,transcrib]'s ,notes ,text pr9t$ 9 italics 9 ! s\rce docum5t has be5 transcrib$ betwe5 und]scores1 text pr9t$ 9 bold face betwe5 equal signs4 ,small capitals h be5 transcrib$ z ,,all ,,capitals4 ,m ,transcrib]'s ,notes may be f\nd at ! end ( ?is text4 ,,anatomy ,,( ,,! ,,cat ,,by ,,jacob ,,reigh>d ,pr(essor ( ,zoology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan ,,& ,h4 ,s4 ,,j5n+s ,in/ructor 9 ,zoology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan ,,) ,,"o ,,hundr$ ,,& ,,sev5ty-,,?ree ,,orig9al ,,figures ,,drawn ,,by ,,l\ise ,,burridge ,,j5n+s ,illu/ration ,,new ,,york ,,h5ry ,,holt ,,& ,,company #aija ,,rob]t ,,drummond1 ,,pr9t]1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,preface4 ,al?\gh ! cat has long be5 9 common use = ! practical /udy ( mammalian anatomy1 a cle>1 correct1 n too volum9\s acc\nt ( its /ructure1 su* z %\ld be 9 ! h&s ( /ud5ts 9 ! laboratory1 has rema9$ a desid]atum4 ,a numb] ( works h be5 publi%$ on ! cat1 "s ( !m ( mu* value1 yet !re is none :i* fulfils exactly ! conditions m5tion$4 ,! books :i* h appe>$ on ?is subject are ! foll[+3 #a4 ,/rauss-,durckheim1 ,h4 ,anatomie descriptive et comp>ative du ,*at4 #b vols4 ,p>is1 #ahde4 #b4 ,miv>t1 ,/4 ,george4 ,! ,cat3 an ,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,back-bon$ ,animals1 especially ,mammals4 ,new ,york1 #ahha4 #c4 ,wild]1 ,burt ,g41 & ,gage1 ,simon ,h4 ,anatomical ,te*nology z appli$ to ! ,dome/ic ,cat4 ,new ,york1 #ahhb4 #d4 ,gorham1 ,f4 ,p41 & ,t[]1 ,r4 ,w4 ,a ,laboratory ,guide = ! ,dissection ( ! ,cat4 ,new ,york1 #ahie4 #e4 ,jayne1 ,h4 ,mammalian ,anatomy4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,philadelphia1 #ahih4 ,! fir/ ( ^! works treats only ( ! muscles & bones1 & is n available = ,am]ican /ud5ts4 ,its excell5t plates 7or ,williams's outl9e reproductions ( ! same7 %\ld be 9 e laboratory4 ,! second book nam$ is writt5 9 su* g5]al t]ms t its descriptions are n readily applicable to ! actual /ructures f\nd 9 ! dissection ( ! cat1 & exp]i5ce has %[n t x is n fitt$ = a laboratory h&book4 ,x conta9s1 9 addition to a g5]al acc\nt ( ! anatomy ( ! cat1 also a discussion ( its embryology1 psy*ology1 palontology1 & classification4 ,! book by ,wild] & ,gage pr(ess$ly uses ! cat z a means ( illu/rat+ te*nical me?ods & a special sy/em ( nom5clature4 ,:ile ( mu* value 9 _m ways1 x does n und]take to give a complete acc\nt ( ! anatomy ( ! animal4 ,! f\r? "w is a brief laboratory guide4 ,! elaborate treatise by ,jayne1 n[ 9 c\rse ( publication1 is a monum5tal "w1 :i* w be invaluable = ref]5ce1 b is too volum9\s to place 9 ! h&s ( /ud5ts4 ,at pres5t only ! volume on ! bones has be5 publi%$4 ,z appe>s f ! above brief *>act]ization1 none ( ^! books gives a complete description ( ! anatomy ( ! cat 9 mod]ate volume & )\t extrane\s matt]4 ,?is is :at ! pres5t "w aims to d4 ,9 ! ye> #ahia-ib1 ,pr(essor ,reigh>d prep>$ a p>tial acc\nt ( ! anatomy ( ! cat1 :i* has s9ce be5 9 use1 9 typewritt5 =m1 9 ,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan classes4 ,x has be5 us$ also at ! ,univ]sities ( ,ill9ois1 ,nebraska1 & ,we/ ,virg9ia1 & 9 ,d>tm\? ,college1 & has prov5 s useful = college "w 9 ,mammalian ,anatomy t x 0 decid$ to complete x & prep>e x = publication4 ,?is has be5 done by ,dr4 ,j5n+s4 ,! figures1 :i* are ?r\gh\t orig9al1 are direct reproductions ( ink draw+s1 made "u ! direction ( ,dr4 ,j5n+s by ,mrs4 ,j5n+s4 ,! book is limit$ to a description ( ! normal anatomy ( ! cat4 ,! direct l9e> action ( ea* muscle tak5 alone has be5 giv5 9 ! description ( muscles2 o!r matt]s belong+ to ! realm ( physiology1 z well z all hi/ological matt]1 h be5 exclud$4 ,x 0 felt t ! monum5tal "w ( ,jayne on ! anatomy ( ! cat1 n[ 9 c\rse ( publication1 =ms ! be/ repository = a description ( v>iations & abnormalities1 s t ^! h be5 m5tion$ 9 ! pres5t volume only :5 !y are s frequ5t z to be ( mu* practical importance4 ,except :]e ! contr>y is /at$1 ! descriptions are bas$ ?r\gh\t on our own dissections & obs]vations & are 9 no s5se a compilation4 ,= ?is reason we h n ?\ght x necess>y to collect ! scatt]$ ref]5ces to ! anatomy ( ! cat t may occur 9 ! lit]ature4 ,a collection ( su* ref]5ces may be f\nd 9 ,wild] & ,gage's ,anatomical ,te*nology4 ,9 addition to ! works already ref]r$ to1 we h ( c\rse made use ( ! /&>d works on human & vet]9>y anatomy4 ,among ^! %\ld be m5tion$ z especially useful ! ,anatomie des ,hundes by ,ell5b]g] & ,baum4 ,o!r publications :i* h be5 ( s]vice 9 ! prep>ation ( ! "w are ,w9dle & ,p>son's pap] ,on ! ,myology ( ! ,t]re/rial ,c>nivora1 9 ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,zoological ,society ( ,london = #ahig & #ahih1 ,t4 ,b4 ,/[ell's pap]s on ! n]v\s sy/em ( ! cat 9 ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,am]ican ,philosophical ,society 7#ahha1 #ahhf1 #ahhh7 & 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ,comp>ative ,neurology 7vol4 ,i471 & ,f4 ,clas5's ,die ,muskeln und ,n]v5 des proximal5 ,abs*nitts d] vord]5 ,extremitt d] ,katze1 9 ,nova ,acta d] ,ksl4 ,leop4-,c>ol4 ,deuts*5 ,akademie d] ,natur=s*]1 ,bd4 #fd4 ,nom5clature4--,! "q ( nom5clature has be5 "o ( difficulty4 ,:at is desir$ is a uni=m set ( anatomical names1--a sy/em t %all be g5]ally us$ by anatomi/s4 ,at pres5t ! greate/ div]sity prevails z to ! names to be appli$ to ! diff]5t /ructures ( ! body4 ,! only set ( t]ms :i* at ! pres5t "t seems to h any *ance ( g5]al acceptance is t propos$ by ! ,g]man ,anatomical ,society at _! meet+ 9 ,basel 9 #ahie1 & g5]ally designat$ by ! abbreviation ,,bna4 ,?is sy/em has !re=e be5 adopt$1 9 its ma9 features1 = use 9 ! pres5t "w4 ,x seems impossible at ! pres5t "t1 h[ev]1 to impose any "o set ( t]ms absolutely ^u anatomi/s ( all nations1 & we h felt x necess>y to use = c]ta9 famili> /ructures1 9 place ( ! ,,bna t]ms1 names t h come to h a fix$ place 9 ,engli% anatomy1 & may almo/ be consid]$ compon5t p>ts ( ! ,engli% language4 ,! ,g]man anatomi/s h expressly recogniz$ ! fact t ?is w\ld be to a great] or less degree necess>y among anatomi/s ( diff]5t nations1 & h *>act]iz$ _! li/ z = ! pres5t t5tative1 & capable ( f>!r developm5t4 ,! only purpose ( a "n is t x %all furni% a key to a common und]/&+2 :]e ! ,,bna "n does n furni% su* a key to ,engli% read]s1 & :]e !re is a t]m 9 e/abli%$ ,engli% usage t does s]ve ?is purpose & seems unlikely to be supplant$1 we h us$ ! latt]4 ,b we h endeavor$ to make ! numb] ( ^! exceptions z small z possible1 & 9 su* cases we h usually cit$ at ! same "t ! t]m propos$ by ! ,g]man society1 foll[$ by ! abbreviation ,,bna4 ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 we h adopt$ a ,,bna t]m = :i* !re is also a commonly us$ ,engli% equival5t1 ! latt] has likewise usually be5 cit$ 9 p>5!sis4 ,9 decid+ :e!r or n to use 9 a giv5 case ! ,,bna t]m _m difficult cases arose4 ,w ! common ,engli% "n innom9ate bone 7os innom9atum7 be replac$ by ! ,,bna t]m os cox or coxal bone8 ,we h held ?is to be highly improbable1 & h !re=e us$ ! t]m innom9ate bone1 m]ely cit+ os cox 7,,bna7 z a synonym4 ,9 ! same way we h us$ c5trum z a designation ( a "p ( a v]tebra1 9 place ( corpus 7,,bna72 premaxill>y bone or premaxilla 9 place ( os incisivum 7,,bna72 mal> bone 9 place ( os zygomaticum 7,,bna72 trapezoid z a "n ( "o ( ! bones ( ! c>pus1 9 place ( os multangulum m9us 7,,bna71 etc4 ,9 o!r cases :]e x has seem$ probable t ! ,,bna t]m w\ld come into common use1 ?\gh n[ unfamili>1 ?is & ! m common ,engli% expression are bo? us$ or us$ alt]natively2 su* has be5 ! case1 = example1 ) ! ,gass]ian ganglion or semilun> ganglion 7,,bna74 ,9 nam+ ! c]ebral sulci & gyri ! sy/em 9 use = man is n well fitt$ = br++ out ! plan ( ^? 9 ! bra9 ( ! cat1 s t x 0 necess>y to reject ! ,,bna names = ^! /ructures4 ,z to ! use ( ! ,lat9 t]ms & _! equival5ts 9 ,engli% =m1 we h made a practice ( employ+ 9 ! text sometimes "o1 sometimes ! o!r2 ?is has ! advantage ( giv+ v>iety1 & ( impress+ ! int]*angeability ( ! ,lat9 & ,engli% =ms on ! m9d ( ! /ud5t4 ,:]e a giv5 /ructure is call$ by two equally well-kn[n names1 we h us$ bo?1 hold+ t ! /ud5t %\ld become famili> ) ea* & recognize _! id5tity ( mean+4 ,9 g5]al we h ma9ta9$ ! pr9ciple t ! prim>y purpose ( su* a "w z ! pres5t is n to illu/rate or def5d any p>ticul> sy/em ( nom5clature1 b to aid 9 obta9+ a k ( ! /ructures !mselves4 ,) ?is end 9 view1 we h us$ su* t]ms z w\ld 9 our judgm5t be/ subs]ve ?is purpose1 mak+ ! ,,bna sy/em1 z ! "o mo/ likely to prevail1 our basis4 ,9 apply+ ! sy/em we h _h to keep 9 m9d a numb] ( sometimes conflict+ pr9ciples4 ,9 "s cases ! judgm5t ( o!r anatomi/s w d\btless diff] f our own2 b ?is we feel to be inevitable4 ,! matt] ( an absolutely uni=m nom5clature is n ripe = settlem5t at ! pres5t "t4 ,"s fur!r explanation is ne$$ 9 reg>d to ! topographical t]ms1 or t]ms ( direction1 us$ 9 ! pres5t "w4 ,we h adopt$ ! ,,bna t]ms 9 ?is matt] also4 ,! t]ms sup]ior1 inf]ior1 ant]ior1 & po/]ior h be5 avoid$1 z ^! t]ms d n convey ! same mean+ 9 ! case ( ! cat z !y d 9 man1 ow+ to ! diff]5ce 9 ! po/ure ( ! body4 ,9 place ( ^! t]ms are us$ dorsal & v5tral1 cranial & caudal4 ,z t]ms ( direction ^!1 ( c\rse1 mu/ h an absolutely fix$ mean+1 signify+ always ! same direction )\t necess>y ref]5ce to any giv5 /ructure4 ,= example1 cranial means n m]ely t[>d ! cranium1 b ref]s to ! direction :i* is indicat$ by movem5t along a l9e f ! middle ( ! body1 t[>d ! cranium2 aft] ! head or cranium is rea*$1 ! t]m /ill cont9ues 9 =ce = /ructures ev5 beyond ! cranium4 ,?us ! tip ( ! nose is consid]$ to be craniad ( ! cranium itself4 ,lat]al signifies away f ! middle plane2 m$ial t[>d x4 ,inn] & out] or int]nal & ext]nal are us$ only ) ref]5ce to ! /ructure ( sep>ate organs1 n ) ref]5ce to ! m$ian plane ( ! body4 ,9 describ+ ! limbs ! convexity ( ! jo9t 7! elb[ or knee7 is consid]$ z dorsal1 ! concavity be+ !re=e v5tral4 ,m$ial ref]s to t side ( ! limb :i* 9 ! normal position is t[>d ! middle ( ! body2 lat]al to ! out] side4 ,t]ms ( direction :i* are d]iv$ only f ! /ructure ( ! limb itself are 9 "s cases m conv5i5t ?an ! usual ones4 ,9 ! =e limbs ! t]ms radial 7ref]r+ to ! side on :i* ! radius lies7 & uln> 7ref]r+ to ! side on :i* ! ulna lies7 are us$2 9 ! h9d limbs ! t]ms tibial & fibul> are us$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,di/al means t[>d ! free end ( a limb or o!r project+ /ructure2 proximal1 t[>d ! atta*$ end4 ,= all ^! t]ms an adv]bial =m end+ 9 -ad has be5 employ$4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n ?is to be v useful 9 practice1 & :ile n expressly recomm5d$ by ! ,,bna1 x is n condemn$4 ,t]ms end+ 9 -al are !re=e adjectives2 ^? end+ 9 -ad are adv]bs4 ,9 comp\nd+ ^! t]ms ( direction1 ! hyph5 has be5 omitt$ 9 accordance ) ! usage recomm5d$ by ! ,/&>d ,diction>y4 ,?us dorsov5tral is writt5 9 place ( dorso-v5tral1 etc4 ,! /ud5t w p]haps be assi/$ 9 und]/&+ ^! comp\nds if he notes t ! fir/ compon5t always ends 9 -o1 s t ! lett] o practically s]ves ! purpose ( a hyph5 9 det]m9+ h[ ! ^w is to be divid$4 ,9 "o p>ticul> ! ,,bna nom5clature is n entirely consi/5t4 ,:ile recomm5d+ or at lea/ p]mitt+ ! use ( ! g5]al t]ms dorsal & v5tral 9 place ( ! human po/]ior & ant]ior1 & cranial & caudal 9 place ( sup]ior & inf]ior1 x reta9s ! words ant]ior1 po/]ior1 sup]ior1 & inf]ior z p>ts ( ! names ( def9ite organs4 ,= example1 we h ! muscle s]ratus ant]ior 9 place ( s]ratus v5tralis2 s]ratus po/]ior inf]ior 9 place ( s]ratus dorsalis caudalis4 ,?is is v un=tunate1 f a comp>ative /&po9t1 b we h felt x necess>y to reta9 ! ,,bna t]ms 9 ord] t ! /ructures ( ! cat may receive ! same names z ! correspond+ /ructures ( man4 ,9 ! matt] ( or?ography we h endeavor$ to foll[ ! be/ ,engli% anatomical usage1 z exemplifi$ 9 ,gray's ,human ,anatomy1--!re=e writ+ p]oneus 9 place ( p]onu1 pyri=mis 9 place ( piri=mis1 etc4 ,! book is design$ = use 9 ! laboratory1 to accompany ! dissection & /udy ( ! /ructures !mselves4 ,anatomy _c be le>n$ f a book alone1 & no "o %\ld attempt to use ! pres5t "w )\t at ! same "t c>efully dissect+ ! cat4 ,on ! o!r h&1 anatomy c sc>cely be le>n$ )\t descriptions & figures ( ! /ructures laid b>e 9 dissection1 s t ?is or "s simil> "w %\ld be 9 ! h&s ( any "o attempt+ to ga9 a k ( anatomy ?r\gh ! dissection ( ! cat4 ,! figures h all be5 drawn f actual dissections1 & h be5 c>efully select$ ) a view to furni%+ ! mo/ direct assi/ance to ! dissector4 ,x is hop$ t no figures are lack+ t are requir$ = giv+ ! /ud5ts ! necess>y po9ts ( dep>ture = an intellig5t dissection ( any "p ( ! body4 ,! =e limb is illu/rat$ some:at m fully ?an ! h9d limb1 because x 0 ?\ght t ! =e limb w\ld usually be dissect$ fir/2 ! h9d limb w be easily dissect$1 ) ! aid ( ! figures giv51 aft] ! exp]i5ce ga9$ 9 dissect+ ! =e limb4 ,z ! book is design$ to accompany ! dissection ( ! specim5 9 ! laboratory1 x 0 deem$ be/ to give succ9ct specific directions = ! dissection ( ! diff]5t sy/ems ( organs1 toge!r ) sugge/ions z to me?ods ( pres]v+ & h&l+ ! mat]ial4 ,^! are includ$ 9 an app5dix4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,page ,,! ,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,cat #a ,i4 ,! ,v]tebral ,column #a ,?oracic ,v]tebr #a ,lumb> ,v]tebr #g ,sacral ,v]tebr3 ,sacrum #h ,caudal ,v]tebr #aa ,c]vical ,v]tebr #aa ,ligam5ts ( ! ,v]tebral ,column #af ,,ii4 ,! ,ribs #ah ,,iii4 ,! ,/]num #bj ,,iv4 ,! ,skull #ba ,occipital ,bone #bb ,int]p>ietal #be ,sph5oid #be ,presph5oid #bi ,temporal #cj ,p>ietal #cf ,frontal #cg ,maxill>y #ci ,premaxill>y #da ,nasal #db ,e?moid #db ,vom] #dd ,palat9e #de ,la*rymal #df ,mal> #dg ,m&ible #dg ,hyoid #di ,! ,skull z a ,:ole #di ,cavities ( ! ,skull #eg ,jo9ts & ,ligam5ts ( ! ,skull #fa ,v4 ,! ,?oracic ,extremities #fb ,scapula #fb ,clavicle #fd ,hum]us #fd ,radius #fg ,ulna #fh ,c>pus #fi ,bones ( ! ,h& #ga ,jo9ts & ,ligam5ts ( ! ,?oracic ,limbs #gc ,,vi4 ,! ,pelvic ,extremities #gf ,innom9ate ,bones #gf ,femur #gi ,patella #hj ,tibia #hj ,fibula #hb ,t>sus #hb ,bones ( ! ,foot #he ,jo9ts & ,ligam5ts ( ! ,pelvic ,limbs #hf ,,! ,,muscles #ic ,i4 ,muscles ( ! ,sk9 #ic ,,ii4 ,muscles ( ! ,head #if ,a4 ,sup]ficial ,muscles #if ,b4 ,deep ,muscles #ajg a4 ,muscles ( ,ma/ication #ajg b4 ,muscles ( ,hyoid ,bone #aab ,,iii4 ,muscles ( ! ,body #aae #a4 ,muscles ( ! ,back #aae ,a4 ,muscles ( ! ,%\ld] #aae ,b4 ,muscles ( ! ,v]tebral ,column #abc a4 ,muscles ( ! ,lumb> & ,?oracic ,region #abf b4 ,dorsal ,muscles ( ! ,c]vical ,region #aca ,c4 ,muscles ( ! ,tail #acf #b4 ,muscles on ! ,v5tral ,side ( ! ,v]tebral ,column #ach ,a4 ,lumb> & ,?oracic ,regions #ach ,b4 ,muscles on ! ,v5tral ,side ( ! ,neck #aci #c4 ,muscles ( ! ,?orax #add ,a4 ,brea/ ,muscles 7,connect+ ! ,arm & ,?orax7 #add ,b4 ,muscles ( ! ,wall ( ! ,?orax #adh #d4 ,abdom9al ,muscles #aec ,,iv4 ,muscles ( ! ,?oracic ,limbs #aef #a4 ,muscles ( ! ,%\ld] #aef ,a4 ,lat]al ,surface #aef ,b4 ,m$ial ,surface #afa #b4 ,muscles ( ! ,bra*ium or ,upp] ,arm #afd #c4 ,muscles ( ! ,antibra*ium or ,=e>m #agb ,fascia ( ! ,=e>m #agb ,a4 ,muscles on ! ,uln> & ,dorsal ,side ( ! ,=e>m #agc ,b4 ,muscles on ! ,radial & ,v5tral ,side ( ! ,=e>m #agi #d4 ,muscles ( ! ,h& #ahd ,a4 ,betwe5 ! ,t5dons #ahd ,b4 ,muscles ( ! ,?umb #ahd ,c4 ,betwe5 ! ,metac>pals #ahe ,d4 ,special ,muscles ( ! ,second ,digit #ahe ,e4 ,special ,muscles ( ! ,fif? ,digit #ahe ,v4 ,muscles ( ! ,pelvic ,limbs #ahf #a4 ,muscles ( ! ,hip #ahf ,a4 ,on ! ,lat]al ,surface ( ! ,hip #ahf ,fascia ( ! ,?igh #ahf ,b4 ,on ! ,m$ial ,surface ( ! ,hip #aib #b4 ,muscles ( ! ,?igh #aid #c4 ,muscles ( ! ,l[] ,leg #bjc ,a4 ,on ! ,v5tral ,side #bjc ,b4 ,on ! ,dorsal & ,lat]al ,surfaces #bji #d4 ,muscles ( ! ,foot #bab ,a4 ,muscles on ! ,dorsum ( ! ,foot #bab ,b4 ,muscles on ! ,sole ( ! ,foot #bab ,c4 ,muscles ( ! ,t>sus #bae ,,! ,,visc]a #bag ,i4 ,! ,body ,cavity #bag ,,ii4 ,alim5t>y ,canal #bba #a4 ,m\? #bba ,gl&s ( ! ,m\? #bbc ,tee? #bbd ,tongue #bbf ,muscles ( ! ,tongue #bbh ,s(t ,palate #bbi ,muscles ( ! ,s(t ,palate #bcj #b4 ,ph>ynx #bca ,muscles ( ! ,ph>ynx #bcb #c4 sophagus #bcd #d4 ,/oma* #bcd #e4 ,small ,inte/9e #bcf #f4 ,l>ge ,inte/9e #bcg #g4 ,liv]1 ,pancreas1 & ,sple5 #bci ,,iii4 ,respiratory ,organs #bdc #a4 ,nasal ,cavity #bdc #b4 ,l>ynx #bdf ,c>tilages ( ! ,l>ynx #bdg ,muscles ( ! ,l>ynx #bdi #c4 ,tra*ea #bea #d4 ,lungs #beb ,?yroid ,gl& #bed ,?ymus ,gl& #bed ,,iv4 ,urog5ital ,sy/em #bee #a4 ,excretory ,organs #bee ,kidneys #bee ,uret] #bef ,bladd] #bef 7,supr>5al ,bodies7 #beg #b4 ,g5ital ,organs #beg ,a4 ,male #beg ,b4 ,female #bfc ,muscles ( ! ,urog5ital ,organs1 ,rectum1 & ,anus #bfh a4 ,muscles ,common to ! ,male & ,female #bfh b4 ,muscles ,peculi> to ! ,male #bga c4 ,muscles ,peculi> to ! ,female #bgb ,,! ,,circulatory ,,sy/em #bgd ,i4 ,! ,he>t #bgd ,,ii4 ,! ,art]ies #bhj #a4 ,pulmon>y ,art]y #bhj #b4 ,aorta #bha ,a4 ,?oracic ,aorta & its ,bran*es #bha ,common ,c>otid ,art]y #bhc ,subclavian ,art]y #bij ,b4 ,abdom9al ,aorta & its ,bran*es #cja ,ext]nal ,iliac ,art]y & its ,bran*es #cji ,,iii4 ,! ,ve9s #cae #a4 ,ve9s ( ! ,he>t #cae #b4 ,v5a ,cava ,sup]ior & its ,bran*es #caf ,ve9s ( ! ,bra9 & ,sp9al ,cord #cbd #c4 ,v5a ,cava ,inf]ior & its ,bran*es #cbe ,portal ,ve9 #cbf ,,iv4 ,lymphatic ,sy/em #ccj #a4 ,lymphatics ( ! ,head #cca #b4 ,lymphatics ( ! ,neck #ccb #c4 ,lymphatics ( ! ,?oracic ,limbs #ccb #d4 ,lymphatics ( ! ,?orax & ,abdom5 #ccc #e4 ,lymphatics ( ! ,pelvic ,limbs #ccd ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em #cce ,i4 ,! ,c5tral ,n]v\s ,sy/em #ccf #a4 ,sp9al ,cord #ccf #b4 ,! ,bra9 #cci 7#a7 ,myel5cephalon #cdd 7#b7 ,met5cephalon #cdg 7#c7 ,mes5cephalon #cea 7#d7 ,di5cephalon #ceb 7#e7 ,tel5cephalon #ceg ,,ii4 ,! ,p]iph]al ,n]v\s ,sy/em #cfi #a4 ,cranial ,n]ves #cfi ,i4 ,olfactory ,n]ve #cfi ,,ii4 ,optic ,n]ve #cfi ,,iii4 ,oculomotor ,n]ve #cfi ,,iv4 ,tro*le> ,n]ve #cgj ,v4 ,trigem9al ,n]ve #cgj ,,vi4 ,abduc5s #cge ,,vii4 ,facial ,n]ve #cge ,,viii4 ,auditory ,n]ve #cgg ,,ix4 ,glossoph>yngeal ,n]ve #cgh ,x4 ,vagus ,n]ve #cgh ,,xi4 ,accessory ,n]ve #chb ,,xii4 ,hypoglossal ,n]ve #chc #b4 ,sp9al ,n]ves #chc ,a4 ,c]vical ,n]ves #chc ,! ,bra*ial ,plexus #chf ,b4 ,?oracic ,n]ves #cic ,c4 ,lumb> ,n]ves #cid ,lumb> ,plexus #cie ,d4 ,sacral ,n]ves & ,sacral ,plexus #cii ,e4 ,n]ves ( ! ,tail #djd #c4 ,sympa!tic ,sy/em #djd ,,s5se ,,organs ,,& ,,integum5t #dji ,i4 ,! ,eye #dji ,,ii4 ,! ,e> #dae ,,iii4 ,olfactory ,organ #dbf ,,iv4 ,organ ( ,ta/e #dbf ,v4 ,integum5t #dbg ,,app5dix3 ,,practical ,,directions #dbi ,,index #dgc ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations4 ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,skeleton #b #b4 ,f\r? ,?oracic ,v]tebra #c #c4 ,f\r? ,?oracic ,v]tebra #c #d4 ,?oracic ,v]tebr #e #e4 ,lumb> ,v]tebr #g #f4 ,sacrum #i #g4 ,sacrum #i #h4 ,caudal ,v]tebra #aa #i4 ,caudal ,v]tebra #aa #aj4 ,c]vical ,v]tebr #ab #aa4 ,six? ,c]vical ,v]tebra #ac #ab4 ,atlas #ac #ac4 ,axis #ae #ad4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,odontoid ,process #ah #ae4 ,rib #ai #af4 ,/]num #bj #ag4 ,occipital ,bone #bb #ah4 ,occipital ,bone #bb #ai4 ,int]p>ietal #be #bj4 ,sph5oid #be #ba4 ,presph5oid #bi #bb4 ,temporal #ca #bc4 ,temporal #ca #bd4 ,tympanic ,bulla #cc #be4 ,petr\s ,bone #cd #bf4 ,frontal #cg #bg4 ,maxill>y ,bone #ci #bh4 ,maxill>y ,bone #ci #bi4 ,premaxill>y #da #cj4 ,nasal #db #ca4 ,e?moid & ,vom] #dc #cb4 ,e?moid & ,vom] #dc #cc4 ,palat9e #de #cd4 ,la*rymal #df #ce4 ,mal> #df #cf4 ,m&ible #dh #cg4 ,m&ible #dh #ch4 ,hyoid #di #ci4 ,skull1 ,dorsal ,surface #ej #dj4 ,skull1 ,side ,view #ec #da4 ,skull1 ,v5tral ,surface #ee #db4 ,cavities ( ,skull #eg #dc4 ,skull1 ,m$ian ,section #fj #dd4 ,scapula #fb #de4 ,scapula #fb #df4 ,clavicle #fd #dg4 ,hum]us #fe #dh4 ,hum]us #fe #di4 ,radius & ,ulna #fh #ej4 ,radius & ,ulna #fh #ea4 ,bones ( ! ,h& #gj #eb4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,elb[ #gd #ec4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,elb[ #gd #ed4 ,innom9ate ,bone ( ,kitt5 #gf #ee4 ,innom9ate ,bone #gg #ef4 ,femur #gi #eg4 ,tibia & ,fibula #ha #eh4 ,bones ( ! ,foot #hc #ei4 ,calcaneus #hc #fj4 ,knee-jo9t #hi #fa4 ,knee-jo9t #hi #fb4 ,muscles ( ! ,sk9 #id #fc4 ,muscles on ,dorsal ,side ( ,head #ig #fd4 ,muscles ( ,face #ajb #fe4 ,v5tral ,muscles ( ,?orax1 ,neck1 & ,head #aji #ff4 ,pt]ygoid & ,palatal ,muscles #aab #fg4 ,muscles ( ,tongue1 ,hyoid1 & ,ph>ynx #aad #fh4 ,fir/ ,lay] ( ,body ,muscles #aag #fi4 ,deep ,muscles ( ! ,v]tebr & ,ribs #abe #gj4 ,dorsal ,muscles ( ,lumb> & ,caudal ,regions #abg #ga4 ,deep ,muscles ( ,neck #ace #gb4 ,muscles on ! ,v5tral ,surface ( ! ,c]vical ,v]tebr #adc #gc4 ,second ,lay] ( ,body ,muscles #adi #gd4 ,diaphragm #aeb #ge4 ,lat]al ,muscles ( ,arm #aeh #gf4 ,orig9 ( ,lat]al ,muscles on ,scapula #afj #gg4 ,m$ial ,muscles ( ,arm #afb #gh4 ,orig9 ( ,m$ial ,muscles on ,scapula #afc #gi4 ,deep ,m$ial ,muscles ( ,arm #afg #hj4 ,deep ,lat]al ,muscles ( ,arm #afi #ha4 ,areas ( ,orig9 ( ,muscles on ,v5tral ,surface ( ,hum]us #aga #hb4 ,areas ( ,orig9 ( ,muscles on ,m$ial ,side ( ,hum]us #aga #hc4 ,areas ( ,orig9 ( ,muscles on ,dorsal ,surface ( ,left ,hum]us #aga #hd4 ,t5dons on ,back ( ,h& #age #he4 ,deep ,muscles ( ,=e>m #agg #hf4 ,ins]tions ( ,muscles on ,radius & ,ulna #agh #hg4 ,ins]tions ( ,muscles on ,radius & ,ulna #ahb #hh4 ,mm4 ,lumbricales1 etc4 #ahc #hi4 ,deep ,muscles ( ,palm ( ,h& #ahd #ij4 ,lat]al ,muscles ( ! ,leg #aib #ia4 ,m$ial ,muscles ( ! ,leg #aig #ib4 ,deep ,m$ial ,muscles ( ,?igh #bjj #ic4 ,tee? ( ! ,upp] ,jaw #bbe #id4 ,tee? ( ! ,l[] ,jaw #bbf #ie4 ,tongue1 ,epiglottis1 etc4 #bbg #if4 ,muscles ( ,tongue1 ,hyoid1 & ,ph>ynx #bbi #ig4 ,/oma* #bce #ih4 ,colon & ,ccum #bch #ii4 ,ileocolic ,valve #bch #ajj4 ,liv] #bdj #aja4 ,liv] #bdj #ajb4 ,pancreas & ,sple5 #bdb #ajc4 ,c>tilages ( ,nose #bdd #ajd4 ,c>tilages ( ,l>ynx #bdg #aje4 ,muscles ( ,l>ynx #bej #ajf4 ,bron*i #bec #ajg4 ,?ymus ,gl& #bed #ajh4 ,kidney #bee #aji4 ,section ( ,kidney #bee #aaj4 ,te/is #bfj #aaa4 ,male ,g5ital ,organs #bfb #aab4 ,female ,urog5ital ,organs #bfe #aac4 ,muscles ( ,urog5ital ,organs & ,anus 9 ,male #bgj #aad4 ,muscles ( ,urog5ital ,organs ( ,female #bgb #aae4 ,he>t #bgf #aaf4 ,he>t #bgf #aag4 ,inside ( ,he>t #bgh #aah4 ,vessels ( ,?orax #bhb #aai4 ,common ,c>otid & ,int]nal ,jugul> #bhd #abj4 ,bran*es ( ,ext]nal ,c>otid #bhh #aba4 ,art]ies ( ,bra9 #bia #abb4 ,vessels & ,n]ves ( ! ,axilla #bie #abc4 ,vessels & ,n]ves ( ! ,arm #bii #abd4 ,palm> ,ar* #cja #abe4 ,cliac ,art]y #cjb #abf4 ,abdom9al ,blood-vessels #cje #abg4 ,m$ial ,vessels & ,n]ves ( ! ,leg #caj #abh4 ,deep ,art]ies ( ,foot #cad #abi4 ,?oracic ,blood-vessels #cag #acj4 ,sup]ficial ,vessels & ,n]ves ( ! ,=e>m #cai #aca4 ,blood-vessels ( ! ,face #cbb #acb4 ,portal ,ve9 #cbg #acc4 ,sp9al ,cord1 cranial portion #ccf #acd4 ,section ( ,sp9al ,cord #ccg #ace4 ,orig9 ( ,sp9al ,n]ves #ccg #acf4 ,cauda ,equ9a1 etc4 #cch #acg4 ,bra91 ,dorsal ,view #cdj #ach4 ,bra91 ,v5tral ,view #cdb #aci4 ,diagram ( ,bra9 #cdc #adj4 ,diagram ( ,bra9 #cdc #ada4 ,dorsal ,view ( ,midbra9 & ',twe5-bra9 #cej #adb4 ,v5tral ,view ( ,midbra9 & ',twe5-bra9 #ceb #adc4 ,longitud9al ,section ( ,bra9 #cef #add4 ,lat]al ,view ( ,bra9 #ceh #ade4 ,diagram ( ,sulci & ,gyri #cei #adf4 ,diagram ( ,sulci & ,gyri #cfa #adg4 ,corpus ,callosum #cfc #adh4 ,=nix1 ,hippocampus1 & ,corpus ,/riatum #cfd #adi4 ,transv]se ,section ( ,bra9 #cff #aej4 ,transv]se ,section ( ,bra9 #cff #aea4 ,transv]se ,section ( ,bra9 #cff #aeb4 ,transv]se ,section ( ,bra9 #cfg #aec4 ,transv]se ,section ( ,bra9 #cfg #aed4 ,cranial ,n]ves #cgd #aee4 ,n]ves ( ,face #cgf #aef4 ,cranial ,n]ves 9 ! ,neck #cgi #aeg4 ,sympa!tic & ,vagus 9 ! ,?orax #cha #aeh4 ,n]ves ( ! ,neck #chd #aei4 ,bra*ial ,plexus #chg #afj4 ,n]ves & ,vessels ( ,axilla #chi #afa4 ,n]ves & ,vessels ( ,=e>m #cia #afb4 ,lumb> & ,sacral ,n]ves #cih #afc4 ,great ,sciatic ,n]ve #dja #afd4 ,sympa!tic & ,vagus 9 ,abdom5 #djg #afe4 ,nictitat+ ,membrane #daj #aff4 ,muscles ( ,eyeball #daa #afg4 ,diagram ( ,eye #dac #afh4 ,c>tilage ( ,ext]nal ,e> #dag #afi4 ,muscles ( ,ext]nal ,e> #dai #agj4 ,tympanic ,membrane #dbb #aga4 ,malleus & ,incus #dbc #agb4 ,/apes #dbd #agc4 ,membran\s ,labyr9? #dbe ,,anatomy ,,( ,,! ,,cat4 ,,! ,,skeleton ,,( ,,! ,,cat4 ,! skeleton ( ! cat consi/s ( #bcj to #bdg bones exclusive ( ! sesamoid bones 7#dd7 & ! *evron bones 7#h74 ,^! are divid$ z foll[s3 head #ce-dj1 v]tebral column #eb-ec1 ribs #bf1 /]num #a-h1 pelvis #b-h1 upp] extremities #fb1 l[] extremities #ed-ef4 ,! numb] ( bones v>ies ) ! age ( ! individual1 be+ few] 9 ! old ?an 9 ! "y animal1 ow+ to ! fact t 9 an old animal "s bones t 7 orig9ally sep>ate h unit$4 ,i4 ,,! ,,v]tebral ,,column4 ,,columna ,,v]tebralis4 ,! v]tebral column1 sp9al column1 or back-bone1 consi/s ( a v>y+ numb] ( sep>ate bones1 ! v]tebr4 ,at its cranial end are sev5 v]tebr 7c]vical1 ,fig4 #a1 c7 :i* are )\t ribs & support ! head2 caudad ( ^! are ?irte5 rib-be>+ v]tebr 7?oracic1 ,fig4 #a1 m72 caudad ( ^! are sev5 t are aga9 )\t ribs 7lumb>1 ,fig4 #a1 o72 ^! are foll[$ by ?ree v]tebr 7sacral1 ,fig4 #a1 x7 :i* are unit$ into a s+le bone1 ! sacrum1 :i* supports ! pelvic ar*4 ,foll[+ ! sacral v]tebr are tw5ty-two or tw5ty-?ree small ribless v]tebr :i* support ! tail 7caudal1 ,fig4 #a1 y74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,cat4 a1 skull2 b1 hyoid2 c1 c]vical v]tebr2 d1 clavicle2 e1 scapula2 f1 /]num2 g1 hum]us2 h1 radius2 i1 ulna2 j1 c>pus2 k1 metac>pus2 l1 phalanges2 m1 ?oracic v]tebr2 n1 ribs2 o1 lumb> v]tebr2 p1 innom9ate bones2 q1 femur2 r1 patella2 s1 fibula2 t1 tibia2 u1 t>sus2 v1 metat>sus2 w1 phalanges2 x1 sacrum2 y1 caudal v]tebr4 ,?oracic ,v]tebr4 ,v]tebr ?oracales 7,fig4 #d74--,! ?oracic v]tebr are mo/ typical1 & ! f\r? "o ( ^! may !re=e be fir/ describ$ 7,figs4 #b & #c74 ,x =ms an oval r+ :i* has num]\s processes & surr\nds an op5+ :i* is ! v]tebral =am5 7a74 ,! v5tral "o-?ird ( ?is r+ is mu* ?ick5$ & =ms ! c5trum or body 7corpus7 7b7 ( ! v]tebra4 ,! c5trum is a semicyl9d]1 ! plane face ( :i* b\nds ! v]tebral canal1 :ile ! curv$ surface is concave longitud9ally & is direct$ v5trad4 ,! dorsal plane surface ( ! c5trum is m>k$ by a m$ian longitud9al ridge on ei!r side ( :i* is an op5+ 7nutri5t =am57 = a blood-vessel4 ,! ends are ne>ly plane1 ! caudal be+ slightly concave2 !y are h>d] & smoo!r ?an ! o!r surfaces4 ,!y may be easily sep>at$ 9 a "y specim5 z ?9 plates ( bone kn[n z epiphyses4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,f\r? ,,?oracic ,,v]tebra1 ,,cranial ,,end4 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,f\r? ,,?oracic ,,v]tebra1 ,,side ,,view4 a1 v]tebral =am52 b1 c5trum2 c1 caudal1 & d1 cranial1 co/al demifacets2 e1 radix or p$icle2 f1 lam9a2 g1 transv]se process2 h1 cranial articul> facet2 i1 caudal articul> facet2 j1 caudal articul> process2 k1 sp9\s process4 ,at ! caudal end ( ! c5trum1 at its dorsolat]al angle1 is a smoo? area on ea* side cont9u\s ) ! surface ( ! epiphysis & b\nd$ dorsolat]ally by a %>p ridge ( bone 7c74 ,x is a co/al demifacet4 ,9 correspond+ positions at ! cranial end ( ! c5trum are two demifacets n limit$ by bony ridges 7d74 ,:5 ! c5tra ( two contigu\s ?oracic v]tebr are plac$ toge!r 9 ! natural position ! cranial co/al demifacets ( "o toge!r ) ! caudal demifacets ( ! o!r =m two co/al facets 7,fig4 #d1 e71 "o on ea* side1 & ea* receives ! head ( a rib4 ,! dorsal two-?irds ( ! v]tebral r+ =ms ! v]tebral ar* :i* is cont9u$ dorsally into ! long1 bluntly po9t$ sp9\s process 7,figs4 #b & #c1 k7 = atta*m5t ( muscles4 ,! v]tebral ar* 7ea* half ( :i* is sometimes call$ a neurapophysis7 rises on ea* side f ! cranial two-?irds ( ! dorsolat]al angle ( ! c5trum1 z a ?ick5$ portion1 ! radix or p$icle 7,figs4 #b & #c1 e71 :i* =ms ! v5tral half ( ! lat]al b\nd>y ( ! v]tebral canal4 ,f ! dorsal end ( ea* radix a flat plate ( bone1 ! lam9a 7f71 ext5ds caudom$iad to jo9 its fell[ ( ! opposite side & =m ! v]tebral ar*4 ,ow+ to ! fact t ! radix rises f only ! cranial two-?irds ( ! c5trum !re is left 9 ! caudal bord] ( ! v]tebral ar* a not* b\nd$ by ! radix1 ! lam9a1 & ! c5trum4 ,!re is also a slight excavation ( ! cranial bord] ( ! radix4 ,:5 ! v]tebr are articulat$ 9 ! natural position1 ^! not*es =m ! int]v]tebral =am9a 7,fig4 #d1 d71 = ! exit ( ! sp9al n]ves4 ,at ! junction ( radix & lam9a ! ar* is produc$ craniolat]ad into a %ort process1 ! transv]se process 7g71 knobb$ at ! end4 ,on ! v5tral face ( its free end ! transv]se process be>s a smoo? facet1 ! transv]se co/al facet or tub]cul> facet 7,fig4 #d1 c71 = articulation ) ! tub]cle ( a rib4 ,on ! dorsal face ( ea* lam9a at its cranial bord] is a smoo? oval area1 ! cranial articul> facet 7sup]ior articul> facet ( human anatomy7 7,figs4 #b & #c1 h74 ,its long axis is oblique & x looks dorsolat]ad4 ,! slight projections ( ! cranial edge ( ! lam9 on :i* ! facets are situat$ are ! inconspicu\s cranial articul> processes 7prezygapophyses74 ,on ! v5tral surface ( ea* lam9a at ! caudal bord]1 ne> ! middle l9e is a simil> area1 ! caudal articul> facet 7inf]ior articul> facet ( human anatomy7 7i72 ^! occupy ! v5tral surfaces ( two projections :i* =m ! caudal 7inf]ior7 articul> processes 7po/zygapophyses7 7j74 ,^! are sep>at$ by a m$ian not*4 ,:5 ! v]tebr are 9 _! natural position ! caudal articul> facets lie dorsad ( ! cranial facets & fit aga9/ !m4 ,!y ?us /r5g!n ! jo9t betwe5 contigu\s v]tebr1 :ile p]mitt+ slight rot>y motion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,?oracic ,,v]tebr1 ,,side ,,view4 a1 sp9\s processes2 b1 cranial articul> processes2 c1 transv]se co/al facets2 d1 int]v]tebral =am9a2 e1 co/al facets2 f1 accessory processes2 g1 mammill>y processes2 h1 caudal articul> processes4 ,diff]5tial ,*>act]s ( ! ,?oracic ,v]tebr 7,fig4 #d74--;,foll[+ ! ?oracic v]tebr caudad !re is to be se5 a gradual increase 9 ! size ( ! c5tra br\ght ab\t by an increase 9 _! craniocaudal & transv]se measurem5ts4 ,! dorsov5tral measurem5ts rema9 ne>ly ! same4 ,! co/al facets 7,fig4 #d1 e7 %ift caudad s t on ! elev5?1 twelf?1 & ?irte5? ?oracic v]tebr ea* lies entirely on ! cranial end ( its c5trum1 :ile ! caudal end ( ! c5trum imm$iately prec$+ is n m>k$ by any "p ( x4 ,9 ! elev5? ?oracic v]tebra ea* co/al facet is usually /ill conflu5t ) ! smoo? cranial end ( ! c5trum4 ,9 ! twelf? v]tebra ! facets are sep>at$ by smoo? ridges f ! cranial end ( ! v]tebra1 :ile 9 ! ?irte5? v]tebra !y are sep>at$ by r\gh ridges4 ,! sp9\s processes 7a7 ( ! fir/ f\r are ( ab\t ! same l5g?4 ,!y !n decrease 9 l5g? to ! twelf?1 :ile ! twelf? & ?irte5? are slightly long] ?an ! elev5?4 ,! fir/ t5 slope m or less caudad1 :ile ! sp9\s process ( ! t5? 7anticl9al7 v]tebra is v]tical & ^? ( ! elev5?1 twelf?1 & ?irte5? po9t craniad4 ,ea* ( ! transv]se processes ( ! sev5? ?oracic v]tebra %[s a t5d5cy to divide into ?ree tub]cles2 "o ( ^! is direct$ craniad1 ! mammill>y process 7or metapophysis71 "o caudad1 ! accessory process 7or anapophysis71 :ile ! ?ird 7transv]se process prop]7 looks v5trad & be>s ! transv]se co/al facet4 ,?is division becomes m prom95t 9 ! succe$+ v]tebr1 be+ mo/ m>k$ 9 ! n9? & t5?4 ,9 ! elev5?1 twelf?1 & ?irte5? v]tebr ! mammill>y 7g7 & accessory 7f7 processes are v pron\nc$1 :ile ! transv]se co/al facet & t "p ( ! transv]se process :i* be>s x h disappe>$4 ,! ribs ( ! elev5?1 twelf?1 & ?irte5? v]tebr are ?us atta*$ to _! respective c5tra by _! heads alone4 ,! cranial articul> processes 7b7 are prom95t on ! fir/ two ?oracic v]tebr2 back ( ^! !y are v small z f> z ! elev5?1 s t ! articul> facets seem to be borne m]ely ^u ! dorsal surface ( ! cranial edge ( ! lam94 ,9 ! elev5?1 twelf?1 & ?irte5? ! cranial articul> processes are l>ge1 be>+ ! articul> facets on _! m$ial surfaces1 :ile ! mammill>y processes appe> z tub]cles on ! lat]al surfaces ( ! articul> processes4 ,! caudal articul> processes 7h7 are prom95t 9 ! fir/ ?oracic1 !n small] until ! t5? is rea*$2 9 ! t5?1 elev5?1 twelf?1 & ?irte5? !y are l>ge & _! facets are borne lat]ally1 s z to face ! correspond+ cranial facets4 ,?us f ! t5? to ! ?irte5? ?oracic v]tebra rot>y motion is v limit$1 ow+ to ! int]lock+ ( ! articul> processes4 ,! ,lumb> ,v]tebr4 ,v]tebr lumbales 7,fig4 #e74--,! la/ ?oracic v]tebr =m ! transition to ! typical lumb> v]tebr4 ,^! are l>g] ?an ! ?oracic v]tebr4 ,! c5tra are ( ! =m ( ! c5tra ( ! ?oracic v]tebr1 & increase 9 l5g? to ! six?1 b ! sev5? is ab\t ! l5g? ( ! fir/4 ,!y increase 9 bread? to ! la/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,lumb> ,,v]tebr4 a1 cranial articul> processes2 b1 mammill>y processes2 c1 caudal articul> processes2 d1 accessory processes2 e1 transv]se processes2 f1 sp9\s processes4 ,! cranial articul> processes 7,fig4 #e1 a7 are prom95t & direct$ craniodorsad2 !y h ! facets on _! m$ial surfaces1 :ile _! dorsolat]al surfaces be> ! mammill>y processes 7b7 z prom95t tub]cles4 ,! caudal articul> processes 7c7 are likewise l>ge2 _! facets look lat]ad4 ,:5 ! v]tebr are articulat$ !y are receiv$ betwe5 ! m$ially direct$ cranial processes4 ,! accessory processes 7d7 are well develop$ on ! fir/ v]tebra1 dim9i% 9 size to ! fif? or six?1 & are abs5t on ! sev5? & sometimes on ! six?4 ,! transv]se processes 7m prop]ly pseudo-transv]se processes7 7e7 arise f ! lat]al surface ( ! c5tra2 are flat & are direct$ v5trocraniolat]ad4 ,! fir/ is small1 & !y increase 9 l5g? & bread? f ! fir/ to ! six?1 ^? ( ! la/ be+ slightly small] ?an 9 ! six?4 ,! free ends ( ! la/ f\r are curv$ craniad4 ,! sp9\s processes 7f7 are flat & direct$ craniodorsad4 ,!y increase 9 l5g? to ! fif? & !n decrease4 ,! fir/ five are knobb$ at ! end4 ,9 a dorsal view ! sp9\s process & cranial articul> processes ( ea* v]tebra are se5 to int]lock ) ! caudal articul> processes & accessory processes ( ! prec$+ v]tebra 9 su* a way z to prev5t rot>y motion1 & ?is arrangem5t may be trac$ craniad z f> z ! elev5? ?oracic v]tebra4 ,sacral ,v]tebr4 ,v]tebr sacrales 7,figs4 #f & #g74--,! ?ree sacral v]tebr are unit$ 9 ! adult into a s+le bone1 ! os sacrum1 or sacrum4 ,9 a kitt5 ! ?ree v]tebr are sep>ate1 :ile 9 an animal almo/ mature ! fir/ two are unit$ & ! ?ird is /ill sep>ate4 ,! sacrum lies betwe5 ! la/ lumb> & ! fir/ caudal v]tebr & articulates lat]ally ) ! two innom9ate bones4 ,x is pyramidal1 ) ! base ( ! pyramid direct$ craniad1 & is p]=at$ by a depress$ longitud9al canal1 ! sacral canal1 :i* is a cont9uation ( ! v]tebral canal1 & by f\r l>ge =am9a dorsally & f\r v5trally4 ,x may be describ$ z hav+ a cranial end or base & a caudal end or apex1 a dorsal1 a v5tral1 & two lat]al surfaces4 ,! base is slightly oblique & pres5ts a smoo? transv]sely oval articul> facet 7! cranial end ( ! c5trum ( ! fir/ sacral v]tebra71 = articulation ) ! c5trum ( ! la/ lumb> v]tebra4 ,dorsad ( ?is is ! sacral canal1 m depress$ ?an ! v]tebral ar* craniad ( x4 ,x supports a sp9\s process 7,fig4 #f1 a7 :i* is direct$ dorsad4 ,at ! junction ( its lam9a & radix is se5 ! prom95t cranial articul> process 7b7 ) sometimes slight indications ( a mammill>y process on its lat]al surface4 ,lat]ad ( ! articul> facet is se5 ! cranial face ( ! exp&$ 8pseudo-transv]se process0 7c7 ( ! fir/ sacral v]tebra4 ,! v5tral bord] ( ! base is concave v5trad1 =m+ an arc ( ab\t #abj degrees4 ,! apex %[s ! caudal end ( ! la/ sacral c5trum4 ,dorsad ( ?is are ! v]tebral ar* ) a v %ort sp9\s process 7a71 & ! caudal articul> processes 7d74 ,lat]ad ( ! c5trum appe>s ! lat]ally direct$ ?9 transv]se process 7e74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,sacrum1 ,,dorsal ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #g4--,,sacrum1 ,,v5tral ,,surface4 ,fig4 #f4--a1 #b1 #c1 ! ?ree sacral v]tebr4 a1 a1 sp9\s processes2 b1 cranial articul> process ( fir/ sacral v]tebra2 c1 exp&$ transv]se process ( fir/ sacral v]tebra2 d1 caudal articul> processes ( ?ird sacral v]tebra2 e1 transv]se processes ( ?ird sacral v]tebra2 f1 tub]cles =m$ by fus$ articul> processes ( ! v]tebr2 g1 dorsal 7or po/]ior7 sacral =am9a4 ,fig4 #g4--a1 #b1 #c1 ! ?ree sacral v]tebr4 a1 ! transv]se ridges =m$ by ! union ( ! c5tra2 b1 cranial articul> processes ( fir/ v]tebra2 c1 transv]se process ( fir/ v]tebra2 d1 caudal articul> processes ( ?ird v]tebra2 e1 transv]se processes ( ?ird sacral v]tebra2 f1 f1 v5tral 7or ant]ior7 sacral =am9a2 g1 not* :i* helps to =m ?ird v5tral sacral =am54 ,! v5tral or pelvic surface 7,fig4 #g7 is smoo?1 concave craniad1 convex caudad1 & cross$ by two transv]se ridges 7a7 along :i* are se5 ! ossifi$ rema9s ( ! int]v]tebral fibro-c>tilages4 ,at ! ends ( ! fir/ ridge is a pair ( ne>ly circul> v5tral 7or ant]ior7 sacral =am9a 7f7 = ! passage ( sacral n]ves4 ,at ! end ( ! second ridge is a pair ( v5tral sacral =am9a 7f71 small] ?an ! fir/ pair & cont9u$ lat]ocaudad into %all[ grooves = ! v5tral rami ( ! sacral n]ves4 ,t portion ( ! bone ly+ lat]ad ( a l9e jo9+ ! m$ial bord]s ( ^! two pairs ( =am9a is kn[n z ! lat]al mass ( ! sacrum & is compos$ ( ! fus$ transv]se processes ( ! sacral v]tebr4 ,at ! caudal m>g9 ( ! v5tral surface !re is a not* betwe5 ! lat]al mass & ! c5trum 7g74 ,:5 ! caudal v]tebr are articulat$1 ?is not* helps to =m a =am5 = ! ?ird sacral n]ve4 ,! dorsal surface 7,fig4 #f7 is n>r[] at its cranial end ?an is ! v5tral surface4 ,its cranial bord] be>s lat]ally a pair ( cranial articul> processes 7b7 ) _! m$ially direct$ facets & betwe5 !m x is concave1 s t a l>ge dorsal op5+ is left into ! v]tebral canal betwe5 ! la/ lumb> v]tebra & ! sacrum4 ,caudad ( ! articul> processes are two pairs ( tub]cles 7f74 ,^! are ! fus$ cranial & caudal articul> processes ( ! sacral v]tebr4 ,caudad ( !m are ! caudal articul> processes ( ! la/ sacral v]tebra 7d74 ,craniolat]ad ( ! middle & cranial tub]cles are dorsal 7po/]ior7 sacral =am9a 7g7 = ! transmission ( ! dorsal rami ( ! sacral n]ves4 ,?ree sp9\s processes 7a7 appe> betwe5 ^! r[s ( tub]cles4 ,!y decrease 9 height caudad4 ,t "p ( ! surface includ$ betwe5 ! sp9\s process & ! tub]cles is made up ( ! fus$ lam9 ( ! sacral v]tebr4 ,t "p betwe5 ! tub]cles & a l9e jo9+ ! lat]al m>g9s ( ! dorsal 7po/]ior7 sacral =am9a is =m$ by ! fus$ radices ( ! sacral v]tebr4 ,! lat]al surface may be divid$ into two p>ts4 ,craniad is a l>ge r\gh triangul> area ) equal sides & ) "o ( its angles direct$ v5trocraniad4 ,x is ! lat]al face ( ! pseudo-transv]se process ( ! fir/ sacral v]tebra 7,fig4 #f1 c74 ,a smoo? curv$ surface 7! auricul> facet7 along its v5tral edge articulates ) ! ilium1 :ile ! dorsal portion is r\gh = atta*m5t ( ligam5ts4 ,caudad is ! n>r[ longitud9al triangul> area ( ! lat]al faces ( ! fus$ transv]se processes ( ! second & ?ird sacral v]tebr4 ,caudal ,v]tebr4 ,v]tebr caudales 7,fig4 #a1 y1 & ,figs4 #h & #i74--,! caudal v]tebr 7#ba-bc 9 numb]7 decrease gradually 9 size to ! la/ "o4 ,caudad !y become long] & m sl5d] & lose ! "* ( v]tebr4 ,!y become f9ally r$uc$ to m]e c5tra1--sl5d] rods ( bone knobb$ or enl>g$ at _! two ends 7,fig4 #h74 ,! la/ "o is m po9t$ ?an ! o!rs & be>s at its caudal end a small sep>ate conical piece1 ! rudim5t ( an additional v]tebra4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,fig4 #i4 ,fig4 #h4--;,caudal ,v]tebra1 f ne> ! caudal end ( ! tail4 ,fig4 #i4--;,f\r? ,caudal ,v]tebra1 v5tral view4 a1 transv]se processes2 b1 cranial articul> processes2 c1 hmal processes2 d1 *evron bone4 ,! p>ts ( a typical v]tebra--v]tebral ar*1 transv]se processes1 cranial & caudal articul> processes--may be recogniz$ 9 ! v]tebr z f> back z ! eigh? or n9?4 ,! transv]se processes 7,fig4 #i1 a7 are direct$ caudad & decrease rapidly 9 l5g?4 ,!y are v small on ! n9? v]tebra1 b may be recogniz$ = a consid]able di/ance back ( ?is4 ,! sp9\s process disappe>s at ab\t ! f\r? caudal v]tebra1 & ! v]tebral canal becomes gradually small] caudad1 until on ! eigh? or n9? v]tebra x becomes m]ely a groove op5 dorsad4 ,caudad ( ! ?ird v]tebra = a consid]able di/ance1 ea* c5trum be>s on ea* lat]al face at its cranial end a %ort ant]ior transv]se process1 & on its v5tral face at its cranial end a pair ( r\nd$ tub]cles1 hmal processes 7c71 :i* articulate ) a small pyramidal *evron bone 7d7 s z to enclose a canal4 ,^! /ructures disappe> caudad4 ,c]vical ,v]tebr4 ,v]tebr c]vicales 7,fig4 #aj74--,! c]vical v]tebr numb] sev54 ,! fir/ two ( ^! are s peculi> z to require a sep>ate description1 s t ! la/ five may be fir/ consid]$4 ,pass+ craniad f ! f\r? ?oracic v]tebra to ! ?ird c]vical !re is a gradual transition4 ,! c5tra ( ! c]vical v]tebr are broad] & ?9n] ?an ^? ( ! ?oracic v]tebr1 :ile ! v]tebral ar*es & v]tebral canal are l>g] 7,fig4 #aa74 ,! caudal end ( ea* c5trum is concave & looks dorsocaudad :5 ! c5trum is held ) its long axis horizontal4 ,! cranial end ( ! c5trum is convex & looks v5trocraniad :5 ! c5trum is horizontal4 ,^! peculi>ities are m m>k$ 9 ! ?ird v]tebra ?an 9 ! sev5?4 ,! sp9\s processes gr[ rapidly %ort] z we pass craniad2 ! fif?1 six?1 & sev5? are direct$ dorsocraniad1 ! ?ird & f\r? dorsad4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,,c]vical ,,v]tebr1 ,,side ,,view4 a1 sp9\s processes2 b1 cranial articul> processes2 c1 caudal articul> facet2 d1 int]v]tebral =am9a2 e1 transv]se process prop]2 f1 processus co/>ius2 g1 w+ ( ! atlas2 h1 dorsal ar* ( ! atlas2 i1 atlantal =am54 ,! caudal articul> processes are situat$ at ! junction ( ! radices & lam92 _! facets 7,fig4 #aj1 c7 look v5trocaudolat]ad4 ,! cranial articul> processes also become m prom95t ?an is ! rule 9 ! ?oracic v]tebr2 !y are borne at ! junction ( radix & lam9a & h _! facets 7,fig4 #aa1 b7 direct$ dorsom$iad4 ,! cranial & caudal articul> processes ( ea* side are jo9$ by a prom95t ridge :i* is mo/ pron\nc$ 9 ! ?ird1 f\r?1 & fif? v]tebr4 ,! *>act]i/ic feature ( ! c]vical v]tebr is _! transv]se process1 s call$4 ,9 ea* ( !m x arises by two roots1 "o f ! c5trum & "o f ! ar*4 ,^! two roots1 :i* are broad & ?91 conv]ge & unite s z to enclose a canal or =am51 ! =am5 transv]s>ium 7,fig4 #aa1 g71 = ! v]tebral art]y4 ,lat]ad ( ! =am5 ! two p>ts ( ! process are1 9 ! ?ird c]vical1 almo/ completely unit$1 ! dorsal "p be+1 h[ev]1 di/+ui%able z a tub]cle at ! caudolat]al angle ( ! ?9 plate =m$ by ! process z a :ole4 ,?is dorsal compon5t is ! transv]se process prop] 7,figs4 #aj & #aa1 e71 :ile ! v5tral portion repres5ts a rib1 & is h5ce kn[n z ! processus co/>ius 7f74 ,! exp&$ plate =m$ by ! union ( ^! two processes is direct$ ne>ly v5trad & some:at craniad 9 ! ?ird1 f\r?1 & fif? v]tebr4 ,! two compon5ts ( ! process gradually sep>ate z we pass caudad2 9 ! f\r? & fif? v]tebr ! "p :i* repres5ts ! transv]se process prop] =ms a v prom95t tub]cle at ! caudolat]al angle ( ! plate =m$ by ! processus co/>ius4 ,9 ! six? 7,fig4 #aa7 ! two p>ts are almo/ completely sep>at$2 ! dorsal "p =ms 7e7 a sl5d] knobb$ process1 :ile ! processus co/>ius is divid$ into two portions 7f & f7 by a broad lat]al not*4 ,9 ! sev5? ! v5tral "p 7processus co/>ius7 is usually q lack+1 ?\gh sometimes repres5t$ by a sl5d] spicule ( bone4 ,9 ! =m] case ! =am5 transv]s>ium is ( c\rse likewise lack+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,six? ,,c]vical ,,v]tebra1 ,,cranial ,,end4 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,,atlas1 ,,v5tral ,,view4 ,fig4 #aa4--;a1 sp9\s process2 b1 cranial articul> facet2 c1 lam9a2 d1 radix or p$icle2 e1 transv]se process prop]2 f1 f1 processus co/>ius2 g1 =am5 transv]s>ium2 h1 c5trum2 i1 v]tebral canal4 ,fig4 #ab4--;a1 v5tral ar*2 b1 tub]culum ant]ius2 c1 lat]al masses2 d1 transv]se processes2 e1 cranial articul> facets2 f1 groove connect+ ! =am5 transv]s>ium ) ! atlantal =am52 g1 atlantal =am52 h1 caudal articul> facets4 ,! ,atlas 7,fig4 #aj1 #a2 ,fig4 #ab74--,! fir/ c]vical v]tebra or atlas has some:at ! =m ( a seal r+4 ,! c5trum is abs5t2 x has unit$ ) ! second v]tebra to =m ! odontoid process or d5s4 ,its place is tak5 9 ! atlas by a n>r[ flat ar* ( bone1 n>r[] at ! ends ?an 9 ! middle1 ! v5tral ar* 7,fig4 #ab1 a7 ( ! atlas4 ,?is connects ! lat]al1 ?ick] portions ( ! r+ v5trally & be>s on its caudal m>g9 a blunt tub]cle 7tub]culum ant]ius1 ,fig4 #ab1 b74 ,lat]ally ! r+ is ?ick5$1 =m+ ?us ! lat]al masses 7c7 :i* are cont9u$ into ! broad ?9 transv]se processes 7,fig4 #aj1 g2 ,fig4 #ab1 d74 ,ea* lat]al mass be>s at its cranial end on its m$ial surface a concave1 pe>-%ap$ facet1 cranial 7or sup]ior7 articul> facet1 7,fig4 #ab1 e7 = articulation ) ! condyles ( ! skull4 ,^! facets look craniom$iad4 ,dorsad ( ea* is a =am51 ! atlantal =am5 7,fig4 #aj1 i2 ,fig4 #ab1 g71 :i* pi]ces ! dorsal ar* at its junction ) ! lat]al mass4 ,caudal to ! facet1 on ! m$ial face ( ea* lat]al mass1 )9 ! v]tebral canal1 is a tub]cle4 ,to ! two tub]cles are atta*$ ! transv]se ligam5t 7,fig4 #ad1 b7 :i* holds 9 place ! odontoid process 7d5s7 ( ! axis4 ,t "p ( ! lat]al mass :i* be>s ! articul> facet projects craniad ( ! dorsal ar* & is sep>at$ by a deep triangul> not* f ! transv]se process4 ,along ! bottom ( ?is not* runs a groove 7,fig4 #ab1 f71 convex craniad1 :i* connects ! cranial end ( ! =am5 transv]s>ium & ! atlantal =am54 ,! v]tebral art]y passes along x4 ,! =am5 transv]s>ium is circul>4 ,x is b\nd$ lat]ally by ! lat]al masses1 & dorsally by ! dorsal ar*4 ,! dorsal ar* 7,fig4 #aj1 h7 is two to ?ree times z broad z ! v5tral1 has a ?ick convex cranial bord] ) a m$ian not*1 & a ?9 concave caudal bord]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,,axis ,,or ,,epi/ropheus1 ,,side ,,view4 a1 odontoid process or d5s2 b1 cranial articul> facets2 c1 sp9\s process2 d1 caudal articul> facet2 e1 transv]se process2 f1 =am5 transv]s>ium4 ,! caudal articul> facets 7,fig4 #ab1 h7 are borne by ! caudal ends ( ! lat]al masses4 ,!y are slightly concave1 triangul>1 & look caudom$iad1 s t _! dorsal bord]s =m ) ! caudal bord] ( ! dorsal ar* ne>ly a semicircle4 ,! transv]se processes are flat & direct$ lat]ad4 ,! atta*$ m>g9 ( ea* is ab\t two-?irds ! l5g? ( ! ?9n] free m>g94 ,! some:at ?ick] caudal end ( ! transv]se process projects fur!r caudad ?an any o!r "p ( ! v]tebra & is sep>at$ by a slight not* f ! caudal articul> facet4 ,f ! bottom ( ?is not* ! =am5 transv]s>ium ext5ds craniad & op5s at ! middle ( ! v5tral face ( ! transv]se process4 ,epi/ropheus or ,axis 7,fig4 #aj1 #b2 ,fig4 #ac74--,! second c]vical v]tebra 7epi/ropheus or axis7 is n s wide z ! atlas b is mu* long]4 ,craniad ! c5trum is cont9u$ into a sl5d] conical1 too?like projection1 ! d5s or odontoid process 7,fig4 #ac1 a7 :i* repres5ts ! c5trum ( ! atlas4 ,! d5s is smoo? bel[ = articulation ) ! v5tral ar* ( ! atlas4 ,x is r\gh] above4 ,lat]ad ( ! d5s ! c5trum be>s a pair ( l>ge cranial articul> facets 7b7 :i* look craniolat]ad4 ,^! h ea* ! =m ( a "r-angl$ triangle ) r\nd$ angles1 "o side ( ! triangle be+ ne>ly horizontal4 ,ea* is sep>at$ f ! articul> face ( ! d5s by a r\gh5$ groove4 ,! sp9\s process 7c7 runs ! l5g? ( ! v]tebral ar*4 ,x ext5ds craniad ( ! v]tebral ar* ne>ly z f> z ! d5s1 z a flat r\nd$ projection4 ,caudad ( ! v]tebral ar* x projects = a %ort di/ance z a /\t triangul> sp9e4 ,! caudal articul> facets 7d7 are borne on ?ick5+s ( ! caudolat]al portions ( ! ar*2 !y face almo/ directly v5trad4 ,! transv]se process 7e7 is sl5d] & triangul> & direct$ ne>ly caudad4 ,its apex rea*es no f>!r ?an ! caudal or articul> face ( ! c5trum4 ,its base is trav]s$ by ! =am5 transv]s>ium 7f74 ,diff]5tial ,*>act]s ( ! ,c]vical ,v]tebr4--,x is possible to id5tify ea* ( ! c]vical v]tebr3 ,! fir/ by ! abs5ce ( ! c5trum4 ,! second by ! d5s or odontoid process4 ,! ?ird by ! small sp9\s process & slightly m>k$ tub]cle ( ! transv]se process1 & by a m$ian tub]cle on ! cranial bord] ( ! v]tebral ar*4 ,! f\r? by ! sp9\s process direct$ dorsad1 & ! %ort ?ick tub]cle ( ! transv]se process n trifid4 ,! fif? by ! sp9\s process direct$ craniad1 & ! m sl5d] sp9e-l tub]cle ( ! transv]se process n trifid4 ,! six? by ! trifid transv]se process4 ,! sev5? by ! long sp9\s process & ! sl5d] simple transv]se process1 & by ! usual abs5ce ( ! =am5 transv]s>ium4 ,,ligam5ts ,,( ,,! ,,v]tebral ,,column4 ,fibro-c>tilag9es int]v]tebrales4--,! sep>ate v]tebr 7except ! atlas & axis7 are unit$ by ! disk-%ap$ int]v]tebral fibro-c>tilages1 :i* are situat$ betwe5 ! c5tra ( ! v]tebr4 ,ea* consi/s ( a c5tral pulpy portion & a fibr\s out] portion1 cov]$ by /rong int]cross+ t5d9\s fib]s :i* unite ) ! p]io/eum ( ! v]tebr4 ,ligam5tum longitud9ale ant]ius4--,on ! v5tral face ( ! c5tra ( ! v]tebr1 f ! atlas to ! sacrum1 lies a longitud9al ligam5t1 ! ant]ior longitud9al ligam5t4 ,x is v small1 almo/ rudim5t>y1 9 ! c]vical region3 l>ge & /rong 9 ! ?oracic & lumb> regions4 ,ligam5tum longitud9ale po/]ius 7,fig4 #ad1 a74--,a correspond+ ligam5t 7po/]ior longitud9al ligam5t7 lies on ! dorsal surface ( ! c5tra 7!re=e )9 ! v]tebral canal74 ,x is enl>g$ betwe5 ea* pair ( v]tebr & closely unit$ to ! int]v]tebral fibro-c>tilages4 ,ligam5tum suprasp9ale4--,betwe5 ! tips ( ! sp9\s processes ( ! ?oracic & lumb> v]tebr ext5d ligam5t\s fib]s4 ,!y are n unit$ to =m a di/9ct b&1 & c h>dly be di/+ui%$ f ! num]\s t5d9\s fib]s ( ! suprasp9\s muscles4 ,toge!r !y repres5t ! suprasp9\s ligam5t4 ,f ! tip ( ! sp9\s process ( ! fir/ ?oracic v]tebra to ! caudal end ( ! sp9e ( ! axis ext5ds a sl5d] /r& repres5t+ ! ligam5tum nu* or c]vical suprasp9\s ligam5t4 ,x is imb$d$ 9 ! sup]ficial muscles ( ?is region1 "s ( :i* take orig9 f x4 ,ligam5t\s fib]s are also pres5t betwe5 ! sp9\s processes ( ! v]tebr 7ligam5ta int]sp9alia73 betwe5 ! transv]se processes 7ligam5ta int]transv]s>ia71 & betwe5 ! v]tebral ar*es 7ligam5ta flava74 ,capsul articul>es4--,! jo9ts betwe5 ! articul> processes are furni%$ ) articul> capsules atta*$ ab\t ! edges ( ! articul> surfaces4 ,^! are l>g] & loos] 9 ! c]vical region4 ,atlanto-occipital ,articulation4--,! jo9t betwe5 ! atlas & ! occipital condyles has a s+le articul> capsule1 :i* is atta*$ ab\t ! bord]s ( ! articul> surfaces ( ! two bones4 ,?is capsule is ( c\rse wide/ lat]ally1 =m+ inde$ two p>tially sep>at$ sacs1 :i* are1 h[ev]1 cont9u\s by a n>r[ portion across ! v5tral middle l9e4 ,?is capsule communicates ) t :i* cov]s ! articul> surface ( ! d5s1 & ?r\gh ?is ) ! capsule betwe5 ! atlas & axis4 ,t portion ( ! capsule :i* cov]s ! space betwe5 ! v5tral ar* ( ! atlas & ! occipital bone repres5ts ! ant]ior atlanto-occipital membrane2 x is /r5g!n$ by a sl5d] m$ian ligam5t\s /r&4 ,! po/]ior atlanto-occipital membrane cov]s 9 ! same way ! space betwe5 ! dorsal ar* ( ! atlas & ! dorsal edge ( ! =am5 magnum4 ,9 x a numb] ( diff]5t sets ( fib]s1 ) reg>d to direction & to degree ( developm5t1 may be di/+ui%$2 ^! h sometimes be5 consid]$ sep>ate ligam5ts4 ,! lat]al ligam5ts ( ! atlas beg9 at ! lat]al angle ( ! cranial m>g9 ( ! atlas1 at ab\t ! junction ( its dorsal & v5tral ar*es1 & pass craniov5trad to ! jugul> processes4 ,articulation betwe5 ! ,axis & ,atlas4--,! articul> capsule is l>ge & loose1 be+ atta*$ to dorsal & v5tral bord]s ( ! atlas1 ab\t ! articul> surfaces ( ! axis1 & to ! cranial projection ( ! sp9e ( ! atlas4 ,x also passes craniad along ! v5tral side ( ! d5s & communicates "h ) ! capsule ( ! atlanto-occipital articulation4 ,9 ! dorsal "p ( ! capsule a %ort /rong ligam5t\s /r& is develop$1 connect+ ! caudal bord] ( ! dorsal ar* ( ! atlas ) ! tip ( ! cranial projection ( ! sp9\s process ( ! axis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,ligam5ts ,,( ,,! ,,odontoid ,,process ,,or ,,d5s4 ,fir/ ?ree c]vical v]tebr & base ( ! skull1 ) dorsal surface remov$4 a1 ligam5tum longitud9ale po/]ius2 b1 transv]se ligam5t ( ! atlas2 c1 ligam5ta al>ia2 d1 odontoid process2 e1 occipital condyles2 #a1 #b1 #c1 ! fir/ ?ree c]vical v]tebr2 #d1 basal portion ( ! occipital bone4 ,! d5s or odontoid process is held 9 place by ! transv]se ligam5t 7,fig4 #ad1 b7 ( ! atlas1 :i* passes across ! process z x lies )9 ! v]tebral canal ( ! atlas4 ,! transv]se ligam5t is atta*$ at its two ends to ! m$ial surface ( ! sides ( ! atlas at ab\t ! region :]e ! dorsal & v5tral ar*es ( ! atlas unite4 ,f ! cranial end ( ! odontoid process ! two ligam5ta al>ia 7,fig4 #ad1 c7 div]ge craniolat]ad to ! r\gh v5trom$ial angle ( ! condyles ( ! occipital bone4 ,,ii4 ,,ribs4 ,,co/ 7,figs4 #a & #ae47 ,! cat has ?irte5 pairs ( ribs4 ,"o ( ! fif? pair 7,fig4 #ae7 may be tak5 z typical4 ,x is a curv$ flatt5$ rod ( bone atta*$ at its dorsal end to ! v]tebral column1 & at its v5tral end to a c>tilage 7co/al c>tilage1 ,fig4 #ae1 f7 :i* s]ves to unite x to ! /]num4 ,! mo/ convex portion ( ! bone is kn[n z ! angle 7e74 ,ea* rib pres5ts a convex lat]al & a concave m$ial surface1 a cranial & a caudal bord]4 ,! bord]s are broad dorsad & n>r[ v5trad1 :ile ! surfaces are n>r[ dorsad & broad v5trad4 ,! rib has ?us ! appe>ance ( hav+ be5 twi/$4 ,! rib ends dorsad 9 a globul> head or capitulum 7a71 by :i* x articulates ) ! co/al demifacets ( two contigu\s ?oracic v]tebr4 ,betwe5 ! capitulum & angle on ! lat]al surface is an elevat$ area1 ! tub]cle1 m>k$ by ! smoo? tub]cul> facet 7c7 = articulation ) ! transv]se process ( a v]tebra4 ,! con/rict$ portion betwe5 ! head & tub]cle is kn[n z ! neck 7collum7 7d74 ,! angle is m>k$ by a project+ process 7e7 7angul> process7 on its lat]al bord]1 = atta*m5t ( a ligam5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,,fif? ,,rib ,,( ,,left ,,side1 ,,cranial ,,view4 a1 head2 b1 tub]cle2 c1 tub]cul> facet2 d1 neck2 e1 angle1 ) angul> process2 f1 c>tilage4 ,! ribs increase 9 l5g? to ! n9? 7! n9? & t5? are ( ! same l5g?7 & !n decrease to ! la/4 ,!y decrease 9 bread? beh9d ! fif?4 ,! fir/ is ne>ly 9 a dorsov5tral plane1 :ile ! o!rs h _! dorsal ends incl9$ slightly craniad4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,/]num1 ,,v5tral ,,view4 a1 manubrium2 b1 ! sep>ate pieces =m+ ! body2 c1 bony "p ( ! xiphoid process 7! exp&$ c>tilag9\s portion n be+ %[n72 d1 facet = atta*m5t ( fir/ rib4 ,! tub]cles become less prom95t z we pass caudad & are abs5t on ! la/ two or ?ree ribs1 :i* d n articulate ) ! transv]se process4 ,! fir/ n9e ribs 7true ribs or co/ v]7 are atta*$ sep>ately to ! /]num by _! co/al c>tilages4 ,! la/ f\r 7false ribs or co/ spuri7 are n atta*$ sep>ately to ! /]num4 ,! co/al c>tilages ( ! t5?1 elev5?1 & twelf? are unit$ to "o ano!r at _! /]nal ends4 ,!y may be unit$ also to ! n9? co/al c>tilage or to ! /]num by a common c>tilage ( ins]tion1 or !y may be q free f ! /]num4 ,! ?irte5? co/al c>tilages are free 7float+ ribs74 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,ribs4--,! articul> surfaces betwe5 ! head ( ! rib & ! c5tra1 & betwe5 ! tub]cle & ! transv]se process ( ! v]tebra1 h ea* an articul> capsule4 ,!re are also a numb] ( small ligam5t\s b&s f ! tub]osity & ! neck ( ! rib to ! transv]se process ( ! v]tebra4 ,,iii4 ,,/]num4 7,fig4 #af47 ,! /]num consi/s ( ?ree portions1 a cranial piece or manubrium 7a71 a caudal piece or xiphoid process 7c71 & a middle portion or body 7corpus71 :i* is divid$ into a numb] ( segm5ts 7b74 ,to ! /]num are unit$ ! v5tral ends ( ! fir/ n9e ribs4 ,x ?us =ms ! m$ian v5tral b\nd>y ( ! ?orax4 ,s9ce ! ?orax decreases 9 dorsov5tral measurem5t craniad1 ! long axis ( ! /]num is incl9$ f its caudal end dorsocraniad1 & if cont9u$ w\ld /rike ! v]tebral column 9 ! region ( ! fir/ c]vical v]tebra4 ,! manubrium 7a7 makes up ab\t "o-fif? ! :ole l5g? ( ! /]num & projects craniad ( ! fir/ rib4 ,x has ! =m ( a dagg] & pres5ts a dorsal surface & two lat]al surfaces1 ! latt] unit+ v5trad to =m a %>p angle4 ,9 ! middle ( ! lat]al surface ne> ! dorsal m>g9 is an oval articul> surface 7d7 borne on a triangul> projection4 ,x looks caudodorsad & is = ! fir/ co/al c>tilage4 ,! caudal end articulates ) ! body by a syn*ondrosis & pres5ts a slightly m>k$ oval facet on ea* side = ! second co/al c>tilage4 ,! body consi/s ( six cyl9drical pieces 7b7 enl>g$ at _! ends & movably unit$ by syn*ondroses4 ,!y increase 9 bread? f ! fir/1 & decrease slightly 9 l5g? & ?ickness4 ,at ! caudal end ( ea* ne> its v5tral bord] !re is a pair ( facets look+ caudolat]ad4 ,!y are = ! co/al c>tilages4 ,! xiphoid process 7c7 is a broad ?9 plate ( c>tilage at its caudal end2 bony & cyl9drical at its cranial end4 ,x is atta*$ by its base to ! la/ segm5t ( ! body by a consid]able c>tilag9\s int]val1 :ile ! opposite end is free & direct$ caudov5trad4 ,! c>tilage ( ! n9? rib is atta*$ to ! lat]al face ( ! c>tilage betwe5 ! xiphoid & ! body1 & j caudad ( ?is ! common c>tilage ( ins]tion ( ! t5?1 elev5?1 & twelf? co/al c>tilages is atta*$1 if pres5t4 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,skull4 ,! bones ( ! head consi/ ( ! skull prop] toge!r ) a numb] ( sep>ate bones =m+ "p ( ! visc]al skeleton2 ^! are ! l[] jaw1 ! hyoid1 & ! e>-bones4 ,! skull prop] is consid]$ z divid$ into cranial & facial portions4 ,! =m] includes all ! bones :i* take "p 9 b\nd+ ! cranial cavity or cavity ( ! bra92 ! latt] includes ! bones :i* support ! face4 ,! cranial portion ( ! skull includes all t "p enclos+ ! l>ge cavity :i* conta9s ! bra94 ,= conv5i5ce ?is portion may be consid]$ z made up ( ?ree segm5ts1 ea* ( :i* =ms a r+ surr\nd+ a "p ( ! cranial cavity4 ,! fir/ or caudal segm5t or r+ consi/s ( ! occipital bone 7) ! int]p>ietal7 surr\nd+ ! =am5 magnum4 ,! second segm5t consi/s ( ! sph5oid v5trad1 ! p>ietals lat]ad & dorsad4 ,betwe5 ! fir/ & second segm5ts are int]calat$ lat]ally ! temporal bones conta9+ ! auditory organ4 ,! ?ird segm5t or r+ consi/s ( ! presph5oid v5trad1 ( ! frontals lat]ad & dorsad4 ,! cranial op5+ ( ?is r+ is clos$ by ! lam9a cribrosa ( ! e?moid4 ,! cranial portion ( ! skull !re=e conta9s elev5 sep>ate bones3 "o occipital1 "o int]p>ietal1 two temporals1 "o sph5oid1 two p>ietals1 "o presph5oid1 two frontals1 & "o e?moid4 ,! facial portion ( ! skull is mu* small] ?an ! cranial1 & lies craniad ( ! latt]2 x encloses ! nasal cavity4 ,x conta9s ! foll[+ ?irte5 bones3 two palat9es1 "o vom]1 two maxill>ies1 two la*rymals1 two premaxill>ies1 two nasals1 two mal> or zygomatic bones4 ,! two halves ( ! m&ible or l[] jaw are frequ5tly includ$ 9 ! facial portion ( ! skull1 mak+ 9 all fifte5 sep>ate bones 9 ?is "p ( ! skull4 ,9 ! foll[+ ! bones ( ! skull are fir/ describ$ sep>ately1 !n an acc\nt is giv5 ( ! skull z a :ole4 ,occipital ,bone4 ,os occipitale 7,figs4 #ag & #ah74--,! occipital bone =ms ! mo/ caudal portion ( ! cranium1 ent]+ into ! =mation ( its caudal wall & ( its base4 ,x connects ! cranium ) ! v]tebral column & surr\nds a l>ge op5+1 ! =am5 magnum 7d71 by means ( :i* ! cranial cavity communicates ) ! v]tebral canal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,occipital ,,bone1 ,,caudal ,,or ,,out] ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,occipital ,,bone1 ,,inn] ,,surface4 a1 basil> portion2 b1 lat]al portions2 c1 squam\s portion2 d1 =am5 magnum2 e1 occipital condyles2 f1 jugul> processes2 g1 jugul> not*2 h1 lambdoidal ridge2 i1 ext]nal occipital cre/2 j1 ext]nal occipital protub]ance4 ,9 "y kitt5s f\r portions may be di/+ui%$ 9 ?is bone4 ,^! are1 a basal portion 7! basioccipital bone71 two lat]al portions 7! exoccipital bones71 & a dorsal portion 7! supraoccipital bone74 ,^! f\r bones rema9 sep>ate ?r\gh life 9 _m l[] v]tebrates4 ,9 ! adult cat !y are completely unit$ into a s+le bone1 b x is conv5i5t to describe ?is bone z made up ( f\r p>ts3 a basal portion 7a7 7p>s basil>e71 correspond+ to ! basioccipital1 two lat]al portions 7b7 7p>tes lat]ales71 correspond+ to ! exoccipitals1 & a squam\s portion 7c7 7squama occipitalis7 correspond+ to ! supraoccipital4 ,! basil> portion 7a7 z se5 f ! dorsal or v5tral surface is oblong & flatt5$4 ,x is broade/ at ! junction ( its middle & la/ ?irds1 & tap]s t[>d bo? ends4 ,x pres5ts a cranial end & a caudal end1 a dorsal1 a v5tral1 & two lat]al surfaces4 ,its caudal end1 :i* helps to =m ! v5tral b\nd>y ( ! =am5 magnum1 is concave f side to side4 ,! cranial end is transv]sely elongate1 ab\t five times z broad z high1 po9t$ lat]ally & r\gh5$ = atta*m5t to ! caudal end ( ! body ( ! sph5oid1 :i* has a correspond+ =m4 ,! jo9t is a syn*ondrosis4 ,! dorsal surface is concave f side to side1 =m+ a longitud9al groove 9 :i* re/ ! pons & m$ulla4 ,! concavity is m pron\nc$ caudad1 :]e ! bone is ?9n] at its middle4 ,! v5tral surface is m>k$ by ?ree p>allel longitud9al ridges4 ,"o ( !m is m$ian & exp&s caudad into a smoo? triangul> elevat$ area :i* ext5ds to ! =am5 magnum4 ,! o!r two ridges run ne> ! lat]al edges ( ! bone4 ,betwe5 !m & ! m$ian ridge ! surface is smoo? & is depress$ caudad4 ,lat]ad ( ea* lat]al ridge is a r\gh triangul> surface ov]laid 9 ! natural /ate by ! m$ial edge ( ! tympanic bulla4 ,! lat]al surfaces are smoo? & %>p & abut aga9/ ! petr\s portion ( ! temporal bone4 ,!y pass into ! lat]al portions ( ! occipital caudad4 ,! lat]al portions 7b7 ( ! occipital arise f ! caudal m>g9 ( ! basil> portion 9 ! transv]se plane2 a %ort di/ance lat]ad ( ! l9e ( junction !y turn dorsad at an angle ( ne>ly n9ety degrees4 ,!y =m ! lat]al b\nd>ies ( ! =am5 magnum & pass dorsally into ! squam\s portion4 ,! ext]nal surface ( ea* pres5ts an elongat$ elevat$ spirally curv$ surface1 ! occipital condyle 7c71 = articulation ) ! atlas4 ,a small "p ( ea* condyle is =m$ f ! basal portion4 ,! two condyles are sep>at$ f "o ano!r v5trally by a n>r[ not*1 & ea* ext5ds 7lat]ad7 along ! bord] ( ! =am5 magnum to a po9t slightly dorsad ( ! transv]se diamet] ( ! latt]4 ,lat]ad ( ea* condyle ! bone is elevat$ into a blunt triangul> projection1 ! jugul> process 7f71 :i* cov]s ! caudal end ( ! tympanic bulla4 ,betwe5 ! jugul> process & ! condyle is a deep depression4 ,! int]nal surface 7,fig4 #ah7 is concave dorsov5trally1 foll[+ ! outl9e ( ! =am5 magnum4 ,x is convex f side to side4 ,x is smoo? except at its out] m>g91 :i* is r\gh = articulation ) ! ma/oid portion ( ! temporal bone4 ,! cranial face ( ! jugul> process 7f7 %[s a r\gh concavity = ! reception ( ! bulla tympani4 ,m$iad ( ! jugul> process is a not* 7jugul> not*7 7g7 :i* :5 ! bones are articulat$ =ms "p ( ! b\nd>y ( ! jugul> =am54 ,m$iad ( ?is not* is a =am5 :i* =ms "o end ( ! hypoglossal canal4 ,x passes dorsocaudad into ! cranial cavity & transmits ! hypoglossal n]ve4 ,dorsad ( ! hypoglossal canal is ! cranial op5+ ( ! condyloid canal1 :i* passes caudad & op5s j craniad ( ! dorsal end ( ! condyle4 ,x transmits a ve94 ,! out] bord] ( ?is portion is r\gh = articulation ) ! petr\s & ma/oid portions ( ! temporal4 ,! squam\s portion 7c7 has ! =m ( a sector ( a circle ^: arc is a little m ?an n9ety degrees4 ,! c5tral angle ( ! sector is truncat$ & b\nds ! =am5 magnum dorsally4 ,! arc ( ! sector =ms ! dorsal m>g9 ( ! bone1 :ile along ! radii x passes into ! lat]al portions4 ,its dorsal portion is ?ick & por\s2 its v5tral portion ne> ! =am5 magnum is ?9 & compact4 ,! ext]nal surface 7,fig4 #ag7 is m>k$ by a prom95t ridge1 ! lambdoidal ridge 7h71 p>allel ) ! dorsal bord] & ne> to x4 ,! n>r[ portion ( ! out] surface t lies dorsad ( ! ridge =ms an angle ( ab\t n9ety degrees ) ! rema9d] ( ! surface4 ,a m$ian cre/ 7i7 ext5ds v5trad f ! middle ( ! lambdoidal ridge t[>d ! =am5 magnum2 ?is is ! ext]nal occipital cre/4 ,at its junction ) ! lambdoidal ridge x is elevat$ into a tub]cle1 ! ext]nal occipital protub]ance 7j74 ,! inn] surface 7,fig4 #ah7 pres5ts depressions = ! convolutions ( ! c]ebellum4 ,! dorsal bord] is ?ick & r\gh = articulation ) ! p>ietals & int]p>ietal4 ,! v5tral bord] abuts on ! =am5 magnum & is ?9 & smoo?4 ,int]p>ietal ,bone4 ,os int]p>ietale 7,fig4 #ai74--,?is is a small triangul> bone ly+ betwe5 ! p>ietals1 ) its apex direct$ craniad1 & its base 9 contact ) ! squam\s portion ( ! occipital4 ,its dorsal surface is arr[-%ap$ & has its po/]ior bord] not*$4 ,x is m>k$ by a m$ian cre/ 7"p ( ! sagittal cre/7 :i* is cont9u$ craniad f ! middle ( ! lambdoidal cre/4 ,! v5tral surface is irregul>ly triangul>1 smoo?1 & concave4 ,! ?ree bord]s are r\gh = articulation ) ! p>ietals & occipital4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,int]p>ietal ,,bone1 ,,out] ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,sph5oid ,,bone1 ,,dorsal ,,or ,,int]nal ,,surface4 ,fig4 #ai1 %[+ ! sagittal cre/ runn+ craniocaudad across its middle4 ,fig4 #bj4--;a1 body2 b1 w+s2 c1 pt]ygoid process2 d1 tub]culum sell2 e1 dorsum sell2 f1 sella turcica2 g1 not* :i* aids 9 =m+ ! =am5 lac]um2 h1 longitud9al groove ( alisph5oid2 i1 not* :i* aids 9 =m+ ! orbital fissure2 j1 =am5 rotundum2 k1 =am5 ovale4 ,sph5oid ,bone4 ,os sph5oidale 7,fig4 #bj74--,! sph5oid bone ( man is repres5t$ 9 ! cat by two entirely di/9ct bones1--"o cranial1 ! o!r caudal4 ,! cranial portion may be designat$ z ! presph5oid 7,fig4 #ba72 ! caudal "p w be describ$ z ! sph5oid 7prop]7 7,fig4 #bj74 ,! sph5oid bone 9 ! kitt5 is 9 ?ree p>ts3 a c5tral portion1 ! basisph5oid1 & two lat]al portions1 ! alisph5oids4 ,9 _m l[] v]tebrates ^! ?ree bones are p]man5tly di/9ct1 b 9 ! adult cat !y are unit$ to =m ! sph5oid bone4 ,to ^! !re is add$ a f\r? elem5t1 sep>ate 9 _m v]tebrates z ! pt]ygoid bone4 ,! sph5oid may ?us be describ$ z compos$ ( a c5tral portion1 ! body 7a7 7basisph5oid71 & ( two ?9 exp&$ w+s 7b7 7alisph5oids1 al magn ( ! human sph5oid72 ea* ( :i* has aris+ f x a ?9 curv$ process1 ! pt]ygoid process 7c71 direct$ craniad & l>gely made up ( ! pt]ygoid bone4 ,! body ( ! sph5oid 7a7 lies 9 ! middle l9e ( ! base ( ! skull4 ,x is w$ge-%ap$1 ) ! conv]g+ sides ( ! w$ge direct$ lat]ad & its apex po9t$ craniad4 ,x has six surfaces1 ( :i* ! dorsal & a "p ( ! lat]als look into ! cranial cavity4 ,! cranial end articulates ) ! body ( ! presph5oid1 & ! caudal ) ! body ( ! occipital4 ,! dorsal surface is triangul>1 ) "o apex ( ! triangle truncat$1 elevat$1 & direct$ craniad4 ,?is elevation is ! tub]culum sell 7d74 ,j caudad ( ! middle ! surface pres5ts a rectangul> elevation ) r\nd$ angles1 ! dorsum sell 7e74 ,! cranial end ( ! dorsum sell pres5ts at ea* dorsolat]al angle a v small smoo? tub]cle :i* repres5ts "o ( ! po/]ior cl9oid processes ( man4 ,betwe5 ?is elevation & ! elevat$ cranial end ( ?is surface !re is a deep excavation1 ! sella turcica 7f71 9 :i* 9 ! natural /ate is lodg$ ! hypophysis4 ,ne> ! cranial end ( ! sella is a small =am51 probably nutri5t4 ,at ! caudal end ( ! body a slight not* 7g7 sep>ates x f ! w+3 ?is not* =ms a "p ( ! =am5 lac]um4 ,aga9/ ?is not* fits ! apex ( ! petr\s bone1 & f x a groove 7c>otid groove7 is cont9u$ m$iocraniad to ! sella turcica4 ,! v5tral surface 7,fig4 #da1 #c7 is triangul>1 smoo?1 & ne>ly flat2 x is m>k$ by a m$ian ridge :i* is ! cont9uation craniad ( ! ridge on ! v5tral face ( ! basil> portion ( ! occipital4 ,its caudal angles are sep>at$ f ! re/ ( ! bone by %>p triangul> elevations1 lat]ad ( :i* are r\gh triangul> areas1 ov]laid :5 ! bones are articulat$ by a triangul> sp9e f ! tympanic bulla4 ,its lat]al surfaces are mo/ly cov]$ by ! w+s4 ,!y appe> at ! sides ( ! elevat$ cranial end ( ! dorsal surface z triangul> areas4 ,! caudal end is concave1 r\gh1 & has ! =m ( ! cranial end ( ! basil> "p ( ! occipital4 ,! cranial end is ne>ly squ>e & r\gh = articulation ) ! body ( ! presph5oid4 ,! ,w+ 7alisph5oid2 ala magna ( ! human sph5oid7 7,fig4 #bj1 b74--,?is is a ?9 quadrilat]al plate ( bone atta*$ by its m$ial bord] to ne>ly ! :ole ( ! lat]al surface ( ! body4 ,its middle portion lies ne>ly 9 ! same plane z ! body1 b its ends are curv$ dorsad s t its int]nal surface is concave & its ext]nal surface is convex4 ,! curvature is mo/ pron\nc$ ne> ! long lat]al bord]1 s t ?is bord] =ms ne>ly a semicircle4 ,! int]nal surface supports ! occipital lobe ( ! c]ebrum4 ,x is m>k$ by a r\nd$ groove 7h7 :i* is p>allel ) ! lat]al surface ( ! body4 ,! dorsal m>g9 ( ! groove projects m$iad 9 ! =m ( a %>p ridge :i* is broade/ caudad1 :]e x (t5 rea*es ne>ly to ! po/]ior cl9oid process4 ,! groove passes craniad into ?ree =am9a4 ,! fir/ 7cranial7 ( ^!1 ! orbital fissure 7i71 is l>ge & lies betwe5 ! w+1 ! body1 & ! pt]ygoid process4 ,x is incomplete1 b is complet$ by ! presph5oid4 ,! second =am5 is small & r\nd$2 x is ! =am5 rotundum 7j74 ,! ?ird1 =am5 ovale 7k71 is l>g] & oval & p5etrates ! w+ ?r\gh ab\t ! middle ( its longitud9al axis4 ,ano!r m9ute =am5 p5etrates ! sph5oid betwe5 ! w+ & ! body ( ! bone1 j lat]ad ( ! tub]culum sell4 ,?is =am5 is cont9u\s craniad ) a groove on ! dorsal surface ( ! pt]ygoid process2 ! groove & =am5 con/itute ! pt]ygoid canal4 ,x transmits a n]ve4 ,! ext]nal surface %[s ! orbital fissure1 ! =am5 rotundum & ! =am5 ovale1 b\nd$ v5trally by a %>p ridge1 :i* is cont9u$ onto ! pt]ygoid process4 ,betwe5 ?is ridge & ! body ! surface is longitud9ally groov$ = ! tuba auditiva or ,eu/a*ian tube4 ,! semicircul> m>g9 ( ! bone articulates ) ! squam\s portion ( ! temporal4 ,at ! junction ( its caudal & middle ?ird !re is sometimes a too?like projection :i* und]lies ! root ( ! zygoma4 ,! :ole ( ! cranial m>g91 except ! lat]al end1 articulates ) ! w+ ( ! presph5oid4 ,at ?is end ! angle =m$ by ! junction ( lat]al & cranial bord]s is produc$ into a flat process1 :i* passes dorsocaudad betwe5 ! squam\s portion ( ! temporal & ! frontal1 & articulates by ! r\gh5$ int]nal surface ( its free end ) a simil> process f ! p>ietal4 ,! caudal m>g9 lat]ad ( ! groove is bevell$ & r\gh5$ at ! exp5se ( ! dorsal surface & is ov]laid by ! v5tral end ( ! t5torium4 ,m$iad ( ! groove x projects caudad z a sl5d] po9t1 ! l+ula ( ! sph5oid4 ,?is is receiv$ into a n>r[ cleft betwe5 ! apex ( ! petr\s bone & ! bulla tympani4 ,! pt]ygoid process 7c7 is a ne>ly squ>e1 ?9 plate ( bone4 ,! m$ial surface is smoo? & concave1 ! lat]al face is convex & m>k$ by two p>allel ridges4 ,! m$ial "o ( ^! is cont9u$ craniad f ! bony septum :i* sep>ates ! orbital fissure f ! =am5 rotundum1 & ! lat]al "o f ! septum :i* sep>ates ! =am5 rotundum f ! =am5 ovale4 ,a %>p triangul> sp9e projects lat]ad f ne> ! caudal end ( ! lat]al ridge4 ,! two ridges & t "p ( ! lat]al surface ( ! bone includ$ betwe5 !m =m a "p ( ! sph5oid bone kn[n z ! pt]ygoid process ( ! sph5oid bone1 9 ^? cases :]e ! pt]ygoid is a sep>ate bone4 ,! rema9d] ( ! process is equival5t to ! pt]ygoid bone ( o!r v]tebrates4 ,betwe5 ! caudal m>g9 ( ?is bone & ! lat]al ( ! two ridges1 i4e41 betwe5 ! pt]ygoid bone & ! pt]ygoid process ( ! sph5oid1 is a long deep fossa1 ! int]nal pt]ygoid fossa 7,fig4 #dj1 s74 ,! lat]ocaudal m>g9 ( ! pt]ygoid process projects caudad1 z a curv$ triangul> sp9e1 ! hamulus or hamul> process 7,fig4 #dj1 t2 ,fig4 #dc1 i74 ,! ,presph5oid ,bone4 ,os presph5oidale 7,fig4 #ba74--;,9 a "y cat ?is bone is 9 ?ree pieces1 a basal portion 7presph5oid7 & two w+s 7orbitosph5oid bones74 ,^! bones rema9 di/9ct ?r\gh\t life 9 _m l[] v]tebrates1 b 9 ! adult cat !y fuse to =m a s+le bone4 ,we may nev]!less conv5i5tly describe ?is bone z made up ( a body 7a7 7! basisph5oid71 & two w+s 7b71 ! orbitosph5oids 7! al p>v ( ! human sph5oid74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,presph5oid ,,bone1 ,,v5tral ,,view4 a1 body2 b1 w+s2 c1 optic =am9a4 ,! body 7a7 lies 9 ! base ( ! skull 9 ! m$ian l9e1 craniad ( ! basisph5oid4 ,x has ! =m ( a rectangul> prism ab\t twice z long z broad4 ,x is holl[1 & ! cavity is divid$ by a m$ian longitud9al p>tition into two cavities 7sph5oidal s9uses1 ,fig4 #dc1 l74 ,! sph5oidal s9uses are cont9u$ craniad into ! cavities ( ! e?moid4 ,! body has six surfaces3 ,! dorsal or int]nal surface 7,fig4 #db1 n7 looks into ! cranial cavity & is cont9u\s ) ! dorsal surface ( ! w+s4 ,! caudal end ( ! body is depress$1 & :5 unit$ to ! basisph5oid aids 9 =m+ ! cranial wall ( ! sella turcica4 ,at ea* caudolat]al angle is a %ort sp9e1 ! ant]ior cl9oid process4 ,at ab\t "o-?ird ! l5g? ( ! bone f ! caudal end is a transv]se groove 7*iasmatic groove1 ,fig4 #db1 m7 = ! optic *iasma4 ,its ends lead into two r\nd =am9a 7! optic =am9a1 ,fig4 #db1 l2 ,fig4 #ba1 c7 :i* pass craniolat]ad betwe5 ! body & ! w+s ( ! presph5oid & transmit ! optic n]ve & ! oph?almic art]y4 ,! v5tral surface 7,fig4 #ba7 is h\r-glass-%ap$ & m>k$ by a smoo? m$ian ridge1 cont9u\s ) ! ridge on ! basisph5oid & ov]laid at its cranial end by ! vom]4 ,! caudal end pres5ts a r\gh triangul> area on ea* side1 = articulation ) ! pt]ygoid process ( ! sph5oid bone1 :ile ! cranial end has simil> areas ov]laid by ! nasal portion ( ! palat9e bones4 ,! lat]al surface looks t[>ds ! orbitotemporal fossa4 ,x is not*$ ne> ! caudal end by ! v5tral bord] ( ! optic =am5 7c74 ,caudad ( ?is =am5 ! surface pres5ts an oblique groove :i* =ms 9 ! natural condition ! m$ial b\nd>y ( ! orbital fissure4 ,craniad ( ! optic =am5 ! surface is smoo? & m>k$ ne> its v5tral bord] by a longitud9al ridge :i* =ms "p ( ! dorsal b\nd>y ( a fossa1 ! ext]nal pt]ygoid fossa 7,fig4 #dj1 p74 ,! caudal end pres5ts v5trally a quadrangul> r\gh surface = articulation ) ! body ( ! sph5oid4 ,! cranial end pres5ts ! two sph5oidal s9uses sep>at$ by a m$ian p>tition4 ,! m$ian p>tition articulates by its free bord] ) ! lam9a p]p5dicul>is ( ! e?moid4 ,at its v5tral end is ! abruptly truncate end ( ! m$ian ridge ( ! v5tral surface1 :i* is cont9u\s ) ! v5tral c>tilag9\s portion ( ! lam9a p]p5dicul>is4 ,! lat]al walls ( ! sph5oidal s9uses are cont9u$ craniad ( ! dorsal & v5tral walls & ( ! m$ian p>tition1 & articulate v5trally ) ! nasal portion ( ! palat9e bones1 & dorsally ) ! orbital plate ( ! frontal4 ,betwe5 !m is receiv$ ! caudal ends ( ! labyr9?s ( ! e?moid 9 ! middle1 :ile betwe5 _! dorsal edges is receiv$ ! caudal end ( ! cribri=m plate1 & betwe5 _! v5tral edges ! exp&$ end ( ! vom]4 ,! w+s 7b7 arise ea* f ne>ly ! :ole ( ! dorsolat]al angle ( ! body4 ,!y =m prom95t ne>ly horizontal triangul> projections ov] ! optic =am9a4 ,! dorsal & v5tral surfaces are smoo? & cont9u\s respectively ) ! dorsal & lat]al surfaces ( ! body4 ,! dorsal surface looks into ! cranial cavity1 :ile ! v5tral looks into ! orbitotemporal fossa4 ,craniad ( ! apex ( ! w+ its bord] articulates ) ! v5tral edge ( ! orbital portion ( ! frontal bone4 ,caudad ( ! apex ! bord] articulates ) ! cranial bord] ( ! w+ ( ! sph5oid4 ,temporal ,bone4 ,os temporale 7,figs4 #bb & #bc74--,?is =ms a "p ( ! lat]al wall ( ! cranium1 fill+ ! gap betwe5 ! occipital & ! sph5oidal segm5ts4 ,x is made up ( ?ree portions :i* are di/9ct 9 kitt5s b some:at firmly unit$ 9 adult cats4 ,9 l[] v]tebrates ^! portions are di/9ct bones call$ ! ,squam\s1 ! ,petr\s1 & ! ,tympanic bones4 ,9 ! cat !y may be describ$ z ! squam\s 7a71 petr\s 7b71 & tympanic 7c7 portions ( ! temporal bone4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,temporal ,,bone1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,temporal ,,bone1 ,,int]nal ,,surface4 a1 squam\s portion2 b1 petr\s portion2 c1 c1 tympanic portion 7c1 entotympanic2 c1 ectotympanic72 d1 zygomatic process2 e1 ma/oid portion ( ! petr\s2 f1 m&ibul> fossa2 g1 po/m&ibul> process2 h1 tub]culum articul>e2 i1 ext]nal auditory meatus2 j1 /yloma/oid =am52 k1 pit = tympanohyal bone2 l1 ma/oid process2 m1 grooves b\nd+ ! jugul> =am52 n1 int]nal auditory meatus2 o1 app5dicul> fossa2 p1 hiatus facialis2 q1 /yli=m process ( tympanic bulla4 ,! squam\s portion 7a7 7squama temporalis7 is ?9 & oval or has ! =m ( an equilat]al triangle ) r\nd$ angles1 ) a curv$ process1 ! zygomatic process 7d71 aris+ f its v5tral bord]4 ,its out] surface 7,fig4 #bb7 is convex & smoo? & gives orig9 to "p ( ! temporal muscle4 ,its inn] surface 7,fig4 #bc7 is concave & smoo? except ne> ! m>g9s1 :]e x is bevell$ & r\gh4 ,! r\gh5$ bord] is broad] dorsad & caudad4 ,! v5tral m>g9 ( ! bone is turn$ m$iad at its cranial end s t ! lat]al face ( ! inv]t$ portion looks v5trad4 ,by ?is portion ( its lat]al face ! squam\s re/s ^u ! tympanic bulla1 & its edge articulates ) ! t5torium & ! w+ ( ! sph5oid4 ,! rema9+ 7caudal7 portion ( ! v5tral bord] ov]lies ! ma/oid portion 7e7 ( ! petr\s4 ,by ! rema9d] ( its bord] ! bone articulates ) ! p>ietal dorsad & ) ! w+ ( ! sph5oid craniad4 ,! r\gh5$ portion ( its inn] surface ov]lies ! m>g9s ( bo? ^! bones4 ,! zygomatic process 7d7 is =m$ by ! conflu5ce ( two roots4 ,"o ( ^! />ts f ! v5tral end ( ! lambdoidal ridge & passes along ! v5tral m>g9 ( ! squama dorsad ( ! ext]nal auditory meatus4 ,! o!r arises abruptly f ! craniov5tral angle ( ! bone4 ,! process ?us =m$ is at fir/ broad & passes horizontally lat]ad & slightly craniad4 ,x soon gr[s m sl5d] & turns gradually craniad1 :ile at ! same "t x twi/s s t ! surface :i* is dorsal at ! base becomes m$ial at ! tip2 ! po/]ior root :i* is cont9u\s ) ! caudal bord] at ! base is cont9u\s ) ! dorsal bord] at ! apex4 ,on ! v5tral surface ( ! base is a transv]sely elongat$ concave articul> surface1 ! m&ibul> fossa 7f71 = ! condyloid process ( ! l[] jaw4 ,caudad ( ?is is a %>p transv]se ridge1 ! po/m&ibul> or po/gl5oid process 7g71 & craniad ( ! lat]al end ( ! fossa a slight tub]cle1 ! tub]culum articul>e 7h74 ,ne> its apex ! zygomatic process is m sl5d] & its v5tral bord] is bevell$ = articulation ) ! mal> or zygomatic bone4 ,! tympanic 7,figs4 #bb & #bc1 c2 ,fig4 #bd7 is exp&$ into a l>ge holl[ olive-%ap$ bone :i* is kn[n z ! auditory bulla & encloses ! tympanic cavity4 ,its sub/ance is v compact4 ,unlike ! tympanic ( mo/ o!r mammals x is develop$ f two bones1 kn[n z ! ectotympanic 7,fig4 #bb1 c7 & entotympanic 7c74 ,^! are /rongly m>k$ 9 "y kitt5s1 & c usually be easily di/+ui%$ 9 adult cats4 ,! entotympanic 7,figs4 #bb & #bc1 c7 =ms ! l>g] "p ( ! bulla1 con/itut+ its v5tral & m$ial surfaces2 x is ?91 smoo?1 & transp>5t4 ,! ectotympanic 7,fig4 #bb1 c7 surr\nds ! ext]nal auditory meatus3 x is ?ick] & m opaque ?an ! entotympanic4 ,! bulla lies v5trad ( ! squam\s1 & 9 an ext]nal view conceals a l>ge "p ( ! petr\s4 ,on its lat]al surface x pres5ts ne> ! dorsal bord] an irregul> oval op5+1 t ( ! ext]nal auditory meatus 7,fig4 #bb1 i71 :i* leads into ! tympanic cavity4 ,caudad ( ! ext]nal auditory meatus is a ne>ly dorsov5tral groove1 :i*1 :5 ! bone is articulat$1 =ms a "p ( ! b\nd>y ( ! /yloma/oid =am5 7,fig4 #bb1 j72 j v5trad ( ?is groove is a pit 7k7 :i* lodges ! tip ( ! tympanohyal bone4 ,craniad ! bone is produc$ into a %ort sp9e1 ! /yli=m process 7q71 :i* lies 9 a horizontal groove 9 ! v5tral surface ( ! basisph5oid4 ,lat]ad ( ?is sp9e is a groove = ! tuba auditiva or ,eu/a*ian tube4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,tympanic ,,bulla1 ,,isolat$1 ,,m$ial ,,surface4 a1 inn] end ( auditory meatus2 b1 p>tition divid+ tympanic cavity2 c1 /yli=m process4 ,! m$ial surface 7,fig4 #bd7 pres5ts 9 ! middle ne> its v5tral m>g9 a %ort triangul> sp9e :i* lies 9 ! natural /ate aga9/ ! v5tral surface ( ! basil> portion ( ! occipital4 ,caudad ( ?is sp9e ! surface is m>k$ by two or ?ree v]tical p>allel grooves 7,fig4 #bc1 m74 ,!y indicate ! portion ( ! bone :i* b\nds ! jugul> =am51 & are possibly impressions ( ! n9?1 t5?1 & elev5? n]ves4 ,! dorsal two-?irds ( ! m$ial surface is lack+ 9 ! dis>ticulat$ bulla 7,fig4 #bd71 s t ! cavity ( ! bone is expos$4 ,?is op5+ is 9 ! natural /ate clos$ by ! petr\s bone4 ,! caudal end is r\gh :]e x is ov]laid by ! jugul> process4 ,on ! inn] surface ( ! tympanic bulla is se5 ! ?ick5$ m>g9 ( ! inn] end ( ! auditory meatus 7,fig4 #bd1 a74 ,to x is atta*$ ! membrana tympana4 ,9 ! m$ian dorsal l9e ?is m>g9 is not*$ = ! reception ( ! incus & head ( ! malleus4 ,f ! lat]al wall ( ! cavity at ! l9e ( junction ( ! ectotympanic & entotympanic a ?9 bony p>tition 7b7 rises4 ,x runs almo/ directly m$iad2 is concave dorsally & divides ! tympanic cavity into two *amb]s4 ,! ,petr\s ,portion 7,fig4 #bc1 b1 & ,fig4 #be74--,?is consi/s ( two p>ts1 a v d5se "p 7! petr\s portion prop]1 ,fig4 #be71 :i* has ! =m ( a triangul> pyramid & encloses ! auditory labyr9?1 & a less d5se "p1 ! ma/oid portion 7,figs4 #bb & #bc1 e71 :i* is flatt5$ & triangul> & is atta*$ by its base to ! base ( ! pyramid4 ,! petr\s portion may be describ$ z hav+ a base & ?ree sides1 lat]al1 dorsal1 & m$ial4 ,x completes ! m$ial wall ( ! tympanic bulla1 s t x is n possible to see x f ! ext]ior ( a skull except ?r\gh ! auditory meatus 7,fig4 #bb1 i74 ,:5 ! bones ( ! skull are articulat$ its dorsal surface is cov]$ by ! t5torium & alisph5oid4 ,its lat]al face looks into ! tympanic cavity1 :ile ! m$ial face looks into ! cranial cavity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,petr\s ,,bone ,,( ,,"r ,,side1 ,,lat]al ,,surface1 ,,enl>g$4 a1 f5e/ra co*le2 b1 promontory2 c1 f5e/ra ve/ibuli2 d1 fossa = ! t5sor tympani muscle2 e1 fossa = incus & malleus2 f1 fossa cont9u\s ) /yloma/oid =am52 g1 =am5 lead+ to facial canal4 ,its lat]al face 7,fig4 #be7 7m$ial wall ( ! tympanic cavity7 pres5ts j v5trad ( ! middle ( its base a l>ge circul> =am51 ! f5e/ra co*le 7a7 7or f5e/ra rotunda71 :i* looks caudolat]ad2 x leads into ! co*lea4 ,! f5e/ra co*le lies at ! summit ( a nipple-l elevation1 ! promontory 7b71 :i* is cont9u$ t[>d ! apex ( ! bone z a gradually dim9i%+ semicyl9drical ridge1 due to ! pres5ce )9 x ( ! bony co*lea4 ,dorsad ( ! f5e/ra co*le is ! mu* small] f5e/ra ve/ibuli 7c7 7or ovalis7 :i* leads into ! ve/ibule4 ,x is occupi$ 9 ! natural condition by ! base ( ! /apes4 ,dorsocraniad ( ! f5e/ra ve/ibuli is a l>ge fossa 7d7 :i* conta9s ! t5sor tympani muscle4 ,dorsocaudad ( ?is1 p>tly b\nd$ by ! squam\s portion ( ! temporal1 is ano!r l>ge fossa 7e71 ! cranial end ( :i* is occupi$ by ! incus1 :ile its caudal end is occupi$ by ! head ( ! malleus4 ,ne>ly caudad ( ?is fossa & sep>at$ f x by an oblique bony septum is a ?ird fossa 7f7 :i* is n>r[ & curv$4 ,x is cont9u\s ) a not* 9 ! ma/oid portion ( ! bone4 ,:5 ! tympanic is articulat$ ! not* is conv]t$ into a =am5 7/yloma/oid =am51 ,fig4 #bb1 j7 = ! exit ( ! sev5? n]ve4 ,! fossa gives passage to ! sev5? n]ve & also lodges ! /ap$ius muscle4 ,a groove may be trac$ f ! /yloma/oid =am5 to ! caudal bord] ( ! fossa = ! t5sor tympani muscle1 :]e x passes into a canal 7g74 ,! groove & canal are p>ts ( ! canalis facialis or facial canal 7aqu$uctus ,fallopii7 = ! passage ( ! sev5? n]ve ?r\gh ! petr\s bone4 ,! m$ial surface 7,fig4 #bc1 b7 ( ! petr\s portion %[s ne> its middle a fossa1 ! int]nal auditory meatus 7n74 ,?is is divid$ by a p>tition ( bone into a dorsal & v5tral "p4 ,! dorsal portion is ! beg9n+ ( ! facial canal 7aqu$uctus ,fallopii7 by :i* ! sev5? n]ve passes ?r\gh ! petr\s bone to em]ge at ! /yloma/oid =am54 ,! v5tral portion %[s at its bottom sev]al small =am9a = ! auditory n]ve4 ,dorsocaudad ( ! int]nal auditory meatus is a deep fossa 7o7 = a small lobe1 ! s-call$ app5dicul> lobe1 ( ! c]ebellum4 ,?is may be call$ ! app5dicul> fossa4 ,! dorsal surface is triangul> & pres5ts ne> its apex a =am5--! hiatus facialis 7p71 ! op5+ ( a canal :i* jo9s ! canalis facialis & transmits ! sup]ficial petrosal bran* ( ! n]ve ( ! pt]ygoid canal 7,vidian n]ve74 ,t "p ( ! dorsal surface :i* lies caudad ( ! hiatus facialis is kn[n z ! tegm5 tympani4 ,! base ( ! petr\s is atta*$ to ! ma/oid portion 7,fig4 #bc1 e74 7,= an acc\nt ( ! /ructures )9 ! petr\s bone & ! tympanic cavity1 see ! description ( ! int]nal & middle e>47 ,! ma/oid portion 7,figs4 #bb & #bc1 c7 is atta*$ by its base to ! pyramidal petr\s portion1 ) :i* x =ms an angle ( ab\t #abj degrees4 ,x appe>s 9 ! lat]al wall ( ! skull betwe5 ! p>ietal bone & ! occipital 7,fig4 #dj1 d74 ,! lambdoidal ridge is cont9u$ on its out] surface to ! caudal bord] ( ! ext]nal auditory meatus4 ,caudad ( ! /yloma/oid =am5 x =ms a slight nipple-l em95ce1 ! ma/oid process 7,fig4 #bb1 l74 ,its inn] face looks into ! cranial cavity4 ,p>ietal ,bone4 ,os p>ietale 7,figs4 #ci1 #dj1 & #dc1 #c74--,! p>ietal bones =m ! l>g] "p ( ! lat]al & dorsal b\nd>y ( ! cranial cavity4 ,ea* is a ?9 rectangul> bone1 compact & curv$ & ) a deeply not*$ %elf ( bone1 ! t5torium 7,fig4 #db1 e1 & ,fig4 #dc1 f71 project+ inw>d f ne> ! caudal m>g94 ,! out] surface is smoo? & convex4 ,! highe/ "p ( ! convexity1 a little caudad ( ! middle ( ! bone1 is kn[n z ! p>ietal tub]cle or em95ce 7,fig4 #ci1 d72 x m>ks ! po9t ( beg9n+ ossification4 ,an obscure curv$ ridge 7,fig4 #ci1 e71 runn+ f ! caudodorsal angle or a po9t craniad ( x craniolat]ad1 indicates ! b\nd>y ( ! orig9 ( ! temporal muscle4 ,ne> ! v5tral bord] ! surface is r\gh5$ & is cov]$ 9 ! natural /ate by a "p ( ! squam\s portion ( ! temporal bone4 ,! inn] surface 7,fig4 #dc1 #c & #c7 is smoo? & m>k$ by ridges & grooves = ! convolutions ( ! c]ebrum4 ,ne> ! m$ial bord] is a ridge :i*1 :5 ! bone is articulat$ ) t ( ! opposite side1 =ms a %all[ groove = ! sup]ior sagittal s9us4 ,beg9n+ ne> ! middle ( ! v5tral m>g9 & pass+ dorsad is a groove = ! middle m5+eal art]y4 ,! t5torium 7,fig4 #dc1 f7 arises f ! inn] surface ne> its caudal m>g9 & projects m$iad z a ?9 curv$ or not*$ %elf ( bone :i* sep>ates ! c]ebell> fossa 7,fig4 #dc1 ,i7 ( ! cranium f ! c]ebral fossa 7,fig4 #dc1 ,,ii74 ,:5 ! p>ietals are articulat$ !re is left betwe5 ! t5toria a l>ge =am5 by means ( :i* ! two foss communicate4 ,! =am5 is b\nd$ lat]ally & dorsally by ! free m>g9s ( ! t5toria1 :ile ! v5tral end ( ea* t5torium articulates ) ! alisph5oid1 & its dorsal end ) ! opposite t5torium4 ,! m$ial bord] is /raight & is unit$ by suture to ! opposite bone4 ,! cranial bord] is bevell$ at ! exp5se ( ! inn] surface & articulates ) ! frontal4 ,j v5trad ( ! middle ( ! bord] projects a %>p sp9e :i* fits into a correspond+ not* 9 ! caudal bord] ( ! frontal4 ,! v5tral bord] is concave1 %>p1 & bevell$ at ! exp5se ( ! out] surface1 = articulation ) ! squam\s portion ( ! temporal1 except ne> ! cranial end1 :]e x articulates ) ! w+ ( ! sph5oid4 ,! caudal bord] is ?ick & por\s m$ially1 b ?9 lat]ally1 & bevell$ at ! exp5se ( ! inn] surface = articulation ) ! int]p>ietal & ma/oid portion ( ! temporal4 ,frontal ,bone4 ,os frontale 7,figs4 #ci1 #dj1 & #da1 #e2 ,fig4 #dc1 #h2 ,fig4 #bf74--,! frontal bones meet "o ano!r 9 ! m$ian dorsal l9e s z to =m ! ro( ( ! skull betwe5 ! p>ietal & nasal bones4 ,a "p ext5ds also v5trad1 =m+ a l>ge "p ( ! m$ial wall ( ! orbit & a "p ( ! temporal fossa4 ,! bone may be divid$ into two portions1 a plate =m+ ! cranial portion ( ! ro( ( ! skull & a "p ( ! ro( ( ! nasal cavity1 ! frontal plate 7,fig4 #dj1 #e71 & a "p desc5d+ into ! orbit1 ! orbital plate 7,fig4 #dj1 #e74 ,! frontal plate 7,fig4 #dj1 #e7 is a "r-angl$ triangle ) ! hypo!nuse lat]al4 ,its dorsal surface is convex & smoo?4 ,! cranial two-?irds ( its lat]al bord] is sep>at$ f ! orbital fossa by a ridge1 ! supraorbital ar* or m>g9 7,fig4 #ci1 i2 ,fig4 #dj1 o72 ! caudal ?ird passes gradually into ! temporal fossa4 ,at its cranial angle is a triangul> projection1 ! frontal sp9e or nasal sp9e 7,fig4 #bf1 a71 :i* fits into a space betwe5 ! nasal & maxill>y bones4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,,frontal ,,bone1 ,,m$ial ,,surface4 a1 frontal sp9e2 b1 transv]se ridge2 c1 surface appli$ to ! e?moid2 d1 v]tical plate ( m$ial bord]4 ,! v5tral surface is concave & smoo? ov] its caudal "o-half & helps to =m ! cranial "p ( ! bra9-case4 ,x pres5ts slight ridges & depressions = convolutions ( ! c]ebrum4 ,at its n>r[$ middle region ! v5tral surface is m>k$ by a ?ick transv]se ridge 7,fig4 #bf1 b74 ,caudally ! ridge desc5ds by a g5tle slope to ! level ( ! v5tral surface ( ! bone4 ,! cranial end ( ! ridge is pi]c$ by an oval =am5 ?r\gh :i* ! frontal s9us 7,fig4 #dc1 m1 m71 :i* lies )9 ! ridge1 communicates ) ! spaces 9 ! e?moid bone 7nasal cavity74 ,craniad ( ! ridge ! surface 7,fig4 #bf1 c7 is r\gh &1 toge!r ) ! rais$ m$ial bord] ( ! bone & ! orbital plate1 encloses a rectangul> space :i* 9 ! natural /ate receives a portion ( ! labyr9? ( ! e?moid4 ,! v5tral surface is m>k$ at its m$ial edge by a ?9 longitud9al ridge :i*1 :5 ! bones are articulat$1 is cont9u\s ) "o ( ! v]tical lamell ( ! e?moid4 ,! m$ial bord] =ms a v]tical plate 7d71 broade/ craniad & r\gh5$ = articulation ) its fell[ ( ! opposite side except at its cranial end1 :]e x articulates ) ! bord] ( ! nasal bone4 ,! caudal bord] is r\gh5$1 bevell$ at ! exp5se ( ! out] surface1 & articulat$ ) ! p>ietal bone except at its v5tral end1 :]e x articulates ) ! alisph5oid4 ,! lat]al bord] is smoo?1 & x is "h t ! orbital plate is jo9$ to ! frontal plate at "r angles4 ,along its cranial two-?irds ?is union is m>k$ by a %>p ridge1 ! supraorbital m>g9 7,fig4 #dj1 o7 or ar*4 ,?is ridge ext5ds caudolat]ad z a triangul> projection1 ! zygomatic 7or po/orbital7 process 7,fig4 #dj1 n71 :i* is flatt5$ on its craniov5tral face ne> its extremity & =ms "p ( ! b\nd>y ( ! orbital fossa4 ,at its cranial end ! lat]al bord] articulates ) ! nasal & maxill>y bones4 ,! orbital plate 7,fig4 #dj1 #e7 arises f ! v5tral surface ( ! lat]al bord] ( ! frontal plate4 ,x is direct$ v5trad1 is smoo? & concave on its out] surface1 & =ms ! dorsal portion ( ! m$ial wall ( ! orbital fossa4 ,ne> its v5tral bord] x be>s ! small e?moidal =am51 = ! art]y ( ! same "n4 ,on ! caudal "o-half ( its inn] surface 7,fig4 #bf7 x assi/s ! caudal "p ( ! dorsal plate 9 =m+ ! bra9-case4 ,! cranial "o-half ( its inn] surface is m>k$ (f f ! rema9d] ( ! surface by a %>p irregul> ridge :i* is = articulation ) ! cribri=m plate ( ! e?moid4 ,craniad ( ?is ! surface is m>k$ by ridges & looks into ! nasal cavity4 ,! cranial m>g9 is produc$ dorsally 9 ! =m ( a blunt triangul> sp9e4 ,m$iad ( ?is sp9e ! bone articulates ) ! la*rymal bone4 ,! v5tral bord] articulates by its cranial "o-?ird ) ! orbital plate ( ! palat9e1 & by its caudal two-?irds ) ! body & w+ ( ! presph5oid4 ,maxill>y ,bone4 ,maxilla 7,figs4 #bg & #bh74--,! maxill>y bone =ms ! cranial & lat]al portions ( ! ro( ( ! m\?4 ,! bones ( opposite sides meet craniad1 b div]ge caudad to enclose ! palatal plates ( ! palat9e bones4 ,ea* consi/s ( a ?ick prismatic v5tral portion or body 7a7 & a ?9 flat plate1 ! frontal process 7b71 ext5d+ dorsad f ! cranial "p ( ! bone4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,maxill>y ,,bone1 ,,lat]al ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,maxill>y ,,bone1 ,,m$ial ,,surface4 a1 body2 b1 frontal process2 c1 infraorbital =am52 d1 elevation = root ( can9e too?2 e1 can9e too?2 f1 fir/ premol>2 g1 second premol>2 h1 ?ird premol>2 i1 mol> too?2 j1 zygomatic process2 k1 beg9n+ ( la*rymal canal2 l1 ridge to :i* ! v5tral nasal con*a is atta*$2 m1 nasal cre/ ( palat9e process4 ,! body 7a7 has ! =m ( a triangul> prism ^: broad] dorsal face looks into ! nasal cavity & orbit1 :ile ! v5tral face looks into ! m\?1 & ! lat]al face t[>d ! *eek4 ,f ! junction ( ! dorsal & lat]al surfaces at ! cranial end ! l>ge flat curv$ frontal process 7b7 passes dorsad1 :ile ! tee? are implant$ along ! bord]1 alveol> bord] or process1 =m$ by ! junction ( ! v5tral & lat]al surfaces4 ,! lat]al surface is cont9u\s ) ! lat]al surface ( ! frontal process & %[s at ! base ( ! frontal process on its caudal bord] ! l>ge infraorbital =am5 7,fig4 #bg1 c71 = ! vessels & n]ves ( ! same "n4 ,ne> ! m$ial end ( ! surface is a cyl9drical elevation 7d7 = ! root ( ! can9e too? 7e74 ,! v5tral surface is smoo? & looks into ! ro( ( ! m\?4 ,on ! dorsal surface caudal & cranial halves may be di/+ui%$4 ,! caudal "o-half ent]s into ! floor ( ! orbit4 ,! lat]al edge ( ?is portion is divid$ into two lam91 betwe5 :i* is receiv$ ! end ( ! mal> bone4 ,caudad ?is edge is prolong$ into ! %ort dorsally direct$ zygomatic process 7j74 ,! cranial half ( ! dorsal surface looks into ! nasal cavity & is sep>at$ f ! caudal half by a %>p v]tical lam9a ( bone :i* runs caudom$iad f ! base ( ! nasal process4 ,to ! dorsal edge ( ?is lam9a are articulat$ ! la*rymal bone & a "p ( ! palat9e4 ,at ! po9t :]e ! lam9a jo9s ! base ( ! nasal process a =am5 is se5 lead+ into a canal1 ! nasola*rymal canal 7k74 ,craniad ( ! lam9a ! surface is concave4 ,:]e x becomes cont9u\s ) ! inn] edge ( ! frontal process !re is atta*$ to x a ?9 bone1 ! v5tral nasal con*a 7or maxilloturb9al71 :i* is roll$ into an irregul> spiral4 ,! nasola*rymal canal op5s v5trad ( its cranial end4 ,! cranial ?ird ( ?is "p ( ! bone projects fur!r m$iad ?an does ! re/ ( ! m$ial bord]1 =m+ ?us ! broad palat9e process4 ,?is is r\gh on its m$ial edge = articulation ) ! premaxill>y & ! palat9e process ( ! opposite bone4 ,?is m$ial edge rises also dorsally into a l[ ridge1 ! nasal cre/ 7m71 :i* is r\gh5$ = articulation ) ! vom]4 ,! caudal two-?irds ( ! m$ial edge articulates ) ! palat9e bone4 ,! cranial end ( ! bone articulates ) ! premaxilla4 ,! caudal end is smoo?4 ,! frontal process 7b7 pres5ts on its inn] surface1 :i* looks into ! nasal cavity1 c]ta9 transv]se ridges :i* are 9 relation ) ! e?moid bone4 ,its out] surface is smoo?4 ,by its cranial bord] x articulates ) ! nasal bone dorsally & ) ! premaxill>y bone v5trally4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,,premaxill>y ,,bone1 ,,obliquely ,,craniolat]al ,,aspect4 a1 ! ?ree incisor tee?2 b1 palatal portion ( ! bone2 c1 nasal process4 ,its dorsal end articulates m$ially ) ! nasal sp9e ( ! frontal bone1 & caudally ) ! orbital plate ( ! same bone4 ,premaxill>y ,bone4 7,os incisivum ,,bna47 ,premaxilla 7,fig4 #bi74--,! premaxill>y bones be> ! incisor tee? & =m ! cranial portion ( ! ro( ( ! m\?4 ,ea* consi/s ( an irregul>1 horizontal palatal portion 7b7 & ( a p]p5dicul> nasal process 7c7 :i* =ms "p ( ! lat]al b\nd>y ( ! n>es & ent]s into ! =mation ( ! lat]al wall ( ! nasal cavity4 ,! palatal portion has 9 its caudal bord] a deep not* = ! =am5 incisivum or ant]ior palat9e canal1 :i* lies betwe5 x & ! maxill>y & transmits blood-vessels & n]ves4 ,x articulates ) ! maxill>y bone by ?is bord]4 ,! m$ial bord] is rais$ into a ?9 cre/ ( bone :i*1 besides =m+ ! m$ial wall ( ! =am5 incisivum or ant]ior palat9e canal1 articulates by its m$ial bord] ) ! bone ( ! opposite side1 =m+ a sort ( m$ian tr\gh 7sulcus palat9us7 :i* projects dorsad into ! nasal cavity & receives ! v5tral bord] ( ! nasal septum4 ,! caudal end ( ?is bord] articulates lat]ad ) ! maxilla1 dorsad ) ! vom]4 ,its craniolat]al bord] be>s ! incisor tee? 7a74 ,! nasal process 7c7 pres5ts ?ree surfaces1 all elongat$ & triangul>2 "o1 ! m$ial surface1 is smoo? & concave & looks into ! nasal cavity4 ,its dorsal bord] is r\gh = articulation ) ! nasal bone dorsad1 & smoo? v5trad :]e x aids 9 =m+ ! n>es4 ,! lat]al surface is smoo?4 ,! caudal surface is r\gh = articulation ) ! maxill>y bone4 ,nasal ,bone4 ,os nasale 7,fig4 #cj74--,! nasal bones fill ! space betwe5 ! nasal process ( ! premaxill>y1 ! frontal process ( ! maxill>y1 & ! nasal sp9e ( ! frontal bone 7,fig4 #ci1 #g74 ,!y ?us =m "p ( ! dorsal wall ( ! nasal cavity ne> ! middle l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,,nasal ,,bone1 ,,dorsal ,,view4 ,ea* may be describ$ z consi/+ ( two elongat$ triangul> lamell1 "o v]tical1 ! o!r horizontal4 ,! v]tical lamella is curv$ slightly v5trad & has its apex direct$ craniad4 ,x is appli$ by its m$ial surface aga9/ ! v]tical lamella ( ! opposite bone1 ! two ?us =m+ a m$ian v]tical p>tition1 ! nasal cre/ 7,fig4 #dc1 #ab71 :i* ext5ds v5trad into ! nasal cavity &1 by jo9+ ! dorsal edge ( ! lam9a p]p5dicul>is1 helps to =m ! int]nasal septum4 ,! horizontal lamella is atta*$ to ! dorsal m>g9 ( ! v]tical lamella 9 su* a way t its apex lies opposite ! base ( ! v]tical lamella4 ,x helps to ro( 9 ! nasal cavity1 & by its base =ms a "p ( ! dorsal b\nd>y ( ! n>ial op5+4 ,by its lat]al m>g9 x articulates ) ! nasal sp9e ( ! frontal at its caudal end1 ) ! frontal process ( ! maxill>y at its middle1 & ) ! nasal process ( ! premaxilla at its cranial end4 ,! lat]al angle ( its base projects 9 a curv$ l9e :i* =ms ! dorsal "p ( ! lat]al b\nd>y ( ! n>ial op5+4 ,f ! lat]al bord] ( ! horizontal lamella a bony plate curves v5trad & m$iad1 enclos+ a n>r[ fossa :i* receives a "p ( ! e?moid4 ,?is is ! con*a nasalis sup]ior 7nasoturb9al bone74 ,e?moid ,bone4 ,os e?moidale 7,figs4 #ca & #cb74--,! e?moid bone closes 9 ! cranial cavity at its cranial end & ext5ds =w>d into ! nasal cavity1 :i* x l>gely fills4 ,x consi/s ( a m$ian v]tical portion1 ! lam9a p]p5dicul>is 7,fig4 #dc1 n2 ,fig4 #db1 p71 =m+ a "p ( ! nasal septum1 ( two lat]al portions made ( ?9 %eets ( bone v>i\sly fold$ & unit$--! labyr9?s 7or e?moturb9als71 :i* fill ! great] "p ( ! nasal cavity2 & ( a transv]se p]=at$ plate1 ! cribri=m plate 7lam9a cribrosa71 atta*$ to ! caudal end ( ! lam9a p]p5dicul>is & ! labyr9?s4 ,! lam9a p]p5dicul>is 7,fig4 #dc1 n2 ,fig4 #db1 p7 is a flat f\r-sid$ bone4 ,by its caudal m>g9 x is cont9u\s ) ! cribri=m plate2 by its v5tral m>g9 x is enclos$ by ! halves ( ! vom]2 by its dorsal m>g9 x unites ) ! cre/ =m$ by ! v]tical portion ( ! nasal bone craniad & ) ! v]tical lam9a ( ! m$ial m>g9 ( ! frontal caudad1 :ile its cranial m>g9 is cont9u$ into ! septal c>tilage ( ! nose4 ,its lat]al faces are smoo? & free4 ,! lam9a cribrosa or cribri=m plate 7,fig4 #db1 o7 is elongat$ he>t-%ap$1 ) ! apex ( ! he>t v5trad4 ,its caudal face is concave & looks into ! cranial cavity4 ,x pres5ts ?ree irregul> longitud9al r[s ( holes1 "o m$ian & two lat]al1 = ! passage ( ! olfactory fibres f ! cranial cavity into ! nasal cavity4 ,its cranial face is cont9u\s along ! m$ial l9e ) ! lam9a p]p5dicul>is1 & at ! sides ) ! labyr9?s4 ,! not* 9 ! he>t is direct$ dorsad & receives ! v]tical lam9a ( ! m$ial bord] ( ! frontal bone4 ,! apex ( ! he>t articulates ) ! cranial end ( ! dorsal surface ( ! presph5oid4 ,its lat]al m>g9s are articulat$ ) ! e?moidal ridges on ! m$ial surface ( ! frontal bone4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,,e?moid ,,& ,,vom]1 ,,side ,,view4 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,,e?moid ,,& ,,vom]1 ,,v5tral ,,view4 a1 vom]2 b1 v]tical cells ( ! labyr9? ( ! e?moid2 c1 horizontal cell ( ! same2 d1 "p ( ! e?moid t =ms ! lam9a papyracea2 e1 edge ( cribri=m plate4 ,! labyr9?s 7,figs4 #ca & #cb7 are atta*$ to ! cranial face ( ! lam9a cribrosa1 "o on ea* side ( ! lam9a p]p5dicul>is4 ,ea* is made ( ?9 bony plates irregul>ly fold$ s z to enclose spaces1 ! e?moid cells4 ,9 ea* may be di/+ui%$ a cranial portion 7b71 9 :i* ! cells are ne>ly v]tical1 & a caudal portion 7c71 9 :i* ! cells are ne>ly horizontal4 ,! m$ial surfaces are sep>at$ by a space f ! lam9a p]p5dicul>is4 ,?is space is broade/ along ! junction ( ! horizontal & v]tical portions ( ! labyr9?4 ,!re are ?us =m$ two passageways :i* correspond to ! sup]ior meati ( human anatomy4 ,! lat]al surfaces come into contact ) ! frontal process ( ! maxill>y & ! orbital plate ( ! frontal bone4 ,on ! lat]al surface ( ea* labyr9? !re is a ?9 irregul> lam9a ( bone ly+ 9 a dorsov5tral longitud9al plane & clos+ 9 "s ( ! e?moid cells lat]ally 7d74 ,a small "p ( ?is lam9a1 situat$ ne> ! caudov5tral angle ( ! bone1 appe>s 9 ! orbital fossa on ! ext]nal surface ( ! skull betwe5 ! presph5oid1 palat9e1 & frontal bones or betwe5 ! la*rymal1 palat9e1 & frontal bones4 ,sometimes 9 ! entire skull two su* pieces may be se51 "o 9 ea* ( ^! positions4 ,?is corresponds to ! lam9a papyracea ( human anatomy4 ,! dorsocaudal angle ( ea* bone is receiv$ into ! space betwe5 ! orbital plate ( ! frontal & ! v]tical lam9a ( ! m$ial bord] ( ! frontal4 ,its v5trocaudal angle is receiv$ betwe5 ! cranial ext5sions ( ! lat]al walls ( ! presph5oid1 :ile its v5tral surface is ov]laid caudally by ! exp&$ portion ( ! vom]1 to :i* x is atta*$ at its caudolat]al angles4 ,vom] 7,figs4 #ca & #cb1 a74--,! vom] consi/s ( two ?9 lam9 ( bone :i* en%ea? ! v5tral m>g9 ( ! lam9a p]p5dicul>is 7or ! c>tilag9\s plate :i* cont9ues v5trad f ?is m>g97 & unite v5trad ( x2 ! two ?us =m a tr\gh op5 dorsad4 ,ea* becomes horizontal ne> its caudal end & at ! same "t exp&s4 ,! exp&$ portion lies v5trad ( ! labyr9? ( ! e?moid1 clos+ 9 "s ( its cells3 its lat]al angles are unit$ ) ! labyr9?s4 ,at its caudal end ! bone articulates ) ! body ( ! presph5oid1 & ea* half ( x is produc$ caudad ne> ! middle l9e into a triangul> sp9e :i* lies v5trad ( ! body ( ! presph5oid4 ,! horizontal portion ( ! bone helps to sep>ate ! olfactory & respiratory passages ( ! nasal *amb]1 :ile its v]tical portion contributes to ! =mation ( ! nasal septum4 ,! v5tral m>g9 =m$ by ! junction ( ! two halves ( ! bone is smoo? & free caudad1 b at its cranial end is broad & r\gh = articulation ) ! palatal processes ( ! maxill4 ,palat9e ,bone4 ,os palat9um 7,fig4 #cc74--,! palate bone or palat9e bone consi/s ( two portions1 a horizontal or palatal portion 7a7 & a p]p5dicul> or nasal portion 7b71 unit+ at an angle ( ab\t =ty-five degrees4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,palat9e ,,bone1 ,,dorsal ,,view4 a1 horizontal portion2 b1 p]p5dicul> portion2 c1 maxill>y sp9e2 d1 po/]ior nasal sp9e2 e1 sph5opalat9e =am52 f1 caudal op5+ ( po/]ior palat9e canal4 ,! horizontal portions 7a7 ( ! two bones are receiv$ betwe5 ! maxill>y bones & =m ! caudal & m$ial "p ( ! ro( ( ! m\?4 ,ea* is irregul>ly quadrilat]al 9 =m1 ) ! caudolat]al angle produc$ caudad into a long process :i* is cont9u\s ) ! p]p5dicul> portion ( ! bone4 ,! lat]al m>g9 ( ! horizontal portion articulates ov] its cranial half ) ! maxill>y bone4 ,at ab\t its middle a %ort ?ick maxill>y sp9e 7c7 projects caudolat]ad4 ,! rema9d] ( ! lat]al m>g9 is directly cont9u\s ) ! p]p5dicul> plate ( ! bone4 ,! m$ial m>g9 is r\gh = articulation ) ! correspond+ m>g9 ( ! opposite palat9e2 ! caudal angle ( ?is m>g9 projects caudad z ! %ort po/]ior nasal sp9e 7d74 ,! caudal m>g9 =ms a free edge :i* b\nds ! *oan2 x passes lat]ally into ! p]p5dicul> portion4 ,! v5tral surface 7,fig4 #da1 #h7 looks into ! m\?4 ,ne> ! middle ( its craniolat]al m>g9 are two or m small =am9a 7,fig4 #da1 q7 :i* =m ! cranial t]m9ation ( ! po/]ior palat9e canal4 ,! dorsal surface is smoo? & looks into ! nasal cavity4 ,! p]p5dicul> or nasal portion 7,fig4 #cc1 b7 ( ! palat9e is ?9 & irregul>ly quadrilat]al 9 =m4 ,x is atta*$ by its cranial two-?irds to ! dorsal surface ( ! horizontal portion4 ,! out] surface is concave & looks into ! orbital fossa4 ,! inn] surface is convex & looks into ! nasal cavity4 ,! p]p5dicul> portion is m>k$ by two =am9a j craniad ( ! middle4 ,! l>g] dorsal oval =am5 is ! sph5opalat9e =am5 7e74 ,! small] v5tral =am5 is ! caudal op5+ ( ! po/]ior palat9e canal 7f74 ,f ?is op5+ ! canal passes craniom$iad1 ly+ 9 ! sub/ance ( ! palat9e bone2 x op5s on ! v5tral surface ( ! horizontal portion at ! small op5+s previ\sly describ$ 7,fig4 #da1 q74 ,by its cranial m>g9 x articulates ) ! la*rymal bone4 ,by its dorsal m>g9 x articulates craniad ) ! orbital plate ( ! frontal3 ) ! lam9a papyracea at its middle1 & ) ! body ( ! presph5oid caudad4 ,! caudal half ( ! dorsal m>g9 is p>tially divid$ into two lamell ) a r\gh surface betwe5 !m3 ?is r\gh surface lies aga9/ ! v5tral surface ( ! presph5oid4 ,! caudal m>g9 articulates ) ! pt]ygoid portion ( ! sph5oid4 ,la*rymal ,bone4 ,os la*rymale 7,fig4 #cd2 ,fig4 #ci1 #aj74--,! la*rymal bone is a ?9 p5tagonal scale ( bone fill+ ! int]val betwe5 ! horizontal plate ( ! palat9e1 ! maxill>y1 & ! orbital plate ( ! frontal4 ,its out] surface looks into ! orbit1 its inn] surface into ! nasal cavity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,,la*rymal ,,bone ,,( ,,left ,,side1 ,,ext]nal ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,mal> ,,bone ,,( ,,"r ,,side1 ,,lat]al ,,surface4 ,fig4 #cd4--;a1 not* =m+ ! beg9n+ ( ! la*rymal canal4 ,fig4 #ce4--;a1 ridge = orig9 ( ! masset] muscle2 b1 frontal process2 c1 zygomatic process4 ,ne> ! middle ( its cranial bord] x is not*$ obliquely by a =am5 7a71 ! beg9n+ ( ! nasola*rymal canal4 ,mal> ,bone4 ,jugal ,bone4 ,os zygomaticum 7,fig4 #ce74--,! mal> or zygomatic bone is a flat curv$ plate ( bone :i* =ms ! lat]al wall ( ! orbit & toge!r ) ! zygomatic process ( ! temporal =ms ! zygomatic ar*4 ,its out] surface is smoo? & m>k$ by a longitud9al ridge 7a7 = atta*m5t ( ! masset] muscle4 ,at its caudal end ! bone is cont9u$ into two processes3 "o1 ! frontal process or orbital process 7b71 is a triangul> sp9e ( bone direct$ caudom$iad2 :5 ! bones are articulat$ x lies opposite ! zygomatic process ( ! frontal to :i* x is jo9$ by a ligam5t 7orbital ligam5t74 ,! o!r1 zygomatic process 7c7 ( ! mal> bone1 ext5ds v5trocaudad & articulates ) a simil> process f ! temporal to =m ! zygomatic ar* above m5tion$4 ,its inn] surface is smoo? & looks into ! orbit1 except t ( ! zygomatic process1 :i* looks into ! temporal fossa4 ,its cranial bord] is r\gh5$ at ! exp5se ( bo? surfaces & articulates ) ! maxill>y bone4 ,its o!r bord]s are smoo? except ! dorsal bord] ( ! zygomatic process1 :i* is r\gh5$ = atta*m5t to ! zygomatic process ( ! temporal4 ,! ,m&ible4 ,m&ibula 7,figs4 #cf & #cg74--,! m&ible 7or inf]ior maxill>y bone7 is compos$ ( two halves :i* come toge!r at ! cranial end & =m ! l[] jaw4 ,at its caudal end ea* half articulates ) ! temporal bone at ! m&ibul> fossa1 & at its cranial end x jo9s ! opposite bone1 ! suture be+ kn[n z ! symphysis ( ! jaw 7symphysis m5ti7 7,fig4 #cg1 a74 ,ea* half consi/s ( a horizontal portion1 ! body 7b71 be>+ tee? on "o ( its bord]s 7! alveol> bord]71 & ( a v]tical portion1 ! ramus 7c74 ,! body 7b7 has ! =m ( a flatt5$ cyl9d] & has two surfaces & two bord]s4 ,! lat]al surface 7,fig4 #cf7 is smoo? & pres5ts ne> its cranial end a =am5 7or sometimes two71 ! m5tal =am5 7d71 =m+ ! cranial t]m9ation ( ! m&ibul> canal4 ,at its caudal end is a deep fossa cont9u+ on to ! ramus1 ! coronoid fossa1 or masset]ic fossa 7e74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,,m&ible1 ,,lat]al ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #cg4--,,m&ible1 ,,m$ial ,,surface4 a1 symphysis2 b1 body2 c1 ramus2 d1 m5tal =am9a2 e1 coronoid fossa2 f1 m&ibul> =am52 g1 angul> process2 h1 coronoid process2 i1 condyloid process2 #a1 #b1 #c1 ! ?ree incisor tee?2 #d1 ! can9e too?2 #e1 #f1 ! premol>s2 #g1 ! mol> too?4 ,! m$ial surface 7,fig4 #cg7 is smoo? & has ne> its caudal end a =am51 ! m&ibul> =am5 7f71 :i* communicates ) ! m&ibul> canal lead+ l5g?wise ?r\gh ! bone to ! m5tal =am54 ,! cranial end is r\gh5$ = atta*m5t to ! bone ( ! opposite side4 ,! v5tral bord] is smoo? & r\nd$2 x ends caudally 9 a blunt po9t1 ! angul> process 7g74 ,! dorsal 7alveol>7 bord] is slightly curv$ & be>s ! sockets 7alveoli7 = ! tee?4 ,x is cont9u\s ) ! cranial m>g9 ( ! coronoid process4 ,! ramus is divid$ into two portions1 ! coronoid process 7h7 & ! condyloid process 7i74 ,! coronoid process 7h7 ext5ds dorsocaudad z a ?9 plate ( bone ) smoo? surfaces & bord]s4 ,its out] surface is p>tly occupi$ by ! coronoid fossa 7e74 ,! condyloid process 7i7 has ! =m ( a semicyl9drical transv]se piece ( bone atta*$ to ! caudal m>g9 ( ! coronoid process4 ,x articulates ) ! m&ibul> fossa ( ! temporal bone4 ,hyoid ,bone4 ,os hyoideum 7,fig4 #ch & ,fig4 #ajd74--,! hyoid bone =ms ! support = ! tongue & gives orig9 to muscles pass+ to ! tongue & l>ynx4 ,x also supports ! ?yroid c>tilage 7,fig4 #ajd1 #a74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,hyoid ,,bone1 ,,dorsal ,,view4 a1 body2 b1 c1 d1 e1 cranial cornu2 f1 caudal cornu2 b1 c]atohyal2 c1 epihyal2 d1 /ylohyal2 e1 tympanohyal2 f1 ?yrohyal4 ,x consi/s ( a transv]se bony b>1 ! body 7,fig4 #ch1 a7 & ( two cornua or horns atta*$ to ea* end ( ! body4 ,! cranial cornu 7less] cornu ( human anatomy7 is ! long] 7,fig4 #ch1 b-e74 ,ea* arises f ! cranial face ( ! body at its lat]al end1 curves lat]ad1 & !n caudodorsad4 ,x consi/s ( f\r bony pieces movably unit$ by c>tilage4 ,! t]m9al piece is ! tympanohyal 7e72 x is imb$d$ 9 ! tympanic bulla j v5trad ( ! /yloma/oid =am54 ,x is n !re=e se5 atta*$ to ! cornu aft] ! latt] has be5 sep>at$ f ! skull4 ,! o!r pieces become successively %ort] t[>d ! body1 & are call$ /ylohyal 7d71 epihyal 7c71 & c]atohyal 7b74 ,! caudal cornua 7f7 7great] cornua ( human anatomy7 arise f ! ends ( ! body4 ,ea* consi/s ( a s+le piece ( bone1 ! ?yrohyal 7f71 :i* passes caudolat]ad2 its free end is unit$ to a process ( ! ?yroid c>tilage 7,fig4 #ajd1 #a74 ,! ,skull z a ,:ole4--,9 ! foll[+ description ( ! skull z a :ole ! m&ible1 hyoid1 & e>-bones are n includ$4 ,! skull =ms a bony box :i* conta9s ! bra9 & is produc$ craniad into ! facial portion :i* encloses ! nasal cavity & =ms ! framework ( ! face4 ,9 dorsal view 7,fig4 #ci7 ! skull pres5ts a smoo? convex surface1 broade/ caudad1 ) ! two zygomatic ar*es 7g7 curv+ out "s di/ance lat]ally4 ,! foll[+ bones are visible 9 dorsal view3 ! occipital 7#a71 int]p>ietal 7#b71 p>ietals 7#c71 temporals 7#d71 frontals 7#e71 mal> or zygomatic bones 7#f71 nasals 7#g71 maxill>ies 7#h71 premaxill>ies 7#i71 & la*rymals 7#aj74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,,skull1 ,,dorsal ,,surface4 #a1 occipital bone2 #b1 int]p>ietal bone2 #c1 p>ietal bones2 #d1 temporal2 #e1 frontal2 #f1 mal>2 #g1 nasal2 #h1 maxill>y2 #i1 premaxill>y2 #aj1 la*rymal1 a1 lambdoidal ridge2 b1 ext]nal occipital tub]cle2 c1 sagittal cre/2 d1 p>ietal em95ce2 e1 l9e :i* =ms ! dorsal b\nd>y ( ! temporal fossa2 f1 zygomatic process ( ! frontal2 g1 zygomatic ar*2 h1 frontal process ( ! mal>2 i1 supraorbital ar*2 j1 n>es2 k1 =am5 incisivum or ant]ior palat9e =am52 l1 sph5opalat9e =am52 m1 zygomatic process ( ! temporal2 n1 infraorbital =am52 o1 op5+ ( la*rymal duct4 ,! caudal b\nd>y ( ! dorsal surface is m>k$ by ! prom95t lambdoidal ridge 7a7 :i* passes f ! middle craniov5trad along ea* side to ! root ( ! zygomatic ar*3 x is borne by ! occipital & temporal bones4 ,f ! middle ( ! lambdoidal ridge a second ridge1 ! sagittal cre/ 7c71 passes craniad 9 ! middle l9e across ! int]p>ietal bone3 x v>ies greatly 9 ext5t1 rea*+ 9 a v old & muscul> cat to ! cranial bord] ( ! p>ietals1 :ile 9 kitt5s x does n exi/4 ,! mo/ prom95t portions ( ! skull 9 ?is region1 j craniad ( ! middle ( ! p>ietal bones1 are kn[n z ! p>ietal tub]cles or em95ces 7d74 ,a fa9t curv$ l9e 7e7 runs f ! cranial end ( ! sagittal cre/ craniolat]ad to ! base ( ! zygomatic process ( ! frontal3 x m>ks ! dorsal b\nd>y ( ! orig9 ( ! temporal muscle1 & may !re=e be consid]$ ! dorsal b\nd>y ( ! temporal fossa4 ,?is fossa ext5ds f its dorsal b\nd>y z f> lat]ad & caudad z ! lambdoidal ridge 7a71 & z f> craniad z a l9e connect+ ! tip ( ! zygomatic process ( ! frontal 7f7 ) ! frontal process ( ! mal> 7h74 ,! temporal muscle takes orig9 f its surface4 ,! middle portion ( ! dorsal surface is =m$ by ! frontals 7#e74 ,ea* frontal pres5ts lat]ally a prom95t zygomatic process 7f71 ext5d+ v5trolat]ad t[>d a correspond+ 7frontal7 process 7h7 ( ! mal> bone4 ,^! two processes m>k ! b\nd>y betwe5 ! orbital fossa 7craniad7 & ! temporal fossa 7caudad74 ,craniad ( ! zygomatic process ( ! frontal a %>p m>g9 sep>ates ! dorsal surface ( ! skull f ! wall ( ! orbital fossa3 ?is is ! supraorbital ar* or m>g9 7i74 ,! cranial portion ( ! dorsal surface is =m$ by ! maxill>y 7#h71 nasal 7#g71 & premaxill>y bones 7#i74 ,j craniad ( ! nasals1 b\nd$ v5trad & craniad by ! premaxill>ies1 appe>s ! l>ge op5+ ( ! n>es 7j71 lead+ into ! nasal cavity4 ,! zygomatic ar* 7g7 is =m$ by ! zygomatic process ( ! temporal 7m7 & ! mal> or zygomatic bone 7#f74 ,ea* pres5ts ne> its middle a prom95t dorsocaudally direct$ process1 ! frontal process 7h7 ( ! mal> bone4 ,! zygomatic ar* =ms ! lat]al b\nd>y ( ! temporal & orbital foss1 :i* are sep>at$ by a l9e connect+ ! frontal process ( ! mal> 7h7 & ! zygomatic process ( ! frontal 7f74 ,a portion ( ! floor ( ! orbit & ! op5+ ( ! la*rymal canal 7o7 may also be se5 9 dorsal view2 !y are describ$ 9 connection ) ! lat]al surface4 ,! caudal surface ( ! skull is =m$ l>gely by ! occipital bone 7,fig4 #ag71 surr\nd+ ! =am5 magnum 7,fig4 #ag1 d74 ,at ! sides ( ! =am5 magnum are ! two prom95t curv$ occipital condyles 7e7 = articulation ) ! atlas4 ,craniolat]ad ( ! condyles1 sep>at$ f !m by a deep not*1 are ! jugul> processes 7f7 ( ! occipital1 closely appli$ to ! caudal ends ( ! tympanic bull4 ,dorsad ( ! =am5 magnum are fa9t indications ( a m$ian ridge runn+ dorsad1 ! ext]nal occipital cre/ 7,fig4 #ag1 i72 ?is rises at its junction ) ! lambdoidal ridge to =m ! prom95t ext]nal occipital tub]cle 7,fig4 #ci1 b74 ,! dorsal & dorsolat]al b\nd>ies ( ! po/]ior surface are =m$ by ! lambdoidal ridge 7,fig4 #ag1 h2 ,fig4 #ci1 a74 ,! lat]al surface ( ! skull 7,fig4 #dj7 is mu* m complicat$ ?an ! dorsal & po/]ior surfaces4 ,caudally ! occipital condyles 7a7 & ext]nal occipital cre/ 7b7 are visible2 dorsocaudad ! sagittal cre/ 7c74 ,ext5d+ f ! caudal end ( ! sagittal cre/ ! lambdoidal ridge 7d7 is se5 pass+ v5trocraniad to ! tympanic bulla1 !nce craniad to ! root ( ! zygomatic ar*4 ,9 ! v5tral "p ( ! caudal region ! tympanic bulla 7e7 is visible ) ! jugul> process 7f7 ( ! occipital press$ close aga9/ its caudal end4 ,j craniad ( ! jugul> process ! ma/oid process 7g7 ( ! temporal re/s aga9/ ! side ( ! bulla4 ,b5ea? ! cranial edge ( ?is process is ! op5+ ( ! /yloma/oid =am5 7h7 = ! sev5? n]ve1 :ile j v5trad ( ! =am5 is ! small pit 7i7 9 ! tympanic bulla = ! reception ( ! tympanohyal bone4 ,craniad ( ! /yloma/oid =am5 is ! l>ge op5+ ( ! ext]nal auditory meatus 7j71 lead+ into ! middle e>4 ,imm$iately dorsocraniad ( ! ext]nal auditory meatus ! zygomatic ar* beg9s z ! zygomatic process 7k7 ( ! temporal bone4 ,on ! cranial surface ( ! base ( ?is process is ! deep m&ibul> fossa 7l7 = ! condyle ( ! m&ible4 ,?is fossa is b\nd$ caudally by ! prom95t po/m&ibul> process 7m74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,skull1 ,,side ,,view4 #a1 occipital bone2 #b1 int]p>ietal2 #c1 p>ietal2 #d1 temporal2 #e1 #e1 frontal2 #f1 mal>2 #g1 sph5oid2 #h1 palat9e2 #i1 presph5oid2 #aj1 maxill>y2 #aa1 nasal2 #ab1 premaxill>y2 #ac1 incisor tee?2 #ad1 can9e2 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 premol>s2 #ah1 mol>4 a1 occipital condyle2 b1 ext]nal occipital cre/2 c1 sagittal cre/2 d1 lambdoidal ridge2 e1 tympanic bulla2 f1 jugul> process2 g1 ma/oid process2 h1 /ylo-ma/oid =am52 i1 pit = tympanohyal bone2 j1 ext]nal auditory meatus2 k1 zygomatic process ( temporal bone2 l1 m&ibul> fossa2 m1 po/m&ibul> process2 n1 zygomatic process ( ! frontal2 o1 supraorbital m>g92 p1 ext]nal pt]ygoid fossa2 q1 sph5opalat9e =am52 r1 orbital fissure2 s1 int]nal pt]ygoid fossa2 t1 hamulus2 u1 =am5 ovale2 v1 =am5 rotundum2 w1 optic =am52 x1 op5+ ( la*rymal canal2 y1 infraorbital =am54 ,all t portion ( ! lat]al surface ( ! skull :i* lies craniodorsad ( ! lambdoidal ridge may be divid$ 7exclud+ ! zygomatic ar*7 into ?ree ma9 p>ts1 ! temporal fossa1 ! orbital fossa1 & ! face4 ,! b\nd>ies ( ! temporal fossa h be5 giv54 ,! orbital fossa is b\nd$ ext]nally by a prom95t semicircul> ridge =m$ *iefly by ! zygomatic ar*1 ! zygomatic process ( ! frontal 7n71 & ! supraorbital ar* 7o7 ( ! frontal1 :i* may be trac$ to ! cranial root ( ! zygomatic ar*4 ,! orbital fossa may be consid]$ to end caudally & v5trally at ! level ( ! optic =am5 7w72 v5trad ( x are c]ta9 small] foss4 ,imm$iately v5trad is ! long ext]nal pt]ygoid fossa 7p71 f :i* arises "p ( ! ext]nal pt]ygoid muscle4 ,?is fossa beg9s at ! sph5opalat9e =am5 7q7 & ext5ds caudad to ! orbital fissure 7r72 x is sep>at$ by a ridge f ! orbital fossa4 ,caudov5trad ( ! ext]nal pt]ygoid fossa & sep>at$ f x by a %>p ridge is ! small n>r[ int]nal pt]ygoid fossa 7s71 :i* ext5ds v5trad )\t int]ruption on to ! surface ( ! hamulus 7t7 & caudad to )9 two or ?ree millimet]s ( ! tympanic bulla4 ,f x ! int]nal pt]ygoid muscle takes orig94 ,! hamulus 7t7 projects caudov5trad 9 ?is region1 =m+ a prom95t feature 9 a lat]al view4 ,f\r =am9a lead+ into ! cranial cavity are visible 9 a lat]al view ( ! skull1 craniad ( ! tympanic bulla4 ,! "o ne>e/ ! bulla is ! =am5 ovale 7u7 = ! ?ird division ( ! fif? n]ve2 next craniad ( ?is is ! =am5 rotundum 7v7 = ! second division ( ! fif? n]ve4 ,^! two =am9a pi]ce ! alisph5oid3 j craniad ( !m1 betwe5 ! alisph5oid & ! orbitosph5oid1 is ! l>ge orbital fissure 7r7 7=am5 lac]um ant]ius71 :i* transmits ! ?ird1 f\r?1 & six? cranial n]ves & ! fir/ division ( ! fif?4 ,dorsocraniad ( ! orbital fissure is ! optic =am5 7w71 = ! optic n]ve4 ,v5trad ( ! cranial portion ( ! orbit is ! l>ge sph5opalat9e =am5 7q71 = ! n]ves & art]ies ( ! same "n4 ,j craniad ( ?is is ! small caudal op5+ ( ! po/]ior palat9e canal1 :i* passes ?r\gh ! sub/ance ( ! palat9e bone & op5s on its v5tral surface ne> its cranial m>g94 ,j dorsad ( ! cranial root ( ! zygomatic ar* is ! op5+ ( ! la*rymal canal 7x71 :ile ! root ( ! ar* is pi]c$ by ! l>ge infraorbital =am5 7y71 :i* transmits ! infraorbital n]ves & art]y f ! orbit4 ,! tee? 7#ac-ah71 implant$ along ! alveol> bord] ( ! maxill>y & premaxill>y1 =m a prom95t feature 9 a lat]al view3 !y are describ$ 9 ! acc\nt ( ! alim5t>y canal4 ,! v5tral surface ( ! skull 7,fig4 #da7 is v complex4 ,x is sep>at$ by ! orbits into a caudal & a cranial portion1 unit$ by a n>r[ m$ian tr\gh-l "p4 ,lat]ad ( ?is tr\gh-l "p are visible p>ts ( ! orbit & ! zygomatic ar*es1 :i* d n prop]ly belong to ! v5tral surface & h already be5 describ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,,skull1 ,,v5tral ,,view4 #a1 occipital bone2 #b1 temporal2 #c1 sph5oid2 #d1 presph5oid2 #e1 frontal2 #f1 mal>2 #g1 vom]2 #h1 palat9e2 #i1 maxill>y2 #aj1 premaxill>y4 a1 =am5 magnum2 b1 occipital condyles2 c1 jugul> process2 d1 tympanic bulla2 e1 ma/oid process2 f1 /yloma/oid =am52 g1 ext]nal auditory meatus2 h1 jugul> =am52 i1 /yli=m process2 j1 groove = ,eu/a*ian tube2 k1 =am5 ovale2 l1 =am5 rotundum2 m1 pt]ygoid process ( sph5oid2 n1 p]p5dicul> plate ( palat9e2 o1 *oan or po/]ior n>es2 p1 zygomatic ar*2 q1 cranial end ( po/]ior palat9e canal2 r1 palat9e grooves2 s1 =am9a incisiva or ant]ior palat9e =am9a2 t1 op5+ ( pt]ygoid canal4 ,caudally !re appe> 9 ! v5tral view ! =am5 magnum 7a71 occipital condyles 7b71 & jugul> processes 7c74 ,9 front ( ! jugul> processes ! two tympanic bull 7d7 =m prom95t features1 ) ! ma/oid process 7e71 ! /yloma/oid =am5 7f71 & ! ext]nal auditory meatus 7g7 on _! lat]al surfaces4 ,all ^! /ructures h be5 describ$4 ,! tympanic bull 7d7 are plac$ ) long axes direct$ craniom$iad1 s t !y conv]ge t[>d _! cranial ends4 ,at ! caudom$ial angle ( ea* bulla is ! l>ge jugul> =am5 7h71 = ! n9?1 t5?1 & elev5? n]ves4 ,op5+ into ! m$iocaudal m>g9 ( ! jugul> =am5 is ! small] hypoglossal =am51 = ! twelf? n]ve4 ,! craniom$ial end ( ! tympanic bulla projects craniad z ! /yli=m process 7i74 ,j lat]ad ( ?is process is ! op5+ 7j7 into ! tympanic bulla by :i* ! tuba auditiva or ,eu/a*ian tube passes into ! middle e>4 ,a fa9t groove = ! tube passes craniom$iad f ?is op5+1 on ! surface ( ! sph5oid4 ,craniolat]ad ( ! op5+ = ! tuba auditiva is ! =am5 ovale 7k72 craniad ( ?is ! =am5 rotundum 7l7 is fa9tly indicat$4 ,on ! surface ( ! sph5oid j craniad ( ! /yli=m process ( ! bulla tympani is ! m9ute op5+ ( ! pt]ygoid canal 7t74 ,! orbital fissure & optic =am5 are n se5 9 ! v5tral view4 ,! middle region ( ! v5tral surface is n>r[3 x is =m$ by a tr\gh-l fossa :i* is b\nd$ lat]ally by ! pt]ygoid processes 7m7 ( ! sph5oid & ! p]p5dicul> plates ( ! palat9es 7n74 ,v5trad ( ?is lies1 9 ! natural condition1 ! s(t palate1 conv]t+ ! fossa into ! nasal portion ( ! ph>ynx or nasoph>ynx4 ,craniad ?is fossa is b\nd$ by ! free caudal edges ( ! palat9es2 b5ea? :i* ! fossa communicates ) ! nasal cavity by ! two *oan 7o74 ,lat]ad ( ?is m$ian fossa are visible 9 ! v5tral view p>ts ( ! temporal & orbital foss1 b\nd$ lat]ally by ! zygomatic ar*es 7p74 ,! cranial "p ( ! v5tral surface is a some:at triangul> plane area =m$ by ! palatal portions ( ! palat9es 7#h71 maxill>ies 7#i71 & premaxill>ies 7#aj71 :i* toge!r con/itute ! h>d palate 7palatum durum74 ,lat]ad & craniad ?is area is b\nd$ by ! alveol> bord]s ( ! maxill>ies & premaxill>ies be>+ ! tee?4 ,! h>d palate is m>k$ ne> ! cranial bord] ( ! palat9e bones ) two or m =am9a :i* =m ! cranial t]m9ation ( ! po/]ior palat9e canal 7q74 ,two fa9t grooves pass f ^! =am9a a %ort di/ance craniad1 gradually conv]g+3 ^! are kn[n z ! palat9e grooves 7r7 7sulci palat9i74 ,ne> ! cranial end ( ! h>d palate are two l>ge op5+s close toge!r ne> ! middle l9e3 ^! are ! =am9a incisiva 7or ant]ior palat9e =am9a7 7s74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,,skull1 ,,) ,,dorsal ,,surface ,,remov$1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,cranial ,,& ,,nasal ,,cavities4 a1 =am5 magnum2 b1 caudal end ( hypoglossal canal2 c1 jugul> =am52 d1 int]nal auditory meatus2 e1 t5torium1 =m+ ! cranial b\nd>y ( ! c]ebell> fossa2 f1 dorsum sell2 g1 sella turcica2 h1 ant]ior cl9oid processes2 i1 =am5 ovale2 j1 =am5 rotundum2 k1 orbital fissure2 l1 optic =am52 m1 *iasmatic groove2 n1 presph5oid bone2 o1 cribri=m plate2 p1 lam9a p]p5dicul>is ( e?moid2 q1 labyr9?s ( e?moid2 r1 n>es2 s1 =am9a incisiva or ant]ior palat9e =am9a2 t1 infraorbital =am52 u1 op5+ ( ! la*rymal canal2 v1 caudal op5+ ( po/]ior palat9e canal2 w1 sph5opalat9e =am52 x1 frontal process ( ! mal>2 y1 zygomatic process ( ! temporal2 z1 app5dicul> fossa1 9 ! petr\s bone4 ,cavities ( ! ,skull 7,figs4 #db & #dc74--,! bones ( ! cranial portion ( ! skull enclose ! cranial cavity = ! bra92 ! facial bones enclose ! nasal cavity1 = ! olfactory organ4 ,! cranial cavity is divisible into ?ree pr9cipal foss3 ! c]ebell> fossa 7,fig4 #dc1 ,i7 caudad1 = ! c]ebellum2 ! c]ebral fossa 7,,ii7 9 ! middle1 = ! c]ebrum2 ! small olfactory fossa 7,,iii7 at ! cranial end = ! olfactory bulb ( ! bra94 ,! c]ebell> fossa 7,i7 is b\nd$ caudally by ! occipital bone enclos+ ! =am5 magnum 7,fig4 #db1 a74 ,its v5tral surface is =m$ by ! basil> portion ( ! occipital & ! petr\s portions ( ! temporals2 its lat]al surface by ! ma/oid portions ( ! temporals & p>ts ( ! p>ietals & occipital4 ,its ro( is =m$ by ! p>ietals & int]p>ietal4 ,craniad ! c]ebell> fossa is p>tly sep>at$ f ! c]ebral fossa by ! t5torium 7,fig4 #db1 e2 ,fig4 #dc1 f7 =m$ by ! two p>ietals3 ?is encloses a quadrangul> op5+ by :i* ! two foss communicate4 ,! caudal1 dorsal1 & lat]al walls ( ! c]ebell> fossa are deeply m>k$ by foss = ! lobes ( ! c]ebellum2 ! small app5dicul> fossa 7,fig4 #dc1 e71 =m+ a deep ind5tation 9 ! petr\s bone ne> its dorsocaudal end1 is p>ticul>ly noticeable4 ,! foll[+ op5+s are f\nd 9 ! walls ( ! c]ebell> fossa4 ,caudad is ! l>ge =am5 magnum 7,fig4 #db1 a7 by :i* ! bra9-cavity communicates ) ! v]tebral canal4 ,ne> ! caudal m>g9 ( ! =am5 magnum1 on its lat]al side1 j m$iad ( ! dorsal end ( ! occipital condyle1 is ! caudal op5+ ( ! condyloid canal 7,fig4 #dc1 a7 :i* passes craniad ?r\gh ! sub/ance ( ! occipital bone to op5 j caudad ( ! petr\s3 x transmits a ve94 ,! condyloid canal v>ies greatly 9 size 9 diff]5t specim5s4 ,a few millimet]s craniad ( ! edge ( ! =am5 magnum on ! floor ( ! fossa is ! small op5+ ( ! hypoglossal canal 7,figs4 #db & #dc1 b71 = ! twelf? n]ve4 ,j craniad ( ?is1 at ! caudom$ial bord] ( ! petr\s1 is ! l>ge jugul> =am5 7c74 ,on ! petr\s itself1 ne> ! middle1 is ! int]nal1 auditory meatus 7d7 divid$ into ! dorsal facial canal = ! sev5? n]ve1 & a v5tral passage = ! eigh? n]ve4 ,at ! cranial end ( ! c]ebell> fossa is ! l>ge op5+ b\nd$ by ! free edges ( ! t5torium4 ,! c]ebral fossa =ms mu* ! l>ge/ "p ( ! cranial cavity4 ,x is b\nd$ by ! p>ietals 7,fig4 #dc1 #c71 squam\s portions ( ! temporals 7#d71 frontals 7#h71 ! sph5oid 7#e71 & presph5oid 7#f74 ,a slight r\nd$ ridge on its lat]al wall at ab\t ! position ( ! suture betwe5 ! frontals & p>ietals sep>ates a small] cranial portion sometimes call$ ! ant]ior fossa1 f a l>g] caudal portion sometimes kn[n z ! middle fossa ( ! cranial cavity4 ,! walls ( ! c]ebral cavity are m>k$ ) num]\s ridges & %all[ furr[s = ! c]ebral convolutions4 ,! floor ( ! c]ebral cavity is b\nd$ caudad by ! prom95t dorsum sell 7,fig4 #db1 f2 ,fig4 #dc1 g71 j craniad ( :i* is ! r\nd$ depression kn[n z ! sella turcica 7,fig4 #db1 g2 ,fig4 #dc1 h71 = lodgm5t ( ! hypophysis4 ,a numb] ( =am9a pi]ce ! floor ( ! cavity 9 ?is region4 ,j v5trad ( ! cranial tip ( ! petr\s portion ( ! temporal is ! small =am5 lac]um 7m$ius74 ,craniad & lat]ad ( ?is is a r[ ( f\r =am9a3 ! caudal "o is ! =am5 ovale 7,fig4 #db1 i72 !n come 9 ord] ! =am5 rotundum 7j71 ! orbital fissure 7k71 & ! optic =am5 7,fig4 #db1 l2 ,fig4 #dc1 k74 ,! two optic =am9a are connect$ by ! %all[ transv]se *iasmatic groove 7,fig4 #db1 m71 = ! optic *iasma4 ,ano!r small =am5 cont9ues caudad f a groove on ! floor ( ! orbital fissure2 ?is op5s on ! v5tral surface ( ! sph5oid1 betwe5 ! w+ & ! body ( ! bone4 ,! groove & =am5 con/itute ! pt]ygoid canal1 :i* transmits a n]ve1--! n]ve ( ! pt]ygoid canal1 or ,vidian n]ve4 ,! cranial cavity n>r[s at its cranial end to =m ! small olfactory fossa 7,fig4 #dc1 ,,iii7 :i* lodges ! olfactory bulbs4 ,?is is b\nd$ by ! frontals & ! lam9a cribrosa 7,fig4 #db1 o7 ( ! e?moid2 caudad x op5s directly into ! c]ebral fossa4 ,num]\s op5+s ?r\gh ! lam9a cribrosa = ! olfactory fibres connect ! olfactory fossa ) ! nasal cavity4 ,! ro( ( ! fossa is m>k$ by a prom95t m$ian cre/ f ! unit$ edges ( ! frontals4 ,! nasal cavity is almo/ completely fill$ by ! e?moid & vom] & ! con* nasales4 ,its ro( is =m$ by ! nasal bones & portions ( ! frontals2 its sides by ! frontals1 la*rymals1 maxill>ies1 premaxill>ies1 & palat9e bones2 its floor by ! horizontal plates ( ! palat9es1 maxill>ies1 & premaxill>ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,skull1 ,,m$ian ,,longitud9al ,,section1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,cavities4 ,i1 c]ebell> fossa2 ,,ii1 c]ebral fossa2 ,,iii1 olfactory fossa4 #a1 occipital bone2 #b1 int]p>ietal2 #c1 #c1 p>ietal2 #d1 temporal 7#d1 squam\s portion2 #d1 petr\s portion2 #d1 tympanic portion72 #e1 sph5oid2 #f1 presph5oid2 #g1 palat9e2 #h1 frontal2 #i1 maxill>y2 #aj1 premaxill>y2 #aa1 e?moid2 #ab1 nasal2 #ac1 incisor tee?2 #ad1 can9e2 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 premol>s2 #ah1 mol>4 a1 condyloid canal2 b1 hypoglossal canal2 c1 jugul> =am52 d1 int]nal auditory meatus2 e1 app5dicul> fossa2 f1 t5torium2 g1 dorsum sell2 h1 sella turcica2 i1 hamul> process2 j1 pt]ygoid process ( sph5oid2 k1 optic =am52 l1 presph5oid s9us2 m1 m1 frontal s9us2 n1 lam9a p]p5dicul>is ( ! e?moid 7brok5 at cranial edge74 ,! nasal cavity op5s craniad by ! l>ge n>es 7,fig4 #ci1 j2 ,fig4 #db1 r71 :i* are b\nd$ by ! premaxill>y & nasal bones4 ,9 ! natural condition ?is op5+ is divid$ by a m$ian c>tilage :i* is cont9u\s ) ! lam9a p]p5dicul>is 7,fig4 #dc1 n7 ( ! e?moid1 ?us =m+ a p>tition :i* divides ! nasal cavity into two sep>ate halves4 ,f ! floor ( ! cranial "p ( ! cavity rises a ridge =m$ ( ! nasal cre/s ( ! maxill>ies & premaxill>ies1 & ! cranial portion ( ! vom]4 ,f>!r caudad ! vom] spreads out 9 a horizontal plane & sep>ates f ! floor ( ! cavity1 s t ! nasal cavity is !reby divid$ by a horizontal p>tition into dorsal & v5tral portions4 ,! v5tral portion is small1 =m+ ! inf]ior meatus ( ! nose2 x ends caudally at ! *oan 7po/]ior n>es1 ,fig4 #da1 o7 :i* lead into ! nasoph>ynx4 ,t portion ( ! nasal cavity ly+ dorsad ( ! vom] is almo/ completely fill$ by ! e?moid & ! con* nasales1 sup]ior & inf]ior4 ,x is b\nd$ caudally by ! lam9a cribrosa ( ! e?moid 7,fig4 #db1 o74 ,! nasal cavity communicates ) ! cranial cavity by ! =am9a = ! olfactory fibres 9 ! lam9a cribrosa2 ) ! nasoph>ynx by ! *oan2 ) ! ext]ior ( ! body by ! n>es2 ) ! m\?-cavity by ! =am9a incisiva or ant]ior palat9e =am9a 7,fig4 #db1 s72 ) ! orbit by ! sph5opalat9e =am5 & ! nasola*rymal canal4 ,x communicates directly also ) ! frontal s9uses 7,fig4 #dc1 m1 m71 ! sph5oidal s9uses 7,fig4 #dc1 l71 & ) ! cells ( ! labyr9?s ( ! e?moid4 ,,jo9ts ,,& ,,ligam5ts ,,( ,,! ,,skull4 ,sutures ( ! ,skull4--,! bones ( ! skull jo9 ea* o!r by means ( immovable articulations kn[n z sutures4 ,^! sutures are designat$ by comb9+ ! names ( ! bones betwe5 :i* !y are situat$3 z1 sph5(rontal suture 7sutura sph5(rontalis71 betwe5 ! sph5oid & frontal2 nasomaxill>y suture 7sutura nasomaxill>is71 betwe5 ! nasal & maxill>y bones4 ,:5 a suture jo9s ! two correspond+ bones ( opposite sides ! prefix int] is us$1 z ! int]maxill>y suture 7sutura int]maxill>is7 betwe5 ! maxill>ies4 ,! sutures b\nd+ ! p>ietals h1 h[ev]1 receiv$ special names n d]iv$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,! suture caudad ( ! p>ietals1 sep>at+ !m f ! occipital & int]p>ietal1 is kn[n z ! lambdoidal suture2 t betwe5 ! two p>ietals is ! sagittal suture2 t sep>at+ ! p>ietals & squam\s portions ( ! temporals is ! squam\s suture2 t betwe5 ! p>ietals & frontals is ! coronal suture4 ,! suture sep>at+ ! two frontals also is kn[n z ! frontal suture1 9 place ( int]frontal4 ,articulations ( ! ,m&ible4--,9 man ! two halves ( ! m&ible are unit$ craniad1 s z to =m a s+le bone4 ,9 ! cat ! two halves are sep>ate1 b articulate closely at ! symphysis m5ti by a ?9 int]>ticul> c>tilage4 ,! articulation ( ! m&ible at ! m&ibul> fossa ( ! temporal is cov]$ ) a close articul> capsule4 ,! m&ibul> fossa is l9$ ) c>tilage4 ,a sl5d] ligam5t passes f ! angul> process ( ! m&ible caudad to ! ext]nal auditory meatus1 be+ atta*$ to ! latt] ab\t #h millimet]s f its m$ial end4 ,?is is ! /ylom&ibul> ligam5t4 ,v4 ,,bones ,,( ,,! ,,?oracic ,,extremities4 ,scapula 7,figs4 #dd & #de74--,! scapula may be describ$ z a flat triangul> bone ) "o angle r\nd$4 ,x lies b5ea? ! muscles on ! lat]al face ( ! ?orax ne> its cranial end4 ,f its lat]al surface !re projects a flat ridge 7,fig4 #dd1 g71 ! sp9e ( ! scapula4 ,! v5tral end ( ! ridge is free z a curv$ process1 ! acromion process 7,fig4 #dd1 j74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,scapula1 ,,lat]al ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #de4--,,scapula1 ,,m$ial ,,surface4 ,i1 fossa suprasp9ata2 ,,ii1 fossa infrasp9ata2 ,,iii1 fossa subscapul>is2 ,,iv1 fossa = t]es major4 a1 v]tebral bord]2 b1 coracoid bord]2 c1 gl5oid bord]2 d1 gl5oid angle & fossa2 e1 coracov]tebral angle2 f1 gl5ov]tebral angle2 g1 sp9e2 h1 tub]osity ( ! sp9e2 i1 metacromion2 j1 acromion2 k1 supragl5oidal tub]cle2 l1 incisura scapul2 m1 coracoid process2 n1 groove indicat+ portion ( sp9e2 o1 o1 ridges = atta*m5t ( muscle-fibres4 ,! v5tral angle ( ! scapula 7d71 ! gl5oid angle 7lat]al angle ( human anatomy71 is mu* heavi] ?an ! o!rs & be>s a concave1 pe>-%ap$ articul> facet1 ! gl5oid fossa1 = articulation ) ! hum]us4 ,! bord] ) :i* ?is angle is m ne>ly cont9u\s may be call$ ! gl5oid bord] 7c7 7axill>y bord] ( human anatomy74 ,ne> ! n>r[] cranial end ( ! gl5oid fossa is a small curv$ projection ( ! bone1 ! coracoid process 7,fig4 #de1 m74 ,! bord] ^u :i* x lies is ! coracoid bord] 7b7 7sup]ior bord] ( human anatomy74 ,! ?ird bord] is turn$ t[>d ! v]tebral column & is ! v]tebral bord] 7a74 ,! angle betwe5 ! gl5oid & v]tebral bord]s is ! gl5ov]tebral angle 7f7 7inf]ior angle ( human anatomy71 & t betwe5 ! coracoid & v]tebral bord]s ! coracov]tebral angle 7e7 7m$ial angle ( human anatomy74 ,! m$ial or co/al surface 7,fig4 #de7 is smoo? & ne>ly flat4 ,a %all[ furr[ 7n7 m>ks ! position ( ! sp9e ( ! scapula4 ,betwe5 ! furr[ & ! coracoid bord] are two oblique p>allel ridges 7o & o7 = ! ins]tion ( muscle-fibres4 ,ne> ! gl5oid bord] is a well-m>k$ ridge sep>at+ ! subscapul> fossa 7,,iii71 compris+ ! great] "p ( ! m$ial surface ( ! scapula1 f ! fossa 9 :i* ! t]es major muscle has orig9 7,,iv74 ,! surface pres5ts sev]al nutri5t =am9a usually direct$ t[>d ! gl5oid angle4 ,! lat]al surface 7dorsal surface ( human anatomy7 7,fig4 #dd7 is divid$ by ! sp9e 7g7 into two portions4 ,! portion ( ! scapula craniad ( ! sp9e & ! cranial surface ( ! sp9e b\nd ! suprasp9\s fossa 7fossa suprasp9ata7 7,i71 :ile ! surface caudad ( ! sp9e & ! caudal portion ( ! sp9e b\nd ! infrasp9\s fossa 7fossa infrasp9ata7 7,,ii74 ,! sp9e 7g7 beg9s z a triangul> elevat$ area 9 ! middle ( ! v]tebral m>g9 & runs t[>d ! gl5oid angle4 ,x rises gradually = ab\t two-fif?s ( its l5g? & !n ! m>g9 becomes broad] & ! sp9e rema9s ( ! same height to its gl5oid end4 ,!re is a r\gh ?ick5+1 ! tub]osity 7h7 ( ! sp9e1 situat$ on its free bord] ab\t midway betwe5 ! tip ( ! acromion & ! v]tebral end ( ! sp9e4 ,! sp9e is incl9$ t[>d ! gl5oid m>g9 s z to =m an angle ( ab\t #fj degrees ) ! caudal half ( ! lat]al surface4 ,at ! base ( ! acromion process 7j7 ! m>g9 ( ! sp9e pres5ts a flat triangul> projection1 ! metacromion 7i71 direct$ t[>d ! gl5oid bord]4 ,! acromion 7j7 cont9ues 9 ! direction ( ! sp9e4 ,x is ?ick] ?an ! sp9e1 smoo? & r\nd$ on bo? its surfaces & bo? its bord]s1 & its apex is connect$ by fibr\s tissue to ! clavicle4 ,! coracoid bord] 7b7 pres5ts a slight r\nd$ not*1 ! incisura scapul or suprascapul> not* 7l71 j dorsad ( ! gl5oid angle1 & at its v5tral end be>s ! coracoid process 7m7 :i* is direct$ v5trom$iad4 ,! gl5oid angle 7d7 is ! only "o requir+ special m5tion4 ,betwe5 ! root ( ! coracoid process & ! gl5oid cavity x pres5ts a tub]cle1 ! supragl5oidal or bicipital tub]cle 7k71 = ! t5don ( orig9 ( ! biceps muscle4 ,! gl5oid angle is sep>at$ by a contract$ neck f ! re/ ( ! bone4 ,betwe5 ?is angle & ! inn] m>g9 ( ! acromion !re is left a deep not*1 ! great scapul> not*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,,clavicle4 a1 m$ial end2 b1 lat]al end4 ,clavicle4 ,clavicula 7,fig4 #df74--,! clavicle 9 ! cat is greatly r$uc$4 ,x is a sl5d] curv$ rod ( bone imb$d$ 9 ! muscles ( ! %\ld] & connect$ by fibr\s tissue to ! apex ( ! acromion process4 ,! lat]al end 7b7 is slightly enl>g$4 ,hum]us 7,figs4 #dg & #dh74--,! hum]us =ms ! support ( ! upp] arm & articulates by its proximal end ) ! scapula at ! gl5oid cavity1 & by its di/al end ) ! radius & ulna1 ! bones ( ! l[] arm4 ,x is a ne>ly cyl9drical bone ) enl>g$ ends1 & is s curv$ t its dorsal & v5tral bord]s are hook$ at ! opposite ends s t x has ! =m ( an ,italic f4 ,! proximal end ( ! bone be>s on its dorsom$ial portion a ?ick5+1 ! head ( ! hum]us 7a71 :i* be>s a smoo? ovoid articul> facet by :i* ! bone articulates ) ! gl5oid cavity ( ! scapula4 ,! head is n sep>at$ f ! body by a di/9ct anatomical neck z 9 ! human hum]us4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,,hum]us1 ,,v5tral ,,side4 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,,hum]us1 ,,m$ial ,,side4 a1 head2 b1 great] tub]osity2 c1 less] tub]osity2 d1 bicipital groove2 e1 pectoral ridge2 f1 deltoid ridge2 g1 r\gh area = ins]tion ( latissimus dorsi & t]es major2 h1 nutri5t =am52 i1 capitulum2 j1 tro*lea2 l1 coronoid fossa2 m1 radial fossa2 n1 m$ial epicondyle2 o1 lat]al epicondyle2 q1 supracondyloid =am54 ,along ! lat]al bord] ( ! proximal end ( ! %aft is a high r\gh ridge semicircul> 9 side view1 ! great tub]osity 7b74 ,x gives atta*m5t to muscles & is m>k$ on its dorsal bord] by a deep depression = ! t5don ( ! infrasp9atus muscle4 ,on ! m$ial m>g9 ( ! proximal end closely associat$ ) ! head is a small] elevation1 ! less] tub]osity 7c71 also = muscul> atta*m5t4 ,betwe5 ! great] & less] tub]osities on ! v5tral surface is se5 a broad groove1 ! sulcus int]tub]cul>is or bicipital groove 7d71 :i* passes di/ad onto ! surface ( ! %aft4 ,9 ! natural /ate x is conv]t$ into a canal by ov]ly+ t5dons & lodges ! t5don ( ! biceps muscle4 ,! %aft is ne>ly cyl9drical at its middle1 b its dorsov5tral diamet] is slightly great] ?an its m$iolat]al diamet]4 ,its proximal end is flatt5$ m$iolat]ad1 :ile its di/al end is flatt5$ dorsov5trad4 ,f ! v5tral m>g9 ( ! great] tub]osity a ridge1 ! pectoral ridge 7e71 is cont9u$ onto ! surface ( ! %aft1 & f ! dorsal m>g9 ano!r ridge1 ! deltoid ridge 7f71 passes di/ad & v5trad s z to meet ! pectoral ridge ne> ! middle ( ! v5tral surface ( ! bone4 ,on ! m$ial m>g9 ( ! bone ne> ! junction ( ! fir/ & second f\r?s is a r\gh5$ area 7g7 = ! atta*m5t ( ! t5dons ( ! latissimus dorsi & t]es major muscles1 & on ! same surface ne> ! junction ( ! second & la/ ?irds is a nutri5t =am5 7h74 ,! di/al end ( ! bone pres5ts a smoo? saddle-%ap$ articul> surface1 :i*1 9 well-m>k$ bones1 is divid$1 :5 se5 f ! v5tral surface1 by a slight ne>ly m$ian ridge into two unequal portions1 lat]al & m$ial 7i & j74 ,! lat]al half is r\nd$ & is call$ ! capitulum 7i74 ,x is broad] v5trad ?an dorsad1 & is n cont9u$ onto ! dorsal surface ( ! bone4 ,x is = articulation ) ! proximal end ( ! radius4 ,! m$ial half ( ! surface1 ! tro*lea 7j71 is concave & passes directly into ! capitul> surface lat]ad1 b is limit$ m$iad by a %>p ridge4 ,x is cont9u$ onto ! dorsal surface ( ! bone1 :]e x is limit$ also lat]ad by a ridge4 ,x articulates ) ! semilun> not* ( ! ulna4 ,proximad ( ! tro*lea ! dorsal surface pres5ts a deep fossa1 ! olecranon fossa1 :i* receives ! olecranon ( ! ulna :5 ! arm is /raight5$4 ,on ! v5tral surface 7,fig4 #dg7 are two %all[] foss sep>at$ by a longitud9al ridge4 ,! "o ov] ! tro*lea receives ! coronoid process ( ! ulna :5 ! arm is b5t1 & is call$ !nce ! coronoid fossa 7l74 ,! "o ov] ! capitulum1 ! radial fossa 7m71 receives a triangul> facet on ! proximal end ( ! radius at ! same "t4 ,betwe5 ! radial & coronoid foss on "o side & ! olecranon fossa on ! o!r is only a ?9 plate ( bone4 ,on ! m$ial surface ( ! di/al end is a consid]able r\gh5$ elevation1 ! m$ial epicondyle 7n7 7epitro*lea74 ,x gives orig9 to flexor muscles & to ! uln> collat]al ligam5ts ( ! elb[-jo9t4 ,opposite ! m$ial epicondyle ov] ! capitulum is ! lat]al epicondyle 7o7 = ! orig9 ( ext5sor muscles ( ! =e>m & ( ! radial collat]al ligam5ts ( ! elb[-jo9t4 ,f ! lat]al epicondyle a ridge1 ! lat]al supracondyloid ridge 7p71 cont9ues proximad1 curv+ onto ! dorsal surface ( ! bone & end+ ab\t opposite ! junction ( ! deltoid & pectoral ridges4 ,proximad ( ! m$ial epicondyle ! bone is pi]c$ ne> its m$ial m>g9 by an oblique oval =am51 ! supracondyloid =am5 7q74 ,radius 7,i1 ,figs4 #di & #ej74--;,9 ! usual position ! radius lies ) its proximal end on ! lat]al side ( ! arm1 articulat+ ) ! capitulum ( ! hum]us4 ,! proximal end is ?us lat]ad ( ! proximal end ( ! ulna4 ,its di/al end1 h[ev]1 lies on ! m$ial side ( ! di/al end ( ! ulna1 s t ! radius 9 ! natural position crosses v5trad ( ! ulna4 ,! radius is a curv$ bone slightly flatt5$ dorsov5trally1 ) enl>g$ ends4 ,x may be describ$ z consi/+ ( a %aft & ( a proximal & a di/al end4 ,its proximal end pres5ts on ! v5tral surface a tub]osity1 ! bicipital tub]osity 7c71 = ! ins]tion ( ! t5don ( ! biceps muscle4 ,proximad ( ?is ! bone is contract$ to =m a neck 7b7 :i* is surm\nt$ by a head 7a74 ,! head has on its proximal surface a depress$ oval facet by :i* x articulates ) ! capitulum1 & on its uln> bord] a long n>r[ facet1 ! articul> circumf]5ce 7d71 = articulation ) ! radial not* ( ! ulna2 also a triangul> facet 7e71 :i* fits into ! radial fossa ( ! hum]us4 ,! %aft is convex dorsad & concave v5trad4 ,! di/al end is some:at pyramidal4 ,f its m$ial or radial side a w$ge-%ap$ process1 ! /yloid process 7f71 ext5ds di/ad4 ,! di/al surface ( ! end toge!r ) ! lat]al surface ( ! /yloid process =m a concave articul> cavity 7g7 :i* fits aga9/ ! scapholun> bone4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,radius ,,& ,,ulna1 ,,dorsolat]al ,,view4 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,radius ,,& ,,ulna1 ,,v5trom$ial ,,view4 ,i1 radius2 ,,ii1 ulna4 a1 head ( radius2 b1 neck2 c1 bicipital tub]osity2 d1 articul> circumf]5ce2 e1 facet = radial fossa ( hum]us2 f1 /yloid process ( radius2 g1 facet = articulation ( scapholun> bone2 h1 semilun> 7or great sigmoid7 not* ( ulna2 i1 coronoid process2 j1 olecranon2 k1 area = ins]tion ( bra*ialis & clavobra*ial muscles2 l1 r\gh area = atta*m5t ( int]osse\s membrane2 m1 /yloid process ( ulna4 ,! dorsal surface ( ! di/al end is m>k$ by longitud9al grooves = t5dons1 & its lat]al or uln> surface be>s a concave facet = articulation ) ! ulna4 ,ulna 7,,ii1 ,figs4 #di & #ej74--,! ulna is a long sl5d] bone1 flatt5$ m$iolat]ad4 ,x is enl>g$ at its proximal end & becomes gradually small] t[>d ! di/al end4 ,! proximal end is m>k$ v5trally by a deep excavation1 ! semilun> not*1 or great sigmoid cavity 7h74 ,by ! saddle-%ap$ articul> surface ( ! semilun> not* x articulates ) ! tro*lea4 ,?is articul> surface is divid$ into two p>ts by a transv]se non-articul> area4 ,! di/al b\nd>y ( ! semilun> not* is a blunt process1 ! coronoid process 7i71 :i* be>s on its lat]al surface a concave facet1 ! radial not*1 = ! head ( ! radius4 ,! portion ( ! bone proximad ( ! semilun> not* is call$ ! olecranon 7j74 ,x fits into ! olecranon fossa ( ! hum]us :5 ! arm is /raight5$1 & is r\gh at its end = ! ins]tion ( t5dons4 ,! body ( ! ulna becomes triangul> di/ad4 ,! di/al end is slightly l>g] ?an ! %aft j proximad ( x1 & be>s on its radiov5tral side a hemisph]ical head = articulation ) ! radius4 ,di/ad ( ! head ! bone cont9ues z ! flatt5$ /yloid process 7m71 :i* projects di/ad f its dorsolat]al side & is smoo? on ! m$ial side ( its apex1 = articulation ) ! cunei=m bone ( ! wri/4 ,c>pus 7,fig4 #ea74--,! c>pus 7wri/7 consi/s ( sev5 bones arrang$ 9 two r[s1 ?ree 9 ! proximal r[ & f\r 9 ! di/al r[4 ,beg9n+ on ! m$ial side ( ! h& 7?umb or radial side71 ! fir/ bone 9 ! proximal r[ is ! scapholun> 7a7 7equal to ! scaphoid or navicul> & lun> ( ! human h&74 ,x articulates ) ! radius4 ,! next is ! cunei=m 7b71 articulat+ ) ! /yloid process ( ! ulna1 & ! next1 :i* is atta*$ to ! cunei=m & projects freely v5trad1 is ! pisi=m 7c74 ,9 ! di/al r[ ! bone on ! radial side is ! trapezium 7d72 ! next is ! trapezoid 7e71 ! next ! os magnum 7f71 & ! la/ ! unci=m 7g74 ,! di/al r[ articulates ) ! metac>pals or bones ( ! palm ( ! h& 7#a-e74 ,9 ! kitt5 ! scapholun> is repres5t$ by ?ree bones1 ! scaphoid or navicul>1 on ! radial side1 ! lun>e1 betwe5 ! scaphoid & ! cunei=m1 & a c5trale1 :i* lies di/ad ( ! o!r two4 ,scapholun> ,bone4 ,os scapholun>is 7,fig4 #ea1 a74--,! scapholun> is a quadrangul> bone ) ! v5troradial angle produc$ into a blunt process4 ,its proximal surface is smoo? & articulates ) ! di/al end ( ! radius4 ,! di/al end is m>k$ by oblique ridges & articulates ) ! unci=m1 os magnum1 trapezoid1 & trapezium4 ,! uln> surface articulates ) ! cunei=m1 & ! dorsal surface ( ! v5troradial process ) ! radial sesamoid4 ,cunei=m ,bone4 7,os triquetrum ,,bna7 7,fig4 #ea1 b74--,! cunei=m bone has ! =m ( a flatt5$ pyramid4 ,its base articulates ) ! unci=m1 its proxim\ln> surface ) ! pisi=m except at its dorsal m>g91 :]e x articulates ) ! /yloid process ( ! ulna4 ,on its proximoradial surface is a smoo? facet = articulation ) ! scapholun>4 ,pisi=m ,bone4 ,os pisi=me 7,fig4 #ea1 c74--,! pisi=m bone is ab\t twice z long z broad1 ) enl>g$ ends4 ,its dorsal end articulates ) ! cunei=m1 & on its proximal surface1 sep>at$ f ! above by a smoo? ridge1 is a smoo? facet = articulation ) ! /yloid process ( ! ulna4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,,c>pus1 ,,metac>pus1 ,,& ,,phalanges1 ,,dorsal ,,surface4 a1 scapholun> bone2 b1 cunei=m2 c1 pisi=m2 d1 trapezium2 e1 trapezoid2 f1 os magnum2 g1 unci=m2 h1 radial sesamoid2 i1 proximal phalanges2 j1 second phalanges2 k1 di/al phalanges2 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 metac>pals 9 ord] f ! radial side4 ,unci=m ,bone4 7,os hamatum ,,bna7 7,fig4 #ea1 g74--,! unci=m is a w$ge-%ap$ bone ) ! apex ( ! w$ge direct$ proximad1 & smoo? = articulation ) ! scapholun>4 ,by a "p ( its uln> surface x articulates ) ! cunei=m1 & by its radial surface ) ! os magnum4 ,its di/al end articulates ) ! f\r? & fif? metac>pals4 ,os magnum4 7,os capitatum ,,bna7 7,fig4 #ea1 f74--,! os magnum may be describ$ z an oblong plate be>+ on its proximal surface a semicircul> ridge :i* crosses x diagonally4 ,! proximal end ( ! bone articulates ) ! scapholun>4 ,its di/al end articulates ) ! ?ird metac>pal except ne> its v5tr\ln> angle1 :]e x articulates ) ! f\r? metac>pal4 ,its uln> surface articulates ) ! unci=m4 ,its radial bord] articulates ) ! trapezoid1 ! ?ird metac>pal1 &1 by two facets1 ) ! second metac>pal4 ,trapezoid4 7,os multangulum m9us ,,bna47 7,fig4 #ea1 e74--,! trapezoid is some:at w$ge-%ap$1 ) ! apex ( ! w$ge po9t+ v5trad4 ,its proximal side articulates ) ! scapholun>1 its di/al side ) ! second metac>pal1 its uln> side ) ! os magnum1 & its radial side ) ! trapezium4 ,trapezium4 7,os multangulum majus ,,bna47 7,fig4 #ea1 d74--,! trapezium has ! =m ( a triangul> prism curv$ into a semicircle4 ,! convex face looks proximad & articulates by its v5tral half ) ! scapholun>4 ,! uln> surface articulates ) ! second metac>pal dorsally1 & v5trally ) ! trapezoid4 ,its radial surface articulates ) ! fir/ metac>pal4 ,bones ( ! ,h& or ,manus 7,fig4 #ea1 #a-e74--,! ,metac>pals4 ,metac>pus4--,! metac>pals are ! five bones ( ! palm ( ! h&2 !y are numb]$ f "o to five1 beg9n+ ) ! ?umb4 ,!y are cyl9drical elongat$ bones ) enl>g$ ends4 ,! di/al end is call$ ! head1 & ! proximal end ! base4 ,ea* head be>s a hemisph]ical articul> facet :i* is m>k$ ov] its v5tral half by a prom95t smoo? ridge4 ,! surface dorsad ( ! ridge articulates ) ! proximal head ( a phalanx4 ,! ridge & ! surface at its sides are = a pair ( sesamoid bones4 ,! fir/ metac>pal 7#a7 is ! %orte/4 ,its head is oblique1 & x articulates by ! uln> half ( its proximal surface ) ! trapezium 7d72 by ! radial half ) ! radial sesamoid 7h74 ,! second metac>pal 7#b7 is m>k$ on ! proximal "p ( its dorsal surface by an oblique groove pass+ f ! radial side di/ad to ! uln> side4 ,! base articulates ) ! trapezoid 7e74 ,! uln> surface ( ! proximal end articulates ) ! os magnum 7f7 & ?ird metac>pal1 :ile ! radial surface articulates ) ! trapezium 7d74 ,! ?ird metac>pal 7#c7 is ! longe/1 & its base is rhomboidal ) a project+ dorsoradial angle sep>at$ by a groove f ! rhomboid surface4 ,! proximal end articulates ) ! os magnum 7f7 & second metac>pal2 ! radial surface ( ! proximal end ) ! second1 & ! uln> surface ) ! f\r?1 metac>pal4 ,! f\r? metac>pal 7#d7 has a base simil> 9 =m to t ( ! ?ird1 & :5 plac$ 9 position ) ! fif? ! two =m a hemisph]ical facet :i* articulates ) ! unci=m 7g7 & os magnum 7f74 ,! f\r? metac>pal articulates by its radial side ) ! ?ird1 & by its uln> side ) ! fif?4 ,! fif? metac>pal 7#e7 articulates by its proximal end ) ! unci=m 7g71 & by ! radial side ( its proximal end ) ! f\r? metac>pal4 ,digits 7,fig4 #ea74--,! fir/ digit ( ! h& is call$ ! pollex 7?umb71 ! second ! index1 ! ?ird ! m$ius1 ! f\r? ! annul>is1 ! fif? ! m9imus4 ,! fir/ digit has two phalanges1 ea* ( ! o!rs ?ree phalanges4 ,phalanges 7,fig4 #ea1 i1 j1 k74--,! phalanges ( ! proximal r[ 7i7 are elongat$1 flatt5$ dorsov5trally & curv$ s z to be longitud9ally convex dorsad4 ,all h ?ick5$ ends4 ,! proximal end is not*$1 & its proximal surface looks dorsad & is concave = ! head ( ! metac>pal4 ,! di/al end is pulley-%ap$1 & ! pulley surface ext5ds f>!r on to ! v5tral ?an on to ! dorsal surface1 & s]ves = articulation ) ! middle phalanx4 ,! phalanges ( ! middle r[ 7j7 are l ^? ( ! proximal r[1 b %ort]4 ,! proximal surface is triangul> & m>k$ by a m$ian facett$ ridge4 ,! :ole surface is smoo? & adapt$ to ! di/al end ( ! phalanx ( ! fir/ r[4 ,! di/al end is transv]sely elongat$1 s z to be cyl9drical1 & projects m t[>d ! uln> ?an t[>d ! radial side4 ,! di/al phalanx 7k7 articulates ) ?is cyl9d] s t :5 x is fully ext5d$ x lies on ! uln> side ( ! middle phalanx4 ,! di/al phalanx 7k7 has ! =m ( a quadrangul> prism4 ,x is excavat$ on its proximal surface = articulation ) ! middle phalanx4 ,its di/al surface pres5ts dorsad a deep excavation f ! bottom ( :i* arises a compress$ plate ( bone hav+ ! =m ( a bird's beak4 ,! depression receives ! base ( a claw1 & ! beak-l projection supports ! claw4 ,sesamoid ,bones ( ! ,h&4 ,ossa sesamoidea4--,! h& conta9s1 9 addition to ^? already describ$1 elev5 small bones t are develop$ 9 t5dons4 ,"o ( ^!1 ! radial sesamoid 7,fig4 #ea1 h71 is closely appli$ to ! radial end ( ! scapholun> bone4 ,x is develop$ 9 ! t5don ( ! ext5sor brevis pollicis muscle4 ,! o!r t5 occur 9 pairs z small flatt5$ curv$ bones on ! v5tral side ( ! jo9t betwe5 ea* metac>pal & ! phalanx ) :i* x articulates4 ,,jo9ts ,,& ,,ligam5ts ,,( ,,! ,,?oracic ,,limbs4 ,! %\ld]-jo9t is an ar?rodial or ball-&-socket jo9t4 ,! bones ent]+ into its =mation are ! scapula & ! hum]us4 ,! capsul> ligam5t or articul> capsule is v ample & all[s = ext5d$ movem5t ( ! hum]us4 ,x is atta*$ to ! edge ( ! gl5oid fossa ( ! scapula & pass+ di/ad cov]s ! head ( ! hum]us & is ins]t$ at ! l9e ( junction ( ! %aft & ! epiphysis :i* =ms ! head ( ! bone4 ,on ! lat]al side ( ! v5tral surface ( ! hum]us ! atta*m5t cont9ues di/ad ab\t two c5timet]s along ! lat]al edge ( ! bicipital groove4 ,on ! m$ial side ! ins]tion passes ov] ! proximal end ( ! less] tub]osity4 ,a /rong transv]se b& passes f ! great] tub]osity to ! less] tub]osity & bridges ! bicipital groove1 conv]t+ x into a canal4 ,! lat]al & m$ial p>ts ( ! capsule are /r5g!n$ by ?ick] b&s ( fibres1 ! m prom95t m$ial "o ( :i* passes f ! coracoid process ( ! scapula to ! less] tub]osity4 ,to ! capsule are closely unit$ p>ts ( ! suprasp9atus1 infrasp9atus1 coracobra*ialis1 & subscapul>is muscles4 ,a synovial membrane l9es ! capsule )9 & =ms a %ea? ar\nd ! biceps t5don1 s t ! latt] does n actually ent] ! synovial capsule4 ,! elb[-jo9t 7,figs4 #eb & #ec7 is a g+lymus or h+e-jo9t4 ,! bones :i* ent] into x are ! hum]us1 radius1 & ulna4 ,! capsule ( ! jo9t =ms a sac1 ) ! foll[+ atta*m5ts to ! bones3 7#a7 ,to ! hum]us x is atta*$ at ! proximal edge ( ! coronoid & radial foss2 to ! sides ( ! capitulum & tro*lea di/ad ( ! two epicondyles1 & to ! di/al edge ( ! olecranon fossa4 7#b7 ,to ! ulna x is atta*$ at ! edges ( ! radial & semilun> not*es2 7#c7 to ! radius ar\nd ! articul> facet1 two or ?ree c5timet]s di/ad ( ! bord]4 ,_m ( ! muscles ( ?is region are closely atta*$ to ! capsule4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,,ligam5ts ,,( ,,elb[-,,jo9t1 ,,m$ial ,,side4 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,,elb[-,,jo9t1 ,,lat]al ,,view4 ,fig4 #eb4--a1 hum]us2 #b1 ulna2 #c1 radius4 a & b1 ! two m$ial collat]al ligam5ts4 ,fig4 #ec4--a1 hum]us2 #b1 radius2 #c1 ulna4 a1 dorsal collat]al ligam5t2 b1 v5tral collat]al ligam5t2 c1 annul> ligam5t4 ,closely connect$ ) ! capsule ( ! jo9t are ! collat]al ligam5ts4 ,! two m$ial collat]al ligam5ts 7,fig4 #eb7 arise f ! m$ial epicondyle4 ,"o 7b7 passes di/ad & lat]ad to ! int]val betwe5 ! radius & ulna2 "h x divides1 "o bran* go+ to ! head ( ! radius1 :ile ! o!r is atta*$ to ! lat]al surface ( ! ulna at ! edge ( ! semilun> not*4 ,! second m$ial ligam5t 7a7 lies dorsad ( ! fir/2 x passes to ! m$ial surface ( ! ulna1 at ! di/al edge ( ! semilun> not*4 ,! two collat]al ligam5ts on ! lat]al side 7,fig4 #ec7 arise f ! lat]al epicondyle4 ,! v5tral "o 7b7 passes almo/ directly di/ad & is ins]t$ into ! lat]al surface ( ! proximal end ( ! radius ab\t "o c5timet] f ! articul> surface2 its inn] surface is p>tly unit$ to ! annul> ligam5t 7c7 ( ! radius4 ,! dorsal "o 7a7 is atta*$ to ! lat]al bord] ( ! semilun> not* ( ! ulna4 ,articulations ( ,radius & ,ulna4--,! proximal radio-uln> articulation 7,fig4 #ec7 is by a pivot-jo9t or tro*oid4 ,! two bones are held 9 place by ! annul> ligam5t 7,fig4 #ec1 c74 ,?is is atta*$ on ! lat]al side to ! dorsal bord] ( ! radial not* ( ! ulna1 passes ar\nd ! head ( ! radius1 receiv+ "s ligam5t\s fibres :i* come f ! lat]al epicondyle1 & is atta*$ to ! coronoid process ( ! ulna4 ,! annul> ligam5t is closely unit$ ) ! capsule ( ! jo9t4 ,! radius & ulna are unit$ = ab\t _! middle ?ird by ! ?9 int]osse\s membrane1 :i* fills ! int]osse\s space betwe5 _! adjac5t edges4 ,! ,wri/4--,at ! wri/ or c>pus !re are 9 reality ?ree jo9ts1 ! fir/ betwe5 ! radius & ulna proximad & ! fir/ r[ ( c>pals di/ad1 ! second betwe5 ! two r[s ( c>pal bones1 ! ?ird betwe5 ! di/al r[ ( c>pals & ! metac>pals4 ,! fir/ two are movable jo9ts2 ! ?ird is n4 ,ea* ( ^! ?ree jo9ts has a capsule1 & ! bones ent]+ into ! jo9ts are int]connect$ by num]\s ligam5ts4 ,^! ligam5ts are nam$ by comb9+ ! names ( ! two bones :i* !y int]connect4 ,ligam5ts :i* int]connect bones ( ! same r[ 9 ! c>pus are sometimes di/+ui%$ z int]osse\s ligam5ts1 z contra/$ ) int]c>pal ligam5ts1 :i* connect toge!r bones ( diff]5t r[s4 ,accord+ to _! position ! ligam5ts may also be di/+ui%$ z dorsal1 v5tral1 & lat]al4 ,detail$ descriptions & figures ( all ^! ligam5ts are giv5 by ,/rauss-,durckheim4 ,metac>pals4--,! jo9t betwe5 ! c>pals & metac>pals has be5 describ$4 ,at ! di/al end ( ! metac>pals ! articulations ) ! phalanges h ea* a capsule4 ,! jo9t is fur!r /r5g!n$ by a d\ble lat]al ligam5t on ea* side4 ,! two sesamoid bones at ea* jo9t are int]connect$ by a /rong transv]se ligam5t1 & ea* is connect$ ) ! head ( ! metac>pal & ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx by a lat]al ligam5t4 ,phalanges4--,betwe5 ! phalanges ! jo9ts possess capsules1 & ea* has a radial & an uln> lat]al ligam5t4 ,,vi4 ,,bones ,,( ,,! ,,pelvic ,,extremities4 ,innom9ate ,bones4 ,ossa innom9ata4 7,os cox ,,bna7 7,figs4 #ed & #ee74--,! two innom9ate bones articulate ) ! sacrum & ext5d !nce caudov5trad & f9ally turn m$iad & unite 9 ! middle l9e1 =m+ ! symphysis pubis4 ,!y ?us =m an ar*1 ! pelvic ar*1 pelvic girdle or pelvis1 :i* is clos$ dorsad by ! sacrum4 ,9 ! middle ( ! lat]al surface ( ea* bone is a hemisph]ical depression1 ! acetabulum 7,fig4 #ee1 d71 :i* receives ! head ( ! femur4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,,innom9ate ,,bone ,,( ,,kitt51 ,,v5trolat]al ,,view4 ,i1 ilium2 ,,ii1 is*ium2 ,,iii1 pubis2 ,,iv1 acetabul> bone4 a1 acetabulum2 b1 obturator =am54 ,9 ! kitt5 ea* innom9ate bone is compos$ ( ?ree pr9cipal p>ts unit$ by sutures 7,fig4 #ed74 ,f ! sacrum to ! acetabulum is a s+le b>1 ! ilium 7,i74 ,caudad ( ! acetabulum are two b>s4 ,! dorsal "o ( ^! is ! is*ium 7,,ii71 & ! v5tral "o is ! pubis 7,,iii74 ,! is*ium ent]s into ! =mation ( ! acetabulum 7a71 b ! pubis does n4 ,! two bones1 h[ev]1 are 9 contact at ! v5tral edge ( ! acetabulum4 ,f ?is po9t !y div]ge1 b unite ) "o ano!r aga9 ne> ! middle l9e & ?us enclose an oval =am51 ! obturator =am5 7b74 ,w$g$ betwe5 ! ilium1 is*ium1 & pubis at _! po9t ( junction & help+ to =m ! acetabulum is a small irregul> bone1 ! acetabul> bone 7,,iv74 ,9 ! adult cat ^! f\r p>ts are unit$ into a s+le bone :i* is nev]!less usually describ$1 ignor+ ! acetabul> piece1 z made up ( ilium 7,fig4 #ee1 ,i71 is*ium 7,,ii71 & pubis 7,,iii74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,,innom9ate ,,bone ,,( ,,adult ,,cat1 ,,v5trolat]al ,,view4 ,i1 ilium2 ,,ii1 is*ium2 ,,iii1 pubis4 a1 cre/ ( ! ilium2 b1 po/]ior inf]ior sp9e2 c1 great sciatic not*2 d1 acetabulum2 d1 incisura acetabuli2 e1 sp9e ( ! is*ium2 f1 less] sciatic not*2 g1 tub]osity ( ! is*ium2 h1 ramus ( ! is*ium2 i1 ramus ( ! pubis2 j1 obturator =am52 k1 pubic tub]cle2 l1 iliopect9eal l9e2 l1 ilio-pect9eal em95ce2 m1 ant]ior sup]ior process4 ,! ilium 7,i7 is some:at contract$ at ! middle & broad] at its ends4 ,"o end ent]s into ! acetabulum 7,fig4 #ee1 d7 & =ms ab\t "o-fif? ! articul> surface4 ,?is end is also ! ?icke/ "p ( ! bone4 ,! lat]al surface ( ! ilium is concave = ! atta*m5t ( muscles4 ,! m$ial surface is smoo? ov] its acetabul> half & r\gh ov] its sacral half4 ,! r\gh portion is m>k$ at its junction ) ! smoo? portion by ! e>-%ap$ auricul> impression by :i* ! bone articulates directly ) ! sacrum4 ,! caudal half ( t "p ( ! m$ial surface craniad ( ! auricul> impression gives atta*m5t to ! ilio-sacral ligam5ts :i* b9d ! ilium to ! sacrum4 ,! dorsal bord] is /raight at its cranial end & concave & r\nd$ at its caudal end4 ,betwe5 ! two portions & at ! dorsal edge ( ! auricul> surface is a protub]ance correspond+ to ! po/]ior inf]ior sp9e 7,fig4 #ee1 b7 ( ! human ilium4 ,! concavity ( ! dorsal bord] 7c7 corresponds to ! great sciatic not* ( ! human ilium4 ,at its caudal end is ! %ort sp9e ( ! is*ium 7e71 :i* is n a "p ( ! ilium4 ,! v5tral bord] ( ! ilium is broad caudad1 becom+ n>r[] craniad4 ,! lat]al m>g9 ( ! v5tral bord] is cont9u$ to a tub]osity at ! edge ( ! acetabulum2 its m$ial m>g9 is call$ ! iliopect9eal l9e 7l7 & ext5ds on ! pubis to ! symphysis4 ,an em95ce1 ! iliopect9eal em95ce 7l71 on ! iliopect9eal l9e1 lies opposite to ! acetabulum at ab\t ! junction ( ! ilium & pubis4 ,! cranial end ( ! bone is ?ick5$1 =m+ ! cre/ 7a7 ( ! ilium4 ,at ! junction ( ! cre/ ) ! v5tral bord] is a projection1 ! ant]ior sup]ior process 7m7 ( human anatomy4 ,! pubis 7,,iii7 7includ+ ! acetabul> bone7 ent]s into ! =mation ( ! acetabulum 7d7 con/itut+ ab\t "o-six? ! circumf]5ce1 b less ?an "o-six? its area4 ,x may be describ$ z a flat1 curv$ bone1 contract$ at ! middle & exp&$ at ! ends4 ,! dorsal end ent]s into ! acetabulum2 ! v5tral end unites ) ! opposite bone at ! symphysis pubis & s5ds caudad a projection1 ! ramus 7i7 ( ! pubis1 :i* unites ) ! ramus ( ! opposite bone to =m ab\t two-?irds ( ! entire symphysis4 ,at ! sides ( ! symphysis a slightly m>k$ angle projects craniad f ea* ( ! pubic bones2 ^! two toge!r con/itute ! pubic tub]cle 7k71 = ! orig9 ( ! rectus abdom9is muscle4 ,! surfaces ( ! ramus are smoo?4 ,"o ( its bord]s is concave & ent]s into ! =mation ( ! obturator =am5 7j74 ,ano!r ( its bord]s is ! iliopect9eal l9e 7l74 ,its ?ird bord] is r\gh = ! symphysis4 ,! is*ium 7,,ii7 has ! =m ( a triangul> prism contract$ at ! middle4 ,its cranial end =ms ne>ly two-?irds ( ! acetabulum4 ,its caudal end be>s dorsad a r\gh ?ick5+1 ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium 7g74 ,f ! caudal half ( ! v5tral bord] ( ! bone a sickle-%ap$ process1 ! ramus 7h7 ( ! is*ium1 curves m$iov5trad & !n craniad & jo9s ! ramus ( ! pubis4 ,its m$ial bord] is r\gh & ent]s into ! symphysis1 =m+ ! caudal "o-?ird4 ,! lat]al angle ( ! bone is r\nd$4 ,its dorsal angle is m>k$ ne> ! cranial end by ! sp9e 7e7 ( ! is*ium4 ,! concavity betwe5 ?is sp9e & ! tub]osity corresponds to ! less] sciatic not* 7f7 ( human anatomy4 ,! acetabulum 7d7 is cup-%ap$4 ,! v5tral "o-six? ( its bord] is defici5t & a broad groove ext5ds f ! defici5cy to ! bottom ( ! cup4 ,! defici5cy1 incisura acetabuli1 or acetabul> not* 7d71 is clos$ naturally by a ligam5t1 & ! groove gives orig9 to ! ligam5t 7ligam5tum t]es7 :i* atta*es ! head ( ! femur4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,,left ,,femur1 ,,v5tral ,,side4 a1 head2 b1 neck2 c1 depression = r\nd ligam5t2 d1 great tro*ant]2 e1 tro*ant]ic fossa2 f1 int]tro*ant]ic l9e2 g1 less] tro*ant]2 h1 l9ea asp]a2 i1 m$ial condyle2 j1 lat]al condyle2 k1 int]condyloid fossa2 l1 lat]al epicondyle4 ,femur 7,fig4 #ef74--,! femur is ! proximal bone ( ! po/]ior extremity4 ,x consi/s ( enl>g$ proximal & di/al ends connect$ by a ne>ly cyl9drical %aft4 ,! proximal end pres5ts on its m$ial side a hemisph]ical head 7a7 :i* fits into ! acetabulum4 ,x is support$ by a neck 7b7 :i* is contract$ ne> ! head & exp&$ dorsov5trally :]e x jo9s ! rema9d] ( ! bone4 ,! m$ial surface ( ! head pres5ts ne> its v5tral bord] a depression 7c7 = ! ins]tion ( ! r\nd ligam5t ( ! femur4 ,v5trad ! articul> surface ( ! head ext5ds z an acute projection onto ! %aft1 s t ! :ole articul> surface appe>s some:at pe>-%ap$4 ,on ! lat]al side ( ! proximal end opposite ! head is a project+ mass1 ! great tro*ant] 7d71 =m+ ! end ( ! %aft4 ,on ! m$ial side ( ! great tro*ant] at its junction ) ! neck is a deep fossa1 ! tro*ant]ic fossa or digital fossa 7e7 = ! ins]tion ( muscles4 ,f ! v5tral surface ( ! great tro*ant] a ridge1 ! int]tro*ant]ic l9e 7f71 is cont9u$ di/ad1 end+ 9 a pyramidal projection1 ! less] tro*ant] 7g71 :i* s]ves = ! ins]tion ( muscles4 ,a second ridge is cont9u$ to ! less] tro*ant] f ! neck4 ,a slight b well-m>k$ ridge1 ! spiral ridge or l9e1 runs r\nd two sides ( ! neck p>allel to ! second ridge4 ,! %aft is ne>ly /raight & cyl9drical4 ,a r\gh l9e is cont9u$ along its v5tral surface f ! less] tro*ant]1 & a simil> l9e along its lat]al surface f ! great] tro*ant]2 ^! unite v5trad to =m ! l9ea asp]a 7h74 ,on its v5tral surface is a nutri5t =am51 direct$ proximad4 ,! %aft gradually wid5s di/ad & ends 9 two condyles 7i & j7 :i* are cont9u\s dorsad b sep>at$ v5trad by a deep not*1 ! int]condyloid fossa 7k74 ,! di/al surface ( ! %aft & condyles is articul>4 ,?is articul> surface is l>g] on ! lat]al condyle 7j74 ,! "p ( ! articul> surface on ! end ( ! %aft 7patell> surface7 is = ! patella2 t "p ( x on ! condyles & sep>at$ by ! not* is = ! tibia4 ,on ! lat]al surface ( ! lat]al condyle is a slight prom95ce1 ! lat]al epicondyle 7l71 & on ! m$ial surface ( ! m$ial condyle is ano!r prom95ce1 ! m$ial epicondyle2 bo? are = ! atta*m5t ( ligam5ts4 ,patella 7,fig4 #a1 r74--,! patella is a small flat bone ) a pe>-%ap$ outl9e1 hav+ its apex di/ad4 ,x lies aga9/ ! articul> surface at ! l[] end ( ! %aft ( ! femur4 ,x ?us cov]s ! knee-jo9t4 ,! inn] surface is smoo? & convex f side to side1 b concave 9 a proximodi/al l9e4 ,x fits aga9/ ! l[] end ( ! femur4 ,its out] surface is r\gh & concave4 ,x is a sesamoid bone ins]t$ 9 ! t5don ( ! quadriceps femoris muscle4 ,?ree o!r sesamoid bones are f\nd 9 ! region ( ! knee 7see ,fig4 #fa1 p4 #hi74 ,two are 9 ! t5dons ( ! ga/rocnemius muscle1 proximad ( ! two condyles ( ! femur4 ,! ?ird is 9 ! t5don ( ! popliteus muscle1 j lat]ad ( ! lat]al condyle ( ! femur4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,tibia ,,& ,,fibula ,,( ,,left ,,leg1 ,,dorsal ,,view4 ,i1 tibia2 ,,ii1 fibula4 a1 m$ial condyle ( ! tibia2 b1 lat]al condyle2 c1 sp9e ( ! tibia2 d1 cre/ ( ! tibia2 e1 tub]cle = atta*m5t ( ! patell> ligam5t2 f1 m$ial malleolus2 g1 projection ( dorsal surface ( ! tibia2 h1 head ( fibula2 i1 lat]al malleolus4 ,tibia 7,i1 ,fig4 #eg74--,! tibia is ! long] ( ! two bones ( ! leg betwe5 ! knee & ! ankle1 & is ! longe/ bone ( ! body4 ,x has a triangul> %aft & enl>g$ proximal & di/al ends4 ,! proximal end is curv$ v5trad & projects into two prom95ces1 ! tub]osities1 on ei!r side4 ,ea* tub]osity be>s on its proximal end an articul> facet = ! condyles ( ! femur2 ^! are kn[n respectively z ! lat]al & m$ial condyles 7a & b7 ( ! tibia4 ,! condyles are oval1 convex dorsov5trad1 & concave f side to side4 ,! two condyles are sep>at$ at ! middle ( _! contigu\s m>g9s by a bicuspid projection1 ! sp9e ( ! tibia 7c74 ,!y are cont9u\s dorsad1 b sep>at$ v5trad by a deep not* betwe5 ! tub]osities1 ! popliteal not*4 ,on ! di/al side ( ! lat]al condyle is an elongat$ facet = ! proximal end ( ! fibula4 ,! %aft is triangul>1 smalle/ at ab\t its middle & enl>g$ at bo? ends4 ,x pres5ts dorsal1 m$ial1 & lat]al bord]s1 & m$ial1 lat]al1 & v5tral surfaces4 ,! lat]al surface is concave proximad4 ,! m$ial surface is convex4 ,! two are cont9u\s at ! di/al end4 ,at _! proximal ends ! bord] sep>at+ !m is rais$ into a prom95t ridge1 ! cre/ 7d7 ( ! tibia1 ! proximal end ( :i* contributes to increase ! proximal surface ( ! bone1 & pres5ts an oblong tub]cle 7e7 = ! ins]tion ( ! ligam5tum patell 7ligam5t ( ! quadriceps femoris muscle74 ,! v5tral surface is concave proximad :]e x abuts ^u ! tub]osities4 ,its proximal half is cross$ by two r\gh p>allel l9es1 ! di/al "o ( :i* crosses 9 a spiral c\rse f ! lat]al to ! m$ial bord]2 ne> its beg9n+ is a nutri5t =am54 ,! di/al end ext5ds f>!r di/ad on its m$ial side4 ,! ext5sion is ! m$ial malleolus 7f74 ,! malleolus pres5ts two grooves on its m$ial surface = ! t5dons ( muscles4 ,on ! lat]al side ( ! di/al end is an oblique triangul> facet = ! di/al end ( ! fibula4 ,! v5tral surface ( ! di/al end pres5ts an oblique bord] :i* passes f ! apex ( ! malleolus proximolat]ad4 ,! dorsal surface ext5ds into a ,v-%ap$ projection 7g7 betwe5 ! malleolus & ! fibul> facet4 ,! di/al end pres5ts an oblique ridge runn+ f ! apex ( ! ,v-%ap$ ext5sion ( ! dorsal surface to ne> ! base ( ! m$ial malleolus4 ,! ridge & ! concavities on ei!r side ( x1 ! m$ial "o ( :i* is deep]1 fit aga9/ ! proximal tro*le> surface ( ! a/ragalus4 ,fibula 7,,ii1 ,fig4 #eg74--,! fibula lies at ! lat]al side ( ! tibia 9 ! %ank4 ,x is a sl5d] triangul> bone ) enl>g$ proximal & di/al ends4 ,! proximal end or head 7h7 is flatt5$4 ,x be>s a facet on its proximom$ial surface = articulation ) ! tibia1 & is longitud9ally groov$ on ! out] surface4 ,! %aft has a v %>p m$ial bord]4 ,?is bord] is turn$ t[>d ! tibia & gives atta*m5t to ! int]osse\s membrane1 :i* runs betwe5 ! tibia & fibula4 ,! di/al end is exp&$ to =m ! lat]al malleolus 7i74 ,?is be>s a facet on ! proximal portion ( its m$ial surface ne> its dorsal m>g91 = ! tibia1 & di/ad ( ?is is a second facet = ! a/ragalus4 ,! v5tral & lat]al surfaces are groov$ = t5dons4 ,t>sus 7,fig4 #eh74--,! t>sus consi/s ( sev5 bones4 ,! longe/ ( ^!1 ly+ on ! lat]al side ( ! foot & =m+ ! support ( ! heel1 is ! calcaneus or os calcis 7a74 ,x articulates di/ad ) a bone1 ! cuboid 7c71 :i* be>s ! f\r? & fif? metat>sals4 ,ly+ betwe5 ! calcaneus & ! tibia is ! a/ragalus or talus 7b71 ! di/al end ( :i* articulates ) ! boat-%ap$ navicul> or scaphoid 7d74 ,! scaphoid be>s on its di/al surface ! ?ree cunei=m bones1 lat]al 7e71 m$ial 7g71 & int]m$iate1 be>+ ! rudim5t ( ! fir/ metat>sal & ! second & ?ird metat>sals4 ,a/ragalus4 7,talus ,,bna7 7,fig4 #eh1 b74--,! a/ragalus may be divid$ into body1 neck1 & head4 ,! body is m>k$ on its proximal surface by a deep pulley-l groove = ! articulation ) ! di/al end ( ! tibia1 & on its lat]al & m$ial surfaces by curv$ facets = articulation ) ! malleoli ( ! tibia & fibula4 ,?is entire surface = articulation ) ! bones ( ! leg is kn[n z ! tro*lea4 ,! l[] surface is m>k$ by two facets sep>at$ by a groove2 ^! are = articulation ) correspond+ facets on ! calcaneus4 ,di/ally ! bone contracts to =m ! neck & enl>ges at ! end1 =m+ ! head1 :i* is smoo? on its di/al surface = articulation ) ! navicul> or scaphoid4 ,calcaneus 7,fig4 #eh1 a1 & ,fig4 #ei74--,! calcaneus 7os calcis7 is ! l>ge/ bone ( ! foot & =ms ! heel4 ,x is two or ?ree times z long z broad & has six surfaces3 dorsal1 v5tral1 m$ial1 lat]al1 proximal1 & di/al4 ,! proximal "o-half ( ! dorsal surface 7,fig4 #ei7 is smoo?1 :ile ! di/al half is broad5$ & be>s two facets :i* are sep>at$ by a groove4 ,^! articulate ) ! correspond+ facets on ! a/ragalus4 ,! m$ial facet is borne on a projection ( ! bone1 ! su/5taculum tali 7c74 ,di/ad ( ! facets ! surface is r\gh4 ,! v5tral surface is smoo?4 ,! proximal end 7b7 is groov$ = ! t5don ( ,a*illes4 ,! lat]al surface is smoo? & m>k$ by a groov$ tub]cle1 ! p]oneal tub]cle 7d71 ne> ! di/al end4 ,! m$ial surface is m>k$ by "p ( ! articul> facet = ! a/ragalus1 & also by ! groov$ su/5taculum tali4 ,! di/al end 7a7 articulates ) ! cuboid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,t>sus1 ,,metat>sus1 ,,& ,,phalanges ,,( ,,left ,,foot1 ,,v5tral ,,view4 a1 calcaneus2 b1 a/ragalus2 c1 cuboid2 d1 scaphoid2 e1 lat]al cunei=m2 g1 m$ial cunei=m2 h1 p]oneal groove1 = ! t5don ( ! p]oneus longus muscle2 i1 proximal phalanges2 j1 second r[ ( phalanges2 k1 di/al phalanges2 l1 sesamoid bones4 #a1 rudim5t>y fir/ 7m$ial7 metat>sal2 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 ! o!r metat>sals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,,calcaneus ,,( ,,"r ,,foot1 ,,dorsal ,,view4 a1 di/al facet = cuboid2 b1 proximal end ) groove = t5don ( ,a*illes2 c1 su/5taculum tali2 d1 p]oneal tub]cle4 ,cuboid4 ,os cuboideum 7,fig4 #eh1 c74--,! cuboid has some:at ! =m ( a cube & articulates by its proximal end ) ! calcaneus 7a71 & by its di/al end ) ! f\r? & fif? metat>sals4 ,its m$ial surface articulates ) ! scaphoid 7d7 & lat]al cunei=m 7e74 ,! v5tral surface is m>k$ ne> its di/al end by an oblique ridge1 di/ad ( :i* is a deep groove1 ! p]oneal groove 7h71 = ! t5don ( ! p]oneus longus muscle4 ,scaphoid4 7,os navicul>e p$is ,,bna7 7,fig4 #eh1 d74--,! scaphoid is a boat-%ap$ bone4 ,its proximal surface is m>k$ by a concave facet = ! head ( ! a/ragalus 7b71 & its di/al surface has ?ree facets = ! lat]al 7e71 int]m$iate & m$ial 7g7 cunei=m bones4 ,at ! junction ( ! v5tral ) ! m$ial surface is a prom95t tub]cle4 ,! lat]al surface be>s two l9e> facets = articulation ) ! calcaneus 7a7 & cuboid 7c74 ,lat]al ,cunei=m4 ,ectocunei=m4 ,os cunei=me t]tium ,,bna 7,fig4 #eh1 e74--,! lat]al cunei=m is a w$ge-%ap$ bone ) a hook$ process ext5d+ f ! v5tral %>p angle ( ! bone4 ,x articulates by its proximal end ) ! scaphoid 7d71 & by its di/al end ) ! ?ird metat>sal4 ,! m$ial surface be>s ne> its di/al end two facets = ! second metat>sal1 & on its proximal end a facet = ! int]m$iate cunei=m4 ,! caudal surface has a facet on its proximal end = ! cuboid 7c74 ,int]m$iate ,cunei=m4 ,mesocunei=m4 ,os cunei=me secundum ,,bna4--,! int]m$iate cunei=m is small & w$ge-%ap$1 ) ! base ( ! w$ge dorsad4 ,x lies betwe5 ! lat]al cunei=m & ! m$ial cunei=m1 articulates by its proximal end ) ! middle facet ( ! scaphoid1 & be>s on its di/al end ! second metat>sal4 ,x is n visible 9 v5tral view4 ,m$ial ,cunei=m4 ,entocunei=m4 ,os cunei=me primum ,,bna 7,fig4 #eh1 g74--,! m$ial cunei=m lies on ! m$ial side ( ! foot4 ,x is a flat triangul> bone ab\t twice z long z broad1 & broad] at its proximal end ?an at ! di/al end4 ,x be>s on its di/al end ! rudim5t>y fir/ metat>sal4 ,! proximal end is oblique & be>s a concave facet = ! lat]al di/al facet ( ! scaphoid 7d74 ,! lat]al surface has a concave facet at its proximal end = ! int]m$iate cunei=m1 :ile ! di/al portion is appli$ aga9/ ! m$ial surface ( ! second metat>sal4 ,bones ( ! ,foot or ,pes 7,fig4 #eh74--,metat>sals4 ,metat>sus 7,fig4 #eh1 #a-e74--,! metat>sals are five 9 numb]4 ,!y be> a close resemblance to ! metac>pals1 b !y may be di/+ui%$ by _! bases4 ,! fir/ metac>pal 7#a7 is rudim5t>y & conical4 ,its base has a facet = ! di/al end ( ! m$ial cunei=m 7g71 :ile ! out] surface fits into a depression on ! inn] surface ( ! base ( ! second metat>sal4 ,! second 7#b74 ,! proximal surface ( ! base is triangul>1 correspond+ to ! di/al end ( ! int]m$iate cunei=m4 ,! m$ial surface is m>k$ by two concavities1 "o along ! proximal bord] = ! di/al end ( ! m$ial cunei=m1 & "o di/ad ( ?is = ! fir/ metat>sal4 ,! lat]al surface be>s on ! proximal m>g9 an oblique triangul> facet dorsad & a simil> facet v5trad1 bo? = ! lat]al cunei=m 7e74 ,di/ad ( ^! facets is a r\gh ridge4 ,! ?ird 7#c74 ,! proximal end ( its base is a triangul> facet ) ! apex direct$ v5trad & ! sides excavat$4 ,x is = ! di/al end ( ! lat]al cunei=m 7e74 ,its m$ial surface pres5ts a depression :i* receives ! ridge ( ! second metat>sal4 ,on ! lat]al surface a %ort di/ance di/ad ( ! proximal bord] is a triangul> concave facet1 & ne> ! proximal bord] v5trad a second concave facet4 ,bo? are = ! f\r? metat>sal4 ,! f\r? 7#d74 ,! proximal end is convex1 not*$ m$ially & facett$ = ! cuboid 7c74 ,its m$ial surface be>s dorsad1 a %ort di/ance f its proximal end1 a smoo? tub]cle1 & v5trad a small convex facet4 ,bo? articulate ) facets on ! lat]al surface ( ! ?ird metat>sal4 ,! lat]al surface has a s9u\s facet along its dorsal bord]1 & v5trad ( ?is a depression4 ,!re is a second facet along ! v5tral bord]4 ,bo? facets are = ! fif? metat>sal1 & ! depression is = ligam5ts4 ,! fif? 7#e7 has its base flatt5$ & exp&$ s z to be w$ge-%ap$1 ) ! apex ( ! w$ge direct$ proximad4 ,its dorsal end ext5ds into a tub]cle4 ,x ?us pres5ts only lat]al & m$ial surfaces4 ,! m$ial surface %[s two tub]cles1 "o di/ad ( ! o!r4 ,! di/al tub]cle & ! di/al half ( ! proximal tub]cle are facett$ & fit into ! s9u\s facet on ! f\r? metat>sal4 ,a n>r[ facet on ! v5tral bord] ( ! surface articulates ) ! facet on ! v5tral bord] ( ! lat]al surface ( ! f\r? metat>sal4 ,! proximal half ( ! di/al tub]cle is facett$ = ! cuboid 7c74 ,! lat]al surface is smoo?1 non-articul>1 & obliquely groov$4 ,phalanges 7,fig4 #eh1 i1 j1 k74--,!re are ?ree phalanges 9 ea* ( ! f\r digits1 & ^! are almo/ id5tical ) ^? describ$ = ! manus4 ,sesamoid ,bones4 ,ossa sesamoidea 7,fig4 #eh1 l74--,! sesamoid bones are f\nd at ! jo9ts betwe5 ! metat>sals & phalanges1 & are 9 all respects l ^? ( ! manus4 ,,jo9ts ,,& ,,ligam5ts ,,( ,,! ,,pelvic ,,limbs4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,pelvis4--,! ilium & sacrum are articulat$ at ! auricul> facet ( ! ilium & ! correspond+ r\gh surface ( ! sacrum4 ,! jo9t is an amphi>?rosis1 p]mitt+ v little movem5t4 ,a capsul> ligam5t surr\nds ! articul> surface1 be+ atta*$ to ! bones ab\t its circumf]5ce2 x is %ort & /rong4 ,craniad ( ! capsule is a ?ick v %ort ligam5t1 compos$ ( v /rong transv]se fibres pass+ f ! r\gh surface ( ! sacrum to ! correspond+ r\gh surface ( ! ilium4 ,?is =ms ! lat]al iliosacral ligam5t1 :i* is unit$ at its caudal bord] to ! capsule4 ,a /rong1 wide ligam5t\s b& passes f ! dorsal bord] ( ! ilium to ! sides ( ! sacrum4 ,?is is indi/9ctly subdivid$ into sev]al b&s1 :i* toge!r repres5t ! long & %ort po/]ior iliosacral ligam5ts ( man4 ,symphysis pelvis4--,! m$ial bord]s ( ! pubis & ilium meet 9 ! middle l9e v5trad ( ! pelvis & are "h unit$ by c>tilage4 ,! jo9t is /r5g!n$ by num]\s small b&s :i* pass across ! l9e ( junction f "o side to ! o!r2 ^! occur on bo? surfaces4 ,! ,hip-jo9t4--,! hip-jo9t is an en>?rosis1 or ball-&-socket jo9t 9 :i* m ?an half ! sph]ical head ( ! femur is receiv$ into ! acetabulum4 ,! dep? ( ! acetabulum is increas$ by a rim ( fibroc>tilage ab\t its m>g91 =m+ ! labrum gl5oidale4 ,?is passes across ! acetabul> not*1 =m+ ! transv]se ligam5t ( ! acetabulum2 b5ea? x blood-vessels & n]ves pass into ! acetabul> cavity4 ,! capsule ( ! jo9t is l>ge & loose4 ,x is atta*$ ab\t ! m>g9 ( ! acetabulum1 & passes ov] ! head ( ! femur1 to be atta*$ to ! bone sev]al millimet]s di/ad ( ! head4 ,x ?us encloses bo? ! head & ! neck ( ! femur4 ,! ligam5tum t]es1 or r\nd ligam5t1 is a v /rong1 %ort ligam5t :i* passes f ! depression 9 ! head ( ! femur to ! bottom ( ! acetabulum4 ,! ,knee-jo9t 7,figs4 #fj & #fa74--,! jo9t betwe5 ! femur & ! tibia is v complex4 ,! surfaces ( ! condyles ( ! femur d n correspond to ^? ( ! condyles ( ! tibia4 ,betwe5 ! ends ( ! two bones are plac$ two disks ( c>tilage1 ! m5isci1 or semilun> c>tilages 7,fig4 #fj1 c & d2 ,fig4 #fa1 a & b71 ( su* a =m t ! congruity ( articul> surfaces is re/or$4 ,ea* m5iscus has a proximal surface correspond+ to ! =m ( "o ( ! condyles ( ! femur1 & a di/al surface correspond+ to a condyle ( ! tibia4 ,! m5isci are held 9 position by ligam5ts4 ,! knee-jo9t p]mits n only backw>d & =w>d movem5t1 b also a small am\nt ( rot>y motion4 ,! jo9t has two capsules1 "o on ! dorsal 7convex7 side1 ! o!r on ! v5tral side4 ,! two communicate only by a small passageway ly+ )9 ! jo9t betwe5 ! ends ( ! bones4 ,! dorsal "o is atta*$ to ! femur sev]al millimet]s proximad ( ! patell> surface & "s di/ance on ea* side ( ! latt]4 ,! patella is imb$d$ 9 its out] wall1 & x is atta*$ to ! tibia on ! edges ( ! articul> surface ( ! latt]1 f ! cre/ to ! tub]osities4 ,! capsule is also atta*$ lat]ally & m$ially to ! sides ( ! m5isci1 & is closely unit$ to ! patell> ligam5ts4 ,its cavity conta9s a mass ( yell[ fat4 ,! v5tral capsule is atta*$ to ! bord]s ( ! articul> surfaces ( ! femur & tibia on _! v5tral sides1 to ! m5isci1 & to ! epicondyles ( ! femur & ! tub]osities ( ! tibia4 ,its walls are /rong] & its cavity small] ?an ^? ( ! dorsal capsule4 ,! ligam5ts ( ! knee-jo9t 7,figs4 #fj & #fa71 aside f ! capsules1 may be classifi$ into3 7#a7 ^? :i* are connect$ ) ! patella2 7#b7 collat]al ligam5ts 7,fig4 #fj1 i & j71 :i* pass f ! epicondyles directly di/ad along ! sides ( ! jo9t to ! tibia or fibula2 7#c7 crucial ligam5ts 7,fig4 #fj1 g & h2 ,fig4 #fa1 c & d71 :i* cross )9 ! jo9t f "o side ( ! femur to ! opposite side ( ! tibia2 7#d7 ligam5ts :i* hold ! m5isci 9 place 7,fig4 #fj1 e & f2 ,fig4 #fa1 e & f74 7#a7 ,,ligam5ts ,,( ,,! ,,patella4--,! patella is imb$d$ 9 ! dorsal wall ( ! dorsal capsule ( ! jo9t4 ,f its di/al end a /rong t5don or ligam5t passes di/ad to ! cre/ ( ! tibia4 ,?is is kn[n z ! ligam5tum patell3 x may be consid]$ a "p ( ! t5don ( ,m4 quadriceps femoris4 ,on ! lat]al side ! capsule ( ! jo9t is /r5g!n$ by ! transv]se fibres ( ! t5don ( ,m4 plant>is1 :i* aid 9 hold+ ! patella 9 place4 7#b7 ,,collat]al ,,ligam5ts4--,( ^! !re are two4 ,! ligam5tum collat]ale fibul>e 7,fig4 #fj1 j7 is atta*$ to ! lat]al epicondyle ( ! femur & passes di/ad across ! t5don ( ! plant>is muscle to ! head ( ! fibula4 ,dorsad ( ! fibul> ligam5t & p>allel ) x passes ! t5don ( orig9 ( ! ext5sor longus digitorum4 ,! ligam5tum collat]ale tibiale 7,fig4 #fj1 i2 ,fig4 #fa1 g7 beg9s on ! m$ial epicondyle ( ! femur & passes di/ad to ! lat]al tub]osity ( ! tibia2 "p ( x passes "o to "o & a half c5timet]s di/ad ( ! tub]osity to be atta*$ to a r\gh ridge on ! side ( ! tibia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,,knee-,,jo9t1 ,,f ,,! ,,dorsal ,,or ,,patell> ,,side4 ,,fig4 #fa4--,,knee-,,jo9t1 ,,f ,,! ,,v5tral ,,or ,,flexor ,,side4 ,fig4 #fj4--,! patella has be5 remov$4 #a1 femur2 #b1 tibia2 #c1 fibula4 a1 patell> surface ( femur2 b1 tub]cle = atta*m5t ( ligam5tum patell2 c1 m$ial m5iscus2 d1 lat]al m5iscus2 e1 f1 ligam5ts ( ! m5isci2 g1 ligam5tum cruciatum ant]ius2 h1 ligam5tum cruciatum po/]ius2 i1 ligam5tum collat]ale tibiale2 j1 ligam5tum collat]ale fibul>e4 ,fig4 #fa4--,! capsule ( ! jo9t has be5 op5$4 #a1 femur2 #b1 tibia 7fibula n %[n72 #c1 sesamoid bone 9 lat]al head ( ,m4 ga/rocnemius2 #d1 sesamoid 9 m$ial head ( ,m4 ga/rocnemius2 #e1 t5don ( ,m4 popliteus1 ) sesamoid bone2 #f1 #g1 lat]al & m$ial condyles ( ! femur1 ) ! int]condyloid not* betwe5 !m2 #h1 #i1 lat]al & m$ial condyles ( ! tibia1 ) ! popliteal not* betwe5 !m2 a1 b1 m$ial & lat]al m5isci2 c1 ligam5tum cruciatum ant]ius2 d1 ligam5tum cruciatum po/]ius2 e1 f1 ligam5ts ( ! lat]al m5iscus2 g1 ligam5tum collat]ale tibiale4 7#c7 ,,crucial ,,ligam5ts4--,!re are two ( ^! also4 ,! ligam5tum cruciatum ant]ius1 or ant]ior crucial ligam5t 7,fig4 #fj1 g2 ,fig4 #fa1 c71 is a ?ick1 /rong ligam5t :i* beg9s on ! dorsal "p ( ! proximal end ( ! tibia ne>] ! m$ial side 7,fig4 #fj1 g71 & passes v5trad & proximad1 betwe5 ! ends ( ! two bones =m+ ! jo9t1 into ! int]condyloid fossa ( ! femur1 & becomes atta*$ to ! m$ial surface ( ! lat]al condyle ( ! femur 7,fig4 #fa1 c74 ,x is compos$ ( two p>tially sep>at$ b&s1 =m+ a slight angle ) "o ano!r4 ,x is cross$ ne> its dorsal & v5tral ends by two ( ! ligam5ts ( ! m5isci4 ,! ligam5tum cruciatum po/]ius1 or po/]ior crucial ligam5t 7,fig4 #fj1 h2 ,fig4 #fa1 d71 beg9s on ! tibia at ! edge ( ! popliteal not* 7,fig4 #fa1 d71 ne>] ! m$ial side1 & passes dorsad & proximad to be atta*$ to ! v5tral edge ( ! patell> surface ( ! femur1 9 ! int]condyloid fossa 7,fig4 #fj1 h74 7#d7 ,,ligam5ts ,,( ,,! ,,m5isci4--,!re are five ( ^!1 connect+ ! m5isci ) ! femur or tibia4 ,"o 7,fig4 #fj1 e7 passes f ! dorsal edge ( ! m$ial m5iscus 7c7 transv]sely across ! ant]ior crucial ligam5t 7g7 to ! proximal end ( ! tibia ne>] ! lat]al side4 ,a second 7,fig4 #fj1 f7 passes f ! dorsal m>g9 ( ! lat]al m5iscus 7d7 transv]sely b5ea? ! ant]ior crucial ligam5t 7g7 to ! proximal end ( ! tibia ne>] ! v5tral side & m$ial bord]4 ,a ?ird 7,fig4 #fa1 f7 passes f ! v5tral m>g9 ( ! lat]al m5iscus obliquely across ! ant]ior crucial ligam5t 7c7 to ! lat]al side ( ! m$ial condyle ( ! femur4 ,! f\r? 7,fig4 #fa1 e7 is small1 pass+ f ! m$ial angle ( ! v5tral bord] ( ! lat]al m5iscus di/ad to ! popliteal not*4 ,! fif? passes f ! v5tral bord] ( ! m$ial m5iscus lat]ad b5ea? ! po/]ior crucial ligam5t to ! proximal end ( ! tibia1 ne>] ! v5tral & lat]al sides4 ,articulations betwe5 ! ,tibia & ,fibula4--,at ! proximal end ! fibula is z x 7 susp5d$ f ! di/al side ( ! ov]hang+ lat]al tub]osity ( ! tibia by /rong ligam5t\s tissue4 ,! capsule ( ! jo9t is =m$ by an ext5sion ( ! capsule ( ! knee-jo9t :i* passes betwe5 ! tibia & fibula on ! v5tral side4 ,=m+ ! dorsolat]al wall ( ?is ext5sion is a /rong1 ?ick ligam5t :i* passes directly f ! head ( ! fibula to ! lat]al surface ( ! lat]al tub]osity ( ! tibia4 ,a second m delicate ligam5t passes f ! head ( ! fibula dorsoproximad to ! tub]cle lat]ad ( ! cre/ ( ! tibia1 bridg+ a groove ?r\gh :i* passes ! t5don ( ,m4 ext5sor longus digitorum4 ,! tibia & fibula are connect$ ?r\gh\t _! l5g? by an int]osseus membrane4 ,?is is broad & v ?9 9 its proximal "p1 n>r[] & ?ick] di/ad4 ,di/ad ! two malleoli =m+ ! ends ( ! fibula & tibia are closely & immovably unit$4 ,! capsule ( ! jo9t is "h an ext5sion proximad ( ! capsule ( ! articulation ) ! a/ragalus4 ,on ! dorsal side a %ort broad b& ( /rong fibres passes f ! surface ( ! tibia obliquely lat]odi/ad to ! bord] ( ! fibula2 ?is =ms ! ant]ior ligam5t ( ! lat]al malleolus4 ,on ! v5tral side a v mu* weak] set ( fibres =ms ! v5tral wall ( ! articul> capsule2 x is call$ ! po/]ior ligam5t ( ! lat]al malleolus4 ,tibia & fibula are also connect$ on ! dorsal side by ! ligam5tum transv]sum cruris1 or transv]se ligam5t ( ! l[] leg 7,fig4 #ia1 #e71 :i* spans ! t5dons ( ,mm4 ext5sor longus digitorum & tibialis ant]ior4 ,f ! middle ( ! di/al m>g9 ( ?is a sl5d] support+ ligam5t passes di/ad & is ins]t$ on ! dorsal surface ( ! t>sus4 ,! grooves 9 ! two malleoli = ! passage ( ! t5dons are spann$ by ligam5t\s fibres 7ret9acula7 = hold+ ! t5dons 9 place4 ,articulation betwe5 ! ,leg & ! ,foot4--,at ! di/al end !re is =m$ betwe5 ! two malleoli a deep irregul> fossa1 into :i* is receiv$ ! tro*lea ( ! a/ragalus4 ,! jo9t is cov]$ by a l>ge articul> capsule1 :i* passes also1 z above not$1 betwe5 ! tibia & fibula4 ,9 addition to ! capsule ! foll[+ ligam5ts may be di/+ui%$3 7a7 ,on ! lat]al side1 7#a7 a %ort ligam5t f ! fibula to ! a/ragalus1 direct$ t[>d ! proximal end ( ! foot2 7#b7 a ligam5t f ! fibula to ! calcaneus1 atta*$ to ! latt] proximad ( ! p]oneal tub]cle2 7#c7 a /rong] ligam5t f ! fibula to ! calcaneus1 ly+ b5ea? ! la/-m5tion$ & direct$ t[>d ! proximal end ( ! bone4 7b7 ,on ! m$ial side may be di/+ui%$ 7#a7 a /rong ligam5t f ! tibia 7m$ial malleolus7 to ! su/5taculum tali1 & pass+ !nce onto ! scaphoid2 7#b7 a %ort ligam5t f ! m$ial malleolus to ! a/ragalus4 ,! ,t>sus4--,! articulations betwe5 ! sep>ate bones ( ! t>sus & betwe5 ! t>sus & metat>sus h a consid]able numb] ( v>i\sly communicat+ articul> capsules4 ,! sep>ate bones are connect$ by _m ligam5ts4 ,! ligam5ts ( ! v5tral surface 7ligam5ta plant>ia7 are especially well develop$4 ,"h may be notic$ p>ticul>ly a v l>ge calcaneocuboid ligam5t1 & a l>ge calcaneocunei=m ligam5t :i* passes f ! su/5taculum tali to ! m$ial cunei=m4 ,^? on ! dorsal surface 7ligam5ta dorsalia7 are less /rong & num]\s4 ,_m ligam5ts1 longitud9al1 transv]se1 & oblique1 pass also betwe5 ! sep>ate bones 7ligam5ta int]ossea74 ,ligam5ta lat]alia1 on ! lat]al & m$ial bord]s ( ! foot1 are also di/+ui%able4 ,/rauss-,durckheim enum]ates n9ety-f\r ligam5ts ( ! t>sus2 an acc\nt ( ea* ( ^! does n =m "p ( ! plan ( ! pres5t "w4 ,! ligam5ts ( ! metat>sus & phalanges are ( ! same g5]al "* z 9 ! =elimb4 ,( ^! ,/rauss-,durckheim enum]ates ?irty-six2 !y w n be describ$ "h4 ,,! ,,muscles4 ,i4 ,,! ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,sk94 7,fig4 #fb47 ,m4 cutaneus maximus 7,fig4 #fb1 b74--,?is is a v l>ge1 ?9 muscle :i* cov]s almo/ ! :ole side ( ! body4 ,x arises f ! out] surface ( ! latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 m7 ne> its v5tral end & f ! bicipital ar* 7,fig4 #fe1 t7 9 ! axilla2 f ! l9ea alba = a consid]able di/ance 7two or ?ree in*es7 caudad ( ! base ( ! xiphoid process1 & f ! ?orax ov] a l9e jo9+ ! axilla & ! base ( ! xiphoid4 ,sometimes a few fibres take orig9 f ! fascia :i* cov]s ! pectoantibra*ialis on ! v5tral side ( ! arm4 ,f _! orig9 ! fibres div]ge4 ,! cranial ones curve ab\t ! base ( ! =elimb & are ins]t$ into ! sk9 at or ne> ! middle l9e caudad ( ! fir/ ?oracic v]tebra4 ,! mo/ cranial fibres ( all are ins]t$ ab\t "o to "o & a half c5timet]s f ! middorsal l9e2 !nce ! l9e ( ins]tion approa*es ! middorsal l9e to rea* x at ab\t ! eigh? or n9? ?oracic v]tebra4 ,! middle fibres run p>allel to ! middorsal l9e 9 ! lumb> & sacral regions z f> z ! root ( ! tail1 a small bundle pass+ onto ! dorsal side ( ! tail1 ano!r onto ! v5tral side4 ,! fibres ( ! caudal portion pass onto ! ?igh1 ! v5tral ones runn+ 9 ! fold ( sk9 :i* /ret*es f ?igh to abdom51 & are f9ally lo/ 9 ! fascia along a l9e connect+ ! knee & ! root ( ! tail4 ,a /rong fascia connects ! adjac5t bord]s ( ! cutaneus & platysma & lies ov] ! scapul> region4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,sk94 a1 a1 a1 ,m4 platysma2 b1 ,m4 cutaneus maximus2 c1 ,m4 orbicul>is oris4 ,betwe5 ! platysma & ! cutaneus maximus are se5 ! foll[+ deep] muscles3 d1 ,m4 acromio-trapezius2 e1 ,m4 levator scapul v5tralis2 f1 ,m4 sp9o-deltoideus2 g1 ,m4 acromio-deltoideus2 h1 ,m4 clavobra*ialis2 i1 caput lat]ale ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 j1 caput longum ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 k1 ,m4 xiphi-hum]alis2 l1 ,m4 pectoralis m9or4 #a1 ext]nal jugul> ve94 ,?is muscle lies imm$iately b5ea? ! integum5t4 ,x cov]s ! fir/ lay] ( body muscles4 ,action4--,moves ! sk94 ,m4 platysma 7,figs4 #fb & #fd1 a1 a1 a74--,?is muscle =ms a ?9 lay] ( fibres cov]+ ! sides ( ! neck & face1 9 close relation ) ! integum5t4 ,sev]al m or less di/9ct portions may be di/+ui%$4 7#a7 ,mo/ ( ! fibres 7a7 arise f ! middorsal l9e1 f ! occiput to ! fir/ ?oracic v]tebra1 9 a n>r[ fascia common to ! muscles ( ! two sides4 ,! mo/ cranial fibres ( ?is region arise z a small bundle f ! ext]nal occipital cre/1 b5ea? ! levator auris longus 7,fig4 #fc1 g1 g74 ,f ?is orig9 9 ! middle l9e ! fibres pass craniolat]ad4 ,! mo/ cranial fibres curve ab\t ! v5tral side ( ! e> & pass t[>d ! caudal angle ( ! eye1 :]e !y unite ) fibres ( ! zygomaticus 7,fig4 #fd1 d7 or corrugator sup]cilii lat]alis 7,fig4 #fd1 k71 or pass to ! l[] eyelid4 ,caudad ( ^! ! fibres cov] ! side ( ! face & become lo/ among ! facial muscles1 "s pass+ to ! l[] eyelid1 "s to ! fibr\s pad :i* supports ! vibriss1 "s to ! angle ( ! m\?1 "s to ! l[] lip4 ,! mo/ v5tral fibres meet ! fibres ( ! opposite muscle j v5trad ( ! symphysis ( ! m&ible4 ,! v5tral free bord] ( ! platysma is sep>at$ on ! v5tral side ( ! neck f ! bord] ( ! opposite muscle by a w$ge-%ap$ area hav+ its po9t at ! symphysis m5ti4 ,! fibres ( ?is portion ( ! muscle are int]rupt$ by an atta*m5t to ! sk91 along a l9e pass+ f ! base ( ! e> to ab\t ! middle ( ! coracoid bord] ( ! scapula1 ,! dorsal 7a7 & v5tral 7a7 portions ( ! muscle1 sep>at$ by ?is l9e ( atta*m5t1 are sometimes describ$ z sep>ate muscles 7! sup]c]vicocutaneus & c]vic(acial1 respectively1 ( ,/rauss-,durckheim74 7#b7 ,a b& ( fibres "o or two c5timet]s across 7a7 arises 9 ! fascia ( ! side ( ! neck j craniad ( ! middle ( ! coracoid bord] ( ! scapula1 & passes caudov5trad t[>d ! manubrium1 its fibres cross+ ! fibres ( ! fir/ "p ( ! platysma at "r angles4 ,^! fibres become lo/ 9 ! fascia v5trad ( ! manubrium1 or pass across ! middle l9e to int]m+le ) ! correspond+ fibres ( ! opposite side4 ,?is portion ( ! platysma is sometimes abs5t4 ,! platysma is ev]y:]e subcutane\s1 except at its dorsocranial angle1 :]e a small bundle ( fibres is cov]$ by ! levator longus auris4 ,x cov]s ! deep] muscles ( ! neck & head4 ,closely atta*$ to its inn] surface are ! subm5talis & depressor con*1 ^: fibres bridge ov] ! v5tral int]val betwe5 ! bord]s ( ! platysmas ( opposite sides4 ,action4--,moves ! sk9 ( ! face & neck4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,head4 ,a4 ,,sup]ficial ,,muscles4--,! mo/ sup]ficial lay] ( muscles on ! face & head is =m$ by diff]5tiation ( ! fibres ( ! platysma4 ,! muscles ?us =m$ are n cle>ly di/9ct f ea* o!r2 9 ?is region sets ( fibres diff]+ 9 direction & 9 orig9 or ins]tion receive sep>ate names ev5 ?\gh ! diff]5t sets ( fibres are closely int]wov54 ,9 ! quadrangle on ! dorsal surface ( ! head enclos$ betwe5 ! two eyes & ! two e>s1 a ?9 sup]ficial %eet ( fibres is f\nd1 9 :i* a numb] ( diff]5t sets may be di/+ui%$ 7,fig4 #fc74 ,^! h receiv$ ! foll[+ names4 ,m4 int]m$ius scutulorum 7,fig4 #fc1 a74--,?is consi/s ( a broad ?9 %eet ( transv]se fibres betwe5 ! two ext]nal e>s4 ,! fibres are atta*$ at ei!r end to ! scuti=m c>tilage 7#a7 ( ! two e>s1 & pass )\t int]ruption across ! middle l9e4 ,at its cranial edge ?is muscle is cont9u\s ) ! corrugator sup]cilii m$ialis 7b72 at its lat]al edge ) ! frontoscutul>is2 at its caudal edge ) ! levator auris longus 7g74 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t4 ,inn] surface ) ! galea aponeurotica 7to :i* ! muscle is closely unit$71 ! epicranius muscle 7h7 & ! temporal muscle 7n74 ,action4--,draws ! two e>s dorsad1 t[>d ! middle l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,dorsal ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,head4 ,on ! "r side are %[n ! sup]ficial muscles2 on ! left side ! sup]ficial muscles h mo/ly be5 remov$1 expos+ ! deep] muscles & ! bone4 a1 ,m4 int]m$ius scutulorum2 b1 ,m4 corrugator sup]cilii m$ialis2 c1 ,m4 orbicul>is oculi2 d1 ,m4 corrugator sup]cilii lat]alis2 e1 cranial end fibres ( ,m4 platysma2 f1 ,m4 adductor auris sup]ior2 g1 g1 ,m4 levator auris longus 7g1 cranial portion2 g1 caudal portion72 h1 h1 ,m4 epicranius 7h1 ,m4 occipitalis2 h ,m4 frontalis72 i1 ,m4 transv]sus auricul2 k1 ,m4 auricul>is sup]ior 7cut on ! left side72 l1 ,m4 abductor auris brevis2 m1 ,m4 abductor auris longus2 n1 ,m4 temporalis2 o1 cut orig9 ( ,m4 frontoscutul>is2 p1 p1 ,m4 levator labii sup]ioris alque nasi 7p1 ! orig9 f ! maxill>y bone72 q1 angul> head ( ,m4 quadratus labii sup]ioris4 #a1 scuti=m c>tilage2 #b1 ext]nal e>2 #c1 bones ( ! skull4 ,m4 corrugator sup]cilii m$ialis 7b74--,?is consi/s ( a ?9 %eet ( scatt]$ fibres ly+ craniad ( ! la/ & int]m+l+ ) x4 ,! fibres take orig9 ne> ! middle l9e1 pass lat]ad1 !n curve craniad1 conv]g+1 to be ins]t$ into ! :ole ext5t ( ! upp] eyelid1 especially ne> ! caudal angle4 ,"h ! fibres unite ) ^? ( ! orbicul>is oculi 7c74 ,?is muscle is cont9u\s caudad ) ! int]m$ius scutulorum 7a71 craniad ) ! orbicul>is oculi 7c72 lat]ad ) ! corrugator sup]cilii lat]alis 7d74 ,t[>d ! m$ial side ! fibres lose !mselves 9 a t5d9\s %eet t jo9s ! galea aponeurotica4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t4 ,inn] surface ) ! frontoscutul>is & ! skull4 ,action4--,raises ! upp] eyelid4 ,m4 orbicul>is oculi 7,fig4 #fc1 c2 ,fig4 #fd1 s74--,?is consi/s ( two ?9 b&s ( muscle-fibres :i* lie "o 9 ei!r eyelid p>allel to its bord] & unite at ! angle ( ! eye4 ,orig9 by %ort t5don-fibres f a tub]cle on ! surface ( ! frontal process ( ! maxill>y bone j dorsad ( ! orbital end ( ! la*rymal canal & betwe5 ! two p>ts ( ! quadratus labii sup]ioris 7,fig4 #fc1 p & q74 ,! muscle splits into two p>ts :i* pass into ! two eyelids4 ,at ! out] angle ( ! eye ! two b&s unite by ! int]v5tion ( t5don-fibres betwe5 ! muscle-fibre bundles ( ! two4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t4 ,inn] surface ) ! inn] membrane ( ! eyelid4 ,action4--,closes ! eye4 ,m4 corrugator sup]cilii lat]alis 7,fig4 #fc1 d2 ,fig4 #fd1 k74--,?is consi/s ( a numb] ( scatt]$ fibres :i* arise f among ! fibres ( ! frontoscutul>is1 & f ! t5don ly+ j craniad ( ! ext]nal op5+ ( ! e>1 to :i* are unit$ also p>ts ( ! zygomaticus 7,fig4 #fd1 d7 & subm5talis 7,fig4 #fd1 c74 ,! fibres pass craniad1 conv]g+ s z to =m a n>r[ b& :i* is ins]t$ at ! caudolat]al angle ( ! eye1 :]e x unites ) ! orbicul>is oculi 7,fig4 #fd1 s74 ,?is muscle is cont9u\s on ! m$ial side ) ! corrugator sup]cilii m$ialis 7,fig4 #fd1 j7 & ! frontoauricul>is1 on ! lat]al side ) ! platysma4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t4 ,inn] surface ) ! frontal bone & ! frontoscutul>is4 ,action4--,pulls ! angle ( ! eye caudad2 at ! same "t pulls ! ext]nal e> craniad4 ,m4 frontoauricul>is4--,a few ( ! fibres :i* are atta*$ along ! upp] eyelid sometimes pass dorsocaudad1 m+l$ ) fibres ( ! corrugatores sup]cilii m$ialis & lat]alis & ! frontoscutul>is1 to ! craniom$ial angle ( ! auricul> c>tilage1 :]e !y unite ) ! fibres ( ! adductor auris sup]ior4 ,^! fibres are sometimes di/+ui%$ z ! frontoauricul>is muscle4 ,m4 levator auris longus 7,fig4 #fc1 g & g74 7,"p ( ! auricul>is po/]ior ( man47--,?is lies on ! caudal half ( ! dorsal surface ( ! head1 =m+ a lat]ocaudal cont9uation ( ! int]m$ius scutulorum 7a74 ,orig9 f ! middle l9e ( ! neck dorsad ( ! atlas1 & f ! sagittal cre/ = ab\t "o c5timet] craniad ( ! ext]nal occipital tub]cle4 ,! fibres =m a broad ?9 %eet :i* passes craniolat]ad z f> z ! caudal end ( ! scuti=m c>tilage 7#a74 ,"h ! muscle divides2 ! major portion is atta*$ to ! scuti=m c>tilage 7#a71 its fibres int]m+l+ ) ^? ( ! int]m$ius scutulorum 7a74 ,! caudal portion ( ! muscle 7g7 passes onto ! surface ( ! auricle1 ext5d+ "o or two c5timet]s di/ad2 "h x is ins]t$ on an oblique l9e :i* lies directly craniad ( ! ins]tion ( ! transv]sus auricul 7i74 ,! caudal portion ( ?is muscle 7g7 hav+ orig9 above ! atlas & ins]tion on ! auricle1 is sometimes consid]$ a sep>ate muscle1 ! sup]c]vicoauricul> or c]vicoauricul>4 ,! cranial portion 7g7 ) orig9 on ! sagittal cre/ & ins]tion on ! scuti=m c>tilage might be di/+ui%$ z ! occipitoscutul>is4 ,! levator auris longus is cont9u\s at its cranial end m$ially ) ,m4 epicranius 7h72 lat]ally ) ,m4 int]m$ius scutulorum 7a74 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t4 ,inn] surface ) ! temporal muscle 7n71 ! auricul>is sup]ior 7k71 ! abductor longus auris 7m71 a n>r[ /r& ( ! platysma1 & ! clavotrapezius4 ,action4--,pulls ! ext]nal e> dorsocaudad4 ,! f\r foll[+ muscles lie p>tly or entirely b5ea? ^? already describ$2 !y are d\btless =m$ z diff]5tiations ( ! inn] lay]s ( ! platysma4 ,m4 auricul>is sup]ior 7or attoll5s auris7 7,fig4 #fc1 k74--,?is muscle =ms a b& ab\t "o c5timet] broad ly+ j b5ea? ! levator longus 7g74 ,orig9 on ! sagittal cre/ = ab\t "o c5timet] craniad ( ! int]p>ietal bone4 ,! muscle passes lat]ad onto ! surface ( ! auricle & is ins]t$ into ! auricul> c>tilage a little caudad ( ! middle ( its convex surface4 ,at its lat]al end ! cranial m>g9 is closely unit$ to ! "u surface ( ! levator auris longus 7g74 ,relations4--,out] surface at ! m$ial end ) ! epicranius 7h71 ! abductor auris longus 7m71 & levator auris longus 7g72 at ! lat]al end ) ! sk94 ,inn] surface ) ! temporal muscle 7n7 & ! auricul> c>tilage4 ,action4--,pulls ! ext]nal e> dorsad4 ,m4 abductor auris longus 7,fig4 #fc1 m2 ,fig4 #fd1 q74 7,"p ( ! auricul>is po/]ior ( man47 ,orig9 on ! sagittal cre/ dorsad ( ! int]p>ietal bone1 caudad ( t ( ! auricul>is sup]ior 7k71 :i* x p>tly cov]s4 ,! muscle passes lat]ad z a flat b& #h to #aj millimet]s wide ov] ! caudal surface ( ! con*a ( ! e>1 & is ins]t$ 7,fig4 #fd1 q7 on ! lat]al surface ( ! em95tia con*1 caudad ( ! antitragus4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! levator auris longus 7g7 & ! integum5t4 ,inn] surface ) ! auricul>is sup]ior 7k71 ! abductor auris brevis 7l71 & ! con*a4 ,action4--,pulls ! ext]nal e> caudad4 ,m4 abductor auris brevis 7,fig4 #fc1 l74 ,orig9 by a t5don f ! lambdoidal cre/ = "o or two c5timet]s lat]ad ( ! middle4 ,! muscle passes lat]ov5trad ly+ b5ea? ! abductor longus 7m7 z a flat b& #f to #h millimet]s wide :i* is ins]t$ into ! m$ial surface ( ! mo/ proximal portion ( ! con*a1 j di/ad ( its junction ) ! c>tilag9\s auditory meatus4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! abductor longus 7m71 a small /r& ( ! platysma & ! con*a4 ,inn] surface ) ! temporal muscle 7n74 ,action4--,pulls ! con*a caudad4 ,m4 epicranius 7or occipit(rontalis7 7,fig4 #fc1 h & h74 ,orig9 on ! sagittal cre/ or suture1 j craniad ( ! orig9 ( ! levator longus auris1 to ! inn] surface ( :i* ?is muscle is closely unit$4 ,f ! orig9 ! fibres pass craniad =m+ a b& 7h7 ab\t #h or #aj millimet]s 9 wid?1 ! two muscles ly+ close to "o ano!r & p>tly unit$ 9 ! middle l9e4 ,ab\t two c5timet]s craniad ( _! orig9 ! fibres ( bo? muscles end 9 a t5d9\s %eet1 ! galea aponeurotica1 :i* cov]s ! surface ( ! skull 9 ! region betwe5 ! e>s & eyes1 & is =m$ by ! inn] surface ( ! int]m$ius scutulorum 7a7 & o!r muscles ( ?is region4 ,! galea aponeurotica passes craniad onto ! surface ( ! nose1 :]e x gives orig9 aga9 to a ?9 %eet ( muscle-fibres 7h7 :i* are ins]t$ into ! integum5t ne> ! cranial ends ( ! nasal bones4 ,m4 epicranius is ?us =m$ ( two muscul> portions 7h & h71 connect$ by a long t5d9\s %eet4 ,! caudal portion is frequ5tly di/+ui%$ z ! occipital muscle 7,m4 occipitalis1 h71 ! cranial portion1 on ! nose1 z ! frontal muscle 7,m4 frontalis1 h74 ,relations4--,out] surface ( ! occipitalis 7h7 ) ! int]m$ius scutulorum 7a71 ! levator auris longus 7g71 & ! integum5t2 inn] surface ) ! auricul>is sup]ior 7h71 ! abductor auris longus1 & ! bone4 ,out] surface ( ! frontalis 7h7 ) ! integum5t2 inn] surface ) ! bones ( ! skull4 ,action4--,moves ! integum5t ( ! dorsal surface ( ! head & ( ! nose4 ,v5trad ( ! ext]nal e> ! foll[+ ?ree diff]5tiat$ portions ( ! platysma may be di/+ui%$4 ,m4 zygomaticus 7major7 7,fig4 #fd1 d74--,a sl5d] b& connect+ ! angle ( ! m\? ) ! scuti=m c>tilage ( ! e>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,,sup]ficial ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,lat]al ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,head ,,& ,,neck4 a1 a1 a1 ,m4 platysma2 b1 ,m4 depressor con*2 c1 ,m4 subm5talis2 d1 ,m4 zygomaticus 7b1 c1 & d lie b5ea? ! platysma & are se5 ?r\gh x72 e1 ,m4 zygomaticus m9or2 f1 ,m4 can9us2 f1 g1 p>ts ( ,m4 quadratus labii sup]ioris 7f1 angul> head2 g1 ,m4 levator labii sup]ioris alque nasi72 h1 ,m4 myrti=mis2 i1 ,m4 orbicul>is oris2 j1 ,m4 corrugator sup]cilii m$ialis2 k1 ,m4 corrugator sup]cilii lat]alis2 l1 ,m4 adductor auris sup]ior2 m1 ,m4 helicis2 n1 ,m4 antitragicus2 o1 ,m4 adductor auris inf]ior2 p1 ,m4 con*u ext]nus2 q1 ,m4 abductor auris longus2 r1 p>ts ( ,m4 auricul>is ext]nus2 s1 ,m4 orbicul>is oculi4 ,at ! angle ( ! m\? ! fibres arise f among ^? ( ! orbicul>is oris 7i71 f bo? ! upp] & ! l[] lip4 ,!y pass !nce dorsocaudad across ! zygomatic ar* z a b& #h or #aj millimet]s wide :i* is atta*$ to a t5d9\s aponeurosis ly+ j craniad ( ! ext]nal op5+ ( ! e>4 ,to ?is aponeurosis are atta*$ also1 :olly or p>tly1 ! corrugator sup]cilii lat]alis 7k7 & ! subm5talis 7c74 ,! aponeurosis is unit$ ) ! caudov5tral angle ( ! scuti=m c>tilage & ) ! v5tral edge ( ! cranial m>g9 ( ! auricul> c>tilage4 ,?is muscle is unit$ at its cranial end ) ! orbicul>is oris 7i72 ?r\gh\t its l5g? m or less ) ! platysma 7a1 a72 at its caudodorsal end ) ! corrugator sup]cilii lat]alis 7k7 on its m$ial side1 & ) ! subm5talis 7c7 on its lat]al side4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t & ! platysma 7a74 ,inn] surface ) ! masset]1 temporal1 frontoscutul>is1 & adductor auris inf]ior 7o74 ,action4--,draws ! angle ( ! m\? dorsocaudad2 ! ext]nal e> v5trocraniad4 ,m4 subm5talis 7,fig4 #fd1 c74--,a flat b&1 simil> to ! la/1 & closely connect$ = "s di/ance to its caudal bord]4 ,x arises z scatt]$ fibres ne> ! v5tral middle l9e at ab\t ! level ( ! l>ynx1 ! fibres ( ! opposite muscles cross+ ! middle l9e & int]m+l+4 ,! fibres pass dorsad1 conv]g+ s z to =m a n>r[] b&1 :i* unites dorsad ) ! zygomaticus 7d71 to be ins]t$ ) x into ! t5d9\s aponeurosis above describ$4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t & platysma 7a74 ,inn] surface ) ! muscles ( ! hyoid1 ! diga/ricus1 ! p>otid gl&1 ! masset]1 ! zygomatic ar* & ! temporal muscle4 ,action4--,draws ! ext]nal e> v5trad4 ,m4 depressor con* 7,fig4 #fd1 b74--,a ?9 b& ( fibres1 caudad ( ! la/ & p>allel ) x4 ,! muscle arises z scatt]$ fibres on ! v5tral surface ( ! neck1 "o or two c5timet]s craniad ( ! manubrium1 ! fibres ( ! muscles ( opposite sides cross+ ! middle l9e & int]digitat+4 ,!y pass dorsad1 ga!r+ toge!r to =m a n>r[ b& :i* is ins]t$ into ! summit ( ! antitragus4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! sk9 at ! v5tral end1 & ) ! platysma 7a7 fur!r dorsad4 ,inn] surface ) ! deep muscles ( ! neck & ) ! p>otid gl&4 ,action4--,draws ! ext]nal e> v5trad4 ,ly+ deep] ?an ! muscles ?us f> describ$1 b closely connect$ ) a numb] ( !m1 are ! foll[+3 ,m4 frontoscutul>is4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #fc1 o7 on ! frontal bone1 along ! supraorbital m>g91 f ! craniom$ial angle ( ! eye caudad to ! zygomatic process ( ! frontal4 ,! fibres =m a l>ge muscle :i* passes dorsocaudad to ! scuti=m c>tilage & is mo/ly atta*$ along its v5trolat]al bord]4 ,"s ( ! out] fibres1 h[ev]1 pass di/ad ( ! scuti=m c>tilage t[>d ! c>tilage ( ! e>1 ?us jo9+ ! adductor auris sup]ior 7f74 ,! out] surface ( ?is muscle is closely connect$ ) fibres ( ! int]m$ius scutulorum 7a71 ! corrugatores sup]cilii m$ialis 7b7 & lat]alis 7d71 & ! frontoauricul>is1 :5 ?is exi/s4 ,! out] surface is cov]$ ne> ! orig9 by ! orbicul>is oculi 7c71 f>!r dorsad by ! muscles j m5tion$ & ! integum5t4 ,! inn] surface is 9 relation ) ! frontal bone & ! adductor auris inf]ior 7,fig4 #fd1 o74 ,action4--,pulls ! e> craniad4 ,m4 adductor auris inf]ior4 7,fig4 #fd1 o47 7,"p ( ! auricul>is ant]ior ( man47--,a small muscle ly+ b5ea? ! frontoscutul>is4 ,orig9 on ! ligam5t :i* connects ! zygomatic process ( ! frontal ) ! frontal process ( ! mal>4 ,! fibres =m a ?9 b& ab\t #g millimet]s wide :i* passes craniad1 closely unit$ to ! inn] surface ( ! frontoscutul>is4 ,at ! caudal edge ( ! zygomaticus 7d7 ! muscle is int]rupt$ by a %ort t5d9\s int]val2 ! fibres !n cont9ue to _! ins]tion on ! tip ( ! antitragus4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! frontoscutul>is1 ! zygomaticus 7d71 & ! integum5t4 ,inn] surface ) ! temporal muscle & ,m4 antitragicus 7n74 ,action4--,pulls ! e> craniodorsad4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! rema9d] ( ! muscles ( ! e>1 :i*1 ) ! exception ( ! tragicus lat]alis1 m]ely int]connect ! c>tilages ( ! ext]nal e> or p>ts ( ^! c>tilages1 are describ$ 9 connection ) ! acc\nt ( ! ,auditory ,organ4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ow+ to ! pres5ce ( ! fibr\s pad to :i* ! :isk]s are atta*$1 ! facial muscles betwe5 ! eye & ! m\? diff] 9 ! cat 9 "s respects f ^? ( relat$ animals4 ,?is fibr\s pad int]rupts ! muscles1 frequ5tly break+ muscles :i* are else:]e s+le into two4 ,m4 zygomaticus m9or1 or mal>is 7,fig4 #fd1 e74--,?is muscle is n always pres5t2 :5 x exi/s x =ms a v ?9 flat b& ( fibres pass+ f ! v5tral side ( ! eye t[>d ! angle ( ! m\?4 ,orig9 among ! fibres ( ! orbicul>is oculi 7s7 9 ! l[] eyelid4 ,! fibres pass v5trad2 ! ins]tion v>ies4 ,9 "s specim5s ! ins]tion is among ! fibres ( ! orbicul>is oris 7i71 at ! angle ( ! m\?1 b5ea? ! zygomaticus 7d74 ,9 o!r cases ?is muscle is said to be ins]t$ into ! pad on :i* ! :isk]s re/4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t & ne> its ins]tion ) ! zygomaticus major 7d74 ,inn] surface ) ! mal> bone & ! masset] muscle4 ,action4--,pulls ! angle ( ! m\? 7or ! :isk]s7 dorsad4 ,m4 orbicul>is oris 7,fig4 #fd1 i74--,?is =ms a v ?9 lay] ( subcutane\s conc5tric fibres :i* surr\nd ! m\?1 t ( ! upp] lip be+ ?ick] ?an t ( ! l[] lip4 ,! "p ( ! muscle 9 ! l[] lip has its fibres int]m+l$ ) ^? ( ! platysma 7a74 ,9 ! m$ian l9e ! fibres ( ! upp] lip are int]rupt$ by a raphe1 & caudad ( ?is are int]m+l$ ) ^? ( ! can9us4 ,m4 quadratus labii sup]ioris 7,fig4 #fc1 p & q2 ,fig4 #fd1 f & g74--,?is is a complex ( muscle-fibres atta*$ *iefly to ! fibr\s pad on :i* ! :isk]s re/4 ,9 x two p>ts c be di/+ui%$ m or less completely4 7#a7 ,m4 levator labii sup]ioris alque nasi 7,fig4 #fc1 p2 ,fig4 #fd1 g7 on ! sides ( ! nose4 ,?is arises 7a7 z a cont9uation ( ! frontal portion ( ! epicranius1 & 7b7 9 a small bundle 7,fig4 #fc1 p7 f ne> ! dorsal end ( ! frontal process ( ! maxill>y bone1 9 common ) ! next4 ,! two slips ?us =m$ unite craniad & are ins]t$ p>tly into ! integum5t on ! out] side ( ! w+ ( ! nose1 p>tly into ! sk9 ( ! upp] lip1 lat]ov5trad ( ! nose1 & p>tly into ! pad on :i* ! :isk]s are locat$1 9 connection ) ! next4 7#b7 ,! angul> head 7caput angul>e71 or levator labii sup]ioris proprius 7,fig4 #fc1 q2 ,fig4 #fd1 f7 is mu* l>g] ?an ! la/4 ,x takes orig9 f a small tub]cle at ! cranial bord] ( ! orbit1 close to ! orig9 ( ! orbicul>is oculi4 ,! fibres div]ge f _! orig9 to _! ins]tion among ! :isk]s & 9 ! fibr\s pad on :i* ! :isk]s re/4 ,action4--,erects ! :isk]s & raises ! upp] lip4 ,m4 can9us or levator anguli oris 7,fig4 #fd1 f74 ,orig9 9 a depression on ! lat]al surface ( ! maxill>y bone1 j craniad ( ! la/ premol> too?4 ,! fibres pass craniad1 div]g+1 t[>d ! :isk]s1 & h _! ins]tion into ! pad ( tissue on :i* ! :isk]s re/4 ,action4--,retracts ! :isk]s & raises ! upp] lip4 ,m4 bucc9ator4--,a ?9 muscle aga9/ ! muc\s membrane ( ! upp] lip1 p>tly unit$ ) ! orbicul>is oris & ly+ b5ea? ,m4 can9us4 ,orig9 on ! out] surface ( ! sup]ior maxill>y bone 9 ! depression betwe5 ! infraorbital =am5 & ! fir/ premol> too?4 ,! fibres pass v5trad1 div]g+1 & m+le ) ^? ( ! deep "p ( ! orbicul>is oris4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! can9us & ) ! orbicul>is oris4 ,inn] surface ) ! muc\s membrane ( ! upp] lip4 ,action4--,raises ! upp] lip4 ,m4 myrti=mis 7probably corresponds to a "p ( ! human ,m4 nasalis7 7,fig4 #fd1 h74--,a ?9 %eet ( muscle-fibres ly+ craniad ( ! levator labii sup]ioris alque nasi & pass+ f ! :isk]s to ! nose & upp] lip4 ,x is di/+ui%able f ! alque nasi by ! direction ( ! fibres4 ,orig9 f ! pad ^u :i* ! :isk]s re/4 ,! fibres div]ge & h _! ,ins]tion ^u ! w+ ( ! nose & into ! sk9 ( ! upp] lip ne> ! m$ian l9e4 ,action4--,dilator ( ! n>es & elevator ( ! upp] lip4 ,m4 8m\/a*i]0 7,/r4-,d47 7probably corresponds to "o ( ! ,mm4 incisivi74--,x lies on ! upp] lip ne> ! m$ian l9e4 ,orig9 f ! out] surface ( ! premaxilla ne> ! suture along ! v5tral bord] ( ! n>ial op5+4 ,! fibres div]ge & pass caudad into ! upp] lip )9 ! sup]ficial fibres ( ! orbicul>is oris4 ,ins]tion4--,! sk9 ( ! upp] lip j craniad ( ! :isk]s4 ,"s ( ! fibres pass into ! pad on :i* ! :isk]s re/4 ,action4--,x c>ries ! lip craniad4 ,m4 quadratus labii inf]ioris4--,a ?9 flat b& ext5d+ almo/ ! l5g? ( ! l[] lip4 ,orig9 f ! alveol> bord] ( ! m&ible1 betwe5 ! mol> too? & ! can9e4 ,! fibres pass dorsad into ! l[] lip1 :]e !y int]m+le ) ^? ( ! orbicul>is oris4 ,! muscle is p]haps n con/ant4 ,action4--,depressor ( ! l[] lip4 ,sometimes a few fibres aris+ f ! cranial portion ( ! alveol> bord] ( ! m&ibula pass m$iad1 seem+ to jo9 correspond+ fibres f ! opposite side4 ,su* fibres w\ld con/itute a ,m4 transv]sus m5ti4 ,b4 ,,deep ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,head4 7a7 ,muscles ( ,ma/ication4 ,m4 diga/ricus 7,fig4 #fe1 b74--,! diga/ric is a ?ick prismatic muscle ly+ m$iad ( ! angle ( ! l[] jaw1 connect+ x ) ! base ( ! skull4 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! out] surface ( ! jugul> process ( ! occipital bone1 & by a ?9 t5don f ! tip ( ! ma/oid process & f ! ridge betwe5 ! ma/oid & ! jugul> processes4 ,! muscle passes craniad1 becom+ at ! same "t broad] & m volum9\s4 ,ins]tion4--,! v5tral bord] ( ! m&ible craniad ( ! caudal bord] ( ! mol> too?4 ,! ins]tion area ext5ds slightly onto bo? surfaces ( ! bone & is triangul>1 ) its apex craniad4 ,relations4--,out] 7v5tral7 surface ) ! foll[+1 beg9n+ at ! caudal end3 ! rectus capitis lat]alis1 ! cleidoma/oid 7h71 ! submaxill>y gl& 7#b71 ! /ylohyoid 7d71 a l>ge lymph-gl& 7#c71 & ! integum5t4 ,inn] 7dorsal7 surface ) ! jugulohyoid1 ! tympanic bulla1 ! masset] 7a71 ! hyoglossus1 & ! mylohyoid 7c74 ,action4--,depressor ( ! l[] jaw4 ,m4 masset] 7,figs4 #fe & #ff1 a74--,! masset] =ms ! project+ mass s prom95t 9 ! cat beh9d & bel[ ! eye4 ,its out] surface is cov]$ by a /rong aponeurosis4 ,! muscle is divid$ into ?ree lay]s :i* are di/9ct z to orig91 ins]tion1 & direction ( fibres1 b :i* are o!rwise n di/9ct4 ,! sup]ficial lay] takes ,orig9 by ! sup]ficial aponeurosis f ! ridge :i* runs l5g?wise ( ! out] surface ( ! mal> bone1 & by fle%y fibres f ! surface ( ! mal> bone v5trad ( ?is ridge4 ,! fibres pass obliquely caudad to _! ins]tion4 ,ins]tion4--,! caudal half ( ! lat]al m>g9 ( ! v5tral bord] ( ! m&ible1 by a %eet ( fascia :i* lies on ! inn] surface ( ! muscle4 ,! sup]ficial fibres curve v5trad ( ! m&ible & are ins]t$ into a t5d9\s int]section betwe5 ?is muscle & ! int]nal pt]ygoid 7,fig4 #ff1 c74 ,! middle lay] takes ,orig9 f ! v5tral bord] ( ! mal> bone1 f opposite ! mol> too? to )9 ?ree millimet]s ( ! m&ibul> fossa4 ,! fibres pass v5trad & h _! ,ins]tion into ! m&ible at ! v5tral bord] ( ! ext]nal coronoid fossa by means ( ! aponeurosis :i* cov]s ! inn] surface ( ! muscle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,v5tral ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,?orax1 ,,neck ,,& ,,head4 ,! left side %[s ! fir/ lay] ( muscles b5ea? ! sk9 & sk9-muscles2 ! "r side %[s ! second lay]1 except 9 ! head region4 a1 ,m4 masset]2 b1 ,m4 diga/ricus2 c1 ,m4 mylohyoideus2 d1 ,m4 /ylohyoideus2 e1 ,m4 /]nohyoideus2 f1 ,m4 ?yreohyoideus2 g1 ,m4 /]noma/oideus2 g1 ,m4 /]no?yreoideus2 h1 ,m4 cleidoma/oideus2 i1 ,m4 levator scapul v5tralis2 j1 ,m4 clavotrapezius2 k1 ,m4 clavobra*ialis2 l1 ,m4 pectoralis major2 m1 ,m4 pectoantibra*ialis2 n1 "p ( ,m4 scal5us2 o1 ,m4 pectoralis m9or2 p1 ,m4 xiphihum]alis2 q1 ,m4 latissimus dorsi2 r1 ,m4 epitro*le>is2 s1 caput longum ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 t1 ,m4 biceps bra*ii2 t1 bicipital ar*2 u1 ,m4 acromiodeltoideus2 v1 ,m4 bra*ialis4 #a1 p>otid gl&2 #b1 submaxill>y gl&2 #c1 lymphatic gl&s2 #d1 ext]nal e>2 #e1 ext]nal jugul> ve92 #f1 manubrium2 #g1 fir/ rib2 #h1 common c>otid art]y2 #i1 mol> gl&4 ,! deep lay] takes ,orig9 by a /rong t5don f ! v5tral bord] ( ! zygoma j craniad ( ! m&ibul> fossa4 ,! fibres pass craniov5trad1 div]ge & h _! ,ins]tion into ! ext]nal coronoid fossa4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! foll[+1 beg9n+ at ! caudal bord]3 ! ext]nal e>1 ! p>otid gl& 7,fig4 #fe1 #a71 ! platysma1 ! subm5talis1 ! zygomaticus 7major71 ! zygomaticus m9or4 ,v5tral bord] ) a lymph gl& caudad ( ! angle ( ! m\? 7,fig4 #fe1 #c71 & ! diga/ric muscle 7b74 ,inn] surface ) ! bones4 ,action4--,a v p[]ful elevator ( ! l[] jaw4 ,m4 temporalis 7,fig4 #fc1 n74--,! temporal muscle is ! great mass tak+ orig9 f ! temporal fossa & hav+ its ins]tion on bo? surfaces & bo? bord]s ( ! coronoid process ( ! m&ible4 ,x may be divid$ into two lay]s1 deep & sup]ficial4 ,! sup]ficial lay]4 ,! temporal fascia /ret*es ov] ! temporal fossa1 be+ atta*$ to its bord]s2 t is1 to ! sagittal & lambdoidal cre/s1 to ! curv$ ridge :i* connects ! sagittal cre/ ) ! zygomatic process ( ! frontal bone1 to ! caudal bord] ( ?is process1 to ! caudal bord] ( ! mal> bone1 to ! caudal bord] ( ! ligam5t connect+ ! mal> bone & ! zygomatic process ( ! frontal1 & to ! dorsal bord] ( ! zygomatic process ( ! temporal bone & its dorsal root4 ,! craniolat]al "p ( ?is fascia is mu* /rong] ?an ! rema9d]4 ,! muscle-fibres take orig9 f ! /rong craniolat]al "p ( ! inn] surface ( ! temporal fascia1 f ! groove on ! temporal bone dorsad ( ! dorsal root ( its zygomatic process1 f ! :ole inn] surface ( ?is process & ( ! zygomatic process ( ! mal> bone1 & sometimes also f t "p ( ! frontal bone :i* lies )9 ! temporal fossa4 ,ins]tion4--,! out] surface ( ! coronoid process ( ! m&ible dorsad ( ! coronoid fossa1 & bo? bord]s ( ! coronoid process4 ,! cranial fibres may be ins]t$ craniad ( ! coronoid process onto ! aponeurosis cov]+ ! deep portion ( ! muscle4 ,! caudal "p ( ?is portion is m or less di/9ct & is sometimes describ$ z a sep>ate head4 ,! deep portion4 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! :ole surface ( ! temporal fossa1 except 9 cases :]e ! cranial "p ( ! fossa is occupi$ by ! sup]ficial portion4 ,! fibres conv]ge t[>d ! coronoid process1 & ! v5tral ?ird ( ! out] surface is cov]$ by /rong fascia4 ,ins]tion4--,! :ole inn] surface ( ! coronoid process ( ! m&ible4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! ext]nal e>1 ! e>-muscles 7,fig4 #fc71 ! epicranius 7,fig4 #fc1 h71 ! corrugatores sup]cilii lat]alis 7d7 & m$ialis 7b74 ,inn] surface ) ! skull1 ! pt]ygoideus ext]nus 7,fig4 #ff1 b71 & ! /ructures )9 ! orbit4 ,action4--,elevator ( ! l[] jaw4 ,m4 pt]ygoideus ext]nus 7,fig4 #ff1 b74--,?is lies on ! m$ial side ( ! m&ible1 v5trad ( ! v5tral portion ( ! temporal4 ,orig94--,! ext]nal pt]ygoid fossa 7,fig4 #dj1 h71 :i* lies on ! lat]al surface ( ! p]p5dicul> plate ( ! palat9e bone1 & on ! surface ( ! pt]ygoid process ( ! sph5oid bone dorsad ( ! int]nal pt]ygoid fossa4 ,! fossa ext5ds f ! =am5 rotundum to ! sph5opalat9e =am54 ,! muscle passes ) p>allel fibres lat]ad1 v5trad1 & caudad & has its ,ins]tion by a /rong flat t5don into ! m$ial surface ( ! m&ible ne> its v5tral bord] betwe5 ! op5+ ( ! m&ibul> canal & ! base ( ! angul> process4 ,relations4--,v5tral surface ) ! masset] 7a71 ! diga/ric1 & ! s(t palate ) its muscles4 ,dorsal surface ) ! temporal1 & ne> its orig9 ) ! muscles ( ! eye1 & o!r /ructures 9 ! orbit4 ,action4--,elevator ( ! l[] jaw4 ,m4 pt]ygoideus int]nus 7,fig4 #ff1 c74--,?is lies caudad ( ! pt]ygoideus ext]nus1 ne>ly p>allel to x1 & is connect$ ) x at its lat]al end4 ,orig9 f ! :ole surface ( ! int]nal pt]ygoid fossa 7,fig4 #dj1 s74 ,ins]tion by fle%y fibres into ! v5tral surface ( ! ext]nal pt]ygoid & its t5don1 into ! m$ial surface ( ! angul> process ( ! m&ible & caudad ( ! angul> process = ab\t "o c5timet] into a fascia common to x & ! masset] muscle1 & into ! /ylom&ibul> ligam5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,,obliquely ,,v5tral ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,deep ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,l[] ,,jaw ,,& ,,palate4 ,! tongue & o!r /ructures =m+ ! floor ( ! m\? h be5 remov$1 %[+ ! ro( ( ! m\?4 ,on ! "r side ! masset] & pt]ygoideus int]nus h be5 remov$1 a1 a1 ,m4 masset]2 b1 ,m4 pt]ygoideus ext]nus2 c1 ,m4 pt]ygoideus int]nus2 d1 d1 ,m4 t5sor veli palat9i2 e1 e1 ,m4 levator veli palat9i2 f1 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis sup]ior4 #a1 aponeurosis ( ! velum palat9um2 #b1 ridges =m$ by ! palat9es & pt]ygoid portions ( ! sph5oid2 #c1 hamul> processes2 #d1 free caudal bord] ( ! velum palat9um2 #e1 bulla tympani4 ,relations4--,v5tral surface ) ! /yloglossus & ! s(t palate4 ,dorsal surface ) ! bulla tympani 7#e7 & base ( ! skull4 ,cranial surface ) ! pt]ygoideus ext]nus 7b71 ) :i* x is p>tly unit$4 ,action4--,assi/s ! pt]ygoideus ext]nus4 7b7 ,muscles ( ! ,hyoid ,bone4 ,m4 /ylohyoideus 7,fig4 #fe1 d74--,! /ylohyoid is a ribbon-l muscle ab\t ?ree millimet]s wide4 ,x lies on ! sup]ficial surface ( ! diga/ric1 caudad & v5trad ( ! angle ( ! jaw4 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! out] surface ( ! /ylohyal bone ne> its middle4 ,! muscle curves ov] ! out] surface ( ! diga/ric 7b71 & ends ab\t "o c5timet] f ! middle l9e 9 a sl5d] flat t5don4 ,ins]tion into ! middle ( ! v5tral surface ( ! body ( ! hyoid bone4 ,"s ( ! fibres ( ! mylohyoid 7c7 are ins]t$ into its t5don4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! submaxill>y gl& 7#b7 & ! subm5talis muscle4 ,inn] surface ) ! diga/ric 7b71 ! hyoglossus 7,fig4 #fg1 h71 & ! g5iohyoid 7,fig4 #fg1 g74 ,action4--,raises ! hyoid4 ,m4 g5iohyoideus 7,fig4 #fg1 g74--,! g5iohyoid is a long sl5d] muscle :i* lies next to ! m$ian l9e betwe5 ! symphysis m5ti & ! hyoid bone1 closely appli$ to its fell[ ( ! opposite side & )9 7dorsad (7 ! mylohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 c74 ,orig9 f ! v5tral half ( ! inn] surface ( ! m&ibula = ab\t "o millimet] f ! symphysis4 ,ins]tion by muscle-fibres into ! lat]al half ( ! v5tral surface ( ! body ( ! hyoid bone4 ,relations4--,out] 7v5tral7 surface ) ! /ylohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 d7 & ! mylohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 c72 m$ial bord] ) ! muscle ( ! opposite side4 ,lat]al bord] ) ! hyoglossus 7,fig4 #fg1 h7 & g5ioglossus 7,fig4 #fg1 f74 ,inn] 7dorsal7 surface ) ! g5ioglossus4 ,action4--,draws ! hyoid =w>d4 ,m4 jugulohyoideus 7,fig4 #fg1 b74--,! jugulohyoid is a small flat quadrangul> muscle cov]+ ! out] "p ( ! v5tral surface ( ! tympanic bulla4 ,orig9 f ! v5tral bord] ( ! jugul> process4 ,ins]tion into ! caudal side ( ! c>tilag9\s "p ( ! /ylohyoid opposite ! orig9 ( ! /yloglossus4 ,relations4--,v5tral surface ) ! diga/ric4 ,dorsal surface ) ! tympanic bulla 7#c74 ,action4--,draws ! hyoid backw>d & ?us gives a firm] surface ( orig9 = ! /yloglossus4 ,m4 mylohyoideus 7,fig4 #fe1 c74--,! mylohyoid is a l>ge ?9 muscle se5 aft] ! reflection ( ! diga/ric1 fill+ ) its fell[ ( ! opposite side ! :ole angle betwe5 ! rami ( ! l[] jaw4 ,its fibres are transv]se4 ,orig9 f ! middle ( ! m$ial surface ( ! body ( ! m&ible betwe5 ! caudal op5+ ( ! m&ibul> canal & ! symphysis ( ! jaw4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,,muscles ,,( ,,tongue1 ,,hyoid ,,bone1 ,,& ,,ph>ynx4 a1 ,m4 tragicus lat]alis2 b1 ,m4 jugulohyoideus2 c1 ,m4 pt]ygoideus ext]nus2 d1 p>tially cut surface ( ,m4 pt]ygoideus int]nus2 e1 ,m4 /yloglossus2 f1 ,m4 g5ioglossus2 g1 ,m4 g5iohyoideus2 h1 ,m4 hyoglossus2 i1 ,m4 glossoph>yngeus2 j1 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis m$ius2 k1 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis inf]ior2 l1 ,m4 /yloph>yngeus2 m1 ,m4 /]nohyoideus 7cut72 n1 ,m4 crico?yreoideus2 o1 ,m4 /]no?yreoideus 7cut72 p1 ,m4 ?yreohyoideus4 #a1 m&ible2 #a1 angul> process ( m&ible2 #b1 /ylom&ibul> ligam5t2 #c1 bulla tympani2 #d1 tra*ea2 #e1 sophagus2 #f1 ?yroid gl&2 #g1 i/hmus ( ! ?yroid gl&4 ,ins]tion ) ! opposite muscle into a m$ian raphe :i* ext5ds f ! symphysis ( ! jaw to ! hyoid bone & is closely unit$ to ! ext]nal surface ( ! g5iohyoid4 ,"s ( ! fibres ga9 ins]tion into ! body ( ! hyoid bone ?r\gh _! ins]tion into ! t5don ( ! /ylohyoid 7d74 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! subm5talis 7,fig4 #fd1 c7 & ! diga/ric 7,fig4 #fe1 b74 ,lat]al edge ) ! masset] 7a71 ! diga/ric 7b71 & ! m&ibula4 ,caudal bord] ) ! /ylohyoid 7d74 ,inn] 7dorsal7 surface ) ! g5iohyoid 7,fig4 #fg1 g71 ! hyoglossus 7,fig4 #fg1 h71 & ! g5ioglossus 7,fig4 #fg1 f74 ,action4--,raises ! floor ( ! m\? & ?us br+s ! hyoid =w>d4 ,m4 c]atohyoideus4 ,orig91 ! two proximal pieces ( ! cranial horn ( ! hyoid4 ,! fibres pass caudad p>allel to "o ano!r & )9 ! middle con/rictor ( ! ph>ynx4 ,ins]tion into ! :ole l5g? ( ! caudal cornu ( ! hyoid bone4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! middle con/rictor ( ! ph>ynx4 ,inn] surface ) ! ph>ynx4 ,action4--,draws craniad ! body ( ! hyoid by br++ its cornua toge!r & b5d+ ! jo9t betwe5 ! two pieces ( ! cranial cornua4 ,! muscles connect+ ! hyoid & ! tongue are describ$ 9 connection ) ! description ( ! tongue4 ,,iii4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,body4 #a4 ,muscles ( ! ,back4 ,a4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,%\ld] 7connect+ ! =elimb ) ! back7 7,fig4 #fh74 ,m4 trapezius4--,! trapezius muscle is divid$ 9 ! cat into ?ree portions1 ! sp9otrapezius1 ! acromiotrapezius1 & ! clavotrapezius4 ,m4 sp9otrapezius1 or trapezius inf]ior 7,fig4 #fh1 j74--,! sp9otrapezius 7caudal "p ( ! human trapezius7 is a flat triangul> muscle4 ,orig9 f ! tips ( ! sp9\s processes ( all or ne>ly all ! ?oracic v]tebr & f ! int]v5+ suprasp9\s ligam5t4 ,! orig9 may ext5d f a po9t any:]e betwe5 ! fir/ & f\r? sp9es to any po9t betwe5 ! elev5? & ?irte5?4 ,ins]tion along an ,s-%ap$ l9e 7,fig4 #gf1 k-l7 :i* crosses ! tub]osity ( ! scapul> sp9e & =ms an angle ) ! sp9e ( ab\t =ty-five degrees4 ,! l9e ext5ds on "o side onto ! fascia cov]+ ! suprasp9atus muscle1 & on ! o!r side onto ! fascia cov]+ ! infrasp9atus1 b does n rea* ! bord]s ( ! scapula4 ,! cranial two-?irds ( ! ins]tion is by a flat t5don :i* is broad] craniad4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! cutaneus maximus1 & craniad ) ! acromiotrapezius 7h74 ,inn] surface ) ! latissimus dorsi 7m7 caudad & ) ! rhomboideus1 suprasp9atus1 & infrasp9atus craniad4 ,caudal bord] free2 cranial bord] 9 contact ) ! acromiotrapezius 7h74 ,action4--,draws ! scapula dorsocaudad4 ,m4 acromiotrapezius1 or trapezius sup]ior 7,fig4 #fh1 h74--,! acromiotrapezius 7middle "p ( ! human trapezius7 is a flat f\r-sid$ muscle j craniad ( ! sp9otrapezius1 f ! m$ian dorsal l9e to ! scapul> sp9e4 ,orig9 along ! m$ian dorsal l9e f ! sp9\s process ( ! axis to a po9t any:]e betwe5 ! sp9\s processes ( ! fir/ & f\r? ?oracic v]tebr4 ,its caudal two-?irds is f a flat t5don :i* is directly cont9u\s ) ! muscle ( ! opposite side & ?us bridges ! depression betwe5 ! v]tebral bord]s ( ! scapul4 ,?is t5don n>r[s craniad1 & its cranial f\r? is atta*$ by a fascia to ! sp9\s processes ( ! c]vical v]tebr4 ,at ! cranial bord] ( ! muscle ! fibres sometimes rea* ! middle l9e4 ,! fibres ( ! muscle run ne>ly transv]sely4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #gf1 h74--,into ! out] surface ( ! metacromion1 ! gl5oid bord] ( ! scapul> sp9e f ! metacromion to ! tub]osity1 & along a l9e cont9u$ = ab\t "o c5timet] f ! tub]osity onto ! surface ( ! sp9otrapezius 7j7 at ! junction ( its muscul> & t5d9\s portions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,,fir/ ,,lay] ,,( ,,body-,,muscles1 ,,b5ea? ,,! ,,sk9 ,,& ,,sk9-,,muscles4 a1 ,m4 frontoscutul>is2 b1 ,m4 masset]2 c1 ,m4 /]noma/oideus2 d1 ,m4 clavotrapezius2 e1 ,m4 clavobra*ialis2 f1 ,m4 levator scapul v5tralis2 g1 ,m4 acromiodeltoideus2 h1 ,m4 acromiotrapezius2 i1 ,m4 sp9odeltoideus2 j1 ,m4 sp9otrapezius2 k1 caput longum ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 l1 caput lat]ale ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 m1 ,m4 latissimus dorsi2 n1 ,m4 xiphihum]alis2 o1 ,m4 pectoralis m9or2 p1 ,m4 obliquus abdom9is ext]nus2 q1 ,m4 s>torius2 r1 ,m4 t5sor fasci lat2 s1 ,m4 caud(emoralis2 t1 ,m4 biceps femoris2 u1 ,m4 semit5d9osus2 v1 ,m4 ext5sor caud lat]alis2 w1 ,m4 abductor caud ext]nus2 x1 ,m4 flexor caud longus2 y1 lumbodorsal fascia1 sup]ficial lay]2 z1 fascia lata4 #a1 p>otid gl&2 #b1 submaxill>y gl&4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! cutaneus maximus1 ! integum5t & platysma4 ,inn] surface ) a mass ( fat p>tially cov]+ ! rhomboideus2 ) ! occipitoscapul>is1 sp9otrapezius1 suprasp9atus1 levator scapul1 & spl5ius4 ,ne> its orig9 its caudal bord] t\*es ! out] surface ( ! sp9otrapezius 7j74 ,its cranial bord] is ov]laid ne> its ins]tion by ! levator scapul v5tralis 7f7 & is closely relat$ to ! caudal bord] ( ! clavotrapezius 7d7 ne> its orig94 ,action4--,! two muscles hold ! scapul toge!r4 ,m4 clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d74--,! clavotrapezius 7cranial "p ( ! human trapezius7 is a flat muscle pass+ f ! lambdoidal cre/ & middorsal l9e to ! clavicle & cov]+ ! side ( ! neck4 ,orig94--,! m$ial half ( ! lambdoidal cre/ & ! middorsal l9e betwe5 ! cre/ & ! caudal end ( ! sp9e ( ! axis4 ,! fibres are p>allel & pass caudov5trad s t ! muscle cov]s ! v5tral surface ( ! neck caudally & fills ! concavity at ! front ( ! %\ld]4 ,ins]tion into ! clavicle & into a raphe betwe5 ! clavotrapezius & ! clavobra*ial 7e7 muscles4 ,?is raphe ext5ds along ! clavicle & = "s di/ance lat]ad ( x4 ,! muscle is p>tly cont9u\s ) ! clavobra*ial 7e74 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! platysma1 & at its craniom$ial angle ) ! levator auris longus4 ,inn] surface ) ! rhomboideus1 spl5ius1 occipitoscapul>is1 levator scapul1 cleidoma/oid1 & suprasp9atus4 ,! cranial edge t\*es ! /]noma/oid4 ,! caudal bord] t\*es ! acromiotrapezius ne> ! orig94 ,action4--,draws ! scapula craniodorsad4 ,?is muscle & ! clavobra*ial 7e7 are sometimes consid]$ z =m+ a s+le muscle1 ! cephalohum]al1 or cephalobra*ial4 ,m4 occipitoscapul>is 7or levator scapul dorsalis or rhomboideus capitis7 7,fig4 #gc1 a74--,! occipitoscapul>is 7equival5t to a "p ( ! human rhomboideus7 is a sl5d] flat muscle f ! lambdoidal ridge to ! coracov]tebral angle ( ! scapula4 ,orig91 ! m$ial half ( ! lambdoidal ridge b5ea? ! clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d74 ,! orig9 does n ext5d q to ! middle l9e4 ,! muscle passes almo/ directly caudad4 ,its caudal end is ?ick] & n>r[] ?an ! cranial end & is w$g$ betwe5 ! rhomboideus dorsally & ! levator scapul v5trally4 ,ins]tion ei!r into ! inn] surface ( ! levator scapul ne> its dorsocranial bord] at its ins]tion or into ! scapula ne> ! coracov]tebral angle 7,fig4 #gh1 f7 or into bo?4 ,its fibres are v closely relat$ to ^? ( ! rhomboideus4 ,relations4--,by its out] surface ) ! clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d7 & acromiotrapezius 7h74 ,at its ins]tion x is (t5 ov]laid by ei!r ! rhomboideus or ! levator scapul or bo?4 ,by its inn] surface ) ! spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b74 ,its caudal ?ird is w$g$ betwe5 ! rhomboideus & ! levator scapul4 ,action4--,draws =w>d & rotates ! scapula4 ,m4 rhomboideus 7probably equival5t to ! human rhomboideus major & rhomboideus m9or74--,a r ?ick trapezoid muscle connect+ ! v]tebral bord] ( ! scapula ) ! sp9\s processes ( ! adjac5t v]tebr4 ,orig9 f ! caudal two or ?ree fif?s ( ! c]vical suprasp9\s ligam5t & f ! sides & tips ( ! fir/ f\r ?oracic v]tebral sp9es & ! int]sp9\s ligam5ts caudad ( ^! f\r sp9es4 ,x passes lat]ov5trad1 & ! fibres conv]ge some:at s t ! l9e ( ins]tion is %ort] ?an ! l9e ( orig94 ,ins]tion by a %ort t5don 7#a millimet] long7 into ! v]tebral bord] ( ! scapula1 ! l9e ( ins]tion pass+ gradually f ! inn] 7,fig4 #gh1 e7 to ! out] 7,fig4 #gf1 i7 surface2 & by fle%y fibres into ! out] surface ( ! gl5ov]tebral angle ( ! scapula 7,fig4 #gf1 i7 9 close connection ) ! orig9 ( ! t]es major 7j74 ,a bundle ( fibres at ! cranial bord] may be ins]t$ into ! cranial bord] ( ! levator scapul at its ins]tion4 ,relations4--,by its out] surface ) ! sp9otrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 j71 acromiotrapezius 7h71 latissimus dorsi 7m71 & clavotrapezius 7d72 x is usually p>tially sep>at$ f ^! muscles by a mass ( fat4 ,by its inn] surface ne> its ins]tion ) ! s]ratus ant]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 i7 & levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h71 & craniad ) ! spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b71 & ! t5don ( ! s]ratus po/]ior sup]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 l74 ,at its lat]al end x t\*es ! occipitoscapul>is 7,fig4 #gc1 a71 s]ratus ant]ior 7i71 levator scapul 7h71 suprasp9atus 7,fig4 #ge1 a71 & infrasp9atus 7,fig4 #ge1 c71 & ! t]es major 7,fig4 #ge1 d74 ,action4--,draws ! scapula t[>d ! v]tebral column4 ,m4 cleidoma/oideus 7clavicul> portion ( ! human /]nocleidoma/oid7 7,fig4 #fe1 h74--,a n>r[ flat muscle betwe5 ! ma/oid process & ! clavicle4 ,orig9 f ! apex & caudal m>g9 ( ! ma/oid process ( ! temporal bone1 by t5don & muscle fibres4 ,! muscle passes caudad1 becom+ broad] & ?9n]4 ,ins]tion into ! lat]al f\r-fif?s ( ! clavicle )9 ! ins]tion ( ! clavotrapezius1 & into ! raphe :i* cont9ues lat]ad ( ! clavicle4 ,relations4--,out] or lat]al surface at ! caudal end ) ! clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fe1 j72 fur!r craniad ) ! depressor con* 7,fig4 #fd1 b71 ! platysma1 & ! /]noma/oid 7,fig4 #fe1 g74 ,inn] or m$ial surface ) ! suprasp9atus 7,fig4 #ge1 a7 caudad1 ) ! mass ( fat 9 ! axilla at its middle1 ) ! levator clavicul v5tralis 7,fig4 #fe1 i7 & obliquus capitis sup]ior 7,fig4 #ga1 e7 craniad4 ,action4--,pulls ! clavicle craniad :5 ! head is fix$4 ,turns ! head & depresses ! sn\t :5 ! clavicle is fix$4 ,m4 levator scapul v5tralis1 or levator clavicul 7,fig4 #fh1 f2 ,fig4 #fe1 i2 ,fig4 #gb1 c1 c1 c7 7n usually f\nd 9 man74 ,orig9 7,fig4 #gb1 c1 c7 9 two p>ts4 7#a7 ,by fle%y fibres f ! v5tral surface ( ! atlantal transv]se process ne> its caudal bord] 7c74 7#b7 ,by a small t5don f ! v5tral surface ( ! basioccipital opposite ! middle ( ! l5g? ( ! bulla tympani 7c7 9 common ) ! longus capitis 7a74 ,! two heads unite to =m a flat b& :i* passes caudov5trad & is ins]t$ 7,fig4 #gf1 f7 by a flat %ort t5don1 ab\t eight millimet]s broad1 into ! out] surface ( ! metacromion along its v5tral bord]1 & into ! infrasp9atus fossa = "o or two millimet]s di/ad ( t bord]4 ,relations4--,ne> ! ins]tion ! dorsal bord] ov]laps ! bord] ( ! acromiotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 h71 & ! v5tral bord] is atta*$ by /rong fascia to ! bord] ( ! clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d74 ,! out] surface is 9 relation ) ! longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #gc1 g71 clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d71 cleidoma/oid 7,fig4 #gc1 d71 platysma1 & ! sk94 ,! inn] surface is 9 relation caudad ) ! suprasp9atus & ) a mass ( fat & a lymphatic gl& :i* occupy ! holl[ ( ! %\ld]4 ,craniad x is 9 relation ) ! cleidoma/oid 7,fig4 #gc1 d71 ! scal5us 7,fig4 #gc1 f71 ! longus capitis 7,fig4 #gc1 e71 & ! obliquus sup]ior 7,fig4 #ga1 e74 ,action4--,pulls ! scapula craniad4 ,m4 latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 m2 ,fig4 #fe1 q2 ,fig4 #gg1 e74--,a l>ge triangul> %eet cov]+ r m ?an ! dorsocranial half ( ! abdom5 & ?orax4 ,x arises f ! middorsal l9e1 f ! pelvis to ! fif? ?oracic sp9e1 & is ins]t$ into ! hum]us4 ,orig9 f ! tips ( ! neural sp9es ( ! v]tebr f ! f\r? or fif? ?oracic to ab\t ! six? lumb>4 ,z f> z ! t5? or elev5? ?oracic v]tebra ! orig9 is directly by muscle-fibres4 ,caudad ( ?is is a broad triangul> t5don :i* may be s closely unit$ to ! t5dons ( ! und]ly+ muscles t x _c be sep>at$4 ,! muscle passes craniov5trad1 ! fibres conv]g+ to ! axilla4 ,9 ! axilla a "p ( ! cutaneus maximus & ! epitro*le>is 7,fig4 #fe1 r7 take orig9 f ! out] surface4 ,ins]tion4--,! muscle !n ends 9 a flat t5don1 to ! cranial surface ( :i* ! fibres ( ! t]es major 7,fig4 #gg1 c7 are atta*$4 ,five to t5 millimet]s f ! hum]us ! muscle-fibres ( ! t]es give place to ! t5don-fibres1 & ! conjo9$ t5don ( ! t]es & latissimus :i* is ?us =m$ 7,fig4 #gi1 d7 is ins]t$ into a r\gh elongat$ area 7,fig4 #hb1 f7 :i* lies p>allel ) ! pectoral ridge on ! m$ial surface ( ! %aft ( ! hum]us 7,fig4 #dh1 g74 ,! t]es t5don =ms ! proximal "p ( ! conjo9$ t5don4 ,a "p ( ! t5don ( ! latissimus may jo9 ! pectoralis m9or at its di/al or caudal bord] 7,fig4 #fe71 & ?us x may contribute to ! =mation ( bo? pill>s ( ! bicipital ar* 7,fig4 #fe1 t74 ,relations4--,its out] surface is cov]$ caudad by ! cutaneus maximus1 & craniad by ! sp9otrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 j7 & ! long head ( ! triceps 7,fig4 #fh1 k74 ,! cranial bord] comes into relation ) ! sp9otrapezius 7j7 & t]es major 7,fig4 #gg1 c74 ,! caudal bord] is 9 contact at ! v5tral end ) ! xiphihum]alis 7,fig4 #fe1 p7 & pectoralis m9or 7,fig4 #fe1 o74 ,! inn] surface ( ! latissimus cov]s ne> its craniov5tral end p>ts ( ! xiphihum]alis 7,fig4 #fh1 n71 pectoralis m9or 7,fig4 #fh1 o71 t]es major 7,fig4 #gg1 c71 & s]ratus ant]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 i74 ,! caudal bord] cov]s a portion ( ! obliquus ext]nus abdom9is 7,fig4 #fh1 p72 ! dorsal & middle portions cov] p>ts ( ! longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f71 ! sp9alis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g71 ! s]ratus po/]ior sup]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 l71 & s]ratus po/]ior inf]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 n74 ,action4--,pulls ! arm caudodorsad4 ,m4 s]ratus ant]ior & levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 i & h7 9 ! cat are cont9u\s at bo? orig9 & ins]tion1 & x is b>ely possible to sep>ate _! contigu\s bord]s )\t cutt+ ! fibres4 ,! muscle ext5ds f ! transv]se processes ( ! la/ five c]vical v]tebr & f ! fir/ n9e or t5 ribs to ! m$ial surface ( ! scapula ne> its v]tebral m>g9 7,fig4 #gh1 c & d74 ,m4 s]ratus ant]ior 7or s]ratus magnus7 7,fig4 #gc1 i74 ,orig94--,f ! fir/ n9e or t5 ribs 9 z _m subdivisions4 ,! fir/ subdivision arises f ! :ole or ne>ly ! :ole ( ! caudal bord] ( ! fir/ rib4 ,! next f\r or five arise ei!r f ! ribs or f ! co/al c>tilages ne> or at _! junction ) ! ribs4 ,! la/ f\r subdivisions arise f ! ribs at increas+ di/ances f ! c>tilages4 ,! fibres conv]ge & ! subdivisions jo9 "o ano!r4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #gh1 c7 into a n>r[ area on ! m$ial surface ( ! scapula ne> ! v]tebral bord]4 ,! gl5oid half ( ! ins]tion is by a %ort t5don1 ! rema9d] by muscle-fibres4 ,relations4--,out] 7lat]al7 surface ) ! latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 m71 t]es major 7,fig4 #gg1 c71 subscapul>is 7,fig4 #gg1 a71 & ne> ! orig9 ) ! rectus abdom9is 7,fig4 #gc1 k71 ! scal5us 7,fig4 #gc1 f-f71 & ! obliquus ext]nus 7,fig4 #fh1 p74 ,inn] 7m$ial7 surface ) ! s]ratus po/]ior sup]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 l7 & its t5don1 & ) ! int]co/ales ext]ni 7,fig4 #gc1 m74 ,at its ins]tion ! muscle t\*es ! rhomboideus4 ,! cranial edge is unit$ to ! caudal edge ( ! levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h74 ,action4--,depressor ( ! scapula4 ,m4 levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h74 ,orig94--,f ! dorsal tub]cles ( ! transv]se processes ( ! la/ five c]vical v]tebr & f ! ligam5ts betwe5 ! tub]cles4 ,a slip sometimes arises f ! atlas4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #gh1 d7 into a triangul> area on ! m$ial surface ( ! scapula ne> its v]tebral bord]4 ,x is cont9u\s ) ! ins]tion ( ! s]ratus ant]ior4 ,relations4--,out] 7lat]al7 surface ) a mass ( fat sep>at+ x f ! clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d7 & cleidoma/oid 7,fig4 #fe1 h71 & ) ! subscapul>is 7,fig4 #gg1 a74 ,inn] 7m$ial7 surface ) ! spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b71 ! t5don ( ! s]ratus po/]ior sup]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 l71 & ! c]vical portion ( ! longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,ne> ! ins]tion ! muscle t\*es ! occipitoscapul>is 7,fig4 #gc1 a7 & rhomboideus4 ,caudal bord] unit$ ) ! s]ratus ant]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 i74 ,action4--,draws ! scapula craniov5trad4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,back 7int]connect+ p>ts ( ! v]tebral column7 7,fig4 #fi74--,! muscles connect$ ) ! v]tebral column =m a mass :i* is less m>k$ly diff]5tiat$ into di/9ct muscles ?an is ! case 9 ! limbs4 ,a great longitud9al mass ( fibres beg9s 9 ! sacral region & ext5ds along ! v]tebral column to ! head4 ,?is mass conta9s fibres runn+ 9 v>i\s directions & atta*$ at "o or bo? ends to ! sacrum1 ! innom9ate bones1 ! sp9\s1 transv]se1 & articul> processes1 & to ! ar*es1 ( ! v]tebr2 to ! ribs & to ! head1 & hav+ 9 g5]al ! function ( mov+ ! v]tebr 9 v>i\s ways1 or ( mov+ p>ts connect$ ) ! v]tebr4 ,9 "s regions1 especially ! c]vical1 x is possible to di/+ui% cle>ly di/9ct muscles :i* h be5 diff]5tiat$ f ?is mass4 ,9 ! great] "p ( its ext5t1 h[ev]1 x is possible to di/+ui% only m or less closely int]connect$ bundles1--! m cle>ly m>k$ ( :i* h receiv$ special names4 ,! great dorsal mass runn+ along ea* side ( ! v]tebral column1 occupy+ ! space betwe5 ! sp9\s processes & ! transv]se processes1 receives ! g5]al "n ( ,m4 ext5sor dorsi communis2 ! sep>ate muscles are to be consid]$ z p>ts or diff]5tiations ( ?is4 ,! l>ge/ "p ( ! mass is 9 ! lumb> region 7fir/ portion ( ! longissimus dorsi1 ,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,at ! caudal end ( ! ?orax a lat]al mass1 p>ts ( :i* become connect$ ) ! ribs1 is sep>at$ (f f ! ma9 "p ( ! muscle2 ?is ext5ds craniad into ! c]vical region z ,m4 ilioco/alis 7h74 ,! ma9 portion ( ! longissimus dorsi 7f7 cont9ues craniad on ! m$ial side ( ! ilioco/al into ! neck region4 ,at ab\t ! level ( ! eigh? or n9? ?oracic v]tebra a /rip beg9s to become sep>at$ (f on ! m$ial side ( ! longissimus2 fur!r =w>d x becomes cle>ly di/9ct1 =m+ ! sp9alis dorsi 7g74 ,! sep>ate muscles connect+ ! c]vical v]tebr ) ea* o!r & ) ! head are diff]5tiations ( ! ext5sor dorsi communis4 ,a /ill deep] set ( fibres1 int]connect+ ! v]tebr1 =ms ! multifidus sp9 & a numb] ( o!r small muscles4 ,a description ( ! diff]5t bundles ( fibres1 "u ! names usually giv51 foll[s4 ,c]ta9 g5]al pr9ciples are obs]v$ 9 "s ( ! names us$4 ,muscles :i* int]connect ! sp9\s processes ( ! v]tebr receive ! "n sp9alis4 ,^? int]connect+ contigu\s sp9\s processes are call$ int]sp9alis4 ,muscles atta*$ at "o end to transv]se processes1 at ! o!r to ! sp9\s processes1 receive ! "n transv]sosp9alis4 ,semisp9alis has ! same signification z transv]sosp9alis1 b is a "n usually appli$ to subdivisions ( ! transv]sosp9alis gr\p4 ,! int]transv]s>ii are muscles int]connect+ ! transv]se processes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,,deep ,,muscles ,,( ,,body1 ,,expos$ ,,aft] ,,removal ,,( ,,! ,,muscles ,,%[n ,,9 ,,fig4 #gc4 a1 ,m4 biv5t] c]vicis2 b1 ,m4 complexus2 c1 ,m4 obliquus capitis sup]ior2 d1 ,m4 longus atlantis2 e1 cut end ( ,m4 longissimus capitis2 f1 f1 f1 ,m4 longissimus dorsi2 g1 ,m4 sp9alis dorsi2 h1 ,m4 ilioco/alis2 i1 ,mm4 int]co/ales ext]ni2 k1 ,mm4 int]co/ales int]ni2 l1 ,m4 transv]sus abdom9is4 7a7 ,muscles ( ! ,lumb> & ,?oracic ,regions4--,! muscles ( ! lumb> & ?oracic regions are mo/ly cov]$ by a /rong fascia1 kn[n z ! lumbodorsal fascia 7,fig4 #fh1 y74 ,?is consi/s ( two %eets1 ! sup]ficial %eet be+ appli$ directly to ! out] surface ( ! inn] %eet1 or sep>at$ f x by a mass ( fat4 ,! sup]ficial %eet 7,fig4 #fh1 y7 ov]lies ! lumb> region & ! caudal half ( ! ?oracic region4 ,on ! m$ial side x is atta*$ to ! sp9\s processes ( ! v]tebr & is unit$ closely to ! deep] lay]4 ,lat]ally ?is fascia is cont9u\s ) ! latissimus dorsi 7m7 & obliquus abdom9is ext]nus 7p74 ,caudad x is atta*$ to ! sp9e ( ! ilium & becomes cont9u\s ) ! fascia cov]+ ! gluteus muscles4 ,! deep] %eet 7,fig4 #gj1 c7 is ( a t5d9\s "*1 =m+ ! ext]nal t5d9\s lay] ( ! longissimus dorsi1 _m ( ^: fibres take orig9 f its "u surface4 ,x is describ$ m fully 9 ! acc\nt ( ?is muscle4 ,m4 longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f1 f1 f2 ,fig4 #gj1 a & b74--,a v l>ge muscle1 fill+ mo/ ( ! region betwe5 ! sp9\s processes & transv]se processes ( ! lumb> & ?oracic v]tebr1 & ext5d+ into ! c]vical region4 ,! muscle is l>ge/ 9 ! lumb> region 7,fig4 #fi1 f2 ,fig4 #gj71 :]e x is divid$ into a n>r[ m$ial 7,fig4 #gj1 a7 & a ?ick lat]al portion 7,fig4 #gj1 b71 ! latt] be+ aga9 p>tially subdivid$ by ! fascia4 ,! two p>ts unite f>!r craniad4 ,! m$ial division 7,fig4 #gj1 a7 consi/s ( muscul> bundles connect+ ! sp9\s processes ( ! v]tebr ) ! accessory & mammill>y processes ( o!r v]tebr2 x is cont9u\s caudad ) ! ext5sor caud lat]alis 7,fig4 #gj1 f74 ,! muscle-fibres take orig9 9 ! sacral region by small r\nd t5dons f ! sp9\s processes ( ! la/ two sacral & ! caudal v]tebr4 ,!y curve craniov5trad1 =m+ a l>ge belly1 & are ins]t$ into ! accessory & mammill>y processes ( ! lumb> v]tebr4 ,9 ! ?oracic region ?is division unites ) t portion ( ! lat]al division 9 :i* ! fibres com+ f ! fascia ( orig9 are ins]t$ into ! lam9 & transv]se processes ( ! ?oracic v]tebr4 ,! lat]al division 7,fig4 #gj1 b7 is mu* l>g] ?an ! m$ial "o1 =m+ 9 ! lumb> region a ne>ly cyl9drical mass4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,dorsal ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,v]tebral ,,column ,,9 ,,! ,,lumb>1 ,,sacral1 ,,& ,,caudal ,,regions4 ,bo? %eets ( ! lumbodorsal fascia h be5 remov$1 ! deep lay] 7c7 be+ cut :]e x passes into ! longissimus dorsi4 #a1 cre/ ( ilium2 #d-g1 tips ( sp9\s processes ( ! f\r? to sev5? lumb> v]tebr4 ,i1 ,,ii1 tips ( sp9\s processes ( fir/ two sacral v]tebr4 a1 b1 ,m4 longissimi dorsi 7a1 m$ial portion2 b1 lat]al portion2 b1 portion tak+ orig9 f ! lumbodorsal fascia72 c1 cut edge ( deep lay] ( lumbodorsal fascia2 d1 ,m4 multifidus sp92 e1 ,m4 ext5sor caud m$ialis2 f1 ,m4 ext5sor caud lat]alis1 g1 ,m4 abductor caud ext]nus4 ,orig9 f ! cre/ ( ! ilium 7,fig4 #gj1 #a7 & ! m$ial surface ( ! ilium z f> caudad z ! auricul> impression2 also f ! deep lay] ( ! lumbodorsal fascia 7c74 ,?is fascia is connect$ ) ! cre/ ( ! ilium & ) ! tips ( ! sp9\s processes ( ! v]tebr 9 ! lumb> & ?oracic regions1 & f x a l>ge proportion ( ! fibres ( ! longissimus take orig94 ,9 ! lumb> region x dips into ! muscle z an int]m$iate longitud9al %eet 7c71 p>tially divid+ x l5g?wise into two p>ts4 ,fibres tak+ orig9 f ! lat]al surface ( ?is int]m$iate %eet curve craniov5trad1 & are ins]t$ on ! transv]se processes ( ! lumb> v]tebr4 ,fibres tak+ orig9 f ! m$ial surface ( ! %eet pass m$iocraniad & are ins]t$ into ! accessory processes & ! surfaces ( ! v]tebral ar*es4 ,9 ! ?oracic region 7,fig4 #fi1 f7 mo/ ( ! fibres are ins]t$ 9 sep>ate bundles by small t5dons on ! transv]se processes ( ! v]tebr1 :ile "s ( ! m$ial fibres unite ) t5d9\s /r&s :i* become atta*$ to ! lam9 & articul> processes ( ! v]tebr4 ,at ! region ( ! eigh? or n9? ?oracic v]tebra ! sp9alis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g7 beg9s to be sep>at$ (f on ! m$ial side1 ! sep>ation becom+ complete only "s di/ance f>!r craniad2 ! longissimus dorsi !n cont9ues into ! c]vical region 7f74 ,bundles ( fibres become atta*$ 9 ! mann] above describ$ to transv]se processes ( all ! ?oracic v]tebr4 ,9 ! c]vical region 7f7 ! muscle spreads out & becomes ?9n]1 & bundles ( fibres become atta*$ to ! transv]se processes ( ! c]vical v]tebr z f> =w>d z ! second4 ,9 ! m cranial portion ( its ext5t ! muscle receives fibres hav+ orig9 on ! articul> processes & lam9 ( ! c]vical & a few ( ! m cranial ?oracic v]tebr4 ,! portion ( ! muscle :i* is ins]t$ on ! c]vical transv]se processes 7f7 is sometimes di/+ui%$ z ! longissimus c]vicis2 x is n well sep>at$ f ! re/ ( ! muscle 9 ! cat4 ,! longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #fi1 c2 ,fig4 #gc1 g7 is to be consid]$ a diff]5tiat$ cranial portion ( ?is muscle4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! foll[+1 beg9n+ ) ! caudal end3 ! s>torius 7,fig4 #fh1 q71 ! latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 m71 ! lumbodorsal fascia 7,fig4 #fh1 y71 ! s]ratus po/]ior inf]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 n7 & sup]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 l71 & ! levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h74 ,lat]al m>g9 ) ! abdom9al muscles1 ! ilioco/al 7,fig4 #fi1 h71 & ! levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h74 ,m$ial side ) ! multifidus sp9 7,fig4 #gj1 d71 ! sp9\s processes ( ! ?oracic v]tebr1 ! sp9alis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g71 ! complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b71 ! biv5t] c]vicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a71 & ! longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #fi1 e74 ,action4--,ext5ds ! v]tebral column4 ,m4 ilioco/alis 7,fig4 #fi1 h74--,?is is a muscle ab\t #a to #b c5timet]s wide1 ly+ on ! dorsal portion ( ! ribs1 lat]ad ( ! longissimus dorsi 7f74 ,x is compos$ ( _m p>tly sep>at$ bundles1 ea* ) an oblique t5don4 ,! muscle beg9s at ! la/ or next to ! la/ rib1 :]e x is connect$ ) ! longissimus by a r small bundle ( fibres4 ,! re/ ( ! muscle-fibres take orig9 9 bundles f ! lat]al surface ( ! ribs1 at ab\t ! angles1 or f ?9 t5dons connect+ ! angles1 ( ! ribs2 !y pass obliquely craniad & are ins]t$1 usually by t5dons1 on ! lat]al surface ( ! ?ird or f\r? rib craniad ( ! "o on :i* ! giv5 bundle has orig94 ,! ins]tions on any giv5 rib lie v5trad ( ! orig9s on ! same rib4 ,9 ! cat ?is muscle is conf9$ to ! ?oracic region4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! s]ratus po/]ior inf]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 n7 & sup]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 l71 & ! levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h74 ,inn] surface ) ! dorsal surface ( ! ribs1 ! ext]nal int]co/als 7,fig4 #fi1 i71 & craniad ) ! levatores co/>um4 ,m$ial edge 9 contact ) ! longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,action4--,draws ! ribs toge!r4 ,m4 sp9alis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g74--,a muscle int]connect+ ! sp9\s processes ( v]tebr "s di/ance ap>t1 9 ! ?oracic & c]vical regions4 ,x lies on ! m$ial side ( ! longissimus dorsi 7f74 ,orig9 by /rong t5dons f ! tips ( ! sp9\s processes ( ! t5? to ! ?irte5? ?oracic v]tebr4 ,^! t5dons repres5t ! cranial portion ( ! deep lay] ( ! lumbodorsal fascia1 & give orig9 also to _m fibres ( ! longissimus dorsi1 s t ! two muscles are completely unit$ at ! orig9 ( ! sp9alis4 ,!y become sep>at$ at ab\t ! level ( ! six? ?oracic v]tebra1 ! sp9alis =m+ a /rong sep>ate bundle pass+ into ! neck region close aga9/ ! sides ( ! sp9\s processes4 ,! ins]tion is by fle%y bundles into ! sides ( ! sp9\s processes ( ! fir/ n9e or t5 ?oracic v]tebr & ( ! c]vical v]tebr z f> =w>d z ! second4 ,"s ( ! fibres ( ?is muscle pass craniad into ! biv5t] c]vicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a74 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! t5dons ( ! s]ratus po/]ior inf]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 n7 & s]ratus po/]ior sup]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 l71 & ) ! spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b71 biv5t] c]vicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a71 & complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b74 ,lat]al & v5tral surface ) ! longissimus dorsi 7f72 m$ial surface ) ! sp9\s processes & ! multifidus sp94 ,action4--,ext5sor ( ! v]tebral column4 ,m4 multifidus sp94--,?is consi/s ( bundles ( fibres :i* h orig9 on ! transv]se processes or neighbor+ p>ts1 pass craniodorsad across "o or m v]tebr1 & are ins]t$ into ! sp9\s processes ( v]tebr ly+ "s di/ance craniad ( ! orig94 ,!y lie deep] ?an ! muscles previ\sly describ$4 ,! muscle is mo/ /rongly develop$ 9 ! lumb> region 7,fig4 #gj1 d71 :]e x =ms a ?ick int]wov5 mass 9 :i* x is difficult to di/+ui% sep>ate bundles4 ,! fibres 9 ?is region h orig9 on ! accessory or mammill>y processes & usually pass ov] m ?an "o v]tebra betwe5 orig9 & ins]tion2 _! ins]tions rea* ! dorsal ends ( ! sp9\s processes1 s t "p ( ! muscle lies imm$iately b5ea? ! lumb> fascia4 ,9 o!r regions ! multifidus is cov]$ by o!r muscles4 ,9 ! ?oracic region ! sep>ate b&s are m di/9ct1 & usually pass 9 _! c\rse ov] b "o int]v5+ v]tebra4 ,9 ! c]vical region ! b&s are int]connect$1 =m+ a fairly di/9ct s+le muscle1 :i* is describ$ sep>ately bel[ z ! semisp9alis c]vicis 7,fig4 #ga1 c74 ,! portion ( ?is muscle atta*$ to ! head 7semisp9alis capitis7 =ms ! biv5t] c]vicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a7 & complexus 7b74 ,caudad ?is muscle passes onto ! tail z ! ext5sor caud m$ialis 7,fig4 #gj1 c74 ,relations4--,out] & lat]al surface 9 ! lumb> region ) ! longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f7 & ! lumbodorsal fascia 7,fig4 #fh1 y72 9 ! ?oracic region ) ! longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f7 & sp9alis dorsi 7g74 ,inn] surface ) ! ar*es1 articul> processes1 & sp9\s processes ( ! v]tebr4 ,action4--,ext5ds ! back :5 ! muscles ( bo? sides "w toge!r4 ,turns ! v]tebral column obliquely sideways :5 "o set acts alone4 ,! deepe/ lay] ( ! multifidus =ms :at is sometimes di/+ui%$ z ! ,mm4 rotatores2 no sep>ate lay] ( ?is sort is to be made out 9 ! cat4 ,mm4 int]sp9ales4--,muscle-bundles pass+ f ! sp9\s process ( "o v]tebra to t ( ! v]tebra imm$iately craniad or caudad ( x4 ,!y are be/ develop$ 9 ! lumb> region4 ,mm4 int]transv]s>ii4--,muscle-fibres int]connect+ ! transv]se processes4 ,9 ! lumb> region ! int]transv]s>ii m$iales connect ! accessory & mammill>y processes2 ! int]transv]s>ii lat]ales ly+ betwe5 ! transv]se processes4 ,9 o!r regions only "o set ( ! int]transv]s>ii is to be di/+ui%$4 7b7 ,dorsal ,muscles ( ! ,c]vical ,region4--,! clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d7 & occipitoscapul>is 7,fig4 #gc1 a7 h be5 describ$ 9 connection ) ! muscles ( ! %\ld]4 ,! rema9+ muscles ( ?is region may be consid]$ z diff]5tiations ( ! g5]al v]tebral musculature 7,m4 ext5sor dorsi communis74 ,m4 spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b47--,a l>ge %eet ( muscle cov]+ ! dorsal "p ( ! side ( ! neck1 b5ea? ! trapezii4 ,orig9 f ! :ole c]vical ligam5t & f ! fascia cov]+ ! deep] muscles along a l9e :i* ext5ds f ! fir/ ?oracic sp9\s process caudolat]ad = ab\t two c5timet]s4 ,ins]tion by a ?9 t5don into ! :ole lambdoidal ridge4 ,lat]ad ! t5don may be fus$ ) t ( ! longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #gc1 g74 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! /]noma/oid 7,fig4 #fh1 c71 occipitoscapul>is 7,fig4 #gc1 a71 clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d71 rhomboideus1 t5don ( ! s]ratus po/]ior sup]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 l71 & ! levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h74 ,lat]al edge closely unit$ ) ! longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #gc1 g74 ,inn] surface ) ! longissimus capitis1 complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b71 & biv5t] c]vicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a74 ,action4--,lat]al flexor ( ! head4 ,! two toge!r elevate ! head4 ,m4 longissimus capitis 7tra*eloma/oideus7 7,fig4 #gc1 g2 ,fig4 #fi1 e74--,?is is a sl5d] muscle ly+ close aga9/ ! lat]al bord] ( ! spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b71 & sometimes fus$ ) ! spl5ius at its craniad end4 ,x is a cranial cont9uation ( ! longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,orig9 by five slips :i* are atta*$ by /rong t5dons to ! ant]ior articul> processes ( ! la/ f\r c]vical v]tebr4 ,! t5dons are common to ?is muscle & ! complexus4 ,! five slips unite to =m a flat belly :i* has its ,ins]tion by a /rong r\nd$ t5don into ! ma/oid process ( ! temporal bone4 ,! t5don may be closely unit$ to t ( ! spl5ius4 ,relations4--,lat]al surface ) ! /]noma/oid 7,fig4 #fh1 c71 ! levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h71 & longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,m$ial surface ) ! spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b7 7to :i* x is p>tly unit$71 ! complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b71 & ! longus atlantis 7,fig4 #fi1 d74 ,action4--,lat]al flexor ( ! head4 ,m4 biv5t] c]vicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a7 7m$ial portion ( ,m4 semisp9alis c]vicis et capitis74--,! biv5t] c]vicis is a flat muscle :i* lies b5ea? ! spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b71 next ! m$ian l9e ( ! neck1 ) its fibres longitud9al4 ,orig9 9 ?ree or f\r slips f ! surface ( ! ?ree or f\r aponeurotic ar*es :i* take orig9 f ! tips ( ! sp9\s processes ( ! la/ c]vical & ! fir/ ?ree ?oracic v]tebr & pass lat]ad & caudad to ! ant]ior processes ( ! second1 ?ird1 f\r?1 & fif? ?oracic v]tebr4 ,^! ar*es are deviat$ f _! /raight c\rse by f\r aponeurotic b&s :i* pass f !m obliquely caudad & dorsad to ! sides ( ! sp9\s processes ( ! v]tebr into :i* ! ar*es are ins]t$4 ,! ar*es =m ! beg9n+ ( ! %eet ( fascia :i* passes outside ( ! longitud9al suprasp9\s muscles1 & ! an*or+ b&s =m ! beg9n+ ( a simil> %eet :i* passes )9 ! longitud9al suprasp9\s muscles4 ,an additional slip may take orig9 f ! c]vical ligam5t betwe5 ! la/ c]vical & ! fir/ ?oracic v]tebr4 ,! fibres =m a flat b& divid$ by two or ?ree oblique t5d9\s int]sections4 ,x adh]es closely to ! c]vical suprasp9\s ligam5t4 ,ins]tion by a /rong t5don into ! m$ial "p ( ! lambdoidal cre/4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b7 & at ! caudal end ) ! longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,inn] surface ) ! sp9alis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g71 ! semisp9alis c]vicis 7,fig4 #ga1 c71 & ! rectus capitis po/]ior major 7,fig4 #ga1 a74 ,m$ial edge ) ! muscle ( ! opposite side2 lat]al edge ) ! complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b74 ,action4--,raises ! sn\t4 ,m4 complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b7 7lat]al portion ( ,m4 semisp9alis c]vicis et capitis74--,! complexus is closely associat$ ) ! biv5t] c]vicis 7a7 & lies on its lat]al side b5ea? ! spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b74 ,orig9 by t5d9\s b&s f ! ant]ior articul> processes ( ! la/ five or six c]vical & ! fir/ "o1 two1 or ?ree ?oracic v]tebr4 ,! same b&s give orig9 ext]nally to ! fibres ( ! longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #fi1 e71 & int]nally to ^? ( deep] muscles ( ! neck4 ,! six or m muscul> slips cont9u$ f ^! t5dons unite to =m a flat b&1 ! ,ins]tion ( :i* is by a flat t5don into ! m$ial ?ird ( ! lambdoidal cre/ "s di/ance v5trad ( ! free edge ( ! cre/4 ,ne> ! ins]tion ! lat]al bord] ( ! muscle is connect$ by an aponeurotic b& to ! lat]al bord] ( ! transv]se process ( ! atlas4 ,relations4--,out] surface at ! dorsal bord] ) ! biv5t] c]vicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a72 at ! middle ) ! spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b72 at ! v5tral bord] ) ! longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #fi1 e7 & ! longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,inn] surface ) ! c]vical portion ( ! sp9alis dorsi1 ) ! semisp9alis c]vicis 7,fig4 #ga1 c71 ! obliquus capitis inf]ior 7,fig4 #ga1 b71 ! rectus capitis po/]ior major 7,fig4 #ga1 a71 & ! obliquus sup]ior 7,fig4 #ga1 e74 ,action4--,raises ! head4 ,m4 sp9alis dorsi ext5ds into ! c]vical region2 x has be5 describ$4 ,m4 semisp9alis c]vicis 7,fig4 #ga1 c74--,?is repres5ts t portion ( ! multifidus sp9 :i* ext5ds into ! c]vical region4 ,x is n compos$ ( di/9ct bundles1 l ! multifidus ( ! ?oracic region1 b all ! fibres are unit$ into a fairly well-def9$ muscle4 ,orig9 f ! articul> processes ( ! la/ five c]vical v]tebr4 ,ins]tion into ! sp9\s processes ( ! c]vical v]tebr up to ! second1 ! l>ge/ "p ( ! muscle be+ ins]t$ into ! caudal end ( ! sp9e ( ! atlas4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! sp9alis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g7 & ! complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b74 ,inn] surface ) ! v]tebr4 ,action4--,ext5ds ! neck4 ,m4 longissimus dorsi ext5ds into ! c]vical region1 :]e x is (t5 di/+ui%$ z ! longissimus c]vicis 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,x has be5 describ$4 ,m4 longus atlantis 7,fig4 #ga1 f2 ,fig4 #fi1 d74--,?is repres5ts a diff]5tiat$ portion ( ! longissimus dorsi4 ,orig9 f ! transv]se process & ! side ( ! v]tebral ar* ( ! ?ird c]vical v]tebra4 ,ins]tion into ! caudolat]al angle ( ! w+ ( ! atlas4 ,relations4--,dorsal surface ) ! complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b71 ! longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #fi1 e71 & ! obliquus inf]ior 7,fig4 #ga1 b74 ,v5tral surface ) ! scal5us 7,fig4 #ga1 g71 longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f71 & levator scapul 7,fig4 #ga1 h74 ,action4--,ext5ds ! neck & turns ! head sideways4 ,m4 rectus capitis po/]ior major 7,fig4 #ga1 a74 ,orig94--,! :ole l5g? ( ! sp9\s process 7or cre/7 ( ! axis1 or its caudal "p only4 ,x is unit$ by a raphe to ! opposite muscle4 ,! muscle passes craniad & lat]ad to its ,ins]tion into an area v5trad ( ! m$ial "p ( ! lambdoidal cre/ b5ea? ! ins]tion ( ! complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b7 & ! biv5t] c]vicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a74 ,relations4--,dorsal surface ) ! biv5t] c]vicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a74 ,v5tral surface ) ! rectus capitis po/]ior m$ius 7,fig4 #ga1 d7 & ! obliquus capitis inf]ior4 ,action4--,raises ! sn\t4 ,m4 rectus capitis po/]ior m$ius 7,fig4 #ga1 d74 7,?is is 9 man a "p ( ! rectus capitis po/]ior major47--,x lies b5ea? ! rectus capitis po/]ior major 7,fig4 #ga1 a74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,,deep ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,neck1 ,,aft] ,,! ,,removal ,,( ,,mm4 ,,biv5t] ,,c]vicis ,,& ,,complexus4 a1 ,m4 rectus capitis po/]ior major2 b1 ,m4 obliquus capitis inf]ior2 c1 ,m4 semisp9alis c]vicis2 d1 ,m4 rectus capitis po/]ior m$ius2 e1 ,m4 obliquus capitis sup]ior2 f1 ,m4 longus atlantis2 g1 ,m4 scal5us 7"p ( c]vical portion72 h1 cut end ( ,m4 levator scapul4 ,orig9 f ! cranial end ( ! axial sp9e4 ,x =ms a triangul> prismatic mass :i* passes craniad & has its ,ins]tion into an elongat$ area on ! occipital bone1 v5trad ( ! m$ian half ( ! lambdoidal cre/4 ,relations4--,dorsal surface ) ! rectus capitis po/]ior major 7,fig4 #ga1 a74 ,v5tral surface ) ! atlas & ! rectus capitis po/]ior m9or4 ,action4--,assi/s ! rectus capitis po/]ior major4 ,m4 rectus capitis po/]ior m9or4--,a small triangul> muscle b5ea? ! rectus capitis po/]ior m$ius 7,fig4 #ga1 d74 ,orig9 by ! apex ( ! triangle f ! cranial bord] ( ! dorsal ar* ( ! atlas = ab\t two millimet]s lat]ad ( ! m$ian l9e4 ,! muscle passes ov] ! ligam5t :i* connects ! atlas to ! occiput & adh]es to x4 ,ins]tion into an elongat$ area on ! occipital bone1 v5trad ( ! ins]tion ( ! rectus capitis po/]ior m$ius = ab\t five millimet]s next to ! m$ian l9e4 ,relations4--,dorsal surface ) ! rectus capitis po/]ior m$ius4 ,v5tral surface ) ! po/]ior atlanto-occipital membrane4 ,action4--,assi/s ! rectus capitis po/]ior major4 ,m4 obliquus inf]ior 7,fig4 #ga1 b74 ,orig9 f ! :ole lat]al surface ( ! sp9e ( ! axis4 ,! p>allel fibres =m a ?ick mass :i* passes lat]ad & craniad4 ,ins]tion into ! dorsal surface ( ! transv]se process ( ! atlas along a n>r[ area ne> its lat]al m>g94 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! rectus capitis po/]ior major 7,fig4 #ga1 a71 ! complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b71 & ! obliquus sup]ior 7,fig4 #ga1 e74 ,inn] surface ) ! axis4 ,action4--,rotates ! head4 ,m4 obliquus capitis sup]ior 7,fig4 #ga1 e2 ,fig4 #gb1 e74--,?is is a triangul> muscle pass+ f ! out] bord] ( ! atlas lat]ad ( ! recti capitis po/]iores to ! occiput4 ,orig9 f ! lat]al bord] ( ! transv]se process ( ! atlas on its v5tral m>g94 ,! fibres pass craniad & div]ge4 ,ins]tion into ! caudal side ( ! ma/oid process ( ! temporal bone & into a l9e p>allel ) ! lambdoidal ridge & v5trad ( x1 f ! ma/oid process to )9 "o c5timet] ( ! m$ian l9e4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b71 complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b71 & longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #gc1 g74 ,inn] surface ) ! obliquus inf]ior 7,fig4 #ga1 b71 ! w+ ( ! atlas1 & ! rectus lat]alis 7,fig4 #gb1 d74 ,v5tral bord] ) ! cleidoma/oid 7,fig4 #gc1 d7 & "o head ( ! levator scapul v5tralis 7,fig4 #gb1 c74 ,action4--,flexes ! head lat]ally4 ,mm4 int]sp9ales & int]transv]s>ii are f\nd 9 ! neck region also2 !y are describ$ ) ! muscles ( ! back4 ,c4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,tail4--,m4 ext5sor caud m$ialis 7,fig4 #gj1 e74--,?is is a cont9uation caudad ( ! multifidus sp9 7,fig4 #gj1 d72 x lies next to ! dorsal m$ian l9e1 ! muscles ( "r & left side t\*+ "o ano!r 9 ! middle l9e4 ,orig9 by num]\s fle%y bundles f ! sp9\s processes ( ! sacral & fir/ caudal v]tebr4 ,! fibres pass caudad & are ins]t$ by t5dons into ! articul> processes & ! dorsal surface ( ! caudal v]tebr4 ,action4--,ext5ds 7raises7 ! tail4 ,m4 ext5sor caud lat]alis 7,fig4 #gj1 f74--,?is is a cont9uation caudad ( ! m$ial portion ( ! longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #gj1 a72 x lies j lat]ad ( ! ext5sor caud m$ialis 7,fig4 #gj1 e74 ,orig9 9 _m fle%y bundles f ! articul> processes ( ! sacral v]tebr1 & ! transv]se processes ( ! caudal v]tebr4 ,! fibres curve dorsocaudad & are ins]t$ by _m long sl5d] t5dons on ! dorsal surfaces ( ! caudal v]tebr4 ,! muscle gr[s cont9ually small] z x passes caudad4 ,action4--,raises ! tail4 ,m4 abductor caud 7coccygis7 ext]nus 7,fig4 #fh1 w2 ,fig4 #gj1 g74--,a r\nd$ muscle on ! lat]al surface ( ! cranial "p ( ! tail4 ,orig9 f ! m$ial side ( ! dorsal bord] ( ! ilium1 & f ! dorsal surface ( ! sacrum4 ,! muscle passes caudad1 ly+ j v5trad ( ! ext5sor lat]alis1 & is ins]t$ into ! transv]se processes & lat]al surfaces ( ! caudal v]tebr1 z f> back z ! eigh? or n9?4 ,action4--,b5ds ! tail sideways4 ,m4 abductor caud int]nus 7or ,m4 coccygeus74--,a l>ge flat muscle1 hav+ orig9 on ! sp9e ( ! is*ium4 ,! muscle passes dorsom$iad1 spread+ out1 & is ins]t$ into ! transv]se processes ( ! second to ! f\r? caudal v]tebr4 ,relations4--,lat]al surface ) ! caud(emoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s71 gluteus maximus1 & pyri=mis4 ,m$ial surface ) ! iliocaudalis & ! flexor caud longus 7,fig4 #fh1 x74 ,m4 iliocaudalis 7,/r4-,d47 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa1 page #cih74--,?is repres5ts a portion ( ! levator ani ( man1 & 9 "s specim5s is unit$ ) t muscle 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa7 9 ! cat4 ,orig9 along ! v5tral half ( ! m$ial surface ( ! ilium1 caudad ( ! sacrum4 ,! fibres pass caudad & are ins]t$ by a flat t5don into ! v5tral surface ( ! caudal v]tebr1 f ! second or ?ird to ab\t ! sev5?4 ,relations4--,lat]al surface ) ! gluteus maximus & abductor caud int]nus 7,fig4 #fh1 w74 ,m$ial surface ) ! levator ani 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa71 ) :i* ?is muscle may be p>tly unit$4 ,action4--,! two muscles toge!r flex ! tail4 ,m4 flexor caud longus 7,fig4 #afb1 #ab2 ,fig4 #aac1 c1 page #bgj74 ,orig9 on ! v5tral surface ( ! la/ lumb> v]tebra1 ( ! sacrum1 & ( ! transv]se processes ( ! caudal v]tebr4 ,caudad ! muscle =ms long1 /rong t5dons :i* are ins]t$ on ! v5tral surface ( ! tail4 ,relations4--,lat]al surface ) ! ilium1 ! gluteus maximus1 ! abductor caud int]nus1 ! iliocaudalis1 & ! sk9 ( ! tail4 ,dorsally x t\*es 9 ! caudal region ! abductor caud ext]nus 7,fig4 #fh1 w71 m$ially ! flexor caud brevis 7,fig4 #afb1 #ac74 ,action4--,flexes ! tail4 ,m4 flexor caud brevis 7,fig4 #afb1 #ac74 ,orig9 on ! v5tral surface ( ! caudal v]tebr1 f ! fir/ to ! sev5? or eigh?4 ,! pr9cipal head comes f ! fir/ v]tebra4 ,! bundles ?us =m$ pass caudad & are ins]t$ ea* into ! v5tral surface ( a v]tebra "s di/ance caudad ( ! orig94 ,! muscle ext5ds to ab\t ! t5? caudal v]tebra1 & its mo/ caudal p>ts are closely int]connect$ ) ! flexor caud longus4 ,relations4--,lat]al edge ) ! flexor caud longus4 ,m$ial edge 9 ! sacral region ) ! levator ani 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa7 & ! iliocaudalis 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa72 9 ! caudal region ) ! muscle ( ! opposite side4 ,action4--,flexes ! tail4 #b4 ,muscles on ! ,v5tral ,side ( ! ,v]tebral ,column4 ,a4 ,,lumb> ,,& ,,?oracic ,,regions4--,! iliopsoas 7,fig4 #afb1 #h7 belongs 9 ?is gr\p1 b s9ce x moves ! leg x is describ$ ) ! muscles ( ! pelvic limbs4 ,m4 psoas m9or 7,fig4 #afb1 #i1 page #cih74--,?is muscle lies along ! v5tral surface ( ! v]tebral column1 next to ! p]itoneum1 & ext5ds f ! ?oracic v]tebr to ! ilium4 ,orig9 usually by five heads1 f ! caudal bord] ( ! c5tra ( ! la/ two 7or "o7 ?oracic & fir/ ?ree 7or f\r7 lumb> v]tebr4 ,^! heads also s]ve z orig9 = a "p ( ! iliopsoas1 & are closely unit$ at _! orig9 ) ! quadratus lumborum4 ,!y unite to =m an1 at fir/1 r l>ge flat muscle1 :i* rapidly becomes small] caudad1 f9ally =m+ a sl5d] t5don :i* is ins]t$ on ! iliopect9eal l9e1 j craniad ( ! acetabulum4 ,relations4--,dorsolat]al surface ) ! quadratus lumborum & iliopsoas 7,fig4 #afb1 #h74 ,v5tral surface ) ! pleura & diaphragm ne> ! orig92 ) ! p]itoneum caudad4 ,action4--,flexes ! back 9 ! lumb> region4 ,m4 quadratus lumborum4--,a flat muscle ly+ on ! v5tral surface ( ! transv]se processes ( ! lumb> v]tebr4 ,craniad x has orig9 on ! v5tral surface ( ! la/ two ?oracic v]tebr1 & by a few fibres f ! la/ rib4 ,! muscle passes caudad1 ly+ on ! lat]al side ( ! psoas m9or 7,fig4 #afb1 #i71 & becomes atta*$ to ea* ( ! transv]se processes ( ! lumb> v]tebr4 ,caudad ! muscle passes into a /rong flat t5don :i* is ins]t$ into ! ant]ior inf]ior sp9e ( ! ilium4 ,relations4--,dorsal surface ) ! transv]se processes & ! int]transv]se muscles4 ,v5tral & m$ial surfaces ) ! psoas m9or 7,fig4 #afb1 #i7 & iliopsoas 7,fig4 #afb1 #h74 ,action4--,b5ds ! v]tebral column sideways4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,v5tral ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,neck 7,fig4 #fe1 page #aji74--,m4 /]noma/oideus 7,fig4 #fe1 g2 ,fig4 #fh1 c74--,! /]noma/oid 7/]nal portion ( ! human /]nocleidoma/oid7 is a flat b& "o to ?ree c5timet]s wide ext5d+ f ! cranial end ( ! manubrium & ! midv5tral l9e craniad ( x to ! lambdoidal ridge4 ,! orig9 ext5ds f ! cranial end ( ! manubrium along ! midv5tral l9e z f> z ! caudal bord] ( ! cricoid c>tilage1 & is 9 two p>ts4 ,! caudal portion arises f ! lat]al surface ( ! manubrium along ! dorsal half ( its cranial end1 & f ! m$ian raphe = ab\t "o c5timet] craniad ( ! manubrium4 ,its fibres are p>allel & t5d to div]ge into two lay]s4 ,! cranial portion arises by means ( fibres :i* cov] ! m$ian l9e & int]digitate ) ! fibres ( ! opposite muscle betwe5 ! cricoid c>tilage & a po9t a few millimet]s craniad ( ! manubrium4 ,its caudal bord] is ?us ov]laid by ! caudal portion4 ,its fibres conv]ge & jo9 ^? ( ! caudal portion4 ,! muscle passes dorsocraniad & is ,ins]t$ by means ( a flat t5don into ! lat]al half ( ! lambdoidal ridge & into a cont9uation ( ! ridge onto ! ma/oid portion ( ! temporal bone z f> z ! ma/oid process4 ,! ?icke/ "p ( ! t5don is ins]t$ into ! ma/oid process4 ,relations4--,out] surface at ! caudal end ) ! pectoralis major 7,fig4 #fe1 l72 9 ! middle "p ) ! platysma1 ! depressor con* 7,fig4 #fd1 b71 & ) ! ext]nal jugul> ve9 7,fig4 #fe1 #e71 :i* crosses x obliquely2 at ! cranial end ) ! submaxill>y 7,fig4 #fe1 #b7 & p>otid 7#a7 gl&s4 ,inn] surface ) ! /]nohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 e71 /]no?yroid 7g71 int]nal jugul> ve91 longus capitis muscle1 ! cleidoma/oid 7h71 levator scapul v5tralis 7i71 a l>ge lymphatic gl& v5trad ( ! e>1 & ! spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b74 ,action4--,"o muscle turns ! head & depresses ! sn\t4 ,bo? toge!r depress ! sn\t4 ,m4 /]nohyoideus 7,fig4 #fe1 e74--,a sl5d] muscle on ! midv5tral l9e ( ! neck close to ! opposite muscle4 ,orig9 f ! cranial bord] ( ! fir/ co/al c>tilage4 ,! muscle passes craniad closely unit$ ne> its caudal end to ! /]no?yroid 7g74 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #fg1 m7 into ! out] half ( ! v5tral surface ( ! body ( ! hyoid bone caudad ( ! orig9 ( ! g5iohyoid 7,fig4 #fg1 g74 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! /]noma/oid 7,fig4 #fe1 g74 ,inn] surface ) ! ?yrohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 f2 ,fig4 #fg1 p71 ! tra*ea 7,fig4 #fg1 #d71 & ! l>ynx4 ,action4--,draws ! hyoid caudad4 ,raises ! ribs & /]num :5 ! hyoid is fix$4 ,m4 /]no?yreoideus 7,fig4 #fe1 g74--,! /]no?yroid lies b5ea? ! /]nohyoid & is connect$ ) x at its caudal end4 ,orig9 f ! fir/ co/al c>tilage b5ea? ! /]nohyoid4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #fg1 o7 into ! lat]al "p ( ! caudal bord] ( ! ?yroid c>tilage ( ! l>ynx4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! /]nohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 e7 & lat]ally ) ! /]noma/oid 7,fig4 #fe1 g74 ,inn] surface ) ! tra*ea 7,fig4 #fg1 #d71 & at ! lat]al edge ) ! ?yroid gl& 7,fig4 #fg1 #f74 ,action4--,pulls ! l>ynx caudad4 ,m4 scal5us 7,fig4 #gc1 f-f74--,?is is a l>ge & complex muscle ly+ on ! v5tral side ( ! neck & ! lat]al surface ( ! ?orax4 ,x might equally well be classifi$ ) ! muscles ( ! ?orax4 ,x is divisible into a consid]able numb] ( int]connect$ bundles :i* are sometimes describ$ z sep>ate muscles4 ,! l>ge/1 middle portion 7scal5us m$ius7 7f7 takes orig9 by ?9 t5dons f ! six?1 sev5?1 eigh?1 & n9? ribs1 j dorsad ( _! junction ) ! c>tilages2 ^! t5dons unite ne> _! orig9s to =m a flat b& :i* becomes fle%y at ab\t ! fif? rib1 passes craniad1 & unites j craniad ( ! fir/ rib ) ! o!r p>ts ( ! muscle4 ,! dorsal portion 7scal5us po/]ior7 7f7 has orig9 by a v sl5d] t5don f ab\t ! middle ( ! out] surface ( ! ?ird or f\r? rib2 x ext5ds craniad z a n>r[ b& :i* passes lat]ad betwe5 ! heads ( ! s]ratus ant]ior 7i7 t are atta*$ to ! second & ?ird 7or ?ird & f\r?7 ribs1 & unites ) ! o!r heads4 ,! v5tral head 7"p ( scal5us ant]ior7 7f7 arises by "o or two m9ute t5dons f ! c>tilages ( ! second & ?ird ribs2 !y are p>tly unit$ ) ! transv]sus co/>um 7j74 ,?is v5tral head passes craniad & unites ) ! o!r heads4 ,^! ?ree divisions unite j craniad ( ! fir/ rib ) ea* o!r & ) ! c]vical portion ( ! muscle 7f7 7"p ( scal5us ant]ior74 ,?is consi/s ( a numb] ( small bundles ( fibres :i* arise f ! fir/ rib & ! transv]se processes ( ! fir/ ?oracic & ! la/ six c]vical v]tebr4 ,! ins]tion is onto ! transv]se processes ( all ! c]vical v]tebr1 includ+ ! axis & atlas4 ,accord+ to ,/rauss-,durckheim ! fibres f any giv5 transv]se process are ins]t$ into ! transv]se processes ( all ! v]tebr craniad ( x4 ,! muscle is p>tly cont9u\s craniad ) ! longus capitis 7e74 ,! c]vical n]ves pass out betwe5 ! bundles ( ! c]vical portion4 ,relations4--,out] 7lat]al7 surface 9 ! ?oracic region ) ! ext]nal oblique 7,fig4 #fh1 p71 ! pectoralis m9or 7,fig4 #fe1 o71 & 9 "p ) ! s]ratus ant]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 i72 9 ! c]vical region ) ! /]noma/oid 7,fig4 #fe1 g74 ,inn] 7m$ial7 surface ) ! s]ratus ant]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 i71 ! levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h71 ! longus atlantis1 ! transv]se processes ( ! c]vical v]tebr1 & ! longus capitis 7,fig4 #gc1 e74 ,action4--,flexes ! neck & draws ! ribs craniad4 ,m4 longus capitis 7or rectus capitis ant]ior major7 7,fig4 #gb1 a2 ,fig4 #gc1 e74--,?is is a long muscle ly+ on ! v5tral aspect ( ! c]vical v]tebr4 ,) ! muscle ( ! opposite side & ! und]ly+ longus colli 7,fig4 #gb1 g7 x =ms a tr\gh 9 :i* lie ! sophagus1 ph>ynx1 & tra*ea4 ,orig9 by five 7or six7 heads f ! v5tral m>g9s ( ! transv]se processes ( ! c]vical v]tebr f ! second to ! six? inclusive4 ,! heads unite into a common belly1 ! lat]al bord] ( :i* is unit$ ) ! levator scapul v5tralis 7,fig4 #gb1 c7 ne> its ins]tion4 ,ins]tion into ! body ( ! sph5oid bone betwe5 ! bulla & ! middle l9e4 ,! ins]tion ext5ds craniad onto ! basisph5oid4 ,relations4--,v5tral surface ) ! /]noma/oid 7,fig4 #fe1 g7 & ! l>ge lymphatic gl& v5trad ( ! ext]nal e>4 ,lat]al surface ) ! scal5us 7,fig4 #gb1 h7 & craniad ) ! levator scapul v5tralis 7,fig4 #gb1 c-c74 ,m$ial surface ) ! c>otid art]y1 ! tra*ea1 sophagus1 & ph>ynx4 ,dorsal edge ) ! v]tebr1 ! longus colli 7,fig4 #gb1 g71 & ! rectus capitis ant]ior m9or 7,fig4 #gb1 b74 ,action4--,l[]s ! sn\t4 ,m4 rectus capitis ant]ior m9or 7,fig4 #gb1 b74--,?is is a flat b& b5ea? 7dorsad (7 ! longus capitis 7a74 ,orig9 f ! v5tral surface ( ! inf]ior ar* 7body7 ( ! atlas 7#c7 = ab\t five millimet]s lat]ad ( ! middle l9e4 ,ins]tion into a deep depression on ! basioccipital caudad ( ! ins]tion ( ! longus capitis 7a7 & betwe5 ! caudal end ( ! bulla 7#a7 & ! m$ian l9e4 ,relations4--,v5tral surface ) ! longus capitis 7a74 ,dorsal surface ) ! ant]ior 7v5tral7 atlanto-occipital membrane 7#b74 ,action4--,depresses ! sn\t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,v5tral ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,c]vical ,,v]tebr4 ,on ! left side ! longus capitis & "o head ( ! levator scapul v5tralis h be5 cut1 9 ord] to %[ ! rectus capitis ant]ior m9or4 a1 ,m4 longus capitis2 b1 ,m4 rectus capitis ant]ior m9or2 c1 ,m4 levator scapul v5tralis 7c1 its atlantal head2 c1 its occipital head72 d1 ,m4 rectus capitis lat]alis2 e1 ,m4 obliquus capitis sup]ior2 f1 ,m4 longissimus capitis2 g1 ,m4 longus colli 7g1 its c]vical portion2 g1 its ?oracic portion72 h1 "p ( ,m4 scal5us4 #a1 bulla tympani2 #b1 v5tral atlanto-occipital membrane2 #c1 v5tral ar* ( atlas2 #d1 fir/ rib4 ,m4 rectus capitis lat]alis 7,fig4 #gb1 d74--,?is lies v5trad ( ! obliquus sup]ior 7e7 on ! v5tral face ( ! transv]se process ( ! atlas & at fir/ appe>s to be a "p ( ! obliquus sup]ior4 ,orig9 f ! m$ian half ( ! v5tral surface ( ! transv]se process ( ! atlas4 ,! fibres =m a cyl9drical mass :i* passes craniad & slightly lat]ad4 ,ins]tion into ! fossa lat]ad ( ! condyle ( ! occipital bone4 ,relations4--,v5tral surface ) ! diga/ric 7,fig4 #fe1 b7 & ! lymphatic gl& v5trad ( ! e>4 ,dorsal surface ) ! w+ ( ! atlas4 ,action4--,flexes ! head lat]ally4 ,m4 longus colli 7,fig4 #fe1 g1 g74--,a long1 r sl5d] muscle ly+ on ! v5tral surface ( ! c]vical & fir/ six ?oracic v]tebr4 ,x consi/s ( _m sep>ate bundles1 & is divisible into a ?oracic & a c]vical portion4 ,! ?oracic portion 7g7 has orig9 by six heads f ! v5tral surface ( ! fir/ six ?oracic v]tebr4 ,! sep>ate heads jo9 to =m a b& :i* passes craniad & is ins]t$ = ! mo/ "p into ! processus co/>ius ( ! six? c]vical v]tebra2 a portion ( x jo9s ! c]vical division ( ! muscle4 ,! c]vical portion 7g7 is a cont9uation craniad ( ! ?oracic portion4 ,x arises 9 small bundles f ! transv]se processes & sides ( ! v5tral surfaces ( ! c5tra ( ! c]vical v]tebr4 ,^! bundles pass craniom$iad1 s t ^? f ! muscles ( opposite sides meet & are ins]t$ on ! c5tra ( ! v]tebr 9 ! middle l9e1 ea* pair ( bundles =m+ a ,v op5+ caudad4 ,! mo/ cranial ins]tion is into ! tub]cle on ! middle ( ! v5tral surface ( ! v5tral ar* ( ! atlas 7#c74 ,relations4--,dorsal surface ) ! c5tra ( ! v]tebr4 ,v5tral surface 9 ! ?orax ) ! tra*ea2 9 ! neck ) ! sophagus4 ,m$ial edge ) ! muscle ( ! opposite side4 ,lat]al m>g9 9 ! c]vical region ) ! longus capitis 7a74 ,action4--,b5ds ! neck4 #c4 ,muscles ( ! ,?orax4 ,a4 ,,brea/-,,muscles 7connect+ ! arm & ?orax7 7,fig4 #fe1 page #aji74 ,! muscles connect+ ! arm ) ! /]num1 correspond+ to ! pectoralis muscles ( man1 fall into a consid]able numb] ( n always cle>ly sep>at$ bundles 9 ! cat4 ,we %all di/+ui% by "n f\r su* bundles2 ^! might be1 & frequ5tly are1 fur!r subdivid$4 ,m4 pectoantibra*ialis 7,fig4 #fe1 m74--,?is is a small flat bundle ab\t "o or two c5timet]s wide1 =m+ ! mo/ sup]ficial portion ( ! pectoralis gr\p4 ,orig9 on ! lat]al surface ( ! manubrium4 ,! muscle passes lat]ad onto ! arm & is ins]t$ by a flat t5don into ! sup]ficial fascia ( ! dorsal bord] ( ! =e>m1 ne> ! elb[-jo9t4 ,! t5don is cont9u\s craniad ) ! bord] ( ! clavobra*ial 7k71 s t a bundle ( fibres may pass f ?is muscle to be ins]t$ ) ! clavobra*ial1 or a bundle f ! clavobra*ial to be ins]t$ ) ?is4 ,! t5don is cont9u\s caudad ) t ( ! epitro*le>is 7r74 ,! fascia ( ins]tion may be trac$ to an atta*m5t into ! dorsal bord] ( ! ulna4 ,?is muscle usually receives ne> its ins]tion a slip1 sometimes call$ its caudal division1 f ! deep lay] ( ! pectoralis major4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t4 ,inn] surface ) bo? divisions ( ! pectoralis major 7l7 on its m$ial two-?irds1 & ) ! biceps 7t7 & bicipital ar* 7t7 9 its lat]al "o-?ird4 ,! cranial bord] is closely appli$ to t ( ! clavobra*ial 7k71 except at ! two ends4 ,action4--,draws ! arm m$iad4 ,m4 pectoralis major1 or ectopectoralis 7,fig4 #fe1 l1 l74--,9 ?is x is usually possible to di/+ui% a sup]ficial & a deep lay]4 ,! sup]ficial 7l7 lay] is a flat b& ( fibres "o or two c5timet]s wide4 ,orig9 f a raphe 9 ! midv5tral l9e1 along ! cranial half ( ! manubrium & = five to t5 millimet]s craniad ( x4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #ha1 f74--,! pectoral ridge ( ! middle ?ird ( ! %aft ( ! hum]us1 slightly dorsad ( ! l9e ( ins]tion ( ! deep portion4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! clavobra*ial 7,fig4 #fe1 k7 & integum5t1 ! m$ial end caudally ) ! pectoantibra*ialis 7m71 & ! di/al end ) ! bra*ialis 7v74 ,inn] surface ) ! deep portion 7l71 ! fibres ( :i* x crosses obliquely4 ,! deep portion 7l7 is a flat b& ( p>allel fibres ab\t ?ree times z broad z ! sup]ficial portion4 ,orig94--,! v5tral surface ( ! manubrium & ( ! fir/ ?ree divisions ( ! /]num1 & ! m$ian raphe = ab\t "o c5timet] craniad ( ! manubrium4 ,x passes directly lat]ad4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #ha1 e7 along a l9e :i* beg9s at ! infrasp9atus fossa ( ! great tub]osity1 & runs p>allel to ! deltoid ridge until x rea*es ! pectoral ridge at ! junction ( ! second & ?ird f\r?s ( ! hum]us & !n cont9ues 9 ! direction ( ! pectoral ridge z f> z ! junction ( ! ?ird & f\r? f\r?s ( ! hum]us4 ,"s ( its fibres may pass caudad ( ! biceps & be ins]t$ ) ! epitro*le>is4 ,into ! "p ( ! l9e :i* is p>allel to ! deltoid ridge ! muscle is ins]t$ by a flat t5don2 into ! rema9d] ( ! l9e x is usually ins]t$ directly by muscle-fibres1 ?\gh at its caudal end its ins]tion may aga9 be t5d9\s4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! cutaneus maximus1 ! out] lay] ( ! pectoralis major 7,fig4 #fe1 l71 ! pectoantibra*ialis 7m71 & ! clavobra*ial 7k74 ,inn] surface ) ! pectoralis m9or 7o71 ! proximal end ( ! hum]us1 ! coracobra*ialis 7,fig4 #gg1 f71 & ! suprasp9atus 7,fig4 #gg1 d7 at ! ins]tion ( ! latt]4 ,at ! cranial "p ( its orig9 x t\*es ! /]noma/oid 7,fig4 #fe1 g7 & /]nohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 e74 ,action4--,draws ! arm m$iad & turns ! foot =w>d4 ,m4 pectoralis m9or1 or entopectoralis 7,fig4 #fe1 o74--,?is is a fan-%ap$ mass ( fibres1 flat b ?ick] ?an ! pectoralis major4 ,orig9 f ! lat]al half ( ! fir/ six divisions ( ! body ( ! /]num & sometimes f ! xiphoid process4 ,! fibres are divisible into sev]al bundles :i* v>y 9 ext5t & di/9ctness & are sometimes describ$ z sep>ate muscles4 ,!y pass craniolat]ad & conv]ge s t ! l9e ( ins]tion is ab\t "o-half z long z t ( ! orig94 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #ha1 d7 into ! hum]us along a l9e :i* =ms ! v5tral bord] ( ! bicipital groove at ! proximal end ( ! bone1 passes !nce onto ! pectoral ridge & cont9ues 9 ! direction ( ! pectoral ridge ne>ly z f> z ! middle ( ! l5g? ( ! hum]us4 ,! cranial & caudal fibres are ins]t$ by means ( a ?9 t5don2 ! middle fibres directly4 ,! cranial bord] ( ! t5don ( ins]tion is cont9u$ z a ?9 t5don to ! coracoid process2 x is closely unit$ ) ! ins]tion ( ! suprasp9atus4 ,relations4--,by its out] surface ) ! pectoralis major 7,fig4 #fe1 l7 ov] its cranial half2 ) ! cutaneus maximus1 latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fe1 q71 & integum5t ov] its caudal half4 ,by its inn] surface ) ! xiphihum]alis 7,fig4 #fe1 p71 rectus abdom9is 7,fig4 #gc1 k71 & a mass ( fat 9 ! axilla4 ,! t5don ( ! xiphihum]alis is also connect$ ) its inn] surface ne> its ins]tion4 ,its cranial bord] is free4 ,its caudal bord] is 9 relation at its m$ial end ) ! xiphihum]alis1 at its lat]al end ) ! t5don ( ! latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fe1 q74 ,action4--,draws ! arm t[>d ! middle l9e4 ,m4 xiphihum]alis 7,fig4 #fe1 q74--,a long1 ?91 n>r[ muscle :i* may be consid]$ z "p ( ! pectoralis m9or4 ,orig9 a m$ian raphe along ! xiphoid process or at an angle to ! m$ian l9e on ! rectus abdom9is muscle4 ,x passes craniad1 becom+ gradually small]1 & ab\t two c5timet]s f its ins]tion ends 9 a ?9 t5don4 ,ins]tion4--,x ends 9 a flat t5don :i* 9 pass+ is connect$ by a /rong fascia ) ! t5don ( ! latissimus 7,fig4 #fe1 q74 ,x passes along ! inn] surface ( ! pectoralis m9or 7o7 to be ins]t$ ) its cranial fibres ne> ! v5tral bord] ( ! bicipital groove4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! cutaneus maximus at its m$ial end1 ) ! pectoralis m9or 7o7 at its di/al end4 ,inn] surface ) ! ext]nal oblique 7,fig4 #fh1 p71 ! rectus abdom9is 7,fig4 #gc1 k71 & a mass ( fat 9 ! axilla4 ,bord]s free4 ,"s ( ! fibres ( ! cutaneus maximus are atta*$ to its out] surface4 ,action4--,assi/s ! pectoralis m9or4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,wall ,,( ,,! ,,?orax4 ,m4 s]ratus po/]ior sup]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 l74--,a ?9 %eet ( muscle & t5don b5ea? ! s]ratus ant]ior 7i7 on ! dorsal "p ( ! ?orax & neck4 ,orig9 by fle%y slips f ! out] surfaces ( ! fir/ n9e ribs j v5trad ( _! angles4 ,! orig9 may ext5d z f> z ! t5? or elev5? ribs4 ,! fir/ slip is usually delicate4 ,! fibres are direct$ dorsad & craniad & unite to =m a cont9u\s %eet4 ,?is ends along a longitud9al l9e opposite ! v]tebral transv]se processes 9 ! aponeurosis :i* cov]s ! longissimus dorsi & o!r muscles 9 ?is region4 ,its ins]tion is into ! m$ian dorsal raphe betwe5 ! axial sp9\s process & ! t5? ?oracic sp9\s process4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! s]ratus ant]ior 7i71 ! latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 m71 & ! rhomboideus4 ,inn] surface ) ! ext]nal int]co/als 7,fig4 #gc1 m71 ! ilioco/al 7,fig4 #fi1 h71 ! longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f71 ! sp9alis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g71 & ! spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b74 ,action4--,draws ! ribs craniad4 ,m4 s]ratus po/]ior inf]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 n74--,! s]ratus po/]ior inf]ior is a ?9 muscle ly+ caudad ( ! s]ratus po/]ior sup]ior 7l7 & sometimes ov]ly+ ! caudal end ( ! latt]4 ,orig9 by f\r or five heads f ! la/ f\r or five ribs4 ,9 "s specim5s only ?ree heads may be pres5t4 ,! sep>ate bundles pass dorsocaudad & unite to =m a cont9u\s %eet :i* ends 9 a cont9uation ( ! aponeurosis ( ! s]ratus po/]ior sup]ior 7l74 ,ins]tion into ! lumb> sp9\s processes & ! int]v5+ int]sp9\s ligam5ts4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 p71 & at ! orig9s ) ! int]co/ales ext]ni 7,fig4 #gc1 m74 ,inn] surface ) ! int]co/ales int]ni 7,fig4 #fi1 k7 at ! orig9 & ) ! int]co/ales ext]ni 7,fig4 #fi1 i71 ilioco/al 7,fig4 #fi1 h71 longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f71 & ! caudal end ( ! sp9alis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,,body ,,muscles ,,expos$ ,,aft] ,,removal ,,( ,,! ,,=elimb ,,& ,,! ,,muscles ,,%[n ,,9 ,,fig4 #fh4 a1 ,m4 occipitoscapul>is 7cut72 b1 ,m4 spl5ius2 c1 ,m4 levator scapul v5tralis 7cut72 d1 ,m4 cleidoma/oideus 7cut72 e1 ,m4 longus capitis2 f1 ,m4 scal5us 7f1 middle division2 f1 dorsal division2 f1 v5tral division2 f1 c]vical portion72 g1 ,m4 longissimus capitis2 h1 ,m4 levator scapul 7cut72 i1 ,m4 s]ratus ant]ior 7cut72 j1 ,m4 transv]sus co/>um2 k1 ,m4 rectus abdom9is 7k1 its t5don72 l1 ,m4 s]ratus po/]ior sup]ior2 m1 ,m4 int]co/ales ext]ni2 n1 ,m4 s]ratus po/]ior inf]ior2 o1 ,m4 obliquus abdom9is int]nus2 p1 lumbodorsal fascia4 ,action4--,assi/s ! s]ratus po/]ior sup]ior4 ,m4 transv]sus co/>um1 or /]noco/alis ext]nus 7,fig4 #gc1 j74--,?is is a ?9 muscle appli$ to ! cranial "p ( ! side ( ! ?orax1 cov]+ ! cranial end ( ! rectus abdom9is 7k74 ,orig9 by t5don f ! side ( ! /]num betwe5 ! atta*m5ts ( ! ?ird & six? ribs4 ,! muscle passes dorsocraniad to its ,ins]tion on ! fir/ rib & ! lat]al portion ( its co/al c>tilage4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! pectoralis m9or 7,fig4 #fe1 o74 ,inn] surface ) ! scal5us 7,fig4 #gc1 f71 ! rectus abdom9is 7,fig4 #gc1 k71 & ! int]co/ales ext]ni 7,fig4 #gc1 m74 ,at its ins]tion x is unit$ ) a portion ( ! scal5us 7,fig4 #gc1 f74 ,action4--,draws ! /]num =w>d4 ,mm4 levatores co/>um4--,small muscles hav+ orig9 on ! transv]se processes ( ! ?oracic v]tebr1 pass+ caudov5trad1 & becom+ ins]t$ on ! angle ( ! rib ly+ imm$iately caudad ( ! orig94 ,!y are cont9u\s ) ! ext]nal int]co/als4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f71 & craniad ) ! ilioco/al 7,fig4 #fi1 h74 ,inn] surface ) ! int]nal int]co/als 7,fig4 #fi1 k74 ,action4--,pull ! ribs dorsocraniad4 ,mm4 int]co/ales ext]ni 7,fig4 #gc1 m2 ,fig4 #fi1 i74--,! ext]nal int]co/als are plac$ 9 ! out] portion ( ! int]co/al spaces4 ,!y are compos$ ( bundles ( fibres atta*$ by _! ends to ! adjac5t bord]s ( ! ribs & hav+ 9 g5]al ! direction ( ! ext]nal oblique muscle1 i4e41 !y pass f _! cranial ends caudov5trad4 ,!y occupy ! int]co/al spaces betwe5 ! true ribs & ext5d ev5 caudad into ! spaces betwe5 ! false ribs4 ,!y are lack+ betwe5 ! v5tral ends ( ! co/al c>tilages ( ! fir/ six to eight ribs1 s t ! int]nal int]co/als 7,fig4 #fi1 k7 are "h expos$4 ,! m caudal ext]nal int]co/als are m ne>ly craniocaudal 9 direction4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) obliquus abdom9is ext]nus 7,fig4 #fh1 p71 latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 m71 s]ratus po/]ior inf]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 n7 & sup]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 l71 s]ratus ant]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 i71 scal5us 7,fig4 #gc1 f71 & ilioco/al 7,fig4 #fi1 h74 ,inn] surface ) ! int]nal int]co/als 7,fig4 #fi1 k74 ,action4--,protractors ( ! ribs4 ,mm4 int]co/ales int]ni 7,fig4 #fi1 k74--,! int]nal int]co/als are simil> to ! ext]nal int]co/als1 b5ea? :i* !y lie4 ,_! fibres pass betwe5 ! ribs at ne>ly "r angles to ^? ( ! ext]nal int]co/als & h ne>ly ! direction ( ! fibres ( ! int]nal oblique4 ,!y occupy all ! int]co/al spaces f ! fir/ to ! ?irte5? ribs4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! ext]nal int]co/als 7,fig4 #fi1 i71 & v5trad ) ! scal5us 7,fig4 #gc1 f71 transv]sus co/>um 7,fig4 #gc1 j71 & rectus abdom9is 7,fig4 #gc1 k74 ,inn] surface ) ! pleura & ! transv]sus ?oracis4 ,action4--,retractors ( ! ribs4 ,m4 transv]sus ?oracis 7triangul>is /]ni2 /]noco/alis int]nus74--,?is repres5ts a ?oracic portion ( ! transv]sus abdom9is4 ,x consi/s ( five or six flat muscul> b&s ly+ on ! inn] surface ( ! ?oracic wall4 ,orig9 on ! lat]al bord]s ( ! dorsal face ( ! /]num1 opposite ! atta*m5ts ( ! c>tilages ( ! ?ird to ! eigh? ribs4 ,! six b&s ?us =m$1 ea* ab\t "o c5timet] wide1 pass lat]ad & are ins]t$ into ! c>tilages ( ! ribs ne> _! junction ) ! ribs1 & into ! fascia :i* cov]s ! inn] surface ( ! int]nal int]co/als 9 ?is region4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! int]nal int]co/als & ! c>tilages ( ! ribs4 ,inn] surface ) ! pleura4 ,diaphragma 7,fig4 #gd74--,! diaphragm consi/s ( a c5tral s-call$ semilun> t5don 7e7 & ( muscul> fibres :i* pass radially f ! body wall to ! t5don4 ,x =ms a complete oblique p>tition betwe5 ! abdom9al & ?oracic cavities4 ,! dorsal end is f>!r caudad ?an ! v5tral4 ,! c5tral t5don 7e7 is ?9 & irregul>ly cresc5t-%ap$1 ) ! convexity v5trad & ! horns ( ! cresc5t prolong$ z two t5d9\s b&s 7e7 :i* end 9 two triangul> membran\s portions 7d7 ( ! diaphragm1 "o on ea* side ( ! sp9al column4 ,x is pi]c$ by an op5+ = ! v5a cava 7f74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,,diaphragm1 ,,caudal ,,surface ,,se5 ,,obliquely ,,f ,,! ,,"r4 a1 "r crus2 b1 left crus2 c1 c1 /]noco/al "p ( diaphragm2 d1 d1 membran\s portions ( ! diaphragm2 e1 c5tral t5don2 e1 prolongations ( c5tral t5don2 f1 op5+ = po/]ior v5a cava2 g1 sophagus2 h1 aorta2 i1 ,m4 transv]sus abdom9is4 ,! muscul> portion is 9 two p>ts3 7a7 ,! v]tebral portion 7a1 b7 arises by a s+le t5don f ! v5tral surface ( ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r? lumb> c5tra4 ,! t5don div]ges into two1 ! "r "o 7a7 ( :i* is mu* /rong]1 & f ea* ( ! two arise muscle-fibres4 ,ea* mass ( fibres is "o ( ! two crura 7s+4 crus7 ( ! diaphragm4 ,! aorta 7h7 ent]s ! abdom5 betwe5 ! crura dorsally4 ,! fibres ( ea* crus div]ge to be ins]t$ into ! c5tral t5don & ! dorsal cont9uation ( its horn4 ,! two sets ( fibres unite v5trad ( ! op5+ ( ! aorta4 ,betwe5 ?is op5+ & ! c5tral t5don is ano!r op5+ = ! sophagus 7g72 ?is lies entirely 9 t "p ( ! diaphragm :i* arises f ! "r crus 7a74 ,! fibres are aga9 unit$ v5trad ( ! sophageal op5+4 7b7 ,! /]noco/al "p 7c1 c7 takes orig9 f ! xiphoid process & ! la/ five ribs1 by fle%y bundles :i* int]digitate ) ^? ( ! transv]sus abdom9is 7i74 ,! fibres conv]ge to ! c5tral t5don 7e74 ,betwe5 ! crus ( ea* side & ! mo/ dorsal ( ! co/al fibres is ! membran\s int]val 7d7 m5tion$ above4 #d4 ,abdom9al ,muscles4 ,m4 obliquus abdom9is ext]nus 7,fig4 #fh1 p74--,a l>ge1 ?9 %eet ( muscle cov]+ ! :ole abdom5 & "p ( ! ?orax v5trally4 ,orig94--7a7 ,f ! la/ n9e or t5 ribs by means ( z _m t5dons1 :i* are int]connect$ to =m ar*es t span ! slips ( ! s]ratus ant]ior4 ,! muscle-fibres arise f ^! t5dons & f _! int]v5+ ar*es4 7b7 ,f ! lumbodorsal aponeurosis common to x & ! int]nal oblique4 ,! cranial fibres pass ne>ly v5trad1 ! caudal fibres caudad1 & ! int]v5+ fibres take an int]m$iate c\rse4 ,! fibres end 9 a ?9 aponeurosis ( ins]tion along a curv$ l9e :i* passes at fir/ caudad & !n lat]odorsad4 ,! aponeurosis fibres cont9ue 9 ! direction ( ! muscle-fibres to ! ,ins]tion into ! m$ian raphe v5trad ( ! /]num f ! ins]tion ( ! sev5? co/al c>tilage to ! xiphoid process1 into ! l9ea alba f ! /]num to ! pubic tub]cle1 & into ! tub]cle & ! cranial bord] ( ! pubis4 ,caudad ( ! xiphoid process ! aponeurosis is closely unit$ to ! sup]ficial lay] ( ! int]nal oblique1 :]e x =ms ! out] lay] ( ! %ea? ( ! rectus abdom9is4 ,lat]ad ( ! pubic tub]cle ! t5don is p]=at$ by ! +u9al canal4 ,9 ! cat nei!r ! caudal "p ( ! muscle nor its t5don is atta*$ to ! ilium1 z x is 9 man & ! dog1 s t no ,p\p>t's ligam5t1 or +u9al ligam5t1 is =m$4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! cutaneus maximus1 ! integum5t1 & ne> ! orig9 ) ! latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 m74 ,inn] surface ) ! obliquus int]nus 7,fig4 #gc1 o71 ! rectus abdom9is 7,fig4 #gc1 k71 ! int]co/ales ext]ni 7,fig4 #gc1 m71 a small "p ( ! s]ratus po/]ior inf]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 n71 & by its dorsal t5don ) ! longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,action4--,con/rictor ( ! abdom54 ,m4 obliquus abdom9is int]nus 7,fig4 #gc1 o74--,a ?9 %eet simil> to ! prec$+ b ( less ext5t4 ,its fibres cross ^? ( ! ext]nal oblique ne>ly at "r angles & lie b5ea? !m4 ,orig94--7#a7 ,betwe5 ! f\r? & sev5? lumb> v]tebr f ! lumb> aponeurosis :i* is common to x & ! ext]nal oblique4 ,! lumb> aponeurosis takes orig9 f ! lumb> sp9\s processes & ! int]sp9\s ligam5ts1 & is cont9u\s craniad ) ! aponeurosis ( ! s]ratus po/]ior inf]ior4 ,lat]ad x splits into ?ree %eets1 two = ! above-nam$ muscles & a ?ird :i* passes to ! v]tebral transv]se processes & =ms ! fascia cov]+ ! suprasp9\s muscles ( ! lumb> region4 7#b7 ,by a simil> aponeurosis f ! v5tral half ( ! iliac cre/4 7#c7 ,by fle%y fibres f ! ?ree crural ar*es4 ,^! are ?ree delicate ligam5t\s ar*es :i* /ret* f ! cre/ ( ! ilium to ! pubic sp9e4 ,! dorsal "o gives exit to ! iliopsoas muscle1 ! middle to ! femoral vessels1 & ! v5tral to ! sp]matic cord4 ,9 ! female ! middle & v5tral ar*es may fuse4 ,! pill> betwe5 ! dorsal & middle ar*es is atta*$ to ! iliopect9eal em95ce4 ,ins]tion4--,! fibres pass craniov5trad & end along a longitud9al l9e 9 a ?9 aponeurosis ( ins]tion1 :i* is unit$ 9 ! l9ea alba to ^? ( ! ext]nal oblique & transv]sus4 ,at ! caudal end ( ! aponeurosis all its fibres pass outside ( ! rectus abdom9is 7,fig4 #gc1 k74 ,at its cranial end ! fibres divide into two %eets or lam91 "o ( :i* passes outside ( ! rectus & ! o!r inside4 ,! out] lam9a unites ) ! aponeurosis ( ! ext]nal oblique1 :ile ! inn] lam9a unites ) t ( ! transv]sus4 ,!re is ?us =m$ a %ea? = ! cranial "p ( ! rectus muscle4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! obliquus ext]nus 7,fig4 #fh1 p74 ,inn] surface ) ! transv]sus abdom9is 7,fig4 #fi1 l71 & by its v5tral t5don ) ! rectus4 ,action4--,compressor ( ! abdom54 ,m4 transv]sus abdom9is 7,fig4 #fi1 l74--,a ?9 %eet cov]+ ! :ole surface ( ! abdom5 & ly+ b5ea? ! int]nal oblique4 ,its fibres are ne>ly transv]se4 ,orig94--7#a7 ,by fle%y fibres or by a ?9 aponeurosis f ! c>tilages ( all ! false & float+ ribs1 by int]digitation ) ! fibres ( ! diaphragm4 7#b7 ,f ! tips ( all ! lumb> transv]se processes4 7#c7 ,f ! v5tral bord] ( ! ilium4 7#d7 ,f ! dorsal & middle ( ! ?ree crural ar*es1 :]e x may bl5d p>tly ) ! int]nal oblique4 ,! muscle is cont9u\s craniad ) ! transv]sus ?oracis muscle4 ,ne> ! lat]al bord] ( ! rectus abdom9is ! muscle ends 9 a ?9 aponeurosis ( ins]tion :i* is cont9u$ 7its fibres hav+ ! direction ( ! muscle-fibres7 to ! ,ins]tion 9 ! l9ea alba4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! int]nal oblique 7,fig4 #gc1 o7 & ! rectus abdom9is 7,fig4 #gc1 k71 dorsad also ) ! longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,inn] surface ) a ?9 fascia cov]+ ! p]itoneum & v5trocaudad ) ! rectus 7,fig4 #gc1 k74 ,! dorsal edge ( ! muscle t\*es ! iliopsoas & longissimus dorsi2 ! v5tral edge t\*es ! muscle ( ! opposite side4 ,action4--,con/rictor ( ! abdom54 ,m4 rectus abdom9is 7,fig4 #gc1 k74--,a r ?ick1 flat muscle :i* lies ne> ! m$ian v5tral l9e sep>at$ by ! l9ea alba f its fell[ ( ! opposite side & /ret*+ f ! pubis to ! fir/ co/al c>tilage4 ,opposite ! fir/ lumb> v]tebra x is approximately f\r c5timet]s wide4 ,x n>r[s at bo? ends4 ,orig9 by a /rong t5don f ! tub]cle ( ! pubis4 ,! muscle passes craniad at fir/ betwe5 ! p]itoneal fascia & ! transv]sus aponeurosis1 !n 9 ! %ea? =m$ by ! int]nal & ext]nal oblique & ! transv]sus aponeurosis4 ,x em]ges f ! %ea? opposite ! xiphoid process & passes v5trad ( ! co/al c>tilages4 ,betwe5 ! ?ird & f\r? co/al c>tilages x ends 9 a ?9 t5don :i* passes b5ea? ! transv]sus co/>um & is ,ins]t$ into ! fir/ co/al c>tilage ne> its middle1 into ! second co/al c>tilage ne> its /]nal end1 & into ! /]num betwe5 ! fir/ & f\r? c>tilages4 ,relations4--,out] surface ( ! cranial "p ( ! muscle & its t5don ) ! pectoralis m9or 7,fig4 #fh1 o7 & ! transv]sus co/>um 7,fig4 #gc1 j72 caudad ! muscle is cov]$ by ! out] lay] ( ! rectus %ea?4 ,lat]al edge ) ! obliquus ext]nus 7,fig4 #fh1 p71 obliquus int]nus 7,fig4 #gc1 o71 & transv]sus abdom9is 7,fig4 #fi1 l74 ,m$ial edge ) ! muscle ( ! opposite side4 ,inn] surface ) ! int]nal int]co/als 7,fig4 #fi1 k7 & ! rib c>tilages2 ! inn] lay] ( ! rectus %ea? & ! p]itoneum4 ,action4--,retracts ! ribs & /]num & compresses ! abdom54 ,,iv4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,?oracic ,,limbs4 ,! muscles connect+ ! ?oracic limbs ) ! re/ ( ! body h be5 describ$4 #a4 ,muscles ( ! ,%\ld]4 ,a4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,lat]al ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,%\ld]4 ,m4 deltoideus4--,! deltoid muscle ( ! cat is divid$ into two 7or ?ree7 portions :i* are toge!r equival5t to ! human deltoid4 ,^! are ! sp9odeltoid1 ! acromiodeltoid1 & possibly ! clavobra*ial1 :i* is frequ5tly call$ clavodeltoid4 ,m4 sp9odeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 e2 ,fig4 #fh1 i74--,a r ?ick1 flat muscle betwe5 ! scapul> sp9e & ! deltoid ridge ( ! hum]us4 ,x =ms a *ord ( ! angle betwe5 ! gl5oid bord] ( ! scapula & ! hum]us4 ,orig9 by %ort t5don-fibres f ! gl5oid bord] ( some:at m ?an ! middle ?ird ( ! sp9e ( ! scapula 7,fig4 #gf1 g71 & f a t5d9\s raphe betwe5 ! sp9otrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 j71 acromiotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 h71 & infrasp9atus 7,fig4 #ge1 c74 ,! orig9 may pass t[>d ! v]tebral bord] ( ! scapula onto ! infrasp9atus muscle 7,fig4 #ge1 c74 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #ha1 h7 by a flat t5don ^u ! deltoid ridge ( ! hum]us1 ne>ly p>allel to t ( ! pectoralis major4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t & at ! ins]tion ) ! acromiodeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 f74 ,inn] surface ) ! infrasp9atus 7c71 t]es m9or 7,fig4 #hj1 c71 caput lat]ale 7,fig4 #ge1 h71 & caput longum 7,fig4 #ge1 g7 ( ! triceps muscle4 ,action4--,flexes ! hum]us & rotates x outw>d4 ,m4 acromiodeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 f2 ,fig4 #fh1 g74--,a flat muscle :i* ov]lies ! di/al end ( ! sp9odeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 c74 ,x connects ! acromion ) ! hum]us4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #gf1 d74--,f ! gl5oid bord] ( ! acromion1 & sometimes ! adjac5t metacromion z f> z ! tip4 ,ins]tion4--,mo/ly ^u ! out] surface ( ! sp9odeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 c74 ,! out] fibres are cont9u$ to ! bone1 especially at ! lat]al bord] ( ! muscle1 & are ins]t$ along a l9e v5trad ( ! l9e ( ins]tion ( ! sp9odeltoideus1 & ext5d+ f>!r di/ally 7,fig4 #ha1 g74 ,"s ( ! out] fibres pass into ! bra*ialis 7,fig4 #hj1 h74 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t & ! clavobra*ial 7,fig4 #fh1 e74 ,inn] surface ) ! infrasp9atus 7,fig4 #ge1 c71 t]es m9or 7,fig4 #hj1 c71 sp9odeltoid 7,fig4 #ge1 e71 & caput lat]ale ( ! triceps 7,fig4 #ge1 h74 ,action4--,l t ( ! sp9odeltoid4 ,m4 clavobra*ialis 7,fig4 #fe1 k2 ,fig4 #fh1 e74--,a flat1 triangul> muscle on ! cranial surface ( ! %\ld]1 =m+ a direct cont9uation ( ! clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d74 ,^! two are frequ5tly describ$ z con/itut+ a s+le muscle1 ! cephalohum]al or cephalobra*ial4 7,! clavobra*ial is frequ5tly giv5 ! "n clavodeltoid2 z its homology ) ! human clavodeltoid appe>s d\btful1 x seems well to use ! "n clavobra*ial1 z propos$ by ,clas547 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,lat]al ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,arm4 a1 ,m4 suprasp9atus2 b1 "p ( ins]tion ( ,m4 rhomboideus2 c1 ,m4 infrasp9atus2 d1 ,m4 t]es major2 e1 ,m4 sp9odeltoideus2 f1 ,m4 acromiodeltoideus2 g1 caput longum ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 h1 caput lat]ale ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 i1 ,m4 bra*ialis2 j1 ,m4 biceps2 k1 ,m4 bra*ioradialis2 l1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis longus2 m1 ,m4 ext5sor communis digitorum 7m1 t5don ( same72 n1 ,m4 ext5sor lat]alis digitorum2 7n1 t5don ( same72 o1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi uln>is 7o1 t5don ( same72 p1 ,m4 ext5sor indicis proprius2 q1 fif? head ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 r1 ,m4 flexor c>pi uln>is4 #a1 v]tebral bord] ( ! scapula2 #b1 sp9e ( ! scapula2 #c1 great] tub]osity ( ! hum]us2 #d1 olecranon2 #e1 transv]se ligam5t ( ! wri/4 ,orig94--,its sup]ficial fibres are cont9uations ( ! clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d72 o!r fibres h orig9 f ! clavicle & f a raphe lat]ad ( ! clavicle :i* is common to ?is muscle & ! clavotrapezius4 ,x passes di/ad along ! cranial surface ( ! arm1 gr[+ n>r[] z x approa*es ! convexity ( ! elb[4 ,ins]tion4--,eight to t5 millimet]s f ! ulna x jo9s ! bra*ialis muscle 7,fig4 #gi1 i7 to be ins]t$ ) x by a flat t5don 7,fig4 #gi1 i2 ,fig4 #hg1 c7 ^u a r\gh area on ! m$ial surface ( ! ulna j di/ad ( ! semilun> not*1 & ab\t midway betwe5 ! dorsal & v5tral bord]s4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t4 ,inn] surface ) ! pectoralis major 7,fig4 #fe1 l71 biceps 7,fig4 #gg1 g71 lat]al head ( ! triceps 7,fig4 #ge1 h71 acromiodeltoid 7,fig4 #ge1 f71 & bra*ialis 7,fig4 #hj1 h74 ,m$ial bord] ) ! pectoantibra*ialis 7,fig4 #fe1 m74 ,lat]al bord] free except ne> ! ins]tion1 :]e x is 9 relation ) ! bra*ialis4 ,action4--,flexor ( ! antibra*ium4 ,m4 suprasp9atus 7,fig4 #ge1 a7 occupies ! :ole ( ! suprasp9atus fossa ( ! scapula4 ,x is cov]$ by /rong fascia :i* /ret*es f ! free edge ( ! sp9e to ! coracoid bord] ( ! scapula & to ! coracoid half ( its v]tebral bord]4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #gf1 b7 by fle%y fibres f ! :ole surface ( ! suprasp9atus fossa1 f ! above-m5tion$ fascia1 & f ! subscapul>is 7,fig4 #gg1 a7 craniad ( ! coracoid bord] ( ! scapula4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hc1 a74--,x passes ov] ! capsule ( ! %\ld]-jo9t1 to :i* x is closely atta*$1 & is ins]t$ into ! free bord] ( ! great tub]osity v5trad 7or proximad7 ( ! fossa = ! infrasp9atus 7,fig4 #hc1 c74 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! sp9otrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 j71 acromiotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 h71 levator scapul v5tralis 7,fig4 #fh1 f71 clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d71 & cleidoma/oid 7,fig4 #fe1 h74 ,inn] surface ) ! scapula4 ,! di/al end ( ! coracoid bord] is closely relat$ to ! pectoralis m9or 7,fig4 #gi1 f74 ,! gl5oid bord] is relat$ to ! orig9 ( ! deltoidei4 ,action4--,ext5ds ! hum]us aft] x has be5 flex$ on ! scapula4 ,m4 infrasp9atus 7,fig4 #ge1 c74--,?is fills ! infrasp9atus fossa1 its fibres conv]g+ to ! ins]tion on ! great tub]osity ( ! hum]us4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,lat]al ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,scapula1 ,,) ,,! ,,areas ,,( ,,atta*m5t ,,( ,,muscles4 a1 ,m4 infrasp9atus2 b1 ,m4 suprasp9atus2 c1 orig9 ( ,m4 biceps2 d1 ,m4 acromiodeltoideus2 e1 ,m4 t]es m9or2 f1 ,m4 levator scapul v5tralis2 g1 ,m4 sp9odeltoideus2 h1 ,m4 acromiotrapezius2 i1 ,m4 rhomboideus2 j1 ,m4 t]es major2 k-l1 l9e ( ins]tion ( ,m4 sp9otrapezius4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #gf1 a74--,by fle%y fibres f ! :ole infrasp9atus fossa1 & by a raphe betwe5 x & ! t]es major 7,fig4 #ge1 d71 & sometimes by fibres f ! t]es m9or 7,fig4 #hj1 c71 triceps1 sp9odeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 e71 sp9otrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 j71 & subscapul>is 7,fig4 #gg1 a74 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hc1 c74--,by a flat t5don :i* passes ov] ! capsule ( ! jo9t1 into ! v5tral half ( ! infrasp9atus fossa on ! great tub]osity ( ! hum]us4 7,! dorsal half ( ! fossa is cov]$ by a synovial bursa47 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! sp9otrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 j71 sp9odeltoid 7,fig4 #fh1 i71 acromiodeltoid 7,fig4 #fh1 g71 t]es major 7,fig4 #ge1 d71 & levator scapul v5tralis 7,fig4 #fh1 f74 ,inn] surface ) ! scapula4 ,gl5oid bord] ) ! t]es m9or 7,fig4 #hj1 c71 ! t]es major 7,fig4 #ge1 d71 & ! long head ( ! triceps 7,fig4 #ge1 g74 ,action4--,rotates ! hum]us outw>d4 ,m4 t]es m9or 7,fig4 #hj1 c74--,a small muscle f ! gl5oid bord] ( ! scapula to ! proximal end ( ! hum]us4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #gf1 e7 by a %eet ( t5d9\s fibres f ! gl5oid bord] ( ! scapula beg9n+ ab\t "o-fif? ! l5g? ( ! bord] f ! gl5oid fossa & ext5d+ to its middle4 ,x is (t5 atta*$ to ! infrasp9atus 7,fig4 #hj1 b7 & ! caput longum ( ! triceps 7,fig4 #ge1 g74 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hc1 d7 by a %ort t5don into ! tub]cle j di/ad ( ! infrasp9atus fossa on ! great tub]osity ( ! hum]us4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! sp9odeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 e71 acromiodeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 f71 & ! infrasp9atus 7,fig4 #hj1 b74 ,inn] surface ) ! lat]al 7,fig4 #ge1 h7 & long 7,fig4 #ge1 g7 heads ( ! triceps & ! capsule ( ! jo9t4 ,action4--,assi/s ! infrasp9atus to rotate ! hum]us outw>d4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,m$ial ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,%\ld]4 7,fig4 #gg47 ,m4 subscapul>is 7,fig4 #gg1 a74--,a triangul> mass f ! subscapul> fossa to ! less] tub]osity ( ! hum]us4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #gh1 a74--,f ! :ole subscapul> fossa except along ! fusi=m area = ! atta*m5t ( ! levator scapul & ! s]ratus ant]ior ne> ! v]tebral bord]1 & except ov] a quadrangul> area ab\t "o c5timet] long ne> ! gl5oid angle4 ,! orig9 is by fle%y fibres directly f ! p]io/eum except along two or ?ree l9es m>k$ by oblique ridges4 ,to ^! l9es are atta*$ t5d9\s fibres4 ,at ! gl5oid bord] ! area ( orig9 sometimes occupies "p or ! :ole ( ! surface ( ! fossa = ! orig9 ( ! t]es major1 s t ! t]es arises f ! fascia on ! surface ( ! subscapul>is4 ,at ! coracoid bord] "s ( ! fibres may take orig9 f ! adjac5t fascia ( ! suprasp9atus 7,fig4 #gg1 d74 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hb1 b74--,! fibres conv]ge to ! gl5oid bord]1 & ! ins]tion is by a /rong1 flat t5don into ! dorsal bord] ( ! less] tub]osity ( ! hum]us4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,m$ial ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,arm4 ,m4 epitro*le>is1 ,m4 clavobra*ialis1 & ! brea/-muscles h be5 remov$4 a1 ,m4 subscapul>is2 b1 ins]tion ( ,m4 levator scapul & ( ,m4 s]ratus ant]ior2 c1 ,m4 t]es major2 d1 ,m4 suprasp9atus2 e1 ,m4 latissimus dorsi 7e1 cut edge ( t "p :i* becomes unit$ ) ! bicipital ar*72 f1 ,m4 coracobra*ialis2 g1 ,m4 biceps bra*ii 7! capsule ( ! jo9t has be5 laid op5 to %[ its t5don72 h1 cut ins]tions ( pectoralis muscles2 i1 caput longum ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 j1 long portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 k1 int]m$iate portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 l1 %ort portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 m1 cut end ( ,m4 clavobra*ialis2 n1 ,m4 bra*ioradialis2 o1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis longus2 p1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis brevis2 q1 ,m4 pronator t]es2 r1 ,m4 flexor c>pi radialis2 s1 ,m4 palm>is longus 7s1 its t5dons72 t1 ,m4 flexor c>pi uln>is 7t1 uln> head2 t1 hum]al head72 u1 ?ird head ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 u1 fif? head ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 u1 "o ( ! t5dons ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 v1 ,m4 pronator quadratus2 w1 ,m4 abductor brevis pollicis2 x1 uln> "p ( ,m4 flexor sublimis digitorum4 #a1 transv]se ligam5t ( ! wri/4 ,relations4--,lat]al surface ) ! scapula & ! capsule ( ! %\ld]-jo9t4 ,m$ial surface ) ! levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h71 s]ratus ant]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 i71 "p ( ! scal5us 7,fig4 #gc1 f71 ! transv]sus co/>um 7,fig4 #gc1 j71 & ! coracobra*ialis 7,fig4 #gg1 f74 ,cranial bord] ) ! suprasp9atus 7,fig4 #gg1 d74 ,caudal bord] ) ! t]es major 7,fig4 #gg1 c7 & infrasp9atus 7,fig4 #ge1 c74 ,action4--,pulls ! hum]us inw>d 7m$iad74 ,m4 t]es major 7,fig4 #ge1 d2 ,fig4 #gg1 c74--,a ?ick muscle1 triangul> 9 cross-section1 ly+ p>allel ) ! gl5oid bord] ( ! scapula4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #gf1 j2 ,fig4 #gh1 b7 f ! v]tebral "o-?ird ( ! gl5oid bord] ( ! scapula1 & f fascia cov]+ ! subscapul>is 7,fig4 #gg1 a7 & ! infrasp9atus 7,fig4 #ge1 c7 ov] a small area ne> ! gl5ov]tebral angle ( ! scapula4 ,x may t\* ! ins]tion ( ! rhomboideus4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hb1 f7 by a t5don common to x & ! latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #gi1 d71 z already describ$4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! caput longum 7,fig4 #ge1 g7 & ! long portion 7,fig4 #hj1 f7 ( ! caput m$iale ( ! triceps1 ! latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #gg1 e71 & ! cutaneus maximus4 ,inn] surface ) ! s]ratus ant]ior 7,fig4 #gc1 i71 ! scal5us 7,fig4 #gc1 f71 ! transv]sus co/>um 7,fig4 #gc1 j71 & ! biceps 7,fig4 #gg1 g74 ,dorsal bord] ) ! subscapul>is 7,fig4 #gg1 a7 & infrasp9atus 7,fig4 #ge1 c74 ,action4--,rotates ! hum]us inw>d & flexes x 9 opposition to ! infrasp9atus1 t]es m9or1 & ! deltoidei4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,,m$ial ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,scapula ,,) ,,! ,,areas ,,( ,,atta*m5t ,,( ,,muscles4 a1 ,m4 subscapul>is2 b1 ,m4 t]es major2 c1 ,m4 s]ratus ant]ior2 d1 ,m4 levator scapul2 e1 ,m4 rhomboideus2 f1 ,m4 occipitoscapul>is2 g1 ,m4 biceps2 h1 ,m4 coracobra*ialis2 i1 caput longum ( ,m4 triceps4 #b4 ,muscles ( ! ,bra*ium or ,upp] ,arm4 ,m4 clavobra*ialis & ! pectoralis gr\p 7,fig4 #fe1 page #aji7 lie p>tly 9 ?is region2 !y h be5 describ$4 ,m4 coracobra*ialis 7,fig4 #gg1 f2 ,fig4 #gi1 c74--,a v %ort muscle cov]+ ! inn] 7m$ial7 surface ( ! capsule ( ! %\ld]-jo9t4 ,x ext5ds f ! coracoid process to ! proximal end ( ! hum]us4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #gh1 h74--,by a r\nd t5don f ! tip ( ! coracoid process4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hb1 e7 usually by fle%y fibres on an area five to eight millimet]s long & ab\t half z wide1 :i* lies on ! m$ial side ( ! hum]us p>allel ) ! ridge :i* runs f ! dorsal end ( ! less] tub]osity to ! %aft & close to x4 ,! proximal end ( ! area is ab\t "o c5timet] f ! proximal end ( ! head ( ! hum]us4 ,relations4--,m$ial surface ) ! biceps 7,fig4 #gg1 g71 pectoralis m9or 7,fig4 #fe1 o71 & t]es major 7,fig4 #gg1 c74 ,lat]al surface ) ! capsule ( ! %\ld]-jo9t4 ,dorsal bord] ) ! subscapul>is 7,fig4 #gg1 a7 & ! long portion ( ! caput m$iale ( ! triceps 7,fig4 #gg1 j74 ,action4--,adducts ! hum]us4 ,! "p ( ! coracobra*ialis j describ$ is kn[n z ! %ort head4 ,a long head is sometimes f\nd4 ,x is a conical bundle ( fibres ( v>y+ size1 :i* arises f ! t5don ( orig9 ( ! %ort head4 ,x passes di/ad into a long & extremely sl5d] t5don1 ! ins]tion ( :i* v>ies greatly 9 diff]5t individuals4 ,x is commonly on ! hum]us 9 ! region ( ! supracondyloid =am54 ,m4 epitro*le>is or ext5sor antibra*ii longus 7,fig4 #fe1 r74--,a ?91 flat muscle on ! inn] or m$ial side ( ! bra*ium1 f ! lat]al surface ( ! latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fe1 q7 to ! olecranon process ( ! ulna4 ,orig9 f ! lat]al or out] surface ( ! v5tral bord] ( ! latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fe1 q7 ne> ! ins]tion ( ! cutaneus maximus4 ,fibres are (t5 atta*$ to ! t]es major & ! pectoralis m9or4 ,ins]tion by a flat t5don :i* is closely connect$ ) t ( ! pectoantibra*ialis 7,fig4 #fe1 m7 & is cont9u\s ) ! g5]al antibra*ial fascia1 into ! caudal bord] ( ! cutane\s 7dorsal7 surface ( ! olecranon process ( ! ulna4 ,relations4--,out] 7m$ial7 surface ) ! integum5t1 ! latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fe1 q71 & ! cutaneus maximus4 ,inn] 7lat]al7 surface ) ! biceps 7,fig4 #fe1 t71 caput longum 7,fig4 #fe1 s71 & caput m$iale 7,fig4 #gg1 j1 k7 ( ! triceps4 ,action4--,ext5ds ! antibra*ium & t5ds to sup9ate ! h& by rotat+ ! ulna4 ,m4 biceps bra*ii 7,fig4 #gg1 g2 ,fig4 #fe1 t74--,a ?ick1 fusi=m muscle ly+ on ! front 7v5tral7 surface ( ! hum]us4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #gf1 c7 by a /rong1 r\nd t5don f ! bicipital tub]cle ( ! gl5oid angle ( ! scapula1 at its coracoid m>g94 7,9 man !re is a second head--coracoid head--f ! coracoid process47 ,! t5don passes ?r\gh ! capsule ( ! jo9t & !n along ! bicipital groove1 :i* is conv]t$ into a canal by a /rong ligam5t4 ,ins]tion by a r\nd$ t5don 7,fig4 #hg1 b7 on ! bicipital tub]osity ( ! radius 7,fig4 #hf1 k74 ,relations4--,! t5don ( orig9 passes ?r\gh ! capsule ( ! jo9t1 :i* is cov]$ by a "p ( ! pectoralis m9or4 ,! muscle is !n spann$ = ! middle "p ( its c\rse by ! bicipital ar* 7,fig4 #fe1 t71 a description ( :i* is giv5 bel[4 ,f>!r di/ad x is cov]$ by ! clavobra*ial 7,fig4 #fe1 k7 & epitro*le>is 7,fig4 #fe1 r74 ,at its di/al end 7,fig4 #gi1 l7 ! muscle passes betwe5 ! pronator t]es on ! radial side & ! conjo9$ t5don ( ! bra*ialis & clavobra*ial 7,fig4 #gi1 i7 on ! o!r4 ,! biceps lies ?r\gh\t mo/ ( its l5g? on ! v5tral surface ( ! hum]us1 & t\*es along ! m$ial bord] ( its inn] surface ! coracobra*ialis 7,fig4 #gg1 f71 ! t]es major1 7,fig4 #gg1 c71 ! int]m$iate portion ( ! caput m$iale ( ! triceps 7,fig4 #gg1 k71 & ! %ort portion 7,fig4 #gg1 l7 ( ! same4 ,its lat]al bord] t\*es ! pectoralis m9or 7,fig4 #fe1 o7 & ! bra*ialis 7,fig4 #gi1 i74 ,action4--,flexes ! =e>m1 & t5ds to sup9ate ! h&4 ,! bicipital ar* 7,fig4 #fe1 t7 is a t5d9\s ar* =m$ ov] ! biceps muscle4 ,its out] or lat]al pill> is =m$ by ! t5don ( ! pectoralis m9or 7o71 to :i* may be add$ "p ( ! latissimus 7q7 t5don4 ,its inn] or m$ial pill> is =m$ by ! conjo9$ t5don ( ! t]es major & latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #gi1 d71 :ile ! xiphihum]alis 7,fig4 #fe1 p71 cutaneus maximus 7,fig4 #fb1 b71 & epitro*le>is 7,fig4 #fe1 r7 are connect$ ) "o or ! o!r pill> or ) ! muscles compos+ !m4 ,! caudal portion ( ! deep lay] ( ! pectoralis major 7,fig4 #fe1 l7 may be connect$ ) ! inn] pill>4 ,m4 bra*ialis 7,fig4 #gi1 i2 ,fig4 #ge1 i74--,f ! lat]al surface ( ! hum]us to ! ulna4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #hc1 g1 g7 f a long ,v-%ap$ l9e two to f\r millimet]s wide on ! lat]al surface ( ! hum]us4 ,! apex ( ! ,v is j di/ad ( ! t]es m9or tub]cle 7d74 ,its dorsal limb 7g7 ext5ds along ! lat]al supracondyloid ridge to a po9t opposite ! proximal m>g9 ( ! supracondyloid =am52 its v5tral limb 7g7 ext5ds 9 ! direction ( ! deltoid ridge to ! middle ( ! bone4 ,no muscle-fibres take orig9 betwe5 ! two limbs4 ,! fibres conv]ge & end 9 a flat t5don :i* jo9s ! t5don ( ! clavobra*ial 7,fig4 #gi1 k74 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hg1 c74--,! dorsal portion ( ! depress$ r\gh area on ! lat]al surface ( ! ulna j di/ad ( ! semilun> not*4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! acromiodeltoid 7,fig4 #ge1 f71 ! caput lat]ale ( ! triceps 7,fig4 #ge1 h71 ! bra*ioradialis 7,fig4 #ge1 k71 & ! proximal end ( ! ext5sor c>pi radialis longus 7,fig4 #ge1 l74 ,inn] surface ) ! hum]us4 ,m$ial edge ) ! pectoralis major 7,fig4 #fe1 l7 & ! biceps 7,fig4 #gg1 g74 ,action4--,flexor ( ! antibra*ium4 ,m4 triceps bra*ii4--,! triceps muscle ( ! cat1 l t ( man1 is divisible 7z its "n indicates7 into ?ree ma9 portions4 ,^! are a lat]al portion 7caput lat]ale71 an int]m$iate or long portion 7caput longum71 & a m$ial portion 7caput m$iale74 ,! fir/ two correspond to ! simil>ly nam$ heads 9 man2 ! m$ial portion falls into a numb] ( subdivisions ^: homologues are unc]ta94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,,deep ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,m$ial ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,hum]us4 a1 ,m4 suprasp9atus2 b1 ,m4 subscapul>is2 c1 ,m4 coracobra*ialis2 d1 ,m4 t]es major 7d1 its t5don72 e1 "p ( ,m4 latissimus dorsi jo9+ ! t]es major2 f1 cut end ( ,m4 pectoralis m9or2 g1 long "p ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 h1 int]m$iate "p ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps2 i1 ,m4 bra*ialis 7i1 its t5don72 j1 %ort "p ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps2 k1 cut end ( ,m4 clavobra*ialis2 l1 l1 cut ends ( ,m4 biceps2 m1 ,m4 bra*ioradialis2 n1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis longus2 o1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis brevis2 p1 fif? head ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 q1 fir/ head ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum4 #a1 hum]us2 #b1 olecranon2 #c1 m$ial epicondyle ( hum]us4 ,caput lat]ale 7anconeus lat]alis7 7,fig4 #ge1 h2 ,fig4 #fh1 l74--,! lat]al portion is a flat muscle 7mo/ ( x subcutane\s7 on ! lat]al side ( ! bra*ium1 connect+ ! proximal end ( ! hum]us ) ! olecranon process ( ! ulna4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #ha1 h74--,by a flat t5don f ! proximal portion ( ! deltoid ridge & ! di/al bord] ( ! t]es m9or tub]cle4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hf1 c7 by a ?91 flat t5don into ! lat]al bord] ( ! dorsal surface ( ! ulna betwe5 a po9t opposite ! di/al m>g9 ( ! semilun> not* & ! proximal end ( ! olecranon4 ,relations4--,lat]al surface ) ! integum5t1 & at ! proximal end ) ! sp9odeltoid & acromiodeltoid 7,fig4 #ge1 e & f74 ,m$ial surface ) ! bra*ialis 7,fig4 #ge1 i71 ! caput longum 7g71 ! caput m$iale1 ! bra*ioradialis 7k71 ! anconeus 7,fig4 #hj1 l71 & ! orig9s ( ! ext5sor c>pi radialis longus 7,fig4 #ge1 l71 ! ext5sor communis digitorum 7m71 & ! ext5sor digitorum lat]alis 7n74 ,caput longum 7anconeus longus7 7,fig4 #ge1 g2 ,fig4 #fh1 k2 ,fig4 #gg1 i74--,a prismatic1 fusi=m mass connect+ ! scapula ) ! olecranon4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #gh1 i7 by a ?ick1 flat t5don f a triangul> area "o or two c5timet]s long at ! gl5oid end ( ! scapula on ! gl5oid bord]4 ,! base ( ! area is ab\t "o millimet] f ! m>g9 ( ! gl5oid fossa4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hf1 b74--,! muscle ends 9 a ?ick t5don :i* passes ov] ! bifurcat$ v5tral end ( ! olecranon & is ins]t$ ^u ! r\nd$ tub]osity :i* =ms ! dorsal angle ( ! olecranon4 ,relations4--,lat]al surface ) ! caput lat]ale 7,fig4 #ge1 h71 a portion ( ! caput m$iale 7,fig4 #gg1 j & k71 ! sp9odeltoid 7,fig4 #ge1 e71 ! infrasp9atus 7,fig4 #ge1 c71 & ! integum5t4 ,m$ial surface ) ! epitro*le>is 7,fig4 #fe1 r7 & ! conjo9$ portions ( ! latissimus dorsi & t]es major 7,fig4 #gi1 d74 ,v5tral bord] ) ! caput m$iale 7,fig4 #gg1 j & k74 ,caput m$iale4--,! m$ial head consi/s ( ?ree portions 7,fig4 #gi1 g1 h1 j74 7#a7 ,! long portion 7anconeus po/]ior7 7,fig4 #gg1 j2 ,fig4 #gi1 g2 ,fig4 #hj1 f74 ,orig9 7,fig4 #hc1 e7 f a triangul> area on ! dorsal surface ( ! hum]al %aft4 ,! base ( ! area is aga9/ ! articul> head1 & its apex ab\t "o-six? ! l5g? ( ! hum]us f ! head4 ,x is betwe5 ! coracobra*ialis & ! lat]al head ( ! triceps4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,,deep ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,lat]al ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,hum]us4 a1 "p ( ,m4 suprasp9atus2 b1 "p ( ,m4 infrasp9atus2 c1 ,m4 t]es m9or2 d1 ,m4 t]es major2 e1 "p ( ,m4 latissimus dorsi jo9+ ,m4 t]es major2 f1 long "p ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 g1 cut ins]tion ( ,m4 acromiodeltoideus2 h1 ,m4 bra*ialis2 i1 ,m4 bra*ioradialis2 j1 int]m$iate "p ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 k1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis longus2 l1 ,m4 anconeus2 m1 ,m4 ext5sor communis digitorum4 #a1 great tub]osity ( hum]us2 #b1 #c1 sup]ficial radial & dorsal int]osse\s bran*es1 respectively1 ( ! radial n]ve4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hf1 a74--,! muscle ends 9 a long1 sl5d] t5don :i* passes ?r\gh ! furr[ on ! v5tral angle ( ! olecranon & is ins]t$ into an oblique ridge :i* =ms ! dorsal limit ( ! furr[4 ,! t5don is sep>at$ f ! floor ( ! furr[ by a synovial bursa4 7#b7 ,! int]m$iate portion 7anconeus int]nus7 7,fig4 #gg1 k2 ,fig4 #gi1 h2 ,fig4 #hj1 j74 ,orig9 7,fig4 #hb1 g7 by fle%y fibres f a triangul> area proximad ( ! middle ( ! dorsom$ial surface ( ! hum]us4 ,! l5g? ( ! area equals ab\t "o-f\r? ! l5g? ( ! bone4 ,its apex po9ts proximad & is almo/ cont9u\s ) ! apex ( ! area ( orig9 ( ! long portion4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hg1 i7 by %ort t5don-fibres into ! m$ial bord] ( ! v5tral & proximal surfaces ( ! olecranon4 ,x is connect$ ) ! t5don ( ! long portion4 7#c7 ,%ort portion 7,fig4 #gi1 j2 ,fig4 #gg1 l74 ,orig9 7,fig4 #hb1 h7 f ! out] surface ( ! bony b> :i* encloses ! supracondyloid =am5 ( ! hum]us1 z f> z ! m$ial epicondyle4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hg1 e7 by fle%y fibres into ! m$ial bord] ( ! olecranon di/ad ( ! tub]osity = ! ins]tion ( ! caput longum4 ,relations ( ! caput m$iale4--,lat]al surface ) ! caput lat]ale 7,fig4 #ge1 h71 ! hum]us1 & ! anconeus 7,fig4 #hj1 l74 ,dorsal surface ) ! caput longum 7,fig4 #gg1 i71 ! epitro*le>is 7,fig4 #fe1 r71 & ! t]es major 7,fig4 #gi1 d74 ,v5tral surface ) ! biceps 7,fig4 #gg1 g74 ,action ( ! ,triceps4--,! entire triceps gr\p =ms a p[]ful ext5sor ( ! =e>m4 ,! %ort portion ( ! m$ial head t5ds also to rotate ! arm outw>d1 s z to sup9ate ! h&4 ,m4 anconeus 7,fig4 #hj1 l74--,a triangul> muscle on ! outside ( ! elb[-jo9t f ! hum]us to ! ulna4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #hc1 i74--,an irregul>ly triangul> area at ! di/al end ( ! dorsal surface ( ! hum]us4 ,! area ( orig9 is limit$ lat]ally by ! %>p lat]al supracondyloid ridge4 ,x sometimes ext5ds onto ! lat]al epicondyle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,,v5tral ,,surface ,,( ,,hum]us1 ,,) ,,! ,,areas ,,( ,,atta*m5t ,,( ,,muscles4 ,,fig4 #hb4--,,m$ial ,,side ,,( ,,hum]us1 ,,) ,,! ,,areas ,,( ,,atta*m5t ,,( ,,muscles4 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,,dorsal ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,left ,,hum]us1 ,,) ,,! ,,areas ,,( ,,atta*m5t ,,( ,,muscles4 ,fig4 #ha4--;a1 ,m4 subscapul>is2 b1 ,m4 suprasp9atus2 c1 ,mm4 t]es major & latissimus dorsi2 d1 ,m4 pectoralis m9or2 e1 deep lay] ( ,m4 pectoralis major2 f1 sup]ficial lay] ( ,m4 pectoralis major2 g1 ,m4 acromiodeltoideus2 h1 ,m4 sp9odeltoideus2 h1 caput lat]ale ( ,m4 triceps2 i1 ,m4 bra*ialis2 j1 second portion ( ,m4 bra*ialis2 k1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis longus2 l1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis brevis2 m4 ,m4 ext5sor communis digitorum2 n1 ,m4 ext5sor lat]alis digitorum2 o1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi uln>is2 p1 %ort portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps2 q1 ,m4 pronator t]es2 r1 ,m4 palm>is longus2 s1 ?ird & f\r? p>ts ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 t1 ,m4 flexor c>pi radialis2 u1 second head ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum4 ,fig4 #hb4--;a1 ,m4 suprasp9atus2 b1 ,m4 subscapul>is2 c1 ,m4 pectoralis m9or2 d1 long portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps2 e1 ,m4 coracobra*ialis2 f1 ,mm4 t]es major & latissimus dorsi2 g1 int]m$iate portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps2 h1 deep lay] ( ,m4 pectoralis major2 i1 sup]ficial lay] ( ,m4 pectoralis major2 j1 ,m4 anconeus2 k1 %ort portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps2 l1 ,m4 pronator t]es2 m1 ,m4 flexor c>pi radialis2 n1 second head ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 o1 ?ird & f\r? heads ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 p1 ,m4 palm>is longus2 q1 ,m4 flexor c>pi uln>is4 ,fig4 #hc4--;a1 ,m4 suprasp9atus2 b1 ,m4 subscapul>is2 c1 ,m4 infrasp9atus2 d1 ,m4 t]es m9or2 e1 long portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps2 f1 ,m4 coracobra*ialis2 g1 g1 ,m4 bra*ialis2 h1 int]m$iate portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps2 i1 ,m4 anconeus2 j1 %ort portion ( m$ial head ( ,m4 triceps2 k1 ,m4 pronator t]es2 l1 second & ?ird heads ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 m1 ,m4 palm>is longus2 n1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi uln>is4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hf1 d74--,! lat]al surface ( ! ulna f ! di/al m>g9 ( ! semilun> not* to ! proximal end ( ! olecranon4 ,! muscle cov]s ! capsule ( ! jo9t & is closely adh]5t to x4 ,relations4--,out] 7dorsal7 surface ) ! caput lat]ale 7,fig4 #ge1 h7 & ! int]m$iate portion 7,fig4 #hj1 j7 ( ! caput m$iale4 ,inn] surface ) ! bones & ! capsule ( ! jo9t4 ,action4--,keeps ! capsule t5se & probably rotates ! ulna slightly s z to pronate ! h&4 #c4 ,muscles ( ! ,antibra*ium or ,=e>m4 ,fascia ( ! ,=e>m4--,! muscles ( ! =e>m are n 9 contact ) ! sk91 b are cov]$ by ! /rong antibra*ial fascia4 ,?is consi/s ( two lay]s4 ,! sup]ficial "o is a cont9uation ( ! g5]al subcutane\s fascia ( ! arm2 x cov]s ! =e>m z a cont9u\s %eet :i* becomes ?9n] di/ad1 & is f9ally lo/ ne> ! wri/4 ,! deep lay] =ms a d5se1 t5d9\s %eet :i* is closely appli$ to ! muscles4 ,x beg9s p>tly z a cont9uation ( ! g5]al fascia ( ! arm1 p>tly f ! t5dons ( ! triceps & epitro*le>is muscles4 ,! %eet is atta*$ to ! dorsal surface ( ! ulna1 betwe5 ! ext5sor c>pi uln>is & ! fir/ head ( ! flexor pr(undus digitorum4 ,x surr\nds ! =e>m z a cont9u\s %ea?4 ,on ! lat]al surface x dips betwe5 ! ext5sor muscles1 becom+ closely atta*$ to !m & =m+ a p>tial %ea? = ea*2 x is atta*$ ) special firmness to _! t5dons4 ,on ! m$ial side ( ! arm ! fascia passes smoo?ly ov] ! flexors )\t dipp+ betwe5 !m2 x is cont9u\s1 h[ev]1 ) ! bord] ( ! pronator t]es1 & di/ad ( ?is muscle x is firmly atta*$ to ! radius4 ,at ! wri/ ! fascia becomes atta*$ to ! longitud9al ridges on ! dorsal surface ( ! head ( ! radius1 bridg+ ?us ! int]v5+ grooves & hold+ ! t5dons 9 place betwe5 ! ridges4 ,! fascia !n cont9ues to =m ! dorsal fascia ( ! h&4 ,on ! v5tral side ( ! wri/ ! fascia becomes ?ick5$ to =m a /rong transv]se ligam5t 7,fig4 #gg1 #a71 :i* is atta*$ at its radial & uln> ends to ! c>pus1 & :i* holds 9 place ! t5dons ( ! flexor muscles4 ,di/ad ( ! transv]se ligam5t ! fascia spreads out 9 ! palm ( ! h&1 & becomes unit$ ) ! fibr\s pad :i* is situat$ "h4 ,on ! f+]s ! fascia becomes atta*$ to ! phalanges1 =m+ t5d9\s %ea?s1 ! s-call$ vag9al ligam5ts1 = ! flexor muscles4 ,ne> ! base & ! head ( ! fir/ phalanx /rong1 n>r[1 r+-l b&s1 ! annul> ligam5ts 7,fig4 #hh1 #b71 are =m$ 9 ^! %ea?s2 ^! surr\nd & b9d d[n ! t5dons ( ! flexor muscles4 ,a4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,uln> ,,& ,,dorsal ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m 7ext5sors & sup9ators7 7,fig4 #ge1 p4 #aeh74 ,m4 bra*ioradialis or sup9ator longus 7,fig4 #ge1 k2 ,fig4 #gg1 n74--,?is is a ribbon-l muscle ly+ on ! lat]al side ( ! bra*ium & ! v5trolat]al bord] ( ! antibra*ium j b5ea? ! sup]ficial fascia4 ,x connects ! hum]us & ! radius4 ,orig94--,by a ?9 t5don f ab\t ! middle fif? ( ! dorsal bord] ( ! hum]us1 or sometimes proximad ( ! middle4 ,! muscle curves ov] ! out] surface ( ! bra*ialis 7,fig4 #ge1 i71 to :i* x is closely appli$1 & runs along ! lat]al bord] ( ! antibra*ium to its ins]tion4 ,ins]tion by a %ort t5don into ! ridge :i* =ms ! v5tral limit ( ! groove on ! out] surface ( ! /yloid process ( ! radius & ^u ! adjac5t ligam5ts4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t1 & at ! proximal end ) ! caput lat]ale ( ! triceps 7,fig4 #ge1 h74 ,inn] surface ) ! bra*ialis 7i71 ! ext5sor c>pi radialis longus 7l7 & brevis1 & ! ext5sor communis digitorum 7m74 ,action4--,sup9ator ( ! h&4 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis longus 7,fig4 #ge1 l2 ,fig4 #gg1 o74--,?is lies along ! radial side ( ! =e>m1 & connects ! hum]us & ! second metac>pal4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #ha1 k7 f ! middle portion ( ! lat]al supracondyloid ridge betwe5 ! orig9 ( ! bra*ialis 7j7 & ! anconeus4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! =e>m ! muscle ends 9 a sl5d] t5don 7,fig4 #hd1 e7 :i* passes ?r\gh ! groove on ! radial side ( ! dorsal surface ( ! di/al end ( ! radius4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hd1 c74--,! t5don passes across ! c>pus & is ins]t$ onto ! dorsal surface ( ! base ( ! second metac>pal on ! radial side j di/ad ( ! groove = ! radial art]y4 ,relations4--,out] surface at ! proximal end ) ! caput lat]ale ( ! triceps 7,fig4 #ge1 h71 f>!r di/ad ) ! integum5t & ! bra*ioradialis 7k72 ! di/al t5don ) ! ext5sor pollicis brevis 7,fig4 #hd1 d74 ,radial surface ) ! bra*ialis 7,fig4 #ge1 i7 & ! integum5t4 ,uln> surface ) ! ext5sor c>pi radialis brevis 7,fig4 #gg1 p71 & ne> ! proximal end ) ! ext5sor communis digitorum 7,fig4 #ge1 m74 ,action4--,ext5sor ( ! h&4 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis brevis 7,fig4 #gg1 p74--,a sl5d] muscle f ! hum]us to ! ?ird metac>pal4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #ha1 l7 f ! di/al "p ( ! lat]al supracondyloid ridge di/ad ( ! ext5sor longus4 ,ne> ! c>pus ! muscle ends 9 a sl5d] t5don :i* passes ?r\gh ! groove ) ! ext5sor longus t5don4 ,! t5don !n div]ges f ! ext5sor longus & has its ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hd1 f7 into ! radial side ( ! dorsal surface ( ! base ( ! ?ird metac>pal4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! ext5sor longus 7,fig4 #gg1 o71 ! integum5t1 & di/ad ) ! ext5sor pollicis brevis 7,fig4 #hd1 d74 ,radial surface ) ! ext5sor longus4 ,uln> surface ) ! ext5sor communis digitorum 7,fig4 #ge1 m7 & ! ext5sor brevis pollicis4 ,inn] surface ) ! pronator t]es 7,fig4 #gg1 q71 sup9ator 7,fig4 #he1 b71 & ext5sor brevis pollicis 7,fig4 #he1 a74 ,action4--,ext5sor ( ! h&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,! ,,t5dons ,,on ,,! ,,back ,,( ,,! ,,h&4 a1 ,m4 ext5sor communis digitorum2 b1 ,m4 ext5sor lat]alis digitorum2 c1 ,m4 ext5sor indicis2 d1 ,m4 ext5sor brevis pollicis2 e1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis longus2 f1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis brevis2 g1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi uln>is2 h1 t5dons ( ! int]ossei4 #a1 transv]se ligam5t ( ! wri/4 ,m4 ext5sor digitorum communis 7,fig4 #ge1 m74--,a sl5d] muscle f ! lat]al supracondyloid ridge ( ! hum]us to ! phalanges ( ! second1 ?ird1 f\r?1 & fif? digits4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #ha1 m74--,! di/al surface ( ! lat]al supracondyloid ridge dorsad ( ! orig9 ( ! ext5sor c>pi radialis brevis4 ,at ! junction ( ! middle & di/al ?irds ( ! radius ! muscle passes into a l>ge1 flat t5don 7,fig4 #ge1 m7 :i* passes ?r\gh ! groove on ! middle ( ! dorsal surface ( ! di/al end ( ! radius4 ,! groove is conv]t$ into a canal by a /rong transv]se ligam5t4 ,! t5don divides ne> ! groove into f\r portions 7,fig4 #hd1 a7 :i* div]ge & pass to ! f\r uln> digits4 ,ins]tions4--,ea* division ( ! t5don z x passes ov] ! dorsal surface ( ! fir/ phalanx has its bord] connect$ by /rong fascia to ! dorsal surface ( ! phalanx4 ,x f9ally passes ?r\gh ! groove at ! di/al end ( ! fir/ phalanx & is ins]t$ mo/ly into ! base ( ! second phalanx2 a portion cont9ues di/ad to be ins]t$ into ! ?ird phalanx4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t & at ! orig9 ) ! caput lat]ale 7,fig4 #ge1 h7 ( ! triceps4 ,radial surface ) ! ext5sor longus 7l7 & ext5sor brevis4 ,uln> surface ) ! ext5sor digitorum lat]alis 7n74 ,inn] surface ) ! sup9ator 7,fig4 #he1 b7 & ! ext5sor pollicis brevis 7,fig4 #he1 a74 ,action4--,ext5sor ( ! f\r uln> digits4 ,m4 ext5sor digitorum lat]alis 7,fig4 #ge1 n74 7,?is corresponds 9 position to ! ext5sor digiti qu9ti proprius ( man47 ,orig9 7,fig4 #ha1 n7 f ! lat]al supracondyloid ridge ( ! hum]us di/ad ( ! orig9 ( ! ext5sor communis4 ,! muscle passes along ! uln> bord] & dorsal surface ( ! =e>m betwe5 ! ext5sor communis 7,fig4 #ge1 m7 & ! ext5sor c>pi uln>is 7o74 ,ne> ! c>pus x ends 9 a t5don 7n71 :i* divides imm$iately into ?ree or f\r 7,fig4 #hd1 b74 ,^! pass ?r\gh ! groove on ! uln> side ( ! dorsal surface ( ! radius & div]ge to ! digits ly+ b5ea? ! ext5sor communis t5don4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hd1 b74--,! ?ree t5dons on ! uln> side jo9 ! uln> sides ( ! t5dons ( ! ext5sor communis 7a7 at _! ins]tions4 ,! radial ( ! f\r t5dons 7n always pres5t7 jo9s ! t5don ( ! ext5sor indicis 7c7 & may also give a bran* to ! radial side ( ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! ?ird digit4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t4 ,radial bord] ) ! ext5sor communis digitorum 7m72 uln> bord] ) ! ext5sor c>pi uln>is 7o74 ,inn] surface ) ! sup9ator 7,fig4 #he1 b7 & ! ext5sor brevis pollicis 7,fig4 #he1 a72 di/ad ) ! ext5sor indicis 7,fig4 #he1 c74 ,action4--,ext5sor ( ! f\r uln> digits4 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi uln>is 7,fig4 #ge1 o74 ,orig94--7#a7 ,by a %ort1 broad t5don f ! di/al portion ( ! lat]al epicondyle ( ! hum]us 7,fig4 #ha1 o7 di/ad ( ! orig9 ( ! ext5sor lat]alis1 & 7#b7 by a small] t5don f ! ulna at ! dorsal tip ( ! semilun> not* 7,fig4 #hf1 e74 ,! muscle passes along ! uln> side ( ! =e>m dorsad ( ! ext5sor digitorum lat]alis 7n74 ,x ends ne> ! junction ( ! middle & di/al ?irds ( ! =e>m 9 a l>ge1 flat t5don 7o7 :i* is closely adh]5t to ! ligam5ts ( ! wri/ & :i* passes ov] ! di/al end ( ! ulna to its ,ins]tion into ! tub]cle on ! uln> side ( ! base ( ! fif? metac>pal 7,fig4 #hd1 g74 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t4 ,radial 7or v5tral7 bord] ) ! ext5sor digitorum lat]alis 7,fig4 #ge1 n72 uln> 7or dorsal7 bord] ) ! flexor pr(undus digitorum 7q74 ,inn] surface ) ! radius1 ! ext5sor indicis 7,fig4 #he1 c71 & ! ext5sor pollicis brevis 7,fig4 #he1 a74 ,action4--,indicat$ by its "n4 ,m4 ext5sor indicis 7proprius7 7,fig4 #he1 c2 ,fig4 #ge1 p7 7includes ext5sor pollicis longus also74 ,orig9 7,fig4 #hf1 f7 by %ort1 fle%y fibres f ! lat]al surface ( ! ulna betwe5 ! semilun> not* & ! junction ( ! ?ird & f\r? 7di/al7 f\r?s4 ,! muscle-fibres pass obliquely di/ad & t[>d ! radial side & jo9 ! t5don 7,fig4 #he1 c71 :i* runs ne>ly ! :ole l5g? ( ! radial surface4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hd1 c74--,! t5don passes ?r\gh ! groove on ! uln> side ( ! dorsal surface ( ! base ( ! radius & divides into two4 ,bo? ( ^! usually g to ! base ( ! second phalanx ( ! second digit1 b "o may pass to ! pollex1 or !re may be ?ree divisions go+ to ! fir/ ?ree digits4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,,deep ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,ext5sor ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,radius ,,& ,,ulna4 a1 ,m4 ext5sor brevis pollicis 7a1 its t5don72 b1 ,m4 sup9ator2 c1 ,m4 ext5sor indicis 7c1 its t5don72 d1 t5don ( ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis brevis2 e1 t5don ( ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis longus4 #a1 hum]us2 #b1 olecranon2 #c1 /yloid process ( ulna2 #d1 di/al end ( radius2 #e1 head ( radius4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t1 ! ext5sor c>pi uln>is 7,fig4 #ge1 o71 & ! ext5sor digitorum lat]alis 7,fig4 #ge1 n74 ,dorsal bord] ) ! flexor pr(undus digitorum 7,fig4 #ge1 q74 ,inn] surface ) ! ext5sor brevis pollicis 7,fig4 #he1 a74 ,action z indicat$ by ! "n4 ,m4 sup9ator 7,fig4 #he1 b74--,a flat muscle wrapp$ spirally ab\t ! proximal end ( ! radius4 ,orig9 by a %ort1 /rong t5don f ! lat]al side ( ! annul> ligam5t ( ! radius & by t5d9\s fibres f ! radial collat]al ligam5t pass+ f ! hum]us to ! radius4 ,f ! t5don ( orig9 ! fibres div]ge1 pass+ t[>d ! radial side & di/ad4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hf1 g74--,! dorsal & "p ( ! v5tral surface ( ! proximal two-fif?s ( ! radius to )9 five millimet]s ( ! articul> face ( ! head4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! ext5sor c>pi radialis brevis1 ext5sor communis digitorum 7,fig4 #ge1 m71 & ext5sor lat]alis digitorum 7,fig4 #ge1 n74 ,radial bord] ) ! pronator t]es 7,fig4 #gg1 q74 ,inn] surface ) ! radius4 ,action4--,sup9ator ( ! h&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,,lat]al ,,or ,,ext5sor ,,surface ,,( ,,radius ,,& ,,ulna1 ,,) ,,! ,,areas ,,( ,,atta*m5t ,,( ,,muscles4 a1 long portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps2 b1 caput longum ( ,m4 triceps2 c1 caput lat]ale ( ,m4 triceps2 d1 ,m4 anconeus2 e1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi uln>is2 f1 ,m4 ext5sor indicis2 g1 ,m4 sup9ator2 h1 ,m4 ext5sor brevis pollicis2 i1 ,m4 pronator t]es2 j1 ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 k1 ,m4 biceps4 ,m4 ext5sor brevis pollicis or ext5sor ossis metac>pi pollicis 7,fig4 #he1 a7 7includes ,m4 abductor longus pollicis ( man74 ,orig9 7,fig4 #hf1 h7 by fle%y fibres f ! v5tral half ( ! lat]al surface ( ! %aft ( ! ulna f ! semilun> not* to ! /yloid process2 f ! uln> half ( ! dorsal surface ( ! radius f ! bicipital tub]cle to a %ort di/ance di/ad ( ! middle ( ! bone2 & f ! int]osse\s membrane betwe5 ^! two areas4 ,! fibres conv]ge to =m a /rong1 flat t5don 7,fig4 #hd1 d7 :i* passes obliquely ov] ! t5dons ( ! ext5sor c>pi radialis longus 7e7 & brevis 7f7 to its ,ins]tion into ! radial side ( ! base ( ! fir/ metac>pal4 ,! radial sesamoid bone ( ! wri/ is imb$d$ 9 ! t5don at its ins]tion4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! ext5sor c>pi radialis brevis1 ! ext5sor communis digitorum 7,fig4 #ge1 m71 ext5sor lat]alis digitorum 7,fig4 #ge1 n71 & ext5sor indicis 7,fig4 #he1 c74 ,inn] surface ) ! radius & ulna1 & di/ad ) ! t5dons ( ! two ext5sores c>pi radiales 7,fig4 #hd1 e & f74 ,action4--,ext5ds & abducts ! pollex4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,radial ,,& ,,v5tral ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m 7flexors & pronators74 ,m4 pronator t]es 7,fig4 #gg1 q74 ,orig9 7,fig4 #hb1 l7 by a %ort /rong t5don f ! extremity ( ! m$ial epicondyle ( ! hum]us4 ,ins]tion 7,fig4 #hf1 i7 by fle%y fibres & %ort t5d9\s fibres along ! m$ial bord] ( ! radius1 at its middle4 ,! radial edge ( ! muscle is cont9u\s ) ! /rong deep lay] ( ! antibra*ial fascia4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! sup]ficial fascia4 ,radial bord] ) ! t5don ( ! biceps 7,fig4 #gi1 l71 ) ! ext5sor c>pi radialis brevis 7,fig4 #gg1 p71 & ! sup9ator 7,fig4 #he1 b74 ,uln> bord] ) ! flexor c>pi radialis 7,fig4 #gg1 r7 & "p ( ! flexor pr(undus digitorum 7,fig4 #gg1 u74 ,action4--,pronates ! h& by rotat+ ! radius4 ,m4 flexor c>pi radialis 7,fig4 #gg1 r74--,a sl5d] fusi=m muscle4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #hb1 m7 f ! tip ( ! m$ial epicondyle ( ! hum]us4 ,ins]tion4--,! sl5d] t5don passes ?r\gh a deep groove betwe5 ! os magnum & ! fir/ metac>pal4 ,! groove is conv]t$ into a canal by ! ov]ly+ t5dons & muscles4 ,! t5don is f9ally ins]t$ into ! bases ( ! second & ?ird metac>pals4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! pronator t]es 7,fig4 #gg1 q71 ! sup]ficial fascia1 & ! ?ird head ( ! flexor pr(undus 7u74 ,radial bord] ) ! pronator t]es 7q74 ,uln> bord] ) ! ?ird & f\r? heads ( ! flexor pr(undus4 ,inn] surface ) ! ulna proximad & ! fif? head ( ! flexor pr(undus 7u7 di/ad4 ,action indicat$ by ! "n4 ,m4 palm>is longus 7,fig4 #gg1 s74--,a flat fusi=m muscle b5ea? ! fascia on ! m$ial bord] ( ! =e>m4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #hb1 p7 by a %ort flat t5don f ! di/al "p ( ! m$ial surface ( ! m$ial epicondyle ( ! hum]us4 ,ab\t "o c5timet] f ! wri/ ! muscle ends 9 a flat t5don :i* passes ?r\gh ! transv]se ligam5t & divides on ! h& into f\r or five 7or sometimes only ?ree7 t5dons 7,fig4 #gg1 s7 :i* div]ge to ! ins]tions4 ,! uln> portion ( ! flexor sublimis digitorum 7,fig4 #gg1 x7 takes orig9 f ! common t5don be=e its division4 ,ins]tion4--,ea* t5don except ! fir/ gives (f a bran* :i* spreads out 9 ! trilob$ pad 9 ! palm4 ,! middle two ( ^! may be trac$ to ! integum5t cov]+ ! pad4 ,! t5don is !n ins]t$ 7,fig4 #hh1 a7 ne> ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx onto ! out] surface ( ! p]=at$ portion ( ! flexor sublimis t5don 7b1 b7 at its side1 except t to ! ?umb1 :i* divides ne> its di/al end into two :i* are ins]t$ into ! sesamoid bones at ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx4 ,! t5dons ( ins]tion are closely unit$ to ! fibr\s pulley-r+ at ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx1 & ea* may s5d a slip to ! base ( ! phalanx at ei!r side ( ! r+4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! sup]ficial fascia & "o head ( ! flexor sublimis 7,fig4 #gg1 x74 ,radial bord] ) ! flexor c>pi radialis4 ,uln> bord] ) ! flexor c>pi uln>is & a "p ( ! flexor pr(undus digitorum4 ,inn] surface ) ! flexor c>pi radialis 7r71 ! flexor c>pi uln>is 7t71 ! flexor pr(undus digitorum 7u71 & ! radial head ( ! flexor sublimis digitorum4 ,action4--,flexor ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ea* ( ! digits4 ,m4 flexor c>pi uln>is 7,fig4 #gg1 t1 t74 ,orig94--,!re are two heads4 ,! fir/ or hum]al head 7t7 takes orig9 9 common ) ! second "p ( ! flexor pr(undus f ! m$ian surface ( ! di/al end ( ! hum]us j di/ad ( ! m$ial epicondyle 7,fig4 #hb1 q74 ,! second or uln> head 7t7 takes orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! lat]al surface ( ! olecranon & f ! dorsal bord] ( ! ulna f ! olecranon to a po9t di/ad ( ! semilun> not* 7,fig4 #hg1 f74 ,! two heads jo9 proximad ( ! middle ( ! =e>m4 ,! muscle passes obliquely across ! v5tral surface ( ! =e>m to its ,ins]tion by fle%y & t5d9\s fibres into ! proximal surface ( ! pisi=m bone4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t & ! palm>is longus 7,fig4 #gg1 s74 ,inn] surface & uln> bord] ) ! flexor pr(undus digitorum4 ,action indicat$ by ! "n4 ,m4 flexor sublimis digitorum 7or p]=atus74--,?is muscle is 9 two p>ts1 :i* are giv5 a common "n only because ( ! simil> /ructure & ins]tions ( _! t5dons4 ,! uln> "p 7,fig4 #gg1 x7 is a conical muscle tak+ orig9 f ! out] surface ( ! t5don & muscle ( ! palm>is longus & f ! adjac5t ligam5t4 ,x gives rise to two or ?ree t5dons 7,fig4 #hh1 b7 :i* arise f di/9ct slips ( ! muscle2 ^! pass to ! uln> two or ?ree digits4 ,t pass+ to ! f\r? or fif? digit receives an accessory slip f a small mass ( fibres atta*$ to ! transv]se ligam5t on ! radial side ( ! palm>is t5don4 ,! radial "p is a small flat triangul> muscle :i* takes orig9 f ! out] surface ( ! t5don =m$ by ! junction ( ! t5dons ( ! fir/ & second p>ts ( ! flexor pr(undus4 ,x divides into two slips1 ea* giv+ rise to a t5don4 ,^! t5dons 7,fig4 #hh1 b7 pass to ! second & ?ird digits4 ,t to ! ?ird digit may divide into two1 "o ( :i* goes to ! f\r? digit4 ,ea* ( ! f\r t5dons 7,fig4 #hh1 b & b7 is p]=at$ by a t5don ( ! flexor pr(undus 7,fig4 #hh1 c7 z x passes ?r\gh ! fibr\s pulley-r+ at ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx4 ,x !n cont9ues b5ea? ! flexor pr(undus t5don ?r\gh ! second pulley-r+ 7#b7 & is ins]t$ into ! base ( ! second phalanx4 ,relations4--,out] surface ( ! uln> "p ) ! integum5t2 inn] surface ) ! palm>is longus 7,fig4 #gg1 s74 ,out] surface ( ! radial "p ) ! palm>is longus2 inn] surface ) ! flexor pr(undus4 ,action4--,flexor ( ! second phalanx ( digits #b-e4 ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum 7or p]=ans74--,?is arises by five heads1 ! t5dons ( :i* jo9 "o ano!r at ! wri/ to make ! /ronge/ & deepe/ ( ! flexor t5dons4 ,! fir/ or uln> head has orig9 7,fig4 #hg1 g7 f ! dorsal half ( ! m$ial 7radial7 surface ( ! ulna f ! proximal lip ( ! semilun> not* to )9 a c5timet] ( ! /yloid process4 ,its fibres conv]ge to a l>ge flat t5don :i* =ms ! lat]al 7uln>7 & sup]ficial "p ( ! common t5don4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,,radius ,,& ,,ulna1 ,m$ial or ,flexor ,side1 ) ,m4 pronator quadratus & ! ,areas ( ,atta*m5t ( ,o!r ,muscles4 a1 ,m4 pronator quadratus2 b1 t5don ( ,m4 biceps2 c1 conjo9$ t5don ( ,m4 bra*ialis & ,m4 clavobra*ialis2 d1 ins]tion ( caput longum ( ,m4 triceps2 e1 ins]tion ( %ort portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps2 f1 orig9 ( ,m4 flexor c>pi uln>is2 g1 orig9 ( fir/ head ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 h1 orig9 ( fif? head ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 i1 int]m$iate portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps4 ,! second head has orig9 7,fig4 #hb1 n7 f ! di/al end ( ! m$ial epicondyle ( ! hum]us betwe5 ! flexor uln>is & ! ?ird & f\r? heads ( ! pr(undus4 ,x may be v closely atta*$ to ^! muscles at _! orig9s4 ,its t5don jo9s ! radial bord] ( ! t5don ( ! fir/ head4 ,f ?is junction ! radial "p ( ! flexor sublimis arises4 ,! ?ird head 7,fig4 #gg1 u7 has orig9 7,fig4 #hb1 o7 by a /rong t5don f ! m$ial epicondyle ( ! hum]us1 betwe5 ! palm>is 7p7 & flexor radialis 7m74 ,its t5don =ms ! radial "p ( ! common t5don4 ,! f\r? head has orig9 by a /rong t5don f ! m$ial epicondyle ( ! hum]us j v5trad ( ! orig9 ( ! second head & ! flexor uln>is1 to :i* _m ( its fibres are atta*$4 ,its t5don =ms ! middle & sup]ficial "p ( ! common t5don4 ,! fif? or radial head 7,fig4 #ge1 q2 ,fig4 #gg1 u7 has orig9 7,fig4 #hg1 h7 f ! middle ?ird ( ! v5tral surface ( ! %aft ( ! radius ov] an area limit$ by two oblique bony ridges2 f ! adjac5t p>ts ( ! int]osse\s membrane2 & f ! v5tral "p ( ! m$ial surface ( ! %aft ( ! ulna betwe5 a po9t ab\t two c5timet]s di/ad ( ! semilun> not* & ! junction ( ! middle & di/al ?irds ( ! %aft4 ,its v ?ick t5don =ms ! middle & deep "p ( ! common t5don4 ,! common t5don 7,fig4 #hh1 c7 cov]s ! c>pus & metac>pus v5trally4 ,x divides into five t5dons 7c7 :i* pass to ! five digits & are ins]t$ into ! bases ( ! t]m9al phalanges4 ,^? ( ! fir/ f\r digits p]=ate ! t5don ( ! flexor sublimis 7b7 at ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ea* digit4 ,at ! same place ea* passes ?r\gh a fibr\s pulley-r+ atta*$ to ! base ( ! phalanx4 ,ea* !n passes ?r\gh a second pulley-r+ 7#b7 ne> ! head ( ! phalanx & is f9ally ins]t$ into ! base ( ! t]m9al phalanx4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! pronator t]es 7,fig4 #gg1 q71 flexor c>pi radialis 7,fig4 #gg1 r71 palm>is longus 7s71 flexor c>pi uln>is 7t71 integum5t1 & ext5sor c>pi uln>is 7,fig4 #ge1 o74 ,inn] surface ) ! radius1 ulna1 int]osse\s membrane & pronator quadratus 7,fig4 #hg1 a74 ,action4--,flexor ( all ! digits4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,! ,,t5dons ( ,m4 palm>is longus1 ,m4 flexor sublimis digitorum1 & ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum1 ) ,mm4 lumbricales4 ,! integum5t1 fibr\s pads1 & ! palm>is longus 7except ! ends ( its t5dons7 h be5 remov$2 ! flexor sublimis has be5 cut4 a1 cut ends ( t5dons ( ,m4 palm>is longus2 b1 t5dons ( ,m4 flexor sublimis digitorum1 uln> division2 b1 radial "p ( ,m4 flexor sublimis digitorum2 c1 t5dons ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum 7c1 ! common t5don72 d1 ,m4 abductor digiti qu9ti2 e1 ,m4 flexor brevis digiti qu9ti2 f1 ,mm4 lumbricales 7f1 _! t5dons74 #a1 transv]se ligam5t ( wri/2 #b1 annul> ligam5ts4 ,m4 pronator quadratus 7,fig4 #hg1 a74--,a ?ick quadrangul> muscle ^: fibres run obliquely betwe5 ! di/al ends ( ! ulna & radius4 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ab\t ! di/al half ( ! v5tral 7flexor7 surface or bord] ( ! ulna & f ! int]osse\s membrane adjac5t to ! area4 ,! fibres pass obliquely di/ad t[>d ! radial side to _! ,ins]tion by fle%y fibres into ! v5tral 7flexor7 surface ( ! radius di/ad ( ! area ( orig9 ( ! fif? head ( ! pr(undus4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! flexor pr(undus4 ,inn] surface ) ! radius1 ulna1 & int]osse\s membrane4 ,action z indicat$ by ! "n4 #d4 ,muscles ( ! ,h&4 ,a4 ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,t5dons4--,mm4 lumbricales 7,fig4 #hh1 f1 f74--,f\r small muscles 9 ! palm ( ! h&4 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! out] 7palm>7 surface ( ! t5don common to ! uln> f\r p>ts ( ! pr(undus 7c74 ,ins]tion 7f74--,! f\r slips are flat at _! orig94 ,ea* becomes cyl9drical & curves ab\t ! base ( "o ( ! f\r uln> digits & is ins]t$ into ! radial side ( ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx close to its v5tral bord]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,,deep ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,palm ,,( ,,! ,,h&4 a1 ,m4 flexor brevis pollicis2 b1 ,m4 adductor pollicis2 c1 ,m4 int]osseus ( second digit 7,m4 flexor brevis digiti secundi72 d1 ,m4 adductor digiti secundi2 e1 ,m4 int]osseus ( ?ird digit2 f1 ,m4 int]osseus ( f\r? digit2 g1 ,m4 oppon5s digiti qu9ti2 h1 ,m4 int]osseus ( fif? digit 7,m4 flexor brevis digiti qu9ti72 i1 ,m4 abductor digiti qu9ti4 #a-e1 ! digits 9 ord]4 ,action4--,b5d ! digits t[>d ! radial side4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,?umb4--,m4 abductor brevis pollicis 7,fig4 #gg1 w7 7includes also ! oppon5s pollicis ( man74--,a v m9ute1 probably rudim5t>y muscle4 ,orig9 f ! transv]se ligam5t 7#a7 :i* connects ! prom95t fibr\s1 hairless projection t lies ov] ! pisi=m bone ) ! radial bord] ( ! head ( ! radius4 ,! muscle passes radiodi/ad & ends 9 a v sl5d] t5don1 ! ins]tion ( :i* is into ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! ?umb4 ,m4 flexor brevis pollicis 7,fig4 #hi1 a74 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! adjac5t bord]s ( ! os magnum & scapholun> bones & f ! fascia :i* bridges ! int]v5+ groove = ! flexor c>pi radialis4 ,ins]tion by a %ort t5don into ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! pollex4 ,action4--,flexor ( ! ?umb4 ,m4 adductor pollicis 7,fig4 #hi1 b74 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! v5tral bord] ( ! os magnum4 ,x curves ab\t ! base ( ! fir/ metac>pal on its uln> side to its ins]tion4 ,ins]tion by fle%y fibres into ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! pollex on its uln> side4 ,c4 ,,muscles ,,ly+ ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,metac>pals4--,mm4 int]ossei 7,fig4 #hi74--,small /\t muscles ly+ on ! palm> surfaces ( ! metac>pals ( ! second1 ?ird1 f\r?1 & fif? digits4 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! v5tral or lat]al surfaces ( ! bases ( ! metac>pals4 ,ne> ! di/al end ( ! metac>pal ea* divides into two masses :i* pass onto ! lat]al surfaces ( ! metac>pal1 s z to leave ! v5tral surface ( ! di/al end expos$4 ,ins]tion p>tly onto ! lat]al surfaces ( ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx & its sesamoids1 & p>tly by a sl5d] t5don 7,fig4 #hd1 h7 :i* is cont9u$ dorsad to jo9 ! ext5sor t5don ( ! digit4 ,d4 ,,special ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,second ,,digit 7,,! ,,index74--,m4 flexor brevis digiti secundi 7or indicis74--,?is "n may be appli$ to ,m4 int]osseus ( ! second digit 7,fig4 #hi1 c74 ,m4 abductor digiti secundi4--,?is "n might be appli$ to a portion ( ! int]osseus ( ! second digit :i* is sometimes diff]5tiat$ f ! rema9d]4 ,orig9 f ! radial & v5tral surfaces ( ! base ( ! second metac>pal1 & f ! v5tral surface ( ! trapezium4 ,ins]tion into ! radial side ( ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! second digit & into its sesamoid4 ,m4 adductor digiti secundi 7,fig4 #hi1 d74 ,orig9 f ! v5tral surface ( ! os magnum4 ,ins]tion into ! uln> side ( ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! second digit4 ,e4 ,,special ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,fif? ,,digit4--,m4 abductor digiti qu9ti 7,fig4 #hi1 i74--,a ?ick1 small1 conical bundle4 ,orig9 f ! di/al surface ( ! pisi=m bone & f ! transv]se ligam5t on ! uln> side ( ! pisi=m4 ,x ends 9 a sl5d] t5don :i* runs along ! uln> side ( ! fif? metac>pal to its ,ins]tion into ! uln> side ( ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! fif? digit4 ,m4 flexor brevis digiti qu9ti 7,fig4 #hi1 h2 ,fig4 #hh1 e74--,?is cov]s ! v5tral surface ( ! fif? metac>pal1 & is really ! int]osseus ( ?is digit4 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! v5tral surface ( ! base ( ! fif? metac>pal2 f ! v5tral process ( ! unci=m bone1 & f ! transv]se ligam5t proximad ( ! fif? metac>pal4 ,ins]tion by fle%y fibres into ! v5tral bord] ( ! proximal end ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! fif? digit4 ,m4 oppon5s 7adductor7 digiti qu9ti 7,fig4 #hi1 g74 ,orig9 by a flat t5don f ! v5tral surface ( ! os magnum on ! uln> side ( ! adductor pollicis 7b74 ,x passes t[>d ! uln> side & di/ad1 ! fibres div]g+ to _! ,ins]tion 7#a7 into ne>ly ! :ole ( ! radial surface ( ! fif? metac>pal1 7#b7 into ! base ( its fir/ phalanx4 ,v4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,pelvic ,,limbs4 #a4 ,muscles ( ! ,hip4 ,a4 ,,on ,,! ,,lat]al ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,hip4 ,fascia ( ! ,?igh4--,aft] ! removal ( ! sup]ficial fascia ) its fat & blood-vessels1 !re is se5 a /rong gli/5+ fascia1 ! fascia lata 7,fig4 #fh1 z1 page #aag71 cov]+ ! va/us lat]alis muscle ov] ! dorsal half ( ! ?igh4 ,v5trally x dips betwe5 ! va/us lat]alis & ! biceps femoris &1 becom+ gradually ?9n]1 is lo/ on ! surface ( ! =m] muscle4 ,pass+ ov] ! dorsal bord] ( ! ?igh1 x ext5ds b5ea? ! s>torius & is atta*$ to ! dorsal bord] ( ! va/us m$ialis4 ,t[>d its di/al end ! fascia is cont9u\s ) ! t5don ( ! biceps femoris & dorsad ) ! bord] ( ! s>torius muscle1 :ile betwe5 ^! po9ts x is unit$ ) ! t5don ( ! va/us lat]alis2 x ?us ga9s ins]tion into ! patella4 ,at its proximal end ! fascia receives ! ins]tion ( ! t5sor fasci lat 7,fig4 #fh1 r74 ,m4 t5sor fasci lat 7,fig4 #fh1 r1 page #aag2 ,fig4 #ib1 a74--,! t5sor fasci lat is a ?ick triangul> muscle :i* may be recogniz$ by its ins]tion into ! proximal end ( ! fascia lata 7,fig4 #fh1 z2 ,fig4 #ib1 a74 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres z a ?ick triangul> prism f ! out] m>g9 ( ! v5tral bord] ( ! ilium craniad ( ! auricul> impression & f ! fascia cov]+ ! v5tral bord] ( ! gluteus m$ius 7,fig4 #ij1 b7 ov] its cranial half4 ,! caudal bord] ( ! muscle may be cont9u\s ) ! cranial bord] ( ! gluteus maximus4 ,! muscle spreads out 9 a fan-l mann]1 cov]+ ! proximal ?ird ( ! dorsal surface ( ! ?igh4 ,! cranial fibres pass f>!r di/ad ?an ! o!rs4 ,ins]tion into ! fascia lata 7,fig4 #fh1 z7 along an irregul> l9e :i* beg9s caudad at ! base ( ! great tro*ant] & ends on ! cranial side ( ! ?igh at ! junction ( ! fir/ & second ?irds4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! cutaneus maximus 7,fig4 #fb1 b1 page #id7 & craniad ) ! s>torius 7,fig4 #fh1 q74 ,cranial bord] ) ! s>torius 7q72 caudodorsal bord] ) ! gluteus m$ius 7,fig4 #ij1 b74 ,inn] surface ) ! gluteus m$ius1 ! rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b71 & ! va/us lat]alis 7,fig4 #ij1 d74 ,action indicat$ by ! "n4 ,x also assi/s ! quadriceps femoris 9 ext5d+ ! leg4 ,m4 gluteus maximus4--,! gluteus maximus is a r small quadrangul> muscle 9 ! angle betwe5 ! gluteus m$ius 7,fig4 #ij1 b7 & ! caudal v]tebr4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #afc1 #c1 page #dja7 by fle%y fibres f ! tips ( ! transv]se processes ( ! la/ sacral & ! fir/ caudal v]tebr1 f ! fascia cov]+ ! sp9\s muscles dorsad ( ! transv]se processes ( ^! v]tebr1 & f ! fascia cov]+ ! gluteus m$ius4 ,! muscle passes lat]ad & slightly caudad to its ,ins]tion by t5don & muscle-fibres into a tub]cle on ! caudal side ( ! great tro*ant] at ! middle ( its di/al end1 & = a few millimet]s into ! ridge :i* cont9ues di/ad f ?is tub]cle4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! caud(emoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s1 page #aag71 ! sup]ficial fascia1 & a few fibres ( ! cutaneus maximus4 ,inn] surface ) ! abductor caud int]nus1 ! t5uissimus 7,fig4 #ij1 g71 ! great sciatic n]ve 7,fig4 #afc1 a71 ! obturator int]nus 7,fig4 #ij1 e71 ! gluteus m$ius 7,fig4 #ij1 b71 ! gemellus sup]ior1 & ! pyri=mis 7,fig4 #afc1 #g74 ,cranial bord] ) ! gluteus m$ius & ! t5sor fasci lat4 ,caudal bord] ) ! caud(emoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s74 ,action4--,abducts ! ?igh4 ,m4 gluteus m$ius 7,fig4 #ij1 b74--,! gluteus m$ius is a v l>ge triangul> muscle :i* connects ! ilium & ! sacrum ) ! great tro*ant] 7#a74 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres 7#a7 f ! sup]ficial sacral fascia2 7#b7 f ! lat]al surface ( ! fascia :i* cov]s ! surface ( ! suprasp9\s ext5sor muscles ( ! tail2 7#c7 f ! fascia int]v5+ betwe5 x & ! t5sor fasci lat2 7#d7 by t5don fibres f ! dorsal half ( ! cre/ ( ! ilium & its dorsal bord]1 & ! dorsal half ( ! lat]al surface craniad ( ! auricul> impression2 & 7#e7 f ! tips ( ! transv]se processes ( ! la/ sacral & ! fir/ caudal v]tebr4 ,! fibres conv]ge to a /rong int]nal t5don4 ,ins]tion into ! proximal end ( ! great tro*ant]4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! gluteus maximus & t5sor fasci lat1 & betwe5 ^! ) ! /rong fascia ly+ b5ea? ! cutaneus maximus muscle4 ,inn] surface ) ! gluteus m9imus1 ! pyri=mis1 & ! gemellus sup]ior4 ,cranial bord] ) ! t5sor fasci lat4 ,caudal bord] ) ! gluteus maximus4 ,action4--,abducts ! ?igh4 ,m4 pyri=mis 7,fig4 #afc1 #g74--,! pyri=mis is a triangul> muscle cov]$ by ! gluteus maximus & ! gluteus m$ius 7,fig4 #ij1 b7 & ov]ly+ ! gemellus sup]ior 7,fig4 #afc1 #f74 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! tips ( ! transv]se processes ( ! la/ two sacral & ! fir/ caudal v]tebr4 ,! muscle passes lat]ad ?r\gh ! great sciatic not* to its ,ins]tion by a flat t5don into an elongat$ area on ! proximal bord] ( ! great tro*ant] j outside 7caudad7 ( ! ins]tion ( ! gemellus sup]ior4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! gluteus m$ius 7,fig4 #ij1 b7 & ! gluteus maximus4 ,inn] surface ) ! gemellus sup]ior 7,fig4 #afc1 #f71 ! great sciatic n]ve 7,fig4 #afc1 a71 & ! flexor caud longus 7,fig4 #fh1 x74 ,action4--,abductor ( ! ?igh4 ,m4 gemellus sup]ior 7,fig4 #afc1 #f74--,! gemellus sup]ior is a triangul> muscle ly+ b5ea? ! pyri=mis 7,fig4 #afc1 #g74 ,x is broad] ?an ! pyri=mis1 s t x projects beyond its bord]s bo? caudad & craniad4 ,x is closely unit$ craniad ) ! gluteus m9imus1 s t ! limits ( ! two are def9able only ) difficulty4 ,its caudal bord] is closely unit$ to ! gemellus inf]ior4 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f an elongat$ area on ! dorsal bord] ( ! ilium & is*ium4 ,! area is n>r[$ craniad4 ,x does n q rea* ! po/]ior inf]ior iliac sp9e 9 ! "o direction nor ! sp9e ( ! is*ium 9 ! o!r direction4 ,! fibres conv]ge to a /rong t5don ! ,ins]tion ( :i* is into a triangul> area dorsad ( ! tip ( ! great tro*ant]4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! gluteus m$ius 7,fig4 #ij1 b71 ! pyri=mis 7,fig4 #afc1 #g71 ! great sciatic n]ve 7,fig4 #afc1 a71 & ! gluteus maximus4 ,inn] surface ) ! ilium1 is*ium1 ! capsul>is1 ! caudal edge ( ! gluteus m9imus 7,fig4 #afc1 #e71 & ! cranial edge ( ! obturator int]nus 7,fig4 #ij1 e74 ,action4--,rotates ! femur & abducts x s z to c>ry ! foot outw>d4 ,m4 gluteus m9imus 7,fig4 #afc1 #e74--,! gluteus m9imus is a long triangul> muscle b5ea? ! middle ( ! gluteus m$ius 7,fig4 #ij1 b7 & ) its caudal bord] aga9/ or cov]+ ! cranial bord] ( ! gemellus sup]ior 7,fig4 #afc1 #f71 to :i* x is frequ5tly closely unit$4 ,orig9 f ! v5tral half ( ! ilium1 f ne> its cranial end to a po9t midway betwe5 ! po/]ior iliac sp9e & ! sp9e ( ! is*ium4 ,! muscle ends 9 a /rong flat t5don4 ,ins]tion into an oval facet at ! base ( ! dorsal surface ( ! great tro*ant] on its lat]al side4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! gluteus m$ius 7,fig4 #ij1 b7 & at ! caudal bord] ) ! gemellus sup]ior 7,fig4 #afc1 #f74 ,inn] surface ) ! capsul>is & rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b74 ,action4--,rotates ! femur s z to c>ry ! foot out4 ,m4 capsul>is 7gluteus qu>tus1 or epim]alis74--,! capsul>is is a small flat bundle ( muscle-fibres :i* lies obliquely b5ea? ! gluteus m9imus 7,fig4 #afc1 #e7 & gemellus sup]ior 7#f7 on ! lat]al or out] surface ( ! ilium4 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! surface ( ! ilium ov] a triangul> area betwe5 ! orig9 ( ! rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b7 v5trad1 ! gemellus sup]ior 7,fig4 #afc1 #f7 dorsad1 & ( ! gluteus m9imus 7,fig4 #afc1 #e7 craniad & ! acetabulum caudad4 ,! muscle passes ov] ! smoo? surface ( ! ilium & ! pubis v5trad ( ! acetabulum & !n ov] ! capsule ( ! jo9t4 ,ins]tion by fle%y fibres = ab\t "o c5timet] 9 ! middle l9e on ! dorsal surface ( ! femur di/ad ( ! great tro*ant]4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! gluteus m9imus 7,fig4 #afc1 #e71 ! gemellus sup]ior 7#f71 & ! va/us lat]alis 7,fig4 #ij1 d74 ,inn] surface ) ! ilium1 ! rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b71 ! capsule ( ! jo9t1 & ! va/us m$ialis 7,fig4 #ib1 c74 ,action4--,rotates ! ?igh s z to c>ry ! foot inw>d1 h5ce antagonizes ! iliopsoas4 ,m4 gemellus inf]ior4--,! gemellus inf]ior is a flat triangul> muscle situat$ j caudad ( ! gemellus sup]ior & b5ea? ! obturator int]nus 7,fig4 #ij1 e71 s t x is se5 on reflect+ ! latt] ,orig9 f ! dorsal "o-half ( ! :ole lat]al surface ( ! is*ium betwe5 ! is*ial sp9e & ! is*ial tub]osity4 ,! fibres conv]ge t[>d its ins]tion4 ,! inn] surface ( ! muscle is cov]$ by a /rong t5don4 ,ins]tion into ! inn] surface ( ! t5don ( ! obturator int]nus 7,fig4 #ij1 e7 by t5don- & muscle-fibres4 ,"s ( ! muscle-fibres are ins]t$ into ! capsule ( ! jo9t4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! obturator int]nus 7,fig4 #ij1 e74 ,m$ial surface ) ! is*ium4 ,caudal bord] ) ! quadratus femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 f74 ,cranial bord] ) ! gemellus sup]ior4 ,action4--,abductor ( ! ?igh4 ,! muscle may be consid]$ z a sep>ate head ( ! obturator int]nus 7,fig4 #ij1 e74 ,m4 quadratus femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 f74--,! quadratus femoris is a %ort ?ick muscle connect+ ! is*ial tub]osity 7#b7 & ! proximal end ( ! femur4 ,x lies j caudad ( ! obturator int]nus 7e7 b5ea? ! proximal end ( ! biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t74 ,! orig9 is by fle%y fibres f a consid]able triangul> area on ! lat]al surface ( ! is*ium ne> ! tub]osity4 ,! area lies betwe5 ! orig9 areas ( ! gemellus inf]ior1 biceps1 semimembranosus1 & ! obturator ext]nus4 ,ins]tion into ! di/al two-?irds ( ! v5tral bord] ( ! great tro*ant] & ab\t half ! adjac5t surface ( ! less] tro*ant]4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! t5uissimus 7,fig4 #ij1 g71 ! biceps 7,fig4 #fh1 t71 ! semit5d9osus 7,fig4 #ij1 j71 & ! great sciatic n]ve 7,fig4 #afc1 a74 ,caudal bord] ) ! semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ij1 i74 ,v5tral bord] ) ! adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 h72 dorsal bord] ) ! obturator int]nus 7,fig4 #ij1 e7 & gemellus inf]ior4 ,action4--,ext5sor ( ! ?igh & rotator ( ! femur s z to c>ry ! foot inw>d4 ,m4 obturator ext]nus4--,! obturator ext]nus is a flat triangul> muscle b5ea? ! adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 g74 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! m$ian lip ( ! obturator =am5 & f bo? dorsal & v5tral surfaces ( ! rami ( ! pubis & is*ium adjac5t to ! lip4 ,also f ! out] surface ( ! ramus ( ! is*ium z f> z ! area = ! quadratus femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 f74 ,! fibres conv]ge to a /rong flat t5don4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,lat]al ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,leg1 ,,aft] ,,removal ,,( ,,! ,,muscles ,,%[n ,,9 ,,fig4 #fh 7,,biceps1 ,,t5sor ,,fasci ,,lat1 ,,caud(emoralis1 ,,& ,,gluteus ,,maximus74 a1 ,m4 s>torius2 b1 ,m4 gluteus m$ius2 c1 ,m4 rectus femoris2 d1 ,m4 va/us lat]alis2 e1 ,m4 obturator int]nus2 f1 ,m4 quadratus femoris2 g1 ,m4 t5uissimus2 h1 ,m4 adductor femoris2 i1 ,m4 semimembranosus2 j1 ,m4 semit5d9osus2 k1 ,m4 va/us int]m$ius2 l1 ,m4 plant>is2 m1 m1 m1 ,m4 ga/rocnemius1 out] head 7m1 "p f ! ext]nal sesamoid bone2 m1 f ! plant>is2 m1 f ! sup]ficial fascia72 n1 ,m4 tibialis ant]ior2 o1 ,m4 soleus2 p1 ,m4 ext5sor longus digitorum2 q1 ,m4 p]oneus longus2 r1 ,m4 p]oneus t]tius 7r1 its t5don72 s1 ,m4 p]oneus brevis2 t1 t5don ( ,a*illes2 u1 ,m4 ext5sor brevis digitorum4 #a1 great tro*ant] ( femur2 #b1 tub]osity ( is*ium1 ) cut orig9 ( ,m4 biceps femoris2 #c1 patella2 #d1 calcaneus2 #e1 transv]se ligam5ts2 #f1 lat]al malleolus4 ,ins]tion into ! proximal portion ( ! bottom ( ! tro*ant]ic fossa4 ,relations4--,v5tral surface ) ! adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 g74 ,dorsal surface ) ! pubis & is*ium4 ,caudal bord] ) ! quadratus femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 f74 ,action4--,assi/s ! iliopsoas4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,m$ial ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,hip4--,m4 obturator int]nus 7,fig4 #ij1 e74--,! obturator int]nus appe>s z a triangul> muscle caudad ( ! gemellus sup]ior4 ,orig9 by num]\s small sep>ate heads f ! dorsal surface ( ! ramus ( ! is*ium along its symphysis & foll[+ its m$ial bord] f ! symphysis ne>ly to ! tub]osity4 ,! fibres =m a flat muscle :i* n>r[s & passes ?r\gh ! less] sciatic not*1 turns v5trad & ends 9 a /rong flat t5don ^: ,ins]tion is into ! bottom ( ! tro*ant]ic fossa ( ! femur4 ,! t5don is cont9u$ proximad on ! inn] surface ( ! muscle & =ms a smoo? firm surface by :i* ! muscle glides ov] ! dorsal bord] ( ! is*ium4 ,into ! inn] surface ( ?is t5don ne> its ins]tion ! t5don ( ! gemellus inf]ior is ins]t$4 ,relations4--,m$ial surface )9 ! pelvis ) a mass ( fat sep>at+ x f ! pelvic organs4 ,dorsal or out] surface ) ! biceps femoris1 ! t5uissimus1 ! caud(emoralis1 & ! great sciatic n]ve4 ,inn] surface ) ! is*ium & ! great sciatic n]ve4 ,caudal 7or v5tral7 bord] ) ! quadratus femoris4 ,action4--,abductor ( ! ?igh4 ,m4 iliopsoas 7,fig4 #afb1 #h2 ,fig4 #ia1 c74--,! iliopsoas 7equival5t to ! human psoas & iliacus7 is a conical muscle em]g+ f ! abdom9al cavity onto ! m$ial surface ( ! femur4 ,orig94--7a7 ,! portion correspond+ to ! human psoas 7,fig4 #afb1 #h7 arises by t5 v]tebral heads4 ,! fir/ five ( ^! come f ! five cranial t5dons ( orig9 ( ! psoas m9or 7,fig4 #afb1 #i72 ! six? f a t5d9\s expansion :i* passes f ! t5don ( ! fir/ head ov] ! v5tral longitud9al muscles to ! transv]se process ( ! fif? lumb> v]tebra4 ,! sev5?1 eigh?1 n9?1 & t5? heads arise by fle%y fibres f ! v5tral surfaces ( ! c5tra ( ! la/ f\r lumb> v]tebr4 7b7 ,! portion correspond+ to ! human iliacus arises by fle%y fibres f ! v5tral bord] ( ! ilium1 f opposite ! auricul> impression to ! iliopect9eal em95ce4 ,! portions ( ! muscle all conv]ge to =m a conical mass :i* ends 9 a /rong t5don ly+ on its out] surface4 ,ins]tion by t5don & fle%y fibres into ! apex ( ! less] tro*ant] ( ! femur4 ,relations4--,dorsal surface ) ! quadratus lumborum 7) :i* ?is muscle is p>tly unit$71 ! rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ia1 d71 &1 by ! iliac head1 ) ! gluteus m9imus4 ,v5tral & m$ial surface ) ! psoas m9or 7,fig4 #afb1 #i7 & ! p]itoneum4 ,lat]al edge ) ! transv]sus abdom9is 7,fig4 #afb1 #d74 ,action4--,rotates ! ?igh s z to c>ry ! foot out2 also flexes ! ?igh4 #b4 ,muscles ( ! ,?igh4 ,m4 biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t1 page #aag74--;,a v l>ge flat muscle cov]+ ab\t two-?irds ( ! lat]al side ( ! ?igh4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #ij1 #b74--;,f ! v5tral surface ( ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium by t5don- & muscle-fibres4 ,! fibres div]ge1 & ne> ! knee ! mass has spread out1 end+ 9 a fascia4 ,! dorsal bord] ( ! muscle & ! common fascia are cont9u\s dorsad ) ! sup]ficial fascia ( ! ?igh & ) ! t5don ( ! caud(emoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s74 ,v5trad x is cont9u\s ) ! sup]ficial fascia ( ! %ank4 ,ins]tion into r m ?an ! proximal "o-?ird ( ! dorsal bord] ( ! tibia along its lat]al m>g9 & into ! lat]al m>g9 ( ! patella4 ,9 pass+ ov] ! knee-jo9t x is closely unit$ to ! und]ly+ ligam5ts & t5dons4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! sup]ficial fascia & ) a few ( ! mo/ caudal fibres ( ! cutaneus maximus 7,fig4 #fb1 b1 page #id74 ,cranial 7or dorsal7 edge ) ! caud(emoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s7 & ! va/us lat]alis 7,fig4 #ij1 d74 ,caudal bord] ) ! semit5d9osus 7,fig4 #fh1 u7 & a mass ( fat4 ,inn] surface ) ! caud(emoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s71 ! t5uissimus 7,fig4 #ij1 g71 ! obturator int]nus 7,fig4 #ij1 e71 ! quadratus femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 f71 ! semit5d9osus 7,fig4 #fh1 u71 ! semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ij1 i71 ! adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 h71 ! great sciatic n]ve 7,fig4 #afc1 a71 & di/ad ) ! foll[+ muscles ( ! l[] leg3 ! tibialis ant]ior 7,fig4 #ij1 n71 ! ext5sor longus digitorum 7,fig4 #ij1 p71 ! p]oneus longus 7,fig4 #ij1 q71 & ! lat]al head ( ! ga/rocnemius 7,fig4 #ij1 m74 ,action4--,abductor ( ! ?igh1 & flexor ( ! %ank4 ,m4 t5uissimus or ,m4 abductor cruris 7,fig4 #ij1 g74--,a v sl5d] muscle1 only ?ree or f\r millimet]s wide4 ,orig9 f ! tip ( ! transv]se process ( ! second caudal v]tebra1 9 common ) ! caud(emoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s7 or gluteus maximus4 ,x passes obliquely b5ea? ! biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t7 di/ad & v5trad1 to ! di/al end ( ! v5tral bord] ( t muscle4 ,"h x becomes cont9u\s ) ! v5tral bord] ( ! biceps1 end+ 9 a cont9uation ( ! same fascia into :i* ! biceps is ins]t$4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! caud(emoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s7 & ! biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t72 di/ad ) ! integum5t4 ,inn] surface ) ! obturator int]nus 7,fig4 #ij1 e71 quadratus femoris 7f71 semit5d9osus 7j71 adductor femoris 7h71 semimembranosus 7i71 & di/ad ) ! muscles ( ! l[] leg4 ,m4 caud(emoralis 7p>am]alis1 ,/rauss-,durckheim7 7,fig4 #fh1 s1 page #aag74 ,orig9 by a flat t5don f ! transv]se processes ( ! second & ?ird caudal v]tebr4 ,! muscle =ms a flat b& :i* passes di/ad along ! middle ( ! lat]al side ( ! ?igh ov] ! pelvis & caudad ( ! great tro*ant]4 ,at ! middle ( ! ?igh x ends 9 a v ?9 t5don4 ,! t5don passes di/ad along ! m$ial surface ( ! biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t71 pi]ces ! fascia lata ne> ! knee1 & passes to its ,ins]tion into ! middle ( ! lat]al bord] ( ! patella4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! sup]ficial fascia & a few fibres ( ! cutaneus maximus2 di/ad ) ! biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t74 ,cranial bord] ) ! gluteus maximus2 caudal bord] ) ! biceps femoris4 ,inn] surface ) ! t5uissimus 7,fig4 #ij1 g71 ! gluteus maximus1 ! abductor caud int]nus1 & ) ! obturator int]nus 7,fig4 #ij1 e72 di/ad ) ! va/us lat]alis4 ,action4--,abducts ! ?igh & helps to ext5d ! %ank4 ,m4 semit5d9osus 7,fig4 #ij1 j74--,a long sl5d] muscle on ! v5tral 7caudal7 bord] ( ! ?igh1 betwe5 ! semimembranosus 7i7 & ! biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t74 ,orig9 f ! apex ( ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium b5ea? ! orig9 ( ! biceps femoris4 ,! muscle passes to ! m$ial side ( ! %ank & ends 9 a ?9 b /rong t5don 7,fig4 #ib1 i7 ab\t five millimet]s broad4 ,! t5don curves proximad & passes b5ea? ! gracilis t5don 7,fig4 #ia1 b7 to its ,ins]tion into ! cre/ 7dorsal bord]7 ( ! tibia "o or two c5timet]s f its proximal end4 ,relations4--,lat]al surface ) ! biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t71 ! integum5t1 a mass ( fat1 & di/ad ) ! ga/rocnemius 7,fig4 #ib1 j7 & popliteus 7,fig4 #ib1 k74 ,caudal surface ) ! integum5t4 ,m$ial surface ) ! semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ij1 i7 & di/ad ) ! integum5t ( ! l[] leg4 ,action4--,flexor ( ! %ank4 ,m4 semimembranosus 7,figs4 #ij & #ia1 i2 ,fig4 #ib1 h74--,a ?ick prismatic muscle ly+ along ! v5tral 7or caudal7 side ( ! ?igh betwe5 ! semit5d9osus 7j7 & ! gracilis 7,fig4 #ia1 b74 ,orig9 by %ort t5don-fibres f ! caudal bord] ( ! tub]osity & ! ramus ( ! is*ium4 ,! muscle mass is divid$ ?r\gh\t mo/ ( its l5g? into two portions 7,fig4 #ib1 h & h71 "o ( :i* 7h7 lies lat]ad & caudad ( ! o!r4 ,! two portions pass to ! m$ial side ( ! knee4 ,! caudal portion 7h7 ends 9 a /rong flat t5don five millimet]s broad1 ! ,ins]tion ( :i* is into ! m$ial surface ( ! femur on ! m$ial epicondyle1 at ! middle ( its di/al bord] & into ! adjac5t m$ial surface ( ! tibia beh9d ! lat]al ligam5t4 ,! dorsal "p has its ins]tion into ! di/al "o & "o-half to two c5timet]s ( ! ridge :i* is cont9u$ f ! m$ial epicondyle ( ! femur onto ! %aft2 & into ! sesamoid bone ( ! m$ial epicondyle4 ,relations4--,lat]al surface ) ! semit5d9osus 7,fig4 #ij1 j71 ! biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t71 & di/ad ) a small "p ( ! adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 g71 & ) ! ga/rocnemius 7,fig4 #ib1 j74 ,m$ial surface ) ! gracilis 7,fig4 #ia1 b7 & di/ad ) ! s>torius 7,fig4 #ia1 a74 ,cranial 7or dorsal7 bord] at ! orig9 ) ! quadratus femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 f72 = ! rema9d] ( its l5g? ) ! adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 h74 ,caudal bord] ) ! integum5t proximad4 ,action4--,ext5sor ( ! ?igh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,m$ial ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,leg4 a1 ,m4 s>torius2 b1 ,m4 gracilis2 c1 ,m4 iliopsoas2 d1 ,m4 rectus femoris2 e1 ,m4 va/us m$ialis2 f1 ,m4 pect9eus2 g1 ,m4 adductor longus2 h1 ,m4 adductor femoris2 i1 ,m4 semimembranosus2 j1 ,m4 semit5d9osus2 k1 m$ial head ( ,m4 ga/rocnemius2 l1 ,m4 plant>is2 m1 ,m4 flexor longus hallucis 7m1 its t5don72 n1 ,m4 flexor longus digitorum2 7n1 its t5don72 o1 ,m4 tibialis po/]ior2 p1 ,m4 tibialis ant]ior2 q1 ,m4 int]osseus ( second digit4 #a1 patella2 #b1 calcaneus2 #c1 m$ial malleolus2 #d1 second metat>sal2 #e1 transv]se ligam5t ( ! l[] leg4 ,m4 s>torius 7,fig4 #ia1 a2 ,fig4 #fh1 q74--,a l>ge flat muscle along ! m$ial side ( ! ?igh ne> its cranial 7dorsal7 bord]4 ,orig9 f ! v5tral half ( ! cre/ ( ! ilium & f ! m$ial half ( its v5tral bord] craniad ( ! auricul> impression4 ,! caudal ?ird ( ! orig9 is by a ?9 t5don1 ! re/ by fle%y fibres4 ,ins]tion on a long ,s-%ap$ l9e :i* beg9s on ! dorsal bord] ( ! tibial %aft ab\t two c5timet]s f its proximal end1 passes !nce to ! middle ( ! proximal end ( ! m$ial surface ( ! tibia1 !nce across ! ligam5ts ( ! knee-jo9t & ! m$ial surface ( ! m$ial epicondyle to ! patella1 crosses ! patella obliquely to ! middle ( its proximal end1 & may be cont9u$ = "s di/ance proximad along ! middle l9e on ! fascia4 ,relations4--,m$ial surface ) ! integum5t & proximad ) ! int]nal oblique muscle 7,fig4 #fh1 p74 ,lat]al 7inn]7 surface ) ! t5sor fasci lat 7,fig4 #fh1 r71 ! va/us lat]alis 7,fig4 #ij1 d71 ! sup]ficial fascia1 ! va/us m$ialis 7,fig4 #ib1 c71 ! rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b71 & ! di/al end ( ! semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ib1 h74 ,action4--,adducts & rotates ! femur & ext5ds ! tibia4 ,m4 gracilis 7,fig4 #ia1 b74--,! gracilis is a flat1 ?91 subcutane\s muscle occupy+ ! v5tral half ( ! m$ial surface ( ! ?igh4 ,orig9 by a /rong t5don f ! caudal ?ree-f\r?s ( ! symphysis ( ! is*ium & pubis4 ,! t5don may ext5d caudad ( ! symphysis 9 ! middle l9e to ! level ( ! tub]osity ( ! is*ium4 ,= ab\t its fir/ c5timet] ! t5don is common to ! two muscles ( opposite sides & gives orig9 on two sides to ! fibres ( ! adductor femoris4 ,! common t5don divides into two :i* pass lat]ad1 ea* end+ 9 a convex bord] f :i* ! muscle-fibres spr+4 ,ins]tion4--,x ends 9 a ?9 aponeurosis1 "p ( :i* is cont9u\s ) t ( ! s>torius4 ,! aponeurosis is f9ally ins]t$ into ! m$ial surface ( ! tibia ne> its proximal end1 :ile di/ally x is cont9u\s ) ! fascia4 ,relations4--,out] 7m$ial7 surface ) ! integum5t4 ,inn] 7lat]al7 surface ) ! semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ia1 i7 & ! adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ia1 h74 ,action4--,adducts ! leg & draws x caudad4 ,m4 adductor femoris 7magnus et brevis7 7,fig4 #ib1 g2 ,fig4 #ij1 h74--,! adductor femoris lies betwe5 ! semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ib1 h7 & ! femur4 ,its proximal "p is cov]$ by ! semimembranosus1 :ile its di/al "p lies outside ( x4 ,orig9 by muscle-fibres f ! rami ( ! pubis & ! is*ium along ! :ole ( ! l5g? ( ! symphysis2 f ! ramus ( ! is*ium betwe5 ! symphysis & ! tub]osity1 & f ! t5don ( orig9 common to ! two gracilis muscles4 ,ins]tion into ne>ly ! :ole ( ! v5tral surface ( ! %aft ( ! femur4 ,! area beg9s at ! base ( ! great tro*ant] opposite ! proximal end & ! ins]tion area ( ! gluteus maximus4 ,x ext5ds !nce di/ad along ! caudal bord] ( ! surface z an area ab\t "o millimet] wide4 ,at ! junction ( ! fir/ & second ?irds ( ! %aft ! area exp&s & occupies ! :ole ( ! v5tral surface ( ! bone1 end+ at ! int]condyloid fossa4 ,relations4--,lat]al surface ) ! biceps 7,fig4 #fh1 t71 ! great sciatic n]ve 7,fig4 #afc1 a71 ! t5uissimus 7,fig4 #ij1 g71 & ! semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ib1 h72 dorsolat]al bord] 9 contact ) ! va/us lat]alis 7,fig4 #ib1 c74 ,dorsal surface ) ! quadratus femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 f7 & obturator ext]nus 7,fig4 #ij1 e74 ,caudal surface ) ! semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ib1 h74 ,m$ial surface ) ! gracilis 7,fig4 #ia1 b71 adductor longus 7,fig4 #ib1 f71 pect9eus 7,fig4 #ib1 e71 va/us m$ialis 7,fig4 #ib1 c71 & di/ad ) ! m$ial head ( ! ga/rocnemius 7,fig4 #ib1 j74 ,action4--,an ext5sor ( ! ?igh4 ,m4 adductor longus 7,fig4 #ia1 g2 ,fig4 #ib1 f74--,a ?9 muscle :i* cov]s ! dorsal half ( ! m$ial surface ( ! adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 g74 ,orig9 by muscle-fibres f ! m$ian ?ree-f\r?s ( ! cranial bord] ( ! pubis1 ! l9e ( orig9 =m+ a m$ial cont9uation ( t ( ! pect9eus 7,fig4 #ib1 e74 ,ins]tion by a ?9 aponeurosis into ! ext]nal l9ea asp]a ( ! femur along ! second & ?ird fif?s ( ! bone4 ,relations4--,) its m$ial or cranial surface ! adductor longus =ms "p ( ! b\nd>y ( a depression among ! muscles at ! proximal end ( ! m$ial side ( ! leg4 ,?is depression is call$ ! iliopect9eal fossa2 x conta9s ! femoral ve9 & art]y & saph5\s n]ve imb$d$ 9 fat 7,fig4 #abg74 ,! m$ial edge ( ! adductor longus is 9 relation ) ! integum5t2 ! lat]al edge ) ! pect9eus 7,fig4 #ib1 e74 ,inn] or caudal surface ) ! adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 g74 ,action4--,adductor ( ! ?igh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,,second ,,lay] ,,( ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,m$ial ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,?igh4 a1 ,m4 t5sor fasci lat2 a1 fascia lata2 b1 ,m4 rectus femoris2 c1 ,m4 va/us m$ialis2 d1 ,m4 iliopsoas 7cut72 e1 ,m4 pect9eus2 f1 ,m4 adductor longus2 g1 ,m4 adductor femoris2 h1 h1 ,m4 semimembranosus2 i1 ,m4 semit5d9osus 7i1 its t5don72 j1 m$ial head ( ,m4 ga/rocnemius2 k1 ,m4 popliteus2 l1 ,m4 flexor longus digitorum4 #a1 patell> ligam5t2 #b1 ligam5tum collat]ale tibiale4 ,m4 pect9eus 7,fig4 #ib1 e74--,a flat b& ( fibres closely unit$ ) ! adductor longus 7f71 ( :i* x appe>s to be a lat]al cont9uation4 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! lat]al "o-f\r? ( ! cranial bord] ( ! pubis4 ,! muscle passes ov] ! smoo? out] surface ( ! pubis betwe5 its orig9 area & ! acetabulum1 crosses ! iliopsoas 7d7 obliquely & has its ,ins]tion by muscle-fibres into an elongat$ area 7five millimet]s 9 l5g?7 on ! %aft ( ! femur j di/ad ( ! less] tro*ant] & betwe5 ! ins]tion ( ! adductor femoris 7g7 & t ( ! va/us m$ialis 7c74 ,relations4--,! cranial edge =ms "p ( ! floor ( ! iliopect9eal fossa4 ,lat]al surface 9 relation ) ! iliopsoas 7d7 & va/us m$ialis 7c72 m$ial surface ) ! adductor longus 7f7 & adductor femoris 7g74 ,action4--,adductor ( ! ?igh4 ,m4 quadriceps femoris4--,! quadriceps femoris is a v p[]ful ext5sor muscle on ! front ( ! ?igh4 ,x consi/s ( f\r muscles :i* unite to =m ! great ext5sor ( ! %ank4 ,x is ins]t$ into ! patella & ?r\gh x1 by ! ligam5tum patell1 into ! tibia4 ,x may be comp>$ to ! triceps bra*ii4 ,! p>ts are3 7#a7 ,m4 rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b2 ,fig4 #ij1 c74 ,orig9 by /rong t5don f an elongat$ triangul> area :i* has its base at ! acetabulum & its apex ab\t five to sev5 millimet]s craniad ( ! acetabulum1 along ! v5tral bord] ( ! ilium4 ,! area is betwe5 t = ! capsul>is & t = ! iliopsoas4 ,! muscle is flat ne> its orig91 b soon becomes a triangul> prismatic mass :i* is unit$ to ! dorsal bord] ( ! va/us lat]alis 7,fig4 #ij1 d7 at ! junction ( ! middle & la/ ?irds ( ! ?igh4 ,ins]tion into ! oblique area on ! out] surface ( ! patella ne> its proximal bord] 9 connection ) ! va/us lat]alis4 ,relations4--,out] or lat]al surface at ! orig9 ) ! gluteus m9imus1 ! edge ( ! capsul>is1 ! gluteus m$ius 7,fig4 #ij1 b71 & f>!r di/ad ) ! va/us lat]alis 7,fig4 #ij1 d74 ,m$ial surface ) ! t5sor fasci lat 7,fig4 #ib1 a71 s>torius 7,fig4 #ij1 a71 & va/us m$ialis 7,fig4 #ib1 c74 ,inn] 7caudal7 surface ) ! va/us int]m$ius4 7#b7 ,m4 va/us lat]alis 7,fig4 #ij1 d74--,a flat triangul> prismatic mass jo9$ di/ally to ! prec$+4 ,x cov]s ! dorsal "p ( ! lat]al surface ( ! ?igh4 ,orig9 f a triangul> area on ! dorsal & lat]al surfaces ( ! %aft & ! great tro*ant] ( ! femur4 ,! base ( ! area is at ! great tro*ant]1 & its apex is at ! junction ( ! second & ?ird fif?s ( ! %aft on ! l9ea asp]a4 ,! l9ea asp]a =ms ! v5tral b\nd>y ( ! triangle1 :ile its dorsal b\nd>y is =m$ by a l9e drawn f its apex to ! dorsom$ial angle ( ! great tro*ant]4 ,! mass unites ) ! rectus femoris 7c7 by its dorsal bord] at ! junction ( ! middle & di/al ?irds ( ! ?igh4 ,ins]tion into ! oblique area on ! out] surface ( ! patella ne> its lat]al bord] 9 connection ) ! rectus femoris4 7#c7 ,m4 va/us m$ialis 7,fig4 #ib1 c7 lies on ! m$ial side ( ! ?igh4 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres ov] a diamond-%ap$ area on ! %aft ( ! femur ly+ betwe5 ! m$ial bran* ( ! l9ea asp]a & ! area = ! va/us lat]alis4 ,proximad ! area is b\nd$ by ! spiral l9e1 & di/ad x is b\nd$ by a l9e p>allel to ! spiral l9e & hav+ its proximal end at ab\t ! junction ( ! fir/ & second ?irds ( ! bone4 ,! muscle =ms a triangul>1 prismatic mass4 ,x ends 9 a ?9 aponeurosis :i* is cont9u\s dorsad ) ! bord] ( ! rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b71 & v5trad sometimes ) ! t5don ( ! gracilis 7,fig4 #ia1 b74 ,ins]tion into ! m$ial bord] ( ! patella & ! ligam5tum patell4 ,! ins]tion may ext5d onto ! head ( ! tibia4 ,! adjac5t surfaces ( ! va/us lat]alis & ! va/us m$ialis are connect$ ov] _! di/al ?irds by an aponeurosis :i* passes transv]sely b5ea? ! rectus femoris4 ,! di/al end ( ! aponeurosis is ins]t$ into ! proximal bord] ( ! patella4 ,its proximal end receives ! ins]tion ( "s muscle-fibres :i* =m a "p ( ! va/us m$ialis z "h describ$4 ,?is mass ( fibres is describ$ by ,/rauss-,durckheim z ! crural muscle4 ,sometimes ! transv]se aponeurosis is cont9u\s ) only "o ( ! two va/i & sometimes ) nei!r1 s t ! ins]tion ( ! crural ( ,/rauss-,durckheim becomes m or less indep5d5t4 ,relations ( ! va/us m$ialis4--,out] 7m$ial7 surface ) ! s>torius 7,fig4 #ia1 a7 & ! /ructures 9 ! iliopect9eal fossa4 ,cranial 7or dorsal7 surface ) ! rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b7 & va/us int]m$ius4 ,caudal 7v5tral7 surface ) ! pect9eus 7,fig4 #ib1 e71 adductor longus 7,fig4 #ib1 f71 adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 g71 & semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ib1 h74 7#d7 ,m4 va/us int]m$ius4--,a flat mass ( muscle :i* lies b5ea? ! rectus femoris4 ,orig9 f ne>ly ! :ole ( ! dorsal surface ( ! %aft ( ! femur betwe5 ! areas = ! va/us m$ialis & va/us lat]alis4 ,! area ( orig9 ext5ds di/ad to an oblique l9e ! middle ( :i* is ab\t "o & "o-half c5timet]s f ! patell> surface1 ! lat]al bord] ( ! area be+ long] ?an ! m$ial bord]4 ,ins]tion by muscle-fibres into ! capsule ( ! jo9t4 ,! c5tral fibres are ins]t$ ab\t "o c5timet] proximad ( ! patella1 :ile ! lat]al mass passes to ! level ( ! proximal end4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b72 bord]s ) ! va/us m$ialis 7,fig4 #ib1 c7 & va/us lat]alis 7,fig4 #ij1 d72 inn] surface ) ! femur4 ,action4--,! quadriceps ext5sor is an ext5sor ( ! %ank4 ,! va/us int]m$ius act+ sep>ately is a t5sor ( ! capsule ( ! knee-jo9t4 #c4 ,muscles ( ! ,l[] ,leg 7,crus74 ,a4 ,,on ,,! ,,v5tral ,,side4--,m4 ga/rocnemius4--,?is is ! great muscul> mass ( ! calf4 ,x arises by two heads1 ! caput lat]ale or lat]al head 7,fig4 #ij1 m71 & ! caput m$iale or m$ial head 7,fig4 #ia1 k71 ( ! ga/rocnemius4 ,caput lat]ale 7,fig4 #ij1 m1 m1 m74--,! orig9 ( ! lat]al head is 9 f\r portions3 7#a7 ,f ! t5don ( orig9 ( ! plant>is :i* comes f ! middle ( ! lat]al bord] ( ! patella4 ,! t5don ends 9 a small conical mass ( fibres 7m7 :i* jo9s ! v5tral "p ( ! common head4 7#b7 ,by a sl5d] flat t5don1 di/ad ( ! fir/1 f ! sup]ficial fascia ( ! %ank 7m74 ,! t5don ends 9 a conical mass :i* jo9s ! dorsal bord] ( ! common head4 7#c7 ,by a /rong t5don & by muscle-fibres f ! di/al bord] ( ! lat]al sesamoid bone 7,fig4 #fa1 #c7 ( ! femur4 ,^! fibres 7m7 =m ! middle & out] "p ( ! common head4 7#d7 ,by muscle-fibres f ! middle ( ! out] surface ( ! aponeurosis cov]+ ! plant>is 7,fig4 #ij1 l7 along r m ?an ! proximal half ( ! tibia4 ,! lat]al head ?us =m$ is flat & fusi=m 9 section4 ,caput m$iale 7,fig4 #ia1 k2 ,fig4 #ib1 j74--,! m$ial head resembles ! lat]al head closely4 ,orig9 by a /rong t5don f ! m$ial sesamoid bone ( ! femur 7,fig4 #fa1 #d7 & by muscle-fibres f ! surface ( ! %aft = a %ort di/ance proximad ( ?is4 ,! two heads unite by _! contigu\s bord]s at ! junction ( ! fir/ & second ?irds ( ! tibia4 ,! common muscle n>r[s rapidly & ends 9 a flat t5don :i* jo9s ! t5don ( ! soleus to =m ! s-call$ t5don ( ,a*illes 7t5do calcaneus7 7,fig4 #ij1 t74 ,?is has its ,ins]tion into ! proximal end ( ! calcaneus 7,fig4 #ij1 #d7 ne> its v5tral bord]4 ,?is t5don toge!r ) t ( ! soleus 7,fig4 #ij1 o7 & ! fascia ( ! %ank =ms a tubul> %ea? = ! t5don ( ! plant>is4 ,relations4--7#a7 ,( ! lat]al head4 ,lat]al 7out]7 surface ) ! biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t7 & ! sup]ficial fascia4 ,m$ial 7inn]7 surface ) ! popliteus 7,fig4 #ib1 k71 ! plant>is 7,fig4 #ij1 l7 7to :i* x is closely unit$71 ! m$ial head ( ! ga/rocnemius 7,fig4 #ia1 k71 ! soleus 7,fig4 #ij1 o71 & ! p]oneus longus 7,fig4 #ij1 q74 7#b7 ,( ! m$ial head4 ,m$ial 7out]7 surface ) ! sup]ficial fascia & ! t5dons ( ! gracilis 7,fig4 #ia1 b71 semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ib1 h71 & semit5d9osus 7,fig4 #ib1 i74 ,lat]al 7inn]7 surface at ! orig9 ) ! adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 g71 !n ) ! plant>is 7,fig4 #ia1 l71 ! popliteus 7,fig4 #ib1 k71 flexor longus digitorum 7,fig4 #ia1 n71 & ! lat]al head ( ! ga/rocnemius 7,fig4 #ij1 m74 ,action4--,ext5sor ( ! foot4 7,x is to be not$ t :at is call$ ext5sion 9 ! foot is analog\s to :at is call$ flexion 9 ! h&1 s t ! ext5sors ( ! foot are mo/ readily to be comp>$ ) ! flexors ( ! h&47 ,m4 plant>is 7,fig4 #ij1 l2 ,fig4 #ia1 l74--,a fusi=m muscle cov]$ di/ally by ! ga/rocnemius1 b appe>+ betwe5 ! two heads ( ! ga/rocnemius at _! proximal ends 7,fig4 #ij1 l74 ,orig9 by a /rong t5don f ! middle ( ! lat]al bord] ( ! patella & by fle%y fibres f ! v5tral bord] ( ! lat]al sesamoid4 ,! patell> t5don ends 9 a flatt5$ head :i* passes v5trad ov] ! lat]al epicondyle ( ! femur & !n curves di/ad2 x is closely unit$ ) ! lat]al head ( ! ga/rocnemius4 ,! muscle ends 9 a ?ick t5don :i* passes ?r\gh a %ea? =m$ by ! t5dons ( ! ga/rocnemius & soleus1 & ! fascia ( ! %ank4 ,! t5don passes ov] ! groov$ proximal end ( ! calcaneus onto its v5tral surface4 ,x is held 9 place aga9/ ! groove by two %eets ( aponeurosis1 :i* leave ! t5don on ei!r side = a di/ance ( m ?an a c5timet] & are atta*$ to ! lat]al surfaces ( ! calcaneus at its proximal end4 ,lat]al motion is ?us h9d]$1 :ile longitud9al motion is p]mitt$4 ,betwe5 ?is t5don & ! t5don ( ,a*illes is a synovial bursa :i* aids ! glid+ movem5t ( ! t5don4 ,9 ! sole ( ! foot opposite ! di/al end ( ! calcaneus ! t5don broad5s & ends 9 ! flexor brevis digitorum 7p$is p]=atus7 muscle1 :i* might also be consid]$ z a second "p ( ! plant>is4 ,9 man ! plant>is is ins]t$ into ! calcaneus along ) ! ga/rocnemius4 ,relations4--,! muscle is cov]$ ?r\gh\t by ! two heads ( ! ga/rocnemius 7,fig4 #ij1 m2 ,fig4 #ia1 k71 except at ! proximal end 7,fig4 #ij1 l71 :]e x is 9 contact ) ! integum5t4 ,inn] surface 9 relation ) ! popliteus 7,fig4 #ib1 k71 ! soleus 7,fig4 #ij1 o71 ! flexor longus digitorum 7,fig4 #ia1 n71 & flexor longus hallucis 7,fig4 #ia1 m74 ,m4 soleus 7,fig4 #ij1 o74--,a flat fusi=m muscle ly+ b5ea? ! plant>is4 ,orig9 by muscle-fibres f ! lat]al surface ( ! head ( ! fibula1 & by t5don-fibres f ! proximal two-fif?s ( its v5tral bord]4 ,ins]tion4--,! muscle ends 9 a sl5d] t5don :i* jo9s ! lat]al bord] ( ! ga/rocnemius t5don to =m ! t5don ( ,a*illes 7,fig4 #ij1 t71 :i* =ms ! %ea? ( ! plant>is t5don4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! ga/rocnemius 7,fig4 #ij1 m7 & plant>is 7,fig4 #ij1 l74 ,inn] surface ) ! p]oneus longus 7,fig4 #ij1 q71 p]oneus t]tius 7,fig4 #ij1 r71 & flexor hallucis 7,fig4 #ia1 m74 ,action4--,assi/s ! ga/rocnemius to ext5d ! foot4 ,m4 triceps sur4--,! ga/rocnemius & ! soleus are sometimes consid]$ z =m+ a s+le muscle1 ) ?ree heads1 "u ! "n triceps sur4 ,m4 popliteus 7,fig4 #ib1 k74--,a triangul> muscle pass+ f ! femur obliquely t[>d ! m$ial side ov] ! v5tral surface ( ! proximal end ( ! tibia4 ,orig9 by a /rong t5don f ! popliteal groove on ! surface ( ! lat]al epicondyle ( ! femur4 ,9 ! t5don is a sesamoid bone1 ! popliteal bone 7,fig4 #fa1 #e1 page #hi71 :i* glides ov] ! v5tral "p ( ! lat]al articul> facet on ! proximal end ( ! tibia4 ,z ! muscle passes ov] ! jo9t x is closely atta*$ to ! jo9t capsule4 ,f ! popliteal bone1 :i* ) ! t5don lies )9 ! capsule ( ! knee-jo9t1 ! muscle-fibres div]ge to _! ,ins]tion into ! proximal end ( ! v5tral surface ( ! tibial %aft on ! m$ial side ( ! m$ial oblique ridge4 ,! area ( ins]tion ext5ds slightly onto ! m$ial surface ( ! bone4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! ga/rocnemius 7,fig4 #ib1 j7 & plant>is 7,fig4 #ia1 l71 & ) ! t5don ( ! semit5d9osus 7,fig4 #ib1 i74 ,di/al bord] ) ! orig9s ( ! soleus & flexor longus digitorum4 ,inn] surface ) ! capsule ( ! knee-jo9t & ! tibia4 ,action4--,rotates ! ?igh s z to turn ! toes inw>d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ?ree foll[+ deep muscles on ! v5tral surface ( ! %ank are cov]$ by a deep fascia 7! deep crural fascia7 :i* sep>ates !m f ! ov]ly+ muscles4 ,?is fascia /ret*es f ! dorsal bord] ( ! tibia ab\t ! v5tral side ( ! %ank to ! m$ial bord] ( ! tibia4 ,x s5ds a slip b5ea? ! bord] ( ! fibula4 ,m4 flexor longus digitorum 7,fig4 #ia1 m & n74--,ow+ to ! r$uction ( ! fir/ digit 9 ! cat ! t5don ( ! flexor longus hallucis 7m7 has become unit$ to t ( ! flexor longus digitorum 7n71 s t ! two might be consid]$ sep>ate heads ( a s+le muscle4 ,! head correspond+ to ! flexor longus hallucis 7m7 is mu* l>g] ?an t correspond+ to ! flexor longus digitorum 7n74 ,! two heads w be describ$ sep>ately4 7#a7 ,m4 flexor longus hallucis 7,fig4 #ia1 m74--,?is lies aga9/ ! v5tral surface ( ! tibia & fibula b5ea? ! popliteus 7,fig4 #ib1 k7 & soleus 7,fig4 #ij1 o74 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres1 7#a7 f ! %eet ( deep crural fascia :i* dips betwe5 x & ! tibialis po/]ior 7,fig4 #ia1 o7 & ! flexor longus digitorum 7n74 7#b7 ,f ! v5tral surface ( ! tibia di/ad ( ! lat]al oblique l9e to )9 "o to ?ree c5timet]s ( ! di/al end ( ! %aft4 7#c7 ,f ! m$ial surface ( ! %aft & head ( ! fibula & f ! :ole int]osse\s ligam5t4 ,on ! fibul> side ! orig9 may ext5d onto ! t5don ( ! popliteus & ! fascia ( ! p]oneus longus4 ,! fibres =m a flat fusi=m mass end+ "o c5timet] f ! heel 9 a /rong flat t5don 7m7 :i* passes ov] ! groove on ! di/al surface ( ! a/ragalus & ov] ! groove on ! su/5taculum tali4 ,! two grooves are conv]t$ into a cont9u\s canal by /rong transv]se ligam5ts1 & ! canal is l9$ by an ext5sion ( ! synovial bursa ( ! ankle-jo9t4 ,em]g+ f ! canal ! t5don broad5s & receives on its m$ial side ! ins]tion ( ! t5don ( ! flexor longus digitorum 7n74 ,! t5don gives orig9 on its out] surface to ! lumbricales & to ! common plant> ligam5t4 ,! t5don cont9ues to broad5 until x rea*es ! middle ( ! l5g? ( ! metac>pals2 "h x divides into f\r t5dons :i* pass to ! t]m9al phalanges ( ! digits4 ,ins]tion4--,! relations ( ! f\r t5dons & _! ins]tions are id5tical ) ^? ( ! flexor pr(undus digitorum ( ! h&4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! soleus 7,fig4 #ij1 o7 & plant>is 7,fig4 #ia1 l74 ,lat]al bord] ) ! soleus1 ! p]oneus t]tius 7,fig4 #ij1 r71 & p]oneus brevis 7,fig4 #ij1 s74 ,m$ial bord] ) ! tibialis po/]ior 7,fig4 #ia1 o7 & flexor longus digitorum 7,fig4 #ia1 n74 ,action4--,flexor ( ! phalanges4 7#b7 ,m4 flexor longus digitorum 7,fig4 #ia1 n74 ,orig9 by muscle- & t5don-fibres f ! v5tral surface ( ! tibia ov] its proximal half betwe5 ! oblique ridges2 by fle%y fibres f an aponeurosis betwe5 x & ! tibialis po/]ior 7,fig4 #ia1 o71 & by t5don f ! m$ial surface ( ! head ( ! fibula4 ,at ! junction ( ! middle & di/al ?irds ( ! bone ! muscle ends 9 a sl5d] t5don :i* passes ?r\gh ! v5tral groove on ! m$ial surface ( ! tibia &1 curv+ onto ! sole ( ! foot1 becomes atta*$ to ! m$ial bord] ( ! common t5don describ$ "u ! la/4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! m$ial head ( ! ga/rocnemius 7,fig4 #ia1 k7 & ) ! sup]ficial fascia4 ,inn] surface ) ! tibialis po/]ior 7,fig4 #ia1 o74 ,m$ial bord] at ! proximal end ) ! popliteus 7,fig4 #ib1 k71 lat]al bord] ) ! tibialis po/]ior 7,fig4 #ia1 o71 & flexor longus hallucis 7,fig4 #ia1 m74 ,action4--,flexor ( ! phalanges4 ,m4 tibialis po/]ior 7,fig4 #ia1 o74--,a sl5d] flat fusi=m muscle b5ea? ! flexor longus digitorum & betwe5 x & ! flexor longus hallucis4 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ne>ly ! :ole m$ial surface ( ! head ( ! fibula1 f ! inn] surface ( ! aponeurosis betwe5 x & ! flexor longus digitorum 7n71 & by a few fle%y fibres f ! v5tral surface ( ! tibia betwe5 ! oblique ridges4 ,"s fibres may also arise f ! out] surface ( ! aponeurosis cov]+ ! flexor longus hallucis 7m74 ,! muscle ends at ab\t ! middle ( ! tibia 9 a sl5d] flat t5don :i* passes p>allel to ! t5don ( ! flexor longus digitorum 7n7 ?r\gh ! dorsal groove on ! m$ial surface ( ! di/al end ( ! tibia4 ,?is groove is conv]t$ into a canal by a transv]se ligam5t4 ,beyond ! canal ! t5don turns onto ! plant> surface ( ! foot & passes ?r\gh a groove on ! v5tral surface ( ! scaphoid bone4 ,x !n divides4 ,ins]tion into ! out] tub]osity on ! surface ( ! scaphoid1 & onto ! proximal end ( ! v5tral surface ( ! m$ial cunei=m4 ,relations4--,out] & m$ial surface ) ! flexor longus digitorum 7n74 ,lat]al surface ) ! flexor longus hallucis 7m74 ,action4--,ext5sor ( ! foot4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,dorsal ,,& ,,lat]al ,,surfaces ,,( ,,! ,,l[] ,,leg4--,m4 p]oneus longus 7,fig4 #ij1 q74--,a sl5d]1 fusi=m muscle ly+ sup]ficially on ! lat]al side ( ! leg1 dorsad ( ! soleus4 ,orig9 by t5don-fibres f ! lat]al surface ( ! head ( ! fibula & f ! proximal half ( ! lat]al surface ( its %aft4 ,at ! junction ( ! middle & di/al ?irds ( ! l[] leg ! muscle ends 9 a sl5d] t5don :i* passes ?r\gh ! groove on ! lat]al surface ( ! lat]al malleolus4 ,?is groove is conv]t$ into a canal by a transv]se ligam5t4 ,! t5don passes ?r\gh ! groove on ! p]oneal tub]cle ( ! calcaneus1 !n turns onto ! sole ( ! foot & passes ?r\gh ! p]oneal groove on ! cuboid bone4 ,x !n turns m$iad & passes ?r\gh ! groove betwe5 ! v5tral processes ( ! lat]al cunei=m & ! metat>sal until x rea*es ! fir/ metat>sal4 ,! entire groove is conv]t$ into a canal by ! ov]ly+ ligam5ts4 ,ins]tion into 7#a7 ! base ( ! fif? metat>sal1 & 7#b7 ! out] side ( ! base ( ! fir/ metat>sal1 & 7#c7 by sl5d] bran*es into ! bases ( ! o!r metat>sals4 ,relations4--,out] 7lat]al7 surface ) ! sup]ficial fascia & ! t5don ( ! biceps femoris4 ,inn] surface ) ! p]oneus t]tius 7r7 & p]oneus brevis 7s71 & ) ! ext5sor longus digitorum 7p74 ,at ! proximal end ! dorsal bord] t\*es ! tibialis ant]ior 7n74 ,action4--,flexor ( ! foot4 ,m4 p]oneus t]tius 7,fig4 #ij1 r74--,a sl5d] fusi=m muscle b5ea? ! p]oneus longus 7q74 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ab\t ! second qu>t] ( ! lat]al surface ( ! fibula4 ,! muscle ends 9 a sl5d] t5don 7r71 :i* passes ) t ( ! p]oneus brevis 7s7 ?r\gh ! groove on ! v5tral bord] ( ! lat]al malleolus4 ,! groove is conv]t$ into a canal by a transv]se ligam5t4 ,em]g+ f x1 ! t5don turns & passes along ! out] m>g9 ( ! foot4 ,9 pass+ ! sesamoid at ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! fif? digit x is unit$ to x by a b& :i* passes f ! sesamoid to ! t5don4 ,! ins]tion is f9ally into ! lat]al bord] ( ! ext5sor t5don ( ! fif? digit z x passes f ! fir/ to ! second phalanx4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! p]oneus longus 7q71 ! soleus 7o71 & ! sup]ficial fascia4 ,v5tral bord] ) ! soleus 7o7 & flexor longus hallucis 7,fig4 #ia1 m74 ,inn] surface ) ! p]oneus brevis 7,fig4 #ij1 s74 ,action4--,ext5sor & abductor ( ! fif? digit & flexor ( ! foot4 ,m4 p]oneus brevis 7,fig4 #ij1 s7 lies b5ea? ! o!r p]onei4 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! di/al half ( ! surface ( ! fibula1 :i* x embraces4 ,at ! lat]al malleolus ! muscle ends 9 a ?ick t5don :i* passes ?r\gh ! canal on ! v5tral surface ( ! malleolus4 ,9 ! canal x is enl>g$ & surr\nd$ by a synovial bursa4 ,x !n turns onto ! foot & passes ov] ! dorsal surface ( ! calcaneus on its lat]al side & has its ,ins]tion into ! tub]cle on ! lat]al side ( ! base ( ! fif? metat>sal4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! p]onei longus 7q7 & t]tius 7r74 ,inn] surface ) ! bone4 ,action4--,ext5sor ( ! foot4 ,m4 ext5sor digitorum longus 7,fig4 #ij1 p74--,a fusi=m muscle :i* lies b5ea? ! tibialis ant]ior 7n71 aga9/ ! int]osse\s membrane1 & betwe5 ! tibialis ant]ior & ! p]onei4 ,orig9 by a ?9 flat t5don f ! lat]al surface ( ! lat]al epicondyle ( ! femur j dorsad ( ! orig9 ( ! popliteus4 ,! t5don becomes n>r[] & ?ick] & passes ?r\gh ! capsule ( ! knee-jo9t & ov] a slight groove on ! tibia j dorsad ( ! head ( ! fibula4 ,! belly ( ! muscle ext5ds ! entire l5g? ( ! tibia1 pass+ b5ea? ! transv]se ligam5t 7#e7 along ) ! t5don ( ! tibialis ant]ior 7n74 ,at ! ankle x runs ?r\gh a fibr\s loop :i* is atta*$ to ! dorsal surface ( ! calcaneus 7! annul> ligam5t ( ! calcaneus72 x !n turns & passes onto ! dorsum ( ! foot4 ,! muscle ends 9 f\r sl5d] t5dons1 ! two middle ( :i* beg9 at ! transv]se ligam5t1 :ile ! o!rs beg9 at ! fibr\s loop4 ,! t5dons div]ge to ! f\r digits4 ,ea* t5don is connect$ ) ! fibr\s %ea? surr\nd+ ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx1 & ea* has a synovial bursa b5ea? x at ?is po9t4 ,ne> ! di/al end ( ! fir/ phalanx ! t5don is unit$ on ! lat]al side to ! conjo9$ t5don ( ! ext5sor brevis digitorum & an int]osseus muscle1 & on ! m$ial side to ! t5don ( ! int]osseus4 ,! lat]al side ( ! mo/ lat]al t5don is n ?us unit$1 b is jo9$ on ! out] side by ! t5don ( ! p]oneus t]tius4 ,ins]tion4--,! t5don ?us =m$ on ! dorsum ( ea* phalanx by ! junction ( ! two or ?ree t5dons above m5tion$ is firmly atta*$ to ! base ( ! second phalanx at its proximal end 9 ! middle ( its dorsal surface4 ,9 cross+ ! jo9t betwe5 ! fir/ & second phalanges ! t5don =ms a fibr\s pad :i* protects ! dorsum ( ! jo9t & glides ov] x4 ,x !n cont9ues to be ins]t$ into ! base ( ! t]m9al phalanx4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! tibialis ant]ior 7n7 & ! sup]ficial fascia4 ,inn] surface ) a "p ( ! tibialis ant]ior1 ) ! bones1 ! int]osse\s membrane1 & ! p]oneus brevis 7s74 ,action4--,ext5sor ( ! phalanges4 ,m4 tibialis ant]ior 7,fig4 #ij1 n74--,?is is ! sup]ficial muscle cov]+ ! lat]al side ( ! tibia4 ,orig9 by fle%y fibres f ! proximal "o-six? ( ! lat]al surface ( ! %aft ( ! tibia1 f ! proximal ?ird ( ! m$ial bord] ( ! %aft & head ( ! fibula1 & f ! int]v5+ int]osse\s ligam5t4 ,! triangul> body ( ! muscle cov]s ! lat]al surface ( ! tibia & ! out] surface ( ! ext5sor longus digitorum 7p74 ,ne> ! malleolus x ends 9 a /rong t5don :i* passes b5ea? ! transv]se ligam5t along ) ! t5don ( ! ext5sor longus 7p74 ,! t5don crosses ! dorsal surface ( ! foot obliquely t[>d its m$ial side4 ,ins]tion into ! out] surface ( ! fir/ metat>sal4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! sup]ficial fascia & ! t5don ( ! biceps femoris4 ,inn] surface ) ! ext5sor longus 7p71 ! tibia1 & ! int]osse\s membrane4 ,action4--,flexor ( ! foot4 #d4 ,muscles ( ! ,foot4 ,a4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,dorsum ,,( ,,! ,,foot4--,m4 ext5sor brevis digitorum 7,fig4 #ij1 u74--,a broad ?9 muscle cov]+ ! t>sus & "p ( ! metat>sus on ! lat]al side ( ! dorsum ( ! foot4 ,x may be divid$ into ?ree slips4 ,orig9 f ! di/al bord] ( ne>ly ! :ole calcaneal annul> ligam5t 7#e71 & f ! proximal end ( ! dorsal surface ( ! ?ree lat]al metat>sals4 ,at ! middle ( ! metat>sals ! muscle ends 9 ?ree flat t5dons :i* pass into ! ?ree int]spaces betwe5 ! f\r t5dons ( ! ext5sor longus4 ,ea* t5don is divid$ into two bran*es4 ,ins]tion4--,! lat]al bran* ( ea* t5don is ins]t$ into ! c>tilag9\s plate :i* lies 9 ! metat>sophalangeal articulation ( ! digit on ! out] side4 ,! m$ial bran* jo9s ! lat]al side ( ! ext5sor longus t5don on ! dorsum ( ! fir/ phalanx4 ,action4--,ext5sor ( ! digits4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,sole ,,( ,,! ,,foot4--,m4 flexor brevis digitorum 7p$is p]=atus74--,?is is ! direct cont9uation ( ! t5don ( ! plant>is4 ,x lies imm$iately b5ea? ! sup]ficial plant> fascia4 ,! flat belly ( ! muscle has its m$ial bord] atta*$ by an oblique t5d9\s b& to ! m$ial surface ( ! scaphoid & ! m$ial cunei=m4 ,x divides into f\r slips :i* div]ge to ! f\r toes1 ea* end+ 9 a flat t5don4 ,! slips decrease 9 size f ! lat]al to ! m$ial side4 ,! ?ree lat]al ones ov]lap "o ano!r proximally4 ,ins]tion4--,ea* t5don exp&s at ! di/al end ( ! metat>sal & is wrapp$ ab\t ! t5don ( ! deep flexor :i* p]=ates x4 ,! two halves unite b5ea? ! p]=at+ t5don & pass toge!r ) ! p]=at+ t5don ?r\gh fibr\s r+s1 ! annul> ligam5ts4 ,"o ( ^! is atta*$ to ! sesamoids at ! base ( ! phalanx4 ,! o!r is atta*$ to ! head ( ! fir/ phalanx4 ,! t5dons are f9ally ins]t$ into ! bases ( ! second phalanges4 ,! two annul> ligam5ts are connect$ by fascia s z to =m a cont9u\s canal = ! t5dons4 ,?is canal is l9$ by a synovial membrane4 ,cov]+ ?is canal is a m sup]ficial lay] ( fascia4 ,be=e pass+ into ! proximal annul> ligam5t ! two middle t5dons unite ea* ) ! t5don ( ! correspond+ lumbrical muscle4 ,ea* also gives (f a bran*1 ! lat]al "o on its lat]al side & ! m$ial "o on its m$ial side4 ,^! bran*es1 l ^? ( ! two middle ones1 are ins]t$ into ! common phalangeal fascia4 ,action4--,flexor ( ! second phalanges ( ! digits4 ,m4 quadratus plant 7call$ also ! plant> head ( ! flexor longus digitorum7 is a ?9 flat muscle :i* takes orig9 f ! dorsal "p ( ! lat]al surface ( ! calcaneus & ! cuboid4 ,its fibres conv]ge to a flat t5don :i* passes transv]sely across ! flexor longus digitorum & b5ea? ! flexor brevis digitorum & calcaneometat>sal4 ,ins]tion4--,into ! m$ial "p ( ! out] surface ( ! t5don ( ! flexor longus digitorum4 ,action4--,x holds ! flexor longus t5don 9 place4 ,mm4 lumbricales4--,^! are six4 ,orig94--,! ?ree l>g] ones h orig9 f ! out] surface ( ! exp&$ portion ( ! flexor longus digitorum on its di/al half4 ,ea* ends 9 a sl5d] t5don4 ,ins]tions4--,! t5dons unite ) ! divisions ( ! t5don ( ! flexor brevis :i* pass to ! ?ree lat]al digits1 at _! entrance to ! fir/ annul> ligam5t4 ,! "o to ! fif? digit is sometimes abs5t4 ,! o!r ?ree h orig9 f ! t5don ( ! flexor longus digitorum at ! po9t :]e x divides4 ,ea* occupies "o ( ! ?ree int]vals betwe5 ! f\r divisions1 & its fibres orig9ate f ! proximal ends ( ! two t5dons :i* b\nd its int]val4 ,ins]tion by a v sl5d] t5don into ! m$ial side ( ! fir/ phalanges ( ! ?ird1 f\r?1 & fif? digits ne> _! bases4 ,action4--,move ! ?ird1 f\r?1 & fif? digits t[>d ! m$ial side4 ,mm4 int]ossei4--,! int]osseus ( ! second digit =ms five portions1 :i* cov] ! v5tral surface ( ! digit4 ,orig94--7#a7 ,by two t5dons f ! v5tral process ( ! lat]al cunei=m4 ,! muscle divides into f\r p>ts1 ?ree ( :i* pass to ! m$ial side ( ! digit & act z abductors4 ,!y are call$ ! long1 %ort1 & middle abductors 7abductor longus1 brevis1 & int]m$ius digiti secundi74 ,ins]tions4--,! %ort head into ! m$ial sesamoid ( ! metat>sophalangeal jo9t1 ! middle into ! m$ial side ( ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx1 & ! long into ! ext5sor communis t5don ne> ! di/al end ( ! fir/ phalanx4 ,! names long1 %ort1 & middle ref] to ! l5g?s ( ! t5dons z det]m9$ by _! po9ts ( ins]tion4 ,! f\r? portion :i* comes f ! lat]al cunei=m has its ins]tion into ! lat]al side ( ! ext5sor t5don ne> ! di/al end ( ! fir/ phalanx4 ,x is !re=e an adductor longus digiti secundi4 ,9 "s cases !re is an adductor brevis f ?is same head4 7#b7 ,! fif? "p ( ! int]osseus ( ! second digit has orig9 f ! middle ( ! ligam5t cov]+ ! p]oneal canal1 along ) ! middle adductor ( ! fif? digit4 ,! two muscles div]ge4 ,ins]tion into ! out] side ( ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! second digit4 ,x is an adductor m$ius digiti secundi4 ,! int]ossei ( ! ?ird & f\r? digits are alike4 ,orig9 f ! v5tral surface ( ! base ( ! metat>sal4 ,! muscles cov] ! v5tral surface ( ! %aft4 ,at ! head ea* divides & passes onto ! sides ( ! metat>sal4 ,ins]tion4--,ea* half ( ! muscle %[s a t5d5cy to divide into two p>ts4 ,"o ( ^!1 ! m sup]ficial & v5tral1 ends 9 a t5don :i* jo9s ! ext5sor t5don ne> ! di/al end ( ! fir/ phalanx4 ,! o!r "p is ins]t$ by %ort t5don- & muscle-fibres into ! side ( ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx2 "o ( ! p>ts is !re=e a middle1 & ! o!r a long1 adductor or abductor1 ! adductores & abductores digiti t]tii & qu>ti4 ,! fif? digit has five %ort muscles4 ,m4 abductor m$ius digiti qu9ti4 ,orig9 f ! v5tral surface ( ! calcaneus & f ! fif? metat>sal4 ,ins]tion by a sl5d] t5don into ! lat]al side ( ! base ( ! fir/ phalanx ( ! fif? digit4 ,m4 adductor m$ius digiti qu9ti4 ,orig9 ) ! adductor m$ius digiti secundi4 ,ins]tion on ! inn] side ( ! base ( ! phalanx ( ! fif? digit4 ,m4 oppon5s digiti qu9ti4 ,orig9 by a flat t5don f ! middle ( ! ligam5t :i* cov]s ! p]oneal canal4 ,x passes obliquely outw>d p>allel to ! la/4 ,ins]tion on ! inn] side ( ! %aft ( ! fif? metat>sal4 ,! two rema9+ muscles ( ! fif? digit take orig9 f ! out] "p ( ! ligam5t cov]+ ! p]oneal canal4 ,!y cov] ! v5tral surface ( ! %aft4 ,ins]tion4--,! lat]al "o is ins]t$ into ! lat]al sesamoid & is !re=e an abductor brevis4 ,! m$ial "o is ins]t$ into ! ext5sor t5don & is !re=e an adductor longus4 ,c4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,t>sus4--,m4 calcaneometat>salis 7"p ( ,m4 adductor m9imi digiti874--,a weak muscle made up l>gely ( t5don-fibres1 "s ( :i* pass directly f orig9 to ins]tion4 ,x may be reg>d$ z a ligam5t4 ,orig91 ! lat]al & v5tral surface ( ! calcaneus ne> ! proximal end4 ,x passes di/ad & slightly lat]ad outside ( ! quadratus plant4 ,ins]tion1 ! lat]al side ( ! base ( ! fif? metat>sal1 & ! adjac5t surfaces ( ! cuboid & calcaneus4 ,action4--,probably causes slight motion ( ! cuboid on ! head ( ! calcaneus4 ,m4 scaphocunei=mis4--,a small muscle ly+ on ! sole ( ! foot 9 ! depression betwe5 ! lat]al cunei=m1 m$ial cunei=m1 & ! lat]al tub]cle ( ! scaphoid4 ,x is hidd5 by ! ov]ly+ ligam5ts4 ,orig91 ! lat]al tub]cle ( ! scaphoid bone4 ,x passes di/ad & lat]ad4 ,ins]tion1 ! lat]al surface ( ! m$ial cunei=m4 ,action4--,rotates ! m$ial cunei=m on ! scaphoid & w\ld ?us act z an oppon5s ( ! great toe if ! great toe 7 pres5t4 ,,! ,,visc]a4 ,i4 ,,! ,,body ,,cavity4 ,! great] "p ( ! visc]a are situat$ 9 ! body cavity or clom4 ,?is is divid$ by ! diaphragm into two p>ts1 ! ?oracic cavity & ! abdom9al cavity4 ,ea* is l9$ by a s]\s membrane1 9 :i* ! "p cov]+ ! out] wall ( ! cavity is di/+ui%$ z ! p>ietal lay] f ! "p cov]+ ! visc]a1 :i* is kn[n z ! visc]al lay]4 ,! ?oracic cavity is b\nd$ by ! ?oracic v]tebr1 ! ribs1 ! /]num1 & ! diaphragm4 ,! cranial op5+ ( ! cavity is fill$ by ! tra*ea & sophagus z !y ent] f ! neck region4 ,! ?oracic cavity is l9$ by two ?9 lay]s ( tissue1 ! out] "o ( :i* is ! fascia endo?oracica1 :ile ! inn] is ! pleura4 ,! fascia endo?oracica is a %eet ( connective tissue :i* l9es ! entire inn] surface ( ! ?oracic cavity1 desc5d+ f ! dorsal m$ian l9e to ! he>t1 & pass+ into ! fibr\s lay] ( ! p]ic>dium4 ,! pleura is a ?9 membrane cov]+ ! fascia endo?oracica & correspond+ to ! p]itoneum ( ! abdom9al cavity4 ,x =ms two sacs1 ! pleur1 l9+ respectively ! "r & left halves ( ! ?oracic cavity4 ,ea* ( ^! two sacs is clos$1 ! visc]a be+ susp5d$ )9 !m by folds ( ! membrane1 s t ! cavity is ev]y:]e sep>at$ f ! visc]a by a %eet ( ! pleura4 ,t portion ( ! pleura :i* l9es ! ?oracic wall is kn[n z ! p>ietal lay]2 x may be divid$ into t cov]+ ! ribs 7co/al pleura71 & t cov]+ ! diaphragm4 ,t portion :i* cov]s ! visc]a is ! visc]al lay]1 or1 s9ce x cov]s *iefly ! lungs1 x may be di/+ui%$ z ! pulmon>y pleura4 ,! m$ial walls ( ! two pleural sacs come 9 contact 9 ! m$ian plane1 =m+ a m$ian v]tical p>tition pass+ l5g?wise ( ! ?oracic cavity4 ,?is p>tition is kn[n z ! m$ia/9al septum4 ,! space betwe5 ! two lay]s :i* make up ! m$ia/9al septum is kn[n z ! m$ia/9um1 or m$ia/9al cavity2 x conta9s num]\s organs ( ! ?orax4 ,?ree p>ts are usually di/+ui%$ 9 ?is cavity3 a v5tral m$ia/9al cavity1 conta9+ *iefly blood-vessels & ! ?ymus gl&2 a middle m$ia/9al cavity1 enclos+ ! he>t & ! ant]ior & po/]ior v5 cav2 & a dorsal m$ia/9al cavity1 conta9+ ! tra*ea1 ! sophagus1 & ! aorta4 ,! abdom9al cavity lies caudad ( ! diaphragm2 9 x are sometimes di/+ui%$ ! abdom9al cavity prop]1 ext5d+ z f> caudad z ! cranial edge ( ! pubis1 & ! pelvic cavity1 ly+ caudad ( ?is1 9 ! region surr\nd$ by ! innom9ate bones & ! sacrum4 ,! two cavities are n di/9ctly m>k$ (f1 s t x is conv5i5t to consid] ! abdom9al cavity z undivid$4 ,bo? p>ts are l9$ by ! p]itoneum4 ,! p]itoneum is a ?9 transp>5t %eet ( connective tissue support+ on its surface a lay] ( flatt5$ epi!lial cells1 ! p]itoneal epi!lium4 ,x =ms a sac :i* l9es ! entire abdom9al cavity4 ,?is sac is clos$ 9 ! male2 9 ! female1 h[ev]1 x communicates ) ! ext]ior ?r\gh ! ut]9e 7or ,fallopian7 tubes & ut]i4 ,all ! organs ( ! abdom9al cavity are outside ! sac4 ,9 ! c\rse ( _! developm5t ^! organs h encroa*$ on ! p]itoneal sac4 ,ea* has gr[n aga9/ ! out] wall ( ! sac to a great] or less ext5t & has =c$ a "p ( ?is wall ahead ( x into ! cavity4 ,9 "s cases ! encroa*m5t has gone s f> t ! organ 9 "q lies app>5tly )9 ! p]itoneal cavity1 susp5d$ f ! wall ( ! sac by a fold ( t wall4 ,! wall may ?us be divid$ into ?ree portions4 ,"o ( ^!1 ! p>ietal lay]1 l9es ! wall ( ! body cavity4 ,! second 7! mes5t]y 9 case ( ! alim5t>y canal1 or a ligam5t 9 ! case ( ano!r organ7 susp5ds ! organ f ! body wall4 ,betwe5 ! lay]s ( ea* mes5t]y or ligam5t blood-vessels may pass to ! organs4 ,! ?ird portion or visc]al lay] cov]s ! organ 9 "q1 =m+ its s]\s cov]+4 ,! reflections ( ! p]itoneum to =m ! mes5t]ies & ligam5ts may be ?us describ$3 ,caudally ! p]itoneum cov]s ! :ole surface ( ! bladd] & is reflect$ f its v5tral wall to ! l9ea alba z ! susp5sory ligam5t ( ! bladd]4 ,f>!r craniad ! p]itoneum susp5ds ! rectum & colon f ! middorsal l9e1 =m+ ! mesorectum & mesocolon4 ,! mesocolon cont9ues craniad to ! level ( ! caudal end ( ! "r kidney & is broade/ at its cranial end4 ,at ?is end ! mesocolon passes into ! mes5t]y prop]1 :i* susp5ds ! small inte/9e & is v broad & mu* fold$4 ,its dorsal bord] is atta*$ to ! m$ian l9e opposite ! caudal end ( ! kidneys & is v %ort comp>$ to its v long v5tral or inte/9al bord]4 ,t[>d ! cranial end ! mes5t]y ( ! jejunum passes gradually into ! v mu* %ort] duod5al mes5t]y4 ,?is is drawn out at ! caudal end ( ! duod5um into a fold1 ! duod5or5al ligam5t :i* atta*es ! duod5um to ! kidney4 ,! mesoga/rium or p]itoneal fold = ! /oma* passes f t "p ( ! m$ian dorsal l9e ly+ betwe5 ! kidneys & ! diaphragm1 to ! great] curvature ( ! /oma*4 ,x does n pass directly to ! /oma*1 b passes fir/ v5trad ( ! small inte/9e z f> z ! pelvis4 ,!nce x turns craniad to rea* ! great] curvature ( ! /oma*4 ,! fold ?us =m$ is call$ ! great om5tum4 ,x =ms ! dorsal & v5tral walls ( a sac1 ! om5tal sac1 ! cavity ( :i* is call$ ! less] p]itoneal cavity4 ,! desc5d+ limb ( ! fold =ms ! dorsal wall ( ! sac1 & its asc5d+ limb =ms ! v5tral wall4 ,ea* ( ^! walls is d\ble l a mes5t]y1 s t ! great om5tum consi/s ( f\r %eets ( p]itoneum4 ,betwe5 ! two %eets =m+ ! desc5d+ limb lies ! left half ( ! pancreas1 :i* passes !nce to ! "r into ! duod5al mes5t]y4 ,a transv]se fold passes f ! desc5d+ limb ( ! om5tum along ! cranial bord] ( ! pancreas to ! duod5al mes5t]y4 ,f>!r to ! "r ! desc5d+ limb ( ! om5tum1 :i* is "h %ort]1 encloses ! sple5 & holds x 9 position p>allel to ! great] curvature ( ! /oma* & ab\t "o c5timet] f x4 ,?is "p ( ! great om5tum is sometimes call$ ! ga/rospl5ic or ga/roli5al om5tum4 ,! great om5tal sac communicates ) ! p]itoneal sac by an op5+1 ! =am5 epiploicum or =am5 ( ,w9sl[4 ,?is op5+ lies caudad & dextrad ( ! caudate lobe ( ! liv]4 ,?is lobe itself lies )9 ! sac4 ,along ! v5tral bord] ( ! =am5 epiploicum pass ! common bile-duct f ! liv] & ! portal ve9 to ! liv]4 ,! size ( ! great om5tal sac is increas$ by ! less] om5tum4 ,?is is a d\ble %eet ( p]itoneum :i* /ret*es horizontally f ! liv] to ! duod5um & ! less] curvature ( ! /oma*4 ,x cov]s v5trad ! caudate lobe ( ! liv]4 ,its "r bord] is at ! =am5 epiploicum4 ,! "p ( x :i* /ret*es to ! duod5um is call$ ! duod5ohepatic ligam5t & conta9s ! bile-ducts & ! portal ve94 ,! "p t /ret*es to ! /oma* is call$ ! ga/rohepatic ligam5t4 ,! p]itoneum cov]s ! caudal & cranial surfaces ( ! liv] & is reflect$ to ! adjac5t p>ts to =m ! ligam5ts ( ! liv]4 ,! susp5sory ligam5t ( ! liv] passes f ! caudal surface ( ! diaphragm & ! m$ian v5tral l9e = ab\t "o or two c5timet]s caudad ( ! diaphragm1 to ! liv]1 & ext5ds betwe5 its two halves4 ,! ligam5tum t]es or r\nd ligam5t is ! ?ick5$ free caudal bord] ( ! susp5sory ligam5t4 ,x is ! rema9s ( ! ftal umbilical ve94 ,f ! dorsal bord] ( ! liv] ! p]itoneum :i* cov]s its cranial surface turns v5trad onto ! caudal surface ( ! diaphragm1 :ile t :i* cov]s its caudal surface turns dorsad onto ! caudal surface ( ! diaphragm to rea* ! dorsal body wall4 ,betwe5 ^! two %eets a small l9e> "p ( ! surface ( ! liv] is closely appli$ to ! diaphragm )\t int]v5+ p]itoneum4 ,! two %eets :i* b\nd ?is area con/itute ! coron>y ligam5t ( ! liv]4 ,?is ligam5t is broad] :]e x passes f ! left lat]al lobe to ! diaphragm & is call$ ! triangul> ligam5t4 7,!re is p]haps a correspond+ "r triangul> ligam5t1 f ! cranial division ( ! "r lat]al lobe47 ,! caudal division ( ! "r lat]al lobe is held to ! kidney ( t side by ! hepator5al ligam5t4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,alim5t>y ,,canal4 ,,app>atus ,,dige/orius4 ,! alim5t>y canal may be divid$ into m\?1 ph>ynx1 sophagus1 /oma*1 small inte/9e1 & l>ge inte/9e4 ,) ^! are associat$ c]ta9 accessory /ructures1--! saliv>y gl&s1 ! liv]1 & ! pancreas4 ,! sple51 ?\gh n belong+ to ! dige/ive sy/em1 is usually describ$ 9 connection ) x4 ,! respiratory organs are almo/ ?r\gh\t 9 close relation ) ! organs ( ! dige/ive sy/em4 #a4 ,! ,m\?4 ,cavum oris4--,! m\? cavity ext5ds f ! lips to ! ph>ynx4 ,x is n>r[] t[>d ! lips1 broad5s caudad z f> back z ! la/ tee?1 !n becomes n>r[$ to =m ! i/hmus faucium1 by :i* x communicates ) ! ph>ynx4 ,! m\? cavity is divisible into ! ve/ibule ( ! m\? 7ve/ibulum oris71 :i* comprises t "p outside ! jaws prop]1 b\nd$ ext]nally by ! lips & *eeks1 & ! m\? cavity prop] 7cavum oris proprium71 :i* lies )9 ! tee?4 ,t portion ( ! ve/ibule :i* is b\nd$ by ! *eeks is sometimes f>!r di/+ui%$ z ! buccal cavity4 ,! entire m\? cavity 7except ! tee?7 is l9$ by ! muc\s membrane or mucosa4 ,! lips 7labia oris7 are ?ick folds ( sk9 b\nd+ ! entrance to ! m\? cavity4 ,! out] surface is cov]$ ) hair2 ! inn] surface is cov]$ ) ! muc\s membrane4 ,! upp] lip is m>k$ 9 ! m$ian l9e by a deep ext]nal groove :i* ext5ds upw>d to ! septum ( ! nose4 ,along ! inn] surface ( ?is groove ! lip is closely unit$ to ! jaw by a ?ick fold1 ! fr5ulum ( ! upp] lip4 ,= "s di/ance on ea* side ( ! fr5ulum ! inn] surface ( ! lip be>s num]\s l>ge papill4 ,! l[] lip is also unit$ to ! jaw by a fr5ulum 9 ! m$ian l9e2 x is aga9 unit$ to ! jaw j caudad ( ! can9e too?1 9 ! space betwe5 ! latt] & ! fir/ premol>4 ,caudad ! two lips pass into ea* o!r 7=m+ ! commissura labiorum71 & unite ) ! *eek4 ,! muscles ( ! lips h be5 describ$ 7page #aje74 ,! *eeks 7bucc7 9 ! cat are comp>atively ?9 & small1 ext5d+ f ! lips caudad to ! ramus ( ! m&ible4 ,! out] surface is cov]$ ) hair2 ! inn] surface is smoo? & some:at fold$4 ,! buccal cavity is r small4 ,on ! inn] surface ( ! *eek op5 ! duct ( ! p>otid 7,/5o's duct71 ! ducts ( ! mol> gl&1 & t ( ! infraorbital gl&4 ,! ro( ( ! m\? cavity is =m$ by ! h>d & s(t palates4 ,! h>d palate 7palatum durum7 =ms ! cranial "p ( ! ro(2 x is support$ by ! palatal plates ( ! maxill>y & palat9e bones4 ,! mucosa ( ! h>d palate is elevat$ to =m sev5 or eight curv$ transv]se ridges1 :i* are concave caudad4 ,betwe5 ! ridges are r[s ( papill4 ,9 front ( ! mo/ cranial ridge is a papilla 9 ! middle l9e1 & at ea* side ( ! papilla is ! op5+ ( a small duct 7! incisive duct or ,/5son's duct71 :i* leads dorsad ?r\gh ! incisive =am5 to ! vom]onasal organ 7or organ ( ,jacobson71 :i* lies on ! floor ( ! nasal cavity4 ,caudad ( ! h>d palate ! ro( ( ! m\? is =m$ by ! s(t palate or velum palat9um1 describ$ bel[4 ,! floor ( ! m\? cavity is =m$ *iefly by ! tongue1 :i* ext5ds z f> caudad z ! i/hmus faucium4 ,v5trad ( ! free edge ( ! tongue ! mucosa =ms a prom95t m$ian v]tical fold :i* unites ! tongue ) ! floor ( ! m\? b5ea? x2 ?is fold is ! fr5ulum l+u4 ,on ea* side ( ! m$ian l9e at ! cranial bord] ( ! floor ( ! m\? is a prom95t papilla1 at ! apex ( :i* op5 ! ducts ( ! submaxill>y & subl+ual gl&s1 ! =m] on ! lat]al side ( ! apex1 ! latt] on ! m$ial side4 ,! sides ( ! m\? cavity are =m$ by ! tee? & ! gums1 cov]+ ! alveol> bord]s ( ! m&ible1 maxill>ies1 & premaxill>ies4 ,! m\? cavity pres5ts fur!r = exam9ation ! gl&s1 ! tee?1 ! tongue1 & ! s(t palate4 ,,! ,,gl&s ,,( ,,! ,,m\? 7,,gl&ul ,,oris74--,!re are five pairs ( saliv>y gl&s :i* op5 into ! m\? cavity4 #a4 ,! p>otid gl& 7gl&ula p>otis7 7,fig4 #fe1 #a2 ,fig4 #aca1 #aj7 is flatt5$1 r f9ely lobulat$1 & lies v5trad ( ! ext]nal auditory meatus & b5ea? ! d]mal muscles4 ,its cranial bord] foll[s ! caudal bord] ( ! masset] muscle & ov]lies x some:at2 its caudal bord] is ab\t ?ree c5timet]s caudad ( ! bord] ( ! masset]4 ,its bord]s are unev5ly lob$4 ,! p>otid duct 7ductus p>otideus3 frequ5tly call$ ,/5on's or ,/5o's duct7 is =m$ by ! union ( sev]al small] ducts ne> ! v5tral end ( ! cranial bord] ( ! gl&4 ,x passes craniad imb$d$ 9 ! fascia cov]+ ! masset]4 ,at ! cranial bord] ( ! masset] x turns inw>d & lies close aga9/ ! muc\s membrane ( ! m\?1 s t f ! inside ( ! m\? x appe>s z a :ite ridge on ! mucosa4 ,x op5s on ! inside ( ! *eek opposite ! mo/ prom95t cusp ( ! la/ premol> too?4 ,along ! c\rse ( ! p>otid duct 9 "s cases "o or m small accessory p>otid gl&s are f\nd4 #b4 ,! submaxill>y gl& 7gl&ula submaxill>is7 7,fig4 #fe1 #b1 page #aji1 & ,fig4 #aca1 #aa7 is approximately kidney-%ap$4 ,its surface is ne>ly smoo?1 ! lobulations n be+ app>5t ext]nally4 ,x lies v5trad ( ! p>otid1 at ! caudal edge ( ! masset] muscle1 j caudad ( ! angul> process ( ! m&ible4 ,! po/]ior facial ve9 7,fig4 #aca1 b7 crosses its out] surface1 & its craniov5tral bord] is hidd5 by two lymphatic gl&s 7,fig4 #aca1 #ab7 ly+ at ! sides ( ! ant]ior facial ve94 ,! submaxill>y duct 7ductus submaxill>is1 frequ5tly call$ ,:>ton's duct7 leaves ! inn] surface ( ! gl& & passes b5ea? ! diga/ric & mylohyoid muscles & aga9/ ! out] surface ( ! /yloglossus4 ,f ! po9t :]e ! /yloglossus passes into ! tongue ! duct cont9ues craniad close aga9/ ! oral mucosa & p>allel to ! m&ibula4 ,x is accompani$ by ! duct ( ! subl+ual1 :i* lies at fir/ dorsad ( x & !n m$iad4 ,x op5s at ! apex ( ! prom95t papilla :i* lies at ! side ( ! middle l9e at ! cranial end ( ! floor ( ! m\?4 #c4 ,! subl+ual gl& is elongat$ & conical 9 =m1 ) its base aga9/ ! submaxill>y1 ( :i* x appe>s to be a cont9uation4 ,x /ret*es along ! submaxill>y duct = ab\t "o & "o-half c5timet]s1 ly+ betwe5 ! masset] & diga/ric muscles4 ,! subl+ual duct leaves its v5tral side1 passes close to ! submaxill>y duct1 at fir/ dorsad & !n m$iad ( x1 & op5s on ! m$ial side ( ! apex ( ! same papilla ) ! submaxill>y duct4 #d4 ,! mol> gl& 7gl&ula mol>is7 7,fig4 #fe1 #i7 lies betwe5 ! orbicul>is oris & ! mucosa ( ! l[] lip4 ,x /ret*es f ! cranial bord] ( ! masset] to a po9t betwe5 ! fir/ premol> & ! can9e4 ,x is flat1 broad caudad1 & ends 9 a po9t craniad4 ,x has sev]al ducts :i* pass /raight ?r\gh ! *eek & op5 on ! muc\s surface ( ! m\?4 #e4 ,! infraorbital 7or orbital7 gl& lies 9 ! lat]al "p ( ! orbit on its v5tral floor4 ,x is ovoid & ab\t "o & "o-half c5timet]s long & "o-?ird z ?ick4 ,its v5tral end re/s aga9/ ! mucosa ( ! m\? j caudad ( ! mol> too?4 ,its duct leaves ! v5tral end & op5s into ! m\? at a po9t ab\t ?ree millimet]s caudad ( ! mol> too?4 ,,! ,,tee?4 ,,d5tes4--,! adult cat has ?irty tee?1 f\rte5 9 ! l[] jaw & sixte5 9 ! upp] jaw4 ,!re are twelve incisors1 f\r can9es1 t5 premol>s1 & f\r mol>s4 ,! too? =mula = ! cat is !n #c - #c #a - #a #c - #c #a - #a i-----1 c-----1 pm-----1 m-----4 #c - #c #a - #a #b - #b #a - #a ,! tee? are implant$ 9 ! alveol> bord]s ( ! premaxill>ies1 maxill>ies1 & m&ible4 ,9 ea* too? c be di/+ui%$ ! root1 imb$d$ 9 ! socket ( ! bone1 ! cr[n1 :i* projects above ! gums1 & a n>r[ neck connect+ ! two4 ,! root is compos$ ( "o or m sep>ate fangs2 ! cr[n be>s "o or m po9ts or cusps4 ,at ! cranial end ( ea* jaw are six incisor tee? 7,figs4 #ic & #id1 a74 ,^! are imb$d$ 9 ! alveol> bord]s ( ! premaxill>ies & ! m&ible4 ,! incisor tee? are small1 ) a cr[n be>+ a %>p edge :i* is not*$ s z to =m ?ree m9ute cusps4 ,! root ( ea* has a s+le fang4 ,! lat]al incisors are ! l>ge/ 9 ea* jaw1 & ^? ( ! upp] jaw are l>g] ?an ^? ( ! l[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,,upp] ,,jaw1 ,,) ,,roots ,,( ,,! ,,tee? ,,laid ,,b>e4 a1 incisors2 b1 can9e2 c1 fir/ premol>2 d1 second premol>2 e1 ?ird premol>2 f1 mol>4 ,caudad ( ! incisors1 & 9 ! upp] jaw sep>at$ f !m by a slight int]val1 are ! can9es 7b71 two 9 ea* jaw4 ,^! are long1 /rong1 po9t$ tee?1 deeply imb$d$ 9 ! m&ible & maxill>ies1 _! l>ge sockets caus+ a r\nd$ swell+ on ! ext]nal surface ( ! bones4 ,ea* has a s+le fang & a s+le cusp4 ,:5 ! m\? is clos$ ! upp] can9es lie lat]ocaudad ( ! l[] ones4 ,caudad ( ! can9es !re is 9 ea* jaw a consid]able int]val free f tee?3 ?is is call$ ! dia/ema4 ,caudad ( ! dia/ema are ! premol> tee?1 ?ree pairs 7c1 d1 e7 9 ! upp] jaw & two pairs 7c1 d7 9 ! l[] jaw4 ,^! tee? are compress$ sideways1 & ^? ( ! l[] jaw fit inside ( ^? ( ! upp] jaw4 ,9 ! upp] jaw 7,fig4 #ic7 ! fir/ premol> 7c7 is small & usually has b a s+le cusp & a s+le fang1 ?\gh occasionally !re is a small supplem5t>y cusp & fang4 ,! second premol> is l>g] 7d72 x has a l>ge c5tral cusp1 ) a s+le small] cranial cusp & two small caudal cusps1 mak+ f\r 9 all4 ,?is too? has two fangs4 ,! ?ird premol> 7e7 is ! l>ge/ too? 9 ! jaws2 x has ?ree l>ge cusps 9 longitud9al s]ies & a small cusp ly+ on ! m$ial side ( ! fir/ "o 9 ! r[4 ,its root has ?ree fangs4 ,! mol> too? 7f7 ( ! upp] jaw is small & lies caudom$iad ( ! la/ premol>4 ,x has two small cusps & two fangs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,,m&ible1 ,,) ,,roots ,,( ,,! ,,tee? ,,laid ,,b>e4 a1 incisors2 b1 can9e2 c1 fir/ premol>2 d1 second premol>2 f1 mol>4 ,9 ! l[] jaw 7,fig4 #id7 ! two premol>s 7c & d7 are simil>1 ! caudal "o be+ a little l>g]4 ,ea* has f\r cusps2 a s+le l>ge "o1 a small "o craniad ( ?is1 & two small ones caudad ( x4 ,ea* has two fangs4 ,! s+le mol> 7f7 is ! l>ge/ too? ( ! l[] jaw2 x has two l>ge cusps & two fangs4 ,! ,decidu\s ,tee?4--,at bir? ! cat has no tee?4 ,!re appe>s lat] a set ( tw5ty-six tee?3 twelve incisors1 f\r can9es1 & t5 mol>s 7six 9 ! upp] jaw & f\r 9 ! l[]74 ,^! tee? are lat] replac$ by ! p]man5t ones above describ$4 ,! decidu\s tee? ( ! cat are fully describ$ by ,jayne 78,mammalian ,anatomy10 vol4 #a4 p4 #cai71 :]e also an acc\nt is giv5 ( ! ord] ( appe>ance ( ! tee?4 ,,! ,,tongue4 ,,l+ua 7,fig4 #ie74--,! tongue is a muscul> organ cov]$ ) muc\s membrane2 9 life x is v mobile4 ,x is an elongat$ organ1 flat above1 broade/ 9 ! middle1 & v slightly n>r[$ at ea* end4 ,x ext5ds f ! incisor tee? to ! i/hmus faucium & ne>ly fills ! m\? cavity4 ,! caudal ?ird ( ! tongue =ms ! floor ( ! m\? cavity1 s t ! tongue has "h no v5tral surface1 b is directly cont9u\s ) und]ly+ organs4 ,x is 9 ?is region t ! extr9sic muscles ( ! tongue 7except ! g5ioglossus7 ent] x4 ,! cranial two-?irds ( ! tongue is p>tly or entirely free f ! floor ( ! m\?1 ! cranial "o-?ird be+ completely free & movable4 ,9 ab\t ! middle ?ird ! v5tral surface ( ! tongue is held to ! floor ( ! m\? by ! fold kn[n z ! fr5ulum l+u4 ,! fr5ulum conta9s p>ts ( ! two g5ioglossus muscles1 :i* ent] ! tongue ?r\gh x4 ,! v5tral surface & lat]al bord]s ( ! tongue are smoo?1 s(t1 & free f papill4 ,! dorsal surface is rais$ into papill ( v>i\s k9ds1 & has a slight m$ian longitud9al furr[4 ,! caudal "p ( ! dorsal surface is s(t]1 r$d]1 & m>k$ ) papill ( a diff]5t k9d f ^? ( ! re/ ( ! tongue4 ,f ! caudal end a small m$ian v]tical fold1 ! fr5ulum 7or plica7 glossoepiglottica passes f ! dorsal surface ( ! tongue to ! cranial surface ( ! epiglottis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,,tongue1 ,,epiglottis1 ,,& ,,op5+ ,,( ,,l>ynx4 a1 fili=m papill2 b1 fungi=m papill2 b1 v l>ge papill at ! sides ( ! tongue2 c1 circumvallate papill2 d1 tonsils2 e1 epiglottis2 f1 plica aryepiglottica2 g1 aryt5oid c>tilages 7cov]$ ) mucosa72 h1 glottis2 i1 false vocal cords2 j1 true vocal cords4 ,! papill ( ! tongue are ( ?ree k9ds4 #a4 ,! v num]\s fili=m papill 7a7 7papill fili=mes72 _m ( !m are horny & too?-l1 ) po9ts turn$ caudad4 ,^! are mo/ num]\s at ! middle ( ! free end ( ! tongue4 #b4 ,! fungi=m papill 7b7 7papill fungi=mes7 are f\nd scatt]$ ov] ! surface ( ! middle ( ! tongue caudad ( ! l>ge fili=m papill4 ,!y are enl>g$ at _! free ends4 ,!re is a prom95t r[ ( v l>ge ones 7b7 opposite ! circumvallate papill at ! bord]s ( ! tongue4 #c4 ,! circumvallate papill 7c7 7papill vallat7 are blunt & ea* is surr\nd$ by a tr5* :i* is b\nd$ 9 turn by a rais$ wall4 ,!y are 9 two r[s ( two or ?ree ea*1 :i* conv]ge ne> ! base ( ! tongue s z to =m a ,v ) ! apex direct$ caudad4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,tongue 7,fig4 #if74--,m4 g5ioglossus 7f7 passes f ! symphysis ( ! l[] jaw into ! tongue & lies b5ea? 7dorsad (7 ! g5iohyoid 7g74 ,orig9 f ! m$ial surface ( ! m&ible ne> ! symphysis & dorsad ( ! orig9 ( ! g5iohyoid4 ,ins]tion4--,! fibres pass dorsad1 div]g+ 9 a fan-l mann] & =m+ a flat v]tical plate closely appli$ to ! muscle ( ! opposite side4 ,?is plate ext5ds along ! caudal ?ree-f\r?s ( ! tongue1 i4e4 z f> z x is atta*$4 ,! cranial fibres ar* craniad to ! tip ( ! tongue1 ! caudal fibres ar* caudad to ! root ( ! tongue4 ,dorsad ! muscle is conf\nd$ ) ! muscle ( ! opposite side4 ,action4--,draws ! root ( ! tongue =w>d & ! tip backw>d4 ,m4 hyoglossus 7h74--,f ! body ( ! hyoid bone to ! tongue4 ,orig94--7#a7 ,f ! v5tral surface ( ! body ( ! hyoid lat]ad ( ! g5iohyoid 7g71 & 7#b7 by a second head f ! c]atohyal4 ,ins]tion4--,bo? heads p5etrate into ! tongue betwe5 ! /yloglossus 7e7 & ! g5ioglossus 7f74 ,! fibres int]m+le ) ^? ( ! /yloglossus 7e7 & ?us help to =m ! lat]al p>ts ( ! tongue4 ,!y f9ally end 9 ! integum5t on ! dorsum ( ! tongue at ! sides4 ,action4--,retracts ! tongue & depresses x4 ,m4 /yloglossus 7e74--,f ! /ylohyal bone to ! tongue4 ,orig9 f ! ma/oid process ( ! temporal bone1 f ! /ylom&ibul> ligam5t 7#b7 7:i* connects ! bord] ( ! ext]nal auditory meatus ) ! angul> process ( ! m&ible7 & f ! proximal c>tilag9\s portion ( ! cranial cornu ( ! hyoid bone4 ,! fibres pass m$iad1 div]g+ betwe5 ^? ( ! diga/ric & hyoglossus 7h7 into ! lat]al "p ( ! tongue4 ,ins]tion4--,! fibres pass t[>d ! tip ( ! tongue1 :]e ! mass f9ally ends 9 a po9t1 ! sup]ficial ones ga9+ ins]tion into ! integum5t at ! sides ( ! tongue4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! diga/ric 7,fig4 #fe1 b7 & mylohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 c74 ,inn] surface ) ! pt]ygoideus int]nus 7,fig4 #if1 d71 ! cranial cornu ( ! hyoid1 & ! tympanic bulla4 ,action4--,retracts ! tongue & raises x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,,muscles ,,( ,,tongue1 ,,hyoid ,,bone1 ,,& ,,ph>ynx4 a1 ,m4 tragicus lat]alis2 b1 ,m4 jugulohyoideus2 c1 ,m4 pt]ygoideus ext]nus2 d1 p>tially cut surface ( ,m4 pt]ygoideus int]nus2 e1 ,m4 /yloglossus2 f1 ,m4 g5ioglossus2 g1 ,m4 g5iohyoideus2 h1 ,m4 hyoglossus2 i1 ,m4 glossoph>yngeus2 j1 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis m$ius2 k1 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis inf]ior2 l1 ,m4 /yloph>yngeus2 m1 ,m4 /]nohyoideus 7cut72 n1 ,m4 crico?yreoideus2 o1 ,m4 /]no?yreoideus 7cut72 p1 ,m4 ?yreohyoideus4 #a1 m&ible2 #a1 angul> process ( m&ible2 #b1 /ylom&ibul> ligam5t2 #c1 bulla tympani2 #d1 tra*ea2 #e1 sophagus2 #f1 ?yroid gl&2 #g1 i/hmus ( ! ?yroid gl&4 ,! intr9sic muscles ( ! tongue 7^? entirely )9 x7 are atta*$ to its integum5t at bo? _! ends4 ,!re are ?ree sets ( fibres3 a longitud9al1 a transv]se1 & a v]tical "o4 ,^! are se5 mo/ readily 9 cross-sections4 ,,! ,,s(t ,,palate4 ,,velum ,,palat9um 7,fig4 #ff1 page #aab74--,! s(t palate is ! free curta9-l /ructure :i* =ms ! caudal "p ( ! ro( ( ! m\?4 ,x is atta*$ to ! caudal bord] ( ! palatal plates & ! v5tral bord] ( ! p]p5dicul> plates1 ( ! palat9e1 & to ! pt]ygoid processes & hamuli ( ! sph5oid1 & ext5ds "s di/ance caudad ( ! hamuli4 ,x ?us =ms a r long & n>r[ curta9 sep>at+ ! caudal "p ( ! nasal cavity f ! m\?4 ,caudad x ends 9 a free ar*$ bord] 7,fig4 #ff1 #d7 :i* is at ab\t ! level ( ! epiglottis1 & may lie aga9/ ! cranial or ! caudal surface ( ! latt]4 ,! n>r[$ passage b\nd$ by ! m>g9 ( ! velum palat9um dorsad & ! tongue v5trad is ! i/hmus faucium4 ,f ! sides ( ! velum a %ort di/ance f ! caudal bord] a fold ( mucosa passes v5trad to ! side ( ! tongue2 a %ort di/ance caudad ( ?is a simil> fold passes to ! floor ( ! ph>ynx4 ,^! folds =m ! cranial & caudal pill>s ( ! fauces4 ,betwe5 ^! folds is a %all[ pocket1 f ! bottom ( :i* !re arises a prom95t projection or swell+ :i* is "o ( ! two tonsils 7,fig4 #ie1 d74 ,ea* tonsil is a r$di%1 lobulat$ gl&1 lymphoid 9 ! adult1 ne>ly a c5timet] 9 l5g?1 & ab\t "o-?ird z long z broad1 ) its long axis craniocaudad4 ,! velum palat9um consi/s ( two lay]s ( muc\s membrane1 oral & nasal1 ) int]v5+ muscul> & connective tissue4 ,! muscles ( ! s(t palate 9 ! cat are z foll[s3 ,m4 t5sor veli palat9i 7,fig4 #ff1 d1 d1 page #aab74 ,orig9 f ! v5tral surface ( ! body ( ! sph5oid betwe5 ! =am5 ovale & ! groove = ! ,eu/a*ian tube4 ,! muscle ends 9 a flat t5don :i* passes ov] ! hamul> process 7#c7 ( ! pt]ygoid bone4 ,ins]tion by spread+ out 9 ! s(t palate into an aponeurosis :i* jo9s ! aponeurosis ( ! opposite muscle & lies betwe5 ! muc\s membrane ( ! m\? & t ( ! nose4 ,action4--,/ret*es ! palate4 ,m4 levator veli palat9i 7,fig4 #ff1 e1 e74--,a flat triangul> muscle :i* lies )9 ! t5sor4 ,orig9 f ! surface ( ! body ( ! sph5oid m$iad ( ! groove = ! ,eu/a*ian tube1 f ! /yli=m process ( ! bulla tympani1 & 9 "p f ! ,eu/a*ian tube4 ,! muscle passes caudad1 & its fibres !n div]ge into ! velum palat9um4 ,ins]tion into ! velum palat9um1 "s ( ! fibres meet+ 9 ! middle l9e4 ,action indicat$ by ! "n4 ,a numb] ( o!r muscles h be5 describ$ 9 ! s(t palate ( ! cat2 !y are1 h[ev]1 poorly develop$ & n easily di/+ui%$4 ,= an acc\nt ( ^!1 see ,/[ell1 ,proce$+s ( ! ,am4 ,soc4 ( ,microscopi/s1 #ahhi4 #b4 ,! ,ph>ynx4--,at ! caudal end ( ! m\? cavity ! passage = ! food & t = ! air cross2 at ! cranial end ! food-passage 7m\?7 is v5tral1 ! respiratory passage 7nasal cavity7 dorsal4 ,f>!r caudad ! food-passage 7sophagus7 is dorsal1 :ile ! respiratory passage 7l>ynx & tra*ea7 is v5tral4 ,9 ! region ( cross+ !re is !re=e = a c]ta9 di/ance a common passageway = food & air1 & ?is is kn[n z ! ph>ynx4 ,x ext5ds f ! i/hmus faucium1 at ! free caudal m>g9 ( ! s(t palate1 to ! beg9n+ ( ! sophagus1 at ! dorsal or caudal m>g9 ( ! op5+ ( ! l>ynx4 ,! dorsal wall ( ! ph>ynx is sep>at$ f ! base ( ! skull & ! c5tra ( ! c]vical v]tebr only by int]v5+ muscles 7longus capitis1 levator scapul v5tralis1 & longus colli1 ,fig4 #gb1 page #adc74 ,its lat]al & v5tral walls are support$ by ! hyoid bone & ! c>tilages ( ! l>ynx4 ,craniad ! ph>ynx cont9ues1 usually1 )\t break into ! cavity ly+ dorsad ( ! s(t palate4 ,b at ! "t ( swall[+ ! free edge ( ! s(t palate is pu%$ dorsad aga9/ ! dorsal wall ( ! ph>ynx1 :ile ! caudal "p ( ! ph>ynx is drawn craniad1 s z to =m a cavity cont9u\s ) t ( ! m\?4 ,9 ?is way ! cavity above ! s(t palate is completely sep>at$ at ! "t ( swall[+ f ! re/ ( ! ph>ynx4 ,?is sep>at$ portion is kn[n z ! nasoph>ynx3 x is /rictly a portion ( ! respiratory passage1 z ! food does n pass into x4 ,! nasoph>ynx is cont9u\s craniad by ! *oan ) ! nasal cavity2 x =ms a horizontal tube betwe5 & v5trad ( ! p]p5dicul> plates ( ! palat9e bones1 & has ! same craniocaudal ext5t z ! s(t palate4 ,its dorsal wall lies aga9/ ! basis cranii & ! longus capitis muscles2 its lat]al walls aga9/ ! pt]ygoid muscles & ! p]p5dicul> plates ( ! palat9e bones2 its v5tral wall is ! s(t palate4 ,at ! middle ( its l5g?1 at ! junction ( its dorsal & lat]al wall1 are two longitud9al slits ab\t ?ree millimet]s long4 ,^! are ! m$ial op5+s ( ! ,eu/a*ian tubes1 by :i* ! nasoph>ynx communicates ) ! tympanic cavity4 ,! ph>ynx prop]1 situat$ caudad ( ! nasoph>ynx1 is small] ?an ! latt]4 ,x is b\nd$ craniad by ! epiglottis & ! m>g9 ( ! s(t palate1 & is cont9u\s betwe5 ! two1 by ! i/hmus faucium1 ) ! m\? cavity4 ,its floor is =m$ by ! cranial end ( ! l>ynx4 ,at its caudal end x passes dorsally into ! sophagus1 :ile v5trally x communicates ) ! l>ynx4 ,its walls are muscul>4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,ph>ynx 7,fig4 #if74--,m4 glossoph>yngeus 7i74 ,orig94--,"s fibres on ! v5tral & lat]al "p ( ! g5ioglossus 7f7 leave t muscle ne> its caudal end4 ,!y =m a ?9 b& ( div]g+ fibres :i* pass outside ( ! cranial horn ( ! hyoid4 ,a simil> %eet ( fibres leaves ! midv5tral "p ( ! /yloglossus 7e74 ,! two %eets unite & ! unit$ muscle crosses ! hyoid1 turns dorsad1 & has its ,ins]tion into ! m$ian dorsal raphe ( ! ph>ynx4 ,action4--,con/rictor ( ! ph>ynx4 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis inf]ior 7k74--,a ?9 %eet ( muscle cov]+ ! sides ( ! ph>ynx at its caudal end4 ,orig9 f ! lat]al surfaces ( ! ?yroid & ! cricoid c>tilages4 ,! fibres pass dorsad & craniad1 ! cranial ones cov]+ ! fibres ( ! middle con/rictor 7j74 ,ins]tion4--,! m$ian longitud9al raphe on ! dorsum ( ! ph>ynx4 ,! caudal fibres are transv]se & cont9u\s ) ! circul> fibres ( ! sophagus4 ,! cranial fibres may pass z f> z ! base ( ! sph5oid4 ,action4--,con/rictor ( ! ph>ynx4 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis m$ius 7j74--,a ?9 %eet :i* cov]s ! middle "p ( ! lat]al surface ( ! ph>ynx4 ,orig94--,! v5tral two pieces ( ! cranial horn & ! :ole ( ! caudal horn ( ! hyoid4 ,! fibres div]ge1 pass+ dorsad4 ,ins]tion into ! m$ian dorsal raphe ( ! ph>ynx4 ,! cranial fibres are ins]t$ into ! base ( ! sph5oid bone4 ,! muscle cov]s "p ( ! /yloph>yngeus 7l7 & ! sup]ior con/rictor 7,fig4 #ff1 f1 page #aab7 & is p>tly cov]$ by ! glossoph>yngeus 7,fig4 #if1 i74 ,action4--,con/rictor ( ! ph>ynx4 ,m4 /yloph>yngeus 7l74 ,orig9 f ! tip ( ! ma/oid process ( ! temporal bone & f ! inn] surface ( ! c>tilag9\s piece betwe5 ! tympanohyal & ! /ylohyal bones4 ,! p>allel fibres =m a flat b& :i* passes v5trocaudad ov] ! out] surface ( ! con/rictor sup]ior4 ,ins]tion4--,! v5tral fibres pass b5ea? ! middle con/rictor 7j7 at its cranial bord] &1 cont9u+ t[>d ! middle l9e ( ! ph>ynx1 gradually lose !mselves among ! fibres ( ! sup]ior con/rictor4 ,! dorsal fibres pass onto ! out] surface ( ! middle con/rictor & are lo/ among its fibres4 ,action4--,con/rictor ( ! ph>ynx4 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis sup]ior or pt]ygoph>yngeus 7,fig4 #ff1 f1 page #aab74--;,a flat1 triangul> %eet b5ea? ! con/rictor m$ius4 ,orig94--,! tip ( ! hamul> process ( ! pt]ygoid bone4 ,! muscle passes caudad1 ! fibres div]g+1 & dips b5ea? ! cranial bord] ( ! con/rictor m$ius4 ,ins]tion into ! m$ian dorsal raphe ( ! ph>ynx4 ,! dorsal fibres are ins]t$ into ! base ( ! sph5oid4 ,! v5tral fibres pass l5g?wise ( ! ph>ynx1 closely connect$ ) ^? ( ! /yloph>yngeus 7,fig4 #if1 l71 & f9ally rea* ! level ( ! l>ynx4 ,action4--,con/rictor ( ! ph>ynx4 #c4 ,! sophagus4--,! sophagus is a /raight tube1 dorsov5trally flat :5 empty1 :i* ext5ds f ! ph>ynx to ! /oma*4 ,x has a uni=m diamet] :5 mod]ately dilat$ ( ab\t "o c5timet]4 ,x lies dorsad ( ! tra*ea & aga9/ ! longus colli muscles 7,fig4 #gb1 g7 cov]+ ! c5tra ( ! c]vical v]tebr1 until x rea*es ! caudal end ( ! ?yroid gl& 7,fig4 #if1 #f72 !n x passes to ! left & lies lat]odorsad ( ! tra*ea until x rea*es ! bifurcation ( ! tra*ea4 ,x !re returns to ! m$ian l9e1 passes gradually di/ad1 sep>at$ f ! v]tebr by ! aorta1 & f9ally pi]ces ! diaphragm ab\t two c5timet]s f ! dorsal body wall1 & ent]s ! /oma*4 ,its atta*m5t to ! diaphragm is loose en\gh to p]mit ( longitud9al motion4 ,9 pass+ ?r\gh ! ?oracic cavity x lies 9 ! po/]ior m$ia/9um v5trad ( ! aorta4 ,its wall consi/s ( a muscul> coat1 a submucosa1 & a mucosa1 & its inn] surface pres5ts _m longitud9al folds4 ,x has no s]\s cov]+1 its side walls be+ m]ely 9 contact ) ! halves ( ! m$ia/9al septum4 #d4 ,! ,/oma*4 ,v5triculus 7,fig4 #ig74--,! /oma* is ! wide/ "p ( ! alim5t>y canal4 ,x is a pe>-%ap$ sac1 ! long axis ( :i* is curv$ ne>ly into a semicircle4 ,! broad end ( ! sac lies to ! left & dorsad2 "h ! /oma* communicates ) ! sophagus 7a74 ,! n>r[$ end ext5ds to ! "r & lies m v5trad ?an ! o!r end2 x passes "h into ! duod5um 7g74 ,t portion ( ! /oma* :i* communicates ) ! sophagus is kn[n z ! c>diac end 7b72 ! opposite is ! pyloric end4 ,ow+ to ! curv$ =m ( ! /oma* above m5tion$ x is possible to di/+ui% a concave & a convex side4 ,! concave side is direct$ craniad & dextrad2 x is call$ ! less] curvature ( ! /oma* 7c74 ,! long] convex bord] is direct$ caudad & to ! left2 x is call$ ! great] curvature 7d74 ,! great] curvature ext5ds to ! left1 next to ! sophagus1 into a prom95t convexity kn[n z ! fundus 7e7 ( ! /oma*4 ,! /oma* lies at ! cranial end ( ! abdom9al cavity1 mo/ly to ! left ( ! middle l9e4 ,its c>diac end is 9 contact by its dorsal surface ) ! dorsal1 ne>ly horizontal1 portion ( ! diaphragm4 ,on its v5tral side ! c>diac end does n t\* ! diaphragm1 s t a small "p ( ! sophagus passes "h = a %ort di/ance into ! abdom9al cavity1 to jo9 ! /oma*4 ,! communication ( sophagus & /oma* is by a simple conical increase 9 size ( ! =m]4 ,! pyloric end ( ! /oma* ext5ds to ! "r ( ! middle l9e1 becom+ con/antly small]2 at its junction ) ! duod5um !re is a con/riction :i* m>ks ! position ( ! pyloric valve 7f74 ,?is valve is =m$ by a r+-l ?ick5+ ( ! circul> muscle-fibres ( ! alim5t>y canal1 =m+ a sph9ct] muscle at ! junction ( ! /oma* & duod5um & caus+ a projection ( ! mucosa into ! lum5 ( ! canal4 ,! v5tral surface ( ! /oma* lies aga9/ ! liv] except :5 ! /oma* is mu* di/5d$ ) food1 :5 ! v5tral surface comes to lie aga9/ ! v5tral abdom9al wall4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,,/oma*1 ,,v5tral ,,view4 a1 sophagus2 b1 c>diac end ( ! /oma*2 c1 less] curvature2 d1 great] curvature2 e1 fundus2 f1 pyloric valve2 g1 "p ( duod5um4 ,! /oma* is support$ by ! great om5tum & ! ga/rohepatic ligam5t4 ,x is connect$ ) ! duod5um by ! ga/roduod5al ligam5t2 ) ! sple5 by ! ga/roli5al ligam5t4 ,! inn] surface ( ! /oma* pres5ts longitud9al folds at its pyloric end & along ! great] curvature z f> z ! fundus4 ,! prom95ce ( ^! dep5ds on ! degree ( di/5sion4 ,its walls are compos$ ( an ext]nal p]itoneal lay]1 an int]nal muc\s lay]1 & an int]v5+ muscul> lay]4 ,?is may be se5 ) ! unaid$ eye 9 sections ( ! wall4 #e4 ,! ,small ,inte/9e4 ,inte/9um t5ue4--,! small inte/9e lies 9 num]\s coils :i* take up ! great] "p ( ! space 9 ! abdom9al cavity4 ,x has a l5g? ab\t ?ree times t ( ! body ( ! cat4 ,x is usually consid]$ z divid$ into ?ree p>ts1 duod5um1 jejunum1 & ileum2 ^! divisions are1 h[ev]1 n cle>ly m>k$ (f4 ,! small inte/9e is susp5d$ by ! mes5t]y already describ$4 ,! duod5um is t "p ( ! small inte/9e :i* foll[s ! /oma*4 ,at ! pylorus 7,fig4 #ig1 f7 ! alim5t>y canal makes a r %>p turn s t ! fir/ "p ( ! duod5um =ms an angle ) ! pyloric portion ( ! /oma*1 & ext5ds caudad & slightly t[>d ! "r1 soon becom+ direct$ almo/ entirely caudad & ly+ along ! "r side4 ,ab\t eight or t5 c5timet]s caudad ( ! pylorus x makes a ,u-%ap$ b5d1 ext5d+ ?us cranios9i/rad = f\r or five c5timet]s4 ,"h x passes )\t def9ite limit into ! jejunum1 ! duod5um be+ consid]$ to end at ! next turn caudad4 ,! entire duod5um is ab\t f\rte5 to sixte5 c5timet]s 9 l5g?4 ,betwe5 ! two limbs ( ! ,u-%ap$ b5d =m$ by ! duod5um1 ! duod5al half ( ! pancreas is enclos$ 7,fig4 #ajb1 a74 ,! walls ( ! duod5um are compos$ ( ! s]\s 7p]itoneal7 inve/m5t1 a muscul> coat :i* is made up ( an out] ?91 longitud9al lay] ( fibres & an inn] ?ick1 circul> lay]1 a submuc\s coat1 & inside ?is a muc\s coat4 ,! mucosa is ?r[n up into num]\s delicate f+]-l villi :i* give to x a velvety appe>ance4 ,on ! dorsal wall ( ! duod5um1 ab\t ?ree c5timet]s di/ad ( ! pylorus1 ! mucosa pres5ts a slight papilla1 at ! apex ( :i* is se5 ! oval op5+ ( ! ampulla ( ,vat]4 ,?is is an ovoid space 9 ! wall ( ! duod5um4 ,! space is encroa*$ ^u by num]\s folds ( ! walls4 ,! common bile-duct & ! pancreatic duct op5 into x1 ! =m] ext5d+ f ! bottom ( ! ampulla ne>ly to its m\?1 & ! latt] ext5d+ f ! bottom ab\t half-way to ! m\?4 ,two c5timet]s caudov5trad ( ! op5+ ( ! ampulla ( ,vat] is ! op5+ ( ! accessory pancreatic duct4 ,x c usually be demon/rat$ only by pass+ a bri/le into ! duod5um ?r\gh an op5+ 9 ! duct4 ,! jejunum is ! "p ( ! small inte/9e foll[+ ! duod5um4 ,x is n sep>at$ f ! "p ( ! small inte/9e foll[+ x by any %>p l9e4 ,9 man x con/itutes two-fif?s ( ! small inte/9e exclusive ( ! duod5um1 & is *>act]iz$ by its empt9ess aft] dea? & by ! abs5ce f x ( ,pey]'s agm9at$ gl&s 7,pey]'s pat*es74 ,! ileum is ! portion ( ! small inte/9e betwe5 ! jejunum & colon4 ,x lies susp5d$ by its mes5t]y 9 num]\s folds 9 ! caudal "p ( ! abdom9al cavity1 sep>at$ f ! v5tral abdom9al wall only by ! great om5tum4 ,x is ( ne>ly uni=m diamet]1 b its caudal portion is ?9n]-wall$ ?an its cranial portion4 ,its walls h a microscopic /ructure l t ( ! duod5um & jejunum4 ,on its inn] surface & on ! inn] surface ( ! jejunum are se5 close-set villi1 b ^! become r sp>s] t[>d ! caudal end ( ! ileum & disappe> ab\t "o c5timet] f ! op5+ into ! colon4 ,among ! villi ( ! caudal end ( ! ileum are num]\s r\nd$ elongations free f villi4 ,^! are ! solit>y follicles or solit>y gl&s 7lymphatic7 ( ! inte/9e4 ,^! gl&s :5 aggregat$ toge!r =m ! agm9at$ gl&s or pat*es ( ,pey]4 ,! ileum passes at ! caudal end into ! colon1 ! op5+ be+ gu>d$ by ! ileocolic valve 7,fig4 #ii74 ,?is is =m$ by a m>k$ projection ( ! mucosa 7f7 & transv]se muscle lay] 7e7 ( ! ileum into ! colon4 ,its surface is free f villi4 #f4 ,! ,l>ge ,inte/9e4 ,inte/9um crassum4--,! l>ge inte/9e is divid$ into colon & rectum4 ,! colon or fir/ "p ( ! l>ge inte/9e lies aga9/ ! dorsal body wall & is sep>at$ f ! v5tral body wall by ! folds ( ! ileum4 ,x has a diamet] ab\t ?ree times t ( ! ileum4 ,! op5+ ( ! ileum into x is on its side betwe5 "o & two c5timet]s f its cranial end 7,fig4 #ih74 ,! bl9d p\* ?us =m$ by ! cranial end ( ! colon is ! ccum 7,fig4 #ih1 c2 ,fig4 #ii1 a74 ,! ccum ends 9 a slight conical projection :i* may be consid]$ z ! rudim5t ( a v]mi=m app5dix4 ,! colon lies at fir/ on ! "r side & passes at fir/ craniad2 !n transv]sely to ! left1 !n caudad1 ly+ ne>ly 9 ! middle l9e & next to ! dorsal abdom9al wall4 ,! colon may ?us be di/+ui%$ accord+ to its direction into asc5d+1 transv]se1 & desc5d+ colon4 ,at its caudal end ! colon passes )\t %>p limit into ! rectum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--;,,junction ,,( ,,small ,,& ,,l>ge ,,inte/9e4 ,,fig4 #ii4--,,section ,,( ,,! ,,ileocolic ,,valve4 ,fig4 #ih4--;a1 ileum2 b1 asc5d+ colon2 c1 ccum2 d1 position ( ileocolic valve4 ,fig4 #ii4--;a1 ccum2 b1 colon2 c1 ileum2 d1 longitud9al muscle lay]2 e1 transv]se muscle lay]2 f1 mucosa2 g1 ileocolic valve 7op5$1 z :5 mat]ial is pass+ into ! colon74 ,at ! bottom ( ! ccum on its inn] surface is se5 a collection ( solit>y gl&s =m+ "o ( ! agm9at$ gl&s ( ,pey]1 or ,pey]'s pat*es4 ,! muc\s membrane is )\t villi4 ,x pres5ts a few consid]able elevations1 probably solit>y gl&s4 ,! rectum is ! t]m9al portion ( ! l>ge inte/9e ly+ 9 ! m$ian l9e close to ! dorsal body wall1 f :i* x is susp5d$ by ! %ort mesorectum4 ,its /ructure is l t ( ! colon4 ,x op5s ext]nally at ! anus4 ,! entire l>ge inte/9e has a l5g? ab\t "o-half t ( ! animal4 ,at ea* side ( ! anus are two l>ge secret+ sacs1 ! anal sacs or gl&s1 ea* ab\t a c5timet] 9 diamet]4 ,^! op5 into ! anus "o or two millimet]s f its caudal b\nd>y4 ,muscles ( ! ,rectum & ,anus4--,ow+ to ! close int]relation ( ! muscles ( ! rectum & anus ) ^? ( ! urog5ital organs1 all ^! muscles w be describ$ toge!r at ! end ( ! description ( ! urog5ital sy/em4 #g4 ,! ,liv]1 ,pancreas1 & ,sple54--,! ,liv]4 ,hep>4--,! liv] 7,figs4 #ajj & #aja7 is a l>ge r$-br[n organ occupy+ ! cranial "p ( ! abdom9al cavity4 ,x is closely appli$ to ! caudal surface ( ! diaphragm & ext5ds !nce v5trad ( ! /oma* s z to conceal all b its pyloric end4 ,ow+ to ! position ( ! /oma* ! l>g] mass ( ! liv] is on ! "r side & x ext5ds some:at fur!r caudad on ?is side4 ,! liv] is divid$ by ! dorsov5tral susp5sory ligam5t into ! "r & left lobes1 & ea* half is aga9 divid$ into lobes4 ,on ! left is a small left m$ian 7b7 & a l>g] left lat]al lobe 7a74 ,! left lat]al 7a7 ext5ds caudad ) a ?9 edge :i* cov]s ! great] "p ( ! v5tral surface ( ! /oma*4 ,on ! "r !re is a l>ge "r m$ian 7or cy/ic7 lobe 7c1 c74 ,its cranial surface is dome-%ap$ & fitt$ aga9/ ! "r two-?irds ( ! caudal surface ( ! diaphragm4 ,its v5tral edge is ?91 its dorsal edge ?ick1 & its caudal surface m>k$ by a deep dorsov5tral cleft 9 :i* lies ! gall-bladd] 7,fig4 #aja1 f74 ,dorsad & caudad ( ! cy/ic lobe is ! "r lat]al lobe 7d1 d71 :i* is deeply cleft4 ,its elongat$ caudal division 7d7 ext5ds 9 a po9t to ! caudal end ( ! "r kidney & is adapt$ to ! m$ial half ( its v5tral surface4 ,its small] & m compact cranial division 7d7 ends v5trally 9 a ?9 edge4 ,x lies betwe5 ! caudal division 7d7 & ! cy/ic lobe 7c71 & its dorsal surface is adapt$ to ! supr>5al body4 ,! caudate or ,spigelian lobe 7,fig4 #aja1 e7 is an elongat$1 triangul>1 pyramidal lobe4 ,x lies 9 ! om5tal sac & p>tly closes ! =am5 epiploicum 7=am5 ( ,w9sl[74 ,at its base x is connect$ ) ! caudal division ( ! "r lat]al lobe 7d74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--,,liv]1 ,,cranial ,,surface4 a1 left lat]al lobe2 b1 left m$ian lobe2 c1 "r m$ian lobe2 d1 d1 "r lat]al lobe2 e1 gall-bladd]2 f1 op5+ ( po/]ior v5a cava1 ) ! small] op5+s ( ! hepatic ve9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,,liv] ,,turn$ ,,craniad1 ,,%[+ ,,dorsocaudal ,,surface4 a1 left lat]al lobe2 b1 left m$ian lobe2 c1 c1 "r m$ian 7or cy/ic7 lobe2 d1 d1 cranial & caudal divisions ( ! "r lat]al lobe2 e1 caudate lobe2 f1 gall-bladd]2 g1 cy/ic duct2 h1 hepatic ducts2 i1 common bile-duct2 j1 portal ve92 k1 "p ( duod5um4 ,! ,gall-bladd] 7,fig4 #aja1 f7 is pe>-%ap$ & lies 9 a cleft on ! caudal 7or dorsal7 surface ( ! "r m$ian lobe 7c1 c7 ( ! liv]4 ,its l>g] end is direct$ caudad 7or v5trad7 & is free4 ,by "o surface x is 9 contact ) ! liv] & n cov]$ by p]itoneum1 :ile ! o!r surface is cov]$ by p]itoneum4 ,! p]itoneum 9 pass+ f ! l>g] free end to ! liv] =ms "o or two ligam5t-l folds4 ,by its small] end ! gall-bladd] is cont9u\s ) ! cy/ic duct 7g74 ,?is duct is ab\t ?ree c5timet]s long & has a s9u\s c\rse4 ,at its di/al end x is jo9$ by two 7or m7 hepatic ducts 7h71 br++ ! bile f ! lobes ( ! liv]4 ,! relation ( ^! to ! cy/ic duct v>ies4 ,!y may op5 into x by a common trunk or sep>ately4 ,( ^! hepatic ducts "o is made up by ! junction ( small] hepatic ducts f ! left half ( ! liv] & ! left half ( ! cy/ic lobe1 :ile ! o!r is simil>ly =m$ by small] ducts f ! "r half ( ! cy/ic lobe1 f bo? divisions ( ! "r lat]al lobe & f ! caudate lobe4 ,! duct =m$ by ! junction ( ! hepatic & cy/ic ducts is ! common bile-duct 7ductus communis *ol$o*us7 7i74 ,x passes 9 ! free "r bord] ( ! ga/roduod5al om5tum to ! duod5um 7k7 & op5s into x by way ( ! ampulla ( ,vat]1 9 common ) ! pancreatic duct1 at a po9t on ! dorsal surface ( ! duod5um & ab\t ?ree c5timet]s f ! pylorus4 ,pancreas4--,! pancreas 7,fig4 #ajb1 a7 is a flatt5$1 closely lobulat$ gl& ( irregul> outl9e1 ab\t twelve c5timet]s long1 v>y+ 9 wid? f "o to two c5timet]s4 ,x is b5t ne>ly at "r angles at ab\t its middle4 ,"o ( ! halves 7a7 into :i* x is divid$ by its b5d lies 9 ! desc5d+ limb ( ! great om5tum1 & is ne> ! great] curvature ( ! /oma* 7d7 & p>allel to x4 ,! free end ( ?is half is 9 contact ) ! sple5 7e74 ,! o!r half 7a7 lies 9 ! duod5al om5tum betwe5 ! limits ( ! duod5al ,u 7c7 & rea*es to ! bottom ( ! ,u4 ,! pancreas has two ducts4 ,! l>g] pancreatic duct 7b7 7sometimes kn[n z ! duct ( ,wirsung7 collects ! pancreatic fluid f bo? halves ( ! gl&1 ! ductlets f ea* half unit+ to make two l>g] ducts1 :i* !n unite ne> ! angle ( ! gl& to make ! pancreatic duct4 ,?is is %ort & broad & op5s into ! ampulla ( ,vat] toge!r ) ! common bile-duct4 ,! accessory pancreatic duct 7duct ( ,santor9i7 op5s into ! duod5um ab\t two c5timet]s caudov5trad ( ! ampulla ( ,vat]4 ,x is =m$ by ! union ( bran*es :i* ana/omose ) ^? ( ! pancreatic duct4 ,x is app>5tly sometimes lack+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,,pancreas ,,& ,,sple54 ,! sophagus has be5 cut & ! /oma* turn$ caudad1 s t ! dorsal surface ( ! /oma* & ! v5tral surface ( ! duod5um are se54 a1 pancreas 7a1 duod5al portion2 a1 ga/ric portion72 b1 pancreatic duct2 c1 duod5um2 d1 /oma*2 e1 sple54 ,sple54 ,li54--,! sple5 7,fig4 #ajb1 e7 is a deep r$1 flatt5$1 elongat$ gl& belong+ to ! lymphatic sy/em4 ,"o ( its ends1 ! left1 lies aga9/ ! free end ( ! ga/ric half ( ! pancreas & is broad] ?an ! o!r end4 ,! sple5 is curv$ & is susp5d$ 9 ! desc5d+ limb ( ! great om5tum s t x foll[s ! great] curvature ( ! /oma* 7d74 ,,iii4 ,,respiratory ,,organs4 ,,app>atus ,,respiratorius4 ,! organs ( respiration consi/ ( ! nasal cavity1 ! nasoph>ynx1 ! ph>ynx 7also a food-passage71 ! l>ynx 7also ! organ ( ! voice71 ! tra*ea1 ! bron*i1 & ! lungs4 ,) !m are usually describ$ also ! ?yroid & ?ymus gl&s4 #a4 ,! ,nasal ,cavity4 ,cavum nasi4--,! osse\s framework ( ! nasal cavity has already be5 describ$ 7page #ei71 & 9 connection ) ?is description ! b\nd>ies ( ! cavity & its connections ) o!r cavities h be5 giv54 ,x consi/s ess5tially ( a l>ge cavity b\nd$ by ! facial bones & divid$ by a longitud9al p>tition into two lat]al halves4 ,! two cavities ?us =m$ are ne>ly fill$ by 7#a7 ! labyr9?s ( ! e?moid 7e?moturb9als71 7#b7 ! sup]ior nasal con* or nasoturb9als1 project+ into ! dorsal "p f ! v5tral surface ( ! nasal bones1 & 7#c7 ! inf]ior nasal con*1 or maxilloturb9als1 project+ into ! v5tral portion f ! m$ial surfaces ( ! maxill>ies4 ,!re rema9 to be consid]$1 9 addition to ! bones1 ! c>tilag9\s framework ( c]ta9 p>ts ( ! nose1 & ! muc\s membrane4 ,! lam9a p]p5dicul>is is cont9u$ by c>tilage1 especially craniad1 9 su* a way z to make a complete septum sep>at+ ! two cavities4 ,?is septum ext5ds f ! septum ( ! ext]nal nose caudad to ! lam9a cribrosa1 & f ! int]nasal suture v5trad to ! vom] & ! suture ( ! premaxill>ies4 ,all p>ts ( ! nasal cavity are l9$ by muc\s membrane4 ,?is is cont9u\s at ! n>es ) ! integum5t1 :ile at ! *oan x passes into ! mucosa ( ! ph>ynx4 ,x cov]s ! con* nasales & ! labyr9?s ( ! e?moid1 pass+ into ! cellules ( ! latt]4 ,ow+ to ! cr[d+ toge!r ( ! con* nasales & ! labyr9?s ! nose is almo/ completely fill$1 only ?ree n>r[ passageways be+ di/+ui%able4 ,! v5tral "o ( ^!1 kn[n z ! v5tral or inf]ior meatus ( ! nose1 lies v5trad ( ! inf]ior nasal con*a1 next to ! nasal septum4 ,x passes caudad b5ea? ! horizontal plate =m$ by ! vom] & e?moid1 & op5s caudad at ! *oan into ! nasoph>ynx4 ,! dorsal or sup]ior meatus ( ! nose lies j v5trad ( ! sup]ior nasal con*a1 next to ! m$ian septum2 x leads to ! frontal s9us1 ! lam9a cribrosa1 & ! caudal p>ts ( ! e?moid4 ,! middle meatus ( ! nose has almo/ disappe>$ 9 ! cat2 x is simply ! n>r[ space betwe5 ! sup]ior & inf]ior meati4 ,x is practically fill$ by ! e?moid1 into ! cells ( :i* x leads4 ,! mucosa is cont9u$ f ! nasal cavity into ! s9uses ( ! frontals & presph5oid4 ,at ! sides ( ! nasal septum1 ne> ! v5tral edge1 & ab\t "o to "o & a half c5timet]s caudad ( ! n>es1 !re is on ea* side a small curv$ c>tilag9\s tube1 ab\t "o c5timet] or less 9 l5g?4 ,?is1 ! vom]onasal organ1 or organ ( ,jacobson1 lies aga9/ ! septum1 betwe5 x & ! mucosa4 ,x beg9s at ! incisive canal or ant]ior palat9e =am51 9 ! ro( ( ! m\?1 curves !nce caudodorsad close aga9/ ! side ( ! nasal septum1 & ends bl9dly 9 ! nasal cavity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--;,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,! ,,c>tilages ,,( ,,! ,,ext]nal ,,nose4 a1 c>tilage ( ! m$ian septum2 b1 8w+s02 c1 ridge =m$ by int]nal portion ( w+4 ,! n>es or cranial op5+s ( ! nasal cavity are support$ by a numb] ( c>tilages :i* =m ! framework ( ! sn\t or ext]nal nose4 ,! c>tilag9\s cont9uation ( ! lam9a p]p5dicul>is ext5ds "s di/ance craniad ( ! tips ( ! nasal & premaxill>y bones1 =m+ ! septum ( ! ext]nal nose 7,fig4 #ajc1 a74 ,f ! dorsal edge ( ?is project+ c>tilag9\s septum1 two ?9 c>tilag9\s w+s 7b7 ext5d lat]ad1 =m+ ! dorsal wall ( ! n>ial op5+4 ,ea* !n turns v5trad to =m ! lat]al wall ( ! op5+1 b does n =m ! v5tral floor2 in/ead x curves m$iad & f9ally dorsad1 ?us ext5d+ f ! floor ( ! op5+ z a prom95t ridge 7c7 )9 ! n>es4 ,! c>tilag9\s w+ is ?us roll$ into a sort ( spiral1 end+ ) a free edge )9 ! n>ial op5+4 ,f ! v5tral edge ( ! m$ian c>tilag9\s septum !re are likewise lat]al ext5sions1 :i* =m "p ( ! v5tral b\nd>y ( ! n>es2 ^! d n q rea* ! v5tral p>ts ( ! dorsal w+s1 h[ev]1 s t a small "p ( ! n>ial op5+ is n b\nd$ by c>tilage4 ,a section ( ! n>ial c>tilages is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,! w+s f ! dorsal edge ( ! septum d n ext5d q to ! cranial tip ( ! nose1 s t a not* is =m$ on ! v5trolat]al side ( ! n>es2 a section 9 ?is region w\ld !re=e diff] f t figur$4 ,! framework ( ! ext]nal nose ?us =m$ is cov]$ ext]nally by ?ick hairless sk91 conta9+ _m gl&s4 ,f ! v5tral end ( ! int]n>ial septum a groove passes v5trad1 p>tly divid+ ! upp] lip4 ,! inn] surfaces ( ! c>tilages are cov]$ by ! mucosa1 :i* =ms a numb] ( ridges4 ,! n>ial op5+ is almo/ completely divid$ by ! prom95t ridge :i* is support$ by ! free edge 7c7 ( ! c>tilag9\s w+ above describ$4 ,?is free edge is cov]$ by a ?ick lay] ( mucosa1 & ! entire ridge s =m$ is cont9u\s caudad ) ! inf]ior nasal con*a4 ,on ! m$ial side ( ! p>tial p>tition =m$ by ?is ridge & ne> ! v5tral side !re beg9s a slight di/ance caudad ( ! out] op5+ ano!r ridge1 support$ by ! v5trally incurv$ portion ( ! c>tilag9\s r+4 ,?is soon becomes a ?ick swell+2 b5ea? x op5s ! la*rymal canal1 & t "p ( ! passageway t lies v5trom$iad ( x is ! beg9n+ ( ! inf]ior meatus ( ! nose4 ,ab\t "o or two c5timet]s caudad ( ! ext]nal op5+ a ?ird ridge projects f ! dorsolat]al wall ( ! cavity t[>d ! l>ge ridge fir/ describ$2 dorsom$iad ( x is a n>r[ passage :i* is ! entrance to ! sup]ior meatus ( ! nose4 ,! olfactory mucosa1 or t "p to :i* ! olfactory n]ve is di/ribut$1 & :i* !re=e acts z ! s5sory surface1 is conf9$ to ! dorsocaudal p>ts ( ! nasal cavity1 9 ! region occupi$ by ! cells ( ! e?moid4 ,! air p5etrates to ?is region probably only by a def9ite act ( snuff+1 ! inf]ior meatus s]v+ z ! usual passageway ( air to ! lungs4 ,! nasoph>ynx & ph>ynx are consid]$ "u ! alim5t>y canal 7page #bca74 #b4 ,! ,l>ynx4 ,! l>ynx is ! enl>g$ upp] end ( ! air-passage :i* leads f ! ph>ynx to ! lungs4 ,x is a box compos$ ( pieces ( c>tilage connect$ by ligam5ts & mov$ by muscles1 & x is l9$ by muc\s membrane4 ,at ! root ( ! tongue ab\t "o c5timet] caudad ( ! body ( ! hyoid bone is ! triangul> leaf-l epiglottis 7,fig4 #ie1 e1 page #bbg74 ,:5 food is tak5 ?is closes ! op5+ into ! l>ynx1 & ! food passes ov] x into ! sophagus4 ,x is s curv$ t its apex is direct$ craniad4 ,a fold ( muc\s membrane1 ! plica glossoepiglottica or fr5ulum ( ! epiglottis1 ext5ds f ! middle ( its cranial surface to ! root ( ! tongue1 & on ea* side ( ?is fold is a depression4 ,f ea* side ( ! base ( ! epiglottis a fold1 plica aryepiglottica 7,fig4 #ie1 f71 ext5ds caudad to ! base ( ! aryt5oid c>tilage 7g74 ,dorsad ( ?is fold & sep>at$ f x by a depression is a ridge :i* m>ks ! position ( ! caudal hyoid cornu4 ,! plic aryepiglottic 7f7 & ! epiglottis 7e7 =m ! b\nd>ies ( ! aditus l>yngis1 or op5+ into ! l>ynx4 ,! cavity ( ! l>ynx is divid$ into ?ree portions4 ,! upp] "o ( ^! is ! ve/ibule ( ! l>ynx4 ,x is b\nd$ caudad by two folds ( mucosa 7i7 t /ret* f ! caudal surface ( ! epiglottis ne> its base to ! tips ( ! aryt5oid c>tilages4 ,^! folds are ! false vocal cords 7i74 ,_! vibration is said to produce purr+4 ,caudad ( ! false vocal cords two folds ( ! mucosa /ret* f ! apices ( ! aryt5oid c>tilages to ! ?yroid c>tilages1 ne> ! base ( ! epiglottis4 ,^! folds are ne>] ! m$ian plane ?an ! false vocal cords4 ,!y are ! true vocal cords 7j74 ,! middle portion ( ! l>yngeal cavity is t betwe5 ! true & ! false vocal cords4 ,x is produc$ lat]ally into a v small p\* or pocket on ea* side1 ! v5triculus4 ,! n>r[ slit betwe5 ! true vocal cords is ! glottis 7h74 ,x c be n>r[$ & wid5$ by ! action ( muscles4 ,! vocal cords1 :i* b\nd x1 are set vibrat+ by curr5ts ( air transmitt$ f ! lungs1 & ! voice-s\nds are ?us produc$4 ,! caudal portion 7inf]ior portion7 ( ! l>yngeal cavity is t betwe5 ! glottis & ! fir/ tra*eal c>tilage4 ,x is n>r[$ ne> ! glottis4 ,,c>tilages ,,( ,,! ,,l>ynx 7,fig4 #ajd74--,!re are ?ree unpair$ c>tilages1 ! ?yroid 7#a71 cricoid 7#c71 & epiglottic 7#b71 & two pair$ c>tilages1 ! aryt5oids 7#d74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--;,,c>tilages ,,( ,,l>ynx1 ,,) ,,side ,,view ,,( ,,hyoid ,,bone4 b1 c]atohyal2 c1 epihyal2 d1 /ylohyal2 e1 tympanohyal2 f1 ?yrohyal4 #a1 ?yroid c>tilage2 #b1 epiglottis2 #c1 cricoid c>tilage2 #d1 aryt5oid c>tilage2 #e1 crico?yroid ligam5t2 #f1 ?yrohyoid ligam5t2 #g1 tra*ea4 ,! ?yroid c>tilage 7c>tilago ?yreoidea7 7#a7 has ne>ly ! =m ( a visor ( a cap1 b is relatively broad] at its ends ?an a cap visor4 ,x =ms ab\t two-?irds ! circumf]5ce ( a circle1 & is s situat$ t x embraces ! o!r c>tilages v5trally & lat]ally4 ,its caudal & cranial bord]s are oblique to its caudocranial axis & are direct$ dorsocaudad4 ,to ! middle ( ! cranial bord] is atta*$ ! epiglottic c>tilage 7#b71 & ! :ole cranial m>g9 is connect$ by membrane 7#f7 to ! body & caudal cornua 7f7 ( ! hyoid bone4 ,! dorsal bord] projects craniad into a consid]able cornu :i* is atta*$ to ! free end ( ! caudal hyoid cornu 7f74 ,! bord] also projects caudad into a process :i* articulates ) a facet on ! lat]al surface ( ! cricoid c>tilage 7#c74 ,9 ! middle ( ! dorsal surface is a longitud9al ridge = atta*m5t ( ! vocal cords & orig9 ( ! ?yro>yt5oid muscles 7,fig4 #aje1 d71 & at ! caudal end ( ?is ridge ! caudal bord] pres5ts a consid]able r\nd$ not*4 ,! cricoid c>tilage 7c>tilago cricoidea7 7#c7 has ! =m ( a seal r+ ) its broad] "p dorsad4 ,! broad dorsal "p ( ! r+ is p>tly embrac$ by ! w+s ( ! ?yroid c>tilage 7#a74 ,its caudal bord] is undulat+ & ne>ly at "r angles to its caudocranial axis4 ,x is connect$ by membrane ) ! fir/ tra*eal r+4 ,! cranial bord] is oblique to ! long axis & lies 9 a plane :i* passes f ! v5tral side craniodorsad4 ,ne> ! m$ian l9e on ea* side x articulates by an oblique facet ) "o ( ! two aryt5oid c>tilages 7#d74 ,ne> ! midv5tral l9e ! crico?yroid ligam5t 7#e7 is atta*$ & x /ret*es !nce to ! midcaudal not* ( ! ?yroid c>tilage 7#a74 ,! out] surface pres5ts at ! middle ( ea* side a facet = articulation ) ! ?yroid1 & is m>k$ 9 ! m$ian dorsal l9e by a ridge = ! po/]ior crico>yt5oid muscle 7,fig4 #aje1 b74 ,! aryt5oid c>tilages 7c>tilago aryt5oidea7 7,fig4 #ajd1 #d7 are triangul> pyramids ) base & sides ne>ly equilat]al triangles4 ,"o side articulates ) an oblique facet on ! cranial bord] ( ! cricoid ne> ! mid-dorsal l9e4 ,ne> ! opposite apex is atta*$ ! vocal cord4 ,at ! lat]al angle ( ! base is atta*$ on its dorsal side ! po/]ior crico>yt5oid muscle 7,fig4 #aje1 b71 & on its v5tral side ! ?yro>yt5oid 7,fig4 #aje1 d7 & lat]al crico>yt5oid 7,fig4 #aje1 c7 muscles4 ,! movem5ts produc$ by ^! muscles c>ry ! aryt5oid ends ( ! vocal cords t[>d or f ! m$ian plane & ?us op5 or close ! glottis4 ,! epiglottic c>tilage 7,fig4 #ajd1 #b7 is flexible 7fibro-c>tilage7 & ( a cordate =m4 ,x is s curv$ t its caudal surface is convex dorsov5trally & concave f side to side4 ,x supports ! epiglottis4 ,its cranial surface pres5ts a slight m$ian ridge = atta*m5t ( muscles4 ,by its base x is atta*$ to ! midv5tral "p ( ! cranial bord] ( ! ?yroid c>tilage 7#a74 ,its position v>ies s t x ei!r /&s erect ) its apex direct$ craniad to all[ ! passage ( air to ! lungs1 or1 z 9 ! act ( swall[+1 x is turn$ caudad ov] ! aditus l>yngis s z to all[ food to pass ov] x & into ! sophagus4 ,! vocal cords are two fibr\s ela/ic b&s4 ,ea* is atta*$ at "o end to ! apex ( ! aryt5oid c>tilage1 & at ! o!r end to ! m$ian ridge on ! dorsal surface ( ! ?yroid4 ,ea* supports a project+ fold ( muc\s membrane1 ! vibration ( :i* causes ! voice4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,l>ynx4--#a4 ,muscles mov+ ! entire l>ynx4 ,a4 ,elevators4 ,m4 ?yreohyoideus 7,fig4 #if1 p1 page #bbi74--;,a flat b& on ! lat]al side ( ! l>ynx4 ,orig9 on ! lat]al "p ( ! caudal bord] ( ! ?yroid c>tilage4 ,ins]tion on ! m$ial two-?irds ( ! caudal bord] ( ! caudal cornu ( ! hyoid4 ,action4--,raises ! l>ynx4 ,! /ylohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 d1 page #aji7 & ! m$ian & inf]ior con/rictors 7,fig4 #if1 j & k7 ( ! ph>ynx1 already describ$1 h ! same action4 ,b4 ,depressors4--,! /]no?yroid 7,fig4 #fe1 g71 already describ$ 7p4 #ada74 #b4 ,muscles :i* move ! p>ts ( ! l>ynx "o ^u ano!r4 ,a4 ,muscles on ! ,out] ,surface ( ! ,l>ynx4 ,m4 crico?yreoideus 7,fig4 #if1 n74--,a broad flat b& :i* ) its fell[ cov]s ! v5tral surface ( ! cricoid c>tilage & ! crico?yroid ligam5t4 ,orig94--,! lat]al half ( ! v5tral surface ( ! cricoid c>tilage4 ,! muscles div]ge s z to leave a "p ( ! crico?yroid ligam5t betwe5 !m4 ,ins]tion4--,! v5tral "p ( ! caudal bord] ( ! ?yroid c>tilage lat]ad ( ! m$ian v5tral not*4 ,m4 crico>yt5oideus po/]ior 7,fig4 #aje1 b74--,! two muscles cov] ! dorsal surface ( ! l>ynx4 ,orig94--,f ! dorsal "p ( ! caudal bord] ( ! cricoid c>tilage 7#c7 & f its m$ian dorsal cre/4 ,! fibres pass craniolat]ad1 conv]g+4 ,! lat]al fibres are ne>ly longitud9al 9 direction4 ,ins]tion4--,! dorsal bord] ( ! caudal end ( ! aryt5oid c>tilage 7#d74 ,action4--,moves ! aryt5oid on its oblique articulation ) ! ?yroid4 ,! apex ( ! aryt5oid is ?us c>ri$ lat]ad1 & ! vocal cords are sep>at$ s z to wid5 ! glottis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,l>ynx1 ,,z ,,expos$ ,,by ,,removal ,,( ,,mo/ ,,( ,,! ,,left ,,half ,,( ,,! ,,?yroid ,,c>tilage4 #a1 epiglottis2 #b1 portion ( ! ?yroid c>tilage 7cut72 #c1 cricoid c>tilage2 #d1 aryt5oid c>tilage2 #e1 tra*ea4 a1 ,m4 aryt5oideus transv]sus2 b1 ,m4 crico>yt5oideus po/]ior2 c1 ,m4 crico>yt5oideus lat]alis2 d1 ,m4 ?yreo>yt5oideus4 ,m4 aryt5oideus transv]sus 7,fig4 #aje1 a74--,a small unpair$ muscle runn+ transv]sely betwe5 ! caudal ends ( ! aryt5oid c>tilages1 j b5ea? ! muc\s membrane & p>allel to ! cranial bord] ( ! cricoid c>tilage4 ,m4 glossoepiglotticus4--,a small longitud9al muscle1 ly+ by ! side ( its fell[ 9 ! fr5ulum ( ! epiglottis4 ,orig94--,! m$ian fibr\s septum ( ! tongue4 ,ins]tion4--,! dorsal 7cranial7 surface ( ! epiglottic c>tilage 9 ! m$ian l9e ne> its atta*$ bord]4 ,action4--,draws ! epiglottis craniad4 ,m4 hyoepiglotticus is a small bundle ( p>allel fibres ly+ 9 ! fr5ulum ( ! epiglottis craniad & dorsad ( ! body ( ! hyoid bone4 ,orig94--,! lat]al end ( ! cranial surface ( ! body ( ! hyoid4 ,! two muscles pass craniodorsad1 conv]g+1 & unite ) ! prec$+4 ,ins]tion ) ! prec$+4 7,! lat]al portion ( ! muscle may cont9ue craniad to ! tongue z a second "p ( ! hyoglossus47 ,action4--,l ! prec$+4 ,b4 ,muscles on ! ,inn] ,surface ( ! ,c>tilages ( ! ,l>ynx4 ,m4 ?yreo>yt5oideus 7,fig4 #aje1 d74--,! ?yro>yt5oid is a triangul>1 flat muscle ( consid]able size4 ,x lies )9 ! w+ ( ! ?yroid c>tilage 7#b71 & its fibres are ne>ly dorsov5tral 9 direction4 ,orig94--,! m$ian longitud9al cre/ on ! dorsal surface ( ! ?yroid c>tilage 7#b74 ,ins]tion4--,! fibres conv]ge to ! ins]tion into ! cranial lip ( ! lat]ocaudal angle ( ! aryt5oid c>tilage 7#d74 ,action4--,turns ! aryt5oid on its oblique articulation s z to close ! glottis4 ,m4 crico>yt5oideus lat]alis 7,fig4 #aje1 c74--,triangul>1 a little small] ?an ! prec$+1 caudad ( :i* x is situat$1 s t x also is cov]$ by ! w+ ( ! ?yroid4 ,orig94--,! lat]al "p ( ! cranial bord] ( ! cricoid c>tilage 7#c74 ,! fibres conv]ge1 pass+ dorsad4 ,ins]tion4--,! caudal lip ( ! lat]ocaudal angle ( ! aryt5oid c>tilage 7#d74 ,action4--,simil> to ! prec$+1 s t x closes ! glottis4 #c4 ,! ,tra*ea 7,fig4 #aje1 #e2 ,fig4 #ajf1 a74--,! tra*ea is t "p ( ! air-passage :i* ext5ds f ! l>ynx to ! bron*i 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,x is a /raight tube compos$ ( a l9+ mucosa ) ciliat$ epi!lium1 & a connective-tissue cov]+ :i* encloses support+ c>tilages4 ,ea* tra*eal c>tilage is incomplete dorsally :]e x lies aga9/ ! sophagus1 ! gap betwe5 ! two free ends ( ea* r+ be+ fill$ ) muscul> & connective tissue4 ,z a result ( ?is ! diamet] ( ! tra*ea is n fix$1 b c be increas$ & dim9i%$4 ,! fir/ r+ is broad] ?an ! o!rs4 ,:]e ! sophagus leaves ! m$ian l9e1 ! dorsal surface ( ! tra*ea lies aga9/ ! longus colli muscles 7,fig4 #gb1 g74 ,its v5tral surface is aga9/ ! /]nohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 e7 & /]no?yroid 7,fig4 #fe1 g7 muscles4 ,its lat]al surfaces are p>tly cov]$ by ! ?yroid gl& 7,fig4 #if1 #f71 & are 9 close relation ) ! c>otid art]y 7,fig4 #aai1 a1 page #bhd71 ! vagus & sympa!tic n]ves 7,fig4 #aef1 i71 & ! int]nal jugul> ve9 7,fig4 #aai1 b74 ,9 ! ?oracic cavity ! great vessels com+ f ! he>t lie aga9/ ! v5tral surface ( ! tra*ea 7,fig4 #abi1 #b74 ,at ab\t ! level ( ! six? rib ! tra*ea divides into ! two ma9 bron*i 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,ea* bron*us is support$ by incomplete r+s ( c>tilage l ^? ( ! tra*ea & has o!rwise 9 g5]al ! /ructure ( ! tra*ea4 ,9 ! lungs ! bron*i become divid$ into _m bran*es 7,fig4 #ajf71 9 ! mann] describ$ 9 ! acc\nt ( ! lungs4 #d4 ,! ,lungs4 ,pulmones4--,imm$iately aft] division ( ! tra*ea ! two bron*i ent] ! lungs 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,^! are two l>ge1 mu*-lob$ organs1 :i* fill ! great] "p ( ! ?oracic cavity4 ,! ma9 lobes ( ! lungs are completely sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 except 9 s f> z !y are connect$ by ! bron*i & connective tissue2 ! ma9 lobes may also be p>tly subdivid$ into second>y lobes t are n ?us completely sep>at$4 ,! two lungs are completely sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 except at ! radix1 :]e !y are unit$ by ! bron*i2 !y lie 9 ! "r & left halves ( ! ?oracic cavity1 ) ! m$ia/9al septum betwe5 !m4 ,! bron*i on ent]+ ! lungs divide 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,ea* divides at fir/ into two ma9 bran*es4 ,! cranial bran* on ! "r side is kn[n z ! ep>t]ial bron*us 7b71 because x lies craniad ( ! pulmon>y art]y4 ,all ! o!rs are hyp>t]ial2 i4e41 !y lie caudad ( ! pulmon>y art]y4 ,! "r cranial bron*us does n fur!r subdivide into l>ge bron*i1 b gives (f num]\s small bran*es4 ,! "r caudal bron*us divides into ?ree ma9 bran*es4 ,!re are ?us f\r ma9 bran*es ( ! "r bron*us4 ,! left cranial bron*us divides into two ma9 bran*es2 ! left caudal bron*us cont9ues caudad z a ma9 trunk giv+ (f small bran*lets4 ,( ! left bron*us !re are ?us b ?ree ma9 subdivisions4 ,! ma9 subdivisions ( ! bron*i on ! two sides correspond1 z w be se51 ) ! lobulation ( ! lungs4 ,! "r lung 7,fig4 #ajf1 #a-d7 is slightly l>g] ?an ! left 7#a-c74 ,x divides into ?ree small] proximal lobes 7#a-c71 & "o l>ge di/al "o 7#d74 ,! mo/ cranial "o ( ! proximal lobes 7#a7 is sometimes p>tly subdivid$4 ,! ?ird "o ( ! proximal lobes 7#c7 lies m$iad ( ! o!rs2 x is p>tly subdivid$ & "o-half projects into a pocket 9 ! m$ia/9um1 s t x comes to lie across ! middle l9e1 ext5d+ a %ort di/ance onto ! left side4 ,?is lobe is frequ5tly call$ ! m$ia/9al lobe 7#c74 ,! caudal lobe 7#d7 ( ! "r lung is l>ge & flat1 conta9+ ab\t half ! sub/ance ( ! lung4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,,ramifications ,,( ,,! ,,bron*i1 ,,) ,,outl9es ,,( ,,! ,,lobes ,,( ,,! ,,lungs1 ,,v5tral ,,view4 #a-d1 lobes ( ! "r lung2 #a-c1 lobes ( ! left lung4 a1 tra*ea2 b1 ep>t]ial bron*us4 ,! left lung is divid$ into ?ree ma9 lobes 7#a-c72 ! two cranial ones 7#a-b7 are1 h[ev]1 p>tly unit$ at ! base1 s t !y may be consid]$ subdivisions ( b a s+le lobe2 ?us ! left lung has b two di/9ctly sep>at$ lobes4 ,ea* lung is atta*$ to ! aorta1 v]tebral column1 & diaphragm by a fold ( pleura1 ! pulmon>y ligam5t4 ,?is is broade/ at ! caudal lobe ( ea* lung4 ,ea* pulmon>y ligam5t is d\ble1 be+ =m$ ( two %eets ( ! pleura4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,,position ,,( ,,?ymus ,,gl&1 ,,f ,,left ,,side4 a1 he>t2 b1 aorta2 c1 sophagus2 d1 ?ymus gl&2 e1 lymphatic gl&2 f1 left subclavian art]y2 g1 int]nal mamm>y art]y4 ,i1 cut ends ( fir/ rib2 ,,xi1 elev5? rib4 ,! ,?yroid ,gl&4 ,gl&ula ?yreoidea 7,fig4 #if1 #f74--,! ?yroid gl& consi/s ( two lat]al lobes 7#f7 & a m$ian lobe or i/hmus 7#g74 ,ea* lat]al lobe 7#f7 is an elongat$1 flatt5$1 lobulat$ mass ) r\nd ends4 ,x is ab\t two c5timet]s long & ab\t "o-f\r? z broad4 ,x lies at ! side ( ! tra*ea 7#d71 dorsad ( ! lat]al m>g9 ( ! /]nohyoid muscle4 ,its cranial end is at ! level ( ! caudal bord] ( ! cricoid c>tilage4 ,! i/hmus 7#g7 is a delicate b& two millimet]s wide :i* connects ! caudal ends ( ! two lat]al lobes4 ,x passes v5trad ( ! tra*ea & 9 close contact ) x4 ,! ?yroid has no duct4 ,! ,?ymus ,gl&4 ,gl&ula ?ymus 7,fig4 #ajg1 d74--,! ?ymus gl& is be/ develop$ 9 "y kitt5s2 9 ! adult cat x has p>tly or almo/ completely deg5]at$4 ,x is an elongat$1 flatt5$ organ1 ( a p9ki%-gray color1 :i* lies 9 ! m$ia/9al cavity1 betwe5 ! two lungs & aga9/ ! /]num4 ,x ext5ds caudad z f> z ! he>t 7a71 ov]ly+ ! p]ic>dium at its po/]ior end4 ,at its cranial end x projects1 :5 well develop$1 a %ort di/ance 7ab\t "o c5timet]7 outside ( ! ?oracic cavity into ! neck region4 ,! caudal end is =k$1 & ! left lobe ?us =m$ is usually l>g] ?an ! "r4 ,! cranial end may also %[ indication ( a division into two lobes1 b ?is is frequ5tly n ! case4 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,urog5ital ,,sy/em4 ,,app>atus ,,urog5italis4 #a4 ,! ,excretory ,organs4 ,,kidney4 ,,r5 7,figs4 #ajh & #aji74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,left ,,kidney1 ,,v5tral ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #aji4--,,m$ian ,,longitud9al ,,section ,,( ,,kidney4 ,fig4 #ajh4--;a1 r5al art]y2 b1 r5al ve92 c1 uret]4 ,fig4 #aji4--;a1 m$ull>y portion2 b1 cortical portion2 c1 papilla2 d1 pelvis2 e1 r5al art]y2 f1 r5al ve92 g1 uret]4 ,! kidneys ( ! cat are compact 7i4e41 n lobulat$7 & h ! usual kidney or bean =m4 ,!y lie 9 ! abdom9al cavity1 "o on ei!r side ( ! v]tebral column1 aga9/ ! dorsal body wall1 9 ! region betwe5 ! ?ird & fif? lumb> v]tebr4 ,! "r kidney is "o or two c5timet]s f>!r craniad ?an ! left1 & ! long axes ( ! two conv]ge craniad a little4 ,ea* is cov]$ by p]itoneum on its v5tral surface only 7i4e41 x is retrop]itoneal74 ,at ! bord] ( ! kidney1 :]e ! p]itoneum passes f x to ! body wall1 !re is an accumulation ( fat1 :i* is mo/ abundant at ! cranial end ( ! kidney4 ,)9 ! p]itoneal inve/m5t ! kidney is enclos$ 9 a special loose fibr\s cov]+1 ! capsule or tunica fibrosa1 :i* is cont9u\s ) ! fibr\s coat ( ! uret] & pelvis4 ,9 ! middle ( ! m$ian bord] ( ea* kidney is a not*1 ! hilus4 ,x gives exit to ! uret] 7,fig4 #ajh1 c7 & r5al ve9s 7b71 & entrance to ! r5al art]y 7a74 ,on ! v5tral surface ( ! kidney )9 ! capsule are se5 grooves radiat+ f ! hilus4 ,!y conta9 blood-vessels4 ,if ! sub/ance ( ! kidney is slic$ away p>allel to ! v5tral surface = "s di/ance 7,fig4 #aji71 !re is expos$ a cavity1 ! s9us1 :i* lies ne> ! m$ial bord] & ! op5+ ( :i* is ! hilus4 ,x conta9s ! pelvis 7d7 7! exp&$ beg9n+ ( ! duct ( ! kidney71 & also r5al vessels 7e & f7 ) _! bran*es4 ,^! /ructures are enclos$ 9 fat1 :i* fills ! rema9d] ( ! s9us4 ,^u op5+ ! pelvis ! kidney sub/ance is se5 to project into x 9 ! =m ( a cone1 ! papilla 7c71 ! apex ( :i* is direct$ m$iad4 ,on ! apex ( ! papilla are ! num]\s op5+s ( ! ur9if]\s collect+-tubes1 "s ( !m op5+ at ! bottom ( an apical depression ( ! papilla4 ,9 a section made p>allel to ! v5tral surface & 9 ! m$ian plane1 ! sub/ance ( ! kidney is se5 to consi/ ( a p]iph]al d>k] & m granul> cortical portion 7,fig4 #aji1 b71 & ( a c5tral1 light]1 less granul> m$ull>y portion 7a74 ,bo? portions are m>k$ by l9es :i* conv]ge to ! apex ( ! papilla 7c74 ,,! ,,uret] 7,fig4 #ajh1 c2 ,figs4 #aaa & #aab1 b74--,! duct ( ! kidney beg9s z ! pelvis 7,fig4 #aji1 d71 a conical sac ! base ( :i* encloses ! base ( ! papilla4 ,f ! apex ( ! papilla ! ur9e passes into ! pelvis4 ,! out] wall ( ! pelvis is cont9u\s ) ! capsule ( ! kidney4 ,at ! hilus ! pelvis n>r[s to =m ! uret] 7,fig4 #aji1 g74 ,! uret] passes caudad 9 a fold ( p]itoneum :i* conta9s fat4 ,ne> its caudal end x passes dorsad ( ! vas def]5s 7,fig4 #aaa1 c71 turns v5trocraniad1 & pi]ces ! dorsal wall ( ! bladd] 7,fig4 #aaa1 a7 obliquely ne> ! neck4 ,on ! inside ( ! bladd] ! op5+s ( ! uret]s appe> z pores ab\t five millimet]s ap>t1 & ea* is surr\nd$ by a :ite1 r+-l elevation ( ! surface4 ,,! ,,bladd]4 ,,vesica ,,ur9>ia4--,! bladd] 7,fig4 #aaa1 a7 is pe>-%ap$4 ,x lies 9 ! abdom9al cavity betwe5 its v5tral wall & ! rectum & a %ort di/ance craniad ( ! pubic symphysis4 ,caudad x is cont9u$ into a r long1 n>r[ neck 7f7 :i* passes dorsad ( ! symphysis to ! pelvic cavity4 ,! bladd] is cov]$ by p]itoneum & is held 9 place by its neck & by ?ree folds ( ! p]itoneum4 ,"o ( ^! passes f its v5tral wall to ! l9ea alba & is ! susp5sory ligam5t4 ,two o!rs pass "o f ea* side ( ! bladd] to ! dorsal body wall at ! sides ( ! rectum4 ,!y are ! lat]al ligam5ts ( ! bladd]4 ,!y =m ! walls ( a p>tly isolat$ p]itoneal pocket into :i* ! rectum passes2 ?is pocket op5s craniad into ! p]itoneal cavity4 ,! wall ( ! bladd] is compos$ ( an int]nal epi!lium1 a lay] ( pla9 muscle-fibre bundles :i* cross "o ano!r 9 v>i\s directions1 & ! ext]nal p]itoneal lay]4 ,,supr>5al ,,bodies4 ,,gl&ul ,,supr>5ales4--,! supr>5al bodies are two ovoid bodies ab\t a c5timet] 9 ! longe/ diamet]1 ly+ craniom$iad ( ! kidneys1 b usually n t\*+ !m4 ,9 a fre% condition !y are ( a p9ki% or yell[ color4 ,!y are usually imb$d$ 9 fat & are cov]$ by p]itoneum on _! v5tral surface4 ,!y h no duct & are ( unc]ta9 function4 #b4 ,! ,g5ital ,organs4 ,a4 ,,! ,,male ,,g5ital ,,organs4 ,ext]nal ,g5ital ,organs4--,! ext]nal g5ital organs are ! scrotum & p5is4 ,! scrotal sac or scrotum is a p\* ( integum5t :i* lies v5trad ( ! anus 9 ! m$ian l9e aga9/ ! is*iatic symphysis4 ,x is m>k$ by a m$ian groove :i* indicates ! position ( an int]nal septum divid+ its cavity into lat]al halves1 )9 ea* ( :i* is "o ( ! te/es4 ,! p5is 7,fig4 #aaa1 l2 ,fig4 #aac1 #f2 see also page #bfb7 lies v5trad ( ! scrotal sac4 ,x projects caudad4 ,x is cov]$ by ! integum5t1 :i* projects at its end z a free fold1 ! prepuce4 ,)9 ! prepuce is ! project+ glans p5is 7,fig4 #aac1 #g74 ,x is conical & be>s on ! v5tral side ( its free end ! op5+ ( ! ure?ra1 ! common ur9og5ital op5+4 ,on ! side on :i* ! ure?ra op5s ! glans is connect$ to ! prepuce by a fold ( integum5t1 ! fr5ulum4 ,! surface ( ! glans is cov]$ ) %>p1 recurv$1 horny papill4 ,! ,scrotum & ,te/es1 & ! ,ducts ( ! ,te/es4--,! scrotum conta9s ! two te/es1 "o 9 ea* ( its comp>tm5ts4 ,ea* te/is lies 9 a div]ticulum ( ! abdom9al cavity1 :i* is l9$ by an ext5sion ( ! p]itoneum4 ,! te/is has ! same relation to ?is p]itoneal div]ticulum t ! inte/9e has to ! abdom9al cavity2 i4e41 x does n lie )9 ! cavity ( ! div]ticulum1 b is susp5d$ app>5tly )9 x by means ( a fold ( its wall :i* acts z a mes5t]y4 ,! p]itoneal div]ticulum is call$ ! tunica vag9alis propria & consi/s ?us ( a p>ietal lay] & a visc]al lay]4 ,! tunica vag9alis propria consi/s ( a sl5d] proximal "p ?r\gh :i* ! blood-vessels pass to ! te/is & ! vas def]5s f x1 & ( an exp&$ di/al "p 9 :i* lies ! te/is4 ,only ! di/al "p lies )9 ! scrotum4 ,! blood-vessels & vas def]5s are susp5d$ 9 ! n>r[ "p ( ! tunica vag9alis propria by means ( a mes5t]ial fold simil> to t :i* susp5ds ! te/is1 & cont9u\s ) x4 ,?is fold & ! blood-vessels & vas def]5s conta9$ )9 x =m ! sp]matic cord 7,fig4 #aaa1 d7 :i* passes f ! abdom5 to ! scrotal sac 9 ! n>r[ "p ( ! tunica vag9alis propria4 ,9 ! =mation ( ! human tunica vag9alis ! v>i\s lay]s ( ! body wall are c>ri$ out by x & =m ! tunics1 or coats ( ! te/is4 ,! "o ( ^! coats next ! tunica vag9alis propria 7:i* is reckon$ z "o ( ! coats7 is ! tunica vag9alis communis 7or fascia propria7 & is =m$ by ! transv]salis fascia4 ,outside ( ! tunica vag9alis communis is ! crema/] muscle1 an incomplete lay] =m$ f ! fibres ( ! int]nal oblique muscle4 ,next is ! crema/]ic 7or int]column>7 fascia f ! aponeurosis ( ! ext]nal oblique muscle1 & outside ( ?is is ! integum5t =m+ ! scrotum4 ,9 ?is integum5t !re is a lay] ( smoo? muscle :i* is sometimes describ$ z ! tunica d>tos4 ,9 ! cat ! tunica d>tos & ! crema/] muscle are want+4 ,! crema/] is replac$ by ! elevator scroti muscle4 ,! coats ( ! te/is are ?us five1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,! scrotum 7! integum5t74 #b4 ,crema/]ic fascia 7subcutane\s fascia74 #c4 ,! levator scroti muscle 7subcutane\s muscle-lay]7 7,fig4 #aac1 j74 #d4 ,tunica vag9alis communis 7transv]salis fascia74 #e4 ,tunica vag9alis propria 7p]itoneum74 ,! tunica vag9alis communis is insep>ably unit$ ) ! p>ietal lay] ( ! tunica vag9alis propria4 ,:]e ! sp]matic cord passes f ! abdom9al wall to ! scrotum x is cov]$ by integum5t & crema/]ic fascia on its v5tral surface only1 b is entirely surr\nd$ by ! tunica vag9alis propria & tunica vag9alis communis4 ,! canal by :i* ! sp]matic cord passes ?r\gh ! body wall is kn[n z ! +u9al canal4 ,! end by :i* x op5s into ! abdom9al cavity is ! int]nal +u9al r+1 & ! opposite end is call$ ! ext]nal +u9al r+4 ,! int]nal +u9al r+ is m]ely ! po9t ( connection betwe5 ! proximal tubul> portion ( ! tunica vag9alis propria & ! abdom9al cavity4 ,x is circul>1 & is situat$ close aga9/ ! lat]al side ( ! lat]al ligam5t ( ! bladd] at its middle4 ,! ext]nal +u9al r+ is an oval op5+ 9 ! aponeurosis ( ins]tion ( ! ext]nal oblique muscle4 ,! aponeurosis ( ?is muscle ends caudally 9 a free bord] along ! cranial edge ( ! pubis1 f ! ilium to ! pubic tub]cle4 ,! ext]nal r+ is j craniad ( ! end ( ?is aponeurosis4 ,! +u9al canal betwe5 ^! r+s lies along ! lat]al bord] ( ! rectus muscle4 ,x is "o to "o & a half c5timet]s long4 ,its m$ial wall re/s on ! rectus muscle2 its dorsal wall on ! fat conta9$ )9 ! lat]al ligam5t ( ! bladd]4 ,! lat]al & v5tral walls lie on ! transv]sus muscle proximally1 on ! int]nal oblique ne> ! di/al end4 ,! wall itself is compos$ ( tunica vag9alis propria & communis4 ,z x passes )9 ! caudal bord] ( ! int]nal oblique muscle x receives "s aponeurotic fibres f x4 ,a ?9 aponeurosis is also cont9u$ f ! bord] ( ! ext]nal r+ onto ! tunica vag9alis propria4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,,te/is4 a1 te/is2 b1 caput epididymis2 c1 epididymis2 d1 cauda epididymis2 e1 vas def]5s2 f1 sp]matic cord4 ,! te/es 7,fig4 #aaj7 are ! organs :i* produce ! sp]matozoa4 ,!y lie "o 9 ea* comp>tm5t ( ! scrotal sac1 envelop$ 9 ! membranes or tunics describ$ :5 treat+ ( ! scrotum4 ,ea* is atta*$ to ! dorsal wall ( its p]itoneal p\* by a mes5t]ic fold4 ,! te/is is surr\nd$ by ! visc]al lay] ( ! tunica vag9alis propria1 & )9 ?is1 by a d5se fibr\s cov]+1 ! tunica albug9ea1 :i* s5ds septa into its int]ior4 ,)9 ! fibr\s cov]+ x is made up ( num]\s coils ( sem9if]\s tubules :i* are readily se5 by ! nak$ eye4 ,! epididymis 7,fig4 #aaj1 c7 is ! beg9n+ ( ! eff]5t duct ( ! te/is4 ,x appe>s z a flat b& ) a broad r\nd$ end :i* lies on ! m$ial surface ( ! te/is at its cranial end 7b74 ,f ?is po9t x passes ab\t ! cranial end ( ! te/is f its m$ial to its lat]al surface1 =m+ ?us a semicircle ) ! convexity v5trad4 ,!nce x passes z a n>r[] b& 7c7 along ! dorsal side ( ! te/is1 lat]ad ( ! susp5d+ mes5t]y1 to ! caudal end ( ! te/is 7d74 ,at ! caudal end ( ! te/is x is enl>g$1 passes f its lat]al to its m$ial surface1 & turns at ! same "t craniad to become cont9u\s ) ! vas def]5s 7e74 ,! enl>g$ cranial end is ! caput epididymis 7b72 ! enl>g$ caudal end ! cauda epididymis 7d74 ,! :ole epididymis is encas$ 9 a t\gh fibr\s cov]+ simil> to t ( ! te/is4 ,! fibr\s cov]+ 7albug9ea7 ( ! te/is & t ( ! epididymis are connect$ by fibr\s tissue4 ,)9 ! fibr\s cov]+ ! head ( ! epididymis is made up ( tubules :i* pass f ! te/is into its end3 ^! are ! vasa eff]5tia te/is4 ,! vasa eff]5tia unite )9 ! caput into a s+le vessel :i* passes 9 a v tortu\s c\rse to ! cauda4 ,its num]\s w9d+s =m ! cauda1 f ! end ( :i* x passes craniad z ! vas def]5s 7e74 ,! vas def]5s 7,fig4 #aaj1 e2 ,fig4 #aaa1 c7 is a sl5d] tube mu* convolut$ at its beg9n+4 ,x passes f ! cauda epididymis 7d7 along ! mes5t]ial fold ( ! te/is on its m$ial side1 to ! sp]matic cord 7,fig4 #aaa1 d74 ,x leaves ! sp]matic cord at ! int]nal +u9al r+ &1 curv+ ov] ! uret] 7,fig4 #aaa1 b71 b5ds craniad & approa*es ! vas def]5s ( ! opposite side dorsad ( ! neck ( ! bladd] 7,fig4 #aaa1 f74 ,! two vasa def]5tia pass caudad toge!r z f> z ! cranial bord] ( ! pubis4 ,!re !y ent] ! pro/ate gl& 7g71 pi]ce ! dorsal wall ( ! neck ( ! bladd]1 & op5 close toge!r on ! inn] surface4 ,! two op5+s are sep>at$ by a slight elevation1 ! v]u montanum4 ,! ,ure?ra 7,fig4 #aaa1 h74--,! ure?ra is ! common ur9og5ital duct :i* is =m$ by ! union ( ! neck ( ! bladd] 7f7 & ! vasa def]5tia 7c7 dorsad ( ! cranial bord] ( ! pubis4 ,x ext5ds !nce to ! end ( ! p5is4 ,x is divid$ into ?ree portions4 #a4 ,! pro/ate portion is ! comm5cem5t ( ! ure?ra2 x is surr\nd$ by ! pro/ate gl& 7g74 #b4 ,! membran\s portion 7h7 ext5ds f ! pro/ate portion to a po9t betwe5 ! crura ( ! p5is4 ,?is portion is surr\nd$ by ! ?ick compressor ure?r muscle1 s t its wall appe>s mu* ?ick] ?an x really is4 #c4 ,! spongy portion 7p>s cav]nosa7 ext5ds along ! v5tral side ( ! p5is to its end 9 ! groove betwe5 ! corpora cav]nosa p5is4 ,at its beg9n+ is an enl>gem5t =m$ by ! bulbocav]nosus muscle4 ,?is is kn[n z ! bulbus ure?r4 ,! walls ( ! spongy portion are ?ick & vascul> & =m ! corpus cav]nosum ure?r or corpus spongiosum4 ,at its end ! corpus cav]nosum ure?r is greatly enl>g$ & =ms ! glans p5is 7m74 ,,gl&s ,,( ,,! ,,ure?ra4--#a4 ,! pro/ate 7,fig4 #aaa1 g7 is a bilob$ gl& ly+ on ! dorsal wall ( ! ure?ra & surr\nd+ ! ends ( ! vasa def]5tia 7c74 ,x op5s into ! ure?ra at its beg9n+ by num]\s small ducts visible to ! nak$ eye on ! inn] surface ( ! ure?ra4 #b4 ,! bulb\re?ral or ,c[p]'s gl&s 7,fig4 #aaa1 i74--,!re are two bulb\re?ral or ,c[p]'s gl&s1 "o on ei!r side ( ! bulbus ( ! ure?ra betwe5 ! is*iocav]nosus & bulbocav]nosus muscles4 ,ea* has a cov]+ ( muscle-fibres d]iv$ f ! neighbor+ bulbocav]nosus 7,fig4 #aac1 l74 ,ea* is said to op5 by a s+le duct into ! ure?ra at ! root ( ! p5is4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--,,male ,,g5ital ,,organs4 a1 bladd]2 b1 b1 uret]s2 c1 vasa def]5tia2 d1 sp]matic cord2 e1 sp]matic art]y & ve92 f1 neck ( bladd]2 g1 pro/ate gl&2 h1 ure?ra2 i1 bulb\re?ral 7or ,c[p]'s7 gl&2 j1 corpus cav]nosum p5is1 cut f is*ium2 k1 is*iocav]nosus muscle 7cut72 l1 p5is2 m1 glans p5is2 n1 te/is4 ,! p5is 7,fig4 #aaa1 l2 ,fig4 #aac1 #f7 is a cyl9drical organ ) ! apex direct$ backw>d4 ,x is cov]$ by integum5t :i* projects at its free end 9 ! =m ( a fold1 ! prepuce 7,fig4 #aac71 :i* en%ea?s ! glans 7,fig4 #aac1 #g7 ( ! p5is4 ,b5ea? ! integum5t is a lay] ( /rong fibr\s subcutane\s fascia cont9u\s ) t ( ! surr\nd+ p>ts4 ,on ! dorsum ( ! p5is a ?9 b& ( fibr\s tissue1 ! ligam5tum susp5sorium p5is1 is cont9u$ f ! middle l9e b5ea? ! pelvic symphysis4 ,?is b& divides di/ally1 & its halves en%ea? ! glans & ?us =m a support ( ! p5is4 ,! p5is is =m$ by ?ree bodies1 ! two corpora cav]nosa p5is & ! s+le corpus cav]nosum ure?r 7corpus spongiosum74 ,! corpora cav]nosa p5is 7,fig4 #aaa1 j74 ,ea* is a cyl9drical %ea? ( d5se fibr\s tissue )9 :i* are trabecul sep>at+ blood-s9uses4 ,ea* corpus cav]nosum is atta*$ by ! "o po9t$ end to ! caudal bord] ( ! ramus ( ! is*ium ne> ! symphysis4 ,f _! atta*m5ts ! corpora cav]nosa approa* "o ano!r1 =m+ ! crura ( ! p5is4 ,!y become closely unit$ by _! m$ial surfaces & pass ?us to ! free end ( ! p5is :]e _! some:at po9t$ di/al ends are imb$d$ 9 ! glans 7m74 ,a groove is left betwe5 ! corpora cav]nosa on ! dorsum ( ! p5is1 & !re is a second groove on ! v5tral side4 ,9 ! latt] groove lies ! ure?ra4 ,! corpus cav]nosum ure?r is ! spongy portion ( ! ure?ra :i* lies 9 ! groove on ! v5tral surface ( ! p5is1 betwe5 ! corpora cav]nosa p5is4 ,x becomes greatly enl>g$ at ! di/al end ( ! p5is1 =m+ ! glans 7m74 ,a small bone 7os p5is7 is imb$d$ 9 ! di/al end ( ! p5is4 ,b4 ,,female ,,g5ital ,,organs 7,fig4 #aab74--,! ur9al organs ( ! female are l ^? ( ! male4 ,! neck 7k7 ( ! bladd] is1 h[ev]1 mu* long]1 ext5d+ almo/ to ! bord] ( ! is*iatic ramus4 ,! ure?ra is consequ5tly %ort4 ,! g5ital organs consi/ ( ! ov>ies 7c7 7! organs :i* produce ! eggs71 ! oviducts or ut]9e tubes 7e7 7,fallopian tubes71 :i* receive ! eggs f ! ov>ies2 a bifid ut]us 7f & i7 9 :i* ! ova und]go _! developm5t1 & a vag9a 7m7 :i* leads f ! ut]us to its junction ) ! neck ( ! bladd]4 ,! neck ( ! bladd] 7k7 unites ) ! vag9a to =m ! urog5ital s9us 7n7 :i* is v %ort1 leads to ! ext]nal op5+1 & is comp>able to ! male ure?ra4 ,v5trad ( ! ext]nal orifice ( ! urog5ital s9us is ! clitoris1 a rudim5t>y /ructure homolog\s ) ! p5is ( ! male4 ,! ,ov>ies 7c74--,! ov>ies lie 9 ! abdom9al cavity 9 ! same longitud9al l9e ) ! kidneys & a %ort di/ance caudad ( !m4 ,ea* is an ovoid body ab\t "o c5timet] long & "o-?ird to "o-half z broad4 ,on its surface are num]\s :iti% project+ vesicles1 ! l>g] ( :i* %[ cle> c5tres4 ,!y are ! ,graafian follicles 7be/ se5 9 section71 :i* conta9 ! eggs4 ,!re may be pres5t "o or m elevations ( ! size ( ! l>ge/ ,graafian follicles1 b ( a bright r$ or br[n color4 ,!y are ! corpora lutea 7s+4 corpus luteum71--,graafian follicles f :i* ! eggs h be5 dis*>g$4 ,! ov>y is held 9 position by ! broad ligam5t ( ! ut]us1 a fold ( ! p]itoneum1 :i* passes "h f ! ut]9e tube to ! adjac5t body wall4 ,! ov>y lies 9 a sort ( a pocket =m$ by ! broad ligam5t4 ,9 ! natural position ! pocket op5s v5trolat]ad4 ,! ov>y is fur!r held 9 position by ! ligam5t ( ! ov>y 7ligam5tum ov>ii71 a %ort ?ick cord :i* passes f ! v5tral face ( ! ov>y at its ut]9e end to ! adjac5t v5tral surface ( ! ut]us4 ,! ,ut]9e ,tubes 7e74--,! ut]9e 7or ,fallopian7 tubes or oviducts are ! tubes :i* convey ! ova f ! ov>y 7c7 to ! ut]us 7f74 ,ea* beg9s ) an exp&$ trumpet-%ap$ op5+1 ! o/ium tub abdom9ale 7d74 ,its walls are ?91 & ! mucosa ( its inn] surface is ?r[n up into undulat+1 radiat+ ridges4 ,! o/ium 7d7 lies on ! lat]al side ( ! ov>y 7c7 at its cranial end1 & ! trumpet p>tly clasps ! ov>y4 ,f ! o/ium ! tube 7e7 turns craniad1 !n m$iad1 & !n caudad1 s z to describe a curve ab\t ! cranial end ( ! ov>y4 ,x !n ext5ds caudad on ! m$iodorsal aspect ( ! ov>y to its junction ) ! ut]9e cornu 7f74 ,x is s9u\s ?r\gh\t its c\rse1 & ! fir/ two-?irds 7! ve/ibulum7 is ( consid]ably great] diamet] ?an ! la/ ?ird4 ,?r\gh\t ! la/ two-?irds ( its c\rse x lies 9 ! free bord] ( ! broad ligam5t4 ,its mucosa is ?r[n into irregul> folds1 mo/ly longitud9al1 & is l9$ by ciliat$ epi!lium4 ,f ! =ego+ description x is se5 t ! ova mu/ pass ?r\gh ! body cavity 9 ord] to rea* ! o/ium tub4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,,female ,,urog5ital ,,organs1 ,,obliquely ,,v5tral ,,view4 a1 kidney2 b1 uret]2 c1 ov>y2 d1 o/ium tub abdom9ale2 e1 ut]9e 7,fallopian7 tube2 f1 cornua ( ! ut]us2 g1 cranial edge ( broad ligam5t2 h1 r\nd ligam5t ( ! ut]us2 i1 body ( ! ut]us2 j1 bladd]2 k1 neck ( ! bladd]2 l1 position ( c]vix ut]i2 m1 vag9a2 n1 urog5ital s9us or ve/ibule1 ) ,m4 ure?ralis2 o1 corpus cav]nosum clitoridis1 ) ,m4 is*iocav]nosus 7cut72 p1 fibres ( ,m4 con/rictor ve/ibuli4 #a1 aorta2 #b1 int]nal sp]matic art]ies2 #c1 ut]9e art]ies2 #d1 ext]nal iliac art]ies2 #e1 hypoga/ric art]ies2 #f1 umbilical art]y2 #g1 inf]ior hemorrhoidal art]y2 #h1 bran*es ( ,n4 pud5dus4 ,! ,ut]us 7f1 i74--,! ut]us consi/s ( a m$ian portion or body 7i7 :i* is unpair$1 & ( two horns or cornua 7f7 :i* ext5d f ! body to ! ut]9e tubes4 ,! body 7i7 ( ! ut]us is a tube ab\t f\r c5timet]s long :i* lies 9 ! abdom9al cavity1 v5trad ( ! rectum & betwe5 x & ! bladd]4 ,its caudal end is at ! level ( ! cranial bord] ( ! pubis4 ,! cranial end ( its cavity is divid$ by a m$ian dorsov5tral p>tition into lat]al halves1 :ile ! cavity ( its caudal portion is unpair$4 ,! mucosa is ?r[n up into l>ge longitud9al folds4 ,at its caudal end ! ut]us projects into ! vag9a 7m71 s t :5 ! vag9a is op5$ ! end ( ! ut]us is se5 project+ into x z a prom95t papilla4 ,! portion ( ! ut]us ?us enclos$ by ! vag9a is ! c]vix ut]i or neck ( ! ut]us4 ,its free end is direct$ v5trocaudad1 & a prom95t ridge is cont9u$ f its caudodorsal side along ! mid-dorsal wall ( ! vag9a4 ,! ut]9e cavity communicates ) ! vag9al cavity by a ,v-%ap$ op5+1 ! os ut]i1 :i* looks v5trocaudad & has its apex direct$ craniov5trad4 ,ea* horn 7f7 ( ! ut]us passes craniolat]ad 9 a ne>ly /raight c\rse f ! body 7i7 to ! ut]9e tube 7e74 ,x n>r[s rapidly & becomes cont9u\s ) ! tube4 ,! mucosa is ?r[n into longitud9al folds4 ,ligam5ts ( ! ,ut]us4--,! ,broad ,ligam5t4--,! ut]us is held 9 place pr9cipally by ! broad ligam5ts4 ,^! are two folds ( ! p]itoneum1 ea* ( :i* is atta*$ to ! :ole l5g? ( "o ( ! cornua & ! adjac5t "p ( ! ut]9e tube & to ! correspond+ lat]al surface ( ! body ( ! ut]us4 ,ea* ligam5t ends craniad 9 a concave free bord]4 ,its atta*$ bord] =ms a curv$ l9e :i* beg9s lat]ad ( ! kidney & ext5ds !nce to ! lat]al ligam5t ( ! bladd]4 ,f ! lat]al ligam5t ( ! bladd] ! broad ligam5t ext5ds caudad into ! rectovesical p\* ( ! p]itoneum1 :i* lies betwe5 ! rectum & ! bladd]4 ,x holds ! body ( ! ut]us to ! lat]al wall ( ?is p\*1 & toge!r ) ! opposite ligam5t & ! body ( ! ut]us =ms ?us a transv]se p>tition1 :i* divides ! rectovesical p\* into dorsal & v5tral portions4 ,! r\nd ligam5t 7h7 is a fibr\s b& :i* ext5ds f a po9t ( ! body wall1 :i* corresponds exactly to ! int]nal +u9al r+ ( ! male1 to ! cornu ( ! ut]us ab\t two c5timet]s f ! cranial end4 ,x is atta*$ to ! broad ligam5t by an int]v5+ fold ( p]itoneum4 ,! ,vag9a 7m74--,! vag9a ext5ds f ! os ut]i 7at l7 dorsad ( ! symphysis ( ! pelvis to a po9t a %ort di/ance craniad ( ! caudal bord] ( ! is*iatic symphysis4 ,at ?is po9t x jo9s ! neck ( ! bladd] 7k7 to =m ! ve/ibulum or urog5ital s9us 7n71 :i* is homolog\s ) ! ure?ra ( ! male4 ,urog5ital ,s9us 7n74--,! urog5ital s9us ext5ds f ! caudal end ( ! vag9a 7m7 to ! ext]nal op5+1 :i* is situat$ v5trad ( ! anal op5+4 ,x is ab\t a c5timet] long & ne>ly z wide1 & is m>k$ (f f ! vag9a by a circul> fold ( mucosa1 :ile its inn] surface pres5ts longitud9al folds4 ,on its v5tral wall at its cranial end is ! op5+ ( ! neck ( ! bladd]1 :i* is enclos$ by a r+-l elevation ( ! mucosa1 mo/ prom95t at ! sides4 ,! ext]nal entrance to ! urog5ital s9us =ms ! vulva4 ,! ,clitoris4--,! clitoris is a m9ute organ homolog\s ) ! p5is & ly+ on ! v5tral floor ( ! urog5ital s9us4 ,its di/al end lies at ! entrance ( ! urog5ital s9us on its v5tral bord]4 ,9 adult specim5s ! prepuce ( ! clitoris appe>s z a slight elevation ( ! integum5t surr\nd+ a c5tral vascul> /ructure :i* appe>s r$ 9 ! fre% organ4 ,f ! clitoris !re are two small corpora cav]nosa clitoridis 7o7 pass+ craniad & !n div]g+ to be atta*$ to ! is*iatic rami4 ,! is*iatic portion ( ea* is cov]$ by a muscle 7is*iocav]nosus74 ,! clitoris is said to conta9 a bone4 ,mamm>y ,gl&s4--,! mamm>y gl&s secrete ! milk1 & lie on ! v5tral surface ( ! body b5ea? ! integum5t4 ,! sep>ate gl&s are closely ga!r$ into two *ief masses1 "o on ea* side ! v5tral middle l9e4 ,ea* ( ^! ext5ds f ab\t ! region ( ! f\r? rib to ! caudal end ( ! abdom51 end+ ov] ! pubic symphysis4 ,on ea* side ! gl&s are ga!r$ into five gr\ps1 ea* ( :i* is furni%$ ) a nipple4 ,! nipple is a projection ( ! integum5t1 hav+ ne> its di/al end num]\s f9e op5+s = ! ducts ( ! gl&s4 ,! fir/ two nipples are on ! ?orax1 ! o!r ?ree on ! abdom51 ! mo/ caudal ones be+ ab\t two or ?ree c5timet]s 9 front ( ! cranial edge ( ! pubis4 ,rudim5t>y mamm>y gl&s & nipples are pres5t 9 ! male4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,urog5ital ,,organs1 ,,rectum1 ,,& ,,anus 7,figs4 #aac & #aad74--,! muscles connect$ ) ! caudal op5+s ( ! alim5t>y canal & ( ! urog5ital organs are closely int]relat$1 a s+le muscle sometimes act+ on p>ts ( bo? sy/ems4 ,= ?is reason all ^! muscles are describ$ toge!r4 ,! region ly+ betwe5 ! anus & ! ext]nal op5+ ( ! urog5ital organs is kn[n z ! p]9eum4 ,! p]9eum is =m$ *iefly by muscles & fascia4 a4 ,muscles common to ! ,male & ,female4--,m4 sph9ct] ani ext]nus 7,fig4 #aac1 i2 ,fig4 #aad1 a74--,?is muscle is conf\nd$ ) ! levator scroti 7,fig4 #aac1 j7 or ! levator vulv 7,fig4 #aad1 b74 ,! two take orig9 9 common f ! integum5t on ! dorsum ( ! root ( ! tail dorsad ( ! fif? caudal v]tebra4 ,!re ! fibres f ! opposite sides are int]m+l$4 ,! common muscle passes v5trad ab\t ! tail z a flat b& close to ! integum5t4 ,dorsad ( ! anus ! inn] fibres ( ! muscles ( ! opposite sides are unit$4 ,!y !n sep>ate & surr\nd ! anus z a b& five millimet]s wide situat$ b5ea? ! integum5t4 ,v5trad ( ! anus ! fibres are aga9 int]m+l$4 ,"s fibres on ea* side !n cont9ue to ! scrotum z ! levator scroti 7,fig4 #aac1 j7 or to ! vulva z ! levator vulv 7,fig4 #aad1 b74 ,fibres also pass onto ! anal p\* & unite ) ! sph9ct] ani int]nus1 =m+ ! con/rictors ( ! anal p\* 7,/rauss-,durckheim74 ,m4 sph9ct] ani int]nus 7,fig4 #aac1 h2 ,fig4 #aad1 c74--,! sph9ct] ani int]nus is a broad & ?ick b& ( /riat$ muscle-fibres :i* surr\nds ! rectum at ! anus4 ,dorsad ! b& is ab\t two c5timet]s broad1 :ile v5trad x is less ?an "o4 ,9 ! v5tral m$ian l9e "s ( ! fibres pass craniad to help 9 =m+ ! bulbocav]nosus muscle4 ,! muscle surr\nds ! anal sac4 7,! muscle "h describ$ "u ?is "n is t describ$ "u ! same "n 9 ! cat by ,/rauss-,durckheim & ,miv>t2 x corresponds1 h[ev]1 to a "p ( ! sph9ct] ani ext]nus ( ! dog1 z describ$ by ,ell5b]g] & ,baum47 ,m4 levator ani 7or pubiocaudalis7 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa74--,?is muscle lies 9 ! pelvic cavity4 ,ea* muscle =ms a ne>ly v]tical %eet1 & betwe5 ! two are ! rectum & ! ure?ra4 ,orig9 f ! symphysis ( ! pelvis4 ,ins]tion into ! midv5tral l9e ( ! c5tra ( ! ?ird1 f\r?1 & fif? caudal v]tebr1 close to ! muscle ( ! opposite side4 ,?is muscle is frequ5tly cont9u\s ) ! iliocaudalis 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa74 ,action4--,b5ds ! tail & compresses ! rectum4 ,m4 is*iocav]nosus 7,fig4 #aac1 m2 ,fig4 #aad1 e74--,a small1 flat1 sp9dle-%ap$ muscle :i* lies ^u ! crus ( ! p5is or clitoris4 ,ea* has ,orig9 f ! caudal bord] ( ! ramus ( ! is*ium1 ab\t "o c5timet] f ! m$ian l9e4 ,ins]tion1 9 ! male1 into ! :ole out] surface ( ! crus p5is1 or bulb ( ! corpus cav]nosum p5is4 ,9 ! female ! muscle is small] ?an 9 ! male1 & ! ins]tion is into ! v5tral surface ( ! urog5ital s9us1 at ! base ( ! clitoris4 ,m4 transv]sus p]9ei 7,fig4 #aad1 i74--,a small bundle ( fibres :i* arises f ! m$ial surface ( ! is*ium1 j dorsad ( ! orig9 ( ! is*iocav]nosus1 & passes m$iad to jo9 ! sph9ct] ani int]nus 7c74 ,m4 caudoanalis 7,s4-,d47 7,fig4 #aac1 f2 ,fig4 #aad1 g74--,a sl5d]1 flat bundle ( fibres hav+ orig9 on ! middle l9e ( ! v5tral surface ( ! second & ?ird caudal v]tebr4 ,x passes caudov5trad1 ly+ betwe5 ! levator ani & ! caudorectal 7,fig4 #aac1 e2 ,fig4 #aad1 j71 & unites ) ! v5tral portion ( ! sph9ct] ani int]nus 7,fig4 #aac1 h74 ,action4--,draws ! anus craniodorsad4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,anus1 ,,urog5ital ,,organs1 ,,& ,,tail ,,9 ,,! ,,male 7,,slightly ,,s*ematic74 ,"o side ( ! pelvis has be5 remov$1 a1 a1 ,m4 ext5sor caud lat]alis2 b1 ,m4 abductor caud ext]nus2 c1 c1 ,m4 flexor caud longus2 d1 ,m4 flexor caud brevis2 e1 ,m4 caudorectalis2 f1 ,m4 caudoanalis2 g1 ,m4 caudocav]nosus2 h1 ,m4 sph9ct] ani int]nus2 i1 ,m4 sph9ct] ani ext]nus2 j1 ,m4 levator scroti2 k1 ,m4 rectocav]nosus2 l1 ,m4 bulbocav]nosus2 m1 ,m4 is*iocav]nosus 7cut72 n1 ,m4 compressor ure?r membranace4 #a1 tail2 #b1 rectum2 #c1 bulb\re?ral or ,c[p]'s gl&2 #d1 pro/ate gl&2 #e1 symphysis pubis2 #f1 p5is2 #g1 glans p5is2 #h1 te/is2 #i1 sp]matic cord4 ,m4 caudorectalis 7,fig4 #aac1 e2 ,fig4 #aad1 j74 ,orig9 f ! v5tral surface ( ! six? & sev5? caudal v]tebr4 ,a small1 at fir/ unpair$ b& two or ?ree millimet]s wide is =m$1 :i* passes craniov5trad1 soon divid+ into two lat]al halves4 ,^! spread out ov] ! sides ( ! rectum1 =m+ a broad %eet ( fibres :i* pass into ! walls ( ! rectum1 among ! transv]se fibres ( ! latt]4 ,?is muscle is cov]$ by ! caudoanalis 7,fig4 #aac1 f71 caudocav]nosus 7g7 7or caudovag9alis1 ,fig4 #aad1 h71 iliocaudalis1 & levator ani4 b4 ,muscles ,peculi> to ! ,male 7,fig4 #aac74--,m4 levator scroti 7j74--,?is is a b& ( fibres :i* passes v5trad 9 ! m$ian l9e f ! sph9ct] ani ext]nus 7i7 onto ! scrotum4 ,"h x spreads out b5ea? ! sk91 =m+ especially a well-m>k$ bundle 9 ! m$ian furr[ betwe5 ! two te/es4 ,m4 rectocav]nosus1 or retractor p5is 7k74--,a small bundle ( fibres :i* arises 9 two p>ts f ! v5tral surface ( ! sph9ct] ani int]nus 7h74 ,! two p>ts unite into a s+le bundle :i* passes caudad on ! middle l9e ( ! v5tral surface ( ! p5is2 x is ins]t$ into ! corpus cav]nosum j proximad ( ! glans4 ,! muscle is cov]$ only by integum5t1 & ov]lies ! is*iocav]nosus 7m74 ,m4 caudocav]nosus 7,s4-,d47 7g74--,a sl5d] bundle j craniad ( ! caudoanalis 7f74 ,orig9 on ! m$ian v5tral l9e ( ! fir/ two caudal v]tebr4 ,! muscle passes caudov5trad1 ly+ betwe5 ! levator ani & ! caudorectal 7e74 ,x divides into two b&s1 "o ( :i* is ins]t$ into ! base ( ! corpus cav]nosum1 :ile ! o!r ext5ds f>!r caudad & is ins]t$ at ! di/al extremity ( ! corpus cav]nosum4 ,action4--,flexes ! p5is 7b5ds x backw>d74 ,m4 bulbocav]nosus 7accel]ator ur97 7l74--,! two muscles cov] ! v5tral surface ( ! p5is4 ,orig9 ( ea* f a m$ian raphe1 :i* passes f ! bulb\s portion ( ! ure?ra t[>d ! anus4 ,! fibres pass t[>d ! di/al end ( ! p5is & h _! ,ins]tion into ! di/al half ( ! lat]al surface ( ! corpus cav]nosum p5is4 ,m4 compressor ure?r membranace 7n74--,a ?ick lay] ( /riat$ muscle-fibres :i* surr\nds ! ure?ra betwe5 ,c[p]'s gl& 7#c7 & ! pro/ate 7#d74 ,! fibres h a circul> c\rse1 & ! cranial ones are atta*$ to ! crura ( ! p5is4 ,! o!r fibres h no fix$ atta*m5t4 c4 ,muscles ,peculi> to ! ,female 7,fig4 #aad74--,m4 levator vulv 7,/rauss-,durckheim71 or con/rictor cunni 7b74--,?is is homolog\s ) ! levator scroti ( ! male4 ,x consi/s ( a b& ( fibres :i* pass v5trad f ! ext]nal sph9ct] ani 7a7 & surr\nd ! vulva 7#c71 ly+ imm$iately b5ea? ! integum5t4 ,m4 con/rictor ve/ibuli1 or rectovag9alis 7,/rauss-,durckheim7 7d74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,anus ,,& ,,urog5ital ,,organs ,,9 ,,! ,,female4 a1 ,m4 sph9ct] ani ext]nus2 b1 ,m4 levator vulv2 c1 ,m4 sph9ct] ani int]nus2 d1 ,m4 con/rictor ve/ibuli2 e1 ,m4 is*iocav]nosus 7cut72 f1 ,m4 ure?ralis2 g1 ,m4 caudoanalis2 h1 ,m4 caudovag9alis2 i1 ,m4 transv]sus p]9ei2 j1 ,m4 caudorectalis4 #a1 ! tail2 #b1 anus2 #c1 vulva2 #d1 rectum2 #e1 vag9a2 #f1 neck ( ! bladd]4 ,orig9 f ! sides ( ! sph9ct] ani int]nus 7c74 ,! muscle =ms a di/9ct bundle two or ?ree millimet]s wide1 :i* passes v5trocaudad & is ins]t$ into ! v5tral surface ( ! urog5ital s9us1 caudad ( ! ins]tion ( ! is*iocav]nosus 7e74 ,m4 caudovag9alis 7,/rauss-,durckheim7 7h74--,a sl5d] b& j craniad ( ! caudoanalis 7g71 & correspond+ to ! caudocav]nosus ( ! male4 ,orig9 f ! m$ian l9e ( ! v5tral surface ( ! fir/ two caudal v]tebr4 ,! muscle passes caudov5trad1 ly+ betwe5 ! levator ani & ! caudorectal 7j71 & is ins]t$ into ! v5tral side ( ! urog5ital s9us1 at ! base ( ! clitoris4 ,m4 ure?ralis 7f74--,?is consi/s ( fibres surr\nd+ ! cranial "p ( ! urog5ital s9us & ! caudal p>ts ( ! vag9a & neck ( ! bladd]4 ,orig9 p>tly on ! caudal "p ( ! symphysis ( ! is*ium1 p>tly f ! v5tral surface ( ! urog5ital s9us1 :]e ! fibres are atta*$ to ! corpora cav]nosa clitoridis4 ,! fibres pass dorsad ov] ! surface ( ! s9us1 & ov] ! surface ( ! union ( ! vag9a & neck ( ! bladd]1 to be ins]t$ into ! sides ( ! vag9a & ! dorsal surface ( ! urog5ital s9us4 ,,! ,,circulatory ,,sy/em4 ,i4 ,,! ,,he>t4 ,,cor4 ,! he>t lies 9 ! m$ia/9um1 enclos$ 9 ! p]ic>dial sac1 & projects r m t[>d ! left ?an t[>d ! "r4 ,x is an ovoid or pe>-%ap$ organ1 ) its long axis direct$ approximately craniocaudad4 ,its caudal end or apex is1 h[ev]1 direct$ slightly v5trad & to ! left1 :ile ! l>g] cranial end or base faces slightly dorsad z well z craniad4 ,lat]ally & dorsally ! he>t is l>gely cov]$ by ! lungs4 ,! v5tral side & a consid]able portion ( ! lat]al surface are1 h[ev]1 n ?us cov]$1 s t !y lie aga9/ ! ?oracic wall4 ,! he>t ext5ds f ab\t ! f\r? or ! fif? to ! eigh? rib1 & its apex t\*es ! diaphragm4 ,! cavity ( ! he>t is divid$ by a longitud9al dorsov5tral septum into lat]al halves--a "r & a left side4 ,ea* side is aga9 divid$ by a transv]se dorsov5tral septum 7auriculov5tricul>7 into two *amb]s1 "o ( :i*1 ! auricle1 lies at ! base2 ! o!r1 ! v5tricle1 lies at ! apex ( ! he>t4 ,!re are ?us "r & left auricles & "r & left v5tricles4 ,an ext]nal groove1 p>tly fill$ ) fat1 sep>ates ! auricul> portion ( ! he>t f ! v5tricul> "p2 ?is groove is kn[n z ! sulcus coron>ius4 ,ea* auricle or v5tricle has a s+le set ( blood-vessels ei!r leav+ x or ent]+ x4 ,?us ! blood ent]s ! "r auricle by ! inf]ior & sup]ior v5 cav 7,fig4 #aaf1 d & e7 7prcava & po/cava74 ,x passes !nce into ! "r v5tricle1 & f ! "r v5tricle to ! lungs by a s+le pulmon>y art]y 7,fig4 #aae1 f74 ,x returns to ! left auricle by ! num]\s pulmon>y ve9s 7,fig4 #aaf1 g1 h1 i71 & passes !nce to ! left v5tricle4 ,f ! left v5tricle x passes to ! body by a s+le aorta 7,fig4 #aae1 g74 ,:5 ! he>t is view$ f ! v5tral surface 7,fig4 #aae71 a consid]able blood-vessel1 ! coron>y art]y 7q71 runn+ f ! base to a po9t a little to ! "r ( ! apex1 indicates ! position ( ! septum 7v5tricul> septum71 betwe5 ! "r 7a7 & left 7b7 v5tricles4 ,! apex ?us belongs to ! left v5tricle4 ,f ! cranial end ( ! "r v5tricle ! pulmon>y art]y 7f7 is se5 pass+ obliquely craniad & t[>d ! left4 ,b5ea? ! pulmon>y art]y ! aorta 7g7 appe>s ris+ f ! middle ( ! base ( ! he>t & pass+ directly craniad4 ,at ! base appe>s a "p ( ! auricul> app5dage ( ! left auricle 7d71 & at ! "r a "p ( ! "r auricul> app5dage 7c74 ,! =m] 7d7 is l>g] & b5t at "r angles1 s t its free end is direct$ t[>d ! apex4 ,9 ! dorsal view 7,fig4 #aaf7 ! position ( ! v5tricul> septum is n indicat$4 ,on ! surface ( ! left v5tricle a %ort di/ance f ! v5tricul> septum & ne>ly p>allel to x are se5 bran*es ( ! coron>y art]y & ! coron>y ve9 pass+ t[>d ! apex4 ,craniad ( ! left v5tricle is se5 ! left auricle 7b7 ) ! pulmon>y ve9s 7g1 h1 i7 op5+ into x4 ,craniad ( ! "r v5tricle 7a7 is ! "r auricle 7c7 ) ! v5 cav 7d & e7 op5+ into x ne> ! middle4 ,com+ f b5ea? ! auricles are se5 ! pulmon>y art]y 7j7 & ! aorta 7f74 ,! *amb]s ( ! he>t4 #a4 ,! "r auricle 7atrium dextrum7 7,figs4 #aae & #aaf1 c74 ,ext]nally ! "r end ( ! "r auricle projects s z to =m its auricul> app5dage 7,fig4 #aae1 c7 :i* lies at ! "r ( ! base ( ! aorta 7,fig4 #aae1 g74 ,! sup]ior v5a cava 7,fig4 #aaf1 e7 is se5 ent]+ ne> ! cranial end ( ! auricul> septum opposite ! base ( ! aorta4 ,! inf]ior v5a cava 7,fig4 #aaf1 d7 ent]s ! auricle ne> ! coron>y s9us & close to ! auricul> septum4 ,! nett$ appe>ance :i* ! wall1 especially t ( ! app5dage1 pres5ts ext]nally is due to ! muscul> ?ick5+s ( ! wall 7musculi pect9ati74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--;,,he>t1 ,,v5tral ,,view4 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,,he>t1 ,,dorsal ,,view4 ,fig4 #aae4--;a1 "r v5tricle2 b1 left v5tricle2 c1 "r auricul> app5dage2 d1 left auricul> app5dage2 e1 conus art]iosus2 f1 pulmon>y art]y2 g1 aortic ar*2 h1 ?oracic aorta2 i1 v5a cava sup]ior2 j1 innom9ate art]y2 k1 left subclavian art]y2 l1 left common c>otid2 m1 "r common c>otid2 n1 "r subclavian2 o1 azygos ve92 p1 ! two innom9ate ve9s2 q1 coron>y art]y4 ,fig4 #aaf4--;a1 "r v5tricle2 b1 left auricle2 c1 "r auricle2 d1 v5a cava inf]ior2 e1 v5a cava sup]ior2 f1 aorta2 g1 h1 i1 gr\ps ( pulmon>y ve9s 7g1 dorsal gr\p2 h1 s9i/ral gr\p2 i1 dextral gr\p72 j1 pulmon>y art]y 7division into two72 k1 innom9ate art]y2 l1 left subclavian2 m1 left common c>otid2 n1 "r common c>otid2 o1 "r subclavian2 p1 azygos ve94 ,! cavity 7includ+ t ( ! auricul> app5dage7 is some:at egg-%ap$1 ) its long axis transv]se4 ,! musculi pect9ati1 :i* bran* & unite into a network1 are mo/ abundant on its dorsal wall at ! "r4 ,! axes ( ! two v5 cav if produc$ into ! cavity ( ! auricle w\ld meet "o ano!r at its c5tre & ne>ly at "r angles4 ,caudad ( ! op5+ ( ! inf]ior v5a cava is se5 ! slit-l op5+ ( ! coron>y s9us1 gu>d$ craniad by ! semilun> valve ( ! coron>y s9us 7or valve ( ,!besius74 ,! coron>y s9us receives blood f coron>y ve9s1 :i* collect x f ! walls ( ! he>t4 ,9 ! auricul> septum v5trad ( ! op5+ ( ! inf]ior v5a cava is se5 a fa9tly m>k$ smoo? oval depression1 ! fossa ovalis4 ,:5 ! auricul> septum is exam9$ by transmitt$ light x is se5 to be ?9n] ov] ! fossa ovalis4 ,!re is an op5+1 =am5 ovale1 at ?is po9t 9 ftal life1 s t ! blood ( ! inf]ior v5a cava !n passes directly f ! "r auricle to ! left auricle4 ,caudad ! cavity ( ! "r auricle communicates ) t ( ! v5tricle by ! l>ge oval auriculov5tricul> op5+1 :i* is gu>d$ by ! tricuspid valves 7,fig4 #aag74 #b4 ,! "r v5tricle 7v5triculus dext]7 7,figs4 #aae & #aaf1 a7 does n rea* q to ! apex ( ! he>t1 s t x makes up less ?an "o-half ( its v5tricul> portion4 ,x makes a half-spiral turn ab\t ! left v5tricle1 f its lat]al side at ! apex t[>d its v5tral side at ! base1 :]e x ends 9 ! pulmon>y art]y 7,fig4 #aae1 e74 ,its wall is v ?9 z comp>$ ) t ( ! left v5tricle4 ,its cavity 7,fig4 #aag7 is ne>ly flat on its m$ial side1 convex on its lat]al side4 ,x communicates ) ! auricle craniodorsad4 ,craniov5trad ! cavity is n>r[] & turns ar\nd t[>d ! v5tral side ( ! he>t & op5s into ! pulmon>y art]y4 ,t portion ( ! v5tricle betwe5 ! auriculov5tricul> op5+ & ! pulmon>y art]y is ! conus art]iosus 7,fig4 #aae1 e2 ,fig4 #aag1 f74 ,int]nally ! wall pres5ts _m muscul> trabecul 7,fig4 #aag1 a7 ( v>i\s sizes4 ,^! are m num]\s ov] ! v5tricul> wall ?an on ! septum4 ,!y d n occur on ! conus 7f74 ,surr\nd+ ! auriculov5tricul> op5+ is ! tricuspid valve 7,fig4 #aag1 d1 d1 d74 ,x consi/s ( ?ree flaps4 ,"o ( ^! 7d7 is septal 7i4e41 x lies aga9/ ! septum71 :ile ( ! two o!rs :i* d n lie aga9/ ! septum1 "o is dorsal 7d7 & ! o!r v5tral4 ,ea* flap is ?91 semicircul>1 & membran\s1 & is atta*$ to ! bord] ( ! auriculov5tricul> op5+ by ! diamet] ( ! semicircle4 ,! free bord] ( ea* is atta*$ to ! wall ( ! he>t by num]\s delicate t5d9\s b&s1 ! *ord t5d9e 7c71 "s ( :i* are atta*$ to ! l[] face ( ea* valve4 ,! *ord t5d9e ( ! septal valve 7or mo/ ( !m7 are atta*$ at _! opposite ends to ! septum directly1 :ile ^? ( ! dorsal & v5tral flaps are atta*$ to ! ends ( ?ree or m b&-l muscles1 column 7or trabecul7 c>ne 7b71 :i* are fix$ by _! opposite ends to ! v5tricul> wall4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--;,,he>t1 ,,) ,,"r ,,v5tricle ,,laid ,,op5 ,,to ,,%[ ,,! ,,tricuspid ,,valve4 a1 trabecul2 b1 column c>ne2 c1 *ord t5d9e2 d1 d1 d1 ! ?ree flaps ( ! tricuspid valve2 e1 aorta2 f1 conus art]iosus1 laid op52 g1 semilun> valves ( ! pulmon>y art]y4 ,betwe5 ! conus art]iosus 7f7 & ! pulmon>y art]y are ?ree pocket-l semilun> valves 7,fig4 #aag1 g71 "o v5tral1 "o dextral1 & "o s9i/ral4 ,betwe5 ea* valve & ! wall ( ! pulmon>y art]y !re is an enl>gem5t ( ! cavity ( ! art]y1 "o ( ! pulmon>y s9uses 7or s9uses ( ,valsalva74 ,beyond ! s9uses ! pulmon>y art]y divides into "r & left bran*es 7,fig4 #aaf1 j74 #c4 ,! left auricle 7atrium s9i/rum7 7,fig4 #aae1 d2 ,fig4 #aaf1 b74 ,! auricul> app5dage 7,fig4 #aae1 d7 is b5t at "r angles & its apex turn$ caudad4 ,! cavity is ?us irregul>4 ,muscul> trabecul occur only 9 ! auricul> app5dage4 ,:5 ! auricul> septum is exam9$ by transmitt$ light ! position ( ! fossa ovalis is indicat$ at ab\t ! middle ( ! septum z se5 f ! left side4 ,v5trad ( x is a fold ( ! septal wall4 ,! pulmon>y ve9s ent] ! dorsal wall ( ! auricle 9 ?ree gr\ps 7,fig4 #aaf1 g1 h1 i74 ,ea* gr\p op5s into a m or less pron\nc$ s9us or ext5sion ( ! auricul> cavity4 ,! s9uses may be call$1 on acc\nt ( _! position1 dorsal 7g71 s9i/ral 7i71 & dextral 7h74 #d4 ,! left v5tricle 7,fig4 #aae1 b7 occupies r m ?an ! left half ( ! base ( ! he>t4 ,its walls are two or ?ree times z ?ick z ^? ( ! "r v5tricle4 ,int]nally its walls pres5t a few muscul> b&s1 comp>able to ! trabecul ( ! left v5tricle4 ,!re are two v l>ge column c>ne1 "o dorsad & "o v5trad4 ,at ! cranial end x communicates ne> ! lat]al wall ) ! left auricle by ! auriculov5tricul> op5+1 & ne> ! septum ) ! aorta4 ,! bicuspid valve 7or mitral valve71 :i* gu>ds ! auriculov5tricul> op5+1 consi/s ( two flaps1 "o septal & "o lat]al4 ,_! *ord t5d9e1 :i* come f _! free bord]s z well z f _! out] surfaces1 are atta*$ to ! column c>ne1 *ord pass+ f bo? valves to ea* columna c>nea4 ,! op5+ into ! aorta is gu>d$ by ?ree aortic semilun> valves1 ea* ( :i* p>tly conceals an aortic s9us 7or s9us ( ,valsalva74 ,"o valve is dorsal1 "o s9i/ral1 & "o dextral4 ,9 ! dextral s9us is ! op5+ ( "o ( ! coron>y art]ies1 :i* c>ry blood to ! walls ( ! he>t4 ,p]ic>dium4 ,! p]ic>dium is a sac enclos+ ! he>t4 ,x lies 9 ! middle m$ia/9um1 & ! two halves ( ! m$ia/9al septum ) _! fat may be dissect$ away f x4 ,its wall is compos$ ( two lay]s1 an ext]nal firm fibr\s lay] & an int]nal lay] ( flatt5$ epi!lial cells simil> to ! p]itoneal epi!lium 7s]\s lay]74 ,! fibr\s lay] =ms a sac :i* repeats r\ghly ! =m ( ! he>t4 ,?is sac is atta*$ to ! aorta at ! po9t ( orig9 ( ! subclavian art]y1 to ! pulmon>y art]y at its bifurcation1 & to ! v5 cav & pulmon>y ve9s ne> _! entrance into ! he>t4 ,at ^! po9ts x is cont9u\s ) ! fibr\s coats ( ! vessels nam$1 & f !m x is reflect$ ov] ! he>t1 =m+ a complete sac enclos+ x b n atta*$ to x any:]e4 ,! he>t lies )9 ?is sac4 ,! s]\s lay] l9es ! fibr\s sac & gives to ! surface ( ! he>t & fibr\s lay] a smoo? gli/5+ appe>ance4 ,x is reflect$ ov] ! he>t4 ,! relation ( ! he>t to x is mu* ! same z ! relation ( ! inte/9e to ! p]itoneal sac4 ,! s]\s lay] consi/s !re=e ( two portions1 p>ietal1 l9+ ! sac1 & visc]al1 cov]+ ! he>t4 ,! p>ietal & visc]al portions are cont9u\s along a l9e :i* runs approximately p>allel to ! auriculov5tricul> groove & encloses all ! great blood-vessels4 ,)9 ?is l9e ! he>t lies aga9/ ! fibr\s lay] ( p]ic>dium & is n cov]$ by ! s]\s lay]4 ,! s]\s lay] is easily dissect$ free f ! he>t-wall1 b its p>ietal portion is closely adh]5t to ! fibr\s lay]4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,art]ies4 ,,art]i4 #a4 ,a4 pulmonalis1 ! ,pulmon>y ,art]y 7,fig4 #aae1 f74 ,! pulmon>y art]y passes craniodorsad & slightly to ! left f ! cranial end ( ! conus art]iosus4 ,"o to "o & a half c5timet]s f ! conus x divides into "r & left bran*es 7,fig4 #aaf1 j74 ,j be=e ! division ! dorsal surface ( ! pulmon>y art]y is connect$ by ! %ort ligam5tum art]iosum1 or ligam5tum ,botalli1 ) ! aorta4 ,?is is ! remnant ( a canal :i* 9 ftal life =ms a free communication betwe5 ! pulmon>y art]y & ! aorta2 ?is canal is kn[n z ! ductus ,botalli4 ,! ligam5t is almo/ or q oblit]at$ 9 ! adult cat4 ,! left bran* ( ! pulmon>y art]y passes to ! left lung1 cross+ v5trad ( ! ?oracic aorta4 ,x !n divides into bran*es :i* pass to ! lobes ( ! left lung4 ,! po9t ( division ( ! left bran* ( ! pulmon>y art]y lies craniad ( all ! lobes ( ! lung1 s t ! lobes ( ! left lung are said to be all hyp>t]ial1 i4e41 bel[ 7or caudad (7 ! art]y4 ,! "r bran* passes "u 7dorsocaudad (7 ! aortic ar*1 & rea*es ! "r lung at ab\t ! junction ( ! cranial lobe ) ! rema9d] ( ! lung4 ,! cranial lobe ( ! "r lung is !re=e said to be ep>t]ial1 s9ce x is craniad ( ! pulmon>y art]y2 ! o!r lobes are hyp>t]ial4 ,! "r bran* divides at its entrance to ! lung & is di/ribut$ to its lobes4 #b4 ,aorta 7,fig4 #aae1 g2 ,fig4 #aah1 a74 ,! aorta is ! s+le great vessel :i* conveys blood f ! left v5tricle4 ,x makes a %>p semicircul> curve dorsad 7,fig4 #aah1 a7 & to ! left1 passes caudad at ! left side ( ! v]tebral column1 & passes betwe5 ! crura ( ! diaphragm to rea* ! abdom9al cavity4 ,x is divisible into ?oracic aorta 7,fig4 #aah7 & abdom9al aorta 7,fig4 #abf74 ,a4 ,?oracic ,aorta 7,fig4 #aah74--,! fir/ portion ( ! ?oracic aorta1 curv$ z above describ$1 is ! aortic ar* 7a74 ,x lies 9 ! ?oracic cavity opposite ! int]val betwe5 ! ?ird & f\r? or f\r? & fif? ribs4 ,x is sep>at$ f ! v]tebral column on ! "r by ! sup]ior v5a cava 7q71 & on ! left by ! sophagus 7#d74 ,at its beg9n+ x lies a little to ! "r ( ! m$ian plane2 b x passes at once to ! left side ( ! v]tebral column4 ,,bran*es ,,( ,,! ,,?oracic ,,aorta4 #a4 ,aa4 coron>i4--,! coron>y art]ies are two4 ,!y arise f ! aortic s9uses4 ,! left "o 7,fig4 #aah1 p7 leaves ! aorta on ! left side1 passes dorsad ( ! pulmon>y art]y1 & divides into two bran*es1 "o ( :i* foll[s ! auriculov5tricul> groove 7sulcus coron>ius7 to ! dorsal side ( ! he>t & s5ds bran*es to ! adjac5t he>t-walls1 :ile ! o!r runs onto ! v5tricles1 foll[+ approximately ! v5tral bord] ( ! v5tricul> septum4 ,! "r coron>y art]y passes 9 ! auriculov5tricul> groove t[>d ! "r & dorsad1 & supplies ! adjac5t walls ( ! he>t4 #b4 ,a4 anonyma 7,fig4 #aae1 j2 ,fig4 #aah1 b74--,! innom9ate art]y passes craniad f ! convexity ( ! aortic ar* 7a74 ,x gives rise fir/ to a small m$ia/9al art]y 7m7 :i* passes v5trad into ! m$ia/9um1 !n to ! left common c>otid 7,fig4 #aae1 l71 !n to ! "r common c>otid 7,fig4 #aae1 m74 ,sometimes ! c>otids are giv5 (f f a common trunk4 ,beyond ! "r common c>otid ! innom9ate is cont9u$ z ! "r subclavian 7,fig4 #aae1 n74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,,vessels ,,( ,,! ,,?orax1 ,,view$ ,,f ,,! ,,left ,,side4 a1 aorta 7a1 aortic ar*72 b1 innom9ate art]y2 c1 left subclavian2 d1 "r subclavian2 e1 "r common c>otid2 f1 left common c>otid2 g1 co/oc]vical axis2 g1 v]tebral art]y2 h1 int]nal mamm>y art]y2 i1 axill>y art]y2 j1 ?yroc]vical axis2 k1 ,a4 transv]sa scapul2 m1 m$ia/9al art]y2 n1 int]co/al art]ies2 o1 sophageal art]ies2 p1 left coron>y art]y2 q1 sup]ior v5a cava2 r1 int]nal mamm>y ve92 s1 ! two innom9ate ve9s2 t1 /]nal art]y2 u1 co/oc]vical ve92 v1 v]tebral ve92 w1 axill>y ve92 x1 ve9 to clavotrapezius & lat]al ends ( ! pectoral muscles2 y1 ve9 accompany+ second bran* ( ,a4 transv]sa scapul2 z1 ?yroc]vical ve94 #a1 ext]nal jugul> ve92 #b1 int]nal jugul> ve92 #c1 v5a cordis magna2 #d1 sophagus2 #e1 ?oracic duct2 #f1 "o ( ! lymphatic ducts f ! neck4 ,i1 fir/ rib 7cut72 ,,viii1 eigh? rib 7cut72 ,,xii1 twelf? rib 7cut74 #c4 ,a4 subclavia s9i/ra 7,fig4 #aae1 k2 ,fig4 #aah1 c74--,! left subclavian passes craniad f ! convexity ( ! aortic ar*4 ,x curves ab\t ! fir/ rib 7,fig4 #aah1 ,i7 to ent] ! armpit1 :]e x becomes ! axill>y art]y 7i74 #d4 ,aa4 int]co/ales 7n74--,! int]co/al art]ies are giv5 (f f ! dorsal side ( ! aorta4 ,ea* passes to an int]co/al space & divides into ?ree bran*es4 ,"o ( ^! passes v5trad along ! caudal m>g9 ( ! cranial "o ( ! two ribs betwe5 :i* x ext5ds4 ,ano!r goes to ! deep muscles ( ! back1 & ! ?ird ent]s ! sp9al canal ?r\gh ! int]v]tebral =am54 ,! art]ies = ! fir/ & second 7& sometimes ! ?ird7 int]co/al space usually arise f ! subclavian 7co/oc]vical axis1 ,fig4 #aah1 g74 #e4 ,aa4 bron*iales4--,! bron*ial art]ies are two1 & arise ei!r f ! aorta opposite ! f\r? int]co/al space or f ! f\r? int]co/al art]ies4 ,!y accompany ! bron*i to ! lungs4 #f4 ,aa4 sophage 7,fig4 #aah1 o74--,! sophageal art]ies are small bran*es ( v>y+ orig9 pass+ to ! sophagus4 #g4 ,aa4 lumbales4--,! lumb> art]ies correspond to ! int]co/als1 b pass (f betwe5 ! lumb> v]tebr4 ,! obliquity ( ! diaphragm ?r[s ! orig9 ( "o or two pairs ( !m )9 ! ?orax4 ,a4 ,,c>otis ,,communis4 ,,! ,,common ,,c>otid ,,art]y4 7,fig4 #aae1 l & m2 ,fig4 #aai1 a74 ,! two common c>otid art]ies arise f ! innom9ate art]y 9 ! mann] already describ$4 ,ea* passes craniad along ! side ( ! tra*ea4 ,9 ! ?orax 7,fig4 #aah1 f7 ! common c>otid lies m$iad ( ! subclavian art]y 7,fig4 #aah1 c7 & dorsad ( ! sup]ior v5a cava 7,fig4 #aah1 q74 ,9 ! neck 7,fig4 #aai7 ! art]y lies1 accompani$ by ! vagus & sympa!tic n]ves & ! int]nal jugul> ve9 7b71 9 ! space betwe5 ! longus capitis muscle 7#g7 & ! tra*ea 7#ad72 x is cov]$ v5trally by ! /]noma/oid & /]no?yroid 7#b7 muscles1 ly+ close to ! lat]al bord] ( ! latt]4 ,ne> its orig9 ! common c>otid may give rise to ! small inf]ior ?yroid art]y4 ,x !n passes to ab\t ! level ( ! l>ynx )\t giv+ (f bran*es2 "h x gives (f ! sup]ior ?yroid 7c7 on ! v5tral side & "o or m muscul> bran*es 7e7 on ! dorsal side4 ,"o or two c5timet]s fur!r craniad x gives (f on ! dorsal side ! int]nal c>otid 7g7 & ! occipital art]y 7f74 ,! ma9 art]y n[ takes ! "n ext]nal c>otid 7m74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--;,,common ,,c>otid ,,art]y ,,& ,,int]nal ,,jugul> ,,ve94 a1 common c>otid art]y2 b1 int]nal jugul> ve92 c1 sup]ior ?yroid art]y2 d1 c]vicalis asc5d5s art]y2 e1 l>ge muscul> bran*es2 f1 occipital art]y2 g1 int]nal c>otid2 h1 bran* to l>ynx2 i1 l+ual art]y2 j1 ext]nal maxill>y2 k1 sup]ior labial2 l1 inf]ior labial2 m1 ext]nal c>otid2 n1 int]nal maxill>y2 o1 po/]ior auricul>2 p1 sup]ficial temporal4 #a1 ,m4 /]nohyoideus2 #b1 ,m4 /]no?yreoideus2 #c1 ,m4 g5iohyoideus2 #d4 ,m g5ioglossus2 #e1 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis m$ius2 #f1 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis inf]ior2 #g1 ,m4 longus capitis2 #h1 ,m4 diga/ricus2 #i1 ,m4 masset]2 #aj1 ,m4 scal5us2 #aa1 ,m4 levator scapul 7cut72 #ab1 ,m4 levator scapul v5tralis 7cut72 #ac1 ,m4 spl5ius2 #ad1 tra*ea4 ,bran*es ( ! common c>otid3 #a4 ,a4 ?yreoidea ima4--,! inf]ior ?yroid is a small art]y :i* arises ei!r f ! common c>otid ne> its orig91 or f ! innom9ate be=e ! orig9 ( ! c>otid4 ,x passes craniad on ! tra*ea z f> z ! ?yroid gl&1 giv+ bran*es to ! tra*ea & sophagus4 #b4 ,a4 ?yreoidea sup]ior 7c74--,! sup]ior ?yroid leaves ! c>otid opposite ! ?yroid c>tilage & passes m$iad & caudad1 s5d+ bran*es to ! ?yroid gl&1 & ! /]no?yroid 7#b7 & /]nohyoid 7#a7 muscles4 ,a small bran*1 ! sup]ior l>yngeal1 passes to ! l>ynx1 & supplies ^? muscles ( ! l>ynx :i* are n enclos$ by ! c>tilages4 #c4 ,rami muscul>es 7e74--,"o or two bran*es1 usually ( consid]able size1 leave ! common c>otid at ab\t ! same level z ! sup]ior ?yroid & pass to ! muscles on ! dorsal side ( ! neck1 ! ma9 trunk ( ! art]y pass+ betwe5 ! longus capitis 7#g7 & scal5us muscles 7#aj74 #d4 ,a4 occipitalis 7f74--,! occipital art]y arises f ! common c>otid at ab\t ! same po9t z ! int]nal c>otid4 ,x imm$iately s5ds a l>ge bran* dorsad1 pass+ betwe5 ,m4 longus capitis 7#g7 & ! v]tebral column1 to ! deep muscles ( ! neck4 ,! occipital !n crosses ! out] surface ( ! diga/ric muscle 7#h7 to ! back ( ! skull1 & runs along ! lambdoidal cre/ j b5ea? ! spl5ius muscle4 ,x s5ds a numb] ( bran*es to ! muscles ( ! back ( ! neck2 & "o ( its bran*es may unite ) ! v]tebral art]y z x lies 9 ! groove on ! atlas1 or ) a bran* ( ! v]tebral4 #e4 ,a4 c>otis int]na 7g74--,! int]nal c>otid art]y is "o ( ! t]m9al bran*es ( ! common c>otid4 ,x is v small4 ,x is giv5 (f ne> or 9 common ) ! occipital art]y1 passes t[>d ! cranial end ( ! tympanic bulla1 ent]s ! bulla ) ! ,eu/a*ian tube1 & passes into ! skull at ! =am5 lac]um4 ,its c\rse is mu* convolut$ be=e ent]+ ! =am54 ,)9 ! skull 7,fig4 #aba1 g7 x jo9s ! po/]ior c]ebral art]y 7,fig4 #aba1 f7 at ! side ( ! hypophysis4 #f4 ,a4 c>otis ext]na 7,fig4 #aai1 m74--,aft] giv+ (f ! int]nal c>otid ! cont9uation ( ! common c>otid art]y receives ! "n ext]nal c>otid 7m74 ,x passes craniad & lat]ad betwe5 ! diga/ric 7#h7 & /yloglossus muscles1 :]e x gives (f craniov5trad ! l+ual art]y 7i7 & a numb] ( small muscul> bran*es2 also sometimes ! small l>yngeal art]y4 ,at ! dorsolat]al bord] ( ! diga/ric 7#h7 x gives (f ! ext]nal maxill>y art]y 7j71 & ab\t "o c5timet] f>!r craniad ! po/]ior auricul> 7o74 ,x n[ turns m$iad1 ly+ aga9/ ! c>tilag9\s auditory meatus1 on its cranial side1 & gives (f ! sup]ficial temporal 7p74 ,! art]y !n cont9ues m$iad1 tak+ ! "n int]nal maxill>y 7n7--s t ! int]nal maxill>y art]y is to be consid]$ ! t]m9al bran* ( ! ext]nal c>otid4 ,bran*es ( ! ext]nal c>otid art]y 7,fig4 #aai73 a4 ,a4 l+ualis 7,fig4 #aai1 i2 ,fig4 #abj1 d74--,! l+ual art]y leaves ! ext]nal c>otid ne> its beg9n+ & passes craniom$iad along ! v5tral bord] ( ! diga/ric muscle 7,fig4 #abj1 #i71 accompani$ by ! hypoglossal n]ve4 ,x gives (f num]\s small bran*es to ! hyoid & ph>yngeal muscles1 !n passes dorsad ( ! hyoglossus muscle 7,fig4 #abj1 #f71 :]e x gives (f a bran* :i* passes transv]sely across ! middle l9e to communicate ) ! art]y ( ! o!r side4 ,b5ea? ! hyoglossus ! art]y turns craniad & passes into ! tongue4 ,"h x runs along ! m$ial bord] ( ! /yloglossus to ! tip ( ! tongue1 giv+ (f num]\s bran*es into ! sub/ance ( ?is organ4 b4 ,rami muscul>es4--,muscul> bran*es pass to ! diga/ric & to ! hyoid muscles4 ,a small bran* 7,fig4 #aai1 h71 :i* may arise ei!r f ! ext]nal c>otid or f ! common c>otid ne> ! beg9n+ ( ! ext]nal c>otid1 passes to ! l>ynx & supplies ! ?yro>yt5oid & lat]al crico>yt5oid muscles ( ! l>ynx4 c4 ,a4 maxill>is ext]na 7,fig4 #aai1 j74--,! ext]nal maxill>y art]y leaves ! ext]nal c>otid 7m7 opposite ! angle ( ! jaw & at ab\t ! dorsal bord] ( ! diga/ric muscle 7#h74 ,x passes craniad1 ly+ at fir/ b5ea? ! diga/ric muscle & s5d+ a bran* to ! submaxill>y gl&4 ,opposite ! caudal bord] ( ! mylohyoid muscle x gives (f ! subm5tal art]y1 turns dorsad1 em]ges f b5ea? ! diga/ric1 & passes along ! cranial bord] ( ! masset] onto ! face4 ,"h x divides into sup]ior 7k7 & inf]ior 7l7 labial bran*es1 :i* pass along ! upp] & l[] lips1 respectively1 giv+ (f num]\s bran*es4 ,! subm5tal art]y passes to ! symphysis m5ti betwe5 ! diga/ric & mylohyoid muscles1 giv+ (f on its c\rse collat]al bran*es to ! muscles ( ?is region4 d4 ,a4 auricul>is po/]ior 7,fig4 #aai1 o74--,! po/]ior auricul> leaves ! ext]nal c>otid 7m7 opposite ! middle ( ! bulla tympani & b5ea? ! submaxill>y gl&4 ,x passes ab\t ! base ( ! e> on its caudal & dorsal sides outside ( ! deep muscles ( ! occipital region1 b b5ea? ! auricul> muscles1 & s5ds sev]al bran*es to ! muscles ( ! ext]nal e>1 pass+ onto ! caudal surface ( ! con*a4 ,x s5ds also a l>ge bran* m$iad to ! muscles ( ! occiput1 especially to ! temporal muscle1 )9 :i* x ramifies4 ,a l>ge bran* 7ant]ior auricul>1 ,fig4 #aca1 u7 passes f ! caudal side ( ! con*a craniodorsad1 & appe>s on ! cranial side ( ! ext]nal e>1 runn+ along ! cranial m>g9 ( ! auditory op5+4 e4 ,a4 temporalis sup]ficialis 7,fig4 #aai1 p2 ,fig4 #abj1 h74--,! sup]ficial temporal art]y arises f ! ext]nal c>otid z ! latt] lies betwe5 ! c>tilag9\s auditory meatus & ! caudal bord] ( ! masset] muscle4 ,x passes dorsad & gives (f soon aft] its orig9 a muscul> bran* to ! masset]1 & an auricul> bran* :i* passes di/ad along ! con*a auris & ramifies ov] its cranial surface4 ,! sup]ficial temporal itself passes onto ! surface ( ! temporal muscle 7,fig4 #abj1 #aa71 to :i* x gives num]\s bran*es4 ,x ext5ds to ! caudal angle ( ! eye 7,fig4 #aca1 s71 :]e x divides4 ,"o bran* passes into ! l[] eyelid2 ! l>g] bran* passes along ! dorsal side ( ! eye1 s5d+ a bran* into ! orbit & small bran*es onto ! dorsal surface ( ! nose4 f4 ,a4 maxill>is int]na 7,fig4 #aai1 n2 ,fig4 #abj1 i74--,! int]nal maxill>y art]y is ! cont9uation ( ! ext]nal c>otid4 ,x turns caudad at ! caudal end ( ! m&ible1 !n passes craniad1 ly+ dorsad ( ! pt]ygoid muscles 7,fig4 #abj1 #aj71 & aga9/ ! m$ial surface ( ! m&ible4 ,x gives (f ! inf]ior alveol> art]y 7,fig4 #abj1 j71 !n ! middle m5+eal 7k71 & !n cont9u+ m$iad divides into ?ree or f\r bran*es4 ,! bran*es r$ivide1 & ! twigs =m a complicat$ plexus1 ! c>otid plexus 7,fig4 #abj1 l71 :i* surr\nds ! maxill>y division ( ! fif? n]ve ne> its exit f ! =am5 rotundum4 ,"o ( ! l>g] bran*es ( ! plexus ent]s ! skull ?r\gh ! orbital fissure1 ly+ beside ! hypophysis2 x divides 9 ! mann] describ$ bel[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--;,,bran*es ,,( ,,ext]nal ,,c>otid ,,art]y4 a1 common c>otid2 b1 bran* to l>ynx2 c1 int]nal c>otid2 d1 l+ual2 e1 ext]nal c>otid2 f1 po/]ior auricul>2 g1 ext]nal maxill>y2 h1 sup]ficial temporal2 i1 int]nal maxill>y2 j1 inf]ior alveol>2 k1 middle m5+eal2 l1 c>otid plexus2 m1 bran* to temporal muscle2 n1 oph?almic2 o1 infraorbital2 p1 less] palat9e4 #a1 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis inf]ior2 #b1 ,m4 /]no?yreoideus2 #c1 ,m4 /]nohyoideus2 #d1 ,m4 ?yreohyoideus2 #e1 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis m$ius2 #f1 ,m4 hyoglossus2 #g1 ,m4 g5iohyoideus2 #h1 ,m4 g5ioglossus2 #i1 ,m4 diga/ricus2 #aj1 ,mm4 pt]ygoidei ext]nus & int]nus 7cut72 #aa1 ,m4 temporalis 7cut74 ,beyond ! c>otid plexus a ma9 trunk :i* may be consid]$ ! cont9uation ( ! int]nal maxill>y passes craniad1 ly+ on ! dorsal surface ( ! ext]nal pt]ygoid muscle2 ne>ly opposite ! mol> too? x divides into ! infraorbital 7,fig4 #abj1 o7 & ! sph5opalat9e art]ies4 ,bran*es ( ! int]nal maxill>y art]y & ( ! c>otid plexus3 #a4 ,a4 alveol>is inf]ior 7,fig4 #abj1 j74--,! inf]ior alveol> 7or inf]ior d5tal7 art]y leaves ! inf]ior maxill>y j opposite ! condyloid process ( ! m&ible4 ,x ent]s ! m&ibul> canal by ! m&ibul> =am51 along ) ! n]ve ( ! same "n1 & trav]ses ! canal1 furni%+ bran*es to ! l[] tee?4 ,x em]ges at ! m5tal =am51 & its t]m9al bran*es are di/ribut$ to ! *91 b a bran* is cont9u$ 9 ! bone beyond ! m5tal =am5 & supplies ! incisor & can9e tee? ( ! l[] jaw4 #b4 ,a4 m5+ea m$ia 7,fig4 #abj1 k74--,! middle m5+eal is a l>ge vessel :i* leaves ! int]nal maxill>y at ab\t ! same level z ! inf]ior alveol>4 ,x passes into ! =am5 ovale & ramifies 9 ! dura mat]4 ,its bran*es leave di/9ct impressions on ! inn] surface ( ! bones ( ! skull4 #c4 ,a l>ge bran* 7,fig4 #aba1 h7 f ! plexus passes into ! cranial cavity ?r\gh ! orbital fissure & lies )9 ! skull at ! side ( ! hypophysis4 ,x gives (f ! foll[+ bran*es3 a4 ,a po/]ior communicat+ bran*1 v %ort1 :i* ext5ds caudad & jo9s ! int]nal c>otid art]y 7,fig4 #aba1 g74 b4 ,a4 c]ebri m$ia 7,fig4 #aba1 i74--,! middle c]ebral art]y passes dorsad on ! side ( ! c]ebral hemisph]e along ! fissure ( ,sylvius & divides into num]\s bran*es :i* are di/ribut$ to ! surface ( ! c]ebrum4 c4 ,a4 c]ebri ant]ior 7,fig4 #aba1 j7 ,passes dorsad betwe5 ! c]ebral hemisph]es4 ,j craniad ( ! optic *iasma ! two ant]ior c]ebral art]ies are unit$ by a small communicat+ bran*1 ?us complet+ ! circulus art]iosus or circle ( ,willis 7,fig4 #aba71 surr\nd+ ! hypophysis 7see page #bib74 #d4 ,f ! c>otid plexus sev]al bran*es pass1 aris+ ei!r sep>ately or 9 common1 to ! masset]1 temporal1 & pt]ygoid muscles4 #e4 ,a4 oph?almica 7,fig4 #abj1 n74--,! oph?almic art]y passes f ! c>otid plexus to ! /ructures 9 ! orbit4 ,x gives (f num]\s bran*es :i* supply ! muscles ( ! eyeball1 & o!r /ructures ( ?is region4 ,x s5ds an e?moidal bran* into ! nasal cavity ?r\gh ! e?moidal =am5 9 ! orbital plate ( ! frontal bone1 !n cont9ues di/ad to em]ge f ! orbit on ! m$ial side ( ! eye2 "h x ana/omoses ) bran*es ( ! sup]ficial temporal4 #f4 ,a4 palat9a m9or 7,fig4 #abj1 p74--,! less] palat9e art]y leaves ! int]nal maxill>y di/ad ( ! c>otid plexus1 ne> ! caudal bord] ( ! maxill>y bone4 ,x passes v5trocaudad into ! s(t palate4 #g4 ,a4 sph5opalat9a4--,! sph5opalat9e is "o ( ! t]m9al bran*es ( ! int]nal maxill>y2 x passes m$iad ?r\gh ! sph5opalat9e =am5 into ! nasal cavity1 & divides into num]\s bran*es :i* supply ! muc\s membrane ( ! nose4 ,x gives (f j be=e x ent]s ! sph5opalat9e =am5 ! desc5d+ palat9e 7,a4 palat9a desc5d5s71 :i* passes into ! po/]ior palat9e canal & em]ges on ! surface ( ! h>d palate1 :]e x ramifies4 #h4 ,a4 infraorbitalis 7,fig4 #abj1 o74--,! infraorbital art]y is a direct cont9uation craniad ( ! int]nal maxill>y4 ,x s5ds (f num]\s small bran*es to ! tee? ( ! upp] jaw1 & a r l>ge bran* :i* passes to ! l[] eyelid4 ,x !n ent]s ! infraorbital =am51 at ! same "t divid+ usually into two or ?ree bran*es2 ^! em]ge f ! =am5 & supply ! p>ts ( ! nose & upp] lip adjac5t to ! =am5 7,fig4 #aca1 r74 ,a4 ,,subclavia4 ,,! ,,subclavian ,,art]y4 ,! left subclavian 7,fig4 #aah1 c7 arises f ! convexity ( ! aortic ar* j di/ad ( ! orig9 ( ! innom9ate art]y1 & ab\t two or ?ree c5timet]s f ! he>t4 ,x passes craniad & slightly to ! left1 & turns into ! left arm j craniad ( ! fir/ rib4 ,! "r subclavian 7,fig4 #aae1 n7 is a direct cont9uation ( ! innom9ate1 ! art]y receiv+ ! "n subclavian aft] ! "r common c>otid is giv5 (f1 usually at ab\t ! level ( ! second or ?ird int]co/al space4 ,! subclavian has ! foll[+ bran*es3 ! v]tebral art]y 7,fig4 #aah1 g71 ! int]nal mamm>y 7,fig4 #aah1 h71 ! co/oc]vical axis 7,fig4 #aah1 g71 ! ?yroc]vical axis 7,fig4 #aah1 j74 ,beyond ! la/-nam$ bran* x cont9ues into ! arm z ! axill>y art]y 7,fig4 #aah1 i2 ,fig4 #abb1 g74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--;,,art]ies ,,( ,,! ,,v5tral ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,bra94 a1 ,a4 v]tebralis2 b1 ,a4 sp9alis ant]ior2 c1 ,a4 basil>is2 d1 ,a4 c]ebelli inf]ior po/]ior2 e1 ,a4 c]ebelli ant]ior2 f1 ,a4 c]ebri po/]ior2 g1 cut ends ( ! two int]nal c>otid art]ies2 h1 cut ends ( bran*es f ! c>otid plexus 7g & h are plac$ )9 ! circulus art]iosus or circle ( ,willis72 i1 ,a4 c]ebri m$ia2 j1 ,a4 c]ebri ant]ior4 a4 ,a4 v]tebralis 7,fig4 #aah1 g74--,! v]tebral art]y arises f ! dorsal surface ( ! subclavian opposite ! fir/ rib4 ,x passes craniad & dorsad at ! side ( ! ?oracic portion ( ! longus colli muscle1 & ent]s ! =am5 transv]s>ium ( ! six? c]vical v]tebra4 ,x passes !nce craniad ?r\gh ! =am9a transv]s>ia 7:i* toge!r =m ! v]tebr>t]ial canal7 & gives (f at ! int]v]tebral =am9a bran*es to ! muscles ( ! neck & bran*es :i* pass across ! v5tral surface ( ! sp9al cord to jo9 ,a4 sp9alis ant]ior4 ,craniad ( ! =am5 transv]s>ium ( ! atlas ! v]tebral art]y turns dorsad 9 ! groove on ! lat]al surface ( ! atlas4 ,"h x gives (f a l>ge bran* :i* passes lat]odorsad to ! muscles ( ! neck & may ana/omose ) a bran* ( ! occipital art]y4 ,! v]tebral art]y !n passes into ! v]tebral canal ?r\gh ! atlantal =am54 ,x passes to ! v5tral side ( ! sp9al cord & unites at ab\t ! level ( ! =am5 magnum ) ! v]tebral art]y ( ! opposite side 7,fig4 #aba1 a7 to =m ! basil> art]y 7,a4 basil>is7 7,fig4 #aba1 c71 :i* passes craniad along ! v5tral middle l9e ( ! bra94 ,j be=e _! union ! two v]tebral art]ies 7a7 give (f ea* a bran* :i* passes caudom$iad4 ,^! two bran*es soon unite 9 ! middle l9e1 =m+ ! ant]ior sp9al art]y 7,a4 sp9alis ant]ior7 7b71 :i* passes caudad ! entire l5g? ( ! sp9al cord1 ly+ on its v5tral middle l9e & receiv+ _m communicat+ bran*es f ! v]tebral1 int]co/al1 & lumb> art]ies4 ,a4 basil>is 7c74--,?is arises by ! union ( ! two v]tebral art]ies 9 ! mann] j describ$4 ,x passes craniad along ! v5tral middle l9e ( ! m$ulla & pons1 giv+ num]\s small bran*es to ^! /ructures4 ,a l>ge bran*1 ,a4 c]ebelli inf]ior po/]ior 7d71 passes on ea* side to ! caudal surface ( ! c]ebellum1 on :i* x ramifies4 ,at ! cranial m>g9 ( ! pons ! basil> art]y divides4 ,f ea* division a v l>ge bran* passes on ea* side across ! p$unculi c]ebri to ! cranial "p ( ! c]ebellum2 ?is is ,a4 c]ebelli ant]ior 7e74 ,j craniad ( ?is1 aris+ f ne>ly ! same po9t1 ! small] ,a4 c]ebri po/]ior 7f7 passes lat]ad to ! caudal "p ( ! c]ebrum2 x is jo9$ by ! int]nal c>otid art]y 7g74 ,! small cont9uations ( ! two halves ( ,a4 basil>is !n pass craniad at ! side ( ! hypophysis to jo9 ! po/]ior communicat+ bran*es f ! c>otid plexus4 ,z o!r bran*es ( ! c>otid plexus unite across ! middle l9e craniad ( ! optic *iasma1 an art]ial circle is =m$ on ! base ( ! bra91 surr\nd+ ! hypophysis & ! optic *iasma4 ,?is is kn[n z ! circulus art]iosus1 or circle ( ,willis 7see page #bhi74 b4 ,a4 mamm>ia int]na 7,fig4 #aah1 h74--,! int]nal mamm>y art]y rises f ! v5tral surface ( ! subclavian opposite ! fir/ rib1 & passes 9 ! m$ia/9um v5trocaudad to rea* ! /]num opposite ! ?ird int]co/al space4 ,x s5ds two or ?ree small bran*es craniad to ! midv5tral "p ( ! ?oracic wall & !n ext5ds caudad at ! side ( ! /]num4 ,x s5ds (f lat]al bran*es to ! v5tral ?oracic wall1 bran*es to ! m$ia/9um & p]ic>dium1 a bran* to ! diaphragm :i* ana/omoses ) ! phr5ic2 & f9ally x passes out ( ! ?oracic cavity caudad ( ! la/ co/al c>tilage1 ext5ds caudad 9 a zigzag c\rse at ! lat]al bord] ( ! rectus muscle & ana/omoses ) ! inf]ior epiga/ric art]y4 c4 ,truncus co/oc]vicalis 7,fig4 #aah1 g74--,! co/oc]vical axis arises f ! subclavian opposite ! fir/ rib1 passes craniodorsad1 & divides almo/ at once into two bran*es4 ,! small] "o ( ^!1 ! sup]ior int]co/al 7,a4 int]co/alis suprema71 passes caudad &1 divid+1 supplies ! fir/ & second int]co/al spaces1 & !n passes to ! deep muscles ( ! back4 ,! o!r bran* divides almo/ imm$iately into two4 ,"o ( ^!1 ,a4 transv]sa colli1 passes lat]ad 9 front ( ! fir/ rib & ent]s ! s]ratus ant]ior muscle4 ,9 ?is x passes dorsad1 giv+ (f bran*es to ?is muscle & to ! levator scapul1 till x rea*es ,m4 rhomboideus1 :i* x likewise supplies4 ,! o!r bran* 7,a4 c]vicalis pr(unda71 :i* seems to =m a cont9uation ( ! ma9 art]y1 passes directly dorsad & leaves ! ?oracic cavity betwe5 ! heads ( ! fir/ & second ribs4 ,"h x passes into ! deep muscles ( ! neck2 x c be trac$ 9 ! sub/ance ( ! complexus muscle z f> =w>d z ! atlas4 d4 ,truncus ?yroc]vicalis 7,fig4 #aah1 j74--,! ?yroc]vical axis 7or ?yroid axis7 arises f ! subclavian b5ea? ! fir/ rib1 a %ort di/ance di/ad ( ! orig9 ( ! co/oc]vical axis4 ,x passes lat]ocraniad & dorsad1 ly+ on ! m$iocranial side ( ! bra*ial plexus4 ,a %ort di/ance f its orig9 x gives (f a bran*1 v>y+ mu* 9 size1 ! c]vicalis asc5d5s 7,fig4 #aai1 d71 :i* passes craniad on ! v5tral side ( ! neck1 supply+ ! /]noma/oid1 /]nohyoid1 ! c]vical portion ( ! scal5us1 & sometimes o!r muscles ( ! neck region4 ,o!r bran*es pass f ! ?yroid axis to ! inn] surface ( ! clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #abb1 a7 & to ! v5tral end ( ! pectoral muscles4 ,at ! level ( ! cranial bord] ( ! scapula ! art]y takes ! "n ,a4 transv]sa scapul1 or suprascapul>is4 ,?is divides into ?ree ma9 bran*es4 ,! fir/ bran*1 sometimes l>ge1 sometimes small1 passes to ! lymphatic gl& 9 ! holl[ ( ! %\ld]1 & to ! adjac5t muscles2 x supplies ! clavotrapezius1 acromiotrapezius1 levator scapul v5tralis1 spl5ius1 occipitoscapul>is1 & rhomboideus4 ,a second bran* passes betwe5 ! subscapul>is & suprasp9atus muscles1 divid+ into v>i\s bran*es :i* supply ! muscles nam$4 ,! ?ird bran* pi]ces ! suprasp9atus muscle1 j craniad ( ! acromion process1 & ramifies 9 t muscle4 e4 ,a4 axill>is 7,fig4 #abb1 g74--,! axill>y art]y is ! cont9uation ( ! subclavian lat]ad ( ! fir/ rib4 ,x lies caudad ( ! bra*ial plexus & p>allel to x4 ,x s5ds (f ! foll[+ bran*es3 #a4 ,a4 ?oracica ant]ior 7,fig4 #abb1 h74--,! ant]ior ?oracic is a sl5d] art]y :i* leaves ! v5tral side ( ! axill>y opposite ! fir/ rib & passes caudom$iad1 to supply ! m$ial ends ( ! pectoral muscles 7g74 #b4 ,a4 ?oracica longa 7p74--,! long ?oracic art]y is l>g] ?an ! prec$+1 leaves ! axill>y a %ort di/ance lat]ad ( x1 & passes caudad to ! middle portions ( ! pectoral muscles 7#h7 & cont9ues to ! inn] surface ( ! latissimus dorsi4 ,a %ort di/ance beyond ! long ?oracic ! axill>y divides into two4 ,! m cranial "o ( ^! is ! subscapul> 7l72 ! o!r is ! bra*ial 7g74 #c4 ,a4 subscapul>is 7l74--,! subscapul> art]y passes lat]ad & gives (f a %ort di/ance f its orig9 ! ,a4 ?oracicodorsalis 7t7 & ,a4 circumflexa hum]i po/]ior 7see bel[72 x may also give rise to ! circumflexa ant]ior hum]i 7l71 & to ! pr(unda bra*ii 7u72 ^! two bran*es1 h[ev]1 rise m frequ5tly f ! bra*ial art]y 7g7 & are describ$ 9 connection ) x4 ,! subscapul> art]y !n passes ?r\gh ! triangul> int]val betwe5 ! scapul> end ( ! long head ( ! triceps1 ! latissimus dorsi1 & ! gl5oid bord] ( ! scapula4 ,)9 ?is int]val x s5ds muscul> bran*es to ! long head ( ! triceps1 ! subscapul>is1 & ! latissimus dorsi4 ,t to ! latt] muscle is v l>ge4 ,at ! bord] ( ! scapula1 opposite ! tub]osity ( ! sp9e1 x turns craniad1 passes ov] ! lat]al surface ( ! infrasp9atus muscle1 supply+ x2 crosses ! sp9e1 & s5ds bran*es into ! suprasp9atus fossa 9 bo? directions p>allel to ! scapul> sp9e4 ,^! supply ! suprasp9atus1 acromiotrapezius1 & sp9otrapezius1 & ana/omose ) ! bran*es ( ! transv]sa scapul4 ,z ! subscapul>is turns craniad onto ! surface ( ! infrasp9atus x s5ds dorsad a small bran*1 ! circumflexa scapul1 :i* passes 9 ! infrasp9atus fossa close to its gl5oid bord] z f> z ! gl5ov]tebral angle1 supply+ ! infrasp9atus & latissimus dorsi by lat]al bran*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--;,,blood-,,vessels ,,& ,,! ,,m ,,v5tral ,,n]ves ,,( ,,! ,,axilla1 ,,v5tral ,,view4 ,! pectoral & clavobra*ial muscles h be5 cut & laid aside1 _! ends be+ %[n2 only a "p ( ! n]ves are exhibit$4 #a1 ,m4 clavobra*ialis2 #b1 cut end ( ,m4 pectoralis major2 #c1 cut end ( ,m4 pectoralis m9or2 #d1 ,m4 biceps2 #e1 ,m4 t]es major2 #f1 ,m4 epitro*le>is1 p>tly cut & turn$ back2 #g1 ,m4 latissimus dorsi1 p>tly cut2 #h1 ,m4 pectoralis m9or2 #i1 ,m4 pectoralis major2 #aj1 %ort portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii4 a1 bran*es ( ! ?yroc]vical axis to clavobra*ial & clavotrapezius muscles2 b1 suprascapul> n]ve2 c1 fir/ subscapul> n]ve2 d1 musculocutane\s n]ve2 e1 m$ian n]ve2 f1 ,v4 axill>is2 f1 ,v4 bra*ialis2 g1 ,a4 axill>is2 g1 ,a4 bra*ialis2 h1 fir/ ant]ior ?oracic n]ve1 accompani$ by ! ant]ior ?oracic art]y & ve92 i1 ,v4 subscapul>is2 j1 l>ge muscul> bran* 7to subscapul> muscle7 ( ! subscapul> ve9 & bra*ial art]y2 l1 ,a4 subscapul>is2 l1 ,a4 circumflexa hum]i ant]ior2 m1 radial n]ve2 n1 uln> n]ve2 o1 m$ial cutane\s n]ve2 p1 ,a4 ?oracica longa2 q1 r1 second ant]ior ?oracic n]ve2 s1 ,v4 longa ?oracica2 t1 ,a4 & ,v4 ?oracicodorsalis2 u1 ,a4 pr(unda bra*ii2 v1 bran* ( bra*ial art]y accompany+ m$ial cutane\s n]ve2 w1 bran* ( ,a4 collat]alis radialis sup]ior2 x1 ,a4 collat]alis radialis sup]ior2 y1 ,v4 m$iana cubiti2 z1 ,a4 collat]alis uln>is4 ,a4 ?oracicodorsalis 7t74--,?is arises f ! subscapul> a %ort di/ance f its orig9 & passes across ! t]es major to ! latissimus dorsi 7#g71 giv+ bran*es to bo? ^! muscles & to ! epitro*le>is4 ,a4 circumflexa hum]i po/]ior4--,! po/]ior circumflex art]y arises f ! ,a4 subscapul>is close to ! orig9 ( ! latt]4 ,x passes betwe5 ! subscapul>is muscle & ! t]es major1 close to ! bord] ( ! biceps1 !n betwe5 ! lat]al & long heads ( ! triceps4 ,x gives (f a bran* to ! inn] surface ( ! sp9odeltoid & acromiodeltoid1 !n passes di/ad to supply ! lat]al & long heads ( ! triceps4 #d4 ,a4 bra*ialis 7g74--,! bra*ial art]y is ! cont9uation ( ! axill>y 7g7 into ! arm beyond ! orig9 ( ! subscapul> 7l74 ,x passes along t side ( ! biceps :i* lies next to ! hum]us4 ,x passes ?us1 accompani$ by ! bra*ial ve9 7f7 & m$ian & uln> n]ves1 ?r\gh ! bicipital ar* & aft]w>ds betwe5 ! biceps 7#d7 & ! int]m$iate division ( ! m$ial head ( ! triceps to ! supracondyloid =am5 ( ! hum]us1 ?r\gh :i* x passes ) ! m$ian n]ve to rea* ! concavity ( ! elb[4 ,x gives (f ! foll[+ bran*es3 a4 ,a4 circumflexa hum]i ant]ior 7l74--,! ant]ior circumflex art]y usually leaves ! bra*ial ne> its orig9 7b may arise f ! subscapul> 7l7 or "o ( its bran*es72 x passes to ! biceps 7#d7 ne> ! orig9 ( ! latt] & s5ds a bran* proximad to ! head ( ! hum]us4 b4 ,a4 pr(unda bra*ii or sup]ior pr(unda 7u74--,?is arises f ! fir/ "p ( ! bra*ial or x may come (f f "o ( ! bran*es ( ! axill>y 7e4g41 ! subscapul>is74 ,x passes along ) ! radial n]ve onto ! dorsal side ( ! hum]us & supplies ! triceps muscle4 ,x also s5ds bran*es to ! epitro*le>is 7#f7 & latissimus dorsi 7#g74 c4 ,rami muscul>es4--,muscul> bran*es are giv5 (f ne> ! supracondyloid =am5 to ! biceps 7#d71 epitro*le>is 7#f71 & bra*ialis muscles4 ,a nutri5t art]y leaves ! bra*ial proximad ( ! supracondyloid =am51 ei!r sep>ately or 9 common ) ! muscul> bran*es1 & passes into ! nutri5t =am5 at ! junction ( ! middle & di/al ?irds ( ! %aft ( ! hum]us1 supply+ ! bone4 d4 ,a4 collat]alis uln>is 7sup]ior7 7or ,a4 ana/omotica magna7 7z74--,?is leaves ! bra*ial art]y j proximad ( ! supracondyloid =am5 & passes to ! convexity ( ! elb[1 supply+ ! /ructures ab\t ! olecranon4 e4 ,a4 collat]alis radialis sup]ior 7,fig4 #acj74--,?is rises f ! axill>y art]y j proximad ( ! supracondyloid =am5 7,fig4 #abb1 x71 9 company ) ! v5a m$iana cubiti 7y71 passes across ! surface ( ! biceps 7#d71 b5ea? ! pectoantibra*ialis1 into ! concavity ( ! elb[4 ,"h x gives bran*es to ! pectoantibra*ialis1 clavobra*ialis1 & ext5sor muscles ( ! =e>m4 ,x !n passes onto ! v5troradial bord] ( ! =e>m 7,fig4 #acj7 & runs along ?is bord]1 9 company ) ! v5a cephalica 7,fig4 #acj1 c7 & ! sup]ficial radial n]ve 7g71 to ! wri/1 s5d+ (f bran*es to ! integum5t4 ,at ! wri/ x turns onto ! dorsum ( ! h&1 pass+ 9 a g5tle curve to ! uln> side & di/ad1 & giv+ (f a bran* = ! space betwe5 ea* pair ( metac>pal bones4 ,^! bran*es 7,fig4 #acj1 e7 7,aa4 digitales dorsales7 pass di/ad & ana/omose ) bran*es com+ f ! palm4 f4 ,a4 radialis 7,fig4 #abc74--;,di/ad ( ! convexity ( ! elb[ ! bra*ial art]y takes ! "n radial art]y4 ,x passes f ! supracondyloid =am5 on ! m$ial side ( ! biceps t5don 7#a7 & b5ea? ! pronator t]es muscle 7#e71 giv+ (f small bran*es1 z f> z ! middle ( ! =e>m1 :]e x gives (f ! uln> art]y 7k74 ,x !n passes f b5ea? ! pronator t]es 7#e7 & lies on ! surface ( ! fif? "p ( ! flexor pr(undus 7#h71 cov]$ only by ! fascia & integum5t4 ,ne> ! wri/ x s5ds (f a bran* 7m7 t[>d ! uln> side ( ! arm1 :i* passes into ! palm on ! surface ( ! t5don ( ! flexor pr(undus1 giv+ twigs to ! digits & to ! pad 9 ! palm4 ,a bran* f ?is may jo9 ! uln>1 & ! common trunk ?us =m$ passes into ! h& & gives orig9 to ! bran*es describ$ "u ! uln> art]y4 ,! pres5ce & size ( ?is bran* ( ! radial v>ies ) ! size ( ! uln> art]y1 x be+ small] or abs5t z ! uln> is l>g]4 ,x is %[n at m1 ,fig4 #abc4 ,! radial art]y 7g7 n[ turns gradually dorsad & passes b5ea? ! t5don ( ! ext5sor brevis pollicis onto ! dorsum ( ! h&4 ,x passes ov] ! oblique groove on ! dorsal surface ( ! base ( ! second metac>pal b5ea? ! t5don ( ! ext5sor c>pi radialis longus & passes betwe5 ! bases ( ! second & ?ird metac>pals into ! palm ( ! h&4 ,"h x passes to ! uln> side & ana/omoses ) ! uln> art]y to =m ! palm> ar*4 ,bran*es ( ! ,radial ,art]y4 #a4 ,a4 radialis recurr5s 7i74--,! radial recurr5t arises 9 ! concavity ( ! elb[ & s5ds a bran* proximad to ! /ructures 9 ! concavity2 x !n cont9ues to ! radial side ( ! =e>m at ! elb[1 supply+ adjac5t p>ts ( ! bra*ialis 7#b71 ! ext5sor c>pi radialis1 & ! ext5sor communis digitorum4 #b4 ,a4 uln>is recurr5s 7j74--,! uln> recurr5t arises on ! m$ial side ( ! t5don ( ! biceps & supplies /ructures 9 ! concavity ( ! elb[ on ! uln> side1 also ! pronator t]es 7#e7 & proximal ends ( ! flexor c>pi radialis & flexor pr(undis digitorum4 #c4 ,rami muscul>es4--,muscul> bran*es are giv5 (f along ! c\rse ( ! art]y1 to adjac5t muscles4 ,a nutri5t art]y to ! radius leaves ! radial art]y ab\t two c5timet]s di/ad ( ! supracondyloid =am54 #d4 ,aa int]osse 7ant]ior 7l7 & po/]ior7 are giv5 (f usually sep>ately betwe5 ! orig9 ( ! uln> art]y & ! biceps t5don4 ,sometimes !y arise z a common trunk :i* soon divides4 ,! po/]ior int]osse\s art]y passes di/ad1 supply+ ! flexor muscles ( ! =e>m4 ,x also s5ds a bran* to ! pronator t]es4 ,! ant]ior int]osse\s 7l7 may arise f ! uln> art]y4 ,x passes dorsad to ! int]osse\s membrane1 on :i* x runs di/ad2 s5ds a nutri5t bran* to ! ulna1 & !n passes to ! wri/ 9 ! sub/ance ( ! pronator quadratus1 :i* x supplies4 ,x s5ds a bran* to ! dorsal surface ( ! wri/2 ?is ramifies on ! c>pus1 =m+ a network ( small art]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,n]ves ,,& ,,art]ies ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m1 ,,se5 ,,f ,,! ,,flexor ,,side4 ,mm4 palm>is longus1 flexor c>pi radialis1 flexor c>pi uln>is1 & ! ?ird & f\r? heads ( flexor pr(undus digitorum h be5 remov$2 also "p ( ,m4 pronator t]es4 #a1 biceps2 #b1 conjo9$ t5don ( bra*ialis & clavobra*ialis2 #c1 %ort portion ( caput m$iale ( triceps bra*ii2 #d1 int]m$iate portion ( caput m$iale ( triceps bra*ii2 #e1 cut ends ( pronator t]es2 #f1 bra*ioradialis2 #g1 ext5sor c>pi radialis longus & brevis2 #h1 fif? head ( flexor pr(undus digitorum2 #i1 second head ( flexor pr(undus digitorum2 #aj1 radial "p ( flexor sublimis digitorum2 #aa1 common t5don ( flexor pr(undus digitorum2 #ab1 fir/ head ( flexor pr(undus digitorum2 #ac1 cut orig9 ( flexor c>pi uln>is4 a1 uln> n]ve2 b1 m$ian n]ve2 c1 dorsal cutane\s bran* ( ! uln> n]ve2 d1 palm> bran* ( uln> n]ve2 e1 deep palm> bran*2 f1 sup]ficial palm> bran*2 g1 ,a4 bra*ialis2 g1 ,a4 radialis2 h1 ,a4 collat]alis uln>is sup]ior2 i1 ,a4 radialis recurr5s2 j1 ,a4 uln>is recurr5s2 k1 ,a4 uln>is2 l1 ,a4 int]ossea ant]ior2 m1 l>ge bran* ( ,a4 radialis1 jo9+ ,a4 uln>is4 #e4 ,a4 uln>is 7k74--,! uln> art]y passes b5ea? ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r? p>ts ( ! flexor pr(undus digitorum 7b outside ( ! orig9 ( ! fif? "p71 to ! inn] surface ( ! flexor c>pi uln>is4 ,x supplies ! flexor c>pi uln>is1 ! flexor pr(undus & palm>is longus1 & passes on ! inn] surface ( ! flexor c>pi uln>is to ! wri/4 ,ne> ! wri/ x s5ds a bran* onto ! side ( ! =e>m1 & ano!r to its midv5tral "p1 & ends 9 a small bran* to ! wri/ on ! radial side ( ! pisi=m bone4 ,?is bran* ana/omoses ) ! radial to =m ! palm> ar*1 describ$ bel[4 #f4 ,! palm> ar* 7,fig4 #abd7 is =m$ by ! t]m9ation ( ! radial art]y 7a7 9 ! palm & its junction ) ! end ( ! uln> 7f74 ,! radial art]y rea*es ! palm betwe5 ! bases ( ! second & ?ird metac>pals & passes !nce t[>d ! uln> side & di/ad1 pi]c+ ! int]osseus muscle ( ! ?ird digit & ly+ on ! out] surface ( ! int]ossei ( ! ?ird & f\r? digits b5ea? ! adductors ( ! second & fif? digits4 ,a small communicat+ bran* f ! radial passes to x betwe5 ! fir/ & second metac>pals4 ,bran*es ( ! palm> ar*3 ,a4 pr9ceps pollicis et indicis 7c7 leaves ! palm> ar* ne> its radial end & s5ds a bran* onto ! uln> side ( ! ?umb & "o onto ! radial side ( ! index4 ,! palm> int]osse 7d7 are ?ree 9 numb]4 ,!y leave ! palm> ar* 7b7 & pass di/ad & dorsad 9 ! int]vals betwe5 ! f\r uln> digits4 ,! radial "o passes along ! uln> side ( ! fir/ digit1 ! uln> "o along ! radial side ( ! fif? digit4 ,! middle "o divides & supplies ! contigu\s sides ( ! ?ird & f\r? digits4 ,ea* ( ^! int]osse\s art]ies s5ds (f muscul> bran*es 7e7 to ! %ort muscles 9 ! palm1 & bran*es into ! fibr\s pad :i* occupies ! palm ( ! h&4 ,! palm> ar* also s5ds bran*es onto ! dorsum ( ! h& at ! sides ( ! f\r? metac>pal4 ,bran*es pass f ^! proximad to ! wri/4 ,b4 ,,aorta ,,abdom9alis4 ,,! ,,abdom9al ,,aorta4--,! abdom9al aorta em]ges into ! abdom5 f betwe5 ! crura ( ! diaphragm1 at ab\t ! level ( ! second lumb> v]tebra4 ,x passes caudad along ! dorsal middle l9e1 ly+ to ! left ( ! inf]ior v5a cava4 ,x gives (f p>ietal bran*es to ! body wall1 & visc]al bran*es to ! visc]a1 & v5trad ( ! fir/ sacral v]tebra x gives (f two l>ge bran*es on ea* side1 ! ext]nal iliac 7,fig4 #abf1 k7 & ! hypoga/ric 7,fig4 #abf1 l7--a v small m$ian vessel1 ! sacralis m$ia 7,fig4 #abf1 o71 cont9u+ ! c\rse ( ! aorta & pass+ into ! tail4 ,! aorta gives (f ! foll[+ bran*es3 ,a4 cliaca2 ,a4 mes5t]ica sup]ior2 ,aa4 adr5olumbales2 ,aa4 r5ales2 ,a4 mes5t]ica inf]ior2 ,aa4 iliolumbales2 ,aa4 lumbales 7sev5 pairs72 ,aa4 iliac ext]n2 ,aa4 hypoga/ric4 ,a4 ,a4 cliaca 7,fig4 #abe74--,! cliac art]y is a l>ge bran* :i* is giv5 (f f ! aorta "o c5timet] or less caudad ( ! op5+ 9 ! diaphragm4 ,x passes directly v5trad ab\t ?ree or f\r c5timet]s1 !n divides1 usually at once1 into ?ree bran*es4 ,! mo/ cranial ( ^! is ! hepatic 7d71 ! next is ! ga/rica s9i/ra 7e71 :ile ! ?ird & l>ge/1 seem+ to =m a cont9uation ( ! cliac1 is ! spl5ic 7f7 7,a4 li5alis74 ,! cliac art]y may give rise also1 be=e its division1 to ! two phr5ic art]ies 7:i*1 h[ev]1 usually arise f ! adr5olumbales71 & ei!r be=e or at ! po9t ( division to "o or two small ,aa4 v5triculi dorsales1 :i*1 h[ev]1 frequ5tly arise f ! ga/rica s9i/ra4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abd4 ,,! ,,palm> ,,ar* ,,& ,,its ,,bran*es ,,9 ,,! ,,palm ,,( ,,! ,,h&4 ,! int]osse\s muscles h be5 remov$1 except ^? ( ! ?ird & f\r? digits4 #a1 ,m4 abductor digiti qu9ti2 #b1 #c1 ,mm4 int]ossei ( ?ird & f\r? digits2 #d1 ,m4 adductor pollicis2 #e1 ,m4 flexor brevis pollicis4 a1 t]m9ation ( radial art]y2 b1 palm> ar*2 c1 ,a4 pr9ceps pollicis et indicis2 d1 ,aa4 int]osse2 e1 muscul> bran*es ( ! same2 f1 ,a4 uln>is2 g1 deep palm> bran* ( uln> n]ve4 ,bran*es ( ! cliac art]y3 #a4 ,a4 hepatica 7d74--,! hepatic art]y passes craniov5trad1 pi]ces ! desc5d+ limb ( ! great om5tum & passes craniad to ! liv]1 ly+1 toge!r ) ! portal ve9 & common bile-duct1 9 ! v5tral b\nd>y ( ! =am5 epiploicum 7=am5 ( ,w9sl[7 & conta9$1 toge!r ) ! la/-nam$ vessels1 9 a fibr\s %ea? call$ ! capsule ( ,glisson4 ,j be=e ent]+ ! %ea? x gives (f ! ga/roduod5alis 7g74 ,at its t]m9ation ! hepatic art]y divides1 s5d+ bran*es to ! lobes ( ! liv] & a cy/ic art]y to ! gall-bladd]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,,! ,c,,liac ,,art]y ,,& ,,its ,,bran*es4 a1 abdom9al aorta2 b1 ,a4 cliaca2 c1 ,a4 mes5t]ica sup]ior 7cut72 d1 ,a4 hepatica 7cut72 e1 ,a4 ga/rica s9i/ra2 f1 ,a4 li5alis2 g1 ,a4 ga/roduod5alis 7cut f ,a4 hepatica72 h1 ,a4 pylorica2 i1 ,a4 ga/roepiploica dextra2 j1 ,a4 pancreaticoduod5alis sup]ior2 k1 ,a4 pancreaticoduod5alis inf]ior 7cut f inf]ior mes5t]ic72 l1 ,a4 v5triculi dorsalis4 #a1 sple52 #b1 /oma*2 #c1 duod5um2 #d1 pancreas4 a4 ,a4 ga/roduod5alis 7g74--,?is arises f ! hepatic ne> ! pylorus & passes caudad1 divid+ "o or two c5timet]s f its orig9 into ?ree bran*es1 ,a4 pylorica 7h71 ,a4 pancreaticoduod5alis sup]ior 7j71 & ,a4 ga/roepiploica dextra 7i74 ,! pylorica 7h7 7:i* may arise directly f ! hepatic7 passes to ! pylorus1 !nce along ! less] curvature ( ! /oma*1 divid+ into num]\s bran*es & ana/omos+ ) ! ga/rica s9i/ra4 ,! pancreaticoduod5alis sup]ior 7j7 passes to ! duod5um1 supply+ x & ! duod5al "p ( ! pancreas & ana/omos+ ) ! pancreaticoduod5alis inf]ior 7k74 ,! ga/roepiploica dextra 7i7 passes along ! great] curvature ( ! /oma* f ! pyloric end & supplies ! walls ( ! /oma*1 s5d+ bran*es also to ! asc5d+ limb ( ! great om5tum4 ,^! bran*es ana/omose ) ! t]m9al bran*es ( ! spl5ic art]y4 #b4 ,a4 ga/rica s9i/ra 7e74--,?is arises f ! cliac art]y & passes to ! less] curvature ( ! /oma*1 ext5d+ along ?is to ! "r4 ,x gives (f _m bran*es to ! walls ( ! /oma*1 & ana/omoses ) ,a4 pylorica4 ,a4 v5triculi dorsalis 7l74--,"o or two small art]ies :i* arise ei!r f ! ga/rica s9i/ra or ! cliac art]y1 & pass t[>d ! dorsal "p ( ! great] curvature ( ! /oma* ne> its c>diac end4 #c4 ,a4 li5alis 7f74--,! spl5ic art]y is ! l>ge/ ( ! bran*es ( ! cliac axis1 ( :i* x appe>s to be ! direct cont9uation4 ,x divides into two l>ge bran*es1 "o to ! cranial end1 ! o!r to ! caudal end1 ( ! sple5 7#a74 ,f ! latt] a l>ge bran* passes to ! pancreas & desc5d+ limb ( ! great om5tum4 ,b4 ,a4 mes5t]ica sup]ior 7,fig4 #abf1 d74--,! sup]ior mes5t]ic art]y is l>g] ?an ! cliac4 ,x supplies ! blood to ! small inte/9es & caudal portion ( ! pancreas & to ! asc5d+ & transv]se colon4 ,x arises f ! v5tral side ( ! abdom9al aorta ab\t "o c5timet] caudad ( ! cliac axis & passes caudov5trad1 =m+ a curve ) ! convexity dextrad4 ,x gives (f ! pancreaticoduod5alis inf]ior1 colica m$ia1 colica dextra1 ileocolica1 & num]\s bran*es to ! small inte/9e4 #a4 ,a4 pancreaticoduod5alis inf]ior 7,fig4 #abe1 k74--,?is passes to ! caudal end ( ! pancreas & a "p ( ! duod5um1 ana/omos+ ) ! pancreaticoduod5alis sup]ior4 #b4 ,a4 colica m$ia is a l>ge bran* to ! transv]se & desc5d+ portions ( ! l>ge inte/9e4 ,x divides & s5ds bran*es 9 bo? directions :i* ana/omose ) ! colica dextra & ) bran*es f ! inf]ior mes5t]ic art]ies4 #c4 ,a4 colica dextra4--,a small bran* :i* passes to ! asc5d+ & transv]se colon1 ana/omos+ ) ! colica m$ia & ileocolica4 ,x is sometimes abs5t4 #d4 ,a4 ileocolica4--,?is passes to ! ccum & supplies t /ructure1 s5d+ bran*es to ! ileocolic valve & ! caudal end ( ! ileum1 & ana/omos+ ) ! colica dextra & ! inte/9al bran*es ( ! sup]ior mes5t]ic4 #e4 ,! sup]ior mes5t]ic n[ divides into ab\t sixte5 t]m9al bran*es :i* pass to ! small inte/9e4 ,9 _m cases ^! bran*es unite ne> ! inte/9e1 =m+ ar*es1 & f ^! ar*es num]\s %ort bran*es pass to ! inte/9e4 #c4 ,a4 adr5olumbalis 7or lumboabdom9alis7 7,fig4 #abf1 e74--,?is rises f ! aorta1 "o on ea* side1 ab\t two c5timet]s caudad ( ! sup]ior mes5t]ic4 ,ea* passes lat]ad onto ! dorsal body wall1 supply+ ! muscles ( ?is region4 ,a l>ge bran* passes caudad along ! surface ( ! muscles dorsad ( ! kidney & ana/omoses ) ! iliolumb> art]y4 ,f ! adr5olumbalis rises usually3 ,a4 phr5ica 7f74--,! phr5ic art]y rises ei!r f ! cliac 7c7 or ! adr5olumbalis 7e7 & passes to ! diaphragm1 ne> its dorsal bord]4 ,9 ! diaphragm x passes v5trad1 ly+ at ! m$ial m>g9 ( ! co/al portion ( ! diaphragm1 z f> z its /]nal portion1 :]e x unites ) ! art]y ( ! opposite side4 ,! two ?us =m an ar*1 f :i* radiat+ art]ies pass (f to supply ! diaphragm4 #d4 ,a4 r5alis 7g74--,! two r5al art]ies arise f ! sides ( ! aorta1 usually at ab\t ! same po9t1 s t ! left passes caudolat]ad & ! "r craniolat]ad 7ow+ to ! position ( ! kidneys74 ,! art]y usually divides j be=e ent]+ ! kidney 7#b74 ,x passes dorsad ( ! ve9 7t74 ,! r5al art]y sometimes s5ds a bran* to ! supr>5al body 7#a74 ,x also occasionally gives orig9 to ! sp]matic art]y 7h74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--;,,abdom9al ,,blood-,,vessels1 ,,v5tral ,,view4 a1 v5a cava inf]ior2 b1 abdom9al aorta2 c1 ,a4 cliaca 7cut72 d1 ,a4 mes5t]ica sup]ior 7cut72 e1 ,a4 adr5olumbalis2 f1 ,a4 phr5ica2 g1 ,a4 r5alis2 h1 ,a4 sp]matica int]na2 i1 ,a4 mes5t]ica inf]ior 7cut72 j1 ,a4 iliolumbalis2 k1 ,a4 iliaca ext]na2 l1 ,a4 hypoga/rica2 m1 beg9n+ ( ,a4 femoralis2 n1 ,a4 umbilicalis2 o1 ,a4 & ,v4 sacralis m$ia 7o1 ! art]y2 o1 ! ve972 p1 ,a4 glutea sup]ior2 q1 ,a4 glutea inf]ior2 r1 ,a4 & ,v4 hemorrhoidalis m$ia2 s1 ,v4 adr5olumbalis2 t1 ,v4 r5alis2 u1 ,v4 sp]matica int]na2 v1 ,v4 iliolumbalis2 w1 ,v4 iliaca communis2 x1 ,v4 femoralis2 y1 ,v4 & ,a4 pr(unda femoris2 z1 ,v4 hypoga/rica4 #a1 supr>5al body2 #b1 kidney2 #c1 uret]2 #d1 outl9e 7brok57 ( rectum4 #e4 ,a4 sp]matica int]na 7h74--,?is rises f ! aorta on ea* side at ab\t ! level ( ! caudal ends ( ! kidneys1 & passes lat]ad 7or x may arise f ! r5al74 ,9 male specim5s ! art]y turns caudad1 along ) ! correspond+ ve9 7u71 & passes to ! +u9al canal4 ,!nce x passes along ) ! vas def]5s & ! ve9 7=m+ all toge!r ! sp]matic cord7 to ! te/es & ! o!r /ructures 9 ! scrotum4 ,9 females 7,fig4 #aab1 #b1 page #bfe7 ! art]y is l>g] & passes m ne>ly directly lat]ad1 be+ mu* convolut$4 ,x passes to ! ov>y1 be+ n[ call$ ! ov>ian art]y4 ,x s5ds bran*es into ! ov>y 7c7 & to ! cranial end ( ! ut]us 7f72 ! latt] ana/omos+ ) bran*es ( ! ut]9e art]y 7#c74 #f4 ,a4 mes5t]ica inf]ior 7,fig4 #abf1 i74--,! inf]ior mes5t]ic art]y has its orig9 f ! aorta at ab\t ! level ( ! la/ lumb> v]tebra4 ,x passes t[>d ! l>ge inte/9e1 & ne> x divides into two bran*es1 ! colica s9i/ra1 :i* passes craniad along ! desc5d+ colon1 ana/omos+ ) ! colica m$ia1 & ! sup]ior hemorrhoidal1 :i* passes caudad along ! desc5d+ colon & rectum & ana/omoses ) ! middle hemorrhoidal 7page #cjh74 #g4 ,a4 iliolumbalis 7,fig4 #abf1 j74--,! iliolumb> art]ies arise f ! aorta ab\t two c5timet]s caudad ( ! inf]ior mes5t]ic & pass lat]ad ov] ! v5tral surface ( ! psoas m9or & iliopsoas muscles4 ,ea* divides into two ma9 bran*es1 "o pass+ caudad & ! o!r craniad2 ^! supply ! muscles ( ?is region4 ,! cranial bran* ana/omoses ) bran*es ( ! adr5olumbalis 7e74 ,! caudal bran* s5ds an art]y ?r\gh ! abdom9al wall to appe> at ! cranial edge ( ! ?igh2 x passes onto ! lat]al surface ( ,m4 s>torius & ext5ds "h "s di/ance di/ad4 #h4 ,a4 lumbalis4--,!re are usually sev5 pairs ( lumb> art]ies1 pass+ almo/ directly dorsad f ! dorsal surface ( ! aorta2 ! fir/ pair aris+ j craniad ( ! diaphragm1 ! la/ at ! same level z ! orig9 ( ! ext]nal iliac4 ,! two art]ies ( a pair usually arise f ! aorta "o beh9d ! o!r1 or !y may arise by a common trunk4 ,!y correspond to ! int]co/al art]ies4 ,!y pass betwe5 ! c5tra ( ! v]tebr & ! muscles ( ! dorsal region1 & s5d "o ma9 bran* lat]ad1 ! o!r dorsad2 bo? supply ! dorsal muscles4 ,f ! dorsal bran* small art]ies pass into ! v]tebral canal to jo9 ! ant]ior sp9al art]y4 #i4 ,a4 iliaca ext]na 7,fig4 #abf1 k74--,! ext]nal iliac art]y passes obliquely caudad f ! aorta1 ly+ v5trad ( ! common iliac ve9 & aga9/ ! m$ial surface ( ! psoas m9or muscle4 ,x passes onto ! v5tral surface ( ?is & ! iliopsoas & at ! same "t rea*es ! t5don ( ! abdom9al muscles2 ?r\gh a small op5+ 9 ?is t5don ly+ v5trocaudad ( t = ! iliopsoas1 x leaves ! abdom9al cavity4 ,on its em]g5ce f ! abdom9al cavity onto ! m$ial surface ( ! ?igh x receives ! "n ,a4 femoralis 7m74 ,! bran*es ( ! ext]nal iliac art]y are describ$ bel[ 7page #cji74 #aj4 ,a4 hypoga/rica 7or iliaca int]na7 7,fig4 #abf1 l74--,! hypoga/ric or int]nal iliac art]ies are giv5 (f f ! aorta usually )9 a c5timet] caudad ( ! ext]nal iliac4 ,ea* passes caudolat]ad1 ly+ on ! m$ial side ( ! common iliac ve91 & divides into bran*es :i* supply ! /ructures )9 ! pelvis & ! muscles ab\t ! pelvic wall4 ,!re is mu* v>iation 9 ! orig9 & relations ( ! bran*es ( ?is art]y4 ,! foll[+ seems to be a v common arrangem5t3 ,a v %ort di/ance f ! orig9 ! umbilical art]y 7n7 is giv5 (f4 ,! hypoga/ric art]y !n ext5ds two or ?ree c5timet]s & gives (f ,a4 glutea sup]ior 7p71 :i* passes at once to ! pelvic wall4 ,a little f>!r caudad ! hypoga/ric divides into ! middle hemorrhoidal 7r71 to ! rectum1 & ! glutea inf]ior 7q71 :i* passes out ( ! pelvis4 ,bran*es ( ! hypoga/ric art]y3 a4 ,a4 umbilicalis 7,fig4 #abf1 n74--,?is small art]y arises f ! hypoga/ric ab\t "o c5timet] f ! beg9n+ ( ! latt]1 & passes v5trad to ! bladd]4 ,"h x divides into two bran*es--! sup]ior vesical to ! sides ( ! bladd]1 ! inf]ior vesical to ! neck ( ! bladd] & ! ure?ra4 b4 ,a4 glutea sup]ior 7,fig4 #abf1 p74--,?is passes dorsolat]ad f ! hypoga/ric & rea*es ! pelvic wall aga9/ ! m$ial surface ( ! ilium4 ,"h x divides into two bran*es4 ,"o passes betwe5 ! iliopsoas muscle & ! v5tral bord] ( ! ilium to ! m$ial surface ( ! gluteus maximus2 x gives bran*es to ! gluteus muscles1 ! pyri=mis1 & ! rectus femoris4 ,! o!r bran* passes dorsad ( ! ilium1 s5d+ a bran* to ! m$ial surface ( ! gluteus m$ius1 & a small bran* :i* jo9s ! lat]al sacral art]y & ent]s ?us ! sacral canal4 c4 ,a4 hemorrhoidalis m$ia 7,fig4 #abf1 r74--,! middle hemorrhoidal passes v5trad f ! hypoga/ric1 onto ! lat]al surface ( ! rectum4 ,x passes caudad ne> ! v5tral side ( ! rectum z f> z ! anus4 ,a %ort di/ance f ! orig9 x gives (f a bran* :i* passes almo/ directly v5trad t[>d ! beg9n+ ( ! ure?ra4 ,9 ! male ?is bran* is small1 s5d+ twigs to ! ure?ra & ! pro/ate4 ,9 ! female x is mu* l>g]1 =m+ ,a4 ut]9a 7,fig4 #aab1 #c1 page #bfe74 ,! ut]9e art]y turns craniad onto ! ut]us1 :i* x supplies1 pass+ to ! cranial end ( ! ut]9e cornu & ana/omos+ ) ! ov>ian art]y4 ,! middle hemorrhoidal gives (f 9 ! female bran*es to ! vag9a 7,fig4 #aab1 m7 & neck ( ! bladd] 7k71 & a l>ge bran* to ! urog5ital s9us 7n72 x !n supplies ! anal gl&s & o!r /ructures ab\t ! anus1 & ana/omoses ) ! t]m9al bran*es ( ! hemorrhoidalis sup]ior4 ,9 ! male bran*lets are giv5 to ! ure?ra1 to ! bulb\re?ral 7or ,c[p]'s7 gl&1 & to ! p5is4 ,! ,a4 dorsalis p5is is a small bran* :i* passes along ! m$ian dorsal groove ( ! p5is to ! glans4 ,! middle hemorrhoidal !n supplies ! /ructures ab\t ! anus & ana/omoses ) ! sup]ior hemorrhoidal1 z 9 ! female4 d4 ,a4 glutea inf]ior 7,fig4 #abf1 q74--,?is is ! t]m9al portion ( ! hypoga/ric4 ,x passes along ) ! great sciatic n]ve to ! great sciatic not*1 & rea*es ! m$ial surface ( ,m4 pyri=mis4 ,x divides into bran*es :i* supply ! gluteus & pyri=mis muscles1 :ile a small bran* accompanies ! great sciatic n]ve4 ,a small bran* also passes onto ! lat]al surface ( ! tail1 ext5d+ caudad along its side4 #aa4 ,a4 sacralis m$ia 7,fig4 #abf1 o74--,?is is ! cont9uation ( ! aorta into ! sacral & caudal regions4 ,x ext5ds to ne> ! end ( ! tail1 ly+ 9 ! v5tral middle l9e aga9/ ! sacral & caudal v]tebr4 ,9 ! caudal region x passes ?r\gh ! hmal ar*es1 cov]$ by ! *evron bones4 ,betwe5 ! v]tebr x gives (f side bran*es comp>able to ! int]co/al & lumb> art]ies ( ! aorta4 ,bran*es ( ! sacralis m$ia3 a4 ,a4 sacralis lat]alis4--,beh9d ! fir/ sacral v]tebra a l>ge bran*1 ! lat]al sacral1 is giv5 (f on ea* side4 ,?is ent]s ! fir/ ant]ior sacral =am51 gives a bran* to ! /ructures 9 ! sacral canal1 & s5ds a dorsal bran* out ?r\gh ! po/]ior sacral =am5 to ! muscles on ! dorsal side ( ! sacrum4 ,simil> b small] bran*es are giv5 (f betwe5 ! succe$+ v]tebr1 sacral & caudal4 ,! ,ext]nal ,iliac & its ,bran*es4--,! orig9 ( ! ext]nal iliac 7,fig4 #abf1 k7 is describ$ above 7page #cjg74 ,x gives (f ! foll[+ bran*es3 #a4 ,a4 pr(unda femoris 7,fig4 #abf1 y74--,?is is giv5 (f j be=e ! ext]nal iliac leaves ! abdom9al cavity4 ,x passes caudad1 & ab\t "o c5timet] f its orig9 x gives (f ?ree bran*es1 sometimes all sep>ately1 sometimes two 9 common4 ,"o ( ^! passes m$iad 9 ! lat]al ligam5t ( ! bladd] & ramifies on ! lat]al surface ( t organ4 ,a second passes ?r\gh ! abdom9al wall & into ! fat on ! m$ial surface ( ! ?igh2 x s5ds a bran* caudad t[>d ! ext]nal g5ital organs1 :ile its ma9 trunk passes di/ad 9 ! subcutane\s fat almo/ to ! knee4 ,f "o ( ^! two a small bran*let passes 9 ! male to ! sp]matic cord & accompanies ?is to ! te/is2 x repres5ts ?us ! ext]nal sp]matic art]y4 ,! ?ird bran*1 ,a4 epiga/rica inf]ior1 passes directly to ! v5tral surface ( ! rectus abdom9is muscle1 on :i* x passes craniad1 s5d+ bran*es to ! muscles ( ! abdom9al walls4 ,x ana/omoses ) t]m9al bran*es ( ! int]nal mamm>y art]y4 ,! pr(unda femoris itself passes betwe5 ! iliopsoas & ! pect9eus muscles1 !n to ! m$ial surface ( ! adductor femoris4 ,x divides into bran*es :i* supply ! pect9eus1 adductor longus1 adductor femoris1 caud(emoralis1 quadratus femoris1 semimembranosus1 & semit5d9osus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,,sup]ficial ,,art]ies1 ,,ve9s1 ,,& ,,n]ves ,,on ,,! ,,m$ial ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,leg4 a1 ,a4 & ,v4 femoralis2 b1 ,n4 femoralis2 c1 ,a4 pr(unda femoris2 d1 ,a4 & ,v4 circumflexa femoris lat]alis2 e1 ramus muscul>is2 f1 ,a4 saph5a & ,v4 saph5a magna2 g1 ,n4 saph5us2 h1 ,a4 & ,v4 articul>is g5u suprema2 i1 ,n4 tibialis2 j1 plant> bran* ( ,a4 saph5a2 k1 dorsal bran* ( ,a4 saph5a4 #a1 ,m4 s>torius2 #b1 ,m4 t5sor fasci lat2 #c1 ,m4 rectus femoris2 #d1 ,m4 iliopsoas2 #e1 ,m4 pect9eus2 #f1 ,m4 adductor longus2 #g1 ,m4 adductor femoris2 #h1 ,m4 semimembranosus2 #i1 ,m4 gracilis2 #aj1 ,m4 semit5d9osus2 #aa1 m$ial head ( ,m4 ga/rocnemius2 #ab1 ,m4 plant>is2 #ac1 ,m4 flexor longus digitorum2 #ad1 ,m4 tibialis ant]ior2 #ae1 tibia4 #b4 ,a4 femoralis 7,fig4 #abg74--,?is is ! cont9uation ( ! ext]nal iliac onto ! m$ial surface ( ! ?igh4 ,! art]y lies 9 a triangul> depression betwe5 ! bord]s ( ! s>torius 7#a7 & gracilis 7#i7 muscles4 ,! floor ( ! depression is =m$ by ! adductor longus 7#f71 pect9eus 7#e71 va/us int]nus1 & rectus femoris 7#c7 muscles4 ,?is triangul> depression is kn[n z ! iliopect9eal fossa1 or ,sc>pa's triangle2 x conta9s also ! femoral ve9 7a7 & saph5\s n]ve 7g71 :i* pass along ) ! art]y4 ,! art]y ext5ds di/ad1 & at ab\t ! middle ( ! l5g? ( ! ?igh x passes1 along ) ! ve9 & n]ve1 into a groove betwe5 ! va/us m$ialis & ! adductor femoris4 ,?is groove is conv]t$ into a canal by ! ov]ly+ aponeurosis2 x is kn[n z ,hunt]'s canal or ! canalis adductorius4 ,at ! di/al end ( ! adductor femoris ! femoral art]y ceases to be sup]ficial & passes betwe5 ! va/us m$ialis & ! semimembranosus to ! popliteal space2 x n[ receives ! "n ,a4 poplitea4 ,bran*es ( ! femoral art]y3 a4 ,a4 circumflexa femoris lat]alis 7,fig4 #abg1 d74--,! lat]al circumflex arises f ! femoral ab\t "o c5timet] f its em]g5ce f ! abdom9al cavity4 ,x passes craniad & lat]ad & divides into two ma9 portions4 ,"o "p passes betwe5 ! rectus femoris & va/us m$ialis1 gives bran*es to ^! muscles1 & s5ds an asc5d+ bran* to ! /ructures ab\t ! hip-jo9t1 & a desc5d+ bran* into ! va/us m$ialis muscle4 ,! rema9d] ( ! lat]al circumflex passes along ! inn] 7lat]al7 surface ( ! s>torius 7#a7 to ! cranial bord] ( ! leg1 giv+ bran*es to ! s>torius 7#a7 & t5sor fasci lat 7#b74 b4 ,a l>ge muscul> bran* 7e7 passes caudad 7or v5trad7 & di/ad across ! di/al end ( ! adductor femoris 7#g7 & betwe5 ! gracilis 7#i7 & semimembranosus1 supply+ ^! muscles4 ,o!r small muscul> bran*es may be giv5 (f f bo? sides ( ! femoral4 c4 ,a4 articul>is g5u suprema 7h74--,! sup]ior articul> art]y arises f ! femoral1 ei!r 9 common ) ! saph5\s art]y or sep>ately1 a little proximad ( ! po9t :]e ! femoral ceases to be sup]ficial4 ,x passes t[>d ! knee1 betwe5 ! va/us m$ialis & semimembranosus1 & cov]$ by ! s>torius 7#a71 & ramifies ov] ! m$ial surface ( ! knee-jo9t & 9 ! /ructures j proximad ( ! jo9t4 d4 ,a4 saph5a 7f74--,! saph5\s art]y frequ5tly takes orig9 9 common ) ! sup]ior articul> 7h71 b may arise sep>ately at ab\t ! same level4 ,x passes di/ad across ! gracilis 7#i71 accompani$ by ! saph5\s n]ve 7g7 & ve91 s5ds sev]al bran*es dorsad 7t[>d ! knee71 & at ab\t ! middle ( ! l[] leg x divides into two ma9 bran*es1 a dorsal bran* 7k71 pass+ to ! dorsum ( ! foot1 & a plant> bran* 7j71 to ! sole ( ! foot4 ,! dorsal bran* is accompani$ by ! ma9 saph5\s n]ve 7g7 & ve94 ,x s5ds "o or two bran*es to ! m$ial side ( ! ankle-jo9t1 passes !n onto ! dorsum ( ! foot1 & divides into f\r ma9 bran*es4 ,! m$ial "o passes along ! m$ial side ( ! m$ial digit2 ! o!r ?ree pass to ! int]vals betwe5 ! digits4 ,ea* divides into two bran*es :i* supply ! contigu\s sides ( ! two digits betwe5 :i* ! int]val lies4 ,! dorsal bran* ?us supplies art]ies to ! sides ( all ! digits except to ! lat]al side ( ! lat]al digit4 ,?is is suppli$ by ,a4 suralis4 ,! plant> bran* 7j7 is l>g] ?an ! dorsal4 ,x passes di/ad on ! m$ial surface ( ! flexor longus hallucis1 accompani$ by ! tibial n]ve1 & across ! space betwe5 ! t5don ( ,a*illes & ! flexor4 ,x gives sup]ficial & deep bran*es to ! /ructures ab\t ! ankle-jo9t1 & s5ds inw>d a bran* f ! lat]al side 7,fig4 #abh1 d7 :i* jo9s ! t]m9ation ( ,a4 tibialis ant]ior to =m ! plant> ar*4 ,x !n passes di/ad along ! plant> surface ( ! foot1 ne>] its m$ial bord]4 ,b5ea? ! pad 9 ! sole ( ! foot x divides into ?ree bran*es :i* supply ! int]osse\s spaces betwe5 ! ?ree digits4 e4 ,a4 poplitea4--,! ma9 trunk ( ! femoral art]y passes betwe5 ! va/us m$ialis & ! semimembranosus & !n ?r\gh ! di/al portion ( ! adductor femoris to rea* ! popliteal space4 ,?is is ! space v5trad 7or caudad7 ( ! knee1 betwe5 ! biceps femoris on "o side & ! semimembranosus on ! o!r4 ,"h ! art]y receives ! "n ,a4 poplitea1 or popliteal art]y4 ,! popliteal art]y gives (f a numb] ( l>ge bran*es z x passes ?r\gh ! popliteal space1 passes betwe5 ! condyles ( ! femur & und]nea? ! popliteal muscle1 & f9ally turns dorsolat]ad betwe5 ! tibia & fibula1 j di/ad ( ! head ( ! fibula4 ,x n[ receives ! "n ,a4 tibialis ant]ior & passes di/ad along ! dorsal 7ant]ior7 bord] ( ! fibula4 ,bran*es ( ! popliteal art]y3 #a4 ,a4 suralis4--,?is is a l>ge bran* :i* passes di/ad f ! caudal side ( ! popliteal art]y4 ,x s5ds bran*es to ! biceps & to ! fat 9 ! popliteal space1 & passes onto ! v5tral bord] ( ! lat]al head ( ! ga/rocnemius4 ,x s5ds bran*es to bo? heads ( ! ga/rocnemius & to ! popliteus1 passes di/ad onto ! lat]al surface ( ! t5don ( ,a*illes1 & may be trac$ to ! proximal portion ( ! dorsolat]al side ( ! foot1 :]e x s5ds _m bran*es to ! integum5t ab\t ! ankle-jo9t4 ,x !n passes along ! lat]al side ( ! foot & supplies ! art]y on ! lat]al side ( ! fif? digit4 #b4 ,aa4 g5u po/]iores4--,sev]al small art]ies :i* pass to ! knee-jo9t4 #c4 ,rami muscul>es4--,num]\s small bran*es to ! muscles ab\t ! popliteal space4 #d4 ,a4 tibialis po/]ior4--,?is is ! l>ge/ bran* ( ! popliteal art]y1 :i* x leaves j be=e ! latt] passes b5ea? ! popliteal muscle4 ,! tibialis po/]ior passes at fir/ m$iad1 !n turns di/ad1 passes across ! popliteus muscle onto ! surface ( ! flexor longus hallucis1 & ramifies 9 ! sub/ance ( ?is muscle & its t5don4 ,x gives bran*es also to ! ga/rocnemius & soleus4 7,x does n pass into ! foot z does ! correspond+ art]y 9 man47 #e4 ,a4 tibialis ant]ior4--,! ant]ior tibial art]y is ! cont9uation ( ! popliteal aft] its passage ?r\gh ! int]osse\s membrane betwe5 tibia & fibula to ! dorsal side ( ! l[] leg4 ,"h x passes di/ad1 ly+ aga9/ ! int]osse\s membrane1 betwe5 ! ext5sor longus digitorum & ! tibialis ant]ior muscle1 or p>tly imb$d$ 9 ! sub/ance ( ! latt]4 ,x passes1 ly+ b5ea? ! t5dons ( ^! muscles1 ?r\gh ! transv]se ligam5t proximad ( ! malleoli1 ?us rea*+ ! dorsum ( ! foot4 ,x ext5ds di/ad across ! t>sus to ! space betwe5 ! second & ?ird metat>sals1 & ?r\gh ?is space to ! plant> side ( ! foot 7,fig4 #abh74 ,"h x receives "o or two small bran*es 7a & d7 f ! plant> bran* ( ,a4 saph5a 7=m+ ) !m ! plant> ar* 7c771 & pass+ di/ad & slightly lat]ad1 divides into ?ree ma9 portions 7e74 ,^! 7,aa4 digitales plant>es7 pass to ! ?ree int]vals betwe5 ! digits4 ,! m$ial "o passes along ! lat]al side ( ! second digit2 ! next divides1 s5d+ a bran* to ! lat]al side ( ! ?ird digit & ! m$ial side ( ! f\r?2 ! lat]al "o passes along ! m$ial bord] ( ! fif? digit4 ,! ,aa4 digitales plant>es s5d num]\s bran*es to ! int]osse\s muscles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,,deep ,,art]ies ,,on ,,! ,,plant> ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,foot4 a1 m$ial twig f plant> bran* ( ,a4 saph5a2 b1 ,a4 tibialis ant]ior 7or plant>is pr(unda72 c1 plant> ar*2 d1 lat]al twig f plant> bran* ( ,a4 saph5a2 e1 t]m9al bran*es f ,a4 tibialis ant]ior4 ,bran*es ( ! tibialis ant]ior3 a4 ,a4 tibialis recurr5s4--,imm$iately aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! int]osse\s membrane ! ant]ior tibial s5ds a small art]y proximad to ! knee-jo9t4 b4 ,rami muscul>es4--,num]\s %ort bran*es ?r\gh\t ! c\rse ( ! art]y1 to ! muscles ab\t x4 c4 ,ramus sup]ficialis4--,a l>g] bran* leaves ! lat]al surface ( ! art]y ab\t "o-?ird ! di/ance f ! knee to ! ankle & passes along ) ! sup]ficial p]oneal n]ve1 at fir/ b5ea? ,m4 p]oneus longus1 !n sup]ficially4 ,x passes onto ! dorsal surface ( ! foot & becomes connect$ ) t]m9al bran*es ( ,a4 saph5a4 d4 ,a4 t>sea m$ialis4--,?is arises f ! tibialis ant]ior j di/ad ( ! transv]se ligam5t ?r\gh :i* x passes at ! ankle1 passes ov] ! m$ial surface ( ! a/ragalus1 & is di/ribut$ to ! ligam5ts ab\t ! ankle-jo9t4 ,x ana/omoses ) ! plant> bran* ( ,a4 saph5a4 e4 ,a4 metat>sea4--,! metat>sal art]y passes lat]ad f ! tibialis ant]ior at ! di/al b\nd>y ( ! t>sus1 on ! dorsal surface ( ! foot4 ,x s5ds bran*es di/ad 9 ! int]vals betwe5 ! ?ird & f\r? & ! f\r? & fif? metat>sals4 ,! di/al bran*es 7,fig4 #abh7 ( ! tibialis ant]ior h be5 describ$ 9 ! g5]al description ( ! art]y4 ,,! ,,ve9s4 ,,v54 ,v5 pulmonales4 ,! ,pulmon>y ,ve9s4 ,! pulmon>y ve9s foll[ 9 ! lungs ! c\rse ( ! bron*i4 ,!y ent] ! left auricle 9 ?ree gr\ps 7,fig4 #aaf1 page #bgf74 ,! fir/ ( ^! 7i7 comes f ! ant]ior & middle lobes ( ! "r side1 ! second 7h7 f ! correspond+ lobes ( ! left side1 & ! ?ird 7g7 f ! t]m9al lobes ( bo? sides4 ,ea* gr\p is compos$ ( two or ?ree ve9s & op5s into a s9us or ext5sion ( ! auricle4 ,! s9uses are f _! position dextral 7i71 s9i/ral 7h71 & dorsal 7g74 ,! ,ve9s ( ! ,body4 ,! ve9s ( ! body may be classifi$ into ?ree ma9 gr\ps3 7#a7 ! ve9s ( ! he>t2 7#b7 ! sup]ior v5a cava & its bran*es2 7#c7 ! inf]ior v5a cava & its bran*es4 ,! portal sy/em ( ve9s w be consid]$ ) ! inf]ior v5a cava4 #a4 ,ve9s ( ! ,he>t4 ,! ve9s ( ! he>t consi/ ( "o l>ge ve91 ! v5a cordis magna1 & a numb] ( small ve9s4 ,v5a cordis magna 7,fig4 #aah1 #c74--,?is arises z a numb] ( scatt]$ bran*es on ! surface ( bo? v5tricles4 ,^! unite to =m two ma9 trunks4 ,"o ( ^!1 on ! v5tral side ( ! he>t1 m>ks ext]nally ! septum betwe5 ! two v5tricles4 ,x passes b5ea? ! left auricul> app5dage1 !n turns to ! left & passes along ! sulcus coron>ius to ! dorsal side ( ! he>t4 ,"h x unites ) ! second ma9 trunk :i* ramifies ov] ! surface ( ! left v5tricle4 ,arriv+ at ! base ( ! "r auricle x ent]s ?is by ! coron>y s9us1 :i* lies j b5ea? ! op5+ ( ! inf]ior v5a cava4 ,9 addition to ! v5a cordis magna & its bran*es !re are a numb] ( small ve9s1 especially 9 ! wall ( ! "r v5tricle4 ,^! ent] ! "r auricle by a numb] ( small sep>ate op5+s along ! sulcus coron>ius4 #b4 ,v5a cava sup]ior 7,fig4 #abi1 b74 ,! sup]ior v5a cava is ! great ve9 return+ ! blood f ! head1 =e-limb1 & cranial "p ( ! trunk4 ,x ext5ds f ! level ( ! fir/ rib on ! "r side ( ! v]tebral column to ! "r auricle4 ,its caudal end lies dorsad ( ! aortic ar*4 ,opposite ! "r rib x is =m$ by ! junction ( ! two innom9ate ve9s 7m74 ,bran*es ( ! sup]ior v5a cava3 #a4 ,v4 azygos 7d74--,! fir/ bran* ( ! sup]ior v5a cava is ! azygos ve91 :i* ent]s ! v5a cava on ! "r side a c5timet] or less craniad ( ! root ( ! "r lung4 ,x is =m$ 9 ! abdom9al cavity by ! conflu5ce ( two or ?ree small ve9s1 :i* collect ! blood f ! muscles ( ! dorsal wall ( ! abdom54 ,! small m$ian trunk ?us =m$ ent]s ! ?oracic cavity betwe5 ! crura ( ! diaphragm & lies on ! v5tral surface ( ! c5tra ( ! ?oracic v]tebr1 slightly to ! "r ( ! middle l9e4 ,! azygos receives ! int]co/al ve9s 7n71 :i* correspond to ! int]co/al art]ies & h ! same c\rse & di/ribution4 ,9 ! caudal "p ( ! ?oracic cavity ! int]co/als ent] ! azygos sep>ately1 b ! int]co/als ( ! cranial int]co/al spaces usually unite two or ?ree toge!r & ent] ! azygos by "o or m common trunks4 ,! azygos also receives bron*ial & sophageal ve9s1 correspond+ to ! simil>ly nam$ art]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,,?oracic ,,blood-,,vessels1 ,,f ,,! ,,"r ,,side4 a1 aorta2 b1 v5a cava sup]ior2 c1 v5a cava inf]ior2 d1 ,v4 azygos2 e1 ,a4 subclavia dextra2 f1 ,a4 mamm>ia int]na2 g1 ,v4 mamm>ia int]na2 h1 co/oc]vical axis2 i1 unit$ trunk ( v]tebral & co/oc]vical ve9s2 j1 ,a4 & ,v4 axill>is2 k1 ,v4 jugul>is ext]na2 l1 ,v4 jugul>is int]na2 m1 ! two innom9ate ve9s2 n1 int]co/al art]ies & ve9s2 o1 ?yroc]vical axis4 #a1 he>t2 #b1 tra*ea2 #c1 sophagus2 ,i-,,xi1 cut ends ( ! fir/ elev5 ribs4 #b4 ,v4 mamm>ia int]na 7g74--,! int]nal mamm>y ve9s foll[ ! correspond+ art]ies4 ,! two ve9s unite to =m a common trunk :i*1 aft] receiv+ a bran* f ! cranial "p ( ! /]num1 ent]s ! v5a cava opposite ! ?ird rib4 #c4 ,vv4 anonym 7,fig4 #abi1 m2 ,fig4 #aae1 p74--,! innom9ate ve9s unite opposite ! fir/ int]co/al space to =m ! v5a cava sup]ior4 ,ea* ext5ds f ! cranial end ( ! v5a cava sup]ior craniolat]ad to a po9t a %ort di/ance craniad ( ! fir/ rib & is !re =m$ by ! union ( ! ext]nal jugul> 7,fig4 #abi1 k7 & subclavian 7j7 ve9s4 ,! innom9ate ve9 has ! foll[+ bran*es3 ,a & ,b4 ,vv4 v]tebralis & co/oc]vicalis 7i74--,! v]tebral & co/oc]vical ve9s unite to =m a s+le trunk :i* ent]s ! innom9ate ab\t opposite ! fir/ rib4 ,^! two ve9s foll[ ! correspond+ art]ies4 7,sometimes ! v]tebral & co/oc]vical ve9s ent] ! innom9ate sep>ately1 & 9 o!r cases "o or m ( ! compon5ts ( ! co/oc]vical ve9s 7e4g41 ! transv]sa colli7 may ent] ! axill>y ve94 ,9 o!r cases ! entire common trunk ( ! v]tebralis & co/oc]vicalis may ent] ! sup]ior v5a cava directly47 ,c4 ,v4 subclavia4--,! subclavian ve9 ent]s ! innom9ate at ab\t ! level ( ! fir/ rib4 ,outside ( ! ?orax x is call$ ! axill>y ve9 7j72 ?is comes f ! arm4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acj4 ,,sup]ficial ,,art]ies1 ,,ve9s1 ,,& ,,n]ves ,,on ,,! ,,ext5sor ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,arm ,,& ,,dorsum ,,( ,,! ,,h&4 a1 ,v4 cephalica2 b1 ,v4 m$iana cubiti2 c1 ,v4 cephalica antibra*ii2 d1 ,a4 collat]alis radialis sup]ior2 e1 ,aa4 & ,vv4 digitales dorsales2 f1 ,a4 radialis2 g1 sup]ficial radial n]ve2 h1 ,n4 musculocutaneus2 i1 ,n4 cutaneus m$ialis4 ,ve9s ( ! ,arm4--,! blood is return$ f ! arm by two sy/ems ( ve9s1--a deep & a sup]ficial sy/em4 ,! deep sy/em is compos$ ( ve9s :i* correspond to ! bran*es ( ! axill>y art]y1 foll[ 9 g5]al ! same c\rse1 & receive ! same names 7,fig4 #abb74 ,!y unite to =m ! axill>y ve94 ,! bra*ial ve9 does n pass ) ! bra*ial art]y ?r\gh ! supracondyloid =am54 ,! sup]ficial sy/em comprises ! v5a cephalica & its bran*es4 ,v4 cephalica 7,fig4 #acj74--,sev]al sup]ficial bran*es ly+ 9 ! palm ( ! h& unite to =m a common trunk :i* curves ab\t ! radial side ( ! wri/ & "h unites ) a simil>ly =m$ trunk f ! dorsum ( ! h&4 ,! ve9 =m$ by ?is union1 v5a cephalica 7antibra*ii7 7c71 passes to ! elb[ accompany+ ! radial n]ve 7g7 & ! collat]al radial art]y 7d71 & ly+ on ! ext5sor c>pi radialis longus muscle j b5ea? ! integum5t4 ,x receives small lat]al sup]ficial bran*es4 ,at ! elb[ x divides into two3 ^! are ! v5a cephalica 7hum]i7 7a7 & ! v5a m$iana cubiti 7b74 ,! latt] passes b5ea? ! pectoantibra*ialis muscle1 across ! biceps1 & unites ) ! bra*ial ve9 9 ! concavity ( ! elb[4 ,! v5a cephalica 7hum]i7 passes at ! elb[ onto ! upp] arm1 foll[+ ! lat]al bord] ( ! clavobra*ial muscle4 ,x ?us rea*es ! acromiodeltoid muscle1 :]e x divides into two bran*es4 ,"o passes inw>d b5ea? ! acromiodeltoid1 & jo9s ! v5a circumflexa po/]ior 7a bran* ( ! axill>y74 ,! second cont9ues ov] ! out] surface ( ! %\ld]1 & f9ally jo9s ! v5a transv]sa scapul 7a bran* ( ! ext]nal jugul>74 ,d4 ,v4 jugul>is ext]na 7,fig4 #aca2 ,fig4 #fe1 #e1 page #aji74--,! ext]nal jugul> ve9 comes f ! head & face4 ,x is =m$ by ! junction ( ! ant]ior 7,fig4 #aca1 c7 & po/]ior 7b7 facial ve9s ne> ! v5tral bord] ( ! /]noma/oid muscle4 ,x passes !nce obliquely across ! /]noma/oid to ! triangul> int]val betwe5 x & ! clavotrapezius4 ,9 ! int]val x receives a small bran* :i* accompanies ! bran* ( ! transv]sa scapul art]y to ! clavobra*ialis muscle1 receives next ! common trunk ( ! v5a cephalica & transv]sa scapul1 & opposite ! cranial end ( ! manubrium receives ! int]nal jugul> ve9 7,fig4 #abi1 l74 ,x !n unites ) ! subclavian to =m ! innom9ate ve94 ,ne> ! po9t :]e x receives ! int]nal jugul> ! ext]nal jugul> ve9 receives ! ?oracic duct 7,fig4 #aah1 #e74 ,bran*es ( ! ext]nal jugul>3 a4 ,v4 transv]sa scapul4--,?is foll[s ! c\rse ( ! art]y ( ! same "n4 ,"o ( its bran*es receives "o ( ! two t]m9al divisions ( ! v5a cephalica 7q4 v474 ,9 _m cases ve9s :i* correspond to bran*es ( ! transv]sa scapul art]y ent] ! ext]nal jugul> sep>ately 7z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aah1 x & y74 b4 ,v4 c]vicalis asc5d5s4--,a small bran* :i* foll[s ! correspond+ bran* ( ! ?yroc]vical axis4 c4 ,v4 jugul>is int]na 7,fig4 #aah1 #b2 ,fig4 #aai1 page #bhd74--,! int]nal jugul> ve9 v>ies mu* 9 size & 9 ! place :]e x jo9s ! ext]nal jugul>4 ,! po9t ( junction is usually at ab\t ! level ( ! fir/ rib1 b may be mu* f>!r craniad4 ,x arises on ! v5tral side ( ! basal portion ( ! occipital by ! junction ( a numb] ( ve9s :i* are describ$ bel[4 ,! int]nal jugul> passes caudad 9 ! neck region at ! side ( ! tra*ea1 9 company ) ! common c>otid art]y & ! vagus & sympa!tic n]ves4 ,9 ?is region x receives bran*es :i* accompany ! bran*es ( ! common c>otid art]y4 ,! ve9s :i* by _! union =m ! int]nal jugul> ve9 are ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,"o or two ve9s f ! v5\s s9uses ( ! bra91 leav+ ! cranial cavity by ! jugul> =am54 ,^! are describ$ 9 ! acc\nt ( ! ve9s ( ! bra94 7#b7 ,a l>ge communicat+ bran* f ! po/]ior facial4 7#c7 ,! v5a occipitalis1 a l>ge bran* com+ f ! v]tebral column 7:i* x leaves by ! atlantal =am57 & f ! back ( ! head4 d4 ,v4 facialis ant]ior 7,fig4 #aca1 c74--,! ant]ior facial ve9 collects ! blood f ! face1 ! tongue1 & adjac5t p>ts2 x jo9s ! po/]ior facial 7b7 caudad ( ! angle ( ! jaw to =m ! ext]nal jugul> ve94 ,! ant]ior facial beg9s ov] ! frontal bone caudad ( ! orbit1 :]e x is kn[n z ! frontal ve9 7c74 ,?is runs along ! dorsal bord] ( ! orbit1 into :i* x dips4 ,x s5ds a communicat+ bran* into ! orbit1 & receives small ve9s 7sup]ior palpebral7 f ! upp] eyelid4 ,x !n turns v5trad1 pass+ along ! cranial angle ( ! eye betwe5 ! levator labii sup]ioris proprius 7#e7 & ! orbicul>is oculi 7#h7 muscles1 be+ call$ 9 ?is region ! angul> ve9 7c74 ,?is receives bran*es 7ext]nal nasal ve9s1 k7 f ! side ( ! nose4 ,! ve9 crosses ! mal> bone obliquely 7n[ receiv+ ! "n ant]ior facial1 c7 & foll[s ! craniov5tral bord] ( ! masset] muscle 7#i74 ,z x passes ! infraorbital =am5 x receives ?r\gh ! =am5 a small ve9 f )9 ! orbit4 ,x receives also ! inf]ior palpebral 7j7 f ! l[] eyelid1 & ! sup]ior labial ve9 7i7 f ! upp] lip4 ,j caudad ( ! angle ( ! m\? x receives f b5ea? ! craniov5tral m>g9 ( ! masset] ! ,v4 facialis pr(unda 7h7 describ$ bel[4 ,/ill f>!r caudad x receives ! inf]ior labial ve9 7g7 f ! l[] lip1 & a small bran* f ! masset] muscle4 ,caudad ( ! middle ( ! craniov5tral bord] ( ! masset] x receives f b5ea? ! lymphatic gl& ( ?is region ! l>ge subm5tal ve9 7f74 ,next ! ant]ior facial ve9 receives a l>ge communicat+ bran* 7,v4 transv]sa1 d7 :i* passes transv]sely across ! v5tral surface ( ! ?roat & connects ! two ant]ior facial ve9s ( ! opposite sides4 ,f ! middle ( ?is communicat+ bran* an unpair$ trunk passes caudad 9 ! middle l9e & divides into ! two l>yngeal ve9s1 :i* pass to ! l>ynx2 a small bran* is cont9u$ f ! unpair$ trunk craniad into ! tongue4 ,! communicat+ bran* receives also ne> its junction ) ! ant]ior facial a r l>ge sup]ficial bran* 7e7 :i* comes f ! sides ( ! l[] jaw & passes across ! lymphatic gl& 7#ab7 to jo9 ! communicat+ bran*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--,,sup]ficial ,,ve9s ,,& ,,art]ies ,,( ,,! ,,face4 a1 ext]nal jugul> ve92 b1 po/]ior facial ve92 c1 ant]ior facial ve9 7c1 angul> ve92 c1 frontal ve972 d1 communicat+ bran* ) opposite ant]ior facial2 e1 sup]ficial bran* f l[] jaw2 f1 subm5tal ve92 g1 inf]ior labial ve92 h1 deep facial ve92 i1 sup]ior labial ve92 j1 inf]ior palpebral ve92 k1 ext]nal nasal ve9s2 l1 po/]ior auricul> ve92 m1 sup]ficial temporal ve92 n1 ant]ior auricul> ve92 o1 ext]nal maxill>y art]y2 p1 inf]ior labial art]y2 q1 sup]ior labial art]y2 r1 infraorbital art]ies2 s1 sup]ficial temporal art]y2 u1 ant]ior auricul> bran* ( po/]ior auricul> art]y4 #a1 ,m4 adductor auris sup]ior2 #b1 ,m4 corrugator sup]cilii m$ialis2 #c1 ,m4 corrugator sup]cilii lat]alis2 #d1 ,m4 levator labii sup]ioris alque nasi2 #e1 ,m4 levator labii sup]ioris proprius2 #f1 ,m4 myrti=mis2 #g1 ,m4 orbicul>is oris2 #h1 ,m4 orbicul>is oculi2 #i1 ,m4 masset]2 #aj1 p>otid gl&2 #aa1 submaxill>y gl&2 #ab1 lymphatic gl&s4 ,! foll[+ l>g] bran*es ( ! ant]ior facial are n describ$ above3 ,v4 facialis pr(unda 7,fig4 #aca1 h74--,! deep facial ve9 ent]s ! ant]ior facial f b5ea? ! masset]1 j caudad ( ! angle ( ! m\?4 ,x collects bran*es f ! s(t & h>d palates & ! tee?1 ^! bran*es pass+ along ) ! correspond+ art]ies = a di/ance1 !n unit+ & pass+ v5trolat]ad b5ea? ! zygomatic ar* to jo9 ! ant]ior facial4 ,! deep facial ve9 also receives bran*es :i* come f ! v5\s plexus t lies 9 ! same region z ! art]ial c>otid plexus4 ,v4 subm5talis 7,fig4 #aca1 f74--,?is ent]s ! ant]ior facial ve9 at ! v5tral bord] ( ! masset] muscle & ne> ! cranial end ( ! two sup]ficial lymph-gl&s 7#ab7 9 ?is region4 ,! subm5tal ve9 is =m$ at ! dorsal bord] ( ! diga/ric muscle by two bran*es em]g+ f betwe5 ! diga/ric & ! m&ible4 ,! m cranial ( ^!1 ,v4 l+ualis1 collects bran*es f ! tongue1 f its middle to ! tip2 x passes ?r\gh ! middle ( ! lat]al bord] ( ! mylohyoid muscle to jo9 ! o!r bran*4 ,! second bran* em]ges f betwe5 ! m&ible & ! pt]ygoid muscles4 ,x comes f ne> ! caudal end ( ! m&ible1 :]e x becomes cont9u\s ) a communicat+ bran* f ! po/]ior facial ve91 & receives a bran* :i* comes f ! m&ibul> canal2 also small bran*es f ! adjac5t p>ts4 e4 ,v4 facialis po/]ior 7,fig4 #aca1 b74--,! po/]ior facial ve9 arises f ! region ( ! int]nal maxill>y art]y1 its t]m9al bran*es foll[+ ! bran*es ( ! art]y4 ,x collects blood f ! pt]ygoid1 masset] 7#i71 & temporal muscles1 & =ms a plexus :i* is int]wov5 ) ! c>otid 7art]ial7 plexus 9 ! region ( ! orbital fissure4 ,x is connect$ ) ! subm5tal ve9 by a communicat+ bran*4 ,f ! po/]ior facial a bran* ext5ds v5trad close aga9/ ! out] surface ( ! tympanic bulla & !n turns caudad1 receives a bran* f ! ph>ynx1 !n cont9ues to jo9 ! int]nal jugul>4 ,! po/]ior facial itself passes lat]ad along ! caudal bord] ( ! masset] 7#i7 & ! v5tral bord] ( ! p>otid gl& 7#aj71 !n becomes sup]ficial & turns v5trad ov] ! out] surface ( ! submaxill>y gl& 7#aa7 to jo9 ! ant]ior facial 7c7 caudad ( ! angle ( ! jaw4 ,z x passes v5trad ( ! p>otid gl& 7#aj71 j be=e becom+ sup]ficial1 ! po/]ior facial receives ! sup]ficial temporal 7m74 ,?is at fir/ foll[s ! sup]ficial temporal art]y 7s71 !n ent]s ! sub/ance ( ! p>otid gl&1 jo9+ ! po/]ior facial ne> ! v5tral bord] ( ! latt]4 ,! sup]ficial temporal receives ! ant]ior auricul> 7n71 a l>ge ve9 pass+ along ! cranial bord] ( ! auricul> op5+ & aris+ dorsad ( ! eye4 ,! po/]ior facial receives also1 at ! po9t :]e x passes f b5ea? ! p>otid gl&1 ! po/]ior auricul> or great auricul> ve9 7l74 ,?is collects blood f ! back ( ! head & ! ext]nal e>1 its bran*es foll[+ ^? ( ! art]y ( ! same "n4 ,x passes along ! caudal bord] ( ! p>otid gl& to jo9 ! po/]ior facial4 ,,ve9s ,,( ,,! ,,bra9 ,,& ,,sp9al ,,cord4--,! ve9s ( ! bra9 =m a l>ge numb] ( small vessels :i* p\r _! blood into l>g] ve9s ly+ 9 folds ( ! dura mat]2 ^! are kn[n z ! v5\s s9uses ( ! dura mat]4 ,^! s9uses communicate ) ! v5\s plexus ab\t ! orbital fissure1 com+ f ! po/]ior facial ve92 ) ! int]nal jugul> ?r\gh ! jugul> =am51 & ) ! v]tebral ve9s1 9 ! v]tebral canal4 ,! *ief s9uses ( ! dura mat] on ! dorsal side ( ! bra9 are z foll[s3 #a4 ,s9us sagittalis sup]ior4--,?is lies 9 ! dorsal "p ( ! falx c]ebri1 betwe5 ! two hemisph]es ( ! c]ebrum4 ,x receives ve9s f ! dorsal & middle p>ts ( ! c]ebrum1 & passes caudad to ! t5torium4 ,"h x ent]s ! s9us transv]sus4 ,x receives ! v5a c]ebri magna1 a l>ge ve9 com+ f ! int]ior ( ! bra9 & pass+ directly dorsad at ! caudal end ( ! corpus callosum to ent] ! s9us sagittalis4 #b4 ,s9us transv]sus4--,?is lies 9 a canal 9 ! dorsal bord] ( ! t5torium4 ,x receives num]\s small ve9s f ! c]ebellum1 ro( ( ! skull1 etc4 ,"o or two c5timet]s on ea* side ( ! middle l9e ! s9us transv]sus passes out ( ! canal onto ! caudal surface ( ! t5torium1 !nce proce$s caudov5trad obliquely ov] ! surface ( ! c]ebellum1 unites ) ve9s f ! v5tral side ( ! bra91 leaves ! skull by ! jugul> =am51 =m+ ?us ! inf]ior c]ebral ve91 & jo9s ! int]nal jugul> ve94 ,on ! v5tral side ( ! bra9 are ! foll[+ s9uses ( ! dura mat]3 #c4 ,s9us cav]nosus4--,a %ort broad v5\s s9us1 "o on ea* side ( ! hypophysis1 on ! body ( ! sph5oid4 ,x receives ve9s f ! side & v5tral surface ( ! bra94 ,! two s9uses are connect$ by communicat+ bran*es craniad & caudad ( ! hypophysis4 ,f !m bran*es pass out ?r\gh ! orbital fissure to jo9 ! plexus =m$ by ! bran*es ( ! po/]ior facial ve94 #d4 ,s9us petrosus inf]ior4--,?is arises f ! s9us cav]nosus & passes caudolat]ad 9 ! groove betwe5 ! edge ( ! petr\s bone & ! basil> portion ( ! occipital4 ,rea*+ ! jugul> =am5 x divides2 "p jo9s ! t]m9ation ( ! s9us transv]sus to =m ! inf]ior c]ebral ve91 :i* passes ?r\gh ! jugul> =am5 to jo9 ! int]nal jugul> ve94 ,! o!r portion ( ! s9us petrosus inf]ior passes ?r\gh ! condyloid canal ( ! occipital bone1 communicates by a /rong transv]se bran* across ! surface ( ! basioccipital ) ! ve9 ( ! opposite side1 & ent]s ! sp9al canal ?r\gh ! =am5 magnum4 ,"h x jo9s ! s9us ( ! v]tebral column4 #e4 ,s9us column v]tebralis4--,on ! v5tral surface ( ! v]tebral canal1 b5ea? ! p]io/eum1 are two wide v5\s s9uses1 "o on ea* side ( ! middle l9e4 ,^! s9uses ext5d ! entire l5g? ( ! sp9al cord4 ,at ! atlantal =am5 ea* s5ds a /rong bran* to ! int]nal jugul> ve94 ,f>!r caudad !y s5d bran*es to ! v]tebral1 int]co/al1 & lumb> ve9s1 & communicate ) ea* o!r by num]\s transv]se bran*es4 ,!y receive _m small ve9s f ! sp9al cord4 #c4 ,v5a cava inf]ior 7,fig4 #abi1 c2 ,fig4 #abf1 a74 ,! inf]ior v5a cava 7,fig4 #abf1 a7 is =m$ at ab\t ! level ( ! la/ lumb> v]tebra by ! union ( ! two common iliac ve9s 7,fig4 #abf1 w74 ,x passes craniad ne> ! dorsal m$ian l9e1 ly+ at fir/ dorsad ( ! aorta 7b71 !n to ! "r1 !n v5trad4 ,x ent]s ! sub/ance ( ! liv] 9 ! dorsal "p ( ! caudate lobe ( ! latt]1 passes ?r\gh ! liv]1 & !n ?r\gh ! diaphragm ne> ! v5trolat]al edge ( ! c5tral t5don4 ,x passes !n craniad 9 ! ?oracic cavity 7,fig4 #abi1 c7 v5trad ( ! caudal lobe ( ! "r lung1 & ent]s ! "r auricle4 ,x receives ! foll[+ bran*es 7,fig4 #abf73 lumb>1 iliolumbalis 7v71 sp]matica int]na 7u71 r5al 7t71 adr5olumbalis 7s71 phr5ic1 & hepatic ve9s4 ,all b ! la/ two nam$ accompany ! art]ies ( ! same "n4 ,v4 phr5ica4--,! phr5ic ve9s ga!r ! blood f ! diaphragm & empty into ! v5a cava z x p5etrates ! diaphragm4 ,v4 hepatica4--,! hepatic ve9s v>y 9 numb]4 ,!y ga!r ! blood f ! liv] 7s5t 9 by ! portal ve9 & hepatic art]ies7 & ent] ! v5a cava j caudad ( ! diaphragm4 ,,v5a ,,port4 ,,! ,,portal ,,ve9 7,fig4 #aca74--,! portal ve9 is ! l>ge ve9 c>ry+ ! blood f ! abdom9al visc]a to ! liv]4 ,)9 ! liv] ! portal ve9 breaks up into capill>ies2 ^! collect to =m ! hepatic ve9s1 :i* ent] ! v5a cava inf]ior4 ,! portal ve9 7a7 is =m$ ne> ! pyloric end ( ! /oma* 7#a7 by ! union ( ! sup]ior mes5t]ic 7b7 & ga/rospl5ic 7c7 ve9s & passes !nce along ! v5tral bord] ( ! =am5 epiploicum 7=am5 ( ,w9sl[7 to ! liv] 7#b71 :]e x divides1 go+ to ! lobes ( ! liv]4 ,on its way to ! liv] x may receive ! pancreaticoduod5alis 7d71 ga/roepiploica 7e71 & coron>ia v5triculi 7f74 ,^! may unite ) ! portal sep>ately1 or any two or all ?ree may unite to =m a s+le trunk be=e ent]+ ! portal ve94 #a4 ,v4 coron>ia v5triculi 7f7 ga!rs ! blood f ! less] curvature ( ! /oma* & ana/omoses ) ! ga/rospl5ic ve9s4 ,x usually empties into ! portal ve9 ne> ! pylorus4 #b4 ,v4 pancreaticoduod5alis 7d7 receives ! blood f ! pancreas & fir/ "p ( ! duod5um1 & empties into ! v5a port ne> to or ) ! prec$+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,,portal ,,ve94 a1 portal ve92 b1 sup]ior mes5t]ic2 c1 ga/rospl5ic2 d1 pancreaticoduod5alis2 e1 ga/roepiploica2 f1 coron>ia v5triculi2 g1 h1 i1 bran*es ( ga/rospl5ic2 j1 inf]ior mes5t]ic4 #a1 /oma*2 #b1 liv]2 #c1 duod5um2 #d1 sple54 #c4 ,v4 ga/roepiploica 7e7 comes f ! great] curvature ( ! /oma* & asc5d+ limb ( ! great om5tum4 ,x empties into ! v5a port v5trodextrad ( ! op5+ ( ! coron>ia v5triculi1 or sometimes 9 common ) x4 #d4 ,v4 ga/roli5alis 7c74--,! ga/rospl5ic is "o ( ! ve9s :i* unite to make up ! portal ve94 ,x is =m$ by ?ree bran*es3 "o 7g7 f ! horizontal or ga/ric portion ( ! pancreas1 "o 7h7 f ! /oma* & ga/ric end ( ! sple51 ! ?ird & l>ge/ 7i7 f ! caudal end ( ! sple5 & desc5d+ limb ( ! great om5tum4 ,! ?ree bran*es unite & ! common trunk jo9s ! sup]ior mes5t]ic ve9 7b7 to =m ! portal ve9 z above describ$4 #e4 ,v4 mes5t]ica sup]ior 7b74--,! sup]ior mes5t]ic ve9 receives ! blood f ! small & l>ge inte/9es4 ,x is =m$ by num]\s bran*es :i* foll[ & h ! same "n z ! correspond+ art]ies4 ,x receives also ! inf]ior mes5t]ic 7j7 f ! l>ge inte/9e4 ,! num]\s bran*es unite1 & ! ma9 trunk ?us =m$ jo9s ! ga/rospl5ic 7c71 & ! two unit$ become ! portal ve9 7a74 ,,v5a ,,iliaca ,,communis4 ,,common ,,iliac ,,ve9 7,fig4 #abf1 w2 ,fig4 #abg1 page #caj74 ,! common iliac ve9s 7,fig4 #abf1 w7 are ! two l>ge vessels :i* unite 9 ! sacral region to =m ! inf]ior v5a cava 7a74 ,ea* is a l>ge vessel1 usually f\r or five c5timet]s 9 l5g?1 :i* is =m$ by ! junction ( ! l>ge ext]nal iliac ve9 ) ! small] hypoga/ric ve9 7z74 ,! left common iliac usually receives ! ,v4 sacralis m$ia 7o72 o!r lat]al bran*es are z a rule n receiv$ by ! common iliac ve9s4 ,!re is mu* v>iation z to ! =mation ( ! common iliac ve9s & _! union to =m ! v5a cava4 ,on ?is subject ! pap] by ,mc,clure1 9 ! ,am]ican ,naturali/1 vol4 ,,xxxiv4 pp4 #ace-aih 7,m>*1 #aijj71 may be consult$ ) pr(it4 ,! m typical v>iations may be classifi$ z foll[s3 7#a7 ,! two common iliac ve9s may be long] ?an usual1 s t ! v5a cava is =m$ f>!r craniad ?an usual4 7#b7 ,!re may be 9 ! abdom9al region two sep>ate ve9s 7v5 c>d9ales7 repres5t+ ! inf]ior v5a cava1 ^! unit+ 9 ! region ( ! kidneys4 7#c7 ,! v5a sacralis m$ia may ent] into ! left common iliac 7! usual condition72 or ! "r common iliac 7z 9 ,fig4 #abf72 or x may =k1 "o bran* pass+ to ! left1 ! o!r to ! "r common iliac4 ,bran*es ( ! common iliac ve9s3 #a4 ,v4 sacralis m$ia 7,fig4 #abf1 o74--,?is foll[s ! c\rse ( ! correspond+ art]y & usually ent]s ! left common iliac4 #b4 ,v4 hypoga/rica 7or iliaca int]na7 7z74--,! hypoga/ric or int]nal iliac ve9 jo9s ! m$ial side ( ! ext]nal iliac to =m ! common iliac 7w74 ,its bran*es foll[ ! bran*es ( ! correspond+ art]y except t ! ve9 f ! bladd] 7umbilical ve97 jo9s ! ,v4 hemorrhoidalis m$ia4 ,also ! v5a glutea inf]ior receives a l>ge sup]ficial communicat+ bran* 7,fig4 #afc1 k7 f ! v5a saph5a p>va4 ,?is bran* leaves ! saph5a p>va 7,fig4 #afc1 k7 at ! popliteal space1 & passes ov] ! lat]al surface ( ! biceps muscle to its proximal end4 ,"h x passes betwe5 ! biceps & caud(emoralis to jo9 ! v5a glutea inf]ior4 #c4 ,v4 iliaca ext]na 7,fig4 #abg1 page #caj74--,?is ve9 foll[s ! correspond+ art]y1 collect+ ! blood f ! po/]ior extremity4 ,its bran*es are ! same & h 9 g5]al ! same di/ribution z ^? ( ! art]y4 ,! ve9 has1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 bran*es 9 addition to ^? ( ! art]y1 result+ 9 a some:at diff]5t g5]al arrangem5t ( vessels2 x w be necess>y !re=e to give an acc\nt ( ! sy/em ( ve9s f ! foot & l[] leg4 ,! blood is collect$ f ! foot into two sets ( ve9s :i* may be di/+ui%$ z ! deep & ! sup]ficial sets4 ,! ve9s ( ! deep set are ^? :i* accompany ! bran*es ( ! popliteal & ant]ior tibial art]ies4 ,^? ( ! sup]ficial set are l>g] & c>ry mo/ ( ! blood4 ,on ! dorsum ( ! foot blood is collect$ f ! ?ird1 f\r?1 & fif? digits by two or ?ree sup]ficial metat>sal ve9s1 :i* unite opposite ! proximal end ( ! metat>sus into a s+le ve94 ,?is receives a simil> bran* com+ f ! dorsum ( ! second digit1 & has num]\s bran*es 9 ! ankle region :i* =m "h a network1 communicat+ ) ! v5a saph5a p>va 7,fig4 #afc1 k71 & ) bran*es f ! plant> side ( ! foot4 ,f ?is network two or ?ree ma9 ve9s pass proximad on ! m$ial side ( ! leg1 along ) ! bran*es ( ! art]ia saph5a1 & unite ) a simil> ve9 f ! plant> side ( ! foot to =m ! v5a saph5a magna 7,fig4 #abg1 k1 page #caj71 :i* accompanies ! art]ia saph5a to jo9 ! femoral ve9 7a74 ,on ! plant> side ( ! foot small ve9s pass f ! digits to a sup]ficial v5\s plant> ar*1 :i* lies j proximad ( ! fibr\s pad on ! sole ( ! foot4 ,at its m$ial side ?is ar* ext5ds proximad & dorsad to jo9 t bran* ( ! v5a saph5a magna :i* comes f ! dorsum ( ! second digit4 ,on ! lat]al side x ext5ds proximad along ! lat]al m>g9 ( ! foot1 s5ds a communicat+ bran* dorsad to ! bran*es ( ! ,v4 saph5a magna1 & cont9ues along ! lat]al bord] ( ! foot to ! ankle4 ,x =ms ! beg9n+ ( ! ,v4 saph5a p>va 7,fig4 #afc1 k1 page #dja74 ,?is receives bran*es f ! lat]al surface ( ! ankle1 :i* ana/omose ) ^? ( ! saph5a magna4 ,! saph5a p>va !n passes proximad along ! lat]al surface ( ! leg1 close to its v5tral bord]1 to ! popliteal space4 ,at ! di/al end ( ! popliteal space x divides into two bran*es4 ,"o passes inw>d ?r\gh ! fat ( ! popliteal space1 receiv+ bran*es f ! lymphatic gl& situat$ "h1 & jo9s ! popliteal ve94 ,! o!r 7k7 rema9s sup]ficial & cont9ues proximad ov] ! lat]al surface ( ! biceps to ! proximal end ( t muscle4 ,"h x passes betwe5 ! biceps & caud(emoralis to jo9 ! inf]ior gluteal ve94 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,lymphatic ,,sy/em4 ,,sy/ema ,,lymphaticum4 ,! lymphatic sy/em ( ! cat has n be5 work$ out 9 detail1 s t only ! ma9 features ( ! sy/em are giv5 9 ! foll[+ acc\nt4 ,! lymphatic sy/em consi/s ( a numb] ( vessels1 ! lymphatics1 conta9+ a colorless fluid call$ lymph1 & ( lymphatic gl&s1 connect$ ) ! lymphatic vessels4 ,! lymphatic vessels are f\nd ?r\gh\t ! body z sl5d] tubes1 frequ5tly unit$ into networks1 & conta9+ _m valves4 ,!y take orig9 f ! spaces 9 ! connective tissue1 s t !y are at fir/ )\t def9ite walls4 ,! fluid 9 ! connective-tissue spaces gradually fl[s toge!r into tubes ) def9ite walls1 & ^! tubes1 ! lymphatic vessels1 f9ally jo9 ! v5\s sy/em4 ,9 _! passage ?r\gh ! lymphatic gl&s ! vessels break up into f9e *annels :i* aga9 unite on leav+ ! gl&4 ,9 ! gl& lymph-cells are add$ to ! fluid1 & probably o!r *anges are produc$4 ,mo/ or all ( ! lymphatic vessels ( ! body f9ally unite into two trunks be=e ent]+ ! ve9s4 ,! l>ge/ trunk is ! ?oracic duct 7,fig4 #aah1 #e1 page #bhb71 :i* collects ! lymph f ! entire caudal half ( ! body1 & f ! left =elimb & ! left side ( ! ?orax1 head1 & neck4 ,x passes along ! dorsos9i/ral side ( ! ?oracic aorta1 ly+ aga9/ its surface1 & ent]s ! left ext]nal jugul> ve9 at its junction ) ! subclavian4 ,! second ma9 trunk is ! "r lymphatic duct2 ?is collects ! lymph f ! "r side ( ! ?orax1 ! "r =elimb1 & ! "r side ( ! neck & head2 x ent]s ! "r ext]nal jugul>4 #a4 ,lymphatics ( ! ,head4--,a numb] ( lymphatic vessels arise on ! sides ( ! face1 especially 9 ! upp] & l[] lips4 ,!y =m a sup]ficial network ( vessels1 ly+ ov] ! v5tral half ( ! masset] muscle & an area v5trad ( x4 ,^! lymphatic vessels all ent] two l>ge lymphatic gl&s 7,fig4 #aca1 #ab1 page #cbb7 ly+ at ! v5trocaudal angle ( ! masset] muscle1 cov]+ ! union ( ! ant]ior & po/]ior facial ve9s4 ,into ^! gl&s pass also a numb] ( lymph vessels f ! back ( ! head4 ,f ^! two lymphatic gl&s two or ?ree small lymphatic vessels pass caudad1 ly+ on ! surface ( ! ext]nal jugul> ve94 ,ne> ! po9t ( ! %\ld]1 "s di/ance craniad ( ! junction ( ! ext]nal & int]nal jugul> ve9s1 ^! vessels ent] ano!r small lymphatic gl& ly+ on ! dorsal surface ( ! ext]nal jugul> ve94 ,!nce "o or two vessels cont9ue caudad1 /ill on ! surface ( ! ext]nal jugul>1 & f9ally unite ) ! deep lymphatics ( ! head & neck & ^? ( ! arm to ent] ! caudal end ( ! ext]nal jugul> ve91 usually 7on ! left side7 aft] junction ) ! ?oracic duct1 f ! ?orax4 ,! deep lymphatics ( ! head come f ! int]nal p>ts ( ! head1--tongue1 ph>ynx1 etc41 & ent] a l>ge lymphatic gl& situat$ close to ! caudov5tral surface ( ! tympanic bulla1 at ! side ( ! ph>ynx4 ,!nce a l>ge lymphatic trunk passes caudad at ! side ( ! tra*ea1 along ) ! common c>otid art]y & int]nal jugul> ve91 unites ) ! sup]ficial vessels f ! head1 above describ$1 jo9s 7on ! left side7 ! ?oracic duct1 & ent]s ! ext]nal jugul> ve94 #b4 ,lymphatics ( ! ,neck4--,two or ?ree lymph-gl&s are f\nd 9 ! fatty mass 9 ! neck b5ea? ! clavotrapezius & levator scapul v5tralis muscles4 ,^! receive lymphatics f ! neck & side ( ! ?orax4 ,! vessels :i* arise f !m jo9 ^? f ! head & arm to ent] ! ext]nal jugul> ve94 #c4 ,lymphatics ( ! ,?oracic ,limbs4--,! lymphatics ( ! =elimbs beg9 z a numb] ( vessels on ! dorsum & palm ( ! h&4 ,^! all pass t[>d ! radial side1 & at ab\t ! base ( ! fir/ metac>pal ! vessels f bo? sides ( ! h& unite to =m two or ?ree ma9 trunks4 ,^! pass t[>ds ! elb[1 accompany+ ! v5a cephalica 7,fig4 #acj74 ,!re are usually two ( ^! ma9 trunks1 "o ly+ on ea* side ( ! v5a cephalica4 ,!y accompany ?is ve9 ov] ! %\ld]1 foll[+ t portion :i* f9ally jo9s ! ext]nal jugul>4 ,9 ! holl[ ( ! %\ld] !y ent] ! c]vical lymph-gl&s1 "o or two lymph-gl&s imb$d$ 9 ! fat ly+ b5ea? ! clavotrapezius & levator scapul v5tralis 9 ?is region4 ,f ! c]vical lymph-gl&s a s+le trunk passes m$iocaudad1 unites ) ! lymphatics f ! head1 & usually 7on ! left side7 ) ! cranial end ( ! ?oracic duct1 & ent]s ! ext]nal jugul> ve9 at its junction ) ! subclavian4 ,! common trunk f ! head & arm may ent] ! jugul> sep>ately1 b close to ! t]m9ation ( ! ?oracic duct4 ,on ! "r side ! common trunk is jo9$ by "o or m small vessels com+ f ! lymphatic gl&s ( ! ?orax & =m+ ! "r lymphatic duct4 ,!re is said to be also a deep sy/em ( lymphatics 9 ! arm1 9 addition to ! sup]ficial sy/em above describ$2 ?is is said to accompany ! bran*es ( ! bra*ial ve94 ,if ?is sy/em is pres5t 9 ! cat1 x is mu* less easily demon/rat$ ?an ! sup]ficial sy/em4 #d4 ,lymphatics ( ! ,?orax & ,abdom54--,9 ! ?orax are a numb] ( lymphatic gl&s :i* are app>5tly n con/ant 9 numb] & position4 ,"o is commonly f\nd dorsad ( ! bifurcation ( ! sup]ior v5a cava1 "o v5trad ( ! mamm>y ve91 sev]al small ones ab\t ! bifurcation ( ! tra*ea1 "o or m 9 ! region ( ! aortic ar*1 & a numb] ( small ones scatt]$ 9 ! m$ia/9um4 ,! vessels f ^! gl&s f9ally jo9 ei!r ! "r lymphatic duct or ! ?oracic duct2 ! details h n be5 work$ out & are probably v>iable4 ,9 ! abdom9al cavity a numb] ( mes5t]ic gl&s1 ( consid]able size1 are f\nd 9 ! mes5t]y & 9 ! mesocolon4 ,9 ! mesocolon ^! are usually sep>ate1 =m+ a *a9 ( gl&s foll[+ ! colon ab\t "o & a half c5timet]s f x4 ,9 ! mes5t]y ! gl&s are mo/ly unit$ into a v l>ge "o1 =m]ly kn[n z ! pancreas aselli2 ?is is ! l>ge/ lymph-gl& 9 ! body4 ,x is a curv$ /ructure1 f\r or five c5timet]s 9 l5g?1 ly+ 9 ! c5tral region ( ! mes5t]y4 ,into ! mes5t]ic gl&s pass lymphatic vessels f ! visc]a ( ! abdom54 ,f ! mes5t]ic gl&s "o or two l>ge lymphatic vessels pass craniodorsad1 at fir/ ) ! portal ve91 !n dorsad ( x4 ,?is vessel rea*es ! dorsal side ( ! aorta ne> ! cranial end ( ! kidney1 :]e x ent]s a l>ge fusi=m vessel1 ! receptaculum *yli1 :i* /ret*es f ! cranial end ( ! kidney craniad betwe5 ! crura ( ! diaphragm into ! ?orax4 ,! receptaculum receives o!r lymphatics f ! v>i\s organs ( ! abdom9al cavity z well z vessels com+ f ! pelvic region1 & f ! iliac gl&s4 ,^! lie beside ! iliac art]y1 receive lymphatics f ! h9d limbs1 & s5d lymphatics craniad to ! receptaculum *yli4 ,! latt] =ms ! beg9n+ ( ! ?oracic duct4 ,! ?oracic duct 7,fig4 #aah1 #e1 page #bhb7 ent]s ! ?oracic cavity betwe5 ! crura ( ! diaphragm z a cont9uation ( ! receptaculum *yli4 ,x lies on ! dorsal side ( ! aorta 7a71 some:at to ! left4 ,x passes along ! aorta1 gradually com+ to lie m on its left side1 & f9ally leaves t vessel ne> ! aortic ar*4 ,! duct cont9ues !nce /raight craniad along ! left side ( ! sophagus till x rea*es ! ext]nal jugul> ve9 at its junction ) ! subclavian4 ,9 ?is region ! ?oracic duct usually unites ) ! lymphatics com+ f ! head & arm1 !n ent]s ! ext]nal jugul> ve91 or ! innom9ate at ! po9t ( union ( ext]nal jugul> & subclavian4 ,9 its passage ?r\gh ! ?orax ! duct frequ5tly divides into two or ?ree divisions :i* pass along p>allel to ea* o!r = a di/ance1 !n reunite4 ,su* division into two or ?ree p>ts is especially frequ5t j be=e ! union ) ! jugul> ve94 ,! num]\s valves 9 ! ?oracic duct give x a bead$ appe>ance4 #e4 ,lymphatics ( ! ,pelvic ,limbs4--,a numb] ( lymphatic vessels are =m$ on ! dorsum & ! sole ( ! foot4 ,^! pass to ! lat]al side1 =m+ a network on ! lat]al & dorsal surface ( ! ankle-jo9t1 & f9ally unite into two ma9 trunks :i* accompany ! v5a saph5a p>va4 ,9 ! popliteal space ^! ent] ! popliteal gl& :i* lies imb$d$ 9 ! fat ( t region4 ,f ! popliteal gl& "o or two trunks accompany ! sup]ficial division ( ! v5a saph5a p>va across ! lat]al surface ( ! biceps muscle1 & f9ally ?us rea* ! pelvic cavity4 ,"h !y jo9 ! lymphatics ( ! pelvic region1 :i* all p\r _! lymph at la/ into ! ?oracic duct4 ,+u9al gl&s are ei!r v small or n pres5t 9 ! cat4 ,! pelvic limbs h p]haps a deep sy/em ( lymphatics1 accompany+ ! deep ve9s2 if s1 !y are n easily demon/rable4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--;,,cranial ,,portion ,,( ,,! ,,sp9al ,,cord1 ,,) ,,! ,,c]vical ,,enl>gem5t4 ,,dorsal ,,view4 #a-h1 ! eight c]vical n]ves4 ,i-,,ii1 fir/ two ?oracic n]ves4 a1 dorsal roots 7v5tral roots n %[n72 b1 sp9al ganglia2 c1 dorsal rami2 d1 v5tral rami2 e1 po/]ior m$ian sulcus2 f1 po/]ior lat]al sulcus4 ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em4 ,i4 ,,! ,,c5tral ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em4 #a4 ,! ,sp9al ,cord4 ,m$ulla sp9alis 7,figs4 #acc-acf74--,! sp9al cord is t portion ( ! n]v\s sy/em :i* occupies ! v]tebral canal2 x is cont9u\s craniad ) ! bra94 ,x has ! =m ( a some:at flatt5$ cyl9d] & ext5ds f ! =am5 magnum into ! caudal region4 ,x dim9i%es 9 diamet] aft] ent]+ ! sacral region4 ,! cord has a c]vical & a lumb> enl>gem5t1 ! =m] 7,fig4 #acc7 m>k+ ! orig9 ( ! n]ves :i* pass to ! =e limb1 & ! latt] 7,fig4 #acf7 ! orig9 ( ^? :i* pass to ! h9d limb4 ,! c]vical enl>gem5t 7,fig4 #acc7 lies 9 t "p ( ! v]tebral canal b\nd$ by ! f\r? to sev5? c]vical & fir/ ?oracic v]tebr4 ,caudad ( ! fir/ ?oracic v]tebra ! cord cont9ues ( ne>ly uni=m diamet] to ! lumb> enl>gem5t 7,fig4 #acf7 :i* /ret*es f ! ?ird to ! sev5? lumb> v]tebr 7inclusive74 ,caudad ( ! sev5? lumb> v]tebra x dim9i%es uni=mly 9 diamet] & ends 9 a sl5d] cord1 ! filum t]m9ale 7,fig4 #acf1 ,c71 :i* may be trac$ into ! caudal region4 ,! surface ( ! cord is m>k$ by a numb] ( longitud9al grooves or sulci1 & fissures4 ,! mo/ prom95t ( ^! is ! ant]ior m$ian fissure 7,fig4 #acd1 c71 along ! v5tral m$ian l9e2 into ?is ! pia mat] dips4 ,! po/]ior m$ian sulcus 7,fig4 #acc1 e2 ,fig4 #acd1 a7 is a %all[ furr[ along ! dorsal m$ian l9e4 ,! ant]ior fissure & ! po/]ior sulcus ?us divide ! cord into lat]al halves4 ,ea* half is subdivid$ by ! ant]ior & po/]ior lat]al sulci4 ,! po/]ior lat]al sulcus 7,fig4 #acc1 f2 ,fig4 #acd1 b7 lies at ! side ( ! po/]ior m$ian sulcus4 ,x is broad & %all[ & has ! po/]ior roots ( ! sp9al n]ves em]g+ f its bottom4 ,! ant]ior lat]al sulcus exi/s only aft] ! =cible pull+ out ( ! ant]ior 7v5tral7 roots ( ! sp9al n]ves4 ,x !n m>ks ! l9e along :i* !y orig9ate f ! cord4 ,9 cross-section 7,fig4 #acd7 ! sub/ance ( ! cord appe>s to ! nak$ eye z compos$ ( a d>k] c5tral 8gray matt]0 7g7 & ( an out] 8:ite matt]0 7f74 ,! gray matt] has 9 section ! =m ( ! lett] ,h4 ,! cord is really tubul>1 hav+ a c5tral canal 7h7 :i* appe>s 9 section 9 ! middle ( ! cross-b> ( ! ,h1 :ile ! two ends ( ea* v]tical b> ext5d t[>d ! ant]ior & po/]ior lat]al fissures4 ,! :ite matt] is divid$ into funiculi 7or columns7 by ! fissures & sulci1 s t !re is 9 ea* half ( ! cord an ant]ior1 a po/]ior1 & a lat]al :ite funiculus4 ,9 ! c]vical region 7,fig4 #acd7 !re appe>s betwe5 ! po/]ior lat]al & po/]ior m$ian sulci an int]m$iate sulcus :i* divides ! po/]ior funiculus 9 ?is region into two4 ,! m$ian sl5d]] ( ^! is ! fasciculus gracilis 7d7 or column ( ,goll4 ,! lat]al & ?ick] is ! fasciculus cuneatus 7e7 or column ( ,burda*4 ,! membranes ( ! sp9al cord3 ,! dura mat] is a t\gh fibr\s membrane directly cont9u\s ) ! dura mat] ( ! bra94 ,x diff]s f ! dura mat] ( ! bra9 9 two p>ticul>s3 #a4 ,at ! =am5 magnum x splits into two lay]s1 "o ( :i* l9es ! bony v]tebral canal & =ms its p]io/eum1 :ile ! o!r cov]s ! cord4 #b4 ,x is sep>at$ f ! cord by a consid]able space4 ,! dura mat] is cont9u\s ) ! fibr\s %ea?s ( ! sp9al n]ves at _! po9ts ( exit4 ,along ! sides ( ! cord x is connect$ to ! pia mat] by a delicate /r& ( connective tissue probably equival5t to ! 8ligam5tum d5ticulatum0 ( man4 ,! ara*noid is a delicate cellul> membrane ly+ b5ea? ! dura mat]1 betwe5 x & ! pia mat]4 ,x =ms a cont9u\s inve/m5t = ! cord1 is n vascul>1 & is said n to dip into ! fissures ( ! cord4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--;,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,! ,,sp9al ,,cord ,,9 ,,! ,,c]vical ,,region4 a1 po/]ior m$ian sulcus2 b1 po/]ior lat]al sulcus2 c1 ant]ior m$ian fissure2 d1 fasciculus gracilis2 e1 fasciculus cuneatus2 f1 :ite matt]2 g1 gray matt]2 h1 c5tral canal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--,,section ,,( ,,sp9al ,,cord1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,a ,,pair ,,( ,,sp9al ,,n]ves4 a1 dorsal root2 b1 sp9al ganglion2 c1 dorsal ramus2 d1 v5tral ramus2 e1 v5tral root4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--;,,caudal ,,portion ,,( ,,! ,,sp9al ,,cord4 ,a1 lumb> enl>gem5t2 ,b1 cauda equ9a2 ,c1 filum t]m9ale2 #e-g1 fif? to sev5? lumb> n]ves4 ,i-,,iii1 ! ?ree sacral n]ves4 a1 dorsal roots2 b1 sp9al ganglia2 c1 dorsal rami2 d1 v5tral rami4 ,! pia mat] inve/s ! cord closely & conta9s "s blood-vessels4 ,x is a delicate membrane :i* dips into ! fissures & sulci ( ! cord & is connect$ to x by num]\s /r&s ( connective tissue t pass f x into ! sub/ance ( ! cord4 ,! n]ves pi]ce x4 ,sp9al ,n]ves4--,f ! sp9al cord arise ! sp9al n]ves4 ,( ^! !re are ab\t ?irty-eight pairs 9 ! cat4 ,eight are c]vical1 ?irte5 ?oracic1 sev5 lumb>1 ?ree sacral1 & sev5 or eight caudal4 ,^? leav+ ! c]vical 7,fig4 #acc1 #e-h & ,i7 & lumb> 7,fig4 #acf7 enl>gem5ts are l>g] ?an ! o!rs4 ,! fir/ c]vical n]ve leaves ! v]tebral canal ?r\gh ! atlantal =am51 ! second leaves betwe5 ! ar*es ( ! atlas & axis1 :ile all ! o!rs leave ! v]tebral canal by way ( ! int]v]tebral =am9a4 ,ea* n]ve arises f ! cord by a dorsal & a v5tral root4 ,! dorsal root is *iefly s5sory1 ! v5tral motor 9 "*4 ,! dorsal root 7radix po/]ior7 7,figs4 #acc1 #ace1 & #acf1 a7 beg9s z a numb] 7twelve or m7 ( sep>ate n]ve-bundles :i* em]ge f ! po/]ior lat]al groove4 ,^! roots lie ne>ly 9 a s+le plane & pass lat]ad1 conv]g+ to p5etrate a ganglion1 ! sp9al ganglion 7b7 7or ganglion ( ! po/]ior root74 ,all ! sp9al ganglia except ! fir/ & second are situat$ 9 ! int]v]tebral =am9a or )9 ! v]tebral canal4 ,! fir/ & second are situat$ among ! muscles surr\nd+ ! place ( exit ( ! n]ves4 ,! v5tral root 7radix ant]ior7 7,fig4 #ace1 e7 arises z a l>g] numb] ( small fibre-bundles :i* d n lie 9 a s+le plane1 s t 9 a transv]se section sev]al rootlets may appe> 9 a s+le section4 ,! rootlets conv]ge to =m a s+le mass :i* jo9s ! dorsal root j z x em]ges f ! sp9al ganglion4 ,! n]ve =m$ by ! junction ( ! v5tral & dorsal roots is "o ( ! sp9al n]ves4 ,! direction 9 :i* ! n]ves leave ! cord v>ies4 ,9 ! c]vical region 7,fig4 #acc7 & cranial "p ( ! lumb> region x is ne>ly lat]ad2 at ! c]vical & lumb> enl>gem5ts x is lat]ocaudad4 ,! n]ves 9 ! sacral & caudal regions pass almo/ directly caudad to rea* ! int]v]tebral =am9a & =m ?us a bru% :i* surr\nds ! filum t]m9ale 7,fig4 #acf1 ,c7 & is call$ ! cauda equ9a 7,fig4 #acf1 ,b74 ,ea* sp9al n]ve imm$iately aft] leav+ ! int]v]tebral =am5 divides into two bran*es1 a dorsal or po/]ior bran* or ramus 7c71 & a v5tral or ant]ior ramus 7d74 ,! dorsal ramus is 9 ea* case small 7except 9 ! fir/ & second c]vical n]ves71 & is di/ribut$ to ! longitud9al muscles & integum5t ( ! back4 ,! v5tral rami are l>g] & ea* is connect$ a %ort di/ance beyond its orig9 ) ! sympa!tic sy/em by a %ort ramus communicans or communicat+ bran*4 ,ea* is !n di/ribut$ to ! integum5t & muscles ( ! v5tral "p ( ! body1 includ+ ! limbs4 ,! v5tral rami :i* pass to ! limbs are mu* l>g] ?an ! o!rs4 ,! v5tral rami are fur!r di/+ui%$ f ! dorsal by ! fact t !y frequ5tly unite ) "o ano!r to =m plexuses4 ,! p]iph]al di/ribution ( ! sp9al n]ves is describ$ lat]4 #b4 ,! ,bra94 ,encephalon4--,! bra9 is t portion ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em t is includ$ )9 ! cranial cavity4 ,x is a direct cont9uation ( ! sp9al cord1 & pres5ts _m ( ! same ess5tial *>act]s z ! latt]1 ) great modifications 9 details4 ,! /ructure ( ! bra9 c be/ be und]/ood if x be consid]$ z a modifi$ cont9uation ( ! sp9al cord1 & ! relation ( ! p>ts to ! ess5tial p>ts ( ! cord not$4 ,! sp9al cord is a ne>ly /raight tube1 ) a c5tral cavity & ?ick walls4 ,! bra9 is likewise tubul>1 ) ! cavities enl>g$ or subdivid$ 9 places1 ) ! walls greatly ?ick5$1 & ) a numb] ( b5ds & con/rictions 9 ! tube4 ,! relation ( ! /ructure ( ! bra9 to t ( ! sp9al cord is mo/ easily p]ceiv$ by an exam9ation ( ! bra9 ( "s l[] v]tebrate1 z ! frog or %>k1 & su* an exam9ation %\ld be made be=e proce$+ to ! /udy ( ! m complicat$ bra9 ( ! cat4 ,9 ! foll[+ acc\nt ( ! bra9 ( ! cat all p>ts w be describ$ z f> z possible 9 relation ) ! tubul> /ructure ( ! bra94 ,! bra9 w be consid]$ z a holl[ /ructure1 hav+ c5tral cavities1 & ! solid portions w be br\ght into relation z p>ts ( ! ro(1 sides1 or floor ( ! cavities4 ,! cavities ( ! bra91 =m+ a direct cont9uation ( ! c5tral canal ( ! sp9al cord1 are kn[n z v5tricles 7v5triculi74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--;,,dorsal ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,bra94 ,i1 olfactory bulbs2 ,,ii1 c]ebral hemisph]es2 ,,iii1 c]ebellum2 ,,iv1 m$ulla4 a1 prsylvian sulcus2 b1 cruciate sulcus2 c1 sulcus ansatus2 d1 coronal sulcus2 e1 ant]ior sulcus2 f1 po/]ior sulcus2 g1 suprasylvian sulcus2 h1 sep>ate p>ts ( ! lat]al sulcus2 i1 end ( spl5ial sulcus2 j1 v]mis ( c]ebellum2 k1 hemisph]es ( c]ebellum2 l1 ro( ( f\r? v5tricle2 m1 fir/ c]vical n]ve4 #a1 orbital lobe 7or gyrus72 #b1 sigmoid gyrus2 #c1 ant]ior sylvian gyrus2 #d1 ectosylvian gyrus2 #e1 suprasylvian gyrus2 #f1 po/]ior sylvian gyrus2 #g1 p>ts ( m>g9al gyrus2 #h1 gyrus compositus po/]ior4 ,9 a g5]al view ( ! cat's bra9 f ! dorsal side 7,fig4 #acg7 f\r subdivisions are disc]nible4 ,at ! caudal end is a small /alk-l portion 7,,iv7 :i* is cle>ly a slightly modifi$ cont9uation ( ! sp9al cord2 ?is is ! myel5cephalon or m$ulla oblongata4 ,j craniad ( ?is1 ris+ high above x1 is an irregul>ly lobulat$ r\nd$ portion1 ! c]ebellum 7,,iii74 ,?is is produc$ z a ?ick5+ ( ! wall ( ! orig9al tube2 x =ms ! dorsal "p ( ! met5cephalon4 ,^! two portions ( ! bra9 h a common cavity1 ly+ )9 ! m$ulla oblongata & v5trad ( ! c]ebellum1 & =m$ by a wid5+ ( ! cavity ( ! sp9al cord2 x is kn[n z ! f\r? v5tricle4 ,craniad ( ! c]ebellum1 sep>at$ f x by a deep transv]se fissure1 are two v l>ge portions1 ! hemisph]es ( ! c]ebrum 7,,ii71 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by a deep longitud9al fissure2 !y con/itute toge!r ! tel5cephalon4 ,! hemisph]es are produc$ by a sort ( =k+ ( ! orig9al c5tral tube2--by outgr[?s on ! sides ( ! tube1 ! c5tral cavity ext5d+ into ! outgr[?s4 ,! two outgr[?s ext5d dorsad1 z well z craniad & caudad f ! orig9al place ( orig91 =m+ ! l>g] "p ( ! bra92 ! ext5sions ( ! c5tral cavity :i* !y conta9 are kn[n z ! lat]al v5tricles4 ,f9ally1 9 front ( ! two hemisph]es are se5 ! two small olfactory bulbs 7,i7 :i* are m]e ext5sions ( ! two hemisph]es & conta9s cavities :i* are ext5sions ( ! lat]al v5tricles4 ,9 a v5tral view ( ! entire bra9 7,fig4 #ach7 c]ta9 p>ts are visible :i* 9 ! dorsal view are hidd5 by ! l>ge c]ebral hemisph]es4 ,at ! caudal end is se51 z be=e1 ! m$ulla oblongata1 or myel5cephalon1 & craniad ( ?is1 on ! v5tral side ( ! c]ebellum1 a broad transv]se tract1 ! pons 7i72 ?is1 l ! c]ebellum1 =ms "p ( ! met5cephalon4 ,all ?is "p ( ! bra9 =m$ by ! myel5cephalon & met5cephalon lies caudad ( 7beh9d7 ! re/ ( ! bra9 & is m>k$ (f f x by a great fissure2 x !re=e receives z a :ole ! "n h9dbra9 or rhomb5cephalon4 ,j craniad ( ! pons are se5 two %ort div]g+ arm-l b&s ( fibres 7g71 enclos+ a small triangul> space betwe5 !m4 ,^! two arms ) ! space betwe5 !m are all t is visible ( a division ( ! bra9 :i* 9 dorsal view is completely cov]$ by ! backw>d projection ( ! c]ebral hemisph]es4 ,?is is ! midbra9 or mes5cephalon4 ,9 ?is portion ( ! bra9 ! cont9uation ( ! c5tral cavity is a n>r[ canal :i* receives ! "n c]ebral aqu$uct 7aqu$uctus c]ebri7 or aqu$uct ( ,sylvius4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--,,v5tral ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,bra94 ,i-,,xii1 ! twelve cranial n]ves 9 ord]2 ,i1 olfactory bulb2 ,,ii1 ,n4 opticus2 ,,iii1 ,n4 oculomotorius2 ,,iv1 ,n4 tro*le>is2 ,v1 ,n4 trigem9us 7#a1 m&ibul> n]ve2 #b1 maxill>y n]ve2 #c1 oph?almic n]ve2 #d1 s5sory root72 ,,vi1 ,n4 abduc5s2 ,,vii1 ,n4 facialis2 ,,viii1 ,n4 acu/icus2 ,,ix1 ,n4 glossoph>yngeus2 ,x1 ,n4 vagus2 ,,xi1 ,n4 accessorius2 ,,xii1 ,n4 hypoglossus4 a1 tractus olfactorius2 b1 sub/antia p]=ata ant]ior2 c1 optic *iasma2 d1 infundibulum2 e1 hypophysis2 f1 lobus pyri=mis1 or tractus po/rh9alis2 g1 p$unculi c]ebri2 h1 sub/antia p]=ata po/]ior2 i1 pons2 j1 sulcus basil>is ( pons2 k1 semilun> 7or ,gass]ian7 ganglion2 l1 trapezium2 m1 area ovalis2 n1 area elliptica2 o1 pyramidal tracts2 p1 ant]ior or v5tral fissure2 q1 =am5 ccum2 r1 ant]ior lat]al sulcus2 s1 fir/ c]vical n]ve4 ,j craniad ( ! midbra9 is a small r irregul> area1 b\nd$ craniad by ! b&-l optic *iasma 7c71 f :i* arise ! optic n]ves 7,,ii71 & %[+ caudad ( ?is b& a r\nd$ irregul> projection 7e74 ,?is is a f\r? division ( ! bra9 :i* is likewise cov]$ dorsad by ! hemisph]es2 x is ! 'twe5-bra9 or di5cephalon4 ,its cavity is kn[n z ! ?ird v5tricle4 ,j craniad ( ! 'twe5-bra91 9 ! m$ian l9e1 is a deep fissure1 %[+ t "h 9 reality is ! t]m9ation ( ! orig9al tube1 ! fur!r ext5sion craniad be+ due to ! pu%+ =w>d ( ! lat]al outgr[?s1 or c]ebral hemisph]es1 :i* ext5d 9 v5tral view a consid]able di/ance fur!r craniad4 ,! hemisph]es lie also caudad1 lat]ad1 & dorsad ( ! midbra9 & 'twe5-bra91 s t ^! p>ts are almo/ envelop$ by ! hemisph]es4 ,! hemisph]es & 'twe5-bra9 are sometimes tak5 toge!r z =m+ a s+le portion1 ! =ebra9 or pros5cephalon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,bra9 ,,f ,,above4 ,,fig4 #adj4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,bra9 ,,f ,,! ,,side4 #a1 myel5cephalon2 #b1 met5cephalon2 #c1 mes5cephalon2 #d1 di5cephalon2 #e1 tel5cephalon4 a1 canal ( ! sp9al cord2 b1 f\r? v5tricle2 c1 c]ebral aqu$uct 7aqu$uct ( ,sylvius72 d1 ?ird v5tricle2 e1 lat]al v5tricle2 f1 int]v5tricul> =am5 7or =am5 ( ,monroe72 g1 lam9a t]m9alis2 h1 olfactory bulb4 ,!re are ?us altoge!r five pr9cipal subdivisions ( ! bra91 ea* enclos+ a portion ( ! c5tral cavity4 ,^! are ! myel5cephalon1 ! met5cephalon 7^! two enclos+ ! f\r? v5tricle71 ! mes5cephalon 7enclos+ ! c]ebral aqu$uct71 ! di5cephalon 7enclos+ ! ?ird v5tricle71 & ! two c]ebral hemisph]es1 con/itut+ toge!r ! tel5cephalon1 & enclos+ ! two lat]al v5tricles4 ,a plan ( ! bra91 consid]$ z a tube enclos+ cavities1 is giv5 9 ,figs4 #aci & #adj4 ,fig4 #aci %[s ! plan consid]$ z view$ f ! dorsal side1 ,fig4 #adj 9 a lat]al view4 ,^! figures are ( c\rse pure diagrams1 %[+ only :at may be call$ ! plan ( /ructure1 & omitt+ all details4 ,9 ! actual conditions _m important modifications ev5 ( ! ma9 features ( ! plan are met )4 ,9 ! foll[+ description ! p>ts ( ! bra9 w be tak5 up 9 ?is ord]3 ,a4 ,,rhomb5cephalon 7primitive h9dbra974 #a4 ,myel5cephalon4 #b4 ,met5cephalon4 ,b4 ,,mes5cephalon 7primitive midbra974 #c4 ,mes5cephalon4 ,c4 ,,pros5cephalon 7primitive =ebra974 #d4 ,di5cephalon4 #e4 ,tel5cephalon4 ,a4 ,,rhomb5cephalon4 #a4 ,myel5cephalon4--,! myel5cephalon or m$ulla oblongata is transitional betwe5 ! sp9al cord & ! bra94 ,x has 9 g5]al ! /ructural peculi>ities ( ! cord1 b ^! und]go 9 x a gradual trans=mation into ! arrangem5ts *>act]i/ic ( ! bra94 ,x has ! =m ( a flatt5$ & truncat$ cone1 :i* wid5s craniad & is limit$ at ! cranial end by ! pons 7,fig4 #ach1 i7 v5trally & lat]ally2 by ! c]ebellum 7,fig4 #acg1 ,,iii7 dorsally4 ,! cranial portion ( its dorsal surface is ov]hung by ! c]ebellum4 ,! po9ts ( orig9 ( ! roots ( ! fir/ pair ( c]vical n]ves 7,fig4 #ach1 s7 may be tak5 z indicat+ ! b\nd>y betwe5 ! sp9al cord & ! m$ulla oblongata2 !re is no o!r ext]nal m>k+ to %[ ! limits ( ! two4 ,! c5tral canal ( t "p ( ! m$ulla :i* is ov]hung by ! c]ebellum is greatly wid5$ 7,fig4 #ada1 h74 ,! cavity ?us =m$ is flatt5$ & triangul>1 ) ! apex ( ! triangle caudad1 & is ! caudal "p ( ! f\r? v5tricle 7,fig4 #ada1 h74 ,! ro( is v ?9 7,fig4 #adc1 n7 & is intimately connect$ ) ! pia mat]1 s t 9 remov+ ! latt] ! ?9 ro( ( ! f\r? v5tricle is remov$ ) x & ! cavity ( ! f\r? v5tricle is left expos$4 ,! ?9 ro( ( ! f\r? v5tricle is kn[n z ! velum m$ull>e po/]ius 7,fig4 #adc1 n74 ,! v5tral 7ant]ior7 fissure 7,fig4 #ach1 p7 ( ! cord passes onto ! m$ulla oblongata & ends at ! pons 7i71 its end be+ slightly deep] & =m+ :at is kn[n z ! =am5 ccum 7q74 ,! dorsal 7po/]ior7 sulcus 7,fig4 #ada1 a7 is well m>k$2 x ends at ! caudal b\nd>y ( ! f\r? v5tricle 7h74 ,! ant]ior lat]al sulcus 7,fig4 #ach1 r7 may be trac$ craniad f ! orig9 ( ! v5tral roots ( ! fir/ c]vical n]ves 7s71 along ! lat]al bord] ( ! area elliptica 7n71 !n curv+ m$iad to ! lat]al bord] ( ! pyramis 7o71 & f9ally rea*+ ! pons 7i74 ,its position is m>k$ by ! orig9 ( ! roots ( ! hypoglossal n]ve 7,,xii74 ,! po/]ior lat]al sulcus 7,fig4 #ada1 b71 m>k$ on ! sp9al cord by ! orig9 ( ! dorsal n]ve-roots1 curves lat]ad at ! sides ( ! f\r? v5tricle 7h7 ow+ to ! increas+ wid? ( ! latt]1 & ends at an elevat$ area ( oblique fibres1 ! area ovalis 7f74 ,! columns or funiculi b\nd$ by ! longitud9al fissures pres5t ! foll[+ peculi>ities3 ,! ant]ior :ite funiculus ( ! cord is replac$ 9 ! m$ulla by ! pyramidal tracts 7pyramides7 7,fig4 #ach1 o74 ,! pyramidal tracts are =m$ by fibres :i* em]ge f b5ea? ! pons & pass caudad to disappe> j craniad ( ! level ( ! fir/ c]vical n]ve 7s74 ,! pyramidal tracts are b\nd$ m$ially by ! ant]ior m$ian fissure 7p71 b lat]ally ea* is sep>at$ f ! ant]ior lat]al sulcus 7r7 ov] its caudal "p by an elongat$ area elliptica 7n71 ! human homologue ( :i* is unc]ta94 ,x p]haps repres5ts ! oliva4 ,lat]ad ( ! cranial portion ( ! pyramids is an irregul> area kn[n z ! trapezium 7l7 :i* abuts caudad on ! area elliptica 7n7 & ! area ovalis 7m74 ,! area ovalis 7,fig4 #ach1 m2 ,fig4 #ada1 f7 7or zonula ,arnoldi7 is abroad b& ( oblique fibres :i* passes f ! lat]al side ( ! area elliptica craniodorsad to disappe> "u ! c]ebellum4 ,! po/]ior :ite funiculus 0 divid$ 9 ! c]vical region into two1 ! fasciculus gracilis 7column ( ,goll7 & ! fasciculus cuneatus 7column ( ,burda*74 ,! fasciculus gracilis 7,fig4 #ada1 c7 ext5ds to ! caudal end ( ! f\r? v5tricle 7h7 & ends !re 9 an expansion1 ! clava 7d71 :i* =ms ! po/]ior b\nd>y ( ! f\r? v5tricle4 ,! fasciculus cuneatus 7e7 passes lat]ad on acc\nt ( ! wid? ( ! f\r? v5tricle & appe>s to end at ! area ovalis 7f71 b x may be se5 pass+ b5ea? ! area ovalis1 em]g+ at its cranial bord] & turn+ dorsad to ent] ! c]ebellum4 ,x =ms ! side walls ( a "p ( ! %all[ f\r? v5tricle4 ,! lat]al funiculi are divid$ by longitud9al furr[s into ?ree divisions4 ,! dorsal "o ( ^! is ! fasciculus cuneatus lat]alis or column ( ,rol&o 7,fig4 #ada1 g74 ,x accompanies ! fasciculus cuneatus into ! c]ebellum4 ,! entire mass =m$ by ! fasciculus gracilis1 ! fasciculus cuneatus m$ialis1 & fasciculus cuneatus lat]alis is kn[n z ! corpus re/i=me1 & s9ce its fibres pass into ! c]ebellum x is sometimes kn[n z ! p$unculus c]ebelli 7or crus c]ebelli ad m$ullam74 ,! foll[+ cranial n]ves arise f ! m$ulla oblongata 7,fig4 #ach74 ,! twelf? n]ve 7,,xii7 7,n4 hypoglossus7 arises by t5 or fifte5 rootlets f ! v5tral surface ( ! m$ulla oblongata 9 ! ant]ior lat]al fissure 7r7 opposite ! caudal portion ( ! area elliptica 7n74 ,! elev5? cranial n]ve 7,,xi7 7,n4 accessorius7 arises by num]\s rootlets f ! lat]al surface ( ! m$ulla oblongata & ( ! sp9al cord z f> caudad z ! six? or sev5? c]vical n]ve4 ,^! rootlets jo9 to =m a n]ve :i* ent]s ! cranium ?r\gh ! =am5 magnum & is closely associat$ at its po9t ( exit ) ! glossoph>yngeal 7,,ix7 & vagus 7,x7 n]ves4 ,! l9e ( orig9 on ! m$ulla passes betwe5 ! dorsal & v5tral roots ( ! c]vical n]ves & is along ! middle ( ! lat]al :ite funiculi4 ,! t5? cranial n]ve 7,x7 7,n4 vagus7 arises by ab\t eighte5 v delicate rootlets f ! surface ( ! area ovalis4 ,! rootlets are divid$ into a dorsal & a v5tral s]ies4 ,! dorsal s]ies 7ab\t twelve7 arise 9 ! groove :i* sep>ates ! fasciculus cuneatus m$ialis f ! fasciculus cuneatus lat]alis4 ,! v5tral s]ies arise some:at v5trad ( ?is groove4 ,^! rootlets are to be di/+ui%$ f ^? ( ! n9? n]ve by _! small] size4 ,! n9? cranial n]ve 7,,ix7 7,n4 glossoph>yngeus7 arises f ! area ovalis f a l9e craniad ( ! dorsal l9e ( orig9 ( ! vagus roots 7,x7 & betwe5 ^! & ^? ( ! auditory 7,,viii74 ,x arises by a numb] ( rootlets :i* are l>g] ?an ^? ( ! vagus 7,x71 ) :i* ?is n]ve is closely associat$4 ,! eigh? cranial n]ve 7,,viii7 7,n4 acu/icus7 appe>s at ! lat]al end ( ! trapezium 7l74 ,x arises f an elevation 7,fig4 #ada1 i7 :i* is cont9u$ dorsom$iad along ! cranial bord] ( ! area ovalis4 ,! sev5? cranial n]ve 7,,vii7 7,n4 facialis7 leaves ! lat]al bord] ( ! trapezium 7l7 ne> its cranial edge1 betwe5 ! fif? & eigh? n]ves4 ,x is mu* small] ?an ! eigh? n]ve4 ,! six? cranial n]ve 7,,vi7 7,n4 abduc5s7 arises by ab\t six bundles f ! groove betwe5 ! pyramids & ! trapezii & passes craniad4 #b4 ,met5cephalon4--,! met5cephalon includes ! pons & ! c]ebellum4 ,! pons 7,fig4 #ach1 i7 is a mass ( transv]se fibres :i* =ms ! v5tral & cranial "p ( ! primitive h9dbra94 ,x is a modification ( ! latt] br\ght ab\t by ! developm5t ( ! c]ebellum1 & ! degree ( its developm5t is 9 direct ratio to t ( ! c]ebell> & c]ebral hemisph]es4 ,! pons =ms a project+ mass ( fibres :i* is m>k$ by a m$ian longitud9al groove1 ! sulcus basil>is 7j71 :i* indicates ! c\rse ( ! basil> art]y 7,fig4 #aba1 c74 ,lat]ad ! fibres ( ! pons conv]ge some:at & turn+ dorsad disappe> 9 ! c]ebellum1 =m+ ! bra*ia pontis 7,fig4 #ada1 l74 ,! fif? cranial n]ve 7,fig4 #ach1 ,v7 7,n4 trigem9us7 arises by two roots f ! caudal bord] ( ! pons1 ne> ! lat]al end4 ,! v5tral root 7#d7 is small2 ! dorsal "o is mu* l>g] & soon =ms ! l>ge semilun> ganglion 7k7 f :i* ?ree bran*es 7#a1 #b1 & #c7 div]ge4 ,! v5tral root 7#d7 jo9s "o ( ^! bran*es 7#a74 ,! c]ebellum 7,fig4 #acg1 ,,iii7 is =m$ by an increase 9 size ( ! cranial portion ( ! primitive h9dbra94 ,?is increase has affect$ pr9cipally ! surface ( ! ro(1 s t z ! c]ebellum has gr[n x has be5 ?r[n into _m folds1 ! exact =m ( :i* v>ies 9 diff]5t specim5s4 ,! c]ebellum has at ! same "t increas$ 9 size & has ?us ext5d$ lat]ad z well z caudad & craniad4 ,x ?us t\*es ! c]ebrum 9 front 7sep>at$ f x by ! t5torium7 & aids x 9 conceal+ ! midbra9 & 'twe5-bra9 9 dorsal view1 :ile caudad 9 ! same view x conceals ! great] "p ( ! m$ulla4 ,! connections ( ! c]ebellum ) adjac5t p>ts ( ! bra9 are also ov]hung & conceal$4 ,! :ole surface ( ! c]ebellum is ?r[n up into num]\s folds or gyri1 sep>at$ f "o ano!r by deep fissures or sulci1 :i* appe> at fir/ to r5d] ! surface :olly irregul>4 ,! entire mass is1 h[ev]1 divisible into a c5tral portion1 :i* f its resemblance to a segm5t$ worm is call$ ! v]mis 7j7 7its cranial "p is ! sup]ior v]mis1 & its caudal "p ! inf]ior v]mis71 & into lat]al portions1 ! hemisph]es 7k74 ,! v]mis 7j7 occupies a m$ian longitud9al position1 & its gyri & sulci are 9 ! ma9 transv]se4 ,x is n directly connect$ ) adjac5t p>ts1 & its v5tral surface ext5ds f>!r caudad & craniad ?an t ( ! hemisph]es4 ,! v5tral "p ( ! sup]ior v]mis is fitt$ aga9/ ! po/]ior corpora quadrigem9a4 ,! hemisph]es 7k7 may aga9 be subdivid$ into gr\ps ( gyri :i* h receiv$ special names4 ,"o ( ^!1 ! s-call$ app5dicul> lobe1 fits into ! app5dicul> fossa ( ! petr\s bone4 ,! c]ebellum is connect$ to ! adjac5t p>ts by ?ree tracts ( fibres1 sometimes kn[n z crura c]ebelli4 ,! tract connect+ x ) ! m$ulla oblongata is ! corpus re/i=me2 t connect+ x ) ! pons is ! bra*ium pontis 7,fig4 #ada1 l72 ^! h be5 describ$4 ,a ?ird tract passes craniad to ! corpora quadrigem9a 7,fig4 #ada1 p & q72 ?is is ! bra*ium conjunctivum 7,fig4 #ada1 k74 ,! c]ebellum is compos$ ( :ite & gray matt]1 ! latt] on ! surface 7,fig4 #adc1 ,,iii74 ,! folds ( its surface pres5t ?us a contrivance = increas+ ! am\nt ( gray matt]4 ,! :ite matt] =ms a c5tral mass f :i* tracts ext5d into ! folds4 ,! :ole mass ( :ite matt] has ?us 9 section 7m p>ticul>ly 9 a longitud9al section ( ! v]mis7 ! appe>ance ( a tree1 :5ce ! "n arbor vit 7,fig4 #adc74 ,! f\r? v5tricle 7,fig4 #ada1 h2 ,fig4 #adc1 m7 is ! cavity ( ! orig9al h9dbra94 ,x beg9s caudad at ! clava 7,fig4 #ada1 d7 z a wid5+ & cont9uation ( ! c5tral canal ( ! sp9al cord & ext5ds craniad1 becom+ wid] & pass+ v5trad ( ! c]ebellum4 ,x becomes n>r[] craniad & ends at ! po/]ior corpora quadrigem9a 7p71 :]e x becomes cont9u\s ) ! aqu$uctus c]ebri 7,fig4 #ada1 o2 ,fig4 #adc1 j74 ,! cavity is %all[ & is encroa*$ ^u dorsally by ! v]mis ( ! c]ebellum 7,fig4 #adc74 ,! floor ( ! cavity is kn[n z ! fossa rhomboidea 7,fig4 #ada1 h74 ,x is =m$ by ! cont9uation ( ! gray matt] :i* surr\nds ! c5tral canal ( ! cord4 ,x is m>k$ by a m$ian longitud9al groove4 ,at its wide/ "p are se5 two consid]able tracts ( :ite fibres 7/ri m$ull>es7 :i* pass f ne> ! m$ian l9e lat]ad & ext5d into ! auditory 7eigh?7 n]ves4 ,! floor caudad & craniad ( ^! /ri is m>k$ by a numb] ( elevations & depressions4 ,simil>ly situat$ elevations 9 ! human bra9 diff] f "o ano!r slightly 9 color1 are made up ( gray matt]1 & are ! c5tres ( orig9 ( mo/ ( ! cranial n]ves4 ,_! homologues 9 ! cat appe> n to h be5 det]m9$4 ,! side walls ( ! f\r? v5tricle 7,fig4 #ada7 are =m$ by ! foll[+ 9 ord]1 beg9n+ caudad3 ! clava 7d71 ! corpus re/i=me1 bra*ium pontis 7l71 bra*ium conjunctivum 7k71 & caudal corpora quadrigem9a 7p7 7colliculi inf]iores74 ,! ro( 7,fig4 #adc7 is =m$ caudad by a ?9 lay] ( non-n]v\s matt] :i* is closely associat$ ) ! pia mat]4 ,?is ?9 lay] is kn[n z ! velum m$ull>e po/]ius 7n74 ,x connects ! dorsal surface ( ! m$ulla ) ! caudal bord] ( ! c]ebellum4 ,! pia mat] cov]+ ?is portion ( ! ro( is vascul> & is fold$ 9 t[>d ! floor ( ! v5tricle1 =m+ ! *oroid plexus ( ! f\r? v5tricle4 ,9 ! middle ! ro( ( ! f\r? v5tricle is ! c]ebellum1 :ile craniad ! ro( is ! velum m$ull>e ant]ius 7,fig4 #adc1 l74 ,?is is a ?9 lay] j craniad ( ! c]ebellum1 connect+ x ) ! corpora quadrigem9a1 & atta*$ lat]ally to ! bra*ia conjunctiva4 ,"h ! f\r? v5tricle n>r[s craniad & becomes cont9u\s ) ! sl5d] aqu$uctus c]ebri 7,fig4 #adc1 j7 7aqu$uct ( ,sylvius74 ,! n>r[$ portion ( ! bra9 is frequ5tly kn[n z ! i/hmus rhomb5cephali4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--;,,dorsal ,,surface ,,( ,,myel5cephalon1 ,,mes5cephalon1 ,,& ,,di5cephalon4 ,! c]ebellum & ! great] "p ( ! c]ebral hemisph]es h be5 remov$4 a1 po/]ior sulcus ( cord2 b1 po/]ior lat]al sulcus2 c1 fasciculus gracilis2 d1 clava2 e1 fasciculus cuneatus2 f1 area ovalis2 g1 fasciculus cuneatus lat]alis2 h1 fossa rhomboidea or floor ( f\r? v5tricle2 i1 projection =m$ by orig9 ( auditory n]ve2 j1 facial n]ve2 k1 cut end ( bra*ium conjunctivum2 l1 cut end ( bra*ium pontis 7l1 bra*ium pontis72 m1 velum m$ull>e ant]ius2 n1 f\r? n]ve2 o1 depression m>k+ caudal end ( aqu$uctus c]ebri 7aqu$uct ( ,sylvius72 p1 caudal corpora quadrigem9a 7colliculi po/]iores72 q1 cranial corpora quadrigem9a 7colliculi ant]iores72 r1 bra*ium quadrigem9um inf]ius2 s1 corpus g5iculatum m$iale2 t1 ?alamus2 u1 /ri m$ull>es2 v1 ?ird v5tricle2 w1 pulv9>2 x1 corpus g5iculatum lat]ale2 y1 corpus /riatum2 z1 outl9es ( olfactory bulbs4 #a1 b\nd>y betwe5 hemisph]es & 'twe5-bra92 #b1 p9eal body4 ,! f\r? cranial n]ve 7,fig4 #ada1 n2 ,fig4 #ach1 ,,iv7 7,n4 tro*le>is7 arises f ! bra9 at ! craniolat]al angle ( ! velum m$ull>e ant]ius4 ,b4 ,,mes5cephalon4 #c4 ,mes5cephalon4--,! mes5cephalon or midbra9 includes ! corpora quadrigem9a 7,fig4 #ada7 & ! p$unculi c]ebri 7,fig4 #adb74 ,9 ! prim>y midbra9 !re is a pron\nc$ ?ick5+ ( ! walls accompani$ by a r$uction ( ! c5tral canal4 ,! midbra9 does n ?us become v l>ge & is conceal$ 9 ! dorsal view by ! c]ebellum & c]ebrum1 ?\gh its floor appe>s 9 ! v5tral view j craniad ( ! pons 7,fig4 #ach1 g74 ,its n>r[ canal is ! aqu$uctus c]ebri 7aqu$uct ( ,sylvius7 7,fig4 #adc1 j74 ,its ro( =ms ! corpora quadrigem9a1 & its floor ! p$unculi c]ebri4 ,9 a dorsal view 7,fig4 #ada7 ! ro( is se5 to be m>k$ by two pairs ( elevations1 ! corpora quadrigem9a 7p & q74 ,! cranial pair 7q7 7kn[n z ! colliculi sup]iores7 are circul> 9 outl9e1 surr\nd$ on all sides except ! cranial "o by a deep groove4 ,f ! cranial side a tract ( fibres 7bra*ium quadrigem9um sup]ius1 or arm ( ! cranial corpus7 ext5ds craniad & disappe>s b5ea? ! ?alamus 7t74 ,betwe5 ! ant]ior or cranial corpora quadrigem9a lies ! p9eal body or epiphysis 7corpus p9eale7 7,fig4 #adc1 y2 ,fig4 #ada1 #b71 a portion ( ! ro( ( ! 'twe5-bra94 ,! caudal corpora 7,fig4 #ada1 p7 are l>g] ?an ! cranial ones1 & ovoid 9 %ape ) ! long axis v]tical4 ,!y are unit$ 9 ! m$ian l9e1 & ! velum m$ull>e ant]ius 7m7 /ret*es betwe5 _! caudal bord]s4 ,! bra*ium ( ! caudal corpus quadrigem9um 7bra*ium quadrigem9um inf]ius7 7r7 ext5ds craniad & disappe>s b5ea? a consid]able elevation1 ! corpus g5iculatum m$iale 7s74 ,cross+ ?is bra*ium is se5 a small tract ( fibres :i* ext5ds v5trad1 crosses ! p$unculus c]ebri1 & rea*es ! m$ial bord] ( ! latt]4 ,x is ! tractus transv]sus p$uncul>is 7,fig4 #adb1 b74 ,v5trad ( ! caudal corpus quadrigem9um is se5 a triangul> area ( oblique fibres :i* corresponds 9 position to ! human lemniscus4 ,! p$unculi c]ebri 7p$uncles ( ! c]ebrum7 =m ! v5tral "p ( ! midbra94 ,!y appe> 9 a v5tral view ( ! entire bra9 7,fig4 #ach7 z two broad tracts ( fibres 7g7 em]g+ f b5ea? ! pons & div]g+ f "o ano!r z !y pass craniad1 f9ally disappe>+ b5ea? ! c]ebral hemisph]es4 ,ea* is made up ( _m fibre-bundles1 :i* are app>5t 9 surface view 7,fig4 #adb74 ,! p$uncles are sep>at$ by a small triangul> space1 :i* is m>k$ by a m$ian longitud9al sulcus4 ,9 ?is space1 j caudad ( ! mammill>y bodies1 is a small area ?r\gh :i* a numb] ( blood-vessels pass into ! bra94 ,?is is kn[n z ! po/]ior p]=at$ area 7or sub/ance7 7,fig4 #adb1 j74 ,! c]ebral p$uncles 7a7 are cross$ by ! tractus transv]sus p$uncul>is 7b7 7see above74 ,! ?ird cranial n]ve 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,iii7 7,n4 oculomotorius7 leaves ! bra9 at ! m$ial bord] ( ! c]ebral p$uncle 7g71 j caudad ( ! tractus transv]sus p$uncul>is4 ,! aqu$uctus c]ebri 7,fig4 #adc1 j2 ,fig4 #aec1 d7 7or aqu$uct ( ,sylvius7 is ! cont9uation craniad ( ! f\r? v5tricle4 ,x is a n>r[ passage1 "o or two millimet]s 9 diamet]1 ly+ dorsad ( ! p$unculi c]ebri & v5trad ( ! corpora quadrigem9a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--,,v5tral ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,midbra9 ,,& ',,twe5-,,bra91 ,,) ,,! ,,pons4 a1 p$unculi c]ebri2 b1 tractus transv]sus p$uncul>is2 c1 corpus g5iculatum m$iale2 d1 optic tract2 e1 optic *iasma2 f1 optic n]ve2 g1 mammill>y bodies2 h1 tub] c9]eum2 i1 op5+ = infundibulum 7:i* has be5 remov$72 j1 po/]ior p]=at$ area2 k1 pons4 ,,iii1 ,v1 ,,vii1 ,,viii1 ?ird1 fif?1 sev5?1 & eigh? cranial n]ves4 ,c4 ,,pros5cephalon4--,! pros5cephalon or primitive =ebra9 includes ! di5cephalon or 'twe5-bra9 & ! tel5cephalon or c]ebral hemisph]es4 #d4 ,di5cephalon4--,! di5cephalon or 'twe5-bra9 includes ! ?alami & ! o!r p>ts b\nd+ ! ?ird v5tricle4 ,! di5cephalon is se5 9 entire bra9s only 9 v5tral view 7,fig4 #ach1 c1 d1 e1 etc47 ,! di5cephalon may be consid]$ z =m+ almo/ or q ! mo/ cranial portion ( ! m$ian n]v\s tube1--! cranial wall ( ! ?ird v5tricle 7! lam9a t]m9alis7 7,fig4 #adc1 d71 end+ 9 ! m$ian l9e 9 ! deep fissure betwe5 ! hemisph]es ( ! c]ebrum4 ,p>ts ( ! bra9 :i* ext5d f>!r craniad ?an ?is are lat]al portions1 due to ! =w>d gr[? ( ! lat]al hemisph]es4 ,! two hemisph]es ( ! c]ebrum may be consid]$ z lat]al outgr[?s ( ! c5tral 'twe5-bra92 ^! outgr[?s h ext5d$ dorsad1 lat]ad1 craniad1 & caudad1 s z to cov] almo/ completely ! 'twe5-bra94 ,9 e>ly /ages ! c]ebral hemisph]es are projections f ! cranial end ( ! 'twe5-bra91 s t ! plane ( junction 0 ne>ly transv]se1 ! cranial end ( ! 'twe5-bra9 jo9+ ! caudal end ( ! hemisph]es4 ,) ! increas+ size & backw>d gr[? ( ! latt]1 ! atta*m5t to ! 'twe5-bra9 has be5 %ift$ f a cranial to ne>ly a lat]al position1 & at ! same "t ! orig9ally lat]al surface ( ! 'twe5-bra9 has become ne>ly caudal4 ,?is is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ada1 ! deep fissure at #a m>k+ ! l9e ( atta*m5t betwe5 ! 'twe5-bra9 & ! hemisph]es4 ,! dorsov5tral plane ( junction ( 'twe5-bra9 & hemisph]es is 7z ,fig4 #ada %[s7 n :olly lat]al1 b oblique1 pass+ f its cranial end ne> ! middle l9e caudolat]ad4 ,a second peculi>ity ( ! 'twe5-bra9 lies 9 ! ?9ness ( its ro(4 ,! ro( is exce$+ly ?9 & is s intimately connect$ ) ! pia mat] t !y _c be remov$ sep>ately4 ,! v5tral ?ick floor ( ! 'twe5-bra9 is directly cont9u\s ) ! simil> floor ( ! c]ebrum2 b :]e ! ro( ( ! 'twe5-bra9 jo9s ! ro( ( ! c]ebrum along ! oblique plane already indicat$1 ! ro( is v ?9 & is intimately connect$ to ! pia mat]1 & is at ! same "t fold$ into ! lat]al v5tricles to =m1 toge!r ) ! pia mat]1 ! *oroid plexuses ( ! lat]al v5tricles 7,fig4 #adh1 e74 ,:5 ! pia mat] is remov$ ! ?9 ro( ( ! bra9 along ! l9e ( junction ( ! 'twe5-bra9 & ! c]ebrum is br\ght away & !re appe>s to be a direct communication betwe5 lat]al v5tricles & ! ext]ior4 ,we may n[ take up ! p>ts ( ! di5cephalon 9 detail4 a4 ,?alamus 7,fig4 #ada1 t74--,! two ?alami are l>ge oblique r\nd$ ridges1 =m+ ! sides ( ! 'twe5-bra94 ,!y lie j craniad ( ! cranial corpora quadrigem9a 7q71 b sep>at$ f !m by a broad groove1 & are completely cov]$ by ! caudally project+ "p ( ! c]ebral hemisph]es4 ,! m$ial l>g] end ( ea* ?alamus is ne> ! middle l9e2 !nce ! ?alamus ext5ds caudolat]ad1 & rises at its lat]al extremity into a %>ply r\nd$ projection1 ! corpus g5iculatum lat]ale 7x74 ,f ?is projection ! ?alamus is cont9u$ v5trad & !n craniom$iad z a l>ge b& ( fibres1 ! optic tract 7tractus opticus7 7,fig4 #adb1 d71 :i* ext5ds to ! optic *iasma 7e71 :]e x passes into ! optic n]ves 7f74 ,on ! caudal bord] ( ! ?alamus1 ne> ! m$ian l9e1 is a v fa9t projection1 ! pulv9> 7,fig4 #ada1 w72 ?is lies j craniad ( ! lat]al bord] ( ! cranial corpus quadrigem9um 7q74 ,j v5trad ( ! corpus g5iculatum lat]ale 7x7 is ! prom95t r\nd$ corpus g5iculatum m$iale 7s72 ?is is connect$ by a prom95t ridge1 ! bra*ium quadrigem9um inf]ius 7r71 ) ! caudal corpus quadrigem9um 7p74 ,9 a simil> mann] ! bra*ium quadrigem9um sup]ius passes f ! cranial corpus quadrigem9um 7q7 into ! ?alamus itself4 ,betwe5 ! two ?alami !re exi/s a groove1 ! sulcus hypo?alamicus4 ,ov] ?is groove lies ! ro( ( ! ?ird v5tricle1 =m+ ! *oroid plexus ( ! ?ird v5tricle 7,fig4 #adc1 w74 ,! m$ial surface ( ! two ?alami are flat & ext5d directly v5trad1 =m+ "p ( ! lat]al b\nd>y ( ! ?ird v5tricle 7,fig4 #adc1 h74 ,! two m$ial surfaces meet ov] a consid]able area across ! n>r[ cavity ( ! ?ird v5tricle1 & unite1 =m+ ! massa int]m$ia 7,fig4 #adc1 f7 or int]m$iate mass ( ! ?alamus 78middle commissure074 ,?is connection ( ! ?alami ( ! two sides is ?us n a primitive "o1 =m+ no "p ( ! ro( or floor ( ! c5tral cavity1 b is a second>y connection due to a gr[+ toge!r ( a "p ( ! two sides ( ! v5tricle across its cavity4 ,along ! dorsal edge ( ! m$ial bord] ( ea* ?alamus passes a di/9ct :ite /r&1 ! /ria m$ull>is 7,fig4 #ada1 u72 ! two /ri meet 9 an ar* caudad1 ly+ b5ea? ! p9eal body 7#b74 ,! ?alamus is sep>at$ craniolat]ad by a groove 7#a7 f ! corpus /riatum 7y71 on ! floor ( ! c]ebral hemisph]e4 b4 ,! ro( ( ! ?ird v5tricle is ?9 & unit$ ) ! pia mat]1 z already /at$4 ,! pia mat] be>s _m blood-vessels1 & ! two are fold$ into ! groove betwe5 ! optic ?alami1 =m+ ! lam9a *orioidea epi!lialis1 or *oroid plexus ( ! ?ird v5tricle 7,fig4 #adc1 w74 ,! ro( is atta*$ to ! dorsom$ial bord]s ( ! ?alami & becomes cont9u\s ) ! *oroid plexus ( ! lat]al v5tricles 7,fig4 #adh1 e7 at ! craniolat]al bord]s ( ! ?alami4 ,! p9eal body 7corpus p9eale7 or epiphysis 7,fig4 #ada1 #b2 ,fig4 #adc1 y7 is a small conical body :i* is =m$ z an outgr[? ( ! caudal "p ( ! ro( ( ! ?ird v5tricle4 ,x lies on ! ro( ( ! bra9 betwe5 ! two cranial corpora quadrigem9a 7,fig4 #ada1 q74 ,x is holl[1 conta9+ an ext5sion ( ! ?ird v5tricle4 ,f its craniolat]al angles two :ite /r&s1 ! hab5ul1 ext5d into ! /ri m$ull>es 7,fig4 #ada1 u7 ( ! ?alami4 ,j v5trad ( ! p9eal body is a transv]se b& ( :ite fibres1 ly+ 9 ! caudal "p ( ! ro( ( ! ?ird v5tricle4 ,?is int]connects ! two ?alami1 & =ms ! po/]ior commissure 7,fig4 #adc1 z7 7commissura po/]ior74 ,f ?is commissure a ?9 %eet ( tissue ext5ds to ! p9eal body4 c4 ,! floor ( ! ?ird v5tricle appe>s 9 a v5tral view ( ! bra9 7,fig4 #ach1 ,fig4 #adb7 z a some:at diamond-%ap$ space craniad ( ! p$unculi c]ebri 7,fig4 #adb1 a7 & b\nd$ along its cranial m>g9 by ! optic tracts 7,fig4 #adb1 d74 ,! optic tracts come f ! ?alami1 z already describ$2 !y conv]ge & unite to =m ! optic *iasma 7,fig4 #adb1 e71 f :i* ! optic n]ves 7f7 div]ge4 ,imm$iately caudad ( ! optic *iasma lies a consid]able r\nd$ gray elevation1 ! tub] c9]eum 7,fig4 #adb1 h74 ,?is be>s on its v5tral surface 9 ! natural condition ! infundibulum 7,fig4 #ach1 d7 ) ! hypophysis 7,fig4 #ach1 e72 9 cases :]e ! two latt] /ructures h be5 remov$ 7,fig4 #adb7 ! tub] c9]eum 7h7 be>s a small longitud9al op5+ 7i7 = atta*m5t ( ! infundibulum4 ,! infundibulum 7,fig4 #ach1 d7 is a holl[ ext5sion ( ! floor ( ! ?ird v5tricle1 & is atta*$ to ! middle ( ! v5tral surface ( ! tub] c9]eum4 ,x be>s at its v5tral end ! hypophysis 7pituit>y body7 7,fig4 #ach1 e71 a vascul> non-n]v\s body ( unkn[n function4 ,! hypophysis is lodg$ 9 ! sella turcica ( ! sph5oid bone4 ,at its caudal bord] ! tub] c9]eum be>s two :ite elevations1 ! mammill>y bodies 7corpora mammill>ia7 7,fig4 #adb1 g74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--,,longitud9al ,,m$ian ,,section ,,( ,,bra94 ,i1 olfactory bulb2 ,,ii1 c]ebrum2 ,,iii1 section ( c]ebellum1 %[+ 8arbor vit02 ,,iv1 m$ulla oblongata4 a1 tractus olfactorius2 b1 sub/antia p]=ata ant]ior2 c1 ant]ior commissure2 d1 lam9a t]m9alis2 e1 optic *iasma2 f1 massa int]m$ia ( ?alamus2 g1 infundibulum2 g1 hypophysis2 h1 ?ird v5tricle2 i1 mammill>y body2 j1 aqu$uctus c]ebri 7or aqu$uct ( ,sylvius72 k1 pons2 l1 velum m$ull>e ant]ius2 m1 f\r? v5tricle2 n1 velum m$ull>e po/]ius2 o1 cont9uation ( canal ( sp9al cord2 p1 corpus callosum 7body72 q1 g5u ( corpus callosum2 r1 ro/rum2 s1 spl5ium2 t1 septum pellucidum2 u1 =nix2 v1 pill>s ( =nix2 w1 *oroid plexus ( ?ird v5tricle2 x1 /ria m$ull>is2 y1 corpus p9eale2 z1 cranial corpus quadrigem9um2 z1 po/]ior commissure4 #a1 sulcus falcialis2 #b1 sulcus cruciatus2 #c1 sulcus spl5ialis2 #d1 sulcus m>g9alis2 #e1 sulcus supracallosalis 7or callosalis74 ,! ?ird v5tricle 7,fig4 #adc1 h2 ,fig4 #ada1 v7 is a v n>r[ slit-l space1 ( consid]able ext5t dorsov5trally1 b less ?an a millimet] 9 wid?2 x lies betwe5 ! m$ial ends ( ! ?alami 7,fig4 #ada71 & ext5ds v5trad into ! tub] c9]eum1 & !nce into ! infundibulum 7,fig4 #adc1 g74 ,dorsad x ext5ds into ! corpus p9eale 7,fig4 #adc1 y74 ,! ?ird v5tricle communicates caudally ne> its dorsal bord] ) ! aqu$uctus c]ebri 7j72 craniolat]ally ) ! lat]al v5tricles1 ?r\gh ! int]v5tricul> =am5 7=am5 ( ,monroe74 ,its cranial b\nd>y =ms 9 ! middle l9e a ?9 plate1 ! lam9a t]m9alis 7d71 :i* is1 morphologically1 ! cranial t]m9ation ( ! c]ebrosp9al axis2 x lies at ! bottom ( ! deep fissure betwe5 ! c]ebral hemisph]es4 ,at ! dorsal bord] ( ! lam9a t]m9alis is a /rong transv]se b& ( fibres connect+ ! two sides ( ! bra92 ?is is ! ant]ior commissure 7c74 ,! cavity ( ! ?ird v5tricle is mu* encroa*$ ^u by ! meet+ & second>y union ( ! two ?alami across ! middle l9e1 =m+ ! massa int]m$ia 7f74 ,! b\nd>ies ( ! ?ird v5tricle1 9 ord]1 are z foll[s1 beg9n+ dorsocraniad ( ! communication ) ! aqu$uctus c]ebri3 ! po/]ior commissure 7,fig4 #adc1 z71 ! p9eal body 7y71 ! *oroid plexus ( ! ?ird v5tricle 7w71 ! columns ( ! =nix 7v71 ! ant]ior commissure 7c71 ! lam9a t]m9alis 7d71 ! tub] c9]eum ) ! infundibulum 7g71 ! sub/antia p]=ata po/]ior1 & ! midbra94 ,! lat]al b\nd>ies are =m$ by ! ?alami 7,fig4 #ada1 t74 #e4 ,tel5cephalon4--,! tel5cephalon includes ! two c]ebral hemisph]es4 ,! "n c]ebrum is also appli$ to ?is portion ( ! bra92 frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 ! "n c]ebrum is us$ z signify+ ! entire mass ( ! bra9 craniad ( ! rhomb5cephalon1--!re=e includ+ mes5cephalon1 di5cephalon1 & tel5cephalon4 ,! t]m w "h be us$ z synonym\s ) tel5cephalon4 ,! c]ebral hemisph]es arise z two lat]al outgr[?s f ! cranial end ( ! primitive =ebra94 ,!y h und]gone great increase 9 size 9 ! c\rse ( evolution1 s z to =m ! l>g] "p ( ! bra92 at ! same "t important modifications ( /ructure h tak5 place4 ,9 ! orig9al condition ! m$ial faces ( ! two hemisph]es are n connect$1 ! two be+ sep>ate outgr[?s ( ! 'twe5-bra91 & connect$ only ?r\gh ! latt]4 ,b second>y connections h be5 =m$ across ! fissure betwe5 ! two hemisph]es1 result+ 9 ! production ( ! corpus callosum 7,fig4 #adc1 p2 ,fig4 #adg2 ,figs4 #adi-aeb1 a71 a broad transv]se b& ( :ite fibres connect+ ! two hemisph]es dorsad ( ! 'twe5-bra94 ,v5trad ( ! corpus callosum ano!r second>y union has result$ 9 ! production ( ! =nix 7,fig4 #adc1 u74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #add4--,,lat]al ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,bra94 a1 olfactory bulb2 b1 c]ebral hemisph]e2 c1 c]ebellum2 d1 m$ulla oblongata2 e1 tractus olfactorius2 f1 lobus pyri=mis or tractus po/rh9alis2 g1 pons2 h1 trapezium2 i1 pyramid2 j1 area elliptica2 k1 area ovalis4 ,,ii1 ,n4 opticus2 ,v1 ,n4 trigem9us2 ,,vii1 ,n4 facialis2 ,,viii1 ,n4 acu/icus2 ,,ix1 ,n4 glossoph>yngeus2 ,x1 ,n4 vagus2 ,,xi1 ,n4 accessorius4 #a4 sulcus prsylvius2 #b1 sulcus cruciatus2 #c1 sulcus ansatus2 #d1 sulcus lat]alis2 #e1 sulcus suprasylvius2 #f1 sulcus ant]ior2 #g1 sulcus po/]ior2 #h1 sulcus rh9alis2 #i4 fissura ,sylvii2 #aj4 sulcus rh9alis po/]ior4 ,ext]nal ,features4--,) increase 9 size ! mass ( ! c]ebrum %[s ext]nally a t5d5cy to divide into ?ree lobes1 "o craniad1 ! frontal 7,fig4 #ade1 ,a72 "o caudov5trad1 ! temporal 7,b72 & "o caudodorsad1 ! occipital 7,c74 ,! two latt] are n di/9ctly m>k$ (f f "o ano!r4 ,! limit betwe5 ! temporal & frontal lobes is m>k$ by a %ort deep fissure1 ! lat]al fissure 7fissura c]ebri lat]alis71 or fissure ( ,sylvius 7,fig4 #add1 #i2 ,fig4 #ade1 a74 ,ea* lobe is ?r[n up into elevations or gyri1 :i* are sep>at$ by grooves or sulci2 ^! are describ$ bel[4 ,! homology ( ! c]ebral gyri & sulci ( ! cat ) ^? ( man is 9 mo/ cases unc]ta94 ,! sulci & gyri ( ! c]ebral hemisph]es may be describ$ briefly 9 _! ma9 features z foll[s3 ,on ! lat]al surface ( ! hemisph]e 7,fig4 #ade7 ! lat]al fissure 7fissura c]ebri lat]alis71 or fissure ( ,sylvius1 sep>at+ temporal & frontal lobes1 =ms ! mo/ conv5i5t po9t ( dep>ture = an und]/&+ ( ! fissures4 ,! fissure ( ,sylvius is %ort b deep1 & is =m$ e>ly dur+ developm5t4 ,9 man x cov]s an area1 ! insula1 at its bottom1 :i* may be se5 by sep>at+ ! sides ( ! fissure4 ,9 ! cat ! insula is rudim5t>y & c be demon/rat$ only ) difficulty4 ,! lat]al surface ( ! hemisph]e is m>k$ by fissures :i* =m ?ree conc5tric ar*es 7b-c1 d1 & e71 irregul> & incomplete1 ab\t ! fissure ( ,sylvius4 ,^! ar*es all op5 v5trad4 ,! fir/ ar* 7b-c7 7t next to ! fissure ( ,sylvius7 lacks ! c5tral "p1 ! key/one1 s t a complete ar* is n =m$1 b only ! two sides ( ! ar*1 z two sep>ate sulci 7b & c74 ,! "o ( ^! craniad ( ! fissure ( ,sylvius is ! sulcus ant]ior 7b72 ! o!r is ! sulcus po/]ior 7c74 ,9 ! dog ?is ar* is usually complete & ! sulcus =m+ x is frequ5tly kn[n z ! ectosylvian sulcus 7sulcus ectosylvius74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,! ,,sulci ,,& ,,gyri ,,on ,,! ,,lat]al ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,hemisph]e4 ,a1 frontal lobe2 ,b1 temporal lobe2 ,c1 occipital lobe4 a1 lat]al fissure or fissure ( ,sylvius2 b1 sulcus ant]ior2 c1 sulcus po/]ior 7! brok5 l9e connect+ ! ends ( a & b s]ves to %[ h[ ! fir/ ar* is complet$ to =m ! ectosylvian sulcus1 z 9 ! dog72 d1 sulcus suprasylvius2 e1 sulcus lat]alis2 f1 sulcus cruciatus2 g1 sulcus coronalis2 h1 sulcus ansatus2 i1 sulcus rh9alis2 j1 sulcus prsylvius2 k1 sulcus rh9alis po/]ior4 #a1 ant]ior ,sylvian gyrus2 #b1 po/]ior ,sylvian gyrus2 #c1 gyrus ectosylvius2 #d1 gyrus suprasylvius2 #e1 gyrus m>g9alis2 #f1 gyrus compositus po/]ior2 #g1 sigmoid gyrus2 #h1 olfactory tract2 #i1 orbital gyrus2 #aj1 lobus pyri=mis2 #aa1 olfactory bulb4 ,! gyri includ$ betwe5 ! fissure ( ,sylvius on ! "o h& & ! ant]ior & po/]ior sulci on ! o!r are kn[n z ! ant]ior 7#a7 & po/]ior 7#b7 ,sylvian gyri4 ,! second ar* is =m$ by ! suprasylvian sulcus 7sulcus suprasylvius7 7d74 ,! gyrus betwe5 ! ant]ior & po/]ior sulci v5trad & ! suprasylvian sulcus dorsad is ! ectosylvian gyrus 7#c7 7because dorsad ( ! ectosylvian sulcus74 ,! ?ird ar*$ sulcus1 next to ! m$ial m>g9 ( ! hemisph]e1 is v>iable3 x =ms ! lat]al sulcus 7e74 ,! gyrus ly+ betwe5 ! suprasylvian & lat]al sulci is ! suprasylvian gyrus 7#d7 7because dorsad ( ! suprasylvian sulcus74 ,! lat]al sulcus is sometimes brok5 into two 7z 9 ,fig4 #acg1 h71 ! two ends ov]lapp+ s z to leave a small gyrus betwe5 ! two ends4 ,! gyrus dorsom$iad ( ! lat]al sulcus1 ext5d+ onto ! m$ial surface ( ! hemisph]e z f> z ! spl5ial sulcus1 is ! m>g9al gyrus 7#e74 ,! f\r sets ( gyri includ$ betwe5 ^! ?ree sets ( ar*$ sulci & ! fissure ( ,sylvius unite caudad & craniad to =m s+le gyri4 ,! caudal "o is ! gyrus compositus po/]ior 7#f74 ,! cranial "o 7less regul> ?an ! caudal "o7 is ! sigmoid gyrus 7#g74 ,! latt] curves ab\t ! cruciate sulcus 7f7 7describ$ bel[74 ,9 ! cranial "p ( ! lat]al surface ( ! hemisph]e are c]ta9 sulci & gyri :i* d n belong to ! sy/em above describ$4 ,! cruciate sulcus 7f7 is a %ort transv]se sulcus pass+ f ! lat]al surface ( ! hemisph]e onto its m$ial surface1 :]e x ext5ds caudad ab\t a c5timet]4 ,curv+ ar\nd ! lat]al end ( ?is1 sep>at$ f x by "p ( ! sigmoid gyrus1 is ! %ort coronal sulcus 7g74 ,connect$ usually ) ! end ( ! lat]al sulcus 7e7 & runn+ ne>ly p>allel ) ! cruciate sulcus is ! %ort sulcus ansatus 7h74 ,at its v5tral end ! fissure ( ,sylvius 7a7 jo9s a longitud9al groove pass+ craniad & caudad f ! po9t ( junction4 ,t "p :i* passes craniad is ! sulcus rh9alis 7i72 x =ms ! dorsolat]al b\nd>y ( ! olfactory tract 7#h74 ,pass+ dorsocraniad f ! sulcus rh9alis is a sulcus :i* sep>ates a v small cranial lobe f ! re/ ( ! hemisph]e2 ?is is ! supraorbital or prsylvian sulcus 7j74 ,! portion ( ! hemisph]e craniad ( ?is sulcus is ! orbital gyrus 7#i74 ,! sulcus rh9alis 7i7 is cont9u\s caudad ) ! sulcus rh9alis po/]ior 7or sulcus po/rh9alis7 7k74 ,?is ext5ds caudad onto t portion ( ! hemisph]e :i* faces ! c]ebellum4 ,x =ms ! lat]al b\nd>y ( a l>ge elongat$ oval lobe ly+ at ! side ( ! v5tral floor ( ! midbra9 & 'twe5-bra94 ,?is lobe has be5 call$ tractus po/rh9alis or lobus pyri=mis 7,fig4 #ade1 #aj2 ,fig4 #ach1 f74 ,9 addition to ! sulci & gyri above m5tion$1 any giv5 specim5 w usually %[ a numb] ( small incon/ant sulci & gyri 9 v>i\s regions2 ^! incon/ant /ructures w n be "h describ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,! ,,sulci ,,& ,,gyri ,,on ,,! ,,m$ial ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,hemisph]e4 a1 sulcus spl5ialis2 b1 sulcus m>g9alis2 c1 sulcus cruciatus2 d1 sulcus falcialis2 e1 sulcus supracallosalis2 f1 sulcus rh9alis po/]ior2 g1 hippocampal sulcus2 h1 corpus callosum4 #a1 gyrus m>g9alis2 #b1 gyrus =nicatus2 #c1 gyrus compositus po/]ior4 ,on ! m$ial surface ( ! hemisph]e 7,fig4 #adf71 ! foll[+ arrangem5t ( sulci & gyri seems to be typical4 ,"s di/ance f ! dorsal m>g9 a long sulcus runs p>allel ) ! m>g92 ?is is ! sulcus spl5ialis 7a74 ,! m>g9al gyrus 7#a7 is dorsad ( ! spl5ial sulcus1 pass+ onto ! lat]al surface ( ! hemisph]e1 :]e x is b\nd$ by ! lat]al sulcus4 ,! spl5ial sulcus ext5ds onto ! caudal surface ( ! hemisph]e4 ,a %all[ sulcus m>g9alis 7b7 occurs frequ5tly betwe5 ! sulcus spl5ialis & ! dorsal m>g9 ( ! hemisph]e4 ,craniov5trad or ! cranial end ( ! spl5ial sulcus is t portion ( ! sulcus cruciatus 7c7 t lies on ! m$ial surface ( ! hemisph]e4 ,v5trad ( ?is is a %ort %all[ furr[ :i* has be5 call$ ! sulcus falcialis 7d74 ,imm$iately dorsad ( ! corpus callosum 7h71 sep>at+ its dorsal surface f a "p ( ! hemisph]e1 is ! supracallosal or callosal sulcus 7e74 ,betwe5 ! supracallosal 7e7 & spl5ial 7a7 sulci is ! gyrus =nicatus 7#b74 ,on ! caudal surface ( ! hemisph]e 7t fac+ ! c]ebellum7 appe> ! ends ( ! sulcus spl5ialis 7a7 & ! sulcus rh9alis po/]ior 7f74 ,hidd5 9 ! natural condition by ! ?alami & optic tract is ! broad hippocampal sulcus 7g71 m>k+ ext]nally ! c\rse ( ! hippocampus4 ,a fur!r ext5sion ( ! surface ( ! c]ebrum has tak5 place 9 connection ) ! s5se ( smell4 ,a mass ( gray matt]1 ! olfactory bulb 7,fig4 #add1 a71 reckon$ z a "p ( ! c]ebrum1 is sep>at$ f ! latt] & lies aga9/ ! cribri=m plate ( ! e?moid bone4 ,f x ! olfactory fibres pass ?r\gh ! p]=ations ( ! plate to ! olfactory muc\s membrane4 ,! olfactory bulb conta9s a cavity1 a "p ( ! lat]al v5tricle4 ,! bulb lies aga9/ ! v5tral surface ( ! frontal lobe & projects craniad ( x4 ,x is connect$ to ! c]ebrum by a tract ( fibres1 ! olfactory tract 7,fig4 #ach1 a71 :i* is divisible into two roots1 m$ial & lat]al4 ,! m$ial root comes f ! m$ial surface ( ! frontal lobe1 :]e x is cont9u\s ) a tract ext5d+ to ! cranial end ( ! corpus callosum4 ,! lat]al root is traceable f an elevat$ gyrus-l portion ( ! c]ebrum :i* lies at ! side ( ! infundibulum & is kn[n z ! lobus pyri=mis or tractus po/rh9alis 7,fig4 #ach1 f74 ,! lat]al root is divisible into a m$ial :ite /r& & a lat]al gray /r&4 ,t "p ( ! bra9 compris+ ! olfactory bulb & ! p>ts intimately relat$ to x are frequ5tly includ$ "u ! t]m rh95cephalon4 ,9 ! triangul> area betwe5 ! two olfactory tracts & craniad ( ! optic *iasma appe>s a mass ( gray matt]1 subdivid$ by a longitud9al fissure4 ,?is possesses num]\s op5+s ?r\gh :i* blood-vessels pass to ! bra9 sub/ance1 & is !nce kn[n z ! ant]ior p]=at$ sub/ance 7sub/antia p]=ata ant]ior7 7,fig4 #ach1 b74 ,int]nal ,/ructures ( ! ,c]ebrum4--,! cavity ( ea* ( ! c]ebral hemisph]es is kn[n z a lat]al v5tricle4 ,! two lat]al v5tricles con/itute ! fir/ & second ( ! v5tricles ( ! bra91 :5ce ! application ( ! names ?ird & f\r? v5tricles to ! cavities ( ! 'twe5-bra9 & h9dbra94 ,! lat]al v5tricles d n gr[ at ! same rate z ! walls ( ! hemisph]es1 s t !y rema9 comp>atively small4 ,! cavity ( ea* v5tricle is fur!r r$uc$ 9 size by ! developm5t on its floor ( a l>ge ridge-l ?ick5+1 ! corpus /riatum 7,fig4 #adh1 f74 ,! dorsal wall or ro( ( ! lat]al v5tricle jo9s ! ?9 ro( ( ! ?ird v5tricle on ea* side along an oblique curv$ l9e 7,fig4 #ada1 #a7 :i* foll[s ! cranial or lat]al bord] ( ! ?alamus 7,fig4 #ada1 t74 ,along ?is l9e ! ?9 ro( ( ! bra9 is fold$ 9 toge!r ) ! pia mat] to =m ! *oroid plexus ( ! lat]al v5tricles 7lam9a *orioidea epi!lialis7 7,fig4 #adh1 e74 ,:5 ?is is pull$ out !re is left a fissure1 ! 8great transv]se fissure ( ! c]ebrum0 7,fig4 #ada1 #a74 ,j dorsad ( ! groove betwe5 ! ?alami !re runs a tract ( :ite fibres kn[n z ! =nix 7,fig4 #adh1 a74 ,! two halves ( ! =nix sep>ate at ! cranial ends ( ! ?alami & pass v5trad1 =m+ ?us ! pill>s ( ! =nix 7,fig4 #adh1 b2 ,fig4 #adc1 v74 ,dorsad ( ! cranial end ( ! =nix ! corpus callosum 7,fig4 #adc1 p7 passes f "o hemisph]e to ! o!r4 ,caudad ( ! pill>s ( ! =nix1 ! lat]al v5tricles communicate ) ! ?ird v5tricle by way ( ! int]v5tricul> =am5 7=am5 ( ,monroe74 ,! p>ts ( ! c]ebrum may n[ be tak5 up 9 detail4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--,,! ,,corpus ,,callosum4 ,! dorsal portion ( ! hemisph]es has be5 dissect$ away1 !n slic$ (f1 %[+ ! plate ( transv]se fibres =m+ ! corpus callosum4 a1 spl5ium2 b1 g5u2 c1 l9e m>k+ ! m$ial edge ( ! hemisph]es2 d1 l9e m>k+ ! lat]al b\nd>y ( ! supracallosal sulcus2 lat]ad ( ?is l9e ! corpus callosum lies 9 ! sub/ance ( ! hemisph]es1 :i* h be5 dissect$ away2 e1 l9e m>k+ m$ial limit ( cut surface4 ,! corpus callosum 7,fig4 #adg2 ,fig4 #adc1 p2 ,figs4 #adi-aeb1 a7 is a broad transv]se b& ( fibres =m+ a second>y connection betwe5 ! m$ial walls ( ! two hemisph]es1 dorsad ( ! ro( ( ! ?ird v5tricle4 ,its out] surface 7,fig4 #adg7 is expos$ at ! bottom ( ! fissure :i* sep>ates ! hemisph]es4 ,on ea* side x passes lat]ad1 =m+ ! ro( ( ! lat]al v5tricle4 ,its cranial "p lies dorsad ( ! corpus /riatum1 & its caudal "p dorsad ( ! ?alamus4 ,lat]ally its fibres radiate into ! sub/ance ( ! hemisph]es4 ,at its cranial end ! corpus callosum b5ds v5trad & !n caudad 7,fig4 #adc74 ,! "p :i* turns to pass v5trad is ! g5u 7,fig4 #adc1 q7 or knee1 :ile ! "p :i* projects caudad is ! ro/rum 7r74 ,! caudal bord] ( ! corpus callosum is also ?ick5$ & turn$ v5trad & is call$ ! spl5ium 7,fig4 #adc1 s72 x lies dorsad ( ! cranial corpora quadrigem9a 7z74 ,! caudal half ( ! v5tral surface ( ! corpus callosum is unit$ ) ! =nix 7,fig4 #adc1 u74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--;,,=nix1 ,,hippocampus1 ,,& ,,corpus ,,/riatum4 ,! dorsal portion ( ! hemisph]es has be5 dissect$ away & ! corpus callosum remov$4 a1 =nix2 b1 columns or pill>s ( ! =nix2 c1 crura ( ! =nix2 d1 hippocampus2 e1 *oroid plexus ( ! lat]al v5tricles ov]ly+ ! fimbria 7! *oroid plexus %[s an art]y72 f1 corpus /riatum2 g1 corpora quadrigem9a2 h1 position ( ! int]v5tricul> =am5 7=am5 ( ,monroe74 ,! =nix 7,fig4 #adh1 a2 ,fig4 #adc1 u1 v2 ,figs4 #aej-aeb1 b7 consi/s ( an ar*$ tract ( longitud9al fibres ne> ! m$ial bord] ( ea* hemisph]e1 v5trad ( ! corpus callosum4 ,ea* tract beg9s 9 ! mammill>y bodies1 & passes dorsad1 ! two conv]g+ until !y run side by side1 =m+ a cyl9drical dorsov5tral bundle kn[n z ! columns or pill>s ( ! =nix 7,fig4 #adc1 v2 ,fig4 #aej1 e71 :i* cross ! ant]ior commissure 7,fig4 #adc1 c2 ,fig4 #aej1 f7 caudad ( ! latt]4 ,caudad ( ! pill>s ( ! =nix1 betwe5 ^! & ! ?alamus1 lies on ea* side ! int]v5tricul> =am5 or =am5 ( ,monroe1 a small op5+ :i* connects ! lat]al v5tricles ) ! ?ird v5tricle4 ,dorsad ( ! =am5 ! =nix turns caudad1 ! two fibre-tracts ( ea* hemisph]e ly+ side by side & closely connect$ 7,fig4 #adh1 a71 =m+ ?us ano!r second>y union betwe5 ! m$ial surfaces ( ! two hemisph]es4 ,?is portion ( ! =nix is ! corpus or body 7,fig4 #adh1 a72 x lies dorsad ( ! ro( ( ! ?ird v5tricle & passes to ! spl5ium 7,fig4 #adc1 s7 ( ! corpus callosum1 & its dorsal surface unites ) ! v5tral surface ( ! latt] 7,fig4 #adc74 ,caudad ! two halves ( ! =nix div]ge1 =m+ ! crura ( ! =nix 7,fig4 #adh1 c72 ^! & ! body are cont9u\s lat]ally ) ! hippocampus 7,fig4 #adh1 d7 & ! fimbria 7,fig4 #adh1 b5ea? e74 ,! ant]ior commissure 7,fig4 #adc1 c2 ,fig4 #aej1 f7 is a transv]se b& ( :ite fibres :i* /ret*es f "o hemisph]e to ! o!r ab\t half way betwe5 ! int]v5tricul> =am5 or =am5 ( ,monroe & ! floor ( ! ?ird v5tricle1 & j craniad ( ! pill>s ( ! =nix4 ,?is tract ( fibres is develop$ 9 ! orig9al wall ( ! ?ird v5tricle1 s t x does n =m a second>y connection betwe5 ! halves ( ! c]ebrum1 z d ! =nix & corpus callosum4 ,x lies dorsad ( ! lam9a t]m9alis 7,fig4 #adc1 d7 & is cont9u\s ) x4 ,! septum pellucidum 7,fig4 #adc1 t7 is a v]tical p>tition :i* sep>ates ! lat]al v5tricles & fills ! int]val betwe5 ! corpus callosum dorsad & ! =nix v5trad4 ,x is triangul> & transluc5t4 ,x is =m$ f ! m$ial walls ( ! two hemisph]es & !re=e is made up ( two lam9 :i* embrace betwe5 !m a space :i* orig9ally 0 a "p ( ! fissure sep>at+ ! hemisph]es4 ,?is space has be5 call$ ! fif? v5tricle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--;,,caudal ,,surface ,,( ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,bra9 ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,g5u ,,( ,,! ,,corpus ,,callosum4 ,,fig4 #aej4--;,,caudal ,,surface ,,( ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,bra9 ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,optic ,,*iasma ,,& ,,! ,,region ,,( ,,! ,,int]v5tricul> ,,=am5 7,,=am5 ,,( ,,monroe74 ,fig4 #adi4--;,gray matt] dott$2 :ite matt] ) a few l9es4 #a1 "r hemisph]e2 #b1 left hemisph]e4 a1 corpus callosum1 section ?r\gh g5u & ro/rum2 b1 cavity ( lat]al v5tricles4 ,fig4 #aej4--a1 "r hemisph]e2 #b1 left hemisph]e4 a1 corpus callosum2 b1 =nix 7cut72 c1 cavity ( lat]al v5tricles2 d1 fimbria 7d1 cut surface2 d1 caudal uncut surface ( ! "p t curves v5trad72 e1 pill>s ( =nix2 f1 ant]ior commissure2 g1 p>ts ( ?ird v5tricle2 h1 optic *iasma2 i1 p>ts ( corpus /riatum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aea4--;,,caudal ,,surface ,,( ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,bra9 ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,tub] ,,c9]eum ,,& ,,infundibulum1 ,,craniad ,,( ,,! ,,hypophysis4 a1 corpus callosum2 b1 =nix 7cont9u\s at ! sides ) ! hippocampus72 c1 cavity ( lat]al v5tricles2 d1 hippocampus2 e1 *oroid plexus ( ! ?ird v5tricle 7ro( ( ! di5cephalon72 f1 dorsal "p ( cavity ( ! ?ird v5tricle2 g1 section ( ?alamus2 h1 massa int]m$ia ( ! ?alami1 divid+ ! ?ird v5tricle into a dorsal 7f7 & a v5tral 7i7 portion2 i1 v5tral "p ( ?ird v5tricle2 j1 "p ( optic tracts2 k1 ?9 wall ( infundibulum1 ) "p ( cavity ( ?ird v5tricle2 l1 l9e sep>at+ ro( ( ?alamus 7di5cephalon7 f floor ( hemisph]es 7tel5cephalon74 ,! hippocampus 7,fig4 #adh1 d2 ,fig4 #aeb1 d7 is an elongat$ r\nd$ elevation ( ! floor ( ! lat]al v5tricle4 ,x is cont9u\s m$iad ) ! =nix 7,fig4 #adh1 a7 & ext5ds !nce along ! inf]ior horn ( ! lat]al v5tricle to its end 9 ! temporal lobe4 ,x is some:at n>r[] at its lat]al end4 ,x is ?us curv$ into a semicircle 9 con=mity ) ! inf]ior horn ( ! v5tricle4 ,its dorsal surface is convex & looks into ! lat]al v5tricle2 its v5tral surface is concave & re/s ^u ! ?alamus & ! optic tract4 ,along ! craniolat]al edge ( ! hippocampus is a broad1 cle>ly m>k$ fibre-tract1 ! fimbria2 ?is runs p>allel to ! *oroid plexus ( ! lat]al v5tricle & b5ea? x1 & is cont9u\s at its m$ial end ) ! =nix4 ,! corpus /riatum 7,fig4 #adh1 f2 ,fig4 #ada1 y2 ,fig4 #aej1 i7 is a fusi=m or ovoid elevation ( ! floor ( ! lat]al v5tricle4 ,"o ( its n>r[ ends lies ab\t opposite ! middle ( ! ?alamus 7,fig4 #ada1 t7 & x ext5ds !nce obliquely m$iad ne>ly p>allel ) ! ?alamus4 ,9 ! groove betwe5 x & ! ?alamus is ! *oroid plexus ( ! lat]al v5tricles 7,fig4 #adh1 e74 ,int]nally ! corpus /riatum is made up ( sev]al lay]s ( diff]5t texture 7,fig4 #aej1 i71 :5ce its "n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4--;,,caudal ,,surface ,,( ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,bra9 ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,p9eal ,,body ,,& ,,?alami4 ,,fig4 #aec4--;,,caudal ,,surface ,,( ,,transv]se ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,bra9 ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,cranial ,,pair ,,( ,,corpora ,,quadrigem9a4 ,fig4 #aeb4--;a1 corpus callosum2 b1 =nix2 c1 inf]ior horn ( lat]al v5tricles2 d1 hippocampus2 e1 ?alamus2 f1 ?ird v5tricle2 g1 p9eal body2 h1 space betwe5 ! floor ( ! hemisph]e 7hippocampus7 & ro( ( ! 'twe5-bra9 7?alamus74 ,fig4 #aec4--;a1 cranial corpora quadrigem9a2 b1 hippocampus2 c1 "p ( inf]ior horn ( lat]al v5tricle2 d1 aqu$uctus c]ebri 7aqu$uct ( ,sylvius72 e1 space betwe5 ! out] surface ( ! midbra9 & ! l[] surface ( ! hemisph]e2 f1 cross-section ( midbra92 g1 p$unculi c]ebri4 ,! *oroid plexus ( ! lat]al v5tricles 7lam9a *orioidea epi!lialis7 7,fig4 #adh1 e74--,! l9e ( junction ( ! ro( ( ! ?ird v5tricle 7i4e41 ! *oroid plexus ( ! ?ird v5tricle7 & ! c]ebral hemisph]es is along ! lat]al 7or cranial7 bord] ( ! ?alamus 7,fig4 #ada1 t74 ,along ?is l9e 7,fig4 #ada1 #a7 ! bra9-wall rema9s v ?9 & becomes closely associat$ ) ! pia mat]1 s t on ! removal ( ! pia !re is left ! 8transv]se fissure0 :i* leads into ! lat]al v5tricle4 ,9 an e>ly /age1 be=e ! c]ebrum has gr[n f> caudad1 ! fissure is expos$ 9 dorsal view1 b aft] ! hemisph]es h cov]$ ! ?alami ! fissure appe>s to be 9 ! l[] face ( ! hemisph]e4 ,?r\gh ?is fissure ! pia mat] ext5ds upw>d into ! lat]al v5tricles z a fold sep>at$ f ! v5tricle by ! ?9 bra9-wall4 ,?is fold is vascul> & is kn[n z ! *oroid plexus ( ! lat]al v5tricle 7,fig4 #adh1 e74 ,x is a fr+e-l fold ly+ on ! fimbria & ext5d+ f ! =am5 ( ,monroe 7at h7 ne>ly to ! end ( ! inf]ior horn ( ! lat]al v5tricle4 ,! lat]al v5tricles are ! ext5sions into ! hemisph]es ( ! orig9ally unpair$ cavity ( ! =ebra94 ,ea* consi/s ( a portion p>allel to ! basis cranii & ly+ at ! side ( ! septum pellucidum betwe5 ! corpus callosum dorsad & ! corpus /riatum1 hippocampus1 & =nix v5trad1 & ( two horns1 an ant]ior & an inf]ior horn4 ,! inf]ior horn 7,fig4 #aeb1 c7 is a n>r[ cleft1 cresc5t-%ap$ 9 cross-section1 :i* foll[s ! dorsal surface ( ! hippocampus 7,fig4 #adh1 d2 ,fig4 #aeb1 d7 along ! temporal lobe to its end almo/ aga9/ ! tub] c9]eum4 ,x ?us passes fir/ caudad & !n v5trad & f9ally m$iad4 ,! *oroid plexus & hippocampus project into x f its floor4 ,! ant]ior horn ext5ds v5trad & !n slightly caudad 9 ! frontal lobe1 foll[+ ! corpus /riatum 7,fig4 #adh1 f71 on :i* x lies4 ,! int]v5tricul> =am5 7or =am5 ( ,monroe74--,if ! *oroid plexus ( ! lat]al v5tricle 7,fig4 #adh1 e7 is foll[$ to its m$ial end1 x is f\nd to pass ?r\gh a =am5 7at h7 9 :i* x becomes cont9u\s ) ! opposite plexus or ro( ( ! ?ird v5tricle4 ,?is =am5 leads f "o lat]al v5tricle to ! o!r & is connect$ v5trally by a m$ian op5+ ) ! ?ird v5tricle4 ,x is ?us ,y-%ap$ or ,t-%ap$ & is ! int]v5tricul> =am5 7or =am5 ( ,monroe74 ,! =am5 lies opposite ! middle ( ! corpus /riatum & caudad ( ! pill>s ( ! =nix4 ,membranes ( ! ,bra94--,! membranes ( ! bra9 are ! dura mat]1 ! ara*noid1 & ! pia mat]4 ,! dura mat] is a /rong fibr\s membrane l9+ ! cranial cavity & cov]+ ! bra94 ,x is /rongly atta*$ to ! projections ( ! base ( ! skull & to ! t5torium4 ,x dips betwe5 ! c]ebral hemisph]es & olfactory bulbs1 =m+ ! falx c]ebri4 ,x likewise dips betwe5 ! c]ebrum & ! c]ebellum1 cov]+ bo? surfaces ( ! bony t5torium4 ,! dura mat] does n pass into ! fissures or sulci ( ! surface ( ! bra94 ,x becomes cont9u\s ) ! %ea? ( ! cranial n]ves z !y leave ! skull4 ,x is cont9u\s ) ! dura mat] ( ! sp9al cord4 ,! ara*noid & pia mat] are ess5tially simil> to ! same /ructures on ! sp9al cord4 ,! pia mat] dips into ! fissures & sulci ( ! bra94 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,p]iph]al ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em4 #a4 ,cranial ,n]ves4 ,n]vi c]ebrales4--,i4 ,n4 ,,olfactorius4--,! fasciculi ( ! olfactory n]ves arise f ! olfactory bulb 7,fig4 #add1 a7 & pass ?r\gh ! =am9a ( ! cribri=m plate1 ^u :i* ! bulb lies1 to be di/ribut$ to ! olfactory muc\s membrane ( ! nose4 ,,ii4 ,n4 ,,opticus4--,! second n]ve or optic 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,ii7 arises f ! optic *iasma 7,fig4 #ach1 c71 passes ?r\gh ! optic =am51 & ext5ds 9 an ,s-%ap$ curve to ! eyeball4 ,its c\rse is craniodorsad4 ,x pi]ces ! scl]otic & *oroid coats ( ! eye & spreads out into ! ret9a4 ,,iii4 ,n4 ,,oculomotorius4--,! ?ird or oculomotor n]ve arises 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,iii7 f ! p$unculus c]ebri & passes into ! orbit ?r\gh ! orbital fissure4 ,x passes betwe5 ! lat]al & sup]ior recti1 s5ds a l>ge bran* to ! sup]ior rectus1 supplies ! m$ial rectus & ! retractor oculi1 passes lat]ad ( ! optic n]ve & supplies ! inf]ior rectus1 & s5ds a long bran* to ! inf]ior oblique 7,fig4 #aff1 f74 ,at ! po9t :]e ! bran* is giv5 (f to ! inf]ior oblique muscle is ! triangul> r$di% cili>y 7or oph?almic7 ganglion1 ab\t two millimet]s 9 diamet]4 ,x is directly atta*$ to ! inf]ior oblique bran* ( ! ?ird n]ve & receives a delicate s5sory filam5t f ! oph?almic n]ve4 ,f ! cili>y ganglion proce$ two %ort cili>y n]ves :i* pass along ea* side ( ! optic n]ve to ! eyeball4 ,^! n]ves p5etrate ! scl]otic at ! sides ( ! eyeball to be di/ribut$ to ! ball4 ,,iv4 ,n4 ,,tro*le>is4--,! f\r? n]ve1 ! tro*le>is 7or pa!ticus71 arises f ! lat]al bord] ( ! velum m$ull>e ant]ius1 z already describ$ 7,fig4 #ada1 n74 ,x passes craniad1 em]ges ?r\gh ! orbital fissure 9 company ) ! oculomotor1 abduc5s1 & oph?almic1 passes dorsad ( ! sup]ior rectus muscle1 & rea*es 7,fig4 #aed1 l7 ! caudal bord] ( ! belly ( ! sup]ior oblique muscle ne> its middle4 ,x supplies only ! sup]ior oblique4 ,v4 ,n4 ,,trigem9us4--,! fif? n]ve1 ! trigem9us 7or trifacial7 arises 7,fig4 #ach1 ,v7 by two roots1 a l>ge s5sory & a small motor root 7#d71 z already describ$ 7p4 #cdg74 ,"o ( ^!1 ! motor 7#d71 is small] & m v5tral2 ! o!r1 ! s5sory root1 is l>g] & dorsal4 ,! dorsal root soon enl>ges to =m a l>ge ganglion1 ! semilun> 7or ,gass]ian7 ganglion 7,fig4 #ach1 k71 f :i* ?ree bran*es div]ge4 ,"o bran* is jo9$ by ! v5tral root 7#d71 :i* passes ov] ! v5tral surface ( ! semilun> ganglion2 & ! n]ve ?us =m$ is ! m&ibul> division 7#a7 ( ! fif? n]ve4 ,( ! o!r two bran*es f ! ganglion1 ! middle & longe/ is ! maxill>y n]ve 7#b71 & ! smalle/ is ! oph?almic 7#c74 ,! m&ibul> n]ve is ?us mix$1 motor & s5sory1 :ile ! o!rs are s5sory4 #a4 ,n4 oph?almicus4--,! oph?almic or fir/ division ( ! fif? n]ve arises f ! semilun> 7or ,gass]ian7 ganglion4 ,x passes out ( ! cranial cavity & into ! orbit by way ( ! orbital fissure1 9 company ) ! ?ird1 f\r?1 & six? n]ves & ) ! ext5sion ( ! c>otid 7art]ial7 plexus4 ,x passes betwe5 ! sup]ior & m$ial recti along ) ! ?ird n]ve1 crosses dorsad ( ! optic n]ve1 & divides into infratro*le> & e?moidal bran*es4 ,9 ! orbital fissure x gives (f ! frontal n]ve1 & :ile cross+ ! optic x gives (f ! long cili>y n]ve4 a4 ,n4 frontalis4--,! frontal n]ve passes along ! lat]al bord] ( ! sup]ior oblique muscle & !n lat]ad ( ! pulley to ne> ! middle ( ! supraorbital cre/ ( ! frontal bone4 ,"h x passes out ( ! orbit & is di/ribut$ to ! integum5t ( ! upp] eyelid & ! adjac5t region at ! side ( ! nose4 b4 ,n4 infratro*le>is4--,! infratro*le> n]ve passes betwe5 ! sup]ior rectus & ! sup]ior oblique 9 ! fir/ "p ( its c\rse4 ,x !n passes v5trad ( ! sup]ior oblique & v5trad ( ! pulley to be di/ribut$ to ! integum5t ( ! upp] eyelid ne> ! inn] angle4 c4 ,n4 e?moidalis4--,! e?moidal n]ve passes along ) ! e?moidal art]y ?r\gh ! e?moidal =am5 7or =am9a7 9 ! orbital plate ( ! frontal bone4 ,x is f9ally di/ribut$ to ! mucosa ( ! nose & to ! c>tilage & integum5t ( ! sn\t4 d4 ,n4 cili>is longus4--,! long cili>y n]ve arises f ! oph?almic & passes along ! optic n]ve to be di/ribut$ to ! eyeball4 ,x divides into sev]al bran*es be=e p5etrat+ ! scl]otic4 ,"o or two small communicat+ bran*es to ! cili>y ganglion are giv5 (f at ab\t ! same po9t z ! long cili>y n]ve4 7,= a description ( ?is ganglion see ! acc\nt ( ! oculomotor n]ve1 page #cfi47 #b4 ,n4 maxill>is4--,! maxill>y n]ve1 ! second division ( ,n4 trigem9us1 rises f ! semilun> 7,gass]ian7 ganglion & leaves ! skull by ! =am5 rotundum4 ,x is ! s5sory n]ve ( ! palate1 upp] tee? & upp] lip1 & ( "p ( ! =ehead & *eek4 ,on leav+ ! =am5 ! maxill>y n]ve divides into ?ree bran*es1 ! two infraorbital n]ves 7,fig4 #aed1 f7 & ! sph5opalat9e 7,fig4 #aed1 g74 ,two small] bran*es are likewise giv5 (f ei!r )9 or j outside ( ! =am51 ! la*rymal n]ve 7,fig4 #aed1 j7 & ! zygomatic 7subcutaneus mal7 7,fig4 #aed1 i74 a4 ,n4 la*rymalis 7,fig4 #aed1 j2 ,fig4 #aee1 m74--,! la*rymal n]ve passes along ! p]iorbita to ! la*rymal gl& 7,fig4 #aed1 #aa71 to :i* x gives bran*es4 ,x !n cont9ues caudad ( ! zygomatic process ( ! temporal to ! integum5t2 "h x turns caudad & is di/ribut$ to ! integum5t 9 ! region betwe5 ! eye & ! ext]nal e> 7,fig4 #aee1 m74 ,x ana/omoses ) ! zygomatic bran* ( ! sev5? n]ve 7,fig4 #aee1 h74 b4 ,n4 zygomaticus 7subcutaneus mal7 7,fig4 #aed1 i74--,?is arises ) ! prec$+ & foll[s x = "s di/ance4 ,x passes ?r\gh a =am5 9 ! frontal process ( ! mal> bone & is di/ribut$ to ! l[] eyelid & adjac5t integum5t4 c4 ,nn4 infraorbitales 7,fig4 #aed1 f2 ,fig4 #aee1 l74--,! infraorbital n]ves are two ( ne>ly equal size4 ,!y pass ?r\gh ! orbit v5trad ( ! eyeball to ! infraorbital canal4 ,on _! c\rse ea* divides once or twice & ea* divides aga9 9 ! infraorbital =am51 s t ab\t eight bran*es em]ge f ! infraorbital =am5 & div]ge to ! integum5t & :isk]s ( ! upp] lip & to ! side & w+ ( ! nose 7,fig4 #aee1 l74 ,9 ! infraorbital canal1 & be=e rea*+ x1 bran*es are giv5 to ! mol> tee?1 & a bran* cont9ues 9 ! bone to ! can9e1 incisor1 & premol> tee?4 d4 ,n4 sph5opalat9us 7,fig4 #aed1 g74--,! sph5opalat9e n]ve turns m$iad f ! infraorbitals1 direct+ its c\rse t[>d ! sph5opalat9e =am54 ,be=e rea*+ ?is x gives (f ! great] palat9e n]ve 7,n4 palat9us major71 :i* ent]s ! po/]ior palat9e canal & passes to ! h>d palate4 ,! sph5opalat9e !n usually divides into two bran*es :i* pass along side by side to ent] ! sph5opalat9e ganglion4 ,?is is a l>ge elongat$ triangul> ganglion ly+ on ! dorsal surface ( ! ext]nal pt]ygoid muscle1 j lat]ad ( ! sph5opalat9e =am54 ,! foll[+ n]ves are connect$ ) ! sph5opalat9e ganglion3 a4 ,n4 palat9us m9or4--,?is leaves ! craniolat]al angle ( ! ganglion & passes to ! s(t palate4 b4 ,n4 nasalis po/]ior4--,! po/]ior nasal n]ve ent]s ! nasal cavity by ! sph5opalat9e =am5 & is di/ribut$ to ! mucosa ( ! v5tral & middle p>ts ( ! nasal cavity4 c4 ,n4 canalis pt]ygoidii 7,vidian ,n]ve74--,?is is a l>ge n]ve :i* leaves ! caudal angle ( ! sph5opalat9e ganglion & passes caudad4 ,x ent]s ! orbital fissure1 ly+ 9 a groove on its v5tral wall 7! cranial end ( ?is groove is sometimes conv]t$ into a canal74 ,! groove ends caudally 9 a =am5 :i* pi]ces ! sph5oid bone betwe5 ! w+ & ! body & lies j m$iad ( ! =am5 rotundum4 ,! groove & =am5 con/itute ! pt]ygoid canal 7f :i* ! n]ve is nam$74 ,aft] em]g+ f ! pt]ygoid canal onto ! v5tral surface ( ! basisph5oid ! n]ve ent]s ! tympanic bulla along ) ! ,eu/a*ian tube1 ly+ on ! m$ial side ( ! latt]4 ,j aft] ent]+1 on rea*+ ! int]nal c>otid art]y1 x divides into two4 ,"o ( ^!1 ,n4 petrosus sup]ficialis major 7p4 #cge71 passes into ! hiatus facialis ( ! petr\s bone & jo9s ! facial n]ve4 ,! o!r1 ,n4 petrosus pr(undus1 accompanies ! int]nal c>otid art]y caudad1 turn+ !re=e out ( ! bulla & pass+ caudad along its m$ial side2 x f9ally jo9s ! sup]ior c]vical ganglion ( ! sympa!tic sy/em4 #c4 ,n4 m&ibul>is4--,! ?ird division ( ! fif?1 ! m&ibul> n]ve1 takes orig9 by a /rong root f ! semilun> 7or ,gass]ian7 ganglion1 & receives also aft] sep>at+ f ! ganglion ! small] v5tral root 7portio m9or7 ( ! fif? n]ve4 ,! root f ! ganglion is s5sory2 ! small] root is motor1 s t ! m&ibul> n]ve is bo? s5sory & motor4 ,! n]ve passes ?r\gh ! =am5 ovale1 & s5ds (f at once ! foll[+ bran*es3 a4 ,n4 auriculotemporalis 7,figs4 #aed & #aee1 n74--,?is passes dorsad betwe5 ! c>tilag9\s auditory meatus & ! zygomatic process ( ! temporal bone 7,fig4 #aed1 n71 em]ges at ! caudal bord] ( ! masset] muscle 7,fig4 #aee1 n71 & divides into two *ief bran*es4 ,"o1 ! auricul> bran*1 passes along ! cranial side ( ! ext]nal e> & is di/ribut$ to its integum5t4 ,! o!r1 ! temporal bran*1 passes along ! zygomatic ar*1 gives bran*es to ! temporal muscle & to ! sk91 foll[s ! zygomatic ar* almo/ to ! angle ( ! m\?1 & ana/omoses ) ! sup]ior buccal bran* ( ! facial 7,fig4 #aee1 k74 b4 ,n4 temporalis pr(undus4--,"o or m l>ge bran*es pass+ m$iad ( ! zygomatic ar* to ! temporal muscle4 c4 ,n4 masset]icus4--,! masset]ic n]ve passes dorsocraniad to ! masset] muscle4 d4 ,n4 pt]ygoideus4--,"o or m pt]ygoid bran*es pass to ! pt]ygoid muscles4 ,a small twig f ! n]ve to ! int]nal pt]ygoid passes into ! tympanic cavity & supplies ! t5sor tympani muscle4 e4 ,n4 bucc9atorius 7,fig4 #aed1 e74--,?is passes craniad along ! dorsolat]al surface ( ! pt]ygoid muscles 7,fig4 #aed1 #h7 to ! angle ( ! m\?4 ,"h x divides into bran*es to ! masset] muscle1 ! mucosa ( ! m\?1 & to ! lips4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aed4--;,,dissection ,,%[+ ,a ,,numb] ,,( ,,! ,,cranial ,,n]ves4 ,! m&ible & zygomatic ar* h be5 cut & remov$2 ! temporal & int]nal pt]ygoid muscles are also remov$4 a1 ,n4 hypoglossus2 b1 ,n4 l+ualis2 c1 ,n4 *orda tympani2 d1 ,n4 alveol>is inf]ior 7cut72 e1 ,n4 bucc9atorius2 f1 ,nn4 infraorbitales2 g1 ,n4 sph5opalat9us2 h1 bran* ( ,n4 oculomotorius2 i1 ,n4 zygomaticus2 j1 ,n4 la*rymalis2 k1 ,n4 abduc5s2 l1 ,n4 tro*le>is2 m1 ,n4 frontalis2 n1 ,n4 auriculotemporalis4 #a1 cut end ( zygomatic process ( temporal2 #b1 tympanic bulla2 #c1 ,m4 diga/ricus2 #d1 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis m$ius2 #e1 ,m4 hyoglossus2 #f1 ,m4 g5ioglossus2 #g1 ,m4 g5iohyoideus2 #h1 ,m4 pt]ygoideus ext]nus 7cut72 #i1 cut cranial end ( zygomatic ar*2 #aj1 m&ible 7cut72 #aa1 la*rymal gl&4 ,aft] giv+ (f ! above bran*es ! m&ibul> n]ve passes ?ree or f\r millimet]s lat]ad along ! root ( ! zygomatic process ( ! temporal bone1 & divides into two l>ge bran*es1 ! inf]ior alveol> 7or d5tal7 n]ve 7d7 & ! l+ual n]ve 7b74 f4 ,n4 alveol>is inf]ior 7,fig4 #aed1 d74--,?is passes t[>d ! m&ibul> =am51 b be=e rea*+ x gives (f a bran* to ! mylohyoid & diga/ric muscles4 ,x !n ent]s ! =am51 passes ?r\gh ! m&ibul> canal1 & gives num]\s inf]ior d5tal bran*es to ! tee?4 ,at ! m5tal =am5 7or =am9a7 x passes out ( ! canal & divides into sev]al m5tal n]ves1 to ! *91 l[] lip1 & mucosa ( ! l[] jaw4 g4 ,n4 l+ualis 7,fig4 #aed1 b74--,! l+ual n]ve passes betwe5 ! int]nal & ext]nal pt]ygoid muscles1 & two or ?ree millimet]s f its orig9 x receives ! *orda tympani n]ve 7c71 a communicat+ bran* f ! facial 7see page #cgf74 ,x passes onto ! v5tral surface ( ! ext]nal pt]ygoid1 !nce onto ! side ( ! tongue1 b5ea? ! mylohyoid4 ,on ! side ( ! tongue x divides into bran*es :i* ent] ! tongue & are di/ribut$ to its muc\s membrane4 ,"o bran* passes to ! mucosa ( ! ph>ynx4 ,j be=e ent]+ ! tongue a bran* is giv5 (f to ! subl+ual & submaxill>y gl&s4 ,,vi4 ,n4 ,,abduc5s4--,! six? n]ve1 ! abduc5s1 arises f ! m$ulla1 z already describ$ 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,vi1 & page #cdg74 ,x passes into ! orbit ?r\gh ! orbital fissure1 !n ext5ds obliquely craniov5trad along ! m$ial surface ( ! lat]al rectus muscle 7,fig4 #aed1 k74 ,at ab\t ! middle ( ! l5g? ( ! muscle x divides into two or ?ree bran*es :i* ent] at once into ! lat]al rectus & supply x4 ,,vii4 ,n4 ,,facialis 7,fig4 #aee74--,! sev5? or facial n]ve arises f ! trapezium at ! caudal m>g9 ( ! pons1 craniad ( ! orig9 ( ! eigh? n]ve1 z describ$ 9 ! acc\nt ( ! bra9 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,vii74 ,x passes into ! int]nal auditory meatus1 trav]ses ! facial canal ?r\gh ! petr\s bone1 & em]ges at ! /yloma/oid =am54 ,)9 ! facial canal ! n]ve be>s an enl>gem5t1 ! ganglion g5iculi4 ,x gives (f )9 ! canal a bran* to ! /ap$ius muscle1 & ! sup]ficial petrosal & *orda tympani n]ves4 ,! sup]ficial petrosal 7,n4 petrosus sup]ficialis major7 n]ve passes into ! hiatus facialis1 ?r\gh ! canal :i* =ms its cont9uation1 & jo9s ! sph5opalat9e ganglion 7p4 #cgc74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aee4--,,sup]ficial ,,n]ves ,,( ,,! ,,face4 a1 ,n4 facialis2 b1 bran* to diga/ric2 c1 ,n4 auricul>is po/]ior2 d1 bran* to inside ( e>2 e1 v5tral ramus2 f1 dorsal ramus2 g1 temporal n]ve2 h1 zygomatic n]ve2 i1 n]ve to /ylohyoid muscle2 j1 inf]ior buccal n]ve2 k1 sup]ior buccal n]ve2 l1 infraorbital bran*es ( fif? n]ve2 m1 la*rymal bran*es ( fif? n]ve2 n1 auriculotemporal bran*es ( fif? n]ve4 #a1 ,m4 diga/ricus2 #b1 ,m4 /ylohyoideus2 #c1 ,m4 masset]4 ,! *orda tympani is giv5 (f two or ?ree millimet]s be=e ! em]g5ce ( ! facial at ! /yloma/oid =am54 ,x passes into ! tympanic cavity1 ext5ds across x betwe5 ! malleus & incus1 pass+ close aga9/ ! t5sor tympani muscle1 & leaves x 7by a small cleft1 ! canal ( ,hugui]7 betwe5 ! bulla & ! squam\s portion ( ! temporal4 ,x !n passes craniad 7,fig4 #aed1 c71 v5trad ( ! root ( ! zygomatic process ( ! temporal1 & jo9s ! l+ual n]ve 7,fig4 #aed1 b7 7bran* ( ! ?ird division ( ! fif? n]ve74 ,on em]g+ f ! /yloma/oid =am5 ! facial n]ve 7,fig4 #aee1 a7 gives (f at once a small bran* 7b7 to ! diga/ric muscle 7#a71 & a l>g] bran*1 ,n4 auricul>is po/]ior 7c71 :i* passes dorsocaudad ab\t ! base ( ! e>1 supply+ "s ( its muscles4 ,ano!r small bran* 7d7 pi]ces ! c>tilag9\s ext]nal e> & is di/ribut$ to its inn] surface4 ,! facial n]ve !n curves craniad ab\t ! proximal "p ( ! c>tilag9\s ext]nal e>1 & divides five or six millimet]s f its em]g5ce into two ma9 bran*es1 :i* may be designat$ z ! dorsal 7f7 & v5tral 7e7 rami4 ,a ?ird small bran* may also rise f ! po9t ( union ( ! two2 x is usually1 h[ev]1 a twig f ! dorsal ramus1 & passes to ,m4 subm5talis4 ,! dorsal ramus 7f7 s5ds two or ?ree small bran*es to ! *eek 7includ+ ! "o j m5tion$71 & divides into ! temporal 7g7 & ! zygomatic 7h7 bran*es4 ,! =m] 7g7 passes along ! cranial m>g9 ( ! ext]nal e>1 supply+ ! sup]ficial muscles1 & ext5ds into ! temporal region1 :]e x lies deep] ?an ! t]m9al bran*es ( ! la*rymal n]ve 7m7 7f ! fif? cranial74 ,! zygomatic bran* 7h7 passes across ! mal> bone to ! caudal angle ( ! eye1 s5ds bran*es into bo? eyelids1 ana/omoses ) twigs f ! la*rymal bran* 7m7 ( ! fif? n]ve1 & passes along ! m$ial side ( ! eye to ! lat]al surface ( ! nose1 :]e x ramifies4 ,! v5tral ramus 7e7 gives (f a m9ute bran* 7i7 to ! /ylohyoid muscle 7#b71 !n proce$s t[>d ! angle ( ! m\? & divides into sup]ior 7k7 & inf]ior 7j7 buccal bran*es1 ! =m] to ! muscles ( ! upp] lip & ! contigu\s regions1 ! latt] to ^? ( ! l[] lip & *94 ,! sev5? n]ve ?us supplies mo/ ( ! muscles ( ! head except ^? ( ma/ication1 & ( ^! x supplies ! diga/ric4 ,,viii4 ,n4 ,,acu/icus4--,! eigh? or auditory n]ve takes orig9 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,viii7 f ! floor ( ! f\r? v5tricle1 z be=e describ$ 7page #cdg74 ,x passes into ! int]nal auditory meatus & is di/ribut$ to ! int]nal e> )9 ! petr\s bone4 ,,ix4 ,n4 ,,glossoph>yngeus 7,fig4 #aef1 a74--,! n9? or glossoph>yngeal n]ve takes orig9 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,ix7 f ! side ( ! m$ulla1 z describ$ 9 ! acc\nt ( ! bra94 ,close to its orig9 its trunk be>s a small enl>gem5t1 ! ganglion sup]ius4 ,x passes along ) ! t5? & elev5? n]ves ?r\gh ! jugul> =am54 ,at its exit x has a ganglionic enl>gem5t1 ! ganglion petrosum2 ?is is connect$ by f9e fibres ) ! ganglion nodosum 7,fig4 #aef1 d7 ( ! vagus4 ,! glossoph>yngeal 7,fig4 #aef1 a7 !n passes craniad ov] ! surface ( ! tympanic bulla 7#ae7 & m$iad ( ! diga/ric muscle4 ,x cont9ues m$iad ( ! c>otid art]y1 & z x approa*es ! cranial cornu ( ! hyoid divides into two portions1 "o ( :i* passes to ! muscles & mucosa ( ! ph>ynx1 & ! o!r to ! tongue1 :]e x is ! special n]ve ( ta/e4 ,x4 ,n4 ,,vagus4--,! vagus n]ve arises f ! side ( ! m$ulla 9 ! mann] describ$ "u ! ,bra9 7page #cdf & ,fig4 #ach1 ,x74 ,x passes ?r\gh ! jugul> =am5 along ) ! glossoph>yngeal & accessory n]ves4 ,c]vical ,portion ( ! ,vagus 7,fig4 #aef1 d1 d74--,9 ! =am51 or j be=e ent]+ x1 x pres5ts a ganglionic enl>gem5t1 ! ganglion jugul>e 7or 8ganglion ( ! root071 & a %ort di/ance beyond ! =am5 x =ms a second ganglion1 ! ganglion nodosum 7d7 7or 8ganglion ( ! trunk071 :i* lies dorsocaudad ( ! sup]ior c]vical sympa!tic ganglion 7e74 ,! ganglia ( ! vagus & sympa!tic are closely b\nd toge!r by connective tissue1 & t portion ( ! vagus craniad ( ! ganglion nodosum is int]connect$ by a network ( n]v\s fibres ) ! sympa!tic 7e71 hypoglossal 7b71 & accessory 7c7 n]ves4 ,f ! ganglion nodosum ! vagus 7d7 passes caudad1 closely b\nd up ) ! sympa!tic2 ! two lie at ! side ( ! common c>otid art]y4 ,j be=e ent]+ ! ?orax ! two sep>ate1 ! vagus be+ ! l>g] & ly+ v5trad ( ! sympa!tic4 7,9 r>e cases ! two are di/9ctly sep>at$ ?r\gh\t _! l5g?47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aef4--;,,glossoph>yngeal1 ,,hypoglossal1 ,,vagus1 ,,sympa!tic1 ,,& ,,fir/ ,,c]vical ,,n]ves ,,9 ,,! ,,neck4 a1 ,n4 glossoph>yngeus2 b1 ,n4 hypoglossus2 c1 ,n4 accessorius2 d1 ganglion nodosum ( vagus n]ve2 d1 ,n4 vagus2 e1 ganglion c]vicale sup]ius ( sympa!tic2 f1 ramus desc5d5s ( ,n4 hypoglossus 7unit$ ) fir/ c]vical72 g1 bran* to ,m4 ?yrohyoid f ramus desc5d5s ( ,n4 hypoglossus2 h1 ,n4 l>yngeus sup]ior ( ,n4 vagus2 i1 unit$ vagus & sympa!tic n]ves2 j1 fir/ c]vical n]ve2 k1 second c]vical n]ve2 l1 ,n4 ph>yngeus f vagus4 #a1 ,m4 masset]2 #b1 outl9e ( ext]nal e>2 #c1 ,m4 spl5ius2 #d1 ,m4 levator scapul v5tralis2 #e1 ,m4 longus capitis2 #f1 tra*ea2 #g1 ,m4 /]no?yreoideus2 #h1 ,m4 /]nohyoideus2 #i1 ,m4 ?yreohyoideus2 #aj1 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis inf]ior2 #aa1 ,m4 con/rictor ph>yngis m$ius2 #ab1 cut end ( ,m4 /ylohyoideus2 #ac1 ,m4 hyoglossus2 #ad1 ,m4 /yloph>yngeus2 #ae1 bulla tympani2 #af1 ,m4 jugulohyoideus2 #ag1 ,m4 /yloglossus2 #ah1 ,m4 mylohyoideus4 ,bran*es ( ! vagus 9 ! c]vical region 7,fig4 #aef74 a4 ,n4 auricul>is4--,?is leaves ! ganglion jugul>e1 passes into ! petr\s bone to ! facial canal1 leaves ! skull ) ! facial n]ve by ! /yloma/oid =am51 & is di/ribut$ to ! ext]nal e>4 b4 ,n4 ph>yngeus 7l74--,?is leaves ! vagus craniad ( ! ganglion nodosum1 passes v5trad1 s5ds a small communicat+ bran* to ,n4 l>yngeus sup]ior 7h71 & is di/ribut$ to ! ph>yngeal muscles & cranial "p ( ! sophagus4 c4 ,n4 l>yngeus sup]ior 7h74--,?is arises f ! ganglion nodosum1 passes v5trad1 cross+ ! m$ial surface ( ! c>otid art]y1 & rea*es ! l>ynx at ab\t ! level ( ! caudal end ( ,m4 ?yreohyoideus4 ,x passes into ! l>ynx & supplies its mucosa4 ,?oracic ,portion ( ! ,vagus 7,fig4 #aeg74--;,z ! vagus 7b7 & sympa!tic 7c7 sep>ate to ent] ! ?orax1 ! vagus 7b7 lies m v5trad4 ,! "r vagus n[ lies along ! lat]al surface ( ! tra*ea1 ! left "o 7,fig4 #aeg7 along t ( ! sophagus4 ,at ab\t ! level ( ! fir/ rib or fur!r craniad !re arise1 app>5tly f ! vagus 7b really f ! sympa!tic71 two sl5d] n]ves :i* pass caudad p>allel & close to ! vagus1 ly+ slightly dorsad ( x4 ,^! are ! c>diac n]ves 7i72 !y arise f ! sympa!tic f>!r craniad 9 ! neck region1 accompany ! vagus1 & seem to bran* f x4 ,9 cases :]e vagus & sympa!tic are sep>ate ?r\gh\t _! c\rses1 ^! n]ves arise cle>ly f ! sympa!tic4 ,! c>diac n]ves pass to ! he>t & aid 9 =m+ a network ( n]ves kn[n z ! c>diac plexus 7k74 ,! vagus usually receives also1 at ab\t ! level ( ! fir/ rib1 "o or two communicat+ bran*es f ! middle c]vical ganglion 7d7 ( ! sympa!tic4 ,x !n passes to ! roots ( ! lungs1 cross+ ! lat]al surface ( ! aortic ar* on ! left side1 & ! m$ial surface ( ! azygos ve9 on ! "r side4 ,z x crosses ! aortic ar* ! left vagus gives (f ,n4 l>yngeus inf]ior 7j74 ,?is curves ar\nd ! caudal side ( ! aortic ar* to ! lat]al surface ( ! tra*ea 7o71 !n ext5ds on ! lat]al & v5tral surface ( ! tra*ea craniad into ! neck region4 ,9 ! neck x passes to ! dorsolat]al side ( ! tra*ea & rea*es ! l>ynx4 ,x passes into ! l>ynx betwe5 ! cricoid & ?yroid c>tilages1 & supplies ! muscles ( ! l>ynx4 ,x ana/omoses ) ! sup]ior l>yngeal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4--,,sympa!tic1 ,,vagus1 ,,& ,,phr5ic ,,n]ves ,,9 ,,! ,,neck ,,& ,,?orax4 #a-ac1 ! ?irte5 ribs 7cut72 ,v-,,viii1 ! fif? to eigh? c]vical n]ves 7cut72 ,i1 fir/ ?oracic n]ve 7cut74 a1 comb9$ trunk ( vagus & sympa!tic2 b1 vagus2 c1 sympa!tic2 d1 middle c]vical ganglion ( sympa!tic2 e1 inf]ior c]vical ganglion2 e1 communicat+ bran* to six?1 sev5?1 & eigh? c]vical n]ves2 f1 phr5ic n]ve2 g1 loop ( sympa!tic ab\t subclavian art]y1 betwe5 ! middle & inf]ior c]vical ganglia2 h1 c>diac bran*es f ! inf]ior c]vical ganglion2 i1 c>diac bran* pass+ f sympa!tic along ) vagus to he>t2 j1 inf]ior l>yngeal n]ve2 k1 pulmon>y & c>diac plexus2 l1 v5tral sophageal bran* ( vagus2 l1 simil> bran* f ! opposite side2 m1 dorsal sophageal bran* ( vagus2 n1 great splan*nic n]ve2 o1 tra*ea2 p1 sophagus2 q1 aorta2 r1 he>t2 s1 root ( lung4 ,! "r inf]ior l>yngeal n]ve is giv5 (f f ! "r vagus mu* fur!r craniad ?an ! left2 x curves ar\nd ! "r subclavian art]y j caudad ( ! orig9 ( ! int]nal mamm>y art]y1 !n passes to ! tra*ea1 & has a c\rse & di/ribution l t ( ! left side4 ,on rea*+ ! root ( ! lungs ! vagus divides into num]\s bran*es :i* =m ! pulmon>y plexus 7k7 ov] ! roots ( ! lungs1 & ext5ds onto ! basis ( ! he>t z ! c>diac plexus4 ,f ^! plexuses num]\s bran*es pass to ! he>t1 lungs1 pulmon>y art]y1 p]ic>dium1 etc4 ,! c>diac bran*es f ! sympa!tic1 m5tion$ above1 are also connect$ ) ! c>diac plexus4 ,caudad ( ! pulmon>y plexus ! vagus is cont9u$ on ea* side z two trunks1 a dorsal 7m7 & a v5tral 7l7 :i* pass along ! sophagus 7p74 ,! v5tral bran*es ( "r & left vagi 7l & l7 unite a %ort di/ance caudad ( ! root ( ! lung1 & ! s+le trunk ext5ds into ! abdom9al cavity on ! v5tral surface ( ! sophagus4 ,! dorsal bran*es ( "r & left vagi unite f>!r back1 ne> ! diaphragm1 & ! s+le trunk ?us =m$ 7m7 ent]s ! abdom9al cavity on ! dorsal surface ( ! sophagus4 ,bo? divisions give f9e n]ves to ! sophagus4 ,abdom9al ,portion ( ! ,vagus 7,fig4 #afd1 page #djg74--;,aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! diaphragm ! v5tral division 7,fig4 #afd1 l7 rea*es ! less] curvature ( ! /oma* 7#a71 ov] :i* x ramifies1 "s bran*es be+ traceable almo/ to ! pylorus4 ,! network ( bran*es ?us =m$ is ! ant]ior ga/ric plexus4 ,"s twigs f ! v5tral division pass transv]sely across ! cranial end ( ! /oma* & jo9 ! plexus =m$ by ! dorsal division4 ,! dorsal division 7m7 ( ! vagus rea*es ! great] curvature ( ! /oma*1 :]e x ramifies1 =m+ ! po/]ior ga/ric plexus4 ,bran*es f ?is ana/omose ) ! ant]ior ga/ric plexus & ) ! cliac plexus ( ! sympa!tic 7e74 ,,xi4 ,n4 ,,accessorius4--,! accessory 7or sp9al accessory7 n]ve arises 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,xi7 by num]\s rootlets f ! lat]al surface ( ! m$ulla & ( ! sp9al cord z f> caudad z ! fif? to sev5? c]vical n]ve4 ,^! sp9al rootlets jo9 to =m a n]ve :i* ent]s ! cranium ?r\gh ! =am5 magnum4 ,aft] receiv+ ! rootlets f ! m$ulla1 x leaves ! cranial cavity along ) ! vagus & glossoph>yngeal by ! jugul> =am54 ,j outside ! =am5 7,fig4 #aef1 c7 x becomes involv$ 9 a plexus ( f9e bran*es :i* int]connect x ) ! vagus1 sympa!tic1 & hypoglossal4 ,x !n turns lat]ad & caudad 7,fig4 #aeh1 #a7 & pi]ces ! cleidoma/oid muscle 7d71 to :i* x gives small bran*es4 ,x !n divides3 "o bran* ent]s ! /]noma/oid muscle2 ! o!r passes caudad along ! dorsal bord] ( ! levator scapul v5tralis1 s5ds bran*es to ! clavotrapezius1 & may be trac$ to ! acromiotrapezius & sp9otrapezius1 :i* x supplies4 ,,xii4 ,n4 ,,hypoglossus 7,fig4 #aef1 b74--,! twelf? or hypoglossal n]ve arises f ! v5tral side ( ! m$ulla 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,xii71 z previ\sly describ$4 ,x em]ges f ! skull ?r\gh ! hypoglossal canal4 ,at fir/ x passes v5trad1 !n gradually turns craniad1 foll[+ ?us a curv$ c\rse & pass+ successively lat]ad ( ! vagus & sympa!tic n]ves 7,fig4 #aef1 d & e71 ! common c>otid art]y1 & ! cranial cornu ( ! hyoid bone4 ,a %ort di/ance f its orig9 ! n]ve gives (f a ramus desc5d5s 7,fig4 #aef1 f71 :i* receives a communicat+ bran* f ! fir/ c]vical n]ve 7j71 & divides into two bran*es1 "o 7g7 to ! ?yrohyoid muscle 7#i71 ! o!r to ! /]nohyoid 7#h7 & /]no?yroid muscles 7#g74 ,! ma9 n]ve passes b5ea? ! mylohyoid muscle into ! tongue1 at fir/ foll[+ ! l+ual art]y1 !n lat]ad ( x1 !n cross+ x aga94 ,x s5ds bran*es to all ! muscles ( ! tongue1 & may be trac$ to its tip4 ,! hypoglossal n]ve is involv$ 9 ! plexus j outside ( ! jugul> =am51 ) :i* ! vagus1 sympa!tic1 & accessory n]ves are also connect$4 #b4 ,sp9al ,n]ves4--,! orig9 & g5]al features ( ! sp9al n]ves h be5 describ$ 9 connection ) ! acc\nt ( ! sp9al cord 7page #ccg74 ,a description ( _! p]iph]al di/ribution w n[ be giv54 ,a4 ,,c]vical ,,n]ves4--,!re are eight pairs ( c]vical n]ves4 ,! fir/ leaves ! v]tebral canal ?r\gh ! atlantal =am54 ,! second passes out betwe5 ! ar*es ( ! atlas & axis1 n ?r\gh a special int]v]tebral =am51 s t its ganglion lies among ! muscles ( ! back ( ! neck4 ,! o!rs em]ge ?r\gh ! int]v]tebral =am9a1 ! eigh? "o f betwe5 ! la/ c]vical & fir/ ?oracic v]tebr4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4--,,sup]ficial ,,n]ves ,,( ,,! ,,neck4 ,m4 clavotrapezius has be5 p>tly remov$4 #a1 ,n4 accessorius2 #b-d1 v5tral rami ( second to f\r? c]vical n]ves2 #e1 ,n4 auricul>is magnus2 #f1 ,n4 cutaneus colli4 a1 ,m4 clavotrapezius 7cut72 b1 ,m4 spl5ius2 c1 ,m4 levator scapul v5tralis2 d1 ,m4 cleidoma/oideus2 e1 ,m4 /]noma/oideus2 f1 p>otid gl&4 ,dorsal ,rami 7,rami po/]iores74--,! dorsal ramus ( ! fir/ n]ve 7,n4 suboccipitalis7 supplies ! %ort dorsal muscles :i* move ! head & connect ! atlas & skull4 ,9 ! second n]ve ! dorsal ramus is mu* l>g]1 =m+ ,n4 occipitalis major4 ,x s5ds small bran*es to ! muscles ab\t its orig91 !n turns craniad on ! surface ( ! obliquus sup]ior muscle1 passes ?r\gh ! biv5t] c]vicis & spl5ius1 jo9s a small bran* f ! ?ird n]ve1 & rea*es ! dorsal surface ( ! back ( ! head4 ,x passes craniad1 ly+ b5ea? ! levator auris longus1 em]ges f betwe5 ! two divisions ( ?is muscle1 & supplies ! sk9 & cutane\s muscles betwe5 ! two ext]nal e>s4 ,! dorsal rami ( ! o!r c]vical n]ves supply muscles & integum5t on ! back ( ! neck4 ,v5tral ,rami 7rami ant]iores74--,^! pass v5trad betwe5 ! transv]se processes ( ! v]tebr1 except 9 ! case ( ! fir/ n]ve 7,fig4 #aef1 j74 ,?is passes v5trad f ! atlantal =am5 along ! groove = ! v]tebral art]y1 ?r\gh ! not* 9 ! w+ ( ! atlas1 & across ! lat]al surface ( ! longus capitis muscle 7#e74 ,"h x s5ds a bran* caudad to jo9 ! second c]vical 7k71 !n crosses ! vagus 7d7 & sympa!tic & ! c>otid art]y1 giv+ (f communicat+ bran*es to ! vagus & sympa!tic1 & unit+ ) a bran* ( ! desc5d+ ramus ( ! hypoglossal 7f74 ,at ! lat]al surface ( ! l>ynx x turns caudad1 foll[+ ! lat]al bord] ( ! /]no?yroid muscle 7#g71 & is di/ribut$ to ! /]nohyoid 7#h7 & /]no?yroid 7#g74 ,! v5tral ramus ( ! second n]ve 7,fig4 #aeh1 #b7 receives a bran* f t ( ! fir/ n]ve1 passes lat]ad betwe5 ! levator scapul v5tralis 7c7 & ! cleidoma/oid 7d71 receives a communicat+ bran* f ! ?ird c]vical 7#c71 s5ds a bran* to ,n4 accessorius 7#a7 & num]\s small n]ves into ! /]noma/oid 7e7 & cleidoma/oid 7d71 !n turns craniad & divides into ,n4 auricul>is magnus 7#e7 & ,n4 cutaneus colli 7#f74 ,n4 auricul>is magnus 7#e71 ! great auricul> n]ve1 passes dorsocraniad across ! lat]al surface ( ! /]noma/oid 7e7 to ! lat]al & caudal surface ( ! ext]nal e> & p>otid gl& 7f71 :]e x ramifies4 ,! cutaneus colli 7#f7 is ! small]1 v5tral1 division ( ! second n]ve2 x may receive also an accession f ! ?ird4 ,x passes to ! integum5t ov] ! v5tral "p ( ,m4 masset] & v5trad ( t muscle4 ,! ?ird n]ve 7,fig4 #aeh1 #c7 communicates ) ! second & supplies ! levator scapul v5tralis 7c71 cleidoma/oid 7d71 /]noma/oid 7e71 longus capitis1 & o!r muscles ( ?is region & aids 9 =m+ ! cutaneus colli 7#f74 ,! f\r? 7#d7 & fif? are di/ribut$ to ! muscles & integum5t ( ! sides ( ! neck4 ,a bran* ( ! f\r? supplies ! integum5t 9 ! holl[ ( ! %\ld]1 & "o f ! fif? foll[s ! v5a cephalica & supplies ! integum5t ov] ! %\ld]4 ,! fif? by s5d+ a bran* to aid 9 =m+ ! phr5ic n]ve 7,fig4 #aeg1 f7 may be consid]$ to ent] p>tly into ! bra*ial plexus4 ,ow+ to ! int]communicat+ bran*es betwe5 ! v5tral roots ( ! fir/ five c]vical n]ves1 ^! are sometimes consid]$ z =m+ a loose plexus :i* receives ! "n c]vical plexus4 ,! six?1 sev5?1 & eigh? c]vical n]ves 7) a "p ( ! fif?7 become int]connect$ ) ea* o!r & ) ! fir/ ?oracic to =m ! bra*ial plexus4 ,! ,bra*ial ,plexus 7,fig4 #aei74--,! bra*ial plexus is =m$ by ! v5tral rami ( ! fif?1 six?1 sev5?1 & eigh? c]vical n]ves & ! fir/ ?oracic4 ,( ! fif? c]vical only a small "p ent]s into ! plexus1 =m+ "p ( ! phr5ic n]ve4 ,! =mation ( ! plexus is due to ! union ( ! diff]5t n]ves by means ( /rong connect+ bran*es or ans4 ,! plexus lies 9 ! axilla1 along ) ! axill>y art]y & ve92 all its compon5t n]ves pass lat]ad 9 front ( ! fir/ rib4 ,its bran*es supply ! arm & %\ld]4 ,! precise arrangem5t ( ! diff]5t /r&s is some:at v>iable4 ,! plexus is commonly made up 9 approximately ! foll[+ mann] 7,fig4 #aei74 ,f ! fif? c]vical n]ve 7,v7 a small bran* jo9s a simil> "o f ! six? to =m ! phr5ic n]ve 7a72 ! rema9d] ( ! fif? does n ent] into ! plexus4 ,f ! six? c]vical 7,,vi7 arise p>ts ( ! phr5ic n]ve 7a71 ! suprascapul> 7b71 ! cranial "o ( ! ?ree subscapul> n]ves 7c71 ! axill>y 7d71 & ! musculocutane\s 7f74 ,! six? also gives (f close to its orig9 a n]ve 7b7 :i* passes to ! inn] surface ( ! levator scapul & ramifies ov] ! surface1 supply+ ?is muscle & ext5d+ to ! rhomboideus1 :i* x also inn]vates4 ,! sev5? c]vical 7,,vii7 is ! l>ge/ n]ve ent]+ into ! plexus2 x furni%es p>ts ( "o or bo? ( ! ant]ior ?oracic n]ves 7k & n71 ( ! po/]ior ?oracic 7m71 ! ?ree subscapul> n]ves 7c1 e1 & i71 ! axill>y 7d71 musculocutane\s 7f71 radial 7h71 & m$ian 7g7 n]ves4 ,! eigh? c]vical 7,,viii7 supplies p>ts ( "o ( ! ant]ior ?oracic n]ves 7k71 ! caudal "o ( ! subscapul> n]ves 7i71 ! radial 7h71 m$ian 7g71 & uln> 7j7 n]ves4 ,! fir/ ?oracic 7#a7 curves craniad1 s z to leave ! ?orax on ! cranial side ( ! fir/ rib2 x supplies ! m$ian cutane\s n]ve 7l7 & p>ts ( ! radial 7h71 uln> 7j71 & m$ian 7g7 n]ves2 sometimes also a "p ( "o 7k7 ( ! ant]ior ?oracic n]ves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aei4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,! ,,"r ,,bra*ial ,,plexus4 ,v1 ,,vi1 ,,vii1 ,,viii1 ! fif? to eigh? c]vical n]ves4 #a1 ! fir/ ?oracic n]ve4 a1 phr5ic n]ve2 b1 suprascapul>2 b1 n]ve to s]ratus ant]ior & levator scapul muscles2 c1 fir/ or cranial subscapul> n]ve2 d1 axill>y n]ve2 e1 second subscapul>2 f1 musculocutane\s2 g1 m$ian2 h1 radial2 i1 ?ird subscapul>2 j1 uln>2 k1 second ant]ior ?oracic2 l1 m$ial cutane\s2 m1 po/]ior ?oracic2 n1 fir/ ant]ior ?oracic4 ,! foll[+ are ! n]ves :i* arise f ! bra*ial plexus3 ,a4 ,n]ves ( ! ,%\ld] & ,brea/ 7,fig4 #afj74 #a4 ,nn4 ?oracici ant]iores4--,!re are two ant]ior ?oracic n]ves4 ,"o 7,fig4 #afj1 h2 ,fig4 #aei1 n7 arises f ! sev5? c]vical & passes to ! pectoral muscles 7#i7 along ) ! ant]ior ?oracic art]y4 ,! o!r 7,fig4 #aei1 k2 ,fig4 #afj1 q & r7 arises usually by two roots1 "o f ! eigh? c]vical1 "o f ! fir/ ?oracic2 x passes along ) ! long ?oracic art]y to be di/ribut$ to ! pectoralis muscles 7,fig4 #afj1 #h7 & sometimes also to ! latissimus dorsi 7#g74 #b4 ,n4 ?oracicus po/]ior4--,! po/]ior ?oracic 7or long ?oracic7 n]ve 7ext]nal respiratory7 7,fig4 #aei1 m7 arises f ! sev5? c]vical n]ve ne> its beg9n+4 ,x passes )9 ! scal5us muscle & ext5ds caudad on ! out] surface ( ! s]ratus ant]ior muscle1 :i* x supplies4 #c4 ,n4 suprascapul>is 7,figs4 #aei & #afj1 b74--,! suprascapul> n]ve arises f ! six? 7& sometimes ! sev5?7 c]vical4 ,x passes lat]ad & gives (f a bran* :i* passes ov] ! %\ld]-jo9t & p5etrates ! clavodeltoid muscle to be di/ribut$ to ! integum5t on ! v5tral surface ( ! upp] arm4 ,x !n foll[s ! transv]sa scapul art]y into ! suprasp9atus fossa & accompanies ! art]y to be di/ribut$ to ! suprasp9atus & infrasp9atus muscles4 #d4 ,nn4 subscapul>es4--,! subscapul> n]ves are ?ree4 ,! cranial "o 7,figs4 #aei & #afj1 c7 arises f ! six? & sev5? c]vical & supplies ! subscapul> muscle4 ,! middle "o 7,fig4 #aei1 e7 arises f ! sev5?2 x supplies pr9cipally ! t]es major4 ,! caudal "o 7,fig4 #aei1 i7 arises f ! sev5? & eigh? c]vical & supplies ! latissimus dorsi4 7,! po9ts ( orig9 f ! plexus v>y47 #e4 ,n4 axill>is 7or circumflexus7 7,fig4 #aei1 d74--,! axill>y n]ve arises f ! six? & sev5? c]vical n]ves4 ,x passes t[>d ! %\ld]-jo9t1 !n foll[s ! po/]ior circumflex art]y v5trad ( ! long head ( ! triceps to be di/ribut$ to ! sp9odeltoid & acromiodeltoid4 ,a bran* ( x cont9ues to ! clavobra*ial1 :i* x supplies4 ,b4 ,! ,phr5ic ,n]ve 7,fig4 #aeg1 f1 page #cha74 #f4 ,n4 phr5icus4--,! phr5ic n]ve 7int]nal respiratory7 is =m$ by ! junction ( two sl5d] bran*es1 "o f ! fif? & "o f ! six? c]vical n]ves 7,fig4 #aei1 a74 7,x is said to receive sometimes a bran* f ! f\r?47 ,x passes caudad into ! ?orax on ! v5tral surface ( ! subclavian art]y & !n ext5ds to ! diaphragm ly+ at ! side ( ! inf]ior & sup]ior v5 cav4 ,x is ! motor n]ve ( ! diaphragm4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afj4--;,,blood-,,vessels ,,& ,,! ,,m ,,v5tral ,,n]ves ,,( ,,! ,,axilla1 ,,v5tral ,,view4 ,! pectoral & clavobra*ial muscles h be5 cut & laid aside1 _! ends be+ %[n2 only a "p ( ! n]ves are exhibit$4 #a1 ,m4 clavobra*ialis2 #b1 cut end ( ,m4 pectoralis major2 #c1 cut end ( ,m4 pectoralis m9or2 #d1 ,m4 biceps2 #e1 ,m4 t]es major2 #f1 ,m4 epitro*le>is1 p>tly cut & turn$ back2 #g1 ,m4 latissimus dorsi1 p>tly cut2 #h1 ,m4 pectoralis m9or2 #i1 ,m4 pectoralis major2 #aj1 %ort portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii4 a1 bran*es ( ! ?yroc]vical axis to clavobra*ial & clavotrapezius muscles2 b1 suprascapul> n]ve2 c1 fir/ subscapul> n]ve2 d1 musculocutane\s n]ve2 e1 m$ian n]ve2 f1 ,v4 axill>is2 g1 ,a4 axill>is2 h1 fir/ ant]ior ?oracic n]ve1 accompani$ by ! ant]ior ?oracic art]y & ve92 i1 ,v4 subscapul>is2 j1 l>ge muscul> bran* 7to subscapul> muscle7 ( ! subscapul> ve9 & bra*ial art]y2 l1 ,a4 subscapul>is2 l1 ,a4 circumflexa hum]i ant]ior2 m1 radial n]ve2 n1 uln> n]ve2 o1 m$ial cutane\s n]ve2 p1 ,a4 ?oracica longa2 q1 r1 second ant]ior ?oracic n]ve2 s1 ,v4 ?oracica longa2 t1 ,a4 & ,v4 ?oracicodorsalis2 u1 ,a4 pr(unda bra*ii2 v1 bran* ( bra*ial art]y accompany+ m$ial cutane\s n]ve2 w1 bran* ( ,a4 collat]alis radialis sup]ior2 x1 ,a4 collat]alis radialis sup]ior2 y1 ,v4 m$iana cubiti2 z1 ,a4 collat]alis uln>is4 ,c4 ,n]ves ( ! ,arm4 #g4 ,n4 musculocutaneus 7,fig4 #afj1 d74--,! musculocutane\s n]ve or ext]nal cutane\s arises f ! v5tral surface ( ! six? & sev5? n]ves 7,fig4 #aei1 f74 ,x passes t[>d ! %\ld]-jo9t & supplies ! biceps 7,fig4 #afj1 #d7 & coracobra*ialis muscles4 ,x !n passes di/ad1 re/+ on ! dorsal bord] ( ! biceps 7#d71 & supplies ! bra*ialis muscle4 ,!nce x passes dorsad ( ! biceps to ! lat]al side1 & rea*es ! integum5t by pass+ betwe5 ! clavobra*ialis & pectoantibra*ialis muscles ne> ! elb[2 x is !n di/ribut$ to ! sk9 on ! radial side ( ! v5tral surface ( ! =e>m1 z f> z ! wri/ 7,fig4 #acj1 h1 page #cai74 #h4 ,n4 cutaneus m$ialis 7,fig4 #afj1 o74--,! m$ial 7or int]nal7 cutane\s n]ve rises f ! fir/ ?oracic4 ,x passes di/ad along ! m$ial side ( ! biceps1 & at ! junction ( ! second & ?ird ?irds ( ! upp] arm rea*es ! integum5t by pass+ betwe5 ! epitro*le>is & pectoantibra*ialis muscles4 ,x !n curves spirally ab\t ! dorsal bord] ( ! =e>m & is di/ribut$ to ! integum5t ( ! =e>m on ! uln> side1 ext5d+ ne>ly to ! wri/4 #i4 ,n4 m$ianus 7,fig4 #afj1 e74--,! m$ian n]ve is =m$ by ! junction ( ?ree bran*es1 "o ea* f ! sev5? & eigh? c]vical ) ! bra*ial art]y 7g7 pass+ betwe5 !m1 & "o f ! fir/ ?oracic n]ve4 ,x accompanies ! bra*ial art]y 7g7 ly+ on its m$ial side1 & passes ) x ?r\gh ! supracondyloid =am52 "h x is connect$ by a bran* to ! musculocutane\s n]ve4 ,x passes into ! =e>m 7,fig4 #afa1 b71 ly+ at fir/ b5ea? ! pronator t]es 7#e74 ,"h x gives bran*es to ! pronator t]es & flexor muscles 7flexor c>pi radialis1 palm>is longus1 five heads ( ! flexor pr(undus digitorum1 b n to ! flexor c>pi uln>is74 ,cont9u+ along ! =e>m1 ly+ on ! flexor c>pi radialis1 x s5ds a po/]ior int]osse\s n]ve to ! pronator quadratus muscle & bran*es to ! deep & sup]ficial divisions ( ! flexor sublimis digitorum4 ,x ?us supplies ! flexor & pronator muscles 7except ! flexor c>pi uln>is74 ,x !n passes into ! palm b5ea? ! transv]se ligam5t & gives rise to ?ree pr9cipal bran*es4 ,! fir/ ( ^! supplies ! integum5t ( ! ?umb1 s5d+ a bran* on ei!r side ( x2 & onto ! radial side ( ! second digit4 ,! second passes along ! contigu\s sides ( ! second & ?ird digits & supplies _! integum5t4 ,! ?ird passes along ! contigu\s sides ( ! ?ird & f\r? digits to _! integum5t4 ,ea* s5ds twigs into ! trilob$ pad 9 ! palm1 s t !re are ?us sev5 t]m9al bran*es 9 ! palm4 ,f ^!1 bran*es 7probably7 pass to ! ?ree radial ,mm4 lumbricales4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--,,n]ves ,,& ,,art]ies ,,( ,,! ,,=e>m1 ,,se5 ,,f ,,! ,,flexor ,,side4 ,mm4 palm>is longus1 flexor c>pi radialis1 flexor c>pi uln>is1 & ! ?ird & f\r? heads ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum h be5 remov$2 also "p ( ! pronator t]es4 #a1 ,m4 biceps2 #b1 conjo9$ t5don ( ,m4 bra*ialis & ,m4 clavobra*ialis2 #c1 %ort portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps2 #d1 int]m$iate portion ( caput m$iale ( ,m4 triceps bra*ii2 #e1 cut ends ( ,m4 pronator t]es2 #f1 ,m4 bra*ioradialis2 #g1 ,m4 ext5sor c>pi radialis longus & brevis2 #h1 fif? head ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 #i1 second head ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 #aj1 radial "p ( ,m4 flexor sublimis digitorum2 #aa1 common t5don ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 #ab1 fir/ head ( ,m4 flexor pr(undus digitorum2 #ac1 cut orig9 ( ,m4 flexor c>pi uln>is4 a1 uln> n]ve2 b1 m$ian n]ve2 c1 dorsal cutane\s bran* ( ! uln> n]ve2 d1 palm> bran* ( uln> n]ve2 e1 deep palm> bran*2 f1 sup]ficial palm> bran*2 g1 ,a4 bra*ialis2 g1 ,a4 radialis2 h1 ,a4 collat]alis uln>is sup]ior2 i1 ,a4 radialis recurr5s2 j1 ,a4 uln>is recurr5s2 k1 ,a4 uln>is2 l1 ,a4 int]ossea ant]ior2 m1 l>ge bran* ( ,a4 radialis1 jo9+ ,a4 uln>is4 #aj4 ,n4 radialis4--,! radial 7or musculospiral7 n]ve is =m$ by ! junction ( bran*es f ! sev5? & eigh? c]vical & fir/ ?oracic n]ves4 ,x imm$iately s5ds bran*es to ! epitro*le>is1 long head ( ! triceps1 & long & int]m$iate portions ( ! m$ial head ( ! triceps4 ,x !n passes betwe5 ! long & int]m$iate portions ( ! m$ial head ( ! triceps1 foll[+ ! pr(unda bra*ii art]y1 & curves ab\t ! hum]us to its cranial side4 ,x supplies !re ! lat]al head ( ! triceps & ! anconeus1 &1 ly+ on ! bra*ialis muscle1 divides into a sup]ficial & a deep bran*4 ,! sup]ficial bran* is ! sup]ficial radial n]ve 7,fig4 #acj1 g72 ! deep "o =ms ! dorsal 7or po/]ior7 int]osse\s n]ve4 ,! =m] is s5sory & ! latt] motor4 ,! sup]ficial radial n]ve 7,fig4 #acj1 g1 page #cai7 becomes cutane\s at ! junction ( ! second & ?ird ?irds ( ! upp] arm1 :]e x em]ges f betwe5 ! lat]al head ( ! triceps & ! bra*ialis muscle4 ,x !n foll[s ! c\rse ( ! v5a cephalica 7c7 to ! wri/ & foll[s ! dorsal tribut>y ( ! same ve9 onto ! dorsum ( ! h&4 ,x supplies ! integum5t ( ! di/al "p ( ! v5tral surface ( ! upp] arm & t along ! =e>m4 ,on ! h& x is di/ribut$ to ! dorsal surface 9 ! same mann] z ! m$ian n]ve on ! v5tral surface1 i4e4 to ! integum5t ( ! ?umb on bo? sides & to t ( ! m$ial side ( ! second digit2 to t ( ! contigu\s sides ( ! second & ?ird digits & ( ! contigu\s sides ( ! ?ird & f\r? digits4 ,!re are ?us sev5 t]m9al bran*es1 "o = ea* ( ^! regions4 ,! dorsal int]osse\s n]ve foll[s ! bra*ialis muscle & passes onto ! =e>m betwe5 x & ! ext5sor c>pi radialis longus4 ,x supplies ! sup9ator & ext5sor muscles ( ! =e>m 7bra*ioradialis1 sup9ator1 ext5sor c>pi radialis longus1 ext5sor c>pi radialis brevis1 ext5sor communis digitorum1 ext5sor digitorum lat]alis1 ext5sor indicis1 ext5sor brevis pollicis74 ,! dorsal int]osse\s & radial n]ves ?us supply all ! ext5sor muscles ( ! =e>m & upp] arm & ! sup9ators 7modifi$ ext5sors74 #aa4 ,n4 uln>is 7,fig4 #afj1 n74--,! uln> n]ve arises f ! eigh? c]vical & fir/ ?oracic & accompanies ! bra*ial art]y 7g7 & m$ian n]ve 7e7 ?r\gh ! upp] arm4 ,x does n pass ?r\gh ! supracondyloid =am51 b curves ov] ! dorsal end ( ! m$ial epicondyle ( ! hum]us )9 ! %ort division ( ! m$ial head ( ! triceps1 & rea*es ! dorsal bord] ( ! =e>m4 ,9 ! =e>m 7,fig4 #afa1 a7 x lies b5ea? ! flexor c>pi uln>is4 ,x supplies muscul> bran*es to ! flexor c>pi uln>is & ! fir/ or uln> head ( ! flexor pr(undus digitorum4 ,ne> ! middle ( ! =e>m x divides into two bran*es1 dorsal cutane\s 7c7 & palm> 7d74 ,! dorsal cutane\s bran* 7c7 curves ab\t ! uln> side ( ! wri/ to ! dorsum ( ! h& & divides into twigs :i* supply ! dorsal "p ( ! uln> side ( ! fif? digit & ( ! contigu\s sides ( ! f\r? & fif?4 ,! palm> bran* 7d7 s5ds a twig to ! integum5t on ! flexor surface ( ! arm ne> ! wri/1 & !n divides into deep palm> 7e7 & sup]ficial palm> 7f7 bran*es4 ,! sup]ficial palm> bran* 7f7 passes into ! palm & supplies ! v5tral portion ( ! integum5t on ! uln> side ( ! fif? digit1 & on ! contigu\s sides ( ! fif? & f\r?4 ,! deep palm> bran* 7e7 passes into ! palm1 b5ea? ! ligam5t ( ! pisi=m bone4 ,j di/ad ( ! pisi=m bone x curves t[>d ! radial side & breaks up into a numb] ( small bran*es :i* are di/ribut$ to ! %ort muscles 9 ! palm4 ,b4 ,,?oracic ,,n]ves4 ,dorsal ,rami4--,! dorsal rami ( ! ?oracic n]ves are small & supply ! muscles & integum5t ( ! back4 ,ea* gives (f a bran* directly dorsad to ! sp9al muscles1 & a lat]al bran* :i* rea*es ! integum5t "s di/ance f ! middle l9e4 ,v5tral ,rami4--,! v5tral ramus ( ! fir/ ?oracic n]ve ent]s into ! bra*ial plexus1 z already describ$4 ,! v5tral rami ( ! o!r ?oracic n]ves =m ! int]co/al n]ves4 ,ea* ( ^! passes v5trolat]ad1 ly+ close to ! caudal bord] ( a rib1 9 company ) ! int]co/al art]y4 ,bran*es are giv5 to ! int]co/al muscles1 & at ab\t ! middle ( ! l5g? ( ! rib a l>ge lat]al bran* is giv5 (f1 :i* passes to ! m sup]ficial muscles ( ! ?oracic wall 7s]rati po/]iores1 obliquus ext]nus1 etc471 its ma9 bran*es runn+ dorsad & v5trad4 ,! ma9 int]co/al n]ve ext5ds v5trad to ! transv]sus co/>um & rectus abdom9is1 supply+ ^! muscles4 ,c4 ,,lumb> ,,n]ves4--,!re are sev5 lumb> n]ves1 "o pass+ f ! v]tebral canal caudad ( ea* lumb> v]tebra4 ,dorsal ,rami4--,! dorsal rami are simil> to ^? ( ! ?oracic region1 s5d+ "o bran* dorsad to ! muscles ( ! v]tebral column1 ano!r dorsolat]ad to rea* ! integum5t at ab\t ! lat]al bord] ( ! longissimus dorsi4 ,! dorsal rami are some:at small] caudad4 ,v5tral ,rami4--,! la/ f\r lumb> n]ves are int]connect$ to =m ! lumb> or lumbosacral plexus4 ,! fir/ ?ree are di/9ct1 & w !re=e be describ$ sep>ately4 ,! fir/ ?ree lumb> n]ves are direct$ /rongly caudad 7z well z v5trad71 s t on leav+ ! int]v]tebral =am5 !y pass v5trad ( ! transv]se process ( ! v]tebra imm$iately succe$+4 ,ea* communicates ) ! sympa!tic sy/em & gives (f ne> its orig9 bran*es to ! muscles on ! v5tral side ( ! v]tebr1--! fir/ to ! crus ( ! diaphragm1 ! second & ?ird 7,fig4 #afb1 ,,ii & ,,iii7 to ! quadratus lumborum & psoas muscles4 ,ea* divides ?ree to five c5timet]s f its orig9 into a lat]al & a m$ial bran*1 ! fir/ hav+ a m cranial1 ! latt] a m caudal c\rse4 ,! fir/ ?ree n]ves ( ! cat are repres5t$ 9 man by ! iliohypoga/ric & ! ilio+u9al n]ves4 ,!re seems no good gr\nd = apply+ ^! names to two ( ! ?ree 9 ! cat1 9 pref]5ce to ! ?ird1 s t we %all speak ( ^! n]ves 9 ! cat z simply ! fir/1 second1 & ?ird lumb> n]ves4 #a4 ,! fir/ lumb> n]ve arises f ! int]v]tebral =am5 caudad ( ! fir/ lumb> v]tebra4 ,its lat]al division passes betwe5 ! transv]sus & obliquus int]nus muscles1 !n betwe5 ! obliquus int]nus & ext]nus4 ,at ab\t ! middle ( ! abdom5 x pi]ces ! obliquus ext]nus & is di/ribut$ to ! integum5t ( ! middle ( ! v5tral surface ( ! abdom54 ,! m$ial division passes betwe5 ! obliquus int]nus & transv]sus1 crosses ! lat]al division ( ! second 7ly+ m$iad ( x71 & ext5ds to ! rectus abdom9is1 :i* x supplies4 #b4 ,! second lumb> n]ve 7,fig4 #afb1 a7 divides1 l ! o!rs1 into two bran*es4 ,! lat]al bran* pi]ces ! muscles ( ! abdom9al wall at ! lat]al bord] ( ! longissimus dorsi & passes1 ly+ j b5ea? ! integum5t1 v5trocaudad ne>ly to ! pubis4 ,x supplies ! integum5t ( ! caudal half ( ! abdom5 & ( ! fold betwe5 ! ?igh & abdom54 ,! m$ial bran* passes at fir/ almo/ directly caudad1 ly+ on ! m$ial surface ( ! transv]sus abdom9is2 x curves gradually v5trad1 ly+ 9 ! sub/ance ( ! transv]sus1 & rea*es ! rectus abdom9is ?ree or f\r c5timet]s craniad ( ! pubis4 #c4 ,! ?ird lumb> n]ve 7b7 is n unit$ ) ! f\r?1 z 9 _m animals1 b rema9s di/9ct4 ,x divides "o or two c5timet]s f its orig94 ,! lat]al bran* passes caudad to ! out] surface ( ! abdom9al muscles1 & ext5ds1 ly+ j b5ea? ! integum5t1 to t portion ( ! abdom9al wall :i* is p>tly cov]$ by ! ?igh4 ,! m$ial bran* passes caudad on ! lat]al surface ( ! iliopsoas muscle1 foll[s ! iliolumb> art]y = a %ort di/ance1 & gives bran*es to ! caudal "p ( ! transv]sus & rectus abdom9is muscles4 ,! ,lumb> ,plexus 7,fig4 #afb74--,! f\r?1 fif?1 six?1 & sev5? lumb> n]ves are int]connect$ by %ort bran*es1 =m+ ?us ! lumb> plexus4 ,!y are also connect$ ) ! sacral plexus1 s t ! two are (t5 consid]$ toge!r z ! lumbosacral plexus 7,fig4 #afb74 ,9 "s o!r animals ! fir/ ?ree lumb> n]ves =m also a "p ( ! plexus2 b !y are n connect$ ) x 9 ! cat4 ,! f\r? lumb> n]ve =ms ! g5it(emoral 7c7 & "p ( ! lat]al cutane\s 7d7 n]ves1 & is connect$ by a %ort /r& ) ! fif?4 ,! fif? aids 9 =m+ ! lat]al cutane\s 7d7 & femoral 7f7 n]ves1 & is connect$ by a %ort bran* ) ! six?4 ,! six? lumb> is l>ge2 x =ms ! major "p ( ! femoral 7f7 & a l>ge "p ( ! obturator n]ve 7g71 & s5ds a l>ge connect+ bran* caudad to jo9 ! sev5? & ?us pass into ! sacral plexus4 ,! sev5? passes caudad to jo9 ! sacral plexus & aid 9 =m+ ! great sciatic n]ve 7h72 by its connection ) ! six? x aids 9 =m+ also ! obturator n]ve 7g74 #d4 ,n4 g5it(emoralis 7or ,n4 lumbo+u9alis7 7c1 c1 c74--,?is is a direct cont9uation ( ! f\r? lumb> n]ve4 ,its m$ial bran* 7c7 passes along ! m$ial surface ( ! iliopsoas 7#h7 & ! psoas m9or 7#i7 to ! ext]nal iliac art]y1 accompanies ?is1 ly+ on ! v5tral surface1 f its orig9 to ! po9t :]e x gives (f ! pr(unda femoris1 !n accompanies ! latt] art]y & passes onto t bran* ( x t spreads out "u ! integum5t ( ! v5tral pelvic region4 ,x crosses ! sp]matic cord & ramifies 9 ! sk9 ( ! proximal "p ( ! m$ial side ( ! ?igh4 ,! lat]al bran* ( ! g5it(emoralis 7c7 pi]ces ! psoas m9or 7#i71 appe>+ on its v5tral surface opposite ! fif? lumb> v]tebra4 ,x passes caudad on ! v5tral surface ( ?is muscle1 crosses ! iliolumb> art]y1 !n turns caudolat]ad1 passes ?r\gh ! abdom9al wall1 & is di/ribut$ to ! craniom$ial surface ( ! ?igh & to ! adjac5t abdom9al wall4 ,?is n]ve is v>iable 9 orig9 & 9 di/ribution4 ,its lat]al bran* is sometimes lack+4 #e4 ,n4 cutaneus femoris lat]alis 7d74--,! lat]al cutane\s n]ve arises f ! connect+ /r& betwe5 ! f\r? & fif? n]ves1 mo/ ( its fibres com+ f ! fif?4 ,x passes caudov5trad betwe5 ! iliopsoas & psoas m9or & accompanies ! iliolumb> art]y across ! v5tral surface ( ! iliopsoas4 ,x pi]ces ! abdom9al wall 9 company ) ! art]y & passes onto ! cranial bord] ( ! ?igh4 ,its t]m9al bran*es are di/ribut$ to ! integum5t along ) ! bran*es ( ! iliolumb> art]y1--supply+ ! lat]al surface ( ! femur & ext5d+ z f> z ! knee4 #f4 ,n4 femoralis 7f74--,! femoral is a l>ge n]ve :i* rises by /rong roots f ! fif? & six? lumb> n]ves4 ,x gives bran*es to ! iliopsoas 7#h7 & passes ?r\gh t muscle to its v5tral surface4 ,x leaves ! abdom9al cavity ly+ on ! v5tral surface ( ! iliopsoas1 & at ! po9t :]e x pi]ces ! abdom9al wall x divides into ?ree 7or f\r7 bran*es4 ,"o 7or two7 ( ^! pass to ! s>torius muscle4 ,ano!r passes betwe5 ! rectus femoris & va/us m$ialis muscles1 & divides into num]\s bran*es :i* supply ^! muscles & ! va/us int]m$ius4 ,! ?ird bran* ( ! femoral is ,n4 saph5us or ! long saph5\s n]ve 7,fig4 #abg1 g1 page #caj74 ,?is passes di/ad along ) ! femoral art]y & ve91 giv+ a few twigs to ! integum5t4 ,:]e ! long saph5\s art]y 7f7 sep>ates f ! femoral art]y ! n]ve foll[s ! =m] & passes ) x along ! m$ial side ( ! l[] leg4 ,at ! knee & 9 ! l[] leg x gives (f a numb] ( cutane\s bran*es1 & f9ally divides j di/ad ( ! middle ( ! l[] leg into two ma9 bran*es4 ,bo? ( ^! pass to ! concavity ( ! ankle-jo9t & divide into f9e bran*es1 :i* =m a sort ( plexus on ! ankle & dorsal surface ( ! foot2 bran*es f ?is c be trac$ almo/ to ! toes4 #g4 ,n4 obturatorius 7,fig4 #afb1 g74--,! obturator n]ve arises f ! connect+ b& betwe5 ! six? & sev5? n]ves4 ,x lies at fir/ lat]ad1 !n dorsad1 ( ! common iliac ve91 & passes almo/ directly caudad to ! cranial bord] ( ,m4 obturator int]nus 7#ae74 ,"h x turns %>ply lat]ad ab\t ! pubis1 & passes ?r\gh ! obturator =am54 ,x gives twigs to ! obturator ext]nus muscle1 & divides into sev]al bran*es1 :i* inn]vate ! adductor femoris1 adductor longus1 pect9eus1 & gracilis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afb4--,,! ,,lumb> ,,& ,,sacral ,,n]ves1 ,,z ,,se5 ,,9 ,a ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,dorsal ,,wall ,,( ,,! ,,abdom9al ,,cavity1 ,,aft] ,,removal ,,( ,,! ,,visc]a4 ,on ! "r side ! iliopsoas1 psoas m9or1 & quadratus lumborum h be5 remov$4 ,! symphysis pubis has be5 split & ! two p>ts div>icat$1 to %[ ! pelvic cavity2 on ! "r side p>ts ( ! innom9ate bones & ! levator ani & coccygeus muscles h be5 remov$4 ,,ii-,,vii1 second to sev5? lumb> n]ves2 #a-c1 fir/ to ?ird sacral n]ves4 a1 second lumb> n]ve2 b1 lat]al & m$ial bran*es ( ?ird lumb> n]ve2 c1 ,n4 g5it(emoralis 7c1 its lat]al bran*2 c1 its m$ial bran*72 d1 ,n4 cutaneus femoralis lat]alis2 e1 muscul> bran* ( ,n4 femoralis2 f1 ,n4 femoralis2 g1 ,n4 obturatorius2 h1 ,n4 is*iadicus or great sciatic n]ve2 i1 ,n4 gluteus sup]ior2 j1 ,n4 gluteus inf]ior2 k1 ,n4 cutaneus femoris po/]ior2 l1 ,n4 pud5dus2 m1 ,n4 hemorrhoidalis inf]ior2 n1 "p ( ! sympa!tic 7incompletely %[n1 m]ely to indicate connections ) ! sp9al n]ves72 #d1 ,m4 transv]sus abdom9is2 #e1 #f1 cut edges ( ,m4 obliquus int]nus & ext]nus2 #g1 dorsal bord] ( ! diaphragm2 #h1 ,m4 iliopsoas 7mo/ly remov$ on ! "r side72 #i1 ,m4 psoas m9or2 #aj1 ,m4 pyri=mis2 #aa1 ,m4 levator ani2 #aa1 ,m4 iliocaudalis2 #ab1 ,m4 flexor caud longus2 #ac1 ,m4 flexor caud brevis2 #ad1 edge ( pubic symphysis2 #ae1 cut end ( ,m4 obturator int]nus2 #af1 cut ramus ( is*ium2 #ag1 cut ramus ( pubis4 ,d4 ,,sacral ,,n]ves ,,& ,,sacral ,,plexus 7,fig4 #afb74--;,a l>ge b& passes caudad f ! six? & sev5? lumb> n]ves to connect ) ! sacral n]ves2 ?is con/itutes ! s-call$ lumbosacral cord4 ,! sacral n]ves are ?ree 9 numb]4 ,_! dorsal rami pass dorsad out ( ! two po/]ior sacral =am9a & ! =am5 caudad ( ! sacrum1 to ! muscles & sk9 dorsad ( ! sacrum4 ,! v5tral rami pass f ! two ant]ior sacral =am9a & f ! =am5 betwe5 ! la/ sacral & fir/ caudal v]tebr4 ,! fir/ is ! l>ge/2 x jo9s ! lumbosacral cord to =m ! great sciatic n]ve 7,n4 is*iadicus7 7h7 & ! sup]ior 7i7 & inf]ior 7j7 gluteal1 & s5ds a bran* caudad to connect ) ! second sacral4 ,! second & ?ird sacral n]ves are small2 !y unite ) ! connect+ bran* f ! fir/ to =m a network f :i* arises ! pud5dus 7l71 cutaneus femoris po/]ior 7k71 hemorrhoidalis inf]ior 7m71 & a small bran* to ! great sciatic 7h74 ,! n]ves aris+ f ! sacral plexus are ! foll[+3 #a4 ,n4 gluteus sup]ior 7,fig4 #afb1 i2 ,fig4 #afc1 j74--,! sup]ior gluteal n]ve arises f ! lumbosacral cord & ! fir/ sacral n]ve2 x passes dorsad 9 ! not* betwe5 sacrum & ilium1 caudolat]ad ( ! fir/ ant]ior sacral =am51 curves ov] ! dorsal bord] ( ! ilium betwe5 ! gluteus m$ius & pyri=mis muscles 7,fig4 #afc1 #g71 passes betwe5 ! gemellus sup]ior 7#f7 & gluteus m9imus 7#e7 & v5trad ( ! latt]1 & rea*es ! m$ial surface ( ! t5sor fasci lat1 :i* x inn]vates4 ,9 its c\rse x s5ds bran*es to ! gluteus m$ius1 gluteus m9imus 7#e71 & gemellus sup]ior4 #b4 ,n4 gluteus inf]ior 7,fig4 #afb1 j2 ,fig4 #afc1 i74--,a small n]ve f ! lumbosacral cord & ! fir/ sacral n]ve4 ,x passes dorsocaudad1 ly+ on ! dorsal surface ( ! great sciatic n]ve 7,fig4 #afb1 h74 ,aft] leav+ ! pelvis by ! great sciatic not* x divides b5ea? ! pyri=mis 7,fig4 #afc1 #g7 into two bran*es2 "o goes to ,m4 caud(emoralis 7#d71 ! o!r to ,m4 gluteus maximus 7#c74 #c4 ,n4 is*iadicus 7,fig4 #afb1 h2 ,fig4 #afc1 a74--,! great sciatic n]ve1 ! l>ge/ n]ve 9 ! body1 arises f ! lumbosacral cord 7=m$ *iefly by ! six? & sev5? lumb> n]ves71 ! fir/ sacral n]ve & a small bran* f ! second sacral4 ,x passes caudodorsad & leaves ! pelvis by pass+ across ! great sciatic not*1 betwe5 ,m4 pyri=mis & ,m4 gemellus sup]ior4 ,x passes across ! t5don ( ,m4 obturator int]nus 7,fig4 #afc1 #i7 ne> ! ins]tion1 & "h s5ds caudad a l>ge muscul> bran* 7b7 b5ea? ! biceps4 ,?is bran* inn]vates ! biceps1 semit5d9osus 7#ag7 & semimembranosus 7#af74 ,o!r twigs 9 ?is region pass to ! quadratus femoris 7#aj7 & t5uissimus4 ,! great sciatic n]ve 7a7 n[ passes across ! quadratus femoris 7#aj71 adductor femoris 7#ae71 & semimembranosus 7#af71 ly+ b5ea? ! biceps femoris4 ,x ?us ent]s ! popliteal space & approa*es ! popliteal art]y & ve94 ,"h x gives (f "o or two small muscul> bran*es to ! di/al "p ( ! biceps1 & s5ds a sl5d] bran*1 ,n4 suralis 7c71 along ! m$ial surface ( ! biceps to ! lat]al surface ( ! lat]al head ( ,m4 ga/rocnemius 7#bj74 ,! sural n]ve 7c7 becomes cutane\s at ! di/al 7v5tral7 bord] ( ! biceps1 & divides ?ree or f\r c5timet]s proximad ( ! ankle into two bran*es4 ,"o passes ov] ! t5don ( ,a*illes 7#bg7 to ! proximal end ( ! calcaneus & ramifies 9 ?is region4 ,! o!r passes onto ! lat]al surface ( ! foot1 & supplies ! integum5t 9 ?is region ov] ! t>sus & "p ( ! metat>sus4 ,! great sciatic n]ve n[ divides 9 ! popliteal space into ! p]oneus communis 7d7 & ! tibialis 7e74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afc4--;,,dissection ,,( ,,leg1 ,,lat]al ,,view1 ,,to ,,%[ ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,! ,,great ,,sciatic ,,n]ve4 ,! biceps1 caud(emoralis1 gluteus maximus1 gluteus m$ius1 t5sor vag9 femoris1 & "p ( ! p]oneus longus h be5 remov$4 a1 ,n4 is*iadicus or great sciatic n]ve2 b1 muscul> bran*2 c1 ,n4 suralis2 d1 ,n4 p]oneus communis2 e1 ,n4 tibialis2 f1 ,n4 p]oneus pr(undus2 g1 ,n4 p]oneus sup]ficialis & its t]m9al bran*es2 h1 bran*es ( ,n4 cutaneus femoris po/]ior2 i1 ,n4 gluteus inf]ior2 j1 ,n4 gluteus sup]ior2 k1 v5a saph5a p>va2 k1 communicat+ bran* to ,v4 glutea inf]ior4 #a1 ,m4 s>torius2 #b1 cut orig9 ( ,m4 gluteus m$ius2 #c1 cut orig9 ( ,m4 gluteus maximus2 #d1 cut orig9 ( ,m4 caud(emoralis2 #e1 ,m4 gluteus m9imus2 #f1 ,m4 gemellus sup]ior2 #g1 ,m4 pyri=mis2 #h1 ,m4 flexor caud longus2 #i1 ,m4 obturator int]nus2 #aj1 ,m4 quadratus femoris2 #aa1 tub]osity ( ! is*ium2 #ab1 great tro*ant] ( femur2 #ac1 ,m4 rectus femoris2 #ad1 ,m4 va/us lat]alis2 #ae1 ,m4 adductor femoris2 #af1 ,m4 semimembranosus2 #ag1 ,m4 semit5d9osus 7! sl5d] ribbon-l muscle cross+ ?is is ,m4 t5uissimus72 #ah1 ,m4 va/us int]m$ius2 #ai1 ,m4 plant>is2 #bj1 ,m4 ga/rocnemius2 #ba1 ,m4 p]oneus longus 7cut72 #bb1 ,m4 tibialis ant]ior2 #bc1 ,m4 ext5sor longus digitorum2 #bd1 transv]se ligam5t2 #be1 ,m4 p]oneus brevis2 #bf1 ,m4 soleus2 #bg1 t5don ( ,a*illes2 #bh1 ,m4 ext5sor brevis digitorum2 #bi1 t5don ( ,m4 p]oneus t]tius4 a4 ,n4 p]oneus communis 7d74--,?is is ! m lat]al ( ! two divisions ( ! great sciatic n]ve4 ,x passes along ! m$ial surface ( ! biceps to ! lat]al surface ( ! lat]al head ( ,m4 ga/rocnemius 7#bj71 :]e x ext5ds to a po9t j di/ad ( ! head ( ! fibula4 ,"h x passes b5ea? t "p ( ! ga/rocnemius :i* has orig9 on ! fascia ( ! %ank1 passes betwe5 ! soleus & p]oneus longus 7#ba71 !n betwe5 ! p]oneus longus & p]oneus t]tius4 ,x gives (f a numb] ( small muscul> bran*es1 !n divides two or ?ree c5timet]s di/ad ( ! head ( ! fibula into two ma9 bran*es1 ,n4 p]oneus sup]ficialis 7g7 & ,n4 p]oneus pr(undus 7f74 7#a7 ,n4 p]oneus sup]ficialis 7g74--,! sup]ficial p]oneal n]ve passes di/ad betwe5 ! p]oneus longus & p]oneus t]tius4 ,ne> ! ankle x becomes sup]ficial1 pass+ along ! concavity ( ! ankle across ! transv]se ligam5t :i* b9ds d[n ! t5dons ( ! ext5sor longus 7#bc7 & tibialis ant]ior 7#bb71 & ?us rea*es ! dorsal side ( ! foot4 ,two or ?ree m9ute twigs are giv5 (f to ! ankle1 !n ! n]ve divides into f\r divisions4 ,^! pass di/ad to ! toes1 subdivid+ s z to s5d a n]ve to ea* side ( ea* toe4 7#b7 ,n4 p]oneus pr(undus 7f74--,! deep p]oneal n]ve passes betwe5 ! tibialis ant]ior & ext5sor longus digitorum muscles1 gives bran*es to ^! muscles1 & passes di/ad ) ! tibialis ant]ior art]y1 ly+ on ! inn] surface ( ! tibialis ant]ior muscle4 ,x passes onto ! dorsum ( ! foot1 ly+ on ! inn] surface ( ! t5don ( ! muscle4 ,on ! t>sus x divides into two bran*es4 ,! lat]al bran* passes into ! ext5sor brevis digitorum1 :ile ! m$ial "o ext5ds 9 ! dorsal groove betwe5 metat>sals f\r & five to ! toes2 "h x divides into two n]ves :i* supply ! contigu\s sides ( digits f\r & five4 b4 ,n4 tibialis 7e74--,! tibial n]ve passes di/ad p>allel ) ! p]oneal n]ve1 b m$iad ( x4 ,x passes betwe5 ! lat]al & m$ial heads ( ! ga/rocnemius1 giv+ (f muscul> bran*es to ^!1 & to ! plant>is & soleus4 ,x !n passes betwe5 ! plant>is & ! m$ial head ( ! ga/rocnemius1 & rea*es ! space betwe5 ! plant>is & flexor longus hallucis1 :]e x passes di/ad4 ,x gives (f1 9 ! region j describ$1 muscul> bran*es to ! flexor longus digitorum1 flexor longus hallucis1 & tibialis po/]ior4 ,bel[ ! middle ( ! l[] leg ! n]ve becomes sup]ficial 7,fig4 #abg1 i1 page #caj71 ly+ on ! v5tral surface ( ! flexor longus hallucis4 ,x passes 9 ! depression betwe5 ! heel & ! m$ial malleolus onto ! plant> surface ( ! t>sus1 s5ds a small bran* to ! plant> surface ( ! heel1 & divides into two bran*es1 ! m$ial & ! lat]al plant> n]ves4 7#a7 ,n4 plant>is m$ialis4--,! m$ial plant> n]ve passes along ! m$ial bord] ( ! flexor brevis digitorum & divides into two bran*es4 ,"o passes to ! m$ial 7second7 digit1 supply+ bo? sides2 ! o!r supplies ! ?ird digit 9 ! same way4 ,bo? s5d bran*es to ! fibr\s pad on ! sole ( ! foot4 7#b7 ,n4 plant>is lat]alis4--,! lat]al plant> n]ve passes lat]ad across ! t5don ( ! flexor longus digitorum to its lat]al edge4 ,at ab\t ! proximal end ( ! metat>si x divides into two bran*es4 ,! lat]al bran* passes di/ad to ! v5tral surface ( ! fif? digit4 ,! m$ial bran* passes b5ea? ! t5don ( ! flexor longus digitorum & transv]sely across ! int]ossei2 x divides into num]\s t5dons :i* inn]vate ! int]ossei & o!r %ort muscles ( ! sole ( ! foot4 #d4 ,n4 pud5dus 7,fig4 #afb1 l2 ,fig4 #aab1 #h1 page #bfe74--,?is arises 7,fig4 #afb1 l7 f ! sacral plexus caudad ( ! great sciatic n]ve4 ,x has two roots1 "o f ! second sacral1 "o f ! ?ird1 & x may also receive a small accession f ! great sciatic n]ve 7h7 ?ree or f\r c5timet]s caudad ( ! orig9 ( ! latt]4 ,x passes at fir/ dorsolat]ad1 lat]ad ( ! coccygeus muscle1 !n curves m$iad t[>d ! anus4 ,x divides into two bran*es3 "o passes to ! base ( ! p5is1 s5ds twigs into ! compressor ure?r muscle1 & passes onto ! dorsal surface ( ! p5is4 ,?is bran* is ,n4 dorsalis p5is2 x ext5ds ) ! art]y ( ! same "n to ! glans4 ,! second bran* ( ,n4 pud5dus 7,n4 hemorrhoidalis m$ius7 passes to ! anus & inn]vates ! muscles & o!r /ructures ab\t ! caudal end ( ! rectum4 ,9 ! female1 bran*es ( ,n4 pud5dus supply ! urog5ital s9us & adjac5t /ructures 7,fig4 #aab1 #h74 #e4 ,n4 cutaneus femoris po/]ior 7,fig4 #afb1 k2 ,fig4 #afc1 h74--,?is arises f ! sacral plexus1 its roots com+ *iefly f ! second & ?ird sacral n]ves1 & passes caudodorsad1 at fir/ 9 close connection ) ,n4 pud5dus4 ,x !n accompanies ! po/]ior gluteal art]y & ve91 s5ds bran*es 7p]9eal n]ves7 into ! fat at ! sides ( ! anus1 & bran*es onto ! lat]al surface ( ! biceps muscle4 ,"o ( ! latt] foll[s ! communicat+ ve9 7,fig4 #afc1 k7 f ,v4 saph5a p>va1 & may be trac$ z f> di/ad z ! popliteal space4 #f4 ,n4 hemorrhoidalis inf]ior 7or po/]ior7 7,fig4 #afb1 m74--,?is arises by two roots1 f ! second & ?ird sacral n]ves1 & passes ) ! inf]ior hemorrhoidal art]y v5trad across ! lat]al surface ( ! rectum to ! ure?ra4 ,"h x divides into two p>ts3 "o passes craniad to ! bladd]1 ! o!r caudad onto ! v5trolat]al surface ( ! rectum4 ,a small n]ve passes f ! sacral plexus1 especially f ! ?ird sacral n]ve1 into ,m4 levator ani 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa74 ,ano!r small n]ve f ! same region passes to ,m4 coccygeus1 & a ?ird to ! proximal end ( ,m4 t5uissimus4 ,e4 ,,n]ves ,,( ,,! ,,tail4 ,,coccygeal ,,n]ves4--,f ! int]v]tebral =am9a ( ! fir/ sev5 or eight caudal v]tebr sp9al n]ves ( ! usual type are giv5 (f4 ,! dorsal rami inn]vate ! dorsal muscles ( ! tail4 ,! v5tral rami are int]connect$ ) ea* o!r & ) ! la/ sacral n]ve by a longitud9al cord2 !y inn]vate ! muscles & integum5t ( ! v5tral side ( ! tail4 #c4 ,! ,sympa!tic ,n]v\s ,sy/em4 ,sy/ema n]vorum sympa?icum4 ,! sympa!tic sy/em consi/s ess5tially ( a *a9 ( ganglia on ea* side ( ! v5tral surface ( ! v]tebral column1 int]connect$ by longitud9al n]ve-cords1 & /ret*+ f ! base ( ! skull to ! tail4 ,! ganglia are connect$ to ! sp9al n]ves by communicat+ bran*es1 & num]\s bran*es pass f !m to ! abdom9al & ?oracic visc]a1 & to ! walls ( ! lymph- & blood-vessels1 =m+ complicat$ plexuses4 ,c]vical portion 7,fig4 #aef1 page #cgi74--,! sympa!tic sy/em beg9s j caudad ( ! tympanic bulla z ! sup]ior c]vical ganglion 7,g4 c]vicale sup]ius7 7,fig4 #aef1 e74 ,?is is a l>ge ganglion closely appli$ to ! ganglion nodosum 7d7 ( ! vagus1 & ly+ on its v5trocranial side4 ,f ! sup]ior c]vical ganglion ! sympa!tic trunk passes caudad usually closely b\nd up ) ! vagus 7d71 s t ! two c sc>cely be di/+ui%$4 ,!y lie 7i7 at ! side ( ! tra*ea 7#f71 close aga9/ ! lat]al surface ( ! c>otid art]y4 ,a few c5timet]s be=e rea*+ ! fir/ rib ! two sep>ate 7,fig4 #aeg1 page #cha72 ! sympa!tic 7c7 is "h ! small] & m dorsal ( ! two4 ,j craniad ( ! fir/ rib ! sympa!tic usually =ms a small swell+1 ! middle c]vical ganglion 7,fig4 #aeg1 d71 beyond :i* x divides into two portions4 ,! l>g] dorsal division passes dorsocaudad & jo9s a l>ge ganglion1 ! inf]ior c]vical 7e71 :i* lies at ! head ( ! fir/ rib1 on ! lat]al surface ( ! longus colli muscle4 ,! v5tral bran* 7g7 passes caudad1 turns lat]ad ab\t ! m$ial & caudal surface ( ! subclavian art]y1 & likewise rea*es ! inf]ior c]vical ganglion4 ,9 "s cases ! middle c]vical ganglion 7d7 is lack+4 ,bran*es ( ! ,sympa!tic 9 ! ,c]vical ,region4--,f ! cranial end ( ! sup]ior c]vical ganglion sev]al n]ves pass craniad4 ,"s ( ^! become connect$ imm$iately ) ! cranial n]ves em]g+ f ! jugul> =am51 =m+ a plexus 9 ?is region4 ,o!rs pass ) ! int]nal c>otid art]y craniad1 =m+ a plexus ab\t t art]y2 f ! plexus twigs arise :i* pass to ! fif? & six? cranial n]ves2 d\btless also to ! sev5? & eigh?4 ,a specially l>ge bran*1 ! deep petrosal n]ve 7see page #cgc71 passes f ! sup]ior c]vical ganglion along ) ! int]nal c>otid art]y to ! pt]ygoid canal1 !nce ?r\gh ?is to ! sph5opalat9e ganglion4 ,be=e sep>at+ f ! vagus ! sympa!tic gives (f "o or two c>diac n]ves 7,fig4 #aeg1 i74 ,^! are closely b\nd up ) ! vagus 7b71 s t !y appe> usually to h orig9 f ! vagus at ab\t ! level ( ! fir/ rib4 ,^! pass ) ! vagus to ! he>t & take "p 9 ! =mation ( ! c>diac plexus 7k74 ,at ! middle c]vical ganglion 7d7 usually a communicat+ bran* is giv5 to ! vagus4 ,! bran*es ( ! inf]ior c]vical ganglion 7e7 fall 9 ! ?oracic region1 & are describ$ 9 t connection4 ,?oracic ,portion ( ! ,sympa!tic 7,fig4 #aeg1 page #cha74--,! inf]ior c]vical ganglion 7e7 lies entirely )9 ! ?oracic cavity4 ,x has ! foll[+ bran*es3 #a4 ,"o or two small c>diac bran*es 7h71 :i* pass to ! he>t 7r74 #b4 ,a l>ge communicat+ bran* 7e71 :i* passes craniad f ! cranial end ( ! ganglion 7e7 along ! lat]al surface ( ! longus colli muscle1 & gives communicat+ bran*es to ! six?1 sev5?1 & eigh? c]vical n]ves 7,,vi1 ,,vii1 & ,,viii74 #c4 ,"o or two small communicat+ bran*es to ! fir/ ?oracic n]ve 7,i74 #d4 ,a communicat+ bran* to ! second ?oracic n]ve4 ,! arrangem5t ( ^! communicat+ bran*es is some:at v>iable2 !y may arise 9 v>i\s comb9ations1 z at fir/ unit$1 or z m or less completely sep>at$ n]ves4 ,! sympa!tic trunk 7c7 cont9ues caudad f ! caudal end ( ! inf]ior c]vical ganglion1 ly+ at fir/ on ! lat]al surface ( ! longus colli1 !n on ! lat]al surface ( ! c5tra ( ! v]tebr4 ,= ea* v]tebra !re is a slight enl>gem5t1 =m+ "o ( ! ?oracic ganglia ( ! sympa!tic1 & f ea* ganglion "o or two communicat+ bran*es are giv5 (f to ! correspond+ sp9al n]ve4 ,j caudad ( ! la/ rib 7b :ile /ill 9 ! ?oracic cavity7 ! sympa!tic gives (f ! l>ge ,n4 splan*nicus major or great splan*nic n]ve 7n71 :i* passes v5trocaudad & pi]ces ! diaphragm4 ,! sympa!tic itself !n passes ?r\gh ! diaphragm lat]ad ( ! crus4 ,abdom9al ,portion ( ! ,sympa!tic 7,fig4 #afd74--,! great splan*nic n]ve 7b7 passes ?r\gh ! diaphragm 7#b7 lat]ad ( ! crus1 ext5ds two or ?ree c5timet]s caudov5trad1 & jo9s a l>ge ganglion ly+ j caudad ( ! cliac art]y 7#d71 almo/ on ! lat]al surface ( ! sup]ior mes5t]ic 7#e74 ,?is is ! cliac 7or semilun>7 ganglion 7d74 ,f x n]ves bran* 9 all directions1 =m+ ! cliac plexus 7c71 a "p ( ! l>ge sol> plexus4 ,less ?an a c5timet] v5trocaudad ( ! cliac ganglion1 on ! caudal surface ( ! sup]ior mes5t]ic art]y 7#e71 is ! some:at small] sup]ior mes5t]ic ganglion 7f72 ! two are connect$ by two /rong n]ve-trunks4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afd4--,,sympa!tic ,,& ,,vagus ,,9 ,,! ,,abdom5 7,,some:at ,,s*ematic74 #a1 /oma*2 #b1 crus & cut edge ( diaphragm2 #c1 aorta2 #d1 cliac art]y2 #e1 sup]ior mes5t]ic art]y2 #f1 kidney2 #g1 inf]ior mes5t]ic art]y2 #h1 l>ge inte/9e4 a1 ma9 trunk ( sympa!tic2 b1 great splan*nic n]ve2 c1 less] splan*nic n]ves2 d1 cliac 7or semilun>7 ganglion2 e1 cliac plexus2 f1 sup]ior mes5t]ic ganglion2 g1 sup]ior mes5t]ic plexus1 foll[+ ! art]y2 h1 aortic plexus2 i1 inf]ior mes5t]ic ganglion & plexus2 j1 supr>5al plexus on supr>5al body2 k1 r5al plexus foll[+ r5al art]y2 l1 v5tral sophageal bran* ( vagus1 =m+ ant]ior ga/ric plexus2 m1 dorsal sophageal bran* ( vagus1 =m+ po/]ior ga/ric plexus4 ,! cliac ganglion 7d7 receives f ! sympa!tic 7a71 9 addition to ! great splan*nic n]ve1 two 7or ?ree7 less] splan*nic n]ves 7c71 :i* arise f ! ma9 trunk ( ! sympa!tic1 ! fir/ j z x rea*es ! abdom9al cavity1 ! second "o or two c5timet]s caudad ( ! diaphragm4 ,f ! cliac & sup]ior mes5t]ic ganglia a network ( n]ves passes 9 all directions to ! abdom9al visc]a4 ,^! n]ves foll[ especially ! art]ies1 =m+ plexuses ov] _! surfaces1 & pass+ ) !m to ! organs :i* !y supply4 ,! cliac plexus ana/omoses ) ! po/]ior ga/ric plexus ( ! vagus4 ,p>ts ( ! cliac plexus foll[+ ! bran*es ( ! cliac art]y may be di/+ui%$ z hepatic plexus1 spl5ic plexus1 etc4 ,a d5se plexus is =m$ on ! surface ( ! supr>5al body 7supr>5al plexus1 j71 & a r5al plexus 7k7 foll[s ! r5al art]y to ! kidneys 7#f74 ,! sup]ior mes5t]ic plexus 7g7 =ms a d5se network ov] ! sup]ior mes5t]ic art]y 7#e7 & foll[s x to ! inte/9e4 ,a plexus passes caudad on ! aorta 7aortic plexus1 h74 ,?is is a cont9uation ( ! cliac & sup]ior mes5t]ic plexuses2 x receives a numb] ( bran*es f ! ma9 sympa!tic trunk1 ly+ dorsad ( ! aorta4 ,! aortic plexus conta9s a numb] ( small ganglia4 ,f ! aortic plexus ! small] inf]ior mes5t]ic plexus 7i7 foll[s ! inf]ior mes5t]ic art]y 7#g7 to ! l>ge inte/9e2 9 ?is lies a ganglion ( consid]able size1 ! inf]ior mes5t]ic ganglion4 ,9 ! pelvic region small plexuses are =m$ 9 a simil> mann]1 f bran*es giv5 (f by ! ma9 sympa!tic trunk1 toge!r ) bran*es f ! plexuses ( ! abdom9al cavity4 ,^! plexuses supply ! v>i\s organs 9 ! pelvis4 ,! ma9 sympa!tic trunk 7a7 passes into ! abdom5 at ! side ( ! crus ( ! diaphragm1 ly+ dorsad ( ! great splan*nic n]ve 7b74 ,9 ! abdom5 x lies ne>] ! middle l9e ?an 9 ! ?orax1 s t ! two trunks ( "r & left side are sep>at$ by b a few millimet]s z !y lie on ! v5tral surface ( ! c5tra ( ! lumb> v]tebr4 ,!re is a ganglion = ea* v]tebra 7,fig4 #afb1 n71 & f ea* ganglion are giv5 (f "o or m communicat+ bran*es to ! sp9al n]ves1 & usually a bran* :i* passes v5trad to jo9 "o ( ! plexuses among ! visc]a4 ,! fir/ ?ree bran*es ( ?is k9d 7,fig4 #afd1 c7 are l>g] & pass to ! cliac & sup]ior mes5t]ic ganglia4 ,! sympa!tic may be trac$ into ! pelvis1 :]e x becomes small]1 & is lo/ z ! caudal region is rea*$4 ,,s5se-,,organs ,,& ,,integum5t4 ,i4 ,,! ,,organ ,,( ,,sight4 ,,organon ,,visus4 #a4 ,! ,orbit4--,! bony framework ( ! orbital fossa1 9 :i* ! organ ( sight is situat$1 has already be5 describ$ 7page #ec74 ,! orbit is n protect$ by bone on all sides1 be+ op5 caudad & v5trad1 & p>tly lat]ad4 ,! /ructures )9 ! orbit are fur!r protect$ & sep>at$ f o!r /ructures by a v ?91 t\gh1 transp>5t membran\s sac1 ! p]iorbita1 :i* surr\nds !m almo/ completely & ne>ly fills ! orbit4 ,! p]iorbita =ms a conical sac ) ! apex ( ! cone direct$ caudov5trad & atta*$ ab\t ! optic =am5 & orbital fissure4 ,! base ( ! cone is atta*$ ab\t ! m>g9 ( ! orbital fossa1--to ! supraorbital m>g9 ( ! frontal1 to ! maxill>y & mal> bones1 & to ! orbital ligam5t1 connect+ ! frontal process ( ! mal> ) ! zygomatic process ( ! frontal4 ,! p]iorbita is p>tly sep>at$ f ! walls ( ! orbital fossa by masses ( fat4 ,x comes 9 contact1 aside f ! bones1 ) ! temporal & pt]ygoid muscles1 & ) n]ves & blood-vessels 9 ! orbit4 ,! sac ?us =m$ encloses ! eyeball ) its muscles & gl&s 7,fig4 #aff71 z well z a mass ( fat 9 :i* ^! are imb$d$4 ,! p]iorbita & its cont5ts are freely movable ) relation to surr\nd+ /ructures4 #b4 ,! ,eyelids4 ,palpebr4--,! eyelids are two ?9 folds :i* protect ! eye4 ,ext]nally !y are cov]$ ) hair2 int]nally by ! ?9 membran\s conjunctiva4 ,! eyelids conta9 ! ,meibomian or t>sal gl&s1 arrang$ 9 %ort r[s pass+ p]p5dicul>ly inw>d f ! edge ( ! lids2 ^! may sometimes be se5 ) ! nak$ eye z broad yell[i% l9es4 ,!y secrete a sub/ance :i* prev5ts ! adhesion ( ! edges ( ! two lids4 ,on ! edge ( ea* eyelid1 ?ree to f\r millimet]s f ! m$ial angle ( ! eye1 is "o ( ! op5+s ( ! la*rymal canals4 ,at ! m$ial angle ( ! eye is ! l>ge nictitat+ membrane 7membrana nictitans71 or 8?ird eyelid10 correspond+ to ! plica semilun>is ( man4 ,9 ! cat ?is is l>ge & may cov] ! :ole surface ( ! eye4 ,x is support$ 7,fig4 #afe7 by a broad c5tral /rip ( c>tilage 7a71 pass+ f its edge to its inn] angle1 & ! inn] end ( ?is c>tilage is surr\nd$1 on ! m$ial 7concave7 side ( ! membrane1 by ! l>ge lobulat$ ,h>d]ian gl&s 7b74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afe4--;,,inn] ,,surface ,,( ,,membrana ,,nictitans1 %[+ ! support+ c>tilage & ,h>d]ian gl&s4 a1 support+ c>tilage2 b1 ,h>d]ian gl&s2 c1 out] edge4 ,! conjunctiva is ! ?9 membrane cov]+ ! inn] surface ( ! lids1 ! out] surface ( ! eyeball1 & bo? surfaces ( ! nictitat+ membrane4 ,! muscles ( ! eyelids are ,m4 orbicul>is oculi1 already describ$ 7page #ih71 & ,m4 levator palpebr sup]ioris1 describ$ bel[4 #c4 ,la*rymal ,app>atus4--,! la*rymal gl& is a l>ge r$di% gl&1 n lobulat$ ext]nally1 :i* lies on ! surface ( ! eyeball j b5ea? ! lat]al angle ( ! eye4 ,! gl& is situat$ imm$iately craniad (1 & 9 contact )1 ! zygomatic process ( ! frontal bone 7,fig4 #aed1 #aa1 page #cgd74 ,x is flat & ab\t "o c5timet] 9 diamet]4 ,! ducts :i* pass f ! gl& to ! eye are n visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,! fluid secret$ by ! gl& collects at ! m$ial angle ( ! eye & passes into ! two op5+s ( ! la*rymal canals1 "o ( :i* is f\nd on ! pigm5t$ edge ( ea* lid1 ?ree or f\r millimet]s f ! m$ial angle ( ! eye4 ,! canals pass+ f ^! op5+s soon unite to =m ! nasola*rymal duct1 :i* passes ?r\gh ! la*rymal bone1 along ! m$ial surface ( ! maxill>y1 to op5 into ! nasal cavity v5trad ( ! v5tral con*a ( ! nose4 #d4 ,muscles ( ! ,orbit 7,fig4 #aff74--,)9 ! orbit are elev5 muscles1 t5 connect$ ) ! eyeball1 & "o1 ,m4 levator palpebr sup]ioris1 ) ! upp] eyelid4 ,( ! t5 muscles ( ! eyeball1 eight are /raight muscles1 pass+ f an orig9 ab\t ! inn] end ( ! orbit directly di/ad2 ! o!r two h an oblique direction4 ,f\r ( ! /raight muscles are l>g] & are kn[n z ! ,mm4 recti 7b1 c1 d72 ^! are di/+ui%$ accord+ to _! position z lat]al 7c71 m$ial1 sup]ior 7d71 & inf]ior 7b74 ,! f\r small] /raight muscles con/itute toge!r ,m4 retractor oculi 7e74 ,! two oblique muscles are kn[n z ,mm4 obliqui & are di/+ui%$ accord+ to _! position z inf]ior 7a7 & sup]ior4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,eyeball1 ,,lat]al ,,view4 a1 ,m4 obliquus inf]ior2 b1 ,m4 rectus inf]ior2 c1 ,m4 rectus lat]alis2 d1 ,m4 rectus sup]ior2 e1 p>ts ( ,m4 retractor oculi2 f1 ! oculomotor n]ve4 ,mm4 recti 7b1 c1 d74--,! f\r recti muscles arise f ! bone ab\t ! optic =am5 & pass t[>d ! eyeball4 ,!y are ins]t$ by ?91 flat t5dons along a l9e :i* sep>ates ! d>k] caudal "p ( ! scl]otic f ! :ite zone ( ! scl]otic :i* bord]s ! cornea1--! l9e ( ins]tion ( ! f\r t5dons =m+ ?us a circle ab\t ! eyeball4 ,! rectus sup]ior 7d7 is p>tly cov]$ by ,m4 levator palpebr sup]ioris4 ,! t5don ( ! rectus inf]ior 7b7 is cross$ by ,m4 obliquus inf]ior 7a74 ,! recti muscles are all inn]vat$ by ! oculomotor 7?ird7 n]ve 7f71 except ! lat]al 7c71 :i* is suppli$ by ! abduc5s 7six?7 n]ve4 ,m4 retractor oculi 7e74--,! retractor oculi arises ab\t ! optic =am5 & divides into f\r heads :i* lie ne>] ! eyeball ?an ! recti & are !re=e p>tly cov]$ by ! latt]4 ,!y alt]nate ) ! recti & are ins]t$ into ! eyeball at ab\t its equator1 except ! inf]ior division1 :i* is ins]t$ on a l9e ) ! recti4 ,!y are suppli$ by ! oculomotor n]ve4 ,m4 obliquus inf]ior 7a74--,! inf]ior oblique arises f ! maxill>y bone j lat]ad ( ! la*rymal bone & curves ov] ! v5tral side ( ! eyeball along ! l9es ( ins]tion ( ! recti1 cross+ ! t5don ( ! rectus inf]ior 7b7 to ! v5tral edge ( ! t5don ( ! lat]al rectus 7c71 :]e x is ins]t$4 ,x rotates ! eyeball & is suppli$ by ! ?ird n]ve 7f74 ,m4 obliquus sup]ior4--,! sup]ior oblique takes orig9 f ! cranial bord] ( ! optic =am51 passes dorsocraniad1 & ends 9 a small r\nd$ t5don :i* passes ?r\gh a fibr\s pulley-r+4 ,?is r+ is situat$ ne> ! rim ( ! orbit1 "o or two c5timet]s craniad ( ! zygomatic process ( ! frontal bone1 & is atta*$ to ! wall ( ! orbit by two fibr\s b&s4 ,aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! pulley-r+ ! t5don turns & passes lat]ocaudad2 x becomes mu* exp&$1 passes caudad ( ! sup]ior rectus1 & is ins]t$ into ! eyeball along ! caudal m>g9 ( ! ins]tion ( ! sup]ior rectus t5don4 ,! sup]ior oblique is suppli$ by ! tro*le> 7f\r?7 n]ve4 ,m4 levator palpebr sup]ioris4--,?is is a small ?9 muscle :i* takes orig9 on ! wall ( ! optic =am5 close to ! rectus sup]ior1 passes ov] ! out] surface ( ! rectus sup]ior & b5ea? ! la*rymal gl&1 & =ms a ?9 t5don :i* is ins]t$ into ! m>g9 ( ! upp] eyelid4 ,x is inn]vat$ by ! oculomotor4 #e4 ,! ,eyeball4--,! eyeball is approximately sph]ical 9 =m1 b ! cranial surface has a slightly great] curvature ?an ! caudal portion1 s t ! eye appe>s slightly po9t$ at ! cranial 7free7 surface4 ,! l>ge cyl9drical optic n]ve 7,fig4 #afg1 a7 ent]s ! eyeball at ne>ly ! c5tre ( ! caudal half ( ! eye4 ,on ! out] surface is se5 ! transp>5t cornea 7c71 cov]+ ! free surface ( ! eye1 & ! opaque scl]otic 7b71 cov]+ ! rema9d] ( ! ball4 ,?r\gh ! cornea c be se5 ! yell[ curta9-l iris1 ) an op5+ 9 its c5tre1 ! pupil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afg4--;,,diagram ,,( ,a ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,eye4 a1 optic n]ve2 b1 scl]otic 7b1 ?ick5$ 8:ite zone072 c1 cornea2 d1 *oroid2 e1 iris2 f1 cili>y body2 g1 ret9a2 h1 cry/all9e l5s2 i1 zonula cili>is2 j1 ant]ior *amb] ( eye2 k1 vitre\s humor4 ,coats ( ! ,eye 7,fig4 #afg74--,! out] coat ( ! eyeball is =m$ by ! scl]otic 7or scl]a7 7b7 & ! cornea 7c74 ,! scl]otic is ! :iti% opaque portion cov]+ ! caudal ?ree-f\r?s ( ! eye4 ,x =ms a t\gh sac s]v+ z a protection = ! /ructures )94 ,! cornea 7c7 is ! circul> transp>5t portion ( ! out] coat1 cov]+ ! free surface ( ! eye2 x is a direct cont9uation ( ! scl]otic4 ,j be=e pass+ into ! cornea ! scl]otic is mu* ?ick5$1 =m+ a broad :ite zone 7b7 ab\t ! eyeball ne> its equator4 ,to ?is zone1 at its caudal m>g91 are atta*$ ! rectus muscles ( ! eyeball4 ,! scl]otic has _m pigm5t-cells on its inn] surface1 giv+ x a br[ni% appe>ance & =m+ ! lam9a fusca4 ,! cornea 7c7 is transp>5t & m /rongly curv$ ?an ! scl]otic4 ,x is ?ick] ?an mo/ ( ! scl]otic coat1 b n s ?ick z ! :ite zone ( ! latt]4 ,)9 ! scl]otic is ! second coat ( ! eye1 =m$ by ! *oroid 7d7 & ! iris 7e74 ,! *oroid 7d7 is a vascul> lay]1 & conta9s mu* pigm5t1 giv+ x a d>k color4 ,x l9es ! inn] surface ( ! scl]otic1 b does n cov] ! inn] surface ( ! cornea4 ,at ! :ite zone ( ! scl]otic x is ?r[n into a l>ge numb] 7ab\t sev5ty7 ( m]idional folds1 ! plic cili>es or cili>y folds1 :i* toge!r con/itute ! s-call$ cili>y body 7corpus cili>e7 7f74 ,?is =ms a circul> zone on ! inn] surface ( ! :ite zone ( ! scl]otic1 & is cont9u\s ) ! iris 7e74 ,! *oroid coat is furni%$ 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( its area ) a lay] ( cells conta9+ cry/als1 :i* give x a brilliant color1 =m+ ! tapetum4 ,! color ( ! tapetum is a metallic yell[i% blue or gre52 x is ?is lay] :i* causes ! cat's eye to 8%9e0 9 ! d>k4 ,! iris 7e7 is a cont9uation ( ! *oroid4 ,x projects inw>d f ! :ite zone ( ! scl]otic1 =m+ a circul> curta9 ly+ "s di/ance beh9d ! cornea1 & p]=at$ by an op5+1 ! pupil4 ,! iris is usually yell[ 9 color on its out] surface1 d>kly pigm5t$ )94 ,! pupil v>ies normally 9 size & =m accord+ to ! am\nt ( light to :i* ! eye is subject$4 ,9 a cat kill$ ) *lor(orm ! pupil is v l>ge & circul>2 9 ! liv+ animal x is elliptical ) ! long axis dorsov5tral1 or :5 mu* contract$ x is a m]e dorsov5tral slit4 ,! inn] coat ( ! eye is =m$ by ! ret9a 7g74 ,?is is ! "p ( ! eye :i* is s5sitive to light2 x is =m$ by an expansion ( ! optic n]ve 7a74 ,9 a pres]v$ eye x is usually s(t & opaque1 & may be se5 to l9e ! caudal half ( ! inn] surface1 ext5d+ app>5tly to ! cili>y body4 ,"h x seems to end z a free m>g91 ! ora s]rata2 x really becomes ?9 & passes onto ! surface ( ! cili>y body1 =m+ ! cili>y portion ( ! ret9a1 & onto ! inn] surface ( ! iris1 :]e x =ms ! uvea4 ,ne> ! c5tre ( ! ret9a ! entrance ( ! optic n]ve is m>k$ by a small r\nd spot1 ! bl9d spot4 ,! ,cry/all9e ,l5s 7h74--,! l5s is a biconvex transp>5t body situat$ )9 ! eye a little 9 front ( ! cili>y body & j beh9d ! iris4 ,x is m /rongly convex 9 front ?an beh9d4 ,! l5s is surr\nd$ by a ?9 transp>5t sac1 ! capsule ( ! l5s 7capsula l5tis74 ,! capsule ( ! l5s is atta*$ all ar\nd ! equator ( ! l5s by fibr\s b&s to ! cili>y body1 ?is atta*m5t =m+ ! zonula cili>is 7or zonula ,z9ni7 7i71 by :i* ! l5s is susp5d$4 ,*amb]s ( ! ,eye4--,! l5s 7h7 & zonula cili>is 7i7 =m a p>tition divid+ ! eye into two p>ts4 ,! cavity 9 front ( ! l5s conta9s a fluid1 ! aque\s humor4 ,?is cavity is p>tly subdivid$ by ! iris into ! ant]ior & po/]ior *amb]s ( ! eye4 ,! "p ( ! eye ly+ beh9d ! l5s is mu* l>g] ?an ! "p 9 front ( ! l5s4 ,x is l9$ *iefly by ! ret9a1 its front b\nd>y be+ ! l5s4 ,x conta9s a jelly-l sub/ance1 ! vitre\s humor 7or vitre\s body1 corpus vitreum74 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,e>4 ,,organon ,,auditus4 ,! e> ( ! cat1 l t ( man1 is compos$ ( ?ree p>ts1 ! ext]nal1 middle1 & int]nal e>4 ,! ext]nal e> is limit$ int]nally by ! tympanic membrane4 ,! middle e> ext5ds f ! tympanic membrane to ! f5e/ra co*le & f5e/ra ve/ibuli4 ,x conta9s ! bones ( ! e>1 & is connect$ ) ! ph>ynx by ! ,eu/a*ian tube4 ,! int]nal e> is :olly conta9$ )9 ! petr\s bone1 & on ! surface ( ! membrane l9+ its cavities are di/ribut$ ! bran*es ( ! auditory 7eigh?7 n]ve4 ,! ,ext]nal ,e>4 ,! ext]nal e> consi/s ( an exp&$ portion1 ! auricle 7auricula7 or p9na1 & ( a canal lead+ f ! auricle to ! tympanic membrane1 kn[n z ! ext]nal auditory meatus4 ,! concave surface ( ! auricle is direct$ craniolat]ad1 & its edges =m ! dorsal & lat]al b\nd>ies ( ! auditory op5+4 ,f ! bottom ( ! cavity :i* x p>tly encloses1 ! ext]nal auditory meatus passes m$iov5trad4 ,! auricle 7,fig4 #afh7 is compos$ ( a ?9 curv$ plate ( c>tilage 7c>tilago auricul71 to :i* num]\s muscles are atta*$ & :i* is cov]$ on bo? sides by integum5t intimately atta*$ to ! c>tilage4 ,di/ad ! edges ( ! c>tilage =m a free bord] 7b72 proximad ! plate is roll$ toge!r 9 su* a way t its edges 7g & h7 ov]lap on ! craniom$ial side1 ?us enclos+ a tube or funnel 7e7 7con*a7 :i* =ms ! enl>g$ out] portion ( ! auditory passage4 ,)9 ! cavity ( ! auricle1 on its m$ial surface1 some:at bel[ ! level ( ! l[e/ portion ( ! m>g9 ( ! auditory op5+ is se5 a v prom95t p$unculat$ process 7d74 ,?is is really "p ( a transv]se ridge1 ext5d+ craniocaudad on ! m$ial wall ( ! auricul> cavity4 ,?is ridge is ! antihelix 7d72 x divides ! auricula into a di/al & a proximal portion4 ,! portion di/ad ( ! antihelix is ! scapha 7a72 its surface is smoo? except = two slight longitud9al ridges ext5d+ di/ad f ne> ! two ends ( ! antihelix4 ,t portion ( ! auricle t lies proximad ( ! antihelix =ms a deep irregul> cavity kn[n z ! con*a 7e74 ,a deep furr[1 correspond+ to ! antihelix1 sep>ates scapha f con*a ext]nally4 ,! con*a ext5ds caudad z a deep1 r\nd$ pocket2 ext]nally ?is pocket =ms a prom95t convexity1 ! em95tia con* 7j71 on ! caudal surface ( ! proximal portion ( ! ext]nal e>4 ,f>!r proximad ! con*a n>r[s l a funnel & becomes mu* compress$ lat]ally1 s t a section ( its cavity =ms a n>r[ craniocaudal slit4 ,! inn] surface ( ! con*a is m>k$ by a numb] ( v prom95t ridges & projections4 ,^! are usually due to folds 9 ! c>tilage1 s t ext]nal furr[s & depressions correspond to ! int]nal projections4 ,! edges ( ^! depressions s]ve = atta*m5t ( muscles 7,fig4 #afi71 by contraction ( :i* ! =m ( ! con*a is *ang$1--! folds ( ! c>tilage ?us s]v+ z regions ( great] flexibility4 ,two or ?ree c5timet]s proximad ( its ext]nal op5+ ! c>tilage ( ! con*a ends 9 a free edge :i* receives )9 itself ! di/al end ( ! c>tilag9\s ext]nal auditory meatus 7e74 ,! two are unit$ toge!r by fibr\s tissue4 ,! c>tilag9\s auditory meatus 7e7 ext5ds z a ne>ly cyl9drical tube m$iad & slightly craniad to ! tympanic membrane 9 ! op5+ ( ! bulla tympani4 ,?is tube is l9$ ) integum5t :i* cont9ues ov] ! tympanic membrane4 ,! subcutane\s tissue ( ! tube conta9s ! c]um9\s gl&s1 :i* secrete ! e>-wax & op5 on ! surface ( ! sk94 ,to und]/& ! relations ( ! muscles ( ! ext]nal e> x is necess>y to consid] a little m fully ! /ructure ( ! auricul> c>tilage 7,fig4 #afh71 especially z comp>$ ) ! human e>4 ,! e> ( ! cat diff]s f ! human e> 9 ! fact t ! edges ( ! auricul> c>tilages are roll$ toge!r proximad s z to ov]lap4 ,!re is ?us no gap betwe5 ! tragus 7g7 & antitragus 7h71 z 9 man1 b ^! two /ructures p>tly ov]lap4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afh4--;,,c>tilage ,,( ,,! ,,ext]nal ,,e>1 ,,craniom$ial ,,view4 a1 scapha or p9na2 b1 helix2 c1 sp9e ( ! helix2 d1 antihelix2 e1 con*a2 e1 c>tilag9\s auditory meatus2 f1 cri/a helicis2 g1 tragus2 h1 antitragus2 i1 processus unc9atus2 j1 em95tia con*4 ,! free edge 7b7 ( ! auricul> c>tilage corresponds p>tly to ! helix ( man4 ,at its m$iocranial angle ! proximal "p ( ! auricle is compos$ ( muscle & integum5t only1 s t ! c>tilage :5 isolat$ pres5ts "h a deep not* di/ad ( :i* is a prom95t project+ angle1 ! sp9e 7c7 ( ! helix1 :i* s]ves = atta*m5t ( ! adductor auris sup]ior muscle 7,fig4 #afi1 #a74 ,proximad ( ! sp9e1 sep>at$ f x by ! deep not*1 ! cranial edge 7g7 ( ! auricul> c>tilage approa*es ! caudal edge 7h71 f9ally ov]lapp+ x1 s t ! cavity ( ! auricle is n[ completely surr\nd$4 ,?is ov]lapp+ portion ( ! c>tilage is on ! m$ial side ( ! cavity1 & 9 ! natural /ate is cov]$ by muscles & integum5t1 s z n to be app>5t4 ,t portion ( ! cranial edge ( ! c>tilage t ov]laps ! caudal edge =ms a c>tilag9\s plate :i* projects proximad z a blunt po9t2 ?is plate is ! tragus 7g74 ,along ! inn] edge ( ! tragus is a ridge :i* =ms a cont9uation ( ! helix2 ?is is ! cri/a helicis 7f74 ,! portion ( ! caudal edge ( ! c>tilage t is p>tly ov]lapp$ by ! tragus is an irregul> flat plate kn[n z ! antitragus 7h74 ,at its caudolat]al m>g9 ! antitragus ext5ds di/ad z a ?91 po9t$1 c>tilag9\s sp9e1 ! processus unc9atus 7i74 ,?is supports a %eet ( integum5t :i* be>s two longitud9al ridges project+ into ! cavity ( ! e>1 ) a broad groove betwe5 !m4 ,! ,scuti=m ,c>tilage4--,closely connect$ ) ! ext]nal e>1 b n =m+ a "p ( x1 is ! scuti=m c>tilage4 ,?is lies 9 ! temporal fossa1 betwe5 ! integum5t & ! temporal muscle1 j beh9d ! orbit & b5ea? ! craniom$ial portion ( ! auricle 7,fig4 #fc1 #a1 page #ig74 ,x is a n>r[ c>tilage ab\t two c5timet]s long1 ) its long axis craniocaudal4 ,= ! great] "p ( its l5g? x =ms a sl5d] rod1 f :i* a ?9 c>tilag9\s %eet ext5ds a %ort di/ance lat]ad2 at its caudal end ! rod =ks1 ! two arms ext5d+ ne>ly at "r angles to ! ma9 portion4 ,! scuti=m c>tilage s]ves = ! orig9 or ins]tion ( a numb] ( ! muscles ( ! e>4 ,muscles ( ! ,ext]nal ,e> 7,fig4 #afi74--7;a7 ,! muscles connect+ ! c>tilages ( ! ext]nal e> ) o!r p>ts ( ! head h be5 describ$ 7page #if71 except+ ! tragicus lat]alis 7#d74 ,^! muscles are ! foll[+3 ,m4 int]m$ius scutulorum 7,fig4 #fc1 a71 ,m4 frontoauricul>is1 ,m4 levator auris longus 7includ+ ! c]vicoauricul>7 7,fig4 #fc1 g1 g71 ,m4 auricul>is sup]ior 7,fig4 #fc1 k71 ,m4 abductor auris longus 7,fig4 #fc1 m71 ,m4 abductor auris brevis 7,fig4 #fc1 l71 ,m4 zygomaticus 7,fig4 #fd1 d71 ,m4 subm5talis 7,fig4 #fd1 c71 ,m4 depressor con* 7,fig4 #fd1 b71 ,m4 frontoscutul>is1 ,m4 adductor auris inf]ior 7,fig4 #fc1 f71 & ,m4 tragicus lat]alis 7,fig4 #afi1 #d74 ,m4 tragicus lat]alis 7,fig4 #afi1 #d74--;,a b& ab\t sev5 millimet]s wide1 ly+ b5ea? ! mass ( fat ab\t ! e> & runn+ v5trad l5g?wise ( ! con*a & close aga9/ x4 ,orig9 7,fig4 #if1 a1 page #bbi7 on ! caudal end ( ! m&ibula1 9 ! cavity f\nd betwe5 ! condyloid process & ! angul> process4 ,! muscle passes dorsad & is ins]t$ 7,fig4 #afi1 #d7 on ! caudal m>g9 ( ! tragus & 9 ! depression on ! con*a j caudad ( ! tragus4 ,relations4--,?is muscle lies betwe5 ! temporal muscle & ! con*a4 ,action4--,pulls ! e> v5trad & probably rotates x outw>d4 7b7 ,! foll[+ ?ree muscles connect ! scuti=m c>tilage ) o!r p>ts ( ! ext]nal e>4 ,m4 rotator auris or scutuloauricul>is inf]ior4--,a flat craniocaudal b& ( fibres ly+ betwe5 ! auricle & ! temporal muscle4 ,orig9 on ! scuti=m c>tilage1 j caudad ( ! ins]tion ( ! frontoscutul>is1 ( :i* ?is muscle seems to be a cont9uation4 ,! muscle passes caudad z a b& sev5 or eight millimet]s wide1 curv+ ab\t ! m$ial surface ( ! auricle1 & is ins]t$ on ! caudom$ial surface ( ! em95tia con*4 ,relations4--,lat]al surface ) ! auricul> c>tilage2 m$ial surface ) ! temporal muscle4 ,action4--,rotates ! ext]nal e> m$iad & caudad4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afi4--;,,c>tilage ,,( ,,! ,,ext]nal ,,e>1 ,,) ,,muscles4 a-i1 z 9 ,fig4 #afh4 #a1 ,m4 adductor auris sup]ior 7cut72 #b1 ,m4 adductor auris m$ius 7cut72 #c1 ,m4 helicis2 #d1 ,m4 tragicus lat]alis 7cut72 #e1 #e1 ,m4 tragicus m$ialis2 #f1 ,m4 antitragicus2 #g1 ,m4 adductor auris inf]ior 7cut72 #h1 ,m4 depressor con* 7cut72 #i1 ,m4 con*u ext]nus2 #aj1 "p ( ,m4 auricul>is ext]nus2 #aa1 ,m4 abductor auris longus 7cut74 ,m4 adductor auris sup]ior 7,fig4 #afi1 #a2 ,fig4 #fc1 f74 7,"p ( ! auricul>is ant]ior ( man47 ,orig9 on ! dorsal surface ( ! scuti=m c>tilage = its entire l5g?4 ,! fibres =m a cont9uation ( ^? ( ! frontoscutul>is2 !y pass dorsocaudad & are ins]t$ into ! sp9a helicis or craniom$ial m>g9 ( ! auricul> c>tilage4 ,?is muscle lies 9 ! fold ( sk9 t connects ! craniom$ial angle ( ! auricul> c>tilage ) ! head1 s t x is cov]$ on bo? sides by integum5t4 ,action4--,draws ! auricle craniad4 ,m4 adductor auris m$ius 7,fig4 #afi1 #b74 7,"p ( ! auricul>is ant]ior ( man47--,a v ?9 b& ( fibres eight to t5 millimet]s broad4 ,orig9 on ! middle two-?irds ( ! caudov5tral edge ( ! scuti=m c>tilage4 ,! fibres pass ne>ly v5trad & are ins]t$ along ! m$ial or caudal surface ( ! tragus4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! auricul> c>tilage4 ,inn] surface ) ! temporal muscle or ) ! pad ( fat sep>at+ ?is f ! auricle4 ,action4--,pulls ! con*a dorsocraniad4 7c7 ,! rema9d] ( ! muscles ( ! e> int]connect p>ts ( ! auricul> c>tilage4 ,m4 transv]sus auricul 7,fig4 #fc1 i74--,a b& ab\t six to eight millimet]s wide1 on ! m$ial convex surface ( ! auricle1 betwe5 ! di/al ends ( ,m4 levator auris longus 7g7 & ,m4 auricul>is sup]ior 7k74 ,orig9 on ! m$ial surface ( ! con*a1 j proximad ( ! furr[ :i* corresponds to ! antihelix4 ,! muscle bridges ?is furr[1 passes di/ad ab\t two c5timet]s1 & is ins]t$ on ! auricul> c>tilage on a l9e :i* =ms a caudal cont9uation ( ! l9e ( ins]tion ( ! levator auris longus 7g74 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! levator auris longus 7g1 g71 ! auricul>is sup]ior 7k71 & ! integum5t2 inn] surface ) ! auricul> c>tilage4 ,action4--,flexes ! scapha m$iad on ! con*a1 ?us enl>g+ ! ext]nal op5+ ( ! con*a4 ,m4 auricul>is ext]nus 7,fig4 #afi1 #aj2 ,fig4 #fd1 r74--,?is consi/s ( small scatt]$ b&s ( int]rupt$ fibres on ! convex surface ( ! auricle1 caudad ( ! transv]sus auricul4 ,! l>ge/ ( ^! b&s runs p>allel ) ! transv]sus auricul ab\t five or six millimet]s caudad ( ! latt]4 ,x has orig9 on ! em95tia con* di/ad ( ! ins]tion ( ! abductor auris longus4 ,!nce ! fibres run di/ad five or six millimet]s & are int]rupt$ by an atta*m5t to ! c>tilage4 ,di/ad ! fibres beg9 aga91 & ! muscle runs !nce di/ad = ab\t "o c5timet]1 ! di/al end be+ atta*$ to ! c>tilage4 ,caudad ( ?is1 especially ( its proximal portion1 are "o or two small b&s ( fibres usually runn+ p>allel ) x1 b unconnect$ ) x & ) ea* o!r4 ,! ext5t & di/ribution ( ^! b&s v>ies1 & ! direction ( fibres is also v>iable4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! integum5t2 inn] surface ) ! auricul> c>tilage4 ,action4--,flexes ! auricul> c>tilage4 ,m4 helicis 7,fig4 #afi1 #c2 ,fig4 #fd1 m74--,a muscle ab\t two c5timet]s 9 l5g? & five or six millimet]s 9 wid?1 on ! inn] surface ( ! e>1 along its cranial m>g94 ,orig9 on ! m$ial surface ( ! con*a1 j caudad ( ! proximal end ( ! tragus4 ,! fibres pass di/ad to be ins]t$ on ! auricul> c>tilage at ! caudal angle ( ! not* :i* lies b5ea? ! cranial edge ( ! auricle1 along ) ! caudal fibres ( ! adductor auris sup]ior 7#a74 ,relations4--,lat]al surface ) ! integum5t2 m$ial surface ) ! tragus4 ,action4--,draws proximad ! cranial m>g9 ( ! auricle4 ,m4 antitragicus 7,fig4 #afi1 #f2 ,fig4 #fd1 n74--,a small muscle ab\t "o c5timet] 9 l5g? & ?ree millimet]s 9 ?ickness1 atta*$ at "o end to ! caudal bord] ( ! antitragus4 ,! fibres pass m$iodi/ad & are ins]t$ on ! tragus1 9 common ) ! fibres ( ! tragicus m$ialis 7,fig4 #afi1 #e1 #e74 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! adductor auris inf]ior & ! integum5t2 inn] surface ) ! c>tilage4 ,action4--,con/ricts ! ext]nal auditory op5+4 ,m4 tragicus m$ialis 7,fig4 #afi1 #e1 #e74--;,a small1 flat muscle1 9 two p>ts1 on ! m$ial surface ( ! con*a4 ,orig9 on ! v5tral end ( ! tragus4 ,! cranial fibres =m a ?ick ne>ly cyl9drical bundle :i* ext5ds proximad ab\t "o c5timet]1 & is ins]t$ on ! cranial surface ( ! con*a j proximad ( a deep fold 9 ! c>tilage4 ,! caudal fibres =m a ?9 %eet :i* spreads on ! m$ial surface ( ! con*a & is ins]t$ on an obliquely proximodi/al l9e on ! m$ial surface ( ! con*a1 less ?an "o c5timet] f ! free di/al edge4 ,^! two bundles are di/9ct except at _! orig91 & are sometimes consid]$ z sep>ate muscles4 ,relations4--,out] surface ) ! tragicus lat]alis 7#d7 & ! fat ab\t ! con*a4 ,inn] surface ) ! con*a4 ,action4--,flexes ! con*a4 ,/rauss-,durckheim describes "u ! "n cornetocon*u a small muscle bridg+ ! deep groove caus$ by ! fold+ ( ! m$ial surface ( ! con*a1 its proximal end be+ close to ! ins]tion ( ! abductor auris brevis 7page #ajj74 ,?is muscle 0 abs5t 9 all ( ! cases exam9$ = its pres5ce4 ,m4 con*u ext]nus 7,fig4 #afi1 #i74--;,a quadrilat]al muscle on ! lat]al surface ( ! con*a4 ,! cranial end ( ?is muscle is atta*$ to ! con*a a %ort di/ance di/ad ( ! antitragus along a dorsov5tral l9e six to eight millimet]s 9 l5g?2 ! fibres pass !nce caudodorsad a di/ance ( ab\t "o c5timet]1 :]e !y are aga9 atta*$ to ! con*a4 ,! muscle ?us bridges a %all[ depression on ! lat]al surface ( ! con*a4 ,action4--,con/ricts ! con*a4 ,! ,middle ,e>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agj4--,,tympanic ,,membrane1 ,,view$ ,,f ,,! ,,inn] ,,side4 ,! out] wall ( ! bulla has be5 remov$1 c>ry+ ) x ! tympanic membrane ) ! malleus & incus2 ^! are n[ view$ f ! side t 0 turn$ t[>d ! cavity4 a1 bony r+ =m+ inn] end ( ext]nal auditory meatus2 b1 b1 malleus2 c1 tympanic membrane2 d1 incus2 e1 l5ticul> process2 f1 *orda tympani n]ve2 g1 c>tilag9\s support = *orda tympani n]ve4 ,! middle e> is enclos$ 9 a cavity )9 ! tympanic bulla4 ,its out] b\nd>y1 z well z ! inn] b\nd>y ( ! ext]nal e>1 is =m$ by ! tympanic membrane 7,fig4 #agj1 c47 ,?is is a ?91 semitransp>5t membrane atta*$ to ! bony r+ 7a7 surr\nd+ ! inn] end ( ! ext]nal auditory meatus4 ,x is oval 9 outl9e4 ,across ! dorsal ?ird ( its inn] surface runs ! h&le ( ! malleus 7b71 to :i* ! membrane is firmly atta*$ & :i* by pull+ on ! membrane gives x ! =m ( a cone in/ead ( a flat surface4 ,! apex ( ! cone is direct$ m$iad4 ,! middle e>1 or cavum tympani1 is an ellipsoidal cavity situat$ 9 ! tympanic bulla4 ,on remov+ ! m$ial wall ( ! bulla1 a bony plate is se5 sep>at+ its cavity into two *amb]s4 ,?is plate ( bone ext5ds 9 f ! lat]al wall ( ! bulla1 =m+ a complete p>tition except at ! dorsocaudal "p1 :]e a not* 9 ! bone =ms a free communication betwe5 ! two *amb]s4 ,! lat]al *amb]1 or tympanum prop]1 conta9s ! bones ( ! e> & is limit$ ext]nally by ! tympanic membrane4 ,at its cranial end is se5 ! op5+ ( ! tuba auditiva1 or ,eu/a*ian tube4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aga4--,,malleus ,,& ,,incus1 ,,unit$ ,,9 ,,! ,,natural ,,position4 #a1 malleus2 #b1 incus4 a1 h&le ( malleus2 b1 neck2 c1 head2 d1 process = atta*m5t ( t5don ( ,m4 t5sor tympani2 e1 w+-l plate & process ( neck2 f1 g1 ! two processes ( ! incus4 ,! tuba auditiva1 or ,eu/a*ian tube1 is a c>tilag9\s tube ab\t "o & a half to two c5timet]s long1 pass+ f ! nasoph>ynx to ! middle e> & plac+ ^! two cavities 9 communication4 ,! ph>yngeal op5+ is at ab\t ! middle ( ! l5g? ( ! nasoph>ynx1 ne> ! dorsal bord] ( ! lat]al wall2 x is a n>r[ slit two or ?ree millimet]s long4 ,!nce ! tube passes caudolat]ad on ! v5tral surface ( ! sph5oid bone1 & ent]s ! tympanic cavity ?r\gh ! op5+ j lat]ad ( ! /yli=m process ( ! tympanic bulla4 ,! tube has a ?ick1 c>tilag9\s m$ial wall1 :ile ! lat]al wall is ?9 & =m$ ( connective tissue4 ,! lum5 ( ! tube is a curv$ slit 9 cross-section4 ,bones ( ! ,e> 7ossicula auditus74--,!re are ?ree small bones 9 ! middle e>1 ! malleus 7hamm]7 7,fig4 #aga1 #a71 incus 7anvil7 7,fig4 #aga1 #b71 & /apes 7/irrup7 7,fig4 #agb74 ,! malleus 7,fig4 #aga1 #a7 consi/s ( a sl5d] h&le 7a7 ) a small neck 7b7 atta*$ at an angle to ! caudal end ( ! h&le4 ,at ! end ( ! neck is a r\nd$ head 7c7 :i* articulates ) ! incus 7#b71 & toge!r ) "o "p ( ! incus lies 9 a small fossa dorsad ( ! f5e/ra ve/ibuli4 ,f ! m$ial aspect ( ! neck ext5ds a %ort process ( bone 7d7 to :i* is atta*$ ! t5don ( ! t5sor tympani muscle4 ,"o side ( ! neck is produc$ into a ?9 w+-l plate1 be>+ on its edge a po9t$ process 7e74 ,! incus 7,fig4 #aga1 #b7 be>s mu* resemblance to a two-fang$ mol> too?4 ,x lies 9 ! fossa ) ! head ( ! malleus4 ,its head or cr[n is direct$ craniad & has a concave surface :i* articulates ) ! head ( ! malleus4 ,"o ( ! fangs 7f7 ext5ds caudad 9 ! fossa above m5tion$ & is held 9 position by a ligam5t4 ,! o!r fang 7g7 ext5ds v5trom$iad & articulates ) ! head ( ! /apes4 ,?is fang t]m9ates 9 a m9ute r\nd$ tub]cle kn[n z ! l5ticul> process2 ?is 9 e>ly /ages ( developm5t is a sep>ate bone1 ! os l5ticul>e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agb4 ,,/apes4 a1 head2 b1 base2 c1 process = atta*m5t ( ! /ap$ius muscle4 ,! /apes 7,fig4 #agb7 has ! =m ( a /irrup1 & is ! la/ 9 ! *a9 ( bones4 ,! small end is t]m$ ! head 7a7 & ! broad] "p ! base 7b74 ,! head ( ! /apes articulates ) "o ( ! processes ( ! incus4 ,! base ( ! /apes fits into ! f5e/ra ve/ibuli ( ! petr\s bone & completely closes x4 ,! /apes is held 9 position by ! /ap$ius muscle1 :i* is atta*$ to a m9ute process 7c7 ne> ! head4 ,?us ! ?ree bones ( ! middle e> =m a *a9 :i* connects ! m$ial surface ( ! tympanic membrane ) ! f5e/ra ve/ibuli4 ,z ! f5e/ra ve/ibuli =ms a portion ( ! wall ( ! ve/ibule1 ! vibrations ( ! tympanic membrane are transmitt$ ?r\gh ! *a9 ( bones to ! fluid )9 ! ve/ibule4 ,muscles ( ! ,middle ,e>4 ,m4 t5sor tympani4--,! t5sor tympani muscle is a %ort conical muscle hav+ orig9 9 a small fossa 7,fig4 #be1 d1 p4 #cd7 9 ! petr\s bone dorsocraniad ( ! f5e/ra ve/ibuli4 ,its v %ort t5don passes lat]ad & is ins]t$ into a projection 7,fig4 #aga1 d7 on ! neck ( ! malleus4 ,m4 /ap$ius4--,! /ap$ius muscle is a %ort muscle tak+ orig9 f a fossa 7,fig4 #be1 f7 9 ! lat]al surface ( ! petr\s bone caudad ( t = ! incus4 ,x is ins]t$ into ! head ( ! /apes4 ,! ,int]nal ,e> 7,fig4 #agc74 ,! int]nal e> or labyr9? is completely enclos$ 9 ! petr\s bone4 ,9 ! dry bone ! int]nal e> communicates ) ! middle e> by ! f5e/ra co*le & ! f5e/ra ve/ibuli1 :i* h be5 describ$ 9 ! acc\nt ( ! petr\s bone 7page #cc74 ,9 ! rec5t /ate ! f5e/ra ve/ibuli is clos$ by ! base ( ! /apes1 :ile ! f5e/ra co*le is cov]$ by a delicate membrane1--s t ! int]nal e> =ms a clos$ cavity4 ,x is possible to di/+ui% a bony labyr9? & a membran\s labyr9? 7,fig4 #agc71 ! =m] be+ ! cavity 9 ! petr\s bone1 :ile ! latt] is ! real auditory organ1 situat$ )9 ! cavity4 ,! membran\s labyr9? repeats 9 g5]al ! =m ( ! bony labyr9?1 s t x w n be necess>y to di/+ui% ! two 9 our acc\nt ( ! ma9 features ( ! /ructure4 ,! auditory n]ve is di/ribut$ to ! membran\s labyr9?4 ,= an acc\nt ( ! m9ute /ructure ( ?is organ ref]5ce %\ld be made to a text-book ( g5]al hi/ology or physiology4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agc4--,,membran\s ,,labyr9?4 a1 ve/ibule2 b1 co*lea2 c1 ext]nal semicircul> canal2 d1 sup]ior semicircul> canal2 e1 po/]ior semicircul> canal2 f1 scala tympani2 g1 scala ve/ibuli2 h1 f5e/ra co*le2 i1 f5e/ra ve/ibuli4 ,! labyr9? 7,fig4 #agc7 consi/s ( a cavity1 ! ve/ibule 7a71 & connect$ ) ?is a coil$ tube1 ! co*lea 7b71 & ! ?ree semicircul> canals 7c1 d1 & e74 ,! co*lea 7b7 is situat$ 9 ! promontory1--! r\nd$ elevation ( ! petr\s bone ext5d+ craniad f ! f5e/ra co*le4 ,x consi/s ( a bony tube coil$ spirally ab\t a c5tral column kn[n z ! modiolus4 ,! coil has ne>ly ! =m ( a snail's %ell1 & is some:at m l5g!n$ 9 ! cat ?an 9 man4 ,a plate ( bone1 ! lam9a spiralis1 incompletely divides ! cavity ( ! canal l5g?wise into two p>ts1 kn[n z scal 7f & g74 ,"o ( ^! op5s at ! f5e/ra co*le 7h7 into ! tympanic cavity 7or w\ld s op5 b = ! ?9 membrane cov]+ ! f5e/ra72 ?is is kn[n z ! scala tympani 7f74 ,! o!r scala is connect$ ) ! ve/ibule 7a7 & is kn[n z ! scala ve/ibuli 7g74 ,! ve/ibule 7a7 is a pyramidal cavity situat$ m$iad ( ! caudal end ( ! co*lea4 ,x is connect$ ) ! scala ve/ibuli ( ! co*lea1 & ) ! ?ree semicircul> canals4 ,! f5e/ra ve/ibuli 7i7 is an op5+ 9 its bony wall1 fill$ 9 ! rec5t /ate by ! /apes4 ,on ! m$ial surface ( ! ve/ibule are a numb] ( m9ute orifices ?r\gh :i* ! auditory n]ve ent]s4 ,! semicircul> canals 7c1 d1 & e7 are ?ree curv$ tubes1 ea* =m+ ab\t two-?irds ( a circle1 & op5+ at bo? ends into ! ve/ibule4 ,!y are imb$d$ 9 ! petr\s bone4 ,! planes ( ! ?ree tubes int]sect ne>ly at "r angles2 f _! position 9 man !y h be5 nam$ ext]nal 7c71 sup]ior 7d71 & po/]ior 7e74 ,! ext]nal "o 7c7 is ne>ly horizontal 9 position1 & surr\nds ! curv$ fossa 7,fig4 #be1 f7 = ! /ap$ius muscle1 caudad ( ! f5e/ra ve/ibuli4 ,! sup]ior 7,fig4 #agc1 d7 & po/]ior 7e7 are 9 ne>ly dorsov5tral planes1 b at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,! sup]ior 7d7 lies 9 ! ridge =m+ ! caudal b\nd>y ( ! app5dicul> fossa4 ,! po/]ior 7e7 is situat$ 9 a cont9uation caudad ( ! ridge :i* =ms ! dorsal b\nd>y ( ! int]nal auditory meatus4 ,"o end ( ea* canal is slightly enl>g$ to =m an ampulla4 ,! sup]ior 7d7 & po/]ior 7e7 canals jo9 at "o end & ent] ! ve/ibule by a common op5+4 ,"o end ( ! ext]nal canal 7c7 op5s into ! ve/ibule s close to "o end ( ! po/]ior canal 7e7 t !y appe> to h a common op5+1 & ?is is commonly /at$ to be ! case2 accord+ to ,jayne1 h[ev]1 ! op5+s are really sep>ate4 ,! two rema9+ ends 7( ! sup]ior 7d7 & ext]nal 7c7 canals7 also ent] ! ve/ibule sep>ately1 s t ! ?ree canals ent] ! ve/ibule by five op5+s4 ,,iii4 ,,! ,,olfactory ,,organ4 ,,organon ,,olfactus4 ,! olfactory organ consi/s ( ! olfactory muc\s membrane1 9 ! dorsocaudal "p ( ! nasal cavity4 ,! nasal cavity has be5 describ$ 9 connection ) ! respiratory sy/em4 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,organ ,,( ,,ta/e4 ,,organon ,,gu/us4 ,! s5se ( ta/e is locat$ 9 ! m\?-cavity1 especially 9 ! mucosa ( ! tongue & ! s(t palate4 ,! prop] organs ( ta/e are ! s-call$ ta/e-buds1 f\nd on ! papill ( ! tongue1 ! s(t palate1 etc4 ,_! exact di/ribution 9 ! cat has app>5tly n be5 work$ out4 ,v4 ,,! ,,integum5t4 ,,integum5tum ,,commune4 ,! sk9 ( ! cat consi/s ( ! usual two lay]s1 ! out] epid]mis & ! inn] fibr\s corium4 ,! sk9 is p>ticul>ly ?ick & t\gh ab\t ! sides ( ! neck & face4 ,! sk9 is cov]$ almo/ completely ) f9e s(t hairs4 ,only ! end ( ! nose1 ! pads on ! soles ( ! feet1 & ! nipples are )\t hair4 ,a numb] ( long /iff s5sory hairs 7vibriss7 are f\nd on ! upp] lip1 ! *eek1 & above ! upp] eyelid4 ,! pads on ! soles ( ! feet are cu%ion-l projections ( sk91 compos$ l>gely ( connective & ela/ic tissue & fat4 ,!re is "o l>ge pad = ea* foot1 & 9 addition a small pad = ea* digit4 ,! =e limb has besides a small conical pad :i* is situat$ almo/ exactly ov] ! pisi=m bone4 ,! nails are horny outgr[?s ( ! epid]mis1 cov]+ ! di/al phalanges4 ,! muscles ( ! sk9 are ! cutaneus maximus & platysma2 ^! h be5 describ$ 7page #ic74 ,! sup]ficial facial muscles are diff]5tiations ( ! sk9-muscles4 ,,app5dix4 ,,practical ,,directions4 ,! foll[+ app5dix on ! dissection & /udy ( ! cat is n int5d$ z a g5]al treatise on me?ods ( pres]vation & dissection1 b attempts only to give ! application ( well-kn[n me?ods to ! dissection & /udy ( ! p>ticul> animal ) :i* ! book deals4 ,g5]al me?ods :i* are ref]r$ to b n describ$ mu/ be look$ up1 if unfamili>1 9 ! manuals ( g5]al me?ods4 ,aids to ,dissection & ,/udy ( ! ,cat4--,a copy ( ,jayne's 8,mammalian ,anatomy0 %\ld be 9 ! laboratory = ref]5ce4 ,only ! volume on ! ,bones ( ! ,cat has be5 issu$ ?us f>4 ,wild] & ,gage's 8,anatomical ,te*nology0 w be f\nd v useful = me?ods ( "w4 ,! plates ( ,/rauss-,durckheim's 8,anatomie du ,*at0 are exce$+ly valuable = ! bones & muscles1 & %\ld be 9 ! laboratory if possible4 ,outl9e reproductions ( ^! plates h be5 publi%$ by ,h4 ,s4 ,williams 7,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #ahge74 ,! use ( bo? ! orig9al plates & ! reproductions is made difficult by ! antiquat$ nom5clature us$ = ! /ructures figur$4 ,me?od ( ,use ( ! ,pres5t ,directions4--,except 9 ! case ( ! ,bones1 ! ord] ( /udy ( ! /ructures is usually n ! same z ! ord] 9 :i* !y are describ$4 ,?is is ( c\rse due to practical difficulties 9 dissection4 ,! pres5t directions give ! ord] ( /udy1 or at lea/ ! ord] ( dissection2 ( c\rse aft] dissection ! /ructures c be review$ 9 ! logical ord] giv5 9 ! descriptions4 ,b 9 ! fir/ /udy & dissection1 ! /ud5t is to use ^! directions = ! ord] ( "w1 :ile us+ ! body ( ! book = ! descriptions4 ,x w be necess>y !re=e to keep ! book op5$ 9 two places1--"o 9 ! app5dix1 = ! directions2 "o 9 ! body ( ! book1 = descriptions4 ,9 /udy+ ! muscles1 = example1 ! /ud5t w foll[ ! ord] ( dissection giv5 9 ! app5dix1 b z e muscle is dissect$ he w f9d1 confirm1 & /udy ! description ( t muscle giv5 9 ! body ( ! book4 ,o!r organs are /udi$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,be=e comm5c+ ! /udy1 read t portion ( ! preface :i* expla9s ! use ( t]ms ( direction 7page ,,vii74 ,note t ! page on :i* any figure is f\nd may be det]m9$ by consult+ ! li/ ( figures giv5 9 ! ,table ( ,cont5ts4 ,,! ,,bones4 ,! bones w ( c\rse be /udi$ f dri$ specim5s4 ,^! may be prep>$ once = all & kept 9 ! laboratory f ye> to ye>4 ,a numb] ( m\nt$ skeletons ( ! cat %\ld be at h&2 ^! mu/ be prep>$ by "s "o :o has skill 9 su* "w4 ,prep>ation ( ,sep>ate ,bones4--,= prep>+ ! sep>ate bones ! liquid-soap process recomm5d$ by ,wild] & ,gage 78,anatomical ,te*nology10 p4 #ajg7 w be f\nd mo/ conv5i5t4 ,?is is z foll[s3 ,! sk9 & s(t p>ts are remov$ z f> z possible )\t injury to ! bones4 ,make ! foll[+ 8liquid-soap0 mixture3 ,s(t wat] #bjjj cc4 ,/rong ammonia #aej cc4 ,nitrate ( pota% 7saltpetre7 #ab grams4 ,h>d soap #ge grams4 ,heat ^! toge!r till a homog5e\s mixture is =m$4 ,n[ imm]se ! bone or bones to be clean$ 9 a liquid compos$ ( f\r p>ts wat] to "o "p ( ! above liquid-soap mixture4 ,boil =ty m9utes2 p\r (f ! liquid & r5ew x4 ,boil ab\t half an h\r long]2 !n remove s(t p>ts ) f+]s1 scalpel1 & bru%4 ,! bones may be boil$ z mu* long] 9 ! mixture z is necess>y to make ! s(t p>ts come away easily4 ,if !y are boil$ too long1 h[ev]1 ! epiphyses w sep>ate f ! bones4 ,?is is especially likely to occur 9 "y skeletons1 :i* mu/ !re=e n be boil$ s long z ! bones ( an old cat4 ,skeletons prep>$ 9 ! foll[+ r\gh way are useful = _m purposes4 ,! entire body ( ! cat1 or a s+le limb1 is plac$ 9 ! liquid-soap mixture 7aft] p>tial removal ( s(t p>ts71 & boil$ till ! muscles may be remov$1 b ! ligam5ts1 hold+ ! bones toge!r1 rema94 ,clean ?or\ghly )\t remov+ ! ligam5ts1 & all[ to dry4 ,! bones are ?us held toge!r 9 _! natural positions4 ,skeletons s prep>$ are n elegant1 b are frequ5tly useful4 ,dis>ticulation ( ,skulls4--,! bones ( ! skull may be sep>at$ z foll[s3 ,clean ! skull 9 ! liquid-soap mixture1 z above describ$4 ,!n fill ! cranial cavity ) dry rice1 beans1 corn1 or "s o!r se$s t swell mu* on imbibition ( wat]4 ,cork up ! =am5 magnum1 & place ! skull = twelve to tw5ty-f\r h\rs 9 wat]4 ,! swell+ ( ! gra9 w p>tially sep>ate ! bones at ! sutures4 ,! bones may !n usually be sep>at$ completely by h&4 ,entire skulls1 & longitud9al sections1 z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #dc1 p4 #fj1 %\ld be at h&4 ,/udy ( ! ,bones4--,! bones %\ld be /udi$ 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y are describ$4 ,no fur!r special directions = _! /udy are necess>y4 ,/udy ( ,ligam5ts4--,x w usually n be practicable = ea* /ud5t to make ! dissections & prep>ations necess>y = /udy+ ! ligam5ts4 ,r %\ld ^! be exam9$ on demon/ration prep>ations pres]v$ 9 ! laboratory4 ,su* prep>ations may mo/ easily be made by us+ fre% mat]ial1 & dissect+ away muscles & o!r tissues1 leav+ only ! ligam5ts connect+ ! bones4 ,! prep>ations are !n pres]v$ 9 "o or two p] c5t4 =mal94 ,x is difficult to prep>e ! ligam5ts satisfactorily on pres]v$ mat]ial1 because !y d n /& out cle>ly f o!r tissues 9 su* mat]ial1 s t !y are n easily di/+ui%able4 ,,muscles4 ,prep>ation & ,pres]vation ( ,mat]ial4--,=mal9 =ms by f> ! mo/ satisfactory pres]vative = anatomical mat]ial4 ,x is mu* bett] 9 almo/ e respect ?an alcohol1 & has ! additional advantage ( be+ mu* *eap]4 ,aft] inject+ ) =mal91 ! cat may be pres]v$ ei!r imm]s$ 9 a weak] solution ( ! same sub/ance1 or may be kept = a long "t simply wrapp$ 9 a clo? damp5$ ) =mal94 ,! details ( prep>ation diff] accord+ to :i* me?od is to be us$4 ,9 ei!r case1 ! cat %\ld be kill$ ) *lor(orm1 by plac+ x 9 a tight j> or box ) a clo? or bit ( cotton saturat$ ) *lor(orm4 ,x is n necess>y to ble$ ! specim54 ,:5 ! cat is dead1 remove x to a tray1 place x on its back1 & tie ! limbs loosely s t !y w rema9 outspread4 ,expose ! femoral art]y 9 ! ?igh1 z foll[s3 ,make a m$ian longitud9al incision ?r\gh ! sk9 ( ! abdom51 f a po9t an in* or two caudad ( ! xiphoid process to ! pubis4 ,make an incision pass+ f ne> ! middle ( ?is obliquely lat]ad onto ! ?igh1 = ab\t ?ree in*es4 ,reflect ! two flaps 9 ! angles betwe5 ^! cuts1 !n ) =ceps & trac] isolate ! femoral art]y j z x passes into ! ?igh 7,fig4 #abg1 a74 ,make ) scissors an oblique incision 9 "o side ( ! art]y1 "o-half to "o in* f ! po9t :]e x leaves ! abdom9al cavity4 ,introduce a canula direct$ t[>d ! body1 & tie x 9 place4 #a4 ,if ! cat is to be pres]v$ imm]s$ 9 a solution ( =mal91 x %\ld n[ be inject$ ) a five p] c5t4 solution ( comm]cial =mal9 9 ord9>y wat] 7comm]cial =mal9 #e p>ts2 wat] #ie p>ts74 ,into an adult cat #cjj to #djj cubic c5timet]s ( ! five p] c5t4 =mal9 %\ld be inject$4 ,! cat may n[ be pres]v$ 9 a "o p] c5t4 solution ( =mal94 ,be=e imm]s+ x 9 ! =mal9 x is well to remove ! hair 9 "s way1 o!rwise ?is w hold mu* wat] & be v inconv5i5t 9 dissection4 ,! neate/ me?od is to cut (f ! hair ) scissors2 ?is takes "s "t1 h[ev]4 ,if ! sk9-muscles 7p4 #ic7 are n to be dissect$1 ! sk9 may be remov$4 ,x is well 9 ?is case to leave ! sk9 on ! sides ( ! head & on ! feet4 ,x is n necess>y to op5 ! abdom9al cavity1 aft] inject+ ) ! five p] c5t4 =mal94 ,if !re is at any "t reason to suspect t ! visc]a are n keep+ well1 ! abdom9al & ?oracic cavities %\ld be fill$ ) five p] c5t4 =mal9 by mak+ a small hole ?r\gh ! body wall into ! cavity1 introduc+ a canula1 & inject+ till ! cavity is full4 ,! specim5 %\ld be kept 9 a j> or o!r vessel & %\ld be completely imm]s$ b5ea? ! "o p] c5t4 =mal94 ,any p>ts project+ above ! fluid may be attack$ by m\ld4 ,if a "p is f\nd to be m\ld$1 x %\ld be subm]g$1 :5 ! m\ld w be kill$4 ,! m\ld injures ! specim5 if all[$ to gr[ = a long "t1 b if discov]$ soon1 no v s]i\s h>m results4 ,dur+ dissection1 expos$ p>ts ( ! body %\ld be kept f dry+ by cov]+ ) a damp clo?4 ,specim5s pres]v$ 9 =mal9 dry out mu* less quickly ?an ^? pres]v$ 9 alcohol4 #b4 ,= "s purposes x is mu* m conv5i5t to pres]ve ! mat]ial )\t imm]s+ x 9 a vessel ( =mal94 ,specim5s inject$ ) five p] c5t4 =mal91 z above direct$1 w\ld usually keep p]fectly )\t fur!r treatm5t1 b = two difficulties3 7#a7 ! specim5 may dry2 7#b7 x may be attack$ by m\ld4 ,! dry+ may be prev5t$ z foll[s3 ,use = inject+ a mixture ( ! five p] c5t4 =mal9 ) "o-six? its volume ( glyc]9e4 ,?is w dry only v sl[ly1 & if pa9s are tak5 to keep expos$ p>ts cov]$ ) clo?s damp5$ ) ! mixture ( =mal9 & glyc]9e1 !re w be no tr\ble f ?is s\rce4 ,! sk9 %\ld n be remov$ f su* specim5s except z necess>y 9 ! c\rse ( dissection4 ,! hair w give little tr\ble1 because dry4 ,! specim5s %\ld be kept 9 a tight box1 t ! fluid may n evaporate rapidly f ! clo?s us$ = wrapp+4 ,! attacks ( ! m\ld pres5t a difficulty n s easily ov]come4 ,z long z ! specim5s are 9 daily use = dissection1 & expos$ p>ts kept cov]$ ) clo?s saturat$ ) ! glyc]9e & =mal9 mixture1 little or no tr\ble is to be anticipat$4 ,b if ! specim5s are left unt\*$ = "s days1 & p>ticul>ly if expos$ surfaces are n kept cov]$ 9 ! mann] above recomm5d$1 m\ld is almo/ sure to attack !m4 ,mat]ial neglect$ = a week may ?us be ru9$4 ,if m\ld is f\nd at any "t to be attack+ ! mat]ial1 ! attack$ "p %\ld be clean$ & well wrapp$ 9 clo?s saturat$ 9 ! =mal9-glyc]9e mixture4 ,if su* means are unavail+1 ! specim5 %\ld be imm]s$ 9 a vessel ( "o p] c5t4 =mal9 & pres]v$ = ! future 9 ?is4 ,rec\rse %\ld be _h at once also to ?is me?od ( pres]vation if ! specim5 %[s signs ( decomposition by hav+ a /rong odor4 ,x seems probable t ! attacks ( ! m\ld might be prev5t$ by mix+ "s fungicide ) ! inject+ fluid2 exp]im5ts %\ld be made 9 ?is direction4 ,!re are _m advantages 9 pres]v+ ! mat]ial if possible )\t imm]s+ x4 ,all p>ts reta9 _! color & pliability mu* m completely1 s t ! diff]5t /ructures are mu* m easily di/+ui%able4 ,! me?od above describ$1 by ! use ( =mal9 & glyc]9e1 is to be recomm5d$ :5 ! mat]ial is to be work$ on e day or s & is n to be kept long] ?an a few weeks4 ,x is usually n v satisfactory 9 w>m wea!r1 h[ev]4 ,if "s me?od c be devis$ ( entirely prev5t+ ! attacks ( ! m\ld1 ?is w be an excell5t me?od ( pres]v+ anatomical mat]ial4 ,! same specim5s us$ = ! /udy ( ! muscles w s]ve also = ! sp9al cord & bra9 if prep>$ by "o ( ! me?ods above describ$4 7,= ! visc]a1 blood-vessels1 & n]ves1 o!r specim5s w h to be prep>$2 = ^!1 directions are giv5 lat]47 ,muscles to be ,dissect$4--,x w probably usually be impossible 9 a giv5 c\rse ( /udy to dissect all ! muscles ( ! cat4 ,! in/ructor w ( c\rse select su* z seem mo/ advisable to him4 ,! foll[+ may p]haps be recomm5d$ z a good selection = a fairly ext5sive c\rse3 ,muscles ( ! ,=e ,limbs 7pp4 #dcf-dci72 ,muscles ( ! ,neck & ! ,deep ,muscles ( ! ,head 7pp4 #dci-dda72 ,muscles ( ! ,wall ( ! ,?orax & ( ! ,abdom5 7pp4 #dda-ddb72 ,muscles on ! ,v5tral ,side ( ! ,neck 7p4 #ddb74 ,if ! sup]ficial facial muscles 7exclud+ ^? ( ! e>7 c be /udi$ f a prep>ation1 ?is w be a valuable addition to a c\rse 7pp4 #dcd-dce74 ,,dissection ,,( ,,muscles4 ,g5]al4--,9 dissect+ muscles a prime requisite ( successful dissection is to keep ! muscles clean4 ,fat1 connective tissue1 etc41 is to be c>efully b ?or\ghly cle>$ away f ! surface ( muscles & f betwe5 !m4 ,frequ5tly :5 x seems impossible to di/+ui% ! /ructures describ$1 all difficulty w vani% z soon z ! dissection is ?or\ghly clean$4 ,9 transect+ a muscle1 "w "u x completely f "o edge to ! o!r 7except 9 case ( v wide muscles71 !n introduce ! scissors or scalpel1 & cut x by a smoo? clean cut4 ,always leave ! entire orig9 ) "o-half ( ! muscle1 ! entire ins]tion ) ! o!r half4 ,! /ud5t mu/ be prep>$ to f9d 9 "s cases consid]able v>iations f ! conditions describ$4 ,! descriptions attempt to give an acc\nt ( ! usual /ructures1 b specim5s %[+ no v>iations :atev] are und\bt$ly r>e4 ,,directions ,,= ,,dissect+ ,,! ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,cat4 ,i4 ,,! ,,sk9-,,muscles 7pp4 #ic-if1 & ,fig4 #fb74 ,^! w p]haps n usually be dissect$4 ,if !y are to be dissect$1 proce$ z foll[s3 ,make a v5tral m$ian longitud9al incision ( ! sk9 f ! cranial end ( ! manubrium to a po9t opposite ! cre/ ( ! ilium4 ,connect ! cranial end ( ?is incision ) ! middle ( ! lambdoidal ridge by a simil> incision ?r\gh ! sk94 ,make ano!r incision f ! manubrium to ! sp9\s process ( ! ?irte5? ?oracic v]tebra4 ,connect ! caudal end ( ! fir/ incision by an oblique cut ) ! root ( ! tail4 ,make ano!r incision f ! convexity ( ! knee-jo9t along ! fold ( sk9 :i* connects ! h9d limb & body1 z f> z ! incision :i* leads to ! root ( ! tail4 ,make an incision surr\nd+ ! base ( ! =elimb4 ,n[ reflect ^! flaps "o at a "t1 work+ 9 g5]al f ! v5tral side t[>d ! dorsal middle l9e4 ,take great pa9s n to take up ! ?9 sk9-muscle ) ! sk94 ,9 ?is way all ( "o side ( ! body w be uncov]$4 ,! cutaneus maximus 7,fig4 #fb1 b7 & a "p ( ! platysma 7,fig4 #fb1 a7 w be ?us expos$4 ,read & v]ify ! descriptions ( ^! muscles 7pp4 #ic-if74 ,! cranial portion ( ! platysma _c be se5 at ?is /age1 b %\ld be dissect$ 9 connection ) ! muscles ( ! face4 ,,ii4 ,,sup]ficial ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,face ,,& ,,head 7pp4 #if-ajg1 & ,figs4 #fc & #fd74 ,^! w p]haps n usually be dissect$ by ! /ud5t4 ,!y %\ld be /udi$ on a well-dissect$ laboratory prep>ation1 if possible4 ,if !y are to be dissect$1 ?is %\ld be done if possible on a fre% specim51 z x is v difficult to dissect !m on pres]v$ mat]ial4 ,proce$ z foll[s3 ,! sk9 %\ld be remov$ ) c>e f ! sides & top ( ! face & head1 )\t injury to ! ext]nal e>4 #a4 ,! platysma 7p4 #ie1 & ,fig4 #fb1 a74 ,det]m9e its cranial atta*m5ts4 #b4 ,! int]m$ius scutulorum 7p4 #if1 & ,fig4 #fc1 a74 #c4 ,! corrugator sup]cilii m$ialis 7,fig4 #fc1 b74 #d4 ,! orbicul>is oculi 7,fig4 #fc1 c2 ,fig4 #fd1 s74 #e4 ,! corrugator sup]cilii lat]alis 7,fig4 #fd1 k74 #f4 ,notice ! frontoauricul>is if x exi/s4 #g4 ,! levator auris longus 7,fig4 #fc1 g1 g74 ,transect & reflect4 #h4 ,! auricul>is sup]ior 7,fig4 #fc1 k74 ,transect4 #i4 ,! abductor auris longus 7,fig4 #fc1 m74 ,transect4 #aj4 ,! abductor auris brevis 7,fig4 #fc1 l74 ,transect4 #aa4 ,! epicranius 7,fig4 #fc1 h1 h74 ,9 dissect+ ?is muscle ! int]m$ius scutulorum & corrugator sup]cilii m$ialis may be cut by an incision p>allel to ! middle l9e b a %ort di/ance to "o side ( x4 #ab4 ,! zygomaticus 7,fig4 #fd1 d74 ,?is & ! two foll[+ muscles may usually be be/ se5 runn+ b5ea? ! fibres ( ! platysma1 )\t reflect+ ! latt]4 ,if necess>y1 h[ev]1 ! platysma may be transect$ & reflect$1 ?\gh ?is c be done only ) great difficulty4 #ac4 ,! subm5talis 7,fig4 #fd1 c74 #ad4 ,! depressor con* 7,fig4 #fd1 b74 ,! zygomaticus1 subm5talis1 & depressor con* %\ld n[ be transect$ "o or two c5timet]s f ! ext]nal e>4 ,! corrugatores sup]cilii lat]alis & m$ialis may be cut across betwe5 ! eye & ! e>1 & reflect$4 ,!re is ?us expos$3 #ae4 ,! frontoscutul>is4 ,transect ne> ! scuti=m c>tilage4 #af4 ,! adductor auris inf]ior 7,fig4 #fd1 o74 ,transect ne> its ins]tion4 ,! ext]nal e> is n[ atta*$ to ! head only by ! ext]nal auditory meatus & ! tragicus lat]alis muscle4 ,read ! description ( ! latt] 7p4 #dah1 & ,fig4 #fg1 a71 f9d x b5ea? ! fat :i* surr\nds ! proximal portion ( ! ext]nal e>1 & cut x z f> v5trad z possible4 ,n[ cut across ! c>tilag9\s auditory meatus z ne> to ! tympanic bone z possible1 & remove ! ext]nal e>1 pres]v+ x = future /udy4 7,! rema9d] ( ! muscles ( ! ext]nal e> may be /udi$ 9 connection ) ! /udy ( ! auditory organ47 #ag4 ,! orbicul>is oris 7p4 #aje & ,fig4 #fd1 i74 #ah4 ,! zygomaticus m9or1 if x exi/s 7p4 #aje1 & ,fig4 #fd1 e74 #ai4 ,! quadratus labii sup]ioris 7p4 #aje74 a4 ,! levator labii sup]ioris proprius 7,fig4 #fd1 f74 b4 ,! levator labii sup]ioris alque nasi 7,fig4 #fd1 g74 #bj4 ,! can9us 7p4 #ajf1 & ,fig4 #fd1 f74 #ba4 ,! bucc9ator 7p4 #ajf74 #bb4 ,! myrti=mis 7p4 #ajf1 & ,fig4 #fd1 h74 #bc4 ,! 8m\/a*i]0 7p4 #ajg74 #bd4 ,! quadratus labii inf]ioris 7p4 #ajg74 ,,iii4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,=e ,,limb4 ,a4 ,muscles connect+ ! ,arm ) ! ,body4--,if ! sk9-muscles h be5 dissect$1 z above1 cut ! cutaneus maximus ne> its ins]tion1 & reflect x t[>d ! m$ian dorsal l9e2 9 ?is way remove x completely4 ,remove ! platysma 9 ! same way4 ,! fir/ lay] ( body-muscles is ?us expos$4 ,if ! sk9-muscles are n to be dissect$1 ^! may be remov$ ) ! sk94 ,if ! sk9 has n yet be5 remov$1 proce$ z foll[s3 ,beg9n+ at ! cranial end ( ! manubrium make two incisions 9 ! sk91 "o pass+ to ! lambdoidal ridge & ! o!r to ! sp9\s process ( ! ?irte5? ?oracic v]tebra4 ,raise ! triangul> flap ?us =m$1 tak+ up ! sk9-muscles ) x4 #a4 ,! trapezius gr\p ( muscles 7pp4 #aae-aag1 & ,fig4 #fh1 d1 h1 & j7 is n[ expos$ & may be dissect$4 ,beg9 ) ! sp9otrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 j74 ,read ! description ( ! muscle1 !n raise its caudal bord] & "w "u x until its cranial bord] is rea*$ & ! middle ( its inn] surface is free4 ,!n transect x1 & reflect ! two halves ( ! muscle t[>d ! orig9 & ins]tion1 cle>+ ! fat1 etc41 f ! inn] surface ( ! muscle & ! p>ts cov]$ by x4 ,det]m9e orig9 & ins]tion4 #b4 ,! acromiotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 h74 ,dissect 9 ! same mann]1 be+ c>eful n to injure ! broad ?9 t5don :i* connects ! two muscles across ! middle l9e4 #c4 ,! clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d74 ,sep>ate x c>efully1 f ! cleidoma/oid 7p4 #abj74 ,transect & reflect1 z be=e4 #d4 ,! occipitoscapul>is 7,fig4 #gc1 a1 p4 #adi74 ,note ! /rong fascia :i* sep>ates x f ! deep] muscles ( ! neck4 ,be c>eful n to injure adjac5t muscles 9 trac+ ?is t[>d orig9 & ins]tion4 ,transect4 #e4 ,! rhomboideus4 ,transect4 ,recognize ! levator scapul v5tralis 7,fig4 #fh1 f71 ! /]noma/oid 7,fig4 #fh1 c2 ,fig4 #fe1 g71 & ! cleidoma/oid 7,fig4 #fe1 h74 ,!n dissect-- #f4 ,! levator scapul v5tralis 7,fig4 #fh1 f74 ,its orig9 7,fig4 #gb1 c1 c7 _c be se5 at ?is /age & %\ld be left until ! c]vical muscles are dissect$4 ,be c>eful 9 transect+ ?is muscle to sep>ate x well f ! cleidoma/oid4 ,transect4 #g4 ,! cleidoma/oid 7,fig4 #fe1 h74 ,its orig9 _c be fully se5 at ?is /age4 ,transect4 ,make a midv5tral incision ( ! sk9 f ! cranial end ( ! manubrium to a po9t opposite ! cre/ ( ! ilium4 ,f ! caudal end ( ?is incision make an incision to ! root ( ! tail4 ,f ! cranial end ( ! incision 9 ! v5tral middle l9e make a cut ar\nd ! base ( ! =e limb on its caudal side1 ?us connect+ ! v5tral incision ) ! incision :i* passes betwe5 ! manubrium & ! ?irte5? ?oracic v]tebra4 ,make ano!r incision f ! convexity ( ! knee at ! jo9t along ! fold ( ! sk9 :i* connects ! h9d limb & body1 to ! incision :i* leads to ! root ( ! tail4 ,reflect ! flaps ?us =m$ s z to expose ! body & flank1 remov+ ! sk9-muscle ) ! sk94 #h4 ,! latissimus dorsi 7p4 #aba1 & ,fig4 #fh1 m74 ,dissect x up & transect x4 ,"w c>efully t[>d its ins]tion & note ! orig9 f its out] surface 9 ! axilla ( a "p ( ! cutaneus maximus1 & at ab\t ! same place ( a ?9 muscle1 ! epitro*le>is 7p4 #afd1 & ,fig4 #fe1 r71 )\t det]m9+ ! ins]tion ( ! latissimus4 #i4 ,dissect ! pectoralis gr\p ( muscles 7,fig4 #fe1 & p4 #add71 i4e41 ! pectoantibra*ialis 7,fig4 #fe1 m71 ! pectoralis major 7l71 pectoralis m9or 7o71 & xiphihum]alis 7p74 ,det]m9e ! bord] ( ea* muscle be=e lift+ x1 !n "w x up at its middle1 transect x1 & "w t[>d its ends1 det]m9+ orig9 & ins]tion4 ,ref] con/antly to ! skeleton4 #aj4 ,!n recognize ! t]es major 7p4 #afc1 & ,fig4 #ge1 d2 ,fig4 #gg1 c7 & ! common ins]tion ( ! t]es major & latissimus 7,fig4 #gi1 d72 f9d ! bicipital ar* 7,fig4 #fe1 t7 & det]m9e its composition 7p4 #aff74 #aa & #ab4 ,! s]ratus ant]ior & levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h & i1 & p4 #abb74 ,9 ord] to expose ! orig9 ( ^! muscles1 ! ext]nal oblique muscle 7,fig4 #fh1 p7 mu/ be recogniz$1 & t "p ( x :i* has its orig9 f ! f\r? to ! n9? rib %\ld be transect$ ab\t an in* & a half f its orig9 & reflect$4 ,! ?oracic portion ( ! rectus abdom9is 7,fig4 #gc1 k7 & ( ! scal5us 7,fig4 #gc1 f-f7 %\ld also be recogniz$ & !n rais$ at _! out] bord]s & displac$ t[>d ! m$ian l9e4 ,no "p ( any ( ^! muscles %\ld be remov$ or cut except z direct$4 ,! s]ratus ant]ior & levator scapul %\ld be transect$ & reflect$ to get at _! orig9 & ins]tion4 ,b4 ,muscles ( ! ,arm 7p4 #aef74--,! arm is ?us remov$ f ! body & ! dissection may be cont9u$ on ! sep>at$ arm4 #ac4 ,! clavobra*ial 7,fig4 #fe1 k1 & p4 #aeg74 ,its orig9 is be/ se5 lat]4 ,dissect x up1 b d n transect x4 ,se>* n[ ) great c>e = ! coracobra*ialis4 ,consult ! figures 7,fig4 #gi1 c7 & descriptions 7p4 #afd71 & be especially c>eful n to injure ! long head ( ! muscle & its t5don4 #ad4 ,dissect ! coracobra*ialis 7,fig4 #gg1 f74 ,cut & reflect x4 #ae4 ,! subscapul>is 7,fig4 #gg1 a1 & p4 #afa74 ,ne> its gl5oid end1 its gl5oid & coracoid bord]s are sep>at$ by triangul> int]vals f ! adjac5t muscles4 ,transect ! muscle by a l9e connect+ ! apices ( ^! triangles4 ,c>ry an incision f ! middle ( ?is "o to ! middle ( ! v]tebral bord] ( ! scapula1 & reflect ! muscle on bo? sides ( ?is incision1--?us det]m9+ its area ( orig94 ,reflect ! hum]al end )\t injur+ ! capsule ( ! jo9t4 #af4 ,dissect ! suprasp9atus 7,fig4 #ge1 a1 & p4 #aei74 ,cut ! /rong fascia free f ! bord] ( ! scapula & its sp9e4 ,!n transect ! muscle & reflect x1 be+ c>eful n to injure ! capsule ( ! jo9t4 #ag4 ,! sp9odeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 e1 & p4 #aef74 ,f9d its two bord]s1 beg9n+ ) ! caudal "o4 ,9 free+ ! v %ort cranial bord] d n injure ! acromiodeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 f74 ,transect & reflect ! sp9odeltoid4 #ah4 ,! acromiodeltoideus 7p4 #aeg1 & ,fig4 #ge1 f74 ,transect & reflect4 #ai4 ,! infrasp9atus 7p4 #afj1 & ,fig4 #ge1 c74 ,locate ! bord]s 9 ! region ( ! great scapul> not*4 ,x is difficult to sep>ate ! gl5oid bord] f ! adjac5t t]es m9or 7,fig4 #hj1 c74 ,! sep>ation %\ld be begun at ! hum]us4 ,transect ! muscle at ! great scapul> not* & reflect4 ,be c>eful n to injure ! t]es m9or 7,fig4 #hj1 c74 #bj4 ,! t]es major 7p4 #afc1 & ,fig4 #ge1 d2 ,fig4 #gg1 c7 %\ld be cut ne> its junction ) ! latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #gg1 e74 #ba4 ,! t]es m9or 7,fig4 #hj1 c1 & p4 #afa7 ne$ n be cut4 #bb4 ,! epitro*le>is 7p4 #afd1 & ,fig4 #fe1 r74 #bc4 ,! triceps 7p4 #aff74 7a7 ,! long head ( ! triceps 7,fig4 #gg1 i2 ,fig4 #ge1 g74 ,f9d fir/ its m$ial bord] & sep>ate x f ! m$ial head4 ,note ! union ( its lat]al surface ) ! dorsal bord] ( ! lat]al head by /rong fascia1 & !n cut ! fascia4 7b7 ,! lat]al head 7,fig4 #ge1 h74 7c7 ,! m$ial head 7,fig4 #gi1 g1 h1 & j74 #bd4 ,! anconeus 7p4 #agj1 & ,fig4 #hj1 l74 #be4 ,! bra*ioradialis 7p4 #agc1 & ,fig4 #ge1 k74 ,reflect x c>efully to its orig9 & ins]tion4 #bf4 ,! biceps 7,fig4 #gg1 g1 & p4 #afe74 ,! capsule ( ! %\ld]-jo9t may be op5$ 9 ord] to expose its orig94 ,its ins]tion _c be se5 at ?is /age4 #bg4 ,! bra*ialis 7,figs4 #ge & #gi1 i1 & p4 #aff74 ,"w "u x ne> its union ) ! clavobra*ial2 cut x at t po9t & reflect x4 #bh4 ,ext5sor c>pi radialis longus 7p4 #agc1 & ,fig4 #ge1 l74 ,note ! oblique t5don on ! radial side ( ! wri/ ne> ! ins]tion ( ! bra*ioradialis4 ,a second t5don passes b5ea? its di/al bord]4 ,?is t5don may be sep>at$ into a deep & sup]ficial portion4 ,! latt] may be trac$ proximad to its muscle1 ! ext5sor c>pi radialis longus4 #bi4 ,ext5sor c>pi radialis brevis 7p4 #agd74 ,its t5don is ! deep] ( ! two t5dons se5 :5 isolat+ ! t5don ( ! ext5sor longus4 #cj4 ,ext5sor communis digitorum 7p4 #agd1 & ,fig4 #ge1 m74 #ca4 ,ext5sor lat]alis digitorum 7p4 #age1 & ,fig4 #ge1 n74 #cb4 ,ext5sor c>pi uln>is 7p4 #agf1 & ,fig4 #ge1 o74 #cc4 ,ext5sor indicis 7p4 #agf1 & ,fig4 #he1 c74 #cd4 ,pronator t]es 7p4 #agi1 & ,fig4 #gg1 q74 #ce4 ,flexor c>pi radialis 7p4 #agi1 & ,fig4 #gg1 r74 ,! t5don ( ! flexor c>pi radialis %\ld n be trac$ to its ins]tion until ! deep muscles ( ! palm ( ! h& h be5 dissect$4 #cf4 ,abductor brevis pollicis 7p4 #ahd1 & ,fig4 #gg1 w74 #cg4 ,flexor c>pi uln>is 7p4 #ahj1 & ,fig4 #gg1 t74 #ch4 ,palm>is longus 7p4 #agi1 & ,fig4 #gg1 s74 ,9 dissect+ ?is muscle be c>eful n to injure ! "p ( ! flexor sublimis 7,fig4 #gg1 x7 t rises f its surface 7see flexor sublimis1 p4 #aha74 ,cut ! palm>is proximad ( ! orig9 ( ! flexor sublimis & reflect x4 #ci4 ,flexor sublimis digitorum 7p4 #aha & ,fig4 #gg1 x74 ,trace "o or two ( ! t5dons ?r\gh ! %ea?s on ! v5tral surfaces ( ! fir/ phalanges4 ,cut & reflect ! radial portion4 #dj4 ,flexor pr(undus digitorum 7p4 #aha1 & ,fig4 #gg1 u74 ,aft] recogniz+ ! p>ts cut ?r\gh ! t5dons ( ! fir/ & fif? p>ts & reflect !m to det]m9e _! orig94 ,!n cut ?r\gh ! common t5don s z to reflect ! o!r ?ree p>ts toge!r4 ,trace "o or two ( ! t5dons to ! di/al end ( ! digit4 #da4 ,! sup9ator 7p4 #agg1 & ,fig4 #he1 b74 #db4 ,! ext5sor brevis pollicis 7p4 #agh1 & ,fig4 #he1 a74 #dc4 ,pronator quadratus 7p4 #ahc1 & ,fig4 #hg1 a74 ,! ins]tion ( ! bra*ialis & clavobra*ial 7,fig4 #hg1 c7 & ( ! biceps 7,fig4 #hg1 b7 %\ld n[ be exam9$4 ,!re rema9 to be dissect$ ! small muscles ( ! palm ( ! h&4 ,if ^! h be5 injur$ on ! side dissect$1 ! h& ( ! o!r side may be us$4 #dd4 ,! lumbricals 7p4 #ahd1 & ,fig4 #hh1 f74 #de4 ,! flexor brevis pollicis 7p4 #ahd1 & ,fig4 #hi1 a74 #df4 ,! adductor pollicis 7p4 #ahe1 & ,fig4 #hi1 b74 #dg4 ,! abductor digiti qu9ti 7p4 #ahe1 & ,fig4 #hi1 i74 #dh4 ,! flexor brevis digiti qu9ti 7p4 #ahf1 & ,fig4 #hi1 h74 ,cut & reflect x4 #di4 ,! oppon5s digiti qu9ti 7p4 #ahf1 & ,fig4 #hi1 g74 ,cut & reflect x4 #ej4 ,! int]ossei 7p4 #ahe1 & ,fig4 #hi74 ,,iv4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,neck ,,& ,,! ,,deep ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,head4 ,if ! sup]ficial muscles ( ! head h be5 dissect$ accord+ to ! directions above giv5 7p4 #dcd71 ! sk9 ( ! head & neck1 & ! ext]nal e>1 w h be5 remov$1 & ! specim5 is ready = fur!r /udy4 ,! p>otid & submaxill>y gl&s 7,fig4 #fe1 #a & #b7 %\ld be remov$ if ?is has n be5 done2 also ! lymphatic gl&s 7,fig4 #fe1 #c74 ,if ! sup]ficial muscles ( ! head h n be5 dissect$ & are n to be1 remove ! sk9 f ! side ( ! neck1 head1 & face to ! m$ian dorsal l9e1 remov+ ! ?9 sup]ficial muscles ) ! sk94 ,remove also ! p>otid1 submaxill>y1 & lymphatic gl&s 7,fig4 #fe1 #a1 #b1 & #c71 & cut ?r\gh ! e>-muscles & ! c>tilag9\s auditory meatus 7"u direction7 & remove ! ext]nal e>4 ,clean fat1 connective tissue1 etc41 f ! surface ( ! muscles ( ! ?orax1 neck1 & head2 !n dissect z foll[s3 #a4 ,! /]noma/oid 7p4 #aci1 & ,fig4 #fe1 g74 ,transect & reflect x4 #b4 ,! cleidoma/oid 7p4 #abj1 & ,fig4 #fe1 h74 ,?is has already be5 transect$2 exam9e n[ its orig94 ,remove ! l>ge lymphatic gl& b5ea? ! /]noma/oid & close to ! tympanic bulla1 & clean ! surface ( ! muscles 9 ?is region4 #c4 ,! levator scapul v5tralis 7p4 #abj1 & ,fig4 #gb1 c1 c1 c74 ,?is has already be5 cut2 /udy n[ its orig94 #d4 ,! /]nohyoid 7p4 #adj1 & ,fig4 #fe1 e74 ,9 rais+ x beg9 at ! cranial end & take c>e n to injure ! subjac5t /]no?yroid 7,fig4 #fe1 g74 ,transect4 #e4 ,! /]no?yroid 7p4 #ada1 & ,fig4 #fe1 g74 ,transect4 #f4 ,! /ylohyoid 7p4 #aab1 & ,fig4 #fe1 d74 ,transect4 #g4 ,! diga/ric 7p4 #ajg1 & ,fig4 #fe1 b74 ,transect1 & reflect completely1 to ! orig9 & ins]tion4 #h4 ,! mylohyoid 7p4 #aad1 & ,fig4 #fe1 c74 ,transect & reflect4 #i4 ,! g5iohyoid 7p4 #aac1 & ,fig4 #fg1 g74 #aj4 ,! jugulohyoid 7p4 #aac1 & ,fig4 #fg1 b74 7,! extr9sic muscles ( ! tongue 7p4 #bbh1 & ,figs4 #fg & #if7 may be dissect$ at ?is po9t1 if desir$4 7a7 ,! /yloglossus2 7b7 ! g5ioglossus2 7c7 ! hyoglossus4 ,!y ne$ n be cut47 #aa4 ,! masset] 7p4 #ajh1 & ,fig4 #fe1 a74 ,cut ! sup]ficial & middle lay]s ne> _! ins]tions by incisions p>allel to ! bord] ( ! jaw4 ,cut ! deep lay] ne> its orig94 ,look = ! orig9 ( fibres ( ! temporal muscle f ! inn] surface ( ! middle lay]4 #ab4 ,! temporal 7p4 #aaj1 & ,fig4 #fc1 n74 ,cle> its out] surface completely4 ,cut ! temporal fascia transv]sely & reflect x t[>d ! ins]tion ( ! muscle1 ) ! sup]ficial portion ( ! muscle4 ,cut ?r\gh ! zygomatic ar* at its two ends & remove x1 dissect+ ! fibres ( ! temporal free f _! orig9 on its inn] surface4 ,!n exam9e ! ins]tion ( ! temporal4 7,! muscles ( ! ph>ynx 7p4 #bcb7 may be dissect$ at ?is po9t2 = directions1 see page #dea47 #ac4 ,! c]atohyoid 7p4 #aae74 ,to uncov] ?is1 ! middle con/rictor ( ! ph>ynx 7,fig4 #fg1 j7 mu/ be cut & reflect$4 ,cut ! mylohyoid1 g5iohyoid1 g5ioglossus1 & ! mucosa ( ! floor ( ! m\? free f ! m&ible on bo? sides1 s t ! tongue & ! floor ( ! m\? may be drawn v5trad & turn$ out ( ! way1 expos+ ! ro( ( ! m\? 7z 9 ,fig4 #ff1 p4 #aab74 ,cut ?r\gh "o side ( ! ph>ynx ne> ! v5tral surface & turn ! tongue t[>d ! uncut side4 ,! ro( ( ! m\? is ?us expos$4 ,dissect next-- #ad4 ,! pt]ygoid muscles 7,fig4 #ff74 ,remove ! mucosa ( ! ro( ( ! m\?1 especially at ! sides ( ! s(t palate1 & ! two pt]ygoid muscles 7p4 #aaa7 are expos$4 ,! l[] jaw may be remov$ on "o side to get at _! orig94 7,! muscles ( ! s(t palate 7p4 #bcj1 & ,fig4 #ff1 d & e71 & ! sup]ior con/rictor ( ! ph>ynx 7p4 #bcc1 & ,fig4 #ff1 f7 may be obs]v$ at ?is po9t1 if desir$47 ,v4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,wall ,,( ,,! ,,?orax ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,abdom54 #a4 ,! scal5us 7p4 #ada1 & ,fig4 #gc1 f-f74 ,to trace its c]vical portion1 cut ! tra*ea & sophagus j craniad ( ! fir/ rib1 cut ! ph>ynx & hyoid free f ! v5tral side ( ! head & neck1 & remove ! ph>ynx1 l>ynx1 sophagus1 & tra*ea 7^! %\ld be pres]v$ = future /udy ( ! l>ynx74 #b4 ,! transv]sus co/>um 7p4 #aej1 & ,fig4 #gc1 j74 #c4 ,! s]ratus po/]ior sup]ior 7p4 #adh1 & ,fig4 #gc1 l74 ,transect ?is at ab\t ! middle ( ! muscle-bundles1 & reflect x 9 bo? directions4 #d4 ,! s]ratus po/]ior inf]ior 7p4 #adh1 & ,fig4 #gc1 n74 ,transect & reflect z 9 ! la/4 #e4 ,! ext]nal oblique 7p4 #aec1 & ,fig4 #fh1 p74 ,transect x by an incision p>allel to its t5don ( orig9 & ab\t an in* f x1 & reflect 9 bo? directions4 #f4 ,! int]nal oblique 7p4 #aed1 & ,fig4 #gc1 o74 ,transect & reflect z above4 #g4 ,! transv]sus 7p4 #aee1 & ,fig4 #fi1 l74 ,requires no fur!r dissection4 #h4 ,! rectus abdom9is 7p4 #aee1 & ,fig4 #gc1 k74 ,op5 its %ea? by a longitud9al incision ne> ! l9ea alba4 #i4 ,! ext]nal int]co/als 7p4 #aej1 & ,fig4 #gc1 m2 ,fig4 #fi1 i74 ,to see ^!1 remove ! orig9s ( ! levator scapul & s]ratus ant]ior2 also ! s]ratus po/]ior sup]ior4 #aj4 ,! int]nal int]co/als 7p4 #aea1 & ,fig4 #fi1 k74 ,to uncov] ^!1 remove ! ext]nal int]co/als f betwe5 two or ?ree pairs ( ribs4 #aa4 ,! transv]sus ?oracis 7p4 #aea74 ,to see ?is muscle1 :i* lies on ! inn] surface ( ! ?oracic wall1 x is necess>y to cut ?r\gh ! ribs on "o side "o or two in*es f ! /]num1 & op5 ! ?orax4 ,! muscle c !n be obs]v$ directly4 7,! levatores co/>um w be dissect$ lat]47 ,,vi4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,v5tral ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,v]tebral ,,column ,,9 ,,! ,,neck ,,region 7,fig4 #gb74 ,clean ! surface ( ^! muscles1 remov+ ph>ynx1 l>ynx1 sophagus1 & tra*ea1 if ?is has n be5 done4 #a4 ,longus capitis 7p4 #adb1 & ,fig4 #gb1 a74 #b4 ,longus colli 7p4 #add1 & ,fig4 #gb1 g1 g74 #c4 ,levator scapul v5tralis 7p4 #abj1 & ,fig4 #gb1 c1 c74 ,obs]ve its orig94 #d4 ,rectus capitis ant]ior m9or 7p4 #adc1 & ,fig4 #gb1 b74 ,to see ?is1 cut ?r\gh on "o side ! longus capitis & "o head ( ! levator scapul v5tralis1 & remove ! proximal portions1 z 9 ,fig4 #gb4 #e4 ,obliquus capitis sup]ior 7p4 #acf1 & ,fig4 #gb1 e74 #f4 ,rectus capitis lat]alis 7p4 #adc1 & ,fig4 #gb1 d74 ,,vii4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,back 7p4 #abc74 ,remove :at rema9s ( ! dorsal portion ( ! latissimus dorsi1 s]ratus po/]ior sup]ior1 & s]ratus po/]ior inf]ior4 ,see t ! sk9 is remov$ completely to ! dorsal middle l9e1 or ev5 = a little di/ance ov] onto ! o!r side4 ,!re is ?us expos$ ! lumbodorsal fascia 7p4 #abf71 cov]+ ! muscles ( ! back4 ,cut ! sup]ficial lay] ( ! lumbodorsal fascia 7t f :i* ! latissimus dorsi & obliquus ext]nus abdom9is h orig97 by an incision p>allel to ! dorsal m$ian l9e1 & remove x4 ,! muscles ( ! back are ?us expos$ 7,fig4 #fi74 ,obs]ve 9 ! lumb> region ! longissimus dorsi 7f1 f1 f72 9 ! ?oracic region ! longissimus dorsi1 ! sp9alis dorsi 7g71 & ! ilioco/al 7h72 9 ! c]vical region ! spl5ius 7,fig4 #gc1 b74 #a4 ,! longissimus dorsi 7p4 #abf1 & ,fig4 #fi1 f1 f1 f74 ,notice 9 ! lumb> region ! /rong deep lay] ( ! lumbodorsal fascia1 by :i* ?is muscle is cov]$1 & f ! "u side ( :i* _m ( ! fibres ( ! muscle take orig94 ,cut ?is fascia by an incision p>allel to ! dorsal m$ian l9e & ab\t two c5timet]s f x1 f ! level ( ! cre/ ( ! ilium z f> craniad z ! fascia c be cut )\t cutt+ into ! muscle-fibres 7usually to ab\t ! level ( ! la/ rib74 ,reflect ! m$ial division ( ! fascia to ! middle l9e4 ,reflect ! lat]al division ( ! fascia until x passes into ! muscle & _c be f>!r reflect$4 ,obs]ve !n 9 ! lumb> region ! m$ial 7,fig4 #gj1 a7 & lat]al 7,fig4 #gj1 b7 divisions ( ! longissimus dorsi1 & ! portion 7b7 ( ! lat]al division tak+ orig9 f ! lumbodorsal fascia 7c74 ,dissect ap>t "s ( ! muscle-fibres ( ! longissimus & obs]ve _! orig9 & ins]tion4 ,trace ! longissimus dorsi into ! ?oracic & c]vical regions 7,fig4 #fi1 f1 f7 not+ ! sep>ation (f f x on ! dorsal side ( ! sp9alis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g72 on ! v5tral side ( ! ilioco/al 7,fig4 #fi1 h74 #b4 ,! ext5sor caud lat]alis 7p4 #acg1 & ,fig4 #gj1 f74 ,uncov] ?is by cutt+ ! lumbodorsal fascia ov] ! sacral region4 #c4 ,! ilioco/alis 7p4 #abh1 & ,fig4 #fi1 h74 ,uncov] ?is completely2 note its connection ) ! longissimus dorsi at ! caudal end4 ,dissect ap>t "s ( its muscle-bundles1 to see orig9 & ins]tion4 #d4 ,! spl5ius 7p4 #aca1 & ,fig4 #gc1 b74 ,transect ?is by an incision beg9n+ at its lat]al bord] ab\t f\r c5timet]s f ! cranial end ( ! muscle & ext5d+ obliquely craniodorsad to ! craniom$ial angle ( ! muscle4 ,be c>eful n to injure ! longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #gc1 g74 #e4 ,! longissimus capitis 7p4 #aca1 & ,fig4 #gc1 g74 ,transect4 #f4 ,! sp9alis dorsi 7p4 #abi1 & ,fig4 #fi1 g74 ,sep>ate "s ( its muscle-fibre bundles & trace to orig9 & ins]tion4 #g4 ,! biv5t] c]vicis 7p4 #acb1 & ,fig4 #fi1 a74 ,raise its lat]al bord]1 turn+ x t[>d ! middle l9e1 & transect x ne> its caudal end4 #h4 ,! complexus 7p4 #acc1 & ,fig4 #fi1 b74 ,raise its m$ial bord]1 & transect x ne> its cranial end4 #i4 ,! longus atlantis 7p4 #acd1 & ,fig4 #ga1 f74 #aj4 ,! multifidus sp9 7p4 #acj1 & ,fig4 #gj1 d74 ,remove a "p ( ! longissimus dorsi 9 ! lumb> region1 & trace ! c\rse ( ! fibres ( ! multifidus sp94 7,if desir$ ! entire longissimus may be remov$ & ! multifidus sp9 completely uncov]$47 #aa4 ,! ext5sor caud m$ialis 7p4 #acf1 & ,fig4 #gj1 e74 #ab4 ,! semisp9alis c]vicis 7p4 #acc1 & ,fig4 #ga1 c74 ,dissect ap>t "s ( its fibre-bundles to see orig9 & ins]tion4 #ac4 ,! int]sp9ales & int]transv]s>ii 7p4 #aca7 may be se5 9 ! region f :i* ! longissimus dorsi 0 remov$1 by remov+ ! bundles ( ! multifidus sp94 #ad4 ,! rectus capitis po/]ior major 7p4 #acd1 & ,fig4 #ga1 a74 ,transect4 #ae4 ,! obliquus sup]ior 7p4 #acf1 & ,fig4 #ga1 e74 #af4 ,! obliquus capitis inf]ior 7p4 #acf1 & ,fig4 #ga1 b74 #ag4 ,! rectus capitis po/]ior m$ius 7p4 #ace74 ,transect4 #ah4 ,! rectus capitis po/]ior m9or 7p4 #ace74 #ai4 ,! levatores co/>um 7p4 #aej74 ,remove 9 a "p ( ! ?oracic region a portion ( ! ilioco/al & longissimus dorsi1 s z to expose ! dorsal ends ( ! ribs4 ,! levatores co/>um w be se5 z b slightly sep>at$ bundles cont9u\s ) ! ext]nal int]co/als4 ,,viii4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,h9d ,,limbs 7p4 #ahf74 ,remove ! sk9 & sup]ficial fascia f ! lat]al surface ( ! ?igh4 ,exam9e ! fascia lata 7p4 #ahf1 & ,fig4 #fh1 z74 ,dissect3 #a4 ,! biceps femoris 7p4 #aid1 & ,fig4 #fh1 t74 ,"w "u its cranial & caudal bord]s4 ,f9d ! t5uissimus 7,fig4 #ij1 g7 pass+ obliquely b5ea? x & rea*+ its caudal bord] 9 its di/al half4 ,transect ! biceps )\t injur+ ! t5uissimus1 & reflect its halves4 #b4 ,! t5uissimus 7p4 #aie1 & ,fig4 #ij1 g74 ,transect4 #c4 ,! caud(emoralis 7p4 #aie1 & ,fig4 #fh1 s74 ,transect4 #d4 ,! gluteus maximus 7p4 #ahg74 ,transect4 #e4 ,! s>torius 7p4 #aig1 & ,fig4 #fh1 q2 ,fig4 #ia1 a74 ,transect4 #f4 ,! t5sor fasci lat 7p4 #ahg1 & ,fig4 #fh1 r74 ,cut ! fascia lata along ! di/al end ( ! muscle-fibres & reflect ! muscle4 #g4 ,! gluteus m$ius 7p4 #ahh1 & ,fig4 #ij1 b74 ,"w "u x c>efully1 sep>at+ x f und]ly+ muscles2 cut x close to its t5don ( ins]tion1 & reflect x4 #h4 ,! pyri=mis 7p4 #ahh1 & ,fig4 #afc1 #g1 p4 #dja74 ,cut & reflect x4 #i4 ,! gemellus sup]ior 7p4 #ahi1 & ,fig4 #afc1 #f74 ,?is & ! next muscle w sometimes be f\nd to be completely unit$4 ,transect4 #aj4 ,! gluteus m9imus 7p4 #ahi1 & ,fig4 #afc1 #e74 ,transect4 #aa4 ,! obturator int]nus 7p4 #aib1 & ,fig4 #ij1 e74 ,cut x at ! dorsal bord] ( ! is*ium 9 ord] to reflect x4 ,! :ole orig9 _c be se5 at ?is /age4 #ab4 ,! gemellus inf]ior 7p4 #aij74 #ac4 ,! gracilis 7p4 #aih1 & ,fig4 #ia1 b74 ,transect4 #ad4 ,! semit5d9osus 7p4 #aif1 & ,figs4 #ij & #ia1 j2 ,fig4 #ib1 i74 ,transect4 #ae4 ,! semimembranosus 7p4 #aif1 & ,figs4 #ij & #ia1 i2 ,fig4 #ib1 h1 h74 ,transect4 #af4 ,! adductor femoris 7p4 #aih1 & ,figs4 #ij & #ia1 h2 ,fig4 #ib1 g74 ,transect4 #ag4 ,! quadratus femoris 7p4 #aia1 & ,fig4 #ij1 f74 ,transect4 #ah4 ,! obturator ext]nus 7p4 #aia74 #ai4 ,! adductor longus 7p4 #aii1 & ,fig4 #ib1 f74 ,?is & ! foll[+ w sometimes be f\nd to be almo/ completely unit$4 ,transect4 #bj4 ,! pect9eus 7p4 #bjj1 & ,fig4 #ib1 e74 ,transect4 #ba4 ,! iliopsoas 7p4 #aic1 & ,fig4 #ia1 c2 ,fig4 #ib1 d74 ,only its di/al "p1 ne> ! ins]tion1 c be se5 at pres5t4 #bb4 ,! capsul>is 7p4 #aij74 ,transect4 #bc4 ,! quadriceps femoris 7p4 #bja74 ,isolate ! rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b7 z f> z its junction ) ! va/us lat]alis2 cut x at ?is po9t & reflect its proximal portion4 ,turn aside ! di/al end & f9d b5ea? x ! transv]se aponeurosis betwe5 ! va/us m$ialis & ! va/us lat]alis1 & cov]+ ! va/us int]m$ius4 ,! va/us lat]alis 7,fig4 #ij1 d7 may be cut ne> ! middle & dissect$ up f its orig9 9 bo? directions2 ! va/us int]m$ius is ?us expos$4 ,! va/us m$ialis 7,fig4 #ib1 c7 & ! va/us int]m$ius ne$ n be cut4 #bd4 ,! ga/rocnemius 7p4 #bjc1 & ,fig4 #ij1 m2 ,fig4 #ia1 k74 ,x may be rais$ cauti\sly ne> its middle & divid$4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 n to divide ! und]ly+ plant>is 7,fig4 #ij1 l74 ,aft] not+ ! connection ( ! out] head ) ! plant>is1 ! latt] may be divid$ & reflect$1 toge!r ) ! out] head4 #be4 ,! plant>is 7p4 #bje1 & ,figs4 #ij & #ia1 l74 #bf4 ,! flexor brevis digitorum 7p4 #bab74 ,9 trac+ its t5don note ! ?ree bran*es ( ! common plant> ligam5t :i* em]ges f betwe5 ! second & ?ird t5dons4 ,! out] bran* is ins]t$ into ! fascia cov]+ ! base ( ! fif? digit1 :ile ! o!r two spread out into ! bilob$ pad ( ! sole4 #bg4 ,! soleus 7p4 #bje1 & ,fig4 #ij1 o74 ,cut & reflect4 #bh4 ,! popliteus 7p4 #bjf1 & ,fig4 #ib1 k74 ,cut v ne> ! orig9 & reflect4 ,! ?ree foll[+ deep muscles on ! v5tral surface ( ! %ank are cov]$ by ! deep crural fascia 7p4 #bjf7 :i* sep>ates !m f ! ov]ly+ muscles4 ,x %\ld be remov$4 #bi4 ,! flexor longus hallucis 7p4 #bjg1 & ,fig4 #ia1 m74 ,divide ! muscle at its junction ) ! t5don4 ,op5 ! canals on ! a/ragalus & calcaneus & reflect ! t5don1 cutt+ ! t5don ( ! flexor longus digitorum ne> its ins]tion & divid+ at ! middle ! quadratus plant 7p4 #bac7 :i* may be f\nd ins]t$ into its v5tral surface4 #cj4 ,flexor longus digitorum 7p4 #bjh1 & ,fig4 #ia1 n74 ,?is may be divid$ v ne> its orig94 #ca4 ,tibialis po/]ior 7p4 #bjh1 & ,fig4 #ia1 o74 ,?is may be divid$ ne> its t5don4 #cb4 ,p]oneus longus 7p4 #bji1 & ,fig4 #ij1 q74 ,! ov]ly+ t5dons may be cut 9 trac+ its ins]tion4 #cc4 ,p]oneus brevis 7p4 #baj1 & ,fig4 #ij1 s74 #cd4 ,p]oneus t]tius 7p4 #baj1 & ,fig4 #ij1 r74 #ce4 ,ext5sor longus digitorum 7p4 #baj1 & ,fig4 #ij1 p74 #cf4 ,tibialis ant]ior 7p4 #baa1 & ,fig4 #ij1 n74 #cg4 ,! ext5sor brevis digitorum 7p4 #bab1 & ,fig4 #ij1 u74 #ch4 ,! quadratus plant 7p4 #bac74 ,x 0 cut 9 dissect+ ! flexor longus hallucis4 #ci4 ,! lumbricales 7p4 #bac74 #dj4 ,! int]ossei 7) ! muscles ( ! fif? digit7 7p4 #bad74 #da4 ,! t>sal muscles 7p4 #bae74 ,! ov]ly+ ligam5ts mu/ be remov$ 9 ord] to expose ! scaphocunei=m4 ,,ix4 ,,! ,,diaphragm ,,& ,,! ,,muscles ,,on ,,! ,,v5tral ,,side ,,( ,,! ,,v]tebral ,,column ,,9 ,,! ,,lumb> ,,& ,,pelvic ,,regions4 ,remove ! v5tral & lat]al walls ( ! ?orax completely1 z f> back z ! diaphragm1--leav+ only a r+ atta*$ to ! m>g9 ( ! diaphragm4 ,remove ! abdom9al walls 9 ! same way1 z f> back z ! pubis1 leav+ ! diaphragm 9 position4 ,remove ! ?oracic visc]a 7! he>t & lungs may be pres]v$ = future /udy74 ,remove also ! abdom9al visc]a z f> back z ! beg9n+ ( ! pelvis1 cutt+ ! l>ge inte/9e :]e x passes into ! pelvis4 ,! dorsal wall ( ! abdom9al cavity %\ld be cle>$ ( fat1 blood-vessels1 etc41 )\t injury to ! crura ( ! diaphragm4 #a4 ,! diaphragm 7p4 #aea1 & ,fig4 #gd74 ,/udy by transmitt$ light1 to see ! t5dons1 etc4 #b4 ,! psoas m9or 7p4 #aci1 & ,fig4 #afb1 #i1 p4 #cih74 ,f9d its t5don & sep>ate x f ! iliopsoas 7,fig4 #afb1 #h7 z f> craniad z ?is c be done )\t te>+ ! fibres4 #c4 ,! iliopsoas 7p4 #aic1 & ,fig4 #afb1 #h74 ,f9d bo? portions2 isolate !m z f> z x c be done4 #d4 ,! quadratus lumborum 7p4 #aci74 ,free ! lat]al edge ( ! iliopsoas f ! abdom9al wall & turn ! :ole muscle m$iad z f> z possible4 ,! bundles ( ! quadratus lumborum w be f\nd b5ea? x1 aga9/ ! transv]se processes ( ! lumb> v]tebr4 ,) a heavy c>tilage-knife sep>ate ! two innom9ate bones along ! pelvic symphysis4 ,?is is easily done if ! knife is ins]t$ exactly into ! l9e ( junction ( ! two bones4 ,div>icate ! edges "s di/ance1 s z to make a v5tral op5+ into ! pelvic cavity4 ,if necess>y1 "p ( ! innom9ate bone ( "o side may be remov$ to make ! op5+ l>g]4 ,f9d ! ?9 %eet ( fibres =m+ ! levator ani muscle 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa7 at ! side ( ! rectum1 atta*$ to ! edge ( ! symphysis4 ,c>efully free ! rectum & urog5ital organs f ?is & remove !m z f> z ! anus1 leav+ ! levator ani intact4 #e4 ,! iliocaudalis 7p4 #acg1 & ,fig4 #afb1 #aa74 #f4 ,! levator ani 7p4 #bfi1 & ,fig4 #afb1 #aa74 ,remove ) great c>e ! levator ani & iliocaudalis ( "o side1 by cutt+ fir/ ! atta*m5t to ! symphysis & ! ilium1 turn+ ! muscle m$iad1 !n cutt+ ! atta*m5t to ! tail4 ,!re are ?us expos$ on ! lat]al wall ( ! ?orax ! m$ial surface ( ! obturator int]nus1 craniad ( x ! pyri=mis1 caudad ( x ! quadratus femoris4 ,dorsad ( ^! is ! abductor caud int]nus4 #g4 ,! abductor caud int]nus 7p4 #acg74 ,on ! v5tral surface ( ! tail are expos$ ! foll[+3 #h4 ,! flexor caud longus 7p4 #ach1 & ,fig4 #afb1 #ab74 #i4 ,! flexor caud brevis 7p4 #ach1 & ,fig4 #afb1 #ac74 ,x4 ,,muscles ,,( ,,! ,,tail 7p4 #acf74 ,by remov+ ! sk9 ( ! tail1 all ! muscles ( ! tail are n[ easily se54 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e--see #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 above 7,,ix74 #f4 ,! abductor caud ext]nus 7p4 #acg1 & ,fig4 #aac1 b2 ,fig4 #gj1 g74 #g4 ,! ext5sor caud lat]alis 7p4 #acg1 & ,fig4 #gj1 f74 #h4 ,! ext5sor caud m$ialis 7p4 #acf1 & ,fig4 #gj1 e74 ,,! ,,visc]a4 ,kill ! specim5 ) *lor(orm & inject ) ! five p] c5t4 =mal91 or ! mixture ( =mal9 & glyc]9e1 z = ! muscles4 7,x is an advantage if ! prelim9>y exam9ation ( ! visc]a c be done 9 a p]fectly fre%1 un9ject$ specim52 su* a specim5 c be kept b a day or two1 h[ev]4 ,aft] "o day's exam9ation ! sk9 may be remov$ & ! specim5 plac$ 9 two p] c5t4 =mal92 x w usually be fairly well pres]v$ by ?is1 ?\gh ! =mal9 is too /rong to make ! lat] dissection pleasant4 ,! specim5 _c be pres]v$ 9 ?is mann] unless ! sk9 is remov$1 & a suffici5t quantity ( =mal9 us$47 ,,prelim9>y ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,visc]a4 7,9 ?is prelim9>y exam9ation ! descriptions 9 ! text ne$ n be read1 except :5 ?is is specially direct$47 ,wet ! hair along a l9e f ! symphysis ( ! jaw to ! pubis4 ,"p x & make a longitud9al incision ?r\gh ! sk9 along ! l9e4 ,make a transv]se incision ( ! sk9 five c5timet]s caudad ( ! xiphoid process & reflect ! flaps4 ,incise ! body wall f ! la/ rib to ! pelvis along ! same l9e z above & also transv]sely4 ,reflect ! flaps )\t injur+ ! ligam5ts ( ! bladd]4 ,make an incision ?r\gh ! pectoral muscles betwe5 ! fir/ rib & ! v5tral atta*m5t ( ! diaphragm & ab\t "o c5timet] f ! m$ian l9e4 ,make a second incision ( ! muscles f ! cranial end ( ! fir/ incision along ! angles ( ! ribs to ne> ! dorsolat]al atta*m5t ( ! diaphragm4 ,cut ! ribs & ?oracic wall along ^! incisions ) /rong scissors2 connect ! two incisions at _! caudal ends1 & remove ! lat]al ?oracic wall ?us circumscrib$4 ,note ! ?oracic & abdom9al cavities1 sep>at$ by ! diaphragm4 ,note ! foll[+ visc]a 9 _! fre% condition3 ,a4 ,9 ! abdom9al cavity 7)\t injur+ any?+7 #a4 ,! liv]1 d>k r$ & lob$1 9 ! cranial "p ( ! cavity1 ly+ aga9/ ! diaphragm4 #b4 ,! gall-bladd] p>tly imb$d$ 9 ! "r m$ian lobe4 #c4 ,displac+ ! liv] craniad1 ! /oma* is se5 dorsad ( its left lobe4 ,x may ext5d dorsad ( ! "r lobe1 its size dep5d+ on ! degree ( di/5sion4 #d4 ,! duod5um or fir/ "p ( ! small inte/9e leaves ! /oma* at its "r side craniad & makes a ,u b5d1 ! head ( :i* is direct$ caudad2 x !n turns t[>d ! middle l9e dorsad ( ! rema9+ "p ( ! small inte/9e4 #e4 ,! great om5tum is a ?9 fold ( p]itoneum ) _m b&s ( fat4 ,x passes l a curta9 f ! great curvature ( ! /oma* v5trad ( ! coils ( ! small inte/9e 7ileum74 ,x is tuck$ b5ea? ! mass ( coils at ! sides & caudally1 & folds ( x ext5d betwe5 ! individual coils4 ,turn x craniad & note-- #f4 ,! num]\s coils ( ! ?ird "p ( ! small inte/9e or ileum4 ,turn ^! to "o side & note-- #g4 ,! connection ( ! ileum ) ! duod5um across ! middle l9e4 ,an indef9ite "p ( ! inte/9e betwe5 ! ileum & duod5um is call$ ! jejunum1 because 9 man x is f\nd empty aft] dea?4 #h4 ,! passage ( ! ileum into ! side ( ! l>ge inte/9e :i* beg9s on ! "r side j caudad ( ! loops ( ! duod5um4 ,! fir/ "p ( ! l>ge inte/9e is ! colon4 ,x may be trac$ fir/ t[>d ! head 7asc5d+ colon71 !n s9i/ro-caudad 7transv]se colon7 & !n caudad 7desc5d+ colon74 ,! desc5d+ colon returns to ! middle l9e & ! l>ge inte/9e !n cont9ues to ! anus z ! rectum4 ,! bl9d p\* ( ! colon :i* lies caudad ( ! op5+ ( ! ileum is ! ccum4 #i4 ,turn ! duod5um t[>d ! left & note ! pancreas1 a light r$1 elongat$ organ :i* /ret*es along ! great] curvature ( ! /oma* & !nce betwe5 ! two l9es ( ! duod5al ,u to its bottom4 #aj4 ,! sple51 p>allel to ! ga/ric portion ( ! pancreas4 ,x is deep r$ 7d>k] ?an ! pancreas & n s br[n z ! liv]7 & is held aga9/ ! great curvature ( ! /oma* by a "p ( ! great om5tum4 #aa4 ,! kidneys1 close aga9/ ! dorsal body wall & 9 contact ) ! caudal "p ( ! liv]4 #ab4 ,! bladd]1 9 ! m$ian l9e at ! caudal end ( ! cavity1 held 9 place by ! susp5sory ligam5t1 :i* passes to ! midv5tral l9e1 & by ! lat]al ligam5ts4 #ac4 ,! mes5t]ic gl&s1 l>ge grayi%-r$ gl&s "o to f\r c5timet]s long1 m num]\s 9 ! mesocolon4 #ad4 ,9 ! female1 ly+ aga9/ ! v5tral surface ( ! rectum1 ! ut]us4 ,x divides into two horns :i* div]ge4 ,ne> ! end ( ea* horn ! ov>y4 #ae4 ,! p]itoneum4 ,/udy & und]/& ! description ( x 7p4 #bah74 ,dissect "s ( x free f ! body wall4 7,trace ! folds by aid ( a diagram & model47 ,b4 ,9 ! ?oracic cavity3 #a4 ,! lungs4 ,ea* is divid$ into lobes1 ?ree on ! left1 f\r on ! "r4 ,! caudal "r lobe pu%es ! m$ia/ium t[>d ! left & ?us lies 9 a pocket dorsocaudad ( ! he>t & dorsad ( ! v5a cava inf]ior4 #b4 ,! pleur4 ,ea* pleura is a membrane l ! p]itoneum4 ,x cov]s ! diaphragm & ! ?oracic walls & is reflect$ onto ! lungs4 ,h5ce x is divid$ into co/al & pulmon>y portions4 ,read ! description 7p4 #bag7 & trace _! connection4 ,ea* pleura =ms a clos$ sac4 #c4 ,! m$ia/9al septum or m$ian v]tical portion =m$ by ! apposition ( ! m$ial walls ( ! two pleural sacs4 ,x divides ! ?orax into halves4 #d4 ,9 ! m$ia/9um or space betwe5 ! halves ( ! m$ia/9al septum are se5-- a4 ,v5trally 7i4e41 9 ! ant]ior m$ia/9um71 blood-vessels & fat1 & craniad ! p9k ?ymus gl&4 ,read ! description ( ! ?ymus 7p4 #bed1 & ,fig4 #ajg74 b4 ,dorsally 7i4e41 9 ! po/]ior m$ia/9um7 ! tra*ea 7be/ se5 craniad71 ! sophagus 7be/ se5 caudad71 & ! aorta4 c4 ,9 ! middle 7reckon+ 9 a dorsov5tral l9e7 7i4e41 9 ! middle m$ia/9um7 ! he>t1 ) ! inf]ior v5a cava approa*+ x f ! re>4 ,prick into ! m$ia/9um & inflate x4 ,remove ! ?oracic wall opposite ! "o already remov$1 s z to /ret* ! m$ia/9um & %[ x m cle>ly4 ,expose ! tra*ea b5ea? ! caudal end ( ! /]noma/oidei4 ,note ! ?yroid gl& 7,fig4 #if1 #f1 p4 #bbi74 ,ins]t a bl[pipe )\t injury to ! ?yroid1 & inflate ! lungs4 ,cut ! /]num at its caudal end & turn x craniad1 cutt+ ! m$ia/9al septum & not+ its d\ble "*4 ,dissect ! m$ia/9al septum f ! ?ymus s z to expose ?is organ4 d4 ,! p]ic>dium1 a relatively ?ick-wall$ sac1 )9 :i* ! he>t lies4 ,! p]ic>dium is cov]$ by ! m$ia/9al septum on ea* side1 b n dorsally & v5trally4 ,dissect ! m$ia/9al septum f ! p]ic>dium4 ,prick & inflate ! p]ic>dium4 ,op5 x & expose ! he>t4 ,,dissection ,,( ,,! ,,alim5t>y ,,canal4 ,/udy & v]ify ! descriptions ( ! organs z !y are dissect$4 ,i4 ,saliv>y gl&s 7p4 #bbc74 #a4 ,keep ! m\? op5 by a cork betwe5 ! tee?4 ,f9d ! papill ^u :i* op5 ! subl+ual & submaxill>y ducts 7pp4 #bbc & #bbd72 remove ! mucosa & enl>ge ! op5+ & ins]t a black bri/le into ei!r duct4 ,trace ! duct by ! bri/le z f> z possible on ! floor ( ! m\?4 #b4 ,f9d ! :ite ridge =m$ on ! *eek by ! p>otid duct 7p4 #bbc74 ,x is opposite ! mol> too?1 & at its cranial end ! op5+ ( ! duct is se54 ,enl>ge ! op5+ & ins]t a black bri/le z f> z possible4 #c4 ,remove ! sk9 & ! sk9-muscles f ! side ( ! face1 beg9n+ at ! caudal end & work+ craniad4 ,at ! cranial bord] ( ! c>otid on ! v5tral side look c>efully = ! p>otid duct ) ! bri/le 9 x4 ,! duct is !n easily trac$ by ! removal ( ! sk9 & muscles4 ,/udy ! p>otid gl& 7,fig4 #aca1 #aj1 p4 #cbb74 #d4 ,remove ! facial ve9 7,fig4 #aca1 b & c7 & lymphatic gl& 7,fig4 #aca1 #ab7 cov]+ ! submaxill>y gl& 7,fig4 #aca1 #aa7 & clean its out] surface4 ,raise x & f9d ! submaxill>y duct leav+ its inn] surface4 ,reflect ! diga/ric & mylohyoid muscles & trace ! duct to ! oral mucosa4 ,! rema9d] ( its c\rse is %[n by ! bri/le on ! inside ( ! m\?4 #e4 ,! subl+ual gl& is uncov]$ 9 dissect+ ! submaxill>y4 ,its duct is se5 by ! side ( ! submaxill>y4 ,x may be prick$ ne> ! gl& & a bri/le pass$ to its op5+4 #f4 ,! infraorbital gl&4 ,expose x by removal ( ! zygomatic ar* & masset] muscle4 ,f9d its duct by dissect+ ap>t ! lobules at its v5tral end4 ,prick ! duct & ins]t a bri/le to f9d its inn] op5+4 #g4 ,! mol> gl&4 ,f9d x by rais+ ! orbicul>is oris ( ! l[] lip4 ,by rais+ its v5tral bord] & dissect+ betwe5 x & ! mucosa ! ducts may be f\nd & p]haps prick$ & bri/les ins]t$4 ,,ii4 ,! m\?-cavity4 ,/udy ! g5]al description 7p4 #bba72 ! lips & ! *eek4 ,!n remove ! masset] muscle & ! caudal "p ( ! zygoma4 ,cut ?r\gh ! m&ible betwe5 ! fir/ premol> & ! can9e too?4 ,!n dis>ticulate ! m&ible1 cut ! *eek & also ! mylohyoid muscle & oral mucosa p>allel to ! m$ial bord] ( ! m&ible1 & remove ! m&ible ) ! p>ts ?us left atta*$ to x4 ,! organs 9 ! m\?-cavity are ?us left expos$ & %\ld be /udi$4 ,to demon/rate ! incisive ducts 7p4 #bbb7 pass a bri/le into !m4 ,! tee? 7p4 #bbd74 ,^! %\ld be /udi$ on a skull 9 :i* ! roots ( ! tee? h be5 laid b>e by means ( ! bone-=ceps1 z 9 ,figs4 #ic & #id4 ,! tongue 7p4 #bbf1 & ,fig4 #ie74 ,/udy its dorsal surface1 ! papill1 etc4 ,!n dissect its muscles 7p4 #bbh7 f ! v5tral side4 ,! /ylohyoid1 diga/ric1 & mylohyoid muscles mu/ be remov$4 ,!n dissect 7a7 ! /yloglossus 7,fig4 #if1 e71 7b7 ! g5ioglossus 7,fig4 #if1 f71 7c7 ! hyoglossus 7,fig4 #if1 h74 ,make a transv]se section ( ! tongue to see ! intr9sic muscle-fibres4 ,,iii4 ,! ?yroid gl& 7p4 #bed1 & ,fig4 #if1 #f74 ,clean ! /]noma/oid muscles4 ,cut _! int]digitat+ portions along ! m$ian l9e & reflect !m4 ,f9d ! lat]al lobe ( ! ?yroid gl& b5ea? ! lat]al bord]s ( ! /]nohyoid muscles4 ,dissect x1 be+ c>eful n to de/roy ! delicate i/hmus4 ,,iv4 ,! ph>ynx 7p4 #bca74 ,remove ! l>ge lymphatic gl& betwe5 ! atlantal transv]se process & ! l>ynx4 ,clean ! out] surface ( ! ph>ynx4 ,dissect ! muscles ( ! ph>ynx 7p4 #bcb7 z foll[s3 7a7 ,! inf]ior con/rictor 7,fig4 #if1 k74 7b7 ,! middle con/rictor 7,fig4 #if1 j74 7c7 ,! glossoph>yngeus 7,fig4 #if1 i74 7d7 ,! /yloph>yngeus 7,fig4 #if1 l74 ,! sup]ior con/rictor _c well be se5 at ?is po9t2 x w be exam9$ lat]4 ,dis>ticulate ! cranial cornu ( ! hyoid f ! bulla tympani & make an incision ! l5g? ( ! lat]al wall ( ! ph>ynx s z to expose its cavity2 /udy4 ,exam9e its op5+ into ! m\?-cavity & /udy ! g5]al description 7p4 #bca74 ,f9d & /udy ! s(t palate 7p4 #bcj74 ,dissect ! t5sor & levator palat9i muscles 7p4 #bcj1 & ,fig4 #ff1 d & e1 p4 #aab71 us+1 if necess>y1 ! specim5 on :i* ! o!r muscles 7 dissect$4 ,!n slit ! s(t palate l5g?wise at "o side ( ! m$ian l9e to expose ! nasoph>ynx 7p4 #bca74 ,br+ ! *oan into view by use ( a bit ( mirror-glass4 ,pass a bri/le into ! n>es & out at ! *oan4 ,pass a bri/le ?r\gh ! ,eu/a*ian tube into ! middle e>4 ,v4 sophagus 7p4 #bcd74 ,aft] complet+ ! /udy ( ! ph>ynx1 leave ! l>ynx & lungs 9 position & by displac+ !m t[>d ! "r foll[ ! sophagus to its t]m9ation4 ,op5 x to see ! folds ( ! mucosa4 ,,vi4 ,cut ?r\gh ! duod5um at its di/al end & ?r\gh ! duod5al mes5t]y s z to sep>ate ! /oma* & duod5um1 ) ! liv]1 pancreas1 & sple51 f ! rema9d] ( ! alim5t>y canal4 ,float ! p>ts 9 a di% ( wat]4 ,,vii4 ,/udy ! /oma* 7p4 #bcd1 & ,fig4 #ig74 ,cut out ! v5tral wall ( ! /oma* & wa% x out1 s z to /udy its cavity1 & !n cont9ue ! cut s z to expose ! pyloric valve 7p4 #bce74 ,,viii4 ,/udy ! duod5um 7p4 #bcf74 ,cut away ! v5tral walls ( ! duod5um f> en\gh to expose ! ampulla ( ,vat]4 ,,ix4 ,/udy ! liv] 7p4 #bci1 & ,figs4 #ajj & #aja74 ,expose ! hepatic duct ( ! left lat]al lobe ne> its entrance into ! lobe1 & foll[ x s z to expose x fully4 ,if necess>y1 prick x & inflate ) bl[pipe 9 ord] to foll[ x4 ,!n expose ! cy/ic duct & o!r hepatic ducts & foll[ !m to or f ! common bile-duct4 ,trace ! latt] to ! duod5um4 ,if ! air does n ent] any duct readily1 x may be made to d s by manipulat+ ! duct s z to break up ! precipitat$ bile :i* ob/ructs x4 ,x4 ,/udy ! pancreas 7p4 #bda1 & ,fig4 #ajb74 ,expose ! pancreatic duct ne> its entrance into ! ampulla ( ,vat]1 by remov+ ! p]itoneum f ! pancreas j caudad ( ! end ( ! common bile-duct1 & by dissect+ ap>t ! pancreatic lobules until ! duct appe>s4 7,if possible1 expose also ! accessory duct 9 ! same way on ! v5tral side ( ! pancreas1 two c5timet]s caudov5trad ( ! ampulla ( ,vat]4 ,prick & inflate4 ,trace its connection ) ! ma9 duct4 ,to demon/rate its op5+ pass a bri/le ?r\gh an op5+ 9 x into ! duod5um47 7,! pancreatic duct may be inject$1 if desir$47 ,,xi4 ,! v5tral wall ( ! duod5um %\ld n[ be remov$4 ,cut out a small piece1 clean its mucosa ) a f9e bru% & exam9e ! villi ) a l5s4 ,demon/rate ! coats ( ! duod5al wall by /ripp+ !m (f ) =ceps4 ,,xii4 ,! ampulla ( ,vat] 7p4 #bcf74 ,pass bri/les ?r\gh op5+s 9 ! common bile-duct & pancreatic duct into ! duod5um ?r\gh ! ampulla4 ,slice away ! duod5al wall p>allel to ! bri/les until ! bri/les are expos$4 ,,xiii4 ,! sple5 7p4 #bdb1 & ,fig4 #ajb74 ,,xiv4 ,cut ! mes5t]y f ! small inte/9e & colon & slit !m bo? l5g?wise1 b d n de/roy ! ileocolic valve4 ,wa% & bru% ! muc\s membrane clean & /udy ! villi1 solit>y gl&s1 & ,pey]'s pat*es4 ,/udy ! ileocolic valve 7,fig4 #ii7 & op5 x to /udy its inn] surface4 ,,dissection ,,( ,,! ,,organs ,,( ,,respiration4 ,i4 ,! nasal cavity 7p4 #bdc74 ,review ! description ( ! nasal cavity giv5 "u ! ,bones 7p4 #ei74 ,/udy ! c>tilag9\s framework t supports ! ext]nal nose 7p4 #bdc72 make a cross-section ( ! framework ne> ! end ( ! nose & v]ify ! description 7p4 #bdd1 & ,fig4 #ajc74 ,)\t injur+ ! l>ynx or tongue saw ?r\gh ! head 9 a v]tical plane & a little to "o side ( ! m$ian l9e4 7,if desir$1 ! bra9 may fir/ be remov$ f ! specim5 & pres]v$ = future /udy4 ,= directions1 see page #dfb4 ,! removal ( ! bra9 does n injure ! head = ! /udy ( ! nasal cavity2 ! skull may be sawn l5g?wise 9 ! same way z be=e47 ,wa% out ! cut surfaces be=e exam9+4 ,f9d ! v5tral con* 7p4 #dj71 ! labyr9?s ( ! e?moid 7p4 #dc71 ! inf]ior meatus ( ! nose 7p4 #bdc71 & by bri/les ! la*rymal duct or canal 7p4 #bde74 ,! la*rymal duct is conv5i5tly f\nd by pass+ bri/les into ! op5+s ( ! la*rymal canals4 ,"o ( ^! is to be f\nd on ! bord] ( ea* eyelid1 two or ?ree millimet]s f ! inn] angle ( ! eye 7see p4 #daj74 ,cut ! sophagus & tra*ea at ! po9t :]e ! bl[pipe 0 ins]t$ into ! tra*ea4 ,sep>ate ! tongue1 hyoid1 l>ynx1 sophagus1 & fir/ "p ( ! tra*ea f ! adjac5t p>ts & remove !m4 ,,ii4 ,! l>ynx 7p4 #bdf74 7#a7 ,read ! description1 /udy+ ! c>tilages 7p4 #bdg7 on a prep>ation 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,!n v c>efully remove ! ph>ynx & its con/rictor muscles1 ! /]no?yroid & rema9s ( /]nohyoid muscles1 & 7#b7 dissect ! muscles ( ! l>ynx 7p4 #bdi1 & ,fig4 #aje74 ,dissect all ^? ( "o side fir/4 ,! mucosa l9+ ! ve/ibule & middle portions ( ! l>yngeal cavity mu/ be remov$4 ,aft] /udy+ ! muscles1 remove ! muscles & entire mucosa by scrap+ c>efully ) a dull b smoo? scalpel1 & /udy ! c>tilages 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,,iii4 ,! tra*ea & lungs 7p4 #bea1 & ,fig4 #ajf74 ,! di/al end ( ! tra*ea & lungs may n[ be remov$ ) ! he>t f ! body4 ,! lungs may be inflat$ ) ! bell[s4 ,! bron*i %\ld !n be expos$1 clean$1 & foll[$ z f> z possible into ! lungs4 ,! he>t %\ld be pres]v$ = future /udy4 ,,dissection ,,( ,,! ,,urog5ital ,,organs4 ,a4 ,excretory ,organs4 #a4 ,expose ! kidney 7p4 #bee1 & ,fig4 #ajh7 by removal ( ! p]itoneum & ! surr\nd+ fat1 tak+ c>e n to op5 ! capsule ( ! kidney4 ,9 remov+ ! fat f ! cranial end d n injure ! supr>5al body 7p4 #beg71 :i* %\ld be /udi$4 #b4 ,op5 ! capsule ( ! kidney & slice away its v5tral wall to expose ! s9us4 ,aft] dissect+ ! cont5ts ( ! s9us op5 ! pelvis & /udy ! papilla4 ,pass a bri/le f ! pelvis into ! uret]4 #c4 ,make a m$ian section ( ! kidney p>allel to its v5tral surface & /udy /ructure 7,fig4 #aji74 #d4 ,trace ! uret] to ! bladd]1 be+ c>eful n to injure ! vas def]5s4 ,/udy ! bladd] & its ligam5ts1 /ructure ( its wall1 etc4 ,pass a bri/le ?r\gh ! uret] into x & !n op5 x to see ! op5+s ( ! uret]4 ,trace ! neck ( ! bladd] to ! pubis4 ,b4 ,male ,g5ital ,organs4 #a4 ,/udy ! ext]nal g5ital organs 7p4 #beg74 #b4 ,c>efully remove ! integum5t ab\t ! anus & expose ! ext]nal sph9ct] ani muscle 7p4 #bfh1 & ,fig4 #aac1 i74 ,trace x to its orig94 ,remove ! integum5t ( ! scrotum & dissect ! int]column> fascia1 ! levator scroti muscle 7p4 #bga1 & ,fig4 #aac1 j71 ! tunica vag9alis communis1 & propria 7p4 #beh74 #c4 ,! te/is2 ! epididymis ) great c>e1 especially 9 uncov]+ ! vasa eff]5tia2 ! vas def]5s & sp]matic cord 7p4 #bei1 & ,figs4 #aaj & #aaa74 #d4 ,foll[ ! cord to ! ext]nal +u9al r+ 7p4 #bei7 & expose ! r+4 ,dissect (f 9 ord] f ! +u9al canal3 7a7 ,! ext]nal oblique muscle2 7b7 ! int]nal oblique muscle2 7c7 ! transv]sus4 ,9 ?is way ! cord is foll[$ ) its tunica communis & tunica propria to ! int]nal +u9al r+4 #e4 ,trace ! vas def]5s 7p4 #bfj1 & ,fig4 #aaa7 )9 ! abdom9al cavity z f> z x c be se5 dorsad ( ! neck ( ! bladd]4 #f4 ,! p5is 7p4 #bfb1 & ,figs4 #aaa & #aac74 ,cut ! sk9 along ! dorsum ( ! p5is & reflect4 ,dissect ! ligam5tum susp5sorium p5is4 ,!n introduce a bri/le into ! ure?ra & remove ! integum5t f ! :ole p5is & id5tify ! corpora cav]nosa & corpus spongiosum & ! ure?ra4 #g4 ,remove ! fat at ! side ( ! rectum & f9d ! levator ani muscle 7p4 #bfi1 & ,fig4 #afb1 #aa74 ,transect & reflect x4 ,! int]nal sph9ct] ani 7p4 #bfi1 & ,fig4 #aac1 h74 ,f9d ! ext]nal op5+ ( ! anal gl& 7p4 #bci72 slit & exam9e x4 #h4 ,dissect ! is*iocav]nosus 7p4 #bfi7 & bulbocav]nosus 7p4 #bga7 muscles 7,fig4 #aac71 & f9d ! bulbus ( ! corpus cav]nosum b5ea? ! =m]4 ,cut x free f ! is*ial ramus4 #i4 ,clean ! muscles f ! pelvis on ! side f :i* ! crus p5is is remov$1 & remove ) bone =ceps ! body ( ! pubis & ! ramus ( ! is*ium4 ,!n trace ! neck ( ! bladd] to its junction ) ! vasa def]5tia1 & ! ure?ra f t po9t to ! ext]nal op5+ 7,fig4 #aaa74 ,/udy ! compressor ure?r muscle 7p4 #bga1 & ,fig4 #aac1 n74 ,f9d ,c[p]'s gl&s 7p4 #bfa7 & ! pro/ate gl& 7,fig4 #aac74 ,dissect ! o!r muscles ( ! urog5ital organs 7pp4 #bfh to #bgc1 & ,fig4 #aac74 #aj4 ,slit ! ure?ra on "o side ?r\gh\t its l5g? & f9d ! v]u montanum 7p4 #bfa72 ! op5+s ( ! vasa def]5tia 7p4 #bfa71 by bri/les pass$ into ! ure?ra f !m2 ! op5+s ( ! pro/ate gl& & ! op5+s ( ,c[p]'s gl&s4 #aa4 ,/udy ! /ructure ( ! p5is 7p4 #bfb7 by mak+ a cross-section1 & t ( ! glans by mak+ a longitud9al section4 ,note1 if possible1 ! os p5is4 ,c4 ,female ,urog5ital ,organs 7p4 #bfc1 & ,fig4 #aab74 ,! kidney & its ducts & ! bladd] are l ^? ( ! male 7p4 #bee71 except ! neck ( ! bladd]1 :i* w be se5 9 dissect+ ! ut]us & vag9a4 a4 ,)\t cutt+ any?+ exam9e-- #a4 ,! ov>ies 7p4 #bfd72 ! ligam5ts ( ! ov>y 7p4 #bfd1 & ,fig4 #aab74 #b4 ,! ut]9e tube4 ,its o/ium 7p4 #bfd74 #c4 ,! body ( ! ut]us 7p4 #bff7 z f> z expos$4 #d4 ,! cornu ( ! ut]us4 #e4 ,! broad & r\nd ligam5ts ( ! ut]us 7p4 #bff74 #f4 ,slit op5 "o ,fallopian tube1 cornu1 & body ( ! ut]us z f> z ! junction ( ! divisions ( ! body ( ! ut]us4 b4 ,remove ! v5tral wall ( ! pelvis on "o side only & f9d ! vag9a & urog5ital s9us 7p4 #bfg74 ,! levator ani muscle 7p4 #bfi1 & ,fig4 #afb1 #aa7 mu/ be cut & reflect$4 #a4 ,note ! con/rictor ve/ibuli1 caudovag9alis1 & ure?ralis muscles 7p4 #bgb1 & ,fig4 #aad74 #b4 ,introduce a probe f ! ut]us into ! vag9a & feel ) ! f+] = ! h>d c]vix ut]i 7p4 #bff74 ,!n op5 ! vag9a on ! side1 b d n cut ! os ut]i 7p4 #bff74 #c4 ,exam9e ! c]vix ut]i & os ut]i 7p4 #bff74 #d4 ,introduce a probe ?r\gh ! neck ( ! bladd] & note its em]g5ce into ! urog5ital s9us4 #e4 ,f9d ! end ( ! clitoris 7p4 #bfg71 & its prepuce1 & !n dissect ! integum5t c>efully f ab\t ! ext]nal op5+ ( ! urog5ital s9us & note an ext]nal sph9ct] ( ! s9us 7,m4 levator vulv7 7p4 #bgb1 & ,fig4 #aad71 equival5t to ! levator scroti 9 ! male & cont9u\s ) ! ext]nal sph9ct] ani4 #f4 ,f9d 7if possible7 ! corpora cav]nosa ( ! clitoris 7p4 #bfg7 & ! is*iocav]nosi muscles 7p4 #bfi74 ,,dissection ,,( ,,! ,,circulatory ,,sy/em4 ,i4 ,,! ,,he>t 7p4 #bgd1 & ,figs4 #aae-aag74 ,use ! he>t f ! specim5 dissect$ = ! muscles1 or f ! specim5 on :i* ! visc]a 7 /udi$4 #a4 ,/udy ! outside 7p4 #bge1 & ,figs4 #aae & #aaf71 & le>n to recognize all p>ts4 ,f9d ! pulmon>y ve9s 7p4 #bge1 & ,fig4 #aaf1 g1 h1 i7 & cut !m1 ?us sep>at+ ! he>t f ! lungs4 #b4 ,! ,p]ic>dium 7p4 #bgi74 ,9 a specim5 ! ?oracic cont5ts ( :i* h n be5 injur$1 dissect ! m$ia/9al septum f ! p]ic>dial sac & remove fat ab\t ! great blood-vessels s z to expose !m all fully4 ,/udy _! relations4 ,prick & inflate ! p]ic>dium4 ,slit x l5g?wise ov] ! v5tricles & reflect x s z to expose its cont5ts4 ,/udy ! atta*m5t ( s]\s & fibr\s lay]s to ! he>t & _! relation to "o ano!r4 #c4 ,9 dissect+ ! he>t foll[ ! c\rse ( ! blood1 /udy+ ea* cavity ) ! aid ( ! descriptions 7pp4 #bge-bgi7 z y proce$4 ,dissect z foll[s3 a4 ,remove ! dorsal wall ( ! "r auricle 7p4 #bge7 & ( its app5dage except t "p ( x to :i* ! v5 cav are atta*$4 b4 ,introduce ! probe f ! "r auricle into ! "r v5tricle1 & feel ) ! probe ! l9e along :i* ! v5tricul> wall jo9s ! septum4 ,cut along ?is l9e s z to turn back ! v5tricul> wall z a flap1 :i* rema9s atta*$ at ! base ( ! v5tricle4 c4 ,introduce a probe ?r\gh ! conus art]iosus into ! pulmon>y art]y & cut along ! probe4 d4 ,remove ! dorsal wall ( ! left auricle & its app5dage1 b d n remove t "p to :i* ! pulmon>y ve9s are atta*$4 e4 ,make a longitud9al incision beg9n+ at ! apex & div>icate ! lips ( ! cut z y pass t[>d ! base1 ?us avoid+ injury to ! lat]al flap ( ! bicuspid valve4 ,)\t injury to ! flap or ! column c>ne1 remove ! he>t-wall at ! sides ( ?is incision ne> ! base ( ! v5tricle1 z mu* z necess>y to expose ! cavity4 f4 ,pass a probe into ! aorta4 ,introduce scissors beh9d ! septal flap ( ! bicuspid valve & slit ! aorta )\t injury to ! bicuspid valve4 ,,ii4 ,,dissection ,,( ,,! ,,blood-,,vessels4 ,prep>ation & ,injection4--,a new specim5 mu/ be prep>$ = ! dissection ( ! blood-vessels4 ,! same specim5 may be us$1 if necess>y1 = ! dissection ( ! p]iph]al n]v\s sy/em1--"o side be+ us$ = ! blood-vessels1 ! o!r = ! n]ves1--b x is mu* bett] to use sep>ate specim5s = ! two sy/ems4 ,inject ! femoral art]y ( ! specim5 ) ei!r five p] c5t4 =mal91 or ) ! mixture ( five p] c5t4 =mal9 & glyc]9e1 exactly z = ! muscles4 ,!n1 )\t remov+ ! canula or wait+1 inject ! art]y ) r$ />*4 ,?is is prep>$ z foll[s3 ,mix toge!r equal volumes ( v]milion 7or r$ lead71 glyc]9e1 & five p] c5t4 =mal94 ,gr9d ^! toge!r 9 a mort>1 s z to de/roy ! lumps2 /ra9 ! result+ mixture ?r\gh f9e musl94 ,?is color mixture c be pres]v$ 9 a clos$ bottle till x is to be us$4 ,!n mix toge!r "o volume ( dry />*1 "o & "o-f\r? volumes ( five p] c5t4 =mal91 & "o-f\r? volume ( ! color mixture4 ,see t no lumps are pres5t4 ,inject ! above r$ />* mass into ! femoral art]y4 ,x w drive into ! ve9s ! =mal9 already inject$1 & ! art]ies w be fill$ ) ! r$ />*4 ,! ve9s ne$ n be inject$1 z !y w be f\nd to be fill$ ) ! =mal9 mixture1 color$ by ! blood1 s t !y c be trac$ )\t great difficulty4 ,dissection ( ,blood-vessels4--,9 g5]al ! art]ies & ve9s w be trac$ toge!r4 ,x is an excell5t plan to make a sket* ( ea* vessel z x is dissect$1 %[+ its orig91 bran*es1 & "n4 ,?is w be a great aid to ! memory & w be ( mu* assi/ance 9 review+ ! vessels4 ,! sket*es c lat] be comb9$ into a well-ord]$ draw+4 ,! description ( ea* vessel mu/ ( c\rse be /udi$ z ! vessel is dissect$4 ,9 trac+ blood-vessels d n grasp !m betwe5 ! =ceps-blades1 b h&le !m by tak+ hold ) ! =ceps ( ! connective-tissue coats ( ! vessels4 ,d n use ! scalpel1 b pull away ! connective tissue & fat ) f9e =ceps1 us+ two pairs ( =ceps or "o =ceps & ! trac]4 ,v>iations are especially common 9 ! blood-vessels1 & ! /ud5t mu/ n be surpris$ to f9d consid]able deviations f ! conditions describ$ & figur$ 9 ! text4 ,^! v>iations usually pres5t no?+ new 9 pr9ciple & are easily und]/ood by comp>+ !m ) ! /ructures describ$4 ,directions = ,dissect+ ! ,blood-vessels4--,make a m$ian longitud9al incision ?r\gh ! sk9 f ! symphysis ( ! jaw to ! caudal end ( ! xiphoid process4 ,ab\t ?ree or f\r c5timet]s caudad ( ! cranial end ( ! /]num make an incision at ne>ly "r angles to ?is1 pass+ f ! fir/ incision on ! v5tral side ( ! left arm ab\t to ! elb[4 ,reflect ! flaps ( sk91 s z to uncov] ! left side ( ! ?orax & ! "u surface ( ! arm1 expos+ ! pectoral muscles4 ,isolate & transect ! pectoral muscles "o at a "t1 cutt+ ea* ne> its ?oracic atta*m5t4 7,! muscles 7p4 #ade7 %\ld be review$ at ! same "t47 ,9 ?is way ! n]ves & blood-vessels ( ! axilla are expos$ 7,fig4 #abb1 p4 #bie74 ,f9d ! axill>y art]y & ve9 7,fig4 #abb1 f & g7 em]g+ f ! ?orax j craniad ( ! fir/ rib1 along ) ! n]ves ( ! bra*ial plexus4 ,remove connective tissue1 etc41 s t ! vessels & n]ves are well isolat$ z !y pass out ( ! ?orax4 ,take great pa9s n to puncture ! vessels1 p>ticul>ly ! ve9s4 ,!n remove ! left side ( ! ?orax by cutt+ ?r\gh ! fir/ rib ne> its /]nal end & !n ne> its dorsal end1 )\t injury to ! vessels & n]ves1 cut ! o!r ribs 9 ! same way1 & take out ! ?oracic wall4 ,n[ f9d ) trac] & =ceps ! great blood-vessels leav+ ! cranial end ( ! he>t 7see ,fig4 #aah74 ,take ! greate/ pa9s n to injure !m4 ,f9d ! aorta & aortic ar* 7p4 #bha72 ! left subclavian art]y 7p4 #bhc7 7cont9u\s ) ! axill>y72 ! innom9ate art]y 7p4 #bhb71 & ! beg9n+s ( its ?ree bran*es 7see ,fig4 #aae74 ,f9d also ! sup]ior v5a cava1 ! innom9ate ve9s1 & ! subclavian ve91 cont9u\s ) ! axill>y ve94 ,i4 ,/udy ! small] bran*es ( ! ?oracic aorta 7p4 #bhc1 & ,fig4 #aah7--! int]co/als1 ! bron*ial & sophageal art]ies1 & ! fir/ pair ( lumb> art]ies4 7,! coron>y art]ies w be exam9$ lat]47 ,,ii4 ,dissect ! subclavian & its bran*es 7p4 #bij7 z foll[s3 #a4 ,! int]nal mamm>y 7p4 #bib74 ,foll[ x onto ! v5tral wall ( ! abdom54 ,foll[ ! ve9 at ! same "t 7p4 #cah74 #b4 ,! v]tebral art]y 7p4 #bia74 ,f9d its beg9n+1 b d n trace x at pres5t4 #c4 ,! co/oc]vical axis 7p4 #bib74 ,f9d its beg9n+1 & trace ! sup]ior int]co/al bran* "s di/ance ,! o!r bran*es are n to be foll[$ at pres5t4 #d4 ,! ?yroc]vical axis 7p4 #bic74 ,f9d its beg9n+1 b d n trace x at pres5t4 #e4 ,! axill>y art]y 7cont9uation ( ! subclavian7 7p4 #bid74 ,foll[ its bran*es1 trac+ at ! same "t ! axill>y ve9 7p4 #cah74 7,consult ,fig4 #abb47 ,9 trac+ ! blood-vessels1 sep>ate ! muscles1 b d n cut !m except :]e absolutely necess>y4 7,! muscles %\ld be review$ z ! vessels are trac$47 ,! foll[+ notes may be ( assi/ance 9 foll[+ ! diff]5t bran*es3 7a7 ,! ant]ior ?oracic 0 probably cut 9 dissect+ ! pectoral muscles2 x may be f\nd1 b its di/al end is probably cut (f4 7b7 ,! long ?oracic is easily foll[$4 7c7 ,! subscapul>4 ,foll[ ! ma9 art]y be=e dissect+ its bran*es4 ,:]e ! subscapul> disappe>s betwe5 ! long head ( ! triceps1 ! latissimus dorsi1 & ! scapula1 x may be trac$ & f\nd aga9 z foll[s3 ,remove ! sk9 f ! out] side ( ! %\ld]1--tak+ great pa9s to remove only ! sk9 & n to injure ! v5a cephalica 7p4 #cai71 a l>ge ve9 t lies j b5ea? ! sk9 on ! lat]al surface ( ! %\ld]1 com+ f ! elb[4 ,! bran*es ( ! subscapul> w be f\nd appe>+ on ! lat]al surface ( ! arm 9 ! angle betwe5 ! sp9otrapezius1 ! long head ( ! triceps1 & ! infrasp9atus4 ,! di/al bran*es may !n be foll[$4 7d7 ,! po/]ior circumflex 7p4 #bif7 may be trac$ di/ad 9 a simil> mann]1 by seek+ x b5ea? ! caudal bord] ( ! sp9otrapezius4 7,d n injure ! v5a cephalica47 7e7 ,! o!r bran*es ( ! bra*ial art]y & ve9 pres5t no difficulty till we come to ! collat]alis radialis sup]ior 7,fig4 #abb1 x74 ,?is mu/ be trac$ ) great c>e1 along ) ! v5a m$iana cubiti 7p4 #cai1 & ,fig4 #abb1 y74 ,remove ! sk9 f ! ext5sor side ( ! =e>m1 tak+ great pa9s n to remove any?+ m ?an ! sk94 ,! art]y & ve9 lie b5ea? ! sk9 & %\ld be trac$ to ! h& 7see ,fig4 #acj74 ,along ) ! collat]al radial art]y trace ! v5a cephalica 7p4 #cai1 & ,fig4 #acj1 a & c74 ,foll[ x across ! %\ld]1 not+ ! bran* to ! po/]ior circumflex ve94 ,! rema9d] ( ! blood-vessels ( ! arm pres5t no special difficulty 7see ,figs4 #abc & #abd74 ,make a diagram ( ! subclavian art]y1 z f> z dissect$4 ,,iii4 ,remove ! sk9 f ! sides ( ! neck1 expos+ ! /]noma/oid muscles & ! ext]nal jugul> ve9s cross+ !m 7see ,fig4 #aca74 ,clean ! surface ( ! /]noma/oid muscles1 )\t injur+ ! ve92 sep>ate ! two muscles caudad1 & cut ea* close to ! atta*m5t to ! /]num4 ,f9d ! /]nohyoid & /]no?yroid muscles1 & cut !m close to _! atta*m5t to ! fir/ rib4 ,uncov] ! "r side ( ! ?orax 9 ! same way z ! left1 cut ! ribs )\t injury to ! n]ves & vessels ( ! "r axilla1 cut ! int]nal mamm>y art]y & ve9 7aft] ty+ ! latt]71 & ?us remove ! /]num ) ne>ly ! entire ?oracic wall4 ,! blood-vessels ( ! ?orax may n[ be m completely expos$4 7,if ! n]ves are to be dissect$ on ! same specim51 f9d ! phr5ic1 vagus1 & sympa!tic n]ves 7,fig4 #aeg71 & take ! greate/ pa9s n to injure !m47 #a4 ,! coron>y art]ies & ! ve9s ( ! he>t 7pp4 #bha & #caf74 #b4 ,! sup]ior v5a cava 7p4 #caf74 ,f9d its bran*es4 ,trace ! azygos z f> back z ! diaphragm )\t dissect+ x at all4 ,f9d ! division ( ! innom9ate 7p4 #cah7 into subclavian & ext]nal jugul>4 ,trace next-- #c4 ,! ext]nal jugul> 7p4 #cai74 ,remove ! sk9 f ! side ( ! face & trace its bran*es 7,fig4 #aca74 ,! int]nal jugul>1 v5a facialis pr(unda1 ! subm5talis1 & ! deep t]m9al bran*es ( ! po/]ior facial _c be foll[$ at ?is "t2 ve9s %[n on ,fig4 #aca %\ld all be f\nd1 h[ev]4 #d4 ,trace ! ?yroc]vical axis & its bran*es 7p4 #bic74 ,add !m to y\r diagram ( ! subclavian4 #e4 ,foll[ ! common c>otid art]y 7p4 #bhc7 & int]nal jugul> ve9 7p4 #cbj74 ,f9d ! division ( ! common c>otid into its t]m9al bran*es & !n dissect its lat]al bran*es & ^? ( ! int]nal jugul> 7see ,fig4 #aai74 #f4 ,! ext]nal c>otid 7p4 #bhe1 & ,fig4 #aai74 ,foll[ its bran*es ) ! exception ( ! int]nal maxill>y4 #g4 ,! int]nal maxill>y 7p4 #bhg74 ,f9d its inf]ior alveol> bran* fir/ & foll[ x by cutt+ away ) bone-=ceps ! v5tral bord] ( ! l[] jaw4 ,to foll[ its o!r bran*es & ^? ( ! c>otid plexus1 remove ! zygomatic ar*1 cut ! temporal1 masset]1 & pt]ygoid muscles1 & cut ! m&ible beh9d ! incisor tee? & remove x4 ,! bran*es :i* pass into ! skull are n to be foll[$ at pres5t4 ,! po/]ior facial ve9 7p4 #cbc71 ! v5a facialis pr(unda 7p4 #cbc71 & ! subm5tal ve9 7p4 #cbc7 may be foll[$ at ! same "t4 #h4 ,! int]nal c>otid 7p4 #bhe74 ,foll[ x to ! po9t :]e x ent]s ! cranium4 #i4 ,trace ! o!r bran*es ( ! co/oc]vical axis 7p4 #bib74 ,to d ?is1 cut ! art]ies & n]ves ( ! axilla on ! side on :i* !y h be5 dissect$1 all[+ ! arm to fall backw>d4 ,!n trace ! bran*es ( ! co/oc]vical axis ) trac]1 scalpel1 & bone-=ceps1 tak+ c>e n to injure ! v]tebral art]y4 ,add ^! bran*es to y\r diagram ( ! subclavian4 #aj4 ,! v]tebral art]y 7p4 #bia74 ,trace x to ! =am5 transv]s>ium ( ! six? c]vical v]tebra4 ,!n ) bone-=ceps foll[ x to ! atlas & into ! atlantal =am54 ,add ?is to y\r diagram ( ! subclavian4 #aa4 ,! basil> art]y 7p4 #bia7 & ! o!r art]ies ( ! bra9 7p4 #bhi7 are be/ /udi$ on a prep>ation1 simil> to t %[n 9 ,fig4 #aba4 ,to obta9 su* a prep>ation x is only necess>y to remove ! bra9 7= directions1 see p4 #dfb7 ( a specim5 9 :i* ! art]ies h be5 inject$4 7#ab4 ,ve9s ( ! bra9 & dura mat] 7p4 #cbd74 ,^! c be work$ out only ) mu* difficulty1 except on specim5s inject$ ) gelat9e4 ,! skull mu/ be *ipp$ away & ! ve9s foll[$ )\t de/roy+ !m47 #ac4 ,trace ! pulmon>y ve9s 7p4 #cae7 7fill$ ) r$ injection7 & ! pulmon>y art]y 7p4 #bhj74 ,,iv4 ,vessels 9 ! abdom9al cavity4 #a4 ,op5 ! abdom9al cavity2 f9d ! sup]ior mes5t]ic ve9 7p4 #cbf1 & ,fig4 #acb7 9 ! duod5al mes5t]y ne> ! bord] ( ! pancreas4 ,inject ?is 9 bo? directions ) :ite />* & !n dissect ! portal ve9 & its tribut>ies )\t injur+ any ( ! /ructures 9 ! abdom5 7p4 #cbf1 & ,fig4 #acb74 #b4 ,foll[ ! inf]ior v5a cava 7p4 #cbe7 f ! he>t to ! diaphragm & !n foll[ x to its tribut>ies 9 ! abdom9al cavity4 #c4 ,dissect ! bran*es ( ! abdom9al aorta 7p4 #cja7 & ( ! inf]ior v5a cava 7,fig4 #abf74 ,make diagrams ( ! vessels dissect$ & review z f> z necess>y ! visc]a conc]n$4 ,v4 ,! ext]nal iliac & its bran*es 7vessels ( ! h9d limbs7 7pp4 #cji & #cbi1 & ,figs4 #abg1 #abh1 & #afc74 ,foll[ ! bran*es ( ! ext]nal iliac art]ies & ! correspond+ ve9s 9 ! same mann] z ! vessels ( ! arm 7 trac$1 cutt+ ! muscles only s f> z absolutely necess>y4 ,make diagrams ( ! vessels dissect$4 ,make a diagram 7a7 ( ! art]ial sy/em z a :ole2 7b7 ( ! v5\s sy/em z a :ole4 ,,! ,,lymphatic ,,sy/em 7p4 #ccj74 ,x w h>dly be f\nd practicable to h ea* /ud5t make a dissection ( ! lymphatic sy/em1 & su* p>ts ( x z are to be /udi$ may be/ be %[n on a specim5 prep>$ = demon/ration purposes4 ,! ?oracic duct & ! receptaculum *yli may be demon/rat$ by ! foll[+ well-kn[n me?od3 ,a lean cat is f$ ) milk ab\t two h\rs be=e kill+ x4 ,an egg may be beat5 up ) ! milk to advantage4 ,kill ! cat ) *lor(orm1 & inject ! art]ies ) color$ />* ?r\gh ! femoral1 9 ! usual way4 ,! ?oracic duct1 ! receptaculum *yli1 & ! lymphatics lead+ to ! receptaculum *yli w be color$ :ite by ! milk1 & c !re=e be easily foll[$4 ,= ?is purpose ! abdom5 %\ld be op5$1 & ! left side ( ! ?orax remov$1 z 9 ! dissection ( ! blood-vessels4 ,! ?oracic duct w be f\nd at ! left side ( ! aorta & may !n be trac$ 9 bo? directions4 ,= a m complete /udy ( ! lymphatics !y %\ld be inject$4 ,?is is done z foll[s3 ,make a glass canula ) a small po9t1 & leave ! po9t %>p4 ,connect ?is to ! syr+e by means ( a rubb] tube4 ,use a saturat$ solution ( soluble ,prussian blue z inject+ fluid4 ,employ a fre%ly kill$ animal4 ,= inject+ ! lymphatics ( ! limbs1 make ) "s po9t$ in/rum5t1 z ! trac]1 a small hole 9 "o ( ! pads on ! sole ( ! foot4 ,introduce ! po9t ( ! canula into ?is op5+ & inject ! fluid4 ,?is w pass into ! spaces 9 ! connective tissue ( ! pad1 :i* w swell up1 & ! color$ fluid w pass f ! connective-tissue spaces into ! lymphatics4 ,pressure mu/ be ma9ta9$ ) ! syr+e = a consid]able "t1--fifte5 m9utes to a half-h\r = a good injection ( ! ma9 trunks ( ! lymphatics ( ! limbs4 ,! movem5t ( ! fluid %\ld be facilitat$ by press+ & manipulat+ ! limb at ! same "t ) ! h&1--9 su* a way z w t5d to drive ! fluid proximad4 ,! lymphatics ( ! head may be inject$ 9 a simil> mann]1 ! canula be+ introduc$ into ! upp] & l[] lip1 or into ! b>e surface at ! end ( ! nose4 ,! int]nal lymphatic vessels may be inject$ by inject+ ! lymphatic gl&s ) :i* !y are connect$4 ,?is may conv5i5tly be done z foll[s3 ,draw out to a f9e po9t ! tip ( an ord9>y pipette or m$ic9e-dropp]4 ,! po9t %\ld be f9e1 b %\ld tap] rapidly 9 a conical fa%ion1 s t :5 ! po9t is ins]t$ ! "p ( ! glass tube beh9d x w close up ! op5+4 ,fill ! pipette ) soluble ,prussian blue2 ins]t ! po9t into ! gl&1 & inject ! fluid sl[ly4 ,! lymphatic vessels pass+ f ! gl&s w be fill$4 ,by inject+ ?us ! l>ge lymphatic gl& 78pancreas ,aselli07 9 ! mes5t]y1 ! abdom9al lymphatics1 ! receptaculum *yli1 & ! ?oracic duct may be inject$4 ,by us+ ?9 gelat9e color$ ) ,prussian blue z an inject+ fluid p]man5t prep>ations may be obta9$2 ( c\rse ! process ( injection is !n less simple1 & %\ld be look$ up 9 "s manual ( me?ods4 ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em4 ,i4 ,,! ,,sp9al ,,cord 7p4 #cce74 ,use ! specim5 on :i* ! muscles 7 dissect$4 7,or if ! p]iph]al n]ves are n to be dissect$ on ! specim5 us$ = ! blood-vessels1 t may be employ$47 ,make a longitud9al dorsal m$ian incision ( ! sk91 betwe5 ! back ( ! head & root ( ! tail4 ,reflect ! sk9 = "o or two in*es on ea* side ( ! incision & cut away ! muscles cov]+ ! neural ar*es ( ! v]tebr f ! ?ird c]vical to ! sev5? or eigh? ?oracic inclusive4 ,remove ) bone-=ceps ! neural ar* ( "o ( ! la/ c]vical v]tebr & f9d ! sp9al n]ve em]g+ f ! int]v]tebral =am54 ,isolate ! n]ve = a %ort di/ance1 !n proce$ craniad1 remov+ ! neural ar*es on "o side & isolat+ ! n]ves until ! ?ird has be5 uncov]$4 ,! ganglion ( ! second n]ve %\ld be s\ght among ! muscles on ! dorsal surface betwe5 ! atlas & axis1 & aft] x has be5 isolat$ ! ar* ( ! axis may be remov$4 7,! n]ve may be f\nd b5ea? ! clavotrapezius & trac$ to ! ganglion47 ,! ganglion ( ! second n]ve %\ld be isolat$ 9 or ne> ! atlantal =am51 ! muscles to :i* x passes turn$ aside1 & ! ar* ( ! atlas remov$4 ,hav+ ?us uncov]$ ! fir/ two or m sp9al ganglia1 proce$ caudad1 remov+ ! v]tebral ar*es1 until ! :ole cord & its n]ves are expos$4 ,!n-- #a4 ,/udy ! cord1 enl>gem5ts1 filum t]m9ale1 etc4 7p4 #ccd1 & ,figs4 #acc & #acf74 #b4 ,slit op5 & reflect ! dura mat] 7p4 #ccg7 = an in* or two4 #c4 ,demon/rate ! ara*noid by pull+ x (f ) =ceps4 #d4 ,reflect ! pia mat] 9 ! same way z ! dura mat]4 #e4 ,/udy ! fissures & grooves ( ! cord4 #f4 ,cut across ! cord ) f9e scissors at ! po9t :]e x is fre$ f its membranes & exam9e ! section4 ,note ! arrangem5t ( gray & :ite matt] & ! fissures & grooves1 p>ticul>ly ! ant]ior or v5tral4 ,demon/rate ! c5tral canal ) ! bl[pipe4 #g4 ,/udy ! orig9 ( ! sp9al n]ves 7p4 #ccg74 ,c\nt !m4 ,direction ( exit8 ,c>efully clean "o 9 ! ?oracic region f dura mat] & connective tissue1 ) f9e scissors1 & /udy dorsal & v5tral roots & ganglion 7see ,fig4 #ace74 ,!n foll[ x out & f9d its dorsal ramus & v5tral ramus & ! communicat+ bran* ( ! latt] ) ! sympa!tic sy/em4 ,d n trace ! p]iph]al bran*es ( ! n]ve at pres5t4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,bra9 7p4 #cci74 ,! bra9 w usually be f\nd to be 9 an entirely satisfactory condition = /udy 9 any specim5 inject$ ) five p] c5t4 =mal9 or ! glyc]9e & =mal9 mixture4 ,! bra9 is a little swoll51 b all p>ts are well pres]v$1 & ! :ite & gray matt] are cle>ly m>k$ (f f ea* o!r4 ,ei!r ! specim5 us$ = ! muscles or t employ$ = ! blood-vessels may !re=e be us$1--or if ! bra9 0 remov$ f ! specim5 employ$ = ! visc]a1 t w be satisfactory4 ,! foll[+ directions = remov+ ! bra9 are design$ = specim5s pres]v$ z above4 ,= remov+ ! fre% bra9 ! process is ess5tially simil>1 b z ! bra9 is !n v s(t1 c>e %\ld be tak5 n to te> x4 ,! fre% bra9 %\ld be pres]v$ 9 ! alcohol-=mal9 mixture giv5 bel[1 & %\ld be all[$ to re/ only on "s s(t sub/ance1 z absorb5t cotton4 ,remove ! head f ! body by cutt+ ?r\gh ! neck a little craniad ( ! fir/ rib if ?is has n already be5 done4 ,remove all sk91 muscles1 & o!r s(t p>ts f ! head & c]vical v]tebr1 z f> z possible4 ,remove ! /ructures 9 ! orbit by cutt+ ?r\gh ! zygomatic ar* at ea* end1 & remov+ x4 ,! l[] jaw %\ld also be remov$1 if ?is has n already be5 done4 7,if a fre% specim5 is us$1 & ! head is to be employ$ = o!r purposes1 ! bra9 c be remov$ )\t sep>at+ ! head f ! body1 & )\t tak+ away ! l[] jaw & o!r /ructures on ! v5tral surface ( ! skull47 ,h at h& dissect+-in/rum5ts & a di% conta9+ alcohol & =mal9 9 ! foll[+ proportions 7,p>k] & ,floyd's mixture73 #ie p] c5t4 alcohol #f p>ts #b p] c5t4 =mal9 #b p>ts ,9 ! bottom ( ! di% %\ld be plac$ a little absorb5t cotton1 to support ! bra94 ,9 remov+ ! bra9 h at h& entire & dissect$ skulls & note ! relations ( p>ts on ^! z f> z necess>y be=e cutt+ ! specim54 ,) bone-=ceps make a small op5+ 9 ! p>ietal bone s z to expose ! dura mat]1 b d n cut ?r\gh ! dura mat]4 ,) "s blunt in/rum5t free ! dura mat] f ! bone ab\t ! op5+1 & cont9ue to cut away ! bone until ! dorsal & lat]al faces ( ! c]ebrum are fully expos$ craniad ( ! t5torium4 ,! olfactory bulbs 7,fig4 #acg1 ,i7 %\ld be expos$ c>efully & z fully z possible4 ,cut away ! dorsal ar* ( ! atlas & c>efully ins]t ! =ceps 9 ! =am5 magnum &1 work+ z be=e1 remove ! squam\s portion ( ! occipital & ! p>ietal bones z f> z ! t5torium & z f> v5trad z possible4 ,leave ! dura mat] intact if possible4 ,free ! surface ( ! t5torium f ! dura mat]1 c>efully sep>ate slightly ! c]ebellum & c]ebrum2 ins]t ! bone-=ceps 7n too f>7 ) ! blades incl9$ f )\t v5trom$iad1 & cut ! t5torium on ea* side4 ,remove x sl[ly1 cutt+ adhesions to ! dura mat]4 ,t "p ( ! dura mat] :i* dips betwe5 ! c]ebral hemisph]es is ! falx c]ebri4 ,cut ! dura mat] along bo? sides ( ! falx c]ebri & remove x by turn+ x d[n at ! sides & cutt+ x at ! level ( ! cut edge ( ! bone4 ,remove x also f ! c]ebellum & notice h[ x dips d[n on bo? sides ( ! t5torium & 9 close contact ) x4 ,cut ! falx at ! cranial end betwe5 ! olfactory bulbs & cut ! t5torial dura 7cut its adhesions1 b d n remove ) x ! p9eal body74 ,! falx & t5torial dura may !n be remov$4 ,all[ ! head to hang sideways ov] ! di% ( alcohol-=mal9 9 su* a way t ! bra9 w t5d to fall out ( ! cranium4 ,free ! olfactory bulbs f ! bone4 ,!n beg9 at ! caudal end & tilt ! bra9 out ) ! h&le ( a scalpel4 ,9 do+ ?is note c>efully & cut ! cranial n]ves4 ,!y %\ld be left ) c5tral ends z long z possible1 & ^? on ! side :i* is upp]mo/ %\ld be cut fir/4 ,9 do+ ?is ref] to ! =am9a 9 ! base ( ! skull & to ,fig4 #ach4 ,take especial pa9s also n to break (f ! hypophysis1 :i* is lodg$ 9 ! sella turcica4 ,! bra9 falls out & re/s ) its dorsal surface on ! cotton4 ,n[ remove ! rema9d] ( ! dura mat]1 c>efully cutt+ all adhesions to n]ves4 ,remove also ! pia mat]1 z f> z t c be done )\t pull+ (f at ! same "t p>ts ( ! bra9-sub/ance4 ,pres]ve ! bra9 9 ! alcohol-=mal9 mixture4 ,/udy ( ! ,bra94--,9 ! /udy ( ! bra9 demon/ration specim5s are to be us$ z mu* z or m ?an y\r own specim54 ,see ev]y?+ on a demon/ration prep>ation be=e attempt+ to expose x 9 y\r own specim54 ,i4 ,exam9e ! bra9 ( a %>k or ( a frog4 ,cranial n]ves may be neglect$1 b ! divisions ( ! bra9 %\ld be recogniz$ 9 dorsal & v5tral views & 9 longitud9al sections1 & sket*$4 ,,ii4 ,read ! g5]al description ( ! cat's bra9 7pp4 #cci-cdc71 us+ y\r own specim5 & a longitud9al section4 ,cut no?+ on y\r own specim5 except :5 especially direct$ to d s4 ,/udy ! cavities on a prep>ation4 ,comp>e ! diagrams 7,figs4 #aci & #adj7 & ! figures ( ! bra94 ,,iii4 ,/udy ! individual p>ts z foll[s4 ,to avoid errors make con/ant ref]5ce to prep>ations & figures4 #a4 ,! m$ulla 7p4 #cdd & ,figs4 #ach & #ada74 ,use y\r own specim5 & a prep>ation & dissect out c>efully ! cranial n]ves on y\r own specim54 #b4 ,! c]ebellum 7p4 #cdg74 ,/udy x entire1 !n to expose ! f\r? v5tricle 7p4 #cdi7 slice away ) a v %>p scalpel "o-half ( ! c]ebellum by mak+ a m$ian longitud9al incision & !n horizontal incisions4 #c4 ,! pons 7p4 #cdg74 #d4 ,! mes5cephalon 7p4 #cea1 & ,figs4 #ada & #adb74 ,/udy x fir/ 9 a prep>ation4 ,!n /udy ! floor on y\r own specim52 orig9 ( ?ird n]ves4 #e4 ,! di5cephalon 7,figs4 #ada & #adb74 ,/udy ! ro( & ?alami & ! p9eal body on a prep>ation & on a longitud9al section2 ! floor on y\r specim54 #f4 ,! tel5cephalon 7p4 #ceg74 7,note t only "o side ( ?is is to be dissect$47 a4 ,/udy x ext]nally2 sulci & gyri 7,figs4 #ade & #adf74 b4 ,exam9e a prep>ation %[+ ! corpus callosum 7,fig4 #adg74 ,!n slice away ) a v %>p scalpel ! top ( "o hemisph]e ne>ly to ! corpus callosum 7see ! prep>ation74 ,expose ! corpus callosum on ?is side to its cranial & caudal bord]s1 by te>+ away ! bra9-sub/ance at its side & above x4 c4 ,raise ! corpus callosum at ! side & remove x1 ?us expos+ ! lat]al v5tricle 9 :i* note ! septum pellucidum & =nix1 ! corpus /riatum1 & *oroid plexus ( ! lat]al v5tricle 7,fig4 #adh74 7,^! are to be expos$ on "o side only1 ! o!r be+ left intact47 d4 ,expose ! ant]ior & inf]ior horns ( ! v5tricle & f9d ! hippocampus1 ! fimbria1 caudal "p ( ! =nix1 ! =am5 ( ,monroe1 ! ant]ior commissure4 ,see all ^! also on a prep>ation 7,fig4 #adh74 e4 ,remove ! occipital & p>ietal portions ( ! c]ebrum1 on ! side already dissect$1 s z to expose ! ro( ( ! ?ird v5tricle & ! midbra9 9 y\r specim51 & note ! p9eal body1 *oroid plexus ( ?ird v5tricle1 & /ructures on ! ro( ( ! midbra9 7,fig4 #ada74 f4 ,remove ! *oroid plexus or ro( ( ! ?ird v5tricle & /udy aga9 ! ?alami 7,fig4 #ada74 g4 ,make a longitud9al section ( ! bra91 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,use a v %>p l>ge scalpel1 or a razor4 ,h ?is wet ) ! alcohol mixture at ! "t ( us+4 ,place ! bra9 v5tral surface d[n on a %eet ( cork or a block ( s(t wood1 ! long axis ( ! bra9 co9cid+ ) ! direction ( gra9 ( ! wood4 ,hold+ ! bra9 firmly ) "o h&1 place ! wet knife betwe5 ! hemisph]es ) its edge re/+ on ! corpus callosum4 ,see t x is 9 ! m$ian plane & p>allel ) ! long axis ( ! bra94 ,see also t x is n incl9$ to "o side or ! o!r1 s t x w make on cutt+ a m$ian section ?r\gh\t4 ,! po9t ( ! knife %\ld j rea* ! cork or wood betwe5 ! olfactory bulbs4 ,n[ draw ! knife caudad1 keep+ its po9t aga9/ ! cork3 ! bra9 w ?us be divid$4 ,if ! section is n exactly m$ian1 obs]ve ! am\nt ( div]g5ce by plac+ ! two halves toge!r & f9d+ ! m$ian v5tral l9e4 ,!n on ! half t has too mu* slice away ?9 %av+s until ! cavities are expos$1 %[+ ! section to be m$ian4 ,comp>e ) a demon/ration section or ,fig4 #adc4 ,draw ! section & comp>e ) a section ( %>k's bra9 7see ,fig4 #adc74 h4 ,/udy a s]ies ( transv]se sections1 id5tify+ p>ts4 ,obs]ve especially 9 ^! sections ! =nix1 corpus callosum1 & v5tricles1 & ! di/ribution ( :ite & gray matt] 7see ,figs4 #adi-aec74 ,,iii4 ,,p]iph]al ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em4 7,!re are "s advantages 9 dissect+ ! eye ) its muscles be=e dissect+ ! n]ves1 z a k ( ! eye-muscles is presuppos$ = dissect+ "s ( ! cranial n]ves4 ,= directions on ! eye1 see p4 #dfi47 ,a new specim5 %\ld be us$1 if possible1 = ! p]iph]al n]v\s sy/em1 ?\gh t us$ = ! blood-vessels c be employ$1 at consid]able disadvantage4 ,prep>e z = ! blood-vessels4 ,! art]ies %\ld be inject$ ) r$ />*1 to aid 9 trac+ ! n]ves4 #a4 ,,! ,,cranial ,,n]ves 7p4 #cfi7 ,,& ,,sympa!tic ,,sy/em 7p4 #djd74 #a4 ,reflect ! sk9 cov]+ ! /]noma/oid muscle1 & make a longitud9al incision ( ! muscle s z to expose ! c>otid art]y4 ,ly+ along ! art]y f9d ! comb9$ trunk ( ! sympa!tic & vagus n]ves4 ,foll[ ! vagus 7p4 #cgh7 fir/ craniad2 transect ! muscles z necessity arises1 & f9d its ganglion nodosum & at ! same "t locate ! sup]ior c]vical ganglion ( ! sympa!tic n]ve 7p4 #djd1 & ,fig4 #aef74 ,!n f9d ! hypoglossal n]ve 7,fig4 #aef1 b71 pass+ outside ( ! c>otid art]y to ! tongue1 & ! accessory 7,fig4 #aef1 c71 pass+ to ! trapezius4 ,cut & reflect ! diga/ric muscle & f9d ! small glossoph>yngeal n]ve 7,fig4 #aef1 a71 pass+ to ! surface ( ! bulla & !n b5ea? ! c>otid art]y4 #b4 ,foll[ ! vagus 7p4 #cgh7 caudad to its t]m9ation4 ,to d ?is x is necess>y to remove "o side ( ! ?orax1 z 9 dissect+ ! blood-vessels4 ,d n injure ! n]ves ( ! axilla1 nor ! phr5ic or sympa!tic n]ves4 ,= ! vagus 9 ! ?orax1 comp>e ,fig4 #aeg4 ,f9d ! bran*es ( ! n]ve2 9 dissect+ !m1 pull on !m to make !m t5se4 ,!y are !n m easily visible4 ,to dissect ! abdom9al portion ( ! vagus1 op5 ! abdom9al cavity1 & comp>e ,fig4 #afd 7p4 #djg74 #c4 ,dissect ! sympa!tic 7p4 #djd71 foll[+ x & its bran*es to ! pelvic region 7,figs4 #aef1 #aeg1 & #afd74 #d4 ,! hypoglossal 7p4 #chc1 & ,fig4 #aef1 b74 #e4 ,! glossoph>yngeal 7p4 #cgh1 & ,fig4 #aef1 a74 #f4 ,! accessory n]ve 7p4 #chb1 & ,fig4 #aef1 c2 ,fig4 #aeh1 #a74 ,cut away a portion ( ! tympanic bulla & ! base ( ! skull1 suffici5t to foll[ ^! n]ves 9 ! jugul> =am51 to ! bra94 #g4 ,locate ! /yloma/oid =am5 & pick away ov]ly+ tissue until ! facial n]ve is f\nd em]g+ & !n foll[ its bran*es to _! di/ribution 7p4 #cge1 & ,fig4 #aee74 #h4 ,expose ! v5tral surface ( ! pt]ygoid muscles j m$iad ( ! angle ( ! jaw4 ,divide & reflect !m1 & ! m&ibul> division ( ! fif? n]ve 7p4 #cgc1 & ,fig4 #aed7 w be f\nd dorsad ( !m & ( ! int]nal maxill>y art]y4 ,! *orda tympani 7p4 #cge7 passes v5trad ( ! art]y to jo9 ! l+ual4 ,foll[ out 7#a7 ! l+ual bran* 7p4 #cge7 7) ! *orda tympani71 & 7#b7 ! inf]ior alveol> 7p4 #cge7 by cutt+ away ! v5tral bord] ( ! m&ible4 ,!n cut ! m&ible ne> ! can9e too?1 & pull x to "o side1 & foll[ out ! muscul> bran*es ( ! m&ibul> n]ve4 #i4 ,remove ! m&ible & f9d ! maxill>y n]ve 7p4 #cga7 em]g+ f ! =am5 rotundum4 ,foll[ its bran*es & f9d ! sph5opalat9e ganglion 7p4 #cgb74 #aj4 ,remove ! zygoma s z to expose ! :ole v5tral aspect ( ! orbit4 ,c>efully pick away ! fat 9 ! orbit )\t injur+ any n]ves1 s z to expose ! f\r recti muscles & ! inf]ior oblique 7see p4 #daa1 & ,fig4 #aff74 ,f9d ! abduc5s n]ve 7p4 #cge1 & ,fig4 #aed71 ent]+ ! dorsal edge ( ! lat]al rectus1 & foll[ x back4 ,look on ! inn] surface ( ! inf]ior rectus = ! bran* ( ! ?ird n]ve 7p4 #cfi7 :i* supplies x4 ,f9d ! bran* ( ?is n]ve :i* runs to ! inf]ior oblique muscle1 & on x ! cili>y ganglion2 f9d ! bran*es to ! cili>y ganglion f ! oph?almic n]ve & foll[ !m 7p4 #cga74 ,foll[ also ! %ort cili>y n]ves 7p4 #cgj7 to ! eyeball4 #aa4 ,trace ! ?ird n]ve 7p4 #cfi7 to its =am5 ( exit & f9d its bran*es4 ,:]e x passes betwe5 ! sup]ior & lat]al recti1 f9d ! oph?almic n]ve 7p4 #cgj7 by its side & trace its bran*es4 #ab4 ,f9d ! f\r? n]ve 7p4 #cgj71 pass+ outside ( ! lat]al rectus at its orig9 & ent]+ ! sup]ior oblique4 #ac4 ,foll[ ! ?ird1 f\r?1 fif?1 & six? n]ves into ! skull by *ipp+ away ! bone & remov+ ! dura4 ,note ! semilun> or ,gass]ian ganglion 7p4 #cgj1 & ,fig4 #ach1 k7 & ! orig9 ( ! fif? n]ves f x1 & ! relation ( ! v5tral root ( ! fif? n]ve to ! m&ibul> n]ve4 #b4 ,,sp9al ,,n]ves4 ,! sp9al n]ves may be dissect$ on ! same side us$ = dissect+ ! cranial n]ves4 7,if an undissect$ specim5 is us$1 remove ! sk9 f ! side ( ! neck1 & cut ! /]noma/oid1 /]nohyoid1 & /]no?yroid muscles1 z direct$ = ! vagus & sympa!tic47 ,c]vical ,n]ves 7p4 #chc74--,! v5tral rami ( ! c]vical n]ves are to be s\ght z !y pass out betwe5 ! bundles ( ! scal5us1 or betwe5 ! scal5us & longus capitis1 9 ! neck4 ,?is region has already be5 uncov]$ 9 dissect+ ! vagus & sympa!tic 7,fig4 #aef74 ,dissect fir/ ! second c]vical 7p4 #che74 ,f9d its v5tral ramus z x em]ges betwe5 ! levator scapul v5tralis & cleidoma/oid 7,fig4 #aeh1 #b71 & foll[ its bran*es1--! auricul>is magnus 7#e7 & cutaneus colli 7#f74 ,f9d its dorsal ramus1 ! great occipital n]ve 7p4 #chd71 by reflect+ ! clavotrapezius muscle2 ! n]ve w be f\nd em]g+ f ! und]ly+ muscles close to ! craniom$ial angle ( ! clavotrapezius1 ne> its orig94 ,trace ! n]ve 9 bo? directions4 ,! v5tral ramus ( ! fir/ c]vical 7p4 #che7 w be f\nd em]g+ f b5ea? ! w+ ( ! atlas1 a little di/ance craniad ( ! second 7,fig4 #aef1 j74 ,trace x4 ,to f9d its %ort dorsal ramus1 ! suboccipital n]ve 7p4 #chd71 x is necess>y to dissect ap>t ! muscles on ! dorsal side ( ! atlas till ! n]ve is f\nd pass+ f ! atlantal =am54 ,dissect ! ?ird1 f\r?1 & fif? n]ves 7p4 #che1 & ,fig4 #aeh74 ,bra*ial ,plexus 7p4 #chf1 & ,figs4 #aei & #afj74--,! bra*ial plexus has be5 p>tly uncov]$ 9 dissect+ ! vagus & sympa!tic4 7,if a new specim5 or ! opposite side is us$1 reflect ! sk9 f ! v5tral surface ( ! ?orax & arm1 & cut ! pectoral muscles1 ?us uncov]+ ! vessels & n]ves ( ! axilla47 ,reflect ! sk9 f ! v5tral surface ( ! upp] arm4 7,d n use scalpel1 b te> ! sk9 f ! muscles4 ,9 ?is way ! n]ves w be se5 pass+ to ! sk91 :ile if ! scalpel 7 us$ ! n]ves might be cut47 ,tie ! axill>y ve9 or its two bran*es 9 two places1 & cut ! ve9 betwe5 ! ti$ regions4 ,leave ! art]ies z guides = dissection1 b remove ! ve9s4 ,n[ clean ?or\ghly ! n]ves =m+ ! bra*ial plexus z !y pass f ! ?orax or neck4 ,be c>eful n to injure any ( ! f9e n]ves or ! int]connections ( ! n]ves 9 do+ ?is4 ,f9d & di/+ui% cle>ly ! fif?1 six?1 sev5?1 & eigh? c]vical n]ves & ! fir/ ?oracic1 z !y em]ge f ! neck or ?orax4 7,comp>e ,fig4 #aei & ,fig4 #aeg1 ,v-,,viii & ,i47 ,foll[ out ! bran*es ( ! plexus1 not+ ! orig9 & di/ribution ( ea* bran*1 9 ord] to det]m9e its "n4 ,to foll[ ! phr5ic 7p4 #chh1 & ,fig4 #aeg1 f71 remove a portion ( ! ?oracic wall4 ,9 foll[+ ! o!r bran*es ( ! plexus1 pull back ! sk9 :]ev] an exposure is to be made1 & sep>ate ! muscles4 ,! epitro*le>is may be cut ne> ! elb[1 & ! clavobra*ial ne> ! %\ld]4 ,9 foll[+ ! int]osse\s bran*es ( ! m$ian n]ve ! fif? head ( ! flexor pr(undus1 & ! ext5sor brevis pollicis1 may be cut4 ,z a rule x w n be necess>y to cut o!r muscles4 ,?oracic & ,lumb> ,n]ves4--,"o or two ( ! ?oracic n]ves 7p4 #cic7 %\ld be dissect$ f ! outside by f9d+ ! int]co/al n]ve along ! caudal bord] ( "o ( ! ribs & trac+ x 9 bo? directions4 ,! n]ve may be expos$ by remov+ ! ext]nal muscles cov]+ ! rib1 & cutt+ ! ext]nal int]co/al muscles4 ,! dorsal ramus %\ld be trac$ aft] ! v5tral ramus has be5 /udi$4 ,! fir/ lumb> n]ve 7p4 #cie7 %\ld be dissect$ 9 ! same way4 ,! o!r lumb> & sacral n]ves 7pp4 #cie-djj7 are be/ dissect$ f )94 ,! alim5t>y canal & its app5dages %\ld be remov$ f ! abdom51 leav+ only five or six c5timet]s ( ! caudal end ( ! rectum4 ,! kidneys & urog5ital organs may be left1 to be remov$ dur+ dissection4 7,comp>e ,fig4 #afb47 ,turn "o ( ! kidneys to ! o!r side1 & f9d ! second lumb> n]ve 7,fig4 #afb1 a7 appe>+ at ! lat]al bord] ( ! iliopsoas muscle4 ,trace x to its orig92 trace x also di/ad1 foll[+ bo? bran*es4 ,x w be necess>y to trace ! n]ves ?r\gh ! abdom9al wall1 !n f9d !m f ! outside1 & foll[ !m to _! di/ribution4 ,! ?ird n]ve 7,fig4 #afc1 b7 may be f\nd by dissect+ ap>t ! fibre-bundles ( ! iliopsoas & psoas m9or1 & foll[+ 9 ! same way4 ,! kidneys1 uret]s1 v5a cava1 & aorta may be remov$ z occasion arises4 ,! rema9d] ( ! lumb> n]ves may be f\nd 9 ord]1 9 a simil> mann]4 ,foll[ ! saph5\s n]ve & its bran*es 7p4 #cig7 by remov+ ! integum5t f ! m$ial side ( ! leg 7see ,fig4 #abg1 p4 #caj74 ,to dissect ! sacral n]ves 7p4 #cii7 sep>ate ! innom9ate bones at ! pubic symphysis & div>icate !m4 ,f9d ! n]ves aris+ f ! sacral plexus1 by cutt+ ! levator ani muscle4 ,aft] ,n4 hemorrhoidalis inf]ior & ,n4 pud5dus h be5 trac$1 ! rectum & urog5ital organs may be remov$1 tak+ great c>e n to remove m ?an is necess>y4 ,to dissect ! great sciatic n]ve 7p4 #djj1 & ,fig4 #afc71 sep>ate ! biceps & caud(emoralis ne> _! proximal ends & f9d ! l>ge n]ve-trunk 7a74 ,!n lift ! biceps away f ! n]ve1 cut t muscle ne> its middle1 & reflect x4 ,! n]ve may n[ be foll[$ to its t]m9al bran*es2 dur+ ! process cut ! muscles only :5 absolutely necess>y4 ,! inf]ior gluteal n]ve 7i7 w be f\nd on ! dorsal surface ( ! great sciatic2 by cutt+ ! caud(emoralis & gluteus maximus muscles ne> _! ins]tions & turn+ !m back ! di/ribution ( ! n]ve may be foll[$4 ,! sup]ior gluteal 7j7 w be f\nd at ! cranial m>g9 ( ! pyri=mis by reflect+ ! gluteus m$ius 9 ! same way2 ! t5sor fasci lat may also be cut4 ,,s5se-,,organs4 ,i4 ,,! ,,eye 7p4 #daj74 ,use any specim5 on :i* "o side ( ! head has be5 left intact4 ,remove ! head f ! body by cutt+ ?r\gh ! neck a little craniad ( ! fir/ rib4 ,/udy ! eye ext]nally4 ,obs]ve ! eyelids1 ! conjunctiva1 nictitat+ membrane ) its c>tilage1 & ! ,h>d]ian gl& 7,fig4 #afe72 ! two op5+s ( ! la*rymal duct1 ! ,meibomian gl&s if possible4 ,remove ! zygomatic ar* & expose ! orbit & ! /ructures :i* x conta9s4 ,/udy ! p]iorbita 7p4 #dji71 & f9d ! la*rymal gl& 7p4 #daj74 ,/udy ! muscles ( ! eyeball 7p4 #daa1 & ,fig4 #aff74 ,! lat]al rectus on ! lat]al surface w p]haps be fir/ f\nd1 & its t5don trac$ b5ea? ! inf]ior oblique4 ,use great c>e n to injure ! levator palpebr sup]ioris4 ,aft] /udy+ ! muscles1 f9d ! optic n]ve4 ,cut x & ! muscles1 & remove ! eyeball = f>!r /udy4 ,! ,eyeball 7p4 #dab1 & ,fig4 #afg74--;,= an exam9ation ( ! eye x is well to h a fre% specim5 & "o h>d5$ 9 =mal9 or alcohol4 ,! h>d5$ specim5 is m ess5tial1 h[ev]4 ,an eye f "o ( ! specim5s us$ 9 dissection is usually satisfactory4 ,all accessory portions %\ld be trimm$ f ! eyeball1 leav+ only ! sph]ical ball ) a %ort /alk =m$ by ! optic n]ve4 ,obs]ve su* features ( ! eye z c be se5 ext]nally3 ! optic n]ves1 scl]otic1 cornea1 iris1 & pupil4 ,?is %\ld be done on a fre% specim51 if "o is at h&4 ,! *anges 9 size & =m ( ! pupil c be obs]v$ 9 ! liv+ cat by *ang+ x f a light to a d>k place & vice v]sa4 ,dissection4--,exam9e ! int]nal /ructures on a prep>ation4 ,!n ) f9e scissors & =ceps remove f ! eye ab\t "o-f\r? ( ! wall1 9 ! =m ( a quadrant hav+ "o po9t at ! optic n]ve1 ! o!r at ! c5tre ( ! cornea4 ,! coats ( ! eye c !n be /udi$ on ! piece remov$1 :ile ! o!r /ructures w be visible )9 ! eyeball4 ,no special directions are necess>y = obs]vation ( ! /ructures describ$1 unless x be ! capsule ( ! l5s & ! zonula cili>is4 ,! capsule ( ! l5s may be demon/rat$ by te>+ a bit ( x (f ) f9e =ceps4 ,! zonula cili>is is easily se5 by div>icat+ ! edges ( ! cut made 9 remov+ ! quadrant1 s z to /ret* ! f9e fibres ( :i* ! zonula is =m$4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,e> 7p4 #dae74 7,! muscles ( ! ext]nal e> are ( little practical importance1 & w d\btless usually be omitt$47 7#a7 ,! ,ext]nal ,e>4 ,read ! description ( ! ext]nal e> 7p4 #dae71 v]ify+ x by exam9ation & comp>ison ( an e> /ill cov]$ ) integum5t1 9 ! natural condition1 & ( a prep>ation ( ! isolat$ c>tilages ( ! e> 7,fig4 #afh74 ,! latt] may be obta9$ by dissect+ ! sk9 & muscles f a fre% e>4 7#b7 ,! scuti=m c>tilage 7p4 #dah7 %\ld be obs]v$ 9 ! natural position1 & z isolat$4 7#c7 ,! muscles ( ! ext]nal e> 7p4 #dah1 & ,fig4 #afi74 ,^? connect+ ! ext]nal e> ) o!r p>ts ( ! head h be5 /udi$ 9 connection ) ! facial muscles4 ,! rema9d] w be /udi$ on an ext]nal e> remov$ accord+ to ! directions giv5 on page #dce4 ,remove ! integum5t f ! convex surface ( ! auricle1 suffici5tly to expose ! entire ext5t ( ! muscles4 #a4 ,! rotator auris4 ,transect4 #b4 ,! adductor auris sup]ior 7,fig4 #afi1 #a74 #c4 ,! adductor auris m$ius 7#b74 #d4 ,! transv]sus auricul 7,fig4 #fc1 i1 p4 #ig74 #e4 ,! auricul>is ext]nus 7,fig4 #afi1 #aj74 #f4 ,! helicis 7,fig4 #afi1 #c74 ,to expose ?is x w be necess>y to remove ! integum5t f along ! cranial bord] ( ! inn] surface ( ! auricle4 #g4 ,! antitragicus 7,fig4 #afi1 #f74 ,remove ! integum5t f>!r if necess>y4 #h4 ,! tragicus m$ialis 7,fig4 #afi1 #e1 #e74 #i4 ,! con*u ext]nus 7,fig4 #afi1 #i74 7#d7 ,remove ! tympanic bulla & petr\s bone f ! re/ ( ! skull1 by ! use ( bone-=ceps & scalpel4 ,trim away all s(t tissue 7includ+ ! c>tilag9\s auditory meatus71 & all o!r bony p>ts f ^!1 b leave !m un9jur$4 7#e7 ,f9d ! ,eu/a*ian tube & /udy x 7p4 #dbc74 7#f7 ,/udy specim5s ( ! bones ( ! middle e> 7p4 #dbc1 & ,figs4 #aga & #agb74 7#g7 ,! middle e> %\ld be /udi$ on a demon/ration prep>ation1 !n dissect$ z foll[s3 ,remove ) bone-=ceps ! m$ial side ( ! tympanic bulla 7! entotympanic74 ,note ! two cavities )9 ! bulla1 ) ! %elf sep>at+ !m4 ,obs]ve ! f5e/ra co*le4 ,n[ remove ) ! =ceps ! %elf1 fir/ break+ ?r\gh ! middle "p1 !n remov+ ! re/ ) c>e4 ,remove "p also ( ! membran\s l9+ ( ! cavity1 till ! inn] surface ( ! tympanic membrane1 ) ! malleus cross+ x1 is visible4 ,obs]ve ! t5sor tympani muscle 7p4 #dbd7 atta*$ to ! malleus by its small t5don4 ,next1 ) bone-=ceps1 fracture ! ?ick1 bony portion unit+ ! caudal end ( ! petr\s ) ! caudal "p ( ! r+ ( bone surr\nd+ ! ext]nal auditory meatus4 ,^! two p>ts may !n be sep>at$ ) ! f+]s1 leav+ ! petr\s bone on "o side1 ! meatus1 tympanum1 & malleus on ! o!r 7,fig4 #agj74 ,! head ( ! malleus may !n be obs]v$1 ) ! incus atta*$ to x4 ,note also ! /apes1 9 ! f5e/ra ve/ibuli1 ) ! /ap$ius muscle 7p4 #dbd7 atta*$ to x4 7#h7 ,! int]nal e> 7p4 #dbd74 ,note ! f5e/ra ve/ibuli & f5e/ra co*le & ! promontory 7p4 #cd74 ,/udy ! co*lea & ve/ibule on a demon/ration prep>ation & comp>e ) ,fig4 #agc4 ,!n remove ! wall ( ! promontory & f9d ! co*lea4 ,op5 ! ve/ibule & f9d z _m ( ! op5+s ( ! semicircul> canals z possible4 ,/udy ! semicircul> canals on demon/ration prep>ations1 consult+ ,fig4 #agc4 ,! semicircul> canals may1 if desir$1 be expos$ on y\r own specim51 by cutt+ away ! surface ( ! bone 9 places indicat$ 9 ! description 7p4 #dbf71 & ins]t+ f9e bri/les 7^? f ! s5sory hairs on ! face ( ! cat are excell5t = ?is purpose74 ,! membran\s labyr9? 7,fig4 #agc7 may be isolat$ by decalcify+ ! petr\s bone ) t5 p] c5t4 nitric acid1 !n dissect+ out ! labyr9?4 ,?is is an op]ation ( consid]able delicacy1 b at lea/ "o or two specim5s = demon/ration %\ld1 if possible1 be prep>$ ?us & kept 9 ! laboratory4 ,,index4 ,abdom9al aorta1 #cja art]ies1 #cja cavity1 #bag1 #bah muscles1 #aec dissection1 #dda ve9s1 #cbf ,abduc5s n]ve1 #cdg1 #cge ,abductor auris brevis1 ,m41 #ajj1 #dce2 longus1 ,m41 #ajj1 #dce brevis pollicis1 ,m41 #ahd1 #dci caud 7coccygis7 ext]nus1 ,m41 #acg1 #ddg2 int]nus1 ,m41 #acg1 #ddf cruris1 ,m41 #aie digiti qu9ti1 ,m41 #ahe1 #dci2 secundi1 ,m41 #ahe m$ius digiti qu9ti1 ,m41 #bae ,accel]ator ur91 ,m41 #bga ,accessory n]ve1 #cdf1 #chb process1 #f1 #h ,acetabul> bone1 #gf1 #gh not*1 #gi ,acetabulum1 #gf1 #gh1 #hg ,a*illes1 t5don (1 #bjd1 #bjf ,acromiodeltoid muscle1 #aeg1 #dch ,acromion process1 #fb1 #fd ,acromiotrapezius1 ,m41 #aaf1 #dcf ,adductor auris inf]ior1 ,m41 #ajd1 #dce2 m$ius1 ,m41 #dai1 #dgj2 sup]ior1 ,m41 #dai1 #dgj digiti secundi1 ,m41 #ahe femoris1 ,m41 #aih1 #ddd longus1 ,m41 #aii1 #ddd m$ius digiti qu9ti1 ,m41 #bae pollicis1 ,m41 #ahe1 #dci ,aditus l>yngis1 #bdf ,adr5olumb> art]ies1 #cjd ve9s1 #cbf ,al magn1 #bf1 #bg p>v1 #bi ,albug9ea1 #bfj ,alcohol z pres]vative1 #dca ,alcohol-=mal9 = bra9s1 #dfc ,alim5t>y canal1 #bba2 dissection (1 #ddi ,alisph5oids1 #be1 #bg ,alveol> bord]1 #ci1 #dg n]ve1 inf]ior1 #cgd1 #cge process1 #ci ,alveoli1 #dh ,ampulla 7e>71 #dbf ( ,vat]1 #bcf ,anal gl&s or sacs1 #bci2 con/rictors (1 #bfi ,anapophysis1 #f ,ana/omotica magna1 ,a41 #big ,anconeus1 ,m41 #agj1 #dch ,anconeus int]nus1 ,m41 #agj lat]alis1 ,m41 #afg longus1 ,m41 #afh po/]ior1 ,m41 #afh ,angle ( rib1 #ah ,angul> process1 #ai1 #dh ve91 #cba ,ankle1 bones (1 #hb ligam5ts (1 #ia ,annul>is1 #gb ,annul> ligam5ts1 #ge1 #agc1 #bac ,ans1 #chf ,ant]ior c]ebral art]y1 #bhi circumflex art]y1 #bif commissure1 #ceg1 #cfe facial ve91 #cba fossa1 #ei p]=at$ sub/ance1 #cfb sp9al art]y1 #bia sup]ior process1 #gh ,sylvian gyrus1 #cei sulcus1 #cei ?oracic art]y1 #bid2 n]ves1 #chg tibial art]y1 #cac transv]se processes1 #aa ,antibra*ial fascia1 #agb ,antibra*ium1 muscles (1 #agb ,anticl9al v]tebra1 #f ,antihelix1 #daf ,antitragicus1 ,m41 #dba1 #dgj ,antitragus1 #dag ,anus1 #bci muscles (1 #bfh ,aorta1 #bge1 #bgi1 #bha1 #cja abdom9alis1 #cja ,aortic plexus1 #djh semilun> valves1 #bgi s9us1 #bgi ,app>atus dige/orius1 #bba respiratorius1 #bdc urog5italis1 #bee ,app5dicul> fossa1 #ce1 #eh lobe1 #cdh ,app5dix1 #dbi ,aqu$uct ( ,sylvius1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #cej1 #cea1 #ceb ,aqu$uctus c]ebri1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #cej1 #cea1 #ceb2 ,fallopii1 #ce ,aque\s humor1 #dad ,ara*noid1 #ccg1 #cfi ,arbor vit1 #cdi ,ar*1 bicipital1 #aff supraorbital1 #cg1 #ea zygomatic1 #dg1 #di1 #eb ,area elliptica1 #cde ovalis1 #cde p]=ata po/]ior1 #ceb ,arm1 art]ies (1 #bid articulations (1 #gc bones (1 #fd muscles (1 #aef dissection (1 #dcf n]ves (1 #chh ve9s (1 #cah ,art]ia adr5olumbalis1 #cjd alveol>is inf]ior1 #bhh ana/omotica magna1 #big anonyma1 #bhb articul>is g5u suprema1 #caa auricul>is ant]ior1 #bhg2 po/]ior1 #bhg axill>is1 #bid basil>is1 #bia1 #bib bra*ialis1 #bif bron*iales1 #bhc c>otis communis1 #bhb1 #bhc2 ext]na1 #bhe2 int]na1 #bhe c]ebelli ant]ior1 #bib2 inf]ior po/]ior1 #bib c]ebri ant]ior1 #bhi2 m$ia1 #bhi2 po/]ior1 #bib c]vicalis asc5d5s1 #bic2 pr(unda1 #bic circumflexa femoris lat]alis1 #caa2 hum]i ant]ior1 #bif2 hum]i po/]ior1 #bif2 scapul1 #bid cliaca1 #cja colica dextra1 #cjd2 m$ia1 #cjc2 s9i/ra1 #cjf collat]alis radialis sup]ior1 #big2 uln>is1 #big coron>i1 #bge1 #bgi1 #bha digitales dorsales1 #big2 plant>es1 #cad dorsalis p5is1 #cjh epiga/rica inf]ior1 #cji femoralis1 #cjg1 #caj ga/rica s9i/ra1 #cjc ga/roduod5alis1 #cjb ga/roepiploica dextra1 #cjc g5u po/]iores1 #cac glutea inf]ior1 #cjh2 sup]ior1 #cjh hemorrhoidalis m$ia1 #cjh2 sup]ior1 #cjf hepatica1 #cjb hypoga/rica1 #cjg ileocolica1 #cjd iliaca ext]na1 #cjg1 #cji2 int]na1 #cjg iliolumbalis1 #cjf infraorbitalis1 #bij int]co/ales1 #bhc int]co/alis suprema1 #bic int]osse1 #bih1 #cjj li5alis1 #cjc l+ualis1 #bhe1 #bhf lumbales1 #bhc1 #cjf lumboabdom9alis1 #cjd mamm>ia int]na1 #bib maxill>is ext]na1 #bhe1 #bhf2 int]na1 #bhg mes5t]ica inf]ior1 #cjf2 sup]ior1 #cjc m5+ea m$ia1 #bhi metat>sea1 #cae occipitalis1 #bhe sophage1 #bhc oph?almica1 #bhi palat9a desc5d5s1 #bij2 m9or1 #bij pancreaticoduod5alis inf]ior1 #cjc2 sup]ior1 #cjc phr5ica1 #cjd poplitea1 #caa1 #cab pr9ceps pollicis et indicis1 #cjj pr(unda bra*ii1 #bif2 femoris1 #cji pulmonalis1 #bge1 #bgh1 #bhj pylorica1 #cjb radialis1 #big2 recurr5s1 #bih r5alis1 #cjd sacralis lat]alis1 #cji2 m$ia1 #cja1 #cji saph5a1 #caa sp]matica ext]na1 #cji2 int]na1 #cjd sph5opalat9a1 #bij sp9alis ant]ior1 #bia subclavia1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bij subscapul>is1 #bid sup]ior pr(unda1 #bif suprascapul>is1 #bic suralis1 #cac t>sea m$ialis1 #cae temporalis sup]ficialis1 #bhg ?oracica ant]ior1 #bid2 longa1 #bid ?oracicodorsalis1 #bif ?yreoidea ima1 #bhc1 #bhd2 sup]ior1 #bhd tibialis ant]ior1 #cac2 po/]ior1 #cac2 recurr5s1 #cad transv]sa colli1 #bic2 scapul1 #bic uln>is1 #cjj2 recurr5s1 #bih umbilicalis1 #cjg ut]9a1 #cjh v5triculi dorsalis1 #cjc v]tebralis1 #bia ,art]ies 7see ,art]ia71 #bhj abdom51 #cja arm1 #bid bladd]1 #cjg bra91 #bhi1 #bia foot1 #cab1 #cad h&1 #cjj kidneys1 #cjd inte/9e1 #cjd limbs1 #bid1 #cji liv]1 #cjb /oma*1 #cjc ,art]y 7see ,art]ia7 cy/ic1 #cjb labial1 #bhf m$ia/9al1 #bhb ov>ian1 #cjf subm5tal1 #bhf sup]ior l>yngeal1 #bhe ,articul> art]y1 sup]ior1 #caa circumf]5ce1 #fg facet1 #d processes1 #f1 #h ,articulation1 atlanto-occipital1 #ag int]v]tebral1 #af ,articulations ( arm1 #gc h9d limb1 #hf m&ible1 #fa ,aryt5oid c>tilages1 #bdh ,aryt5oideus transv]sus1 ,m41 #bej ,a/ragalus1 #hb ,atlantal =am51 #ad ,atlanto-occipital articulation1 #ag ,atlas1 #ad ,atrium dextrum1 #bge s9i/rum1 #bgi ,attoll5s auris4 ,m41 #ajj ,auditory bulla1 #cb meatus1 ext]nal1 #cb1 #cc1 #eb1 #ee1 #dae1 #daf2 int]nal1 #ce1 #eh n]ve1 #cdg1 #cgg organ1 #dae ,auricle 7e>71 #dae ,auricles ( he>t1 #bgd1 #bge1 #bgi ,auricula1 #dae ,auricul> app5dage1 #bge1 #bgi art]ies1 #bhg c>tilage1 #dae1 #daf facet1 #aj impression1 #gg ,auricul>is ant]ior1 ,m41 #ajd1 #dai ext]nus1 ,m41 #dbj1 #dgj po/]ior1 ,m41 #ii sup]ior1 ,m41 #ajj1 #dce ,auricul> n]ve1 #cgi2 great1 #che2 po/]ior1 #cgg ve91 ant]ior1 #cbd2 po/]ior1 #cbd ,auriculotemporal n]ve1 #cgc ,auriculov5tricul> septum1 #bgd ,axill>y art]y1 #bid bord]1 #fc n]ve1 #chh ve91 #cah ,axis1 #ae ,azygos ve91 #caf ,backbone1 #a ,back1 fascia (1 #abf muscles (1 #aae1 #abc2 dissection (1 #ddb ,basil> art]y1 #bia1 #bib ,basioccipital bone1 #bb ,basisph5oid bone1 #be ,biceps bra*ii1 ,m41 #afe1 #dch1 #dci femoris1 ,m41 #aid1 #ddd ,bicipital ar*1 #aff groove1 #ff tub]cle1 #fd tub]osity1 #fg ,bicuspid valve1 #bgi ,bile duct1 #bda ,biv5t] c]vicis1 ,m41 #acb1 #ddc ,bladd]1 #bef art]ies (1 #cjg ligam5ts (1 #bai1 #beg ,bl9d spot1 #dad ,blood vessels1 #bhj dissection (1 #def injection (1 #def ,body cavity1 #bag ,body muscles1 #aae ,bones1 #a e>1 #dbc head1 #ba pelvic extremities1 #gf prep>ation (1 #dcj sesamoid1 #gc1 #hj1 #hf /udy (1 #dca ?oracic extremities1 #fb ,bony labyr9?1 #dbe ,bra*ial art]y1 #bif ,bra*ialis1 ,m41 #aff1 #dch1 #dci ,bra*ial plexus1 #chf2 dissection (1 #dfg2 ve91 #cah ,bra*ioradialis1 ,m41 #agc1 #dch ,bra*ium conjunctivum1 #cdh1 #cdi ,bra*ium1 muscles (1 #afd pontis1 #cdg1 #cdh1 #cdi quadrigem9um inf]ius1 #cea1 #ced2 sup]ius1 #cea1 #ced ,bra91 #cci art]ies (1 #bhi1 #bia diagrams (1 #cdc dissection (1 #dfd prep>ation (1 #dfb pres]vation (1 #dfb removal (1 #dfb /udy (1 #dfd ve9s (1 #cbd ,brea/1 muscles (1 #add2 dissection (1 #dcg2 n]ves (1 #chg ,broad ligam5t1 #bfd1 #bff ,bron*i1 #beb ,bron*ial art]ies1 #bhc ve9s1 #cah ,bucc1 #bbb ,buccal cavity1 #bba n]ves1 #cgg ,bucc9ator1 ,m41 #ajf1 #dce n]ve1 #cgd ,bulbocav]nosus1 ,m41 #bga1 #ded ,bulb\re?ral gl&s1 #bfa ,bulbus olfactorius1 #cfb ure?r1 #bfa ,bulla1 auditory1 #cb1 #ee tympanic1 #cb1 #ee ,burda*1 column (1 #ccg1 #cde ,ccum1 #bch ,calf ( leg1 muscles (1 #bjc ,calcaneometat>salis1 ,m41 #bae1 #dde ,calcaneus1 #hb1 #hc ,callosal sulcus1 #cfb ,canal1 alim5t>y1 #bba ant]ior palat9e1 #da condyloid1 #bd1 #eh facial1 #ce1 #eh ,hunt]'s1 #caa hypoglossal1 #bd1 #eh ,canalis adductorius1 #caa facialis1 #ce1 #eh ,canal1 la*rymal1 #dj1 #ed1 #daj nasola*rymal1 #dj1 #dg1 #ed1 #daj ( ,hugui]1 #cgf po/]ior palat9e1 #de1 #df1 #ed1 #ef pt]ygoid1 #bg1 #ef1 #ei sacral1 #h ,canals1 semicircul>1 #dbe1 #dbf ,can9e tee?1 #bbe ,can9us1 ,m41 #ajj1 #dce ,capitatum1 os1 #gj ,capitulum1 #ah1 #ff ,capsula l5tis1 #dad ,capsul>is1 ,m41 #aij1 #ddd ,capsule ( ,glisson1 #cjb ( l5s #dad ,caput epididymis1 #bfj ,c>diac n]ves1 #chj1 #dje1 #djf plexus1 #chj1 #chb1 #dje ,c>d9al ve9s1 #cbh ,c>otid art]y1 common1 #bhc2 ext]nal1 #bhe2 int]nal1 #bhe groove1 #bf plexus1 #bhg ,c>pus1 #fi ,c>tilage1 co/al1 #ah ,c>tilages ( l>ynx1 #bdg ,c>tilago auricul1 #dae1 #daf ,cauda epididymis1 #bfj equ9a1 #cci ,caudal muscles1 #acf2 dissection (1 #ddg v]tebr1 #a1 #aa ,caudoanalis1 ,m41 #bgj ,caudocav]nosus1 ,m41 #bga ,caud(emoralis1 ,m41 #aie1 #ddd ,caudorectalis1 ,m41 #bgj ,caudovag9alis1 ,m41 #bgb ,cav]n\s s9us1 #cbe ,cavities ( ! skull1 #eg ,cavity1 abdom9al1 #bag body1 #bag buccal1 #bba m$ia/9al1 #bah nasal1 #ei1 #bdc pelvic1 #bah ?oracic1 #bag ,cavum nasi1 #bdc oris1 #bba tympani1 #dbb ,c5tral n]v\s sy/em1 #cce ,c5trale1 #fi ,c5trum1 #c ,cephalica1 ,v41 #cai ,cephalobra*ial muscle1 #aah ,cephalohum]al muscle1 #aah ,c]atohyal1 #di ,c]atohyoid muscle1 #aae1 #ddj ,c]ebell> art]ies1 #bib fossa1 #eg1 #eh gyri1 #cdh hemisph]es1 #cdh ,c]ebellum1 #cda1 #cdg art]ies (1 #bib ,c]ebral aqu$uct1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #cej1 #cea1 #ceb art]ies1 #bhi1 #bib fissures1 #cei fossa1 #eh gyri1 #cei hemisph]es1 #cda1 #ceg p$uncles1 #cea sulci1 #cei ve91 inf]ior1 #cbe ,c]ebri magna1 ,v41 #cbd ,c]ebrum1 #cda1 #ceg art]ies (1 #bhi1 #bib ,c]um9\s gl&s1 #daf ,c]vical ganglia ( sympa!tic1 #djd1 #dje lymphatic gl&s1 #ccb n]ves1 #chc plexus1 #chf v]tebr1 #a1 #aa1 #ae ,c]vicalis asc5d5s1 ,a41 #bic2 ,v41 #cbj2 pr(unda1 ,a41 #bic ,c]vic(acial muscle1 #ie ,c]vix ut]i1 #bff ,*amb]s ( eye1 #dad ,*eek1 muscles (1 #aje ,*eeks1 #bbb ,*evron bones1 #aa ,*iasma1 optic1 #cdb1 #ced1 #cee1 #cfi ,*iasmatic groove1 #bi1 #ei ,*oan1 #fj1 #bcb1 #bdd ,*ord t5d9e1 #bgh ,*orda tympani n]ve1 #cge1 #cgf ,*oroid1 #dac plexus ( f\r? v5tricle1 #cej2 ( lat]al v5tricles1 #cec1 #cfc1 #cfg2 ( ?ird v5tricle1 #ced1 #cee ,cili>y body1 #dac folds1 #dac ganglion1 #cfi1 #cga n]ve1 long1 #cga2 %ort1 #cgj ,circle ( ,willis1 #bhi1 #bib ,circulatory sy/em1 #bgd2 dissection (1 #dee ,circulus art]iosus1 #bhi1 #bib ,circumf]5ce1 articul>1 #fg ,circumflexa femoris lat]alis1 ,a41 #caa hum]i ant]ior1 ,a41 #bif2 po/]ior1 ,a41 #bif scapul1 ,a41 #bid ,circumflex n]ve1 #chh ,circumvallate papill1 #bbg ,clava1 #cde1 #cdi ,clavicle1 #fd ,clavicula1 #fd ,clavobra*ial muscle1 #aeg1 #dcg1 #dci ,clavotrapezius muscle1 #aah1 #dcf ,cleidoma/oid muscle1 #abj1 #dcf1 #ddj ,cl9oid processes1 #bf1 #bi ,clitoris1 #bfd1 #bfg ,coats ( ! eyeball1 #dac ( ! te/is1 #beh ,coccygeal n]ves1 #djd ,coccygeus1 ,m41 #acg ,co*lea1 #dbe ,cliac art]y1 #cja ganglion1 #djf plexus1 #djf ,clom1 #bag ,colica dextra1 ,a41 #cjd m$ia1 ,a41 #cjc s9i/ra1 ,a41 #cjf ,collat]al ligam5ts1 #gd1 #hh radial art]y1 #big uln> art]y1 #big ,colliculi inf]iores1 #cdi1 #cea sup]iores1 #cea ,collum ( rib1 #ai ,colon1 #bcg ,colon1 ligam5ts (1 #bai ,column c>ne1 #bgh ,columns ( sp9al cord1 #ccf ,commissura ant]ior1 #ceg1 #cfe labiorum1 #bbb po/]ior1 #cee ,commissure1 middle1 #ced ,common bile-duct1 #bda c>otid art]y1 #bhb1 #bhc iliac ve9s1 #cbh ,communicat+ bran*es ( sympa!tic1 #djf ,complexus1 ,m41 #acc1 #ddc ,comp\nd t]ms1 viii ,compressor ure?r membranace1 ,m41 #bga1 #ded ,con*a auris1 #dae1 #daf nasalis sup]ior1 #db v5tral nasal1 #dj ,con*u ext]nus1 ,m41 #dbb1 #dgj ,condyle1 occipital1 #bc1 #eb1 #ee ,condyles ( femur1 #hj tibia1 #hj ,condyloid canal1 #bd1 #eh process1 #dh ,conjunctiva1 #dji1 #daj ,con/rictor cunni1 ,m41 #bgb ph>yngis inf]ior1 ,m41 #bcb1 #dea2 m$ius1 ,m41 #bcc1 #dea2 sup]ior1 ,m41 #bcc ve/ibuli1 ,m41 #bgb ,con/rictors ( anal gl&s1 #bfi ,conus art]iosus1 #bgg ,cor1 #bgd ,coracobra*ialis1 ,m41 #afd ,coracoid bord]1 #fc1 #fd process1 #fc1 #fd ,coracov]tebral angle1 #fc ,cord1 sp9al1 #cce ,corium1 #dbg ,cornea1 #dab1 #dac ,cornetocon*u1 ,m41 #dbb ,cornua ( hyoid1 #di ( ut]us1 #bff ,coronal sulcus1 #cfj ,coron>ia v5triculi1 ,v41 #cbf ,coron>y art]y1 #bge1 #bgi1 #bha ligam5t ( liv]1 #bba s9us1 #bgg1 #caf sulcus1 #bgd ve9s1 #bgg1 #cae ,coronoid fossa1 #dh1 #ff process1 #dh1 #fi ,corpora mammill>ia1 #cef quadrigem9a1 #cea ,corpus callosum1 #ceg1 #cfc cav]nosum clitoridis1 #bfg2 p5is1 #bfc2 ure?r1 #bfa1 #bfc cili>e1 #dac g5iculatum lat]ale1 #ced2 m$iale1 #cea1 #ced luteum1 #bfd ( /]num1 #bj ( v]tebr1 #c p9eale1 #cea1 #cee re/i=me1 #cdf1 #cdh1 #cdi spongiosum1 #bfa /riatum1 #cfc1 #cfg vitreum1 #dae ,corrugator sup]cilii lat]alis1 ,m41 #ih1 #dce2 m$ialis1 ,m41 #ig1 #dce ,cortical portion ( kidney1 #bef ,co/1 #ah spuri1 #ai v]1 #ai ,co/al c>tilage1 #ah facet1 #c1 #e ,co/oc]vical axis1 #bib ve91 #cah ,c[p]'s gl&s1 #bfa ,cranial cavity1 #eg n]ves1 #cdf1 #cfi2 dissection (1 #dfe portion ( skull1 #ba ,cranium1 #ba ,crema/] muscle1 #beh ,crema/]ic fascia1 #beh ,cre/1 ext]nal occipital1 #bd1 #eb nasal1 #dj1 #db ( ilium1 #gh ( tibia1 #ha sagittal1 #be1 #ej ,cribri=m plate1 #dc ,crico>yt5oideus lat]alis1 ,m41 #bea po/]ior1 #bdi ,cricoid c>tilage1 #bdh ,crico?yroid muscle1 #bdi ,cri/a helicis1 #dag ,crucial ligam5ts1 #hh1 #hi ,cruciate sulcus1 #cfj1 #cfa ,crura c]ebelli1 #cda1 #cdh ( diaphragm1 #aeb ( p5is1 #bfc ,crural ar*es1 #aed fascia1 deep1 #bjf muscle1 #bjb ,crus c]ebelli ad m$ullam1 #cdf ,crus ( diaphragm1 #aeb ,crus1 muscles (1 #bjc ,cry/all9e l5s1 #dad ,cuboid1 #hb1 #hd ,cuneatus1 fasciculus1 #ccg1 #cde1 #cdf ,cunei=m bones1 #gj1 #hj1 #hd1 #he ,cutane\s n]ve1 ext]nal1 #chh ,cutaneus colli1 ,n41 #che femoralis lat]alis1 ,n41 #cif femoris po/]ior1 ,n41 #djc maximus1 ,m41 #ic1 #dcd m$ialis1 ,n41 #cij ,cy/ic art]y1 #cjb duct1 #bda ,decidu\s tee?1 #bbf ,deltoid muscle1 #aef ridge1 #ff ,demifacets1 co/al1 #c ,d5s1 #ad1 #ae ,d5tal art]ies1 #bhh n]ves1 inf]ior1 #cge ,d5tes1 #bbd ,depressor con*1 ,m41 #ajc1 #dce ,d]mal muscles1 #ic ,diaphragm1 #aea2 dissection (1 #ddf ,dia/ema1 #bbe ,di5cephalon1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #ceb ,diga/ric muscle1 #ajg1 #ddj ,dige/ive app>atus1 #bba ,digital art]ies1 #big1 #cad ,digital fossa1 #gi ,digits1 #gb ,directions = dissection1 #dbi ,dis>ticulation ( skulls1 #dcj ,dissection ( alim5t>y canal1 #ddi blood-vessels1 #def bra91 #dfd circulatory sy/em1 #dee cranial n]ves1 #dfe diaphragm1 #ddf e>1 #dgj eye1 #dfi ligam5ts1 #dca lymphatics1 #dfj muscles1 #dcc n]v\s sy/em1 #dfa1 #dfe pelvic muscles1 #ddf respiratory organs1 #deb s5se organs1 #dfi sp9al n]ves1 #dfg sympa!tic sy/em1 #dfe urog5ital organs1 #dec visc]a1 #ddg ,dorsalis p5is1 ,a41 #cjh2 ,n41 #djc ,dorsum sell1 #bf1 #ei ,dry+ ( mat]ial1 #dcb ,ductus ,botalli1 #bhj communis *ol$o*us1 #bda ,ducts ( saliv>y gl&s1 #bbb1 #bbc ,duod5ohepatic ligam5t1 #bbj ,duod5or5al ligam5t1 #bai ,duod5um1 #bcf2 ligam5ts (1 #bai1 #bbj ,dura mat]1 #ccg1 #cfh ve9s (1 #cbd v5\s s9uses (1 #cbd ,e>1 #dae ,e> bones1 #dbc dissection (1 #dgj ext]nal1 removal (1 #dce muscles (1 #if1 #ii1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #dah ,ectocunei=m1 #hd ,ectopectoralis1 ,m41 #ade ,ectosylvian gyrus1 #cfj sulcus1 #cei ,ectotympanic bone1 #cb ,eigh? cranial n]ve1 #cdg1 #cgg ,elb[-jo9t1 #gd ,elev5? cranial n]ve1 #cdf1 #chb ,em95ce1 iliopect9eal1 #gh ,em95tia con*1 #daf ,encephalon1 #cci ,entocunei=m1 #he ,entopectoralis1 ,m41 #adf ,entotympanic bone1 #cb ,ep>t]ial bron*us1 #beb ,epicondyles1 #fg1 #hj ,epicranius1 ,m41 #aja1 #dce ,epid]mis1 #dbg ,epididymis1 #bfj ,epiga/ric art]y1 inf]ior1 #cji ,epiglottic c>tilage1 #bdh ,epiglottis1 #bdf ,epihyal1 #di ,epim]alis1 ,m41 #aij ,epiphysis1 #cea1 #cee ( bones1 #c ,epi/ropheus1 #ae ,epitro*lea1 #fg ,epitro*le>is1 ,m41 #afd1 #dch ,e?moidal art]y1 #bhi =am51 #ch n]ve1 #cga ,e?moid bone1 #db cells1 #dd ,e?moturb9als1 #db ,eu/a*ian tube1 #bcb1 #dbc ,excretory organs1 #bee2 dissection (1 #dec ,exoccipital bones1 #bb ,ext5sor antibra*ii longus1 ,m41 #afd brevis digitorum1 ,m41 #bab1 #dde2 pollicis1 ,m41 #agh1 #dci c>pi radialis brevis1 ,m41 #agd1 #dch2 longus1 ,m41 #agc1 #dch2 uln>is1 ,m41 #agf1 #dci caud lat]alis1 ,m41 #acg1 #ddc1 #ddg2 m$ialis1 ,m41 #acj1 #acf1 #ddc1 #ddg communis digitorum1 ,m41 #agd1 #dci digitorum lat]alis1 ,m41 #age1 #dci2 longus1 #baj1 #dde dorsi communis1 ,m41 #abd indicis proprius1 ,m41 #agf1 #dci muscles ( arm1 #agc ossis metac>pi pollicis1 ,m41 #agh ,ext]nal c>otid art]y1 #bhe e>1 #dae iliac art]y1 #cjg1 #cji2 ve91 #cbh1 #cbi int]co/al muscles1 #aej jugul> ve91 #cai maxill>y art]y1 #bhe1 #bhf oblique muscle1 #aec occipital cre/1 #bd1 #eb2 protub]ance1 #bd pt]ygoid muscle1 #aaa /]noco/al muscle1 #aej ,extremities1 pelvic1 bones (1 #gf ?oracic1 bones (1 #fb ,eye1 #dji1 #dab ,eyeball1 #dab ,eyelids1 #dji2 muscles (1 #ig1 #daj1 #dab ,eye1 muscles (1 #daa ,face1 muscles (1 #if ve9s (1 #cba ,facet1 articul>1 #d auricul>1 #aj co/al1 #c1 #e transv]se co/al1 #d tub]cul>1 #d ,facial bones1 #ba canal1 #ce1 #eh muscles1 #if2 dissection ( #dcd n]ve1 #cdg1 #cge portion ( skull1 #ba1 #di ve91 ant]ior1 #cba ve91 deep1 #cbc2 po/]ior1 #cbc ,fallopian tubes1 #bfc1 #bfd ,false ribs1 #ai vocal cords1 #bdf ,fascia1 antibra*ial1 #agb crema/]ic1 #beh deep crural1 #bjf endo?oracica1 #bag int]column>1 #beh lata1 #ahf lumbodorsal1 #abf ( back1 #abf ( ?igh1 #ahf propria1 #beh ,fasciculus cuneatus1 #ccg1 #cde1 #cdf cuneatus lat]alis1 #cdf gracilis1 #ccf1 #cde ,fauces1 pill>s (1 #bcj ,female g5ital organs1 #bfc ,femoral art]y1 #cjg1 #caj n]ve1 #cig ,femur1 #gi ,f5e/ra co*le1 #cd1 #dbe ovalis1 #cd rotunda1 #cd ve/ibuli1 #cd1 #dbd1 #dbe ,fibroc>tilages1 int]v]tebral1 #af ,fibroc>tilag9es int]v]tebrales1 #af ,fibula1 #hb ,fif? cranial n]ve1 #cdg1 #cgi ,fili=m papill1 #bbg ,filum t]m9ale1 #cce ,f+]s1 art]ies (1 #big bones (1 #gb muscles (1 #ahe ,fir/ cranial n]ve1 #cfi ,fissura c]ebri lat]alis1 #ceh ,fissure ( ,sylvius1 #ceh orbital1 #bg1 #ed1 #ei ,fissures ( c]ebrum1 #cei m$ulla oblongata1 #cdd1 #cde sp9al cord1 #cce ,flexor brevis digiti qu9ti1 ,m41 #ahf1 #dci2 digiti secundi1 ,m41 #ahe2 digitorum1 ,m41 #bje1 #bab1 #dde2 pollicis1 ,m41 #ahd1 #dci c>pi radialis1 ,m41 #agi1 #dci c>pi uln>is1 ,m41 #ahj1 #dci caud brevis1 ,m41 #ach1 #ddf2 longus1 ,m41 #ach1 #ddf2 longus digitorum1 ,m41 #bjg1 #bjh1 #dde2 hallucis1 ,m41 #bjg1 #dde muscles ( =e>m1 #agi p]=ans1 ,m41 #aha p]=atus1 ,m41 #aha pr(undus digitorum1 ,m41 #aha1 #dci sublimis digitorum1 ,m41 #aha1 #dci ,float+ ribs1 #ai ,follicles1 ,graafian1 #bfd solit>y1 #bcg ,foot1 art]ies (1 #cab1 #cad bones (1 #hb jo9ts & ligam5ts (1 #ia muscles (1 #bab2 dissection (1 #dde n]ves (1 #djb ve9s (1 #cbi ,=am51 ant]ior palat9e1 #eg atlantal1 #ad ccum1 #cde epiploicum1 #bbj e?moidal1 #ch hypoglossal1 #bd1 #ef1 #eh incisivum1 #da1 #eg infraorbital1 #dj1 #ed int]v5tricul>1 #cef1 #cfe1 #cfh int]v]tebral1 #d jugul>1 #bd1 #cc1 #ef1 #eh lac]um1 #bf1 #ei2 ant]ius1 #ed magnum1 #bb1 #eb1 #ee1 #eh m&ibul>1 #dh m5tal1 #dg obturator1 #gf ( ,monroe1 #cef1 #cfe1 #cfh ( ,w9sl[1 #bbj optic1 #bi1 #ed1 #ei ovale1 #bg1 #ed1 #ef1 #ei ovale ( he>t1 #bgg rotundum1 #bg1 #ed1 #ef1 #ei sacral1 #i1 #aj sph5opalat9e1 #df1 #ed /yloma/oid1 #cc1 #cd1 #eb1 #ee supracondyloid1 #fg transv]s>ium1 #ac v]tebral1 #a ,=e>m1 muscles (1 #agb ,=e limbs1 bones (1 #fb muscles (1 #aef2 dissection1 #dcf lymphatics (1 #ccb ,=mal9-alcohol mixture = bra9s1 #dfc ,=mal9 z pres]vative1 #dca ,=mal9-glyc]9e mixture = injection1 #dcb ,=mula = tee?1 #bbd ,=nicate gyrus1 #cfb ,=nix1 #ceh1 #cfc1 #cfd ,fossa1 ant]ior1 #ei app5dicul>1 #ce1 #eh c]ebell>1 #eg1 #eh c]ebral1 #eh coronoid1 #dh1 #ff digital1 #gi ext]nal pt]ygoid1 #cj1 #ec gl5oid1 #fc iliopect9eal1 #caj infrasp9\s1 #fc int]condyloid1 #hj int]nal pt]ygoid1 #bh1 #ed m&ibul>1 #cb1 #eb masset]ic1 #dh middle1 #ei olecranon1 #ff olfactory1 #ei orbital1 #ec ovalis1 #bgg radial1 #ff rhomboidea1 #cdi subscapul>1 #fc suprasp9\s1 #fc temporal1 #ea1 #ec tro*ant]ic1 #gi ,f\r? cranial n]ve1 #cej1 #cgj v5tricle1 #cda1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #cdi ,fr5ulum glossoepiglottica1 #bbg l+u1 #bbb1 #bbg ( epiglottis1 #bdf ( lips1 #bba p5is1 #beg ,frontal bone1 #cg lobe ( bra91 #ceh muscle1 #aja n]ve1 #cgj plate1 #cg process1 #ci1 #dj1 #dg1 #ea s9uses1 #ch1 #fa sp9e1 #cg ve91 #cba ,frontoauricul> muscle1 #ii1 #dce ,frontoscutul>is1 ,m41 #ajd1 #dce ,fundus ( /oma*1 #bcd ,fungi=m papill1 #bbg ,funiculi ( sp9al cord1 #ccf ,galea aponeurotica1 #aja ,gall-bladd]1 #bda ,ganglia1 sympa!tic1 #djd1 #dje1 #djf1 #djh ?oracic1 #djf ,ganglion c]vicale inf]ius1 #dje c]vicale m$iale1 #dje2 sup]ius1 #djd cliac1 #djf ,gass]ian1 #cdg1 #cgj g5iculi1 #cge inf]ior mes5t]ic1 #djh jugul>e1 #cgh nodosum1 #cgh ( ! root1 #cgh ( ! trunk1 #cgh oph?almic1 #cfi petrosum1 #cgh semilun>1 #cdg1 #cgj1 #djf sph5opalat9e1 #cgb sup]ior mes5t]ic1 #djg sup]ius1 #cgh ,gass]ian ganglion1 #cdg1 #cgj ,ga/rica s9i/ra1 ,a41 #cjc ,ga/ric plexuses1 #chb ,ga/rocnemius1 ,m41 #bjc1 #dde ,ga/roduod5al ligam5t1 #bce art]y1 #cjb ,ga/roepiploica dextra1 ,a41 #cjc2 ,v41 #cbg ,ga/rohepatic ligam5t1 #bbj1 #bde ,ga/roli5al ligam5t1 #bce om5tum1 #bbj ,ga/rospl5ic om5tum1 #bbj ve91 #cbg ,gemellus inf]ior1 ,m41 #aij1 #ddd sup]ior1 ,m41 #ahi1 #ddd ,g5iculate ganglion1 #cge ,g5ioglossus1 ,m41 #bbh1 #ddj1 #dej ,g5iohyoid muscle1 #aac1 #ddj ,g5ital organs1 #beg2 dissection (1 #dec1 #ded ,g5it(emoral n]ve1 #cif ,g5u 7bra971 #cfd ,gl&1 bulb\re?ral1 #bfa ,c[p]'s1 #bfa infraorbital1 #bbd la*rymal1 #daj mol>1 #bbd orbital1 #bbd p>otid1 #bbc pro/ate1 #bfa subl+ual1 #bbd submaxill>y1 #bbc ?ymus1 #bed ?yroid1 #bed ,gl&s1 ,h>d]ian1 #daj +u9al1 #ccd lymphatic1 #ccj ,meibomian1 #dji ( m\?1 #bbc ( ure?ra1 #bfa t>sal1 #dji ,gl&ul oris1 #bbc supr>5ales1 #beg ,glans p5is1 #beg1 #bfa ,gl5oid angle1 #fb1 #fd bord]1 #fc fossa1 #fc ,gl5ov]tebral angle1 #fc ,glisson1 capsule (1 #cjb ,glossoepiglotticus1 ,m41 #bej ,glossoph>yngeal n]ve1 #cdg1 #cgh ,glossoph>yngeus1 ,m41 #bcb1 #dea ,glottis1 #bdf ,gluteal art]ies1 #cjh n]ve1 inf]ior1 #cii2 sup]ior1 #cii ve91 inf]ior1 #cbi ,gluteus maximus1 ,m41 #ahg1 #ddd m$ius1 ,m41 #ahh1 #ddd m9imus1 ,m41 #ahi1 #ddd qu>tus1 ,m41 #aij ,glyc]9e-=mal9 mixture = inject+1 #dcb ,goll1 column (1 #ccg1 #cde ,graafian follicles1 #bfd ,gracilis1 fasciculus1 #ccf1 #cde2 ,m41 #aih1 #ddd ,gray matt]1 #ccf ,great auricul> ve91 #cbd ,great] curvature ( /oma*1 #bcd ,great om5tum1 #bai1 #bce scapul> not*1 #fd sciatic n]ve1 #djj sciatic not*1 #gg sigmoid cavity1 #fi transv]se fissure1 #cfc tro*ant]1 #gi tub]osity1 #fe ,gyri ( c]ebellum1 #cdh c]ebrum1 #cei ,gyrus1 ant]ior ,sylvian1 #cei compositus po/]ior1 #cfj ectosylvius1 #cfj =nicatus1 #cfb m>g9alis1 #cfj1 #cfa orbitalis1 #cfj po/]ior ,sylvian1 #cei sigmoideus1 #cfj suprasylvius1 #cfj ,hab5ul1 #cee ,hmal processes1 #aa ,hair1 di/ribution (1 #dbg ,hamatum1 os1 #gj ,hamul> process1 #bh ,hamulus1 #bh1 #ed ,h&1 art]ies (1 #cjj bones (1 #ga jo9ts & ligam5ts (1 #ge muscles (1 #ahd2 dissection (1 #dci ,h>d]ian gl&s1 #daj ,head1 bones (1 #ba muscles (1 #if2 dissection1 #dcd1 #ddj n]ves (1 #cfi ,he>t1 #bgd2 dissection (1 #dee ve9s (1 #cae ,heel1 #hc ,helicis1 ,m41 #dba1 #dgj ,helix1 #dag ,hemisph]es ( c]ebellum1 #cdh c]ebrum1 #cda1 #ceg ,hemorrhoidal art]ies1 #cjf1 #cjh n]ve1 inf]ior1 #djd n]ve1 middle1 #djc ve9s1 #cbi ,hep>1 #bci ,hepatic art]y1 #cjb ducts1 #bda plexus1 #djh ve9s1 #cbf ,hepator5al ligam5t1 #bba ,hiatus facialis1 #ce ,hilus1 #bee ,h9d bra91 #cdd ,h9d limb1 bones (1 #gf muscles (1 #ahf2 dissection1 #ddd ,hip-jo9t1 #hg ,hip1 muscles (1 #ahf ,hippocampal sulcus1 #cfb ,hippocampus1 #cfe ,horns ( ut]us1 #bff ,hugui]1 canal (1 #cgf ,hum]us1 #fd ,humor1 aque\s1 #dad vitre\s1 #dae ,hunt]'s canal1 #caa ,hyoepiglotticus1 ,m41 #bej ,hyoglossus1 ,m41 #bbh1 #ddj1 #dej ,hyoid bone1 #di muscles (1 #aab ,hyp>t]ial bron*i1 #beb lobes ( lungs1 #bha ,hypoga/ric art]ies1 #cjg ve91 #cbh1 #cbi ,hypoglossal canal1 #bd1 #eh =am51 #bd1 #ef1 #eh n]ve1 #cdf1 #chc ,hypophysis1 #cee1 #cef ,iliac art]ies1 #cjg1 #cji gl&s1 #ccc ve9s1 #cbh1 #cbi ,ileocolic art]y1 #cjd valve1 #bcg ,ileum1 #bcg ,iliocaudalis1 ,m41 #acg1 #ddf ,ilioco/alis1 ,m41 #abd1 #abh1 #ddc ,iliohypoga/ric n]ve1 #cie ,ilio+u9al n]ve1 #cie ,iliolumb> art]ies1 #cjf ve9s1 #cbf ,iliopect9eal em95ce1 #gh fossa1 #caj l9e1 #gh ,iliopsoas1 ,m41 #ach1 #aic1 #ddd1 #ddf ,iliosacral ligam5ts1 #hf1 #hg ,ilium1 #gf1 #gg ,incisive duct1 #bbb =am51 #da1 #eg ,incisor tee?1 #bbe ,incisura acetabuli1 #gi scapul1 #fd ,incus1 #dbd ,index1 #gb ,index1 muscles (1 #ahe ,inf]ior alveol> art]y1 #bhh c]ebral ve91 #cbe c]vical ganglion1 #dje d5tal art]y1 #bhh epiga/ric art]y1 #cji gluteal art]ies1 #cjh maxill>y bone1 #dg mes5t]ic art]y1 #cjf2 ve91 #cbh ?yroid art]y1 #bhc1 #bhd v5a cava1 #cbe vesical art]y1 #cjg ,infraorbital art]y1 #bij =am51 #dj1 #ed gl&1 #bbd n]ve1 #cgb ,infrasp9atus muscle1 #afj1 #dch ,infrasp9\s fossa1 #fc ,infratro*le> n]ve1 #cga ,infundibulum1 #cee ,+u9al canal1 #bei gl&s1 #ccd ligam5t1 #aec r+s1 #bei ,injection mass1 #def ( blood-vessels1 #def ( =mal91 #dca ( lymphatics1 #dfj ,innom9ate art]ies1 #bhb bone1 #gf ve9s1 #cah ,insula1 #cei ,integum5t1 #dbg muscles1 #ic ,integum5tum commune1 #dbg ,int]c>pal ligam5ts1 #ge ,int]column> fascia1 #beh ,int]condyloid fossa1 #hj ,int]co/al art]ies1 #bhc art]y1 sup]ior1 #bic ,int]co/ales ext]ni1 ,m41 #aej1 #dda int]ni1 #aea1 #dda ,int]co/al ve9s1 #caf ,int]nal c>otid art]y1 #bhe e>1 #dbd iliac art]y1 #cjg2 ve91 #cbi int]co/als1 #aea jugul> ve91 #cbj mamm>y art]y1 #bib2 ve91 #cah maxill>y art]y1 #bhg oblique muscle1 #aed pt]ygoid muscle1 #aaa /]noco/al muscle1 #aea ,int]m$iate cunei=m1 #hd ,int]m$ius scutulorum1 ,m41 #if1 #ddc ,int]ossei1 ,mm41 #ahe1 #bad1 #dci1 #dde ,int]osse\s art]ies1 #bih1 #cjj ligam5ts1 #ge membrane1 #ge1 #ij n]ve1 dorsal1 #cib2 po/]ior1 #cij ,int]p>ietal bone1 #be ,int]sp9alis1 ,m41 #abd1 #aca1 #acf1 #ddc ,int]transv]s>ii1 ,m41 #abd1 #aca1 #acf1 #ddc ,int]tro*ant]ic l9e1 #gi ,int]v5tricul> =am51 #cef1 #cfe1 #cfh ,int]v]tebral fibroc>tilages1 #af =am9a1 #d ,inte/9e1 #bcf art]ies (1 #cjc ,inte/9e1 l>ge1 #bcg small1 #bcf ,inte/9um crassum1 #bcg t5ue1 #bcf ,intr9sic muscles ( tongue1 #bbi ,iris1 #dac1 #dad ,is*iadicus1 ,n41 #djj ,is*iocav]nosus1 ,m41 #bfi1 #ded1 #dee ,is*ium1 #gf1 #gh ,i/hmus faucium1 #bba1 #bcj rhomb5cephali1 #cej ,jacobson1 organ (1 #bbb1 #bdd ,jaw1 l[]1 bone (1 #dg upp]1 bones (1 #ci1 #da ,jejunum1 #bcg ,jo9ts ( pelvic limbs1 #hf ( skull1 #fa ( ?oracic limbs1 #gc ,jugal bone1 #dg ,jugul> =am51 #bd1 #cc1 #ef1 #eh ganglion1 #cgh not*1 #bd process1 #bd1 #eb1 #ee ve91 ext]nal1 #cai2 int]nal1 #cbj ,jugulohyoid muscle1 #aac1 #ddj ,kidney1 #bee ,kidneys1 art]ies to1 #cjd ,knee-jo9t1 #hg1 #hi ,knee1 ligam5ts (1 #hg1 #hi ,labial art]ies1 #bhf ve9s1 #cba ,labia oris1 #bba ,labrum gl5oidale1 #hg ,labyr9?1 #dbd1 #dbe ,labyr9?s ( e?moid1 #db1 #dc ,la*rymal app>atus1 #daj bone1 #df canal1 #dj1 #ed1 #daj gl&1 #daj n]ve1 #cga ,lambdoidal ridge1 #bd1 #ej1 #eb ,lam9a1 #d *orioidea epi!lialis1 #cee1 #cfc1 #cfg cribrosa1 #dc fusca1 #dac papyracea1 #dd p]p5dicul>is1 #db1 #dc spiralis1 #dbe t]m9alis1 #ceb1 #ceg ,l>ge inte/9e1 #bcg ,l>yngeal art]ies1 #bhe ,l>yngeal muscles1 #bdi2 dissection (1 #deb n]ve1 inf]ior1 #chj2 sup]ior1 #chj ve9s1 #cba ,l>ynx1 #bdf c>tilages (1 #bdg muscles (1 #bdi ,lat]al angle 7scapula71 #fc cunei=m1 #hd fissure ( c]ebrum1 #ceh ligam5ts ( bladd]1 #beg mass ( atlas1 #ad2 ( sacrum1 #aj sulcus1 #cfj v5tricles1 #cda1 #cdc1 #cfb1 #cfh ,latissimus dorsi1 ,m41 #aba1 #dcg ,leg1 art]ies (1 #cji bones (1 #gi ligam5ts (1 #hf l[]1 muscles (1 #bjc muscles1 #ahf2 dissection1 #ddd ve9s (1 #cbi ,l5s1 cry/all9e1 #dad ,l5ticul> bone1 #dbd process1 #dbd ,less] curvature ( /oma*1 #bcd om5tum1 #bbj palat9e art]y1 #bij sciatic not*1 #gh tro*ant]1 #gi tub]osity ( hum]us1 #fe ,levator anguli oris1 ,m41 #ajf ani1 ,m41 #acg1 #bfi1 #ddf1 #ded auris longus1 ,m41 #ii1 #dce clavicul1 ,m41 #abj ,levatores co/>um1 ,m41 #aej1 #ddc ,levator labii sup]ioris alque nasi1 ,m41 #aje1 #dce2 sup]ioris proprius1 ,m41 #ajf1 #dce palpebr sup]ioris1 ,m41 #dab scapul1 ,m41 #abb1 #abc1 #dcg scapul dorsalis1 ,m41 #aah scapul v5tralis1 ,m41 #abj1 #dcf1 #ddj1 #ddc scroti1 ,m41 #beh1 #bga1 #dec veli palat9i1 ,m41 #bcj1 #dea vulv1 ,m41 #bgb1 #dee ,li51 #bdb ,ligam5t 7see also ,ligam5tum7 annul>1 #ge1 #agc1 #bac ant]ior longitud9al1 #af broad1 #bfd1 #bff c]vical suprasp9\s1 #ag coron>y1 #bba duod5ohepatic1 #bbj duod5or5al1 #bai ga/roduod5al1 #bce ga/rohepatic1 #bbj1 #bce ga/roli5al1 #bce hepator5al1 #bba +u9al1 #aec lat]al1 ( atlas1 #ag orbital1 #dg ( p]itoneum1 #bah po/]ior longitud9al1 #af ,p\p>t's1 #aec pulmon>y1 #bec r\nd1 #hg1 #bbj1 #bfg /ylom&ibul>1 #fb1 #bbh suprasp9\s1 #af susp5sory1 #bai1 #bbj1 #beg transv]se1 #ah1 #hg1 #ia1 #agb triangul>1 #bba ,ligam5ts1 collat]al1 #gd1 #hh crucial1 #hi iliosacral1 #hf1 #hg int]c>pal1 #ge int]osse\s1 #ge ( bladd]1 #bai1 #beg ( hip-jo9t1 #hg ( liv]1 #bbj ( malleoli1 #ia ( m5isci1 #ij ( ov>y1 #bfd ( pelvic limbs1 #hf ( ribs1 #ai ( skull1 #fa ( t>sus1 #ia ( ?oracic limbs1 #gc ( ut]us1 #bff ( v]tebral column1 #af prep>ation (1 #dca /udy (1 #dca vag9al1 #agc ,ligam5tum 7a7 al>ia1 #ah art]iosum1 #bhj ,botalli1 #bhj collat]ale1 #gd1 #hh cruciatum1 #hi d5ticulatum1 #ccg dorsalia1 #ib flava1 #ag int]ossea1 #ib int]sp9alia1 #ag int]transv]s>ia1 #ag lat]alia1 #ib longitud9ale ant]ius1 #af2 po/]ius1 #af nu*1 #ag ov>ii1 #bfd patell1 #ha1 #hh plant>ia1 #ib suprasp9ale1 #af susp5sorium p5is1 #bfb t]es1 #hg1 #bbj transv]sum cruris1 #ia ,limbs1 art]ies (1 #bid1 #cji bones (1 #fb1 #gf lymphatics (1 #ccb1 #ccd muscles (1 #aef1 #ahf ve9s (1 #cah1 #cbh ,l9ea asp]a1 #hj ,l9e1 iliopect9eal1 #gh int]tro*ant]ic1 #gi spiral1 #gi ,l+ua1 #bbf ,l+ual art]y1 #bhe1 #bhf n]ve1 #cge ve91 #cbc ,l+ula1 #bh ,lips1 #bba muscles (1 #aje ,liquid soap1 = bones1 #dcj ,liv]1 #bci art]ies (1 #cjb ligam5ts (1 #bbj ve9s (1 #cbf ,lobes ( c]ebrum1 #ceh ( liv]1 #bci ,lobus pyri=mis1 #cfa1 #cfb ,longissimus capitis1 ,m41 #abh1 #aca1 #ddc c]vicis1 ,m41 #abh1 #acd dorsi1 ,m41 #abd1 #abf1 #acd1 #ddb ,long saph5\s n]ve1 #cig ?oracic art]y1 #bid ,longus atlantis1 ,m41 #acd1 #ddc capitis1 ,m41 #adb1 #ddb colli1 ,m41 #add1 #ddb ,lumb> aponeurosis1 #aed art]ies1 #bhc1 #cjf n]ves1 #cid plexus1 #cie ve9s1 #cbf v]tebr1 #a1 #g ,lumboabdom9al art]ies1 #cjd ,lumbodorsal fascia1 #abf ,lumbo+u9al n]ve1 #cif ,lumbosacral cord1 #cii plexus1 #cif ,lumbricales1 ,mm41 #ahd1 #bac1 #dci1 #dde ,lun>e1 #fi ,lungs1 #beb ,lymph1 #ccj ,lymphatic duct1 "r1 #cca1 #ccb gl&s1 #ccj ,lymphatics1 #ccj demon/ration (1 #dfj injection (1 #dfj ,magnum1 os1 #gj ,mal> bone1 #dg ,male g5ital organs1 #beg ,malleoli1 ligam5ts (1 #ia ,malleolus1 lat]al1 #hb m$ial1 #ha ,malleus1 #dbc ,mamm>y art]y1 int]nal1 #bib gl&s1 #bfh ,mammill>y bodies1 #cef process1 #f1 #h ,m&ible1 #dg articulations (1 #fa ,m&ibul> =am51 #dh fossa1 #cb1 #eb n]ve1 #cgj1 #cgc ,manubrium1 #bj ,manus1 bones (1 #ga ,m>g9al gyrus1 #cfj1 #cfa sulcus1 #cfa ,m>g91 supraorbital1 #cg ,massa int]m$ia1 #ced1 #ceg ,masset]1 ,m41 #ajh1 #ddj ,masset]ic fossa1 #dh n]ve1 #cgd ,ma/ication1 muscles (1 #ajg ,ma/oid portion ( temporal1 #cd1 #ce process1 #ce1 #ee ,maxilla1 #ci ,maxill>y art]ies1 #bhe1 #bhf1 #bhg ,maxill>y bone1 #ci inf]ior1 #dg n]ve1 #cgj1 #cga sp9e1 #de ,maxilloturb9al1 #dj ,meati ( nose1 #dd1 #fj1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bde ,meatus auditorius ext]nus1 #cb1 #cc1 #eb1 #ee1 #dae1 #daf ext]nal auditory1 #cb1 #cc1 #eb1 #ee1 #dae1 #daf inf]ior1 #fj int]nal auditory1 #ce1 #eh sup]ior1 #dd ,m$ial cunei=m1 #he ,m$iana cubiti1 ,v41 #cai ,m$ian n]ve1 #cij ,m$ia/9al art]y1 #bhb cavity1 #bah lobe ( lung1 #bec ,m$ia/9um1 #bah ,m$ius1 #gb ,m$ulla oblongata1 #cdj1 #cdd ,m$ull>y portion ( kidney1 #bef ,m$ulla sp9alis1 #cce ,meibomian gl&s1 #dji ,membrana nictitans1 #daj tympani1 #dbb ,membrane1 ant]ior atlanto-occipital1 #ag int]osse\s1 #ge1 #ij muc\s1 #bba po/]ior atlanto-occipital1 #ag ,membranes ( bra91 #cfh sp9al cord1 #ccg ,membran\s labyr9?1 #dbe2 prep>ation (1 #dga ,m5+eal art]y1 middle1 #bhi ,m5isci1 #hg2 ligam5ts (1 #ij ,m5tal =am51 #dg n]ves1 #cge ,mes5cephalon1 #cda1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #cea ,mes5t]ic art]ies1 #cjc1 #cjf ,mes5t]ic ganglion1 inf]ior1 #djh2 sup]ior1 #djg gl&s1 #ccc plexus1 inf]ior1 #djh2 sup]ior1 #djh ve91 inf]ior1 #cbh2 sup]ior1 #cbh ,mes5t]y1 #bah1 #bai1 #bcf ,mesocolon1 #bai ,mesocunei=m1 #hd ,mesoga/rium1 #bai ,mesorectum1 #bai ,metac>pals1 #ga muscles (1 #ahe ,metac>pus1 #ga ,metacromion1 #fd ,metapophysis1 #f ,metat>sal art]y1 #cae ,metat>sals1 #he ,metat>sus1 #he ,met5cephalon1 #cda1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #cdg ,midbra91 #cda1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #cea ,middle c]ebral art]y1 #bhi c]vical ganglion1 #dje ,middle e>1 #dbb2 muscles (1 #dbd commissure1 #ced fossa1 #ei m5+eal art]y1 #bhi sacral art]y1 #cja1 #cji2 ve91 #cbh ,m9imus1 #gb2 muscles (1 #ahe ,mitral valve1 #bgi ,modiolus1 #dbe ,mol> gl&1 #bbd tee?1 #bbe ,monroe1 =am5 (1 #cef1 #cfe1 #cfh ,m\ld1 attacks (1 #dcb ,m\/a*i]1 ,m41 #ajg1 #dce ,m\?1 #bba2 gl&s (1 #bbc ,mucosa1 #bba ,muc\s membrane1 #bba ,multangulum majus1 os1 #ga m9us1 os1 #ga ,multifidus sp91 #abd1 #acj1 #ddc ,muscle1 see ,musculus ,muscles1 #ic2 dissection (1 #dcd abdom51 #aec2 dissection1 #dda antibra*ium1 #agb anus1 #bfh arm1 #aef2 dissection (1 #dcg back1 #aae1 #abc2 dissection1 #ddb body1 #aae brea/1 #add2 dissection1 #dcg ( crus1 #bjc digits1 #ahd1 #bac e>1 #if1 #ii1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #dah2 dissection1 #dgj1 #dga ext]nal e>1 #dah eye1 #daa2 dissection (1 #dfi eyelid1 #ig1 #daj1 #dab face1 #if2 dissection1 #dcd f+]s1 #ahe foot1 #bab2 dissection1 #dde =e>m1 #agb =e limb1 #aef2 dissection1 #dcf h&1 #ahd2 dissection1 #dci head1 #if2 dissection1 #dcd1 #ddj h9d limbs1 #ahf2 dissection1 #ddd hip1 #ahf hyoid1 #aab index f+]1 #ahe l>ynx1 #bdi2 dissection (1 #deb lips1 #aje l[] leg1 #bjc ma/ication1 #ajg middle e>1 #dbd m9imus1 #ahe neck1 #aca1 #aci2 dissection1 #dci1 #ddb orbit1 #daa palate1 #bcj2 dissection1 #dea pectoral1 #add pelvic limbs1 #ahf pelvis1 dissection1 #ddf p5is1 #bga ph>ynx1 #bcb2 dissection1 #dea prep>ation (1 #dca %\ld]1 #aae1 #aef sk91 #ic1 #dbg2 dissection1 #dcd tail1 #acf2 dissection1 #ddg t>sus1 #bae ?igh1 #aid ?oracic limbs1 #aef2 dissection1 #dcf ?oracic wall1 #adh ?orax1 #add2 dissection1 #dda ?umb1 #ahd toes1 #bad tongue1 #bbh2 dissection1 #dej ure?ra1 #bga urog5ital organs1 #bfh2 dissection1 #ded vag9a1 #bgb v]tebral column1 #abc1 #ach2 dissection1 #ddb1 #ddf ,musculi pect9ati1 #bgf ,musculocutane\s n]ve1 #chh ,musculospiral n]ve1 #cib ,musculus 7i7 abductor auris brevis1 #ajj1 #dce2 longus1 #ajj1 #dce brevis pollicis1 #ahd1 #dci caud 7coccygis7 ext]nus1 #acg1 #ddg int]nus1 #acg1 #ddf cruris1 #aie digiti qu9ti1 #ahe1 #dci2 secundi1 #ahe m$ius digiti qu9ti1 #bae accel]ator ur91 #bga acromiodeltoideus1 #aeg1 #dch acromiotrapezius1 #aaf1 #dcf adductor auris inf]ior1 #ajd1 #dce2 m$ius1 #dai1 #dgj2 sup]ior1 #dai1 #dgj femoris1 #aih1 #ddd digiti secundi1 #ahe longus1 #aii1 #ddd m$ius digiti qu9ti1 #bae pollicis1 #ahe1 #dci anconeus1 #agj1 #dch2 int]nus1 #agj2 lat]alis1 #afg2 longus1 #afh2 po/]ior1 #afh antitragicus1 #dba1 #dgj aryt5oideus transv]sus1 #bej attoll5s auris1 #ajj auricul>is ant]ior1 #ajd1 #dai2 ext]nus1 #dbj1 #dgj2 po/]ior1 #ii2 sup]ior1 #ajj1 #dce biceps bra*ii1 #afe1 #dch1 #dci2 femoris1 #aid1 #ddd biv5t] c]vicis1 #acb1 #ddc bra*ialis1 #aff1 #dch1 #dci bra*ioradialis1 #agc1 #dch bucc9ator1 #ajf1 #dce bulbocav]nosus1 #bga1 #ded calcaneometat>salis1 #bae1 #dde can9us1 #ajf1 #dce capsul>is1 #aij1 #ddd caudoanalis1 #bgj caudocav]nosus1 #bga caud(emoralis1 #aie1 #ddd caudorectalis1 #bgj caudovag9alis1 #bgb c]atohyoideus1 #aae1 #ddj c]vic(acialis1 #ie clavobra*ialis1 #aeg1 #dcg1 #dci clavotrapezius1 #aah1 #dcf cleidoma/oideus1 #abj1 #dcf1 #ddj coccygeus1 #acg complexus1 #acc1 #ddc compressor ure?r membranace1 #bga1 #ded con*u ext]nus1 #dbb1 #dgj con/rictor cunni1 #bgb ph>yngis inf]ior1 #bcb1 #dea2 m$ius1 #bcc1 #dea2 sup]ior1 #bcc ve/ibuli1 #bgb coracobra*ialis1 #afd cornetocon*u1 #dbb corrugator sup]cilii lat]alis1 #ih1 #dce corrugator sup]cilii m$ialis1 #ig1 #dce crema/]1 #beh crico>yt5oideus lat]alis1 #bea2 po/]ior1 #bdi crico?yreoideus1 #bdi cruralis1 #bjb cutaneus maximus1 #ic1 #dcd deltoideus1 #aef depressor con*1 #ajc1 #dce diga/ricus1 #ajg1 #ddj ectopectoralis1 #ade entopectoralis1 #adf epicranius1 #aja1 #dce epim]alis1 #aij epitro*le>is1 #afd1 #dch ext5sor antibra*ii longus1 #afd brevis digitorum1 #bab1 #dde2 pollicis1 #agh1 #dci c>pi radialis brevis1 #agd1 #dch2 longus1 #agc1 #dch c>pi uln>is1 #agf1 #dci caud lat]alis1 #acg1ddc1 #ddg2 m$ialis1 #acj1 #acf1 #ddc1 #ddg communis digitorum1 #agd1 #dci digitorum lat]alis1 #age1 #dci2 longus1 #baj1 #dde dorsi communis1 #abd indicis proprius1 #agf1 #dci ossis metac>pi pollicis1 #agh flexor brevis digiti qu9ti1 #ahf1 #dci2 secundi1 #ahe digitorum1 #bje1 #bab1 #dde pollicis1 #ahd1 #dci c>pi radialis1 #agi1 #dci2 uln>is1 #ahj1 #dci caud brevis1 #ach1 #ddf2 longus1 #ach1 #ddf longus digitorum1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #dde2 hallucis1 #bjg1 #dde p]=ans1 #aha p]=atus1 #aha pr(undus digitorum1 #aha1 #dci sublimis digitorum1 #aha1 #dci frontalis1 #aja frontoauricul>is1 #ii1 #dce frontoscutul>is1 #ajd1 #dce ga/rocnemius1 #bjc1 #dde gemellus inf]ior1 #aij1 #ddd2 sup]ior1 #ahi1 #ddd g5ioglossus1 #bbh1 #ddj1 #dej g5iohyoideus1 #aac1 #ddj glossoepiglotticus1 #bej glossoph>yngeus1 #bcb1 #dea gluteus maximus1 #ahg1 #ddd2 m$ius1 #ahh1 #ddd2 m9imus1 #ahi1 #ddd2 qu>tus1 #aij gracilis1 #aih1 #ddd helicis1 #dba1 #dgj hyoepiglotticus1 #bej hyoglossus1 #bbh1 #ddj1 #dej iliocaudalis1 #acg1 #ddf ilioco/alis1 #abd1 #abh1 #ddc iliopsoas1 #ach1 #aic1 #ddd1 #ddf incisivi1 #ajg infrasp9atus1 #afj1 #dch int]co/ales ext]ni1 #aej1 #dda2 int]ni1 #aea1 #dda int]m$ius scutulorum1 #if1 #dcd int]ossei1 #ahe1 #bad1 #dci1 #dde int]sp9alis1 #abd1 #aca1 #acf1 #ddc int]transv]s>ii1 #abd1 #aca1 #acf1 #ddc is*iocav]nosus1 #bfi1 #ded1 #dee jugulohyoideus1 #aac1 #ddj latissimus dorsi1 #aba1 #dcg levator anguli oris1 #ajf ani1 #acg1 #bfi1 #ddf1 #ded auris longus1 #ii1 #dce clavicul1 #abj levatores co/>um1 #aej1 #ddc levator labii sup]ioris alque nasi1 #aje1 #dce labii sup]ioris proprius1 #ajf1 #dce palpebr sup]ioris1 #dab scapul1 #abb1 #abc1 #dcg2 dorsalis1 #aah2 v5tralis1 #abj1 #dcf1 #ddj1 #ddc scroti1 #beh1 #bga1 #dec veli palat9i1 #bcj1 #dea vulv1 #bgb1 #dee longissimus capitis1 #abh1 #aca1 #ddc2 c]vicis1 #abh1 #acd2 dorsi1 #abd1 #abf1 #acd1 #ddb longus atlantis1 #acd1 #ddc2 capitis1 #adb1 #ddb2 colli1 #add1 #ddb lumbricales1 #ahd1 #bac1 #dci1 #dde masset]1 #ajh1 #ddj m\/a*i]1 #ajg1 #dce multifidus sp91 #abd1 #acj1 #ddc mylohyoideus1 #aad1 #ddj myrti=mis1 #ajf1 #dce nasalis1 #ajf obliqui1 #daa obliquus abdom9is ext]nus1 #aec1 #dda2 int]nus1 #aed1 #dda capitis inf]ior #acf2 sup]ior1 #acf1 #ddb1 #ddc inf]ior1 #dab1 #ddc sup]ior1 #dab obturator ext]nus1 #aia1 #ddd2 int]nus1 #aib1 #ddd occipitalis1 #aja occipit(rontalis1 #aja occipitoscapul>is1 #aah1 #dcf oppon5s digiti qu9ti1 #ahf1 #bae1 #dci orbicul>is oculi1 #ih1 #dce2 oris1 #aje1 #dce palm>is longus1 #agi1 #dci p>am]alis1 #aie pect9eus1 #bjj1 #ddd pectoantibra*ialis1 #ade1 #dcg pectoralis major1 #ade1 #dcg2 m9or1 #adf1 #dcg p$is p]=atus1 #bje1 #bab p]oneus brevis1 #baj1 #dde2 longus1 #bji1 #dde2 t]tius1 #baj1 #dde plant>is1 #bje1 #dde platysma1 #ie1 #dcd popliteus1 #bjf1 #dde pronator quadratus1 #ahc1 #dci t]es1 #agi1 #dci psoas m9or1 #aci1 #ddf pt]ygoideus ext]nus1 #aaa1 #dda2 int]nus1 #aaa1 #dda pt]ygoph>yngeus1 #bcc pubiocaudalis1 #bfi pyri=mis1 #ahh1 #ddd quadratus femoris1 #aia1 #ddd labii inf]ioris1 #ajg1 #dce2 sup]ioris1 #aje1 #dce lumborum1 #aci1 #ddf plant1 #bac1 #dde quadriceps femoris1 #bja1 #ddd recti1 #daa rectocav]nosus1 #bga rectovag9alis1 #bgb rectus abdom9is1 #aee1 #dda capitis ant]ior major1 #adb2 m9or1 #adc1 #ddb lat]alis1 #adc1 #ddb po/]ior major1 #acd1 #ddc2 m$ius1 #ace1 #ddc2 m9or1 #ace1 #ddc femoris1 #bja1 #ddd inf]ior1 #daa2 lat]alis1 #daa2 m$ialis1 #daa2 sup]ior1 #daa retractor oculi1 #daa2 p5is1 #bga rhomboideus1 #aai1 #dcf2 capitis1 #aah rotator auris1 #dai1 #dgj rotatores1 #aca s>torius1 #aig1 #ddd scal5us1 #ada1 #dda scal5us ant]ior1 #ada1 #adb m$ius1 #ada2 po/]ior1 #ada scaphocunei=mis1 #baf1 #dde scutuloauricul>is inf]ior1 #dai semimembranosus1 #aif1 #ddd semisp9alis capitis1 #acj1 #acb c]vicis1 #acj1 #acc1 #ddc semit5d9osus1 #aif1 #ddd s]ratus ant]ior1 #abb1 #dcg po/]ior inf]ior1 #adh1 #dda2 sup]ior1 #adh1 #dda soleus1 #bje1 #dde sph9ct] ani ext]nus1 #bfh1 #dec2 int]nus1 #bfi1 #ded sp9alis dorsi1 #abd1 #abh1 #abi1 #acc1 #ddc sp9odeltoideus1 #aef1 #dch sp9otrapezius1 #aae1 #dcf spl5ius1 #aca1 #ddc /ap$ius1 #dbd1 #dga /]nocleidoma/oideus1 #abj1 #aci /]noco/alis ext]nus1 #aej2 int]nus1 #aea /]nohyoideus1 #adj1 #ddj /]noma/oideus1 #aci1 #ddj /]no?yreoideus1 #ada1 #ddj /yloglossus1 #bbh1 #ddj1 #dej /ylohyoideus1 #aab1 #ddj /yloph>yngeus1 #bcc1 #dea subm5talis1 #ajc1 #dce subscapul>is1 #afa1 #dcg sup]c]vicocutaneus1 #ie sup9ator1 #agg1 #dci2 longus1 #agc suprasp9atus1 #aei1 #dch temporalis1 #aaj1 #ddj t5sor fasci lat1 #ahg1 #ddd tympani1 #dbd1 #dga veli palat9i1 #bcj1 #dea t5uissimus1 #aie1 #ddd t]es major1 #afc1 #dcg1 #dch2 m9or1 #afa1 #dch ?yreo>yt5oideus1 #bea ?yreohyoideus1 #bdi tibialis ant]ior1 #baa1 #dde2 po/]ior1 #bjh1 #dde tra*eloma/oideus1 #aca tragicus lat]alis1 #dah1 #dce2 m$ialis1 #dba1 #dgj transv]sus abdom9is1 #aee1 #dda2 auricul1 #dbj1 #dgj2 co/>um1 #aej1 #dda2 p]9ei1 #bfi2 ?oracis1 #aea1 #dda trapezius1 #aae1 #dcf triangul>is /]ni1 #aea triceps bra*ii1 #aff1 #dch sur1 #bjf ure?ralis1 #bgc va/us int]m$ius1 #bjc1 #dde2 lat]alis1 #bja1 #dde2 m$ialis1 #bjb1 #dde xiphihum]alis1 #adg1 #dcg zygomaticus 7major71 #aja1 #dce2 m9or1 #aje1 #dce ,myel5cephalon1 #cdj1 #cdc1 #cdd ,mylohyoid muscle1 #aad1 #ddj ,myrti=mis1 ,m41 #ajf1 #dce ,nails1 #dbg ,names ( organs1 v ,names ( v]tebral muscles1 #abd ,n>es1 #ea1 #fj1 #bdd po/]ior1 #fj ,nasal bone1 #db cavity1 #ei1 #bdc con*a1 sup]ior1 #db2 v5tral1 #dj cre/1 #dj1 #db ,nasalis1 ,m41 #ajf ,nasal n]ve1 po/]ior1 #cgb process1 #da sp9e1 #cg2 po/]ior1 #de ve9s1 ext]nal1 #cba ,nasola*rymal canal1 #dj1 #dg1 #ed1 #daj duct1 #dj1 #dg1 #daj ,nasoph>ynx1 #bca ,nasoturb9al bone1 #db ,navicul>1 #fi1 #hb ,navicul>e p$is1 os1 #hd ,neck1 art]ies (1 #bhc1 #bic muscles (1 #aca1 #aci dissection1 #dci1 #ddb n]ves (1 #chc ve9s (1 #cbj ,n]ve1 see ,n]vus4 ,n]ves1 c]vical1 #chc coccygeal1 #djd cranial1 #cfi lumb>1 #cid ( foot1 #djb ( head1 #cfi ( neck1 #chc ( palm1 #cic ( %\ld]1 #chg ( tail1 #djd ( ta/e1 #cgh sacral1 #cii sp9al1 #ccg1 #chc sympa!tic1 #djd ?oracic1 #cic ,n]v\s sy/em1 #cce2 dissection1 #dfa1 #dfe2 prep>ation1 #dfa2 sympa!tic1 #djd ,n]vus abduc5s1 #cdg1 #cge accessorius1 #cdf1 #chb acu/icus1 #cdg1 #cgg alveol>is inf]ior1 #cgd1 #cge auricul>is1 #cgi auricul>is magnus1 #che2 po/]ior1 #cgg auriculotemporalis1 #cgc axill>is1 #chh buccalis1 #cgg bucc9atorius1 #cgd canalis pt]ygoidii1 #cgb c]ebrales1 #cfi c>diacus1 #chj1 #dje1 #djf *orda tympani1 #cge1 #cgf cili>is brevis1 #cgj cili>is longus1 #cga circumflexus1 #chh cutaneus colli1 #che femoris lat]alis1 #cif2 po/]ior1 #djc m$ialis1 #cij dorsalis p5is1 #djc e?moidalis1 #cga facialis1 #cdg1 #cge femoralis1 #cig frontalis1 #cgj g5it(emoralis1 #cif glossoph>yngeus1 #cdg1 #cgh gluteus inf]ior1 #cii2 sup]ior1 #cii hemorrhoidalis inf]ior1 #djd2 m$ius1 #djc hypoglossus1 #cdf1 #chc iliohypoga/ricus1 #cie ilio+u9alis1 #cie infraorbitalis1 #cgb infratro*le>is1 #cga int]osseus dorsalis1 #cib2 po/]ior1 #cij is*iadicus1 #djj la*rymalis1 #cga l>yngeus inf]ior1 #chj2 sup]ior1 #chj l+ualis1 #cge lumbo+u9alis1 #cif m&ibul>is1 #cgj1 #cgc masset]icus1 #cgd maxill>is1 #cgj1 #cga m$ianus1 #cij m5talis1 #cge musculocutaneus1 #chh nasalis po/]ior1 #cgb obturatorius1 #cig occipitalis major1 #chd oculomotorius1 #ceb1 #cfi olfactorius1 #cfi oph?almicus1 #cgj opticus1 #cdb1 #ced1 #cee1 #cfi1 #dab palat9us major1 #cgb2 m9or1 #cgb pa!ticus 7tro*le>is71 #cej1 #cgj p]oneus communis1 #djj2 pr(undus1 #djb2 sup]ficialis1 #djb petrosus pr(undus1 #cgc1 #dje2 sup]ficialis major1 #cgc1 #cge ph>yngeus1 #cgi phr5icus1 #chh plant>is lat]alis1 #djc2 m$ialis1 #djc pt]ygoideus1 #cgd pud5dus1 #djc radialis1 #cib2 sup]ficialis1 #cib saph5us1 #cig sph5opalat9us1 #cgb splan*nicus major1 #djf2 m9or1 #djg subcutaneus mal1 #cgb suboccipitalis1 #chd subscapul>es1 #chh suprascapul>is1 #chh suralis1 #djj temporalis pr(undus1 #cgd ?oracicus ant]ior1 #chg2 po/]ior1#chh tibialis1 #djb trifacialis1 #cgj trigem9us1 #cdg1 #cgj tro*le>is1 #cej1 #cgj uln>is1 #cic vagus1 #cdf1 #cgh vidianus1 #cgb zygomaticus1 #cgb1 #cgg ,neurapophysis1 #d ,nictitat+ membrane1 #daj ,n9? cranial n]ve1 #cdg1 #cgh ,nipples1 #bfh ,nom5clature1 v ,nose1 #bdc ,not*1 jugul>1 #bd ,numb] ( bones1 #a ,oblique muscles ( eye1 #dab ,obliquus abdom9is ext]nus1 ,m41 #aec1 #dda2 int]nus1 ,m41 #aed1 #dda2 capitis inf]ior1 ,m41 #acf1 #ddc2 sup]ior1 ,m41 #acf1 #ddb1 #ddc ,obturator ext]nus1 ,m41 #aia1 #ddd =am51 #gf int]nus1 ,m41 #aib1 #ddd n]ve1 #cig ,occipital art]y1 #bhe bone1 #bb condyle1 #bc1 #eb1 #ee cre/1 ext]nal1 #bd1 #eb lobe1 #ceh muscle1 #aja n]ve1 great1 #chd protub]ance1 #bd tub]cle1 ext]nal1 #eb ve91 #cba ,occipit(rontal muscle1 #aja ,occipitoscapul>is1 ,m41 #aah1 #dcf ,oculomotor n]ve1 #ceb1 #cfi ,odontoid process1 #ad1 #ae sophageal art]ies1 #bhc ve9s1 #cah sophagus1 #bcd ,olecranon1 #fi fossa1 #ff ,olfactory bulb1 #cda1 #cfb fossa1 #ei mucosa1 #bde n]ve1 #cfi organ1 #bde1 #dbf tract1 #cfb ,oliva1 #cde ,om5tal sac1 #bai ,om5tum1 ga/roli5al1 #bbj ga/rospl5ic1 #bbj great1 #bai1 #bce less]1 #bbj ,oph?almic art]y1 #bhi ganglion1 #cfi n]ve1 #cgj ,oppon5s digiti qu9ti1 ,m41 #ahf1 #bae1 #dci ,optic *iasma1 #cdb1 #ced1 #cee1 #cfi =am51 #bi1 #ed1 #ei n]ves1 #cdb1 #ced1 #cee1 #cfi1 #dab tract1 #ced1 #cee ,ora s]rata1 #dad ,orbicul>is oculi1 ,m41 #ih1 #dce oris1 ,m41 #aje1 #dce ,orbit1 #dji muscles (1 #daa ,orbital fissure1 #bg1 #ed1 #ei fossa1 #ec gl&1 #bbd gyrus1 #cfj ligam5t1 #dg plate1 #cg process1 #dg ,orbitosph5oid1 #bi ,organon auditus1 #dae gu/us1 #dbg olfactus1 #dbf visus1 #dji ,os calcis1 #hc capitatum1 #gj cox1 #gf cuboideum1 #hb1 #hd cunei=me primum1 #he2 secundum1 #hd2 t]tium1 #hd e?moidale1 #db frontale1 #cg hamatum1 #gj hyoideum1 #di incisivum1 #da innom9atum1 #gf int]p>ietale1 #be la*rymale1 #df l5ticul>e1 #dbd magnum1 #gj multangulum majus1 #ga2 m9us1 #ga nasale1 #db navicul>e p$is1 #hd occipitale1 #bb palat9um1 #de p>ietale1 #cf p5is1 #bfc pisi=me1 #gj presph5oidale1 #bi sacrum1 #h scapholun>is1 #gj sph5oidale1 #be temporale1 #cj triquetrum1 #gj ut]i1 #bff zygomaticum1 #dg ,ossa sesamoidea1 #gc1 #hj1 #hf ,ossicula auditus1 #dbc ,o/ium tub abdom9ale1 #bfd ,ov>ian art]y1 #cjf ,ov>y1 #bfc1 #bfd ,oviducts1 #bfc1 #bfd ,pads ( feet1 #dbg ,palate1 h>d1 #ef1 #bbb muscles1 #bcj2 dissection1 #dea s(t1 #bbb1 #bbi ,palat9e art]ies1 #bij bones1 #de canal1 ant]ior1 #da2 po/]ior1 #de1 #df1 #ed1 #ef =am51 ant]ior1 #eg grooves1 #da1 #ef n]ve1 great]1 #cgb2 less]1 #cgb process1 #dj ,palatum durum1 #ef1 #bbb ,palm> ar*1 #cjj int]osse1 #cjj ,palm>is longus1 ,m41 #agi1 #dci ,palpebr1 #dji ,palpebral ve91 inf]ior1 #cba2 sup]ior1#cba ,pancreas1 #bda ,aselli1 #ccc ,pancreatic ducts1 #bdb ,pancreaticoduod5alis inf]ior1 ,a41 #cjc2 sup]ior1 ,a41 #cjc2 ,v41 #cbf ,papill ( tongue1 #bbg ,papilla ( kidney1 #bef ,p>am]alis1 ,m41 #aie ,p>ietal bone1 #cf em95ce1 #cf1 #ea lay] ( p]itoneum1 #bag1 #bah tub]cle1 #cf1 #ea ,p>k] & ,floyd's mixture1 #dfc ,p>otid duct1 #bbb1 #bbc gl&1 #bbc ,patella1 #hj patell> ligam5t1 #hh surface ( femur1 #hj ,pa!ticus 7tro*le>is71 ,n41 #cej1 #cgj ,pect9eus1 ,m41 #bjj1 #ddd ,pectoantibra*ialis1 ,m41 #ade1 #dcg ,pectoralis major1 ,m41 #ade1 #dcg2 m9or1 ,m41 #adf1 #dcg ,pectoral muscles1 #add1 #dcg ridge1 #ff ,p$icle1 #d ,p$is p]=atus1 ,m41 #bje1 #bab ,p$uncles ( c]ebrum1 #cea ,p$unculus c]ebelli1 #cdf c]ebri1 #cea ,pelvic ar*1 #gf cavity1 #bah extremities1 bones (1 #gf girdle1 #gf limbs1 jo9ts & ligam5ts (1 #hf muscles1 #ahf2 dissection1 #ddd symphysis1 #hg ,pelvis1 bones (1 #gf ( kidney1 #bef ligam5ts (1 #hf ,p5is1 #beg1 #bfb art]ies (1 #cjh muscles (1 #bga n]ves (1 #djc ,p]ic>dium1 #bgi ,p]9eum1 #bfh ,p]iorbita1 #dji ,p]iph]al n]v\s sy/em1 #cfi2 dissection1 #dfe ,p]itoneal cavity1 #bah2 less]1 #bai ,p]itoneum1 #bah ,p]oneal groove1 #hd tub]cle1 #hd ,p]oneus brevis1 ,m41 #baj1 #dde communis1 ,n41 #djj longus1 ,m41 #bji1 #dde pr(undus1 ,n41 #djb sup]ficialis1 ,n41 #djb t]tius1 ,m41 #baj1 #dde ,pes1 #he ,petrosal ganglion1 #cgh n]ve1 deep1 #cgc1 #dje2 great sup]ficial1 #cgc1 #cge s9us1 inf]ior1 #cbe ,petr\s portion ( temporal bone1 #cc ,pey]'s gl&s1 #bcg1 #bch pat*es1 #bcg1 #bch ,phalanges1 #gb1 #hf2 ligam5ts (1 #gf ,ph>yngeal n]ve1 #cgi ,ph>ynx1 #bca muscles1 #bcb2 dissection1 #dea ,phr5ic art]y1 #cjd n]ve1 #chh ve91 #cbf ,pia mat]1 #ccg1 #cfi ,pill>s ( fauces1 #bcj =nix1 #cfc1 #cfd ,p9eal body1 #cea1 #cee ,p9na1 #dae ,pisi=m bone1 #gj ,pituit>y body1 #cef ,plant> ar*1 #cad1 #ccj ligam5ts1 #ib n]ves1 #djc ,plant>is1 ,m41 #bje1 #dde ,platysma1 ,m41 #ie1 #dcd ,pleura1 #bag ,plexus1 ant]ior ga/ric1 #chb aortic1 #djh bra*ial1 #chf c>diac1 #chj1 #chb1 #dje c>otid1 #bhg c]vical1 #chf cliac1 #djf hepatic1 #djh inf]ior mes5t]ic1 #djh lumb>1 #cie lumbosacral1 #cif po/]ior ga/ric1 #chb pulmon>y1 #chb r5al1 #djh sacral1 #cii sol>1 #djf spl5ic1 #djh sup]ior mes5t]ic1 #djh supr>5al1 #djh ,plica aryepiglottica1 #bdf glossoepiglottica1 #bbg1 #bdf semilun>is1 #daj ,pollex1 #gb ,plic cili>es1 #dac ,pons1 #cda1 #cdg ,popliteal art]y1 #caa1 #cab bone1 #bjf gl&1 #ccd not*1 #ha ve91 #ccj ,popliteus1 ,m41 #bjf1 #dde ,portal ve91 #cbf ,portio m9or 7( fif? n]ve71 #cgc ,po/]ior auricul> art]y1 #bhg circumflex art]y1 #bif commissure1 #cee facial ve91 #cbc inf]ior sp9e1 #gg p]=at$ area1 #ceb sulcus1 #cei ,sylvian gyrus1 #cei ?oracic n]ve1 #chh tibial art]y1 #cac ,po/gl5oid process1 #cb ,po/m&ibul> process1 #cb1 #cc ,po/orbital process1 #ch ,po/zygapophysis1 #d ,p\p>t's ligam5t1 #aec ,practical directions1 #dbi ,prsylvian sulcus1 #cfj ,premaxilla1 #da ,premaxill>y bone1 #da ,premol> tee?1 #bbe ,prep>ation ( bones1 #dcj ligam5ts1 #dca ( visc]a1 #ddg ,prepuce1 #beg1 #bfb1 #bfg ,pres]vation ( mat]ial1 #dca ,pres]vatives = anatomical mat]ial1 #dca ,presph5oid bone1 #be1 #bi ,prezygapophyses1 #d ,pr9ceps pollicis et indicis1 ,a41 #cjj ,pr(unda bra*ii1 ,a41 #bif femoris1 ,a41 #cji ,process1 accessory1 #f1 #h acromion1 #fb1 #fd alveol>1 #ci angul>1 #ai1 #dh ant]ior cl9oid1 #bi2 sup]ior1 #gh2 transv]se1 #aa articul>1 #d1 #f1 #h condyloid1 #dh coracoid1 #fc1 #fd coronoid1 #dh1 #fi frontal1 #ci1 #dj1 #dg1 #ea hmal1 #aa hamul>1 #bh jugul>1 #bd1 #eb1 #ee l5ticul>1 #dbd mammill>y1 #f1 #h ma/oid1 #ce1 #ee nasal1 #da odontoid1 #ad1 #ae orbital1 #dg palat9e1 #dj po/]ior cl9oid1 #bf po/gl5oid1 #cb po/m&ibul>1 #cb1 #ec po/orbital1 #ch pseudotransv]se1 #h1 #i pt]ygoid1 #bf1 #bh sp9\s1 #c1 #f1 #h /yli=m1 #cc1 #ef transv]se1 #d1 #f1 #h1 #ab xiphoid1 #bj zygomatic1 #ca1 #cb1 #ch1 #dj1 #dg1 #ea ,processus co/>ius1 #ac unc9atus1 #dag ,promontory1 #cd ,pronator muscles ( =e>m1 #agi quadratus1 ,m41 #ahc1 #dci t]es1 ,m41 #agi1 #dci ,pros5cephalon1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #ceb ,pro/ate gl&1 #bfa ,protub]ance1 ext]nal occipital1 #bd ,pseudotransv]se process1 #h1 #i ,psoas m9or1 ,m41 #aci1 #ddf ,pt]ygoid bone1 #be canal1 #bg1 #ef1 #ei2 n]ve (1 #cgb ,pt]ygoideus ext]nus1 ,m41 #aaa1 #dda2 int]nus1 ,m41 #aaa1 #dda ,pt]ygoid fossa1 ext]nal1 #cj1 #ec2 int]nal1 #bh1 #ed muscles1 #aaa n]ves1 #cgd process1 #bf1 #bh ,pt]ygoph>yngeus1 ,m41 #bcc ,pubic tub]cle1 #gh ,pubiocaudalis1 ,m41 #bfi ,pubis1 #gf1 #gh ,pud5dus1 ,n41 #djc ,pulmon>y art]y1 #bge1 #bgh1 #bhj ligam5t1 #bec plexus1 #chb s9uses1 #bgh ve9s1 #bge1 #bgi1 #cae ,pulmones1 #beb ,pulv9>1 #ced ,pupil1 #dac1 #dad ,pyloric art]y1 #cjb valve1 #bce ,pyramidal tracts1 #cde ,pyramides1 #cde ,pyri=mis1 ,m41 #ahh1 #ddd ,quadratus femoris4 ,m41 #aia1 #dd labii inf]ioris1 ,m41 #ajg1 #dce2 sup]ioris1 ,m41 #aje1 #dce lumborum1 ,m41 #aci1 #ddf plant1 ,m41 #bac1 #dde ,quadriceps femoris1 ,m41 #bja1 #ddd ,radial art]y1 #big fossa1 #ff n]ve1 #cib2 sup]ficial1 #cib not*1 #fi recurr5t art]y1 #bih sesamoid1 #gc ,radio uln> articulation1 #ge ,radius1 #fg ,radix1 #d2 ( lungs1 #beb ,rami ( sp9al n]ves1 #cci ,ramus ( is*ium1 #gh ( m&ible1 #dg1 #dh ( pubis1 #gh ,receptaculum *yli1 #ccc2 demon/ration (1 #dfj ,rectocav]nosus1 ,m41 #bga ,rectovag9alis1 ,m41 #bgb ,rectovesical p\*1 #bff ,rectum1 #bci2 ligam5ts (1 #bai ,rectus abom9is1 ,m41 #aee1 #dda capitis ant]ior major1 ,m41 #adb2 m9or1 #adc1 #ddb lat]alis1 ,m41 #adc1 #ddb po/]ior major1 ,m41 #acd1 #ddc2 m$ius1 ,m41 #ace1 #ddc2 m9or1 ,m41 #ace1 #ddc femoris1 ,m41 #bja1 #ddd muscles ( eye1 #daa ,ref]5ce works1 #dbi ,removal ( bra91 #dfb ,r51 #bee ,r5al art]y1 #cjd plexus1 #djh ve9s1 #cbf ,respiratory n]ve1 int]nal1 #chh organs1 #bdc2 dissection1 #deb ,ret9a1 #dad ,retractor oculi1 ,m41 #daa p5is1 ,m41 #bga ,rh95cephalon1 #cfb ,rhomb5cephalon1 #cda1 #cdd ,rhomboideus1 ,m41 #aai1 #dcf capitis1 ,m41 #aah ,ribs1 #ah false1 #ai float+1 #ai true1 #ai ,ridge deltoid1 #ff lambdoidal1 #bd1 #ej1 #eb pectoral1 #ff supracondyloid1 #fg ,rol&o1 column (1 #cdf ,roots ( sp9al n]ves1 #cch ,rotator auris1 ,m41 #dai1 #dgj ,rotatores1 ,mm41 #aca ,r\nd ligam5t ( femur1 #hg1 #bbj1 #bfg ,sacral art]ies1 #cja1 #cji canal1 #h =am9a1 #i1 #aj n]ves1 #cii plexus1 #cii ve91 middle1 #cbh v]tebr1 #a1 #h ,sacrum1 #a1 #h ,sagittal cre/1 #be1 #ej s9us1 #cf1 #cbd ,saliv>y gl&s1 #bbc ,santor9i1 duct (1 #bdb ,saph5\s art]y1 #caa n]ve1 #cig ve9s1 #cbi1 #ccj ,s>torius1 ,m41 #aig1 #ddd ,scal1 #dbe ,scala tympani1 #dbe ve/ibuli1 #dbe ,scal5us1 ,m41 #ada1 #dda ,scapha1 #daf ,scaphocunei=mis1 ,m41 #baf1 #dde ,scapholun> bone1 #gj ,scaphoid bone1 #fi1 #hb1 #hd ,scapula1 #fb2 muscles (1 #afj ,sc>pa's triangle1 #caj ,sciatic n]ve1 great1 #djj not*1 great1 #gg2 less]1 #gh ,scl]a1 #dac ,scl]otic1 #dab1 #dac ,scrotum1 #beg1 #beh ,scuti=m c>tilage1 #dah ,scutuloauricul>is inf]ior1 ,m41 #dai ,second cranial n]ve1 #cdb1 #ced1 #cfi1 #dab ,sella turcica1 #bf1 #ei ,semicircul> canals1 #dbe1 #dbf2 demon/ration1 #dga ,semilun> c>tilages1 #hg ganglion1 #cdg1 #cgj1 #djf not*1 #fi t5don1 #aea valve1 #bgh1 #bgi ,semimembranosus1 ,m41 #aif1 #ddd ,semisp9alis 7mean+71 #abd capitis1 ,m41 #acj1 #acb c]vicis1 ,m41 #acj1 #acc1 #ddc ,semit5d9osus1 ,m41 #aif1 #ddd ,s5se-organs1 #dji2 dissection1 #dfi ,s]\s cov]+1 #bai ,s]ratus ant]ior1 ,m41 #abb1 #dcg ,s]ratus po/]ior inf]ior1 ,m41 #adh1 #dda2 sup]ior1 ,m41 #adh1 #dda ,sesamoid bones1 #gc1 #hj1 #hf ,sev5? cranial n]ve1 #cgd1 #cge ,%\ld]-jo9t1 #gc muscles (1 #aae1 #aef n]ves (1 #chg ,sight1 organ (1 #dji ,sigmoid cavity1 great1 #fi gyrus1 #cfj ,s9us cav]nosus1 #cbe column v]tebralis1 #cbe ,s9uses1 frontal1 #ch1 #fa ( dura mat]1 #cbd sph5oidal1 #bi1 #fa ,s9us ( kidney1 #bee ( v]tebral column1 #cbe petrosus inf]ior1 #cbe sagittalis sup]ior1 #cbd transv]sus1 #cbd ,six? cranial n]ve1 #cdg1 #cge ,skeleton1 #a2 prep>ation1 #dcj ,sk91 #dbg muscles1 #ic1 #dbg2 dissection1 #dcd ,skull1 #ba1 #di dis>ticulation (1 #dcj jo9ts & ligam5ts (1 #fa sutures (1 #fa ,small inte/9e1 #bcf ,smell1 organ (1 #dbf ,soap-mixture = bones1 #dcj ,s(t palate1 #bbi2 muscles (1 #bcj ,soleus1 ,m41 #bje1 #dde ,sole ( foot1 muscles (1 #bab ,sol> plexus1 #djf ,solit>y gl&s1 #bcg ,sp]matic art]y1 ext]nal1 #cji2 int]nal1 #cjd cord1 #beh ve91 int]nal1 #cbf ,sph5oid bone1 #be ,sph5oidal s9us1 #bi1 #fa ,sph5opalat9e art]y1 #bij =am51 #df1 #ed ganglion1 #cgb n]ve1 #cgb ,sph9ct] ani ext]nus1 ,m41 #bfh1 #dec2 int]nus1 ,m41 #bfi1 #ded ,spigelian lobe ( liv]1 #bda ,sp9al accessory n]ve1 #cdf1 #chb art]y1 ant]ior1 #bia column1 #a cord1 #cce2 dissection1 #dfa ,sp9alis1 #abd dorsi1 ,m41 #abd1 #abh1 #abi1 #acc1 #ddc ,sp9al ganglia1 #cch n]ves1 #ccg1 #chc2 dissection (1 #dfg ve9s1 #cbe ,sp9e1 frontal1 #cg maxill>y1 #de nasal1 #cg ( helix1 #dag is*ium1 #gg1 #gh scapula1 #fb1 #fc tibia1 #ha po/]ior inf]ior1 #gg po/]ior nasal1 #de ,sp9odeltoid muscle1 #aef1 #dch ,sp9otrapezius1 ,m41 #aae1 #dcf ,sp9\s processes1 #c1 #f1 #h ,spiral l9e or ridge1 #gi ,splan*nic n]ves1 #djf1 #djg ,sple51 #bdb ,spl5ial sulcus1 #cfa1 #cfb ,spl5ic art]y1 #cjc plexus1 #djh ,spl5ius1 ,m41 #aca1 #ddc ,squama occipitalis1 #bb temporalis1 #ca ,/ap$ius1 ,m41 #dbd1 #dga ,/apes1 #dbd ,/>* injection mass1 #def ,/5on's duct1 #bbc ,/5o's duct1 #bbb1 #bbc ,/5son's duct1 #bbb ,/]nocleidoma/oid muscle1 #abj1 #aci ,/]noco/alis ext]nus1 ,m41 #aej int]nus1 ,m41 #aea ,/]nohyoid muscle1 #adj1 #ddj ,/]noma/oid muscle1 #aci1 #ddj ,/]no?yroid muscle1 #ada1 #ddj ,/]num1 #bj ,/oma*1 #bcd art]ies (1 #cjc ,/ri m$ull>es1 #cdi1 #ced ,/udy1 ord] (1 #dbi ,/yli=m process1 #cc1 #ef ,/yloglossus1 ,m41 #bbh1 #ddj1 #dej ,/ylohyal1 #di ,/ylohyoid muscle1 #aab1 #ddj ,/yloid process1 #fh1 #fi ,/ylom&ibul> ligam5t1 #fb1 #bbh ,/yloma/oid =am51 #cc1 #cd1 #eb1 #ee ,/yloph>yngeus1 ,m41 #bcc1 #dea ,subclavian art]y1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bij ve91 #cah ,subcutaneus mal n]ve1 #cgb ,subl+ual gl&1 #bbd ,submaxill>y gl&1 #bbc ,subm5tal art]y1 #bhf ,subm5talis1 ,m41 #ajc1 #dce ,subm5tal ve91 #cba1 #cbc ,suboccipital n]ve1 #chd ,subscapul> art]y1 #bid fossa1 #fc ,subscapul>is1 ,m41 #afa1 #dcg ,subscapul> n]ves1 #chh ,sub/antia p]=ata ant]ior1 #cfb2 po/]ior1 #ceb ,sulci ( c]ebellum1 #cdh c]ebrum1 #cei m$ulla oblongata1 #cde sp9al cord1 #cce ,sulcus ansatus1 #cfj ant]ior1 #cei basil>is1 #cdg callosalis1 #cfb coronalis1 #cfj coron>ius1 #bgd cruciatus1 #cfj1 #cfa ectosylvius1 #cei falcialis1 #cfa hippocampal1 #cfb hypo?alamicus1 #ced int]tub]cul>is1 #ff lat]alis1 #cfj m>g9alis1 #cfa palat9us1 #da1 #ef po/]ior1 #cei po/rh9alis1 #cfa prsylvius1 #cfj rh9alis1 #cfj2 po/]ior1 #cfa1 #cfb spl5ialis1 #cfa1 #cfb supracallosalis1 #cfb supraorbitalis1 #cfj suprasylvius1 #cei ,sup]c]vicocutaneus1 ,m41 #ie ,sup]ficial temporal art]y1 #bhg ,sup]ior c]vical ganglion1 #djd ,sup9ator1 ,m41 #agg1 #dci2 longus1 ,m41 #agc ,supracallosal sulcus1 #cfb ,supracondyloid =am51 #fg ridge1 #fg ,supragl5oidal tub]cle1 #fd ,supraoccipital bone1 #bb ,supraorbital ar*1 #cg1 #ea sulcus1 #cfj ,supr>5al body1 #beg plexus1 #djh ,suprascapul> art]y1 #bic n]ve1 #chh not*1 #fd ,suprasp9atus1 ,m41 #aei1 #dch ,suprasp9\s fossa1 #fc ligam5t1 #af ,suprasylvian gyrus1 #cfj sulcus1 #bei ,sural art]y1 #cac n]ve1 #djj ,susp5sory ligam5t1 #bai1 #bbj1 #beg ,su/5taculum tali1 #hd ,sutures ( skull1 #fa ,sylvius1 aqu$uct (1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #cej1 #cea1 #ceb fissure (1 #ceh ,sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em1 #djd2 dissection1 #dfe ,symphysis ( jaw1 #dg1 #fa m5ti1 #dg1 #fa pelvis1 #gf pubis1 #gf1 #gh ,sy/ema lymphaticum1 #ccj n]vorum sympa!ticum1 #djd ,tail1 art]ies (1 #cji muscles (1 #acf ,tail muscles1 dissection (1 #ddg ,tail1 n]ves (1 #djd ve9s (1 #cbh v]tebr (1 #aa ,talus1 #hb ,tapetum1 #dac ,t>sal gl&s1 #dji ,t>sea m$ialis1 ,a41 #cae ,t>sus1 #hb jo9ts & ligam5ts (1 #ia muscles (1 #bae ,ta/e-buds1 #dbg ,ta/e1 n]ve (1 #cgh organs (1 #dbg ,tee?1 #bbd decidu\s1 #bbf ,tegm5 tympani1 #ce ,tel5cephalon1 #cda1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #ceg ,temporal art]ies1 #bhg ,temporal bone1 #cj ,temporal fossa1 #ea1 #ec ,temporal lobe1 #ceh ,temporal muscle1 #aaj1 #ddj ,temporal n]ve1 deep1 #cgd ,temporal n]ves1 #cgc1 #cgd1 #cgg ,temporal ve91 sup]ficial1 #cbd ,t5do calcaneus1 #bjd1 #bjf ,t5don ( ,a*illes1 #bjd1 #bjf ,t5sor fasci lat ,m41 #ahg1 #ddd tympani1 ,m41 #dbd1 #dga veli palat9i1 ,m41 #bcj1 #dea ,t5? cranial n]ve1 #cdf1 #cgh ,t5torium1 #cf1 #eh ,t5uissimus1 ,m4 #aie1 #ddd ,t]es major1 ,m41 #afc1 #dcg1 #dch ,t]es m9or1 ,m41 #afa1 #dch ,t]ms ( direction1 vii ,te/es1 #beh1 #bei ,?alamus1 #ceb1 #cec ,!besius1 valve (1 #bgg ,?igh1 bones (1 #gi fascia (1 #ahf muscles (1 #aid ,?ird cranial n]ves1 #ceb1 #cfi v5tricle1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #cef ,?oracic aorta1 #bha cavity1 #bag extremities1 bones (1 #fb duct1 #cbj1 #cca1 #ccc #dfj ganglia1 #djf limbs1 muscles (1 #aef2 jo9ts & ligam5ts1 #gc n]ves1 #cic n]ves1 ant]ior1 #chg n]ve1 po/]ior1 #chh ,?oracicodorsalis1 ,a41 #bif ,?oracic v]tebr1 #a wall1 muscles (1 #adh ,?orax1 bones (1 #ah lymphatics (1 #ccc muscles (1 #add ,?umb1 muscles (1 #ahd ,?ymus gl&1 #bed ,?yro>yt5oid muscle1 #bea ,?yroc]vical axis1 #bic ,?yrohyal1 #di ,?yrohyoid muscle1 #bdi ,?yroid art]ies1 #bhd ,?yroid c>tilage1 #bdg gl&1 #bed ,tibia1 #hj ,tibial art]y1 ant]ior1 #cac ,tibialis ant]ior1 ,m41 #baa1 #dde2 po/]ior1 ,m41 #bjh1 #dde ,tibial n]ve1 #djb recurr5t art]y1 #cad ,toes1 bones (1 #hf muscles (1 #bad ,tongue1 #bbf muscles (1 #bbh2 dissection1 #dej ,tonsils1 #bcj ,too? =mula1 #bbd ,topographical t]ms1 vii ,trabeculae1 #bgg c>ne1 #bgh ,tra*ea1 #bea ,tra*eloma/oid muscle1 #aca ,tracts1 pyramidal1 #cde ,tractus olfactorius1 #cfb opticus1 #ced1 #cee po/rh9alis1 #cfa1 #cfb transv]sus p$uncul>is1 #cea1 #ceb ,tragicus lat]alis1 ,m41 #dah1 #dce m$ialis1 ,m41 #dba1 #dgj ,tragus1 #dag ,transv]sa1 ,v41 #cba colli1 ,a41 #bic scapul1 ,a41 #bic2 ,v41 #cbj ,transv]se co/al facet1 #d ,transv]se ligam5t1 #ah1 #hg1 #ia1 #agb process1 #d1 #f1 #h1 #ab s9us1 #cbd ,transv]sosp9alis1 #abd ,transv]sus abdom9is1 ,m41 #aee1 #dda auricul1 ,m41 #dbj1 #dgj co/>um1 ,m41 #aej1 #dda p]9ei1 ,m41 #bfi ?oracis1 ,m41 #aea1 #dda ,trapezium1 #ga 7bra971 #cde ,trapezius1 ,m41 #aae1 #dcf ,trapezoid1 #ga ,triangle1 ,sc>pa's1 #caj ,triangul>is /]ni1 ,m41 #aea ,triangul> ligam5t1 #bba ,triceps bra*ii1 ,m41 #aff1 #dch sur1 ,m41 #bjf ,tricuspid valve1 #bgg ,trifacial n]ve1 #cgj ,trigem9al n]ve1 #cdg1 #cgj ,triquetrum1 os1 #gj ,tro*ant]1 great1 #gi ,tro*ant]ic fossa1 #gi ,tro*ant]1 less]1 #gi ,tro*lea 7a/ragalus71 #hc 7hum]us71 #ff ,tro*le>is n]ve1 #cej1 #cgj ,true ribs1 #ai ,truncus co/oc]vicalis1 #bib ?yroc]vicalis1 #bic ,tuba auditiva1 #ef1 #dbc ,tub] c9]eum1 #cee ,tub]cle1 ext]nal occipital1 #eb p]oneal1 #hd pubic1 #gh ( rib1 #ai ,tub]cul> facet1 #d ,tub]culum ant]ius1 #ad articul>e1 #cb sell1 #bf ,tunica albug9ea1 #bfj d>tos1 #beh fibrosa1 #bee vag9alis communis1 #beh2 propria1 #beh ,tub]osity1 great1 #fe less]1 #fe ( is*ium1 #gh ( scapula1 #fc ( tibia1 #hj ,turb9als1 #dj1 #db ,twelf? cranial n]ve1 #cdf1 #chc ',twe5 bra91 #cdb1 #ceb ,tympanic bone1 #ca1 #cb bulla1 #ca1 #cb1 #ee1 #dbb cavity1 #dbb membrane1 #dbb ,tympanohyal1 #di ,ulna1 #fh ,uln> art]y1 #cjj n]ve1 #cic recurr5t art]y1 #bih ,umbilical art]y1 #cjg ve91 #cbi2 ftal1 #bbj ,unci=m bone1 #gj ,uret]1 #bef ,ure?ra1 #beg1 #bfa2 muscles (1 #bga ,ure?ralis1 ,m41 #bgc ,urog5ital organs1 #bee2 dissection (1 #dec2 muscles (1 #bfh s9us1 #bfc1 #bfg sy/em1 #bee ,ut]9e art]y1 #cjh tubes1 #bfc1 #bfd ,ut]us1 #bfc1 #bff ,uvea1 #dad ,vag9a1 #bfc1 #bfg ,vag9al ligam5ts1 #agc ,vag9a1 muscles (1 #bgb ,vagus1 ,n41 #cdf1 #cgh ,valsalva1 s9uses (1 #bgh1 #bgi ,v>iations1 #cbh1 #dcd1 #def ,v]tebral muscles1 #abc1 #ach2 dissection1 #ddb1 #ddf ,vasa eff]5tia te/is1 #bfj ,vas def]5s1 #bfj ,va/us int]m$ius1 ,m41 #bjc1 #dde lat]alis1 ,m41 #bja1 #dde m$ialis1 ,m41 #bjb1 #dde ,vat]1 ampulla (1 #bcf ,ve91 see ,v5a ,ve9s1 #cae ( abdom51 #cbf arm1 #cah bra91 #cbd face1 #cba foot1 #cbi he>t1 #cae l>ynx1 #cba leg1 #cbi lips1 #cba liv]1 #cbf sp9al cord1 #cbe ,velum m$ull>e ant]ius1 #cej1 #cea2 po/]ius1 #cdd1 #cdi palat9um1 #bbb1 #bbi2 muscles (1 #bcj ,v51 #cae ,v5a adr5olumbalis1 #cbf angul>is1 #cba anonyma1 #cah auricul>is ant]ior1 #cbd2 magna1 #cbd2 po/]ior1 #cbd axill>is1 #cah azygos1 #caf bra*ialis1 #cah c>d9ales1 #cbh cava inf]ior1 #bgd1 #bge1 #cbe2 sup]ior1 #bgd1 #bge1 #caf cephalica1 #cai c]ebri inf]ior1 #cbe2 magna1 #cbd c]vicalis asc5d5s1 #cbj cordis magna1 #caf coron>ia v5triculi1 #cbf co/oc]vicalis #cah facialis ant]ior1 #cca2 po/]ior1 #cbc2 pr(unda1 #cbc frontalis1 #cba ga/roepiploica1 #cbg ga/roli5alis1 #cbg glutea inf]ior1 #cbi hemorrhoidalis m$ia1 #cbi hepatica1 #cbf hypoga/rica1 #cbh1 #cbi ilia cacommunis1 #cbh2 ext]na1 #cbh1 #cbi2 int]na1 #cbh1 #cbi iliolumbalis1 #cbf int]co/ales1 #caf jugul>is ext]na1 #cai2 int]na1 #cbj l+ualis1 #cbc lumbalis1 #cbf mamm>ia int]na1 #cah m$iana cubiti1 #cai mes5t]ica inf]ior1 #cbh2 sup]ior1 #cbh nasalis ext]na1 #cba occipitalis1 #cba pancreaticoduod5alis1 #cbf phr5ica1 #cbf poplitea1 #ccj port1 #cbf pulmonales1 #bge1 #bgi1 #cae r5alis1 #cbf sacralis m$ia1 #cbh saph5a magna1 #cbi2 p>va1 #cbi1 #ccj sp]matica int]na1 #cbf subclavia1 #cah subm5talis1 #cba1 #cbc temporalis sup]ficialis1 #cbd transv]sa1 #cba transv]sa scapul1 #cbj umbilicalis1 #cbi v]tebralis1 #cah ,v5\s s9uses ( dura mat]1 #cbd ,v5tral ar* 7atlas71 #ad ,v5tricles ( bra91 #cdj1 #cfb2 ( he>t1 #bgd1 #bgg ,v5triculi dorsalis1 ,a41 #cjc ,v5triculus1 #bcd1 #bdf ,v]mis1 #cdh ,v]tebr1 #a caudales1 #aa c]vicales1 #aa lumbales1 #g sacrales1 #h ?oracales1 #a ,v]tebral ar*1 #c art]y1 #bia column1 #a2 ligam5ts (1 #af2 muscles (1 #abc1 #ach =am51 #a ve91 #cah ,v]tebr>t]ial canal1 #bia ,v]u montanum1 #bfa ,vesical art]ies1 #cjg ,vesica ur9>ia1 #bef ,ve/ibule 7e>71 #dbe 7l>ynx71 #bdf 7m\?71 #bba ,ve/ibulum oris1 #bba ( ut]9e tube1 #bfd ,vibriss1 #dbg ,vidian n]ve1 #cgb ,villi1 #bcf1 #bcg ,visc]a1 #bag ,visc]al skeleton1 #ba ,vitre\s body1 #dae humor1 #dae ,vocal cords1 #bdf1 #bdi false1 #bdf ,vom]1 #dd ,vom]onasal organ1 #bbb1 #bdd ,vulva1 #bfg ,:>ton's duct1 #bbc ,:ite matt]1 #ccf zone ( eye1 #dac ,wild] & ,gage's soap mixture = bones1 #dcj ,willis1 circle (1 #bhi1 #bib ,w9sl[1 =am5 (1 #bbj ,wirsung1 duct (1 #bdb ,wri/1 #ge2 bones (1 #fi ,xiphihum]alis1 ,m41 #adg1 #dcg ,xiphoid process1 #bj ,zonula ,arnoldi1 #cde cili>is1 #dad ,z9ni1 #dad ,zygomatic ar*1 #dg1 #di1 #ea1 #eb bone1 #dg n]ves1 #cgb1 #cgg process1 #ca1 #cb1 #ch1 #dj1 #dg1 #ea ,zygomaticus 7major71 ,m41 #aja1 #dce2 m9or1 ,m41 #aje1 #dce ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,inconsi/5t spell+1 hyph5ation1 =matt+1 etc4 h n be5 /&>dis$1 except z m5tion$ "u ,*anges4 ,! diff]5ces 79 word+ & /ructure7 betwe5 ! ,table ( ,cont5ts & ! head+s 9 ! text h n be5 rectifi$4 ,! inconsi/5cies 9 ! use1 numb]+ & typography ( section head+s 9 ! text h n be5 /&>dis$1 except z m5tion$ bel[4 ,!re is an entry = ,muscles ( ! ,s(t ,palate 9 ! ,table ( ,cont5ts1 b no su* sub-section head+ 9 ! text4 p4 vii1 ,9 comp\nd+ ^! t]ms ( direction 4443 ! hyph5ation does n always comply ) ?is /atem5t4 p4 #cgb1 ,n4 canalis pt]ygoidii3 possibly an error = ,n4 canalis pt]ygoidei4 ,*anges made3 ,9 sev]al in/ances1 ! ditto symbol has be5 replac$ by ! ditto$ text4 ,"s m9or obvi\s typographical errors & miss+ punctuation h be5 correct$ sil5tly4 p4 v3 ,leop-,c>ol4 *ang$ to ,leop4-,c>ol p4 xv3 entry ,index add$ to ,table ( ,cont5ts p4 #adb3 7,fig4 #gb1 c7 *ang$ to 7,fig4 #gb1 c7 p4 #bic3 ,truncus ?yreoc]vicalis *ang$ to ,truncus ?yroc]vicalis p4 #cef3 corpu callosum *ang$ to corpus callosum p4 #dge3 ,bra*ium conjuctivum *ang$ to ,bra*ium conjunctivum p4 #dha3 entry ,glottis mov$ to prop] place p4 #dhd3 7,ligam5tum7 cruciata *ang$ to 7,ligam5tum7 cruciatum p4 #dhg3 palbebr sup]ioris *ang$ to palpebr sup]ioris p4 #dib3 ,po/zygapophyses *ang$ to ,po/zygapophysis