,the sheave or pulley can be dispensed with entirely and a thumb piece substituted for same if desired4 ,it is operated by either pushing down the thumb lever or pulling the string which forces the aluminum rim on the tire1 causing the bell to ring4 ,illustration3 ,,wire ,,toe ,,clip4 ,the making of this class of bells1 i4e4 to be rung by a rotating wheel on the tire or rim1 brings to mind the old type made by ,hill ,tollman of ,worcester1 ,mass4 and which was so long in use on the old ordinary1 so that this construction is really another instance of what has been so often noted in this series--a reversion to old types and forms4 ,the ,music ,cycle ,bell ,co41 furnish a set of bells for club use1 the set consisting of twelve bells accurately tuned4 ,only two bells are placed on each wheel so that when six persons are riding together1 or four with eight bells are used1 the riders can play the popular tunes as they ride4 ,while this1 however1 might not be appreciated on everyday occasions1 in a bicycle parade it would create a sensation4 ,the ,columbia ,cycle ,bell is a continuous ringing bell1 and the makers say that 8you just push the button and the bell does the rest40 ,,the 8,,bell-,,brake40 ,a combination bell and brake called the 8,bell-,brake0 is made by the ,universal ,trading ,co4 ,the ,bell-,brake gives a continuous silvery ring by the slight pressure of the thumb on the lever situated directly in front of the rider where it can be used without either hand leaving its hold on the handlebar4 ,a slight pressure of the thumb pushes a small aluminum wheel in contact with the tire1 and the bell rings continuously4 ,the bell hammer is attached to the wheel by a steel rod1 and by pushing the lever down a little with the thumb1 or very hard with both thumbs the brake is applied4 ,the sides of the brake-shoe clasp the sides of the tire1 where there is no wear1 and the bell still ringing is thereby pushed up with the aluminum friction wheel and the steel rod and frame4 ,the bell can be thrown out of action whenever it is not needed by slightly pulling up the ring on chain-lift and placing it over the hook4 ,the bell remains silent until wanted again4 ,a strong steel lamp bracket near the head of the steering post where a lamp can be carried1 is provided by the bell-brake1 the fulcrum of the operating thumb-lever being extended for this purpose4 ,a puncture guard is also supplied with this bell and brake1 forming the rear end of the brake-shoe1 about one-eighth of an inch from the tread of the tire1 and ready to scoop off any pieces of glass1 tacks1 nails1 etc41 that have been picked up by it before they can be driven through the tire by the pounding of many revolutions4 ,the whole arrangement of bell1 brake1 lamp bracket and puncture guard weighs but a trifle over a pound1 and can be attached to any ordinary bicycle4 ,,toe-,,clips4 ,toe-clips are more largely used than ever4 ,originally they were used only by our racing men1 and one of the most popular clips ever used was one named after ,zimmerman4 ,it was simply a narrow band of spring steel about one-quarter inch wide1 bent to the required shape and bolted to the pedal4 ,the type is now somewhat extinct1 the demand appearing to be more for toe-clips that cover more of the surface of the foot4 ,a new design is one called the ,roller4 ,it has a small corrugated roller fastened on the end of the clip1 where it touches the shoe4 ,this roller permits the foot to be slid in and out readily4 ,one of the best of the new clips is called the 8,pedal ,balance ,toe-,clip40 ,when not in use the weight of the clip itself1 without any counterweight whatever1 holds the pedal right side up and horizontally ready to receive the foot1 which when placed upon it presses down the plunger1 thereby raising the clip over the toe4 ,the clip releases itself and drops to position the moment the rider starts to remove his feet4 ,another peculiarity about this clip is that they do not hang as close to the ground as clips attached in the ordinary way4 ,they can be attached to any make of pedal4 ,another type is called the 8,can't ,slip40 ,this is of the broad style of clip1 but it has side extension extending down over the sides of the upper and sole and prevents side-slipping off the pedal4 ,the shoe1 however1 is readily withdrawn backward on a dismount4 ,illustration3 ,,howard ,,toe ,,clamp4 ,the ,howard ,adjustable ,safety ,toe-,clip fits all pedals1 and as the cut shows1 it does not touch the upper of the shoe1 as it only grasps the sole of the shoe4 ,to give the best satisfaction a pair should be placed on each side of the pedal1 so that they will balance each other and catch the sole whichever side of the pedal is up4 ,the advantages claimed for this style of clip are that there is no pressure on the toes or any other part of the foot1 and that they will fit any size of shoe1 and hence can be used by women as well as by men4 ,wire toe-clips are largely used1 made of plain wire or spirally twisted wire2 the most popular wire clip is known as ,thiem's1 of which a cut is shown4 ,a new toe-clip shown is made in the form of a stirrup4 ,the frame is made of steel1 the upper part being made of leather in the shape of a stirrup1 and is laced for adjustability4 ,the ,quick ,swivel ,clip is one that is mechanically automatic1 clearing the way for the foot1 and provides for a strong upward pull4 ,in its operation it makes no difference where the foot strikes the swivel as either end fits the toe and will follow into position the instant the foot is placed upon the pedal4 ,the lifting strain is distributed along the top of the foot and centres on the swivel pin4 ,,luggage ,,carriers4 ,illustration3 ,,kalamazoo ,,carrier4 ,illustration3 ,,lamson ,,carrier4 ,the bicycle touring season will shortly open1 when luggage1 coats and packages will have to be fastened in some way to the frame of the bicycle4 ,the luggage carriers made by ,c4 ,h4 ,lamson of ,portland1 ,me41 have long been favorably known and largely used by wheelmen all over the country4 ,he still continues to make his detachable luggage carrier of wire and leather straps1 to be used on the handlebars1 and which are made in various sizes1 not only to carry clothing1 but to carry cameras and books as well4 ,the cuts give an excellent idea of their construction4 ,a demand1 however1 has existed for rear luggage carriers for bicycles1 and to meet this demand ,lamson shows a new carrier4 ,it is made of leather and is so formed as to make the mud guard protect the package1 and also to save the frame of the bicycle from being chafed4 ,the straps are stout1 thick and of good length1 and the patent buckle allows the quick removal of bundle or camera4 ,he makes another form of this style of wire and straps4 ,this carrier makes a springy shelf which makes an easy rest for the package4 ,two wire hooks spring against the inner sides of the back stays just above the brace which is usually placed above the wheel1 and these wire hooks are held securely in place by turning down a snap4 ,another form of rear luggage carrier is called the ,adams ,l4 ,a4 ,w4 ,this is also made of leather and straps1 and will carry a good size package1 and when not in use is scarcely noticeable4 ,weber's ,new ,departure ,luggage ,carrier is a combination luggage carrier and lamp bracket made of cold rolled steel1 fitted with leather straps4 ,this carrier also affords a suitable grip for carrying a parcel in when detached from the bicycle4 ,it weighs1 complete1 about three ounces1 and can be rolled up and carried in the pocket or attached to the top bar of the bicycle4 ,the luggage is placed in the carrier and attached to the bicycle by slipping it over the lamp bracket4 ,the carrier may also be attached to the seat post4 ,a wicker basket carrier is also shown1 which will fit any handlebar1 being fastened thereto with straps1 and this certainly ought to become a popular one for carrying luncheons on small picnic runs4 ,for touring purposes a linenoid touring case1 made by ,crane ,bros41 of ,westfield1 ,mass41 is to be commended4 ,it is made similar to an extension case of tough waterproof material1 and is seamless4 ,it can be removed from the frame in a moment1 owing to patent buckles being used4 ,their ordinary size will fit the frames of nearly all the well-known bicycles in the market1 but special sizes and finish are furnished as desired4 ,linenoid1 of which these cases are made1 consists of pure linen threads reduced to a pulp1 chemically treated and moulded on iron forms subjected to heat from great pressure1 and then finished4 ,they also make a megaphone of this material1 and which will carry the voice from a half to two miles1 the distance depending upon the size of the instrument4 ,they have a new idea in megaphones1 one that is called a double megaphone1 which allows the person using the megaphone to hear also without changing the position of the instrument4 ,a supplementary tube runs from the mouthpiece to the ear of the user1 so that with this double megaphone a conversation can be carried on with as much ease and satisfaction as if the users were near together4 ,,auxiliary ,,seats4 ,illustration3 ,,fairy ,,child',s ,,seat4 ,the 8,fairy0 child's seat is among the most widely used in this line of attachments4 ,the supporting frame is made from a single piece of #e_/af inch wire doubled and bent to hook over the handlebar1 the lower portion running down on either side of the head of the bicycle1 and secured to the head by means of a short strap and buckle1 the lower ends of the wires turning out to make foot rests for the child4 ,the upper part of the wire frame is bent in a manner to form a support for a veneered seat board1 and the seat board is provided with a light wire rail running around the side and back1 while a wood handle is run through loops formed in the wire rail to secure the child in place1 as well as to provide handles for the child to take hold of4 ,this seat is extremely simple and neat1 and will fit either a lady's or a gentleman's bicycle4 ,it is perfectly safe for babies or a child seven years old4 ,the seat being in the position it is over the handlebar1 is entirely out of the way of the rider1 and the child sits so nearly over the centre of the head that steering is scarcely affected at all4 ,,parcel ,,carriers4 ,the ,kalamazoo ,parcel ,carrier is made from #c_/af inch steel spring wire1 and has a linen net in the form of a bag for a receptacle to hold parcels of all kinds4 ,the size of the opening is #fac inches4 ,it fits nearly all handlebars4 ,it is simply hooked around the bar and held down by means of a light cord1 which goes down under the upper tube of the bicycle4 ,this carrier weighs about #h ounces1 and will carry up to #ae pounds4 ,,other ,,accessories4 ,there are two frame protectors on the market which are very useful when a drop bar is used to protect the frame from being marred by the grips4 ,the ,straus protector consists of three separate rings of hard rubber1 which are split so as to allow them to be placed over the frame1 and they are usually used in a combination of colors1 the rings being furnished in red1 white and blue4 ,the ,goodrich frame protector is of one-piece construction1 and has diamond-shape corrugations over its surface2 a steel spring imbedded in the rubber clamps the protector tightly to the frame4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,ideal0 ,,pump4 ,young's ,rim ,sprocket can be used in connection with any ordinary sprocket to increase the gear without removing the sprocket from the crank shaft4 ,the rim fits snugly over the sprocket1 being held in place by four bolts and nuts1 and the change can be made very readily4 ,these rims can be obtained to add from three to four teeth to any sprocket having fourteen teeth and upward4 ,,lubricants4 ,chain and gear lubricants are perhaps not applied as frequently in all instances as they should be1 a fact due largely1 no doubt1 to the disagreeableness of the task4 ,wheelmen have long wondered why makers of chain lubricants have not hit upon some form of package less unpleasant to handle than the old style stick-graphite package4 ,the 8,pacemaker0 is the latest improvement in this direction4 ,it is a simple tube of semi-liquid graphite1 with a small but serviceable brush fitted into the cap4 ,thus the lubricant1 which is an excellent one1 can be applied in the most convenient possible form1 without the necessity of smearing one's hands and clothing4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,pacemaker0--8,,three-,,in-,,one40 8,pacemaker0 is manufactured by ,g4 ,w4 ,cole ,co41 of ,new ,york1 makers of the well known 8#c in #a0 compound1 which all cyclists in all countries are familiar with4 ,a novelty in guard lacing for ladies' bicycles shown is ,shirley's patent guard lacing4 ,they are made of knotted silk cord and are ready to apply to any bicycle1 and a sufficient quantity of extra lacing is furnished to lace the chain guard4 ,a nickel-plated eye is furnished to attach to the rear axle and black enamelled wire hooks fasten the ends to the wire guard4 ,this style of guard is very much superior to the ordinary lacing used1 and is of the type used so largely during the past season by the makers of the ,wolff-,american cycles4 ,the ,columbia ,retro-,opticon shows cyclists what may be coming behind them4 ,it is used on the handlebar just in front of the left hand grip4 ,they can be set in any position4 ,a glance at the surface of the instrument shows a complete picture in miniature of everything behind the rider4 ,,foot ,,pumps4 ,the old style hand pump is now but little used excepting in cases of emergency1 the more powerful foot pump having been substituted in the bicycle rooms of most cyclists4 ,these are largely of the type shown in the accompanying illustration of the 8,ideal0 pump1 manufactured by the ,manhattan ,brass ,company4 ,the cylinder is large1 with a double washer attached to the plunger4 ,there is practically nothing to get out of order1 and it requires but a few discharges from the pump to fill a tire solidly4 ,,an ,,automatic ,,pump4 ,a device that promises to save wheelmen much time and trouble is an automatic pump1 operated upon the penny-in-the-slot principle4 ,it is intended by the company controlling the patents and manufacturing the pump to place them at convenient points along the city and suburban routes for cyclists1 for use by any wheelman who has the price of service--one cent4 ,the machine is of sturdy construction1 built to stand rough usage and rough weather4 ,the dropping of a penny in the receiving slot releases a lever1 one complete swing of which pumps the tire hard if the rider wishes it so1 or a partial swing will give such pressure as is desired4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,xv ,,freaks ,,and ,,useless ,,devices4 ,some one has defined a rebellion as a revolution which has not succeeded4 ,similarly1 the freakishness or non-freakishness of an idea in cycle construction may be deemed to turn on its fate in the struggle for survival2 yet there may be some exceptions to the rule of survival of the fittest1 and1 on the other hand1 there are myriads of notions that are visionary as to possible practical results or even go counter to the most elementary of natural laws4 ,a cycle show always brings out a few of the milder sort4 ,for example1 the ,upright1 devised by a non-rider who had observed with pain the 8monkey-on-a-stick0 position and perceived that this would be impossible if the hands must be at the sides2 so this one-idea reformer devised a frame which placed the handle bar behind the rider1 and the uprightness was complete4 ,a few bicycles on this plan were made and went into use4 ,the least that can be said is that the idea was effectually embodied2 the most is that if one idea was enough in a bicycle this would have been triumphant and permanent4 ,the last show had a freak or two in tires1 a spur-gear freak in chainless driving 7since remade into a form capable of operating71 a device for driving the front wheel by a see-saw handlebar working straps and ratchets simultaneously with regular driving on the rear wheel--and some others we do not now recall4 ,in the lack of a show1 freaks do not come to the front as prominently this year1 and yet they are still to be numbered by the thousand4 ,they are to be found in witless1 non-workable patents1 besides many more by cranks who cannot raise the patent fees and are thus cruelly barred out of the ,eden rightfully theirs if fate had been less unkind4 ,whether as much money has not been sunk in such patents and in barren experiment in the aggregate as has been made out of the bicycle is doubtful2 at least1 it is within bounds to say that the worthless patents in the cycle line taken out in the ,united ,states alone during the last twenty years could not be adequately described and illustrated in a month1 even if this journal were entirely given up to the task4 ,yet we can sketch a few as samples2 also indicating the lines along which barren contriving constantly runs4 ,illustration3 ,,driving ,,by ,,the 8,,rider',s ,,weight40 ,,some ,,constant ,,fallacies4 ,there are several fallacies which recur1 year after year1 and necessarily lead to wrong conclusions4 ,one of these fallacies is that there is a large reserve power in the body which is not ordinarily afforded means for expending itself1 especially that the arms do not have a chance given them4 ,another is the twin brother of perpetual motion by means of gravity1 and it imagines that a cycle can be driven continuously by the weight of the rider4 ,another assumes that the coveted mile-a-minute speed can be attained by speeding up the wheel with relation to the foot action by means of gears4 ,another assumes that a combination of enough gears1 levers1 clutches1 straps1 cams1 etc41 can be trusted to go of itself2 inventors along this line seem to read the term 8mechanical powers0 as in the singular1 and as meaning that a combination of devices can create power1 whereas the fact is that a man who moves a big stone by means of pulleys actually expends more energy than if he raised the load by his own muscles unassisted4 ,there is also an endless line of cranks1 utterly ignorant of or acting in defiance of the most elementary natural laws1 whose propositions are as destitute of practicability as dreams in sleep1 in which1 as we all know1 nothing seems preposterous1 and to follow ,alice down the rabbit's hole or to unscrew our own legs and eat them for lunch with condiments would be in the regular order of things4 ,,some ,,examples ,,of ,,useless ,,contriving4 ,examples may be cited almost at random and without care for chronological order4 ,a mild case was that of the ,hunt patent1 ,december1 #ahij4 ,mr4 ,hunt was aware 8that a chain is often used to transmit power from the pedals to the wheel10 but he proposed 8a frictional gearing connection40 ,his device was the same mode of chainless driving as on the ,humber chainless of today--that is1 by an intermediate wheel1 but with a difference2 his drive-wheels on the wheel axle and crank axle had toothed or corrugated edges1 and his intermediate had a rubber band or tire on its rim4 8,it will be evident 7he says7 to the student of this bicycle that the corrugations on the peripheries of the drive-wheels ,k and ,m will take firm hold of the rubber band of the intermediate wheel ,n and thus prevent any possibility of slipping2 in this way an easy1 regular motion will be produced40 ,he also claims that this connection1 while being firm enough1 will also be elastic1 with 8yielding characteristics40 ,what really is evident is that if his device succeeded in driving the bicycle at all1 the rubber band would retain its integrity at least fifteen minutes4 ,the same notion reappeared1 a year ago1 in the patent of ,mr4 ,langbridge1 an ,englishman1 who proposed chainless driving by two spur gear wheels carried on the seat-post tube and meshing with one on the pedal axle2 8a pneumatic-tired friction wheel10 borne on stays in the triangle below the saddle1 was to work on the tire of the rear wheel near its top1 and this frictional contact would impart 8the same1 or practically the same1 velocity0 as that of the friction wheel itself4 ,this was a conservative way of stating it1 for 8practically0 is a rather flexible term4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,sweeper0 ,,idea4 ,in #ahic a ,hartford man patented a bicycle fitted with a large cylinder1 borne on either side below the wheel centre1 for compressed air4 ,having previously filled these1 either by a foot pump1 which takes the place of the usual pedals1 or by a curious rotary hand pump carried under the upper tube1 the rider climbed to his place1 opened a convenient throttle valve and sped along gayly4 ,on a down grade he could use the momentum to repump air1 getting brake effect by so doing1 or he could use the air pressure to work a brake direct2 as the gas tanks carried two little wheels on spiral springs underneath them1 the rider could step off and leave the whole construction upright1 leaning down on one of these stop-wheels4 ,five years ago ,mr4 ,gundelach of this city patented 8a convenient gear mechanism by which the machine may be speeded high on a good road and may be changed to a low speed for hill climbing40 ,he placed a series of spur gears with pinions thereon in a frame1 the last of them working on the rear wheel by sprocket and chain2 when the rider came to a tough hill or a piece of bad road he had only to get off and carefully loosen the shaft so as to make a shift for power on the familiar method of the coned pulley in machine shops and he was all right2 a flywheel on the shaft1 for equalizing motion and for using the reservoir of power which some imagine is contained in flywheels1 was not omitted4 ,the public seem to have respected ,mr4 ,gundelach's patent rights4 ,in #ahij ,mr4 ,toense of ,cleveland patented a man-power combined with a pair of hydraulic cylinders4 ,the rider began by climbing to a high seat1 which sank under him and thus thrust back the piston of a horizontal pump1 which gave the wheel a forward impulse by a rack and pinion4 ,as the seat sank1 it moved ,l-shaped levers1 and thus lifted the piston in a vertical hydraulic cylinder2 then the rider pushed down on the treadles1 8at the same time raising himself in the seat10 and the piston just raised was pushed down1 giving the wheel another impulse4 8,the driving wheel is thus acted upon alternately by the two driving cylinders1 one acting when the seat descends and the other when the treadles are forced down40 ,this may seem a little obscure1 but we have never had opportunity to see the device4 ,mr4 ,hansel1 of ,zeitz1 in ,germany1 only recently rediscovered and patented the idea of driving by the rider's weight4 ,there are two saddles1 each on its post1 arranged to slide up and down see-saw fashion1 and geared1 no matter precisely how1 to a very big pulley belted to a very small one on the rear wheel1 the gear ratio being evidently enormous4 ,the rider gets up on the seat which is at the top1 slides down with it1 thus starting the wheel2 then he is to hop off that to the other seat 7which has meanwhile gone up7 and so on4 ,expressive silence may be left to 8muse the praise0 of this invention4 ,mr4 ,osborne of ,brooklyn recently offered a carpet sweeper belted to the front wheel1 which 8will thrust aside small objects1 such as nails1 tacks1 glass1 sharp stones and the like1 and leave a free path for the passage of the wheels of the bicycle40 ,this we respectfully refer to the ,department of ,street ,cleaning4 ,mr4 ,livingston of ,st4 ,louis takes the locomotive double-rod chainless driving of the #ahif ,twentieth ,century and the ,dayton of this year1 and improves on it in his own way4 ,instead of driving his pinion by a chain and so running it forward1 he makes a spur gear of it1 so that the motion is reversed from that of the pedals4 ,as the two connecting-rods to the wheel are worked by this pinion1 he is compelled to pedal backward1 or else run the bicycle itself backward4 ,presumably1 he intends the former1 and is not disturbed by the prospect2 but as this mode of pedalling would involve an excessively vertical action it is not probable that this particular chainless will ever be seen on the road4 ,going back sixteen years1 we find ,mr4 ,amess1 a ,canadian1 turning the first ,columbia model into a lever-driving wheel1 as shown in the cut4 ,his patent claims only speeding up and vertical position1 and does not allege safety from headers1 very properly4 ,for not only was his contrivance clumsy and subject to great friction on the sliding fulcrum1 but added weight where weight would be dangerous2 moreover1 as a careful examination will show1 the mode of driving had no tendency to hold down the back wheel4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,notion ,,of #ahha4 ,only a year ago1 ,mr4 ,harrison1 an ,englishman1 patented a lever contrivance with oscillating fulcrum1 in combination with planet gearing4 ,every disadvantage of lever-driving attached to this1 and he also took up again our old acquaintance the much-heralded elliptical sprocket1 which had its trial in this country some years before4 ,substantially this device was at the ,national ,show1 ,november1 #ahif4 ,at that ,show was the ,alert1 a chainless using substantially the 8chain disk or cam10 just patented by a ,swede and said to have been sold 7a few countries excepted7 for #fjj1jjj4 ,it is an ,l-lever pivoted at the crank bracket1 the forward arm carrying the pedals1 and the upper arm drawing by a cord upon a sort of snail cam or scroll on the rear axle2 the driving is on each side necessarily1 and there is no back pedalling4 ,the leverage is changeable by shifting up or down the place of attachment of the cord to the upright lever arm4 ,a year before this1 another ,englishman patented a device for chainless driving by a lever with sliding fulcrum at the rear of the wheel2 the lever was to be pivoted to a wheel with internal spur teeth meshing with a pinion on the axle1 and the device was on both sides4 ,five years ago ,mr4 ,mahoney of this city patented a contrivance as shown in the cut4 ,he overlooked such considerations as enormous width of tread and the fact that his driving wheel was not central in the frame4 ,he premised that1 8as a general thing1 a bicycle rider has a reserve supply of strength which he cannot use to advantage in running the ordinary bicycle1 from the fact that he cannot make his feet go fast enough to get a speed from the bicycle proportionate to his strength40 ,having thus announced the discovery that twice two are five1 ,mr4 ,mahoney described his invention by which 8a person may drive the machine very rapidly without making his feet move very fast40 ,if ,mr4 ,mahoney had not been bent on inventing something1 he might have perceived that speeding up ad libitum could be had by omitting his gears and using a front sprocket large enough4 ,later inventors have seen more clearly4 ,for instance1 only a few months ago1 ,mr4 ,papperdykes of ,new ,haven 8patented0 a bicycle warranted to carry a rider a mile in seven and a half revolutions of the pedals1 thus giving outlet to the reserve supply of strength mentioned by ,mr4 ,mahoney4 ,there is a train of gears1 combined with sprockets and chain1 making a gear ratio of #h1ddh inches4 ,this is as the story was told1 since we have not seen the patent2 but there was an error in expression ,the equivalent circumference of wheel is #h1ddh inches and the diameter #b1fhj inches1 or #bbd feet1 as nearly as can be figured1 making an equivalent wheel only forty feet smaller than the great ,ferris wheel of the ,world's ,fair4 ,here is a little object lesson in gear ratio as heretofore explained2 the actual wheel was to be #bh inches1 while it was to run per each pedal revolution as far as a directly connected wheel of #bbd feet would run4 ,such a construction might be a little heavy1 but there would be a difficulty with it in practice2 it would probably require ten or twelve horse-power to drive1 while a bicycle rider has only one man-power4 ,a like difficulty prevents our flying with the birds1 for wings could be easily made and attached4 ,what could anybody expect to accomplish by carrying a long chain from the usual front sprocket to an extra sprocket below the saddle1 from which a second chain ran down to the rear sprocket8 ,yet the writer encountered precisely this fixed-up contrivance in the street1 and surveyed it with feelings which forbore utterance4 ,or consider the very recent patent of ,mr4 ,scott of ,philadelphia1 as shown in the cut4 ,he knew that an electric motor for driving the wheel would be delightful for a lazy rider2 so he put one on behind1 in what is evidently a good place for it4 ,a motor must have current2 so he put a small dynamo on the diagonal tube to supply it4 ,then1 to make that go1 he had only to put a large band wheel in place of the front sprocket and belt it on1 and the deed was done4 ,granting that there would be no electrical difficulty in transmitting energy from one point to the other1 this contrivance would simply waste a considerable power which might be carried directly to the wheel2 but ,mr4 ,scott does not know this1 and he felt he had a call to invent something4 ,yet ,mr4 ,scott is put in the shade by ,mr4 ,turner1 out in ,indian ,territory1 who has patented a contrivance for making a head wind drive instead of retard4 ,he proposes to mount a small windmill with four vanes on a horizontal shaft in line with the top tube1 and this1 by a pair of bevel pinions1 is to run a shaft leading straight to a crown wheel on the rear wheel1 which is to be driven by another bevel pinion4 ,the usual driving is prudently retained for emergencies1 and the relative size of these pinions indicates that the windmill will need to whirl with great velocity4 ,he somehow omits to claim the windmill and asks protection for a peculiar brake on its shaft4 ,as the shaft is rigidly fixed in line1 he must intend to run dead into the wind4 ,the school text books used to tell of a man who put a large bellows in the stern of his pleasure boat1 so that he could always have wind for his sail1 and a contributor relates in the ,youth's ,companion how he once saw an attempt made to work a wood scow by a windmill carried on it4 ,yet1 if the winds that blow in the far ,west are not peculiar1 and if ,mr4 ,turner is not ignorant of what most children think they know1 navigators have been wasting time for a thousand years in trying to sail by tacking instead of making the wind drive against itself4 ,,the ,,lure ,,of ,,the ,,patent4 ,these are examples enough of folly which shows no signs of abatement4 ,the ,government offers a patent to inventors of 8any new and useful0 improvement4 ,there is a notion that invention is an easy road to fortune2 on the contrary1 there is no harder and more unpromising one4 ,the foolish inventor constantly overlooks the words 8and useful10 and the ,patent ,office1 in order that no risk be incurred of smothering improvement by any official dictum that the thing proposed is worthless1 has also waived the qualifying words and has thrown the door open so wide that anything may get a patent--not even novelty is strictly enough required4 ,an elaborate muzzle to keep sheep from biting might therefore not be debarred from patent right by the fact that a sheep was never known to bite anything but its own vegetable food2 and so long as any combination1 although obviously impracticable or even going counter to natural laws1 is 8novel10 and therefore can obtain the right to litigate which is called a patent1 it must be expected that dreamers and persons of misfit intellects will continue the line of applicants4 ,the bicycle is so much in the public eye that it especially draws these persons as the light draws the moth4 ,they will not consult practical men1 or1 if they do1 they will not accept the advice given4 ,they will not even look to see what has already been done in the same line4 ,one of this class came to the writer more than a year ago with some complicated contraption of levers1 ratchets1 cams1 and the like--just the usual thing4 ,had he been to any bicycle makers8 ,yes1 and none would give him encouragement4 ,nor could we and we tried to show him how useless his labor was2 but he gathered up his drawings and shuffled away4 ,he did not want expert opinion1 unless it was of a pleasant nature2 he wanted aid to build his contrivance4 ,like all of his class1 he could see nothing beyond his idea1 successful on paper1 and if he could only get his patent and get a sample made success was sure4 ,apropos of this is the classification of cycle patents for #ahig made by the ,iron ,age4 ,for pneumatic tires there were #aaj2 #ajf on handlebars and grips2 #aje on driving gears1 #gj of these being for chainless2 #he for saddles2 #fi for brakes2 #ea for frame construction2 #ej for cranks and pedals2 #ag for spring frames2 #abd for stands and racks and for devices for dropping down some sort of prop or leg by which the bicycle might stand alone4 ,the last-named is absolutely valueless and has been so proved2 the spring frame has also been tried and virtually rejected2 and if a hundred patents on the bicycle and accessories are issued in a year it is almost certain1 without examination1 that ninety-nine are commercially useless1 if not mechanically preposterous4 ,this is so because the practical conditions are narrow and rigid1 and because the field has been so repeatedly and minutely gone over4 ,illustration3 ,,mahoney ,,patent--#ahic4 ,the crank cycle inventors1 of course1 are only one class4 ,they are non-riders usually1 and not prejudiced by any practical knowledge of the subject2 one device 7one of the best of the year7 has been invented by a man who has not yet mounted a bicycle1 but he is a mechanic1 not a dreamer4 ,it is sad to see so much waste of time and energy in planning1 so much illy-spared money spent in patent fees1 and so many disappointed hopes1 and if this rapid sketch happen to deter some would-be improver of the cycle and send him to the ,klondike for a fortune instead it will not have been without direct advantage to somebody4 ,,building 8,,to ,,order40 ,in course of the development of the bicycle1 the 8component parts maker0 has come upon the scene1 in this country as he had previously done in ,england4 ,in a general way1 all bicycles are constructed alike2 that is1 all have hubs1 ball bearings1 spokes1 crank brackets1 joints constructed by forging from the solid or by working up sheet steel1 and so on4 ,production of these parts by quantities1 as a specialty1 is in line with the custom of subdivision of labor1 and is in the direction of economy in product1 and yet this has its undesirable side as well1 for it tends to encourage the practice of 8building to order40 ,a rider--usually not one of the very experienced class and seldom one of mechanical study--has observed the axle of one make1 the hub of another1 the saddle fastening of another1 and so on2 more or less justly1 he approves1 or fancies1 these devices1 and it seems to him that if he could only combine them in one bicycle he would indeed have the 8topnotcher0 of the year4 ,the fallible side in his human nature is also flattered by thinking that to be able to say that his mount was 8built to order0 suggests that his superior discernment saw beyond what the regular market offered and was not satisfied without something better than others have1 and something distinctive and 8special40 ,accordingly he applies to the small assembler who announces himself as builder of specially designed wheels1 and this assembler1 wise enough to cater to a 8want0 which he can turn to account1 puts together the parts desired1 or with accepted modifications suggested by himself1 and the rider gets his 8to order0 mount1 at a price proportioned to its specialty4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,dream ,,motor4 ,while he thinks himself fortunate and happy1 let it be admitted that he is and that nobody else has a right to disturb his peace4 ,and yet it does not necessarily follow that a combination of good things makes a good total4 ,for he has no guaranty1 although he may have written stipulation1 for the real guaranty is the maker's reputation1 and in that sense he has no maker4 ,the second consideration is that if the assembler who has made up his wheel dies or goes out of business he probably has no clue to the source from which the particular parts came and is thus liable to be put to expense and trouble if replacing any becomes necessary2 it is always a good rule to deal1 whenever possible1 with parties who are likely to last and to be easily found should occasion arise to call on them4 ,a nameless bicycle--that is1 one without definite and responsible origin1 for the mere nameplate is only a bit of stamped metal or a transfer1 and is nothing in itself--may run well for a time1 but is liable to plague its owner before he is through with it4 ,the third consideration is that1 even if purchased parts are of good quality 7and there is always a temptation to increase the present profit by using the lowest priced71 the assembler1 with his few tools and comparatively small experience1 cannot possibly do the work as well as the large maker1 with his ample facilities4 ,the one man1 who perhaps brazes and files up and puts frames together for fastening1 and makes up wheels1 and performs other operations1 may get a diversified practical training in mechanics for himself1 but the work cannot have the certainty and accuracy obtainable1 according to all rules of production1 by subdivision of labor4 ,nor is this all4 ,the frame shape and its angles are originally 8set out0 in the draughting shop with mathematical precision1 and the large maker puts the parts together by means of 8jigs10 all this involving a heavy outlay1 but securing exactness4 ,the 8to order0 workman conforms to the angles called for as well as he can2 if the connections on band are not quite right1 he files them or bends them1 getting as nearly accurate line as he can by his eye and the rule of thumb4 ,his work being on individual cases1 it is impossible for him to have jigs and gauges for each1 and quite out of his power to attain the correctness obtained by machine work and making in quantities4 ,hence1 even if the material used is of the very highest quality1 it is reasonably inferable that the 8to order0 bicycle1 supposed by its owner to be better than regular market stock1 is really somewhat inferior4 ,illustration3 ,,to ,,coax ,,the ,,wind4 8,,old ,,wheels ,,cut ,,down40 ,market prices1 as everybody knows1 are greatly below those of the last two years1 and this favors buying new mounts4 ,on the other hand1 and for that very reason1 such allowances as used to be made for wheels a year or more old are now impossible4 ,apparently one consideration might fairly offset the other1 yet there are signs thus far that a larger proportion of riders than heretofore will furbish up their present mounts for another season4 ,but as the most decided change for #ahih is shortening of head1 lowering of frame1 and increased drop of the hanger1 this change being so marked that a #be or #bf inch frame is now rated as quite antiquated and unfashionable1 there is a tendency to make over present mounts into the more stylish cut4 ,how far this is likely to go we cannot foresee1 but as some cases of cutting down frames and advertisements of 8old wheels cut down0 have already come under our observation1 we must condemn it in the most emphatic terms4 ,the 8to order0 shop is very likely to count this change an opportunity and to stimulate the practice by offering its services2 but we must warn riders that meddling with bicycle frames involves hazards4 ,when the bicycle hater declares that to mount one of those things is to take one's life in one's hands1 he states what is literally true1 of course4 ,the possibilities are always against us4 ,if we step out of doors1 we take chances2 if we go to bed for safety1 people have died in bed4 ,reasonable care having been used1 we must trust the chances1 which always expose to mishap and always give the weight of probability to the side of immunity4 ,the most dangerous break on a bicycle is a break of frame--for example1 while fracture of one side of the front fork will probably permit escape1 a complete snap of fork crown or stem will almost certainly cause the rider to dive for the ground4 ,now1 tubing has been made from the solid ingot by a series of processes and it is almost surprising that after the time the metal has survived all this torture and has been shaped and fixed into a bicycle frame1 having endured the final heat of brazing1 there is any 8life0 left in it4 ,when the cutting down process is undertaken1 there are two bad consequences probable3 one is that the operation will fail to get accurate alignment1 in which case the driving will be harder and the durability of wearing parts less than before2 the other is that the further heating will 8burn0 the metal 7literally7 and the chances of fracture will be much increased4 ,the tube may also be softened in one place1 as well as burned in another4 ,the original finish cannot be well restored1 and the operation of smoothing up1 especially for nickeling1 involves further hazard to the tube4 ,advice as to making over frames is covered in one word--don't do it1 and don't trust yourself1 knowingly1 on one which has been thus treated4 ,,the ,,craze ,,for 8,,drop40 ,the one thing accomplished by the lowered frame of #ahih1 which is the chief change of the year1 is a small further lowering of crank axle2 and this lowering or drop it is not quite easy to contemplate without impatience4 ,the natural construction of the diamond frame would put the crank axle in line with the wheel axles1 or very nearly so2 the drop is a concession1 serving no useful end except to make the mount and dismount easier for women4 ,within reason1 it is therefore well2 carried to excess1 it involves the risks already pointed out2 turned into an end and a sine qua non1 it becomes foolishness4 ,as a case for illustration1 a bright young fellow who has quite a taste for bicycle mechanics recently came to the writer for advice4 ,his question was whether to buy the ,blank racer 7a first-class wheel by one of the best makers7 or the new model of his present make1 with #cj-;inch wheels4 ,the advice was to leave the latter alone1 and the reasons were given1 to wit3 that the #bh-;inch size was not reached arbitrarily1 but as the best practical adjustment of all the conditions of the case1 and after a long trial1 which included both #cb and #cj wheels1 separately and in combination2 that enlarging the wheel means increase in weight1 and lengthening of the already awkward wheel-base2 that it involves special rims1 tires1 and spokes1 together with added cost and trouble in frame-making1 just when makers are trying to reach uniformity2 and that bringing out this size seems to be a mistaken sop thrown to fadism and one which cannot last4 ,but--this was the plea--a greater drop of the hanger could thus be had1 and it was an aid to steadiness in balancing to get nearer the ground4 ,more drop1 yes2 but what of that8 ,memory recalled how1 in ,england1 the smaller wheel was met by the argument that on a high wheel the rider could get a wider view of the country by being raised higher from the ground2 and how1 when the writer1 in #ahhb1 brought over the ,facile1 the first specimen of a small bicycle seen in ,america1 so far as appears1 the scorcher of the day viewed it with lofty contempt1 and 8wouldn't like to be found dead on that thing40 ,its wheel was #dd inches1 but it was esteemed lowly2 now1 the scorcher is willing to forego the broadening of his horizon to be attained by being a foot or two higher above the ground and wants the aid in balancing to be had by a saddle an inch and a half nearer the ground6 ,the young fellow in this present case went away1 perhaps convinced but not satisfied1 and in a few days appeared with the coveted #cj-;inch wheel2 the #d-;inch drop had had its way4 ,great is the sway of fashion1 and if drop is to be the fetish1 should it not be observed that if the wheel is only made large enough the drop can be made low to suit8 ,why rest satisfied with a drop of a few inches8 ,the foregoing would be misconstrued if any desire to decry the small maker were read into it4 ,he has a right to live if he can1 and to grow into the large maker by natural evolution4 ,yet it may be said against the assembler of component parts that the admitted evil of changes from year to year--changes1 not improvement1 but for the sake of change--may be laid in good part at his door4 ,in the view of political economy1 it cannot be deemed wise that a slight change in the height or shape of the silk hat--a change in the round of possible changes--should compel the purchase of the very latest 7perhaps a return of one of the earliest7 and the discarding of one not seriously worse for wear4 ,the silk hat is not head gear for work1 and the crow is no such student of fashion plates that he requires the latest curl in brim2 and if it be said that new production furnishes employment to labor1 why not have labor employed in adding to the stock of usable things instead of replacing needless waste8 ,of course1 as chroniclers1 we must describe what changes are in the #ahih bicycle product2 yet this does not preclude the comment that these changed frame shapes are not one whit better--in mechanical design1 ease of running1 strength1 or even in appearance1 unless one chooses to believe so--than the #ahig wheel4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,tandems ,,and ,,multicycles4 ,the word 8tandem0 is of ,latin derivation1 and means at length1 and1 like a great deal of our cycle nomenclature1 it was taken from the horse and carriage trade1 where the word was intended to express a harnessing of horses one before another instead of side by side1 but it was1 however1 not strictly limited to two horses1 and meant any number that might be driven in this fashion4 ,what is known as a tandem bicycle1 however1 is one carrying two persons only1 one in front of the other1 but if more than two persons are carried the vehicle is then classed as a multicycle4 ,for instance1 one carrying three people is called a triplet2 four1 a quadruplet2 five1 a quintuplet2 six1 a sextuplet2 seven1 a septuplet2 eight1 an octuplet2 nine1 a nontuplet1 and the only ten-seater that has ever been built is called the 8,oriten10 because it is built by the makers of the ,orient cycles4 ,its proper name1 however1 would be decemtuple4 ,multicycles1 as they are called1 are only made by a few of the makers4 ,the makers of the ,dayton1 ,world and ,andrae make triplets and 8quads40 ,the makers of the ,tribune and ,wolff-,american make triplets2 the makers of the ,stearns make a septuplet2 the makers of the ,orient make triplets1 8quads10 8quints10 8sexes10 septuplets and the 8,oriten0 already referred to4 ,triplets are not very largely used for road riding and touring1 and the few 8quads0 seen on the road are1 as a rule1 owned by clubs1 and manned by crews of these clubs2 and one of the most popular makers of multicycles for club use is ,peter ,berlo of ,boston4 ,mass41 who1 in addition to being a builder of multicycles1 is well known as a professional racing man4 ,the development of paced races among the ,michael-,starbuck class1 paced by multicycles1 has undoubtedly added largely to the popular interest taken in multicycles4 ,they form a pretty picture indeed on a circular track1 with their riders mounted in gay costumes1 and the speed and skill with which they are handled arouses the spectators to greater enthusiasm than any other form of cycle racing ever introduced4 ,illustration3 ,,stearns ,,septuplet4 ,,tandem ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,year4 ,the trade authorities predict that #ahih will be a banner year for tandem riding1 and there are a number of very good reasons in support of this view1 the leading one being the question of price1 prices now ranging from #ge to #ajj and #abe for the best makes1 prices which certainly cannot be called prohibitory for a tandem1 because it was only a few years ago that the makers asked #abe and #aej for the best makes of single bicycles4 ,about sixty or more of the best known makers in the country are this season making tandems1 both in diamond and combination styles4 ,variations in these styles consist in what they call convertible1 which are tandems provided with an extra top bar so as to convert a combination tandem into a double diamond1 and three of our well-known makers1 the ,humber1 the ,dayton and the ,oliver1 make double drop tandems which are also convertible into double diamond tandems1 and the makers of the ,defender confine themselves to making a double diamond frame tandem only1 while the makers of the ,stokes1 ,lyndhurst1 ,clipper1 ,winton and ,featherstone make a combination tandem only1 but which are all convertible into double diamond tandems4 ,illustration3 ,,stearns ,,convertible ,,tandem4 ,right here1 however1 it might be well to explain the meaning of the terms used4 ,a diamond frame tandem is one having both sections of the frame in diamond shape1 and is built for two men to ride4 ,a combination tandem is one having the rear part of the frame diamond shape and the front part dropped1 so that a lady wearing skirts can readily mount2 and a convertible tandem is one arranged so that a detachable main upper tube can be placed in between the head and front seat post of a combination tandem1 and the tandem thereby converted into a double diamond4 ,all the structural details heretofore noted in the course of these articles have been carried by the makers of tandems into their tandem construction4 ,during #ahif and #ahig the popular fad seemed to be to carry the front chain through the lower part of the frame so as to produce what they call centre driving4 ,all the makers1 however1 have abandoned this device excepting the makers of the ,stearns1 who still use it4 ,the majority of the makers carry both chains on one side1 usually the right hand side1 directly from the front sprocket to the middle sprocket axle1 variations in this consisting in carrying a chain on each side4 ,the makers of the ,national1 however1 have three chains on their tandem4 ,they run a chain from the front sprocket direct to a supplementary sprocket on a stud and from which another chain runs to the rear axle on the left side carrying1 however1 as is usual in construction1 the regulation chain from the middle sprocket to the rear axle on the right hand side4 ,the makers of the ,keating carry their front chain directly to the rear axle hub1 and take up the slack and back lash by an idler placed midway on the frame between the front and rear sprocket4 ,nearly all the makes of tandems shown are what is known as double steerers1 being controlled by the front and rear handlebars1 a number of them using a sprocket and chain to make the connection between the two steering heads1 others using a pair of parallel rods running from the fork crown to the rear steering heads4 ,the makers of the ,wolff-,american use a twisted wire cable running over two small grooved wheels1 and the slack of this cable1 which is practically nothing1 is taken up by a pair of turnbuckles4 ,this flexible wire cable is an improvement over the stiff unyielding rods and permits making a very short turn4 ,tandem bicycles have been largely experimented with from the very earliest history of the sport1 the most common method being to connect front forks and front wheels of an ordinary bicycle by a horizontal bar4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,tandem4 ,in #ahfh ,mrs4 ,grundy objected to the idea of a woman sitting astride a bicycle seat1 and therefore the female rider of that period sat on one side of the saddle1 as is usual in horseback riding1 and pedalling with one foot4 ,just how she managed to handle her full skirts and a parasol1 which was frequently carried1 seems incomprehensible to the latter-day rider2 this1 indeed1 is a feat that is usually only performed by one of our modern up-to-date trick riders4 ,a number of early attempts were also made to make a successful type of tandem safety4 ,the first one1 however1 to attain any success in that line is known as the ,lightning1 made by ,hall ,phillips1 and which was afterward produced by many of the ,english makers with modifications thereof1 and at this period in the history of the sport we find that ,r4 ,j4 ,mecredy and ,gerald ,stoney1 in their work entitled ,the ,art and ,pastime of ,cycling1 say that 8tandem safeties should theoretically be extremely fast1 but the stresses are very great1 and somehow no tandem bicycle records equal the records of single bicycles1 although the tandem tricycle is faster than the single tricycle40 ,since that time1 however1 the conditions have been reversed1 and tandem and multicycle records are much better than the records of the single bicycle4 ,illustration3 ,,tinkham ,,tricycle4 ,the ,columbia tandems1 which were among the first made in this country1 were double steerers1 and the two handlebars were connected by rods having a ball and socket or universal joint fastened to the end of the grips4 ,the objections to this style of steering rod was that the bicycle could only be mounted or dismounted from on one side1 and that in case of a fall the front rider was always hemmed in on the right hand side between the steering rods4 ,the building of tandems in this country was evidently a difficult problem to the early makers1 as is evidenced by the fact that the makers of the ,columbia1 after having made a tandem for a year or two1 suspended making them for two or three years after that4 ,a tandem bicycle must not only be strong1 but must be light in weight1 and as two riders are rarely matched as to ability1 power and style of riding1 there must be some universal harmonization of contradictory requirements in flexibility and stiffness4 ,,construction ,,details ,,of ,,tandems4 ,nearly all makes adjust the front chain by having the front crank-hanger bracket and bearings made eccentric1 so as to take up the slack of the chain1 and a few of the makers have adopted this same system at the second crank-hanger bracket1 others varying this by adjusting the rear chain at the rear fork ends as usual4 ,the makers who furnish their tandems with the chains both on one side claim that this type of construction is the best because in the event of the frame becoming bent or out of line the chains will more readily adapt themselves to the new conditions4 ,those who use a chain on both sides say that the power is transmitted more evenly by this method1 and that therefore the frame is not so liable to be sprung out of line as where the pull is all on one side of the frame4 ,however this may be1 a majority of the makers put both chains on one side1 and the makers of the ,national 7who have a combination of both systems7 claim that their three-chain system applies the power evenly through the frame instead of on one side1 and that this system relieves the stress upon the bearings by making both sides do the work instead of allowing one side to run light1 and that the use of three chains overcomes the stress of the usual long chain1 and permits the riders to run the chains as loosely as on a single wheel without danger of either chain jumping the sprocket when riding fast4 ,racing men who have ridden the ,national say that there is no sway whatever in the wheel1 and that it gives a more even and steadier pace than is usual in tandems and is easier to hold and follow4 ,the idler used on the ,national is an ingenious piece of work1 being a double ball bearing1 the usual idler in ordinary construction being an open plain bearing on a stud4 ,there is practically no strain on this idler1 as the pull of one chain is offset by that of the other2 it is not used to hold the chain down1 but serves as a sort of loose pulley connection4 ,illustration3 ,,wolff-,,american ,,triplet4 ,the only juvenile tandems made are those made by the makers of the ,elfin4 ,they are a part of their regular output1 and are made in both diamond and combination styles1 the heights of frame running from #af to #bb inches1 and the weight from #bh to #ce pounds4 ,the little gears run from #ej to #fg inches4 ,these little ,elfin tandems are distinctively juvenile in all their parts1 the head1 saddles1 pedals1 handlebars1 grips and tubing are all miniature in size1 making its measurements as nicely proportioned as a regular adult's wheel1 and the name 8,elfin0 has been well selected for the product4 ,these little tandems are sold for #ej4 ,tandem chains are very much lighter than in former years1 some makers using as light as #c_/af chain all over1 but the majority of them use #c_/af for the front chain and -inch for the rear chain4 ,the combination tandems on the market are furnished usually with #bj or #bb-;inch front frame and #bd-;inch rear4 ,diamond frames are furnished either in #bb or #bd-;inch frames1 #bb-;inch frames being in line with the prevailing fad of low frames1 and therefore the most popular4 ,gears run from #hj to #abj1 the popular stock gear usually furnished being about #hd1 with #g-;inch cranks4 ,on the ,wolff-,american tandem the diagonal stay carrying the seat-posts are not raked at the same angle with front fork and head4 ,the middle steering post1 however1 is raked at the same angle as the head1 thus permitting the rider in front to have more room for a better position in pedalling4 ,the ,wolff-,american tandem is fitted with a very powerful rear brake4 ,it consists of a lug which is brazed in the centre and underneath the main upper tube in front of the rear rider4 ,from this lug a lever is hinged2 this lever carries an adjustable wire rod to the brake spoon which is hinged on the bridge between the rear forks4 ,pulling up on this lever draws a powerful spoon against the rear tire4 ,one of the advantages of this brake is that it does not affect the steering as a handlebar brake does4 ,the 8,world0 tandems have an extra lower chord running from the front diagonal stay to the rear diagonal stay1 which is in turn braced by two braces running from it to the lower chord of the frame4 ,on the ,dayton tandem an extra tube is carried from the head underneath the main upper tube and which intersects the diagonal tube and runs from there to the rear crank-hanger bracket4 ,this construction produces a very stiff and rigid frame4 ,on the ,stokes convertible tandem an extra tube runs from the upper part of the head intersecting the front diagonal stay and the rear steering tube and is then brazed to the lower main tube4 ,the ,eldridge diamond tandem carries an extra tube from the front diagonal tube to the rear crank-hanger1 and this same method of construction is followed in the ,clipper convertible tandem4 ,in the ,niagara tandem the top tube is paralleled by a tube placed about six inches below it1 running from the front diagonal tube to the rear diagonal tube1 the rear steering post intersecting it4 ,on the ,winton tandem the upper main tube is not continuous1 there being an open space between the front seat post and the second steering post1 this being braced1 however1 by a tube which runs from the front seat pillar1 bracing the middle steering post1 and running to the crank-hanger bracket4 ,the ,geneva and the ,demorest are of the same construction4 ,the ,columbia combination and diamond frame tandems are of the same general design as the #ahig models1 except that it has been deemed advisable to have the frame connections of the external joint style instead of making them flush joint1 as last year4 ,on the diamond frame they run an extra tube from the lower part of the head1 and this is connected to the front diagonal tube at a point about eight inches above the crank-hanger4 ,this tube then runs horizontally1 intersecting the second steering head1 and ends at the rear diagonal stay1 from there1 however1 a second pair of rear forks running to the back stays4 ,this same construction is followed out in their combination frame1 with the exception that the front part of the frame is of the double loop pattern1 as in their single wheel4 ,the ,iroquois tandem has the same open construction at its front diagonal and second steering post as the ,winton1 heretofore mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,,wolff-,,american ,,tandem4 ,the ,tribune tandem has an extra tube1 which parallels the main upper tube4 ,on the ,pierce double diamond tandem an extra tube runs from the middle of the head and intersects the front diagonal1 and is brazed to the rear crank-hanger4 ,the ,henley diamond tandem has the upper main tube paralleled by an additional tube1 which runs from the lower part of the head to the rear diagonal stay4 ,on the ,andrae tandem the chain adjustment is effected by means of eccentrics in both hangers1 thus doing away with the slot in the rear fork ends1 which has a three-eighths-inch opening1 in which the three-eighths-inch axle is fitted perfectly1 so that the rear wheel is perfectly centred at all times1 even under the greatest strain4 ,the method of placing an extra tube running from the top1 or near the top1 of the front diagonal stay to the crank-hanger bracket is in almost universal use1 so that it is easier to name those who do not employ this method than to name those who do4 ,among the notable exceptions to this method of construction are the ,columbia1 ,niagara and ,world4 ,very few of the makers of tandems have made any great changes in their '#ih construction1 the majority of the tandems shown being their '#ig product1 somewhat improved in detail only4 ,handle bar fastenings are about nearly divided between the old-fashioned pinch bolt and the newer idea of internal clamp fastening4 ,some difficulty has been experienced in previous years in holding handlebar stems and seat posts securely in place on tandems1 many of the makers not having used connections heavy enough and stiff enough to withstand the double pull that a tandem gets at these points1 and the purchaser of the #ahih tandem should look well to the construction at these points before purchasing4 ,illustration3 ,,cleveland ,,tandem4 ,the tires used on tandems differ somewhat from the ordinary tires in use1 being somewhat thicker and heavier1 and are usually stamped 8,tandem0 where they are branded4 ,the average size in use is about #a inches1 but some of the makers furnish them as large as #b inches4 ,the dropped crank-hanger fad does not prevail to so large an extent in tandem construction as in the single construction4 ,sizes of tubing used show a slight increase in diameter over that used in making single bicycles4 ,the majority of brakes fitted on tandems are of the lever and spoon pattern1 working on the front tire4 ,hubs1 rims and spokes are made heavier1 and the three-plate crown seems to be a popular one among the makers who use the double-plate crown on their singles4 ,the ,adlake has a quadruple-arch fork crown4 ,on the ,world tandems and multicycles the crank-hangers are hung in a swinging bracket1 which are held in place and adjusted forward or backward by a set screw having lock-nuts to hold it in place1 and which is connected back of the hangers to the lower main tube of the frame4 ,on the ,geneva tandem the front bracket is a special device of theirs which consists of a tubular bearing barrel sliding in an oblong hanger fastened with set screws in front1 with caps over the ends secured to hanger with lock-nut4 ,the ,demorest tandem has the rear seat and pedals very much higher than the front seat1 so that the rear rider can look over the head of the front rider4 ,it appears to be a revival of a similar type that was made last year by the ,crescent people1 although it is not carried to such an extreme height as it was on the ,crescent4 ,wheel-bases run from #fe to #ge inches1 the average wheel-base being about #fi inches4 ,weights run from #dj to #ej pounds1 the average being about #dd pounds4 ,illustration3 ,,tinkham ,,cab4 ,on the ,defender ,midget the seat post is inserted into the handlebar clamp1 this doing away with the necessity of an extra fastening4 ,the makers of the ,national1 the ,defender and the ,dayton make single steering tandems4 ,the ,peerless is furnished with an automatic rear hub brake4 ,at the ,philadelphia ,cycle ,show was shown a chainless tandem1 having on it a ,hildick ,spur ,gear1 which has already been described by us in the article on chainless bicycles for #ahih4 ,the great points in tandem construction are weight1 rigidness1 ease of draft1 length of wheel base1 steering and the proper position of the riders4 ,nearly all of these points have been conquered by the makers1 so that the art of tandem cycle building has well-nigh reached perfection4 ,,multicycles4 ,triplets are made by the makers of the ,dayton1 ,world1 ,andrae1 ,tribune1 ,stearns and ,wolff-,american4 ,the last named is shown in a cut1 and when exhibited at the #ahig ,cycle ,show it attracted a great deal of attention1 and was pronounced by the mechanical sharps to be one of the handsomest triplets ever shown4 ,in its present construction it embodies all the features that have been heretofore described in their single and tandem construction4 ,the ,tribune triplet has a double top tube1 and the immediate sprockets have #ah teeth in order to relieve the chain from unnecessary strain4 ,the crank-hangers are dropped #a inches below the line of the wheel axles4 ,the track racing model weighs only about #eh pounds1 the wheel base being #hf inches4 ,cost1 #bjj4 ,the ,world triplet has an extra lower main tube running form the head to the first diagonal1 and has three lower main chords1 the tubes one above the other1 and between the first two of which the crank-hanger bearings are carried4 ,these chords1 after leaving the last diagonal stay1 taper off to meet the rear braces and rear axle1 thus giving this triplet three rear forks4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,oriten40 ,the makers of the ,orient 7who1 by the way1 make a greater variety of multicycles than any other ,american maker7 make a triplet which has all the details of construction that are embodied in their tandems already described2 hence any further description is unnecessary here1 save to say that it is a single steerer4 ,the ,andrae triplet has eccentric adjustments throughout1 and the chains are respectively #c_/af1 and #e_/af in4 of a special pattern4 ,it is fitted with #b in4 ,morgan ,wright tires1 and has a #b in4 drop in the crank-hanger1 and its price is #bjj4 ,the ,dayton triplet costs #bej1 and is built on the same lines as their single steering tandem already described4 ,the ,dayton 8quad0 is also of the same construction1 and costs #djj4 ,the ,world 8quad0 is listed at #cej1 and is of the same construction as their triplet already described4 ,the wheel base1 however1 is #i ft4 #c in4 ,the makers of the ,orient1 in addition to the tandems and triplets already described1 make a 8quad10 a 8quint10 a 8sex0 and a 8septuplet40 ,none of these1 however1 differ very largely1 excepting in their seating capacity1 from their triplet already described4 ,illustration3 ,,andrae ,,tandem4 ,at the #ahif cycle show held in ,new ,york a sextet shown by the ,stearns people attracted a great amount of attention1 and the big 8yellow fellow0 was easily the feature of the show4 ,since that time they have produced a septuplet1 an excellent illustration of which is shown herewith4 ,an alternative construction on the ,orient multicycles of the larger sizes is to place the rear rider on a saddle overhung just back of the vertical line above the rear axle2 this rear rider pedals on an independent axle within the rear hub and drives forward1 by a separate chain on the left1 to the crank-hanger sprocket next forward of him2 the power of all the riders is carried to the large sprocket on this cramp axle and then back1 on the right hand side1 to the small driver sprocket on the rear wheel4 ,the object of this is to keep the wheel base a little shorter1 the method being also employed on the multicycles made by ,berlo4 ,on account of its great length the ,oriten is not adapted to a speed trial on any but a straightaway course1 and as the proper conditions for a test could not be had the real capacity of it is not fully known1 but accurate estimates of the road trials already made indicate a possible speed of #a4be for one mile1 with probably a lower average per mile on a suitable course1 which1 allowing for stopping and starting should be from six to eight miles in length4 ,the ,oriten has a carrying capacity of #b1ejj pounds2 it weighs #cje pounds1 its length over all being #bc feet #i inches1 the wheels being #cj inches in diameter2 its largest sprocket is #af inches in diameter1 and the smallest #f inches2 both tires are #b inches in diameter1 and it is geared to #abj inches4 ,,tricycles4 ,the first really practical tricycles were introduced in #ahgg4 ,previous to this1 however1 the old wooden boneshaker had sometimes been converted into a tricycle by substituting two trailing rear wheels on an axle instead of one wheel2 the best example of this1 of course1 is in the little three-wheeled velocipede ridden by the small boy of the present day4 ,this old style of tricycle1 of course1 did not need any teaching to learn the balance1 but any acute grade1 or any attempt to turn a corner rapidly caused it to upset1 and as the ,dublin and the ,coventry were the first tricycles that were largely used they may therefore be considered as pioneer types of the modern bicycle4 ,illustration3 ,,wolf-,,american ,,duplex4 ,the ,dublin was patented by ,w4 ,b4 ,blood in ,november1 #ahgf1 and was for a long time made by ,carey ,brothers of ,dublin2 the ,coventry was patented by the ,starley brothers in the same year1 who were afterward succeeded by the ,coventry ,tangent ,company1 who were in turn succeeded by ,rudge ,co4 ,the ,coventry was first made as a lever machine1 but before it went out of use the rotary action was fitted to it1 so that to ,mr4 ,blood must be given the credit for inventing the modern tricycle1 although ,starley was the first to adopt the bevel-gear principle to the tricycle1 producing a gear which was well known as ,starley's ,differential ,balance ,gear4 ,this gear is one which enables both wheels of a double-driven tricycle to be driven equally1 and yet one may go faster than the other in turning a corner4 ,the first tricycle to which ,mr4 ,starley attached it was a four-wheeler known as the ,salvo-quadricycle1 the fourth wheel being carried clear of the ground in front to prevent its tipping forward1 and the steering was effected by the rear wheel4 ,this method of construction was soon reversed1 the front wheel then being placed on the ground and doing the steering1 and the tilting wheel being carried clear of the ground in the rear4 ,this tilting wheel was gradually reduced in size until it became a mere roller1 on the numerous loop-frame tricycles1 of which the ,salvo-quadricycle was the pioneer4 ,the loop-frame1 pedal-driven tricycle became very popular when ,her ,majesty the ,queen of ,england purchased one and set the fashion to the upper classes1 and caused them to pay attention to the sport of cycling4 ,some time before this1 however1 a ladies' tricycle had been on the market with lever action driving one of the side wheels and front handle steering4 ,single driving rear steering tricycles became very plentiful1 but they were in turn driven out of the market by rear drivers with clutches4 ,a great deal of racing was at that time done on tricycles1 one of the fastest being a type known as the ,humber4 ,great improvements were meanwhile made in tricycle construction1 and the double drivers were also built with two tracks1 the front wheel being on one side4 ,many of these were made with a very small front wheel1 and consequently the vibration in the handlebar was excessive1 and the ,quadrant tricycle1 which was then introduced1 had a very large front wheel1 and another type of tricycle that was popular in ,england was that known as the ,cripper4 ,it had two large side wheels and one small front wheel4 ,in the first tricycles made the bearings were either plain or cone1 afterward changed to roller1 and finally to ball bearings4 ,tandem and sociable tricycles were for a while very popular in ,england4 ,they were made like the singles1 only double the width1 and had two sets of cranks1 so that the riders sat side by side4 ,they were very heavy and fearfully slow1 but they were superseded by tandem tricycles1 in which the two riders sat one behind the other4 ,the makers of the ,columbia and the ,victor made bicycles during this period of tricycle activity4 ,the ,victor people made a single tricycle and in addition to a single tricycle the ,columbia people made a front-steering tandem tricycle4 ,tricycles are still made very largely in ,england1 and if the safety had not been introduced into this country they would have undoubtedly had a very large use here also4 ,illustration3 ,,wolff-,,american ,,tandem4 ,very few of our ,american makers devote any attention to producing a tricycle1 the leading ,american makers of tricycles being the ,tinkham ,cycle ,company of ,new ,york1 who make a drop frame and a diamond frame tricycle1 as shown in the illustration1 and1 as a matter of fact1 these modern tricycles weigh less and run easier than some of the old heavy-weight bicycles of five years ago4 ,the tricycle can be used almost anywhere nowadays1 side paths and cycle paths having been so largely built1 and they afford all the pleasure and exercise of bicycles without any of the nervous strain and inseparable danger1 and thus a great many persons can obtain a needed amount of outdoor exercise on a tricycle who could not under any possible conditions use a bicycle4 ,the ,tinkham ,cycle ,company also make in addition to their single tricycles a tandem tricycle1 to which a chair seat may be fitted to either the front or rear for invalids4 ,and for those who cannot use either foot they produce a type of lever hand-power tricycle1 and also a crank hand-power tricycle4 ,they are remarkably easy running1 and the makers say that any one with ordinary strength in the arms can propel them easily for fifteen or twenty miles over fair roads4 ,an invalid carriage that they make is fitted with a comfortable reclining chair1 with sensitive springs1 which1 with pneumatic tires1 prevent any jar4 ,all the carriers in use in ,new ,york ,city are made by the ,tinkham ,cycle ,company1 one of the most popular ones being a postoffice tricycle which carries a large mail box fastened to the front behind the rider4 ,they also make a number of special carriers designed to suit the requirements of various businesses1 having cabinets of various sizes attached4 ,a popular carrier of theirs has a carrier shaped like a hansom cab1 and another is known as the children's carry-all1 in which three or four children can be seated behind the rider1 who does the propelling4 ,they are also engaged now in making what they call a double carrier1 two men or boys doing the propelling1 carrying behind them a large cabinet or box4 ,the illustration shown gives an excellent idea of one of their double carriers4 ,the ,wolff-,american ,duplex is certainly a tricycle of utility and fills a want which the bicycle cannot satisfy4 ,it does not appeal to the scorching element1 of course1 but it does appeal to those who for various reasons will not or can not ride a bicycle4 ,it requires no previous experience to ride a ,duplex1 two novices being as fully competent to propel it as a pair of experts4 ,infirmities are no preventative2 one rider can do the steering1 if necessary1 and the other do the greater part or all of the propelling4 ,a great many blind persons and cripples are numbered among the users of ,wolff-,american ,duplexes4 ,timid persons who fear the bicycle will appreciate its stability1 because it stands alone without upsetting4 ,it is a strongly constructed vehicle1 weighing about forty-two pounds1 and is remarkably easy running4 ,in its construction are embodied all the well-known ,wolff-,american features4 ,illustration3 ,,tinkham ,,carrier4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,motor ,,vehicles4 ,to conclude this series of articles without reference to the long-continued efforts of inventors to create a successful motor bicycle would be to omit what will doubtless prove a most interesting chapter to many readers4 ,public interest is keen not only in the direction of motor power as applied to the cycle and multicycle1 but to all other styles of vehicles used for pleasure1 convenience or commercial purposes4 ,the present chapter will therefore treat of the motor as applied to all vehicles--the bicycle1 the tricycle1 and the heavier structures now worked by horse-power4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,motor ,,vehicle4 ,the term 8motor cycle0 must finally become broad enough to be motor vehicle1 and in five possible forms--the bicycle1 single or tandem2 the tricycle1 single or double2 the four-wheeled carriage1 with seats for two1 four1 or six2 the cab or 'bus for public hire2 the truck for hauling loads4 ,the first form cannot be thought likely to assume importance1 for notwithstanding the fact that to the practiced and regular rider the bicycle becomes so far like the lower part of the centaur that steering is almost unconscious and the balancing a matter of instinctive bodily sway1 it is also true that the constant call for equipoise does somewhat 8take it out of0 the system1 even if the demand is not thought of4 ,to state it in another way1 it must be admitted that1 if various resistances were not greater on the tricycle and if one could put aside all 8feeling0 and could regard only physical comfort according to that supposition1 the three-tracker would fatigue less4 ,of course1 the supposition can never be real1 and as the bicycle must remain the easiest to drive it will hold its place as the vehicle for self-propulsion2 but when the question comes up as to the vehicle to supply its own power and to ride upon1 not to drive by one's muscles1 its stability1 comfort in sitting1 strength1 and luggage-carrying capacity1 will give the tricycle overwhelming advantages1 since light weight will cease to be of consequence4 ,the motor-driven pleasure carriage and the passenger vehicle for hire will come together2 indeed1 they are already here4 ,the postal van and the delivery wagon for light goods are running in ,london and ,paris4 ,the heavy truck for conveying general merchandise and doing general 8carting0 is not yet distinctly in sight1 but its coming seems to be manifest destiny4 ,the accompanying illustration of a bicycle with gasoline motor1 from the exhibit of a ,coventry firm at the ,stanley ,show of #ahif1 is interesting as a stone on the path of development rather than a permanent type4 ,the lengthened wheel base suggests the desirability of the tricycle form1 and the level gear from the pedals shows that they are intended only as auxiliary for starting2 the same appears in the tricycle shown1 which was also very long and was level geared4 ,the cut of a tricycle of present shape and having a gasoline motor is also given because this is now advertised as a market article1 by the same firm1 but the bicycle has probably dropped out4 ,the ,irish ,cyclist of ,dec4 #h last1 reviewing the ,national ,show1 says that 8motor cycles are practically non-existent1 the only specimen seen being a ,bantam1 with a rather neatly constructed oil engine ignited by electric spark1 which was only exhibited last year40 ,the ,stanley ,show1 in the month previous1 had a considerable display regarding which the ,london ,cyclist said3 ,three electric tandems have storage batteries carried in the frame below the top tube1 with a motor in the lower part of the rear frame and on the handlebar a resistance coil to bring speed under control of the rear rider2 a similar tandem has been run up to a speed of forty miles an hour1 and these machines are for pacing purposes only4 7,this is emphasized by the recent arrival in ,new ,york of the two ,french professionals1 brothers1 with their electric tandem1 booked to appear on several tracks4 ,the tandem is credited with a fifty mile rate1 and perhaps it may not be necessary for any little ,michael to call out to the pacemakers on it to 8hit it up407 ,a road tandem has an oil motor with vertical double cylinders1 the gear hub1 of twelve inches outside diameter1 serving as a fly wheel2 the motor is of two and a half horse power and the maximum speed twenty-five miles an hour4 ,a three-quarter-horse power oil motor tricycle is meant as tractor for a light two-seated two-wheeled chaise2 the same parties showed phaetons and parcel vans4 ,the ,daimler ,co41 the first to enter ,england1 showed a long line of vehicles with four-horse-power motors2 one was a parcel van for the ,cyclist publishers1 and another was the ,cyclist editor's car on which he took his vacation journey of #b1jjj miles to ,john-o-,groat's and back to ,london4 ,the review adds that the exhibit should convince of progress1 for there was not a single ,english-built carriage in the collection1 a year ago4 ,,the ,,steam ,,carriage4 ,illustration3 ,,motor ,,tricycle4 ,the motor itself is the primary factor in the problem1 and seems to be the most difficult4 ,naturally1 steam was the first power tried1 as it is the oldest known of the artificially-produced powers4 ,as tried on the highway1 it far antedates the railroad locomotive4 ,in #agig1 the ,frenchman ,cugnot produced a three-wheeled steam wagon in ,paris1 which ran fairly well until an accident befel it4 ,in the thirties1 several steam wagons ran for passenger service in and near ,london1 and on one line #aj1jjj passengers were carried a total distance of some #d1jjj miles4 ,most of these vehicles did not do both the carrying and driving but used a road locomotive to draw a 'bus4 ,in #ahgj1 a 'bus was built in ,edinburgh with solid rubber tires1 capable of carrying a load of sixty passengers1 but the attempt was not commercially successful4 ,not long after1 several vehicles capable of carrying a hundred persons at a speed from three to ten miles an hour were made and sent to ,india4 ,there are a number of builders of steam automobiles in ,paris1 and a considerable number of the vehicles are now in use in the gay capital1 mostly for such heavy work as carrying passengers and delivering goods4 ,there are comparatively few in ,england2 yet a ,london insurance journal of ,dec4 #bb reports a trial trip of the steam van experimentally adopted by the postoffice and intended to run between ,london and ,red ,hill4 ,the particular machine referred to is an old one which had already done about #d1ejj miles1 8and has been repainted for this purpose2 those specially built for the ,g4 ,p4 ,o4 will be rather different in arrangement although not differing in principle4 ,the machinery1 which has a petroleum fire1 seems to be thoroughly under control1 the brake very powerful and the wheels fitted with solid rubber tires2 it is probable that new vans may have the advantage of ,foidart's patent ball bearings1 which are in the hands of the ,british ,ball-,bearing ,syndicate40 ,it may be a hint that oil is taken as fuel on the ,london postal vans1 and also that one of the wagons above mentioned did not exceed in weight that of the heaviest electric phaetons now running with storage batteries2 and although steam hardly seems likely to be employed on carriages for strictly private use it might be too much to predict that the steam motor has no chance as against the others4 ,a carriage has lately been finished1 by the way1 by a mechanical engineer in ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 working by steam1 generated by gasoline in some manner1 as reported1 one charge of gasoline serving for twenty miles4 ,,air ,,as ,,motive ,,power4 ,air has of course not been overlooked1 and it has the advantage of possessing the quality of perfect and inexhaustible elasticity according to pressure2 its greatest disadvantage is that it must be 8stored0 and runs down steadily by use like a compressed metallic spring1 hence requiring compressing stations4 ,at intervals in this century1 plans and drawings for vehicles to be run by air have been presented by successive inventors1 and a system of tram-car service thus propelled has been tried experimentally in ,france4 ,an air-driven tricycle has also been built in ,chicago4 ,what will be made out of this particular motor we must wait to see4 ,,electricity ,,as ,,power4 ,electricity comes next in the list1 and is now limited for production of current to three forms--the power station1 supplying current by a trolley and motor2 the primary battery1 carried on the vehicle2 the storage battery1 also carried on the vehicle4 ,the first may be impossible commercially1 but it is not at all so mechanically4 ,given the lines and some workable device for insuring that the carriage shall not be too often 8off its trolley10 together with provision for some minor difficulties which need not be pronounced impossible 7since in an inventive and pushing ,republic the impossible is the thing which becomes possible71 and the thing is done4 ,leave this method to the future1 meanwhile noting that a trolley automobile is already reported from ,nevada as having been built4 ,the primary battery1 to be taken along1 seems out of the practicable list in the present state of electrical development4 ,,the ,,columbia ,,electric ,,phaeton4 ,the third form1 that of the storage battery1 is now most prominently put forward1 at least in this part of the ,united ,states1 by the ,pope ,co41 which is now prepared to fill orders for the ,columbia electric phaeton1 after several years of experiment1 which has included the gas motor as well4 ,at a casual glance this vehicle is an elegantly finished phaeton with box1 body and folding hood1 fitted with bicycle wheels but without the pole4 ,the wheels are thirty-two inch front and thirty-six inch rear1 with stout spokes and hubs1 and the tires are ,hartford single-tube pneumatic1 with walls a little over a half inch thick4 ,they have a mechanical fastening to the rim in addition to the constriction by air pressure1 in order to guard against being rolled off on a curve4 ,the tires require hard inflation 7at about #aej pounds pressure71 which can be done only with the special pump supplied4 ,the temporary repair as made on bicycles is hardly necessary1 for the tires are made very difficult to puncture1 the objections to such a tire on bicycles not applying here1 and the quality of resistance to puncture makes the tire so firm that the carriage will run temporarily on the tires deflated4 ,the entire supporting frame or truck is of fifty-point 7not #ej per cent47 carbon tubing4 ,the sides and front are doubled1 rigidly braced and brazed2 the rear of the frame is single and from this hangs supports for the axle bearings1 the gears and the motor4 ,three compound flat springs transversely fastened to the truck support the entire upper body1 which is not elsewhere supported4 ,the body-supporting springs1 placed equi-distant along the frame1 are pivotally suspended at each end from the under side of the side tubes4 ,ball bearings are placed wherever any practical gain can be found thereby2 the motor armatures and various pivots1 with those of the steering gear1 as well as all the axles and spindles1 are fitted thus4 ,the front axle1 carrying the steering wheels1 is pivoted so as to allow running over obstacles1 as shown in the cut1 representing the regular factory tests1 and every vehicle is put to thorough tests and inspections before being passed as ready4 ,the motor works on the rear axle1 which is divided so as to be double driving on the usual plan with bevel-gears4 ,the motor is driven by a storage battery1 consisting of forty-four chloride cells in four sets of eleven each1 fitted in two sliding wood boxes2 the cells are sealed against spilling and the whole is carried in the body1 access to them being had by doors at the back4 ,the run from one charging is from thirty to thirty-five miles1 at the rate of twelve and one-quarter miles an hour1 although excessively heavy work or an injudicious management may exhaust somewhat sooner2 it was found1 however1 by prolonged investigation1 that the average daily run of bicycles falls well within this figure4 ,recharging may be done in the owner's private stable1 the proper connection having been once made once for all from the nearest electric-light station1 and in case of a private-power plant the cost of running need not exceed half a cent per mile for current2 otherwise recharging is done at any station where there is a #aaj-volt direct current1 and this need not exceed #ej cents for each full charge4 ,the connections which have to be manipulated are made of different sizes1 so that misplacing is impossible4 ,a small meter is placed in sight of the driver1 which shows approximately the power remaining in the batteries2 this having run down and the proper connections having been made1 the charging process begins and the meter starts to run backward to 8full0 again2 no attention is required1 for as soon as the 8full0 point is reached the battery automatically switches itself out of circuit4 ,illustration3 ,,pope ,,electric ,,phaeton4 ,the driver sits at the left and steers with his right hand by means of an ,l lever4 ,at his left is the 8controller0 lever1 working over a notched arc resembling that of the locomotive reversing lever1 and having four positions4 ,when the lever stands vertical it is in the 8stopped0 position1 and when the driver gets off he is to pull out and pocket a small safety plug2 this leaves the circuit broken and the carriage cannot start accidentally or be started by any person who has not a duplicate plug4 ,a very powerful band brake1 working on the gear box on the rear axle1 and capable of a very quick stop1 is operated by a lever within reach of the driver's right foot2 a backing press is in reach of his left foot and a lever on the steering handle operates a bell4 ,having taken his seat and replaced the safety plug1 the driver sets the lever forward to the first notch1 which gradually runs the carriage up to a three-mile speed on a smooth level2 the second notch increases to six miles2 the third1 which is the one meant for steady use and the most economical1 goes to twelve miles2 the fourth notch uses a position very exhaustive of the batteries1 giving a speed of nearly fifteen miles1 but is for sparing and emergency use4 ,the motor drives directly on the axle1 without intervention of any belting or gearing4 ,it is of two horse power1 and in operation it is assumed that about one and three-eighths horse power is actually exerted at the wheel rims4 ,the recharging takes three hours4 ,with continued use1 the total power available from any given set of batteries usually increases2 but if allowed to stand still long fully-charged cells will gradually lose part of their charge1 and to allow them to stand long in the condition of complete discharge is destructive to them4 ,each battery chamber weighs a little over #bjj lbs41 requiring two men to handle it4 ,the total batteries weigh something over #hjj lbs41 and the total weight of the carriage is about #a1ijj4 ,its cost is #c1jjj4 ,against this first cost is to be set the cost of keeping the pair of horses which the motor replaces4 ,the cost of current for power is estimated to range from #aj to #be cents per day4 ,of course the vehicle must not go out of reach of a source of supply2 but electrical plants are to be found in most villages and a list of over #djj places of current stations available1 is included in the pamphlet of instructions4 ,the considerations in favor of electricity as a motor are certainly very strong1 and within its limitations it is quite perfect1 having neither odor1 noise nor possible explosion4 ,to the quietness of running and ease of control of the ,pope vehicle we can personally testify1 and its honesty and thoroughness of construction can be taken on faith in the well-established and well-earned reputation of the ,pope ,company4 ,as to 8getting out of order10 the study has been to make the vehicle 8fool-proof40 ,every condition involved in a practical vehicle for everyday use1 by people of ordinary intelligence1 has been thought of1 and durability and service quite as long and as trying as could ever be exacted without actual abuse1 was proved before putting the vehicle on the market4 ,after carefully reading the pamphlet of instructions1 our conclusion is that although they are somewhat extended and minute1 there is nothing formidable in them and that any person fit to be trusted with a horse1 or even with a good carriage1 ought to be able1 by paying attention to his duties and doing as he is told1 to make this carriage 8go of itself0 and maintain its integrity without any trouble4 ,an experimental carriage has been in use for two years in and around ,hartford1 having in that time made a mileage of #c1ejj2 it was entrusted to untrained hands1 and yet never met a mishap which required it to be taken home by any other power than its own4 ,,other ,,electric ,,vehicles4 ,in the ,borough of ,manhattan the electric cab has for about a year been too familiar a sight to attract attention4 ,the cabs are not yet many in number4 ,the ,electric ,vehicle ,co4 have some fourteen in operation1 and the company also has a hundred more in construction or under contract4 ,the carriage made by ,the ,barrows ,electric ,vehicle ,company is peculiar in being a three-wheeler2 the rear wheels are #bh inch1 with #b inch tires1 thus approximating the bicycle wheel except in stoutness1 while the front wheel1 which is of #cf inches and has a #c inch tire1 carries a #a-;horse power motor and #cjj pounds of storage cells1 another #ajj pounds of cells being placed under the seat4 ,the electric equipment is thus some #ejj pounds total1 four-fifths of this being borne on the front wheel1 where it serves for traction4 ,the motor gears by a #b inch rawhide pinion direct to a #bh inch gear fixed on the wheel rim1 and the total weight of the vehicle is #gjj pounds4 ,there are three speeds forward and two backward2 the run is about three hours1 or #cj to #dj miles1 on one charging4 ,the price ranges from #fjj to #a1bjj for regular carriages1 and #cjj to #ejj for what are called children's carts4 ,interested with ,mr4 ,barrows is ,supervisor ,dunton of ,jamaica ,township1 well known to wheelmen and father of the goods roads system in ,queens ,county4 ,illustration3 ,,bicycle ,,with ,,motor4 ,the ,riker ,company1 at present of #de ,york street1 ,borough of ,brooklyn1 have in use a half dozen and have a dozen under contract1 at prices from #a1hjj to #b1ejj1 and say the difficulty is not to get orders1 but to fill them1 the reason for this being that the subject is still so new that everything must be devised and procured and construction is therefore slow4 ,the ,riker ,electric ,trap ,no4 #a won first prize on ,narragansett track at the ,rhode ,island ,state ,fair1 ,sept4 #g1 #ahif1 doing five miles in #aa3bh2 this weighed #a1hjj pounds1 had a capacity of ten miles for four hours1 and attained a speed of twenty-seven miles2 it was crudely put together as most convenient1 and had bicycle wheels with 8direct0 spokes1 the drivers being provided with four tension rods running in a tangential direction midway between rim and hub4 ,wheels as now made are #cb inch front and #cf rear2 speeds provided are #c and #f miles back and #c--f--ab--ae miles forward4 ,distance run on one charging and cost of current per mile are about as with the ,pope carriage2 the general description of that will also answer for others of its class1 and we might add here that no attempt is made to go into the technical description of any motor vehicle1 as this could not be done except at great length and with detailed illustrations4 ,mr4 ,riker believes strongly in the carriage1 mentioning its suitability for physicians1 for example1 because it does not involve exposing a horse to inclement weather2 for safety in leaving in the streets when not having a driver with it1 he makes his 8safety plug10 a special lock with the ,yale tumblers1 so that the vehicle cannot be moved by its own power except after first inserting the owner's key4 ,the gas engine has for years been in use for stationary service in ,england1 and considerably by cycle makers1 largely because of the low price of gas in the ,kingdom4 ,these engines depend on the familiar principle that hydro-carbon vapors are explosive when mixed with air in certain proportions4 ,as employed in driving boats or vehicles1 the operation is essentially the same as long familiar in shops2 the engines are explosion engines1 driving the shaft only by the outward thrust of the piston and commonly making only each second or fourth movement effective1 the remaining movements being consumed in restoring the mechanism to its original condition1 these recurring acts being known as a 8cycle0 of changes4 ,hence a flywheel is required1 and the driving power is irregular and by recurrent throb or thrust rather than by the usual reciprocal movement of an engine4 ,in ,england a great impulse was doubtless given to autocars by the ,london to ,brighton run1 ,nov4 #ad1 #ahif1 to celebrate the date when the new 8,light ,locomotives act0 took effect1 permitting speed up to fourteen miles an hour4 ,this occasion is claimed by an ,american maker to have been a race1 and won by him2 the ,scottish ,cyclist account calls it a parade1 in which #cb machines out of an expected #ef took part4 ,mud and rain1 with the pressure of traffic and spectators1 8disorganized the procession10 but this is pronounced a better test of running qualities than favorable conditions would have furnished4 ,various tricycles1 the ,french carriage which won the ,paris-,marseilles race1 landaus1 dogcarts1 bath chairs1 delivery vans1 etc41 all presumably motor-driven1 participated4 ,no winner is reported or any time given4 ,,the ,,gas ,,motor4 ,the ,winton ,motor ,carriage ,company1 of ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 now offers a light single-seat carriage for two persons1 at #a1jjj1 deliverable in sixty days4 ,the motor is of the single hydro-carbon type1 using common stove gasoline1 obtainable almost anywhere2 a supply is carried for a day's run of seventy-five miles over ordinary roads1 at a cost of under a half cent per mile4 ,the catalogue says that 8by an ingenious and simple arrangement the motor is absolutely under control1 running at any desired speed without affecting its driving power1 and1 in contradistinction to other motors1 variable gearing for different speeds is not necessary1 except the hill-climbing and backing gear2 the motor can be speeded from #bjj revolutions to #ijj or #a1jjj per minute in about three seconds1 and almost as quickly slowed down to a governed speed of #bjj40 ,a ,winton carriage claims the world's record with a mile in #a4dh1 on a circular track1 ,decoration ,day1 #ahig4 ,it is claimed to be equal to 8actual service over all kinds and conditions of roads1 up hill and down1 through mud1 sand and snow1 at from three to twenty miles an hour10 and a challenge is out to any kind of motor carriage1 by ,american or foreign maker1 for a race next summer from ,new ,york to ,chicago or over any other course of at least #a1jjj miles4 ,the ,hertel ,gasoline ,motor-carriage ,company1 lately of ,chicago1 but now of ,springfield1 and interested with the ,iven-,brandenburgh ,company1 proposes a light and improved carriage at a moderate price1 but declines to furnish any information1 on the ground of not yet being ready to fill orders4 ,the ,duryea ,motor ,wagon ,company of ,springfield1 ,mass41 shows illustrations of the racing wagon which it claims won the ,liberty ,day run from ,london to ,brighton1 already mentioned2 another of the one that won the #b1jjj first prize in the ,chicago ,times-,herald race of ,thanksgiving ,day1 #ahie2 also of the winner of the #c1jjj ,cosmopolitan ,magazine race1 ,decoration ,day1 #ahif4 ,the later models only have bicycle wheels3 the earlier one had wood wheels on the old wagon-wheel pattern4 ,the earlier weights were #a1bjj to #a1djj pounds2 the latest are brought down to #gej4 ,ordinary stove gasoline is the fuel1 and six gallons are carried1 equal to #aej miles' running4 ,a small dynamo furnishes the spark for ignition in the cylinder4 ,no gas or vapor is carried outside the motors2 no flame is used2 if the water in the tank is gone1 the motor simply stops2 there is no danger of explosion or fire2 the two motors are independent1 and one wall work even if the other has failed2 five minutes suffice for recharging with fuel and water2 the carriage steers so well that it will practically pass over rocks 8hands off40 ,speed ranges up to thirty miles1 and any rate below that may be run at will4 ,here might be remarked the lightness of the ,pennington tricycle used in the ,london to ,brighton run of #ahif1 8for to turn out a vehicle of less than #bej pounds1 yet capable of propelling itself with a load of four passengers at speeds ranging up to twenty and thirty miles an hour is decidedly a noteworthy achievement40 ,this vehicle was put together by clamping the tubes instead of brazing4 ,the ,weston-,mott ,company of ,utica discerns the signs of the times1 and now offers all kinds of wheels for horseless vehicles4 ,illustration3 ,,pope ,,electric ,,phaeton ,,under ,,test4