,reprinted from the ,hindustan ,review1 
,september and                          
,october #aiji4     ,,the ,,islam ,,of  
,,mohamed4  ,,by ,,mr4 ,,salahuddin     
,,khuda ,,bukhsh1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,c4,l41    
,,bar-,,at-,,law4     ,table of         
,contents     ,table of ,contents4      
#a   ,i4                      #a   ,,ii4
                     #e   ,,iii4        
#h   ,,iv4                    #ac   ,the
 ,hindustan ,review4  #ah               
,transcriber's ,note4     ,i4   ,i do   
not desire to explain the importance and
 significance of ,islam among the       
religious systems of the world2 nor am  
,i to fix and ascertain the exact       
position of ,mohamed as a religious     
teacher among the world's great teachers
 of religions4 ,my effort in this paper 
is simpler and yet not altogether free  
from bewildering perplexities4 ,i desire
 to explain what ,islam is and what its 
teachings are3 ,islam as preached and   
delivered by the prophet of ,arabia2    
,islam stripped of the accretions of    

ages of theological disputes and        
controversies2 in other words to sketch 
out1 to the best of my light and        
leading1 ,islam of the prophet ,mohamed4
 ,difficult though this task is1 it is  
not indeed a hopeless venture for one   
who has kept himself clear and free from
 narrow sectarianism4  ,to fully        
appreciate the message of ,mohamed1 it  
is essential that ,i should say         
something about the condition of ,arabia
 before ,islam4 ,i must readily admit   
that so far as the ,pagan ,arabia is    
concerned1 we are in great dearth of    
authorities4 ,our information is        
shadowy1 fitful1 and fragmentary and the
 industry of ,european scholars 7such as
 ,caussin ,de ,perceval1 ,krehl1        
,wellhausen1 ,robertson ,smith and ,sir 
,charles ,lyall7 has succeeded but in   
lifting the veil merely at its fringe4  
,but however partial and unsatisfactory 
as the account is1 of the ,pagan days2  
we can yet form an idea of the life that
 the ,pagan ,arabs led and the thoughts 

that swayed and animated their conduct  
and their deeds4 ,i will1 therefore1    
describe 8,the ,pre-,islamic ,arabia0 as
 briefly as ,i can4  ,the ,pre-,islamic 
,arabs were not a nation4 ,of the sense 
of nationality1 indeed1 they had not the
 vaguest conception1 though they were   
linked by community of speech4 ,arabia  
was a sum-total of loose and            
disconnected congeries of tribes and the
 tribe was the source and the limit of  
social and political obligation4 ,beyond
 the tribe there lay no duty and no     
obligation either4 ,political relations 
were moral2 for morality was confined   
within the limits of the tribe4         
,political organisation was represented 
by the corporate feeling which found    
expression in the exercise of the duties
 of brotherhood4 ,within the pale of the
 tribe obtained the prohibition to kill1
 to commit adultery1 to steal1 c41 c4   
,beyond it there was no such            
prohibition4 ,fidelity to one's kinsman 
was an imperative duty1 apart from any  

question of the justness of the cause4#a
 ,outside the tribe there was nothing   
but constant plunder and unceasing      
warfare4 8,certain large groups were1   
indeed1 almost continually at war with  
one another4 ,maadd1 the people of the  
,hijaz and ,al-yamamah generally looked 
upon ,al-yaman as their natural prey and
 were constantly raiding on the herds of
 their southern neighbours4 ,between    
,tamim and ,bakr1 son of ,wail1 there   
was permanent bad blood1 ,ghatafan and  
,hawazin had a standing feud4 ,in the   
north the kingdom of ,al-,hirah1 the    
representative of ,persian predominance 
was the hereditary enemy of ,ghassan1   
the representative of the might of      
,rome40 7,lyall1 ,ancient ,arabian      
,poetry1 p4 xxiii47 ,arabia1 before     
,islam1 was thus a theatre of           
internecine warfare1 restrained1 but    
partially1 by the introduction of blood 
money4 ,there was compensation for      
everything for which vengeance could be 
exacted4 ,all crimes were assessed as   

economic damage4 ,every loss of honor1  
property1 or life could be appraised by 
agreement2 all having their price in    
camels4 ,we thus see that the ,arabs    
before ,islam had scarcely emerged from 
barbaric conditions4#b ,there was no    
social order1 no organised government4  
,the law of sheer brute force prevailed1
 untempered and unrestrained1 by any    
civilizing or controlling influence4    
,nor did they attain any refined idea of
 religion4 ,their religion was nothing  
more or less than gross fetichism2 the  
worship of tree and stone1 the          
veneration of certain personified divine
 attributes1 meaningless ritual and     
ceremonials4 ,the true religious spirit 
they never succeeded in grasping and the
 fear of ,god never exercised any real1 
practical influence over their conduct  
and actions4 ,it was reserved for ,islam
 to instil into them the sense of       
responsibility to ,god and to make this 
idea of human responsibility the guiding
 and controlling principle of life4 ,to 

all appearance the ,arabs honoured the  
gods1 went on pilgrimage to their       
sanctuaries1 made sacrifices in the     
temples1 anointed with the blood of the 
victims gods carved out of stone or made
 of wood1 consulted the oracles1 when in
 difficulty1 and questioned them about  
the future4 ,but all this was sham and  
counterfeit4 ,of real1 genuine1         
religious feeling there was none4 ,this 
empty show1 however1 was kept up for    
purposes of gain2 the manifold          
sanctuaries yielding large incomes to   
certain noble families and clans4#c  ,in
 a soil1 apparently so uncongenial1 how 
did ,islam strike its root8 ,this is an 
interesting and fascinating question and
 we must try to solve it here4 ,the     
solution of this question is to be found
 in the existence of ,judaism and       
,christianity1 on the one hand1 and in  
the commercial activity of the ,arabs1  
on the other4 ,by commerce the ,arabs   
acquired an extended knowledge of       
foreign nations and their civilisation4 

,frequent contact with the outer world  
widened their intellectual horizon and  
awakened in them higher and more        
spiritual thoughts4 ,they learnt new    
ideas1 acquired new habits and1 what was
 most valuable of all1 they learnt to   
think for themselves4 ,but not merely   
did travel in foreign countries and     
intercourse with foreign people exercise
 a disruptive influence1 but there were 
forces1 alike subversive and            
destructive1 nearer home4 ,in ,arabia   
itself the two streams of ,christianity 
and ,judaism flowed1 side by side1 with 
the ,arab ,heathenism4  ,that           
,christianity had made a considerable   
advance among the ,arabs is clear from  
the fact1 that1 at the time of ,mohamed1
 it was considerably diffused not merely
 among the ,rabia tribes but even among 
the ,tamim4 ,nor did the ,taiyy         
altogether escape its influence4 ,its   
growth1 however1 was not so favourable  
in ,hijaz and central ,arabia1 but even 
here ,christian ideas undoubtedly made  

their way through commerce and social   
intercourse4 ,similarly the ,jewish     
influence was equally powerful4 ,when   
the ,jews came to ,arabia we do not     
definitely know1 but ,dr4 ,nldeke points
 out that a great ,jewish immigration   
into ,arabia cannot be fixed prior to   
the destruction of ,jerusalem by ,titus 
and ,hadrian4 ,at all events1 it is     
clear that at the time of ,mohamed there
 was a large colony of ,jews at ,taima1 
,khaibar1 ,yathrib1 ,fedak and ,yaman4  
,they did not live scattered amidst     
,arab population but kept together and1 
though despised by the ,arasq they were 
yet indispensible to them as merchants1 
jewellers1 and goldsmiths4 ,it would1   
therefore1 be not an error to suppose   
that they exerted no small spiritual    
influence over the ,arabs4#d ,that this 
is no unfounded theory or improbable    
supposition is evidenced by the fact    
that in the works of four of the most   
prominent ,arabian poets of the         
,pre-,islamic time--,an-,nabigah1       

,zuhair1 ,al-,asha and ,labid--we find  
expressions which show that they1 at    
least1 if not the wild wanderers of the 
desert1 knew very well what a spiritual 
religion meant4#e ,ibn ,qutaibah        
enumerates drinking1 joy1 wrath and love
 among the 8motive causes0 which speed  
the poet but we cannot fail to detect in
 their poems an undercurrent of deep    
religious feelings4 ,individual minds   
felt a sense of uneasiness and sought to
 find some plausible solution of the    
mysteries of life and death and traces  
of such a frame of mind we notice       
frequently in ancient ,arab poetry4 ,on 
no other basis1 indeed1 can we explain  
away the lamentations of the royal poet 
,imra-ul-,qais over the worthlessness of
 the life of pleasure that he had led   
and the conversion to ,christianity of  
,qais ,b4 ,zuhair1 the leader of the    
,abs in the long fratricidal war against
 the ,dhubian4#f ,in considering the    
rise of ,islam we cannot be unwatchful  
of the course of contemporary thought or

 unmindful of the religious forces which
 contributed to its success4 ,such1     
indeed1 were the forces at work in      
,arabia before ,mohamed2 forces which   
could not have failed to stir higher    
thoughts in enlightened minds and to    
create a reaction against the ,arab     
,heathenism4 ,and a reaction1 indeed1   
did set in4 ,a band of distinguished    
men1 whom we must recognise as the      
heralds and standard-bearers of ,islam1 
no longer willing to tolerate idolatrous
 practices1 definitely cut themselves   
adrift from the ,arabian ,paganism4     
,they called themselves ,hanifs2 a word 
of doubtful meaning and the cause of    
much controversy4 8,the most acceptable 
conjecture seems to me01 says ,sir      
,charles ,lyall1 8to be that of         
,sprenger that it is connected with the 
,hebrew ,,hanef heretic40 ,hanifism had 
certain specific features3 rejection of 
idolatory1 abstention from certain kinds
 of food1 and the worship of 8the ,god  
of ,abraham40 ,ascetic practices1 such  

as the wearing of sackcloth1 are also   
ascribed to some of the ,hanifs4#g      
,islamic tradition has handed down to us
 the names of a number of religious     
thinkers before ,mohamed1 who are       
described as ,hanifs and of whom the    
following is a list3--    #a4 ,warakah  
b4 ,naufal of ,kuraish4   #b4 ,ubaidulla
 b4 ,jahsh4   #c4 ,uthman b4 ,al        
,huwarith4   #d4 ,zaid b4 ,amr b4       
,naufal4  ,ibn ,kutaibah adds to the    
above3--    #e4 ,urbab b4 al ,bara of   
,abdul ,qais   #f4 ,umayyah b4          
,abi-s-,salt4   #g4 ,kuss b4 ,saidah of 
,iyad 7,aghani ,,xiv1 #da-dd7 ,mohamed  
heard him at      ,ukaidh but he died   
before the mission4   #h4 ,abu ,kais    
,simrah b4 ,abi ,anas4   #i4 ,khalid b4 
,sinan b4 ,ghaith of ,abs4  ,to these   
,sir ,charles ,lyall adds3--    #aj4    
,abu ,kais ,saifi1 ,ibn ,al-,aslat of   
the ,aus-allah of ,yathrib4  ,it is     
impossible to misconceive the importance
 and significance of ,hanifism in the   
origin of ,islam4 ,the path was already 

prepared for it and ,islam offered to   
the ,arabs what they were long in search
 for3 a moral1 ethical1 and spiritual   
teaching2 a higher form of worship and  
last but not least fraternity and union4
 ,the tribal cults were henceforward    
merged in a higher worship and the      
nobler energies of the ,arab race       
obtained a religious consecration4      
,islam became the starting point for the
 ,arabs for conquests1 alike spiritual  
and temporal4 ,with ,islam became the   
prerogative of the ,arab race to be 8an 
ensign to the nations20 to bear and to  
carry the banner of the true ,god to the
 remotest corner of the earth4 ,hence   
the unceasing campaigns and hence the   
far-extending conquests4  ,,footnotes3  
#a ,wellhausen1 ,reste ,arabischen      
,heidentums1 p4 #bbf4  #b ,i have       
avoided further details here1 as ,i have
 dealt with this subject1 at length1 in 
my ,contributions to the ,history of    
,islamic ,civilisation1 pp4 #adf-afi4   
#c ,deutsch1 ,literary ,remains1 p4 #hg4

 ,for further information see ,von      
,kremer1 ,culturgeschichtliche          
,streifzge 7my translation1 p4 #di47  #d
 ,wellhausen1 ,reste1 pp4 #bcj-bca4  #e 
,lyall1 ,ancient ,arabian ,poetry1 p4   
#ic4  #f ,in ,wellhausen's ,reste1 p4   
#bbi will be found the passage in       
question from ,imra-ul-,qais4  #g       
,journal of the ,asiatic ,society       
,october1 #aijc p4 #ggc4 ,khuda ,bukhsh1
 ,islamic ,civilisation p4 #adg and the 
authorities therein cited4     ,,ii4    
,it is clear beyond doubt that          
,christian and ,jewish influences1 to a 
large extent1 unsettled and disturbed   
the beliefs of the ,pagan ,arabs and    
paved the way for the prophet4          
,resistance to his faith there was1 but 
it was resistance on the part of those1 
who sought to maintain the old faith and
 superstition2 not on account of any    
warmth of conviction or sincerity of    
zeal1 but on account of the fear and    
apprehension that the success of ,islam 
would mean loss of large incomes derived

 from the temples and old heathen       
practices4#h ,but resistance1 founded   
upon such a selfish basis1 could not    
prevent1 and indeed did not prevent1 the
 onward progress of ,islam4 ,in the     
deadly conflict between ,islam and the  
,arab ,heathenism ,islam triumphed4     
,we1 now1 proceed to enquire as to what 
was the basis or1 in other words1 what  
were the sources from which ,islam was  
derived4 ,islam freely borrowed from    
,judaism and ,christianity and even did 
not hesitate to adopt practices         
prevalent in ,pre-,islamic ,arabia4 ,in 
fashioning his religion the prophet     
adopted an eclectic method1 retaining or
 rejecting from the older systems       
whatever seemed to him necessary and    
proper4 ,it is not exactly within the   
scope of my paper to precisely specify  
or to accurately define the exact       
obligation of ,islam to ,christianity or
 ,judaism4 ,such a discussion would take
 me far afield4 ,professor ,wellhausen  
is inclined to belittle the influence of

 ,judaism in the birth and infancy of   
,islam and points to the ,islamic       
conception of ,jesus1 as the greatest of
 the prophets before ,mohamed1 as a     
conclusive proof of his contention4 ,but
 the present writer is not prepared to  
attach much weight to this argument4 ,if
 the ,islamic conception of ,jesus1     
indeed1 is to be put forward as         
indicating the absence of ,judaic       
influence on early ,islam2 with equal   
force might the ,islamic conception of  
,jesus be urged as subversive of the    
theory of ,christian influence1 so      
stoutly advocated by ,professor         
,wellhausen4#i ,the basis of dogmatic   
,christianity1 namely1 the sonship of   
,christ1 ,mohamed inveighed against     
early and late4 ,it would be idle to    
deny the indebtedness of ,islam to      
,judaism4 ,mohamed has not merely       
accepted dogmas and doctrines of        
,judaism1 minute ,talmudical ordinances1
 but has even adopted1 in its entirety1 
some of the ,jewish practices and1 far  

above all these1 that which indeed      
constitutes the very foundation of      
,islam1 namely1 the conception of a     
severe and uncompromising monotheism4#aj
 ,the fact is that both ,judaism and    
,christianity were used and used freely 
by the prophet in building up his       
religion4 ,nor is this a new theory4    
,the prophet never put himself forward  
as introducing something new but he     
invariably claimed for himself the      
honour of reviving the old and the true 
beliefs which had fallen into neglect   
and oblivion4 ,but besides the ,jewish  
and ,christian sources1 not a small     
portion of ,islamic ritual and          
ceremonials were mere reproductions of  
,pre-,islamic practices4 ,the entire    
ceremonies relating to the pilgrimage   
7,hajj7 and the sacred service1 at the  
temple of ,mecca1 have survived in      
,islam with little or no variation from 
the days of ,arab ,heathenism2#aa the   
only change that ,mohamed effected in   
them was to allow the pilgrims to put on

 a particular pilgrim dress consisting  
of two pieces of cloth of which one     
covers the hip and the other breast and 
shoulders2 while the head has to be kept
 uncovered1 as in ancient days1 when    
they used to make up their hair into a  
sort of wig by means of some glutinous  
substance4 ,and so indeed it has        
remained1 to this day1 the prescribed   
pilgrim costume4 ,after visiting the    
,kabah they used1 in heathen days1 to   
visit the two rocky hills of ,safa and  
,merwah on which were placed two bronze 
idols4 ,mohamed went so far in his      
toleration of the heathen pilgrimage    
customs that he suffered the visit to   
,safa and ,marwah to continue as before1
 but had the two idols removed4 ,of the 
history of the origin of the forms of   
the prayer1 prostration1 ablution1 and  
fasts our knowledge is vague1 uncertain 
and shadowy4  ,islam has1 says ,von     
,kremer1    largely drawn upon ,judaism1
 ,christianity1 the religion of         
,zoroaster   and possibly even from     

,manichenism4 ,from ,parsiism it has    
taken both   directly and indirectly4 ,a
 number of obviously ,parsi ideas have  
penetrated into ,islam through the      
channel of ,jewish books2 notably   the 
,talmud4 ,the doctrine of the           
resurrection1 most of the legends       
relating to heaven and hell1 and the    
entire system of demonology have   found
 their way into the ,quran through      
,judaism4 ,so indeed did the            
description of the trial and the        
tortures of the dead in the grave by    
two angels ,munkar and ,nakir4 ,the idea
 of the bridge sirat as   thin as a     
hair1 which leads to paradise across the
 abyss of hell is   certainly derived   
from the ,parsis2 having passed over    
into the ,quran   through the ,midrash4 
,but ,islam has not hesitated to borrow 
directly   from ,parsiism4 ,it is a     
significant fact that the word din1     
which   so repeatedly occurs in the     
,quran1 has been borrowed from the      
,parsi   books4 ,in the ,huzveresh it   

appears in exactly the same form 7old   
,backtrian dna74#ab  ,it is not         
suggested that the prophet had access to
 the written books of either the ,jews  
or the ,christians2 though in some      
passages of the ,quran we can trace     
direct resemblances to the text of the  
,old ,testament and the ,mishna4#ac ,his
 knowledge of the ,jewish and ,christian
 books1 at times faulty and imperfect to
 a degree1 was derived almost           
exclusively by oral communications4  ,i 
trust ,i have said enough to illustrate 
the condition of ,arabia before ,islam  
and the sources from which the prophet  
of ,arabia received his religious       
inspiration4 ,i1 now1 go on to explain  
,islam and its tenets4  ,,footnotes3  #h
 ,von ,kremer1 ,culturgeschichte des    
orients1 p4 #bd1 vol4 ,i4  #i           
,wellhausen pp4 #bcf ct4 ,seq4 ,prof4   
,wellhausen admits ,jewish influence in 
the ,islamic theocracy and in the belief
 that the prophet1 as representative of 
,god1 is alone entitled to rule and     

govern1 to the exclusion of all other   
powers4 ,see1 also ,deutsch p4 #aga4    
#aj ,see the learned monograph of       
,geiger1 ,was hat ,mohammed ans         
,judenthume aufgenommen4  #aa ,lyall1 p4
 #ic2 ,von ,kremer's                    
,culturgeschichtliche ,streifzge 7my    
translation p4 #dg74 ,the author of ,ras
 ,mal-in-,nadim1 7,bankipore1 ,m4,s47   
gives an account of ,heathen practices  
7,fol4 #ag et ,seq472 specially drawing 
attention to those retained by ,islam4  
#ab ,ibid4  #ac ,von ,kremer1           
,culturgeschichtliche ,streifzge 7my    
translation p4 #dg7 ,comp4 ,quran ,,xxi1
 #aje with ,ps4 ,,xxx ,,vii #bi2 #a-e   
with ,ps4 ,,xxvii4 ,the ,new ,testament4
 ,comp4 ,,vii1 #dh with ,luke ,,xvi4    
#bd2 ,,xlvi1 #ai with ,luke ,,xvi4 #be4 
,then again verse #ce corresponds almost
 word for word with ,mishna ,sanh ,,iv4 
#e2 also ,,ii4 #ahc with ,mishna ,ber4  
#a4b4 ,nldeke1 ,sketches from ,eastern  
,history1 p4 #ca4     ,,iii4   ,mr4     
,ameer ,ali explains ,islam as 8striving

 after righteousness10 but ,prof4       
,hirschfeld1 in his luminous ,researches
 into the ,composition and ,exegesis of 
the ,quran1 very correctly points out   
that ,mr4 ,ameer ,ali's definition only 
reflects the theoretical and moral side 
of the question--limited to the initial 
stage of ,islam4#ad  ,the term ,islam1  
as time went by1 included the whole of  
the theoretical and practical           
constitution of the faith and as such it
 is interpreted by ,al-,ghazzali in his 
,ihya-ul-ulum 7p4 #ajd1 vol4 ,i47       
,islam1 says he1 is an expression for   
submission and unquestioning obedience1 
abandonment of insubordination1 defiance
 and opposition4 ,and it is in this     
light1 indeed1 that the prophet himself 
regarded ,islam4 8,the ,bedwins say3    
#8we believe1' ,speak6 you shall not    
#8believe' 7only7 but say we practice   
,islam 7,aslamna740 7,,xlix4 #ad7 ,in   
,surah ,,iii4 #ag 7,cf4 ,v4 #gi7 ,islam 
is identified with din 7,cf4 ,,lxi4     
#g-i7 and the relation between the two  

synonyms1 says ,prof4 ,hirschfeld1 is   
broadly discussed by ,al-,shahrastani   
7,milal1 pp4 #be to #bg7 and is stated  
to embrace the five duties1 viz43--,of  
testifying to the unity of ,god and the 
,divine inspiration of ,mohamed1 the    
duties of reciting prayers1 giving alms1
 fasting in the ,ramadhan1 and          
performing the pilgrimage to ,mecca4    
,the fundamental basis of ,islam is the 
unity of ,god2 stern1 unbending         
monotheism and this doctrine of the     
unity of ,god is proclaimed in the      
,quran1 in season and out of season and 
ever and anon with augmented emphasis4  
,to associate gods with ,god is the most
 unpardonable sin and the prophet's     
extensive vocabulary of vituperation is 
never exhausted in attacking those who  
associate gods with ,god4 ,in ,surah    
,,vi 7verses #gd-gi7 we have one of the 
most charming passages testifying to the
 unity of ,god3--    ,and remember when 
,abraham said to his father1 ,azar1 thou
 takest those   images as ,god8 verily  

,i see that thou and thy people are in  
manifest   error4    ,and so did we show
 ,abraham the domain of the heavens and 
of the earth   that he might be one of  
those who are established in knowledge4 
,and   when the night overshadowed him  
he beheld a star 8,this1 said he1 is    
,my ,lord0 but when it set1 he cried1   
8,i love not gods which set40 ,and      
when he beheld the moon uprising        
8,this10 said he1 8is my ,lord0 but     
when it set1 he said1 8surely1 if ,my   
,lord guide me not ,i shall be of       
those who go astray40    ,and when he   
beheld the ,sun uprise1 he said1 8,this 
is my ,lord10 8this   is the greatest0  
but when it set1 he said 8,o my people  
,i share not   with you the guilt of    
joining gods with ,god40    ,i verily   
turn my face to him who hath created the
 ,heavens and the   earth following the 
right religion and ,i am not one of     
those who add   gods to ,god4  ,not a   
whit has ,gibbon#ae exaggerated the     
truth when he wrote 8the creed of       

,mohamed is free from suspicion or      
ambiguity and the ,quran is a glorious  
testimony to the unity of ,god4 ,the    
prophet of ,mecca rejected the worship  
of idols and men1 of stars and planets1 
on the rational principle that whatever 
is born must die1 that whatever is      
corruptible must decay and perish40     
,and1 again1 says the historian of the  
,roman ,empire1 8these sublime truths1  
thus announced in the language of the   
prophet1 are firmly held by his         
disciples and defined with metaphysical 
precision by the interpreters of the    
,quran4 ,a philosophic atheist might    
subscribe the popular creed of          
,mohamedans3 a creed too sublime perhaps
 for our present faculties40  ,the unity
 of ,god1 therefore1 is the central     
faith of ,islam and connected with it1  
by natural process as it were1 is the   
belief that man is responsible to the   
creator for his actions and deeds4 ,this
 belief1 the ,pre-,islamic ,arab never  
knew or conceived1 and the prophet      

,mohamed1 by inculcating this belief1   
not only laid the foundation of a       
spiritual life among his countrymen1 but
 laid the foundation of a well-organized
 society2 soon destined to grow into a  
magnificent empire4 ,the sphere of duty 
and obligation1 charity and sympathy1   
confined hitherto merely to tribesmen1  
was widened and extended and the narrow 
tribal tie was lost in the larger       
brotherhood of faith4 ,at this distance 
of time1 it is perhaps difficult for us 
to fully realize the influence of this  
teaching1 but to it alone must we       
ascribe the dethronement of those ideals
 of ,arabian ,paganism which the author 
of the ,muhammedanische ,studien has so 
graphically described1 comparing and    
contrasting them with the higher ideals 
substituted by ,islam4#af ,the religion 
of the prophet1 like the wand of a      
magician1 completely and utterly changed
 the life of the ,arabs4 ,it hushed     
their tribal disputes into silence1 it  
destroyed their insularity1 it set up a 

purer and a more refined standard of    
domestic life1 it opened before them    
fresh vistas of spiritual happiness and 
temporal success4  ,next to the unity of
 ,god1 ,islam enjoins five daily prayers
 upon its followers4 ,it is curious that
 the ,quran lays down no rule as to the 
manner in which the prayer should be    
offered4 ,apparently1 as ,mr4 ,ameer    
,ali#ag points out1 the practice of the 
prophet has associated certain rights   
and ceremonies to the due observance of 
prayers4 ,in the ,mohamedan prayer we   
observe the ,jewish practice of standing
 erect1 the ,christian of prostration   
and a third of inclination4#ah          
,originally the prophet instituted three
 daily prayers4#ai ,their extension to  
five was an innovation of the late      
,meccan period2 the details of the      
purity legislation appear to have still 
later4 8,yet the theory10 says ,prof4   
,margoliouth1 8that ,god should be      
approached only by persons in a state of
 purity was known in ,south ,arabia     

before ,mohamed's time1 whence it is    
probable that his earliest converts were
 instructed therein40  ,prayers are to  
be performed five times in course of    
every day3 between daybreak and sunrise1
 between noon and the 8asr0 7which later
 period is about mid-time between noon  
and nightfall7 between the #8asr' and   
sunset1 between sunset and the 8asha0   
7or the period when the darkness of     
night commences7 and at1 or after the   
8asha40 ,it is considered more          
meritorious to take part in the public  
salat of the community conducted by a   
leader 7,imam7 than to discharge the    
salat by oneself4#bj ,von ,kremer has   
rightly emphasised the importance of the
 ,muslim prayer by recognizing the      
mosque as the drill ground for the      
warlike believers of early ,islam4 ,in  
stern discipline1 in unconditional      
obedience1 says ,von ,kremer1 the author
 of the ,culturgeschichte des orients1  
lay the greatest achievement of ,mohamed
 and the real secret of the strength of 

,islam4#ba ,the five daily prayers where
 the leader 7the ,imam7 stood before the
 community1 closely arrayed behind him1 
and where every movement of his was     
imitated with military preciseness1 by  
the hundreds of the faithful assembled  
in the mosque1 served1 among the        
,muslims1 in those times1 the purpose of
 that what is known now as the drill    
ground3 a school where the people learnt
 to assemble1 to move in a body and to  
follow the ,commander4  ,in the         
,quran#bb the command to pay the        
poor-tax 7zakat7 directly follows the   
command to pray3 perform the prayers and
 pay the poor-tax4 ,this tax had a      
strong communistic complexion which is  
evidenced by the following tradition3   
8,the prophet sent ,madh to ,yaman and  
told him3 summon them to accept the     
confession of faith namely1 there is no 
,god but ,allah and ,i that am his      
prophet2 if they listen to it2 teach    
them further that ,god has ordained five
 daily prayers2 if they are also        

agreeable to this2 teach them further   
that ,god has enjoined the poor-tax     
7sadakah7 payable by the wealthy upon   
their property for distribution among   
the poor40#bc ,this tax was annually    
payable upon camels1 oxen 7bulls and    
cows7 and buffalos1 sheep and goats1    
horses and mules and asses and gold and 
silver 7whether in money or ornaments1  
etc417 provided the property was of a   
certain amount2 as five camels1 thirty  
oxen1 forty sheep1 five horses1 two     
hundred dirhams1 or twenty dinars4#bd   
,the proportion is generally            
one-fortieth1 which is to be paid in    
kind or in money or other equivalent4   
,the third most important obligation    
enjoined by ,islam is fasting in the    
month of ,ramadhan4 ,the ,muslim must   
abstain from eating and drinking and    
from every indulgence of the senses1    
every day during the month of ,ramadhan1
 from the first appearance of daybreak  
until sunset1 unless physically         
incapacitated4 ,the last but not least  

is the pilgrimage to ,mecca and mount   
,arafat1 which the ,muslim must perform 
at least once in his life4  ,these then2
 namely1 the unity of ,god1 the belief  
in the ,divine mission of the prophet1  
five daily prayers1 fasting in the month
 of ,ramadhan and the pilgrimage1 are   
the essentials of ,islam4 ,the one      
supreme mission of the prophet was to   
create and to maintain an absolute      
brotherhood in faith4 ,all ,muslims were
 declared equal1 irrespective of birth1 
rank or profession2 and the world has   
never seen1 perhaps1 a more perfect     
democracy than the one called into being
 by the prophet4 ,truly1 the most worthy
 of honour in the sight of ,god1 says   
the ,quran1 is he who feareth ,him most2
 for the faithful are brethren2         
whereupon make peace between your       
brethren4 ,a similar refrain runs       
through the parting sermon of the       
prophet2 8,o men6 ,god has taken away   
from you the arrogance and pride of     
ancestry of heathen days4 ,an ,arab has 

no excellence or superiority over a     
barbarian than that which is secured to 
him by his ,god-fearing and             
righteousness4 ,ye are all the progeny  
of ,adam1 and ,adam himself is of the   
,earth40  ,no caste and no priestcraft  
does ,islam recognise4 ,every ,muslim is
 his own priest and every spot of land  
is his mosque to pray and to worship    
,allah4 ,for no other purpose than to   
keep alive the sense of corporate unity 
of the ,muslims did the prophet declare 
the superiority of the public prayer    
over prayer by oneself and establish the
 institution of pilgrimage4  ,year after
 year1 from all parts of the ,islamic   
world1 streamed to ,mekka1 ,muslims in  
thousands and tens of thousands1 to     
worship ,allah at the ,kabah and to     
perform the ,hajj4 ,there1 at ,mekka1   
year after year1 ,muslims of divers     
nationalities recognised and realised   
the potent spell of their faith and felt
 more deeply and keenly than ever the   
tie which bound them together4          

,moreover1 as ,von ,kremer points out1  
there did the ,muslims obtain an        
opportunity of listening to the lectures
 of far-famed professors and men of     
letters who attracted1 year by year1 an 
ever-increasing audience4 ,there indeed1
 did ,islam shine forth in its full     
lustre2 attracting and alluring1        
enthralling and captivating its         
followers1 as it could do nowhere else4 
,every spot1 associated with some       
historical incident2 every place1       
connected with some important event or  
other of the life of the teacher1       
awakened the love and fired the         
enthusiasm of ,muslims for the son of   
,abdullah1 the maker of ,arabia and the 
founder of ,islam4  ,in his fascinating 
book1 ,the ,life and ,teachings of      
,mohamed1 ,mr4 ,ameer ,ali has admirably
 summed up the ,islamic                 
teachings3--8,nothing can be simpler or 
more in accord with the advance of the  
human intellect than the teachings of   
the ,arabian prophet4 ,the few rules for

 religious ceremonial which he          
prescribed were chiefly with the object 
of maintaining discipline and           
uniformity1 so necessary in certain     
stages of society1 but they were by no  
means of an inflexible character4 ,he   
allowed them to be broken in cases of   
illness or other causes4 #8,god wishes  
to make things easy for you1 for' says  
the ,quran #8man was created weak4' ,the
 legal principles which he enunciated   
were either delivered as answers to     
questions put to him as the ,chief      
,magistrate of ,medina or to remove or  
correct patent evils4 ,the prophet's    
,islam recognized no ritual likely to   
distract the mind from the thought of   
the one ,god1 no law to keep enchained  
the conscience of advancing humanity40  
,nothing was more distant from the      
prophet's thought than to fetter the    
mind or to lay down fixed1 immutable1   
unchanging laws for his followers4 ,the 
,quran is a book of guidance to the     
faithful and not1 to be sure1 an        

obstacle in the path of their social1   
moral1 legal and intellectual progress4 
,the requirements of ,islam are at once 
easy and simple and leave scope to      
,muslims to take part in their duties as
 subjects or citizens2 to attend to     
their religious obligations without     
sacrificing their worldly prosperity and
 to adopt1 whatever is good1 in any     
community or civilisation1 without any  
interference on the part of their       
religion4  ,,footnotes3  #ad ,life and  
,teachings of ,mohamed p4 #bbf ,prof4   
,hirschfeld p4 #ad4  #ae ,gibbon1       
,bury's ,ed4 ,vol4 ,v4 p4 #cci4  #af    
,goldziher1 ,muhammedanische ,studien4  
,vol4 ,i4 ,the chapter on ,muruwwa und  
,din2 ,nicholson1 ,literary ,history of 
the ,arabs pp4 #agg-agi2 ,browne        
,literary ,history of ,persia pp4 #ahi  
et ,seq4  #ag ,life and ,teachings of   
,mohamed p4 #bfc4  #ah ,margoliouth     
,life of ,mohamed p4 #ajb4  #ai ,ibn    
,sad1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,part ,i4 p4 #aei4    
#bj ,in ,lane's ,arabian ,society in the

 ,middle ,ages the reader will find a   
detailed account of religious           
institutions of ,islam pp4 #a-bd4  #ba  
,vol4 ,i4 p4 #aj4  #bb ,surah4 ,,ii4 #c1
 #dc1 #hc1 #aaj1 #agg1 #bgg1 etc4  #bc  
,von ,kremer1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ej4  #bd    
,lane1 ,arabian ,society p4 #ad4        
,,iv4   ,i shall now make a few general 
observations on the religion of the     
prophet of ,arabia4 ,whatever ,islam may
 have become through pharisaic          
artificiality and theological subtlety1 
its leading principles are as broad as  
the starriest heavens and as enduring as
 the everlasting hills4 ,it contains1 in
 common with other great religions1     
those eternal truths which are only too 
liable to be forgotten in blind zeal1 in
 warmth of controversy1 in sectarian    
narrow-mindedness1 in religious         
fanaticism but which our education and  
culture teach us to discover and        
appreciate1 wherever we find them4 ,the 
governing principle of all religions is 
the same4 ,in the language of the       

apostle ,james3 8,pure religion and     
undefiled before ,god and the ,father is
 this2 to visit the fatherless and      
widows in their affliction and to keep  
oneself unspotted from the world40 ,this
 is the burden of all religions and this
 the burden of ,islam4  ,the kernel and 
doctrine of ,islam1 ,goethe has found in
 the second surah which begins as       
follows3--8,this is the ,book4 ,there is
 no doubt in the same4 ,a guidance to   
the righteous1 who believe in the       
unseen1 who observe the prayer and who  
give alms of that which we have         
vouchsafed unto them4 ,and who believe  
in that which has been sent down unto   
thee--7the ,revelation7 which had been  
sent down to those before thee1 and who 
believe in the life to come4 ,they walk 
in the guidance of their ,lord1 and they
 are the blessed4 ,as to them who       
believe not--it is indifferent to them  
whether thou exhortest them or not      
exhortest them4 ,they will not believe4 
,sealed hath ,allah their hearts and    

their ears and over their eye is        
darkness and theirs will be a great     
punishment4--0 8,and in this wise10     
,goethe continues1 8we have surah after 
surah4 ,belief and unbelief are divided 
into higher and lower4 ,heaven and hell 
await the believers or deniers4         
,detailed inductions of things allowed  
and forbidden1 legendary stories of     
,jewish and ,christian religion1        
amplifications of all kinds1 boundless  
tautologies and repetitions1 form the   
body of this sacred volume1 which1 to   
us1 as often as we approach it1 is      
repellent anew1 next attracts us ever   
anew and fills us with admiration1 and  
finally forces us into veneration40     
,this passage1 indeed1 is as good a     
summary as any other1 but there is one1 
and in this same chapter1 still more    
explicit1 illustrating the catholicity  
of the prophet's mind and his discerning
 judgment4 ,when ,mohamed1 says         
,deutsch#be1 told his adherents at      
,medina no longer to turn in prayer     

towards ,jerusalem but towards the      
,kabah at ,mekka1 to which their fathers
 had turned1 and he was blamed for this 
innovation he replied3--8,that is not   
righteousness3 whether ye turn your     
faces towards east or west1 ,god's is   
the east as well as the west4 ,but      
verily righteousness is his who believes
 in ,god1 in the day of judgment1 in the
 angels1 in the book and the prophets2  
who bestows his wealth for ,god's sake1 
upon kindred1 and orphans1 and the poor1
 and the homeless1 and all those who    
ask2 and also upon delivering the       
captives2 he who is steadfast in prayer1
 giveth alms1 who stands firmly by his  
covenants1 when he has once entered into
 them2 and who is patient in adversity1 
in hardship and in times of trial4      
,these are the righteous1 and these are 
the ,god-fearing40 ,what a noble idea of
 life and religion do we find here4 ,it 
is not merely the recitation of prayers 
which constitutes righteousness but in  
solemnly acting the religion we profess2

 in tender regard for the poor and the  
orphan1 the forlorn and the suffering2  
in relieving the miseries of the        
captives1 in holding by the promises    
made1 in enduring with calm fortitude   
the trials and reverses of fortune4     
,here1 in this passage1 we have the key 
to ,islam1 nay1 ,i would go further and 
say a key to all religions4 ,it is only 
the clouded vision which sees difference
 between one religion and the other2 to 
one who has the eyes to see and the     
heart to feel1 all religions appear as  
but a reflection of one and the same    
light4      ,where do you seek shelter8 
,house of ,god or house of idols8       
,oh1 the house-wrecker there1 which one 
is your house8     ,more holes on the   
roof will not give you more suns        
,and you1 the diverged-minded1 say house
 of ,god or house of idols8#bf  ,this   
was the spirit of the prophet's religion
 which he preached in the ,quran in     
every accent of pleading and warning1 of
 pathos and hope1 of repentance and     

forgiveness4 ,he stood firm by his faith
 unshaken by threats and persuasion4    
,his success1 indeed1 marks the ascent  
of the soul1 of the higher and nobler   
nature of man from the darkness to the  
light4 ,nor was it a different light to 
that which had appeared to humanity 8at 
sundry times and in divers manners40    
,his preaching fell on the ,arabs1 still
 in the spring tide of their national   
life1 and laid a tremendous hold upon   
their mind and their imagination2       
changing and transforming them and      
giving them as it were1 a new existence4
 ,it taught them firmness of resolve1   
contempt of death1 singleness of        
purpose1 unity and fraternity1 and it   
gave them that intensity of religious   
fervour which became the most valued    
asset of their national life4 ,above    
all1 says ,dr4 ,nldeke1 ,islam gave and 
gives1 to those who profess it a feeling
 of confidence such as is imparted by   
hardly any other faith4#bg ,and1 indeed1
 it was this1 again1 which made them    

great warriors and conquerors of the    
world4#bh  ,islam possesses an inherent 
force and vitality which nothing can    
weaken or destroy4 ,it carries within it
 germs of progress and development and  
has great powers of adaptability to     
changing circumstances4 ,there is       
nothing in its teachings which conflicts
 with or militates against modern       
civilisation1 and the moment ,muslims   
realise this truth their future will be 
assured and their greatness only a      
question of time4 ,modern ,islam1 with  
its hierarchy of priesthood1 gross      
fanaticism1 appalling ignorance and     
superstitious practices1 is1 indeed1 a  
discredit to the ,islam of the prophet  
,mohamed4 ,instead of unity we have     
,islam torn into factions1 instead of   
culture we have indifference to         
learning2 instead of liberal-minded     
toleration we have gross bigotry4 ,but  
this intellectual darkness must         
necessarily be followed by intellectual 
dawn and we trust1 that it is not now   

far distant or too long to come4  ,an   
impartial consideration of the life of  
the prophet and his teachings cannot    
fail to awaken the warmest admiration   
for the man and his mission4 ,whatever  
may be the defects in the ,quran1 even  
non-,muslims must concede that it is a  
noble testimony to the unity of ,god and
 whatever may be the blemishes in the   
life of the prophet1 none1 but a        
perverse mind1 will regard him as       
anything but sincere in his conviction1 
honest in his purpose and unshaken in   
his resolve4 ,mohamedan civilisation was
 the outcome of ,mohamedan faith and    
nothing but ,islam alone can again give 
to the ,mohamedans what they have lost3 
their civilisation1 their culture1 and  
their empire4   ,the ,city ,press1      
,allahabad4  ,,footnotes3  #be ,literary
 ,remains1 p4 #abh4  #bf ,see           
,transcriber's ,note4  #bg ,sketches    
from ,eastern ,history1 p4 #bg4  #bh    
,von ,kremer1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #ib4     ,the 
,hindustan ,review4  ,edited by         

,,sachcridananda ,,sinha1               
,barrister-at-,law4   ,,is ,a ,,high    
,,class ,,monthly1 ,,published at       
,allahabad1 and widely circulated among 
all classes of the public1 ,european and
 ,indian4  ,the special features of the 
,review comprise3 7#a7 ,not less than   
six articles on topics of the day or    
matters of permanent interest1 written  
by most competent and distinguished     
contributors2 7#b7 ,exhaustive reviews  
of important ,english and ,anglo-,indian
 publications1 including important legal
 text-books written by those who are    
experts in their line2 7#c7 ,an         
editorial survey of the month embracing 
all topics of interest and importance4  
,why should you advertise in the        
,hindustan ,review8 ,because it is      
widely circulated1 to advertise in it is
 the surest way of reaching people      
capable of doing business with you4     
,believe in facts4 ,here is what the    
,administration ,report of the          
,provincial ,government1 for the year   

#aijg-jh says3  8,of the newspapers and 
periodicals in ,english1--the ,hindustan
 ,review had the largest circulation40  
,the ,hindustan ,review is1 therefore1  
the best medium for advertisement4  ,why
 should you read the ,hindustan ,review8
 ,because it gives first class reading  
matter and is the only ,magazine that   
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,look at our ,select ,press ,opinions-- 
,the ,pioneer 7,anglo-,indian ,daily1   
,allahabad74--,we have more than once   
congratulated the ,hindustan ,review--an
 ably conducted ,monthly containing     
really excellent articles--on the place 
it has taken in periodical journalism4  
,it would be well if there were more    
journals inspired by the spirit of the  
,hindustan ,review4 ,it appears in the  
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much more the appearance of coming from 
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,madras ,mail 7,anglo-,indian           
,daily74--,the ,hindustan ,review1 which
 contains contributions on questions of 
general interest1 is conducted on       
excellent lines4 ,its contents are      
varied and interesting1 it is           
well-edited1 and it well serves the     
interest of the educated public4  ,the  
,calcutta ,weekly ,notes 7,calcutta     
,legal ,weekly74--,the ,hindustan       
,review contains excellent reviews of   
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,allahabad4         99       99       99
       99       99  ,printed by ,m4     
,gulam ,muhammad at the ,city ,press1   
,allahabad4     ,transcriber's ,note    
,archaic1 obsolete and unusual words    
have been left in the text4 ,obvious    
errors have been fixed as detailed      
below4  ,details of the changes3  ,page 
#a3  ,the ,table of ,contents was       
inserted by the transcriber4  ,page #d3 
,originally3    of ,islam1 no longer    
willing to tolerate idolatorous   ,in   
this book3  of ,islam1 no longer willing
 to tolerate idolatrous  ,footnote #c3  
,originally3    ,von per1               
,culturgeschichtliche ,streifzuge       
7my translation1 p4 #di47   ,in this    
book3  ,von ,kremer1                    
,culturgeschichtliche ,streifzge        
7my translation1 p4 #di47  ,page #e3    
,originally3   any warmth of conviction 
or sincerety of zeal1 but on   ,in this 
book3 any warmth of conviction or       
sincerity of zeal1 but on  ,page #g3    

,in the original book1 there were two   
footnote anchors pointing to footnote   
#aa4 ,i inserted footnote #ab with the  
first anchor pointing to #aa and the    
second to #ab4  ,page #h3               
,originally3    8,the ,bedwins say3     
7,,xlix4 #ad7 we believe10 ,speak6 you  
shall not 8believe0 7only7 but say we   
practice ,islam                         
7,aslamna74   ,in this book3 8,the      
,bedwins say3 #8we believe1' ,speak6 you
 shall not                 #8believe'   
7only7 but say we practice ,islam       
7,aslamna740                 7,,xlix4   
#ad7  ,page #aj3    ,originally3   of   
inclination4#ah ,orginally the prophet  
instituted   ,in this book3 of          
inclination4#ah ,originally the prophet 
instituted  ,page #aa3    ,originally3  
of the ,culturgeschichite des orients1  
lay the   ,in this book3 of the         
,culturgeschichte des orients1 lay the  
,page #aa3  ,the footnote anchors for   
#bj and #ba were not clearly marked4 ,i 
placed them where they seemed most      

appropriate to me4  ,footnote #bj3      
,originally3    in the ,middle ,ages the
 reader will find a datailed   ,in this 
book3  in the ,middle ,ages the reader  
will find a detailed  ,footnote #bb3    
,originally3   ,surah #b4 #dj4 7,what   
does this mean8 ,there are many         
references to zakat in ,surah ,,ii41 but
 not in ayat #dj4                 ,and  
there is no refence to zakat in ,surah  
,,xl47   ,in this book3 ,surah ,,ii4 #c1
 #dc1 #hc1 #aaj1 #agg1 #bgg1 etc4       
,footnote #bc3    ,originally3   ,von   
,kremer1 ,vo,i4 p4 #ej4   ,in this book3
 ,von ,kremer1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ej4  ,page 
#af3    ,originally3   can weaken or    
destory4 ,it carries within it germs of 
,in this book3 can weaken or destroy4   
,it carries within it germs of          
,footnote #bf3  ,in the original text1  
these lines of a ghazal by ,saib        
,tabrizi 7#aeib-afgf7 were included in  
,farsi with no attribution4 ,in a book  
intended for an ,english speaking       
audience that generally does not read   

,farsi1 it is better to include the     
translation4 ,the original ,farsi text  
was lines one and three 7two hemistiches
 per line7 of his ,ghazal #bace4 ,due to
 line length considerations1 ,i have    
split the hemistiches to separate lines 
in the translation in the text1 and also
 in the ,farsi and transliteration      
below4  ,the translation was provided by
 ,intercombase 7www4intercombase4com74  
,the original ,farsi3 7,depending on    
your software1 the words may appear in  
inverse order47                         
,transliteration3    mav-yi t az masjid 
u maykhna kudm ast8     ay khna-barandz 
tu-r khna kudm ast8   az asrat-i rawzan 
nashavad mihr mukarrar     ay kaj-naarn 
kaba u butkhna kudm ast8  ,page #ah3    
,originally3   writers from every race  
and sections4 ,this is why we   ,in this
 book3 writers from every race and      
section4 ,this is why we  ,page #ah3    
,originally3   ,foregin1 #aj shillings4 
,in this book3 ,foreign1 #aj shillings4