,transcriber's ,notes #c ,parts in one volume4 ,part ,i is numbered #ajjj upwards2 ,part ,,ii is numbered #bjjj upwards2 ,part ,,iii is numbered #cjjj upwards4 ,pagination starts with each section4 ,the cover image was created from the original all black cover with the title page superimposed onto it and is placed in the public domain4 ,page #ajba3 pressents corrected to presents4 ,page #caci3 added #8it' to 8while you are looking at it40 ,other minor printer's errors have been silently corrected4 ,,note4--,the three parts of this book can be had in separate volumes by those who desire it4 ,this will be advisable when the book is to be used in teaching quite young children 7from six to nine years of age71 especially in schools4 ,it will take some time to go through with each part thoroughly1 and the pupil had better1 for various reasons1 be introduced to each in its order as a new book4 ,,the ,,child',s ,,book ,,of ,,nature4 ,three ,parts in ,one4 ,,part ,i4 ,,plants4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,animals4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,air1 ,,water1 ,,heat1 ,,light1 c4 ,,by ,,worthington ,,hooker1 ,m4,d4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,published ,,by ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,,pearl ,,street1 ,,franklin ,,square4 #ahhb4 ,,the ,,child',s ,,book ,,of ,,nature ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,families ,,and ,,schools4 ,,intended ,,to ,,aid ,,mothers ,,and ,,teachers ,,in ,,training ,,children ,,in ,,the ,,observation ,,of ,,nature4 ,,in ,,three ,,parts4 ,,part ,i4--,,plants4 ,,by ,,worthington ,,hooker1 ,m4,d41 ,,author ,,of 8,,first ,,book ,,in ,,chemistry10 8,,chemistry10 8,,natural ,,philosophy10 8,,natural ,,history10 ,,etc4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,,publishers1 ,,franklin ,,square4 #ahhb4 ,by ,dr4 ,,worthington ,,hooker4 ,,the ,,child',s ,,book ,,of ,,nature4 ,for the ,use of ,families and ,schools2 intended to aid ,mothers and ,teachers in training ,children in the ,observation of ,nature4 ,in three ,parts4 ,illustrations4 ,the ,three ,parts complete in one vol41 ,small #dto1 ,cloth1 #a #jj2 ,separately1 ,cloth1 ,part ,i41 #dj cents2 ,parts ,,ii4 and ,,iii41 #dd cents each4 ,,part ,i4 ,,plants4--,,part ,,ii4 ,,animals--,,part ,,iii4 ,,air1 ,,water1 ,,heat1 ,,light1 c4 ,,first ,,book ,,in ,,chemistry4 ,for the ,use of ,schools and ,families4 ,revised ,edition4 ,illustrations4 ,square #dto1 ,cloth1 #dd cents4 ,,natural ,,history4 ,for the ,use of ,schools and ,families4 ,illustrated by nearly #cjj ,engravings4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ij cents4 ,,science ,,for ,,the ,,school ,,and ,,family4 ,,part ,i4 ,,natural ,,philosophy4 ,illustrated by nearly #cjj ,engravings4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ij cents4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,chemistry4 ,revised ,edition4 ,illustrations4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ij cents4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,mineralogy ,,and ,,geology4 ,illustrations4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ij cents4 ,published by ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,franklin ,square1 ,n4 ,y4 ,either of the above volumes will be sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada1 on receipt of the price4 ,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty-seven1 by ,,harper ,,brothers1 in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,southern ,district ,court of ,new ,york4 ,,preface4 ,children are busy observers of natural objects1 and have many questions to ask about them4 ,but their inquisitive observation is commonly repressed1 instead of being encouraged and guided4 ,the chief reason for this unnatural course is1 that parents and teachers are not in possession of the information which is needed for the guidance of children in the observation of nature4 ,they have not themselves been taught aright1 and therefore are not able to teach others4 ,in their own education the observation of nature has been almost entirely excluded2 and they are1 therefore1 unprepared to teach a child in regard to the simplest natural phenomena4 ,here is a radical error in education4 ,when we put a child into the school-room1 to be drilled in spelling1 reading1 arithmetic1 geography1 etc41 we effectually shut him in from all the varied and interesting objects of nature1 which he is so naturally inclined to observe and study4 ,these are very seldom made the subjects of instruction in childhood4 ,and even at the fireside the deficiency is nearly as great as it is in the school-room4 ,a similar defect appears to a great extent through the whole course of education4 ,the study of the wonderful phenomena which are all around us and within us1 is1 for the most part1 neglected1 except by the few whose inclinations to it are so strong that they can not be repressed4 ,this defect is well illustrated in a remark which was made by a mother in relation to her own education4 ,when at school she stood at the head of her class1 and excelled particularly in mathematics4 ,her remark was1 that she every day regretted that much of the time she had given to the study of mathematics had not been spent in learning what would enable her to answer the continual questions of her children4 ,even when the natural sciences are taught1 the mode of teaching them is generally ineffectual4 ,the knowledge which the mass of pupils in our higher schools gain of ,natural ,philosophy1 ,chemistry1 ,botany1 and ,physiology1 is very deficient4 ,there should be a thorough change in this respect in the whole course of education1 beginning in childhood4 ,the natural sciences should be made prominent among the studies even of young children1 who1 in other words1 should be encouraged and guided in that observation of nature to which they are generally so much inclined4 ,in the different departments of natural science there are multitudes of facts or phenomena in which children readily become interested1 when they are properly explained4 ,in this little book my object is to supply the mother and the teacher with the means of introducing the child into one department of natural science--that which relates to the vegetable world1 or vegetable physiology4 ,with this view1 ,i have endeavored to select those points only which the child will fully understand1 and in which he will be interested4 ,but this selection has by no means shut me up within narrow limits4 ,i have been surprised at the amount of knowledge in this interesting study that can be satisfactorily communicated to the mind of a child4 ,while the fundamental points in vegetable physiology are quite fully developed in this book1 ,i have avoided as far as possible all technical terms4 ,these can be learned when the pupil becomes old enough to profit by learning them4 ,the facts1 the phenomena1 are what the child wants to understand2 and these can be communicated in the simplest language1 so that a child of about seven or eight1 or perhaps even six years1 can readily be made to comprehend them4 ,i begin with the most simple and obvious facts--those which relate to flowers--and go on through fruits1 seeds1 leaves1 roots1 etc41 step by step1 until1 at the latter part of the book1 the circulation of the sap1 and other points at first view complicated1 are made perfectly intelligible4 ,by this gradual unfolding of the subject1 many points are made clear to the child1 which are not fully understood by many of those who in riper years have studied botany2 for in the common mode of teaching this science the mere technicalities of it are made prominent1 while the interesting facts which vegetable physiology presents to us in such variety receive but little attention4 ,the best time to use this book in teaching is during the summer1 because then every thing can be illustrated by specimens from the field and the garden1 and the teacher can amplify upon what ,i have given4 ,for example1 when the lesson is to be on leaves1 the teacher can request her scholars to bring as many different kinds of leaves as they can find2 and she can point out their differences after the same plan that ,i have adopted1 but in a much more extended manner4 ,indeed1 if the teacher catch herself the true spirit of observation1 she will be continually led in her teachings to add facts of her own gathering to those which ,i have presented4 ,i believe that there are few terms in the book that can not be readily understood by the child4 ,a little explanation may sometimes be necessary on the part of the teacher1 especially when the same word is used as meaning more at one time than at another4 ,for example1 the word plant is used sometimes1 as in the title of this book1 to include every thing that is vegetable2 while at another time it is used to distinguish certain forms of vegetables from others1 as in the expression plants and trees4 ,i have made such a division into chapters as will place each subject by itself1 and at the same time1 for the most part1 give lessons of a proper length for the learner4 ,i have placed questions at the end of each chapter1 for convenience in instruction4 ,of course the teacher or parent will vary them as she sees fit1 to accommodate the capacities of those whom she teaches4 ,,worthington ,,hooker4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,our ,,love ,,for ,,flowers #ac ,,ii4 ,,more ,,about ,,our ,,love ,,for ,,flowers #ai ,,iii4 ,,how ,,flowers ,,are ,,made #bb ,,iv4 ,,the ,,colors ,,of ,,flowers #be ,v4 ,,the ,,perfume ,,of ,,flowers #bh ,,vi4 ,,the ,,shapes ,,of ,,flowers #ca ,,vii4 ,,habits ,,of ,,flowers #cg ,,viii4 ,,more ,,about ,,the ,,habits ,,of ,,flowers #dj ,,ix4 ,,what ,,live ,,on ,,flowers #dc ,x4 ,,more ,,about ,,what ,,live ,,on ,,flowers #df ,,xi4 ,,what ,,the ,,bible ,,says ,,about ,,flowers #di ,,xii4 ,,fruits #eb ,,xiii4 ,,more ,,about ,,fruits #ee ,,xiv4 ,,what ,,seeds ,,are ,,for #eh ,,xv4 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,seed #fb ,,xvi4 ,,how ,,seeds ,,are ,,scattered #fd ,,xvii4 ,,leaves #fg ,,xviii4 ,,more ,,about ,,leaves #ga ,,xix4 ,,the ,,sap ,,in ,,leaves #gf ,,xx4 ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,leaves #hj ,,xxi4 ,,leaves ,,in ,,the ,,autumn #hc ,,xxii4 ,,leaf-,,buds #hf ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,coverings ,,of ,,the ,,buds #ij ,,xxiv4 ,,what ,,roots ,,are ,,for #ib ,,xxv4 ,,more ,,about ,,roots #ie ,,xxvi4 ,,stalks ,,and ,,trunks #ajj ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,bark ,,of ,,trees ,,and ,,shrubs #ajc ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,wood ,,in ,,trees ,,and ,,shrubs #aje ,,xxix4 ,,what ,,is ,,made ,,from ,,sap #ajg ,,xxx4 ,,more ,,about ,,what ,,is ,,made ,,from ,,sap #aaj ,,xxxi4 ,,circulation ,,of ,,the ,,sap #aac ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,sleep ,,and ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,plants #aaf ,,xxxiii4 ,,conclusion #aah ,,the ,,child',s ,,book ,,of ,,nature4 ,,part ,i4--,,plants4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,our ,,love ,,for ,,flowers4 ,sidenote3 ,flowers in the garden4 ,every body likes flowers4 ,we like them wherever we see them4 ,how pleasant they are to our eyes as we see them in the garden6 ,how their various colors please us as we look along the borders6 ,some are red1 some are white1 some are blue1 and some are yellow4 ,all these different colors1 mingled with the fresh green leaves1 make a feast for our eyes4 ,and then we love to look at each flower by itself4 ,some flowers we like better than we do others4 ,a pretty little flower that smells sweet1 we like better than we do a large one that has no perfume4 ,the peony is very beautiful1 but we do not love it as we do the little pink with its delightful fragrance4 ,sidenote3 ,the garden of ,eden4 ,it was a garden in which ,adam and ,eve were placed4 ,while they were innocent and pure ,god surrounded them with beautiful things1 because he loved them so much4 ,before they sinned they lived among the flowers and trees of the garden of ,eden4 ,it was more beautiful than any garden that has been seen since that time4 ,it was so beautiful that ,god would not let ,adam and ,eve stay in it after they had sinned4 ,sidenote3 ,flowers in the fields4 ,as we roam about the fields and the woods1 it is pleasant to see here and there a flower4 ,we should hardly enjoy our walk if we did not see them4 ,they are like familiar friends that we love to meet4 ,we see them come every year after the winter is gone1 and we like to bid them welcome4 ,a little girl1 finding a wild violet early in the spring1 exclaimed1 8,how glad ,i am to see you again6 ,it is a long time since ,i have seen you1 and you look as pretty as ever60 ,the delight expressed by this little girl is felt by every body that loves flowers1 as they come one after another in the spring4 ,how much we should miss them if they did not come every year6 ,sidenote3 ,the early flowers of spring4 ,the earliest flowers that we see in the spring are the most precious to us4 ,they are very welcome1 coming so soon after the cold winter is gone4 ,they are the first children of spring4 ,they are few4 ,we find them only here and there4 ,but we know that there will be many more flowers as the warm summer comes on2 and we rejoice to greet the first of the host of beautiful things that are to delight our eyes in the field and in the garden4 ,these early flowers that we love so much are very little flowers4 ,look at the sweet little flowers of the trailing arbutus as they peep out from among its rough leaves4 ,it seems as if they scarcely dared to show themselves1 for fear that old winter had hardly gone4 ,the violets too1 are small1 and just lift their heads from the ground4 ,so1 too1 the delicate anemones1 that are moved by the least breath of air1 are very small4 ,sidenote3 ,keeping flowers in the winter4 ,we are so fond of flowers that we like to have them where we can look at them in the winter4 ,we are not willing to wait till spring comes4 ,so we keep them in our warm rooms on stands at the windows4 ,those who can afford it sometimes have green-houses1 in order that they may keep a great variety of plants1 and have flowers all the time4 ,sidenote3 ,the little girl's frozen flower4 ,people sometimes become very much attached to a few plants that they keep in their windows4 ,their opening flowers seem to smile upon them1 and this is very pleasant to them in the midst of the dreariness of winter4 ,it makes a little summer for them in-doors4 ,and if the plants happen to get frozen some very cold night1 it makes them feel really quite sad4 ,a little girl became very much attached to a plant given to her by her mother4 ,she watered it every day1 and watched the buds on it as they opened into flowers4 ,it was one of her pets4 ,but one night it froze1 and the little girl wept over her loss4 ,she felt as if she had lost a sweet and ever-smiling friend4 ,a kind neighbor gave her another plant of the same kind2 but it was a long time before she could feel that it was just as good as the one that she had lost4 ,sidenote3 ,the prisoner4 ,sidenote3 ,the flower in the prison4 ,there is a beautiful story in ,french of a prisoner who became exceedingly attached to a flower4 ,he was put in prison by ,napoleon because he was supposed to be an enemy of the government4 ,one day as ,charney 7for that was his name7 was walking in the yard adjoining his cell1 he saw a plant pushing up from between the stones4 ,how it came there he could not tell4 ,perhaps some one carelessly dropped the seed4 ,or perhaps the seed was blown over the wall by the wind4 ,he knew not what plant it was1 but he felt a great interest in it4 ,shut in within those walls away from all his friends1 not permitted to interest himself with either reading or writing1 he was glad to have this little living thing to watch over and love4 ,every day when he walked in the court he spent much time in looking at it4 ,he soon saw some buds4 ,he watched them as they grew larger and larger1 and longed to see them open4 ,and when the flowers at length came out he was filled with joy4 ,they were very beautiful4 ,they had three colors in them--white1 purple1 and rose color2 and there was a delicate silvery fringe all round the edge4 ,their fragrance1 too1 was delicious4 ,charney examined them more than any he had ever seen before2 and never did flowers look so beautiful to him as these4 ,sidenote3 ,how ,charney watched and guarded it4 ,charney guarded his plant with great care from all harm4 ,he made a frame-work out of such things as he could get1 so that it should not be broken down by some careless foot or by the wind4 ,one day there was a hail-storm2 and to keep his tender plant from the pelting of the hail1 he stood bending over it as long as the storm lasted4 ,the plant was something more than a pleasure and a comfort to the prisoner4 ,it taught him some things that he had never learned before1 though he was a very wise man4 ,when he went into the prison he was an atheist4 ,he did not believe there was a ,god2 and among his scribblings on the prison wall he had written1 8,all things come by chance40 ,but as he watched his loved flower1 its opening beauties told him that there is a ,god4 ,he felt that none but ,god could make that flower4 ,and he said that the flower had taught him more than he had ever learned from the wise men of the earth4 ,sidenote3 ,how the prisoner was set free4 ,the cherished and guarded plant proved of great service to the prisoner4 ,it was the means of his being set free4 ,i will tell you how this was4 ,there was another prisoner1 an ,italian1 whose daughter came to visit him4 ,she was much interested by the tender care which ,charney took of his plant4 ,at one time it seemed as if it were going to die1 and ,charney felt very sad4 ,he wished that he could take up the stones around it1 but he could not without permission4 ,the ,italian girl managed to see the ,empress ,josephine1 and to tell her about it2 and permission was given to ,charney to do with his plant as he desired4 ,the stones were taken up1 and the earth was loosened1 and the flower was soon as bright as ever again4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,empress ,josephine's love of flowers4 ,sidenote3 ,charney takes his plant home4 ,now ,josephine thought much of flowers4 ,it is said that she admired the purple of her cactuses more than the ,imperial purple of her robe1 and that the perfume of her magnolias was pleasanter to her than the flattery of her attendants4 ,she1 too1 had a cherished flower--the sweet jasmine1 that she had brought from the home of her youth1 a far-off island of the ,west ,indies4 ,this had been planted and reared by her own hand2 and though its simple beauty would scarcely have excited the attention of a stranger1 it was dearer to her than all the rare and brilliant flowers that filled her hot-houses4 ,she thought a good deal1 therefore1 of the prisoner that took such care of his one flower4 ,she inquired about him1 and after a little time persuaded the ,emperor to give him his freedom4 ,and when ,charney left the prison he took the plant with him to his home2 for he could not bear to part with this sweet companion that had cheered him in his lonely prison life1 taught him such lessons of wisdom1 and was at last the means of setting him free4 ,sidenote3 ,nothing comes by chance4 ,some1 perhaps1 would say that the seed of this flower got into that prison-yard1 and took root in the earth between the stones by chance1 and that this was all very lucky for the prisoner4 ,but this is not so4 ,nothing comes by chance4 ,god sent that seed there1 and made it lodge in the right place to have it grow4 ,he sent it to do great things for the poor prisoner4 ,little did ,charney think1 when he saw that tiny plant first pushing up from between the stones1 that by it ,god would free him from prison1 and1 what was better1 deliver him from his infidelity4 ,questions4--,what is said of our love for flowers8 ,do we like some flowers better than others8 ,what is said of the garden of ,eden8 ,how do we feel about the wild flowers of spring8 ,why do we like the earliest best8 ,are these large or small8 ,mention some of them4 ,why do people keep flowers in the winter in their rooms and in green-houses8 ,tell about the little girl and her plant4 ,what is the story of the ,french prisoner and his plant8 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,more ,,about ,,our ,,love ,,for ,,flowers4 ,sidenote3 ,bouquets4 ,it is from our love of flowers that a bouquet is always a pretty present to a friend4 ,the kind teacher is much gratified when a scholar1 with a bright1 cheerful 8,good morning10 gives her a bouquet4 ,though the flowers may be simple and common1 the present is a very pleasant one4 ,it is saying to your teacher1 ,i love the beautiful things that ,god has made1 and ,i know that you love them4 ,it is saying more than this4 ,it is telling your teacher that you love her4 ,it is because you love her that you give her the sweet flowers that you love so much4 ,and she will feel that though the flowers will fade1 your love to her will ever be fresh4 ,sidenote3 ,flowers in the sick chamber4 ,how grateful are flowers in the chamber of sickness6 ,it would weary the sick one to see all her kind friends4 ,but they can send her presents to let her know that they think of her4 ,and what tokens of remembrance are more welcome than flowers8 ,sidenote3 ,flowers as ornaments4 ,flowers are much used as ornaments1 even among savages4 ,they are more beautiful than any ornaments that man can make4 ,what is more elegant than handsome hair dressed with flowers8 ,as natural flowers droop so easily1 we make artificial ones for ornaments4 ,sometimes they are made so well that they look like fresh flowers just picked from the garden4 ,sidenote3 ,flowers in dress and furniture4 ,we like flowers so much that we copy them in the figures in dress and furniture4 ,gems and ornaments of gold and silver are arranged in flower-shapes4 ,figures of flowers are seen in the patterns on dresses more often than any other figures4 ,the calico-printer gets his prettiest figures from the flowers that he sees in the field and garden4 ,the richest carpets are those in which the figures are flowers4 ,we often see in the carpet under our feet a great variety of flowers of the most beautiful colors4 ,we seem to tread on beds crowded full of roses and various kinds of flowers2 and we have no fear of crushing them as when we tread on real flowers4 ,flowers1 too1 are stamped on the papers on our walls4 ,you often see representations of flowers woven in table-cloths and napkins4 ,you see the figures of flowers worked beautifully on articles of silver4 ,you see them too on vases in which we put real flowers4 ,flowers are often carved in furniture1 and even the stove-maker has them on his stoves1 whether they are made for the parlor or the kitchen4 ,thus it is that we have flowers about us whenever we can4 ,and where we can not have flowers1 we have representations of them4 ,sidenote3 ,why ,god has given us beautiful things4 ,i said in the first chapter that every body likes flowers4 ,perhaps ,i ought to say that almost every body likes them4 ,a man may be so wicked and so like a brute that he can see no beauty in flowers4 ,a man may love to hoard up money1 so much1 that he will not care about any thing beautiful4 ,some men can not see any use in flowers4 ,they think that potatoes1 and turnips1 and beets1 ought to grow where their daughters have their flower-garden4 ,they forget that ,god has given us beautiful things for the purpose of having us enjoy them4 ,god has a use for every thing that he has made1 and this is the use of flowers4 ,and he likes to see us love the beautiful things that he has given us1 and make a proper use of them4 ,sidenote3 ,love of children for flowers4 ,children always love flowers4 ,the baby puts out its little hands to them before it can hold any thing1 and shows that it is pleased by its smiles and funny noises4 ,and the child that can run about and talk1 is delighted as it runs up and down the garden1 and says 8,pretty1 pretty60 to every flower4 ,sidenote3 ,flowers in the school-room4 ,there ought always to be flowers in the school-room4 ,the place where the happy child goes to learn should be made very cheerful4 ,pleasant things will make it so1 and flowers are certainly very pleasant things4 ,and then1 they are very easily obtained4 ,scholars can bring them1 and they can be put into vases where all can see them4 ,pictures would make a school-room look very pleasant1 but they are too costly4 ,flowers are cheap1 since they commonly cost only the trouble of gathering and bringing them to school4 ,questions4--,what is said about giving a bouquet to your teacher8 ,why are presents of flowers so pleasant to a sick person8 ,what is said of flowers as ornaments8 ,what of artificial flowers8 ,tell how we copy flowers in dress and in furniture4 ,are there some who do not like flowers8 ,for what did ,god make flowers8 ,how do very little children show that they like them8 ,what is said about having flowers in the school-room8 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,how ,,flowers ,,are ,,made4 ,if you love flowers you will like to know all that you can about them4 ,it is just as it is when you love a person4 ,you want to know all that you can about the friends that you love so well4 ,and if you love flowers1 you will like to know what ,i have to tell you about them4 ,sidenote3 ,what is growing8 ,you go out into the garden1 and you see among all the flowers there a large red rose4 ,look at it1 and see how many red leaves it has all folded together4 ,how did that rose come there8 ,that is plain enough1 you will say--it grew there4 ,and most grown people as well as children think that this is all that is to be said about it4 ,but what is growing8 ,do you know how a rose grows8 ,i will tell you something about this4 ,illustration ,that rose was once a very little bud1 such as you see here4 ,then it did not look any thing like a rose4 ,it was a little green thing with nothing red in it4 ,you would not suppose that it ever could turn into a rose1 if you had not seen buds turn into roses before4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,rose-buds4 ,the little rose-bud becomes larger and larger every day4 ,soon it begins to open1 as is represented here1 and you see the red leaves of the flower all folded together4 ,it spreads out these leaves after a little time1 and now you see the full-blown rose4 ,illustration ,here is a representation of a rose in full bloom4 ,how much larger it is than the little bud from which it came1 and how different it is from it6 ,a great many leaves it spreads out in its bosom4 ,sometimes the difference is greater than what you see here4 ,some kinds of roses are very large indeed1 but their buds at the first are very small4 ,this rose was made4 ,we commonly say that it grew1 without thinking what growing is4 ,it was made from something4 ,there was something that came to the bud to make it into a rose4 ,what was it that came to the bud8 ,how did it come there8 ,i will tell you4 ,sidenote3 ,roses are made out of sap4 ,the rose was made from a juice1 or sap1 as we call it4 ,this sap kept coming to the bud all the time that it was growing larger1 and then all the time that it was changing into a rose4 ,we do not know how this sap can be made into such a beautiful red flower4 ,this we can not understand4 ,the wisest man in the world can not tell us how it is done4 ,but ,god1 who made all the flowers and every thing else1 understands it4 ,sidenote3 ,how the sap comes to the bud4 ,sidenote3 ,sap-pipes and water-pipes4 ,but you will ask how the sap comes to the bud4 ,you see that slender stem that holds the rose4 ,there are little fine pipes in that stem1 and the sap comes through these pipes4 ,all the time that the bud is turning into a rose1 the sap comes to it through these pipes in the stem1 just as water comes through pipes to our houses4 ,these pipes in the stem are very small1 and there are a great many of them4 ,they are so small that you can not see them1 but they are large enough to let the sap run along through them4 ,if the sap should stop coming through these pipes to the bud1 it could not become a rose4 ,if you pick a bud1 you know that it stops growing1 and never becomes a rose4 ,this is because no more sap can come to it through the pipes of the stem4 ,it is just as no water can come into a house if the water-pipe be cut off outside4 ,the sap from which the rose is made we should suppose would be like the rose4 ,but it is not4 ,it is not red1 as you see breaking the stem4 ,it does not taste at all like the leaves of the rose4 ,sidenote3 ,rose-buds are rose-factories4 ,it does not seem very wonderful that the little green bud should be made from the sap in the stem4 ,but it does seem very strange that the bright-red leaves of the rose should be made from it4 ,suppose some one should take some stems1 and bruise them1 so as to get the sap out of them4 ,could he make a rose from this sap8 ,oh no4 ,this can be done only in the bud4 ,that is the rose-factory4 ,the sap must go there to be made into a rose4 ,questions4--,why do you want to know about flowers8 ,do most people think it plain how a rose-bud becomes a rose8 ,how is the rose different from the bud8 ,is the rose made8 ,what is it made from8 ,how does the sap get to the bud8 ,if you pick a bud1 why does it not become a rose8 ,is the sap in the stem like the rose8 ,can any one make a rose from the sap8 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,colors ,,of ,,flowers4 ,i have told you about red roses4 ,but all roses1 you know1 are not red4 ,there are white and yellow roses4 ,and some roses are a very light red1 while others are a dark red4 ,now1 how are all these different colors made8 ,sidenote3 ,how flowers are dyed4 ,if you ask a dyer how he gives cloths different colors1 he will tell you that he dips them into different dyes4 ,he has a dye in one place that gives a red color1 and one in another place that gives a yellow color2 and so for all the different colors4 ,the roses are not colored in this way2 they are not dipped into dyes4 ,but the colors must come from something4 ,from what do you think they come8 ,sidenote3 ,the colors made from the sap4 ,we do not know exactly how these colors are made4 ,the sap seems to be the same in the stems of all the different roses4 ,it is not yellow in the stem of the yellow rose1 and red in the stem of the red rose4 ,the stems of all the roses are green1 and the buds at first are green4 ,but in some way all the different colors are made from something4 ,and as there is nothing there but the sap that comes in the stems1 the colors must be made from this4 ,air and light have something to do with making the colors1 but they are made from the sap4 ,i have told you only about roses4 ,but there are many1 very many other flowers with every variety of color4 ,they are all made from the sap that comes to the buds through the stems4 ,this is true of the flowers on the trees as well as of those that you see on stalks and bushes4 ,the sap is different in the different trees and plants4 ,but in none of them can you find sap that is like the flowers that are made from it4 ,in some flowers you see different colors beautifully mixed together4 ,these different colors are made from the same sap4 ,in the garden-violet you see a purple and a yellow color4 ,in the iris you see a purple1 a yellow1 and a blue4 ,these three colors are very unlike1 and yet they are made from the same sap that comes up the stem4 ,in the ,china pinks you see a great variety of colors alongside of each other4 ,sidenote3 ,mixing and shading off of colors in flowers4 ,sometimes the colors shade off into each other beautifully4 ,you see this in the pink4 ,sometimes one color is put right upon another in streaks or in spots4 ,you see stripes of color in tulips4 ,in the tiger lily there are dark spots of a very different color from that reddish-brown upon which they are put4 ,how it is that out of the same sap one color is made in one part of a flower1 and another color in another part1 we do not know4 ,sometimes two entirely different colors are side by side4 ,in one kind of poppy the leaves of the flower are white except on the very end1 and there they are red4 ,they look as if all their edges had been dipped in a red dye4 ,now how it is that the sap should make the flower white every where except on the tips of its leaves1 and there make it red1 we do not know4 ,neither can we tell how one color is made to shade off or run into another color4 ,this is often so nicely done1 that you can not tell where one color begins and another ends4 ,you see this in the apple-blossom4 ,the reddish color runs off into a pure white1 but there is no place where you can say the white begins4 ,sidenote3 ,change of color in some flowers4 ,the colors of flowers change some as they open4 ,a flower is not exactly of the same color when it is partly opened as it is when its leaves are all spread out to the light4 ,there is a vine called the cobea that has a singular change in the color of its flowers4 ,when they first open they are a pale green4 ,they are of this color when they are fully opened4 ,but after a while they have a rich purple color4 ,it is like the change of color that you see in some fruits4 ,an orange1 you know1 is at first green2 but when it is ripe1 it is a bright yellow orange4 ,i might go on to tell you much more about the colors of flowers4 ,but you can look for yourselves in the garden and in the field1 and see how differently the colors are arranged in one flower and in another4 ,questions4--,are roses of different colors8 ,how does a dyer give different colors to cloth8 ,do we know how the colors of flowers are made8 ,what are they made from8 ,what is said of the great variety of colors in flowers8 ,mention some flowers in which different colors are alongside of each other4 ,is it strange that they are made from the same sap8 ,what is said of one kind of poppy8 ,what is said of the shading off of colors8 ,tell about the flower of the cobea4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,perfume ,,of ,,flowers4 ,there is another thing in the flower besides the color that is made from the sap4 ,it is its perfume4 ,how delightful this is in the rose6 ,and how long it lasts6 ,but you can smell none of it in the sap from which the rose is made4 ,there is commonly very little odor in the stem through which the sap comes to a flower1 and it is not at all like that which you smell in the flower itself4 ,sidenote3 ,some flowers perfume-factories4 ,the perfume is not in the stem2 but that from which the perfume is made is there4 ,something is done to the sap as it comes to the flower to make it give out the perfume4 ,every fragrant flower is a perfume-factory4 ,some flowers have no odor1 while others smell very strong4 ,the lilac and the syringa1 you know1 have a strong smell4 ,they are quite pleasant in the open air2 but when they are in a closed room they are disagreeable1 because their odor is so strong4 ,sidenote3 ,some have no fragrance4 ,there is no fragrance in many of our most beautiful flowers4 ,this is true of the cactus in all its varieties4 ,when you look at a large cactus blossom1 so splendid in its colors1 it seems to you that it must smell sweet4 ,but if you put it to your nose1 as a child is apt to do1 you find that it has no smell4 ,then there are the elegant japonicas1 of various colors1 that have no fragrance4 ,the showy red peonies in the garden look to a child so much like large red roses1 that it seems to him as if they ought to have a pleasant smell4 ,but they have none4 ,perhaps you have seen in the autumn some very bright scarlet flowers standing on a stalk in damp places4 ,it is the cardinal flower4 ,some call it eye-bright4 ,this elegant flower has no fragrance4 ,and there is none in the fringed gentian1 another beautiful wild flower of autumn4 ,it seems enough for such flowers that they are so beautiful4 ,sidenote3 ,some both beautiful and fragrant4 ,but there are some flowers that have both great beauty and delicious fragrance4 ,this is true of most kinds of roses4 ,whenever any one gives you a rose1 you put it up to your nose at once4 ,you expect that it will smell sweet1 of course2 and you feel disappointed if it does not4 ,the cape jessamine is one of the most beautiful of flowers1 and1 at the same time1 it has a delightful fragrance4 ,the pure clear white flower appears very beautiful among the glossy green leaves4 ,in a southern climate it is one of the most splendid of flowers4 ,sidenote3 ,variety in the fragrance of flowers4 ,most flowers have some odor4 ,and the odors of the different flowers are all different from each other4 ,if you were blindfolded1 and a pink1 a rose1 an apple blossom1 a pond lily1 an orange blossom1 and a clover-head1 were put up to your nose1 one after the other1 you would know each of them by its smell4 ,and so of other flowers4 ,what a variety there is in the fragrance that the flowers in the garden and the field send forth into the air6 ,what a multitude of different perfume-factories has our kind heavenly ,father provided just to gratify us6 ,sidenote3 ,clover-field4 ,sometimes a great many of these factories of one kind are together1 and then the air is filled with the perfume they make4 ,you will at once think of a clover-field4 ,how sweet the fragrance as the wind blows over the field and brings it to you6 ,all this perfume comes from millions of little factories4 ,for each clover-head is a perfume-factory1 as you may know if you pick one and smell it4 ,sidenote3 ,grape-vine4 ,the fragrance from the flowers of the grape-vine is very delicious4 ,it is of this that ,solomon speaks when he says1 8,the vines with the tender grape give a good smell40 ,when the grape-vines are in bloom the air is filled with their fragrance2 and yet the flowers are so small1 and so near the color of the stem and the leaves1 that you would not notice them1 unless you looked particularly for them4 ,sidenote3 ,unpleasant odor of some plants4 ,there are some flowers that have an unpleasant odor4 ,sometimes this is because they are poisonous1 the odor making us avoid them1 and thus saving us from danger4 ,but in many cases we can not see any such reason for the unpleasant odor4 ,why it is that such a splendid flower as the crown imperial should smell so disagreeable we do not understand4 ,one thing1 however1 is true3 the bad-smelling plants are few1 while ,god has given us a multitude of those that smell sweet4 ,questions4--,what else in the flower1 besides color1 is made from the sap8 ,is the perfume in the stem8 ,where is it made8 ,mention some flowers that have a strong smell4 ,mention some that are very handsome1 and yet have no fragrance4 ,mention some that have both fragrance and beauty4 ,what is said about the different odors of flowers8 ,how does this show the goodness of ,god to us8 ,tell about the clover-field4 ,what is said of the flowers of the grape-vine8 ,what is said of flowers with a bad odor8 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,shapes ,,of ,,flowers4 ,sidenote3 ,flowers shaped like stars4 ,flowers are of all kinds of shapes4 ,the shape of the flower often gives it its name4 ,some are shaped like stars1 and are called asters1 the word in ,latin for stars4 ,there are many kinds of these asters that grow wild in the autumn4 ,some of them are blue1 some purple1 and some white4 ,and then there are the ,china-asters that you see in the garden4 ,there is a beautiful wild flower called1 from its shape1 ladies' tresses4 ,and so1 too1 we have ladies' ear-drops1 and the lady's slipper4 ,sidenote3 ,butterfly-shaped flowers4 ,illustration ,some flowers are shaped like butterflies4 ,this is the shape of the pea-blossom which you see here4 ,a very beautiful flower it is1 though people seldom think much about it4 ,they think only of the peas which they are to gather by-and-by4 ,there is one curious thing about the color of the pea-blossom4 ,sometimes1 you know1 it is white1 and sometimes it is a purplish red4 ,now when it is red1 you can see red spots all the way down the stalk1 at the joints where the branches go off from it4 ,it is as if the sap as it went up to color the blossom1 left some of its red dye in these spots on the way4 ,you see no such spots on the stalk when the flowers are white4 ,sidenote3 ,bell-shaped flowers4 ,here are the flowers of the lily of the valley4 ,they are like little bells hanging from the stem4 ,this is one of the sweetest of all flowers4 ,the little blue-bells1 so pretty1 and yet so troublesome in the garden1 have their name from their bell-shape4 ,so also have the ,canterbury bells4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,cup-shaped4 ,some flowers are cup-shaped4 ,this shape gives its name to the bright yellow buttercup that you know so well4 ,the cup-daffodil1 as we call it1 has the middle part of the flower in the shape of a cup4 ,the cup part of it is quite deep4 ,the flower is bent over4 ,if it stood upright1 its cup would be filled with water when it rains4 ,the narcissus1 too1 which bends over like the cup-daffodil1 has a little cup1 as you see in the figure1 in the middle of it4 ,its cup1 you observe1 is shallow4 ,it is something like a bowl4 ,illustration ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,funnel-shaped4 ,here is a flower of a funnel or tunnel shape4 ,we see this shape in the flowers of the cypress-vine1 and of the tobacco-plant4 ,the flower of the morning-glory1 which you will see on page #da1 has this shape quite perfectly4 ,it looks very much like a tunnel4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,calceolaria4 ,the flower that you see here is one of the varieties of calceolaria4 ,it hangs down like a bag1 or pocket1 having a round opening above4 ,the blossom of which this is a drawing was of a bright yellow color with red spots on it4 ,there are many varieties of this singular flower1 having different colors1 and different sizes4 ,illustration ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,wake-robin4 ,sidenote3 ,calla4 ,the flower here represented is the wake-robin1 or ,indian turnip4 ,it is found in rather damp and shady places4 ,what you see is commonly called the flower1 but it is not really so4 ,it is a covering for the flowers of the plant1 which are very small4 ,they are on the lower part of that rounded stalk that stands up in the middle4 ,this splendid covering or house for the little flowers is green in one variety1 and of a dark purple in the other4 ,in the beautiful calla the flowers are small1 and are on a stalk like that in the wake-robin4 ,that pure white trumpet-shaped thing that we so much admire is not really the flower1 though it is called so4 ,sidenote3 ,trumpet-creeper4 ,sidenote3 ,catching humming-birds4 ,some flowers are shaped like a trumpet4 ,this is the shape of the blossom of the trumpet-creeper4 ,the blossom1 you know1 is very deep4 ,the humming-bird is fond of going quite into it4 ,i suppose he goes in after the honey in the bottom of the flower4 ,i have sometimes caught this beautiful bird by grasping the blossom in my hand when he had fairly got into it4 ,i only kept the trembling little creature long enough to let us see how beautiful he was1 and how curiously his long bill was made1 with its slender tongue1 to gather the honey4 ,i soon set him free1 and he was off again as joyous and as busy as ever1 going from flower to flower4 ,the blossom of the snap-dragon has a queer shape that gives it its name4 ,by pressing it together sideways1 you can make it open like a mouth1 and there are little white things that look like teeth4 ,and then1 if you let go of it1 this mouth snaps together4 ,you have often seen the golden rod by the road-side in the last of summer and in autumn4 ,its golden yellow blossoms grow on a tall stalk in such a way that its name seems a very proper one4 ,it is truly a rod of golden flowers4 ,sidenote3 ,compound flowers4 ,there are some flowers that are called compound4 ,they are called so because each flower is made up of a great many flowers4 ,the dandelion is a flower of this kind4 ,each blossom has a great number of flowers in it4 ,these you can easily pick apart4 ,each one of these looks beautiful if you see it through a microscope4 ,sidenote3 ,ox-eyed daisy4 ,the blossom of the clover is one of the same kind of flowers4 ,the white daisy1 too1 or ox-eyed daisy1 as some call it1 that you see scattered over fields among the grass1 is a compound flower4 ,i have counted in one of these blossoms over six hundred flowers4 ,these flowers are in the yellow part in the middle1 that has a row of white leaves all around it4 ,they are very small4 ,but when you look at them through a microscope1 you can see that each one is a beautiful1 perfect flower4 ,so1 then1 there is a whole garden of flowers in one of these blossoms4 ,if these six hundred flowers could be taken out and turned into large flowers1 they would make very much such a show as six hundred yellow lilies would4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,mountain daisy4 ,the mountain daisy1 here represented1 is a pretty little flower of the same kind4 ,it has in its golden yellow bosom a multitude of little flowers close together1 just as our common white daisy has4 ,and around this yellow part there is a row of delicate leaves1 sometimes reddish1 and sometimes white4 ,this is a favorite flower in ,england and ,scotland1 where it is very common in the fields4 ,there has been a great deal of poetry written about it4 ,burns1 the great poet of ,scotland1 has some sweet verses to this 8wee1 modest1 crimson-tipped flower10 as he calls it4 ,here are some lines that some one has written about it4 8,i'm a pretty little thing1 ,always coming with the spring2 ,in the meadows green ,i'm found1 ,peeping just above the ground1 ,and my stalk is covered flat ,with a white and yellow hat4 8,little maiden1 when you pass ,lightly o'er the tender grass1 ,step aside1 and do not tread ,on my meek and lowly head1 ,for ,i always seem to say1 ,chilly winter's gone away40 ,very pretty poetry this is1 but ,i think the poet is wrong in making this modest little flower praise itself4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,tassels of the willow1 alder1 etc4 ,the flowers on many trees hang down1 as represented in this figure1 in tassels4 ,the flowers of the willow hang in this way4 ,there are a great many flowers in each tassel4 ,in the figure1 in one of the tassels the flowers are fully open1 and in the other they are not4 ,sometimes they are very delicate4 ,they are in the black alder4 ,it is curious to see how different they look when the flowers are open and when they are not4 ,when they are open1 they look beautiful1 as seen through a microscope4 ,when the chestnut-trees are in blossom1 their tassels1 hanging in clusters1 give them a very rich appearance4 ,sidenote3 ,why flowers have such variety of shapes4 ,you have seen in this chapter that the variety of shapes in flowers is very great4 ,it is almost without limit4 ,now the ,creator makes all this variety of form for the same reason that he gives to flowers such a variety of colors4 ,it is to feast our eyes and make us happy4 ,questions4--,mention some of the shapes of flowers spoken of in the first of the chapter4 ,tell about the pea-blossom4 ,mention some flowers that are shaped like bells4 ,mention some that are cup-shaped4 ,mention some that are shaped like a tunnel4 ,tell about the calceolaria4 ,tell about the ,indian turnip and the calla4 ,what is said of the trumpet-creeper8 ,of the snap-dragon8 ,of the golden rod8 ,what are compound flowers8 ,mention some of them4 ,tell about the white daisy4 ,also the mountain daisy4 ,mention some trees that have their flowers in tassels4 ,tell about these tassels4 ,why has ,god given such variety of shape to flowers8 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,habits ,,of ,,flowers4 ,flowers have habits1 or ways of acting1 just as people do4 ,i will tell you about some of them4 ,sidenote3 ,flowers turning to the light4 ,all flowers naturally turn toward the light1 as if they loved it4 ,you can see this if you watch plants that are standing near a window4 ,the flowers will all be bent toward the light if you let the pots stand just in the same way all the time4 ,by turning the pots a little every day or two while the blossoms are opening1 you can make the flowers look in different directions4 ,sidenote3 ,the bumble-bee in the tulip4 ,there are some flowers that shut themselves up at night as if to go to sleep1 and open again in the morning4 ,tulips do this4 ,i was once admiring in the morning some flowers that were sent to me the evening before by a lady4 ,among them were some tulips1 and out of one of these1 as it opened1 flew a bumble-bee4 ,a lazy1 dronish bee he must have been to be caught in this way as the flower was closing itself for the night4 ,or1 perhaps he had done a hard day's work in gathering honey1 and just at night was so sleepy that he stayed too long in the tulip1 and so was shut in4 ,a very elegant bed the old bee had that night4 ,i wonder if he slept any better than he would have done if he had been in his homely nest4 ,sidenote3 ,mountain daisies4 ,the pond-lily closes its pure white leaves at night as it lies upon its watery bed4 ,but it unfolds them again in the morning4 ,how beautiful it looks as it is spread out upon the water in the sunlight6 ,the little mountain daisy that ,i told you about in the last chapter1 is among the flowers that close at night4 ,but it is as bright as ever on its 8slender stem0 when it wakes up in the morning4 ,when it shuts itself up it is a little round green ball1 and looks something like a pea4 ,you would not see it in the midst of the grass if you did not look for it4 ,but look the next morning1 and the ball is opened1 and shows 8a golden tuft within a silver crown40 ,and very beautiful it is when there are so many of the daisies together that the grass is spangled with them in the bright sun4 ,it is supposed that this flower was at first called 8day's eye10 because it opens its eye at the day's dawn1 and after a while it became shortened to daisy4 ,sidenote3 ,dandelions4 ,sidenote3 ,salsify4 ,the golden flowers of the dandelion are shut up every night4 ,they are folded up so closely in their green coverings1 that they look like buds that have never yet been opened4 ,the blossoms of the salsify1 or vegetable oyster1 close in the same manner1 but not at the same time4 ,they close always at noon4 ,in the morning their tall1 straight stalks make quite a brilliant appearance1 each one having a deep purple flower at its top4 ,all these are shut up in the afternoon1 and you see at the top of each stalk a large pointed bud4 ,the flowers of this plant are very much like the dandelion1 both when closed and when open4 ,the seeds1 also1 are very similar1 as you will see in another chapter1 and make together1 around the top of the stalk1 a similar feathery globe4 ,there is one curious habit which the dandelion has4 ,when the sun is very hot it closes itself up to keep from wilting4 ,it is in this way sheltered in its green covering from the sun4 ,it sometimes1 when the weather is very hot1 shuts itself up as early as nine o'clock in the morning4 ,some flowers hang down their heads at night as if they were nodding in their sleep4 ,but in the morning they lift them up again to welcome the light4 ,sidenote3 ,primroses4 ,sidenote3 ,four o'clocks4 ,some flowers have a particular time to open4 ,the evening primrose does not open till evening1 and hence comes its name4 ,the flower called four o'clock opens at that hour in the afternoon4 ,there is a flower commonly called go-to-bed-at-noon1 that always opens in the morning and shuts up at noon4 ,sidenote3 ,flowers of the cypress-vine4 ,most flowers last for some time4 ,but there are some that last only a few hours4 ,the red flowers of the delicate and rich cypress-vine open in the morning1 and in the afternoon they close up1 never to open again4 ,but there are always some buds to open every day4 ,it is delightful to one who loves flowers to see every morning a new set of these bright blossoms appear among the fine dark-green leaves of this vine4 ,questions4--,what is said of flowers turning to the light8 ,what do some flowers do at night8 ,tell about the bumble-bee4 ,what is said of the pond-lily8 ,what of the mountain daisy8 ,what of the dandelion8 ,what is said of the time of opening of some flowers8 ,tell about the flowers of the cypress-vine4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,more ,,about ,,the ,,habits ,,of ,,flowers4 ,sidenote3 ,buds and flowers of the morning-glory4 ,you have often seen the flowers of the morning-glory4 ,these last only from early in the morning to noon1 or a little after noon4 ,in the afternoon they are all closed1 and the vines look very dull without any flowers on them4 ,but look the next morning1 and you will see a plenty of these beautiful flowers4 ,they open before most people are out of their beds4 ,and1 just as ,i told you about the cypress-vine1 there is a new set of them every day4 ,illustration ,it is curious to see in what way the blossom of the morning-glory opens and then shuts itself up to die4 ,if you look in the afternoon you will find here and there a bud shaped as you see in this figure4 ,the flower part of it1 you observe1 is twisted at its pointed end in a spiral manner2 that is1 something like a cork-screw4 ,this bud will be an open flower the next morning4 ,on the following page you see the flower as it looks when it is fully opened4 ,there are ribs running up from the lower part of the flower4 ,each of these ribs comes to a point at the edge4 ,they give firmness to the blossom4 ,they are its frame-work1 its timbers4 ,without these ribs it could not stand like a cup on its stem1 as it does now1 but would hang loosely down4 ,the open spread part of the flower is very thin1 and the ribs are to it what the whalebones are to an umbrella4 ,illustration ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,closing of the flower of the morning-glory4 ,in this figure you see how the flower looks as it is partly closed4 ,the points of the ribs are all turned in toward the middle of the flower4 ,they bend in more and more1 and after a while the flower wilts and dies4 ,now it is curious that the ribs of the flower should be folded so differently when it closes from what they are before it opens4 ,before it opens they are folded in a spiral form1 as you see in the figure in the preceding page4 ,when it closes1 we would suppose that they would fold up in the same form4 ,but they do not4 ,they bend straight over1 and the points come together in the middle of the flower4 ,sidenote3 ,night-blooming cereus4 ,there are some flowers that open only at night4 ,that splendid flower1 the night-blooming cereus1 is one of them4 ,and it opens only once4 ,it lets us see its beauty only a few hours1 and then it wilts and dies4 ,it is a very large flower1 and its opening is commonly watched for with great eagerness4 ,it is a rare flower1 and it is only now and then that we can get an opportunity of seeing it4 ,it is very fragrant4 ,it opens commonly quite late in the evening1 and shuts itself up the latter part of the night4 ,it never lets the light of day into its bosom4 ,it makes us feel almost sad that so beautiful a flower lasts so short a time4 ,we should feel really sad if most flowers did not last longer than this4 ,sidenote3 ,the succession of flowers4 ,through spring1 summer1 and autumn1 we have a succession of flowers of every kind4 ,some last but a little while1 and some feast our eyes for a long time4 ,they come one after another4 ,each has its own season1 and opens at its appointed time every year4 ,in this succession of flowers we are never without some of them before us till the cold weather of winter comes again4 ,god has thus kindly provided us with beautiful things to look upon1 in the garden and in the field1 through all the warmer months of the year4 ,in the spring the flowers are small and delicate1 but are generally quite fragrant4 ,in the summer we have very many more flowers than in spring or autumn4 ,they have every variety of color and shape4 ,they are commonly very fragrant1 so that the air is filled with pleasant odors4 ,in autumn the flowers generally have bright colors1 and are very showy2 but few of them have any fragrance4 ,questions4--,how are the flowers of the morning-glory like those of the cypress-vine8 ,tell about the bud of the morning-glory2 also about the flower when it is open1 its shape1 and its ribs2 also about the way in which it shuts up4 ,what is said of the night-blooming cereus8 ,tell about the succession of flowers4 ,how are the flowers of the spring1 and summer1 and autumn different8 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,what ,,live ,,on ,,flowers4 ,sidenote3 ,food in flowers4 ,flowers are made chiefly for us to look at4 ,it is to gratify our eyes1 as ,i have before told you1 that the ,creator has made them so beautiful1 and has given to them such a variety of shape and color4 ,but they are good for something else besides this4 ,many different animals get their food from them4 ,these animals are very small1 and need but little food2 but that little they get from flowers4 ,sidenote3 ,honey-bees4 ,you see many different kinds of insects about most flowers4 ,most of these insects1 we suppose1 live upon the honey that they find there4 ,we know that some do1 for we see them gathering it4 ,we see the bees do this4 ,the busy little honey-bee goes from flower to flower1 and gets a little honey from each4 ,when he has gathered as much as he well can carry1 off he flies to lay it up in the hive4 ,a great many bees there are in one hive2 and each bringing continually his little load1 they after a while lay up a large amount of honey4 ,sidenote3 ,bumble-bees4 ,the bumble-bee1 too1 is busy among the flowers4 ,see how quickly he flies from one flower to another1 humming as he goes4 ,now he comes to a little flower1 sticks his head in1 and in a moment is off--buzz1 buzz--for another4 ,and now you see him come to a large1 deep flower2 and in he goes1 almost out of sight1 and his buzzing is stopped for some time4 ,soon he backs out to fly to another4 ,and so he goes from flower to flower to gather his load of honey4 ,sidenote3 ,curious facts about bumble-bees4 ,i have been amused to see how the bumble-bee manages with some flowers4 ,the flower of the cypress-vine is very deep1 but it is so small that he can not get into it so as to reach the honey4 ,he knows that there is honey there1 for he smells it4 ,now how do you think he gets at it8 ,by working away a little while he pushes himself into the flower so as to split it open4 ,and now he can come to the bottom of the flower where the honey is4 ,in this way he spoils a great many flowers in getting his load of honey4 ,i have observed one thing about the bumble-bees that ,i do not understand4 ,some of them go inside of flowers to get their honey1 while others go only on the outside1 just at the bottom of the cup of the flower4 ,it is curious to see two bumble-bees on one stalk of flowers1 one going into all of them1 and the other getting his honey from the outside of them4 ,i have often seen this1 but never could find the reason of it4 ,another thing ,i have observed about the bumble-bees4 ,each one generally goes only to flowers of one kind4 ,if1 for instance1 he begins with china-asters1 he will go to no other flowers to gather his honey4 ,he will sometimes take a look at others as he goes buzzing along1 but he flies on till he finds some more china-asters4 ,soon off he starts for his nest1 and perhaps1 when he comes again1 he goes to some other kind of flowers4 ,if he begin now with morning-glories1 you will see him pushing himself into every one that he comes to1 and he will not stop at any other flower4 ,sidenote3 ,honey made from different things4 ,we commonly speak of the bees as gathering honey4 ,this is not exactly correct4 ,they make honey out of what they get from the flowers4 ,and it is well known that the honey-bees1 as they are called1 can manufacture better honey from what they gather from some flowers than they can from what they gather from others4 ,from the fragrant flowers of the garden and the white clover of the fields is made the delicate white honey that you often see on the tea-table4 ,but the bee can not always find such nice food2 and then it flies off to the buckwheat fields1 or perhaps helps itself to the drainings of some molasses or sugar cask in front of the grocer's door4 ,honey made from these things does very well for the bees' winter store1 but it does not suit our taste4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,butterflies4 ,those beautiful insects1 the butterflies1 get their living among the flowers4 ,as they fly about1 they now and then stop and rest upon some flower1 as you see this one doing4 ,this is done not merely for the sake of resting1 but to take some food from the flower4 ,questions4--,what use have flowers besides being beautiful to look at8 ,what is said of the honey-bee8 ,what of the bumble-bee8 ,tell how he manages with the flowers of the cypress-vine4 ,what is said about bumble-bees going some to the inside and some to the outside of flowers8 ,what is said about the making of honey8 ,tell about the butterflies4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,more ,,about ,,what ,,live ,,on ,,flowers4 ,the humming-bird also lives on the flowers4 ,this little creature seems always to be on the wing when he is not in his nest4 ,he is seldom seen sitting on a branch like other birds4 ,as he puts his long bill into a flower he does not stand on any thing4 ,he is held up by his fluttering wings4 ,his wings never seem to be still1 but are always quivering4 ,and then how very quickly he goes from one flower to another4 ,he seems to dart as if by a sudden spring1 instead of flying like other birds4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the humming-bird and his nest4 ,here is a representation of a humming-bird1 with his nest4 ,it is the smallest nest that is made by a bird4 ,it is nicely made4 ,it is very soft inside with down and other things4 ,the outside is generally covered with moss gathered from trees or fences4 ,fastened to the branch of a tree1 as you see1 it does not appear like a nest if you look at it sideways4 ,it is so nearly of the same color with the bark of the branch1 that you would not be apt to observe it unless you were looking very sharply4 ,sidenote3 ,anecdote about a humming-bird4 ,a lady once found a humming-bird that seemed almost dead4 ,its long slender tongue lay out of its bill1 and it was very dry4 ,she pitied the poor bird1 and moistened its tongue with a little sugar and water4 ,it drew its tongue in1 and then put it out again4 ,as it seemed to like the sugar and water1 she gave it more4 ,soon the little creature was so revived that it was on its fluttering wings again1 and flew off to sip something better than sugar and water from the beautiful flowers4 ,i have told you about the bees and butterflies4 ,there are other insects besides these that seem to get their living from flowers4 ,there is a great variety of them about flowers1 if we look for them4 ,st4 ,pierre1 a ,frenchman in ,paris1 watched a strawberry-plant that he had in a flower-pot4 ,in three weeks he counted thirty-seven different kinds of insects that visited it4 ,sidenote3 ,variety of insects about flowers4 ,if you go out into the garden in the middle of the day1 you will see what a variety of insects there is4 ,there are more about some flowers than about others4 ,about some of them there are so many that it makes a very lively1 busy scene4 ,besides the bees you will see flies of every color and of every size4 ,some are flying from flower to flower4 ,some seem to be on the wing all the time4 ,these are all the while singing as they hover over the flowers1 as if they enjoyed themselves very much in looking at such beautiful things4 ,and others are resting themselves here and there1 or are walking leisurely about4 ,sidenote3 ,bugs on flowers4 ,besides the flies1 there are bugs crawling about on the flowers4 ,these are of various sizes1 and some of them are very small4 ,some of them have brilliant and rich colors4 ,there is a great deal of hum and stir about a plant where there are so many insects4 ,it is just as it is where there are many people together4 ,and as some people make more noise than others1 so it is with insects4 ,so1 too1 some insects are more bustling than others4 ,sidenote3 ,insects mostly gone from flowers at night4 ,at night the scene is changed4 ,the buzzing of the bees and the singing of the flies are done4 ,the insects have got through with their work and their play1 and have gone to the places where they sleep4 ,if you look just at dusk at a plant that you have seen all alive with insects in the day1 you will find all quiet4 ,the insects are all gone1 except1 perhaps1 some little ones that have gone into the flowers to sleep on the soft and elegant bed they find there4 ,sidenote3 ,the chilled bumble-bee4 ,sometimes insects1 like people1 get into trouble by staying out late at night4 ,on a cool morning ,i found a bumble-bee clinging to a flower4 ,he was very torpid1 and he could not fly when ,i poked him with a little stick4 ,he could only buzz and thrust out his sting4 ,after the sun warmed him he flew off4 ,i suppose that he stayed out so late that he got chilled1 and could not make his way home to his nest4 ,questions4--,tell about the humming-bird1 and about his nest4 ,give the anecdote told about a humming-bird4 ,tell about the ,frenchman and his strawberry-plant4 ,what is said of the variety of flies that we see about flowers8 ,and of the variety of bugs8 ,what is said of the hum and stir about some plants8 ,how is it at night8 ,tell about the bumble-bee4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,what ,,the ,,bible ,,says ,,about ,,flowers4 ,sidenote3 ,why man is compared to a flower4 ,flowers are often mentioned in the ,bible4 ,man is said to be like a flower1 because as he dies and is buried in the earth1 so the flower fades and withers1 and falls to the ground4 ,i might give you many texts where this comparison is made4 ,but ,i will mention only one1 which you will find in the first chapter of the ,first ,epistle of ,peter1 in the twenty-fourth verse4 8,for all flesh is as grass1 and all the glory of man as the flower of grass4 ,the grass withereth1 and the flower thereof falleth away40 ,man is compared in the ,bible to a flower for another reason4 ,flowers live but a little while4 ,this is true even of those that live the longest4 ,some last but a few hours1 as ,i told you about the flowers of the morning-glory and the cypress-vine4 ,so it is with mankind4 ,some die very young4 ,these are like the morning-glories4 ,they are beautiful while they live1 and parents and friends like to look at them1 just as we like to look at the beautiful flowers4 ,but their life is short1 very short1 like a flower that blooms only for a day1 and then withers and falls4 ,when such a child dies1 how appropriate to put flowers into the coffin6 ,the dead child is beautiful and pleasant to look upon1 like the flower cut from its stalk1 and both will decay together4 ,but perhaps you will say that old persons are not like flowers1 for they live a great while4 ,it may seem a long time to you1 but if you ask them1 they will tell you that life1 as they look back upon it1 is very short4 ,they are like the flowers that live the longest4 ,while the infant that dies is like the flower that lives but a few hours1 those that die old are like the flowers that last many days4 ,that is all the difference4 ,all flowers die1 and so do all people1 and other flowers and other people take their places4 ,sidenote3 ,why death is said to cut down people4 ,in comparing people to flowers1 the ,bible speaks of them as being cut down4 ,and you have perhaps seen in an old primer ,time represented as an old man having a scythe1 and underneath it reads3 ,time cuts down all1 ,both great and small4 ,it is because death is often so sudden both to young and old that they are said to be cut down like the grass or the flower4 ,you see a beautiful flower standing among the grass1 fresh and gay1 in the bright sun4 ,but the mower's scythe cuts it down1 and it wilts and dies4 ,so it is when death comes1 as it sometimes does1 to the strong and beautiful4 ,so sudden is the change1 that it seems as if they were really cut down like the flower4 ,sidenote3 ,the lilies of the field4 ,sidenote3 ,flowers and cloth compared4 ,there is one comparison about the beauty of flowers that you have often read in the ,bible4 ,it is this3 8,consider the lilies of the field1 how they grow2 they toil not1 neither do they spin2 and yet ,i say unto you1 that even ,solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these40 ,now ,solomon had very rich clothing1 for he was a very rich king4 ,but take the richest clothing and look at it carefully1 and then look at even common flowers1 and you will say that they are much more beautiful than the clothing4 ,and the difference is very great when you use a microscope4 ,the splendid cloth looks coarse and rough when magnified4 ,but it is not so with the flowers4 ,the more they are magnified the more beautiful they appear4 ,sidenote3 ,weedy-looking flowers4 ,even flowers that we commonly think of as weeds1 are beautiful when we come to examine them4 ,the ox-eyed daisy is not considered at all pretty4 ,but pick it and look at it carefully1 and you will see much beauty in it4 ,and if1 with a microscope1 you look at one of the six hundred flowers in its yellow bosom1 you will say that in this weedy-looking flower there is a whole garden of beauties4 ,few people think much about the tassels that hang on so many of the trees and shrubs in the spring2 but1 as ,i have told you before1 they are rich in beauty when we examine them4 ,questions4--,why does the ,bible compare man to a flower8 ,what other reason is there for this comparison8 ,what flowers are they like that die young1 and what are they like that die old8 ,why are people when they die said to be cut down like the grass or the flower8 ,what does the ,bible say of the lilies of the field8 ,what is the difference between cloth and flowers when you look at them carefully8 ,what is the difference when you look at them through a microscope8 ,what is said of the beauty of common and weedy-looking flowers8 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,fruits4 ,when a flower wilts and falls1 there is something left on the end of the flower-stem4 ,it is this that holds the seeds4 ,you can see this in the rose4 ,when the beautiful leaves of the flower are all scattered by the wind1 there is a roundish thick part left on the end of the stem4 ,the seeds are in this4 ,it grows larger1 and becomes of a reddish color4 ,if you break it open you can see the seeds in it4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,seed-holders of the rose4 ,here is represented this seed-holder of the rose1 in the first figure as whole1 and in the second as cut open to show the seeds4 ,you see that the seeds crowd it full4 ,there is no room for any thing else4 ,now this we do not call fruit2 for there is very little of it1 and it does not taste good4 ,but look at what is left when a pear-blossom falls4 ,it is shaped very much like what is left when the leaves of the rose are scattered4 ,but it grows more than that does4 ,when it is fully grown it is larger than it need to be to hold the seeds4 ,the seeds are but a small part of it4 ,it is made to be eaten as well as to hold the seeds4 ,so we call it fruit4 ,sidenote3 ,pears4 ,illustration ,here is a small pear cut in such a way as to show the seeds4 ,you see that it is very different from the pear-shaped seed-holder of the rose4 ,sidenote3 ,oranges4 ,when the blossom of the orange falls1 you see a little round green ball standing on the end of the stem4 ,this grows very much1 and when it is ripe it is large and of a yellow color4 ,just as it is with the pear1 the orange is larger than it needs to be to hold the seeds4 ,we call it fruit1 because it is made for us to eat4 ,sidenote3 ,berries4 ,illustration ,the little yellow flower of the currant1 when it falls1 leaves a small1 round berry4 ,this grows1 and becomes red when it ripens4 ,so it is with the gooseberry4 ,the whortleberry1 you know1 grows dark when it ripens4 ,these berries have the seeds inside of them4 ,the strawberry has its seeds on the outside1 as you see here1 and they give it a very pretty appearance4 ,these berries are all larger than they need to be to hold the seeds4 ,the ,creator intends them for fruit4 ,but he never intended that what holds the rose-seeds should be fruit1 and so he made it only large enough to hold the seeds4 ,sidenote3 ,grapes4 ,the flowers on the grape-vine are very small and delicate4 ,they are much smaller than the fruit that forms after they fall4 ,the delicious grape is something more than a seed-holder4 ,if it were meant only to hold the seeds1 it would not have all that juicy pulp that is so pleasant to the taste4 ,sidenote3 ,different sizes of fruits4 ,fruits are of very different sizes4 ,the fruits of some vines are very large1 as the pumpkin and the watermelon4 ,the fruits of some large trees are quite small4 ,this is the case with the walnut and the chestnut4 ,the acorn is a very small nut1 but every child has been taught that 8,tall oaks from little acorns grow40 ,some of the trees in warm climates bear very large fruit4 ,cocoa-nuts are an example4 ,sidenote3 ,seeds that are fruits4 ,the fruits of the earth that are most largely used by man are in the form of seeds4 ,this is the case with grain1 corn1 peas1 beans1 etc4 ,most of what we raise of these is used for food1 and we keep but a very small part for seed for the next year4 ,the different kinds of grain and corn are used in making bread2 and this1 you know1 is a part of our food that we depend upon so much1 that it is called the staff of life4 ,and this is the reason that in the ,lord's ,prayer bread is used as meaning food1 when we say1 ,give us this day our daily bread4 ,the grains from which our bread is made are quite small4 ,but there are a great many of them4 ,and they are freed from their chaffy coverings1 and are ground between mill-stones1 so as to be changed into the fine flour1 from which we make bread4 ,questions4--,what is said of the seed-vessel of the rose8 ,how is a pear different from this8 ,what is said of the orange8 ,what of currants1 strawberries1 etc48 ,what is said of grapes8 ,what is said of the different sizes of fruits8 ,in what shape are the fruits that are most used by man8 ,why is bread called the staff of life8 ,how do we get the flour from which we make bread8 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,more ,,about ,,fruits4 ,sidenote3 ,fruits made from the sap4 ,you will want to know from what all the fruits are made4 ,they are made from the sap1 just as the flower is4 ,after the flower has fallen the sap keeps coming along the pipes in the stem4 ,and what is on the end of the stem is made from the sap into fruit4 ,you remember that ,i told you that a flower is never like the sap from which it is made4 ,the same is true of the fruit4 ,bite the stem of a cluster of grapes1 and you will see that the sap in it has none of the sweetness of the grapes2 and yet they are made from it1 just as the flowers were before them4 ,how different the fruit often is from the flower that was before it1 though they are both made from the same sap6 ,it may not1 perhaps1 seem strange to you that the sweet orange and its fragrant blossom can be made of the same sap2 for1 though they have different colors1 they are both sweet4 ,but how different a sour apple is from the blossom that was before it6 ,and then1 too1 the orange was sour till it became ripe4 ,but the sap constantly came to it through the stem1 and the juice after a while became sweet4 ,and see how different a thing the peel is from the pulp of the orange4 ,it tastes quite sharp1 and is sometimes bitter4 ,but both peel and pulp are made from the same sap4 ,so1 too1 the skin of some grapes has a very different taste from the pulp4 ,sidenote3 ,variety in the taste and color of fruits4 ,you see that there is a great variety in the fruits that ,god has given to us4 ,i have said something before of their variety of size4 ,they differ also in their taste1 and color1 and shape4 ,some fruits are sour1 and some are sweet4 ,many fruits have a taste that is very different from the taste of any other fruit1 and yet you can not describe it4 ,the chestnut does not taste like the walnut1 but you can not describe the difference to any one so that he would know it4 ,he must taste them himself to know the difference4 ,grapes and whortleberries are both sweet1 but they do not taste alike4 ,there is a great variety of sour apples1 but you always readily see the difference between them when you eat them4 ,there is a great variety in the colors of fruits4 ,but it is not as great as the variety of color in flowers4 ,the ,creator made flowers especially to please the eye4 ,it is for this that he has given them many different colors4 ,he could have made fruits without having any flowers4 ,but he1 in his kindness1 wished to have us gratified by looking at beautiful things4 ,sidenote3 ,beauty of some fruits4 ,flowers are for beauty1 and fruits for use4 ,but many of the fruits are beautiful4 ,our heavenly ,father likes to make beauty go along with what is useful4 ,the orange has a rich color1 and looks beautiful among the green leaves4 ,we admire the clusters of grapes1 as they hang by their slender stems under the broad leaves of the vine4 ,the colors of some of the varieties of the peach and the apple are very rich4 ,the strawberry looks very beautiful1 as the yellow seeds stand out on its red surface4 ,there is a great variety in the forms of fruits4 ,look at the chestnut burr1 and see how different it is from a fair-skinned1 round apple4 ,how different is the strawberry that melts in your mouth from any of the hard nuts6 ,how different is the cocoa-nut from a melon6 ,sidenote3 ,god's bounty in fruits4 ,god smiles upon us in the flowers4 ,but in the fruits we have something more than his smiles4 ,in them he blesses us with his bounty4 ,the flowers are a feast to our eyes2 but the fruits are food to our bodies4 ,sidenote3 ,why fruits have a pleasant taste4 ,but fruits are not made merely to nourish us4 ,they are so made that they gratify our taste while they nourish us and sustain our lives4 ,and in this we see the kindness of our heavenly ,father1 just as we do in the beauty that he has given us to look upon in both flowers and fruits4 ,he could have made the fruits in such a way that they would be without any pleasant taste4 ,and they would have answered as well to nourish us as they now do4 ,but he wanted to gratify us in this as he does in other things4 ,for this purpose he has given to each kind of fruit its own taste4 ,all fruits are pleasant1 but each is different from the rest4 ,the variety of pleasant tastes in the fruits of the earth is very great1 as you will see if you will think of as many of them as you can4 ,what an evidence is this of ,god's abundant goodness6 ,he does not gratify us merely in a few things1 but in many things4 ,the pleasant things of this world are almost endless in their variety4 ,how strange it is that any one can know all this1 and live on day after day without any gratitude to his ,maker6 ,questions4--,what are fruits made from8 ,is the fruit ever like the sap8 ,what is said about the orange8 ,what is said of the taste of fruits8 ,what of their colors8 ,what of their different forms8 ,what is it said that ,god does in the flowers1 and what in the fruits8 ,why is there such a variety of pleasant tastes in fruits8 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,what ,,seeds ,,are ,,for4 ,sidenote3 ,growth from seeds wonderful4 ,in telling you about fruits ,i told you also something about seeds4 ,in this chapter ,i shall tell you more about them4 ,plants commonly come up from seeds4 ,it is very curious to see how this is done4 ,but most people do not think much about it4 ,gardeners and farmers put seeds into the ground4 ,they see the plants come up from them4 ,they see these plants grow and blossom1 and after a while they gather fruit from them4 ,and they do not seem to think that there is any thing wonderful in all this4 ,but when you have read what ,i shall tell you about it1 ,i think that you will say that it is very wonderful4 ,sidenote3 ,beans4 ,you put a bean into the ground4 ,a vine comes up from it4 ,this runs up a pole1 winding round and round it as it goes up4 ,it blossoms4 ,then come the pods4 ,in these are beans just like that which you put into the ground4 ,all this comes from that single little bean4 ,and there is nothing there like what you put into the ground but the beans4 ,the vine1 the leaves1 the flowers1 are nothing like the bean from which they grew4 ,sidenote3 ,corn4 ,when you put a kernel of corn in the ground there comes up a stalk4 ,from this spread out broad1 long leaves4 ,at length large ears of corn form4 ,a great deal has come from that single kernel4 ,and of all this only the kernels of corn on the ear are like what you put into the ground4 ,sidenote3 ,acorns4 ,an acorn falls from an oak-tree4 ,this is the seed4 ,but nothing will grow from it unless it gets into the ground4 ,a cow perhaps treads on it1 and so presses it into the earth4 ,a twig shoots up from it4 ,this1 after many years1 grows to be a large tree4 ,here a very great deal has come from the seed in the ground4 ,and the huge tree is not at all like the little acorn from which it came4 ,you will want to know how it is that so much comes from a small seed4 ,i will now tell you as much about this as ,i can4 ,sidenote3 ,how seeds begin to grow4 ,illustration ,after a seed has been in the ground a little while it swells1 because the dampness of the earth gets into it4 ,the covering of the seed breaks1 and out comes a little root4 ,this root pushes down into the ground4 ,pretty soon there comes out of the seed also a little stalk4 ,this shoots upward4 ,here is a representation of a seed which has burst4 ,and you see the root1 with its fine fibres1 going down while the stalk goes up4 ,now what makes the root go down and the stalk go up we do not know4 ,many very wise men have tried to find this out4 ,but they can not do it4 ,they have guessed a good deal about it2 but guessing is not knowing1 though people often think it is4 ,the ,creator knows1 and he makes the root of every seed go down and the stalk go up4 ,there is never any mistake about this4 ,you never see a root pushing up through the ground and a stalk growing down4 ,sidenote3 ,barley-seed4 ,here you see the way in which a barley-seed grows4 ,roots branch out from one end of the seed down into the ground1 and a stalk goes up from the other end of it4 ,it is so also with corn4 ,no matter how the seed lies in the ground1 the roots will go down1 even if they come out of the upper end of the seed2 and the stalk will go up to find the air1 though it must first come out of the lower end4 ,sidenote3 ,a tree growing on a wall4 ,illustration ,roots sometimes seem to take a great deal of pains1 as we may say1 to get down into the ground4 ,a seed of a tree was seen to take root1 in ,galloway in ,scotland1 on an old stone wall ten feet from the ground4 ,and a tree shot up from it4 ,there was earth enough in the crevices of the wall to make the little tree grow for a while4 ,but after a time it stopped growing4 ,the reason was that the tree had become so large that it could not get food enough out of the earth in the wall4 ,the little mouths in the root sucked up all they could find2 but it was not enough4 ,the tree needed more food than when it was small1 just as a man needs more food than an infant4 ,what was to be done8 ,there was a plenty of food in the ground below1 but the trouble was to get at it4 ,if somebody would take the tree from the wall1 and set it down into the ground1 it would do well enough4 ,but no one did this4 ,so the tree managed the matter itself4 ,it sent its roots down the wall the whole ten feet into the ground4 ,and then it grew finely1 and would have done well if the wind had not blown it over4 ,it was so stilted up on the wall that it could not stand against a strong wind as a tree could whose roots spread right from the bottom of its trunk into the ground4 ,sidenote3 ,coverings of seeds4 ,i have mentioned the covering of the seed4 ,if you look at a bean you will see that it has a firm skin4 ,this bursts open for the root and the stalk to come out4 ,the place where it bursts is what is called the eye4 ,the potato1 you know1 has many eyes4 ,when it is put into the ground a root and a stalk will come out from each one of them4 ,you sometimes see potatoes sprout from the eye as they lie in the cellar4 ,sidenote3 ,how they are opened to let the seed grow4 ,there is great difference in the coverings of different seeds4 ,the covering of some nuts is very hard4 ,you see this in the peach-stone1 the walnut1 and the cocoa-nut4 ,how do you think these are opened so that the root and stalk may push out8 ,i will tell you4 ,the peach-stone and the walnut1 by being soaked in the ground1 swell and crack open4 ,and as to the cocoa-nuts1 it is said that the monkeys crack them open by throwing them on the ground4 ,so it is in various ways that the prison-house of the seed1 as we may call it1 is opened4 ,questions4--,what come from seeds8 ,do most people think that there is any thing wonderful in this8 ,tell what comes from a single bean4 ,what from a kernel of corn4 ,what from an acorn4 ,how does the seed begin to grow8 ,what is said about the stalks shooting up and the roots going down8 ,tell about the barley-seed4 ,what is told about a tree8 ,what is the eye of a seed8 ,what is said about the difference in the coverings of seeds8 ,how are some hard seeds opened1 so that the root and stalk may push out8 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,seed4 ,a dry seed looks as if it were dead4 ,but there is life there1 shut up in that prison-house4 ,it is very quiet as long as it is shut up4 ,but once let it out1 and it does great things4 ,an apple-seed1 with its stout brown covering1 is a very little thing4 ,it does not look as if any thing could ever come from it4 ,but if it gets into the ground1 the moisture swells it1 the covering bursts1 and an apple-tree comes from the seed4 ,and you know the ,bible tells us1 a tree large enough for the fowls of the air to lodge in its branches comes from the little mustard-seed4 ,sidenote3 ,life asleep in seeds4 ,sidenote3 ,the city buried up with lava4 ,the life in the dry seed is asleep4 ,put it into the moist ground1 and this life wakes up4 ,this sleep of seeds sometimes lasts a great while4 ,commonly we keep them only from one year to another4 ,but sometimes they are kept a long time in their state of sleep4 ,i will tell you a story about this3 ,many hundred years ago there came a great stream of lava1 as it is called1 down from a mountain4 ,it was all on fire1 and looked like a stream of melted iron4 ,it rolled over a city and covered it up4 ,all the inhabitants were killed4 ,when the lava cooled1 people came to look for the city1 but could not find any of it4 ,but lately1 people have dug down through the lava1 and opened passages into this covered-up city4 ,they have gone into the houses1 and have found many things just as they were when the red-hot lava ran over the city4 ,some seeds were found4 ,these were planted2 and they sprung up just as seeds do that have been kept only from one year to another4 ,the life in these seeds1 then1 had been asleep for many hundred years4 ,sidenote3 ,many seeds from one4 ,a great many seeds come from one seed put into the ground4 ,from a single kernel of corn come several ears full of kernels4 ,the kernels or seeds from one single ear are enough to plant quite a large piece of ground4 ,we use most of the corn for food1 for we need to keep but little of it for seed4 ,so we eat most of the beans that we raise4 ,we keep only a little bag of them for planting the next year4 ,as you look at the little bag1 you would hardly think that it holds what will cover long rows of poles with vines4 ,there is a great deal of life asleep for the winter in that bag4 ,sidenote3 ,many destroyed4 ,most of the seeds that drop from trees and plants are killed1 and they decay on the ground with the leaves4 ,it is only now and then that a seed lives and takes root4 ,if all seeds lived and sprung up we should have too many things growing every where4 ,if all the acorns lived1 and got into the ground1 and took root1 there would be too many oaks4 ,and so of other trees and plants4 ,the seeds that are scattered on the ground have to take their chance1 as we say4 ,some out of the whole live through the winter in some way1 and come up in the spring4 ,questions4--,what is said of life in the seed8 ,what wakes it up8 ,can the sleep of seeds sometimes last a great while8 ,tell about the seeds from a city that was covered up with lava4 ,what is said of the number of seeds that come from one seed8 ,what becomes of the seeds of plants and trees that fall to the ground8 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,how ,,seeds ,,are ,,scattered4 ,seeds are scattered in various ways4 ,they do not all stay near the place where they drop4 ,sidenote3 ,seeds scattered by man1 by water1 by wind1 etc4 ,there are many kinds of seeds that man scatters in raising his crops from year to year4 ,some seeds are carried away by water4 ,sometimes they sail a very great distance in this way1 and1 like people1 settle down far away from the spot where they grew4 ,seeds are sometimes carried about in the hair of animals1 and are dropped here and there4 ,the sheep gets seeds into its wool1 and then shakes them out as it goes about the pasture1 or rubs them off against the trees and the fences4 ,the little burrs with which you make baskets1 by sticking them together1 are seed-holders4 ,they often stick to your clothes4 ,when you pick them off and throw them away1 you help to scatter seeds just as the sheep does4 ,the wind is the great scatterer of seeds4 ,it blows them about if they are at all light4 ,it sometimes takes them far away from where they grew4 ,some seeds are made in such a way that the wind can blow them about very easily4 ,look at the seed of the maple-tree4 ,there is a sort of wing on it1 as if it were made to fly4 ,so when it falls1 it goes whirling away in the air4 ,it does not drop just by the tree if the air is stirring4 ,sidenote3 ,seeds of the maple1 the dandelion1 and the salsify4 ,here is a representation of two seeds of the maple1 with their wings4 ,they always grow in this way1 in pairs4 ,illustration ,look at the little feathery ball on the stalk of the dandelion after the flower is gone4 ,the seeds are in the middle of that ball4 ,pick it1 and then hold it up1 and blow upon it as hard as you can4 ,away will fly all the seeds4 ,if the wind is blowing it will scatter them every where4 ,now look at them to see what makes them fly so4 ,you see that each seed has a very little stem4 ,this stem has on its end some very fine fibres standing out all around4 ,the wind blows the seed about by these fibres4 ,if the seed did not have this sort of balloon to fly with1 it would fall straight to the ground4 ,but with this it may go a great distance4 ,sometimes it travels over mountains and across rivers4 ,here is a drawing of the dandelion-seed4 ,but to see how delicate it is1 and how well fitted it is to fly1 you must look at a real seed4 ,illustration ,illustration ,and here is the stem of the dandelion as it looks after the seeds are scattered4 ,you see that it has a cushion-shaped end4 ,it is on this that the seeds are fastened4 ,it is curious to see how regularly they are arranged so as to make that beautiful feathery ball4 ,illustration ,the seed of the salsify represented here1 is very much like that of the dandelion4 ,but the fibres by which it is carried about by the wind are1 you see1 very delicately feathered4 ,sidenote3 ,seeds of the clematis4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,mosses and ferns4 ,sidenote3 ,thistle-down4 ,the seed of the clematis or virgin's-bower is1 as you see1 rather differently arranged4 ,it has a very long stem1 with little fibres standing out from it all the way1 something like a feather4 ,illustration ,the down of thistles and some other flowers is the wing of the seeds by which they are scattered by the wind4 ,here is a representation of a seed with its wing of down4 ,this little seed has a very large wing to fly with4 ,the seeds of mosses and ferns are scattered more widely than any others because they are so small4 ,you know the mosses well4 ,you see them every where on fences1 rocks1 and trunks of trees1 as well as on the ground4 ,the wind carries their fine seeds about1 and they lodge on every thing4 ,they go even to the tops of the mountains1 and down into caverns in the earth4 ,there is great variety in the mosses1 and some of them are exceedingly beautiful1 especially when examined with a microscope4 ,questions4--,in what different ways are seeds scattered about8 ,what is the great scatterer of seeds8 ,what is said of the seeds of the maple8 ,what of the seeds of the dandelion8 ,what of the seeds of the salsify--the clematis--the thistle8 ,what of the seeds of mosses and ferns8 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,leaves4 ,sidenote3 ,beauty of leaves4 ,most trees and bushes are stripped of all their leaves in the autumn1 and remain bare till the winter is passed4 ,we should feel sad if they were without leaves all the year round4 ,one use of the leaves is to gratify us by their beauty4 ,when the winter is gone how delightful it is to us to look out upon the trees and the plants as they put forth their leaves6 ,their fresh green color is a feast to our eyes4 ,sidenote3 ,variety of their shapes4 ,sidenote3 ,various shapes of leaves4 ,you remember what ,i said about the flowers having so many different shapes4 ,the ,creator has made the same variety in the shapes of leaves4 ,he likes to make beautiful things in great variety for us to look at4 ,here ,i give you some figures of leaves1 to show you how different their shapes are4 ,illustration ,here is a leaf which is shaped like the head of an arrow4 ,there is a plant called arrow-head1 because its leaf has this shape4 ,illustration ,here is one shaped very much like a lance1 another is a good representation of a mason's trowel1 and a third is very much like a fiddle4 ,illustration ,this is like a shield4 ,the nasturtium the leaves of this kind4 ,the stem is fastened to the leaf just where the hand holds on to a shield4 ,illustration ,this leaf has a tendril on the end of it4 ,this clasps around whatever it happens to touch4 ,some plants are held up in this way by their leaves4 ,illustration ,this leaf is notched all around its edge1 like a saw4 ,the leaves of a great many plants are notched in this way1 as those of the rose1 the peach1 and the nettle4 ,illustration ,here is one that is notched differently4 ,the teeth are rounded1 and not sharp4 ,it may be said to be scalloped rather than toothed4 ,the ground ivy has a leaf of this kind4 ,below are two leaves1 one of which is spread out like a hand1 and the other is very much like the claws of the feet of some birds4 ,the passion-flower is of the shape of the hand4 ,so1 also1 is that of the castor-oil plant4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,variety in the arrangement of leaves4 ,i have thus given only a few of the shapes of leaves4 ,their variety is very great4 ,they vary not only in shape1 but in color4 ,they vary also in other things4 ,some have down on them1 and some hairs1 and some have neither4 ,it will be well for you to see how many different kinds of leaves you can bring to the teacher1 and she will tell you about them4 ,illustration ,leaves are arranged in a great many different ways on their stems4 ,here are three leaves together on a stem4 ,the leaves of the clover and the wood-sorrel are arranged in this way4 ,illustration ,here the leaf-stem has three little branches1 and each branch has three leaves4 ,illustration ,on this leaf-stem are a great many leaves4 ,i have thus shown you three ways in which leaves are arranged4 ,but there are many other ways in which they are arranged1 making a great variety in the appearance of leaves4 ,the only way to know how very great this variety of arrangement is1 is to look for yourselves at plants1 and trees1 and shrubs1 as you walk in the garden or in the fields4 ,leaves are of all sizes4 ,some are very small1 and some are very large4 ,look at the little delicate leaves of the chick-weed and the cypress-vine1 and then at the large spreading leaves of the rhubarb-plant and the pumpkin-vine1 and the very long ones of the corn4 ,the common palm-leaf fans so much in use are made from the large leaves of the palm-tree4 ,sidenote3 ,forms of leaves not commonly observed4 ,i think that you will be quite interested in observing the various forms of leaves1 though most people do not observe them much4 ,a friend once told me that a number of leaves from our common trees were brought to some ladies1 and that not one of them could tell from what kind of tree each leaf came4 ,it seems to me that they could have used their eyes to little purpose1 as they walked about among the trees of the field and the garden4 ,they probably looked at leaves merely as making a pleasant green to the eye1 and never examined them1 as they perhaps would flowers1 to see what a difference there is between them4 ,you had better gather some leaves of various kinds1 and see if your schoolmates can tell from what trees they came4 ,take the star-shaped leaf of the maple1 the birch-leaf with its nicely notched edges1 the bright1 firm leaf of the oak with its wavy edge1 and the wrinkled leaf of the elm4 ,show them a willow-leaf beside a peach-leaf1 which is very much like it4 ,an apple-leaf and a pear-leaf together might puzzle them1 though ,i think that some wide-awake child would see the difference between them4 ,questions4--,what is said of one of the uses of leaves8 ,what of the variety in their shapes8 ,mention some of these shapes4 ,in what other things do leaves vary besides shape8 ,what is said of the arrangement of leaves on their stems8 ,what is said of their different sizes8 ,what is said about observing the shapes of leaves8 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,more ,,about ,,leaves4 ,sidenote3 ,beauty of common leaves4 ,leaves are such common things that we do not think how beautiful they are4 ,but take any common leaf into your hand and look at it4 ,take the leaf of the strawberry4 ,see how prettily it is notched4 ,hold it up to the light and see the lines that run from the middle line to the edge4 ,then see the fine net-work between these lines4 ,how delicate and beautiful6 ,the leaf of the raspberry is even more beautiful than the strawberry leaf1 if you pick it from a new shoot4 ,see the fine points on its edge1 and see how delicate are its lines and net-work as you hold it up to the light4 ,sidenote3 ,ribs in leaves4 ,observe the back of a leaf1 and you will see ribs that spread out from the main rib in the middle to the edges4 ,these are the frame of the leaf1 just as timbers are the frame of a house4 ,they are to the leaf what whalebones are to an umbrella4 ,they give strength to it4 ,without them it would droop like a wilted leaf4 ,it would not stand out straight and firm4 ,the wind would blow it every way1 like a rag tied to a stick4 ,you see these ribs very large in broad spreading leaves4 ,they are large in grape-leaves1 and in the leaves of the rhubarb-plant1 or pie-plant1 as it is often called4 ,in leaves that are very stiff and firm these ribs are so small1 that at first you would say there were none4 ,this is the case with the leaf of the pear and the orange4 ,there is one strong rib running through in the middle of the leaf4 ,but there are no strong ribs branching out from this4 ,the leaf is so firm that it does not need them4 ,sidenote3 ,the upper and under side of leaves4 ,see the difference there is between the upper and the under side of a leaf4 ,the upper is greener than the under side4 ,in the grape-leaf the under side is covered with a very fine white fuzz4 ,if you tear the leaf gently1 you can see the delicate white fibres of this furze across the rent4 ,in the silver-leaf poplar there is a silvery whiteness on the under side of the leaf4 ,this makes the tree look very pretty as its branches are moved back and forth by the wind4 ,i have thus told you a few things about leaves4 ,by looking at them yourselves you will see a great many things in them that will interest you4 ,look at them as you walk in the garden or roam in the field1 and you will see that there is no end to the variety4 ,and among them all you can not find one that is not beautiful when you examine it4 ,sidenote3 ,leaves seen through the microscope4 ,leaves are very beautiful if you look at them through a microscope4 ,take the most common leaf and look at it in this way1 and you will be delighted4 ,you will be surprised to find how much beauty there is in leaves that you knew nothing about before4 ,and now ,i will tell you about some leaves of a very singular character4 ,there are some leaves that are of very singular shape4 ,i will mention only a few4 ,sidenote3 ,leaf of the side-saddle flower4 ,illustration ,here is the leaf of the side-saddle flower1 as it is called4 ,it is shaped somewhat like a butter-boat4 ,you see that it is open4 ,it can hold considerable water4 ,it has a kind of lip1 which looks as if it were made in order that water might be poured out of it easily4 ,this plant grows in some parts of this country4 ,the flower is purple1 and has a curious shape4 ,it is on a stalk that stands up in the midst of about half-a-dozen of these leaves4 ,sidenote3 ,chinese pitcher-plant4 ,illustration ,one of the most singular leaves is that of the ,chinese pitcher-plant4 ,at the end of the leaf the main rib extends out like a tendril1 and this ends in the appendage which is represented here4 ,it is in the shape of a pitcher1 and has1 as you see1 a regular lid4 ,this is generally shut down1 though1 as you see it here1 it is raised up4 ,the rain can not1 therefore1 get in1 and yet the pitcher is always full of water4 ,it holds about a tumblerful4 ,now how do you think this water comes there8 ,it is a part of the sap that comes to the leaf4 ,the watery part of the sap is poured from thousands and thousands of little mouths on the inside of the pitcher2 and so it is kept filled with water4 ,this plant is quite common in the island of ,ceylon4 ,there it is called monkey-cup1 because the monkeys sometimes open the lid and drink the water4 ,and men sometimes drink from these leaves when there is no spring of water where they can quench their thirst4 ,sidenote3 ,venus's fly-trap4 ,illustration ,the leaf of the ,venus's fly-trap1 which grows in ,north ,carolina1 is a real trap for flies and other insects4 ,here you see the leaf as it is spread out1 wide open4 ,it looks as if there was no danger there4 ,but let an insect alight on the leaf1 and he is made a prisoner at once4 ,the two parts of the leaf close together1 as you see1 and the points on the edges are locked together1 so as to furnish bars to the prison4 ,you see a little insect caught in this leaf that had lighted only on its very edge4 ,he can not get away1 and there1 poor fellow6 he must die a slow death4 ,of what use it is to have such traps for insects we do not understand4 ,illustration ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,leaves of the fern4 ,this is the leaf of the common fern or brake4 ,it is beautiful if you examine it1 for it is very delicate4 ,and it has one great peculiarity4 ,the flowers of the plant are on the under side of the leaf4 ,they are where you see the little round spots4 ,if you look at the leaf with a microscope you can see the different parts of the flowers4 ,sidenote3 ,thick leaves4 ,most leaves are thin1 but some are quite thick4 ,this is the case with the leaves of the ,india-rubber tree4 ,the wax-plant has thick leaves1 which1 with the flowers1 look so waxy as to give the name to the plant4 ,the flowers of the cactuses grow right out from the thick fleshy leaves1 making these plants look very awkward1 although the flowers are so beautiful4 ,and it is a singular fact1 that if one of the leaves is broken off and put into the ground it will take root and grow4 ,sidenote3 ,live-forever4 ,did you ever make a blow-bag1 as it is called1 of the leaf of the live-forever1 as children very often do8 ,if you have not1 ,i will tell you how it is done4 ,the leaf is rather thick1 and is made of two layers4 ,these you can separate at the stem-end of the leaf1 and then by pinching the leaf and blowing into it you can make it puff out like a bag4 ,you must do this very carefully1 or you will break the layer on the under side of the leaf1 which is very thin1 while the upper layer is thick4 ,sidenote3 ,ribbon-grass4 ,the leaf of the ribbon-grass1 as it is called1 is very singular in one respect4 ,it is very prettily striped1 but you can not find any two leaves that are striped exactly alike1 any more than you can find two faces exactly alike among all the people on the earth4 ,questions4--,what is said of the beauty of common leaves8 ,tell about the ribs of leaves4 ,what leaves have large ribs8 ,how is it with the leaf of the pear and the orange8 ,what is the difference between the upper and the under side of leaves8 ,tell about the grape-leaf4 ,and about the leaf of the silver-poplar4 ,what is said of the beauty of leaves as seen through the microscope8 ,tell about the leaf of the side-saddle flower4 ,and about the ,chinese pitcher-plant4 ,also about the ,venus's fly-trap4 ,what is said of the leaf of the common fern8 ,what of thick leaves8 ,what of the leaf of live-forever8 ,what of ribbon-grass8 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,sap ,,in ,,leaves4 ,i have told you about the ribs of leaves4 ,let us see what makes them so firm and strong4 ,look at a large grape-leaf on the vine4 ,it spreads out very firmly4 ,if the wind blows it very hard it bends1 but it stands out again as firmly as ever4 ,but break the leaf off1 and see what happens4 ,in a little time it wilts4 ,if you hold it up by the stem its edges droop down all around4 ,the leaf does not stand out as it did when it was on the vine4 ,the ribs are all there1 but they have lost their strength4 ,how do you think they lost it8 ,i will tell you4 ,sidenote3 ,wilting of leaves explained4 ,when you broke off the stem1 the sap could no longer get to the leaf4 ,it is just as no water can get into a house when the water-pipe is cut off outside4 ,the sap goes to all parts of the leaf from the stem through the ribs4 ,the ribs1 like the stem1 have little fine pipes in them for the sap to run in4 ,now1 if the ribs are not full of the sap they are not firm1 and they bend easily4 ,when these ribs and the net-work between them are not full of sap the leaf is wilted1 as we say4 ,but when the leaf is picked it is full of sap4 ,how does any of the sap then get out of it so as to make it wilt8 ,it does not leak out of the stem4 ,if it did1 you could see it drop as you hold the leaf up4 ,where1 then1 does it get out8 ,this ,i will explain to you4 ,there are little holes1 or pores1 as they are called1 all over the leaf4 ,they are so small that you can not see them without a strong microscope4 ,the watery part of the sap escapes into the air through these pores4 ,sidenote3 ,the quantity of moisture that comes from leaves4 ,there is a great deal of moisture that comes from leaves4 ,you can see that this is so if you put a cluster of leaves under a glass vessel4 ,a large tumbler will answer4 ,you will1 after a little time1 see the moisture in drops on the inside of the glass4 ,this moisture is the water that comes from the pores of the leaves4 ,you remember what ,i told you in the last chapter about the leaf of the pitcher-plant4 ,the water in that leaf comes from its pores on the inside4 ,if1 instead of its having a pitcher-shape1 the leaf was laid open and spread out like common leaves1 the moisture would all go off in the air4 ,but as it is a pitcher with a lid1 the moisture that comes from all the pores is shut in4 ,it can not fly off in the air4 ,and after a while enough moisture collects to fill the pitcher4 ,this shows how much water commonly goes from leaves into the air4 ,if any leaf that you see spread out could be changed into a pitcher or cup shape with a lid1 it would in a little time be full of the water that comes from its pores4 ,now you can understand why a leaf wilts after it is picked4 ,it does not wilt as soon as you pick it1 for the sap is all in it then4 ,but let it be a little while4 ,the watery part of the sap is going out of the pores of the leaf all the time1 and there is no sap coming to it through the stem4 ,so the leaf wilts4 ,sidenote3 ,keeping flowers from wilting4 ,you can keep a leaf from wilting for a long time by placing the stem in water4 ,when you do this the water goes up through the little pipes in the stem4 ,this takes the place of the water that goes out of the pores of the leaf4 ,when you put flowers in water1 you know that the water is less the next day4 ,this is because so much of the water goes up in the stems to the leaves and blossoms4 ,you know that if you have a plant in a flower-pot1 the earth gets dry in a day or two4 ,this is chiefly because the water in the earth is sucked up by the roots1 and runs up all through the plant1 and goes out of the pores of the leaves and blossoms4 ,some of the water goes up directly from the earth into the air1 but most of it goes through the plant4 ,sidenote3 ,much water in the air1 but not seen4 ,you can not see the water that comes out of the leaves and blossoms into the air4 ,there is a great deal of water in the air that you can not see4 ,you have often seen in a hot day the water stand in drops on the outside of your tumbler4 ,just think how these drops come there4 ,people sometimes say that the tumbler sweats1 just as if the water came through the glass4 ,but this1 you know1 can not be4 ,water can not get through glass4 ,the drops come there in this way4 ,the cold water in the tumbler makes the glass very cold4 ,and the water in the warm air around the tumbler1 therefore1 gathers upon it4 ,sometimes there is much more water in the air than there is at other times4 ,then the tumbler is very wet4 ,now a great deal of the water in the air comes from the leaves of the trees and the plants all about us4 ,the leaves may be said to be breathing moisture into the air all the time4 ,i shall tell you more about the water that is in the air in ,part ,third4 ,this moisture that is breathed out from the leaves makes the air soft1 while the fragrance of the flowers makes it balmy4 ,each leaf yields but a little water1 and so does but little good in this way4 ,but there are so many leaves that a great deal of water comes from all of them4 ,it puts me in mind of the ,scotch proverb1 8,many a little makes a mickle40 ,sidenote3 ,lesson that can be learned from the leaves4 ,those who want to do good in the world may learn a lesson from the leaves4 ,a large amount of good may be done when a great many do each a little4 ,let those who can do but little think of this4 ,let them do every day what they can1 just as each leaf does4 ,great men1 that excite the wonder of the world1 can do a great deal of good2 but they can not do any thing like as much as is done by a great many people together that do each a little in a noiseless way4 ,every child1 in doing little kind things1 may1 like the small leaf1 do his part of the good that is to be done in the world4 ,and if much of the good that he does is not noticed by others1 ,god sees it all1 just as he sees all the moisture that is breathed out by each little leaf4 ,questions4--,what makes the ribs of leaves firm8 ,what happens to these ribs when a leaf wilts8 ,how does the watery part of the sap get out of a picked leaf8 ,what is said of the quantity of water that comes from leaves8 ,tell about the water in the leaf of the pitcher-plant4 ,how does a picked leaf wilt8 ,how does putting a leaf in water keep it from wilting8 ,what makes the earth in a flower-pot become dry8 ,can you see the water that goes into the air from the leaves and other things8 ,tell about water settling on tumblers in hot weather4 ,what lesson can we learn from the leaves8 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,leaves4 ,sidenote3 ,refreshing moisture from leaves4 ,one use of leaves1 as ,i told you in the last chapter1 is to supply the air with water4 ,in the hot weather the air would be very dry and uncomfortable to us if the leaves did not breathe out moisture from their pores4 ,you can see how this is if in a hot day you walk across a sandy plain where there are no leaves except those of the scanty grass and weeds4 ,here no moisture is breathed out upon you1 to lessen the heat that you suffer from the burning sun4 ,another use of the leaves is this4 ,they are pleasant and beautiful to the sight4 ,i have told you about this use of them in the beginning of the seventeenth chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,their shade4 ,another use of leaves is to give shade4 ,we know how refreshing this is to us in a hot day4 ,when in a city we walk through streets where there are no trees1 how delightful it is to come out of the blazing sun into a square that is full of trees6 ,how comfortable are the cows in the pasture lying under the trees at mid-day1 chewing the cud6 ,but the shade given by leaves does good not merely to man and animals4 ,it does good to fruits1 if there is not too much of it4 ,the sun would very often be too hot for the fruits1 if it shone full on them all the time4 ,so the leaves partly shade them4 ,sidenote3 ,the grape-vine stripped of its leaves4 ,the chief use of leaves is to keep plants and trees alive and make them grow4 ,if you should strip off the leaves from a plant as fast as they came out1 you would1 after a while1 kill it4 ,sometimes worms eat up the leaves on trees4 ,if this is done year after year to a tree it dies4 ,i knew a man to strip off all the leaves from a grape-vine4 ,he thought that it would make the grapes grow finely4 ,he had seen people take off some of the branches from grape-vines1 to make the grapes grow large and full4 ,so he thought that if he took all the leaves off1 the sap would all go into the grapes and make them very large4 ,he thought1 too1 that the sun would make them ripen fast4 ,but he found that the grapes stopped growing1 and wilted1 and dropped off4 ,there are two reasons for this4 ,the sun was too hot for the grapes when all the leaves were gone4 ,and besides1 there were some leaves needed to keep the grapes alive4 ,sidenote3 ,leaves are lungs to plants4 ,leaves are the same thing to plants that lungs are to an animal4 ,the air that goes into our lungs helps to keep us alive and make us grow4 ,so the air that is all about the leaves of a plant or tree helps to keep it alive and to make it grow4 ,how this is done you can not understand now4 ,i explain it in another book1 which you will be able to understand when you are a little older4 ,sidenote3 ,the barter between lungs and leaves4 ,there is one thing about this that you can understand1 which is very curious4 ,the air does not keep the plants alive in just the same way that it does animals4 ,you know that by breathing air we make it bad2 and so we must have all the time a supply of fresh air4 ,now what do you think becomes of the bad part of the air that we breathe out from the lungs8 ,the leaves all around us take it in4 ,it is good for them4 ,it makes them and the plants that they are on grow4 ,they then1 like our lungs1 are all the time taking in air and giving out air4 ,and leaves take what lungs give1 and lungs take what leaves give4 ,so lungs and leaves have a sort of trade together4 ,they are always making this exchange with each other4 ,and it is a good bargain for both4 ,both get what they want1 and barter away what they do not want4 ,sidenote3 ,how it is carried on in winter4 ,but in winter1 when the leaves are all gone except those on the evergreens1 how is it with this trade between lungs and leaves8 ,lungs are all the time giving out bad air2 but there are not leaves enough on the evergreens to take it all1 and give back the good air4 ,well1 what is to be done8 ,a barter is carried on with the leaves a great way off in the southern countries4 ,the air moves about so freely that this is easily done4 ,the bad air goes there1 and the leaves that take it into their pores give out the good air1 which immediately spreads every where1 even to us at the north4 ,it is a free trade--as free as air1 as we may say4 ,there is not as much bad air made by lungs in winter as in summer1 because many animals are either dead or torpid4 ,but what is made is disposed of mostly in this way4 ,questions4--,how are leaves useful to us in giving out moisture to the air8 ,what use of them is next mentioned8 ,what is said of the shade made by leaves8 ,is this shade useful to fruits8 ,what is the chief use of leaves8 ,tell about the man who stripped the leaves from his grape-vine4 ,how are leaves like our lungs8 ,what kind of barter is there between leaves and the lungs of animals8 ,how is this barter carried on in winter8 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,leaves ,,in ,,the ,,autumn4 ,sidenote3 ,the fall of leaves4 ,in the autumn in cold climates the leaves fall4 ,this is the reason that the autumn is called the fall of the year4 ,there are some trees that have leaves on them all the time4 ,these are called evergreens4 ,in very hot climates the leaves of trees and bushes are out all the year round4 ,they have no particular time to fall4 ,and some leaves stay on for many years4 ,those that stay on so long grow to be very large4 ,sidenote3 ,evergreens4 ,if a tree or a bush that has its leaves fall in the autumn in a cold climate be raised in a warm climate1 it will there keep its leaves on all the year4 ,in the southern parts of ,europe quince-trees are evergreen4 ,the currant-bush1 which1 you know1 with us is bare through the winter1 in a hot country has leaves on it all the year4 ,sidenote3 ,change of color in leaves in autumn4 ,before the leaves fall1 many of them1 you know1 become very beautifully colored4 ,the variety of colors that you see in different trees is very pleasing to the eye4 ,the maple-leaf is colored bright red1 the oak a deep red1 the walnut yellow1 and other trees have their leaves variously colored4 ,some trees change their leaves earlier than others1 and some at first are only partly changed4 ,so you see the green mingled beautifully with the bright red1 yellow1 and other colors4 ,i have often admired a single tree standing by itself when it is partly changed4 ,the maple is particularly beautiful4 ,the top generally changes first4 ,you often see the top bright red1 and then the red is mixed with the green here and there in other parts of the tree4 ,a little way off it looks as if the top were a cluster of red flowers4 ,and the other parts of the tree look as if the flowers were coming out among the green leaves4 ,sidenote3 ,brilliant and varied beauty of the forests in autumn4 ,when the sun shines brightly all the different colors of the leaves make the woods look at a little distance as if they were all covered with blossoms4 ,it is a very splendid sight that you see when you look off from a high hill over the woods on the hills and valleys4 ,it looks as if monstrous bouquets of flowers had been stuck down thick together in the ground4 ,such a sight is especially splendid when the sun is nearly down4 ,then the light and shade vary the scene4 ,here you see the top of a tall tree standing bright in the sun1 while the other trees around are in the shade4 ,there you see a whole cluster of tall trees lighted up on one side4 ,here is a shaded spot1 and there1 close by1 is a very bright spot1 the sun shining upon it through some break in a hill4 ,the colors in the lighted spots look the brighter for the shaded spots near by4 ,so1 too1 it is very beautiful when1 with the sun overhead1 broken clouds are passing quickly in the sky4 ,the swift shadows of the clouds give constant changes to the scene4 ,one shadow seems to be chasing another over a bed of flowers4 ,when the leaves put on these bright colors it is the beginning of their death4 ,they soon fall to the ground1 and decay1 and become a part of the earth4 ,some one has said that flowers are ,god's smiles4 ,so we may say that ,god smiles upon us in the dying leaf1 when he makes it so much like a flower4 ,sidenote3 ,what makes the colors of the leaves in autumn4 ,how it is that all these different colors are made in the leaves in the autumn we know not4 ,it is said that the frost makes them1 but no one can tell how it does it4 ,and1 indeed1 it is probably not the frost alone that thus paints the leaves1 for the change sometimes begins before any frost is perceived4 ,we do not understand how this effect is produced any better than we do how the various colors of the flowers are made4 ,sidenote3 ,forests in ,england4 ,it is singular that in ,england the leaves do not appear in these very bright colors in autumn1 so that an ,englishman is astonished at the beauty of our forests in that season of the year4 ,now why it is that the leaves are not affected there1 in the same way that they are here1 we do not know4 ,it is supposed that it is because there is more dampness there than there is with us4 ,whatever may be the cause1 it makes a great difference with the beauty of autumnal scenery4 ,we should hardly be willing to exchange the brilliancy of an ,american ,october day for the dull colors presented by the forests in ,england4 ,questions4--,why is autumn called the fall of the year8 ,what are evergreens8 ,what is told about quince-trees and currant-bushes8 ,what is said of the colors of leaves just before they fall8 ,tell about the maple as its leaves are changing4 ,how do the forests look in the bright sun when the leaves are changed8 ,how do they look just before sundown8 ,how when shadows of clouds are passing over them8 ,what is said about ,god's making the dying leaves so much like flowers8 ,do we know how the colors are made in the leaves in autumn8 ,what is said about the leaves in ,england8 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,leaf-,,buds4 ,leaves come from buds just as flowers do4 ,if you look at the buds in the spring on a tree you see that they are beginning to swell4 ,they grow larger and larger1 like the buds that turn into blossoms4 ,after a while they unfold1 and the green leaves are spread out4 ,how is it1 you will want to know1 that these leaves are made8 ,they are very different from the leaves of the blossoms2 but1 like them1 they are made out of the sap4 ,the sap comes constantly to the leaf-bud1 just as it does to the flower-bud1 through the fine pipes in the stem4 ,and so this sap is made into leaves4 ,sidenote3 ,difference between leaf-buds and flower-buds4 ,there are1 then1 leaf-buds and flower-buds4 ,you can tell them apart by their shapes4 ,the flower-buds are round and short2 the leaf-buds are long and pointed4 ,you can see this difference very plainly on a peach-tree in the spring4 ,on some trees the flower-buds open before the leaf-buds4 ,this is the case with some of the maples4 ,the red color that makes them look so beautiful in the spring1 before they have put out their leaves1 is owing to the blossoms with which they are covered4 ,these are quite small1 and they are very rich1 if you examine them with a microscope4 ,the flower-buds of the peach-trees also open before the leaf-buds1 and some of them are very splendid with their multitudes of pink blossoms4 ,sidenote3 ,leaves and flowers from the same buds4 ,there is sometimes another kind of buds4 ,there are buds from which both leaves and flowers are formed4 ,you see this in the lilac4 ,the leaves first spread out from the bud1 and then in the midst of the leaves comes out a cluster of flowers4 ,when we see all these leaves and blossoms1 and remember the bud1 we wonder that so much can come out of so little a bud as this was4 ,sidenote3 ,buds of the horse-chestnut and grape-vine4 ,illustration ,this seems very wonderful when we see it in the horse-chestnut4 ,i have often watched from day to day the buds of this tree as they were opening4 ,you see at first a small bud covered with brown scales4 ,it grows larger and larger day after day1 and after a while appears as you see it here4 ,soon you see it open and the leaves push out4 ,but they are all folded up4 ,you see them unfold more and more every day4 ,after a while there is a tall stalk with leaves having long stems4 ,then comes a large cluster of blossoms at the top of this stalk4 ,you can see the same thing in the grape-vine4 ,the grape-stalk looks in winter as if it were a dead stick4 ,it does not look as if any thing living could come out from it4 ,but in the spring you see little buds starting out here and there4 ,watch one of these buds4 ,you will see it swell1 and after a while leaves will unfold from it4 ,and you will see that what comes from the bud is not leaves alone4 ,it is a branch with leaves on it4 ,after a while clusters of blossoms appear among the leaves1 filling the air with their fragrance4 ,then grapes form4 ,the branch goes on to grow1 and gets to be many feet long by the time the grapes are ripe4 ,all this comes from the little bud1 and is made out of the sap4 ,sidenote3 ,the unfolding of plants from buds4 ,illustration ,now suppose you could see all this happen while you stand looking at the vine4 ,suppose you could see the bud swell1 then the leaves push out1 then the flowers form1 then the grapes1 and then see the whole grow while the grapes are growing and ripening4 ,you would think this very wonderful4 ,but it is just as wonderful to have all this done slowly4 ,the great wonder is that it is done at all4 ,no one but ,god could make all this come from a bud4 ,and he could do it in an hour as well as in several weeks if he thought it was best4 ,sidenote3 ,rock-saxifrage4 ,this unfolding of plants is very beautiful and interesting4 ,i have often watched it in the rock-saxifrage1 one of the wild flowers of spring4 ,i have1 for this purpose1 taken it up with a little earth around it1 when it was nothing but a small bud peeping up out of the ground1 and have put it into a saucer4 ,as ,i watched it from day to day the bud spread out into leaves4 ,then came up a little stalk out of the midst of the cluster of leaves1 and on the end of the stalk appeared a great many little white flowers4 ,sidenote3 ,english cowslip4 ,sidenote3 ,the crown of the crown-imperial4 ,you see the same thing in the ,english cowslip1 which is represented at the bottom of the opposite page4 ,all this came from a little bud1 just as it is with the rock-saxifrage4 ,that curious but elegant plant1 the crown-imperial1 unfolds in a little different way4 ,a stalk comes up in the midst of the leaves2 but as it grows up leaves come out from the stalk4 ,when it is fully grown1 and in blossom1 the whole plant presents a singular but splendid appearance4 ,the long pointed leaves stand out around the tall1 straight stalk for some way up4 ,then the stalk is naked for as much as the length of two fingers1 and on the top is a crown of leaves and flowers1 the flowers hanging down4 ,it is very well named the crown-imperial4 ,but there are jewels in this crown that most people do not see4 ,they are to be seen only by looking up into the flower4 ,in each leaf of the flower where it joins on to the stem there is a beautiful little shallow cup which is very white4 ,from this cup hangs a shining drop1 like a tear4 ,the whiteness of the cup gives the drop a rich pearly color4 ,it seems1 as you look up into the flower1 as if there were six splendid pearls fastened there4 ,each cup always has this drop hanging from it4 ,if you put up something which will soak it up1 there will soon be another one formed there4 ,these drops are the honey of the flower4 ,questions4--,what do leaves come from8 ,what are they made of8 ,how can you tell the difference between flower-buds and leaf-buds8 ,mention some trees on which the flower-buds open before the leaf-buds4 ,what is said about another kind of buds8 ,tell about the lilac--the horse-chestnut--the grape-vine4 ,would it be any more wonderful if the unfolding of the buds of the grape-vine were done in a shorter time8 ,tell about the rock-saxifrage--the ,english cowslip--the crown-imperial4 ,what is very curious and beautiful in the crown-imperial8 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,coverings ,,of ,,the ,,buds4 ,sidenote3 ,scales of the horse-chestnut bud4 ,you remember that ,i mentioned to you the brown scales on the buds of the horse-chestnut4 ,i will tell you what these scales are for3 they cover up the tender bud from the cold of winter and early spring4 ,these scales are quite thick1 as you can see4 ,they are glued together1 too1 quite tightly by a sticky substance4 ,they make in this way a close little case for the bud1 to keep it snug from the cold air4 ,when the weather gets warm enough the swelling bud pushes the scales apart4 ,and when the leaves are out these scales drop off1 because there is no more use for them4 ,in cold climates the buds are always protected in this way by a covering4 ,the buds that you see in the spring do not begin in the spring4 ,they are formed the year before1 a little while before the leaves begin to fall4 ,and as they form they loosen the leaves1 and soon push them off4 ,sidenote3 ,treasures in the buds in winter4 ,now in these little buds are locked up all the leaves and flowers that are to come out the next spring4 ,the precious treasures of another year are in these buds4 ,they must be kept safe1 then1 through the cold winter4 ,and so they have tight coverings to guard them from the cold4 ,they are all this time quite small1 but they are ready to grow whenever the warm weather comes4 ,if you should pick off the covering of one of these buds in the winter the cold air would freeze it1 and it would die4 ,these coverings have been called by some one the 8winter-cradles0 of the buds4 ,it is a very good name for them4 ,the little buds in these cradles rock back and forth in the cold winds of winter1 and are as secure from harm as the little baby in its cradle in its nice warm home1 shut in from the wintry blasts4 ,and notice another thing4 ,the inside of these cradles is lined with a soft down4 ,this is the bud's little blanket to keep it warm in its cradle4 ,in warm climates the buds do not have these 8winter-cradles10 for there is no need of them4 ,the buds of the orange-tree and lemon-tree have no coverings4 ,sidenote3 ,the care which the ,creator takes of buds in the winter4 ,it is thus that ,god takes care of the tender bud4 ,he always gives it a covering when it needs one to keep it from the cold4 ,but in the sunny south he leaves the bud naked to the pleasant warm air4 ,to put a thick covering over it there would do it harm4 ,it would be like a man's putting on a heavy overcoat in mid-summer4 ,questions4--,what is said of the scales of the horse-chestnut bud8 ,what is said of the buds in cold climates8 ,why is it very necessary to have the buds kept safe through the winter8 ,what very good name has been given to the coverings of buds8 ,how is it with the buds in warm climates8 ,what is said of the care which ,god takes of buds8 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,what ,,roots ,,are ,,for4 ,sidenote3 ,the business of roots4 ,when a seed sprouts1 the root1 ,i have told you1 goes down into the ground1 while the stalk goes upward into the air4 ,the root goes down because the food of the plant is in the ground4 ,it is the business of the root to suck up this food1 so that the plant may be nourished and grow4 ,the root is1 then1 a sort of stomach to the plant4 ,if it had no root it would not grow1 any more than you would if you had no stomach to put your food in4 ,sidenote3 ,mouths in their fibres4 ,the root has little mouths in its branches every where4 ,it is by these that the food of the plant is sucked up4 ,they are so small that you can not see them without a powerful microscope4 ,they are in the fine parts or fibres of the root that you see hanging to the main branches of it when you take up a root4 ,we are very careful not to break off these fibres when we take up a plant or tree to set it out again in another place2 for the more of these little mouths there are1 the more likely will it be to live4 ,if all the fibres be broken off from the root the plant can not live1 because there are no mouths to suck up the food4 ,it will die just as you would if you should stop eating4 ,as there are little mouths all over the fibres of a root1 there must be a multitude of them4 ,you can not count them any more than you can count the sands on the sea-shore4 ,these mouths drink up a fluid from the ground4 ,this fluid is the sap that goes up in the stalk to nourish the plant4 ,every thing in the plant--the leaves1 the flowers1 the fruit--is made1 as ,i have told you before1 from the sap that the root sucks up4 ,sidenote3 ,mouths in roots choose what they will suck up4 ,these mouths do not suck up exactly the same thing in all roots4 ,the sap of one plant differs somewhat from that of another plant4 ,what the root of a pepper-plant sucks up is not the same that is sucked up by the root of a strawberry-plant4 ,the root of the pepper-plant sucks up such sap that the biting peppers can be made out of it4 ,and the root of the strawberry-plant sucks up sap that is fitted to make its pleasant fruit4 ,the pepper-plant and the strawberry-plant are so different from each other1 that we should hardly suppose that they could grow out of the same earth side by side4 ,but they can4 ,how is this8 ,do the little mouths in the roots choose their food8 ,they do4 ,the strawberry mouths choose what will make strawberries1 and the pepper mouths choose what will make peppers4 ,but they do not choose in the same way that we choose4 ,they do not think about it as we do4 ,but they choose just as well as if they did think4 ,perhaps they choose better than we do4 ,we sometimes make mistakes about our food4 ,but they always choose just right4 ,how this is we do not know4 ,god has made them in such a way that they suck up the right kind of food from the earth4 ,this is all that we know about it4 ,very commonly different kinds of plants will grow in the same kind of earth4 ,what a variety of plants and trees you often see in the same garden6 ,but sometimes one plant requires a different soil from other plants4 ,you see this in the asparagus4 ,this vegetable does best in a soil that has considerable salt in it2 that is1 it thrives on salt food1 as we may say4 ,for this reason we sprinkle salt over an asparagus-bed in the spring4 ,sidenote3 ,asparagus roots like salted food4 ,but while salt makes the asparagus grow so well1 it will kill other plants4 ,it will kill all the weeds and grass that happen to be in the asparagus-bed4 ,if you put on a good deal of salt no weeds will come up till after all the salt is sucked up by the asparagus4 ,i had a chance last spring to see how bad salt is for grass4 ,the man who put the salt on my asparagus-bed spilled some of it on a grassplot close by4 ,in every spot where it fell it killed the grass4 ,so you see that what is poison to grass is food to asparagus4 ,sidenote3 ,flowers in swamps4 ,we find some kinds of flowers only in swamps4 ,these will not grow well in the high grounds where the soil is different4 ,the reason is1 that the little mouths in the roots do not find the right kind of food there4 ,questions4--,how is the root a sort of stomach to a plant8 ,where are the little mouths of the root8 ,what is said about care in moving plants or trees8 ,what is said of the number of mouths in a root1 and of their size8 ,do the roots of the pepper-plant and the strawberry-plant suck up the same kind of food8 ,what is said of the mouths of roots choosing their food from the ground8 ,tell about the asparagus4 ,what is said of plants growing in swamps8 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,more ,,about ,,roots4 ,sidenote3 ,branching roots4 ,sidenote3 ,fibrous roots4 ,illustration ,the root1 besides being a sort of stomach to the plant1 is its support4 ,the plant is fastened by it firmly in the ground4 ,for this reason a large tree has a large and deep root4 ,its root branches out very much as the tree does above4 ,it is shaped as you see here4 ,but when the plant is quite small1 and there is not much to be supported1 the root is different4 ,it is perhaps made up of fibres as seen in this figure4 ,this is the case with the roots of grass1 as you can see by pulling up some of it4 ,in a piece of turf there are a great many spears of grass1 and so it is full of these fibrous roots mingled together4 ,illustration ,some roots are made for still another purpose4 ,besides nourishing the plant and supporting it1 the root sometimes answers for food4 ,when a root is intended for this use it is large4 ,look at the root of the beet4 ,here is a figure of it4 ,the plant does not need so large a root as this to nourish and support it4 ,the plant is nothing but a bunch of leaves1 and with a very small root it would stand up in the ground4 ,a small root1 too1 would answer to suck up all the sap that it needs4 ,so small a plant could get along with a very small stomach4 ,illustration ,you remember that in the chapter on seeds ,i told you that the seed-holder is sometimes larger than it need be to hold the seeds4 ,the pear is a seed-holder1 but it is larger than it need be if it were meant to be only a seed-holder4 ,it is meant to be something else4 ,it is fruit to be eaten as well as a seed-holder4 ,it answers two purposes4 ,so1 too1 when a root is larger than it need be to nourish the plant1 it answers two purposes4 ,besides sucking up food for the plant1 it answers as food for animals4 ,sidenote3 ,beets and turnips4 ,illustration ,in these large roots the mouths that suck up the sap are not in the body of the root4 ,they are in the little fibres that are joined on to the main root1 as you see in the beet4 ,in the root of the turnip1 as seen in this figure1 there is a sort of tail going down into the ground from the bottom of it4 ,the fibres1 where the mouths are1 make a part of this tail4 ,sidenote3 ,runners4 ,illustration ,in some plants roots are formed very curiously4 ,shoots start out and run along on the ground4 ,after a little while these runners1 as they are called1 send down roots into the ground1 as is here represented4 ,the strawberry1 you know1 spreads in this way4 ,so do the verbenas4 ,when a runner gets fairly rooted it can live by itself1 for it has a root1 that is1 a stomach of its own4 ,you can separate it now from the main plant if you choose1 and set it out somewhere else4 ,this is done whenever we plant a new strawberry-bed4 ,sidenote3 ,roots of dahlias4 ,illustration ,this is a singular kind of root4 ,it is spread out like a hand4 ,each of these fingers can be separated from the rest1 and will grow by itself4 ,the roots of the dahlias are of this kind4 ,sidenote3 ,bulbs4 ,illustration ,some roots are bulbs1 as they are called4 ,the onion is a bulbous root4 ,below is one cut open4 ,you see that it is all made up of coats1 one inside of another1 which you can peel off4 ,the roots of hyacinths1 lilies1 blue-bells1 and crocuses1 are bulbs4 ,these lie in the earth very still through all the winter4 ,the life in them is asleep1 just as it is in the buds4 ,but it wakes up in the spring1 and down go the roots from the bottom of the bulbs1 and up come the plants from their tops4 ,it is sometimes said that a bulb is really a bud1 only it is in the ground1 instead of being in the air as most buds are4 ,thus the onion is a bud1 and the real roots of the plant are what you see branching down from the bottom of the bulb4 ,sidenote3 ,slips of plants4 ,you have heard people talk about setting out slips4 ,a slip is a branch of a plant4 ,some plants will grow from slips4 ,geraniums will4 ,if you put a slip of geranium into the ground and keep it well watered1 a root will shoot down into the earth from the end of the stem4 ,and so the branch cut off becomes a growing plant4 ,before it was cut off it got its food with the other branches from the root of the plant to which it belonged4 ,after it was cut off it could not live unless it could get a root of its own to suck up its food from the ground4 ,sidenote3 ,duck-meat4 ,illustration ,most plants get their food from the ground4 ,but some do not4 ,some get their food from water4 ,this is the case with a plant called duck-meat1 that is found in ponds and ditches where the water is still4 ,you see little leaves on the surface of the water1 and the roots hang like threads from the leaves4 ,this is represented in this figure4 ,now there is something in the water in these places which is sucked up by these roots and makes the leaves grow4 ,sea-weed has no roots extending down into the ground1 but it gets its nourishment from the water4 ,sidenote3 ,hanging moss4 ,there are some plants that live on other plants4 ,the mosses that you see on trees are plants of this kind4 ,at the ,south there is a kind of gray moss that hangs down from the branches of trees1 sometimes to a great length4 ,it makes the land look as if it were hung in mourning4 ,the sap that nourishes this plant it gets from the bark of the trees4 ,there are mouths in the moss where it hangs from the tree that suck in the sap which they find there4 ,sidenote3 ,dodder1 or love-vine4 ,the dodder1 or love-vine1 is a curious plant4 ,it lives on other plants4 ,it comes up out of the ground and clings to any plant that happens to be near it4 ,after it is well fastened1 and has grown considerably1 its root in the ground dies4 ,the little vine does not need it any longer1 for it clings by real roots to the plant up which it runs4 ,this is the reason that it is called love-vine2 for1 like love1 it lives on that to which it clings4 ,this vine has no leaves1 and it is of a bright-yellow color4 ,so it is sometimes called gold-thread vine4 ,questions4--,what is said about the root as a support for a tree8 ,how is it with the roots of grass8 ,what is said about roots that are for food8 ,tell about the root of the beet4 ,give the comparison made between roots and seed-holders4 ,what is said of the root of the turnip8 ,what of the roots of strawberries and verbenas8 ,what of the roots of dahlias8 ,what is said of bulbs8 ,how do plants grow from slips8 ,what is said about the duck-meat8 ,what is said of mosses8 ,tell about the dodder4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,stalks ,,and ,,trunks4 ,sidenote3 ,trunks of trees4 ,we speak of plants as having stalks1 and of trees as having trunks4 ,a tree has a stout firm trunk1 because its top is so large and heavy4 ,its branches spread out so much1 that the tree would be broken down by the wind if it did not have a strong trunk4 ,it is the woody part of the trunk that is so strong4 ,the stalks of plants have no wood in them1 because they do not need it4 ,they are strong enough to support the branches without having any wood in them4 ,sidenote3 ,stalks of grain and grass have flint in them4 ,some plants have their stalks made strong in a singular way4 ,there is a flinty earth in them4 ,this is the case with wheat1 and rye1 and most kinds of grass4 ,see how tall the stalk of rye or wheat is4 ,and it is very slender4 ,but as the wind bends it over it does not break1 because the flint in it makes it so strong4 ,it is this flint in different kinds of straws that fits them to be used in making hats and bonnets4 ,they would not be firm enough for this use if there was no flint in them4 ,you can not see or feel the flint in the straw4 ,the reason is1 that the particles of the flint are so fine1 and are so well mixed up with the fibres or threads of the straw4 ,it is this fine flint in straw that makes its ashes so useful in polishing marble4 ,in some plants you can feel the roughness that is made by the flint4 ,you can feel it in the scouring-rush1 which is sometimes used by house-keepers in scouring4 ,in this there is more of the stony substance than there is in the straw of your hat1 and it is not as fine4 ,sidenote3 ,how flint gets into stalks4 ,but you will ask how stone or flint gets into these plants4 ,it is sucked up from the ground by the mouths in the roots1 and it goes up in the sap to where it is wanted4 ,it is wanted in the stalk of the grain1 and so it stops there4 ,it never makes a mistake by going into the kernels of the grain4 ,if it did1 the flour that is made from them would be gritty1 as we should find out when we came to eat the bread4 ,sidenote3 ,shrubs4 ,all plants that have no wood in their stalks die down to the ground in the autumn1 though the roots of some of them live through the winter4 ,but trees1 you know1 remain from year to year4 ,so do shrubs and bushes4 ,these may be considered as little trees4 ,some shrubs are so small that they do not need to have their stalks woody merely to support the branches4 ,thus the currant-bush could have its branches well supported if the stalks were not woody4 ,in such cases the stalks are made woody so that they may last over the winter4 ,sidenote3 ,vines4 ,stalks and trunks commonly stand up of themselves4 ,but there are some that can not4 ,when this is so we call the plant a vine4 ,vines are supported in various ways4 ,some are held up by merely winding around something4 ,this is true of the bean-vine4 ,it winds itself1 as it grows1 around the pole that is put up for it4 ,the hop-vine is supported in the same way4 ,it is1 you know1 quite rough1 and so it can cling firmly even to quite a smooth pole4 ,sidenote3 ,tendrils4 ,pea-vines are held up in a different way4 ,little tendrils are put forth which wind around the branches of the bushes that are set for the vines to run up on4 ,these tendrils clasp very tightly4 ,you see them on many kinds of vines4 ,you see them on grape-vines1 and on the vine of the passion-flower4 ,sometimes the tendrils go out from the ends of the leaves4 ,you see a leaf of this kind on page #fh4 ,sidenote3 ,thunbergia4 ,a vine called thunbergia is held up in a very queer manner4 ,if a leaf happens to come near a twig or a string it twists its stem around it4 ,so the stems of the leaves act as tendrils to support the vine4 ,sidenote3 ,trumpet-creeper4 ,the vine of the trumpet-creeper is supported in a singular way4 ,whenever it touches any thing there come out at the joints of the stalks some sprawling things like the feet of a spider4 ,these feet fasten themselves very strongly to whatever the vine is running on4 ,if it runs up the side of a board fence1 these feet mix up their fibres very tightly with the fibres of the wood4 ,it is curious to observe that where any part of the vine is not against any thing these feet do not appear4 ,they are made only where they can be used4 ,the plant acts just as if it knew where it could use them4 ,questions4--,what is the difference between stalks and trunks8 ,why does a tree need so strong a trunk8 ,why do the stalks of plants have no wood in them8 ,what is said of the flinty earth that is in some of them8 ,in what ways is the flint in straws of use8 ,what is said of the scouring-rush8 ,how does flint get into any plant8 ,why does it not go into the kernels of grain as well as into the stalks8 ,what becomes of stalks that are not woody in the winter8 ,what is said of the woody stalks of shrubs8 ,what are vines8 ,how is the bean-vine supported8 ,tell about tendrils4 ,what is said of the thunbergia8 ,describe the way in which the trumpet-creeper is supported4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,bark ,,of ,,trees ,,and ,,shrubs4 ,in the trunk of a tree or the stalk of a shrub there are three parts4 ,they are the bark1 the wood1 and the pith4 ,sidenote3 ,the outer bark of a tree its coat4 ,the bark is not all one thing4 ,it is made up of two parts2 or rather1 we should say1 there are two barks4 ,there is an outer bark and an inner one4 ,the outer bark has no life in it4 ,it is this outer bark that gives such a roughness to the trunks of some trees1 as the elm and the oak4 ,in the birch1 you can peel off this bark in strips right around the trunk of the tree4 ,indians make very pretty boxes of these strips of birch-bark4 ,the outer bark is a coat for the tree4 ,it covers up the living parts so that they shall not be injured4 ,it does for the tree what our clothes do for our bodies4 ,it is not a perfectly tight coat4 ,it has little openings every where in it4 ,it would be bad for the tree to have this coat on it tight1 just as it would be bad for our bodies to have an ,india-rubber covering close to the skin4 ,this outer bark is a great protection to the tree through the cold winter4 ,it keeps the cold from killing the trunk and the branches4 ,this coat of the tree covers it all1 even out to the end of the smallest twig4 ,the tree looks as if it was dead in winter without its green leaves4 ,but there is life locked up there1 just as ,i told you there is in the seed that is kept through the winter4 ,the life in the tree is asleep as it is in the seed4 ,it is ready to be waked up when the warm weather of the spring shall come4 ,during this winter's sleep of the tree1 the living inner bark and wood are safe1 covered up by the tree's rough coat4 ,sidenote3 ,the inner bark4 ,if you peel off the outer bark1 as you can very easily in the birch1 you come to the fresh and juicy inner bark4 ,this ,i have told you is alive4 ,it is full of sap4 ,it has a great deal to do with the growth of the tree4 ,it is by this bark that the wood inside of it is made4 ,sidenote3 ,trees sometimes covered with straw in winter4 ,you have sometimes seen small trees covered in the winter with straw tied nicely all around them4 ,this is because they are tender trees that are not used to our cold weather4 ,they belong to a warmer climate1 and ,god gave them just such a coat as they needed there4 ,and when we undertake to have such trees here at the north1 the coat that ,god has given them is not enough to keep them from freezing in our long1 cold winters4 ,so we have to put another coat over it4 ,questions4--,what are the parts of the trunk of a tree8 ,tell about the bark4 ,what is the outside bark for8 ,how much of the tree does it cover and protect8 ,what is said of the life asleep in the trees in the winter8 ,what is said of the inner bark8 ,why is straw tied around some trees in winter8 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,wood ,,in ,,trees ,,and ,,shrubs4 ,sidenote3 ,how wood is made4 ,perhaps it seemed strange to you when ,i said in the last chapter that bark makes wood4 ,but so it is4 ,every year the living inner bark goes to work and makes a layer of wood out of the sap that is in it4 ,this work is done in the warm weather4 ,in the winter there is no wood made4 ,the tree is asleep then4 ,it is what the bark does that makes the tree larger every year4 ,a new layer of wood is formed by it all up the trunk1 and along out to the end of all the branches4 ,sidenote3 ,its layers4 ,illustration ,the different layers of wood made in the different years are often very distinct from each other4 ,you can see them in a log that has been cut or sawn across4 ,sometimes they are so distinct that you can count them1 and so tell just how many years old the tree is4 ,here is a representation of the sawn end of the trunk of a tree4 ,you see that the rings of the wood are very plain4 ,sidenote3 ,pipes in the wood for the sap4 ,the wood part of the trunk and branches is full of small pipes4 ,it is through these pipes that the sap goes up from the roots and gets to the leaves4 ,it is in this way that it goes to the very ends of the topmost boughs of the tallest trees4 ,this is very wonderful4 ,how the sap is made to go up such a great distance through these pipes in the wood we do not know4 ,there is only one way that man can make water go so high through pipes4 ,he can do it by a forcing-pump4 ,but we can see nothing like forcing-pumps in the trees4 ,we find nothing but these pipes going from the roots up to the leaves4 ,and the sap is flowing up through them very quietly all the time4 ,sidenote3 ,sap-pipes numerous4 ,in a large tree there is a multitude of these pipes in the wood4 ,and when you look at the huge trunk1 think what a quantity of sap there is going up through it all the time to keep all those leaves fresh and green4 ,if you could see it all in one pipe it would be quite a stream4 ,sidenote3 ,heart-wood4 ,if you look at the end of a log you will see that there are two kinds of wood4 ,the wood in the centre is different from that which is around it4 ,it is called the heart-wood4 ,the pipes in it are stopped up1 and no sap can go up through it4 ,the pipes for the sap are clear only in the newest part of the wood4 ,sidenote3 ,pith4 ,the use of the pith of trees and plants we do not understand4 ,the pith is very small in trees1 but it is quite large in some plants and shrubs4 ,all boys know that it is very large in the elder4 ,it is also large in the stalks of corn1 and of the sugar-cane4 ,questions4--,how is the wood in a tree made8 ,what is said of the different layers of wood8 ,what is said of the small pipes in the wood8 ,do we know how the sap is made to go up in them8 ,what is said of the quantity of sap that goes up in the trunk of a large tree8 ,what is said of the two kinds of wood that you see in looking at the end of a log8 ,what do we know about the pith of trees and plants8 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,what ,,is ,,made ,,from ,,sap4 ,every thing that you see in a tree or a plant is made from the sap4 ,the bark1 the wood1 the leaves1 the flowers1 the fruit1 are all made from it4 ,even the root that sucks up the sap from the ground is made from the sap itself4 ,sidenote3 ,the great difference in things made from sap4 ,it is strange that so many different things can be made out of the same thing4 ,it is strange that a rough bark and hard wood can be made from the same thing as the beautiful flower and the delicious fruit4 ,look at an apple-blossom1 and then look at the bark of the tree1 and think of them as being made from the same sap4 ,you can hardly believe that it is so4 ,how strange it is to think of the sharp thorns on a rose-bush as being made from the same sap that makes the soft1 and smooth1 and beautiful leaves of the roses6 ,if any man should tell you that he could make a brick and a piece of cloth1 with beautifully colored figures on it1 from the same thing1 you would say he was crazy4 ,but there is not as much difference between the brick and the cloth as there is between rude bark and a flower made from the same sap4 ,the ,creator does1 in the most common plants and trees1 what man can not equal in any way4 ,there are some things made from sap that ,i have said nothing about as yet4 ,there are many bitter1 and sweet1 and sour things made from sap4 ,sometimes sweet and bitter things are made at the same time from the same sap4 ,you see this in the orange4 ,from the same sap that comes to the orange through the stem are made the sweet juice and the sharp and bitter peel4 ,sidenote3 ,the sugar-cane4 ,almost all our sugar comes from the sugar-cane4 ,this is shaped like the stalks of corn4 ,the sugar is made from the sap that comes up in the pipes of the cane from the ground4 ,the cane1 then1 is really a sugar-factory4 ,man does not make the sugar1 but it is made for him in the cane4 ,it is in the juice of the cane4 ,this juice is mostly sugar and water4 ,in making sugar1 as it is called1 the sugar is not made4 ,it is only separated from the water and other things with which it is mixed in the cane4 ,sidenote3 ,how the sugar is obtained from it4 ,the sugar is made from the cane in this way4 ,the cane is cut into pieces1 and these are put into a mill where they are pressed between iron rollers4 ,the juice squeezed out in the mill runs off into a large reservoir or tub in the boiling-house4 ,it is now put into boilers and boiled down4 ,in this boiling the water goes off in steam1 but the sugar remains4 ,when it is boiled down to a sirup it is put into very large wooden trays called coolers4 ,here the sirup becomes sugar1 because the rest of the water goes off in the air4 ,the way in which sugar is made perfectly white1 it is said1 was discovered in a curious way4 ,a hen that had gone through a clay mud-puddle went with her muddy feet into a sugar-house4 ,she left her tracks on a pile of sugar4 ,it was observed by some one that wherever her tracks were the sugar was whitened4 ,this led to some experiments4 ,the result was1 that wet clay came to be used in refining sugar4 ,it is used in this way4 ,the sugar is put into earthen jars shaped as you see the sugar-loaves are4 ,the large ends are upward4 ,the small ends have a hole in them4 ,here is a picture of one of these jars4 ,the clay is put on the top of the sugar in the large end of the jar1 and it is kept wet4 ,the moisture goes down through the sugar1 and drops from the hole in the small end of the jar4 ,this makes the sugar perfectly white4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how a discovery was made about whitening sugar4 ,this discovery shows how much a little looking and thinking will together do4 ,what the hen did was a small thing4 ,one would hardly suppose that any thing could be learned from a hen's tracks4 ,most people would have scraped off the mud from the pile of sugar1 and thought nothing more of it4 ,but the man who saw the tracks was in the habit of thinking about what he saw4 ,and so he discovered in that hen's tracks a very useful fact4 ,if you always think about what you see you may some time be a discoverer too4 ,at any rate1 that is the way to learn4 ,and it is to help you in learning to think about what you see that ,i have written this book4 ,questions4--,what things are made from sap8 ,mention some things very different from each other that are made from the same sap4 ,give the comparison about brick and cloth4 ,what is said about the orange8 ,what about the sugar-cane8 ,how is sugar made from the sugar-cane8 ,of what use is the boiling8 ,tell how one way of purifying sugar was discovered4 ,what does this discovery show8 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,more ,,about ,,what ,,is ,,made ,,from ,,sap4 ,sidenote3 ,maple-sugar4 ,you have eaten maple-sugar4 ,this comes from a tree called the sugar-maple4 ,the sugar is in the sap1 just as it is in the case of the sugar-cane4 ,the sap is obtained early in the spring by tapping the trees1 and then it is boiled down1 as it is called4 ,in this boiling the water goes off in steam and the sugar remains4 ,the sugar-maple1 then1 is a sugar-factory as well as the sugar-cane4 ,there are many roots in which there is sugar4 ,sugar has often been obtained from a kind of beet called the sugar-beet4 ,there is sugar in many fruits1 making them sweet to the taste4 ,sidenote3 ,the sugar-cane4 ,now where does the sugar in the sugar-cane1 the maple1 the beet1 etc41 come from8 ,the sap in which the sugar is comes up from the roots4 ,you will say1 then1 that the little mouths in the roots suck up sugar from the ground4 ,but there is no sugar in the ground4 ,no one ever found any there4 ,take up a handful of earth1 smell of it1 and taste of it4 ,there is no sweetness in it4 ,sidenote3 ,some plants sugar-factories4 ,though there is no sugar in the ground1 what the sugar is made from is there4 ,this the little mouths in the root drink up1 and it is made into sugar in the plant4 ,you see1 then1 how true it is that the plant is a sugar-factory4 ,now do you think that any man could in any way make sugar from the earth under his feet8 ,he can no more do it than he can make a flower or a leaf4 ,there are a great many other things made by plants from what they suck up from the earth4 ,i will mention some of them4 ,sidenote3 ,plants make starch1 medicines1 gums1 and perfumes4 ,some plants are starch-factories4 ,they make the starch from the sap that comes up from the root1 just as the sugar is made4 ,there is starch in every kind of grain1 in potatoes1 and in many other roots4 ,some plants are medicine-factories4 ,camphor is obtained from the bark and wood of a tree4 ,opium is found in the different kinds of poppies4 ,there are various bitter medicines that are found in different plants4 ,castor-oil is obtained from the seeds of a large plant4 ,these1 and various other medicines1 are made from sap4 ,some plants are gum-factories4 ,you have sometimes seen gum on the bark of peach-trees and cherry-trees1 when the bark has been wounded in some way4 ,now there are some kinds of trees in which there is a great deal of gum4 ,the ,india rubber is a gum that is obtained from some kinds of trees in warm climates4 ,when the bark of these trees is wounded this gum oozes out4 ,it is collected as it flows4 ,it is dried in smoke1 and this gives it its dark appearance4 ,many plants are perfume-factories1 as ,i told you in ,chapter ,v4 ,the perfumes are made most often in the flowers1 but they are sometimes made in the leaves and other parts4 ,you know how fragrant the leaves of the geranium are4 ,even wood is sometimes fragrant4 ,the sandal-wood is very much so4 ,some plants are color-makers4 ,they not only make colors for their own use--that is1 to color their flowers--but they make them for us to use4 ,many of our dyes with which we color cloths come from plants4 ,they are made in the plants from the sap that comes up from the ground4 ,it seems strange that the blue indigo should be made out of what a plant drinks up from the brown1 dull earth4 ,but so it is4 ,sidenote3 ,the great variety of things made from sap4 ,now just think over the various things that are made from the sap in plants4 ,there are wood1 bark1 leaves1 flowers1 fruits1 thorns1 perfumes1 colorings1 sugar1 starch1 gum1 various medicines1 etc4 ,and then there are many other things that ,i have not mentioned4 ,how strange it is that so many and such different things can be made from what the plants suck up out of the earth6 ,as you look at the ground under your feet1 you can hardly believe that so much can be got out of it4 ,it is the busy little mouths in the roots that get from it what is needed to make all these different things4 ,questions4--,what is said of the sugar-maple8 ,what is said of sugar in some roots and fruits8 ,as there is no sugar in the ground1 how does it get into plants8 ,can any body make sugar from earth8 ,what plants are starch-factories8 ,mention some medicines made in plants4 ,what is said about plants that are gum-makers8 ,what is said about perfumes being made in plants8 ,what about colors8 ,what is said about indigo8 ,mention now all the things that you can think of that are made from the sap in plants4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,circulation ,,of ,,the ,,sap4 ,i have told you that the sap goes up in a plant or a tree in certain pipes4 ,now when it gets to the leaves it turns about and goes back again down toward the ground by some other pipes4 ,sidenote3 ,the difference between the sap that goes up and that which comes down4 ,so there is a set of pipes for the sap to go up1 and a set of pipes for it to go down4 ,in a tree1 the pipes for it to go up are in the wood4 ,now where do you think the pipes are for it to go down8 ,they are in the live part of the bark4 ,the sap is all the time going up to the leaves in the one set of pipes1 and coming down in the other set4 ,and this is what we call the circulation of the sap4 ,the sap that goes up has a great deal of water in it4 ,much of this water is got rid of when the sap comes to the leaves4 ,you remember that ,i told you1 in the chapter on leaves1 that water is let off into the air from their pores4 ,for this reason the sap that comes down from the leaves has much less water in it than the sap that goes up4 ,the sap that goes up is not perfect sap4 ,it has to make a visit to the leaves and get an airing there before it can be of much use4 ,after it is aired it goes to all parts of the plant1 down to the very roots4 ,it is this aired sap from which generally every part of the plant grows1 or is made4 ,you remember that ,i told you in the last chapter that in trees the inner bark makes a new layer of wood every year4 ,now the bark makes the wood from some of this aired sap as it goes down in the pipes of the bark4 ,sidenote3 ,the airing of the sap4 ,you remember that ,i told you in the chapter on leaves1 that they have much to do with the growth of a plant4 ,you can now see why this is so4 ,the sap has to go up to the leaves to be made good sap4 ,just what the air does to it there you are not yet old enough to understand4 ,but after a little time you will be able to understand this1 and then you will see that leaves are very properly called the lungs of plants1 and that they breathe with them as we do with our lungs1 though in a different manner4 ,sidenote3 ,the sugar made from the sugar-maple4 ,i have said that the sap that goes up is not of much use1 and that every thing in the plant is made from the sap that goes down4 ,this is not always so4 ,in the sugar-maple it is the sap that goes up in the early spring that has the sugar in it4 ,the sugar-gatherers tap the trees before the leaves are put forth4 ,the leaves1 then1 have nothing to do with making the sugar4 ,how it is made we can not understand4 ,we suppose that it is done in the root1 where the mouths are that drink up the sap from the earth4 ,but though we do not know how it is1 in some way every sugar-maple as soon as it begins to be warmed by the air of spring becomes at once a sugar-factory4 ,though most of our sugar comes from the sugar-cane of southern climates1 a great deal is made from the sap of the sugar-maple in some parts of the northern and western states in this country4 ,a very busy time they have in some places in the early spring in collecting the sap and in boiling it down4 ,the sirup is often sold as maple-sugar molasses4 ,but more often it is made into sugar2 and great quantities of it are sold every year4 ,in some places where it is made many of the people use no other sugar4 ,sidenote3 ,the sap always in motion except in winter4 ,the sap is all the time in motion in the trees and plants in all the warmer months of the year4 ,it is always going up and coming down4 ,it does so till the leaves fall and the cold of winter comes4 ,then all this motion stops4 ,and through the winter the sap is almost as still as if the trees and shrubs were dead4 ,then when the spring comes1 the mouths in the roots begin again to suck up sap from the ground1 and it runs up and down in the little pipes as it did the year before4 ,as you look at all the trees and plants about you1 think how much sap there is running up and down in their pipes4 ,look at a very large tree1 and think of this4 ,in multitudes of pipes in that huge trunk the sap goes up to the very end of all the branches to the leaves1 and then it comes down in other pipes4 ,how wonderful this is1 and yet how few there are that ever think about it6 ,questions4--,where are the pipes in which the sap goes up in a tree8 ,where are the pipes in which it comes down8 ,what is said about the water in the sap8 ,what becomes of a part of this water8 ,why is it necessary for the sap to go up to the leaves8 ,are things made from the sap that goes up1 or that which comes down8 ,how is it with the sugar in the maple8 ,where is its sugar made8 ,is the sap always in motion8 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,sleep ,,and ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,plants4 ,when the cold weather comes some plants die1 and some go to sleep for the winter4 ,sidenote3 ,most plants die in the fall4 ,some plants always die in the fall4 ,corn dies2 so does the bean-vine4 ,and so do many other plants4 ,in order to have such plants another year1 we keep some of their seeds to put into the ground in the spring4 ,sidenote3 ,how trees sleep in the winter4 ,but some plants sleep in the winter4 ,look at a tree4 ,its branches are all bare4 ,it seems as if it had no life in it4 ,but there is life there1 and it will show itself next spring4 ,its life is asleep1 just as ,i told you it is in the seed before it is put into the ground4 ,its sap is all quiet in the pipes4 ,the mouths in the roots have stopped their busy work4 ,the buds all over the tree are asleep in their 8winter-cradles40 ,the wind rocks them back and forth1 but never wakes them up4 ,how much life there is asleep in that tree6 ,the buds are all there which are to make all that you will see on it the next summer4 ,they are covered up snugly from the cold in their winter coats4 ,the little things are very still1 but they are alive4 ,they only want a warm sun to make them show it4 ,as soon in the spring as they feel the warmth through their coats1 they begin to swell1 as ,i have told you in another chapter1 and soon open their coats and go to work to make leaves1 and flowers1 and fruits4 ,a great work they do after their long winter sleep4 ,look up into a tree in summer and see how these leaf-buds have filled every branch with leaves4 ,you can hardly believe that it is the same tree that you saw so bare in the winter4 ,sidenote3 ,life asleep in roots4 ,some plants die down to the ground1 and their roots live through the winter4 ,you know that this is the way with tulips and daffodils4 ,they come up in the spring from the roots that have been in the ground all the winter4 ,so1 too1 do the beautiful crocuses1 that peep up so early in spring that they often get covered with snow4 ,the roots of grass1 too1 live in the earth through the winter4 ,the life in these roots is asleep through the winter1 just as it is in the trees and bushes4 ,their little mouths do not drink up any sap4 ,how much life there is asleep in the winter covered up in the earth6 ,sidenote3 ,decay of leaves and plants4 ,what do you think becomes of all the leaves that fall1 and of all the plants that die in the autumn8 ,they are not lost4 ,they decay and become a part of the earth4 ,a great deal of the ground under your feet was once in the shape of stalks1 and leaves1 and flowers4 ,and now the roots suck up from it sap to be made into the same shapes again4 ,so you see that the dead plants and leaves of one year are used in making the plants and leaves of the years that come after4 ,questions4--,what is said of plants that die in the fall8 ,tell how it is with a tree in the winter4 ,what does the warm weather do to its buds in the spring8 ,mention some plants that die down to the ground in the fall1 but whose roots live through the winter4 ,what is said of the life in these roots8 ,what effect does the spring have on them8 ,what becomes of all the leaves and plants that die in the fall8 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,conclusion4 ,sidenote3 ,knowledge of nature increases our enjoyment of it4 ,so ,i have told you in this book many things about trees and plants4 ,and ,i suppose that you will look at them with more pleasure now than you did before you knew so much about them4 ,almost every body says when looking at a handsome plant or tree1 how beautiful it is6 ,but you will say something more than this4 ,you will say how beautiful and how wonderful too6 ,you think of the sap going up and down in the pipes1 of the busy mouths in the roots drinking it up from the ground1 of the many different things that are made from the sap1 of the beautiful leaves acting as the lungs of the plant1 and of the leaf-buds from which the leaves are made4 ,and because you know something about all these things1 plants and trees look more beautiful to you than they ever did before4 ,you have always admired the weeping-willow with its long branches hanging almost to the ground4 ,but you admire it much more now1 because you think how wonderful it is that the sap circulates back and forth in the trailing branches4 ,follow it as ,i have told you that it goes1 and see how wonderful the circulation of the sap is in this tree4 ,it goes from the roots up through the trunk1 and down the trailing branches to the very tips of the leaves2 and then it mounts up again through other pipes in the branches to the trunk1 that it may go down again to the roots4 ,as you think of all this1 do not the beautiful branches1 as they swing back and forth in the wind1 look more beautiful than ever8 ,sidenote3 ,flowers and leaves4 ,you have always loved to look at flowers with their various colors4 ,but now you love them more than ever1 because you know something about how they grow1 and what their colors and perfumes are made from1 and many other interesting facts about them4 ,even fruits will1 ,i think1 taste better to you1 for what you have learned about them in this book4 ,leaves are such common things that most people do not know how beautiful they are4 ,from what ,i have told you about them1 ,i think you will always be ready to examine them1 and see what a variety of beauty there is in the leaves of different trees and plants4 ,and when you think what is done in the leaves1 and how the sap comes continually to them to be aired1 you admire them more than they do who think of them merely as pretty green things4 ,think of a leaf as made1 for growing is making4 ,no one can make leaves but ,god4 ,but suppose that a man could make leaves and put them on a tree4 ,it would take him his whole life to cover a tree of any size with leaves4 ,but ,god1 as ,i have told you1 makes the leaves out of sap on all the plants and trees4 ,he sends to them the warm breezes of spring1 and sets the sap running in the pipes1 and then the buds come out1 and from them are formed the leaves4 ,what a busy workshop1 as you may say1 is every plant and tree in the spring when all the leaves are making6 ,i have told you about the wonderful change that we see in plants and trees year by year4 ,what multitudes of leaves and flowers fall to the ground every year and decay6 ,what a waste1 as it seems1 of beautiful things6 ,but are they really wasted8 ,oh no6 ,god1 as ,i have told you1 can make again from these decayed leaves and flowers other leaves and flowers just as beautiful as these once were4 ,sidenote3 ,changes in winter and spring4 ,how wonderful this is6 ,look out in summer1 and see on trees1 and shrubs1 and plants1 flowers of every color mingled with the green leaves4 ,what a world of varied beauty you behold6 ,you can not believe that all this will be soon gone4 ,but wait a little and there are no leaves nor flowers4 ,all is bare and dreary4 ,the leaves and flowers have fallen in all their beauty1 and the snow covers them as with a winding-sheet4 ,sidenote3 8,seed-time and harvest shall not cease40 ,is it possible that all this beauty that we have seen thus buried can be revived again8 ,will the green grass again appear8 ,will these bare trees and shrubs again be covered with leaves and blossoms1 and will the flowers again spring up8 ,oh yes6 ,we have seen ,god do all this year after year1 with the sunshine1 and the rain1 and the dew of spring2 and he will do it again1 for he has said that 8seed-time and harvest shall not cease40 ,questions4--,with what thoughts and feelings will what you have learned in this book make you look at plants and trees8 ,what is said about the weeping-willow8 ,what about flowers and fruits8 ,what about leaves8 ,what is said about leaves being made8 ,what is said of the change that you see every year in plants and trees8 ,tell about the change from summer to winter1 and then from winter to summer4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,the ,,child',s ,,book ,,of ,,nature4 ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,families ,,and ,,schools4 ,,intended ,,to ,,aid ,,mothers ,,and ,,teachers ,,in ,,training ,,children ,,in ,,the ,,observation ,,of ,,nature4 ,,in ,,three ,,parts4 ,,part ,,ii4--,,animals4 ,,by ,,worthington ,,hooker1 ,m4,d41 ,,author ,,of 8,,first ,,book ,,in ,,chemistry10 8,,chemistry10 8,,natural ,,philosophy10 8,,natural ,,history10 ,,etc4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,,publishers1 ,,franklin ,,square4 #ahhb4 ,by ,dr4 ,,worthington ,,hooker4 ,,the ,,child',s ,,book ,,of ,,nature4 ,for the ,use of ,families and ,schools2 intended to aid ,mothers and ,teachers in training ,children in the ,observation of ,nature4 ,in three ,parts4 ,illustrations4 ,the ,three ,parts complete in one vol41 ,small #dto1 ,cloth1 #a #jj2 ,separately1 ,cloth1 ,part ,i41 #dj cents2 ,parts ,,ii4 and ,,iii41 #dd cents each4 ,,part ,i4 ,,plants4--,,part ,,ii4 ,,animals--,,part ,,iii4 ,,air1 ,,water1 ,,heat1 ,,light1 c4 ,,first ,,book ,,in ,,chemistry4 ,for the ,use of ,schools and ,families4 ,revised ,edition4 ,illustrations4 ,square #dto1 ,cloth1 #dd cents4 ,,natural ,,history4 ,for the ,use of ,schools and ,families4 ,illustrated by nearly #cjj ,engravings4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ij cents4 ,,science ,,for ,,the ,,school ,,and ,,family4 ,,part ,i4 ,,natural ,,philosophy4 ,illustrated by nearly #cjj ,engravings4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ij cents4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,chemistry4 ,revised ,edition4 ,illustrations4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ij cents4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,mineralogy ,,and ,,geology4 ,illustrations4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ij cents4 ,published by ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,franklin ,square1 ,n4 ,y4 ,either of the above volumes will be sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada1 on receipt of the price4 ,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty-seven1 by ,,harper ,,brothers1 in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,southern ,district ,court of ,new ,york4 ,,preface4 ,having presented in ,part ,first such facts or phenomena of ,vegetable ,physiology as would be interesting to a child1 ,i proceed in this ,part to do the same with ,animal ,physiology4 ,the teacher and parent will observe1 that in doing this ,i bring out quite prominently the analogies that exist between the animal and the vegetable world in the operations of life4 ,such analogies are always interesting to the child as well as to the adult1 and the consideration of them adds much to the enjoyment of the observer of nature1 for it opens to him the simple plans and principles upon which the ,creator works out the almost endlessly varied results that life1 both animal and vegetable1 presents to our view4 ,what is true of the analogies that exist between the two kingdoms of life is also true of those that we find in each kingdom by itself4 ,i have therefore1 in this ,part1 traced the resemblances which the contrivances in the human system bear to those which we see in animals of different kinds1 and also the differences1 giving to some extent the reasons for them--that is1 ,i have made it in some measure a book of comparative physiology4 ,the effect of this mode of treating the subject will be to interest the child's mind in the observation of the various animals1 great and small1 that he sees from day to day4 ,natural ,history1 which is otherwise rather a dull study1 will thus become very attractive to him4 ,and1 to further this object1 which ,i deem to be of great importance1 ,i have noticed the habits of some animals in such a manner as to connect distinctly ,physiology with ,natural ,history1 a relation which1 though an obvious one1 has very generally been disregarded4 ,while ,i have aimed in this ,part at the same kind of simplicity as in the ,first1 there are some points in it which require a greater compass of mind to understand4 ,this is as it should be2 for in going through the ,first ,part there will1 of course1 be acquired by the learner some amount of skill in observation and reasoning4 ,i have taken special care1 however1 not to presume too much upon the mental advance thus made4 ,,worthington ,,hooker4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,what ,,is ,,made ,,from ,,the ,,blood #g ,,ii4 ,,more ,,about ,,what ,,is ,,made ,,from ,,the ,,blood #aj ,,iii4 ,,how ,,the ,,blood ,,is ,,made #ac ,,iv4 ,,mother ,,earth #ae ,v4 ,,the ,,stomach ,,and ,,the ,,teeth #ai ,,vi4 ,,more ,,about ,,the ,,teeth #bb ,,vii4 ,,the ,,circulation ,,of ,,the ,,blood #bf ,,viii4 ,,breathing #cj ,,ix4 ,,brain ,,and ,,nerves #cd ,x4 ,,how ,,the ,,mind ,,gets ,,knowledge #dj ,,xi4 ,,seeing #dg ,,xii4 ,,how ,,the ,,eye ,,is ,,guarded #eb ,,xiii4 ,,hearing #eg ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,smell1 ,,the ,,taste1 ,,and ,,the ,,touch #fc ,,xv4 ,,the ,,bones #fh ,,xvi4 ,,more ,,about ,,the ,,bones #gb ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,muscles #gg ,,xviii4 ,,more ,,about ,,the ,,muscles #hb ,,xix4 ,,the ,,brain ,,and ,,nerves ,,in ,,animals #hg ,,xx4 ,,the ,,variety ,,of ,,machinery ,,in ,,animals #ia ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,hand #if ,,xxii4 ,,what ,,animals ,,use ,,for ,,hands #ajb ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,tools ,,of ,,animals #aji ,,xxiv4 ,,more ,,about ,,the ,,tools ,,of ,,animals #aae ,,xxv4 ,,instruments ,,of ,,defense ,,and ,,attack #abb ,,xxvi4 ,,wings #aca ,,xxvii4 ,,coverings ,,of ,,animals #ach ,,xxviii4 ,,beauty ,,of ,,the ,,coverings ,,of ,,animals #adb ,,xxix4 ,,how ,,man ,,is ,,superior ,,to ,,animals #adh ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,thinking ,,of ,,animals #aec ,,xxxi4 ,,more ,,about ,,the ,,thinking ,,of ,,animals #aeg ,,xxxii4 ,,what ,,sleep ,,is ,,for #afb ,,the ,,child',s ,,book ,,of ,,nature4 ,,part ,,ii4--,,animals4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,what ,,is ,,made ,,from ,,the ,,blood4 ,sidenote3 ,the blood the building material of the body4 ,i have told you1 in ,part ,first1 how every thing in a plant or tree is made from the sap4 ,this is1 then1 the building material1 as we may say1 of the plant4 ,now every thing in your body is made from the blood4 ,the blood1 then1 is to your body what sap is to a plant4 ,it is the common building material of the body4 ,you remember what ,i told you in ,part ,first about the full-blown rose4 ,this is made from the sap that comes to the bud through the pipes in the stem4 ,just so the little finger of the child becomes the large finger of the man1 from the blood that comes to it through the pipes in the arm4 ,and as the stem of the plant grows larger all the time1 so does the arm of a child4 ,the sap makes the stem grow1 and the blood makes the arm grow4 ,if you cut off a branch of a plant it stops growing1 because the sap does not come to it any longer4 ,it soon dies and decays4 ,so1 if the arm of a child be cut off1 it can not grow1 because no more blood can come to it4 ,like the cut-off branch1 it dies and decays4 ,sidenote3 ,the twig and the infant4 ,you see a twig come up out of the ground4 ,it grows larger and larger every year4 ,soon it is a small tree4 ,after many years it becomes very large1 and spreads out its long branches over a great space4 ,as you look up into it1 you think of all that you see1 its branches and leaves1 as having been made from the sap that is continually running in its pipes4 ,now1 as the little twig becomes a tree1 so the infant in the cradle becomes the large man4 ,and when you look up at a man1 you can think of all his body as having been made from the blood that runs every where in its pipes1 just as you think of a tree as made from the sap4 ,it is wonderful1 as you have seen in ,part ,first1 how many and how different things are sometimes made from the same sap4 ,look at an apple-tree4 ,there are the hard wood1 the rough bark1 the tender leaves1 the beautiful blossoms1 and the pleasant fruit1 all made from the same sap4 ,but the variety of things made from your blood is much more wonderful4 ,sidenote3 ,variety of the things made from the blood4 ,look at some of the things that are made from the blood4 ,see the skin1 the hair1 the nails4 ,look at the soft red gums and the hard white teeth in the mouth4 ,then look at the eye4 ,see the eyelids1 the eyelashes1 the firm1 pearly-white coat of the eyeball1 and the clear window in the front part of the eye4 ,see1 too1 inside of this window1 that round1 colored curtain1 with an opening in the middle that we call the pupil4 ,sidenote3 ,bones1 muscles1 lungs1 brain1 nerves1 bile1 tears1 etc41 made from the blood4 ,all these different things that you see are made from the same blood4 ,then there are many other things inside of the body that you can not see4 ,these are the hard bones1 the red muscles1 the white1 shining cords by which the muscles pull the bones1 the light1 spongy lungs1 the thick and firm liver1 the soft brain1 the white nerves1 etc41 etc4 ,how strange it is that all these parts of the body1 so different from each other1 are made from the same building material1 the blood4 ,but this is not all4 ,the wax in your ears is made from the blood4 ,so is the bile1 that bitter stuff that is manufactured in the liver4 ,the tears1 too1 are made from the blood4 ,there are many other liquids in the body that are made from this common material4 ,when you look into a person's eye you look into a watery fluid1 and the back part of the ball of the eye is filled with a sort of jelly2 both of these are made from the blood4 ,but even this is not all4 ,the arteries and veins in which the blood runs are made from the blood4 ,even the heart that pumps the blood is made from the blood that it pumps4 ,this is as strange as it would be to have the walls of a canal made from the water that runs in it1 or to have a pump made from the water that it pumps out4 ,questions4--,what is every thing in a plant made from8 ,what is every thing in your body made from8 ,tell what is said about the bud and the finger1 and about the stem and the arm4 ,what is said about cutting off a branch and an arm8 ,how is a child compared to a twig8 ,mention the different things in an apple-tree that are made from the sap4 ,are there more things made from your blood8 ,mention some of them that you can see4 ,mention some that are inside of the body that you can not see4 ,what is said about the ear-wax1 the bile1 the tears1 etc48 ,what about the arteries and veins1 and the heart8 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,more ,,about ,,what ,,is ,,made ,,from ,,the ,,blood4 ,sidenote3 ,how wonderful it is that so many things are made from the blood4 ,how different from each other are some of the things that are made from the blood6 ,you could hardly believe that the white1 hard teeth are made from the same blood that the red1 soft gums are4 ,suppose that while you are in a ,china-ware factory a man should tell you that even the whitest ,china is made from a red liquid1 and that they also make in this factory fine red cloth from this liquid4 ,you would not believe him4 ,but white ,china-ware and the fine red cloth are not any more unlike than the teeth and the gums4 ,suppose1 now1 that he should show you a yellow1 bitter fluid1 and then a clear1 soft eye-water1 and tell you that these he makes from the same red liquid from which the ,china and the red cloth are made4 ,this certainly you would not believe4 ,and yet1 in our bodies1 the bile and the tears are made from the same blood with the teeth and the gums4 ,but not only are a few things very much unlike made from the blood1 but many things that differ from each other1 some of them much and some but little4 ,suppose that the ,china-ware maker should tell you that besides making white ,china and red cloth from his red liquid1 he made also a variety of both hard and soft things1 such as velvet1 and various kinds of cloth1 nails1 glass1 etc4 ,impossible6 you would say4 ,but this is no more wonderful than that hair1 teeth1 gums1 nails1 bones1 and all the different parts of the body should be made from that red fluid--the blood4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,china-ware factory4 ,but suppose1 again1 that the ,china-ware man should tell you that his factory was made from the same red fluid from which he manufactures so many things in it--that the very pipes that carry the fluid around the building were made from it1 and so also was the pump that sends it through these pipes4 ,this would seem to you strangest of all4 ,and yet all the various machinery of the body is made from the blood4 ,the liver1 that manufactures bile from blood1 is itself made from blood2 and so of other things2 even the pipes in which the blood runs all over your body1 and the heart that pumps it into them1 are made1 as ,i have before told you1 from the blood4 ,sidenote3 ,the body the house of the soul4 ,the body is the house or habitation of the soul4 ,it is a well-built and a well-finished house4 ,the bones are its timbers4 ,the skin is its covering4 ,the hair is its thatched roof4 ,the eyes are its windows4 ,it is a house that can be easily moved about1 just as the soul wishes4 ,there is for this a great deal of machinery in it4 ,and the soul has little cords1 called nerves1 running to all parts of this machinery1 like telegraphic wires4 ,there are also other kinds of machinery1 as the breathing machinery1 the machinery for taking care of the food1 and the machinery for circulating the blood4 ,the soul resides in the top of this house1 the brain4 ,here it sends out messages every where by the little cords1 and receives messages by them4 ,here it thinks and acts1 and some of the time sleeps4 ,this part of the house is very curiously and beautifully fitted up4 ,sidenote3 ,all the parts and the furniture of the soul's house made from blood4 ,now all the various parts of this house are made1 as ,i have told you1 from the blood1 and yet there is more variety in them than there is in the parts and furniture of the houses that man builds4 ,suppose that a man should show you a great quantity of a red liquid1 and tell you that with that he intended to build a house and furnish it--that he should make from it all his stones1 and bricks1 and timbers1 and glass1 and nails1 and plaster1 and papers for his walls1 and paints of different colors1 and then his carpets1 and mirrors1 and chairs1 and curtains1 etc41 etc4 ,you would say that the man is crazy4 ,but ,god makes from that red fluid1 the blood1 all the parts of the house of the soul4 ,exactly in what way all the different parts of the body are made from the blood we do not know4 ,wise men have studied this a great deal1 and they have found out some things about it4 ,what they have found out you are not yet old enough to understand4 ,after all1 the wisest men know but little about it1 and1 with all their wisdom1 they do not know enough to make skin1 or hair1 or any thing else that you see in your body from the blood any more than1 as ,i told you in ,part ,first1 they can make even a simple leaf from the sap4 ,questions4--,what is said about the teeth and the gums8 ,give the comparison about ,china and cloth4 ,what is said about the tears and the bile8 ,what is said about the variety of things made from the blood8 ,give the comparison about the ,china-ware factory and the machinery of the body4 ,what is said about the different parts of the habitation of the soul8 ,in what part of this house does the soul reside8 ,give the comparison about a house and its furniture4 ,what is said about wise men8 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,how ,,the ,,blood ,,is ,,made4 ,i have told you what is made from the blood1 and now you will want to know how the blood itself is made4 ,sidenote3 ,blood made from food4 ,the blood in your body is made from the food that you eat4 ,it is made very much in the same way that the sap in the plant is made4 ,this sounds strange to you1 but it is true4 ,you remember that ,i told you in ,part ,first that the plant's food is in the ground1 and that the root is its stomach4 ,you remember what ,i told you about the little mouths in the root that suck up the plant's food out of the ground4 ,there are little mouths in your stomach that suck in the nourishing part of the food that you eat1 as the mouths in the root suck up the nourishing part of the earth4 ,and the stomachs of all animals have these little mouths4 ,sidenote3 ,the mouths in the stomach4 ,the mouths in the root of a plant do not1 you know1 suck up all the soil4 ,they drink in only what is good to make the plant grow4 ,so the mouths in the stomach of an animal do not suck up all the food2 they suck up only that part of the food that will make the animal grow--that is1 what will make good blood4 ,there is1 you know1 no sap in the ground1 but there is what can be made into sap4 ,so there is no blood in your food1 but there is in it what can be made into blood4 ,it is the business of the mouths in the root to take in what will make sap1 and so it is the business of the mouths in the stomach to take in what will make blood4 ,and they generally do this business very faithfully4 ,it is very seldom that they take in what they ought not to4 ,sidenote3 ,variety of our food4 ,you have seen how many different things are made from the blood4 ,this is very wonderful4 ,but it is quite as wonderful that the blood can be made from so many different kinds of food as you sometimes take into your stomach4 ,just think of all the various things that you sometimes eat at dinner--meat1 potato1 turnip1 squash1 apple-sauce1 cranberry1 celery1 pie1 filberts1 raisins1 etc4 ,it seems strange that red blood can be made from such a mixture as this4 ,but so it is4 ,there is something in all these different things that helps to make the blood4 ,sidenote3 ,stomachs of animals suited to their food4 ,the blood is made from different things in different animals4 ,the cow1 you know1 never eats meat4 ,it would be of no use in its stomach4 ,the mouths there would not suck up any thing from it4 ,this is not their business4 ,their business is to suck up something from grass1 and meal1 and potatoes1 etc41 but not from meat4 ,so grass would be of no use to a dog4 ,the ,creator has made the stomach of the cow in such a way that it can get from grass what is needed to make blood2 and he has given such a stomach to a dog that blood can be made from the meat that he eats4 ,our stomachs are made in such a way that our blood can be made from a great many different things2 and so the variety of our food is much greater than that of such animals as the cow and the dog4 ,questions4--,from what is the blood made8 ,how is an animal's stomach like the root of a plant8 ,what part of the food do the mouths in stomachs and in roots suck up8 ,what is said about the different kinds of food that blood is made from8 ,tell about the food of the cow and the dog4 ,what is said about our stomachs8 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,mother ,,earth4 ,sidenote3 ,our food in the ground4 ,the food of plants is in the ground1 and the roots take it up2 but so1 too1 is the food of animals in the ground4 ,and yet1 if we should fill our stomachs ever so full of earth1 we should not be nourished4 ,how is this8 ,it is because the food is not in the right condition for us while it is in the earth4 ,it must be changed before our stomachs can do any thing with it4 ,sidenote3 ,the plants gather it and fit it for our use4 ,now this is just what the plants do for us4 ,they get this food out of the earth for us1 and put it into such a condition that our stomachs can use it4 ,i will make this plain to you4 ,we eat bread made from wheat4 ,it nourishes us--that is1 blood is made from it4 ,but what is the wheat8 ,it is grain that is made from the sap that comes up in the pipes of the stalk1 and this sap is made from what the root sucks up out of the ground4 ,you see1 then1 that what the wheat is made from is in the ground2 and all that the plant does is to take this up out of the ground and make it into wheat1 so that our stomachs can use it for food4 ,the plant's stomach1 then1 we may say1 gathers food out of the ground for our stomachs4 ,one of the things that we eat is sugar4 ,where does it come from8 ,it is made from the earth4 ,but if you should put earth into your stomach1 no sugar could be made from it in your body4 ,there are some plants that have to do this for us4 ,they make sugar from the earth for us to eat4 ,this part of our food then1 may be said to be really in the ground1 for what it is made from is there4 ,the same thing is true when you eat meat4 ,this meat was once a part of the ground4 ,see how this is4 ,suppose it is a piece of beef from an ox3 the grass that the ox ate was made from sap sucked up from the ground2 then from this grass blood was made in the ox2 from this blood the meat was made2 and now from the meat blood is made to nourish you4 ,sidenote3 ,changes in the food while it is becoming fitted for us4 ,see1 now1 how many changes the food in the ground goes through in this case before it becomes a part of your body4 ,first it becomes sap2 then it becomes a part of the grass2 then in the stomach of the ox it is sucked up1 and is changed into blood2 then it becomes a part of the ox2 then it is sucked up in your stomach1 and is changed into blood2 and now it is ready to be used in your body to make nerve1 or bone1 or eye1 or tooth1 or any part of the house of your soul4 ,you sometimes drink the milk of the cow4 ,this also comes from the ground4 ,see how this is4 ,the cow goes to pasture1 and eats the grass that is made from the ground4 ,the cow's blood is made from this1 then milk is made in her bag from the blood1 and in you this milk is changed back to blood4 ,so you see that all our food really comes from the earth4 ,there is in the earth under our feet just what makes and nourishes our bodies4 ,we can not get at it ourselves1 mixed up as it is with the earth1 but the plants suck it up and prepare it for us2 and in this you see the reason for the expression 8,mother ,earth40 ,the earth is our mother4 ,we get all our food from the earth as really as the infant gets its food from its mother's breast4 ,you can also see1 from what ,i have told you in this chapter1 the meaning of the text1 8,dust thou art1 and unto dust shalt thou return40 ,we are dust1 that is1 earth2 for we are made from it1 and are nourished by what comes from it1 and when we die our bodies will become a part of the earth again4 ,sidenote3 ,reasons why animals have a stomach4 ,you see that there are two reasons why animals have a stomach to put their food in4 ,one is that they want to move about4 ,they could not have a root for a stomach as plants do4 ,they must have a stomach that they can carry about with them4 ,we can suppose an animal made like a plant4 ,it might have feet with roots sprouted out from them1 and these roots might have little mouths which would suck up food as soon as they were put into the ground4 ,but how very awkward and inconvenient this would be6 ,the animal would be obliged every now and then to bury up its feet with their roots in loose moist earth1 and stay still in one spot till enough was sucked up from the earth for its nourishment4 ,and1 besides1 the roots would be dangling around1 and catching in every thing as the animal moved about4 ,your little feet could not carry you about as nimbly as they now do if you had such roots fastened to them4 ,another reason is1 that the food in the ground is not fitted to nourish an animal4 ,it must be gathered up in plants1 and be changed in them1 as ,i have shown you in this chapter1 before it can be of any use to animals4 ,sidenote3 ,why the stomach of a plant is so much larger than the stomach of an animal4 ,the stomach of a plant is much larger than that of an animal4 ,the stomach of an animal1 you know1 is but a small part of its body2 while the root of the plant--that is1 its stomach--is nearly as large as the plant itself4 ,what do you think is the reason of this8 ,the little mouths in the root of the plant suck up only a small part of the earth1 the plant's food1 and so it takes a great deal of earth to give the plant all the sap that it needs4 ,it is for this reason that the root spreads out so far on every side4 ,now in the animal the mouths in the stomach suck up a great part of the food4 ,it does not require1 therefore1 a large stomach1 for it needs to put but a small amount of food into it4 ,you see1 then1 that the food of the plant is bulky1 as we say1 and therefore it must have a large stomach1 while the animal can manage its food with a small one4 ,questions4--,where is the food of animals8 ,what must be done to it before they can use it8 ,what do the plants do for us8 ,tell about the wheat4 ,what is said about sugar8 ,what about meat8 ,mention the changes that food goes through in this case before it becomes a part of your body4 ,what is said of milk8 ,what is the reason of the expression ,mother ,earth8 ,explain the text1 8,dust thou art1 and unto dust shalt thou return40 ,what is the first reason given why an animal has a stomach to put his food in8 ,what is the second reason8 ,why is the stomach of a plant so much larger than the stomach of an animal8 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,stomach ,,and ,,the ,,teeth4 ,the little mouths in the stomach1 as ,i have told you1 suck up from the food what is made into blood1 but they do not do this as soon as the food is put into the stomach4 ,the food must be digested first4 ,you have heard people talk about digestion1 and now ,i will explain it to you4 ,sidenote3 ,what is done to the food in the stomach4 ,when you swallow your food1 there is a liquid formed in the stomach that mixes up with it4 ,this liquid1 after a little time1 changes all the different kinds of food in such a way that the whole looks as if it was all one thing4 ,the meat1 and potato1 and pie1 etc41 are not only well mixed1 but they are so changed that you could not tell one from the other4 ,when the food becomes changed in this way1 the little mouths begin their work upon it4 ,they suck up from it a white fluid very much like milk2 and it is from this fluid that all the blood in our bodies is made4 ,sidenote3 ,the grinding of the food4 ,now observe what is done to the food before it goes into the stomach4 ,there is a mill in your mouth for grinding it up1 and a very good mill it is4 ,there are twenty teeth there for the purpose of dividing up your food very finely4 ,you can see what the use of this is4 ,the finer the food is1 the more easily will the digesting fluid in the stomach change it4 ,it takes some time for this fluid to soak through a solid piece of meat or potato4 ,so you see that you must not swallow your food too fast1 but must let the mill in your mouth grind it up thoroughly4 ,sidenote3 ,breaking up the food of plants4 ,something like this grinding we do sometimes for the food of plants1 ,you know that in the spring the gardener digs up his garden1 and the farmer plows his fields4 ,what is this for8 ,it is to loosen up the ground2 that is1 it is to break up the food of the plants1 so that they can use it well4 ,if this was not done1 the hard earth would be to the plants just as your food would be to your stomach if you swallow it without chewing it well4 ,so your teeth do to your food what the spade and the plow do to the food of plants4 ,sidenote3 ,the saliva factories4 ,while the mill is grinding the food1 there are some factories about the mouth1 making and pouring forth a fluid to moisten it4 ,this fluid1 called the saliva1 is what you feel in the mouth when the mouth waters1 as we say4 ,the two largest of these factories are just below your ears4 ,it is these that swell up so much when one has the mumps4 ,these saliva factories do a moderate business generally4 ,most of the time they only make enough liquid to keep the mouth moist4 ,sometimes they do not make enough even for this4 ,this is the case when your mouth gets dry1 as it is apt to do in fever4 ,when you eat1 these factories do a brisk business1 for they then have to make a good deal of fluid to mix with the food4 ,it seems as if they knew when it was necessary for them to go to work and make more saliva than usual4 ,this1 of course1 is not so2 but how it is that they are made to work so hard while we are eating we do not know4 ,the food of plants needs moistening just as our food does4 ,the rain moistens it for the root1 the stomach of the plant1 so that it may get nourishment from it4 ,when you water the dry earth in a flower-pot1 you do for the food of the plant what the saliva factories do for your food4 ,sidenote3 ,parched plants and the parched mouth in fever compared4 ,sometimes in fever1 as ,i have just told you1 the mouth is very dry4 ,this is partly because the saliva factories have almost stopped work2 hardly any saliva comes through their canals into the mouth4 ,it would be hard work then to eat dry food4 ,the dry cracker must be moistened before it can be eaten4 ,this is very much like what sometimes happens to plants when there has been no rain for a long time4 ,there they are1 with their roots in the ground1 just as they have been all along4 ,the food is close to their little mouths1 but it is so dry that they can not well manage it4 ,they languish1 therefore1 and perhaps wilt4 ,the dry earth is to them like the dry cracker to the fevered mouth4 ,questions4--,what is done to the food in the stomach8 ,what do the months in the stomach suck up8 ,what is done to the food before it goes into the stomach8 ,what is the use of grinding the food8 ,what harm does it do to eat fast8 ,what is said about the food of plants8 ,what else is done to our food while the teeth are grinding it8 ,tell about the working of the saliva factories4 ,what is said about moistening the food of plants8 ,how are plants sometimes like persons in a fever8 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,more ,,about ,,the ,,teeth4 ,sidenote3 ,the different kinds of teeth for cutting1 and tearing1 and grinding4 ,notice that in the mill in your mouth there are different kinds of teeth4 ,they are for different purposes4 ,the front teeth are for cutting the food2 the large back teeth are for grinding it up fine2 the pointed teeth1 called the stomach and eye teeth1 are for tearing the food4 ,you can see these different kinds of teeth in different animals4 ,every animal has such teeth as it needs to divide its food4 ,the dog and the cat eat meat1 and they want to tear this to pieces2 they therefore have long1 sharp1 tearing teeth2 so1 too1 have the lion and the tiger1 for the same reason4 ,now look at the cow's mouth3 she has no tearing teeth4 ,the grass that she eats does not need to be torn2 it needs to be bruised and ground up1 and for this purpose she has large1 broad1 grinding teeth4 ,these are her back teeth4 ,but you notice that the cow has a few different teeth in front2 they are made to cut4 ,now watch a cow as she eats grass1 and see how she uses these two kinds of teeth4 ,with the front teeth she bites the grass--that is1 she cuts it2 then with the end of her tongue she puts it back where the grinding teeth are1 to be ground before it goes into the stomach4 ,so the cow has in her mouth both a cutting machine and a mill4 ,the horse has these two kinds of teeth1 as you see represented in this figure1 which is the skull of a horse4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the teeth of the horse1 the cow1 and the giraffe4 ,now when you eat an apple you do very much as the cow or the horse does with the grass2 with your front cutting teeth you bite off a piece2 then it is pushed back where the grinders are1 and they grind it up into a soft pulp before you swallow it4 ,the cow does not always use her cutting teeth in the way that ,i have mentioned4 ,see her as she eats hay2 she does not cut this as she does the grass4 ,with those front cutting teeth she merely takes up the hay1 and it is gradually drawn back into the mouth1 the grinders all the while keeping at work on it4 ,if the hay is in a rack1 she pulls it out with her cutting teeth4 ,it is the same with the horse4 ,illustration ,that beautiful and singular animal1 the giraffe1 which you see here1 has these two kinds of teeth4 ,this animal1 when of full size1 is three times the height of a tall man2 it lives on the leaves of trees1 which it crops with its front teeth1 grinding them up with its large back teeth1 as the cow and horse do their hay and grass4 ,sidenote3 ,tearing teeth4 ,you notice that your tearing teeth are not nearly as long and powerful as these teeth are in dogs1 cats1 tigers1 etc4 ,what is the reason of this8 ,it is because1 although you eat meat as they do1 you can1 with your knife and fork1 cut up your food4 ,they do not know enough to use such things1 and so ,god has given them long1 sharp teeth to tear their food to pieces4 ,sidenote3 ,stomachs of the cow4 ,the cow grinds the grass and hay twice4 ,so do the sheep1 the deer1 the camel1 the giraffe1 and many other animals4 ,see the cow cropping grass in the pasture2 she grinds it partly in her mouth as she crops it1 and then stows it away in a very large stomach that she has for the purpose2 after a while she stops eating1 and you see her standing or lying in the cool shade chewing her cud1 as we say4 ,that large stomach is very full of grass now1 and this is all to be chewed over again4 ,how do you think this is done8 ,i will tell you4 ,sidenote3 ,chewing the cud4 ,after the grass is well soaked in this large stomach1 it passes into another1 for the cow has more than one stomach--she has four4 ,in this second stomach the grass is all rolled into balls4 ,this is a very curious operation4 ,now each one of these balls goes up into the mouth to be chewed over again4 ,after it is well chewed1 down it goes again1 but it goes into still another stomach1 and then up comes another ball to take its place2 and so the cow goes on till all the balls are chewed4 ,if you look at the cow's neck while she is doing this1 you can see when the ball goes up and when it goes down4 ,she seems to have the same quiet enjoyment while thus chewing her cud that the cat has when1 with her eyes half open1 she lies purring and wagging her tail after a full meal4 ,sidenote3 ,gizzards of birds4 ,birds1 you know1 have no teeth4 ,their mill for grinding food is not in the mouth1 it is in the stomach4 ,what we call the gizzard is this mill4 ,see a hen pick up the corn that you throw to her4 ,she swallows it very fast4 ,where do you think it goes to8 ,it goes into a bag called the crop4 ,here it is soaked1 just as the grass is in the large stomach of the cow4 ,when it becomes soft enough it goes into the gizzard4 ,here it is crushed so as to make a soft pulp by being rubbed between two hard surfaces1 as corn in a mill is ground between two mill-stones4 ,if you cut open the gizzard of a fowl1 you can see how well these surfaces are fitted to grind up the corn4 ,they do it quite as well as teeth would4 ,birds that live on food that does not need grinding do not have a gizzard1 but a common stomach4 ,questions4--,what are the different kinds of teeth that you have in your mouth1 and what are they for8 ,what is said about the teeth of the dog1 cat1 etc48 ,what is said about the cow's back teeth8 ,what of her front ones8 ,tell how the cow uses these two kinds of teeth in eating grass1 and how in eating hay4 ,how do you eat an apple8 ,tell about the giraffe4 ,tell about the cow's chewing her cud4 ,what is the crop of a bird for8 ,what is the gizzard for8 ,do all birds have gizzards8 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,circulation ,,of ,,the ,,blood4 ,sidenote3 ,arteries and veins4 ,you remember that ,i told you in ,part ,first how the sap circulates in a plant or a tree4 ,it goes up in one set of pipes1 and goes down in another set4 ,just so it is with the blood in your body2 it is always in motion4 ,there are two different sets of pipes for it to go back and forth1 as there are in the plant for the sap2 these two sets of pipes are called arteries and veins4 ,sidenote3 ,the heart4 ,the blood in your body is kept in motion by a pump that works all the time1 night and day4 ,this pump is in your chest4 ,it is the heart4 ,put your ear to the chest of some one1 and you can hear its working as it pumps out the blood4 ,you can hear it in your own chest sometimes when it works very hard4 ,when you have been running very fast you can hear it4 ,the heart pumps the blood out at every beat into a large artery4 ,from this great main pipe other pipes or arteries branch out every where1 and from these branches other branches go out2 dividing in this way1 like the branches of a tree1 the arteries at last are very small4 ,sidenote3 ,the capillaries4 ,at the ends of the arteries there are exceedingly small vessels4 ,they are called capillaries1 from the ,latin word capilla1 which means a hair4 ,they are really smaller than the finest hairs1 for you can not see them4 ,when you cut your finger you divide a great many of these vessels1 and the blood oozes out from them4 ,when any one blushes1 these capillaries in the skin of the face are very full of blood1 and this causes the redness4 ,it is the blood in these little vessels that makes the lips red4 ,these capillaries are every where1 so that wherever you prick with a pin the blood will ooze out4 ,the blood goes out from the heart by one set of pipes1 and comes back to the heart by another set4 ,it goes out from the heart by the arteries1 as ,i have just told you2 it comes back to the heart by the veins4 ,sidenote3 ,how arteries are guarded more than veins1 and why4 ,the veins lie1 some of them1 very deep1 and some just under the skin4 ,you see some of them under the skin in your arm and hand4 ,but you can not see the arteries2 they nearly all lie deep4 ,think of the reason of this4 ,if an artery of any size is wounded1 it is not easy to stop its bleeding1 for the heart is pumping blood right through it2 but it is easy to stop the bleeding of a wounded vein1 because the blood is going in it quietly back to the heart4 ,now it is because it is so dangerous to wound arteries that ,god has placed them so deep that they can not easily be wounded4 ,the maker of our bodies has guarded the arteries in another way4 ,he has made them much stronger than the veins4 ,if they were not made very strong they would now and then burst4 ,you sometimes see the hose of a fire-engine burst when they are working the engine very hard2 but1 though your heart pumps away sometimes so fast and hard1 as when you have been running1 not one of all the arteries gives way2 but they would often burst if they were not made stronger than the veins are4 ,the blood in the arteries is red2 but the blood that comes back to the heart in the veins is dark4 ,this is the reason that the veins which you see under the skin look dark4 ,i will tell you more about the dark and the red blood in the next chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,circulation of the sap4 ,you see that the blood is kept in motion in a different way from what the sap is4 ,in a large tree there is a great deal of sap going up in its trunk all the time1 but there are no large pipes there like our arteries and veins4 ,the sap goes up and down in a multitude of very small pipes1 and there is no pump in the tree1 as there is in our bodies1 and in the bodies of other animals4 ,how the sap goes up to the top of the tallest tree without being pumped up we do not know4 ,sidenote3 ,pumping of the heart4 ,the heart is at work1 as ,i have told you1 all the time1 while you are asleep as well as when you are awake4 ,if it should stop pumping the blood1 you would die4 ,how steadily it works1 going tick-tack all the while6 ,how much work it does in a lifetime6 ,it takes but a few days for it to beat a million of times2 and here ,i will give you something about this work of the heart that ,i wrote in another book4,a#a ,if the heart could think1 and know1 and speak1 suppose it should count up how many times it has to beat before the days of seventy years are numbered and finished4 ,i think it would feel a little discouraged at the great1 long work that was before it1 just as some people do when they look forward and think how much they have to do2 but remember that the heart has a moment in which it can make every beat4 ,there is time enough to do the work2 it is not expected to make two or more beats at once1 but only one4 ,footnote ,a#a3 ,every-day ,wonders2 or1 ,facts in ,physiology4 ,american ,sunday-school ,union4 ,sidenote3 ,cheerful working4 ,as the heart can not think1 it does not faint with discouragement1 but goes right on with its work1 doing in each moment the duty of that moment2 and it would be well if people that can think1 whether children or adults1 would take a lesson from this little busy worker in their bosoms4 ,if one goes right on1 performing cheerfully every duty as it comes along1 he will do a great deal in a lifetime1 and he will do it easily and pleasantly1 if he does not keep looking ahead and thinking how much he has to do4 ,sidenote3 ,the discontented pendulum4 ,there is a pretty story1 by ,miss ,jane ,taylor1 about a discontented pendulum4 ,the pendulum of a clock in a farmer's kitchen1 in thinking over the ticking that it had got to do1 became discouraged1 and concluded to stop4 ,the hands on the clock-face did not like this1 and had a talk with the pendulum about it4 ,the pendulum was1 after a while1 persuaded to begin its work again1 because it saw1 as the hands said1 that it always had a moment to do every tick in4 ,the pendulum's foolish waste of time in complaining made the farmer's clock an hour too slow in the morning4 ,questions4--,what is said about the circulation of the sap and the blood8 ,what is said about the heart8 ,what about the arteries8 ,what are the capillaries8 ,by what pipes does the blood come back to the heart8 ,where can you see some of the veins8 ,why are the arteries laid deeper than these veins8 ,why are they made stronger than veins8 ,what is the color of the blood in the arteries8 ,what is its color in the veins8 ,is the sap kept in motion in the same way that the blood is8 ,what is said about the work that the heart does8 ,tell about the pendulum4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,breathing4 ,what do you breathe for8 ,that is plain enough1 you will say3 ,i can not live without breathing4 ,but why is it that your life depends on your breathing8 ,this ,i will explain to you4 ,sidenote3 ,the blood changed from dark to red in the lungs4 ,you remember that ,i told you that the blood that comes back to the heart in the veins is dark2 it is not good blood4 ,it has been used while it was in the capillaries in building and repairing bone1 and skin1 and muscle1 and nerve1 etc4 ,it is not fit to be used again so long as it is dark blood4 ,what shall be done with it8 ,it must be made in some way into good red blood again4 ,now the factory where this is done is the lungs4 ,just as fast as the dark blood comes to the heart1 it sends it to the lungs to be made into red blood1 then it goes back to the heart to be sent all over the body4 ,but how1 you will ask1 is the dark blood changed into good red blood in the lungs8 ,it is done by the air that you breathe in2 every time that you draw a breath1 air goes down into the lungs and changes the blood that it finds there4 ,and now you see why it is that you have to breathe to keep alive4 ,if the air does not go down into the lungs1 the dark blood that is there is not changed into red blood3 it goes back to the heart dark blood1 and is sent all over the body2 but this dark blood can not keep you alive3 it is the red blood that does this4 ,sidenote3 ,drowning4 ,you see1 then1 how death is caused in drowning2 the air is shut out by the water1 and the blood is not changed in the lungs2 so the blood goes back to the heart dark instead of red1 and is sent all over the body4 ,illustration ,the heart and the lungs fill up your chest4 ,the lungs cover up the heart1 except a little part of it on the left side3 this is where you can feel its beating so plainly4 ,here is a figure of the heart and lungs2 the lungs are drawn apart1 so that you can see the heart1 and its large arteries and veins4 ,you see1 marked a1 the windpipe by which the air goes down into the lungs4 ,the lungs are light1 spongy bodies4 ,they are light because they are full of little cells for the air to go into4 ,it is in these cells that the blood is changed by the air4 ,sidenote3 ,situation of the heart and lungs of fishes4 ,sidenote3 ,gills of fishes4 ,sidenote3 ,how fishes breathe4 ,and now ,i will tell you about the lungs of fishes4 ,but perhaps you will say that fishes do not breathe1 and it can not be that they have lungs1 for they would be of no use to them4 ,it is true that they do not have such lungs as we have2 but they have lungs1 and they really do breathe air4 ,how is this1 you will ask1 when they live in the water8 ,there is a good deal of air always mixed up with water1 and the lungs of a fish are so made that the air in the water can change the blood in them4 ,the gills of a fish are its lungs1 and the way that they are used is this4 ,the fish takes water into its mouth1 and lets it run out through the gills1 and so the air that is mixed with the water changes the blood in them4 ,our lungs are fitted to breathe air alone1 but the fish may be said to breathe air and water together4 ,air alone does the fish no good2 he can not live in it2 he must have his air mixed with water1 or it is of no use to him4 ,sidenote3 ,breathing of the lamprey eel4 ,illustration ,here is a picture of the lamprey eel4 ,you see that it has a row of holes on its neck3 these are openings that lead to its lungs2 there are seven on each side4 ,it is from this that it is sometimes called seven-eyes4 ,insects have such openings into their lungs4 ,the grasshopper has twenty-four of them1 in four rows4 ,so you see that there are different ways of breathing in different animals4 ,they do not all breathe through their mouths and noses1 as we do4 ,sidenote3 ,the voice4 ,you see that the chief use of breathing is to air the blood2 but it is of use to us in another way4 ,it makes the voice4 ,we could not speak if we did not breathe4 ,the sound of the voice is made in the top of the neck1 in what we call ,adam's apple4 ,this is a sort of musical box at the top of the windpipe3 in this box there are two flat cords stretching right across it4 ,now when we speak or sing1 the sound is made in this way3 the air1 coming up out of the lungs1 strikes on these cords1 and makes them shake or vibrate4 ,it is just as the vibration of the fiddle-string makes a sound when the bow is drawn over it4 ,if you look at an olian harp fixed in a window1 you can see that the strings are made to quiver by the wind1 and this causes the sound4 ,in the same way1 the wind that is blown up from your lungs makes the cords in the ,adam's apple vibrate2 and the chest may be said to be the bellows of that little musical box or organ that you have in the throat4 ,sidenote3 ,the voices of animals4 ,sidenote3 ,the purring of the cat4 ,many animals have a musical box in the throat similar to ours4 ,the lowing of the cow1 the barking of the dog1 and the mewing and squalling of the cat are all done in such a box4 ,you perhaps have wondered how the cat purrs4 ,this noise is made in the same box where she does her mewing and squalling2 for if you put your finger on her ,adam's apple while she is so quietly purring1 you can feel a quivering motion there4 ,sidenote3 ,the croaking of the frog4 ,fishes1 you know1 have no voice4 ,they have no musical box4 ,if they had they could not use it1 for the only way in which it can be used is to blow air through it4 ,the frog can not use his so long as he is under water2 he has to stick his head up out of water when he wants to croak4 ,questions4--,what do you breathe for8 ,how is the blood in the lungs changed8 ,what would it do if it were not changed8 ,how is death1 caused in drowning8 ,how are the heart and lungs situated8 ,why are the lungs so light8 ,what is said about the lungs of fishes8 ,what is said about the breathing of the lamprey eel8 ,what about the breathing of the grasshopper8 ,how is the breathing of use besides changing the blood8 ,tell how the voice is made4 ,what is said about the voices of animals8 ,where is the cat's purring done8 ,why do fishes have no musical box8 ,what is said about the croaking of frogs8 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,brain ,,and ,,nerves4 ,sidenote3 ,the body the soul's house1 with a great deal of machinery in it4 ,i have told you some things in the previous chapters about how the body is built and kept in repair4 ,i have told you that the blood is the building material from which all the parts of the body are made4 ,the use of food1 you have seen1 is to make the blood1 and the chief use of the breathing is to keep the blood in good order4 ,the heart1 with its arteries and veins1 keeps the blood moving all about the body1 so that it may be used in building and repairing4 ,but what is the body built and kept in repair for8 ,it is a house for the mind or soul4 ,the soul--the thinking part of you--so long as it remains in this world1 dwells in the body4 ,the body is something more than a house for the soul4 ,the head1 where the soul dwells1 is but a small part of the body4 ,but it uses all parts of it4 ,when the hand is moved1 the soul uses the hand2 when you walk1 it uses the legs and the feet2 when you see1 it uses the eyes2 it uses the ears as its instruments to hear with1 and the nose is its smelling instrument2 and so of other parts4 ,you can think1 then1 of the body as having in it many different kinds of machinery that the mind or soul uses4 ,and the object of eating1 and drinking1 and breathing1 and having the blood circulate1 is to make all this machinery for the mind to use4 ,sidenote3 ,how the mind uses its machinery4 ,let us see1 now1 how it is that the mind uses the machinery of the body4 ,raise your hand4 ,what makes it go up8 ,it is what we call the muscles4 ,they pull upon it and raise it4 ,but what makes them do it8 ,they do it because you think to have them do it4 ,it is your thinking mind1 then1 that makes them raise the arm4 ,but the mind is not there among the muscles2 it is in your head4 ,now how does the mind get at the muscles to make them work8 ,it does not go out of the brain to them1 just as a man goes out of his house among his workmen to tell them what to do4 ,the mind stays in the brain all the time2 but there are white cords1 called nerves1 that go from the brain to all parts of the body1 and the mind sends messages by these to the muscles1 and they do what the mind tells them to do4 ,sidenote3 ,nerves like telegraphic wires4 ,these nerves act like the wires of a telegraph4 ,the brain is the mind's office1 as we may call it2 here the mind is1 and it sends out messages by the nerves as messages are sent from a telegraphic office by its wires4 ,this is done by electricity in the telegraphic office1 but how the mind does it we do not know4 ,when you move your arm1 something goes from the brain along the nerves to the muscles1 and makes them act1 but what that something is we do not know4 ,if the wires that go out from a telegraphic office are broken off in any way1 the man in the office may send out messages1 but they will not go to the place he wishes4 ,he may work his machine1 and send the electricity along the wire1 but it will stop where the break is4 ,just so1 if the nerves that go to the muscles of your arm were cut1 the muscles could not receive any message from the mind4 ,you might think very hard about raising the arm1 but the message that your mind sends to the muscles is stopped where the nerves are cut1 just as the electricity stops where the break is in the wire4 ,sidenote3 ,the two sets of nerves4 ,sidenote3 ,the brain4 ,while the mind sends out messages by one set of nerves1 it receives messages by another set2 it receives them from the senses4 ,just see how this is4 ,if you put your finger upon any thing1 how does the mind in your brain know how it feels8 ,how does it know whether it is hard or soft1 rough or smooth8 ,the mind does not go from the head down into the finger to find out this2 it knows it by the nervous cords that stretch from the brain to the finger4 ,when you touch any thing1 something goes1 as quick as a flash1 from the finger along these nerves to the brain where the mind lives1 and lets it know what kind of a thing it is that your finger has touched4 ,so1 when you smell any thing1 it is the nerves which connect your nose with the brain that tell the mind what kind of a smell it is4 ,and when you taste any thing1 it is the nerves of the mouth that tell the mind in the brain whether it is bitter1 or sweet1 or sour1 etc4 ,so1 too1 when you see any thing1 it is the nerve which connects the eye with the brain that tells the mind what it is that you see4 ,sidenote3 ,the nerves of the face and head4 ,the brain1 in which the mind lives and with which it thinks1 is the softest part of the body4 ,you can see what sort of a thing your own brain is by looking at the brain of some animal at the meat-market4 ,you can see it very well in the calf's head when it is prepared for cooking by being sawed in two4 ,i have compared the nerves to the wires that stretch out from the telegraphic office2 but there are only a few wires1 while the nerves that branch out from the brain1 all over your body1 can not be counted4 ,here is a figure showing how the nerves branch out over the face and head2 there are a great many of them1 and so there are in all other parts of the body4 ,illustration ,the nerves1 by dividing1 spread out1 so that there are little nerves every where4 ,if you prick yourself with a pin any where1 there is a little nerve there that connects that spot with the brain1 and that tells the mind about it4 ,now all the nerves in all parts of the body have their beginnings in the brain4 ,in this soft organ are bundled together1 as we may say1 all the ends of the nerves1 so that the mind can use them4 ,there the mind is at its post1 just like the man in the telegraph office2 and from that great bundle of the ends of nerves it is constantly learning what is going on at the other ends of them in all parts of the body4 ,sidenote3 ,the mind very busy in attending to all its nerves4 ,a great business the mind has to do in attending to all these ends of nerves in the brain2 and how strange it is that it does not get confused1 when so many messages are coming to it over its wires from every quarter6 ,it always knows where a message comes from4 ,it never mistakes a message from a finger for one from a toe1 nor even a message from one finger for one from another4 ,and so1 too1 in sending out messages to the muscles1 there is no confusion4 ,when you want to move a finger1 your mind sends messages by the nerves to the muscles that do it4 ,the message always goes to the right muscles4 ,it does not go sometimes to the muscles of another finger by mistake1 but you always move the finger which you wish to move4 ,and so of all other parts4 ,messages go from your busy mind in the brain to any part that you move4 ,you can see how wonderful this is1 if you watch any one that is dancing or playing on an instrument1 and think how the messages are all the time going by the nerves so quickly from the brain to the different parts of the body4 ,i shall tell you more about this in another chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,messages go from the brain by some nerves1 and come to it by others4 ,the man in the telegraph office receives messages by the same wires by which he sends them out4 ,it is not so1 as ,i have told you before1 with the mind's wires1 the nerves2 the mind receives messages from the senses by one set of nerves1 and sends messages to the muscles by another set4 ,if you burn your finger1 you pull it away from the fire4 ,now in this case the mind gets a message from the finger by the nerves1 and so knows of the hurt4 ,the message goes from the finger along some nerves to their ends in that bundle of them in the brain2 and the mind1 being there on the watch1 receives it4 ,now what does the mind do8 ,does it leave the finger to burn8 ,no2 it sends a message at once along some other nerves to the muscles that can pull the finger out of harm's way4 ,questions4--,what are some of the things that ,i have told you in the chapters before this8 ,what is the body built and kept in repair for8 ,in what part of the body does the soul live8 ,tell how it uses different parts of the body4 ,when your arm is raised1 how is it done8 ,in what way does the mind make the muscles act8 ,what are the nerves8 ,how are they like telegraph wires8 ,what is it that goes along the wires8 ,do we know what it is that goes along the nerves8 ,give the comparison between cut nerves and broken wires4 ,from what does the mind receive messages8 ,tell about touching1 smelling1 tasting1 and seeing4 ,what is said about the brain8 ,what is said about the number of nerves8 ,what is said about the mind's attending to all its nerves8 ,what is said about its making no mistakes in its messages8 ,give what is said about the burning of a finger4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,how ,,the ,,mind ,,gets ,,knowledge4 ,sidenote3 ,knowledge enters the mind by the senses4 ,the mind1 as you learned in the last chapter1 has a sort of telegraphic communication with all parts of the body by means of the nerves1 and it is all the time receiving messages from the fingers1 the eyes1 the nose1 the ears1 the mouth1 and other parts4 ,these are instruments which the mind uses to get a knowledge of what is around us4 ,it gets different kinds of knowledge by the different instruments4 ,for example1 it learns whether a thing is hard or soft by the touch of the fingers1 and it learns how it smells by the nose1 how it tastes by the mouth1 and how it looks by the eyes4 ,there is knowledge1 then1 going all the time to the mind by the nerves from these instruments4 ,it can not get there in any other way4 ,suppose the mind was locked up in the brain1 and had no nerves going out from it4 ,it could not learn any thing about what is around it2 there might be eyes1 and fingers1 and ears1 and a nose1 and a mouth1 but these would be of no use to the mind if there were no nerves4 ,sidenote3 ,how the mind learns about things4 ,see how the child learns about the world of things all around him4 ,when he is first born he does not know any thing4 ,he does not know how any thing feels1 or looks1 or tastes1 or smells4 ,but with his little nerves his mind gets messages from the senses1 and so he learns every day about the things that are around him4 ,eyes1 ears1 nose1 mouth1 and fingers are all the time telling his mind something through the nerves4 ,they tell him first about those things that are in the room where he is1 and then1 after a while1 when he is carried out1 they tell him about things that are out of doors1 and thus he knows more and more every day4 ,and then1 too1 the mind thinks about what the senses tell it4 ,it lays up what comes to it by the nerves1 and looks it over1 as we may say1 and in this way it learns a great deal4 ,there is great difference in people in this thinking about what the mind knows by the senses4 ,some that see and hear a great many things do not know as much as some that see and hear few things4 ,it is because they do not think much about what the senses tell the mind4 ,you see1 then1 that all that we learn in this world really comes into the mind by the way of the nerves from the senses--the sight1 the hearing1 the touch1 the smell1 and the taste4 ,the senses are the inlets or openings by which knowledge enters1 and the nerves are the passages by which it gets to the mind in the brain2 and after it gets there the mind thinks about it and uses it in various ways4 ,sidenote3 ,the deaf and the blind4 ,sidenote3 ,deaf and dumb4 ,sidenote3 ,how the blind read4 ,some persons1 you know1 do not have all these inlets for knowledge open4 ,for example1 some are deaf2 in them no knowledge can get into the mind by the ears4 ,some are blind1 and no knowledge can get into their minds by the eyes4 ,more knowledge comes into the mind by the sight than by the hearing2 it is therefore a greater misfortune to be blind than it is to be deaf4 ,it is astonishing to see how much the deaf and the blind can learn if they try4 ,if the mind is wide awake and ready to learn1 it can get a great deal of knowledge even when one of the openings for it is shut up4 ,it can use the knowledge gained by the other senses in such a way as to make up very much for the loss4 ,a lazy mind1 with all the senses letting in knowledge1 will not know as much as a busy mind will with one of the senses shut up4 ,in the deaf and dumb the eyes have to answer for both eyes and ears in getting knowledge4 ,they have to do double duty2 and they do it very well if the mind is only wide awake and attentive to all that it can learn by the eyes4 ,in the blind the ears have to do a great deal more than in those that can see4 ,the fingers also of the blind are very busy1 for they learn very much about what is around them by the sense of feeling4 ,there are books now made for their use with raised letters4 ,by passing their fingers over them1 they read just as you do by looking at printed letters4 ,sidenote3 ,story of ,laura ,bridgman4 ,and now ,i will tell you about a girl that has had to get all her knowledge with only one of the senses1 the sense of feeling4 ,her name is ,laura ,bridgman4 ,when she was in her second year she became very sick4 ,her sickness lasted a very long time4 ,after she got well it was found that she was blind and deaf1 and that she had no taste nor smell2 only one of the five inlets for knowledge was open4 ,all that could come into her mind was what could be learned by the touch alone4 ,but she had an active mind1 and so she went round feeling of every thing1 to find out all she could about things4 ,the only way that she could know people was by feeling them4 ,her mother was very kind to her1 and the little helpless girl liked to be with her all the time4 ,she followed her about the house1 and tried to do things just as her mother did them4 ,she would feel of her mother's arms and hands while she was doing things1 that she might find out how she did them4 ,in this way she learned to knit1 which was a great comfort to her1 for she did not like to be idle4 ,sidenote3 ,laura in the asylum4 ,a kind physician1 who had charge of an asylum for the blind in ,boston1 heard about ,laura4 ,he was much interested for the helpless child1 and went to see her4 ,he persuaded her mother to let her come to the asylum4 ,laura did not feel at home at first1 but1 as they were all kind to her in the asylum1 she soon liked it very much4 ,she now began to learn many things1 and ,i will tell you a little how the teacher managed with her4 ,he put into her hands different things--spoons1 keys1 books1 etc4 ,each article had a label on it4 ,the letters on the labels were raised letters1 such as are used in teaching the blind4 ,she would feel them all over with the tips of her little fingers1 her busy mind all the time thinking about how they felt4 ,then the labels and the things were put before her1 but separated from each other4 ,after a little trying1 she learned to put the labels on the things right4 ,all this time she did not know that these labels had the names of the articles on them4 ,if she were blind only1 she would have known this at once1 for she could have been told of it2 but after a while she in some way got this idea into her mind4 ,she was delighted1 for she had now found a new way of learning things1 and of telling about things to others4 ,sidenote3 ,how ,laura learned to read and to converse4 ,and now ,laura went on fast with her learning4 ,the letters were separated1 and she would put them together so as to spell spoon1 key1 etc4 ,this was a great amusement to her4 ,sometimes1 when she carelessly placed the letters wrong1 she would playfully strike her right hand with her left one1 and then1 when the letters were placed right1 she would pat her head1 as the teacher was apt to do when he was pleased with any thing that she had done4 ,after a while the teacher taught ,laura to use her fingers in talking1 as you1 perhaps1 have seen the deaf and dumb do4 ,she soon learned to make all the letters in this finger-alphabet1 which you can see on page #ih2 and now she could talk with people quite easily1 if they happened to know this alphabet4 ,when she had any thing to say1 she would make the letters with the fingers1 while the person to whom she was talking would look at her4 ,but how do you think that she managed when this person said any thing to her with his fingers8 ,she could not see his fingers1 but she could feel them1 and this was the way in which she knew what was said to her2 she would carefully1 but rapidly1 pass her fingers over his as fast as he made the letters4 ,it was surprising to see how quickly the touch of her nimble fingers would tell her mind what letter was made1 and how fast she could converse with persons in this way4 ,sidenote3 ,laura's industry4 ,laura learned much more at the asylum than we should suppose she could with only her one sense of touch4 ,some persons with the whole five senses do not know as much as she does4 ,she even learned to write2 and writing and knitting were very pleasant employments to her4 ,by writing she could put the thoughts of her busy mind on paper1 so that others might read them2 and while she was sitting alone thinking1 she liked to make her nimble fingers useful in knitting4 ,it was a great satisfaction to her that1 though she had but one sense1 she could do something useful4 ,what a pity it is that many children1 and many adults too1 do not have more of this feeling than they seem to have6 ,the example of ,laura teaches a good lesson to all idlers4 ,sidenote3 ,her fun4 ,though ,laura could never see beautiful things1 nor hear pleasant sounds1 as you do all the time1 she was very cheerful1 and sometimes she was very funny4 ,she liked to play with her doll2 and as the blind children in the asylum had ribbons tied over their sightless eyes1 she tied one over her doll's eyes4 ,one day she was in her play taking care of her doll as one would of a sick child4 ,she made believe give it medicine1 and put a hot bottle to its feet2 and when some one proposed to her to put a blister on its back1 she was so much amused that she laughed and clapped her hands4 ,sidenote3 ,a visit from her mother4 ,sidenote3 ,how ,laura knew her mother4 ,after ,laura had been some time at the asylum her mother came to see her4 ,she did not know her mother at first1 but thought that she was some stranger4 ,she held back and would not come near4 ,her mother handed her a string of beads which she used to wear when at home4 ,she took them1 and as soon as she felt them she knew what beads they were4 ,she put them on her neck1 and1 showing great joy1 said with her finger-language that she knew these came from home4 ,something else from home was given her4 ,she now drew near1 and her mother kissed her4 ,the moment that her mother's lips touched her she knew who it was1 for that kiss was just like the many kisses her loving mother used to give her4 ,she remembered how those lips used to feel1 and they had the same feeling now2 and now she clung to her mother1 and put her head into her bosom4 ,they were both very happy4 ,when her mother left her ,laura felt sad indeed4 ,she wanted to go with her1 but she knew that it was best for her to stay in the asylum1 where she could learn so much4 ,questions4--,what are the instruments by which the mind gets its knowledge8 ,how does the knowledge get to the mind8 ,what good would the instruments do if there were no nerves8 ,tell how the child1 when first born1 learns about things around him4 ,what is said about thinking of what is learned by the senses8 ,why may the senses be called the inlets of knowledge8 ,tell about the deaf and the blind4 ,why is it worse to be blind than it is to be deaf8 ,what is said about the amount of knowledge that the blind and the deaf can obtain8 ,what is said about the sense of sight in the deaf and dumb8 ,what senses do the blind chiefly use in getting knowledge8 ,how do they read8 ,how many of the senses did ,laura ,bridgman lose8 ,how did she learn about things before she went to the asylum8 ,tell how she learned after she went there4 ,how did she talk with people8 ,tell about her industry4 ,what is said of her cheerfulness8 ,what of her fun8 ,tell ,about her mother's visit4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,seeing4 ,the senses by which the mind obtains most of its knowledge are the sight and the hearing4 ,in this chapter we will look at the organ or instrument of sight4 ,sidenote3 ,the eye a beautiful instrument4 ,the eye is a very beautiful instrument4 ,it is very nicely made1 and it has a great many different parts4 ,you are not old enough yet to understand all about these parts1 but there are some things about them that ,i can explain to you4 ,what we call the white of the eye is a strong1 firm sort of bag4 ,it is filled mostly with a jelly-like substance4 ,it is this that makes it a firm ball4 ,if it were empty it would be like a bag4 ,into the open part of this1 in front1 is fitted a clear window4 ,the light goes in here4 ,it can not get in at the sides of the eyeball1 through the thick white of the eye4 ,sidenote3 ,its window and dark chamber4 ,through this very clear window you can look into the bag or ball of the eye4 ,you can not look through the jelly-like substance that is there1 and see the very back of the inside of the eyeball2 but it is like looking into a dark chamber4 ,the reason that it is so dark is1 that it is lined with something almost black4 ,if this were not so1 the eyes would be dazzled with the light that commonly goes into them1 just as they now are when the light is very bright indeed4 ,inside of the front window of the eye that ,i have told you about there is a fluid as clear as water4 ,in this fluid you see a sort of curtain with a round opening in it4 ,this opening is called the pupil of the eye4 ,it is not always of the same size4 ,when there is a very bright light1 it is small2 but when the light is dim1 it is large1 for then you want all the light that you can get in that dark chamber where the jelly is4 ,you can see the pupil change in its size if you look into the eye of any one while you bring a light very near1 and then move it off quickly4 ,sidenote3 ,the iris the curtain in the eye4 ,the curtain in which this opening is we call the iris4 ,it is circular4 ,its outer edge is fastened all round to the inside of the eyeball4 ,the watery fluid1 that ,i told you is inside of the window of the eye1 is on both sides of this curtain4 ,it would not do to have the jelly here1 for the curtain would not move easily in that in changing the size of its opening4 ,sidenote3 ,the pupil a round opening in it4 ,the iris is1 you know1 of different colors in different persons4 ,when it is blue1 we say that the person has a blue eye2 and if it is quite dark1 we say that he has a black eye2 and so of other colors4 ,this curtain makes the eye very beautiful2 but its chief use is1 as you see1 to regulate the quantity of light that goes into the eye4 ,when there is a great deal of light1 the curtain is drawn in such a way as to have the round opening very small2 but when there is little light1 it is drawn so as to make this opening large4 ,this curtain must be made very nicely1 or it would be puckered when the opening in it is changed in this way4 ,no man could make a curtain of this shape1 and have it work like this3 it would be a very awkward thing if he should undertake it4 ,he could not possibly make it so that the round opening in it could be made smaller and larger without wrinkling4 ,but look at this beautiful curtain in the eye1 and see how smooth it is1 and how perfectly round its edge keeps1 as the size of the pupil is changed4 ,did you ever see any thing work more prettily and easily than this does8 ,sidenote3 ,the pupil in the eye of the cat and the horse4 ,the opening in the curtain is different in different animals4 ,in _/ the cat it is of this shape 7 72 in the horse it is shaped in this 7 7 7 7 _/ way _/ 7 74 ,you can see the difference in the size _/ of the cat's pupil in different lights3 if you look at her eyes in a bright sunlight1 and then again in the evening1 you will see that it is very much larger in the evening than it is in the day4 ,when 77 the sun is very bright1 her pupil is a mere chink1 like this 772 but 77 77 77 _/ _/ in the evening it is very wide open1 shaped in this way 7 74 7 7 _/ _/ ,sidenote3 ,the images in the eye's dark chamber4 ,but ,i have not yet told you how you see4 ,it is done in this way4 ,the light that goes in through the pupil makes an image or picture there of every thing that is before the eye4 ,it makes the image on a very thin sheet spread out on the back part of the dark chamber where the jelly is2 it is just as light makes images of things in a looking-glass1 or in the smooth1 still water2 the only difference is1 that the image or picture in the eye is very small4 ,when you see a tree pictured in the still water1 the picture is as large as the tree itself2 but the picture that the light makes of the tree in that dark chamber of your eye is very small4 ,the picture in your eye of a whole landscape1 with all its trees1 houses1 hills1 etc41 does not cover over a space larger than a ten cent piece4 ,but how does the mind in the brain know any thing about these pictures8 ,it knows about them by means of a nerve1 that goes from the brain to the eye1 and is spread out where the pictures or images are made4 ,it would do no good to have the pictures made in the eye1 if the nerve could not tell the mind about them4 ,the eye might be perfect1 and yet there might not be any seeing4 ,it is as necessary to have the nerve in good order as it is the eye itself4 ,it is not your eye that sees2 it is your mind1 and in seeing it uses both the nerve and the eye4 ,sidenote3 ,why we have two eyes4 ,you have two eyes4 ,when you look at one thing1 say a house1 there is a picture of the house in both eyes4 ,the two nerves tell the mind in the brain about the two pictures4 ,how is this8 ,why does not the mind see two houses8 ,it is because the pictures in the two eyes are exactly alike1 and both nerves1 therefore1 tell exactly the same story2 if they did not1 then the mind would see two houses2 that is1 it would see double1 as it is called4 ,you can see double by pressing one eye sidewise while you let the other go free4 ,sidenote3 ,the eyes of insects4 ,the eyes of insects are very curious4 ,you remember what ,i told you about compound flowers4 ,now1 as in a compound flower there are a great many flowers together1 so it is with the eyes of insects4 ,the eye of a common fly is made up of thousands of eyes2 so1 when he looks at any thing1 there are thousands of very little images of it made by the light in these eyes1 and the nerves tell the fly's mind1 in his little brain1 about them4 ,these eyes are so exceedingly small that you can not see them without a microscope4 ,how fine1 then1 must be the nerves that go from them to the fly's brain6 ,your eye is a very wonderful instrument1 but ,god has put thousands of them just as wonderful into the head of the fly that buzzes about you4 ,it is as easy for him to make little eyes as large ones1 and he can make a multitude as easily as one4 ,questions4--,by what senses does the mind learn the most8 ,what is the white of the eye8 ,what is it filled with8 ,what is there in the front part of the eye8 ,what is said about the dark chamber of the eyeball8 ,what is just inside of the front window of the eye8 ,what is the pupil of the eye8 ,what is the iris8 ,how is it arranged8 ,what is said of its color8 ,what is its chief use8 ,tell about this4 ,what is said about its being made nicely8 ,what is said about the shape of its opening in different animals8 ,what is said about the cat's pupil in different lights8 ,tell about the images made in the eye4 ,what is said about the nerve of the eye8 ,how is it that1 with two eyes1 you do not see double8 ,why do you have two eyes8 ,what is said about the eyes of insects8 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,how ,,the ,,eye ,,is ,,guarded4 ,sidenote3 ,the eye seldom hurt4 ,the eye1 you know1 is a very tender organ4 ,it is therefore guarded thoroughly1 and it is really very seldom hurt4 ,but notice that it is just where it would be likely to be hurt if it were not thus guarded4 ,it is right in the front part of the head4 ,it must be there for the mind to use it in seeing4 ,and it is much of the time open4 ,you would suppose1 then1 that it must very often be struck and hit by things that are thrown about2 but it is really very seldom hit so as to be hurt much4 ,the parts about the eye are often injured1 but the eye itself generally escapes4 ,we often see the eyelids and the cheek black and blue from a blow1 and yet the tender and delicate eye is as sound as ever4 ,people say1 in such cases1 that the eye is black and blue1 but this is not so2 the injury is all on the outside1 and does not go into the eye4 ,sidenote3 ,how it is guarded with the bones around it4 ,now let us see in what ways the eye is guarded4 ,it is in a deep bony socket4 ,there is bone all around it except in front4 ,then1 too1 see how the bones stand out all around it4 ,the bone of the forehead juts over it4 ,below and to the outside stands out the cheek bone1 and the nose is its wall on the inside4 ,now you can see that a blow with a stick would be very likely to strike upon some of these walls of bone1 and the eye would then escape4 ,they are real walls of defense to the eye4 ,a stick can not hit the eye itself unless it goes with its end pointed to the eye4 ,it must go in this way to avoid striking on these walls1 or parapets of bone1 by which the eye is surrounded4 ,but if the stick gets by these bony walls1 it may not hurt the eye1 after all4 ,perhaps you never thought what use there is in being able to wink so quickly4 ,see what winking does4 ,it shuts the eyelids over the eye1 so that nothing can get into it unless it is something sharp enough to pierce through the lids4 ,and a blow will not hurt the eye1 if the lids are closed1 unless it is hard enough to bruise it through the lids4 ,sidenote3 ,the winking muscle4 ,how quick is the working of that winking muscle6 ,the moment that the eye sees any thing coming toward it that may injure it1 this muscle shuts up the eye out of sight as quick as a flash4 ,it hardly seems as if there was time for a message to go from the eye to the brain1 and then another back from the brain to that muscle in the lids4 ,but all this happens4 ,the nerve of the eye tells the mind of the danger1 and the mind sends a message to the winking muscle4 ,this is done so quickly that whenever people speak of any thing as being done very quickly1 they are very apt to say that it was done in the twinkling of an eye4 ,this expression is used in the ,bible in this way4 ,sidenote3 ,the eye's cushion of fat4 ,but ,i have not told you all that this winking muscle does4 ,it does something more than shut the eye in4 ,it pushes it back in its socket1 so that it is a little farther out of the way of a blow4 ,and it does not push it right against the hard bone of the socket3 there is a soft cushion of fat for it to press the eye against4 ,and this is not all4 ,when the eye sees a blow coming1 this muscle acts so strongly that it wrinkles the skin of the eyelids1 and pulls down the eyebrow1 and draws up the cheek1 as you see here4 ,now see how this guards the eye4 ,the cheek and the eyebrow are brought so near together that there is but little room for the blow to get at the eye2 and even if it does1 the wrinkled skin of the lids makes a cushion over it that breaks the force of the blow4 ,you can see that the blow would be much more apt to do harm if the winking muscle merely brought the lids together4 ,as it is1 a blow commonly hits on the eyebrow or cheek1 or both1 while the eye is safe1 shut up and pushed back in its cavern upon its cushion of fat4 ,to see how much the bringing together of the cheek and eyebrow defends the eye1 you must look at some one as he forcibly closes the eye1 as represented in the figure4 ,and if1 at the same time1 you put your finger on the parts1 you will see how the cushions which all this wrinkling makes over the eye and about its socket defend it from harm4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the winking muscles raise cushions over the eye to defend it4 ,so you see that not only is the eye guarded by parapets of bone1 but the busy winking muscle raises up cushions on them whenever the eye sees a blow coming4 ,these cushions often save the bone from being cracked1 and in this way also keep the eye from being hurt4 ,sidenote3 ,the eyebrows4 ,of what use do you think the hairs on the eyebrows are8 ,they are for good looks1 you will say4 ,but they are for something more than this2 they are a defense to the eye4 ,how this is ,i will explain to you4 ,you know what the eaves of a house are for when there is no trough to the roof2 they keep the rain from running down from the roof on the sides of the house4 ,they make it drop off to the ground a little way from the house4 ,just so the hairy eyebrows make the sweat of the forehead drop off upon the cheek1 instead of running down into the eye4 ,the eyebrows1 then1 are the eaves of the roof of the eye's house4 ,perhaps you will ask what hurt the sweat would do if it should run down into the eye4 ,it would be very disagreeable2 and1 besides this1 it would irritate the eye and make it red4 ,the eye would become inflamed4 ,sidenote3 ,the eyelashes4 ,the eyelashes1 too1 besides making the eye look well1 are a defense to it4 ,you know that there are often small things flying about in the air which we are not apt to see4 ,if these fly against the eye1 they generally hit against the eyelashes1 and so are prevented from going into the eye4 ,sidenote3 ,how the tears defend the eye4 ,the tears1 also1 are a defense to the eye4 ,if any thing happens to get by the eyelashes into the eye1 how quick the tears flow to wash it out6 ,commonly the gland1 or tear factory1 only makes enough tears to keep the eye a little moist2 but as soon as any thing gets into the eye and irritates it1 the tear factory sets to work briskly1 and sends down the tears abundantly4 ,at the same time1 the winking muscle keeps moving the lids1 and generally what is in the eye is soon washed out4 ,tears are flowing into the eye all the time4 ,if they did not1 the eyeball and the inside of the lids would become dry1 and they would not move easily on each other4 ,you would have to keep wetting them with water to prevent them from rubbing4 ,the tear factory1 which is just above the eye1 continually sends down1 through some little tubes or ducts1 just enough tears to make the motion of the eye and the lids easy4 ,sidenote3 ,the sink-drain of the eye4 ,sidenote3 ,in weeping the tears overflow their banks4 ,but you will ask where the tears that are made go4 ,they do not commonly run out over the lids1 and they must go somewhere4 ,i will tell you about this4 ,if you look at the eyelids of any one1 you can see in each lid a little hole at the end of the edge toward the nose4 ,the tears go into these holes1 and down through a duct that ends in the nose4 ,this duct may be called the sink-drain of the eye1 for the tears1 after washing the eye1 run off through it4 ,the two little holes or mouths in the lids commonly take in all the tears as fast as they come to them2 but when we cry1 the tear factory makes tears so fast that these mouths can not take them all in4 ,the tears1 therefore1 overflow their banks--the lids--and run down on the cheek4 ,questions4--,is the eye in a very exposed situation8 ,why is it seldom much hurt8 ,are the parts about it often hurt8 ,tell how the bones about the eye defend it4 ,of what use is winking8 ,what is said about the quickness with which it is done8 ,what else does the winking muscle do besides shutting the eye8 ,what does it push the eye back upon8 ,what else does this muscle do besides what has been mentioned8 ,how does this defend the eye8 ,on what does a blow aimed at the eye commonly hit8 ,of what use are the hairs on the eyebrows8 ,what harm would the sweat do if it ran down into the eye8 ,of what use are the eyelashes8 ,in what ways do the tears prevent the eyes from being injured8 ,where do the tears go to from the eye8 ,what happens when one cries8 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,hearing4 ,sidenote3 ,what sound is4 ,what is sound8 ,if you look at a large bell when it is struck1 you can see a quivering or shaking in it4 ,if you put your hand on it1 you can feel the quivering4 ,it is this that makes the sound that we hear4 ,you can see the same thing in the strings of a piano when they are struck1 and in the strings of a violin as the bow is drawn over them4 ,the wind makes the music on the olian harp in the window by shaking its strings4 ,and when you speak or sing1 the sound is made1 as ,i have told you before1 by the quivering of two flat cords in your throat4 ,but when a bell is struck1 how does the sound get to our ears8 ,the quivering or vibration1 as it is called1 of the bell makes a vibration in the air1 and this vibration is continued along through the air to our ears4 ,sidenote3 ,the experiment of scratching on a log with a pin4 ,the vibration can go through other things besides the air4 ,it will go through something solid better than it will through air4 ,put your ear at the end of a long log1 and let some one scratch with a pin on the other end1 you can hear it very plainly4 ,the vibration made by the pin travels through the whole length of the log to your ear2 but if you take away your ear from the log you can not hear it1 for the vibration or sound can not come to you so far through the air4 ,sidenote3 ,dying away of sound4 ,the nearer you are to where the sound is made1 the louder it is2 and the farther sound goes1 the fainter it is4 ,it is said to die away as it goes2 that is1 the vibration becomes less and less1 till1 after a while1 it is all lost4 ,it is like this3 if you drop a stone into water1 it makes little waves or ripples in all directions4 ,these become less and less the farther they go from where the stone was dropped4 ,it is just so with the waves or vibrations of sound in the air4 ,what is an echo8 ,it is when a sound that you make comes back to you again4 ,it is done in this way4 ,the vibration strikes against some rock1 or house1 or something else1 and then bounds back to you1 just as a wave striking against a rock bounds back4 ,sidenote3 ,speaking tubes4 ,why is it that a person speaking in a building can be heard more easily than one speaking in the open air8 ,it is because the vibrations are shut in by the walls4 ,it is for the same reason that you can hear a whisper so far through a speaking tube extending from one part of a building to another4 ,the vibrations are shut in within the tube4 ,they have no chance to spread out in all directions1 and they go right straight on through the tube4 ,i have thus told you how sound is made1 and how it goes through the air and through other things2 but how is it that we hear sound when it comes to our ears8 ,how does the mind know any thing about the vibration of the air8 ,this vibration does not go into the brain1 where the mind is2 it only goes a little way into the ear1 and there it stops4 ,it comes against the drum of the ear1 and can go no farther4 ,how1 then1 can the mind know any thing about it8 ,this ,i will tell you4 ,the vibration of the air goes into the ear to a membrane fastened to a rim of bone1 and called the drum1 and shakes it1 and this shakes a chain of little bones that are the other side of this drum-head4 ,the last of these bones is fastened to another little drum1 and1 of course1 this is shaken4 ,this drum covers an opening to some winding passages in bone4 ,these passages are filled with a watery fluid4 ,now the shaking of the second little drum makes this fluid shake4 ,the nerve of hearing feels this shaking of the fluid1 and tells the mind in the brain4 ,sidenote3 ,the bones of the ear4 ,here are the four little bones that make the chain of bones in the ear4 ,they are curiously shaped4 ,the one marked a is called the hammer1 and b is called the anvil4 ,the little bone marked c is the smallest bone in the body4 ,that marked d is called the stirrup4 ,this is the bone that is fastened to the second drum--the one that covers the opening into the winding passages4 ,the vibration that comes to the first drum is passed on by this chain of bones to the second drum4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the different vibrations in hearing4 ,see1 now1 how many different shakings there are for every sound that you hear4 ,first1 the bell1 or whatever it is that makes the sound1 shakes4 ,then there is a shaking of the air4 ,this shakes the drum of the ear4 ,then the chain of bones is shaken4 ,the farthest one of them shakes another drum1 and this shakes the fluid in the bony passages4 ,all this happens every time that you hear a sound2 and when you hear one sound after another coming very quickly1 how the vibrations chase each other1 as we may say1 as they go into the ear6 ,but they are not jumbled together4 ,they do not overtake one another4 ,every vibration goes by itself1 and so each sound is heard distinct from the others1 unless the vibrations come very fast indeed4 ,then they make one continued sound4 ,each puff of a locomotive1 when it starts1 is heard by itself4 ,the vibration of one puff gets into the fluid in the bony passages before the one that follows it2 but as the locomotive goes on1 the puffs get nearer and nearer together1 and when it goes very fast1 they are so near together that the vibrations do not go separate into the ear1 and they make a continued sound4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,different sizes of ears in animals4 ,sidenote3 ,ear-trumpet4 ,sound1 ,i have told you1 spreads in all directions in vibrations or waves4 ,now the more of these waves the ear can catch1 the more distinct is the hearing4 ,some animals that need to hear very well have very large ears4 ,here is one1 the long-eared bat4 ,he must hear very well indeed1 for his monstrous ears must catch a great many of the waves of sound4 ,we could hear better if our ears were larger2 but large ears would not look well on our heads2 and we hear well enough commonly4 ,sometimes1 when we do not hear as distinctly as we wish to1 we put up the hand to the ear1 as you see represented on the opposite page4 ,this helps the hearing by stopping the waves of sound1 and turning them into the ear4 ,those who are very deaf sometimes have an ear-trumpet1 as it is called4 ,in using it1 the large trumpet end is turned toward the person speaking1 so as to catch the vibrations1 while the tube part of it is in the ear4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,ears of rabbits1 deers1 etc4 ,some animals can turn their ears so as to hear well from different directions4 ,how quickly the horse pricks up his ears when he sees or hears something that he wants to know more about2 and then he can turn his ears backward when he wants to do so4 ,it is in such timorous animals as the hare1 the rabbit1 and the deer1 that we see the ears most movable4 ,they are on the watch all the time for danger1 and the least sound that they hear they turn their ears in the direction of it4 ,their ears1 too1 are large1 so that they hear very easily4 ,sidenote3 ,how the ear is guarded4 ,i have told you how the eye is guarded4 ,the ear is well guarded also4 ,i do not mean its outer part3 it is the inner parts1 where the hearing is really done1 that are so well guarded4 ,you remember that ,i told you that there are passages filled with a fluid4 ,the nerve of hearing has its fine1 delicate fibres in these passages4 ,they feel the shaking of the fluid1 and tell the mind of it4 ,now it is necessary that this part of the hearing apparatus should be well guarded2 for this reason1 these passages are inclosed in the very hardest bone in the body4 ,sidenote3 ,how the ear-wax guards the ear4 ,then1 too1 the very entrance into the ear is well guarded1 and in a curious way4 ,the pipe that leads into the drum of the ear is always open1 and you know bugs are very apt to crawl into such holes4 ,what do you suppose is the reason that they do not often crawl into the ear8 ,there is something there to prevent them4 ,it is the wax4 ,they probably do not like the smell of it1 and so1 if they come to the entrance1 they turn about4 ,once in a while one goes in1 and then he is prevented from doing much harm by the wax4 ,he is soon covered with this1 and it is so sticky that it keeps him from kicking very hard4 ,and1 after all1 though he may cause some pain1 he can not get at the delicate part of the machinery of the ear4 ,he dies after a while1 if he is not got out1 and perhaps the bitterness of the wax has something to do with killing him4 ,questions4--,how is sound made8 ,how does it get to our ears8 ,tell about the vibration of sound in a log4 ,what is said about the dying away of sound8 ,what is this like8 ,what is an echo8 ,what is said about speaking in a building8 ,what about speaking through a tube8 ,tell how we hear sound4 ,tell about the little bones in the ear4 ,what do these bones do8 ,tell what the different vibrations are in hearing4 ,what is said about the puffing of a locomotive8 ,why do some animals have large ears8 ,why are our ears so small8 ,what animals can turn their ears different ways1 and why8 ,how is the inner part of the ear guarded8 ,tell what is said about the wax4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,smell1 ,,the ,,taste1 ,,and ,,the ,,touch4 ,i have told you that most of what the mind knows about the world around it comes to it by the sight and the hearing4 ,but it learns a great deal by the other senses1 and these ,i will tell you about in this chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,how we smell things4 ,did you ever think how it is that you smell any thing8 ,you put a rose up to your nose1 and the fragrance is pleasant to you4 ,now what is this fragrance8 ,is it something that goes up into your nose8 ,you can not see any thing come from the rose4 ,but in reality very fine particles come from it4 ,they are finer than the finest powder4 ,they float every where about in the air1 and1 as you breathe1 they go with the air into your nostrils4 ,every perfume that you smell is made of such particles4 ,but how do you think the mind knows any thing about these particles when they come into the nose8 ,it is in this way4 ,in the lining of the nose are the fine ends of the nerve of smell4 ,these ends of the branches of this nerve are so small that you can not see them4 ,now the fine particles that ,i have told you about touch these ends of the nerve1 and the nerve tells the mind about them2 and this is smelling4 ,the nose is a more extensive organ than most people think it is4 ,there are divisions in it4 ,these fold on each other in such a way that there is a great deal of surface in the nose1 and the ends of the nerve of smell are all on this surface4 ,sidenote3 ,the smell of some animals4 ,some animals have a very sharp smell4 ,in them the divisions in the nose are very great in extent1 and so the nerve spreads over a large surface4 ,the dog1 you know1 is able to track his master by scenting his footsteps4 ,the cat1 too1 has a very quick smell for rats and mice4 ,some persons have a sharp smell for some things4 ,i have heard of a blind gentleman who could always tell when there was a cat any where near him by his sense of smell4 ,once he was very sure that there was one near by1 though no one could see her2 he insisted upon it that he was right1 and after a while pussy was found in a closet of the room4 ,there was also a blind and deaf person who could distinguish between different people that he knew by the sense of smell4 ,sidenote3 ,the enjoyment afforded by the sense of smell4 ,the sense of smell affords us great enjoyment4 ,the ,creator has1 for the purpose of gratifying us1 scattered sweet-smelling flowers all over the earth4 ,these are all perfume factories1 as ,i told you in ,part ,first1 made by him to give us pleasure4 ,he could have made the flowers and fruits in such a way that they would have no smell2 but1 in his desire to please us and make us happy1 he has given to them a great variety of pleasant odors4 ,there are1 it is true1 some unpleasant smells in the world1 but these are not any thing like as common as the pleasant ones2 and many of them are manifestly very useful in warning us of danger4 ,for example1 the unpleasant odor caused by filth and decay tells1 people where these causes of disease are1 so that they may get rid of them4 ,and plants that are poisonous generally have a disagreeable odor1 which leads us to avoid them4 ,sidenote3 ,how we taste and how we feel4 ,the sense of taste is another source of gratification to us4 ,the nerve of this sense has its fine ends mostly in the tongue4 ,what we take into the mouth touches these ends of the nerve1 and the nerve tells the mind about it2 and this is tasting4 ,besides the pleasure which we have from the taste1 the great use of this sense is to guide us in the choice of food4 ,animals choose the kinds of food that are proper for them1 and they do it by their taste4 ,they very seldom make a mistake in this4 ,the sense of taste1 like that of smell1 sometimes warns us of danger4 ,if out food tastes bad1 we know that there is something wrong about it and do not eat it1 and so1 perhaps1 avoid being made sick4 ,the sense of touch gives a great deal of knowledge to the mind4 ,this sense has a large number of nerves in all parts of the body1 and they are making reports continually to the mind4 ,especially busy in this way are the nerves of the tips of the fingers4 ,it is by the fine ends of these nerves that the mind finds out how different things feel4 ,it finds out whether they are soft or hard1 smooth or rough1 etc4 ,these nerves in the tips of the fingers are of great service to the mind in guiding it in using the muscles4 ,in playing with the fingers on an instrument1 the feeling in the ends of them is a guide to the mind in working them4 ,so it is with any thing that we do with them4 ,you could not do some of the simplest things if there was no feeling in your fingers4 ,you could not even button and unbutton your coat4 ,i shall have more to say about this when ,i tell you particularly about the hand4 ,sidenote3 ,the nerves of touch in the skin4 ,the nerves of touch are not placed on the surface of the skin4 ,we have really two skins1 an outer and an inner one4 ,the nerves are in the inner skin1 and are covered by the outer skin4 ,this outer skin is very thin except on the sole of the foot and the palm of the hand2 from its thinness it is called the scarf-skin4 ,it is this which is raised when a blister is drawn2 and perhaps you know that it does not hurt to prick this when we want to let the water out2 but if the needle touches the inner skin1 where the nerves are1 you feel it very quickly4 ,now1 when you touch any thing1 the nerves in the inner skin feel it through this scarf-skin4 ,this is so thin and soft that the nerves can feel through it2 and1 at the same time1 it is a good protection to them4 ,if it were not for this1 the nerves would be affected too much by the rubbing of things against them4 ,they could not even bear the air4 ,if you had no scarf-skin you would be in great distress all the time4 ,you know how much pain you suffer if you rub off the skin1 as it is called1 any where4 ,it is the scarf-skin only that is rubbed off1 and this exposes to the air the fine ends of the nerves in the inner skin4 ,the ends of the nerves of touch are in rows on the tips of the fingers4 ,it is these rows that make the curved lines that you can see so plainly4 ,sidenote3 ,how some animals feel4 ,sidenote3 ,whiskers of the cat4 ,there are no animals that have such perfect instruments of touch as our fingers are4 ,animals that have hoofs1 as the horse and the cow1 can not feel much with their fore feet4 ,they have their sense of touch mostly in their lips and tongues4 ,the elephant has this sense chiefly in the finger-shaped thing at the end of his trunk4 ,there is not much feeling in the paws of dogs1 cats1 etc4 ,the whiskers of the cat are feelers4 ,there are nerves at the root of each of those long hairs1 so that when any thing touches the whiskers the cat's mind knows it at once4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,feelers of insects4 ,insects have feelers extending out from their heads4 ,sometimes they are very long1 as you see in this insect1 called the ichneumon fly4 ,we see insects1 as they are going about1 touch things with these feelers as we do with our hands4 ,bees can work in the dark1 in their hives1 guided by their feelers2 indeed1 the bee will not work at all if his feelers are cut off3 he does not seem to know what to do with himself4 ,insects sometimes appear to tell each other things by their feelers4 ,in every hive of bees there is a queen4 ,if she dies1 those that know about it go around very quickly1 telling the other bees by striking their feelers with their own2 and those that are told tell others1 and thus the sad event is soon known all over the hive4 ,questions4--,by which senses does the mind get most of its knowledge8 ,what is fragrance8 ,how does the mind know any thing about it8 ,what is said of the extent of the organ of smell8 ,what is said of the smell of some animals8 ,of the acute smell of some persons8 ,what is said of the enjoyment afforded by the sense of smell8 ,how are offensive odors sometimes useful8 ,what is said of the sense of taste8 ,what are its uses8 ,where is the sense of touch8 ,where is it especially active8 ,what do the nerves of touch in the fingers tell the mind8 ,in what way do they help us in using the muscles8 ,tell about the two skins of our bodies4 ,why is the outer skin needed8 ,what makes the curved lines on the tips of the fingers8 ,what is said of touch in animals that have hoofs8 ,what are the whiskers of the cat for8 ,what is said of the feelers of insects8 ,what is told about the bees8 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,bones4 ,i have told you1 in the last few chapters1 how it is that the mind learns about the world around it by the senses4 ,but the mind does something besides learn4 ,it tells others about what it learns4 ,it does this by the muscles in various ways4 ,when you tell any thing by speaking1 it is the muscles of the throat1 and mouth1 and chest that do it4 ,when you write1 the muscles of your hand are telling what the mind directs them to tell4 ,when your face expresses your thoughts and feelings1 it is the muscles of the face that tell what the mind thinks and feels4 ,sidenote3 ,how the mind uses what it learns4 ,the mind not only tells things1 but it does things also1 and it does them by the muscles4 ,you see a man busily at work making something3 his muscles are doing the work4 ,the mind is directing them how to do it by the nerves that spread to them from the brain4 ,how does his mind know in what way to direct them8 ,it is by knowledge gained through the senses--by his eyes and ears4 ,he has seen people do the same kind of work and they have told him about it4 ,his mind uses with the muscles what it has learned by the senses4 ,you see1 then1 that the mind makes use of what it learns by the senses in two ways3 it tells about it1 and it uses it in doing things2 and in both telling and doing it uses the muscles4 ,our knowledge1 then1 goes into the mind by the senses--they are its inlets2 but it comes out by the muscles--they are its outlets4 ,if a mind were in a body that had the senses1 but had no muscles1 it might know a great deal1 but it could never let any body know what it knew1 and it could not do any thing4 ,the chief things that are moved in the body by the muscles are the bones1 and ,i shall tell you about these before ,i tell you about the muscles4 ,sidenote3 ,the joints of the bones4 ,when you bend your arm1 the muscles make the bones in the lower part of the arm bend on the bone in the upper part4 ,there is a joint at the elbow for this purpose2 and there are joints in many other parts of the body1 so that the muscles can move one bone upon another4 ,these joints of the bones are so contrived that they do not wear out4 ,they work nicely through a long life4 ,now it would be very strange if a joint in a machine should work all the time for seventy or eighty years1 and still be almost as good as new4 ,no man ever made such a joint4 ,sidenote3 ,the oiling of them4 ,you know that men keep oiling the joints in machinery4 ,if they did not1 the joints would soon wear out4 ,when the cars stop at a station1 you see men with tin vessels oiling the boxes of the wheels of the locomotive and the cars1 and other parts that rub on each other4 ,the joints of our bones need no such care from us4 ,we never need to oil them as men oil machinery4 ,they are very nicely made4 ,the ends of the bones are tipped with a very smooth substance1 and this is always kept in good order2 and then1 too1 the joints always keep themselves oiled4 ,how this is done ,i explain in a book for older scholars4 ,the bones are the frame-work of the body4 ,they are to the body what whalebones are to an umbrella1 what timbers are to a house1 or what the ribs of leaves are1 as ,i told you in ,part ,first1 to the leaves4 ,the bones make the body firm4 ,you could not stand up if you had no bones2 you would have to crawl like the worm4 ,see one bracing himself to pull or push4 ,the bones are all pressed tightly against each other by the strong muscles4 ,the bones of the body have very different shapes and sizes4 ,let us look at some of them4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,bones of the head4 ,the bones of the head1 represented here1 make a roundish box4 ,this is to hold the brain4 ,here the mind1 the governor of all the machinery of the body1 resides4 ,great care is therefore taken to guard well this upper room of the body4 ,its bony walls are made very strong4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,bones of the chest4 ,look at this barrel-shaped set of bones that make the chest4 ,the ribs go round it as hoops do round a barrel4 ,they are joined to the back bone behind and to the breast bone in front4 ,they are joined to the back bone in such a way that they move up and down as you breathe4 ,you can feel them move upward if you put your hand on your chest as you take a full breath4 ,inside of this barrel-shaped set of bones are the heart and lungs4 ,sidenote3 ,back bone4 ,sidenote3 ,bowing4 ,the back bone1 as we call it1 is not one bone2 it is a chain or pile of twenty-four bones placed one above another4 ,you can see a part of this pile or column1 as it is sometimes called1 in the figure of the bones of the chest4 ,if it were all one bone1 you could not twist your body about as you do4 ,and in making a bow1 you could not bend your back4 ,you could only bend your head forward on the top of the back bone1 and bend your body forward on your lower limbs4 ,a very awkward bow that would be4 ,as it is1 whenever you make a bow1 there is a little motion between each two of the whole twenty-four bones1 and this makes the bow easy and graceful4 ,persons that bow stiffly do not have enough of this movement in the column of bones1 but move it altogether1 very much as if it were all one bone4 ,sidenote3 ,position of the head4 ,the head rests on the top of this column of bones4 ,when you move your head backward and forward1 it rocks on the topmost bone of this column4 ,there are two little smooth places hollowed out on this bone for it to rock on1 and the head has two smooth rockers that fit into these places4 ,questions4--,in what two ways does the mind use what it learns8 ,with what does it do this8 ,what are the inlets of the mind's knowledge8 ,what are its outlets8 ,what move the bones on each other8 ,what is said about the wearing of the joints8 ,what is said about their being kept oiled8 ,what are the bones to the body8 ,what is said about the bones of the head8 ,what of the bones of the chest8 ,to what are the ribs fastened behind8 ,to what in front8 ,how many bones are there in what is called the back bone8 ,why are there so many8 ,what does the head rest on8 ,what is said about the motion of the head8 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,more ,,about ,,the ,,bones4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,bones of the arm and hand4 ,here are the bones of the arm and the hand4 ,the head of the arm bone that goes into the socket at the shoulder is1 as you see1 a smooth round ball4 ,it fits into a sort of cup4 ,the joint here is what we call a ball-and-socket joint4 ,the ball turns in the socket very easily in making any whirling motion with your arm1 as you do when you jump the rope4 ,sidenote3 ,shoulder joint and elbow joint4 ,the joint at the elbow is of a different kind3 it is what we call a hinge joint4 ,you can not make any whirling motion at your elbow as you can at the shoulder2 the motion is all one way1 like a hinge4 ,the chief motion at the wrist also is a hinge motion1 as you can see by working your hand back and forth4 ,there are two bones1 you notice1 in the arm below the elbow3 these roll on each other in such a way that you can turn the palm of your hand in different directions4 ,illustration ,there are a great many little bones in the body of the hand and in the fingers4 ,there is a very great variety in their motions1 so that the hand can do almost any thing that you want it to do4 ,i shall have something more to tell you about this when you come to the chapter on the hand4 ,sidenote3 ,bones of the leg and foot4 ,you have here the bones of the leg and foot4 ,you see only the lower end of the stout thigh bone1 at the knee joint3 it makes a hinge joint with the large bone of the leg4 ,the motion of this joint is only one way1 backward and forward1 as you see in walking4 ,the small1 thick bone1 called the knee-pan1 is left out in the figure4 ,one of the uses of this bone is to be a shield to the joint4 ,if you fall down in running1 you are apt to come upon the knee1 and this shield keeps the joint from being hurt4 ,you see that long1 very slender bone at the side of the large one3 one would suppose that this would be very easily broken1 but it is not1 because it is so well covered up with muscles4 ,its lower end is quite thick and strong1 and makes the outer part of the ankle4 ,the ankle joint is a hinge joint like that of the knee4 ,sidenote3 ,why there are so many bones in the foot4 ,there are as many bones in the foot as there are in the hand4 ,why is this8 ,you remember that ,i told you that the hand had so many bones because it had to perform so many different motions4 ,but it is not so with the foot2 it does not have much variety of motion4 ,there is some other reason1 then1 for its having so many bones4 ,it is this4 ,if the bones of the foot were all in one1 the foot would be a very stiff and clumsy thing2 it would not be springy as it is now4 ,you would make awkward work in walking and running with such feet4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,skeleton of the bat4 ,the bones of different animals are made differently1 according to the work which they do4 ,those that do heavy work have heavy1 stout skeletons2 but those that have only light work to do have their bones slender4 ,a bird has a light skeleton1 for it could not fly so well with a heavy one4 ,here is the skeleton of a bat4 ,the bones are exceedingly light and slender1 for it is light and nimble work that he does in flying4 ,the bones in an old person are more brittle than those in a child4 ,if the child's bones were brittle they would be very often broken1 because he so often tumbles down4 ,if old persons were as careless as children are1 there would be broken limbs to be taken care of in almost every house4 ,they would not get off with a short crying spell and a bruise1 as children commonly do when they have a fall4 ,sidenote3 ,the bones of a child's head4 ,there is one contrivance in the child's head that prevents the bones from breaking in its frequent falls4 ,in the grown person the bones of the head are fastened tightly together1 and are almost like one bone4 ,but it is not so with the child4 ,in an infant's head they are very loose1 and you can feel quite a space between the bones at the top of his forehead4 ,now1 when the child falls and hits his head1 the loose bones give and do not break4 ,though the teeth are like the bones1 they are different from them in one thing4 ,the bones grow with the rest of the body1 but the teeth never grow any larger than they are at first4 ,when the tooth first pushes up through the gum1 it is as large as it ever will be4 ,look at the reason of this4 ,the outside of the tooth--the enamel1 as it is called--is made very hard4 ,it needs to be so1 that the tooth may do its work well4 ,such a hard substance1 when once made1 is finished4 ,it never can grow4 ,no blood can get into it to make it grow1 as it can into the bones4 ,sidenote3 ,why we have two sets of teeth4 ,and now you see the reason that every person has two sets of teeth4 ,if the teeth that one has when a child should remain in his head1 they would be too small for him when he became an adult2 and as the jaws grew they would become quite far apart1 and so would look very strange4 ,to get rid of these difficulties1 the first set begin to be shed about the seventh year1 and a new set of larger teeth take their places4 ,as the new teeth are not only larger1 but are more in number1 they fill up all the room designed for them in the enlarged jaws4 ,sidenote3 ,skeletons of crabs and lobsters4 ,all the bones of our bodies are inside1 and are covered with muscles1 cords1 and ligaments2 and over all is the skin4 ,but the bones of some animals are outside4 ,this is the case with crabs and lobsters4 ,their bones make a sort of coat of mail to defend the soft parts from being injured4 ,the hard coats of many insects also may be considered as their skeletons4 ,sidenote3 ,how they are shed every year4 ,such animals as crabs and lobsters have new skeletons every year4 ,the old skeletons are too small for their growing bodies1 and so they must be cast off4 ,the animal crawls into a retired place to go through the operation4 ,it is painful1 and sometimes proves even fatal4 ,he makes a great effort1 and the shell comes apart4 ,he then1 by hard struggling1 pulls himself out4 ,he now keeps still a few days in his retirement1 and another case or skeleton1 as hard as the old one1 is formed4 ,when he comes out with his new armor on1 he is as brave and as ready to fight as ever4 ,questions4--,what is said about the shoulder joint8 ,the elbow joint8 ,the wrist8 ,how is it that you can turn the palm of the hand one way and another8 ,why are there so many little bones in the hand8 ,what is said about the knee joint8 ,what is one of the uses of the knee-pan8 ,what is said about the slender bone in the leg8 ,what about the ankle joint8 ,why are there so many bones in the foot8 ,what is said of the difference in brittleness between the bones of the old and of the young8 ,what is said about the bones in a child's head8 ,how are the teeth unlike the bones8 ,why do we have two sets of teeth8 ,what is said about the bones of some animals8 ,what is related of crabs and lobsters8 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,muscles4 ,i have already told you some things about the muscles4 ,there is no motion in the body that is not made by them4 ,they move the bones1 and they move other parts also1 as the tongue1 the corners of the mouth1 the eyes1 the eyelids1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,how the muscles act4 ,but you will want to know how they do this4 ,stretch a strip of ,india-rubber with your hands4 ,now let it go1 and it will shorten itself4 ,when a muscle pulls a bone1 it shortens itself just as this strip of ,india-rubber does4 ,but the cause of its shortening itself is different4 ,the mind makes the muscle shorten4 ,you think to bend your arm2 and1 as quick as thought1 something goes by nerves to the muscle that can do this1 and it shortens itself and bends the arm4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the muscles that bend and straighten the arm4 ,here is a figure that shows the muscle that bends the arm1 and also the muscle that straightens it out4 ,all the other muscles of the arm are left out1 so that you may see just how these operate4 ,look at the muscle marked a3 you can see that when this shortens itself it must pull up the forearm1 that is1 that part of the arm which is below the elbow4 ,the muscle b has a contrary effect4 ,the end of this muscle is fastened to the point of the elbow1 and when it shortens it pulls the forearm down and straightens the arm4 ,when a muscle shortens itself1 it swells out and becomes hard4 ,straighten your arm1 and then take hold of it with your other hand a little above the elbow2 now bend up your arm as forcibly as you can1 and you will feel the muscle on the front of the arm swell out and harden as you hold your hand upon it4 ,sidenote3 ,color of muscles in different animals4 ,the muscles are the fleshy part of the body4 ,the meat of animals is made up of muscles4 ,they are not of the same color in all animals4 ,in some they are quite red1 while in others they are of a light color4 ,beef--the meat of the ox or the cow--is1 you know1 a deep red1 and is very different from the meat of a fowl4 ,the muscles of fishes are generally very light in color4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,muscles that move the fingers4 ,your arm below the elbow is very fleshy4 ,most of the muscles that move the fingers1 as well as those that move the hand1 are there4 ,take hold of that part of the arm with your other hand while you work the fingers back and forth1 and you will feel the muscles as they shorten themselves to pull the fingers4 ,here is a figure showing the muscles in this fleshy part of the arm4 ,you see that they are quite large4 ,the wrist is very slender4 ,there are no muscles there2 there are bright1 shining1 smooth cords there1 that run from the muscles to the fingers4 ,the muscles pull the fingers by these cords just as men pull any thing by ropes4 ,you can see the play of these cords very plainly on the back of the hand of a thin person as the fingers are worked4 ,sidenote3 ,muscles in the hand4 ,there are only some very small muscles in the hand1 as those that spread the fingers out1 and those that bring them together again4 ,if you work your fingers in this way1 you will see that the muscles1 which do such light work1 need not be large and strong4 ,the muscles that do the hard work of the hand are up in the arm4 ,they are very large4 ,if they were not1 you could not grasp things so tightly1 and pull so hard as you sometimes do4 ,sidenote3 ,the round fullness of the arm4 ,now see why it is that these large muscles are put so far away from where they do their work4 ,if they were put in the hand1 they would make it a large and clumsy thing4 ,they are therefore put up in the arm1 where there is room for them1 and they have small1 but very strong cords by which they pull the fingers4 ,they give to the arm that round fullness that makes its shape so beautiful4 ,sidenote3 ,drum-stick of the fowl4 ,you can see the same kind of arrangement in the drum-stick1 as it is called1 of the fowl4 ,the large muscles that work the claws are up in the full1 round part of the leg1 and there are small1 stout cords that extend from them down to the claws4 ,children often amuse themselves with pulling these cords in the drum-stick of a fowl1 making the claws move just as they are moved by the muscles of the animal when he is alive4 ,sidenote3 ,muscles of the toes4 ,it is with the muscles that move the toes as it is with those that move the fingers4 ,they are put mostly up in the leg1 and their slender tendons1 by which they pull1 go down over the ankle to the toes1 just as in the arm the tendons go over the wrist to the fingers4 ,if the muscles of the toes were all put in the foot1 they would make it very clumsy1 and at the same time the leg would be ugly from the want of that fullness which it now has4 ,sidenote3 ,ligaments of the wrist and the ankle4 ,both at the wrist and the ankle the tendons are bound down very tightly4 ,if this were not so they would be always flying out of place1 stretching out the skin before them in ridges4 ,this would be the case especially with the tendons that go to the toes4 ,every time that the muscles pulled on them1 they would start out very much at the bend of the ankle if they were not firmly held by the ligaments4 ,the muscles are of many shapes--round1 flat1 long1 short1 etc4 ,they are shaped to suit the work which they are to do4 ,they vary much in size also4 ,some are very large1 and some are exceedingly small4 ,how large are the muscles of the arm that wield the hammer and the axe6 ,but how small are the muscles that work the musical cords in your throat when you speak or sing6 ,these little muscles make all the different notes of the voice by pulling on these cords1 and in doing this many of their motions are exceedingly slight4 ,sidenote3 ,muscles in the ear4 ,you remember that in the chapter on the hearing ,i told you about the little bones in the ear4 ,these have some very little muscles which move them4 ,the bones and the muscles1 a and b1 are represented in the following figure4 ,the muscles1 you see1 have tendons or cords to pull by1 in the same way that the muscles in the arm have4 ,both the bones and the muscles are larger in this figure than they are in the body4 ,as the bones are the smallest ones that we have1 so it is with the muscles4 ,very small machinery is this part of the hearing machinery4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,large and small muscles in birds4 ,the birds that go swiftly on their wings have very large muscles to work them4 ,this gives them the full1 round breast which you see that they have4 ,but the muscles that work the musical cords in their little throats1 as they sing so sweetly1 are so small that it is difficult to find them4 ,questions4--,by what is all motion in the body made8 ,what do the muscles move8 ,explain how the muscles move things4 ,tell about the two muscles of the arm in the figure4 ,what is said about the swelling out of the muscles as they shorten8 ,what is the meat of animals8 ,what is said about the color of muscles in different animals8 ,what is said of the muscles in the arm below the elbow8 ,what is said of the wrist8 ,what of the muscles in the hand8 ,why are most of the muscles that move the fingers put up in the arm8 ,what is said about the drum-stick of a fowl8 ,what is said about the muscles of the toes8 ,what about the ligaments of the tendons at the wrist and ankle8 ,what is said of the shapes of muscles8 ,what of their sizes8 ,what are the smallest muscles in the body8 ,what is said about the muscles of birds used in flying and those used in singing8 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,more ,,about ,,the ,,muscles4 ,sidenote3 ,number of muscles in the body4 ,there is a great number of muscles in the whole body to produce all its motions4 ,there are about fifty in each arm and hand4 ,in the whole body there are about four hundred and fifty1 and each muscle is made up of a great number of fibres or threads1 every fibre having its own work to do4 ,sidenote3 ,all connected with the brain by nerves4 ,now all these muscles have nerves that connect them with the brain1 and the mind tells them by these nerves just what to do4 ,each muscle has a great many little nervous ends scattered through it every where4 ,the message from the mind that tells the muscle to act does not go to the whole muscle as one thing1 as a message is sent to a person4 ,it goes to each fibre of it1 telling that fibre what to do4 ,every fibre of the muscle has its little nervous tube connecting it with the brain1 for the nerves are bundles of tubes1 just as the muscles are bundles of fibres4 ,and each fibre gets its messages from the mind separate from all the other fibres by its own tube1 so that each fibre is a workman by itself4 ,how well these workmen pull together when they all get a message from your mind by their telegraphic tubes6 ,sidenote3 ,the endless variety of messages sent from the brain to the muscles4 ,commonly it takes several muscles to make any motion1 and sometimes many muscles act together4 ,when this is so1 messages are sent to a great multitude of fibres in these many muscles4 ,think of this4 ,raise your hand4 ,it is not one muscle that does this1 but many4 ,your mind has sent a message to all the fibres of these muscles1 and they have all done their part in raising your hand4 ,but now raise it again a little differently4 ,a different message for this has been sent to all the fibres2 and so for all the different motions there are different messages4 ,it does not seem possible that so many different messages should be sent through the nerves to the fibres of all the muscles1 and that these fibres should obey them so perfectly4 ,this is wonderful even in so simple a motion as raising the hand2 but how much more wonderful when a great variety of rapid motions are made by the muscles1 as in playing on a piano6 ,how busy is the mind of the player in sending its messages1 one after the other1 to the multitudes of muscular fibres that work the arms and the fingers6 ,and if he sings at the same time that he plays1 his mind is sending messages also to the muscles of the chest1 and throat1 and mouth4 ,and what adds greatly to the wonder is1 that all this time that the mind is sending out so many messages1 it is receiving messages from the senses4 ,messages are going from the sounds of the piano and the voice along the nerves of the ear to the mind4 ,they go also from the tips of the busy fingers as they press the keys4 ,how wonderful that all these messages are going back and forth so rapidly1 and the mind in the brain manages them without any confusion6 ,i have told you that there are some parts besides bones that are moved by muscles4 ,different parts of the face are moved by them1 and it is this that gives it its different expressions4 ,thus1 when you are pleased and laugh1 the muscles pull up the corners of the mouth4 ,if you laugh very hard1 they pull them up very much1 as you see in the face drawn here4 ,see how this face is wrinkled under the eyes4 ,this is because the muscles pull at the corners of the mouth so hard as to push up the cheeks4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the muscles used in smiling and laughing4 ,what do you think the difference is between laughing and smiling8 ,it is this4 ,in laughing1 the corners of the mouth are drawn up a good deal1 but in smiling they are drawn up only a little4 ,most people think that the eyes have a great deal to do with laughing and smiling1 and they talk about a laughing eye and a pleasant eye4 ,but this is not correct4 ,it is these muscles1 which pull up the corners of the mouth1 that make the eye look pleasant and laughing2 indeed1 laughing and smiling can be done with the eyes shut4 ,we often see a beautiful smile in the face of the sleeping infant4 ,it is because some pleasant dream in his mind plays on the nerves that go to his smiling muscles4 ,sidenote3 ,the sad muscles4 ,there are muscles to pull the corners of the mouth down1 and these make the face look sad2 and if the muscles that wrinkle the eyebrows act at the same time1 the face is both sad and cross1 as you see here4 ,observe just what the difference is between this face and the laughing face on the opposite page4 ,the difference is merely in the corners of the mouth and in the eyebrows4 ,in this face the two wrinklers of the eyebrows are in action1 and so are the two muscles that pull down the corners of the mouth4 ,four small muscles1 then1 make this face sad and cross4 ,but in the laughing face the eyebrow-wrinklers are quiet1 and the corners of the mouth are pulled up instead of being pulled down4 ,it is the two little muscles that pull up the corners of the mouth that do all the laughing in the face4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 8,down in the mouth40 ,you have often heard the expressions1 8,he had a down look10 and 8,his countenance fell40 ,these refer to the effect produced by sadness on the corners of the mouth4 ,this explains also the meaning of the common expression1 8,down in the mouth40 ,sidenote3 ,the proud muscle4 ,there is a certain muscle called the proud muscle4 ,it pushes up the under lip4 ,it is chiefly by this that pouting1 that ugly expression so common with some children1 is done4 ,when the eyebrow-wrinklers act at the same time1 there is scowling with the pouting1 and then the face is very ugly4 ,i beseech of you not to get into the habit of using these cross muscles4 ,keep always pleasant and kind1 and then those nice little muscles that draw up the corners of the mouth will always be ready to light up your face with a cheerfulness that shall be pleasant to look upon4 ,sidenote3 ,snarling muscles4 ,sidenote3 ,the smiling of the dog4 ,there are some animals that have certain muscles in the face that we have not4 ,these are the snarling muscles4 ,they pull up the lip at the sides of the mouth so as to show the long1 tearing teeth4 ,you see them in operation in the dog1 the tiger1 etc41 when they are angry4 ,no animal but man has in the face either the frowning1 or the sad1 or the smiling muscles4 ,perhaps you will say that the dog smiles when he is pleased and looks up at his master4 ,he smiles1 it is true1 but he does it only with his wagging tail1 for he has no muscles in his face to do it with4 ,sidenote3 ,the chief muscles of expression4 ,how wonderful is the variety of expression in the human face6 ,and yet all is caused by a few muscles1 and the principal ones are those that draw up and draw down the corners of the mouth1 and those that wrinkle the eyebrows4 ,questions4--,how many muscles are there in the arm and hand8 ,how many in the whole body8 ,what is each muscle made up of8 ,what is said of the fibres8 ,is it common for a motion to be made by one muscle alone8 ,what is said about raising the arm in different ways8 ,what is said about the variety of rapid motions that are sometimes performed8 ,what gives the face its different expressions8 ,how is laughing done8 ,what makes the wrinkling under the eyes in laughing8 ,what is the difference between laughing and smiling8 ,has the eye any thing to do with them8 ,what is said about the sad muscles8 ,what about the cross ones8 ,what is the difference between a cross and sad face and a laughing one8 ,what is said about certain expressions in common use8 ,what is said about the muscles of expression in the face of animals8 ,what is said of the variety of expression in the human face8 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,brain ,,and ,,nerves ,,in ,,animals4 ,sidenote3 ,the brain the mind's central workshop4 ,i have told you how your mind learns about the world around you1 and how it makes use of its knowledge by means of the machinery of your body--the muscles1 bones1 etc4 ,your mind is in the brain1 and uses the brain to think with2 and from the brain branch out all the nerves by which it works all the various machinery of the body4 ,your brain1 then1 may be considered the central workshop of your mind2 or it is like an engine-room of a factory1 where the engine is that keeps the machinery in other parts of the building in motion4 ,sidenote3 ,how animals learn4 ,the different animals have a brain and nerves just as you have1 and their minds in their brains learn about things around them4 ,they do not learn so much as your mind does1 it is true2 but they really do learn4 ,if you look at a kitten when it is first born1 it is very much like a baby4 ,it does not know any thing4 ,but1 like the baby1 it knows more and more every day1 and when it gets to be a cat it knows a great deal2 and all that it knows has come to its mind in the same way as what you know has come into your mind4 ,it has come in through its senses4 ,all its knowledge came in at its eyes and ears1 etc41 and got to its brain by the nerves4 ,sidenote3 ,the mind of a kitten as it plays4 ,the mind in animals1 too1 uses the muscles in the same way that your mind does4 ,watch a kitten at play4 ,the muscles that move her paws are directed by her mind in the brain by means of the nerves4 ,as she pokes at the thing that you hold out to her1 the nerves of her eyes are telling the mind in the brain all the time about the string1 and then the mind is telling the muscles of the paws what to do4 ,see her as she springs to catch the string that you draw along on the floor4 ,as she watches it1 messages are going from those bright eyes to her mind in the brain2 and then1 as she springs1 messages are sent from her brain to a great many muscles in different parts of her body4 ,the mind tells the muscles just when and how to act1 and they all do exactly as the mind tells them4 ,the mind of a cat sets a great deal of machinery at work when she makes a spring to catch any thing4 ,sidenote3 ,the minds and brains of insects4 ,what ,i have told you about some animals is true of all4 ,the little insect that flies out of the way when you strike at him has a little brain1 and there his mind thinks about what it sees1 and hears1 and feels1 etc41 just as your mind does2 and when he flies away so quickly from the blow that his eyes see coming1 his mind tells the muscles to make the wings go4 ,there are nerves that carry messages from his senses to the mind in his brain1 and there are nerves that carry messages from his brain to his muscles1 as there are in you4 ,the brain is very small1 and the nerves are very fine1 but they do their work well4 ,they make a little telegraph1 but it is a good one4 ,what a quantity of thinking there is done in the brains of all the animals in the world6 ,how busy their minds are1 receiving reports from their senses1 and working all the machinery of their bodies4 ,go out into the garden1 and see the birds1 the butterflies1 the bees1 the flies1 the ants1 the frogs1 the toads1 and the worms2 they are all busy thinking4 ,they can not move without thinking4 ,it is their thinking that makes their muscles move them4 ,and they think about what they move for4 ,sidenote3 ,animals that think more than others have larger brains4 ,some of them think more than others4 ,the bird thinks more than the worm4 ,some think faster than others4 ,the humming-bird1 that darts so quickly from flower to flower1 thinks as fast as he works4 ,but the lazy toad is a slow thinker4 ,his mind does not work the machinery of his muscles much1 and so does but little thinking4 ,but even he once in a while thinks quickly4 ,let a fly walk along pretty near him1 and he will catch it with his tongue so quickly that you can not see just how he does it4 ,he watches the fly intently1 keeping very still all the while2 and when it gets near enough1 he thrusts out his tongue1 and the fly is gone4 ,you would hardly think that so lazy-looking an animal could do any thing so quickly4 ,but he is nimble as a fly-catcher1 if he is not nimble at any thing else2 and very quickly must the mind in his brain think when it is working its fly-catching machinery4 ,the more an animal thinks1 the larger is the brain as compared with the rest of the body4 ,man thinks more than any other animal1 and so he has a large brain4 ,but the oyster has hardly any thing that can be called a brain1 for in his still life1 shut up as he is in his shell1 he thinks but little4 ,but such animals as horses1 dogs1 cats1 birds1 monkeys1 etc41 have quite large brains1 for they think a great deal4 ,their brains1 however1 are not1 by any means1 as large as the brain of man is in proportion to the size of the body4 ,sidenote3 ,the brain compared to machinery4 ,this is as we should suppose it would be4 ,the brain is the machinery with which the mind thinks4 ,now1 whenever we see a great deal of machinery together at work1 we know that it is because there is much to be done by it2 and when we see a small machine that has not many different parts1 we know that it is not intended to do much4 ,so it is with the mind's thinking machinery4 ,the brain of an animal that thinks but little is small and simple2 but the brain of one that thinks much is large and has many parts4 ,though animals do their thinking with their brains as we do with ours1 there is some thinking that we do that they can not4 ,there are some things about which they know nothing4 ,but ,i will tell you about this in another chapter4 ,questions4--,what does your mind do with your brain8 ,how is your brain like the engine-room of a factory8 ,what is said about the minds of different animals8 ,how is a kitten1 when it is first born1 like a baby8 ,how does it learn8 ,what is said about the mind1 and brain1 and nerves of an insect8 ,what is said about the quantity of thinking done in the brains of animals8 ,how do some differ from others in their thinking8 ,tell about the toad4 ,what is said about the size of the brain in different animals8 ,how is the brain compared with machinery8 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,the ,,variety ,,of ,,machinery ,,in ,,animals4 ,you have seen what a variety of curious machinery there is in our bodies for our minds to work1 besides that which is needed to keep the body in repair4 ,but ,i have told you some things about other animals as ,i have gone along4 ,there is in them also a great deal of machinery1 and it is different in each4 ,the variety of it is wonderful4 ,you see that the world is every where full of many kinds of animals1 making it a very busy world4 ,i do not believe that you have ever thought how different they are from each other4 ,i will therefore tell you a little about this4 ,sidenote3 ,machinery in the oyster suited to its wants4 ,see what a difference there is between man and some animals4 ,look at the oyster4 ,he lives in the water1 shut up in his rough shell4 ,he is no traveler4 ,he has no eyes to see sights with4 ,he has no sense of smell4 ,he has taste for his food1 and1 no doubt1 enjoys it4 ,he has the sense of touch2 this he needs1 both to manage his food and to guard himself against harm4 ,as he does not move about1 and has no feet or hands1 he has but few muscles4 ,he has one to shut up his shell tight1 which he does when he is alarmed4 ,his brain and nerves are very small affairs1 for he has little use for such things4 ,there is little machinery1 then1 in an oyster1 as you compare it with the machinery in your body2 and it is simply because he does not need so much as you do4 ,if he had needed more1 ,god would have given it to him4 ,but there is1 after all1 considerable machinery even in the oyster4 ,he has machinery for digesting his food4 ,he has circulating machinery--a heart with its arteries and veins4 ,and he has gills like fishes1 by which his blood is aired by the air in the water4 ,then he has a few muscles1 some nerves1 and a sort of brain4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the hydra--all stomach and arms4 ,sidenote3 ,how it acts when alarmed4 ,look1 now1 at another animal that has less contrivances in him than the oyster4 ,look at the hydra4 ,this is a very little animal which is found in ponds1 sticking to a straw or stick by a sort of sucker4 ,here is a representation of it4 ,the small figure shows it of its natural size4 ,the larger figure shows it as magnified by the microscope4 ,this animal is little else than a stomach with long arms4 ,we can turn the body of it--that is1 the stomach1 inside out1 and the animal will do as well as before4 ,the arms are merely to catch things1 as worms and insects1 which they put into the mouth of the stomach1 marked a4 ,one of the arms is represented as having caught something1 which it is about to put into this mouth4 ,when the little creature is alarmed1 he gathers up all his arms around his stomach1 and looks like a little ball4 ,no brain has ever been discovered in him1 but it is plain that he thinks some in catching his food1 and in gathering himself into a ball to escape notice4 ,he probably has a brain to think with1 though it is so small that it is not to be seen with the most powerful microscope4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,one of the arms of the hydra magnified4 ,sidenote3 ,contrivances in animals endless4 ,here is one of the arms of this animal as seen with a powerful microscope4 ,it is made up of little cells or bladder-like things4 ,how it is that these make the different motions of this arm we do not know4 ,the two animals that ,i have just told you about are very unlike to man1 but they are not more so than a multitude of others4 ,the variety in the shapes of animals and in the arrangements of their different parts is almost endless2 but1 with all this variety1 all are alike in some things4 ,all have organs to digest their food with1 and organs to circulate their blood4 ,all have brains to think with1 and nerves to use in finding out about what is around them1 and in making their muscles work4 ,the variety in the contrivances in animals is so great1 that when one undertakes to study them1 he continually finds something new4 ,and one thing is always true of the machinery in animals--it is perfect4 ,it is always exactly fitted to do just what it is made for4 ,no machinery that man ever made is equal to it4 ,animals are suited in their shapes and arrangements to the way in which they live4 ,some are made to fly4 ,these have wings2 and the wings exhibit great variety1 as you see if you look at the birds and insects that are so busy in the air4 ,some animals are made to live in the water2 most of these have a broad tail and fins to swim with1 but some crawl1 as the crab4 ,some float about1 like the hydra1 and some lie still1 like the oyster4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how different animals move4 ,some animals walk about on the ground4 ,man is the only animal that walks about erect upon two feet4 ,the beasts1 you know1 are four-footed4 ,the monkey is one of the most singular of beasts3 he has neither feet nor hands1 but some things which are like both4 ,with these he is more of a climber than a walker4 ,there are many small animals that walk on many feet4 ,and the snakes1 without any feet1 crawl along the ground4 ,some animals hop1 as the frog and toad4 ,some go by a long jump1 as the grasshopper1 and the troublesome little flea1 which is here represented as magnified by the microscope4 ,very strong muscles must this animal have to enable it to make such leaps with its long1 crooked legs4 ,there is great variety in the coverings of animals4 ,but ,i will tell you about these in another chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,the organs of some animals like those of man4 ,some animals are much more like man than others4 ,the bones1 and muscles1 and nerves1 and heart1 and brain of some are very much like the same things in our bodies4 ,this is true of many of the four-footed animals4 ,you can therefore know how the parts of the machinery inside of you look by observing the different parts of animals at the meat-market4 ,in a calf's head you can see how your brain looks4 ,its lungs1 or lights1 as they are commonly called1 are very much like yours1 and its heart is quite like your heart4 ,and so of other parts4 ,sidenote3 ,variety of motion in man4 ,sidenote3 ,has more muscles than any other animal4 ,the more an animal moves1 the more muscles he has to make his motions with4 ,man has more variety of motion than any other animal1 and so has more muscles4 ,god gives to each animal just the machinery that it needs4 ,some have machinery that others do not have4 ,some have very little1 while others have a great deal4 ,in our bodies there is a great variety of machinery1 for our busy minds want to know and to do very many things4 ,the mind of man does more things with the hand than with any other part of its machinery4 ,i shall therefore now go on to tell you about the hand1 and then about those things that1 in different animals1 answer somewhat in place of hands4 ,questions4--,what is said about the variety of machinery in the bodies of animals8 ,what senses has the oyster8 ,why does he have these8 ,what is said of his muscles8 ,what of his brain and nerves8 ,why has not the oyster as much machinery in his body as there is in yours8 ,what machinery has he8 ,tell all about the hydra4 ,what is said about his brain8 ,what are his arms made of8 ,in what things are all animals alike8 ,how does the machinery in animals compare with that made by man8 ,what are the shapes and machinery of animals suited to8 ,tell about animals that fly--those that live in the water--those that walk4 ,what is said about man8 ,what is said about the monkey8 ,mention some animals that hop--some that make a long jump--those that crawl without feet4 ,what animals are much like man1 and in what8 ,why is there so great a variety of machinery in our bodies8 ,what part of the machinery do our minds use most8 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,hand4 ,man is the only animal that has a hand4 ,the monkey has something like a hand2 but1 if you watch him as he takes things1 you will see that it is a very awkward and bungling thing compared with your hand4 ,sidenote3 ,the hand a set of machinery4 ,the hand is often said to be a wonderful instrument4 ,i would rather say that it is a wonderful set of machinery4 ,an instrument or tool is commonly fitted to do only one thing1 as a chisel1 a spade1 a saw1 etc4 ,but how many and how different things can be done with the hand6 ,sidenote3 ,it does both coarse and fine work4 ,let us look at some things that the hand can do4 ,see the blacksmith wielding the heavy hammer2 how strongly his hand grasps the handle6 ,see how it is done4 ,the fingers and thumb are bent by those large muscles that are up in the arm4 ,now these same fingers1 that grasp the hammer so strongly1 and do this heavy work1 can be trained to do work of the lightest and finest kind4 ,they can take hold of the pen and write4 ,they can move the tool of the engraver1 making those fine lines that you sometimes see4 ,in the machines that man makes there is no such changing from coarse1 heavy work to that which is fine and delicate4 ,a machine that does heavy work does that only1 and one that does fine work does that only4 ,no man ever made a machine that would pull a large rope one moment1 and the next pull a fine thread1 and do the one just as well as the other4 ,but that wonderful machine1 the hand1 can do this4 ,it can grasp the rope firmly1 and yet can take between its thumb and finger a thread so fine that you can hardly see it4 ,sidenote3 ,variety of things done by the hand4 ,but the difference in the work of the hand is not merely in coarseness and fineness4 ,it can do a great many different kinds of coarse work and a great many different kinds of fine work4 ,the hand works very differently with different things4 ,see how differently it manages a rope1 a hammer1 a spade1 a hoe1 a knife and fork1 etc4 ,it takes hold of them in different ways to work them4 ,and then1 as to fine work1 how differently it manages a pen1 an engraver's tool1 a thread1 a needle1 etc4 ,if you watch people as they do different things1 you can get some idea of the variety of the work that the hand can perform4 ,see how differently the fingers are continually placed as one is playing on an instrument4 ,you can see very well what a variety of shapes the hand can be put into if you observe a deaf and dumb person talking with his fingers4 ,on the following page is a representation of the different ways in which the letters are made4 ,sidenote3 ,the most common things that it does wonderful4 ,sidenote3 ,variety of shapes which the hand takes in the deaf and dumb alphabet4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,a buttoning machine4 ,the most common things that we do with our hands are really wonderful4 ,watch one as he is buttoning up his coat3 how easily his fingers do it2 and yet it is a wonderful performance4 ,suppose a man should try to make a machine1 shaped like the hand1 that would do the same thing1 do you think that he would succeed8 ,it would be very strange if he did4 ,suppose1 however1 that1 after working a long time1 he did really succeed1 and that you saw his machine1 with its fingers and thumb1 put a button through a button-hole in the same way that you do it with your fingers4 ,do you think that it could manage buttons of all sizes1 large1 middle-sized1 and small8 ,no2 it could only button those that are of one size4 ,the different sized buttons would require different machines2 and1 besides1 a machine that could button up could not unbutton4 ,but your hand is a machine that1 besides buttoning and unbuttoning buttons of various sizes1 is doing continually a great variety of things that machines can not do4 ,no machine can take up a pen and write1 or even move a stick about as your hand can4 ,when some ingenious man makes a machine that can do any one thing like what the hand does1 it excites our wonder1 and we say1 ,how curious6 how wonderful6 how much like a hand it works6 ,sidenote3 ,the hand an instrument of feeling4 ,but the hand is not merely a machine that performs a great many motions2 it is also an instrument with which the mind feels things4 ,and what a delicate instrument it is for this purpose6 ,how small are the things that you sometimes feel with the point of the finger6 ,as you pass it over a smooth surface1 the slightest roughness is felt4 ,a great deal of knowledge1 as ,i told you in ,chapter ,,xiv41 gets into your mind through the tips of your fingers4 ,messages are going from them continually by the nerves to the mind in the brain4 ,the blind1 ,i have told you1 read with their fingers4 ,they pass them over raised letters1 and the nerves of the fingers tell the mind what the letters are1 just as the nerves of your eyes are now telling your mind what the letters are in this book4 ,sidenote3 ,the hand guided by the touch4 ,now1 while the hand is performing its different motions as a machine1 it is generally very much guided by this sense of touch4 ,if your hand had no feeling in it1 it would make awkward business even in such a simple operation as buttoning2 and it could not do it at all if you did not look on all the time that it was doing it4 ,your eye-nerves would have to take the place of your finger-nerves1 as in the reading of the blind the finger-nerves take the place of the eye-nerves4 ,as it is1 you need not look at your fingers while they are buttoning1 for they are guided by the feeling that is in them4 ,there was once a woman who lost the use of one arm1 and at the same time lost all her feeling in the other4 ,she had a baby to take care of4 ,she could hold it with the arm that had no feeling1 because she could work the muscles in that arm1 but she could not do it without looking at it all the time4 ,if she looked away1 the arm would stop holding the baby and let it fall1 for it could not feel that it was there4 ,in her case the eye-nerves had to keep watch in place of the arm-nerves that could not feel4 ,sidenote3 ,how it differs from machines made by man4 ,you see that the hand is different from the machines that man makes in two things--in the variety of things that it can do1 and in the connection which it has with the mind by the nerves4 ,while the mind1 by the nerves1 makes it do things1 it knows by other nerves all the time whether it is doing them right4 ,see1 now1 what are the parts of this wonderful set of machinery4 ,there are in the hand and arm thirty bones4 ,there are about fifty muscles1 and all these are connected with the brain by nerves4 ,it is by them that the mind makes the muscles perform all the various motions of the hand and fingers1 and then there are other nerves that tell the mind what is felt in any part of this machinery4 ,sidenote3 ,how to get an idea of the variety of things which the hand can do4 ,i have mentioned in this chapter a few of the things that are done by the hand1 but there is no end to the things that can be done by this set of machinery4 ,you can get some idea of this in two ways--by moving your hands and fingers about in all sorts of ways1 and by thinking of as many as you can of the different things that people1 in work or in play1 do with their hands4 ,and observe in how many more ways the hand is useful than the foot is4 ,the foot has but a few things to do compared with the multitude of things done by the hand4 ,questions4--,what animal has something like a hand8 ,how does it compare with your hand8 ,why would you call the hand a set of machinery rather than an instrument8 ,what is said about the fingers doing heavy and light work8 ,tell about the rope and the thread4 ,what is said about the different kinds of both coarse and fine work that the hand can do8 ,what is said about playing on an instrument8 ,what is said of the alphabet of the deaf and dumb8 ,what is said about the common things done continually by the hand8 ,what is said of the hand as an instrument for feeling8 ,if your hand had no feeling1 what would happen8 ,tell about the woman who lost the power of motion in one arm and feeling in the other4 ,in what two things is the hand different from the machines made by man8 ,what are the parts of the machinery of the hand8 ,in what two ways can you get an idea of the variety of things that this machinery can do8 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,what ,,animals ,,use ,,for ,,hands4 ,though animals do not have hands1 they have different parts which they use to do some of the same things that we do with our hands4 ,i will tell you about some of these in this chapter4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how teeth can serve in place of hands4 ,you see this dog dragging along a rope which he holds in his mouth4 ,he is making his teeth answer in place of hands4 ,dogs always do this when they carry things4 ,they can not carry them in any other way4 ,you carry a basket along in your hand1 but the dog takes it between his teeth1 because he has no hand as you have4 ,i have told you1 in another chapter1 how the cow and the horse crop the grass4 ,they do it1 you know1 with their front teeth4 ,they take up almost any kind of food--a potato1 an apple--with these teeth4 ,these teeth1 then1 answer for hands to the cow and horse4 ,their lips answer also the same purpose in many cases4 ,the horse gathers his oats into his mouth with the lips4 ,the lips are for hands to such animals in another respect4 ,they feel things with their lips just as we do with the tips of our fingers4 ,sidenote3 ,cropping grass4 ,sidenote3 ,anecdotes of horses4 ,my horse once1 in cropping some grass1 took hold of some that was so stout and so loose in the earth that he pulled it up by the roots4 ,as he ate it the dirt troubled him4 ,he therefore knocked the grass several times against the fence1 holding it firmly in his teeth1 and thus got the dirt out1 just as people do out of a mat when they strike it against any thing4 ,i once knew a horse that would lift a latch or shove a bolt with his front teeth as readily as you would with your hand4 ,he would get out of the barnyard in this way4 ,but this was at length prevented by a very simple contrivance4 ,a piece of iron was fixed in such a manner at the end of the bolt that you could not shove the bolt unless you raised the iron at the same time4 ,probably this puzzled the horse's brain4 ,even if he understood it1 he could not manage the two things together4 ,i have heard about a horse that would take hold of a pump-handle with his teeth and pump water into a trough when he wanted to drink4 ,this was in a pasture where there were several horses2 and what is very curious1 the other horses1 when they wanted to drink1 would1 if they found the trough empty1 tease this horse that knew how to pump2 they would get around him1 and bite and kick him till he would pump some water for them4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,monkeys great climbers4 ,monkeys have four things like hands4 ,they are half way between hands and feet4 ,with these they are very skillful at climbing4 ,there are some kinds of monkeys1 as the one represented here1 that use their tails in climbing as a sort of fifth hand4 ,sidenote3 ,what cats use in place of hands4 ,the cat uses for hands sometimes her paws1 with their sharp claws1 sometimes her teeth1 and sometimes both together4 ,she climbs with her claws4 ,she catches things with them--mice1 rats1 or any thing that you hold out for her to run after4 ,she strikes with her paws1 just as angry children and men sometimes do with their hands4 ,when the cat moves her kittens from one place to another1 she takes them up with her teeth by the nape of the neck4 ,there is no other way in which she can do it4 ,she can not walk on her hind feet and carry them with her fore paws4 ,it seems as if it would hurt a kitten to carry it in the way that she does1 but it does not4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the dormouse4 ,when a squirrel nibbles a nut to make a hole in it1 he holds it between his two fore paws like hands4 ,so also does the dormouse1 which you see here4 ,sidenote3 ,the humming-bird's bill4 ,the bill of a bird is used as its hand4 ,it gathers with it its food to put into its crop4 ,when you throw corn out to the hens1 how fast they pick it up1 and send it down into their crops to be well soaked6 ,the humming-bird has a very long bill1 and in it lies a long1 slender1 and very delicate tongue4 ,as he poises himself in the air before a flower1 his wings fluttering so quickly that you can not see them1 he runs his bill into the bottom of the flower where the honey is1 and puts his little long tongue into it4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the bill of a duck4 ,the bill of the duck is made in a peculiar way4 ,you know that it gets its food under water in the mud4 ,it can not see1 therefore1 what it gets4 ,it has to work altogether by feeling1 and it has nerves in its bill for this purpose4 ,here is a picture of its bill1 showing the nerves branching out on it4 ,you see1 too1 a row of pointed things all around the edge4 ,they look like teeth1 but they are not teeth4 ,they are used by the duck in finding its food4 ,it manages in this way3 it thrusts its bill down1 and as it takes it up it is full of mud4 ,now mixed with the mud are things which the duck lives on4 ,the nerves tell the duck what is good1 and it lets all the rest go out between the prickles4 ,it is a sort of sifting operation1 the nerves in the sieve taking good care that nothing good shall pass out4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the power of the elephant's trunk and the variety of things it can do4 ,one of the most remarkable things used in place of a hand is the trunk of the elephant4 ,the variety of uses to which the elephant puts this organ is very wonderful4 ,it can strike very heavy blows with it4 ,it can wrench off branches of trees1 or even pull up trees by the roots1 by winding its trunk around them to grasp them1 as you see it is doing here4 ,it is its arm with which it carries its young4 ,it is amusing to see an old elephant carefully wind its trunk around a new-born elephant1 and carry it gently along4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the elephant's trunk can do little things as well as great4 ,but the elephant can also do some very little things with his trunk4 ,you see in this picture that there is a sort of finger at the very end of the trunk4 ,it is a very nimble finger1 and with it this monstrous animal can do a great variety of little things4 ,he will take with it little bits of bread1 and other kinds of food that you hand to him1 and put them into his mouth4 ,he will take up a piece of money from the ground as easily as you can with your fingers4 ,it is with this finger1 too1 that he feels of things just as you do with your fingers4 ,i once saw an elephant take a whip with this fingered end of his trunk1 and use it as handily as a teamster1 very much to the amusement of the spectators4 ,the elephant can reach a considerable distance with his trunk4 ,and this is necessary1 because he has so very short a neck4 ,he could not get at his food without his long trunk4 ,observe1 too1 how he can turn this trunk about in every direction1 and twist it about in every way4 ,it is really a wonderful piece of machinery4 ,cuvier1 a great ,french anatomist1 says that there are over thirty thousand little muscles in it4 ,all this army of muscles receive their orders by nerves from the mind in the brain1 and how well they obey them6 ,sidenote3 ,the elephant and the tailor4 ,you see that there are two holes in the end of the trunk4 ,into these he can suck water1 and thus fill his trunk with it4 ,then he can turn the end of his trunk into his mouth and let the water run down his throat4 ,but sometimes he uses the water in his trunk in another way2 he blows it out through his trunk with great force4 ,he does this when he wants to wash himself1 directing his trunk in such a way that the water will pour over him4 ,he sometimes blows the water out in play1 for even such great animals have sports like children4 ,sometimes1 too1 he blows the water on people that he does not like4 ,you perhaps have read the story of the tailor who pricked the trunk of an elephant with his needle4 ,the elephant1 as he was passing1 put his trunk into the shop window1 hoping that the tailor would give him something to eat4 ,he was angry at being pricked1 and was determined to make the man sorry for doing such an unkind act4 ,as his keeper led him back past the same window1 he poured upon the tailor his trunk full of dirty water1 which he had taken from a puddle for this purpose4 ,questions4--,what is said about the dog8 ,what answer for hands to the cow and the horse8 ,tell the anecdotes about horses4 ,what does the cat use for hands1 and how8 ,what is said about the squirrel and dormouse8 ,what is the bird's hand8 ,tell about feeding the hens4 ,tell about the bill of the duck4 ,what is told of the humming-bird8 ,mention some of the variety of uses to which the elephant can put his trunk4 ,what is said about the finger on the end of it8 ,why does the elephant need so long a trunk8 ,what is said about the muscles in it8 ,how does the elephant drink8 ,how does he wash himself8 ,tell about the tailor4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,tools ,,of ,,animals4 ,sidenote3 ,man alone makes tools4 ,man is the only animal that makes tools to use4 ,god has given him a mind that can contrive tools1 and he has also given him hands by which he can use them4 ,but he has given no such mind to other animals1 and therefore he has not given them hands4 ,they do not know enough to make tools1 and so hands are not needed by them4 ,sidenote3 ,animals have some kinds of tools ready made4 ,but1 though other animals do not make tools1 they have tools which they use4 ,god has given them ready made1 as we may say1 such tools as they need4 ,let us look1 then1 at some of the tools that we find in different animals4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the tail of a fish a sculling-oar4 ,you see a man in the stern or hinder end of a small boat4 ,he is sculling1 as it is called4 ,he is making the boat go by working the oar to the one side and the other4 ,the oar is the tool or instrument by which he does it4 ,now a fish has an instrument like this1 by which he goes through the water4 ,his tail is like the sculling-oar that man has contrived1 and which he uses with his hands4 ,if you watch the fish as he goes through the water1 you will see that he moves it to one side and the other as the man does his oar2 and while he goes ahead by means of his tail1 he uses his fins mostly as balancers to guide his motion4 ,he moves them rather gently except when he wants to change his course quickly4 ,when he is moving along fast1 and wants to stop1 he makes his fins stand out straight on each side4 ,this is just as rowers in a boat use their oars when they want to stop the boat4 ,you see a man drilling a hole in a rock1 and you hear the sound of the tool as it goes click1 click1 all the while4 ,the woodpecker has a drill that works in the same way4 ,with his bill he drills holes in the trees1 and you hear the sound of his tool as you do that of the tool of the rock-blaster4 ,it is a sort of knocking sound repeated many times very quickly4 ,sidenote3 ,the drill of the woodpecker4 ,what do you think that the woodpecker drills holes for8 ,it is to get at worms and insects1 which he eats4 ,these are in the bark and wood of dead trunks and branches of trees4 ,the woodpecker knows this1 and so drills to find them4 ,he does not drill into live bark and wood1 for he knows that there are generally no worms or insects there4 ,but the woodpecker's instrument is something more than a drill4 ,it is a drill with another instrument inside of it4 ,this instrument is for pulling out the insect or worm that he finds in drilling4 ,it is shown in the following figure4 ,it is a very long1 straight tongue1 and ends in a bony thorn4 ,this is1 as you see1 armed with sharp teeth pointing backward1 like the barbs of a fish-hook4 ,here are1 then1 two instruments or tools together4 ,and the way that the woodpecker manages them is this3 while he is drilling1 the two parts of the bill are closed together1 making a good wedge-pointed drill1 and at the same time a snug case for the insect-catcher4 ,as soon as he comes to an insect he opens the drill1 and pushes the barbed end of his long tongue into the insect1 and draws him into his mouth4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,tongue and claws of the woodpecker4 ,as the woodpecker has to strike so hard in drilling1 the bones of his skull are made very heavy and strong4 ,if this were not so1 his drilling would jar his brain too much4 ,and another thing is to be observed3 while he is drilling he needs to stand very firmly4 ,he must hold on tightly to the tree1 or he will slip as soon as he begins to drill4 ,he has1 therefore1 such claws as you see here to hold on with4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,digging tools of the elephant1 the hen1 and the pig4 ,some animals have tools to dig with4 ,the elephant1 you know1 has long1 strong tusks4 ,these he uses in digging up roots of different kinds from the ground to eat4 ,the hen digs in a small way with the claws of her feet1 to find grains and other kinds of food that happen to be mingled with the earth4 ,the pig can dig with its snout4 ,it does not have much use for this when shut up in its pen2 but let it out1 and see how it will root1 as we say4 ,it does this to find things in the ground that it can eat4 ,when the pig runs wild1 it roots to get acorns and other things that become mixed up with the earth4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the mole's plowing and digging tool4 ,the mole has a similar contrivance to work in the earth with4 ,this animal also has heavy claws with which it plows and digs4 ,here is a figure showing the bones of one of its fore paws4 ,they are very heavy and strong1 and are worked by large muscles4 ,the claws on its fingers1 you see1 are very powerful4 ,the mole does great execution with this digging and plowing machine in making his tunnels and galleries in the ground4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,his habitation4 ,the mole's habitation is a singular affair4 ,it consists of a large circular room1 with several galleries and passages4 ,he makes all this in this way4 ,he first heaps a round hill or mound1 pressing the earth to make it very solid and firm2 he then digs out his round room1 where he lives1 and the passages4 ,you can understand how he arranges these by the figure4 ,you can see that there are two circular galleries1 one above the other1 and that these are connected together by five passages4 ,the circular room is connected with the upper gallery by three passages4 ,it also1 you see1 has a deep passage out from it at the bottom1 which opens into a passage that goes out from the lower gallery2 this passage1 and another like it on the other side1 lead out into the open air4 ,i suppose that the use of all these winding passages is to enable the mole to keep out of the way of those who want to catch it4 ,sidenote3 ,how the woodchuck digs4 ,the marmot1 or woodchuck1 as he is commonly called1 is a great digger4 ,he digs his hole where he lives in this way4 ,he loosens the dirt with his fore paws1 using his teeth also when the earth is very hard1 or where any roots happen to be in the way4 ,he pushes back the dirt as he loosens it4 ,when he gets a considerable heap1 what do you think that he does with it8 ,he shovels it out with his hinder feet1 for they are so shaped that he can use them as shovels4 ,they have a strong skin between the toes1 so that when the toes are spread out the feet answer very well to shovel dirt with4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how beavers build their cabins4 ,beavers are very singular animals4 ,they do not live alone1 but many of them live together4 ,they live in a sort of cabin1 which they build with branches of trees and mud1 the mud answering for mortar4 ,in gathering the branches they often gnaw them off with their sharp and powerful teeth4 ,they are great diggers4 ,they dig up the earth with their paws to use in building their cabin4 ,it is said that they use their flat tails somewhat as masons do their trowels1 spatting and smoothing the coating of mud as they put it on4 ,the tail1 which you see is very stout1 answers another purpose4 ,as the beaver builds the wall of the cabin1 when it gets rather high he props himself up on his tail as he works4 ,sidenote3 ,the arrangement of the cabins and dams of beavers4 ,the beavers build their cabin close to a stream of water1 and their entrance to it is below1 so that they have to go down under water to get to it2 and a dam is built to keep the water over this entrance of the proper height4 ,if it were not for this1 the door to the cabin might get closed up with ice if the water should get low in the stream during the winter4 ,this dam the beavers build of branches of trees1 and mud1 and stones4 ,the stones are used to make the branches stay down4 ,in the cabin there are two rooms3 in the upper one they live1 and in the lower one they stow their food4 ,this is the arrangement of these animals for the winter4 ,in the summer they do not live together in companies1 but each one makes a burrow for itself4 ,every autumn they come together1 and unite in building their dams and cabins4 ,questions4--,why does man make tools8 ,why do not other animals make them8 ,do they have tools8 ,how is the swimming of a fish like sculling8 ,what does the fish do with his fins8 ,what is said about the bill of the woodpecker8 ,what does he drill for8 ,tell about his tongue4 ,what is said about the bones of his head8 ,what about his claws8 ,what is said about the digging of the elephant--of the hen--of the pig8 ,how does the mole dig8 ,what is said about his fore paws8 ,describe the arrangement of the mole's habitation4 ,how does the woodchuck dig8 ,how does he shovel away the dirt that he digs8 ,tell about the beavers4 ,in what two ways do they use their tails8 ,what is the arrangement of the cabin8 ,what is the dam for8 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,more ,,about ,,the ,,tools ,,of ,,animals4 ,sidenote3 ,the saw-fly4 ,insects have various tools or instruments4 ,there is a fly called the saw-fly1 because it really has a saw4 ,it is a very nice one1 much nicer than any saw that man ever made4 ,the fly uses the saw to make a place to put its eggs1 where they will be secure4 ,and what is very curious1 it has a sort of glue with which it fastens the eggs in their place4 ,sidenote3 ,the bee that cuts leaves so curiously4 ,there are some insects that have cutting instruments1 which will cut as well as you can with scissors1 if not better4 ,there is a bee that is remarkable in this respect4 ,it has also a boring tool4 ,its nest is commonly in old1 half-decayed wood4 ,it clears out a space in it with its boring instrument2 it then sets itself to work with its cutting instrument to cut out pieces of leaves to line the nest and make the cells in it4 ,these are cut of different shapes1 as they are needed1 as you may see in the next engraving4 ,below the leaves you see the nest represented4 ,it is opened by taking off some of the wood1 and there you see the lining of leaves4 ,great pains is taken by the bees in getting each piece of leaf of the right shape to fit well1 and the pieces are very nicely fastened together4,a#b ,footnote ,a#b3 ,a more full account of the operations of this little animal you can find in a book published by ,harper and brothers1 entitled ,natural ,history1 by ,uncle ,philip1 which ,i recommend to my young readers as a very interesting book about animals4 ,there are some animals that have machinery for making things4 ,all the silk that is used in the world is made by worms4 ,the silk-worm has a regular set of machinery for spinning silk4 ,it winds it up as it spins it4 ,then man unwinds it1 and makes a great variety of beautiful fabrics with this silk thread4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the spinning machinery of the silk-worm and the spider4 ,the spinning machinery of the spider is much finer than that of the silk-worm4 ,the thread which he spins is made up of a multitude of threads1 each one of these coming out from an exceedingly small hole in the spider's body4 ,you know that there is a large number of fibres or threads in a rope4 ,so it is with the spider's rope1 for his thread that you see1 small as it is1 is a rope to him4 ,it is a rope that he walks on like a rope-dancer2 and you may sometimes see him swinging upon it4 ,sometimes1 too1 he lets himself down from some height1 spinning the rope that holds him as he goes down4 ,when he does this1 his spinning machine must work very briskly4 ,sidenote3 ,paper-making of the wasp4 ,the wasp has a paper factory in him4 ,he makes his paper out of fibres of wood1 which he picks off1 ,i suppose1 with his teeth1 and gathers them into a bundle4 ,he makes this into a soft pulp in some way2 then1 from this1 he makes the paper with which he builds his nest4 ,it is very much1 you know1 like the common brown paper that man makes4 ,the wasps work in companies1 and though each one can make but little paper1 they all together make their nest in a very little time4 ,the pulp from which they make their paper is very much like the pulp from which man makes paper1 and which you may see any time in the large tubs or vats of a paper factory4 ,this pulp is generally made from rags ground up fine1 but lately wood has been much used4 ,perhaps the hint was taken from the wasps1 who were the earliest paper-makers in the world4 ,sidenote3 ,teeth4 ,animals can not use knives and forks1 as we do1 in dividing up their food4 ,they therefore have instruments given them which do this very well4 ,those long1 sharp teeth that dogs1 cats1 tigers1 etc41 have1 answer to tear to pieces the flesh they eat1 as thoroughly as we can cut it up4 ,we do not need such teeth1 because with instruments contrived by man's mind for his hands to use we cut up the food sufficiently4 ,sidenote3 ,pumps of some animals4 ,i have told you that the elephant can draw up water into his trunk4 ,his trunk is therefore like the tube with which we suck up water or any liquid4 ,and it is like a pump too1 for1 as ,i shall show you in ,part ,third1 water is raised in the pump just as it is in a tube when we suck through it4 ,it is with a pump something like the elephant's that many insects get the honey from the flowers4 ,this pump is called a proboscis4 ,it is with such an instrument that the musquito sucks up your blood4 ,at the end of his pump he has something with which he pierces a hole in your skin1 and then he pumps your blood up into his stomach4 ,in some insects the proboscis is very long1 as you see here4 ,this is hollow1 and with it the insect sucks up the honey from very deep flowers1 without being obliged to go to the bottom of them4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the proboscis in some insects4 ,the proboscis is commonly coiled up when it is not in use4 ,here is the proboscis of a butterfly coiled up4 ,the two long things above it are feelers4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the proboscis of the humming-bird4 ,the tongue of the humming-bird is really a proboscis1 and a very curious one it is too4 ,it has two tubes alongside of each other1 like the two barrels of a double-barreled gun4 ,at the tip of the tongue these tubes are a little separated1 and their ends are shaped like spoons4 ,the honey is spooned up1 as we may say1 and then it is drawn into the mouth through the long tubes of the tongue4 ,but the bird uses its tongue in another way4 ,it catches insects with it1 for it lives on these as well as on honey4 ,it does it in this way3 the two spoons grasp the insect like a pair of tongs1 and the tongue1 bending1 puts it into the bird's mouth4 ,the tongue1 then1 of the humming-bird is not merely one instrument1 but it contains several instruments together--two pumps1 two spoons1 and a pair of tongs4 ,sidenote3 ,cat's tongue a curry-comb4 ,the tongue of a cat is a singular instrument4 ,it is her curry-comb4 ,for this purpose it is rough1 as you will find if you feel it4 ,when she cleans herself so industriously1 she gets off the dirt and smooths her coat just as the hostler cleans and smooths the horse's coat with the curry-comb4 ,her head she can not reach with her tongue1 and so she has to make her fore paws answer the purpose instead4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how the heron catches fish4 ,there are some birds that live on fishes4 ,they have instruments1 therefore1 purposely for catching them4 ,the heron is a bird of this kind4 ,he manages in this way3 when the light is dim1 either at dawn or when there is moonlight1 it is his time for going a fishing4 ,he will stand1 as you see him here1 in shallow water1 so stiff and so still that he might be mistaken for a stump of a tree or something else4 ,he is looking steadily and patiently down into the water1 and the moment a fish comes along1 down goes his sharp bill1 and off he flies to his nest with his prey4 ,the plumes of this singular bird are beautiful1 and are very highly prized as ornaments4 ,illustration ,there is one bird that lives chiefly on oysters4 ,it has a bill1 therefore1 with which it can open an oyster-shell as skillfully as an oysterman can with his knife4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the tailor-bird4 ,some birds can sew very well with their beaks and feet4 ,there is one bird that sews so well that it is called the tailor bird4 ,here is its nest hid in leaves which it has sewed together4 ,it does this with thread which it makes itself4 ,it gets cotton from the cotton-plant1 and with its long1 delicate bill and little feet1 spins it into a thread4 ,it then pierces the holes through the leaves with its bill1 and1 passing the thread through the holes1 sews them together4 ,i believe that in getting the thread through the holes it uses both its bill and its feet4 ,sidenote3 ,the wingless bird4 ,here is a very strange-looking bird4 ,it has no wings4 ,it has a very long bill1 which it uses in gathering its food1 which consists of snails1 insects1 and worms4 ,he uses his bill in another way4 ,he often1 in resting1 places the tip of his bill on the ground1 and thus makes the same use of his bill that an old man does of his cane when he stands leaning upon it4 ,sidenote3 ,the fish that shoots insects with a squirt-gun4 ,there is a fish that has a singular instrument4 ,it is a squirt-gun for shooting insects4 ,it can shoot them not only when they are still1 but when they are flying4 ,it watches them as they are flying over the water1 and hits one of them1 whenever it can get a chance1 with a fine stream of water from its little gun4 ,the insect1 stunned with the blow1 falls into the water1 and the fish eats it4 ,i could give you a great many more examples of the different tools that we find in animals1 but these are sufficient4 ,you can observe other examples yourselves as you look at different animals4 ,questions4--,what is said about the saw-fly8 ,tell about the boring and cutting instruments of a certain kind of bee4 ,what is said about silk-worms8 ,what about spiders8 ,what about wasps8 ,why do some animals have such long1 sharp teeth8 ,what kind of machine is an elephant's trunk8 ,what is the proboscis of an insect8 ,tell about the tongue of the humming-bird4 ,how many instruments are there together in his tongue8 ,what is said about the cat's tongue8 ,tell about the heron4 ,tell about the bird that lives on oysters4 ,what is told about the tailor-bird8 ,tell about the bird that has no wings4 ,tell about the fish that shoots insects with water4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,instruments ,,of ,,defense ,,and ,,attack4 ,sidenote3 ,fighting instruments of animals4 ,animals have various instruments for defending themselves4 ,some have claws1 some horns1 some hoofs1 some spurs and beaks1 some powerful teeth1 and some stings4 ,these they use to defend themselves when attacked4 ,sidenote3 ,why man has none of them4 ,but man has none of these things4 ,why is this8 ,it is because1 as ,i have told you about tools1 with his mind he can contrive instruments of defense1 and with his hands he can use them4 ,if men could not contrive and use such things as spears1 and swords1 and guns1 they would stand a poor chance with some of the animals if obliged to contend with them4 ,a lion or tiger1 you know1 could tear the stoutest man in pieces if he had nothing in his hands to defend himself4 ,it would be well if men would use the fighting instruments which they make only for defending themselves4 ,but they often use them in attacking others1 just as beasts do their weapons1 and sometimes they even use their hands1 and teeth1 and nails in the same way that beasts do4 ,hands were made for useful work and innocent play2 but they are often used to strike with4 ,teeth are given to us to eat with2 but children1 and even men sometimes1 bite with them like an angry beast4 ,nails are given us for various useful purposes1 but ,i have known children to use them in fighting as beasts do their claws and spurs4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,claw and beak of a cruel bird4 ,the fighting instruments of some birds are very powerful4 ,here are a claw and a beak of a very cruel bird4 ,how fast this claw would hold the victim1 and how would this beak tear it in pieces6 ,very different are they from the slender claws and the light beak of such birds as the canary4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the vulture and the lamb4 ,here is a very rapacious bird1 the vulture4 ,he is on a rock1 and has under his feet a lamb which he found in the valley below4 ,it had perhaps wandered from the flock1 and1 as it was feeding1 not thinking of danger1 the vulture espied it4 ,swiftly diving down1 he caught it with his strong claws and brought it up here4 ,you see what a beak he has to tear the lamb in pieces1 that he may devour it4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the bill of the toucan4 ,sidenote3 ,how it trims its tail4 ,the toucan1 which you see here1 has a larger bill than most other birds4 ,it uses it in crushing and tearing its food1 which consists of fruits1 mice1 and small birds4 ,you see that its edges are toothed somewhat like a saw1 adapting it to tear in pieces the little animals which this bird feeds on4 ,but it can use its bill also for another purpose4 ,it is a powerful instrument of defense in fighting off the animals that attack it4 ,the toucan makes its nest in a hole of a tree1 which it digs out with its bill1 if it does not readily find one already made2 and there it sits1 keeping off all intruders with its big beak4 ,the mischievous monkeys are its worst enemies2 but1 if they get a blow from that beak1 they are very careful to keep out of the way of it afterward4 ,when the toucan sleeps1 it manages to cover up this large bill with its feathers1 and so it looks as if it was nothing but a great ball of feathers4 ,there is one curious use which it makes of its bill3 it uses it to trim its tail1 cutting its feathers as precisely as a pair of scissors would4 ,it takes great care in doing this1 evidently thinking that it is important to its beauty4 ,it waits till its tail is full grown before it begins to trim it4 ,sidenote3 ,the cat's paw and its cushions4 ,the claws of the cat hold the rat very fast1 while her long1 sharp teeth tear its flesh1 and pull even its bones apart4 ,if you see a cat do this1 you will get some idea of the way in which a lion or tiger tears in pieces any animal4 ,as your cat lies quietly purring in your lap1 look at her paws4 ,the claws are all concealed1 and the paw1 with its cushions1 seems a very gentle1 peaceable thing2 but wake her up and let her play with a string1 and as she tries to catch it with her paw1 the claws now thrust out make it look like a powerful weapon1 as it really is in the eyes of rats and mice4 ,there are muscles that work those claws when the cat's mind tells them to do it4 ,when the claws are not thrust out these muscles are quiet1 but they are ever ready to act when a message comes to them from the brain4 ,did you ever think what the use is of those springy cushions in the cat's foot8 ,they are to keep her from being jarred when she jumps down from a considerable height1 as she often does4 ,other animals that jump have them4 ,there is another use for these cushions4 ,they are of assistance to animals in catching their prey4 ,if the cat had hard1 horny feet1 as she went pattering around the rats and mice would take the alarm and get out of the way4 ,sidenote3 ,horned animals4 ,sidenote3 ,the horns of the kudu4 ,some animals have horns which they use in attack and defense1 and very powerful weapons they are in some cases4 ,animals that have them often defend themselves successfully against the attacks of lions1 tigers1 etc41 that are so powerful with their teeth and claws4 ,they gore with them4 ,they can toss up quite a large animal into the air with them4 ,in this animal 7called the koodoo7 they are nearly three feet long4 ,you see that they have a beautiful spiral shape2 indeed1 the whole animal is very handsome4 ,it lives in ,south ,africa1 in woods at the side of rivers4 ,you might suppose that it would be rather difficult to get about among the trees and bushes with such long horns2 but the koodoo manages to do this very well by throwing his head back and letting his horns rest on his shoulders4 ,illustration ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the sword-fish4 ,here is a drawing of a sword-fish4 ,its sword is made of bone1 and it is so very strong that it has been known to be run through the bottom of a ship4 ,in the ,british ,museum there is a piece of the bottom of a ship with one of these swords run through it1 and broken short off4 ,the fish must have died at once1 for such a blow must have dashed his brains out1 as we say4 ,this sword must be a powerful weapon of defense or attack in the fights of this fish with other animals4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the saw-fish4 ,here is a fish that has a saw instead of a sword4 ,the teeth1 you see1 are on both sides of the saw4 ,this fish is very large1 and uses this weapon with great effect in its fights with whales and other monsters of the deep4 ,it sometimes very foolishly pushes its saw into the bottom of a ship1 as the sword-fish does his sword4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the porcupine4 ,sidenote3 ,what the porcupine does with his quills4 ,there are some animals that have very singular instruments of defense4 ,the porcupine is one4 ,it is covered with two kinds of quills4 ,those of one kind are long1 slender1 and curved4 ,the others are short1 straight1 very stout1 and have a sharp point4 ,whenever the porcupine is chased by any animal1 and finds that he can not escape by running1 he stops and bristles up all his quills1 as you see in the previous engraving4 ,he then backs1 so that the short1 sharp quills may stick into the animal that pursues him4 ,it has been said that he shoots his quills at any one that attacks him4 ,but this is not so4 ,the error came from the fact1 that if any of the quills happen to be a little loose1 they fall out or stick into the flesh of his adversary4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the ink-bag of the cuttle-fish4 ,the cuttle-fish has a curious way of escaping from those fishes that attack him4 ,he is a strangely-shaped animal1 as you see4 ,he has eight long arms1 and the little spots that you see on these are suckers1 with which he can stick to a rock1 or can hold tightly any fish or shell that he catches4 ,this queer-looking animal has inside of him a bag filled with a dark fluid like ink4 ,this he uses as a means of defense in this way3 if he is chased by a fish larger than he is1 he empties his ink-bag in the water1 and thus makes such a cloud that it blinds his pursuer1 and then the cuttle-fish very easily gets out of the way4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the torpedo4 ,this singularly-formed fish1 the torpedo1 has two electrical batteries--that is1 machines for making electricity or lightning2 and it can give a shock when it pleases4 ,if the fish is a large one1 it can give a shock powerful enough to knock a man down4 ,it can disable1 of course1 almost any fish that attempts to fight with him1 and it probably uses its battery also to overcome the animals that it devours4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the electric eel4 ,here is an eel1 called the electrical eel1 which has the same power1 and uses it for the same purposes4 ,a sailor was once knocked down by a shock from one of these eels1 and it was some time before he recovered his senses4 ,sidenote3 ,the armor of turtles4 ,the different kinds of turtles1 while they have no great means of attack1 have most extraordinary means of defense4 ,they have a complete suit of thick1 bony armor4 ,most kinds of turtles can draw in their heads and limbs out of sight1 and some can shut up their armor as tight as a box1 and so be secure against almost any attack4 ,this is a picture of the green turtle1 which sometimes grows so large as to weigh as much as three or four men4 ,it is found in most of the islands of the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,its flesh is considered a great luxury4 ,the beautiful tortoise-shell1 from which combs are made1 is obtained from this armor of some kinds of turtles4 ,illustration ,questions4--,what are some of the instruments of defense and attack that animals have8 ,why has man none of these8 ,what is the use which men ought to make of the weapons which they contrive8 ,how are hands1 teeth1 and nails often improperly used8 ,what are the fighting instruments of birds8 ,tell about the vulture4 ,tell the different uses of the large bill of the toucan4 ,what are the weapons of the cat8 ,what is said about the muscles of her claws8 ,of what use are the cushions on her feet8 ,tell about the koodoo4 ,tell about the sword-fish and about the saw-fish4 ,what is said about the porcupine8 ,what about the cuttle-fish8 ,what about the torpedo and the electrical eel8 ,what about the turtles8 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,wings4 ,sidenote3 ,bones of a bird's wing like the bones of the arm and hand4 ,birds walk upon two legs as we do2 but1 instead of such hands as we have1 they have hands made for the purpose of lifting them up in the air4 ,the bones in a bird's wing are very much like the bones in our arms and hands2 but they make a frame-work for the feathers of the wing to spread out from4 ,the bones that go out almost to the very end of the wing are like the bones of our fingers1 only they are much longer4 ,a bird's wing1 when it is stretched out1 is a very large thing4 ,it needs to be large to do its work well4 ,a bird could not fly with small wings4 ,you know that by trying very hard you jump up into the air a very little way4 ,but see1 the bird goes up very easily as high as it pleases1 and does not seem to be tired4 ,this is because its wings spread out so broadly4 ,sidenote3 ,why wings are so large4 ,the reason that birds need such large wings is this4 ,as the bird rises by pressing upon the air1 it must press on a good deal of air to do this4 ,if it pressed upon only a little air it could not rise at all1 because the air gets out of the way so easily when it is pressed upon4 ,swimming is flying in the water2 and1 as water when pressed does not get out of the way as easily as air does1 the tail and fins1 with which fishes swim1 do not need to be as large as the wings of birds4 ,for the same reason1 hands and feet answer very well for us to swim with1 though we can not fly with them4 ,i shall tell you more particularly about this in ,part ,third4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,wings of the condor4 ,here is a very large bird1 the condor4 ,to lift such a heavy body as he has up into the air must require very large wings1 and you see that he has them4 ,sidenote3 ,muscles that work the wings of birds4 ,now1 to work such broad wings1 the bird has very stout muscles4 ,you know how the breast of a bird stands out4 ,you see it here in the condor4 ,this is because the muscles with which it works its wings are there4 ,you can see that this is the reason when a bird is cooked4 ,the meat1 you know1 is very thick on the breast-bone--thicker than in any other part of the body4 ,if we had as large muscles on our breast-bones we should look very strange4 ,but we do not need such large muscles to work our arms as birds do to work their wings4 ,sidenote3 ,why men can not fly4 ,a man could not fly if he had wings fixed on to his arms4 ,it has been tried4 ,i knew a man once to make something like wings for himself4 ,after he had made them1 he went up on to the roof of a shed to try them4 ,he jumped off and flapped his wings1 but down he came about as soon as if he had no wings1 and he was so much bruised that he was not disposed to try the experiment again4 ,now why could he not fly8 ,it was not for want of wings4 ,there the wings were1 and he had made them right1 for he had shaped them like the wings of birds4 ,they were large enough and light enough2 the difficulty was1 that the muscles of his arms were not strong enough to work them well4 ,they were arm-muscles and not wing-muscles4 ,a man can not be like a bird merely by having wings4 ,he must have a bird's flying muscles1 or he can not fly4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,short wings4 ,sidenote3 ,the ostrich4 ,different birds have wings of different sizes4 ,those that fly very far and swiftly have the largest wings4 ,the wings of the hen are not large enough to carry her far up into the air4 ,the most that she can do is to fly over a very high fence2 and if her wings are partly cut off1 or cropped1 as it is called1 she can not even do that4 ,there are some birds that do not use their wings in flying4 ,the ostrich1 represented on the previous page1 is a great runner4 ,he can not fly1 but his wings help him some in running4 ,in what way the wings act in raising birds and carrying them along ,i will explain to you in ,part ,third1 when ,i come to tell you about the air4 ,sidenote3 ,the beautiful motions of birds4 ,sidenote3 ,the swallow4 ,how beautiful are the motions of many of the birds as they fly in the air6 ,how easily and gracefully their wings work6 ,see that bird as it goes up and up2 and now see it as it makes a turn1 and comes down so swiftly on its outstretched wings1 taking a beautiful sweep off at a distance2 and then up it goes again to come down1 in the same way that boys do when they travel up a long hill to slide down so swiftly on their sleds4 ,the swallow1 as he has this fine sport1 is1 at the same time1 getting his living4 ,as he skims along close to the ground or the water1 as represented here1 quick as thought he catches any unlucky fly that happens to be in his way4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the humming-bird4 ,especially beautiful are the motions of the humming-bird4 ,see him as he stops before some flower fluttering on his wings1 or as he darts with them from one flower to another4 ,the muscles of his wings are very nimble workmen4 ,our muscles can make no motions as quick as these4 ,sidenote3 ,the structure of feathers4 ,did you ever examine a feather from a bird's wing to see what a curiously-made thing it is8 ,the quill part of it is very strong1 but1 at the same time1 light4 ,the plume or feather part is quite strong also4 ,it is made up of a great many very thin and delicate flat leaves1 as we may call them1 which are locked together curiously by fine teeth on their edges4 ,if you separate them they soon come together again1 and are locked as fast as ever4 ,you can see the teeth by which they hold on to each other very well with a common microscope4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the delicacy of a bat's wing4 ,no wonder that the bat can fly so swiftly with such very broad and light wings as he has4 ,did you ever observe how a bat's wing is made8 ,it is a very curious and really beautiful thing4 ,it is an exceedingly fine1 thin skin1 on a frame-work of long1 slender bones4 ,these are to it what sticks of whalebone are to an umbrella2 and the wings can be folded up somewhat as an umbrella is4 ,this is done whenever the bat is not flying4 ,when it is on the ground it is very awkward in its movements4 ,it can not get a start to fly1 and so it pushes itself along with its hind feet1 at the same time pulling by the hooks in its wings1 which it puts forward1 first one and then the other1 hooking them into the ground4 ,it never likes to get upon the ground1 and it takes its rest always1 as you see represented on the previous page1 by hanging itself up by the two hooks in its wings4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the vampire bat4 ,here is a picture of the vampire bat1 a native of ,south ,america1 that lives by sucking the blood of animals when they are asleep4 ,sidenote3 ,locust's wing4 ,nothing is more delicate than the wings of insects4 ,they are like gauze2 but they have a frame-work that makes them quite firm1 just as leaves are firm from the ribs that are in them4 ,here is a drawing of the wing of a locust4 ,but you can get no idea of the beauty of insects' wings from such drawings4 ,you must examine the wings themselves4 ,even the wing of a common fly is very beautiful1 so delicate is its structure4 ,illustration ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,wing of the katydid4 ,the wing of the katydid1 as it is called1 is peculiarly beautiful4 ,here it is4 ,you see that it is very delicate4 ,its color is a light green4 ,you see that rather thick three-cornered ridge at that part of the wing which joins the body4 ,there is a similar ridge on the wing of the other side4 ,in the space within this ridge there is a thin but strong membrane or skin1 so that it makes a kind of drum-head4 ,it is the rubbing together of these two drum-heads on the wings that makes the noise4 ,it is a queer sound4 ,there is no music in it1 but the katydids seem to enjoy making it4 ,sidenote3 ,how the katydid makes its noise4 ,sidenote3 ,how you can stop it4 ,the katydid commonly makes three rubs at a time with its drum-heads4 ,it sounds somewhat as if it said ,katy-did1 and from this comes its name4 ,sometimes there are only two rubs1 and then you can fancy that it says ,she did or ,she didn't4 ,the katydids1 you know1 are all quiet in the daytime1 but when evening comes they are very noisy4 ,i have often been amused to hear them as they begin just at dusk4 ,one will begin1 and perhaps say its ,katy-did several times2 then another1 on a neighboring tree1 will reply2 and after a little time the whole tribe will be at work4 ,each one appears to rest upon it after each rubbing1 and so it seems as if they answered each other from one tree and another4 ,it is curious that you can at once stop the noise of this insect by striking the trunk of the tree on which he is with your hand4 ,questions4--,what are the bones in a bird's wing like8 ,what is said about the size of birds' wings8 ,what about the muscles that work them8 ,why can not a man fly if he makes wings for himself8 ,what birds have the largest wings8 ,what is said about the hen8 ,what about the ostrich8 ,what is said about the motions of birds in flying8 ,what is said of the swallow8 ,what of the humming-bird8 ,tell about the parts of a feather from a bird's wing4 ,what is said about the bat's wings8 ,what about its motions on the ground8 ,how does it rest8 ,what is said about the wings of insects8 ,how does the katydid make its noise8 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,coverings ,,of ,,animals4 ,sidenote3 ,the skin of man4 ,the skin of man is his covering4 ,it covers up like a case all the machinery that ,i have told you is in his body--the bones1 the muscles1 the nerves1 the arteries1 the veins1 etc4 ,it keeps them from being injured4 ,besides this1 how strange we should look if there were no skin to cover up these parts from view4 ,the skin fits very nicely all parts of the body4 ,on the hand it is like a glove4 ,see how well it fits4 ,but observe that there are some places where it is quite loose and full of wrinkles4 ,it is so between the thumb and forefinger1 and around the joints of the fingers4 ,in these places it would not do to have it fit tight1 because if it did you could not move your thumb and fingers as freely as you do4 ,sidenote3 ,why it is different from the covering of animals4 ,but the covering of man's body is different from that of other animals4 ,it is1 for the most part1 bare skin1 while most animals have either hair1 or feathers1 or scales1 or hard plates like armor1 or shells4 ,why is it that man has a covering that protects him so much less than animals generally are protected by their coverings8 ,it is because he knows how to make such a covering as he needs to put on over his skin4 ,he can suit this to the degree of heat or cold4 ,but animals know nothing about this4 ,no one ever saw an animal make clothes and put them on4 ,the ,creator has given to each animal such covering or clothes as it needs1 ready-made4 ,let us look at this a little4 ,sidenote3 ,fur and hair4 ,animals in very cold climates need a very warm covering4 ,they therefore have a thick fur4 ,but animals that live in warm countries have rather thin hair instead of fur4 ,the elephant has very little hair1 and it is only with the greatest care that he can be made to live through our cold winters4 ,the same is true of the monkey4 ,if these animals had a good covering of fur on their skins1 the cold would not affect them in this way4 ,sidenote3 ,blanketing the horse4 ,the hair of the horse is rather thin4 ,it is not like fur2 and if the horse's master is kind1 he is very careful to put a good blanket on him whenever the cold makes it necessary4 ,if he did not1 the horse would get chilled and take cold4 ,the horse is not a native of cold countries1 but of such warm countries as ,south ,america and ,arabia4 ,there horses run wild1 and are always in large companies or herds4 ,sidenote3 ,the fur of the cat4 ,you know how thick the fur is on the cat4 ,you can see how fine it is1 and how thickly the hairs stand together1 if you blow on it so as to separate the hairs4 ,with this warm coat on her1 she does not feel the cold much4 ,you see her often in cold weather out-of-doors1 with her feet gathered up under her to keep them warm4 ,the monkey1 with his thin hair1 could not do so4 ,he has to be kept in a warm place in the winter4 ,sidenote3 ,feathers4 ,the covering of birds1 while it is such as to keep them warm1 is very light4 ,if it were not so1 they could not fly as well as they do4 ,feathers are so light1 that1 when we wish to speak of any thing as being very light1 we say that it is as light as a feather4 ,the downy feathers on the breast of birds are especially light4 ,the feathers of the wings are different4 ,they are made strong for the work of flying1 and at the same time they are quite light4 ,how this is done ,i have told you in the chapter before this4 ,sidenote3 ,the oily feathers of the duck4 ,birds that go much into the water have an oil about their feathers which keeps them from being soaked2 for this reason1 a duck1 when it comes out of the water1 is almost as dry as before it went in4 ,but if a hen should go into the water in the same way1 she would be wet through her feathers to her skin4 ,she was not made to go into the water1 and so has neither the oily feathers nor the webbed feet which are given to the duck4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,why fishes have scales1 and why they are oily4 ,why is it that fishes have scales8 ,it is because they need a smooth covering in order to get along easily in the water4 ,a covering which is rough1 or which would soak in water1 would be bad for them4 ,the scales1 you know1 lap over one upon another1 as you see here in the herring4 ,they thus make quite a firm coat of mail1 and at the same time do not hinder the bending motions of the fish4 ,if the same covering were all in one1 instead of being made up of many scales1 it could not bend as easily as it does now in turning its course in the water4 ,the scales are kept oiled1 and this helps the fish to glide along swiftly4 ,it is this that makes the fish so slippery that it is difficult to hold it in its struggles when it is first taken out of the water4 ,sidenote3 ,how the hermit-crab guards his naked tail4 ,i have told you1 in another chapter1 about the coverings of such animals as lobsters and crabs4 ,there is one kind of crab1 called the hermit-crab1 that has no covering over his tail as he has over the other parts of his body4 ,it is therefore very liable to be injured unless it is guarded in some way4 ,and how do you think he guards it8 ,he just puts it into some shell that he finds1 as you see here1 and then goes about1 dragging it after him4 ,as he grows the tail becomes too large for the shell1 and as soon as he feels the shell beginning to pinch1 he pulls his tail out and goes in search of another shell4 ,it is amusing to see him try one after another till he finds one that fits well4 ,sometimes two of these crabs come to the same shell1 and then they have a fight about it4 ,very foolish must a crab feel when he has driven another one off1 and finds1 after all1 that the shell he has been fighting for does not fit his tail4 ,illustration ,questions4--,what is said about our skin as a covering8 ,what is said about its fitting well8 ,where are there wrinkles1 and why8 ,how is the covering of man's body different from that of other animals1 and why8 ,what is said about animals in cold climates8 ,what about those that live in warm countries8 ,what about the elephant1 the monkey1 and the horse8 ,what about the fur of the cat8 ,what about the covering of birds8 ,how are the feathers of the wing different from those of the breast1 and why8 ,why are the feathers of some birds oily8 ,tell about the duck and the hen4 ,why do fishes have scales8 ,why are they kept oiled8 ,tell about the hermit-crab4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,beauty ,,of ,,the ,,coverings ,,of ,,animals4 ,sidenote3 ,beauty of some very small insects4 ,there is great variety in the coverings of insects4 ,in some the covering is like burnished armor4 ,the variety of colors is exceedingly great1 and in many they have a splendid brilliancy4 ,some of the smallest insects1 which most people never notice1 are surpassingly beautiful when examined with the microscope4 ,it is with them in this respect as it is with some of the smallest flowers4 ,we know not how much beauty there is all around us in the small things that ,god has created till we take the microscope and look at them4 ,sidenote3 ,butterflies4 ,the butterflies are among the most beautiful of insects4 ,almost every variety of color is to be seen in them1 and often many colors are seen together1 arranged in the most beautiful manner4 ,you can not have any idea of the great variety of their beauty unless you see some collection of them in cases in some museum4 ,sidenote3 ,colors in shells4 ,you have often admired the beauty of different shells4 ,these are the coverings of animals who lead a very quiet life in them1 as ,i told you about the oyster4 ,very splendid are the colors often on the inside of these coverings1 and sometimes on the outside also2 and even when the outside is not at all handsome when we get the shell from the water1 we often find that clearing off the outer coating with acid1 or by rubbing1 will show us beautiful colors4 ,then1 too1 by grinding the shell in different parts of it1 different layers are seen of different hues4 ,sidenote3 ,why ,god made shells so beautiful4 ,the beauty of these coverings is of no use to the animals that live in them4 ,they have no eyes to see it4 ,for what1 then1 is it intended8 ,it is for our gratification4 ,the ,creator strews beautiful things even on the bottom of the ocean for us4 ,if the coverings1 or houses1 as we may call them1 of all the animals that live there were as homely as that of the oyster1 they would be as useful and comfortable for them as they are now1 decked with their elegant colors4 ,so far as they are concerned1 the beauty is thrown away4 ,but men gather the shells1 and1 while they admire them1 they see in the beauty which the ,creator lavishes even in the depths of the sea the evidence of his abounding goodness4 ,illustration ,the variety of beauty in the coverings of birds is very great4 ,the various colors are arranged in their plumage in every variety of manner1 and there are all shades of the colors1 from the most brilliant to the most delicate4 ,sidenote3 ,the hoopoe4 ,commonly the greatest display in the plumage of birds is in the delicate and downy feathers of the breast4 ,but the bird that you see here1 the hoopoe1 has its chief beauty in its crest1 which is of an orange color tipped with black4 ,it is one of the most elegant of birds4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the beauty of the peacock4 ,sidenote3 ,its pride4 ,sidenote3 ,its disagreeable voice4 ,in the peacock1 a drawing of which you have here1 there is a great display of colors4 ,the animal struts about1 and1 lifting its tail in the air1 spreads it like a fan1 and seems to be very foolishly proud of its beauty4 ,proud people generally have something disagreeable about them1 and so it is with the peacock4 ,its voice is so harsh and screeching that no one wants it in his neighborhood4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,a bird of paradise4 ,sidenote3 ,its cleanliness4 ,birds of ,paradise1 as they are called1 are exceedingly beautiful4 ,there are several kinds of them4 ,the most common kind is the one pictured here4 ,i will give you an idea of its colors4 ,most of its body is a rich brown2 the throat is a golden green2 the head is yellow2 the long1 downy feathers that you see so abundant about the tail are of a soft yellow color4 ,this elegant bird is very careful to prevent the least speck of dirt from getting on its plumage2 and when it sits on a branch of a tree it always faces the wind1 so that its feathers may not be ruffled4 ,sidenote3 ,humming-birds4 ,there is1 ,i think1 in the humming-birds more variety of color than in any other kind of birds4 ,the colors are very brilliant1 especially upon the delicate feathers of their breasts2 and they are shaded in the most beautiful manner4 ,i never saw a finer display of colors than ,i once saw in a collection of humming-birds in a museum in ,philadelphia4 ,on the following page is an engraving of a few varieties of these birds4 ,you can see what different shapes they have4 ,they are alike only in their long1 slender bills4 ,and when one sees a large collection of them1 with all their varied forms and colors1 he is struck with admiration and wonder4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,beauty of the furs of animals4 ,many of the furs of animals have much beauty1 but there is no such great variety of color as there is in the plumage of birds4 ,as you blow on a fine fur1 and see how thickly its delicate fibres stand together1 you admire its richness4 ,each fibre of it is in itself a beautiful thing4 ,sidenote3 ,a caterpillar4 ,we hardly know why it is that some animals that we dislike so much should have so much beauty4 ,worms and caterpillars are disgusting to us1 and yet in many of them there is a great display of elegant colors4 ,while writing this1 ,i see one crawling along on my coat-sleeve with its numerous feet of curious shape4 ,its color is a brilliant green4 ,on its back stand up in a row three beautiful light yellow tufts4 ,behind these1 on a dark stripe1 are two fleshy-looking round bunches1 that are a most brilliant red4 ,on its side bristle out white hairs in bundles4 ,its head is red1 and from it extend forward dark colored but very delicate feelers1 in two bundles4 ,i suppose they are feelers1 because they are shaped like the feelers of the butterfly1 which you see on page #aah4 ,sidenote3 ,why such animals are often very beautiful4 ,now why is it that so much beauty is given to such animals8 ,it does not seem to be of any use4 ,but this can not be so1 for ,god has a use for every thing that he makes4 ,we are to remember that he can make a thing beautiful as easily as he can make it homely4 ,and it is just this lesson1 perhaps1 that he means to teach us when he clothes such creatures as worms and caterpillars in coverings of beautiful colors4 ,it is different with us4 ,we try to make beautiful only those things that we prize much4 ,there are some things that it would be a foolish waste of time for us to ornament4 ,this is because we can do but little in making things beautiful4 ,but there is no end to ,god's power in the creation of beauty4 ,he can1 by the word of his power1 make just as many beautiful things as he pleases4 ,questions4--,what is said about the variety of colors in insects8 ,what is said about butterflies8 ,what about shells8 ,is their beauty of any use to the animals that live in them8 ,why is so much beauty put in them8 ,what is said about the variety of colors in the coverings of birds8 ,tell about the hoopoe4 ,tell about the peacock and about the birds of ,paradise4 ,what is said about humming-birds8 ,what is said of the furs of animals8 ,what is said about worms and caterpillars8 ,why is so much beauty often given to such animals8 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,how ,,man ,,is ,,superior ,,to ,,animals4 ,sidenote3 ,man's superiority in his mind4 ,you see1 from what ,i have told you1 that man can do with his hands a great variety of things that animals can not do4 ,it has been said1 therefore1 by some that the hand is the great thing that makes man superior to animals4 ,but this is not true4 ,of what use would the hand be if there was not a mind in the head that knew how to use it8 ,suppose that your cat had a hand instead of a paw1 could she write with it8 ,no2 the mind in her brain does not know enough for this4 ,and so there are a great many other things that we do with our hands which the cat would not know enough to do with hands1 if she had them4 ,so1 then1 it is not the hand merely that makes you superior to a cat1 but it is the mind that uses the hand4 ,your mind knows more than her mind does1 and wants to do more things than her mind ever dreams of4 ,your mind1 therefore1 needs such an instrument as the hand to do these things with1 while a paw answers very well for the cat4 ,sidenote3 ,machinery of animals suited to their minds4 ,sidenote3 ,machinery of the oyster1 and of the cat and dog4 ,god gives to every animal just such machinery as its mind can use4 ,if it knows a great deal1 that is1 if it has a great deal of mind1 he gives it a great deal of machinery2 but if it has but little mind1 he gives it but little machinery2 for if he gave it much1 it would not know how to work it4 ,an oyster1 as ,i have told you1 knows but little as it lies covered up in its shell4 ,it knows how to do only a few things1 and so it has but little machinery4 ,a dog or a cat knows a great deal more than an oyster1 and therefore it has paws1 claws1 teeth1 etc41 as machinery for its mind to use4 ,and as your mind knows so much more than that of a dog or cat1 it has that wonderful machine1 the hand1 to do what it knows how to do4 ,the mind of man knows so much that it will contrive1 when there are no hands1 to use other things in place of them4 ,i once saw a man who had no hands write1 and do various other things very well with his toes4 ,you know that we generally use the right hand most1 making the left hand rather the helpmeet of the right4 ,but when the right hand is lost in any way1 the mind sets the left to work to learn to do as the lost one did4 ,i once had to cut off the right arm of a very bright little girl4 ,but her busy mind did not stop working because it had lost the best part of its machinery4 ,in less than a fortnight ,i saw her sewing with her left hand1 fastening her work with a pin instead of holding it as she used to do4 ,sidenote3 ,machinery in the face4 ,there is some other machinery1 besides the hand1 that you have which animals have not4 ,it is the machinery that is in the face4 ,i have told you about this before1 in the chapter on the muscles4 ,a dog1 when he is pleased1 looks up at you and wags his tail2 but he can not laugh or even smile2 neither can he frown4 ,why8 ,because there is none of the smiling1 and laughing1 and frowning machinery there4 ,and so it is with other animals4 ,sidenote3 ,variety of expression in the face4 ,the variety of work that this machinery of expression does in the face of man is very great1 as you can see if you watch the varied expressions of countenance in persons engaged in animated conversation4 ,but there is very little variety of expression in the face of an animal4 ,now why is it that they have not the same muscles of expression that we have8 ,it is for the same reason that they have not hands4 ,the mind of man has a great many more thoughts and feelings than the mind of an animal has4 ,it needs1 therefore1 more machinery to express these thoughts and feelings4 ,the wagging of the dog's tail answers very well to express his simple feeling of pleasure2 but you have so many different pleasant thoughts and feelings that you need the varied play of the muscles of the face to express them4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the wolf4 ,sidenote3 ,why we have no snarling muscles4 ,but some animals have certain muscles of expression in the face that we have not4 ,they are the snarling muscles1 as they are called4 ,they draw up the upper lip on each side of the mouth in such a way as to show the long1 tearing teeth4 ,in this wolf1 about to devour a lamb that he has caught1 you see what a fierce and horrid expression these muscles give to the face4 ,now the reason that we have no such muscles is that we ought never to have snarling feelings4 ,i have seen both men and children look very bad when they were angry2 but they would have looked a great deal worse if they had snarling machinery in their faces1 as wolves1 and cats1 and dogs have in theirs4 ,sidenote3 ,why animals can not talk4 ,there is some machinery that animals have just as we do1 which they can not use to do as many things as we can1 because they do not know how4 ,i will give you an example1 and then you will see what ,i mean4 ,did you ever think why it is that animals can not talk8 ,it is not because they have not the machinery for talking4 ,many of them have tongues1 teeth1 lips1 etc4 ,these are the things that we use to talk with1 and yet1 though they have them1 and have a voice that comes out from their throats as ours does1 they can not talk4 ,why is this8 ,it is because they do not know how to use these parts in talking1 though they do know how to use them in other things1 as eating4 ,the cow knows how to use her teeth1 and lips1 and tongue in eating2 but if she had a mind like yours1 she would use them in talking1 and would not merely low4 ,the parrot1 you know1 does know how to talk1 after a fashion4 ,this particular faculty is given to it1 though it is rather a stupid bird about other things4 ,and1 after all1 its talking is a very awkward imitation of the speech of man2 it only says what it hears people say1 and that in a very bungling manner4 ,sidenote3 ,some things done better by some animals than by man4 ,though man has more machinery and can do more things than any other animal1 there are some things that some animals can do better than he can4 ,man can climb1 but he can not do it as well as a cat or a monkey4 ,he can swim1 but not as well as a fish4 ,the frog and the grasshopper are better jumpers4 ,the horse and the dog can run faster than he can4 ,he can not see as far as some birds4 ,he has but two eyes1 but the fly has thousands of eyes1 so that it can see in almost all directions at once4 ,he can not smell as well as the dog1 who can follow the track of his master by the scent left in his footsteps4 ,he can mimic different sounds1 but the mocking-bird can beat him at this4 ,sidenote3 ,some animals can do things which man can not4 ,but1 besides all this1 there are some things done by some animals that man can not do at all4 ,he can not fly like the birds and insects4 ,he can not go to roost like the birds4 ,he can not walk along on the wall over his head1 as the fly does with the suckers on its feet4 ,each animal is fitted to do just those things that it needs to do4 ,for example1 the monkey needs to climb to get his living1 and the ,creator has therefore made him so that he can climb very easily4 ,for this purpose1 instead of having two hands and two feet1 as we have1 he has four things shaped somewhat like hands1 with which he can grasp the limbs of trees4 ,i might give you other examples1 but you can find many in the chapters on what animals use for hands1 the tools of animals1 and their instruments of defense and attack4 ,questions4--,what is said about the hand8 ,in what is man superior to animals8 ,what is said about the machinery that ,god gives to different animals8 ,tell about the man that had no hands1 and about the girl that had her arm cut off4 ,what is said about the machinery in the face8 ,what about the variety of work that this machinery does8 ,why do not animals have the same muscles of expression that man has8 ,what muscles of expression do some animals have that man has not8 ,why does not man have them8 ,why can not animals talk8 ,what is said about the parrot8 ,mention some things that some animals can do better than man4 ,mention some things done by animals that he can not do at all4 ,what is every animal fitted to do8 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,thinking ,,of ,,animals4 ,you saw in the last chapter that the great superiority of man over other animals is in his mind4 ,let us look1 now1 at those things in which their minds are like his1 and those things in which they differ from it4 ,sidenote3 ,what animals think about4 ,sidenote3 ,the cat and the snow4 ,i have already told you some things about the thinking of animals4 ,some of them think a great deal4 ,they think about what they see1 and hear1 and feel very much as we do4 ,i once had a cat that was born in the spring1 after the snow was all gone4 ,in the beginning of the next winter1 the first snow that came was quite deep4 ,it fell in the night4 ,it was1 of course1 a new sight to my cat4 ,when she came out in the morning1 she looked at it with very curious eyes1 just as we look at any thing new4 ,i suppose that she thought how clean1 and white1 and pretty it was4 ,after looking a little while1 she poked the snow first with one paw and then with the other several times1 to see how it felt4 ,then she gathered up between her paws as much as she could hold1 and threw it up in the air over her head2 and then she ran swiftly all around the yard1 making the snow fly about like feathers wherever she went4 ,now1 though my cat could not talk1 ,i could see by her actions that her thoughts and feelings were very much such as children have when they play in the snow4 ,sidenote3 ,the sport of animals4 ,animals are much like children in their sports4 ,we notice this very often in dogs and cats4 ,but the same thing is true of other animals4 ,it is amusing to see porpoises playing with each other in the water4 ,as they throw themselves up out of the water1 and dive down again1 they chase each other as dogs and cats do4 ,some birds are very lively in their sports4 ,insects have their sports also4 ,the ants1 industrious as they generally are1 have their times for play4 ,they run races2 they wrestle2 they carry each other on their backs in the same way that boys do2 they run one after another1 and dodge each other behind stalks of grass1 as boys do behind trees and posts2 they have scuffles and mock-fights together4 ,very busy are their minds in their little brains in these sports--as busy as your minds are in your sports4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,sober animals4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,irishman and the owl4 ,there are some animals that you never see engaged in sports4 ,their thoughts seem to be always of the sober kind4 ,you never see toads and frogs play4 ,they always look very grave4 ,the owl is one of the soberest-looking of animals4 ,he looks as if he was considering something4 ,here is a picture of one4 ,a man once bought an owl1 supposing it to be a parrot4 ,some one asked him1 a day or two after1 if his parrot talked yet4 ,no1 said he1 but he keeps up a great thinking1 and ,i suppose he will speak his thoughts when he gets more acquainted4 ,sidenote3 ,the thinking of animals in taking care of their young4 ,animals think a great deal in taking care of their young4 ,what care the hen exercises over her brood of chickens6 ,she has some of the same thoughts and feelings of love that a mother has in taking care of her child4 ,and the bird1 that has her little ones in the nest1 has many thoughts about them as she goes out to gather food1 and then wings her way back to put it into their open mouths4 ,it is interesting to watch canary-birds as they hatch and rear their young4 ,the male bird commonly insists upon it that the female shall sit upon the nest all the time1 while he takes upon himself the task of feeding her4 ,a male canary belonging to a friend of mine was excessively particular on this point4 ,he would not let his mate leave the nest for a moment1 and if she did he would fight her till she went back4 ,he was exceedingly busy in feeding her1 and might certainly be called a good provider4 ,a lady gave me a very interesting account of two orioles that built their nest on a tree close by her father's house4 ,they came regularly every year to the same spot1 and the family always knew the very day of their arrival by their joyous singing4 ,they seemed to have the same feelings of joy that people generally do when they return to a much-loved home after a long absence4 ,at one time one of their little ones fell from the nest4 ,the parents manifested their concern by flying about in the most hurried1 uneasy manner1 and making mournful cries4 ,the family pitied the poor birds1 and the little one was carefully picked up1 amid the flutterings and cries of the old birds1 and was replaced in the nest4 ,and now the joy of the parent birds over their restored one was expressed by a long and merry peal of song1 as they sat perched on the branch close by their little nestlings4 ,at length one of these orioles died1 and the other left the nest and never more returned4 ,sidenote3 ,the spider4 ,see that spider on his web4 ,he is watching for flies4 ,the mind in his little brain thinks of every fly that comes buzzing along1 and is anxious that it should get its legs entangled in the snares that he has woven4 ,how glad he feels when he sees one caught by these snares6 ,and if he thinks that they are not strong enough to hold the fly1 he runs and quickly weaves some more threads about him4 ,in the same way do all animals that catch their prey think very busily while they are doing it4 ,sidenote3 ,the thinking of animals in building their dwellings4 ,animals think much in building their dwellings4 ,the bird searches for what it can use in building its nest1 and in doing this it thinks4 ,the beavers think as they build their dams and their houses4 ,they think in getting their materials1 and also in arranging them1 and in plastering them together with mud4 ,questions4--,what is said about the thinking of animals8 ,what is told about a cat8 ,what is said about the sports of animals8 ,tell about the ants4 ,tell about the owl4 ,what is said about animals taking care of their young8 ,tell about the canary-bird4 ,tell about the orioles4 ,what is said about the spider8 ,what is said about animals building their dwellings8 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,more ,,about ,,the ,,thinking ,,of ,,animals4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,stories about the shepherd's dog4 ,as animals think1 they learn4 ,some learn more than others4 ,the dog learns a good deal2 so do the monkey and the elephant4 ,some are good at learning some particular things4 ,the parrot learns to mimic talking1 though it is quite stupid about some other things4 ,the mocking-bird learns to imitate a great many different sounds4 ,the shepherd's dog1 seen here1 though he does not know as much about most things as dogs of some other kinds1 understands particularly well how to take care of sheep4 ,if he is trained to this business1 he will show great skill in doing it4 ,james ,hogg1 a ,scotch poet1 commonly called the ,ettrick ,shepherd1 relates many wonderful anecdotes of his dog1 whom he called ,sirrah4 ,he says that one night a large flock of lambs got out from their fold and ran away among the hills4 ,when the shepherd said1 8,sirrah1 they're a' awa'60 the dog dashed off after them1 and was soon out of sight4 ,the shepherd also1 and his man1 started off in pursuit4 ,they searched all night1 but could find nothing of the dog or the lambs2 but in the morning they espied ,sirrah standing guard at the mouth of a gorge1 or narrow pass1 and anxiously looking for his master to come4 ,he had succeeded in finding all the scattered lambs1 and here they were in this gorge1 into which he had driven them4 ,it is told of another dog of this kind that he would pick out any stray sheep from the midst of a whole flock1 and drive it back to the flock to which it belonged4 ,this dog was once observed trying to drive a flock over a bridge which they were afraid to cross4 ,he managed very well1 and at length succeeded in getting them over4 ,it was amusing to see how he did it4 ,at one moment he was driving up some of the scattered ones1 and the next he was among the foremost1 urging them forward4 ,after a while he made some of the foremost pass over1 and then the whole flock followed4 ,sidenote3 ,animals build always the same way1 and have no new fashions4 ,though animals think and learn1 they do not have much originality4 ,they always do things very much in the same way4 ,they do not keep contriving some new ways of doing things as men do4 ,each kind of bird has its own way of building a nest1 and it is always the same way4 ,the robins build their nests now just as they did hundreds of years ago4 ,the moles build their tunneled habitations under ground year after year after the plan that you see on page #aab4 ,and so of other animals4 ,they have no new fashions1 and learn none from each other4 ,but men1 you know1 are always contriving new ways of building houses1 or learning them from other men4 ,sidenote3 ,what is done by instinct4 ,many of the things that animals know how to do they seem to know either without learning1 or without learning in the same way that we learn4 ,they are said to do such things by instinct2 but what instinct really is no one can tell4 ,it is by this instinct that birds build their nests1 and bees their honeycombs1 and beavers their dams and huts4 ,if these things were all contrived and thought out just as men contrive houses1 there would be some changes in the fashions of them1 and some improvements4 ,nearly all that we know about this instinct is that some very nice things are done by it1 without much thinking being mixed up with it4 ,sidenote3 ,hens hatching duck's eggs and sitting on pieces of chalk4 ,this want of thinking sometimes leads to some queer mistakes4 ,if you put a duck's eggs in a hen's nest1 she will sit on them as if they were her own eggs1 and after the ducks are hatched she will take care of them1 not seeming to know that1 they are not chickens4 ,one would suppose that she would know1 because they look so different from chickens1 and have bills so unlike theirs4 ,but she does not seem to think of this4 ,and it is amusing to see her after the ducks get large enough to go into the water4 ,off they run1 and plunge in1 and swim about1 while the old hen stands by the water1 greatly alarmed lest they should be drowned4 ,she does not understand it2 she does not know that ducklings have an instinct different from chickens4 ,so1 too1 if the hen has rounded pieces of chalk put in her nest1 she will sit on them as if they were real eggs4 ,her instinct makes her sit2 but if she had much reason she would not sit on pieces of chalk4 ,if she thought much1 she would find out what they were and quit her nest4 ,sidenote3 ,the building instinct of the beaver4 ,i have mentioned the building instinct of the beavers4 ,an ,english gentleman caught a young one and put him at first in a cage4 ,after a while he let him out in a room where there was a great variety of things4 ,as soon as he was let out he began to exercise his building instinct4 ,he gathered together whatever he could find1 brushes1 baskets1 boots1 clothes1 sticks1 bits of coal1 etc41 and arranged them as if to build a dam4 ,now1 if he had his wits about him1 as we should say1 he would have thought that there was no use in building a dam where there is no water4 ,it is from such mistakes as these that ,i have mentioned that the instinct of animals is said to be blind4 ,it is plain that1 while animals learn about things by their senses as we do1 they do not think nearly as much about what they learn1 and this is one reason that they do not know as much as we do4 ,even the wisest of them1 as the elephant and the dog1 do not think over what they see and hear very much4 ,sidenote3 ,how the minds of animals differ from ours4 ,but this is not all4 ,there are some things that we understand about which animals know nothing4 ,they know nothing about what happened before they were born1 or what happens now in their lifetime away from them in other places4 ,they know nothing about what is to happen4 ,they know nothing about ,god and another world4 ,you can not teach them any thing about any such subjects4 ,the reason is1 that while their minds are like ours in some things1 they are different in other things4 ,you can see this great difference between your minds and the minds of animals in one thing4 ,you never would think of telling a story to a dog or a cat as you would to a child1 for you know that it would not be understood4 ,the minds of animals are so much unlike ours that they do not know the difference between right and wrong4 ,some suppose that a dog will not do certain things because he knows that it is wrong to do them4 ,but this is not so4 ,he is afraid to do what he would be whipped for4 ,if he sees a piece of meat on a table1 he will not take it simply because he knows his master would not like it1 and not because he knows that it is wrong to steal4 ,sidenote3 ,what some wise men are foolish and wicked enough to say4 ,i have told you that the mind uses the brain in thinking4 ,now some learned men have been so foolish as to say that it is the brain itself that does the thinking1 just as if our brains1 and the brains of all animals1 are only so many machines that make thoughts and feelings4 ,of course1 such men do not believe that1 after death1 the mind or soul of man leaves the body and lives separate from it4 ,they believe that when the body dies there is an end to every thing4 ,but ,god has told us differently from this in his word1 and he knows all about such things2 and those that pretend to know that it is not as ,god says it is1 show great wickedness as well as folly4 ,questions4--,what is said about the learning of animals8 ,tell about the shepherd's dog4 ,what is said about the contrivance of animals8 ,why do they have no new fashions8 ,what is said about instinct8 ,tell about the hen's hatching duck's eggs4 ,tell about her sitting on pieces of chalk4 ,what is told about the beaver8 ,what is one reason that animals do not know as much as we do8 ,what things do they know nothing about8 ,do they know the difference between right and wrong8 ,what is said about the notions of some learned men8 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,what ,,sleep ,,is ,,for4 ,sidenote3 ,the machinery of the body needs seasons of rest for repairing4 ,all animals have their times for sleeping4 ,it would not do for their minds to use the machinery of the body all the time2 if they did1 the machinery would soon wear out4 ,the brain1 and nerves1 and muscles1 etc41 are all repaired during sleep1 so that they may be ready for use again4 ,when you feel tired1 it is because your mind has worn the machinery of the body by using it4 ,now1 when you lie down and sleep1 the muscles stop working2 no messages pass through the nerves1 and the brain is at rest1 because the mind pretty much stops thinking4 ,but all this time that you sleep the blood keeps circulating1 and the breathing goes on4 ,what is this for8 ,it is that the repairing of the machinery may be done1 so as to get the brain1 and nerves1 and muscles ready for the work and the play of to-morrow4 ,the repairing1 you know1 is all done with the blood4 ,this is the material for repairing as well as for building1 and therefore it must be circulating every where while you are asleep1 and the breathing must go on to keep the blood in good order4 ,the repairing of the body is going on all the time while you are awake as well as when you are asleep4 ,but it goes on more briskly when the machinery is not in use than when it is4 ,so we may say that when you are asleep the machinery is lying by for a full repair4 ,the same is true of the building of the body4 ,more of it is done when you are asleep than when you are awake4 ,you are growing all the time1 but you grow most when you are asleep4 ,and it is because the child is growing that he needs more sleep than the adult does4 ,the baby is growing very fast1 and so he sleeps a great deal of his time in the day as well as in the night4 ,sidenote3 ,the night the time for sleep4 ,the night is given to us as the time to sleep4 ,then it is dark and still1 and we can go to sleep easily4 ,most animals sleep through the night4 ,you remember that ,i told you1 in ,chapter ,x41 ,part ,first1 how still the garden becomes as evening comes on4 ,the flies1 and bees1 and bugs1 and birds have gone to rest1 to get repaired for the next day2 so1 too1 have the larger animals4 ,but it is curious that some animals are busy in the night1 and take their sleep in the day4 ,it is so with the owl and the bat4 ,the katydid1 you know1 does not begin its noise till evening4 ,i suppose that it sleeps in the daytime4 ,those people that stay up late at night1 and do not get up early in the morning1 make a great mistake4 ,they do not take the right time for sleeping4 ,they ought not to turn night into day1 as bats1 and owls1 and katydids do1 for they are not made for it4 ,sidenote3 ,why merely keeping still will not answer4 ,when you are tired and need sleep1 the trouble is not merely in the muscles4 ,if it was1 then keeping still merely1 without sleeping1 would answer4 ,but the brain and nerves need repairing as well as the muscles4 ,but as long as you are seeing1 and hearing1 and feeling1 the nerves are kept too busy to be repaired well2 and as long as your mind keeps thinking1 the brain does not get thoroughly repaired4 ,so1 then1 merely keeping still will only repair the muscles2 and sleep is needed to repair the brain and the nerves4 ,sidenote3 ,dreaming4 ,you know that when you dream very much you are not as much refreshed as when you sleep soundly4 ,what is the reason8 ,it is because that when you dream the mind is not wholly at rest1 and works the brain1 so that it is not thoroughly repaired4 ,sidenote3 ,the winter sleep of some animals4 ,there is another kind of sleep into which some animals go4 ,it is a very long sleep4 ,it lasts all winter4 ,great numbers of such animals as frogs1 bats1 flies1 and spiders1 go into by-places in the fall to sleep till spring comes4 ,many of the birds do this4 ,it is a deeper sleep than that which animals go into at night4 ,it is a different kind of sleep4 ,in the sleep at night the blood keeps moving1 and the animal breathes2 but in this winter sleep there is no breathing1 and the blood stops circulating4 ,all is as still as death4 ,but there is life there1 just as ,i told you1 in ,part ,first1 there is life in the seed1 and in the trees that look so dead in winter4 ,it is life asleep4 ,the warmth of spring wakes up again the life in these animals1 as it does the life in the trees4 ,the blood then begins to circulate in them1 as the sap does in the trees1 and they come out from their hiding-places4 ,sidenote3 ,the long sleep of a toad4 ,i have said that this sleep which some animals go into lasts through the winter4 ,it may be made to last longer than this4 ,some frogs were once kept in this winter sleep for over three years in an ice-house2 and then1 on being brought out into the warm air1 revived and hopped about as lively as ever4 ,we do not know how much longer they might have been kept in this sleep4 ,you remember that in ,part ,first1 ,chapter ,,xv41 ,i told you about some seeds in which the life was asleep many hundred years4 ,and it may be that the life might be kept asleep in frogs and other animals as long as this by steady cold4 ,a toad was found lately in the middle of a tree fast asleep4 ,how he came there was not known1 but the wood had kept growing year after year1 and as there were #fg rings outside of the toad1 it was clear that he had been there #fg years4 ,a long sleep it was1 but he soon woke up and hopped about like other toads4 ,sidenote3 ,the winter sleep of some animals not perfectly sound4 ,there are some kinds of animals that crawl into winter quarters in whom life is not wholly asleep4 ,the blood moves a little1 and they once in a while take a breath2 and1 besides1 they now and then1 when the weather is quite warm1 wake up enough to eat a little4 ,now it is curious that such animals always lay up something to eat right alongside of them when they go into their winter sleeping-places4 ,but those who do not wake up at all do not lay up any food1 for it would not be used if they did lay it up4 ,they are governed by instinct in this matter4 ,the field-mouse lays up at its side nuts and grain when it goes into its winter quarters1 and when it is partly waked up by a warm day1 eats a little of his store4 ,the bat does not lay up any thing1 although he wakes up when it is warm4 ,he does not need to lay up any thing1 because the warmth that wakes him up wakes up also gnats and insects on which he lives4 ,he catches some of these1 and then1 as he finds himself going to sleep again1 he hangs himself up by his hooks as before4 ,the marmot or woodchuck does not wake up at all1 but he always lays up some dried grass in his hole4 ,what is this for8 ,he feeds on it when he first wakes up in the spring1 to get a little strength before he comes out from his hole4 ,sidenote3 ,how much life is asleep in the winter4 ,how much life1 then1 is asleep in the winter in animals as well as in plants6 ,and how busy is life in its waking in the spring6 ,while the roots and seeds in the ground send up their shoots1 and the sap again circulates in the trees and shrubs1 and the buds swell1 multitudes of animals are crawling out of their winter hiding-places into the warm1 balmy air4 ,and when the leaves are fully out1 and the flowers abound1 the earth swarms with the busy insects1 and birds1 and creeping things1 of which we saw none during the winter4 ,sidenote3 ,flight of birds south in winter4 ,some of the birds that we see in the spring have not been asleep during the cold weather1 but have spent their winter at the ,south1 and have now winged their way back to spend their summer with us4 ,they go back and forth in this way every year1 guided by that wonderful and mysterious thing1 instinct4 ,how this makes them take their flight at the right time1 and in the right direction1 we do not understand4 ,questions4--,why do animals need sleep8 ,why do you feel tired after work1 or play1 or study8 ,why does the blood circulate and the breathing go on in sleep8 ,when is most of the repairing of the body done8 ,how is it with its growth8 ,what is said about night as the time for sleep8 ,mention some animals that sleep in the day and are awake in the night4 ,what is said about people that turn night into day8 ,why would not merely keeping the body still1 without sleeping1 answer for our rest8 ,what is said about dreaming8 ,what is said of the winter sleep of some animals8 ,tell about the frogs and the toad4 ,why do some animals take food into their winter sleeping-places8 ,tell about the field-mouse1 the bat1 and the marmot4 ,what is said about the waking up of life in the spring in animals and in plants8 ,what is said about the birds8 ,,the ,,child',s ,,book ,,of ,,nature4 ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,families ,,and ,,schools4 ,,intended ,,to ,,aid ,,mothers ,,and ,,teachers ,,in ,,training ,,children ,,in ,,the ,,observation ,,of ,,nature4 ,,in ,,three ,,parts4 ,,part ,,iii4--,,air1 ,,water1 ,,heat1 ,,light1 c4 ,,by ,,worthington ,,hooker1 ,m4,d41 ,,author ,,of 8,,first ,,book ,,in ,,chemistry10 8,,chemistry10 8,,natural ,,philosophy10 8,,natural ,,history10 ,,etc4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,,publishers1 ,,franklin ,,square4 #ahhb4 ,by ,dr4 ,,worthington ,,hooker4 ,,the ,,child',s ,,book ,,of ,,nature4 ,for the ,use of ,families and ,schools2 intended to aid ,mothers and ,teachers in training ,children in the ,observation of ,nature4 ,in three ,parts4 ,illustrations4 ,the ,three ,parts complete in one vol41 ,small #dto1 ,cloth1 #a #jj2 ,separately1 ,cloth1 ,part ,i41 #dj cents2 ,parts ,,ii4 and ,,iii41 #dd cents each4 ,,part ,i4 ,,plants4--,,part ,,ii4 ,,animals--,,part ,,iii4 ,,air1 ,,water1 ,,heat1 ,,light1 c4 ,,first ,,book ,,in ,,chemistry4 ,for the ,use of ,schools and ,families4 ,revised ,edition4 ,illustrations4 ,square #dto1 ,cloth1 #dd cents4 ,,natural ,,history4 ,for the ,use of ,schools and ,families4 ,illustrated by nearly #cjj ,engravings4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ij cents4 ,,science ,,for ,,the ,,school ,,and ,,family4 ,,part ,i4 ,,natural ,,philosophy4 ,illustrated by nearly #cjj ,engravings4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ij cents4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,chemistry4 ,revised ,edition4 ,illustrations4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ij cents4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,mineralogy ,,and ,,geology4 ,illustrations4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ij cents4 ,published by ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,franklin ,square1 ,n4 ,y4 ,either of the above volumes will be sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada1 on receipt of the price4 ,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty-seven1 by ,,harper ,,brothers1 in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,southern ,district ,court of ,new ,york4 ,,preface4 ,there is no obvious connection between the subjects now to be considered and those which were presented in ,parts ,first and ,second4 ,but1 after looking at what is of interest in the plants and animals that live in air and water1 it seems appropriate to pass to the examination of the phenomena that air and water themselves furnish to us4 ,and then with these subjects are naturally associated the other subjects contained in this ,part--light1 heat1 electricity1 etc4 ,let me not be understood to say that the subjects treated in this ,part are entirely disconnected from those in the other two ,parts4 ,there are many points of connection1 resulting from the dependence of life upon air1 water1 heat1 etc41 and also from the mechanical principles that are brought into operation in the living machinery of both plants and animals4 ,still1 the connection is not of that obvious and intimate character which we see between the subjects of ,parts ,first and ,second4 ,i have placed these subjects last in the ,child's ,book of ,nature because they are not1 for the most part1 so easily understood as the subjects contained in the other ,parts4 ,the mind of the learner needs the training in observation and reasoning which it has in studying the phenomena of plants and animals to enable it to grasp all of the points which are here presented2 and as in matter1 so in style1 ,i have supposed an advance of mental power in the learner4 ,i have relaxed a little my strictness in simplicity4 ,indeed1 ,i did so in a small degree in the ,second ,part4 ,i have been careful1 however1 not to allow myself too much latitude in this respect1 but have endeavored throughout to make the advance both in style and matter to correspond with the advance of mental capacity in the learner1 and not go beyond it4 ,the subjects of this ,part are those which are commonly ranged under the general term ,natural ,philosophy4 ,they are not presented either formally or fully1 but those points are selected which will interest a young beginner and be intelligible to him4 ,i have made it an object to exclude all that are of a different character1 for it is very important that the young learner should not be discouraged with difficulties and burdened with uninteresting matters at the outset4 ,it will be seen1 however1 that in making the selection alluded to1 ,i have1 after all1 given quite a full view of the fundamental parts of the different subjects4 ,the simple principles which form the basis of ,natural ,philosophy are most of them very fully illustrated4 ,and ,i can not forbear remarking that many older scholars1 who have pursued the study in the more formal manner common in our schools1 might find their ideas rendered more clear and definite by looking at the simple views here presented4 ,i would call the attention of the teacher to one feature in my mode of developing scientific subjects to the young1 which ,i deem to be of great importance4 ,i observe a natural gradation in their development1 beginning with the simplest views1 and leading the learner gradually to those that are more complex and less easily understood4 ,not only is one thing given at a time1 but each thing is put in its right place4 ,i will cite a single example4 ,take what is said about air4 ,first1 the simple and single fact that it is a material thing is illustrated4 ,this is followed by noticing what it does when in motion4 ,then ,i show how1 by its resistance1 birds and insects rise on the wing4 ,next ,i pass to the pressure of the air1 first illustrating1 in a simple way1 the fact of its pressure in all directions1 and then passing to show how its pressure operates in the pump and in the barometer4 ,then come illustrations of its pressure as exhibited in experiments with the air-pump1 the immense pressure which the body sustains from it1 and the manner in which it does this being especially noticed and explained4 ,next follows the elasticity of the air when compressed1 illustrated by the operation of pop-guns1 air-guns1 etc4 ,then is illustrated the pressure of the air in making balloons1 bubbles1 and other light things rise in it4 ,this leads naturally to the consideration of the rising of smoke and the operation of chimneys4 ,and then1 lastly1 in the latter part of the book1 the action of the attraction of gravitation upon the air is noticed1 thus ultimately arriving at the real cause of most of the phenomena of the air's pressure4 ,another feature1 to which ,i will barely allude1 is a frequent reference to analogies4 ,thus1 for example1 in giving the facts about air1 ,i point out the resemblance between flying and swimming1 between the action of compressed air and that of compressed steam1 and of the gases produced by burning powder1 etc4 ,this feature not only adds interest to the various subjects1 but makes the points in hand more clear1 and gives a wider range to the views of the learner4 ,it is the author's intention to follow this with other books calculated to carry forward the scholar in his observation of nature4 ,indeed1 ,i have already published two books1 8,first ,book in ,physiology0 and 8,human ,physiology10 by which the scholar can proceed with the study of the subjects treated of in ,part ,second of this book2 and as soon as ,i can do so1 ,i shall write some books for the purpose of enabling him to go on with the study of the subjects treated of in the other ,parts4 ,the whole together will constitute to some extent a series of books on the sciences1 adapted to the different degrees of advancement in the pupils4 ,it will be observed that in this ,part there are many experiments spoken of4 ,these the teacher should try before the pupils so far as is practicable4 ,i have also made extensive use of common phenomena as illustrations of the points presented4 ,this will tend to form in the scholar the habit of observing what is just around him--the common things1 so much overlooked in education--a habit which is a never-failing source of information and enjoyment4 ,and both teacher and scholar1 if they catch the spirit which ,i have endeavored to infuse into the book1 will from their own observation add to the illustrations that ,i have given1 and thus materially increase the interest of the daily recitations4 ,,worthington ,,hooker4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,air #i ,,ii4 ,,air ,,in ,,motion #ac ,,iii4 ,,flying ,,and ,,swimming #ah ,,iv4 ,,the ,,pressure ,,of ,,the ,,air #be ,v4 ,,pumps #cj ,,vi4 ,,the ,,barometer #cf ,,vii4 ,,the ,,air-,,pump #ci ,,viii4 ,,gases #dd ,,ix4 ,,powder #dh ,x4 ,,pop-,,guns #ec ,,xi4 ,,balloons ,,and ,,bubbles #eg ,,xii4 ,,more ,,about ,,balloons #fc ,,xiii4 ,,heated ,,air #fh ,,xiv4 ,,chimneys #gb ,,xv4 ,,uses ,,of ,,water #gg ,,xvi4 ,,water ,,always ,,trying ,,to ,,be ,,level #ha ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,pressure ,,of ,,water #hg ,,xviii4 ,,attraction ,,in ,,solids ,,and ,,fluids #ib ,,xix4 ,,water ,,in ,,the ,,air #ig ,,xx4 ,,clouds #aja ,,xxi4 ,,snow1 ,,frost1 ,,and ,,ice #aje ,,xxii4 ,,heat ,,and ,,cold #aaj ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,diffusion ,,of ,,heat #aad ,,xxiv4 ,,what ,,heat ,,does #abj ,,xxv4 ,,steam #abe ,,xxvi4 ,,light #acj ,,xxvii4 ,,color #ace ,,xxviii4 ,,more ,,about ,,color #acj ,,xxix4 ,,electricity #add ,,xxx4 ,,more ,,about ,,electricity #aej ,,xxxi4 ,,magnetism #aee ,,xxxii4 ,,gravitation #aei ,,xxxiii4 ,,the ,,motion ,,of ,,the ,,earth #afe ,,xxxiv4 ,,friction #agb ,,xxxv4 ,,conclusion #agf ,,the ,,child',s ,,book ,,of ,,nature4 ,,part ,,iii4--,,air1 ,,water1 ,,heat1 ,,light1 ,,etc4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,air4 ,sidenote3 ,air1 a thing4 ,we speak of a room having no furniture in it as being empty2 but this is not exactly so4 ,there is one thing that it is full of up to its very top4 ,it is a thing that you can not see2 but it is as really a thing as the furniture that you can both see and feel4 ,this thing is air4 ,if you take all your books out of a box in which you keep them1 you think of the box as having nothing in it2 but it is full of air2 and when you shut it up and put it away1 you put away a box full of air4 ,when the books were in it1 it was full of books and air together2 but now it is full of air alone4 ,you see some boys playing foot-ball4 ,what is it that they are kicking about8 ,it is an ,india-rubber ball1 you will say4 ,but is this all8 ,is there not something else besides the ,india-rubber8 ,suppose that you prick a hole in the ball4 ,it is good for nothing now2 but the ,india-rubber is all there4 ,what makes it good for nothing8 ,it is because the air escapes from the hole4 ,the ball is of no use unless you can keep it full of that thing that we call air2 and in playing with it1 you kick about air locked up in the ,india-rubber4 ,sidenote3 ,life-preservers4 ,you have heard of life-preservers1 and perhaps you have seen them4 ,they are ,india-rubber bags that you can fill with air by blowing into them4 ,they are made of such a shape that they can be tied around the body4 ,when used in this way1 a life-preserver will keep one from sinking in water4 ,but why8 ,it is the air in it that does this4 ,the air is as really a thing as the water is1 but it is a lighter thing1 and therefore a thing full of air will float on the water4 ,if you kick a foot-ball into the water1 it will float1 because it is full of that light thing--air4 ,but if you should prick a hole in it1 and press out the air1 and then throw it into the water1 it would sink4 ,so1 too1 the life-preserver would do no good if you tie it around you without blowing it up4 ,it is the air that you blow into it that buoys you up in the water4 ,sidenote3 ,boats4 ,why does a boat float on the water8 ,it is not because the boat itself is lighter than the water is4 ,it is commonly heavier1 because there is so much iron about it4 ,the reason that it floats is that it is full of air4 ,even a boat made entirely of iron will float for the same reason4 ,but if there should be a leak1 so that the boat can be filled with water1 it will sink4 ,so1 too1 it will sink if you put too much weight in it4 ,sidenote3 ,life boats4 ,sidenote3 ,how life-boats are made4 ,you have heard of life-boats4 ,these are made in such a way that they will not sink1 even if they are filled with water4 ,how do you think that they are made to be so much lighter than other boats8 ,it is not because they are built of different materials4 ,they are made of wood1 and are fastened together in every part with iron4 ,sometimes they are made entirely of iron4 ,but they are built in a different way from common boats4 ,they are made double1 and in such a way that there are chambers of air between the two parts4 ,these chambers are air-tight4 ,if they were not they would do no good4 ,if there were any opening into these chambers1 the water would go in and force out the air4 ,the boat would no longer be a life-boat4 ,it would be of no more use than a life-preserver with no air in it1 or with water instead of air4 ,sidenote3 ,we can feel air1 but can not see it4 ,you can not see air1 although it is a thing2 but you can sometimes feel it4 ,you can not feel it while it is still1 as you can such things as a table or water4 ,you can only feel it when it is in motion4 ,when the wind blows upon you1 it is air in motion that you feel4 ,when there is a gust of wind1 as we say1 the air comes against you just as a wave of water does4 ,when you fan yourself1 you make the air strike upon your face1 and you feel it as you feel any thing else that strikes you1 as water or a stick4 ,the air is transparent1 or clear1 like glass2 that is1 it lets the light come through it to your eyes4 ,sometimes glass is not clear1 and you can not see things plainly through it4 ,so1 also1 the air is sometimes not clear1 as when there is dust flying in it1 or when there is a fog4 ,though you can not see air1 you can see what it does when it is in motion4 ,you can see it move the trees and other things4 ,this ,i will tell you about in the next chapter4 ,the air is a thing which is necessary to our life4 ,if it be shut out in any way from our lungs1 great distress is immediately produced2 and if it be shut out only for a few minutes1 death occurs4 ,i have told you in ,part ,,ii41 in the chapter on breathing1 why it is that breathing air is so necessary to life4 ,sidenote3 ,air necessary to life4 ,air is as necessary to the life of plants as it is to the life of animals4 ,in animals the air is used by lungs1 but in plants it is used by the leaves4 ,this ,i have told you about in the chapter on the uses of leaves1 in ,part ,i4 ,sidenote3 ,nothing can burn without air4 ,air is needed for another thing4 ,nothing can burn without air4 ,it is the air that makes wood1 and coal1 and oil1 and gas burn when fire is put to them4 ,the air that is all around the earth does not reach to the sun1 and moon1 and stars4 ,it extends about forty-five miles above the earth4 ,beyond this there is no air4 ,you will want to know how this was found out1 as no one has ever been so far from the earth4 ,i will not explain this to you now1 for you are not old enough to understand it4 ,questions4--,what is a room full of when the furniture is all taken out8 ,tell about the box of books and about the foot-ball4 ,what is said about life-preservers8 ,why does a boat float on the water8 ,how are life-boats made8 ,can you see air8 ,can you feel it when it is still8 ,what is wind8 ,what is said about the transparency of air8 ,what is said about its being necessary to the life of animals8 ,what about its being necessary to the life of plants8 ,what else is air needed for8 ,how high does the air extend8 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,air ,,in ,,motion4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how a ship is moved along by air4 ,the air1 when it is in motion1 does a great deal of work for us4 ,it pushes along the ships in the water4 ,perhaps you think that it hardly sounds right to say that the air pushes the ships2 but it really does push them4 ,the sails are large1 broad handles for the air to press against in pushing the vessels along in the water4 ,on the preceding page is a ship with many sails1 and most of them are unfurled1 or put out for the breeze to press upon4 ,the air would push a vessel along to some extent1 even if there were no sails1 by pressing or blowing against the body of the vessel2 but1 unless the wind blew very strong1 the air would not push it along very fast in this way4 ,and so sails are put up on masts1 that more of the air may get hold1 as we may say1 so as to press on the vessel4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,a coat used as a sail4 ,sometimes the wind helps you along as you are walking4 ,now1 if you take hold of your coat1 and spread it out wide1 as you see this boy is doing1 it will be like a sail1 and the wind will carry you along faster1 because there is more for the air to press upon4 ,so1 too1 if you have an umbrella open when the wind is blowing on your back1 it will be to you as the sail is to the ship4 ,but if you are going against the wind1 the outspread coat and the open umbrella would prevent your getting along fast4 ,sidenote3 ,trees blown by the wind4 ,when a tree is bare1 the wind scarcely moves its branches2 but how it bends when it is full of leaves and the wind blows strongly upon it6 ,it is then like a ship with its sails all unfurled2 there is a great deal for the air to press upon4 ,sidenote3 ,fast-moving air4 ,sometimes we say the wind blows very hard or very strong2 this is when the air moves very fast4 ,the faster it moves1 the more it will do4 ,this is so with other things4 ,when you strike any thing very hard with a stick1 you do it by making the stick move fast4 ,when there is only a gentle breeze1 that you can just feel1 the air is moving very slowly2 it is like the gentle touch with the stick4 ,but when the wind blows so hard that you can scarcely stand up1 the air is moving very fast4 ,sidenote3 ,the bullet4 ,if a bullet is tossed to you1 it will not hurt you to catch it1 because it does not move very fast2 but if a bullet shot from a gun should hit your hand1 it would wound it1 and perhaps go through it4 ,the reason is1 that the bullet moves so fast4 ,the faster it moves1 the more harm it will do4 ,so the air1 when it moves very fast indeed1 is apt1 like the bullet1 to do harm4 ,sidenote3 ,the locomotive4 ,you have seen a locomotive backed up against a train of cars to be hitched on4 ,it does no damage1 because it is backed up slowly4 ,it only gives a little jerk1 you know1 to the whole train4 ,now1 if it moved very fast1 it would1 when it came to the cars1 break them to pieces4 ,it is for the same reason that fast-moving air roots up trees1 blows down houses1 and drives ships on shore1 dashing them against the rocks4 ,sidenote3 ,ship in a storm4 ,when the wind blows hard1 the sailor takes in some of his sails4 ,the vessel would go too fast if he left them all out1 because there would be so much for the air to press on4 ,if the wind blows very hard indeed1 he takes down all the sails1 fastening them very tightly1 so that the wind may not loosen them4 ,even with all the sails down the ship will go quite fast enough1 perhaps even too fast1 pushed along by the wind that strikes right upon it4 ,here is a ship in a storm4 ,you see how the sailors have tied up most of the sails4 ,one of them has been torn from its fastenings by the violence of the wind1 and is in tatters4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how waves are made4 ,the waves that you sometimes see rise so high are made by the striking of the air upon the water2 and the faster the air moves over the water1 the higher they rise4 ,when the air is very still there is scarcely a ripple1 and the water looks like smooth glass2 and you would hardly think1 as you look upon it1 that such a light thing as air is could whip it into such waves as you sometimes see4 ,the waves in the ocean are much higher than they are in a river4 ,this is because the wind blows over so much greater an extent of water in the ocean4 ,sidenote3 ,small and great whirlwinds4 ,you have heard of whirlwinds4 ,in these the air moves in a whirling way instead of straight forward4 ,you sometimes see little whirlwinds in the street2 and as shavings and other light things are whirled about in them1 and are carried up in the air1 you can imagine what damage large whirlwinds can do1 twisting up trees and tearing houses in pieces4 ,as you can not see the air1 and it is a very light thing1 you commonly think of it as being almost nothing1 and yet it does these great things that ,i have mentioned4 ,when we see this light thing raise the waves1 and move the heavy ships along so swiftly1 we see that there is great power in it4 ,questions4--,how does the air make a ship go8 ,what is the need of sails8 ,what is said about the air's helping you along in walking8 ,why does the wind bend a tree so much that is covered with leaves8 ,what is true about the air when the wind blows hard8 ,give the comparison about the stick1 the bullet1 and the locomotive4 ,why does the sailor take down some of his sails when the wind blows hard8 ,what is said about waves8 ,why are they higher in an ocean than in a river8 ,what is said about whirlwinds8 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,flying ,,and ,,swimming4 ,you can jump off from the ground just a little way into the air1 but you can not fly into it1 as the birds do4 ,it is because you have no wings4 ,but how is it that the birds fly with their wings8 ,they push themselves up with them into the air4 ,but perhaps you will say that they do not have any thing to push against1 for there is nothing but air about them4 ,now it is the air itself that they push against4 ,they press down upon the air with their wings1 just as you press with your feet on the ground when you jump up2 and as the bird1 when it gets once started1 keeps working its wings1 it goes up and up1 pushing down against the air each time that its wings are moved4 ,sidenote3 ,how wings raise the birds in the air4 ,sidenote3 ,why they are so large4 ,it is necessary that birds should have very large wings to raise themselves up thus in the air4 ,if their wings were small1 they would do no good1 because they would not press upon enough of the air4 ,you can move your hands in the same way that the bird does its wings1 but you can not raise yourself off from the ground4 ,why8 ,because your hands are so small that they press only upon a little of the air4 ,if your hands were as broad for you as the wings of birds are for them1 and you had the proper muscles to work them1 you could fly4 ,sidenote3 ,flying in water4 ,sidenote3 ,the kite4 ,you can learn to fly1 but it is in the water1 and not in the air1 that you can do it4 ,swimming is really flying in water4 ,the hands and feet do for the swimmer what the wings do for the bird4 ,he presses against the water with his hands and feet in the same way that the bird does against the air with its wings4 ,sometimes you see a bird dive down from a great way up in the air1 in the same way that the swimmer does in the water4 ,when it does this its wings are very still1 and are folded close to its side1 as you see here in the kite2 but when it goes up again it works its wings up and down1 just as the swimmer works his feet and hands when he is rising in the water4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the tail of a fish like a sculling oar4 ,fishes swim chiefly with their tails4 ,the tail is to a fish in the water what wings are to a bird in the air4 ,it acts like a sculling oar in a boat1 as ,i told you in ,part ,second1 ,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,the fins are the balancers1 while the tail works the fish forward by its quick movements to one side and the other4 ,you can see this very plainly if you watch gold-fishes as you see them in a glass vessel4 ,sidenote3 ,why we can not fly in the air with our hands4 ,observe why it is that you can not fly with your hands in the air in the same way that you can swim with them in the water4 ,the water gives way under your hands just as the air does1 but the air gives way much more easily than the water1 because it is so much lighter4 ,as the air gets out of the way so easily1 you can not fly in it unless you have something very broad1 so as to press down on a great deal of it at the same time4 ,to fly1 you must have large wings instead of small hands4 ,you can see what a difference there is between hands and wings by trying a little experiment4 ,move about your hand in the air4 ,you do it with perfect ease1 and the air does not seem to resist the hand at all4 ,now take a large palm-leaf fan and move that about4 ,you can not do this so easily as you moved your hand1 unless you move it edgewise4 ,why is this8 ,because it presses upon so much more air than your hand does1 and the resistance of so much air to the fan you can feel as you push it out of the way4 ,the fan takes hold1 as we may say1 of more air than your hand does1 and so does also the wing of a bird4 ,did you ever think how large wings you would need to fly with8 ,you would have to press upon a great deal of air to carry your body up as the birds do theirs4 ,see how large the wings of a bird are1 as they are stretched out4 ,they are both very long and very broad2 and1 besides1 the bird is not so large as he seems to be4 ,you will see this if all the feathers are stripped from its body4 ,if this be done while the wings are left whole1 it will seem to you that it takes very large wings to raise a very little body4 ,you can see1 then1 that it would require very large wings indeed to carry your body up in the air2 and still larger ones to carry up a man4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,wings of the swift4 ,here is a bird that flies so fast that it is called the swift4 ,its wings1 you see1 are very long4 ,you do not see how broad they are1 because they are not fully spread out in the figure4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,wings of the bat4 ,but there is no animal that has a greater extent of wing than the bat1 unless it be some of the insects4 ,this is the reason why it flies so swiftly4 ,you can see in this figure of the long-eared bat what a large amount of air its wings press upon as it works them4 ,the wings of insects that fly very swiftly are very large in proportion to their bodies4 ,this you can see in the butterfly that flies so nimbly from flower to flower4 ,those that fly rather slowly1 as the bumble-bee1 have not very large wings4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the flying fish4 ,i believe that there is only one kind of fish that can fly in the air4 ,it is represented here4 ,you can see that the fins with which it flies are not nearly so large as the wings of a bird of the same size would be4 ,it therefore can not fly very high or far4 ,the highest that it was ever known to fly is twenty feet1 and usually it skims along only two or three feet above the water4 ,it does not go up into the air in the same way that a bird does4 ,it gets its upward start from the water1 and all that it does with its wing-like fins is to keep itself up1 which it sometimes does for perhaps five or six hundred feet4 ,it takes this flight in the air in fleeing from some large fish1 and in this way often escapes being devoured4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the flying squirrel4 ,that beautiful animal1 the flying squirrel1 which you see here1 has a fold of skin extending from the fore leg to the hind leg on each side4 ,these folds answer somewhat as wings when they are stretched out4 ,very graceful is the movement when the animal takes a long1 flying sweep from one tree to another4 ,but he can not go up in the air as a bird does1 for the folds are not nearly so large as real wings1 and so do not press upon enough air to carry him up4 ,he can only take the sweep that ,i have mentioned4 ,sidenote3 ,shape of the wings of birds4 ,sidenote3 ,how they are used in flying4 ,observe the shape of the wings of birds4 ,they are rather rounded on the upper surface1 and hollowed out underneath4 ,they are shaped in this way to make the flying easy4 ,this ,i will explain to you4 ,when raising the wing1 the air goes easily off from the rounded surface2 but when it is moved downward1 the air can not get away easily from the hollowed surface4 ,the wing gets hold1 as we may say1 of some of the air1 and1 pressing upon it1 raises up the bird4 ,you can see how this is by moving an open umbrella in the air4 ,you can move it very easily if you push the outer rounded surface straight forward against the air4 ,this is because the air moves off from the round surface of the umbrella as easily as it does from the upper surface of the bird's wing4 ,but if you move the umbrella with the inner hollowed surface against the air1 you find it rather hard work4 ,why8 ,it is because the air is caught in the hollow of the umbrella as it is in the hollow of the bird's wing4 ,but this is not all4 ,the bird1 in raising its wing1 does not move it straight upward4 ,it moves it in such a way that it rather cuts the air with its forward edge4 ,it does this to get it up with little resistance from the air4 ,but when it moves it downward1 it wants to get as much resistance from the air as it can1 so it moves it straight down1 and not edgewise4 ,you can see how this works by moving a palm-leaf fan about in the air4 ,move it edgewise1 and it goes very easily4 ,this is like the upward motion of the bird's wing4 ,but move it broadside against the air1 and you feel considerable resistance4 ,that is1 the air resists the pressure of the fan1 just as it resists the pressure of the wing in the downward stroke4 ,sidenote3 ,how the hands are used in swimming4 ,the swimmer manages his hands in the water in the same way that the bird does its wings in the air4 ,when he raises his hands forward1 he does it edgewise2 but when he presses them down1 he moves them flat against the water1 so as to press upon as much water as he can4 ,questions4--,how is it that birds fly8 ,why do they have large wings8 ,why can you not fly8 ,how is swimming like flying8 ,what do fishes swim with8 ,why can not you fly in the air as well as swim in the water8 ,tell about the experiment with the fan4 ,what is said about the size of birds' wings8 ,tell about the bird called the swift4 ,tell about the bat4 ,what is said about the flying fish8 ,what about the flying squirrel8 ,what is said of the shape of wings of birds8 ,give the comparison of the umbrella4 ,tell how the bird moves its wings upward and downward4 ,give the comparison of the fan4 ,give the comparison about swimming4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,pressure ,,of ,,the ,,air4 ,sidenote3 ,air presses in wherever room is made for it4 ,the air is every where4 ,it is always ready to go where there is room made for it4 ,if we move a bureau or any thing out of a room1 the air fills up all the place where it stood4 ,if you make a hole in any thing1 the air at once presses in to fill it up4 ,every crack and crevice is filled with air4 ,you know how much water a sponge will hold4 ,there are a great many little cells or spaces in it that hold the water4 ,now squeeze the water out1 and as the water goes out of these cells1 the air presses into them and fills them up4 ,so1 too1 if you have any liquid in a barrel1 just so fast as you draw it off1 the air goes in to take its place4 ,illustration ,when you pull the handles of a pair of bellows apart1 as represented here1 you make more space in the bellows1 and the air rushes in to fill up this space4 ,it is the same with breathing4 ,when you breathe in1 or draw a breath1 as we say1 the air goes down into your lungs through the windpipe4 ,this is because the chest is made larger as it heaves1 and so there is more room in the lungs2 and the air goes in to fill up this room1 just as it does in the bellows4 ,when the air moves very fast1 it is1 you know1 often very inconvenient1 and sometimes does much harm1 as when houses are blown down1 or when ships are driven upon a rocky shore4 ,but commonly it is very accommodating4 ,it is so easily moved out of the way that we do not think of its being in the way at all4 ,when you are walking1 your body pushes the air one way and the other1 just as a man pushes persons to the one side and the other when he goes through a crowd2 and as the people close up behind him as he moves along1 so the air closes up behind you as you walk through it4 ,now1 if the crowd were facing him1 and should push against him1 he would find it slow and hard work to get through4 ,so1 when the wind blows strongly in your face1 it is hard walking1 and you get along slowly1 because the air presses against you so hard4 ,sidenote3 ,air easily moved out of the way4 ,sidenote3 ,why it is easier to walk in air than in water4 ,the air is pushed out of the way easily because it is so light4 ,this is the reason that it is easier to walk in air than in water4 ,the water1 as you wade in it1 is pushed to the one side and the other1 as the air is when you walk in it2 but it is not done so quickly and easily2 and1 as it is easier to walk with the wind than against it1 so it is easier1 in a running stream1 to wade down stream than up against the current4 ,the air is so light a thing that you hardly think of it as pressing on any thing2 but it does press on every thing4 ,let us see what this pressure does4 ,illustration ,see this glass tube4 ,it is open at the end which is in the vessel of water1 but it is closed at the other end4 ,it is full of water4 ,but water is apt to run down whenever it can get a chance to do it4 ,now what makes it stay up in this tube8 ,it is kept up by the air that presses on the water in the vessel4 ,if you could take away the air from all about the vessel1 the water in the tube would come down into the vessel1 because there would be nothing there to hold it up4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,experiments showing the pressure of the air4 ,there is another way in which the water in the tube can be made to run down into the vessel4 ,let a little hole be made in the top of the tube1 and the air will go into it1 and make the water run down by pressing on it4 ,even if it be only a pin-hole1 the air1 ready to go in every where1 will rush in1 and down the water will all go4 ,now you can not very well make a hole in the top of the tube1 but you can try the experiment in another way1 so as to show what letting the air in will do4 ,the experiment is represented here4 ,you take a glass tube open at both ends4 ,covering one end tight with the palm of your hand1 you fill the tube with water4 ,then carefully put the other end under water1 and hold it as you see here4 ,the water will stay up in the tube as long as you keep the palm of your hand tight over the top of it2 but loosen your hand1 and the air will go in and push down the water into the vessel4 ,you can see1 from what ,i have told you1 why a vent-hole is needed in a barrel from which we draw any liquid4 ,if the barrel be tapped1 the liquid will not run out1 unless the air can get in above so as to press it out4 ,till the vent-hole is made1 the liquid will stay in1 just as the water stays up in the tube in the experiment4 ,when we make the vent-hole1 we do the same to the barrel as we should do to the tube if we should make a little hole in the top of it1 or as you do to the tube in the second experiment when you loosen your hand at the top of it to let the air in4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,experiment showing that the air presses upward as much as downward4 ,this pressure of the air that ,i have told you about is in every direction4 ,it is upward and sideways as well as downward4 ,this may be shown by another experiment with a glass tube1 as represented here4 ,fill the tube with water1 and then place carefully over its open end a smooth slip of paper4 ,you can then turn it over so that the open end shall be downward1 as seen in the figure1 and the water will not run out4 ,what is the reason of this8 ,it is because the pressure of the air on the paper keeps the water in4 ,we can often succeed with this experiment with a wine-glass1 or even a common tumbler1 though we can do it more easily with something that has a smaller opening4 ,sidenote3 ,how bubbles of air rush in among the particles of a liquid4 ,but you will ask1 perhaps1 this question3 ,if it be the pressure of the air that keeps the water from running out1 what need is there of the paper8 ,the paper merely serves to keep the surface of the water smooth and whole4 ,if the paper were not there1 the air would get in between the parts of the water1 and would rush up and force the water out4 ,for the same reason1 if1 instead of the small hole commonly made in tapping1 a large hole be made in the barrel1 the liquid will run out without any vent-hole4 ,in this case1 the air has a chance to work itself in among the parts or particles,a#c of the liquid1 and go in bubbles up into the upper part of the barrel4 ,a mere slip of paper put on the hole would keep the liquid in1 as in the case of the tube or the wine-glass1 and for the same reason4 ,you know that there is a gurgling sound made when a liquid is poured from a jug or a bottle4 ,this is caused by the bubbles of air that pass in while the liquid is coming out4 ,questions4--,what is said about the air's being every where8 ,tell about the sponge and the barrel4 ,how is breathing like using a pair of bellows8 ,what is said about the ease with which air is moved out of the way8 ,give the comparison about going through a crowd4 ,why is the air pushed out of the way so easily8 ,what is said about wading in water8 ,tell about the experiment with the glass tube open at one end4 ,why is a vent-hole needed in a barrel when we want to draw off what is in it8 ,give the comparison to the experiments with the tube4 ,how can you show that the air passes upward and sideways as well as downward8 ,what does the paper do in this experiment8 ,why is there no need of a vent-hole when a large opening is made in a barrel8 ,what makes the gurgling when a liquid is poured from a jug or a bottle8 ,footnote ,a#c3 ,i explain about the particles of water farther on1 in the #afth and #agth chapters4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,pumps4 ,sidenote3 ,explanation of the operation of sucking4 ,you know that you can suck up water or any fluid through a straw or any other tube4 ,now what is it that makes the water go up through the tube into your mouth8 ,i will tell you4 ,when you put the tube into your mouth it is full of air1 and so long as the air is there the water will be kept out2 but when you suck you remove the air from the tube2 and as the air goes out1 the water comes in1 following right on after the air4 ,but what makes the water come in8 ,does it come in of itself because there is room made for it8 ,no4 ,water can not move itself4 ,it must be moved by something else4 ,it is the air pressing on the water in the vessel you are sucking from that pushes it up into the tube4 ,you do not really draw up the water4 ,you get the air out of the way in the tube1 and then the air that is all the time pressing on the water in the vessel pushes it up into your mouth4 ,as soon as you stop sucking1 and take your mouth from the tube1 the water that is in the tube will run down into the vessel1 because it is pressed down by the air that goes in at the top of the tube4 ,you know that you have to suck commonly several times before the water will reach your mouth4 ,if the tube is a very large one1 you suck a great many times to get all the air out of it4 ,at first you suck out a little of the air in the tube1 and the water is pushed up to take its place2 then you suck a little more out1 and more water is pushed up1 and so on till it reaches the top of the tube4 ,here is a boy that has partly filled his tube1 and one more suck would bring the fluid to his mouth4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how pumping is like sucking4 ,you can now see how we pump up water out of a well or cistern4 ,the water is not drawn up1 but it is pushed up just as it is in the tube when you suck4 ,when you work the handle1 you do the same thing for the pump that your mouth does for the tube in sucking any liquid2 and when the pump has not been worked for some time1 you have to move the handle up and down several times before the water comes1 just as you have to suck several times to fill a tube of any length with water4 ,sidenote3 ,the operation of a pump explained4 ,i will show by some figures how a pump operates4 ,in the first figure the hand is raising the handle1 as you know we always do when we begin to pump4 ,the raising of the handle1 you see1 makes the piston1 as it is called1 go down in the pump4 ,here it is going down through air1 for the water has not as yet got up as far as the piston4 ,now1 if this piston were a whole solid piece of wood1 it would do no good1 for it would press the air down before it4 ,but it is not solid4 ,it has a hole through it1 and a sort of clapper or valve on the hole4 ,therefore1 as the piston goes down1 the air pushes up the valve1 and goes up through the hole4 ,you see that this air is shut in between the piston and the water2 and when the piston presses down1 the only way for it to get out of the way is to press upon that little door1 and go up above the piston4 ,illustration ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,explanation of the pump continued4 ,well1 the handle is up4 ,the next thing is to bring it down1 as represented in this picture4 ,as the handle goes down1 the piston goes up1 as you see4 ,you remember that ,i told you that1 as the piston was going down1 as seen in the first figure1 some of the air went up through the hole and got above the piston4 ,now this air can not get down again1 for the moment that the piston begins to move up1 the air1 pressing on the valve1 shuts it down4 ,now1 as the piston goes up1 there is room made below it4 ,how is this room filled8 ,the air that is there1 as you see1 rises up to fill it1 and the water follows the air4 ,illustration ,the next moving of the piston down will carry it below all the air and down into the water2 and the water will go up through the little door1 just as the air has done before it4 ,then the moving of the piston up will carry this water so high as to make it run out of the mouth of the pump1 as seen in this figure4 ,but there is a valve in the pump that ,i have said nothing about as yet4 ,this lower valve operates in this way3 ,as the air or the water goes up in the pump1 the valve is pushed open by it1 as you see in the second figure and in the last one2 but when the piston works down1 as seen in the first figure1 this valve is shut1 so that all the water that gets above it is safe1 and can not go back4 ,what is it that makes the air and the water rise in the pump8 ,all that gets above the piston is lifted up by the piston1 as you see4 ,but what makes that rise which is below the piston8 ,it is the pressure of the air on the water in the well or cistern4 ,this pushes up the water as fast as there is room made for it4 ,if a cistern were full of water1 and were air-tight also1 you could not pump up the water from it4 ,you must have air there to push up the water1 or it will not come up when you make room for it by working the pump4 ,sidenote3 ,how the tongue in sucking acts like the piston of a pump4 ,you see1 then1 that sucking and pumping are very much alike4 ,in the pump the piston makes the room for the air and the water to be pushed up into4 ,now1 when you suck1 there is a piston that operates very much as the piston of a pump does4 ,your tongue is the piston4 ,see how this is4 ,when you suck through a tube held in water1 you move your tongue in such a way as to make a space in the mouth1 and the air in the tube is pushed in to fill up this space2 and when the air is all pushed in1 the water is pushed in after it4 ,both are pushed in1 as ,i have before told you1 by the air pressing on the water in the vessel4 ,it is just as water is pushed up into a squirt-gun when you draw the piston4 ,this piston does in the gun1 when you draw it1 the same thing that your tongue does in your mouth when you move it in sucking4 ,it makes space1 and the water is pushed into the gun1 as it is into the mouth1 to fill up this space4 ,the way in which the space is made in the mouth in sucking is this4 ,before you begin to suck1 the tongue fills the mouth1 so as to be up against its roof2 but when you suck1 you move the tongue down from the roof of the mouth1 and this makes a space there2 and whatever is in the tube1 whether it be air or water1 is pushed in to fill this space4 ,sidenote3 ,the common language about sucking and pumping incorrect4 ,the common language1 then1 which is used about sucking and pumping is not exactly correct4 ,when we suck or pump1 it seems to us as if the liquid was drawn up1 and so we use the word draw in regard to it4 ,so1 too1 we talk about the suction or drawing power4 ,but1 as ,i have showed you1 the liquid is pushed up instead of being drawn4 ,all that the piston in a pump does is to make room4 ,it does not draw the water into that room1 but the pressure of the air forces it in4 ,whenever there is any room made1 the air is always ready either to go in itself or to force something else in4 ,questions4--,explain the operation of sucking up water through a tube4 ,why does the water in the tube run down into the vessel when you stop sucking and take your mouth away8 ,why is it that you commonly have to suck several times before the water reaches your mouth8 ,how is pumping like sucking8 ,what is shown by the first figure8 ,what by the second8 ,what by the third8 ,explain the operation of the lower valve of the pump4 ,what makes the air and the water rise in the pump8 ,why would they not rise if the cistern were full and were air-tight8 ,explain how the tongue acts as a piston in sucking4 ,give the comparison about the squirt-gun4 ,what is said about the language used about sucking and pumping8 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,barometer4 ,water can be raised in a pump only to a certain height1 and the mistake has sometimes been made of getting the pump so long that it would not work4 ,if it be more than about thirty-four feet from the water up to the piston1 the water can not be made to go up so high4 ,what is the reason8 ,it is because the air1 pressing on the surface of the water in the cistern or well1 will raise it only to the height of thirty-four feet4 ,it does not press hard enough to force it up any higher4 ,suppose you had a glass tube over thirty-four feet long1 with one end open1 and used it as represented in the first experiment in ,chapter ,,iv41 on page #bg4 ,the water would be kept up in it only the thirty-four feet4 ,the weight of a column of water of that height just balances the pressure or weight of the air4 ,above that height in the tube there would be a space in which there would not be any thing4 ,sidenote3 ,pressure of the air holds up water in the pump and mercury in the barometer4 ,quicksilver or mercury1 as perhaps you know1 is a fluid like water1 but very much heavier4 ,the pressure of the air1 therefore1 will hold up a column of this not nearly as high as the column of water it holds up4 ,the column of mercury held up in a glass tube is not quite three feet long1 while that of water is thirty-four feet4 ,illustration ,you can now understand how the instrument called a barometer is made4 ,the object of this is to tell how heavy the air is1 for the air is heavier at some times than it is at others4 ,a glass tube1 open at one end1 and about three feet in length1 is taken1 and is filled with the mercury4 ,then the open end is put into a dish of mercury1 as seen in the figure4 ,there will be a space in the tube above the mercury1 as represented1 for the air will support by its pressure a column of only about thirty inches of mercury--six inches less than three feet1 the length of the tube4 ,a scale1 divided into inches1 is added1 as seen in the figure2 and the whole1 neatly inclosed in a case1 makes what we call a barometer4 ,this means a measurer of the pressure or weight of the air4 ,sidenote3 ,barometer on a mountain4 ,if the barometer be carried up a mountain1 the mercury falls4 ,why is this8 ,it is because there is less height of air pressing on the mercury than there is in the valley below1 and of course it will not hold up so long a column of mercury4 ,in the valley1 as ,i have told you in ,chapter ,i41 the air is forty-five miles high2 and if we carry the barometer up a mountain three or four miles high1 it will make a difference of several inches in the height of the mercury in the tube4 ,sidenote3 ,air heavier at some times than at others4 ,i have said that the air is heavier at some times than at others4 ,in a bright1 clear day1 the air is heavy1 and then the mercury rises high1 or1 rather1 is pushed up high in the tube4 ,but when it is cloudy and rainy1 the mercury falls1 for the air is then lighter than usual1 though people often say at such a time how heavy the air is4 ,the truth is that we feel better when the air is clear and heavy1 and so the air seems light to us4 ,on the contrary1 we do not feel so well when it is cloudy and the air is light4 ,sidenote3 ,how the barometer is of use to the sailor4 ,the barometer is of use to the sailor in telling him of threatened storms2 for when a storm is coming the air is light1 and the mercury in the barometer falls of course4 ,the sailor1 therefore1 looks now and then at his barometer1 and if he at any time sees the mercury fall suddenly1 he gets ready for a storm1 for he knows that it may come on very rapidly4 ,dr4 ,arnot says that he was once on board of a vessel where the captain was enabled to save his ship and all on board because he took warning in season from his barometer4 ,the sun had just set1 and1 as the evening was very pleasant1 all on board were enjoying themselves in various ways4 ,but the captain's orders were given to take down sails and prepare for a storm4 ,all were astonished1 for nobody could see any signs of a storm4 ,but the captain had seen the mercury sink down very suddenly in his barometer1 and he knew that trouble was coming1 and probably very soon4 ,he hurried the men1 therefore1 but the storm came before he was quite ready4 ,it was a violent hurricane4 ,but the ship1 though much damaged1 was saved1 and in the morning the wind was still1 and all were rejoicing in their deliverance4 ,probably1 if the captain had not looked at his barometer1 the ship1 with all on board1 would have been lost4 ,questions4--,how high can water be raised in a pump8 ,why can it not be raised higher8 ,tell about the experiment with a long glass tube4 ,how high a column of mercury will the pressure of the air hold up8 ,explain the barometer4 ,explain the falling of the mercury when the barometer is carried up a mountain4 ,how does the barometer show that the air is heavier at some times than it is at others8 ,why does the air seem light to us when it is heavy1 and heavy when it is light8 ,how is the barometer of use to the sailor8 ,tell about the storm as related by ,dr4 ,arnot4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,air-,,pump4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,description of the air-pump4 ,a great many interesting experiments about the pressure of the air can be tried with the air-pump1 which you see represented here4 ,this ,i will describe1 so that you may understand how it works4 ,at a1 a1 are two pump-barrels4 ,in them are two pistons with valves1 such as there are in common pumps1 except that they are made a great deal more nicely4 ,these pistons are worked by the handle1 b4 ,the frame-work1 e e1 that holds the pump-barrels1 is made very strong and firm1 so that the pumps may work true4 ,there is a large plate1 f1 of metal1 made very even and smooth4 ,at c is a large glass vessel1 close at the top1 but open at the bottom4 ,its edge is made very smooth1 so that it may fit well on the smooth plate4 ,in the middle of the plate is a hole4 ,this opens into a passage which leads to the bottom of the two pump-barrels4 ,now you can see how the instrument works4 ,the two pump-barrels work in the same way that a common water-pump does4 ,with them the air is pumped out of the glass vessel by the passage which leads to them from the centre of the plate4 ,by this means most of the air may be pumped out4 ,if we want to let the air in after pumping it out1 we loosen the screw g1 for from the opening here there is a passage that leads to the hole in the centre of the plate4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,experiments4 ,sidenote3 ,india-rubber ball4 ,i will mention only a few of the experiments that may be tried with the air-pump4 ,if you put an ,india-rubber bag1 or a foot-ball1 with but a little air in it1 under the glass jar1 when you begin to pump this will begin to swell1 as represented here2 and if you pump for some time1 it will swell very much4 ,the reason is this4 ,as you take away the air from around the ball1 the air in the ball expands4 ,if you then turn the screw that lets the air into the jar1 the ball will become small again1 because it is pressed upon by the air that is let in4 ,sidenote3 ,bubbles4 ,so1 too1 if some soap-bubbles be put under the jar1 when you pump out the air they will swell2 that is1 the air shut up in the bubbles will expand1 because the pressure of the air around them is lessened4 ,sidenote3 ,shriveled apples4 ,it is amusing to see a shriveled apple under the jar of the air-pump4 ,after pumping a little it will swell out1 and appear like a plump1 fresh apple2 but let in the air again1 and the apple becomes shriveled as before4 ,this is owing to the air that is in the apple1 for there is air in every thing4 ,there is air in our bodies2 and if the air all about us could be lessened very much1 just as it is in the jar of the air-pump1 we should swell up like a puff-ball4 ,it is the pressure of the air all around us that keeps us just of the size we are4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the degree of pressure of the air4 ,the air does more in pressing than you think for4 ,as you move about in it1 it does not seem to press upon you at all2 but it really presses upon you very hard4 ,it presses on you with the weight of about fifteen pounds upon every square inch--that is1 a space of this size4 ,it would take many such spaces to cover over your hand4 ,the air really presses upon your hand1 as you hold it out flat1 with more than the weight of a hundred pounds4 ,you can hardly believe this1 and you will want to know how it is that you do not feel this weight or pressure of the air4 ,i will tell you4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how this is borne4 ,hold out your hand flat in the air4 ,you know that there is air underneath your hand as well as over it4 ,and this air underneath presses up just as much as that above presses down4 ,now this is the reason that you do not feel the pressure4 ,if the air underneath your hand could be taken away1 you would feel the pressure of that which is above4 ,you would not only feel it1 but you could not bear it4 ,this we can prove by the air-pump4 ,take the jar off from the plate1 and then put upon it a small glass vessel1 open at both ends1 such as you see here4 ,place your hand over it tightly as represented1 and then let some one work the pump4 ,your hand will be pressed down into the cup so hard after a little pumping that you will be glad enough to have the pump stopped and the air let in4 ,observe what is done to your hand by the pumping4 ,some of the air is taken away from beneath your hand--that is all2 and1 this being done1 you feel now the pressure of the air above it1 because there is no pressure below to balance it4 ,illustration ,you can show the same in another way with this glass cup4 ,tie a piece of bladder or ,india-rubber over one end of it1 and then place this over the hole in the plate of the air-pump4 ,as you pump out the air1 the ,india-rubber will be pressed down into the cup by the air above1 as represented here4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how the boy's sucker operates4 ,the pressure of the air is very well shown by the sucker1 as it is called1 with which boys sometimes amuse themselves4 ,this sucker is a round piece of leather1 with a string fastened to the middle of it4 ,the leather is moistened1 and then pressed evenly upon the smooth surface of a stone1 and now the stone can be raised1 as you see here1 by the string1 even if it be a pretty large one4 ,but how is it that the leather sticks so fast to the stone8 ,it is by the pressure of the air upon it4 ,when you pull on the string1 you raise the middle of the leather a little from the stone1 and this makes a little space there in which there is no air4 ,but all the leather around by its edge is pressed very tight upon the stone by the air outside2 and it is because no air can get between the leather and the stone that the leather holds on to it so well4 ,if the leather is not pressed down exactly even1 or if there be some unevenness in the stone where the leather is put upon it1 the air will get in between the leather and the stone1 and the sucker will not operate4 ,sidenote3 ,suckers in the feet of flies4 ,sidenote3 ,the sucking-fish and the shark4 ,flies and other insects1 that walk along so well on the ceiling and on smooth glass1 have suckers on their feet1 that work very much in the same way that the boy's sucker does upon the stone4 ,some fishes have suckers by which they can stick to rocks or any thing else4 ,in this case1 it is water that makes the pressure instead of air4 ,here is the drawing of a fish that has a sucker1 or1 rather1 a set of suckers1 on the upper part of its head4 ,with this it can adhere to any thing very firmly4 ,a singular story is told by a traveler about one of these sucking-fishes4 ,he saw a shark attempt to seize it1 but the fish dodged him1 and then fastened itself to the shark's back by its suckers4 ,it so happened that one of the sailors had tied to the fish a stick of wood by a short line4 ,the shark dashed off with this fish thus fastened to him towing the stick of wood astern4 ,he soon stopped1 and1 getting hold of the cord1 jerked the fish off1 and then dove at it as before4 ,the fish dodged him again1 and got hold with its suckers a second time1 and when last seen1 the shark was struggling in vain to get rid of the troublesome fellow4 ,illustration ,questions4--,describe the air-pump1 and tell how it works4 ,tell about the experiment with the ,india-rubber ball1 with the soap-bubbles1 and with the shriveled apple4 ,how much is the pressure of the air on every square inch of your body8 ,how much is it on your whole hand8 ,why do you not feel this pressure8 ,what experiment with the air-pump makes this plain8 ,give the other experiment that shows the same thing in another way4 ,how is the boy's sucker made8 ,explain how it holds on to the stone4 ,how do flies and other insects walk on ceilings and on glass8 ,tell about the sucking-fish4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,gases4 ,sidenote3 ,how the gas that we burn differs from air4 ,i have told you about the air which we breathe1 and which is all around us2 but there are other kinds of air4 ,when we light the gas1 what is it that we set on fire8 ,it is an air1 or gas1 as we call it1 that comes through the pipe to the burner4 ,it is like the air which we breathe in some respects4 ,it is transparent2 that is1 you can see through it as you can through common air4 ,it moves about as easily as air does4 ,but it is different from the air in some things4 ,it is lighter4 ,the air has no smell2 but this gas has a very bad smell1 as you may know when it leaks out of the pipes4 ,air does not burn1 but this gas does2 and it is curious that when it burns the bad smell is all gone4 ,sometimes1 when the gas leaks out of a pipe1 it is very dangerous4 ,if a close room should get very full of it1 and you should go into it with a light1 the gas in the room would all take fire and explode4 ,persons have been killed in this way4 ,it is well that the gas does smell badly1 for this lets us know when it leaks1 so that we may guard against the danger4 ,we should let the gas out by opening doors and windows before we bring a light in4 ,persons have sometimes been killed by the gas in another way4 ,you know that there is in every gas-pipe something that you can turn so as to shut the pipe1 and thus keep the gas from coming out4 ,now persons that do not know how the gas is managed have blown it out instead of shutting it off4 ,when this is done1 the gas continues to come out from the open pipe just as it did when it was burning1 and gradually fills the room2 and if the person in the room goes to sleep1 he will be injured1 and perhaps even killed by breathing the gas4 ,sidenote3 ,gas burning in a common fire4 ,did you ever think what flame is in a common wood or coal fire8 ,it is burning gas4 ,the heat makes the gas out of the wood or coal1 and this takes fire just as the gas does that comes out of the burner when you put a light to it4 ,sometimes you see a little stream of gas blowing out of some part of a stick of wood1 as gas blows out of a burner4 ,it makes quite a noise as it blows4 ,if it is not on fire1 you can set fire to it just as you light the gas from a burner4 ,you see1 then1 that every fire-place1 or grate1 or stove is a gas factory2 but the gas is burned up as fast as it is made4 ,the gas which is made at the gas-works is made in such a way that it is not burned at the time4 ,it is made generally by heating coal1 and is kept in large reservoirs called gasometers4 ,from them pipes branch out in the same way that they do from water-works2 and through these the gas goes all about to different buildings1 as water goes in aqueduct pipes2 and as the water comes out when you open the faucet1 so does the gas when you open the burner4 ,sidenote3 ,gas from burning charcoal4 ,there is one gas that every one ought to know about1 because many persons have been killed by it from want of this knowledge4 ,this gas is made whenever charcoal is burned2 and many deaths have occurred from it by burning charcoal in small furnaces in close rooms4 ,this is often done to warm a room where there is no stove or fire-place4 ,as the charcoal burns slowly1 the gas is made1 and as it is heavier than air1 it spreads1 at first1 all over the floor4 ,it gets higher and higher1 and at length reaches the mouths1 of the persons in the room4 ,if they happen to be asleep1 they are very apt to be killed by breathing the gas2 but if they are awake1 they are conscious of the unpleasant feelings the gas produces1 and either go out into the air1 or make some noise which brings others to their relief4 ,sidenote3 ,gas sometimes in wells4 ,this gas sometimes collects in wells1 and kills men that go down into them4 ,now there is one way by which we can always tell whether this gas is in a well4 ,if there be none there1 we can lower a lighted candle down to the water and it will not go out2 but if there be any of this gas there1 the candle will go out as soon as it reaches it4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,grotto of the ,dogs4 ,there is in ,italy a cave or grotto1 which is called the ,grotto of the ,dogs4 ,the reason that this name was given to it will appear from what ,i will tell you about it4 ,this deadly gas is constantly made there in some way that we do not understand4 ,there is enough of it to reach above a dog's head1 but it never gets up as high as a man's head4 ,while a man1 then1 can breathe in the grotto perfectly well1 a dog can not1 for he is down in the gas4 ,a dog is kept there by some one living close by1 for the purpose of showing the effect on him to visitors4 ,when he is carried into the grotto1 he soon falls down1 and would die if he were left there2 but as they wish to keep him for exhibition to others1 they bring him out1 and though he looks as if he were dead1 dashing some cold water on him and letting him breathe the fresh air soon revive him4 ,sidenote3 ,gas breathed out from the lungs of animals4 ,this gas is constantly breathed out from our lungs4 ,it is the bad air that ,i told you about in ,chapter ,,xx41 ,part ,first1 that leaves take from the lungs of animals1 giving them back good air in return4 ,you see1 then1 how important it is that this gas shall get from us to the leaves1 and that the good gas from the leaves shall come freely into our lungs4 ,but this can not be done unless there is a free circulation of the air4 ,when people are shut up in a close room1 a great deal of this bad gas is made in a little while1 and unless it is let out of the room it does harm4 ,it does not often kill any one at once1 but it injures the health2 and the poisonous effect repeated every day1 though it be but a little1 after a while may destroy life4 ,a few persons are killed quickly by this gas made from burning charcoal2 but a great many are killed slowly by it as it is given out from their lungs1 because they do not take enough pains to let it escape4 ,questions4--,in what things is the gas that we burn like air8 ,in what does it differ from air8 ,what is said about the smell of gas8 ,in what two ways is life sometimes destroyed by gas8 ,what is flame in a common wood or coal fire8 ,tell about the blowing we sometimes see in wood on the fire4 ,what is said about the making of gas8 ,what is said about the gas that comes from burning charcoal8 ,how are people sometimes killed by it8 ,what is said about its being in wells8 ,tell about the ,grotto of the ,dogs4 ,what is said about the lungs giving out this gas8 ,how does it often do harm when given out in this way8 ,which kills the most people1 the gas that comes from burning charcoal or that which comes from people's lungs8 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,powder4 ,powder is a very harmless thing of itself4 ,you can take it into your hand and it will not hurt you2 but touch it with fire1 and it flashes and explodes2 and if there is much of it1 it breaks every thing in pieces all around it4 ,when a magazine or a powder-mill blows up1 there is great destruction of every thing that is near4 ,you know that powder is used in blasting rocks4 ,a hole is drilled and the powder is put in4 ,the blaster lights something which will burn very slowly down to the powder1 so that he may have time to get out of the way4 ,when the powder explodes1 the rock is all broken apart into large and small pieces4 ,sidenote3 ,powder produces its effects by changing into gas4 ,now1 how is it that the powder does all this8 ,it does it by changing all at once into a great quantity of gas4 ,that is all4 ,when you look at some powder1 a heap of black grains1 there is no gas in it2 but the moment that the fire touches it the powder is all gone4 ,but how8 ,has it become nothing8 ,no2 it is changed into something else4 ,the black powder is chiefly gas now4 ,it is not all gas2 if it were1 you could not see it4 ,the smoke that you see is gas1 with something else from the burning powder mixed with it4 ,this gas pushes out every way as soon as it is made1 so that it may get room1 and it does it so quickly that it carries every thing before it4 ,it does the same that the air does when it moves very quickly1 only it moves a great deal more quickly1 and so does a great deal more4 ,sidenote3 ,boy blasting a log4 ,this changing of powder into gas is done very quickly--as quick as a flash1 as we say4 ,i knew a boy that once forgot this in using some powder4 ,he put some powder into a log of wood in order to split it2 but1 instead of fixing a slow match1 as men do in blasting rocks1 he touched off the powder1 intending to get out of the way by running4 ,but the powder was1 of course1 too quick for him4 ,it blew him over1 burning him a little1 and frightening him a great deal4 ,sidenote3 ,bursting of a steam-engine4 ,sometimes water is changed into steam so quickly that it is like the changing of powder into gas in its effects4 ,this is seen in the way that the boiler of a steam-engine is sometimes burst1 as ,i will explain to you4 ,by carelessness1 there is not a proper supply of water in it4 ,the fire will1 of course1 heat the boiler very hot4 ,now see what must be the consequence when more water is let into it4 ,the boiler1 being so very hot1 changes this fresh supply of water all at once into steam1 and you know it takes but little water to make considerable steam1 just as it takes but little powder to make a great deal of gas4 ,all this steam so suddenly made acts precisely like the gas made by burning powder4 ,it must have room1 and as there is not room enough for it in the boiler1 it must get out somewhere4 ,the strong boiler can not hold so much steam in1 and it bursts4 ,but perhaps you will ask1 ,is it nothing but air or gas that throws the ball out of the cannon1 or the bullet out of the gun1 so fast that you can not see it8 ,can such a light1 thin thing as gas drive a ball through even thick beams of wood8 ,yes1 the gas that the powder turns into can do all this4 ,sidenote3 ,how powder sends the ball out of a cannon4 ,now see the reason why the powder and the ball must be put into a cannon to do this4 ,if the powder should be laid upon the ground1 with the ball lying upon it1 and fire should be touched to it1 there would not be much of a sound1 and the ball would not be moved much4 ,why8 ,because the gas that the powder turns into has a chance to escape in every direction2 but when the powder and the ball are put into a cannon1 the gas is all shut in1 so that it can escape but one way1 instead of every way1 as it did when the powder was on the ground4 ,it goes out of the mouth of the cannon1 pushing the ball before it4 ,it does to the ball just what the air does to you when it blows against you and pushes you along4 ,it is a very hard blowing of gas that throws out the ball so fast4 ,the gas is made all at once1 as ,i have before told you1 and it must find room somewhere4 ,there is not room for it in the cannon1 and in going out to find room it throws the ball out4 ,if you should blow a little ball of paper from your mouth1 it would not go far4 ,this is for the same reason that a ball laid upon a heap of powder is not moved much when the powder is exploded4 ,but put the paper ball into a quill1 and blow through it1 and you can send it across a room quite swiftly4 ,the reason is1 that the air which you blow out can escape only through the quill1 just as it is with the gas in the cannon4 ,when the gas comes out of the mouth of the cannon1 it spreads out in all directions1 because it has room now4 ,it is exactly as it is with a crowd of people coming through a door2 as fast as the crowd gets through1 it spreads out4 ,sidenote3 ,how rocks are blasted4 ,observe1 now1 how rocks are rent in pieces in blasting4 ,quite a large hole is drilled into the rock4 ,it is like the space in the barrel of a gun when it is done4 ,this is filled with powder4 ,why1 now1 when the powder explodes1 does not the gas come out of this in the same way that it does out of a cannon or a gun8 ,why1 instead of this1 does it break the rock in pieces8 ,it is because the hole is not large enough for so much gas to come out4 ,if we should put as little powder into it as we do into a gun1 the gas would all come out1 as it does out of a gun1 without breaking the rock at all2 but it is filled quite full of the powder1 and so a great deal of gas is made4 ,if we should put as much powder into a gun1 it would burst like the rock1 because there would not be room enough for the escape of so much gas unless it went out slowly1 and that it will not do4 ,sidenote3 ,how a rocket goes up in the air4 ,sidenote3 ,the going up of a rocket compared to jumping and flying4 ,powder is used in various ways4 ,some kinds of fire-works are made in such a way that the powder does not burn all at once1 as it does in a gun or cannon4 ,you know that when a rocket goes up1 it is not sent up by one blast of the powder1 as a ball is sent out of a gun4 ,the powder is placed in the tail of the rocket1 which is so made that the powder burns all the time that it is going up1 the last of it making an explosion high up in the air1 scattering the sparks which fall in so beautiful a shower4 ,now1 did you ever think just how it is that the rocket is made to go up so swiftly8 ,it is the gas of the burning powder which streams out from its tail all the time that makes it go up4 ,this pushes down against the air1 and it is the resistance of the air to this that raises the rocket4 ,it is just as the resistance of the air to the downward stroke of the bird's wings raises the bird4 ,it is also just as1 in jumping up off the ground1 the resistance of the ground to your feet makes you go up4 ,you press with your feet on the ground1 and so the rocket presses with its gas on the air2 and so long as gas keeps coming out of its tail to press on the air1 the rocket keeps going up4 ,when the gas is exhausted the rocket comes down4 ,illustration ,you have sometimes seen whirling wheels in fire-works4 ,the powder in the wheel is arranged as you see here2 and as it burns1 the resistance of the air to the gas makes the wheel fly around1 for the same reason that it makes the rocket go up into the air4 ,questions4--,what is said about powder when no fire touches it8 ,how is the power of burning powder shown8 ,how are its effects produced8 ,what is the smoke from powder8 ,what is said about the quickness with which powder changes into gas8 ,tell about the boy that split a log of wood with powder4 ,give the comparison about steam4 ,how is it that the gas made by burning powder makes a ball go out of a cannon or gun so swiftly8 ,give the comparison of the quill and the ball of paper4 ,why does the gas from a cannon spread after it gets out8 ,tell what is said about blasting rocks4 ,explain how a rocket is made to go up in the air4 ,what is the comparison about flying and about jumping8 ,what is said about the whirling wheel in fire-works8 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,pop-,,guns4 ,sidenote3 ,operation of the pop-gun explained4 ,every boy and girl has played with a pop-gun1 but did you ever think how it works8 ,i will tell you about this4 ,you know that the cork does not fly out till the rod is pushed a considerable way down into the tube or barrel of the gun1 and then it flies out all at once with a popping noise4 ,what makes it fly out8 ,it is not the rod alone1 for it does not touch the cork4 ,it is the air that is between the rod and the cork that gives it the push that makes it fly out1 and it gives so quick a push as to make the pop4 ,i will explain this to you a little more particularly4 ,when you put the cork into the end of the gun1 the barrel is full of air4 ,now1 if the cork were not in1 as you pushed the rod the air would all go out before it2 but the cork in the end keeps all the air in4 ,as you push the rod1 you crowd the air into a smaller space4 ,if you push the rod half way1 then the same air that filled the whole gun has half the room that it had before you pushed the rod4 ,now1 when air is pressed or crowded in this way1 it tries1 as we may say1 to get away from the pressure4 ,in doing this1 it presses on the cork2 but the cork sticks fast in the mouth of the gun till the pressure is enough to push it out1 and when it gives way it does it all at once1 and so makes the popping sound4 ,it is as if the air gave the cork a sudden kick1 and out it flies4 ,sidenote3 ,explanation of the potato and quill pop-gun4 ,when ,i was a boy1 we had no such nice pop-guns as boys now have4 ,we had to make them ourselves4 ,we would sometimes make the tube or barrel part out of elder1 which1 you know1 has a large pith4 ,we would sometimes take a quill for a barrel4 ,to this we would fit a stick as a rod4 ,we would then punch each end of the quill through a thin slice of raw potato4 ,this would1 of course1 leave a round piece of potato in each end4 ,now1 by pushing the rod quickly through the quill1 the piece of potato in the farther end would fly out with a pop1 in the same way that a cork does from the pop-guns nowadays4 ,you see how this is done4 ,the air which is shut up in the quill between the two pieces of potato is crowded into a small space when the stick is pushed in4 ,it tries to escape from this pressure1 and so presses on the potato at the farther end4 ,this gives way all at once and flies out4 ,but why must we have the potato in both ends8 ,it would not be necessary if the stick could be made to fit the quill exactly2 but it can not1 and so there would be a leaking of air by it if we should have the potato in only one end4 ,the piece of potato in the end where you put in the stick prevents this leaking of air4 ,it makes1 in fact1 a tight piston for the stick to work4 ,it is the springiness of the air that makes the pop-gun work4 ,this you can see by some experiments4 ,fill your pop-gun with water1 and see how different from the air it will act4 ,the moment that you push the rod1 the cork will be pushed out without any popping1 and the water will run out4 ,what is the reason of this8 ,it is because you can not crowd the water1 as you do the air1 into any smaller room4 ,it moves straight along1 and pushes out the cork4 ,sidenote3 ,experiments with the pop-gun4 ,as the water can not be crowded into any smaller space1 it has no spring4 ,but the air can be shrunk up1 as we may say1 by pressure1 and it is ready to swell out again whenever it can have a fair chance to do so2 and the harder you press it1 the greater is this springiness4 ,you can see that this is true by a little experiment that you can try with your pop-gun4 ,press the cork end of the gun firmly against something1 so that the cork can not come out4 ,now push in the rod quickly1 and then let go of it4 ,it will fly back1 because the crowded air1 by a spring1 throws it back4 ,and the harder you push it in1 the more forcibly will it fly back4 ,now1 if you try the same experiment with the water in the gun1 you will find that you can not push the rod unless the gun leaks1 and then the water will come back by the piston4 ,why is this8 ,it is because the water can not be crowded into any smaller space1 as the air can be4 ,if it could be1 the water would do just as well in the pop-gun as air does4 ,you see1 then1 that it is the spring of the air that forces the cork out of the gun2 and the air has this spring because it is pent up and crowded together1 as we may say1 into so small a space4 ,it wants more room1 and pushes to get it4 ,the cork is shot out of the pop-gun in the same way that the ball is shot out from the cannon4 ,the air1 pent up in a little space in the pop-gun1 does the same thing as the gas1 pent up in the cannon1 does4 ,the air wants more room1 and so it kicks out the cork2 and the gas1 so suddenly made out of the powder1 wants more room1 and so it kicks out the ball4 ,the gas has the same springiness that the air has4 ,sidenote3 ,elasticity of the air4 ,it is this springiness of the air1 called its elasticity1 that makes the foot-ball bound so4 ,if the ball were filled with water instead of air1 it would not bound at all1 because the water has no elasticity4 ,sidenote3 ,operation of the air-gun explained4 ,i have told you that the more the air is pressed the greater is its springiness4 ,in what is called the air-gun1 a great deal of air is crowded into a very small space--much more than there is in a pop-gun2 and a bullet can therefore be fired from it with force enough to go through a board4 ,it is done in this way3 ,the pressed air is shut up tight1 and all at once it is let into the barrel of the gun where the bullet is4 ,it throws the bullet out just in the same way that the gas of the powder does in a common gun4 ,this air-gun is only a curiosity4 ,it will never come into use1 for it is quite a tedious operation to load it with pressed air4 ,the common gun1 you know1 is very easily loaded with powder1 and the gas which it turns into does the work even better than the pressed air in the air-gun4 ,questions4--,what makes the cork fly out of the pop-gun8 ,explain just how the pop-gun operates4 ,tell how the quill pop-gun is made4 ,why do we have the potato in both ends of the quill8 ,what is said about the springiness of the air8 ,how would the pop-gun work if it were filled with water8 ,why is this8 ,give the experiment with the pop-gun showing how springy the air is4 ,how is it when you try the same experiment with the gun filled with water8 ,give the comparison between your pop-gun and a cannon4 ,what is said about the foot-ball8 ,tell about the air-gun4 ,why is this not in common use8 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,balloons ,,and ,,bubbles4 ,sidenote3 ,what makes the balloon go up8 ,what is it that makes a balloon go up in the air8 ,it is because it is so light1 you will say2 but what it is made of is not as light as air is4 ,it will not1 you know1 fly off into the air before it is filled4 ,it is what it is filled with1 then1 that makes it so light4 ,sidenote3 ,its car4 ,the balloon is filled with a gas that is much lighter than the air is around it4 ,this makes it so light that it flies up in the air very rapidly1 and to a great height2 and if the balloon is very large1 it can carry up a person1 or even two or three persons1 in a sort of car or boat attached to it1 as represented on the following page4 ,the car is attached to the balloon in this way3 ,a netting covers the balloon1 and the cords that hold the car are fastened to this netting4 ,it would not do1 you know1 to fasten them to the balloon itself1 for that is made of such light material that the cords would tear out with the slightest pull upon them4 ,sidenote3 ,how the balloon is made to come down4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how the balloon is prevented from going down too fast4 ,sidenote3 ,the parachute4 ,how do you think the person in this car manages when he wants to come down8 ,so long as all the light gas remains in the balloon1 it will stay up in the air4 ,so1 when he wants to come down1 he lets out some of this gas4 ,he does this very carefully2 for1 if he lets out too much1 he will go down too fast4 ,sometimes he will go down too fast in spite of all his care4 ,he is prepared for this1 however1 in two ways4 ,there are sand-bags in the car1 which he can throw out when the balloon is falling too fast4 ,this makes the car so much lighter that it commonly relieves the difficulty2 but if it does not1 he can use the parachute4 ,this is a sort of umbrella1 made very large and very strong4 ,it is represented here both as shut and as opened4 ,you can see how the resistance of the air against this when open would make him go down much slower than he would go without his parachute4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the danger of going up in balloons4 ,sidenote3 ,a great escape4 ,illustration ,balloons are sometimes used in warfare1 to observe battle-fields1 or send messages to and from besieged cities4 ,they were so used in our own war and at the recent siege of ,paris4 ,they will probably never come into use in traveling2 for1 besides the expense and danger1 a balloon will always go with the wind1 and you never can tell just how the wind blows very high up in the air4 ,it may blow there in a direction wholly different from what it does below1 close to the earth4 ,an ,englishman1 ,major ,money1 went up in a balloon1 with the wind blowing from the sea2 and he supposed that he should be carried far into the country1 and come down safely upon dry land4 ,all was right till he had got up about a mile4 ,then suddenly the balloon changed its course1 and went out toward the sea4 ,this was because the wind up there blew in a direction just opposite to that of the wind below4 ,this wind took him far out to sea1 and when he came down he was nine miles from the land4 ,he came near being drowned4 ,he held on to the cords of his balloon1 as you see here1 for some time4 ,after a while1 a vessel came to his relief1 and took him on board4 ,as such dangers attend going up in balloons1 it is wrong for any one to do it4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the hot-air balloon4 ,you can fill a balloon with common air so as to make it fly up like the gas balloon2 but the air must be heated to do this4 ,a boy can make such a balloon very easily out of thin paper4 ,he pastes the paper together so as to shape it like a balloon1 leaving one end open4 ,it can be filled with hot air by holding it over something burning1 with its open end down4 ,it is sometimes done in another way4 ,a sponge wet in turpentine or alcohol is fixed under the opening of the balloon by a little frame-work1 as represented here2 and if the balloon goes up with the sponge still burning1 it will stay up longer than it will if the sponge goes out before it is let off1 because the air will keep heated longer4 ,it is because heated air is so much lighter than the air around it that a balloon filled in this way goes up2 but such a balloon comes down soon4 ,it will not keep up so long as a gas balloon will4 ,why is this8 ,it is because the heated air in the balloon becomes cooled1 and then it is no longer lighter than the air around it4 ,the balloon itself is heavier than air1 and it goes up and stays up only when it is full of something which is lighter than air4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how soap-bubbles are like balloons4 ,children often make balloons in another way4 ,they make them of soap and water1 as you see here2 for the soap-bubble that flies up in the air is really a balloon2 and how beautiful a one it is6 ,how thin and delicate is the covering of this ball of air6 ,it is a sheet of nothing but soap and water1 and a touch breaks it2 but it answers the purpose4 ,it holds the air1 and away it flies4 ,now what is the reason that the bubble flies up a little way and then comes down8 ,it flies up because the air in it is slightly heated1 and so is lighter than the air around it4 ,it is heated or warmed air1 because it comes from the warm lungs of the person that blows the bubble4 ,but it soon becomes cool1 and then the bubble comes down1 just as the balloon filled with hot air does when the air in it becomes cool4 ,sidenote3 ,some things about bubbles that are not commonly thought of4 ,there are some things to be noticed about this ballooning with soap and water4 ,the water must be warm1 or your little balloons will not go up4 ,why is this8 ,if the water is cold1 it will cool the air that comes from your warm lungs1 and so your soap and water balloon will be filled with cold air instead of warm air4 ,it will therefore drop to the floor when you expect to see it go up4 ,so1 too1 the bubbles will not go up so easily and so high in a warm room as they will in cold air4 ,the greater the difference is in warmth between the air in the bubble and that around it1 the better it will go up4 ,the reason of this is plain4 ,the cooler the air is1 the heavier it is2 and the warmer the air inside of the bubble1 the lighter is the bubble2 and the very light bubble goes up quickly in the heavy cold air for the same reason that any light thing1 like cork1 rises very quickly in water4 ,why it is that light things go up in the air and the water ,i shall explain in the next chapter4 ,questions4--,what is it in a balloon that makes it so light8 ,how is the car attached to the balloon8 ,how does the person in the car manage when he wants to come down8 ,what does he do if he is coming down too fast8 ,what is a parachute1 and of what use is it8 ,why will balloons never be used for traveling8 ,tell about the ,englishman4 ,tell about the air balloon4 ,why will not this stay up as long as the gas balloon8 ,how do children often make balloons8 ,why does the soap-bubble go up a little way and then come down8 ,why is it that the bubbles do not go up if you use cold water8 ,why will they go up better in the cold air than they will in a warm room8 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,more ,,about ,,balloons4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,a curious balloon that would not answer4 ,here is a balloon which was contrived in #afgj1 two hundred years ago1 by a man whose name was ,lana4 ,you would suppose1 from the picture of it1 that it would go very well with its large sail for the wind to blow it along4 ,there are1 you see1 four large balls4 ,these1 made of copper1 were hollow4 ,the air was to be pumped out of them1 so that they might be very light4 ,now with this balloon ,lana did not expect to go up very high1 but to travel along considerably above all the houses and hills1 just in the direction in which the wind would carry him by his sail4 ,but his plan1 though it looks well1 as you see1 on paper1 failed4 ,the reason was this4 ,if the balls were made quite thin1 the air outside would burst them in as soon as the air in them was pumped out2 and if they were made thick enough to prevent this1 they were so heavy that the balloon would not go up4 ,from what ,i have told you in the chapter on the air-pump1 you will understand why the balls1 when made thin1 were burst in by the outside air4 ,the first successful attempt at ballooning was made by ,montgolfier1 a ,frenchman1 in #aghc4 ,his invention was that of the hot-air balloon1 or fire balloon1 as it is often called4 ,an improvement on this is to fill the balloon with a light gas instead of hot air4 ,it is in this kind of balloon that persons go up1 though some have gone up in the hot-air balloon4 ,i have not yet told you the real cause of the rising of the balloon in the air4 ,why1 you will say1 it is because it is so light1 and light things always rise4 ,but what makes light things rise8 ,that is the question4 ,light things do not go up of themselves4 ,the birds and the insects1 as ,i have told you in ,part ,,ii41 make themselves go up by working their wings with their muscles4 ,but light things that have no life can not rise of themselves4 ,they are pushed up4 ,and when any light thing has got up as high as it can go1 it stops merely because it can not be pushed any higher4 ,sidenote3 ,balloons and other light things do not really go up1 but are pushed up4 ,but how are balloons and other light things pushed up8 ,this ,i will now explain to you4 ,the air around the balloon is heavier than the balloon itself1 which is filled with a light gas1 or with air that is light because it is heated2 and so the air is trying all the time1 as we may say1 to get below the balloon4 ,in doing this1 it pushes up the balloon2 and the balloon continues to be pressed upward till it comes to air that is as light as the balloon is4 ,if it be a gas balloon1 it will remain there till some of the gas is let out2 and if it be a hot-air balloon1 it will stay there till the heated air begins to cool4 ,sidenote3 ,every thing gets as low as it can4 ,now1 when the balloon goes down1 it is because it has become heavier than the air around it4 ,it goes down because it tries1 as we may say1 to get underneath the lighter air4 ,in going up1 the air pushed it up2 but now the balloon pushes the air up4 ,the balloon presses the air that is below it out of the way so as to get under it4 ,this is what it keeps doing all the way as it comes down4 ,sidenote3 ,experiment with a phial4 ,i can make this clear by a comparison4 ,take a long phial4 ,before you put any thing into it1 you know it is filled with air4 ,pour some oil into it4 ,the oil is in the bottom of the phial1 and the air is above the oil4 ,the reason is that the oil1 being heavier than the air1 has gone down through it1 and has pushed the air up from the bottom of the phial and taken its place there4 ,it has done to the air in the phial what the falling balloon does to the air below it4 ,now pour a little water in4 ,this will do to the oil as the oil did to the air4 ,it will go down to the bottom1 pushing the oil up above it2 for water1 you know1 is heavier than oil4 ,if you pour now some quicksilver into the phial1 this heavy fluid will go down and push the water up above it4 ,you see1 in this experiment1 that what is heaviest always goes to the lowest place1 and so pushes up out of the way what is lighter4 ,the oil pushed up the air2 then the water pushed up the oil2 and then1 again1 the quicksilver pushed up the water4 ,and now you have all the four things in the phial in their order4 ,the heaviest1 the quicksilver1 is at the bottom1 and next is the water1 and next the oil1 and the lightest1 the air1 is at the top4 ,sidenote3 ,another experiment with the phial4 ,if you cork the phial and shake it well1 you mix quicksilver1 water1 oil1 and air all together4 ,then1 if you let it stand1 you see a good deal of confusion among them as they push to get their places4 ,in getting right again1 each pushes up above it what is lighter than itself4 ,the struggle1 as we may say1 is to get the lowest place4 ,every thing1 no matter how light it is1 stays down as low as it can till it is pushed up4 ,sidenote3 ,experiment with a heavy gas4 ,now what you see with these different things in a phial is true of different kinds of air1 or gases4 ,a heavy gas takes the lowest place1 while a lighter one goes up1 or1 rather1 is pushed up4 ,you remember that ,i told you1 in ,chapter ,,viii41 about a gas that is sometimes in the bottom of wells1 just above the water4 ,this gas is heavier than air1 and so it stays at the bottom of the well1 below the air1 as the oil in the phial lay between the lighter air above and the heavier water below4 ,if it were lighter than air1 as the gas is with which balloons are filled1 the air would go down to the bottom of the well and push up this gas1 for the same reason that the oil in the phial pushed up the air1 and the water pushed up the oil1 and the quicksilver pushed up the water4 ,this gas can be poured out of a vessel very much as you would pour water out of it4 ,a pretty experiment with it is to pour it out upon a lighted candle4 ,it will flow down upon the flame and put it out4 ,in doing this1 it pushes up the air that is around the candle4 ,now you can see how the balloon is pushed up into the air4 ,if a gas is set loose that is lighter than air1 it will be pushed up in the air in the same way that1 in the phial1 air is pushed up by the oil1 or the oil by the water2 and so the balloon1 filled with the light gas1 is pushed up by the air4 ,it makes no difference whether the gas is loose or is in a light silk bag2 in either case it will be pushed up4 ,if loose1 it will be scattered about as it is pushed up2 if in the bag or balloon1 it will be kept together4 ,sidenote3 ,comparison of the cork and the balloon4 ,a cork rises in water for the same reason that a balloon rises in air4 ,the balloon is pushed up by the air around it because it is lighter than the air1 and so the cork is pushed up by the water because it is lighter than the water4 ,as you hold the cork under water1 your hand does to it what the fastenings do to the balloon3 it keeps it from being pushed up4 ,and when the fastenings of the balloon are let go1 away it flies in the air1 as the cork flies up in the water when you let go of it4 ,when the cork gets to the surface of the water1 it stops4 ,it will not go up in the air simply because it is heavier than air4 ,but if you put a bag full of light gas in the water and let it go1 it will not stop1 like the cork1 when it gets to the surface1 but will keep on going up because it is lighter than air1 and so the air pushes it up just as the water did4 ,questions4--,do light things1 like balloons1 rise in the air of themselves8 ,tell about ,lana's balloon4 ,why did it not succeed8 ,who invented the hot-air balloon8 ,how many years ago was it8 ,what kind of balloon is used for going up into the air8 ,what makes it rise8 ,how is it that the air pushes up a balloon8 ,what makes the balloon go down8 ,what does it do to the air in going down8 ,tell about the experiment with a long phial8 ,how is it if you shake the phial well8 ,what is said about gases8 ,tell about the gas which is sometimes in wells4 ,tell about the experiment with a candle4 ,what becomes of a gas that is lighter than air when it is set free8 ,does it make any difference whether it is loose or is in a silk bag8 ,give the comparison of the balloon and the cork4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,heated ,,air4 ,balloons are sometimes1 as ,i have told you1 filled with heated air4 ,this heated air is lighter than the cool air around it1 and so the balloon rises1 or1 rather1 is pushed up4 ,now observe why the heated air is lighter than the cool air4 ,it is because the heat swells the air1 or expands it1 as it is commonly expressed4 ,the heat1 in expanding it1 makes it thinner1 and of course it is lighter4 ,sidenote3 ,experiment with a bladder4 ,you can see by a little experiment that heat swells or expands air4 ,lay a bladder1 partly filled with air1 before the fire4 ,the heat will fill out the bladder1 making it plump and hard1 for it will expand the air that is in it2 and if the bladder is already filled with air before you lay it down on the hearth1 the swelling air will burst the bladder4 ,sidenote3 ,roasting apples4 ,you remember that ,i told you about putting an apple under the jar of an air-pump4 ,if the apple is shriveled1 the moment that you begin to pump the air from around it the apple begins to swell out1 because the air in it swells or expands4 ,in this experiment the air in the apple expands because the pressure of the air around it is lessened by its becoming thinner4 ,now the air in the apple can be made to expand in another way--by applying heat4 ,if you observe an apple put down to the fire for roasting1 you see that it swells4 ,if it happens to be rather wilted1 the swelling of it will be very manifest2 it will become as plump as it would in the air-pump when the air is pumped out4 ,this is because the air in it is expanded by the heat4 ,and when it sputters1 it is the expanded air that throws out some of the juice through the broken skin4 ,sidenote3 ,popping of roasting chestnuts4 ,sidenote3 ,why pricking them prevents it4 ,you know that1 if you roast chestnuts1 they pop open with quite a noise1 and sometimes fly half across the room4 ,this is owing to the expansion of the air in the chestnut by the heat4 ,this air is shut up in the tight skin of the chestnut2 and when it is considerably swelled by the heat1 it makes the skin give way all at once1 and so produces the popping noise4 ,this is because of the springiness or elasticity of the air4 ,that ,i have explained before4 ,if you prick a hole in the skin of the chestnut before you put it down to the fire1 there will be no popping1 for the air will gradually escape from this hole as fast as it is expanded4 ,this hole is to the chestnut what the safety-valve is to a steam-engine4 ,the engine will not burst while the steam can go out by the valve1 and so the chestnut1 with a hole for the air to get out1 does not burst4 ,in the case of both the apple and the chestnut1 there is steam mixed with the air4 ,the steam comes from the moisture in the apple and the chestnut1 and this has the same springiness that air has1 and so helps to produce the effect4 ,i shall tell you about steam in another chapter4 ,heated air always rises1 for the same reason that a light gas rises4 ,it is pushed up by the cold air1 which is heavier4 ,in warming a room1 the cold air is constantly pushing the warmed air up1 and the air is always warmer in the upper part of the room than it is near the floor4 ,so1 also1 it is warmer in the galleries of a church than it is in the body of the house1 as you perhaps have sometimes noticed4 ,sidenote3 ,paper wind-mills on a stove-pipe4 ,sidenote3 ,the toy wood-sawyer4 ,around a stove-pipe1 the motion of the heated air as it goes up is very manifest4 ,light things are often seen flying up in the current of the air about the pipe4 ,sometimes1 for amusement1 little paper wind-mills are fastened to a stove-pipe1 the heated air whirling them around as it strikes them in going up4 ,i have seen a very curious toy1 in which a wood-sawyer is made to work by the whirling of a little paper wind-mill4 ,whenever there is a strong current of hot air1 the wind-mill turns quite rapidly1 and this sets the sawyer to working his paper saw most furiously4 ,the little figure goes through the motions of sawing very perfectly4 ,it has sawed into the middle of the log1 but never gets any farther4 ,the stream or current of air about a stove-pipe is made by the cooler air1 which pushes up that which is warm4 ,as fast as the air is heated by the pipe1 cooler air takes its place by pushing it up out of the way2 and then this air1 coming thus near the pipe1 gets heated1 and is pushed up in its turn by some more air4 ,as this is constantly going on1 there is a constant upward current of air2 and the hotter the pipe is1 the more rapid is the current1 because it heats the air so quickly and so much4 ,sidenote3 ,why heated air goes up4 ,you know1 in a house heated by a furnace1 how the heated air comes up from the registers4 ,this air is pushed up4 ,as soon as the air around the furnace is heated1 cool air comes in to push it up out of the way1 and then this cool air is heated and is pushed up by more cool air1 and so on4 ,the heated air escapes from the pressure of the cool air by going up in the large tin pipes4 ,the cool air is always driving the warm up1 just as it is with the air about a stove-pipe4 ,sidenote3 ,why a great fire makes the wind rise4 ,whenever a great fire occurs1 after it has continued some time1 the wind rises1 as it is expressed2 though perhaps it blew very gently at first1 now it blows very hard4 ,what is the reason of this8 ,it is because the air just about the fire becomes much heated1 and therefore very light4 ,the cold air all around rushes therefore toward the fire1 just as it does toward a stove or a fire-place in a room1 and pushes the light heated air up4 ,in doing this it becomes itself heated1 and is pushed up by other cold air1 and so on4 ,in this way the air all around the fire is set in motion toward it1 and the hotter the fire the more brisk is this motion--that is1 the harder does the wind blow4 ,i shall tell you something about the way in which heat makes winds in another chapter4 ,questions4--,why is heated air lighter than cool air8 ,what experiment shows that heat expands air8 ,tell about the shriveled apple4 ,why do chestnuts often pop open when they are roasted8 ,how can you prevent their popping8 ,give the comparison of the safety-valve4 ,in warming a room1 what is done to the heated air8 ,what is said about the galleries of a church8 ,what is said about the air around a stove-pipe8 ,tell about the paper wind-mills and the wood-sawyer4 ,how is the current of air about a stove-pipe made8 ,what makes the hot air come up from the registers of a furnace8 ,why does the wind rise in a great fire8 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,chimneys4 ,sidenote3 ,smoke is not drawn up a chimney1 but is pushed up4 ,you hear people sometimes say of a chimney that it draws well1 as if the smoke were in some way drawn up the chimney4 ,this is not so4 ,it is pushed up4 ,smoke is mostly heated air and gas4 ,what you see in the smoke is something from the wood that is carried up in the heated air1 in the same way that down or any light thing is carried up by the heated air around a stove-pipe4 ,it is this part of the smoke which you can see that makes the soot4 ,the heated air is pushed up the chimney by the cooler air in the room4 ,it is done in this way3 ,the air close to the fire is heated2 the air next to it presses it up1 and then gets heated itself1 and is pressed up by some more air that comes in its turn to be heated1 and so on4 ,in this way there is a constant stream of air up the chimney1 just as there is around a stove-pipe4 ,the air in a room where there is a fire is ever pushing toward the fire2 and air is coming into the room1 too1 in every way that it can get in1 to take the place of that which goes up the chimney4 ,it comes through the door when it is opened1 and through every crack and crevice4 ,if you hold a light near the fire-place1 the flame will bend toward it1 because the air is pressing that way4 ,if you hold it near a crack1 the air that is coming in will blow it toward you4 ,sidenote3 ,a lady in trouble from a smoking fire-place4 ,if there are two rooms connected by folding-doors1 with a fire-place in each1 when a fire is made in one alone1 cold air will come down the other chimney2 for1 as the air in the room1 as ,i have told you1 is all moving toward the fire1 the cold air comes in wherever it can get in to take its place4 ,a lady of my acquaintance was once in great trouble because she did not understand this4 ,her house was filled with smoke4 ,it happened in this way4 ,there were two rooms connected by folding-doors4 ,a fire had been built in one fire-place1 and1 after this was well agoing1 a fire was built in the other2 but the moment this second fire was lighted1 the smoke puffed out into the room4 ,how was this8 ,it was pushed out by the cold air coming down the chimney4 ,the lady sent for a neighbor who understood about such things1 and he relieved her of the trouble at once4 ,he shut the folding-doors1 and opened a window in the room where the fire-place smoked1 and now the smoke went directly up the chimney4 ,after the fire had been burning for a little time1 and had warmed the chimney1 the folding-doors were opened1 and both fires burned well4 ,the reason of all this1 ,i suppose1 is plain to you4 ,while the folding-doors were open1 there was a movement of the air in both rooms toward the fire first kindled1 and so the cold air came down the chimney where there was no fire4 ,when the fire1 therefore1 was kindled in the second fire-place1 this cold air1 coming down1 blew the smoke out1 and would not let it go up to warm the chimney4 ,but when the doors were closed between the rooms1 there was a stop put to all this4 ,the movement of the air toward the fire first made was now confined to that one room4 ,there could no air come from the other room now4 ,and then opening the window let in cold air that pushed the smoke up the chimney of this room at once4 ,sidenote3 ,why opening a door stops the smoking of a fire-place4 ,you can now understand why it is that we open a door or window to stop the smoking of a fire-place4 ,it is because we want the help of some more cold air to push the smoke up4 ,in some fire-places we can never make a fire without its smoking1 unless we have a door or a window open a little while at first4 ,the reason that the fire is not apt to smoke after it has been going some time is that the chimney has become well heated1 and so makes the air very thin and light as it goes up2 and the lighter the air is1 you know1 the more easily it is pushed up1 just as you can raise a bag of feathers more easily than you can raise a block of wood4 ,sidenote3 ,experiments with a light4 ,one thing more ,i must tell you about the cold air coming into a room where there is a fire4 ,suppose that you open a door into a cold entry4 ,now1 if you hold a light near the floor by the open door1 the flame will be blown inward2 but if you hold it up at the top of the door1 it will be blown outward toward the entry4 ,why is this8 ,it is because the cold air of the entry comes in at the lower part of the opening1 while some of the warm air of the room goes out at the upper part to take the place of the cold air that comes in4 ,the warm air is above the cold air1 because it is lighter4 ,it is the cold air coming in that blows the light when you hold it low down1 and it is the warm air going out that blows it when you hold it up high4 ,the warm air that goes out is less in quantity than the cold air that comes in4 ,the reason is that there is cold air coming into the entry all the time from outdoors1 by every crevice and hole1 and this1 in part1 supplies the place of the air that goes in from the entry to the room4 ,the flame1 therefore1 is not blown as strongly when you hold the light above as when you hold it below4 ,i told you in ,chapter ,i4 that nothing will burn without air4 ,the air that presses toward a fire feeds it1 as it is expressed4 ,it does not all go up the chimney as heated air4 ,some of it is used in the burning of the wood and coal2 and what goes up the chimney is1 as ,i have told you in the first part of this chapter1 partly heated air and partly gas4 ,sidenote3 ,a free supply of air necessary to make a fire burn well4 ,sidenote3 ,anecdote4 ,now a fire will not burn well unless it has a free supply of air4 ,fresh air must keep coming to it to feed it4 ,but this can not be unless there is a good upward current from the fire4 ,firemen very well understand this in putting out fires4 ,if the fire be inside of a building1 the more shut up it can be kept the less rapidly will the fire spread1 and the more easily can it be put out4 ,if all the doors should be opened1 and the windows broken out1 the fire would rage1 because the air would come in freely at the doors and lower windows1 and go out freely at the upper windows4 ,the fire would then have the same upward current that it has in a chimney4 ,i will relate to you an anecdote1 which will show how much can be saved by understanding such things4 ,a fire was discovered early one morning by a flickering light shining through the windows in the upper room of a shop4 ,an acquaintance of mine was among the first to get there1 and he found a man about to beat the door in with an axe1 so as to get at the fire4 ,he kept him from doing this1 and would not let him touch the door till they had got a good supply of water on hand4 ,after he was satisfied that there was enough water to put out the fire1 he then let the man use the axe1 and they rushed up and easily put out the fire4 ,if he had let him break open the door at first1 it would have let in the air to feed the fire1 and the fire would have got well agoing before the water was brought2 and1 as it was in a block of wooden buildings1 we should have1 had a great fire4 ,sidenote3 ,tall chimneys of factories4 ,sidenote3 ,lamp chimneys4 ,the brisker the upward current of a fire is1 the more briskly does the fire burn4 ,this is the reason that foundries and other factories1 where they want a very hot fire1 have such tall chimneys4 ,the air and gas in such a chimney are kept hot for some time1 instead of being cooled by spreading out in the open air4 ,the current1 therefore1 up the chimney is very rapid1 and so fresh air comes rapidly to the fire1 and makes it burn very briskly4 ,for the same reason1 a very brilliant light is given by those lamps that have tall glass chimneys4 ,the wick is thus made to burn briskly4 ,questions4--,why does smoke go up a chimney8 ,what is smoke8 ,what is there in smoke that you can see8 ,what is soot8 ,tell how it is that the smoke is pushed up the chimney4 ,what is said about the air in a room where there is a fire8 ,what will happen to a light if you hold it near the fire-place8 ,what if you hold it near a crack in the wall of the room8 ,tell about the rooms with folding-doors between them4 ,why do we open a door or a window to stop the smoking of a fire-place8 ,why is a fire-place not apt to smoke when the fire has been going for some time8 ,tell about holding a light at the lower part and at the upper part of a door that opens out into a cold entry4 ,how is some of the air that presses toward a fire used8 ,what is necessary to have a fire burn well8 ,what is said about a building that is on fire inside8 ,tell the anecdote about the fire in a shop4 ,why do some factories have tall chimneys8 ,what is said about the chimneys of some lamps8 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,uses ,,of ,,water4 ,sidenote3 ,the beauty of water4 ,what a beautiful thing is water6 ,how pure and clear1 like a crystal6 ,how 8sparkling and bright it is10 as you see its ripples in the sun6 ,how we admire it1 as it is gathered in little dew-drops on the flowers and leaves in the morning6 ,what a beautiful mirror the water makes when the wind is hushed1 showing us on its smooth surface the trees1 the houses1 and every thing upon the shore6 ,sidenote3 ,ice1 snow1 and frost4 ,and what beauty water has when the cold turns it into crystals in the ice1 the snow1 and the frost6 ,it is the same pure1 clean thing then as it is when it runs in the brook1 or forms the dew-drop1 or falls in the gentle shower4 ,sidenote3 ,water the world's cleanser4 ,how useful1 too1 water is6 ,it is the world's cleanser4 ,it washes every thing4 ,see how dusty every thing looks after a long dry time4 ,even the grass and the leaves are covered with dust4 ,but let a brisk shower come1 and how changed the scene6 ,the trees1 the flowers1 and the grass look as clean1 and fresh1 and bright as the washed face of a beautiful child4 ,and then how the animals love to wash themselves in the water6 ,see the dog rush into it1 and then1 on coming out1 give himself a thorough shaking4 ,it would be well if all children would be as fond of being clean as he is4 ,it is amusing to see the canary bird take his morning bath in his cup of water4 ,how he makes the water fly as he flutters his wings6 ,sidenote3 ,the washing of the air4 ,did you ever think that the air every once in a while needs a washing8 ,it does1 just as much as you do and every thing else in the world4 ,even when it seems clean as you look up through it1 there are some things in it that would be very bad for us if they remained there4 ,they would produce disease in us4 ,they would be injurious also to other animals1 and even to plants4 ,the air1 therefore1 must every now and then have a washing to purify it2 and every time that it rains you can think of the air as taking a shower-bath for this purpose4 ,you see1 then1 how true it is that water is the world's cleanser4 ,it washes every thing1 even the air4 ,sidenote3 ,how plants drink4 ,but1 besides being the world's cleanser1 water is the world's drink4 ,it is the drink of plants as well as of man and animals4 ,the plants drink it from the ground by the mouths in their roots4 ,a great part of the sap1 as ,i have told you in ,part ,i41 is water4 ,sidenote3 ,water in fever4 ,we use water so constantly as a drink that we do not think how good and refreshing it is4 ,we think of this once in a while when we happen to be very thirsty4 ,when one is parched with fever1 he thinks of cold water as the very best thing on the earth2 and when he is asleep1 he dreams of the well or spring from which he drank so often in his childhood4 ,a lady who was sick with yellow fever1 far away from home1 in her delirium talked continually about a pump that was behind a house she had long lived in1 some time before this1 and kept calling for water from that pump4 ,sidenote3 ,sea water4 ,the salt water of the sea1 you know1 is not fit for drinking4 ,and you have heard of persons in a shipwreck escaping in a boat from a sinking ship1 and then living almost without food and water for many days4 ,how careful are they not to waste any of the water which they happen to have6 ,each drinks but little1 though they are suffering greatly with thirst4 ,and when it is all gone1 they would give any thing for the smallest draught of fresh water4 ,so dreadful is the suffering from thirst that water is almost the only thing which they think of4 ,they wish that it would rain1 so that they might catch some water4 ,there is water all around them1 but it seems to mock them with its briny waves4 ,it is not the water which they want2 they know that it would do no good to drink it4 ,sidenote3 ,feeling of the shipwrecked man about water4 ,one who had been in a boat for some days without water said that it seemed to him always after as if it was wrong to waste pure fresh water1 and he never could use it as freely as he did before his shipwreck4 ,how thankful should we be that ,god has given it to us so abundantly that we can commonly use it without stint or measure4 ,it is one of his most precious gifts1 and yet it is so common that1 when we want to speak of any thing as being very free and abundant1 we say that it is as free as water4 ,sidenote3 ,water in every thing4 ,but we do not merely drink water4 ,it is mixed up with every thing that we eat4 ,there is much water in all fruits4 ,there is so much in the watermelon that it gives it its name4 ,it is almost all water1 with a little sugar in it4 ,much of the sap in plants and trees is water2 so1 also1 it is with the blood4 ,it could not run in the arteries and veins if there was not water in it4 ,more than three quarters of your blood is water4 ,there is much water1 too1 in the air4 ,so you see that water is every where1 just as the air is4 ,but ,i have not told you all the uses of water4 ,the running water turns the water-wheels by which the machinery in mills and factories is put in motion4 ,we sail about on the water in boats1 and ships1 and steamers4 ,the steam-engines are worked by water changed into steam4 ,sidenote3 ,the multitudes of animals that live in water4 ,we must not forget the multitudes of fishes and other animals that live in the water1 as we do in the air4 ,there is a world of life in the water4 ,it is so much out of sight that we do not think much about it4 ,we only get glimpses of this water-world now and then1 and do not think how many animals there are that live in the brooks1 and rivers1 and ponds1 and seas4 ,besides the fishes that swim in the water1 there are multitudes of animals that live on the bottom4 ,there are oysters1 and clams1 and lobsters1 that you are familiar with2 and there are multitudes of animals that live in their beautiful shell houses1 some of which are very small1 and almost as countless often as the sands with which they are mingled4 ,questions4--,what is said about the beauty of water8 ,what is said about its being the world's cleanser8 ,tell about the dog and the canary bird4 ,what is said about the air's being washed8 ,how do the plants drink water8 ,do we commonly think how good a drink water is8 ,tell about the lady sick with fever4 ,what is said about the salt water of the sea8 ,what about the suffering from thirst so common with shipwrecked persons8 ,tell about the feeling of one who had suffered in this way4 ,what is said about the abundance of water8 ,what is said about water's being in every thing8 ,how much of your blood is water8 ,mention some more uses of water4 ,what is said about the animals that live in water8 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,water ,,always ,,trying ,,to ,,be ,,level4 ,if you look at water in a bowl1 you see that its surface is smooth and level4 ,if now you stir it about1 you make it uneven4 ,watch it as it becomes still and smooth again4 ,there seems to be a kind of struggle as all the particles of water take their places4 ,but you will ask me what ,i mean by the particles of water4 ,we suppose that water is made up of exceedingly fine balls4 ,these balls or particles are so round and smooth that they move among each other very easily4 ,this is the reason that water runs so readily1 and so soon becomes level when nothing is disturbing it4 ,if the particles were not so smooth1 they would rub each other4 ,they would not roll over each other so freely as they do4 ,sidenote3 ,the particles of water compared to shot4 ,to make this plain1 we will compare water to small shot4 ,if you put these into a bowl1 they will not lie level1 as water does4 ,now what is the reason that these round balls of lead do not act as the smaller round balls of the water do8 ,it is because they are not as smooth4 ,they can not roll over each other easily1 for they rub together4 ,they can not in any way be made as smooth as the particles of water are4 ,if you pour the shot from one bowl into another1 they will run somewhat as the water does2 but they will not slip along as easily1 for they rub each other as they go1 while there is almost no rubbing among the particles of water4 ,sidenote3 ,the particles of water round and smooth4 ,the balls or particles of water are exceedingly small4 ,they are so small that no one has ever seen them4 ,how1 then1 you will ask1 do we know that they are round and smooth8 ,we say that they are1 because we can not see how they could move about among each other so easily if they were rough1 or had corners or points on them4 ,you can not roll about blocks or nails as you can roll shot2 and the smoother the shot the more easily they will roll4 ,so then we know1 from what we see in other things1 that the particles of water that roll so easily must be round1 and must be smooth also4 ,if the particles of water were large enough for us to see them1 they would look to us1 on the surface of still water1 as a level layer of little shot or round beads1 and we should see them rolling about among each other whenever there is the least motion of the water2 but1 as we can not see the particles1 the surface of the water looks like smooth glass when they are all still4 ,as water moves so easily1 it is almost always in motion4 ,it is moved by the wind1 and is raised by it sometimes into very high waves4 ,it runs in the brooks and rivers4 ,sidenote3 ,why water runs4 ,in all its motions the water is always trying to be level2 and this is the only reason that water ever runs4 ,water that is level will not run2 it will be still4 ,but1 when you disturb this level1 it will run till it finds its level again4 ,i will make this plain to you4 ,suppose that you have a trough stopped at both ends4 ,put some water in it as it lies on level ground4 ,the water is level in it1 and is quiet4 ,now raise up one end of the trough a little4 ,the water is at once in motion4 ,why8 ,because you have disturbed the level4 ,the water runs from the end that you raise toward the other end4 ,now hold the trough still a little time with the end raised1 and as soon as the water gets its level again1 it will be as still as it was before4 ,sidenote3 ,brooks and rivers4 ,suppose the trough is open at both ends1 and water is running in all the time at the raised end4 ,it will keep running toward the lower end4 ,it will be all the time trying to get on a level1 but never can4 ,you see here the reason that water runs in a brook or river4 ,you can think of a brook or a river as a trough with one end a little raised2 and the water in it is always1 as we may say1 running after a level1 but never finds it4 ,the sea is to a river as a tub would be to the trough that pours its water into it4 ,sidenote3 ,the power of running water4 ,there is often great power in the water of a running stream4 ,it works a great deal of machinery in mills of various kinds2 and1 if the stream be swollen with heavy rains1 the water carries away bridges1 houses1 etc4 ,it does all this in trying to get on a level4 ,if it all could be made level in some way1 as you see it in a bowl or a pond1 it would do no such violence4 ,sidenote3 ,dams4 ,sometimes men build a dam across a river4 ,this is for the purpose of turning the water off one side into a canal4 ,the dam stops some of the water running in the river1 sometimes all of it4 ,in doing this the water is made about level just above the dam1 and so is much more quiet than it is any where else in the river4 ,children often build mud dams1 and the water that they stop is very still because it is level4 ,when the dams give way1 how briskly the water runs to try to get on a level again4 ,sidenote3 ,pouring from a coffee-pot4 ,water is always on the same level in the spout of a coffee-pot that it is in the pot itself1 as represented in the first of these figures4 ,if the coffee-pot be turned up1 as seen in the second figure1 the level is still preserved4 ,if it be turned up a little more1 the liquid in the spout1 in trying to be on a level with that in the pot1 runs out1 as represented in the third figure4 ,illustration ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,a supposed discovery of perpetual motion4 ,a man once thought that he had discovered a way of keeping up perpetual motion4 ,he thought that he could make a vessel of such a shape that some water in it would never stop moving4 ,the vessel was to be of the shape that you see here4 ,his idea was1 that there was so much more water in the vessel than there was in the spout1 that it would press the water in the spout up its whole length1 and make it run into the vessel4 ,you can see that1 if it would operate in this way1 the water would be always in motion--it would be going the rounds by way of the spout all the time4 ,but the difficulty is that it would not operate in this way4 ,after the man made his vessel1 he found that the water was only as high in the spout as in the vessel1 as you see in the figure4 ,it is just as it is with the spout of the coffee-pot4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,water can rise in the pipes of an aqueduct as high as it is in the fountain4 ,in the same way1 if an aqueduct pipe extend from a spring1 the water will not rise any higher in the pipe than it is in the spring4 ,the pipe is to the spring what the spout is to a coffee-pot4 ,and it makes no difference how long the spout is4 ,the water will stand at the same height in a pipe that extends for miles that it does in one that goes but a little way from the reservoir or fountain4 ,this can be illustrated in a vessel with two pipes1 as seen here4 ,the water stands in the branch pipe that is farthest from the vessel at the same height that it does in the near one4 ,sometimes an aqueduct will supply the lower stories of a building with water1 but not the upper stories4 ,the reason is that the upper stories are higher than the level of the water in the fountain from which the water comes4 ,sidenote3 ,the playing of a fountain explained4 ,you have often seen a fountain playing4 ,how beautifully the stream rises and spreads out1 dropping in a shower all around6 ,now why is it that the water rises8 ,it is because the spring from which the water comes is so much higher than the pipe of the fountain4 ,the water in the pipe tries1 as we may say1 to get on a level with the water in the spring4 ,this ,i will make plain to you by two figures4 ,in the first figure you see represented a vessel of water1 with a pipe extending from its lower part up at its side4 ,the water stands at the same level in the pipe that it does in the vessel1 as in the case of the coffee-pot4 ,now suppose1 as represented in the second figure1 the pipe is quite short4 ,if the vessel be filled with water1 the water in the pipe1 seeking to get to the same level as that in the vessel1 will be thrown up in a stream1 as you see4 ,the reason that the stream spreads out and drops in a shower is1 that the air resists the stream1 and so divides it up1 because water is so easily separated into parts4 ,illustration ,questions4--,what is said about water in a bowl8 ,what is said about the particles of water8 ,give the comparison about shot4 ,why will not shot run as easily as water from one vessel into another8 ,what is said about the smallness of the particles of water8 ,how do we know that they are round or smooth8 ,if we could see the particles1 how would water look to us8 ,what is said about water's being in motion8 ,what makes it run8 ,tell about water in a trough4 ,give the comparison about a trough and a river4 ,what is said about the power of running water8 ,what is said about dams8 ,tell about the level of water in a coffee-pot4 ,tell about the man's contrivance for perpetual motion4 ,what is said about the pipes of an aqueduct8 ,why will water sometimes come only to the lower story of a building1 and not to the upper8 ,tell about the playing of water from a fountain4 ,why does the water come down in a shower of drops8 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,pressure ,,of ,,water4 ,sidenote3 ,the pressure of the particles of water upon each other4 ,any thing that is solid presses only one way1 directly down2 but water or any fluid presses all ways4 ,it presses just as much sidewise1 or even upward1 as it does down4 ,the reason is1 that the particles of water move about among each other1 and are not fastened tight together as they are in a solid4 ,when water freezes1 its particles become all fastened together1 and then the pressure is all downward4 ,illustration ,to see how this pressure of the particles of water operates1 look at some shot lying together4 ,one shot does not lie right upon another shot below it in this way1 a1 but they lie in this way1 b4 ,you see that each shot presses down between those that are underneath it4 ,each shot is trying1 as we may say1 to get down between its neighbors below2 and if there was nothing to prevent it1 it would press them apart4 ,sidenote3 ,the pile of balls4 ,you can see that this is so by trying a little experiment4 ,put some shot close together on a very smooth surface4 ,now put another shot on top of them1 and you will see that it will press them all apart4 ,if the shot should be rough1 and the surface on which you lay them should be rough also1 your experiment will not succeed1 because the shot will not roll easily4 ,it is for this reason that cannon balls1 as you see them piled up in an ordnance-yard1 as represented in the annexed figure1 do not roll away4 ,if they were smooth1 and the place which they were piled on were smooth1 they would all be pressed apart1 and the pile would thus be spoiled4 ,illustration ,now see what this sidewise pressure will do in a vessel filled with shot if there should be an opening made in the side4 ,the shot close by the opening will run out1 because they are pressed sidewise by the shot lying right above them2 and as they go out1 those that press them out will be pressed out in their turn by those above them1 and so on4 ,sidenote3 ,particles of water compared with shot4 ,just so it is with the little fine balls or particles of water4 ,they lie on each other in the same way that shot do4 ,each particle is pressing always to get down between the particles that are underneath it1 as ,i have showed you it is with the shot4 ,and if you make an opening in the vessel that holds the water1 its particles will run1 or rather roll out1 like the shot1 only a great deal easier1 because they are so smooth4 ,they are pushed out by this pressing down of each particle between those that are below it4 ,sidenote3 ,about water running from openings in different parts of a vessel4 ,if you make an opening near the top of a vessel filled with water1 it does not run out with much force2 but if the opening be made near the bottom1 it spouts out as if it was in a great hurry to get out of the vessel4 ,what is the reason of this difference8 ,to understand this1 observe that all the particles are pushing downward in the way that ,i have shown4 ,those particles1 therefore1 that are near the bottom1 have a great deal more pressure on them than those that are near the top2 so that when the opening is made near the bottom1 the particles there are pushed out with great force4 ,there is a large crowd of particles pushing down to get out at that opening4 ,and observe1 as the water in the vessel lessens1 the force of the stream from the opening lessens2 it does not leap out so straight as it did at first4 ,it is very much as it is with a crowd pressing through a door4 ,when the crowd is very great1 those that are pushed through the door are pushed with great force2 but as the crowd lessens1 the pressure lessens4 ,it is found that water runs out of a vessel from an opening in the side close to the bottom just as quickly as it does from an opening of the same size in the bottom itself4 ,what is the reason of this8 ,it is because the little round particles of water roll so easily4 ,they roll out just as easily as they drop out4 ,see the difference between pressing on a fluid and on a solid4 ,if you press on a block of ice1 you press it all one way4 ,if you press it down1 you press it all down4 ,if you press it sidewise1 it all moves sidewise4 ,and it makes no difference whether your hand1 or whatever you push with1 covers the whole side of the block or not4 ,but it is not so with water4 ,if you press your hand down into a vessel of water1 you press down some of the water1 but not all of it4 ,some of it is pressed up2 for1 as you press down what is right under your hand1 this pushes what is below it off each way to the side1 and this pushes up the water that is over it4 ,this is because the round1 smooth particles roll so easily on each other4 ,when pressure is made upon them1 they roll away from it just where they can--downward1 or sidewise1 or upward4 ,sidenote3 ,water moving in a tube4 ,there is one way in which you can make all of a body of water go straight along4 ,it must be in a tube1 so that it can not escape sidewise1 and then there must be something to fit this tube which will push along the water4 ,it must fit exactly1 or some of the little particles will slip back by it4 ,in this way you can push the round body of water in the tube straight along1 just as you push a round stick or a long icicle4 ,but suppose that there is a little hole in the tube4 ,this would make no difference if the water were ice1 because the particles of a solid are so tightly fastened together2 but the pressed liquid1 you know1 will spout out of the hole1 because the particles1 not being well fastened together1 will escape from the pressure wherever they can4 ,open a door any where1 and out they will leap4 ,sidenote3 ,squirt-guns and stick-guns4 ,sidenote3 ,the gas and the ball4 ,you see the difference between a liquid and a solid in the operation of a squirt-gun1 and of one of the stick-guns so common among children4 ,so long as the water is in the squirt-gun1 it is all pushed along together1 as the stick is in the stick-gun4 ,but as soon as it gets out1 it becomes all divided up by the air1 just as you saw in the last chapter the water from a fountain does4 ,but the stick1 as it flies out of the gun1 keeps whole1 because its particles are well fastened together4 ,if the water were changed into ice1 it would fly out whole as the stick does1 for its particles would be so fastened together that the air could not separate them as it does the particles of water4 ,sidenote3 ,attraction in solids1 and fluids1 and gases4 ,the difference is still greater between solids and gases4 ,you see this in the firing of a gun or a cannon4 ,the gas into which the powder changes keeps together while it is in the gun1 just as the water does in the squirt-gun2 but as soon as it gets out1 it spreads like the water when it gets out of the squirt-gun1 only a great deal more4 ,this is because the particles of the gas are disposed to separate instead of keeping together4 ,they have no attraction for each other2 but the ball which the gas drives out of the gun leaves the gas behind it1 and goes on whole1 because its particles are so well fastened together by attraction4 ,you see1 then1 that in a solid there is considerable attraction between the particles2 in a fluid there is much less2 and in a gas there is none at all4 ,questions4--,how does the pressure of a fluid differ from that of a solid8 ,give the comparison about shot4 ,relate the experiment with shot4 ,tell about the pile of cannon balls4 ,give the comparison about shot and water running for an opening in a vessel4 ,why does water run faster from an opening near the bottom of a vessel than from an opening near the top8 ,why does it run more slowly as the water in the vessel lessens8 ,give the comparison about a crowd going through a door4 ,why does water run out from an opening in the side of a vessel close to the bottom as fast as from a hole in the bottom itself8 ,what is the difference between pressing on a solid and pressing on a fluid8 ,how can you make a fluid all go one way in pressing it8 ,what will happen if there be a hole in the tube8 ,tell about the squirt-gun and the stick-gun4 ,tell about the ball and the gas in a common gun4 ,tell about attraction in solids1 and fluids1 and gases4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,attraction ,,in ,,solids ,,and ,,fluids4 ,you saw by what ,i told you in the latter part of the last chapter that the great difference between a solid and a fluid is that the particles of a solid are fastened tightly together1 while those of a fluid are not4 ,if you should tie some people tightly together so that they could not move away from each other at all1 they would be like the particles of a solid4 ,if you moved them1 you would move them all together as you do a stick of wood1 a lump of ice1 or any thing else that is solid4 ,you can not move them1 one one way1 and another another way1 as you can the particles of water2 but if they are all pretty close together1 and yet can move about among each other1 as you often see in a crowded company1 they are like the particles of a fluid4 ,you can make your way among them just as you do among the particles of water when you wade4 ,sidenote3 ,attraction of the particles of solids illustrated4 ,but you will ask1 ,are the particles of a solid really tied together in any way8 ,no2 but there is something that does the same thing to them as tying together would4 ,it makes them stick together very tight4 ,we know not what it is1 but we call it attraction4 ,we say that the particles of a solid attract each other very much4 ,this is really just what a child would mean by saying that they stick together very close or very tight4 ,why they thus attract each other1 or how they do it1 no one has ever yet found out4 ,sidenote3 ,experiment with ,india-rubber and with bullets4 ,it seems to be necessary that the particles should be very near together to attract each other as hard as they do in a solid4 ,if a solid is divided in any way1 you know that you can not make the two parts stick close together again4 ,the reason is that you can not bring the particles near enough to each other to hold together4 ,this is commonly so1 but not always4 ,if you divide a piece of ,india-rubber1 making a smooth cut with a very sharp knife1 you can press the two parts together so as to make them adhere4 ,boys often try the following experiment3 ,a piece is cut off from two bullets1 and each cut place is scraped as smooth as it can be4 ,the two bullets are then pressed together at these smooth surfaces1 and they adhere so well that it takes considerable pulling to get them apart4 ,here enough of the particles on the surfaces are brought near enough together to hold on to each other1 or to attract each other1 as it is commonly expressed4 ,sidenote3 ,drops of water4 ,the particles of solids1 then1 attract each other very much1 and it is this attraction that makes them solid4 ,but how is it with the particles of liquids8 ,do they not attract each other8 ,see that drop of water on a window4 ,why is it in the shape of a drop8 ,if the particles of water did not attract each other they would be spread out on the glass4 ,they would not be in the shape of a drop4 ,they do not attract each other very much1 but enough to keep them together in that shape4 ,but you can spoil that drop very easily4 ,put your finger on it1 and it is gone4 ,it is all spread out now1 partly on your finger and partly on the glass4 ,why is this8 ,it is because the particles attract each other so little that they are easily separated4 ,sidenote3 ,drops of water and shot compared4 ,put your finger on a shot1 and it remains shot still4 ,why is it not gone like the round drop of water8 ,because its particles attract each other so much that they are not easily separated4 ,a mere touch will separate the particles of the drop of water1 and make them roll about any way2 but you can not do this to the shot without heating it very hot4 ,you can melt it1 and then it will be1 like the water1 a liquid4 ,its particles now attract each other but little1 just as the particles of water do4 ,and then1 again1 you can freeze the water1 and its particles attract each other like the particles of the solid shot4 ,sidenote3 ,quicksilver4 ,in some fluids the particles attract each other more strongly than they do in others4 ,and the more they attract each other1 the better they keep their drop shape4 ,pour a very little quicksilver on a flat surface4 ,see the round drops of it roll about6 ,how well they keep their shape6 ,if you touch them you do not spoil them1 as you do a drop of water when you touch it4 ,if you break one as you touch it1 its parts make only so many little drops or balls4 ,why is this8 ,it is because the particles of the quicksilver attract each other so much more than the particles of water do4 ,they are so attractive to each other that they are disposed to keep together in little companies4 ,sidenote3 ,drops on leaves4 ,you sometimes see drops of water on the leaves of plants more round and separate than you see them on window-panes4 ,they roll about like the little balls of quicksilver4 ,see the reason of this4 ,the particles of the drop like each other1 as we may say1 better than they do the leaf4 ,they are more ready to stick together than they are to stick to the leaf1 and so they roll about on it like little balls4 ,as you see the drops on the glass1 they are not round1 because the particles on one side stick to the glass--that is1 they are attracted by it2 but the leaf does not attract the particles so much as the glass does1 for it lets them keep together in a round form4 ,there is a difference between different leaves about this4 ,on some1 the drops of water act as they do on the window-pane1 and on others they do as ,i have just told you2 and then1 on the same leaves1 the drops act differently at different times4 ,sidenote3 ,oil on water4 ,if you pour a little oil on water1 you see the oil floating in drops4 ,this is for the same reason that water stands in round drops on some leaves4 ,the water has no attraction for the oil1 and so the particles of the oil hold together in little companies on the surface of the water4 ,it is different when oil is spilled upon cloth or wood4 ,it has so much attraction for them that it mingles up with their fibres1 instead of forming into round companies as it does on the water4 ,sidenote3 ,how shot are made4 ,sidenote3 ,how shot are round4 ,whenever there is a little of any liquid by itself1 it tends to take a round shape1 as seen in the quicksilver1 and in the drops of water on windows and leaves4 ,we see a pretty example of this in the manufacture of shot4 ,perhaps you have seen a shot tower4 ,it is very high4 ,all the shot that are made drop from the top to the bottom4 ,at the top they have the melted lead4 ,they pour it into a sort of cullender--that is1 a vessel with holes in it4 ,these holes are quite small4 ,from each one of these holes come out1 one after another1 drops of the melted lead4 ,each drop is round4 ,it cools as it goes down all this long distance in the air1 and by the time that it gets to the bottom of the tower1 it is cold and solid4 ,the shot all fall into a tub of water1 so that they may keep their round shape4 ,now why is it that the shot are round8 ,simply because when they begin to fall they are melted lead--that is1 a fluid4 ,their particles are disposed1 therefore1 to hold together in a round form1 like the particles of quicksilver1 or of a drop of water4 ,sidenote3 ,bullets4 ,bullets are made by pouring the melted lead into moulds4 ,think1 now1 why they can not be made in the same way that shot are4 ,the reason is that there are more particles in a bullet than can hold together in a round shape while the lead is fluid4 ,you can not have very large drops of any fluid4 ,the particles will hold together only in small companies4 ,sidenote3 ,making soap-bubbles roll4 ,there is one thing that you can do with soap-bubbles which perhaps you have never thought of4 ,you can make them roll on a table or on the floor by blowing them along4 ,the reason is that the particles of soap and water mixed together hold on to each other1 or attract each other1 better than the particles of water alone4 ,questions4--,what is the great difference between a solid and a fluid8 ,give the comparison about a crowd4 ,do we know what it is that fastens the particles of a solid together8 ,what is it called8 ,what is said about the particles being near together8 ,tell about the experiment with the ,india-rubber and the lead4 ,how do liquids differ from solids in attraction8 ,why is water on a pane of glass often in drops8 ,why is it that you can spoil a drop by a touch8 ,tell how a shot differs from a drop of water4 ,is the attraction between the particles alike in all fluids8 ,tell about the quicksilver4 ,tell about the drops of water on leaves4 ,tell about oil dropped upon water4 ,how is it with oil spilled upon cloth or wood8 ,describe shot-making4 ,why are the shot round8 ,how are bullets made8 ,why can not they be made in the same way that shot are8 ,what is said about soap-bubbles8 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,water ,,in ,,the ,,air4 ,i have told you how water is in motion whenever it can be4 ,it runs whenever it can get a chance to do it2 but it is in motion in another way1 which ,i will now tell you about4 ,sidenote3 ,from what water goes up into the air4 ,you hang out a wet cloth to dry4 ,when it is dry1 what has become of the water that was in it8 ,it has gone somewhere4 ,where has it gone8 ,it has flown1 like the birds1 into the air2 but it has gone so quietly that nobody has seen it go4 ,the little fine particles of the water that ,i have told you about have mixed up with the air1 and are blown about with it every where4 ,and so1 when you write1 as the ink dries on the paper1 the water in it flies off into the air1 leaving the dark part of the ink behind4 ,there is a great deal of water that is going up into the air in this way all the time4 ,it goes up from every thing that is wet4 ,after a shower1 the ground1 the stones1 the houses1 the trees1 and plants are all very wet1 but in a little time they are dry again4 ,most of the water on them has gone up in the air1 and is mingled up with it4 ,it has mingled with it in such a way that you can not see it4 ,the air is generally as clear with all this water in it as it is when it is perfectly dry4 ,even in a bright1 clear day1 there is a great deal of water mixed up with the air4 ,but water goes up into the air not merely from things that appear wet4 ,you remember that1 in ,part ,first1 ,i told you that water is all the time going out from the pores of the leaves4 ,a great deal of water is furnished to the air in this way4 ,sidenote3 ,experiment with the arm and a glass jar4 ,then there is water going up from the skins of animals4 ,much water goes from your skin into the air constantly1 even when you can not see that you are perspiring4 ,you can prove this by putting your arm into a glass jar1 and holding it there some time4 ,the inside of the jar will become covered with the water that comes from the pores of the skin on your arm4 ,this is like the experiment with leaves noticed on page #gg of ,part ,first4 ,sidenote3 ,water in the breath4 ,there is water1 too1 coming out from the lungs of animals and mixing with the air4 ,it comes from their lungs just as it does from the leaves1 which you know are the lungs of plants4 ,you can see this if you breathe upon a cold window4 ,the moisture or water that is breathed out with the air from the lungs gathers upon the glass4 ,in the morning you often see the panes of the windows in your chamber very wet4 ,all this water has come from your lungs as you have slept4 ,in a very cold day the water in your breath freezes upon whatever is about your mouth4 ,you see the water of the breath of a horse frozen on the hairs about his mouth4 ,so you see water is going up into the air all the time from the ground1 the leaves1 the animals1 and indeed from every thing that is at all moist4 ,it goes up also in great quantities from seas1 rivers1 lakes1 etc4 ,water1 then1 is always moving4 ,it runs and it flies4 ,it flies up into the air1 and comes down again in the rain to run in the streams4 ,it is ever going its rounds1 going up and coming down1 and none of it ever stays long in one place4 ,the only way in which it can be made to keep still is to shut it up4 ,let it be free1 and it will soon be gone1 either by running or flying4 ,sidenote3 ,water in the air seen in fog4 ,commonly the water in the air is not seen1 as ,i have before told you2 but sometimes you can see it4 ,you see it in the breath in a very cold day4 ,the cold air makes it look like smoke coming out of the mouth4 ,you see it1 too1 in the fog4 ,when there is a fog there is a great deal of water in the air4 ,the reason that you can see it is that the particles of water are not as finely divided up as when the air is clear4 ,they are in little companies1 as we may say1 but there are not enough of them together to make drops4 ,if they were in companies large enough to make drops1 they would fall to the ground--that is1 we should have a rain4 ,sidenote3 ,a beautiful scene4 ,sometimes the fog is every where2 sometimes it hangs only just over the water4 ,if you are on a very high hill1 where you can look off and see a river in the distance1 you can sometimes see in the morning a line of fog stretching along where the river is1 while it is nowhere else4 ,i once saw a very singular and beautiful scene made by the fog4 ,i had been out on horseback in the night to visit a sick person4 ,as ,i returned1 just before sunrise1 ,i saw from a very high hill a thick fog over all the river below4 ,from the river arose high hills1 irregular in their shape1 and on the sides of these hills were houses at different heights4 ,the lower houses were all so covered by this dense fog that ,i could not see them1 while those that stood high up on the hills ,i could see as plainly as ever4 ,it looked as if a sea had come in while ,i was gone on my visit1 and had filled up the valley where the river ran1 for the fog rose to the same height on the sides of all the hills4 ,many of the houses stood upon the very edge of this sea4 ,the scene was so beautiful that ,i waited to see the sun rise upon it4 ,as it rose1 it shone over the tops of the hills1 and lighted up this sea of fog1 which it in a little time scattered by its heat4 ,sidenote3 ,dense fogs often hanging over large cities4 ,very thick fogs often hang over large cities1 while all around in the country the air may be perfectly clear4 ,london is often covered with such a fog4 ,sometimes it has been so dense that people could not see to do any business4 ,it is related that the fog over the city of ,paris was once so thick that persons who went about with torches often ran against each other1 because even lights could not be seen unless they were very near4 ,and in ,amsterdam1 in a fog in the year #agij1 there were over two hundred persons drowned by falling in the darkness into the canals which run through every part of that singular city4 ,questions4--,what becomes of the water when a cloth is dried8 ,tell about the drying of ink on the paper4 ,tell about water's going up in the air after a shower4 ,can you commonly see the water that is in the air8 ,does water go into the air from things that do not appear wet8 ,what is said about its going from the skins of animals8 ,tell about the experiment with the glass jar4 ,what is said about water's being breathed out from the lungs8 ,in what ways do you see this shown8 ,what is said about water's being in constant motion8 ,when there is a fog1 why is it that you see the water that is in the air8 ,tell what is said about fogs4 ,tell about the fogs that hang over large cities4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,clouds4 ,sidenote3 ,clouds made of fog4 ,you see water in the air in another shape besides fog4 ,you see it in the clouds4 ,a cloud is really fog1 but it is high up in the air1 while what we commonly call fog is near the ground4 ,sidenote3 ,mists4 ,sometimes rain comes from the clouds1 and sometimes they give out no rain4 ,why is this8 ,when the clouds do not rain1 the water in them keeps in the state of fog4 ,the particles are all in small companies2 but when the rain comes from the clouds1 it is because the cold air makes the particles gather into larger companies1 so as to form drops4 ,then they fall4 ,a mist is different from rain in this way--the companies of particles are not as large as in rain4 ,on the other hand1 they are larger than they are in fogs or in clouds4 ,sidenote3 ,how the rain is made to come from clouds4 ,you remember what ,i have told you about the gathering of water upon the tumblers in warm weather4 ,it is the coldness of the tumbler that does this4 ,it gathers1 or condenses1 as we commonly say1 the water in the air into companies or drops on the tumbler1 just as cold air coming upon a cloud condenses the water into drops that fall to the earth in rain4 ,how swiftly these collections of water1 the clouds1 are sometimes carried along by the wind6 ,it seems as if they were chasing each other across the sky4 ,sidenote3 ,shapes of clouds4 ,how different are the shapes of the clouds6 ,sometimes they lie along1 stretched out like long straight stripes2 and sometimes they are in heaps1 piled up one above another4 ,then1 again1 they are spread like feathers4 ,it seems strange that fog high up in the air should collect into such different forms1 when near the ground it always appears very much the same4 ,sidenote3 ,their beauty4 ,at morning and evening the clouds are often very beautiful4 ,how do you think that the rich bright colors are made8 ,they are made by the sun shining upon the little companies of water-particles of which the clouds are made4 ,i will tell you more about this when ,i come to speak of ,light4 ,the clouds are not so high up in the air as most people think they are4 ,some clouds are higher than others1 because they are lighter2 and sometimes you can see the clouds that are very high up going in a different direction from those that are nearer to the earth4 ,this is because there are often currents of air very high up that do not go the same way with the winds below4 ,persons that go up in balloons have found this to be so1 as ,i have before told you4 ,sidenote3 ,clouds about mountains4 ,clouds are often seen about the sides of high mountains while the sun is shining upon their tops2 and persons that are on the top of a mountain may sometimes see clouds below them1 while the sky is clear overhead4 ,i was once on the top of ,catskill ,mountain when a shower passed over4 ,the cloud1 after it had passed over the mountain1 spread over the country below1 so that ,i looked down upon it4 ,as the cloud was rather a thin one1 it was broken into parts4 ,the sun1 therefore1 shone through the openings here and there2 and ,i remember seeing through one opening in the cloud a beautiful spot1 where there was a farm-house and a pond near by1 lighted up by the bright sun shining through another opening4 ,sidenote3 ,what goes up from the earth to make clouds4 ,it is the water that goes up from the earth into the air that makes the clouds4 ,i have told you from what a variety of things this water comes4 ,even the perspiration from your skin and the moisture that is breathed out from your lungs often help to form the clouds that you see floating so high in the air4 ,as ,i have told you before1 water is ever changing1 ever moving4 ,it is silently going up into the air from almost every thing on the earth4 ,then you see some of it moving along in the clouds4 ,it falls down in the rain4 ,it runs in the brooks and the rivers4 ,in the sea it is lashed into waves by the wind1 and is so continually in motion there that the restless sea is a common expression4 ,water is always going somewhere4 ,even in places where it seems to be still1 it is not so2 even there1 some of it is all the time going up into the air1 and other water comes to take the place of that which goes up4 ,sidenote3 ,water a great traveler4 ,water is a great traveler4 ,if any particle of water could write its own history1 and tell where it had been ever since it was created1 what a varied history it would be6 ,now it is tossed in the waves2 now it is flying off in the air on the wings of the wind2 now it is in a cloud2 now it falls in a drop from high up in the air2 now it sinks into the ground1 and is sucked up by some plant2 and now1 perhaps1 from the plant1 eaten by some animal1 it goes into the blood of that animal4 ,thus it goes every where and in all sorts of company4 ,clean as is the draught of water that so refreshes you1 it is made up of particles that have been in company with all sorts of things1 clean and unclean1 in all parts of the earth4 ,observe in what very different ways the water takes its start to go off up into the air4 ,much of it goes up from the ground1 and from the surface of lands1 and lakes1 and seas1 and rivers2 but a great deal also is sucked up from the ground by the roots of trees and plants1 and travels up to the leaves to take its flight into the air from them4 ,and then1 too1 animals drink water1 and eat it in their food1 and some of this flies off into the air from their skins and lungs4 ,sidenote3 ,water goes up in the air in various ways1 and comes down in different forms4 ,the water that goes up in these different ways has also different ways of getting down upon the earth again4 ,that which is high up in the form of clouds comes down in different shapes4 ,when cold air meets the clouds1 and changes the water so finely divided in them into drops1 it falls in rain4 ,when the air is cold enough to freeze it1 it falls in the shape of snow or hail4 ,questions4--,what is a cloud8 ,why does it not always rain when it is cloudy8 ,what is the difference between mist and rain8 ,give the comparison between the rain and the gathering of water on a tumbler4 ,what is said about the shapes of clouds8 ,what about their colors at morning and evening8 ,what is said about the heights of clouds8 ,what about clouds around mountains8 ,tell about the shower on the ,catskill ,mountain4 ,what is said about the moisture from your skin and lungs8 ,tell how the water is always moving and changing4 ,what is said about water as a traveler8 ,tell in what different ways the water goes up in the air4 ,in what different ways does it come down1 and why8 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,snow1 ,,frost1 ,,and ,,ice4 ,how different snow is from water6 ,how white it is as it lies upon the earth like a winding-sheet1 covering up the dead leaves and plants6 ,how the wind that makes waves in the water heaps up the snow in drifts6 ,the water slips from your hand as you grasp it1 but the snow you can make into hard balls1 or roll it up on the ground into larger ones to build snow forts4 ,the snow lies quietly on the sides of hills and mountains1 from which1 the moment that it melts1 it runs down into the valley below4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,the different forms of the crystals of snow4 ,but1 different as the snow is from water1 it is nothing but frozen water4 ,it is water made solid2 and1 as the water becomes solid up in the air before it falls1 it forms itself into many different shapes4 ,the snow seems to be all alike as you look at it as it falls4 ,but it is not so4 ,there is variety even here4 ,the snow-flakes have various forms4 ,we can see how different their shapes are if we look at them with a microscope1 as they are here represented4 ,snow-flakes are beautiful things to look at even with the naked eye4 ,how light1 and delicate1 and feathery they are6 ,when they are very large and the air is still1 how slowly and steadily they fall6 ,let a few of them light upon your coat sleeve1 where you can look at them1 and you will admire their beauty2 and when we look at them through a microscope1 we see that there is not only beauty1 but a great variety of beauty in them1 as there is in all the other works of ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,snow-flakes clusters of crystals4 ,sidenote3 ,the power of ,god seen in them4 ,perhaps you have sometimes seen large crystals of quartz or other minerals1 and you have admired them because they are so smooth1 and regular1 and clear4 ,now every snow-flake is a bundle of little crystals as regular and beautiful as the crystals of quartz4 ,there are millions of these crystals in the snow that you take up in your hand1 and in the falling snow they are put together in all the varied forms that you see in the figures above4 ,as ,i told you about the leaves and the flowers in ,part ,first1 so we see1 when we examine the snow-flakes1 the more we look into the works of ,god1 the more beauty we shall find in them4 ,how easy it is for ,god to fill the air with falling crystals1 and to pile them up thick on the ground6 ,with a free hand he thus scatters beautiful things in the desolate winter as well as in the blooming summer1 and his power is as much seen in the pure crystals of the snow-flake as in the delicate and beautiful structures of the leaf and the flower4 ,how beautiful is the scene when the snow has fallen gently without wind1 and has covered the branches of trees and bushes6 ,look up into a tree thus covered4 ,there the crystals lie1 piled up1 like tufts of cotton1 out to the very tips of all the branches4 ,millions and millions of them are on every twig4 ,how many must there be on the whole tree6 ,and how many on all the trees and bushes1 and over the whole surface of the ground6 ,how easily now can ,god destroy all these crystals6 ,he can send a warm sun1 the wind1 or a rain1 and they are dissolved and changed into water again4 ,the earth's winter robe1 all made of pure white gems1 is gone4 ,but ,god can1 whenever he will1 turn the clouds above us again into crystals1 and strew the earth with them as before4 ,sidenote3 ,variety in the figures of frostwork4 ,the great variety of forms which water takes when it becomes solid is often seen on our windows in winter4 ,the figures of the frostwork on them are1 you know1 almost endless in their variety4 ,these figures are made up of little fine crystals1 and these crystals are made out of the water as the cold turns it from a fluid into a solid4 ,how it is that the little particles of water arrange themselves in these clusters of crystals1 branching out on the glass in all sorts of shapes1 we do not know4 ,god makes them do so in a way that we can not understand4 ,how little do most people think of the wonderful things he is doing before them continually6 ,if they are told that ,god1 with his cold1 makes the moisture from their breath into beautiful crystals1 they can hardly believe it1 and yet they have seen these crystals in the delicate frostwork on their windows winter after winter all their lives4 ,the figures of this crystal frostwork are often like leaves and flowers1 such as we sometimes see on vessels of silver1 only much more delicate and beautiful4 ,it is as if ,god would smile on us in the very frosts of winter as he does in the flowers of summer4 ,in these figures1 made of the clustered crystals of the water from our breath1 he teaches us1 just as he does in the flowers1 that he loves to make things beautiful for us to enjoy looking upon them4 ,sidenote3 ,why ice is made lighter than water4 ,the ice1 often so very thick1 is all crystal4 ,and how beautiful it is when it is formed from clear water in a still place6 ,there is one thing very singular about ice which ,i must mention4 ,you know that it is lighter than water1 for it swims on the top of it instead of sinking in it4 ,this is rather strange4 ,one would suppose that when the fluid water changed into a solid1 it would be heavier1 because the particles stick tighter together then2 but somehow1 although they stick together much more tightly1 they are farther apart than they were before4 ,it is this that makes the ice lighter4 ,if they were closer together1 of course it would be heavier4 ,we do not understand how ,god has made this to be so1 but we can understand what reason he had for it4 ,it would be very bad to have ice heavier than water4 ,if it were heavier1 there would be a great deal of ice on the bottom of our rivers1 and ponds1 and lakes in the winter4 ,then it would take a long time for the warm weather to melt this covered-up ice1 and in some places it would not all be melted before another winter came4 ,this would make bad work1 and every year it would become worse1 for there would be additions from year to year to the ice that is not melted4 ,as it is now1 the ice is all cleared out of the way in most parts of the world in the early spring1 because the sun and the warm rains get at it1 and thus the earth becomes ready in a very short time for the summer4 ,sidenote3 ,regions of perpetual ice and snow4 ,with us the ice and the snow bear rule but a part of the year1 but there are regions in the far north where they are always present4 ,no summer comes there to melt them4 ,you have heard of the icebergs in the seas of those regions4 ,these piles of ice often rise like mountains1 and many a noble ship has been crushed by them4 ,there are mountains1 too1 in some parts of the world so high that winter ever rules on their summits4 ,the ice and the snow are ever there glistening in the sun1 even while in the valleys below the golden harvests are ripening in all their beauty4 ,questions4--,what is said about the difference between snow and water8 ,what is snow8 ,is the snow all alike8 ,what is said about the beauty of snow-flakes8 ,what are snow-flakes8 ,give the comparison between them and other crystals4 ,what is true of the flakes of snow just as it is of leaves and flowers8 ,what is said about the abundance of the crystals of snow8 ,tell about the tree covered with snow4 ,what is said about ,god's destroying the crystals of the snow8 ,what is the frostwork on the windows in winter8 ,what is said about the figures in it8 ,what is ice8 ,what is there very singular about it8 ,what would happen if ice were heavier than water8 ,tell about the regions where there are always ice and snow4 ,what is true of some mountains8 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,heat ,,and ,,cold4 ,we do not know what heat is4 ,wise men have tried to find out what it is1 but they have never been able to do it4 ,but we know some things that heat comes from1 and some things that it does1 and these ,i will tell you about4 ,sidenote3 ,most of the heat in the world comes from the sun4 ,most of the heat in the world comes from the sun in company with the light4 ,a long way it travels to get here4 ,it is millions and millions of miles that it comes in straight lines to us4 ,then there is the heat that comes from the fires that we make4 ,here there is generally light with the heat1 just as there is with that which comes from the sun4 ,heat and light1 when they come together1 do not always keep together1 but are sometimes separated from each other4 ,if you are standing before a fire and holding a pane of glass before your face1 it keeps off the heat--that is1 the heat does not come through the glass1 or so little of it comes through that you do not feel it4 ,the glass stops the heat1 but lets its companion1 the light1 pass through4 ,now1 if the light of the sun comes through a window1 you feel the heat with it4 ,the light and heat come through the glass in company4 ,they are not separated after traveling so many millions of miles together4 ,why it is different with the fire and the sun we know not4 ,i suppose that the heat and light that come from the sun are in some way more closely united than the heat and light that come from the fire1 and therefore are not so easily parted4 ,sidenote3 ,heat made in our bodies4 ,but heat is often made without any light4 ,this is the case with the heat of our bodies4 ,there is a sort of burning every where within us to make the heat1 but it is a burning without any flame or light4 ,our bodies are not made warm by fire and clothing1 but they keep themselves warm4 ,the only use of our fires and clothing generally is to keep the heat which is made in our bodies from flying off too fast in the air around us4 ,a great deal of heat is made in the bodies of all animals1 and the more active they are the more heat they make4 ,you know that when you play very hard you become very much heated4 ,this is because1 when the heart beats so quickly1 sending the blood all over the body so rapidly1 there is more heat manufactured than when the body is still4 ,sidenote3 ,friction a source of heat4 ,heat is also produced by friction without causing any light4 ,rub two smooth sticks together1 and see how warm they become4 ,the woodwork of machinery has been known to take fire from the heat caused by friction2 and ,indians used often to kindle their fires by rubbing two sticks together4 ,you know how easily a match takes fire by rubbing it4 ,this is because there is on the end of it a substance that takes fire with a very little heat1 and so requires but a little friction to set it on fire4 ,this curious substance is phosphorus4 ,it is mixed with sulphur on the ends of the matches4 ,when once the phosphorus is set on fire with the friction1 it burns the sulphur with it4 ,sidenote3 ,lucifer matches4 ,sidenote3 ,the tinder-box4 ,it is not many years since the lucifer matches1 as they were at first called1 were invented4 ,before this we had a most inconvenient way of getting a light when there was no fire at hand4 ,a flint was struck upon a piece of steel again and again over some tinder4 ,the object was to make a spark which would set fire to the tinder4 ,this was not always readily done1 and ,i remember getting out of patience many a time in working over my tinder-box when ,i was a student in college4 ,sidenote3 ,heat made in the earth4 ,there is a great deal of heat made inside of the earth1 and it is supposed by some that all the middle of this great round ball that is called the earth is an immense fire like a furnace4 ,the earthquakes are supposed to be caused by the heavings of this fire1 and the volcanoes are so many chimneys where the fire of this great furnace gets vent4 ,sidenote3 ,cold not a thing4 ,heat is a thing1 but there is really no such thing as cold4 ,any thing is cold when there is but little heat in it4 ,whether all the heat can get out of any thing we do not know4 ,there is heat even in ice4 ,this has been proved in this way3 ,two pieces of ice were rubbed together in a very cold day1 and some of the ice became melted4 ,how was this8 ,the air all about the ice was too cold to melt it2 and it must be1 therefore1 that it was the heat in the ice1 waked up1 as we may say1 and brought out by the rubbing1 that melted the ice4 ,what feels cold to you may feel warm to another4 ,if1 when your hand is very warm1 you take hold of some one's hand that is only moderately warm1 it will feel cool to you1 and perhaps even cold2 but if some one whose hands are quite cold takes hold of the same hand1 it will feel to him quite warm4 ,sidenote3 ,experiment with three vessels4 ,try a little experiment1 which will show the same thing in another way4 ,take three vessels4 ,put into one water as hot as your hand can bear1 into another ice-cold water1 and into the third water that is a little warm1 or that has had the chill taken off4 ,now put one of your hands into the vessel of hot water1 and the other into the vessel of cold water4 ,keep them there a little while4 ,then take them out1 and put both into the vessel that has the water which is slightly warmed4 ,the water in this will feel cold to the hand which was in the hot water1 and warm to the hand which was in the cold water4 ,sidenote3 ,drinking water after eating ice-cream4 ,for the same reason1 water standing in a room will feel quite warm to you if you have been handling snow1 though it is cold to others4 ,so1 also1 water that was very cold to you before eating ice-cream1 seems1 after eating it1 to have lost all its coldness4 ,so you see that heat and cold are not two things separate from each other1 of which you can tell where one begins and the other ends4 ,it is convenient to speak of the cold as if it were a thing1 just as heat is1 though1 as ,i have told you1 it is not2 and it is well enough to do so if we understand the matter right4 ,questions4--,what do we know about heat8 ,from what does most of the heat come8 ,what does it come with8 ,what is said about sun-heat and fire-heat8 ,tell about the making of heat in our bodies4 ,what is the use of our fires and clothing in cold weather8 ,why do you become so much heated on playing hard8 ,what is said about friction8 ,explain the operation of ,lucifer matches4 ,what is said about tinder-boxes8 ,what is said about the inside of the earth8 ,when is any thing cold8 ,is there any thing that has no heat in it8 ,how is it proved that there is heat in ice8 ,does what feels cold to one always feel cold to another8 ,give the experiment of the three vessels of water4 ,what other things can be explained in the same way8 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,diffusion ,,of ,,heat4 ,sidenote3 ,experiment showing how heat spreads4 ,heat always tries to spread itself in all directions4 ,if you put the end of a poker in the fire and hold it there1 you do something more than heat that end4 ,you heat the whole of it up to the end that you hold in your hand4 ,the reason is1 that the heat that comes into the end of the poker which is in the fire spreads through all of it to the other end4 ,illustration ,this figure represents an experiment that you can try1 which shows how the heat spreads through any thing solid4 ,a rod or bar of iron is taken1 and small balls of wood are fastened to it1 as you see1 by some wax4 ,now1 on heating one end of the bar with a lamp1 as the heat spreads along the bar1 the balls one after another drop off1 because the wax that holds them melts4 ,heat spreads from one thing to another when it can get a chance to do it4 ,if one thing that has a good deal of heat in it touches or is near by another that has less heat in it1 it parts with some of its heat1 and lets it go into the other thing1 and after a little while one will be as warm as the other4 ,for this reason1 in a warmed room1 all the furniture1 the tables1 the bureaus1 the carpet1 and the walls of the room become heated alike4 ,the heat from the fire spreads through them all4 ,it takes some time to do this1 but it is done4 ,sidenote3 ,how ice is melted4 ,it is because heat goes from one thing to another that ice melts in warm water or warm air4 ,some of the heat in the water or air goes into the ice and melts it1 and the melting ice cools the water or air by thus taking a part of its heat4 ,the heat which ,i have told you is made in our bodies spreads continually in the air around us4 ,this is the reason that a room which is comfortably warm becomes uncomfortably so when a large company has been in it for a little time4 ,a great deal of heat spreads into the air from so many bodies4 ,sidenote3 ,how fanning cools us4 ,sidenote3 ,blowing on the fingers4 ,did you ever think how fanning cools you8 ,it is by making the heat go off faster from your body into the air4 ,it moves off the air that has become heated by your body1 and brings some other air to take its place4 ,for the same reason1 blowing upon any thing that is hot helps to cool it4 ,it brings the air to it faster than it would come without the blowing1 and so the heat passes off faster4 ,but perhaps you will ask me to explain why it is that blowing on your fingers when they are cold warms them1 when blowing on any thing hot cools it4 ,this is plain enough4 ,the air that you blow on to your fingers is warmer than they are1 and gives some of its heat to them4 ,if1 on the contrary1 your fingers were hot with fever1 blowing on them would cool them1 for they would then give some of their heat to the air that is cooler than they are4 ,sidenote3 ,wood a poor conductor4 ,heat spreads through some things more easily than it does through others4 ,it spreads through iron very easily indeed1 as you know by holding an iron poker with one end in the fire1 but it does not spread any thing like as easily through wood4 ,if you hold a stick of wood with one end in the fire1 you can let it burn off without feeling the heat at the other end2 but you could not hold a poker so long in the fire1 for the heat would spread to the end in your hand so much that it would soon be too hot for you to hold it4 ,so iron is said to be a better conductor of heat than wood1 for the heat is conducted through it more easily than through the wood4 ,sidenote3 ,wooden handles4 ,sidenote3 ,holders4 ,sidenote3 ,ice kept in flannel4 ,it is for this reason that wooden handles are put upon some iron tools that are used in operations about the fire4 ,the tool which the tinman uses in soldering has a wooden handle4 ,if it had not1 his hand would be burned by the heat going up to it by the iron handle2 but very little of it goes into the wooden handle and spreads there1 because wood is so poor a conductor of heat4 ,we do not need wooden handles for tongs and pokers1 because we do not have to keep them in the fire so long as the tinman does his soldering-iron4 ,the handle of a metallic tea-pot is1 you know1 made of wood2 for1 if it was metallic1 the heat from the tea would spread through it1 and make it so hot that it could not be held in the hand4 ,the holder which is used in ironing is of service1 because it is so poor a conductor of heat4 ,the heat does not readily go through it to the hand2 so1 also1 we sometimes use paper to take up things that are hot1 because the paper1 being a poor conductor1 does not let much of the heat pass through it to the hand4 ,you have seen people wrap up ice in flannel to keep it from melting4 ,the flannel here does for the ice what the woolen or paper holder does for the hand--it prevents the heat in the air around from getting to the ice4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,experiment on a stove4 ,here is represented an experiment which shows how heat spreads through different things with different degrees of rapidity4 ,some pieces of different things of the same size and shape are put on top of a stove4 ,they are pieces of iron zinc1 copper1 lead1 marble1 and brick4 ,on the top of each is put a little bit of wax4 ,the wax on the copper melts first1 because this is a better conductor of heat than any of the others4 ,next is the iron2 next1 the zinc2 next1 the lead2 next1 the marble2 and last of all1 the brick4 ,sidenote3 ,air a poor conductor of heat4 ,in air that is kept still heat spreads very slowly2 but heat1 when it can1 always sets air in motion4 ,i have told you1 in ,chapter ,,xiii41 how heated air rises and cold air takes its place4 ,this is going on all the time about a stove4 ,as fast as the air is heated1 it goes up by the stove and the pipe1 and cold air keeps coming to the stove to be heated4 ,in this way all the air in the room is1 after a little while1 warmed4 ,now1 if the air could all be kept still instead of being kept in motion in this way1 it would take a long time for the heat to be spread from the stove through it1 for air1 like wood1 is a poor conductor of heat4 ,sidenote3 ,double windows4 ,we see the fact that confined air is a poor conductor of heat in a great many things4 ,some of them ,i will mention4 ,you have sometimes seen double windows4 ,it is the confined air between the outer and the inner windows that prevents the heat of the air in the room from spreading to the air out doors4 ,when the window is single1 the outside air cools the air in the room through the window in this way3 ,the air in the room close to the window gives some of its heat to the glass1 and1 being thus cooled1 it falls1 and some more warm air comes to be cooled in like manner1 and then falls1 and so on continually4 ,all this time the cold air on the outside keeps coming to get warmed by the glass1 and as it is warmed it goes up1 and more cold air comes to take its place4 ,but all this is pretty much prevented where the windows are double1 by the confined air between them4 ,sidenote3 ,a pear kept in snow4 ,there is a great deal of air in snow4 ,this is the chief reason that snow is so apt to keep the ground from being frozen4 ,it is the earth's winter coat of confined air1 for there is air mingled with its flakes as they are piled upon each other on the ground4 ,last spring ,i picked up a pear in my garden that was as fresh as it was when it fell upon the ground in the fall4 ,it happened to lie in a spot where the snow lay all the winter1 and was thus kept from freezing4 ,sidenote3 ,how furs keep in warmth4 ,furs are commonly spoken of as if they had some warmth in them4 ,this is a mistake4 ,they are not warm of themselves4 ,they only serve to keep in the heat that is made in the body1 and they do this by the air that is mingled up with the fibres of the fur4 ,this confined air is a poor conductor1 and so the heat made in the body does not readily pass off through it into the air around4 ,fur is therefore to an animal1 in this respect1 what snow is to the ground1 or what double windows are to a room2 and the finer the fur is1 the better does it keep the heat in1 because the air is more confined among fine fibres than it is in coarse hair4 ,and it is curious1 that if an animal with thick fur is taken from the cold country where he belongs to a warm climate1 and kept there1 his fur gradually loses its fineness and thickness1 and becomes like hair4 ,this is because he does not need his thick1 furry coat where the weather is warm4 ,you remember that ,i told you in ,part ,first that inside of the covering with which every one of the buds on the trees is protected from the cold of winter there is a fine down4 ,this1 ,i told you1 was the bud's little blanket4 ,you can understand1 now1 how this keeps it from being chilled by the wintry blasts4 ,it is the air that is confined between the fibres of this downy blanket that does it4 ,sidenote3 ,downy blankets of buds4 ,sidenote3 ,how straw protects trees from cold4 ,you remember1 also1 that ,i told you in ,part ,first about tying straw around trees to protect them from the winter's cold4 ,now you know that every stalk of straw is hollow1 and so is full of air1 and it is the air in all the stalks of the straw that makes it so good a coat for the trees4 ,this coat protects them just in the same way1 then1 that an animal is protected by its furry coat1 or the bud by its blanket of down4 ,questions4--,what is said of the spreading of heat8 ,what is said about its going from one thing to another8 ,how is ice melted8 ,what is said about heat's spreading from our bodies8 ,tell how fanning cools you4 ,why does blowing a hot thing help to cool it8 ,why does blowing upon cold fingers warm them8 ,explain what is meant when we say that some things are better conductors of heat than others4 ,give the illustrations4 ,how does heat commonly spread in air8 ,how would it be if the air could be kept still8 ,explain how double windows keep the heat in4 ,what is said about snow8 ,what about furs8 ,why does a fine fur keep the heat in better than a coarse one8 ,how does taking an animal to a warm climate affect the fur8 ,tell about the blankets of the buds4 ,tell about covering trees with straw4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,what ,,heat ,,does4 ,heat makes most things larger1 or expands them1 as it is commonly expressed4 ,i will give you some examples of this4 ,i have already told you in ,chapter ,,xiii4 how heat expands air4 ,you remember the two experiments with the bladder before the fire4 ,you remember also what ,i told you about the expansion of the air in apples and chestnuts by heat4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,experiment showing how air is expanded by heat4 ,here is represented another experiment which shows that heat expands air4 ,a glass tube1 with a bulb on the end of it1 is put with its open end into a tumbler of water4 ,of course the tube is full of air4 ,now1 on putting the warm hand on the bulb1 as represented1 the air in it will be warmed4 ,the air1 therefore1 swells1 and there is not room for it all in the tube2 and so some of it escapes in bubbles1 as you see1 through the water4 ,sidenote3 ,snapping of burning wood4 ,the snapping wood1 you know1 often throws out sparks4 ,these are parts of the wood partly burned that happen to be right on the spot where the confined heated air was that has broken loose4 ,the more porous wood is1 the more apt it is to snap4 ,the solid walnut seldom snaps2 but the chestnut1 which is very porous1 is always snapping4 ,so1 too1 dry wood snaps more than green1 because the sap has dried up1 and air has taken its place in the pipes of the wood4 ,air expanded by heat1 as you have before seen1 always rises4 ,it is pushed up1 as ,i have already told you1 by the colder air1 which is heavier4 ,this keeps the air always moving4 ,it is never still1 for heat is always acting upon it4 ,even when it is so still that we say there is no wind1 it is not perfectly still4 ,there is all the time the going up of warm air and the coming down of that which is colder4 ,you can see this in a room if you shut it up so as to make it quite dark1 and let only a little light in by partly opening one shutter4 ,though the air seems to you to be perfectly still1 you will see1 where this light is let in1 little motes flying up and down4 ,this is because there are currents in the air1 and these are made by heat4 ,sidenote3 ,air set in motion by heat4 ,sidenote3 ,sea breeze4 ,it is heat that puts the air in motion so as to produce winds4 ,you have heard people talk about the cool1 refreshing sea breeze4 ,this comes up commonly in the afternoon4 ,it is caused in this way3 ,the earth becomes very much heated by the hot sun during the day1 and so heats the air above it4 ,this heated air rises1 and the air which comes off from the cool water to take its place makes the sea breeze4 ,you see why it is that heated air is lighter than cold air4 ,it is swelled by the heat without having any thing added to it4 ,its particles are put farther apart4 ,it is made thinner1 and air1 as it becomes cold1 is contracted or made smaller4 ,its particles are brought closer together1 and so it is made thicker and heavier4 ,sidenote3 ,liquids expanded by heat4 ,and so it is with water or any liquid4 ,when it is heated it becomes larger and thinner1 just as air does1 and so is lighter4 ,it rises1 therefore1 being pushed up by the heavier cold water4 ,there are1 therefore1 the same up and down currents in water that there are in the air4 ,when one is heating water1 the warm water is all the time going up1 and the cold water is going down4 ,if you heat it in a glass vessel1 and have some little light things in the water1 you can see them go up and down in the currents in the same way that you see motes moving up and down in the currents of the air4 ,the grocer knows very well that heat expands all liquids4 ,his molasses and oil are much thinner1 and so run more freely in summer than in winter4 ,and the gallon of molasses or oil that you buy in summer does not weigh so much as the same quantity in winter1 for the same reason that heated air is lighter than cold air4 ,sidenote3 ,thermometer explained4 ,in the thermometer you see the expansion or swelling of a fluid by heat4 ,put your finger on the bulb1 and hold it there a little while4 ,the mercury rises1 you see4 ,what is the reason8 ,the warmth of your finger swells or expands the mercury1 and it rises1 because it needs more room4 ,you can do the same thing by breathing on it4 ,your warm breath will expand the mercury4 ,this is just what the warm air does to it2 and when the weather is cold1 the cold air shrinks or contracts it4 ,when it is very cold indeed1 the mercury is very low down in the tube1 because it is so much contracted by the cold air2 and when it is hot weather1 the mercury is very high1 because it is so much swollen by the heat4 ,you can understand1 by what ,i have told you1 how it is that we judge of the heat of the air by the thermometer4 ,sidenote3 ,setting tires4 ,heat expands solid substances1 though not as much as it does the air1 and gases1 and liquids4 ,if a rod of iron will just go through a hole in another piece of iron1 you can not get it into that hole when the rod is heated1 because it is swollen or expanded by the heat4 ,the tire of a wheel is heated when it is put on the wheel4 ,why this is done ,i will explain to you4 ,the tire is made a little too small for the wheel4 ,you can not put it on the wheel while it is cool1 but when it is heated it goes on very easily1 because the heat has made it larger4 ,cold water is now poured upon it1 and as it contracts it fits very tightly1 giving great firmness to the wheel4 ,it could not be made to fit so tightly in any other way4 ,sidenote3 ,heat changing solids into fluids4 ,so ,i have showed you how heat expands various things4 ,it sometimes does more than this when there is enough of it4 ,it changes a solid into a fluid4 ,for example1 it changes ice into water4 ,so it makes the hard iron into a fluid so that you can pour it like water1 as you can see in an iron foundry when the workmen are casting4 ,it takes more heat to melt iron than it does to melt ice1 and it takes more to melt ice than to melt mercury4 ,it takes so little to melt mercury that we can seldom get a chance to see it solid4 ,in some of the coldest regions of the earth1 however1 it is often seen solid4 ,but heat does more than this4 ,it changes some liquids into something like air or gas4 ,for example1 it changes water into steam4 ,there must be a great deal of the heat to do this--much more than is required to change ice into water4 ,sidenote3 ,what heat does to animals and plants4 ,sidenote3 ,making of birds in eggs4 ,i have told you in ,parts ,first and ,second much about what heat does to life in vegetables and animals4 ,the heat of spring wakes up the seeds and the buds2 and stalks1 and leaves1 and flowers1 and fruits come forth from them1 making the earth cheerful and gay4 ,it wakes up1 too1 multitudes of animals1 that with their moving about and their various voices make the world every where so busy4 ,thus1 almost like magic1 does heat work in the animal and vegetable world4 ,i know not any thing in which the effects of heat are so wonderful as in the egg4 ,look at a hen's egg as it is opened1 and see the golden yolk in the midst of the pure1 glairy white4 ,it does not seem that this could be changed into a chicken1 with its bones1 and muscles1 and nerves1 and feathers1 and claws1 and by nothing but heat2 but so it is4 ,the hen has only to keep the egg warm by sitting on it1 and all this happens2 and the chicken1 when it is all formed1 bursts the shell1 and comes out from its round white prison4 ,questions4--,how does heat affect most things8 ,explain the snapping of wood on the fire4 ,what are the sparks that are thrown out8 ,what kinds of wood snap most8 ,what keeps air moving1 and how8 ,how can you know that air is not still when it seems to be8 ,what makes the wind8 ,what is said about the sea breeze8 ,why is heated air lighter than cold air8 ,how is it with water8 ,what is said about heating water8 ,what effect does heat have on molasses and oil8 ,explain the operation of the thermometer4 ,what is said about the expansion of solids by heat8 ,give the experiment of the rod of iron4 ,explain the putting of a tire on a wheel4 ,what is said about the changing of solids into fluids by heat8 ,what change does very great heat produce in water8 ,what does heat do in the animal and the vegetable world8 ,what is said about the egg8 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,steam4 ,sidenote3 ,how steam is like air4 ,steam is like air in three things4 ,it is very thin2 it is very elastic1 or has a great deal of springiness2 and you can not see it4 ,now perhaps you will say that this last is not true1 and that we often see steam puffing out of a steam-engine or out of a tea-kettle2 but this that we see is not really steam4 ,it is not like the steam that is in the boiler of the engine or in the tea-kettle4 ,it is a cloud of fog that the steam has turned into on coming out into the air4 ,it is just like common fog1 except that it is hot4 ,real steam you can not see as you see this4 ,sidenote3 ,steam in boilers and tea-kettles4 ,perhaps you will ask how ,i know that we can not see steam1 as ,i can not look into a boiler or a tea-kettle4 ,if we boil water in a glass vessel1 we can see the steam if it can be seen2 but we see nothing in the vessel over the water1 and yet we know that there is a plenty of steam there1 for the steam-fog is made in the air by the steam coming out at the mouth of the vessel4 ,sidenote3 ,how steam is made4 ,but we do not need this proof to show us that steam can not be seen4 ,look at the nose of a tea-kettle when the water is boiling in it quite briskly4 ,close to it1 for half an inch or more1 you can not see the steam-fog at all4 ,what is the reason8 ,there is a stream of steam coming out as fast as it can get out1 but the air has not yet had a chance to change it into fog4 ,it must spread out a little first4 ,when it begins to spread out1 the cool air makes the particles of steam form into companies1 and it is a multitude of these companies that you see in the cloud of steam1 as it is called1 that comes from a steam-engine or from a tea-kettle4 ,the air really changes the steam into water1 for fog1 as ,i have told you in ,chapter ,,xix41 is water in companies that are too small to make drops4 ,sidenote3 ,simmering4 ,see1 now1 how steam is made out of the water in a tea-kettle4 ,the fire heats the water that is nearest to it in the kettle4 ,this rises1 and more water comes to take its place and be heated1 and so the water keeps circulating up and down1 the warmer going up and the cooler going down4 ,after a while1 when the water all gets to be very hot1 you hear a simmering noise4 ,now the steam begins to be made4 ,the sound is made by little bubbles of steam which are formed at the bottom of the kettle4 ,soon larger bubbles of steam are made1 because so much more of the water becomes hot enough to be readily made into steam2 and the rising of these bubbles makes a great commotion1 as you can see if the water be in an open pot4 ,all this process of steam-making you can see if the water is boiled in a thin glass bottle1 or flask1 as it is called4 ,sidenote3 ,force of steam4 ,there is a great deal of force in steam4 ,it is steam that works the locomotive1 and moves along the great steamship in the water4 ,sometimes it shows its power in destruction1 as when it bursts a boiler4 ,now what is it that makes steam so powerful8 ,to understand this1 look at a locomotive when it is standing still1 with its boiler full of steam4 ,a valve is opened1 and out rushes the steam1 spreading itself1 and turning into a cloud of fog4 ,it is this trying to spread itself that makes the steam so powerful4 ,if the valve were not opened the boiler might explode2 for1 as the steam is not used as it is while the locomotive is going1 there would be more and more of it in the boiler1 for it is making all the time4 ,the force with which it rushes out when the valve is opened shows how much power it exerts in trying to spread itself4 ,sidenote3 ,what makes the lid of a tea-kettle rattle4 ,you see the same thing in the rattling of the lid of a tea-kettle when the water is boiling in it4 ,the steam which is made has not room in the kettle to spread itself4 ,it gets out1 therefore1 wherever it can4 ,it blows out at the nose2 and if the water boils very briskly1 it can not get out fast enough at the nose1 and so it keeps lifting the lid and puffing out there4 ,sidenote3 ,bursting of boilers4 ,when the steam is shut up very tightly1 as it is in the boiler of a steam-engine1 it has very great power1 and the more steam there is thus shut up the greater is the power4 ,men are sometimes careless about this1 and get so much steam made in the boiler that it bursts4 ,this is just as the roasted chestnut is burst by the steam and heated air that are in it4 ,the boiler bears the pressure of the steam as long as it can4 ,this pressure is made by the steam's trying to spread itself1 or by its expansive force1 as it is expressed4 ,after a while1 the steam being made all the time1 and being crowded together1 as we may say1 the boiler all at once gives way with a loud noise4 ,the noise is caused in the same way as the pop of the roasted chestnut4 ,it is the sudden shaking that the escaping steam gives to the air4 ,sidenote3 ,safety valves4 ,there is always a safety-valve to a steam-engine4 ,this is commonly kept shut by a weight which is upon it4 ,but when there comes to be a great deal of steam in the boiler1 it has expansive power enough to raise the valve1 and so some of the steam escapes4 ,this prevents the boiler from bursting1 and hence the valve is called a safety-valve4 ,now1 if there happen to be a weak place in the boiler1 and the weight on the valve is heavier than it should be1 the weak place will be apt to give way rather than the valve1 and an explosion results4 ,many a boiler is burst in this way4 ,sidenote3 ,steam compared to powder4 ,i have told you about another way in which boilers are burst in the chapter on ,powder4 ,it is this4 ,the boiler is carelessly left to get nearly empty1 and the fire therefore makes it very hot4 ,then1 when more water is let into it1 a great deal of steam is made all at once4 ,this exerts its expansive force with such violence that the boiler gives way4 ,you can understand how this is if you see a little water dropped upon red-hot iron4 ,a great cloud of steam arises1 spreading itself in the air1 and you can see that if this were pent up it would make a strong pressure in trying to get free4 ,sidenote3 ,boy melting lead4 ,a boy was once much surprised to see the melted lead which he poured into a piece of elder1 from which he had scooped the pith1 thrown with great force against the ceiling4 ,the reason was1 that the elder was moist1 and the moisture inside being changed all at once into steam1 the expansive force of the steam threw out the lead1 just as the expansive force of the gas made all at once from powder throws the ball out of a gun4 ,sidenote3 ,explosion of a foundry4 ,it takes but a little water to make a good deal of steam1 and this explains an explosion that once occurred in a cannon foundry in ,london4 ,there happened to be some water in one of the moulds1 and1 therefore1 when the melted metal was put into it1 this water was at once made into steam1 and this1 in trying to get free1 made such an explosion as to blow up the whole foundry4 ,perhaps you can hardly believe that so little water could do so much when turned suddenly into steam4 ,but you must remember that the steam occupies1 if set free1 about #agjj times as much room as the water does from which it is made4 ,it tries to get this room1 and in doing this it exerts great force1 especially if it be made very suddenly4 ,sidenote3 ,how the sound of the steam-whistle is made4 ,you will like to know how the sound of the steam-whistle is made4 ,in the chapter on the hearing1 in ,part ,second1 ,i told you that sound is always caused by the vibration or shaking of something4 ,now in the steam-whistle there is a sort of bell-shaped thing with a thin edge or rim4 ,the steam1 as it is let out through the whistle1 strikes against this rim1 and makes it vibrate1 and so produces the sound4 ,the sound is very loud1 because the steam comes out with great force4 ,questions4--,in what three respects is steam like air8 ,tell about the steam-fog4 ,how do we know that steam can not be seen8 ,what is said about the steam that comes from the nose of a tea-kettle8 ,describe how steam is made4 ,in what way can you see the whole process8 ,what is said about the force of steam8 ,how is its force shown in the locomotive when it is stopped at a station8 ,tell about the rattling of the lid of a boiling tea-kettle4 ,explain how boilers are commonly burst4 ,how does the safety-valve operate8 ,how is it that the safety-valve does not always keep boilers from bursting8 ,what other way in which boilers are burst is mentioned8 ,tell about the accident with the melted lead4 ,tell about the blowing up of an iron foundry4 ,how is the sound of the steam-whistle made8 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,light4 ,as ,i told you about heat1 that we do not know what it is1 so1 also1 we do not know what light is4 ,but we know many things about light1 just as we do about heat4 ,sidenote3 ,the chief use of light4 ,the chief use of light is to enable us and different animals to see4 ,i have told you something about seeing in ,part ,second4 ,it is the light entering the eye that makes us see4 ,when we see the sun1 or the flame of a candle1 or a flash of lightning1 the light which is made by these different things goes into the eye1 and so we see them4 ,these things that ,i have mentioned make light1 and some of this light comes directly to our eyes4 ,but we see things that do not make any light4 ,no light is made by the houses1 and trees1 and persons1 and many other things that we see about us4 ,how is it that we see them8 ,it is in this way3 ,the light that shines on them bounds off from them and goes into our eyes4 ,thus1 if you see a tree1 the light strikes upon it1 and then bounds from it into your eyes1 and makes a picture or image there of the tree4 ,when the light bounds off in this way1 it is said to be reflected4 ,sidenote3 ,reflection of light4 ,sidenote3 ,images of things in the eye4 ,there is a great deal of this reflection of light4 ,it is often reflected more than once1 sometimes many times4 ,thus1 if you see a tree in a looking-glass1 the light is reflected twice4 ,first1 it bounds off or is reflected from the tree1 and then it is reflected from the glass to your eyes4 ,so if you look at your own face1 the light first strikes your face1 and is reflected from it to the glass2 and then it is reflected from the glass to your eyes1 and pictures the image of your face there4 ,now observe that the light that is reflected from your face makes an image or picture of it in the glass4 ,it is precisely such an image that the light entering your eye makes in the back part of it1 on a thin sheet or membrane that is there1 except that it is a much smaller image4 ,sidenote3 ,smooth and rough things4 ,every thing reflects light1 but some things reflect it more than others4 ,rough things do not reflect as much as smooth things4 ,how perfectly the smooth water of a pond reflects the houses and trees at its side when there is no wind6 ,you know that all polished surfaces shine4 ,this is because they reflect a great deal of light4 ,sidenote3 ,moon and stars4 ,it is a reflected light that comes to us from the moon and from some of the stars4 ,the light goes to them from the sun1 and then is reflected from them4 ,they are said1 therefore1 to shine by a borrowed light4 ,the reason that we can not see the stars in the daytime is1 that the light from the sun is so much brighter than their light4 ,the moon shines so much more brightly than the stars1 that we can see it in the daytime when it is above the horizon1 though the greater brightness of the sun makes it quite faint4 ,i have told you that light is sometimes reflected more than twice1 even many times4 ,when you look at a person in a room into which the sun is not directly shining1 where does the light by which you see him come from8 ,it is not the light that comes straight from the sun1 for this is not shining upon him4 ,it is the light reflected from things around him4 ,this reflected light strikes upon him1 and is thus again reflected from him1 and some of it enters your eyes1 enabling you to see him4 ,sidenote3 ,light reflected back and forth4 ,light is thus reflected back and forth from one thing to another2 and a great deal of light is reflected from every thing all the time1 and in all directions4 ,suppose a great assembly are all looking at one person4 ,the light is reflected from him1 and goes into a thousand eyes at once in all parts of the house1 making a picture of him in all of them4 ,what a wonderful painter light is6 ,how many pictures it is making all the time in the eyes of men and animals1 and on mirrors and all smooth things every where6 ,sidenote3 ,light makes plants and animals grow4 ,another use of light is to make plants and animals grow4 ,i have told you in ,part ,i4 how plants turn toward the light1 as if they loved it4 ,it really has a great deal to do with their growth4 ,this is very plain whenever we see a plant that has grown in the dark4 ,it looks pale and sickly4 ,a good deal of light is needed as really as a free circulation of air to make plants healthy and strong2 and the same is true of animals4 ,people that live in dark1 under-ground rooms in cities are injured by the want of light as well as by the want of good air4 ,most of the light in the world comes from the sun4 ,it comes from there with the heat1 as ,i have before told you4 ,they travel in company4 ,it is a very long journey4 ,it is many millions of miles4 ,the light is a little more than eight minutes coming from the sun to the earth4 ,sidenote3 ,light travels faster than sound4 ,light travels very fast4 ,it travels faster than sound does4 ,you see a man cutting wood a considerable distance off1 and you hear the sound of each blow of his axe a little after you see it4 ,the reason is that the light comes from him to your eye quicker than the sound comes to your ear4 ,you see a cannon fired at a distance2 you first see the flash1 and then afterward hear the report4 ,the thunder comes generally some time after the flash that causes it2 that is1 the light of the flash gets to your eye some time before the sound of it reaches your ear4 ,by observing1 it has been found out just how fast sound and light travel2 and so1 by looking at a watch in a thunder-storm1 we can tell how far off the lightning is4 ,light1 besides traveling faster than sound1 can travel a great deal farther4 ,lightning may be so far off that you can not hear the thunder4 ,the light reaches your eye1 but the sound dies away before it reaches your ear4 ,sidenote3 ,light of burning substances4 ,most of our light1 ,i have said1 comes from the sun2 but much light comes from burning substances--burning wood1 coal1 oil1 tallow1 gas1 c4 ,sidenote3 ,fire-flies4 ,sidenote3 ,shining flowers4 ,sidenote3 ,light-wood4 ,light is made by some animals4 ,the glow-worm gives out a soft and beautiful light4 ,the fire-fly sparkles as it flies about in the evening4 ,in ,cuba and in ,south ,america ladies wear in their hair as ornaments1 in evening parties1 some small insects that give a very brilliant light4 ,sometimes the sea sparkles beautifully with light1 which is made by multitudes of very little animals in it4 ,we see this light often in the wake of a vessel1 or behind the wheel of the steamer1 or in the water that falls from the lifted oar4 ,it is when the water is disturbed in some way that these animals make their light4 ,there are some flowers in very warm countries that shine in the night4 ,you have seen what is called light-wood4 ,this is decayed wood1 and it is something in the decay that makes the light4 ,light is also sometimes given out by animal substances that are decaying4 ,it is most often seen in putrid fish4 ,sidenote3 ,phosphorus4 ,it is supposed that in all these cases the light is made by phosphorus1 the same substance that lights so easily in the ,lucifer match4 ,this curious substance is commonly kept in water4 ,if a stick of it be taken out of the water in the evening1 it appears lighted like a glow-worm2 and if you rub it upon any thing1 the streaks of it will give a brilliant white light4 ,sometimes1 on rubbing a match1 if it does not take fire1 you see for a little time lighted streaks where you rubbed it4 ,this is caused by the phosphorus rubbed off from the match4 ,when the match burns1 you do not see these lighted streaks1 for the same reason that you do not see the stars when the sun shines4 ,questions4--,what is the chief use of light8 ,how do we see8 ,how do we see things that do not make light8 ,how do we see things in a mirror8 ,how is the image in the mirror like that in the eye8 ,what difference is there in things in reflecting light8 ,what is said about the light of the moon and the stars8 ,why can not we see the stars in the daytime8 ,why can we see the moon in the daytime8 ,what is mentioned which shows that light is often reflected many times before it comes into the eye8 ,tell what is said about an assembly all looking at a speaker4 ,what effect has light upon plants and animals8 ,what is said about living in dark rooms8 ,how long is light in coming from the sun8 ,give some examples which show that it travels faster than sound4 ,can sound go as far as light8 ,from what besides the sun does light come8 ,tell about the fire-flies--the sparkling that we often see in the sea--light-wood4 ,what is said about phosphorus8 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,color4 ,sidenote3 ,why the sun's light is white4 ,sidenote3 ,made up of seven colors1 as ,newton showed4 ,the light that comes from the sun is1 you know1 a white light4 ,now in this white light are the different colors of the rainbow4 ,indeed1 it is these colors mixed together that make the white color of the sun's light4 ,this was proved by ,sir ,isaac ,newton in this way3 ,he had a hole in a shutter through which he let a very little of the sun's light into a dark room4 ,he had a screen for it to strike upon1 and on this it made a bright white spot4 ,he then let it shine through a three-cornered piece of glass1 called a prism4 ,this turned the ray of light out of its way1 and made it shine upon another part of the screen2 and1 besides this1 the spot of light on the screen1 instead of being round1 as it was before1 was now lengthened out1 and had seven different colors in it4 ,illustration ,all this is represented on this figure4 ,at ,o is the hole in the shutter1 and m is a mirror by which a little of the bright sunlight is thrown into this hole4 ,without the prism it would go straight to the screen1 ,s r1 and make a round white spot where the word white is4 ,but with the prism1 ,p1 the beam of light is turned out of its straight path1 and is divided into the different colors as marked in the figure4 ,the reason that these colors are seen so distinct from each other is1 that they are bent out of their way in different degrees--the orange a little more than the red1 the yellow a little more than the orange1 and so on1 the violet being most bent of all4 ,you see this represented on the figure4 ,sidenote3 ,colors in ice4 ,this and various other experiments1 tried by ,newton and others1 show that the white light of the sun is not a simple thing4 ,it can be cut up1 as we may say1 into different parts4 ,the glass prism does this4 ,you have often seen it done without thinking much about it4 ,you have seen it done by ice4 ,when there has been a rain1 and the rain1 as it fell1 froze upon the branches of the trees1 and the wind and the sun have together broken the ice on the trees1 and strewed the ground with it1 you have seen these pieces of the ice brilliant with all the colors into which they have divided the bright light of the sun4 ,it seemed as if the ground was covered with gems of every hue2 and as you looked up into the tree1 it seemed to you that every twig also was strung with gems4 ,sidenote3 ,the rainbow4 ,sidenote3 ,colors in dew-drops4 ,you see the same thing in the rainbow4 ,the white light of the sun is separated by the drops of rain into its different colors just as is done by the glass prism1 and thus the bow is made4 ,exactly how this is done you are not old enough yet to understand4 ,what you see in the rainbow and in the scattered pieces of ice you can also sometimes see in the dew-drops in the morning4 ,they sparkle with all the different colors4 ,the grass seems to be filled with gems of every variety4 ,the drops of dew do this by dividing up the sunlight1 as the drops of rain do when the rainbow is made4 ,sidenote3 ,black no color4 ,now see how it is that different things have different colors4 ,when a thing is white it is because all the different parts or colors of the light are reflected from it to our eyes4 ,on the other hand1 when a thing is perfectly black1 it is because none of the colors are reflected4 ,black is1 then1 no color at all1 while in white all the colors are mixed together4 ,sidenote3 ,newton's experiments with a wheel and with powders4 ,newton proved that white is a mixture of all colors in a very pretty way4 ,he made a wheel1 on the edge of which he painted all the seven colors4 ,when he whirled it round very fast indeed he could not see the colors separate from each other4 ,the colors all went to his eye mixed up together1 and being mixed1 they made a white color1 just as they do in a beam of light4 ,the rim of the wheel then looked to him as if it was white4 ,he proved the same thing in another way4 ,he took powders of these seven different colors1 and ground them together very finely4 ,the colors all disappeared4 ,the mixed powder was almost white4 ,it would have been entirely white if he could have mixed the powders as thoroughly as the colors are mixed by the ,creator in the light of the sun4 ,but ,i have not yet told you how one thing looks green1 another yellow1 another blue1 etc4 ,i have only told you why one thing is black and another white4 ,when a thing looks blue1 it is because none but the blue part of the light is reflected to your eye4 ,all the rest of the colors stop right there in the thing4 ,they do not bound off from it as the blue does4 ,so1 when a thing is green1 the green part of the light is reflected to your eye4 ,when a thing is orange color1 the orange part of the light is reflected1 and so on4 ,sidenote3 ,why things have different colors explained4 ,if you have pieces of glass1 and let the light come through them1 you see the same thing in another way4 ,light coming through blue glass comes to your eye blue1 because all the other colors stop in the glass1 while the blue passes on2 and light coming through green glass is green for the same reason4 ,now what is done with the colors that stay in things that they come to we do not know4 ,if a thing looks blue1 only one color out of the whole seven in the light is thrown off from it4 ,the other six colors1 red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 indigo1 and violet1 stop right there in the thing4 ,what it does with them is a mystery4 ,it puts them out of sight in some way1 and sends only one of the seven colors to our eyes4 ,questions4--,what makes the color of the sun's light white8 ,how many colors are there in a ray of the sun8 ,mention ,sir ,isaac ,newton's experiment4 ,tell what is represented by the figure4 ,what does the glass prism do to the light8 ,tell about the colors of the scattered ice4 ,how is the rainbow formed8 ,tell about the colors in the dew4 ,when is a thing white8 ,when is a thing black8 ,tell about ,newton's painted wheel4 ,tell about his mixture of powders4 ,explain how it is that one thing is blue1 another green1 another yellow1 etc4 ,how is it when light comes through things1 as colored pieces of glass8 ,what is said about the parts of the light that are not reflected by things that we see8 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,more ,,about ,,color4 ,sidenote3 ,how color is made4 ,you see that the color of a thing is not a part of the thing itself4 ,it is something which the thing throws off or lets pass through it4 ,the color of a thing depends upon what a thing will do to the light when the light comes to it4 ,it has no color in the dark4 ,its color is made out of the light that shines on it4 ,sidenote3 ,color not a fixed thing shown in various ways4 ,color is something that is made every moment4 ,the color that you see now in any thing is made now1 out of the light that is shining4 ,if a piece of cloth looks blue to you1 it makes the blue color out of the light while you are looking at it4 ,the dyer did not really make the color4 ,the dye that he put it into altered the cloth so that it would make a blue color go to your eye from the light that comes to the cloth4 ,you have seen changeable silk4 ,here the colors change as the silk is moved4 ,the reason is that1 as the light strikes it in different ways1 different parts of the light are reflected from it1 and come to our eyes4 ,for the same reason1 as the hanging prisms of a chandelier or a girandole move1 you see the colors in them change4 ,so when the wind moves the tree covered with ice1 or blows along the little pieces scattered on the ground1 you see the same play of colors4 ,there is another fact which shows that color is not a fixed thing4 ,it changes with different kinds of light4 ,the light of a lamp or of a fire is not exactly like the light of the sun4 ,it is not so white1 and so we very often find that a thing which we have looked at in the evening has quite a different color when we come to see it by the sunlight4 ,a piece of cloth that looks white by candlelight may look quite yellow the next morning by the light of day4 ,sidenote3 ,variety of colors in flowers4 ,i have told you in ,part ,first about the great variety of colors in flowers4 ,all these colors are made out of the same light4 ,if a flower is yellow1 it is because the yellow part of the light is sent to our eyes1 while the flower1 as we may say1 keeps the other six colors to itself4 ,some flowers are more yellow than others4 ,the reason is that they reflect more of the yellow part of the light4 ,some leaves are greener than others because they send to our eyes more of the green part of the light4 ,in some flowers there are different colors close by each other4 ,in the iris you have the blue and the yellow4 ,here one part of the flower sends to your eye the blue part of the light1 and another the yellow part4 ,in some flowers you see white close by other colors4 ,thus one kind of poppy is white except by the edges1 which look as if they had been dipped in a red dye4 ,how singular it is that1 while some parts of the flower are fitted to send to your eye one color alone1 the other parts send all the seven colors mixed together so as to make a white color6 ,sidenote3 ,shading off of colors4 ,look1 too1 at the gradation of colors4 ,this is very beautiful in some flowers4 ,in some roses you see the red color shade off into white4 ,you look at one of its leaves1 and see a part of it that is quite red1 and as your eye goes from this part1 the red is less and less deep1 till at the very edge it is all gone4 ,now remember that the more of the red part of the light is reflected1 and the less there is of the other parts1 the greater is the redness1 and see how wonderful all this is4 ,how nicely must the flower be made in order to give this shading off6 ,in the very red part a great deal of the red color is sent to our eyes1 and none of the other colors4 ,then from the part close by it a little less of the red is sent1 and a little of the other colors mixed together is also sent2 and so on1 a little less and a little less of the red1 and a little more and a little more of the others1 till at the edge all the colors are reflected so as to make it look white4 ,sidenote3 ,in what sense colors are said to come from the sap4 ,in ,part ,first ,i told you that the colors of flowers are made out of the sap1 and now in this chapter ,i have told you that the colors are really made from the light4 ,it may seem to you that both of these things can not be true2 but while the colors are made from the light1 in one sense they may also be said to be made from the sap4 ,the flowers are so made out of the sap that they reflect the right colors from the light that comes to them4 ,thus a blue flower is so made as to reflect the blue part of the light4 ,it is just as blue cloth is fitted by the dye that it is put into to reflect blue2 and as we say that the dyer makes the cloth blue by his dye1 so we say that the flower is made blue from the sap4 ,sidenote3 ,colors of leaves in autumn4 ,i have told you in ,part ,first about the change of color in the leaves in the autumn4 ,all the summer the leaves send the green part of the light to your eyes2 but when autumn comes there is some change made in them1 so that some kinds of leaves reflect the red part of the light1 some the yellow1 some the orange1 etc4 ,i have told you about the great variety of colors in the plumage of birds and in the coverings of insects4 ,this variety is all owing to the different ways in which the light is reflected4 ,some reflect one of the seven colors of the light1 and others some other color4 ,some that reflect all the colors of the light are white1 as the swan2 and some that reflect none of them look black1 as the crow4 ,sidenote3 ,colors of clouds4 ,some of the most splendid displays of colors that can be witnessed we occasionally see in the clouds at morning or evening4 ,now all this is caused by nothing but sunlight and water1 for you know that the clouds are made up of water in the shape of fog4 ,the light1 as we may say1 paints these gorgeous colors upon the drops of water as they hang in the air4 ,the reason that we see these displays of colors in the clouds only at morning and evening is1 that the light from the sun strikes them in the right way then4 ,it strikes them in such a way that some of the colors are reflected to our eyes1 while others are not4 ,the most common color reflected to our eyes by the clouds is red4 ,sidenote3 ,play of colors in changeable silks1 ice1 c4 ,sidenote3 ,when and how the rainbow is formed4 ,you can see in other things that the color of a thing depends on the way in which the light strikes it1 and is reflected to your eyes4 ,you see this in the changeable silk4 ,as you move it1 the light strikes it differently1 and so different colors are reflected to your eyes4 ,when you see the ice scattered on the ground from the trees in winter1 shining in the bright sun1 you see in one direction all the colors of the rainbow sparkling from the millions of pieces of ice2 but if you look in the opposite direction you see none of these colors1 but the ice looks white4 ,why is this8 ,it is because the light on one side of you strikes the ice and is reflected differently from what it is on the other side4 ,and you know that it is not after every thunder-shower that you see a rainbow4 ,the light must strike the rain1 and be reflected to your eyes in a particular way1 in order to let you see the light divided up in the rain into its seven colors in the bow4 ,you never see a rainbow if the rain is in the same direction with the sun4 ,if the sun is in the west1 the rain must be in the east to have the bow form2 so that you are between the sun and the rain1 with your back to the sun1 as you see the bow4 ,sometimes a rainbow is seen in the morning1 when a cloud comes from the east and it clears off by the cloud's passing to the west4 ,but this seldom happens1 and the rainbow is commonly seen in the latter part of the day1 the cloud coming from the west and passing off to the east4 ,questions4--,what is the color of a thing8 ,does the dyer make color8 ,what does he do8 ,what is said about changeable silk8 ,mention some other things in which we see the colors change4 ,what is said about the changes of color in different kinds of light8 ,how are the different colors of flowers made8 ,how is it when there are different colors in the same flower8 ,what is said about the shading off of colors8 ,in what sense are the colors of flowers made from the light8 ,and in what sense are they made from the sap8 ,what is said about the change of color in leaves in autumn8 ,what is said about the colors of birds and insects8 ,tell about the colors of the clouds4 ,why do we see them at morning and evening8 ,what is said about the way in which light strikes a thing and is reflected to our eyes8 ,where and in what part of the day do you commonly see the rainbow8 ,explain this4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,electricity4 ,sidenote3 ,lightning in a cat's back4 ,sidenote3 ,lighting gas4 ,when you see the lightning in a thunder-storm1 you would think it strange if ,i should tell you that there is lightning in every thing2 but so it is1 as you will see4 ,did you ever have your fingers tingle1 and hear a snapping when you stroked a cat's back8 ,this is because you waked up1 as we may say1 the lightning in her fur and in your hand together4 ,there is lightning in you as well as in the cat4 ,it only needs a little rubbing to show it4 ,i have known persons to light the gas with the lightning that is in them as readily as you would with a match4 ,they wake up or excite the lightning by walking across the carpet1 rubbing their feet on it as they go1 and then put a finger to the open gas-burner4 ,a spark of lightning goes to it from the finger and lights the gas4 ,it is in very clear cold weather that it is most easy to excite the lightning or electricity that is in different things4 ,it is then that you can make the cat's fur snap4 ,then1 too1 silk things will snap when you rub them or fold them up4 ,sidenote3 ,lightning is electricity4 ,though it is really lightning that is made by rubbing things1 we do not call it so4 ,we call it electricity4 ,we did not know that lightning and electricity were the same thing till ,dr4 ,franklin showed that they were4 ,he found it out by an experiment with a kite1 which ,i will relate to you after ,i have told you some other things about electricity4 ,you can make electricity more easily by rubbing some things than by rubbing others4 ,i have already told you how easily it is waked up on the cat's back by stroking it4 ,if you rub a stick of sealing-wax back and forth rapidly across your coat sleeve1 you wake up a good deal of electricity for so small a thing4 ,it is shown in this way3 ,if you bring the sealing-wax near some light thing like down1 this will cling to it for a moment1 and then fly off again1 as if it did not like the sealing-wax4 ,it is the electricity which you have excited that does this4 ,a good deal of electricity can be made by rubbing glass4 ,in the machine which is used in making electricity for experiments there is a large glass cylinder1 which is turned round quickly against a leather rubber that has a preparation of mercury on it4 ,sidenote3 ,description of an electrical machine4 ,illustration ,in this machine1 represented here1 a is the glass cylinder1 and b b are the wheels by which it is made to turn round4 ,these wheels are worked by the handle which you see on the lower one4 ,the rubber is pressed against the glass cylinder on the side of it that you do not see4 ,you can see the standard that holds the rubber4 ,at c is a piece of oiled silk that is fastened to the rubber1 and lies upon the glass cylinder1 serving to keep it free from dust4 ,at d you see a receiver1 as it is called1 which receives the electricity as fast as it is produced4 ,this is made of brass1 and has a glass standard1 e4 ,now1 as the machine is worked1 the electricity excited by the rubber and the glass passes off continually to this receiver1 and there it stays collected on the surface of it1 for it can not go down the standard4 ,why is this8 you will ask4 ,it is because glass1 though a very good thing to make electricity with1 is very slow to let the electricity pass over it4 ,i shall tell you more about this soon4 ,sidenote3 ,electricity in the receiver4 ,well1 here is the electricity all over this receiver4 ,it stays there because it can not get away4 ,it is ready to go whenever it can get a chance4 ,you would find this out if you should put your finger near that knob that you see on the end of the receiver4 ,almost all of the electricity in the receiver would pass through your finger into your body1 and give you a shock2 and if there was much electricity in the receiver1 the shock would be harder than you would wish to bear4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how a person can be a receiver4 ,now a person can act as a receiver and be charged with electricity just as this brass receiver is4 ,it can be done in this way4 ,the person stands on a stool1 such as you see here4 ,the top of this1 a1 is wood1 and the legs1 c1 c1 are glass4 ,these glass legs answer for him as the glass standard does for the receiver of the machine4 ,they prevent the electricity that he gets from passing off4 ,if he stood on the floor1 it would pass to the floor as fast as it came to him4 ,as he stands on this stool1 he holds in his hand a chain that is fastened to the knob on the end of the brass receiver4 ,you can see now what will happen when the machine is worked4 ,the electricity that goes from the glass cylinder to the receiver does not all stay there1 but most of it goes on through the chain to the person on the stool4 ,it can not get from him to the floor1 for the glass legs prevent this4 ,therefore1 after working the machine some time1 he becomes filled with electricity1 just as the brass receiver does on its glass standard1 and you can receive a shock from him1 for he is now a receiver4 ,if you put your finger to his nose1 or chin1 or any other part1 the electricity will pass to you with a spark1 and will give you a shock4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how electricity affects the hair4 ,a curious effect is produced on the hair when one is thus charged with electricity4 ,the hair stands out straight4 ,this effect is seen in a very amusing way by having a figure of a head with hair on it fastened to the receiver4 ,the hair will stand out as you see here4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,bottling it up in the ,leyden jar4 ,the electricity that is collected on the brass receiver can be taken off and be bottled up1 as we may say1 so as to be convenient for use4 ,this can be done with what is called the ,leyden jar1 as represented here4 ,this is a glass jar coated inside and out with tin foil to within a few inches of the top4 ,then there is a knob on the end of a wire that extends down into the jar4 ,now see how we do this bottling up of the electricity4 ,the knob of the jar is held close to the knob of the receiver as the machine is worked4 ,the electricity1 therefore1 passes to the knob of the jar1 and by the wire to all the inside of the jar where the tin foil is4 ,it can not get outside1 because it can not pass over or through the glass4 ,so1 then1 the electricity is shut up in the jar1 but it is ready to come out when it has a way made for it to come4 ,if the inside foil and the outside foil be connected together by something that will let the electricity pass through it1 it will come out of the jar4 ,you can be that something if you please4 ,if you put one hand on the tin foil on the outside1 and touch the other to the knob on the end of the wire1 the electricity will come out by the wire1 and give you a shock in your wrists1 and elbows1 and chest4 ,sidenote3 ,taking shocks from the jar4 ,a great many persons can take a shock in this way at the same time4 ,suppose there are a hundred persons standing in a ring and taking hold of each other's hands4 ,let there be two in this ring that do not have hold of each other4 ,now1 if one of these touches the jar on the outside1 and the other touches the knob1 the whole hundred will feel a shock at the same time1 for the electricity will go through them all around the whole ring as quick as lightning1 as we say2 and it is1 in this case1 really so1 for the electricity is lightning4 ,and so1 when in the telegraph the electricity passes along the wire1 it takes almost no time for it to go very great distances4 ,sidenote3 ,an electrical battery4 ,illustration ,sometimes a great deal of electricity is collected in a number of these jars1 which are connected together in such a way that the electricity can be discharged from them all at once4 ,a collection of jars thus connected1 as represented here1 is called an electrical battery4 ,there is need of great care in experimenting with a battery2 for if1 when the jars are well filled1 they should all be discharged into any one1 he would be killed in the same way that one is who is struck with lightning4 ,sidenote3 ,electrical batteries in some animals4 ,you remember that ,i told you1 in ,part ,second1 ,chapter ,,xxv41 that there are some animals that have electrical machines or batteries in them4 ,there are only a few such animals1 and they are great curiosities4 ,they can fire off their batteries when they please1 but exactly how they do it we do not know4 ,these batteries are more nicely and curiously made than any that man makes1 and have much more power4 ,they are so small that it is wonderful that they can give such severe shocks4 ,questions4--,why does the fur of a cat sometimes snap when it is stroked8 ,how can some persons light the gas by their electricity8 ,when is the best time to wake up electricity8 ,who discovered that lightning and electricity were the same thing8 ,what things will give out electricity easily when rubbed8 ,describe the electrical machine4 ,why does the electricity stay on the receiver8 ,what will happen if you put your finger near the knob on the end of it8 ,tell how a person can be made to act as a receiver4 ,why can not the electricity go from him into the floor8 ,tell about taking shocks from him4 ,what effect is produced on his hair8 ,tell how electricity can be bottled up4 ,how can you get it out of the bottle again8 ,tell how a great many persons can take a shock from the jar at the same time4 ,what is said about the quickness with which electricity goes8 ,what is an electrical battery8 ,what is said about electricity in some animals8 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,more ,,about ,,electricity4 ,electricity passes through some things more easily than it does through others4 ,those that it passes through easily are said to be good conductors of electricity4 ,there are some things that let so very little pass through or over them that they are called non-conductors4 ,such are glass and silk4 ,the different metals1 copper1 silver1 iron1 etc41 are good conductors4 ,sidenote3 ,the supports of lightning-rods and telegraph wires4 ,you have seen how a lightning-rod is fastened to a house4 ,it rests against pieces of wood4 ,observe what the object of this is4 ,iron lets the electricity or lightning pass much more easily than the wood does4 ,now1 if the rod was fastened to the house by iron supports1 the lightning1 as it came down the rod1 might go into the house by some of these supports1 instead of going down by the rod into the ground4 ,the iron is called a good conductor1 while the wood is a poor conductor4 ,glass is a poorer conductor still4 ,it is so poor a conductor that it is called a non-conductor1 as ,i have before told you4 ,it is for this reason that the telegraph wires are fastened to glass knobs on the posts4 ,the object is to have all the electricity go along on the wires1 and not let any of it escape down the posts4 ,if a very little of it should escape down each post1 by the time it came to the end of the journey there might not be enough left to do any good4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,dr4 ,franklin experimenting with his kite4 ,silk1 ,i have told you1 is one of the non-conductors4 ,dr4 ,franklin made use of silk in the experiment by which he discovered that lightning and electricity are the same thing4 ,he managed in this way3 ,he made his kite of a large silk handkerchief instead of paper4 ,he had on it a pointed iron wire1 and the string of the kite was fastened to this wire4 ,this kite he sent up in a thunder-storm1 when there was a plenty of electricity in the clouds4 ,the iron wire would of course receive some of the electricity1 and it would not go from the wire to the kite1 because that was made of silk1 which1 you know1 is a non-conductor4 ,it would go down the string1 this being tied to the wire4 ,passing down the string1 it would go to ,dr4 ,franklin's hand1 and down his body into the earth4 ,it would do this silently1 because it would keep going a little at a time all the while4 ,but he managed to prevent the electricity from coming to his hand4 ,he stopped it on the way4 ,he did this by tying a silk ribbon to the hemp string1 and holding the kite by this ribbon1 as you see in the picture4 ,the electricity could not go through this silk1 and so it staid in the hemp string4 ,sidenote3 ,how ,dr4 ,franklin drew the lightning down from the clouds4 ,dr4 ,franklin now fastened a key to the end of the hemp string4 ,a great deal of the electricity now passed to the key1 because the metal of which the key was made was so good a conductor4 ,it was a much better conductor than the string1 and so the electricity1 as we may say1 spread all over it4 ,it was a real receiver of the electricity1 like the brass receiver of the electrical machine4 ,accordingly1 when ,franklin put his knuckle near the key1 he received a shock from it1 just as one does from the knob of the brass receiver4 ,after a little time it began to rain1 and then the shocks were harder4 ,the reason was1 that the string1 when wet1 was a better conductor than when dry1 and so the electricity came on it faster to the key4 ,in this way ,dr4 ,franklin drew the lightning down from the clouds in so small a quantity that he could find out what it was4 ,he found that it was just the same as the electricity that we make by the electrical machine1 and he could bottle it up in the same way that we do the electricity from the brass receiver4 ,this he could do by holding the ,leyden jar with its brass knob to the key4 ,the electricity would go into it just as it does from the receiver when we are working the machine4 ,sidenote3 ,what ,franklin proved4 ,before ,franklin tried this experiment with his kite it was supposed that the lightning was electricity1 but it was only supposition4 ,no one knew that it was so4 ,it was never proved till ,franklin sent up his silk kite to find out about it4 ,it was supposed that lightning was electricity simply because the effects of lightning were similar to the effects of the electricity of the machine when a great deal of this electricity was made4 ,experiments were tried which showed that the machine electricity1 when there was enough of it1 tore things to pieces1 and killed animals1 just as lightning does2 but the difficulty was that no one had ever seen what a little of the lightning would do4 ,this ,franklin found out by bringing some of it down out of the clouds by the string of his kite1 and bottling it up for use in the ,leyden jar4 ,before his experiments nothing was known about lightning except as it was seen in large quantities going from cloud to cloud1 or coming down to the earth and shivering a tree1 or plowing up the ground1 or perhaps killing some animal or some man4 ,nothing was known of it in a small way until ,franklin showed us so much about it by his experiments4 ,sidenote3 ,suggested the use of lightning-rods4 ,sidenote3 ,lightning-rods protect in two ways4 ,it was these experiments of ,dr4 ,franklin that suggested the use of lightning-rods4 ,these rods protect houses in two ways4 ,one way is this3 ,if the lightning comes down directly toward a house in a considerable quantity1 instead of striking the house1 it will go down the rod into the ground4 ,another way in which the rod affords protection is this3 ,sometimes the lightning or electricity goes down the rod from the clouds above in a continual stream of very small quantity1 just as it went down the string of ,franklin's kite4 ,a cloud with a great deal of electricity in it often has it discharged in this quiet way4 ,sidenote3 ,use of the points on them4 ,you know that there are points on the ends of lightning-rods4 ,these are to receive the electricity4 ,it will go to them better than it would to a blunt rod4 ,we know that this is so in working the electrical machine described on page #ade4 ,instead of having simply the blunt end of the receiver near the rubber1 there are points on that end of it to receive the electricity as fast as it is made4 ,questions4--,what things are called good conductors of electricity8 ,what are called non-conductors8 ,why are lightning-rods supported against a building by pieces of wood8 ,why are telegraph wires fastened to glass knobs on the posts8 ,how did ,franklin make his kite8 ,why did he make it of silk instead of paper8 ,how did he prevent the electricity that came down the string from going through him into the ground8 ,why was the key so good a receiver of electricity8 ,tell about his taking shocks from it4 ,why were the shocks stronger after it began to rain8 ,how did he bottle up the electricity that he thus drew from the clouds8 ,why was it supposed before his experiment that electricity and lightning were the same thing8 ,why was it not known to be so8 ,in what two ways do lightning-rods protect houses8 ,why are lightning-rods pointed8 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,magnetism4 ,sidenote3 ,the loadstone4 ,in some parts of the world a kind of iron ore is found which is called loadstone4 ,it has a peculiar power4 ,it attracts iron very strongly4 ,hold it close to some iron filings1 and they will cling to it in quite a cluster as you raise it up2 so1 also1 you can take up with it a great many needles1 and if it be a large piece of the ore1 it will hold up a very heavy weight4 ,this powder which the loadstone has we call magnetism4 ,now this power in the loadstone can be communicated to iron and steel4 ,if a loadstone be moved along in a particular way on a piece of iron or steel several times1 the iron or steel will receive this power1 and will act as a magnet1 just as the loadstone does4 ,common iron will not keep the power long1 but steel will4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,how common magnets are made4 ,most of the magnets that we see are not real loadstone1 but they are steel that has been magnetized by the loadstone4 ,they are commonly made in a horse-shoe shape1 as represented here4 ,they will hold up a considerable weight of iron1 and sometimes twenty-eight times their own weight2 and it is curious that a magnet which holds a weight all the time will have its power increased4 ,there is no tiring out of its power2 and1 on the contrary1 if you give a magnet nothing to do1 its power will grow weak--it will not be able to hold up so much weight as it did at first4 ,it is for this reason that magnets are never left without a weight hanging to them4 ,sidenote3 ,toy fishes and ducks moved by a magnet4 ,you have perhaps often been amused in making toy fishes or ducks swim about in the water with a little magnet4 ,you have seen how readily they follow the magnet1 and how quickly they spring forward to hold on to it1 if you happen to put it very near them4 ,this is because each has a little piece of steel in its mouth which is attracted by the magnet4 ,sidenote3 ,strangeness of the magnetic power4 ,how very strange this power of the magnet is6 ,it is not any thing that you can see1 and yet there the power is4 ,you see what it does4 ,this unseen power in the magnet takes hold of things and draws them to it1 as our hand1 that we see1 takes hold of things and draws them to us4 ,how it does this we do not understand4 ,this power does not seem to do much at any distance from the magnet4 ,if you hold your little magnet quite away from the toy duck or fish1 it will not make it move2 but bring it near1 and now you see it follows the magnet all about2 and if you bring it very near1 the little thing1 as quick as a wink1 darts forward and clings to the magnet very firmly4 ,so1 too1 if you bring an iron weight slowly nearer and nearer to a large magnet1 there does not seem to be any influence from the magnet upon it till you bring it very near1 and then all at once away goes the weight out of your hand to cling to the magnet4 ,it is as if the magnet had very short hands that could not reach far2 but so far as they do reach1 they are very strong and hold fast4 ,whenever you get a chance to see a magnet of considerable size1 you can try this experiment4 ,sidenote3 ,the mariner's compass4 ,sidenote3 ,how to make one in a simple way4 ,you have heard of the mariner's compass1 but perhaps it has never been explained to you4 ,there is a slender piece of steel in this compass which always points to the north4 ,it is balanced on a pivot1 so that it can move around easily to the one side or the other4 ,however much it is jostled1 however much you may turn the box of the compass round1 this needle is always tremblingly but surely pointing one way4 ,this needle is a magnetized piece of steel4 ,we may consider the whole earth1 with all its loadstone and iron1 as a great magnet1 and it is the influence of the earth upon the magnetic needle that makes it always point to the north4 ,you can at any time make a mariner's compass in a very simple way4 ,all that you need is a magnetized needle1 a piece of cork1 and a bowl of water4 ,put the cork in the water1 and lay the needle across it1 and the needle will point north and south4 ,you see how this is4 ,the cork moves so readily in the water that the needle in getting right can turn it as is needed4 ,it will turn almost as easily as the needle does on its pivot in the compasses that are made4 ,sidenote3 ,st4 ,paul's voyage4 ,the mariner's compass1 you can see1 must be of great use to the mariner4 ,when he is far out at sea1 where no land can be seen1 he always knows by this which way north is1 and so he judges how to direct his vessel in order to reach the desired port4 ,if it were always sunshine1 he would do very well without the compass1 for he could tell by the sun which way was north1 and south1 and east1 and west2 but in stormy weather and in the night he would be at a loss4 ,at such times1 by looking at his ever faithful compass1 he knows in what direction to steer his vessel4 ,you remember about the voyage and shipwreck of the apostle ,paul1 related in the #bgth chapter of ,acts4 ,nothing was known about the mariner's compass then4 ,so 8when neither sun nor stars in many days appeared10 they did not know all this time where the wind was carrying them4 ,perhaps if they had had a compass on board they could have kept the ship from going ashore and being dashed to pieces4 ,sidenote3 ,electricity and magnetism in the telegraph4 ,magnetism often has a great deal to do with electricity1 and some persons suppose them to be the same thing4 ,electricity may wake up the magnetic power to even a wonderful degree4 ,in ,morse's telegraph there are both electrical machinery and magnetic machinery4 ,the electricity that comes over the wires excites the magnetic machinery1 and it is this magnetism that delivers the message sent by the electricity4 ,just how this operates you can understand better when you are a little older4 ,questions4--,what is loadstone8 ,what peculiar power has it8 ,to what can it communicate this power8 ,what are the magnets in common use8 ,why is a weight always kept hanging to a magnet8 ,tell about the toy fishes and ducks4 ,what is said about the strangeness of the magnetic power8 ,does it do much at any distance from the magnet8 ,give the illustrations4 ,what is the mariner's compass8 ,how can you make one8 ,what makes the needle always point to the north8 ,how is the mariner's compass of use at sea8 ,tell about ,st4 ,paul's shipwreck4 ,what effect does electricity often produce upon magnetism8 ,how is it in ,morse's telegraph8 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,gravitation4 ,if ,i should ask you why things in the air fall to the ground1 you would probably say it is because it is downward1 and every thing must come down that is not held up in some way4 ,but what is down1 and what is up8 ,this ,i will explain to you4 ,sidenote3 ,how it is known that the earth is round4 ,the earth1 as perhaps you know1 is as round as an orange1 and people can travel around it just as you can pass your finger around over the orange4 ,this1 indeed1 was one of the ways in which it was found to be round4 ,another proof of its being round is this3 ,as you see a ship go out to sea1 if you watch it for a long time1 after a while the body of the ship will go out of sight1 and you will see nothing but the sails1 and then the sails will gradually go out of sight also4 ,what does this prove8 ,why1 that the water is not flat1 as it appears to be to us1 but that it makes a part of the rounded surface of the earth4 ,this figure will make this plain to you4 ,the eye that is represented sees the whole ship at b2 but when it gets as far as a1 the eye can see only the streamer at the top of the mast4 ,illustration ,the reason that we do not see that the earth is round is that we are so small and the earth is so large4 ,we see that a globe is round1 but it probably seems flat to any little fly that lights upon it1 just as the earth does to us4 ,sidenote3 ,what is up and what is down4 ,you can see1 then1 that as the earth is round1 what is down to people on the other side of the earth is up to us4 ,if a boy there throw up a ball at the same time that you throw up one here1 the two balls fall toward each other when they come to the ground4 ,sidenote3 ,figure illustrating this4 ,what we call down1 then1 is simply toward the ground1 or1 rather1 it is toward the middle of the earth1 for we say down in a well or down in the ground4 ,indeed1 if any thing could keep on in the same line in which it falls1 it would go right to the centre of the earth4 ,if the ball which you throw up and the ball thrown up by a boy on the other side of the earth should keep on in the ground in the same direction that they fall1 they would meet exactly at the earth's centre4 ,this is represented in this figure4 ,the circle represents the round earth4 ,the lines drawn from the two falling balls to the middle of the circle show how they would come together at the centre of the earth if they could keep on1 instead of being stopped when they reach the ground4 ,and all the things that are falling any where on the earth are going toward the same point4 ,illustration ,now why is this8 ,what is it that makes things in the air come to the ground when they are not held up8 ,they do not come down of themselves4 ,they are drawn down4 ,the earth attracts or draws them4 ,how it does this we do not know4 ,we can not see how it is done1 but the earth does it as really as if we could see it put up a hand and pull things down4 ,sidenote3 ,attraction not a thing that we can see4 ,there are other kinds of attraction that operate in a way that we can not see nor understand4 ,there is the attraction of magnetism4 ,if1 as ,i have told you in the last chapter1 you bring a magnet toward a piece of iron or steel1 for example a needle1 when you get it quite near1 all at once the needle will go to the magnet and stick to it4 ,you can not see any thing between the magnet and the needle to draw the needle to it4 ,you only know that the needle is drawn or attracted1 but you do not know how this is done4 ,it is just so with this attraction which the earth has for all things1 drawing them to it4 ,you can not see any thing any more than you can in the case of the magnet and the needle1 but the attraction is as real as if you could see it4 ,you can see what it does1 as you can see what is done by the attraction of magnetism4 ,this attraction is called the attraction of gravitation4 ,it is stronger with some things than it is with others4 ,when any thing is drawn strongly to the earth1 we say that it is very heavy2 but when a thing is not strongly attracted1 we say that it is light4 ,when you take hold of a stone to raise it up1 you have this attraction of the earth acting against you4 ,this is pulling the stone down while your muscles are trying to raise it4 ,if the stone is very large1 the earth attracts it so strongly that the force of your muscles can not overcome the attraction4 ,if the earth would only stop pulling upon the stone1 you could raise it easily enough4 ,sidenote3 ,attraction the cause of weight4 ,you see1 then1 what weight is4 ,it is the pressure made by a thing as the earth draws or attracts it to itself4 ,the stronger this attraction is1 the greater is the pressure--that is1 the weight4 ,if you lay a foot-ball upon your foot1 you scarcely feel the pressure of it2 but if you lay a stone of the same size upon your foot1 it presses very hard4 ,the reason is1 that the stone is drawn toward the earth much more strongly than the foot-ball4 ,the foot-ball is drawn lightly1 and so presses a little2 but the stone is drawn much1 and so presses a great deal4 ,your foot1 being between the stone and the earth1 is pressed by the stone as the earth draws it to itself4 ,it is just as you would be pressed if you were between me and some one that ,i was drawing toward me4 ,the reason that the stone is attracted more strongly1 or has more weight1 than the foot-ball is1 that there is more substance to it--that is1 the particles in it are closer together4 ,so lead or iron is heavier than wood1 because the wood is much more porous3 you can see pores and spaces in it1 while you can not in the lead and iron4 ,you remember what ,i told you about the hot-air balloon4 ,this has not as much weight as it would have if it were full of cold air4 ,the reason is1 that the particles of cold air are closer together than the particles of hot air2 for1 you know1 heat swells air--that is1 it puts its particles farther apart4 ,if you drop a bag of feathers1 it falls to the ground because the earth attracts it4 ,if1 now1 you drop a stone upon this bag1 it sinks down in the midst of it1 because the earth attracts it much more strongly than it does the loose feathers4 ,it is for the same reason that a stone sinks in water4 ,the earth attracts the stone more than it does the water4 ,sidenote3 ,why light things rise in the air and in the water4 ,wood will not sink in water as the stone does1 for it is not drawn down to the earth as hard as the water is2 but wood will fall through air to the ground1 because the wood is attracted by the earth more strongly than the air is4 ,if you put a block of wood down in the water1 and then let it go1 it rises to the surface4 ,why is this8 ,it is because the water1 being more strongly drawn down by the earth than the wood1 pushes the wood up out of the way4 ,it is for the same reason that the balloon filled with hot air or with light gas rises4 ,it is not attracted to the earth as much as the cool air around it is1 and so it is pushed up out of the way4 ,every thing1 you see1 then1 is attracted by the earth4 ,the air itself is kept close to the earth by this attraction4 ,it makes a sea1 as we may say1 all around the earth about forty-five miles deep4 ,beyond that there is no air except around some of the other worlds that we see far off in the sky4 ,now the air would fly off and spread every where among the stars if the earth did not attract it and thus keep it around itself4 ,the air moves about freely like the water1 but it can not fly away from the earth any more than the water can4 ,the earth keeps both its air and water all to itself by attraction4 ,sidenote3 ,every thing tries to get as close to the earth as possible4 ,every thing gets as close to the earth as it can1 because every thing is attracted by the earth4 ,there is nothing that is of itself disposed to go up1 but every thing1 even the air1 is pressing down1 the heaviest always getting the lowest if it can1 and there is sometimes a sort of strife as to which shall be lowest4 ,when a stone is put upon a heap of feathers1 the earth pulls upon it so much harder than it does on the feathers that the stone presses to get through them to the earth2 but as it can not thrust them out of the way1 it crushes them down in the struggle to get below them4 ,the struggle is a different one with the stone in water4 ,the water clings to the earth1 but it is easily pushed away by the stone as it tries to get below the water4 ,even in the going up of a balloon you can see the same struggle4 ,it would stay down if it could4 ,it goes up1 as ,i have before told you1 simply because the cold air about it1 being more strongly attracted by the earth than the balloon is1 tries to get below the balloon4 ,if the cold air could be taken away1 the balloon would stay down1 for the same reason that a block of wood would remain in the bottom of a bowl if there were no water in it4 ,the block1 attracted by the earth1 will stay as near the earth as it can4 ,the water pushes it up because it is attracted by the earth more than the block is1 and for the same reason the air pushes up the balloon4 ,questions4--,what is the common idea about the falling of things to the ground8 ,what is one of the proofs that the earth is round8 ,what is another proof8 ,why can not we see that the earth is round8 ,what is meant by down and up8 ,tell what is represented by the figure4 ,what is it that makes things fall to the ground8 ,give the comparison about the attraction of magnetism4 ,what is said about the earth's attracting some things more strongly than others8 ,what is weight8 ,explain by telling about the foot-ball and the stone4 ,why is the stone attracted more strongly than the foot-ball8 ,why are lead and iron heavier than wood8 ,why is a hot-air balloon lighter than the air around it8 ,tell about the feathers and the stone4 ,why will not wood sink in water as stone does8 ,give the comparison between the block of wood and the balloon4 ,what is said about the earth's attracting the air8 ,is there any thing that does not press down8 ,which always gets the lowest if it can8 ,tell about the stone put on the feathers and dropped in the water4 ,give the comparison between the balloon and the block of wood in a bowl4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,the ,,motion ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,sidenote3 ,why a ball thrown up comes down4 ,when a boy throws a ball up into the air1 he thinks that it comes down of itself4 ,he thinks that it comes down merely because the force with which he sent it up is spent or lost2 but this is not so4 ,it is pulled down4 ,the earth pulls it down4 ,the earth is pulling upon it all the time as it goes up1 and gradually overcomes the force with which he threw it up4 ,there is another thing that helps to overcome the force by which the ball is sent up4 ,it is the resistance of the air4 ,as the ball goes up1 it has to spend a part of its force in pushing the air away to make a path for itself4 ,these two things--the pulling of the earth and the resistance of the air--gradually stop the going up of the ball4 ,if there was no air1 and if the earth would let the ball go1 instead of drawing upon it1 it would not come down4 ,it would fly off out of sight2 and more than that1 it would never stop till something stopped it4 ,it could never stop of itself4 ,this1 perhaps1 seems strange to you2 but look at it4 ,a ball1 you know1 has no power4 ,it lies still if you do not touch it4 ,it can not move itself1 and1 for the same reason1 it can not stop itself4 ,once set it agoing1 and it would move on forever if it was not stopped by something4 ,sidenote3 ,matter can not move itself or stop itself4 ,this is true of all matter that is not alive4 ,you can set yourself in motion1 and stop yourself1 for you are alive2 but common dead matter can do neither4 ,it moves because it is moved1 and it stops because it is stopped by something4 ,sidenote3 ,how fast the earth moves4 ,now the earth is a ball that is always moving4 ,it never stops for an instant1 but is all the time rolling on around and around the sun4 ,god a long time ago set it agoing1 and it never has been still since4 ,it takes a year for it to go round the sun2 and how fast do you think it goes8 ,about #fh1jjj miles an hour--that is1 over a thousand miles every minute4 ,this is two thousand times as fast as the cars go when they are going very fast indeed4 ,what a ride we are taking on this round ball of earth6 ,sidenote3 ,why it does not seem to us to move4 ,but you will ask why it is that we do not feel any thing of this motion1 or know something about it1 just as we do about the motion of traveling4 ,the reason of this is very easily seen4 ,just observe how it is that you know about the motion in traveling4 ,you see trees1 houses1 fences1 etc41 as you pass by them4 ,you feel the air as you go through it4 ,if the motion is uneven1 you feel it4 ,it is by these things that you know that you are moving along4 ,but as we are carried along on the earth as it goes around the sun1 there are none of these things to let us know that we are moving4 ,every thing goes along with us--trees1 houses1 fences1 and every thing else4 ,we do not go through the air1 but the air goes along with us4 ,then1 too1 the motion is very even4 ,the earth is not jostled and jarred in its course4 ,sometimes1 when you are riding in the cars1 you hardly seem to move at all1 though you may be really going very fast4 ,the reason of this is plain4 ,first1 the motion is very even2 then the air that is in the car goes along with you1 though the air that is outside does not2 and the people in the car that you are looking at are going along with you also4 ,sidenote3 ,illustrations from the motion of cars in traveling4 ,but the moment you look out of the car window you know that the cars are going quite rapidly1 because you see that you are going so fast by the trees and houses4 ,so1 too1 if the cars come to a place where the rails are not so even1 the irregular motion lets you know that you are going fast4 ,sometimes1 when you seem to be going along quite moderately1 because the rails are so even and the road is so straight1 all at once you seem to be twitched along with a very sudden1 quick start4 ,it seems to you as if the cars suddenly went a great deal faster1 but it is not so4 ,the cars are really moving no faster than before4 ,a turn in the road makes it seem so1 because it makes the motion irregular instead of even4 ,now1 if the motion of the cars were perfectly even1 and you did not look out1 you would not know that they were moving at all4 ,just so it is with the earth4 ,its motion is so even that we do not feel that it moves at all1 though it is carrying us two thousand times as fast as the cars carry us when they are going thirty-four miles in an hour4 ,it is true that we look away from the earth as we are riding along on it just as we look out of the cars2 but the sun1 and moon1 and stars that we see are so far off that we can not tell by looking at them that the earth is moving4 ,it seems to us to be standing still4 ,for the same reason1 the cars do not seem to be moving if you look at things a great way off1 instead of those that are near by4 ,sidenote3 ,mistakes about the earth's motion4 ,a great many mistakes have been made about the motion of the earth1 for things are not always as they appear to be4 ,it seems to us as if the earth did not move at all2 while the sun1 and moon1 and stars seem to move1 because they are not always in the same direction from us4 ,we look one way for them at one time1 and another way at another time4 ,now they do move1 but not in the way that they appear to us4 ,the sun seems to rise1 and go up and up1 and then go down in the west4 ,but this is not so4 ,this is all owing to a motion of the earth that ,i have not yet told you about4 ,as the earth goes round the sun1 it also turns every day around on itself4 ,it is this motion that makes day and night for us4 ,as the earth thus rolls over1 where the sun shines upon it it is day1 and where it does not shine upon it it is night4 ,sidenote3 ,its two motions illustrated4 ,the earth1 then1 has two motions4 ,first1 it goes round the sun4 ,this1 as ,i have told you1 takes a year2 but in every twenty-four hours it turns over also4 ,this is its second motion4 ,it performs this #cfe times while it is doing the first motion once4 ,these two motions can be made plain to you with a candle and some round thing1 as an orange4 ,let the candle represent the sun4 ,carry the orange around it in a circle1 and this will represent the earth going round the sun4 ,now1 by turning the orange so that the candle will shine upon one part of it1 and then upon another1 and so on all around it1 you will see how the second motion of the earth is done1 and how night and day are made4 ,any thing that you do not quite understand about this your teacher will explain to you4 ,sidenote3 ,leap-year explained4 ,the earth1 ,i have told you1 turns around on itself #cfe times in a year4 ,but there is one thing about this that ,i must mention to you4 ,it takes about six hours over the #cfe days for the earth to go round the sun4 ,now what is done with this six hours in reckoning the year8 ,it is managed in this way4 ,it is a quarter part of twenty-four hours1 or a day1 and so1 to make the reckoning come right1 a day is added every fourth year4 ,it is added to the month of ,february4 ,every fourth year this month has twenty-nine days instead of twenty-eight1 and the year is called leap year4 ,sidenote3 ,idea of a boy4 ,sidenote3 ,galileo4 ,astronomers have discovered a great many things about the shape and the motions of the earth4 ,before these were understood1 people supposed that the earth was still1 and was flat instead of round1 and that the sun really rose in the east and set in the west2 and it seems so to every body now that has not learned what the astronomers have discovered4 ,a bright little boy said to a lady who was teaching him about the earth1 ,you don't mean to say that the world is round8 ,i know that it isn't4 ,i can see that it is flat with my own eyes4 ,she assured him that the earth was round1 but he could not believe it1 and replied1 ,well1 ,i shall ask my father1 for gentlemen commonly know more about such things than ladies do4 ,you will think it strange when ,i tell you that1 a little more than two hundred years ago1 people generally believed as this little boy did1 and that they put a learned man1 named ,galileo1 into prison because he said that the earth was round1 and that it went around the sun4 ,sidenote3 ,why we see only a part of the moon most of the time4 ,illustration ,you will want to know something about the motion of the moon4 ,as the earth goes round the sun1 so the moon moves around the earth4 ,it takes a little less than a month for it to get round the earth1 and it goes around it about thirteen times a year4 ,as ,i have told you in another chapter1 the silvery light which the moon sheds upon us is the light of the sun reflected by the moon4 ,why it is that only a part of the moon shines upon us much of the time1 ,i will explain to you4 ,when there is a new moon1 as it is termed1 the moon is in such a position that we can see only a little of that part of it which the sun shines upon4 ,but when the moon is at the full1 it is in such a position that we see all of it that is lighted up by the sun4 ,so when the moon quarters1 as it is expressed1 we see but a half of the lighted portion1 and so on4 ,all this is made plain by this figure4 ,s is the sun1 ,e is the earth1 and a1 b1 c1 c41 the moon in different positions4 ,when the moon is at a we can not see any of it1 because it is between the earth and the sun4 ,the sun shines upon the half of the moon that is toward it1 and this half is now all away from our sight4 ,as it leaves a we see a little of it1 and a little more every night2 and when it gets to b we see a quarter of the part which the sun shines upon4 ,then1 when it comes to c1 we see half of it4 ,when it is at d we see rather more than half3 it is then called gibbous4 ,when it is at e we can see the whole of the lighted-up part1 and so the moon is full4 ,then at f it is gibbous again1 and at g half moon4 ,sidenote3 ,eclipse of the moon explained4 ,illustration ,and now you will want to know how an eclipse of the moon happens4 ,this ,i can make plain to you by this figure4 ,a ,b is the sun1 ,c ,d the earth1 which is smaller than the sun1 and ,m the moon1 which is much smaller than the earth4 ,now1 as the sun shines upon the earth1 there is a dark shadow beyond the earth1 as represented4 ,when the moon1 therefore1 happens to pass through this shadow1 it is in the dark1 and no one on the earth can see it till it comes out from the shadow4 ,while it is in the shadow there is an eclipse1 as it is termed4 ,questions4--,what two things gradually stop the going up of a ball in the air8 ,could the ball stop of itself8 ,why can you set yourself going and stop yourself8 ,how is it with dead matter8 ,what is said about the earth8 ,how fast does it move8 ,how do you know about the motion in traveling8 ,why is it that sometimes1 when the cars are going quite fast1 you scarcely seem to be moving at all8 ,how is it if you look out8 ,how is it if the cars come to a place where the rails are uneven1 or where there is a turn in the road8 ,give the comparison about looking out of the cars and looking away from the earth4 ,tell about the mistakes that have been made about the motion of the earth4 ,how is it that day and night are made8 ,tell about the two motions of the earth4 ,describe how you would make these plain with a candle and an orange4 ,why is a day added to every fourth year1 making it leap year8 ,what did people suppose about the earth and sun before astronomers found out so much about them8 ,give the anecdote of the little boy4 ,tell about ,galileo4 ,tell about the motion of the moon4 ,tell about the new moon and the full moon4 ,tell about the eclipse of the moon4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,friction4 ,friction sometimes assists motion1 and sometimes lessens or prevents it4 ,i will tell you about this in this chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,walking on ice4 ,when one is walking on ice1 he finds that he must be careful1 and he gets along slowly4 ,the reason is that there is not enough rubbing or friction between his feet and the ice4 ,when he walks on the ground1 the friction between his feet and the ground keeps him from slipping1 and he walks along with perfect ease4 ,if sand or ashes be thrown upon the ice1 the difficulty is removed1 for this makes a friction that keeps him from slipping4 ,sidenote3 ,sleighing4 ,sidenote3 ,sliding down hill4 ,how swiftly the horse carries the sleigh along on the trodden snow6 ,it is because there is so little friction on the smooth iron shoes of the runners2 but let him come to a spot of bare ground1 and he has to tug very hard to draw the sleigh along1 because there is so much friction4 ,you can not slide down hill on your sled when the ground is bare1 simply because the friction is so great2 but you can roll down on any thing that has wheels1 because there is less friction with wheels than with runners4 ,in carrying heavy loads in carts down steep hills1 there is a contrivance1 which perhaps you have seen1 to keep the carts from going down too fast4 ,at the top of the hill the teamster stops his team1 and fastens upon one of the wheels an iron shoe in such a way as to keep the wheel from turning round4 ,the rubbing of this wheel with its shoe upon the ground makes the load go down slowly1 and therefore safely4 ,sidenote3 ,driving-wheels of the locomotive4 ,it is the steam in the locomotive that makes it go4 ,did you ever think how it does this8 ,it is by friction4 ,this ,i will explain to you4 ,you see the large wheels of the locomotive4 ,these are called the driving-wheels1 because it is the whirling round of these that makes the locomotive go4 ,these wheels are whirled around by the steam machinery1 as you can plainly see4 ,it is different with the small wheels4 ,they turn because the locomotive goes4 ,it is just as the wheels of a carriage turn round when the horse draws it along4 ,so the large wheels are to the locomotive what a horse is to a carriage1 while the small wheels do as the common wheels of a carriage do4 ,sidenote3 ,frosty rails4 ,now see how it is that the driving-wheels carry along the locomotive4 ,they do it by their rubbing on the rails of the road4 ,if the rails and the wheels were very smooth indeed1 the locomotive would not get along so well4 ,we sometimes see this in a frosty morning1 when the rails are very slippery4 ,with the rails so smooth1 the wheels slip2 and they slip back as readily as forward1 just as it is with any one walking on the ice4 ,they sometimes throw some sand on the rails when they are icy to give the locomotive a start1 as people scatter sand and ashes on icy sidewalks that they may walk easily on them4 ,after the wheels of a locomotive are once well started on the frosty rails1 they will go well enough4 ,indeed1 it is sometimes rather difficult to stop them1 because they slide along so easily1 for the motion is partly sliding and partly rolling when the rails are so smooth4 ,it is for the same reason that one can not stop easily when he is running on the ice4 ,if he is running on the ground1 he can stop very readily1 because the ground is rough1 and his feet rub upon it1 and they do not slip as they do on the ice4 ,sidenote3 ,operation of brakes4 ,the way that brakes1 as they are called1 stop a train of cars1 ,i will explain to you4 ,you know that the brakeman on each car turns around a ring-like thing as hard as he can when the signal is given to stop the cars4 ,in doing this1 he brings the brakes against the wheels of the cars1 and the rubbing soon stops them4 ,when they want to stop the cars very quickly1 they do another thing besides using the brakes4 ,they manage to make the driving-wheels of the locomotive roll backward instead of forward4 ,in this way the rubbing is backward on the rails2 and as long as the locomotive is going forward1 the wheels slide forward instead of rolling1 as they commonly do4 ,sidenote3 ,oiling machinery4 ,sidenote3 ,joints of our bodies4 ,you see that sometimes we want friction1 and sometimes the less we have of it the better4 ,we want the friction of the driving-wheels of a locomotive on the track4 ,but in the middle of these wheels1 where they turn round on their axles1 we want to have as little friction as possible4 ,it is for this reason that all the wheels of the cars and of the locomotive are kept oiled at this part4 ,so1 also1 we grease the wheels of carriages and oil the joints of machinery to lessen the friction4 ,you will recollect that in the chapter on the bones1 in ,part ,second1 ,i told you that the joints of our bodies are tipped with a very smooth substance1 and that they are kept oiled1 so that there may be little friction in their motions4 ,sidenote3 ,friction by water and air4 ,friction is not confined to solid substances4 ,any substance can make friction4 ,water can do it4 ,the rocks over which it flows1 or against which it dashes1 are worn by its constant friction1 just as the constant friction of passing feet in the course of years wears the stone steps of a building which is much frequented4 ,air1 too1 makes friction4 ,it is by friction that the air1 moving along over the smooth water1 raises it into waves2 and it is the friction of the air1 as it passes over a field of grain1 that gives it the wavy motion which makes it so beautiful4 ,sidenote3 ,earth moves round the sun without friction4 ,wherever there is motion on the earth1 it is lessened more or less by friction4 ,nothing moves without rubbing something1 but this is not so with the earth as it goes around the sun4 ,as it flies through space so swiftly1 it rubs against nothing1 not even against air1 for the air1 as ,i have told you1 goes along with it4 ,questions4--,what does friction do8 ,what is said about walking on ice8 ,what about sleighing and sliding down hill8 ,what is the contrivance for making heavily-loaded carts go down steep hills safely8 ,how does the steam make the locomotive go8 ,what is the difference between the driving-wheels and the small wheels8 ,what comparison is made about these two kinds of wheels8 ,how do the driving-wheels move the locomotive along8 ,what is said about the rails being too smooth8 ,how is the difficulty remedied8 ,how is it after the locomotive is well agoing when the rails are slippery8 ,what is the comparison about running on the ice8 ,how do brakes operate in stopping the cars8 ,what else is done when they want to stop the cars quickly8 ,what is said about greasing and oiling wheels8 ,what is said about the joints of machinery and the joints of our bodies8 ,what is said about the friction of water on rocks8 ,what about the friction of air8 ,what is true of all motion on the earth8 ,what is said about the earth as it goes around the sun8 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,conclusion4 ,sidenote3 ,very many things to be learned in this world4 ,i have thus1 in the ,three ,parts of this book1 described to you some of the wonderful things that are all around you upon the earth and in the water4 ,but there are many more things than ,i have described4 ,in this book you have only begun to learn what is in the world1 and you could not learn all if you should study all your lifetime1 and even if your life should be as long as ,methuselah's was4 ,but ,i hope that you will go on to learn as much as you can4 ,with your mind wide awake1 you will see and hear1 as you go about from day to day1 a great many interesting things that ,i have not mentioned4 ,i have told you about many things in plants2 but if you look at different plants as you meet with them1 you will soon see that you can learn much about them that you can not find any where in this book4 ,so1 also1 if you watch animals1 large and small1 as you see them1 you will find many more interesting things in them than ,i have told you4 ,and the same is true of the subjects of the ,third ,part--air1 water1 light1 etc4 ,i have only opened to you a few of the leaves in the ,book of ,nature1 and you can go on to open more of them for yourselves4 ,sidenote3 ,think while you look4 ,sidenote3 ,every fact valuable4 ,to know much about things1 you must not merely look at them4 ,you must examine them--that is1 you must think while you look4 ,you must think what this is for and what that is for4 ,in this way you can find out a great deal for yourselves4 ,you will not merely see that what ,i and others tell you is true1 but you will find out things that no one has told you1 and perhaps some things that no one has found out before you4 ,newton1 who found out so many things that men did not before know1 always thought about things as he saw them2 and so did ,franklin1 who1 as you remember1 discovered that lightning is electricity4 ,they began early1 when they were children1 to think while they looked4 ,they had a habit of doing it4 ,if they had not1 they would not have been such discoverers4 ,though perhaps none of you may ever discover as many things or as great things as they did1 any of you may make some discoveries4 ,though your discoveries may be small ones1 they are not to be despised4 ,they will be worth something4 ,every fact that is found out is of some value4 ,and if you always think while you see and hear1 you may find out for yourselves many facts1 and some of them may prove to be of great value4 ,sometimes a fact that would appear to be of no value turns out to be worth a great deal4 ,most people would not think that there was much to be learned from a hen's muddy tracks on a pile of sugar2 but1 as you remember ,i told you in ,part ,first1 ,chapter ,,xxix41 some one observed the fact that the sugar was whitened wherever the tracks were1 and thought about this fact2 and the result was that moistened clay came to be used in every sugar refinery in whitening sugar4 ,one that is in the habit of thinking while he looks will find something interesting wherever he goes4 ,he will not be obliged to go to some museum to see wonderful things1 but he will find them all about him4 ,in the most common plants and animals1 which most people do not think of much1 he will see many things to interest and astonish him2 and to him the air and the water1 and even the stones under his feet1 will be full of wonders4 ,sidenote3 ,much to be learned that is not in books4 ,you see by what ,i have said that there is a great deal to be learned that is not in books4 ,indeed1 books will not do you much good if they do not wake up in you a disposition to learn more than they tell you4 ,people that know much are not content with learning merely what they find in books1 but learn what they can from every body and from every thing4 ,they use books only as helps1 and the most of what they know they learn by observing--that is1 seeing and thinking upon what they see4 ,sidenote3 ,knowing the reasons of things4 ,it is very pleasant to know the reasons of things4 ,i have therefore told you in this book1 as ,i have gone along1 as much as ,i could do1 why things are as ,i have described them2 but you will remember that ,i have now and then said about some things that you are not old enough yet to understand them4 ,as you grow older you can learn more and more1 and so the things that you will be interested in will be all the time increasing4 ,but1 though you may keep on learning all your lives1 there are some things that you never can understand4 ,god understands the reasons of every thing1 but there are many1 very many things that the wisest of men can not explain4 ,sidenote3 ,what ,newton said about what he knew4 ,very wise men are not apt to be proud of their wisdom4 ,they commonly feel that what they know is very little when it is compared with what they do not know4 ,newton was one of the wisest men that ever lived4 ,he was so wise that he discovered more things than any other man ever has4 ,but he was very humble about his knowledge4 ,he said this about it3 ,he felt that what he knew was like a few pebbles that he had picked up on the sea-shore1 and that there was so much of what he did not know that it was like the great ocean that was before him4 ,sidenote3 ,our knowledge in another world4 ,you remember that ,i told you in ,part ,second that all that we know we learn by the senses of our bodies--the sight1 the hearing1 etc4 ,but the glorified bodies which the ,bible says that we shall have in another life will be fitted with better means of getting knowledge4 ,some things that are mysterious to us now we shall then understand4 ,we shall know more than ,newton and all the wise men of this world ever knew here1 and we shall ever be learning more and more of the wonders of ,god's power1 and wisdom1 and goodness4 ,questions4--,what is said about learning all that is in the world8 ,how can you learn about things for yourselves8 ,what is said about ,newton and ,franklin8 ,can you make some discoveries8 ,what is said about the value of facts8 ,what about finding wonders all around us8 ,how can books help you to learn more than is in them8 ,what is said about understanding the reasons of things8 ,what is said about the feelings of very wise men8 ,tell what ,newton said about his knowledge4 ,what is said about our getting knowledge in another world8 ,,the ,,end4