,transcriber's ,notes ,text printed in italics in the source document has been transcribed between underscores1 text printed in bold face between equal signs4 ,small capitals have been transcribed as ,,all ,,capitals4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,cat ,,by ,,jacob ,,reighard ,professor of ,zoology in the ,university of ,michigan ,,and ,h4 ,s4 ,,jennings ,instructor in ,zoology in the ,university of ,michigan ,,with ,,one ,,hundred ,,and ,,seventy-,,three ,,original ,,figures ,,drawn ,,by ,,louise ,,burridge ,,jennings ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,henry ,,holt ,,and ,,company #aija ,,robert ,,drummond1 ,,printer1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,preface4 ,although the cat has long been in common use for the practical study of mammalian anatomy1 a clear1 correct1 not too voluminous account of its structure1 such as should be in the hands of students in the laboratory1 has remained a desideratum4 ,a number of works have been published on the cat1 some of them of much value1 yet there is none which fulfils exactly the conditions mentioned4 ,the books which have appeared on this subject are the following3 #a4 ,strauss-,durckheim1 ,h4 ,anatomie descriptive et comparative du ,chat4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahde4 #b4 ,mivart1 ,st4 ,george4 ,the ,cat3 an ,introduction to the ,study of ,back-boned ,animals1 especially ,mammals4 ,new ,york1 #ahha4 #c4 ,wilder1 ,burt ,g41 and ,gage1 ,simon ,h4 ,anatomical ,technology as applied to the ,domestic ,cat4 ,new ,york1 #ahhb4 #d4 ,gorham1 ,f4 ,p41 and ,tower1 ,r4 ,w4 ,a ,laboratory ,guide for the ,dissection of the ,cat4 ,new ,york1 #ahie4 #e4 ,jayne1 ,h4 ,mammalian ,anatomy4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,philadelphia1 #ahih4 ,the first of these works treats only of the muscles and bones1 and is not available for ,american students4 ,its excellent plates 7or ,williams's outline reproductions of the same7 should be in every laboratory4 ,the second book named is written in such general terms that its descriptions are not readily applicable to the actual structures found in the dissection of the cat1 and experience has shown that it is not fitted for a laboratory handbook4 ,it contains1 in addition to a general account of the anatomy of the cat1 also a discussion of its embryology1 psychology1 palontology1 and classification4 ,the book by ,wilder and ,gage professedly uses the cat as a means of illustrating technical methods and a special system of nomenclature4 ,while of much value in many ways1 it does not undertake to give a complete account of the anatomy of the animal4 ,the fourth work is a brief laboratory guide4 ,the elaborate treatise by ,jayne1 now in course of publication1 is a monumental work1 which will be invaluable for reference1 but is too voluminous to place in the hands of students4 ,at present only the volume on the bones has been published4 ,as appears from the above brief characterization1 none of these books gives a complete description of the anatomy of the cat in moderate volume and without extraneous matter4 ,this is what the present work aims to do4 ,in the year #ahia-ib1 ,professor ,reighard prepared a partial account of the anatomy of the cat1 which has since been in use1 in typewritten form1 in ,university of ,michigan classes4 ,it has been used also at the ,universities of ,illinois1 ,nebraska1 and ,west ,virginia1 and in ,dartmouth ,college1 and has proven so useful for college work in ,mammalian ,anatomy that it was decided to complete it and prepare it for publication4 ,this has been done by ,dr4 ,jennings4 ,the figures1 which are throughout original1 are direct reproductions of ink drawings1 made under the direction of ,dr4 ,jennings by ,mrs4 ,jennings4 ,the book is limited to a description of the normal anatomy of the cat4 ,the direct linear action of each muscle taken alone has been given in the description of muscles2 other matters belonging to the realm of physiology1 as well as all histological matter1 have been excluded4 ,it was felt that the monumental work of ,jayne on the anatomy of the cat1 now in course of publication1 forms the best repository for a description of variations and abnormalities1 so that these have been mentioned in the present volume only when they are so frequent as to be of much practical importance4 ,except where the contrary is stated1 the descriptions are based throughout on our own dissections and observations and are in no sense a compilation4 ,for this reason we have not thought it necessary to collect the scattered references to the anatomy of the cat that may occur in the literature4 ,a collection of such references may be found in ,wilder and ,gage's ,anatomical ,technology4 ,in addition to the works already referred to1 we have of course made use of the standard works on human and veterinary anatomy4 ,among these should be mentioned as especially useful the ,anatomie des ,hundes by ,ellenberger and ,baum4 ,other publications which have been of service in the preparation of the work are ,windle and ,parson's paper ,on the ,myology of the ,terrestrial ,carnivora1 in the ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society of ,london for #ahig and #ahih1 ,t4 ,b4 ,stowell's papers on the nervous system of the cat in the ,proceedings of the ,american ,philosophical ,society 7#ahha1 #ahhf1 #ahhh7 and in the ,journal of ,comparative ,neurology 7vol4 ,i471 and ,f4 ,clasen's ,die ,muskeln und ,nerven des proximalen ,abschnitts der vorderen ,extremitt der ,katze1 in ,nova ,acta der ,ksl4 ,leop4-,carol4 ,deutschen ,akademie der ,naturforscher1 ,bd4 #fd4 ,nomenclature4--,the question of nomenclature has been one of difficulty4 ,what is desired is a uniform set of anatomical names1--a system that shall be generally used by anatomists4 ,at present the greatest diversity prevails as to the names to be applied to the different structures of the body4 ,the only set of terms which at the present time seems to have any chance of general acceptance is that proposed by the ,german ,anatomical ,society at their meeting in ,basel in #ahie1 and generally designated by the abbreviation ,,bna4 ,this system has therefore been adopted1 in its main features1 for use in the present work4 ,it seems impossible at the present time1 however1 to impose any one set of terms absolutely upon anatomists of all nations1 and we have felt it necessary to use for certain familiar structures1 in place of the ,,bna terms1 names that have come to have a fixed place in ,english anatomy1 and may almost be considered component parts of the ,english language4 ,the ,german anatomists have expressly recognized the fact that this would be to a greater or less degree necessary among anatomists of different nations1 and have characterized their list as for the present tentative1 and capable of farther development4 ,the only purpose of a name is that it shall furnish a key to a common understanding2 where the ,,bna name does not furnish such a key to ,english readers1 and where there is a term in established ,english usage that does serve this purpose and seems unlikely to be supplanted1 we have used the latter4 ,but we have endeavored to make the number of these exceptions as small as possible1 and in such cases we have usually cited at the same time the term proposed by the ,german society1 followed by the abbreviation ,,bna4 ,when1 on the other hand1 we have adopted a ,,bna term for which there is also a commonly used ,english equivalent1 the latter has likewise usually been cited in parenthesis4 ,in deciding whether or not to use in a given case the ,,bna term many difficult cases arose4 ,will the common ,english name innominate bone 7os innominatum7 be replaced by the ,,bna term os cox or coxal bone8 ,we have held this to be highly improbable1 and have therefore used the term innominate bone1 merely citing os cox 7,,bna7 as a synonym4 ,in the same way we have used centrum as a designation of a part of a vertebra1 in place of corpus 7,,bna72 premaxillary bone or premaxilla in place of os incisivum 7,,bna72 malar bone in place of os zygomaticum 7,,bna72 trapezoid as a name of one of the bones of the carpus1 in place of os multangulum minus 7,,bna71 etc4 ,in other cases where it has seemed probable that the ,,bna term would come into common use1 though now unfamiliar1 this and the more common ,english expression are both used or used alternatively2 such has been the case1 for example1 with the ,gasserian ganglion or semilunar ganglion 7,,bna74 ,in naming the cerebral sulci and gyri the system in use for man is not well fitted for bringing out the plan of those in the brain of the cat1 so that it was necessary to reject the ,,bna names for these structures4 ,as to the use of the ,latin terms and their equivalents in ,english form1 we have made a practice of employing in the text sometimes one1 sometimes the other2 this has the advantage of giving variety1 and of impressing the interchangeability of the ,latin and ,english forms on the mind of the student4 ,where a given structure is called by two equally well-known names1 we have used both1 holding that the student should become familiar with each and recognize their identity of meaning4 ,in general we have maintained the principle that the primary purpose of such a work as the present is not to illustrate or defend any particular system of nomenclature1 but to aid in obtaining a knowledge of the structures themselves4 ,with this end in view1 we have used such terms as would in our judgment best subserve this purpose1 making the ,,bna system1 as the one most likely to prevail1 our basis4 ,in applying the system we have had to keep in mind a number of sometimes conflicting principles4 ,in some cases the judgment of other anatomists will doubtless differ from our own2 but this we feel to be inevitable4 ,the matter of an absolutely uniform nomenclature is not ripe for settlement at the present time4 ,some further explanation is needed in regard to the topographical terms1 or terms of direction1 used in the present work4 ,we have adopted the ,,bna terms in this matter also4 ,the terms superior1 inferior1 anterior1 and posterior have been avoided1 as these terms do not convey the same meaning in the case of the cat as they do in man1 owing to the difference in the posture of the body4 ,in place of these terms are used dorsal and ventral1 cranial and caudal4 ,as terms of direction these1 of course1 must have an absolutely fixed meaning1 signifying always the same direction without necessary reference to any given structure4 ,for example1 cranial means not merely toward the cranium1 but refers to the direction which is indicated by movement along a line from the middle of the body1 toward the cranium2 after the head or cranium is reached1 the term still continues in force for structures even beyond the cranium4 ,thus the tip of the nose is considered to be craniad of the cranium itself4 ,lateral signifies away from the middle plane2 medial toward it4 ,inner and outer or internal and external are used only with reference to the structure of separate organs1 not with reference to the median plane of the body4 ,in describing the limbs the convexity of the joint 7the elbow or knee7 is considered as dorsal1 the concavity being therefore ventral4 ,medial refers to that side of the limb which in the normal position is toward the middle of the body2 lateral to the outer side4 ,terms of direction which are derived only from the structure of the limb itself are in some cases more convenient than the usual ones4 ,in the fore limbs the terms radial 7referring to the side on which the radius lies7 and ulnar 7referring to the side on which the ulna lies7 are used2 in the hind limbs the terms tibial and fibular are used in a similar manner4 ,distal means toward the free end of a limb or other projecting structure2 proximal1 toward the attached end4 ,for all these terms an adverbial form ending in -ad has been employed4 ,experience has shown this to be very useful in practice1 and while not expressly recommended by the ,,bna1 it is not condemned4 ,terms ending in -al are therefore adjectives2 those ending in -ad are adverbs4 ,in compounding these terms of direction1 the hyphen has been omitted in accordance with the usage recommended by the ,standard ,dictionary4 ,thus dorsoventral is written in place of dorso-ventral1 etc4 ,the student will perhaps be assisted in understanding these compounds if he notes that the first component always ends in -o1 so that the letter o practically serves the purpose of a hyphen in determining how the word is to be divided4 ,in one particular the ,,bna nomenclature is not entirely consistent4 ,while recommending or at least permitting the use of the general terms dorsal and ventral in place of the human posterior and anterior1 and cranial and caudal in place of superior and inferior1 it retains the words anterior1 posterior1 superior1 and inferior as parts of the names of definite organs4 ,for example1 we have the muscle serratus anterior in place of serratus ventralis2 serratus posterior inferior in place of serratus dorsalis caudalis4 ,this is very unfortunate1 from a comparative standpoint1 but we have felt it necessary to retain the ,,bna terms in order that the structures of the cat may receive the same names as the corresponding structures of man4 ,in the matter of orthography we have endeavored to follow the best ,english anatomical usage1 as exemplified in ,gray's ,human ,anatomy1--therefore writing peroneus in place of peronus1 pyriformis in place of piriformis1 etc4 ,the book is designed for use in the laboratory1 to accompany the dissection and study of the structures themselves4 ,anatomy cannot be learned from a book alone1 and no one should attempt to use the present work without at the same time carefully dissecting the cat4 ,on the other hand1 anatomy can scarcely be learned without descriptions and figures of the structures laid bare in dissection1 so that this or some similar work should be in the hands of any one attempting to gain a knowledge of anatomy through the dissection of the cat4 ,the figures have all been drawn from actual dissections1 and have been carefully selected with a view to furnishing the most direct assistance to the dissector4 ,it is hoped that no figures are lacking that are required for giving the students the necessary points of departure for an intelligent dissection of any part of the body4 ,the fore limb is illustrated somewhat more fully than the hind limb1 because it was thought that the fore limb would usually be dissected first2 the hind limb will be easily dissected1 with the aid of the figures given1 after the experience gained in dissecting the fore limb4 ,as the book is designed to accompany the dissection of the specimen in the laboratory1 it was deemed best to give succinct specific directions for the dissection of the different systems of organs1 together with suggestions as to methods of preserving and handling the material4 ,these are included in an appendix4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,the ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,cat #a ,i4 ,the ,vertebral ,column #a ,thoracic ,vertebr #a ,lumbar ,vertebr #g ,sacral ,vertebr3 ,sacrum #h ,caudal ,vertebr #aa ,cervical ,vertebr #aa ,ligaments of the ,vertebral ,column #af ,,ii4 ,the ,ribs #ah ,,iii4 ,the ,sternum #bj ,,iv4 ,the ,skull #ba ,occipital ,bone #bb ,interparietal #be ,sphenoid #be ,presphenoid #bi ,temporal #cj ,parietal #cf ,frontal #cg ,maxillary #ci ,premaxillary #da ,nasal #db ,ethmoid #db ,vomer #dd ,palatine #de ,lachrymal #df ,malar #dg ,mandible #dg ,hyoid #di ,the ,skull as a ,whole #di ,cavities of the ,skull #eg ,joints and ,ligaments of the ,skull #fa ,v4 ,the ,thoracic ,extremities #fb ,scapula #fb ,clavicle #fd ,humerus #fd ,radius #fg ,ulna #fh ,carpus #fi ,bones of the ,hand #ga ,joints and ,ligaments of the ,thoracic ,limbs #gc ,,vi4 ,the ,pelvic ,extremities #gf ,innominate ,bones #gf ,femur #gi ,patella #hj ,tibia #hj ,fibula #hb ,tarsus #hb ,bones of the ,foot #he ,joints and ,ligaments of the ,pelvic ,limbs #hf ,,the ,,muscles #ic ,i4 ,muscles of the ,skin #ic ,,ii4 ,muscles of the ,head #if ,a4 ,superficial ,muscles #if ,b4 ,deep ,muscles #ajg a4 ,muscles of ,mastication #ajg b4 ,muscles of ,hyoid ,bone #aab ,,iii4 ,muscles of the ,body #aae #a4 ,muscles of the ,back #aae ,a4 ,muscles of the ,shoulder #aae ,b4 ,muscles of the ,vertebral ,column #abc a4 ,muscles of the ,lumbar and ,thoracic ,region #abf b4 ,dorsal ,muscles of the ,cervical ,region #aca ,c4 ,muscles of the ,tail #acf #b4 ,muscles on the ,ventral ,side of the ,vertebral ,column #ach ,a4 ,lumbar and ,thoracic ,regions #ach ,b4 ,muscles on the ,ventral ,side of the ,neck #aci #c4 ,muscles of the ,thorax #add ,a4 ,breast ,muscles 7,connecting the ,arm and ,thorax7 #add ,b4 ,muscles of the ,wall of the ,thorax #adh #d4 ,abdominal ,muscles #aec ,,iv4 ,muscles of the ,thoracic ,limbs #aef #a4 ,muscles of the ,shoulder #aef ,a4 ,lateral ,surface #aef ,b4 ,medial ,surface #afa #b4 ,muscles of the ,brachium or ,upper ,arm #afd #c4 ,muscles of the ,antibrachium or ,forearm #agb ,fascia of the ,forearm #agb ,a4 ,muscles on the ,ulnar and ,dorsal ,side of the ,forearm #agc ,b4 ,muscles on the ,radial and ,ventral ,side of the ,forearm #agi #d4 ,muscles of the ,hand #ahd ,a4 ,between the ,tendons #ahd ,b4 ,muscles of the ,thumb #ahd ,c4 ,between the ,metacarpals #ahe ,d4 ,special ,muscles of the ,second ,digit #ahe ,e4 ,special ,muscles of the ,fifth ,digit #ahe ,v4 ,muscles of the ,pelvic ,limbs #ahf #a4 ,muscles of the ,hip #ahf ,a4 ,on the ,lateral ,surface of the ,hip #ahf ,fascia of the ,thigh #ahf ,b4 ,on the ,medial ,surface of the ,hip #aib #b4 ,muscles of the ,thigh #aid #c4 ,muscles of the ,lower ,leg #bjc ,a4 ,on the ,ventral ,side #bjc ,b4 ,on the ,dorsal and ,lateral ,surfaces #bji #d4 ,muscles of the ,foot #bab ,a4 ,muscles on the ,dorsum of the ,foot #bab ,b4 ,muscles on the ,sole of the ,foot #bab ,c4 ,muscles of the ,tarsus #bae ,,the ,,viscera #bag ,i4 ,the ,body ,cavity #bag ,,ii4 ,alimentary ,canal #bba #a4 ,mouth #bba ,glands of the ,mouth #bbc ,teeth #bbd ,tongue #bbf ,muscles of the ,tongue #bbh ,soft ,palate #bbi ,muscles of the ,soft ,palate #bcj #b4 ,pharynx #bca ,muscles of the ,pharynx #bcb #c4 sophagus #bcd #d4 ,stomach #bcd #e4 ,small ,intestine #bcf #f4 ,large ,intestine #bcg #g4 ,liver1 ,pancreas1 and ,spleen #bci ,,iii4 ,respiratory ,organs #bdc #a4 ,nasal ,cavity #bdc #b4 ,larynx #bdf ,cartilages of the ,larynx #bdg ,muscles of the ,larynx #bdi #c4 ,trachea #bea #d4 ,lungs #beb ,thyroid ,gland #bed ,thymus ,gland #bed ,,iv4 ,urogenital ,system #bee #a4 ,excretory ,organs #bee ,kidneys #bee ,ureter #bef ,bladder #bef 7,suprarenal ,bodies7 #beg #b4 ,genital ,organs #beg ,a4 ,male #beg ,b4 ,female #bfc ,muscles of the ,urogenital ,organs1 ,rectum1 and ,anus #bfh a4 ,muscles ,common to the ,male and ,female #bfh b4 ,muscles ,peculiar to the ,male #bga c4 ,muscles ,peculiar to the ,female #bgb ,,the ,,circulatory ,,system #bgd ,i4 ,the ,heart #bgd ,,ii4 ,the ,arteries #bhj #a4 ,pulmonary ,artery #bhj #b4 ,aorta #bha ,a4 ,thoracic ,aorta and its ,branches #bha ,common ,carotid ,artery #bhc ,subclavian ,artery #bij ,b4 ,abdominal ,aorta and its ,branches #cja ,external ,iliac ,artery and its ,branches #cji ,,iii4 ,the ,veins #cae #a4 ,veins of the ,heart #cae #b4 ,vena ,cava ,superior and its ,branches #caf ,veins of the ,brain and ,spinal ,cord #cbd #c4 ,vena ,cava ,inferior and its ,branches #cbe ,portal ,vein #cbf ,,iv4 ,lymphatic ,system #ccj #a4 ,lymphatics of the ,head #cca #b4 ,lymphatics of the ,neck #ccb #c4 ,lymphatics of the ,thoracic ,limbs #ccb #d4 ,lymphatics of the ,thorax and ,abdomen #ccc #e4 ,lymphatics of the ,pelvic ,limbs #ccd ,,the ,,nervous ,,system #cce ,i4 ,the ,central ,nervous ,system #ccf #a4 ,spinal ,cord #ccf #b4 ,the ,brain #cci 7#a7 ,myelencephalon #cdd 7#b7 ,metencephalon #cdg 7#c7 ,mesencephalon #cea 7#d7 ,diencephalon #ceb 7#e7 ,telencephalon #ceg ,,ii4 ,the ,peripheral ,nervous ,system #cfi #a4 ,cranial ,nerves #cfi ,i4 ,olfactory ,nerve #cfi ,,ii4 ,optic ,nerve #cfi ,,iii4 ,oculomotor ,nerve #cfi ,,iv4 ,trochlear ,nerve #cgj ,v4 ,trigeminal ,nerve #cgj ,,vi4 ,abducens #cge ,,vii4 ,facial ,nerve #cge ,,viii4 ,auditory ,nerve #cgg ,,ix4 ,glossopharyngeal ,nerve #cgh ,x4 ,vagus ,nerve #cgh ,,xi4 ,accessory ,nerve #chb ,,xii4 ,hypoglossal ,nerve #chc #b4 ,spinal ,nerves #chc ,a4 ,cervical ,nerves #chc ,the ,brachial ,plexus #chf ,b4 ,thoracic ,nerves #cic ,c4 ,lumbar ,nerves #cid ,lumbar ,plexus #cie ,d4 ,sacral ,nerves and ,sacral ,plexus #cii ,e4 ,nerves of the ,tail #djd #c4 ,sympathetic ,system #djd ,,sense ,,organs ,,and ,,integument #dji ,i4 ,the ,eye #dji ,,ii4 ,the ,ear #dae ,,iii4 ,olfactory ,organ #dbf ,,iv4 ,organ of ,taste #dbf ,v4 ,integument #dbg ,,appendix3 ,,practical ,,directions #dbi ,,index #dgc ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,skeleton #b #b4 ,fourth ,thoracic ,vertebra #c #c4 ,fourth ,thoracic ,vertebra #c #d4 ,thoracic ,vertebr #e #e4 ,lumbar ,vertebr #g #f4 ,sacrum #i #g4 ,sacrum #i #h4 ,caudal ,vertebra #aa #i4 ,caudal ,vertebra #aa #aj4 ,cervical ,vertebr #ab #aa4 ,sixth ,cervical ,vertebra #ac #ab4 ,atlas #ac #ac4 ,axis #ae #ad4 ,ligaments of the ,odontoid ,process #ah #ae4 ,rib #ai #af4 ,sternum #bj #ag4 ,occipital ,bone #bb #ah4 ,occipital ,bone #bb #ai4 ,interparietal #be #bj4 ,sphenoid #be #ba4 ,presphenoid #bi #bb4 ,temporal #ca #bc4 ,temporal #ca #bd4 ,tympanic ,bulla #cc #be4 ,petrous ,bone #cd #bf4 ,frontal #cg #bg4 ,maxillary ,bone #ci #bh4 ,maxillary ,bone #ci #bi4 ,premaxillary #da #cj4 ,nasal #db #ca4 ,ethmoid and ,vomer #dc #cb4 ,ethmoid and ,vomer #dc #cc4 ,palatine #de #cd4 ,lachrymal #df #ce4 ,malar #df #cf4 ,mandible #dh #cg4 ,mandible #dh #ch4 ,hyoid #di #ci4 ,skull1 ,dorsal ,surface #ej #dj4 ,skull1 ,side ,view #ec #da4 ,skull1 ,ventral ,surface #ee #db4 ,cavities of ,skull #eg #dc4 ,skull1 ,median ,section #fj #dd4 ,scapula #fb #de4 ,scapula #fb #df4 ,clavicle #fd #dg4 ,humerus #fe #dh4 ,humerus #fe #di4 ,radius and ,ulna #fh #ej4 ,radius and ,ulna #fh #ea4 ,bones of the ,hand #gj #eb4 ,ligaments of the ,elbow #gd #ec4 ,ligaments of the ,elbow #gd #ed4 ,innominate ,bone of ,kitten #gf #ee4 ,innominate ,bone #gg #ef4 ,femur #gi #eg4 ,tibia and ,fibula #ha #eh4 ,bones of the ,foot #hc #ei4 ,calcaneus #hc #fj4 ,knee-joint #hi #fa4 ,knee-joint #hi #fb4 ,muscles of the ,skin #id #fc4 ,muscles on ,dorsal ,side of ,head #ig #fd4 ,muscles of ,face #ajb #fe4 ,ventral ,muscles of ,thorax1 ,neck1 and ,head #aji #ff4 ,pterygoid and ,palatal ,muscles #aab #fg4 ,muscles of ,tongue1 ,hyoid1 and ,pharynx #aad #fh4 ,first ,layer of ,body ,muscles #aag #fi4 ,deep ,muscles of the ,vertebr and ,ribs #abe #gj4 ,dorsal ,muscles of ,lumbar and ,caudal ,regions #abg #ga4 ,deep ,muscles of ,neck #ace #gb4 ,muscles on the ,ventral ,surface of the ,cervical ,vertebr #adc #gc4 ,second ,layer of ,body ,muscles #adi #gd4 ,diaphragm #aeb #ge4 ,lateral ,muscles of ,arm #aeh #gf4 ,origin of ,lateral ,muscles on ,scapula #afj #gg4 ,medial ,muscles of ,arm #afb #gh4 ,origin of ,medial ,muscles on ,scapula #afc #gi4 ,deep ,medial ,muscles of ,arm #afg #hj4 ,deep ,lateral ,muscles of ,arm #afi #ha4 ,areas of ,origin of ,muscles on ,ventral ,surface of ,humerus #aga #hb4 ,areas of ,origin of ,muscles on ,medial ,side of ,humerus #aga #hc4 ,areas of ,origin of ,muscles on ,dorsal ,surface of ,left ,humerus #aga #hd4 ,tendons on ,back of ,hand #age #he4 ,deep ,muscles of ,forearm #agg #hf4 ,insertions of ,muscles on ,radius and ,ulna #agh #hg4 ,insertions of ,muscles on ,radius and ,ulna #ahb #hh4 ,mm4 ,lumbricales1 etc4 #ahc #hi4 ,deep ,muscles of ,palm of ,hand #ahd #ij4 ,lateral ,muscles of the ,leg #aib #ia4 ,medial ,muscles of the ,leg #aig #ib4 ,deep ,medial ,muscles of ,thigh #bjj #ic4 ,teeth of the ,upper ,jaw #bbe #id4 ,teeth of the ,lower ,jaw #bbf #ie4 ,tongue1 ,epiglottis1 etc4 #bbg #if4 ,muscles of ,tongue1 ,hyoid1 and ,pharynx #bbi #ig4 ,stomach #bce #ih4 ,colon and ,ccum #bch #ii4 ,ileocolic ,valve #bch #ajj4 ,liver #bdj #aja4 ,liver #bdj #ajb4 ,pancreas and ,spleen #bdb #ajc4 ,cartilages of ,nose #bdd #ajd4 ,cartilages of ,larynx #bdg #aje4 ,muscles of ,larynx #bej #ajf4 ,bronchi #bec #ajg4 ,thymus ,gland #bed #ajh4 ,kidney #bee #aji4 ,section of ,kidney #bee #aaj4 ,testis #bfj #aaa4 ,male ,genital ,organs #bfb #aab4 ,female ,urogenital ,organs #bfe #aac4 ,muscles of ,urogenital ,organs and ,anus in ,male #bgj #aad4 ,muscles of ,urogenital ,organs of ,female #bgb #aae4 ,heart #bgf #aaf4 ,heart #bgf #aag4 ,inside of ,heart #bgh #aah4 ,vessels of ,thorax #bhb #aai4 ,common ,carotid and ,internal ,jugular #bhd #abj4 ,branches of ,external ,carotid #bhh #aba4 ,arteries of ,brain #bia #abb4 ,vessels and ,nerves of the ,axilla #bie #abc4 ,vessels and ,nerves of the ,arm #bii #abd4 ,palmar ,arch #cja #abe4 ,cliac ,artery #cjb #abf4 ,abdominal ,blood-vessels #cje #abg4 ,medial ,vessels and ,nerves of the ,leg #caj #abh4 ,deep ,arteries of ,foot #cad #abi4 ,thoracic ,blood-vessels #cag #acj4 ,superficial ,vessels and ,nerves of the ,forearm #cai #aca4 ,blood-vessels of the ,face #cbb #acb4 ,portal ,vein #cbg #acc4 ,spinal ,cord1 cranial portion #ccf #acd4 ,section of ,spinal ,cord #ccg #ace4 ,origin of ,spinal ,nerves #ccg #acf4 ,cauda ,equina1 etc4 #cch #acg4 ,brain1 ,dorsal ,view #cdj #ach4 ,brain1 ,ventral ,view #cdb #aci4 ,diagram of ,brain #cdc #adj4 ,diagram of ,brain #cdc #ada4 ,dorsal ,view of ,midbrain and ',tween-brain #cej #adb4 ,ventral ,view of ,midbrain and ',tween-brain #ceb #adc4 ,longitudinal ,section of ,brain #cef #add4 ,lateral ,view of ,brain #ceh #ade4 ,diagram of ,sulci and ,gyri #cei #adf4 ,diagram of ,sulci and ,gyri #cfa #adg4 ,corpus ,callosum #cfc #adh4 ,fornix1 ,hippocampus1 and ,corpus ,striatum #cfd #adi4 ,transverse ,section of ,brain #cff #aej4 ,transverse ,section of ,brain #cff #aea4 ,transverse ,section of ,brain #cff #aeb4 ,transverse ,section of ,brain #cfg #aec4 ,transverse ,section of ,brain #cfg #aed4 ,cranial ,nerves #cgd #aee4 ,nerves of ,face #cgf #aef4 ,cranial ,nerves in the ,neck #cgi #aeg4 ,sympathetic and ,vagus in the ,thorax #cha #aeh4 ,nerves of the ,neck #chd #aei4 ,brachial ,plexus #chg #afj4 ,nerves and ,vessels of ,axilla #chi #afa4 ,nerves and ,vessels of ,forearm #cia #afb4 ,lumbar and ,sacral ,nerves #cih #afc4 ,great ,sciatic ,nerve #dja #afd4 ,sympathetic and ,vagus in ,abdomen #djg #afe4 ,nictitating ,membrane #daj #aff4 ,muscles of ,eyeball #daa #afg4 ,diagram of ,eye #dac #afh4 ,cartilage of ,external ,ear #dag #afi4 ,muscles of ,external ,ear #dai #agj4 ,tympanic ,membrane #dbb #aga4 ,malleus and ,incus #dbc #agb4 ,stapes #dbd #agc4 ,membranous ,labyrinth #dbe ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,cat4 ,,the ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,cat4 ,the skeleton of the cat consists of #bcj to #bdg bones exclusive of the sesamoid bones 7#dd7 and the chevron bones 7#h74 ,these are divided as follows3 head #ce-dj1 vertebral column #eb-ec1 ribs #bf1 sternum #a-h1 pelvis #b-h1 upper extremities #fb1 lower extremities #ed-ef4 ,the number of bones varies with the age of the individual1 being fewer in the old than in the young animal1 owing to the fact that in an old animal some bones that were originally separate have united4 ,i4 ,,the ,,vertebral ,,column4 ,,columna ,,vertebralis4 ,the vertebral column1 spinal column1 or back-bone1 consists of a varying number of separate bones1 the vertebr4 ,at its cranial end are seven vertebr 7cervical1 ,fig4 #a1 c7 which are without ribs and support the head2 caudad of these are thirteen rib-bearing vertebr 7thoracic1 ,fig4 #a1 m72 caudad of these are seven that are again without ribs 7lumbar1 ,fig4 #a1 o72 these are followed by three vertebr 7sacral1 ,fig4 #a1 x7 which are united into a single bone1 the sacrum1 which supports the pelvic arch4 ,following the sacral vertebr are twenty-two or twenty-three small ribless vertebr which support the tail 7caudal1 ,fig4 #a1 y74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,skeleton ,,of ,,cat4 a1 skull2 b1 hyoid2 c1 cervical vertebr2 d1 clavicle2 e1 scapula2 f1 sternum2 g1 humerus2 h1 radius2 i1 ulna2 j1 carpus2 k1 metacarpus2 l1 phalanges2 m1 thoracic vertebr2 n1 ribs2 o1 lumbar vertebr2 p1 innominate bones2 q1 femur2 r1 patella2 s1 fibula2 t1 tibia2 u1 tarsus2 v1 metatarsus2 w1 phalanges2 x1 sacrum2 y1 caudal vertebr4 ,thoracic ,vertebr4 ,vertebr thoracales 7,fig4 #d74--,the thoracic vertebr are most typical1 and the fourth one of these may therefore be first described 7,figs4 #b and #c74 ,it forms an oval ring which has numerous processes and surrounds an opening which is the vertebral foramen 7a74 ,the ventral one-third of this ring is much thickened and forms the centrum or body 7corpus7 7b7 of the vertebra4 ,the centrum is a semicylinder1 the plane face of which bounds the vertebral canal1 while the curved surface is concave longitudinally and is directed ventrad4 ,the dorsal plane surface of the centrum is marked by a median longitudinal ridge on either side of which is an opening 7nutrient foramen7 for a blood-vessel4 ,the ends are nearly plane1 the caudal being slightly concave2 they are harder and smoother than the other surfaces4 ,they may be easily separated in a young specimen as thin plates of bone known as epiphyses4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,fourth ,,thoracic ,,vertebra1 ,,cranial ,,end4 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,fourth ,,thoracic ,,vertebra1 ,,side ,,view4 a1 vertebral foramen2 b1 centrum2 c1 caudal1 and d1 cranial1 costal demifacets2 e1 radix or pedicle2 f1 lamina2 g1 transverse process2 h1 cranial articular facet2 i1 caudal articular facet2 j1 caudal articular process2 k1 spinous process4 ,at the caudal end of the centrum1 at its dorsolateral angle1 is a smooth area on each side continuous with the surface of the epiphysis and bounded dorsolaterally by a sharp ridge of bone 7c74 ,it is a costal demifacet4 ,in corresponding positions at the cranial end of the centrum are two demifacets not limited by bony ridges 7d74 ,when the centra of two contiguous thoracic vertebr are placed together in the natural position the cranial costal demifacets of one together with the caudal demifacets of the other form two costal facets 7,fig4 #d1 e71 one on each side1 and each receives the head of a rib4 ,the dorsal two-thirds of the vertebral ring forms the vertebral arch which is continued dorsally into the long1 bluntly pointed spinous process 7,figs4 #b and #c1 k7 for attachment of muscles4 ,the vertebral arch 7each half of which is sometimes called a neurapophysis7 rises on each side from the cranial two-thirds of the dorsolateral angle of the centrum1 as a thickened portion1 the radix or pedicle 7,figs4 #b and #c1 e71 which forms the ventral half of the lateral boundary of the vertebral canal4 ,from the dorsal end of each radix a flat plate of bone1 the lamina 7f71 extends caudomediad to join its fellow of the opposite side and form the vertebral arch4 ,owing to the fact that the radix rises from only the cranial two-thirds of the centrum there is left in the caudal border of the vertebral arch a notch bounded by the radix1 the lamina1 and the centrum4 ,there is also a slight excavation of the cranial border of the radix4 ,when the vertebr are articulated in the natural position1 these notches form the intervertebral foramina 7,fig4 #d1 d71 for the exit of the spinal nerves4 ,at the junction of radix and lamina the arch is produced craniolaterad into a short process1 the transverse process 7g71 knobbed at the end4 ,on the ventral face of its free end the transverse process bears a smooth facet1 the transverse costal facet or tubercular facet 7,fig4 #d1 c71 for articulation with the tubercle of a rib4 ,on the dorsal face of each lamina at its cranial border is a smooth oval area1 the cranial articular facet 7superior articular facet of human anatomy7 7,figs4 #b and #c1 h74 ,its long axis is oblique and it looks dorsolaterad4 ,the slight projections of the cranial edge of the lamin on which the facets are situated are the inconspicuous cranial articular processes 7prezygapophyses74 ,on the ventral surface of each lamina at the caudal border1 near the middle line is a similar area1 the caudal articular facet 7inferior articular facet of human anatomy7 7i72 these occupy the ventral surfaces of two projections which form the caudal 7inferior7 articular processes 7postzygapophyses7 7j74 ,these are separated by a median notch4 ,when the vertebr are in their natural position the caudal articular facets lie dorsad of the cranial facets and fit against them4 ,they thus strengthen the joint between contiguous vertebr1 while permitting slight rotary motion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,thoracic ,,vertebr1 ,,side ,,view4 a1 spinous processes2 b1 cranial articular processes2 c1 transverse costal facets2 d1 intervertebral foramina2 e1 costal facets2 f1 accessory processes2 g1 mammillary processes2 h1 caudal articular processes4 ,differential ,characters of the ,thoracic ,vertebr 7,fig4 #d74--;,following the thoracic vertebr caudad there is to be seen a gradual increase in the size of the centra brought about by an increase in their craniocaudal and transverse measurements4 ,the dorsoventral measurements remain nearly the same4 ,the costal facets 7,fig4 #d1 e7 shift caudad so that on the eleventh1 twelfth1 and thirteenth thoracic vertebr each lies entirely on the cranial end of its centrum1 while the caudal end of the centrum immediately preceding is not marked by any part of it4 ,in the eleventh thoracic vertebra each costal facet is usually still confluent with the smooth cranial end of the centrum4 ,in the twelfth vertebra the facets are separated by smooth ridges from the cranial end of the vertebra1 while in the thirteenth vertebra they are separated by rough ridges4 ,the spinous processes 7a7 of the first four are of about the same length4 ,they then decrease in length to the twelfth1 while the twelfth and thirteenth are slightly longer than the eleventh4 ,the first ten slope more or less caudad1 while the spinous process of the tenth 7anticlinal7 vertebra is vertical and those of the eleventh1 twelfth1 and thirteenth point craniad4 ,each of the transverse processes of the seventh thoracic vertebra shows a tendency to divide into three tubercles2 one of these is directed craniad1 the mammillary process 7or metapophysis71 one caudad1 the accessory process 7or anapophysis71 while the third 7transverse process proper7 looks ventrad and bears the transverse costal facet4 ,this division becomes more prominent in the succeeding vertebr1 being most marked in the ninth and tenth4 ,in the eleventh1 twelfth1 and thirteenth vertebr the mammillary 7g7 and accessory 7f7 processes are very pronounced1 while the transverse costal facet and that part of the transverse process which bears it have disappeared4 ,the ribs of the eleventh1 twelfth1 and thirteenth vertebr are thus attached to their respective centra by their heads alone4 ,the cranial articular processes 7b7 are prominent on the first two thoracic vertebr2 back of these they are very small as far as the eleventh1 so that the articular facets seem to be borne merely upon the dorsal surface of the cranial edge of the lamin4 ,in the eleventh1 twelfth1 and thirteenth the cranial articular processes are large1 bearing the articular facets on their medial surfaces1 while the mammillary processes appear as tubercles on the lateral surfaces of the articular processes4 ,the caudal articular processes 7h7 are prominent in the first thoracic1 then smaller until the tenth is reached2 in the tenth1 eleventh1 twelfth1 and thirteenth they are large and their facets are borne laterally1 so as to face the corresponding cranial facets4 ,thus from the tenth to the thirteenth thoracic vertebra rotary motion is very limited1 owing to the interlocking of the articular processes4 ,the ,lumbar ,vertebr4 ,vertebr lumbales 7,fig4 #e74--,the last thoracic vertebr form the transition to the typical lumbar vertebr4 ,these are larger than the thoracic vertebr4 ,the centra are of the form of the centra of the thoracic vertebr1 and increase in length to the sixth1 but the seventh is about the length of the first4 ,they increase in breadth to the last4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,lumbar ,,vertebr4 a1 cranial articular processes2 b1 mammillary processes2 c1 caudal articular processes2 d1 accessory processes2 e1 transverse processes2 f1 spinous processes4 ,the cranial articular processes 7,fig4 #e1 a7 are prominent and directed craniodorsad2 they have the facets on their medial surfaces1 while their dorsolateral surfaces bear the mammillary processes 7b7 as prominent tubercles4 ,the caudal articular processes 7c7 are likewise large2 their facets look laterad4 ,when the vertebr are articulated they are received between the medially directed cranial processes4 ,the accessory processes 7d7 are well developed on the first vertebra1 diminish in size to the fifth or sixth1 and are absent on the seventh and sometimes on the sixth4 ,the transverse processes 7more properly pseudo-transverse processes7 7e7 arise from the lateral surface of the centra2 are flat and are directed ventrocraniolaterad4 ,the first is small1 and they increase in length and breadth from the first to the sixth1 those of the last being slightly smaller than in the sixth4 ,the free ends of the last four are curved craniad4 ,the spinous processes 7f7 are flat and directed craniodorsad4 ,they increase in length to the fifth and then decrease4 ,the first five are knobbed at the end4 ,in a dorsal view the spinous process and cranial articular processes of each vertebra are seen to interlock with the caudal articular processes and accessory processes of the preceding vertebra in such a way as to prevent rotary motion1 and this arrangement may be traced craniad as far as the eleventh thoracic vertebra4 ,sacral ,vertebr4 ,vertebr sacrales 7,figs4 #f and #g74--,the three sacral vertebr are united in the adult into a single bone1 the os sacrum1 or sacrum4 ,in a kitten the three vertebr are separate1 while in an animal almost mature the first two are united and the third is still separate4 ,the sacrum lies between the last lumbar and the first caudal vertebr and articulates laterally with the two innominate bones4 ,it is pyramidal1 with the base of the pyramid directed craniad1 and is perforated by a depressed longitudinal canal1 the sacral canal1 which is a continuation of the vertebral canal1 and by four large foramina dorsally and four ventrally4 ,it may be described as having a cranial end or base and a caudal end or apex1 a dorsal1 a ventral1 and two lateral surfaces4 ,the base is slightly oblique and presents a smooth transversely oval articular facet 7the cranial end of the centrum of the first sacral vertebra71 for articulation with the centrum of the last lumbar vertebra4 ,dorsad of this is the sacral canal1 more depressed than the vertebral arch craniad of it4 ,it supports a spinous process 7,fig4 #f1 a7 which is directed dorsad4 ,at the junction of its lamina and radix is seen the prominent cranial articular process 7b7 with sometimes slight indications of a mammillary process on its lateral surface4 ,laterad of the articular facet is seen the cranial face of the expanded 8pseudo-transverse process0 7c7 of the first sacral vertebra4 ,the ventral border of the base is concave ventrad1 forming an arc of about #abj degrees4 ,the apex shows the caudal end of the last sacral centrum4 ,dorsad of this are the vertebral arch with a very short spinous process 7a71 and the caudal articular processes 7d74 ,laterad of the centrum appears the laterally directed thin transverse process 7e74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,sacrum1 ,,dorsal ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #g4--,,sacrum1 ,,ventral ,,surface4 ,fig4 #f4--a1 #b1 #c1 the three sacral vertebr4 a1 a1 spinous processes2 b1 cranial articular process of first sacral vertebra2 c1 expanded transverse process of first sacral vertebra2 d1 caudal articular processes of third sacral vertebra2 e1 transverse processes of third sacral vertebra2 f1 tubercles formed by fused articular processes of the vertebr2 g1 dorsal 7or posterior7 sacral foramina4 ,fig4 #g4--a1 #b1 #c1 the three sacral vertebr4 a1 the transverse ridges formed by the union of the centra2 b1 cranial articular processes of first vertebra2 c1 transverse process of first vertebra2 d1 caudal articular processes of third vertebra2 e1 transverse processes of third sacral vertebra2 f1 f1 ventral 7or anterior7 sacral foramina2 g1 notch which helps to form third ventral sacral foramen4 ,the ventral or pelvic surface 7,fig4 #g7 is smooth1 concave craniad1 convex caudad1 and crossed by two transverse ridges 7a7 along which are seen the ossified remains of the intervertebral fibro-cartilages4 ,at the ends of the first ridge is a pair of nearly circular ventral 7or anterior7 sacral foramina 7f7 for the passage of sacral nerves4 ,at the end of the second ridge is a pair of ventral sacral foramina 7f71 smaller than the first pair and continued laterocaudad into shallow grooves for the ventral rami of the sacral nerves4 ,that portion of the bone lying laterad of a line joining the medial borders of these two pairs of foramina is known as the lateral mass of the sacrum and is composed of the fused transverse processes of the sacral vertebr4 ,at the caudal margin of the ventral surface there is a notch between the lateral mass and the centrum 7g74 ,when the caudal vertebr are articulated1 this notch helps to form a foramen for the third sacral nerve4 ,the dorsal surface 7,fig4 #f7 is narrower at its cranial end than is the ventral surface4 ,its cranial border bears laterally a pair of cranial articular processes 7b7 with their medially directed facets and between them it is concave1 so that a large dorsal opening is left into the vertebral canal between the last lumbar vertebra and the sacrum4 ,caudad of the articular processes are two pairs of tubercles 7f74 ,these are the fused cranial and caudal articular processes of the sacral vertebr4 ,caudad of them are the caudal articular processes of the last sacral vertebra 7d74 ,craniolaterad of the middle and cranial tubercles are dorsal 7posterior7 sacral foramina 7g7 for the transmission of the dorsal rami of the sacral nerves4 ,three spinous processes 7a7 appear between these rows of tubercles4 ,they decrease in height caudad4 ,that part of the surface included between the spinous process and the tubercles is made up of the fused lamin of the sacral vertebr4 ,that part between the tubercles and a line joining the lateral margins of the dorsal 7posterior7 sacral foramina is formed by the fused radices of the sacral vertebr4 ,the lateral surface may be divided into two parts4 ,craniad is a large rough triangular area with equal sides and with one of its angles directed ventrocraniad4 ,it is the lateral face of the pseudo-transverse process of the first sacral vertebra 7,fig4 #f1 c74 ,a smooth curved surface 7the auricular facet7 along its ventral edge articulates with the ilium1 while the dorsal portion is rough for attachment of ligaments4 ,caudad is the narrow longitudinal triangular area of the lateral faces of the fused transverse processes of the second and third sacral vertebr4 ,caudal ,vertebr4 ,vertebr caudales 7,fig4 #a1 y1 and ,figs4 #h and #i74--,the caudal vertebr 7#ba-bc in number7 decrease gradually in size to the last one4 ,caudad they become longer and more slender and lose the character of vertebr4 ,they become finally reduced to mere centra1--slender rods of bone knobbed or enlarged at their two ends 7,fig4 #h74 ,the last one is more pointed than the others and bears at its caudal end a small separate conical piece1 the rudiment of an additional vertebra4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,fig4 #i4 ,fig4 #h4--;,caudal ,vertebra1 from near the caudal end of the tail4 ,fig4 #i4--;,fourth ,caudal ,vertebra1 ventral view4 a1 transverse processes2 b1 cranial articular processes2 c1 hmal processes2 d1 chevron bone4 ,the parts of a typical vertebra--vertebral arch1 transverse processes1 cranial and caudal articular processes--may be recognized in the vertebr as far back as the eighth or ninth4 ,the transverse processes 7,fig4 #i1 a7 are directed caudad and decrease rapidly in length4 ,they are very small on the ninth vertebra1 but may be recognized for a considerable distance back of this4 ,the spinous process disappears at about the fourth caudal vertebra1 and the vertebral canal becomes gradually smaller caudad1 until on the eighth or ninth vertebra it becomes merely a groove open dorsad4 ,caudad of the third vertebra for a considerable distance1 each centrum bears on each lateral face at its cranial end a short anterior transverse process1 and on its ventral face at its cranial end a pair of rounded tubercles1 hmal processes 7c71 which articulate with a small pyramidal chevron bone 7d7 so as to enclose a canal4 ,these structures disappear caudad4 ,cervical ,vertebr4 ,vertebr cervicales 7,fig4 #aj74--,the cervical vertebr number seven4 ,the first two of these are so peculiar as to require a separate description1 so that the last five may be first considered4 ,passing craniad from the fourth thoracic vertebra to the third cervical there is a gradual transition4 ,the centra of the cervical vertebr are broader and thinner than those of the thoracic vertebr1 while the vertebral arches and vertebral canal are larger 7,fig4 #aa74 ,the caudal end of each centrum is concave and looks dorsocaudad when the centrum is held with its long axis horizontal4 ,the cranial end of the centrum is convex and looks ventrocraniad when the centrum is horizontal4 ,these peculiarities are more marked in the third vertebra than in the seventh4 ,the spinous processes grow rapidly shorter as we pass craniad2 the fifth1 sixth1 and seventh are directed dorsocraniad1 the third and fourth dorsad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,,cervical ,,vertebr1 ,,side ,,view4 a1 spinous processes2 b1 cranial articular processes2 c1 caudal articular facet2 d1 intervertebral foramina2 e1 transverse process proper2 f1 processus costarius2 g1 wing of the atlas2 h1 dorsal arch of the atlas2 i1 atlantal foramen4 ,the caudal articular processes are situated at the junction of the radices and lamin2 their facets 7,fig4 #aj1 c7 look ventrocaudolaterad4 ,the cranial articular processes also become more prominent than is the rule in the thoracic vertebr2 they are borne at the junction of radix and lamina and have their facets 7,fig4 #aa1 b7 directed dorsomediad4 ,the cranial and caudal articular processes of each side are joined by a prominent ridge which is most pronounced in the third1 fourth1 and fifth vertebr4 ,the characteristic feature of the cervical vertebr is their transverse process1 so called4 ,in each of them it arises by two roots1 one from the centrum and one from the arch4 ,these two roots1 which are broad and thin1 converge and unite so as to enclose a canal or foramen1 the foramen transversarium 7,fig4 #aa1 g71 for the vertebral artery4 ,laterad of the foramen the two parts of the process are1 in the third cervical1 almost completely united1 the dorsal part being1 however1 distinguishable as a tubercle at the caudolateral angle of the thin plate formed by the process as a whole4 ,this dorsal component is the transverse process proper 7,figs4 #aj and #aa1 e71 while the ventral portion represents a rib1 and is hence known as the processus costarius 7f74 ,the expanded plate formed by the union of these two processes is directed nearly ventrad and somewhat craniad in the third1 fourth1 and fifth vertebr4 ,the two components of the process gradually separate as we pass caudad2 in the fourth and fifth vertebr the part which represents the transverse process proper forms a very prominent tubercle at the caudolateral angle of the plate formed by the processus costarius4 ,in the sixth 7,fig4 #aa7 the two parts are almost completely separated2 the dorsal part forms 7e7 a slender knobbed process1 while the processus costarius is divided into two portions 7f and f7 by a broad lateral notch4 ,in the seventh the ventral part 7processus costarius7 is usually quite lacking1 though sometimes represented by a slender spicule of bone4 ,in the former case the foramen transversarium is of course likewise lacking4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,sixth ,,cervical ,,vertebra1 ,,cranial ,,end4 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,,atlas1 ,,ventral ,,view4 ,fig4 #aa4--;a1 spinous process2 b1 cranial articular facet2 c1 lamina2 d1 radix or pedicle2 e1 transverse process proper2 f1 f1 processus costarius2 g1 foramen transversarium2 h1 centrum2 i1 vertebral canal4 ,fig4 #ab4--;a1 ventral arch2 b1 tuberculum anterius2 c1 lateral masses2 d1 transverse processes2 e1 cranial articular facets2 f1 groove connecting the foramen transversarium with the atlantal foramen2 g1 atlantal foramen2 h1 caudal articular facets4 ,the ,atlas 7,fig4 #aj1 #a2 ,fig4 #ab74--,the first cervical vertebra or atlas has somewhat the form of a seal ring4 ,the centrum is absent2 it has united with the second vertebra to form the odontoid process or dens4 ,its place is taken in the atlas by a narrow flat arch of bone1 narrower at the ends than in the middle1 the ventral arch 7,fig4 #ab1 a7 of the atlas4 ,this connects the lateral1 thicker portions of the ring ventrally and bears on its caudal margin a blunt tubercle 7tuberculum anterius1 ,fig4 #ab1 b74 ,laterally the ring is thickened1 forming thus the lateral masses 7c7 which are continued into the broad thin transverse processes 7,fig4 #aj1 g2 ,fig4 #ab1 d74 ,each lateral mass bears at its cranial end on its medial surface a concave1 pear-shaped facet1 cranial 7or superior7 articular facet1 7,fig4 #ab1 e7 for articulation with the condyles of the skull4 ,these facets look craniomediad4 ,dorsad of each is a foramen1 the atlantal foramen 7,fig4 #aj1 i2 ,fig4 #ab1 g71 which pierces the dorsal arch at its junction with the lateral mass4 ,caudal to the facet1 on the medial face of each lateral mass1 within the vertebral canal1 is a tubercle4 ,to the two tubercles are attached the transverse ligament 7,fig4 #ad1 b7 which holds in place the odontoid process 7dens7 of the axis4 ,that part of the lateral mass which bears the articular facet projects craniad of the dorsal arch and is separated by a deep triangular notch from the transverse process4 ,along the bottom of this notch runs a groove 7,fig4 #ab1 f71 convex craniad1 which connects the cranial end of the foramen transversarium and the atlantal foramen4 ,the vertebral artery passes along it4 ,the foramen transversarium is circular4 ,it is bounded laterally by the lateral masses1 and dorsally by the dorsal arch4 ,the dorsal arch 7,fig4 #aj1 h7 is two to three times as broad as the ventral1 has a thick convex cranial border with a median notch1 and a thin concave caudal border4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,,axis ,,or ,,epistropheus1 ,,side ,,view4 a1 odontoid process or dens2 b1 cranial articular facets2 c1 spinous process2 d1 caudal articular facet2 e1 transverse process2 f1 foramen transversarium4 ,the caudal articular facets 7,fig4 #ab1 h7 are borne by the caudal ends of the lateral masses4 ,they are slightly concave1 triangular1 and look caudomediad1 so that their dorsal borders form with the caudal border of the dorsal arch nearly a semicircle4 ,the transverse processes are flat and directed laterad4 ,the attached margin of each is about two-thirds the length of the thinner free margin4 ,the somewhat thicker caudal end of the transverse process projects further caudad than any other part of the vertebra and is separated by a slight notch from the caudal articular facet4 ,from the bottom of this notch the foramen transversarium extends craniad and opens at the middle of the ventral face of the transverse process4 ,epistropheus or ,axis 7,fig4 #aj1 #b2 ,fig4 #ac74--,the second cervical vertebra 7epistropheus or axis7 is not so wide as the atlas but is much longer4 ,craniad the centrum is continued into a slender conical1 toothlike projection1 the dens or odontoid process 7,fig4 #ac1 a7 which represents the centrum of the atlas4 ,the dens is smooth below for articulation with the ventral arch of the atlas4 ,it is rougher above4 ,laterad of the dens the centrum bears a pair of large cranial articular facets 7b7 which look craniolaterad4 ,these have each the form of a right-angled triangle with rounded angles1 one side of the triangle being nearly horizontal4 ,each is separated from the articular face of the dens by a roughened groove4 ,the spinous process 7c7 runs the length of the vertebral arch4 ,it extends craniad of the vertebral arch nearly as far as the dens1 as a flat rounded projection4 ,caudad of the vertebral arch it projects for a short distance as a stout triangular spine4 ,the caudal articular facets 7d7 are borne on thickenings of the caudolateral portions of the arch2 they face almost directly ventrad4 ,the transverse process 7e7 is slender and triangular and directed nearly caudad4 ,its apex reaches no farther than the caudal or articular face of the centrum4 ,its base is traversed by the foramen transversarium 7f74 ,differential ,characters of the ,cervical ,vertebr4--,it is possible to identify each of the cervical vertebr3 ,the first by the absence of the centrum4 ,the second by the dens or odontoid process4 ,the third by the small spinous process and slightly marked tubercle of the transverse process1 and by a median tubercle on the cranial border of the vertebral arch4 ,the fourth by the spinous process directed dorsad1 and the short thick tubercle of the transverse process not trifid4 ,the fifth by the spinous process directed craniad1 and the more slender spine-like tubercle of the transverse process not trifid4 ,the sixth by the trifid transverse process4 ,the seventh by the long spinous process and the slender simple transverse process1 and by the usual absence of the foramen transversarium4 ,,ligaments ,,of ,,the ,,vertebral ,,column4 ,fibro-cartilagines intervertebrales4--,the separate vertebr 7except the atlas and axis7 are united by the disk-shaped intervertebral fibro-cartilages1 which are situated between the centra of the vertebr4 ,each consists of a central pulpy portion and a fibrous outer portion1 covered by strong intercrossing tendinous fibers which unite with the periosteum of the vertebr4 ,ligamentum longitudinale anterius4--,on the ventral face of the centra of the vertebr1 from the atlas to the sacrum1 lies a longitudinal ligament1 the anterior longitudinal ligament4 ,it is very small1 almost rudimentary1 in the cervical region3 large and strong in the thoracic and lumbar regions4 ,ligamentum longitudinale posterius 7,fig4 #ad1 a74--,a corresponding ligament 7posterior longitudinal ligament7 lies on the dorsal surface of the centra 7therefore within the vertebral canal74 ,it is enlarged between each pair of vertebr and closely united to the intervertebral fibro-cartilages4 ,ligamentum supraspinale4--,between the tips of the spinous processes of the thoracic and lumbar vertebr extend ligamentous fibers4 ,they are not united to form a distinct band1 and can hardly be distinguished from the numerous tendinous fibers of the supraspinous muscles4 ,together they represent the supraspinous ligament4 ,from the tip of the spinous process of the first thoracic vertebra to the caudal end of the spine of the axis extends a slender strand representing the ligamentum nuch or cervical supraspinous ligament4 ,it is imbedded in the superficial muscles of this region1 some of which take origin from it4 ,ligamentous fibers are also present between the spinous processes of the vertebr 7ligamenta interspinalia73 between the transverse processes 7ligamenta intertransversaria71 and between the vertebral arches 7ligamenta flava74 ,capsul articulares4--,the joints between the articular processes are furnished with articular capsules attached about the edges of the articular surfaces4 ,these are larger and looser in the cervical region4 ,atlanto-occipital ,articulation4--,the joint between the atlas and the occipital condyles has a single articular capsule1 which is attached about the borders of the articular surfaces of the two bones4 ,this capsule is of course widest laterally1 forming indeed two partially separated sacs1 which are1 however1 continuous by a narrow portion across the ventral middle line4 ,this capsule communicates with that which covers the articular surface of the dens1 and through this with the capsule between the atlas and axis4 ,that portion of the capsule which covers the space between the ventral arch of the atlas and the occipital bone represents the anterior atlanto-occipital membrane2 it is strengthened by a slender median ligamentous strand4 ,the posterior atlanto-occipital membrane covers in the same way the space between the dorsal arch of the atlas and the dorsal edge of the foramen magnum4 ,in it a number of different sets of fibers1 with regard to direction and to degree of development1 may be distinguished2 these have sometimes been considered separate ligaments4 ,the lateral ligaments of the atlas begin at the lateral angle of the cranial margin of the atlas1 at about the junction of its dorsal and ventral arches1 and pass cranioventrad to the jugular processes4 ,articulation between the ,axis and ,atlas4--,the articular capsule is large and loose1 being attached to dorsal and ventral borders of the atlas1 about the articular surfaces of the axis1 and to the cranial projection of the spine of the atlas4 ,it also passes craniad along the ventral side of the dens and communicates here with the capsule of the atlanto-occipital articulation4 ,in the dorsal part of the capsule a short strong ligamentous strand is developed1 connecting the caudal border of the dorsal arch of the atlas with the tip of the cranial projection of the spinous process of the axis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,ligaments ,,of ,,the ,,odontoid ,,process ,,or ,,dens4 ,first three cervical vertebr and base of the skull1 with dorsal surface removed4 a1 ligamentum longitudinale posterius2 b1 transverse ligament of the atlas2 c1 ligamenta alaria2 d1 odontoid process2 e1 occipital condyles2 #a1 #b1 #c1 the first three cervical vertebr2 #d1 basal portion of the occipital bone4 ,the dens or odontoid process is held in place by the transverse ligament 7,fig4 #ad1 b7 of the atlas1 which passes across the process as it lies within the vertebral canal of the atlas4 ,the transverse ligament is attached at its two ends to the medial surface of the sides of the atlas at about the region where the dorsal and ventral arches of the atlas unite4 ,from the cranial end of the odontoid process the two ligamenta alaria 7,fig4 #ad1 c7 diverge craniolaterad to the rough ventromedial angle of the condyles of the occipital bone4 ,,ii4 ,,ribs4 ,,cost 7,figs4 #a and #ae47 ,the cat has thirteen pairs of ribs4 ,one of the fifth pair 7,fig4 #ae7 may be taken as typical4 ,it is a curved flattened rod of bone attached at its dorsal end to the vertebral column1 and at its ventral end to a cartilage 7costal cartilage1 ,fig4 #ae1 f7 which serves to unite it to the sternum4 ,the most convex portion of the bone is known as the angle 7e74 ,each rib presents a convex lateral and a concave medial surface1 a cranial and a caudal border4 ,the borders are broad dorsad and narrow ventrad1 while the surfaces are narrow dorsad and broad ventrad4 ,the rib has thus the appearance of having been twisted4 ,the rib ends dorsad in a globular head or capitulum 7a71 by which it articulates with the costal demifacets of two contiguous thoracic vertebr4 ,between the capitulum and angle on the lateral surface is an elevated area1 the tubercle1 marked by the smooth tubercular facet 7c7 for articulation with the transverse process of a vertebra4 ,the constricted portion between the head and tubercle is known as the neck 7collum7 7d74 ,the angle is marked by a projecting process 7e7 7angular process7 on its lateral border1 for attachment of a ligament4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,,fifth ,,rib ,,of ,,left ,,side1 ,,cranial ,,view4 a1 head2 b1 tubercle2 c1 tubercular facet2 d1 neck2 e1 angle1 with angular process2 f1 cartilage4 ,the ribs increase in length to the ninth 7the ninth and tenth are of the same length7 and then decrease to the last4 ,they decrease in breadth behind the fifth4 ,the first is nearly in a dorsoventral plane1 while the others have their dorsal ends inclined slightly craniad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,sternum1 ,,ventral ,,view4 a1 manubrium2 b1 the separate pieces forming the body2 c1 bony part of the xiphoid process 7the expanded cartilaginous portion not being shown72 d1 facet for attachment of first rib4 ,the tubercles become less prominent as we pass caudad and are absent on the last two or three ribs1 which do not articulate with the transverse process4 ,the first nine ribs 7true ribs or cost ver7 are attached separately to the sternum by their costal cartilages4 ,the last four 7false ribs or cost spuri7 are not attached separately to the sternum4 ,the costal cartilages of the tenth1 eleventh1 and twelfth are united to one another at their sternal ends4 ,they may be united also to the ninth costal cartilage or to the sternum by a common cartilage of insertion1 or they may be quite free from the sternum4 ,the thirteenth costal cartilages are free 7floating ribs74 ,ligaments of the ,ribs4--,the articular surfaces between the head of the rib and the centra1 and between the tubercle and the transverse process of the vertebra1 have each an articular capsule4 ,there are also a number of small ligamentous bands from the tuberosity and the neck of the rib to the transverse process of the vertebra4 ,,iii4 ,,sternum4 7,fig4 #af47 ,the sternum consists of three portions1 a cranial piece or manubrium 7a71 a caudal piece or xiphoid process 7c71 and a middle portion or body 7corpus71 which is divided into a number of segments 7b74 ,to the sternum are united the ventral ends of the first nine ribs4 ,it thus forms the median ventral boundary of the thorax4 ,since the thorax decreases in dorsoventral measurement craniad1 the long axis of the sternum is inclined from its caudal end dorsocraniad1 and if continued would strike the vertebral column in the region of the first cervical vertebra4 ,the manubrium 7a7 makes up about one-fifth the whole length of the sternum and projects craniad of the first rib4 ,it has the form of a dagger and presents a dorsal surface and two lateral surfaces1 the latter uniting ventrad to form a sharp angle4 ,in the middle of the lateral surface near the dorsal margin is an oval articular surface 7d7 borne on a triangular projection4 ,it looks caudodorsad and is for the first costal cartilage4 ,the caudal end articulates with the body by a synchondrosis and presents a slightly marked oval facet on each side for the second costal cartilage4 ,the body consists of six cylindrical pieces 7b7 enlarged at their ends and movably united by synchondroses4 ,they increase in breadth from the first1 and decrease slightly in length and thickness4 ,at the caudal end of each near its ventral border there is a pair of facets looking caudolaterad4 ,they are for the costal cartilages4 ,the xiphoid process 7c7 is a broad thin plate of cartilage at its caudal end2 bony and cylindrical at its cranial end4 ,it is attached by its base to the last segment of the body by a considerable cartilaginous interval1 while the opposite end is free and directed caudoventrad4 ,the cartilage of the ninth rib is attached to the lateral face of the cartilage between the xiphoid and the body1 and just caudad of this the common cartilage of insertion of the tenth1 eleventh1 and twelfth costal cartilages is attached1 if present4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,skull4 ,the bones of the head consist of the skull proper together with a number of separate bones forming part of the visceral skeleton2 these are the lower jaw1 the hyoid1 and the ear-bones4 ,the skull proper is considered as divided into cranial and facial portions4 ,the former includes all the bones which take part in bounding the cranial cavity or cavity of the brain2 the latter includes the bones which support the face4 ,the cranial portion of the skull includes all that part enclosing the large cavity which contains the brain4 ,for convenience this portion may be considered as made up of three segments1 each of which forms a ring surrounding a part of the cranial cavity4 ,the first or caudal segment or ring consists of the occipital bone 7with the interparietal7 surrounding the foramen magnum4 ,the second segment consists of the sphenoid ventrad1 the parietals laterad and dorsad4 ,between the first and second segments are intercalated laterally the temporal bones containing the auditory organ4 ,the third segment or ring consists of the presphenoid ventrad1 of the frontals laterad and dorsad4 ,the cranial opening of this ring is closed by the lamina cribrosa of the ethmoid4 ,the cranial portion of the skull therefore contains eleven separate bones3 one occipital1 one interparietal1 two temporals1 one sphenoid1 two parietals1 one presphenoid1 two frontals1 and one ethmoid4 ,the facial portion of the skull is much smaller than the cranial1 and lies craniad of the latter2 it encloses the nasal cavity4 ,it contains the following thirteen bones3 two palatines1 one vomer1 two maxillaries1 two lachrymals1 two premaxillaries1 two nasals1 two malar or zygomatic bones4 ,the two halves of the mandible or lower jaw are frequently included in the facial portion of the skull1 making in all fifteen separate bones in this part of the skull4 ,in the following the bones of the skull are first described separately1 then an account is given of the skull as a whole4 ,occipital ,bone4 ,os occipitale 7,figs4 #ag and #ah74--,the occipital bone forms the most caudal portion of the cranium1 entering into the formation of its caudal wall and of its base4 ,it connects the cranium with the vertebral column and surrounds a large opening1 the foramen magnum 7d71 by means of which the cranial cavity communicates with the vertebral canal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,occipital ,,bone1 ,,caudal ,,or ,,outer ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,occipital ,,bone1 ,,inner ,,surface4 a1 basilar portion2 b1 lateral portions2 c1 squamous portion2 d1 foramen magnum2 e1 occipital condyles2 f1 jugular processes2 g1 jugular notch2 h1 lambdoidal ridge2 i1 external occipital crest2 j1 external occipital protuberance4 ,in young kittens four portions may be distinguished in this bone4 ,these are1 a basal portion 7the basioccipital bone71 two lateral portions 7the exoccipital bones71 and a dorsal portion 7the supraoccipital bone74 ,these four bones remain separate through life in many lower vertebrates4 ,in the adult cat they are completely united into a single bone1 but it is convenient to describe this bone as made up of four parts3 a basal portion 7a7 7pars basilare71 corresponding to the basioccipital1 two lateral portions 7b7 7partes laterales71 corresponding to the exoccipitals1 and a squamous portion 7c7 7squama occipitalis7 corresponding to the supraoccipital4 ,the basilar portion 7a7 as seen from the dorsal or ventral surface is oblong and flattened4 ,it is broadest at the junction of its middle and last thirds1 and tapers toward both ends4 ,it presents a cranial end and a caudal end1 a dorsal1 a ventral1 and two lateral surfaces4 ,its caudal end1 which helps to form the ventral boundary of the foramen magnum1 is concave from side to side4 ,the cranial end is transversely elongate1 about five times as broad as high1 pointed laterally and roughened for attachment to the caudal end of the body of the sphenoid1 which has a corresponding form4 ,the joint is a synchondrosis4 ,the dorsal surface is concave from side to side1 forming a longitudinal groove in which rest the pons and medulla4 ,the concavity is more pronounced caudad1 where the bone is thinner at its middle4 ,the ventral surface is marked by three parallel longitudinal ridges4 ,one of them is median and expands caudad into a smooth triangular elevated area which extends to the foramen magnum4 ,the other two ridges run near the lateral edges of the bone4 ,between them and the median ridge the surface is smooth and is depressed caudad4 ,laterad of each lateral ridge is a rough triangular surface overlaid in the natural state by the medial edge of the tympanic bulla4 ,the lateral surfaces are smooth and sharp and abut against the petrous portion of the temporal bone4 ,they pass into the lateral portions of the occipital caudad4 ,the lateral portions 7b7 of the occipital arise from the caudal margin of the basilar portion in the transverse plane2 a short distance laterad of the line of junction they turn dorsad at an angle of nearly ninety degrees4 ,they form the lateral boundaries of the foramen magnum and pass dorsally into the squamous portion4 ,the external surface of each presents an elongated elevated spirally curved surface1 the occipital condyle 7c71 for articulation with the atlas4 ,a small part of each condyle is formed from the basal portion4 ,the two condyles are separated from one another ventrally by a narrow notch1 and each extends 7laterad7 along the border of the foramen magnum to a point slightly dorsad of the transverse diameter of the latter4 ,laterad of each condyle the bone is elevated into a blunt triangular projection1 the jugular process 7f71 which covers the caudal end of the tympanic bulla4 ,between the jugular process and the condyle is a deep depression4 ,the internal surface 7,fig4 #ah7 is concave dorsoventrally1 following the outline of the foramen magnum4 ,it is convex from side to side4 ,it is smooth except at its outer margin1 which is rough for articulation with the mastoid portion of the temporal bone4 ,the cranial face of the jugular process 7f7 shows a rough concavity for the reception of the bulla tympani4 ,mediad of the jugular process is a notch 7jugular notch7 7g7 which when the bones are articulated forms part of the boundary of the jugular foramen4 ,mediad of this notch is a foramen which forms one end of the hypoglossal canal4 ,it passes dorsocaudad into the cranial cavity and transmits the hypoglossal nerve4 ,dorsad of the hypoglossal canal is the cranial opening of the condyloid canal1 which passes caudad and opens just craniad of the dorsal end of the condyle4 ,it transmits a vein4 ,the outer border of this portion is rough for articulation with the petrous and mastoid portions of the temporal4 ,the squamous portion 7c7 has the form of a sector of a circle whose arc is a little more than ninety degrees4 ,the central angle of the sector is truncated and bounds the foramen magnum dorsally4 ,the arc of the sector forms the dorsal margin of the bone1 while along the radii it passes into the lateral portions4 ,its dorsal portion is thick and porous2 its ventral portion near the foramen magnum is thin and compact4 ,the external surface 7,fig4 #ag7 is marked by a prominent ridge1 the lambdoidal ridge 7h71 parallel with the dorsal border and near to it4 ,the narrow portion of the outer surface that lies dorsad of the ridge forms an angle of about ninety degrees with the remainder of the surface4 ,a median crest 7i7 extends ventrad from the middle of the lambdoidal ridge toward the foramen magnum2 this is the external occipital crest4 ,at its junction with the lambdoidal ridge it is elevated into a tubercle1 the external occipital protuberance 7j74 ,the inner surface 7,fig4 #ah7 presents depressions for the convolutions of the cerebellum4 ,the dorsal border is thick and rough for articulation with the parietals and interparietal4 ,the ventral border abuts on the foramen magnum and is thin and smooth4 ,interparietal ,bone4 ,os interparietale 7,fig4 #ai74--,this is a small triangular bone lying between the parietals1 with its apex directed craniad1 and its base in contact with the squamous portion of the occipital4 ,its dorsal surface is arrow-shaped and has its posterior border notched4 ,it is marked by a median crest 7part of the sagittal crest7 which is continued craniad from the middle of the lambdoidal crest4 ,the ventral surface is irregularly triangular1 smooth1 and concave4 ,the three borders are rough for articulation with the parietals and occipital4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,interparietal ,,bone1 ,,outer ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,sphenoid ,,bone1 ,,dorsal ,,or ,,internal ,,surface4 ,fig4 #ai1 showing the sagittal crest running craniocaudad across its middle4 ,fig4 #bj4--;a1 body2 b1 wings2 c1 pterygoid process2 d1 tuberculum sell2 e1 dorsum sell2 f1 sella turcica2 g1 notch which aids in forming the foramen lacerum2 h1 longitudinal groove of alisphenoid2 i1 notch which aids in forming the orbital fissure2 j1 foramen rotundum2 k1 foramen ovale4 ,sphenoid ,bone4 ,os sphenoidale 7,fig4 #bj74--,the sphenoid bone of man is represented in the cat by two entirely distinct bones1--one cranial1 the other caudal4 ,the cranial portion may be designated as the presphenoid 7,fig4 #ba72 the caudal part will be described as the sphenoid 7proper7 7,fig4 #bj74 ,the sphenoid bone in the kitten is in three parts3 a central portion1 the basisphenoid1 and two lateral portions1 the alisphenoids4 ,in many lower vertebrates these three bones are permanently distinct1 but in the adult cat they are united to form the sphenoid bone4 ,to these there is added a fourth element1 separate in many vertebrates as the pterygoid bone4 ,the sphenoid may thus be described as composed of a central portion1 the body 7a7 7basisphenoid71 and of two thin expanded wings 7b7 7alisphenoids1 al magn of the human sphenoid72 each of which has arising from it a thin curved process1 the pterygoid process 7c71 directed craniad and largely made up of the pterygoid bone4 ,the body of the sphenoid 7a7 lies in the middle line of the base of the skull4 ,it is wedge-shaped1 with the converging sides of the wedge directed laterad and its apex pointed craniad4 ,it has six surfaces1 of which the dorsal and a part of the laterals look into the cranial cavity4 ,the cranial end articulates with the body of the presphenoid1 and the caudal with the body of the occipital4 ,the dorsal surface is triangular1 with one apex of the triangle truncated1 elevated1 and directed craniad4 ,this elevation is the tuberculum sell 7d74 ,just caudad of the middle the surface presents a rectangular elevation with rounded angles1 the dorsum sell 7e74 ,the cranial end of the dorsum sell presents at each dorsolateral angle a very small smooth tubercle which represents one of the posterior clinoid processes of man4 ,between this elevation and the elevated cranial end of this surface there is a deep excavation1 the sella turcica 7f71 in which in the natural state is lodged the hypophysis4 ,near the cranial end of the sella is a small foramen1 probably nutrient4 ,at the caudal end of the body a slight notch 7g7 separates it from the wing3 this notch forms a part of the foramen lacerum4 ,against this notch fits the apex of the petrous bone1 and from it a groove 7carotid groove7 is continued mediocraniad to the sella turcica4 ,the ventral surface 7,fig4 #da1 #c7 is triangular1 smooth1 and nearly flat2 it is marked by a median ridge which is the continuation craniad of the ridge on the ventral face of the basilar portion of the occipital4 ,its caudal angles are separated from the rest of the bone by sharp triangular elevations1 laterad of which are rough triangular areas1 overlaid when the bones are articulated by a triangular spine from the tympanic bulla4 ,its lateral surfaces are mostly covered by the wings4 ,they appear at the sides of the elevated cranial end of the dorsal surface as triangular areas4 ,the caudal end is concave1 rough1 and has the form of the cranial end of the basilar part of the occipital4 ,the cranial end is nearly square and rough for articulation with the body of the presphenoid4 ,the ,wing 7alisphenoid2 ala magna of the human sphenoid7 7,fig4 #bj1 b74--,this is a thin quadrilateral plate of bone attached by its medial border to nearly the whole of the lateral surface of the body4 ,its middle portion lies nearly in the same plane as the body1 but its ends are curved dorsad so that its internal surface is concave and its external surface is convex4 ,the curvature is most pronounced near the long lateral border1 so that this border forms nearly a semicircle4 ,the internal surface supports the occipital lobe of the cerebrum4 ,it is marked by a rounded groove 7h7 which is parallel with the lateral surface of the body4 ,the dorsal margin of the groove projects mediad in the form of a sharp ridge which is broadest caudad1 where it often reaches nearly to the posterior clinoid process4 ,the groove passes craniad into three foramina4 ,the first 7cranial7 of these1 the orbital fissure 7i71 is large and lies between the wing1 the body1 and the pterygoid process4 ,it is incomplete1 but is completed by the presphenoid4 ,the second foramen is small and rounded2 it is the foramen rotundum 7j74 ,the third1 foramen ovale 7k71 is larger and oval and penetrates the wing through about the middle of its longitudinal axis4 ,another minute foramen penetrates the sphenoid between the wing and the body of the bone1 just laterad of the tuberculum sell4 ,this foramen is continuous craniad with a groove on the dorsal surface of the pterygoid process2 the groove and foramen constitute the pterygoid canal4 ,it transmits a nerve4 ,the external surface shows the orbital fissure1 the foramen rotundum and the foramen ovale1 bounded ventrally by a sharp ridge1 which is continued onto the pterygoid process4 ,between this ridge and the body the surface is longitudinally grooved for the tuba auditiva or ,eustachian tube4 ,the semicircular margin of the bone articulates with the squamous portion of the temporal4 ,at the junction of its caudal and middle third there is sometimes a toothlike projection which underlies the root of the zygoma4 ,the whole of the cranial margin1 except the lateral end1 articulates with the wing of the presphenoid4 ,at this end the angle formed by the junction of lateral and cranial borders is produced into a flat process1 which passes dorsocaudad between the squamous portion of the temporal and the frontal1 and articulates by the roughened internal surface of its free end with a similar process from the parietal4 ,the caudal margin laterad of the groove is bevelled and roughened at the expense of the dorsal surface and is overlaid by the ventral end of the tentorium4 ,mediad of the groove it projects caudad as a slender point1 the lingula of the sphenoid4 ,this is received into a narrow cleft between the apex of the petrous bone and the bulla tympani4 ,the pterygoid process 7c7 is a nearly square1 thin plate of bone4 ,the medial surface is smooth and concave1 the lateral face is convex and marked by two parallel ridges4 ,the medial one of these is continued craniad from the bony septum which separates the orbital fissure from the foramen rotundum1 and the lateral one from the septum which separates the foramen rotundum from the foramen ovale4 ,a sharp triangular spine projects laterad from near the caudal end of the lateral ridge4 ,the two ridges and that part of the lateral surface of the bone included between them form a part of the sphenoid bone known as the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone1 in those cases where the pterygoid is a separate bone4 ,the remainder of the process is equivalent to the pterygoid bone of other vertebrates4 ,between the caudal margin of this bone and the lateral of the two ridges1 i4e41 between the pterygoid bone and the pterygoid process of the sphenoid1 is a long deep fossa1 the internal pterygoid fossa 7,fig4 #dj1 s74 ,the laterocaudal margin of the pterygoid process projects caudad1 as a curved triangular spine1 the hamulus or hamular process 7,fig4 #dj1 t2 ,fig4 #dc1 i74 ,the ,presphenoid ,bone4 ,os presphenoidale 7,fig4 #ba74--;,in a young cat this bone is in three pieces1 a basal portion 7presphenoid7 and two wings 7orbitosphenoid bones74 ,these bones remain distinct throughout life in many lower vertebrates1 but in the adult cat they fuse to form a single bone4 ,we may nevertheless conveniently describe this bone as made up of a body 7a7 7the basisphenoid71 and two wings 7b71 the orbitosphenoids 7the al parv of the human sphenoid74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,presphenoid ,,bone1 ,,ventral ,,view4 a1 body2 b1 wings2 c1 optic foramina4 ,the body 7a7 lies in the base of the skull in the median line1 craniad of the basisphenoid4 ,it has the form of a rectangular prism about twice as long as broad4 ,it is hollow1 and the cavity is divided by a median longitudinal partition into two cavities 7sphenoidal sinuses1 ,fig4 #dc1 l74 ,the sphenoidal sinuses are continued craniad into the cavities of the ethmoid4 ,the body has six surfaces3 ,the dorsal or internal surface 7,fig4 #db1 n7 looks into the cranial cavity and is continuous with the dorsal surface of the wings4 ,the caudal end of the body is depressed1 and when united to the basisphenoid aids in forming the cranial wall of the sella turcica4 ,at each caudolateral angle is a short spine1 the anterior clinoid process4 ,at about one-third the length of the bone from the caudal end is a transverse groove 7chiasmatic groove1 ,fig4 #db1 m7 for the optic chiasma4 ,its ends lead into two round foramina 7the optic foramina1 ,fig4 #db1 l2 ,fig4 #ba1 c7 which pass craniolaterad between the body and the wings of the presphenoid and transmit the optic nerve and the ophthalmic artery4 ,the ventral surface 7,fig4 #ba7 is hour-glass-shaped and marked by a smooth median ridge1 continuous with the ridge on the basisphenoid and overlaid at its cranial end by the vomer4 ,the caudal end presents a rough triangular area on each side1 for articulation with the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone1 while the cranial end has similar areas overlaid by the nasal portion of the palatine bones4 ,the lateral surface looks towards the orbitotemporal fossa4 ,it is notched near the caudal end by the ventral border of the optic foramen 7c74 ,caudad of this foramen the surface presents an oblique groove which forms in the natural condition the medial boundary of the orbital fissure4 ,craniad of the optic foramen the surface is smooth and marked near its ventral border by a longitudinal ridge which forms part of the dorsal boundary of a fossa1 the external pterygoid fossa 7,fig4 #dj1 p74 ,the caudal end presents ventrally a quadrangular rough surface for articulation with the body of the sphenoid4 ,the cranial end presents the two sphenoidal sinuses separated by a median partition4 ,the median partition articulates by its free border with the lamina perpendicularis of the ethmoid4 ,at its ventral end is the abruptly truncate end of the median ridge of the ventral surface1 which is continuous with the ventral cartilaginous portion of the lamina perpendicularis4 ,the lateral walls of the sphenoidal sinuses are continued craniad of the dorsal and ventral walls and of the median partition1 and articulate ventrally with the nasal portion of the palatine bones1 and dorsally with the orbital plate of the frontal4 ,between them is received the caudal ends of the labyrinths of the ethmoid in the middle1 while between their dorsal edges is received the caudal end of the cribriform plate1 and between their ventral edges the expanded end of the vomer4 ,the wings 7b7 arise each from nearly the whole of the dorsolateral angle of the body4 ,they form prominent nearly horizontal triangular projections over the optic foramina4 ,the dorsal and ventral surfaces are smooth and continuous respectively with the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the body4 ,the dorsal surface looks into the cranial cavity1 while the ventral looks into the orbitotemporal fossa4 ,craniad of the apex of the wing its border articulates with the ventral edge of the orbital portion of the frontal bone4 ,caudad of the apex the border articulates with the cranial border of the wing of the sphenoid4 ,temporal ,bone4 ,os temporale 7,figs4 #bb and #bc74--,this forms a part of the lateral wall of the cranium1 filling the gap between the occipital and the sphenoidal segments4 ,it is made up of three portions which are distinct in kittens but somewhat firmly united in adult cats4 ,in lower vertebrates these portions are distinct bones called the ,squamous1 the ,petrous1 and the ,tympanic bones4 ,in the cat they may be described as the squamous 7a71 petrous 7b71 and tympanic 7c7 portions of the temporal bone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,temporal ,,bone1 ,,external ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,temporal ,,bone1 ,,internal ,,surface4 a1 squamous portion2 b1 petrous portion2 c1 c1 tympanic portion 7c1 entotympanic2 c1 ectotympanic72 d1 zygomatic process2 e1 mastoid portion of the petrous2 f1 mandibular fossa2 g1 postmandibular process2 h1 tuberculum articulare2 i1 external auditory meatus2 j1 stylomastoid foramen2 k1 pit for tympanohyal bone2 l1 mastoid process2 m1 grooves bounding the jugular foramen2 n1 internal auditory meatus2 o1 appendicular fossa2 p1 hiatus facialis2 q1 styliform process of tympanic bulla4 ,the squamous portion 7a7 7squama temporalis7 is thin and oval or has the form of an equilateral triangle with rounded angles1 with a curved process1 the zygomatic process 7d71 arising from its ventral border4 ,its outer surface 7,fig4 #bb7 is convex and smooth and gives origin to part of the temporal muscle4 ,its inner surface 7,fig4 #bc7 is concave and smooth except near the margins1 where it is bevelled and rough4 ,the roughened border is broader dorsad and caudad4 ,the ventral margin of the bone is turned mediad at its cranial end so that the lateral face of the inverted portion looks ventrad4 ,by this portion of its lateral face the squamous rests upon the tympanic bulla1 and its edge articulates with the tentorium and the wing of the sphenoid4 ,the remaining 7caudal7 portion of the ventral border overlies the mastoid portion 7e7 of the petrous4 ,by the remainder of its border the bone articulates with the parietal dorsad and with the wing of the sphenoid craniad4 ,the roughened portion of its inner surface overlies the margins of both these bones4 ,the zygomatic process 7d7 is formed by the confluence of two roots4 ,one of these starts from the ventral end of the lambdoidal ridge and passes along the ventral margin of the squama dorsad of the external auditory meatus4 ,the other arises abruptly from the cranioventral angle of the bone4 ,the process thus formed is at first broad and passes horizontally laterad and slightly craniad4 ,it soon grows more slender and turns gradually craniad1 while at the same time it twists so that the surface which is dorsal at the base becomes medial at the tip2 the posterior root which is continuous with the caudal border at the base is continuous with the dorsal border at the apex4 ,on the ventral surface of the base is a transversely elongated concave articular surface1 the mandibular fossa 7f71 for the condyloid process of the lower jaw4 ,caudad of this is a sharp transverse ridge1 the postmandibular or postglenoid process 7g71 and craniad of the lateral end of the fossa a slight tubercle1 the tuberculum articulare 7h74 ,near its apex the zygomatic process is more slender and its ventral border is bevelled for articulation with the malar or zygomatic bone4 ,the tympanic 7,figs4 #bb and #bc1 c2 ,fig4 #bd7 is expanded into a large hollow olive-shaped bone which is known as the auditory bulla and encloses the tympanic cavity4 ,its substance is very compact4 ,unlike the tympanic of most other mammals it is developed from two bones1 known as the ectotympanic 7,fig4 #bb1 c7 and entotympanic 7c74 ,these are strongly marked in young kittens1 and can usually be easily distinguished in adult cats4 ,the entotympanic 7,figs4 #bb and #bc1 c7 forms the larger part of the bulla1 constituting its ventral and medial surfaces2 it is thin1 smooth1 and transparent4 ,the ectotympanic 7,fig4 #bb1 c7 surrounds the external auditory meatus3 it is thicker and more opaque than the entotympanic4 ,the bulla lies ventrad of the squamous1 and in an external view conceals a large part of the petrous4 ,on its lateral surface it presents near the dorsal border an irregular oval opening1 that of the external auditory meatus 7,fig4 #bb1 i71 which leads into the tympanic cavity4 ,caudad of the external auditory meatus is a nearly dorsoventral groove1 which1 when the bone is articulated1 forms a part of the boundary of the stylomastoid foramen 7,fig4 #bb1 j72 just ventrad of this groove is a pit 7k7 which lodges the tip of the tympanohyal bone4 ,craniad the bone is produced into a short spine1 the styliform process 7q71 which lies in a horizontal groove in the ventral surface of the basisphenoid4 ,laterad of this spine is a groove for the tuba auditiva or ,eustachian tube4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,tympanic ,,bulla1 ,,isolated1 ,,medial ,,surface4 a1 inner end of auditory meatus2 b1 partition dividing tympanic cavity2 c1 styliform process4 ,the medial surface 7,fig4 #bd7 presents in the middle near its ventral margin a short triangular spine which lies in the natural state against the ventral surface of the basilar portion of the occipital4 ,caudad of this spine the surface is marked by two or three vertical parallel grooves 7,fig4 #bc1 m74 ,they indicate the portion of the bone which bounds the jugular foramen1 and are possibly impressions of the ninth1 tenth1 and eleventh nerves4 ,the dorsal two-thirds of the medial surface is lacking in the disarticulated bulla 7,fig4 #bd71 so that the cavity of the bone is exposed4 ,this opening is in the natural state closed by the petrous bone4 ,the caudal end is rough where it is overlaid by the jugular process4 ,on the inner surface of the tympanic bulla is seen the thickened margin of the inner end of the auditory meatus 7,fig4 #bd1 a74 ,to it is attached the membrana tympana4 ,in the median dorsal line this margin is notched for the reception of the incus and head of the malleus4 ,from the lateral wall of the cavity at the line of junction of the ectotympanic and entotympanic a thin bony partition 7b7 rises4 ,it runs almost directly mediad2 is concave dorsally and divides the tympanic cavity into two chambers4 ,the ,petrous ,portion 7,fig4 #bc1 b1 and ,fig4 #be74--,this consists of two parts1 a very dense part 7the petrous portion proper1 ,fig4 #be71 which has the form of a triangular pyramid and encloses the auditory labyrinth1 and a less dense part1 the mastoid portion 7,figs4 #bb and #bc1 e71 which is flattened and triangular and is attached by its base to the base of the pyramid4 ,the petrous portion may be described as having a base and three sides1 lateral1 dorsal1 and medial4 ,it completes the medial wall of the tympanic bulla1 so that it is not possible to see it from the exterior of a skull except through the auditory meatus 7,fig4 #bb1 i74 ,when the bones of the skull are articulated its dorsal surface is covered by the tentorium and alisphenoid4 ,its lateral face looks into the tympanic cavity1 while the medial face looks into the cranial cavity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,petrous ,,bone ,,of ,,right ,,side1 ,,lateral ,,surface1 ,,enlarged4 a1 fenestra cochle2 b1 promontory2 c1 fenestra vestibuli2 d1 fossa for the tensor tympani muscle2 e1 fossa for incus and malleus2 f1 fossa continuous with stylomastoid foramen2 g1 foramen leading to facial canal4 ,its lateral face 7,fig4 #be7 7medial wall of the tympanic cavity7 presents just ventrad of the middle of its base a large circular foramen1 the fenestra cochle 7a7 7or fenestra rotunda71 which looks caudolaterad2 it leads into the cochlea4 ,the fenestra cochle lies at the summit of a nipple-like elevation1 the promontory 7b71 which is continued toward the apex of the bone as a gradually diminishing semicylindrical ridge1 due to the presence within it of the bony cochlea4 ,dorsad of the fenestra cochle is the much smaller fenestra vestibuli 7c7 7or ovalis7 which leads into the vestibule4 ,it is occupied in the natural condition by the base of the stapes4 ,dorsocraniad of the fenestra vestibuli is a large fossa 7d7 which contains the tensor tympani muscle4 ,dorsocaudad of this1 partly bounded by the squamous portion of the temporal1 is another large fossa 7e71 the cranial end of which is occupied by the incus1 while its caudal end is occupied by the head of the malleus4 ,nearly caudad of this fossa and separated from it by an oblique bony septum is a third fossa 7f7 which is narrow and curved4 ,it is continuous with a notch in the mastoid portion of the bone4 ,when the tympanic is articulated the notch is converted into a foramen 7stylomastoid foramen1 ,fig4 #bb1 j7 for the exit of the seventh nerve4 ,the fossa gives passage to the seventh nerve and also lodges the stapedius muscle4 ,a groove may be traced from the stylomastoid foramen to the caudal border of the fossa for the tensor tympani muscle1 where it passes into a canal 7g74 ,the groove and canal are parts of the canalis facialis or facial canal 7aqueductus ,fallopii7 for the passage of the seventh nerve through the petrous bone4 ,the medial surface 7,fig4 #bc1 b7 of the petrous portion shows near its middle a fossa1 the internal auditory meatus 7n74 ,this is divided by a partition of bone into a dorsal and ventral part4 ,the dorsal portion is the beginning of the facial canal 7aqueductus ,fallopii7 by which the seventh nerve passes through the petrous bone to emerge at the stylomastoid foramen4 ,the ventral portion shows at its bottom several small foramina for the auditory nerve4 ,dorsocaudad of the internal auditory meatus is a deep fossa 7o7 for a small lobe1 the so-called appendicular lobe1 of the cerebellum4 ,this may be called the appendicular fossa4 ,the dorsal surface is triangular and presents near its apex a foramen--the hiatus facialis 7p71 the opening of a canal which joins the canalis facialis and transmits the superficial petrosal branch of the nerve of the pterygoid canal 7,vidian nerve74 ,that part of the dorsal surface which lies caudad of the hiatus facialis is known as the tegmen tympani4 ,the base of the petrous is attached to the mastoid portion 7,fig4 #bc1 e74 7,for an account of the structures within the petrous bone and the tympanic cavity1 see the description of the internal and middle ear47 ,the mastoid portion 7,figs4 #bb and #bc1 c7 is attached by its base to the pyramidal petrous portion1 with which it forms an angle of about #abj degrees4 ,it appears in the lateral wall of the skull between the parietal bone and the occipital 7,fig4 #dj1 d74 ,the lambdoidal ridge is continued on its outer surface to the caudal border of the external auditory meatus4 ,caudad of the stylomastoid foramen it forms a slight nipple-like eminence1 the mastoid process 7,fig4 #bb1 l74 ,its inner face looks into the cranial cavity4 ,parietal ,bone4 ,os parietale 7,figs4 #ci1 #dj1 and #dc1 #c74--,the parietal bones form the larger part of the lateral and dorsal boundary of the cranial cavity4 ,each is a thin rectangular bone1 compact and curved and with a deeply notched shelf of bone1 the tentorium 7,fig4 #db1 e1 and ,fig4 #dc1 f71 projecting inward from near the caudal margin4 ,the outer surface is smooth and convex4 ,the highest part of the convexity1 a little caudad of the middle of the bone1 is known as the parietal tubercle or eminence 7,fig4 #ci1 d72 it marks the point of beginning ossification4 ,an obscure curved ridge 7,fig4 #ci1 e71 running from the caudodorsal angle or a point craniad of it craniolaterad1 indicates the boundary of the origin of the temporal muscle4 ,near the ventral border the surface is roughened and is covered in the natural state by a part of the squamous portion of the temporal bone4 ,the inner surface 7,fig4 #dc1 #c and #c7 is smooth and marked by ridges and grooves for the convolutions of the cerebrum4 ,near the medial border is a ridge which1 when the bone is articulated with that of the opposite side1 forms a shallow groove for the superior sagittal sinus4 ,beginning near the middle of the ventral margin and passing dorsad is a groove for the middle meningeal artery4 ,the tentorium 7,fig4 #dc1 f7 arises from the inner surface near its caudal margin and projects mediad as a thin curved or notched shelf of bone which separates the cerebellar fossa 7,fig4 #dc1 ,i7 of the cranium from the cerebral fossa 7,fig4 #dc1 ,,ii74 ,when the parietals are articulated there is left between the tentoria a large foramen by means of which the two foss communicate4 ,the foramen is bounded laterally and dorsally by the free margins of the tentoria1 while the ventral end of each tentorium articulates with the alisphenoid1 and its dorsal end with the opposite tentorium4 ,the medial border is straight and is united by suture to the opposite bone4 ,the cranial border is bevelled at the expense of the inner surface and articulates with the frontal4 ,just ventrad of the middle of the border projects a sharp spine which fits into a corresponding notch in the caudal border of the frontal4 ,the ventral border is concave1 sharp1 and bevelled at the expense of the outer surface1 for articulation with the squamous portion of the temporal1 except near the cranial end1 where it articulates with the wing of the sphenoid4 ,the caudal border is thick and porous medially1 but thin laterally1 and bevelled at the expense of the inner surface for articulation with the interparietal and mastoid portion of the temporal4 ,frontal ,bone4 ,os frontale 7,figs4 #ci1 #dj1 and #da1 #e2 ,fig4 #dc1 #h2 ,fig4 #bf74--,the frontal bones meet one another in the median dorsal line so as to form the roof of the skull between the parietal and nasal bones4 ,a part extends also ventrad1 forming a large part of the medial wall of the orbit and a part of the temporal fossa4 ,the bone may be divided into two portions1 a plate forming the cranial portion of the roof of the skull and a part of the roof of the nasal cavity1 the frontal plate 7,fig4 #dj1 #e71 and a part descending into the orbit1 the orbital plate 7,fig4 #dj1 #e74 ,the frontal plate 7,fig4 #dj1 #e7 is a right-angled triangle with the hypothenuse lateral4 ,its dorsal surface is convex and smooth4 ,the cranial two-thirds of its lateral border is separated from the orbital fossa by a ridge1 the supraorbital arch or margin 7,fig4 #ci1 i2 ,fig4 #dj1 o72 the caudal third passes gradually into the temporal fossa4 ,at its cranial angle is a triangular projection1 the frontal spine or nasal spine 7,fig4 #bf1 a71 which fits into a space between the nasal and maxillary bones4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,,frontal ,,bone1 ,,medial ,,surface4 a1 frontal spine2 b1 transverse ridge2 c1 surface applied to the ethmoid2 d1 vertical plate of medial border4 ,the ventral surface is concave and smooth over its caudal one-half and helps to form the cranial part of the brain-case4 ,it presents slight ridges and depressions for convolutions of the cerebrum4 ,at its narrowed middle region the ventral surface is marked by a thick transverse ridge 7,fig4 #bf1 b74 ,caudally the ridge descends by a gentle slope to the level of the ventral surface of the bone4 ,the cranial end of the ridge is pierced by an oval foramen through which the frontal sinus 7,fig4 #dc1 m1 m71 which lies within the ridge1 communicates with the spaces in the ethmoid bone 7nasal cavity74 ,craniad of the ridge the surface 7,fig4 #bf1 c7 is rough and1 together with the raised medial border of the bone and the orbital plate1 encloses a rectangular space which in the natural state receives a portion of the labyrinth of the ethmoid4 ,the ventral surface is marked at its medial edge by a thin longitudinal ridge which1 when the bones are articulated1 is continuous with one of the vertical lamell of the ethmoid4 ,the medial border forms a vertical plate 7d71 broadest craniad and roughened for articulation with its fellow of the opposite side except at its cranial end1 where it articulates with the border of the nasal bone4 ,the caudal border is roughened1 bevelled at the expense of the outer surface1 and articulated with the parietal bone except at its ventral end1 where it articulates with the alisphenoid4 ,the lateral border is smooth1 and it is here that the orbital plate is joined to the frontal plate at right angles4 ,along its cranial two-thirds this union is marked by a sharp ridge1 the supraorbital margin 7,fig4 #dj1 o7 or arch4 ,this ridge extends caudolaterad as a triangular projection1 the zygomatic 7or postorbital7 process 7,fig4 #dj1 n71 which is flattened on its cranioventral face near its extremity and forms part of the boundary of the orbital fossa4 ,at its cranial end the lateral border articulates with the nasal and maxillary bones4 ,the orbital plate 7,fig4 #dj1 #e7 arises from the ventral surface of the lateral border of the frontal plate4 ,it is directed ventrad1 is smooth and concave on its outer surface1 and forms the dorsal portion of the medial wall of the orbital fossa4 ,near its ventral border it bears the small ethmoidal foramen1 for the artery of the same name4 ,on the caudal one-half of its inner surface 7,fig4 #bf7 it assists the caudal part of the dorsal plate in forming the brain-case4 ,the cranial one-half of its inner surface is marked off from the remainder of the surface by a sharp irregular ridge which is for articulation with the cribriform plate of the ethmoid4 ,craniad of this the surface is marked by ridges and looks into the nasal cavity4 ,the cranial margin is produced dorsally in the form of a blunt triangular spine4 ,mediad of this spine the bone articulates with the lachrymal bone4 ,the ventral border articulates by its cranial one-third with the orbital plate of the palatine1 and by its caudal two-thirds with the body and wing of the presphenoid4 ,maxillary ,bone4 ,maxilla 7,figs4 #bg and #bh74--,the maxillary bone forms the cranial and lateral portions of the roof of the mouth4 ,the bones of opposite sides meet craniad1 but diverge caudad to enclose the palatal plates of the palatine bones4 ,each consists of a thick prismatic ventral portion or body 7a7 and a thin flat plate1 the frontal process 7b71 extending dorsad from the cranial part of the bone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,maxillary ,,bone1 ,,lateral ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,maxillary ,,bone1 ,,medial ,,surface4 a1 body2 b1 frontal process2 c1 infraorbital foramen2 d1 elevation for root of canine tooth2 e1 canine tooth2 f1 first premolar2 g1 second premolar2 h1 third premolar2 i1 molar tooth2 j1 zygomatic process2 k1 beginning of lachrymal canal2 l1 ridge to which the ventral nasal concha is attached2 m1 nasal crest of palatine process4 ,the body 7a7 has the form of a triangular prism whose broader dorsal face looks into the nasal cavity and orbit1 while the ventral face looks into the mouth1 and the lateral face toward the cheek4 ,from the junction of the dorsal and lateral surfaces at the cranial end the large flat curved frontal process 7b7 passes dorsad1 while the teeth are implanted along the border1 alveolar border or process1 formed by the junction of the ventral and lateral surfaces4 ,the lateral surface is continuous with the lateral surface of the frontal process and shows at the base of the frontal process on its caudal border the large infraorbital foramen 7,fig4 #bg1 c71 for the vessels and nerves of the same name4 ,near the medial end of the surface is a cylindrical elevation 7d7 for the root of the canine tooth 7e74 ,the ventral surface is smooth and looks into the roof of the mouth4 ,on the dorsal surface caudal and cranial halves may be distinguished4 ,the caudal one-half enters into the floor of the orbit4 ,the lateral edge of this portion is divided into two lamin1 between which is received the end of the malar bone4 ,caudad this edge is prolonged into the short dorsally directed zygomatic process 7j74 ,the cranial half of the dorsal surface looks into the nasal cavity and is separated from the caudal half by a sharp vertical lamina of bone which runs caudomediad from the base of the nasal process4 ,to the dorsal edge of this lamina are articulated the lachrymal bone and a part of the palatine4 ,at the point where the lamina joins the base of the nasal process a foramen is seen leading into a canal1 the nasolachrymal canal 7k74 ,craniad of the lamina the surface is concave4 ,where it becomes continuous with the inner edge of the frontal process there is attached to it a thin bone1 the ventral nasal concha 7or maxilloturbinal71 which is rolled into an irregular spiral4 ,the nasolachrymal canal opens ventrad of its cranial end4 ,the cranial third of this part of the bone projects further mediad than does the rest of the medial border1 forming thus the broad palatine process4 ,this is rough on its medial edge for articulation with the premaxillary and the palatine process of the opposite bone4 ,this medial edge rises also dorsally into a low ridge1 the nasal crest 7m71 which is roughened for articulation with the vomer4 ,the caudal two-thirds of the medial edge articulates with the palatine bone4 ,the cranial end of the bone articulates with the premaxilla4 ,the caudal end is smooth4 ,the frontal process 7b7 presents on its inner surface1 which looks into the nasal cavity1 certain transverse ridges which are in relation with the ethmoid bone4 ,its outer surface is smooth4 ,by its cranial border it articulates with the nasal bone dorsally and with the premaxillary bone ventrally4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,,premaxillary ,,bone1 ,,obliquely ,,craniolateral ,,aspect4 a1 the three incisor teeth2 b1 palatal portion of the bone2 c1 nasal process4 ,its dorsal end articulates medially with the nasal spine of the frontal bone1 and caudally with the orbital plate of the same bone4 ,premaxillary ,bone4 7,os incisivum ,,bna47 ,premaxilla 7,fig4 #bi74--,the premaxillary bones bear the incisor teeth and form the cranial portion of the roof of the mouth4 ,each consists of an irregular1 horizontal palatal portion 7b7 and of a perpendicular nasal process 7c7 which forms part of the lateral boundary of the nares and enters into the formation of the lateral wall of the nasal cavity4 ,the palatal portion has in its caudal border a deep notch for the foramen incisivum or anterior palatine canal1 which lies between it and the maxillary and transmits blood-vessels and nerves4 ,it articulates with the maxillary bone by this border4 ,the medial border is raised into a thin crest of bone which1 besides forming the medial wall of the foramen incisivum or anterior palatine canal1 articulates by its medial border with the bone of the opposite side1 forming a sort of median trough 7sulcus palatinus7 which projects dorsad into the nasal cavity and receives the ventral border of the nasal septum4 ,the caudal end of this border articulates laterad with the maxilla1 dorsad with the vomer4 ,its craniolateral border bears the incisor teeth 7a74 ,the nasal process 7c7 presents three surfaces1 all elongated and triangular2 one1 the medial surface1 is smooth and concave and looks into the nasal cavity4 ,its dorsal border is rough for articulation with the nasal bone dorsad1 and smooth ventrad where it aids in forming the nares4 ,the lateral surface is smooth4 ,the caudal surface is rough for articulation with the maxillary bone4 ,nasal ,bone4 ,os nasale 7,fig4 #cj74--,the nasal bones fill the space between the nasal process of the premaxillary1 the frontal process of the maxillary1 and the nasal spine of the frontal bone 7,fig4 #ci1 #g74 ,they thus form part of the dorsal wall of the nasal cavity near the middle line4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,,nasal ,,bone1 ,,dorsal ,,view4 ,each may be described as consisting of two elongated triangular lamell1 one vertical1 the other horizontal4 ,the vertical lamella is curved slightly ventrad and has its apex directed craniad4 ,it is applied by its medial surface against the vertical lamella of the opposite bone1 the two thus forming a median vertical partition1 the nasal crest 7,fig4 #dc1 #ab71 which extends ventrad into the nasal cavity and1 by joining the dorsal edge of the lamina perpendicularis1 helps to form the internasal septum4 ,the horizontal lamella is attached to the dorsal margin of the vertical lamella in such a way that its apex lies opposite the base of the vertical lamella4 ,it helps to roof in the nasal cavity1 and by its base forms a part of the dorsal boundary of the narial opening4 ,by its lateral margin it articulates with the nasal spine of the frontal at its caudal end1 with the frontal process of the maxillary at its middle1 and with the nasal process of the premaxilla at its cranial end4 ,the lateral angle of its base projects in a curved line which forms the dorsal part of the lateral boundary of the narial opening4 ,from the lateral border of the horizontal lamella a bony plate curves ventrad and mediad1 enclosing a narrow fossa which receives a part of the ethmoid4 ,this is the concha nasalis superior 7nasoturbinal bone74 ,ethmoid ,bone4 ,os ethmoidale 7,figs4 #ca and #cb74--,the ethmoid bone closes in the cranial cavity at its cranial end and extends forward into the nasal cavity1 which it largely fills4 ,it consists of a median vertical portion1 the lamina perpendicularis 7,fig4 #dc1 n2 ,fig4 #db1 p71 forming a part of the nasal septum1 of two lateral portions made of thin sheets of bone variously folded and united--the labyrinths 7or ethmoturbinals71 which fill the greater part of the nasal cavity2 and of a transverse perforated plate1 the cribriform plate 7lamina cribrosa71 attached to the caudal end of the lamina perpendicularis and the labyrinths4 ,the lamina perpendicularis 7,fig4 #dc1 n2 ,fig4 #db1 p7 is a flat four-sided bone4 ,by its caudal margin it is continuous with the cribriform plate2 by its ventral margin it is enclosed by the halves of the vomer2 by its dorsal margin it unites with the crest formed by the vertical portion of the nasal bone craniad and with the vertical lamina of the medial margin of the frontal caudad1 while its cranial margin is continued into the septal cartilage of the nose4 ,its lateral faces are smooth and free4 ,the lamina cribrosa or cribriform plate 7,fig4 #db1 o7 is elongated heart-shaped1 with the apex of the heart ventrad4 ,its caudal face is concave and looks into the cranial cavity4 ,it presents three irregular longitudinal rows of holes1 one median and two lateral1 for the passage of the olfactory fibres from the cranial cavity into the nasal cavity4 ,its cranial face is continuous along the medial line with the lamina perpendicularis1 and at the sides with the labyrinths4 ,the notch in the heart is directed dorsad and receives the vertical lamina of the medial border of the frontal bone4 ,the apex of the heart articulates with the cranial end of the dorsal surface of the presphenoid4 ,its lateral margins are articulated with the ethmoidal ridges on the medial surface of the frontal bone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,,ethmoid ,,and ,,vomer1 ,,side ,,view4 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,,ethmoid ,,and ,,vomer1 ,,ventral ,,view4 a1 vomer2 b1 vertical cells of the labyrinth of the ethmoid2 c1 horizontal cell of the same2 d1 part of the ethmoid that forms the lamina papyracea2 e1 edge of cribriform plate4 ,the labyrinths 7,figs4 #ca and #cb7 are attached to the cranial face of the lamina cribrosa1 one on each side of the lamina perpendicularis4 ,each is made of thin bony plates irregularly folded so as to enclose spaces1 the ethmoid cells4 ,in each may be distinguished a cranial portion 7b71 in which the cells are nearly vertical1 and a caudal portion 7c71 in which the cells are nearly horizontal4 ,the medial surfaces are separated by a space from the lamina perpendicularis4 ,this space is broadest along the junction of the horizontal and vertical portions of the labyrinth4 ,there are thus formed two passageways which correspond to the superior meati of human anatomy4 ,the lateral surfaces come into contact with the frontal process of the maxillary and the orbital plate of the frontal bone4 ,on the lateral surface of each labyrinth there is a thin irregular lamina of bone lying in a dorsoventral longitudinal plane and closing in some of the ethmoid cells laterally 7d74 ,a small part of this lamina1 situated near the caudoventral angle of the bone1 appears in the orbital fossa on the external surface of the skull between the presphenoid1 palatine1 and frontal bones or between the lachrymal1 palatine1 and frontal bones4 ,sometimes in the entire skull two such pieces may be seen1 one in each of these positions4 ,this corresponds to the lamina papyracea of human anatomy4 ,the dorsocaudal angle of each bone is received into the space between the orbital plate of the frontal and the vertical lamina of the medial border of the frontal4 ,its ventrocaudal angle is received between the cranial extensions of the lateral walls of the presphenoid1 while its ventral surface is overlaid caudally by the expanded portion of the vomer1 to which it is attached at its caudolateral angles4 ,vomer 7,figs4 #ca and #cb1 a74--,the vomer consists of two thin lamin of bone which ensheath the ventral margin of the lamina perpendicularis 7or the cartilaginous plate which continues ventrad from this margin7 and unite ventrad of it2 the two thus form a trough open dorsad4 ,each becomes horizontal near its caudal end and at the same time expands4 ,the expanded portion lies ventrad of the labyrinth of the ethmoid1 closing in some of its cells3 its lateral angles are united with the labyrinths4 ,at its caudal end the bone articulates with the body of the presphenoid1 and each half of it is produced caudad near the middle line into a triangular spine which lies ventrad of the body of the presphenoid4 ,the horizontal portion of the bone helps to separate the olfactory and respiratory passages of the nasal chamber1 while its vertical portion contributes to the formation of the nasal septum4 ,the ventral margin formed by the junction of the two halves of the bone is smooth and free caudad1 but at its cranial end is broad and rough for articulation with the palatal processes of the maxill4 ,palatine ,bone4 ,os palatinum 7,fig4 #cc74--,the palate bone or palatine bone consists of two portions1 a horizontal or palatal portion 7a7 and a perpendicular or nasal portion 7b71 uniting at an angle of about forty-five degrees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,palatine ,,bone1 ,,dorsal ,,view4 a1 horizontal portion2 b1 perpendicular portion2 c1 maxillary spine2 d1 posterior nasal spine2 e1 sphenopalatine foramen2 f1 caudal opening of posterior palatine canal4 ,the horizontal portions 7a7 of the two bones are received between the maxillary bones and form the caudal and medial part of the roof of the mouth4 ,each is irregularly quadrilateral in form1 with the caudolateral angle produced caudad into a long process which is continuous with the perpendicular portion of the bone4 ,the lateral margin of the horizontal portion articulates over its cranial half with the maxillary bone4 ,at about its middle a short thick maxillary spine 7c7 projects caudolaterad4 ,the remainder of the lateral margin is directly continuous with the perpendicular plate of the bone4 ,the medial margin is rough for articulation with the corresponding margin of the opposite palatine2 the caudal angle of this margin projects caudad as the short posterior nasal spine 7d74 ,the caudal margin forms a free edge which bounds the choan2 it passes laterally into the perpendicular portion4 ,the ventral surface 7,fig4 #da1 #h7 looks into the mouth4 ,near the middle of its craniolateral margin are two or more small foramina 7,fig4 #da1 q7 which form the cranial termination of the posterior palatine canal4 ,the dorsal surface is smooth and looks into the nasal cavity4 ,the perpendicular or nasal portion 7,fig4 #cc1 b7 of the palatine is thin and irregularly quadrilateral in form4 ,it is attached by its cranial two-thirds to the dorsal surface of the horizontal portion4 ,the outer surface is concave and looks into the orbital fossa4 ,the inner surface is convex and looks into the nasal cavity4 ,the perpendicular portion is marked by two foramina just craniad of the middle4 ,the larger dorsal oval foramen is the sphenopalatine foramen 7e74 ,the smaller ventral foramen is the caudal opening of the posterior palatine canal 7f74 ,from this opening the canal passes craniomediad1 lying in the substance of the palatine bone2 it opens on the ventral surface of the horizontal portion at the small openings previously described 7,fig4 #da1 q74 ,by its cranial margin it articulates with the lachrymal bone4 ,by its dorsal margin it articulates craniad with the orbital plate of the frontal3 with the lamina papyracea at its middle1 and with the body of the presphenoid caudad4 ,the caudal half of the dorsal margin is partially divided into two lamell with a rough surface between them3 this rough surface lies against the ventral surface of the presphenoid4 ,the caudal margin articulates with the pterygoid portion of the sphenoid4 ,lachrymal ,bone4 ,os lachrymale 7,fig4 #cd2 ,fig4 #ci1 #aj74--,the lachrymal bone is a thin pentagonal scale of bone filling the interval between the horizontal plate of the palatine1 the maxillary1 and the orbital plate of the frontal4 ,its outer surface looks into the orbit1 its inner surface into the nasal cavity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,,lachrymal ,,bone ,,of ,,left ,,side1 ,,external ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,malar ,,bone ,,of ,,right ,,side1 ,,lateral ,,surface4 ,fig4 #cd4--;a1 notch forming the beginning of the lachrymal canal4 ,fig4 #ce4--;a1 ridge for origin of the masseter muscle2 b1 frontal process2 c1 zygomatic process4 ,near the middle of its cranial border it is notched obliquely by a foramen 7a71 the beginning of the nasolachrymal canal4 ,malar ,bone4 ,jugal ,bone4 ,os zygomaticum 7,fig4 #ce74--,the malar or zygomatic bone is a flat curved plate of bone which forms the lateral wall of the orbit and together with the zygomatic process of the temporal forms the zygomatic arch4 ,its outer surface is smooth and marked by a longitudinal ridge 7a7 for attachment of the masseter muscle4 ,at its caudal end the bone is continued into two processes3 one1 the frontal process or orbital process 7b71 is a triangular spine of bone directed caudomediad2 when the bones are articulated it lies opposite the zygomatic process of the frontal to which it is joined by a ligament 7orbital ligament74 ,the other1 zygomatic process 7c7 of the malar bone1 extends ventrocaudad and articulates with a similar process from the temporal to form the zygomatic arch above mentioned4 ,its inner surface is smooth and looks into the orbit1 except that of the zygomatic process1 which looks into the temporal fossa4 ,its cranial border is roughened at the expense of both surfaces and articulates with the maxillary bone4 ,its other borders are smooth except the dorsal border of the zygomatic process1 which is roughened for attachment to the zygomatic process of the temporal4 ,the ,mandible4 ,mandibula 7,figs4 #cf and #cg74--,the mandible 7or inferior maxillary bone7 is composed of two halves which come together at the cranial end and form the lower jaw4 ,at its caudal end each half articulates with the temporal bone at the mandibular fossa1 and at its cranial end it joins the opposite bone1 the suture being known as the symphysis of the jaw 7symphysis menti7 7,fig4 #cg1 a74 ,each half consists of a horizontal portion1 the body 7b71 bearing teeth on one of its borders 7the alveolar border71 and of a vertical portion1 the ramus 7c74 ,the body 7b7 has the form of a flattened cylinder and has two surfaces and two borders4 ,the lateral surface 7,fig4 #cf7 is smooth and presents near its cranial end a foramen 7or sometimes two71 the mental foramen 7d71 forming the cranial termination of the mandibular canal4 ,at its caudal end is a deep fossa continuing on to the ramus1 the coronoid fossa1 or masseteric fossa 7e74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,,mandible1 ,,lateral ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #cg4--,,mandible1 ,,medial ,,surface4 a1 symphysis2 b1 body2 c1 ramus2 d1 mental foramina2 e1 coronoid fossa2 f1 mandibular foramen2 g1 angular process2 h1 coronoid process2 i1 condyloid process2 #a1 #b1 #c1 the three incisor teeth2 #d1 the canine tooth2 #e1 #f1 the premolars2 #g1 the molar tooth4 ,the medial surface 7,fig4 #cg7 is smooth and has near its caudal end a foramen1 the mandibular foramen 7f71 which communicates with the mandibular canal leading lengthwise through the bone to the mental foramen4 ,the cranial end is roughened for attachment to the bone of the opposite side4 ,the ventral border is smooth and rounded2 it ends caudally in a blunt point1 the angular process 7g74 ,the dorsal 7alveolar7 border is slightly curved and bears the sockets 7alveoli7 for the teeth4 ,it is continuous with the cranial margin of the coronoid process4 ,the ramus is divided into two portions1 the coronoid process 7h7 and the condyloid process 7i74 ,the coronoid process 7h7 extends dorsocaudad as a thin plate of bone with smooth surfaces and borders4 ,its outer surface is partly occupied by the coronoid fossa 7e74 ,the condyloid process 7i7 has the form of a semicylindrical transverse piece of bone attached to the caudal margin of the coronoid process4 ,it articulates with the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone4 ,hyoid ,bone4 ,os hyoideum 7,fig4 #ch and ,fig4 #ajd74--,the hyoid bone forms the support for the tongue and gives origin to muscles passing to the tongue and larynx4 ,it also supports the thyroid cartilage 7,fig4 #ajd1 #a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,hyoid ,,bone1 ,,dorsal ,,view4 a1 body2 b1 c1 d1 e1 cranial cornu2 f1 caudal cornu2 b1 ceratohyal2 c1 epihyal2 d1 stylohyal2 e1 tympanohyal2 f1 thyrohyal4 ,it consists of a transverse bony bar1 the body 7,fig4 #ch1 a7 and of two cornua or horns attached to each end of the body4 ,the cranial cornu 7lesser cornu of human anatomy7 is the longer 7,fig4 #ch1 b-e74 ,each arises from the cranial face of the body at its lateral end1 curves laterad1 and then caudodorsad4 ,it consists of four bony pieces movably united by cartilage4 ,the terminal piece is the tympanohyal 7e72 it is imbedded in the tympanic bulla just ventrad of the stylomastoid foramen4 ,it is not therefore seen attached to the cornu after the latter has been separated from the skull4 ,the other pieces become successively shorter toward the body1 and are called stylohyal 7d71 epihyal 7c71 and ceratohyal 7b74 ,the caudal cornua 7f7 7greater cornua of human anatomy7 arise from the ends of the body4 ,each consists of a single piece of bone1 the thyrohyal 7f71 which passes caudolaterad2 its free end is united to a process of the thyroid cartilage 7,fig4 #ajd1 #a74 ,the ,skull as a ,whole4--,in the following description of the skull as a whole the mandible1 hyoid1 and ear-bones are not included4 ,the skull forms a bony box which contains the brain and is produced craniad into the facial portion which encloses the nasal cavity and forms the framework of the face4 ,in dorsal view 7,fig4 #ci7 the skull presents a smooth convex surface1 broadest caudad1 with the two zygomatic arches 7g7 curving out some distance laterally4 ,the following bones are visible in dorsal view3 the occipital 7#a71 interparietal 7#b71 parietals 7#c71 temporals 7#d71 frontals 7#e71 malar or zygomatic bones 7#f71 nasals 7#g71 maxillaries 7#h71 premaxillaries 7#i71 and lachrymals 7#aj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,,skull1 ,,dorsal ,,surface4 #a1 occipital bone2 #b1 interparietal bone2 #c1 parietal bones2 #d1 temporal2 #e1 frontal2 #f1 malar2 #g1 nasal2 #h1 maxillary2 #i1 premaxillary2 #aj1 lachrymal1 a1 lambdoidal ridge2 b1 external occipital tubercle2 c1 sagittal crest2 d1 parietal eminence2 e1 line which forms the dorsal boundary of the temporal fossa2 f1 zygomatic process of the frontal2 g1 zygomatic arch2 h1 frontal process of the malar2 i1 supraorbital arch2 j1 nares2 k1 foramen incisivum or anterior palatine foramen2 l1 sphenopalatine foramen2 m1 zygomatic process of the temporal2 n1 infraorbital foramen2 o1 opening of lachrymal duct4 ,the caudal boundary of the dorsal surface is marked by the prominent lambdoidal ridge 7a7 which passes from the middle cranioventrad along each side to the root of the zygomatic arch3 it is borne by the occipital and temporal bones4 ,from the middle of the lambdoidal ridge a second ridge1 the sagittal crest 7c71 passes craniad in the middle line across the interparietal bone3 it varies greatly in extent1 reaching in a very old and muscular cat to the cranial border of the parietals1 while in kittens it does not exist4 ,the most prominent portions of the skull in this region1 just craniad of the middle of the parietal bones1 are known as the parietal tubercles or eminences 7d74 ,a faint curved line 7e7 runs from the cranial end of the sagittal crest craniolaterad to the base of the zygomatic process of the frontal3 it marks the dorsal boundary of the origin of the temporal muscle1 and may therefore be considered the dorsal boundary of the temporal fossa4 ,this fossa extends from its dorsal boundary as far laterad and caudad as the lambdoidal ridge 7a71 and as far craniad as a line connecting the tip of the zygomatic process of the frontal 7f7 with the frontal process of the malar 7h74 ,the temporal muscle takes origin from its surface4 ,the middle portion of the dorsal surface is formed by the frontals 7#e74 ,each frontal presents laterally a prominent zygomatic process 7f71 extending ventrolaterad toward a corresponding 7frontal7 process 7h7 of the malar bone4 ,these two processes mark the boundary between the orbital fossa 7craniad7 and the temporal fossa 7caudad74 ,craniad of the zygomatic process of the frontal a sharp margin separates the dorsal surface of the skull from the wall of the orbital fossa3 this is the supraorbital arch or margin 7i74 ,the cranial portion of the dorsal surface is formed by the maxillary 7#h71 nasal 7#g71 and premaxillary bones 7#i74 ,just craniad of the nasals1 bounded ventrad and craniad by the premaxillaries1 appears the large opening of the nares 7j71 leading into the nasal cavity4 ,the zygomatic arch 7g7 is formed by the zygomatic process of the temporal 7m7 and the malar or zygomatic bone 7#f74 ,each presents near its middle a prominent dorsocaudally directed process1 the frontal process 7h7 of the malar bone4 ,the zygomatic arch forms the lateral boundary of the temporal and orbital foss1 which are separated by a line connecting the frontal process of the malar 7h7 and the zygomatic process of the frontal 7f74 ,a portion of the floor of the orbit and the opening of the lachrymal canal 7o7 may also be seen in dorsal view2 they are described in connection with the lateral surface4 ,the caudal surface of the skull is formed largely by the occipital bone 7,fig4 #ag71 surrounding the foramen magnum 7,fig4 #ag1 d74 ,at the sides of the foramen magnum are the two prominent curved occipital condyles 7e7 for articulation with the atlas4 ,craniolaterad of the condyles1 separated from them by a deep notch1 are the jugular processes 7f7 of the occipital1 closely applied to the caudal ends of the tympanic bull4 ,dorsad of the foramen magnum are faint indications of a median ridge running dorsad1 the external occipital crest 7,fig4 #ag1 i72 this rises at its junction with the lambdoidal ridge to form the prominent external occipital tubercle 7,fig4 #ci1 b74 ,the dorsal and dorsolateral boundaries of the posterior surface are formed by the lambdoidal ridge 7,fig4 #ag1 h2 ,fig4 #ci1 a74 ,the lateral surface of the skull 7,fig4 #dj7 is much more complicated than the dorsal and posterior surfaces4 ,caudally the occipital condyles 7a7 and external occipital crest 7b7 are visible2 dorsocaudad the sagittal crest 7c74 ,extending from the caudal end of the sagittal crest the lambdoidal ridge 7d7 is seen passing ventrocraniad to the tympanic bulla1 thence craniad to the root of the zygomatic arch4 ,in the ventral part of the caudal region the tympanic bulla 7e7 is visible with the jugular process 7f7 of the occipital pressed close against its caudal end4 ,just craniad of the jugular process the mastoid process 7g7 of the temporal rests against the side of the bulla4 ,beneath the cranial edge of this process is the opening of the stylomastoid foramen 7h7 for the seventh nerve1 while just ventrad of the foramen is the small pit 7i7 in the tympanic bulla for the reception of the tympanohyal bone4 ,craniad of the stylomastoid foramen is the large opening of the external auditory meatus 7j71 leading into the middle ear4 ,immediately dorsocraniad of the external auditory meatus the zygomatic arch begins as the zygomatic process 7k7 of the temporal bone4 ,on the cranial surface of the base of this process is the deep mandibular fossa 7l7 for the condyle of the mandible4 ,this fossa is bounded caudally by the prominent postmandibular process 7m74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,skull1 ,,side ,,view4 #a1 occipital bone2 #b1 interparietal2 #c1 parietal2 #d1 temporal2 #e1 #e1 frontal2 #f1 malar2 #g1 sphenoid2 #h1 palatine2 #i1 presphenoid2 #aj1 maxillary2 #aa1 nasal2 #ab1 premaxillary2 #ac1 incisor teeth2 #ad1 canine2 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 premolars2 #ah1 molar4 a1 occipital condyle2 b1 external occipital crest2 c1 sagittal crest2 d1 lambdoidal ridge2 e1 tympanic bulla2 f1 jugular process2 g1 mastoid process2 h1 stylo-mastoid foramen2 i1 pit for tympanohyal bone2 j1 external auditory meatus2 k1 zygomatic process of temporal bone2 l1 mandibular fossa2 m1 postmandibular process2 n1 zygomatic process of the frontal2 o1 supraorbital margin2 p1 external pterygoid fossa2 q1 sphenopalatine foramen2 r1 orbital fissure2 s1 internal pterygoid fossa2 t1 hamulus2 u1 foramen ovale2 v1 foramen rotundum2 w1 optic foramen2 x1 opening of lachrymal canal2 y1 infraorbital foramen4 ,all that portion of the lateral surface of the skull which lies craniodorsad of the lambdoidal ridge may be divided 7excluding the zygomatic arch7 into three main parts1 the temporal fossa1 the orbital fossa1 and the face4 ,the boundaries of the temporal fossa have been given4 ,the orbital fossa is bounded externally by a prominent semicircular ridge formed chiefly by the zygomatic arch1 the zygomatic process of the frontal 7n71 and the supraorbital arch 7o7 of the frontal1 which may be traced to the cranial root of the zygomatic arch4 ,the orbital fossa may be considered to end caudally and ventrally at the level of the optic foramen 7w72 ventrad of it are certain smaller foss4 ,immediately ventrad is the long external pterygoid fossa 7p71 from which arises part of the external pterygoid muscle4 ,this fossa begins at the sphenopalatine foramen 7q7 and extends caudad to the orbital fissure 7r72 it is separated by a ridge from the orbital fossa4 ,caudoventrad of the external pterygoid fossa and separated from it by a sharp ridge is the small narrow internal pterygoid fossa 7s71 which extends ventrad without interruption on to the surface of the hamulus 7t7 and caudad to within two or three millimeters of the tympanic bulla4 ,from it the internal pterygoid muscle takes origin4 ,the hamulus 7t7 projects caudoventrad in this region1 forming a prominent feature in a lateral view4 ,four foramina leading into the cranial cavity are visible in a lateral view of the skull1 craniad of the tympanic bulla4 ,the one nearest the bulla is the foramen ovale 7u7 for the third division of the fifth nerve2 next craniad of this is the foramen rotundum 7v7 for the second division of the fifth nerve4 ,these two foramina pierce the alisphenoid3 just craniad of them1 between the alisphenoid and the orbitosphenoid1 is the large orbital fissure 7r7 7foramen lacerum anterius71 which transmits the third1 fourth1 and sixth cranial nerves and the first division of the fifth4 ,dorsocraniad of the orbital fissure is the optic foramen 7w71 for the optic nerve4 ,ventrad of the cranial portion of the orbit is the large sphenopalatine foramen 7q71 for the nerves and arteries of the same name4 ,just craniad of this is the small caudal opening of the posterior palatine canal1 which passes through the substance of the palatine bone and opens on its ventral surface near its cranial margin4 ,just dorsad of the cranial root of the zygomatic arch is the opening of the lachrymal canal 7x71 while the root of the arch is pierced by the large infraorbital foramen 7y71 which transmits the infraorbital nerves and artery from the orbit4 ,the teeth 7#ac-ah71 implanted along the alveolar border of the maxillary and premaxillary1 form a prominent feature in a lateral view3 they are described in the account of the alimentary canal4 ,the ventral surface of the skull 7,fig4 #da7 is very complex4 ,it is separated by the orbits into a caudal and a cranial portion1 united by a narrow median trough-like part4 ,laterad of this trough-like part are visible parts of the orbit and the zygomatic arches1 which do not properly belong to the ventral surface and have already been described4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,,skull1 ,,ventral ,,view4 #a1 occipital bone2 #b1 temporal2 #c1 sphenoid2 #d1 presphenoid2 #e1 frontal2 #f1 malar2 #g1 vomer2 #h1 palatine2 #i1 maxillary2 #aj1 premaxillary4 a1 foramen magnum2 b1 occipital condyles2 c1 jugular process2 d1 tympanic bulla2 e1 mastoid process2 f1 stylomastoid foramen2 g1 external auditory meatus2 h1 jugular foramen2 i1 styliform process2 j1 groove for ,eustachian tube2 k1 foramen ovale2 l1 foramen rotundum2 m1 pterygoid process of sphenoid2 n1 perpendicular plate of palatine2 o1 choan or posterior nares2 p1 zygomatic arch2 q1 cranial end of posterior palatine canal2 r1 palatine grooves2 s1 foramina incisiva or anterior palatine foramina2 t1 opening of pterygoid canal4 ,caudally there appear in the ventral view the foramen magnum 7a71 occipital condyles 7b71 and jugular processes 7c74 ,in front of the jugular processes the two tympanic bull 7d7 form prominent features1 with the mastoid process 7e71 the stylomastoid foramen 7f71 and the external auditory meatus 7g7 on their lateral surfaces4 ,all these structures have been described4 ,the tympanic bull 7d7 are placed with long axes directed craniomediad1 so that they converge toward their cranial ends4 ,at the caudomedial angle of each bulla is the large jugular foramen 7h71 for the ninth1 tenth1 and eleventh nerves4 ,opening into the mediocaudal margin of the jugular foramen is the smaller hypoglossal foramen1 for the twelfth nerve4 ,the craniomedial end of the tympanic bulla projects craniad as the styliform process 7i74 ,just laterad of this process is the opening 7j7 into the tympanic bulla by which the tuba auditiva or ,eustachian tube passes into the middle ear4 ,a faint groove for the tube passes craniomediad from this opening1 on the surface of the sphenoid4 ,craniolaterad of the opening for the tuba auditiva is the foramen ovale 7k72 craniad of this the foramen rotundum 7l7 is faintly indicated4 ,on the surface of the sphenoid just craniad of the styliform process of the bulla tympani is the minute opening of the pterygoid canal 7t74 ,the orbital fissure and optic foramen are not seen in the ventral view4 ,the middle region of the ventral surface is narrow3 it is formed by a trough-like fossa which is bounded laterally by the pterygoid processes 7m7 of the sphenoid and the perpendicular plates of the palatines 7n74 ,ventrad of this lies1 in the natural condition1 the soft palate1 converting the fossa into the nasal portion of the pharynx or nasopharynx4 ,craniad this fossa is bounded by the free caudal edges of the palatines2 beneath which the fossa communicates with the nasal cavity by the two choan 7o74 ,laterad of this median fossa are visible in the ventral view parts of the temporal and orbital foss1 bounded laterally by the zygomatic arches 7p74 ,the cranial part of the ventral surface is a somewhat triangular plane area formed by the palatal portions of the palatines 7#h71 maxillaries 7#i71 and premaxillaries 7#aj71 which together constitute the hard palate 7palatum durum74 ,laterad and craniad this area is bounded by the alveolar borders of the maxillaries and premaxillaries bearing the teeth4 ,the hard palate is marked near the cranial border of the palatine bones with two or more foramina which form the cranial termination of the posterior palatine canal 7q74 ,two faint grooves pass from these foramina a short distance craniad1 gradually converging3 these are known as the palatine grooves 7r7 7sulci palatini74 ,near the cranial end of the hard palate are two large openings close together near the middle line3 these are the foramina incisiva 7or anterior palatine foramina7 7s74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,,skull1 ,,with ,,dorsal ,,surface ,,removed1 ,,showing ,,the ,,cranial ,,and ,,nasal ,,cavities4 a1 foramen magnum2 b1 caudal end of hypoglossal canal2 c1 jugular foramen2 d1 internal auditory meatus2 e1 tentorium1 forming the cranial boundary of the cerebellar fossa2 f1 dorsum sell2 g1 sella turcica2 h1 anterior clinoid processes2 i1 foramen ovale2 j1 foramen rotundum2 k1 orbital fissure2 l1 optic foramen2 m1 chiasmatic groove2 n1 presphenoid bone2 o1 cribriform plate2 p1 lamina perpendicularis of ethmoid2 q1 labyrinths of ethmoid2 r1 nares2 s1 foramina incisiva or anterior palatine foramina2 t1 infraorbital foramen2 u1 opening of the lachrymal canal2 v1 caudal opening of posterior palatine canal2 w1 sphenopalatine foramen2 x1 frontal process of the malar2 y1 zygomatic process of the temporal2 z1 appendicular fossa1 in the petrous bone4 ,cavities of the ,skull 7,figs4 #db and #dc74--,the bones of the cranial portion of the skull enclose the cranial cavity for the brain2 the facial bones enclose the nasal cavity1 for the olfactory organ4 ,the cranial cavity is divisible into three principal foss3 the cerebellar fossa 7,fig4 #dc1 ,i7 caudad1 for the cerebellum2 the cerebral fossa 7,,ii7 in the middle1 for the cerebrum2 the small olfactory fossa 7,,iii7 at the cranial end for the olfactory bulb of the brain4 ,the cerebellar fossa 7,i7 is bounded caudally by the occipital bone enclosing the foramen magnum 7,fig4 #db1 a74 ,its ventral surface is formed by the basilar portion of the occipital and the petrous portions of the temporals2 its lateral surface by the mastoid portions of the temporals and parts of the parietals and occipital4 ,its roof is formed by the parietals and interparietal4 ,craniad the cerebellar fossa is partly separated from the cerebral fossa by the tentorium 7,fig4 #db1 e2 ,fig4 #dc1 f7 formed by the two parietals3 this encloses a quadrangular opening by which the two foss communicate4 ,the caudal1 dorsal1 and lateral walls of the cerebellar fossa are deeply marked by foss for the lobes of the cerebellum2 the small appendicular fossa 7,fig4 #dc1 e71 forming a deep indentation in the petrous bone near its dorsocaudal end1 is particularly noticeable4 ,the following openings are found in the walls of the cerebellar fossa4 ,caudad is the large foramen magnum 7,fig4 #db1 a7 by which the brain-cavity communicates with the vertebral canal4 ,near the caudal margin of the foramen magnum1 on its lateral side1 just mediad of the dorsal end of the occipital condyle1 is the caudal opening of the condyloid canal 7,fig4 #dc1 a7 which passes craniad through the substance of the occipital bone to open just caudad of the petrous3 it transmits a vein4 ,the condyloid canal varies greatly in size in different specimens4 ,a few millimeters craniad of the edge of the foramen magnum on the floor of the fossa is the small opening of the hypoglossal canal 7,figs4 #db and #dc1 b71 for the twelfth nerve4 ,just craniad of this1 at the caudomedial border of the petrous1 is the large jugular foramen 7c74 ,on the petrous itself1 near the middle1 is the internal1 auditory meatus 7d7 divided into the dorsal facial canal for the seventh nerve1 and a ventral passage for the eighth nerve4 ,at the cranial end of the cerebellar fossa is the large opening bounded by the free edges of the tentorium4 ,the cerebral fossa forms much the largest part of the cranial cavity4 ,it is bounded by the parietals 7,fig4 #dc1 #c71 squamous portions of the temporals 7#d71 frontals 7#h71 the sphenoid 7#e71 and presphenoid 7#f74 ,a slight rounded ridge on its lateral wall at about the position of the suture between the frontals and parietals separates a smaller cranial portion sometimes called the anterior fossa1 from a larger caudal portion sometimes known as the middle fossa of the cranial cavity4 ,the walls of the cerebral cavity are marked with numerous ridges and shallow furrows for the cerebral convolutions4 ,the floor of the cerebral cavity is bounded caudad by the prominent dorsum sell 7,fig4 #db1 f2 ,fig4 #dc1 g71 just craniad of which is the rounded depression known as the sella turcica 7,fig4 #db1 g2 ,fig4 #dc1 h71 for lodgment of the hypophysis4 ,a number of foramina pierce the floor of the cavity in this region4 ,just ventrad of the cranial tip of the petrous portion of the temporal is the small foramen lacerum 7medius74 ,craniad and laterad of this is a row of four foramina3 the caudal one is the foramen ovale 7,fig4 #db1 i72 then come in order the foramen rotundum 7j71 the orbital fissure 7k71 and the optic foramen 7,fig4 #db1 l2 ,fig4 #dc1 k74 ,the two optic foramina are connected by the shallow transverse chiasmatic groove 7,fig4 #db1 m71 for the optic chiasma4 ,another small foramen continues caudad from a groove on the floor of the orbital fissure2 this opens on the ventral surface of the sphenoid1 between the wing and the body of the bone4 ,the groove and foramen constitute the pterygoid canal1 which transmits a nerve1--the nerve of the pterygoid canal1 or ,vidian nerve4 ,the cranial cavity narrows at its cranial end to form the small olfactory fossa 7,fig4 #dc1 ,,iii7 which lodges the olfactory bulbs4 ,this is bounded by the frontals and the lamina cribrosa 7,fig4 #db1 o7 of the ethmoid2 caudad it opens directly into the cerebral fossa4 ,numerous openings through the lamina cribrosa for the olfactory fibres connect the olfactory fossa with the nasal cavity4 ,the roof of the fossa is marked by a prominent median crest from the united edges of the frontals4 ,the nasal cavity is almost completely filled by the ethmoid and vomer and the conch nasales4 ,its roof is formed by the nasal bones and portions of the frontals2 its sides by the frontals1 lachrymals1 maxillaries1 premaxillaries1 and palatine bones2 its floor by the horizontal plates of the palatines1 maxillaries1 and premaxillaries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,skull1 ,,median ,,longitudinal ,,section1 ,,showing ,,the ,,cavities4 ,i1 cerebellar fossa2 ,,ii1 cerebral fossa2 ,,iii1 olfactory fossa4 #a1 occipital bone2 #b1 interparietal2 #c1 #c1 parietal2 #d1 temporal 7#d1 squamous portion2 #d1 petrous portion2 #d1 tympanic portion72 #e1 sphenoid2 #f1 presphenoid2 #g1 palatine2 #h1 frontal2 #i1 maxillary2 #aj1 premaxillary2 #aa1 ethmoid2 #ab1 nasal2 #ac1 incisor teeth2 #ad1 canine2 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 premolars2 #ah1 molar4 a1 condyloid canal2 b1 hypoglossal canal2 c1 jugular foramen2 d1 internal auditory meatus2 e1 appendicular fossa2 f1 tentorium2 g1 dorsum sell2 h1 sella turcica2 i1 hamular process2 j1 pterygoid process of sphenoid2 k1 optic foramen2 l1 presphenoid sinus2 m1 m1 frontal sinus2 n1 lamina perpendicularis of the ethmoid 7broken at cranial edge74 ,the nasal cavity opens craniad by the large nares 7,fig4 #ci1 j2 ,fig4 #db1 r71 which are bounded by the premaxillary and nasal bones4 ,in the natural condition this opening is divided by a median cartilage which is continuous with the lamina perpendicularis 7,fig4 #dc1 n7 of the ethmoid1 thus forming a partition which divides the nasal cavity into two separate halves4 ,from the floor of the cranial part of the cavity rises a ridge formed of the nasal crests of the maxillaries and premaxillaries1 and the cranial portion of the vomer4 ,farther caudad the vomer spreads out in a horizontal plane and separates from the floor of the cavity1 so that the nasal cavity is thereby divided by a horizontal partition into dorsal and ventral portions4 ,the ventral portion is small1 forming the inferior meatus of the nose2 it ends caudally at the choan 7posterior nares1 ,fig4 #da1 o7 which lead into the nasopharynx4 ,that portion of the nasal cavity lying dorsad of the vomer is almost completely filled by the ethmoid and the conch nasales1 superior and inferior4 ,it is bounded caudally by the lamina cribrosa of the ethmoid 7,fig4 #db1 o74 ,the nasal cavity communicates with the cranial cavity by the foramina for the olfactory fibres in the lamina cribrosa2 with the nasopharynx by the choan2 with the exterior of the body by the nares2 with the mouth-cavity by the foramina incisiva or anterior palatine foramina 7,fig4 #db1 s72 with the orbit by the sphenopalatine foramen and the nasolachrymal canal4 ,it communicates directly also with the frontal sinuses 7,fig4 #dc1 m1 m71 the sphenoidal sinuses 7,fig4 #dc1 l71 and with the cells of the labyrinths of the ethmoid4 ,,joints ,,and ,,ligaments ,,of ,,the ,,skull4 ,sutures of the ,skull4--,the bones of the skull join each other by means of immovable articulations known as sutures4 ,these sutures are designated by combining the names of the bones between which they are situated3 as1 sphenofrontal suture 7sutura sphenofrontalis71 between the sphenoid and frontal2 nasomaxillary suture 7sutura nasomaxillaris71 between the nasal and maxillary bones4 ,when a suture joins the two corresponding bones of opposite sides the prefix inter is used1 as the intermaxillary suture 7sutura intermaxillaris7 between the maxillaries4 ,the sutures bounding the parietals have1 however1 received special names not derived in this manner4 ,the suture caudad of the parietals1 separating them from the occipital and interparietal1 is known as the lambdoidal suture2 that between the two parietals is the sagittal suture2 that separating the parietals and squamous portions of the temporals is the squamous suture2 that between the parietals and frontals is the coronal suture4 ,the suture separating the two frontals also is known as the frontal suture1 in place of interfrontal4 ,articulations of the ,mandible4--,in man the two halves of the mandible are united craniad1 so as to form a single bone4 ,in the cat the two halves are separate1 but articulate closely at the symphysis menti by a thin interarticular cartilage4 ,the articulation of the mandible at the mandibular fossa of the temporal is covered with a close articular capsule4 ,the mandibular fossa is lined with cartilage4 ,a slender ligament passes from the angular process of the mandible caudad to the external auditory meatus1 being attached to the latter about #h millimeters from its medial end4 ,this is the stylomandibular ligament4 ,v4 ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,thoracic ,,extremities4 ,scapula 7,figs4 #dd and #de74--,the scapula may be described as a flat triangular bone with one angle rounded4 ,it lies beneath the muscles on the lateral face of the thorax near its cranial end4 ,from its lateral surface there projects a flat ridge 7,fig4 #dd1 g71 the spine of the scapula4 ,the ventral end of the ridge is free as a curved process1 the acromion process 7,fig4 #dd1 j74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,scapula1 ,,lateral ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #de4--,,scapula1 ,,medial ,,surface4 ,i1 fossa supraspinata2 ,,ii1 fossa infraspinata2 ,,iii1 fossa subscapularis2 ,,iv1 fossa for teres major4 a1 vertebral border2 b1 coracoid border2 c1 glenoid border2 d1 glenoid angle and fossa2 e1 coracovertebral angle2 f1 glenovertebral angle2 g1 spine2 h1 tuberosity of the spine2 i1 metacromion2 j1 acromion2 k1 supraglenoidal tubercle2 l1 incisura scapul2 m1 coracoid process2 n1 groove indicating portion of spine2 o1 o1 ridges for attachment of muscle-fibres4 ,the ventral angle of the scapula 7d71 the glenoid angle 7lateral angle of human anatomy71 is much heavier than the others and bears a concave1 pear-shaped articular facet1 the glenoid fossa1 for articulation with the humerus4 ,the border with which this angle is more nearly continuous may be called the glenoid border 7c7 7axillary border of human anatomy74 ,near the narrower cranial end of the glenoid fossa is a small curved projection of the bone1 the coracoid process 7,fig4 #de1 m74 ,the border upon which it lies is the coracoid border 7b7 7superior border of human anatomy74 ,the third border is turned toward the vertebral column and is the vertebral border 7a74 ,the angle between the glenoid and vertebral borders is the glenovertebral angle 7f7 7inferior angle of human anatomy71 and that between the coracoid and vertebral borders the coracovertebral angle 7e7 7medial angle of human anatomy74 ,the medial or costal surface 7,fig4 #de7 is smooth and nearly flat4 ,a shallow furrow 7n7 marks the position of the spine of the scapula4 ,between the furrow and the coracoid border are two oblique parallel ridges 7o and o7 for the insertion of muscle-fibres4 ,near the glenoid border is a well-marked ridge separating the subscapular fossa 7,,iii71 comprising the greater part of the medial surface of the scapula1 from the fossa in which the teres major muscle has origin 7,,iv74 ,the surface presents several nutrient foramina usually directed toward the glenoid angle4 ,the lateral surface 7dorsal surface of human anatomy7 7,fig4 #dd7 is divided by the spine 7g7 into two portions4 ,the portion of the scapula craniad of the spine and the cranial surface of the spine bound the supraspinous fossa 7fossa supraspinata7 7,i71 while the surface caudad of the spine and the caudal portion of the spine bound the infraspinous fossa 7fossa infraspinata7 7,,ii74 ,the spine 7g7 begins as a triangular elevated area in the middle of the vertebral margin and runs toward the glenoid angle4 ,it rises gradually for about two-fifths of its length and then the margin becomes broader and the spine remains of the same height to its glenoid end4 ,there is a rough thickening1 the tuberosity 7h7 of the spine1 situated on its free border about midway between the tip of the acromion and the vertebral end of the spine4 ,the spine is inclined toward the glenoid margin so as to form an angle of about #fj degrees with the caudal half of the lateral surface4 ,at the base of the acromion process 7j7 the margin of the spine presents a flat triangular projection1 the metacromion 7i71 directed toward the glenoid border4 ,the acromion 7j7 continues in the direction of the spine4 ,it is thicker than the spine1 smooth and rounded on both its surfaces and both its borders1 and its apex is connected by fibrous tissue to the clavicle4 ,the coracoid border 7b7 presents a slight rounded notch1 the incisura scapul or suprascapular notch 7l71 just dorsad of the glenoid angle1 and at its ventral end bears the coracoid process 7m7 which is directed ventromediad4 ,the glenoid angle 7d7 is the only one requiring special mention4 ,between the root of the coracoid process and the glenoid cavity it presents a tubercle1 the supraglenoidal or bicipital tubercle 7k71 for the tendon of origin of the biceps muscle4 ,the glenoid angle is separated by a contracted neck from the rest of the bone4 ,between this angle and the inner margin of the acromion there is left a deep notch1 the great scapular notch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,,clavicle4 a1 medial end2 b1 lateral end4 ,clavicle4 ,clavicula 7,fig4 #df74--,the clavicle in the cat is greatly reduced4 ,it is a slender curved rod of bone imbedded in the muscles of the shoulder and connected by fibrous tissue to the apex of the acromion process4 ,the lateral end 7b7 is slightly enlarged4 ,humerus 7,figs4 #dg and #dh74--,the humerus forms the support of the upper arm and articulates by its proximal end with the scapula at the glenoid cavity1 and by its distal end with the radius and ulna1 the bones of the lower arm4 ,it is a nearly cylindrical bone with enlarged ends1 and is so curved that its dorsal and ventral borders are hooked at the opposite ends so that it has the form of an ,italic f4 ,the proximal end of the bone bears on its dorsomedial portion a thickening1 the head of the humerus 7a71 which bears a smooth ovoid articular facet by which the bone articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula4 ,the head is not separated from the body by a distinct anatomical neck as in the human humerus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,,humerus1 ,,ventral ,,side4 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,,humerus1 ,,medial ,,side4 a1 head2 b1 greater tuberosity2 c1 lesser tuberosity2 d1 bicipital groove2 e1 pectoral ridge2 f1 deltoid ridge2 g1 rough area for insertion of latissimus dorsi and teres major2 h1 nutrient foramen2 i1 capitulum2 j1 trochlea2 l1 coronoid fossa2 m1 radial fossa2 n1 medial epicondyle2 o1 lateral epicondyle2 q1 supracondyloid foramen4 ,along the lateral border of the proximal end of the shaft is a high rough ridge semicircular in side view1 the great tuberosity 7b74 ,it gives attachment to muscles and is marked on its dorsal border by a deep depression for the tendon of the infraspinatus muscle4 ,on the medial margin of the proximal end closely associated with the head is a smaller elevation1 the lesser tuberosity 7c71 also for muscular attachment4 ,between the greater and lesser tuberosities on the ventral surface is seen a broad groove1 the sulcus intertubercularis or bicipital groove 7d71 which passes distad onto the surface of the shaft4 ,in the natural state it is converted into a canal by overlying tendons and lodges the tendon of the biceps muscle4 ,the shaft is nearly cylindrical at its middle1 but its dorsoventral diameter is slightly greater than its mediolateral diameter4 ,its proximal end is flattened mediolaterad1 while its distal end is flattened dorsoventrad4 ,from the ventral margin of the greater tuberosity a ridge1 the pectoral ridge 7e71 is continued onto the surface of the shaft1 and from the dorsal margin another ridge1 the deltoid ridge 7f71 passes distad and ventrad so as to meet the pectoral ridge near the middle of the ventral surface of the bone4 ,on the medial margin of the bone near the junction of the first and second fourths is a roughened area 7g7 for the attachment of the tendons of the latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles1 and on the same surface near the junction of the second and last thirds is a nutrient foramen 7h74 ,the distal end of the bone presents a smooth saddle-shaped articular surface1 which1 in well-marked bones1 is divided1 when seen from the ventral surface1 by a slight nearly median ridge into two unequal portions1 lateral and medial 7i and j74 ,the lateral half is rounded and is called the capitulum 7i74 ,it is broader ventrad than dorsad1 and is not continued onto the dorsal surface of the bone4 ,it is for articulation with the proximal end of the radius4 ,the medial half of the surface1 the trochlea 7j71 is concave and passes directly into the capitular surface laterad1 but is limited mediad by a sharp ridge4 ,it is continued onto the dorsal surface of the bone1 where it is limited also laterad by a ridge4 ,it articulates with the semilunar notch of the ulna4 ,proximad of the trochlea the dorsal surface presents a deep fossa1 the olecranon fossa1 which receives the olecranon of the ulna when the arm is straightened4 ,on the ventral surface 7,fig4 #dg7 are two shallower foss separated by a longitudinal ridge4 ,the one over the trochlea receives the coronoid process of the ulna when the arm is bent1 and is called thence the coronoid fossa 7l74 ,the one over the capitulum1 the radial fossa 7m71 receives a triangular facet on the proximal end of the radius at the same time4 ,between the radial and coronoid foss on one side and the olecranon fossa on the other is only a thin plate of bone4 ,on the medial surface of the distal end is a considerable roughened elevation1 the medial epicondyle 7n7 7epitrochlea74 ,it gives origin to flexor muscles and to the ulnar collateral ligaments of the elbow-joint4 ,opposite the medial epicondyle over the capitulum is the lateral epicondyle 7o7 for the origin of extensor muscles of the forearm and of the radial collateral ligaments of the elbow-joint4 ,from the lateral epicondyle a ridge1 the lateral supracondyloid ridge 7p71 continues proximad1 curving onto the dorsal surface of the bone and ending about opposite the junction of the deltoid and pectoral ridges4 ,proximad of the medial epicondyle the bone is pierced near its medial margin by an oblique oval foramen1 the supracondyloid foramen 7q74 ,radius 7,i1 ,figs4 #di and #ej74--;,in the usual position the radius lies with its proximal end on the lateral side of the arm1 articulating with the capitulum of the humerus4 ,the proximal end is thus laterad of the proximal end of the ulna4 ,its distal end1 however1 lies on the medial side of the distal end of the ulna1 so that the radius in the natural position crosses ventrad of the ulna4 ,the radius is a curved bone slightly flattened dorsoventrally1 with enlarged ends4 ,it may be described as consisting of a shaft and of a proximal and a distal end4 ,its proximal end presents on the ventral surface a tuberosity1 the bicipital tuberosity 7c71 for the insertion of the tendon of the biceps muscle4 ,proximad of this the bone is contracted to form a neck 7b7 which is surmounted by a head 7a74 ,the head has on its proximal surface a depressed oval facet by which it articulates with the capitulum1 and on its ulnar border a long narrow facet1 the articular circumference 7d71 for articulation with the radial notch of the ulna2 also a triangular facet 7e71 which fits into the radial fossa of the humerus4 ,the shaft is convex dorsad and concave ventrad4 ,the distal end is somewhat pyramidal4 ,from its medial or radial side a wedge-shaped process1 the styloid process 7f71 extends distad4 ,the distal surface of the end together with the lateral surface of the styloid process form a concave articular cavity 7g7 which fits against the scapholunar bone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,radius ,,and ,,ulna1 ,,dorsolateral ,,view4 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,radius ,,and ,,ulna1 ,,ventromedial ,,view4 ,i1 radius2 ,,ii1 ulna4 a1 head of radius2 b1 neck2 c1 bicipital tuberosity2 d1 articular circumference2 e1 facet for radial fossa of humerus2 f1 styloid process of radius2 g1 facet for articulation of scapholunar bone2 h1 semilunar 7or great sigmoid7 notch of ulna2 i1 coronoid process2 j1 olecranon2 k1 area for insertion of brachialis and clavobrachial muscles2 l1 rough area for attachment of interosseous membrane2 m1 styloid process of ulna4 ,the dorsal surface of the distal end is marked by longitudinal grooves for tendons1 and its lateral or ulnar surface bears a concave facet for articulation with the ulna4 ,ulna 7,,ii1 ,figs4 #di and #ej74--,the ulna is a long slender bone1 flattened mediolaterad4 ,it is enlarged at its proximal end and becomes gradually smaller toward the distal end4 ,the proximal end is marked ventrally by a deep excavation1 the semilunar notch1 or great sigmoid cavity 7h74 ,by the saddle-shaped articular surface of the semilunar notch it articulates with the trochlea4 ,this articular surface is divided into two parts by a transverse non-articular area4 ,the distal boundary of the semilunar notch is a blunt process1 the coronoid process 7i71 which bears on its lateral surface a concave facet1 the radial notch1 for the head of the radius4 ,the portion of the bone proximad of the semilunar notch is called the olecranon 7j74 ,it fits into the olecranon fossa of the humerus when the arm is straightened1 and is rough at its end for the insertion of tendons4 ,the body of the ulna becomes triangular distad4 ,the distal end is slightly larger than the shaft just proximad of it1 and bears on its radioventral side a hemispherical head for articulation with the radius4 ,distad of the head the bone continues as the flattened styloid process 7m71 which projects distad from its dorsolateral side and is smooth on the medial side of its apex1 for articulation with the cuneiform bone of the wrist4 ,carpus 7,fig4 #ea74--,the carpus 7wrist7 consists of seven bones arranged in two rows1 three in the proximal row and four in the distal row4 ,beginning on the medial side of the hand 7thumb or radial side71 the first bone in the proximal row is the scapholunar 7a7 7equal to the scaphoid or navicular and lunar of the human hand74 ,it articulates with the radius4 ,the next is the cuneiform 7b71 articulating with the styloid process of the ulna1 and the next1 which is attached to the cuneiform and projects freely ventrad1 is the pisiform 7c74 ,in the distal row the bone on the radial side is the trapezium 7d72 the next is the trapezoid 7e71 the next the os magnum 7f71 and the last the unciform 7g74 ,the distal row articulates with the metacarpals or bones of the palm of the hand 7#a-e74 ,in the kitten the scapholunar is represented by three bones1 the scaphoid or navicular1 on the radial side1 the lunare1 between the scaphoid and the cuneiform1 and a centrale1 which lies distad of the other two4 ,scapholunar ,bone4 ,os scapholunaris 7,fig4 #ea1 a74--,the scapholunar is a quadrangular bone with the ventroradial angle produced into a blunt process4 ,its proximal surface is smooth and articulates with the distal end of the radius4 ,the distal end is marked by oblique ridges and articulates with the unciform1 os magnum1 trapezoid1 and trapezium4 ,the ulnar surface articulates with the cuneiform1 and the dorsal surface of the ventroradial process with the radial sesamoid4 ,cuneiform ,bone4 7,os triquetrum ,,bna7 7,fig4 #ea1 b74--,the cuneiform bone has the form of a flattened pyramid4 ,its base articulates with the unciform1 its proximoulnar surface with the pisiform except at its dorsal margin1 where it articulates with the styloid process of the ulna4 ,on its proximoradial surface is a smooth facet for articulation with the scapholunar4 ,pisiform ,bone4 ,os pisiforme 7,fig4 #ea1 c74--,the pisiform bone is about twice as long as broad1 with enlarged ends4 ,its dorsal end articulates with the cuneiform1 and on its proximal surface1 separated from the above by a smooth ridge1 is a smooth facet for articulation with the styloid process of the ulna4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,,carpus1 ,,metacarpus1 ,,and ,,phalanges1 ,,dorsal ,,surface4 a1 scapholunar bone2 b1 cuneiform2 c1 pisiform2 d1 trapezium2 e1 trapezoid2 f1 os magnum2 g1 unciform2 h1 radial sesamoid2 i1 proximal phalanges2 j1 second phalanges2 k1 distal phalanges2 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 metacarpals in order from the radial side4 ,unciform ,bone4 7,os hamatum ,,bna7 7,fig4 #ea1 g74--,the unciform is a wedge-shaped bone with the apex of the wedge directed proximad1 and smooth for articulation with the scapholunar4 ,by a part of its ulnar surface it articulates with the cuneiform1 and by its radial surface with the os magnum4 ,its distal end articulates with the fourth and fifth metacarpals4 ,os magnum4 7,os capitatum ,,bna7 7,fig4 #ea1 f74--,the os magnum may be described as an oblong plate bearing on its proximal surface a semicircular ridge which crosses it diagonally4 ,the proximal end of the bone articulates with the scapholunar4 ,its distal end articulates with the third metacarpal except near its ventroulnar angle1 where it articulates with the fourth metacarpal4 ,its ulnar surface articulates with the unciform4 ,its radial border articulates with the trapezoid1 the third metacarpal1 and1 by two facets1 with the second metacarpal4 ,trapezoid4 7,os multangulum minus ,,bna47 7,fig4 #ea1 e74--,the trapezoid is somewhat wedge-shaped1 with the apex of the wedge pointing ventrad4 ,its proximal side articulates with the scapholunar1 its distal side with the second metacarpal1 its ulnar side with the os magnum1 and its radial side with the trapezium4 ,trapezium4 7,os multangulum majus ,,bna47 7,fig4 #ea1 d74--,the trapezium has the form of a triangular prism curved into a semicircle4 ,the convex face looks proximad and articulates by its ventral half with the scapholunar4 ,the ulnar surface articulates with the second metacarpal dorsally1 and ventrally with the trapezoid4 ,its radial surface articulates with the first metacarpal4 ,bones of the ,hand or ,manus 7,fig4 #ea1 #a-e74--,the ,metacarpals4 ,metacarpus4--,the metacarpals are the five bones of the palm of the hand2 they are numbered from one to five1 beginning with the thumb4 ,they are cylindrical elongated bones with enlarged ends4 ,the distal end is called the head1 and the proximal end the base4 ,each head bears a hemispherical articular facet which is marked over its ventral half by a prominent smooth ridge4 ,the surface dorsad of the ridge articulates with the proximal head of a phalanx4 ,the ridge and the surface at its sides are for a pair of sesamoid bones4 ,the first metacarpal 7#a7 is the shortest4 ,its head is oblique1 and it articulates by the ulnar half of its proximal surface with the trapezium 7d72 by the radial half with the radial sesamoid 7h74 ,the second metacarpal 7#b7 is marked on the proximal part of its dorsal surface by an oblique groove passing from the radial side distad to the ulnar side4 ,the base articulates with the trapezoid 7e74 ,the ulnar surface of the proximal end articulates with the os magnum 7f7 and third metacarpal1 while the radial surface articulates with the trapezium 7d74 ,the third metacarpal 7#c7 is the longest1 and its base is rhomboidal with a projecting dorsoradial angle separated by a groove from the rhomboid surface4 ,the proximal end articulates with the os magnum 7f7 and second metacarpal2 the radial surface of the proximal end with the second1 and the ulnar surface with the fourth1 metacarpal4 ,the fourth metacarpal 7#d7 has a base similar in form to that of the third1 and when placed in position with the fifth the two form a hemispherical facet which articulates with the unciform 7g7 and os magnum 7f74 ,the fourth metacarpal articulates by its radial side with the third1 and by its ulnar side with the fifth4 ,the fifth metacarpal 7#e7 articulates by its proximal end with the unciform 7g71 and by the radial side of its proximal end with the fourth metacarpal4 ,digits 7,fig4 #ea74--,the first digit of the hand is called the pollex 7thumb71 the second the index1 the third the medius1 the fourth the annularis1 the fifth the minimus4 ,the first digit has two phalanges1 each of the others three phalanges4 ,phalanges 7,fig4 #ea1 i1 j1 k74--,the phalanges of the proximal row 7i7 are elongated1 flattened dorsoventrally and curved so as to be longitudinally convex dorsad4 ,all have thickened ends4 ,the proximal end is notched1 and its proximal surface looks dorsad and is concave for the head of the metacarpal4 ,the distal end is pulley-shaped1 and the pulley surface extends farther on to the ventral than on to the dorsal surface1 and serves for articulation with the middle phalanx4 ,the phalanges of the middle row 7j7 are like those of the proximal row1 but shorter4 ,the proximal surface is triangular and marked by a median facetted ridge4 ,the whole surface is smooth and adapted to the distal end of the phalanx of the first row4 ,the distal end is transversely elongated1 so as to be cylindrical1 and projects more toward the ulnar than toward the radial side4 ,the distal phalanx 7k7 articulates with this cylinder so that when it is fully extended it lies on the ulnar side of the middle phalanx4 ,the distal phalanx 7k7 has the form of a quadrangular prism4 ,it is excavated on its proximal surface for articulation with the middle phalanx4 ,its distal surface presents dorsad a deep excavation from the bottom of which arises a compressed plate of bone having the form of a bird's beak4 ,the depression receives the base of a claw1 and the beak-like projection supports the claw4 ,sesamoid ,bones of the ,hand4 ,ossa sesamoidea4--,the hand contains1 in addition to those already described1 eleven small bones that are developed in tendons4 ,one of these1 the radial sesamoid 7,fig4 #ea1 h71 is closely applied to the radial end of the scapholunar bone4 ,it is developed in the tendon of the extensor brevis pollicis muscle4 ,the other ten occur in pairs as small flattened curved bones on the ventral side of the joint between each metacarpal and the phalanx with which it articulates4 ,,joints ,,and ,,ligaments ,,of ,,the ,,thoracic ,,limbs4 ,the shoulder-joint is an arthrodial or ball-and-socket joint4 ,the bones entering into its formation are the scapula and the humerus4 ,the capsular ligament or articular capsule is very ample and allows for extended movement of the humerus4 ,it is attached to the edge of the glenoid fossa of the scapula and passing distad covers the head of the humerus and is inserted at the line of junction of the shaft and the epiphysis which forms the head of the bone4 ,on the lateral side of the ventral surface of the humerus the attachment continues distad about two centimeters along the lateral edge of the bicipital groove4 ,on the medial side the insertion passes over the proximal end of the lesser tuberosity4 ,a strong transverse band passes from the greater tuberosity to the lesser tuberosity and bridges the bicipital groove1 converting it into a canal4 ,the lateral and medial parts of the capsule are strengthened by thicker bands of fibres1 the more prominent medial one of which passes from the coracoid process of the scapula to the lesser tuberosity4 ,to the capsule are closely united parts of the supraspinatus1 infraspinatus1 coracobrachialis1 and subscapularis muscles4 ,a synovial membrane lines the capsule within and forms a sheath around the biceps tendon1 so that the latter does not actually enter the synovial capsule4 ,the elbow-joint 7,figs4 #eb and #ec7 is a ginglymus or hinge-joint4 ,the bones which enter into it are the humerus1 radius1 and ulna4 ,the capsule of the joint forms a sac1 with the following attachments to the bones3 7#a7 ,to the humerus it is attached at the proximal edge of the coronoid and radial foss2 to the sides of the capitulum and trochlea distad of the two epicondyles1 and to the distal edge of the olecranon fossa4 7#b7 ,to the ulna it is attached at the edges of the radial and semilunar notches2 7#c7 to the radius around the articular facet1 two or three centimeters distad of the border4 ,many of the muscles of this region are closely attached to the capsule4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,,ligaments ,,of ,,elbow-,,joint1 ,,medial ,,side4 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,,elbow-,,joint1 ,,lateral ,,view4 ,fig4 #eb4--a1 humerus2 #b1 ulna2 #c1 radius4 a and b1 the two medial collateral ligaments4 ,fig4 #ec4--a1 humerus2 #b1 radius2 #c1 ulna4 a1 dorsal collateral ligament2 b1 ventral collateral ligament2 c1 annular ligament4 ,closely connected with the capsule of the joint are the collateral ligaments4 ,the two medial collateral ligaments 7,fig4 #eb7 arise from the medial epicondyle4 ,one 7b7 passes distad and laterad to the interval between the radius and ulna2 here it divides1 one branch going to the head of the radius1 while the other is attached to the lateral surface of the ulna at the edge of the semilunar notch4 ,the second medial ligament 7a7 lies dorsad of the first2 it passes to the medial surface of the ulna1 at the distal edge of the semilunar notch4 ,the two collateral ligaments on the lateral side 7,fig4 #ec7 arise from the lateral epicondyle4 ,the ventral one 7b7 passes almost directly distad and is inserted into the lateral surface of the proximal end of the radius about one centimeter from the articular surface2 its inner surface is partly united to the annular ligament 7c7 of the radius4 ,the dorsal one 7a7 is attached to the lateral border of the semilunar notch of the ulna4 ,articulations of ,radius and ,ulna4--,the proximal radio-ulnar articulation 7,fig4 #ec7 is by a pivot-joint or trochoid4 ,the two bones are held in place by the annular ligament 7,fig4 #ec1 c74 ,this is attached on the lateral side to the dorsal border of the radial notch of the ulna1 passes around the head of the radius1 receiving some ligamentous fibres which come from the lateral epicondyle1 and is attached to the coronoid process of the ulna4 ,the annular ligament is closely united with the capsule of the joint4 ,the radius and ulna are united for about their middle third by the thin interosseous membrane1 which fills the interosseous space between their adjacent edges4 ,the ,wrist4--,at the wrist or carpus there are in reality three joints1 the first between the radius and ulna proximad and the first row of carpals distad1 the second between the two rows of carpal bones1 the third between the distal row of carpals and the metacarpals4 ,the first two are movable joints2 the third is not4 ,each of these three joints has a capsule1 and the bones entering into the joints are interconnected by numerous ligaments4 ,these ligaments are named by combining the names of the two bones which they interconnect4 ,ligaments which interconnect bones of the same row in the carpus are sometimes distinguished as interosseous ligaments1 as contrasted with intercarpal ligaments1 which connect together bones of different rows4 ,according to their position the ligaments may also be distinguished as dorsal1 ventral1 and lateral4 ,detailed descriptions and figures of all these ligaments are given by ,strauss-,durckheim4 ,metacarpals4--,the joint between the carpals and metacarpals has been described4 ,at the distal end of the metacarpals the articulations with the phalanges have each a capsule4 ,the joint is further strengthened by a double lateral ligament on each side4 ,the two sesamoid bones at each joint are interconnected by a strong transverse ligament1 and each is connected with the head of the metacarpal and the base of the first phalanx by a lateral ligament4 ,phalanges4--,between the phalanges the joints possess capsules1 and each has a radial and an ulnar lateral ligament4 ,,vi4 ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,pelvic ,,extremities4 ,innominate ,bones4 ,ossa innominata4 7,os cox ,,bna7 7,figs4 #ed and #ee74--,the two innominate bones articulate with the sacrum and extend thence caudoventrad and finally turn mediad and unite in the middle line1 forming the symphysis pubis4 ,they thus form an arch1 the pelvic arch1 pelvic girdle or pelvis1 which is closed dorsad by the sacrum4 ,in the middle of the lateral surface of each bone is a hemispherical depression1 the acetabulum 7,fig4 #ee1 d71 which receives the head of the femur4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,,innominate ,,bone ,,of ,,kitten1 ,,ventrolateral ,,view4 ,i1 ilium2 ,,ii1 ischium2 ,,iii1 pubis2 ,,iv1 acetabular bone4 a1 acetabulum2 b1 obturator foramen4 ,in the kitten each innominate bone is composed of three principal parts united by sutures 7,fig4 #ed74 ,from the sacrum to the acetabulum is a single bar1 the ilium 7,i74 ,caudad of the acetabulum are two bars4 ,the dorsal one of these is the ischium 7,,ii71 and the ventral one is the pubis 7,,iii74 ,the ischium enters into the formation of the acetabulum 7a71 but the pubis does not4 ,the two bones1 however1 are in contact at the ventral edge of the acetabulum4 ,from this point they diverge1 but unite with one another again near the middle line and thus enclose an oval foramen1 the obturator foramen 7b74 ,wedged between the ilium1 ischium1 and pubis at their point of junction and helping to form the acetabulum is a small irregular bone1 the acetabular bone 7,,iv74 ,in the adult cat these four parts are united into a single bone which is nevertheless usually described1 ignoring the acetabular piece1 as made up of ilium 7,fig4 #ee1 ,i71 ischium 7,,ii71 and pubis 7,,iii74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,,innominate ,,bone ,,of ,,adult ,,cat1 ,,ventrolateral ,,view4 ,i1 ilium2 ,,ii1 ischium2 ,,iii1 pubis4 a1 crest of the ilium2 b1 posterior inferior spine2 c1 great sciatic notch2 d1 acetabulum2 d1 incisura acetabuli2 e1 spine of the ischium2 f1 lesser sciatic notch2 g1 tuberosity of the ischium2 h1 ramus of the ischium2 i1 ramus of the pubis2 j1 obturator foramen2 k1 pubic tubercle2 l1 iliopectineal line2 l1 ilio-pectineal eminence2 m1 anterior superior process4 ,the ilium 7,i7 is somewhat contracted at the middle and broader at its ends4 ,one end enters into the acetabulum 7,fig4 #ee1 d7 and forms about one-fifth the articular surface4 ,this end is also the thickest part of the bone4 ,the lateral surface of the ilium is concave for the attachment of muscles4 ,the medial surface is smooth over its acetabular half and rough over its sacral half4 ,the rough portion is marked at its junction with the smooth portion by the ear-shaped auricular impression by which the bone articulates directly with the sacrum4 ,the caudal half of that part of the medial surface craniad of the auricular impression gives attachment to the ilio-sacral ligaments which bind the ilium to the sacrum4 ,the dorsal border is straight at its cranial end and concave and rounded at its caudal end4 ,between the two portions and at the dorsal edge of the auricular surface is a protuberance corresponding to the posterior inferior spine 7,fig4 #ee1 b7 of the human ilium4 ,the concavity of the dorsal border 7c7 corresponds to the great sciatic notch of the human ilium4 ,at its caudal end is the short spine of the ischium 7e71 which is not a part of the ilium4 ,the ventral border of the ilium is broad caudad1 becoming narrower craniad4 ,the lateral margin of the ventral border is continued to a tuberosity at the edge of the acetabulum2 its medial margin is called the iliopectineal line 7l7 and extends on the pubis to the symphysis4 ,an eminence1 the iliopectineal eminence 7l71 on the iliopectineal line1 lies opposite to the acetabulum at about the junction of the ilium and pubis4 ,the cranial end of the bone is thickened1 forming the crest 7a7 of the ilium4 ,at the junction of the crest with the ventral border is a projection1 the anterior superior process 7m7 of human anatomy4 ,the pubis 7,,iii7 7including the acetabular bone7 enters into the formation of the acetabulum 7d7 constituting about one-sixth the circumference1 but less than one-sixth its area4 ,it may be described as a flat1 curved bone1 contracted at the middle and expanded at the ends4 ,the dorsal end enters into the acetabulum2 the ventral end unites with the opposite bone at the symphysis pubis and sends caudad a projection1 the ramus 7i7 of the pubis1 which unites with the ramus of the opposite bone to form about two-thirds of the entire symphysis4 ,at the sides of the symphysis a slightly marked angle projects craniad from each of the pubic bones2 these two together constitute the pubic tubercle 7k71 for the origin of the rectus abdominis muscle4 ,the surfaces of the ramus are smooth4 ,one of its borders is concave and enters into the formation of the obturator foramen 7j74 ,another of its borders is the iliopectineal line 7l74 ,its third border is rough for the symphysis4 ,the ischium 7,,ii7 has the form of a triangular prism contracted at the middle4 ,its cranial end forms nearly two-thirds of the acetabulum4 ,its caudal end bears dorsad a rough thickening1 the tuberosity of the ischium 7g74 ,from the caudal half of the ventral border of the bone a sickle-shaped process1 the ramus 7h7 of the ischium1 curves medioventrad and then craniad and joins the ramus of the pubis4 ,its medial border is rough and enters into the symphysis1 forming the caudal one-third4 ,the lateral angle of the bone is rounded4 ,its dorsal angle is marked near the cranial end by the spine 7e7 of the ischium4 ,the concavity between this spine and the tuberosity corresponds to the lesser sciatic notch 7f7 of human anatomy4 ,the acetabulum 7d7 is cup-shaped4 ,the ventral one-sixth of its border is deficient and a broad groove extends from the deficiency to the bottom of the cup4 ,the deficiency1 incisura acetabuli1 or acetabular notch 7d71 is closed naturally by a ligament1 and the groove gives origin to the ligament 7ligamentum teres7 which attaches the head of the femur4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,,left ,,femur1 ,,ventral ,,side4 a1 head2 b1 neck2 c1 depression for round ligament2 d1 great trochanter2 e1 trochanteric fossa2 f1 intertrochanteric line2 g1 lesser trochanter2 h1 linea aspera2 i1 medial condyle2 j1 lateral condyle2 k1 intercondyloid fossa2 l1 lateral epicondyle4 ,femur 7,fig4 #ef74--,the femur is the proximal bone of the posterior extremity4 ,it consists of enlarged proximal and distal ends connected by a nearly cylindrical shaft4 ,the proximal end presents on its medial side a hemispherical head 7a7 which fits into the acetabulum4 ,it is supported by a neck 7b7 which is contracted near the head and expanded dorsoventrally where it joins the remainder of the bone4 ,the medial surface of the head presents near its ventral border a depression 7c7 for the insertion of the round ligament of the femur4 ,ventrad the articular surface of the head extends as an acute projection onto the shaft1 so that the whole articular surface appears somewhat pear-shaped4 ,on the lateral side of the proximal end opposite the head is a projecting mass1 the great trochanter 7d71 forming the end of the shaft4 ,on the medial side of the great trochanter at its junction with the neck is a deep fossa1 the trochanteric fossa or digital fossa 7e7 for the insertion of muscles4 ,from the ventral surface of the great trochanter a ridge1 the intertrochanteric line 7f71 is continued distad1 ending in a pyramidal projection1 the lesser trochanter 7g71 which serves for the insertion of muscles4 ,a second ridge is continued to the lesser trochanter from the neck4 ,a slight but well-marked ridge1 the spiral ridge or line1 runs round two sides of the neck parallel to the second ridge4 ,the shaft is nearly straight and cylindrical4 ,a rough line is continued along its ventral surface from the lesser trochanter1 and a similar line along its lateral surface from the greater trochanter2 these unite ventrad to form the linea aspera 7h74 ,on its ventral surface is a nutrient foramen1 directed proximad4 ,the shaft gradually widens distad and ends in two condyles 7i and j7 which are continuous dorsad but separated ventrad by a deep notch1 the intercondyloid fossa 7k74 ,the distal surface of the shaft and condyles is articular4 ,this articular surface is larger on the lateral condyle 7j74 ,the part of the articular surface on the end of the shaft 7patellar surface7 is for the patella2 that part of it on the condyles and separated by the notch is for the tibia4 ,on the lateral surface of the lateral condyle is a slight prominence1 the lateral epicondyle 7l71 and on the medial surface of the medial condyle is another prominence1 the medial epicondyle2 both are for the attachment of ligaments4 ,patella 7,fig4 #a1 r74--,the patella is a small flat bone with a pear-shaped outline1 having its apex distad4 ,it lies against the articular surface at the lower end of the shaft of the femur4 ,it thus covers the knee-joint4 ,the inner surface is smooth and convex from side to side1 but concave in a proximodistal line4 ,it fits against the lower end of the femur4 ,its outer surface is rough and concave4 ,it is a sesamoid bone inserted in the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle4 ,three other sesamoid bones are found in the region of the knee 7see ,fig4 #fa1 p4 #hi74 ,two are in the tendons of the gastrocnemius muscle1 proximad of the two condyles of the femur4 ,the third is in the tendon of the popliteus muscle1 just laterad of the lateral condyle of the femur4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,tibia ,,and ,,fibula ,,of ,,left ,,leg1 ,,dorsal ,,view4 ,i1 tibia2 ,,ii1 fibula4 a1 medial condyle of the tibia2 b1 lateral condyle2 c1 spine of the tibia2 d1 crest of the tibia2 e1 tubercle for attachment of the patellar ligament2 f1 medial malleolus2 g1 projection of dorsal surface of the tibia2 h1 head of fibula2 i1 lateral malleolus4 ,tibia 7,i1 ,fig4 #eg74--,the tibia is the longer of the two bones of the leg between the knee and the ankle1 and is the longest bone of the body4 ,it has a triangular shaft and enlarged proximal and distal ends4 ,the proximal end is curved ventrad and projects into two prominences1 the tuberosities1 on either side4 ,each tuberosity bears on its proximal end an articular facet for the condyles of the femur2 these are known respectively as the lateral and medial condyles 7a and b7 of the tibia4 ,the condyles are oval1 convex dorsoventrad1 and concave from side to side4 ,the two condyles are separated at the middle of their contiguous margins by a bicuspid projection1 the spine of the tibia 7c74 ,they are continuous dorsad1 but separated ventrad by a deep notch between the tuberosities1 the popliteal notch4 ,on the distal side of the lateral condyle is an elongated facet for the proximal end of the fibula4 ,the shaft is triangular1 smallest at about its middle and enlarged at both ends4 ,it presents dorsal1 medial1 and lateral borders1 and medial1 lateral1 and ventral surfaces4 ,the lateral surface is concave proximad4 ,the medial surface is convex4 ,the two are continuous at the distal end4 ,at their proximal ends the border separating them is raised into a prominent ridge1 the crest 7d7 of the tibia1 the proximal end of which contributes to increase the proximal surface of the bone1 and presents an oblong tubercle 7e7 for the insertion of the ligamentum patell 7ligament of the quadriceps femoris muscle74 ,the ventral surface is concave proximad where it abuts upon the tuberosities4 ,its proximal half is crossed by two rough parallel lines1 the distal one of which crosses in a spiral course from the lateral to the medial border2 near its beginning is a nutrient foramen4 ,the distal end extends farther distad on its medial side4 ,the extension is the medial malleolus 7f74 ,the malleolus presents two grooves on its medial surface for the tendons of muscles4 ,on the lateral side of the distal end is an oblique triangular facet for the distal end of the fibula4 ,the ventral surface of the distal end presents an oblique border which passes from the apex of the malleolus proximolaterad4 ,the dorsal surface extends into a ,v-shaped projection 7g7 between the malleolus and the fibular facet4 ,the distal end presents an oblique ridge running from the apex of the ,v-shaped extension of the dorsal surface to near the base of the medial malleolus4 ,the ridge and the concavities on either side of it1 the medial one of which is deeper1 fit against the proximal trochlear surface of the astragalus4 ,fibula 7,,ii1 ,fig4 #eg74--,the fibula lies at the lateral side of the tibia in the shank4 ,it is a slender triangular bone with enlarged proximal and distal ends4 ,the proximal end or head 7h7 is flattened4 ,it bears a facet on its proximomedial surface for articulation with the tibia1 and is longitudinally grooved on the outer surface4 ,the shaft has a very sharp medial border4 ,this border is turned toward the tibia and gives attachment to the interosseous membrane1 which runs between the tibia and fibula4 ,the distal end is expanded to form the lateral malleolus 7i74 ,this bears a facet on the proximal portion of its medial surface near its dorsal margin1 for the tibia1 and distad of this is a second facet for the astragalus4 ,the ventral and lateral surfaces are grooved for tendons4 ,tarsus 7,fig4 #eh74--,the tarsus consists of seven bones4 ,the longest of these1 lying on the lateral side of the foot and forming the support of the heel1 is the calcaneus or os calcis 7a74 ,it articulates distad with a bone1 the cuboid 7c71 which bears the fourth and fifth metatarsals4 ,lying between the calcaneus and the tibia is the astragalus or talus 7b71 the distal end of which articulates with the boat-shaped navicular or scaphoid 7d74 ,the scaphoid bears on its distal surface the three cuneiform bones1 lateral 7e71 medial 7g71 and intermediate1 bearing the rudiment of the first metatarsal and the second and third metatarsals4 ,astragalus4 7,talus ,,bna7 7,fig4 #eh1 b74--,the astragalus may be divided into body1 neck1 and head4 ,the body is marked on its proximal surface by a deep pulley-like groove for the articulation with the distal end of the tibia1 and on its lateral and medial surfaces by curved facets for articulation with the malleoli of the tibia and fibula4 ,this entire surface for articulation with the bones of the leg is known as the trochlea4 ,the lower surface is marked by two facets separated by a groove2 these are for articulation with corresponding facets on the calcaneus4 ,distally the bone contracts to form the neck and enlarges at the end1 forming the head1 which is smooth on its distal surface for articulation with the navicular or scaphoid4 ,calcaneus 7,fig4 #eh1 a1 and ,fig4 #ei74--,the calcaneus 7os calcis7 is the largest bone of the foot and forms the heel4 ,it is two or three times as long as broad and has six surfaces3 dorsal1 ventral1 medial1 lateral1 proximal1 and distal4 ,the proximal one-half of the dorsal surface 7,fig4 #ei7 is smooth1 while the distal half is broadened and bears two facets which are separated by a groove4 ,these articulate with the corresponding facets on the astragalus4 ,the medial facet is borne on a projection of the bone1 the sustentaculum tali 7c74 ,distad of the facets the surface is rough4 ,the ventral surface is smooth4 ,the proximal end 7b7 is grooved for the tendon of ,achilles4 ,the lateral surface is smooth and marked by a grooved tubercle1 the peroneal tubercle 7d71 near the distal end4 ,the medial surface is marked by part of the articular facet for the astragalus1 and also by the grooved sustentaculum tali4 ,the distal end 7a7 articulates with the cuboid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,tarsus1 ,,metatarsus1 ,,and ,,phalanges ,,of ,,left ,,foot1 ,,ventral ,,view4 a1 calcaneus2 b1 astragalus2 c1 cuboid2 d1 scaphoid2 e1 lateral cuneiform2 g1 medial cuneiform2 h1 peroneal groove1 for the tendon of the peroneus longus muscle2 i1 proximal phalanges2 j1 second row of phalanges2 k1 distal phalanges2 l1 sesamoid bones4 #a1 rudimentary first 7medial7 metatarsal2 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 the other metatarsals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,,calcaneus ,,of ,,right ,,foot1 ,,dorsal ,,view4 a1 distal facet for cuboid2 b1 proximal end with groove for tendon of ,achilles2 c1 sustentaculum tali2 d1 peroneal tubercle4 ,cuboid4 ,os cuboideum 7,fig4 #eh1 c74--,the cuboid has somewhat the form of a cube and articulates by its proximal end with the calcaneus 7a71 and by its distal end with the fourth and fifth metatarsals4 ,its medial surface articulates with the scaphoid 7d7 and lateral cuneiform 7e74 ,the ventral surface is marked near its distal end by an oblique ridge1 distad of which is a deep groove1 the peroneal groove 7h71 for the tendon of the peroneus longus muscle4 ,scaphoid4 7,os naviculare pedis ,,bna7 7,fig4 #eh1 d74--,the scaphoid is a boat-shaped bone4 ,its proximal surface is marked by a concave facet for the head of the astragalus 7b71 and its distal surface has three facets for the lateral 7e71 intermediate and medial 7g7 cuneiform bones4 ,at the junction of the ventral with the medial surface is a prominent tubercle4 ,the lateral surface bears two linear facets for articulation with the calcaneus 7a7 and cuboid 7c74 ,lateral ,cuneiform4 ,ectocuneiform4 ,os cuneiforme tertium ,,bna 7,fig4 #eh1 e74--,the lateral cuneiform is a wedge-shaped bone with a hooked process extending from the ventral sharp angle of the bone4 ,it articulates by its proximal end with the scaphoid 7d71 and by its distal end with the third metatarsal4 ,the medial surface bears near its distal end two facets for the second metatarsal1 and on its proximal end a facet for the intermediate cuneiform4 ,the caudal surface has a facet on its proximal end for the cuboid 7c74 ,intermediate ,cuneiform4 ,mesocuneiform4 ,os cuneiforme secundum ,,bna4--,the intermediate cuneiform is small and wedge-shaped1 with the base of the wedge dorsad4 ,it lies between the lateral cuneiform and the medial cuneiform1 articulates by its proximal end with the middle facet of the scaphoid1 and bears on its distal end the second metatarsal4 ,it is not visible in ventral view4 ,medial ,cuneiform4 ,entocuneiform4 ,os cuneiforme primum ,,bna 7,fig4 #eh1 g74--,the medial cuneiform lies on the medial side of the foot4 ,it is a flat triangular bone about twice as long as broad1 and broader at its proximal end than at the distal end4 ,it bears on its distal end the rudimentary first metatarsal4 ,the proximal end is oblique and bears a concave facet for the lateral distal facet of the scaphoid 7d74 ,the lateral surface has a concave facet at its proximal end for the intermediate cuneiform1 while the distal portion is applied against the medial surface of the second metatarsal4 ,bones of the ,foot or ,pes 7,fig4 #eh74--,metatarsals4 ,metatarsus 7,fig4 #eh1 #a-e74--,the metatarsals are five in number4 ,they bear a close resemblance to the metacarpals1 but they may be distinguished by their bases4 ,the first metacarpal 7#a7 is rudimentary and conical4 ,its base has a facet for the distal end of the medial cuneiform 7g71 while the outer surface fits into a depression on the inner surface of the base of the second metatarsal4 ,the second 7#b74 ,the proximal surface of the base is triangular1 corresponding to the distal end of the intermediate cuneiform4 ,the medial surface is marked by two concavities1 one along the proximal border for the distal end of the medial cuneiform1 and one distad of this for the first metatarsal4 ,the lateral surface bears on the proximal margin an oblique triangular facet dorsad and a similar facet ventrad1 both for the lateral cuneiform 7e74 ,distad of these facets is a rough ridge4 ,the third 7#c74 ,the proximal end of its base is a triangular facet with the apex directed ventrad and the sides excavated4 ,it is for the distal end of the lateral cuneiform 7e74 ,its medial surface presents a depression which receives the ridge of the second metatarsal4 ,on the lateral surface a short distance distad of the proximal border is a triangular concave facet1 and near the proximal border ventrad a second concave facet4 ,both are for the fourth metatarsal4 ,the fourth 7#d74 ,the proximal end is convex1 notched medially and facetted for the cuboid 7c74 ,its medial surface bears dorsad1 a short distance from its proximal end1 a smooth tubercle1 and ventrad a small convex facet4 ,both articulate with facets on the lateral surface of the third metatarsal4 ,the lateral surface has a sinuous facet along its dorsal border1 and ventrad of this a depression4 ,there is a second facet along the ventral border4 ,both facets are for the fifth metatarsal1 and the depression is for ligaments4 ,the fifth 7#e7 has its base flattened and expanded so as to be wedge-shaped1 with the apex of the wedge directed proximad4 ,its dorsal end extends into a tubercle4 ,it thus presents only lateral and medial surfaces4 ,the medial surface shows two tubercles1 one distad of the other4 ,the distal tubercle and the distal half of the proximal tubercle are facetted and fit into the sinuous facet on the fourth metatarsal4 ,a narrow facet on the ventral border of the surface articulates with the facet on the ventral border of the lateral surface of the fourth metatarsal4 ,the proximal half of the distal tubercle is facetted for the cuboid 7c74 ,the lateral surface is smooth1 non-articular1 and obliquely grooved4 ,phalanges 7,fig4 #eh1 i1 j1 k74--,there are three phalanges in each of the four digits1 and these are almost identical with those described for the manus4 ,sesamoid ,bones4 ,ossa sesamoidea 7,fig4 #eh1 l74--,the sesamoid bones are found at the joints between the metatarsals and phalanges1 and are in all respects like those of the manus4 ,,joints ,,and ,,ligaments ,,of ,,the ,,pelvic ,,limbs4 ,ligaments of the ,pelvis4--,the ilium and sacrum are articulated at the auricular facet of the ilium and the corresponding rough surface of the sacrum4 ,the joint is an amphiarthrosis1 permitting very little movement4 ,a capsular ligament surrounds the articular surface1 being attached to the bones about its circumference2 it is short and strong4 ,craniad of the capsule is a thick very short ligament1 composed of very strong transverse fibres passing from the rough surface of the sacrum to the corresponding rough surface of the ilium4 ,this forms the lateral iliosacral ligament1 which is united at its caudal border to the capsule4 ,a strong1 wide ligamentous band passes from the dorsal border of the ilium to the sides of the sacrum4 ,this is indistinctly subdivided into several bands1 which together represent the long and short posterior iliosacral ligaments of man4 ,symphysis pelvis4--,the medial borders of the pubis and ilium meet in the middle line ventrad of the pelvis and are here united by cartilage4 ,the joint is strengthened by numerous small bands which pass across the line of junction from one side to the other2 these occur on both surfaces4 ,the ,hip-joint4--,the hip-joint is an enarthrosis1 or ball-and-socket joint in which more than half the spherical head of the femur is received into the acetabulum4 ,the depth of the acetabulum is increased by a rim of fibrocartilage about its margin1 forming the labrum glenoidale4 ,this passes across the acetabular notch1 forming the transverse ligament of the acetabulum2 beneath it blood-vessels and nerves pass into the acetabular cavity4 ,the capsule of the joint is large and loose4 ,it is attached about the margin of the acetabulum1 and passes over the head of the femur1 to be attached to the bone several millimeters distad of the head4 ,it thus encloses both the head and the neck of the femur4 ,the ligamentum teres1 or round ligament1 is a very strong1 short ligament which passes from the depression in the head of the femur to the bottom of the acetabulum4 ,the ,knee-joint 7,figs4 #fj and #fa74--,the joint between the femur and the tibia is very complex4 ,the surfaces of the condyles of the femur do not correspond to those of the condyles of the tibia4 ,between the ends of the two bones are placed two disks of cartilage1 the menisci1 or semilunar cartilages 7,fig4 #fj1 c and d2 ,fig4 #fa1 a and b71 of such a form that the congruity of articular surfaces is restored4 ,each meniscus has a proximal surface corresponding to the form of one of the condyles of the femur1 and a distal surface corresponding to a condyle of the tibia4 ,the menisci are held in position by ligaments4 ,the knee-joint permits not only backward and forward movement1 but also a small amount of rotary motion4 ,the joint has two capsules1 one on the dorsal 7convex7 side1 the other on the ventral side4 ,the two communicate only by a small passageway lying within the joint between the ends of the bones4 ,the dorsal one is attached to the femur several millimeters proximad of the patellar surface and some distance on each side of the latter4 ,the patella is imbedded in its outer wall1 and it is attached to the tibia on the edges of the articular surface of the latter1 from the crest to the tuberosities4 ,the capsule is also attached laterally and medially to the sides of the menisci1 and is closely united to the patellar ligaments4 ,its cavity contains a mass of yellow fat4 ,the ventral capsule is attached to the borders of the articular surfaces of the femur and tibia on their ventral sides1 to the menisci1 and to the epicondyles of the femur and the tuberosities of the tibia4 ,its walls are stronger and its cavity smaller than those of the dorsal capsule4 ,the ligaments of the knee-joint 7,figs4 #fj and #fa71 aside from the capsules1 may be classified into3 7#a7 those which are connected with the patella2 7#b7 collateral ligaments 7,fig4 #fj1 i and j71 which pass from the epicondyles directly distad along the sides of the joint to the tibia or fibula2 7#c7 crucial ligaments 7,fig4 #fj1 g and h2 ,fig4 #fa1 c and d71 which cross within the joint from one side of the femur to the opposite side of the tibia2 7#d7 ligaments which hold the menisci in place 7,fig4 #fj1 e and f2 ,fig4 #fa1 e and f74 7#a7 ,,ligaments ,,of ,,the ,,patella4--,the patella is imbedded in the dorsal wall of the dorsal capsule of the joint4 ,from its distal end a strong tendon or ligament passes distad to the crest of the tibia4 ,this is known as the ligamentum patell3 it may be considered a part of the tendon of ,m4 quadriceps femoris4 ,on the lateral side the capsule of the joint is strengthened by the transverse fibres of the tendon of ,m4 plantaris1 which aid in holding the patella in place4 7#b7 ,,collateral ,,ligaments4--,of these there are two4 ,the ligamentum collaterale fibulare 7,fig4 #fj1 j7 is attached to the lateral epicondyle of the femur and passes distad across the tendon of the plantaris muscle to the head of the fibula4 ,dorsad of the fibular ligament and parallel with it passes the tendon of origin of the extensor longus digitorum4 ,the ligamentum collaterale tibiale 7,fig4 #fj1 i2 ,fig4 #fa1 g7 begins on the medial epicondyle of the femur and passes distad to the lateral tuberosity of the tibia2 part of it passes one to one and a half centimeters distad of the tuberosity to be attached to a rough ridge on the side of the tibia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,,knee-,,joint1 ,,from ,,the ,,dorsal ,,or ,,patellar ,,side4 ,,fig4 #fa4--,,knee-,,joint1 ,,from ,,the ,,ventral ,,or ,,flexor ,,side4 ,fig4 #fj4--,the patella has been removed4 #a1 femur2 #b1 tibia2 #c1 fibula4 a1 patellar surface of femur2 b1 tubercle for attachment of ligamentum patell2 c1 medial meniscus2 d1 lateral meniscus2 e1 f1 ligaments of the menisci2 g1 ligamentum cruciatum anterius2 h1 ligamentum cruciatum posterius2 i1 ligamentum collaterale tibiale2 j1 ligamentum collaterale fibulare4 ,fig4 #fa4--,the capsule of the joint has been opened4 #a1 femur2 #b1 tibia 7fibula not shown72 #c1 sesamoid bone in lateral head of ,m4 gastrocnemius2 #d1 sesamoid in medial head of ,m4 gastrocnemius2 #e1 tendon of ,m4 popliteus1 with sesamoid bone2 #f1 #g1 lateral and medial condyles of the femur1 with the intercondyloid notch between them2 #h1 #i1 lateral and medial condyles of the tibia1 with the popliteal notch between them2 a1 b1 medial and lateral menisci2 c1 ligamentum cruciatum anterius2 d1 ligamentum cruciatum posterius2 e1 f1 ligaments of the lateral meniscus2 g1 ligamentum collaterale tibiale4 7#c7 ,,crucial ,,ligaments4--,there are two of these also4 ,the ligamentum cruciatum anterius1 or anterior crucial ligament 7,fig4 #fj1 g2 ,fig4 #fa1 c71 is a thick1 strong ligament which begins on the dorsal part of the proximal end of the tibia nearer the medial side 7,fig4 #fj1 g71 and passes ventrad and proximad1 between the ends of the two bones forming the joint1 into the intercondyloid fossa of the femur1 and becomes attached to the medial surface of the lateral condyle of the femur 7,fig4 #fa1 c74 ,it is composed of two partially separated bands1 forming a slight angle with one another4 ,it is crossed near its dorsal and ventral ends by two of the ligaments of the menisci4 ,the ligamentum cruciatum posterius1 or posterior crucial ligament 7,fig4 #fj1 h2 ,fig4 #fa1 d71 begins on the tibia at the edge of the popliteal notch 7,fig4 #fa1 d71 nearer the medial side1 and passes dorsad and proximad to be attached to the ventral edge of the patellar surface of the femur1 in the intercondyloid fossa 7,fig4 #fj1 h74 7#d7 ,,ligaments ,,of ,,the ,,menisci4--,there are five of these1 connecting the menisci with the femur or tibia4 ,one 7,fig4 #fj1 e7 passes from the dorsal edge of the medial meniscus 7c7 transversely across the anterior crucial ligament 7g7 to the proximal end of the tibia nearer the lateral side4 ,a second 7,fig4 #fj1 f7 passes from the dorsal margin of the lateral meniscus 7d7 transversely beneath the anterior crucial ligament 7g7 to the proximal end of the tibia nearer the ventral side and medial border4 ,a third 7,fig4 #fa1 f7 passes from the ventral margin of the lateral meniscus obliquely across the anterior crucial ligament 7c7 to the lateral side of the medial condyle of the femur4 ,the fourth 7,fig4 #fa1 e7 is small1 passing from the medial angle of the ventral border of the lateral meniscus distad to the popliteal notch4 ,the fifth passes from the ventral border of the medial meniscus laterad beneath the posterior crucial ligament to the proximal end of the tibia1 nearer the ventral and lateral sides4 ,articulations between the ,tibia and ,fibula4--,at the proximal end the fibula is as it were suspended from the distal side of the overhanging lateral tuberosity of the tibia by strong ligamentous tissue4 ,the capsule of the joint is formed by an extension of the capsule of the knee-joint which passes between the tibia and fibula on the ventral side4 ,forming the dorsolateral wall of this extension is a strong1 thick ligament which passes directly from the head of the fibula to the lateral surface of the lateral tuberosity of the tibia4 ,a second more delicate ligament passes from the head of the fibula dorsoproximad to the tubercle laterad of the crest of the tibia1 bridging a groove through which passes the tendon of ,m4 extensor longus digitorum4 ,the tibia and fibula are connected throughout their length by an interosseus membrane4 ,this is broad and very thin in its proximal part1 narrower and thicker distad4 ,distad the two malleoli forming the ends of the fibula and tibia are closely and immovably united4 ,the capsule of the joint is here an extension proximad of the capsule of the articulation with the astragalus4 ,on the dorsal side a short broad band of strong fibres passes from the surface of the tibia obliquely laterodistad to the border of the fibula2 this forms the anterior ligament of the lateral malleolus4 ,on the ventral side a very much weaker set of fibres forms the ventral wall of the articular capsule2 it is called the posterior ligament of the lateral malleolus4 ,tibia and fibula are also connected on the dorsal side by the ligamentum transversum cruris1 or transverse ligament of the lower leg 7,fig4 #ia1 #e71 which spans the tendons of ,mm4 extensor longus digitorum and tibialis anterior4 ,from the middle of the distal margin of this a slender supporting ligament passes distad and is inserted on the dorsal surface of the tarsus4 ,the grooves in the two malleoli for the passage of the tendons are spanned by ligamentous fibres 7retinacula7 for holding the tendons in place4 ,articulation between the ,leg and the ,foot4--,at the distal end there is formed between the two malleoli a deep irregular fossa1 into which is received the trochlea of the astragalus4 ,the joint is covered by a large articular capsule1 which passes also1 as above noted1 between the tibia and fibula4 ,in addition to the capsule the following ligaments may be distinguished3 7a7 ,on the lateral side1 7#a7 a short ligament from the fibula to the astragalus1 directed toward the proximal end of the foot2 7#b7 a ligament from the fibula to the calcaneus1 attached to the latter proximad of the peroneal tubercle2 7#c7 a stronger ligament from the fibula to the calcaneus1 lying beneath the last-mentioned and directed toward the proximal end of the bone4 7b7 ,on the medial side may be distinguished 7#a7 a strong ligament from the tibia 7medial malleolus7 to the sustentaculum tali1 and passing thence onto the scaphoid2 7#b7 a short ligament from the medial malleolus to the astragalus4 ,the ,tarsus4--,the articulations between the separate bones of the tarsus and between the tarsus and metatarsus have a considerable number of variously communicating articular capsules4 ,the separate bones are connected by many ligaments4 ,the ligaments of the ventral surface 7ligamenta plantaria7 are especially well developed4 ,here may be noticed particularly a very large calcaneocuboid ligament1 and a large calcaneocuneiform ligament which passes from the sustentaculum tali to the medial cuneiform4 ,those on the dorsal surface 7ligamenta dorsalia7 are less strong and numerous4 ,many ligaments1 longitudinal1 transverse1 and oblique1 pass also between the separate bones 7ligamenta interossea74 ,ligamenta lateralia1 on the lateral and medial borders of the foot1 are also distinguishable4 ,strauss-,durckheim enumerates ninety-four ligaments of the tarsus2 an account of each of these does not form part of the plan of the present work4 ,the ligaments of the metatarsus and phalanges are of the same general character as in the forelimb4 ,of these ,strauss-,durckheim enumerates thirty-six2 they will not be described here4 ,,the ,,muscles4 ,i4 ,,the ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 7,fig4 #fb47 ,m4 cutaneus maximus 7,fig4 #fb1 b74--,this is a very large1 thin muscle which covers almost the whole side of the body4 ,it arises from the outer surface of the latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 m7 near its ventral end and from the bicipital arch 7,fig4 #fe1 t7 in the axilla2 from the linea alba for a considerable distance 7two or three inches7 caudad of the base of the xiphoid process1 and from the thorax over a line joining the axilla and the base of the xiphoid4 ,sometimes a few fibres take origin from the fascia which covers the pectoantibrachialis on the ventral side of the arm4 ,from their origin the fibres diverge4 ,the cranial ones curve about the base of the forelimb and are inserted into the skin at or near the middle line caudad of the first thoracic vertebra4 ,the most cranial fibres of all are inserted about one to one and a half centimeters from the middorsal line2 thence the line of insertion approaches the middorsal line to reach it at about the eighth or ninth thoracic vertebra4 ,the middle fibres run parallel to the middorsal line in the lumbar and sacral regions as far as the root of the tail1 a small bundle passing onto the dorsal side of the tail1 another onto the ventral side4 ,the fibres of the caudal portion pass onto the thigh1 the ventral ones running in the fold of skin which stretches from thigh to abdomen1 and are finally lost in the fascia along a line connecting the knee and the root of the tail4 ,a strong fascia connects the adjacent borders of the cutaneus and platysma and lies over the scapular region4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 a1 a1 a1 ,m4 platysma2 b1 ,m4 cutaneus maximus2 c1 ,m4 orbicularis oris4 ,between the platysma and the cutaneus maximus are seen the following deeper muscles3 d1 ,m4 acromio-trapezius2 e1 ,m4 levator scapul ventralis2 f1 ,m4 spino-deltoideus2 g1 ,m4 acromio-deltoideus2 h1 ,m4 clavobrachialis2 i1 caput laterale of ,m4 triceps brachii2 j1 caput longum of ,m4 triceps brachii2 k1 ,m4 xiphi-humeralis2 l1 ,m4 pectoralis minor4 #a1 external jugular vein4 ,this muscle lies immediately beneath the integument4 ,it covers the first layer of body muscles4 ,action4--,moves the skin4 ,m4 platysma 7,figs4 #fb and #fd1 a1 a1 a74--,this muscle forms a thin layer of fibres covering the sides of the neck and face1 in close relation with the integument4 ,several more or less distinct portions may be distinguished4 7#a7 ,most of the fibres 7a7 arise from the middorsal line1 from the occiput to the first thoracic vertebra1 in a narrow fascia common to the muscles of the two sides4 ,the most cranial fibres of this region arise as a small bundle from the external occipital crest1 beneath the levator auris longus 7,fig4 #fc1 g1 g74 ,from this origin in the middle line the fibres pass craniolaterad4 ,the most cranial fibres curve about the ventral side of the ear and pass toward the caudal angle of the eye1 where they unite with fibres of the zygomaticus 7,fig4 #fd1 d7 or corrugator supercilii lateralis 7,fig4 #fd1 k71 or pass to the lower eyelid4 ,caudad of these the fibres cover the side of the face and become lost among the facial muscles1 some passing to the lower eyelid1 some to the fibrous pad which supports the vibriss1 some to the angle of the mouth1 some to the lower lip4 ,the most ventral fibres meet the fibres of the opposite muscle just ventrad of the symphysis of the mandible4 ,the ventral free border of the platysma is separated on the ventral side of the neck from the border of the opposite muscle by a wedge-shaped area having its point at the symphysis menti4 ,the fibres of this portion of the muscle are interrupted by an attachment to the skin1 along a line passing from the base of the ear to about the middle of the coracoid border of the scapula1 ,the dorsal 7a7 and ventral 7a7 portions of the muscle1 separated by this line of attachment1 are sometimes described as separate muscles 7the supercervicocutaneus and cervicofacial1 respectively1 of ,strauss-,durckheim74 7#b7 ,a band of fibres one or two centimeters across 7a7 arises in the fascia of the side of the neck just craniad of the middle of the coracoid border of the scapula1 and passes caudoventrad toward the manubrium1 its fibres crossing the fibres of the first part of the platysma at right angles4 ,these fibres become lost in the fascia ventrad of the manubrium1 or pass across the middle line to intermingle with the corresponding fibres of the opposite side4 ,this portion of the platysma is sometimes absent4 ,the platysma is everywhere subcutaneous1 except at its dorsocranial angle1 where a small bundle of fibres is covered by the levator longus auris4 ,it covers the deeper muscles of the neck and head4 ,closely attached to its inner surface are the submentalis and depressor conch1 whose fibres bridge over the ventral interval between the borders of the platysmas of opposite sides4 ,action4--,moves the skin of the face and neck4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,head4 ,a4 ,,superficial ,,muscles4--,the most superficial layer of muscles on the face and head is formed by differentiation of the fibres of the platysma4 ,the muscles thus formed are not clearly distinct from each other2 in this region sets of fibres differing in direction and in origin or insertion receive separate names even though the different sets of fibres are closely interwoven4 ,in the quadrangle on the dorsal surface of the head enclosed between the two eyes and the two ears1 a thin superficial sheet of fibres is found1 in which a number of different sets may be distinguished 7,fig4 #fc74 ,these have received the following names4 ,m4 intermedius scutulorum 7,fig4 #fc1 a74--,this consists of a broad thin sheet of transverse fibres between the two external ears4 ,the fibres are attached at either end to the scutiform cartilage 7#a7 of the two ears1 and pass without interruption across the middle line4 ,at its cranial edge this muscle is continuous with the corrugator supercilii medialis 7b72 at its lateral edge with the frontoscutularis2 at its caudal edge with the levator auris longus 7g74 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument4 ,inner surface with the galea aponeurotica 7to which the muscle is closely united71 the epicranius muscle 7h7 and the temporal muscle 7n74 ,action4--,draws the two ears dorsad1 toward the middle line4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,dorsal ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,head4 ,on the right side are shown the superficial muscles2 on the left side the superficial muscles have mostly been removed1 exposing the deeper muscles and the bone4 a1 ,m4 intermedius scutulorum2 b1 ,m4 corrugator supercilii medialis2 c1 ,m4 orbicularis oculi2 d1 ,m4 corrugator supercilii lateralis2 e1 cranial end fibres of ,m4 platysma2 f1 ,m4 adductor auris superior2 g1 g1 ,m4 levator auris longus 7g1 cranial portion2 g1 caudal portion72 h1 h1 ,m4 epicranius 7h1 ,m4 occipitalis2 h ,m4 frontalis72 i1 ,m4 transversus auricul2 k1 ,m4 auricularis superior 7cut on the left side72 l1 ,m4 abductor auris brevis2 m1 ,m4 abductor auris longus2 n1 ,m4 temporalis2 o1 cut origin of ,m4 frontoscutularis2 p1 p1 ,m4 levator labii superioris alque nasi 7p1 the origin from the maxillary bone72 q1 angular head of ,m4 quadratus labii superioris4 #a1 scutiform cartilage2 #b1 external ear2 #c1 bones of the skull4 ,m4 corrugator supercilii medialis 7b74--,this consists of a thin sheet of scattered fibres lying craniad of the last and intermingling with it4 ,the fibres take origin near the middle line1 pass laterad1 then curve craniad1 converging1 to be inserted into the whole extent of the upper eyelid1 especially near the caudal angle4 ,here the fibres unite with those of the orbicularis oculi 7c74 ,this muscle is continuous caudad with the intermedius scutulorum 7a71 craniad with the orbicularis oculi 7c72 laterad with the corrugator supercilii lateralis 7d74 ,toward the medial side the fibres lose themselves in a tendinous sheet that joins the galea aponeurotica4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument4 ,inner surface with the frontoscutularis and the skull4 ,action4--,raises the upper eyelid4 ,m4 orbicularis oculi 7,fig4 #fc1 c2 ,fig4 #fd1 s74--,this consists of two thin bands of muscle-fibres which lie one in either eyelid parallel to its border and unite at the angle of the eye4 ,origin by short tendon-fibres from a tubercle on the surface of the frontal process of the maxillary bone just dorsad of the orbital end of the lachrymal canal and between the two parts of the quadratus labii superioris 7,fig4 #fc1 p and q74 ,the muscle splits into two parts which pass into the two eyelids4 ,at the outer angle of the eye the two bands unite by the intervention of tendon-fibres between the muscle-fibre bundles of the two4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument4 ,inner surface with the inner membrane of the eyelid4 ,action4--,closes the eye4 ,m4 corrugator supercilii lateralis 7,fig4 #fc1 d2 ,fig4 #fd1 k74--,this consists of a number of scattered fibres which arise from among the fibres of the frontoscutularis1 and from the tendon lying just craniad of the external opening of the ear1 to which are united also parts of the zygomaticus 7,fig4 #fd1 d7 and submentalis 7,fig4 #fd1 c74 ,the fibres pass craniad1 converging so as to form a narrow band which is inserted at the caudolateral angle of the eye1 where it unites with the orbicularis oculi 7,fig4 #fd1 s74 ,this muscle is continuous on the medial side with the corrugator supercilii medialis 7,fig4 #fd1 j7 and the frontoauricularis1 on the lateral side with the platysma4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument4 ,inner surface with the frontal bone and the frontoscutularis4 ,action4--,pulls the angle of the eye caudad2 at the same time pulls the external ear craniad4 ,m4 frontoauricularis4--,a few of the fibres which are attached along the upper eyelid sometimes pass dorsocaudad1 mingled with fibres of the corrugatores supercilii medialis and lateralis and the frontoscutularis1 to the craniomedial angle of the auricular cartilage1 where they unite with the fibres of the adductor auris superior4 ,these fibres are sometimes distinguished as the frontoauricularis muscle4 ,m4 levator auris longus 7,fig4 #fc1 g and g74 7,part of the auricularis posterior of man47--,this lies on the caudal half of the dorsal surface of the head1 forming a laterocaudal continuation of the intermedius scutulorum 7a74 ,origin from the middle line of the neck dorsad of the atlas1 and from the sagittal crest for about one centimeter craniad of the external occipital tubercle4 ,the fibres form a broad thin sheet which passes craniolaterad as far as the caudal end of the scutiform cartilage 7#a74 ,here the muscle divides2 the major portion is attached to the scutiform cartilage 7#a71 its fibres intermingling with those of the intermedius scutulorum 7a74 ,the caudal portion of the muscle 7g7 passes onto the surface of the auricle1 extending one or two centimeters distad2 here it is inserted on an oblique line which lies directly craniad of the insertion of the transversus auricul 7i74 ,the caudal portion of this muscle 7g7 having origin above the atlas and insertion on the auricle1 is sometimes considered a separate muscle1 the supercervicoauricular or cervicoauricular4 ,the cranial portion 7g7 with origin on the sagittal crest and insertion on the scutiform cartilage might be distinguished as the occipitoscutularis4 ,the levator auris longus is continuous at its cranial end medially with ,m4 epicranius 7h72 laterally with ,m4 intermedius scutulorum 7a74 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument4 ,inner surface with the temporal muscle 7n71 the auricularis superior 7k71 the abductor longus auris 7m71 a narrow strand of the platysma1 and the clavotrapezius4 ,action4--,pulls the external ear dorsocaudad4 ,the four following muscles lie partly or entirely beneath those already described2 they are doubtless formed as differentiations of the inner layers of the platysma4 ,m4 auricularis superior 7or attollens auris7 7,fig4 #fc1 k74--,this muscle forms a band about one centimeter broad lying just beneath the levator longus 7g74 ,origin on the sagittal crest for about one centimeter craniad of the interparietal bone4 ,the muscle passes laterad onto the surface of the auricle and is inserted into the auricular cartilage a little caudad of the middle of its convex surface4 ,at its lateral end the cranial margin is closely united to the under surface of the levator auris longus 7g74 ,relations4--,outer surface at the medial end with the epicranius 7h71 the abductor auris longus 7m71 and levator auris longus 7g72 at the lateral end with the skin4 ,inner surface with the temporal muscle 7n7 and the auricular cartilage4 ,action4--,pulls the external ear dorsad4 ,m4 abductor auris longus 7,fig4 #fc1 m2 ,fig4 #fd1 q74 7,part of the auricularis posterior of man47 ,origin on the sagittal crest dorsad of the interparietal bone1 caudad of that of the auricularis superior 7k71 which it partly covers4 ,the muscle passes laterad as a flat band #h to #aj millimeters wide over the caudal surface of the concha of the ear1 and is inserted 7,fig4 #fd1 q7 on the lateral surface of the eminentia conch1 caudad of the antitragus4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the levator auris longus 7g7 and the integument4 ,inner surface with the auricularis superior 7k71 the abductor auris brevis 7l71 and the concha4 ,action4--,pulls the external ear caudad4 ,m4 abductor auris brevis 7,fig4 #fc1 l74 ,origin by a tendon from the lambdoidal crest for one or two centimeters laterad of the middle4 ,the muscle passes lateroventrad lying beneath the abductor longus 7m7 as a flat band #f to #h millimeters wide which is inserted into the medial surface of the most proximal portion of the concha1 just distad of its junction with the cartilaginous auditory meatus4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the abductor longus 7m71 a small strand of the platysma and the concha4 ,inner surface with the temporal muscle 7n74 ,action4--,pulls the concha caudad4 ,m4 epicranius 7or occipitofrontalis7 7,fig4 #fc1 h and h74 ,origin on the sagittal crest or suture1 just craniad of the origin of the levator longus auris1 to the inner surface of which this muscle is closely united4 ,from the origin the fibres pass craniad forming a band 7h7 about #h or #aj millimeters in width1 the two muscles lying close to one another and partly united in the middle line4 ,about two centimeters craniad of their origin the fibres of both muscles end in a tendinous sheet1 the galea aponeurotica1 which covers the surface of the skull in the region between the ears and eyes1 and is formed by the inner surface of the intermedius scutulorum 7a7 and other muscles of this region4 ,the galea aponeurotica passes craniad onto the surface of the nose1 where it gives origin again to a thin sheet of muscle-fibres 7h7 which are inserted into the integument near the cranial ends of the nasal bones4 ,m4 epicranius is thus formed of two muscular portions 7h and h71 connected by a long tendinous sheet4 ,the caudal portion is frequently distinguished as the occipital muscle 7,m4 occipitalis1 h71 the cranial portion1 on the nose1 as the frontal muscle 7,m4 frontalis1 h74 ,relations4--,outer surface of the occipitalis 7h7 with the intermedius scutulorum 7a71 the levator auris longus 7g71 and the integument2 inner surface with the auricularis superior 7h71 the abductor auris longus1 and the bone4 ,outer surface of the frontalis 7h7 with the integument2 inner surface with the bones of the skull4 ,action4--,moves the integument of the dorsal surface of the head and of the nose4 ,ventrad of the external ear the following three differentiated portions of the platysma may be distinguished4 ,m4 zygomaticus 7major7 7,fig4 #fd1 d74--,a slender band connecting the angle of the mouth with the scutiform cartilage of the ear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,,superficial ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,lateral ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,head ,,and ,,neck4 a1 a1 a1 ,m4 platysma2 b1 ,m4 depressor conch2 c1 ,m4 submentalis2 d1 ,m4 zygomaticus 7b1 c1 and d lie beneath the platysma and are seen through it72 e1 ,m4 zygomaticus minor2 f1 ,m4 caninus2 f1 g1 parts of ,m4 quadratus labii superioris 7f1 angular head2 g1 ,m4 levator labii superioris alque nasi72 h1 ,m4 myrtiformis2 i1 ,m4 orbicularis oris2 j1 ,m4 corrugator supercilii medialis2 k1 ,m4 corrugator supercilii lateralis2 l1 ,m4 adductor auris superior2 m1 ,m4 helicis2 n1 ,m4 antitragicus2 o1 ,m4 adductor auris inferior2 p1 ,m4 conchus externus2 q1 ,m4 abductor auris longus2 r1 parts of ,m4 auricularis externus2 s1 ,m4 orbicularis oculi4 ,at the angle of the mouth the fibres arise from among those of the orbicularis oris 7i71 from both the upper and the lower lip4 ,they pass thence dorsocaudad across the zygomatic arch as a band #h or #aj millimeters wide which is attached to a tendinous aponeurosis lying just craniad of the external opening of the ear4 ,to this aponeurosis are attached also1 wholly or partly1 the corrugator supercilii lateralis 7k7 and the submentalis 7c74 ,the aponeurosis is united with the caudoventral angle of the scutiform cartilage and with the ventral edge of the cranial margin of the auricular cartilage4 ,this muscle is united at its cranial end with the orbicularis oris 7i72 throughout its length more or less with the platysma 7a1 a72 at its caudodorsal end with the corrugator supercilii lateralis 7k7 on its medial side1 and with the submentalis 7c7 on its lateral side4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument and the platysma 7a74 ,inner surface with the masseter1 temporal1 frontoscutularis1 and adductor auris inferior 7o74 ,action4--,draws the angle of the mouth dorsocaudad2 the external ear ventrocraniad4 ,m4 submentalis 7,fig4 #fd1 c74--,a flat band1 similar to the last1 and closely connected for some distance to its caudal border4 ,it arises as scattered fibres near the ventral middle line at about the level of the larynx1 the fibres of the opposite muscles crossing the middle line and intermingling4 ,the fibres pass dorsad1 converging so as to form a narrower band1 which unites dorsad with the zygomaticus 7d71 to be inserted with it into the tendinous aponeurosis above described4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument and platysma 7a74 ,inner surface with the muscles of the hyoid1 the digastricus1 the parotid gland1 the masseter1 the zygomatic arch and the temporal muscle4 ,action4--,draws the external ear ventrad4 ,m4 depressor conch 7,fig4 #fd1 b74--,a thin band of fibres1 caudad of the last and parallel with it4 ,the muscle arises as scattered fibres on the ventral surface of the neck1 one or two centimeters craniad of the manubrium1 the fibres of the muscles of opposite sides crossing the middle line and interdigitating4 ,they pass dorsad1 gathering together to form a narrow band which is inserted into the summit of the antitragus4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the skin at the ventral end1 and with the platysma 7a7 further dorsad4 ,inner surface with the deep muscles of the neck and with the parotid gland4 ,action4--,draws the external ear ventrad4 ,lying deeper than the muscles thus far described1 but closely connected with a number of them1 are the following3 ,m4 frontoscutularis4 ,origin 7,fig4 #fc1 o7 on the frontal bone1 along the supraorbital margin1 from the craniomedial angle of the eye caudad to the zygomatic process of the frontal4 ,the fibres form a large muscle which passes dorsocaudad to the scutiform cartilage and is mostly attached along its ventrolateral border4 ,some of the outer fibres1 however1 pass distad of the scutiform cartilage toward the cartilage of the ear1 thus joining the adductor auris superior 7f74 ,the outer surface of this muscle is closely connected with fibres of the intermedius scutulorum 7a71 the corrugatores supercilii medialis 7b7 and lateralis 7d71 and the frontoauricularis1 when this exists4 ,the outer surface is covered near the origin by the orbicularis oculi 7c71 farther dorsad by the muscles just mentioned and the integument4 ,the inner surface is in relation with the frontal bone and the adductor auris inferior 7,fig4 #fd1 o74 ,action4--,pulls the ear craniad4 ,m4 adductor auris inferior4 7,fig4 #fd1 o47 7,part of the auricularis anterior of man47--,a small muscle lying beneath the frontoscutularis4 ,origin on the ligament which connects the zygomatic process of the frontal with the frontal process of the malar4 ,the fibres form a thin band about #g millimeters wide which passes craniad1 closely united to the inner surface of the frontoscutularis4 ,at the caudal edge of the zygomaticus 7d7 the muscle is interrupted by a short tendinous interval2 the fibres then continue to their insertion on the tip of the antitragus4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the frontoscutularis1 the zygomaticus 7d71 and the integument4 ,inner surface with the temporal muscle and ,m4 antitragicus 7n74 ,action4--,pulls the ear craniodorsad4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the remainder of the muscles of the ear1 which1 with the exception of the tragicus lateralis1 merely interconnect the cartilages of the external ear or parts of these cartilages1 are described in connection with the account of the ,auditory ,organ4 99 99 99 99 99 ,owing to the presence of the fibrous pad to which the whiskers are attached1 the facial muscles between the eye and the mouth differ in the cat in some respects from those of related animals4 ,this fibrous pad interrupts the muscles1 frequently breaking muscles which are elsewhere single into two4 ,m4 zygomaticus minor1 or malaris 7,fig4 #fd1 e74--,this muscle is not always present2 when it exists it forms a very thin flat band of fibres passing from the ventral side of the eye toward the angle of the mouth4 ,origin among the fibres of the orbicularis oculi 7s7 in the lower eyelid4 ,the fibres pass ventrad2 the insertion varies4 ,in some specimens the insertion is among the fibres of the orbicularis oris 7i71 at the angle of the mouth1 beneath the zygomaticus 7d74 ,in other cases this muscle is said to be inserted into the pad on which the whiskers rest4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument and near its insertion with the zygomaticus major 7d74 ,inner surface with the malar bone and the masseter muscle4 ,action4--,pulls the angle of the mouth 7or the whiskers7 dorsad4 ,m4 orbicularis oris 7,fig4 #fd1 i74--,this forms a very thin layer of subcutaneous concentric fibres which surround the mouth1 that of the upper lip being thicker than that of the lower lip4 ,the part of the muscle in the lower lip has its fibres intermingled with those of the platysma 7a74 ,in the median line the fibres of the upper lip are interrupted by a raphe1 and caudad of this are intermingled with those of the caninus4 ,m4 quadratus labii superioris 7,fig4 #fc1 p and q2 ,fig4 #fd1 f and g74--,this is a complex of muscle-fibres attached chiefly to the fibrous pad on which the whiskers rest4 ,in it two parts can be distinguished more or less completely4 7#a7 ,m4 levator labii superioris alque nasi 7,fig4 #fc1 p2 ,fig4 #fd1 g7 on the sides of the nose4 ,this arises 7a7 as a continuation of the frontal portion of the epicranius1 and 7b7 in a small bundle 7,fig4 #fc1 p7 from near the dorsal end of the frontal process of the maxillary bone1 in common with the next4 ,the two slips thus formed unite craniad and are inserted partly into the integument on the outer side of the wing of the nose1 partly into the skin of the upper lip1 lateroventrad of the nose1 and partly into the pad on which the whiskers are located1 in connection with the next4 7#b7 ,the angular head 7caput angulare71 or levator labii superioris proprius 7,fig4 #fc1 q2 ,fig4 #fd1 f7 is much larger than the last4 ,it takes origin from a small tubercle at the cranial border of the orbit1 close to the origin of the orbicularis oculi4 ,the fibres diverge from their origin to their insertion among the whiskers and in the fibrous pad on which the whiskers rest4 ,action4--,erects the whiskers and raises the upper lip4 ,m4 caninus or levator anguli oris 7,fig4 #fd1 f74 ,origin in a depression on the lateral surface of the maxillary bone1 just craniad of the last premolar tooth4 ,the fibres pass craniad1 diverging1 toward the whiskers1 and have their insertion into the pad of tissue on which the whiskers rest4 ,action4--,retracts the whiskers and raises the upper lip4 ,m4 buccinator4--,a thin muscle against the mucous membrane of the upper lip1 partly united with the orbicularis oris and lying beneath ,m4 caninus4 ,origin on the outer surface of the superior maxillary bone in the depression between the infraorbital foramen and the first premolar tooth4 ,the fibres pass ventrad1 diverging1 and mingle with those of the deep part of the orbicularis oris4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the caninus and with the orbicularis oris4 ,inner surface with the mucous membrane of the upper lip4 ,action4--,raises the upper lip4 ,m4 myrtiformis 7probably corresponds to a part of the human ,m4 nasalis7 7,fig4 #fd1 h74--,a thin sheet of muscle-fibres lying craniad of the levator labii superioris alque nasi and passing from the whiskers to the nose and upper lip4 ,it is distinguishable from the alque nasi by the direction of the fibres4 ,origin from the pad upon which the whiskers rest4 ,the fibres diverge and have their ,insertion upon the wing of the nose and into the skin of the upper lip near the median line4 ,action4--,dilator of the nares and elevator of the upper lip4 ,m4 8moustachier0 7,str4-,d47 7probably corresponds to one of the ,mm4 incisivi74--,it lies on the upper lip near the median line4 ,origin from the outer surface of the premaxilla near the suture along the ventral border of the narial opening4 ,the fibres diverge and pass caudad into the upper lip within the superficial fibres of the orbicularis oris4 ,insertion4--,the skin of the upper lip just craniad of the whiskers4 ,some of the fibres pass into the pad on which the whiskers rest4 ,action4--,it carries the lip craniad4 ,m4 quadratus labii inferioris4--,a thin flat band extending almost the length of the lower lip4 ,origin from the alveolar border of the mandible1 between the molar tooth and the canine4 ,the fibres pass dorsad into the lower lip1 where they intermingle with those of the orbicularis oris4 ,the muscle is perhaps not constant4 ,action4--,depressor of the lower lip4 ,sometimes a few fibres arising from the cranial portion of the alveolar border of the mandibula pass mediad1 seeming to join corresponding fibres from the opposite side4 ,such fibres would constitute a ,m4 transversus menti4 ,b4 ,,deep ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,head4 7a7 ,muscles of ,mastication4 ,m4 digastricus 7,fig4 #fe1 b74--,the digastric is a thick prismatic muscle lying mediad of the angle of the lower jaw1 connecting it with the base of the skull4 ,origin by fleshy fibres from the outer surface of the jugular process of the occipital bone1 and by a thin tendon from the tip of the mastoid process and from the ridge between the mastoid and the jugular processes4 ,the muscle passes craniad1 becoming at the same time broader and more voluminous4 ,insertion4--,the ventral border of the mandible craniad of the caudal border of the molar tooth4 ,the insertion area extends slightly onto both surfaces of the bone and is triangular1 with its apex craniad4 ,relations4--,outer 7ventral7 surface with the following1 beginning at the caudal end3 the rectus capitis lateralis1 the cleidomastoid 7h71 the submaxillary gland 7#b71 the stylohyoid 7d71 a large lymph-gland 7#c71 and the integument4 ,inner 7dorsal7 surface with the jugulohyoid1 the tympanic bulla1 the masseter 7a71 the hyoglossus1 and the mylohyoid 7c74 ,action4--,depressor of the lower jaw4 ,m4 masseter 7,figs4 #fe and #ff1 a74--,the masseter forms the projecting mass so prominent in the cat behind and below the eye4 ,its outer surface is covered by a strong aponeurosis4 ,the muscle is divided into three layers which are distinct as to origin1 insertion1 and direction of fibres1 but which are otherwise not distinct4 ,the superficial layer takes ,origin by the superficial aponeurosis from the ridge which runs lengthwise of the outer surface of the malar bone1 and by fleshy fibres from the surface of the malar bone ventrad of this ridge4 ,the fibres pass obliquely caudad to their insertion4 ,insertion4--,the caudal half of the lateral margin of the ventral border of the mandible1 by a sheet of fascia which lies on the inner surface of the muscle4 ,the superficial fibres curve ventrad of the mandible and are inserted into a tendinous intersection between this muscle and the internal pterygoid 7,fig4 #ff1 c74 ,the middle layer takes ,origin from the ventral border of the malar bone1 from opposite the molar tooth to within three millimeters of the mandibular fossa4 ,the fibres pass ventrad and have their ,insertion into the mandible at the ventral border of the external coronoid fossa by means of the aponeurosis which covers the inner surface of the muscle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,ventral ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,thorax1 ,,neck ,,and ,,head4 ,the left side shows the first layer of muscles beneath the skin and skin-muscles2 the right side shows the second layer1 except in the head region4 a1 ,m4 masseter2 b1 ,m4 digastricus2 c1 ,m4 mylohyoideus2 d1 ,m4 stylohyoideus2 e1 ,m4 sternohyoideus2 f1 ,m4 thyreohyoideus2 g1 ,m4 sternomastoideus2 g1 ,m4 sternothyreoideus2 h1 ,m4 cleidomastoideus2 i1 ,m4 levator scapul ventralis2 j1 ,m4 clavotrapezius2 k1 ,m4 clavobrachialis2 l1 ,m4 pectoralis major2 m1 ,m4 pectoantibrachialis2 n1 part of ,m4 scalenus2 o1 ,m4 pectoralis minor2 p1 ,m4 xiphihumeralis2 q1 ,m4 latissimus dorsi2 r1 ,m4 epitrochlearis2 s1 caput longum of ,m4 triceps brachii2 t1 ,m4 biceps brachii2 t1 bicipital arch2 u1 ,m4 acromiodeltoideus2 v1 ,m4 brachialis4 #a1 parotid gland2 #b1 submaxillary gland2 #c1 lymphatic glands2 #d1 external ear2 #e1 external jugular vein2 #f1 manubrium2 #g1 first rib2 #h1 common carotid artery2 #i1 molar gland4 ,the deep layer takes ,origin by a strong tendon from the ventral border of the zygoma just craniad of the mandibular fossa4 ,the fibres pass cranioventrad1 diverge and have their ,insertion into the external coronoid fossa4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the following1 beginning at the caudal border3 the external ear1 the parotid gland 7,fig4 #fe1 #a71 the platysma1 the submentalis1 the zygomaticus 7major71 the zygomaticus minor4 ,ventral border with a lymph gland caudad of the angle of the mouth 7,fig4 #fe1 #c71 and the digastric muscle 7b74 ,inner surface with the bones4 ,action4--,a very powerful elevator of the lower jaw4 ,m4 temporalis 7,fig4 #fc1 n74--,the temporal muscle is the great mass taking origin from the temporal fossa and having its insertion on both surfaces and both borders of the coronoid process of the mandible4 ,it may be divided into two layers1 deep and superficial4 ,the superficial layer4 ,the temporal fascia stretches over the temporal fossa1 being attached to its borders2 that is1 to the sagittal and lambdoidal crests1 to the curved ridge which connects the sagittal crest with the zygomatic process of the frontal bone1 to the caudal border of this process1 to the caudal border of the malar bone1 to the caudal border of the ligament connecting the malar bone and the zygomatic process of the frontal1 and to the dorsal border of the zygomatic process of the temporal bone and its dorsal root4 ,the craniolateral part of this fascia is much stronger than the remainder4 ,the muscle-fibres take origin from the strong craniolateral part of the inner surface of the temporal fascia1 from the groove on the temporal bone dorsad of the dorsal root of its zygomatic process1 from the whole inner surface of this process and of the zygomatic process of the malar bone1 and sometimes also from that part of the frontal bone which lies within the temporal fossa4 ,insertion4--,the outer surface of the coronoid process of the mandible dorsad of the coronoid fossa1 and both borders of the coronoid process4 ,the cranial fibres may be inserted craniad of the coronoid process onto the aponeurosis covering the deep portion of the muscle4 ,the caudal part of this portion is more or less distinct and is sometimes described as a separate head4 ,the deep portion4 ,origin by fleshy fibres from the whole surface of the temporal fossa1 except in cases where the cranial part of the fossa is occupied by the superficial portion4 ,the fibres converge toward the coronoid process1 and the ventral third of the outer surface is covered by strong fascia4 ,insertion4--,the whole inner surface of the coronoid process of the mandible4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the external ear1 the ear-muscles 7,fig4 #fc71 the epicranius 7,fig4 #fc1 h71 the corrugatores supercilii lateralis 7d7 and medialis 7b74 ,inner surface with the skull1 the pterygoideus externus 7,fig4 #ff1 b71 and the structures within the orbit4 ,action4--,elevator of the lower jaw4 ,m4 pterygoideus externus 7,fig4 #ff1 b74--,this lies on the medial side of the mandible1 ventrad of the ventral portion of the temporal4 ,origin4--,the external pterygoid fossa 7,fig4 #dj1 h71 which lies on the lateral surface of the perpendicular plate of the palatine bone1 and on the surface of the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone dorsad of the internal pterygoid fossa4 ,the fossa extends from the foramen rotundum to the sphenopalatine foramen4 ,the muscle passes with parallel fibres laterad1 ventrad1 and caudad and has its ,insertion by a strong flat tendon into the medial surface of the mandible near its ventral border between the opening of the mandibular canal and the base of the angular process4 ,relations4--,ventral surface with the masseter 7a71 the digastric1 and the soft palate with its muscles4 ,dorsal surface with the temporal1 and near its origin with the muscles of the eye1 and other structures in the orbit4 ,action4--,elevator of the lower jaw4 ,m4 pterygoideus internus 7,fig4 #ff1 c74--,this lies caudad of the pterygoideus externus1 nearly parallel to it1 and is connected with it at its lateral end4 ,origin from the whole surface of the internal pterygoid fossa 7,fig4 #dj1 s74 ,insertion by fleshy fibres into the ventral surface of the external pterygoid and its tendon1 into the medial surface of the angular process of the mandible and caudad of the angular process for about one centimeter into a fascia common to it and the masseter muscle1 and into the stylomandibular ligament4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,,obliquely ,,ventral ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,deep ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,lower ,,jaw ,,and ,,palate4 ,the tongue and other structures forming the floor of the mouth have been removed1 showing the roof of the mouth4 ,on the right side the masseter and pterygoideus internus have been removed1 a1 a1 ,m4 masseter2 b1 ,m4 pterygoideus externus2 c1 ,m4 pterygoideus internus2 d1 d1 ,m4 tensor veli palatini2 e1 e1 ,m4 levator veli palatini2 f1 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis superior4 #a1 aponeurosis of the velum palatinum2 #b1 ridges formed by the palatines and pterygoid portions of the sphenoid2 #c1 hamular processes2 #d1 free caudal border of the velum palatinum2 #e1 bulla tympani4 ,relations4--,ventral surface with the styloglossus and the soft palate4 ,dorsal surface with the bulla tympani 7#e7 and base of the skull4 ,cranial surface with the pterygoideus externus 7b71 with which it is partly united4 ,action4--,assists the pterygoideus externus4 7b7 ,muscles of the ,hyoid ,bone4 ,m4 stylohyoideus 7,fig4 #fe1 d74--,the stylohyoid is a ribbon-like muscle about three millimeters wide4 ,it lies on the superficial surface of the digastric1 caudad and ventrad of the angle of the jaw4 ,origin by fleshy fibres from the outer surface of the stylohyal bone near its middle4 ,the muscle curves over the outer surface of the digastric 7b71 and ends about one centimeter from the middle line in a slender flat tendon4 ,insertion into the middle of the ventral surface of the body of the hyoid bone4 ,some of the fibres of the mylohyoid 7c7 are inserted into its tendon4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the submaxillary gland 7#b7 and the submentalis muscle4 ,inner surface with the digastric 7b71 the hyoglossus 7,fig4 #fg1 h71 and the geniohyoid 7,fig4 #fg1 g74 ,action4--,raises the hyoid4 ,m4 geniohyoideus 7,fig4 #fg1 g74--,the geniohyoid is a long slender muscle which lies next to the median line between the symphysis menti and the hyoid bone1 closely applied to its fellow of the opposite side and within 7dorsad of7 the mylohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 c74 ,origin from the ventral half of the inner surface of the mandibula for about one millimeter from the symphysis4 ,insertion by muscle-fibres into the lateral half of the ventral surface of the body of the hyoid bone4 ,relations4--,outer 7ventral7 surface with the stylohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 d7 and the mylohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 c72 medial border with the muscle of the opposite side4 ,lateral border with the hyoglossus 7,fig4 #fg1 h7 and genioglossus 7,fig4 #fg1 f74 ,inner 7dorsal7 surface with the genioglossus4 ,action4--,draws the hyoid forward4 ,m4 jugulohyoideus 7,fig4 #fg1 b74--,the jugulohyoid is a small flat quadrangular muscle covering the outer part of the ventral surface of the tympanic bulla4 ,origin from the ventral border of the jugular process4 ,insertion into the caudal side of the cartilaginous part of the stylohyoid opposite the origin of the styloglossus4 ,relations4--,ventral surface with the digastric4 ,dorsal surface with the tympanic bulla 7#c74 ,action4--,draws the hyoid backward and thus gives a firmer surface of origin for the styloglossus4 ,m4 mylohyoideus 7,fig4 #fe1 c74--,the mylohyoid is a large thin muscle seen after the reflection of the digastric1 filling with its fellow of the opposite side the whole angle between the rami of the lower jaw4 ,its fibres are transverse4 ,origin from the middle of the medial surface of the body of the mandible between the caudal opening of the mandibular canal and the symphysis of the jaw4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,,muscles ,,of ,,tongue1 ,,hyoid ,,bone1 ,,and ,,pharynx4 a1 ,m4 tragicus lateralis2 b1 ,m4 jugulohyoideus2 c1 ,m4 pterygoideus externus2 d1 partially cut surface of ,m4 pterygoideus internus2 e1 ,m4 styloglossus2 f1 ,m4 genioglossus2 g1 ,m4 geniohyoideus2 h1 ,m4 hyoglossus2 i1 ,m4 glossopharyngeus2 j1 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis medius2 k1 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis inferior2 l1 ,m4 stylopharyngeus2 m1 ,m4 sternohyoideus 7cut72 n1 ,m4 cricothyreoideus2 o1 ,m4 sternothyreoideus 7cut72 p1 ,m4 thyreohyoideus4 #a1 mandible2 #a1 angular process of mandible2 #b1 stylomandibular ligament2 #c1 bulla tympani2 #d1 trachea2 #e1 sophagus2 #f1 thyroid gland2 #g1 isthmus of the thyroid gland4 ,insertion with the opposite muscle into a median raphe which extends from the symphysis of the jaw to the hyoid bone and is closely united to the external surface of the geniohyoid4 ,some of the fibres gain insertion into the body of the hyoid bone through their insertion into the tendon of the stylohyoid 7d74 ,relations4--,outer surface with the submentalis 7,fig4 #fd1 c7 and the digastric 7,fig4 #fe1 b74 ,lateral edge with the masseter 7a71 the digastric 7b71 and the mandibula4 ,caudal border with the stylohyoid 7d74 ,inner 7dorsal7 surface with the geniohyoid 7,fig4 #fg1 g71 the hyoglossus 7,fig4 #fg1 h71 and the genioglossus 7,fig4 #fg1 f74 ,action4--,raises the floor of the mouth and thus brings the hyoid forward4 ,m4 ceratohyoideus4 ,origin1 the two proximal pieces of the cranial horn of the hyoid4 ,the fibres pass caudad parallel to one another and within the middle constrictor of the pharynx4 ,insertion into the whole length of the caudal cornu of the hyoid bone4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the middle constrictor of the pharynx4 ,inner surface with the pharynx4 ,action4--,draws craniad the body of the hyoid by bringing its cornua together and bending the joint between the two pieces of the cranial cornua4 ,the muscles connecting the hyoid and the tongue are described in connection with the description of the tongue4 ,,iii4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,body4 #a4 ,muscles of the ,back4 ,a4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,shoulder 7connecting the forelimb with the back7 7,fig4 #fh74 ,m4 trapezius4--,the trapezius muscle is divided in the cat into three portions1 the spinotrapezius1 the acromiotrapezius1 and the clavotrapezius4 ,m4 spinotrapezius1 or trapezius inferior 7,fig4 #fh1 j74--,the spinotrapezius 7caudal part of the human trapezius7 is a flat triangular muscle4 ,origin from the tips of the spinous processes of all or nearly all the thoracic vertebr and from the intervening supraspinous ligament4 ,the origin may extend from a point anywhere between the first and fourth spines to any point between the eleventh and thirteenth4 ,insertion along an ,s-shaped line 7,fig4 #gf1 k-l7 which crosses the tuberosity of the scapular spine and forms an angle with the spine of about forty-five degrees4 ,the line extends on one side onto the fascia covering the supraspinatus muscle1 and on the other side onto the fascia covering the infraspinatus1 but does not reach the borders of the scapula4 ,the cranial two-thirds of the insertion is by a flat tendon which is broader craniad4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the cutaneus maximus1 and craniad with the acromiotrapezius 7h74 ,inner surface with the latissimus dorsi 7m7 caudad and with the rhomboideus1 supraspinatus1 and infraspinatus craniad4 ,caudal border free2 cranial border in contact with the acromiotrapezius 7h74 ,action4--,draws the scapula dorsocaudad4 ,m4 acromiotrapezius1 or trapezius superior 7,fig4 #fh1 h74--,the acromiotrapezius 7middle part of the human trapezius7 is a flat four-sided muscle just craniad of the spinotrapezius1 from the median dorsal line to the scapular spine4 ,origin along the median dorsal line from the spinous process of the axis to a point anywhere between the spinous processes of the first and fourth thoracic vertebr4 ,its caudal two-thirds is from a flat tendon which is directly continuous with the muscle of the opposite side and thus bridges the depression between the vertebral borders of the scapul4 ,this tendon narrows craniad1 and its cranial fourth is attached by a fascia to the spinous processes of the cervical vertebr4 ,at the cranial border of the muscle the fibres sometimes reach the middle line4 ,the fibres of the muscle run nearly transversely4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #gf1 h74--,into the outer surface of the metacromion1 the glenoid border of the scapular spine from the metacromion to the tuberosity1 and along a line continued for about one centimeter from the tuberosity onto the surface of the spinotrapezius 7j7 at the junction of its muscular and tendinous portions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,,first ,,layer ,,of ,,body-,,muscles1 ,,beneath ,,the ,,skin ,,and ,,skin-,,muscles4 a1 ,m4 frontoscutularis2 b1 ,m4 masseter2 c1 ,m4 sternomastoideus2 d1 ,m4 clavotrapezius2 e1 ,m4 clavobrachialis2 f1 ,m4 levator scapul ventralis2 g1 ,m4 acromiodeltoideus2 h1 ,m4 acromiotrapezius2 i1 ,m4 spinodeltoideus2 j1 ,m4 spinotrapezius2 k1 caput longum of ,m4 triceps brachii2 l1 caput laterale of ,m4 triceps brachii2 m1 ,m4 latissimus dorsi2 n1 ,m4 xiphihumeralis2 o1 ,m4 pectoralis minor2 p1 ,m4 obliquus abdominis externus2 q1 ,m4 sartorius2 r1 ,m4 tensor fasci lat2 s1 ,m4 caudofemoralis2 t1 ,m4 biceps femoris2 u1 ,m4 semitendinosus2 v1 ,m4 extensor caud lateralis2 w1 ,m4 abductor caud externus2 x1 ,m4 flexor caud longus2 y1 lumbodorsal fascia1 superficial layer2 z1 fascia lata4 #a1 parotid gland2 #b1 submaxillary gland4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the cutaneus maximus1 the integument and platysma4 ,inner surface with a mass of fat partially covering the rhomboideus2 with the occipitoscapularis1 spinotrapezius1 supraspinatus1 levator scapul1 and splenius4 ,near its origin its caudal border touches the outer surface of the spinotrapezius 7j74 ,its cranial border is overlaid near its insertion by the levator scapul ventralis 7f7 and is closely related to the caudal border of the clavotrapezius 7d7 near its origin4 ,action4--,the two muscles hold the scapul together4 ,m4 clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d74--,the clavotrapezius 7cranial part of the human trapezius7 is a flat muscle passing from the lambdoidal crest and middorsal line to the clavicle and covering the side of the neck4 ,origin4--,the medial half of the lambdoidal crest and the middorsal line between the crest and the caudal end of the spine of the axis4 ,the fibres are parallel and pass caudoventrad so that the muscle covers the ventral surface of the neck caudally and fills the concavity at the front of the shoulder4 ,insertion into the clavicle and into a raphe between the clavotrapezius and the clavobrachial 7e7 muscles4 ,this raphe extends along the clavicle and for some distance laterad of it4 ,the muscle is partly continuous with the clavobrachial 7e74 ,relations4--,outer surface with the platysma1 and at its craniomedial angle with the levator auris longus4 ,inner surface with the rhomboideus1 splenius1 occipitoscapularis1 levator scapul1 cleidomastoid1 and supraspinatus4 ,the cranial edge touches the sternomastoid4 ,the caudal border touches the acromiotrapezius near the origin4 ,action4--,draws the scapula craniodorsad4 ,this muscle and the clavobrachial 7e7 are sometimes considered as forming a single muscle1 the cephalohumeral1 or cephalobrachial4 ,m4 occipitoscapularis 7or levator scapul dorsalis or rhomboideus capitis7 7,fig4 #gc1 a74--,the occipitoscapularis 7equivalent to a part of the human rhomboideus7 is a slender flat muscle from the lambdoidal ridge to the coracovertebral angle of the scapula4 ,origin1 the medial half of the lambdoidal ridge beneath the clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d74 ,the origin does not extend quite to the middle line4 ,the muscle passes almost directly caudad4 ,its caudal end is thicker and narrower than the cranial end and is wedged between the rhomboideus dorsally and the levator scapul ventrally4 ,insertion either into the inner surface of the levator scapul near its dorsocranial border at its insertion or into the scapula near the coracovertebral angle 7,fig4 #gh1 f7 or into both4 ,its fibres are very closely related to those of the rhomboideus4 ,relations4--,by its outer surface with the clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d7 and acromiotrapezius 7h74 ,at its insertion it is often overlaid by either the rhomboideus or the levator scapul or both4 ,by its inner surface with the splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b74 ,its caudal third is wedged between the rhomboideus and the levator scapul4 ,action4--,draws forward and rotates the scapula4 ,m4 rhomboideus 7probably equivalent to the human rhomboideus major and rhomboideus minor74--,a rather thick trapezoid muscle connecting the vertebral border of the scapula with the spinous processes of the adjacent vertebr4 ,origin from the caudal two or three fifths of the cervical supraspinous ligament and from the sides and tips of the first four thoracic vertebral spines and the interspinous ligaments caudad of these four spines4 ,it passes lateroventrad1 and the fibres converge somewhat so that the line of insertion is shorter than the line of origin4 ,insertion by a short tendon 7#a millimeter long7 into the vertebral border of the scapula1 the line of insertion passing gradually from the inner 7,fig4 #gh1 e7 to the outer 7,fig4 #gf1 i7 surface2 and by fleshy fibres into the outer surface of the glenovertebral angle of the scapula 7,fig4 #gf1 i7 in close connection with the origin of the teres major 7j74 ,a bundle of fibres at the cranial border may be inserted into the cranial border of the levator scapul at its insertion4 ,relations4--,by its outer surface with the spinotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 j71 acromiotrapezius 7h71 latissimus dorsi 7m71 and clavotrapezius 7d72 it is usually partially separated from these muscles by a mass of fat4 ,by its inner surface near its insertion with the serratus anterior 7,fig4 #gc1 i7 and levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h71 and craniad with the splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b71 and the tendon of the serratus posterior superior 7,fig4 #gc1 l74 ,at its lateral end it touches the occipitoscapularis 7,fig4 #gc1 a71 serratus anterior 7i71 levator scapul 7h71 supraspinatus 7,fig4 #ge1 a71 and infraspinatus 7,fig4 #ge1 c71 and the teres major 7,fig4 #ge1 d74 ,action4--,draws the scapula toward the vertebral column4 ,m4 cleidomastoideus 7clavicular portion of the human sternocleidomastoid7 7,fig4 #fe1 h74--,a narrow flat muscle between the mastoid process and the clavicle4 ,origin from the apex and caudal margin of the mastoid process of the temporal bone1 by tendon and muscle fibres4 ,the muscle passes caudad1 becoming broader and thinner4 ,insertion into the lateral four-fifths of the clavicle within the insertion of the clavotrapezius1 and into the raphe which continues laterad of the clavicle4 ,relations4--,outer or lateral surface at the caudal end with the clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fe1 j72 further craniad with the depressor conch 7,fig4 #fd1 b71 the platysma1 and the sternomastoid 7,fig4 #fe1 g74 ,inner or medial surface with the supraspinatus 7,fig4 #ge1 a7 caudad1 with the mass of fat in the axilla at its middle1 with the levator clavicul ventralis 7,fig4 #fe1 i7 and obliquus capitis superior 7,fig4 #ga1 e7 craniad4 ,action4--,pulls the clavicle craniad when the head is fixed4 ,turns the head and depresses the snout when the clavicle is fixed4 ,m4 levator scapul ventralis1 or levator clavicul 7,fig4 #fh1 f2 ,fig4 #fe1 i2 ,fig4 #gb1 c1 c1 c7 7not usually found in man74 ,origin 7,fig4 #gb1 c1 c7 in two parts4 7#a7 ,by fleshy fibres from the ventral surface of the atlantal transverse process near its caudal border 7c74 7#b7 ,by a small tendon from the ventral surface of the basioccipital opposite the middle of the length of the bulla tympani 7c7 in common with the longus capitis 7a74 ,the two heads unite to form a flat band which passes caudoventrad and is inserted 7,fig4 #gf1 f7 by a flat short tendon1 about eight millimeters broad1 into the outer surface of the metacromion along its ventral border1 and into the infraspinatus fossa for one or two millimeters distad of that border4 ,relations4--,near the insertion the dorsal border overlaps the border of the acromiotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 h71 and the ventral border is attached by strong fascia to the border of the clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d74 ,the outer surface is in relation with the longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #gc1 g71 clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d71 cleidomastoid 7,fig4 #gc1 d71 platysma1 and the skin4 ,the inner surface is in relation caudad with the supraspinatus and with a mass of fat and a lymphatic gland which occupy the hollow of the shoulder4 ,craniad it is in relation with the cleidomastoid 7,fig4 #gc1 d71 the scalenus 7,fig4 #gc1 f71 the longus capitis 7,fig4 #gc1 e71 and the obliquus superior 7,fig4 #ga1 e74 ,action4--,pulls the scapula craniad4 ,m4 latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 m2 ,fig4 #fe1 q2 ,fig4 #gg1 e74--,a large triangular sheet covering rather more than the dorsocranial half of the abdomen and thorax4 ,it arises from the middorsal line1 from the pelvis to the fifth thoracic spine1 and is inserted into the humerus4 ,origin from the tips of the neural spines of the vertebr from the fourth or fifth thoracic to about the sixth lumbar4 ,as far as the tenth or eleventh thoracic vertebra the origin is directly by muscle-fibres4 ,caudad of this is a broad triangular tendon which may be so closely united to the tendons of the underlying muscles that it cannot be separated4 ,the muscle passes cranioventrad1 the fibres converging to the axilla4 ,in the axilla a part of the cutaneus maximus and the epitrochlearis 7,fig4 #fe1 r7 take origin from the outer surface4 ,insertion4--,the muscle then ends in a flat tendon1 to the cranial surface of which the fibres of the teres major 7,fig4 #gg1 c7 are attached4 ,five to ten millimeters from the humerus the muscle-fibres of the teres give place to the tendon-fibres1 and the conjoined tendon of the teres and latissimus which is thus formed 7,fig4 #gi1 d7 is inserted into a rough elongated area 7,fig4 #hb1 f7 which lies parallel with the pectoral ridge on the medial surface of the shaft of the humerus 7,fig4 #dh1 g74 ,the teres tendon forms the proximal part of the conjoined tendon4 ,a part of the tendon of the latissimus may join the pectoralis minor at its distal or caudal border 7,fig4 #fe71 and thus it may contribute to the formation of both pillars of the bicipital arch 7,fig4 #fe1 t74 ,relations4--,its outer surface is covered caudad by the cutaneus maximus1 and craniad by the spinotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 j7 and the long head of the triceps 7,fig4 #fh1 k74 ,the cranial border comes into relation with the spinotrapezius 7j7 and teres major 7,fig4 #gg1 c74 ,the caudal border is in contact at the ventral end with the xiphihumeralis 7,fig4 #fe1 p7 and pectoralis minor 7,fig4 #fe1 o74 ,the inner surface of the latissimus covers near its cranioventral end parts of the xiphihumeralis 7,fig4 #fh1 n71 pectoralis minor 7,fig4 #fh1 o71 teres major 7,fig4 #gg1 c71 and serratus anterior 7,fig4 #gc1 i74 ,the caudal border covers a portion of the obliquus externus abdominis 7,fig4 #fh1 p72 the dorsal and middle portions cover parts of the longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f71 the spinalis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g71 the serratus posterior superior 7,fig4 #gc1 l71 and serratus posterior inferior 7,fig4 #gc1 n74 ,action4--,pulls the arm caudodorsad4 ,m4 serratus anterior and levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 i and h7 in the cat are continuous at both origin and insertion1 and it is barely possible to separate their contiguous borders without cutting the fibres4 ,the muscle extends from the transverse processes of the last five cervical vertebr and from the first nine or ten ribs to the medial surface of the scapula near its vertebral margin 7,fig4 #gh1 c and d74 ,m4 serratus anterior 7or serratus magnus7 7,fig4 #gc1 i74 ,origin4--,from the first nine or ten ribs in as many subdivisions4 ,the first subdivision arises from the whole or nearly the whole of the caudal border of the first rib4 ,the next four or five arise either from the ribs or from the costal cartilages near or at their junction with the ribs4 ,the last four subdivisions arise from the ribs at increasing distances from the cartilages4 ,the fibres converge and the subdivisions join one another4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #gh1 c7 into a narrow area on the medial surface of the scapula near the vertebral border4 ,the glenoid half of the insertion is by a short tendon1 the remainder by muscle-fibres4 ,relations4--,outer 7lateral7 surface with the latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 m71 teres major 7,fig4 #gg1 c71 subscapularis 7,fig4 #gg1 a71 and near the origin with the rectus abdominis 7,fig4 #gc1 k71 the scalenus 7,fig4 #gc1 f-f71 and the obliquus externus 7,fig4 #fh1 p74 ,inner 7medial7 surface with the serratus posterior superior 7,fig4 #gc1 l7 and its tendon1 and with the intercostales externi 7,fig4 #gc1 m74 ,at its insertion the muscle touches the rhomboideus4 ,the cranial edge is united to the caudal edge of the levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h74 ,action4--,depressor of the scapula4 ,m4 levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h74 ,origin4--,from the dorsal tubercles of the transverse processes of the last five cervical vertebr and from the ligaments between the tubercles4 ,a slip sometimes arises from the atlas4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #gh1 d7 into a triangular area on the medial surface of the scapula near its vertebral border4 ,it is continuous with the insertion of the serratus anterior4 ,relations4--,outer 7lateral7 surface with a mass of fat separating it from the clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d7 and cleidomastoid 7,fig4 #fe1 h71 and with the subscapularis 7,fig4 #gg1 a74 ,inner 7medial7 surface with the splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b71 the tendon of the serratus posterior superior 7,fig4 #gc1 l71 and the cervical portion of the longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,near the insertion the muscle touches the occipitoscapularis 7,fig4 #gc1 a7 and rhomboideus4 ,caudal border united with the serratus anterior 7,fig4 #gc1 i74 ,action4--,draws the scapula cranioventrad4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,back 7interconnecting parts of the vertebral column7 7,fig4 #fi74--,the muscles connected with the vertebral column form a mass which is less markedly differentiated into distinct muscles than is the case in the limbs4 ,a great longitudinal mass of fibres begins in the sacral region and extends along the vertebral column to the head4 ,this mass contains fibres running in various directions and attached at one or both ends to the sacrum1 the innominate bones1 the spinous1 transverse1 and articular processes1 and to the arches1 of the vertebr2 to the ribs and to the head1 and having in general the function of moving the vertebr in various ways1 or of moving parts connected with the vertebr4 ,in some regions1 especially the cervical1 it is possible to distinguish clearly distinct muscles which have been differentiated from this mass4 ,in the greater part of its extent1 however1 it is possible to distinguish only more or less closely interconnected bundles1--the more clearly marked of which have received special names4 ,the great dorsal mass running along each side of the vertebral column1 occupying the space between the spinous processes and the transverse processes1 receives the general name of ,m4 extensor dorsi communis2 the separate muscles are to be considered as parts or differentiations of this4 ,the largest part of the mass is in the lumbar region 7first portion of the longissimus dorsi1 ,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,at the caudal end of the thorax a lateral mass1 parts of which become connected with the ribs1 is separated off from the main part of the muscle2 this extends craniad into the cervical region as ,m4 iliocostalis 7h74 ,the main portion of the longissimus dorsi 7f7 continues craniad on the medial side of the iliocostal into the neck region4 ,at about the level of the eighth or ninth thoracic vertebra a strip begins to become separated off on the medial side of the longissimus2 further forward it becomes clearly distinct1 forming the spinalis dorsi 7g74 ,the separate muscles connecting the cervical vertebr with each other and with the head are differentiations of the extensor dorsi communis4 ,a still deeper set of fibres1 interconnecting the vertebr1 forms the multifidus spin and a number of other small muscles4 ,a description of the different bundles of fibres1 under the names usually given1 follows4 ,certain general principles are observed in some of the names used4 ,muscles which interconnect the spinous processes of the vertebr receive the name spinalis4 ,those interconnecting contiguous spinous processes are called interspinalis4 ,muscles attached at one end to transverse processes1 at the other to the spinous processes1 receive the name transversospinalis4 ,semispinalis has the same signification as transversospinalis1 but is a name usually applied to subdivisions of the transversospinalis group4 ,the intertransversarii are muscles interconnecting the transverse processes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,,deep ,,muscles ,,of ,,body1 ,,exposed ,,after ,,removal ,,of ,,the ,,muscles ,,shown ,,in ,,fig4 #gc4 a1 ,m4 biventer cervicis2 b1 ,m4 complexus2 c1 ,m4 obliquus capitis superior2 d1 ,m4 longus atlantis2 e1 cut end of ,m4 longissimus capitis2 f1 f1 f1 ,m4 longissimus dorsi2 g1 ,m4 spinalis dorsi2 h1 ,m4 iliocostalis2 i1 ,mm4 intercostales externi2 k1 ,mm4 intercostales interni2 l1 ,m4 transversus abdominis4 7a7 ,muscles of the ,lumbar and ,thoracic ,regions4--,the muscles of the lumbar and thoracic regions are mostly covered by a strong fascia1 known as the lumbodorsal fascia 7,fig4 #fh1 y74 ,this consists of two sheets1 the superficial sheet being applied directly to the outer surface of the inner sheet1 or separated from it by a mass of fat4 ,the superficial sheet 7,fig4 #fh1 y7 overlies the lumbar region and the caudal half of the thoracic region4 ,on the medial side it is attached to the spinous processes of the vertebr and is united closely to the deeper layer4 ,laterally this fascia is continuous with the latissimus dorsi 7m7 and obliquus abdominis externus 7p74 ,caudad it is attached to the spine of the ilium and becomes continuous with the fascia covering the gluteus muscles4 ,the deeper sheet 7,fig4 #gj1 c7 is of a tendinous character1 forming the external tendinous layer of the longissimus dorsi1 many of whose fibres take origin from its under surface4 ,it is described more fully in the account of this muscle4 ,m4 longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f1 f1 f2 ,fig4 #gj1 a and b74--,a very large muscle1 filling most of the region between the spinous processes and transverse processes of the lumbar and thoracic vertebr1 and extending into the cervical region4 ,the muscle is largest in the lumbar region 7,fig4 #fi1 f2 ,fig4 #gj71 where it is divided into a narrow medial 7,fig4 #gj1 a7 and a thick lateral portion 7,fig4 #gj1 b71 the latter being again partially subdivided by the fascia4 ,the two parts unite farther craniad4 ,the medial division 7,fig4 #gj1 a7 consists of muscular bundles connecting the spinous processes of the vertebr with the accessory and mammillary processes of other vertebr2 it is continuous caudad with the extensor caud lateralis 7,fig4 #gj1 f74 ,the muscle-fibres take origin in the sacral region by small round tendons from the spinous processes of the last two sacral and the caudal vertebr4 ,they curve cranioventrad1 forming a large belly1 and are inserted into the accessory and mammillary processes of the lumbar vertebr4 ,in the thoracic region this division unites with that portion of the lateral division in which the fibres coming from the fascia of origin are inserted into the lamin and transverse processes of the thoracic vertebr4 ,the lateral division 7,fig4 #gj1 b7 is much larger than the medial one1 forming in the lumbar region a nearly cylindrical mass4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,dorsal ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,vertebral ,,column ,,in ,,the ,,lumbar1 ,,sacral1 ,,and ,,caudal ,,regions4 ,both sheets of the lumbodorsal fascia have been removed1 the deep layer 7c7 being cut where it passes into the longissimus dorsi4 #a1 crest of ilium2 #d-g1 tips of spinous processes of the fourth to seventh lumbar vertebr4 ,i1 ,,ii1 tips of spinous processes of first two sacral vertebr4 a1 b1 ,m4 longissimi dorsi 7a1 medial portion2 b1 lateral portion2 b1 portion taking origin from the lumbodorsal fascia72 c1 cut edge of deep layer of lumbodorsal fascia2 d1 ,m4 multifidus spin2 e1 ,m4 extensor caud medialis2 f1 ,m4 extensor caud lateralis1 g1 ,m4 abductor caud externus4 ,origin from the crest of the ilium 7,fig4 #gj1 #a7 and the medial surface of the ilium as far caudad as the auricular impression2 also from the deep layer of the lumbodorsal fascia 7c74 ,this fascia is connected with the crest of the ilium and with the tips of the spinous processes of the vertebr in the lumbar and thoracic regions1 and from it a large proportion of the fibres of the longissimus take origin4 ,in the lumbar region it dips into the muscle as an intermediate longitudinal sheet 7c71 partially dividing it lengthwise into two parts4 ,fibres taking origin from the lateral surface of this intermediate sheet curve cranioventrad1 and are inserted on the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebr4 ,fibres taking origin from the medial surface of the sheet pass mediocraniad and are inserted into the accessory processes and the surfaces of the vertebral arches4 ,in the thoracic region 7,fig4 #fi1 f7 most of the fibres are inserted in separate bundles by small tendons on the transverse processes of the vertebr1 while some of the medial fibres unite with tendinous strands which become attached to the lamin and articular processes of the vertebr4 ,at the region of the eighth or ninth thoracic vertebra the spinalis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g7 begins to be separated off on the medial side1 the separation becoming complete only some distance farther craniad2 the longissimus dorsi then continues into the cervical region 7f74 ,bundles of fibres become attached in the manner above described to transverse processes of all the thoracic vertebr4 ,in the cervical region 7f7 the muscle spreads out and becomes thinner1 and bundles of fibres become attached to the transverse processes of the cervical vertebr as far forward as the second4 ,in the more cranial portion of its extent the muscle receives fibres having origin on the articular processes and lamin of the cervical and a few of the more cranial thoracic vertebr4 ,the portion of the muscle which is inserted on the cervical transverse processes 7f7 is sometimes distinguished as the longissimus cervicis2 it is not well separated from the rest of the muscle in the cat4 ,the longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #fi1 c2 ,fig4 #gc1 g7 is to be considered a differentiated cranial portion of this muscle4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the following1 beginning with the caudal end3 the sartorius 7,fig4 #fh1 q71 the latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 m71 the lumbodorsal fascia 7,fig4 #fh1 y71 the serratus posterior inferior 7,fig4 #gc1 n7 and superior 7,fig4 #gc1 l71 and the levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h74 ,lateral margin with the abdominal muscles1 the iliocostal 7,fig4 #fi1 h71 and the levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h74 ,medial side with the multifidus spin 7,fig4 #gj1 d71 the spinous processes of the thoracic vertebr1 the spinalis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g71 the complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b71 the biventer cervicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a71 and the longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #fi1 e74 ,action4--,extends the vertebral column4 ,m4 iliocostalis 7,fig4 #fi1 h74--,this is a muscle about #a to #b centimeters wide1 lying on the dorsal portion of the ribs1 laterad of the longissimus dorsi 7f74 ,it is composed of many partly separated bundles1 each with an oblique tendon4 ,the muscle begins at the last or next to the last rib1 where it is connected with the longissimus by a rather small bundle of fibres4 ,the rest of the muscle-fibres take origin in bundles from the lateral surface of the ribs1 at about the angles1 or from thin tendons connecting the angles1 of the ribs2 they pass obliquely craniad and are inserted1 usually by tendons1 on the lateral surface of the third or fourth rib craniad of the one on which the given bundle has origin4 ,the insertions on any given rib lie ventrad of the origins on the same rib4 ,in the cat this muscle is confined to the thoracic region4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the serratus posterior inferior 7,fig4 #gc1 n7 and superior 7,fig4 #gc1 l71 and the levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h74 ,inner surface with the dorsal surface of the ribs1 the external intercostals 7,fig4 #fi1 i71 and craniad with the levatores costarum4 ,medial edge in contact with the longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,action4--,draws the ribs together4 ,m4 spinalis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g74--,a muscle interconnecting the spinous processes of vertebr some distance apart1 in the thoracic and cervical regions4 ,it lies on the medial side of the longissimus dorsi 7f74 ,origin by strong tendons from the tips of the spinous processes of the tenth to the thirteenth thoracic vertebr4 ,these tendons represent the cranial portion of the deep layer of the lumbodorsal fascia1 and give origin also to many fibres of the longissimus dorsi1 so that the two muscles are completely united at the origin of the spinalis4 ,they become separated at about the level of the sixth thoracic vertebra1 the spinalis forming a strong separate bundle passing into the neck region close against the sides of the spinous processes4 ,the insertion is by fleshy bundles into the sides of the spinous processes of the first nine or ten thoracic vertebr and of the cervical vertebr as far forward as the second4 ,some of the fibres of this muscle pass craniad into the biventer cervicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a74 ,relations4--,outer surface with the tendons of the serratus posterior inferior 7,fig4 #gc1 n7 and serratus posterior superior 7,fig4 #gc1 l71 and with the splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b71 biventer cervicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a71 and complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b74 ,lateral and ventral surface with the longissimus dorsi 7f72 medial surface with the spinous processes and the multifidus spin4 ,action4--,extensor of the vertebral column4 ,m4 multifidus spin4--,this consists of bundles of fibres which have origin on the transverse processes or neighboring parts1 pass craniodorsad across one or more vertebr1 and are inserted into the spinous processes of vertebr lying some distance craniad of the origin4 ,they lie deeper than the muscles previously described4 ,the muscle is most strongly developed in the lumbar region 7,fig4 #gj1 d71 where it forms a thick interwoven mass in which it is difficult to distinguish separate bundles4 ,the fibres in this region have origin on the accessory or mammillary processes and usually pass over more than one vertebra between origin and insertion2 their insertions reach the dorsal ends of the spinous processes1 so that part of the muscle lies immediately beneath the lumbar fascia4 ,in other regions the multifidus is covered by other muscles4 ,in the thoracic region the separate bands are more distinct1 and usually pass in their course over but one intervening vertebra4 ,in the cervical region the bands are interconnected1 forming a fairly distinct single muscle1 which is described separately below as the semispinalis cervicis 7,fig4 #ga1 c74 ,the portion of this muscle attached to the head 7semispinalis capitis7 forms the biventer cervicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a7 and complexus 7b74 ,caudad this muscle passes onto the tail as the extensor caud medialis 7,fig4 #gj1 c74 ,relations4--,outer and lateral surface in the lumbar region with the longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f7 and the lumbodorsal fascia 7,fig4 #fh1 y72 in the thoracic region with the longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f7 and spinalis dorsi 7g74 ,inner surface with the arches1 articular processes1 and spinous processes of the vertebr4 ,action4--,extends the back when the muscles of both sides work together4 ,turns the vertebral column obliquely sideways when one set acts alone4 ,the deepest layer of the multifidus forms what is sometimes distinguished as the ,mm4 rotatores2 no separate layer of this sort is to be made out in the cat4 ,mm4 interspinales4--,muscle-bundles passing from the spinous process of one vertebra to that of the vertebra immediately craniad or caudad of it4 ,they are best developed in the lumbar region4 ,mm4 intertransversarii4--,muscle-fibres interconnecting the transverse processes4 ,in the lumbar region the intertransversarii mediales connect the accessory and mammillary processes2 the intertransversarii laterales lying between the transverse processes4 ,in other regions only one set of the intertransversarii is to be distinguished4 7b7 ,dorsal ,muscles of the ,cervical ,region4--,the clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d7 and occipitoscapularis 7,fig4 #gc1 a7 have been described in connection with the muscles of the shoulder4 ,the remaining muscles of this region may be considered as differentiations of the general vertebral musculature 7,m4 extensor dorsi communis74 ,m4 splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b47--,a large sheet of muscle covering the dorsal part of the side of the neck1 beneath the trapezii4 ,origin from the whole cervical ligament and from the fascia covering the deeper muscles along a line which extends from the first thoracic spinous process caudolaterad for about two centimeters4 ,insertion by a thin tendon into the whole lambdoidal ridge4 ,laterad the tendon may be fused with that of the longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #gc1 g74 ,relations4--,outer surface with the sternomastoid 7,fig4 #fh1 c71 occipitoscapularis 7,fig4 #gc1 a71 clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d71 rhomboideus1 tendon of the serratus posterior superior 7,fig4 #gc1 l71 and the levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h74 ,lateral edge closely united with the longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #gc1 g74 ,inner surface with the longissimus capitis1 complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b71 and biventer cervicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a74 ,action4--,lateral flexor of the head4 ,the two together elevate the head4 ,m4 longissimus capitis 7trachelomastoideus7 7,fig4 #gc1 g2 ,fig4 #fi1 e74--,this is a slender muscle lying close against the lateral border of the splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b71 and sometimes fused with the splenius at its craniad end4 ,it is a cranial continuation of the longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,origin by five slips which are attached by strong tendons to the anterior articular processes of the last four cervical vertebr4 ,the tendons are common to this muscle and the complexus4 ,the five slips unite to form a flat belly which has its ,insertion by a strong rounded tendon into the mastoid process of the temporal bone4 ,the tendon may be closely united to that of the splenius4 ,relations4--,lateral surface with the sternomastoid 7,fig4 #fh1 c71 the levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h71 and longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,medial surface with the splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b7 7to which it is partly united71 the complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b71 and the longus atlantis 7,fig4 #fi1 d74 ,action4--,lateral flexor of the head4 ,m4 biventer cervicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a7 7medial portion of ,m4 semispinalis cervicis et capitis74--,the biventer cervicis is a flat muscle which lies beneath the splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b71 next the median line of the neck1 with its fibres longitudinal4 ,origin in three or four slips from the surface of the three or four aponeurotic arches which take origin from the tips of the spinous processes of the last cervical and the first three thoracic vertebr and pass laterad and caudad to the anterior processes of the second1 third1 fourth1 and fifth thoracic vertebr4 ,these arches are deviated from their straight course by four aponeurotic bands which pass from them obliquely caudad and dorsad to the sides of the spinous processes of the vertebr into which the arches are inserted4 ,the arches form the beginning of the sheet of fascia which passes outside of the longitudinal supraspinous muscles1 and the anchoring bands form the beginning of a similar sheet which passes within the longitudinal supraspinous muscles4 ,an additional slip may take origin from the cervical ligament between the last cervical and the first thoracic vertebr4 ,the fibres form a flat band divided by two or three oblique tendinous intersections4 ,it adheres closely to the cervical supraspinous ligament4 ,insertion by a strong tendon into the medial part of the lambdoidal crest4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b7 and at the caudal end with the longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,inner surface with the spinalis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g71 the semispinalis cervicis 7,fig4 #ga1 c71 and the rectus capitis posterior major 7,fig4 #ga1 a74 ,medial edge with the muscle of the opposite side2 lateral edge with the complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b74 ,action4--,raises the snout4 ,m4 complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b7 7lateral portion of ,m4 semispinalis cervicis et capitis74--,the complexus is closely associated with the biventer cervicis 7a7 and lies on its lateral side beneath the splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b74 ,origin by tendinous bands from the anterior articular processes of the last five or six cervical and the first one1 two1 or three thoracic vertebr4 ,the same bands give origin externally to the fibres of the longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #fi1 e71 and internally to those of deeper muscles of the neck4 ,the six or more muscular slips continued from these tendons unite to form a flat band1 the ,insertion of which is by a flat tendon into the medial third of the lambdoidal crest some distance ventrad of the free edge of the crest4 ,near the insertion the lateral border of the muscle is connected by an aponeurotic band to the lateral border of the transverse process of the atlas4 ,relations4--,outer surface at the dorsal border with the biventer cervicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a72 at the middle with the splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b72 at the ventral border with the longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #fi1 e7 and the longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,inner surface with the cervical portion of the spinalis dorsi1 with the semispinalis cervicis 7,fig4 #ga1 c71 the obliquus capitis inferior 7,fig4 #ga1 b71 the rectus capitis posterior major 7,fig4 #ga1 a71 and the obliquus superior 7,fig4 #ga1 e74 ,action4--,raises the head4 ,m4 spinalis dorsi extends into the cervical region2 it has been described4 ,m4 semispinalis cervicis 7,fig4 #ga1 c74--,this represents that portion of the multifidus spin which extends into the cervical region4 ,it is not composed of distinct bundles1 like the multifidus of the thoracic region1 but all the fibres are united into a fairly well-defined muscle4 ,origin from the articular processes of the last five cervical vertebr4 ,insertion into the spinous processes of the cervical vertebr up to the second1 the largest part of the muscle being inserted into the caudal end of the spine of the atlas4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the spinalis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g7 and the complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b74 ,inner surface with the vertebr4 ,action4--,extends the neck4 ,m4 longissimus dorsi extends into the cervical region1 where it is often distinguished as the longissimus cervicis 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,it has been described4 ,m4 longus atlantis 7,fig4 #ga1 f2 ,fig4 #fi1 d74--,this represents a differentiated portion of the longissimus dorsi4 ,origin from the transverse process and the side of the vertebral arch of the third cervical vertebra4 ,insertion into the caudolateral angle of the wing of the atlas4 ,relations4--,dorsal surface with the complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b71 the longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #fi1 e71 and the obliquus inferior 7,fig4 #ga1 b74 ,ventral surface with the scalenus 7,fig4 #ga1 g71 longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f71 and levator scapul 7,fig4 #ga1 h74 ,action4--,extends the neck and turns the head sideways4 ,m4 rectus capitis posterior major 7,fig4 #ga1 a74 ,origin4--,the whole length of the spinous process 7or crest7 of the axis1 or its caudal part only4 ,it is united by a raphe to the opposite muscle4 ,the muscle passes craniad and laterad to its ,insertion into an area ventrad of the medial part of the lambdoidal crest beneath the insertion of the complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b7 and the biventer cervicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a74 ,relations4--,dorsal surface with the biventer cervicis 7,fig4 #fi1 a74 ,ventral surface with the rectus capitis posterior medius 7,fig4 #ga1 d7 and the obliquus capitis inferior4 ,action4--,raises the snout4 ,m4 rectus capitis posterior medius 7,fig4 #ga1 d74 7,this is in man a part of the rectus capitis posterior major47--,it lies beneath the rectus capitis posterior major 7,fig4 #ga1 a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,,deep ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,neck1 ,,after ,,the ,,removal ,,of ,,mm4 ,,biventer ,,cervicis ,,and ,,complexus4 a1 ,m4 rectus capitis posterior major2 b1 ,m4 obliquus capitis inferior2 c1 ,m4 semispinalis cervicis2 d1 ,m4 rectus capitis posterior medius2 e1 ,m4 obliquus capitis superior2 f1 ,m4 longus atlantis2 g1 ,m4 scalenus 7part of cervical portion72 h1 cut end of ,m4 levator scapul4 ,origin from the cranial end of the axial spine4 ,it forms a triangular prismatic mass which passes craniad and has its ,insertion into an elongated area on the occipital bone1 ventrad of the median half of the lambdoidal crest4 ,relations4--,dorsal surface with the rectus capitis posterior major 7,fig4 #ga1 a74 ,ventral surface with the atlas and the rectus capitis posterior minor4 ,action4--,assists the rectus capitis posterior major4 ,m4 rectus capitis posterior minor4--,a small triangular muscle beneath the rectus capitis posterior medius 7,fig4 #ga1 d74 ,origin by the apex of the triangle from the cranial border of the dorsal arch of the atlas for about two millimeters laterad of the median line4 ,the muscle passes over the ligament which connects the atlas to the occiput and adheres to it4 ,insertion into an elongated area on the occipital bone1 ventrad of the insertion of the rectus capitis posterior medius for about five millimeters next to the median line4 ,relations4--,dorsal surface with the rectus capitis posterior medius4 ,ventral surface with the posterior atlanto-occipital membrane4 ,action4--,assists the rectus capitis posterior major4 ,m4 obliquus inferior 7,fig4 #ga1 b74 ,origin from the whole lateral surface of the spine of the axis4 ,the parallel fibres form a thick mass which passes laterad and craniad4 ,insertion into the dorsal surface of the transverse process of the atlas along a narrow area near its lateral margin4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the rectus capitis posterior major 7,fig4 #ga1 a71 the complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b71 and the obliquus superior 7,fig4 #ga1 e74 ,inner surface with the axis4 ,action4--,rotates the head4 ,m4 obliquus capitis superior 7,fig4 #ga1 e2 ,fig4 #gb1 e74--,this is a triangular muscle passing from the outer border of the atlas laterad of the recti capitis posteriores to the occiput4 ,origin from the lateral border of the transverse process of the atlas on its ventral margin4 ,the fibres pass craniad and diverge4 ,insertion into the caudal side of the mastoid process of the temporal bone and into a line parallel with the lambdoidal ridge and ventrad of it1 from the mastoid process to within one centimeter of the median line4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b71 complexus 7,fig4 #fi1 b71 and longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #gc1 g74 ,inner surface with the obliquus inferior 7,fig4 #ga1 b71 the wing of the atlas1 and the rectus lateralis 7,fig4 #gb1 d74 ,ventral border with the cleidomastoid 7,fig4 #gc1 d7 and one head of the levator scapul ventralis 7,fig4 #gb1 c74 ,action4--,flexes the head laterally4 ,mm4 interspinales and intertransversarii are found in the neck region also2 they are described with the muscles of the back4 ,c4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,tail4--,m4 extensor caud medialis 7,fig4 #gj1 e74--,this is a continuation caudad of the multifidus spin 7,fig4 #gj1 d72 it lies next to the dorsal median line1 the muscles of right and left side touching one another in the middle line4 ,origin by numerous fleshy bundles from the spinous processes of the sacral and first caudal vertebr4 ,the fibres pass caudad and are inserted by tendons into the articular processes and the dorsal surface of the caudal vertebr4 ,action4--,extends 7raises7 the tail4 ,m4 extensor caud lateralis 7,fig4 #gj1 f74--,this is a continuation caudad of the medial portion of the longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #gj1 a72 it lies just laterad of the extensor caud medialis 7,fig4 #gj1 e74 ,origin in many fleshy bundles from the articular processes of the sacral vertebr1 and the transverse processes of the caudal vertebr4 ,the fibres curve dorsocaudad and are inserted by many long slender tendons on the dorsal surfaces of the caudal vertebr4 ,the muscle grows continually smaller as it passes caudad4 ,action4--,raises the tail4 ,m4 abductor caud 7coccygis7 externus 7,fig4 #fh1 w2 ,fig4 #gj1 g74--,a rounded muscle on the lateral surface of the cranial part of the tail4 ,origin from the medial side of the dorsal border of the ilium1 and from the dorsal surface of the sacrum4 ,the muscle passes caudad1 lying just ventrad of the extensor lateralis1 and is inserted into the transverse processes and lateral surfaces of the caudal vertebr1 as far back as the eighth or ninth4 ,action4--,bends the tail sideways4 ,m4 abductor caud internus 7or ,m4 coccygeus74--,a large flat muscle1 having origin on the spine of the ischium4 ,the muscle passes dorsomediad1 spreading out1 and is inserted into the transverse processes of the second to the fourth caudal vertebr4 ,relations4--,lateral surface with the caudofemoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s71 gluteus maximus1 and pyriformis4 ,medial surface with the iliocaudalis and the flexor caud longus 7,fig4 #fh1 x74 ,m4 iliocaudalis 7,str4-,d47 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa1 page #cih74--,this represents a portion of the levator ani of man1 and in some specimens is united with that muscle 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa7 in the cat4 ,origin along the ventral half of the medial surface of the ilium1 caudad of the sacrum4 ,the fibres pass caudad and are inserted by a flat tendon into the ventral surface of the caudal vertebr1 from the second or third to about the seventh4 ,relations4--,lateral surface with the gluteus maximus and abductor caud internus 7,fig4 #fh1 w74 ,medial surface with the levator ani 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa71 with which this muscle may be partly united4 ,action4--,the two muscles together flex the tail4 ,m4 flexor caud longus 7,fig4 #afb1 #ab2 ,fig4 #aac1 c1 page #bgj74 ,origin on the ventral surface of the last lumbar vertebra1 of the sacrum1 and of the transverse processes of the caudal vertebr4 ,caudad the muscle forms long1 strong tendons which are inserted on the ventral surface of the tail4 ,relations4--,lateral surface with the ilium1 the gluteus maximus1 the abductor caud internus1 the iliocaudalis1 and the skin of the tail4 ,dorsally it touches in the caudal region the abductor caud externus 7,fig4 #fh1 w71 medially the flexor caud brevis 7,fig4 #afb1 #ac74 ,action4--,flexes the tail4 ,m4 flexor caud brevis 7,fig4 #afb1 #ac74 ,origin on the ventral surface of the caudal vertebr1 from the first to the seventh or eighth4 ,the principal head comes from the first vertebra4 ,the bundles thus formed pass caudad and are inserted each into the ventral surface of a vertebra some distance caudad of the origin4 ,the muscle extends to about the tenth caudal vertebra1 and its most caudal parts are closely interconnected with the flexor caud longus4 ,relations4--,lateral edge with the flexor caud longus4 ,medial edge in the sacral region with the levator ani 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa7 and the iliocaudalis 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa72 in the caudal region with the muscle of the opposite side4 ,action4--,flexes the tail4 #b4 ,muscles on the ,ventral ,side of the ,vertebral ,column4 ,a4 ,,lumbar ,,and ,,thoracic ,,regions4--,the iliopsoas 7,fig4 #afb1 #h7 belongs in this group1 but since it moves the leg it is described with the muscles of the pelvic limbs4 ,m4 psoas minor 7,fig4 #afb1 #i1 page #cih74--,this muscle lies along the ventral surface of the vertebral column1 next to the peritoneum1 and extends from the thoracic vertebr to the ilium4 ,origin usually by five heads1 from the caudal border of the centra of the last two 7or one7 thoracic and first three 7or four7 lumbar vertebr4 ,these heads also serve as origin for a part of the iliopsoas1 and are closely united at their origin with the quadratus lumborum4 ,they unite to form an1 at first1 rather large flat muscle1 which rapidly becomes smaller caudad1 finally forming a slender tendon which is inserted on the iliopectineal line1 just craniad of the acetabulum4 ,relations4--,dorsolateral surface with the quadratus lumborum and iliopsoas 7,fig4 #afb1 #h74 ,ventral surface with the pleura and diaphragm near the origin2 with the peritoneum caudad4 ,action4--,flexes the back in the lumbar region4 ,m4 quadratus lumborum4--,a flat muscle lying on the ventral surface of the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebr4 ,craniad it has origin on the ventral surface of the last two thoracic vertebr1 and by a few fibres from the last rib4 ,the muscle passes caudad1 lying on the lateral side of the psoas minor 7,fig4 #afb1 #i71 and becomes attached to each of the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebr4 ,caudad the muscle passes into a strong flat tendon which is inserted into the anterior inferior spine of the ilium4 ,relations4--,dorsal surface with the transverse processes and the intertransverse muscles4 ,ventral and medial surfaces with the psoas minor 7,fig4 #afb1 #i7 and iliopsoas 7,fig4 #afb1 #h74 ,action4--,bends the vertebral column sideways4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,ventral ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,neck 7,fig4 #fe1 page #aji74--,m4 sternomastoideus 7,fig4 #fe1 g2 ,fig4 #fh1 c74--,the sternomastoid 7sternal portion of the human sternocleidomastoid7 is a flat band one to three centimeters wide extending from the cranial end of the manubrium and the midventral line craniad of it to the lambdoidal ridge4 ,the origin extends from the cranial end of the manubrium along the midventral line as far as the caudal border of the cricoid cartilage1 and is in two parts4 ,the caudal portion arises from the lateral surface of the manubrium along the dorsal half of its cranial end1 and from the median raphe for about one centimeter craniad of the manubrium4 ,its fibres are parallel and tend to diverge into two layers4 ,the cranial portion arises by means of fibres which cover the median line and interdigitate with the fibres of the opposite muscle between the cricoid cartilage and a point a few millimeters craniad of the manubrium4 ,its caudal border is thus overlaid by the caudal portion4 ,its fibres converge and join those of the caudal portion4 ,the muscle passes dorsocraniad and is ,inserted by means of a flat tendon into the lateral half of the lambdoidal ridge and into a continuation of the ridge onto the mastoid portion of the temporal bone as far as the mastoid process4 ,the thickest part of the tendon is inserted into the mastoid process4 ,relations4--,outer surface at the caudal end with the pectoralis major 7,fig4 #fe1 l72 in the middle part with the platysma1 the depressor conch 7,fig4 #fd1 b71 and with the external jugular vein 7,fig4 #fe1 #e71 which crosses it obliquely2 at the cranial end with the submaxillary 7,fig4 #fe1 #b7 and parotid 7#a7 glands4 ,inner surface with the sternohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 e71 sternothyroid 7g71 internal jugular vein1 longus capitis muscle1 the cleidomastoid 7h71 levator scapul ventralis 7i71 a large lymphatic gland ventrad of the ear1 and the splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b74 ,action4--,one muscle turns the head and depresses the snout4 ,both together depress the snout4 ,m4 sternohyoideus 7,fig4 #fe1 e74--,a slender muscle on the midventral line of the neck close to the opposite muscle4 ,origin from the cranial border of the first costal cartilage4 ,the muscle passes craniad closely united near its caudal end to the sternothyroid 7g74 ,insertion 7,fig4 #fg1 m7 into the outer half of the ventral surface of the body of the hyoid bone caudad of the origin of the geniohyoid 7,fig4 #fg1 g74 ,relations4--,outer surface with the sternomastoid 7,fig4 #fe1 g74 ,inner surface with the thyrohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 f2 ,fig4 #fg1 p71 the trachea 7,fig4 #fg1 #d71 and the larynx4 ,action4--,draws the hyoid caudad4 ,raises the ribs and sternum when the hyoid is fixed4 ,m4 sternothyreoideus 7,fig4 #fe1 g74--,the sternothyroid lies beneath the sternohyoid and is connected with it at its caudal end4 ,origin from the first costal cartilage beneath the sternohyoid4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #fg1 o7 into the lateral part of the caudal border of the thyroid cartilage of the larynx4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the sternohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 e7 and laterally with the sternomastoid 7,fig4 #fe1 g74 ,inner surface with the trachea 7,fig4 #fg1 #d71 and at the lateral edge with the thyroid gland 7,fig4 #fg1 #f74 ,action4--,pulls the larynx caudad4 ,m4 scalenus 7,fig4 #gc1 f-f74--,this is a large and complex muscle lying on the ventral side of the neck and the lateral surface of the thorax4 ,it might equally well be classified with the muscles of the thorax4 ,it is divisible into a considerable number of interconnected bundles which are sometimes described as separate muscles4 ,the largest1 middle portion 7scalenus medius7 7f7 takes origin by thin tendons from the sixth1 seventh1 eighth1 and ninth ribs1 just dorsad of their junction with the cartilages2 these tendons unite near their origins to form a flat band which becomes fleshy at about the fifth rib1 passes craniad1 and unites just craniad of the first rib with the other parts of the muscle4 ,the dorsal portion 7scalenus posterior7 7f7 has origin by a very slender tendon from about the middle of the outer surface of the third or fourth rib2 it extends craniad as a narrow band which passes laterad between the heads of the serratus anterior 7i7 that are attached to the second and third 7or third and fourth7 ribs1 and unites with the other heads4 ,the ventral head 7part of scalenus anterior7 7f7 arises by one or two minute tendons from the cartilages of the second and third ribs2 they are partly united with the transversus costarum 7j74 ,this ventral head passes craniad and unites with the other heads4 ,these three divisions unite just craniad of the first rib with each other and with the cervical portion of the muscle 7f7 7part of scalenus anterior74 ,this consists of a number of small bundles of fibres which arise from the first rib and the transverse processes of the first thoracic and the last six cervical vertebr4 ,the insertion is onto the transverse processes of all the cervical vertebr1 including the axis and atlas4 ,according to ,strauss-,durckheim the fibres from any given transverse process are inserted into the transverse processes of all the vertebr craniad of it4 ,the muscle is partly continuous craniad with the longus capitis 7e74 ,the cervical nerves pass out between the bundles of the cervical portion4 ,relations4--,outer 7lateral7 surface in the thoracic region with the external oblique 7,fig4 #fh1 p71 the pectoralis minor 7,fig4 #fe1 o71 and in part with the serratus anterior 7,fig4 #gc1 i72 in the cervical region with the sternomastoid 7,fig4 #fe1 g74 ,inner 7medial7 surface with the serratus anterior 7,fig4 #gc1 i71 the levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h71 the longus atlantis1 the transverse processes of the cervical vertebr1 and the longus capitis 7,fig4 #gc1 e74 ,action4--,flexes the neck and draws the ribs craniad4 ,m4 longus capitis 7or rectus capitis anterior major7 7,fig4 #gb1 a2 ,fig4 #gc1 e74--,this is a long muscle lying on the ventral aspect of the cervical vertebr4 ,with the muscle of the opposite side and the underlying longus colli 7,fig4 #gb1 g7 it forms a trough in which lie the sophagus1 pharynx1 and trachea4 ,origin by five 7or six7 heads from the ventral margins of the transverse processes of the cervical vertebr from the second to the sixth inclusive4 ,the heads unite into a common belly1 the lateral border of which is united with the levator scapul ventralis 7,fig4 #gb1 c7 near its insertion4 ,insertion into the body of the sphenoid bone between the bulla and the middle line4 ,the insertion extends craniad onto the basisphenoid4 ,relations4--,ventral surface with the sternomastoid 7,fig4 #fe1 g7 and the large lymphatic gland ventrad of the external ear4 ,lateral surface with the scalenus 7,fig4 #gb1 h7 and craniad with the levator scapul ventralis 7,fig4 #gb1 c-c74 ,medial surface with the carotid artery1 the trachea1 sophagus1 and pharynx4 ,dorsal edge with the vertebr1 the longus colli 7,fig4 #gb1 g71 and the rectus capitis anterior minor 7,fig4 #gb1 b74 ,action4--,lowers the snout4 ,m4 rectus capitis anterior minor 7,fig4 #gb1 b74--,this is a flat band beneath 7dorsad of7 the longus capitis 7a74 ,origin from the ventral surface of the inferior arch 7body7 of the atlas 7#c7 for about five millimeters laterad of the middle line4 ,insertion into a deep depression on the basioccipital caudad of the insertion of the longus capitis 7a7 and between the caudal end of the bulla 7#a7 and the median line4 ,relations4--,ventral surface with the longus capitis 7a74 ,dorsal surface with the anterior 7ventral7 atlanto-occipital membrane 7#b74 ,action4--,depresses the snout4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,ventral ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,cervical ,,vertebr4 ,on the left side the longus capitis and one head of the levator scapul ventralis have been cut1 in order to show the rectus capitis anterior minor4 a1 ,m4 longus capitis2 b1 ,m4 rectus capitis anterior minor2 c1 ,m4 levator scapul ventralis 7c1 its atlantal head2 c1 its occipital head72 d1 ,m4 rectus capitis lateralis2 e1 ,m4 obliquus capitis superior2 f1 ,m4 longissimus capitis2 g1 ,m4 longus colli 7g1 its cervical portion2 g1 its thoracic portion72 h1 part of ,m4 scalenus4 #a1 bulla tympani2 #b1 ventral atlanto-occipital membrane2 #c1 ventral arch of atlas2 #d1 first rib4 ,m4 rectus capitis lateralis 7,fig4 #gb1 d74--,this lies ventrad of the obliquus superior 7e7 on the ventral face of the transverse process of the atlas and at first appears to be a part of the obliquus superior4 ,origin from the median half of the ventral surface of the transverse process of the atlas4 ,the fibres form a cylindrical mass which passes craniad and slightly laterad4 ,insertion into the fossa laterad of the condyle of the occipital bone4 ,relations4--,ventral surface with the digastric 7,fig4 #fe1 b7 and the lymphatic gland ventrad of the ear4 ,dorsal surface with the wing of the atlas4 ,action4--,flexes the head laterally4 ,m4 longus colli 7,fig4 #fe1 g1 g74--,a long1 rather slender muscle lying on the ventral surface of the cervical and first six thoracic vertebr4 ,it consists of many separate bundles1 and is divisible into a thoracic and a cervical portion4 ,the thoracic portion 7g7 has origin by six heads from the ventral surface of the first six thoracic vertebr4 ,the separate heads join to form a band which passes craniad and is inserted for the most part into the processus costarius of the sixth cervical vertebra2 a portion of it joins the cervical division of the muscle4 ,the cervical portion 7g7 is a continuation craniad of the thoracic portion4 ,it arises in small bundles from the transverse processes and sides of the ventral surfaces of the centra of the cervical vertebr4 ,these bundles pass craniomediad1 so that those from the muscles of opposite sides meet and are inserted on the centra of the vertebr in the middle line1 each pair of bundles forming a ,v opening caudad4 ,the most cranial insertion is into the tubercle on the middle of the ventral surface of the ventral arch of the atlas 7#c74 ,relations4--,dorsal surface with the centra of the vertebr4 ,ventral surface in the thorax with the trachea2 in the neck with the sophagus4 ,medial edge with the muscle of the opposite side4 ,lateral margin in the cervical region with the longus capitis 7a74 ,action4--,bends the neck4 #c4 ,muscles of the ,thorax4 ,a4 ,,breast-,,muscles 7connecting the arm and thorax7 7,fig4 #fe1 page #aji74 ,the muscles connecting the arm with the sternum1 corresponding to the pectoralis muscles of man1 fall into a considerable number of not always clearly separated bundles in the cat4 ,we shall distinguish by name four such bundles2 these might be1 and frequently are1 further subdivided4 ,m4 pectoantibrachialis 7,fig4 #fe1 m74--,this is a small flat bundle about one or two centimeters wide1 forming the most superficial portion of the pectoralis group4 ,origin on the lateral surface of the manubrium4 ,the muscle passes laterad onto the arm and is inserted by a flat tendon into the superficial fascia of the dorsal border of the forearm1 near the elbow-joint4 ,the tendon is continuous craniad with the border of the clavobrachial 7k71 so that a bundle of fibres may pass from this muscle to be inserted with the clavobrachial1 or a bundle from the clavobrachial to be inserted with this4 ,the tendon is continuous caudad with that of the epitrochlearis 7r74 ,the fascia of insertion may be traced to an attachment into the dorsal border of the ulna4 ,this muscle usually receives near its insertion a slip1 sometimes called its caudal division1 from the deep layer of the pectoralis major4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument4 ,inner surface with both divisions of the pectoralis major 7l7 on its medial two-thirds1 and with the biceps 7t7 and bicipital arch 7t7 in its lateral one-third4 ,the cranial border is closely applied to that of the clavobrachial 7k71 except at the two ends4 ,action4--,draws the arm mediad4 ,m4 pectoralis major1 or ectopectoralis 7,fig4 #fe1 l1 l74--,in this it is usually possible to distinguish a superficial and a deep layer4 ,the superficial 7l7 layer is a flat band of fibres one or two centimeters wide4 ,origin from a raphe in the midventral line1 along the cranial half of the manubrium and for five to ten millimeters craniad of it4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #ha1 f74--,the pectoral ridge of the middle third of the shaft of the humerus1 slightly dorsad of the line of insertion of the deep portion4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the clavobrachial 7,fig4 #fe1 k7 and integument1 the medial end caudally with the pectoantibrachialis 7m71 and the distal end with the brachialis 7v74 ,inner surface with the deep portion 7l71 the fibres of which it crosses obliquely4 ,the deep portion 7l7 is a flat band of parallel fibres about three times as broad as the superficial portion4 ,origin4--,the ventral surface of the manubrium and of the first three divisions of the sternum1 and the median raphe for about one centimeter craniad of the manubrium4 ,it passes directly laterad4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #ha1 e7 along a line which begins at the infraspinatus fossa of the great tuberosity1 and runs parallel to the deltoid ridge until it reaches the pectoral ridge at the junction of the second and third fourths of the humerus and then continues in the direction of the pectoral ridge as far as the junction of the third and fourth fourths of the humerus4 ,some of its fibres may pass caudad of the biceps and be inserted with the epitrochlearis4 ,into the part of the line which is parallel to the deltoid ridge the muscle is inserted by a flat tendon2 into the remainder of the line it is usually inserted directly by muscle-fibres1 though at its caudal end its insertion may again be tendinous4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the cutaneus maximus1 the outer layer of the pectoralis major 7,fig4 #fe1 l71 the pectoantibrachialis 7m71 and the clavobrachial 7k74 ,inner surface with the pectoralis minor 7o71 the proximal end of the humerus1 the coracobrachialis 7,fig4 #gg1 f71 and the supraspinatus 7,fig4 #gg1 d7 at the insertion of the latter4 ,at the cranial part of its origin it touches the sternomastoid 7,fig4 #fe1 g7 and sternohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 e74 ,action4--,draws the arm mediad and turns the foot forward4 ,m4 pectoralis minor1 or entopectoralis 7,fig4 #fe1 o74--,this is a fan-shaped mass of fibres1 flat but thicker than the pectoralis major4 ,origin from the lateral half of the first six divisions of the body of the sternum and sometimes from the xiphoid process4 ,the fibres are divisible into several bundles which vary in extent and distinctness and are sometimes described as separate muscles4 ,they pass craniolaterad and converge so that the line of insertion is about one-half as long as that of the origin4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #ha1 d7 into the humerus along a line which forms the ventral border of the bicipital groove at the proximal end of the bone1 passes thence onto the pectoral ridge and continues in the direction of the pectoral ridge nearly as far as the middle of the length of the humerus4 ,the cranial and caudal fibres are inserted by means of a thin tendon2 the middle fibres directly4 ,the cranial border of the tendon of insertion is continued as a thin tendon to the coracoid process2 it is closely united with the insertion of the supraspinatus4 ,relations4--,by its outer surface with the pectoralis major 7,fig4 #fe1 l7 over its cranial half2 with the cutaneus maximus1 latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fe1 q71 and integument over its caudal half4 ,by its inner surface with the xiphihumeralis 7,fig4 #fe1 p71 rectus abdominis 7,fig4 #gc1 k71 and a mass of fat in the axilla4 ,the tendon of the xiphihumeralis is also connected with its inner surface near its insertion4 ,its cranial border is free4 ,its caudal border is in relation at its medial end with the xiphihumeralis1 at its lateral end with the tendon of the latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fe1 q74 ,action4--,draws the arm toward the middle line4 ,m4 xiphihumeralis 7,fig4 #fe1 q74--,a long1 thin1 narrow muscle which may be considered as part of the pectoralis minor4 ,origin a median raphe along the xiphoid process or at an angle to the median line on the rectus abdominis muscle4 ,it passes craniad1 becoming gradually smaller1 and about two centimeters from its insertion ends in a thin tendon4 ,insertion4--,it ends in a flat tendon which in passing is connected by a strong fascia with the tendon of the latissimus 7,fig4 #fe1 q74 ,it passes along the inner surface of the pectoralis minor 7o7 to be inserted with its cranial fibres near the ventral border of the bicipital groove4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the cutaneus maximus at its medial end1 with the pectoralis minor 7o7 at its distal end4 ,inner surface with the external oblique 7,fig4 #fh1 p71 the rectus abdominis 7,fig4 #gc1 k71 and a mass of fat in the axilla4 ,borders free4 ,some of the fibres of the cutaneus maximus are attached to its outer surface4 ,action4--,assists the pectoralis minor4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,wall ,,of ,,the ,,thorax4 ,m4 serratus posterior superior 7,fig4 #gc1 l74--,a thin sheet of muscle and tendon beneath the serratus anterior 7i7 on the dorsal part of the thorax and neck4 ,origin by fleshy slips from the outer surfaces of the first nine ribs just ventrad of their angles4 ,the origin may extend as far as the tenth or eleventh ribs4 ,the first slip is usually delicate4 ,the fibres are directed dorsad and craniad and unite to form a continuous sheet4 ,this ends along a longitudinal line opposite the vertebral transverse processes in the aponeurosis which covers the longissimus dorsi and other muscles in this region4 ,its insertion is into the median dorsal raphe between the axial spinous process and the tenth thoracic spinous process4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the serratus anterior 7i71 the latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 m71 and the rhomboideus4 ,inner surface with the external intercostals 7,fig4 #gc1 m71 the iliocostal 7,fig4 #fi1 h71 the longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f71 the spinalis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g71 and the splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b74 ,action4--,draws the ribs craniad4 ,m4 serratus posterior inferior 7,fig4 #gc1 n74--,the serratus posterior inferior is a thin muscle lying caudad of the serratus posterior superior 7l7 and sometimes overlying the caudal end of the latter4 ,origin by four or five heads from the last four or five ribs4 ,in some specimens only three heads may be present4 ,the separate bundles pass dorsocaudad and unite to form a continuous sheet which ends in a continuation of the aponeurosis of the serratus posterior superior 7l74 ,insertion into the lumbar spinous processes and the intervening interspinous ligaments4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 p71 and at the origins with the intercostales externi 7,fig4 #gc1 m74 ,inner surface with the intercostales interni 7,fig4 #fi1 k7 at the origin and with the intercostales externi 7,fig4 #fi1 i71 iliocostal 7,fig4 #fi1 h71 longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f71 and the caudal end of the spinalis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,,body ,,muscles ,,exposed ,,after ,,removal ,,of ,,the ,,forelimb ,,and ,,the ,,muscles ,,shown ,,in ,,fig4 #fh4 a1 ,m4 occipitoscapularis 7cut72 b1 ,m4 splenius2 c1 ,m4 levator scapul ventralis 7cut72 d1 ,m4 cleidomastoideus 7cut72 e1 ,m4 longus capitis2 f1 ,m4 scalenus 7f1 middle division2 f1 dorsal division2 f1 ventral division2 f1 cervical portion72 g1 ,m4 longissimus capitis2 h1 ,m4 levator scapul 7cut72 i1 ,m4 serratus anterior 7cut72 j1 ,m4 transversus costarum2 k1 ,m4 rectus abdominis 7k1 its tendon72 l1 ,m4 serratus posterior superior2 m1 ,m4 intercostales externi2 n1 ,m4 serratus posterior inferior2 o1 ,m4 obliquus abdominis internus2 p1 lumbodorsal fascia4 ,action4--,assists the serratus posterior superior4 ,m4 transversus costarum1 or sternocostalis externus 7,fig4 #gc1 j74--,this is a thin muscle applied to the cranial part of the side of the thorax1 covering the cranial end of the rectus abdominis 7k74 ,origin by tendon from the side of the sternum between the attachments of the third and sixth ribs4 ,the muscle passes dorsocraniad to its ,insertion on the first rib and the lateral portion of its costal cartilage4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the pectoralis minor 7,fig4 #fe1 o74 ,inner surface with the scalenus 7,fig4 #gc1 f71 the rectus abdominis 7,fig4 #gc1 k71 and the intercostales externi 7,fig4 #gc1 m74 ,at its insertion it is united with a portion of the scalenus 7,fig4 #gc1 f74 ,action4--,draws the sternum forward4 ,mm4 levatores costarum4--,small muscles having origin on the transverse processes of the thoracic vertebr1 passing caudoventrad1 and becoming inserted on the angle of the rib lying immediately caudad of the origin4 ,they are continuous with the external intercostals4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f71 and craniad with the iliocostal 7,fig4 #fi1 h74 ,inner surface with the internal intercostals 7,fig4 #fi1 k74 ,action4--,pull the ribs dorsocraniad4 ,mm4 intercostales externi 7,fig4 #gc1 m2 ,fig4 #fi1 i74--,the external intercostals are placed in the outer portion of the intercostal spaces4 ,they are composed of bundles of fibres attached by their ends to the adjacent borders of the ribs and having in general the direction of the external oblique muscle1 i4e41 they pass from their cranial ends caudoventrad4 ,they occupy the intercostal spaces between the true ribs and extend even caudad into the spaces between the false ribs4 ,they are lacking between the ventral ends of the costal cartilages of the first six to eight ribs1 so that the internal intercostals 7,fig4 #fi1 k7 are here exposed4 ,the more caudal external intercostals are more nearly craniocaudal in direction4 ,relations4--,outer surface with obliquus abdominis externus 7,fig4 #fh1 p71 latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 m71 serratus posterior inferior 7,fig4 #gc1 n7 and superior 7,fig4 #gc1 l71 serratus anterior 7,fig4 #gc1 i71 scalenus 7,fig4 #gc1 f71 and iliocostal 7,fig4 #fi1 h74 ,inner surface with the internal intercostals 7,fig4 #fi1 k74 ,action4--,protractors of the ribs4 ,mm4 intercostales interni 7,fig4 #fi1 k74--,the internal intercostals are similar to the external intercostals1 beneath which they lie4 ,their fibres pass between the ribs at nearly right angles to those of the external intercostals and have nearly the direction of the fibres of the internal oblique4 ,they occupy all the intercostal spaces from the first to the thirteenth ribs4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the external intercostals 7,fig4 #fi1 i71 and ventrad with the scalenus 7,fig4 #gc1 f71 transversus costarum 7,fig4 #gc1 j71 and rectus abdominis 7,fig4 #gc1 k74 ,inner surface with the pleura and the transversus thoracis4 ,action4--,retractors of the ribs4 ,m4 transversus thoracis 7triangularis sterni2 sternocostalis internus74--,this represents a thoracic portion of the transversus abdominis4 ,it consists of five or six flat muscular bands lying on the inner surface of the thoracic wall4 ,origin on the lateral borders of the dorsal face of the sternum1 opposite the attachments of the cartilages of the third to the eighth ribs4 ,the six bands thus formed1 each about one centimeter wide1 pass laterad and are inserted into the cartilages of the ribs near their junction with the ribs1 and into the fascia which covers the inner surface of the internal intercostals in this region4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the internal intercostals and the cartilages of the ribs4 ,inner surface with the pleura4 ,diaphragma 7,fig4 #gd74--,the diaphragm consists of a central so-called semilunar tendon 7e7 and of muscular fibres which pass radially from the body wall to the tendon4 ,it forms a complete oblique partition between the abdominal and thoracic cavities4 ,the dorsal end is farther caudad than the ventral4 ,the central tendon 7e7 is thin and irregularly crescent-shaped1 with the convexity ventrad and the horns of the crescent prolonged as two tendinous bands 7e7 which end in two triangular membranous portions 7d7 of the diaphragm1 one on each side of the spinal column4 ,it is pierced by an opening for the vena cava 7f74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,,diaphragm1 ,,caudal ,,surface ,,seen ,,obliquely ,,from ,,the ,,right4 a1 right crus2 b1 left crus2 c1 c1 sternocostal part of diaphragm2 d1 d1 membranous portions of the diaphragm2 e1 central tendon2 e1 prolongations of central tendon2 f1 opening for posterior vena cava2 g1 sophagus2 h1 aorta2 i1 ,m4 transversus abdominis4 ,the muscular portion is in two parts3 7a7 ,the vertebral portion 7a1 b7 arises by a single tendon from the ventral surface of the second1 third1 and fourth lumbar centra4 ,the tendon diverges into two1 the right one 7a7 of which is much stronger1 and from each of the two arise muscle-fibres4 ,each mass of fibres is one of the two crura 7sing4 crus7 of the diaphragm4 ,the aorta 7h7 enters the abdomen between the crura dorsally4 ,the fibres of each crus diverge to be inserted into the central tendon and the dorsal continuation of its horn4 ,the two sets of fibres unite ventrad of the opening of the aorta4 ,between this opening and the central tendon is another opening for the sophagus 7g72 this lies entirely in that part of the diaphragm which arises from the right crus 7a74 ,the fibres are again united ventrad of the sophageal opening4 7b7 ,the sternocostal part 7c1 c7 takes origin from the xiphoid process and the last five ribs1 by fleshy bundles which interdigitate with those of the transversus abdominis 7i74 ,the fibres converge to the central tendon 7e74 ,between the crus of each side and the most dorsal of the costal fibres is the membranous interval 7d7 mentioned above4 #d4 ,abdominal ,muscles4 ,m4 obliquus abdominis externus 7,fig4 #fh1 p74--,a large1 thin sheet of muscle covering the whole abdomen and part of the thorax ventrally4 ,origin4--7a7 ,from the last nine or ten ribs by means of as many tendons1 which are interconnected to form arches that span the slips of the serratus anterior4 ,the muscle-fibres arise from these tendons and from their intervening arches4 7b7 ,from the lumbodorsal aponeurosis common to it and the internal oblique4 ,the cranial fibres pass nearly ventrad1 the caudal fibres caudad1 and the intervening fibres take an intermediate course4 ,the fibres end in a thin aponeurosis of insertion along a curved line which passes at first caudad and then laterodorsad4 ,the aponeurosis fibres continue in the direction of the muscle-fibres to the ,insertion into the median raphe ventrad of the sternum from the insertion of the seventh costal cartilage to the xiphoid process1 into the linea alba from the sternum to the pubic tubercle1 and into the tubercle and the cranial border of the pubis4 ,caudad of the xiphoid process the aponeurosis is closely united to the superficial layer of the internal oblique1 where it forms the outer layer of the sheath of the rectus abdominis4 ,laterad of the pubic tubercle the tendon is perforated by the inguinal canal4 ,in the cat neither the caudal part of the muscle nor its tendon is attached to the ilium1 as it is in man and the dog1 so that no ,poupart's ligament1 or inguinal ligament1 is formed4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the cutaneus maximus1 the integument1 and near the origin with the latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fh1 m74 ,inner surface with the obliquus internus 7,fig4 #gc1 o71 the rectus abdominis 7,fig4 #gc1 k71 the intercostales externi 7,fig4 #gc1 m71 a small part of the serratus posterior inferior 7,fig4 #gc1 n71 and by its dorsal tendon with the longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,action4--,constrictor of the abdomen4 ,m4 obliquus abdominis internus 7,fig4 #gc1 o74--,a thin sheet similar to the preceding but of less extent4 ,its fibres cross those of the external oblique nearly at right angles and lie beneath them4 ,origin4--7#a7 ,between the fourth and seventh lumbar vertebr from the lumbar aponeurosis which is common to it and the external oblique4 ,the lumbar aponeurosis takes origin from the lumbar spinous processes and the interspinous ligaments1 and is continuous craniad with the aponeurosis of the serratus posterior inferior4 ,laterad it splits into three sheets1 two for the above-named muscles and a third which passes to the vertebral transverse processes and forms the fascia covering the supraspinous muscles of the lumbar region4 7#b7 ,by a similar aponeurosis from the ventral half of the iliac crest4 7#c7 ,by fleshy fibres from the three crural arches4 ,these are three delicate ligamentous arches which stretch from the crest of the ilium to the pubic spine4 ,the dorsal one gives exit to the iliopsoas muscle1 the middle to the femoral vessels1 and the ventral to the spermatic cord4 ,in the female the middle and ventral arches may fuse4 ,the pillar between the dorsal and middle arches is attached to the iliopectineal eminence4 ,insertion4--,the fibres pass cranioventrad and end along a longitudinal line in a thin aponeurosis of insertion1 which is united in the linea alba to those of the external oblique and transversus4 ,at the caudal end of the aponeurosis all its fibres pass outside of the rectus abdominis 7,fig4 #gc1 k74 ,at its cranial end the fibres divide into two sheets or lamin1 one of which passes outside of the rectus and the other inside4 ,the outer lamina unites with the aponeurosis of the external oblique1 while the inner lamina unites with that of the transversus4 ,there is thus formed a sheath for the cranial part of the rectus muscle4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the obliquus externus 7,fig4 #fh1 p74 ,inner surface with the transversus abdominis 7,fig4 #fi1 l71 and by its ventral tendon with the rectus4 ,action4--,compressor of the abdomen4 ,m4 transversus abdominis 7,fig4 #fi1 l74--,a thin sheet covering the whole surface of the abdomen and lying beneath the internal oblique4 ,its fibres are nearly transverse4 ,origin4--7#a7 ,by fleshy fibres or by a thin aponeurosis from the cartilages of all the false and floating ribs1 by interdigitation with the fibres of the diaphragm4 7#b7 ,from the tips of all the lumbar transverse processes4 7#c7 ,from the ventral border of the ilium4 7#d7 ,from the dorsal and middle of the three crural arches1 where it may blend partly with the internal oblique4 ,the muscle is continuous craniad with the transversus thoracis muscle4 ,near the lateral border of the rectus abdominis the muscle ends in a thin aponeurosis of insertion which is continued 7its fibres having the direction of the muscle-fibres7 to the ,insertion in the linea alba4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the internal oblique 7,fig4 #gc1 o7 and the rectus abdominis 7,fig4 #gc1 k71 dorsad also with the longissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 f74 ,inner surface with a thin fascia covering the peritoneum and ventrocaudad with the rectus 7,fig4 #gc1 k74 ,the dorsal edge of the muscle touches the iliopsoas and longissimus dorsi2 the ventral edge touches the muscle of the opposite side4 ,action4--,constrictor of the abdomen4 ,m4 rectus abdominis 7,fig4 #gc1 k74--,a rather thick1 flat muscle which lies near the median ventral line separated by the linea alba from its fellow of the opposite side and stretching from the pubis to the first costal cartilage4 ,opposite the first lumbar vertebra it is approximately four centimeters wide4 ,it narrows at both ends4 ,origin by a strong tendon from the tubercle of the pubis4 ,the muscle passes craniad at first between the peritoneal fascia and the transversus aponeurosis1 then in the sheath formed by the internal and external oblique and the transversus aponeurosis4 ,it emerges from the sheath opposite the xiphoid process and passes ventrad of the costal cartilages4 ,between the third and fourth costal cartilages it ends in a thin tendon which passes beneath the transversus costarum and is ,inserted into the first costal cartilage near its middle1 into the second costal cartilage near its sternal end1 and into the sternum between the first and fourth cartilages4 ,relations4--,outer surface of the cranial part of the muscle and its tendon with the pectoralis minor 7,fig4 #fh1 o7 and the transversus costarum 7,fig4 #gc1 j72 caudad the muscle is covered by the outer layer of the rectus sheath4 ,lateral edge with the obliquus externus 7,fig4 #fh1 p71 obliquus internus 7,fig4 #gc1 o71 and transversus abdominis 7,fig4 #fi1 l74 ,medial edge with the muscle of the opposite side4 ,inner surface with the internal intercostals 7,fig4 #fi1 k7 and the rib cartilages2 the inner layer of the rectus sheath and the peritoneum4 ,action4--,retracts the ribs and sternum and compresses the abdomen4 ,,iv4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,thoracic ,,limbs4 ,the muscles connecting the thoracic limbs with the rest of the body have been described4 #a4 ,muscles of the ,shoulder4 ,a4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,lateral ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,shoulder4 ,m4 deltoideus4--,the deltoid muscle of the cat is divided into two 7or three7 portions which are together equivalent to the human deltoid4 ,these are the spinodeltoid1 the acromiodeltoid1 and possibly the clavobrachial1 which is frequently called clavodeltoid4 ,m4 spinodeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 e2 ,fig4 #fh1 i74--,a rather thick1 flat muscle between the scapular spine and the deltoid ridge of the humerus4 ,it forms a chord of the angle between the glenoid border of the scapula and the humerus4 ,origin by short tendon-fibres from the glenoid border of somewhat more than the middle third of the spine of the scapula 7,fig4 #gf1 g71 and from a tendinous raphe between the spinotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 j71 acromiotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 h71 and infraspinatus 7,fig4 #ge1 c74 ,the origin may pass toward the vertebral border of the scapula onto the infraspinatus muscle 7,fig4 #ge1 c74 ,insertion 7,fig4 #ha1 h7 by a flat tendon upon the deltoid ridge of the humerus1 nearly parallel to that of the pectoralis major4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument and at the insertion with the acromiodeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 f74 ,inner surface with the infraspinatus 7c71 teres minor 7,fig4 #hj1 c71 caput laterale 7,fig4 #ge1 h71 and caput longum 7,fig4 #ge1 g7 of the triceps muscle4 ,action4--,flexes the humerus and rotates it outward4 ,m4 acromiodeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 f2 ,fig4 #fh1 g74--,a flat muscle which overlies the distal end of the spinodeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 c74 ,it connects the acromion with the humerus4 ,origin 7,fig4 #gf1 d74--,from the glenoid border of the acromion1 and sometimes the adjacent metacromion as far as the tip4 ,insertion4--,mostly upon the outer surface of the spinodeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 c74 ,the outer fibres are continued to the bone1 especially at the lateral border of the muscle1 and are inserted along a line ventrad of the line of insertion of the spinodeltoideus1 and extending farther distally 7,fig4 #ha1 g74 ,some of the outer fibres pass into the brachialis 7,fig4 #hj1 h74 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument and the clavobrachial 7,fig4 #fh1 e74 ,inner surface with the infraspinatus 7,fig4 #ge1 c71 teres minor 7,fig4 #hj1 c71 spinodeltoid 7,fig4 #ge1 e71 and caput laterale of the triceps 7,fig4 #ge1 h74 ,action4--,like that of the spinodeltoid4 ,m4 clavobrachialis 7,fig4 #fe1 k2 ,fig4 #fh1 e74--,a flat1 triangular muscle on the cranial surface of the shoulder1 forming a direct continuation of the clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d74 ,these two are frequently described as constituting a single muscle1 the cephalohumeral or cephalobrachial4 7,the clavobrachial is frequently given the name clavodeltoid2 as its homology with the human clavodeltoid appears doubtful1 it seems well to use the name clavobrachial1 as proposed by ,clasen47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,lateral ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,arm4 a1 ,m4 supraspinatus2 b1 part of insertion of ,m4 rhomboideus2 c1 ,m4 infraspinatus2 d1 ,m4 teres major2 e1 ,m4 spinodeltoideus2 f1 ,m4 acromiodeltoideus2 g1 caput longum of ,m4 triceps brachii2 h1 caput laterale of ,m4 triceps brachii2 i1 ,m4 brachialis2 j1 ,m4 biceps2 k1 ,m4 brachioradialis2 l1 ,m4 extensor carpi radialis longus2 m1 ,m4 extensor communis digitorum 7m1 tendon of same72 n1 ,m4 extensor lateralis digitorum2 7n1 tendon of same72 o1 ,m4 extensor carpi ulnaris 7o1 tendon of same72 p1 ,m4 extensor indicis proprius2 q1 fifth head of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 r1 ,m4 flexor carpi ulnaris4 #a1 vertebral border of the scapula2 #b1 spine of the scapula2 #c1 greater tuberosity of the humerus2 #d1 olecranon2 #e1 transverse ligament of the wrist4 ,origin4--,its superficial fibres are continuations of the clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d72 other fibres have origin from the clavicle and from a raphe laterad of the clavicle which is common to this muscle and the clavotrapezius4 ,it passes distad along the cranial surface of the arm1 growing narrower as it approaches the convexity of the elbow4 ,insertion4--,eight to ten millimeters from the ulna it joins the brachialis muscle 7,fig4 #gi1 i7 to be inserted with it by a flat tendon 7,fig4 #gi1 i2 ,fig4 #hg1 c7 upon a rough area on the medial surface of the ulna just distad of the semilunar notch1 and about midway between the dorsal and ventral borders4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument4 ,inner surface with the pectoralis major 7,fig4 #fe1 l71 biceps 7,fig4 #gg1 g71 lateral head of the triceps 7,fig4 #ge1 h71 acromiodeltoid 7,fig4 #ge1 f71 and brachialis 7,fig4 #hj1 h74 ,medial border with the pectoantibrachialis 7,fig4 #fe1 m74 ,lateral border free except near the insertion1 where it is in relation with the brachialis4 ,action4--,flexor of the antibrachium4 ,m4 supraspinatus 7,fig4 #ge1 a7 occupies the whole of the supraspinatus fossa of the scapula4 ,it is covered by strong fascia which stretches from the free edge of the spine to the coracoid border of the scapula and to the coracoid half of its vertebral border4 ,origin 7,fig4 #gf1 b7 by fleshy fibres from the whole surface of the supraspinatus fossa1 from the above-mentioned fascia1 and from the subscapularis 7,fig4 #gg1 a7 craniad of the coracoid border of the scapula4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hc1 a74--,it passes over the capsule of the shoulder-joint1 to which it is closely attached1 and is inserted into the free border of the great tuberosity ventrad 7or proximad7 of the fossa for the infraspinatus 7,fig4 #hc1 c74 ,relations4--,outer surface with the spinotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 j71 acromiotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 h71 levator scapul ventralis 7,fig4 #fh1 f71 clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d71 and cleidomastoid 7,fig4 #fe1 h74 ,inner surface with the scapula4 ,the distal end of the coracoid border is closely related to the pectoralis minor 7,fig4 #gi1 f74 ,the glenoid border is related to the origin of the deltoidei4 ,action4--,extends the humerus after it has been flexed on the scapula4 ,m4 infraspinatus 7,fig4 #ge1 c74--,this fills the infraspinatus fossa1 its fibres converging to the insertion on the great tuberosity of the humerus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,lateral ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,scapula1 ,,with ,,the ,,areas ,,of ,,attachment ,,of ,,muscles4 a1 ,m4 infraspinatus2 b1 ,m4 supraspinatus2 c1 origin of ,m4 biceps2 d1 ,m4 acromiodeltoideus2 e1 ,m4 teres minor2 f1 ,m4 levator scapul ventralis2 g1 ,m4 spinodeltoideus2 h1 ,m4 acromiotrapezius2 i1 ,m4 rhomboideus2 j1 ,m4 teres major2 k-l1 line of insertion of ,m4 spinotrapezius4 ,origin 7,fig4 #gf1 a74--,by fleshy fibres from the whole infraspinatus fossa1 and by a raphe between it and the teres major 7,fig4 #ge1 d71 and sometimes by fibres from the teres minor 7,fig4 #hj1 c71 triceps1 spinodeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 e71 spinotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 j71 and subscapularis 7,fig4 #gg1 a74 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hc1 c74--,by a flat tendon which passes over the capsule of the joint1 into the ventral half of the infraspinatus fossa on the great tuberosity of the humerus4 7,the dorsal half of the fossa is covered by a synovial bursa47 ,relations4--,outer surface with the spinotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 j71 spinodeltoid 7,fig4 #fh1 i71 acromiodeltoid 7,fig4 #fh1 g71 teres major 7,fig4 #ge1 d71 and levator scapul ventralis 7,fig4 #fh1 f74 ,inner surface with the scapula4 ,glenoid border with the teres minor 7,fig4 #hj1 c71 the teres major 7,fig4 #ge1 d71 and the long head of the triceps 7,fig4 #ge1 g74 ,action4--,rotates the humerus outward4 ,m4 teres minor 7,fig4 #hj1 c74--,a small muscle from the glenoid border of the scapula to the proximal end of the humerus4 ,origin 7,fig4 #gf1 e7 by a sheet of tendinous fibres from the glenoid border of the scapula beginning about one-fifth the length of the border from the glenoid fossa and extending to its middle4 ,it is often attached to the infraspinatus 7,fig4 #hj1 b7 and the caput longum of the triceps 7,fig4 #ge1 g74 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hc1 d7 by a short tendon into the tubercle just distad of the infraspinatus fossa on the great tuberosity of the humerus4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the spinodeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 e71 acromiodeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 f71 and the infraspinatus 7,fig4 #hj1 b74 ,inner surface with the lateral 7,fig4 #ge1 h7 and long 7,fig4 #ge1 g7 heads of the triceps and the capsule of the joint4 ,action4--,assists the infraspinatus to rotate the humerus outward4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,medial ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,shoulder4 7,fig4 #gg47 ,m4 subscapularis 7,fig4 #gg1 a74--,a triangular mass from the subscapular fossa to the lesser tuberosity of the humerus4 ,origin 7,fig4 #gh1 a74--,from the whole subscapular fossa except along the fusiform area for the attachment of the levator scapul and the serratus anterior near the vertebral border1 and except over a quadrangular area about one centimeter long near the glenoid angle4 ,the origin is by fleshy fibres directly from the periosteum except along two or three lines marked by oblique ridges4 ,to these lines are attached tendinous fibres4 ,at the glenoid border the area of origin sometimes occupies part or the whole of the surface of the fossa for the origin of the teres major1 so that the teres arises from the fascia on the surface of the subscapularis4 ,at the coracoid border some of the fibres may take origin from the adjacent fascia of the supraspinatus 7,fig4 #gg1 d74 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hb1 b74--,the fibres converge to the glenoid border1 and the insertion is by a strong1 flat tendon into the dorsal border of the lesser tuberosity of the humerus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,medial ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,arm4 ,m4 epitrochlearis1 ,m4 clavobrachialis1 and the breast-muscles have been removed4 a1 ,m4 subscapularis2 b1 insertion of ,m4 levator scapul and of ,m4 serratus anterior2 c1 ,m4 teres major2 d1 ,m4 supraspinatus2 e1 ,m4 latissimus dorsi 7e1 cut edge of that part which becomes united with the bicipital arch72 f1 ,m4 coracobrachialis2 g1 ,m4 biceps brachii 7the capsule of the joint has been laid open to show its tendon72 h1 cut insertions of pectoralis muscles2 i1 caput longum of ,m4 triceps brachii2 j1 long portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps brachii2 k1 intermediate portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps brachii2 l1 short portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps brachii2 m1 cut end of ,m4 clavobrachialis2 n1 ,m4 brachioradialis2 o1 ,m4 extensor carpi radialis longus2 p1 ,m4 extensor carpi radialis brevis2 q1 ,m4 pronator teres2 r1 ,m4 flexor carpi radialis2 s1 ,m4 palmaris longus 7s1 its tendons72 t1 ,m4 flexor carpi ulnaris 7t1 ulnar head2 t1 humeral head72 u1 third head of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 u1 fifth head of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 u1 one of the tendons of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 v1 ,m4 pronator quadratus2 w1 ,m4 abductor brevis pollicis2 x1 ulnar part of ,m4 flexor sublimis digitorum4 #a1 transverse ligament of the wrist4 ,relations4--,lateral surface with the scapula and the capsule of the shoulder-joint4 ,medial surface with the levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h71 serratus anterior 7,fig4 #gc1 i71 part of the scalenus 7,fig4 #gc1 f71 the transversus costarum 7,fig4 #gc1 j71 and the coracobrachialis 7,fig4 #gg1 f74 ,cranial border with the supraspinatus 7,fig4 #gg1 d74 ,caudal border with the teres major 7,fig4 #gg1 c7 and infraspinatus 7,fig4 #ge1 c74 ,action4--,pulls the humerus inward 7mediad74 ,m4 teres major 7,fig4 #ge1 d2 ,fig4 #gg1 c74--,a thick muscle1 triangular in cross-section1 lying parallel with the glenoid border of the scapula4 ,origin 7,fig4 #gf1 j2 ,fig4 #gh1 b7 from the vertebral one-third of the glenoid border of the scapula1 and from fascia covering the subscapularis 7,fig4 #gg1 a7 and the infraspinatus 7,fig4 #ge1 c7 over a small area near the glenovertebral angle of the scapula4 ,it may touch the insertion of the rhomboideus4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hb1 f7 by a tendon common to it and the latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #gi1 d71 as already described4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the caput longum 7,fig4 #ge1 g7 and the long portion 7,fig4 #hj1 f7 of the caput mediale of the triceps1 the latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #gg1 e71 and the cutaneus maximus4 ,inner surface with the serratus anterior 7,fig4 #gc1 i71 the scalenus 7,fig4 #gc1 f71 the transversus costarum 7,fig4 #gc1 j71 and the biceps 7,fig4 #gg1 g74 ,dorsal border with the subscapularis 7,fig4 #gg1 a7 and infraspinatus 7,fig4 #ge1 c74 ,action4--,rotates the humerus inward and flexes it in opposition to the infraspinatus1 teres minor1 and the deltoidei4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,,medial ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,scapula ,,with ,,the ,,areas ,,of ,,attachment ,,of ,,muscles4 a1 ,m4 subscapularis2 b1 ,m4 teres major2 c1 ,m4 serratus anterior2 d1 ,m4 levator scapul2 e1 ,m4 rhomboideus2 f1 ,m4 occipitoscapularis2 g1 ,m4 biceps2 h1 ,m4 coracobrachialis2 i1 caput longum of ,m4 triceps4 #b4 ,muscles of the ,brachium or ,upper ,arm4 ,m4 clavobrachialis and the pectoralis group 7,fig4 #fe1 page #aji7 lie partly in this region2 they have been described4 ,m4 coracobrachialis 7,fig4 #gg1 f2 ,fig4 #gi1 c74--,a very short muscle covering the inner 7medial7 surface of the capsule of the shoulder-joint4 ,it extends from the coracoid process to the proximal end of the humerus4 ,origin 7,fig4 #gh1 h74--,by a round tendon from the tip of the coracoid process4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hb1 e7 usually by fleshy fibres on an area five to eight millimeters long and about half as wide1 which lies on the medial side of the humerus parallel with the ridge which runs from the dorsal end of the lesser tuberosity to the shaft and close to it4 ,the proximal end of the area is about one centimeter from the proximal end of the head of the humerus4 ,relations4--,medial surface with the biceps 7,fig4 #gg1 g71 pectoralis minor 7,fig4 #fe1 o71 and teres major 7,fig4 #gg1 c74 ,lateral surface with the capsule of the shoulder-joint4 ,dorsal border with the subscapularis 7,fig4 #gg1 a7 and the long portion of the caput mediale of the triceps 7,fig4 #gg1 j74 ,action4--,adducts the humerus4 ,the part of the coracobrachialis just described is known as the short head4 ,a long head is sometimes found4 ,it is a conical bundle of fibres of varying size1 which arises from the tendon of origin of the short head4 ,it passes distad into a long and extremely slender tendon1 the insertion of which varies greatly in different individuals4 ,it is commonly on the humerus in the region of the supracondyloid foramen4 ,m4 epitrochlearis or extensor antibrachii longus 7,fig4 #fe1 r74--,a thin1 flat muscle on the inner or medial side of the brachium1 from the lateral surface of the latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fe1 q7 to the olecranon process of the ulna4 ,origin from the lateral or outer surface of the ventral border of the latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fe1 q7 near the insertion of the cutaneus maximus4 ,fibres are often attached to the teres major and the pectoralis minor4 ,insertion by a flat tendon which is closely connected with that of the pectoantibrachialis 7,fig4 #fe1 m7 and is continuous with the general antibrachial fascia1 into the caudal border of the cutaneous 7dorsal7 surface of the olecranon process of the ulna4 ,relations4--,outer 7medial7 surface with the integument1 the latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #fe1 q71 and the cutaneus maximus4 ,inner 7lateral7 surface with the biceps 7,fig4 #fe1 t71 caput longum 7,fig4 #fe1 s71 and caput mediale 7,fig4 #gg1 j1 k7 of the triceps4 ,action4--,extends the antibrachium and tends to supinate the hand by rotating the ulna4 ,m4 biceps brachii 7,fig4 #gg1 g2 ,fig4 #fe1 t74--,a thick1 fusiform muscle lying on the front 7ventral7 surface of the humerus4 ,origin 7,fig4 #gf1 c7 by a strong1 round tendon from the bicipital tubercle of the glenoid angle of the scapula1 at its coracoid margin4 7,in man there is a second head--coracoid head--from the coracoid process47 ,the tendon passes through the capsule of the joint and then along the bicipital groove1 which is converted into a canal by a strong ligament4 ,insertion by a rounded tendon 7,fig4 #hg1 b7 on the bicipital tuberosity of the radius 7,fig4 #hf1 k74 ,relations4--,the tendon of origin passes through the capsule of the joint1 which is covered by a part of the pectoralis minor4 ,the muscle is then spanned for the middle part of its course by the bicipital arch 7,fig4 #fe1 t71 a description of which is given below4 ,farther distad it is covered by the clavobrachial 7,fig4 #fe1 k7 and epitrochlearis 7,fig4 #fe1 r74 ,at its distal end 7,fig4 #gi1 l7 the muscle passes between the pronator teres on the radial side and the conjoined tendon of the brachialis and clavobrachial 7,fig4 #gi1 i7 on the other4 ,the biceps lies throughout most of its length on the ventral surface of the humerus1 and touches along the medial border of its inner surface the coracobrachialis 7,fig4 #gg1 f71 the teres major1 7,fig4 #gg1 c71 the intermediate portion of the caput mediale of the triceps 7,fig4 #gg1 k71 and the short portion 7,fig4 #gg1 l7 of the same4 ,its lateral border touches the pectoralis minor 7,fig4 #fe1 o7 and the brachialis 7,fig4 #gi1 i74 ,action4--,flexes the forearm1 and tends to supinate the hand4 ,the bicipital arch 7,fig4 #fe1 t7 is a tendinous arch formed over the biceps muscle4 ,its outer or lateral pillar is formed by the tendon of the pectoralis minor 7o71 to which may be added part of the latissimus 7q7 tendon4 ,its inner or medial pillar is formed by the conjoined tendon of the teres major and latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #gi1 d71 while the xiphihumeralis 7,fig4 #fe1 p71 cutaneus maximus 7,fig4 #fb1 b71 and epitrochlearis 7,fig4 #fe1 r7 are connected with one or the other pillar or with the muscles composing them4 ,the caudal portion of the deep layer of the pectoralis major 7,fig4 #fe1 l7 may be connected with the inner pillar4 ,m4 brachialis 7,fig4 #gi1 i2 ,fig4 #ge1 i74--,from the lateral surface of the humerus to the ulna4 ,origin 7,fig4 #hc1 g1 g7 from a long ,v-shaped line two to four millimeters wide on the lateral surface of the humerus4 ,the apex of the ,v is just distad of the teres minor tubercle 7d74 ,its dorsal limb 7g7 extends along the lateral supracondyloid ridge to a point opposite the proximal margin of the supracondyloid foramen2 its ventral limb 7g7 extends in the direction of the deltoid ridge to the middle of the bone4 ,no muscle-fibres take origin between the two limbs4 ,the fibres converge and end in a flat tendon which joins the tendon of the clavobrachial 7,fig4 #gi1 k74 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hg1 c74--,the dorsal portion of the depressed rough area on the lateral surface of the ulna just distad of the semilunar notch4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the acromiodeltoid 7,fig4 #ge1 f71 the caput laterale of the triceps 7,fig4 #ge1 h71 the brachioradialis 7,fig4 #ge1 k71 and the proximal end of the extensor carpi radialis longus 7,fig4 #ge1 l74 ,inner surface with the humerus4 ,medial edge with the pectoralis major 7,fig4 #fe1 l7 and the biceps 7,fig4 #gg1 g74 ,action4--,flexor of the antibrachium4 ,m4 triceps brachii4--,the triceps muscle of the cat1 like that of man1 is divisible 7as its name indicates7 into three main portions4 ,these are a lateral portion 7caput laterale71 an intermediate or long portion 7caput longum71 and a medial portion 7caput mediale74 ,the first two correspond to the similarly named heads in man2 the medial portion falls into a number of subdivisions whose homologues are uncertain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,,deep ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,medial ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,humerus4 a1 ,m4 supraspinatus2 b1 ,m4 subscapularis2 c1 ,m4 coracobrachialis2 d1 ,m4 teres major 7d1 its tendon72 e1 part of ,m4 latissimus dorsi joining the teres major2 f1 cut end of ,m4 pectoralis minor2 g1 long part of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps brachii2 h1 intermediate part of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps2 i1 ,m4 brachialis 7i1 its tendon72 j1 short part of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps2 k1 cut end of ,m4 clavobrachialis2 l1 l1 cut ends of ,m4 biceps2 m1 ,m4 brachioradialis2 n1 ,m4 extensor carpi radialis longus2 o1 ,m4 extensor carpi radialis brevis2 p1 fifth head of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 q1 first head of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum4 #a1 humerus2 #b1 olecranon2 #c1 medial epicondyle of humerus4 ,caput laterale 7anconeus lateralis7 7,fig4 #ge1 h2 ,fig4 #fh1 l74--,the lateral portion is a flat muscle 7most of it subcutaneous7 on the lateral side of the brachium1 connecting the proximal end of the humerus with the olecranon process of the ulna4 ,origin 7,fig4 #ha1 h74--,by a flat tendon from the proximal portion of the deltoid ridge and the distal border of the teres minor tubercle4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hf1 c7 by a thin1 flat tendon into the lateral border of the dorsal surface of the ulna between a point opposite the distal margin of the semilunar notch and the proximal end of the olecranon4 ,relations4--,lateral surface with the integument1 and at the proximal end with the spinodeltoid and acromiodeltoid 7,fig4 #ge1 e and f74 ,medial surface with the brachialis 7,fig4 #ge1 i71 the caput longum 7g71 the caput mediale1 the brachioradialis 7k71 the anconeus 7,fig4 #hj1 l71 and the origins of the extensor carpi radialis longus 7,fig4 #ge1 l71 the extensor communis digitorum 7m71 and the extensor digitorum lateralis 7n74 ,caput longum 7anconeus longus7 7,fig4 #ge1 g2 ,fig4 #fh1 k2 ,fig4 #gg1 i74--,a prismatic1 fusiform mass connecting the scapula with the olecranon4 ,origin 7,fig4 #gh1 i7 by a thick1 flat tendon from a triangular area one or two centimeters long at the glenoid end of the scapula on the glenoid border4 ,the base of the area is about one millimeter from the margin of the glenoid fossa4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hf1 b74--,the muscle ends in a thick tendon which passes over the bifurcated ventral end of the olecranon and is inserted upon the rounded tuberosity which forms the dorsal angle of the olecranon4 ,relations4--,lateral surface with the caput laterale 7,fig4 #ge1 h71 a portion of the caput mediale 7,fig4 #gg1 j and k71 the spinodeltoid 7,fig4 #ge1 e71 the infraspinatus 7,fig4 #ge1 c71 and the integument4 ,medial surface with the epitrochlearis 7,fig4 #fe1 r7 and the conjoined portions of the latissimus dorsi and teres major 7,fig4 #gi1 d74 ,ventral border with the caput mediale 7,fig4 #gg1 j and k74 ,caput mediale4--,the medial head consists of three portions 7,fig4 #gi1 g1 h1 j74 7#a7 ,the long portion 7anconeus posterior7 7,fig4 #gg1 j2 ,fig4 #gi1 g2 ,fig4 #hj1 f74 ,origin 7,fig4 #hc1 e7 from a triangular area on the dorsal surface of the humeral shaft4 ,the base of the area is against the articular head1 and its apex about one-sixth the length of the humerus from the head4 ,it is between the coracobrachialis and the lateral head of the triceps4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,,deep ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,lateral ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,humerus4 a1 part of ,m4 supraspinatus2 b1 part of ,m4 infraspinatus2 c1 ,m4 teres minor2 d1 ,m4 teres major2 e1 part of ,m4 latissimus dorsi joining ,m4 teres major2 f1 long part of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps brachii2 g1 cut insertion of ,m4 acromiodeltoideus2 h1 ,m4 brachialis2 i1 ,m4 brachioradialis2 j1 intermediate part of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps brachii2 k1 ,m4 extensor carpi radialis longus2 l1 ,m4 anconeus2 m1 ,m4 extensor communis digitorum4 #a1 great tuberosity of humerus2 #b1 #c1 superficial radial and dorsal interosseous branches1 respectively1 of the radial nerve4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hf1 a74--,the muscle ends in a long1 slender tendon which passes through the furrow on the ventral angle of the olecranon and is inserted into an oblique ridge which forms the dorsal limit of the furrow4 ,the tendon is separated from the floor of the furrow by a synovial bursa4 7#b7 ,the intermediate portion 7anconeus internus7 7,fig4 #gg1 k2 ,fig4 #gi1 h2 ,fig4 #hj1 j74 ,origin 7,fig4 #hb1 g7 by fleshy fibres from a triangular area proximad of the middle of the dorsomedial surface of the humerus4 ,the length of the area equals about one-fourth the length of the bone4 ,its apex points proximad and is almost continuous with the apex of the area of origin of the long portion4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hg1 i7 by short tendon-fibres into the medial border of the ventral and proximal surfaces of the olecranon4 ,it is connected with the tendon of the long portion4 7#c7 ,short portion 7,fig4 #gi1 j2 ,fig4 #gg1 l74 ,origin 7,fig4 #hb1 h7 from the outer surface of the bony bar which encloses the supracondyloid foramen of the humerus1 as far as the medial epicondyle4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hg1 e7 by fleshy fibres into the medial border of the olecranon distad of the tuberosity for the insertion of the caput longum4 ,relations of the caput mediale4--,lateral surface with the caput laterale 7,fig4 #ge1 h71 the humerus1 and the anconeus 7,fig4 #hj1 l74 ,dorsal surface with the caput longum 7,fig4 #gg1 i71 the epitrochlearis 7,fig4 #fe1 r71 and the teres major 7,fig4 #gi1 d74 ,ventral surface with the biceps 7,fig4 #gg1 g74 ,action of the ,triceps4--,the entire triceps group forms a powerful extensor of the forearm4 ,the short portion of the medial head tends also to rotate the arm outward1 so as to supinate the hand4 ,m4 anconeus 7,fig4 #hj1 l74--,a triangular muscle on the outside of the elbow-joint from the humerus to the ulna4 ,origin 7,fig4 #hc1 i74--,an irregularly triangular area at the distal end of the dorsal surface of the humerus4 ,the area of origin is limited laterally by the sharp lateral supracondyloid ridge4 ,it sometimes extends onto the lateral epicondyle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,,ventral ,,surface ,,of ,,humerus1 ,,with ,,the ,,areas ,,of ,,attachment ,,of ,,muscles4 ,,fig4 #hb4--,,medial ,,side ,,of ,,humerus1 ,,with ,,the ,,areas ,,of ,,attachment ,,of ,,muscles4 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,,dorsal ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,humerus1 ,,with ,,the ,,areas ,,of ,,attachment ,,of ,,muscles4 ,fig4 #ha4--;a1 ,m4 subscapularis2 b1 ,m4 supraspinatus2 c1 ,mm4 teres major and latissimus dorsi2 d1 ,m4 pectoralis minor2 e1 deep layer of ,m4 pectoralis major2 f1 superficial layer of ,m4 pectoralis major2 g1 ,m4 acromiodeltoideus2 h1 ,m4 spinodeltoideus2 h1 caput laterale of ,m4 triceps2 i1 ,m4 brachialis2 j1 second portion of ,m4 brachialis2 k1 ,m4 extensor carpi radialis longus2 l1 ,m4 extensor carpi radialis brevis2 m4 ,m4 extensor communis digitorum2 n1 ,m4 extensor lateralis digitorum2 o1 ,m4 extensor carpi ulnaris2 p1 short portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps2 q1 ,m4 pronator teres2 r1 ,m4 palmaris longus2 s1 third and fourth parts of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 t1 ,m4 flexor carpi radialis2 u1 second head of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum4 ,fig4 #hb4--;a1 ,m4 supraspinatus2 b1 ,m4 subscapularis2 c1 ,m4 pectoralis minor2 d1 long portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps2 e1 ,m4 coracobrachialis2 f1 ,mm4 teres major and latissimus dorsi2 g1 intermediate portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps2 h1 deep layer of ,m4 pectoralis major2 i1 superficial layer of ,m4 pectoralis major2 j1 ,m4 anconeus2 k1 short portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps2 l1 ,m4 pronator teres2 m1 ,m4 flexor carpi radialis2 n1 second head of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 o1 third and fourth heads of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 p1 ,m4 palmaris longus2 q1 ,m4 flexor carpi ulnaris4 ,fig4 #hc4--;a1 ,m4 supraspinatus2 b1 ,m4 subscapularis2 c1 ,m4 infraspinatus2 d1 ,m4 teres minor2 e1 long portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps2 f1 ,m4 coracobrachialis2 g1 g1 ,m4 brachialis2 h1 intermediate portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps2 i1 ,m4 anconeus2 j1 short portion of medial head of ,m4 triceps2 k1 ,m4 pronator teres2 l1 second and third heads of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 m1 ,m4 palmaris longus2 n1 ,m4 extensor carpi ulnaris4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hf1 d74--,the lateral surface of the ulna from the distal margin of the semilunar notch to the proximal end of the olecranon4 ,the muscle covers the capsule of the joint and is closely adherent to it4 ,relations4--,outer 7dorsal7 surface with the caput laterale 7,fig4 #ge1 h7 and the intermediate portion 7,fig4 #hj1 j7 of the caput mediale4 ,inner surface with the bones and the capsule of the joint4 ,action4--,keeps the capsule tense and probably rotates the ulna slightly so as to pronate the hand4 #c4 ,muscles of the ,antibrachium or ,forearm4 ,fascia of the ,forearm4--,the muscles of the forearm are not in contact with the skin1 but are covered by the strong antibrachial fascia4 ,this consists of two layers4 ,the superficial one is a continuation of the general subcutaneous fascia of the arm2 it covers the forearm as a continuous sheet which becomes thinner distad1 and is finally lost near the wrist4 ,the deep layer forms a dense1 tendinous sheet which is closely applied to the muscles4 ,it begins partly as a continuation of the general fascia of the arm1 partly from the tendons of the triceps and epitrochlearis muscles4 ,the sheet is attached to the dorsal surface of the ulna1 between the extensor carpi ulnaris and the first head of the flexor profundus digitorum4 ,it surrounds the forearm as a continuous sheath4 ,on the lateral surface it dips between the extensor muscles1 becoming closely attached to them and forming a partial sheath for each2 it is attached with special firmness to their tendons4 ,on the medial side of the arm the fascia passes smoothly over the flexors without dipping between them2 it is continuous1 however1 with the border of the pronator teres1 and distad of this muscle it is firmly attached to the radius4 ,at the wrist the fascia becomes attached to the longitudinal ridges on the dorsal surface of the head of the radius1 bridging thus the intervening grooves and holding the tendons in place between the ridges4 ,the fascia then continues to form the dorsal fascia of the hand4 ,on the ventral side of the wrist the fascia becomes thickened to form a strong transverse ligament 7,fig4 #gg1 #a71 which is attached at its radial and ulnar ends to the carpus1 and which holds in place the tendons of the flexor muscles4 ,distad of the transverse ligament the fascia spreads out in the palm of the hand1 and becomes united with the fibrous pad which is situated here4 ,on the fingers the fascia becomes attached to the phalanges1 forming tendinous sheaths1 the so-called vaginal ligaments1 for the flexor muscles4 ,near the base and the head of the first phalanx strong1 narrow1 ring-like bands1 the annular ligaments 7,fig4 #hh1 #b71 are formed in these sheaths2 these surround and bind down the tendons of the flexor muscles4 ,a4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,ulnar ,,and ,,dorsal ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,forearm 7extensors and supinators7 7,fig4 #ge1 p4 #aeh74 ,m4 brachioradialis or supinator longus 7,fig4 #ge1 k2 ,fig4 #gg1 n74--,this is a ribbon-like muscle lying on the lateral side of the brachium and the ventrolateral border of the antibrachium just beneath the superficial fascia4 ,it connects the humerus and the radius4 ,origin4--,by a thin tendon from about the middle fifth of the dorsal border of the humerus1 or sometimes proximad of the middle4 ,the muscle curves over the outer surface of the brachialis 7,fig4 #ge1 i71 to which it is closely applied1 and runs along the lateral border of the antibrachium to its insertion4 ,insertion by a short tendon into the ridge which forms the ventral limit of the groove on the outer surface of the styloid process of the radius and upon the adjacent ligaments4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument1 and at the proximal end with the caput laterale of the triceps 7,fig4 #ge1 h74 ,inner surface with the brachialis 7i71 the extensor carpi radialis longus 7l7 and brevis1 and the extensor communis digitorum 7m74 ,action4--,supinator of the hand4 ,m4 extensor carpi radialis longus 7,fig4 #ge1 l2 ,fig4 #gg1 o74--,this lies along the radial side of the forearm1 and connects the humerus and the second metacarpal4 ,origin 7,fig4 #ha1 k7 from the middle portion of the lateral supracondyloid ridge between the origin of the brachialis 7j7 and the anconeus4 ,about the middle of the forearm the muscle ends in a slender tendon 7,fig4 #hd1 e7 which passes through the groove on the radial side of the dorsal surface of the distal end of the radius4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hd1 c74--,the tendon passes across the carpus and is inserted onto the dorsal surface of the base of the second metacarpal on the radial side just distad of the groove for the radial artery4 ,relations4--,outer surface at the proximal end with the caput laterale of the triceps 7,fig4 #ge1 h71 farther distad with the integument and the brachioradialis 7k72 the distal tendon with the extensor pollicis brevis 7,fig4 #hd1 d74 ,radial surface with the brachialis 7,fig4 #ge1 i7 and the integument4 ,ulnar surface with the extensor carpi radialis brevis 7,fig4 #gg1 p71 and near the proximal end with the extensor communis digitorum 7,fig4 #ge1 m74 ,action4--,extensor of the hand4 ,m4 extensor carpi radialis brevis 7,fig4 #gg1 p74--,a slender muscle from the humerus to the third metacarpal4 ,origin 7,fig4 #ha1 l7 from the distal part of the lateral supracondyloid ridge distad of the extensor longus4 ,near the carpus the muscle ends in a slender tendon which passes through the groove with the extensor longus tendon4 ,the tendon then diverges from the extensor longus and has its ,insertion 7,fig4 #hd1 f7 into the radial side of the dorsal surface of the base of the third metacarpal4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the extensor longus 7,fig4 #gg1 o71 the integument1 and distad with the extensor pollicis brevis 7,fig4 #hd1 d74 ,radial surface with the extensor longus4 ,ulnar surface with the extensor communis digitorum 7,fig4 #ge1 m7 and the extensor brevis pollicis4 ,inner surface with the pronator teres 7,fig4 #gg1 q71 supinator 7,fig4 #he1 b71 and extensor brevis pollicis 7,fig4 #he1 a74 ,action4--,extensor of the hand4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,tendons ,,on ,,the ,,back ,,of ,,the ,,hand4 a1 ,m4 extensor communis digitorum2 b1 ,m4 extensor lateralis digitorum2 c1 ,m4 extensor indicis2 d1 ,m4 extensor brevis pollicis2 e1 ,m4 extensor carpi radialis longus2 f1 ,m4 extensor carpi radialis brevis2 g1 ,m4 extensor carpi ulnaris2 h1 tendons of the interossei4 #a1 transverse ligament of the wrist4 ,m4 extensor digitorum communis 7,fig4 #ge1 m74--,a slender muscle from the lateral supracondyloid ridge of the humerus to the phalanges of the second1 third1 fourth1 and fifth digits4 ,origin 7,fig4 #ha1 m74--,the distal surface of the lateral supracondyloid ridge dorsad of the origin of the extensor carpi radialis brevis4 ,at the junction of the middle and distal thirds of the radius the muscle passes into a large1 flat tendon 7,fig4 #ge1 m7 which passes through the groove on the middle of the dorsal surface of the distal end of the radius4 ,the groove is converted into a canal by a strong transverse ligament4 ,the tendon divides near the groove into four portions 7,fig4 #hd1 a7 which diverge and pass to the four ulnar digits4 ,insertions4--,each division of the tendon as it passes over the dorsal surface of the first phalanx has its border connected by strong fascia to the dorsal surface of the phalanx4 ,it finally passes through the groove at the distal end of the first phalanx and is inserted mostly into the base of the second phalanx2 a portion continues distad to be inserted into the third phalanx4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument and at the origin with the caput laterale 7,fig4 #ge1 h7 of the triceps4 ,radial surface with the extensor longus 7l7 and extensor brevis4 ,ulnar surface with the extensor digitorum lateralis 7n74 ,inner surface with the supinator 7,fig4 #he1 b7 and the extensor pollicis brevis 7,fig4 #he1 a74 ,action4--,extensor of the four ulnar digits4 ,m4 extensor digitorum lateralis 7,fig4 #ge1 n74 7,this corresponds in position to the extensor digiti quinti proprius of man47 ,origin 7,fig4 #ha1 n7 from the lateral supracondyloid ridge of the humerus distad of the origin of the extensor communis4 ,the muscle passes along the ulnar border and dorsal surface of the forearm between the extensor communis 7,fig4 #ge1 m7 and the extensor carpi ulnaris 7o74 ,near the carpus it ends in a tendon 7n71 which divides immediately into three or four 7,fig4 #hd1 b74 ,these pass through the groove on the ulnar side of the dorsal surface of the radius and diverge to the digits lying beneath the extensor communis tendon4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hd1 b74--,the three tendons on the ulnar side join the ulnar sides of the tendons of the extensor communis 7a7 at their insertions4 ,the radial of the four tendons 7not always present7 joins the tendon of the extensor indicis 7c7 and may also give a branch to the radial side of the base of the first phalanx of the third digit4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument4 ,radial border with the extensor communis digitorum 7m72 ulnar border with the extensor carpi ulnaris 7o74 ,inner surface with the supinator 7,fig4 #he1 b7 and the extensor brevis pollicis 7,fig4 #he1 a72 distad with the extensor indicis 7,fig4 #he1 c74 ,action4--,extensor of the four ulnar digits4 ,m4 extensor carpi ulnaris 7,fig4 #ge1 o74 ,origin4--7#a7 ,by a short1 broad tendon from the distal portion of the lateral epicondyle of the humerus 7,fig4 #ha1 o7 distad of the origin of the extensor lateralis1 and 7#b7 by a smaller tendon from the ulna at the dorsal tip of the semilunar notch 7,fig4 #hf1 e74 ,the muscle passes along the ulnar side of the forearm dorsad of the extensor digitorum lateralis 7n74 ,it ends near the junction of the middle and distal thirds of the forearm in a large1 flat tendon 7o7 which is closely adherent to the ligaments of the wrist and which passes over the distal end of the ulna to its ,insertion into the tubercle on the ulnar side of the base of the fifth metacarpal 7,fig4 #hd1 g74 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument4 ,radial 7or ventral7 border with the extensor digitorum lateralis 7,fig4 #ge1 n72 ulnar 7or dorsal7 border with the flexor profundus digitorum 7q74 ,inner surface with the radius1 the extensor indicis 7,fig4 #he1 c71 and the extensor pollicis brevis 7,fig4 #he1 a74 ,action4--,indicated by its name4 ,m4 extensor indicis 7proprius7 7,fig4 #he1 c2 ,fig4 #ge1 p7 7includes extensor pollicis longus also74 ,origin 7,fig4 #hf1 f7 by short1 fleshy fibres from the lateral surface of the ulna between the semilunar notch and the junction of the third and fourth 7distal7 fourths4 ,the muscle-fibres pass obliquely distad and toward the radial side and join the tendon 7,fig4 #he1 c71 which runs nearly the whole length of the radial surface4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hd1 c74--,the tendon passes through the groove on the ulnar side of the dorsal surface of the base of the radius and divides into two4 ,both of these usually go to the base of the second phalanx of the second digit1 but one may pass to the pollex1 or there may be three divisions going to the first three digits4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,,deep ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,extensor ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,radius ,,and ,,ulna4 a1 ,m4 extensor brevis pollicis 7a1 its tendon72 b1 ,m4 supinator2 c1 ,m4 extensor indicis 7c1 its tendon72 d1 tendon of ,m4 extensor carpi radialis brevis2 e1 tendon of ,m4 extensor carpi radialis longus4 #a1 humerus2 #b1 olecranon2 #c1 styloid process of ulna2 #d1 distal end of radius2 #e1 head of radius4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument1 the extensor carpi ulnaris 7,fig4 #ge1 o71 and the extensor digitorum lateralis 7,fig4 #ge1 n74 ,dorsal border with the flexor profundus digitorum 7,fig4 #ge1 q74 ,inner surface with the extensor brevis pollicis 7,fig4 #he1 a74 ,action as indicated by the name4 ,m4 supinator 7,fig4 #he1 b74--,a flat muscle wrapped spirally about the proximal end of the radius4 ,origin by a short1 strong tendon from the lateral side of the annular ligament of the radius and by tendinous fibres from the radial collateral ligament passing from the humerus to the radius4 ,from the tendon of origin the fibres diverge1 passing toward the radial side and distad4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hf1 g74--,the dorsal and part of the ventral surface of the proximal two-fifths of the radius to within five millimeters of the articular face of the head4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the extensor carpi radialis brevis1 extensor communis digitorum 7,fig4 #ge1 m71 and extensor lateralis digitorum 7,fig4 #ge1 n74 ,radial border with the pronator teres 7,fig4 #gg1 q74 ,inner surface with the radius4 ,action4--,supinator of the hand4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,,lateral ,,or ,,extensor ,,surface ,,of ,,radius ,,and ,,ulna1 ,,with ,,the ,,areas ,,of ,,attachment ,,of ,,muscles4 a1 long portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps2 b1 caput longum of ,m4 triceps2 c1 caput laterale of ,m4 triceps2 d1 ,m4 anconeus2 e1 ,m4 extensor carpi ulnaris2 f1 ,m4 extensor indicis2 g1 ,m4 supinator2 h1 ,m4 extensor brevis pollicis2 i1 ,m4 pronator teres2 j1 ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 k1 ,m4 biceps4 ,m4 extensor brevis pollicis or extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis 7,fig4 #he1 a7 7includes ,m4 abductor longus pollicis of man74 ,origin 7,fig4 #hf1 h7 by fleshy fibres from the ventral half of the lateral surface of the shaft of the ulna from the semilunar notch to the styloid process2 from the ulnar half of the dorsal surface of the radius from the bicipital tubercle to a short distance distad of the middle of the bone2 and from the interosseous membrane between these two areas4 ,the fibres converge to form a strong1 flat tendon 7,fig4 #hd1 d7 which passes obliquely over the tendons of the extensor carpi radialis longus 7e7 and brevis 7f7 to its ,insertion into the radial side of the base of the first metacarpal4 ,the radial sesamoid bone of the wrist is imbedded in the tendon at its insertion4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the extensor carpi radialis brevis1 the extensor communis digitorum 7,fig4 #ge1 m71 extensor lateralis digitorum 7,fig4 #ge1 n71 and extensor indicis 7,fig4 #he1 c74 ,inner surface with the radius and ulna1 and distad with the tendons of the two extensores carpi radiales 7,fig4 #hd1 e and f74 ,action4--,extends and abducts the pollex4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,radial ,,and ,,ventral ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,forearm 7flexors and pronators74 ,m4 pronator teres 7,fig4 #gg1 q74 ,origin 7,fig4 #hb1 l7 by a short strong tendon from the extremity of the medial epicondyle of the humerus4 ,insertion 7,fig4 #hf1 i7 by fleshy fibres and short tendinous fibres along the medial border of the radius1 at its middle4 ,the radial edge of the muscle is continuous with the strong deep layer of the antibrachial fascia4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the superficial fascia4 ,radial border with the tendon of the biceps 7,fig4 #gi1 l71 with the extensor carpi radialis brevis 7,fig4 #gg1 p71 and the supinator 7,fig4 #he1 b74 ,ulnar border with the flexor carpi radialis 7,fig4 #gg1 r7 and part of the flexor profundus digitorum 7,fig4 #gg1 u74 ,action4--,pronates the hand by rotating the radius4 ,m4 flexor carpi radialis 7,fig4 #gg1 r74--,a slender fusiform muscle4 ,origin 7,fig4 #hb1 m7 from the tip of the medial epicondyle of the humerus4 ,insertion4--,the slender tendon passes through a deep groove between the os magnum and the first metacarpal4 ,the groove is converted into a canal by the overlying tendons and muscles4 ,the tendon is finally inserted into the bases of the second and third metacarpals4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the pronator teres 7,fig4 #gg1 q71 the superficial fascia1 and the third head of the flexor profundus 7u74 ,radial border with the pronator teres 7q74 ,ulnar border with the third and fourth heads of the flexor profundus4 ,inner surface with the ulna proximad and the fifth head of the flexor profundus 7u7 distad4 ,action indicated by the name4 ,m4 palmaris longus 7,fig4 #gg1 s74--,a flat fusiform muscle beneath the fascia on the medial border of the forearm4 ,origin 7,fig4 #hb1 p7 by a short flat tendon from the distal part of the medial surface of the medial epicondyle of the humerus4 ,about one centimeter from the wrist the muscle ends in a flat tendon which passes through the transverse ligament and divides on the hand into four or five 7or sometimes only three7 tendons 7,fig4 #gg1 s7 which diverge to the insertions4 ,the ulnar portion of the flexor sublimis digitorum 7,fig4 #gg1 x7 takes origin from the common tendon before its division4 ,insertion4--,each tendon except the first gives off a branch which spreads out in the trilobed pad in the palm4 ,the middle two of these may be traced to the integument covering the pad4 ,the tendon is then inserted 7,fig4 #hh1 a7 near the base of the first phalanx onto the outer surface of the perforated portion of the flexor sublimis tendon 7b1 b7 at its side1 except that to the thumb1 which divides near its distal end into two which are inserted into the sesamoid bones at the base of the first phalanx4 ,the tendons of insertion are closely united to the fibrous pulley-ring at the base of the first phalanx1 and each may send a slip to the base of the phalanx at either side of the ring4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the superficial fascia and one head of the flexor sublimis 7,fig4 #gg1 x74 ,radial border with the flexor carpi radialis4 ,ulnar border with the flexor carpi ulnaris and a part of the flexor profundus digitorum4 ,inner surface with the flexor carpi radialis 7r71 the flexor carpi ulnaris 7t71 the flexor profundus digitorum 7u71 and the radial head of the flexor sublimis digitorum4 ,action4--,flexor of the first phalanx of each of the digits4 ,m4 flexor carpi ulnaris 7,fig4 #gg1 t1 t74 ,origin4--,there are two heads4 ,the first or humeral head 7t7 takes origin in common with the second part of the flexor profundus from the median surface of the distal end of the humerus just distad of the medial epicondyle 7,fig4 #hb1 q74 ,the second or ulnar head 7t7 takes origin by fleshy fibres from the lateral surface of the olecranon and from the dorsal border of the ulna from the olecranon to a point distad of the semilunar notch 7,fig4 #hg1 f74 ,the two heads join proximad of the middle of the forearm4 ,the muscle passes obliquely across the ventral surface of the forearm to its ,insertion by fleshy and tendinous fibres into the proximal surface of the pisiform bone4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument and the palmaris longus 7,fig4 #gg1 s74 ,inner surface and ulnar border with the flexor profundus digitorum4 ,action indicated by the name4 ,m4 flexor sublimis digitorum 7or perforatus74--,this muscle is in two parts1 which are given a common name only because of the similar structure and insertions of their tendons4 ,the ulnar part 7,fig4 #gg1 x7 is a conical muscle taking origin from the outer surface of the tendon and muscle of the palmaris longus and from the adjacent ligament4 ,it gives rise to two or three tendons 7,fig4 #hh1 b7 which arise from distinct slips of the muscle2 these pass to the ulnar two or three digits4 ,that passing to the fourth or fifth digit receives an accessory slip from a small mass of fibres attached to the transverse ligament on the radial side of the palmaris tendon4 ,the radial part is a small flat triangular muscle which takes origin from the outer surface of the tendon formed by the junction of the tendons of the first and second parts of the flexor profundus4 ,it divides into two slips1 each giving rise to a tendon4 ,these tendons 7,fig4 #hh1 b7 pass to the second and third digits4 ,that to the third digit may divide into two1 one of which goes to the fourth digit4 ,each of the four tendons 7,fig4 #hh1 b and b7 is perforated by a tendon of the flexor profundus 7,fig4 #hh1 c7 as it passes through the fibrous pulley-ring at the base of the first phalanx4 ,it then continues beneath the flexor profundus tendon through the second pulley-ring 7#b7 and is inserted into the base of the second phalanx4 ,relations4--,outer surface of the ulnar part with the integument2 inner surface with the palmaris longus 7,fig4 #gg1 s74 ,outer surface of the radial part with the palmaris longus2 inner surface with the flexor profundus4 ,action4--,flexor of the second phalanx of digits #b-e4 ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum 7or perforans74--,this arises by five heads1 the tendons of which join one another at the wrist to make the strongest and deepest of the flexor tendons4 ,the first or ulnar head has origin 7,fig4 #hg1 g7 from the dorsal half of the medial 7radial7 surface of the ulna from the proximal lip of the semilunar notch to within a centimeter of the styloid process4 ,its fibres converge to a large flat tendon which forms the lateral 7ulnar7 and superficial part of the common tendon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,,radius ,,and ,,ulna1 ,medial or ,flexor ,side1 with ,m4 pronator quadratus and the ,areas of ,attachment of ,other ,muscles4 a1 ,m4 pronator quadratus2 b1 tendon of ,m4 biceps2 c1 conjoined tendon of ,m4 brachialis and ,m4 clavobrachialis2 d1 insertion of caput longum of ,m4 triceps2 e1 insertion of short portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps2 f1 origin of ,m4 flexor carpi ulnaris2 g1 origin of first head of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 h1 origin of fifth head of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 i1 intermediate portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps4 ,the second head has origin 7,fig4 #hb1 n7 from the distal end of the medial epicondyle of the humerus between the flexor ulnaris and the third and fourth heads of the profundus4 ,it may be very closely attached to these muscles at their origins4 ,its tendon joins the radial border of the tendon of the first head4 ,from this junction the radial part of the flexor sublimis arises4 ,the third head 7,fig4 #gg1 u7 has origin 7,fig4 #hb1 o7 by a strong tendon from the medial epicondyle of the humerus1 between the palmaris 7p7 and flexor radialis 7m74 ,its tendon forms the radial part of the common tendon4 ,the fourth head has origin by a strong tendon from the medial epicondyle of the humerus just ventrad of the origin of the second head and the flexor ulnaris1 to which many of its fibres are attached4 ,its tendon forms the middle and superficial part of the common tendon4 ,the fifth or radial head 7,fig4 #ge1 q2 ,fig4 #gg1 u7 has origin 7,fig4 #hg1 h7 from the middle third of the ventral surface of the shaft of the radius over an area limited by two oblique bony ridges2 from the adjacent parts of the interosseous membrane2 and from the ventral part of the medial surface of the shaft of the ulna between a point about two centimeters distad of the semilunar notch and the junction of the middle and distal thirds of the shaft4 ,its very thick tendon forms the middle and deep part of the common tendon4 ,the common tendon 7,fig4 #hh1 c7 covers the carpus and metacarpus ventrally4 ,it divides into five tendons 7c7 which pass to the five digits and are inserted into the bases of the terminal phalanges4 ,those of the first four digits perforate the tendon of the flexor sublimis 7b7 at the base of the first phalanx of each digit4 ,at the same place each passes through a fibrous pulley-ring attached to the base of the phalanx4 ,each then passes through a second pulley-ring 7#b7 near the head of the phalanx and is finally inserted into the base of the terminal phalanx4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the pronator teres 7,fig4 #gg1 q71 flexor carpi radialis 7,fig4 #gg1 r71 palmaris longus 7s71 flexor carpi ulnaris 7t71 integument1 and extensor carpi ulnaris 7,fig4 #ge1 o74 ,inner surface with the radius1 ulna1 interosseous membrane and pronator quadratus 7,fig4 #hg1 a74 ,action4--,flexor of all the digits4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,tendons of ,m4 palmaris longus1 ,m4 flexor sublimis digitorum1 and ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum1 with ,mm4 lumbricales4 ,the integument1 fibrous pads1 and the palmaris longus 7except the ends of its tendons7 have been removed2 the flexor sublimis has been cut4 a1 cut ends of tendons of ,m4 palmaris longus2 b1 tendons of ,m4 flexor sublimis digitorum1 ulnar division2 b1 radial part of ,m4 flexor sublimis digitorum2 c1 tendons of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum 7c1 the common tendon72 d1 ,m4 abductor digiti quinti2 e1 ,m4 flexor brevis digiti quinti2 f1 ,mm4 lumbricales 7f1 their tendons74 #a1 transverse ligament of wrist2 #b1 annular ligaments4 ,m4 pronator quadratus 7,fig4 #hg1 a74--,a thick quadrangular muscle whose fibres run obliquely between the distal ends of the ulna and radius4 ,origin by fleshy fibres from about the distal half of the ventral 7flexor7 surface or border of the ulna and from the interosseous membrane adjacent to the area4 ,the fibres pass obliquely distad toward the radial side to their ,insertion by fleshy fibres into the ventral 7flexor7 surface of the radius distad of the area of origin of the fifth head of the profundus4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the flexor profundus4 ,inner surface with the radius1 ulna1 and interosseous membrane4 ,action as indicated by the name4 #d4 ,muscles of the ,hand4 ,a4 ,,between ,,the ,,tendons4--,mm4 lumbricales 7,fig4 #hh1 f1 f74--,four small muscles in the palm of the hand4 ,origin by fleshy fibres from the outer 7palmar7 surface of the tendon common to the ulnar four parts of the profundus 7c74 ,insertion 7f74--,the four slips are flat at their origin4 ,each becomes cylindrical and curves about the base of one of the four ulnar digits and is inserted into the radial side of the base of the first phalanx close to its ventral border4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,,deep ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,palm ,,of ,,the ,,hand4 a1 ,m4 flexor brevis pollicis2 b1 ,m4 adductor pollicis2 c1 ,m4 interosseus of second digit 7,m4 flexor brevis digiti secundi72 d1 ,m4 adductor digiti secundi2 e1 ,m4 interosseus of third digit2 f1 ,m4 interosseus of fourth digit2 g1 ,m4 opponens digiti quinti2 h1 ,m4 interosseus of fifth digit 7,m4 flexor brevis digiti quinti72 i1 ,m4 abductor digiti quinti4 #a-e1 the digits in order4 ,action4--,bend the digits toward the radial side4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,thumb4--,m4 abductor brevis pollicis 7,fig4 #gg1 w7 7includes also the opponens pollicis of man74--,a very minute1 probably rudimentary muscle4 ,origin from the transverse ligament 7#a7 which connects the prominent fibrous1 hairless projection that lies over the pisiform bone with the radial border of the head of the radius4 ,the muscle passes radiodistad and ends in a very slender tendon1 the insertion of which is into the base of the first phalanx of the thumb4 ,m4 flexor brevis pollicis 7,fig4 #hi1 a74 ,origin by fleshy fibres from the adjacent borders of the os magnum and scapholunar bones and from the fascia which bridges the intervening groove for the flexor carpi radialis4 ,insertion by a short tendon into the base of the first phalanx of the pollex4 ,action4--,flexor of the thumb4 ,m4 adductor pollicis 7,fig4 #hi1 b74 ,origin by fleshy fibres from the ventral border of the os magnum4 ,it curves about the base of the first metacarpal on its ulnar side to its insertion4 ,insertion by fleshy fibres into the base of the first phalanx of the pollex on its ulnar side4 ,c4 ,,muscles ,,lying ,,between ,,the ,,metacarpals4--,mm4 interossei 7,fig4 #hi74--,small stout muscles lying on the palmar surfaces of the metacarpals of the second1 third1 fourth1 and fifth digits4 ,origin by fleshy fibres from the ventral or lateral surfaces of the bases of the metacarpals4 ,near the distal end of the metacarpal each divides into two masses which pass onto the lateral surfaces of the metacarpal1 so as to leave the ventral surface of the distal end exposed4 ,insertion partly onto the lateral surfaces of the base of the first phalanx and its sesamoids1 and partly by a slender tendon 7,fig4 #hd1 h7 which is continued dorsad to join the extensor tendon of the digit4 ,d4 ,,special ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,digit 7,,the ,,index74--,m4 flexor brevis digiti secundi 7or indicis74--,this name may be applied to ,m4 interosseus of the second digit 7,fig4 #hi1 c74 ,m4 abductor digiti secundi4--,this name might be applied to a portion of the interosseus of the second digit which is sometimes differentiated from the remainder4 ,origin from the radial and ventral surfaces of the base of the second metacarpal1 and from the ventral surface of the trapezium4 ,insertion into the radial side of the base of the first phalanx of the second digit and into its sesamoid4 ,m4 adductor digiti secundi 7,fig4 #hi1 d74 ,origin from the ventral surface of the os magnum4 ,insertion into the ulnar side of the base of the first phalanx of the second digit4 ,e4 ,,special ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,fifth ,,digit4--,m4 abductor digiti quinti 7,fig4 #hi1 i74--,a thick1 small1 conical bundle4 ,origin from the distal surface of the pisiform bone and from the transverse ligament on the ulnar side of the pisiform4 ,it ends in a slender tendon which runs along the ulnar side of the fifth metacarpal to its ,insertion into the ulnar side of the base of the first phalanx of the fifth digit4 ,m4 flexor brevis digiti quinti 7,fig4 #hi1 h2 ,fig4 #hh1 e74--,this covers the ventral surface of the fifth metacarpal1 and is really the interosseus of this digit4 ,origin by fleshy fibres from the ventral surface of the base of the fifth metacarpal2 from the ventral process of the unciform bone1 and from the transverse ligament proximad of the fifth metacarpal4 ,insertion by fleshy fibres into the ventral border of the proximal end of the first phalanx of the fifth digit4 ,m4 opponens 7adductor7 digiti quinti 7,fig4 #hi1 g74 ,origin by a flat tendon from the ventral surface of the os magnum on the ulnar side of the adductor pollicis 7b74 ,it passes toward the ulnar side and distad1 the fibres diverging to their ,insertion 7#a7 into nearly the whole of the radial surface of the fifth metacarpal1 7#b7 into the base of its first phalanx4 ,v4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,pelvic ,,limbs4 #a4 ,muscles of the ,hip4 ,a4 ,,on ,,the ,,lateral ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,hip4 ,fascia of the ,thigh4--,after the removal of the superficial fascia with its fat and blood-vessels1 there is seen a strong glistening fascia1 the fascia lata 7,fig4 #fh1 z1 page #aag71 covering the vastus lateralis muscle over the dorsal half of the thigh4 ,ventrally it dips between the vastus lateralis and the biceps femoris and1 becoming gradually thinner1 is lost on the surface of the former muscle4 ,passing over the dorsal border of the thigh1 it extends beneath the sartorius and is attached to the dorsal border of the vastus medialis4 ,toward its distal end the fascia is continuous with the tendon of the biceps femoris and dorsad with the border of the sartorius muscle1 while between these points it is united with the tendon of the vastus lateralis2 it thus gains insertion into the patella4 ,at its proximal end the fascia receives the insertion of the tensor fasci lat 7,fig4 #fh1 r74 ,m4 tensor fasci lat 7,fig4 #fh1 r1 page #aag2 ,fig4 #ib1 a74--,the tensor fasci lat is a thick triangular muscle which may be recognized by its insertion into the proximal end of the fascia lata 7,fig4 #fh1 z2 ,fig4 #ib1 a74 ,origin by fleshy fibres as a thick triangular prism from the outer margin of the ventral border of the ilium craniad of the auricular impression and from the fascia covering the ventral border of the gluteus medius 7,fig4 #ij1 b7 over its cranial half4 ,the caudal border of the muscle may be continuous with the cranial border of the gluteus maximus4 ,the muscle spreads out in a fan-like manner1 covering the proximal third of the dorsal surface of the thigh4 ,the cranial fibres pass farther distad than the others4 ,insertion into the fascia lata 7,fig4 #fh1 z7 along an irregular line which begins caudad at the base of the great trochanter and ends on the cranial side of the thigh at the junction of the first and second thirds4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the cutaneus maximus 7,fig4 #fb1 b1 page #id7 and craniad with the sartorius 7,fig4 #fh1 q74 ,cranial border with the sartorius 7q72 caudodorsal border with the gluteus medius 7,fig4 #ij1 b74 ,inner surface with the gluteus medius1 the rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b71 and the vastus lateralis 7,fig4 #ij1 d74 ,action indicated by the name4 ,it also assists the quadriceps femoris in extending the leg4 ,m4 gluteus maximus4--,the gluteus maximus is a rather small quadrangular muscle in the angle between the gluteus medius 7,fig4 #ij1 b7 and the caudal vertebr4 ,origin 7,fig4 #afc1 #c1 page #dja7 by fleshy fibres from the tips of the transverse processes of the last sacral and the first caudal vertebr1 from the fascia covering the spinous muscles dorsad of the transverse processes of these vertebr1 and from the fascia covering the gluteus medius4 ,the muscle passes laterad and slightly caudad to its ,insertion by tendon and muscle-fibres into a tubercle on the caudal side of the great trochanter at the middle of its distal end1 and for a few millimeters into the ridge which continues distad from this tubercle4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the caudofemoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s1 page #aag71 the superficial fascia1 and a few fibres of the cutaneus maximus4 ,inner surface with the abductor caud internus1 the tenuissimus 7,fig4 #ij1 g71 the great sciatic nerve 7,fig4 #afc1 a71 the obturator internus 7,fig4 #ij1 e71 the gluteus medius 7,fig4 #ij1 b71 the gemellus superior1 and the pyriformis 7,fig4 #afc1 #g74 ,cranial border with the gluteus medius and the tensor fasci lat4 ,caudal border with the caudofemoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s74 ,action4--,abducts the thigh4 ,m4 gluteus medius 7,fig4 #ij1 b74--,the gluteus medius is a very large triangular muscle which connects the ilium and the sacrum with the great trochanter 7#a74 ,origin by fleshy fibres 7#a7 from the superficial sacral fascia2 7#b7 from the lateral surface of the fascia which covers the surface of the supraspinous extensor muscles of the tail2 7#c7 from the fascia intervening between it and the tensor fasci lat2 7#d7 by tendon fibres from the dorsal half of the crest of the ilium and its dorsal border1 and the dorsal half of the lateral surface craniad of the auricular impression2 and 7#e7 from the tips of the transverse processes of the last sacral and the first caudal vertebr4 ,the fibres converge to a strong internal tendon4 ,insertion into the proximal end of the great trochanter4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the gluteus maximus and tensor fasci lat1 and between these with the strong fascia lying beneath the cutaneus maximus muscle4 ,inner surface with the gluteus minimus1 the pyriformis1 and the gemellus superior4 ,cranial border with the tensor fasci lat4 ,caudal border with the gluteus maximus4 ,action4--,abducts the thigh4 ,m4 pyriformis 7,fig4 #afc1 #g74--,the pyriformis is a triangular muscle covered by the gluteus maximus and the gluteus medius 7,fig4 #ij1 b7 and overlying the gemellus superior 7,fig4 #afc1 #f74 ,origin by fleshy fibres from the tips of the transverse processes of the last two sacral and the first caudal vertebr4 ,the muscle passes laterad through the great sciatic notch to its ,insertion by a flat tendon into an elongated area on the proximal border of the great trochanter just outside 7caudad7 of the insertion of the gemellus superior4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the gluteus medius 7,fig4 #ij1 b7 and the gluteus maximus4 ,inner surface with the gemellus superior 7,fig4 #afc1 #f71 the great sciatic nerve 7,fig4 #afc1 a71 and the flexor caud longus 7,fig4 #fh1 x74 ,action4--,abductor of the thigh4 ,m4 gemellus superior 7,fig4 #afc1 #f74--,the gemellus superior is a triangular muscle lying beneath the pyriformis 7,fig4 #afc1 #g74 ,it is broader than the pyriformis1 so that it projects beyond its borders both caudad and craniad4 ,it is closely united craniad with the gluteus minimus1 so that the limits of the two are definable only with difficulty4 ,its caudal border is closely united to the gemellus inferior4 ,origin by fleshy fibres from an elongated area on the dorsal border of the ilium and ischium4 ,the area is narrowed craniad4 ,it does not quite reach the posterior inferior iliac spine in the one direction nor the spine of the ischium in the other direction4 ,the fibres converge to a strong tendon the ,insertion of which is into a triangular area dorsad of the tip of the great trochanter4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the gluteus medius 7,fig4 #ij1 b71 the pyriformis 7,fig4 #afc1 #g71 the great sciatic nerve 7,fig4 #afc1 a71 and the gluteus maximus4 ,inner surface with the ilium1 ischium1 the capsularis1 the caudal edge of the gluteus minimus 7,fig4 #afc1 #e71 and the cranial edge of the obturator internus 7,fig4 #ij1 e74 ,action4--,rotates the femur and abducts it so as to carry the foot outward4 ,m4 gluteus minimus 7,fig4 #afc1 #e74--,the gluteus minimus is a long triangular muscle beneath the middle of the gluteus medius 7,fig4 #ij1 b7 and with its caudal border against or covering the cranial border of the gemellus superior 7,fig4 #afc1 #f71 to which it is frequently closely united4 ,origin from the ventral half of the ilium1 from near its cranial end to a point midway between the posterior iliac spine and the spine of the ischium4 ,the muscle ends in a strong flat tendon4 ,insertion into an oval facet at the base of the dorsal surface of the great trochanter on its lateral side4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the gluteus medius 7,fig4 #ij1 b7 and at the caudal border with the gemellus superior 7,fig4 #afc1 #f74 ,inner surface with the capsularis and rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b74 ,action4--,rotates the femur so as to carry the foot out4 ,m4 capsularis 7gluteus quartus1 or epimeralis74--,the capsularis is a small flat bundle of muscle-fibres which lies obliquely beneath the gluteus minimus 7,fig4 #afc1 #e7 and gemellus superior 7#f7 on the lateral or outer surface of the ilium4 ,origin by fleshy fibres from the surface of the ilium over a triangular area between the origin of the rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b7 ventrad1 the gemellus superior 7,fig4 #afc1 #f7 dorsad1 and of the gluteus minimus 7,fig4 #afc1 #e7 craniad and the acetabulum caudad4 ,the muscle passes over the smooth surface of the ilium and the pubis ventrad of the acetabulum and then over the capsule of the joint4 ,insertion by fleshy fibres for about one centimeter in the middle line on the dorsal surface of the femur distad of the great trochanter4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the gluteus minimus 7,fig4 #afc1 #e71 the gemellus superior 7#f71 and the vastus lateralis 7,fig4 #ij1 d74 ,inner surface with the ilium1 the rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b71 the capsule of the joint1 and the vastus medialis 7,fig4 #ib1 c74 ,action4--,rotates the thigh so as to carry the foot inward1 hence antagonizes the iliopsoas4 ,m4 gemellus inferior4--,the gemellus inferior is a flat triangular muscle situated just caudad of the gemellus superior and beneath the obturator internus 7,fig4 #ij1 e71 so that it is seen on reflecting the latter ,origin from the dorsal one-half of the whole lateral surface of the ischium between the ischial spine and the ischial tuberosity4 ,the fibres converge toward its insertion4 ,the inner surface of the muscle is covered by a strong tendon4 ,insertion into the inner surface of the tendon of the obturator internus 7,fig4 #ij1 e7 by tendon- and muscle-fibres4 ,some of the muscle-fibres are inserted into the capsule of the joint4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the obturator internus 7,fig4 #ij1 e74 ,medial surface with the ischium4 ,caudal border with the quadratus femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 f74 ,cranial border with the gemellus superior4 ,action4--,abductor of the thigh4 ,the muscle may be considered as a separate head of the obturator internus 7,fig4 #ij1 e74 ,m4 quadratus femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 f74--,the quadratus femoris is a short thick muscle connecting the ischial tuberosity 7#b7 and the proximal end of the femur4 ,it lies just caudad of the obturator internus 7e7 beneath the proximal end of the biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t74 ,the origin is by fleshy fibres from a considerable triangular area on the lateral surface of the ischium near the tuberosity4 ,the area lies between the origin areas of the gemellus inferior1 biceps1 semimembranosus1 and the obturator externus4 ,insertion into the distal two-thirds of the ventral border of the great trochanter and about half the adjacent surface of the lesser trochanter4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the tenuissimus 7,fig4 #ij1 g71 the biceps 7,fig4 #fh1 t71 the semitendinosus 7,fig4 #ij1 j71 and the great sciatic nerve 7,fig4 #afc1 a74 ,caudal border with the semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ij1 i74 ,ventral border with the adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 h72 dorsal border with the obturator internus 7,fig4 #ij1 e7 and gemellus inferior4 ,action4--,extensor of the thigh and rotator of the femur so as to carry the foot inward4 ,m4 obturator externus4--,the obturator externus is a flat triangular muscle beneath the adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 g74 ,origin by fleshy fibres from the median lip of the obturator foramen and from both dorsal and ventral surfaces of the rami of the pubis and ischium adjacent to the lip4 ,also from the outer surface of the ramus of the ischium as far as the area for the quadratus femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 f74 ,the fibres converge to a strong flat tendon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,lateral ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,leg1 ,,after ,,removal ,,of ,,the ,,muscles ,,shown ,,in ,,fig4 #fh 7,,biceps1 ,,tensor ,,fasci ,,lat1 ,,caudofemoralis1 ,,and ,,gluteus ,,maximus74 a1 ,m4 sartorius2 b1 ,m4 gluteus medius2 c1 ,m4 rectus femoris2 d1 ,m4 vastus lateralis2 e1 ,m4 obturator internus2 f1 ,m4 quadratus femoris2 g1 ,m4 tenuissimus2 h1 ,m4 adductor femoris2 i1 ,m4 semimembranosus2 j1 ,m4 semitendinosus2 k1 ,m4 vastus intermedius2 l1 ,m4 plantaris2 m1 m1 m1 ,m4 gastrocnemius1 outer head 7m1 part from the external sesamoid bone2 m1 from the plantaris2 m1 from the superficial fascia72 n1 ,m4 tibialis anterior2 o1 ,m4 soleus2 p1 ,m4 extensor longus digitorum2 q1 ,m4 peroneus longus2 r1 ,m4 peroneus tertius 7r1 its tendon72 s1 ,m4 peroneus brevis2 t1 tendon of ,achilles2 u1 ,m4 extensor brevis digitorum4 #a1 great trochanter of femur2 #b1 tuberosity of ischium1 with cut origin of ,m4 biceps femoris2 #c1 patella2 #d1 calcaneus2 #e1 transverse ligaments2 #f1 lateral malleolus4 ,insertion into the proximal portion of the bottom of the trochanteric fossa4 ,relations4--,ventral surface with the adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 g74 ,dorsal surface with the pubis and ischium4 ,caudal border with the quadratus femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 f74 ,action4--,assists the iliopsoas4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,medial ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,hip4--,m4 obturator internus 7,fig4 #ij1 e74--,the obturator internus appears as a triangular muscle caudad of the gemellus superior4 ,origin by numerous small separate heads from the dorsal surface of the ramus of the ischium along its symphysis and following its medial border from the symphysis nearly to the tuberosity4 ,the fibres form a flat muscle which narrows and passes through the lesser sciatic notch1 turns ventrad and ends in a strong flat tendon whose ,insertion is into the bottom of the trochanteric fossa of the femur4 ,the tendon is continued proximad on the inner surface of the muscle and forms a smooth firm surface by which the muscle glides over the dorsal border of the ischium4 ,into the inner surface of this tendon near its insertion the tendon of the gemellus inferior is inserted4 ,relations4--,medial surface within the pelvis with a mass of fat separating it from the pelvic organs4 ,dorsal or outer surface with the biceps femoris1 the tenuissimus1 the caudofemoralis1 and the great sciatic nerve4 ,inner surface with the ischium and the great sciatic nerve4 ,caudal 7or ventral7 border with the quadratus femoris4 ,action4--,abductor of the thigh4 ,m4 iliopsoas 7,fig4 #afb1 #h2 ,fig4 #ia1 c74--,the iliopsoas 7equivalent to the human psoas and iliacus7 is a conical muscle emerging from the abdominal cavity onto the medial surface of the femur4 ,origin4--7a7 ,the portion corresponding to the human psoas 7,fig4 #afb1 #h7 arises by ten vertebral heads4 ,the first five of these come from the five cranial tendons of origin of the psoas minor 7,fig4 #afb1 #i72 the sixth from a tendinous expansion which passes from the tendon of the first head over the ventral longitudinal muscles to the transverse process of the fifth lumbar vertebra4 ,the seventh1 eighth1 ninth1 and tenth heads arise by fleshy fibres from the ventral surfaces of the centra of the last four lumbar vertebr4 7b7 ,the portion corresponding to the human iliacus arises by fleshy fibres from the ventral border of the ilium1 from opposite the auricular impression to the iliopectineal eminence4 ,the portions of the muscle all converge to form a conical mass which ends in a strong tendon lying on its outer surface4 ,insertion by tendon and fleshy fibres into the apex of the lesser trochanter of the femur4 ,relations4--,dorsal surface with the quadratus lumborum 7with which this muscle is partly united71 the rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ia1 d71 and1 by the iliac head1 with the gluteus minimus4 ,ventral and medial surface with the psoas minor 7,fig4 #afb1 #i7 and the peritoneum4 ,lateral edge with the transversus abdominis 7,fig4 #afb1 #d74 ,action4--,rotates the thigh so as to carry the foot out2 also flexes the thigh4 #b4 ,muscles of the ,thigh4 ,m4 biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t1 page #aag74--;,a very large flat muscle covering about two-thirds of the lateral side of the thigh4 ,origin 7,fig4 #ij1 #b74--;,from the ventral surface of the tuberosity of the ischium by tendon- and muscle-fibres4 ,the fibres diverge1 and near the knee the mass has spread out1 ending in a fascia4 ,the dorsal border of the muscle and the common fascia are continuous dorsad with the superficial fascia of the thigh and with the tendon of the caudofemoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s74 ,ventrad it is continuous with the superficial fascia of the shank4 ,insertion into rather more than the proximal one-third of the dorsal border of the tibia along its lateral margin and into the lateral margin of the patella4 ,in passing over the knee-joint it is closely united to the underlying ligaments and tendons4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the superficial fascia and with a few of the most caudal fibres of the cutaneus maximus 7,fig4 #fb1 b1 page #id74 ,cranial 7or dorsal7 edge with the caudofemoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s7 and the vastus lateralis 7,fig4 #ij1 d74 ,caudal border with the semitendinosus 7,fig4 #fh1 u7 and a mass of fat4 ,inner surface with the caudofemoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s71 the tenuissimus 7,fig4 #ij1 g71 the obturator internus 7,fig4 #ij1 e71 the quadratus femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 f71 the semitendinosus 7,fig4 #fh1 u71 the semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ij1 i71 the adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 h71 the great sciatic nerve 7,fig4 #afc1 a71 and distad with the following muscles of the lower leg3 the tibialis anterior 7,fig4 #ij1 n71 the extensor longus digitorum 7,fig4 #ij1 p71 the peroneus longus 7,fig4 #ij1 q71 and the lateral head of the gastrocnemius 7,fig4 #ij1 m74 ,action4--,abductor of the thigh1 and flexor of the shank4 ,m4 tenuissimus or ,m4 abductor cruris 7,fig4 #ij1 g74--,a very slender muscle1 only three or four millimeters wide4 ,origin from the tip of the transverse process of the second caudal vertebra1 in common with the caudofemoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s7 or gluteus maximus4 ,it passes obliquely beneath the biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t7 distad and ventrad1 to the distal end of the ventral border of that muscle4 ,here it becomes continuous with the ventral border of the biceps1 ending in a continuation of the same fascia into which the biceps is inserted4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the caudofemoralis 7,fig4 #fh1 s7 and the biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t72 distad with the integument4 ,inner surface with the obturator internus 7,fig4 #ij1 e71 quadratus femoris 7f71 semitendinosus 7j71 adductor femoris 7h71 semimembranosus 7i71 and distad with the muscles of the lower leg4 ,m4 caudofemoralis 7parameralis1 ,strauss-,durckheim7 7,fig4 #fh1 s1 page #aag74 ,origin by a flat tendon from the transverse processes of the second and third caudal vertebr4 ,the muscle forms a flat band which passes distad along the middle of the lateral side of the thigh over the pelvis and caudad of the great trochanter4 ,at the middle of the thigh it ends in a very thin tendon4 ,the tendon passes distad along the medial surface of the biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t71 pierces the fascia lata near the knee1 and passes to its ,insertion into the middle of the lateral border of the patella4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the superficial fascia and a few fibres of the cutaneus maximus2 distad with the biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t74 ,cranial border with the gluteus maximus2 caudal border with the biceps femoris4 ,inner surface with the tenuissimus 7,fig4 #ij1 g71 the gluteus maximus1 the abductor caud internus1 and with the obturator internus 7,fig4 #ij1 e72 distad with the vastus lateralis4 ,action4--,abducts the thigh and helps to extend the shank4 ,m4 semitendinosus 7,fig4 #ij1 j74--,a long slender muscle on the ventral 7caudal7 border of the thigh1 between the semimembranosus 7i7 and the biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t74 ,origin from the apex of the tuberosity of the ischium beneath the origin of the biceps femoris4 ,the muscle passes to the medial side of the shank and ends in a thin but strong tendon 7,fig4 #ib1 i7 about five millimeters broad4 ,the tendon curves proximad and passes beneath the gracilis tendon 7,fig4 #ia1 b7 to its ,insertion into the crest 7dorsal border7 of the tibia one or two centimeters from its proximal end4 ,relations4--,lateral surface with the biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t71 the integument1 a mass of fat1 and distad with the gastrocnemius 7,fig4 #ib1 j7 and popliteus 7,fig4 #ib1 k74 ,caudal surface with the integument4 ,medial surface with the semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ij1 i7 and distad with the integument of the lower leg4 ,action4--,flexor of the shank4 ,m4 semimembranosus 7,figs4 #ij and #ia1 i2 ,fig4 #ib1 h74--,a thick prismatic muscle lying along the ventral 7or caudal7 side of the thigh between the semitendinosus 7j7 and the gracilis 7,fig4 #ia1 b74 ,origin by short tendon-fibres from the caudal border of the tuberosity and the ramus of the ischium4 ,the muscle mass is divided throughout most of its length into two portions 7,fig4 #ib1 h and h71 one of which 7h7 lies laterad and caudad of the other4 ,the two portions pass to the medial side of the knee4 ,the caudal portion 7h7 ends in a strong flat tendon five millimeters broad1 the ,insertion of which is into the medial surface of the femur on the medial epicondyle1 at the middle of its distal border and into the adjacent medial surface of the tibia behind the lateral ligament4 ,the dorsal part has its insertion into the distal one and one-half to two centimeters of the ridge which is continued from the medial epicondyle of the femur onto the shaft2 and into the sesamoid bone of the medial epicondyle4 ,relations4--,lateral surface with the semitendinosus 7,fig4 #ij1 j71 the biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t71 and distad with a small part of the adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 g71 and with the gastrocnemius 7,fig4 #ib1 j74 ,medial surface with the gracilis 7,fig4 #ia1 b7 and distad with the sartorius 7,fig4 #ia1 a74 ,cranial 7or dorsal7 border at the origin with the quadratus femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 f72 for the remainder of its length with the adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 h74 ,caudal border with the integument proximad4 ,action4--,extensor of the thigh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,medial ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,leg4 a1 ,m4 sartorius2 b1 ,m4 gracilis2 c1 ,m4 iliopsoas2 d1 ,m4 rectus femoris2 e1 ,m4 vastus medialis2 f1 ,m4 pectineus2 g1 ,m4 adductor longus2 h1 ,m4 adductor femoris2 i1 ,m4 semimembranosus2 j1 ,m4 semitendinosus2 k1 medial head of ,m4 gastrocnemius2 l1 ,m4 plantaris2 m1 ,m4 flexor longus hallucis 7m1 its tendon72 n1 ,m4 flexor longus digitorum2 7n1 its tendon72 o1 ,m4 tibialis posterior2 p1 ,m4 tibialis anterior2 q1 ,m4 interosseus of second digit4 #a1 patella2 #b1 calcaneus2 #c1 medial malleolus2 #d1 second metatarsal2 #e1 transverse ligament of the lower leg4 ,m4 sartorius 7,fig4 #ia1 a2 ,fig4 #fh1 q74--,a large flat muscle along the medial side of the thigh near its cranial 7dorsal7 border4 ,origin from the ventral half of the crest of the ilium and from the medial half of its ventral border craniad of the auricular impression4 ,the caudal third of the origin is by a thin tendon1 the rest by fleshy fibres4 ,insertion on a long ,s-shaped line which begins on the dorsal border of the tibial shaft about two centimeters from its proximal end1 passes thence to the middle of the proximal end of the medial surface of the tibia1 thence across the ligaments of the knee-joint and the medial surface of the medial epicondyle to the patella1 crosses the patella obliquely to the middle of its proximal end1 and may be continued for some distance proximad along the middle line on the fascia4 ,relations4--,medial surface with the integument and proximad with the internal oblique muscle 7,fig4 #fh1 p74 ,lateral 7inner7 surface with the tensor fasci lat 7,fig4 #fh1 r71 the vastus lateralis 7,fig4 #ij1 d71 the superficial fascia1 the vastus medialis 7,fig4 #ib1 c71 the rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b71 and the distal end of the semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ib1 h74 ,action4--,adducts and rotates the femur and extends the tibia4 ,m4 gracilis 7,fig4 #ia1 b74--,the gracilis is a flat1 thin1 subcutaneous muscle occupying the ventral half of the medial surface of the thigh4 ,origin by a strong tendon from the caudal three-fourths of the symphysis of the ischium and pubis4 ,the tendon may extend caudad of the symphysis in the middle line to the level of the tuberosity of the ischium4 ,for about its first centimeter the tendon is common to the two muscles of opposite sides and gives origin on two sides to the fibres of the adductor femoris4 ,the common tendon divides into two which pass laterad1 each ending in a convex border from which the muscle-fibres spring4 ,insertion4--,it ends in a thin aponeurosis1 part of which is continuous with that of the sartorius4 ,the aponeurosis is finally inserted into the medial surface of the tibia near its proximal end1 while distally it is continuous with the fascia4 ,relations4--,outer 7medial7 surface with the integument4 ,inner 7lateral7 surface with the semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ia1 i7 and the adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ia1 h74 ,action4--,adducts the leg and draws it caudad4 ,m4 adductor femoris 7magnus et brevis7 7,fig4 #ib1 g2 ,fig4 #ij1 h74--,the adductor femoris lies between the semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ib1 h7 and the femur4 ,its proximal part is covered by the semimembranosus1 while its distal part lies outside of it4 ,origin by muscle-fibres from the rami of the pubis and the ischium along the whole of the length of the symphysis2 from the ramus of the ischium between the symphysis and the tuberosity1 and from the tendon of origin common to the two gracilis muscles4 ,insertion into nearly the whole of the ventral surface of the shaft of the femur4 ,the area begins at the base of the great trochanter opposite the proximal end and the insertion area of the gluteus maximus4 ,it extends thence distad along the caudal border of the surface as an area about one millimeter wide4 ,at the junction of the first and second thirds of the shaft the area expands and occupies the whole of the ventral surface of the bone1 ending at the intercondyloid fossa4 ,relations4--,lateral surface with the biceps 7,fig4 #fh1 t71 the great sciatic nerve 7,fig4 #afc1 a71 the tenuissimus 7,fig4 #ij1 g71 and the semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ib1 h72 dorsolateral border in contact with the vastus lateralis 7,fig4 #ib1 c74 ,dorsal surface with the quadratus femoris 7,fig4 #ij1 f7 and obturator externus 7,fig4 #ij1 e74 ,caudal surface with the semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ib1 h74 ,medial surface with the gracilis 7,fig4 #ia1 b71 adductor longus 7,fig4 #ib1 f71 pectineus 7,fig4 #ib1 e71 vastus medialis 7,fig4 #ib1 c71 and distad with the medial head of the gastrocnemius 7,fig4 #ib1 j74 ,action4--,an extensor of the thigh4 ,m4 adductor longus 7,fig4 #ia1 g2 ,fig4 #ib1 f74--,a thin muscle which covers the dorsal half of the medial surface of the adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 g74 ,origin by muscle-fibres from the median three-fourths of the cranial border of the pubis1 the line of origin forming a medial continuation of that of the pectineus 7,fig4 #ib1 e74 ,insertion by a thin aponeurosis into the external linea aspera of the femur along the second and third fifths of the bone4 ,relations4--,with its medial or cranial surface the adductor longus forms part of the boundary of a depression among the muscles at the proximal end of the medial side of the leg4 ,this depression is called the iliopectineal fossa2 it contains the femoral vein and artery and saphenous nerve imbedded in fat 7,fig4 #abg74 ,the medial edge of the adductor longus is in relation with the integument2 the lateral edge with the pectineus 7,fig4 #ib1 e74 ,inner or caudal surface with the adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 g74 ,action4--,adductor of the thigh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,,second ,,layer ,,of ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,medial ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,thigh4 a1 ,m4 tensor fasci lat2 a1 fascia lata2 b1 ,m4 rectus femoris2 c1 ,m4 vastus medialis2 d1 ,m4 iliopsoas 7cut72 e1 ,m4 pectineus2 f1 ,m4 adductor longus2 g1 ,m4 adductor femoris2 h1 h1 ,m4 semimembranosus2 i1 ,m4 semitendinosus 7i1 its tendon72 j1 medial head of ,m4 gastrocnemius2 k1 ,m4 popliteus2 l1 ,m4 flexor longus digitorum4 #a1 patellar ligament2 #b1 ligamentum collaterale tibiale4 ,m4 pectineus 7,fig4 #ib1 e74--,a flat band of fibres closely united with the adductor longus 7f71 of which it appears to be a lateral continuation4 ,origin by fleshy fibres from the lateral one-fourth of the cranial border of the pubis4 ,the muscle passes over the smooth outer surface of the pubis between its origin area and the acetabulum1 crosses the iliopsoas 7d7 obliquely and has its ,insertion by muscle-fibres into an elongated area 7five millimeters in length7 on the shaft of the femur just distad of the lesser trochanter and between the insertion of the adductor femoris 7g7 and that of the vastus medialis 7c74 ,relations4--,the cranial edge forms part of the floor of the iliopectineal fossa4 ,lateral surface in relation with the iliopsoas 7d7 and vastus medialis 7c72 medial surface with the adductor longus 7f7 and adductor femoris 7g74 ,action4--,adductor of the thigh4 ,m4 quadriceps femoris4--,the quadriceps femoris is a very powerful extensor muscle on the front of the thigh4 ,it consists of four muscles which unite to form the great extensor of the shank4 ,it is inserted into the patella and through it1 by the ligamentum patell1 into the tibia4 ,it may be compared to the triceps brachii4 ,the parts are3 7#a7 ,m4 rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b2 ,fig4 #ij1 c74 ,origin by strong tendon from an elongated triangular area which has its base at the acetabulum and its apex about five to seven millimeters craniad of the acetabulum1 along the ventral border of the ilium4 ,the area is between that for the capsularis and that for the iliopsoas4 ,the muscle is flat near its origin1 but soon becomes a triangular prismatic mass which is united to the dorsal border of the vastus lateralis 7,fig4 #ij1 d7 at the junction of the middle and last thirds of the thigh4 ,insertion into the oblique area on the outer surface of the patella near its proximal border in connection with the vastus lateralis4 ,relations4--,outer or lateral surface at the origin with the gluteus minimus1 the edge of the capsularis1 the gluteus medius 7,fig4 #ij1 b71 and farther distad with the vastus lateralis 7,fig4 #ij1 d74 ,medial surface with the tensor fasci lat 7,fig4 #ib1 a71 sartorius 7,fig4 #ij1 a71 and vastus medialis 7,fig4 #ib1 c74 ,inner 7caudal7 surface with the vastus intermedius4 7#b7 ,m4 vastus lateralis 7,fig4 #ij1 d74--,a flat triangular prismatic mass joined distally to the preceding4 ,it covers the dorsal part of the lateral surface of the thigh4 ,origin from a triangular area on the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the shaft and the great trochanter of the femur4 ,the base of the area is at the great trochanter1 and its apex is at the junction of the second and third fifths of the shaft on the linea aspera4 ,the linea aspera forms the ventral boundary of the triangle1 while its dorsal boundary is formed by a line drawn from its apex to the dorsomedial angle of the great trochanter4 ,the mass unites with the rectus femoris 7c7 by its dorsal border at the junction of the middle and distal thirds of the thigh4 ,insertion into the oblique area on the outer surface of the patella near its lateral border in connection with the rectus femoris4 7#c7 ,m4 vastus medialis 7,fig4 #ib1 c7 lies on the medial side of the thigh4 ,origin by fleshy fibres over a diamond-shaped area on the shaft of the femur lying between the medial branch of the linea aspera and the area for the vastus lateralis4 ,proximad the area is bounded by the spiral line1 and distad it is bounded by a line parallel to the spiral line and having its proximal end at about the junction of the first and second thirds of the bone4 ,the muscle forms a triangular1 prismatic mass4 ,it ends in a thin aponeurosis which is continuous dorsad with the border of the rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b71 and ventrad sometimes with the tendon of the gracilis 7,fig4 #ia1 b74 ,insertion into the medial border of the patella and the ligamentum patell4 ,the insertion may extend onto the head of the tibia4 ,the adjacent surfaces of the vastus lateralis and the vastus medialis are connected over their distal thirds by an aponeurosis which passes transversely beneath the rectus femoris4 ,the distal end of the aponeurosis is inserted into the proximal border of the patella4 ,its proximal end receives the insertion of some muscle-fibres which form a part of the vastus medialis as here described4 ,this mass of fibres is described by ,strauss-,durckheim as the crural muscle4 ,sometimes the transverse aponeurosis is continuous with only one of the two vasti and sometimes with neither1 so that the insertion of the crural of ,strauss-,durckheim becomes more or less independent4 ,relations of the vastus medialis4--,outer 7medial7 surface with the sartorius 7,fig4 #ia1 a7 and the structures in the iliopectineal fossa4 ,cranial 7or dorsal7 surface with the rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b7 and vastus intermedius4 ,caudal 7ventral7 surface with the pectineus 7,fig4 #ib1 e71 adductor longus 7,fig4 #ib1 f71 adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 g71 and semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ib1 h74 7#d7 ,m4 vastus intermedius4--,a flat mass of muscle which lies beneath the rectus femoris4 ,origin from nearly the whole of the dorsal surface of the shaft of the femur between the areas for the vastus medialis and vastus lateralis4 ,the area of origin extends distad to an oblique line the middle of which is about one and one-half centimeters from the patellar surface1 the lateral border of the area being longer than the medial border4 ,insertion by muscle-fibres into the capsule of the joint4 ,the central fibres are inserted about one centimeter proximad of the patella1 while the lateral mass passes to the level of the proximal end4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b72 borders with the vastus medialis 7,fig4 #ib1 c7 and vastus lateralis 7,fig4 #ij1 d72 inner surface with the femur4 ,action4--,the quadriceps extensor is an extensor of the shank4 ,the vastus intermedius acting separately is a tensor of the capsule of the knee-joint4 #c4 ,muscles of the ,lower ,leg 7,crus74 ,a4 ,,on ,,the ,,ventral ,,side4--,m4 gastrocnemius4--,this is the great muscular mass of the calf4 ,it arises by two heads1 the caput laterale or lateral head 7,fig4 #ij1 m71 and the caput mediale or medial head 7,fig4 #ia1 k71 of the gastrocnemius4 ,caput laterale 7,fig4 #ij1 m1 m1 m74--,the origin of the lateral head is in four portions3 7#a7 ,from the tendon of origin of the plantaris which comes from the middle of the lateral border of the patella4 ,the tendon ends in a small conical mass of fibres 7m7 which joins the ventral part of the common head4 7#b7 ,by a slender flat tendon1 distad of the first1 from the superficial fascia of the shank 7m74 ,the tendon ends in a conical mass which joins the dorsal border of the common head4 7#c7 ,by a strong tendon and by muscle-fibres from the distal border of the lateral sesamoid bone 7,fig4 #fa1 #c7 of the femur4 ,these fibres 7m7 form the middle and outer part of the common head4 7#d7 ,by muscle-fibres from the middle of the outer surface of the aponeurosis covering the plantaris 7,fig4 #ij1 l7 along rather more than the proximal half of the tibia4 ,the lateral head thus formed is flat and fusiform in section4 ,caput mediale 7,fig4 #ia1 k2 ,fig4 #ib1 j74--,the medial head resembles the lateral head closely4 ,origin by a strong tendon from the medial sesamoid bone of the femur 7,fig4 #fa1 #d7 and by muscle-fibres from the surface of the shaft for a short distance proximad of this4 ,the two heads unite by their contiguous borders at the junction of the first and second thirds of the tibia4 ,the common muscle narrows rapidly and ends in a flat tendon which joins the tendon of the soleus to form the so-called tendon of ,achilles 7tendo calcaneus7 7,fig4 #ij1 t74 ,this has its ,insertion into the proximal end of the calcaneus 7,fig4 #ij1 #d7 near its ventral border4 ,this tendon together with that of the soleus 7,fig4 #ij1 o7 and the fascia of the shank forms a tubular sheath for the tendon of the plantaris4 ,relations4--7#a7 ,of the lateral head4 ,lateral 7outer7 surface with the biceps femoris 7,fig4 #fh1 t7 and the superficial fascia4 ,medial 7inner7 surface with the popliteus 7,fig4 #ib1 k71 the plantaris 7,fig4 #ij1 l7 7to which it is closely united71 the medial head of the gastrocnemius 7,fig4 #ia1 k71 the soleus 7,fig4 #ij1 o71 and the peroneus longus 7,fig4 #ij1 q74 7#b7 ,of the medial head4 ,medial 7outer7 surface with the superficial fascia and the tendons of the gracilis 7,fig4 #ia1 b71 semimembranosus 7,fig4 #ib1 h71 and semitendinosus 7,fig4 #ib1 i74 ,lateral 7inner7 surface at the origin with the adductor femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 g71 then with the plantaris 7,fig4 #ia1 l71 the popliteus 7,fig4 #ib1 k71 flexor longus digitorum 7,fig4 #ia1 n71 and the lateral head of the gastrocnemius 7,fig4 #ij1 m74 ,action4--,extensor of the foot4 7,it is to be noted that what is called extension in the foot is analogous to what is called flexion in the hand1 so that the extensors of the foot are most readily to be compared with the flexors of the hand47 ,m4 plantaris 7,fig4 #ij1 l2 ,fig4 #ia1 l74--,a fusiform muscle covered distally by the gastrocnemius1 but appearing between the two heads of the gastrocnemius at their proximal ends 7,fig4 #ij1 l74 ,origin by a strong tendon from the middle of the lateral border of the patella and by fleshy fibres from the ventral border of the lateral sesamoid4 ,the patellar tendon ends in a flattened head which passes ventrad over the lateral epicondyle of the femur and then curves distad2 it is closely united with the lateral head of the gastrocnemius4 ,the muscle ends in a thick tendon which passes through a sheath formed by the tendons of the gastrocnemius and soleus1 and the fascia of the shank4 ,the tendon passes over the grooved proximal end of the calcaneus onto its ventral surface4 ,it is held in place against the groove by two sheets of aponeurosis1 which leave the tendon on either side for a distance of more than a centimeter and are attached to the lateral surfaces of the calcaneus at its proximal end4 ,lateral motion is thus hindered1 while longitudinal motion is permitted4 ,between this tendon and the tendon of ,achilles is a synovial bursa which aids the gliding movement of the tendon4 ,in the sole of the foot opposite the distal end of the calcaneus the tendon broadens and ends in the flexor brevis digitorum 7pedis perforatus7 muscle1 which might also be considered as a second part of the plantaris4 ,in man the plantaris is inserted into the calcaneus along with the gastrocnemius4 ,relations4--,the muscle is covered throughout by the two heads of the gastrocnemius 7,fig4 #ij1 m2 ,fig4 #ia1 k71 except at the proximal end 7,fig4 #ij1 l71 where it is in contact with the integument4 ,inner surface in relation with the popliteus 7,fig4 #ib1 k71 the soleus 7,fig4 #ij1 o71 the flexor longus digitorum 7,fig4 #ia1 n71 and flexor longus hallucis 7,fig4 #ia1 m74 ,m4 soleus 7,fig4 #ij1 o74--,a flat fusiform muscle lying beneath the plantaris4 ,origin by muscle-fibres from the lateral surface of the head of the fibula1 and by tendon-fibres from the proximal two-fifths of its ventral border4 ,insertion4--,the muscle ends in a slender tendon which joins the lateral border of the gastrocnemius tendon to form the tendon of ,achilles 7,fig4 #ij1 t71 which forms the sheath of the plantaris tendon4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the gastrocnemius 7,fig4 #ij1 m7 and plantaris 7,fig4 #ij1 l74 ,inner surface with the peroneus longus 7,fig4 #ij1 q71 peroneus tertius 7,fig4 #ij1 r71 and flexor hallucis 7,fig4 #ia1 m74 ,action4--,assists the gastrocnemius to extend the foot4 ,m4 triceps sur4--,the gastrocnemius and the soleus are sometimes considered as forming a single muscle1 with three heads1 under the name triceps sur4 ,m4 popliteus 7,fig4 #ib1 k74--,a triangular muscle passing from the femur obliquely toward the medial side over the ventral surface of the proximal end of the tibia4 ,origin by a strong tendon from the popliteal groove on the surface of the lateral epicondyle of the femur4 ,in the tendon is a sesamoid bone1 the popliteal bone 7,fig4 #fa1 #e1 page #hi71 which glides over the ventral part of the lateral articular facet on the proximal end of the tibia4 ,as the muscle passes over the joint it is closely attached to the joint capsule4 ,from the popliteal bone1 which with the tendon lies within the capsule of the knee-joint1 the muscle-fibres diverge to their ,insertion into the proximal end of the ventral surface of the tibial shaft on the medial side of the medial oblique ridge4 ,the area of insertion extends slightly onto the medial surface of the bone4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the gastrocnemius 7,fig4 #ib1 j7 and plantaris 7,fig4 #ia1 l71 and with the tendon of the semitendinosus 7,fig4 #ib1 i74 ,distal border with the origins of the soleus and flexor longus digitorum4 ,inner surface with the capsule of the knee-joint and the tibia4 ,action4--,rotates the thigh so as to turn the toes inward4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the three following deep muscles on the ventral surface of the shank are covered by a deep fascia 7the deep crural fascia7 which separates them from the overlying muscles4 ,this fascia stretches from the dorsal border of the tibia about the ventral side of the shank to the medial border of the tibia4 ,it sends a slip beneath the border of the fibula4 ,m4 flexor longus digitorum 7,fig4 #ia1 m and n74--,owing to the reduction of the first digit in the cat the tendon of the flexor longus hallucis 7m7 has become united to that of the flexor longus digitorum 7n71 so that the two might be considered separate heads of a single muscle4 ,the head corresponding to the flexor longus hallucis 7m7 is much larger than that corresponding to the flexor longus digitorum 7n74 ,the two heads will be described separately4 7#a7 ,m4 flexor longus hallucis 7,fig4 #ia1 m74--,this lies against the ventral surface of the tibia and fibula beneath the popliteus 7,fig4 #ib1 k7 and soleus 7,fig4 #ij1 o74 ,origin by fleshy fibres1 7#a7 from the sheet of deep crural fascia which dips between it and the tibialis posterior 7,fig4 #ia1 o7 and the flexor longus digitorum 7n74 7#b7 ,from the ventral surface of the tibia distad of the lateral oblique line to within one to three centimeters of the distal end of the shaft4 7#c7 ,from the medial surface of the shaft and head of the fibula and from the whole interosseous ligament4 ,on the fibular side the origin may extend onto the tendon of the popliteus and the fascia of the peroneus longus4 ,the fibres form a flat fusiform mass ending one centimeter from the heel in a strong flat tendon 7m7 which passes over the groove on the distal surface of the astragalus and over the groove on the sustentaculum tali4 ,the two grooves are converted into a continuous canal by strong transverse ligaments1 and the canal is lined by an extension of the synovial bursa of the ankle-joint4 ,emerging from the canal the tendon broadens and receives on its medial side the insertion of the tendon of the flexor longus digitorum 7n74 ,the tendon gives origin on its outer surface to the lumbricales and to the common plantar ligament4 ,the tendon continues to broaden until it reaches the middle of the length of the metacarpals2 here it divides into four tendons which pass to the terminal phalanges of the digits4 ,insertion4--,the relations of the four tendons and their insertions are identical with those of the flexor profundus digitorum of the hand4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the soleus 7,fig4 #ij1 o7 and plantaris 7,fig4 #ia1 l74 ,lateral border with the soleus1 the peroneus tertius 7,fig4 #ij1 r71 and peroneus brevis 7,fig4 #ij1 s74 ,medial border with the tibialis posterior 7,fig4 #ia1 o7 and flexor longus digitorum 7,fig4 #ia1 n74 ,action4--,flexor of the phalanges4 7#b7 ,m4 flexor longus digitorum 7,fig4 #ia1 n74 ,origin by muscle- and tendon-fibres from the ventral surface of the tibia over its proximal half between the oblique ridges2 by fleshy fibres from an aponeurosis between it and the tibialis posterior 7,fig4 #ia1 o71 and by tendon from the medial surface of the head of the fibula4 ,at the junction of the middle and distal thirds of the bone the muscle ends in a slender tendon which passes through the ventral groove on the medial surface of the tibia and1 curving onto the sole of the foot1 becomes attached to the medial border of the common tendon described under the last4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the medial head of the gastrocnemius 7,fig4 #ia1 k7 and with the superficial fascia4 ,inner surface with the tibialis posterior 7,fig4 #ia1 o74 ,medial border at the proximal end with the popliteus 7,fig4 #ib1 k71 lateral border with the tibialis posterior 7,fig4 #ia1 o71 and flexor longus hallucis 7,fig4 #ia1 m74 ,action4--,flexor of the phalanges4 ,m4 tibialis posterior 7,fig4 #ia1 o74--,a slender flat fusiform muscle beneath the flexor longus digitorum and between it and the flexor longus hallucis4 ,origin by fleshy fibres from nearly the whole medial surface of the head of the fibula1 from the inner surface of the aponeurosis between it and the flexor longus digitorum 7n71 and by a few fleshy fibres from the ventral surface of the tibia between the oblique ridges4 ,some fibres may also arise from the outer surface of the aponeurosis covering the flexor longus hallucis 7m74 ,the muscle ends at about the middle of the tibia in a slender flat tendon which passes parallel to the tendon of the flexor longus digitorum 7n7 through the dorsal groove on the medial surface of the distal end of the tibia4 ,this groove is converted into a canal by a transverse ligament4 ,beyond the canal the tendon turns onto the plantar surface of the foot and passes through a groove on the ventral surface of the scaphoid bone4 ,it then divides4 ,insertion into the outer tuberosity on the surface of the scaphoid1 and onto the proximal end of the ventral surface of the medial cuneiform4 ,relations4--,outer and medial surface with the flexor longus digitorum 7n74 ,lateral surface with the flexor longus hallucis 7m74 ,action4--,extensor of the foot4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,dorsal ,,and ,,lateral ,,surfaces ,,of ,,the ,,lower ,,leg4--,m4 peroneus longus 7,fig4 #ij1 q74--,a slender1 fusiform muscle lying superficially on the lateral side of the leg1 dorsad of the soleus4 ,origin by tendon-fibres from the lateral surface of the head of the fibula and from the proximal half of the lateral surface of its shaft4 ,at the junction of the middle and distal thirds of the lower leg the muscle ends in a slender tendon which passes through the groove on the lateral surface of the lateral malleolus4 ,this groove is converted into a canal by a transverse ligament4 ,the tendon passes through the groove on the peroneal tubercle of the calcaneus1 then turns onto the sole of the foot and passes through the peroneal groove on the cuboid bone4 ,it then turns mediad and passes through the groove between the ventral processes of the lateral cuneiform and the metatarsal until it reaches the first metatarsal4 ,the entire groove is converted into a canal by the overlying ligaments4 ,insertion into 7#a7 the base of the fifth metatarsal1 and 7#b7 the outer side of the base of the first metatarsal1 and 7#c7 by slender branches into the bases of the other metatarsals4 ,relations4--,outer 7lateral7 surface with the superficial fascia and the tendon of the biceps femoris4 ,inner surface with the peroneus tertius 7r7 and peroneus brevis 7s71 and with the extensor longus digitorum 7p74 ,at the proximal end the dorsal border touches the tibialis anterior 7n74 ,action4--,flexor of the foot4 ,m4 peroneus tertius 7,fig4 #ij1 r74--,a slender fusiform muscle beneath the peroneus longus 7q74 ,origin by fleshy fibres from about the second quarter of the lateral surface of the fibula4 ,the muscle ends in a slender tendon 7r71 which passes with that of the peroneus brevis 7s7 through the groove on the ventral border of the lateral malleolus4 ,the groove is converted into a canal by a transverse ligament4 ,emerging from it1 the tendon turns and passes along the outer margin of the foot4 ,in passing the sesamoid at the base of the first phalanx of the fifth digit it is united to it by a band which passes from the sesamoid to the tendon4 ,the insertion is finally into the lateral border of the extensor tendon of the fifth digit as it passes from the first to the second phalanx4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the peroneus longus 7q71 the soleus 7o71 and the superficial fascia4 ,ventral border with the soleus 7o7 and flexor longus hallucis 7,fig4 #ia1 m74 ,inner surface with the peroneus brevis 7,fig4 #ij1 s74 ,action4--,extensor and abductor of the fifth digit and flexor of the foot4 ,m4 peroneus brevis 7,fig4 #ij1 s7 lies beneath the other peronei4 ,origin by fleshy fibres from the distal half of the surface of the fibula1 which it embraces4 ,at the lateral malleolus the muscle ends in a thick tendon which passes through the canal on the ventral surface of the malleolus4 ,in the canal it is enlarged and surrounded by a synovial bursa4 ,it then turns onto the foot and passes over the dorsal surface of the calcaneus on its lateral side and has its ,insertion into the tubercle on the lateral side of the base of the fifth metatarsal4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the peronei longus 7q7 and tertius 7r74 ,inner surface with the bone4 ,action4--,extensor of the foot4 ,m4 extensor digitorum longus 7,fig4 #ij1 p74--,a fusiform muscle which lies beneath the tibialis anterior 7n71 against the interosseous membrane1 and between the tibialis anterior and the peronei4 ,origin by a thin flat tendon from the lateral surface of the lateral epicondyle of the femur just dorsad of the origin of the popliteus4 ,the tendon becomes narrower and thicker and passes through the capsule of the knee-joint and over a slight groove on the tibia just dorsad of the head of the fibula4 ,the belly of the muscle extends the entire length of the tibia1 passing beneath the transverse ligament 7#e7 along with the tendon of the tibialis anterior 7n74 ,at the ankle it runs through a fibrous loop which is attached to the dorsal surface of the calcaneus 7the annular ligament of the calcaneus72 it then turns and passes onto the dorsum of the foot4 ,the muscle ends in four slender tendons1 the two middle of which begin at the transverse ligament1 while the others begin at the fibrous loop4 ,the tendons diverge to the four digits4 ,each tendon is connected with the fibrous sheath surrounding the base of the first phalanx1 and each has a synovial bursa beneath it at this point4 ,near the distal end of the first phalanx the tendon is united on the lateral side to the conjoined tendon of the extensor brevis digitorum and an interosseus muscle1 and on the medial side to the tendon of the interosseus4 ,the lateral side of the most lateral tendon is not thus united1 but is joined on the outer side by the tendon of the peroneus tertius4 ,insertion4--,the tendon thus formed on the dorsum of each phalanx by the junction of the two or three tendons above mentioned is firmly attached to the base of the second phalanx at its proximal end in the middle of its dorsal surface4 ,in crossing the joint between the first and second phalanges the tendon forms a fibrous pad which protects the dorsum of the joint and glides over it4 ,it then continues to be inserted into the base of the terminal phalanx4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the tibialis anterior 7n7 and the superficial fascia4 ,inner surface with a part of the tibialis anterior1 with the bones1 the interosseous membrane1 and the peroneus brevis 7s74 ,action4--,extensor of the phalanges4 ,m4 tibialis anterior 7,fig4 #ij1 n74--,this is the superficial muscle covering the lateral side of the tibia4 ,origin by fleshy fibres from the proximal one-sixth of the lateral surface of the shaft of the tibia1 from the proximal third of the medial border of the shaft and head of the fibula1 and from the intervening interosseous ligament4 ,the triangular body of the muscle covers the lateral surface of the tibia and the outer surface of the extensor longus digitorum 7p74 ,near the malleolus it ends in a strong tendon which passes beneath the transverse ligament along with the tendon of the extensor longus 7p74 ,the tendon crosses the dorsal surface of the foot obliquely toward its medial side4 ,insertion into the outer surface of the first metatarsal4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the superficial fascia and the tendon of the biceps femoris4 ,inner surface with the extensor longus 7p71 the tibia1 and the interosseous membrane4 ,action4--,flexor of the foot4 #d4 ,muscles of the ,foot4 ,a4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,dorsum ,,of ,,the ,,foot4--,m4 extensor brevis digitorum 7,fig4 #ij1 u74--,a broad thin muscle covering the tarsus and part of the metatarsus on the lateral side of the dorsum of the foot4 ,it may be divided into three slips4 ,origin from the distal border of nearly the whole calcaneal annular ligament 7#e71 and from the proximal end of the dorsal surface of the three lateral metatarsals4 ,at the middle of the metatarsals the muscle ends in three flat tendons which pass into the three interspaces between the four tendons of the extensor longus4 ,each tendon is divided into two branches4 ,insertion4--,the lateral branch of each tendon is inserted into the cartilaginous plate which lies in the metatarsophalangeal articulation of the digit on the outer side4 ,the medial branch joins the lateral side of the extensor longus tendon on the dorsum of the first phalanx4 ,action4--,extensor of the digits4 ,b4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,sole ,,of ,,the ,,foot4--,m4 flexor brevis digitorum 7pedis perforatus74--,this is the direct continuation of the tendon of the plantaris4 ,it lies immediately beneath the superficial plantar fascia4 ,the flat belly of the muscle has its medial border attached by an oblique tendinous band to the medial surface of the scaphoid and the medial cuneiform4 ,it divides into four slips which diverge to the four toes1 each ending in a flat tendon4 ,the slips decrease in size from the lateral to the medial side4 ,the three lateral ones overlap one another proximally4 ,insertion4--,each tendon expands at the distal end of the metatarsal and is wrapped about the tendon of the deep flexor which perforates it4 ,the two halves unite beneath the perforating tendon and pass together with the perforating tendon through fibrous rings1 the annular ligaments4 ,one of these is attached to the sesamoids at the base of the phalanx4 ,the other is attached to the head of the first phalanx4 ,the tendons are finally inserted into the bases of the second phalanges4 ,the two annular ligaments are connected by fascia so as to form a continuous canal for the tendons4 ,this canal is lined by a synovial membrane4 ,covering this canal is a more superficial layer of fascia4 ,before passing into the proximal annular ligament the two middle tendons unite each with the tendon of the corresponding lumbrical muscle4 ,each also gives off a branch1 the lateral one on its lateral side and the medial one on its medial side4 ,these branches1 like those of the two middle ones1 are inserted into the common phalangeal fascia4 ,action4--,flexor of the second phalanges of the digits4 ,m4 quadratus plant 7called also the plantar head of the flexor longus digitorum7 is a thin flat muscle which takes origin from the dorsal part of the lateral surface of the calcaneus and the cuboid4 ,its fibres converge to a flat tendon which passes transversely across the flexor longus digitorum and beneath the flexor brevis digitorum and calcaneometatarsal4 ,insertion4--,into the medial part of the outer surface of the tendon of the flexor longus digitorum4 ,action4--,it holds the flexor longus tendon in place4 ,mm4 lumbricales4--,these are six4 ,origin4--,the three larger ones have origin from the outer surface of the expanded portion of the flexor longus digitorum on its distal half4 ,each ends in a slender tendon4 ,insertions4--,the tendons unite with the divisions of the tendon of the flexor brevis which pass to the three lateral digits1 at their entrance to the first annular ligament4 ,the one to the fifth digit is sometimes absent4 ,the other three have origin from the tendon of the flexor longus digitorum at the point where it divides4 ,each occupies one of the three intervals between the four divisions1 and its fibres originate from the proximal ends of the two tendons which bound its interval4 ,insertion by a very slender tendon into the medial side of the first phalanges of the third1 fourth1 and fifth digits near their bases4 ,action4--,move the third1 fourth1 and fifth digits toward the medial side4 ,mm4 interossei4--,the interosseus of the second digit forms five portions1 which cover the ventral surface of the digit4 ,origin4--7#a7 ,by two tendons from the ventral process of the lateral cuneiform4 ,the muscle divides into four parts1 three of which pass to the medial side of the digit and act as abductors4 ,they are called the long1 short1 and middle abductors 7abductor longus1 brevis1 and intermedius digiti secundi74 ,insertions4--,the short head into the medial sesamoid of the metatarsophalangeal joint1 the middle into the medial side of the base of the first phalanx1 and the long into the extensor communis tendon near the distal end of the first phalanx4 ,the names long1 short1 and middle refer to the lengths of the tendons as determined by their points of insertion4 ,the fourth portion which comes from the lateral cuneiform has its insertion into the lateral side of the extensor tendon near the distal end of the first phalanx4 ,it is therefore an adductor longus digiti secundi4 ,in some cases there is an adductor brevis from this same head4 7#b7 ,the fifth part of the interosseus of the second digit has origin from the middle of the ligament covering the peroneal canal1 along with the middle adductor of the fifth digit4 ,the two muscles diverge4 ,insertion into the outer side of the base of the first phalanx of the second digit4 ,it is an adductor medius digiti secundi4 ,the interossei of the third and fourth digits are alike4 ,origin from the ventral surface of the base of the metatarsal4 ,the muscles cover the ventral surface of the shaft4 ,at the head each divides and passes onto the sides of the metatarsal4 ,insertion4--,each half of the muscle shows a tendency to divide into two parts4 ,one of these1 the more superficial and ventral1 ends in a tendon which joins the extensor tendon near the distal end of the first phalanx4 ,the other part is inserted by short tendon- and muscle-fibres into the side of the base of the first phalanx2 one of the parts is therefore a middle1 and the other a long1 adductor or abductor1 the adductores and abductores digiti tertii and quarti4 ,the fifth digit has five short muscles4 ,m4 abductor medius digiti quinti4 ,origin from the ventral surface of the calcaneus and from the fifth metatarsal4 ,insertion by a slender tendon into the lateral side of the base of the first phalanx of the fifth digit4 ,m4 adductor medius digiti quinti4 ,origin with the adductor medius digiti secundi4 ,insertion on the inner side of the base of the phalanx of the fifth digit4 ,m4 opponens digiti quinti4 ,origin by a flat tendon from the middle of the ligament which covers the peroneal canal4 ,it passes obliquely outward parallel to the last4 ,insertion on the inner side of the shaft of the fifth metatarsal4 ,the two remaining muscles of the fifth digit take origin from the outer part of the ligament covering the peroneal canal4 ,they cover the ventral surface of the shaft4 ,insertion4--,the lateral one is inserted into the lateral sesamoid and is therefore an abductor brevis4 ,the medial one is inserted into the extensor tendon and is therefore an adductor longus4 ,c4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,tarsus4--,m4 calcaneometatarsalis 7part of ,m4 adductor minimi digiti874--,a weak muscle made up largely of tendon-fibres1 some of which pass directly from origin to insertion4 ,it may be regarded as a ligament4 ,origin1 the lateral and ventral surface of the calcaneus near the proximal end4 ,it passes distad and slightly laterad outside of the quadratus plant4 ,insertion1 the lateral side of the base of the fifth metatarsal1 and the adjacent surfaces of the cuboid and calcaneus4 ,action4--,probably causes slight motion of the cuboid on the head of the calcaneus4 ,m4 scaphocuneiformis4--,a small muscle lying on the sole of the foot in the depression between the lateral cuneiform1 medial cuneiform1 and the lateral tubercle of the scaphoid4 ,it is hidden by the overlying ligaments4 ,origin1 the lateral tubercle of the scaphoid bone4 ,it passes distad and laterad4 ,insertion1 the lateral surface of the medial cuneiform4 ,action4--,rotates the medial cuneiform on the scaphoid and would thus act as an opponens of the great toe if the great toe were present4 ,,the ,,viscera4 ,i4 ,,the ,,body ,,cavity4 ,the greater part of the viscera are situated in the body cavity or clom4 ,this is divided by the diaphragm into two parts1 the thoracic cavity and the abdominal cavity4 ,each is lined by a serous membrane1 in which the part covering the outer wall of the cavity is distinguished as the parietal layer from the part covering the viscera1 which is known as the visceral layer4 ,the thoracic cavity is bounded by the thoracic vertebr1 the ribs1 the sternum1 and the diaphragm4 ,the cranial opening of the cavity is filled by the trachea and sophagus as they enter from the neck region4 ,the thoracic cavity is lined by two thin layers of tissue1 the outer one of which is the fascia endothoracica1 while the inner is the pleura4 ,the fascia endothoracica is a sheet of connective tissue which lines the entire inner surface of the thoracic cavity1 descending from the dorsal median line to the heart1 and passing into the fibrous layer of the pericardium4 ,the pleura is a thin membrane covering the fascia endothoracica and corresponding to the peritoneum of the abdominal cavity4 ,it forms two sacs1 the pleur1 lining respectively the right and left halves of the thoracic cavity4 ,each of these two sacs is closed1 the viscera being suspended within them by folds of the membrane1 so that the cavity is everywhere separated from the viscera by a sheet of the pleura4 ,that portion of the pleura which lines the thoracic wall is known as the parietal layer2 it may be divided into that covering the ribs 7costal pleura71 and that covering the diaphragm4 ,that portion which covers the viscera is the visceral layer1 or1 since it covers chiefly the lungs1 it may be distinguished as the pulmonary pleura4 ,the medial walls of the two pleural sacs come in contact in the median plane1 forming a median vertical partition passing lengthwise of the thoracic cavity4 ,this partition is known as the mediastinal septum4 ,the space between the two layers which make up the mediastinal septum is known as the mediastinum1 or mediastinal cavity2 it contains numerous organs of the thorax4 ,three parts are usually distinguished in this cavity3 a ventral mediastinal cavity1 containing chiefly blood-vessels and the thymus gland2 a middle mediastinal cavity1 enclosing the heart and the anterior and posterior ven cav2 and a dorsal mediastinal cavity1 containing the trachea1 the sophagus1 and the aorta4 ,the abdominal cavity lies caudad of the diaphragm2 in it are sometimes distinguished the abdominal cavity proper1 extending as far caudad as the cranial edge of the pubis1 and the pelvic cavity1 lying caudad of this1 in the region surrounded by the innominate bones and the sacrum4 ,the two cavities are not distinctly marked off1 so that it is convenient to consider the abdominal cavity as undivided4 ,both parts are lined by the peritoneum4 ,the peritoneum is a thin transparent sheet of connective tissue supporting on its surface a layer of flattened epithelial cells1 the peritoneal epithelium4 ,it forms a sac which lines the entire abdominal cavity4 ,this sac is closed in the male2 in the female1 however1 it communicates with the exterior through the uterine 7or ,fallopian7 tubes and uteri4 ,all the organs of the abdominal cavity are outside the sac4 ,in the course of their development these organs have encroached on the peritoneal sac4 ,each has grown against the outer wall of the sac to a greater or less extent and has forced a part of this wall ahead of it into the cavity4 ,in some cases the encroachment has gone so far that the organ in question lies apparently within the peritoneal cavity1 suspended from the wall of the sac by a fold of that wall4 ,the wall may thus be divided into three portions4 ,one of these1 the parietal layer1 lines the wall of the body cavity4 ,the second 7the mesentery in case of the alimentary canal1 or a ligament in the case of another organ7 suspends the organ from the body wall4 ,between the layers of each mesentery or ligament blood-vessels may pass to the organs4 ,the third portion or visceral layer covers the organ in question1 forming its serous covering4 ,the reflections of the peritoneum to form the mesenteries and ligaments may be thus described3 ,caudally the peritoneum covers the whole surface of the bladder and is reflected from its ventral wall to the linea alba as the suspensory ligament of the bladder4 ,farther craniad the peritoneum suspends the rectum and colon from the middorsal line1 forming the mesorectum and mesocolon4 ,the mesocolon continues craniad to the level of the caudal end of the right kidney and is broadest at its cranial end4 ,at this end the mesocolon passes into the mesentery proper1 which suspends the small intestine and is very broad and much folded4 ,its dorsal border is attached to the median line opposite the caudal end of the kidneys and is very short compared to its very long ventral or intestinal border4 ,toward the cranial end the mesentery of the jejunum passes gradually into the very much shorter duodenal mesentery4 ,this is drawn out at the caudal end of the duodenum into a fold1 the duodenorenal ligament which attaches the duodenum to the kidney4 ,the mesogastrium or peritoneal fold for the stomach passes from that part of the median dorsal line lying between the kidneys and the diaphragm1 to the greater curvature of the stomach4 ,it does not pass directly to the stomach1 but passes first ventrad of the small intestine as far as the pelvis4 ,thence it turns craniad to reach the greater curvature of the stomach4 ,the fold thus formed is called the great omentum4 ,it forms the dorsal and ventral walls of a sac1 the omental sac1 the cavity of which is called the lesser peritoneal cavity4 ,the descending limb of the fold forms the dorsal wall of the sac1 and its ascending limb forms the ventral wall4 ,each of these walls is double like a mesentery1 so that the great omentum consists of four sheets of peritoneum4 ,between the two sheets forming the descending limb lies the left half of the pancreas1 which passes thence to the right into the duodenal mesentery4 ,a transverse fold passes from the descending limb of the omentum along the cranial border of the pancreas to the duodenal mesentery4 ,farther to the right the descending limb of the omentum1 which is here shorter1 encloses the spleen and holds it in position parallel to the greater curvature of the stomach and about one centimeter from it4 ,this part of the great omentum is sometimes called the gastrosplenic or gastrolienal omentum4 ,the great omental sac communicates with the peritoneal sac by an opening1 the foramen epiploicum or foramen of ,winslow4 ,this opening lies caudad and dextrad of the caudate lobe of the liver4 ,this lobe itself lies within the sac4 ,along the ventral border of the foramen epiploicum pass the common bile-duct from the liver and the portal vein to the liver4 ,the size of the great omental sac is increased by the lesser omentum4 ,this is a double sheet of peritoneum which stretches horizontally from the liver to the duodenum and the lesser curvature of the stomach4 ,it covers ventrad the caudate lobe of the liver4 ,its right border is at the foramen epiploicum4 ,the part of it which stretches to the duodenum is called the duodenohepatic ligament and contains the bile-ducts and the portal vein4 ,the part that stretches to the stomach is called the gastrohepatic ligament4 ,the peritoneum covers the caudal and cranial surfaces of the liver and is reflected to the adjacent parts to form the ligaments of the liver4 ,the suspensory ligament of the liver passes from the caudal surface of the diaphragm and the median ventral line for about one or two centimeters caudad of the diaphragm1 to the liver1 and extends between its two halves4 ,the ligamentum teres or round ligament is the thickened free caudal border of the suspensory ligament4 ,it is the remains of the ftal umbilical vein4 ,from the dorsal border of the liver the peritoneum which covers its cranial surface turns ventrad onto the caudal surface of the diaphragm1 while that which covers its caudal surface turns dorsad onto the caudal surface of the diaphragm to reach the dorsal body wall4 ,between these two sheets a small linear part of the surface of the liver is closely applied to the diaphragm without intervening peritoneum4 ,the two sheets which bound this area constitute the coronary ligament of the liver4 ,this ligament is broader where it passes from the left lateral lobe to the diaphragm and is called the triangular ligament4 7,there is perhaps a corresponding right triangular ligament1 from the cranial division of the right lateral lobe47 ,the caudal division of the right lateral lobe is held to the kidney of that side by the hepatorenal ligament4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,alimentary ,,canal4 ,,apparatus ,,digestorius4 ,the alimentary canal may be divided into mouth1 pharynx1 sophagus1 stomach1 small intestine1 and large intestine4 ,with these are associated certain accessory structures1--the salivary glands1 the liver1 and the pancreas4 ,the spleen1 though not belonging to the digestive system1 is usually described in connection with it4 ,the respiratory organs are almost throughout in close relation with the organs of the digestive system4 #a4 ,the ,mouth4 ,cavum oris4--,the mouth cavity extends from the lips to the pharynx4 ,it is narrower toward the lips1 broadens caudad as far back as the last teeth1 then becomes narrowed to form the isthmus faucium1 by which it communicates with the pharynx4 ,the mouth cavity is divisible into the vestibule of the mouth 7vestibulum oris71 which comprises that part outside the jaws proper1 bounded externally by the lips and cheeks1 and the mouth cavity proper 7cavum oris proprium71 which lies within the teeth4 ,that portion of the vestibule which is bounded by the cheeks is sometimes farther distinguished as the buccal cavity4 ,the entire mouth cavity 7except the teeth7 is lined by the mucous membrane or mucosa4 ,the lips 7labia oris7 are thick folds of skin bounding the entrance to the mouth cavity4 ,the outer surface is covered with hair2 the inner surface is covered with the mucous membrane4 ,the upper lip is marked in the median line by a deep external groove which extends upward to the septum of the nose4 ,along the inner surface of this groove the lip is closely united to the jaw by a thick fold1 the frenulum of the upper lip4 ,for some distance on each side of the frenulum the inner surface of the lip bears numerous large papill4 ,the lower lip is also united to the jaw by a frenulum in the median line2 it is again united to the jaw just caudad of the canine tooth1 in the space between the latter and the first premolar4 ,caudad the two lips pass into each other 7forming the commissura labiorum71 and unite with the cheek4 ,the muscles of the lips have been described 7page #aje74 ,the cheeks 7bucc7 in the cat are comparatively thin and small1 extending from the lips caudad to the ramus of the mandible4 ,the outer surface is covered with hair2 the inner surface is smooth and somewhat folded4 ,the buccal cavity is rather small4 ,on the inner surface of the cheek open the duct of the parotid 7,steno's duct71 the ducts of the molar gland1 and that of the infraorbital gland4 ,the roof of the mouth cavity is formed by the hard and soft palates4 ,the hard palate 7palatum durum7 forms the cranial part of the roof2 it is supported by the palatal plates of the maxillary and palatine bones4 ,the mucosa of the hard palate is elevated to form seven or eight curved transverse ridges1 which are concave caudad4 ,between the ridges are rows of papill4 ,in front of the most cranial ridge is a papilla in the middle line1 and at each side of the papilla is the opening of a small duct 7the incisive duct or ,stenson's duct71 which leads dorsad through the incisive foramen to the vomeronasal organ 7or organ of ,jacobson71 which lies on the floor of the nasal cavity4 ,caudad of the hard palate the roof of the mouth is formed by the soft palate or velum palatinum1 described below4 ,the floor of the mouth cavity is formed chiefly by the tongue1 which extends as far caudad as the isthmus faucium4 ,ventrad of the free edge of the tongue the mucosa forms a prominent median vertical fold which unites the tongue with the floor of the mouth beneath it2 this fold is the frenulum lingu4 ,on each side of the median line at the cranial border of the floor of the mouth is a prominent papilla1 at the apex of which open the ducts of the submaxillary and sublingual glands1 the former on the lateral side of the apex1 the latter on the medial side4 ,the sides of the mouth cavity are formed by the teeth and the gums1 covering the alveolar borders of the mandible1 maxillaries1 and premaxillaries4 ,the mouth cavity presents further for examination the glands1 the teeth1 the tongue1 and the soft palate4 ,,the ,,glands ,,of ,,the ,,mouth 7,,glandul ,,oris74--,there are five pairs of salivary glands which open into the mouth cavity4 #a4 ,the parotid gland 7glandula parotis7 7,fig4 #fe1 #a2 ,fig4 #aca1 #aj7 is flattened1 rather finely lobulated1 and lies ventrad of the external auditory meatus and beneath the dermal muscles4 ,its cranial border follows the caudal border of the masseter muscle and overlies it somewhat2 its caudal border is about three centimeters caudad of the border of the masseter4 ,its borders are unevenly lobed4 ,the parotid duct 7ductus parotideus3 frequently called ,stenon's or ,steno's duct7 is formed by the union of several smaller ducts near the ventral end of the cranial border of the gland4 ,it passes craniad imbedded in the fascia covering the masseter4 ,at the cranial border of the masseter it turns inward and lies close against the mucous membrane of the mouth1 so that from the inside of the mouth it appears as a white ridge on the mucosa4 ,it opens on the inside of the cheek opposite the most prominent cusp of the last premolar tooth4 ,along the course of the parotid duct in some cases one or more small accessory parotid glands are found4 #b4 ,the submaxillary gland 7glandula submaxillaris7 7,fig4 #fe1 #b1 page #aji1 and ,fig4 #aca1 #aa7 is approximately kidney-shaped4 ,its surface is nearly smooth1 the lobulations not being apparent externally4 ,it lies ventrad of the parotid1 at the caudal edge of the masseter muscle1 just caudad of the angular process of the mandible4 ,the posterior facial vein 7,fig4 #aca1 b7 crosses its outer surface1 and its cranioventral border is hidden by two lymphatic glands 7,fig4 #aca1 #ab7 lying at the sides of the anterior facial vein4 ,the submaxillary duct 7ductus submaxillaris1 frequently called ,wharton's duct7 leaves the inner surface of the gland and passes beneath the digastric and mylohyoid muscles and against the outer surface of the styloglossus4 ,from the point where the styloglossus passes into the tongue the duct continues craniad close against the oral mucosa and parallel to the mandibula4 ,it is accompanied by the duct of the sublingual1 which lies at first dorsad of it and then mediad4 ,it opens at the apex of the prominent papilla which lies at the side of the middle line at the cranial end of the floor of the mouth4 #c4 ,the sublingual gland is elongated and conical in form1 with its base against the submaxillary1 of which it appears to be a continuation4 ,it stretches along the submaxillary duct for about one and one-half centimeters1 lying between the masseter and digastric muscles4 ,the sublingual duct leaves its ventral side1 passes close to the submaxillary duct1 at first dorsad and then mediad of it1 and opens on the medial side of the apex of the same papilla with the submaxillary duct4 #d4 ,the molar gland 7glandula molaris7 7,fig4 #fe1 #i7 lies between the orbicularis oris and the mucosa of the lower lip4 ,it stretches from the cranial border of the masseter to a point between the first premolar and the canine4 ,it is flat1 broad caudad1 and ends in a point craniad4 ,it has several ducts which pass straight through the cheek and open on the mucous surface of the mouth4 #e4 ,the infraorbital 7or orbital7 gland lies in the lateral part of the orbit on its ventral floor4 ,it is ovoid and about one and one-half centimeters long and one-third as thick4 ,its ventral end rests against the mucosa of the mouth just caudad of the molar tooth4 ,its duct leaves the ventral end and opens into the mouth at a point about three millimeters caudad of the molar tooth4 ,,the ,,teeth4 ,,dentes4--,the adult cat has thirty teeth1 fourteen in the lower jaw and sixteen in the upper jaw4 ,there are twelve incisors1 four canines1 ten premolars1 and four molars4 ,the tooth formula for the cat is then #c - #c #a - #a #c - #c #a - #a i-----1 c-----1 pm-----1 m-----4 #c - #c #a - #a #b - #b #a - #a ,the teeth are implanted in the alveolar borders of the premaxillaries1 maxillaries1 and mandible4 ,in each tooth can be distinguished the root1 imbedded in the socket of the bone1 the crown1 which projects above the gums1 and a narrow neck connecting the two4 ,the root is composed of one or more separate fangs2 the crown bears one or more points or cusps4 ,at the cranial end of each jaw are six incisor teeth 7,figs4 #ic and #id1 a74 ,these are imbedded in the alveolar borders of the premaxillaries and the mandible4 ,the incisor teeth are small1 with a crown bearing a sharp edge which is notched so as to form three minute cusps4 ,the root of each has a single fang4 ,the lateral incisors are the largest in each jaw1 and those of the upper jaw are larger than those of the lower4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,,upper ,,jaw1 ,,with ,,roots ,,of ,,the ,,teeth ,,laid ,,bare4 a1 incisors2 b1 canine2 c1 first premolar2 d1 second premolar2 e1 third premolar2 f1 molar4 ,caudad of the incisors1 and in the upper jaw separated from them by a slight interval1 are the canines 7b71 two in each jaw4 ,these are long1 strong1 pointed teeth1 deeply imbedded in the mandible and maxillaries1 their large sockets causing a rounded swelling on the external surface of the bones4 ,each has a single fang and a single cusp4 ,when the mouth is closed the upper canines lie laterocaudad of the lower ones4 ,caudad of the canines there is in each jaw a considerable interval free from teeth3 this is called the diastema4 ,caudad of the diastema are the premolar teeth1 three pairs 7c1 d1 e7 in the upper jaw and two pairs 7c1 d7 in the lower jaw4 ,these teeth are compressed sideways1 and those of the lower jaw fit inside of those of the upper jaw4 ,in the upper jaw 7,fig4 #ic7 the first premolar 7c7 is small and usually has but a single cusp and a single fang1 though occasionally there is a small supplementary cusp and fang4 ,the second premolar is larger 7d72 it has a large central cusp1 with a single smaller cranial cusp and two small caudal cusps1 making four in all4 ,this tooth has two fangs4 ,the third premolar 7e7 is the largest tooth in the jaws2 it has three large cusps in longitudinal series and a small cusp lying on the medial side of the first one in the row4 ,its root has three fangs4 ,the molar tooth 7f7 of the upper jaw is small and lies caudomediad of the last premolar4 ,it has two small cusps and two fangs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,,mandible1 ,,with ,,roots ,,of ,,the ,,teeth ,,laid ,,bare4 a1 incisors2 b1 canine2 c1 first premolar2 d1 second premolar2 f1 molar4 ,in the lower jaw 7,fig4 #id7 the two premolars 7c and d7 are similar1 the caudal one being a little larger4 ,each has four cusps2 a single large one1 a small one craniad of this1 and two small ones caudad of it4 ,each has two fangs4 ,the single molar 7f7 is the largest tooth of the lower jaw2 it has two large cusps and two fangs4 ,the ,deciduous ,teeth4--,at birth the cat has no teeth4 ,there appears later a set of twenty-six teeth3 twelve incisors1 four canines1 and ten molars 7six in the upper jaw and four in the lower74 ,these teeth are later replaced by the permanent ones above described4 ,the deciduous teeth of the cat are fully described by ,jayne 78,mammalian ,anatomy10 vol4 #a4 p4 #cai71 where also an account is given of the order of appearance of the teeth4 ,,the ,,tongue4 ,,lingua 7,fig4 #ie74--,the tongue is a muscular organ covered with mucous membrane2 in life it is very mobile4 ,it is an elongated organ1 flat above1 broadest in the middle1 and very slightly narrowed at each end4 ,it extends from the incisor teeth to the isthmus faucium and nearly fills the mouth cavity4 ,the caudal third of the tongue forms the floor of the mouth cavity1 so that the tongue has here no ventral surface1 but is directly continuous with underlying organs4 ,it is in this region that the extrinsic muscles of the tongue 7except the genioglossus7 enter it4 ,the cranial two-thirds of the tongue is partly or entirely free from the floor of the mouth1 the cranial one-third being completely free and movable4 ,in about the middle third the ventral surface of the tongue is held to the floor of the mouth by the fold known as the frenulum lingu4 ,the frenulum contains parts of the two genioglossus muscles1 which enter the tongue through it4 ,the ventral surface and lateral borders of the tongue are smooth1 soft1 and free from papill4 ,the dorsal surface is raised into papill of various kinds1 and has a slight median longitudinal furrow4 ,the caudal part of the dorsal surface is softer1 redder1 and marked with papill of a different kind from those of the rest of the tongue4 ,from the caudal end a small median vertical fold1 the frenulum 7or plica7 glossoepiglottica passes from the dorsal surface of the tongue to the cranial surface of the epiglottis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,,tongue1 ,,epiglottis1 ,,and ,,opening ,,of ,,larynx4 a1 filiform papill2 b1 fungiform papill2 b1 very large papill at the sides of the tongue2 c1 circumvallate papill2 d1 tonsils2 e1 epiglottis2 f1 plica aryepiglottica2 g1 arytenoid cartilages 7covered with mucosa72 h1 glottis2 i1 false vocal cords2 j1 true vocal cords4 ,the papill of the tongue are of three kinds4 #a4 ,the very numerous filiform papill 7a7 7papill filiformes72 many of them are horny and tooth-like1 with points turned caudad4 ,these are most numerous at the middle of the free end of the tongue4 #b4 ,the fungiform papill 7b7 7papill fungiformes7 are found scattered over the surface of the middle of the tongue caudad of the large filiform papill4 ,they are enlarged at their free ends4 ,there is a prominent row of very large ones 7b7 opposite the circumvallate papill at the borders of the tongue4 #c4 ,the circumvallate papill 7c7 7papill vallat7 are blunt and each is surrounded by a trench which is bounded in turn by a raised wall4 ,they are in two rows of two or three each1 which converge near the base of the tongue so as to form a ,v with the apex directed caudad4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,tongue 7,fig4 #if74--,m4 genioglossus 7f7 passes from the symphysis of the lower jaw into the tongue and lies beneath 7dorsad of7 the geniohyoid 7g74 ,origin from the medial surface of the mandible near the symphysis and dorsad of the origin of the geniohyoid4 ,insertion4--,the fibres pass dorsad1 diverging in a fan-like manner and forming a flat vertical plate closely applied to the muscle of the opposite side4 ,this plate extends along the caudal three-fourths of the tongue1 i4e4 as far as it is attached4 ,the cranial fibres arch craniad to the tip of the tongue1 the caudal fibres arch caudad to the root of the tongue4 ,dorsad the muscle is confounded with the muscle of the opposite side4 ,action4--,draws the root of the tongue forward and the tip backward4 ,m4 hyoglossus 7h74--,from the body of the hyoid bone to the tongue4 ,origin4--7#a7 ,from the ventral surface of the body of the hyoid laterad of the geniohyoid 7g71 and 7#b7 by a second head from the ceratohyal4 ,insertion4--,both heads penetrate into the tongue between the styloglossus 7e7 and the genioglossus 7f74 ,the fibres intermingle with those of the styloglossus 7e7 and thus help to form the lateral parts of the tongue4 ,they finally end in the integument on the dorsum of the tongue at the sides4 ,action4--,retracts the tongue and depresses it4 ,m4 styloglossus 7e74--,from the stylohyal bone to the tongue4 ,origin from the mastoid process of the temporal bone1 from the stylomandibular ligament 7#b7 7which connects the border of the external auditory meatus with the angular process of the mandible7 and from the proximal cartilaginous portion of the cranial cornu of the hyoid bone4 ,the fibres pass mediad1 diverging between those of the digastric and hyoglossus 7h7 into the lateral part of the tongue4 ,insertion4--,the fibres pass toward the tip of the tongue1 where the mass finally ends in a point1 the superficial ones gaining insertion into the integument at the sides of the tongue4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the digastric 7,fig4 #fe1 b7 and mylohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 c74 ,inner surface with the pterygoideus internus 7,fig4 #if1 d71 the cranial cornu of the hyoid1 and the tympanic bulla4 ,action4--,retracts the tongue and raises it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,,muscles ,,of ,,tongue1 ,,hyoid ,,bone1 ,,and ,,pharynx4 a1 ,m4 tragicus lateralis2 b1 ,m4 jugulohyoideus2 c1 ,m4 pterygoideus externus2 d1 partially cut surface of ,m4 pterygoideus internus2 e1 ,m4 styloglossus2 f1 ,m4 genioglossus2 g1 ,m4 geniohyoideus2 h1 ,m4 hyoglossus2 i1 ,m4 glossopharyngeus2 j1 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis medius2 k1 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis inferior2 l1 ,m4 stylopharyngeus2 m1 ,m4 sternohyoideus 7cut72 n1 ,m4 cricothyreoideus2 o1 ,m4 sternothyreoideus 7cut72 p1 ,m4 thyreohyoideus4 #a1 mandible2 #a1 angular process of mandible2 #b1 stylomandibular ligament2 #c1 bulla tympani2 #d1 trachea2 #e1 sophagus2 #f1 thyroid gland2 #g1 isthmus of the thyroid gland4 ,the intrinsic muscles of the tongue 7those entirely within it7 are attached to its integument at both their ends4 ,there are three sets of fibres3 a longitudinal1 a transverse1 and a vertical one4 ,these are seen most readily in cross-sections4 ,,the ,,soft ,,palate4 ,,velum ,,palatinum 7,fig4 #ff1 page #aab74--,the soft palate is the free curtain-like structure which forms the caudal part of the roof of the mouth4 ,it is attached to the caudal border of the palatal plates and the ventral border of the perpendicular plates1 of the palatine1 and to the pterygoid processes and hamuli of the sphenoid1 and extends some distance caudad of the hamuli4 ,it thus forms a rather long and narrow curtain separating the caudal part of the nasal cavity from the mouth4 ,caudad it ends in a free arched border 7,fig4 #ff1 #d7 which is at about the level of the epiglottis1 and may lie against the cranial or the caudal surface of the latter4 ,the narrowed passage bounded by the margin of the velum palatinum dorsad and the tongue ventrad is the isthmus faucium4 ,from the sides of the velum a short distance from the caudal border a fold of mucosa passes ventrad to the side of the tongue2 a short distance caudad of this a similar fold passes to the floor of the pharynx4 ,these folds form the cranial and caudal pillars of the fauces4 ,between these folds is a shallow pocket1 from the bottom of which there arises a prominent projection or swelling which is one of the two tonsils 7,fig4 #ie1 d74 ,each tonsil is a reddish1 lobulated gland1 lymphoid in the adult1 nearly a centimeter in length1 and about one-third as long as broad1 with its long axis craniocaudad4 ,the velum palatinum consists of two layers of mucous membrane1 oral and nasal1 with intervening muscular and connective tissue4 ,the muscles of the soft palate in the cat are as follows3 ,m4 tensor veli palatini 7,fig4 #ff1 d1 d1 page #aab74 ,origin from the ventral surface of the body of the sphenoid between the foramen ovale and the groove for the ,eustachian tube4 ,the muscle ends in a flat tendon which passes over the hamular process 7#c7 of the pterygoid bone4 ,insertion by spreading out in the soft palate into an aponeurosis which joins the aponeurosis of the opposite muscle and lies between the mucous membrane of the mouth and that of the nose4 ,action4--,stretches the palate4 ,m4 levator veli palatini 7,fig4 #ff1 e1 e74--,a flat triangular muscle which lies within the tensor4 ,origin from the surface of the body of the sphenoid mediad of the groove for the ,eustachian tube1 from the styliform process of the bulla tympani1 and in part from the ,eustachian tube4 ,the muscle passes caudad1 and its fibres then diverge into the velum palatinum4 ,insertion into the velum palatinum1 some of the fibres meeting in the middle line4 ,action indicated by the name4 ,a number of other muscles have been described in the soft palate of the cat2 they are1 however1 poorly developed and not easily distinguished4 ,for an account of these1 see ,stowell1 ,proceedings of the ,am4 ,soc4 of ,microscopists1 #ahhi4 #b4 ,the ,pharynx4--,at the caudal end of the mouth cavity the passage for the food and that for the air cross2 at the cranial end the food-passage 7mouth7 is ventral1 the respiratory passage 7nasal cavity7 dorsal4 ,farther caudad the food-passage 7sophagus7 is dorsal1 while the respiratory passage 7larynx and trachea7 is ventral4 ,in the region of crossing there is therefore for a certain distance a common passageway for food and air1 and this is known as the pharynx4 ,it extends from the isthmus faucium1 at the free caudal margin of the soft palate1 to the beginning of the sophagus1 at the dorsal or caudal margin of the opening of the larynx4 ,the dorsal wall of the pharynx is separated from the base of the skull and the centra of the cervical vertebr only by intervening muscles 7longus capitis1 levator scapul ventralis1 and longus colli1 ,fig4 #gb1 page #adc74 ,its lateral and ventral walls are supported by the hyoid bone and the cartilages of the larynx4 ,craniad the pharynx continues1 usually1 without break into the cavity lying dorsad of the soft palate4 ,but at the time of swallowing the free edge of the soft palate is pushed dorsad against the dorsal wall of the pharynx1 while the caudal part of the pharynx is drawn craniad1 so as to form a cavity continuous with that of the mouth4 ,in this way the cavity above the soft palate is completely separated at the time of swallowing from the rest of the pharynx4 ,this separated portion is known as the nasopharynx3 it is strictly a portion of the respiratory passage1 as the food does not pass into it4 ,the nasopharynx is continuous craniad by the choan with the nasal cavity2 it forms a horizontal tube between and ventrad of the perpendicular plates of the palatine bones1 and has the same craniocaudal extent as the soft palate4 ,its dorsal wall lies against the basis cranii and the longus capitis muscles2 its lateral walls against the pterygoid muscles and the perpendicular plates of the palatine bones2 its ventral wall is the soft palate4 ,at the middle of its length1 at the junction of its dorsal and lateral wall1 are two longitudinal slits about three millimeters long4 ,these are the medial openings of the ,eustachian tubes1 by which the nasopharynx communicates with the tympanic cavity4 ,the pharynx proper1 situated caudad of the nasopharynx1 is smaller than the latter4 ,it is bounded craniad by the epiglottis and the margin of the soft palate1 and is continuous between the two1 by the isthmus faucium1 with the mouth cavity4 ,its floor is formed by the cranial end of the larynx4 ,at its caudal end it passes dorsally into the sophagus1 while ventrally it communicates with the larynx4 ,its walls are muscular4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,pharynx 7,fig4 #if74--,m4 glossopharyngeus 7i74 ,origin4--,some fibres on the ventral and lateral part of the genioglossus 7f7 leave that muscle near its caudal end4 ,they form a thin band of diverging fibres which pass outside of the cranial horn of the hyoid4 ,a similar sheet of fibres leaves the midventral part of the styloglossus 7e74 ,the two sheets unite and the united muscle crosses the hyoid1 turns dorsad1 and has its ,insertion into the median dorsal raphe of the pharynx4 ,action4--,constrictor of the pharynx4 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis inferior 7k74--,a thin sheet of muscle covering the sides of the pharynx at its caudal end4 ,origin from the lateral surfaces of the thyroid and the cricoid cartilages4 ,the fibres pass dorsad and craniad1 the cranial ones covering the fibres of the middle constrictor 7j74 ,insertion4--,the median longitudinal raphe on the dorsum of the pharynx4 ,the caudal fibres are transverse and continuous with the circular fibres of the sophagus4 ,the cranial fibres may pass as far as the base of the sphenoid4 ,action4--,constrictor of the pharynx4 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis medius 7j74--,a thin sheet which covers the middle part of the lateral surface of the pharynx4 ,origin4--,the ventral two pieces of the cranial horn and the whole of the caudal horn of the hyoid4 ,the fibres diverge1 passing dorsad4 ,insertion into the median dorsal raphe of the pharynx4 ,the cranial fibres are inserted into the base of the sphenoid bone4 ,the muscle covers part of the stylopharyngeus 7l7 and the superior constrictor 7,fig4 #ff1 f1 page #aab7 and is partly covered by the glossopharyngeus 7,fig4 #if1 i74 ,action4--,constrictor of the pharynx4 ,m4 stylopharyngeus 7l74 ,origin from the tip of the mastoid process of the temporal bone and from the inner surface of the cartilaginous piece between the tympanohyal and the stylohyal bones4 ,the parallel fibres form a flat band which passes ventrocaudad over the outer surface of the constrictor superior4 ,insertion4--,the ventral fibres pass beneath the middle constrictor 7j7 at its cranial border and1 continuing toward the middle line of the pharynx1 gradually lose themselves among the fibres of the superior constrictor4 ,the dorsal fibres pass onto the outer surface of the middle constrictor and are lost among its fibres4 ,action4--,constrictor of the pharynx4 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis superior or pterygopharyngeus 7,fig4 #ff1 f1 page #aab74--;,a flat1 triangular sheet beneath the constrictor medius4 ,origin4--,the tip of the hamular process of the pterygoid bone4 ,the muscle passes caudad1 the fibres diverging1 and dips beneath the cranial border of the constrictor medius4 ,insertion into the median dorsal raphe of the pharynx4 ,the dorsal fibres are inserted into the base of the sphenoid4 ,the ventral fibres pass lengthwise of the pharynx1 closely connected with those of the stylopharyngeus 7,fig4 #if1 l71 and finally reach the level of the larynx4 ,action4--,constrictor of the pharynx4 #c4 ,the sophagus4--,the sophagus is a straight tube1 dorsoventrally flat when empty1 which extends from the pharynx to the stomach4 ,it has a uniform diameter when moderately dilated of about one centimeter4 ,it lies dorsad of the trachea and against the longus colli muscles 7,fig4 #gb1 g7 covering the centra of the cervical vertebr1 until it reaches the caudal end of the thyroid gland 7,fig4 #if1 #f72 then it passes to the left and lies laterodorsad of the trachea until it reaches the bifurcation of the trachea4 ,it there returns to the median line1 passes gradually distad1 separated from the vertebr by the aorta1 and finally pierces the diaphragm about two centimeters from the dorsal body wall1 and enters the stomach4 ,its attachment to the diaphragm is loose enough to permit of longitudinal motion4 ,in passing through the thoracic cavity it lies in the posterior mediastinum ventrad of the aorta4 ,its wall consists of a muscular coat1 a submucosa1 and a mucosa1 and its inner surface presents many longitudinal folds4 ,it has no serous covering1 its side walls being merely in contact with the halves of the mediastinal septum4 #d4 ,the ,stomach4 ,ventriculus 7,fig4 #ig74--,the stomach is the widest part of the alimentary canal4 ,it is a pear-shaped sac1 the long axis of which is curved nearly into a semicircle4 ,the broad end of the sac lies to the left and dorsad2 here the stomach communicates with the sophagus 7a74 ,the narrowed end extends to the right and lies more ventrad than the other end2 it passes here into the duodenum 7g74 ,that portion of the stomach which communicates with the sophagus is known as the cardiac end 7b72 the opposite is the pyloric end4 ,owing to the curved form of the stomach above mentioned it is possible to distinguish a concave and a convex side4 ,the concave side is directed craniad and dextrad2 it is called the lesser curvature of the stomach 7c74 ,the longer convex border is directed caudad and to the left2 it is called the greater curvature 7d74 ,the greater curvature extends to the left1 next to the sophagus1 into a prominent convexity known as the fundus 7e7 of the stomach4 ,the stomach lies at the cranial end of the abdominal cavity1 mostly to the left of the middle line4 ,its cardiac end is in contact by its dorsal surface with the dorsal1 nearly horizontal1 portion of the diaphragm4 ,on its ventral side the cardiac end does not touch the diaphragm1 so that a small part of the sophagus passes here for a short distance into the abdominal cavity1 to join the stomach4 ,the communication of sophagus and stomach is by a simple conical increase in size of the former4 ,the pyloric end of the stomach extends to the right of the middle line1 becoming constantly smaller2 at its junction with the duodenum there is a constriction which marks the position of the pyloric valve 7f74 ,this valve is formed by a ring-like thickening of the circular muscle-fibres of the alimentary canal1 forming a sphincter muscle at the junction of the stomach and duodenum and causing a projection of the mucosa into the lumen of the canal4 ,the ventral surface of the stomach lies against the liver except when the stomach is much distended with food1 when the ventral surface comes to lie against the ventral abdominal wall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,,stomach1 ,,ventral ,,view4 a1 sophagus2 b1 cardiac end of the stomach2 c1 lesser curvature2 d1 greater curvature2 e1 fundus2 f1 pyloric valve2 g1 part of duodenum4 ,the stomach is supported by the great omentum and the gastrohepatic ligament4 ,it is connected with the duodenum by the gastroduodenal ligament2 with the spleen by the gastrolienal ligament4 ,the inner surface of the stomach presents longitudinal folds at its pyloric end and along the greater curvature as far as the fundus4 ,the prominence of these depends on the degree of distension4 ,its walls are composed of an external peritoneal layer1 an internal mucous layer1 and an intervening muscular layer4 ,this may be seen with the unaided eye in sections of the wall4 #e4 ,the ,small ,intestine4 ,intestinum tenue4--,the small intestine lies in numerous coils which take up the greater part of the space in the abdominal cavity4 ,it has a length about three times that of the body of the cat4 ,it is usually considered as divided into three parts1 duodenum1 jejunum1 and ileum2 these divisions are1 however1 not clearly marked off4 ,the small intestine is suspended by the mesentery already described4 ,the duodenum is that part of the small intestine which follows the stomach4 ,at the pylorus 7,fig4 #ig1 f7 the alimentary canal makes a rather sharp turn so that the first part of the duodenum forms an angle with the pyloric portion of the stomach1 and extends caudad and slightly toward the right1 soon becoming directed almost entirely caudad and lying along the right side4 ,about eight or ten centimeters caudad of the pylorus it makes a ,u-shaped bend1 extending thus craniosinistrad for four or five centimeters4 ,here it passes without definite limit into the jejunum1 the duodenum being considered to end at the next turn caudad4 ,the entire duodenum is about fourteen to sixteen centimeters in length4 ,between the two limbs of the ,u-shaped bend formed by the duodenum1 the duodenal half of the pancreas is enclosed 7,fig4 #ajb1 a74 ,the walls of the duodenum are composed of the serous 7peritoneal7 investment1 a muscular coat which is made up of an outer thin1 longitudinal layer of fibres and an inner thick1 circular layer1 a submucous coat1 and inside this a mucous coat4 ,the mucosa is thrown up into numerous delicate finger-like villi which give to it a velvety appearance4 ,on the dorsal wall of the duodenum1 about three centimeters distad of the pylorus1 the mucosa presents a slight papilla1 at the apex of which is seen the oval opening of the ampulla of ,vater4 ,this is an ovoid space in the wall of the duodenum4 ,the space is encroached upon by numerous folds of the walls4 ,the common bile-duct and the pancreatic duct open into it1 the former extending from the bottom of the ampulla nearly to its mouth1 and the latter extending from the bottom about half-way to the mouth4 ,two centimeters caudoventrad of the opening of the ampulla of ,vater is the opening of the accessory pancreatic duct4 ,it can usually be demonstrated only by passing a bristle into the duodenum through an opening in the duct4 ,the jejunum is the part of the small intestine following the duodenum4 ,it is not separated from the part of the small intestine following it by any sharp line4 ,in man it constitutes two-fifths of the small intestine exclusive of the duodenum1 and is characterized by its emptiness after death and by the absence from it of ,peyer's agminated glands 7,peyer's patches74 ,the ileum is the portion of the small intestine between the jejunum and colon4 ,it lies suspended by its mesentery in numerous folds in the caudal part of the abdominal cavity1 separated from the ventral abdominal wall only by the great omentum4 ,it is of nearly uniform diameter1 but its caudal portion is thinner-walled than its cranial portion4 ,its walls have a microscopic structure like that of the duodenum and jejunum4 ,on its inner surface and on the inner surface of the jejunum are seen close-set villi1 but these become rather sparser toward the caudal end of the ileum and disappear about one centimeter from the opening into the colon4 ,among the villi of the caudal end of the ileum are numerous rounded elongations free from villi4 ,these are the solitary follicles or solitary glands 7lymphatic7 of the intestine4 ,these glands when aggregated together form the agminated glands or patches of ,peyer4 ,the ileum passes at the caudal end into the colon1 the opening being guarded by the ileocolic valve 7,fig4 #ii74 ,this is formed by a marked projection of the mucosa 7f7 and transverse muscle layer 7e7 of the ileum into the colon4 ,its surface is free from villi4 #f4 ,the ,large ,intestine4 ,intestinum crassum4--,the large intestine is divided into colon and rectum4 ,the colon or first part of the large intestine lies against the dorsal body wall and is separated from the ventral body wall by the folds of the ileum4 ,it has a diameter about three times that of the ileum4 ,the opening of the ileum into it is on its side between one and two centimeters from its cranial end 7,fig4 #ih74 ,the blind pouch thus formed by the cranial end of the colon is the ccum 7,fig4 #ih1 c2 ,fig4 #ii1 a74 ,the ccum ends in a slight conical projection which may be considered as the rudiment of a vermiform appendix4 ,the colon lies at first on the right side and passes at first craniad2 then transversely to the left1 then caudad1 lying nearly in the middle line and next to the dorsal abdominal wall4 ,the colon may thus be distinguished according to its direction into ascending1 transverse1 and descending colon4 ,at its caudal end the colon passes without sharp limit into the rectum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--;,,junction ,,of ,,small ,,and ,,large ,,intestine4 ,,fig4 #ii4--,,section ,,of ,,the ,,ileocolic ,,valve4 ,fig4 #ih4--;a1 ileum2 b1 ascending colon2 c1 ccum2 d1 position of ileocolic valve4 ,fig4 #ii4--;a1 ccum2 b1 colon2 c1 ileum2 d1 longitudinal muscle layer2 e1 transverse muscle layer2 f1 mucosa2 g1 ileocolic valve 7opened1 as when material is passing into the colon74 ,at the bottom of the ccum on its inner surface is seen a collection of solitary glands forming one of the agminated glands of ,peyer1 or ,peyer's patches4 ,the mucous membrane is without villi4 ,it presents a few considerable elevations1 probably solitary glands4 ,the rectum is the terminal portion of the large intestine lying in the median line close to the dorsal body wall1 from which it is suspended by the short mesorectum4 ,its structure is like that of the colon4 ,it opens externally at the anus4 ,the entire large intestine has a length about one-half that of the animal4 ,at each side of the anus are two large secreting sacs1 the anal sacs or glands1 each about a centimeter in diameter4 ,these open into the anus one or two millimeters from its caudal boundary4 ,muscles of the ,rectum and ,anus4--,owing to the close interrelation of the muscles of the rectum and anus with those of the urogenital organs1 all these muscles will be described together at the end of the description of the urogenital system4 #g4 ,the ,liver1 ,pancreas1 and ,spleen4--,the ,liver4 ,hepar4--,the liver 7,figs4 #ajj and #aja7 is a large red-brown organ occupying the cranial part of the abdominal cavity4 ,it is closely applied to the caudal surface of the diaphragm and extends thence ventrad of the stomach so as to conceal all but its pyloric end4 ,owing to the position of the stomach the larger mass of the liver is on the right side and it extends somewhat further caudad on this side4 ,the liver is divided by the dorsoventral suspensory ligament into the right and left lobes1 and each half is again divided into lobes4 ,on the left is a small left median 7b7 and a larger left lateral lobe 7a74 ,the left lateral 7a7 extends caudad with a thin edge which covers the greater part of the ventral surface of the stomach4 ,on the right there is a large right median 7or cystic7 lobe 7c1 c74 ,its cranial surface is dome-shaped and fitted against the right two-thirds of the caudal surface of the diaphragm4 ,its ventral edge is thin1 its dorsal edge thick1 and its caudal surface marked by a deep dorsoventral cleft in which lies the gall-bladder 7,fig4 #aja1 f74 ,dorsad and caudad of the cystic lobe is the right lateral lobe 7d1 d71 which is deeply cleft4 ,its elongated caudal division 7d7 extends in a point to the caudal end of the right kidney and is adapted to the medial half of its ventral surface4 ,its smaller and more compact cranial division 7d7 ends ventrally in a thin edge4 ,it lies between the caudal division 7d7 and the cystic lobe 7c71 and its dorsal surface is adapted to the suprarenal body4 ,the caudate or ,spigelian lobe 7,fig4 #aja1 e7 is an elongated1 triangular1 pyramidal lobe4 ,it lies in the omental sac and partly closes the foramen epiploicum 7foramen of ,winslow74 ,at its base it is connected with the caudal division of the right lateral lobe 7d74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--,,liver1 ,,cranial ,,surface4 a1 left lateral lobe2 b1 left median lobe2 c1 right median lobe2 d1 d1 right lateral lobe2 e1 gall-bladder2 f1 opening of posterior vena cava1 with the smaller openings of the hepatic veins4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,,liver ,,turned ,,craniad1 ,,showing ,,dorsocaudal ,,surface4 a1 left lateral lobe2 b1 left median lobe2 c1 c1 right median 7or cystic7 lobe2 d1 d1 cranial and caudal divisions of the right lateral lobe2 e1 caudate lobe2 f1 gall-bladder2 g1 cystic duct2 h1 hepatic ducts2 i1 common bile-duct2 j1 portal vein2 k1 part of duodenum4 ,the ,gall-bladder 7,fig4 #aja1 f7 is pear-shaped and lies in a cleft on the caudal 7or dorsal7 surface of the right median lobe 7c1 c7 of the liver4 ,its larger end is directed caudad 7or ventrad7 and is free4 ,by one surface it is in contact with the liver and not covered by peritoneum1 while the other surface is covered by peritoneum4 ,the peritoneum in passing from the larger free end to the liver forms one or two ligament-like folds4 ,by its smaller end the gall-bladder is continuous with the cystic duct 7g74 ,this duct is about three centimeters long and has a sinuous course4 ,at its distal end it is joined by two 7or more7 hepatic ducts 7h71 bringing the bile from the lobes of the liver4 ,the relation of these to the cystic duct varies4 ,they may open into it by a common trunk or separately4 ,of these hepatic ducts one is made up by the junction of smaller hepatic ducts from the left half of the liver and the left half of the cystic lobe1 while the other is similarly formed by smaller ducts from the right half of the cystic lobe1 from both divisions of the right lateral lobe and from the caudate lobe4 ,the duct formed by the junction of the hepatic and cystic ducts is the common bile-duct 7ductus communis choledochus7 7i74 ,it passes in the free right border of the gastroduodenal omentum to the duodenum 7k7 and opens into it by way of the ampulla of ,vater1 in common with the pancreatic duct1 at a point on the dorsal surface of the duodenum and about three centimeters from the pylorus4 ,pancreas4--,the pancreas 7,fig4 #ajb1 a7 is a flattened1 closely lobulated gland of irregular outline1 about twelve centimeters long1 varying in width from one to two centimeters4 ,it is bent nearly at right angles at about its middle4 ,one of the halves 7a7 into which it is divided by its bend lies in the descending limb of the great omentum1 and is near the greater curvature of the stomach 7d7 and parallel to it4 ,the free end of this half is in contact with the spleen 7e74 ,the other half 7a7 lies in the duodenal omentum between the limits of the duodenal ,u 7c7 and reaches to the bottom of the ,u4 ,the pancreas has two ducts4 ,the larger pancreatic duct 7b7 7sometimes known as the duct of ,wirsung7 collects the pancreatic fluid from both halves of the gland1 the ductlets from each half uniting to make two larger ducts1 which then unite near the angle of the gland to make the pancreatic duct4 ,this is short and broad and opens into the ampulla of ,vater together with the common bile-duct4 ,the accessory pancreatic duct 7duct of ,santorini7 opens into the duodenum about two centimeters caudoventrad of the ampulla of ,vater4 ,it is formed by the union of branches which anastomose with those of the pancreatic duct4 ,it is apparently sometimes lacking4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,,pancreas ,,and ,,spleen4 ,the sophagus has been cut and the stomach turned caudad1 so that the dorsal surface of the stomach and the ventral surface of the duodenum are seen4 a1 pancreas 7a1 duodenal portion2 a1 gastric portion72 b1 pancreatic duct2 c1 duodenum2 d1 stomach2 e1 spleen4 ,spleen4 ,lien4--,the spleen 7,fig4 #ajb1 e7 is a deep red1 flattened1 elongated gland belonging to the lymphatic system4 ,one of its ends1 the left1 lies against the free end of the gastric half of the pancreas and is broader than the other end4 ,the spleen is curved and is suspended in the descending limb of the great omentum so that it follows the greater curvature of the stomach 7d74 ,,iii4 ,,respiratory ,,organs4 ,,apparatus ,,respiratorius4 ,the organs of respiration consist of the nasal cavity1 the nasopharynx1 the pharynx 7also a food-passage71 the larynx 7also the organ of the voice71 the trachea1 the bronchi1 and the lungs4 ,with them are usually described also the thyroid and thymus glands4 #a4 ,the ,nasal ,cavity4 ,cavum nasi4--,the osseous framework of the nasal cavity has already been described 7page #ei71 and in connection with this description the boundaries of the cavity and its connections with other cavities have been given4 ,it consists essentially of a large cavity bounded by the facial bones and divided by a longitudinal partition into two lateral halves4 ,the two cavities thus formed are nearly filled by 7#a7 the labyrinths of the ethmoid 7ethmoturbinals71 7#b7 the superior nasal conch or nasoturbinals1 projecting into the dorsal part from the ventral surface of the nasal bones1 and 7#c7 the inferior nasal conch1 or maxilloturbinals1 projecting into the ventral portion from the medial surfaces of the maxillaries4 ,there remain to be considered1 in addition to the bones1 the cartilaginous framework of certain parts of the nose1 and the mucous membrane4 ,the lamina perpendicularis is continued by cartilage1 especially craniad1 in such a way as to make a complete septum separating the two cavities4 ,this septum extends from the septum of the external nose caudad to the lamina cribrosa1 and from the internasal suture ventrad to the vomer and the suture of the premaxillaries4 ,all parts of the nasal cavity are lined by mucous membrane4 ,this is continuous at the nares with the integument1 while at the choan it passes into the mucosa of the pharynx4 ,it covers the conch nasales and the labyrinths of the ethmoid1 passing into the cellules of the latter4 ,owing to the crowding together of the conch nasales and the labyrinths the nose is almost completely filled1 only three narrow passageways being distinguishable4 ,the ventral one of these1 known as the ventral or inferior meatus of the nose1 lies ventrad of the inferior nasal concha1 next to the nasal septum4 ,it passes caudad beneath the horizontal plate formed by the vomer and ethmoid1 and opens caudad at the choan into the nasopharynx4 ,the dorsal or superior meatus of the nose lies just ventrad of the superior nasal concha1 next to the median septum2 it leads to the frontal sinus1 the lamina cribrosa1 and the caudal parts of the ethmoid4 ,the middle meatus of the nose has almost disappeared in the cat2 it is simply the narrow space between the superior and inferior meati4 ,it is practically filled by the ethmoid1 into the cells of which it leads4 ,the mucosa is continued from the nasal cavity into the sinuses of the frontals and presphenoid4 ,at the sides of the nasal septum1 near the ventral edge1 and about one to one and a half centimeters caudad of the nares1 there is on each side a small curved cartilaginous tube1 about one centimeter or less in length4 ,this1 the vomeronasal organ1 or organ of ,jacobson1 lies against the septum1 between it and the mucosa4 ,it begins at the incisive canal or anterior palatine foramen1 in the roof of the mouth1 curves thence caudodorsad close against the side of the nasal septum1 and ends blindly in the nasal cavity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--;,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,the ,,cartilages ,,of ,,the ,,external ,,nose4 a1 cartilage of the median septum2 b1 8wings02 c1 ridge formed by internal portion of wing4 ,the nares or cranial openings of the nasal cavity are supported by a number of cartilages which form the framework of the snout or external nose4 ,the cartilaginous continuation of the lamina perpendicularis extends some distance craniad of the tips of the nasal and premaxillary bones1 forming the septum of the external nose 7,fig4 #ajc1 a74 ,from the dorsal edge of this projecting cartilaginous septum1 two thin cartilaginous wings 7b7 extend laterad1 forming the dorsal wall of the narial opening4 ,each then turns ventrad to form the lateral wall of the opening1 but does not form the ventral floor2 instead it curves mediad and finally dorsad1 thus extending from the floor of the opening as a prominent ridge 7c7 within the nares4 ,the cartilaginous wing is thus rolled into a sort of spiral1 ending with a free edge within the narial opening4 ,from the ventral edge of the median cartilaginous septum there are likewise lateral extensions1 which form part of the ventral boundary of the nares2 these do not quite reach the ventral parts of the dorsal wings1 however1 so that a small part of the narial opening is not bounded by cartilage4 ,a section of the narial cartilages is shown in ,fig4 #ajc4 ,the wings from the dorsal edge of the septum do not extend quite to the cranial tip of the nose1 so that a notch is formed on the ventrolateral side of the nares2 a section in this region would therefore differ from that figured4 ,the framework of the external nose thus formed is covered externally by thick hairless skin1 containing many glands4 ,from the ventral end of the internarial septum a groove passes ventrad1 partly dividing the upper lip4 ,the inner surfaces of the cartilages are covered by the mucosa1 which forms a number of ridges4 ,the narial opening is almost completely divided by the prominent ridge which is supported by the free edge 7c7 of the cartilaginous wing above described4 ,this free edge is covered by a thick layer of mucosa1 and the entire ridge so formed is continuous caudad with the inferior nasal concha4 ,on the medial side of the partial partition formed by this ridge and near the ventral side there begins a slight distance caudad of the outer opening another ridge1 supported by the ventrally incurved portion of the cartilaginous ring4 ,this soon becomes a thick swelling2 beneath it opens the lachrymal canal1 and that part of the passageway that lies ventromediad of it is the beginning of the inferior meatus of the nose4 ,about one or two centimeters caudad of the external opening a third ridge projects from the dorsolateral wall of the cavity toward the large ridge first described2 dorsomediad of it is a narrow passage which is the entrance to the superior meatus of the nose4 ,the olfactory mucosa1 or that part to which the olfactory nerve is distributed1 and which therefore acts as the sensory surface1 is confined to the dorsocaudal parts of the nasal cavity1 in the region occupied by the cells of the ethmoid4 ,the air penetrates to this region probably only by a definite act of snuffing1 the inferior meatus serving as the usual passageway of air to the lungs4 ,the nasopharynx and pharynx are considered under the alimentary canal 7page #bca74 #b4 ,the ,larynx4 ,the larynx is the enlarged upper end of the air-passage which leads from the pharynx to the lungs4 ,it is a box composed of pieces of cartilage connected by ligaments and moved by muscles1 and it is lined by mucous membrane4 ,at the root of the tongue about one centimeter caudad of the body of the hyoid bone is the triangular leaf-like epiglottis 7,fig4 #ie1 e1 page #bbg74 ,when food is taken this closes the opening into the larynx1 and the food passes over it into the sophagus4 ,it is so curved that its apex is directed craniad4 ,a fold of mucous membrane1 the plica glossoepiglottica or frenulum of the epiglottis1 extends from the middle of its cranial surface to the root of the tongue1 and on each side of this fold is a depression4 ,from each side of the base of the epiglottis a fold1 plica aryepiglottica 7,fig4 #ie1 f71 extends caudad to the base of the arytenoid cartilage 7g74 ,dorsad of this fold and separated from it by a depression is a ridge which marks the position of the caudal hyoid cornu4 ,the plic aryepiglottic 7f7 and the epiglottis 7e7 form the boundaries of the aditus laryngis1 or opening into the larynx4 ,the cavity of the larynx is divided into three portions4 ,the upper one of these is the vestibule of the larynx4 ,it is bounded caudad by two folds of mucosa 7i7 that stretch from the caudal surface of the epiglottis near its base to the tips of the arytenoid cartilages4 ,these folds are the false vocal cords 7i74 ,their vibration is said to produce purring4 ,caudad of the false vocal cords two folds of the mucosa stretch from the apices of the arytenoid cartilages to the thyroid cartilages1 near the base of the epiglottis4 ,these folds are nearer the median plane than the false vocal cords4 ,they are the true vocal cords 7j74 ,the middle portion of the laryngeal cavity is that between the true and the false vocal cords4 ,it is produced laterally into a very small pouch or pocket on each side1 the ventriculus4 ,the narrow slit between the true vocal cords is the glottis 7h74 ,it can be narrowed and widened by the action of muscles4 ,the vocal cords1 which bound it1 are set vibrating by currents of air transmitted from the lungs1 and the voice-sounds are thus produced4 ,the caudal portion 7inferior portion7 of the laryngeal cavity is that between the glottis and the first tracheal cartilage4 ,it is narrowed near the glottis4 ,,cartilages ,,of ,,the ,,larynx 7,fig4 #ajd74--,there are three unpaired cartilages1 the thyroid 7#a71 cricoid 7#c71 and epiglottic 7#b71 and two paired cartilages1 the arytenoids 7#d74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--;,,cartilages ,,of ,,larynx1 ,,with ,,side ,,view ,,of ,,hyoid ,,bone4 b1 ceratohyal2 c1 epihyal2 d1 stylohyal2 e1 tympanohyal2 f1 thyrohyal4 #a1 thyroid cartilage2 #b1 epiglottis2 #c1 cricoid cartilage2 #d1 arytenoid cartilage2 #e1 cricothyroid ligament2 #f1 thyrohyoid ligament2 #g1 trachea4 ,the thyroid cartilage 7cartilago thyreoidea7 7#a7 has nearly the form of a visor of a cap1 but is relatively broader at its ends than a cap visor4 ,it forms about two-thirds the circumference of a circle1 and is so situated that it embraces the other cartilages ventrally and laterally4 ,its caudal and cranial borders are oblique to its caudocranial axis and are directed dorsocaudad4 ,to the middle of the cranial border is attached the epiglottic cartilage 7#b71 and the whole cranial margin is connected by membrane 7#f7 to the body and caudal cornua 7f7 of the hyoid bone4 ,the dorsal border projects craniad into a considerable cornu which is attached to the free end of the caudal hyoid cornu 7f74 ,the border also projects caudad into a process which articulates with a facet on the lateral surface of the cricoid cartilage 7#c74 ,in the middle of the dorsal surface is a longitudinal ridge for attachment of the vocal cords and origin of the thyroarytenoid muscles 7,fig4 #aje1 d71 and at the caudal end of this ridge the caudal border presents a considerable rounded notch4 ,the cricoid cartilage 7cartilago cricoidea7 7#c7 has the form of a seal ring with its broader part dorsad4 ,the broad dorsal part of the ring is partly embraced by the wings of the thyroid cartilage 7#a74 ,its caudal border is undulating and nearly at right angles to its caudocranial axis4 ,it is connected by membrane with the first tracheal ring4 ,the cranial border is oblique to the long axis and lies in a plane which passes from the ventral side craniodorsad4 ,near the median line on each side it articulates by an oblique facet with one of the two arytenoid cartilages 7#d74 ,near the midventral line the cricothyroid ligament 7#e7 is attached and it stretches thence to the midcaudal notch of the thyroid cartilage 7#a74 ,the outer surface presents at the middle of each side a facet for articulation with the thyroid1 and is marked in the median dorsal line by a ridge for the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle 7,fig4 #aje1 b74 ,the arytenoid cartilages 7cartilago arytenoidea7 7,fig4 #ajd1 #d7 are triangular pyramids with base and sides nearly equilateral triangles4 ,one side articulates with an oblique facet on the cranial border of the cricoid near the mid-dorsal line4 ,near the opposite apex is attached the vocal cord4 ,at the lateral angle of the base is attached on its dorsal side the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle 7,fig4 #aje1 b71 and on its ventral side the thyroarytenoid 7,fig4 #aje1 d7 and lateral cricoarytenoid 7,fig4 #aje1 c7 muscles4 ,the movements produced by these muscles carry the arytenoid ends of the vocal cords toward or from the median plane and thus open or close the glottis4 ,the epiglottic cartilage 7,fig4 #ajd1 #b7 is flexible 7fibro-cartilage7 and of a cordate form4 ,it is so curved that its caudal surface is convex dorsoventrally and concave from side to side4 ,it supports the epiglottis4 ,its cranial surface presents a slight median ridge for attachment of muscles4 ,by its base it is attached to the midventral part of the cranial border of the thyroid cartilage 7#a74 ,its position varies so that it either stands erect with its apex directed craniad to allow the passage of air to the lungs1 or1 as in the act of swallowing1 it is turned caudad over the aditus laryngis so as to allow food to pass over it and into the sophagus4 ,the vocal cords are two fibrous elastic bands4 ,each is attached at one end to the apex of the arytenoid cartilage1 and at the other end to the median ridge on the dorsal surface of the thyroid4 ,each supports a projecting fold of mucous membrane1 the vibration of which causes the voice4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,larynx4--#a4 ,muscles moving the entire larynx4 ,a4 ,elevators4 ,m4 thyreohyoideus 7,fig4 #if1 p1 page #bbi74--;,a flat band on the lateral side of the larynx4 ,origin on the lateral part of the caudal border of the thyroid cartilage4 ,insertion on the medial two-thirds of the caudal border of the caudal cornu of the hyoid4 ,action4--,raises the larynx4 ,the stylohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 d1 page #aji7 and the median and inferior constrictors 7,fig4 #if1 j and k7 of the pharynx1 already described1 have the same action4 ,b4 ,depressors4--,the sternothyroid 7,fig4 #fe1 g71 already described 7p4 #ada74 #b4 ,muscles which move the parts of the larynx one upon another4 ,a4 ,muscles on the ,outer ,surface of the ,larynx4 ,m4 cricothyreoideus 7,fig4 #if1 n74--,a broad flat band which with its fellow covers the ventral surface of the cricoid cartilage and the cricothyroid ligament4 ,origin4--,the lateral half of the ventral surface of the cricoid cartilage4 ,the muscles diverge so as to leave a part of the cricothyroid ligament between them4 ,insertion4--,the ventral part of the caudal border of the thyroid cartilage laterad of the median ventral notch4 ,m4 cricoarytenoideus posterior 7,fig4 #aje1 b74--,the two muscles cover the dorsal surface of the larynx4 ,origin4--,from the dorsal part of the caudal border of the cricoid cartilage 7#c7 and from its median dorsal crest4 ,the fibres pass craniolaterad1 converging4 ,the lateral fibres are nearly longitudinal in direction4 ,insertion4--,the dorsal border of the caudal end of the arytenoid cartilage 7#d74 ,action4--,moves the arytenoid on its oblique articulation with the thyroid4 ,the apex of the arytenoid is thus carried laterad1 and the vocal cords are separated so as to widen the glottis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,larynx1 ,,as ,,exposed ,,by ,,removal ,,of ,,most ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,half ,,of ,,the ,,thyroid ,,cartilage4 #a1 epiglottis2 #b1 portion of the thyroid cartilage 7cut72 #c1 cricoid cartilage2 #d1 arytenoid cartilage2 #e1 trachea4 a1 ,m4 arytenoideus transversus2 b1 ,m4 cricoarytenoideus posterior2 c1 ,m4 cricoarytenoideus lateralis2 d1 ,m4 thyreoarytenoideus4 ,m4 arytenoideus transversus 7,fig4 #aje1 a74--,a small unpaired muscle running transversely between the caudal ends of the arytenoid cartilages1 just beneath the mucous membrane and parallel to the cranial border of the cricoid cartilage4 ,m4 glossoepiglotticus4--,a small longitudinal muscle1 lying by the side of its fellow in the frenulum of the epiglottis4 ,origin4--,the median fibrous septum of the tongue4 ,insertion4--,the dorsal 7cranial7 surface of the epiglottic cartilage in the median line near its attached border4 ,action4--,draws the epiglottis craniad4 ,m4 hyoepiglotticus is a small bundle of parallel fibres lying in the frenulum of the epiglottis craniad and dorsad of the body of the hyoid bone4 ,origin4--,the lateral end of the cranial surface of the body of the hyoid4 ,the two muscles pass craniodorsad1 converging1 and unite with the preceding4 ,insertion with the preceding4 7,the lateral portion of the muscle may continue craniad to the tongue as a second part of the hyoglossus47 ,action4--,like the preceding4 ,b4 ,muscles on the ,inner ,surface of the ,cartilages of the ,larynx4 ,m4 thyreoarytenoideus 7,fig4 #aje1 d74--,the thyroarytenoid is a triangular1 flat muscle of considerable size4 ,it lies within the wing of the thyroid cartilage 7#b71 and its fibres are nearly dorsoventral in direction4 ,origin4--,the median longitudinal crest on the dorsal surface of the thyroid cartilage 7#b74 ,insertion4--,the fibres converge to the insertion into the cranial lip of the laterocaudal angle of the arytenoid cartilage 7#d74 ,action4--,turns the arytenoid on its oblique articulation so as to close the glottis4 ,m4 cricoarytenoideus lateralis 7,fig4 #aje1 c74--,triangular1 a little smaller than the preceding1 caudad of which it is situated1 so that it also is covered by the wing of the thyroid4 ,origin4--,the lateral part of the cranial border of the cricoid cartilage 7#c74 ,the fibres converge1 passing dorsad4 ,insertion4--,the caudal lip of the laterocaudal angle of the arytenoid cartilage 7#d74 ,action4--,similar to the preceding1 so that it closes the glottis4 #c4 ,the ,trachea 7,fig4 #aje1 #e2 ,fig4 #ajf1 a74--,the trachea is that part of the air-passage which extends from the larynx to the bronchi 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,it is a straight tube composed of a lining mucosa with ciliated epithelium1 and a connective-tissue covering which encloses supporting cartilages4 ,each tracheal cartilage is incomplete dorsally where it lies against the sophagus1 the gap between the two free ends of each ring being filled with muscular and connective tissue4 ,as a result of this the diameter of the trachea is not fixed1 but can be increased and diminished4 ,the first ring is broader than the others4 ,where the sophagus leaves the median line1 the dorsal surface of the trachea lies against the longus colli muscles 7,fig4 #gb1 g74 ,its ventral surface is against the sternohyoid 7,fig4 #fe1 e7 and sternothyroid 7,fig4 #fe1 g7 muscles4 ,its lateral surfaces are partly covered by the thyroid gland 7,fig4 #if1 #f71 and are in close relation with the carotid artery 7,fig4 #aai1 a1 page #bhd71 the vagus and sympathetic nerves 7,fig4 #aef1 i71 and the internal jugular vein 7,fig4 #aai1 b74 ,in the thoracic cavity the great vessels coming from the heart lie against the ventral surface of the trachea 7,fig4 #abi1 #b74 ,at about the level of the sixth rib the trachea divides into the two main bronchi 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,each bronchus is supported by incomplete rings of cartilage like those of the trachea and has otherwise in general the structure of the trachea4 ,in the lungs the bronchi become divided into many branches 7,fig4 #ajf71 in the manner described in the account of the lungs4 #d4 ,the ,lungs4 ,pulmones4--,immediately after division of the trachea the two bronchi enter the lungs 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,these are two large1 much-lobed organs1 which fill the greater part of the thoracic cavity4 ,the main lobes of the lungs are completely separated from each other1 except in so far as they are connected by the bronchi and connective tissue2 the main lobes may also be partly subdivided into secondary lobes that are not thus completely separated4 ,the two lungs are completely separated from each other1 except at the radix1 where they are united by the bronchi2 they lie in the right and left halves of the thoracic cavity1 with the mediastinal septum between them4 ,the bronchi on entering the lungs divide in the following manner4 ,each divides at first into two main branches4 ,the cranial branch on the right side is known as the eparterial bronchus 7b71 because it lies craniad of the pulmonary artery4 ,all the others are hyparterial2 i4e41 they lie caudad of the pulmonary artery4 ,the right cranial bronchus does not further subdivide into large bronchi1 but gives off numerous small branches4 ,the right caudal bronchus divides into three main branches4 ,there are thus four main branches of the right bronchus4 ,the left cranial bronchus divides into two main branches2 the left caudal bronchus continues caudad as a main trunk giving off small branchlets4 ,of the left bronchus there are thus but three main subdivisions4 ,the main subdivisions of the bronchi on the two sides correspond1 as will be seen1 with the lobulation of the lungs4 ,the right lung 7,fig4 #ajf1 #a-d7 is slightly larger than the left 7#a-c74 ,it divides into three smaller proximal lobes 7#a-c71 and one large distal one 7#d74 ,the most cranial one of the proximal lobes 7#a7 is sometimes partly subdivided4 ,the third one of the proximal lobes 7#c7 lies mediad of the others2 it is partly subdivided and one-half projects into a pocket in the mediastinum1 so that it comes to lie across the middle line1 extending a short distance onto the left side4 ,this lobe is frequently called the mediastinal lobe 7#c74 ,the caudal lobe 7#d7 of the right lung is large and flat1 containing about half the substance of the lung4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,,ramifications ,,of ,,the ,,bronchi1 ,,with ,,outlines ,,of ,,the ,,lobes ,,of ,,the ,,lungs1 ,,ventral ,,view4 #a-d1 lobes of the right lung2 #a-c1 lobes of the left lung4 a1 trachea2 b1 eparterial bronchus4 ,the left lung is divided into three main lobes 7#a-c72 the two cranial ones 7#a-b7 are1 however1 partly united at the base1 so that they may be considered subdivisions of but a single lobe2 thus the left lung has but two distinctly separated lobes4 ,each lung is attached to the aorta1 vertebral column1 and diaphragm by a fold of pleura1 the pulmonary ligament4 ,this is broadest at the caudal lobe of each lung4 ,each pulmonary ligament is double1 being formed of two sheets of the pleura4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,,position ,,of ,,thymus ,,gland1 ,,from ,,left ,,side4 a1 heart2 b1 aorta2 c1 sophagus2 d1 thymus gland2 e1 lymphatic gland2 f1 left subclavian artery2 g1 internal mammary artery4 ,i1 cut ends of first rib2 ,,xi1 eleventh rib4 ,the ,thyroid ,gland4 ,glandula thyreoidea 7,fig4 #if1 #f74--,the thyroid gland consists of two lateral lobes 7#f7 and a median lobe or isthmus 7#g74 ,each lateral lobe 7#f7 is an elongated1 flattened1 lobulated mass with round ends4 ,it is about two centimeters long and about one-fourth as broad4 ,it lies at the side of the trachea 7#d71 dorsad of the lateral margin of the sternohyoid muscle4 ,its cranial end is at the level of the caudal border of the cricoid cartilage4 ,the isthmus 7#g7 is a delicate band two millimeters wide which connects the caudal ends of the two lateral lobes4 ,it passes ventrad of the trachea and in close contact with it4 ,the thyroid has no duct4 ,the ,thymus ,gland4 ,glandula thymus 7,fig4 #ajg1 d74--,the thymus gland is best developed in young kittens2 in the adult cat it has partly or almost completely degenerated4 ,it is an elongated1 flattened organ1 of a pinkish-gray color1 which lies in the mediastinal cavity1 between the two lungs and against the sternum4 ,it extends caudad as far as the heart 7a71 overlying the pericardium at its posterior end4 ,at its cranial end it projects1 when well developed1 a short distance 7about one centimeter7 outside of the thoracic cavity into the neck region4 ,the caudal end is forked1 and the left lobe thus formed is usually larger than the right4 ,the cranial end may also show indication of a division into two lobes1 but this is frequently not the case4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,urogenital ,,system4 ,,apparatus ,,urogenitalis4 #a4 ,the ,excretory ,organs4 ,,kidney4 ,,ren 7,figs4 #ajh and #aji74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,left ,,kidney1 ,,ventral ,,surface4 ,,fig4 #aji4--,,median ,,longitudinal ,,section ,,of ,,kidney4 ,fig4 #ajh4--;a1 renal artery2 b1 renal vein2 c1 ureter4 ,fig4 #aji4--;a1 medullary portion2 b1 cortical portion2 c1 papilla2 d1 pelvis2 e1 renal artery2 f1 renal vein2 g1 ureter4 ,the kidneys of the cat are compact 7i4e41 not lobulated7 and have the usual kidney or bean form4 ,they lie in the abdominal cavity1 one on either side of the vertebral column1 against the dorsal body wall1 in the region between the third and fifth lumbar vertebr4 ,the right kidney is one or two centimeters farther craniad than the left1 and the long axes of the two converge craniad a little4 ,each is covered by peritoneum on its ventral surface only 7i4e41 it is retroperitoneal74 ,at the border of the kidney1 where the peritoneum passes from it to the body wall1 there is an accumulation of fat1 which is most abundant at the cranial end of the kidney4 ,within the peritoneal investment the kidney is enclosed in a special loose fibrous covering1 the capsule or tunica fibrosa1 which is continuous with the fibrous coat of the ureter and pelvis4 ,in the middle of the median border of each kidney is a notch1 the hilus4 ,it gives exit to the ureter 7,fig4 #ajh1 c7 and renal veins 7b71 and entrance to the renal artery 7a74 ,on the ventral surface of the kidney within the capsule are seen grooves radiating from the hilus4 ,they contain blood-vessels4 ,if the substance of the kidney is sliced away parallel to the ventral surface for some distance 7,fig4 #aji71 there is exposed a cavity1 the sinus1 which lies near the medial border and the opening of which is the hilus4 ,it contains the pelvis 7d7 7the expanded beginning of the duct of the kidney71 and also renal vessels 7e and f7 with their branches4 ,these structures are enclosed in fat1 which fills the remainder of the sinus4 ,upon opening the pelvis the kidney substance is seen to project into it in the form of a cone1 the papilla 7c71 the apex of which is directed mediad4 ,on the apex of the papilla are the numerous openings of the uriniferous collecting-tubes1 some of them opening at the bottom of an apical depression of the papilla4 ,in a section made parallel to the ventral surface and in the median plane1 the substance of the kidney is seen to consist of a peripheral darker and more granular cortical portion 7,fig4 #aji1 b71 and of a central1 lighter1 less granular medullary portion 7a74 ,both portions are marked by lines which converge to the apex of the papilla 7c74 ,,the ,,ureter 7,fig4 #ajh1 c2 ,figs4 #aaa and #aab1 b74--,the duct of the kidney begins as the pelvis 7,fig4 #aji1 d71 a conical sac the base of which encloses the base of the papilla4 ,from the apex of the papilla the urine passes into the pelvis4 ,the outer wall of the pelvis is continuous with the capsule of the kidney4 ,at the hilus the pelvis narrows to form the ureter 7,fig4 #aji1 g74 ,the ureter passes caudad in a fold of peritoneum which contains fat4 ,near its caudal end it passes dorsad of the vas deferens 7,fig4 #aaa1 c71 turns ventrocraniad1 and pierces the dorsal wall of the bladder 7,fig4 #aaa1 a7 obliquely near the neck4 ,on the inside of the bladder the openings of the ureters appear as pores about five millimeters apart1 and each is surrounded by a white1 ring-like elevation of the surface4 ,,the ,,bladder4 ,,vesica ,,urinaria4--,the bladder 7,fig4 #aaa1 a7 is pear-shaped4 ,it lies in the abdominal cavity between its ventral wall and the rectum and a short distance craniad of the pubic symphysis4 ,caudad it is continued into a rather long1 narrow neck 7f7 which passes dorsad of the symphysis to the pelvic cavity4 ,the bladder is covered by peritoneum and is held in place by its neck and by three folds of the peritoneum4 ,one of these passes from its ventral wall to the linea alba and is the suspensory ligament4 ,two others pass one from each side of the bladder to the dorsal body wall at the sides of the rectum4 ,they are the lateral ligaments of the bladder4 ,they form the walls of a partly isolated peritoneal pocket into which the rectum passes2 this pocket opens craniad into the peritoneal cavity4 ,the wall of the bladder is composed of an internal epithelium1 a layer of plain muscle-fibre bundles which cross one another in various directions1 and the external peritoneal layer4 ,,suprarenal ,,bodies4 ,,glandul ,,suprarenales4--,the suprarenal bodies are two ovoid bodies about a centimeter in the longest diameter1 lying craniomediad of the kidneys1 but usually not touching them4 ,in a fresh condition they are of a pinkish or yellow color4 ,they are usually imbedded in fat and are covered by peritoneum on their ventral surface4 ,they have no duct and are of uncertain function4 #b4 ,the ,genital ,organs4 ,a4 ,,the ,,male ,,genital ,,organs4 ,external ,genital ,organs4--,the external genital organs are the scrotum and penis4 ,the scrotal sac or scrotum is a pouch of integument which lies ventrad of the anus in the median line against the ischiatic symphysis4 ,it is marked by a median groove which indicates the position of an internal septum dividing its cavity into lateral halves1 within each of which is one of the testes4 ,the penis 7,fig4 #aaa1 l2 ,fig4 #aac1 #f2 see also page #bfb7 lies ventrad of the scrotal sac4 ,it projects caudad4 ,it is covered by the integument1 which projects at its end as a free fold1 the prepuce4 ,within the prepuce is the projecting glans penis 7,fig4 #aac1 #g74 ,it is conical and bears on the ventral side of its free end the opening of the urethra1 the common urinogenital opening4 ,on the side on which the urethra opens the glans is connected to the prepuce by a fold of integument1 the frenulum4 ,the surface of the glans is covered with sharp1 recurved1 horny papill4 ,the ,scrotum and ,testes1 and the ,ducts of the ,testes4--,the scrotum contains the two testes1 one in each of its compartments4 ,each testis lies in a diverticulum of the abdominal cavity1 which is lined by an extension of the peritoneum4 ,the testis has the same relation to this peritoneal diverticulum that the intestine has to the abdominal cavity2 i4e41 it does not lie within the cavity of the diverticulum1 but is suspended apparently within it by means of a fold of its wall which acts as a mesentery4 ,the peritoneal diverticulum is called the tunica vaginalis propria and consists thus of a parietal layer and a visceral layer4 ,the tunica vaginalis propria consists of a slender proximal part through which the blood-vessels pass to the testis and the vas deferens from it1 and of an expanded distal part in which lies the testis4 ,only the distal part lies within the scrotum4 ,the blood-vessels and vas deferens are suspended in the narrow part of the tunica vaginalis propria by means of a mesenterial fold similar to that which suspends the testis1 and continuous with it4 ,this fold and the blood-vessels and vas deferens contained within it form the spermatic cord 7,fig4 #aaa1 d7 which passes from the abdomen to the scrotal sac in the narrow part of the tunica vaginalis propria4 ,in the formation of the human tunica vaginalis the various layers of the body wall are carried out by it and form the tunics1 or coats of the testis4 ,the one of these coats next the tunica vaginalis propria 7which is reckoned as one of the coats7 is the tunica vaginalis communis 7or fascia propria7 and is formed by the transversalis fascia4 ,outside of the tunica vaginalis communis is the cremaster muscle1 an incomplete layer formed from the fibres of the internal oblique muscle4 ,next is the cremasteric 7or intercolumnar7 fascia from the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle1 and outside of this is the integument forming the scrotum4 ,in this integument there is a layer of smooth muscle which is sometimes described as the tunica dartos4 ,in the cat the tunica dartos and the cremaster muscle are wanting4 ,the cremaster is replaced by the elevator scroti muscle4 ,the coats of the testis are thus five1 as follows3 #a4 ,the scrotum 7the integument74 #b4 ,cremasteric fascia 7subcutaneous fascia74 #c4 ,the levator scroti muscle 7subcutaneous muscle-layer7 7,fig4 #aac1 j74 #d4 ,tunica vaginalis communis 7transversalis fascia74 #e4 ,tunica vaginalis propria 7peritoneum74 ,the tunica vaginalis communis is inseparably united with the parietal layer of the tunica vaginalis propria4 ,where the spermatic cord passes from the abdominal wall to the scrotum it is covered by integument and cremasteric fascia on its ventral surface only1 but is entirely surrounded by the tunica vaginalis propria and tunica vaginalis communis4 ,the canal by which the spermatic cord passes through the body wall is known as the inguinal canal4 ,the end by which it opens into the abdominal cavity is the internal inguinal ring1 and the opposite end is called the external inguinal ring4 ,the internal inguinal ring is merely the point of connection between the proximal tubular portion of the tunica vaginalis propria and the abdominal cavity4 ,it is circular1 and is situated close against the lateral side of the lateral ligament of the bladder at its middle4 ,the external inguinal ring is an oval opening in the aponeurosis of insertion of the external oblique muscle4 ,the aponeurosis of this muscle ends caudally in a free border along the cranial edge of the pubis1 from the ilium to the pubic tubercle4 ,the external ring is just craniad of the end of this aponeurosis4 ,the inguinal canal between these rings lies along the lateral border of the rectus muscle4 ,it is one to one and a half centimeters long4 ,its medial wall rests on the rectus muscle2 its dorsal wall on the fat contained within the lateral ligament of the bladder4 ,the lateral and ventral walls lie on the transversus muscle proximally1 on the internal oblique near the distal end4 ,the wall itself is composed of tunica vaginalis propria and communis4 ,as it passes within the caudal border of the internal oblique muscle it receives some aponeurotic fibres from it4 ,a thin aponeurosis is also continued from the border of the external ring onto the tunica vaginalis propria4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,,testis4 a1 testis2 b1 caput epididymis2 c1 epididymis2 d1 cauda epididymis2 e1 vas deferens2 f1 spermatic cord4 ,the testes 7,fig4 #aaj7 are the organs which produce the spermatozoa4 ,they lie one in each compartment of the scrotal sac1 enveloped in the membranes or tunics described when treating of the scrotum4 ,each is attached to the dorsal wall of its peritoneal pouch by a mesenteric fold4 ,the testis is surrounded by the visceral layer of the tunica vaginalis propria1 and within this1 by a dense fibrous covering1 the tunica albuginea1 which sends septa into its interior4 ,within the fibrous covering it is made up of numerous coils of seminiferous tubules which are readily seen by the naked eye4 ,the epididymis 7,fig4 #aaj1 c7 is the beginning of the efferent duct of the testis4 ,it appears as a flat band with a broad rounded end which lies on the medial surface of the testis at its cranial end 7b74 ,from this point it passes about the cranial end of the testis from its medial to its lateral surface1 forming thus a semicircle with the convexity ventrad4 ,thence it passes as a narrower band 7c7 along the dorsal side of the testis1 laterad of the suspending mesentery1 to the caudal end of the testis 7d74 ,at the caudal end of the testis it is enlarged1 passes from its lateral to its medial surface1 and turns at the same time craniad to become continuous with the vas deferens 7e74 ,the enlarged cranial end is the caput epididymis 7b72 the enlarged caudal end the cauda epididymis 7d74 ,the whole epididymis is encased in a tough fibrous covering similar to that of the testis4 ,the fibrous covering 7albuginea7 of the testis and that of the epididymis are connected by fibrous tissue4 ,within the fibrous covering the head of the epididymis is made up of tubules which pass from the testis into its end3 these are the vasa efferentia testis4 ,the vasa efferentia unite within the caput into a single vessel which passes in a very tortuous course to the cauda4 ,its numerous windings form the cauda1 from the end of which it passes craniad as the vas deferens 7e74 ,the vas deferens 7,fig4 #aaj1 e2 ,fig4 #aaa1 c7 is a slender tube much convoluted at its beginning4 ,it passes from the cauda epididymis 7d7 along the mesenterial fold of the testis on its medial side1 to the spermatic cord 7,fig4 #aaa1 d74 ,it leaves the spermatic cord at the internal inguinal ring and1 curving over the ureter 7,fig4 #aaa1 b71 bends craniad and approaches the vas deferens of the opposite side dorsad of the neck of the bladder 7,fig4 #aaa1 f74 ,the two vasa deferentia pass caudad together as far as the cranial border of the pubis4 ,there they enter the prostate gland 7g71 pierce the dorsal wall of the neck of the bladder1 and open close together on the inner surface4 ,the two openings are separated by a slight elevation1 the veru montanum4 ,the ,urethra 7,fig4 #aaa1 h74--,the urethra is the common urinogenital duct which is formed by the union of the neck of the bladder 7f7 and the vasa deferentia 7c7 dorsad of the cranial border of the pubis4 ,it extends thence to the end of the penis4 ,it is divided into three portions4 #a4 ,the prostate portion is the commencement of the urethra2 it is surrounded by the prostate gland 7g74 #b4 ,the membranous portion 7h7 extends from the prostate portion to a point between the crura of the penis4 ,this portion is surrounded by the thick compressor urethr muscle1 so that its wall appears much thicker than it really is4 #c4 ,the spongy portion 7pars cavernosa7 extends along the ventral side of the penis to its end in the groove between the corpora cavernosa penis4 ,at its beginning is an enlargement formed by the bulbocavernosus muscle4 ,this is known as the bulbus urethr4 ,the walls of the spongy portion are thick and vascular and form the corpus cavernosum urethr or corpus spongiosum4 ,at its end the corpus cavernosum urethr is greatly enlarged and forms the glans penis 7m74 ,,glands ,,of ,,the ,,urethra4--#a4 ,the prostate 7,fig4 #aaa1 g7 is a bilobed gland lying on the dorsal wall of the urethra and surrounding the ends of the vasa deferentia 7c74 ,it opens into the urethra at its beginning by numerous small ducts visible to the naked eye on the inner surface of the urethra4 #b4 ,the bulbourethral or ,cowper's glands 7,fig4 #aaa1 i74--,there are two bulbourethral or ,cowper's glands1 one on either side of the bulbus of the urethra between the ischiocavernosus and bulbocavernosus muscles4 ,each has a covering of muscle-fibres derived from the neighboring bulbocavernosus 7,fig4 #aac1 l74 ,each is said to open by a single duct into the urethra at the root of the penis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--,,male ,,genital ,,organs4 a1 bladder2 b1 b1 ureters2 c1 vasa deferentia2 d1 spermatic cord2 e1 spermatic artery and vein2 f1 neck of bladder2 g1 prostate gland2 h1 urethra2 i1 bulbourethral 7or ,cowper's7 gland2 j1 corpus cavernosum penis1 cut from ischium2 k1 ischiocavernosus muscle 7cut72 l1 penis2 m1 glans penis2 n1 testis4 ,the penis 7,fig4 #aaa1 l2 ,fig4 #aac1 #f7 is a cylindrical organ with the apex directed backward4 ,it is covered by integument which projects at its free end in the form of a fold1 the prepuce 7,fig4 #aac71 which ensheaths the glans 7,fig4 #aac1 #g7 of the penis4 ,beneath the integument is a layer of strong fibrous subcutaneous fascia continuous with that of the surrounding parts4 ,on the dorsum of the penis a thin band of fibrous tissue1 the ligamentum suspensorium penis1 is continued from the middle line beneath the pelvic symphysis4 ,this band divides distally1 and its halves ensheath the glans and thus form a support of the penis4 ,the penis is formed by three bodies1 the two corpora cavernosa penis and the single corpus cavernosum urethr 7corpus spongiosum74 ,the corpora cavernosa penis 7,fig4 #aaa1 j74 ,each is a cylindrical sheath of dense fibrous tissue within which are trabecul separating blood-sinuses4 ,each corpus cavernosum is attached by the one pointed end to the caudal border of the ramus of the ischium near the symphysis4 ,from their attachments the corpora cavernosa approach one another1 forming the crura of the penis4 ,they become closely united by their medial surfaces and pass thus to the free end of the penis where their somewhat pointed distal ends are imbedded in the glans 7m74 ,a groove is left between the corpora cavernosa on the dorsum of the penis1 and there is a second groove on the ventral side4 ,in the latter groove lies the urethra4 ,the corpus cavernosum urethr is the spongy portion of the urethra which lies in the groove on the ventral surface of the penis1 between the corpora cavernosa penis4 ,it becomes greatly enlarged at the distal end of the penis1 forming the glans 7m74 ,a small bone 7os penis7 is imbedded in the distal end of the penis4 ,b4 ,,female ,,genital ,,organs 7,fig4 #aab74--,the urinal organs of the female are like those of the male4 ,the neck 7k7 of the bladder is1 however1 much longer1 extending almost to the border of the ischiatic ramus4 ,the urethra is consequently short4 ,the genital organs consist of the ovaries 7c7 7the organs which produce the eggs71 the oviducts or uterine tubes 7e7 7,fallopian tubes71 which receive the eggs from the ovaries2 a bifid uterus 7f and i7 in which the ova undergo their development1 and a vagina 7m7 which leads from the uterus to its junction with the neck of the bladder4 ,the neck of the bladder 7k7 unites with the vagina to form the urogenital sinus 7n7 which is very short1 leads to the external opening1 and is comparable to the male urethra4 ,ventrad of the external orifice of the urogenital sinus is the clitoris1 a rudimentary structure homologous with the penis of the male4 ,the ,ovaries 7c74--,the ovaries lie in the abdominal cavity in the same longitudinal line with the kidneys and a short distance caudad of them4 ,each is an ovoid body about one centimeter long and one-third to one-half as broad4 ,on its surface are numerous whitish projecting vesicles1 the larger of which show clear centres4 ,they are the ,graafian follicles 7best seen in section71 which contain the eggs4 ,there may be present one or more elevations of the size of the largest ,graafian follicles1 but of a bright red or brown color4 ,they are the corpora lutea 7sing4 corpus luteum71--,graafian follicles from which the eggs have been discharged4 ,the ovary is held in position by the broad ligament of the uterus1 a fold of the peritoneum1 which passes here from the uterine tube to the adjacent body wall4 ,the ovary lies in a sort of a pocket formed by the broad ligament4 ,in the natural position the pocket opens ventrolaterad4 ,the ovary is further held in position by the ligament of the ovary 7ligamentum ovarii71 a short thick cord which passes from the ventral face of the ovary at its uterine end to the adjacent ventral surface of the uterus4 ,the ,uterine ,tubes 7e74--,the uterine 7or ,fallopian7 tubes or oviducts are the tubes which convey the ova from the ovary 7c7 to the uterus 7f74 ,each begins with an expanded trumpet-shaped opening1 the ostium tub abdominale 7d74 ,its walls are thin1 and the mucosa of its inner surface is thrown up into undulating1 radiating ridges4 ,the ostium 7d7 lies on the lateral side of the ovary 7c7 at its cranial end1 and the trumpet partly clasps the ovary4 ,from the ostium the tube 7e7 turns craniad1 then mediad1 and then caudad1 so as to describe a curve about the cranial end of the ovary4 ,it then extends caudad on the mediodorsal aspect of the ovary to its junction with the uterine cornu 7f74 ,it is sinuous throughout its course1 and the first two-thirds 7the vestibulum7 is of considerably greater diameter than the last third4 ,throughout the last two-thirds of its course it lies in the free border of the broad ligament4 ,its mucosa is thrown into irregular folds1 mostly longitudinal1 and is lined by ciliated epithelium4 ,from the foregoing description it is seen that the ova must pass through the body cavity in order to reach the ostium tub4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,,female ,,urogenital ,,organs1 ,,obliquely ,,ventral ,,view4 a1 kidney2 b1 ureter2 c1 ovary2 d1 ostium tub abdominale2 e1 uterine 7,fallopian7 tube2 f1 cornua of the uterus2 g1 cranial edge of broad ligament2 h1 round ligament of the uterus2 i1 body of the uterus2 j1 bladder2 k1 neck of the bladder2 l1 position of cervix uteri2 m1 vagina2 n1 urogenital sinus or vestibule1 with ,m4 urethralis2 o1 corpus cavernosum clitoridis1 with ,m4 ischiocavernosus 7cut72 p1 fibres of ,m4 constrictor vestibuli4 #a1 aorta2 #b1 internal spermatic arteries2 #c1 uterine arteries2 #d1 external iliac arteries2 #e1 hypogastric arteries2 #f1 umbilical artery2 #g1 inferior hemorrhoidal artery2 #h1 branches of ,n4 pudendus4 ,the ,uterus 7f1 i74--,the uterus consists of a median portion or body 7i7 which is unpaired1 and of two horns or cornua 7f7 which extend from the body to the uterine tubes4 ,the body 7i7 of the uterus is a tube about four centimeters long which lies in the abdominal cavity1 ventrad of the rectum and between it and the bladder4 ,its caudal end is at the level of the cranial border of the pubis4 ,the cranial end of its cavity is divided by a median dorsoventral partition into lateral halves1 while the cavity of its caudal portion is unpaired4 ,the mucosa is thrown up into large longitudinal folds4 ,at its caudal end the uterus projects into the vagina 7m71 so that when the vagina is opened the end of the uterus is seen projecting into it as a prominent papilla4 ,the portion of the uterus thus enclosed by the vagina is the cervix uteri or neck of the uterus4 ,its free end is directed ventrocaudad1 and a prominent ridge is continued from its caudodorsal side along the mid-dorsal wall of the vagina4 ,the uterine cavity communicates with the vaginal cavity by a ,v-shaped opening1 the os uteri1 which looks ventrocaudad and has its apex directed cranioventrad4 ,each horn 7f7 of the uterus passes craniolaterad in a nearly straight course from the body 7i7 to the uterine tube 7e74 ,it narrows rapidly and becomes continuous with the tube4 ,the mucosa is thrown into longitudinal folds4 ,ligaments of the ,uterus4--,the ,broad ,ligament4--,the uterus is held in place principally by the broad ligaments4 ,these are two folds of the peritoneum1 each of which is attached to the whole length of one of the cornua and the adjacent part of the uterine tube and to the corresponding lateral surface of the body of the uterus4 ,each ligament ends craniad in a concave free border4 ,its attached border forms a curved line which begins laterad of the kidney and extends thence to the lateral ligament of the bladder4 ,from the lateral ligament of the bladder the broad ligament extends caudad into the rectovesical pouch of the peritoneum1 which lies between the rectum and the bladder4 ,it holds the body of the uterus to the lateral wall of this pouch1 and together with the opposite ligament and the body of the uterus forms thus a transverse partition1 which divides the rectovesical pouch into dorsal and ventral portions4 ,the round ligament 7h7 is a fibrous band which extends from a point of the body wall1 which corresponds exactly to the internal inguinal ring of the male1 to the cornu of the uterus about two centimeters from the cranial end4 ,it is attached to the broad ligament by an intervening fold of peritoneum4 ,the ,vagina 7m74--,the vagina extends from the os uteri 7at l7 dorsad of the symphysis of the pelvis to a point a short distance craniad of the caudal border of the ischiatic symphysis4 ,at this point it joins the neck of the bladder 7k7 to form the vestibulum or urogenital sinus 7n71 which is homologous with the urethra of the male4 ,urogenital ,sinus 7n74--,the urogenital sinus extends from the caudal end of the vagina 7m7 to the external opening1 which is situated ventrad of the anal opening4 ,it is about a centimeter long and nearly as wide1 and is marked off from the vagina by a circular fold of mucosa1 while its inner surface presents longitudinal folds4 ,on its ventral wall at its cranial end is the opening of the neck of the bladder1 which is enclosed by a ring-like elevation of the mucosa1 most prominent at the sides4 ,the external entrance to the urogenital sinus forms the vulva4 ,the ,clitoris4--,the clitoris is a minute organ homologous with the penis and lying on the ventral floor of the urogenital sinus4 ,its distal end lies at the entrance of the urogenital sinus on its ventral border4 ,in adult specimens the prepuce of the clitoris appears as a slight elevation of the integument surrounding a central vascular structure which appears red in the fresh organ4 ,from the clitoris there are two small corpora cavernosa clitoridis 7o7 passing craniad and then diverging to be attached to the ischiatic rami4 ,the ischiatic portion of each is covered by a muscle 7ischiocavernosus74 ,the clitoris is said to contain a bone4 ,mammary ,glands4--,the mammary glands secrete the milk1 and lie on the ventral surface of the body beneath the integument4 ,the separate glands are closely gathered into two chief masses1 one on each side the ventral middle line4 ,each of these extends from about the region of the fourth rib to the caudal end of the abdomen1 ending over the pubic symphysis4 ,on each side the glands are gathered into five groups1 each of which is furnished with a nipple4 ,the nipple is a projection of the integument1 having near its distal end numerous fine openings for the ducts of the glands4 ,the first two nipples are on the thorax1 the other three on the abdomen1 the most caudal ones being about two or three centimeters in front of the cranial edge of the pubis4 ,rudimentary mammary glands and nipples are present in the male4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,urogenital ,,organs1 ,,rectum1 ,,and ,,anus 7,figs4 #aac and #aad74--,the muscles connected with the caudal openings of the alimentary canal and of the urogenital organs are closely interrelated1 a single muscle sometimes acting on parts of both systems4 ,for this reason all these muscles are described together4 ,the region lying between the anus and the external opening of the urogenital organs is known as the perineum4 ,the perineum is formed chiefly by muscles and fascia4 a4 ,muscles common to the ,male and ,female4--,m4 sphincter ani externus 7,fig4 #aac1 i2 ,fig4 #aad1 a74--,this muscle is confounded with the levator scroti 7,fig4 #aac1 j7 or the levator vulv 7,fig4 #aad1 b74 ,the two take origin in common from the integument on the dorsum of the root of the tail dorsad of the fifth caudal vertebra4 ,there the fibres from the opposite sides are intermingled4 ,the common muscle passes ventrad about the tail as a flat band close to the integument4 ,dorsad of the anus the inner fibres of the muscles of the opposite sides are united4 ,they then separate and surround the anus as a band five millimeters wide situated beneath the integument4 ,ventrad of the anus the fibres are again intermingled4 ,some fibres on each side then continue to the scrotum as the levator scroti 7,fig4 #aac1 j7 or to the vulva as the levator vulv 7,fig4 #aad1 b74 ,fibres also pass onto the anal pouch and unite with the sphincter ani internus1 forming the constrictors of the anal pouch 7,strauss-,durckheim74 ,m4 sphincter ani internus 7,fig4 #aac1 h2 ,fig4 #aad1 c74--,the sphincter ani internus is a broad and thick band of striated muscle-fibres which surrounds the rectum at the anus4 ,dorsad the band is about two centimeters broad1 while ventrad it is less than one4 ,in the ventral median line some of the fibres pass craniad to help in forming the bulbocavernosus muscle4 ,the muscle surrounds the anal sac4 7,the muscle here described under this name is that described under the same name in the cat by ,strauss-,durckheim and ,mivart2 it corresponds1 however1 to a part of the sphincter ani externus of the dog1 as described by ,ellenberger and ,baum47 ,m4 levator ani 7or pubiocaudalis7 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa74--,this muscle lies in the pelvic cavity4 ,each muscle forms a nearly vertical sheet1 and between the two are the rectum and the urethra4 ,origin from the symphysis of the pelvis4 ,insertion into the midventral line of the centra of the third1 fourth1 and fifth caudal vertebr1 close to the muscle of the opposite side4 ,this muscle is frequently continuous with the iliocaudalis 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa74 ,action4--,bends the tail and compresses the rectum4 ,m4 ischiocavernosus 7,fig4 #aac1 m2 ,fig4 #aad1 e74--,a small1 flat1 spindle-shaped muscle which lies upon the crus of the penis or clitoris4 ,each has ,origin from the caudal border of the ramus of the ischium1 about one centimeter from the median line4 ,insertion1 in the male1 into the whole outer surface of the crus penis1 or bulb of the corpus cavernosum penis4 ,in the female the muscle is smaller than in the male1 and the insertion is into the ventral surface of the urogenital sinus1 at the base of the clitoris4 ,m4 transversus perinei 7,fig4 #aad1 i74--,a small bundle of fibres which arises from the medial surface of the ischium1 just dorsad of the origin of the ischiocavernosus1 and passes mediad to join the sphincter ani internus 7c74 ,m4 caudoanalis 7,s4-,d47 7,fig4 #aac1 f2 ,fig4 #aad1 g74--,a slender1 flat bundle of fibres having origin on the middle line of the ventral surface of the second and third caudal vertebr4 ,it passes caudoventrad1 lying between the levator ani and the caudorectal 7,fig4 #aac1 e2 ,fig4 #aad1 j71 and unites with the ventral portion of the sphincter ani internus 7,fig4 #aac1 h74 ,action4--,draws the anus craniodorsad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,anus1 ,,urogenital ,,organs1 ,,and ,,tail ,,in ,,the ,,male 7,,slightly ,,schematic74 ,one side of the pelvis has been removed1 a1 a1 ,m4 extensor caud lateralis2 b1 ,m4 abductor caud externus2 c1 c1 ,m4 flexor caud longus2 d1 ,m4 flexor caud brevis2 e1 ,m4 caudorectalis2 f1 ,m4 caudoanalis2 g1 ,m4 caudocavernosus2 h1 ,m4 sphincter ani internus2 i1 ,m4 sphincter ani externus2 j1 ,m4 levator scroti2 k1 ,m4 rectocavernosus2 l1 ,m4 bulbocavernosus2 m1 ,m4 ischiocavernosus 7cut72 n1 ,m4 compressor urethr membranace4 #a1 tail2 #b1 rectum2 #c1 bulbourethral or ,cowper's gland2 #d1 prostate gland2 #e1 symphysis pubis2 #f1 penis2 #g1 glans penis2 #h1 testis2 #i1 spermatic cord4 ,m4 caudorectalis 7,fig4 #aac1 e2 ,fig4 #aad1 j74 ,origin from the ventral surface of the sixth and seventh caudal vertebr4 ,a small1 at first unpaired band two or three millimeters wide is formed1 which passes cranioventrad1 soon dividing into two lateral halves4 ,these spread out over the sides of the rectum1 forming a broad sheet of fibres which pass into the walls of the rectum1 among the transverse fibres of the latter4 ,this muscle is covered by the caudoanalis 7,fig4 #aac1 f71 caudocavernosus 7g7 7or caudovaginalis1 ,fig4 #aad1 h71 iliocaudalis1 and levator ani4 b4 ,muscles ,peculiar to the ,male 7,fig4 #aac74--,m4 levator scroti 7j74--,this is a band of fibres which passes ventrad in the median line from the sphincter ani externus 7i7 onto the scrotum4 ,here it spreads out beneath the skin1 forming especially a well-marked bundle in the median furrow between the two testes4 ,m4 rectocavernosus1 or retractor penis 7k74--,a small bundle of fibres which arises in two parts from the ventral surface of the sphincter ani internus 7h74 ,the two parts unite into a single bundle which passes caudad on the middle line of the ventral surface of the penis2 it is inserted into the corpus cavernosum just proximad of the glans4 ,the muscle is covered only by integument1 and overlies the ischiocavernosus 7m74 ,m4 caudocavernosus 7,s4-,d47 7g74--,a slender bundle just craniad of the caudoanalis 7f74 ,origin on the median ventral line of the first two caudal vertebr4 ,the muscle passes caudoventrad1 lying between the levator ani and the caudorectal 7e74 ,it divides into two bands1 one of which is inserted into the base of the corpus cavernosum1 while the other extends farther caudad and is inserted at the distal extremity of the corpus cavernosum4 ,action4--,flexes the penis 7bends it backward74 ,m4 bulbocavernosus 7accelerator urin7 7l74--,the two muscles cover the ventral surface of the penis4 ,origin of each from a median raphe1 which passes from the bulbous portion of the urethra toward the anus4 ,the fibres pass toward the distal end of the penis and have their ,insertion into the distal half of the lateral surface of the corpus cavernosum penis4 ,m4 compressor urethr membranace 7n74--,a thick layer of striated muscle-fibres which surrounds the urethra between ,cowper's gland 7#c7 and the prostate 7#d74 ,the fibres have a circular course1 and the cranial ones are attached to the crura of the penis4 ,the other fibres have no fixed attachment4 c4 ,muscles ,peculiar to the ,female 7,fig4 #aad74--,m4 levator vulv 7,strauss-,durckheim71 or constrictor cunni 7b74--,this is homologous with the levator scroti of the male4 ,it consists of a band of fibres which pass ventrad from the external sphincter ani 7a7 and surround the vulva 7#c71 lying immediately beneath the integument4 ,m4 constrictor vestibuli1 or rectovaginalis 7,strauss-,durckheim7 7d74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,anus ,,and ,,urogenital ,,organs ,,in ,,the ,,female4 a1 ,m4 sphincter ani externus2 b1 ,m4 levator vulv2 c1 ,m4 sphincter ani internus2 d1 ,m4 constrictor vestibuli2 e1 ,m4 ischiocavernosus 7cut72 f1 ,m4 urethralis2 g1 ,m4 caudoanalis2 h1 ,m4 caudovaginalis2 i1 ,m4 transversus perinei2 j1 ,m4 caudorectalis4 #a1 the tail2 #b1 anus2 #c1 vulva2 #d1 rectum2 #e1 vagina2 #f1 neck of the bladder4 ,origin from the sides of the sphincter ani internus 7c74 ,the muscle forms a distinct bundle two or three millimeters wide1 which passes ventrocaudad and is inserted into the ventral surface of the urogenital sinus1 caudad of the insertion of the ischiocavernosus 7e74 ,m4 caudovaginalis 7,strauss-,durckheim7 7h74--,a slender band just craniad of the caudoanalis 7g71 and corresponding to the caudocavernosus of the male4 ,origin from the median line of the ventral surface of the first two caudal vertebr4 ,the muscle passes caudoventrad1 lying between the levator ani and the caudorectal 7j71 and is inserted into the ventral side of the urogenital sinus1 at the base of the clitoris4 ,m4 urethralis 7f74--,this consists of fibres surrounding the cranial part of the urogenital sinus and the caudal parts of the vagina and neck of the bladder4 ,origin partly on the caudal part of the symphysis of the ischium1 partly from the ventral surface of the urogenital sinus1 where the fibres are attached to the corpora cavernosa clitoridis4 ,the fibres pass dorsad over the surface of the sinus1 and over the surface of the union of the vagina and neck of the bladder1 to be inserted into the sides of the vagina and the dorsal surface of the urogenital sinus4 ,,the ,,circulatory ,,system4 ,i4 ,,the ,,heart4 ,,cor4 ,the heart lies in the mediastinum1 enclosed in the pericardial sac1 and projects rather more toward the left than toward the right4 ,it is an ovoid or pear-shaped organ1 with its long axis directed approximately craniocaudad4 ,its caudal end or apex is1 however1 directed slightly ventrad and to the left1 while the larger cranial end or base faces slightly dorsad as well as craniad4 ,laterally and dorsally the heart is largely covered by the lungs4 ,the ventral side and a considerable portion of the lateral surface are1 however1 not thus covered1 so that they lie against the thoracic wall4 ,the heart extends from about the fourth or the fifth to the eighth rib1 and its apex touches the diaphragm4 ,the cavity of the heart is divided by a longitudinal dorsoventral septum into lateral halves--a right and a left side4 ,each side is again divided by a transverse dorsoventral septum 7auriculoventricular7 into two chambers1 one of which1 the auricle1 lies at the base2 the other1 the ventricle1 lies at the apex of the heart4 ,there are thus right and left auricles and right and left ventricles4 ,an external groove1 partly filled with fat1 separates the auricular portion of the heart from the ventricular part2 this groove is known as the sulcus coronarius4 ,each auricle or ventricle has a single set of blood-vessels either leaving it or entering it4 ,thus the blood enters the right auricle by the inferior and superior ven cav 7,fig4 #aaf1 d and e7 7prcava and postcava74 ,it passes thence into the right ventricle1 and from the right ventricle to the lungs by a single pulmonary artery 7,fig4 #aae1 f74 ,it returns to the left auricle by the numerous pulmonary veins 7,fig4 #aaf1 g1 h1 i71 and passes thence to the left ventricle4 ,from the left ventricle it passes to the body by a single aorta 7,fig4 #aae1 g74 ,when the heart is viewed from the ventral surface 7,fig4 #aae71 a considerable blood-vessel1 the coronary artery 7q71 running from the base to a point a little to the right of the apex1 indicates the position of the septum 7ventricular septum71 between the right 7a7 and left 7b7 ventricles4 ,the apex thus belongs to the left ventricle4 ,from the cranial end of the right ventricle the pulmonary artery 7f7 is seen passing obliquely craniad and toward the left4 ,beneath the pulmonary artery the aorta 7g7 appears rising from the middle of the base of the heart and passing directly craniad4 ,at the base appears a part of the auricular appendage of the left auricle 7d71 and at the right a part of the right auricular appendage 7c74 ,the former 7d7 is larger and bent at right angles1 so that its free end is directed toward the apex4 ,in the dorsal view 7,fig4 #aaf7 the position of the ventricular septum is not indicated4 ,on the surface of the left ventricle a short distance from the ventricular septum and nearly parallel to it are seen branches of the coronary artery and the coronary vein passing toward the apex4 ,craniad of the left ventricle is seen the left auricle 7b7 with the pulmonary veins 7g1 h1 i7 opening into it4 ,craniad of the right ventricle 7a7 is the right auricle 7c7 with the ven cav 7d and e7 opening into it near the middle4 ,coming from beneath the auricles are seen the pulmonary artery 7j7 and the aorta 7f74 ,the chambers of the heart4 #a4 ,the right auricle 7atrium dextrum7 7,figs4 #aae and #aaf1 c74 ,externally the right end of the right auricle projects so as to form its auricular appendage 7,fig4 #aae1 c7 which lies at the right of the base of the aorta 7,fig4 #aae1 g74 ,the superior vena cava 7,fig4 #aaf1 e7 is seen entering near the cranial end of the auricular septum opposite the base of the aorta4 ,the inferior vena cava 7,fig4 #aaf1 d7 enters the auricle near the coronary sinus and close to the auricular septum4 ,the netted appearance which the wall1 especially that of the appendage1 presents externally is due to the muscular thickenings of the wall 7musculi pectinati74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--;,,heart1 ,,ventral ,,view4 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,,heart1 ,,dorsal ,,view4 ,fig4 #aae4--;a1 right ventricle2 b1 left ventricle2 c1 right auricular appendage2 d1 left auricular appendage2 e1 conus arteriosus2 f1 pulmonary artery2 g1 aortic arch2 h1 thoracic aorta2 i1 vena cava superior2 j1 innominate artery2 k1 left subclavian artery2 l1 left common carotid2 m1 right common carotid2 n1 right subclavian2 o1 azygos vein2 p1 the two innominate veins2 q1 coronary artery4 ,fig4 #aaf4--;a1 right ventricle2 b1 left auricle2 c1 right auricle2 d1 vena cava inferior2 e1 vena cava superior2 f1 aorta2 g1 h1 i1 groups of pulmonary veins 7g1 dorsal group2 h1 sinistral group2 i1 dextral group72 j1 pulmonary artery 7division into two72 k1 innominate artery2 l1 left subclavian2 m1 left common carotid2 n1 right common carotid2 o1 right subclavian2 p1 azygos vein4 ,the cavity 7including that of the auricular appendage7 is somewhat egg-shaped1 with its long axis transverse4 ,the musculi pectinati1 which branch and unite into a network1 are most abundant on its dorsal wall at the right4 ,the axes of the two ven cav if produced into the cavity of the auricle would meet one another at its centre and nearly at right angles4 ,caudad of the opening of the inferior vena cava is seen the slit-like opening of the coronary sinus1 guarded craniad by the semilunar valve of the coronary sinus 7or valve of ,thebesius74 ,the coronary sinus receives blood from coronary veins1 which collect it from the walls of the heart4 ,in the auricular septum ventrad of the opening of the inferior vena cava is seen a faintly marked smooth oval depression1 the fossa ovalis4 ,when the auricular septum is examined by transmitted light it is seen to be thinner over the fossa ovalis4 ,there is an opening1 foramen ovale1 at this point in ftal life1 so that the blood of the inferior vena cava then passes directly from the right auricle to the left auricle4 ,caudad the cavity of the right auricle communicates with that of the ventricle by the large oval auriculoventricular opening1 which is guarded by the tricuspid valves 7,fig4 #aag74 #b4 ,the right ventricle 7ventriculus dexter7 7,figs4 #aae and #aaf1 a7 does not reach quite to the apex of the heart1 so that it makes up less than one-half of its ventricular portion4 ,it makes a half-spiral turn about the left ventricle1 from its lateral side at the apex toward its ventral side at the base1 where it ends in the pulmonary artery 7,fig4 #aae1 e74 ,its wall is very thin as compared with that of the left ventricle4 ,its cavity 7,fig4 #aag7 is nearly flat on its medial side1 convex on its lateral side4 ,it communicates with the auricle craniodorsad4 ,cranioventrad the cavity is narrower and turns around toward the ventral side of the heart and opens into the pulmonary artery4 ,that portion of the ventricle between the auriculoventricular opening and the pulmonary artery is the conus arteriosus 7,fig4 #aae1 e2 ,fig4 #aag1 f74 ,internally the wall presents many muscular trabecul 7,fig4 #aag1 a7 of various sizes4 ,these are more numerous over the ventricular wall than on the septum4 ,they do not occur on the conus 7f74 ,surrounding the auriculoventricular opening is the tricuspid valve 7,fig4 #aag1 d1 d1 d74 ,it consists of three flaps4 ,one of these 7d7 is septal 7i4e41 it lies against the septum71 while of the two others which do not lie against the septum1 one is dorsal 7d7 and the other ventral4 ,each flap is thin1 semicircular1 and membranous1 and is attached to the border of the auriculoventricular opening by the diameter of the semicircle4 ,the free border of each is attached to the wall of the heart by numerous delicate tendinous bands1 the chord tendine 7c71 some of which are attached to the lower face of each valve4 ,the chord tendine of the septal valve 7or most of them7 are attached at their opposite ends to the septum directly1 while those of the dorsal and ventral flaps are attached to the ends of three or more band-like muscles1 column 7or trabecul7 carne 7b71 which are fixed by their opposite ends to the ventricular wall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--;,,heart1 ,,with ,,right ,,ventricle ,,laid ,,open ,,to ,,show ,,the ,,tricuspid ,,valve4 a1 trabecul2 b1 column carne2 c1 chord tendine2 d1 d1 d1 the three flaps of the tricuspid valve2 e1 aorta2 f1 conus arteriosus1 laid open2 g1 semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery4 ,between the conus arteriosus 7f7 and the pulmonary artery are three pocket-like semilunar valves 7,fig4 #aag1 g71 one ventral1 one dextral1 and one sinistral4 ,between each valve and the wall of the pulmonary artery there is an enlargement of the cavity of the artery1 one of the pulmonary sinuses 7or sinuses of ,valsalva74 ,beyond the sinuses the pulmonary artery divides into right and left branches 7,fig4 #aaf1 j74 #c4 ,the left auricle 7atrium sinistrum7 7,fig4 #aae1 d2 ,fig4 #aaf1 b74 ,the auricular appendage 7,fig4 #aae1 d7 is bent at right angles and its apex turned caudad4 ,the cavity is thus irregular4 ,muscular trabecul occur only in the auricular appendage4 ,when the auricular septum is examined by transmitted light the position of the fossa ovalis is indicated at about the middle of the septum as seen from the left side4 ,ventrad of it is a fold of the septal wall4 ,the pulmonary veins enter the dorsal wall of the auricle in three groups 7,fig4 #aaf1 g1 h1 i74 ,each group opens into a more or less pronounced sinus or extension of the auricular cavity4 ,the sinuses may be called1 on account of their position1 dorsal 7g71 sinistral 7i71 and dextral 7h74 #d4 ,the left ventricle 7,fig4 #aae1 b7 occupies rather more than the left half of the base of the heart4 ,its walls are two or three times as thick as those of the right ventricle4 ,internally its walls present a few muscular bands1 comparable to the trabecul of the left ventricle4 ,there are two very large column carne1 one dorsad and one ventrad4 ,at the cranial end it communicates near the lateral wall with the left auricle by the auriculoventricular opening1 and near the septum with the aorta4 ,the bicuspid valve 7or mitral valve71 which guards the auriculoventricular opening1 consists of two flaps1 one septal and one lateral4 ,their chord tendine1 which come from their free borders as well as from their outer surfaces1 are attached to the column carne1 chord passing from both valves to each columna carnea4 ,the opening into the aorta is guarded by three aortic semilunar valves1 each of which partly conceals an aortic sinus 7or sinus of ,valsalva74 ,one valve is dorsal1 one sinistral1 and one dextral4 ,in the dextral sinus is the opening of one of the coronary arteries1 which carry blood to the walls of the heart4 ,pericardium4 ,the pericardium is a sac enclosing the heart4 ,it lies in the middle mediastinum1 and the two halves of the mediastinal septum with their fat may be dissected away from it4 ,its wall is composed of two layers1 an external firm fibrous layer and an internal layer of flattened epithelial cells similar to the peritoneal epithelium 7serous layer74 ,the fibrous layer forms a sac which repeats roughly the form of the heart4 ,this sac is attached to the aorta at the point of origin of the subclavian artery1 to the pulmonary artery at its bifurcation1 and to the ven cav and pulmonary veins near their entrance into the heart4 ,at these points it is continuous with the fibrous coats of the vessels named1 and from them it is reflected over the heart1 forming a complete sac enclosing it but not attached to it anywhere4 ,the heart lies within this sac4 ,the serous layer lines the fibrous sac and gives to the surface of the heart and fibrous layer a smooth glistening appearance4 ,it is reflected over the heart4 ,the relation of the heart to it is much the same as the relation of the intestine to the peritoneal sac4 ,the serous layer consists therefore of two portions1 parietal1 lining the sac1 and visceral1 covering the heart4 ,the parietal and visceral portions are continuous along a line which runs approximately parallel to the auriculoventricular groove and encloses all the great blood-vessels4 ,within this line the heart lies against the fibrous layer of pericardium and is not covered by the serous layer4 ,the serous layer is easily dissected free from the heart-wall1 but its parietal portion is closely adherent to the fibrous layer4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,arteries4 ,,arteri4 #a4 ,a4 pulmonalis1 the ,pulmonary ,artery 7,fig4 #aae1 f74 ,the pulmonary artery passes craniodorsad and slightly to the left from the cranial end of the conus arteriosus4 ,one to one and a half centimeters from the conus it divides into right and left branches 7,fig4 #aaf1 j74 ,just before the division the dorsal surface of the pulmonary artery is connected by the short ligamentum arteriosum1 or ligamentum ,botalli1 with the aorta4 ,this is the remnant of a canal which in ftal life forms a free communication between the pulmonary artery and the aorta2 this canal is known as the ductus ,botalli4 ,the ligament is almost or quite obliterated in the adult cat4 ,the left branch of the pulmonary artery passes to the left lung1 crossing ventrad of the thoracic aorta4 ,it then divides into branches which pass to the lobes of the left lung4 ,the point of division of the left branch of the pulmonary artery lies craniad of all the lobes of the lung1 so that the lobes of the left lung are said to be all hyparterial1 i4e41 below 7or caudad of7 the artery4 ,the right branch passes under 7dorsocaudad of7 the aortic arch1 and reaches the right lung at about the junction of the cranial lobe with the remainder of the lung4 ,the cranial lobe of the right lung is therefore said to be eparterial1 since it is craniad of the pulmonary artery2 the other lobes are hyparterial4 ,the right branch divides at its entrance to the lung and is distributed to its lobes4 #b4 ,aorta 7,fig4 #aae1 g2 ,fig4 #aah1 a74 ,the aorta is the single great vessel which conveys blood from the left ventricle4 ,it makes a sharp semicircular curve dorsad 7,fig4 #aah1 a7 and to the left1 passes caudad at the left side of the vertebral column1 and passes between the crura of the diaphragm to reach the abdominal cavity4 ,it is divisible into thoracic aorta 7,fig4 #aah7 and abdominal aorta 7,fig4 #abf74 ,a4 ,thoracic ,aorta 7,fig4 #aah74--,the first portion of the thoracic aorta1 curved as above described1 is the aortic arch 7a74 ,it lies in the thoracic cavity opposite the interval between the third and fourth or fourth and fifth ribs4 ,it is separated from the vertebral column on the right by the superior vena cava 7q71 and on the left by the sophagus 7#d74 ,at its beginning it lies a little to the right of the median plane2 but it passes at once to the left side of the vertebral column4 ,,branches ,,of ,,the ,,thoracic ,,aorta4 #a4 ,aa4 coronari4--,the coronary arteries are two4 ,they arise from the aortic sinuses4 ,the left one 7,fig4 #aah1 p7 leaves the aorta on the left side1 passes dorsad of the pulmonary artery1 and divides into two branches1 one of which follows the auriculoventricular groove 7sulcus coronarius7 to the dorsal side of the heart and sends branches to the adjacent heart-walls1 while the other runs onto the ventricles1 following approximately the ventral border of the ventricular septum4 ,the right coronary artery passes in the auriculoventricular groove toward the right and dorsad1 and supplies the adjacent walls of the heart4 #b4 ,a4 anonyma 7,fig4 #aae1 j2 ,fig4 #aah1 b74--,the innominate artery passes craniad from the convexity of the aortic arch 7a74 ,it gives rise first to a small mediastinal artery 7m7 which passes ventrad into the mediastinum1 then to the left common carotid 7,fig4 #aae1 l71 then to the right common carotid 7,fig4 #aae1 m74 ,sometimes the carotids are given off from a common trunk4 ,beyond the right common carotid the innominate is continued as the right subclavian 7,fig4 #aae1 n74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,,vessels ,,of ,,the ,,thorax1 ,,viewed ,,from ,,the ,,left ,,side4 a1 aorta 7a1 aortic arch72 b1 innominate artery2 c1 left subclavian2 d1 right subclavian2 e1 right common carotid2 f1 left common carotid2 g1 costocervical axis2 g1 vertebral artery2 h1 internal mammary artery2 i1 axillary artery2 j1 thyrocervical axis2 k1 ,a4 transversa scapul2 m1 mediastinal artery2 n1 intercostal arteries2 o1 sophageal arteries2 p1 left coronary artery2 q1 superior vena cava2 r1 internal mammary vein2 s1 the two innominate veins2 t1 sternal artery2 u1 costocervical vein2 v1 vertebral vein2 w1 axillary vein2 x1 vein to clavotrapezius and lateral ends of the pectoral muscles2 y1 vein accompanying second branch of ,a4 transversa scapul2 z1 thyrocervical vein4 #a1 external jugular vein2 #b1 internal jugular vein2 #c1 vena cordis magna2 #d1 sophagus2 #e1 thoracic duct2 #f1 one of the lymphatic ducts from the neck4 ,i1 first rib 7cut72 ,,viii1 eighth rib 7cut72 ,,xii1 twelfth rib 7cut74 #c4 ,a4 subclavia sinistra 7,fig4 #aae1 k2 ,fig4 #aah1 c74--,the left subclavian passes craniad from the convexity of the aortic arch4 ,it curves about the first rib 7,fig4 #aah1 ,i7 to enter the armpit1 where it becomes the axillary artery 7i74 #d4 ,aa4 intercostales 7n74--,the intercostal arteries are given off from the dorsal side of the aorta4 ,each passes to an intercostal space and divides into three branches4 ,one of these passes ventrad along the caudal margin of the cranial one of the two ribs between which it extends4 ,another goes to the deep muscles of the back1 and the third enters the spinal canal through the intervertebral foramen4 ,the arteries for the first and second 7and sometimes the third7 intercostal space usually arise from the subclavian 7costocervical axis1 ,fig4 #aah1 g74 #e4 ,aa4 bronchiales4--,the bronchial arteries are two1 and arise either from the aorta opposite the fourth intercostal space or from the fourth intercostal arteries4 ,they accompany the bronchi to the lungs4 #f4 ,aa4 sophage 7,fig4 #aah1 o74--,the sophageal arteries are small branches of varying origin passing to the sophagus4 #g4 ,aa4 lumbales4--,the lumbar arteries correspond to the intercostals1 but pass off between the lumbar vertebr4 ,the obliquity of the diaphragm throws the origin of one or two pairs of them within the thorax4 ,a4 ,,carotis ,,communis4 ,,the ,,common ,,carotid ,,artery4 7,fig4 #aae1 l and m2 ,fig4 #aai1 a74 ,the two common carotid arteries arise from the innominate artery in the manner already described4 ,each passes craniad along the side of the trachea4 ,in the thorax 7,fig4 #aah1 f7 the common carotid lies mediad of the subclavian artery 7,fig4 #aah1 c7 and dorsad of the superior vena cava 7,fig4 #aah1 q74 ,in the neck 7,fig4 #aai7 the artery lies1 accompanied by the vagus and sympathetic nerves and the internal jugular vein 7b71 in the space between the longus capitis muscle 7#g7 and the trachea 7#ad72 it is covered ventrally by the sternomastoid and sternothyroid 7#b7 muscles1 lying close to the lateral border of the latter4 ,near its origin the common carotid may give rise to the small inferior thyroid artery4 ,it then passes to about the level of the larynx without giving off branches2 here it gives off the superior thyroid 7c7 on the ventral side and one or more muscular branches 7e7 on the dorsal side4 ,one or two centimeters further craniad it gives off on the dorsal side the internal carotid 7g7 and the occipital artery 7f74 ,the main artery now takes the name external carotid 7m74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--;,,common ,,carotid ,,artery ,,and ,,internal ,,jugular ,,vein4 a1 common carotid artery2 b1 internal jugular vein2 c1 superior thyroid artery2 d1 cervicalis ascendens artery2 e1 large muscular branches2 f1 occipital artery2 g1 internal carotid2 h1 branch to larynx2 i1 lingual artery2 j1 external maxillary2 k1 superior labial2 l1 inferior labial2 m1 external carotid2 n1 internal maxillary2 o1 posterior auricular2 p1 superficial temporal4 #a1 ,m4 sternohyoideus2 #b1 ,m4 sternothyreoideus2 #c1 ,m4 geniohyoideus2 #d4 ,m genioglossus2 #e1 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis medius2 #f1 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis inferior2 #g1 ,m4 longus capitis2 #h1 ,m4 digastricus2 #i1 ,m4 masseter2 #aj1 ,m4 scalenus2 #aa1 ,m4 levator scapul 7cut72 #ab1 ,m4 levator scapul ventralis 7cut72 #ac1 ,m4 splenius2 #ad1 trachea4 ,branches of the common carotid3 #a4 ,a4 thyreoidea ima4--,the inferior thyroid is a small artery which arises either from the common carotid near its origin1 or from the innominate before the origin of the carotid4 ,it passes craniad on the trachea as far as the thyroid gland1 giving branches to the trachea and sophagus4 #b4 ,a4 thyreoidea superior 7c74--,the superior thyroid leaves the carotid opposite the thyroid cartilage and passes mediad and caudad1 sending branches to the thyroid gland1 and the sternothyroid 7#b7 and sternohyoid 7#a7 muscles4 ,a small branch1 the superior laryngeal1 passes to the larynx1 and supplies those muscles of the larynx which are not enclosed by the cartilages4 #c4 ,rami musculares 7e74--,one or two branches1 usually of considerable size1 leave the common carotid at about the same level as the superior thyroid and pass to the muscles on the dorsal side of the neck1 the main trunk of the artery passing between the longus capitis 7#g7 and scalenus muscles 7#aj74 #d4 ,a4 occipitalis 7f74--,the occipital artery arises from the common carotid at about the same point as the internal carotid4 ,it immediately sends a large branch dorsad1 passing between ,m4 longus capitis 7#g7 and the vertebral column1 to the deep muscles of the neck4 ,the occipital then crosses the outer surface of the digastric muscle 7#h7 to the back of the skull1 and runs along the lambdoidal crest just beneath the splenius muscle4 ,it sends a number of branches to the muscles of the back of the neck2 and one of its branches may unite with the vertebral artery as it lies in the groove on the atlas1 or with a branch of the vertebral4 #e4 ,a4 carotis interna 7g74--,the internal carotid artery is one of the terminal branches of the common carotid4 ,it is very small4 ,it is given off near or in common with the occipital artery1 passes toward the cranial end of the tympanic bulla1 enters the bulla with the ,eustachian tube1 and passes into the skull at the foramen lacerum4 ,its course is much convoluted before entering the foramen4 ,within the skull 7,fig4 #aba1 g7 it joins the posterior cerebral artery 7,fig4 #aba1 f7 at the side of the hypophysis4 #f4 ,a4 carotis externa 7,fig4 #aai1 m74--,after giving off the internal carotid the continuation of the common carotid artery receives the name external carotid 7m74 ,it passes craniad and laterad between the digastric 7#h7 and styloglossus muscles1 where it gives off cranioventrad the lingual artery 7i7 and a number of small muscular branches2 also sometimes the small laryngeal artery4 ,at the dorsolateral border of the digastric 7#h7 it gives off the external maxillary artery 7j71 and about one centimeter farther craniad the posterior auricular 7o74 ,it now turns mediad1 lying against the cartilaginous auditory meatus1 on its cranial side1 and gives off the superficial temporal 7p74 ,the artery then continues mediad1 taking the name internal maxillary 7n7--so that the internal maxillary artery is to be considered the terminal branch of the external carotid4 ,branches of the external carotid artery 7,fig4 #aai73 a4 ,a4 lingualis 7,fig4 #aai1 i2 ,fig4 #abj1 d74--,the lingual artery leaves the external carotid near its beginning and passes craniomediad along the ventral border of the digastric muscle 7,fig4 #abj1 #i71 accompanied by the hypoglossal nerve4 ,it gives off numerous small branches to the hyoid and pharyngeal muscles1 then passes dorsad of the hyoglossus muscle 7,fig4 #abj1 #f71 where it gives off a branch which passes transversely across the middle line to communicate with the artery of the other side4 ,beneath the hyoglossus the artery turns craniad and passes into the tongue4 ,here it runs along the medial border of the styloglossus to the tip of the tongue1 giving off numerous branches into the substance of this organ4 b4 ,rami musculares4--,muscular branches pass to the digastric and to the hyoid muscles4 ,a small branch 7,fig4 #aai1 h71 which may arise either from the external carotid or from the common carotid near the beginning of the external carotid1 passes to the larynx and supplies the thyroarytenoid and lateral cricoarytenoid muscles of the larynx4 c4 ,a4 maxillaris externa 7,fig4 #aai1 j74--,the external maxillary artery leaves the external carotid 7m7 opposite the angle of the jaw and at about the dorsal border of the digastric muscle 7#h74 ,it passes craniad1 lying at first beneath the digastric muscle and sending a branch to the submaxillary gland4 ,opposite the caudal border of the mylohyoid muscle it gives off the submental artery1 turns dorsad1 emerges from beneath the digastric1 and passes along the cranial border of the masseter onto the face4 ,here it divides into superior 7k7 and inferior 7l7 labial branches1 which pass along the upper and lower lips1 respectively1 giving off numerous branches4 ,the submental artery passes to the symphysis menti between the digastric and mylohyoid muscles1 giving off on its course collateral branches to the muscles of this region4 d4 ,a4 auricularis posterior 7,fig4 #aai1 o74--,the posterior auricular leaves the external carotid 7m7 opposite the middle of the bulla tympani and beneath the submaxillary gland4 ,it passes about the base of the ear on its caudal and dorsal sides outside of the deep muscles of the occipital region1 but beneath the auricular muscles1 and sends several branches to the muscles of the external ear1 passing onto the caudal surface of the concha4 ,it sends also a large branch mediad to the muscles of the occiput1 especially to the temporal muscle1 within which it ramifies4 ,a large branch 7anterior auricular1 ,fig4 #aca1 u7 passes from the caudal side of the concha craniodorsad1 and appears on the cranial side of the external ear1 running along the cranial margin of the auditory opening4 e4 ,a4 temporalis superficialis 7,fig4 #aai1 p2 ,fig4 #abj1 h74--,the superficial temporal artery arises from the external carotid as the latter lies between the cartilaginous auditory meatus and the caudal border of the masseter muscle4 ,it passes dorsad and gives off soon after its origin a muscular branch to the masseter1 and an auricular branch which passes distad along the concha auris and ramifies over its cranial surface4 ,the superficial temporal itself passes onto the surface of the temporal muscle 7,fig4 #abj1 #aa71 to which it gives numerous branches4 ,it extends to the caudal angle of the eye 7,fig4 #aca1 s71 where it divides4 ,one branch passes into the lower eyelid2 the larger branch passes along the dorsal side of the eye1 sending a branch into the orbit and small branches onto the dorsal surface of the nose4 f4 ,a4 maxillaris interna 7,fig4 #aai1 n2 ,fig4 #abj1 i74--,the internal maxillary artery is the continuation of the external carotid4 ,it turns caudad at the caudal end of the mandible1 then passes craniad1 lying dorsad of the pterygoid muscles 7,fig4 #abj1 #aj71 and against the medial surface of the mandible4 ,it gives off the inferior alveolar artery 7,fig4 #abj1 j71 then the middle meningeal 7k71 and then continuing mediad divides into three or four branches4 ,the branches redivide1 and the twigs form a complicated plexus1 the carotid plexus 7,fig4 #abj1 l71 which surrounds the maxillary division of the fifth nerve near its exit from the foramen rotundum4 ,one of the larger branches of the plexus enters the skull through the orbital fissure1 lying beside the hypophysis2 it divides in the manner described below4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--;,,branches ,,of ,,external ,,carotid ,,artery4 a1 common carotid2 b1 branch to larynx2 c1 internal carotid2 d1 lingual2 e1 external carotid2 f1 posterior auricular2 g1 external maxillary2 h1 superficial temporal2 i1 internal maxillary2 j1 inferior alveolar2 k1 middle meningeal2 l1 carotid plexus2 m1 branch to temporal muscle2 n1 ophthalmic2 o1 infraorbital2 p1 lesser palatine4 #a1 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis inferior2 #b1 ,m4 sternothyreoideus2 #c1 ,m4 sternohyoideus2 #d1 ,m4 thyreohyoideus2 #e1 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis medius2 #f1 ,m4 hyoglossus2 #g1 ,m4 geniohyoideus2 #h1 ,m4 genioglossus2 #i1 ,m4 digastricus2 #aj1 ,mm4 pterygoidei externus and internus 7cut72 #aa1 ,m4 temporalis 7cut74 ,beyond the carotid plexus a main trunk which may be considered the continuation of the internal maxillary passes craniad1 lying on the dorsal surface of the external pterygoid muscle2 nearly opposite the molar tooth it divides into the infraorbital 7,fig4 #abj1 o7 and the sphenopalatine arteries4 ,branches of the internal maxillary artery and of the carotid plexus3 #a4 ,a4 alveolaris inferior 7,fig4 #abj1 j74--,the inferior alveolar 7or inferior dental7 artery leaves the inferior maxillary just opposite the condyloid process of the mandible4 ,it enters the mandibular canal by the mandibular foramen1 along with the nerve of the same name1 and traverses the canal1 furnishing branches to the lower teeth4 ,it emerges at the mental foramen1 and its terminal branches are distributed to the chin1 but a branch is continued in the bone beyond the mental foramen and supplies the incisor and canine teeth of the lower jaw4 #b4 ,a4 meningea media 7,fig4 #abj1 k74--,the middle meningeal is a large vessel which leaves the internal maxillary at about the same level as the inferior alveolar4 ,it passes into the foramen ovale and ramifies in the dura mater4 ,its branches leave distinct impressions on the inner surface of the bones of the skull4 #c4 ,a large branch 7,fig4 #aba1 h7 from the plexus passes into the cranial cavity through the orbital fissure and lies within the skull at the side of the hypophysis4 ,it gives off the following branches3 a4 ,a posterior communicating branch1 very short1 which extends caudad and joins the internal carotid artery 7,fig4 #aba1 g74 b4 ,a4 cerebri media 7,fig4 #aba1 i74--,the middle cerebral artery passes dorsad on the side of the cerebral hemisphere along the fissure of ,sylvius and divides into numerous branches which are distributed to the surface of the cerebrum4 c4 ,a4 cerebri anterior 7,fig4 #aba1 j7 ,passes dorsad between the cerebral hemispheres4 ,just craniad of the optic chiasma the two anterior cerebral arteries are united by a small communicating branch1 thus completing the circulus arteriosus or circle of ,willis 7,fig4 #aba71 surrounding the hypophysis 7see page #bib74 #d4 ,from the carotid plexus several branches pass1 arising either separately or in common1 to the masseter1 temporal1 and pterygoid muscles4 #e4 ,a4 ophthalmica 7,fig4 #abj1 n74--,the ophthalmic artery passes from the carotid plexus to the structures in the orbit4 ,it gives off numerous branches which supply the muscles of the eyeball1 and other structures of this region4 ,it sends an ethmoidal branch into the nasal cavity through the ethmoidal foramen in the orbital plate of the frontal bone1 then continues distad to emerge from the orbit on the medial side of the eye2 here it anastomoses with branches of the superficial temporal4 #f4 ,a4 palatina minor 7,fig4 #abj1 p74--,the lesser palatine artery leaves the internal maxillary distad of the carotid plexus1 near the caudal border of the maxillary bone4 ,it passes ventrocaudad into the soft palate4 #g4 ,a4 sphenopalatina4--,the sphenopalatine is one of the terminal branches of the internal maxillary2 it passes mediad through the sphenopalatine foramen into the nasal cavity1 and divides into numerous branches which supply the mucous membrane of the nose4 ,it gives off just before it enters the sphenopalatine foramen the descending palatine 7,a4 palatina descendens71 which passes into the posterior palatine canal and emerges on the surface of the hard palate1 where it ramifies4 #h4 ,a4 infraorbitalis 7,fig4 #abj1 o74--,the infraorbital artery is a direct continuation craniad of the internal maxillary4 ,it sends off numerous small branches to the teeth of the upper jaw1 and a rather large branch which passes to the lower eyelid4 ,it then enters the infraorbital foramen1 at the same time dividing usually into two or three branches2 these emerge from the foramen and supply the parts of the nose and upper lip adjacent to the foramen 7,fig4 #aca1 r74 ,a4 ,,subclavia4 ,,the ,,subclavian ,,artery4 ,the left subclavian 7,fig4 #aah1 c7 arises from the convexity of the aortic arch just distad of the origin of the innominate artery1 and about two or three centimeters from the heart4 ,it passes craniad and slightly to the left1 and turns into the left arm just craniad of the first rib4 ,the right subclavian 7,fig4 #aae1 n7 is a direct continuation of the innominate1 the artery receiving the name subclavian after the right common carotid is given off1 usually at about the level of the second or third intercostal space4 ,the subclavian has the following branches3 the vertebral artery 7,fig4 #aah1 g71 the internal mammary 7,fig4 #aah1 h71 the costocervical axis 7,fig4 #aah1 g71 the thyrocervical axis 7,fig4 #aah1 j74 ,beyond the last-named branch it continues into the arm as the axillary artery 7,fig4 #aah1 i2 ,fig4 #abb1 g74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--;,,arteries ,,of ,,the ,,ventral ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,brain4 a1 ,a4 vertebralis2 b1 ,a4 spinalis anterior2 c1 ,a4 basilaris2 d1 ,a4 cerebelli inferior posterior2 e1 ,a4 cerebelli anterior2 f1 ,a4 cerebri posterior2 g1 cut ends of the two internal carotid arteries2 h1 cut ends of branches from the carotid plexus 7g and h are placed within the circulus arteriosus or circle of ,willis72 i1 ,a4 cerebri media2 j1 ,a4 cerebri anterior4 a4 ,a4 vertebralis 7,fig4 #aah1 g74--,the vertebral artery arises from the dorsal surface of the subclavian opposite the first rib4 ,it passes craniad and dorsad at the side of the thoracic portion of the longus colli muscle1 and enters the foramen transversarium of the sixth cervical vertebra4 ,it passes thence craniad through the foramina transversaria 7which together form the vertebrarterial canal7 and gives off at the intervertebral foramina branches to the muscles of the neck and branches which pass across the ventral surface of the spinal cord to join ,a4 spinalis anterior4 ,craniad of the foramen transversarium of the atlas the vertebral artery turns dorsad in the groove on the lateral surface of the atlas4 ,here it gives off a large branch which passes laterodorsad to the muscles of the neck and may anastomose with a branch of the occipital artery4 ,the vertebral artery then passes into the vertebral canal through the atlantal foramen4 ,it passes to the ventral side of the spinal cord and unites at about the level of the foramen magnum with the vertebral artery of the opposite side 7,fig4 #aba1 a7 to form the basilar artery 7,a4 basilaris7 7,fig4 #aba1 c71 which passes craniad along the ventral middle line of the brain4 ,just before their union the two vertebral arteries 7a7 give off each a branch which passes caudomediad4 ,these two branches soon unite in the middle line1 forming the anterior spinal artery 7,a4 spinalis anterior7 7b71 which passes caudad the entire length of the spinal cord1 lying on its ventral middle line and receiving many communicating branches from the vertebral1 intercostal1 and lumbar arteries4 ,a4 basilaris 7c74--,this arises by the union of the two vertebral arteries in the manner just described4 ,it passes craniad along the ventral middle line of the medulla and pons1 giving numerous small branches to these structures4 ,a large branch1 ,a4 cerebelli inferior posterior 7d71 passes on each side to the caudal surface of the cerebellum1 on which it ramifies4 ,at the cranial margin of the pons the basilar artery divides4 ,from each division a very large branch passes on each side across the pedunculi cerebri to the cranial part of the cerebellum2 this is ,a4 cerebelli anterior 7e74 ,just craniad of this1 arising from nearly the same point1 the smaller ,a4 cerebri posterior 7f7 passes laterad to the caudal part of the cerebrum2 it is joined by the internal carotid artery 7g74 ,the small continuations of the two halves of ,a4 basilaris then pass craniad at the side of the hypophysis to join the posterior communicating branches from the carotid plexus4 ,as other branches of the carotid plexus unite across the middle line craniad of the optic chiasma1 an arterial circle is formed on the base of the brain1 surrounding the hypophysis and the optic chiasma4 ,this is known as the circulus arteriosus1 or circle of ,willis 7see page #bhi74 b4 ,a4 mammaria interna 7,fig4 #aah1 h74--,the internal mammary artery rises from the ventral surface of the subclavian opposite the first rib1 and passes in the mediastinum ventrocaudad to reach the sternum opposite the third intercostal space4 ,it sends two or three small branches craniad to the midventral part of the thoracic wall and then extends caudad at the side of the sternum4 ,it sends off lateral branches to the ventral thoracic wall1 branches to the mediastinum and pericardium1 a branch to the diaphragm which anastomoses with the phrenic2 and finally it passes out of the thoracic cavity caudad of the last costal cartilage1 extends caudad in a zigzag course at the lateral border of the rectus muscle and anastomoses with the inferior epigastric artery4 c4 ,truncus costocervicalis 7,fig4 #aah1 g74--,the costocervical axis arises from the subclavian opposite the first rib1 passes craniodorsad1 and divides almost at once into two branches4 ,the smaller one of these1 the superior intercostal 7,a4 intercostalis suprema71 passes caudad and1 dividing1 supplies the first and second intercostal spaces1 and then passes to the deep muscles of the back4 ,the other branch divides almost immediately into two4 ,one of these1 ,a4 transversa colli1 passes laterad in front of the first rib and enters the serratus anterior muscle4 ,in this it passes dorsad1 giving off branches to this muscle and to the levator scapul1 till it reaches ,m4 rhomboideus1 which it likewise supplies4 ,the other branch 7,a4 cervicalis profunda71 which seems to form a continuation of the main artery1 passes directly dorsad and leaves the thoracic cavity between the heads of the first and second ribs4 ,here it passes into the deep muscles of the neck2 it can be traced in the substance of the complexus muscle as far forward as the atlas4 d4 ,truncus thyrocervicalis 7,fig4 #aah1 j74--,the thyrocervical axis 7or thyroid axis7 arises from the subclavian beneath the first rib1 a short distance distad of the origin of the costocervical axis4 ,it passes laterocraniad and dorsad1 lying on the mediocranial side of the brachial plexus4 ,a short distance from its origin it gives off a branch1 varying much in size1 the cervicalis ascendens 7,fig4 #aai1 d71 which passes craniad on the ventral side of the neck1 supplying the sternomastoid1 sternohyoid1 the cervical portion of the scalenus1 and sometimes other muscles of the neck region4 ,other branches pass from the thyroid axis to the inner surface of the clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #abb1 a7 and to the ventral end of the pectoral muscles4 ,at the level of the cranial border of the scapula the artery takes the name ,a4 transversa scapul1 or suprascapularis4 ,this divides into three main branches4 ,the first branch1 sometimes large1 sometimes small1 passes to the lymphatic gland in the hollow of the shoulder1 and to the adjacent muscles2 it supplies the clavotrapezius1 acromiotrapezius1 levator scapul ventralis1 splenius1 occipitoscapularis1 and rhomboideus4 ,a second branch passes between the subscapularis and supraspinatus muscles1 dividing into various branches which supply the muscles named4 ,the third branch pierces the supraspinatus muscle1 just craniad of the acromion process1 and ramifies in that muscle4 e4 ,a4 axillaris 7,fig4 #abb1 g74--,the axillary artery is the continuation of the subclavian laterad of the first rib4 ,it lies caudad of the brachial plexus and parallel to it4 ,it sends off the following branches3 #a4 ,a4 thoracica anterior 7,fig4 #abb1 h74--,the anterior thoracic is a slender artery which leaves the ventral side of the axillary opposite the first rib and passes caudomediad1 to supply the medial ends of the pectoral muscles 7g74 #b4 ,a4 thoracica longa 7p74--,the long thoracic artery is larger than the preceding1 leaves the axillary a short distance laterad of it1 and passes caudad to the middle portions of the pectoral muscles 7#h7 and continues to the inner surface of the latissimus dorsi4 ,a short distance beyond the long thoracic the axillary divides into two4 ,the more cranial one of these is the subscapular 7l72 the other is the brachial 7g74 #c4 ,a4 subscapularis 7l74--,the subscapular artery passes laterad and gives off a short distance from its origin the ,a4 thoracicodorsalis 7t7 and ,a4 circumflexa humeri posterior 7see below72 it may also give rise to the circumflexa anterior humeri 7l71 and to the profunda brachii 7u72 these two branches1 however1 rise more frequently from the brachial artery 7g7 and are described in connection with it4 ,the subscapular artery then passes through the triangular interval between the scapular end of the long head of the triceps1 the latissimus dorsi1 and the glenoid border of the scapula4 ,within this interval it sends muscular branches to the long head of the triceps1 the subscapularis1 and the latissimus dorsi4 ,that to the latter muscle is very large4 ,at the border of the scapula1 opposite the tuberosity of the spine1 it turns craniad1 passes over the lateral surface of the infraspinatus muscle1 supplying it2 crosses the spine1 and sends branches into the supraspinatus fossa in both directions parallel to the scapular spine4 ,these supply the supraspinatus1 acromiotrapezius1 and spinotrapezius1 and anastomose with the branches of the transversa scapul4 ,as the subscapularis turns craniad onto the surface of the infraspinatus it sends dorsad a small branch1 the circumflexa scapul1 which passes in the infraspinatus fossa close to its glenoid border as far as the glenovertebral angle1 supplying the infraspinatus and latissimus dorsi by lateral branches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--;,,blood-,,vessels ,,and ,,the ,,more ,,ventral ,,nerves ,,of ,,the ,,axilla1 ,,ventral ,,view4 ,the pectoral and clavobrachial muscles have been cut and laid aside1 their ends being shown2 only a part of the nerves are exhibited4 #a1 ,m4 clavobrachialis2 #b1 cut end of ,m4 pectoralis major2 #c1 cut end of ,m4 pectoralis minor2 #d1 ,m4 biceps2 #e1 ,m4 teres major2 #f1 ,m4 epitrochlearis1 partly cut and turned back2 #g1 ,m4 latissimus dorsi1 partly cut2 #h1 ,m4 pectoralis minor2 #i1 ,m4 pectoralis major2 #aj1 short portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps brachii4 a1 branches of the thyrocervical axis to clavobrachial and clavotrapezius muscles2 b1 suprascapular nerve2 c1 first subscapular nerve2 d1 musculocutaneous nerve2 e1 median nerve2 f1 ,v4 axillaris2 f1 ,v4 brachialis2 g1 ,a4 axillaris2 g1 ,a4 brachialis2 h1 first anterior thoracic nerve1 accompanied by the anterior thoracic artery and vein2 i1 ,v4 subscapularis2 j1 large muscular branch 7to subscapular muscle7 of the subscapular vein and brachial artery2 l1 ,a4 subscapularis2 l1 ,a4 circumflexa humeri anterior2 m1 radial nerve2 n1 ulnar nerve2 o1 medial cutaneous nerve2 p1 ,a4 thoracica longa2 q1 r1 second anterior thoracic nerve2 s1 ,v4 longa thoracica2 t1 ,a4 and ,v4 thoracicodorsalis2 u1 ,a4 profunda brachii2 v1 branch of brachial artery accompanying medial cutaneous nerve2 w1 branch of ,a4 collateralis radialis superior2 x1 ,a4 collateralis radialis superior2 y1 ,v4 mediana cubiti2 z1 ,a4 collateralis ulnaris4 ,a4 thoracicodorsalis 7t74--,this arises from the subscapular a short distance from its origin and passes across the teres major to the latissimus dorsi 7#g71 giving branches to both these muscles and to the epitrochlearis4 ,a4 circumflexa humeri posterior4--,the posterior circumflex artery arises from the ,a4 subscapularis close to the origin of the latter4 ,it passes between the subscapularis muscle and the teres major1 close to the border of the biceps1 then between the lateral and long heads of the triceps4 ,it gives off a branch to the inner surface of the spinodeltoid and acromiodeltoid1 then passes distad to supply the lateral and long heads of the triceps4 #d4 ,a4 brachialis 7g74--,the brachial artery is the continuation of the axillary 7g7 into the arm beyond the origin of the subscapular 7l74 ,it passes along that side of the biceps which lies next to the humerus4 ,it passes thus1 accompanied by the brachial vein 7f7 and median and ulnar nerves1 through the bicipital arch and afterwards between the biceps 7#d7 and the intermediate division of the medial head of the triceps to the supracondyloid foramen of the humerus1 through which it passes with the median nerve to reach the concavity of the elbow4 ,it gives off the following branches3 a4 ,a4 circumflexa humeri anterior 7l74--,the anterior circumflex artery usually leaves the brachial near its origin 7but may arise from the subscapular 7l7 or one of its branches72 it passes to the biceps 7#d7 near the origin of the latter and sends a branch proximad to the head of the humerus4 b4 ,a4 profunda brachii or superior profunda 7u74--,this arises from the first part of the brachial or it may come off from one of the branches of the axillary 7e4g41 the subscapularis74 ,it passes along with the radial nerve onto the dorsal side of the humerus and supplies the triceps muscle4 ,it also sends branches to the epitrochlearis 7#f7 and latissimus dorsi 7#g74 c4 ,rami musculares4--,muscular branches are given off near the supracondyloid foramen to the biceps 7#d71 epitrochlearis 7#f71 and brachialis muscles4 ,a nutrient artery leaves the brachial proximad of the supracondyloid foramen1 either separately or in common with the muscular branches1 and passes into the nutrient foramen at the junction of the middle and distal thirds of the shaft of the humerus1 supplying the bone4 d4 ,a4 collateralis ulnaris 7superior7 7or ,a4 anastomotica magna7 7z74--,this leaves the brachial artery just proximad of the supracondyloid foramen and passes to the convexity of the elbow1 supplying the structures about the olecranon4 e4 ,a4 collateralis radialis superior 7,fig4 #acj74--,this rises from the axillary artery just proximad of the supracondyloid foramen 7,fig4 #abb1 x71 in company with the vena mediana cubiti 7y71 passes across the surface of the biceps 7#d71 beneath the pectoantibrachialis1 into the concavity of the elbow4 ,here it gives branches to the pectoantibrachialis1 clavobrachialis1 and extensor muscles of the forearm4 ,it then passes onto the ventroradial border of the forearm 7,fig4 #acj7 and runs along this border1 in company with the vena cephalica 7,fig4 #acj1 c7 and the superficial radial nerve 7g71 to the wrist1 sending off branches to the integument4 ,at the wrist it turns onto the dorsum of the hand1 passing in a gentle curve to the ulnar side and distad1 and giving off a branch for the space between each pair of metacarpal bones4 ,these branches 7,fig4 #acj1 e7 7,aa4 digitales dorsales7 pass distad and anastomose with branches coming from the palm4 f4 ,a4 radialis 7,fig4 #abc74--;,distad of the convexity of the elbow the brachial artery takes the name radial artery4 ,it passes from the supracondyloid foramen on the medial side of the biceps tendon 7#a7 and beneath the pronator teres muscle 7#e71 giving off small branches1 as far as the middle of the forearm1 where it gives off the ulnar artery 7k74 ,it then passes from beneath the pronator teres 7#e7 and lies on the surface of the fifth part of the flexor profundus 7#h71 covered only by the fascia and integument4 ,near the wrist it sends off a branch 7m7 toward the ulnar side of the arm1 which passes into the palm on the surface of the tendon of the flexor profundus1 giving twigs to the digits and to the pad in the palm4 ,a branch from this may join the ulnar1 and the common trunk thus formed passes into the hand and gives origin to the branches described under the ulnar artery4 ,the presence and size of this branch of the radial varies with the size of the ulnar artery1 it being smaller or absent as the ulnar is larger4 ,it is shown at m1 ,fig4 #abc4 ,the radial artery 7g7 now turns gradually dorsad and passes beneath the tendon of the extensor brevis pollicis onto the dorsum of the hand4 ,it passes over the oblique groove on the dorsal surface of the base of the second metacarpal beneath the tendon of the extensor carpi radialis longus and passes between the bases of the second and third metacarpals into the palm of the hand4 ,here it passes to the ulnar side and anastomoses with the ulnar artery to form the palmar arch4 ,branches of the ,radial ,artery4 #a4 ,a4 radialis recurrens 7i74--,the radial recurrent arises in the concavity of the elbow and sends a branch proximad to the structures in the concavity2 it then continues to the radial side of the forearm at the elbow1 supplying adjacent parts of the brachialis 7#b71 the extensor carpi radialis1 and the extensor communis digitorum4 #b4 ,a4 ulnaris recurrens 7j74--,the ulnar recurrent arises on the medial side of the tendon of the biceps and supplies structures in the concavity of the elbow on the ulnar side1 also the pronator teres 7#e7 and proximal ends of the flexor carpi radialis and flexor profundis digitorum4 #c4 ,rami musculares4--,muscular branches are given off along the course of the artery1 to adjacent muscles4 ,a nutrient artery to the radius leaves the radial artery about two centimeters distad of the supracondyloid foramen4 #d4 ,aa interosse 7anterior 7l7 and posterior7 are given off usually separately between the origin of the ulnar artery and the biceps tendon4 ,sometimes they arise as a common trunk which soon divides4 ,the posterior interosseous artery passes distad1 supplying the flexor muscles of the forearm4 ,it also sends a branch to the pronator teres4 ,the anterior interosseous 7l7 may arise from the ulnar artery4 ,it passes dorsad to the interosseous membrane1 on which it runs distad2 sends a nutrient branch to the ulna1 and then passes to the wrist in the substance of the pronator quadratus1 which it supplies4 ,it sends a branch to the dorsal surface of the wrist2 this ramifies on the carpus1 forming a network of small arteries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,nerves ,,and ,,arteries ,,of ,,the ,,forearm1 ,,seen ,,from ,,the ,,flexor ,,side4 ,mm4 palmaris longus1 flexor carpi radialis1 flexor carpi ulnaris1 and the third and fourth heads of flexor profundus digitorum have been removed2 also part of ,m4 pronator teres4 #a1 biceps2 #b1 conjoined tendon of brachialis and clavobrachialis2 #c1 short portion of caput mediale of triceps brachii2 #d1 intermediate portion of caput mediale of triceps brachii2 #e1 cut ends of pronator teres2 #f1 brachioradialis2 #g1 extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis2 #h1 fifth head of flexor profundus digitorum2 #i1 second head of flexor profundus digitorum2 #aj1 radial part of flexor sublimis digitorum2 #aa1 common tendon of flexor profundus digitorum2 #ab1 first head of flexor profundus digitorum2 #ac1 cut origin of flexor carpi ulnaris4 a1 ulnar nerve2 b1 median nerve2 c1 dorsal cutaneous branch of the ulnar nerve2 d1 palmar branch of ulnar nerve2 e1 deep palmar branch2 f1 superficial palmar branch2 g1 ,a4 brachialis2 g1 ,a4 radialis2 h1 ,a4 collateralis ulnaris superior2 i1 ,a4 radialis recurrens2 j1 ,a4 ulnaris recurrens2 k1 ,a4 ulnaris2 l1 ,a4 interossea anterior2 m1 large branch of ,a4 radialis1 joining ,a4 ulnaris4 #e4 ,a4 ulnaris 7k74--,the ulnar artery passes beneath the second1 third1 and fourth parts of the flexor profundus digitorum 7but outside of the origin of the fifth part71 to the inner surface of the flexor carpi ulnaris4 ,it supplies the flexor carpi ulnaris1 the flexor profundus and palmaris longus1 and passes on the inner surface of the flexor carpi ulnaris to the wrist4 ,near the wrist it sends a branch onto the side of the forearm1 and another to its midventral part1 and ends in a small branch to the wrist on the radial side of the pisiform bone4 ,this branch anastomoses with the radial to form the palmar arch1 described below4 #f4 ,the palmar arch 7,fig4 #abd7 is formed by the termination of the radial artery 7a7 in the palm and its junction with the end of the ulnar 7f74 ,the radial artery reaches the palm between the bases of the second and third metacarpals and passes thence toward the ulnar side and distad1 piercing the interosseus muscle of the third digit and lying on the outer surface of the interossei of the third and fourth digits beneath the adductors of the second and fifth digits4 ,a small communicating branch from the radial passes to it between the first and second metacarpals4 ,branches of the palmar arch3 ,a4 princeps pollicis et indicis 7c7 leaves the palmar arch near its radial end and sends a branch onto the ulnar side of the thumb and one onto the radial side of the index4 ,the palmar interosse 7d7 are three in number4 ,they leave the palmar arch 7b7 and pass distad and dorsad in the intervals between the four ulnar digits4 ,the radial one passes along the ulnar side of the first digit1 the ulnar one along the radial side of the fifth digit4 ,the middle one divides and supplies the contiguous sides of the third and fourth digits4 ,each of these interosseous arteries sends off muscular branches 7e7 to the short muscles in the palm1 and branches into the fibrous pad which occupies the palm of the hand4 ,the palmar arch also sends branches onto the dorsum of the hand at the sides of the fourth metacarpal4 ,branches pass from these proximad to the wrist4 ,b4 ,,aorta ,,abdominalis4 ,,the ,,abdominal ,,aorta4--,the abdominal aorta emerges into the abdomen from between the crura of the diaphragm1 at about the level of the second lumbar vertebra4 ,it passes caudad along the dorsal middle line1 lying to the left of the inferior vena cava4 ,it gives off parietal branches to the body wall1 and visceral branches to the viscera1 and ventrad of the first sacral vertebra it gives off two large branches on each side1 the external iliac 7,fig4 #abf1 k7 and the hypogastric 7,fig4 #abf1 l7--a very small median vessel1 the sacralis media 7,fig4 #abf1 o71 continuing the course of the aorta and passing into the tail4 ,the aorta gives off the following branches3 ,a4 cliaca2 ,a4 mesenterica superior2 ,aa4 adrenolumbales2 ,aa4 renales2 ,a4 mesenterica inferior2 ,aa4 iliolumbales2 ,aa4 lumbales 7seven pairs72 ,aa4 iliac extern2 ,aa4 hypogastric4 ,a4 ,a4 cliaca 7,fig4 #abe74--,the cliac artery is a large branch which is given off from the aorta one centimeter or less caudad of the opening in the diaphragm4 ,it passes directly ventrad about three or four centimeters1 then divides1 usually at once1 into three branches4 ,the most cranial of these is the hepatic 7d71 the next is the gastrica sinistra 7e71 while the third and largest1 seeming to form a continuation of the cliac1 is the splenic 7f7 7,a4 lienalis74 ,the cliac artery may give rise also1 before its division1 to the two phrenic arteries 7which1 however1 usually arise from the adrenolumbales71 and either before or at the point of division to one or two small ,aa4 ventriculi dorsales1 which1 however1 frequently arise from the gastrica sinistra4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4 ,,the ,,palmar ,,arch ,,and ,,its ,,branches ,,in ,,the ,,palm ,,of ,,the ,,hand4 ,the interosseous muscles have been removed1 except those of the third and fourth digits4 #a1 ,m4 abductor digiti quinti2 #b1 #c1 ,mm4 interossei of third and fourth digits2 #d1 ,m4 adductor pollicis2 #e1 ,m4 flexor brevis pollicis4 a1 termination of radial artery2 b1 palmar arch2 c1 ,a4 princeps pollicis et indicis2 d1 ,aa4 interosse2 e1 muscular branches of the same2 f1 ,a4 ulnaris2 g1 deep palmar branch of ulnar nerve4 ,branches of the cliac artery3 #a4 ,a4 hepatica 7d74--,the hepatic artery passes cranioventrad1 pierces the descending limb of the great omentum and passes craniad to the liver1 lying1 together with the portal vein and common bile-duct1 in the ventral boundary of the foramen epiploicum 7foramen of ,winslow7 and contained1 together with the last-named vessels1 in a fibrous sheath called the capsule of ,glisson4 ,just before entering the sheath it gives off the gastroduodenalis 7g74 ,at its termination the hepatic artery divides1 sending branches to the lobes of the liver and a cystic artery to the gall-bladder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,,the ,c,,liac ,,artery ,,and ,,its ,,branches4 a1 abdominal aorta2 b1 ,a4 cliaca2 c1 ,a4 mesenterica superior 7cut72 d1 ,a4 hepatica 7cut72 e1 ,a4 gastrica sinistra2 f1 ,a4 lienalis2 g1 ,a4 gastroduodenalis 7cut from ,a4 hepatica72 h1 ,a4 pylorica2 i1 ,a4 gastroepiploica dextra2 j1 ,a4 pancreaticoduodenalis superior2 k1 ,a4 pancreaticoduodenalis inferior 7cut from inferior mesenteric72 l1 ,a4 ventriculi dorsalis4 #a1 spleen2 #b1 stomach2 #c1 duodenum2 #d1 pancreas4 a4 ,a4 gastroduodenalis 7g74--,this arises from the hepatic near the pylorus and passes caudad1 dividing one or two centimeters from its origin into three branches1 ,a4 pylorica 7h71 ,a4 pancreaticoduodenalis superior 7j71 and ,a4 gastroepiploica dextra 7i74 ,the pylorica 7h7 7which may arise directly from the hepatic7 passes to the pylorus1 thence along the lesser curvature of the stomach1 dividing into numerous branches and anastomosing with the gastrica sinistra4 ,the pancreaticoduodenalis superior 7j7 passes to the duodenum1 supplying it and the duodenal part of the pancreas and anastomosing with the pancreaticoduodenalis inferior 7k74 ,the gastroepiploica dextra 7i7 passes along the greater curvature of the stomach from the pyloric end and supplies the walls of the stomach1 sending branches also to the ascending limb of the great omentum4 ,these branches anastomose with the terminal branches of the splenic artery4 #b4 ,a4 gastrica sinistra 7e74--,this arises from the cliac artery and passes to the lesser curvature of the stomach1 extending along this to the right4 ,it gives off many branches to the walls of the stomach1 and anastomoses with ,a4 pylorica4 ,a4 ventriculi dorsalis 7l74--,one or two small arteries which arise either from the gastrica sinistra or the cliac artery1 and pass toward the dorsal part of the greater curvature of the stomach near its cardiac end4 #c4 ,a4 lienalis 7f74--,the splenic artery is the largest of the branches of the cliac axis1 of which it appears to be the direct continuation4 ,it divides into two large branches1 one to the cranial end1 the other to the caudal end1 of the spleen 7#a74 ,from the latter a large branch passes to the pancreas and descending limb of the great omentum4 ,b4 ,a4 mesenterica superior 7,fig4 #abf1 d74--,the superior mesenteric artery is larger than the cliac4 ,it supplies the blood to the small intestines and caudal portion of the pancreas and to the ascending and transverse colon4 ,it arises from the ventral side of the abdominal aorta about one centimeter caudad of the cliac axis and passes caudoventrad1 forming a curve with the convexity dextrad4 ,it gives off the pancreaticoduodenalis inferior1 colica media1 colica dextra1 ileocolica1 and numerous branches to the small intestine4 #a4 ,a4 pancreaticoduodenalis inferior 7,fig4 #abe1 k74--,this passes to the caudal end of the pancreas and a part of the duodenum1 anastomosing with the pancreaticoduodenalis superior4 #b4 ,a4 colica media is a large branch to the transverse and descending portions of the large intestine4 ,it divides and sends branches in both directions which anastomose with the colica dextra and with branches from the inferior mesenteric arteries4 #c4 ,a4 colica dextra4--,a small branch which passes to the ascending and transverse colon1 anastomosing with the colica media and ileocolica4 ,it is sometimes absent4 #d4 ,a4 ileocolica4--,this passes to the ccum and supplies that structure1 sending branches to the ileocolic valve and the caudal end of the ileum1 and anastomosing with the colica dextra and the intestinal branches of the superior mesenteric4 #e4 ,the superior mesenteric now divides into about sixteen terminal branches which pass to the small intestine4 ,in many cases these branches unite near the intestine1 forming arches1 and from these arches numerous short branches pass to the intestine4 #c4 ,a4 adrenolumbalis 7or lumboabdominalis7 7,fig4 #abf1 e74--,this rises from the aorta1 one on each side1 about two centimeters caudad of the superior mesenteric4 ,each passes laterad onto the dorsal body wall1 supplying the muscles of this region4 ,a large branch passes caudad along the surface of the muscles dorsad of the kidney and anastomoses with the iliolumbar artery4 ,from the adrenolumbalis rises usually3 ,a4 phrenica 7f74--,the phrenic artery rises either from the cliac 7c7 or the adrenolumbalis 7e7 and passes to the diaphragm1 near its dorsal border4 ,in the diaphragm it passes ventrad1 lying at the medial margin of the costal portion of the diaphragm1 as far as its sternal portion1 where it unites with the artery of the opposite side4 ,the two thus form an arch1 from which radiating arteries pass off to supply the diaphragm4 #d4 ,a4 renalis 7g74--,the two renal arteries arise from the sides of the aorta1 usually at about the same point1 so that the left passes caudolaterad and the right craniolaterad 7owing to the position of the kidneys74 ,the artery usually divides just before entering the kidney 7#b74 ,it passes dorsad of the vein 7t74 ,the renal artery sometimes sends a branch to the suprarenal body 7#a74 ,it also occasionally gives origin to the spermatic artery 7h74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--;,,abdominal ,,blood-,,vessels1 ,,ventral ,,view4 a1 vena cava inferior2 b1 abdominal aorta2 c1 ,a4 cliaca 7cut72 d1 ,a4 mesenterica superior 7cut72 e1 ,a4 adrenolumbalis2 f1 ,a4 phrenica2 g1 ,a4 renalis2 h1 ,a4 spermatica interna2 i1 ,a4 mesenterica inferior 7cut72 j1 ,a4 iliolumbalis2 k1 ,a4 iliaca externa2 l1 ,a4 hypogastrica2 m1 beginning of ,a4 femoralis2 n1 ,a4 umbilicalis2 o1 ,a4 and ,v4 sacralis media 7o1 the artery2 o1 the vein72 p1 ,a4 glutea superior2 q1 ,a4 glutea inferior2 r1 ,a4 and ,v4 hemorrhoidalis media2 s1 ,v4 adrenolumbalis2 t1 ,v4 renalis2 u1 ,v4 spermatica interna2 v1 ,v4 iliolumbalis2 w1 ,v4 iliaca communis2 x1 ,v4 femoralis2 y1 ,v4 and ,a4 profunda femoris2 z1 ,v4 hypogastrica4 #a1 suprarenal body2 #b1 kidney2 #c1 ureter2 #d1 outline 7broken7 of rectum4 #e4 ,a4 spermatica interna 7h74--,this rises from the aorta on each side at about the level of the caudal ends of the kidneys1 and passes laterad 7or it may arise from the renal74 ,in male specimens the artery turns caudad1 along with the corresponding vein 7u71 and passes to the inguinal canal4 ,thence it passes along with the vas deferens and the vein 7forming all together the spermatic cord7 to the testes and the other structures in the scrotum4 ,in females 7,fig4 #aab1 #b1 page #bfe7 the artery is larger and passes more nearly directly laterad1 being much convoluted4 ,it passes to the ovary1 being now called the ovarian artery4 ,it sends branches into the ovary 7c7 and to the cranial end of the uterus 7f72 the latter anastomosing with branches of the uterine artery 7#c74 #f4 ,a4 mesenterica inferior 7,fig4 #abf1 i74--,the inferior mesenteric artery has its origin from the aorta at about the level of the last lumbar vertebra4 ,it passes toward the large intestine1 and near it divides into two branches1 the colica sinistra1 which passes craniad along the descending colon1 anastomosing with the colica media1 and the superior hemorrhoidal1 which passes caudad along the descending colon and rectum and anastomoses with the middle hemorrhoidal 7page #cjh74 #g4 ,a4 iliolumbalis 7,fig4 #abf1 j74--,the iliolumbar arteries arise from the aorta about two centimeters caudad of the inferior mesenteric and pass laterad over the ventral surface of the psoas minor and iliopsoas muscles4 ,each divides into two main branches1 one passing caudad and the other craniad2 these supply the muscles of this region4 ,the cranial branch anastomoses with branches of the adrenolumbalis 7e74 ,the caudal branch sends an artery through the abdominal wall to appear at the cranial edge of the thigh2 it passes onto the lateral surface of ,m4 sartorius and extends here some distance distad4 #h4 ,a4 lumbalis4--,there are usually seven pairs of lumbar arteries1 passing almost directly dorsad from the dorsal surface of the aorta2 the first pair arising just craniad of the diaphragm1 the last at the same level as the origin of the external iliac4 ,the two arteries of a pair usually arise from the aorta one behind the other1 or they may arise by a common trunk4 ,they correspond to the intercostal arteries4 ,they pass between the centra of the vertebr and the muscles of the dorsal region1 and send one main branch laterad1 the other dorsad2 both supply the dorsal muscles4 ,from the dorsal branch small arteries pass into the vertebral canal to join the anterior spinal artery4 #i4 ,a4 iliaca externa 7,fig4 #abf1 k74--,the external iliac artery passes obliquely caudad from the aorta1 lying ventrad of the common iliac vein and against the medial surface of the psoas minor muscle4 ,it passes onto the ventral surface of this and the iliopsoas and at the same time reaches the tendon of the abdominal muscles2 through a small opening in this tendon lying ventrocaudad of that for the iliopsoas1 it leaves the abdominal cavity4 ,on its emergence from the abdominal cavity onto the medial surface of the thigh it receives the name ,a4 femoralis 7m74 ,the branches of the external iliac artery are described below 7page #cji74 #aj4 ,a4 hypogastrica 7or iliaca interna7 7,fig4 #abf1 l74--,the hypogastric or internal iliac arteries are given off from the aorta usually within a centimeter caudad of the external iliac4 ,each passes caudolaterad1 lying on the medial side of the common iliac vein1 and divides into branches which supply the structures within the pelvis and the muscles about the pelvic wall4 ,there is much variation in the origin and relations of the branches of this artery4 ,the following seems to be a very common arrangement3 ,a very short distance from the origin the umbilical artery 7n7 is given off4 ,the hypogastric artery then extends two or three centimeters and gives off ,a4 glutea superior 7p71 which passes at once to the pelvic wall4 ,a little farther caudad the hypogastric divides into the middle hemorrhoidal 7r71 to the rectum1 and the glutea inferior 7q71 which passes out of the pelvis4 ,branches of the hypogastric artery3 a4 ,a4 umbilicalis 7,fig4 #abf1 n74--,this small artery arises from the hypogastric about one centimeter from the beginning of the latter1 and passes ventrad to the bladder4 ,here it divides into two branches--the superior vesical to the sides of the bladder1 the inferior vesical to the neck of the bladder and the urethra4 b4 ,a4 glutea superior 7,fig4 #abf1 p74--,this passes dorsolaterad from the hypogastric and reaches the pelvic wall against the medial surface of the ilium4 ,here it divides into two branches4 ,one passes between the iliopsoas muscle and the ventral border of the ilium to the medial surface of the gluteus maximus2 it gives branches to the gluteus muscles1 the pyriformis1 and the rectus femoris4 ,the other branch passes dorsad of the ilium1 sending a branch to the medial surface of the gluteus medius1 and a small branch which joins the lateral sacral artery and enters thus the sacral canal4 c4 ,a4 hemorrhoidalis media 7,fig4 #abf1 r74--,the middle hemorrhoidal passes ventrad from the hypogastric1 onto the lateral surface of the rectum4 ,it passes caudad near the ventral side of the rectum as far as the anus4 ,a short distance from the origin it gives off a branch which passes almost directly ventrad toward the beginning of the urethra4 ,in the male this branch is small1 sending twigs to the urethra and the prostate4 ,in the female it is much larger1 forming ,a4 uterina 7,fig4 #aab1 #c1 page #bfe74 ,the uterine artery turns craniad onto the uterus1 which it supplies1 passing to the cranial end of the uterine cornu and anastomosing with the ovarian artery4 ,the middle hemorrhoidal gives off in the female branches to the vagina 7,fig4 #aab1 m7 and neck of the bladder 7k71 and a large branch to the urogenital sinus 7n72 it then supplies the anal glands and other structures about the anus1 and anastomoses with the terminal branches of the hemorrhoidalis superior4 ,in the male branchlets are given to the urethra1 to the bulbourethral 7or ,cowper's7 gland1 and to the penis4 ,the ,a4 dorsalis penis is a small branch which passes along the median dorsal groove of the penis to the glans4 ,the middle hemorrhoidal then supplies the structures about the anus and anastomoses with the superior hemorrhoidal1 as in the female4 d4 ,a4 glutea inferior 7,fig4 #abf1 q74--,this is the terminal portion of the hypogastric4 ,it passes along with the great sciatic nerve to the great sciatic notch1 and reaches the medial surface of ,m4 pyriformis4 ,it divides into branches which supply the gluteus and pyriformis muscles1 while a small branch accompanies the great sciatic nerve4 ,a small branch also passes onto the lateral surface of the tail1 extending caudad along its side4 #aa4 ,a4 sacralis media 7,fig4 #abf1 o74--,this is the continuation of the aorta into the sacral and caudal regions4 ,it extends to near the end of the tail1 lying in the ventral middle line against the sacral and caudal vertebr4 ,in the caudal region it passes through the hmal arches1 covered by the chevron bones4 ,between the vertebr it gives off side branches comparable to the intercostal and lumbar arteries of the aorta4 ,branches of the sacralis media3 a4 ,a4 sacralis lateralis4--,behind the first sacral vertebra a large branch1 the lateral sacral1 is given off on each side4 ,this enters the first anterior sacral foramen1 gives a branch to the structures in the sacral canal1 and sends a dorsal branch out through the posterior sacral foramen to the muscles on the dorsal side of the sacrum4 ,similar but smaller branches are given off between the succeeding vertebr1 sacral and caudal4 ,the ,external ,iliac and its ,branches4--,the origin of the external iliac 7,fig4 #abf1 k7 is described above 7page #cjg74 ,it gives off the following branches3 #a4 ,a4 profunda femoris 7,fig4 #abf1 y74--,this is given off just before the external iliac leaves the abdominal cavity4 ,it passes caudad1 and about one centimeter from its origin it gives off three branches1 sometimes all separately1 sometimes two in common4 ,one of these passes mediad in the lateral ligament of the bladder and ramifies on the lateral surface of that organ4 ,a second passes through the abdominal wall and into the fat on the medial surface of the thigh2 it sends a branch caudad toward the external genital organs1 while its main trunk passes distad in the subcutaneous fat almost to the knee4 ,from one of these two a small branchlet passes in the male to the spermatic cord and accompanies this to the testis2 it represents thus the external spermatic artery4 ,the third branch1 ,a4 epigastrica inferior1 passes directly to the ventral surface of the rectus abdominis muscle1 on which it passes craniad1 sending branches to the muscles of the abdominal walls4 ,it anastomoses with terminal branches of the internal mammary artery4 ,the profunda femoris itself passes between the iliopsoas and the pectineus muscles1 then to the medial surface of the adductor femoris4 ,it divides into branches which supply the pectineus1 adductor longus1 adductor femoris1 caudofemoralis1 quadratus femoris1 semimembranosus1 and semitendinosus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,,superficial ,,arteries1 ,,veins1 ,,and ,,nerves ,,on ,,the ,,medial ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,leg4 a1 ,a4 and ,v4 femoralis2 b1 ,n4 femoralis2 c1 ,a4 profunda femoris2 d1 ,a4 and ,v4 circumflexa femoris lateralis2 e1 ramus muscularis2 f1 ,a4 saphena and ,v4 saphena magna2 g1 ,n4 saphenus2 h1 ,a4 and ,v4 articularis genu suprema2 i1 ,n4 tibialis2 j1 plantar branch of ,a4 saphena2 k1 dorsal branch of ,a4 saphena4 #a1 ,m4 sartorius2 #b1 ,m4 tensor fasci lat2 #c1 ,m4 rectus femoris2 #d1 ,m4 iliopsoas2 #e1 ,m4 pectineus2 #f1 ,m4 adductor longus2 #g1 ,m4 adductor femoris2 #h1 ,m4 semimembranosus2 #i1 ,m4 gracilis2 #aj1 ,m4 semitendinosus2 #aa1 medial head of ,m4 gastrocnemius2 #ab1 ,m4 plantaris2 #ac1 ,m4 flexor longus digitorum2 #ad1 ,m4 tibialis anterior2 #ae1 tibia4 #b4 ,a4 femoralis 7,fig4 #abg74--,this is the continuation of the external iliac onto the medial surface of the thigh4 ,the artery lies in a triangular depression between the borders of the sartorius 7#a7 and gracilis 7#i7 muscles4 ,the floor of the depression is formed by the adductor longus 7#f71 pectineus 7#e71 vastus internus1 and rectus femoris 7#c7 muscles4 ,this triangular depression is known as the iliopectineal fossa1 or ,scarpa's triangle2 it contains also the femoral vein 7a7 and saphenous nerve 7g71 which pass along with the artery4 ,the artery extends distad1 and at about the middle of the length of the thigh it passes1 along with the vein and nerve1 into a groove between the vastus medialis and the adductor femoris4 ,this groove is converted into a canal by the overlying aponeurosis2 it is known as ,hunter's canal or the canalis adductorius4 ,at the distal end of the adductor femoris the femoral artery ceases to be superficial and passes between the vastus medialis and the semimembranosus to the popliteal space2 it now receives the name ,a4 poplitea4 ,branches of the femoral artery3 a4 ,a4 circumflexa femoris lateralis 7,fig4 #abg1 d74--,the lateral circumflex arises from the femoral about one centimeter from its emergence from the abdominal cavity4 ,it passes craniad and laterad and divides into two main portions4 ,one part passes between the rectus femoris and vastus medialis1 gives branches to these muscles1 and sends an ascending branch to the structures about the hip-joint1 and a descending branch into the vastus medialis muscle4 ,the remainder of the lateral circumflex passes along the inner 7lateral7 surface of the sartorius 7#a7 to the cranial border of the leg1 giving branches to the sartorius 7#a7 and tensor fasci lat 7#b74 b4 ,a large muscular branch 7e7 passes caudad 7or ventrad7 and distad across the distal end of the adductor femoris 7#g7 and between the gracilis 7#i7 and semimembranosus1 supplying these muscles4 ,other small muscular branches may be given off from both sides of the femoral4 c4 ,a4 articularis genu suprema 7h74--,the superior articular artery arises from the femoral1 either in common with the saphenous artery or separately1 a little proximad of the point where the femoral ceases to be superficial4 ,it passes toward the knee1 between the vastus medialis and semimembranosus1 and covered by the sartorius 7#a71 and ramifies over the medial surface of the knee-joint and in the structures just proximad of the joint4 d4 ,a4 saphena 7f74--,the saphenous artery frequently takes origin in common with the superior articular 7h71 but may arise separately at about the same level4 ,it passes distad across the gracilis 7#i71 accompanied by the saphenous nerve 7g7 and vein1 sends several branches dorsad 7toward the knee71 and at about the middle of the lower leg it divides into two main branches1 a dorsal branch 7k71 passing to the dorsum of the foot1 and a plantar branch 7j71 to the sole of the foot4 ,the dorsal branch is accompanied by the main saphenous nerve 7g7 and vein4 ,it sends one or two branches to the medial side of the ankle-joint1 passes then onto the dorsum of the foot1 and divides into four main branches4 ,the medial one passes along the medial side of the medial digit2 the other three pass to the intervals between the digits4 ,each divides into two branches which supply the contiguous sides of the two digits between which the interval lies4 ,the dorsal branch thus supplies arteries to the sides of all the digits except to the lateral side of the lateral digit4 ,this is supplied by ,a4 suralis4 ,the plantar branch 7j7 is larger than the dorsal4 ,it passes distad on the medial surface of the flexor longus hallucis1 accompanied by the tibial nerve1 and across the space between the tendon of ,achilles and the flexor4 ,it gives superficial and deep branches to the structures about the ankle-joint1 and sends inward a branch from the lateral side 7,fig4 #abh1 d7 which joins the termination of ,a4 tibialis anterior to form the plantar arch4 ,it then passes distad along the plantar surface of the foot1 nearer its medial border4 ,beneath the pad in the sole of the foot it divides into three branches which supply the interosseous spaces between the three digits4 e4 ,a4 poplitea4--,the main trunk of the femoral artery passes between the vastus medialis and the semimembranosus and then through the distal portion of the adductor femoris to reach the popliteal space4 ,this is the space ventrad 7or caudad7 of the knee1 between the biceps femoris on one side and the semimembranosus on the other4 ,here the artery receives the name ,a4 poplitea1 or popliteal artery4 ,the popliteal artery gives off a number of large branches as it passes through the popliteal space1 passes between the condyles of the femur and underneath the popliteal muscle1 and finally turns dorsolaterad between the tibia and fibula1 just distad of the head of the fibula4 ,it now receives the name ,a4 tibialis anterior and passes distad along the dorsal 7anterior7 border of the fibula4 ,branches of the popliteal artery3 #a4 ,a4 suralis4--,this is a large branch which passes distad from the caudal side of the popliteal artery4 ,it sends branches to the biceps and to the fat in the popliteal space1 and passes onto the ventral border of the lateral head of the gastrocnemius4 ,it sends branches to both heads of the gastrocnemius and to the popliteus1 passes distad onto the lateral surface of the tendon of ,achilles1 and may be traced to the proximal portion of the dorsolateral side of the foot1 where it sends many branches to the integument about the ankle-joint4 ,it then passes along the lateral side of the foot and supplies the artery on the lateral side of the fifth digit4 #b4 ,aa4 genu posteriores4--,several small arteries which pass to the knee-joint4 #c4 ,rami musculares4--,numerous small branches to the muscles about the popliteal space4 #d4 ,a4 tibialis posterior4--,this is the largest branch of the popliteal artery1 which it leaves just before the latter passes beneath the popliteal muscle4 ,the tibialis posterior passes at first mediad1 then turns distad1 passes across the popliteus muscle onto the surface of the flexor longus hallucis1 and ramifies in the substance of this muscle and its tendon4 ,it gives branches also to the gastrocnemius and soleus4 7,it does not pass into the foot as does the corresponding artery in man47 #e4 ,a4 tibialis anterior4--,the anterior tibial artery is the continuation of the popliteal after its passage through the interosseous membrane between tibia and fibula to the dorsal side of the lower leg4 ,here it passes distad1 lying against the interosseous membrane1 between the extensor longus digitorum and the tibialis anterior muscle1 or partly imbedded in the substance of the latter4 ,it passes1 lying beneath the tendons of these muscles1 through the transverse ligament proximad of the malleoli1 thus reaching the dorsum of the foot4 ,it extends distad across the tarsus to the space between the second and third metatarsals1 and through this space to the plantar side of the foot 7,fig4 #abh74 ,here it receives one or two small branches 7a and d7 from the plantar branch of ,a4 saphena 7forming with them the plantar arch 7c771 and passing distad and slightly laterad1 divides into three main portions 7e74 ,these 7,aa4 digitales plantares7 pass to the three intervals between the digits4 ,the medial one passes along the lateral side of the second digit2 the next divides1 sending a branch to the lateral side of the third digit and the medial side of the fourth2 the lateral one passes along the medial border of the fifth digit4 ,the ,aa4 digitales plantares send numerous branches to the interosseous muscles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,,deep ,,arteries ,,on ,,the ,,plantar ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,foot4 a1 medial twig from plantar branch of ,a4 saphena2 b1 ,a4 tibialis anterior 7or plantaris profunda72 c1 plantar arch2 d1 lateral twig from plantar branch of ,a4 saphena2 e1 terminal branches from ,a4 tibialis anterior4 ,branches of the tibialis anterior3 a4 ,a4 tibialis recurrens4--,immediately after passing through the interosseous membrane the anterior tibial sends a small artery proximad to the knee-joint4 b4 ,rami musculares4--,numerous short branches throughout the course of the artery1 to the muscles about it4 c4 ,ramus superficialis4--,a larger branch leaves the lateral surface of the artery about one-third the distance from the knee to the ankle and passes along with the superficial peroneal nerve1 at first beneath ,m4 peroneus longus1 then superficially4 ,it passes onto the dorsal surface of the foot and becomes connected with terminal branches of ,a4 saphena4 d4 ,a4 tarsea medialis4--,this arises from the tibialis anterior just distad of the transverse ligament through which it passes at the ankle1 passes over the medial surface of the astragalus1 and is distributed to the ligaments about the ankle-joint4 ,it anastomoses with the plantar branch of ,a4 saphena4 e4 ,a4 metatarsea4--,the metatarsal artery passes laterad from the tibialis anterior at the distal boundary of the tarsus1 on the dorsal surface of the foot4 ,it sends branches distad in the intervals between the third and fourth and the fourth and fifth metatarsals4 ,the distal branches 7,fig4 #abh7 of the tibialis anterior have been described in the general description of the artery4 ,,the ,,veins4 ,,ven4 ,ven pulmonales4 ,the ,pulmonary ,veins4 ,the pulmonary veins follow in the lungs the course of the bronchi4 ,they enter the left auricle in three groups 7,fig4 #aaf1 page #bgf74 ,the first of these 7i7 comes from the anterior and middle lobes of the right side1 the second 7h7 from the corresponding lobes of the left side1 and the third 7g7 from the terminal lobes of both sides4 ,each group is composed of two or three veins and opens into a sinus or extension of the auricle4 ,the sinuses are from their position dextral 7i71 sinistral 7h71 and dorsal 7g74 ,the ,veins of the ,body4 ,the veins of the body may be classified into three main groups3 7#a7 the veins of the heart2 7#b7 the superior vena cava and its branches2 7#c7 the inferior vena cava and its branches4 ,the portal system of veins will be considered with the inferior vena cava4 #a4 ,veins of the ,heart4 ,the veins of the heart consist of one large vein1 the vena cordis magna1 and a number of small veins4 ,vena cordis magna 7,fig4 #aah1 #c74--,this arises as a number of scattered branches on the surface of both ventricles4 ,these unite to form two main trunks4 ,one of these1 on the ventral side of the heart1 marks externally the septum between the two ventricles4 ,it passes beneath the left auricular appendage1 then turns to the left and passes along the sulcus coronarius to the dorsal side of the heart4 ,here it unites with the second main trunk which ramifies over the surface of the left ventricle4 ,arriving at the base of the right auricle it enters this by the coronary sinus1 which lies just beneath the opening of the inferior vena cava4 ,in addition to the vena cordis magna and its branches there are a number of small veins1 especially in the wall of the right ventricle4 ,these enter the right auricle by a number of small separate openings along the sulcus coronarius4 #b4 ,vena cava superior 7,fig4 #abi1 b74 ,the superior vena cava is the great vein returning the blood from the head1 fore-limb1 and cranial part of the trunk4 ,it extends from the level of the first rib on the right side of the vertebral column to the right auricle4 ,its caudal end lies dorsad of the aortic arch4 ,opposite the right rib it is formed by the junction of the two innominate veins 7m74 ,branches of the superior vena cava3 #a4 ,v4 azygos 7d74--,the first branch of the superior vena cava is the azygos vein1 which enters the vena cava on the right side a centimeter or less craniad of the root of the right lung4 ,it is formed in the abdominal cavity by the confluence of two or three small veins1 which collect the blood from the muscles of the dorsal wall of the abdomen4 ,the small median trunk thus formed enters the thoracic cavity between the crura of the diaphragm and lies on the ventral surface of the centra of the thoracic vertebr1 slightly to the right of the middle line4 ,the azygos receives the intercostal veins 7n71 which correspond to the intercostal arteries and have the same course and distribution4 ,in the caudal part of the thoracic cavity the intercostals enter the azygos separately1 but the intercostals of the cranial intercostal spaces usually unite two or three together and enter the azygos by one or more common trunks4 ,the azygos also receives bronchial and sophageal veins1 corresponding to the similarly named arteries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,,thoracic ,,blood-,,vessels1 ,,from ,,the ,,right ,,side4 a1 aorta2 b1 vena cava superior2 c1 vena cava inferior2 d1 ,v4 azygos2 e1 ,a4 subclavia dextra2 f1 ,a4 mammaria interna2 g1 ,v4 mammaria interna2 h1 costocervical axis2 i1 united trunk of vertebral and costocervical veins2 j1 ,a4 and ,v4 axillaris2 k1 ,v4 jugularis externa2 l1 ,v4 jugularis interna2 m1 the two innominate veins2 n1 intercostal arteries and veins2 o1 thyrocervical axis4 #a1 heart2 #b1 trachea2 #c1 sophagus2 ,i-,,xi1 cut ends of the first eleven ribs4 #b4 ,v4 mammaria interna 7g74--,the internal mammary veins follow the corresponding arteries4 ,the two veins unite to form a common trunk which1 after receiving a branch from the cranial part of the sternum1 enters the vena cava opposite the third rib4 #c4 ,vv4 anonym 7,fig4 #abi1 m2 ,fig4 #aae1 p74--,the innominate veins unite opposite the first intercostal space to form the vena cava superior4 ,each extends from the cranial end of the vena cava superior craniolaterad to a point a short distance craniad of the first rib and is there formed by the union of the external jugular 7,fig4 #abi1 k7 and subclavian 7j7 veins4 ,the innominate vein has the following branches3 ,a and ,b4 ,vv4 vertebralis and costocervicalis 7i74--,the vertebral and costocervical veins unite to form a single trunk which enters the innominate about opposite the first rib4 ,these two veins follow the corresponding arteries4 7,sometimes the vertebral and costocervical veins enter the innominate separately1 and in other cases one or more of the components of the costocervical veins 7e4g41 the transversa colli7 may enter the axillary vein4 ,in other cases the entire common trunk of the vertebralis and costocervicalis may enter the superior vena cava directly47 ,c4 ,v4 subclavia4--,the subclavian vein enters the innominate at about the level of the first rib4 ,outside of the thorax it is called the axillary vein 7j72 this comes from the arm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4 ,,superficial ,,arteries1 ,,veins1 ,,and ,,nerves ,,on ,,the ,,extensor ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,arm ,,and ,,dorsum ,,of ,,the ,,hand4 a1 ,v4 cephalica2 b1 ,v4 mediana cubiti2 c1 ,v4 cephalica antibrachii2 d1 ,a4 collateralis radialis superior2 e1 ,aa4 and ,vv4 digitales dorsales2 f1 ,a4 radialis2 g1 superficial radial nerve2 h1 ,n4 musculocutaneus2 i1 ,n4 cutaneus medialis4 ,veins of the ,arm4--,the blood is returned from the arm by two systems of veins1--a deep and a superficial system4 ,the deep system is composed of veins which correspond to the branches of the axillary artery1 follow in general the same course1 and receive the same names 7,fig4 #abb74 ,they unite to form the axillary vein4 ,the brachial vein does not pass with the brachial artery through the supracondyloid foramen4 ,the superficial system comprises the vena cephalica and its branches4 ,v4 cephalica 7,fig4 #acj74--,several superficial branches lying in the palm of the hand unite to form a common trunk which curves about the radial side of the wrist and here unites with a similarly formed trunk from the dorsum of the hand4 ,the vein formed by this union1 vena cephalica 7antibrachii7 7c71 passes to the elbow accompanying the radial nerve 7g7 and the collateral radial artery 7d71 and lying on the extensor carpi radialis longus muscle just beneath the integument4 ,it receives small lateral superficial branches4 ,at the elbow it divides into two3 these are the vena cephalica 7humeri7 7a7 and the vena mediana cubiti 7b74 ,the latter passes beneath the pectoantibrachialis muscle1 across the biceps1 and unites with the brachial vein in the concavity of the elbow4 ,the vena cephalica 7humeri7 passes at the elbow onto the upper arm1 following the lateral border of the clavobrachial muscle4 ,it thus reaches the acromiodeltoid muscle1 where it divides into two branches4 ,one passes inward beneath the acromiodeltoid1 and joins the vena circumflexa posterior 7a branch of the axillary74 ,the second continues over the outer surface of the shoulder1 and finally joins the vena transversa scapul 7a branch of the external jugular74 ,d4 ,v4 jugularis externa 7,fig4 #aca2 ,fig4 #fe1 #e1 page #aji74--,the external jugular vein comes from the head and face4 ,it is formed by the junction of the anterior 7,fig4 #aca1 c7 and posterior 7b7 facial veins near the ventral border of the sternomastoid muscle4 ,it passes thence obliquely across the sternomastoid to the triangular interval between it and the clavotrapezius4 ,in the interval it receives a small branch which accompanies the branch of the transversa scapul artery to the clavobrachialis muscle1 receives next the common trunk of the vena cephalica and transversa scapul1 and opposite the cranial end of the manubrium receives the internal jugular vein 7,fig4 #abi1 l74 ,it then unites with the subclavian to form the innominate vein4 ,near the point where it receives the internal jugular the external jugular vein receives the thoracic duct 7,fig4 #aah1 #e74 ,branches of the external jugular3 a4 ,v4 transversa scapul4--,this follows the course of the artery of the same name4 ,one of its branches receives one of the two terminal divisions of the vena cephalica 7q4 v474 ,in many cases veins which correspond to branches of the transversa scapul artery enter the external jugular separately 7as shown in ,fig4 #aah1 x and y74 b4 ,v4 cervicalis ascendens4--,a small branch which follows the corresponding branch of the thyrocervical axis4 c4 ,v4 jugularis interna 7,fig4 #aah1 #b2 ,fig4 #aai1 page #bhd74--,the internal jugular vein varies much in size and in the place where it joins the external jugular4 ,the point of junction is usually at about the level of the first rib1 but may be much farther craniad4 ,it arises on the ventral side of the basal portion of the occipital by the junction of a number of veins which are described below4 ,the internal jugular passes caudad in the neck region at the side of the trachea1 in company with the common carotid artery and the vagus and sympathetic nerves4 ,in this region it receives branches which accompany the branches of the common carotid artery4 ,the veins which by their union form the internal jugular vein are the following3 7#a7 ,one or two veins from the venous sinuses of the brain1 leaving the cranial cavity by the jugular foramen4 ,these are described in the account of the veins of the brain4 7#b7 ,a large communicating branch from the posterior facial4 7#c7 ,the vena occipitalis1 a large branch coming from the vertebral column 7which it leaves by the atlantal foramen7 and from the back of the head4 d4 ,v4 facialis anterior 7,fig4 #aca1 c74--,the anterior facial vein collects the blood from the face1 the tongue1 and adjacent parts2 it joins the posterior facial 7b7 caudad of the angle of the jaw to form the external jugular vein4 ,the anterior facial begins over the frontal bone caudad of the orbit1 where it is known as the frontal vein 7c74 ,this runs along the dorsal border of the orbit1 into which it dips4 ,it sends a communicating branch into the orbit1 and receives small veins 7superior palpebral7 from the upper eyelid4 ,it then turns ventrad1 passing along the cranial angle of the eye between the levator labii superioris proprius 7#e7 and the orbicularis oculi 7#h7 muscles1 being called in this region the angular vein 7c74 ,this receives branches 7external nasal veins1 k7 from the side of the nose4 ,the vein crosses the malar bone obliquely 7now receiving the name anterior facial1 c7 and follows the cranioventral border of the masseter muscle 7#i74 ,as it passes the infraorbital foramen it receives through the foramen a small vein from within the orbit4 ,it receives also the inferior palpebral 7j7 from the lower eyelid1 and the superior labial vein 7i7 from the upper lip4 ,just caudad of the angle of the mouth it receives from beneath the cranioventral margin of the masseter the ,v4 facialis profunda 7h7 described below4 ,still farther caudad it receives the inferior labial vein 7g7 from the lower lip1 and a small branch from the masseter muscle4 ,caudad of the middle of the cranioventral border of the masseter it receives from beneath the lymphatic gland of this region the large submental vein 7f74 ,next the anterior facial vein receives a large communicating branch 7,v4 transversa1 d7 which passes transversely across the ventral surface of the throat and connects the two anterior facial veins of the opposite sides4 ,from the middle of this communicating branch an unpaired trunk passes caudad in the middle line and divides into the two laryngeal veins1 which pass to the larynx2 a small branch is continued from the unpaired trunk craniad into the tongue4 ,the communicating branch receives also near its junction with the anterior facial a rather large superficial branch 7e7 which comes from the sides of the lower jaw and passes across the lymphatic gland 7#ab7 to join the communicating branch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--,,superficial ,,veins ,,and ,,arteries ,,of ,,the ,,face4 a1 external jugular vein2 b1 posterior facial vein2 c1 anterior facial vein 7c1 angular vein2 c1 frontal vein72 d1 communicating branch with opposite anterior facial2 e1 superficial branch from lower jaw2 f1 submental vein2 g1 inferior labial vein2 h1 deep facial vein2 i1 superior labial vein2 j1 inferior palpebral vein2 k1 external nasal veins2 l1 posterior auricular vein2 m1 superficial temporal vein2 n1 anterior auricular vein2 o1 external maxillary artery2 p1 inferior labial artery2 q1 superior labial artery2 r1 infraorbital arteries2 s1 superficial temporal artery2 u1 anterior auricular branch of posterior auricular artery4 #a1 ,m4 adductor auris superior2 #b1 ,m4 corrugator supercilii medialis2 #c1 ,m4 corrugator supercilii lateralis2 #d1 ,m4 levator labii superioris alque nasi2 #e1 ,m4 levator labii superioris proprius2 #f1 ,m4 myrtiformis2 #g1 ,m4 orbicularis oris2 #h1 ,m4 orbicularis oculi2 #i1 ,m4 masseter2 #aj1 parotid gland2 #aa1 submaxillary gland2 #ab1 lymphatic glands4 ,the following larger branches of the anterior facial are not described above3 ,v4 facialis profunda 7,fig4 #aca1 h74--,the deep facial vein enters the anterior facial from beneath the masseter1 just caudad of the angle of the mouth4 ,it collects branches from the soft and hard palates and the teeth1 these branches passing along with the corresponding arteries for a distance1 then uniting and passing ventrolaterad beneath the zygomatic arch to join the anterior facial4 ,the deep facial vein also receives branches which come from the venous plexus that lies in the same region as the arterial carotid plexus4 ,v4 submentalis 7,fig4 #aca1 f74--,this enters the anterior facial vein at the ventral border of the masseter muscle and near the cranial end of the two superficial lymph-glands 7#ab7 in this region4 ,the submental vein is formed at the dorsal border of the digastric muscle by two branches emerging from between the digastric and the mandible4 ,the more cranial of these1 ,v4 lingualis1 collects branches from the tongue1 from its middle to the tip2 it passes through the middle of the lateral border of the mylohyoid muscle to join the other branch4 ,the second branch emerges from between the mandible and the pterygoid muscles4 ,it comes from near the caudal end of the mandible1 where it becomes continuous with a communicating branch from the posterior facial vein1 and receives a branch which comes from the mandibular canal2 also small branches from the adjacent parts4 e4 ,v4 facialis posterior 7,fig4 #aca1 b74--,the posterior facial vein arises from the region of the internal maxillary artery1 its terminal branches following the branches of the artery4 ,it collects blood from the pterygoid1 masseter 7#i71 and temporal muscles1 and forms a plexus which is interwoven with the carotid 7arterial7 plexus in the region of the orbital fissure4 ,it is connected with the submental vein by a communicating branch4 ,from the posterior facial a branch extends ventrad close against the outer surface of the tympanic bulla and then turns caudad1 receives a branch from the pharynx1 then continues to join the internal jugular4 ,the posterior facial itself passes laterad along the caudal border of the masseter 7#i7 and the ventral border of the parotid gland 7#aj71 then becomes superficial and turns ventrad over the outer surface of the submaxillary gland 7#aa7 to join the anterior facial 7c7 caudad of the angle of the jaw4 ,as it passes ventrad of the parotid gland 7#aj71 just before becoming superficial1 the posterior facial receives the superficial temporal 7m74 ,this at first follows the superficial temporal artery 7s71 then enters the substance of the parotid gland1 joining the posterior facial near the ventral border of the latter4 ,the superficial temporal receives the anterior auricular 7n71 a large vein passing along the cranial border of the auricular opening and arising dorsad of the eye4 ,the posterior facial receives also1 at the point where it passes from beneath the parotid gland1 the posterior auricular or great auricular vein 7l74 ,this collects blood from the back of the head and the external ear1 its branches following those of the artery of the same name4 ,it passes along the caudal border of the parotid gland to join the posterior facial4 ,,veins ,,of ,,the ,,brain ,,and ,,spinal ,,cord4--,the veins of the brain form a large number of small vessels which pour their blood into larger veins lying in folds of the dura mater2 these are known as the venous sinuses of the dura mater4 ,these sinuses communicate with the venous plexus about the orbital fissure1 coming from the posterior facial vein2 with the internal jugular through the jugular foramen1 and with the vertebral veins1 in the vertebral canal4 ,the chief sinuses of the dura mater on the dorsal side of the brain are as follows3 #a4 ,sinus sagittalis superior4--,this lies in the dorsal part of the falx cerebri1 between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum4 ,it receives veins from the dorsal and middle parts of the cerebrum1 and passes caudad to the tentorium4 ,here it enters the sinus transversus4 ,it receives the vena cerebri magna1 a large vein coming from the interior of the brain and passing directly dorsad at the caudal end of the corpus callosum to enter the sinus sagittalis4 #b4 ,sinus transversus4--,this lies in a canal in the dorsal border of the tentorium4 ,it receives numerous small veins from the cerebellum1 roof of the skull1 etc4 ,one or two centimeters on each side of the middle line the sinus transversus passes out of the canal onto the caudal surface of the tentorium1 thence proceeds caudoventrad obliquely over the surface of the cerebellum1 unites with veins from the ventral side of the brain1 leaves the skull by the jugular foramen1 forming thus the inferior cerebral vein1 and joins the internal jugular vein4 ,on the ventral side of the brain are the following sinuses of the dura mater3 #c4 ,sinus cavernosus4--,a short broad venous sinus1 one on each side of the hypophysis1 on the body of the sphenoid4 ,it receives veins from the side and ventral surface of the brain4 ,the two sinuses are connected by communicating branches craniad and caudad of the hypophysis4 ,from them branches pass out through the orbital fissure to join the plexus formed by the branches of the posterior facial vein4 #d4 ,sinus petrosus inferior4--,this arises from the sinus cavernosus and passes caudolaterad in the groove between the edge of the petrous bone and the basilar portion of the occipital4 ,reaching the jugular foramen it divides2 part joins the termination of the sinus transversus to form the inferior cerebral vein1 which passes through the jugular foramen to join the internal jugular vein4 ,the other portion of the sinus petrosus inferior passes through the condyloid canal of the occipital bone1 communicates by a strong transverse branch across the surface of the basioccipital with the vein of the opposite side1 and enters the spinal canal through the foramen magnum4 ,here it joins the sinus of the vertebral column4 #e4 ,sinus column vertebralis4--,on the ventral surface of the vertebral canal1 beneath the periosteum1 are two wide venous sinuses1 one on each side of the middle line4 ,these sinuses extend the entire length of the spinal cord4 ,at the atlantal foramen each sends a strong branch to the internal jugular vein4 ,farther caudad they send branches to the vertebral1 intercostal1 and lumbar veins1 and communicate with each other by numerous transverse branches4 ,they receive many small veins from the spinal cord4 #c4 ,vena cava inferior 7,fig4 #abi1 c2 ,fig4 #abf1 a74 ,the inferior vena cava 7,fig4 #abf1 a7 is formed at about the level of the last lumbar vertebra by the union of the two common iliac veins 7,fig4 #abf1 w74 ,it passes craniad near the dorsal median line1 lying at first dorsad of the aorta 7b71 then to the right1 then ventrad4 ,it enters the substance of the liver in the dorsal part of the caudate lobe of the latter1 passes through the liver1 and then through the diaphragm near the ventrolateral edge of the central tendon4 ,it passes then craniad in the thoracic cavity 7,fig4 #abi1 c7 ventrad of the caudal lobe of the right lung1 and enters the right auricle4 ,it receives the following branches 7,fig4 #abf73 lumbar1 iliolumbalis 7v71 spermatica interna 7u71 renal 7t71 adrenolumbalis 7s71 phrenic1 and hepatic veins4 ,all but the last two named accompany the arteries of the same name4 ,v4 phrenica4--,the phrenic veins gather the blood from the diaphragm and empty into the vena cava as it penetrates the diaphragm4 ,v4 hepatica4--,the hepatic veins vary in number4 ,they gather the blood from the liver 7sent in by the portal vein and hepatic arteries7 and enter the vena cava just caudad of the diaphragm4 ,,vena ,,port4 ,,the ,,portal ,,vein 7,fig4 #aca74--,the portal vein is the large vein carrying the blood from the abdominal viscera to the liver4 ,within the liver the portal vein breaks up into capillaries2 these collect to form the hepatic veins1 which enter the vena cava inferior4 ,the portal vein 7a7 is formed near the pyloric end of the stomach 7#a7 by the union of the superior mesenteric 7b7 and gastrosplenic 7c7 veins and passes thence along the ventral border of the foramen epiploicum 7foramen of ,winslow7 to the liver 7#b71 where it divides1 going to the lobes of the liver4 ,on its way to the liver it may receive the pancreaticoduodenalis 7d71 gastroepiploica 7e71 and coronaria ventriculi 7f74 ,these may unite with the portal separately1 or any two or all three may unite to form a single trunk before entering the portal vein4 #a4 ,v4 coronaria ventriculi 7f7 gathers the blood from the lesser curvature of the stomach and anastomoses with the gastrosplenic veins4 ,it usually empties into the portal vein near the pylorus4 #b4 ,v4 pancreaticoduodenalis 7d7 receives the blood from the pancreas and first part of the duodenum1 and empties into the vena port near to or with the preceding4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,,portal ,,vein4 a1 portal vein2 b1 superior mesenteric2 c1 gastrosplenic2 d1 pancreaticoduodenalis2 e1 gastroepiploica2 f1 coronaria ventriculi2 g1 h1 i1 branches of gastrosplenic2 j1 inferior mesenteric4 #a1 stomach2 #b1 liver2 #c1 duodenum2 #d1 spleen4 #c4 ,v4 gastroepiploica 7e7 comes from the greater curvature of the stomach and ascending limb of the great omentum4 ,it empties into the vena port ventrodextrad of the opening of the coronaria ventriculi1 or sometimes in common with it4 #d4 ,v4 gastrolienalis 7c74--,the gastrosplenic is one of the veins which unite to make up the portal vein4 ,it is formed by three branches3 one 7g7 from the horizontal or gastric portion of the pancreas1 one 7h7 from the stomach and gastric end of the spleen1 the third and largest 7i7 from the caudal end of the spleen and descending limb of the great omentum4 ,the three branches unite and the common trunk joins the superior mesenteric vein 7b7 to form the portal vein as above described4 #e4 ,v4 mesenterica superior 7b74--,the superior mesenteric vein receives the blood from the small and large intestines4 ,it is formed by numerous branches which follow and have the same name as the corresponding arteries4 ,it receives also the inferior mesenteric 7j7 from the large intestine4 ,the numerous branches unite1 and the main trunk thus formed joins the gastrosplenic 7c71 and the two united become the portal vein 7a74 ,,vena ,,iliaca ,,communis4 ,,common ,,iliac ,,vein 7,fig4 #abf1 w2 ,fig4 #abg1 page #caj74 ,the common iliac veins 7,fig4 #abf1 w7 are the two large vessels which unite in the sacral region to form the inferior vena cava 7a74 ,each is a large vessel1 usually four or five centimeters in length1 which is formed by the junction of the large external iliac vein with the smaller hypogastric vein 7z74 ,the left common iliac usually receives the ,v4 sacralis media 7o72 other lateral branches are as a rule not received by the common iliac veins4 ,there is much variation as to the formation of the common iliac veins and their union to form the vena cava4 ,on this subject the paper by ,mc,clure1 in the ,american ,naturalist1 vol4 ,,xxxiv4 pp4 #ace-aih 7,march1 #aijj71 may be consulted with profit4 ,the more typical variations may be classified as follows3 7#a7 ,the two common iliac veins may be longer than usual1 so that the vena cava is formed farther craniad than usual4 7#b7 ,there may be in the abdominal region two separate veins 7ven cardinales7 representing the inferior vena cava1 these uniting in the region of the kidneys4 7#c7 ,the vena sacralis media may enter into the left common iliac 7the usual condition72 or the right common iliac 7as in ,fig4 #abf72 or it may fork1 one branch passing to the left1 the other to the right common iliac4 ,branches of the common iliac veins3 #a4 ,v4 sacralis media 7,fig4 #abf1 o74--,this follows the course of the corresponding artery and usually enters the left common iliac4 #b4 ,v4 hypogastrica 7or iliaca interna7 7z74--,the hypogastric or internal iliac vein joins the medial side of the external iliac to form the common iliac 7w74 ,its branches follow the branches of the corresponding artery except that the vein from the bladder 7umbilical vein7 joins the ,v4 hemorrhoidalis media4 ,also the vena glutea inferior receives a large superficial communicating branch 7,fig4 #afc1 k7 from the vena saphena parva4 ,this branch leaves the saphena parva 7,fig4 #afc1 k7 at the popliteal space1 and passes over the lateral surface of the biceps muscle to its proximal end4 ,here it passes between the biceps and caudofemoralis to join the vena glutea inferior4 #c4 ,v4 iliaca externa 7,fig4 #abg1 page #caj74--,this vein follows the corresponding artery1 collecting the blood from the posterior extremity4 ,its branches are the same and have in general the same distribution as those of the artery4 ,the vein has1 however1 certain branches in addition to those of the artery1 resulting in a somewhat different general arrangement of vessels2 it will be necessary therefore to give an account of the system of veins from the foot and lower leg4 ,the blood is collected from the foot into two sets of veins which may be distinguished as the deep and the superficial sets4 ,the veins of the deep set are those which accompany the branches of the popliteal and anterior tibial arteries4 ,those of the superficial set are larger and carry most of the blood4 ,on the dorsum of the foot blood is collected from the third1 fourth1 and fifth digits by two or three superficial metatarsal veins1 which unite opposite the proximal end of the metatarsus into a single vein4 ,this receives a similar branch coming from the dorsum of the second digit1 and has numerous branches in the ankle region which form here a network1 communicating with the vena saphena parva 7,fig4 #afc1 k71 and with branches from the plantar side of the foot4 ,from this network two or three main veins pass proximad on the medial side of the leg1 along with the branches of the arteria saphena1 and unite with a similar vein from the plantar side of the foot to form the vena saphena magna 7,fig4 #abg1 k1 page #caj71 which accompanies the arteria saphena to join the femoral vein 7a74 ,on the plantar side of the foot small veins pass from the digits to a superficial venous plantar arch1 which lies just proximad of the fibrous pad on the sole of the foot4 ,at its medial side this arch extends proximad and dorsad to join that branch of the vena saphena magna which comes from the dorsum of the second digit4 ,on the lateral side it extends proximad along the lateral margin of the foot1 sends a communicating branch dorsad to the branches of the ,v4 saphena magna1 and continues along the lateral border of the foot to the ankle4 ,it forms the beginning of the ,v4 saphena parva 7,fig4 #afc1 k1 page #dja74 ,this receives branches from the lateral surface of the ankle1 which anastomose with those of the saphena magna4 ,the saphena parva then passes proximad along the lateral surface of the leg1 close to its ventral border1 to the popliteal space4 ,at the distal end of the popliteal space it divides into two branches4 ,one passes inward through the fat of the popliteal space1 receiving branches from the lymphatic gland situated here1 and joins the popliteal vein4 ,the other 7k7 remains superficial and continues proximad over the lateral surface of the biceps to the proximal end of that muscle4 ,here it passes between the biceps and caudofemoralis to join the inferior gluteal vein4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,lymphatic ,,system4 ,,systema ,,lymphaticum4 ,the lymphatic system of the cat has not been worked out in detail1 so that only the main features of the system are given in the following account4 ,the lymphatic system consists of a number of vessels1 the lymphatics1 containing a colorless fluid called lymph1 and of lymphatic glands1 connected with the lymphatic vessels4 ,the lymphatic vessels are found throughout the body as slender tubes1 frequently united into networks1 and containing many valves4 ,they take origin from the spaces in the connective tissue1 so that they are at first without definite walls4 ,the fluid in the connective-tissue spaces gradually flows together into tubes with definite walls1 and these tubes1 the lymphatic vessels1 finally join the venous system4 ,in their passage through the lymphatic glands the vessels break up into fine channels which again unite on leaving the gland4 ,in the gland lymph-cells are added to the fluid1 and probably other changes are produced4 ,most or all of the lymphatic vessels of the body finally unite into two trunks before entering the veins4 ,the largest trunk is the thoracic duct 7,fig4 #aah1 #e1 page #bhb71 which collects the lymph from the entire caudal half of the body1 and from the left forelimb and the left side of the thorax1 head1 and neck4 ,it passes along the dorsosinistral side of the thoracic aorta1 lying against its surface1 and enters the left external jugular vein at its junction with the subclavian4 ,the second main trunk is the right lymphatic duct2 this collects the lymph from the right side of the thorax1 the right forelimb1 and the right side of the neck and head2 it enters the right external jugular4 #a4 ,lymphatics of the ,head4--,a number of lymphatic vessels arise on the sides of the face1 especially in the upper and lower lips4 ,they form a superficial network of vessels1 lying over the ventral half of the masseter muscle and an area ventrad of it4 ,these lymphatic vessels all enter two large lymphatic glands 7,fig4 #aca1 #ab1 page #cbb7 lying at the ventrocaudal angle of the masseter muscle1 covering the union of the anterior and posterior facial veins4 ,into these glands pass also a number of lymph vessels from the back of the head4 ,from these two lymphatic glands two or three small lymphatic vessels pass caudad1 lying on the surface of the external jugular vein4 ,near the point of the shoulder1 some distance craniad of the junction of the external and internal jugular veins1 these vessels enter another small lymphatic gland lying on the dorsal surface of the external jugular vein4 ,thence one or two vessels continue caudad1 still on the surface of the external jugular1 and finally unite with the deep lymphatics of the head and neck and those of the arm to enter the caudal end of the external jugular vein1 usually 7on the left side7 after junction with the thoracic duct1 from the thorax4 ,the deep lymphatics of the head come from the internal parts of the head1--tongue1 pharynx1 etc41 and enter a large lymphatic gland situated close to the caudoventral surface of the tympanic bulla1 at the side of the pharynx4 ,thence a large lymphatic trunk passes caudad at the side of the trachea1 along with the common carotid artery and internal jugular vein1 unites with the superficial vessels from the head1 above described1 joins 7on the left side7 the thoracic duct1 and enters the external jugular vein4 #b4 ,lymphatics of the ,neck4--,two or three lymph-glands are found in the fatty mass in the neck beneath the clavotrapezius and levator scapul ventralis muscles4 ,these receive lymphatics from the neck and side of the thorax4 ,the vessels which arise from them join those from the head and arm to enter the external jugular vein4 #c4 ,lymphatics of the ,thoracic ,limbs4--,the lymphatics of the forelimbs begin as a number of vessels on the dorsum and palm of the hand4 ,these all pass toward the radial side1 and at about the base of the first metacarpal the vessels from both sides of the hand unite to form two or three main trunks4 ,these pass towards the elbow1 accompanying the vena cephalica 7,fig4 #acj74 ,there are usually two of these main trunks1 one lying on each side of the vena cephalica4 ,they accompany this vein over the shoulder1 following that portion which finally joins the external jugular4 ,in the hollow of the shoulder they enter the cervical lymph-glands1 one or two lymph-glands imbedded in the fat lying beneath the clavotrapezius and levator scapul ventralis in this region4 ,from the cervical lymph-glands a single trunk passes mediocaudad1 unites with the lymphatics from the head1 and usually 7on the left side7 with the cranial end of the thoracic duct1 and enters the external jugular vein at its junction with the subclavian4 ,the common trunk from the head and arm may enter the jugular separately1 but close to the termination of the thoracic duct4 ,on the right side the common trunk is joined by one or more small vessels coming from the lymphatic glands of the thorax and forming the right lymphatic duct4 ,there is said to be also a deep system of lymphatics in the arm1 in addition to the superficial system above described2 this is said to accompany the branches of the brachial vein4 ,if this system is present in the cat1 it is much less easily demonstrated than the superficial system4 #d4 ,lymphatics of the ,thorax and ,abdomen4--,in the thorax are a number of lymphatic glands which are apparently not constant in number and position4 ,one is commonly found dorsad of the bifurcation of the superior vena cava1 one ventrad of the mammary vein1 several small ones about the bifurcation of the trachea1 one or more in the region of the aortic arch1 and a number of small ones scattered in the mediastinum4 ,the vessels from these glands finally join either the right lymphatic duct or the thoracic duct2 the details have not been worked out and are probably variable4 ,in the abdominal cavity a number of mesenteric glands1 of considerable size1 are found in the mesentery and in the mesocolon4 ,in the mesocolon these are usually separate1 forming a chain of glands following the colon about one and a half centimeters from it4 ,in the mesentery the glands are mostly united into a very large one1 formerly known as the pancreas aselli2 this is the largest lymph-gland in the body4 ,it is a curved structure1 four or five centimeters in length1 lying in the central region of the mesentery4 ,into the mesenteric glands pass lymphatic vessels from the viscera of the abdomen4 ,from the mesenteric glands one or two large lymphatic vessels pass craniodorsad1 at first with the portal vein1 then dorsad of it4 ,this vessel reaches the dorsal side of the aorta near the cranial end of the kidney1 where it enters a large fusiform vessel1 the receptaculum chyli1 which stretches from the cranial end of the kidney craniad between the crura of the diaphragm into the thorax4 ,the receptaculum receives other lymphatics from the various organs of the abdominal cavity as well as vessels coming from the pelvic region1 and from the iliac glands4 ,these lie beside the iliac artery1 receive lymphatics from the hind limbs1 and send lymphatics craniad to the receptaculum chyli4 ,the latter forms the beginning of the thoracic duct4 ,the thoracic duct 7,fig4 #aah1 #e1 page #bhb7 enters the thoracic cavity between the crura of the diaphragm as a continuation of the receptaculum chyli4 ,it lies on the dorsal side of the aorta 7a71 somewhat to the left4 ,it passes along the aorta1 gradually coming to lie more on its left side1 and finally leaves that vessel near the aortic arch4 ,the duct continues thence straight craniad along the left side of the sophagus till it reaches the external jugular vein at its junction with the subclavian4 ,in this region the thoracic duct usually unites with the lymphatics coming from the head and arm1 then enters the external jugular vein1 or the innominate at the point of union of external jugular and subclavian4 ,in its passage through the thorax the duct frequently divides into two or three divisions which pass along parallel to each other for a distance1 then reunite4 ,such division into two or three parts is especially frequent just before the union with the jugular vein4 ,the numerous valves in the thoracic duct give it a beaded appearance4 #e4 ,lymphatics of the ,pelvic ,limbs4--,a number of lymphatic vessels are formed on the dorsum and the sole of the foot4 ,these pass to the lateral side1 forming a network on the lateral and dorsal surface of the ankle-joint1 and finally unite into two main trunks which accompany the vena saphena parva4 ,in the popliteal space these enter the popliteal gland which lies imbedded in the fat of that region4 ,from the popliteal gland one or two trunks accompany the superficial division of the vena saphena parva across the lateral surface of the biceps muscle1 and finally thus reach the pelvic cavity4 ,here they join the lymphatics of the pelvic region1 which all pour their lymph at last into the thoracic duct4 ,inguinal glands are either very small or not present in the cat4 ,the pelvic limbs have perhaps a deep system of lymphatics1 accompanying the deep veins2 if so1 they are not easily demonstrable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--;,,cranial ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,spinal ,,cord1 ,,with ,,the ,,cervical ,,enlargement4 ,,dorsal ,,view4 #a-h1 the eight cervical nerves4 ,i-,,ii1 first two thoracic nerves4 a1 dorsal roots 7ventral roots not shown72 b1 spinal ganglia2 c1 dorsal rami2 d1 ventral rami2 e1 posterior median sulcus2 f1 posterior lateral sulcus4 ,,nervous ,,system4 ,i4 ,,the ,,central ,,nervous ,,system4 #a4 ,the ,spinal ,cord4 ,medulla spinalis 7,figs4 #acc-acf74--,the spinal cord is that portion of the nervous system which occupies the vertebral canal2 it is continuous craniad with the brain4 ,it has the form of a somewhat flattened cylinder and extends from the foramen magnum into the caudal region4 ,it diminishes in diameter after entering the sacral region4 ,the cord has a cervical and a lumbar enlargement1 the former 7,fig4 #acc7 marking the origin of the nerves which pass to the fore limb1 and the latter 7,fig4 #acf7 the origin of those which pass to the hind limb4 ,the cervical enlargement 7,fig4 #acc7 lies in that part of the vertebral canal bounded by the fourth to seventh cervical and first thoracic vertebr4 ,caudad of the first thoracic vertebra the cord continues of nearly uniform diameter to the lumbar enlargement 7,fig4 #acf7 which stretches from the third to the seventh lumbar vertebr 7inclusive74 ,caudad of the seventh lumbar vertebra it diminishes uniformly in diameter and ends in a slender cord1 the filum terminale 7,fig4 #acf1 ,c71 which may be traced into the caudal region4 ,the surface of the cord is marked by a number of longitudinal grooves or sulci1 and fissures4 ,the most prominent of these is the anterior median fissure 7,fig4 #acd1 c71 along the ventral median line2 into this the pia mater dips4 ,the posterior median sulcus 7,fig4 #acc1 e2 ,fig4 #acd1 a7 is a shallow furrow along the dorsal median line4 ,the anterior fissure and the posterior sulcus thus divide the cord into lateral halves4 ,each half is subdivided by the anterior and posterior lateral sulci4 ,the posterior lateral sulcus 7,fig4 #acc1 f2 ,fig4 #acd1 b7 lies at the side of the posterior median sulcus4 ,it is broad and shallow and has the posterior roots of the spinal nerves emerging from its bottom4 ,the anterior lateral sulcus exists only after the forcible pulling out of the anterior 7ventral7 roots of the spinal nerves4 ,it then marks the line along which they originate from the cord4 ,in cross-section 7,fig4 #acd7 the substance of the cord appears to the naked eye as composed of a darker central 8gray matter0 7g7 and of an outer 8white matter0 7f74 ,the gray matter has in section the form of the letter ,h4 ,the cord is really tubular1 having a central canal 7h7 which appears in section in the middle of the cross-bar of the ,h1 while the two ends of each vertical bar extend toward the anterior and posterior lateral fissures4 ,the white matter is divided into funiculi 7or columns7 by the fissures and sulci1 so that there is in each half of the cord an anterior1 a posterior1 and a lateral white funiculus4 ,in the cervical region 7,fig4 #acd7 there appears between the posterior lateral and posterior median sulci an intermediate sulcus which divides the posterior funiculus in this region into two4 ,the median slenderer of these is the fasciculus gracilis 7d7 or column of ,goll4 ,the lateral and thicker is the fasciculus cuneatus 7e7 or column of ,burdach4 ,the membranes of the spinal cord3 ,the dura mater is a tough fibrous membrane directly continuous with the dura mater of the brain4 ,it differs from the dura mater of the brain in two particulars3 #a4 ,at the foramen magnum it splits into two layers1 one of which lines the bony vertebral canal and forms its periosteum1 while the other covers the cord4 #b4 ,it is separated from the cord by a considerable space4 ,the dura mater is continuous with the fibrous sheaths of the spinal nerves at their points of exit4 ,along the sides of the cord it is connected to the pia mater by a delicate strand of connective tissue probably equivalent to the 8ligamentum denticulatum0 of man4 ,the arachnoid is a delicate cellular membrane lying beneath the dura mater1 between it and the pia mater4 ,it forms a continuous investment for the cord1 is not vascular1 and is said not to dip into the fissures of the cord4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--;,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,the ,,spinal ,,cord ,,in ,,the ,,cervical ,,region4 a1 posterior median sulcus2 b1 posterior lateral sulcus2 c1 anterior median fissure2 d1 fasciculus gracilis2 e1 fasciculus cuneatus2 f1 white matter2 g1 gray matter2 h1 central canal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--,,section ,,of ,,spinal ,,cord1 ,,showing ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,a ,,pair ,,of ,,spinal ,,nerves4 a1 dorsal root2 b1 spinal ganglion2 c1 dorsal ramus2 d1 ventral ramus2 e1 ventral root4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--;,,caudal ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,spinal ,,cord4 ,a1 lumbar enlargement2 ,b1 cauda equina2 ,c1 filum terminale2 #e-g1 fifth to seventh lumbar nerves4 ,i-,,iii1 the three sacral nerves4 a1 dorsal roots2 b1 spinal ganglia2 c1 dorsal rami2 d1 ventral rami4 ,the pia mater invests the cord closely and contains some blood-vessels4 ,it is a delicate membrane which dips into the fissures and sulci of the cord and is connected to it by numerous strands of connective tissue that pass from it into the substance of the cord4 ,the nerves pierce it4 ,spinal ,nerves4--,from the spinal cord arise the spinal nerves4 ,of these there are about thirty-eight pairs in the cat4 ,eight are cervical1 thirteen thoracic1 seven lumbar1 three sacral1 and seven or eight caudal4 ,those leaving the cervical 7,fig4 #acc1 #e-h and ,i7 and lumbar 7,fig4 #acf7 enlargements are larger than the others4 ,the first cervical nerve leaves the vertebral canal through the atlantal foramen1 the second leaves between the arches of the atlas and axis1 while all the others leave the vertebral canal by way of the intervertebral foramina4 ,each nerve arises from the cord by a dorsal and a ventral root4 ,the dorsal root is chiefly sensory1 the ventral motor in character4 ,the dorsal root 7radix posterior7 7,figs4 #acc1 #ace1 and #acf1 a7 begins as a number 7twelve or more7 of separate nerve-bundles which emerge from the posterior lateral groove4 ,these roots lie nearly in a single plane and pass laterad1 converging to penetrate a ganglion1 the spinal ganglion 7b7 7or ganglion of the posterior root74 ,all the spinal ganglia except the first and second are situated in the intervertebral foramina or within the vertebral canal4 ,the first and second are situated among the muscles surrounding the place of exit of the nerves4 ,the ventral root 7radix anterior7 7,fig4 #ace1 e7 arises as a larger number of small fibre-bundles which do not lie in a single plane1 so that in a transverse section several rootlets may appear in a single section4 ,the rootlets converge to form a single mass which joins the dorsal root just as it emerges from the spinal ganglion4 ,the nerve formed by the junction of the ventral and dorsal roots is one of the spinal nerves4 ,the direction in which the nerves leave the cord varies4 ,in the cervical region 7,fig4 #acc7 and cranial part of the lumbar region it is nearly laterad2 at the cervical and lumbar enlargements it is laterocaudad4 ,the nerves in the sacral and caudal regions pass almost directly caudad to reach the intervertebral foramina and form thus a brush which surrounds the filum terminale 7,fig4 #acf1 ,c7 and is called the cauda equina 7,fig4 #acf1 ,b74 ,each spinal nerve immediately after leaving the intervertebral foramen divides into two branches1 a dorsal or posterior branch or ramus 7c71 and a ventral or anterior ramus 7d74 ,the dorsal ramus is in each case small 7except in the first and second cervical nerves71 and is distributed to the longitudinal muscles and integument of the back4 ,the ventral rami are larger and each is connected a short distance beyond its origin with the sympathetic system by a short ramus communicans or communicating branch4 ,each is then distributed to the integument and muscles of the ventral part of the body1 including the limbs4 ,the ventral rami which pass to the limbs are much larger than the others4 ,the ventral rami are further distinguished from the dorsal by the fact that they frequently unite with one another to form plexuses4 ,the peripheral distribution of the spinal nerves is described later4 #b4 ,the ,brain4 ,encephalon4--,the brain is that portion of the central nervous system that is included within the cranial cavity4 ,it is a direct continuation of the spinal cord1 and presents many of the same essential characters as the latter1 with great modifications in details4 ,the structure of the brain can best be understood if it be considered as a modified continuation of the spinal cord1 and the relation of the parts to the essential parts of the cord noted4 ,the spinal cord is a nearly straight tube1 with a central cavity and thick walls4 ,the brain is likewise tubular1 with the cavities enlarged or subdivided in places1 with the walls greatly thickened1 and with a number of bends and constrictions in the tube4 ,the relation of the structure of the brain to that of the spinal cord is most easily perceived by an examination of the brain of some lower vertebrate1 as the frog or shark1 and such an examination should be made before proceeding to the study of the more complicated brain of the cat4 ,in the following account of the brain of the cat all parts will be described as far as possible in relation with the tubular structure of the brain4 ,the brain will be considered as a hollow structure1 having central cavities1 and the solid portions will be brought into relation as parts of the roof1 sides1 or floor of the cavities4 ,the cavities of the brain1 forming a direct continuation of the central canal of the spinal cord1 are known as ventricles 7ventriculi74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--;,,dorsal ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,brain4 ,i1 olfactory bulbs2 ,,ii1 cerebral hemispheres2 ,,iii1 cerebellum2 ,,iv1 medulla4 a1 prsylvian sulcus2 b1 cruciate sulcus2 c1 sulcus ansatus2 d1 coronal sulcus2 e1 anterior sulcus2 f1 posterior sulcus2 g1 suprasylvian sulcus2 h1 separate parts of the lateral sulcus2 i1 end of splenial sulcus2 j1 vermis of cerebellum2 k1 hemispheres of cerebellum2 l1 roof of fourth ventricle2 m1 first cervical nerve4 #a1 orbital lobe 7or gyrus72 #b1 sigmoid gyrus2 #c1 anterior sylvian gyrus2 #d1 ectosylvian gyrus2 #e1 suprasylvian gyrus2 #f1 posterior sylvian gyrus2 #g1 parts of marginal gyrus2 #h1 gyrus compositus posterior4 ,in a general view of the cat's brain from the dorsal side 7,fig4 #acg7 four subdivisions are discernible4 ,at the caudal end is a small stalk-like portion 7,,iv7 which is clearly a slightly modified continuation of the spinal cord2 this is the myelencephalon or medulla oblongata4 ,just craniad of this1 rising high above it1 is an irregularly lobulated rounded portion1 the cerebellum 7,,iii74 ,this is produced as a thickening of the wall of the original tube2 it forms the dorsal part of the metencephalon4 ,these two portions of the brain have a common cavity1 lying within the medulla oblongata and ventrad of the cerebellum1 and formed by a widening of the cavity of the spinal cord2 it is known as the fourth ventricle4 ,craniad of the cerebellum1 separated from it by a deep transverse fissure1 are two very large portions1 the hemispheres of the cerebrum 7,,ii71 separated from each other by a deep longitudinal fissure2 they constitute together the telencephalon4 ,the hemispheres are produced by a sort of forking of the original central tube2--by outgrowths on the sides of the tube1 the central cavity extending into the outgrowths4 ,the two outgrowths extend dorsad1 as well as craniad and caudad from the original place of origin1 forming the larger part of the brain2 the extensions of the central cavity which they contain are known as the lateral ventricles4 ,finally1 in front of the two hemispheres are seen the two small olfactory bulbs 7,i7 which are mere extensions of the two hemispheres and contains cavities which are extensions of the lateral ventricles4 ,in a ventral view of the entire brain 7,fig4 #ach7 certain parts are visible which in the dorsal view are hidden by the large cerebral hemispheres4 ,at the caudal end is seen1 as before1 the medulla oblongata1 or myelencephalon1 and craniad of this1 on the ventral side of the cerebellum1 a broad transverse tract1 the pons 7i72 this1 like the cerebellum1 forms part of the metencephalon4 ,all this part of the brain formed by the myelencephalon and metencephalon lies caudad of 7behind7 the rest of the brain and is marked off from it by a great fissure2 it therefore receives as a whole the name hindbrain or rhombencephalon4 ,just craniad of the pons are seen two short diverging arm-like bands of fibres 7g71 enclosing a small triangular space between them4 ,these two arms with the space between them are all that is visible of a division of the brain which in dorsal view is completely covered by the backward projection of the cerebral hemispheres4 ,this is the midbrain or mesencephalon4 ,in this portion of the brain the continuation of the central cavity is a narrow canal which receives the name cerebral aqueduct 7aqueductus cerebri7 or aqueduct of ,sylvius4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--,,ventral ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,brain4 ,i-,,xii1 the twelve cranial nerves in order2 ,i1 olfactory bulb2 ,,ii1 ,n4 opticus2 ,,iii1 ,n4 oculomotorius2 ,,iv1 ,n4 trochlearis2 ,v1 ,n4 trigeminus 7#a1 mandibular nerve2 #b1 maxillary nerve2 #c1 ophthalmic nerve2 #d1 sensory root72 ,,vi1 ,n4 abducens2 ,,vii1 ,n4 facialis2 ,,viii1 ,n4 acusticus2 ,,ix1 ,n4 glossopharyngeus2 ,x1 ,n4 vagus2 ,,xi1 ,n4 accessorius2 ,,xii1 ,n4 hypoglossus4 a1 tractus olfactorius2 b1 substantia perforata anterior2 c1 optic chiasma2 d1 infundibulum2 e1 hypophysis2 f1 lobus pyriformis1 or tractus postrhinalis2 g1 pedunculi cerebri2 h1 substantia perforata posterior2 i1 pons2 j1 sulcus basilaris of pons2 k1 semilunar 7or ,gasserian7 ganglion2 l1 trapezium2 m1 area ovalis2 n1 area elliptica2 o1 pyramidal tracts2 p1 anterior or ventral fissure2 q1 foramen ccum2 r1 anterior lateral sulcus2 s1 first cervical nerve4 ,just craniad of the midbrain is a small rather irregular area1 bounded craniad by the band-like optic chiasma 7c71 from which arise the optic nerves 7,,ii71 and showing caudad of this band a rounded irregular projection 7e74 ,this is a fourth division of the brain which is likewise covered dorsad by the hemispheres2 it is the 'tween-brain or diencephalon4 ,its cavity is known as the third ventricle4 ,just craniad of the 'tween-brain1 in the median line1 is a deep fissure1 showing that here in reality is the termination of the original tube1 the further extension craniad being due to the pushing forward of the lateral outgrowths1 or cerebral hemispheres1 which extend in ventral view a considerable distance further craniad4 ,the hemispheres lie also caudad1 laterad1 and dorsad of the midbrain and 'tween-brain1 so that these parts are almost enveloped by the hemispheres4 ,the hemispheres and 'tween-brain are sometimes taken together as forming a single portion1 the forebrain or prosencephalon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,brain ,,from ,,above4 ,,fig4 #adj4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,brain ,,from ,,the ,,side4 #a1 myelencephalon2 #b1 metencephalon2 #c1 mesencephalon2 #d1 diencephalon2 #e1 telencephalon4 a1 canal of the spinal cord2 b1 fourth ventricle2 c1 cerebral aqueduct 7aqueduct of ,sylvius72 d1 third ventricle2 e1 lateral ventricle2 f1 interventricular foramen 7or foramen of ,monroe72 g1 lamina terminalis2 h1 olfactory bulb4 ,there are thus altogether five principal subdivisions of the brain1 each enclosing a portion of the central cavity4 ,these are the myelencephalon1 the metencephalon 7these two enclosing the fourth ventricle71 the mesencephalon 7enclosing the cerebral aqueduct71 the diencephalon 7enclosing the third ventricle71 and the two cerebral hemispheres1 constituting together the telencephalon1 and enclosing the two lateral ventricles4 ,a plan of the brain1 considered as a tube enclosing cavities1 is given in ,figs4 #aci and #adj4 ,fig4 #aci shows the plan considered as viewed from the dorsal side1 ,fig4 #adj in a lateral view4 ,these figures are of course pure diagrams1 showing only what may be called the plan of structure1 and omitting all details4 ,in the actual conditions many important modifications even of the main features of the plan are met with4 ,in the following description the parts of the brain will be taken up in this order3 ,a4 ,,rhombencephalon 7primitive hindbrain74 #a4 ,myelencephalon4 #b4 ,metencephalon4 ,b4 ,,mesencephalon 7primitive midbrain74 #c4 ,mesencephalon4 ,c4 ,,prosencephalon 7primitive forebrain74 #d4 ,diencephalon4 #e4 ,telencephalon4 ,a4 ,,rhombencephalon4 #a4 ,myelencephalon4--,the myelencephalon or medulla oblongata is transitional between the spinal cord and the brain4 ,it has in general the structural peculiarities of the cord1 but these undergo in it a gradual transformation into the arrangements characteristic of the brain4 ,it has the form of a flattened and truncated cone1 which widens craniad and is limited at the cranial end by the pons 7,fig4 #ach1 i7 ventrally and laterally2 by the cerebellum 7,fig4 #acg1 ,,iii7 dorsally4 ,the cranial portion of its dorsal surface is overhung by the cerebellum4 ,the points of origin of the roots of the first pair of cervical nerves 7,fig4 #ach1 s7 may be taken as indicating the boundary between the spinal cord and the medulla oblongata2 there is no other external marking to show the limits of the two4 ,the central canal of that part of the medulla which is overhung by the cerebellum is greatly widened 7,fig4 #ada1 h74 ,the cavity thus formed is flattened and triangular1 with the apex of the triangle caudad1 and is the caudal part of the fourth ventricle 7,fig4 #ada1 h74 ,the roof is very thin 7,fig4 #adc1 n7 and is intimately connected with the pia mater1 so that in removing the latter the thin roof of the fourth ventricle is removed with it and the cavity of the fourth ventricle is left exposed4 ,the thin roof of the fourth ventricle is known as the velum medullare posterius 7,fig4 #adc1 n74 ,the ventral 7anterior7 fissure 7,fig4 #ach1 p7 of the cord passes onto the medulla oblongata and ends at the pons 7i71 its end being slightly deeper and forming what is known as the foramen ccum 7q74 ,the dorsal 7posterior7 sulcus 7,fig4 #ada1 a7 is well marked2 it ends at the caudal boundary of the fourth ventricle 7h74 ,the anterior lateral sulcus 7,fig4 #ach1 r7 may be traced craniad from the origin of the ventral roots of the first cervical nerves 7s71 along the lateral border of the area elliptica 7n71 then curving mediad to the lateral border of the pyramis 7o71 and finally reaching the pons 7i74 ,its position is marked by the origin of the roots of the hypoglossal nerve 7,,xii74 ,the posterior lateral sulcus 7,fig4 #ada1 b71 marked on the spinal cord by the origin of the dorsal nerve-roots1 curves laterad at the sides of the fourth ventricle 7h7 owing to the increasing width of the latter1 and ends at an elevated area of oblique fibres1 the area ovalis 7f74 ,the columns or funiculi bounded by the longitudinal fissures present the following peculiarities3 ,the anterior white funiculus of the cord is replaced in the medulla by the pyramidal tracts 7pyramides7 7,fig4 #ach1 o74 ,the pyramidal tracts are formed by fibres which emerge from beneath the pons and pass caudad to disappear just craniad of the level of the first cervical nerve 7s74 ,the pyramidal tracts are bounded medially by the anterior median fissure 7p71 but laterally each is separated from the anterior lateral sulcus 7r7 over its caudal part by an elongated area elliptica 7n71 the human homologue of which is uncertain4 ,it perhaps represents the oliva4 ,laterad of the cranial portion of the pyramids is an irregular area known as the trapezium 7l7 which abuts caudad on the area elliptica 7n7 and the area ovalis 7m74 ,the area ovalis 7,fig4 #ach1 m2 ,fig4 #ada1 f7 7or zonula ,arnoldi7 is abroad band of oblique fibres which passes from the lateral side of the area elliptica craniodorsad to disappear under the cerebellum4 ,the posterior white funiculus was divided in the cervical region into two1 the fasciculus gracilis 7column of ,goll7 and the fasciculus cuneatus 7column of ,burdach74 ,the fasciculus gracilis 7,fig4 #ada1 c7 extends to the caudal end of the fourth ventricle 7h7 and ends there in an expansion1 the clava 7d71 which forms the posterior boundary of the fourth ventricle4 ,the fasciculus cuneatus 7e7 passes laterad on account of the width of the fourth ventricle and appears to end at the area ovalis 7f71 but it may be seen passing beneath the area ovalis1 emerging at its cranial border and turning dorsad to enter the cerebellum4 ,it forms the side walls of a part of the shallow fourth ventricle4 ,the lateral funiculi are divided by longitudinal furrows into three divisions4 ,the dorsal one of these is the fasciculus cuneatus lateralis or column of ,rolando 7,fig4 #ada1 g74 ,it accompanies the fasciculus cuneatus into the cerebellum4 ,the entire mass formed by the fasciculus gracilis1 the fasciculus cuneatus medialis1 and fasciculus cuneatus lateralis is known as the corpus restiforme1 and since its fibres pass into the cerebellum it is sometimes known as the pedunculus cerebelli 7or crus cerebelli ad medullam74 ,the following cranial nerves arise from the medulla oblongata 7,fig4 #ach74 ,the twelfth nerve 7,,xii7 7,n4 hypoglossus7 arises by ten or fifteen rootlets from the ventral surface of the medulla oblongata in the anterior lateral fissure 7r7 opposite the caudal portion of the area elliptica 7n74 ,the eleventh cranial nerve 7,,xi7 7,n4 accessorius7 arises by numerous rootlets from the lateral surface of the medulla oblongata and of the spinal cord as far caudad as the sixth or seventh cervical nerve4 ,these rootlets join to form a nerve which enters the cranium through the foramen magnum and is closely associated at its point of exit with the glossopharyngeal 7,,ix7 and vagus 7,x7 nerves4 ,the line of origin on the medulla passes between the dorsal and ventral roots of the cervical nerves and is along the middle of the lateral white funiculi4 ,the tenth cranial nerve 7,x7 7,n4 vagus7 arises by about eighteen very delicate rootlets from the surface of the area ovalis4 ,the rootlets are divided into a dorsal and a ventral series4 ,the dorsal series 7about twelve7 arise in the groove which separates the fasciculus cuneatus medialis from the fasciculus cuneatus lateralis4 ,the ventral series arise somewhat ventrad of this groove4 ,these rootlets are to be distinguished from those of the ninth nerve by their smaller size4 ,the ninth cranial nerve 7,,ix7 7,n4 glossopharyngeus7 arises from the area ovalis from a line craniad of the dorsal line of origin of the vagus roots 7,x7 and between these and those of the auditory 7,,viii74 ,it arises by a number of rootlets which are larger than those of the vagus 7,x71 with which this nerve is closely associated4 ,the eighth cranial nerve 7,,viii7 7,n4 acusticus7 appears at the lateral end of the trapezium 7l74 ,it arises from an elevation 7,fig4 #ada1 i7 which is continued dorsomediad along the cranial border of the area ovalis4 ,the seventh cranial nerve 7,,vii7 7,n4 facialis7 leaves the lateral border of the trapezium 7l7 near its cranial edge1 between the fifth and eighth nerves4 ,it is much smaller than the eighth nerve4 ,the sixth cranial nerve 7,,vi7 7,n4 abducens7 arises by about six bundles from the groove between the pyramids and the trapezii and passes craniad4 #b4 ,metencephalon4--,the metencephalon includes the pons and the cerebellum4 ,the pons 7,fig4 #ach1 i7 is a mass of transverse fibres which forms the ventral and cranial part of the primitive hindbrain4 ,it is a modification of the latter brought about by the development of the cerebellum1 and the degree of its development is in direct ratio to that of the cerebellar and cerebral hemispheres4 ,the pons forms a projecting mass of fibres which is marked by a median longitudinal groove1 the sulcus basilaris 7j71 which indicates the course of the basilar artery 7,fig4 #aba1 c74 ,laterad the fibres of the pons converge somewhat and turning dorsad disappear in the cerebellum1 forming the brachia pontis 7,fig4 #ada1 l74 ,the fifth cranial nerve 7,fig4 #ach1 ,v7 7,n4 trigeminus7 arises by two roots from the caudal border of the pons1 near the lateral end4 ,the ventral root 7#d7 is small2 the dorsal one is much larger and soon forms the large semilunar ganglion 7k7 from which three branches 7#a1 #b1 and #c7 diverge4 ,the ventral root 7#d7 joins one of these branches 7#a74 ,the cerebellum 7,fig4 #acg1 ,,iii7 is formed by an increase in size of the cranial portion of the primitive hindbrain4 ,this increase has affected principally the surface of the roof1 so that as the cerebellum has grown it has been thrown into many folds1 the exact form of which varies in different specimens4 ,the cerebellum has at the same time increased in size and has thus extended laterad as well as caudad and craniad4 ,it thus touches the cerebrum in front 7separated from it by the tentorium7 and aids it in concealing the midbrain and 'tween-brain in dorsal view1 while caudad in the same view it conceals the greater part of the medulla4 ,the connections of the cerebellum with adjacent parts of the brain are also overhung and concealed4 ,the whole surface of the cerebellum is thrown up into numerous folds or gyri1 separated from one another by deep fissures or sulci1 which appear at first to render the surface wholly irregular4 ,the entire mass is1 however1 divisible into a central portion1 which from its resemblance to a segmented worm is called the vermis 7j7 7its cranial part is the superior vermis1 and its caudal part the inferior vermis71 and into lateral portions1 the hemispheres 7k74 ,the vermis 7j7 occupies a median longitudinal position1 and its gyri and sulci are in the main transverse4 ,it is not directly connected with adjacent parts1 and its ventral surface extends farther caudad and craniad than that of the hemispheres4 ,the ventral part of the superior vermis is fitted against the posterior corpora quadrigemina4 ,the hemispheres 7k7 may again be subdivided into groups of gyri which have received special names4 ,one of these1 the so-called appendicular lobe1 fits into the appendicular fossa of the petrous bone4 ,the cerebellum is connected to the adjacent parts by three tracts of fibres1 sometimes known as crura cerebelli4 ,the tract connecting it with the medulla oblongata is the corpus restiforme2 that connecting it with the pons is the brachium pontis 7,fig4 #ada1 l72 these have been described4 ,a third tract passes craniad to the corpora quadrigemina 7,fig4 #ada1 p and q72 this is the brachium conjunctivum 7,fig4 #ada1 k74 ,the cerebellum is composed of white and gray matter1 the latter on the surface 7,fig4 #adc1 ,,iii74 ,the folds of its surface present thus a contrivance for increasing the amount of gray matter4 ,the white matter forms a central mass from which tracts extend into the folds4 ,the whole mass of white matter has thus in section 7more particularly in a longitudinal section of the vermis7 the appearance of a tree1 whence the name arbor vit 7,fig4 #adc74 ,the fourth ventricle 7,fig4 #ada1 h2 ,fig4 #adc1 m7 is the cavity of the original hindbrain4 ,it begins caudad at the clava 7,fig4 #ada1 d7 as a widening and continuation of the central canal of the spinal cord and extends craniad1 becoming wider and passing ventrad of the cerebellum4 ,it becomes narrower craniad and ends at the posterior corpora quadrigemina 7p71 where it becomes continuous with the aqueductus cerebri 7,fig4 #ada1 o2 ,fig4 #adc1 j74 ,the cavity is shallow and is encroached upon dorsally by the vermis of the cerebellum 7,fig4 #adc74 ,the floor of the cavity is known as the fossa rhomboidea 7,fig4 #ada1 h74 ,it is formed by the continuation of the gray matter which surrounds the central canal of the cord4 ,it is marked by a median longitudinal groove4 ,at its widest part are seen two considerable tracts of white fibres 7stri medullares7 which pass from near the median line laterad and extend into the auditory 7eighth7 nerves4 ,the floor caudad and craniad of these stri is marked by a number of elevations and depressions4 ,similarly situated elevations in the human brain differ from one another slightly in color1 are made up of gray matter1 and are the centres of origin of most of the cranial nerves4 ,their homologues in the cat appear not to have been determined4 ,the side walls of the fourth ventricle 7,fig4 #ada7 are formed by the following in order1 beginning caudad3 the clava 7d71 the corpus restiforme1 brachium pontis 7l71 brachium conjunctivum 7k71 and caudal corpora quadrigemina 7p7 7colliculi inferiores74 ,the roof 7,fig4 #adc7 is formed caudad by a thin layer of non-nervous matter which is closely associated with the pia mater4 ,this thin layer is known as the velum medullare posterius 7n74 ,it connects the dorsal surface of the medulla with the caudal border of the cerebellum4 ,the pia mater covering this portion of the roof is vascular and is folded in toward the floor of the ventricle1 forming the choroid plexus of the fourth ventricle4 ,in the middle the roof of the fourth ventricle is the cerebellum1 while craniad the roof is the velum medullare anterius 7,fig4 #adc1 l74 ,this is a thin layer just craniad of the cerebellum1 connecting it with the corpora quadrigemina1 and attached laterally to the brachia conjunctiva4 ,here the fourth ventricle narrows craniad and becomes continuous with the slender aqueductus cerebri 7,fig4 #adc1 j7 7aqueduct of ,sylvius74 ,the narrowed portion of the brain is frequently known as the isthmus rhombencephali4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--;,,dorsal ,,surface ,,of ,,myelencephalon1 ,,mesencephalon1 ,,and ,,diencephalon4 ,the cerebellum and the greater part of the cerebral hemispheres have been removed4 a1 posterior sulcus of cord2 b1 posterior lateral sulcus2 c1 fasciculus gracilis2 d1 clava2 e1 fasciculus cuneatus2 f1 area ovalis2 g1 fasciculus cuneatus lateralis2 h1 fossa rhomboidea or floor of fourth ventricle2 i1 projection formed by origin of auditory nerve2 j1 facial nerve2 k1 cut end of brachium conjunctivum2 l1 cut end of brachium pontis 7l1 brachium pontis72 m1 velum medullare anterius2 n1 fourth nerve2 o1 depression marking caudal end of aqueductus cerebri 7aqueduct of ,sylvius72 p1 caudal corpora quadrigemina 7colliculi posteriores72 q1 cranial corpora quadrigemina 7colliculi anteriores72 r1 brachium quadrigeminum inferius2 s1 corpus geniculatum mediale2 t1 thalamus2 u1 stri medullares2 v1 third ventricle2 w1 pulvinar2 x1 corpus geniculatum laterale2 y1 corpus striatum2 z1 outlines of olfactory bulbs4 #a1 boundary between hemispheres and 'tween-brain2 #b1 pineal body4 ,the fourth cranial nerve 7,fig4 #ada1 n2 ,fig4 #ach1 ,,iv7 7,n4 trochlearis7 arises from the brain at the craniolateral angle of the velum medullare anterius4 ,b4 ,,mesencephalon4 #c4 ,mesencephalon4--,the mesencephalon or midbrain includes the corpora quadrigemina 7,fig4 #ada7 and the pedunculi cerebri 7,fig4 #adb74 ,in the primary midbrain there is a pronounced thickening of the walls accompanied by a reduction of the central canal4 ,the midbrain does not thus become very large and is concealed in the dorsal view by the cerebellum and cerebrum1 though its floor appears in the ventral view just craniad of the pons 7,fig4 #ach1 g74 ,its narrow canal is the aqueductus cerebri 7aqueduct of ,sylvius7 7,fig4 #adc1 j74 ,its roof forms the corpora quadrigemina1 and its floor the pedunculi cerebri4 ,in a dorsal view 7,fig4 #ada7 the roof is seen to be marked by two pairs of elevations1 the corpora quadrigemina 7p and q74 ,the cranial pair 7q7 7known as the colliculi superiores7 are circular in outline1 surrounded on all sides except the cranial one by a deep groove4 ,from the cranial side a tract of fibres 7brachium quadrigeminum superius1 or arm of the cranial corpus7 extends craniad and disappears beneath the thalamus 7t74 ,between the anterior or cranial corpora quadrigemina lies the pineal body or epiphysis 7corpus pineale7 7,fig4 #adc1 y2 ,fig4 #ada1 #b71 a portion of the roof of the 'tween-brain4 ,the caudal corpora 7,fig4 #ada1 p7 are larger than the cranial ones1 and ovoid in shape with the long axis vertical4 ,they are united in the median line1 and the velum medullare anterius 7m7 stretches between their caudal borders4 ,the brachium of the caudal corpus quadrigeminum 7brachium quadrigeminum inferius7 7r7 extends craniad and disappears beneath a considerable elevation1 the corpus geniculatum mediale 7s74 ,crossing this brachium is seen a small tract of fibres which extends ventrad1 crosses the pedunculus cerebri1 and reaches the medial border of the latter4 ,it is the tractus transversus peduncularis 7,fig4 #adb1 b74 ,ventrad of the caudal corpus quadrigeminum is seen a triangular area of oblique fibres which corresponds in position to the human lemniscus4 ,the pedunculi cerebri 7peduncles of the cerebrum7 form the ventral part of the midbrain4 ,they appear in a ventral view of the entire brain 7,fig4 #ach7 as two broad tracts of fibres 7g7 emerging from beneath the pons and diverging from one another as they pass craniad1 finally disappearing beneath the cerebral hemispheres4 ,each is made up of many fibre-bundles1 which are apparent in surface view 7,fig4 #adb74 ,the peduncles are separated by a small triangular space1 which is marked by a median longitudinal sulcus4 ,in this space1 just caudad of the mammillary bodies1 is a small area through which a number of blood-vessels pass into the brain4 ,this is known as the posterior perforated area 7or substance7 7,fig4 #adb1 j74 ,the cerebral peduncles 7a7 are crossed by the tractus transversus peduncularis 7b7 7see above74 ,the third cranial nerve 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,iii7 7,n4 oculomotorius7 leaves the brain at the medial border of the cerebral peduncle 7g71 just caudad of the tractus transversus peduncularis4 ,the aqueductus cerebri 7,fig4 #adc1 j2 ,fig4 #aec1 d7 7or aqueduct of ,sylvius7 is the continuation craniad of the fourth ventricle4 ,it is a narrow passage1 one or two millimeters in diameter1 lying dorsad of the pedunculi cerebri and ventrad of the corpora quadrigemina4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--,,ventral ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,midbrain ,,and ',,tween-,,brain1 ,,with ,,the ,,pons4 a1 pedunculi cerebri2 b1 tractus transversus peduncularis2 c1 corpus geniculatum mediale2 d1 optic tract2 e1 optic chiasma2 f1 optic nerve2 g1 mammillary bodies2 h1 tuber cinereum2 i1 opening for infundibulum 7which has been removed72 j1 posterior perforated area2 k1 pons4 ,,iii1 ,v1 ,,vii1 ,,viii1 third1 fifth1 seventh1 and eighth cranial nerves4 ,c4 ,,prosencephalon4--,the prosencephalon or primitive forebrain includes the diencephalon or 'tween-brain and the telencephalon or cerebral hemispheres4 #d4 ,diencephalon4--,the diencephalon or 'tween-brain includes the thalami and the other parts bounding the third ventricle4 ,the diencephalon is seen in entire brains only in ventral view 7,fig4 #ach1 c1 d1 e1 etc47 ,the diencephalon may be considered as forming almost or quite the most cranial portion of the median nervous tube1--the cranial wall of the third ventricle 7the lamina terminalis7 7,fig4 #adc1 d71 ending in the median line in the deep fissure between the hemispheres of the cerebrum4 ,parts of the brain which extend farther craniad than this are lateral portions1 due to the forward growth of the lateral hemispheres4 ,the two hemispheres of the cerebrum may be considered as lateral outgrowths of the central 'tween-brain2 these outgrowths have extended dorsad1 laterad1 craniad1 and caudad1 so as to cover almost completely the 'tween-brain4 ,in early stages the cerebral hemispheres are projections from the cranial end of the 'tween-brain1 so that the plane of junction was nearly transverse1 the cranial end of the 'tween-brain joining the caudal end of the hemispheres4 ,with the increasing size and backward growth of the latter1 the attachment to the 'tween-brain has been shifted from a cranial to nearly a lateral position1 and at the same time the originally lateral surface of the 'tween-brain has become nearly caudal4 ,this is shown in ,fig4 #ada1 the deep fissure at #a marking the line of attachment between the 'tween-brain and the hemispheres4 ,the dorsoventral plane of junction of 'tween-brain and hemispheres is 7as ,fig4 #ada shows7 not wholly lateral1 but oblique1 passing from its cranial end near the middle line caudolaterad4 ,a second peculiarity of the 'tween-brain lies in the thinness of its roof4 ,the roof is exceedingly thin and is so intimately connected with the pia mater that they cannot be removed separately4 ,the ventral thick floor of the 'tween-brain is directly continuous with the similar floor of the cerebrum2 but where the roof of the 'tween-brain joins the roof of the cerebrum along the oblique plane already indicated1 the roof is very thin and is intimately connected to the pia mater1 and is at the same time folded into the lateral ventricles to form1 together with the pia mater1 the choroid plexuses of the lateral ventricles 7,fig4 #adh1 e74 ,when the pia mater is removed the thin roof of the brain along the line of junction of the 'tween-brain and the cerebrum is brought away and there appears to be a direct communication between lateral ventricles and the exterior4 ,we may now take up the parts of the diencephalon in detail4 a4 ,thalamus 7,fig4 #ada1 t74--,the two thalami are large oblique rounded ridges1 forming the sides of the 'tween-brain4 ,they lie just craniad of the cranial corpora quadrigemina 7q71 but separated from them by a broad groove1 and are completely covered by the caudally projecting part of the cerebral hemispheres4 ,the medial larger end of each thalamus is near the middle line2 thence the thalamus extends caudolaterad1 and rises at its lateral extremity into a sharply rounded projection1 the corpus geniculatum laterale 7x74 ,from this projection the thalamus is continued ventrad and then craniomediad as a large band of fibres1 the optic tract 7tractus opticus7 7,fig4 #adb1 d71 which extends to the optic chiasma 7e71 where it passes into the optic nerves 7f74 ,on the caudal border of the thalamus1 near the median line1 is a very faint projection1 the pulvinar 7,fig4 #ada1 w72 this lies just craniad of the lateral border of the cranial corpus quadrigeminum 7q74 ,just ventrad of the corpus geniculatum laterale 7x7 is the prominent rounded corpus geniculatum mediale 7s72 this is connected by a prominent ridge1 the brachium quadrigeminum inferius 7r71 with the caudal corpus quadrigeminum 7p74 ,in a similar manner the brachium quadrigeminum superius passes from the cranial corpus quadrigeminum 7q7 into the thalamus itself4 ,between the two thalami there exists a groove1 the sulcus hypothalamicus4 ,over this groove lies the roof of the third ventricle1 forming the choroid plexus of the third ventricle 7,fig4 #adc1 w74 ,the medial surface of the two thalami are flat and extend directly ventrad1 forming part of the lateral boundary of the third ventricle 7,fig4 #adc1 h74 ,the two medial surfaces meet over a considerable area across the narrow cavity of the third ventricle1 and unite1 forming the massa intermedia 7,fig4 #adc1 f7 or intermediate mass of the thalamus 78middle commissure074 ,this connection of the thalami of the two sides is thus not a primitive one1 forming no part of the roof or floor of the central cavity1 but is a secondary connection due to a growing together of a part of the two sides of the ventricle across its cavity4 ,along the dorsal edge of the medial border of each thalamus passes a distinct white strand1 the stria medullaris 7,fig4 #ada1 u72 the two stri meet in an arch caudad1 lying beneath the pineal body 7#b74 ,the thalamus is separated craniolaterad by a groove 7#a7 from the corpus striatum 7y71 on the floor of the cerebral hemisphere4 b4 ,the roof of the third ventricle is thin and united with the pia mater1 as already stated4 ,the pia mater bears many blood-vessels1 and the two are folded into the groove between the optic thalami1 forming the lamina chorioidea epithelialis1 or choroid plexus of the third ventricle 7,fig4 #adc1 w74 ,the roof is attached to the dorsomedial borders of the thalami and becomes continuous with the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles 7,fig4 #adh1 e7 at the craniolateral borders of the thalami4 ,the pineal body 7corpus pineale7 or epiphysis 7,fig4 #ada1 #b2 ,fig4 #adc1 y7 is a small conical body which is formed as an outgrowth of the caudal part of the roof of the third ventricle4 ,it lies on the roof of the brain between the two cranial corpora quadrigemina 7,fig4 #ada1 q74 ,it is hollow1 containing an extension of the third ventricle4 ,from its craniolateral angles two white strands1 the habenul1 extend into the stri medullares 7,fig4 #ada1 u7 of the thalami4 ,just ventrad of the pineal body is a transverse band of white fibres1 lying in the caudal part of the roof of the third ventricle4 ,this interconnects the two thalami1 and forms the posterior commissure 7,fig4 #adc1 z7 7commissura posterior74 ,from this commissure a thin sheet of tissue extends to the pineal body4 c4 ,the floor of the third ventricle appears in a ventral view of the brain 7,fig4 #ach1 ,fig4 #adb7 as a somewhat diamond-shaped space craniad of the pedunculi cerebri 7,fig4 #adb1 a7 and bounded along its cranial margin by the optic tracts 7,fig4 #adb1 d74 ,the optic tracts come from the thalami1 as already described2 they converge and unite to form the optic chiasma 7,fig4 #adb1 e71 from which the optic nerves 7f7 diverge4 ,immediately caudad of the optic chiasma lies a considerable rounded gray elevation1 the tuber cinereum 7,fig4 #adb1 h74 ,this bears on its ventral surface in the natural condition the infundibulum 7,fig4 #ach1 d7 with the hypophysis 7,fig4 #ach1 e72 in cases where the two latter structures have been removed 7,fig4 #adb7 the tuber cinereum 7h7 bears a small longitudinal opening 7i7 for attachment of the infundibulum4 ,the infundibulum 7,fig4 #ach1 d7 is a hollow extension of the floor of the third ventricle1 and is attached to the middle of the ventral surface of the tuber cinereum4 ,it bears at its ventral end the hypophysis 7pituitary body7 7,fig4 #ach1 e71 a vascular non-nervous body of unknown function4 ,the hypophysis is lodged in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone4 ,at its caudal border the tuber cinereum bears two white elevations1 the mammillary bodies 7corpora mammillaria7 7,fig4 #adb1 g74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--,,longitudinal ,,median ,,section ,,of ,,brain4 ,i1 olfactory bulb2 ,,ii1 cerebrum2 ,,iii1 section of cerebellum1 showing 8arbor vit02 ,,iv1 medulla oblongata4 a1 tractus olfactorius2 b1 substantia perforata anterior2 c1 anterior commissure2 d1 lamina terminalis2 e1 optic chiasma2 f1 massa intermedia of thalamus2 g1 infundibulum2 g1 hypophysis2 h1 third ventricle2 i1 mammillary body2 j1 aqueductus cerebri 7or aqueduct of ,sylvius72 k1 pons2 l1 velum medullare anterius2 m1 fourth ventricle2 n1 velum medullare posterius2 o1 continuation of canal of spinal cord2 p1 corpus callosum 7body72 q1 genu of corpus callosum2 r1 rostrum2 s1 splenium2 t1 septum pellucidum2 u1 fornix2 v1 pillars of fornix2 w1 choroid plexus of third ventricle2 x1 stria medullaris2 y1 corpus pineale2 z1 cranial corpus quadrigeminum2 z1 posterior commissure4 #a1 sulcus falcialis2 #b1 sulcus cruciatus2 #c1 sulcus splenialis2 #d1 sulcus marginalis2 #e1 sulcus supracallosalis 7or callosalis74 ,the third ventricle 7,fig4 #adc1 h2 ,fig4 #ada1 v7 is a very narrow slit-like space1 of considerable extent dorsoventrally1 but less than a millimeter in width2 it lies between the medial ends of the thalami 7,fig4 #ada71 and extends ventrad into the tuber cinereum1 and thence into the infundibulum 7,fig4 #adc1 g74 ,dorsad it extends into the corpus pineale 7,fig4 #adc1 y74 ,the third ventricle communicates caudally near its dorsal border with the aqueductus cerebri 7j72 craniolaterally with the lateral ventricles1 through the interventricular foramen 7foramen of ,monroe74 ,its cranial boundary forms in the middle line a thin plate1 the lamina terminalis 7d71 which is1 morphologically1 the cranial termination of the cerebrospinal axis2 it lies at the bottom of the deep fissure between the cerebral hemispheres4 ,at the dorsal border of the lamina terminalis is a strong transverse band of fibres connecting the two sides of the brain2 this is the anterior commissure 7c74 ,the cavity of the third ventricle is much encroached upon by the meeting and secondary union of the two thalami across the middle line1 forming the massa intermedia 7f74 ,the boundaries of the third ventricle1 in order1 are as follows1 beginning dorsocraniad of the communication with the aqueductus cerebri3 the posterior commissure 7,fig4 #adc1 z71 the pineal body 7y71 the choroid plexus of the third ventricle 7w71 the columns of the fornix 7v71 the anterior commissure 7c71 the lamina terminalis 7d71 the tuber cinereum with the infundibulum 7g71 the substantia perforata posterior1 and the midbrain4 ,the lateral boundaries are formed by the thalami 7,fig4 #ada1 t74 #e4 ,telencephalon4--,the telencephalon includes the two cerebral hemispheres4 ,the name cerebrum is also applied to this portion of the brain2 frequently1 however1 the name cerebrum is used as signifying the entire mass of the brain craniad of the rhombencephalon1--therefore including mesencephalon1 diencephalon1 and telencephalon4 ,the term will here be used as synonymous with telencephalon4 ,the cerebral hemispheres arise as two lateral outgrowths from the cranial end of the primitive forebrain4 ,they have undergone great increase in size in the course of evolution1 so as to form the larger part of the brain2 at the same time important modifications of structure have taken place4 ,in the original condition the medial faces of the two hemispheres are not connected1 the two being separate outgrowths of the 'tween-brain1 and connected only through the latter4 ,but secondary connections have been formed across the fissure between the two hemispheres1 resulting in the production of the corpus callosum 7,fig4 #adc1 p2 ,fig4 #adg2 ,figs4 #adi-aeb1 a71 a broad transverse band of white fibres connecting the two hemispheres dorsad of the 'tween-brain4 ,ventrad of the corpus callosum another secondary union has resulted in the production of the fornix 7,fig4 #adc1 u74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4--,,lateral ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,brain4 a1 olfactory bulb2 b1 cerebral hemisphere2 c1 cerebellum2 d1 medulla oblongata2 e1 tractus olfactorius2 f1 lobus pyriformis or tractus postrhinalis2 g1 pons2 h1 trapezium2 i1 pyramid2 j1 area elliptica2 k1 area ovalis4 ,,ii1 ,n4 opticus2 ,v1 ,n4 trigeminus2 ,,vii1 ,n4 facialis2 ,,viii1 ,n4 acusticus2 ,,ix1 ,n4 glossopharyngeus2 ,x1 ,n4 vagus2 ,,xi1 ,n4 accessorius4 #a4 sulcus prsylvius2 #b1 sulcus cruciatus2 #c1 sulcus ansatus2 #d1 sulcus lateralis2 #e1 sulcus suprasylvius2 #f1 sulcus anterior2 #g1 sulcus posterior2 #h1 sulcus rhinalis2 #i4 fissura ,sylvii2 #aj4 sulcus rhinalis posterior4 ,external ,features4--,with increase in size the mass of the cerebrum shows externally a tendency to divide into three lobes1 one craniad1 the frontal 7,fig4 #ade1 ,a72 one caudoventrad1 the temporal 7,b72 and one caudodorsad1 the occipital 7,c74 ,the two latter are not distinctly marked off from one another4 ,the limit between the temporal and frontal lobes is marked by a short deep fissure1 the lateral fissure 7fissura cerebri lateralis71 or fissure of ,sylvius 7,fig4 #add1 #i2 ,fig4 #ade1 a74 ,each lobe is thrown up into elevations or gyri1 which are separated by grooves or sulci2 these are described below4 ,the homology of the cerebral gyri and sulci of the cat with those of man is in most cases uncertain4 ,the sulci and gyri of the cerebral hemispheres may be described briefly in their main features as follows3 ,on the lateral surface of the hemisphere 7,fig4 #ade7 the lateral fissure 7fissura cerebri lateralis71 or fissure of ,sylvius1 separating temporal and frontal lobes1 forms the most convenient point of departure for an understanding of the fissures4 ,the fissure of ,sylvius is short but deep1 and is formed early during development4 ,in man it covers an area1 the insula1 at its bottom1 which may be seen by separating the sides of the fissure4 ,in the cat the insula is rudimentary and can be demonstrated only with difficulty4 ,the lateral surface of the hemisphere is marked by fissures which form three concentric arches 7b-c1 d1 and e71 irregular and incomplete1 about the fissure of ,sylvius4 ,these arches all open ventrad4 ,the first arch 7b-c7 7that next to the fissure of ,sylvius7 lacks the central part1 the keystone1 so that a complete arch is not formed1 but only the two sides of the arch1 as two separate sulci 7b and c74 ,the one of these craniad of the fissure of ,sylvius is the sulcus anterior 7b72 the other is the sulcus posterior 7c74 ,in the dog this arch is usually complete and the sulcus forming it is frequently known as the ectosylvian sulcus 7sulcus ectosylvius74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,sulci ,,and ,,gyri ,,on ,,the ,,lateral ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,hemisphere4 ,a1 frontal lobe2 ,b1 temporal lobe2 ,c1 occipital lobe4 a1 lateral fissure or fissure of ,sylvius2 b1 sulcus anterior2 c1 sulcus posterior 7the broken line connecting the ends of a and b serves to show how the first arch is completed to form the ectosylvian sulcus1 as in the dog72 d1 sulcus suprasylvius2 e1 sulcus lateralis2 f1 sulcus cruciatus2 g1 sulcus coronalis2 h1 sulcus ansatus2 i1 sulcus rhinalis2 j1 sulcus prsylvius2 k1 sulcus rhinalis posterior4 #a1 anterior ,sylvian gyrus2 #b1 posterior ,sylvian gyrus2 #c1 gyrus ectosylvius2 #d1 gyrus suprasylvius2 #e1 gyrus marginalis2 #f1 gyrus compositus posterior2 #g1 sigmoid gyrus2 #h1 olfactory tract2 #i1 orbital gyrus2 #aj1 lobus pyriformis2 #aa1 olfactory bulb4 ,the gyri included between the fissure of ,sylvius on the one hand and the anterior and posterior sulci on the other are known as the anterior 7#a7 and posterior 7#b7 ,sylvian gyri4 ,the second arch is formed by the suprasylvian sulcus 7sulcus suprasylvius7 7d74 ,the gyrus between the anterior and posterior sulci ventrad and the suprasylvian sulcus dorsad is the ectosylvian gyrus 7#c7 7because dorsad of the ectosylvian sulcus74 ,the third arched sulcus1 next to the medial margin of the hemisphere1 is variable3 it forms the lateral sulcus 7e74 ,the gyrus lying between the suprasylvian and lateral sulci is the suprasylvian gyrus 7#d7 7because dorsad of the suprasylvian sulcus74 ,the lateral sulcus is sometimes broken into two 7as in ,fig4 #acg1 h71 the two ends overlapping so as to leave a small gyrus between the two ends4 ,the gyrus dorsomediad of the lateral sulcus1 extending onto the medial surface of the hemisphere as far as the splenial sulcus1 is the marginal gyrus 7#e74 ,the four sets of gyri included between these three sets of arched sulci and the fissure of ,sylvius unite caudad and craniad to form single gyri4 ,the caudal one is the gyrus compositus posterior 7#f74 ,the cranial one 7less regular than the caudal one7 is the sigmoid gyrus 7#g74 ,the latter curves about the cruciate sulcus 7f7 7described below74 ,in the cranial part of the lateral surface of the hemisphere are certain sulci and gyri which do not belong to the system above described4 ,the cruciate sulcus 7f7 is a short transverse sulcus passing from the lateral surface of the hemisphere onto its medial surface1 where it extends caudad about a centimeter4 ,curving around the lateral end of this1 separated from it by part of the sigmoid gyrus1 is the short coronal sulcus 7g74 ,connected usually with the end of the lateral sulcus 7e7 and running nearly parallel with the cruciate sulcus is the short sulcus ansatus 7h74 ,at its ventral end the fissure of ,sylvius 7a7 joins a longitudinal groove passing craniad and caudad from the point of junction4 ,that part which passes craniad is the sulcus rhinalis 7i72 it forms the dorsolateral boundary of the olfactory tract 7#h74 ,passing dorsocraniad from the sulcus rhinalis is a sulcus which separates a very small cranial lobe from the rest of the hemisphere2 this is the supraorbital or prsylvian sulcus 7j74 ,the portion of the hemisphere craniad of this sulcus is the orbital gyrus 7#i74 ,the sulcus rhinalis 7i7 is continuous caudad with the sulcus rhinalis posterior 7or sulcus postrhinalis7 7k74 ,this extends caudad onto that portion of the hemisphere which faces the cerebellum4 ,it forms the lateral boundary of a large elongated oval lobe lying at the side of the ventral floor of the midbrain and 'tween-brain4 ,this lobe has been called tractus postrhinalis or lobus pyriformis 7,fig4 #ade1 #aj2 ,fig4 #ach1 f74 ,in addition to the sulci and gyri above mentioned1 any given specimen will usually show a number of small inconstant sulci and gyri in various regions2 these inconstant structures will not be here described4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,sulci ,,and ,,gyri ,,on ,,the ,,medial ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,hemisphere4 a1 sulcus splenialis2 b1 sulcus marginalis2 c1 sulcus cruciatus2 d1 sulcus falcialis2 e1 sulcus supracallosalis2 f1 sulcus rhinalis posterior2 g1 hippocampal sulcus2 h1 corpus callosum4 #a1 gyrus marginalis2 #b1 gyrus fornicatus2 #c1 gyrus compositus posterior4 ,on the medial surface of the hemisphere 7,fig4 #adf71 the following arrangement of sulci and gyri seems to be typical4 ,some distance from the dorsal margin a long sulcus runs parallel with the margin2 this is the sulcus splenialis 7a74 ,the marginal gyrus 7#a7 is dorsad of the splenial sulcus1 passing onto the lateral surface of the hemisphere1 where it is bounded by the lateral sulcus4 ,the splenial sulcus extends onto the caudal surface of the hemisphere4 ,a shallow sulcus marginalis 7b7 occurs frequently between the sulcus splenialis and the dorsal margin of the hemisphere4 ,cranioventrad or the cranial end of the splenial sulcus is that portion of the sulcus cruciatus 7c7 that lies on the medial surface of the hemisphere4 ,ventrad of this is a short shallow furrow which has been called the sulcus falcialis 7d74 ,immediately dorsad of the corpus callosum 7h71 separating its dorsal surface from a part of the hemisphere1 is the supracallosal or callosal sulcus 7e74 ,between the supracallosal 7e7 and splenial 7a7 sulci is the gyrus fornicatus 7#b74 ,on the caudal surface of the hemisphere 7that facing the cerebellum7 appear the ends of the sulcus splenialis 7a7 and the sulcus rhinalis posterior 7f74 ,hidden in the natural condition by the thalami and optic tract is the broad hippocampal sulcus 7g71 marking externally the course of the hippocampus4 ,a further extension of the surface of the cerebrum has taken place in connection with the sense of smell4 ,a mass of gray matter1 the olfactory bulb 7,fig4 #add1 a71 reckoned as a part of the cerebrum1 is separated from the latter and lies against the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone4 ,from it the olfactory fibres pass through the perforations of the plate to the olfactory mucous membrane4 ,the olfactory bulb contains a cavity1 a part of the lateral ventricle4 ,the bulb lies against the ventral surface of the frontal lobe and projects craniad of it4 ,it is connected to the cerebrum by a tract of fibres1 the olfactory tract 7,fig4 #ach1 a71 which is divisible into two roots1 medial and lateral4 ,the medial root comes from the medial surface of the frontal lobe1 where it is continuous with a tract extending to the cranial end of the corpus callosum4 ,the lateral root is traceable from an elevated gyrus-like portion of the cerebrum which lies at the side of the infundibulum and is known as the lobus pyriformis or tractus postrhinalis 7,fig4 #ach1 f74 ,the lateral root is divisible into a medial white strand and a lateral gray strand4 ,that part of the brain comprising the olfactory bulb and the parts intimately related to it are frequently included under the term rhinencephalon4 ,in the triangular area between the two olfactory tracts and craniad of the optic chiasma appears a mass of gray matter1 subdivided by a longitudinal fissure4 ,this possesses numerous openings through which blood-vessels pass to the brain substance1 and is thence known as the anterior perforated substance 7substantia perforata anterior7 7,fig4 #ach1 b74 ,internal ,structures of the ,cerebrum4--,the cavity of each of the cerebral hemispheres is known as a lateral ventricle4 ,the two lateral ventricles constitute the first and second of the ventricles of the brain1 whence the application of the names third and fourth ventricles to the cavities of the 'tween-brain and hindbrain4 ,the lateral ventricles do not grow at the same rate as the walls of the hemispheres1 so that they remain comparatively small4 ,the cavity of each ventricle is further reduced in size by the development on its floor of a large ridge-like thickening1 the corpus striatum 7,fig4 #adh1 f74 ,the dorsal wall or roof of the lateral ventricle joins the thin roof of the third ventricle on each side along an oblique curved line 7,fig4 #ada1 #a7 which follows the cranial or lateral border of the thalamus 7,fig4 #ada1 t74 ,along this line the thin roof of the brain is folded in together with the pia mater to form the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles 7lamina chorioidea epithelialis7 7,fig4 #adh1 e74 ,when this is pulled out there is left a fissure1 the 8great transverse fissure of the cerebrum0 7,fig4 #ada1 #a74 ,just dorsad of the groove between the thalami there runs a tract of white fibres known as the fornix 7,fig4 #adh1 a74 ,the two halves of the fornix separate at the cranial ends of the thalami and pass ventrad1 forming thus the pillars of the fornix 7,fig4 #adh1 b2 ,fig4 #adc1 v74 ,dorsad of the cranial end of the fornix the corpus callosum 7,fig4 #adc1 p7 passes from one hemisphere to the other4 ,caudad of the pillars of the fornix1 the lateral ventricles communicate with the third ventricle by way of the interventricular foramen 7foramen of ,monroe74 ,the parts of the cerebrum may now be taken up in detail4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--,,the ,,corpus ,,callosum4 ,the dorsal portion of the hemispheres has been dissected away1 then sliced off1 showing the plate of transverse fibres forming the corpus callosum4 a1 splenium2 b1 genu2 c1 line marking the medial edge of the hemispheres2 d1 line marking the lateral boundary of the supracallosal sulcus2 laterad of this line the corpus callosum lies in the substance of the hemispheres1 which have been dissected away2 e1 line marking medial limit of cut surface4 ,the corpus callosum 7,fig4 #adg2 ,fig4 #adc1 p2 ,figs4 #adi-aeb1 a7 is a broad transverse band of fibres forming a secondary connection between the medial walls of the two hemispheres1 dorsad of the roof of the third ventricle4 ,its outer surface 7,fig4 #adg7 is exposed at the bottom of the fissure which separates the hemispheres4 ,on each side it passes laterad1 forming the roof of the lateral ventricle4 ,its cranial part lies dorsad of the corpus striatum1 and its caudal part dorsad of the thalamus4 ,laterally its fibres radiate into the substance of the hemispheres4 ,at its cranial end the corpus callosum bends ventrad and then caudad 7,fig4 #adc74 ,the part which turns to pass ventrad is the genu 7,fig4 #adc1 q7 or knee1 while the part which projects caudad is the rostrum 7r74 ,the caudal border of the corpus callosum is also thickened and turned ventrad and is called the splenium 7,fig4 #adc1 s72 it lies dorsad of the cranial corpora quadrigemina 7z74 ,the caudal half of the ventral surface of the corpus callosum is united with the fornix 7,fig4 #adc1 u74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--;,,fornix1 ,,hippocampus1 ,,and ,,corpus ,,striatum4 ,the dorsal portion of the hemispheres has been dissected away and the corpus callosum removed4 a1 fornix2 b1 columns or pillars of the fornix2 c1 crura of the fornix2 d1 hippocampus2 e1 choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles overlying the fimbria 7the choroid plexus shows an artery72 f1 corpus striatum2 g1 corpora quadrigemina2 h1 position of the interventricular foramen 7foramen of ,monroe74 ,the fornix 7,fig4 #adh1 a2 ,fig4 #adc1 u1 v2 ,figs4 #aej-aeb1 b7 consists of an arched tract of longitudinal fibres near the medial border of each hemisphere1 ventrad of the corpus callosum4 ,each tract begins in the mammillary bodies1 and passes dorsad1 the two converging until they run side by side1 forming a cylindrical dorsoventral bundle known as the columns or pillars of the fornix 7,fig4 #adc1 v2 ,fig4 #aej1 e71 which cross the anterior commissure 7,fig4 #adc1 c2 ,fig4 #aej1 f7 caudad of the latter4 ,caudad of the pillars of the fornix1 between these and the thalamus1 lies on each side the interventricular foramen or foramen of ,monroe1 a small opening which connects the lateral ventricles with the third ventricle4 ,dorsad of the foramen the fornix turns caudad1 the two fibre-tracts of each hemisphere lying side by side and closely connected 7,fig4 #adh1 a71 forming thus another secondary union between the medial surfaces of the two hemispheres4 ,this portion of the fornix is the corpus or body 7,fig4 #adh1 a72 it lies dorsad of the roof of the third ventricle and passes to the splenium 7,fig4 #adc1 s7 of the corpus callosum1 and its dorsal surface unites with the ventral surface of the latter 7,fig4 #adc74 ,caudad the two halves of the fornix diverge1 forming the crura of the fornix 7,fig4 #adh1 c72 these and the body are continuous laterally with the hippocampus 7,fig4 #adh1 d7 and the fimbria 7,fig4 #adh1 beneath e74 ,the anterior commissure 7,fig4 #adc1 c2 ,fig4 #aej1 f7 is a transverse band of white fibres which stretches from one hemisphere to the other about half way between the interventricular foramen or foramen of ,monroe and the floor of the third ventricle1 and just craniad of the pillars of the fornix4 ,this tract of fibres is developed in the original wall of the third ventricle1 so that it does not form a secondary connection between the halves of the cerebrum1 as do the fornix and corpus callosum4 ,it lies dorsad of the lamina terminalis 7,fig4 #adc1 d7 and is continuous with it4 ,the septum pellucidum 7,fig4 #adc1 t7 is a vertical partition which separates the lateral ventricles and fills the interval between the corpus callosum dorsad and the fornix ventrad4 ,it is triangular and translucent4 ,it is formed from the medial walls of the two hemispheres and therefore is made up of two lamin which embrace between them a space which originally was a part of the fissure separating the hemispheres4 ,this space has been called the fifth ventricle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--;,,caudal ,,surface ,,of ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,brain ,,through ,,the ,,genu ,,of ,,the ,,corpus ,,callosum4 ,,fig4 #aej4--;,,caudal ,,surface ,,of ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,brain ,,through ,,the ,,optic ,,chiasma ,,and ,,the ,,region ,,of ,,the ,,interventricular ,,foramen 7,,foramen ,,of ,,monroe74 ,fig4 #adi4--;,gray matter dotted2 white matter with a few lines4 #a1 right hemisphere2 #b1 left hemisphere4 a1 corpus callosum1 section through genu and rostrum2 b1 cavity of lateral ventricles4 ,fig4 #aej4--a1 right hemisphere2 #b1 left hemisphere4 a1 corpus callosum2 b1 fornix 7cut72 c1 cavity of lateral ventricles2 d1 fimbria 7d1 cut surface2 d1 caudal uncut surface of the part that curves ventrad72 e1 pillars of fornix2 f1 anterior commissure2 g1 parts of third ventricle2 h1 optic chiasma2 i1 parts of corpus striatum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4--;,,caudal ,,surface ,,of ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,brain ,,through ,,the ,,tuber ,,cinereum ,,and ,,infundibulum1 ,,craniad ,,of ,,the ,,hypophysis4 a1 corpus callosum2 b1 fornix 7continuous at the sides with the hippocampus72 c1 cavity of lateral ventricles2 d1 hippocampus2 e1 choroid plexus of the third ventricle 7roof of the diencephalon72 f1 dorsal part of cavity of the third ventricle2 g1 section of thalamus2 h1 massa intermedia of the thalami1 dividing the third ventricle into a dorsal 7f7 and a ventral 7i7 portion2 i1 ventral part of third ventricle2 j1 part of optic tracts2 k1 thin wall of infundibulum1 with part of cavity of third ventricle2 l1 line separating roof of thalamus 7diencephalon7 from floor of hemispheres 7telencephalon74 ,the hippocampus 7,fig4 #adh1 d2 ,fig4 #aeb1 d7 is an elongated rounded elevation of the floor of the lateral ventricle4 ,it is continuous mediad with the fornix 7,fig4 #adh1 a7 and extends thence along the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle to its end in the temporal lobe4 ,it is somewhat narrower at its lateral end4 ,it is thus curved into a semicircle in conformity with the inferior horn of the ventricle4 ,its dorsal surface is convex and looks into the lateral ventricle2 its ventral surface is concave and rests upon the thalamus and the optic tract4 ,along the craniolateral edge of the hippocampus is a broad1 clearly marked fibre-tract1 the fimbria2 this runs parallel to the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle and beneath it1 and is continuous at its medial end with the fornix4 ,the corpus striatum 7,fig4 #adh1 f2 ,fig4 #ada1 y2 ,fig4 #aej1 i7 is a fusiform or ovoid elevation of the floor of the lateral ventricle4 ,one of its narrow ends lies about opposite the middle of the thalamus 7,fig4 #ada1 t7 and it extends thence obliquely mediad nearly parallel with the thalamus4 ,in the groove between it and the thalamus is the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles 7,fig4 #adh1 e74 ,internally the corpus striatum is made up of several layers of different texture 7,fig4 #aej1 i71 whence its name4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4--;,,caudal ,,surface ,,of ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,brain ,,through ,,the ,,pineal ,,body ,,and ,,thalami4 ,,fig4 #aec4--;,,caudal ,,surface ,,of ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,brain ,,through ,,the ,,cranial ,,pair ,,of ,,corpora ,,quadrigemina4 ,fig4 #aeb4--;a1 corpus callosum2 b1 fornix2 c1 inferior horn of lateral ventricles2 d1 hippocampus2 e1 thalamus2 f1 third ventricle2 g1 pineal body2 h1 space between the floor of the hemisphere 7hippocampus7 and roof of the 'tween-brain 7thalamus74 ,fig4 #aec4--;a1 cranial corpora quadrigemina2 b1 hippocampus2 c1 part of inferior horn of lateral ventricle2 d1 aqueductus cerebri 7aqueduct of ,sylvius72 e1 space between the outer surface of the midbrain and the lower surface of the hemisphere2 f1 cross-section of midbrain2 g1 pedunculi cerebri4 ,the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles 7lamina chorioidea epithelialis7 7,fig4 #adh1 e74--,the line of junction of the roof of the third ventricle 7i4e41 the choroid plexus of the third ventricle7 and the cerebral hemispheres is along the lateral 7or cranial7 border of the thalamus 7,fig4 #ada1 t74 ,along this line 7,fig4 #ada1 #a7 the brain-wall remains very thin and becomes closely associated with the pia mater1 so that on the removal of the pia there is left the 8transverse fissure0 which leads into the lateral ventricle4 ,in an early stage1 before the cerebrum has grown far caudad1 the fissure is exposed in dorsal view1 but after the hemispheres have covered the thalami the fissure appears to be in the lower face of the hemisphere4 ,through this fissure the pia mater extends upward into the lateral ventricles as a fold separated from the ventricle by the thin brain-wall4 ,this fold is vascular and is known as the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle 7,fig4 #adh1 e74 ,it is a fringe-like fold lying on the fimbria and extending from the foramen of ,monroe 7at h7 nearly to the end of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle4 ,the lateral ventricles are the extensions into the hemispheres of the originally unpaired cavity of the forebrain4 ,each consists of a portion parallel to the basis cranii and lying at the side of the septum pellucidum between the corpus callosum dorsad and the corpus striatum1 hippocampus1 and fornix ventrad1 and of two horns1 an anterior and an inferior horn4 ,the inferior horn 7,fig4 #aeb1 c7 is a narrow cleft1 crescent-shaped in cross-section1 which follows the dorsal surface of the hippocampus 7,fig4 #adh1 d2 ,fig4 #aeb1 d7 along the temporal lobe to its end almost against the tuber cinereum4 ,it thus passes first caudad and then ventrad and finally mediad4 ,the choroid plexus and hippocampus project into it from its floor4 ,the anterior horn extends ventrad and then slightly caudad in the frontal lobe1 following the corpus striatum 7,fig4 #adh1 f71 on which it lies4 ,the interventricular foramen 7or foramen of ,monroe74--,if the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle 7,fig4 #adh1 e7 is followed to its medial end1 it is found to pass through a foramen 7at h7 in which it becomes continuous with the opposite plexus or roof of the third ventricle4 ,this foramen leads from one lateral ventricle to the other and is connected ventrally by a median opening with the third ventricle4 ,it is thus ,y-shaped or ,t-shaped and is the interventricular foramen 7or foramen of ,monroe74 ,the foramen lies opposite the middle of the corpus striatum and caudad of the pillars of the fornix4 ,membranes of the ,brain4--,the membranes of the brain are the dura mater1 the arachnoid1 and the pia mater4 ,the dura mater is a strong fibrous membrane lining the cranial cavity and covering the brain4 ,it is strongly attached to the projections of the base of the skull and to the tentorium4 ,it dips between the cerebral hemispheres and olfactory bulbs1 forming the falx cerebri4 ,it likewise dips between the cerebrum and the cerebellum1 covering both surfaces of the bony tentorium4 ,the dura mater does not pass into the fissures or sulci of the surface of the brain4 ,it becomes continuous with the sheath of the cranial nerves as they leave the skull4 ,it is continuous with the dura mater of the spinal cord4 ,the arachnoid and pia mater are essentially similar to the same structures on the spinal cord4 ,the pia mater dips into the fissures and sulci of the brain4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,peripheral ,,nervous ,,system4 #a4 ,cranial ,nerves4 ,nervi cerebrales4--,i4 ,n4 ,,olfactorius4--,the fasciculi of the olfactory nerves arise from the olfactory bulb 7,fig4 #add1 a7 and pass through the foramina of the cribriform plate1 upon which the bulb lies1 to be distributed to the olfactory mucous membrane of the nose4 ,,ii4 ,n4 ,,opticus4--,the second nerve or optic 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,ii7 arises from the optic chiasma 7,fig4 #ach1 c71 passes through the optic foramen1 and extends in an ,s-shaped curve to the eyeball4 ,its course is craniodorsad4 ,it pierces the sclerotic and choroid coats of the eye and spreads out into the retina4 ,,iii4 ,n4 ,,oculomotorius4--,the third or oculomotor nerve arises 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,iii7 from the pedunculus cerebri and passes into the orbit through the orbital fissure4 ,it passes between the lateral and superior recti1 sends a large branch to the superior rectus1 supplies the medial rectus and the retractor oculi1 passes laterad of the optic nerve and supplies the inferior rectus1 and sends a long branch to the inferior oblique 7,fig4 #aff1 f74 ,at the point where the branch is given off to the inferior oblique muscle is the triangular reddish ciliary 7or ophthalmic7 ganglion1 about two millimeters in diameter4 ,it is directly attached to the inferior oblique branch of the third nerve and receives a delicate sensory filament from the ophthalmic nerve4 ,from the ciliary ganglion proceed two short ciliary nerves which pass along each side of the optic nerve to the eyeball4 ,these nerves penetrate the sclerotic at the sides of the eyeball to be distributed to the ball4 ,,iv4 ,n4 ,,trochlearis4--,the fourth nerve1 the trochlearis 7or patheticus71 arises from the lateral border of the velum medullare anterius1 as already described 7,fig4 #ada1 n74 ,it passes craniad1 emerges through the orbital fissure in company with the oculomotor1 abducens1 and ophthalmic1 passes dorsad of the superior rectus muscle1 and reaches 7,fig4 #aed1 l7 the caudal border of the belly of the superior oblique muscle near its middle4 ,it supplies only the superior oblique4 ,v4 ,n4 ,,trigeminus4--,the fifth nerve1 the trigeminus 7or trifacial7 arises 7,fig4 #ach1 ,v7 by two roots1 a large sensory and a small motor root 7#d71 as already described 7p4 #cdg74 ,one of these1 the motor 7#d71 is smaller and more ventral2 the other1 the sensory root1 is larger and dorsal4 ,the dorsal root soon enlarges to form a large ganglion1 the semilunar 7or ,gasserian7 ganglion 7,fig4 #ach1 k71 from which three branches diverge4 ,one branch is joined by the ventral root 7#d71 which passes over the ventral surface of the semilunar ganglion2 and the nerve thus formed is the mandibular division 7#a7 of the fifth nerve4 ,of the other two branches from the ganglion1 the middle and longest is the maxillary nerve 7#b71 and the smallest is the ophthalmic 7#c74 ,the mandibular nerve is thus mixed1 motor and sensory1 while the others are sensory4 #a4 ,n4 ophthalmicus4--,the ophthalmic or first division of the fifth nerve arises from the semilunar 7or ,gasserian7 ganglion4 ,it passes out of the cranial cavity and into the orbit by way of the orbital fissure1 in company with the third1 fourth1 and sixth nerves and with the extension of the carotid 7arterial7 plexus4 ,it passes between the superior and medial recti along with the third nerve1 crosses dorsad of the optic nerve1 and divides into infratrochlear and ethmoidal branches4 ,in the orbital fissure it gives off the frontal nerve1 and while crossing the optic it gives off the long ciliary nerve4 a4 ,n4 frontalis4--,the frontal nerve passes along the lateral border of the superior oblique muscle and then laterad of the pulley to near the middle of the supraorbital crest of the frontal bone4 ,here it passes out of the orbit and is distributed to the integument of the upper eyelid and the adjacent region at the side of the nose4 b4 ,n4 infratrochlearis4--,the infratrochlear nerve passes between the superior rectus and the superior oblique in the first part of its course4 ,it then passes ventrad of the superior oblique and ventrad of the pulley to be distributed to the integument of the upper eyelid near the inner angle4 c4 ,n4 ethmoidalis4--,the ethmoidal nerve passes along with the ethmoidal artery through the ethmoidal foramen 7or foramina7 in the orbital plate of the frontal bone4 ,it is finally distributed to the mucosa of the nose and to the cartilage and integument of the snout4 d4 ,n4 ciliaris longus4--,the long ciliary nerve arises from the ophthalmic and passes along the optic nerve to be distributed to the eyeball4 ,it divides into several branches before penetrating the sclerotic4 ,one or two small communicating branches to the ciliary ganglion are given off at about the same point as the long ciliary nerve4 7,for a description of this ganglion see the account of the oculomotor nerve1 page #cfi47 #b4 ,n4 maxillaris4--,the maxillary nerve1 the second division of ,n4 trigeminus1 rises from the semilunar 7,gasserian7 ganglion and leaves the skull by the foramen rotundum4 ,it is the sensory nerve of the palate1 upper teeth and upper lip1 and of part of the forehead and cheek4 ,on leaving the foramen the maxillary nerve divides into three branches1 the two infraorbital nerves 7,fig4 #aed1 f7 and the sphenopalatine 7,fig4 #aed1 g74 ,two smaller branches are likewise given off either within or just outside of the foramen1 the lachrymal nerve 7,fig4 #aed1 j7 and the zygomatic 7subcutaneus mal7 7,fig4 #aed1 i74 a4 ,n4 lachrymalis 7,fig4 #aed1 j2 ,fig4 #aee1 m74--,the lachrymal nerve passes along the periorbita to the lachrymal gland 7,fig4 #aed1 #aa71 to which it gives branches4 ,it then continues caudad of the zygomatic process of the temporal to the integument2 here it turns caudad and is distributed to the integument in the region between the eye and the external ear 7,fig4 #aee1 m74 ,it anastomoses with the zygomatic branch of the seventh nerve 7,fig4 #aee1 h74 b4 ,n4 zygomaticus 7subcutaneus mal7 7,fig4 #aed1 i74--,this arises with the preceding and follows it for some distance4 ,it passes through a foramen in the frontal process of the malar bone and is distributed to the lower eyelid and adjacent integument4 c4 ,nn4 infraorbitales 7,fig4 #aed1 f2 ,fig4 #aee1 l74--,the infraorbital nerves are two of nearly equal size4 ,they pass through the orbit ventrad of the eyeball to the infraorbital canal4 ,on their course each divides once or twice and each divides again in the infraorbital foramen1 so that about eight branches emerge from the infraorbital foramen and diverge to the integument and whiskers of the upper lip and to the side and wing of the nose 7,fig4 #aee1 l74 ,in the infraorbital canal1 and before reaching it1 branches are given to the molar teeth1 and a branch continues in the bone to the canine1 incisor1 and premolar teeth4 d4 ,n4 sphenopalatinus 7,fig4 #aed1 g74--,the sphenopalatine nerve turns mediad from the infraorbitals1 directing its course toward the sphenopalatine foramen4 ,before reaching this it gives off the greater palatine nerve 7,n4 palatinus major71 which enters the posterior palatine canal and passes to the hard palate4 ,the sphenopalatine then usually divides into two branches which pass along side by side to enter the sphenopalatine ganglion4 ,this is a large elongated triangular ganglion lying on the dorsal surface of the external pterygoid muscle1 just laterad of the sphenopalatine foramen4 ,the following nerves are connected with the sphenopalatine ganglion3 a4 ,n4 palatinus minor4--,this leaves the craniolateral angle of the ganglion and passes to the soft palate4 b4 ,n4 nasalis posterior4--,the posterior nasal nerve enters the nasal cavity by the sphenopalatine foramen and is distributed to the mucosa of the ventral and middle parts of the nasal cavity4 c4 ,n4 canalis pterygoidii 7,vidian ,nerve74--,this is a large nerve which leaves the caudal angle of the sphenopalatine ganglion and passes caudad4 ,it enters the orbital fissure1 lying in a groove on its ventral wall 7the cranial end of this groove is sometimes converted into a canal74 ,the groove ends caudally in a foramen which pierces the sphenoid bone between the wing and the body and lies just mediad of the foramen rotundum4 ,the groove and foramen constitute the pterygoid canal 7from which the nerve is named74 ,after emerging from the pterygoid canal onto the ventral surface of the basisphenoid the nerve enters the tympanic bulla along with the ,eustachian tube1 lying on the medial side of the latter4 ,just after entering1 on reaching the internal carotid artery1 it divides into two4 ,one of these1 ,n4 petrosus superficialis major 7p4 #cge71 passes into the hiatus facialis of the petrous bone and joins the facial nerve4 ,the other1 ,n4 petrosus profundus1 accompanies the internal carotid artery caudad1 turning therefore out of the bulla and passing caudad along its medial side2 it finally joins the superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic system4 #c4 ,n4 mandibularis4--,the third division of the fifth1 the mandibular nerve1 takes origin by a strong root from the semilunar 7or ,gasserian7 ganglion1 and receives also after separating from the ganglion the smaller ventral root 7portio minor7 of the fifth nerve4 ,the root from the ganglion is sensory2 the smaller root is motor1 so that the mandibular nerve is both sensory and motor4 ,the nerve passes through the foramen ovale1 and sends off at once the following branches3 a4 ,n4 auriculotemporalis 7,figs4 #aed and #aee1 n74--,this passes dorsad between the cartilaginous auditory meatus and the zygomatic process of the temporal bone 7,fig4 #aed1 n71 emerges at the caudal border of the masseter muscle 7,fig4 #aee1 n71 and divides into two chief branches4 ,one1 the auricular branch1 passes along the cranial side of the external ear and is distributed to its integument4 ,the other1 the temporal branch1 passes along the zygomatic arch1 gives branches to the temporal muscle and to the skin1 follows the zygomatic arch almost to the angle of the mouth1 and anastomoses with the superior buccal branch of the facial 7,fig4 #aee1 k74 b4 ,n4 temporalis profundus4--,one or more large branches passing mediad of the zygomatic arch to the temporal muscle4 c4 ,n4 massetericus4--,the masseteric nerve passes dorsocraniad to the masseter muscle4 d4 ,n4 pterygoideus4--,one or more pterygoid branches pass to the pterygoid muscles4 ,a small twig from the nerve to the internal pterygoid passes into the tympanic cavity and supplies the tensor tympani muscle4 e4 ,n4 buccinatorius 7,fig4 #aed1 e74--,this passes craniad along the dorsolateral surface of the pterygoid muscles 7,fig4 #aed1 #h7 to the angle of the mouth4 ,here it divides into branches to the masseter muscle1 the mucosa of the mouth1 and to the lips4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4--;,,dissection ,,showing ,a ,,number ,,of ,,the ,,cranial ,,nerves4 ,the mandible and zygomatic arch have been cut and removed2 the temporal and internal pterygoid muscles are also removed4 a1 ,n4 hypoglossus2 b1 ,n4 lingualis2 c1 ,n4 chorda tympani2 d1 ,n4 alveolaris inferior 7cut72 e1 ,n4 buccinatorius2 f1 ,nn4 infraorbitales2 g1 ,n4 sphenopalatinus2 h1 branch of ,n4 oculomotorius2 i1 ,n4 zygomaticus2 j1 ,n4 lachrymalis2 k1 ,n4 abducens2 l1 ,n4 trochlearis2 m1 ,n4 frontalis2 n1 ,n4 auriculotemporalis4 #a1 cut end of zygomatic process of temporal2 #b1 tympanic bulla2 #c1 ,m4 digastricus2 #d1 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis medius2 #e1 ,m4 hyoglossus2 #f1 ,m4 genioglossus2 #g1 ,m4 geniohyoideus2 #h1 ,m4 pterygoideus externus 7cut72 #i1 cut cranial end of zygomatic arch2 #aj1 mandible 7cut72 #aa1 lachrymal gland4 ,after giving off the above branches the mandibular nerve passes three or four millimeters laterad along the root of the zygomatic process of the temporal bone1 and divides into two large branches1 the inferior alveolar 7or dental7 nerve 7d7 and the lingual nerve 7b74 f4 ,n4 alveolaris inferior 7,fig4 #aed1 d74--,this passes toward the mandibular foramen1 but before reaching it gives off a branch to the mylohyoid and digastric muscles4 ,it then enters the foramen1 passes through the mandibular canal1 and gives numerous inferior dental branches to the teeth4 ,at the mental foramen 7or foramina7 it passes out of the canal and divides into several mental nerves1 to the chin1 lower lip1 and mucosa of the lower jaw4 g4 ,n4 lingualis 7,fig4 #aed1 b74--,the lingual nerve passes between the internal and external pterygoid muscles1 and two or three millimeters from its origin it receives the chorda tympani nerve 7c71 a communicating branch from the facial 7see page #cgf74 ,it passes onto the ventral surface of the external pterygoid1 thence onto the side of the tongue1 beneath the mylohyoid4 ,on the side of the tongue it divides into branches which enter the tongue and are distributed to its mucous membrane4 ,one branch passes to the mucosa of the pharynx4 ,just before entering the tongue a branch is given off to the sublingual and submaxillary glands4 ,,vi4 ,n4 ,,abducens4--,the sixth nerve1 the abducens1 arises from the medulla1 as already described 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,vi1 and page #cdg74 ,it passes into the orbit through the orbital fissure1 then extends obliquely cranioventrad along the medial surface of the lateral rectus muscle 7,fig4 #aed1 k74 ,at about the middle of the length of the muscle it divides into two or three branches which enter at once into the lateral rectus and supply it4 ,,vii4 ,n4 ,,facialis 7,fig4 #aee74--,the seventh or facial nerve arises from the trapezium at the caudal margin of the pons1 craniad of the origin of the eighth nerve1 as described in the account of the brain 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,vii74 ,it passes into the internal auditory meatus1 traverses the facial canal through the petrous bone1 and emerges at the stylomastoid foramen4 ,within the facial canal the nerve bears an enlargement1 the ganglion geniculi4 ,it gives off within the canal a branch to the stapedius muscle1 and the superficial petrosal and chorda tympani nerves4 ,the superficial petrosal 7,n4 petrosus superficialis major7 nerve passes into the hiatus facialis1 through the canal which forms its continuation1 and joins the sphenopalatine ganglion 7p4 #cgc74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee4--,,superficial ,,nerves ,,of ,,the ,,face4 a1 ,n4 facialis2 b1 branch to digastric2 c1 ,n4 auricularis posterior2 d1 branch to inside of ear2 e1 ventral ramus2 f1 dorsal ramus2 g1 temporal nerve2 h1 zygomatic nerve2 i1 nerve to stylohyoid muscle2 j1 inferior buccal nerve2 k1 superior buccal nerve2 l1 infraorbital branches of fifth nerve2 m1 lachrymal branches of fifth nerve2 n1 auriculotemporal branches of fifth nerve4 #a1 ,m4 digastricus2 #b1 ,m4 stylohyoideus2 #c1 ,m4 masseter4 ,the chorda tympani is given off two or three millimeters before the emergence of the facial at the stylomastoid foramen4 ,it passes into the tympanic cavity1 extends across it between the malleus and incus1 passing close against the tensor tympani muscle1 and leaves it 7by a small cleft1 the canal of ,huguier7 between the bulla and the squamous portion of the temporal4 ,it then passes craniad 7,fig4 #aed1 c71 ventrad of the root of the zygomatic process of the temporal1 and joins the lingual nerve 7,fig4 #aed1 b7 7branch of the third division of the fifth nerve74 ,on emerging from the stylomastoid foramen the facial nerve 7,fig4 #aee1 a7 gives off at once a small branch 7b7 to the digastric muscle 7#a71 and a larger branch1 ,n4 auricularis posterior 7c71 which passes dorsocaudad about the base of the ear1 supplying some of its muscles4 ,another small branch 7d7 pierces the cartilaginous external ear and is distributed to its inner surface4 ,the facial nerve then curves craniad about the proximal part of the cartilaginous external ear1 and divides five or six millimeters from its emergence into two main branches1 which may be designated as the dorsal 7f7 and ventral 7e7 rami4 ,a third small branch may also rise from the point of union of the two2 it is usually1 however1 a twig from the dorsal ramus1 and passes to ,m4 submentalis4 ,the dorsal ramus 7f7 sends two or three small branches to the cheek 7including the one just mentioned71 and divides into the temporal 7g7 and the zygomatic 7h7 branches4 ,the former 7g7 passes along the cranial margin of the external ear1 supplying the superficial muscles1 and extends into the temporal region1 where it lies deeper than the terminal branches of the lachrymal nerve 7m7 7from the fifth cranial74 ,the zygomatic branch 7h7 passes across the malar bone to the caudal angle of the eye1 sends branches into both eyelids1 anastomoses with twigs from the lachrymal branch 7m7 of the fifth nerve1 and passes along the medial side of the eye to the lateral surface of the nose1 where it ramifies4 ,the ventral ramus 7e7 gives off a minute branch 7i7 to the stylohyoid muscle 7#b71 then proceeds toward the angle of the mouth and divides into superior 7k7 and inferior 7j7 buccal branches1 the former to the muscles of the upper lip and the contiguous regions1 the latter to those of the lower lip and chin4 ,the seventh nerve thus supplies most of the muscles of the head except those of mastication1 and of these it supplies the digastric4 ,,viii4 ,n4 ,,acusticus4--,the eighth or auditory nerve takes origin 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,viii7 from the floor of the fourth ventricle1 as before described 7page #cdg74 ,it passes into the internal auditory meatus and is distributed to the internal ear within the petrous bone4 ,,ix4 ,n4 ,,glossopharyngeus 7,fig4 #aef1 a74--,the ninth or glossopharyngeal nerve takes origin 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,ix7 from the side of the medulla1 as described in the account of the brain4 ,close to its origin its trunk bears a small enlargement1 the ganglion superius4 ,it passes along with the tenth and eleventh nerves through the jugular foramen4 ,at its exit it has a ganglionic enlargement1 the ganglion petrosum2 this is connected by fine fibres with the ganglion nodosum 7,fig4 #aef1 d7 of the vagus4 ,the glossopharyngeal 7,fig4 #aef1 a7 then passes craniad over the surface of the tympanic bulla 7#ae7 and mediad of the digastric muscle4 ,it continues mediad of the carotid artery1 and as it approaches the cranial cornu of the hyoid divides into two portions1 one of which passes to the muscles and mucosa of the pharynx1 and the other to the tongue1 where it is the special nerve of taste4 ,x4 ,n4 ,,vagus4--,the vagus nerve arises from the side of the medulla in the manner described under the ,brain 7page #cdf and ,fig4 #ach1 ,x74 ,it passes through the jugular foramen along with the glossopharyngeal and accessory nerves4 ,cervical ,portion of the ,vagus 7,fig4 #aef1 d1 d74--,in the foramen1 or just before entering it1 it presents a ganglionic enlargement1 the ganglion jugulare 7or 8ganglion of the root071 and a short distance beyond the foramen it forms a second ganglion1 the ganglion nodosum 7d7 7or 8ganglion of the trunk071 which lies dorsocaudad of the superior cervical sympathetic ganglion 7e74 ,the ganglia of the vagus and sympathetic are closely bound together by connective tissue1 and that portion of the vagus craniad of the ganglion nodosum is interconnected by a network of nervous fibres with the sympathetic 7e71 hypoglossal 7b71 and accessory 7c7 nerves4 ,from the ganglion nodosum the vagus 7d7 passes caudad1 closely bound up with the sympathetic2 the two lie at the side of the common carotid artery4 ,just before entering the thorax the two separate1 the vagus being the larger and lying ventrad of the sympathetic4 7,in rare cases the two are distinctly separated throughout their length47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4--;,,glossopharyngeal1 ,,hypoglossal1 ,,vagus1 ,,sympathetic1 ,,and ,,first ,,cervical ,,nerves ,,in ,,the ,,neck4 a1 ,n4 glossopharyngeus2 b1 ,n4 hypoglossus2 c1 ,n4 accessorius2 d1 ganglion nodosum of vagus nerve2 d1 ,n4 vagus2 e1 ganglion cervicale superius of sympathetic2 f1 ramus descendens of ,n4 hypoglossus 7united with first cervical72 g1 branch to ,m4 thyrohyoid from ramus descendens of ,n4 hypoglossus2 h1 ,n4 laryngeus superior of ,n4 vagus2 i1 united vagus and sympathetic nerves2 j1 first cervical nerve2 k1 second cervical nerve2 l1 ,n4 pharyngeus from vagus4 #a1 ,m4 masseter2 #b1 outline of external ear2 #c1 ,m4 splenius2 #d1 ,m4 levator scapul ventralis2 #e1 ,m4 longus capitis2 #f1 trachea2 #g1 ,m4 sternothyreoideus2 #h1 ,m4 sternohyoideus2 #i1 ,m4 thyreohyoideus2 #aj1 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis inferior2 #aa1 ,m4 constrictor pharyngis medius2 #ab1 cut end of ,m4 stylohyoideus2 #ac1 ,m4 hyoglossus2 #ad1 ,m4 stylopharyngeus2 #ae1 bulla tympani2 #af1 ,m4 jugulohyoideus2 #ag1 ,m4 styloglossus2 #ah1 ,m4 mylohyoideus4 ,branches of the vagus in the cervical region 7,fig4 #aef74 a4 ,n4 auricularis4--,this leaves the ganglion jugulare1 passes into the petrous bone to the facial canal1 leaves the skull with the facial nerve by the stylomastoid foramen1 and is distributed to the external ear4 b4 ,n4 pharyngeus 7l74--,this leaves the vagus craniad of the ganglion nodosum1 passes ventrad1 sends a small communicating branch to ,n4 laryngeus superior 7h71 and is distributed to the pharyngeal muscles and cranial part of the sophagus4 c4 ,n4 laryngeus superior 7h74--,this arises from the ganglion nodosum1 passes ventrad1 crossing the medial surface of the carotid artery1 and reaches the larynx at about the level of the caudal end of ,m4 thyreohyoideus4 ,it passes into the larynx and supplies its mucosa4 ,thoracic ,portion of the ,vagus 7,fig4 #aeg74--;,as the vagus 7b7 and sympathetic 7c7 separate to enter the thorax1 the vagus 7b7 lies more ventrad4 ,the right vagus now lies along the lateral surface of the trachea1 the left one 7,fig4 #aeg7 along that of the sophagus4 ,at about the level of the first rib or further craniad there arise1 apparently from the vagus 7but really from the sympathetic71 two slender nerves which pass caudad parallel and close to the vagus1 lying slightly dorsad of it4 ,these are the cardiac nerves 7i72 they arise from the sympathetic farther craniad in the neck region1 accompany the vagus1 and seem to branch from it4 ,in cases where vagus and sympathetic are separate throughout their courses1 these nerves arise clearly from the sympathetic4 ,the cardiac nerves pass to the heart and aid in forming a network of nerves known as the cardiac plexus 7k74 ,the vagus usually receives also1 at about the level of the first rib1 one or two communicating branches from the middle cervical ganglion 7d7 of the sympathetic4 ,it then passes to the roots of the lungs1 crossing the lateral surface of the aortic arch on the left side1 and the medial surface of the azygos vein on the right side4 ,as it crosses the aortic arch the left vagus gives off ,n4 laryngeus inferior 7j74 ,this curves around the caudal side of the aortic arch to the lateral surface of the trachea 7o71 then extends on the lateral and ventral surface of the trachea craniad into the neck region4 ,in the neck it passes to the dorsolateral side of the trachea and reaches the larynx4 ,it passes into the larynx between the cricoid and thyroid cartilages1 and supplies the muscles of the larynx4 ,it anastomoses with the superior laryngeal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4--,,sympathetic1 ,,vagus1 ,,and ,,phrenic ,,nerves ,,in ,,the ,,neck ,,and ,,thorax4 #a-ac1 the thirteen ribs 7cut72 ,v-,,viii1 the fifth to eighth cervical nerves 7cut72 ,i1 first thoracic nerve 7cut74 a1 combined trunk of vagus and sympathetic2 b1 vagus2 c1 sympathetic2 d1 middle cervical ganglion of sympathetic2 e1 inferior cervical ganglion2 e1 communicating branch to sixth1 seventh1 and eighth cervical nerves2 f1 phrenic nerve2 g1 loop of sympathetic about subclavian artery1 between the middle and inferior cervical ganglia2 h1 cardiac branches from the inferior cervical ganglion2 i1 cardiac branch passing from sympathetic along with vagus to heart2 j1 inferior laryngeal nerve2 k1 pulmonary and cardiac plexus2 l1 ventral sophageal branch of vagus2 l1 similar branch from the opposite side2 m1 dorsal sophageal branch of vagus2 n1 great splanchnic nerve2 o1 trachea2 p1 sophagus2 q1 aorta2 r1 heart2 s1 root of lung4 ,the right inferior laryngeal nerve is given off from the right vagus much further craniad than the left2 it curves around the right subclavian artery just caudad of the origin of the internal mammary artery1 then passes to the trachea1 and has a course and distribution like that of the left side4 ,on reaching the root of the lungs the vagus divides into numerous branches which form the pulmonary plexus 7k7 over the roots of the lungs1 and extends onto the basis of the heart as the cardiac plexus4 ,from these plexuses numerous branches pass to the heart1 lungs1 pulmonary artery1 pericardium1 etc4 ,the cardiac branches from the sympathetic1 mentioned above1 are also connected with the cardiac plexus4 ,caudad of the pulmonary plexus the vagus is continued on each side as two trunks1 a dorsal 7m7 and a ventral 7l7 which pass along the sophagus 7p74 ,the ventral branches of right and left vagi 7l and l7 unite a short distance caudad of the root of the lung1 and the single trunk extends into the abdominal cavity on the ventral surface of the sophagus4 ,the dorsal branches of right and left vagi unite farther back1 near the diaphragm1 and the single trunk thus formed 7m7 enters the abdominal cavity on the dorsal surface of the sophagus4 ,both divisions give fine nerves to the sophagus4 ,abdominal ,portion of the ,vagus 7,fig4 #afd1 page #djg74--;,after passing through the diaphragm the ventral division 7,fig4 #afd1 l7 reaches the lesser curvature of the stomach 7#a71 over which it ramifies1 some branches being traceable almost to the pylorus4 ,the network of branches thus formed is the anterior gastric plexus4 ,some twigs from the ventral division pass transversely across the cranial end of the stomach and join the plexus formed by the dorsal division4 ,the dorsal division 7m7 of the vagus reaches the greater curvature of the stomach1 where it ramifies1 forming the posterior gastric plexus4 ,branches from this anastomose with the anterior gastric plexus and with the cliac plexus of the sympathetic 7e74 ,,xi4 ,n4 ,,accessorius4--,the accessory 7or spinal accessory7 nerve arises 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,xi7 by numerous rootlets from the lateral surface of the medulla and of the spinal cord as far caudad as the fifth to seventh cervical nerve4 ,these spinal rootlets join to form a nerve which enters the cranium through the foramen magnum4 ,after receiving the rootlets from the medulla1 it leaves the cranial cavity along with the vagus and glossopharyngeal by the jugular foramen4 ,just outside the foramen 7,fig4 #aef1 c7 it becomes involved in a plexus of fine branches which interconnect it with the vagus1 sympathetic1 and hypoglossal4 ,it then turns laterad and caudad 7,fig4 #aeh1 #a7 and pierces the cleidomastoid muscle 7d71 to which it gives small branches4 ,it then divides3 one branch enters the sternomastoid muscle2 the other passes caudad along the dorsal border of the levator scapul ventralis1 sends branches to the clavotrapezius1 and may be traced to the acromiotrapezius and spinotrapezius1 which it supplies4 ,,xii4 ,n4 ,,hypoglossus 7,fig4 #aef1 b74--,the twelfth or hypoglossal nerve arises from the ventral side of the medulla 7,fig4 #ach1 ,,xii71 as previously described4 ,it emerges from the skull through the hypoglossal canal4 ,at first it passes ventrad1 then gradually turns craniad1 following thus a curved course and passing successively laterad of the vagus and sympathetic nerves 7,fig4 #aef1 d and e71 the common carotid artery1 and the cranial cornu of the hyoid bone4 ,a short distance from its origin the nerve gives off a ramus descendens 7,fig4 #aef1 f71 which receives a communicating branch from the first cervical nerve 7j71 and divides into two branches1 one 7g7 to the thyrohyoid muscle 7#i71 the other to the sternohyoid 7#h7 and sternothyroid muscles 7#g74 ,the main nerve passes beneath the mylohyoid muscle into the tongue1 at first following the lingual artery1 then laterad of it1 then crossing it again4 ,it sends branches to all the muscles of the tongue1 and may be traced to its tip4 ,the hypoglossal nerve is involved in the plexus just outside of the jugular foramen1 with which the vagus1 sympathetic1 and accessory nerves are also connected4 #b4 ,spinal ,nerves4--,the origin and general features of the spinal nerves have been described in connection with the account of the spinal cord 7page #ccg74 ,a description of their peripheral distribution will now be given4 ,a4 ,,cervical ,,nerves4--,there are eight pairs of cervical nerves4 ,the first leaves the vertebral canal through the atlantal foramen4 ,the second passes out between the arches of the atlas and axis1 not through a special intervertebral foramen1 so that its ganglion lies among the muscles of the back of the neck4 ,the others emerge through the intervertebral foramina1 the eighth one from between the last cervical and first thoracic vertebr4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4--,,superficial ,,nerves ,,of ,,the ,,neck4 ,m4 clavotrapezius has been partly removed4 #a1 ,n4 accessorius2 #b-d1 ventral rami of second to fourth cervical nerves2 #e1 ,n4 auricularis magnus2 #f1 ,n4 cutaneus colli4 a1 ,m4 clavotrapezius 7cut72 b1 ,m4 splenius2 c1 ,m4 levator scapul ventralis2 d1 ,m4 cleidomastoideus2 e1 ,m4 sternomastoideus2 f1 parotid gland4 ,dorsal ,rami 7,rami posteriores74--,the dorsal ramus of the first nerve 7,n4 suboccipitalis7 supplies the short dorsal muscles which move the head and connect the atlas and skull4 ,in the second nerve the dorsal ramus is much larger1 forming ,n4 occipitalis major4 ,it sends small branches to the muscles about its origin1 then turns craniad on the surface of the obliquus superior muscle1 passes through the biventer cervicis and splenius1 joins a small branch from the third nerve1 and reaches the dorsal surface of the back of the head4 ,it passes craniad1 lying beneath the levator auris longus1 emerges from between the two divisions of this muscle1 and supplies the skin and cutaneous muscles between the two external ears4 ,the dorsal rami of the other cervical nerves supply muscles and integument on the back of the neck4 ,ventral ,rami 7rami anteriores74--,these pass ventrad between the transverse processes of the vertebr1 except in the case of the first nerve 7,fig4 #aef1 j74 ,this passes ventrad from the atlantal foramen along the groove for the vertebral artery1 through the notch in the wing of the atlas1 and across the lateral surface of the longus capitis muscle 7#e74 ,here it sends a branch caudad to join the second cervical 7k71 then crosses the vagus 7d7 and sympathetic and the carotid artery1 giving off communicating branches to the vagus and sympathetic1 and uniting with a branch of the descending ramus of the hypoglossal 7f74 ,at the lateral surface of the larynx it turns caudad1 following the lateral border of the sternothyroid muscle 7#g71 and is distributed to the sternohyoid 7#h7 and sternothyroid 7#g74 ,the ventral ramus of the second nerve 7,fig4 #aeh1 #b7 receives a branch from that of the first nerve1 passes laterad between the levator scapul ventralis 7c7 and the cleidomastoid 7d71 receives a communicating branch from the third cervical 7#c71 sends a branch to ,n4 accessorius 7#a7 and numerous small nerves into the sternomastoid 7e7 and cleidomastoid 7d71 then turns craniad and divides into ,n4 auricularis magnus 7#e7 and ,n4 cutaneus colli 7#f74 ,n4 auricularis magnus 7#e71 the great auricular nerve1 passes dorsocraniad across the lateral surface of the sternomastoid 7e7 to the lateral and caudal surface of the external ear and parotid gland 7f71 where it ramifies4 ,the cutaneus colli 7#f7 is the smaller1 ventral1 division of the second nerve2 it may receive also an accession from the third4 ,it passes to the integument over the ventral part of ,m4 masseter and ventrad of that muscle4 ,the third nerve 7,fig4 #aeh1 #c7 communicates with the second and supplies the levator scapul ventralis 7c71 cleidomastoid 7d71 sternomastoid 7e71 longus capitis1 and other muscles of this region and aids in forming the cutaneus colli 7#f74 ,the fourth 7#d7 and fifth are distributed to the muscles and integument of the sides of the neck4 ,a branch of the fourth supplies the integument in the hollow of the shoulder1 and one from the fifth follows the vena cephalica and supplies the integument over the shoulder4 ,the fifth by sending a branch to aid in forming the phrenic nerve 7,fig4 #aeg1 f7 may be considered to enter partly into the brachial plexus4 ,owing to the intercommunicating branches between the ventral roots of the first five cervical nerves1 these are sometimes considered as forming a loose plexus which receives the name cervical plexus4 ,the sixth1 seventh1 and eighth cervical nerves 7with a part of the fifth7 become interconnected with each other and with the first thoracic to form the brachial plexus4 ,the ,brachial ,plexus 7,fig4 #aei74--,the brachial plexus is formed by the ventral rami of the fifth1 sixth1 seventh1 and eighth cervical nerves and the first thoracic4 ,of the fifth cervical only a small part enters into the plexus1 forming part of the phrenic nerve4 ,the formation of the plexus is due to the union of the different nerves by means of strong connecting branches or ans4 ,the plexus lies in the axilla1 along with the axillary artery and vein2 all its component nerves pass laterad in front of the first rib4 ,its branches supply the arm and shoulder4 ,the precise arrangement of the different strands is somewhat variable4 ,the plexus is commonly made up in approximately the following manner 7,fig4 #aei74 ,from the fifth cervical nerve 7,v7 a small branch joins a similar one from the sixth to form the phrenic nerve 7a72 the remainder of the fifth does not enter into the plexus4 ,from the sixth cervical 7,,vi7 arise parts of the phrenic nerve 7a71 the suprascapular 7b71 the cranial one of the three subscapular nerves 7c71 the axillary 7d71 and the musculocutaneous 7f74 ,the sixth also gives off close to its origin a nerve 7b7 which passes to the inner surface of the levator scapul and ramifies over the surface1 supplying this muscle and extending to the rhomboideus1 which it also innervates4 ,the seventh cervical 7,,vii7 is the largest nerve entering into the plexus2 it furnishes parts of one or both of the anterior thoracic nerves 7k and n71 of the posterior thoracic 7m71 the three subscapular nerves 7c1 e1 and i71 the axillary 7d71 musculocutaneous 7f71 radial 7h71 and median 7g7 nerves4 ,the eighth cervical 7,,viii7 supplies parts of one of the anterior thoracic nerves 7k71 the caudal one of the subscapular nerves 7i71 the radial 7h71 median 7g71 and ulnar 7j7 nerves4 ,the first thoracic 7#a7 curves craniad1 so as to leave the thorax on the cranial side of the first rib2 it supplies the median cutaneous nerve 7l7 and parts of the radial 7h71 ulnar 7j71 and median 7g7 nerves2 sometimes also a part of one 7k7 of the anterior thoracic nerves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,right ,,brachial ,,plexus4 ,v1 ,,vi1 ,,vii1 ,,viii1 the fifth to eighth cervical nerves4 #a1 the first thoracic nerve4 a1 phrenic nerve2 b1 suprascapular2 b1 nerve to serratus anterior and levator scapul muscles2 c1 first or cranial subscapular nerve2 d1 axillary nerve2 e1 second subscapular2 f1 musculocutaneous2 g1 median2 h1 radial2 i1 third subscapular2 j1 ulnar2 k1 second anterior thoracic2 l1 medial cutaneous2 m1 posterior thoracic2 n1 first anterior thoracic4 ,the following are the nerves which arise from the brachial plexus3 ,a4 ,nerves of the ,shoulder and ,breast 7,fig4 #afj74 #a4 ,nn4 thoracici anteriores4--,there are two anterior thoracic nerves4 ,one 7,fig4 #afj1 h2 ,fig4 #aei1 n7 arises from the seventh cervical and passes to the pectoral muscles 7#i7 along with the anterior thoracic artery4 ,the other 7,fig4 #aei1 k2 ,fig4 #afj1 q and r7 arises usually by two roots1 one from the eighth cervical1 one from the first thoracic2 it passes along with the long thoracic artery to be distributed to the pectoralis muscles 7,fig4 #afj1 #h7 and sometimes also to the latissimus dorsi 7#g74 #b4 ,n4 thoracicus posterior4--,the posterior thoracic 7or long thoracic7 nerve 7external respiratory7 7,fig4 #aei1 m7 arises from the seventh cervical nerve near its beginning4 ,it passes within the scalenus muscle and extends caudad on the outer surface of the serratus anterior muscle1 which it supplies4 #c4 ,n4 suprascapularis 7,figs4 #aei and #afj1 b74--,the suprascapular nerve arises from the sixth 7and sometimes the seventh7 cervical4 ,it passes laterad and gives off a branch which passes over the shoulder-joint and penetrates the clavodeltoid muscle to be distributed to the integument on the ventral surface of the upper arm4 ,it then follows the transversa scapul artery into the supraspinatus fossa and accompanies the artery to be distributed to the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles4 #d4 ,nn4 subscapulares4--,the subscapular nerves are three4 ,the cranial one 7,figs4 #aei and #afj1 c7 arises from the sixth and seventh cervical and supplies the subscapular muscle4 ,the middle one 7,fig4 #aei1 e7 arises from the seventh2 it supplies principally the teres major4 ,the caudal one 7,fig4 #aei1 i7 arises from the seventh and eighth cervical and supplies the latissimus dorsi4 7,the points of origin from the plexus vary47 #e4 ,n4 axillaris 7or circumflexus7 7,fig4 #aei1 d74--,the axillary nerve arises from the sixth and seventh cervical nerves4 ,it passes toward the shoulder-joint1 then follows the posterior circumflex artery ventrad of the long head of the triceps to be distributed to the spinodeltoid and acromiodeltoid4 ,a branch of it continues to the clavobrachial1 which it supplies4 ,b4 ,the ,phrenic ,nerve 7,fig4 #aeg1 f1 page #cha74 #f4 ,n4 phrenicus4--,the phrenic nerve 7internal respiratory7 is formed by the junction of two slender branches1 one from the fifth and one from the sixth cervical nerves 7,fig4 #aei1 a74 7,it is said to receive sometimes a branch from the fourth47 ,it passes caudad into the thorax on the ventral surface of the subclavian artery and then extends to the diaphragm lying at the side of the inferior and superior ven cav4 ,it is the motor nerve of the diaphragm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4--;,,blood-,,vessels ,,and ,,the ,,more ,,ventral ,,nerves ,,of ,,the ,,axilla1 ,,ventral ,,view4 ,the pectoral and clavobrachial muscles have been cut and laid aside1 their ends being shown2 only a part of the nerves are exhibited4 #a1 ,m4 clavobrachialis2 #b1 cut end of ,m4 pectoralis major2 #c1 cut end of ,m4 pectoralis minor2 #d1 ,m4 biceps2 #e1 ,m4 teres major2 #f1 ,m4 epitrochlearis1 partly cut and turned back2 #g1 ,m4 latissimus dorsi1 partly cut2 #h1 ,m4 pectoralis minor2 #i1 ,m4 pectoralis major2 #aj1 short portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps brachii4 a1 branches of the thyrocervical axis to clavobrachial and clavotrapezius muscles2 b1 suprascapular nerve2 c1 first subscapular nerve2 d1 musculocutaneous nerve2 e1 median nerve2 f1 ,v4 axillaris2 g1 ,a4 axillaris2 h1 first anterior thoracic nerve1 accompanied by the anterior thoracic artery and vein2 i1 ,v4 subscapularis2 j1 large muscular branch 7to subscapular muscle7 of the subscapular vein and brachial artery2 l1 ,a4 subscapularis2 l1 ,a4 circumflexa humeri anterior2 m1 radial nerve2 n1 ulnar nerve2 o1 medial cutaneous nerve2 p1 ,a4 thoracica longa2 q1 r1 second anterior thoracic nerve2 s1 ,v4 thoracica longa2 t1 ,a4 and ,v4 thoracicodorsalis2 u1 ,a4 profunda brachii2 v1 branch of brachial artery accompanying medial cutaneous nerve2 w1 branch of ,a4 collateralis radialis superior2 x1 ,a4 collateralis radialis superior2 y1 ,v4 mediana cubiti2 z1 ,a4 collateralis ulnaris4 ,c4 ,nerves of the ,arm4 #g4 ,n4 musculocutaneus 7,fig4 #afj1 d74--,the musculocutaneous nerve or external cutaneous arises from the ventral surface of the sixth and seventh nerves 7,fig4 #aei1 f74 ,it passes toward the shoulder-joint and supplies the biceps 7,fig4 #afj1 #d7 and coracobrachialis muscles4 ,it then passes distad1 resting on the dorsal border of the biceps 7#d71 and supplies the brachialis muscle4 ,thence it passes dorsad of the biceps to the lateral side1 and reaches the integument by passing between the clavobrachialis and pectoantibrachialis muscles near the elbow2 it is then distributed to the skin on the radial side of the ventral surface of the forearm1 as far as the wrist 7,fig4 #acj1 h1 page #cai74 #h4 ,n4 cutaneus medialis 7,fig4 #afj1 o74--,the medial 7or internal7 cutaneous nerve rises from the first thoracic4 ,it passes distad along the medial side of the biceps1 and at the junction of the second and third thirds of the upper arm reaches the integument by passing between the epitrochlearis and pectoantibrachialis muscles4 ,it then curves spirally about the dorsal border of the forearm and is distributed to the integument of the forearm on the ulnar side1 extending nearly to the wrist4 #i4 ,n4 medianus 7,fig4 #afj1 e74--,the median nerve is formed by the junction of three branches1 one each from the seventh and eighth cervical with the brachial artery 7g7 passing between them1 and one from the first thoracic nerve4 ,it accompanies the brachial artery 7g7 lying on its medial side1 and passes with it through the supracondyloid foramen2 here it is connected by a branch to the musculocutaneous nerve4 ,it passes into the forearm 7,fig4 #afa1 b71 lying at first beneath the pronator teres 7#e74 ,here it gives branches to the pronator teres and flexor muscles 7flexor carpi radialis1 palmaris longus1 five heads of the flexor profundus digitorum1 but not to the flexor carpi ulnaris74 ,continuing along the forearm1 lying on the flexor carpi radialis1 it sends a posterior interosseous nerve to the pronator quadratus muscle and branches to the deep and superficial divisions of the flexor sublimis digitorum4 ,it thus supplies the flexor and pronator muscles 7except the flexor carpi ulnaris74 ,it then passes into the palm beneath the transverse ligament and gives rise to three principal branches4 ,the first of these supplies the integument of the thumb1 sending a branch on either side of it2 and onto the radial side of the second digit4 ,the second passes along the contiguous sides of the second and third digits and supplies their integument4 ,the third passes along the contiguous sides of the third and fourth digits to their integument4 ,each sends twigs into the trilobed pad in the palm1 so that there are thus seven terminal branches in the palm4 ,from these1 branches 7probably7 pass to the three radial ,mm4 lumbricales4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--,,nerves ,,and ,,arteries ,,of ,,the ,,forearm1 ,,seen ,,from ,,the ,,flexor ,,side4 ,mm4 palmaris longus1 flexor carpi radialis1 flexor carpi ulnaris1 and the third and fourth heads of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum have been removed2 also part of the pronator teres4 #a1 ,m4 biceps2 #b1 conjoined tendon of ,m4 brachialis and ,m4 clavobrachialis2 #c1 short portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps2 #d1 intermediate portion of caput mediale of ,m4 triceps brachii2 #e1 cut ends of ,m4 pronator teres2 #f1 ,m4 brachioradialis2 #g1 ,m4 extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis2 #h1 fifth head of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 #i1 second head of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 #aj1 radial part of ,m4 flexor sublimis digitorum2 #aa1 common tendon of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 #ab1 first head of ,m4 flexor profundus digitorum2 #ac1 cut origin of ,m4 flexor carpi ulnaris4 a1 ulnar nerve2 b1 median nerve2 c1 dorsal cutaneous branch of the ulnar nerve2 d1 palmar branch of ulnar nerve2 e1 deep palmar branch2 f1 superficial palmar branch2 g1 ,a4 brachialis2 g1 ,a4 radialis2 h1 ,a4 collateralis ulnaris superior2 i1 ,a4 radialis recurrens2 j1 ,a4 ulnaris recurrens2 k1 ,a4 ulnaris2 l1 ,a4 interossea anterior2 m1 large branch of ,a4 radialis1 joining ,a4 ulnaris4 #aj4 ,n4 radialis4--,the radial 7or musculospiral7 nerve is formed by the junction of branches from the seventh and eighth cervical and first thoracic nerves4 ,it immediately sends branches to the epitrochlearis1 long head of the triceps1 and long and intermediate portions of the medial head of the triceps4 ,it then passes between the long and intermediate portions of the medial head of the triceps1 following the profunda brachii artery1 and curves about the humerus to its cranial side4 ,it supplies there the lateral head of the triceps and the anconeus1 and1 lying on the brachialis muscle1 divides into a superficial and a deep branch4 ,the superficial branch is the superficial radial nerve 7,fig4 #acj1 g72 the deep one forms the dorsal 7or posterior7 interosseous nerve4 ,the former is sensory and the latter motor4 ,the superficial radial nerve 7,fig4 #acj1 g1 page #cai7 becomes cutaneous at the junction of the second and third thirds of the upper arm1 where it emerges from between the lateral head of the triceps and the brachialis muscle4 ,it then follows the course of the vena cephalica 7c7 to the wrist and follows the dorsal tributary of the same vein onto the dorsum of the hand4 ,it supplies the integument of the distal part of the ventral surface of the upper arm and that along the forearm4 ,on the hand it is distributed to the dorsal surface in the same manner as the median nerve on the ventral surface1 i4e4 to the integument of the thumb on both sides and to that of the medial side of the second digit2 to that of the contiguous sides of the second and third digits and of the contiguous sides of the third and fourth digits4 ,there are thus seven terminal branches1 one for each of these regions4 ,the dorsal interosseous nerve follows the brachialis muscle and passes onto the forearm between it and the extensor carpi radialis longus4 ,it supplies the supinator and extensor muscles of the forearm 7brachioradialis1 supinator1 extensor carpi radialis longus1 extensor carpi radialis brevis1 extensor communis digitorum1 extensor digitorum lateralis1 extensor indicis1 extensor brevis pollicis74 ,the dorsal interosseous and radial nerves thus supply all the extensor muscles of the forearm and upper arm and the supinators 7modified extensors74 #aa4 ,n4 ulnaris 7,fig4 #afj1 n74--,the ulnar nerve arises from the eighth cervical and first thoracic and accompanies the brachial artery 7g7 and median nerve 7e7 through the upper arm4 ,it does not pass through the supracondyloid foramen1 but curves over the dorsal end of the medial epicondyle of the humerus within the short division of the medial head of the triceps1 and reaches the dorsal border of the forearm4 ,in the forearm 7,fig4 #afa1 a7 it lies beneath the flexor carpi ulnaris4 ,it supplies muscular branches to the flexor carpi ulnaris and the first or ulnar head of the flexor profundus digitorum4 ,near the middle of the forearm it divides into two branches1 dorsal cutaneous 7c7 and palmar 7d74 ,the dorsal cutaneous branch 7c7 curves about the ulnar side of the wrist to the dorsum of the hand and divides into twigs which supply the dorsal part of the ulnar side of the fifth digit and of the contiguous sides of the fourth and fifth4 ,the palmar branch 7d7 sends a twig to the integument on the flexor surface of the arm near the wrist1 and then divides into deep palmar 7e7 and superficial palmar 7f7 branches4 ,the superficial palmar branch 7f7 passes into the palm and supplies the ventral portion of the integument on the ulnar side of the fifth digit1 and on the contiguous sides of the fifth and fourth4 ,the deep palmar branch 7e7 passes into the palm1 beneath the ligament of the pisiform bone4 ,just distad of the pisiform bone it curves toward the radial side and breaks up into a number of small branches which are distributed to the short muscles in the palm4 ,b4 ,,thoracic ,,nerves4 ,dorsal ,rami4--,the dorsal rami of the thoracic nerves are small and supply the muscles and integument of the back4 ,each gives off a branch directly dorsad to the spinal muscles1 and a lateral branch which reaches the integument some distance from the middle line4 ,ventral ,rami4--,the ventral ramus of the first thoracic nerve enters into the brachial plexus1 as already described4 ,the ventral rami of the other thoracic nerves form the intercostal nerves4 ,each of these passes ventrolaterad1 lying close to the caudal border of a rib1 in company with the intercostal artery4 ,branches are given to the intercostal muscles1 and at about the middle of the length of the rib a large lateral branch is given off1 which passes to the more superficial muscles of the thoracic wall 7serrati posteriores1 obliquus externus1 etc471 its main branches running dorsad and ventrad4 ,the main intercostal nerve extends ventrad to the transversus costarum and rectus abdominis1 supplying these muscles4 ,c4 ,,lumbar ,,nerves4--,there are seven lumbar nerves1 one passing from the vertebral canal caudad of each lumbar vertebra4 ,dorsal ,rami4--,the dorsal rami are similar to those of the thoracic region1 sending one branch dorsad to the muscles of the vertebral column1 another dorsolaterad to reach the integument at about the lateral border of the longissimus dorsi4 ,the dorsal rami are somewhat smaller caudad4 ,ventral ,rami4--,the last four lumbar nerves are interconnected to form the lumbar or lumbosacral plexus4 ,the first three are distinct1 and will therefore be described separately4 ,the first three lumbar nerves are directed strongly caudad 7as well as ventrad71 so that on leaving the intervertebral foramen they pass ventrad of the transverse process of the vertebra immediately succeeding4 ,each communicates with the sympathetic system and gives off near its origin branches to the muscles on the ventral side of the vertebr1--the first to the crus of the diaphragm1 the second and third 7,fig4 #afb1 ,,ii and ,,iii7 to the quadratus lumborum and psoas muscles4 ,each divides three to five centimeters from its origin into a lateral and a medial branch1 the first having a more cranial1 the latter a more caudal course4 ,the first three nerves of the cat are represented in man by the iliohypogastric and the ilioinguinal nerves4 ,there seems no good ground for applying these names to two of the three in the cat1 in preference to the third1 so that we shall speak of these nerves in the cat as simply the first1 second1 and third lumbar nerves4 #a4 ,the first lumbar nerve arises from the intervertebral foramen caudad of the first lumbar vertebra4 ,its lateral division passes between the transversus and obliquus internus muscles1 then between the obliquus internus and externus4 ,at about the middle of the abdomen it pierces the obliquus externus and is distributed to the integument of the middle of the ventral surface of the abdomen4 ,the medial division passes between the obliquus internus and transversus1 crosses the lateral division of the second 7lying mediad of it71 and extends to the rectus abdominis1 which it supplies4 #b4 ,the second lumbar nerve 7,fig4 #afb1 a7 divides1 like the others1 into two branches4 ,the lateral branch pierces the muscles of the abdominal wall at the lateral border of the longissimus dorsi and passes1 lying just beneath the integument1 ventrocaudad nearly to the pubis4 ,it supplies the integument of the caudal half of the abdomen and of the fold between the thigh and abdomen4 ,the medial branch passes at first almost directly caudad1 lying on the medial surface of the transversus abdominis2 it curves gradually ventrad1 lying in the substance of the transversus1 and reaches the rectus abdominis three or four centimeters craniad of the pubis4 #c4 ,the third lumbar nerve 7b7 is not united with the fourth1 as in many animals1 but remains distinct4 ,it divides one or two centimeters from its origin4 ,the lateral branch passes caudad to the outer surface of the abdominal muscles1 and extends1 lying just beneath the integument1 to that portion of the abdominal wall which is partly covered by the thigh4 ,the medial branch passes caudad on the lateral surface of the iliopsoas muscle1 follows the iliolumbar artery for a short distance1 and gives branches to the caudal part of the transversus and rectus abdominis muscles4 ,the ,lumbar ,plexus 7,fig4 #afb74--,the fourth1 fifth1 sixth1 and seventh lumbar nerves are interconnected by short branches1 forming thus the lumbar plexus4 ,they are also connected with the sacral plexus1 so that the two are often considered together as the lumbosacral plexus 7,fig4 #afb74 ,in some other animals the first three lumbar nerves form also a part of the plexus2 but they are not connected with it in the cat4 ,the fourth lumbar nerve forms the genitofemoral 7c7 and part of the lateral cutaneous 7d7 nerves1 and is connected by a short strand with the fifth4 ,the fifth aids in forming the lateral cutaneous 7d7 and femoral 7f7 nerves1 and is connected by a short branch with the sixth4 ,the sixth lumbar is large2 it forms the major part of the femoral 7f7 and a large part of the obturator nerve 7g71 and sends a large connecting branch caudad to join the seventh and thus pass into the sacral plexus4 ,the seventh passes caudad to join the sacral plexus and aid in forming the great sciatic nerve 7h72 by its connection with the sixth it aids in forming also the obturator nerve 7g74 #d4 ,n4 genitofemoralis 7or ,n4 lumboinguinalis7 7c1 c1 c74--,this is a direct continuation of the fourth lumbar nerve4 ,its medial branch 7c7 passes along the medial surface of the iliopsoas 7#h7 and the psoas minor 7#i7 to the external iliac artery1 accompanies this1 lying on the ventral surface1 from its origin to the point where it gives off the profunda femoris1 then accompanies the latter artery and passes onto that branch of it that spreads out under the integument of the ventral pelvic region4 ,it crosses the spermatic cord and ramifies in the skin of the proximal part of the medial side of the thigh4 ,the lateral branch of the genitofemoralis 7c7 pierces the psoas minor 7#i71 appearing on its ventral surface opposite the fifth lumbar vertebra4 ,it passes caudad on the ventral surface of this muscle1 crosses the iliolumbar artery1 then turns caudolaterad1 passes through the abdominal wall1 and is distributed to the craniomedial surface of the thigh and to the adjacent abdominal wall4 ,this nerve is variable in origin and in distribution4 ,its lateral branch is sometimes lacking4 #e4 ,n4 cutaneus femoris lateralis 7d74--,the lateral cutaneous nerve arises from the connecting strand between the fourth and fifth nerves1 most of its fibres coming from the fifth4 ,it passes caudoventrad between the iliopsoas and psoas minor and accompanies the iliolumbar artery across the ventral surface of the iliopsoas4 ,it pierces the abdominal wall in company with the artery and passes onto the cranial border of the thigh4 ,its terminal branches are distributed to the integument along with the branches of the iliolumbar artery1--supplying the lateral surface of the femur and extending as far as the knee4 #f4 ,n4 femoralis 7f74--,the femoral is a large nerve which rises by strong roots from the fifth and sixth lumbar nerves4 ,it gives branches to the iliopsoas 7#h7 and passes through that muscle to its ventral surface4 ,it leaves the abdominal cavity lying on the ventral surface of the iliopsoas1 and at the point where it pierces the abdominal wall it divides into three 7or four7 branches4 ,one 7or two7 of these pass to the sartorius muscle4 ,another passes between the rectus femoris and vastus medialis muscles1 and divides into numerous branches which supply these muscles and the vastus intermedius4 ,the third branch of the femoral is ,n4 saphenus or the long saphenous nerve 7,fig4 #abg1 g1 page #caj74 ,this passes distad along with the femoral artery and vein1 giving a few twigs to the integument4 ,where the long saphenous artery 7f7 separates from the femoral artery the nerve follows the former and passes with it along the medial side of the lower leg4 ,at the knee and in the lower leg it gives off a number of cutaneous branches1 and finally divides just distad of the middle of the lower leg into two main branches4 ,both of these pass to the concavity of the ankle-joint and divide into fine branches1 which form a sort of plexus on the ankle and dorsal surface of the foot2 branches from this can be traced almost to the toes4 #g4 ,n4 obturatorius 7,fig4 #afb1 g74--,the obturator nerve arises from the connecting band between the sixth and seventh nerves4 ,it lies at first laterad1 then dorsad1 of the common iliac vein1 and passes almost directly caudad to the cranial border of ,m4 obturator internus 7#ae74 ,here it turns sharply laterad about the pubis1 and passes through the obturator foramen4 ,it gives twigs to the obturator externus muscle1 and divides into several branches1 which innervate the adductor femoris1 adductor longus1 pectineus1 and gracilis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4--,,the ,,lumbar ,,and ,,sacral ,,nerves1 ,,as ,,seen ,,in ,a ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,dorsal ,,wall ,,of ,,the ,,abdominal ,,cavity1 ,,after ,,removal ,,of ,,the ,,viscera4 ,on the right side the iliopsoas1 psoas minor1 and quadratus lumborum have been removed4 ,the symphysis pubis has been split and the two parts divaricated1 to show the pelvic cavity2 on the right side parts of the innominate bones and the levator ani and coccygeus muscles have been removed4 ,,ii-,,vii1 second to seventh lumbar nerves2 #a-c1 first to third sacral nerves4 a1 second lumbar nerve2 b1 lateral and medial branches of third lumbar nerve2 c1 ,n4 genitofemoralis 7c1 its lateral branch2 c1 its medial branch72 d1 ,n4 cutaneus femoralis lateralis2 e1 muscular branch of ,n4 femoralis2 f1 ,n4 femoralis2 g1 ,n4 obturatorius2 h1 ,n4 ischiadicus or great sciatic nerve2 i1 ,n4 gluteus superior2 j1 ,n4 gluteus inferior2 k1 ,n4 cutaneus femoris posterior2 l1 ,n4 pudendus2 m1 ,n4 hemorrhoidalis inferior2 n1 part of the sympathetic 7incompletely shown1 merely to indicate connections with the spinal nerves72 #d1 ,m4 transversus abdominis2 #e1 #f1 cut edges of ,m4 obliquus internus and externus2 #g1 dorsal border of the diaphragm2 #h1 ,m4 iliopsoas 7mostly removed on the right side72 #i1 ,m4 psoas minor2 #aj1 ,m4 pyriformis2 #aa1 ,m4 levator ani2 #aa1 ,m4 iliocaudalis2 #ab1 ,m4 flexor caud longus2 #ac1 ,m4 flexor caud brevis2 #ad1 edge of pubic symphysis2 #ae1 cut end of ,m4 obturator internus2 #af1 cut ramus of ischium2 #ag1 cut ramus of pubis4 ,d4 ,,sacral ,,nerves ,,and ,,sacral ,,plexus 7,fig4 #afb74--;,a large band passes caudad from the sixth and seventh lumbar nerves to connect with the sacral nerves2 this constitutes the so-called lumbosacral cord4 ,the sacral nerves are three in number4 ,their dorsal rami pass dorsad out of the two posterior sacral foramina and the foramen caudad of the sacrum1 to the muscles and skin dorsad of the sacrum4 ,the ventral rami pass from the two anterior sacral foramina and from the foramen between the last sacral and first caudal vertebr4 ,the first is the largest2 it joins the lumbosacral cord to form the great sciatic nerve 7,n4 ischiadicus7 7h7 and the superior 7i7 and inferior 7j7 gluteal1 and sends a branch caudad to connect with the second sacral4 ,the second and third sacral nerves are small2 they unite with the connecting branch from the first to form a network from which arises the pudendus 7l71 cutaneus femoris posterior 7k71 hemorrhoidalis inferior 7m71 and a small branch to the great sciatic 7h74 ,the nerves arising from the sacral plexus are the following3 #a4 ,n4 gluteus superior 7,fig4 #afb1 i2 ,fig4 #afc1 j74--,the superior gluteal nerve arises from the lumbosacral cord and the first sacral nerve2 it passes dorsad in the notch between sacrum and ilium1 caudolaterad of the first anterior sacral foramen1 curves over the dorsal border of the ilium between the gluteus medius and pyriformis muscles 7,fig4 #afc1 #g71 passes between the gemellus superior 7#f7 and gluteus minimus 7#e7 and ventrad of the latter1 and reaches the medial surface of the tensor fasci lat1 which it innervates4 ,in its course it sends branches to the gluteus medius1 gluteus minimus 7#e71 and gemellus superior4 #b4 ,n4 gluteus inferior 7,fig4 #afb1 j2 ,fig4 #afc1 i74--,a small nerve from the lumbosacral cord and the first sacral nerve4 ,it passes dorsocaudad1 lying on the dorsal surface of the great sciatic nerve 7,fig4 #afb1 h74 ,after leaving the pelvis by the great sciatic notch it divides beneath the pyriformis 7,fig4 #afc1 #g7 into two branches2 one goes to ,m4 caudofemoralis 7#d71 the other to ,m4 gluteus maximus 7#c74 #c4 ,n4 ischiadicus 7,fig4 #afb1 h2 ,fig4 #afc1 a74--,the great sciatic nerve1 the largest nerve in the body1 arises from the lumbosacral cord 7formed chiefly by the sixth and seventh lumbar nerves71 the first sacral nerve and a small branch from the second sacral4 ,it passes caudodorsad and leaves the pelvis by passing across the great sciatic notch1 between ,m4 pyriformis and ,m4 gemellus superior4 ,it passes across the tendon of ,m4 obturator internus 7,fig4 #afc1 #i7 near the insertion1 and here sends caudad a large muscular branch 7b7 beneath the biceps4 ,this branch innervates the biceps1 semitendinosus 7#ag7 and semimembranosus 7#af74 ,other twigs in this region pass to the quadratus femoris 7#aj7 and tenuissimus4 ,the great sciatic nerve 7a7 now passes across the quadratus femoris 7#aj71 adductor femoris 7#ae71 and semimembranosus 7#af71 lying beneath the biceps femoris4 ,it thus enters the popliteal space and approaches the popliteal artery and vein4 ,here it gives off one or two small muscular branches to the distal part of the biceps1 and sends a slender branch1 ,n4 suralis 7c71 along the medial surface of the biceps to the lateral surface of the lateral head of ,m4 gastrocnemius 7#bj74 ,the sural nerve 7c7 becomes cutaneous at the distal 7ventral7 border of the biceps1 and divides three or four centimeters proximad of the ankle into two branches4 ,one passes over the tendon of ,achilles 7#bg7 to the proximal end of the calcaneus and ramifies in this region4 ,the other passes onto the lateral surface of the foot1 and supplies the integument in this region over the tarsus and part of the metatarsus4 ,the great sciatic nerve now divides in the popliteal space into the peroneus communis 7d7 and the tibialis 7e74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc4--;,,dissection ,,of ,,leg1 ,,lateral ,,view1 ,,to ,,show ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,sciatic ,,nerve4 ,the biceps1 caudofemoralis1 gluteus maximus1 gluteus medius1 tensor vagin femoris1 and part of the peroneus longus have been removed4 a1 ,n4 ischiadicus or great sciatic nerve2 b1 muscular branch2 c1 ,n4 suralis2 d1 ,n4 peroneus communis2 e1 ,n4 tibialis2 f1 ,n4 peroneus profundus2 g1 ,n4 peroneus superficialis and its terminal branches2 h1 branches of ,n4 cutaneus femoris posterior2 i1 ,n4 gluteus inferior2 j1 ,n4 gluteus superior2 k1 vena saphena parva2 k1 communicating branch to ,v4 glutea inferior4 #a1 ,m4 sartorius2 #b1 cut origin of ,m4 gluteus medius2 #c1 cut origin of ,m4 gluteus maximus2 #d1 cut origin of ,m4 caudofemoralis2 #e1 ,m4 gluteus minimus2 #f1 ,m4 gemellus superior2 #g1 ,m4 pyriformis2 #h1 ,m4 flexor caud longus2 #i1 ,m4 obturator internus2 #aj1 ,m4 quadratus femoris2 #aa1 tuberosity of the ischium2 #ab1 great trochanter of femur2 #ac1 ,m4 rectus femoris2 #ad1 ,m4 vastus lateralis2 #ae1 ,m4 adductor femoris2 #af1 ,m4 semimembranosus2 #ag1 ,m4 semitendinosus 7the slender ribbon-like muscle crossing this is ,m4 tenuissimus72 #ah1 ,m4 vastus intermedius2 #ai1 ,m4 plantaris2 #bj1 ,m4 gastrocnemius2 #ba1 ,m4 peroneus longus 7cut72 #bb1 ,m4 tibialis anterior2 #bc1 ,m4 extensor longus digitorum2 #bd1 transverse ligament2 #be1 ,m4 peroneus brevis2 #bf1 ,m4 soleus2 #bg1 tendon of ,achilles2 #bh1 ,m4 extensor brevis digitorum2 #bi1 tendon of ,m4 peroneus tertius4 a4 ,n4 peroneus communis 7d74--,this is the more lateral of the two divisions of the great sciatic nerve4 ,it passes along the medial surface of the biceps to the lateral surface of the lateral head of ,m4 gastrocnemius 7#bj71 where it extends to a point just distad of the head of the fibula4 ,here it passes beneath that part of the gastrocnemius which has origin on the fascia of the shank1 passes between the soleus and peroneus longus 7#ba71 then between the peroneus longus and peroneus tertius4 ,it gives off a number of small muscular branches1 then divides two or three centimeters distad of the head of the fibula into two main branches1 ,n4 peroneus superficialis 7g7 and ,n4 peroneus profundus 7f74 7#a7 ,n4 peroneus superficialis 7g74--,the superficial peroneal nerve passes distad between the peroneus longus and peroneus tertius4 ,near the ankle it becomes superficial1 passing along the concavity of the ankle across the transverse ligament which binds down the tendons of the extensor longus 7#bc7 and tibialis anterior 7#bb71 and thus reaches the dorsal side of the foot4 ,two or three minute twigs are given off to the ankle1 then the nerve divides into four divisions4 ,these pass distad to the toes1 subdividing so as to send a nerve to each side of each toe4 7#b7 ,n4 peroneus profundus 7f74--,the deep peroneal nerve passes between the tibialis anterior and extensor longus digitorum muscles1 gives branches to these muscles1 and passes distad with the tibialis anterior artery1 lying on the inner surface of the tibialis anterior muscle4 ,it passes onto the dorsum of the foot1 lying on the inner surface of the tendon of the muscle4 ,on the tarsus it divides into two branches4 ,the lateral branch passes into the extensor brevis digitorum1 while the medial one extends in the dorsal groove between metatarsals four and five to the toes2 here it divides into two nerves which supply the contiguous sides of digits four and five4 b4 ,n4 tibialis 7e74--,the tibial nerve passes distad parallel with the peroneal nerve1 but mediad of it4 ,it passes between the lateral and medial heads of the gastrocnemius1 giving off muscular branches to these1 and to the plantaris and soleus4 ,it then passes between the plantaris and the medial head of the gastrocnemius1 and reaches the space between the plantaris and flexor longus hallucis1 where it passes distad4 ,it gives off1 in the region just described1 muscular branches to the flexor longus digitorum1 flexor longus hallucis1 and tibialis posterior4 ,below the middle of the lower leg the nerve becomes superficial 7,fig4 #abg1 i1 page #caj71 lying on the ventral surface of the flexor longus hallucis4 ,it passes in the depression between the heel and the medial malleolus onto the plantar surface of the tarsus1 sends a small branch to the plantar surface of the heel1 and divides into two branches1 the medial and the lateral plantar nerves4 7#a7 ,n4 plantaris medialis4--,the medial plantar nerve passes along the medial border of the flexor brevis digitorum and divides into two branches4 ,one passes to the medial 7second7 digit1 supplying both sides2 the other supplies the third digit in the same way4 ,both send branches to the fibrous pad on the sole of the foot4 7#b7 ,n4 plantaris lateralis4--,the lateral plantar nerve passes laterad across the tendon of the flexor longus digitorum to its lateral edge4 ,at about the proximal end of the metatarsi it divides into two branches4 ,the lateral branch passes distad to the ventral surface of the fifth digit4 ,the medial branch passes beneath the tendon of the flexor longus digitorum and transversely across the interossei2 it divides into numerous tendons which innervate the interossei and other short muscles of the sole of the foot4 #d4 ,n4 pudendus 7,fig4 #afb1 l2 ,fig4 #aab1 #h1 page #bfe74--,this arises 7,fig4 #afb1 l7 from the sacral plexus caudad of the great sciatic nerve4 ,it has two roots1 one from the second sacral1 one from the third1 and it may also receive a small accession from the great sciatic nerve 7h7 three or four centimeters caudad of the origin of the latter4 ,it passes at first dorsolaterad1 laterad of the coccygeus muscle1 then curves mediad toward the anus4 ,it divides into two branches3 one passes to the base of the penis1 sends twigs into the compressor urethr muscle1 and passes onto the dorsal surface of the penis4 ,this branch is ,n4 dorsalis penis2 it extends with the artery of the same name to the glans4 ,the second branch of ,n4 pudendus 7,n4 hemorrhoidalis medius7 passes to the anus and innervates the muscles and other structures about the caudal end of the rectum4 ,in the female1 branches of ,n4 pudendus supply the urogenital sinus and adjacent structures 7,fig4 #aab1 #h74 #e4 ,n4 cutaneus femoris posterior 7,fig4 #afb1 k2 ,fig4 #afc1 h74--,this arises from the sacral plexus1 its roots coming chiefly from the second and third sacral nerves1 and passes caudodorsad1 at first in close connection with ,n4 pudendus4 ,it then accompanies the posterior gluteal artery and vein1 sends branches 7perineal nerves7 into the fat at the sides of the anus1 and branches onto the lateral surface of the biceps muscle4 ,one of the latter follows the communicating vein 7,fig4 #afc1 k7 from ,v4 saphena parva1 and may be traced as far distad as the popliteal space4 #f4 ,n4 hemorrhoidalis inferior 7or posterior7 7,fig4 #afb1 m74--,this arises by two roots1 from the second and third sacral nerves1 and passes with the inferior hemorrhoidal artery ventrad across the lateral surface of the rectum to the urethra4 ,here it divides into two parts3 one passes craniad to the bladder1 the other caudad onto the ventrolateral surface of the rectum4 ,a small nerve passes from the sacral plexus1 especially from the third sacral nerve1 into ,m4 levator ani 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa74 ,another small nerve from the same region passes to ,m4 coccygeus1 and a third to the proximal end of ,m4 tenuissimus4 ,e4 ,,nerves ,,of ,,the ,,tail4 ,,coccygeal ,,nerves4--,from the intervertebral foramina of the first seven or eight caudal vertebr spinal nerves of the usual type are given off4 ,the dorsal rami innervate the dorsal muscles of the tail4 ,the ventral rami are interconnected with each other and with the last sacral nerve by a longitudinal cord2 they innervate the muscles and integument of the ventral side of the tail4 #c4 ,the ,sympathetic ,nervous ,system4 ,systema nervorum sympathicum4 ,the sympathetic system consists essentially of a chain of ganglia on each side of the ventral surface of the vertebral column1 interconnected by longitudinal nerve-cords1 and stretching from the base of the skull to the tail4 ,the ganglia are connected to the spinal nerves by communicating branches1 and numerous branches pass from them to the abdominal and thoracic viscera1 and to the walls of the lymph- and blood-vessels1 forming complicated plexuses4 ,cervical portion 7,fig4 #aef1 page #cgi74--,the sympathetic system begins just caudad of the tympanic bulla as the superior cervical ganglion 7,g4 cervicale superius7 7,fig4 #aef1 e74 ,this is a large ganglion closely applied to the ganglion nodosum 7d7 of the vagus1 and lying on its ventrocranial side4 ,from the superior cervical ganglion the sympathetic trunk passes caudad usually closely bound up with the vagus 7d71 so that the two can scarcely be distinguished4 ,they lie 7i7 at the side of the trachea 7#f71 close against the lateral surface of the carotid artery4 ,a few centimeters before reaching the first rib the two separate 7,fig4 #aeg1 page #cha72 the sympathetic 7c7 is here the smaller and more dorsal of the two4 ,just craniad of the first rib the sympathetic usually forms a small swelling1 the middle cervical ganglion 7,fig4 #aeg1 d71 beyond which it divides into two portions4 ,the larger dorsal division passes dorsocaudad and joins a large ganglion1 the inferior cervical 7e71 which lies at the head of the first rib1 on the lateral surface of the longus colli muscle4 ,the ventral branch 7g7 passes caudad1 turns laterad about the medial and caudal surface of the subclavian artery1 and likewise reaches the inferior cervical ganglion4 ,in some cases the middle cervical ganglion 7d7 is lacking4 ,branches of the ,sympathetic in the ,cervical ,region4--,from the cranial end of the superior cervical ganglion several nerves pass craniad4 ,some of these become connected immediately with the cranial nerves emerging from the jugular foramen1 forming a plexus in this region4 ,others pass with the internal carotid artery craniad1 forming a plexus about that artery2 from the plexus twigs arise which pass to the fifth and sixth cranial nerves2 doubtless also to the seventh and eighth4 ,a specially large branch1 the deep petrosal nerve 7see page #cgc71 passes from the superior cervical ganglion along with the internal carotid artery to the pterygoid canal1 thence through this to the sphenopalatine ganglion4 ,before separating from the vagus the sympathetic gives off one or two cardiac nerves 7,fig4 #aeg1 i74 ,these are closely bound up with the vagus 7b71 so that they appear usually to have origin from the vagus at about the level of the first rib4 ,these pass with the vagus to the heart and take part in the formation of the cardiac plexus 7k74 ,at the middle cervical ganglion 7d7 usually a communicating branch is given to the vagus4 ,the branches of the inferior cervical ganglion 7e7 fall in the thoracic region1 and are described in that connection4 ,thoracic ,portion of the ,sympathetic 7,fig4 #aeg1 page #cha74--,the inferior cervical ganglion 7e7 lies entirely within the thoracic cavity4 ,it has the following branches3 #a4 ,one or two small cardiac branches 7h71 which pass to the heart 7r74 #b4 ,a large communicating branch 7e71 which passes craniad from the cranial end of the ganglion 7e7 along the lateral surface of the longus colli muscle1 and gives communicating branches to the sixth1 seventh1 and eighth cervical nerves 7,,vi1 ,,vii1 and ,,viii74 #c4 ,one or two small communicating branches to the first thoracic nerve 7,i74 #d4 ,a communicating branch to the second thoracic nerve4 ,the arrangement of these communicating branches is somewhat variable2 they may arise in various combinations1 as at first united1 or as more or less completely separated nerves4 ,the sympathetic trunk 7c7 continues caudad from the caudal end of the inferior cervical ganglion1 lying at first on the lateral surface of the longus colli1 then on the lateral surface of the centra of the vertebr4 ,for each vertebra there is a slight enlargement1 forming one of the thoracic ganglia of the sympathetic1 and from each ganglion one or two communicating branches are given off to the corresponding spinal nerve4 ,just caudad of the last rib 7but while still in the thoracic cavity7 the sympathetic gives off the large ,n4 splanchnicus major or great splanchnic nerve 7n71 which passes ventrocaudad and pierces the diaphragm4 ,the sympathetic itself then passes through the diaphragm laterad of the crus4 ,abdominal ,portion of the ,sympathetic 7,fig4 #afd74--,the great splanchnic nerve 7b7 passes through the diaphragm 7#b7 laterad of the crus1 extends two or three centimeters caudoventrad1 and joins a large ganglion lying just caudad of the cliac artery 7#d71 almost on the lateral surface of the superior mesenteric 7#e74 ,this is the cliac 7or semilunar7 ganglion 7d74 ,from it nerves branch in all directions1 forming the cliac plexus 7c71 a part of the large solar plexus4 ,less than a centimeter ventrocaudad of the cliac ganglion1 on the caudal surface of the superior mesenteric artery 7#e71 is the somewhat smaller superior mesenteric ganglion 7f72 the two are connected by two strong nerve-trunks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afd4--,,sympathetic ,,and ,,vagus ,,in ,,the ,,abdomen 7,,somewhat ,,schematic74 #a1 stomach2 #b1 crus and cut edge of diaphragm2 #c1 aorta2 #d1 cliac artery2 #e1 superior mesenteric artery2 #f1 kidney2 #g1 inferior mesenteric artery2 #h1 large intestine4 a1 main trunk of sympathetic2 b1 great splanchnic nerve2 c1 lesser splanchnic nerves2 d1 cliac 7or semilunar7 ganglion2 e1 cliac plexus2 f1 superior mesenteric ganglion2 g1 superior mesenteric plexus1 following the artery2 h1 aortic plexus2 i1 inferior mesenteric ganglion and plexus2 j1 suprarenal plexus on suprarenal body2 k1 renal plexus following renal artery2 l1 ventral sophageal branch of vagus1 forming anterior gastric plexus2 m1 dorsal sophageal branch of vagus1 forming posterior gastric plexus4 ,the cliac ganglion 7d7 receives from the sympathetic 7a71 in addition to the great splanchnic nerve1 two 7or three7 lesser splanchnic nerves 7c71 which arise from the main trunk of the sympathetic1 the first just as it reaches the abdominal cavity1 the second one or two centimeters caudad of the diaphragm4 ,from the cliac and superior mesenteric ganglia a network of nerves passes in all directions to the abdominal viscera4 ,these nerves follow especially the arteries1 forming plexuses over their surfaces1 and passing with them to the organs which they supply4 ,the cliac plexus anastomoses with the posterior gastric plexus of the vagus4 ,parts of the cliac plexus following the branches of the cliac artery may be distinguished as hepatic plexus1 splenic plexus1 etc4 ,a dense plexus is formed on the surface of the suprarenal body 7suprarenal plexus1 j71 and a renal plexus 7k7 follows the renal artery to the kidneys 7#f74 ,the superior mesenteric plexus 7g7 forms a dense network over the superior mesenteric artery 7#e7 and follows it to the intestine4 ,a plexus passes caudad on the aorta 7aortic plexus1 h74 ,this is a continuation of the cliac and superior mesenteric plexuses2 it receives a number of branches from the main sympathetic trunk1 lying dorsad of the aorta4 ,the aortic plexus contains a number of small ganglia4 ,from the aortic plexus the smaller inferior mesenteric plexus 7i7 follows the inferior mesenteric artery 7#g7 to the large intestine2 in this lies a ganglion of considerable size1 the inferior mesenteric ganglion4 ,in the pelvic region small plexuses are formed in a similar manner1 from branches given off by the main sympathetic trunk1 together with branches from the plexuses of the abdominal cavity4 ,these plexuses supply the various organs in the pelvis4 ,the main sympathetic trunk 7a7 passes into the abdomen at the side of the crus of the diaphragm1 lying dorsad of the great splanchnic nerve 7b74 ,in the abdomen it lies nearer the middle line than in the thorax1 so that the two trunks of right and left side are separated by but a few millimeters as they lie on the ventral surface of the centra of the lumbar vertebr4 ,there is a ganglion for each vertebra 7,fig4 #afb1 n71 and from each ganglion are given off one or more communicating branches to the spinal nerves1 and usually a branch which passes ventrad to join one of the plexuses among the viscera4 ,the first three branches of this kind 7,fig4 #afd1 c7 are larger and pass to the cliac and superior mesenteric ganglia4 ,the sympathetic may be traced into the pelvis1 where it becomes smaller1 and is lost as the caudal region is reached4 ,,sense-,,organs ,,and ,,integument4 ,i4 ,,the ,,organ ,,of ,,sight4 ,,organon ,,visus4 #a4 ,the ,orbit4--,the bony framework of the orbital fossa1 in which the organ of sight is situated1 has already been described 7page #ec74 ,the orbit is not protected by bone on all sides1 being open caudad and ventrad1 and partly laterad4 ,the structures within the orbit are further protected and separated from other structures by a very thin1 tough1 transparent membranous sac1 the periorbita1 which surrounds them almost completely and nearly fills the orbit4 ,the periorbita forms a conical sac with the apex of the cone directed caudoventrad and attached about the optic foramen and orbital fissure4 ,the base of the cone is attached about the margin of the orbital fossa1--to the supraorbital margin of the frontal1 to the maxillary and malar bones1 and to the orbital ligament1 connecting the frontal process of the malar with the zygomatic process of the frontal4 ,the periorbita is partly separated from the walls of the orbital fossa by masses of fat4 ,it comes in contact1 aside from the bones1 with the temporal and pterygoid muscles1 and with nerves and blood-vessels in the orbit4 ,the sac thus formed encloses the eyeball with its muscles and glands 7,fig4 #aff71 as well as a mass of fat in which these are imbedded4 ,the periorbita and its contents are freely movable with relation to surrounding structures4 #b4 ,the ,eyelids4 ,palpebr4--,the eyelids are two thin folds which protect the eye4 ,externally they are covered with hair2 internally by the thin membranous conjunctiva4 ,the eyelids contain the ,meibomian or tarsal glands1 arranged in short rows passing perpendicularly inward from the edge of the lids2 these may sometimes be seen with the naked eye as broad yellowish lines4 ,they secrete a substance which prevents the adhesion of the edges of the two lids4 ,on the edge of each eyelid1 three to four millimeters from the medial angle of the eye1 is one of the openings of the lachrymal canals4 ,at the medial angle of the eye is the large nictitating membrane 7membrana nictitans71 or 8third eyelid10 corresponding to the plica semilunaris of man4 ,in the cat this is large and may cover the whole surface of the eye4 ,it is supported 7,fig4 #afe7 by a broad central strip of cartilage 7a71 passing from its edge to its inner angle1 and the inner end of this cartilage is surrounded1 on the medial 7concave7 side of the membrane1 by the large lobulated ,harderian glands 7b74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe4--;,,inner ,,surface ,,of ,,membrana ,,nictitans1 showing the supporting cartilage and ,harderian glands4 a1 supporting cartilage2 b1 ,harderian glands2 c1 outer edge4 ,the conjunctiva is the thin membrane covering the inner surface of the lids1 the outer surface of the eyeball1 and both surfaces of the nictitating membrane4 ,the muscles of the eyelids are ,m4 orbicularis oculi1 already described 7page #ih71 and ,m4 levator palpebr superioris1 described below4 #c4 ,lachrymal ,apparatus4--,the lachrymal gland is a large reddish gland1 not lobulated externally1 which lies on the surface of the eyeball just beneath the lateral angle of the eye4 ,the gland is situated immediately craniad of1 and in contact with1 the zygomatic process of the frontal bone 7,fig4 #aed1 #aa1 page #cgd74 ,it is flat and about one centimeter in diameter4 ,the ducts which pass from the gland to the eye are not visible to the naked eye4 ,the fluid secreted by the gland collects at the medial angle of the eye and passes into the two openings of the lachrymal canals1 one of which is found on the pigmented edge of each lid1 three or four millimeters from the medial angle of the eye4 ,the canals passing from these openings soon unite to form the nasolachrymal duct1 which passes through the lachrymal bone1 along the medial surface of the maxillary1 to open into the nasal cavity ventrad of the ventral concha of the nose4 #d4 ,muscles of the ,orbit 7,fig4 #aff74--,within the orbit are eleven muscles1 ten connected with the eyeball1 and one1 ,m4 levator palpebr superioris1 with the upper eyelid4 ,of the ten muscles of the eyeball1 eight are straight muscles1 passing from an origin about the inner end of the orbit directly distad2 the other two have an oblique direction4 ,four of the straight muscles are larger and are known as the ,mm4 recti 7b1 c1 d72 these are distinguished according to their position as lateral 7c71 medial1 superior 7d71 and inferior 7b74 ,the four smaller straight muscles constitute together ,m4 retractor oculi 7e74 ,the two oblique muscles are known as ,mm4 obliqui and are distinguished according to their position as inferior 7a7 and superior4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,eyeball1 ,,lateral ,,view4 a1 ,m4 obliquus inferior2 b1 ,m4 rectus inferior2 c1 ,m4 rectus lateralis2 d1 ,m4 rectus superior2 e1 parts of ,m4 retractor oculi2 f1 the oculomotor nerve4 ,mm4 recti 7b1 c1 d74--,the four recti muscles arise from the bone about the optic foramen and pass toward the eyeball4 ,they are inserted by thin1 flat tendons along a line which separates the darker caudal part of the sclerotic from the white zone of the sclerotic which borders the cornea1--the line of insertion of the four tendons forming thus a circle about the eyeball4 ,the rectus superior 7d7 is partly covered by ,m4 levator palpebr superioris4 ,the tendon of the rectus inferior 7b7 is crossed by ,m4 obliquus inferior 7a74 ,the recti muscles are all innervated by the oculomotor 7third7 nerve 7f71 except the lateral 7c71 which is supplied by the abducens 7sixth7 nerve4 ,m4 retractor oculi 7e74--,the retractor oculi arises about the optic foramen and divides into four heads which lie nearer the eyeball than the recti and are therefore partly covered by the latter4 ,they alternate with the recti and are inserted into the eyeball at about its equator1 except the inferior division1 which is inserted on a line with the recti4 ,they are supplied by the oculomotor nerve4 ,m4 obliquus inferior 7a74--,the inferior oblique arises from the maxillary bone just laterad of the lachrymal bone and curves over the ventral side of the eyeball along the lines of insertion of the recti1 crossing the tendon of the rectus inferior 7b7 to the ventral edge of the tendon of the lateral rectus 7c71 where it is inserted4 ,it rotates the eyeball and is supplied by the third nerve 7f74 ,m4 obliquus superior4--,the superior oblique takes origin from the cranial border of the optic foramen1 passes dorsocraniad1 and ends in a small rounded tendon which passes through a fibrous pulley-ring4 ,this ring is situated near the rim of the orbit1 one or two centimeters craniad of the zygomatic process of the frontal bone1 and is attached to the wall of the orbit by two fibrous bands4 ,after passing through the pulley-ring the tendon turns and passes laterocaudad2 it becomes much expanded1 passes caudad of the superior rectus1 and is inserted into the eyeball along the caudal margin of the insertion of the superior rectus tendon4 ,the superior oblique is supplied by the trochlear 7fourth7 nerve4 ,m4 levator palpebr superioris4--,this is a small thin muscle which takes origin on the wall of the optic foramen close to the rectus superior1 passes over the outer surface of the rectus superior and beneath the lachrymal gland1 and forms a thin tendon which is inserted into the margin of the upper eyelid4 ,it is innervated by the oculomotor4 #e4 ,the ,eyeball4--,the eyeball is approximately spherical in form1 but the cranial surface has a slightly greater curvature than the caudal portion1 so that the eye appears slightly pointed at the cranial 7free7 surface4 ,the large cylindrical optic nerve 7,fig4 #afg1 a7 enters the eyeball at nearly the centre of the caudal half of the eye4 ,on the outer surface is seen the transparent cornea 7c71 covering the free surface of the eye1 and the opaque sclerotic 7b71 covering the remainder of the ball4 ,through the cornea can be seen the yellow curtain-like iris1 with an opening in its centre1 the pupil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afg4--;,,diagram ,,of ,a ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,eye4 a1 optic nerve2 b1 sclerotic 7b1 thickened 8white zone072 c1 cornea2 d1 choroid2 e1 iris2 f1 ciliary body2 g1 retina2 h1 crystalline lens2 i1 zonula ciliaris2 j1 anterior chamber of eye2 k1 vitreous humor4 ,coats of the ,eye 7,fig4 #afg74--,the outer coat of the eyeball is formed by the sclerotic 7or sclera7 7b7 and the cornea 7c74 ,the sclerotic is the whitish opaque portion covering the caudal three-fourths of the eye4 ,it forms a tough sac serving as a protection for the structures within4 ,the cornea 7c7 is the circular transparent portion of the outer coat1 covering the free surface of the eye2 it is a direct continuation of the sclerotic4 ,just before passing into the cornea the sclerotic is much thickened1 forming a broad white zone 7b7 about the eyeball near its equator4 ,to this zone1 at its caudal margin1 are attached the rectus muscles of the eyeball4 ,the sclerotic has many pigment-cells on its inner surface1 giving it a brownish appearance and forming the lamina fusca4 ,the cornea 7c7 is transparent and more strongly curved than the sclerotic4 ,it is thicker than most of the sclerotic coat1 but not so thick as the white zone of the latter4 ,within the sclerotic is the second coat of the eye1 formed by the choroid 7d7 and the iris 7e74 ,the choroid 7d7 is a vascular layer1 and contains much pigment1 giving it a dark color4 ,it lines the inner surface of the sclerotic1 but does not cover the inner surface of the cornea4 ,at the white zone of the sclerotic it is thrown into a large number 7about seventy7 of meridional folds1 the plic ciliares or ciliary folds1 which together constitute the so-called ciliary body 7corpus ciliare7 7f74 ,this forms a circular zone on the inner surface of the white zone of the sclerotic1 and is continuous with the iris 7e74 ,the choroid coat is furnished in certain parts of its area with a layer of cells containing crystals1 which give it a brilliant color1 forming the tapetum4 ,the color of the tapetum is a metallic yellowish blue or green2 it is this layer which causes the cat's eye to 8shine0 in the dark4 ,the iris 7e7 is a continuation of the choroid4 ,it projects inward from the white zone of the sclerotic1 forming a circular curtain lying some distance behind the cornea1 and perforated by an opening1 the pupil4 ,the iris is usually yellow in color on its outer surface1 darkly pigmented within4 ,the pupil varies normally in size and form according to the amount of light to which the eye is subjected4 ,in a cat killed with chloroform the pupil is very large and circular2 in the living animal it is elliptical with the long axis dorsoventral1 or when much contracted it is a mere dorsoventral slit4 ,the inner coat of the eye is formed by the retina 7g74 ,this is the part of the eye which is sensitive to light2 it is formed by an expansion of the optic nerve 7a74 ,in a preserved eye it is usually soft and opaque1 and may be seen to line the caudal half of the inner surface1 extending apparently to the ciliary body4 ,here it seems to end as a free margin1 the ora serrata2 it really becomes thin and passes onto the surface of the ciliary body1 forming the ciliary portion of the retina1 and onto the inner surface of the iris1 where it forms the uvea4 ,near the centre of the retina the entrance of the optic nerve is marked by a small round spot1 the blind spot4 ,the ,crystalline ,lens 7h74--,the lens is a biconvex transparent body situated within the eye a little in front of the ciliary body and just behind the iris4 ,it is more strongly convex in front than behind4 ,the lens is surrounded by a thin transparent sac1 the capsule of the lens 7capsula lentis74 ,the capsule of the lens is attached all around the equator of the lens by fibrous bands to the ciliary body1 this attachment forming the zonula ciliaris 7or zonula ,zinni7 7i71 by which the lens is suspended4 ,chambers of the ,eye4--,the lens 7h7 and zonula ciliaris 7i7 form a partition dividing the eye into two parts4 ,the cavity in front of the lens contains a fluid1 the aqueous humor4 ,this cavity is partly subdivided by the iris into the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye4 ,the part of the eye lying behind the lens is much larger than the part in front of the lens4 ,it is lined chiefly by the retina1 its front boundary being the lens4 ,it contains a jelly-like substance1 the vitreous humor 7or vitreous body1 corpus vitreum74 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ear4 ,,organon ,,auditus4 ,the ear of the cat1 like that of man1 is composed of three parts1 the external1 middle1 and internal ear4 ,the external ear is limited internally by the tympanic membrane4 ,the middle ear extends from the tympanic membrane to the fenestra cochle and fenestra vestibuli4 ,it contains the bones of the ear1 and is connected with the pharynx by the ,eustachian tube4 ,the internal ear is wholly contained within the petrous bone1 and on the surface of the membrane lining its cavities are distributed the branches of the auditory 7eighth7 nerve4 ,the ,external ,ear4 ,the external ear consists of an expanded portion1 the auricle 7auricula7 or pinna1 and of a canal leading from the auricle to the tympanic membrane1 known as the external auditory meatus4 ,the concave surface of the auricle is directed craniolaterad1 and its edges form the dorsal and lateral boundaries of the auditory opening4 ,from the bottom of the cavity which it partly encloses1 the external auditory meatus passes medioventrad4 ,the auricle 7,fig4 #afh7 is composed of a thin curved plate of cartilage 7cartilago auricul71 to which numerous muscles are attached and which is covered on both sides by integument intimately attached to the cartilage4 ,distad the edges of the cartilage form a free border 7b72 proximad the plate is rolled together in such a way that its edges 7g and h7 overlap on the craniomedial side1 thus enclosing a tube or funnel 7e7 7concha7 which forms the enlarged outer portion of the auditory passage4 ,within the cavity of the auricle1 on its medial surface1 somewhat below the level of the lowest portion of the margin of the auditory opening is seen a very prominent pedunculated process 7d74 ,this is really part of a transverse ridge1 extending craniocaudad on the medial wall of the auricular cavity4 ,this ridge is the antihelix 7d72 it divides the auricula into a distal and a proximal portion4 ,the portion distad of the antihelix is the scapha 7a72 its surface is smooth except for two slight longitudinal ridges extending distad from near the two ends of the antihelix4 ,that portion of the auricle that lies proximad of the antihelix forms a deep irregular cavity known as the concha 7e74 ,a deep furrow1 corresponding to the antihelix1 separates scapha from concha externally4 ,the concha extends caudad as a deep1 rounded pocket2 externally this pocket forms a prominent convexity1 the eminentia conch 7j71 on the caudal surface of the proximal portion of the external ear4 ,farther proximad the concha narrows like a funnel and becomes much compressed laterally1 so that a section of its cavity forms a narrow craniocaudal slit4 ,the inner surface of the concha is marked by a number of very prominent ridges and projections4 ,these are usually due to folds in the cartilage1 so that external furrows and depressions correspond to the internal projections4 ,the edges of these depressions serve for attachment of muscles 7,fig4 #afi71 by contraction of which the form of the concha is changed1--the folds of the cartilage thus serving as regions of greater flexibility4 ,two or three centimeters proximad of its external opening the cartilage of the concha ends in a free edge which receives within itself the distal end of the cartilaginous external auditory meatus 7e74 ,the two are united together by fibrous tissue4 ,the cartilaginous auditory meatus 7e7 extends as a nearly cylindrical tube mediad and slightly craniad to the tympanic membrane in the opening of the bulla tympani4 ,this tube is lined with integument which continues over the tympanic membrane4 ,the subcutaneous tissue of the tube contains the ceruminous glands1 which secrete the ear-wax and open on the surface of the skin4 ,to understand the relations of the muscles of the external ear it is necessary to consider a little more fully the structure of the auricular cartilage 7,fig4 #afh71 especially as compared with the human ear4 ,the ear of the cat differs from the human ear in the fact that the edges of the auricular cartilages are rolled together proximad so as to overlap4 ,there is thus no gap between the tragus 7g7 and antitragus 7h71 as in man1 but these two structures partly overlap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh4--;,,cartilage ,,of ,,the ,,external ,,ear1 ,,craniomedial ,,view4 a1 scapha or pinna2 b1 helix2 c1 spine of the helix2 d1 antihelix2 e1 concha2 e1 cartilaginous auditory meatus2 f1 crista helicis2 g1 tragus2 h1 antitragus2 i1 processus uncinatus2 j1 eminentia conch4 ,the free edge 7b7 of the auricular cartilage corresponds partly to the helix of man4 ,at its mediocranial angle the proximal part of the auricle is composed of muscle and integument only1 so that the cartilage when isolated presents here a deep notch distad of which is a prominent projecting angle1 the spine 7c7 of the helix1 which serves for attachment of the adductor auris superior muscle 7,fig4 #afi1 #a74 ,proximad of the spine1 separated from it by the deep notch1 the cranial edge 7g7 of the auricular cartilage approaches the caudal edge 7h71 finally overlapping it1 so that the cavity of the auricle is now completely surrounded4 ,this overlapping portion of the cartilage is on the medial side of the cavity1 and in the natural state is covered by muscles and integument1 so as not to be apparent4 ,that portion of the cranial edge of the cartilage that overlaps the caudal edge forms a cartilaginous plate which projects proximad as a blunt point2 this plate is the tragus 7g74 ,along the inner edge of the tragus is a ridge which forms a continuation of the helix2 this is the crista helicis 7f74 ,the portion of the caudal edge of the cartilage that is partly overlapped by the tragus is an irregular flat plate known as the antitragus 7h74 ,at its caudolateral margin the antitragus extends distad as a thin1 pointed1 cartilaginous spine1 the processus uncinatus 7i74 ,this supports a sheet of integument which bears two longitudinal ridges projecting into the cavity of the ear1 with a broad groove between them4 ,the ,scutiform ,cartilage4--,closely connected with the external ear1 but not forming a part of it1 is the scutiform cartilage4 ,this lies in the temporal fossa1 between the integument and the temporal muscle1 just behind the orbit and beneath the craniomedial portion of the auricle 7,fig4 #fc1 #a1 page #ig74 ,it is a narrow cartilage about two centimeters long1 with its long axis craniocaudal4 ,for the greater part of its length it forms a slender rod1 from which a thin cartilaginous sheet extends a short distance laterad2 at its caudal end the rod forks1 the two arms extending nearly at right angles to the main portion4 ,the scutiform cartilage serves for the origin or insertion of a number of the muscles of the ear4 ,muscles of the ,external ,ear 7,fig4 #afi74--7;a7 ,the muscles connecting the cartilages of the external ear with other parts of the head have been described 7page #if71 excepting the tragicus lateralis 7#d74 ,these muscles are the following3 ,m4 intermedius scutulorum 7,fig4 #fc1 a71 ,m4 frontoauricularis1 ,m4 levator auris longus 7including the cervicoauricular7 7,fig4 #fc1 g1 g71 ,m4 auricularis superior 7,fig4 #fc1 k71 ,m4 abductor auris longus 7,fig4 #fc1 m71 ,m4 abductor auris brevis 7,fig4 #fc1 l71 ,m4 zygomaticus 7,fig4 #fd1 d71 ,m4 submentalis 7,fig4 #fd1 c71 ,m4 depressor conch 7,fig4 #fd1 b71 ,m4 frontoscutularis1 ,m4 adductor auris inferior 7,fig4 #fc1 f71 and ,m4 tragicus lateralis 7,fig4 #afi1 #d74 ,m4 tragicus lateralis 7,fig4 #afi1 #d74--;,a band about seven millimeters wide1 lying beneath the mass of fat about the ear and running ventrad lengthwise of the concha and close against it4 ,origin 7,fig4 #if1 a1 page #bbi7 on the caudal end of the mandibula1 in the cavity found between the condyloid process and the angular process4 ,the muscle passes dorsad and is inserted 7,fig4 #afi1 #d7 on the caudal margin of the tragus and in the depression on the concha just caudad of the tragus4 ,relations4--,this muscle lies between the temporal muscle and the concha4 ,action4--,pulls the ear ventrad and probably rotates it outward4 7b7 ,the following three muscles connect the scutiform cartilage with other parts of the external ear4 ,m4 rotator auris or scutuloauricularis inferior4--,a flat craniocaudal band of fibres lying between the auricle and the temporal muscle4 ,origin on the scutiform cartilage1 just caudad of the insertion of the frontoscutularis1 of which this muscle seems to be a continuation4 ,the muscle passes caudad as a band seven or eight millimeters wide1 curving about the medial surface of the auricle1 and is inserted on the caudomedial surface of the eminentia conch4 ,relations4--,lateral surface with the auricular cartilage2 medial surface with the temporal muscle4 ,action4--,rotates the external ear mediad and caudad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi4--;,,cartilage ,,of ,,the ,,external ,,ear1 ,,with ,,muscles4 a-i1 as in ,fig4 #afh4 #a1 ,m4 adductor auris superior 7cut72 #b1 ,m4 adductor auris medius 7cut72 #c1 ,m4 helicis2 #d1 ,m4 tragicus lateralis 7cut72 #e1 #e1 ,m4 tragicus medialis2 #f1 ,m4 antitragicus2 #g1 ,m4 adductor auris inferior 7cut72 #h1 ,m4 depressor conch 7cut72 #i1 ,m4 conchus externus2 #aj1 part of ,m4 auricularis externus2 #aa1 ,m4 abductor auris longus 7cut74 ,m4 adductor auris superior 7,fig4 #afi1 #a2 ,fig4 #fc1 f74 7,part of the auricularis anterior of man47 ,origin on the dorsal surface of the scutiform cartilage for its entire length4 ,the fibres form a continuation of those of the frontoscutularis2 they pass dorsocaudad and are inserted into the spina helicis or craniomedial margin of the auricular cartilage4 ,this muscle lies in the fold of skin that connects the craniomedial angle of the auricular cartilage with the head1 so that it is covered on both sides by integument4 ,action4--,draws the auricle craniad4 ,m4 adductor auris medius 7,fig4 #afi1 #b74 7,part of the auricularis anterior of man47--,a very thin band of fibres eight to ten millimeters broad4 ,origin on the middle two-thirds of the caudoventral edge of the scutiform cartilage4 ,the fibres pass nearly ventrad and are inserted along the medial or caudal surface of the tragus4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the auricular cartilage4 ,inner surface with the temporal muscle or with the pad of fat separating this from the auricle4 ,action4--,pulls the concha dorsocraniad4 7c7 ,the remainder of the muscles of the ear interconnect parts of the auricular cartilage4 ,m4 transversus auricul 7,fig4 #fc1 i74--,a band about six to eight millimeters wide1 on the medial convex surface of the auricle1 between the distal ends of ,m4 levator auris longus 7g7 and ,m4 auricularis superior 7k74 ,origin on the medial surface of the concha1 just proximad of the furrow which corresponds to the antihelix4 ,the muscle bridges this furrow1 passes distad about two centimeters1 and is inserted on the auricular cartilage on a line which forms a caudal continuation of the line of insertion of the levator auris longus 7g74 ,relations4--,outer surface with the levator auris longus 7g1 g71 the auricularis superior 7k71 and the integument2 inner surface with the auricular cartilage4 ,action4--,flexes the scapha mediad on the concha1 thus enlarging the external opening of the concha4 ,m4 auricularis externus 7,fig4 #afi1 #aj2 ,fig4 #fd1 r74--,this consists of small scattered bands of interrupted fibres on the convex surface of the auricle1 caudad of the transversus auricul4 ,the largest of these bands runs parallel with the transversus auricul about five or six millimeters caudad of the latter4 ,it has origin on the eminentia conch distad of the insertion of the abductor auris longus4 ,thence the fibres run distad five or six millimeters and are interrupted by an attachment to the cartilage4 ,distad the fibres begin again1 and the muscle runs thence distad for about one centimeter1 the distal end being attached to the cartilage4 ,caudad of this1 especially of its proximal portion1 are one or two small bands of fibres usually running parallel with it1 but unconnected with it and with each other4 ,the extent and distribution of these bands varies1 and the direction of fibres is also variable4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the integument2 inner surface with the auricular cartilage4 ,action4--,flexes the auricular cartilage4 ,m4 helicis 7,fig4 #afi1 #c2 ,fig4 #fd1 m74--,a muscle about two centimeters in length and five or six millimeters in width1 on the inner surface of the ear1 along its cranial margin4 ,origin on the medial surface of the concha1 just caudad of the proximal end of the tragus4 ,the fibres pass distad to be inserted on the auricular cartilage at the caudal angle of the notch which lies beneath the cranial edge of the auricle1 along with the caudal fibres of the adductor auris superior 7#a74 ,relations4--,lateral surface with the integument2 medial surface with the tragus4 ,action4--,draws proximad the cranial margin of the auricle4 ,m4 antitragicus 7,fig4 #afi1 #f2 ,fig4 #fd1 n74--,a small muscle about one centimeter in length and three millimeters in thickness1 attached at one end to the caudal border of the antitragus4 ,the fibres pass mediodistad and are inserted on the tragus1 in common with the fibres of the tragicus medialis 7,fig4 #afi1 #e1 #e74 ,relations4--,outer surface with the adductor auris inferior and the integument2 inner surface with the cartilage4 ,action4--,constricts the external auditory opening4 ,m4 tragicus medialis 7,fig4 #afi1 #e1 #e74--;,a small1 flat muscle1 in two parts1 on the medial surface of the concha4 ,origin on the ventral end of the tragus4 ,the cranial fibres form a thick nearly cylindrical bundle which extends proximad about one centimeter1 and is inserted on the cranial surface of the concha just proximad of a deep fold in the cartilage4 ,the caudal fibres form a thin sheet which spreads on the medial surface of the concha and is inserted on an obliquely proximodistal line on the medial surface of the concha1 less than one centimeter from the free distal edge4 ,these two bundles are distinct except at their origin1 and are sometimes considered as separate muscles4 ,relations4--,outer surface with the tragicus lateralis 7#d7 and the fat about the concha4 ,inner surface with the concha4 ,action4--,flexes the concha4 ,strauss-,durckheim describes under the name cornetoconchus a small muscle bridging the deep groove caused by the folding of the medial surface of the concha1 its proximal end being close to the insertion of the abductor auris brevis 7page #ajj74 ,this muscle was absent in all of the cases examined for its presence4 ,m4 conchus externus 7,fig4 #afi1 #i74--;,a quadrilateral muscle on the lateral surface of the concha4 ,the cranial end of this muscle is attached to the concha a short distance distad of the antitragus along a dorsoventral line six to eight millimeters in length2 the fibres pass thence caudodorsad a distance of about one centimeter1 where they are again attached to the concha4 ,the muscle thus bridges a shallow depression on the lateral surface of the concha4 ,action4--,constricts the concha4 ,the ,middle ,ear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agj4--,,tympanic ,,membrane1 ,,viewed ,,from ,,the ,,inner ,,side4 ,the outer wall of the bulla has been removed1 carrying with it the tympanic membrane with the malleus and incus2 these are now viewed from the side that was turned toward the cavity4 a1 bony ring forming inner end of external auditory meatus2 b1 b1 malleus2 c1 tympanic membrane2 d1 incus2 e1 lenticular process2 f1 chorda tympani nerve2 g1 cartilaginous support for chorda tympani nerve4 ,the middle ear is enclosed in a cavity within the tympanic bulla4 ,its outer boundary1 as well as the inner boundary of the external ear1 is formed by the tympanic membrane 7,fig4 #agj1 c47 ,this is a thin1 semitransparent membrane attached to the bony ring 7a7 surrounding the inner end of the external auditory meatus4 ,it is oval in outline4 ,across the dorsal third of its inner surface runs the handle of the malleus 7b71 to which the membrane is firmly attached and which by pulling on the membrane gives it the form of a cone instead of a flat surface4 ,the apex of the cone is directed mediad4 ,the middle ear1 or cavum tympani1 is an ellipsoidal cavity situated in the tympanic bulla4 ,on removing the medial wall of the bulla1 a bony plate is seen separating its cavity into two chambers4 ,this plate of bone extends in from the lateral wall of the bulla1 forming a complete partition except at the dorsocaudal part1 where a notch in the bone forms a free communication between the two chambers4 ,the lateral chamber1 or tympanum proper1 contains the bones of the ear and is limited externally by the tympanic membrane4 ,at its cranial end is seen the opening of the tuba auditiva1 or ,eustachian tube4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aga4--,,malleus ,,and ,,incus1 ,,united ,,in ,,the ,,natural ,,position4 #a1 malleus2 #b1 incus4 a1 handle of malleus2 b1 neck2 c1 head2 d1 process for attachment of tendon of ,m4 tensor tympani2 e1 wing-like plate and process of neck2 f1 g1 the two processes of the incus4 ,the tuba auditiva1 or ,eustachian tube1 is a cartilaginous tube about one and a half to two centimeters long1 passing from the nasopharynx to the middle ear and placing these two cavities in communication4 ,the pharyngeal opening is at about the middle of the length of the nasopharynx1 near the dorsal border of the lateral wall2 it is a narrow slit two or three millimeters long4 ,thence the tube passes caudolaterad on the ventral surface of the sphenoid bone1 and enters the tympanic cavity through the opening just laterad of the styliform process of the tympanic bulla4 ,the tube has a thick1 cartilaginous medial wall1 while the lateral wall is thin and formed of connective tissue4 ,the lumen of the tube is a curved slit in cross-section4 ,bones of the ,ear 7ossicula auditus74--,there are three small bones in the middle ear1 the malleus 7hammer7 7,fig4 #aga1 #a71 incus 7anvil7 7,fig4 #aga1 #b71 and stapes 7stirrup7 7,fig4 #agb74 ,the malleus 7,fig4 #aga1 #a7 consists of a slender handle 7a7 with a small neck 7b7 attached at an angle to the caudal end of the handle4 ,at the end of the neck is a rounded head 7c7 which articulates with the incus 7#b71 and together with one part of the incus lies in a small fossa dorsad of the fenestra vestibuli4 ,from the medial aspect of the neck extends a short process of bone 7d7 to which is attached the tendon of the tensor tympani muscle4 ,one side of the neck is produced into a thin wing-like plate1 bearing on its edge a pointed process 7e74 ,the incus 7,fig4 #aga1 #b7 bears much resemblance to a two-fanged molar tooth4 ,it lies in the fossa with the head of the malleus4 ,its head or crown is directed craniad and has a concave surface which articulates with the head of the malleus4 ,one of the fangs 7f7 extends caudad in the fossa above mentioned and is held in position by a ligament4 ,the other fang 7g7 extends ventromediad and articulates with the head of the stapes4 ,this fang terminates in a minute rounded tubercle known as the lenticular process2 this in early stages of development is a separate bone1 the os lenticulare4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agb4 ,,stapes4 a1 head2 b1 base2 c1 process for attachment of the stapedius muscle4 ,the stapes 7,fig4 #agb7 has the form of a stirrup1 and is the last in the chain of bones4 ,the small end is termed the head 7a7 and the broader part the base 7b74 ,the head of the stapes articulates with one of the processes of the incus4 ,the base of the stapes fits into the fenestra vestibuli of the petrous bone and completely closes it4 ,the stapes is held in position by the stapedius muscle1 which is attached to a minute process 7c7 near the head4 ,thus the three bones of the middle ear form a chain which connects the medial surface of the tympanic membrane with the fenestra vestibuli4 ,as the fenestra vestibuli forms a portion of the wall of the vestibule1 the vibrations of the tympanic membrane are transmitted through the chain of bones to the fluid within the vestibule4 ,muscles of the ,middle ,ear4 ,m4 tensor tympani4--,the tensor tympani muscle is a short conical muscle having origin in a small fossa 7,fig4 #be1 d1 p4 #cd7 in the petrous bone dorsocraniad of the fenestra vestibuli4 ,its very short tendon passes laterad and is inserted into a projection 7,fig4 #aga1 d7 on the neck of the malleus4 ,m4 stapedius4--,the stapedius muscle is a short muscle taking origin from a fossa 7,fig4 #be1 f7 in the lateral surface of the petrous bone caudad of that for the incus4 ,it is inserted into the head of the stapes4 ,the ,internal ,ear 7,fig4 #agc74 ,the internal ear or labyrinth is completely enclosed in the petrous bone4 ,in the dry bone the internal ear communicates with the middle ear by the fenestra cochle and the fenestra vestibuli1 which have been described in the account of the petrous bone 7page #cc74 ,in the recent state the fenestra vestibuli is closed by the base of the stapes1 while the fenestra cochle is covered by a delicate membrane1--so that the internal ear forms a closed cavity4 ,it is possible to distinguish a bony labyrinth and a membranous labyrinth 7,fig4 #agc71 the former being the cavity in the petrous bone1 while the latter is the real auditory organ1 situated within the cavity4 ,the membranous labyrinth repeats in general the form of the bony labyrinth1 so that it will not be necessary to distinguish the two in our account of the main features of the structure4 ,the auditory nerve is distributed to the membranous labyrinth4 ,for an account of the minute structure of this organ reference should be made to a text-book of general histology or physiology4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agc4--,,membranous ,,labyrinth4 a1 vestibule2 b1 cochlea2 c1 external semicircular canal2 d1 superior semicircular canal2 e1 posterior semicircular canal2 f1 scala tympani2 g1 scala vestibuli2 h1 fenestra cochle2 i1 fenestra vestibuli4 ,the labyrinth 7,fig4 #agc7 consists of a cavity1 the vestibule 7a71 and connected with this a coiled tube1 the cochlea 7b71 and the three semicircular canals 7c1 d1 and e74 ,the cochlea 7b7 is situated in the promontory1--the rounded elevation of the petrous bone extending craniad from the fenestra cochle4 ,it consists of a bony tube coiled spirally about a central column known as the modiolus4 ,the coil has nearly the form of a snail's shell1 and is somewhat more lengthened in the cat than in man4 ,a plate of bone1 the lamina spiralis1 incompletely divides the cavity of the canal lengthwise into two parts1 known as scal 7f and g74 ,one of these opens at the fenestra cochle 7h7 into the tympanic cavity 7or would so open but for the thin membrane covering the fenestra72 this is known as the scala tympani 7f74 ,the other scala is connected with the vestibule 7a7 and is known as the scala vestibuli 7g74 ,the vestibule 7a7 is a pyramidal cavity situated mediad of the caudal end of the cochlea4 ,it is connected with the scala vestibuli of the cochlea1 and with the three semicircular canals4 ,the fenestra vestibuli 7i7 is an opening in its bony wall1 filled in the recent state by the stapes4 ,on the medial surface of the vestibule are a number of minute orifices through which the auditory nerve enters4 ,the semicircular canals 7c1 d1 and e7 are three curved tubes1 each forming about two-thirds of a circle1 and opening at both ends into the vestibule4 ,they are imbedded in the petrous bone4 ,the planes of the three tubes intersect nearly at right angles2 from their position in man they have been named external 7c71 superior 7d71 and posterior 7e74 ,the external one 7c7 is nearly horizontal in position1 and surrounds the curved fossa 7,fig4 #be1 f7 for the stapedius muscle1 caudad of the fenestra vestibuli4 ,the superior 7,fig4 #agc1 d7 and posterior 7e7 are in nearly dorsoventral planes1 but at right angles to each other4 ,the superior 7d7 lies in the ridge forming the caudal boundary of the appendicular fossa4 ,the posterior 7e7 is situated in a continuation caudad of the ridge which forms the dorsal boundary of the internal auditory meatus4 ,one end of each canal is slightly enlarged to form an ampulla4 ,the superior 7d7 and posterior 7e7 canals join at one end and enter the vestibule by a common opening4 ,one end of the external canal 7c7 opens into the vestibule so close to one end of the posterior canal 7e7 that they appear to have a common opening1 and this is commonly stated to be the case2 according to ,jayne1 however1 the openings are really separate4 ,the two remaining ends 7of the superior 7d7 and external 7c7 canals7 also enter the vestibule separately1 so that the three canals enter the vestibule by five openings4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,olfactory ,,organ4 ,,organon ,,olfactus4 ,the olfactory organ consists of the olfactory mucous membrane1 in the dorsocaudal part of the nasal cavity4 ,the nasal cavity has been described in connection with the respiratory system4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,organ ,,of ,,taste4 ,,organon ,,gustus4 ,the sense of taste is located in the mouth-cavity1 especially in the mucosa of the tongue and the soft palate4 ,the proper organs of taste are the so-called taste-buds1 found on the papill of the tongue1 the soft palate1 etc4 ,their exact distribution in the cat has apparently not been worked out4 ,v4 ,,the ,,integument4 ,,integumentum ,,commune4 ,the skin of the cat consists of the usual two layers1 the outer epidermis and the inner fibrous corium4 ,the skin is particularly thick and tough about the sides of the neck and face4 ,the skin is covered almost completely with fine soft hairs4 ,only the end of the nose1 the pads on the soles of the feet1 and the nipples are without hair4 ,a number of long stiff sensory hairs 7vibriss7 are found on the upper lip1 the cheek1 and above the upper eyelid4 ,the pads on the soles of the feet are cushion-like projections of skin1 composed largely of connective and elastic tissue and fat4 ,there is one large pad for each foot1 and in addition a small pad for each digit4 ,the fore limb has besides a small conical pad which is situated almost exactly over the pisiform bone4 ,the nails are horny outgrowths of the epidermis1 covering the distal phalanges4 ,the muscles of the skin are the cutaneus maximus and platysma2 these have been described 7page #ic74 ,the superficial facial muscles are differentiations of the skin-muscles4 ,,appendix4 ,,practical ,,directions4 ,the following appendix on the dissection and study of the cat is not intended as a general treatise on methods of preservation and dissection1 but attempts only to give the application of well-known methods to the dissection and study of the particular animal with which the book deals4 ,general methods which are referred to but not described must be looked up1 if unfamiliar1 in the manuals of general methods4 ,aids to ,dissection and ,study of the ,cat4--,a copy of ,jayne's 8,mammalian ,anatomy0 should be in the laboratory for reference4 ,only the volume on the ,bones of the ,cat has been issued thus far4 ,wilder and ,gage's 8,anatomical ,technology0 will be found very useful for methods of work4 ,the plates of ,strauss-,durckheim's 8,anatomie du ,chat0 are exceedingly valuable for the bones and muscles1 and should be in the laboratory if possible4 ,outline reproductions of these plates have been published by ,h4 ,s4 ,williams 7,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #ahge74 ,the use of both the original plates and the reproductions is made difficult by the antiquated nomenclature used for the structures figured4 ,method of ,use of the ,present ,directions4--,except in the case of the ,bones1 the order of study of the structures is usually not the same as the order in which they are described4 ,this is of course due to practical difficulties in dissection4 ,the present directions give the order of study1 or at least the order of dissection2 of course after dissection the structures can be reviewed in the logical order given in the descriptions4 ,but in the first study and dissection1 the student is to use these directions for the order of work1 while using the body of the book for the descriptions4 ,it will be necessary therefore to keep the book opened in two places1--one in the appendix1 for the directions2 one in the body of the book1 for descriptions4 ,in studying the muscles1 for example1 the student will follow the order of dissection given in the appendix1 but as every muscle is dissected he will find1 confirm1 and study the description of that muscle given in the body of the book4 ,other organs are studied in a similar manner4 ,before commencing the study1 read that portion of the preface which explains the use of terms of direction 7page ,,vii74 ,note that the page on which any figure is found may be determined by consulting the list of figures given in the ,table of ,contents4 ,,the ,,bones4 ,the bones will of course be studied from dried specimens4 ,these may be prepared once for all and kept in the laboratory from year to year4 ,a number of mounted skeletons of the cat should be at hand2 these must be prepared by some one who has skill in such work4 ,preparation of ,separate ,bones4--,for preparing the separate bones the liquid-soap process recommended by ,wilder and ,gage 78,anatomical ,technology10 p4 #ajg7 will be found most convenient4 ,this is as follows3 ,the skin and soft parts are removed as far as possible without injury to the bones4 ,make the following 8liquid-soap0 mixture3 ,soft water #bjjj cc4 ,strong ammonia #aej cc4 ,nitrate of potash 7saltpetre7 #ab grams4 ,hard soap #ge grams4 ,heat these together till a homogeneous mixture is formed4 ,now immerse the bone or bones to be cleaned in a liquid composed of four parts water to one part of the above liquid-soap mixture4 ,boil forty minutes2 pour off the liquid and renew it4 ,boil about half an hour longer2 then remove soft parts with fingers1 scalpel1 and brush4 ,the bones may be boiled as much longer in the mixture as is necessary to make the soft parts come away easily4 ,if they are boiled too long1 however1 the epiphyses will separate from the bones4 ,this is especially likely to occur in young skeletons1 which must therefore not be boiled so long as the bones of an old cat4 ,skeletons prepared in the following rough way are useful for many purposes4 ,the entire body of the cat1 or a single limb1 is placed in the liquid-soap mixture 7after partial removal of soft parts71 and boiled till the muscles may be removed1 but the ligaments1 holding the bones together1 remain4 ,clean thoroughly without removing the ligaments1 and allow to dry4 ,the bones are thus held together in their natural positions4 ,skeletons so prepared are not elegant1 but are frequently useful4 ,disarticulation of ,skulls4--,the bones of the skull may be separated as follows3 ,clean the skull in the liquid-soap mixture1 as above described4 ,then fill the cranial cavity with dry rice1 beans1 corn1 or some other seeds that swell much on imbibition of water4 ,cork up the foramen magnum1 and place the skull for twelve to twenty-four hours in water4 ,the swelling of the grain will partially separate the bones at the sutures4 ,the bones may then usually be separated completely by hand4 ,entire skulls1 and longitudinal sections1 as represented in ,fig4 #dc1 p4 #fj1 should be at hand4 ,study of the ,bones4--,the bones should be studied in the order in which they are described4 ,no further special directions for their study are necessary4 ,study of ,ligaments4--,it will usually not be practicable for each student to make the dissections and preparations necessary for studying the ligaments4 ,rather should these be examined on demonstration preparations preserved in the laboratory4 ,such preparations may most easily be made by using fresh material1 and dissecting away muscles and other tissues1 leaving only the ligaments connecting the bones4 ,the preparations are then preserved in one or two per cent4 formalin4 ,it is difficult to prepare the ligaments satisfactorily on preserved material1 because they do not stand out clearly from other tissues in such material1 so that they are not easily distinguishable4 ,,muscles4 ,preparation and ,preservation of ,material4--,formalin forms by far the most satisfactory preservative for anatomical material4 ,it is much better in almost every respect than alcohol1 and has the additional advantage of being much cheaper4 ,after injecting with formalin1 the cat may be preserved either immersed in a weaker solution of the same substance1 or may be kept for a long time simply wrapped in a cloth dampened with formalin4 ,the details of preparation differ according to which method is to be used4 ,in either case1 the cat should be killed with chloroform1 by placing it in a tight jar or box with a cloth or bit of cotton saturated with chloroform4 ,it is not necessary to bleed the specimen4 ,when the cat is dead1 remove it to a tray1 place it on its back1 and tie the limbs loosely so that they will remain outspread4 ,expose the femoral artery in the thigh1 as follows3 ,make a median longitudinal incision through the skin of the abdomen1 from a point an inch or two caudad of the xiphoid process to the pubis4 ,make an incision passing from near the middle of this obliquely laterad onto the thigh1 for about three inches4 ,reflect the two flaps in the angles between these cuts1 then with forceps and tracer isolate the femoral artery just as it passes into the thigh 7,fig4 #abg1 a74 ,make with scissors an oblique incision in one side of the artery1 one-half to one inch from the point where it leaves the abdominal cavity4 ,introduce a canula directed toward the body1 and tie it in place4 #a4 ,if the cat is to be preserved immersed in a solution of formalin1 it should now be injected with a five per cent4 solution of commercial formalin in ordinary water 7commercial formalin #e parts2 water #ie parts74 ,into an adult cat #cjj to #djj cubic centimeters of the five per cent4 formalin should be injected4 ,the cat may now be preserved in a one per cent4 solution of formalin4 ,before immersing it in the formalin it is well to remove the hair in some way1 otherwise this will hold much water and be very inconvenient in dissection4 ,the neatest method is to cut off the hair with scissors2 this takes some time1 however4 ,if the skin-muscles 7p4 #ic7 are not to be dissected1 the skin may be removed4 ,it is well in this case to leave the skin on the sides of the head and on the feet4 ,it is not necessary to open the abdominal cavity1 after injecting with the five per cent4 formalin4 ,if there is at any time reason to suspect that the viscera are not keeping well1 the abdominal and thoracic cavities should be filled with five per cent4 formalin by making a small hole through the body wall into the cavity1 introducing a canula1 and injecting till the cavity is full4 ,the specimen should be kept in a jar or other vessel and should be completely immersed beneath the one per cent4 formalin4 ,any parts projecting above the fluid may be attacked by mould4 ,if a part is found to be moulded1 it should be submerged1 when the mould will be killed4 ,the mould injures the specimen if allowed to grow for a long time1 but if discovered soon1 no very serious harm results4 ,during dissection1 exposed parts of the body should be kept from drying by covering with a damp cloth4 ,specimens preserved in formalin dry out much less quickly than those preserved in alcohol4 #b4 ,for some purposes it is much more convenient to preserve the material without immersing it in a vessel of formalin4 ,specimens injected with five per cent4 formalin1 as above directed1 would usually keep perfectly without further treatment1 but for two difficulties3 7#a7 the specimen may dry2 7#b7 it may be attacked by mould4 ,the drying may be prevented as follows3 ,use for injecting a mixture of the five per cent4 formalin with one-sixth its volume of glycerine4 ,this will dry only very slowly1 and if pains are taken to keep exposed parts covered with cloths dampened with the mixture of formalin and glycerine1 there will be no trouble from this source4 ,the skin should not be removed from such specimens except as necessary in the course of dissection4 ,the hair will give little trouble1 because dry4 ,the specimens should be kept in a tight box1 that the fluid may not evaporate rapidly from the cloths used for wrapping4 ,the attacks of the mould present a difficulty not so easily overcome4 ,as long as the specimens are in daily use for dissection1 and exposed parts kept covered with cloths saturated with the glycerine and formalin mixture1 little or no trouble is to be anticipated4 ,but if the specimens are left untouched for some days1 and particularly if exposed surfaces are not kept covered in the manner above recommended1 mould is almost sure to attack them4 ,material neglected for a week may thus be ruined4 ,if mould is found at any time to be attacking the material1 the attacked part should be cleaned and well wrapped in cloths saturated in the formalin-glycerine mixture4 ,if such means are unavailing1 the specimen should be immersed in a vessel of one per cent4 formalin and preserved for the future in this4 ,recourse should be had at once also to this method of preservation if the specimen shows signs of decomposition by having a strong odor4 ,it seems probable that the attacks of the mould might be prevented by mixing some fungicide with the injecting fluid2 experiments should be made in this direction4 ,there are many advantages in preserving the material if possible without immersing it4 ,all parts retain their color and pliability much more completely1 so that the different structures are much more easily distinguishable4 ,the method above described1 by the use of formalin and glycerine1 is to be recommended when the material is to be worked on every day or so and is not to be kept longer than a few weeks4 ,it is usually not very satisfactory in warm weather1 however4 ,if some method can be devised of entirely preventing the attacks of the mould1 this will be an excellent method of preserving anatomical material4 ,the same specimens used for the study of the muscles will serve also for the spinal cord and brain if prepared by one of the methods above described4 7,for the viscera1 blood-vessels1 and nerves1 other specimens will have to be prepared2 for these1 directions are given later47 ,muscles to be ,dissected4--,it will probably usually be impossible in a given course of study to dissect all the muscles of the cat4 ,the instructor will of course select such as seem most advisable to him4 ,the following may perhaps be recommended as a good selection for a fairly extensive course3 ,muscles of the ,fore ,limbs 7pp4 #dcf-dci72 ,muscles of the ,neck and the ,deep ,muscles of the ,head 7pp4 #dci-dda72 ,muscles of the ,wall of the ,thorax and of the ,abdomen 7pp4 #dda-ddb72 ,muscles on the ,ventral ,side of the ,neck 7p4 #ddb74 ,if the superficial facial muscles 7excluding those of the ear7 can be studied from a preparation1 this will be a valuable addition to a course 7pp4 #dcd-dce74 ,,dissection ,,of ,,muscles4 ,general4--,in dissecting muscles a prime requisite of successful dissection is to keep the muscles clean4 ,fat1 connective tissue1 etc41 is to be carefully but thoroughly cleared away from the surface of muscles and from between them4 ,frequently when it seems impossible to distinguish the structures described1 all difficulty will vanish as soon as the dissection is thoroughly cleaned4 ,in transecting a muscle1 work under it completely from one edge to the other 7except in case of very wide muscles71 then introduce the scissors or scalpel1 and cut it by a smooth clean cut4 ,always leave the entire origin with one-half of the muscle1 the entire insertion with the other half4 ,the student must be prepared to find in some cases considerable variations from the conditions described4 ,the descriptions attempt to give an account of the usual structures1 but specimens showing no variations whatever are undoubtedly rare4 ,,directions ,,for ,,dissecting ,,the ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,cat4 ,i4 ,,the ,,skin-,,muscles 7pp4 #ic-if1 and ,fig4 #fb74 ,these will perhaps not usually be dissected4 ,if they are to be dissected1 proceed as follows3 ,make a ventral median longitudinal incision of the skin from the cranial end of the manubrium to a point opposite the crest of the ilium4 ,connect the cranial end of this incision with the middle of the lambdoidal ridge by a similar incision through the skin4 ,make another incision from the manubrium to the spinous process of the thirteenth thoracic vertebra4 ,connect the caudal end of the first incision by an oblique cut with the root of the tail4 ,make another incision from the convexity of the knee-joint along the fold of skin which connects the hind limb and body1 as far as the incision which leads to the root of the tail4 ,make an incision surrounding the base of the forelimb4 ,now reflect these flaps one at a time1 working in general from the ventral side toward the dorsal middle line4 ,take great pains not to take up the thin skin-muscle with the skin4 ,in this way all of one side of the body will be uncovered4 ,the cutaneus maximus 7,fig4 #fb1 b7 and a part of the platysma 7,fig4 #fb1 a7 will be thus exposed4 ,read and verify the descriptions of these muscles 7pp4 #ic-if74 ,the cranial portion of the platysma cannot be seen at this stage1 but should be dissected in connection with the muscles of the face4 ,,ii4 ,,superficial ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,face ,,and ,,head 7pp4 #if-ajg1 and ,figs4 #fc and #fd74 ,these will perhaps not usually be dissected by the student4 ,they should be studied on a well-dissected laboratory preparation1 if possible4 ,if they are to be dissected1 this should be done if possible on a fresh specimen1 as it is very difficult to dissect them on preserved material4 ,proceed as follows3 ,the skin should be removed with care from the sides and top of the face and head1 without injury to the external ear4 #a4 ,the platysma 7p4 #ie1 and ,fig4 #fb1 a74 ,determine its cranial attachments4 #b4 ,the intermedius scutulorum 7p4 #if1 and ,fig4 #fc1 a74 #c4 ,the corrugator supercilii medialis 7,fig4 #fc1 b74 #d4 ,the orbicularis oculi 7,fig4 #fc1 c2 ,fig4 #fd1 s74 #e4 ,the corrugator supercilii lateralis 7,fig4 #fd1 k74 #f4 ,notice the frontoauricularis if it exists4 #g4 ,the levator auris longus 7,fig4 #fc1 g1 g74 ,transect and reflect4 #h4 ,the auricularis superior 7,fig4 #fc1 k74 ,transect4 #i4 ,the abductor auris longus 7,fig4 #fc1 m74 ,transect4 #aj4 ,the abductor auris brevis 7,fig4 #fc1 l74 ,transect4 #aa4 ,the epicranius 7,fig4 #fc1 h1 h74 ,in dissecting this muscle the intermedius scutulorum and corrugator supercilii medialis may be cut by an incision parallel to the middle line but a short distance to one side of it4 #ab4 ,the zygomaticus 7,fig4 #fd1 d74 ,this and the two following muscles may usually be best seen running beneath the fibres of the platysma1 without reflecting the latter4 ,if necessary1 however1 the platysma may be transected and reflected1 though this can be done only with great difficulty4 #ac4 ,the submentalis 7,fig4 #fd1 c74 #ad4 ,the depressor conch 7,fig4 #fd1 b74 ,the zygomaticus1 submentalis1 and depressor conch should now be transected one or two centimeters from the external ear4 ,the corrugatores supercilii lateralis and medialis may be cut across between the eye and the ear1 and reflected4 ,there is thus exposed3 #ae4 ,the frontoscutularis4 ,transect near the scutiform cartilage4 #af4 ,the adductor auris inferior 7,fig4 #fd1 o74 ,transect near its insertion4 ,the external ear is now attached to the head only by the external auditory meatus and the tragicus lateralis muscle4 ,read the description of the latter 7p4 #dah1 and ,fig4 #fg1 a71 find it beneath the fat which surrounds the proximal portion of the external ear1 and cut it as far ventrad as possible4 ,now cut across the cartilaginous auditory meatus as near to the tympanic bone as possible1 and remove the external ear1 preserving it for future study4 7,the remainder of the muscles of the external ear may be studied in connection with the study of the auditory organ47 #ag4 ,the orbicularis oris 7p4 #aje and ,fig4 #fd1 i74 #ah4 ,the zygomaticus minor1 if it exists 7p4 #aje1 and ,fig4 #fd1 e74 #ai4 ,the quadratus labii superioris 7p4 #aje74 a4 ,the levator labii superioris proprius 7,fig4 #fd1 f74 b4 ,the levator labii superioris alque nasi 7,fig4 #fd1 g74 #bj4 ,the caninus 7p4 #ajf1 and ,fig4 #fd1 f74 #ba4 ,the buccinator 7p4 #ajf74 #bb4 ,the myrtiformis 7p4 #ajf1 and ,fig4 #fd1 h74 #bc4 ,the 8moustachier0 7p4 #ajg74 #bd4 ,the quadratus labii inferioris 7p4 #ajg74 ,,iii4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,fore ,,limb4 ,a4 ,muscles connecting the ,arm with the ,body4--,if the skin-muscles have been dissected1 as above1 cut the cutaneus maximus near its insertion1 and reflect it toward the median dorsal line2 in this way remove it completely4 ,remove the platysma in the same way4 ,the first layer of body-muscles is thus exposed4 ,if the skin-muscles are not to be dissected1 these may be removed with the skin4 ,if the skin has not yet been removed1 proceed as follows3 ,beginning at the cranial end of the manubrium make two incisions in the skin1 one passing to the lambdoidal ridge and the other to the spinous process of the thirteenth thoracic vertebra4 ,raise the triangular flap thus formed1 taking up the skin-muscles with it4 #a4 ,the trapezius group of muscles 7pp4 #aae-aag1 and ,fig4 #fh1 d1 h1 and j7 is now exposed and may be dissected4 ,begin with the spinotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 j74 ,read the description of the muscle1 then raise its caudal border and work under it until its cranial border is reached and the middle of its inner surface is free4 ,then transect it1 and reflect the two halves of the muscle toward the origin and insertion1 clearing the fat1 etc41 from the inner surface of the muscle and the parts covered by it4 ,determine origin and insertion4 #b4 ,the acromiotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 h74 ,dissect in the same manner1 being careful not to injure the broad thin tendon which connects the two muscles across the middle line4 #c4 ,the clavotrapezius 7,fig4 #fh1 d74 ,separate it carefully1 from the cleidomastoid 7p4 #abj74 ,transect and reflect1 as before4 #d4 ,the occipitoscapularis 7,fig4 #gc1 a1 p4 #adi74 ,note the strong fascia which separates it from the deeper muscles of the neck4 ,be careful not to injure adjacent muscles in tracing this toward origin and insertion4 ,transect4 #e4 ,the rhomboideus4 ,transect4 ,recognize the levator scapul ventralis 7,fig4 #fh1 f71 the sternomastoid 7,fig4 #fh1 c2 ,fig4 #fe1 g71 and the cleidomastoid 7,fig4 #fe1 h74 ,then dissect-- #f4 ,the levator scapul ventralis 7,fig4 #fh1 f74 ,its origin 7,fig4 #gb1 c1 c7 cannot be seen at this stage and should be left until the cervical muscles are dissected4 ,be careful in transecting this muscle to separate it well from the cleidomastoid4 ,transect4 #g4 ,the cleidomastoid 7,fig4 #fe1 h74 ,its origin cannot be fully seen at this stage4 ,transect4 ,make a midventral incision of the skin from the cranial end of the manubrium to a point opposite the crest of the ilium4 ,from the caudal end of this incision make an incision to the root of the tail4 ,from the cranial end of the incision in the ventral middle line make a cut around the base of the fore limb on its caudal side1 thus connecting the ventral incision with the incision which passes between the manubrium and the thirteenth thoracic vertebra4 ,make another incision from the convexity of the knee at the joint along the fold of the skin which connects the hind limb and body1 to the incision which leads to the root of the tail4 ,reflect the flaps thus formed so as to expose the body and flank1 removing the skin-muscle with the skin4 #h4 ,the latissimus dorsi 7p4 #aba1 and ,fig4 #fh1 m74 ,dissect it up and transect it4 ,work carefully toward its insertion and note the origin from its outer surface in the axilla of a part of the cutaneus maximus1 and at about the same place of a thin muscle1 the epitrochlearis 7p4 #afd1 and ,fig4 #fe1 r71 without determining the insertion of the latissimus4 #i4 ,dissect the pectoralis group of muscles 7,fig4 #fe1 and p4 #add71 i4e41 the pectoantibrachialis 7,fig4 #fe1 m71 the pectoralis major 7l71 pectoralis minor 7o71 and xiphihumeralis 7p74 ,determine the border of each muscle before lifting it1 then work it up at its middle1 transect it1 and work toward its ends1 determining origin and insertion4 ,refer constantly to the skeleton4 #aj4 ,then recognize the teres major 7p4 #afc1 and ,fig4 #ge1 d2 ,fig4 #gg1 c7 and the common insertion of the teres major and latissimus 7,fig4 #gi1 d72 find the bicipital arch 7,fig4 #fe1 t7 and determine its composition 7p4 #aff74 #aa and #ab4 ,the serratus anterior and levator scapul 7,fig4 #gc1 h and i1 and p4 #abb74 ,in order to expose the origin of these muscles1 the external oblique muscle 7,fig4 #fh1 p7 must be recognized1 and that part of it which has its origin from the fourth to the ninth rib should be transected about an inch and a half from its origin and reflected4 ,the thoracic portion of the rectus abdominis 7,fig4 #gc1 k7 and of the scalenus 7,fig4 #gc1 f-f7 should also be recognized and then raised at their outer borders and displaced toward the median line4 ,no part of any of these muscles should be removed or cut except as directed4 ,the serratus anterior and levator scapul should be transected and reflected to get at their origin and insertion4 ,b4 ,muscles of the ,arm 7p4 #aef74--,the arm is thus removed from the body and the dissection may be continued on the separated arm4 #ac4 ,the clavobrachial 7,fig4 #fe1 k1 and p4 #aeg74 ,its origin is best seen later4 ,dissect it up1 but do not transect it4 ,search now with great care for the coracobrachialis4 ,consult the figures 7,fig4 #gi1 c7 and descriptions 7p4 #afd71 and be especially careful not to injure the long head of the muscle and its tendon4 #ad4 ,dissect the coracobrachialis 7,fig4 #gg1 f74 ,cut and reflect it4 #ae4 ,the subscapularis 7,fig4 #gg1 a1 and p4 #afa74 ,near its glenoid end1 its glenoid and coracoid borders are separated by triangular intervals from the adjacent muscles4 ,transect the muscle by a line connecting the apices of these triangles4 ,carry an incision from the middle of this one to the middle of the vertebral border of the scapula1 and reflect the muscle on both sides of this incision1--thus determining its area of origin4 ,reflect the humeral end without injuring the capsule of the joint4 #af4 ,dissect the supraspinatus 7,fig4 #ge1 a1 and p4 #aei74 ,cut the strong fascia free from the border of the scapula and its spine4 ,then transect the muscle and reflect it1 being careful not to injure the capsule of the joint4 #ag4 ,the spinodeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 e1 and p4 #aef74 ,find its two borders1 beginning with the caudal one4 ,in freeing the very short cranial border do not injure the acromiodeltoideus 7,fig4 #ge1 f74 ,transect and reflect the spinodeltoid4 #ah4 ,the acromiodeltoideus 7p4 #aeg1 and ,fig4 #ge1 f74 ,transect and reflect4 #ai4 ,the infraspinatus 7p4 #afj1 and ,fig4 #ge1 c74 ,locate the borders in the region of the great scapular notch4 ,it is difficult to separate the glenoid border from the adjacent teres minor 7,fig4 #hj1 c74 ,the separation should be begun at the humerus4 ,transect the muscle at the great scapular notch and reflect4 ,be careful not to injure the teres minor 7,fig4 #hj1 c74 #bj4 ,the teres major 7p4 #afc1 and ,fig4 #ge1 d2 ,fig4 #gg1 c7 should be cut near its junction with the latissimus dorsi 7,fig4 #gg1 e74 #ba4 ,the teres minor 7,fig4 #hj1 c1 and p4 #afa7 need not be cut4 #bb4 ,the epitrochlearis 7p4 #afd1 and ,fig4 #fe1 r74 #bc4 ,the triceps 7p4 #aff74 7a7 ,the long head of the triceps 7,fig4 #gg1 i2 ,fig4 #ge1 g74 ,find first its medial border and separate it from the medial head4 ,note the union of its lateral surface with the dorsal border of the lateral head by strong fascia1 and then cut the fascia4 7b7 ,the lateral head 7,fig4 #ge1 h74 7c7 ,the medial head 7,fig4 #gi1 g1 h1 and j74 #bd4 ,the anconeus 7p4 #agj1 and ,fig4 #hj1 l74 #be4 ,the brachioradialis 7p4 #agc1 and ,fig4 #ge1 k74 ,reflect it carefully to its origin and insertion4 #bf4 ,the biceps 7,fig4 #gg1 g1 and p4 #afe74 ,the capsule of the shoulder-joint may be opened in order to expose its origin4 ,its insertion cannot be seen at this stage4 #bg4 ,the brachialis 7,figs4 #ge and #gi1 i1 and p4 #aff74 ,work under it near its union with the clavobrachial2 cut it at that point and reflect it4 #bh4 ,extensor carpi radialis longus 7p4 #agc1 and ,fig4 #ge1 l74 ,note the oblique tendon on the radial side of the wrist near the insertion of the brachioradialis4 ,a second tendon passes beneath its distal border4 ,this tendon may be separated into a deep and superficial portion4 ,the latter may be traced proximad to its muscle1 the extensor carpi radialis longus4 #bi4 ,extensor carpi radialis brevis 7p4 #agd74 ,its tendon is the deeper of the two tendons seen when isolating the tendon of the extensor longus4 #cj4 ,extensor communis digitorum 7p4 #agd1 and ,fig4 #ge1 m74 #ca4 ,extensor lateralis digitorum 7p4 #age1 and ,fig4 #ge1 n74 #cb4 ,extensor carpi ulnaris 7p4 #agf1 and ,fig4 #ge1 o74 #cc4 ,extensor indicis 7p4 #agf1 and ,fig4 #he1 c74 #cd4 ,pronator teres 7p4 #agi1 and ,fig4 #gg1 q74 #ce4 ,flexor carpi radialis 7p4 #agi1 and ,fig4 #gg1 r74 ,the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis should not be traced to its insertion until the deep muscles of the palm of the hand have been dissected4 #cf4 ,abductor brevis pollicis 7p4 #ahd1 and ,fig4 #gg1 w74 #cg4 ,flexor carpi ulnaris 7p4 #ahj1 and ,fig4 #gg1 t74 #ch4 ,palmaris longus 7p4 #agi1 and ,fig4 #gg1 s74 ,in dissecting this muscle be careful not to injure the part of the flexor sublimis 7,fig4 #gg1 x7 that rises from its surface 7see flexor sublimis1 p4 #aha74 ,cut the palmaris proximad of the origin of the flexor sublimis and reflect it4 #ci4 ,flexor sublimis digitorum 7p4 #aha and ,fig4 #gg1 x74 ,trace one or two of the tendons through the sheaths on the ventral surfaces of the first phalanges4 ,cut and reflect the radial portion4 #dj4 ,flexor profundus digitorum 7p4 #aha1 and ,fig4 #gg1 u74 ,after recognizing the parts cut through the tendons of the first and fifth parts and reflect them to determine their origin4 ,then cut through the common tendon so as to reflect the other three parts together4 ,trace one or two of the tendons to the distal end of the digit4 #da4 ,the supinator 7p4 #agg1 and ,fig4 #he1 b74 #db4 ,the extensor brevis pollicis 7p4 #agh1 and ,fig4 #he1 a74 #dc4 ,pronator quadratus 7p4 #ahc1 and ,fig4 #hg1 a74 ,the insertion of the brachialis and clavobrachial 7,fig4 #hg1 c7 and of the biceps 7,fig4 #hg1 b7 should now be examined4 ,there remain to be dissected the small muscles of the palm of the hand4 ,if these have been injured on the side dissected1 the hand of the other side may be used4 #dd4 ,the lumbricals 7p4 #ahd1 and ,fig4 #hh1 f74 #de4 ,the flexor brevis pollicis 7p4 #ahd1 and ,fig4 #hi1 a74 #df4 ,the adductor pollicis 7p4 #ahe1 and ,fig4 #hi1 b74 #dg4 ,the abductor digiti quinti 7p4 #ahe1 and ,fig4 #hi1 i74 #dh4 ,the flexor brevis digiti quinti 7p4 #ahf1 and ,fig4 #hi1 h74 ,cut and reflect it4 #di4 ,the opponens digiti quinti 7p4 #ahf1 and ,fig4 #hi1 g74 ,cut and reflect it4 #ej4 ,the interossei 7p4 #ahe1 and ,fig4 #hi74 ,,iv4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,neck ,,and ,,the ,,deep ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,head4 ,if the superficial muscles of the head have been dissected according to the directions above given 7p4 #dcd71 the skin of the head and neck1 and the external ear1 will have been removed1 and the specimen is ready for further study4 ,the parotid and submaxillary glands 7,fig4 #fe1 #a and #b7 should be removed if this has not been done2 also the lymphatic glands 7,fig4 #fe1 #c74 ,if the superficial muscles of the head have not been dissected and are not to be1 remove the skin from the side of the neck1 head1 and face to the median dorsal line1 removing the thin superficial muscles with the skin4 ,remove also the parotid1 submaxillary1 and lymphatic glands 7,fig4 #fe1 #a1 #b1 and #c71 and cut through the ear-muscles and the cartilaginous auditory meatus 7under direction7 and remove the external ear4 ,clean fat1 connective tissue1 etc41 from the surface of the muscles of the thorax1 neck1 and head2 then dissect as follows3 #a4 ,the sternomastoid 7p4 #aci1 and ,fig4 #fe1 g74 ,transect and reflect it4 #b4 ,the cleidomastoid 7p4 #abj1 and ,fig4 #fe1 h74 ,this has already been transected2 examine now its origin4 ,remove the large lymphatic gland beneath the sternomastoid and close to the tympanic bulla1 and clean the surface of the muscles in this region4 #c4 ,the levator scapul ventralis 7p4 #abj1 and ,fig4 #gb1 c1 c1 c74 ,this has already been cut2 study now its origin4 #d4 ,the sternohyoid 7p4 #adj1 and ,fig4 #fe1 e74 ,in raising it begin at the cranial end and take care not to injure the subjacent sternothyroid 7,fig4 #fe1 g74 ,transect4 #e4 ,the sternothyroid 7p4 #ada1 and ,fig4 #fe1 g74 ,transect4 #f4 ,the stylohyoid 7p4 #aab1 and ,fig4 #fe1 d74 ,transect4 #g4 ,the digastric 7p4 #ajg1 and ,fig4 #fe1 b74 ,transect1 and reflect completely1 to the origin and insertion4 #h4 ,the mylohyoid 7p4 #aad1 and ,fig4 #fe1 c74 ,transect and reflect4 #i4 ,the geniohyoid 7p4 #aac1 and ,fig4 #fg1 g74 #aj4 ,the jugulohyoid 7p4 #aac1 and ,fig4 #fg1 b74 7,the extrinsic muscles of the tongue 7p4 #bbh1 and ,figs4 #fg and #if7 may be dissected at this point1 if desired4 7a7 ,the styloglossus2 7b7 the genioglossus2 7c7 the hyoglossus4 ,they need not be cut47 #aa4 ,the masseter 7p4 #ajh1 and ,fig4 #fe1 a74 ,cut the superficial and middle layers near their insertions by incisions parallel to the border of the jaw4 ,cut the deep layer near its origin4 ,look for the origin of fibres of the temporal muscle from the inner surface of the middle layer4 #ab4 ,the temporal 7p4 #aaj1 and ,fig4 #fc1 n74 ,clear its outer surface completely4 ,cut the temporal fascia transversely and reflect it toward the insertion of the muscle1 with the superficial portion of the muscle4 ,cut through the zygomatic arch at its two ends and remove it1 dissecting the fibres of the temporal free from their origin on its inner surface4 ,then examine the insertion of the temporal4 7,the muscles of the pharynx 7p4 #bcb7 may be dissected at this point2 for directions1 see page #dea47 #ac4 ,the ceratohyoid 7p4 #aae74 ,to uncover this1 the middle constrictor of the pharynx 7,fig4 #fg1 j7 must be cut and reflected4 ,cut the mylohyoid1 geniohyoid1 genioglossus1 and the mucosa of the floor of the mouth free from the mandible on both sides1 so that the tongue and the floor of the mouth may be drawn ventrad and turned out of the way1 exposing the roof of the mouth 7as in ,fig4 #ff1 p4 #aab74 ,cut through one side of the pharynx near the ventral surface and turn the tongue toward the uncut side4 ,the roof of the mouth is thus exposed4 ,dissect next-- #ad4 ,the pterygoid muscles 7,fig4 #ff74 ,remove the mucosa of the roof of the mouth1 especially at the sides of the soft palate1 and the two pterygoid muscles 7p4 #aaa7 are exposed4 ,the lower jaw may be removed on one side to get at their origin4 7,the muscles of the soft palate 7p4 #bcj1 and ,fig4 #ff1 d and e71 and the superior constrictor of the pharynx 7p4 #bcc1 and ,fig4 #ff1 f7 may be observed at this point1 if desired47 ,v4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,wall ,,of ,,the ,,thorax ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,abdomen4 #a4 ,the scalenus 7p4 #ada1 and ,fig4 #gc1 f-f74 ,to trace its cervical portion1 cut the trachea and sophagus just craniad of the first rib1 cut the pharynx and hyoid free from the ventral side of the head and neck1 and remove the pharynx1 larynx1 sophagus1 and trachea 7these should be preserved for future study of the larynx74 #b4 ,the transversus costarum 7p4 #aej1 and ,fig4 #gc1 j74 #c4 ,the serratus posterior superior 7p4 #adh1 and ,fig4 #gc1 l74 ,transect this at about the middle of the muscle-bundles1 and reflect it in both directions4 #d4 ,the serratus posterior inferior 7p4 #adh1 and ,fig4 #gc1 n74 ,transect and reflect as in the last4 #e4 ,the external oblique 7p4 #aec1 and ,fig4 #fh1 p74 ,transect it by an incision parallel to its tendon of origin and about an inch from it1 and reflect in both directions4 #f4 ,the internal oblique 7p4 #aed1 and ,fig4 #gc1 o74 ,transect and reflect as above4 #g4 ,the transversus 7p4 #aee1 and ,fig4 #fi1 l74 ,requires no further dissection4 #h4 ,the rectus abdominis 7p4 #aee1 and ,fig4 #gc1 k74 ,open its sheath by a longitudinal incision near the linea alba4 #i4 ,the external intercostals 7p4 #aej1 and ,fig4 #gc1 m2 ,fig4 #fi1 i74 ,to see these1 remove the origins of the levator scapul and serratus anterior2 also the serratus posterior superior4 #aj4 ,the internal intercostals 7p4 #aea1 and ,fig4 #fi1 k74 ,to uncover these1 remove the external intercostals from between two or three pairs of ribs4 #aa4 ,the transversus thoracis 7p4 #aea74 ,to see this muscle1 which lies on the inner surface of the thoracic wall1 it is necessary to cut through the ribs on one side one or two inches from the sternum1 and open the thorax4 ,the muscle can then be observed directly4 7,the levatores costarum will be dissected later47 ,,vi4 ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,ventral ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,vertebral ,,column ,,in ,,the ,,neck ,,region 7,fig4 #gb74 ,clean the surface of these muscles1 removing pharynx1 larynx1 sophagus1 and trachea1 if this has not been done4 #a4 ,longus capitis 7p4 #adb1 and ,fig4 #gb1 a74 #b4 ,longus colli 7p4 #add1 and ,fig4 #gb1 g1 g74 #c4 ,levator scapul ventralis 7p4 #abj1 and ,fig4 #gb1 c1 c74 ,observe its origin4 #d4 ,rectus capitis anterior minor 7p4 #adc1 and ,fig4 #gb1 b74 ,to see this1 cut through on one side the longus capitis and one head of the levator scapul ventralis1 and remove the proximal portions1 as in ,fig4 #gb4 #e4 ,obliquus capitis superior 7p4 #acf1 and ,fig4 #gb1 e74 #f4 ,rectus capitis lateralis 7p4 #adc1 and ,fig4 #gb1 d74 ,,vii4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,back 7p4 #abc74 ,remove what remains of the dorsal portion of the latissimus dorsi1 serratus posterior superior1 and serratus posterior inferior4 ,see that the skin is removed completely to the dorsal middle line1 or even for a little distance over onto the other side4 ,there is thus exposed the lumbodorsal fascia 7p4 #abf71 covering the muscles of the back4 ,cut the superficial layer of the lumbodorsal fascia 7that from which the latissimus dorsi and obliquus externus abdominis have origin7 by an incision parallel to the dorsal median line1 and remove it4 ,the muscles of the back are thus exposed 7,fig4 #fi74 ,observe in the lumbar region the longissimus dorsi 7f1 f1 f72 in the thoracic region the longissimus dorsi1 the spinalis dorsi 7g71 and the iliocostal 7h72 in the cervical region the splenius 7,fig4 #gc1 b74 #a4 ,the longissimus dorsi 7p4 #abf1 and ,fig4 #fi1 f1 f1 f74 ,notice in the lumbar region the strong deep layer of the lumbodorsal fascia1 by which this muscle is covered1 and from the under side of which many of the fibres of the muscle take origin4 ,cut this fascia by an incision parallel to the dorsal median line and about two centimeters from it1 from the level of the crest of the ilium as far craniad as the fascia can be cut without cutting into the muscle-fibres 7usually to about the level of the last rib74 ,reflect the medial division of the fascia to the middle line4 ,reflect the lateral division of the fascia until it passes into the muscle and cannot be farther reflected4 ,observe then in the lumbar region the medial 7,fig4 #gj1 a7 and lateral 7,fig4 #gj1 b7 divisions of the longissimus dorsi1 and the portion 7b7 of the lateral division taking origin from the lumbodorsal fascia 7c74 ,dissect apart some of the muscle-fibres of the longissimus and observe their origin and insertion4 ,trace the longissimus dorsi into the thoracic and cervical regions 7,fig4 #fi1 f1 f7 noting the separation off from it on the dorsal side of the spinalis dorsi 7,fig4 #fi1 g72 on the ventral side of the iliocostal 7,fig4 #fi1 h74 #b4 ,the extensor caud lateralis 7p4 #acg1 and ,fig4 #gj1 f74 ,uncover this by cutting the lumbodorsal fascia over the sacral region4 #c4 ,the iliocostalis 7p4 #abh1 and ,fig4 #fi1 h74 ,uncover this completely2 note its connection with the longissimus dorsi at the caudal end4 ,dissect apart some of its muscle-bundles1 to see origin and insertion4 #d4 ,the splenius 7p4 #aca1 and ,fig4 #gc1 b74 ,transect this by an incision beginning at its lateral border about four centimeters from the cranial end of the muscle and extending obliquely craniodorsad to the craniomedial angle of the muscle4 ,be careful not to injure the longissimus capitis 7,fig4 #gc1 g74 #e4 ,the longissimus capitis 7p4 #aca1 and ,fig4 #gc1 g74 ,transect4 #f4 ,the spinalis dorsi 7p4 #abi1 and ,fig4 #fi1 g74 ,separate some of its muscle-fibre bundles and trace to origin and insertion4 #g4 ,the biventer cervicis 7p4 #acb1 and ,fig4 #fi1 a74 ,raise its lateral border1 turning it toward the middle line1 and transect it near its caudal end4 #h4 ,the complexus 7p4 #acc1 and ,fig4 #fi1 b74 ,raise its medial border1 and transect it near its cranial end4 #i4 ,the longus atlantis 7p4 #acd1 and ,fig4 #ga1 f74 #aj4 ,the multifidus spin 7p4 #acj1 and ,fig4 #gj1 d74 ,remove a part of the longissimus dorsi in the lumbar region1 and trace the course of the fibres of the multifidus spin4 7,if desired the entire longissimus may be removed and the multifidus spin completely uncovered47 #aa4 ,the extensor caud medialis 7p4 #acf1 and ,fig4 #gj1 e74 #ab4 ,the semispinalis cervicis 7p4 #acc1 and ,fig4 #ga1 c74 ,dissect apart some of its fibre-bundles to see origin and insertion4 #ac4 ,the interspinales and intertransversarii 7p4 #aca7 may be seen in the region from which the longissimus dorsi was removed1 by removing the bundles of the multifidus spin4 #ad4 ,the rectus capitis posterior major 7p4 #acd1 and ,fig4 #ga1 a74 ,transect4 #ae4 ,the obliquus superior 7p4 #acf1 and ,fig4 #ga1 e74 #af4 ,the obliquus capitis inferior 7p4 #acf1 and ,fig4 #ga1 b74 #ag4 ,the rectus capitis posterior medius 7p4 #ace74 ,transect4 #ah4 ,the rectus capitis posterior minor 7p4 #ace74 #ai4 ,the levatores costarum 7p4 #aej74 ,remove in a part of the thoracic region a portion of the iliocostal and longissimus dorsi1 so as to expose the dorsal ends of the ribs4 ,the levatores costarum will be seen as but slightly separated bundles continuous with the external intercostals4 ,,viii4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,hind ,,limbs 7p4 #ahf74 ,remove the skin and superficial fascia from the lateral surface of the thigh4 ,examine the fascia lata 7p4 #ahf1 and ,fig4 #fh1 z74 ,dissect3 #a4 ,the biceps femoris 7p4 #aid1 and ,fig4 #fh1 t74 ,work under its cranial and caudal borders4 ,find the tenuissimus 7,fig4 #ij1 g7 passing obliquely beneath it and reaching its caudal border in its distal half4 ,transect the biceps without injuring the tenuissimus1 and reflect its halves4 #b4 ,the tenuissimus 7p4 #aie1 and ,fig4 #ij1 g74 ,transect4 #c4 ,the caudofemoralis 7p4 #aie1 and ,fig4 #fh1 s74 ,transect4 #d4 ,the gluteus maximus 7p4 #ahg74 ,transect4 #e4 ,the sartorius 7p4 #aig1 and ,fig4 #fh1 q2 ,fig4 #ia1 a74 ,transect4 #f4 ,the tensor fasci lat 7p4 #ahg1 and ,fig4 #fh1 r74 ,cut the fascia lata along the distal end of the muscle-fibres and reflect the muscle4 #g4 ,the gluteus medius 7p4 #ahh1 and ,fig4 #ij1 b74 ,work under it carefully1 separating it from underlying muscles2 cut it close to its tendon of insertion1 and reflect it4 #h4 ,the pyriformis 7p4 #ahh1 and ,fig4 #afc1 #g1 p4 #dja74 ,cut and reflect it4 #i4 ,the gemellus superior 7p4 #ahi1 and ,fig4 #afc1 #f74 ,this and the next muscle will sometimes be found to be completely united4 ,transect4 #aj4 ,the gluteus minimus 7p4 #ahi1 and ,fig4 #afc1 #e74 ,transect4 #aa4 ,the obturator internus 7p4 #aib1 and ,fig4 #ij1 e74 ,cut it at the dorsal border of the ischium in order to reflect it4 ,the whole origin cannot be seen at this stage4 #ab4 ,the gemellus inferior 7p4 #aij74 #ac4 ,the gracilis 7p4 #aih1 and ,fig4 #ia1 b74 ,transect4 #ad4 ,the semitendinosus 7p4 #aif1 and ,figs4 #ij and #ia1 j2 ,fig4 #ib1 i74 ,transect4 #ae4 ,the semimembranosus 7p4 #aif1 and ,figs4 #ij and #ia1 i2 ,fig4 #ib1 h1 h74 ,transect4 #af4 ,the adductor femoris 7p4 #aih1 and ,figs4 #ij and #ia1 h2 ,fig4 #ib1 g74 ,transect4 #ag4 ,the quadratus femoris 7p4 #aia1 and ,fig4 #ij1 f74 ,transect4 #ah4 ,the obturator externus 7p4 #aia74 #ai4 ,the adductor longus 7p4 #aii1 and ,fig4 #ib1 f74 ,this and the following will sometimes be found to be almost completely united4 ,transect4 #bj4 ,the pectineus 7p4 #bjj1 and ,fig4 #ib1 e74 ,transect4 #ba4 ,the iliopsoas 7p4 #aic1 and ,fig4 #ia1 c2 ,fig4 #ib1 d74 ,only its distal part1 near the insertion1 can be seen at present4 #bb4 ,the capsularis 7p4 #aij74 ,transect4 #bc4 ,the quadriceps femoris 7p4 #bja74 ,isolate the rectus femoris 7,fig4 #ib1 b7 as far as its junction with the vastus lateralis2 cut it at this point and reflect its proximal portion4 ,turn aside the distal end and find beneath it the transverse aponeurosis between the vastus medialis and the vastus lateralis1 and covering the vastus intermedius4 ,the vastus lateralis 7,fig4 #ij1 d7 may be cut near the middle and dissected up from its origin in both directions2 the vastus intermedius is thus exposed4 ,the vastus medialis 7,fig4 #ib1 c7 and the vastus intermedius need not be cut4 #bd4 ,the gastrocnemius 7p4 #bjc1 and ,fig4 #ij1 m2 ,fig4 #ia1 k74 ,it may be raised cautiously near its middle and divided4 ,care should be taken not to divide the underlying plantaris 7,fig4 #ij1 l74 ,after noting the connection of the outer head with the plantaris1 the latter may be divided and reflected1 together with the outer head4 #be4 ,the plantaris 7p4 #bje1 and ,figs4 #ij and #ia1 l74 #bf4 ,the flexor brevis digitorum 7p4 #bab74 ,in tracing its tendon note the three branches of the common plantar ligament which emerges from between the second and third tendons4 ,the outer branch is inserted into the fascia covering the base of the fifth digit1 while the other two spread out into the bilobed pad of the sole4 #bg4 ,the soleus 7p4 #bje1 and ,fig4 #ij1 o74 ,cut and reflect4 #bh4 ,the popliteus 7p4 #bjf1 and ,fig4 #ib1 k74 ,cut very near the origin and reflect4 ,the three following deep muscles on the ventral surface of the shank are covered by the deep crural fascia 7p4 #bjf7 which separates them from the overlying muscles4 ,it should be removed4 #bi4 ,the flexor longus hallucis 7p4 #bjg1 and ,fig4 #ia1 m74 ,divide the muscle at its junction with the tendon4 ,open the canals on the astragalus and calcaneus and reflect the tendon1 cutting the tendon of the flexor longus digitorum near its insertion and dividing at the middle the quadratus plant 7p4 #bac7 which may be found inserted into its ventral surface4 #cj4 ,flexor longus digitorum 7p4 #bjh1 and ,fig4 #ia1 n74 ,this may be divided very near its origin4 #ca4 ,tibialis posterior 7p4 #bjh1 and ,fig4 #ia1 o74 ,this may be divided near its tendon4 #cb4 ,peroneus longus 7p4 #bji1 and ,fig4 #ij1 q74 ,the overlying tendons may be cut in tracing its insertion4 #cc4 ,peroneus brevis 7p4 #baj1 and ,fig4 #ij1 s74 #cd4 ,peroneus tertius 7p4 #baj1 and ,fig4 #ij1 r74 #ce4 ,extensor longus digitorum 7p4 #baj1 and ,fig4 #ij1 p74 #cf4 ,tibialis anterior 7p4 #baa1 and ,fig4 #ij1 n74 #cg4 ,the extensor brevis digitorum 7p4 #bab1 and ,fig4 #ij1 u74 #ch4 ,the quadratus plant 7p4 #bac74 ,it was cut in dissecting the flexor longus hallucis4 #ci4 ,the lumbricales 7p4 #bac74 #dj4 ,the interossei 7with the muscles of the fifth digit7 7p4 #bad74 #da4 ,the tarsal muscles 7p4 #bae74 ,the overlying ligaments must be removed in order to expose the scaphocuneiform4 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,diaphragm ,,and ,,the ,,muscles ,,on ,,the ,,ventral ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,vertebral ,,column ,,in ,,the ,,lumbar ,,and ,,pelvic ,,regions4 ,remove the ventral and lateral walls of the thorax completely1 as far back as the diaphragm1--leaving only a ring attached to the margin of the diaphragm4 ,remove the abdominal walls in the same way1 as far back as the pubis1 leaving the diaphragm in position4 ,remove the thoracic viscera 7the heart and lungs may be preserved for future study74 ,remove also the abdominal viscera as far back as the beginning of the pelvis1 cutting the large intestine where it passes into the pelvis4 ,the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity should be cleared of fat1 blood-vessels1 etc41 without injury to the crura of the diaphragm4 #a4 ,the diaphragm 7p4 #aea1 and ,fig4 #gd74 ,study by transmitted light1 to see the tendons1 etc4 #b4 ,the psoas minor 7p4 #aci1 and ,fig4 #afb1 #i1 p4 #cih74 ,find its tendon and separate it from the iliopsoas 7,fig4 #afb1 #h7 as far craniad as this can be done without tearing the fibres4 #c4 ,the iliopsoas 7p4 #aic1 and ,fig4 #afb1 #h74 ,find both portions2 isolate them as far as it can be done4 #d4 ,the quadratus lumborum 7p4 #aci74 ,free the lateral edge of the iliopsoas from the abdominal wall and turn the whole muscle mediad as far as possible4 ,the bundles of the quadratus lumborum will be found beneath it1 against the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebr4 ,with a heavy cartilage-knife separate the two innominate bones along the pelvic symphysis4 ,this is easily done if the knife is inserted exactly into the line of junction of the two bones4 ,divaricate the edges some distance1 so as to make a ventral opening into the pelvic cavity4 ,if necessary1 part of the innominate bone of one side may be removed to make the opening larger4 ,find the thin sheet of fibres forming the levator ani muscle 7,fig4 #afb1 #aa7 at the side of the rectum1 attached to the edge of the symphysis4 ,carefully free the rectum and urogenital organs from this and remove them as far as the anus1 leaving the levator ani intact4 #e4 ,the iliocaudalis 7p4 #acg1 and ,fig4 #afb1 #aa74 #f4 ,the levator ani 7p4 #bfi1 and ,fig4 #afb1 #aa74 ,remove with great care the levator ani and iliocaudalis of one side1 by cutting first the attachment to the symphysis and the ilium1 turning the muscle mediad1 then cutting the attachment to the tail4 ,there are thus exposed on the lateral wall of the thorax the medial surface of the obturator internus1 craniad of it the pyriformis1 caudad of it the quadratus femoris4 ,dorsad of these is the abductor caud internus4 #g4 ,the abductor caud internus 7p4 #acg74 ,on the ventral surface of the tail are exposed the following3 #h4 ,the flexor caud longus 7p4 #ach1 and ,fig4 #afb1 #ab74 #i4 ,the flexor caud brevis 7p4 #ach1 and ,fig4 #afb1 #ac74 ,x4 ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,tail 7p4 #acf74 ,by removing the skin of the tail1 all the muscles of the tail are now easily seen4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e--see #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 above 7,,ix74 #f4 ,the abductor caud externus 7p4 #acg1 and ,fig4 #aac1 b2 ,fig4 #gj1 g74 #g4 ,the extensor caud lateralis 7p4 #acg1 and ,fig4 #gj1 f74 #h4 ,the extensor caud medialis 7p4 #acf1 and ,fig4 #gj1 e74 ,,the ,,viscera4 ,kill the specimen with chloroform and inject with the five per cent4 formalin1 or the mixture of formalin and glycerine1 as for the muscles4 7,it is an advantage if the preliminary examination of the viscera can be done in a perfectly fresh1 uninjected specimen2 such a specimen can be kept but a day or two1 however4 ,after one day's examination the skin may be removed and the specimen placed in two per cent4 formalin2 it will usually be fairly well preserved by this1 though the formalin is too strong to make the later dissection pleasant4 ,the specimen cannot be preserved in this manner unless the skin is removed1 and a sufficient quantity of formalin used47 ,,preliminary ,,examination ,,of ,,the ,,viscera4 7,in this preliminary examination the descriptions in the text need not be read1 except when this is specially directed47 ,wet the hair along a line from the symphysis of the jaw to the pubis4 ,part it and make a longitudinal incision through the skin along the line4 ,make a transverse incision of the skin five centimeters caudad of the xiphoid process and reflect the flaps4 ,incise the body wall from the last rib to the pelvis along the same line as above and also transversely4 ,reflect the flaps without injuring the ligaments of the bladder4 ,make an incision through the pectoral muscles between the first rib and the ventral attachment of the diaphragm and about one centimeter from the median line4 ,make a second incision of the muscles from the cranial end of the first incision along the angles of the ribs to near the dorsolateral attachment of the diaphragm4 ,cut the ribs and thoracic wall along these incisions with strong scissors2 connect the two incisions at their caudal ends1 and remove the lateral thoracic wall thus circumscribed4 ,note the thoracic and abdominal cavities1 separated by the diaphragm4 ,note the following viscera in their fresh condition3 ,a4 ,in the abdominal cavity 7without injuring anything7 #a4 ,the liver1 dark red and lobed1 in the cranial part of the cavity1 lying against the diaphragm4 #b4 ,the gall-bladder partly imbedded in the right median lobe4 #c4 ,displacing the liver craniad1 the stomach is seen dorsad of its left lobe4 ,it may extend dorsad of the right lobe1 its size depending on the degree of distension4 #d4 ,the duodenum or first part of the small intestine leaves the stomach at its right side craniad and makes a ,u bend1 the head of which is directed caudad2 it then turns toward the middle line dorsad of the remaining part of the small intestine4 #e4 ,the great omentum is a thin fold of peritoneum with many bands of fat4 ,it passes like a curtain from the great curvature of the stomach ventrad of the coils of the small intestine 7ileum74 ,it is tucked beneath the mass of coils at the sides and caudally1 and folds of it extend between the individual coils4 ,turn it craniad and note-- #f4 ,the numerous coils of the third part of the small intestine or ileum4 ,turn these to one side and note-- #g4 ,the connection of the ileum with the duodenum across the middle line4 ,an indefinite part of the intestine between the ileum and duodenum is called the jejunum1 because in man it is found empty after death4 #h4 ,the passage of the ileum into the side of the large intestine which begins on the right side just caudad of the loops of the duodenum4 ,the first part of the large intestine is the colon4 ,it may be traced first toward the head 7ascending colon71 then sinistro-caudad 7transverse colon7 and then caudad 7descending colon74 ,the descending colon returns to the middle line and the large intestine then continues to the anus as the rectum4 ,the blind pouch of the colon which lies caudad of the opening of the ileum is the ccum4 #i4 ,turn the duodenum toward the left and note the pancreas1 a light red1 elongated organ which stretches along the greater curvature of the stomach and thence between the two lines of the duodenal ,u to its bottom4 #aj4 ,the spleen1 parallel to the gastric portion of the pancreas4 ,it is deep red 7darker than the pancreas and not so brown as the liver7 and is held against the great curvature of the stomach by a part of the great omentum4 #aa4 ,the kidneys1 close against the dorsal body wall and in contact with the caudal part of the liver4 #ab4 ,the bladder1 in the median line at the caudal end of the cavity1 held in place by the suspensory ligament1 which passes to the midventral line1 and by the lateral ligaments4 #ac4 ,the mesenteric glands1 large grayish-red glands one to four centimeters long1 more numerous in the mesocolon4 #ad4 ,in the female1 lying against the ventral surface of the rectum1 the uterus4 ,it divides into two horns which diverge4 ,near the end of each horn the ovary4 #ae4 ,the peritoneum4 ,study and understand the description of it 7p4 #bah74 ,dissect some of it free from the body wall4 7,trace the folds by aid of a diagram and model47 ,b4 ,in the thoracic cavity3 #a4 ,the lungs4 ,each is divided into lobes1 three on the left1 four on the right4 ,the caudal right lobe pushes the mediastium toward the left and thus lies in a pocket dorsocaudad of the heart and dorsad of the vena cava inferior4 #b4 ,the pleur4 ,each pleura is a membrane like the peritoneum4 ,it covers the diaphragm and the thoracic walls and is reflected onto the lungs4 ,hence it is divided into costal and pulmonary portions4 ,read the description 7p4 #bag7 and trace their connection4 ,each pleura forms a closed sac4 #c4 ,the mediastinal septum or median vertical portion formed by the apposition of the medial walls of the two pleural sacs4 ,it divides the thorax into halves4 #d4 ,in the mediastinum or space between the halves of the mediastinal septum are seen-- a4 ,ventrally 7i4e41 in the anterior mediastinum71 blood-vessels and fat1 and craniad the pink thymus gland4 ,read the description of the thymus 7p4 #bed1 and ,fig4 #ajg74 b4 ,dorsally 7i4e41 in the posterior mediastinum7 the trachea 7best seen craniad71 the sophagus 7best seen caudad71 and the aorta4 c4 ,in the middle 7reckoning in a dorsoventral line7 7i4e41 in the middle mediastinum7 the heart1 with the inferior vena cava approaching it from the rear4 ,prick into the mediastinum and inflate it4 ,remove the thoracic wall opposite the one already removed1 so as to stretch the mediastinum and show it more clearly4 ,expose the trachea beneath the caudal end of the sternomastoidei4 ,note the thyroid gland 7,fig4 #if1 #f1 p4 #bbi74 ,insert a blowpipe without injury to the thyroid1 and inflate the lungs4 ,cut the sternum at its caudal end and turn it craniad1 cutting the mediastinal septum and noting its double character4 ,dissect the mediastinal septum from the thymus so as to expose this organ4 d4 ,the pericardium1 a relatively thick-walled sac1 within which the heart lies4 ,the pericardium is covered by the mediastinal septum on each side1 but not dorsally and ventrally4 ,dissect the mediastinal septum from the pericardium4 ,prick and inflate the pericardium4 ,open it and expose the heart4 ,,dissection ,,of ,,the ,,alimentary ,,canal4 ,study and verify the descriptions of the organs as they are dissected4 ,i4 ,salivary glands 7p4 #bbc74 #a4 ,keep the mouth open by a cork between the teeth4 ,find the papill upon which open the sublingual and submaxillary ducts 7pp4 #bbc and #bbd72 remove the mucosa and enlarge the opening and insert a black bristle into either duct4 ,trace the duct by the bristle as far as possible on the floor of the mouth4 #b4 ,find the white ridge formed on the cheek by the parotid duct 7p4 #bbc74 ,it is opposite the molar tooth1 and at its cranial end the opening of the duct is seen4 ,enlarge the opening and insert a black bristle as far as possible4 #c4 ,remove the skin and the skin-muscles from the side of the face1 beginning at the caudal end and working craniad4 ,at the cranial border of the carotid on the ventral side look carefully for the parotid duct with the bristle in it4 ,the duct is then easily traced by the removal of the skin and muscles4 ,study the parotid gland 7,fig4 #aca1 #aj1 p4 #cbb74 #d4 ,remove the facial vein 7,fig4 #aca1 b and c7 and lymphatic gland 7,fig4 #aca1 #ab7 covering the submaxillary gland 7,fig4 #aca1 #aa7 and clean its outer surface4 ,raise it and find the submaxillary duct leaving its inner surface4 ,reflect the digastric and mylohyoid muscles and trace the duct to the oral mucosa4 ,the remainder of its course is shown by the bristle on the inside of the mouth4 #e4 ,the sublingual gland is uncovered in dissecting the submaxillary4 ,its duct is seen by the side of the submaxillary4 ,it may be pricked near the gland and a bristle passed to its opening4 #f4 ,the infraorbital gland4 ,expose it by removal of the zygomatic arch and masseter muscle4 ,find its duct by dissecting apart the lobules at its ventral end4 ,prick the duct and insert a bristle to find its inner opening4 #g4 ,the molar gland4 ,find it by raising the orbicularis oris of the lower lip4 ,by raising its ventral border and dissecting between it and the mucosa the ducts may be found and perhaps pricked and bristles inserted4 ,,ii4 ,the mouth-cavity4 ,study the general description 7p4 #bba72 the lips and the cheek4 ,then remove the masseter muscle and the caudal part of the zygoma4 ,cut through the mandible between the first premolar and the canine tooth4 ,then disarticulate the mandible1 cut the cheek and also the mylohyoid muscle and oral mucosa parallel to the medial border of the mandible1 and remove the mandible with the parts thus left attached to it4 ,the organs in the mouth-cavity are thus left exposed and should be studied4 ,to demonstrate the incisive ducts 7p4 #bbb7 pass a bristle into them4 ,the teeth 7p4 #bbd74 ,these should be studied on a skull in which the roots of the teeth have been laid bare by means of the bone-forceps1 as in ,figs4 #ic and #id4 ,the tongue 7p4 #bbf1 and ,fig4 #ie74 ,study its dorsal surface1 the papill1 etc4 ,then dissect its muscles 7p4 #bbh7 from the ventral side4 ,the stylohyoid1 digastric1 and mylohyoid muscles must be removed4 ,then dissect 7a7 the styloglossus 7,fig4 #if1 e71 7b7 the genioglossus 7,fig4 #if1 f71 7c7 the hyoglossus 7,fig4 #if1 h74 ,make a transverse section of the tongue to see the intrinsic muscle-fibres4 ,,iii4 ,the thyroid gland 7p4 #bed1 and ,fig4 #if1 #f74 ,clean the sternomastoid muscles4 ,cut their interdigitating portions along the median line and reflect them4 ,find the lateral lobe of the thyroid gland beneath the lateral borders of the sternohyoid muscles4 ,dissect it1 being careful not to destroy the delicate isthmus4 ,,iv4 ,the pharynx 7p4 #bca74 ,remove the large lymphatic gland between the atlantal transverse process and the larynx4 ,clean the outer surface of the pharynx4 ,dissect the muscles of the pharynx 7p4 #bcb7 as follows3 7a7 ,the inferior constrictor 7,fig4 #if1 k74 7b7 ,the middle constrictor 7,fig4 #if1 j74 7c7 ,the glossopharyngeus 7,fig4 #if1 i74 7d7 ,the stylopharyngeus 7,fig4 #if1 l74 ,the superior constrictor cannot well be seen at this point2 it will be examined later4 ,disarticulate the cranial cornu of the hyoid from the bulla tympani and make an incision the length of the lateral wall of the pharynx so as to expose its cavity2 study4 ,examine its opening into the mouth-cavity and study the general description 7p4 #bca74 ,find and study the soft palate 7p4 #bcj74 ,dissect the tensor and levator palatini muscles 7p4 #bcj1 and ,fig4 #ff1 d and e1 p4 #aab71 using1 if necessary1 the specimen on which the other muscles were dissected4 ,then slit the soft palate lengthwise at one side of the median line to expose the nasopharynx 7p4 #bca74 ,bring the choan into view by use of a bit of mirror-glass4 ,pass a bristle into the nares and out at the choan4 ,pass a bristle through the ,eustachian tube into the middle ear4 ,v4 sophagus 7p4 #bcd74 ,after completing the study of the pharynx1 leave the larynx and lungs in position and by displacing them toward the right follow the sophagus to its termination4 ,open it to see the folds of the mucosa4 ,,vi4 ,cut through the duodenum at its distal end and through the duodenal mesentery so as to separate the stomach and duodenum1 with the liver1 pancreas1 and spleen1 from the remainder of the alimentary canal4 ,float the parts in a dish of water4 ,,vii4 ,study the stomach 7p4 #bcd1 and ,fig4 #ig74 ,cut out the ventral wall of the stomach and wash it out1 so as to study its cavity1 and then continue the cut so as to expose the pyloric valve 7p4 #bce74 ,,viii4 ,study the duodenum 7p4 #bcf74 ,cut away the ventral walls of the duodenum far enough to expose the ampulla of ,vater4 ,,ix4 ,study the liver 7p4 #bci1 and ,figs4 #ajj and #aja74 ,expose the hepatic duct of the left lateral lobe near its entrance into the lobe1 and follow it so as to expose it fully4 ,if necessary1 prick it and inflate with blowpipe in order to follow it4 ,then expose the cystic duct and other hepatic ducts and follow them to or from the common bile-duct4 ,trace the latter to the duodenum4 ,if the air does not enter any duct readily1 it may be made to do so by manipulating the duct so as to break up the precipitated bile which obstructs it4 ,x4 ,study the pancreas 7p4 #bda1 and ,fig4 #ajb74 ,expose the pancreatic duct near its entrance into the ampulla of ,vater1 by removing the peritoneum from the pancreas just caudad of the end of the common bile-duct1 and by dissecting apart the pancreatic lobules until the duct appears4 7,if possible1 expose also the accessory duct in the same way on the ventral side of the pancreas1 two centimeters caudoventrad of the ampulla of ,vater4 ,prick and inflate4 ,trace its connection with the main duct4 ,to demonstrate its opening pass a bristle through an opening in it into the duodenum47 7,the pancreatic duct may be injected1 if desired47 ,,xi4 ,the ventral wall of the duodenum should now be removed4 ,cut out a small piece1 clean its mucosa with a fine brush and examine the villi with a lens4 ,demonstrate the coats of the duodenal wall by stripping them off with forceps4 ,,xii4 ,the ampulla of ,vater 7p4 #bcf74 ,pass bristles through openings in the common bile-duct and pancreatic duct into the duodenum through the ampulla4 ,slice away the duodenal wall parallel to the bristles until the bristles are exposed4 ,,xiii4 ,the spleen 7p4 #bdb1 and ,fig4 #ajb74 ,,xiv4 ,cut the mesentery from the small intestine and colon and slit them both lengthwise1 but do not destroy the ileocolic valve4 ,wash and brush the mucous membrane clean and study the villi1 solitary glands1 and ,peyer's patches4 ,study the ileocolic valve 7,fig4 #ii7 and open it to study its inner surface4 ,,dissection ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,respiration4 ,i4 ,the nasal cavity 7p4 #bdc74 ,review the description of the nasal cavity given under the ,bones 7p4 #ei74 ,study the cartilaginous framework that supports the external nose 7p4 #bdc72 make a cross-section of the framework near the end of the nose and verify the description 7p4 #bdd1 and ,fig4 #ajc74 ,without injuring the larynx or tongue saw through the head in a vertical plane and a little to one side of the median line4 7,if desired1 the brain may first be removed from the specimen and preserved for future study4 ,for directions1 see page #dfb4 ,the removal of the brain does not injure the head for the study of the nasal cavity2 the skull may be sawn lengthwise in the same way as before47 ,wash out the cut surfaces before examining4 ,find the ventral conch 7p4 #dj71 the labyrinths of the ethmoid 7p4 #dc71 the inferior meatus of the nose 7p4 #bdc71 and by bristles the lachrymal duct or canal 7p4 #bde74 ,the lachrymal duct is conveniently found by passing bristles into the openings of the lachrymal canals4 ,one of these is to be found on the border of each eyelid1 two or three millimeters from the inner angle of the eye 7see p4 #daj74 ,cut the sophagus and trachea at the point where the blowpipe was inserted into the trachea4 ,separate the tongue1 hyoid1 larynx1 sophagus1 and first part of the trachea from the adjacent parts and remove them4 ,,ii4 ,the larynx 7p4 #bdf74 7#a7 ,read the description1 studying the cartilages 7p4 #bdg7 on a preparation 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,then very carefully remove the pharynx and its constrictor muscles1 the sternothyroid and remains of sternohyoid muscles1 and 7#b7 dissect the muscles of the larynx 7p4 #bdi1 and ,fig4 #aje74 ,dissect all those of one side first4 ,the mucosa lining the vestibule and middle portions of the laryngeal cavity must be removed4 ,after studying the muscles1 remove the muscles and entire mucosa by scraping carefully with a dull but smooth scalpel1 and study the cartilages 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,,iii4 ,the trachea and lungs 7p4 #bea1 and ,fig4 #ajf74 ,the distal end of the trachea and lungs may now be removed with the heart from the body4 ,the lungs may be inflated with the bellows4 ,the bronchi should then be exposed1 cleaned1 and followed as far as possible into the lungs4 ,the heart should be preserved for future study4 ,,dissection ,,of ,,the ,,urogenital ,,organs4 ,a4 ,excretory ,organs4 #a4 ,expose the kidney 7p4 #bee1 and ,fig4 #ajh7 by removal of the peritoneum and the surrounding fat1 taking care not to open the capsule of the kidney4 ,in removing the fat from the cranial end do not injure the suprarenal body 7p4 #beg71 which should be studied4 #b4 ,open the capsule of the kidney and slice away its ventral wall to expose the sinus4 ,after dissecting the contents of the sinus open the pelvis and study the papilla4 ,pass a bristle from the pelvis into the ureter4 #c4 ,make a median section of the kidney parallel to its ventral surface and study structure 7,fig4 #aji74 #d4 ,trace the ureter to the bladder1 being careful not to injure the vas deferens4 ,study the bladder and its ligaments1 structure of its wall1 etc4 ,pass a bristle through the ureter into it and then open it to see the openings of the ureter4 ,trace the neck of the bladder to the pubis4 ,b4 ,male ,genital ,organs4 #a4 ,study the external genital organs 7p4 #beg74 #b4 ,carefully remove the integument about the anus and expose the external sphincter ani muscle 7p4 #bfh1 and ,fig4 #aac1 i74 ,trace it to its origin4 ,remove the integument of the scrotum and dissect the intercolumnar fascia1 the levator scroti muscle 7p4 #bga1 and ,fig4 #aac1 j71 the tunica vaginalis communis1 and propria 7p4 #beh74 #c4 ,the testis2 the epididymis with great care1 especially in uncovering the vasa efferentia2 the vas deferens and spermatic cord 7p4 #bei1 and ,figs4 #aaj and #aaa74 #d4 ,follow the cord to the external inguinal ring 7p4 #bei7 and expose the ring4 ,dissect off in order from the inguinal canal3 7a7 ,the external oblique muscle2 7b7 the internal oblique muscle2 7c7 the transversus4 ,in this way the cord is followed with its tunica communis and tunica propria to the internal inguinal ring4 #e4 ,trace the vas deferens 7p4 #bfj1 and ,fig4 #aaa7 within the abdominal cavity as far as it can be seen dorsad of the neck of the bladder4 #f4 ,the penis 7p4 #bfb1 and ,figs4 #aaa and #aac74 ,cut the skin along the dorsum of the penis and reflect4 ,dissect the ligamentum suspensorium penis4 ,then introduce a bristle into the urethra and remove the integument from the whole penis and identify the corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum and the urethra4 #g4 ,remove the fat at the side of the rectum and find the levator ani muscle 7p4 #bfi1 and ,fig4 #afb1 #aa74 ,transect and reflect it4 ,the internal sphincter ani 7p4 #bfi1 and ,fig4 #aac1 h74 ,find the external opening of the anal gland 7p4 #bci72 slit and examine it4 #h4 ,dissect the ischiocavernosus 7p4 #bfi7 and bulbocavernosus 7p4 #bga7 muscles 7,fig4 #aac71 and find the bulbus of the corpus cavernosum beneath the former4 ,cut it free from the ischial ramus4 #i4 ,clean the muscles from the pelvis on the side from which the crus penis is removed1 and remove with bone forceps the body of the pubis and the ramus of the ischium4 ,then trace the neck of the bladder to its junction with the vasa deferentia1 and the urethra from that point to the external opening 7,fig4 #aaa74 ,study the compressor urethr muscle 7p4 #bga1 and ,fig4 #aac1 n74 ,find ,cowper's glands 7p4 #bfa7 and the prostate gland 7,fig4 #aac74 ,dissect the other muscles of the urogenital organs 7pp4 #bfh to #bgc1 and ,fig4 #aac74 #aj4 ,slit the urethra on one side throughout its length and find the veru montanum 7p4 #bfa72 the openings of the vasa deferentia 7p4 #bfa71 by bristles passed into the urethra from them2 the openings of the prostate gland and the openings of ,cowper's glands4 #aa4 ,study the structure of the penis 7p4 #bfb7 by making a cross-section1 and that of the glans by making a longitudinal section4 ,note1 if possible1 the os penis4 ,c4 ,female ,urogenital ,organs 7p4 #bfc1 and ,fig4 #aab74 ,the kidney and its ducts and the bladder are like those of the male 7p4 #bee71 except the neck of the bladder1 which will be seen in dissecting the uterus and vagina4 a4 ,without cutting anything examine-- #a4 ,the ovaries 7p4 #bfd72 the ligaments of the ovary 7p4 #bfd1 and ,fig4 #aab74 #b4 ,the uterine tube4 ,its ostium 7p4 #bfd74 #c4 ,the body of the uterus 7p4 #bff7 as far as exposed4 #d4 ,the cornu of the uterus4 #e4 ,the broad and round ligaments of the uterus 7p4 #bff74 #f4 ,slit open one ,fallopian tube1 cornu1 and body of the uterus as far as the junction of the divisions of the body of the uterus4 b4 ,remove the ventral wall of the pelvis on one side only and find the vagina and urogenital sinus 7p4 #bfg74 ,the levator ani muscle 7p4 #bfi1 and ,fig4 #afb1 #aa7 must be cut and reflected4 #a4 ,note the constrictor vestibuli1 caudovaginalis1 and urethralis muscles 7p4 #bgb1 and ,fig4 #aad74 #b4 ,introduce a probe from the uterus into the vagina and feel with the finger for the hard cervix uteri 7p4 #bff74 ,then open the vagina on the side1 but do not cut the os uteri 7p4 #bff74 #c4 ,examine the cervix uteri and os uteri 7p4 #bff74 #d4 ,introduce a probe through the neck of the bladder and note its emergence into the urogenital sinus4 #e4 ,find the end of the clitoris 7p4 #bfg71 and its prepuce1 and then dissect the integument carefully from about the external opening of the urogenital sinus and note an external sphincter of the sinus 7,m4 levator vulv7 7p4 #bgb1 and ,fig4 #aad71 equivalent to the levator scroti in the male and continuous with the external sphincter ani4 #f4 ,find 7if possible7 the corpora cavernosa of the clitoris 7p4 #bfg7 and the ischiocavernosi muscles 7p4 #bfi74 ,,dissection ,,of ,,the ,,circulatory ,,system4 ,i4 ,,the ,,heart 7p4 #bgd1 and ,figs4 #aae-aag74 ,use the heart from the specimen dissected for the muscles1 or from the specimen on which the viscera were studied4 #a4 ,study the outside 7p4 #bge1 and ,figs4 #aae and #aaf71 and learn to recognize all parts4 ,find the pulmonary veins 7p4 #bge1 and ,fig4 #aaf1 g1 h1 i7 and cut them1 thus separating the heart from the lungs4 #b4 ,the ,pericardium 7p4 #bgi74 ,in a specimen the thoracic contents of which have not been injured1 dissect the mediastinal septum from the pericardial sac and remove fat about the great blood-vessels so as to expose them all fully4 ,study their relations4 ,prick and inflate the pericardium4 ,slit it lengthwise over the ventricles and reflect it so as to expose its contents4 ,study the attachment of serous and fibrous layers to the heart and their relation to one another4 #c4 ,in dissecting the heart follow the course of the blood1 studying each cavity with the aid of the descriptions 7pp4 #bge-bgi7 as you proceed4 ,dissect as follows3 a4 ,remove the dorsal wall of the right auricle 7p4 #bge7 and of its appendage except that part of it to which the ven cav are attached4 b4 ,introduce the probe from the right auricle into the right ventricle1 and feel with the probe the line along which the ventricular wall joins the septum4 ,cut along this line so as to turn back the ventricular wall as a flap1 which remains attached at the base of the ventricle4 c4 ,introduce a probe through the conus arteriosus into the pulmonary artery and cut along the probe4 d4 ,remove the dorsal wall of the left auricle and its appendage1 but do not remove that part to which the pulmonary veins are attached4 e4 ,make a longitudinal incision beginning at the apex and divaricate the lips of the cut as you pass toward the base1 thus avoiding injury to the lateral flap of the bicuspid valve4 ,without injury to the flap or the column carne1 remove the heart-wall at the sides of this incision near the base of the ventricle1 as much as necessary to expose the cavity4 f4 ,pass a probe into the aorta4 ,introduce scissors behind the septal flap of the bicuspid valve and slit the aorta without injury to the bicuspid valve4 ,,ii4 ,,dissection ,,of ,,the ,,blood-,,vessels4 ,preparation and ,injection4--,a new specimen must be prepared for the dissection of the blood-vessels4 ,the same specimen may be used1 if necessary1 for the dissection of the peripheral nervous system1--one side being used for the blood-vessels1 the other for the nerves1--but it is much better to use separate specimens for the two systems4 ,inject the femoral artery of the specimen with either five per cent4 formalin1 or with the mixture of five per cent4 formalin and glycerine1 exactly as for the muscles4 ,then1 without removing the canula or waiting1 inject the artery with red starch4 ,this is prepared as follows3 ,mix together equal volumes of vermilion 7or red lead71 glycerine1 and five per cent4 formalin4 ,grind these together in a mortar1 so as to destroy the lumps2 strain the resulting mixture through fine muslin4 ,this color mixture can be preserved in a closed bottle till it is to be used4 ,then mix together one volume of dry starch1 one and one-fourth volumes of five per cent4 formalin1 and one-fourth volume of the color mixture4 ,see that no lumps are present4 ,inject the above red starch mass into the femoral artery4 ,it will drive into the veins the formalin already injected1 and the arteries will be filled with the red starch4 ,the veins need not be injected1 as they will be found to be filled with the formalin mixture1 colored by the blood1 so that they can be traced without great difficulty4 ,dissection of ,blood-vessels4--,in general the arteries and veins will be traced together4 ,it is an excellent plan to make a sketch of each vessel as it is dissected1 showing its origin1 branches1 and name4 ,this will be a great aid to the memory and will be of much assistance in reviewing the vessels4 ,the sketches can later be combined into a well-ordered drawing4 ,the description of each vessel must of course be studied as the vessel is dissected4 ,in tracing blood-vessels do not grasp them between the forceps-blades1 but handle them by taking hold with the forceps of the connective-tissue coats of the vessels4 ,do not use the scalpel1 but pull away the connective tissue and fat with fine forceps1 using two pairs of forceps or one forceps and the tracer4 ,variations are especially common in the blood-vessels1 and the student must not be surprised to find considerable deviations from the conditions described and figured in the text4 ,these variations usually present nothing new in principle and are easily understood by comparing them with the structures described4 ,directions for ,dissecting the ,blood-vessels4--,make a median longitudinal incision through the skin from the symphysis of the jaw to the caudal end of the xiphoid process4 ,about three or four centimeters caudad of the cranial end of the sternum make an incision at nearly right angles to this1 passing from the first incision on the ventral side of the left arm about to the elbow4 ,reflect the flaps of skin1 so as to uncover the left side of the thorax and the under surface of the arm1 exposing the pectoral muscles4 ,isolate and transect the pectoral muscles one at a time1 cutting each near its thoracic attachment4 7,the muscles 7p4 #ade7 should be reviewed at the same time47 ,in this way the nerves and blood-vessels of the axilla are exposed 7,fig4 #abb1 p4 #bie74 ,find the axillary artery and vein 7,fig4 #abb1 f and g7 emerging from the thorax just craniad of the first rib1 along with the nerves of the brachial plexus4 ,remove connective tissue1 etc41 so that the vessels and nerves are well isolated as they pass out of the thorax4 ,take great pains not to puncture the vessels1 particularly the veins4 ,then remove the left side of the thorax by cutting through the first rib near its sternal end and then near its dorsal end1 without injury to the vessels and nerves1 cut the other ribs in the same way1 and take out the thoracic wall4 ,now find with tracer and forceps the great blood-vessels leaving the cranial end of the heart 7see ,fig4 #aah74 ,take the greatest pains not to injure them4 ,find the aorta and aortic arch 7p4 #bha72 the left subclavian artery 7p4 #bhc7 7continuous with the axillary72 the innominate artery 7p4 #bhb71 and the beginnings of its three branches 7see ,fig4 #aae74 ,find also the superior vena cava1 the innominate veins1 and the subclavian vein1 continuous with the axillary vein4 ,i4 ,study the smaller branches of the thoracic aorta 7p4 #bhc1 and ,fig4 #aah7--the intercostals1 the bronchial and sophageal arteries1 and the first pair of lumbar arteries4 7,the coronary arteries will be examined later47 ,,ii4 ,dissect the subclavian and its branches 7p4 #bij7 as follows3 #a4 ,the internal mammary 7p4 #bib74 ,follow it onto the ventral wall of the abdomen4 ,follow the vein at the same time 7p4 #cah74 #b4 ,the vertebral artery 7p4 #bia74 ,find its beginning1 but do not trace it at present4 #c4 ,the costocervical axis 7p4 #bib74 ,find its beginning1 and trace the superior intercostal branch some distance ,the other branches are not to be followed at present4 #d4 ,the thyrocervical axis 7p4 #bic74 ,find its beginning1 but do not trace it at present4 #e4 ,the axillary artery 7continuation of the subclavian7 7p4 #bid74 ,follow its branches1 tracing at the same time the axillary vein 7p4 #cah74 7,consult ,fig4 #abb47 ,in tracing the blood-vessels1 separate the muscles1 but do not cut them except where absolutely necessary4 7,the muscles should be reviewed as the vessels are traced47 ,the following notes may be of assistance in following the different branches3 7a7 ,the anterior thoracic was probably cut in dissecting the pectoral muscles2 it may be found1 but its distal end is probably cut off4 7b7 ,the long thoracic is easily followed4 7c7 ,the subscapular4 ,follow the main artery before dissecting its branches4 ,where the subscapular disappears between the long head of the triceps1 the latissimus dorsi1 and the scapula1 it may be traced and found again as follows3 ,remove the skin from the outer side of the shoulder1--taking great pains to remove only the skin and not to injure the vena cephalica 7p4 #cai71 a large vein that lies just beneath the skin on the lateral surface of the shoulder1 coming from the elbow4 ,the branches of the subscapular will be found appearing on the lateral surface of the arm in the angle between the spinotrapezius1 the long head of the triceps1 and the infraspinatus4 ,the distal branches may then be followed4 7d7 ,the posterior circumflex 7p4 #bif7 may be traced distad in a similar manner1 by seeking it beneath the caudal border of the spinotrapezius4 7,do not injure the vena cephalica47 7e7 ,the other branches of the brachial artery and vein present no difficulty till we come to the collateralis radialis superior 7,fig4 #abb1 x74 ,this must be traced with great care1 along with the vena mediana cubiti 7p4 #cai1 and ,fig4 #abb1 y74 ,remove the skin from the extensor side of the forearm1 taking great pains not to remove anything more than the skin4 ,the artery and vein lie beneath the skin and should be traced to the hand 7see ,fig4 #acj74 ,along with the collateral radial artery trace the vena cephalica 7p4 #cai1 and ,fig4 #acj1 a and c74 ,follow it across the shoulder1 noting the branch to the posterior circumflex vein4 ,the remainder of the blood-vessels of the arm present no special difficulty 7see ,figs4 #abc and #abd74 ,make a diagram of the subclavian artery1 as far as dissected4 ,,iii4 ,remove the skin from the sides of the neck1 exposing the sternomastoid muscles and the external jugular veins crossing them 7see ,fig4 #aca74 ,clean the surface of the sternomastoid muscles1 without injuring the vein2 separate the two muscles caudad1 and cut each close to the attachment to the sternum4 ,find the sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles1 and cut them close to their attachment to the first rib4 ,uncover the right side of the thorax in the same way as the left1 cut the ribs without injury to the nerves and vessels of the right axilla1 cut the internal mammary artery and vein 7after tying the latter71 and thus remove the sternum with nearly the entire thoracic wall4 ,the blood-vessels of the thorax may now be more completely exposed4 7,if the nerves are to be dissected on the same specimen1 find the phrenic1 vagus1 and sympathetic nerves 7,fig4 #aeg71 and take the greatest pains not to injure them47 #a4 ,the coronary arteries and the veins of the heart 7pp4 #bha and #caf74 #b4 ,the superior vena cava 7p4 #caf74 ,find its branches4 ,trace the azygos as far back as the diaphragm without dissecting it at all4 ,find the division of the innominate 7p4 #cah7 into subclavian and external jugular4 ,trace next-- #c4 ,the external jugular 7p4 #cai74 ,remove the skin from the side of the face and trace its branches 7,fig4 #aca74 ,the internal jugular1 vena facialis profunda1 the submentalis1 and the deep terminal branches of the posterior facial cannot be followed at this time2 veins shown on ,fig4 #aca should all be found1 however4 #d4 ,trace the thyrocervical axis and its branches 7p4 #bic74 ,add them to your diagram of the subclavian4 #e4 ,follow the common carotid artery 7p4 #bhc7 and internal jugular vein 7p4 #cbj74 ,find the division of the common carotid into its terminal branches and then dissect its lateral branches and those of the internal jugular 7see ,fig4 #aai74 #f4 ,the external carotid 7p4 #bhe1 and ,fig4 #aai74 ,follow its branches with the exception of the internal maxillary4 #g4 ,the internal maxillary 7p4 #bhg74 ,find its inferior alveolar branch first and follow it by cutting away with bone-forceps the ventral border of the lower jaw4 ,to follow its other branches and those of the carotid plexus1 remove the zygomatic arch1 cut the temporal1 masseter1 and pterygoid muscles1 and cut the mandible behind the incisor teeth and remove it4 ,the branches which pass into the skull are not to be followed at present4 ,the posterior facial vein 7p4 #cbc71 the vena facialis profunda 7p4 #cbc71 and the submental vein 7p4 #cbc7 may be followed at the same time4 #h4 ,the internal carotid 7p4 #bhe74 ,follow it to the point where it enters the cranium4 #i4 ,trace the other branches of the costocervical axis 7p4 #bib74 ,to do this1 cut the arteries and nerves of the axilla on the side on which they have been dissected1 allowing the arm to fall backward4 ,then trace the branches of the costocervical axis with tracer1 scalpel1 and bone-forceps1 taking care not to injure the vertebral artery4 ,add these branches to your diagram of the subclavian4 #aj4 ,the vertebral artery 7p4 #bia74 ,trace it to the foramen transversarium of the sixth cervical vertebra4 ,then with bone-forceps follow it to the atlas and into the atlantal foramen4 ,add this to your diagram of the subclavian4 #aa4 ,the basilar artery 7p4 #bia7 and the other arteries of the brain 7p4 #bhi7 are best studied on a preparation1 similar to that shown in ,fig4 #aba4 ,to obtain such a preparation it is only necessary to remove the brain 7for directions1 see p4 #dfb7 of a specimen in which the arteries have been injected4 7#ab4 ,veins of the brain and dura mater 7p4 #cbd74 ,these can be worked out only with much difficulty1 except on specimens injected with gelatine4 ,the skull must be chipped away and the veins followed without destroying them47 #ac4 ,trace the pulmonary veins 7p4 #cae7 7filled with red injection7 and the pulmonary artery 7p4 #bhj74 ,,iv4 ,vessels in the abdominal cavity4 #a4 ,open the abdominal cavity2 find the superior mesenteric vein 7p4 #cbf1 and ,fig4 #acb7 in the duodenal mesentery near the border of the pancreas4 ,inject this in both directions with white starch and then dissect the portal vein and its tributaries without injuring any of the structures in the abdomen 7p4 #cbf1 and ,fig4 #acb74 #b4 ,follow the inferior vena cava 7p4 #cbe7 from the heart to the diaphragm and then follow it to its tributaries in the abdominal cavity4 #c4 ,dissect the branches of the abdominal aorta 7p4 #cja7 and of the inferior vena cava 7,fig4 #abf74 ,make diagrams of the vessels dissected and review as far as necessary the viscera concerned4 ,v4 ,the external iliac and its branches 7vessels of the hind limbs7 7pp4 #cji and #cbi1 and ,figs4 #abg1 #abh1 and #afc74 ,follow the branches of the external iliac arteries and the corresponding veins in the same manner as the vessels of the arm were traced1 cutting the muscles only so far as absolutely necessary4 ,make diagrams of the vessels dissected4 ,make a diagram 7a7 of the arterial system as a whole2 7b7 of the venous system as a whole4 ,,the ,,lymphatic ,,system 7p4 #ccj74 ,it will hardly be found practicable to have each student make a dissection of the lymphatic system1 and such parts of it as are to be studied may best be shown on a specimen prepared for demonstration purposes4 ,the thoracic duct and the receptaculum chyli may be demonstrated by the following well-known method3 ,a lean cat is fed with milk about two hours before killing it4 ,an egg may be beaten up with the milk to advantage4 ,kill the cat with chloroform1 and inject the arteries with colored starch through the femoral1 in the usual way4 ,the thoracic duct1 the receptaculum chyli1 and the lymphatics leading to the receptaculum chyli will be colored white by the milk1 and can therefore be easily followed4 ,for this purpose the abdomen should be opened1 and the left side of the thorax removed1 as in the dissection of the blood-vessels4 ,the thoracic duct will be found at the left side of the aorta and may then be traced in both directions4 ,for a more complete study of the lymphatics they should be injected4 ,this is done as follows3 ,make a glass canula with a small point1 and leave the point sharp4 ,connect this to the syringe by means of a rubber tube4 ,use a saturated solution of soluble ,prussian blue as injecting fluid4 ,employ a freshly killed animal4 ,for injecting the lymphatics of the limbs1 make with some pointed instrument1 as the tracer1 a small hole in one of the pads on the sole of the foot4 ,introduce the point of the canula into this opening and inject the fluid4 ,this will pass into the spaces in the connective tissue of the pad1 which will swell up1 and the colored fluid will pass from the connective-tissue spaces into the lymphatics4 ,pressure must be maintained with the syringe for a considerable time1--fifteen minutes to a half-hour for a good injection of the main trunks of the lymphatics of the limbs4 ,the movement of the fluid should be facilitated by pressing and manipulating the limb at the same time with the hand1--in such a way as will tend to drive the fluid proximad4 ,the lymphatics of the head may be injected in a similar manner1 the canula being introduced into the upper and lower lip1 or into the bare surface at the end of the nose4 ,the internal lymphatic vessels may be injected by injecting the lymphatic glands with which they are connected4 ,this may conveniently be done as follows3 ,draw out to a fine point the tip of an ordinary pipette or medicine-dropper4 ,the point should be fine1 but should taper rapidly in a conical fashion1 so that when the point is inserted the part of the glass tube behind it will close up the opening4 ,fill the pipette with soluble ,prussian blue2 insert the point into the gland1 and inject the fluid slowly4 ,the lymphatic vessels passing from the glands will be filled4 ,by injecting thus the large lymphatic gland 78pancreas ,aselli07 in the mesentery1 the abdominal lymphatics1 the receptaculum chyli1 and the thoracic duct may be injected4 ,by using thin gelatine colored with ,prussian blue as an injecting fluid permanent preparations may be obtained2 of course the process of injection is then less simple1 and should be looked up in some manual of methods4 ,,nervous ,,system4 ,i4 ,,the ,,spinal ,,cord 7p4 #cce74 ,use the specimen on which the muscles were dissected4 7,or if the peripheral nerves are not to be dissected on the specimen used for the blood-vessels1 that may be employed47 ,make a longitudinal dorsal median incision of the skin1 between the back of the head and root of the tail4 ,reflect the skin for one or two inches on each side of the incision and cut away the muscles covering the neural arches of the vertebr from the third cervical to the seventh or eighth thoracic inclusive4 ,remove with bone-forceps the neural arch of one of the last cervical vertebr and find the spinal nerve emerging from the intervertebral foramen4 ,isolate the nerve for a short distance1 then proceed craniad1 removing the neural arches on one side and isolating the nerves until the third has been uncovered4 ,the ganglion of the second nerve should be sought among the muscles on the dorsal surface between the atlas and axis1 and after it has been isolated the arch of the axis may be removed4 7,the nerve may be found beneath the clavotrapezius and traced to the ganglion47 ,the ganglion of the second nerve should be isolated in or near the atlantal foramen1 the muscles to which it passes turned aside1 and the arch of the atlas removed4 ,having thus uncovered the first two or more spinal ganglia1 proceed caudad1 removing the vertebral arches1 until the whole cord and its nerves are exposed4 ,then-- #a4 ,study the cord1 enlargements1 filum terminale1 etc4 7p4 #ccd1 and ,figs4 #acc and #acf74 #b4 ,slit open and reflect the dura mater 7p4 #ccg7 for an inch or two4 #c4 ,demonstrate the arachnoid by pulling it off with forceps4 #d4 ,reflect the pia mater in the same way as the dura mater4 #e4 ,study the fissures and grooves of the cord4 #f4 ,cut across the cord with fine scissors at the point where it is freed from its membranes and examine the section4 ,note the arrangement of gray and white matter and the fissures and grooves1 particularly the anterior or ventral4 ,demonstrate the central canal with the blowpipe4 #g4 ,study the origin of the spinal nerves 7p4 #ccg74 ,count them4 ,direction of exit8 ,carefully clean one in the thoracic region from dura mater and connective tissue1 with fine scissors1 and study dorsal and ventral roots and ganglion 7see ,fig4 #ace74 ,then follow it out and find its dorsal ramus and ventral ramus and the communicating branch of the latter with the sympathetic system4 ,do not trace the peripheral branches of the nerve at present4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,brain 7p4 #cci74 ,the brain will usually be found to be in an entirely satisfactory condition for study in any specimen injected with five per cent4 formalin or the glycerine and formalin mixture4 ,the brain is a little swollen1 but all parts are well preserved1 and the white and gray matter are clearly marked off from each other4 ,either the specimen used for the muscles or that employed for the blood-vessels may therefore be used1--or if the brain was removed from the specimen employed for the viscera1 that will be satisfactory4 ,the following directions for removing the brain are designed for specimens preserved as above4 ,for removing the fresh brain the process is essentially similar1 but as the brain is then very soft1 care should be taken not to tear it4 ,the fresh brain should be preserved in the alcohol-formalin mixture given below1 and should be allowed to rest only on some soft substance1 as absorbent cotton4 ,remove the head from the body by cutting through the neck a little craniad of the first rib if this has not already been done4 ,remove all skin1 muscles1 and other soft parts from the head and cervical vertebr1 as far as possible4 ,remove the structures in the orbit by cutting through the zygomatic arch at each end1 and removing it4 ,the lower jaw should also be removed1 if this has not already been done4 7,if a fresh specimen is used1 and the head is to be employed for other purposes1 the brain can be removed without separating the head from the body1 and without taking away the lower jaw and other structures on the ventral surface of the skull47 ,have at hand dissecting-instruments and a dish containing alcohol and formalin in the following proportions 7,parker and ,floyd's mixture73 #ie per cent4 alcohol #f parts #b per cent4 formalin #b parts ,in the bottom of the dish should be placed a little absorbent cotton1 to support the brain4 ,in removing the brain have at hand entire and dissected skulls and note the relations of parts on these as far as necessary before cutting the specimen4 ,with bone-forceps make a small opening in the parietal bone so as to expose the dura mater1 but do not cut through the dura mater4 ,with some blunt instrument free the dura mater from the bone about the opening1 and continue to cut away the bone until the dorsal and lateral faces of the cerebrum are fully exposed craniad of the tentorium4 ,the olfactory bulbs 7,fig4 #acg1 ,i7 should be exposed carefully and as fully as possible4 ,cut away the dorsal arch of the atlas and carefully insert the forceps in the foramen magnum and1 working as before1 remove the squamous portion of the occipital and the parietal bones as far as the tentorium and as far ventrad as possible4 ,leave the dura mater intact if possible4 ,free the surface of the tentorium from the dura mater1 carefully separate slightly the cerebellum and cerebrum2 insert the bone-forceps 7not too far7 with the blades inclined from without ventromediad1 and cut the tentorium on each side4 ,remove it slowly1 cutting adhesions to the dura mater4 ,that part of the dura mater which dips between the cerebral hemispheres is the falx cerebri4 ,cut the dura mater along both sides of the falx cerebri and remove it by turning it down at the sides and cutting it at the level of the cut edge of the bone4 ,remove it also from the cerebellum and notice how it dips down on both sides of the tentorium and in close contact with it4 ,cut the falx at the cranial end between the olfactory bulbs and cut the tentorial dura 7cut its adhesions1 but do not remove with it the pineal body74 ,the falx and tentorial dura may then be removed4 ,allow the head to hang sideways over the dish of alcohol-formalin in such a way that the brain will tend to fall out of the cranium4 ,free the olfactory bulbs from the bone4 ,then begin at the caudal end and tilt the brain out with the handle of a scalpel4 ,in doing this note carefully and cut the cranial nerves4 ,they should be left with central ends as long as possible1 and those on the side which is uppermost should be cut first4 ,in doing this refer to the foramina in the base of the skull and to ,fig4 #ach4 ,take especial pains also not to break off the hypophysis1 which is lodged in the sella turcica4 ,the brain falls out and rests with its dorsal surface on the cotton4 ,now remove the remainder of the dura mater1 carefully cutting all adhesions to nerves4 ,remove also the pia mater1 as far as that can be done without pulling off at the same time parts of the brain-substance4 ,preserve the brain in the alcohol-formalin mixture4 ,study of the ,brain4--,in the study of the brain demonstration specimens are to be used as much as or more than your own specimen4 ,see everything on a demonstration preparation before attempting to expose it in your own specimen4 ,i4 ,examine the brain of a shark or of a frog4 ,cranial nerves may be neglected1 but the divisions of the brain should be recognized in dorsal and ventral views and in longitudinal sections1 and sketched4 ,,ii4 ,read the general description of the cat's brain 7pp4 #cci-cdc71 using your own specimen and a longitudinal section4 ,cut nothing on your own specimen except when especially directed to do so4 ,study the cavities on a preparation4 ,compare the diagrams 7,figs4 #aci and #adj7 and the figures of the brain4 ,,iii4 ,study the individual parts as follows4 ,to avoid errors make constant reference to preparations and figures4 #a4 ,the medulla 7p4 #cdd and ,figs4 #ach and #ada74 ,use your own specimen and a preparation and dissect out carefully the cranial nerves on your own specimen4 #b4 ,the cerebellum 7p4 #cdg74 ,study it entire1 then to expose the fourth ventricle 7p4 #cdi7 slice away with a very sharp scalpel one-half of the cerebellum by making a median longitudinal incision and then horizontal incisions4 #c4 ,the pons 7p4 #cdg74 #d4 ,the mesencephalon 7p4 #cea1 and ,figs4 #ada and #adb74 ,study it first in a preparation4 ,then study the floor on your own specimen2 origin of third nerves4 #e4 ,the diencephalon 7,figs4 #ada and #adb74 ,study the roof and thalami and the pineal body on a preparation and on a longitudinal section2 the floor on your specimen4 #f4 ,the telencephalon 7p4 #ceg74 7,note that only one side of this is to be dissected47 a4 ,study it externally2 sulci and gyri 7,figs4 #ade and #adf74 b4 ,examine a preparation showing the corpus callosum 7,fig4 #adg74 ,then slice away with a very sharp scalpel the top of one hemisphere nearly to the corpus callosum 7see the preparation74 ,expose the corpus callosum on this side to its cranial and caudal borders1 by tearing away the brain-substance at its side and above it4 c4 ,raise the corpus callosum at the side and remove it1 thus exposing the lateral ventricle in which note the septum pellucidum and fornix1 the corpus striatum1 and choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle 7,fig4 #adh74 7,these are to be exposed on one side only1 the other being left intact47 d4 ,expose the anterior and inferior horns of the ventricle and find the hippocampus1 the fimbria1 caudal part of the fornix1 the foramen of ,monroe1 the anterior commissure4 ,see all these also on a preparation 7,fig4 #adh74 e4 ,remove the occipital and parietal portions of the cerebrum1 on the side already dissected1 so as to expose the roof of the third ventricle and the midbrain in your specimen1 and note the pineal body1 choroid plexus of third ventricle1 and structures on the roof of the midbrain 7,fig4 #ada74 f4 ,remove the choroid plexus or roof of the third ventricle and study again the thalami 7,fig4 #ada74 g4 ,make a longitudinal section of the brain1 in the following manner3 ,use a very sharp large scalpel1 or a razor4 ,have this wet with the alcohol mixture at the time of using4 ,place the brain ventral surface down on a sheet of cork or a block of soft wood1 the long axis of the brain coinciding with the direction of grain of the wood4 ,holding the brain firmly with one hand1 place the wet knife between the hemispheres with its edge resting on the corpus callosum4 ,see that it is in the median plane and parallel with the long axis of the brain4 ,see also that it is not inclined to one side or the other1 so that it will make on cutting a median section throughout4 ,the point of the knife should just reach the cork or wood between the olfactory bulbs4 ,now draw the knife caudad1 keeping its point against the cork3 the brain will thus be divided4 ,if the section is not exactly median1 observe the amount of divergence by placing the two halves together and finding the median ventral line4 ,then on the half that has too much slice away thin shavings until the cavities are exposed1 showing the section to be median4 ,compare with a demonstration section or ,fig4 #adc4 ,draw the section and compare with a section of shark's brain 7see ,fig4 #adc74 h4 ,study a series of transverse sections1 identifying parts4 ,observe especially in these sections the fornix1 corpus callosum1 and ventricles1 and the distribution of white and gray matter 7see ,figs4 #adi-aec74 ,,iii4 ,,peripheral ,,nervous ,,system4 7,there are some advantages in dissecting the eye with its muscles before dissecting the nerves1 as a knowledge of the eye-muscles is presupposed for dissecting some of the cranial nerves4 ,for directions on the eye1 see p4 #dfi47 ,a new specimen should be used1 if possible1 for the peripheral nervous system1 though that used for the blood-vessels can be employed1 at considerable disadvantage4 ,prepare as for the blood-vessels4 ,the arteries should be injected with red starch1 to aid in tracing the nerves4 #a4 ,,the ,,cranial ,,nerves 7p4 #cfi7 ,,and ,,sympathetic ,,system 7p4 #djd74 #a4 ,reflect the skin covering the sternomastoid muscle1 and make a longitudinal incision of the muscle so as to expose the carotid artery4 ,lying along the artery find the combined trunk of the sympathetic and vagus nerves4 ,follow the vagus 7p4 #cgh7 first craniad2 transect the muscles as necessity arises1 and find its ganglion nodosum and at the same time locate the superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic nerve 7p4 #djd1 and ,fig4 #aef74 ,then find the hypoglossal nerve 7,fig4 #aef1 b71 passing outside of the carotid artery to the tongue1 and the accessory 7,fig4 #aef1 c71 passing to the trapezius4 ,cut and reflect the digastric muscle and find the small glossopharyngeal nerve 7,fig4 #aef1 a71 passing to the surface of the bulla and then beneath the carotid artery4 #b4 ,follow the vagus 7p4 #cgh7 caudad to its termination4 ,to do this it is necessary to remove one side of the thorax1 as in dissecting the blood-vessels4 ,do not injure the nerves of the axilla1 nor the phrenic or sympathetic nerves4 ,for the vagus in the thorax1 compare ,fig4 #aeg4 ,find the branches of the nerve2 in dissecting them1 pull on them to make them tense4 ,they are then more easily visible4 ,to dissect the abdominal portion of the vagus1 open the abdominal cavity1 and compare ,fig4 #afd 7p4 #djg74 #c4 ,dissect the sympathetic 7p4 #djd71 following it and its branches to the pelvic region 7,figs4 #aef1 #aeg1 and #afd74 #d4 ,the hypoglossal 7p4 #chc1 and ,fig4 #aef1 b74 #e4 ,the glossopharyngeal 7p4 #cgh1 and ,fig4 #aef1 a74 #f4 ,the accessory nerve 7p4 #chb1 and ,fig4 #aef1 c2 ,fig4 #aeh1 #a74 ,cut away a portion of the tympanic bulla and the base of the skull1 sufficient to follow these nerves in the jugular foramen1 to the brain4 #g4 ,locate the stylomastoid foramen and pick away overlying tissue until the facial nerve is found emerging and then follow its branches to their distribution 7p4 #cge1 and ,fig4 #aee74 #h4 ,expose the ventral surface of the pterygoid muscles just mediad of the angle of the jaw4 ,divide and reflect them1 and the mandibular division of the fifth nerve 7p4 #cgc1 and ,fig4 #aed7 will be found dorsad of them and of the internal maxillary artery4 ,the chorda tympani 7p4 #cge7 passes ventrad of the artery to join the lingual4 ,follow out 7#a7 the lingual branch 7p4 #cge7 7with the chorda tympani71 and 7#b7 the inferior alveolar 7p4 #cge7 by cutting away the ventral border of the mandible4 ,then cut the mandible near the canine tooth1 and pull it to one side1 and follow out the muscular branches of the mandibular nerve4 #i4 ,remove the mandible and find the maxillary nerve 7p4 #cga7 emerging from the foramen rotundum4 ,follow its branches and find the sphenopalatine ganglion 7p4 #cgb74 #aj4 ,remove the zygoma so as to expose the whole ventral aspect of the orbit4 ,carefully pick away the fat in the orbit without injuring any nerves1 so as to expose the four recti muscles and the inferior oblique 7see p4 #daa1 and ,fig4 #aff74 ,find the abducens nerve 7p4 #cge1 and ,fig4 #aed71 entering the dorsal edge of the lateral rectus1 and follow it back4 ,look on the inner surface of the inferior rectus for the branch of the third nerve 7p4 #cfi7 which supplies it4 ,find the branch of this nerve which runs to the inferior oblique muscle1 and on it the ciliary ganglion2 find the branches to the ciliary ganglion from the ophthalmic nerve and follow them 7p4 #cga74 ,follow also the short ciliary nerves 7p4 #cgj7 to the eyeball4 #aa4 ,trace the third nerve 7p4 #cfi7 to its foramen of exit and find its branches4 ,where it passes between the superior and lateral recti1 find the ophthalmic nerve 7p4 #cgj7 by its side and trace its branches4 #ab4 ,find the fourth nerve 7p4 #cgj71 passing outside of the lateral rectus at its origin and entering the superior oblique4 #ac4 ,follow the third1 fourth1 fifth1 and sixth nerves into the skull by chipping away the bone and removing the dura4 ,note the semilunar or ,gasserian ganglion 7p4 #cgj1 and ,fig4 #ach1 k7 and the origin of the fifth nerves from it1 and the relation of the ventral root of the fifth nerve to the mandibular nerve4 #b4 ,,spinal ,,nerves4 ,the spinal nerves may be dissected on the same side used for dissecting the cranial nerves4 7,if an undissected specimen is used1 remove the skin from the side of the neck1 and cut the sternomastoid1 sternohyoid1 and sternothyroid muscles1 as directed for the vagus and sympathetic47 ,cervical ,nerves 7p4 #chc74--,the ventral rami of the cervical nerves are to be sought as they pass out between the bundles of the scalenus1 or between the scalenus and longus capitis1 in the neck4 ,this region has already been uncovered in dissecting the vagus and sympathetic 7,fig4 #aef74 ,dissect first the second cervical 7p4 #che74 ,find its ventral ramus as it emerges between the levator scapul ventralis and cleidomastoid 7,fig4 #aeh1 #b71 and follow its branches1--the auricularis magnus 7#e7 and cutaneus colli 7#f74 ,find its dorsal ramus1 the great occipital nerve 7p4 #chd71 by reflecting the clavotrapezius muscle2 the nerve will be found emerging from the underlying muscles close to the craniomedial angle of the clavotrapezius1 near its origin4 ,trace the nerve in both directions4 ,the ventral ramus of the first cervical 7p4 #che7 will be found emerging from beneath the wing of the atlas1 a little distance craniad of the second 7,fig4 #aef1 j74 ,trace it4 ,to find its short dorsal ramus1 the suboccipital nerve 7p4 #chd71 it is necessary to dissect apart the muscles on the dorsal side of the atlas till the nerve is found passing from the atlantal foramen4 ,dissect the third1 fourth1 and fifth nerves 7p4 #che1 and ,fig4 #aeh74 ,brachial ,plexus 7p4 #chf1 and ,figs4 #aei and #afj74--,the brachial plexus has been partly uncovered in dissecting the vagus and sympathetic4 7,if a new specimen or the opposite side is used1 reflect the skin from the ventral surface of the thorax and arm1 and cut the pectoral muscles1 thus uncovering the vessels and nerves of the axilla47 ,reflect the skin from the ventral surface of the upper arm4 7,do not use scalpel1 but tear the skin from the muscles4 ,in this way the nerves will be seen passing to the skin1 while if the scalpel were used the nerves might be cut47 ,tie the axillary vein or its two branches in two places1 and cut the vein between the tied regions4 ,leave the arteries as guides for dissection1 but remove the veins4 ,now clean thoroughly the nerves forming the brachial plexus as they pass from the thorax or neck4 ,be careful not to injure any of the fine nerves or the interconnections of the nerves in doing this4 ,find and distinguish clearly the fifth1 sixth1 seventh1 and eighth cervical nerves and the first thoracic1 as they emerge from the neck or thorax4 7,compare ,fig4 #aei and ,fig4 #aeg1 ,v-,,viii and ,i47 ,follow out the branches of the plexus1 noting the origin and distribution of each branch1 in order to determine its name4 ,to follow the phrenic 7p4 #chh1 and ,fig4 #aeg1 f71 remove a portion of the thoracic wall4 ,in following the other branches of the plexus1 pull back the skin wherever an exposure is to be made1 and separate the muscles4 ,the epitrochlearis may be cut near the elbow1 and the clavobrachial near the shoulder4 ,in following the interosseous branches of the median nerve the fifth head of the flexor profundus1 and the extensor brevis pollicis1 may be cut4 ,as a rule it will not be necessary to cut other muscles4 ,thoracic and ,lumbar ,nerves4--,one or two of the thoracic nerves 7p4 #cic7 should be dissected from the outside by finding the intercostal nerve along the caudal border of one of the ribs and tracing it in both directions4 ,the nerve may be exposed by removing the external muscles covering the rib1 and cutting the external intercostal muscles4 ,the dorsal ramus should be traced after the ventral ramus has been studied4 ,the first lumbar nerve 7p4 #cie7 should be dissected in the same way4 ,the other lumbar and sacral nerves 7pp4 #cie-djj7 are best dissected from within4 ,the alimentary canal and its appendages should be removed from the abdomen1 leaving only five or six centimeters of the caudal end of the rectum4 ,the kidneys and urogenital organs may be left1 to be removed during dissection4 7,compare ,fig4 #afb47 ,turn one of the kidneys to the other side1 and find the second lumbar nerve 7,fig4 #afb1 a7 appearing at the lateral border of the iliopsoas muscle4 ,trace it to its origin2 trace it also distad1 following both branches4 ,it will be necessary to trace the nerves through the abdominal wall1 then find them from the outside1 and follow them to their distribution4 ,the third nerve 7,fig4 #afc1 b7 may be found by dissecting apart the fibre-bundles of the iliopsoas and psoas minor1 and following in the same way4 ,the kidneys1 ureters1 vena cava1 and aorta may be removed as occasion arises4 ,the remainder of the lumbar nerves may be found in order1 in a similar manner4 ,follow the saphenous nerve and its branches 7p4 #cig7 by removing the integument from the medial side of the leg 7see ,fig4 #abg1 p4 #caj74 ,to dissect the sacral nerves 7p4 #cii7 separate the innominate bones at the pubic symphysis and divaricate them4 ,find the nerves arising from the sacral plexus1 by cutting the levator ani muscle4 ,after ,n4 hemorrhoidalis inferior and ,n4 pudendus have been traced1 the rectum and urogenital organs may be removed1 taking great care not to remove more than is necessary4 ,to dissect the great sciatic nerve 7p4 #djj1 and ,fig4 #afc71 separate the biceps and caudofemoralis near their proximal ends and find the large nerve-trunk 7a74 ,then lift the biceps away from the nerve1 cut that muscle near its middle1 and reflect it4 ,the nerve may now be followed to its terminal branches2 during the process cut the muscles only when absolutely necessary4 ,the inferior gluteal nerve 7i7 will be found on the dorsal surface of the great sciatic2 by cutting the caudofemoralis and gluteus maximus muscles near their insertions and turning them back the distribution of the nerve may be followed4 ,the superior gluteal 7j7 will be found at the cranial margin of the pyriformis by reflecting the gluteus medius in the same way2 the tensor fasci lat may also be cut4 ,,sense-,,organs4 ,i4 ,,the ,,eye 7p4 #daj74 ,use any specimen on which one side of the head has been left intact4 ,remove the head from the body by cutting through the neck a little craniad of the first rib4 ,study the eye externally4 ,observe the eyelids1 the conjunctiva1 nictitating membrane with its cartilage1 and the ,harderian gland 7,fig4 #afe72 the two openings of the lachrymal duct1 the ,meibomian glands if possible4 ,remove the zygomatic arch and expose the orbit and the structures which it contains4 ,study the periorbita 7p4 #dji71 and find the lachrymal gland 7p4 #daj74 ,study the muscles of the eyeball 7p4 #daa1 and ,fig4 #aff74 ,the lateral rectus on the lateral surface will perhaps be first found1 and its tendon traced beneath the inferior oblique4 ,use great care not to injure the levator palpebr superioris4 ,after studying the muscles1 find the optic nerve4 ,cut it and the muscles1 and remove the eyeball for farther study4 ,the ,eyeball 7p4 #dab1 and ,fig4 #afg74--;,for an examination of the eye it is well to have a fresh specimen and one hardened in formalin or alcohol4 ,the hardened specimen is more essential1 however4 ,an eye from one of the specimens used in dissection is usually satisfactory4 ,all accessory portions should be trimmed from the eyeball1 leaving only the spherical ball with a short stalk formed by the optic nerve4 ,observe such features of the eye as can be seen externally3 the optic nerves1 sclerotic1 cornea1 iris1 and pupil4 ,this should be done on a fresh specimen1 if one is at hand4 ,the changes in size and form of the pupil can be observed in the living cat by changing it from a light to a dark place and vice versa4 ,dissection4--,examine the internal structures on a preparation4 ,then with fine scissors and forceps remove from the eye about one-fourth of the wall1 in the form of a quadrant having one point at the optic nerve1 the other at the centre of the cornea4 ,the coats of the eye can then be studied on the piece removed1 while the other structures will be visible within the eyeball4 ,no special directions are necessary for observation of the structures described1 unless it be the capsule of the lens and the zonula ciliaris4 ,the capsule of the lens may be demonstrated by tearing a bit of it off with fine forceps4 ,the zonula ciliaris is easily seen by divaricating the edges of the cut made in removing the quadrant1 so as to stretch the fine fibres of which the zonula is formed4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ear 7p4 #dae74 7,the muscles of the external ear are of little practical importance1 and will doubtless usually be omitted47 7#a7 ,the ,external ,ear4 ,read the description of the external ear 7p4 #dae71 verifying it by examination and comparison of an ear still covered with integument1 in the natural condition1 and of a preparation of the isolated cartilages of the ear 7,fig4 #afh74 ,the latter may be obtained by dissecting the skin and muscles from a fresh ear4 7#b7 ,the scutiform cartilage 7p4 #dah7 should be observed in the natural position1 and as isolated4 7#c7 ,the muscles of the external ear 7p4 #dah1 and ,fig4 #afi74 ,those connecting the external ear with other parts of the head have been studied in connection with the facial muscles4 ,the remainder will be studied on an external ear removed according to the directions given on page #dce4 ,remove the integument from the convex surface of the auricle1 sufficiently to expose the entire extent of the muscles4 #a4 ,the rotator auris4 ,transect4 #b4 ,the adductor auris superior 7,fig4 #afi1 #a74 #c4 ,the adductor auris medius 7#b74 #d4 ,the transversus auricul 7,fig4 #fc1 i1 p4 #ig74 #e4 ,the auricularis externus 7,fig4 #afi1 #aj74 #f4 ,the helicis 7,fig4 #afi1 #c74 ,to expose this it will be necessary to remove the integument from along the cranial border of the inner surface of the auricle4 #g4 ,the antitragicus 7,fig4 #afi1 #f74 ,remove the integument farther if necessary4 #h4 ,the tragicus medialis 7,fig4 #afi1 #e1 #e74 #i4 ,the conchus externus 7,fig4 #afi1 #i74 7#d7 ,remove the tympanic bulla and petrous bone from the rest of the skull1 by the use of bone-forceps and scalpel4 ,trim away all soft tissue 7including the cartilaginous auditory meatus71 and all other bony parts from these1 but leave them uninjured4 7#e7 ,find the ,eustachian tube and study it 7p4 #dbc74 7#f7 ,study specimens of the bones of the middle ear 7p4 #dbc1 and ,figs4 #aga and #agb74 7#g7 ,the middle ear should be studied on a demonstration preparation1 then dissected as follows3 ,remove with bone-forceps the medial side of the tympanic bulla 7the entotympanic74 ,note the two cavities within the bulla1 with the shelf separating them4 ,observe the fenestra cochle4 ,now remove with the forceps the shelf1 first breaking through the middle part1 then removing the rest with care4 ,remove part also of the membranous lining of the cavity1 till the inner surface of the tympanic membrane1 with the malleus crossing it1 is visible4 ,observe the tensor tympani muscle 7p4 #dbd7 attached to the malleus by its small tendon4 ,next1 with bone-forceps1 fracture the thick1 bony portion uniting the caudal end of the petrous with the caudal part of the ring of bone surrounding the external auditory meatus4 ,these two parts may then be separated with the fingers1 leaving the petrous bone on one side1 the meatus1 tympanum1 and malleus on the other 7,fig4 #agj74 ,the head of the malleus may then be observed1 with the incus attached to it4 ,note also the stapes1 in the fenestra vestibuli1 with the stapedius muscle 7p4 #dbd7 attached to it4 7#h7 ,the internal ear 7p4 #dbd74 ,note the fenestra vestibuli and fenestra cochle and the promontory 7p4 #cd74 ,study the cochlea and vestibule on a demonstration preparation and compare with ,fig4 #agc4 ,then remove the wall of the promontory and find the cochlea4 ,open the vestibule and find as many of the openings of the semicircular canals as possible4 ,study the semicircular canals on demonstration preparations1 consulting ,fig4 #agc4 ,the semicircular canals may1 if desired1 be exposed on your own specimen1 by cutting away the surface of the bone in places indicated in the description 7p4 #dbf71 and inserting fine bristles 7those from the sensory hairs on the face of the cat are excellent for this purpose74 ,the membranous labyrinth 7,fig4 #agc7 may be isolated by decalcifying the petrous bone with ten per cent4 nitric acid1 then dissecting out the labyrinth4 ,this is an operation of considerable delicacy1 but at least one or two specimens for demonstration should1 if possible1 be prepared thus and kept in the laboratory4 ,,index4 ,abdominal aorta1 #cja arteries1 #cja cavity1 #bag1 #bah muscles1 #aec dissection1 #dda veins1 #cbf ,abducens nerve1 #cdg1 #cge ,abductor auris brevis1 ,m41 #ajj1 #dce2 longus1 ,m41 #ajj1 #dce brevis pollicis1 ,m41 #ahd1 #dci caud 7coccygis7 externus1 ,m41 #acg1 #ddg2 internus1 ,m41 #acg1 #ddf cruris1 ,m41 #aie digiti quinti1 ,m41 #ahe1 #dci2 secundi1 ,m41 #ahe medius digiti quinti1 ,m41 #bae ,accelerator urin1 ,m41 #bga ,accessory nerve1 #cdf1 #chb process1 #f1 #h ,acetabular bone1 #gf1 #gh notch1 #gi ,acetabulum1 #gf1 #gh1 #hg ,achilles1 tendon of1 #bjd1 #bjf ,acromiodeltoid muscle1 #aeg1 #dch ,acromion process1 #fb1 #fd ,acromiotrapezius1 ,m41 #aaf1 #dcf ,adductor auris inferior1 ,m41 #ajd1 #dce2 medius1 ,m41 #dai1 #dgj2 superior1 ,m41 #dai1 #dgj digiti secundi1 ,m41 #ahe femoris1 ,m41 #aih1 #ddd longus1 ,m41 #aii1 #ddd medius digiti quinti1 ,m41 #bae pollicis1 ,m41 #ahe1 #dci ,aditus laryngis1 #bdf ,adrenolumbar arteries1 #cjd veins1 #cbf ,al magn1 #bf1 #bg parv1 #bi ,albuginea1 #bfj ,alcohol as preservative1 #dca ,alcohol-formalin for brains1 #dfc ,alimentary canal1 #bba2 dissection of1 #ddi ,alisphenoids1 #be1 #bg ,alveolar border1 #ci1 #dg nerve1 inferior1 #cgd1 #cge process1 #ci ,alveoli1 #dh ,ampulla 7ear71 #dbf of ,vater1 #bcf ,anal glands or sacs1 #bci2 constrictors of1 #bfi ,anapophysis1 #f ,anastomotica magna1 ,a41 #big ,anconeus1 ,m41 #agj1 #dch ,anconeus internus1 ,m41 #agj lateralis1 ,m41 #afg longus1 ,m41 #afh posterior1 ,m41 #afh ,angle of rib1 #ah ,angular process1 #ai1 #dh vein1 #cba ,ankle1 bones of1 #hb ligaments of1 #ia ,annularis1 #gb ,annular ligaments1 #ge1 #agc1 #bac ,ans1 #chf ,anterior cerebral artery1 #bhi circumflex artery1 #bif commissure1 #ceg1 #cfe facial vein1 #cba fossa1 #ei perforated substance1 #cfb spinal artery1 #bia superior process1 #gh ,sylvian gyrus1 #cei sulcus1 #cei thoracic artery1 #bid2 nerves1 #chg tibial artery1 #cac transverse processes1 #aa ,antibrachial fascia1 #agb ,antibrachium1 muscles of1 #agb ,anticlinal vertebra1 #f ,antihelix1 #daf ,antitragicus1 ,m41 #dba1 #dgj ,antitragus1 #dag ,anus1 #bci muscles of1 #bfh ,aorta1 #bge1 #bgi1 #bha1 #cja abdominalis1 #cja ,aortic plexus1 #djh semilunar valves1 #bgi sinus1 #bgi ,apparatus digestorius1 #bba respiratorius1 #bdc urogenitalis1 #bee ,appendicular fossa1 #ce1 #eh lobe1 #cdh ,appendix1 #dbi ,aqueduct of ,sylvius1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #cej1 #cea1 #ceb ,aqueductus cerebri1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #cej1 #cea1 #ceb2 ,fallopii1 #ce ,aqueous humor1 #dad ,arachnoid1 #ccg1 #cfi ,arbor vit1 #cdi ,arch1 bicipital1 #aff supraorbital1 #cg1 #ea zygomatic1 #dg1 #di1 #eb ,area elliptica1 #cde ovalis1 #cde perforata posterior1 #ceb ,arm1 arteries of1 #bid articulations of1 #gc bones of1 #fd muscles of1 #aef dissection of1 #dcf nerves of1 #chh veins of1 #cah ,arteria adrenolumbalis1 #cjd alveolaris inferior1 #bhh anastomotica magna1 #big anonyma1 #bhb articularis genu suprema1 #caa auricularis anterior1 #bhg2 posterior1 #bhg axillaris1 #bid basilaris1 #bia1 #bib brachialis1 #bif bronchiales1 #bhc carotis communis1 #bhb1 #bhc2 externa1 #bhe2 interna1 #bhe cerebelli anterior1 #bib2 inferior posterior1 #bib cerebri anterior1 #bhi2 media1 #bhi2 posterior1 #bib cervicalis ascendens1 #bic2 profunda1 #bic circumflexa femoris lateralis1 #caa2 humeri anterior1 #bif2 humeri posterior1 #bif2 scapul1 #bid cliaca1 #cja colica dextra1 #cjd2 media1 #cjc2 sinistra1 #cjf collateralis radialis superior1 #big2 ulnaris1 #big coronari1 #bge1 #bgi1 #bha digitales dorsales1 #big2 plantares1 #cad dorsalis penis1 #cjh epigastrica inferior1 #cji femoralis1 #cjg1 #caj gastrica sinistra1 #cjc gastroduodenalis1 #cjb gastroepiploica dextra1 #cjc genu posteriores1 #cac glutea inferior1 #cjh2 superior1 #cjh hemorrhoidalis media1 #cjh2 superior1 #cjf hepatica1 #cjb hypogastrica1 #cjg ileocolica1 #cjd iliaca externa1 #cjg1 #cji2 interna1 #cjg iliolumbalis1 #cjf infraorbitalis1 #bij intercostales1 #bhc intercostalis suprema1 #bic interosse1 #bih1 #cjj lienalis1 #cjc lingualis1 #bhe1 #bhf lumbales1 #bhc1 #cjf lumboabdominalis1 #cjd mammaria interna1 #bib maxillaris externa1 #bhe1 #bhf2 interna1 #bhg mesenterica inferior1 #cjf2 superior1 #cjc meningea media1 #bhi metatarsea1 #cae occipitalis1 #bhe sophage1 #bhc ophthalmica1 #bhi palatina descendens1 #bij2 minor1 #bij pancreaticoduodenalis inferior1 #cjc2 superior1 #cjc phrenica1 #cjd poplitea1 #caa1 #cab princeps pollicis et indicis1 #cjj profunda brachii1 #bif2 femoris1 #cji pulmonalis1 #bge1 #bgh1 #bhj pylorica1 #cjb radialis1 #big2 recurrens1 #bih renalis1 #cjd sacralis lateralis1 #cji2 media1 #cja1 #cji saphena1 #caa spermatica externa1 #cji2 interna1 #cjd sphenopalatina1 #bij spinalis anterior1 #bia subclavia1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bij subscapularis1 #bid superior profunda1 #bif suprascapularis1 #bic suralis1 #cac tarsea medialis1 #cae temporalis superficialis1 #bhg thoracica anterior1 #bid2 longa1 #bid thoracicodorsalis1 #bif thyreoidea ima1 #bhc1 #bhd2 superior1 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,vulva1 #bfg ,wharton's duct1 #bbc ,white matter1 #ccf zone of eye1 #dac ,wilder and ,gage's soap mixture for bones1 #dcj ,willis1 circle of1 #bhi1 #bib ,winslow1 foramen of1 #bbj ,wirsung1 duct of1 #bdb ,wrist1 #ge2 bones of1 #fi ,xiphihumeralis1 ,m41 #adg1 #dcg ,xiphoid process1 #bj ,zonula ,arnoldi1 #cde ciliaris1 #dad ,zinni1 #dad ,zygomatic arch1 #dg1 #di1 #ea1 #eb bone1 #dg nerves1 #cgb1 #cgg process1 #ca1 #cb1 #ch1 #dj1 #dg1 #ea ,zygomaticus 7major71 ,m41 #aja1 #dce2 minor1 ,m41 #aje1 #dce ,transcriber's ,notes ,inconsistent spelling1 hyphenation1 formatting1 etc4 have not been standardised1 except as mentioned under ,changes4 ,the differences 7in wording and structure7 between the ,table of ,contents and the headings in the text have not been rectified4 ,the inconsistencies in the use1 numbering and typography of section headings in the text have not been standardised1 except as mentioned below4 ,there is an entry for ,muscles of the ,soft ,palate in the ,table of ,contents1 but no such sub-section heading in the text4 p4 vii1 ,in compounding these terms of direction 4443 the hyphenation does not always comply with this statement4 p4 #cgb1 ,n4 canalis pterygoidii3 possibly an error for ,n4 canalis pterygoidei4 ,changes made3 ,in several instances1 the ditto symbol has been replaced by the dittoed text4 ,some minor obvious typographical errors and missing punctuation have been corrected silently4 p4 v3 ,leop-,carol4 changed to ,leop4-,carol p4 xv3 entry ,index added to ,table of ,contents p4 #adb3 7,fig4 #gb1 c7 changed to 7,fig4 #gb1 c7 p4 #bic3 ,truncus thyreocervicalis changed to ,truncus thyrocervicalis p4 #cef3 corpu callosum changed to corpus callosum p4 #dge3 ,brachium conjuctivum changed to ,brachium conjunctivum p4 #dha3 entry ,glottis moved to proper place p4 #dhd3 7,ligamentum7 cruciata changed to 7,ligamentum7 cruciatum p4 #dhg3 palbebr superioris changed to palpebr superioris p4 #dib3 ,postzygapophyses changed to ,postzygapophysis