,a ,,history ,,of ,,aeronautics         
,illustration3 ,trial of full-size      
,langley ,aerodrome1 #hth ,december1    
#aijc4  ,langley ,memoir on ,mechanical 
,flight1 ,smithsonian ,institution1     
,washington4    ,frontispiece4        ,a
   ,history of ,aeronautics    by   ,e4 
,,charles ,,vivian    ,,with ,a         
,,section ,,on ,,progress ,,in          
,,aeroplane ,,design    by              
,,lieut4-,,col4 ,w4 ,,lockwood ,,marsh1 
,o4,b4,e4    ,illustration    ,,new     
,,york   ,,harcourt1 ,,brace ,,and      
,,company   #aiba            ,to        
,,my ,,witness   ,,oct4 #ba,,st #aiai   
,v4     ,,foreword   ,although          
successful heavier-than-air flight is   
less than two decades old1 and          
successful dirigible propulsion         
antedates it by a very short period1 the
 mass of experiment and accomplishment  
renders any one-volume history of the   
subject a matter of selection4 ,in      
addition to the restrictions imposed by 
space limits1 the material for          

compilation is fragmentary1 and1 in many
 cases1 scattered through periodical and
 other publications4 ,hitherto1 there   
has been no attempt at furnishing a     
detailed account of how the aeroplane   
and the dirigible of to-day came to     
being1 but each author who has treated  
the subject has devoted his attention to
 some special phase or section4 ,the    
principal exception to this             
rule--,hildebrandt--wrote in #aijf1 and 
a good many of his statements are       
inaccurate1 especially with regard to   
heavier-than-air experiment4  ,such     
statements as are made in this work are1
 where possible1 given with             
acknowledgment to the authorities on    
which they rest4 ,further acknowledgment
 is due to ,lieut4-,col4 ,lockwood      
,marsh1 not only for the section on     
aeroplane development which he has      
contributed to the work1 but also for   
his kindly assistance and advice in     
connection with the section on          
aerostation4 ,the author's thanks are   

also due to the ,royal ,aeronautical    
,society for free access to its valuable
 library of aeronautical literature1 and
 to ,mr ,a4 ,vincent ,clarke for        
permission to make use of his notes on  
the development of the aero engine4  ,in
 this work is no claim to               
originality--it has been a matter mainly
 of compilation1 and some stories1      
notably those of the ,wright ,brothers  
and of ,santos ,dumont1 are better told 
in the words of the men themselves than 
any third party could tell them4 ,the   
author claims1 however1 that this is the
 first attempt at recording the facts of
 development and stating1 as fully as is
 possible in the compass of a single    
volume1 how flight and aerostation have 
evolved4 ,the time for a critical       
history of the subject is not yet4  ,in 
the matter of illustrations1 it has been
 found very difficult to secure suitable
 material4 ,even the official series of 
photographs of aeroplanes in the war    
period is curiously incomplete1 and the 

methods of censorship during that period
 prevented any complete series being    
privately collected4 ,omissions in this 
respect will probably be remedied in    
future editions of the work1 as fresh   
material is constantly being located4   
,e4 ,c4 ,v4  ,october1 #aibj4           
,,contents     ,,part ,i--,,the         
,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,aeroplane      
,,chap4                                 
,,page       ,i4  ,,the ,,period ,,of   
,,legend                          #c    
,,ii4  ,,early ,,experiments            
#ae      ,,iii4  ,,sir ,,george         
,,cayley--,,thomas ,,walker             
#dc       ,,iv4  ,,the ,,middle         
,,nineteenth ,,century                  
#ef        ,v4  ,,wenham1 ,,le ,,bris1  
,,and ,,some ,,others             #ga   
,,vi4  ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,the ,,giants  
#hc      ,,vii4  ,,lilienthal ,,and     
,,pilcher                       #ie     
,,viii4  ,,american ,,gliding           
,,experiments                #ajg       
,,ix4  ,,not ,,proven                   

#aba        ,x4  ,,samuel ,,pierpoint   
,,langley                    #acc       
,,xi4  ,,the ,,wright ,,brothers        
#ade      ,,xii4  ,,the ,,first ,,years 
,,of ,,conquest                 #agf    
,,xiii4  ,,first ,,fliers ,,in ,,england
                     #ahh      ,,xiv4   
,,rheims1 ,,and ,,after                 
#aii       ,,xv4  ,,the ,,channel       
,,crossing                        #baa  
,,xvi4  ,,london ,,to ,,manchester      
#bag     ,,xvii4  ,a ,,summary--,,to    
#aiaa                          #bba     
,,xviii4  ,a ,,summary--,,to #aiad      
#bcc      ,,xix4  ,,the ,,war           
,,period--,i                            
#bdf       ,,xx4  ,,the ,,war           
,,period--,,ii                          
#bei      ,,xxi4  ,,reconstruction      
#bfd     ,,xxii4  #aiai-aibj            
#bgj     ,,part ,,ii--#aijc-aibj3       
,,progress ,,in ,,design        ,i4     
,,the ,,beginnings                      
#bgg       ,,ii4  ,,multiplicity ,,of   
,,ideas                       #bhi      

,,iii4  ,,progress ,,on ,,standardised  
,,lines              #bif       ,,iv4   
,,the ,,war ,,period                    
#cjf     ,,part ,,iii--,,aerostatics    
,i4  ,,beginnings                       
#cag       ,,ii4  ,,the ,,first         
,,dirigibles                        #cca
      ,,iii4  ,,santos-,,dumont         
#cdb       ,,iv4  ,,the ,,military      
,,dirigible                      #cdh   
,v4  ,,british ,,airship ,,design       
#cei       ,,vi4  ,,the ,,airship       
,,commercially                    #cgb  
,,vii4  ,,kite ,,balloons               
#cgf     ,,part ,,iv--,,engine          
,,development        ,i4  ,,the         
,,vertical ,,type                       
#chc       ,,ii4  ,,the ,,vee ,,type    
#djd      ,,iii4  ,,the ,,radial ,,type 
#dag       ,,iv4  ,,the ,,rotary ,,type 
#dbh        ,v4  ,,the                  
,,horizontally-,,opposed ,,engine       
#ddj       ,,vi4  ,,the ,,two-,,stroke  
,,cycle ,,engine                 #ddg   
,,vii4  ,,engines ,,of ,,the ,,war      

,,period                   #deh         
,,appendices                            
#dfi            ,a ,,short              
,,bibliography ,,of ,,aeronautics       
#ejd     ,,part ,i  ,,the ,,evolution   
,,of ,,the ,,aeroplane     ,i  ,,the    
,,period ,,of ,,legend   ,the blending  
of fact and fancy which men call legend 
reached its fullest and richest         
expression in the golden age of ,greece1
 and thus it is to ,greek mythology that
 one must turn for the best form of any 
legend which foreshadows history4 ,yet  
the prevalence of legends regarding     
flight1 existing in the records of      
practically every race1 shows that this 
form of transit was a dream of many     
peoples--man always wanted to fly1 and  
imagined means of flight4  ,in this age 
of steel1 a very great part of the      
inventive genius of man has gone into   
devices intended to facilitate          
transport1 both of men and goods1 and   
the growth of civilisation is in reality
 the facilitation of transit1           

improvement of the means of             
communication4 ,he was a genius who     
first hoisted a sail on a boat and saved
 the labour of rowing2 equally1 he who  
first harnessed ox or dog or horse to a 
wheeled vehicle was a genius--and these 
looked up1 as men have looked up from   
the earliest days of all1 seeing that   
the birds had solved the problem of     
transit far more completely than        
themselves4 ,so it must have appeared1  
and there is no age in history in which 
some dreamers have not dreamed of the   
conquest of the air2 if the caveman had 
left records1 these would without doubt 
have showed that he1 too1 dreamed this  
dream4 ,his main aim1 probably1 was     
self-preservation2 when the dinosaur    
looked round the corner1 the prehistoric
 bird got out of the way in his usual   
manner1 and prehistoric man--such of him
 as succeeded in getting out of the way 
after his fashion--naturally envied the 
bird1 and concluded that as lord of     
creation in a doubtful sort of way he   

ought to have equal facilities4 ,he may 
have tried1 like ,simon the ,magician1  
and other early experimenters1 to       
improvise those facilities2 assuming    
that he did1 there is the groundwork of 
much of the older legend with regard to 
men who flew1 since1 when history began1
 legends would be fashioned out of      
attempts and even the desire to fly1    
these being compounded of some small    
ingredient of truth and much            
exaggeration and addition4  ,in a study 
of the first beginnings of the art1 it  
is worth while to mention even the      
earliest of the legends and traditions1 
for they show the trend of men's minds  
and the constancy of this dream that has
 become reality in the twentieth        
century4 ,in one of the oldest records  
of the world1 the ,indian classic       
,mahabarata1 it is stated that          
#8,krishna's enemies sought the aid of  
the demons1 who built an aerial chariot 
with sides of iron and clad with wings4 
,the chariot was driven through the sky 

till it stood over ,dwarakha1 where     
,krishna's followers dwelt1 and from    
there it hurled down upon the city      
missiles that destroyed everything on   
which they fell4' ,here is pure fable1  
not legend1 but still a curious forecast
 of twentieth century bombs from a rigid
 dirigible4 ,it is to be noted in this  
case1 as in many1 that the power to fly 
was an attribute of evil1 not of        
good--it was the demons who built the   
chariot1 even as at ,friedrichshavn4    
,medival legend1 in nearly every case1  
attributes flight to the aid of evil    
powers1 and incites well-disposed people
 to stick to the solid earth--though1   
curiously enough1 the pioneers of       
medival times were very largely of      
priestly type1 as witness the monk of   
,malmesbury4  ,the legends of the dawn  
of history1 however1 distribute the     
power of flight with less of prejudice4 
,egyptian sculpture gives the figure of 
winged men2 the ,british ,museum has    
made the winged ,assyrian bulls familiar

 to many1 and both the cuneiform records
 of ,assyria and the hieroglyphs of     
,egypt record flights that in reality   
were never made4 ,the desire fathered   
the story then1 and until ,clement ,ader
 either hopped with his ,avion1 as is   
persisted by his critics1 or flew1 as is
 claimed by his friends4  ,while the    
origin of many legends is questionable1 
that of others is easy enough to trace1 
though not to prove4 ,among the         
credulous the significance of the name  
of a people of ,asia ,minor1 the        
,capnobates1 #8those who travel by      
smoke1' gave rise to the assertion that 
,mongolfier was not first in the        
field--or rather in the air--since      
surely this people must have been       
responsible for the first hot-air       
balloons4 ,far less questionable is the 
legend of ,icarus1 for here it is       
possible to trace a foundation of fact  
in the story4 ,such a tribe as ,ddalus  
governed could have had hardly any      
knowledge of the rudiments of science1  

and even their ruler1 seeing how easy it
 is for birds to sustain themselves in  
the air1 might be excused for believing 
that he1 if he fashioned wings for      
himself1 could use them4 ,in that       
belief1 let it be assumed1 ,ddalus made 
his wings2 the boy1 ,icarus1 learning   
that his father had determined on an    
attempt at flight1 secured the wings and
 fastened them to his own shoulders4 ,a 
cliff seemed the likeliest place for a  
#8take-off1' and ,icarus leaped from the
 cliff edge only to find that the       
possession of wings was not enough to   
assure flight to a human being4 ,the sea
 that to this day bears his name        
witnesses that he made the attempt and  
perished by it4  ,in this is assumed the
 bald story1 from which might grow the  
legend of a wise king who ruled a       
peaceful people--#8judged1 sitting in   
the sun1' as ,browning has it1 and      
fashioned for himself wings with which  
he flew over the sea and where he would1
 until the prince1 ,icarus1 desired to  

emulate him4 ,icarus1 fastening the     
wings to his shoulders with wax1 was so 
imprudent as to fly too near the sun1   
when the wax melted and he fell1 to lie 
mourned of water-nymphs on the shores of
 waters thenceforth ,icarian4 ,between  
what we have assumed to be the base of  
fact1 and the legend which has been     
invested with such poetic grace in      
,greek story1 there is no more than a   
century or so of re-telling might give  
to any event among a people so simple   
and yet so given to imagery4  ,we may   
set aside as pure fable the stories of  
the winged horse of ,perseus1 and the   
flights of ,hermes as messenger of the  
gods4 ,with them may be placed the story
 of ,empedocles1 who failed to take     
,etna seriously enough1 and found       
himself caught by an eruption while     
within the crater1 so that1 flying to   
safety in some hurry1 he left behind but
 one sandal to attest that he had sought
 refuge in space--in all probability1 if
 he escaped at all1 he flew1 but not in 

the sense that the aeronaut understands 
it4 ,but1 bearing in mind the many men  
who tried to fly in historic times1 the 
legend of ,icarus and ,ddalus1 in spite 
of the impossible form in which it is   
presented1 may rank with the story of   
the ,saracen of ,constantinople1 or with
 that of ,simon the ,magician4 ,a simple
 folk would naturally idealise the man  
and magnify his exploit1 as they        
magnified the deeds of some strong man  
to make the legends of ,hercules1 and   
there1 full-grown from a mere legend1 is
 the first record of a pioneer of       
flying4 ,such a theory is not nearly so 
fantastic as that which makes the       
,capnobates1 on the strength of their   
name1 the inventors of hot-air balloons4
 ,however it may be1 both in story and  
in picture1 ,icarus and his less        
conspicuous father have inspired the    
,caucasian mind1 and the world is the   
richer for them4  ,of the unsupported   
myths--unsupported1 that is1 by even a  
shadow of probability--there is no end4 

,although ,latin legend approaches      
nearer to fact than the ,greek in some  
cases1 in others it shows a disregard   
for possibilities which renders it of   
far less account4 ,thus ,diodorus of    
,sicily relates that one ,abaris        
travelled round the world on an arrow of
 gold1 and ,cassiodorus and ,glycas and 
their like told of mechanical birds that
 flew and sang and even laid eggs4 ,more
 credible is the story of ,aulus        
,gellius1 who in his ,attic ,nights     
tells how ,archytas1 four centuries     
prior to the opening of the ,christian  
era1 made a wooden pigeon that actually 
flew by means of a mechanism of         
balancing weights and the breath of a   
mysterious spirit hidden within it4     
,there may yet arise one credulous      
enough to state that the mysterious     
spirit was precursor of the internal    
combustion engine1 but1 however that may
 be1 the pigeon of ,archytas almost     
certainly existed1 and perhaps it       
actually glided or flew for short       

distances--or else ,aulus ,gellius was  
an utter liar1 like ,cassiodorus and his
 fellows4 ,in far later times a certain 
,john ,muller1 better known as          
,regiomontanus1 is stated to have made  
an artificial eagle which accompanied   
,charles ,v4 on his entry to and exit   
from ,nuremberg1 flying above the royal 
procession4 ,but1 since ,muller died in 
#adcf and ,charles was born in #aejj1   
,muller may be ruled out from among the 
pioneers of mechanical flight1 and it   
may be concluded that the historian of  
this event got slightly mixed in his    
dates4  ,thus far1 we have but indicated
 how one may draw from the richest      
stores from which the ,aryan mind draws 
inspiration1 the ,greek and ,latin      
mythologies and poetic adaptations of   
history4 ,the existing legends of       
flight1 however1 are not thus to be     
localised1 for with two possible        
exceptions they belong to all the world 
and to every civilisation1 however      
primitive4 ,the two exceptions are the  

,aztec and the ,chinese2 regarding the  
first of these1 the ,spanish            
conquistadores destroyed such           
civilisation as existed in ,tenochtitlan
 so thoroughly that1 if legend of flight
 was among the ,aztec records1 it went  
with the rest2 as to the ,chinese1 it is
 more than passing strange that they1   
who claim to have known and done        
everything while the first of history   
was shaping1 even to antedating the     
discovery of gunpowder that was not made
 by ,roger ,bacon1 have not yet set up a
 claim to successful handling of a      
monoplane some four thousand years ago1 
or at least to the patrol of the ,gulf  
of ,korea and the ,mongolian frontier by
 a forerunner of the #8blimp4'  ,the    
,inca civilisation of ,peru yields up a 
myth akin to that of ,icarus1 which     
tells how the chieftain ,ayar ,utso grew
 wings and visited the sun--it was from 
the sun1 too1 that the founders of the  
,peruvian ,inca dynasty1 ,manco ,capac  
and his wife ,mama ,huella ,capac1 flew 

to earth near ,lake ,titicaca1 to make  
the only successful experiment in pure  
tyranny that the world has ever         
witnessed4 ,teutonic legend gives forth 
,wieland the ,smith1 who made himself a 
dress with wings and1 clad in it1 rose  
and descended against the wind and in   
spite of it4 ,indian mythology1 in      
addition to the story of the demons and 
their rigid dirigible1 already quoted1  
gives the story of ,hanouam1 who fitted 
himself with wings by means of which he 
sailed in the air and1 according to his 
desire1 landed in the sacred ,lauka4    
,bladud1 the ninth king of ,britain1 is 
said to have crowned his feats of       
wizardry by making himself wings and    
attempting to fly--but the effort cost  
him a broken neck4 ,bladud may have been
 as mythic as ,uther1 and again he may  
have been a very early pioneer4 ,the    
,finnish epic1 #8,kalevala1' tells how  
,ilmarinen the ,smith #8forged an eagle 
of fire1' with #8boat's walls between   
the wings1' after which he #8sat down on

 the bird's back and bones1' and flew4  
,pure myths1 these1 telling how the     
desire to fly was characteristic of     
every age and every people1 and how1    
from time to time1 there arose an       
experimenter bolder than his fellows1   
who made some attempt to translate      
desire into achievement4 ,and the spirit
 that animated these pioneers1 in a time
 when things new were accounted things  
accursed1 for the most part1 has found  
expression in this present century in   
the utter daring and disregard of both  
danger and pain that stamps the flying  
man1 a type of humanity differing in    
spirit from his earth-bound fellows as  
fully as the soldier differs from the   
priest4  ,throughout medival times1     
records attest that here and there some 
man believed in and attempted flight1   
and at the same time it is clear that   
such were regarded as in league with the
 powers of evil4 ,there is the          
half-legend1 half-history of ,simon the 
,magician1 who1 in the third year of the

 reign of ,nero announced that he would 
raise himself in the air1 in order to   
assert his superiority over ,st ,paul4  
,the legend states that by the aid of   
certain demons whom he had prevailed on 
to assist him1 he actually lifted       
himself in the air--but ,st ,paul prayed
 him down again4 ,he slipped through the
 claws of the demons and fell headlong  
on the ,forum at ,rome1 breaking his    
neck4 ,the #8demons' may have been some 
primitive form of hot-air balloon1 or a 
glider with which the magician attempted
 to rise into the wind2 more probably1  
however1 ,simon threatened to ascend and
 made the attempt with apparatus as     
unsuitable as ,bladud's wings1 paying   
the inevitable penalty4 ,another version
 of the story gives ,st ,peter instead  
of ,st ,paul as the one whose prayers   
foiled ,simon--apart from the identity  
of the apostle1 the two accounts are    
similar1 and both define the attitude of
 the age toward investigation and       
experiment in things untried4  ,another 

and later circumstantial story1 with    
similar evidence of some fact behind it1
 is that of the ,saracen of             
,constantinople1 who1 in the reign of   
the ,emperor ,comnenus--some little time
 before ,norman ,william made ,saxon    
,harold swear away his crown on the     
bones of the saints at ,rouen--attempted
 to fly round the hippodrome at         
,constantinople1 having ,comnenus among 
the great throng who gathered to witness
 the feat4 ,the ,saracen chose for his  
starting-point a tower in the midst of  
the hippodrome1 and on the top of the   
tower he stood1 clad in a long white    
robe which was stiffened with rods so as
 to spread and catch the breeze1 waiting
 for a favourable wind to strike on him4
 ,the wind was so long in coming that   
the spectators grew impatient4 #8,fly1  
,o ,saracen6' they called to him4 #8,do 
not keep us waiting so long while you   
try the wind6' ,comnenus1 who had       
present with him the ,sultan of the     
,turks1 gave it as his opinion that the 

experiment was both dangerous and vain1 
and1 possibly in an attempt to          
controvert such statement1 the ,saracen 
leaned into the wind and #8rose like a  
bird' at the outset4 ,but the record of 
,cousin1 who tells the story in his     
,histoire de ,constantinople1 states    
that #8the weight of his body having    
more power to drag him down than his    
artificial wings had to sustain him1 he 
broke his bones1 and his evil plight was
 such that he did not long survive4'    
,obviously1 the ,saracen was            
anticipating ,lilienthal and his gliders
 by some centuries2 like ,simon1 a      
genuine experimenter--both legends bear 
the impress of fact supporting them4    
,contemporary with him1 and belonging to
 the history rather than the legends of 
flight1 was ,oliver1 the monk of        
,malmesbury1 who in the year #ajfe made 
himself wings after the pattern of those
 supposed to have been used by ,ddalus1 
attaching them to his hands and feet and
 attempting to fly with them4 ,twysden1 

in his ,histori ,anglican ,scriptores   
,x1 sets forth the story of ,oliver1 who
 chose a high tower as his              
starting-point1 and launched himself in 
the air4 ,as a matter of course1 he     
fell1 permanently injuring himself1 and 
died some time later4  ,after these1 a  
gap of centuries1 filled in by          
impossible stories of magical flight by 
witches1 wizards1 and the               
like--imagination was fertile in the    
dark ages1 but the ban of the church was
 on all attempt at scientific           
development1 especially in such a matter
 as the conquest of the air4 ,yet there 
were observers of nature who argued that
 since birds could raise themselves by  
flapping their wings1 man had only to   
make suitable wings1 flap them1 and he  
too would fly4 ,as early as the         
thirteenth century ,roger ,bacon1 the   
scientific friar of unbounded           
inquisitiveness and not a little real   
genius1 announced that there could be   
made #8some flying instrument1 so that a

 man sitting in the middle and turning  
some mechanism may put in motion some   
artificial wings which may beat the air 
like a bird flying4' ,but being a       
cautious man1 with a natural dislike for
 being burnt at the stake as a          
necromancer through having put forward  
such a dangerous theory1 ,roger added1  
#8not that ,i ever knew a man who had   
such an instrument1 but ,i am           
particularly acquainted with the man who
 contrived one4' ,this might have been a
 lame defence if ,roger had been brought
 to trial as addicted to black arts2 he 
seems to have trusted to the            
inadmissibility of hearsay evidence4    
,some four centuries later there was    
published a book entitled ,perugia      
,augusta1 written by one ,c4 ,crispolti 
of ,perugia--the date of the work in    
question is #afdh4 ,in it is recorded   
that #8one day1 towards the close of the
 fifteenth century1 whilst many of the  
principal gentry had come to ,perugia to
 honour the wedding of ,giovanni ,paolo 

,baglioni1 and some lancers were riding 
down the street by his palace1 ,giovanni
 ,baptisti ,danti unexpectedly and by   
means of a contrivance of wings that he 
had constructed proportionate to the    
size of his body took off from the top  
of a tower near by1 and with a horrible 
hissing sound flew successfully across  
the great ,piazza1 which was densely    
crowded4 ,but 7oh1 horror of an         
unexpected accident67 he had scarcely   
flown three hundred paces on his way to 
a certain point when the mainstay of the
 left wing gave way1 and1 being unable  
to support himself with the right alone1
 he fell on a roof and was injured in   
consequence4 ,those who saw not only    
this flight1 but also the wonderful     
construction of the framework of the    
wings1 said--and tradition bears them   
out--that he several times flew over the
 waters of ,lake ,thrasimene to learn   
how he might gradually come to earth4   
,but1 notwithstanding his great genius1 
he never succeeded4'  ,this reads       

circumstantially enough1 but it may be  
borne in mind that the date of writing  
is more than half a century later than  
the time of the alleged achievement--the
 story had had time to round itself out4
 ,danti1 however1 is mentioned by a     
number of writers1 one of whom states   
that the failure of his experiment was  
due to the prayers of some individual of
 a conservative turn of mind1 who prayed
 so vigorously that ,danti fell         
appropriately enough on a church and    
injured himself to such an extent as to 
put an end to his flying career4 ,that  
,danti experimented1 there is little    
doubt1 in view of the volume of evidence
 on the point1 but the darkness of the  
,middle ,ages hides the real truth as to
 the results of his experiments4 ,if he 
had actually flown over ,thrasimene1 as 
alleged1 then in all probability both   
,napoleon and ,wellington would have had
 air scouts at ,waterloo4  ,danti's     
story may be taken as fact or left as   
fable1 and with it the period of legend 

or vague statement may be said to       
end--the rest is history1 both of       
genuine experimenters and of charlatans4
 ,such instances of legend as are given 
here are not a tithe of the whole1 but  
there is sufficient in the actual       
history of flight to bar out more than  
this brief mention of the legends1      
which1 on the whole1 go farther to prove
 man's desire to fly than his study and 
endeavour to solve the problems of the  
air4     ,,ii  ,,early ,,experiments    
,so far1 the stories of the development 
of flight are either legendary or of    
more or less doubtful authenticity1 even
 including that of ,danti1 who1 although
 a man of remarkable attainments in more
 directions than that of attempted      
flight1 suffers--so far as reputation is
 concerned--from the inexactitudes of   
his chroniclers2 he may have soared over
 ,thrasimene1 as stated1 or a mere hop  
with an ineffectual glider may have     
grown with the years to a legend of     
gliding flight4 ,so far1 too1 there is  

no evidence of the study that the       
conquest of the air demanded2 such men  
as made experiments either launched     
themselves in the air from some height  
with made-up wings or other apparatus1  
and paid the penalty1 or else           
constructed some form of machine which  
would not leave the earth1 and then gave
 up4 ,each man followed his own way1 and
 there was no attempt--without the      
printing press and the dissemination of 
knowledge there was little possibility  
of attempt--on the part of any one to   
benefit by the failures of others4      
,legend and doubtful history carries up 
to the fifteenth century1 and then came 
,leonardo da ,vinci1 first student of   
flight whose work endures to the present
 day4 ,the world knows da ,vinci as     
artist2 his age knew him as architect1  
engineer1 artist1 and scientist in an   
age when science was a single study1    
comprising all knowledge from           
mathematics to medicine4 ,he was1 of    
course1 in league with the devil1 for in

 no other way could his range of        
knowledge and observation be explained  
by his contemporaries2 he left a        
,treatise on the ,flight of ,birds in   
which are statements and deductions that
 had to be rediscovered when the        
,treatise had been forgotten--da ,vinci 
anticipated modern knowledge as ,plato  
anticipated modern thought1 and blazed  
the first broad trail toward flight4    
,one ,cuperus1 who wrote a ,treatise on 
the ,excellence of ,man1 asserted that  
da ,vinci translated his theories into  
practice1 and actually flew1 but the    
statement is unsupported4 ,that he made 
models1 especially on the helicopter    
principle1 is past question2 these were 
made of paper and wire1 and actuated by 
springs of steel wire1 which caused them
 to lift themselves in the air4 ,it is1 
however1 in the theories which he put   
forward that da ,vinci's investigations 
are of greatest interest2 these prove   
him a patient as well as a keen student 
of the principles of flight1 and show   

that his manifold activities did not    
prevent him from devoting some lengthy  
periods to observations of bird flight4 
#8,a bird1' he says in his ,treatise1   
#8is an instrument working according to 
mathematical law1 which instrument it is
 within the capacity of man to reproduce
 with all its movements1 but not with a 
corresponding degree of strength1 though
 it is deficient only in power of       
maintaining equilibrium4 ,we may say1   
therefore1 that such an instrument      
constructed by man is lacking in nothing
 except the life of the bird1 and this  
life must needs be supplied from that of
 man4 ,the life which resides in the    
bird's members will1 without doubt1     
better conform to their needs than will 
that of a man which is separated from   
them1 and especially in the almost      
imperceptible movements which produce   
equilibrium4 ,but since we see that the 
bird is equipped for many apparent      
varieties of movement1 we are able from 
this experience to deduce that the most 

rudimentary of these movements will be  
capable of being comprehended by man's  
understanding1 and that he will to a    
great extent be able to provide against 
the destruction of that instrument of   
which he himself has become the living  
principle and the propeller4'  ,in this 
is the definite belief of da ,vinci that
 man is capable of flight1 together with
 a far more definite statement of the   
principles by which flight is to be     
achieved than any which had preceded    
it--and for that matter1 than many that 
have succeeded it4 ,two further extracts
 from his work will show the exactness  
of his observations3--  #8,when a bird  
which is in equilibrium throws the      
centre of resistance of the wings behind
 the centre of gravity1 then such a bird
 will descend with its head downward4   
,this bird which finds itself in        
equilibrium shall have the centre of    
resistance of the wings more forward    
than the bird's centre of gravity2 then 
such a bird will fall with its tail     

turned toward the earth4'  ,and again3  
#8,a man1 when flying1 shall be free    
from the waist up1 that he may be able  
to keep himself in equilibrium as he    
does in a boat1 so that the centre of   
his gravity and of the instrument may   
set itself in equilibrium and change    
when necessity requires it to the       
changing of the centre of its           
resistance4'  ,here1 in this last       
quotation1 are the first beginnings of  
the inherent stability which proved so  
great an advance in design1 in this     
twentieth century4 ,but the extracts    
given do not begin to exhaust the range 
of da ,vinci's observations and         
deductions4 ,with regard to bird flight1
 he observed that so long as a bird     
keeps its wings outspread it cannot fall
 directly to earth1 but must glide down 
at an angle to alight--a small thing1   
now that the principle of the plane in  
opposition to the air is generally      
grasped1 but da ,vinci had to find it   
out4 ,from observation he gathered how a

 bird checks its own speed by opposing  
tail and wing surface to the direction  
of flight1 and thus alights at the      
proper #8landing speed4' ,he proved the 
existence of upward air currents by     
noting how a bird takes off from level  
earth with wings outstretched and       
motionless1 and1 in order to get an     
efficient substitute for the natural    
wing1 he recommended that there be used 
something similar to the membrane of the
 wing of a bat--from this to the doped  
fabric of an aeroplane wing is but a    
small step1 for both are equally        
impervious to air4 ,again1 da ,vinci    
recommended that experiments in flight  
be conducted at a good height from the  
ground1 since1 if equilibrium be lost   
through any cause1 the height gives time
 to regain it4 ,this recommendation1 by 
the way1 received ample support in the  
training areas of war pilots4  ,man's   
muscles1 said da ,vinci1 are fully      
sufficient to enable him to fly1 for the
 larger birds1 he noted1 employ but a   

small part of their strength in keeping 
themselves afloat in the air--by this   
theory he attempted to encourage        
experiment1 just as1 when his time came1
 ,borelli reached the opposite          
conclusion and discouraged it4 ,that    
,borelli was right--so far--and da      
,vinci wrong1 detracts not at all from  
the repute of the earlier investigator1 
who had but the resources of his age to 
support investigations conducted in the 
spirit of ages after4  ,his chief       
practical contributions to the science  
of flight--apart from numerous drawings 
which have still a value--are the       
helicopter or lifting screw1 and the    
parachute4 ,the former1 as already      
noted1 he made and proved effective in  
model form1 and the principle which he  
demonstrated is that of the helicopter  
of to-day1 on which sundry experimenters
 work spasmodically1 in spite of the    
success of the plane with its driving   
propeller4 ,as to the parachute1 the    
idea was doubtless inspired by          

observation of the effect a bird        
produced by pressure of its wings       
against the direction of flight4  ,da   
,vinci's conclusions1 and his           
experiments1 were forgotten easily by   
most of his contemporaries2 his         
,treatise lay forgotten for nearly four 
centuries1 overshadowed1 mayhap1 by his 
other work4 ,there was1 however1 a      
certain ,paolo ,guidotti of ,lucca1 who 
lived in the latter half of the         
sixteenth century1 and who attempted to 
carry da ,vinci's theories--one of them1
 at least1 into practice4 ,for this     
,guidotti1 who was by profession an     
artist and by inclination an            
investigator1 made for himself wings1 of
 which the framework was of whalebone2  
these he covered with feathers1 and with
 them made a number of gliding flights1 
attaining considerable proficiency4 ,he 
is said in the end to have made a flight
 of about four hundred yards1 but this  
attempt at solving the problem ended on 
a house roof1 where ,guidotti broke his 

thigh bone4 ,after that1 apparently1 he 
gave up the idea of flight1 and went    
back to painting4  ,one other1 a        
,venetian architect named ,veranzio1    
studied da ,vinci's theory of the       
parachute1 and found it correct1 if     
contemporary records and even pictorial 
presentment are correct4 ,da ,vinci     
showed his conception of a parachute as 
a sort of inverted square bag2 ,veranzio
 modified this to a #8sort of square    
sail extended by four rods of equal size
 and having four cords attached at the  
corners1' by means of which #8a man     
could without danger throw himself from 
the top of a tower or any high place4   
,for though at the moment there may be  
no wind1 yet the effort of his falling  
will carry up the wind1 which the sail  
will hold1 by which means he does not   
fall suddenly but descends little by    
little4 ,the size of the sail should be 
measured to the man4' ,by this last1    
evidently1 ,veranzio intended to convey 
that the sheet must be of such content  

as would enclose sufficient air to      
support the weight of the parachutist4  
,veranzio made his experiments about    
#afag-afah1 but1 naturally1 they carried
 him no farther than the mere descent to
 earth1 and since a descent is merely a 
descent1 it is to be conjectured that he
 soon got tired of dropping from high   
roofs1 and took to designing            
architecture instead of putting it to   
such a use4 ,with the end of his        
experiments the work of da ,vinci in    
relation to flying became neglected for 
nearly four centuries4  ,apart from     
these two experimenters1 there is little
 to record in the matter either of      
experiment or study until the           
seventeenth century4 ,francis ,bacon1 it
 is true1 wrote about flying in his     
,sylva ,sylvarum1 and mentioned the     
subject in the ,new ,atlantis1 but1     
except for the insight that he showed   
even in superficial mention of any      
specific subject1 he does not appear to 
have made attempt at serious            

investigation4 #8,spreading of          
,feathers1 thin and close and in great  
breadth will likewise bear up a great   
,weight1' says ,francis1 #8being even   
laid without ,tilting upon the sides4'  
,but a lesser genius could have told as 
much1 even in that age1 and though the  
great ,sir ,francis is sometimes adduced
 as one of the early students of the    
problems of flight1 his writings will   
not sustain the reputation4  ,the       
seventeenth century1 however1 gives us  
three names1 those of ,borelli1 ,lana1  
and ,robert ,hooke1 all of which take   
definite place in the history of flight4
 ,borelli ranks as one of the great     
figures in the study of aeronautical    
problems1 in spite of erroneous         
deductions through which he arrived at a
 purely negative conclusion with regard 
to the possibility of human flight4     
,borelli was a versatile genius4 ,born  
in #afjh1 he was practically            
contemporary with ,francesco ,lana1 and 
there is evidence that he either knew or

 was in correspondence with many        
prominent members of the ,royal ,society
 of ,great ,britain1 more especially    
with ,john ,collins1 ,dr ,wallis1 and   
,henry ,oldenburgh1 the then ,secretary 
of the ,society4 ,he was author of a    
long list of scientific essays1 two of  
which only are responsible for his fame1
 viz41 ,theorice ,medicarum ,planetarum1
 published in ,florence1 and the better 
known posthumous ,de ,motu ,animalium4  
,the first of these two is an           
astronomical study in which ,borelli    
gives evidence of an instinctive        
knowledge of gravitation1 though no     
definite expression is given of this4   
,the second work1 ,de ,motu ,animalium1 
deals with the mechanical action of the 
limbs of birds and animals and with a   
theory of the action of the internal    
organs4 ,a section of the first part of 
this work1 called ,de ,volatu1 is a     
study of bird flight2 it is quite       
independent of ,da ,vinci's earlier     
work1 which had been forgotten and      

remained unnoticed until near on the    
beginning of practical flight4  ,marey1 
in his work1 ,la ,machine ,animale1     
credits ,borelli with the first correct 
idea of the mechanism of flight4 ,he    
says3 #8,therefore we must be allowed to
 render to the genius of ,borelli the   
justice which is due to him1 and only   
claim for ourselves the merit of having 
furnished the experimental demonstration
 of a truth already suspected4' ,in     
fact1 all subsequent studies on this    
subject concur in making ,borelli the   
first investigator who illustrated the  
purely mechanical theory of the action  
of a bird's wings4  ,borelli's study is 
divided into a series of propositions in
 which he traces the principles of      
flight1 and the mechanical actions of   
the wings of birds4 ,the most           
interesting of these are the            
propositions in which he sets forth the 
method in which birds move their wings  
during flight and the manner in which   
the air offers resistance to the stroke 

of the wing4 ,with regard to the first  
of these two points he says3 #8,when    
birds in repose rest on the earth their 
wings are folded up close against their 
flanks1 but when wishing to start on    
their flight they first bend their legs 
and leap into the air4 ,whereupon the   
joints of their wings are straightened  
out to form a straight line at right    
angles to the lateral surface of the    
breast1 so that the two wings1          
outstretched1 are placed1 as it were1   
like the arms of a cross to the body of 
the bird4 ,next1 since the wings with   
their feathers attached form almost a   
plane surface1 they are raised slightly 
above the horizontal1 and with a most   
quick impulse beat down in a direction  
almost perpendicular to the wing-plane1 
upon the underlying air2 and to so      
intense a beat the air1 notwithstanding 
it to be fluid1 offers resistance1      
partly by reason of its natural inertia1
 which seeks to retain it at rest1 and  
partly because the particles of the air1

 compressed by the swiftness of the     
stroke1 resist this compression by their
 elasticity1 just like the hard ground4 
,hence the whole mass of the bird       
rebounds1 making a fresh leap through   
the air2 whence it follows that flight  
is simply a motion composed of          
successive leaps accomplished through   
the air4 ,and ,i remark that a wing can 
easily beat the air in a direction      
almost perpendicular to its plane       
surface1 although only a single one of  
the corners of the humerus bone is      
attached to the scapula1 the whole      
extent of its base remaining free and   
loose1 while the greater transverse     
feathers are joined to the lateral skin 
of the thorax4 ,nevertheless the wing   
can easily revolve about its base like  
unto a fan4 ,nor are there lacking      
tendon ligaments which restrain the     
feathers and prevent them from opening  
farther1 in the same fashion that sheets
 hold in the sails of ships4 ,no less   
admirable is nature's cunning in        

unfolding and folding the wings upwards1
 for she folds them not laterally1 but  
by moving upwards edgewise the osseous  
parts wherein the roots of the feathers 
are inserted2 for thus1 without         
encountering the air's resistance the   
upward motion of the wing surface is    
made as with a sword1 hence they can be 
uplifted with but small force4 ,but     
thereafter when the wings are twisted by
 being drawn transversely and by the    
resistance of the air1 they are         
flattened as has been declared and will 
be made manifest hereafter4'  ,then with
 reference to the resistance to the air 
of the wings he explains3 #8,the air    
when struck offers resistance by its    
elastic virtue through which the        
particles of the air compressed by the  
wing-beat strive to expand again4       
,through these two causes of resistance 
the downward beat of the wing is not    
only opposed1 but even caused to recoil 
with a reflex movement2 and these two   
causes of resistance ever increase the  

more the down stroke of the wing is     
maintained and accelerated4 ,on the     
other hand1 the impulse of the wing is  
continuously diminished and weakened by 
the growing resistance4 ,hereby the     
force of the wing and the resistance    
become balanced2 so that1 manifestly1   
the air is beaten by the wing with the  
same force as the resistance to the     
stroke4'  ,he concerns himself also with
 the most difficult problem that        
confronts the flying man of to-day1     
namely1 landing effectively1 and his    
remarks on this subject would be        
instructive even to an air pilot of     
these days3 #8,now the ways and means by
 which the speed is slackened at the end
 of a flight are these4 ,the bird       
spreads its wings and tail so that their
 concave surfaces are perpendicular to  
the direction of motion2 in this way1   
the spreading feathers1 like a ship's   
sail1 strike against the still air1     
check the speed1 and so that most of the
 impetus may be stopped1 the wings are  

flapped quickly and strongly forward1   
inducing a contrary motion1 so that the 
bird absolutely or very nearly stops4'  
,at the end of his study ,borelli came  
to a conclusion which militated greatly 
against experiment with any             
heavier-than-air apparatus1 until well  
on into the nineteenth century1 for     
having gone thoroughly into the subject 
of bird flight he states distinctly in  
his last proposition on the subject that
 #8,it is impossible that men should be 
able to fly craftily by their own       
strength4' ,this statement1 of course1  
remains true up to the present day1 for 
no man has yet devised the means by     
which he can raise himself in the air   
and maintain himself there by mere      
muscular effort4  ,from the time of     
,borelli up to the development of the   
steam engine it may be said that flight 
by means of any heavier-than-air        
apparatus was generally regarded as     
impossible1 and apart from certain      
deductions which a little experiment    

would have shown to be doomed to        
failure1 this method of flight was not  
followed up4 ,it is not to be wondered  
at1 when ,borelli's exaggerated estimate
 of the strength expended by birds in   
proportion to their weight is borne in  
mind2 he alleged that the motive force  
in birds' wings is #aj1jjj times greater
 than the resistance of their weight1   
and with regard to human flight he      
remarks3--  #8,when1 therefore1 it is   
asked whether men may be able to fly by 
their own strength1 it must be seen     
whether the motive power of the pectoral
 muscles 7the strength of which is      
indicated and measured by their size7 is
 proportionately great1 as it is evident
 that it must exceed the resistance of  
the weight of the whole human body      
#aj1jjj times1 together with the weight 
of enormous wings which should be       
attached to the arms4 ,and it is clear  
that the motive power of the pectoral   
muscles in men is much less than is     
necessary for flight1 for in birds the  

bulk and weight of the muscles for      
flapping the wings are not less than a  
sixth part of the entire weight of the  
body4 ,therefore1 it would be necessary 
that the pectoral muscles of a man      
should weigh more than a sixth part of  
the entire weight of his body2 so also  
the arms1 by flapping with the wings    
attached1 should be able to exert a     
power #aj1jjj times greater than the    
weight of the human body itself4 ,but   
they are far below such excess1 for the 
aforesaid pectoral muscles do not equal 
a hundredth part of the entire weight of
 a man4 ,wherefore either the strength  
of the muscles ought to be increased or 
the weight of the human body must be    
decreased1 so that the same proportion  
obtains in it as exists in birds4 ,hence
 it is deducted that the ,icarian       
invention is entirely mythical because  
impossible1 for it is not possible      
either to increase a man's pectoral     
muscles or to diminish the weight of the
 human body2 and whatever apparatus is  

used1 although it is possible to        
increase the momentum1 the velocity or  
the power employed can never equal the  
resistance2 and therefore wing flapping 
by the contraction of muscles cannot    
give out enough power to carry up the   
heavy body of a man4'  ,it may be said  
that practically all the conclusions    
which ,borelli reached in his study were
 negative4 ,although contemporary with  
,lana1 he perceived the one factor which
 rendered ,lana's project for flight by 
means of vacuum globes an               
impossibility--he saw that no globe     
could be constructed sufficiently light 
for flight1 and at the same time        
sufficiently strong to withstand the    
pressure of the outside atmosphere4 ,he 
does not appear to have made any        
experiments in flying on his own        
account1 having1 as he asserts most     
definitely1 no faith in any invention   
designed to lift man from the surface of
 the earth4 ,but his work1 from which   
only the foregoing short quotations can 

be given1 is1 nevertheless1 of          
indisputable value1 for he settled the  
mechanics of bird flight1 and paved the 
way for those later investigators who   
had1 first1 the steam engine1 and later 
the internal combustion engine--two     
factors in mechanical flight which would
 have seemed as impossible to ,borelli  
as would wireless telegraphy to a       
student of ,napoleonic times4 ,on such  
foundations as his age afforded ,borelli
 built solidly and well1 so that he     
ranks as one of the greatest--if not    
actually the greatest--of the           
investigators into this subject before  
the age of steam4  ,the conclusion1 that
 #8the motive force in birds' wings is  
apparently ten thousand times greater   
than the resistance of their weight1' is
 erroneous1 of course1 but study of the 
translation from which the foregoing    
excerpt is taken will show that the     
error detracts very little from the     
value of the work itself4 ,borelli sets 
out very definitely the mechanism of    

flight1 in such fashion that he who runs
 may read4 ,his reference to #8the use  
of a large vessel1' etc41 concerns the  
suggestion made by ,francesco ,lana1 who
 antedated ,borelli's publication of ,de
 ,motu ,animalium by some ten years with
 his suggestion for an #8aerial ship1'  
as he called it4 ,lana's mind shows1 as 
regards flight1 a more imaginative      
twist2 ,borelli dived down into first   
causes1 and reached mathematical        
conclusions2 ,lana conceived a theory   
and upheld it--theoretically1 since the 
manner of his life precluded experiment4
  ,francesco ,lana1 son of a noble      
family1 was born in #afca2 in #afdg he  
was received as a novice into the       
,society of ,jesus at ,rome1 and        
remained a pious member of the ,jesuit  
society until the end of his life4 ,he  
was greatly handicapped in his          
scientific investigations by the vows of
 poverty which the rules of the ,order  
imposed on him4 ,he was more scientist  
than priest all his life2 for two years 

he held the post of ,professor of       
,mathematics at ,ferrara1 and up to the 
time of his death1 in #afhg1 he spent by
 far the greater part of his time in    
scientific research4 ,he had the dubious
 advantage of living in an age when one 
man could cover the whole range of      
science1 and this he seems to have done 
very thoroughly4 ,there survives an     
immense work of his entitled1           
,magisterium ,natur et ,artis1 which    
embraces the whole field of scientific  
knowledge as that was developed in the  
period in which ,lana lived4 ,in an     
earlier work of his1 published in       
,brescia in #afgj1 appears his famous   
treatise on the aerial ship1 a problem  
which ,lana worked out with             
thoroughness4 ,he was unable to make    
practical experiments1 and thus failed  
to perceive the one insuperable drawback
 to his project--of which more anon4    
,only extracts from the translation of  
,lana's work can be given here1 but     
sufficient can be given to show fully   

the means by which he designed to       
achieve the conquest of the air4 ,he    
begins by mention of the celebrated     
pigeon of ,archytas the ,philosopher1   
and advances one or two theories with   
regard to the way in which this         
mechanical bird was constructed1 and    
then he recites1 apparently with full   
belief in it1 the fable of              
,regiomontanus and the eagle that he is 
said to have constructed to accompany   
,charles ,v4 on his entry into          
,nuremberg4 ,in fact1 ,lana starts his  
work with a study of the pioneers of    
mechanical flying up to his own time1   
and then outlines his own devices for   
the construction of mechanical birds    
before proceeding to detail the         
construction of the aerial ship4        
,concerning primary experiments for this
 he says3--  #8,i will1 first of all1   
presuppose that air has weight owing to 
the vapours and halations which ascend  
from the earth and seas to a height of  
many miles and surround the whole of our

 terraqueous globe2 and this fact will  
not be denied by philosophers1 even by  
those who may have but a superficial    
knowledge1 because it can be proven by  
exhausting1 if not all1 at any rate the 
greater part of1 the air contained in a 
glass vessel1 which1 if weighed before  
and after the air has been exhausted1   
will be found materially reduced in     
weight4 ,then ,i found out how much the 
air weighed in itself in the following  
manner4 ,i procured a large vessel of   
glass1 whose neck could be closed or    
opened by means of a tap1 and holding it
 open ,i warmed it over a fire1 so that 
the air inside it becoming rarified1 the
 major part was forced out2 then quickly
 shutting the tap to prevent the        
re-entry ,i weighed it2 which done1 ,i  
plunged its neck in water1 resting the  
whole of the vessel on the surface of   
the water1 then on opening the tap the  
water rose in the vessel and filled the 
greater part of it4 ,i lifted the neck  
out of the water1 released the water    

contained in the vessel1 and measured   
and weighed its quantity and density1 by
 which ,i inferred that a certain       
quantity of air had come out of the     
vessel equal in bulk to the quantity of 
water which had entered to refill the   
portion abandoned by the air4 ,i again  
weighed the vessel1 after ,i had first  
of all well dried it free of all        
moisture1 and found it weighed one ounce
 more whilst it was full of air than    
when it was exhausted of the greater    
part1 so that what it weighed more was a
 quantity of air equal in volume to the 
water which took its place4 ,the water  
weighed #fdj ounces1 so ,i concluded    
that the weight of air compared with    
that of water was #a to #fdj--that is to
 say1 as the water which filled the     
vessel weighed #fdj ounces1 so the air  
which filled the same vessel weighed one
 ounce4'  ,having thus detailed the     
method of exhausting air from a vessel1 
,lana goes on to assume that any large  
vessel can be entirely exhausted of     

nearly all the air contained therein4   
,then he takes ,euclid's proposition to 
the effect that the superficial area of 
globes increases in the proportion of   
the square of the diameter1 whilst the  
volume increases in the proportion of   
the cube of the same diameter1 and he   
considers that if one only constructs   
the globe of thin metal1 of sufficient  
size1 and exhausts the air in the manner
 that he suggests1 such a globe will be 
so far lighter than the surrounding     
atmosphere that it will not only rise1  
but will be capable of lifting weights4 
,here is ,lana's own way of putting     
it3--  #8,but so that it may be enabled 
to raise heavier weights and to lift men
 in the air1 let us take double the     
quantity of copper1 #a1bcb square feet1 
equal to #cjh lbs4 of copper2 with this 
double quantity of copper we could      
construct a vessel of not only double   
the capacity1 but of four times the     
capacity of the first1 for the reason   
shown by my fourth supposition4         

,consequently the air contained in such 
a vessel will be #gah lbs4 #d ounces1 so
 that if the air be drawn out of the    
vessel it will be #daj lbs4 #d ounces   
lighter than the same volume of air1    
and1 consequently1 will be enabled to   
lift three men1 or at least two1 should 
they weigh more than eight pesi each4   
,it is thus manifest that the larger the
 ball or vessel is made1 the thicker and
 more solid can the sheets of copper be 
made1 because1 although the weight will 
increase1 the capacity of the vessel    
will increase to a greater extent and   
with it the weight of the air therein1  
so that it will always be capable to    
lift a heavier weight4 ,from this it can
 be easily seen how it is possible to   
construct a machine which1 fashioned    
like unto a ship1 will float on the     
air4'  ,illustration3 ,a suggestion for 
applying hydrogen gas to ,lana's        
#8,aerial ,ship4' ,rome1 #aghd4  ,with  
four globes of these dimensions ,lana   
proposed to make an aerial ship of the  

fashion shown in his quaint             
illustration4 ,he is careful to point   
out a method by which the supporting    
globes for the aerial ship may be       
entirely emptied of air2 this is to be  
done by connecting to each globe a tube 
of copper which is #8at least a length  
of #dg modern ,roman palmi4' ,a small   
tap is to close this tube at the end    
nearest the globe1 and then vessel and  
tube are to be filled with water1 after 
which the tube is to be immersed in     
water and the tap opened1 allowing the  
water to run out of the vessel1 while no
 air enters4 ,the tap is then closed    
before the lower end of the tube is     
removed from the water1 leaving no air  
at all in the globe or sphere4          
,propulsion of this airship was to be   
accomplished by means of sails1 and also
 by oars4  ,lana antedated the modern   
propeller1 and realised that the air    
would offer enough resistance to oars or
 paddle to impart motion to any vessel  
floating in it and propelled by these   

means1 although he did not realise the  
amount of pressure on the air which     
would be necessary to accomplish        
propulsion4 ,as a matter of fact1 he    
foresaw and provided against practically
 all the difficulties that would be     
encountered in the working1 as well as  
the making1 of the aerial ship1 finally 
coming up against what his religious    
training made an insuperable objection4 
,this1 again1 is best told in his own   
words3--  #8,other difficulties ,i do   
not foresee that could prevail against  
this invention1 save one only1 which to 
me seems the greatest of them all1 and  
that is that ,god would surely never    
allow such a machine to be successful1  
since it would create many disturbances 
in the civil and political governments  
of mankind4'  ,he ends by saying that no
 city would be proof against surprise1  
while the aerial ship could set fire to 
vessels at sea1 and destroy houses1     
fortresses1 and cities by fire balls and
 bombs4 ,in fact1 at the end of his     

treatise on the subject1 he furnishes a 
pretty complete rsum of the activities  
of ,german ,zeppelins4  ,as already     
noted1 ,lana himself1 owing to his vows 
of poverty1 was unable to do more than  
put his suggestions on paper1 which he  
did with a thoroughness that has        
procured him a place among the really   
great pioneers of flying4  ,it was      
nearly #bjj years before any attempt was
 made to realise his project2 then1 in  
#ahdc1 ,m4 ,marey ,monge set out to make
 the globes and the ship as ,lana       
detailed them4 ,monge's experiments cost
 him the sum of #be1jjj francs #ge      
centimes1 which he expended purely from 
love of scientific investigation4 ,he   
chose to make his globes of brass1 about
 4#jjd in thickness1 and weighing #a4dfe
 lbs4 to the square yard4 ,having made  
his sphere of this metal1 he lined it   
with two thicknesses of tissue paper1   
varnished it with oil1 and set to work  
to empty it of air4 ,this1 however1 he  
never achieved1 for such metal is       

incapable of sustaining the pressure of 
the outside air1 as ,lana1 had he had   
the means to carry out experiments1     
would have ascertained4 ,m4 ,monge's    
sphere could never be emptied of air    
sufficiently to rise from the earth2 it 
ended in the melting-pot1 ignominiously 
enough1 and all that ,monge got from his
 experiment was the value of the scrap  
metal and the satisfaction of knowing   
that ,lana's theory could never be      
translated into practice4  ,robert      
,hooke is less conspicuous than either  
,borelli or ,lana2 his work1 which came 
into the middle of the seventeenth      
century1 consisted of various           
experiments with regard to flight1 from 
which emerged #8a ,module1 which by the 
help of ,springs and ,wings1 raised and 
sustained itself in the air4' ,this must
 be reckoned as the first model flying  
machine which actually flew1 except for 
da ,vinci's helicopters2 ,hooke's model 
appears to have been of the             
flapping-wing type--he attempted to copy

 the motion of birds1 but found from    
study and experiment that human muscles 
were not sufficient to the task of      
lifting the human body4 ,for that       
reason1 he says1 #8,i applied my mind to
 contrive a way to make artificial      
muscles1' but in this he was1 as he     
expresses it1 #8frustrated of my        
expectations4' ,hooke's claim to fame   
rests mainly on his successful model2   
the rest of his work is of too scrappy a
 nature to rank as a serious            
contribution to the study of flight4    
,contemporary with ,hooke was one       
,allard1 who1 in ,france1 undertook to  
emulate the ,saracen of ,constantinople 
to a certain extent4 ,allard was a      
tight-rope dancer who either did or was 
said to have done short gliding         
flights--the matter is open to          
question--and finally stated that he    
would1 at ,st ,germains1 fly from the   
terrace in the king's presence4 ,he made
 the attempt1 but merely fell1 as did   
the ,saracen some centuries before1     

causing himself serious injury4 ,allard 
cannot be regarded as a contributor to  
the development of aeronautics in any   
way1 and is only mentioned as typical of
 the way in which1 up to the time of the
 ,wright brothers1 flying was regarded4 
,even unto this day there are many who  
still believe that1 with a pair of      
wings1 man ought to be able to fly1 and 
that the mathematical data necessary to 
effective construction simply do not    
exist4 ,this attitude was reasonable    
enough in an unlearned age1 and ,allard 
was one--a little more conspicuous than 
the majority--among many who made       
experiment in ignorance1 with more or   
less danger to themselves and without   
practical result of any kind4           
,illustration3 ,besnier's ,flying       
,apparatus4  ,the seventeenth century   
was not to end1 however1 without        
practical experiment of a noteworthy    
kind in gliding flight4 ,among the      
recruits to the ranks of pioneers was a 
certain ,besnier1 a locksmith of ,sabl1 

who somewhere between #afge and #afhj   
constructed a glider of which a crude   
picture has come down to modern times4  
,the apparatus1 as will be seen1        
consisted of two rods with hinged flaps1
 and the original designer of the       
picture seems to have had but a small   
space in which to draw1 since obviously 
the flaps must have been much larger    
than those shown4 ,besnier placed the   
rods on his shoulders1 and worked the   
flaps by cords attached to his hands and
 feet--the flaps opened as they fell1   
and closed as they rose1 so the device  
as a whole must be regarded as a sort of
 flapping glider4 ,having by experiment 
proved his apparatus successful1        
,besnier promptly sold it to a          
travelling showman of the period1 and   
forthwith set about constructing a      
second set1 with which he made gliding  
flights of considerable height and      
distance4 ,like ,lilienthal1 ,besnier   
projected himself into space from some  
height1 and then1 according to the      

contemporary records1 he was able to    
cross a river of considerable size      
before coming to earth4 ,it does not    
appear that he had any imitators1 or    
that any advantage whatever was taken of
 his experiments2 the age was one in    
which he would be regarded rather as a  
freak exhibitor than as a serious       
student1 and possibly1 considering his  
origin and the sale of his first        
apparatus to such a client1 he regarded 
the matter himself as more in the nature
 of an amusement than as a discovery4   
,borelli1 coming at the end of the      
century1 proved to his own satisfaction 
and that of his fellows that flapping   
wing flight was an impossibility2 the   
capabilities of the plane were as yet   
undreamed1 and the prime mover that     
should make the plane available for     
flight was deep in the womb of time4 ,da
 ,vinci's work was forgotten--flight was
 an impossibility1 or at best such a    
useless show as ,besnier was able to    
give4  ,the eighteenth century was      

almost barren of experiment4 ,emanuel   
,swedenborg1 having invented a new      
religion1 set about inventing a flying  
machine1 and succeeded theoretically1   
publishing the result of his            
investigations as follows3--  #8,let a  
car or boat or some like object be made 
of light material such as cork or bark1 
with a room within it for the operator4 
,secondly1 in front as well as behind1  
or all round1 set a widely-stretched    
sail parallel to the machine1 forming   
within a hollow or bend1 which could be 
reefed like the sails of a ship4        
,thirdly1 place wings on the sides1 to  
be worked up and down by a spiral       
spring1 these wings also to be hollow   
below in order to increase the force and
 velocity1 take in the air1 and make the
 resistance as great as may be required4
 ,these1 too1 should be of light        
material and of sufficient size2 they   
should be in the shape of birds' wings1 
or the sails of a windmill1 or some such
 shape1 and should be tilted obliquely  

upwards1 and made so as to collapse on  
the upward stroke and expand on the     
downward4 ,fourth1 place a balance or   
beam below1 hanging down perpendicularly
 for some distance with a small weight  
attached to its end1 pendent exactly in 
line with the centre of gravity2 the    
longer this beam is1 the lighter must it
 be1 for it must have the same          
proportion as the well-known vectis or  
steel-yard4 ,this would serve to restore
 the balance of the machine if it should
 lean over to any of the four sides4    
,fifthly1 the wings would perhaps have  
greater force1 so as to increase the    
resistance and make the flight easier1  
if a hood or shield were placed over    
them1 as is the case with certain       
insects4 ,sixthly1 when the sails are   
expanded so as to occupy a great surface
 and much air1 with a balance keeping   
them horizontal1 only a small force     
would be needed to move the machine back
 and forth in a circle1 and up and down4
 ,and1 after it has gained momentum to  

move slowly upwards1 a slight movement  
and an even bearing would keep it       
balanced in the air and would determine 
its direction at will4'  ,the only point
 in this worthy of any note is the first
 device for maintaining stability       
automatically--,swedenborg certainly    
scored a point there4 ,for the rest1 his
 theory was but theory1 incapable of    
being put to practice--he does not      
appear to have made any attempt at      
advance beyond the mere suggestion4     
,some ten years before his time the     
state of knowledge with regard to flying
 in ,europe was demonstrated by an order
 granted by the ,king of ,portugal to   
,friar ,lourenzo de ,guzman1 who claimed
 to have invented a flying machine      
capable of actual flight4 ,the order    
stated that #8,in order to encourage the
 suppliant to apply himself with zeal   
toward the improvement of the new       
machine1 which is capable of producing  
the effects mentioned by him1 ,i grant  
unto him the first vacant place in my   

,college of ,barcelos or ,santarem1 and 
the first professorship of mathematics  
in my ,university of ,coimbra1 with the 
annual pension of #fjj1jjj reis during  
his life4--,lisbon1 #agth of ,march1    
#agji4'  ,what happened to ,guzman when 
the non-existence of the machine was    
discovered is one of the things that is 
well outside the province of            
aeronautics4 ,he was charlatan pure and 
simple1 as far as actual flight was     
concerned1 though he had some ideas     
respecting the design of hot-air        
balloons1 according to ,tissandier4 7,la
 ,navigation ,aerienne47 ,his flying    
machine was to contain1 among other     
devices1 bellows to produce artificial  
wind when the real article failed1 and  
also magnets in globes to draw the      
vessel in an upward direction and       
maintain its buoyancy4 ,some            
draughtsman1 apparently gifted with as  
vivid imagination as ,guzman himself1   
has given to the world an illustration  
of the hypothetical vessel2 it bears    

some resemblance to ,lana's aerial ship1
 from which fact one draws obvious      
conclusions4  ,a rather amusing claim to
 solving the problem of flight was made 
in the middle of the eighteenth century 
by one ,grimaldi1 a #8famous and unique 
,engineer' who1 as a matter of actual   
fact1 spent twenty years in missionary  
work in ,india1 and employed the spare  
time that missionary work left him in   
bringing his invention to a workable    
state4 ,the invention is described as a 
#8box which with the aid of clockwork   
rises in the air1 and goes with such    
lightness and strong rapidity that it   
succeeds in flying a journey of seven   
leagues in an hour4 ,it is made in the  
fashion of a bird2 the wings from end to
 end are #be feet in extent4 ,the body  
is composed of cork1 artistically joined
 together and well fastened with metal  
wire1 covered with parchment and        
feathers4 ,the wings are made of catgut 
and whalebone1 and covered also with the
 same parchment and feathers1 and each  

wing is folded in three seams4 ,in the  
body of the machine are contained thirty
 wheels of unique work1 with two brass  
globes and little chains which          
alternately wind up a counterpoise2 with
 the aid of six brass vases1 full of a  
certain quantity of quicksilver1 which  
run in some pulleys1 the machine is kept
 by the artist in due equilibrium and   
balance4 ,by means1 then1 of the        
friction between a steel wheel          
adequately tempered and a very heavy and
 surprising piece of lodestone1 the     
whole is kept in a regulated forward    
movement1 given1 however1 a right state 
of the winds1 since the machine cannot  
fly so much in totally calm weather as  
in stormy4 ,this prodigious machine is  
directed and guided by a tail seven     
palmi long1 which is attached to the    
knees and ankles of the inventor by     
leather straps2 by stretching out his   
legs1 either to the right or to the     
left1 he moves the machine in whichever 
direction he pleases4444 ,the machine's 

flight lasts only three hours1 after    
which the wings gradually close         
themselves1 when the inventor1          
perceiving this1 goes down gently1 so as
 to get on his own feet1 and then winds 
up the clockwork and gets himself ready 
again upon the wings for the            
continuation of a new flight4 ,he       
himself told us that if by chance one of
 the wheels came off or if one of the   
wings broke1 it is certain he would     
inevitably fall rapidly to the ground1  
and1 therefore1 he does not rise more   
than the height of a tree or two1 as    
also he only once put himself in the    
risk of crossing the sea1 and that was  
from ,calais to ,dover1 and the same    
morning he arrived in ,london4'  ,and   
yet there are still quite a number of   
people who persist in stating that      
,bleriot was the first man to fly across
 the ,channel6  ,a study of the         
development of the helicopter principle 
was published in ,france in #ahfh1 when 
the great ,french engineer ,paucton     

produced his ,thorie de la ,vis         
d',archimde4 ,for some inexplicable     
reason1 ,paucton was not satisfied with 
the term #8helicopter1' but preferred to
 call it a #8ptrophore1' a name which1  
so far as can be ascertained1 has not   
been adopted by any other writer or     
investigator4 ,paucton stated that1     
since a man is capable of sufficient    
force to overcome the weight of his own 
body1 it is only necessary to give him a
 machine which acts on the air #8with   
all the force of which it is capable and
 at its utmost speed1' and he will then 
be able to lift himself in the air1 just
 as by the exertion of all his strength 
he is able to lift himself in water4    
#8,it would seem1' says ,paucton1 #8that
 in the ptrophore1 attached vertically  
to a carriage1 the whole built lightly  
and carefully assembled1 he has found   
something that will give him this result
 in all perfection4 ,in construction1   
one would be careful that the machine   
produced the least friction possible1   

and naturally it ought to produce       
little1 as it would not be at all       
complicated4 ,the new ,ddalus1 sitting  
comfortably in his carriage1 would by   
means of a crank give to the ptrophore a
 suitable circular 7or revolving7 speed4
 ,this single ptrophore would lift him  
vertically1 but in order to move        
horizontally he should be supplied with 
a tail in the shape of another          
ptrophore4 ,when he wished to stop for a
 little time1 valves fixed firmly across
 the end of the space between the blades
 would automatically close the openings 
through which the air flows1 and change 
the ptrophore into an unbroken surface  
which would resist the flow of air and  
retard the fall of the machine to a     
considerable degree4'  ,the doctrine    
thus set forth might appear plausible1  
but it is based on the common           
misconception that all the force which  
might be put into the helicopter or     
#8ptrophore' would be utilised for      
lifting or propelling the vehicle       

through the air1 just as a propeller    
uses all its power to drive a ship      
through water4 ,but1 in applying such a 
propelling force to the air1 most of the
 force is utilised in maintaining       
aerodynamic support--as a matter of     
fact1 more force is needed to maintain  
this support than the muscle of man     
could possibly furnish to a lifting     
screw1 and even if the helicopter were  
applied to a full-sized1 engine-driven  
air vehicle1 the rate of ascent would   
depend on the amount of surplus power   
that could be carried4 ,for example1 an 
upward lift of #a1jjj pounds from a     
propeller #ae feet in diameter would    
demand an expenditure of #ej horse-power
 under the best possible conditions1 and
 in order to lift this load vertically  
through such atmospheric pressure as    
exists at sea-level or thereabouts1 an  
additional #bj horse-power would be     
required to attain a rate of #aa feet   
per second--#ej horse-power must be     
continually provided for the mere       

support of the load1 and the additional 
#bj horse-power must be continually     
provided in order to lift it4 ,although1
 in model form1 there is nothing quite  
so strikingly successful as the         
helicopter in the range of flying       
machines1 yet the essential weight      
increases so disproportionately to the  
effective area that it is necessary to  
go but very little beyond model         
dimensions for the helicopter to become 
quite ineffective4  ,that is not to say 
that the lifting screw must be totally  
ruled out so far as the construction of 
aircraft is concerned4 ,much is still   
empirical1 so far as this branch of     
aeronautics is concerned1 and           
consideration of the structural features
 of a propeller goes to show that the   
relations of essential weight and       
effective area do not altogether apply  
in practice as they stand in theory4    
,paucton's dream1 in some modified form1
 may yet become reality--it is only so  
short a time ago as #ahif that ,lord    

,kelvin stated he had not the smallest  
molecule of faith in aerial navigation1 
and since the whole history of flight   
consists in proving the impossible      
possible1 the helicopter may yet        
challenge the propelled plane surface   
for aerial supremacy4  ,it does not     
appear that ,paucton went beyond theory1
 nor is there in his theory any advance 
toward practical flight--da ,vinci could
 have told him as much as he knew4 ,he  
was followed by ,meerwein1 who invented 
an apparatus apparently something       
between a flapping wing machine and a   
glider1 consisting of two wings1 which  
were to be operated by means of a rod2  
the venturesome one who would fly by    
means of this apparatus had to lie in a 
horizontal position beneath the wings to
 work the rod4 ,meerwein deserves a     
place of mention1 however1 by reason of 
his investigations into the amount of   
surface necessary to support a given    
weight4 ,taking that weight at #bjj     
pounds--which would allow for the weight

 of a man and a very light apparatus--he
 estimated that #abf square feet would  
be necessary for support4 ,his pamphlet1
 published at ,basle in #aghd1 shows him
 to have been a painstaking student of  
the potentialities of flight4           
,jean-,pierre ,blanchard1 later to      
acquire fame in connection with balloon 
flight1 conceived and described a       
curious vehicle1 of which he even       
announced trials as impending4 ,his     
trials were postponed time after time1  
and it appears that he became convinced 
in the end of the futility of his       
device1 being assisted to such a        
conclusion by ,lalande1 the astronomer1 
who repeated ,borelli's statement that  
it was impossible for man ever to fly by
 his own strength4 ,this was in the     
closing days of the ,french monarchy1   
and the ascent of the ,mongolfiers'     
first hot-air balloon in #aghc--which   
shall be told more fully in its         
place--put an end to all ,french        
experiments with heavier-than-air       

apparatus1 though in ,england the genius
 of ,cayley was about to bud1 and even  
in ,france there were those who         
understood that ballooning was not true 
flight4     ,,iii  ,,sir ,,george       
,,cayley--,,thomas ,,walker   ,on the   
fifth of ,june1 #aghc1 the              
,montgolfiers' hot-air balloon rose at  
,versailles1 and in its rising divided  
the study of the conquest of the air    
into two definite parts1 the one being  
concerned with the propulsion of gas    
lifted1 lighter-than-air vehicles1 and  
the other being crystallised in one     
sentence by ,sir ,george ,cayley3 #8,the
 whole problem1' he stated1 #8is        
confined within these limits1 viz43 to  
make a surface support a given weight by
 the application of power to the        
resistance of the air4' ,for about ten  
years the balloon held the field        
entirely1 being regarded as the only    
solution of the problem of flight that  
man could ever compass4 ,so definite for
 a time was this view on the eastern    

side of the ,channel that for some years
 practically all the progress that was  
made in the development of power-driven 
planes was made in ,britain4  ,in #ahjj 
a certain ,dr ,thomas ,young            
demonstrated that certain curved        
surfaces suspended by a thread moved    
into and not away from a horizontal     
current of air1 but the demonstration1  
which approaches perilously near to     
perpetual motion if the current be truly
 horizontal1 has never been successfully
 repeated1 so that there is more than a 
suspicion that ,young's air-current was 
not horizontal4 ,others had made and    
were making experiments on the          
resistance offered to the air by flat   
surfaces1 when ,cayley came to study and
 record1 earning such a place among the 
pioneers as to win the title of #8father
 of ,british aeronautics4'  ,cayley was 
a man in advance of his time1 in many   
ways4 ,of independent means1 he made the
 grand tour which was considered        
necessary to the education of every     

young man of position1 and during this  
excursion he was more engaged in studies
 of a semi-scientific character than in 
the pursuits that normally filled such a
 period4 ,his various writings prove    
that throughout his life aeronautics was
 the foremost subject in his mind2 the  
,mechanic's ,magazine1 ,nicholson's     
,journal1 the ,philosophical ,magazine1 
and other periodicals of like nature    
bear witness to ,cayley's continued     
research into the subject of flight4 ,he
 approached the subject after the manner
 of the trained scientist1 analysing the
 mechanical properties of air under     
chemical and physical action4 ,then he  
set to work to ascertain the power      
necessary for aerial flight1 and was one
 of the first to enunciate the fallacy  
of the hopes of successful flight by    
means of the steam engine of those days1
 owing to the fact that it was          
impossible to obtain a given power with 
a given weight4  ,yet his conclusions on
 this point were not altogether         

negative1 for as early as #ahaj he      
stated that he could construct a balloon
 which could travel with passengers at  
#bj miles an hour--he was one of the    
first to consider the possibilities of  
applying power to a balloon4 ,nearly    
thirty years later--in #ahcg--;he made  
the first attempt at establishing an    
aeronautical society1 but at that time  
the power-driven plane was regarded by  
the great majority as an absurd dream of
 more or less mad inventors1 while      
ballooning ranked on about the same     
level as tight-rope walking1 being      
considered an adjunct to fairs and ftes1
 more a pastime than a study4  ,up to   
the time of his death1 in #aheg1 ,cayley
 maintained his study of aeronautical   
matters1 and there is no doubt whatever 
that his work went far in assisting the 
solution of the problem of air conquest4
 ,his principal published work1 a       
monograph entitled ,aerial ,navigation1 
has been republished in the admirable   
series of #8,aeronautical ,classics'    

issued by the ,royal ,aeronautical      
,society4 ,he began this work by        
pointing out the impossibility of flying
 by means of attached wrings1 an        
impossibility due to the fact that1     
while the pectoral muscles of a bird    
account for more than two-thirds of its 
whole muscular strength1 in a man the   
muscles available for flying1 no matter 
what mechanism might be used1 would not 
exceed one-tenth of his total strength4 
,cayley did not actually deny the       
possibility of a man flying by muscular 
effort1 however1 but stated that #8the  
flight of a strong man by great muscular
 exertion1 though a curious and         
interesting circumstance1 inasmuch as it
 will probably be the means of          
ascertaining this power and supplying   
the basis whereon to improve it1 would  
be of little use4'  ,from this he goes  
on to the possibility of using a        
,boulton and ,watt steam engine to      
develop the power necessary for flight1 
and in this he saw a possibility of     

practical result4 ,it is worthy of note 
that in this connection he made mention 
of the forerunner of the modern internal
 combustion engine2 #8,the ,french1' he 
said1 #8have lately shown the great     
power produced by igniting inflammable  
powders in closed vessels1 and several  
years ago an engine was made to work in 
this country in a similar manner by     
inflammation of spirit of tar4' ,in a   
subsequent paragraph of his monograph he
 anticipates almost exactly the         
construction of the ,lenoir gas engine1 
which came into being more than         
fifty-five years after his monograph was
 published4  ,certain experiments       
detailed in his work were made to       
ascertain the size of the surface       
necessary for the support of any given  
weight4 ,he accepted a truism of to-day 
in pointing out that in any matters     
connected with aerial investigation1    
theory and practice are as widely apart 
as the poles4 ,inclined at first to     
favour the helicopter principle1 he     

finally rejected this in favour of the  
plane1 with which he made numerous      
experiments4 ,during these1 he          
ascertained the peculiar advantages of  
curved surfaces1 and saw the necessity  
of providing both vertical and          
horizontal rudders in order to admit of 
side steering as well as the control of 
ascent and descent1 and for preserving  
equilibrium4 ,he may be said to have    
anticipated the work of ,lilienthal and 
,pilcher1 since he constructed and      
experimented with a fixed surface       
glider4 #8,it was beautiful1' he wrote  
concerning this1 #8to see this noble    
white bird sailing majestically from the
 top of a hill to any given point of the
 plain below it with perfect steadiness 
and safety1 according to the set of its 
rudder1 merely by its own weight1       
descending at an angle of about eight   
degrees with the horizon4'              
,illustration3 ,sir ,george ,caley1     
,bart4  #8,the ,father of ,british      
,aeronautics4'  ,it is said that he once

 persuaded his gardener to trust himself
 in this glider for a flight1 but if    
,cayley himself ventured a flight in it 
he has left no record of the fact4 ,the 
following extract from his work1 ,aerial
 ,navigation1 affords an instance of the
 thoroughness of his investigations1 and
 the concluding paragraph also shows his
 faith in the ultimate triumph of       
mankind in the matter of aerial         
flight3--  #8,the act of flying requires
 less exertion than from the appearance 
is supposed4 ,not having sufficient data
 to ascertain the exact degree of       
propelling power exerted by birds in the
 act of flying1 it is uncertain what    
degree of energy may be required in this
 respect for vessels of aerial          
navigation2 yet when we consider the    
many hundreds of miles of continued     
flight exerted by birds of passage1 the 
idea of its being only a small effort is
 greatly corroborated4 ,to apply the    
power of the first mover to the greatest
 advantage in producing this effect is a

 very material point4 ,the mode         
universally adopted by ,nature is the   
oblique waft of the wing4 ,we have only 
to choose between the direct beat       
overtaking the velocity of the current1 
like the oar of a boat1 or one applied  
like the wing1 in some assigned degree  
of obliquity to it4 ,suppose #ce feet   
per second to be the velocity of an     
aerial vehicle1 the oar must be moved   
with this speed previous to its being   
able to receive any resistance2 then if 
it be only required to obtain a pressure
 of one-tenth of a lb4 upon each square 
foot it must exceed the velocity of the 
current #g4c feet per second4 ,hence its
 whole velocity must be #db4e feet per  
second4 ,should the same surface be     
wafted downward like a wing with the    
hinder edge inclined upward in an angle 
of about #ej deg4 #dj feet to the       
current it will overtake it at a        
velocity of #c4e feet per second2 and as
 a slight unknown angle of resistance   
generates a lb4 pressure per square foot

 at this velocity1 probably a waft of a 
little more than #d feet per second     
would produce this effect1 one-tenth    
part of which would be the propelling   
power4 ,the advantage of this mode of   
application compared with the former is 
rather more than ten to one4  #8,in     
continuing the general principles of    
aerial navigation1 for the practice of  
the art1 many mechanical difficulties   
present themselves which require a      
considerable course of skilfully applied
 experiments before they can be         
overcome2 but1 to a certain extent1 the 
air has already been made navigable1 and
 no one who has seen the steadiness with
 which weights to the amount of ten     
stone 7including four stone1 the weight 
of the machine7 hover in the air can    
doubt of the ultimate accomplishment of 
this object4'  ,this extract from his   
work gives but a faint idea of the      
amount of research for which ,cayley was
 responsible4 ,he had the humility of   
the true investigator in scientific     

problems1 and so far as can be seen was 
never guilty of the great fault of so   
many investigators in this subject--that
 of making claims which he could not    
support4 ,he was content to do1 and pass
 after having recorded his part1 and    
although nearly half a century had to   
pass between the time of his death and  
the first actual flight by means of     
power-driven planes1 yet he may be said 
to have contributed very largely to the 
solution of the problem1 and his name   
will always rank high in the roll of the
 pioneers of flight4  ,practically      
contemporary with ,cayley was ,thomas   
,walker1 concerning whom little is known
 save that he was a portrait painter of 
,hull1 where was published his pamphlet 
on ,the ,art of ,flying in #ahaj1 a     
second and amplified edition being      
produced1 also in ,hull1 in #ahca4 ,the 
pamphlet1 which has been reproduced in  
extenso in the ,aeronautical ,classics  
series published by the ,royal          
,aeronautical ,society1 displays a      

curious mixture of the true scientific  
spirit and colossal conceit4 ,walker    
appears to have been a man inclined to  
jump to conclusions1 which carried him  
up to the edge of discovery and left him
 vacillating there4  ,the study of the  
two editions of his pamphlet side by    
side shows that their author made       
considerable advances in the            
practicability of his designs in the #ba
 intervening years1 though the drawings 
which accompany the text in both        
editions fail to show anything really   
capable of flight4 ,the great point     
about ,walker's work as a whole is its  
suggestiveness2 he did not hesitate to  
state that the #8art' of flying is as   
truly mechanical as that of rowing a    
boat1 and he had some conception of the 
necessary mechanism1 together with an   
absolute conviction that he knew all    
there was to be known4 #8,encouraged by 
the public1' he says1 #8,i would not    
abandon my purpose of making still      
further exertions to advance and        

complete an art1 the discovery of the   
true principles 7the italics are        
,walker's own7 of which1 ,i trust1 ,i   
can with certainty affirm to be my own4'
  ,the pamphlet begins with ,walker's   
admiration of the mechanism of flight as
 displayed by birds4 #8,it is now almost
 twenty years1' he says1 #8since ,i was 
first led to think1 by the study of     
birds and their means of flying1 that if
 an artificial machine were formed with 
wings in exact imitation of the         
mechanism of one of those beautiful     
living machines1 and applied in the very
 same way upon the air1 there could be  
no doubt of its being made to fly1 for  
it is an axiom in philosophy that the   
same cause will ever produce the same   
effect4' ,with this he confesses his    
inability to produce the said effect    
through lack of funds1 though he clothes
 this delicately in the phrase          
#8professional avocations and other     
circumstances4' ,owing to this inability
 he published his designs that others   

might take advantage of them1 prefacing 
his own researches with a list of the   
very early pioneers1 and giving special 
mention to ,friar ,bacon1 ,bishop       
,wilkins1 and the ,portuguese friar1 ,de
 ,guzman4 ,but1 although he seems to    
suggest that others should avail        
themselves of his theoretical knowledge1
 there is a curious incompleteness about
 the designs accompanying his work1 and 
about the work itself1 which seems to   
suggest that he had more knowledge to   
impart than he chose to make public--or 
else that he came very near to complete 
solution of the problem of flight1 and  
stayed on the threshold without knowing 
it4  ,after a dissertation upon the     
history and strength of the condor1 and 
on the differences between the weights  
of birds1 he says3 #8,the following     
observations upon the wonderful         
difference in the weight of some birds1 
with their apparent means of supporting 
it in their flight1 may tend to remove  
some prejudices against my plan from the

 minds of some of my readers4 ,the      
weight of the humming-bird is one       
drachm1 that of the condor not less than
 four stone4 ,now1 if we reduce four    
stone into drachms we shall find the    
condor is #ad1ccf times as heavy as the 
humming-bird4 ,what an amazing          
disproportion of weight6 ,yet by the    
same mechanical use of its wings the    
condor can overcome the specific gravity
 of its body with as much ease as the   
little humming-bird4 ,but this is not   
all4 ,we are informed that this enormous
 bird possesses a power in its wings1 so
 far exceeding what is necessary for its
 own conveyance through the air1 that it
 can take up and fly away with a whole  
sheep in its talons1 with as much ease  
as an eagle would carry off1 in the same
 manner1 a hare or a rabbit4 ,this we   
may readily give credit to1 from the    
known fact of our little kestrel and the
 sparrowhawk frequently flying off with 
a partridge1 which is nearly three times
 the weight of these rapacious little   

birds4'  ,after a few more observations 
he arrives at the following conclusion3 
#8,by attending to the progressive      
increase in the weight of birds1 from   
the delicate little humming-bird up to  
the huge condor1 we clearly discover    
that the addition of a few ounces1      
pounds1 or stones1 is no obstacle to the
 art of flying2 the specific weight of  
birds avails nothing1 for by their      
possessing wings large enough1 and      
sufficient power to work them1 they can 
accomplish the means of flying equally  
well upon all the various scales and    
dimensions which we see in nature4 ,such
 being a fact1 in the name of reason and
 philosophy why shall not man1 with a   
pair of artificial wings1 large enough1 
and with sufficient power to strike them
 upon the air1 be able to produce the   
same effect8'  ,walker asserted         
definitely and with good ground that    
muscular effort applied without         
mechanism is insufficient for human     
flight1 but he states that if an        

aeronautical boat were constructed so   
that a man could sit in it in the same  
manner as when rowing1 such a man would 
be able to bring into play his whole    
bodily strength for the purpose of      
flight1 and at the same time would be   
able to get an additional advantage by  
exerting his strength upon a lever4 ,at 
first he concluded there must be        
expansion of wings large enough to      
resist in a sufficient degree the       
specific gravity of whatever is attached
 to them1 but in the second edition of  
his work he altered this to #8expansion 
of flat passive surfaces large enough to
 reduce the force of gravity so as to   
float the machine upon the air with the 
man in it4' ,the second requisite is    
strength enough to strike the wings with
 sufficient force to complete the       
buoyancy and give a projectile motion to
 the machine4 ,given these two          
requisites1 ,walker states definitely   
that flying must be accomplished simply 
by muscular exertion4 #8,if we are      

secure of these two requisites1 and ,i  
am very confident we are1 we may        
calculate upon the success of flight    
with as much certainty as upon our      
walking4'  ,walker appears to have      
gained some confidence from the         
experiments of a certain ,m4 ,degen1 a  
watchmaker of ,vienna1 who1 according to
 the ,monthly ,magazine of ,september1  
#ahji1 invented a machine by means of   
which a person might raise himself into 
the air4 ,the said machine1 according to
 the magazine1 was formed of two        
parachutes which might be folded up or  
extended at pleasure1 while the person  
who worked them was placed in the       
centre4 ,this account1 however1 was     
rather misleading1 for the magazine     
carefully avoided mention of a balloon  
to which the inventor fixed his wings or
 parachutes4 ,walker1 knowing nothing of
 the balloon1 concluded that ,degen     
actually raised himself in the air1     
though he is doubtful of the assertion  
that ,degen managed to fly in various   

directions1 especially against the wind4
  ,walker1 after considering ,degen and 
all his works1 proceeds to detail his   
own directions for the construction of a
 flying machine1 these being as follows3
 #8,make a car of as light material as  
possible1 but with sufficient strength  
to support a man in it2 provide a pair  
of wings about four feet each in length2
 let them be horizontally expanded and  
fastened upon the top edge of each side 
of the car1 with two joints each1 so as 
to admit of a vertical motion to the    
wings1 which motion may be effected by a
 man sitting and working an upright     
lever in the middle of the car4 ,extend 
in the front of the car a flat surface  
of silk1 which must be stretched out and
 kept fixed in a passive state2 there   
must be the same fixed behind the car2  
these two surfaces must be perfectly    
equal in length and breadth and large   
enough to cover a sufficient quantity of
 air to support the whole weight as     
nearly in equilibrium as possible1 thus 

we shall have a great sustaining power  
in those passive surfaces and the active
 wings will propel the car forward4'  ,a
 description of how to launch this car  
is subsequently given3 #8,it becomes    
necessary1' says the theorist1 #8that ,i
 should give directions how it may be   
launched upon the air1 which may be done
 by various means2 perhaps the following
 method may be found to answer as well  
as any3 ,fix a poll upright in the      
earth1 about twenty feet in height1 with
 two open collars to admit another poll 
to slide upwards through them2 let there
 be a sliding platform made fast upon   
the top of the sliding poll2 place the  
car with a man in it upon the platform1 
then raise the platform to the height of
 about thirty feet by means of the      
sliding poll1 let the sliding poll and  
platform suddenly fall down1 the car    
will then be left upon the air1 and by  
its pressing the air a projectile force 
will instantly propel the car forward2  
the man in the car must then strike the 

active wings briskly upon the air1 which
 will so increase the projectile force  
as to become superior to the force of   
gravitation1 and if he inclines his     
weight a little backward1 the projectile
 impulse will drive the car forward in  
an ascending direction4 ,when the car is
 brought to a sufficient altitude to    
clear the tops of hills1 trees1         
buildings1 etc41 the man1 by sitting a  
little forward on his seat1 will then   
bring the wings upon a horizontal plane1
 and by continuing the action of the    
wings he will be impelled forward in    
that direction4 ,to descend1 he must    
desist from striking the wings1 and hold
 them on a level with their joints2 the 
car will then gradually come down1 and  
when it is within five or six feet of   
the ground the man must instantly strike
 the wings downwards1 and sit as far    
back as he can2 he will by this means   
check the projectile force1 and cause   
the car to alight very gently with a    
retrograde motion4 ,the car1 when up in 

the air1 may be made to turn to the     
right or to the left by forcing out one 
of the fins1 having one about eighteen  
inches long placed vertically on each   
side of the car for that purpose1 or    
perhaps merely by the man inclining the 
weight of his body to one side4'        
,having stated how the thing is to be   
done1 ,walker is careful to explain that
 when it is done there will be in it    
some practical use1 notably in respect  
of the conveyance of mails and          
newspapers1 or the saving of life at    
sea1 or for exploration1 etc4 ,it might 
even reduce the number of horses kept by
 man for his use1 by means of which a   
large amount of land might be set free  
for the growth of food for human        
consumption4  ,at the end of his work   
,walker admits the idea of steam power  
for driving a flying machine in place of
 simple human exertion1 but he1 like    
,cayley1 saw a drawback to this in the  
weight of the necessary engine4 ,on the 
whole1 he concluded1 navigation of the  

air by means of engine power would be   
mostly confined to the construction of  
navigable balloons4  ,as already noted1 
,walker's work is not over practical1   
and the foregoing extract includes the  
most practical part of it2 the rest is a
 series of dissertations on bird flight1
 in which1 evidently1 the portrait      
painter's observations were far less    
thorough than those of da ,vinci or     
,borelli4 ,taken on the whole1 ,walker  
was a man with a hobby2 he devoted to it
 much time and thought1 but it remained 
a hobby1 nevertheless4 ,his observations
 have proved useful enough to give him a
 place among the early students of      
flight1 but a great drawback to his work
 is the lack of practical experiment1 by
 means of which alone real advance could
 be made2 for1 as ,cayley admitted1     
theory and practice are very widely     
separated in the study of aviation1 and 
the whole history of flight is a matter 
of unexpected results arising from      
scarcely foreseen causes1 together with 

experiment as patient as daring4        
,,iv  ,,the ,,middle ,,nineteenth       
,,century   ,both ,cayley and ,walker   
were theorists1 though ,cayley supported
 his theoretical work with enough of    
practice to show that he studied along  
right lines2 a little after his time    
there came practical men who brought to 
being the first machine which actually  
flew by the application of power4       
,before their time1 however1 mention    
must be made of the work of ,george     
,pocock of ,bristol1 who1 somewhere     
about #ahdj1 invented what was described
 as a #8kite carriage1' a vehicle which 
carried a number of persons1 and        
obtained its motive power from a large  
kite4 ,it is on record that1 in the year
 #ahdf1 one of these carriages conveyed 
sixteen people from ,bristol to ,london4
 ,another device of ,pocock's was what  
he called a #8buoyant sail1' which was  
in effect a man-lifting kite1 and by    
means of which a passenger was actually 
raised #ajj yards from the ground1 while

 the inventor's son scaled a cliff #bjj 
feet in height by means of one of these 
#8buoyant sails4' ,this constitutes the 
first definitely recorded experiment in 
the use of man-lifting kites4 ,a        
,history of the ,charvolant or          
,kite-,carriage1 published in ,london in
 #ahea1 states that #8an experiment of a
 bold and very novel character was made 
upon an extensive down1 where a large   
wagon with a considerable load was drawn
 along1 whilst this huge machine at the 
same time carried an observer aloft in  
the air1 realising almost the romance of
 flying4'  ,experimenting1 two years    
after the appearance of the             
#8kite-carriage1' on the helicopter     
principle1 ,w4 ,h4 ,phillips constructed
 a model machine which weighed two      
pounds2 this was fitted with revolving  
fans1 driven by the combustion of       
charcoal1 nitre1 and gypsum1 producing  
steam which1 discharging into the air1  
caused the fans to revolve4 ,the        
inventor stated that #8all being        

arranged1 the steam was up in a few     
seconds1 when the whole apparatus spun  
around like any top1 and mounted into   
the air faster than a bird2 to what     
height it ascended ,i had no means of   
ascertaining2 the distance travelled was
 across two fields1 where1 after a long 
search1 ,i found the machine minus the  
wings1 which had been torn off in       
contact with the ground4' ,this could   
hardly be described as successful       
flight1 but it was an advance in the    
construction of machines on the         
helicopter principle1 and it was the    
first steam-driven model of the type    
which actually flew4 ,the invention1    
however1 was not followed up4  ,after   
,phillips1 we come to the great figures 
of the middle nineteenth century1 ,w4   
,s4 ,henson and ,john ,stringfellow4    
,cayley had shown1 in #ahji1 how success
 might be attained by developing the    
idea of the plane surface so driven as  
to take advantage of the resistance     
offered by the air1 and ,henson1 who as 

early as #ahdj was experimenting with   
model gliders and light steam engines1  
evolved and patented an idea for        
something very nearly resembling the    
monoplane of the early twentieth        
century4 ,his patent1 ,no4 #idgh1 of the
 year #ahdb1 explains the principle of  
the machine as follows3--  #8,in order  
that the description hereafter given may
 be rendered clear1 ,i will first       
shortly explain the principle on which  
the machine is constructed4 ,if any     
light and flat or nearly flat article be
 projected or thrown edgewise in a      
slightly inclined position1 the same    
will rise on the air till the force     
exerted is expended1 when the article so
 thrown or projected will descend2 and  
it will readily be conceived that1 if   
the article so projected or thrown      
possessed in itself a continuous power  
or force equal to that used in throwing 
or projecting it1 the article would     
continue to ascend so long as the       
forward part of the surface was upwards 

in respect to the hinder part1 and that 
such article1 when the power was        
stopped1 or when the inclination was    
reversed1 would descend by gravity aided
 by the force of the power contained in 
the article1 if the power be continued1 
thus imitating the flight of a bird4    
,illustration3 ,henson's proposed flying
 machine4  ,illustration3               
,stringfellow's power-driven model--the 
first model to achieve engine-driven    
flight4  ,now1 the first part of my     
invention consists of an apparatus so   
constructed as to offer a very extended 
surface or plane of a light yet strong  
construction1 which will have the same  
relation to the general machine which   
the extended wings of a bird have to the
 body when a bird is skimming in the    
air2 but in place of the movement or    
power for onward progress being obtained
 by movement of the extended surface or 
plane1 as is the case with the wings of 
birds1 ,i apply suitable paddle-wheels  
or other proper mechanical propellers   

worked by a steam or other sufficiently 
light engine1 and thus obtain the       
requisite power for onward movement to  
the plane or extended surface2 and in   
order to give control as to the upward  
and downward direction of such a machine
 ,i apply a tail to the extended surface
 which is capable of being inclined or  
raised1 so that when the power is acting
 to propel the machine1 by inclining the
 tail upwards1 the resistance offered by
 the air will cause the machine to rise 
on the air2 and1 on the contrary1 when  
the inclination of the tail is reversed1
 the machine will immediately be        
propelled downwards1 and pass through a 
plane more or less inclined to the      
horizon as the inclination of the tail  
is greater or less2 and in order to     
guide the machine as to the lateral     
direction which it shall take1 ,i apply 
a vertical rudder or second tail1 and1  
according as the same is inclined in one
 direction or the other1 so will be the 
direction of the machine4'  ,the machine

 in question was very large1 and        
differed very little from the modern    
monoplane2 the materials were to be     
spars of bamboo and hollow wood1 with   
diagonal wire bracing4 ,the surface of  
the planes was to amount to #d1ejj      
square feet1 and the tail1 triangular in
 form 7here modern practice diverges7   
was to be #a1ejj square feet4 ,the      
inventor estimated that there would be a
 sustaining power of half a pound per   
square foot1 and the driving power was  
to be supplied by a steam engine of #be 
to #cj horse-power1 driving two         
six-bladed propellers4 ,henson was      
largely dependent on ,stringfellow for  
many details of his design1 more        
especially with regard to the           
construction of the engine4  ,the       
publication of the patent attracted a   
great amount of public attention1 and   
the illustrations in contemporary       
journals1 representing the machine      
flying over the pyramids and the        
,channel1 anticipated fact by sixty     

years and more2 the scientific world was
 divided1 as it was up to the actual    
accomplishment of flight1 as to the     
value of the invention4  ,stringfellow  
and ,henson became associated1 after the
 conception of their design1 with an    
attorney named ,colombine1 and a ,mr    
,marriott1 and between the four of them 
a project grew for putting the whole    
thing on a commercial basis--,henson and
 ,stringfellow were to supply the idea2 
,marriott1 knowing a member of          
,parliament1 would be useful in getting 
a company incorporated1 and ,colombine  
would look after the purely legal side  
of the business4 ,thus an application   
was made by ,mr ,roebuck1 ,marriott's   
,m4,p41 for an act of incorporation for 
#8,the ,aerial ,steam ,transit          
,company1' ,roebuck moving to bring in  
the bill on the #bdth of ,march1 #ahdc4 
,the prospectus1 calling for funds for  
the development of the invention1 makes 
interesting reading at this stage of    
aeronautical development2 it was as     

follows3--    ,,proposal4    ,for       
subscriptions of sums of #ajj1 in       
furtherance of an   ,extraordinary      
,invention not at present safe to be    
developed by   securing the necessary   
,patents1 for which three times the sum 
advanced1 namely1 #cjj1 is conditionally
 guaranteed for each   subscription on  
,february #a1 #ahdd1 in case of the     
anticipations   being realised1 with the
 option of the subscribers being        
shareholders for the large amount if so 
desired1 but not otherwise4         99  
99       99       99       99    ,an    
,invention has recently been discovered1
 which if ultimately   successful will  
be without parallel even in the age     
which   introduced to the world the     
wonderful effects of gas and of steam4  
,the discovery is of that peculiar      
nature1 so simple in principle   yet so 
perfect in all the ingredients required 
for complete and   permanent success1   
that to promulgate it at present would  
wholly   defeat its development by the  

immense competition which would   ensue1
 and the views of the originator be     
entirely frustrated4    ,this work1 the 
result of years of labour and study1    
presents a   wonderful instance of the  
adaptation of laws long since proved    
to the scientific world combined with   
established principles so   judiciously 
and carefully arranged1 as to produce a 
discovery   perfect in all its parts and
 alike in harmony with the laws of      
,nature and of science4    ,the         
,invention has been subjected to several
 tests and examinations   and the       
results are most satisfactory1 so much  
so that nothing   but the completion of 
the undertaking is required to determine
   its practical operation1 which being 
once established its utility   is       
undoubted1 as it would be a necessary   
possession of every   empire1 and it    
were hardly too much to say1 of every   
individual of   competent means in the  
civilised world4    ,its qualities and  
capabilities are so vast that it were   

impossible   and1 even if possible1     
unsafe to develop them further1 but some
   idea may be formed from the fact that
 as a preliminary measure   patents in  
,great ,britain1 ,ireland1 ,scotland1   
the ,colonies1 ,france1   ,belgium1 and 
the ,united ,states1 and every other    
country where   protection to the first 
discoveries of an ,invention is granted1
   will of necessity be immediately     
obtained1 and by the time these   are   
perfected1 which it is estimated will be
 in the month of   ,february1 the       
,invention will be fit for ,public      
,trial1 but until the   ,patents are    
sealed any further disclosure would be  
most dangerous   to the principle on    
which it is based4    ,under these      
circumstances1 it is proposed to raise  
an immediate   sum of #b1jjj in         
furtherance of the ,projector's views1  
and as   some protection to the parties 
who may embark in the matter1 that      
this is not a visionary plan for objects
 imperfectly considered1   ,mr          

,colombine1 to whom the secret has been 
confided1 has allowed   his name to be  
used on the occasion1 and who will if   
referred   to corroborate this          
statement1 and convince any inquirer of 
the   reasonable prospects of large     
pecuniary results following the         
development of the ,invention4    ,it   
is1 therefore1 intended to raise the sum
 of #b1jjj in twenty   sums of #ajj each
 7of which any subscriber may take one  
or more not   exceeding five in number  
to be held by any individual7 the amount
   of which is to be paid into the hands
 of ,mr ,colombine as ,general          
,manager of the concern to be by him    
appropriated in procuring the   several 
,patents and providing the expenses     
incidental to the works   in progress4  
,for each of which sums of #ajj it is   
intended and   agreed that twelve months
 after the #ast ,february next1 the     
several   parties subscribing shall     
receive as an equivalent for the risk to
   be run the sum of #cjj for each of   

the sums of #ajj now subscribed1        
provided when the time arrives the      
,patents shall be found to answer   the 
purposes intended4    ,as full and      
complete success is alone looked to1 no 
moderate or   imperfect benefit is to be
 anticipated1 but the work1 if it once  
passes the necessary ordeal1 to which   
inventions of every kind   must be first
 subject1 will then be regarded by every
 one as the   most astonishing discovery
 of modern times2 no half success can   
follow1 and therefore the full nature of
 the risk is immediately   ascertained4 
,the intention is to work and prove the 
,patent by collective instead   of      
individual aid as less hazardous at     
first and more advantageous   in the    
result for the ,inventor1 as well as    
others1 by having the   interest of     
several engaged in aiding one common    
object--the   development of a ,great   
,plan4 ,the failure is not feared1 yet  
as   perfect success might1 by          
possibility1 not ensue1 it is necessary 

to provide for that result1 and the     
parties concerned make it a   condition 
that no return of the subscribed money  
shall be required1   if the ,patents    
shall by any unforeseen circumstances   
not be capable   of being worked at all2
 against which1 the first application of
   the money subscribed1 that of        
securing the ,patents1 affords a        
reasonable security1 as no one without  
solid grounds would think of   such an  
expenditure4    ,it is perfectly        
needless to state that no risk or       
responsibility of   any kind can arise  
beyond the payment of the sum to be     
subscribed   under any circumstances    
whatever4    ,as soon as the ,patents   
shall be perfected and proved it is     
contemplated1 so far as may be found    
practicable1 to further the   great     
object in view a ,company shall be      
formed but respecting which   it is     
unnecessary to state further details1   
than that a preference   will be given  
to all those persons who now subscribe1 

and to whom   shares shall be           
appropriated according to the larger    
amount 7being   three times the sum to  
be paid by each person7 contemplated to 
be returned as soon as the success of   
the ,invention shall have   been        
established1 at their option1 or the    
money paid1 whereby the   ,subscriber   
will have the means of either           
withdrawing with a large   pecuniary    
benefit1 or by continuing his interest  
in the concern1   lay the foundation for
 participating in the immense benefit   
which   must follow the success of the  
plan4    ,it is not pretended to conceal
 that the project is a                  
speculation--all parties believe that   
perfect success1 and thence             
incalculable advantage of every kind1   
will follow to every   individual       
joining in this great undertaking2 but  
the ,gentlemen   engaged in it wish that
 no concealment of the consequences1    
perfect   success1 or possible failure1 
should in the slightest degree   be     

inferred4 ,they believe this will prove 
the germ of a mighty   work1 and in that
 belief call for the operation of others
 with no   visionary object1 but a      
legitimate one before them1 to attain   
that   point where perfect success will 
be secured from their combined          
exertions4    ,all applications to be   
made to ,d4 ,e4 ,colombine1 ,esquire1 #h
 ,carlton   ,chambers1 ,regent ,street4 
,the applications did not materialise1  
as was only to be expected in view of   
the vagueness of the proposals4         
,colombine did some advertising1 and ,mr
 ,roebuck expressed himself as unwilling
 to proceed further in the venture4     
,henson experimented with models to a   
certain extent1 while ,stringfellow     
looked for funds for the construction of
 a full-sized monoplane4 ,in ,november  
of #ahdc he suggested that he and       
,henson should construct a large model  
out of their own funds4 ,on ,henson's   
suggestion ,colombine and ,marriott were
 bought out as regards the original     

patent1 and ,stringfellow and ,henson   
entered into an agreement and set to    
work4  ,their work is briefly described 
in a little pamphlet by ,f4 ,j4         
,stringfellow1 entitled ,a few ,remarks 
on what has been done with              
screw-propelled ,aeroplane ,machines    
from #ahji to #ahib4 ,the author writes 
with regard to the work that his father 
and ,henson undertook3--  #8,they       
commenced the construction of a small   
model operated by a spring1 and laid    
down the larger model #bj ft4 from tip  
to tip of planes1 #c ft4 wide1 giving   
#gj ft4 of sustaining surface1 about #aj
 more in the tail4 ,the making of this  
model required great consideration2     
various supports for the wings were     
tried1 so as to combine lightness with  
firmness1 strength and rigidity4  #8,the
 planes were staid from three sets of   
fish-shaped masts1 and rigged square and
 firm by flat steel rigging4 ,the engine
 and boiler were put in the car to drive
 two screw-propellers1 right and        

left-handed1 #c ft4 in diameter1 with   
four blades each1 occupying             
three-quarters of the area of the       
circumference1 set at an angle of #fj   
degrees4 ,a considerable time was spent 
in perfecting the motive power4         
,compressed air was tried and abandoned4
 ,tappets1 cams1 and eccentrics were all
 tried1 to work the slide valve1 to     
obtain the best results4 ,the piston rod
 of engine passed through both ends of  
the cylinder1 and with long connecting  
rods worked direct on the crank of the  
propellers4 ,from memorandum of         
experiments still preserved the         
following is a copy of one3 ,june1      
#bgth1 #ahde1 water #ej ozs41 spirit #aj
 ozs41 lamp lit #h4de1 gauge moves      
#h4df1 engine started #h4dh 7#ajj lb4   
pressure71 engine stopped #h4eg1 worked 
#i minutes1 #b1bhh revolutions1 average 
#bed per minute4 ,no priming1 #dj ozs4  
water consumed1 propulsion 7thrust of   
propellers71 #e lbs4 #d ozs4 at         
commencement1 steady1 #d lbs4  oz41 #eg 

revolutions to #a oz4 water1 steam cut  
off one-third from beginning4  #8,the   
diameter of cylinder of engine was #a   
inch1 length of stroke #c inches4  #8,in
 the meantime an engine was also made   
for the smaller model1 and a wing action
 tried1 but with poor results4 ,the time
 was mostly devoted to the larger model1
 and in #ahdg a tent was erected on     
,bala ,down1 about two miles from       
,chard1 and the model taken up one night
 by the workmen4 ,the experiments were  
not so favourable as was expected4 ,the 
machine could not support itself for any
 distance1 but1 when launched off1      
gradually descended1 although the power 
and surface should have been ample2     
indeed1 according to latest             
calculations1 the thrust should have    
carried more than three times the       
weight1 for there was a thrust of #e    
lbs4 from the propellers1 and a surface 
of over #gj square feet to sustain under
 #cj lbs41 but necessary speed was      
lacking4'  ,illustration3               

,stringfellow's model triplane1 #ahfh4  
,stringfellow himself explained the     
failure as follows3--  #8,there stood   
our aerial protge in all her purity--too
 delicate1 too fragile1 too beautiful   
for this rough world2 at least those    
were my ideas at the time1 but little   
did ,i think how soon it was to be      
realised4 ,i soon found1 before ,i had  
time to introduce the spark1 a drooping 
in the wings1 a flagging in all the     
parts4 ,in less than ten minutes the    
machine was saturated with wet from a   
deposit of dew1 so that anything like a 
trial was impossible by night4 ,i did   
not consider we could get the silk tight
 and rigid enough4 ,indeed1 the         
framework altogether was too weak4 ,the 
steam-engine was the best part4 ,our    
want of success was not for want of     
power or sustaining surface1 but for    
want of proper adaptation of the means  
to the end of the various parts4'       
,henson1 who had spent a considerable   
amount of money in these experimental   

constructions1 consoled himself for     
failure by venturing into matrimony2 in 
#ahdi he went to ,america1 leaving      
,stringfellow to continue experimenting 
alone4 ,from #ahdf to #ahdh             
,stringfellow worked on what is really  
an epoch-making item in the history of  
aeronautics--the first engine-driven    
aeroplane which actually flew4 ,the     
machine in question had a #aj foot span1
 and was #b ft4 across in the widest    
part of the wing2 the length of tail was
 #c ft4 #f ins41 and the span of tail in
 the widest part #bb ins41 the total    
sustaining area being about #ad sq4 ft4 
,the motive power consisted of an engine
 with a cylinder of three-quarter inch  
diameter and a two-inch stroke2 between 
this and the crank shaft was a bevelled 
gear giving three revolutions of the    
propellers to every stroke of the       
engine2 the propellers1 right and left  
screw1 were four-bladed and #af inches  
in diameter4 ,the total weight of the   
model with engine was #h lbs4 ,its      

successful flight is ascribed to the    
fact that ,stringfellow curved the      
wings1 giving them rigid front edges and
 flexible trailing edges1 as suggested  
long before both by ,da ,vinci and      
,borelli1 but never before put into     
practice4  ,mr ,f4 ,j4 ,stringfellow1 in
 the pamphlet quoted above1 gives the   
best account of the flight of this      
model3 #8,my father had constructed     
another small model which was finished  
early in #ahdh1 and having the loan of a
 long room in a disused lace factory1   
early in ,june the small model was moved
 there for experiments4 ,the room was   
about #bb yards long and from #aj to #ab
 ft4 high4444 ,the inclined wire for    
starting the machine occupied less than 
half the length of the room and left    
space at the end for the machine to     
clear the floor4 ,in the first          
experiment the tail was set at too high 
an angle1 and the machine rose too      
rapidly on leaving the wire4 ,after     
going a few yards it slid back as if    

coming down an inclined plane1 at such  
an angle that the point of the tail     
struck the ground and was broken4 ,the  
tail was repaired and set at a smaller  
angle4 ,the steam was again got up1 and 
the machine started down the wire1 and1 
upon reaching the point of              
self-detachment1 it gradually rose until
 it reached the farther end of the room1
 striking a hole in the canvas placed to
 stop it4 ,in experiments the machine   
flew well1 when rising as much as one in
 seven4 ,the late ,rev4 ,j4 ,riste1     
,esq41 lace manufacturer1 ,northcote    
,spicer1 ,esq41 ,j4 ,toms1 ,esq41 and   
others witnessed experiments4 ,mr       
,marriatt1 late of the ,san ,francisco  
,news ,letter brought down from ,london 
,mr ,ellis1 the then lessee of ,cremorne
 ,gardens1 ,mr ,partridge1 and          
,lieutenant ,gale1 the aeronaut1 to     
witness experiments4 ,mr ,ellis offered 
to construct a covered way at ,cremorne 
for experiments4 ,mr ,stringfellow      
repaired to ,cremorne1 but not much     

better accommodations than he had at    
home were provided1 owing to unfulfilled
 engagement as to room4 ,mr             
,stringfellow was preparing for         
departure when a party of gentlemen     
unconnected with the ,gardens begged to 
see an experiment1 and finding them able
 to appreciate his endeavours1 he got up
 steam and started the model down the   
wire4 ,when it arrived at the spot where
 it should leave the wire it appeared to
 meet with some obstruction1 and        
threatened to come to the ground1 but it
 soon recovered itself and darted off in
 as fair a flight as it was possible to 
make at a distance of about #dj yards1  
where it was stopped by the canvas4     
#8,having now demonstrated the          
practicability of making a steam-engine 
fly1 and finding nothing but a pecuniary
 loss and little honour1 this           
experimenter rested for a long time1    
satisfied with what he had effected4    
,the subject1 however1 had to him       
special charms1 and he still            

contemplated the renewal of his         
experiments4'  ,it appears that         
,stringfellow's interest did not revive 
sufficiently for the continuance of the 
experiments until the founding of the   
,aeronautical ,society of ,great        
,britain in #ahff4 ,wenham's paper on   
,aerial ,locomotion read at the first   
meeting of the ,society1 which was held 
at the ,society of ,arts under the      
,presidency of the ,duke of ,argyll1 was
 the means of bringing ,stringfellow    
back into the field4 ,it was ,wenham's  
suggestion1 in the first place1 that    
monoplane design should be abandoned for
 the superposition of planes2 acting on 
this suggestion ,stringfellow           
constructed a model triplane1 and also  
designed a steam engine of slightly over
 one horse-power1 and a one horse-power 
copper boiler and fire box which1       
although capable of sustaining a        
pressure of #ejj lbs4 to the square     
inch1 weighed only about #dj lbs4  ,both
 the engine and the triplane model were 

exhibited at the first ,aeronautical    
,exhibition held at the ,crystal ,palace
 in #ahfh4 ,the triplane had a          
supporting surface of #bh sq4 ft42      
inclusive of engine1 boiler1 fuel1 and  
water its total weight was under #ab    
lbs4 ,the engine worked two #ba in4     
propellers at #fjj revolutions per      
minute1 and developed #ajj lbs4 steam   
pressure in five minutes1 yielding      
one-third horse-power4 ,since no free   
flight was allowed in the ,exhibition1  
owing to danger from fire1 the triplane 
was suspended from a wire in the nave of
 the building1 and it was noted that1   
when running along the wire1 the model  
made a perceptible lift4  ,a prize of   
#ajj was awarded to the steam engine as 
the lightest steam engine in proportion 
to its power4 ,the engine and model     
together may be reckoned as             
,stringfellow's best achievement4 ,he   
used his #ajj in preparation for further
 experiments1 but he was now an old man1
 and his work was practically done4     

,both the triplane and the engine were  
eventually bought for the ,washington   
,museum2 ,stringfellow's earlier models1
 together with those constructed by him 
in conjunction with ,henson1 remain in  
this country in the ,victoria and       
,albert ,museum4  ,john ,stringfellow   
died on ,december #acth1 #ahhc4 ,his    
place in the history of aeronautics is  
at least equal to that of ,cayley1 and  
it may be said that he laid the         
foundation of such work as was          
subsequently accomplished by ,maxim1    
,langley1 and their fellows4 ,it was the
 coming of the internal combustion      
engine that rendered flight practicable1
 and had this prime mover been available
 in ,john ,stringfellow's day the       
,wright brothers' achievement might have
 been antedated by half a century4      
,v  ,,wenham1 ,,le ,,bris1 ,,and ,,some 
,,others   ,there are few outstanding   
events in the development of aeronautics
 between ,stringfellow's final          
achievement and the work of such men as 

,lilienthal1 ,pilcher1 ,montgomery1 and 
their kind2 in spite of this1 the later 
middle decades of the nineteenth century
 witnessed a considerable amount of     
spade work both in ,england and in      
,france1 the two countries which led in 
the way in aeronautical development     
until ,lilienthal gave honour to        
,germany1 and ,langley and ,montgomery  
paved the way for the ,wright ,brothers 
in ,america4  ,two abortive attempts    
characterised the sixties of last       
century in ,france4 ,as regards the     
first of these1 it was carried out by   
three men1 ,nadar1 ,ponton d',amecourt1 
and ,de la ,landelle1 who conceived the 
idea of a full-sized helicopter machine4
 ,d',amecourt exhibited a steam model1  
constructed in #ahfe1 at the            
,aeronautical ,society's ,exhibition in 
#ahfh4 ,the engine was aluminium with   
cylinders of bronze1 driving two screws 
placed one above the other and rotating 
in opposite directions1 but the power   
was not sufficient to lift the model4   

,de la ,landelle's principal achievement
 consisted in the publication in #ahfc  
of a book entitled ,aviation1 which has 
a certain historical value2 he got out  
several designs for large machines on   
the helicopter principle1 but did little
 more until the three combined in the   
attempt to raise funds for the          
construction of their full-sized        
machine4 ,since the funds were not      
forthcoming1 ,nadar took to ballooning  
as the means of raising money2          
apparently he found this substitute for 
real flight sufficiently interesting to 
divert him from the study of the        
helicopter principle1 for the experiment
 went no further4  ,the other           
experimenter of this period1 one ,count 
d',esterno1 took out a patent in #ahfd  
for a soaring machine which allowed for 
alteration of the angle of incidence of 
the wings in the manner that was        
subsequently carried out by the ,wright 
,brothers4 ,it was not until #ahhc that 
any attempt was made to put this patent 

to practical use1 and1 as the inventor  
died while it was under construction1 it
 was never completed4 ,d',esterno was   
also responsible for the production of a
 work entitled ,du ,vol des ,oiseaux1   
which is a very remarkable study of the 
flight of birds4  ,mention has already  
been made of the founding of the        
,aeronautical ,society of ,great        
,britain1 which1 since #aiah1 has been  
the ,royal ,aeronautical ,society4 #ahff
 witnessed the first meeting of the     
,society under the ,presidency of the   
,duke of ,argyll1 when in ,june1 at the 
,society of ,arts1 ,francis ,herbert    
,wenham read his now classic paper      
,aerial ,locomotion4 ,certain quotations
 from this will show how clearly ,wenham
 had thought out the problems connected 
with flight4  #8,the first subject for  
consideration is the proportion of      
surface to weight1 and their combined   
effect in descending perpendicularly    
through the atmosphere4 ,the datum is   
here based upon the consideration of    

safety1 for it may sometimes be needful 
for a living being to drop passively1   
without muscular effort4 ,one square    
foot of sustaining surface for every    
pound of the total weight will be       
sufficient for security4  #8,according  
to ,smeaton's table of atmospheric      
resistances1 to produce a force of one  
pound on a square foot1 the wind must   
move against the plane 7or which is the 
same thing1 the plane against the wind71
 at the rate of twenty-two feet per     
second1 or #a1cbj feet per minute1 equal
 to fifteen miles per hour4 ,the        
resistance of the air will now balance  
the weight on the descending surface1   
and1 consequently1 it cannot exceed that
 speed4 ,now1 twenty-two feet per second
 is the velocity acquired at the end of 
a fall of eight feet--a height from     
which a well-knit man or animal may leap
 down without much risk of injury4      
,therefore1 if a man with parachute     
weigh together #adc lbs41 spreading the 
same number of square feet of surface   

contained in a circle fourteen and a    
half feet in diameter1 he will descend  
at perhaps an unpleasant velocity1 but  
with safety to life and limb4  #8,it is 
a remarkable fact how this proportion of
 wing-surface to weight extends         
throughout a great variety of the flying
 portion of the animal kingdom1 even    
down to hornets1 bees1 and other        
insects4 ,in some instances1 however1 as
 in the gallinaceous tribe1 including   
pheasants1 this area is somewhat        
exceeded1 but they are known to be very 
poor fliers4 ,residing as they do       
chiefly on the ground1 their wings are  
only required for short distances1 or   
for raising them or easing their descent
 from their roosting-places in forest   
trees1 the shortness of their wings     
preventing them from taking extended    
flights4 ,the wing-surface of the common
 swallow is rather more than in the     
ratio of two square feet per pound1 but 
having also great length of pinion1 it  
is both swift and enduring in its       

flight4 ,when on a rapid course this    
bird is in the habit of furling its     
wings into a narrow compass4 ,the       
greater extent of surface is probably   
needful for the continual variations of 
speed and instant stoppages for         
obtaining its insect food4  #8,on the   
other hand1 there are some birds1       
particularly of the duck tribe1 whose   
wing-surface but little exceeds half a  
square foot1 or seventy-two inches per  
pound1 yet they may be classed among the
 strongest and swiftest of fliers4 ,a   
weight of one pound1 suspended from an  
area of this extent1 would acquire a    
velocity due to a fall of sixteen       
feet--a height sufficient for the       
destruction or injury of most animals4  
,but when the plane is urged forward    
horizontally1 in a manner analogous to  
the wings of a bird during flight1 the  
sustaining power is greatly influenced  
by the form and arrangement of the      
surface4  #8,in the case of             
perpendicular descent1 as a parachute1  

the sustaining effect will be much the  
same1 whatever the figure of the outline
 of the superficies may be1 and a circle
 perhaps affords the best resistance of 
any4 ,take1 for example1 a circle of    
twenty square feet 7as possessed by the 
pelican7 loaded with as many pounds4    
,this1 as just stated1 will limit the   
rate of perpendicular descent to #a1cbj 
feet per minute4 ,but instead of a      
circle sixty-one inches in diameter1 if 
the area is bounded by a parallelogram  
ten feet long by two feet broad1 and    
whilst at perfect freedom to descend    
perpendicularly1 let a force be applied 
exactly in a horizontal direction1 so as
 to carry it edgeways1 with the long    
side foremost1 at a forward speed of    
thirty miles per hour--just double that 
of its passive descent3 the rate of fall
 under these conditions will be         
decreased most remarkably1 probably to  
less than one-fifteenth part1 or        
eighty-eight feet per minute1 or one    
mile per hour4'  ,and again3 #8,it has  

before been shown how utterly inadequate
 the mere perpendicular impulse of a    
plane is found to be in supporting a    
weight1 when there is no horizontal     
motion at the time4 ,there is no        
material weight of air to be acted upon1
 and it yields to the slightest force1  
however great the velocity of impulse   
may be4 ,on the other hand1 suppose that
 a large bird1 in full flight1 can make 
forty miles per hour1 or #c1ebj feet per
 minute1 and performs one stroke per    
second4 ,now1 during every fractional   
portion of that stroke1 the wing is     
acting upon and obtaining an impulse    
from a fresh and undisturbed body of    
air2 and if the vibration of the wing is
 limited to an arc of two feet1 this by 
no means represents the small force of  
action that would be obtained when in a 
stationary position1 for the impulse is 
secured upon a stratum of fifty-eight   
feet in length of air at each stroke4   
,so that the conditions of weight of air
 for obtaining support equally well     

apply to weight of air and its reaction 
in producing forward impulse4  #8,so    
necessary is the acquirement of this    
horizontal speed1 even in commencing    
flight1 that most heavy birds1 when     
possible1 rise against the wind1 and    
even run at the top of their speed to   
make their wings available1 as in the   
example of the eagle1 mentioned at the  
commencement of this paper4 ,it is      
stated that the ,arabs1 on horseback1   
can approach near enough to spear these 
birds1 when on the plain1 before they   
are able to rise2 their habit is to     
perch on an eminence1 where possible4   
#8,the tail of a bird is not necessary  
for flight4 ,a pigeon can fly perfectly 
with this appendage cut short off2 it   
probably performs an important function 
in steering1 for it is to be remarked1  
that most birds that have either to     
pursue or evade pursuit are amply       
provided with this organ4  #8,the       
foregoing reasoning is based upon facts1
 which tend to show that the flight of  

the largest and heaviest of all birds is
 really performed with but a small      
amount of force1 and that man is endowed
 with sufficient muscular power to      
enable him also to take individual and  
extended flights1 and that success is   
probably only involved in a question of 
suitable mechanical adaptations4 ,but if
 the wings are to be modelled in        
imitation of natural examples1 but very 
little consideration will serve to      
demonstrate its utter impracticability  
when applied in these forms4'  ,thus    
,wenham1 one of the best theorists of   
his age4 ,the ,society with which this  
paper connects his name has done work1  
between that time and the present1 of   
which the importance cannot be          
overestimated1 and has been of the      
greatest value in the development of    
aeronautics1 both in theory and         
experiment4 ,the objects of the ,society
 are to give a stronger impulse to the  
scientific study of aerial navigation1  
to promote the intercourse of those     

interested in the subject at home and   
abroad1 and to give advice and          
instruction to those who study the      
principles upon which aeronautical      
science is based4 ,from the date of its 
foundation the ,society has given       
special study to dynamic flight1 putting
 this before ballooning4 ,its library1  
its bureau of advice and information1   
and its meetings1 all assist in         
forwarding the study of aeronautics1 and
 its twenty-three early ,annual ,reports
 are of considerable value1 containing  
as they do a large amount of useful     
information on aeronautical subjects1   
and forming practically the basis of    
aeronautical science4  ,ante to ,wenham1
 ,stringfellow and the ,french          
experimenters already noted1 by some    
years1 was ,le ,bris1 a ,french sea     
captain1 who appears to have required   
only a thorough scientific training to  
have rendered him of equal moment in the
 history of gliding flight with         
,lilienthal himself4 ,le ,bris1 it      

appears1 watched the albatross and      
deduced1 from the manner in which it    
supported itself in the air1 that plane 
surfaces could be constructed and       
arranged to support a man in like       
manner4 ,octave ,chanute1 himself a     
leading exponent of gliding1 gives the  
best description of ,le ,bris's         
experiments in a work1 ,progress in     
,flying ,machines1 which1 although      
published as recently as #ahid1 is      
already rare4 ,chanute draws from a     
still rarer book1 namely1 ,de la        
,landelle's work published in #ahhd4 ,le
 ,bris himself1 quoted by ,de la        
,landelle as speaking of his first      
visioning of human flight1 describes how
 he killed an albatross1 and then--#8,i 
took the wing of the albatross and      
exposed it to the breeze2 and lo6 in    
spite of me it drew forward into the    
wind2 notwithstanding my resistance it  
tended to rise4 ,thus ,i had discovered 
the secret of the bird6 ,i comprehended 
the whole mystery of flight4'  ,this    

apparently took place while at sea2     
later on ,le ,bris1 returning to        
,france1 designed and constructed an    
artificial albatross of sufficient size 
to bear his own weight4 ,the fact that  
he followed the bird outline as closely 
as he did attests his lack of scientific
 training for his task1 while at the    
same time the success of the experiment 
was proof of his genius4 ,the body of   
his artificial bird1 boat-shaped1 was   
#ac ft4 in length1 with a breadth of #d 
ft4 at the widest part4 ,the material   
was cloth stretched over a wooden       
framework2 in front was a small mast    
rigged after the manner of a ship's     
masts to which were attached poles and  
cords with which ,le ,bris intended to  
work the wings4 ,each wing was #bc ft4  
in length1 giving a total supporting    
surface of nearly #bbj sq4 ft42 the     
weight of the whole apparatus was only  
#ib pounds4 ,for steering1 both vertical
 and horizontal1 a hinged tail was      
provided1 and the leading edge of each  

wing was made flexible4 ,in construction
 throughout1 and especially in that of  
the wings1 ,le ,bris adhered as closely 
as possible to the original albatross4  
,he designed an ingenious kind of       
mechanism which he termed #8,rotules1'  
which by means of two levers gave a     
rotary motion to the front edge of the  
wings1 and also permitted of their      
adjustment to various angles4 ,the      
inventor's idea was to stand upright in 
the body of the contrivance1 working the
 levers and cords with his hands1 and   
with his feet on a pedal by means of    
which the steering tail was to be       
worked4 ,he anticipated that1 given a   
strong wind1 he could rise into the air 
after the manner of an albatross1       
without any need for flapping his wings1
 and the account of his first experiment
 forms one of the most interesting      
incidents in the history of flight4 ,it 
is related in full in ,chanute's work1  
from which the present account is       
summarised4  ,le ,bris made his first   

experiment on a main road near          
,douarnenez1 at ,trefeuntec4 ,from his  
observation of the albatross ,le ,bris  
concluded that it was necessary to get  
some initial velocity in order to make  
the machine rise2 consequently on a     
,sunday morning1 with a breeze of about 
#ab miles an hour blowing down the road1
 he had his albatross placed on a cart  
and set off1 with a peasant driver1     
against the wind4 ,at the outset the    
machine was fastened to the cart by a   
rope running through the rails on which 
the machine rested1 and secured by a    
slip knot on ,le ,bris's own wrist1 so  
that only a jerk on his part was        
necessary to loosen the rope and set the
 machine free4 ,on each side walked an  
assistant holding the wings1 and when a 
turn of the road brought the machine    
full into the wind these men were       
instructed to let go1 while the driver  
increased the pace from a walk to a     
trot4 ,le ,bris1 by pressure on the     
levers of the machine1 raised the front 

edges of his wings slightly2 they took  
the wind almost instantly to such an    
extent that the horse1 relieved of a    
great part of the weight he had been    
drawing1 turned his trot into a gallop4 
,le ,bris gave the jerk of the rope that
 should have unfastened the slip knot1  
but a concealed nail on the cart caught 
the rope1 so that it failed to run4 ,the
 lift of the machine was such1 however1 
that it relieved the horse of very      
nearly the weight of the cart and       
driver1 as well as that of ,le ,bris and
 his machine1 and in the end the rails  
of the cart gave way4 ,le ,bris rose in 
the air1 the machine maintaining perfect
 balance and rising to a height of      
nearly #cjj ft41 the total length of the
 glide being upwards of an eighth of a  
mile4 ,but at the last moment the rope  
which had originally fastened the       
machine to the cart got wound round the 
driver's body1 so that this unfortunate 
dangled in the air under ,le ,bris and  
probably assisted in maintaining the    

balance of the artificial albatross4 ,le
 ,bris1 congratulating himself on his   
success1 was prepared to enjoy just as  
long a time in the air as the pressure  
of the wind would permit1 but the howls 
of the unfortunate driver at the end of 
the rope beneath him dispelled his      
dreams2 by working his levers he altered
 the angle of the front wing edges so   
skilfully as to make a very successful  
landing indeed for the driver1 who1     
entirely uninjured1 disentangled himself
 from the rope as soon as he touched the
 ground1 and ran off to retrieve his    
horse and cart4  ,apparently his release
 made a difference in the centre of     
gravity1 for ,le ,bris could not        
manipulate his levers for further       
ascent2 by skilful manipulation he      
retarded the descent sufficiently to    
escape injury to himself2 the machine   
descended at an angle1 so that one wing1
 striking the ground in front of the    
other1 received a certain amount of     
damage4  ,it may have been on account of

 the reluctance of this same or another 
driver that ,le ,bris chose a different 
method of launching himself in making a 
second experiment with his albatross4   
,he chose the edge of a quarry which had
 been excavated in a depression of the  
ground2 here he assembled his apparatus 
at the bottom of the quarry1 and by     
means of a rope was hoisted to a height 
of nearly #ajj ft4 from the quarry      
bottom1 this rope being attached to a   
mast which he had erected upon the edge 
of the depression in which the quarry   
was situated4 ,thus hoisted1 the        
albatross was swung to face a strong    
breeze that blew inland1 and ,le ,bris  
manipulated his levers to give the front
 edges of his wings a downward angle1 so
 that only the top surfaces should take 
the wing pressure4 ,having got his      
balance1 he obtained a lifting angle of 
incidence on the wings by means of his  
levers1 and released the hook that      
secured the machine1 gliding off over   
the quarry4 ,on the glide he met with   

the inevitable upward current of air    
that the quarry and the depression in   
which it was situated caused2 this      
current upset the balance of the machine
 and flung it to the bottom of the      
quarry1 breaking it to fragments4 ,le   
,bris1 apparently as intrepid as        
ingenious1 gripped the mast from which  
his levers were worked1 and1 springing  
upward as the machine touched earth1    
escaped with no more damage than a      
broken leg4 ,but for the rebound of the 
levers he would have escaped even this4 
,the interest of these experiments is   
enhanced by the fact that ,le ,bris was 
a seafaring man who conducted them from 
love of the science which had fired his 
imagination1 and in so doing exhausted  
his own small means4 ,it was in #ahee   
that he made these initial attempts1 and
 twelve years passed before his         
persistence was rewarded by a public    
subscription made at ,brest for the     
purpose of enabling him to continue his 
experiments4 ,he built a second         

albatross1 and on the advice of his     
friends ballasted it for flight instead 
of travelling in it himself4 ,it was not
 so successful as the first1 probably   
owing to the lack of human control while
 in flight2 on one of the trials a      
height of #aej ft4 was attained1 the    
glider being secured by a thin rope and 
held so as to face into the wind4 ,a    
glide of nearly an eighth of a mile was 
made with the rope hanging slack1 and1  
at the end of this distance1 a rise in  
the ground modified the force of the    
wind1 whereupon the machine settled down
 without damage4 ,a further trial in a  
gusty wind resulted in the complete     
destruction of this second machine2 ,le 
,bris had no more funds1 no further     
subscriptions were likely to            
materialise1 and so the experiments of  
this first exponent of the art of       
gliding 7save for ,besnier and his kind7
 came to an end4 ,they constituted a    
notable achievement1 and undoubtedly ,le
 ,bris deserves a better place than has 

been accorded him in the ranks of the   
early experimenters4  ,contemporary with
 him was ,charles ,spencer1 the first   
man to practise gliding in ,england4    
,his apparatus consisted of a pair of   
wings with a total area of #cj sq4 ft41 
to which a tail and body were attached4 
,the weight of this apparatus was some  
#bd lbs41 and1 launching himself on it  
from a small eminence1 as was done later
 by ,lilienthal in his experiments1 the 
inventor made flights of over #abj feet4
 ,the glider in question was exhibited  
at the ,aeronautical ,exhibition of     
#ahfh4     ,,vi  ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,the 
,,giants   ,until the ,wright ,brothers 
definitely solved the problem of flight 
and virtually gave the aeroplane its    
present place in aeronautics1 there were
 three definite schools of experiment4  
,the first of these was that which      
sought to imitate nature by means of the
 ornithopter or flapping-wing machines  
directly imitative of bird flight2 the  
second school was that which believed in

 the helicopter or lifting screw2 the   
third and eventually successful school  
is that which followed up the principle 
enunciated by ,cayley1 that of opposing 
a plane surface to the resistance of the
 air by supplying suitable motive power 
to drive it at the requisite angle for  
support4  ,engineering problems         
generally go to prove that too close an 
imitation of nature in her forms of     
reciprocating motion is not             
advantageous2 it is impossible to copy  
the minutiae of a bird's wing           
effectively1 and the bird in flight     
depends on the tiniest details of its   
feathers just as much as on the general 
principle on which the whole wing is    
constructed4 ,bird flight1 however1 has 
attracted many experimenters1 including 
even ,lilienthal2 among others may be   
mentioned ,f4 ,w4 ,brearey1 who invented
 what he called the #8,pectoral cord1'  
which stored energy on each upstroke of 
the artificial wing2 ,e4 ,p4 ,frost2    
,major ,r4 ,moore1 and especially       

,hureau de ,villeneuve1 a most          
enthusiastic student of this form of    
flight1 who began his experiments about 
#ahfe1 and altogether designed and made 
nearly #cjj artificial birds4 ,one of   
his later constructions was a machine in
 bird form with a wing span of about #ej
 ft42 the motive power for this was     
supplied by steam from a boiler which1  
being stationary on the ground1 was     
connected by a length of hose to the    
machine4 ,de ,villeneuve1 turning on    
steam for his first trial1 obtained     
sufficient power to make the wings beat 
very forcibly2 with the inventor on the 
machine the latter rose several feet    
into the air1 whereupon de ,villeneuve  
grew nervous and turned off the steam   
supply4 ,the machine fell to the earth1 
breaking one of its wings1 and it does  
not appear that de ,villeneuve troubled 
to reconstruct it4 ,this experiment     
remains as the greatest success yet     
achieved by any machine constructed on  
the ornithopter principle4  ,it may be  

that1 as forecasted by the prophet      
,wells1 the flapping-wing machine will  
yet come to its own and compete with the
 aeroplane in efficiency4 ,against this1
 however1 are the practical advantages  
of the rotary mechanism of the aeroplane
 propeller as compared with the movement
 of a bird's wing1 which1 according to  
,marey1 moves in a figure of eight4 ,the
 force derived from a propeller is of   
necessity continual1 while it is equally
 obvious that that derived from a       
flapping movement is intermittent1 and1 
in the recovery of a wing after         
completion of one stroke for the next1  
there is necessarily a certain          
cessation1 if not loss1 of power4  ,the 
matter of experiment along any lines in 
connection with aviation is primarily   
one of hard cash4 ,throughout the whole 
history of flight up to the outbreak of 
the ,european war development has been  
handicapped on the score of finance1    
and1 since the arrival of the aeroplane1
 both ornithopter and helicopter schools

 have been handicapped by this          
consideration4 ,thus serious study of   
the efficiency of wings in imitation of 
those of the living bird has not been   
carried to a point that might win       
success for this method of propulsion4  
,even ,wilbur ,wright studied this      
subject and propounded certain theories1
 while a later and possibly more        
scientific student1 ,f4 ,w4 ,lanchester1
 has also contributed empirical         
conclusions4 ,another and earlier       
student was ,lawrence ,hargrave1 who    
made a wing-propelled model which       
achieved successful flight1 and in #ahhe
 was exhibited before the ,royal        
,society of ,new ,south ,wales4         
,hargrave called the principle on which 
his propeller worked that of a          
#8,trochoided plane'2 it was1 in effect1
 similar to the feathering of an oar4   
,hargrave1 to diverge for a brief while 
from the machine to the man1 was one    
who1 although he achieved nothing worthy
 of special remark1 contributed a great 

deal of painstaking work to the science 
of flight4 ,he made a series of         
experiments with man-lifting kites in   
addition to making a study of           
flapping-wing flight4 ,it cannot be said
 that he set forth any new principle2   
his work was mainly imitative1 but at   
the same time by developing ideas       
originated in great measure by others he
 helped toward the solution of the      
problem4  ,attempts at flight on the    
helicopter principle consist in the work
 of ,de la ,landelle and others already 
mentioned4 ,the possibility of flight by
 this method is modified by a very      
definite disadvantage of which lovers of
 the helicopter seem to take little     
account4 ,it is always claimed for a    
machine of this type that it possesses  
great advantages both in rising and in  
landing1 since1 if it were effective1 it
 would obviously be able to rise from   
and alight on any ground capable of     
containing its own bulk2 a further      
advantage claimed is that the helicopter

 would be able to remain stationary in  
the air1 maintaining itself in any      
position by the vertical lift of its    
propeller4  ,these potential assets do  
not take into consideration the fact    
that efficiency is required not only in 
rising1 landing1 and remaining          
stationary in the air1 but also in      
actual flight4 ,it must be evident that 
if a certain amount of the motive force 
is used in maintaining the machine off  
the ground1 that amount of force is     
missing from the total of horizontal    
driving power4 ,again1 it is often      
assumed by advocates of this form of    
flight that the rapidity of climb of the
 helicopter would be far greater than   
that of the driven plane2 this view     
overlooks the fact that the maintenance 
of aerodynamic support would claim the  
greater part of the engine-power2 the   
rate of ascent would be governed by the 
amount of power that could be developed 
surplus to that required for            
maintenance4  ,this is best explained by

 actual figures3 assuming that a        
propeller #ae ft4 in diameter is used1  
almost #ej horse-power would be required
 to get an upward lift of #a1jjj pounds2
 this amount of horse-power would be    
continually absorbed in maintaining the 
machine in the air at any given level2  
for actual lift from one level to       
another at a speed of eleven feet per   
second a further #bj horse-power would  
be required1 which means that #gj       
horse-power must be constantly provided 
for2 this absorption of power in the    
mere maintenance of aerodynamic support 
is a permanent drawback4  ,the          
attraction of the helicopter lies1      
probably1 in the ease with which flight 
is demonstrated by means of models      
constructed on this principle1 but one  
truism with regard to the principles of 
flight is that the problems change      
remarkably1 and often unexpectedly1 with
 the size of the machine constructed for
 experiment4 ,berriman1 in a brief but  
very interesting manual entitled        

,principles of ,flight1 assumed that    
#8there is a significant dimension of   
which the effective area is an          
expression of the second power1 while   
the weight became an expression of the  
third power4 ,then once again we have   
the two-thirds power law militating     
against the successful construction of  
large helicopters1 on the ground that   
the essential weight increases          
disproportionately fast to the effective
 area4 ,from a consideration of the     
structural features of propellers it is 
evident that this particular            
relationship does not apply in practice1
 but it seems reasonable that some such 
governing factor should exist as an     
explanation of the apparent failure of  
all full-sized machines that have been  
constructed4 ,among models there is     
nothing more strikingly successful than 
the toy helicopter1 in which the        
essential weight is so small compared   
with the effective area4'  ,de la       
,landelle's work1 already mentioned1 was

 carried on a few years later by another
 ,frenchman1 ,castel1 who constructed a 
machine with eight propellers arranged  
in two fours and driven by a compressed 
air motor or engine4 ,the model with    
which ,castel experimented had a total  
weight of only #di lbs42 it rose in the 
air and smashed itself by driving       
against a wall1 and the inventor does   
not seem to have proceeded further4     
,contemporary with ,castel was          
,professor ,forlanini1 whose design was 
for a machine very similar to de la     
,landelle's1 with two superposed screws4
 ,this machine ranks as the second on   
the helicopter principle to achieve     
flight2 it remained in the air for no   
less than the third of a minute in one  
of its trials4  ,later experimenters in 
this direction were ,kress1 a ,german2  
,professor ,wellner1 an ,austrian2 and  
,w4 ,r4 ,kimball1 an ,american4 ,kress1 
like most ,germans1 set to the          
development of an idea which others had 
originated2 he followed de la ,landelle 

and ,forlanini by fitting two superposed
 propellers revolving in opposite       
directions1 and with this machine he    
achieved good results as regards        
horse-power to weight2 ,kimball1 it     
appears1 did not get beyond the         
rubber-driven model stage1 and any      
success he may have achieved was        
modified by the theory enunciated by    
,berriman and quoted above4  ,comparing 
these two schools of thought1 the       
helicopter and bird-flight schools1 it  
appears that the latter has the greater 
chance of eventual success--that is1 if 
either should ever come into competition
 with the aeroplane as effective means  
of flight4 ,so far1 the aeroplane holds 
the field1 but the whole science of     
flight is so new and so full of         
unexpected developments that this is no 
reason for assuming that other means may
 not give equal effect1 when money and  
brains are diverted from the driven     
plane to a closer imitation of natural  
flight4  ,reverting from non-success to 

success1 from consideration of the two  
methods mentioned above to the direction
 in which practical flight has been     
achieved1 it is to be noted that between
 the time of ,le ,bris1 ,stringfellow1  
and their contemporaries1 and the       
nineties of last century1 there was much
 plodding work carried out with little  
visible result1 more especially so far  
as ,english students were concerned4    
,among the incidents of those years is  
one of the most pathetic tragedies in   
the whole history of aviation1 that of  
,alphonse ,penaud1 who1 in his thirty   
years of life1 condensed the experience 
of his predecessors and combined it with
 his own genius to state in a published 
patent what the aeroplane of to-day     
should be4 ,consider the following      
abstract of ,penaud's design as         
published in his patent of #ahgf1 and   
comparison of this with the aeroplane   
that now exists will show very few      
divergences except for those forced on  
the inventor by the fact that the       

internal combustion engine had not then 
developed4 ,the double-surfaced planes  
were to be built with wooden ribs and   
arranged with a slight dihedral angle2  
there was to be a large aspect ratio and
 the wings were cambered as in          
,stringfellow's later models4 ,provision
 was made for warping the wings while in
 flight1 and the trailing edges were so 
designed as to be capable of upward     
twist while the machine was in the air4 
,the planes were to be placed above the 
car1 and provision was even made for a  
glass wind-screen to give protection to 
the pilot during flight4 ,steering was  
to be accomplished by means of lateral  
and vertical planes forming a tail2     
these controlled by a single lever      
corresponding to the #8joy stick' of the
 present day plane4  ,penaud conceived  
this machine as driven by two           
propellers2 alternatively these could be
 driven by petrol or steam-fed motor1   
and the centre of gravity of the machine
 while in flight was in the front fifth 

of the wings4 ,penaud estimated from #bj
 to #cj horse-power sufficient to drive 
this machine1 weighing with pilot and   
passenger #b1fjj lbs41 through the air  
at a speed of #fj miles an hour1 with   
the wings set at an angle of incidence  
of two degrees4 ,so complete was the    
design that it even included            
instruments1 consisting of an aneroid1  
pressure indicator1 an anemometer1 a    
compass1 and a level4 ,there1 with few  
alterations1 is the aeroplane as we know
 it--and ,penaud was twenty-seven when  
his patent was published4  ,for three   
years longer he worked1 experimenting   
with models1 contributing essays and    
other valuable data to ,french papers on
 the subject of aeronautics4 ,his gains 
were ill health1 poverty1 and neglect1  
and at the age of thirty a pistol shot  
put an end to what had promised to be   
one of the most brilliant careers in all
 the history of flight4  ,two years     
before the publication of ,penaud's     
patent ,thomas ,moy experimented at the 

,crystal ,palace with a twin-propelled  
aeroplane1 steam driven1 which seems to 
have failed mainly because the internal 
combustion engine had not yet come to   
give sufficient power for weight4 ,moy  
anchored his machine to a pole running  
on a prepared circular track2 his engine
 weighed #hj lbs4 and1 developing only  
three horse-power1 gave him a speed of  
#ab miles an hour4 ,he himself estimated
 that the machine would not rise until  
he could get a speed of #ce miles an    
hour1 and his estimate was correct4 ,two
 six-bladed propellers were placed side 
by side between the two main planes of  
the machine1 which was supported on a   
triangular wheeled undercarriage and    
steered by fairly conventional tail     
planes4 ,moy realised that he could not 
get sufficient power to achieve flight1 
but he went on experimenting in various 
directions1 and left much data          
concerning his experiments which has not
 yet been deemed worthy of publication1 
but which still contains a mass of      

information that is of practical        
utility1 embodying as it does a vast    
amount of painstaking work4  ,penaud and
 ,moy were followed by ,goupil1 a       
,frenchman1 who1 in place of attempting 
to fit a motor to an aeroplane1         
experimented by making the wind his     
motor4 ,he anchored his machine to the  
ground1 allowing it two feet of lift1   
and merely waited for a wind to come    
along and lift it4 ,the machine was     
stream lined1 and the wings1 curving as 
in the early ,german patterns of war    
aeroplanes1 gave a total lifting surface
 of about #bij sq4 ft4 ,anchored to the 
ground and facing a wind of #ai feet per
 second1 ,goupil's machine lifted its   
own weight and that of two men as well  
to the limit of its anchorage4 ,although
 this took place as late as #ahhc the   
inventor went no further in practical   
work4 ,he published a book1 however1    
entitled ,la ,locomotion ,arienne1 which
 is still of great importance1 more     
especially on the subject of inherent   

stability4  ,in #ahhd came the first    
patents of ,horatio ,phillips1 whose    
work lay mainly in the direction of     
investigation into the curvature of     
plane surfaces1 with a view to obtaining
 the greatest amount of support4        
,phillips was one of the first to treat 
the problem of curvature of planes as a 
matter for scientific experiment1 and1  
great as has been the development of the
 driven plane in the #cf years that have
 passed since he began1 there is still  
room for investigation into the subject 
which he studied so persistently and    
with such valuable result4  ,at this    
point it may be noted that1 with the    
solitary exception of ,le ,bris1        
practically every student of flight had 
so far set about constructing the means 
of launching humanity into the air      
without any attempt at ascertaining the 
nature and peculiarities of the         
sustaining medium4 ,the attitude of     
experimenters in general might be       
compared to that of a man who from      

boyhood had grown up away from open     
water1 and1 at the first sight of an    
expanse of water1 set to work to        
construct a boat with a vague idea that1
 since wood would float1 only sufficient
 power was required to make him an      
efficient navigator4 ,accident1 perhaps1
 in the shape of lack of means of       
procuring driving power1 drove ,le ,bris
 to the form of experiment which he     
actually carried out2 it remained for   
the later years of the nineteenth       
century to produce men who were content 
to ascertain the nature of the support  
the air would afford before attempting  
to drive themselves through it4  ,of the
 age in which these men lived and       
worked1 giving their all in many cases  
to the science they loved1 even to life 
itself1 it may be said with truth that  
#8there were giants on the earth in     
those days1' as far as aeronautics is in
 question4 ,it was an age of giants who 
lived and dared and died1 venturing into
 uncharted space1 knowing nothing of its

 dangers1 giving1 as a man gives to his 
mistress1 without stint and for the joy 
of the giving4 ,the science of to-day1  
compared with the glimmerings that were 
in that age of the giants1 is a fixed   
and certain thing2 the problems of      
to-day are minor problems1 for the great
 major problem vanished in solution when
 the ,wright ,brothers made their first 
ascent4 ,in that age of the giants was  
evolved the flying man1 the new type in 
human species which found full          
expression and came to full development 
in the days of the war1 achieving feats 
of daring and endurance which leave the 
commonplace landsman staggered at       
thought of that of which his fellows    
prove themselves capable4 ,he is a new  
type1 this flying man1 a being of       
self-forgetfulness2 of such was         
,lilienthal1 of such was ,pilcher2 of   
such in later days were ,farman1        
,bleriot1 ,hamel1 ,rolls1 and their     
fellows2 great names that will live for 
as long as man flies1 adventurers       

equally with those of the spacious days 
of ,elizabeth4 ,to each of these came   
the call1 and he worked and dared and   
passed1 having1 perhaps1 advanced one   
little step in the long march that has  
led toward the perfecting of flight4    
,it is not yet twenty years since man   
first flew1 but into that twenty years  
have been compressed a century or so of 
progress1 while1 in the two decades that
 preceded it1 was compressed still more4
 ,we have only to recall and recount the
 work of four men3 ,lilienthal1         
,langley1 ,pilcher1 and ,clement ,ader  
to see the immense stride that was made 
between the time when ,penaud pulled a  
trigger for the last time and the       
,wright ,brothers first left the earth4 
,into those two decades was compressed  
the investigation that meant knowledge  
of the qualities of the air1 together   
with the development of the one prime   
mover that rendered flight a            
possibility--the internal combustion    
engine4 ,the coming and progress of this

 latter is a thing apart1 to be detailed
 separately2 for the present we are     
concerned with the evolution of the     
driven plane1 and with it the evolution 
of that daring being1 the flying man4   
,the two are inseparable1 for the men   
gave themselves to their art2 the story 
of ,lilienthal's life and death is the  
story of his work2 the story of         
,pilcher's work is that of his life and 
death4  ,considering the flying man as  
he appeared in the war period1 there    
entered into his composition a new      
element--patriotism--which brought about
 a modification of the type1 or1        
perhaps1 made it appear that certain men
 belonged to the type who in reality    
were commonplace mortals1 animated1     
under normal conditions1 by normal      
motives1 but driven by the stress of the
 time to take rank with the last        
expression of human energy1 the flying  
type4 ,however that may be1 what may be 
termed the mathematising of aeronautics 
has rendered the type itself evanescent2

 your pilot of to-day knows his craft1  
once he is trained1 much in the manner  
that a driver of a motor-lorry knows his
 vehicle2 design has been systematised1 
capabilities have been tabulated2       
camber1 dihedral angle1 aspect ratio1   
engine power1 and plane surface1 are    
business items of drawing office and    
machine shop2 there is room for         
enterprise1 for genius1 and for skill2  
once and again there is room for daring1
 as in the first ,atlantic flight4 ,yet 
that again was a thing of mathematical  
calculation and petrol storage1 allied  
to a certain stark courage which may be 
found even in landsmen4 ,for the        
ventures into the unknown1 the limit of 
daring1 the work for work's sake1 with  
the almost certainty that the final     
reward was death1 we must look back to  
the age of the giants1 the age when     
flying was not a business1 but romance4 
,illustration3 ,lilienthal with his     
glider folded after a glide4            
,illustration3 ,lilienthal's biplane    

glider alighting4  ,illustration3       
,pilcher's #8,bat4'  ,illustration3 ,the
 #8,bat'1 side view4     ,,vii          
,,lilienthal ,,and ,,pilcher   ,there   
was never a more enthusiastic and       
consistent student of the problems of   
flight than ,otto ,lilienthal1 who was  
born in #ahdh at ,anklam1 ,pomerania1   
and even from his early school-days     
dreamed and planned the conquest of the 
air4 ,his practical experiments began   
when1 at the age of thirteen1 he and his
 brother ,gustav made wings consisting  
of wooden framework covered with linen1 
which ,otto attached to his arms1 and   
then ran downhill flapping them4 ,in    
consequence of possible derision on the 
part of other boys1 ,otto confined these
 experiments for the most part to       
moonlit nights1 and gained from them    
some idea of the resistance offered by  
flat surfaces to the air4 ,it was in    
#ahfg that the two brothers began really
 practical work1 experimenting with     
wings which1 from their design1 indicate

 some knowledge of ,besnier and the     
history of his gliding experiments2     
these wings the brothers fastened to    
their backs1 moving them with their legs
 after the fashion of one attempting to 
swim4 ,before they had achieved any real
 success in gliding the ,franco-,german 
war came as an interruption2 both       
brothers served in this campaign1       
resuming their experiments in #ahga at  
the conclusion of hostilities4  ,the    
experiments made by the brothers        
previous to the war had convinced ,otto 
that previous experimenters in gliding  
flight had failed through reliance on   
empirical conclusions or else through   
incomplete observation on their own     
part1 mostly of bird flight4 ,from #ahga
 onward ,otto ,lilienthal 7,gustav's    
interest in the problem was not         
maintained as was his brother's7 made   
what is probably the most detailed and  
accurate series of observations that has
 ever been made with regard to the      
properties of curved wing surfaces4 ,so 

far as could be done1 ,lilienthal       
tabulated the amount of air resistance  
offered to a bird's wing1 ascertaining  
that the curve is necessary to flight1  
as offering far more resistance than a  
flat surface4 ,cayley1 and others1 had  
already stated this1 but to ,lilienthal 
belongs the honour of being first to put
 the statement to effective proof--he   
made over #b1jjj gliding flights between
 #ahia and the regrettable end of his   
experiments2 his practical conclusions  
are still regarded as part of the       
accepted theory of students of flight4  
,in #ahhi he published a work on the    
subject of gliding flight which stands  
as data for investigators1 and1 on the  
conclusions embodied in this work1 he   
began to build his gliders and practise 
what he had preached1 turning from      
experiment with models to wings that he 
could use4  ,it was in the summer of    
#ahia that he built his first glider of 
rods of peeled willow1 over which was   
stretched strong cotton fabric2 with    

this1 which had a supporting surface of 
about #ajj square feet1 ,otto           
,lilienthal launched himself in the air 
from a spring board1 making glides      
which1 at first of only a few feet1     
gradually lengthened4 ,as his experience
 of the supporting qualities of the air 
progressed he gradually altered his     
designs until1 when ,pilcher visited him
 in the spring of #ahie1 he experimented
 with a glider1 roughly made of peeled  
willow rods and cotton fabric1 having an
 area of #aej square feet and weighing  
half a hundredweight4 ,by this time     
,lilienthal had moved from his          
springboard to a conical artificial hill
 which he had had thrown up on level    
ground at ,grosse ,lichterfelde1 near   
,berlin4 ,this hill was made with earth 
taken from the excavations incurred in  
constructing a canal1 and had a cave    
inside in which ,lilienthal stored his  
machines4 ,pilcher1 in his paper on     
#8,gliding1'#a gives an excellent short 
summary of ,lilienthal's experiments1   

from which the following extracts are   
taken3--  #8,at first ,lilienthal used  
to experiment by jumping off a          
springboard with a good run4 ,then he   
took to practising on some hills close  
to ,berlin4 ,in the summer of #ahib he  
built a flat-roofed hut on the summit of
 a hill1 from the top of which he used  
to jump1 trying1 of course1 to soar as  
far as possible before landing4444 ,one 
of the great dangers with a soaring     
machine is losing forward speed1        
inclining the machine too much down in  
front1 and coming down head first4      
,lilienthal was the first to introduce  
the system of handling a machine in the 
air merely by moving his weight about in
 the machine2 he always rested only on  
his elbows or on his elbows and         
shoulders4444  #8,in #ahib a canal was  
being cut1 close to where ,lilienthal   
lived1 in the suburbs of ,berlin1 and   
with the surplus earth ,lilienthal had a
 special hill thrown up to fly from4    
,the country round is as flat as the    

sea1 and there is not a house or tree   
near it to make the wind unsteady1 so   
this was an ideal practising ground2 for
 practising on natural hills is         
generally rendered very difficult by    
shifty and gusty winds4444 ,this hill is
 #ej feet high1 and conical4 ,inside the
 hill there is a cave for the machines  
to be kept in4444 ,when ,lilienthal made
 a good flight he used to land #cjj feet
 from the centre of the hill1 having    
come down at an angle of #a in #f2 but  
his best flights have been at an angle  
of about #a in #aj4  #8,if it is calm1  
one must run a few steps down the hill1 
holding the machine as far back on      
oneself as possible1 when the air will  
gradually support one1 and one slides   
off the hill into the air4 ,if there is 
any wind1 one should face it at         
starting2 to try to start with a side   
wind is most unpleasant4 ,it is possible
 after a great deal of practice to turn 
in the air1 and fairly quickly4 ,this is
 accomplished by throwing one's weight  

to one side1 and thus lowering the      
machine on that side towards which one  
wants to turn4 ,birds do the same       
thing--crows and gulls show it very     
clearly4 ,last year ,lilienthal chiefly 
experimented with double-surfaced       
machines4 ,these were very much like the
 old machines with awnings spread above 
them4  #8,the object of making these    
double-surfaced machines was to get more
 surface without increasing the length  
and width of the machine4 ,this1 of     
course1 it does1 but ,i personally      
object to any machine in which the wing 
surface is high above the weight4 ,i    
consider that it makes the machine very 
difficult to handle in bad weather1 as a
 puff of wind striking the surface1 high
 above one1 has a great tendency to heel
 the machine over4  #8,herr ,lilienthal 
kindly allowed me to sail down his hill 
in one of these double-surfaced machines
 last ,june4 ,with the great facility   
afforded by his conical hill the machine
 was handy enough2 but ,i am afraid ,i  

should not be able to manage one at all 
in the squally districts ,i have had to 
practise in over here4  #8,herr         
,lilienthal came to grief through       
deserting his old method of balancing4  
,in order to control his tipping        
movements more rapidly he attached a    
line from his horizontal rudder to his  
head1 so that when he moved his head    
forward it would lift the rudder and tip
 the machine up in front1 and vice      
versa4 ,he was practising this on some  
natural hills outside ,berlin1 and he   
apparently got muddled with the two     
motions1 and1 in trying to regain speed 
after he had1 through a lull in the     
wind1 come to rest in the air1 let the  
machine get too far down in front1 came 
down head first and was killed4'  ,then 
in another passage ,pilcher enunciates  
what is the true value of such          
experiments as ,lilienthal--and1        
subsequently1 he himself--made3 #8,the  
object of experimenting with soaring    
machines1' he says1 #8is to enable one  

to have practice in starting and        
alighting and controlling a machine in  
the air4 ,they cannot possibly float    
horizontally in the air for any length  
of time1 but to keep going must         
necessarily lose in elevation4 ,they are
 excellent schooling machines1 and that 
is all they are meant to be1 until      
power1 in the shape of an engine working
 a screw propeller1 or an engine working
 wings to drive the machine forward1 is 
added2 then a person who is used to     
soaring down a hill with a simple       
soaring machine will be able to fly with
 comparative safety4 ,one can best      
compare them to bicycles having no      
cranks1 but on which one could learn to 
balance by coming down an incline4'  ,it
 was in #ahie that ,lilienthal passed   
from experiment with the monoplane type 
of glider to the construction of a      
biplane glider which1 according to his  
own account1 gave better results than   
his previous machines4 #8,six or seven  
metres velocity of wind1' he says1      

#8sufficed to enable the sailing surface
 of #ah square metres to carry me almost
 horizontally against the wind from the 
top of my hill without any starting     
jump4 ,if the wind is stronger ,i allow 
myself to be simply lifted from the     
point of the hill and to sail slowly    
towards the wind4 ,the direction of the 
flight has1 with strong wind1 a strong  
upwards tendency4 ,i often reach        
positions in the air which are much     
higher than my starting point4 ,at the  
climax of such a line of flight ,i      
sometimes come to a standstill for some 
time1 so that ,i am enabled while       
floating to speak with the gentlemen who
 wish to photograph me1 regarding the   
best position for the photographing4'   
,lilienthal's work did not end with     
simple gliding1 though he did not live  
to achieve machine-driven flight4       
,having1 as he considered1 gained       
sufficient experience with gliders1 he  
constructed a power-driven machine which
 weighed altogether about #ij lbs41 and 

this was thoroughly tested4 ,the        
extremities of its wings were made to   
flap1 and the driving power was obtained
 from a cylinder of compressed carbonic 
acid gas1 released through a            
hand-operated valve which1 ,lilienthal  
anticipated1 would keep the machine in  
the air for four minutes4 ,there were   
certain minor accidents to the          
mechanism1 which delayed the trial      
flights1 and on the day that ,lilienthal
 had determined to make his trial he    
made a long gliding flight with a view  
to testing a new form of rudder that--as
 ,pilcher relates--was worked by        
movements of his head4 ,his death came  
about through the causes that ,pilcher  
states2 he fell from a height of #ej    
feet1 breaking his spine1 and the next  
day he died4  ,it may be said that      
,lilienthal accomplished as much as any 
one of the great pioneers of flying4 ,as
 brilliant in his conceptions as da     
,vinci had been in his1 and as          
conscientious a worker as ,borelli1 he  

laid the foundations on which ,pilcher1 
,chanute1 and ,professor ,montgomery    
were able to build to such good purpose4
 ,his book on bird flight1 published in 
#ahhi1 with the authorship credited both
 to ,otto and his brother ,gustav1 is   
regarded as epoch-making2 his gliding   
experiments are no less entitled to this
 description4  ,in ,england             
,lilienthal's work was carried on by    
,percy ,sinclair ,pilcher1 who1 born in 
#ahff1 completed six years' service in  
the ,british ,navy by the time that he  
was nineteen1 and then went through a   
course of engineering1 subsequently     
joining ,maxim in his experimental work4
 ,it was not until #ahie that he began  
to build the first of the series of     
gliders with which he earned his plane  
among the pioneers of flight4 ,probably 
the best account of ,pilcher's work is  
that given in the ,aeronautical         
,classics issued by the ,royal          
,aeronautical ,society1 from which the  
following account of ,pilcher's work is 

mainly abstracted4#b  ,the #8,bat1' as  
,pilcher named his first glider1 was a  
monoplane which he completed before he  
paid his visit to ,lilienthal in #ahie4 
,concerning this ,pilcher stated that he
 purposely finished his own machine     
before going to see ,lilienthal1 so as  
to get the greatest advantage from any  
original ideas he might have2 he was not
 able to make any trials with this      
machine1 however1 until after witnessing
 ,lilienthal's experiments and making   
several glides in the biplane glider    
which ,lilienthal constructed4  ,the    
wings of the #8,bat' formed a pronounced
 dihedral angle2 the tips being raised  
#d feet above the body4 ,the spars      
forming the entering edges of the wings 
crossed each other in the centre and    
were lashed to opposite sides of the    
triangle that served as a mast for the  
stay-wires that guyed the wings4 ,the   
four ribs of each wing1 enclosed in     
pockets in the fabric1 radiated fanwise 
from the centre1 and were each stayed by

 three steel piano-wires to the top of  
the triangular mast1 and similarly to   
its base4 ,these ribs were bolted down  
to the triangle at their roots1 and     
could be easily folded back on to the   
body when the glider was not in use4 ,a 
small fixed vertical surface was carried
 in the rear4 ,the framework and ribs   
were made entirely of ,riga pine2 the   
surface fabric was nainsook4 ,the area  
of the machine was #aej square feet2 its
 weight #de lbs42 so that in flight1    
with ,pilcher's weight of #ade lbs4     
added1 it carried one and a half pounds 
to the square foot4  ,illustration3     
,rear view of ,pilcher's #8,beetle4'    
,illustration3 ,the #8,beetle4' side    
view4  ,illustration3 ,pilcher starting 
on glide with the #8,bat4'  ,pilcher's  
first glides1 which he carried out on a 
grass hill on the banks of the ,clyde   
near ,cardross1 gave little result1     
owing to the exaggerated dihedral angle 
of the wings1 and the absence of a      
horizontal tail4 ,the #8,bat' was       

consequently reconstructed with a       
horizontal tail-plane added to the      
vertical one1 and with the wings lowered
 so that the tips were only six inches  
above the level of the body4 ,the       
machine now gave far better results2 on 
the first glide into a head wind        
,pilcher rose to a height of twelve feet
 and remained in the air for a third of 
a minute2 in the second attempt a rope  
was used to tow the glider1 which rose  
to twenty feet and did not come to earth
 again until nearly a minute had passed4
 ,with experience ,pilcher was able to  
lengthen his glide and improve his      
balance1 but the dropped wing tips made 
landing difficult1 and there were many  
breakages4  ,in consequence of this     
,pilcher built a second glider which he 
named the #8,beetle1' because1 as he    
said1 it looked like one4 ,in this the  
square-cut wings formed almost a        
continuous plane1 rigidly fixed to the  
central body1 which consisted of a      
shaped girder4 ,these wings were built  

up of five transverse bamboo spars1 with
 two shaped ribs running from fore to   
aft of each wing1 and were stayed       
overhead to a couple of masts4 ,the     
tail1 consisting of two discs placed    
crosswise 7the horizontal one alone     
being movable71 was carried high up in  
the rear4 ,with the exception of the    
wing-spars1 the whole framework was     
built of white pine4 ,the wings in this 
machine were actually on a higher level 
than the operator's head2 the centre of 
gravity was1 consequently1 very low1 a  
fact which1 according to ,pilcher's own 
account1 made the glider very difficult 
to handle4 ,moreover1 the weight of the 
#8,beetle1' #hj lbs41 was considerable2 
the body had been very solidly built to 
enable it to carry the engine which     
,pilcher was then contemplating2 so that
 the glider carried some #bbe lbs4 with 
its area of #agj square feet-too great a
 mass for a single man to handle with   
comfort4  ,it was in the spring of #ahif
 that ,pilcher built his third glider1  

the #8,gull1' with #cjj square feet of  
area and a weight of #ee lbs4 ,the size 
of this machine rendered it unsuitable  
for experiment in any but very calm     
weather1 and it incurred such damage    
when experiments were made in a breeze  
that ,pilcher found it necessary to     
build a fourth1 which he named the      
#8,hawk4' ,this machine was very soundly
 built1 being constructed of bamboo1    
with the exception of the two main      
transverse beams4 ,the wings were       
attached to two vertical masts1 #g feet 
high1 and #h feet apart1 joined at their
 summits and their centres by two wooden
 beams4 ,each wing had nine bamboo ribs1
 radiating from its mast1 which was     
situated at a distance of #b feet #f    
inches from the forward edge of the     
wing4 ,each rib was rigidly stayed at   
the top of the mast by three tie-wires1 
and by a similar number to the bottom of
 the mast1 by which means the curve of  
each wing was maintained uniformly4 ,the
 tail was formed of a triangular        

horizontal surface to which was affixed 
a triangular vertical surface1 and was  
carried from the body on a high bamboo  
mast1 which was also stayed from the    
masts by means of steel wires1 but only 
on its upper surface1 and it was the    
snapping of one of these guy wires which
 caused the collapse of the tail support
 and brought about the fatal end of     
,pilcher s experiments4 ,in flight1     
,pilcher's head1 shoulders1 and the     
greater part of his chest projected     
above the wings4 ,he took up his        
position by passing his head and        
shoulders through the top aperture      
formed between the two wings1 and       
resting his forearms on the longitudinal
 body members4 ,a very simple form of   
undercarriage1 which took the weight off
 the glider on the ground1 was fitted1  
consisting of two bamboo rods with      
wheels suspended on steel springs4      
,balance and steering were effected1    
apart from the high degree of inherent  
stability afforded by the tail1 as in   

the case of ,lilienthal's glider1 by    
altering the position of the body4 ,with
 this machine ,pilcher made some twelve 
glides at ,eynsford in ,kent in the     
summer of #ahif1 and as he progressed he
 increased the length of his glides1 and
 also handled the machine more easily1  
both in the air and in landing4 ,he was 
occupied with plans for fitting an      
engine and propeller to the #8,hawk1'   
but1 in these early days of the internal
 combustion engine1 was unable to get   
one light enough for his purpose4 ,there
 were rumours of an engine weighing #ae 
lbs4 which gave #a horse-power1 and was 
reported to be in existence in ,america1
 but it could not be traced4  ,in the   
spring of #ahig ,pilcher took up his    
gliding experiments again1 obtaining    
what was probably the best of his glides
 on ,june #aith1 when he alighted after 
a perfectly balanced glide of over #bej 
yards in length1 having crossed a valley
 at a considerable height4 ,from his    
various experiments he concluded that   

once the machine was launched in the air
 an engine of1 at most1 #c horse-power  
would suffice for the maintenance of    
horizontal flight1 but he had to allow  
for the additional weight of the engine 
and propeller1 and taking into account  
the comparative inefficiency of the     
propeller1 he planned for an engine of  
#d horse-power4 ,engine and propeller   
together were estimated at under #dd    
lbs4 weight1 the engine was to be fitted
 in front of the operator1 and by means 
of an overhead shaft was to operate the 
propeller situated in rear of the wings4
 #ahih went by while this engine was    
under construction4 ,then in #ahii      
,pilcher became interested in ,lawrence 
,hargrave's soaring kites1 with which he
 carried out experiments during the     
summer of #ahii4 ,it is believed that he
 intended to incorporate a number of    
these kites in a new machine1 a         
triplane1 of which the fragments        
remaining are hardly sufficient to      
reconstitute the complete glider4 ,this 

new machine was never given a trial1 for
 on ,september #cjth1 #ahii1 at         
,stamford ,hall1 ,market ,harborough1   
,pilcher agreed to give a demonstration 
of gliding flight1 but owing to the     
unfavourable weather he decided to      
postpone the trial of the new machine   
and to experiment with the #8,hawk1'    
which was intended to rise from a level 
field1 towed by a line passing over a   
tackle drawn by two horses4 ,at the     
first trial the machine rose easily1 but
 the tow-line snapped when it was well  
clear of the ground1 and the glider     
descended1 weighed down through being   
sodden with rain4 ,pilcher resolved on a
 second trial1 in which the glider again
 rose easily to about thirty feet1 when 
one of the guy wires of the tail broke1 
and the tail collapsed2 the machine fell
 to the ground1 turning over1 and       
,pilcher was unconscious when he was    
freed from the wreckage4  ,hopes were   
entertained of his recovery1 but he died
 on ,monday1 ,october #bnd1 #ahii1 aged 

only thirty-four4 ,his work in the cause
 of flying lasted only four years1 but  
in that time his actual accomplishments 
were sufficient to place his name beside
 that of ,lilienthal1 with whom he ranks
 as one of the greatest exponents of    
gliding flight4  ,illustration3 #8,the  
,hawk'--front view4  ,illustration3     
#8,the ,hawk'--rear view4               
,illustration3 #8,the ,hawk'--in flight 
with ,pilcher4     ,,viii  ,,american   
,,gliding ,,experiments   ,while        
,pilcher was carrying on ,lilienthal's  
work in ,england1 the great ,german had 
also a follower in ,america2 one ,octave
 ,chanute1 who1 in one of the statements
 which he has left on the subject of his
 experiments acknowledges forty years'  
interest in the problem of flight1 did  
more to develop the glider in ,america  
than--with the possible exception of    
,montgomery--any other man4 ,chanute had
 all the practicality of an ,american2  
he began his work1 so far as actual     
gliding was concerned1 with a full-sized

 glider of the ,lilienthal type1 just   
before ,lilienthal was killed4 ,in a    
rather rare monograph1 entitled         
,experiments in ,flying1 ,chanute states
 that he found the ,lilienthal glider   
hazardous and decided to test the value 
of an idea of his own2 in this he       
followed the same general method1 but   
reversed the principle upon which       
,lilienthal had depended for maintaining
 his equilibrium in the air4 ,lilienthal
 had shifted the weight of his body1    
under immovable wings1 as fast and as   
far as the sustaining pressure varied   
under his surfaces2 this shifting was   
mainly done by moving the feet1 as the  
actions required were small except when 
alighting4 ,chanute's idea was to have  
the operator remain seated in the       
machine in the air1 and to intervene    
only to steer or to alight2 moving      
mechanism was provided to adjust the    
wings automatically1 in order to restore
 balance when necessary4  ,chanute      
realised that experiments with models   

were of little use2 in order to be fully
 instructive1 these experiments should  
be made with a full-sized machine which 
carried its operator1 for models seldom 
fly twice alike in the open air1 and no 
relation can be gained from them of the 
divergent air currents which they have  
experienced4 ,chanute's idea was that   
any flying machine which might be       
constructed must be able to operate in a
 wind2 hence the necessity for an       
operator to report upon what occurred in
 flight1 and to acquire practical       
experience of the work of the human     
factor in imitation of bird flight4     
,from this point of view he conducted   
his own experiments2 it must be noted   
that he was over sixty years of age when
 he began1 and1 being no longer         
sufficiently young and active to perform
 any but short and insignificant glides1
 the courage of the man becomes all the 
more noteworthy2 he set to work to      
evolve the state required by the problem
 of stability1 and without any          

expectation of advancing to the         
construction of a flying machine which  
might be of commercial value4 ,his main 
idea was the testing of devices to      
secure equilibrium2 for this purpose he 
employed assistants to carry out the    
practical work1 where he himself was    
unable to supply the necessary physical 
energy4  ,together with his assistants  
he found a suitable place for           
experiments among the sandhills on the  
shore of ,lake ,michigan1 about thirty  
miles eastward from ,chicago4 ,here a   
hill about ninety-five feet high was    
selected as a point from which          
,chanute's gliders could set off2 in    
practice1 it was found that the best    
observation was to be obtained from     
short glides at low speed1 and1         
consequently1 a hill which was only     
sixty-one feet above the shore of the   
lake was employed for the experimental  
work done by the party4  ,in the years  
#ahif and #ahig1 with parties of from   
four to six persons1 five full-sized    

gliders were tried out1 and from these  
two distinct types were evolved3 of     
these one was a machine consisting of   
five tiers of wings and a steering tail1
 and the other was of the biplane type2 
,chanute believed these to be safer than
 any other machine previously evolved1  
solving1 as he states in his monograph1 
the problem of inherent equilibrium as  
fully as this could be done4            
,unfortunately1 very few photographs    
were taken of the work in the first     
year1 but one view of a multiple        
wing-glider survives1 showing the       
machine in flight4 ,in #ahig a series of
 photographs was taken exhibiting the   
consecutive phases of a single flight2  
this series of photographs represents   
the experience gained in a total of     
about one thousand glides1 but the point
 of view was varied so as to exhibit the
 consecutive phases of one single       
flight4  ,the experience gained is best 
told in ,chanute's own words4 #8,the    
first thing1' he says1 #8which we       

discovered practically was that the wind
 flowing up a hill-side is not a        
steadily-flowing current like that of a 
river4 ,it comes as a rolling mass1 full
 of tumultuous whirls and eddies1 like  
those issuing from a chimney2 and they  
strike the apparatus with constantly    
varying force and direction1 sometimes  
withdrawing support when most needed4   
,it has long been known1 through        
instrumental observations1 that the wind
 is constantly changing in force and    
direction2 but it needed the experience 
of an operator afloat on a gliding      
machine to realise that this all        
proceeded from cyclonic action2 so that 
more was learned in this respect in a   
week than had previously been acquired  
by several years of experiments with    
models4 ,there was a pair of eagles1    
living in the top of a dead tree about  
two miles from our tent1 that came      
almost daily to show us how such wind   
effects are overcome and utilised4 ,the 
birds swept in circles overhead on      

pulseless wings1 and rose high up in the
 air4 ,occasionally there was a         
side-rocking motion1 as of a ship       
rolling at sea1 and then the birds      
rocked back to an even keel2 but        
although we thought the action was      
clearly automatic1 and were willing to  
learn1 our teachers were too far off to 
show us just how it was done1 and we had
 to experiment for ourselves4'  ,chanute
 provided his multiple glider with a    
seat1 but1 since each glide only        
occupied between eight and twelve       
seconds1 there was little possibility of
 the operator seating himself4 ,with the
 multiple glider a pair of horizontal   
bars provided rest for the arms1 and    
beyond these was a pair of vertical bars
 which the operator grasped with his    
hands2 beyond this1 the operator was in 
no way attached to the machine4 ,he     
took1 at the most1 four running steps   
into the wind1 which launched him in the
 air1 and thereupon he sailed into the  
wind on a generally descending course4  

,in the matter of descent ,chanute      
observed the sparrow and decided to     
imitate it4 #8,when the latter1' he     
says1 #8approaches the street1 he throws
 his body back1 tilts his outspread     
wings nearly square to the course1 and  
on the cushion of air thus encountered  
he stops his speed and drops lightly to 
the ground4 ,so do all birds4 ,we tried 
it with misgivings1 but found it        
perfectly effective4 ,the soft sand was 
a great advantage1 and even when the    
experts were racing there was not a     
single sprained ankle4'  ,with the      
multiple winged glider some two to three
 hundred glides were made without any   
accident either to the man or to the    
machine1 and the action was found so    
effective1 the principle so sound1 that 
full plans were published for the       
benefit of any experimenters who might  
wish to improve on this apparatus4 ,the 
,american ,aeronautical ,annual for     
#ahig contains these plans2 ,chanute    
confessed that some movement on the part

 of the operator was still required to  
control the machine1 but it was only a  
seventh or a sixth part of the movement 
required for control of the ,lilienthal 
type4  ,chanute waxed enthusiastic over 
the possibilities of gliding1 concerning
 which he remarks that #8,there is no   
more delightful sensation than that of  
gliding through the air4 ,all the       
faculties are on the alert1 and the     
motion is astonishingly smooth and      
elastic4 ,the machine responds instantly
 to the slightest movement of the       
operator2 the air rushes by one's ears2 
the trees and bushes flit away          
underneath1 and the landing comes all   
too quickly4 ,skating1 sliding1 and     
bicycling are not to be compared for a  
moment to aerial conveyance1 in which1  
perhaps1 zest is added by the spice of  
danger4 ,for it must be distinctly      
understood that there is constant danger
 in such preliminary experiments4 ,when 
this hazard has been eliminated by      
further evolution1 gliding will become a

 most popular sport4'  ,later           
experiments proved that the biplane type
 of glider gave better results than the 
rather cumbrous model consisting of five
 tiers of planes4 ,longer and more      
numerous glides1 to the number of seven 
to eight hundred1 were obtained1 the    
rate of descent being about one in six4 
,the longest distance traversed was     
about #abj yards1 but ,chanute had      
dreams of starting from a hill about    
#bjj feet high1 which would have given  
him gliding flights of #a1bjj feet4 ,he 
remarked that #8,in consequence of the  
speed gained by running1 the initial    
stage of the flight is nearly           
horizontal1 and it is thrilling to see  
the operator pass from thirty to forty  
feet overhead1 steering his machine1    
undulating his course1 and struggling   
with the wind-gusts which whistle       
through the guy wires4 ,the automatic   
mechanism restores the angle of advance 
when compromised by variations of the   
breeze2 but when these come from one    

side and tilt the apparatus1 the weight 
has to be shifted to right the machine  
444 these gusts sometimes raise the     
machine from ten to twenty feet         
vertically1 and sometimes they strike   
the apparatus from above1 causing it to 
descend suddenly4 ,when sailing near the
 ground1 these vicissitudes can be      
counteracted by movements of the body   
from three to four inches2 but this has 
to be done instantly1 for neither wings 
nor gravity will wait on meditation4 ,at
 a height of three hundred or four      
hundred feet the regulating mechanism   
would probably take care of these       
wind-gusts1 as it does1 in fact1 for    
their minor variations4 ,the speed of   
the machine is generally about seventeen
 miles an hour over the ground1 and from
 twenty-two to thirty miles an hour     
relative to the air4 ,constant effort   
was directed to keep down the velocity1 
which was at times fifty-two miles an   
hour4 ,this is the purpose of the       
starting and gliding against the wind1  

which thus furnishes an initial velocity
 without there being undue speed at the 
landing4 ,the highest wind we dared to  
experiment in blew at thirty-one miles  
an hour2 when the wind was stronger1 we 
waited and watched the birds4'  ,chanute
 details an amusing little incident     
which occurred in the course of         
experiment with the biplane glider4 ,he 
says that #8,we had taken one of the    
machines to the top of the hill1 and    
loaded its lower wings with sand to hold
 it while we went to lunch4 ,a gull came
 strolling inland1 and flapped          
full-winged to inspect4 ,he swept       
several circles above the machine1      
stretched his neck1 gave a squawk and   
went off4 ,presently he returned with   
eleven other gulls1 and they seemed to  
hold a conclave about one hundred feet  
above the big new white bird which they 
had discovered on the sand4 ,they       
circled round after round1 and once in a
 while there was a series of loud peeps1
 like those of a rusty gate1 as if in   

conference1 with sudden flutterings1 as 
if a terrifying suggestion had been     
made4 ,the bolder birds occasionally    
swooped downwards to inspect the monster
 more closely2 they twisted their heads 
around to bring first one eye and then  
the other to bear1 and then they rose   
again4 ,after some seven or eight       
minutes of this performance1 they       
evidently concluded either that the     
stranger was too formidable to tackle1  
if alive1 or that he was not good to    
eat1 if dead1 and they flew off to      
resume fishing1 for the weak point about
 a bird is his stomach4'  ,the gliders  
were found so stable1 more especially   
the biplane form1 that in the end       
,chanute permitted amateurs to make     
trials under guidance1 and throughout   
the whole series of experiments not a   
single accident occurred4 ,chanute came 
to the conclusion that any young1 quick1
 and handy man could master a gliding   
machine almost as soon as he could get  
the hang of a bicycle1 although the     

penalty for any mistake would be much   
more severe4  ,at the conclusion of his 
experiments he decided that neither the 
multiple plane nor the biplane type of  
glider was sufficiently perfected for   
the application of motive power4 ,in    
spite of the amount of automatic        
stability that he had obtained he       
considered that there was yet more to be
 done1 and he therefore advised that    
every possible method of securing       
stability and safety should be tested1  
first with models1 and then with        
full-sized machines2 designers1 he said1
 should make a point of practice in     
order to make sure of the action1 to    
proportion and adjust the parts of their
 machine1 and to eliminate hidden       
defects4 ,experimental flight1 he       
suggested1 should be tried over water1  
in order to break any accidental fall2  
when a series of experiments had proved 
the stability of a glider1 it would then
 be time to apply motive power4 ,he     
admitted that such a process would be   

both costly and slow1 but1 he said1 that
 #8it greatly diminished the chance of  
those accidents which bring a whole line
 of investigation into contempt4' ,he   
saw the flying machine as what it has1  
in fact1 been2 a child of evolution1    
carried on step by step by one          
investigator after another1 through the 
stages of doubt and perplexity which lie
 behind the realm of possibility1 beyond
 which is the present day stage of      
actual performance and promise of       
ultimate success and triumph over the   
earlier1 more cumbrous1 and slower forms
 of the transport that we know4         
,illustration3 ,chanute biplane glider4 
,chanute's monograph1 from which the    
foregoing notes have been comprised1 was
 written soon after the conclusion of   
his series of experiments4 ,he does not 
appear to have gone in for further      
practical work1 but to have studied the 
subject from a theoretical view-point   
and with great attention to the work    
done by others4 ,in a paper contributed 

in #aijj to the ,american ,independent1 
he remarks that #8,flying machines      
promise better results as to speed1 but 
yet will be of limited commercial       
application4 ,they may carry mails and  
reach other inaccessible places1 but    
they cannot compete with railroads as   
carriers of passengers or freight4 ,they
 will not fill the heavens with         
commerce1 abolish custom houses1 or     
revolutionise the world1 for they will  
be expensive for the loads which they   
can carry1 and subject to too many      
weather contingencies4 ,success is1     
however1 probable4 ,each experimenter   
has added something to previous         
knowledge which his successors can avail
 of4 ,it now seems likely that two forms
 of flying machines1 a sporting type and
 an exploration type1 will be gradually 
evolved within one or two generations1  
but the evolution will be costly and    
slow1 and must be carried on by         
well-equipped and thoroughly informed   
scientific men2 for the casual inventor1

 who relies upon one or two happy       
inspirations1 will have no chance of    
success whatever4'  ,follows ,professor 
,john ,j4 ,montgomery1 who1 in the true 
,american spirit1 describes his own     
experiments so well that nobody can     
possibly do it better4 ,his account of  
his work was given first of all in the  
,american ,journal1 ,aeronautics1 in    
,january1 #aiji1 and thence transcribed 
in the ,english paper of the same name  
in ,may1 #aiaj1 and that account is here
 copied word for word4 ,it may1 however1
 be noted first that as far back as     
#ahfj1 when ,montgomery was only a boy1 
he was attracted to the study of        
aeronautical problems1 and in #ahhc he  
built his first machine1 which was of   
the flapping-wing ornithopter type1 and 
which showed its designer1 with only one
 experiment1 that he must design some   
other form of machine if he wished to   
attain to a successful flight4 ,chanute 
details how1 in #ahhd and #ahhe1        
,montgomery built three gliders1        

demonstrating the value of curved       
surfaces4 ,with the first of these      
gliders ,montgomery copied the wing of a
 seagull2 with the second he proved that
 a flat surface was virtually useless1  
and with the third he pivoted his wings 
as in the ,antoinette type of           
power-propelled aeroplane1 proving to   
his own satisfaction that success lay in
 this direction4 ,his own account of the
 gliding flights carried out under his  
direction is here set forth1 being the  
best description of his work that can be
 obtained3--  #8,when ,i commenced      
practical demonstration in my work with 
aeroplanes ,i had before me three       
points2 first1 equilibrium2 second1     
complete control2 and third1 long       
continued or soaring flight4 ,in        
starting ,i constructed and tested three
 sets of models1 each in advance of the 
other in regard to the continuance of   
their soaring powers1 but all equally   
perfect as to equilibrium and control4  
,these models were tested by dropping   

them from a cable stretched between two 
mountain tops1 with various loads1      
adjustments and positions4 ,and it made 
no difference whether the models were   
dropped upside down or any other        
conceivable position1 they always found 
their equilibrium immediately and glided
 safely to earth4  #8,then ,i           
constructed a large machine patterned   
after the first model1 and with the     
assistance of three cowboy friends      
personally made a number of flights in  
the steep mountains near ,san ,juan 7a  
hundred miles distant74 ,in making these
 flights ,i simply took the aeroplane   
and made a running jump4 ,these tests   
were discontinued after ,i put my foot  
into a squirrel hole in landing and hurt
 my leg4  ,the following year ,i        
commenced the work on a larger scale1 by
 engaging aeronauts to ride my aeroplane
 dropped from balloons4 ,during this    
work ,i used five hot-air balloons and  
one gas balloon1 five or six aeroplanes1
 three riders--,maloney1 ,wilkie1 and   

,defolco--and had sixteen applicants on 
my list1 and had a training station to  
prepare any when ,i needed them4        
#8,exhibitions were given in ,santa     
,cruz1 ,san ,jose1 ,santa ,clara1       
,oakland1 and ,sacramento4 ,the flights 
that were made1 instead of being        
haphazard affairs1 were in the order of 
safety and development4 ,in the first   
flight of an aeronaut the aeroplane was 
so arranged that the rider had little   
liberty of action1 consequently he could
 make only a limited flight4 ,in some of
 the first flights1 the aeroplane did   
little more than settle in the air4 ,but
 as the rider gained experience in each 
successive flight ,i changed the        
adjustments1 giving him more liberty of 
action1 so he could obtain longer       
flights and more varied movements in the
 flights4 ,but in none of the flights   
did ,i have the adjustments so that the 
riders had full liberty1 as ,i did not  
consider that they had the requisite    
knowledge and experience necessary for  

their safety2 and hence1 none of my     
aeroplanes were launched so arranged    
that the rider could make adjustments   
necessary for a full flight4  #8,this   
line of action caused a good deal of    
trouble with aeronauts or riders1 who   
had unbounded confidence and wanted to  
make long flights after the first few   
trials2 but ,i found it necessary1 as   
they seemed slow in comprehending the   
important elements and were willing to  
take risks4 ,to give them the full      
knowledge in these matters ,i was       
formulating plans for a large starting  
station on the ,mount ,hamilton ,range  
from which ,i could launch an aeroplane 
capable of carrying two1 one of my      
aeronauts and myself1 so ,i could teach 
him by demonstration4 ,but the disasters
 consequent on the great earthquake     
completely stopped all my work on these 
lines4 ,the flights that were given were
 only the first of the series with      
aeroplanes patterned after the first    
model4 ,there were no aeroplanes        

constructed according to the two other  
models1 as ,i had not given the full    
demonstration of the workings of the    
first1 though some remarkable and       
startling work was done4 ,on one        
occasion ,maloney1 in trying to make a  
very short turn in rapid flight1 pressed
 very hard on the stirrup which gives a 
screw-shape to the wings1 and made a    
side somersault4 ,the course of the     
machine was very much like one turn of a
 corkscrew4 ,after this movement the    
machine continued on its regular course4
 ,and afterwards ,wilkie1 not to be     
outdone by ,maloney1 told his friends he
 would do the same1 and in a subsequent 
flight made two side somersaults1 one in
 one direction and the other in an      
opposite1 then made a deep dive and a   
long glide1 and1 when about three       
hundred feet in the air1 brought the    
aeroplane to a sudden stop and settled  
to the earth4 ,after these antics1 ,i   
decreased the extent of the possible    
change in the form of wing-surface1 so  

as to allow only straight sailing or    
only long curves in turning4  #8,during 
my work ,i had a few carping critics    
that ,i silenced by this standing offer3
 ,if they would deposit a thousand      
dollars ,i would cover it on this       
proposition4 ,i would fasten a #aej     
pound sack of sand in the rider's seat1 
make the necessary adjustments1 and send
 up an aeroplane upside down with a     
balloon1 the aeroplane to be liberated  
by a time fuse4 ,if the aeroplane did   
not immediately right itself1 make a    
flight1 and come safely to the ground1  
the money was theirs4  #8,now a word in 
regard to the fatal accident4 ,the      
circumstances are these3 ,the ascension 
was given to entertain a military       
company in which were many of ,maloney's
 friends1 and he had told them he would 
give the most sensational flight they   
ever heard of4 ,as the balloon was      
rising with the aeroplane1 a guy rope   
dropping switched around the right wing 
and broke the tower that braced the two 

rear wings and which also gave control  
over the tail4 ,we shouted ,maloney that
 the machine was broken1 but he probably
 did not hear us1 as he was at the same 
time saying1 8,hurrah for ,montgomery's 
airship10 and as the break was behind   
him1 he may not have detected it4 ,now  
did he know of the breakage or not1 and 
if he knew of it did he take a risk so  
as not to disappoint his friends8 ,at   
all events1 when the machine started on 
its flight the rear wings commenced to  
flap 7thus indicating they were loose71 
the machine turned on its back1 and     
settled a little faster than a          
parachute4 ,when we reached ,maloney he 
was unconscious and lived only thirty   
minutes4 ,the only mark of any kind on  
him was a scratch from a wire on the    
side of his neck4 ,the six attending    
physicians were puzzled at the cause of 
his death4 ,this is remarkable for a    
vertical descent of over #b1jjj feet4'  
,the flights were brought to an end by  
the ,san ,francisco earthquake in       

,april1 #aijf1 which1 ,montgomery       
states1 #8,wrought such a disaster that 
,i had to turn my attention to other    
subjects and let the aeroplane rest for 
a time4' ,montgomery resumed experiments
 in #aiaa in ,california1 and in        
,october of that year an accident       
brought his work to an end4 ,the report 
in the ,american ,aeronautics says that 
#8a little whirlwind caught the machine 
and dashed it head on to the ground2    
,professor ,montgomery landed on his    
head and right hip4 ,he did not believe 
himself seriously hurt1 and talked with 
his year-old bride in the tent4 ,he     
complained of pains in his back1 and    
continued to grow worse until he died4' 
,,ix  ,,not ,,proven   ,the early       
history of flying1 like that of most    
sciences1 is replete with tragedies2 in 
addition to these it contains one       
mystery concerning ,clement ,ader1 who  
was well known among ,european pioneers 
in the development of the telephone1 and
 first turned his attention to the      

problems of mechanical flight in #ahgb4 
,at the outset he favoured the          
ornithopter principle1 constructing a   
machine in the form of a bird with a    
wing-spread of twenty-six feet2 this1   
according to ,ader's conception1 was to 
fly through the efforts of the operator4
 ,the result of such an attempt was past
 question and naturally the machine     
never left the ground4  ,a pause of     
nineteen years ensued1 and then in #ahhf
 ,ader turned his mind to the           
development of the aeroplane1           
constructing a machine of bat-like form 
with a wing-spread of about forty-six   
feet1 a weight of eleven hundred pounds1
 and a steam-power plant of between     
twenty and thirty horse-power driving a 
four-bladed tractor screw4 ,on ,october 
#ith1 #ahij1 the first trials of this   
machine were made1 and it was alleged to
 have flown a distance of one hundred   
and sixty-four feet4 ,whatever truth    
there may be in the allegation1 the     
machine was wrecked through deficient   

equilibrium at the end of the trial4    
,ader repeated the construction1 and on 
,october #adth1 #ahig1 tried out his    
third machine at the military           
establishment at ,satory in the presence
 of the ,french military authorities1 on
 a circular track specially prepared for
 the experiment4 ,ader and his friends  
alleged that a flight of nearly a       
thousand feet was made2 again the       
machine was wrecked at the end of the   
trial1 and there ,ader's practical work 
may be said to have ended1 since no more
 funds were forthcoming for the subsidy 
of experiments4  ,there is the bald     
narrative1 but it is worthy of some     
amplification4 ,if ,ader actually did   
what he claimed1 then the position which
 the ,wright ,brothers hold as first to 
navigate the air in a power-driven plane
 is nullified4 ,although at this time of
 writing it is not a quarter of a       
century since ,ader's experiment in the 
presence of witnesses competent to judge
 on his accomplishment1 there is no     

proof either way1 and whether he was or 
was not the first man to fly remains a  
mystery in the story of the conquest of 
the air4  ,the full story of ,ader's    
work reveals a persistence and          
determination to solve the problem that 
faced him which was equal to that of    
,lilienthal4 ,he began by penetrating   
into the interior of ,algeria after     
having disguised himself as an ,arab1   
and there he spent some months in       
studying flight as practised by the     
vultures of the district4 ,returning to 
,france in #ahhf he began to construct  
the #8,eole1' modelling it1 not on the  
vulture1 but in the shape of a bat4     
,like the ,lilienthal and ,pilcher      
gliders this machine was fitted with    
wings which could be folded2 the first  
flight made1 as already noted1 on       
,october #ith1 #ahij1 took place in the 
grounds of the chateau d',amainvilliers1
 near ,bretz2 two fellow-enthusiasts    
named ,espinosa and ,vallier stated that
 a flight was actually made2 no         

statement in the history of aeronautics 
has been subject of so much question1   
and the claim remains unproved4  ,it was
 in ,september of #ahia that ,ader1 by  
permission of the ,minister of ,war1    
moved the #8,eole' to the military      
establishment at ,satory for the purpose
 of further trial4 ,by this time1       
whether he had flown or not1 his        
nineteen years of work in connection    
with the problems attendant on          
mechanical flight had attracted so much 
attention that henceforth his work was  
subject to the approval of the military 
authorities1 for already it was         
recognised that an efficient flying     
machine would confer an inestimable     
advantage on the power that possessed it
 in the event of war4 ,at ,satory the   
#8,eole' was alleged to have made a     
flight of #aji yards1 or1 according to  
another account1 #afd feet1 as stated   
above1 in the trial in which the machine
 wrecked itself through colliding with  
some carts which had been placed near   

the track--the root cause of this       
accident1 however1 was given as         
deficient equilibrium4  ,whatever the   
sceptics may say1 there is reason for   
belief in the accomplishment of actual  
flight by ,ader with his first machine  
in the fact that1 after the inevitable  
official delay of some months1 the      
,french ,war ,ministry granted funds for
 further experiment4 ,ader named his    
second machine1 which he began to build 
in ,may1 #ahib1 the #8,avion1' and--an  
honour which he well deserves--that name
 remains in ,french aeronautics as      
descriptive of the power-driven         
aeroplane up to this day4  ,this second 
machine1 however1 was not a success1 and
 it was not until #ahig that the second 
#8,avion1' which was the third          
power-driven aeroplane of ,ader's       
construction1 was ready for trial4 ,this
 was fitted with two steam motors of    
twenty horse-power each1 driving two    
four-bladed propellers2 the wings warped
 automatically3 that is to say1 if it   

were necessary to raise the trailing    
edge of one wing on the turn1 the       
trailing edge of the opposite wing was  
also lowered by the same movement2 an   
undercarriage was also fitted1 the      
machine running on three small wheels1  
and levers controlled by the feet of the
 aviator actuated the movement of the   
tail planes4  ,on ,october the #abth1   
#ahig1 the first trials of this         
#8,avion' were made in the presence of  
,general ,mensier1 who admitted that the
 machine made several hops above the    
ground1 but did not consider the        
performance as one of actual flight4    
,the result was so encouraging1 in spite
 of the partial failure1 that1 two days 
later1 ,general ,mensier1 accompanied by
 ,general ,grillon1 a certain           
,lieutenant ,binet1 and two civilians   
named respectively ,sarrau and ,leaute1 
attended for the purpose of giving the  
machine an official trial1 over which   
the great controversy regarding ,ader's 
success or otherwise may be said to have

 arisen4  ,illustration3 ,course of the 
,avion's ,flight1 ,october #ad1 #ahig4  
,we will take first ,ader's own         
statement as set out in a very competent
 account of his work published in ,paris
 in #aiaj4 ,here are ,ader's own words3 
#8,after some turns of the propellers1  
and after travelling a few metres1 we   
started off at a lively pace2 the       
pressure-gauge registered about seven   
atmospheres2 almost immediately the     
vibrations of the rear wheel ceased2 a  
little later we only experienced those  
of the front wheels at intervals4       
,unhappily1 the wind became suddenly    
strong1 and we had some difficulty in   
keeping the 8,avion0 on the white line4 
,we increased the pressure to between   
eight and nine atmospheres1 and         
immediately the speed increased         
considerably1 and the vibrations of the 
wheels were no longer sensible2 we were 
at that moment at the point marked ,g in
 the sketch2 the 8,avion0 then found    
itself freely supported by its wings2   

under the impulse of the wind it        
continually tended to go outside the    
7prepared7 area to the right1 in spite  
of the action of the rudder4 ,on        
reaching the point ,v it found itself in
 a very critical position2 the wind blew
 strongly and across the direction of   
the white line which it ought to follow2
 the machine then1 although still going 
forward1 drifted quickly out of the     
area2 we immediately put over the rudder
 to the left as far as it would go2 at  
the same time increasing the pressure   
still more1 in order to try to regain   
the course4 ,the 8,avion0 obeyed1       
recovered a little1 and remained for    
some seconds headed towards its intended
 course1 but it could not struggle      
against the wind2 instead of going back1
 on the contrary it drifted farther and 
farther away4 ,and ill-luck had it that 
the drift took the direction towards    
part of the ,school of ,musketry1 which 
was guarded by posts and barriers4      
,frightened at the prospect of breaking 

ourselves against these obstacles1      
surprised at seeing the earth getting   
farther away from under the 8,avion10   
and very much impressed by seeing it    
rushing sideways at a sickening speed1  
instinctively we stopped everything4    
,what passed through our thoughts at    
this moment which threatened a tragic   
turn would be difficult to set down4    
,all at once came a great shock1        
splintering1 a heavy concussion3 we had 
landed4'  ,thus speaks the inventor2 the
 cold official mind gives out a         
different account1 crediting the        
#8,avion' with merely a few hops1 and   
to-day1 among those who consider the    
problem at all1 there is a little group 
which persists in asserting that to     
,ader belongs the credit of the first   
power-driven flight1 while a larger     
group is equally persistent in stating  
that1 save for a few ineffectual hops1  
all three wheels of the machine never   
left the ground4 ,it is past question   
that the #8,avion' was capable of       

power-driven flight2 whether it achieved
 it or no remains an unsettled problem4 
,illustration3 ,clement ,ader's         
#8,avion1' with wings partly folded4    
,ader's work is negative proof of the   
value of such experiments as            
,lilienthal1 ,pilcher1 ,chanute1 and    
,montgomery conducted2 these four set to
 work to master the eccentricities of   
the air before attempting to use it as a
 supporting medium for continuous flight
 under power2 ,ader attacked the problem
 from the other end2 like many other    
experimenters he regarded the air as a  
stable fluid capable of giving such     
support to his machine as still water   
might give to a fish1 and he reckoned   
that he had only to produce the machine 
in order to achieve flight4 ,the wrecked
 #8,avion' and the refusal of the       
,french ,war ,ministry to grant any more
 funds for further experiment are       
sufficient evidence of the need for     
working along the lines taken by the    
pioneers of gliding rather than on those

 which ,ader himself adopted4  ,let it  
not be thought that in this comment     
there is any desire to derogate from the
 position which ,ader should occupy in  
any study of the pioneers of            
aeronautical enterprise4 ,if he failed1 
he failed magnificently1 and if he      
succeeded1 then the student of          
aeronautics does him an injustice and   
confers on the ,brothers ,wright an     
honour which1 in spite of the value of  
their work1 they do not deserve4 ,there 
was one earlier than ,ader1 ,alphonse   
,penaud1 who1 in the face of a lesser   
disappointment than that which ,ader    
must have felt in gazing on the wreckage
 of his machine1 committed suicide2     
,ader himself1 rendered unable to do    
more1 remained content with his         
achievement1 and with the knowledge that
 he had played a good part in the long  
search which must eventually end in     
triumph4 ,whatever the world might say1 
he himself was certain that he had      
achieved flight4 ,this1 for him1 was    

perforce enough4  ,before turning to    
consideration of the work accomplished  
by the ,brothers ,wright1 and their     
proved conquest of the air1 it is       
necessary first to sketch as briefly as 
may be the experimental work of ,sir    
7then ,mr7 ,hiram ,maxim1 who1 in his   
book1 ,artificial and ,natural ,flight1 
has given a fairly complete account of  
his various experiments4 ,he began by   
experimenting with models1 with         
screw-propelled planes so attached to a 
horizontal movable arm that when the    
screw was set in motion the plane       
described a circle round a central      
point1 and1 eventually1 he built a giant
 aeroplane having a total supporting    
area of #a1ejj square feet1 and a       
wing-span of fifty feet4 ,it has been   
thought advisable to give a fairly full 
description of the power plant used to  
the propulsion of this machine in the   
section devoted to engine development4  
,the aeroplane1 as ,maxim describes it1 
had five long and narrow planes         

projecting from each side1 and a main or
 central plane of pterygoid aspect4 ,a  
fore and aft rudder was provided1 and   
had all the auxiliary planes been put in
 position for experimental work a total 
lifting surface of #f1jjj square feet   
could have been obtained4 ,maxim1       
however1 did not use more than #d1jjj   
square feet of lifting surface even in  
his later experiments2 with this he     
judged the machine capable of lifting   
slightly under #h1jjj lbs4 weight1 made 
up of #fjj lbs4 water in the boiler and 
tank1 a crew of three men1 a supply of  
naphtha fuel1 and the weight of the     
machine itself4  ,maxim's intention was1
 before attempting free flight1 to get  
as much data as possible regarding the  
conditions under which flight must be   
obtained1 by what is known in these days
 as #8taxi-ing'--that is1 running the   
propellers at sufficient speed to drive 
the machine along the ground without    
actually mounting into the air4 ,he knew
 that he had an immense lifting surface 

and a tremendous amount of power in his 
engine even when the total weight of the
 experimental plant was taken into      
consideration1 and thus he set about to 
devise some means of keeping the machine
 on the nine foot gauge rail track which
 had been constructed for the trials4   
,at the outset he had a set of very     
heavy cast-iron wheels made on which to 
mount the machine1 the total weight of  
wheels1 axles1 and connections being    
about one and a half tons4 ,these were  
so constructed that the light flanged   
wheels which supported the machine on   
the steel rails could be lifted six     
inches above the track1 still leaving   
the heavy wheels on the rails for       
guidance of the machine4 #8,this        
arrangement1' ,maxim states1 #8was tried
 on several occasions1 the machine being
 run fast enough to lift the forward end
 off the track4 ,however1 ,i found      
considerable difficulty in starting and 
stopping quickly on account of the great
 weight1 and the amount of energy       

necessary to set such heavy wheels      
spinning at a high velocity4 ,the last  
experiment with these wheels was made   
when a head wind was blowing at the rate
 of about ten miles an hour4 ,it was    
rather unsteady1 and when the machine   
was running at its greatest velocity1 a 
sudden gust lifted not only the front   
end1 but also the heavy front wheels    
completely off the track1 and the       
machine falling on soft ground was soon 
blown over by the wind4'  ,consequently1
 a safety track was provided1 consisting
 of squared pine logs1 three inches by  
nine inches1 placed about two feet above
 the steel way and having a thirty-foot 
gauge4 ,four extra wheels were fitted to
 the machine on outriggers and so       
adjusted that1 if the machine should    
lift one inch clear of the steel rails1 
the wheels at the ends of the outriggers
 would engage the under side of the pine
 trackway4  ,the first fully loaded run 
was made in a dead calm with #aej lbs4  
steam pressure to the square inch1 and  

there was no sign of the wheels leaving 
the steel track4 ,on a second run1 with 
#bcj lbs4 steam pressure the machine    
seemed to alternate between adherence to
 the lower and upper tracks1 as many as 
three of the outrigger wheels engaging  
at the same time1 and the weight on the 
steel rails being reduced practically to
 nothing4 ,in preparation for a third   
run1 in which it was intended to use    
full power1 a dynamometer was attached  
to the machine and the engines were     
started at #bjj lbs4 pressure1 which was
 gradually increased to #caj lbs per    
square inch4 ,the incline of the track1 
added to the reading of the dynamometer1
 showed a total screw thrust of #b1afd  
lbs4 ,after the dynamometer test had    
been completed1 and everything had been 
made ready for trial in motion1 careful 
observers were stationed on each side of
 the track1 and the order was given to  
release the machine4 ,what follows is   
best told in ,maxim's own words3--      
#8,the enormous screw-thrust started the

 engine so quickly that it nearly threw 
the engineers off their feet1 and the   
machine bounded over the track at a     
great rate4 ,upon noticing a slight     
diminution in the steam pressure1 ,i    
turned on more gas1 when almost         
instantly the steam commenced to blow a 
steady blast from the small safety      
valve1 showing that the pressure was at 
least #cbj lbs4 in the pipes supplying  
the engines with steam4 ,before starting
 on this run1 the wheels that were to   
engage the upper track were painted1 and
 it was the duty of one of my assistants
 to observe these wheels during the run1
 while another assistant watched the    
pressure gauges and dynagraphs4 ,the    
first part of the track was up a slight 
incline1 but the machine was lifted     
clear of the lower rails and all of the 
top wheels were fully engaged on the    
upper track when about #fjj feet had    
been covered4 ,the speed rapidly        
increased1 and when #ijj feet had been  
covered1 one of the rear axle trees1    

which were of two-inch steel tubing1    
doubled up and set the rear end of the  
machine completely free4 ,the pencils   
ran completely across the cylinders of  
the dynagraphs and caught on the        
underneath end4 ,the rear end of the    
machine being set free1 raised          
considerably above the track and swayed4
 ,at about #a1jjj feet1 the left forward
 wheel also got clear of the upper      
track1 and shortly afterwards the right 
forward wheel tore up about #ajj feet of
 the upper track4 ,steam was at once    
shut off and the machine sank directly  
to the earth1 embedding the wheels in   
the soft turf without leaving any other 
marks1 showing most conclusively that   
the machine was completely suspended in 
the air before it settled to the earth4 
,in this accident1 one of the pine      
timbers forming the upper track went    
completely through the lower framework  
of the machine and broke a number of the
 tubes1 but no damage was done to the   
machinery except a slight injury to one 

of the screws4'  ,it is a pity that the 
multifarious directions in which ,maxim 
turned his energies did not include     
further development of the aeroplane1   
for it seems fairly certain that he was 
as near solution of the problem as ,ader
 himself1 and1 but for the holding-down 
outer track1 which was really the cause 
of his accident1 his machine would      
certainly have achieved free flight1    
though whether it would have risen1     
flown and alighted1 without accident1 is
 matter for conjecture4  ,the difference
 between experiments with models and    
with full-sized machines is emphasised  
by ,maxim's statement to the effect that
 with a small apparatus for ascertaining
 the power required for artificial      
flight1 an angle of incidence of one in 
fourteen was most advantageous1 while   
with a large machine he found it best to
 increase his angle to one in eight in  
order to get the maximum lifting effect 
on a short run at a moderate speed4 ,he 
computed the total lifting effect in the

 experiments which led to the accident  
as not less than #aj1jjj lbs41 in which 
is proof that only his rail system      
prevented free flight4     ,x  ,,samuel 
,,pierpoint ,,langley   ,langley was an 
old man when he began the study of      
aeronautics1 or1 as he himself might    
have expressed it1 the study of         
aerodromics1 since he persisted in      
calling the series of machines he built 
#8,aerodromes1' a word now used only to 
denote areas devoted to use as landing  
spaces for flying machines2 the ,wright 
,brothers1 on the other hand1 had the   
great gift of youth to aid them in their
 work4 ,even so it was a great race     
between ,langley1 aided by ,charles     
,manly1 and ,wilbur and ,orville        
,wright1 and only the persistent        
ill-luck which dogged ,langley from the 
start to the finish of his experiments  
gave victory to his rivals4 ,it has been
 proved conclusively in these later     
years of accomplished flight that the   
machine which ,langley launched on the  

,potomac ,river in ,october of #aijc was
 fully capable of sustained flight1 and 
only the accidents incurred in launching
 prevented its pilot from being the     
first man to navigate the air           
successfully in a power-driven machine4 
,the best account of ,langley's work is 
that diffused throughout a weighty tome 
issued by the ,smithsonian ,institution1
 entitled the ,langley ,memoir on       
,mechanical ,flight1 of which about     
one-third was written by ,langley       
himself1 the remainder being compiled by
 ,charles ,m4 ,manly1 the engineer      
responsible for the construction of the 
first radial aero engine1 and chief     
assistant to ,langley in his            
experiments4 ,to give a twentieth of the
 contents of this volume in the present 
short account of the development of     
mechanical flight would far exceed the  
amount of space that can be devoted even
 to so eminent a man in aeronautics as  
,s4 ,p4 ,langley1 who1 apart from his   
achievement in the construction of a    

power-driven aeroplane really capable of
 flight1 was a scientist of no mean     
order1 and who brought to the study of  
aeronautics the skill of the trained    
investigator allied to the inventive    
resource of the genius4  ,that genius   
exemplified the antique saw regarding   
the infinite capacity for taking pains1 
for the ,langley ,memoir shows that as  
early as #ahia ,langley had completed a 
set of experiments1 lasting through     
years1 which proved it possible to      
construct machines giving such a        
velocity to inclined surfaces that      
bodies indefinitely heavier than air    
could be sustained upon it and propelled
 through it at high speed4 ,for full    
account 7very full7 of these            
experiments1 and of a later series      
leading up to the construction of a     
series of #8model aerodromes' capable of
 flight under power1 it is necessary to 
turn to the bulky memoir of ,smithsonian
 origin4  ,illustration3 ,quarter-size  
model1 ,langley ,aerodrome1 in flight1  

#hth ,august1 #aijc4  ,langley ,memoir  
on ,mechanical ,flight1 ,smithsonian    
,institution1 ,washington4  ,the account
 of these experiments as given by       
,langley himself reveals the humility of
 the true investigator4 ,concerning     
them1 ,langley remarks that1            
#8,everything here has been done with a 
view to putting a trial aerodrome       
successfully in flight within a few     
years1 and thus giving an early         
demonstration of the only kind which is 
conclusive in the eyes of the scientific
 man1 as well as of the general         
public--a demonstration that mechanical 
flight is possible--by actually flying4 
,all that has been done has been with an
 eye principally to this immediate      
result1 and all the experiments given in
 this book are to be considered only as 
approximations to exact truth4 ,all were
 made with a view1 not to some remote   
future1 but to an arrival within the    
compass of a few years at some result in
 actual flight that could not be        

gainsaid or mistaken4'  ,with a series  
of over thirty rubber-driven models     
,langley demonstrated the practicability
 of opposing curved surfaces to the     
resistance of the air in such a way as  
to achieve flight1 in the early nineties
 of last century2 he then set about     
finding the motive power which should   
permit of the construction of larger    
machines1 up to man-carrying size4 ,the 
internal combustion engine was then an  
unknown quantity1 and he had to turn to 
steam1 finally1 as the propulsive energy
 for his power plant4 ,the chief problem
 which faced him was that of the        
relative weight and power of his engine2
 he harked back to the ,stringfellow    
engine of #ahfh1 which in #ahhi came    
into the possession of the ,smithsonian 
,institution as a historical curiosity4 
,rightly or wrongly ,langley concluded  
on examination that this engine never   
had developed and never could develop   
more than a tenth of the power          
attributed to it2 consequently he       

abandoned the idea of copying the       
,stringfellow design and set about      
making his own engine4  ,how he overcame
 the various difficulties that faced him
 and constructed a steam-engine capable 
of the task allotted to it forms a story
 in itself1 too long for recital here4  
,his first power-driven aerodrome of    
model size was begun in ,november of    
#ahia1 the scale of construction being  
decided with the idea that it should be 
large enough to carry an automatic      
steering apparatus which would render   
the machine capable of maintaining a    
long and steady flight4 ,the actual     
weight of the first model far exceeded  
the theoretical estimate1 and ,langley  
found that a constant increase of weight
 under the exigencies of construction   
was a feature which could never be      
altogether eliminated4 ,the machine was 
made principally of steel1 the          
sustaining surfaces being composed of   
silk stretched from a steel tube with   
wooden attachments4 ,the first engines  

were the oscillating type1 but were     
found deficient in power4 ,this led to  
the construction of single-acting       
inverted oscillating engines with high  
and low pressure cylinders1 and with    
admission and exhaust ports to avoid the
 complication and weight of eccentric   
and valves4 ,boiler and furnace had to  
be specially designed2 an analysis of   
sustaining surfaces and the settlement  
of equilibrium while in flight had to be
 overcome1 and then it was possible to  
set about the construction of the series
 of model aerodromes and make test of   
their #8lift4'  ,by the time ,langley   
had advanced sufficiently far to        
consider it possible to conduct         
experiments in the open air1 even with  
these models1 he had got to his fifth   
aerodrome1 and to the year #ahid4       
,certain tests resulted in failure1     
which in turn resulted in further       
modifications of design1 mainly of the  
engines4 ,by ,february of #ahie ,langley
 reported that under favourable         

conditions a lift of nearly sixty per   
cent of the flying weight was secured1  
but although this was much more than was
 required for flight1 it was decided to 
postpone trials until two machines were 
ready for the test4 ,may1 #ahif1 came   
before actual trials were made1 when one
 machine proved successful and another1 
a later design1 failed4 ,the difficulty 
with these models was that of securing a
 correct angle for launching2 ,langley  
records how1 on launching one machine1  
it rose so rapidly that it attained an  
angle of sixty degrees and then did a   
tail slide into the water with its      
engines working at full speed1 after    
advancing nearly forty feet and         
remaining in the air for about three    
seconds4 ,here1 ,langley found that he  
had to obtain greater rigidity in his   
wings1 owing to the distortion of the   
form of wing under pressure1 and how he 
overcame this difficulty constitutes yet
 another story too long for the telling 
here4  ,field trials were first         

attempted in #ahic1 and ,langley blamed 
his launching apparatus for their total 
failure4 ,there was a brief1 but at the 
same time practical1 success in model   
flight in #ahid1 extending to between   
six and seven seconds1 but this only    
proved the need for strengthening of the
 wing4 ,in #ahie there was practically  
no advance toward the solution of the   
problem1 but the flights of ,may #fth   
and ,november #bhth1 #ahif1 were notably
 successful4 ,a diagram given in        
,langley's memoir shows the track       
covered by the aerodrome on these two   
flights2 in the first of them the       
machine made three complete circles1    
covering a distance of #c1bjj feet2 in  
the second1 that of ,november #bhth1 the
 distance covered was #d1bjj feet1 or   
about three-quarters of a mile1 at a    
speed of about thirty miles an hour4    
,these achievements meant a good deal2  
they proved mechanically propelled      
flight possible4 ,the difference between
 them and such experiments as were      

conducted by ,clement ,ader1 ,maxim1 and
 others1 lay principally in the fact    
that these latter either did or did not 
succeed in rising into the air once1 and
 then1 either willingly or by           
compulsion1 gave up the quest1 while    
,langley repeated his experiments and   
thus attained to actual proof of the    
possibilities of flight4 ,like these    
others1 however1 he decided in #ahif    
that he would not undertake the         
construction of a large man-carrying    
machine4 ,in addition to a multitude of 
actual duties1 which left him           
practically no time available for       
original research1 he had as an adverse 
factor fully ten years of disheartening 
difficulties in connection with his     
model machines4 ,it was ,president      
,mc,kinley who1 by requesting ,langley  
to undertake the construction and test  
of a machine which might finally lead to
 the development of a flying machine    
capable of being used in warfare1 egged 
him on to his final experiment4         

,langley's acceptance of the offer to   
construct such a machine is contained in
 a letter addressed from the            
,smithsonian ,institution on ,december  
#abth1 #ahih1 to the ,board of ,ordnance
 and ,fortification of the ,united      
,states ,war ,department2 this letter is
 of such interest as to render it worthy
 of reproduction3--  #8,gentlemen1--,in 
response to your invitation ,i repeat   
what ,i had the honour to say to the    
,board--that ,i am willing1 with the    
consent of the ,regents of this         
,institution1 to undertake for the      
,government the further investigation of
 the subject of the construction of a   
flying machine on a scale capable of    
carrying a man1 the investigation to    
include the construction1 development   
and test of such a machine under        
conditions left as far as practicable in
 my discretion1 it being understood that
 my services are given to the           
,government in such time as may not be  
occupied by the business of the         

,institution1 and without charge4  #8,i 
have reason to believe that the cost of 
the construction will come within the   
sum of #ej1jjjjj1 and that not more than
 one-half of that will be called for in 
the coming year4  #8,i entirely agree   
with what ,i understand to be the wish  
of the ,board that privacy be observed  
with regard to the work1 and only when  
it reaches a successful completion shall
 ,i wish to make public the fact of its 
success4  #8,i attach to this a         
memorandum of my understanding of some  
points of detail in order to be sure    
that it is also the understanding of the
 ,board1 and ,i am1 gentlemen1 with much
 respect1 your obedient servant1 ,s4 ,p4
 ,langley4'  ,one of the chief problems 
in connection with the construction of a
 full-sized apparatus was that of the   
construction of an engine1 for it was   
realised from the first that a steam    
power plant for a full-sized machine    
could only be constructed in such a way 
as to make it a constant menace to the  

machine which it was to propel4 ,by this
 time 7#ahih7 the internal combustion   
engine had so far advanced as to        
convince ,langley that it formed the    
best power plant available4 ,a contract 
was made for the delivery of a twelve   
horse-power engine to weigh not more    
than a hundred pounds1 but this contract
 was never completed1 and it fell to    
,charles ,m4 ,manly to design the       
five-cylinder radial engine1 of which a 
brief account is included in the section
 of this work devoted to aero engines1  
as the power plant for the ,langley     
machine4  ,the history of the years     
#ahii to #aijc in the ,langley series of
 experiments contains a multitude of    
detail far beyond the scope of this     
present study1 and of interest mainly to
 the designer4 ,there were frames1      
engines1 and propellers1 to be          
considered1 worked out1 and constructed4
 ,we are concerned here mainly with the 
completed machine and its trials4 ,of   
these latter it must be remarked that   

the only two actual field trials which  
took place resulted in accidents due to 
the failure of the launching apparatus1 
and not due to any inherent defect in   
the machine4 ,it was intended that these
 two trials should be the first of a    
series1 but the unfortunate accidents1  
and the fact that no further funds were 
forthcoming for continuance of          
experiments1 prevented ,langley's       
success1 which1 had he been free to go  
through as he intended with his work1   
would have been certain4  ,the best     
brief description of the ,langley       
aerodrome in its final form1 and of the 
two attempted trials1 is contained in   
the official report of ,major ,m4 ,m4   
,macomb of the ,united ,states          
,artillery ,corps1 which report is here 
given in full3--    ,,report            
,experiments with working models which  
were concluded ,august #h last   having 
proved the principles and calculations  
on which the design   of the ,langley   
aerodrome was based to be correct1 the  

next step   was to apply these          
principles to the construction of a     
machine   of sufficient size and power  
to permit the carrying of a man1   who  
could control the motive power and guide
 its flight1 thus   pointing the way to 
attaining the final goal of producing a 
machine   capable of such extensive and 
precise aerial flight1 under normal     
atmospheric conditions1 as to prove of  
military or commercial   utility4    ,mr
 ,c4 ,m4 ,manly1 working under          
,professor ,langley1 had1 by the summer 
of #aijc1 succeeded in completing an    
engine-driven machine which   under     
favourable atmospheric conditions was   
expected to carry a man   for any time  
up to half an hour1 and to be capable of
 having its   flight directed and       
controlled by him4    ,the supporting   
surface of the wings was ample1 and     
experiment   showed the engine capable  
of supplying more than the necessary    
motive power4    ,owing to the necessity
 of lightness1 the weight of the various

   elements had to be kept at a minimum1
 and the factor of safety in            
construction was therefore exceedingly  
small1 so that the machine   as a whole 
was delicate and frail and incapable of 
sustaining any   unusual strain4 ,this  
defect was to be corrected in later     
models   by utilising data gathered in  
future experiments under varied         
conditions4    ,one of the most         
remarkable results attained was the     
production of a   gasoline engine       
furnishing over fifty continuous        
horse-power for a   weight of #abj lbs4 
,the aerodrome1 as completed and        
prepared for test1 is briefly           
described by ,professor ,langley as     
#8built of steel1 weighing   complete   
about #gcj lbs41 supported by #a1jdj    
feet of sustaining   surface1 having two
 propellers driven by a gas engine      
developing   continuously over fifty    
brake horse-power4'    ,the appearance  
of the machine prepared for flight was  
exceedingly   light and graceful1 giving

 an impression to all observers of being
   capable of successful flight4    ,on 
,october #g last everything was in      
readiness1 and ,i witnessed the         
attempted trial on that day at          
,widewater1 ,va41 on the ,potomac4 ,the 
engine worked well and the machine was  
launched at about #ab4ae p4m4   ,the    
trial was unsuccessful because the front
 guy-post caught in   its support on the
 launching car and was not released in  
time to   give free flight1 as was      
intended1 but1 on the contrary1 caused  
the   front of the machine to be dragged
 downward1 bending the guy-post   and   
making the machine plunge into the water
 about fifty yards in   front of the    
house-boat4 ,the machine was            
subsequently recovered   and brought    
back to the house-boat4 ,the engine was 
uninjured and   the frame only slightly 
damaged1 but the four wings and rudder  
were   practically destroyed by the     
first plunge and subsequent towing      
back to the house-boat4 ,this accident  

necessitated the removal of   the       
house-boat to ,washington for the more  
convenient repair of   damages4    ,on  
,december #h last1 between #d and #e    
p4m41 another attempt at a   trial was  
made1 this time at the junction of the  
,anacostia with the   ,potomac1 just    
below ,washington ,barracks4    ,on this
 occasion ,general ,randolph and myself 
represented the ,board   of ,ordnance   
and ,fortification4 ,the launching car  
was released at   #d4de p4m4 being      
pointed up the ,anacostia towards the   
,navy ,yard4 ,my   position was on the  
tug ,bartholdi1 about #aej feet from and
 at   right angles to the direction of  
proposed flight4 ,the car was set   in  
motion and the propellers revolved      
rapidly1 the engine working   perfectly1
 but there was something wrong with the 
launching4 ,the   rear guy-post seemed  
to drag1 bringing the rudder down on the
   launching ways1 and a crashing1      
rending sound1 followed by the          
collapse of the rear wings1 showed that 

the machine had been   wrecked in the   
launching1 just how1 it was impossible  
for me to   see4 ,the fact remains that 
the rear wings and rudder were wrecked  
before the machine was free of the ways4
 ,their collapse deprived   the machine 
of its support in the rear1 and it      
consequently reared   up in front under 
the action of the motor1 assumed a      
vertical   position1 and then toppled   
over to the rear1 falling into the water
   a few feet in front of the boat4     
,mr ,manly was pulled out of the wreck  
uninjured and the wrecked   machine was 
subsequently placed upon the house-boat1
 and the whole   brought back to        
,washington4    ,from what has been said
 it will be seen that these unfortunate 
accidents have prevented any test of the
 apparatus in free flight1   and the    
claim that an engine-driven1            
man-carrying aerodrome has   been       
constructed lacks the proof which actual
 flight alone can give4    ,having      
reached the present stage of advancement

 in its development1   it would seem    
highly desirable1 before laying down the
   investigation1 to obtain conclusive  
proof of the possibility of   free      
flight1 not only because there are      
excellent reasons to hope   for success1
 but because it marks the end of a      
definite step toward   the attainment of
 the final goal4    ,just what further  
procedure is necessary to secure        
successful   flight with the large      
aerodrome has not yet been decided upon4
   ,professor ,langley is understood to 
have this subject under   advisement1   
and will doubtless inform the ,board of 
his final   conclusions as soon as      
practicable4    ,in the meantime1 to    
avoid any possible misunderstanding1 it 
should   be stated that even after a    
successful test of the present great    
aerodrome1 designed to carry a man1 we  
are still far from the   ultimate goal1 
and it would seem as if years of        
constant work and   study by experts1   
together with the expenditure of        

thousands of   dollars1 would still be  
necessary before we can hope to produce 
an apparatus of practical utility on    
these lines4--,washington1   ,january   
#f1 #aijd4  ,illustration3 ,dynamometer 
tests of engine built in the            
,smithsonian shops for the full-size    
,langley ,aerodrome4  ,langley ,memoir  
on ,mechanical ,flight1 ,smithsonian    
,institution1 ,washington4  ,a          
subsequent report of the ,board of      
,ordnance and ,fortification to the     
,secretary of ,war embodied the         
principal points in ,major ,macomb's    
report1 but as early as ,march #crd1    
#aijd1 the ,board came to a similar     
conclusion to that of the ,french       
,ministry of ,war in respect of ,clement
 ,ader's work1 stating that it was not  
#8prepared to make an additional        
allotment at this time for continuing   
the work4' ,this decision was in no     
small measure due to hostile newspaper  
criticisms4 ,langley1 in a letter to the
 press explaining his attitude1 stated  

that he did not wish to make public the 
results of his work till these were     
certain1 in consequence of which he     
refused admittance to newspaper         
representatives1 and this attitude      
produced a hostility which had effect on
 the ,united ,states ,congress4 ,an     
offer was made to commercialise the     
invention1 but ,langley steadfastly     
refused it4 ,concerning this1 ,manly    
remarks that ,langley had #8given his   
time and his best labours to the world  
without hope of remuneration1 and he    
could not bring himself1 at his stage of
 life1 to consent to capitalise his     
scientific work4'  ,the final trial of  
the ,langley aerodrome was made on      
,december #h th1 #aijc2 nine days later1
 on ,december #agth1 the ,wright        
,brothers made their first flight in a  
power-propelled machine1 and the        
conquest of the air was thus achieved4  
,but for the two accidents that spoilt  
his trials1 the honour which fell to the
 ,wright ,brothers would1 beyond doubt1 

have been secured by ,samuel ,pierpoint 
,langley4     ,,xi  ,,the ,,wright      
,,brothers   ,such information as is    
given here concerning the ,wright       
,brothers is derived from the two best  
sources available1 namely1 the writings 
of ,wilbur ,wright himself1 and a       
lecture given by ,dr ,griffith ,brewer  
to members of the ,royal ,aeronautical  
,society4 ,there is no doubt that so far
 as actual work in connection with      
aviation accomplished by the two        
brothers is concerned1 ,wilbur ,wright's
 own statements are the clearest and    
best available4 ,apparently ,wilbur was1
 from the beginning1 the historian of   
the pair1 though he himself would have  
been the last to attempt to detract in  
any way from the fame that his brother's
 work also deserves4 ,throughout all    
their experiments the two were          
inseparable1 and their work is one      
indivisible whole2 in fact1 in every    
department of that work1 it is          
impossible to say where ,orville leaves 

off and where ,wilbur begins4  ,it is a 
great story1 this of the ,wright        
,brothers1 and one worth all the detail 
that can be spared it4 ,it begins on the
 #afth ,april1 #ahfg1 when ,wilbur      
,wright was born within eight miles of  
,newcastle1 ,indiana4 ,before ,orville's
 birth on the #aith ,august1 #ahga1 the 
,wright family had moved to ,dayton1    
,ohio1 and settled on what is known as  
the #8,west ,side' of the town4 ,here   
the brothers grew up1 and1 when ,orville
 was still a boy in his teens1 he       
started a printing business1 which1 as  
,griffith ,brewer remarks1 was only     
limited by the smallness of his machine 
and small quantity of type at his       
disposal4 ,this machine was in such a   
state that pieces of string and wood    
were incorporated in it by way of       
repair1 but on it ,orville managed to   
print a boys' paper which gained        
considerable popularity in ,dayton      
#8,west ,side4' ,later1 at the age of   
seventeen1 he obtained a more efficient 

outfit1 with which he launched a weekly 
newspaper1 four pages in size1 entitled 
,the ,west ,side ,news4 ,after three    
months' running the paper was increased 
in size and ,wilbur came into the       
enterprise as editor1 ,orville remaining
 publisher4 ,in #ahid the two brothers  
began the publication of a weekly       
magazine1 ,snap-,shots1 to which ,wilbur
 contributed a series of articles on    
local affairs that gave evidence of the 
incisive and often sarcastic manner in  
which he was able to express himself    
throughout his life4 ,dr ,griffith      
,brewer describes him as a fearless     
critic1 who wrote on matters of local   
interest in a kindly but vigorous       
manner1 which did much to maintain the  
healthy public municipal life of        
,dayton4  ,editorial and publishing     
enterprise was succeeded by the         
formation1 just across the road from the
 printing works1 of the ,wright ,cycle  
,company1 where the two brothers        
launched out as cycle manufacturers with

 the #8,van ,cleve' bicycle1 a machine  
of great local repute for excellence of 
construction1 and one which won for     
itself a reputation that lasted long    
after it had ceased to be manufactured4 
,the name of the machine was that of an 
ancestor of the brothers1 ,catherine    
,van ,cleve1 who was one of the first   
settlers at ,dayton1 landing there from 
the ,river ,miami on ,april #ast1 #agif1
 when the country was virgin forest4    
,it was not until #ahif that the        
mechanical genius which characterised   
the two brothers was turned to the      
consideration of aeronautics4 ,in that  
year they took up the problem           
thoroughly1 studying all the            
aeronautical information then in print4 
,lilienthal's writings formed one basis 
for their studies1 and the work of      
,langley assisted in establishing in    
them a confidence in the possibility of 
a solution to the problems of mechanical
 flight4 ,in #aiji1 at the banquet given
 by the ,royal ,aero ,club to the       

,wright ,brothers on their return to    
,america1 after the series of           
demonstration flights carried out by    
,wilbur ,wright on the ,continent1      
,wilbur paid tribute to the great       
pioneer work of ,stringfellow1 whose    
studies and achievements influenced his 
own and ,orville's early work4 ,he      
pointed out how ,stringfellow devised an
 aeroplane having two propellers and    
vertical and horizontal steering1 and   
gave due place to this early pioneer of 
mechanical flight4  ,neither of the     
brothers was content with mere study of 
the work of others4 ,they collected all 
the theory available in the books       
published up to that time1 and then     
built man-carrying gliders with which to
 test the data of ,lilienthal and such  
other authorities as they had consulted4
 ,for two years they conducted outdoor  
experiments in order to test the truth  
or otherwise of what were enunciated as 
the principles of flight2 after this    
they turned to laboratory experiments1  

constructing a wind tunnel in which they
 made thousands of tests with models of 
various forms of curved planes4 ,from   
their experiments they tabulated        
thousands of readings1 which ,griffith  
,brewer remarks as giving results       
equally efficient with those of the     
elaborate tables prepared by learned    
institutions4  ,wilbur ,wright has set  
down the beginnings of the practical    
experiments made by the two brothers    
very clearly4 #8,the difficulties1' he  
says1 #8which obstruct the pathway to   
success in flying machine construction  
are of three general classes3 7#a7      
,those which relate to the construction 
of the sustaining wings2 7#b7 those     
which relate to the generation and      
application of the power required to    
drive the machine through the air2 7#c7 
those relating to the balancing and     
steering of the machine after it is     
actually in flight4 ,of these           
difficulties two are already to a       
certain extent solved4 ,men already know

 how to construct wings1 or aeroplanes1 
which1 when driven through the air at   
sufficient speed1 will not only sustain 
the weight of the wings themselves1 but 
also that of the engine and the engineer
 as well4 ,men also know how to build   
engines and screws of sufficient        
lightness and power to drive these      
planes at sustaining speed4 ,inability  
to balance and steer still confronts    
students of the flying problem1 although
 nearly ten years have passed 7since    
,lilienthal's success74 ,when this one  
feature has been worked out1 the age of 
flying machines will have arrived1 for  
all other difficulties are of minor     
importance4  #8,the person who merely   
watches the flight of a bird gathers the
 impression that the bird has nothing to
 think of but the flapping of its wings4
 ,as a matter of fact1 this is a very   
small part of its mental labour4 ,even  
to mention all the things the bird must 
constantly keep in mind in order to fly 
securely through the air would take a   

considerable time4 ,if ,i take a piece  
of paper and1 after placing it parallel 
with the ground1 quickly let it fall1 it
 will not settle steadily down as a     
staid1 sensible piece of paper ought to 
do1 but it insists on contravening every
 recognised rule of decorum1 turning    
over and darting hither and thither in  
the most erratic manner1 much after the 
style of an untrained horse4 ,yet this  
is the style of steed that men must     
learn to manage before flying can become
 an everyday sport4 ,the bird has       
learned this art of equilibrium1 and    
learned it so thoroughly that its skill 
is not apparent to our sight4 ,we only  
learn to appreciate it when we can      
imitate it4  #8,now1 there are only two 
ways of learning to ride a fractious    
horse3 one is to get on him and learn by
 actual practice how each motion and    
trick may be best met2 the other is to  
sit on a fence and watch the beast      
awhile1 and then retire to the house and
 at leisure figure out the best way of  

overcoming his jumps and kicks4 ,the    
latter system is the safer1 but the     
former1 on the whole1 turns out the     
larger proportion of good riders4 ,it is
 very much the same in learning to ride 
a flying machine2 if you are looking for
 perfect safety you will do well to sit 
on a fence and watch the birds1 but if  
you really wish to learn you must mount 
a machine and become acquainted with its
 tricks by actual trial4 ,the balancing 
of a gliding or flying machine is very  
simple in theory4 ,it merely consists in
 causing the centre of pressure to      
coincide with the centre of gravity4'   
,illustration3 ,wilbur ,wright4  ,these 
comments are taken from a lecture       
delivered by ,wilbur ,wright before the 
,western ,society of ,engineers in      
,september of #aija1 under the          
presidency of ,octave ,chanute4 ,in that
 lecture ,wilbur detailed the way in    
which he and his brother came to        
interest themselves in aeronautical     
problems and constructed their first    

glider4 ,he speaks of his own notice of 
the death of ,lilienthal in #ahif1 and  
of the way in which this fatality roused
 him to an active interest in           
aeronautical problems1 which was        
stimulated by reading ,professor        
,marey's ,animal ,mechanism1 not for the
 first time4 #8,from this ,i was led to 
read more modern works1 and as my       
brother soon became equally interested  
with myself1 we soon passed from the    
reading to the thinking1 and finally to 
the working stage4 ,it seemed to us that
 the main reason why the problem had    
remained so long unsolved was that no   
one had been able to obtain any adequate
 practice4 ,we figured that ,lilienthal 
in five years of time had spent only    
about five hours in actual gliding      
through the air4 ,the wonder was not    
that he had done so little1 but that he 
had accomplished so much4 ,it would not 
be considered at all safe for a bicycle 
rider to attempt to ride through a      
crowded city street after only five     

hours' practice1 spread out in bits of  
ten seconds each over a period of five  
years2 yet ,lilienthal with this brief  
practice was remarkably successful in   
meeting the fluctuations and eddies of  
wind-gusts4 ,we thought that if some    
method could be found by which it would 
be possible to practise by the hour     
instead of by the second there would be 
hope of advancing the solution of a very
 difficult problem4 ,it seemed feasible 
to do this by building a machine which  
would be sustained at a speed of        
eighteen miles per hour1 and then       
finding a locality where winds of this  
velocity were common4 ,with these       
conditions a rope attached to the       
machine to keep it from floating        
backward would answer very nearly the   
same purpose as a propeller driven by a 
motor1 and it would be possible to      
practise by the hour1 and without any   
serious danger1 as it would not be      
necessary to rise far from the ground1  
and the machine would not have any      

forward motion at all4 ,we found1       
according to the accepted tables of air 
pressure on curved surfaces1 that a     
machine spreading #bjj square feet of   
wing surface would be sufficient for our
 purpose1 and that places would easily  
be found along the ,atlantic coast where
 winds of sixteen to twenty-five miles  
were not at all uncommon4 ,when the     
winds were low it was our plan to glide 
from the tops of sandhills1 and when    
they were sufficiently strong to use a  
rope for our motor and fly over one     
spot4 ,our next work was to draw up the 
plans for a suitable machine4 ,after    
much study we finally concluded that    
tails were a source of trouble rather   
than of assistance1 and therefore we    
decided to dispense with them           
altogether4 ,it seemed reasonable that  
if the body of the operator could be    
placed in a horizontal position instead 
of the upright1 as in the machines of   
,lilienthal1 ,pilcher1 and ,chanute1 the
 wind resistance could be very          

materially reduced1 since only one      
square foot instead of five would be    
exposed4 ,as a full half horse-power    
would be saved by this change1 we       
arranged to try at least the horizontal 
position4 ,then the method of control   
used by ,lilienthal1 which consisted in 
shifting the body1 did not seem quite as
 quick or effective as the case         
required2 so1 after long study1 we      
contrived a system consisting of two    
large surfaces on the ,chanute          
double-deck plan1 and a smaller surface 
placed a short distance in front of the 
main surfaces in such a position that   
the action of the wind upon it would    
counterbalance the effect of the travel 
of the centre of pressure on the main   
surfaces4 ,thus changes in the direction
 and velocity of the wind would have    
little disturbing effect1 and the       
operator would be required to attend    
only to the steering of the machine1    
which was to be effected by curving the 
forward surface up or down4 ,the lateral

 equilibrium and the steering to right  
or left was to be attained by a peculiar
 torsion of the main surfaces1 which was
 equivalent to presenting one end of the
 wings at a greater angle than the      
other4 ,in the main frame a few changes 
were also made in the details of        
construction and trussing employed by   
,mr ,chanute4 ,the most important of    
these were3 7#a7 ,the moving of the     
forward main crosspiece of the frame to 
the extreme front edge2 7#b7 the        
encasing in the cloth of all crosspieces
 and ribs of the surfaces2 7#c7 a       
rearrangement of the wires used in      
trussing the two surfaces together1     
which rendered it possible to tighten   
all the wires by simply shortening two  
of them4'  ,the brothers intended       
originally to get #bjj square feet of   
supporting surface for their glider1 but
 the impossibility of obtaining suitable
 material compelled them to reduce the  
area to #afe square feet1 which1 by the 
,lilienthal tables1 admitted of support 

in a wind of about twenty-one miles an  
hour at an angle of three degrees4 ,with
 this glider they went in the summer of 
#aijj to the little settlement of ,kitty
 ,hawk1 ,north ,carolina1 situated on   
the strip of land dividing ,albemarle   
,sound from the ,atlantic4 ,here they   
reckoned on obtaining steady wind1 and  
here1 on the day that they completed the
 machine1 they took it out for trial as 
a kite with the wind blowing at between 
twenty-five and thirty miles an hour4   
,they found that in order to support a  
man on it the glider required an angle  
nearer twenty degrees than three1 and   
even with the wind at thirty miles an   
hour they could not get down to the     
planned angle of three degrees4 ,later1 
when the wind was too light to support  
the machine with a man on it1 they      
tested it as a kite1 working the rudders
 by cords4 ,although they obtained      
satisfactory results in this way they   
realised fully that actual gliding      
experience was necessary before the     

tests could be considered practical4  ,a
 series of actual measurements of lift  
and drift of the machine gave           
astonishing results4 #8,it appeared that
 the total horizontal pull of the       
machine1 while sustaining a weight of   
#eb lbs41 was only #h4e lbs41 which was 
less than had been previously estimated 
for head resistance of the framing      
alone4 ,making allowance for the weight 
carried1 it appeared that the head      
resistance of the framing was but little
 more than fifty per cent of the amount 
which ,mr ,chanute had estimated as the 
head resistance of the framing of his   
machine4 ,on the other hand1 it appeared
 sadly deficient in lifting power as    
compared with the calculated lift of    
curved surfaces of its size 444 we      
decided to arrange our machine for the  
following year so that the depth of     
curvature of its surfaces could be      
varied at will1 and its covering        
air-proofed4'  ,after these experiments 
the brothers decided to turn to         

practical gliding1 for which they moved 
four miles to the south1 to the ,kill   
,devil sandhills1 the principal of which
 is slightly over a hundred feet in     
height1 with an inclination of nearly   
ten degrees on its main north-western   
slope4 ,on the day after their arrival  
they made about a dozen glides1 in      
which1 although the landings were made  
at a speed of more than twenty miles an 
hour1 no injury was sustained either by 
the machine or by the operator4  #8,the 
slope of the hill was #i4e degrees1 or a
 drop of one foot in six4 ,we found that
 after attaining a speed of about       
twenty-five to thirty miles with        
reference to the wind1 or ten to fifteen
 miles over the ground1 the machine not 
only glided parallel to the slope of the
 hill1 but greatly increased its speed1 
thus indicating its ability to glide on 
a somewhat less angle than #i4e degrees1
 when we should feel it safe to rise    
higher from the surface4 ,the control of
 the machine proved even better than we 

had dared to expect1 responding quickly 
to the slightest motion of the rudder4  
,with these glides our experiments for  
the year #aijj closed4 ,although the    
hours and hours of practice we had hoped
 to obtain finally dwindled down to     
about two minutes1 we were very much    
pleased with the general results of the 
trip1 for1 setting out as we did with   
almost revolutionary theories on many   
points and an entirely untried form of  
machine1 we considered it quite a point 
to be able to return without having our 
pet theories completely knocked on the  
head by the hard logic of experience1   
and our own brains dashed out in the    
bargain4 ,everything seemed to us to    
confirm the correctness of our original 
opinions3 7#a7 ,that practice is the key
 to the secret of flying2 7#b7 that it  
is practicable to assume the horizontal 
position2 7#c7 that a smaller surface   
set at a negative angle in front of the 
main bearing surfaces1 or wings1 will   
largely counteract the effect of the    

fore and aft travel of the centre of    
pressure2 7#d7 that steering up and down
 can be attained with a rudder without  
moving the position of the operator's   
body2 7#e7 that twisting the wings so as
 to present their ends to the wind at   
different angles is a more prompt and   
efficient way of maintaining lateral    
equilibrium than shifting the body of   
the operator4'  ,illustration3 ,wilbur  
,wright in a high glide1 #aijc4         
,illustration3 ,orville ,wright making  
the world's record in gliding flight1   
#aj minutes #a second1 stationary       
against a wind of #be miles per hour1   
east of ,kill ,devil ,hill4  ,for the   
gliding experiments of #aija it was     
decided to retain the form of the #aijj 
glider1 but to increase the area to #cjh
 square feet1 which1 the brothers       
calculated1 would support itself and its
 operator in a wind of seventeen miles  
an hour with an angle of incidence of   
three degrees4 ,camp was formed at      
,kitty ,hawk in the middle of ,july1 and

 on ,july #bgth the machine was         
completed and tried for the first time  
in a wind of about fourteen miles an    
hour4 ,the first attempt resulted in    
landing after a glide of only a few     
yards1 indicating that the centre of    
gravity was too far in front of the     
centre of pressure4 ,by shifting his    
position farther and farther back the   
operator finally achieved an undulating 
flight of a little over #cjj feet1 but  
to obtain this success he had to use    
full power of the rudder to prevent both
 stalling and nose-diving4 ,with the    
#aijj machine one-fourth of the rudder  
action had been necessary for far better
 control4  ,practically all glides gave 
the same result1 and in one the machine 
rose higher and higher until it lost all
 headway4 #8,this was the position from 
which ,lilienthal had always found      
difficulty in extricating himself1 as   
his machine then1 in spite of his       
greatest exertions1 manifested a        
tendency to dive downward almost        

vertically and strike the ground head on
 with frightful velocity4 ,in this case 
a warning cry from the ground caused the
 operator to turn the rudder to its full
 extent and also to move his body       
slightly forward4 ,the machine then     
settled slowly to the ground1           
maintaining its horizontal position     
almost perfectly1 and landed without any
 injury at all4 ,this was very          
encouraging1 as it showed that one of   
the very greatest dangers in machines   
with horizontal tails had been overcome 
by the use of the front rudder4 ,several
 glides later the same experience was   
repeated with the same result4 ,in the  
latter case the machine had even        
commenced to move backward1 but was     
nevertheless brought safely to the      
ground in a horizontal position4 ,on the
 whole this day's experiments were      
encouraging1 for while the action of the
 rudder did not seem at all like that of
 our #aijj machine1 yet we had escaped  
without difficulty from positions which 

had proved very dangerous to preceding  
experimenters1 and after less than one  
minute's actual practice had made a     
glide of more than #cjj feet1 at an     
angle of descent of ten degrees1 and    
with a machine nearly twice as large as 
had previously been considered safe4    
,the trouble with its control1 which has
 been mentioned1 we believed could be   
corrected when we should have located   
its cause4'  ,it was finally ascertained
 that the defect could be remedied by   
trussing down the ribs of the whole     
machine so as to reduce the depth of    
curvature4 ,when this had been done     
gliding was resumed1 and after a few    
trials glides of #cff and #chi feet were
 made with prompt response on the part  
of the machine1 even to small movements 
of the rudder4 ,the rest of the story of
 the gliding experiments of #aija cannot
 be better told than in ,wilbur         
,wright's own words1 as uttered by him  
in the lecture from which the foregoing 
excerpts have been made4  #8,the        

machine1 with its new curvature1 never  
failed to respond promptly to even small
 movements of the rudder4 ,the operator 
could cause it to almost skim the       
ground1 following the undulations of its
 surface1 or he could cause it to sail  
out almost on a level with the starting 
point1 and1 passing high above the foot 
of the hill1 gradually settle down to   
the ground4 ,the wind on this day was   
blowing eleven to fourteen miles per    
hour4 ,the next day1 the conditions     
being favourable1 the machine was again 
taken out for trial4 ,this time the     
velocity of the wind was eighteen to    
twenty-two miles per hour4 ,at first we 
felt some doubt as to the safety of     
attempting free flight in so strong a   
wind1 with a machine of over #cjj square
 feet and a practice of less than five  
minutes spent in actual flight4 ,but    
after several preliminary experiments we
 decided to try a glide4 ,the control of
 the machine seemed so good that we then
 felt no apprehension in sailing boldly 

forth4 ,and thereafter we made glide    
after glide1 sometimes following the    
ground closely and sometimes sailing    
high in the air4 ,mr ,chanute had his   
camera with him and took pictures of    
some of these glides1 several of which  
are among those shown4  #8,we made      
glides on subsequent days1 whenever the 
conditions were favourable4 ,the highest
 wind thus experimented in was a little 
over twelve metres per second--nearly   
twenty-seven miles per hour4  #8,it had 
been our intention when building the    
machine to do the larger part of the    
experimenting in the following          
manner3--,when the wind blew seventeen  
miles an hour1 or more1 we would attach 
a rope to the machine and let it rise as
 a kite with the operator upon it4 ,when
 it should reach a proper height the    
operator would cast off the rope and    
glide down to the ground just as from   
the top of a hill4 ,in this way we would
 be saved the trouble of carrying the   
machine uphill after each glide1 and    

could make at least ten glides in the   
time required for one in the other way4 
,but when we came to try it1 we found   
that a wind of seventeen miles1 as      
measured by ,richards' anemometer1      
instead of sustaining the machine with  
its operator1 a total weight of #bdj    
lbs41 at an angle of incidence of three 
degrees1 in reality would not sustain   
the machine alone--#ajj lbs4--at this   
angle4 ,its lifting capacity seemed     
scarcely one-third of the calculated    
amount4 ,in order to make sure that this
 was not due to the porosity of the     
cloth1 we constructed two small         
experimental surfaces of equal size1 one
 of which was air-proofed and the other 
left in its natural state2 but we could 
detect no difference in their lifting   
powers4 ,for a time we were led to      
suspect that the lift of curved surfaces
 very little exceeded that of planes of 
the same size1 but further investigation
 and experiment led to the opinion that 
7#a7 the anemometer used by us          

over-recorded the true velocity of the  
wind by nearly #ae per cent2 7#b7 that  
the well-known ,smeaton coefficient of  
4#jje ,v for the wind pressure at #ij   
degrees is probably too great by at     
least #bj per cent2 7#c7 that           
,lilienthal's estimate that the pressure
 on a curved surface having an angle of 
incidence of #c degrees equals 4#ede of 
the pressure at #ij degrees is too      
large1 being nearly #ej per cent greater
 than very recent experiments of our own
 with a pressure testing-machine        
indicate2 7#d7 that the superposition of
 the surfaces somewhat reduced the lift 
per square foot1 as compared with a     
single surface of equal area4  #8,in    
gliding experiments1 however1 the amount
 of lift is of less relative importance 
than the ratio of lift to drift1 as this
 alone decides the angle of gliding     
descent4 ,in a plane the pressure is    
always perpendicular to the surface1 and
 the ratio of lift to drift is therefore
 the same as that of the cosine to the  

sine of the angle of incidence4 ,but in 
curved surfaces a very remarkable       
situation is found4 ,the pressure1      
instead of being uniformly normal to the
 chord of the arc1 is usually inclined  
considerably in front of the            
perpendicular4 ,the result is that the  
lift is greater and the drift less than 
if the pressure were normal4 ,lilienthal
 was the first to discover this         
exceedingly important fact1 which is    
fully set forth in his book1 ,bird      
,flight the ,basis of the ,flying ,art1 
but owing to some errors in the methods 
he used in making measurements1 question
 was raised by other investigators not  
only as to the accuracy of his figures1 
but even as to the existence of any     
tangential force at all4 ,our           
experiments confirm the existence of    
this force1 though our measurements     
differ considerably from those of       
,lilienthal4 ,while at ,kitty ,hawk we  
spent much time in measuring the        
horizontal pressure on our unloaded     

machine at various angles of incidence4 
,we found that at #ac degrees the       
horizontal pressure was about #bc lbs4  
,this included not only the drift       
proper1 or horizontal component of the  
pressure on the side of the surface1 but
 also the head resistance of the framing
 as well4 ,the weight of the machine at 
the time of this test was about #ajh    
lbs4 ,now1 if the pressure had been     
normal to the chord of the surface1 the 
drift proper would have been to the lift
 7#ajh lbs47 as the sine of #ac degrees 
is to the cosine of #ac degrees1 or     
74#bb  #ajh7 _/ 4#ig  #bd  lbs42 but    
this slightly exceeds the total pull of 
#bc pounds on our scales4 ,therefore it 
is evident that the average pressure on 
the surface1 instead of being normal to 
the chord1 was so far inclined toward   
the front that all the head resistance  
of framing and wires used in the        
construction was more than overcome4 ,in
 a wind of fourteen miles per hour      
resistance is by no means a negligible  

factor1 so that tangential is evidently 
a force of considerable value4 ,in a    
higher wind1 which sustained the machine
 at an angle of #aj degrees the pull on 
the scales was #ah lbs4 ,with the       
pressure normal to the chord the drift  
proper would have been 7#ag  #ih7 _/    
#ih4 ,the travel of the centre of       
pressure made it necessary to put sand  
on the front rudder to bring the centres
 of gravity and pressure into           
coincidence1 consequently the weight of 
the machine varied from #ih lbs4 to #ajh
 lbs4 in the different tests7  #ag lbs41
 so that1 although the higher wind      
velocity must have caused an increase in
 the head resistance1 the tangential    
force still came within #a lb4 of       
overcoming it4 ,after our return from   
,kitty ,hawk we began a series of       
experiments to accurately determine the 
amount and direction of the pressure    
produced on curved surfaces when acted  
upon by winds at the various angles from
 zero to #ij degrees4 ,these experiments

 are not yet concluded1 but in general  
they support ,lilienthal in the claim   
that the curves give pressures more     
favourable in amount and direction than 
planes2 but we find marked differences  
in the exact values1 especially at      
angles below #aj degrees4 ,we were      
unable to obtain direct measurements of 
the horizontal pressures of the machine 
with the operator on board1 but by      
comparing the distance travelled with   
the vertical fall1 it was easily        
calculated that at a speed of #bd miles 
per hour the total horizontal           
resistances of our machine1 when bearing
 the operator1 amounted to #dj lbs1     
which is equivalent to about #b         
horse-power4 ,it must not be supposed1  
however1 that a motor developing this   
power would be sufficient to drive a    
man-bearing machine4 ,the extra weight  
of the motor would require either a     
larger machine1 higher speed1 or a      
greater angle of incidence in order to  
support it1 and therefore more power4   

,it is probable1 however1 that an engine
 of #f horse-power1 weighing #ajj lbs4  
would answer the purpose4 ,such an      
engine is entirely practicable4 ,indeed1
 working motors of one-half this weight 
per horse-power 7#i lbs4 per            
horse-power7 have been constructed by   
several different builders4 ,increasing 
the speed of our machine from #bd to #cc
 miles per hour reduced the total       
horizontal pressure from #dj to about   
#ce lbs4 ,this was quite an advantage in
 gliding1 as it made it possible to sail
 about #ae per cent farther with a given
 drop4 ,however1 it would be of little  
or no advantage in reducing the size of 
the motor in a power-driven machine1    
because the lessened thrust would be    
counterbalanced by the increased speed  
per minute4 ,some years ago ,professor  
,langley called attention to the great  
economy of thrust which might be        
obtained by using very high speeds1 and 
from this many were led to suppose that 
high speed was essential to success in a

 motor-driven machine4 ,but the economy 
to which ,professor ,langley called     
attention was in foot pounds per mile of
 travel1 not in foot pounds per minute4 
,it is the foot pounds per minute that  
fixes the size of the motor4 ,the       
probability is that the first flying    
machines will have a relatively low     
speed1 perhaps not much exceeding #bj   
miles per hour1 but the problem of      
increasing the speed will be much       
simpler in some respects than that of   
increasing the speed of a steamboat2    
for1 whereas in the latter case the size
 of the engine must increase as the cube
 of the speed1 in the flying machine1   
until extremely high speeds are reached1
 the capacity of the motor increases in 
less than simple ratio2 and there is    
even a decrease in the fuel per mile of 
travel4 ,in other words1 to double the  
speed of a steamship 7and the same is   
true of the balloon type of airship7    
eight times the engine and boiler       
capacity would be required1 and four    

times the fuel consumption per mile of  
travel2 while a flying machine would    
require engines of less than double the 
size1 and there would be an actual      
decrease in the fuel consumption per    
mile of travel4 ,but looking at the     
matter conversely1 the great            
disadvantage of the flying machine is   
apparent2 for in the latter no flight at
 all is possible unless the proportion  
of horse-power to flying capacity is    
very high2 but on the other hand a      
steamship is a mechanical success if its
 ratio of horse-power to tonnage is     
insignificant4 ,a flying machine that   
would fly at a speed of #ej miles per   
hour with engines of #a1jjj horse-power 
would not be upheld by its wings at all 
at a speed of less than #be miles an    
hour1 and nothing less than #ejj        
horse-power could drive it at this      
speed4 ,but a boat which could make #dj 
miles an hour with engines of #a1jjj    
horse-power would still move #d miles an
 hour even if the engines were reduced  

to #a horse-power4 ,the problems of land
 and water travel were solved in the    
nineteenth century1 because it was      
possible to begin with small            
achievements1 and gradually work up to  
our present success4 ,the flying problem
 was left over to the twentieth century1
 because in this case the art must be   
highly developed before any flight of   
any considerable duration at all can be 
obtained4  #8,however1 there is another 
way of flying which requires no         
artificial motor1 and many workers      
believe that success will come first by 
this road4 ,i refer to the soaring      
flight1 by which the machine is         
permanently sustained in the air by the 
same means that are employed by soaring 
birds4 ,they spread their wings to the  
wind1 and sail by the hour1 with no     
perceptible exertion beyond that        
required to balance and steer           
themselves4 ,what sustains them is not  
definitely known1 though it is almost   
certain that it is a rising current of  

air4 ,but whether it be a rising current
 or something else1 it is as well able  
to support a flying machine as a bird1  
if man once learns the art of utilising 
it4 ,in gliding experiments it has long 
been known that the rate of vertical    
descent is very much retarded1 and the  
duration of the flight greatly          
prolonged1 if a strong wind blows up the
 face of the hill parallel to its       
surface4 ,our machine1 when gliding in  
still air1 has a rate of vertical       
descent of nearly #f feet per second1   
while in a wind blowing #bf miles per   
hour up a steep hill we made glides in  
which the rate of descent was less than 
#b feet per second4 ,and during the     
larger part of this time1 while the     
machine remained exactly in the rising  
current1 there was no descent at all1   
but even a slight rise4 ,if the operator
 had had sufficient skill to keep       
himself from passing beyond the rising  
current he would have been sustained    
indefinitely at a higher point than that

 from which he started4 ,the            
illustration shows one of these very    
slow glides at a time when the machine  
was practically at a standstill4 ,the   
failure to advance more rapidly caused  
the photographer some trouble in aiming1
 as you will perceive4 ,in looking at   
this picture you will readily understand
 that the excitement of gliding         
experiments does not entirely cease with
 the breaking up of camp4 ,in the       
photographic dark-room at home we pass  
moments of as thrilling interest as any 
in the field1 when the image begins to  
appear on the plate and it is yet an    
open question whether we have a picture 
of a flying machine or merely a patch of
 open sky4 ,these slow glides in rising 
current probably hold out greater hope  
of extensive practice than any other    
method within man's reach1 but they have
 the disadvantage of requiring rather   
strong winds or very large supporting   
surfaces4 ,however1 when gliding        
operators have attained greater skill1  

they can with comparative safety        
maintain themselves in the air for hours
 at a time in this way1 and thus by     
constant practice so increase their     
knowledge and skill that they can rise  
into the higher air and search out the  
currents which enable the soaring birds 
to transport themselves to any desired  
point by first rising in a circle and   
then sailing off at a descending angle4 
,this illustration shows the machine1   
alone1 flying in a wind of #ce miles per
 hour on the face of a steep hill1 #ajj 
feet high4 ,it will be seen that the    
machine not only pulls upward1 but also 
pulls forward in the direction from     
which the wind blows1 thus overcoming   
both gravity and the speed of the wind4 
,we tried the same experiment with a man
 on it1 but found danger that the       
forward pull would become so strong1    
that the men holding the ropes would be 
dragged from their insecure foothold on 
the slope of the hill4 ,so this form of 
experimenting was discontinued after    

four or five minutes' trial4  #8,in     
looking over our experiments of the past
 two years1 with models and full-size   
machines1 the following points stand out
 with clearness3--  #8#a4 ,that the     
lifting power of a large machine1 held  
stationary in a wind at a small distance
 from the earth1 is much less than the  
,lilienthal table and our own laboratory
 experiments would lead us to expect4   
,when the machine is moved through the  
air1 as in gliding1 the discrepancy     
seems much less marked4  #8#b4 ,that the
 ratio of drift to lift in well-shaped  
surfaces is less at angles of incidence 
of #e degrees to #ab degrees than at an 
angle of #c degrees4  #8#c4 ,that in    
arched surfaces the centre of pressure  
at #ij degrees is near the centre of the
 surface1 but moves slowly forward as   
the angle becomes less1 till a critical 
angle varying with the shape and depth  
of the curve is reached1 after which it 
moves rapidly toward the rear till the  
angle of no lift is found4  #8#d4 ,that 

with similar conditions large surfaces  
may be controlled with not much greater 
difficulty than small ones1 if the      
control is effected by manipulation of  
the surfaces themselves1 rather than by 
a movement of the body of the operator4 
#8#e4 ,that the head resistances of the 
framing can be brought to a point much  
below that usually estimated as         
necessary4  #8#f4 ,that tails1 both     
vertical and horizontal1 may with safety
 be eliminated in gliding and other     
flying experiments4  #8#g4 ,that a      
horizontal position of the operator's   
body may be assumed without excessive   
danger1 and thus the head resistance    
reduced to about one-fifth that of the  
upright position4  #8#h4 ,that a pair of
 superposed1 or tandem surfaces1 has    
less lift in proportion to drift than   
either surface separately1 even after   
making allowance for weight and head    
resistance of the connections4'         
,illustration3 ,the ,wrights' first     
power-driven machine1 #aijc4  ,thus1 to 

the end of the #aija experiments1       
,wilbur ,wright provided a fairly full  
account of what was accomplished2 the   
record shows an amount of patient and   
painstaking work almost beyond          
belief--it was no question of making a  
plane and launching it1 but a business  
of trial and error1 investigation and   
tabulation of detail1 and the rejection 
time after time of previously accepted  
theories1 till the brothers must have   
felt that the solid earth was no longer 
secure1 at times4 ,though it was ,wilbur
 who set down this and other records of 
the work done1 yet the actual work was  
so much ,orville's as his brother's that
 no analysis could separate any set of  
experiments and say that ,orville did   
this and ,wilbur did that--the two were 
inseparable4 ,on this point ,griffith   
,brewer remarked that #8in the          
arguments1 if one brother took one view1
 the other brother took the opposite    
view as a matter of course1 and the     
subject was thrashed to pieces until a  

mutually acceptable result remained4 ,i 
have often been asked since these       
pioneer days1 8,tell me1 ,brewer1 who   
was really the originator of those two80
 ,in reply1 ,i used first to say1 8,i   
think it was mostly ,wilbur10 and later1
 when ,i came to know ,orville better1  
,i said1 8,the thing could not have been
 done without ,orville40 ,now1 when     
asked1 ,i find ,i have to say1 8,i don't
 know10 and ,i feel the more ,i think of
 it that it was only the wonderful      
combination of these two brothers1 who  
devoted their lives together for this   
common object1 that made the discovery  
of the art of flying possible4'  ,beyond
 the #aija experiments in gliding1 the  
record grows more scrappy1 less         
detailed4 ,it appears that once         
power-driven flight had been achieved1  
the brothers were not so willing to talk
 as before2 considering the amount of   
work that they put in1 there could have 
been little time for verbal description 
of that work--as already remarked1 their

 tables still stand for the designer and
 experimenter4 ,the end of the #aija    
experiments left both brothers somewhat 
discouraged1 though they had            
accomplished more than any others4      
#8,having set out with absolute faith in
 the existing scientific data1 we were  
driven to doubt one thing after another1
 till finally1 after two years of       
experiment1 we cast it all aside1 and   
decided to rely entirely on our own     
investigations4 ,truth and error were   
everywhere so intimately mixed as to be 
indistinguishable4444 ,we had taken up  
aeronautics as a sport4 ,we reluctantly 
entered upon the scientific side of it4'
  ,yet1 driven thus to the more serious 
aspect of the work1 they found in the   
step its own reward1 for the work of    
itself drew them on and on1 to the      
construction of measuring machines for  
the avoidance of error1 and1 to the     
making of series after series of        
measurements1 concerning which ,wilbur  
wrote in #aijh 7in the ,century         

,magazine7 that #8after making          
preliminary measurements on a great     
number of different shaped surfaces1 to 
secure a general understanding of the   
subject1 we began systematic            
measurements of standard surfaces1 so   
varied in design as to bring out the    
underlying causes of differences noted  
in their pressures4 ,measurements were  
tabulated on nearly fifty of these at   
all angles from zero to #de degrees1 at 
intervals of #b degrees4 ,measurements  
were also secured showing the effects on
 each other when surfaces are           
superposed1 or when they follow one     
another4  #8,some strange results were  
obtained4 ,one surface1 with a heavy    
roll at the front edge1 showed the same 
lift for all angles from #g to #de      
degrees4 ,this seemed so anomalous that 
we were almost ready to doubt our own   
measurements1 when a simple test was    
suggested4 ,a weather vane1 with two    
planes attached to the pointer at an    
angle of #hj degrees with each other1   

was made4 ,according to our table1 such 
a vane would be in unstable equilibrium 
when pointing directly into the wind2   
for if by chance the wind should happen 
to strike one plane at #ci degrees and  
the other at #da degrees1 the plane with
 the smaller angle would have the       
greater pressure1 and the pointer would 
be turned still farther out of the      
course of the wind until the two vanes  
again secured equal pressures1 which    
would be at approximately #cj and #ej   
degrees4 ,but the vane performed in this
 very manner4 ,further corroboration of 
the tables was obtained in experiments  
with the new glider at ,kill ,devil     
,hill the next season4  #8,in ,september
 and ,october1 #aijb1 nearly #a1jjj     
gliding flights were made1 several of   
which covered distances of over #fjj    
feet4 ,some1 made against a wind of #cf 
miles an hour1 gave proof of the        
effectiveness of the devices for        
control4 ,with this machine1 in the     
autumn of #aijc1 we made a number of    

flights in which we remained in the air 
for over a minute1 often soaring for a  
considerable time in one spot1 without  
any descent at all4 ,little wonder that 
our unscientific assistant should think 
the only thing needed to keep it        
indefinitely in the air would be a coat 
of feathers to make it light6'  ,it was 
at the conclusion of these experiments  
of #aijc that the brothers concluded    
they had obtained sufficient data from  
their thousands of glides and multitude 
of calculations to permit of their      
constructing and making trial of a      
power-driven machine4 ,the first designs
 got out provided for a total weight of 
#fjj lbs41 which was to include the     
weight of the motor and the pilot2 but  
on completion it was found that there   
was a surplus of power from the motor1  
and thus they had #aej lbs4 weight to   
allow for strengthening wings and other 
parts4  ,they came up against the       
problem to which ,riach has since       
devoted so much attention1 that of      

propeller design4 #8,we had thought of  
getting the theory of the               
screw-propeller from the marine         
engineers1 and then1 by applying our    
table of air-pressures to their formul1 
of designing air-propellers suitable for
 our uses4 ,but1 so far as we could     
learn1 the marine engineers possessed   
only empirical formul1 and the exact    
action of the screw propeller1 after a  
century of use1 was still very obscure4 
,as we were not in a position to        
undertake a long series of practical    
experiments to discover a propeller     
suitable for our machine1 it seemed     
necessary to obtain such a thorough     
understanding of the theory of its      
reactions as would enable us to design  
them from calculation alone4 ,what at   
first seemed a simple problem became    
more complex the longer we studied it4  
,with the machine moving forward1 the   
air flying backward1 the propellers     
turning sidewise1 and nothing standing  
still1 it seemed impossible to find a   

starting point from which to trace the  
various simultaneous reactions4         
,contemplation of it was confusing4     
,after long arguments we often found    
ourselves in the ludicrous position of  
each having been converted to the       
other's side1 with no more agreement    
than when the discussion began4  #8,it  
was not till several months had passed1 
and every phase of the problem had been 
thrashed over and over1 that the various
 reactions began to untangle themselves4
 ,when once a clear understanding had   
been obtained there was no difficulty in
 designing a suitable propeller1 with   
proper diameter1 pitch1 and area of     
blade1 to meet the requirements of the  
flier4 ,high efficiency in a            
screw-propeller is not dependent upon   
any particular or peculiar shape1 and   
there is no such thing as a 8best0      
screw4 ,a propeller giving a high       
dynamic efficiency when used upon one   
machine may be almost worthless when    
used upon another4 ,the propeller should

 in every case be designed to meet the  
particular conditions of the machine to 
which it is to be applied4 ,our first   
propellers1 built entirely from         
calculation1 gave in useful work #ff per
 cent of the power expended4 ,this was  
about one-third more than had been      
secured by ,maxim or ,langley4'         
,langley had made his last attempt with 
the #8aerodrome1' and his splendid      
failure but a few days before the       
brothers made their first attempt at    
power-driven aeroplane flight4 ,on      
,december #agth1 #aijc1 the machine was 
taken out2 in addition to ,wilbur and   
,orville ,wright1 there were present    
five spectators3 ,mr ,a4 ,d4 ,etheridge1
 of the ,kill ,devil life-saving        
station2 ,mr ,w4 ,s4 ,dough1 ,mr ,w4 ,c4
 ,brinkley1 of ,manteo2 ,mr ,john ,ward1
 of ,naghead1 and ,mr ,john ,t4         
,daniels4#c ,a general invitation had   
been given to practically all the       
residents in the vicinity1 but the ,kill
 ,devil district is a cold area in      

,december1 and history had recorded so  
many experiments in which machines had  
failed to leave the ground that between 
temperature and scepticism only these   
five risked a waste of their time4      
,illustration3 ,first flight of first   
power-driven machine1 #agth ,december1  
#aijc1 near ,kill ,devil ,hill1 ,kitty  
,hawk1 ,n4,c4 ,starting rail on left4   
,orville ,wright piloting machine4  ,and
 these five were in at the greatest     
conquest man had made since ,james ,watt
 evolved the steam engine--perhaps even 
a greater conquest than that of ,watt4  
,four flights in all were made2 the     
first lasted only twelve seconds1 #8the 
first in the history of the world in    
which a machine carrying a man had      
raised itself into the air by its own   
power in free flight1 had sailed forward
 on a level course without reduction of 
speed1 and had finally landed without   
being wrecked1' said ,wilbur ,wright    
concerning the achievement4#d ,the next 
two flights were slightly longer1 and   

the fourth and last of the day was one  
second short of the complete minute2 it 
was made into the teeth of a #bj mile an
 hour wind1 and the distance travelled  
was #heb feet4  ,this bald statement of 
the day's doings is as ,wilbur ,wright  
himself has given it1 and there is in   
truth nothing more to say2 no amount of 
statement could add to the importance of
 the achievement1 and no more than the  
bare record is necessary4 ,the faith    
that had inspired the long roll of      
pioneers1 from da ,vinci onward1 was    
justified at last4  ,having made their  
conquest1 the brothers took the machine 
back to camp1 and1 as they thought1     
placed it in safety4 ,talking with the  
little group of spectators about the    
flights1 they forgot about the machine1 
and then a sudden gust of wind struck   
it4 ,seeing that it was being           
overturned1 all made a rush toward it to
 save it1 and ,mr ,daniels1 a man of    
large proportions1 was in some way      
lifted off his feet1 falling between the

 planes4 ,the machine overturned fully1 
and ,daniels was shaken like a die in a 
cup as the wind rolled the machine over 
and over--he came out at the end of his 
experience with a series of bad bruises1
 and no more1 but the damage done to the
 machine by the accident was sufficient 
to render it useless for further        
experiment that season4  ,a new machine1
 stronger and heavier1 was constructed  
by the brothers1 and in the spring of   
#aijd they began experiments again at   
,simms ,station1 eight miles to the east
 of ,dayton1 their home town4 ,press    
representatives were invited for the    
first trial1 and about a dozen came--the
 whole gathering did not number more    
than fifty people4 #8,when preparations 
had been concluded1' ,wilbur ,wright    
wrote of this trial1 #8a wind of only   
three or four miles an hour was         
blowing--insufficient for starting on so
 short a track--but since many had come 
a long way to see the machine in action1
 an attempt was made4 ,to add to the    

other difficulty1 the engine refused to 
work properly4 ,the machine1 after      
running the length of the track1 slid   
off the end without rising into the air 
at all4 ,several of the newspaper men   
returned next day but were again        
disappointed4 ,the engine performed     
badly1 and after a glide of only sixty  
feet the machine again came to the      
ground4 ,further trial was postponed    
till the motor could be put in better   
running condition4 ,the reporters had   
now1 no doubt1 lost confidence in the   
machine1 though their reports1 in       
kindness1 concealed it4 ,later1 when    
they heard that we were making flights  
of several minutes' duration1 knowing   
that longer flights had been made with  
airships1 and not knowing any essential 
difference between airships and flying  
machines1 they were but little          
interested4  #8,we had not been flying  
long in #aijd before we found that the  
problem of equilibrium had not as yet   
been entirely solved4 ,sometimes1 in    

making a circle1 the machine would turn 
over sidewise despite anything the      
operator could do1 although1 under the  
same conditions in ordinary straight    
flight it could have been righted in an 
instant4 ,in one flight1 in #aije1 while
 circling round a honey locust-tree at a
 height of about #ej feet1 the machine  
suddenly began to turn up on one wing1  
and took a course toward the tree4 ,the 
operator1 not relishing the idea of     
landing in a thorn tree1 attempted to   
reach the ground4 ,the left wing1       
however1 struck the tree at a height of 
#aj or #ab feet from the ground and     
carried away several branches2 but the  
flight1 which had already covered a     
distance of six miles1 was continued to 
the starting point4  #8,the causes of   
these troubles--too technical for       
explanation here--were not entirely     
overcome till the end of ,september1    
#aije4 ,the flights then rapidly        
increased in length1 till experiments   
were discontinued after ,october #e1 on 

account of the number of people         
attracted to the field4 ,although made  
on a ground open on every side1 and     
bordered on two sides by much-travelled 
thoroughfares1 with electric cars       
passing every hour1 and seen by all the 
people living in the neighbourhood for  
miles around1 and by several hundred    
others1 yet these flights have been made
 by some newspapers the subject of a    
great 8mystery40'  ,viewing their work  
from the financial side1 the two        
brothers incurred but little expense in 
the earlier gliding experiments1 and1   
indeed1 viewed these only as recreation1
 limiting their expenditure to that     
which two men might spend on any hobby4 
,when they had once achieved successful 
power-driven flight1 they saw the       
possibilities of their work1 and        
abandoned such other business as had    
engaged their energies1 sinking all     
their capital in the development of a   
practical flying machine4 ,having1 in   
#aije1 improved their designs to such an

 extent that they could consider their  
machine a practical aeroplane1 they     
devoted the years #aijf and #aijg to    
business negotiations and to the        
construction of new machines1 resuming  
flying experiments in ,may of #aijh in  
order to test the ability of their      
machine to meet the requirements of a   
contract they had made with the ,united 
,states ,government1 which required an  
aeroplane capable of carrying two men1  
together with sufficient fuel supplies  
for a flight of #abe miles at #dj miles 
per hour4 ,practically similar to the   
machine used in the experiments of      
#aije1 the contract aeroplane was fitted
 with a larger motor1 and provision was 
made for seating a passenger and also   
for allowing of the operator assuming a 
sitting position1 instead of lying      
prone4  ,before leaving the work of the 
brothers to consider contemporary       
events1 it may be noted that they       
claimed--with justice--that they were   
first to construct wings adjustable to  

different angles of incidence on the    
right and left side in order to control 
the balance of an aeroplane2 the first  
to attain lateral balance by adjusting  
wing-tips to respectively different     
angles of incidence on the right and    
left sides1 and the first to use a      
vertical vane in combination with       
wing-tips1 adjustable to respectively   
different angles of incidence1 in       
balancing and steering an aeroplane4    
,they were first1 too1 to use a movable 
vertical tail1 in combination with wings
 adjustable to different angles of      
incidence1 in controlling the balance   
and direction of an aeroplane4#e  ,a    
certain ,henry ,m4 ,weaver1 who went to 
see the work of the brothers1 writing in
 a letter which was subsequently read   
before the ,aero ,club de ,france1      
records that he had a talk in #aije with
 the farmer who rented the field in     
which the ,wrights made their flights4  
#8,on ,october #eth 7#aije7 he was      
cutting corn in the next field east1    

which is higher ground4 ,when he noticed
 the aeroplane had started on its flight
 he remarked to his helper3 8,well1 the 
boys are at it again10 and kept on      
cutting corn1 at the same time keeping  
an eye on the great white form rushing  
about its course4 8,i just kept on      
shocking corn10 he continued1 8until ,i 
got down to the fence1 and the durned   
thing was still going round4 ,i thought 
it would never stop40'  ,he was right4  
,the brothers started it1 and it will   
never stop4  ,mr ,weaver also notes     
briefly the construction of the #aije   
,wright flier4 #8,the frame was made of 
larch wood--from tip to tip of the wings
 the dimension was #dj feet4 ,the       
gasoline motor--a special construction  
made by them--much the same1 though1 as 
the motor on the ,pope-,toledo          
automobile--was of from #ab to #ae      
horse-power4 ,the motor weighed #bdj    
lbs4 ,the frame was covered with        
ordinary muslin of good quality4 ,no    
attempt was made to lighten the machine2

 they simply built it strong enough to  
stand the shocks4 ,the structure stood  
on skids or runners1 like a sleigh4     
,these held the frame high enough from  
the ground in alighting to protect the  
blades of the propeller4 ,complete with 
motor1 the machine weighed #ibe lbs4'   
,,xii  ,,the ,,first ,,years ,,of       
,,conquest   ,it is no derogation of the
 work accomplished by the ,wright       
,brothers to say that they won the      
honour of the first power-propelled     
flights in a heavier-than-air machine   
only by a short period4 ,in ,europe1 and
 especially in ,france1 independent     
experiment was being conducted by       
,ferber1 by ,santos-,dumont1 and others1
 while in ,england ,cody was not far    
behind the other giants of those days4  
,the history of the early years of      
controlled power flights is a tangle of 
half-records2 there were no chroniclers1
 only workers1 and much of what was done
 goes unrecorded perforce1 since it was 
not set down at the time4  ,before      

passing to survey of those early years1 
let it be set down that in #aijg1 when  
the ,wright ,brothers had proved the    
practicability of their machines1       
negotiations were entered into between  
the brothers and the ,british ,war      
,office4 ,on ,april #abth1 #aijg1 the   
apostle of military stagnation1         
,haldane1 then ,war ,minister1 put an   
end to the negotiations by declaring    
that #8the ,war ,office is not disposed 
to enter into relations at present with 
any manufacturer of aeroplanes4' ,the   
state of the ,british air service in    
#aiad1 at the outbreak of hostilities1  
is eloquent regarding the pursuance of  
the policy which ,haldane initiated4    
#8,if ,i talked a lot1' said ,wilbur    
,wright once1 #8,i should be like the   
parrot1 which is the bird that speaks   
most and flies least4' ,that attitude is
 emblematic of the majority of the early
 fliers1 and because of it the record of
 their achievements is incomplete       
to-day4 ,ferber1 for instance1 has left 

little from which to state what he did1 
and that little is scattered through    
various periodicals1 scrappily enough4  
,a ,french army officer1 ,captain       
,ferber was experimenting with monoplane
 and biplane gliders at the beginning of
 the century--his work was contemporary 
with that of the ,wrights4 ,he          
corresponded both with ,chanute and with
 the ,wrights1 and in the end he was    
commissioned by the ,french ,ministry of
 ,war to undertake the journey to       
,america in order to negotiate with the 
,wright ,brothers concerning ,french    
rights in the patents they had acquired1
 and to study their work at first hand4 
,ferber's experiments in gliding began  
in #ahii at the ,military ,school at    
,fountainebleau1 with a canvas glider of
 some #hj square feet supporting        
surface1 and weighing #fe lbs4 ,two     
years later he constructed a larger and 
more satisfactory machine1 with which he
 made numerous excellent glides4 ,later1
 he constructed an apparatus which      

suspended a plane from a long arm which 
swung on a tower1 in order that         
experiments might be carried out without
 risk to the experimenter1 and it was   
not until #aije that he attempted       
power-driven free flight4 ,he took up   
the ,voisin design of biplane for his   
power-driven flights1 and virtually     
devoted all his energies to the study of
 aeronautics4 ,his book1 ,aviation1 its 
,dawn and ,development1 is a work of    
scientific value--unlike many of his    
contemporaries1 ,ferber brought to the  
study of the problems of flight a       
trained mind1 and he was concerned      
equally with the theoretical problems of
 aeronautics and the practical aspects  
of the subject4  ,after ,bleriot's      
successful cross-,channel flight1 it was
 proposed to offer a prize of #a1jjj for
 the feat which ,c4 ,s4 ,rolls          
subsequently accomplished 7starting from
 the ,english side of the ,channel71 a  
flight from ,boulogne to ,dover and     
back2 in place of this1 however1 an     

aviation week at ,boulogne was          
organised1 but1 although numerous       
aviators were invited to compete1 the   
condition of the flying grounds was such
 that no competitions took place4       
,ferber was virtually the only one to do
 any flying at ,boulogne1 and at the    
outset he had his first accident2 after 
what was for those days a good flight1  
he made a series of circles with his    
machine1 when it suddenly struck the    
ground1 being partially wrecked4        
,repairs were carried out1 and ,ferber  
resumed his exhibition flights1 carrying
 on up to ,wednesday1 ,september #bbnd1 
#aiji4 ,on that day he remained in the  
air for half an hour1 and1 as he was    
about to land1 the machine struck a     
mound of earth and overturned1 pinning  
,ferber under the weight of the motor4  
,after being extricated1 ,ferber seemed 
to show little concern at the accident1 
but in a few minutes he complained of   
great pain1 when he was conveyed to the 
ambulance shed on the ground4  #8,i was 

foolish1' he told those who were with   
him there4 #8,i was flying too low4 ,it 
was my own fault and it will be a severe
 lesson to me4 ,i wanted to turn round1 
and was only five metres from the       
ground4' ,a little after this1 he got up
 from the couch on which he had been    
placed1 and almost immediately          
collapsed1 dying five minutes later4    
,illustration3 ,blriot in full flight4  
,ferber's chief contemporaries in       
,france were ,santos-,dumont1 of airship
 fame1 ,henri and ,maurice ,farman1     
,hubert ,latham1 ,ernest ,archdeacon1   
and ,delagrange4 ,these are names that  
come at once to mind1 as does that of   
,bleriot1 who accomplished the second   
great feat of power-driven flight1 but  
as a matter of fact the years #aijc-aj  
are filled with a little host of        
investigators and experimenters1 many of
 whom1 although their names do not      
survive to any extent1 are but a very   
little way behind those mentioned here  
in enthusiasm and devotion4 ,archdeacon 

and ,gabriel ,voisin1 the former of whom
 took to heart the success achieved by  
the ,wright ,brothers1 co-operated in   
experiments in gliding4 ,archdeacon     
constructed a glider in box-kite        
fashion1 and ,voisin experimented with  
it on the ,seine1 the glider being towed
 by a motor-boat to attain the necessary
 speed4 ,it was ,archdeacon who offered 
a cup for the first straight flight of  
#bjj metres1 which was won by           
,santos-,dumont1 and he also combined   
with ,henri ,deutsch de la ,meurthe in  
giving the prize for the first circular 
flight of a mile1 which was won by      
,henry ,farman on ,january #acth1 #aijh4
  ,a history of the development of      
aviation in ,france in these1 the       
strenuous years1 would fill volumes in  
itself4 ,bleriot was carrying out       
experiments with a biplane glider on the
 ,seine1 and ,robert ,esnault-,pelterie 
was working on the lines of the ,wright 
,brothers1 bringing ,american practice  
to ,france4 ,in ,america others besides 

the ,wrights had wakened to the         
possibilities of heavier-than-air       
flight2 ,glenn ,curtiss1 in company with
 ,dr ,alexander ,graham ,bell1 with ,j4 
,a4 ,d4 ,mc,curdy1 and with ,f4 ,w4     
,baldwin1 a ,canadian engineer1 formed  
the ,aerial ,experiment ,company1 which 
built a number of aeroplanes1 most      
famous of which were the #8,june ,bug1' 
the #8,red ,wing' and the #8,white      
,wing4' ,in #aijh the #8,june ,bug' won 
a cup presented by the ,scientific      
,american--it was the first prize       
offered in ,america in connection with  
aeroplane flight4  ,among the little    
group of ,french experimenters in these 
first years of practical flight1        
,santos-,dumont takes high rank4 ,he    
built his #8,no4 #ad bis' aeroplane in  
biplane form1 with two superposed main  
plane surfaces1 and fitted it with an   
eight-cylinder ,antoinette motor driving
 a two-bladed aluminium propeller1 of   
which the blades were #f feet only from 
tip to tip4 ,the total lift surface of  

#hfj square feet was given with a       
wing-span of a little under #dj feet1   
and the weight of the complete machine  
was #cec lbs41 of which the engine      
weighed #aeh lbs4 ,in ,july of #aijf    
,santos-,dumont flew a distance of a few
 yards in this machine1 but damaged it  
in striking the ground2 on ,october     
#bcrd of the same year he made a flight 
of nearly #bjj feet--which might have   
been longer1 but that he feared a crowd 
in front of the aeroplane and cut off   
his ignition4 ,this may be regarded as  
the first effective flight in ,europe1  
and by it ,santos-,dumont takes his     
place as one of the chief--if not the   
chief--of the pioneers of the first     
years of practical flight1 so far as    
,europe is concerned4  ,meanwhile1 the  
,voisin ,brothers1 who in #aijd made    
cellular kites for ,archdeacon to test  
by towing on the ,seine from a motor    
launch1 obtained data for the           
construction of the aeroplane which     
,delagrange and ,henry ,farman were to  

use later4 ,the ,voisin was a biplane1  
constructed with due regard to the      
designs of ,langley1 ,lilienthal1 and   
other earlier experimenters--both the   
,voisins and ,m4 ,colliex1 their        
engineer1 studied ,lilienthal pretty    
exhaustively in getting out their       
design1 though their own researches were
 very thorough as well4 ,the weight of  
this ,voisin biplane was about #a1dej   
lbs41 and its maximum speed was some #ch
 to #dj miles per hour1 the total       
supporting surface being about #ece     
square feet4 ,it differed from the      
,wright design in the possession of a   
tail-piece1 a characteristic which      
marked all the ,french school of early  
design as in opposition to the          
,american4 ,the ,wright machine got its 
longitudinal stability by means of the  
main planes and the elevating planes1   
while the ,voisin type added a third    
factor of stability in its tail-planes4 
,further1 the ,voisins fitted their     
biplane with a wheeled undercarriage1   

while the ,wright machine1 being fitted 
only with runners1 demanded a launching 
rail for starting4 ,whether a machine   
should be tailless or tailed was for    
some long time matter for acute         
controversy1 which in the end was       
settled by the fitting of a tail to the 
,wright machines--,france won the       
dispute by the concession4  ,henry      
,farman1 who began his flying career    
with a ,voisin machine1 evolved from it 
the aeroplane which bore his name1      
following the main lines of the ,voisin 
type fairly closely1 but making         
alterations in the controls1 and in the 
design of the undercarriage1 which was  
somewhat elaborated1 even to the        
inclusion of shock absorbers4 ,the      
seven-cylinder #ej horse-power ,gnome   
rotary engine was fitted to the ,farman 
machine--the ,voisins had fitted an     
eight-cylinder ,antoinette1 giving #ej  
horse-power at #a1ajj revolutions per   
minute1 with direct drive to the        
propeller4 ,farman reduced the weight of

 the machine from the #a1dej lbs4 of the
 ,voisins to some #a1jaj lbs4 or        
thereabouts1 and the supporting area to 
#dej square feet4 ,this machine won its 
chief fame with ,paulhan as pilot in the
 famous ,london to ,manchester          
flight--it is to be remarked1 too1 that 
,farman himself was the first man in    
,europe to accomplish a flight of a     
mile4  ,other notable designs of these  
early days were the #8,r4,e4,p4'1       
,esnault ,pelterie's machine1 and the   
,curtiss-,herring biplane4 ,of these    
,esnault ,pelterie's was a monoplane1   
designed in that form since ,esnault    
,pelterie had found by experiment that  
the wire used in bracing offers far more
 resistance to the air than its         
dimensions would seem to warrant4 ,he   
built the wings of sufficient strength  
to stand the strain of flight without   
bracing wires1 and dependent only for   
their support on the points of          
attachment to the body of the machine2  
for the rest1 it carried its propeller  

in front of the planes1 and both        
horizontal and vertical rudders at the  
stern--a distinct departure from the    
,wright and similar types4 ,one wheel   
only was fixed under the body where the 
undercarriage exists on a normal design1
 but light wheels were fixed1 one at the
 extremity of each wing1 and there was  
also a wheel under the tail portion of  
the machine4 ,a single lever actuated   
all the controls for steering4 ,with a  
supporting surface of #aej square feet  
the machine weighed #idf lbs41 about    
#f4d lbs4 per square foot of lifting    
surface4  ,the ,curtiss biplane1 as     
flown by ,glenn ,curtiss at the ,rheims 
meeting1 was built with a bamboo        
framework1 stayed by means of very fine 
steel-stranded cables4 ,a--then--novel  
feature of the machine was the moving of
 the ailerons by the pilot leaning to   
one side or the other in his seat1 a    
light1 tubular arm-rest being pressed by
 his body when he leaned to one side or 
the other1 and thus operating the       

movement of the ailerons employed for   
tilting the plane when turning4 ,a      
steering-wheel fitted immediately in    
front of the pilot's seat served to     
operate a rear steering-rudder when the 
wheel was turned in either direction1   
while pulling back the wheel altered the
 inclination of the front elevating     
planes1 and so gave lifting or          
depressing control of the plane4  ,this 
machine ran on three wheels before      
leaving the ground1 a central           
undercarriage wheel being fitted in     
front1 with two more in line with a     
right angle line drawn through the      
centre of the engine crank at the rear  
end of the crank-case4 ,the engine was a
 #ce horse-power ,vee design1           
water-cooled1 with overhead inlet and   
exhaust valves1 and ,bosch high-tension 
magneto ignition4 ,the total weight of  
the plane in flying order was about #gjj
 lbs4  ,as great a figure in the early  
days as either ,ferber or               
,santos-,dumont was ,louis ,bleriot1    

who1 as early as #aijj1 built a         
flapping-wing model1 this before ever he
 came to experimenting with the ,voisin 
biplane type of glider on the ,seine4   
,up to #aijf he had built four biplanes 
of his own design1 and in ,march of     
#aijg he built his first monoplane1 to  
wreck it only a few days after          
completion in an accident from which he 
had a fortunate escape4 ,his next       
machine was a double monoplane1 designed
 after ,langley's precept1 to a certain 
extent1 and this was totally wrecked in 
,september of #aijg4 ,his seventh       
machine1 a monoplane1 was built within a
 month of this accident1 and with this  
he had a number of mishaps1 also        
achieving some good flights1 including  
one in which he made a turn4 ,it was    
wrecked in ,december of #aijg1 whereupon
 he built another monoplane on which1 on
 ,july #fth1 #aijh1 ,bleriot made a     
flight lasting eight and a half minutes4
 ,in ,october of that year he flew the  
machine from ,toury to ,artenay and     

returned on it--this was just a day     
after ,farman's first cross-country     
flight--but1 trying to repeat the       
success five days later1 ,bleriot       
collided with a tree in a fog and       
wrecked the machine past repair4        
,thereupon he set about building his    
eleventh machine1 with which he was to  
achieve the first flight across the     
,english channel4  ,henry ,farman1 to   
whom reference has already been made1   
was engaged with his two brothers1      
,maurice and ,richard1 in the motor-car 
business1 and turned to active interest 
in flying in #aijg1 when the ,voisin    
firm built his first biplane on the     
box-kite principle4 ,in ,july of #aijh  
he won a prize of #djj for a flight of  
thirteen miles1 previously having       
completed the first kilometre flown in  
,europe with a passenger1 the said      
passenger being ,ernest ,archdeacon4 ,in
 ,september of #aijh ,farman put up a   
speed record of forty miles an hour in a
 flight lasting forty minutes4          

,santos-,dumont produced the famous     
#8,demoiselle' monoplane early in #aiji1
 a tiny machine in which the pilot had  
his seat in a sort of miniature cage    
under the main plane4 ,it was a very    
fast1 light little machine1 but was     
difficult to fly1 and owing to its small
 wing-spread was unable to glide at a   
reasonably safe angle4 ,there has       
probably never been a cheaper flying    
machine to build than the               
#8,demoiselle1' which could be so upset 
as to seem completely wrecked1 and then 
repaired ready for further flight by a  
couple of hours' work4 ,santos-,dumont  
retained no patent in the design1 but   
gave it out freely to any one who chose 
to build #8,demoiselles'2 the vogue of  
the pattern was brief1 owing to the     
difficulty of piloting the machine4     
,these were the years of records1 broken
 almost as soon as made4 ,there was     
,farman's mile1 there was the flight of 
the ,comte de ,lambert over the ,eiffel 
,tower1 ,latham's flight at ,blackpool  

in a high wind1 the ,rheims records1 and
 then ,henry ,farman's flight of four   
hours later in #aiji1 ,orville ,wright's
 height record of #a1fdj feet1 and      
,delagrange's speed record of #dii miles
 per hour4 ,the coming to fame of the   
,gnome rotary engine helped in the      
making of these records to a very great 
extent1 for in this engine was a prime  
mover which gave the reliability that   
aeroplane builders and pilots had been  
searching for1 but vainly4 ,the ,wrights
 and ,glenn ,curtiss1 of course1 had    
their own designs of engine1 but the    
,gnome1 in spite of its lack of economy 
in fuel and oil1 and its high cost1 soon
 came to be regarded as the best power  
plant for flight4  ,delagrange1 one of  
the very good pilots of the early days1 
provided a curious insight to the way in
 which flying was regarded1 at the      
opening of the ,juvisy aerodrome in ,may
 of #aiji4 ,a huge crowd had gathered   
for the first day's flying1 and nine    
machines were announced to appear1 but  

only three were brought out4 ,delagrange
 made what was considered an indifferent
 little flight1 and another pilot1 one  
,de ,bischoff1 attempted to rise1 but   
could not get his machine off the       
ground4 ,thereupon the crowd of #cj1jjj 
people lost their tempers1 broke down   
the barriers surrounding the flying     
course1 and hissed the officials1 who   
were quite unable to maintain order4    
,delagrange1 however1 saved the         
situation by making a circuit of the    
course at a height of thirty feet from  
the ground1 which won him rounds of     
cheering and restored the crowd to good 
humour4 ,possibly the smash achieved by 
,rougier1 the famous racing motorist1   
who crashed his ,voisin biplane after   
,delagrange had made his circuit1       
completed the enjoyment of the          
spectators4 ,delagrange1 flying at      
,argentan in ,june of #aiji1 made a     
flight of four kilometres at a height of
 sixty feet2 for those days this was a  
noteworthy performance4 ,contemporary   

with this was ,hubert ,latham's flight  
of an hour and seven minutes on an      
,antoinette monoplane2 this won the     
adjective #8magnificent' from           
contemporary recorders of aviation4     
,viewing the work of the little group of
 ,french experimenters1 it is1 at this  
length of time from their exploits1     
difficult to see why they carried the   
art as far as they did4 ,there was in it
 little of satisfaction1 a certain      
measure of fame1 and practically no     
profit--the giants of those days got    
very little for their pains4            
,delagrange's experience at the opening 
of the ,juvisy ground was symptomatic of
 the way in which flight was regarded by
 the great mass of people--it was a     
sport1 and nothing more1 but a sport    
without the dividends attaching to      
professional football or horse-racing4  
,for a brief period1 after the ,rheims  
meeting1 there was a golden harvest to  
be reaped by the best of the pilots4    
,henry ,farman asked #b1jjj for a week's

 exhibition flying in ,england1 and     
,paulhan asked half that sum1 but a     
rapid increase in the number of capable 
pilots1 together with the fact that most
 flying meetings were financial         
failures1 owing to great expense in     
organisation and the doubtful factor of 
the weather1 killed this goose before   
many golden eggs had been gathered in by
 the star aviators4 ,besides1 as height 
and distance records were broken one    
after another1 it became less and less  
necessary to pay for entrance to an     
aerodrome in order to see a flight--the 
thing grew too big for a mere sports    
ground4  ,long before ,rheims and the   
meeting there1 aviation had grown too   
big for the chronicling of every        
individual effort4 ,in that period of   
the first days of conquest of the air1  
so much was done by so many whose names 
are now half-forgotten that it is       
possible only to pick out the great     
figures and make brief reference to     
their achievements and the machines with

 which they accomplished so much1       
pausing to note such epoch-making events
 as the ,london-,manchester flight1     
,bleriot's ,channel crossing1 and the   
,rheims meeting itself1 and then passing
 on beyond the days of individual       
records to the time when the machine    
began to dominate the man4 ,this latter 
because1 in the early days1 it was      
heroism to trust life to the planes that
 were turned out--the #8,demoiselle' and
 the ,antoinette machine that ,latham   
used in his attempt to fly the ,channel 
are good examples of the flimsiness of  
early types--while in the later period1 
that of the war and subsequently1 the   
heroism turned itself in a              
different--and nobler--direction4       
,design became standardised1 though not 
perfected4 ,the domination of the       
machine may best be expressed by        
contrasting the way in which machines   
came to be regarded as compared with the
 men who flew them3 up to #aiji1 flying 
enthusiasts talked of ,farman1 of       

,bleriot1 of ,paulhan1 ,curtiss1 and of 
other men2 later1 they began to talk of 
the ,voisin1 the ,deperdussin1 and even 
to the ,fokker1 the ,avro1 and the      
,bristol type4 ,with the standardising  
of the machine1 the days of the giants  
came to an end4     ,,xiii  ,,first     
,,fliers ,,in ,,england   ,certain      
experiments made in ,england by ,mr     
,phillips seem to have come near robbing
 the ,wright ,brothers of the honour of 
the first flight2 notes made by ,colonel
 ,j4 ,d4 ,fullerton on the ,phillips    
flying machine show that in #ahic the   
first machine was built with a length of
 #be feet1 breadth of #bb feet1 and     
height of #aa feet1 the total weight1   
including a #gb lb4 load1 being #dbj    
lbs4 ,the machine was fitted with some  
fifty wood slats1 in place of the single
 supporting surface of the monoplane or 
two superposed surfaces of the biplane1 
these slats being fixed in a steel frame
 so that the whole machine rather       
resembled a ,venetian blind4 ,a steam   

engine giving about #i horse-power      
provided the motive power for the       
six-foot diameter propeller which drove 
the machine4 ,as it was not possible to 
put a passenger in control as pilot1 the
 machine was attached to a central post 
by wire guys and run round a circle #ajj
 feet in diameter1 the track consisting 
of wooden planking #d feet wide4        
,pressure of air under the slats caused 
the machine to rise some two or three   
feet above the track when sufficient    
velocity had been attained1 and the best
 trials were made on ,june #aith1 #ahic1
 when at a speed of #dj miles an hour1  
with a total load of #che lbs41 all the 
wheels were off the ground for a        
distance of #b1jjj feet4  ,in #aijd a   
full-sized machine was constructed by   
,mr ,phillips1 with a total weight1     
including that of the pilot1 of #fjj    
lbs4 ,the machine was designed to lift  
when it had attained a velocity of #ej  
feet per second1 the motor fitted giving
 #bb horse-power4 ,on trial1 however1   

the longitudinal equilibrium was found  
to be defective1 and a further design   
was got out1 the third machine being    
completed in #aijg4 ,in this the wood   
slats were held in four parallel        
container frames1 the weight of the     
machine1 excluding the pilot1 being #ejj
 lbs4 ,a motor similar to that used in  
the #aijd machine was fitted1 and the   
machine was designed to lift at a       
velocity of about #cj miles an hour1 a  
seven-foot propeller doing the driving4 
,mr ,phillips tried out this machine in 
a field about #djj yards across4 #8,the 
machine was started close to the hedge1 
and rose from the ground when about #bjj
 yards had been covered4 ,when the      
machine touched the ground again1 about 
which there could be no doubt1 owing to 
the terrific jolting1 it did not run    
many yards4 ,when it came to rest ,i was
 about ten yards from the boundary4 ,of 
course1 ,i stopped the engine before ,i 
commenced to descend4'#f  ,s4 ,f4 ,cody1
 an ,american by birth1 aroused the     

attention not only of the ,british      
public1 but of the ,war ,office and     
,admiralty as well1 as early as #aije   
with his man-lifting kites4 ,in that    
year a height of #a1fjj feet was reached
 by one of these box-kites1 carrying a  
man1 and later in the same year one     
,sapper ,moreton1 of the ,balloon       
,section of the ,royal ,engineers 7the  
parent of the ,royal ,flying ,corps7    
remained for an hour at an altitude of  
#b1fjj feet4 ,following on the success  
of these kites1 ,cody constructed an    
aeroplane which he designated a #8power 
kite1' which was in reality a biplane   
that made the first flight in ,great    
,britain4 ,speaking before the          
,aeronautical ,society in #aijh1 ,cody  
said that #8,i have accomplished one    
thing that ,i hoped for very much1 that 
is1 to be the first man to fly in ,great
 ,britain4444 ,i made a machine that    
left the ground the first time out2 not 
high1 possibly five or six inches only4 
,i might have gone higher if ,i wished4 

,i made some five flights in all1 and   
the last flight came to grief4444 ,on   
the morning of the accident ,i went out 
after adjusting my propellers at #h feet
 pitch running at #fjj 7revolutions per 
minute74 ,i think that ,i flew at about 
twenty-eight miles per hour4 ,i had #ej 
horse-power motor power in the engine4  
,a bunch of trees1 a flat common above  
these trees1 and from this flat there is
 a slope goes down 444 to another clump 
of trees4 ,now1 these clumps of trees   
are a quarter of a mile apart or        
thereabouts4444 ,i was accused of doing 
nothing but jumping with my machine1 so 
,i got a bit agitated and went to fly4  
,i went out this morning with an        
easterly wind1 and left the ground at   
the bottom of the hill and struck the   
ground at the top1 a distance of #gd    
yards4 ,that proved beyond a doubt that 
the machine would fly--it flew uphill4  
,that was the most talented flight the  
machine did1 in my opinion4 ,now1 ,i    
turned round at the top and started the 

machine and left the ground--remember1 a
 ten mile wind was blowing at the time4 
,then1 #fj yards from where the men let 
go1 the machine went off in this        
direction 7demonstrating7--,i make a    
line now where ,i hoped to land--to cut 
these trees off at that side and land   
right off in here4 ,i got here somewhat 
excited1 and started down and saw these 
trees right in front of me4 ,i did not  
want to smash my head rudder to pieces1 
so ,i raised it again and went up4 ,i   
got one wing direct over that clump of  
trees1 the right wing over the trees1   
the left wing free2 the wind1 blowing   
with me1 had to lift over these trees4  
,so ,i consequently got a false lift on 
the right side and no lift on the left  
side4 ,being only about #h feet from the
 tree tops1 that turned my machine up   
like that 7demonstrating74 ,this end    
struck the ground shortly after ,i had  
passed the trees4 ,i pulled the steering
 handle over as far as ,i could4 ,then  
,i faced another bunch of trees right in

 front of me4 ,trying to avoid this     
second bunch of trees ,i turned the     
rudder1 and turned it rather sharp4     
,that side of the machine struck1 and it
 crumpled up like so much tissue paper1 
and the machine spun round and struck   
the ground that way on1 and the         
framework was considerably wrecked4     
,now1 ,i want to advise all aviators not
 to try to fly with the wind and to     
cross over any big clump of earth or any
 obstacle of any description unless they
 go square over the top of it1 because  
the lift is enormous crossing over      
anything like that1 and in coming the   
other way against the wind it would be  
the same thing when you arrive at the   
windward side of the obstacle4 ,that is 
a point ,i did not think of1 and had ,i 
thought of it ,i would have been more   
cautious4'  ,illustration3 ,colonel     
,cody's man-lifting kite1 in mid-air1   
with an officer of the ,royal ,engineers
 in basket4  ,illustration3 ,rheims     
,meeting3 ,lieutenant ,bassel en cerf   

volant4  ,this ,cody machine was a      
biplane with about #dj foot span1 the   
wings being about #g feet in depth with 
about #h feet between upper and lower   
wing surfaces4 #8,attached to the       
extremities of the lower planes are two 
small horizontal planes or rudders1     
while a third small vertical plane is   
fixed over the centre of the upper      
plane4' ,the tail-piece and principal   
rudder were fitted behind the main body 
of the machine1 and a horizontal rudder 
plane was rigged out in front1 on two   
supporting arms extending from the      
centre of the machine4 ,the small       
end-planes and the vertical plane were  
used in conjunction with the main rudder
 when turning to right or left1 the     
inner plane being depressed on the turn1
 and the outer one correspondingly      
raised1 while the vertical plane1       
working in conjunction1 assisted in     
preserving stability4 ,two two-bladed   
propellers were driven by an            
eight-cylinder #ej horse-power          

,antoinette motor4 ,with this machine   
,cody made his first flights over       
,laffan's plain1 being then definitely  
attached to the ,balloon ,section of the
 ,royal ,engineers as military aviation 
specialist4  ,there were many months of 
experiment and trial1 after the accident
 which ,cody detailed in the statement  
given above1 and then1 on ,may #adth1   
#aiji1 ,cody took the air and made a    
flight of #a1bjj yards with entire      
success4 ,meanwhile ,a4 ,v4 ,roe was    
experimenting at ,lea ,marshes with a   
triplane of rather curious design1 the  
pilot having his seat between two sets  
of three superposed planes1 of which the
 front planes could be tilted and       
twisted while the machine was in motion4
 ,he comes but a little way after ,cody 
in the chronology of early ,british     
experimenters1 but ,cody1 a born        
inventor1 must be regarded as the       
pioneer of the present century so far as
 ,britain is concerned4 ,he was neither 
engineer nor trained mathematician1 but 

he was a good rule-of-thumb mechanic and
 a man of pluck and perseverance2 he    
never strove to fly on an imperfect     
machine1 but made alteration after      
alteration in order to find out what was
 improvement and what was not1 in       
consequence of which it was said of him 
that he was #8always satisfied with his 
alterations4'  ,by ,july of #aiji he had
 fitted an #hj horse-power motor to his 
biplane1 and with this he made a flight 
of over four miles over ,laffan's ,plain
 on ,july #bast4 ,by ,august he was     
carrying passengers1 the first being    
,colonel ,capper of the ,r4,e4 ,balloon 
,section1 who flew with ,cody for over  
two miles1 and on ,september #hth1      
#aiji1 he made a world's record         
cross-country flight of over forty miles
 in sixty-six minutes1 taking a course  
from ,laffan's ,plain over ,farnborough1
 ,rushmoor1 and ,fleet1 and back to     
,laffan's ,plain4 ,he was one of the    
competitors in the #aiji ,doncaster     
,aviation ,meeting1 and in #aiaj he     

competed at ,wolverhampton1             
,bournemouth1 and ,lanark4 ,it was on   
,june #gth1 #aiaj1 that he qualified for
 his brevet1 ,no4 #i1 on the ,cody      
biplane4  ,he built a machine which     
embodied all the improvements for which 
he had gained experience1 in #aiaa1 a   
biplane with a length of #ce feet and   
span of #dc feet1 known as the #8,cody  
cathedral' on account of its rather     
cumbrous appearance4 ,with this1 in     
#aiaa1 he won the two ,michelin trophies
 presented in ,england1 completed the   
,daily ,mail circuit of ,britain1 won   
the ,michelin cross-country prize in    
#aiab1 and altogether1 by the end of    
#aiab1 had covered more than #g1jjj     
miles with the machine4 ,it was fitted  
with a #abj horse-power ,austro-,daimler
 engine1 and was characterised by an    
exceptionally wide range of speed--the  
great wing-spread gave a slow landing   
speed4  ,a few of his records may be    
given3 in #aiaj1 flying at ,laffan's    
,plain in his biplane1 fitted with a    

#ej-fj horse-power ,green engine1 on    
,december #cast1 he broke the records   
for distance and time by flying #ahe    
miles1 #ghg yards1 in #d hours #cg      
minutes4 ,on ,october #cast1 #aiaa1 he  
beat this record by flying for #e hours 
#ae minutes1 in which period he covered 
#bfa miles #haj yards with a #fj        
horse-power ,green engine fitted to his 
biplane4 ,in #aiab1 competing in the    
,british ,war ,office tests of military 
aeroplanes1 he won the #e1jjj offered by
 the ,war ,office4 ,this was in         
competition with no less than           
twenty-five other machines1 among which 
were the since-famous ,deperdussin1     
,bristol1 ,flanders1 and ,avro types1 as
 well as the ,maurice ,farman and       
,bleriot makes of machine4 ,cody's      
remarkable speed range was demonstrated 
in these trials1 the speeds of his      
machine varying between #gb4d and #dh4e 
miles per hour4 ,the machine was the    
only one delivered for the trials by    
air1 and during the three hours' test   

imposed on all competitors a maximum    
height of #e1jjj feet was reached1 the  
first thousand feet being achieved in   
three and a half minutes4  ,during the  
summer of #aiac1 ,cody put his energies 
into the production of a large          
hydro-biplane1 with which he intended to
 win the #e1jjj prize offered by the    
,daily ,mail to the first aviator to fly
 round ,britain on a waterplane4 ,this  
machine was fitted with landing gear for
 its tests1 and1 while flying it over   
,laffan's ,plain on ,august #gth1 #aiac1
 with ,mr ,w4 ,h4 ,b4 ,evans as         
passenger1 ,cody met with the accident  
that cost both him and his passenger    
their lives4 ,aviation lost a great     
figure by his death1 for his plodding1  
experimenting1 and dogged courage not   
only won him the fame that came to a few
 of the pilots of those days1 but also  
advanced the cause of flying very       
considerably and contributed not a      
little to the sum of knowledge in regard
 to design and construction4  ,another  

figure of the early days was ,a4 ,v4    
,roe1 who came from marine engineering  
to the motor industry and aviation in   
#aije4 ,in #aijf he went out to         
,colorado1 getting out drawings for the 
,davidson helicopter1 and in #aijg1     
having returned to ,england1 he obtained
 highest award out of #bjj entries in a 
model aeroplane flying competition4     
,from the design of this model he built 
a full-sized machine1 and made a first  
flight on it1 fitted with a #bd         
horse-power ,antoinette engine1 in ,june
 of #aijh4 ,later1 he fitted a #i       
horse-power motor-cycle engine to a     
triplane of his own design1 and with    
this made a number of short flights2 he 
got his flying brevet on a triplane with
 a motor of #ce horse-power1 which1     
together with a second triplane1 was    
entered for the ,blackpool aviation     
meeting of #aiaj1 but was burnt in      
transport to the meeting4 ,he was       
responsible for the building of the     
first seaplane to rise from ,english    

waters1 and may be counted the pioneer  
of the tractor type of biplane4 ,in     
#aiac he built a two-seater tractor     
biplane with #hj horse-power engine1 a  
machine which for some considerable time
 ranked as a leader of design4 ,together
 with ,e4 ,v4 ,roe and ,h4 ,v4 ,roe1    
#8,a4 ,v4' controlled the ,avro works1  
which produced some of the most famous  
training machines of the war period in a
 modification of the original #hj       
horse-power tractor4 ,the first of the  
series of ,avro tractors to be adopted  
by the military authorities was the     
#aiab biplane1 a two-seater fitted with 
#ej horse-power engine4 ,it was the     
first tractor biplane with a closed     
fuselage to be used for military work1  
and became standard for the type4 ,the  
,avro seaplane1 of #ajj horse-power 7a  
fourteen-cylinder ,gnome engine was     
used7 was taken up by the ,british      
,admiralty in #aiac4 ,it had a length of
 #cd feet and a wing-span of #ej feet1  
and was of the twin-float type4         

,geoffrey de ,havilland1 though of later
 rank1 counts high among designers of   
,british machines4 ,he qualified for his
 brevet as late as ,february1 #aiaa1 on 
a biplane of his own construction1 and  
became responsible for the design of the
 ,,be#b1 the first successful ,british  
,government biplane4 ,on this he made a 
,british height record of #aj1ejj feet  
over ,salisbury ,plain1 in ,august of   
#aiab1 when he took up ,major ,sykes as 
passenger4 ,in the war period he was one
 of the principal designers of fighting 
and reconnaissance machines4  ,f4       
,handley ,page1 who started in business 
as an aeroplane builder in #aijh1 having
 works at ,barking1 was one of the      
principal exponents of the inherently   
stable machine1 to which he devoted     
practically all his experimental work up
 to the outbreak of war4 ,the           
experiments were made with various      
machines1 both of monoplane and biplane 
type1 and of these one of the best was a
 two-seater monoplane built in #aiaa1   

while a second was a larger machine1 a  
biplane1 built in #aiac and fitted with 
a no horse-power ,anzani engine4 ,the   
war period brought out the giant biplane
 with which the name of ,handley ,page  
is most associated1 the twin-engined    
night-bomber being a familiar feature of
 the later days of the war2 the         
four-engined bomber had hardly had a    
chance of proving itself under service  
conditions when the war came to an end4 
,another notable figure of the early    
period was #8,tommy' ,sopwith1 who took 
his flying brevet at ,brooklands in     
,november of #aiaj1 and within four days
 made the ,british duration record of   
#ajh miles in #c hours #ab minutes4 ,on 
,december #ahth1 #aiaj1 he won the      
,baron de ,forrest prize of #d1jjj for  
the longest flight from ,england to the 
,continent1 flying from ,eastchurch to  
,tirlemont1 ,belgium1 in three hours1 a 
distance of #afa miles4 ,after two years
 of touring in ,america1 he returned to 
,england and established a flying       

school4 ,in #aiab he won the first      
aerial ,derby1 and in #aiac a machine of
 his design1 a tractor biplane1 raised  
the ,british height record to #ac1jjj   
feet 7,june #afth1 at ,brooklands74     
,first as aviator1 and then as designer1
 ,sopwith has done much useful work in  
aviation4  ,these are but a few1 out of 
a host who contributed to the           
development of flying in this country1  
for1 although ,france may be said to    
have set the pace as regards            
development1 ,britain was not far       
behind4 ,french experimenters received  
far more ,government aid than did the   
early ,british aviators and             
designers--in the early days the two    
were practically synonymous1 and there  
are many stories of the very early days 
at ,brooklands1 where1 when funds ran   
low1 the ardent spirits patched their   
trousers with aeroplane fabric and went 
on with their work with ,bohemian       
cheeriness4 ,cody1 altering and         
experimenting on ,laffan's ,plain1 is   

the greatest figure of them all1 but    
others rank1 too1 as giants of the early
 days1 before the war brought full      
recognition of the aeroplane's          
potentialities4  ,one of the first men  
actually to fly in ,england1 ,mr ,j4 ,c4
 ,t4 ,moore-,brabazon1 was a famous     
figure in the days of exhibition flying1
 and won his reputation mainly through  
being first to fly a circular mile on a 
machine designed and built in ,great    
,britain and piloted by a ,british      
subject4 ,moore-,brabazon's earliest    
flights were made in ,france on a       
,voisin biplane in #aijh1 and he brought
 this machine over to ,england1 to the  
,aero ,club grounds at ,shellness1 but  
soon decided that he would pilot a      
,british machine instead4 ,an order was 
placed for a ,short machine1 and this1  
fitted with a #ej-fj horse-power ,green 
engine1 was used for the circular mile1 
which won a prize of #a1jjj offered by  
the ,daily ,mail1 the feat being        
accomplished on ,october #cjth1 #aiji4  

,five days later1 ,moore ,brabazon      
achieved the longest flight up to that  
time accomplished on a ,british-built   
machine1 covering three and a half      
miles4 ,in connection with early flying 
in ,england1 it is claimed that ,a4 ,v4 
,roe1 flying #8,avro ,b1' on ,june #hth1
 #aijh1 was actually the first man to   
leave the ground1 this being at         
,brooklands1 but in point of fact ,cody 
antedated him4  ,no record of early     
,british fliers could be made without   
the name of ,c4 ,s4 ,rolls1 a son of    
,lord ,llangattock4 ,on ,june #bnd1     
#aiaj1 he flew across the ,english      
,channel to ,france1 until he was duly  
observed over ,french territory1 when he
 returned to ,england without alighting4
 ,the trip was made on a ,wright        
biplane1 and was the third ,channel     
crossing by air1 ,bleriot having made   
the first1 and ,jacques de ,lesseps the 
second4 ,rolls was first to make the    
return journey in one trip4 ,he was     
eventually killed through the breaking  

of the tail-plane of his machine in     
descending at a flying meeting at       
,bournemouth4 ,the machine was a ,wright
 biplane1 but the design of the         
tail-plane--which1 by the way1 was an   
addition to the machine1 and was not    
even sanctioned by the ,wrights--appears
 to have been carelessly executed1 and  
the plane itself was faulty in          
construction4 ,the breakage caused the  
machine to overturn1 killing ,rolls1 who
 was piloting it4     ,,xiv  ,,rheims1  
,,and ,,after   ,the foregoing          
brief--and necessarily                  
incomplete--survey of the early ,british
 group of fliers has taken us far beyond
 some of the great events of the early  
days of successful flight1 and it is    
necessary to go back to certain         
landmarks in the history of aviation1   
first of which is the great meeting at  
,rheims in #aiji4 ,wilbur ,wright had   
come to ,europe1 and1 flying at ,le     
,mans and ,pau--it was on ,august #hth1 
#aijh1 that ,wilbur ,wright made the    

first of his ascents in ,europe--had    
stimulated public interest in flying in 
,france to a very great degree4         
,meanwhile1 ,orville ,wright1 flying at 
,fort ,meyer1 ,u4,s4,a41 with           
,lieutenant ,selfridge as a passenger1  
sustained an accident which very nearly 
cost him his life through the           
transmission gear of the motor breaking4
 ,selfridge was killed and ,orville     
,wright was severely injured--it was the
 first fatal accident with a ,wright    
machine4  ,orville ,wright made a flight
 of over an hour on ,september #ith1    
#aijh1 and on ,december #cast of that   
year ,wilbur flew for #b hours #ai      
minutes4 ,thus1 when the ,rheims meeting
 was organised--more notable because it 
was the first of its kind1 there were   
already records waiting to be broken4   
,the great week opened on ,august #bbnd1
 there being thirty entrants1 including 
all the most famous men among the early 
fliers in ,france4 ,bleriot1 fresh from 
his ,channel conquest1 was there1       

together with ,henry ,farman1 ,paulhan1 
,curtiss1 ,latham1 and the ,comte de    
,lambert1 first pupil of the ,wright    
machine in ,europe to achieve a         
reputation as an aviator4  #8,to say    
that this week marks an epoch in the    
history of the world is to state a      
platitude4 ,nevertheless1 it is worth   
stating1 and for us who are lucky enough
 to be at ,rheims during this week there
 is a solid satisfaction in the idea    
that we are present at the making of    
history4 ,in perhaps only a few years to
 come the competitions of this week may 
look pathetically small and the         
distances and speeds may appear paltry4 
,nevertheless1 they are the first of    
their kind1 and that is sufficient4'    
,so wrote a newspaper correspondent who 
was present at the famous meeting1 and  
his words may stand1 being more than    
mere journalism2 for the great flying   
week which opened on ,august #bbnd1     
#aiji1 ranks as one of the great        
landmarks in the history of             

heavier-than-air flight4 ,the day before
 the opening of the meeting a downpour  
of rain spoilt the flying ground2       
,sunday opened with a fairly high wind1 
and in a lull ,m4 ,guffroy turned out on
 a crimson ,r4,e4,p4 monoplane1 but the 
wheels of his undercarriage stuck in the
 mud and prevented him from rising in   
the quarter of an hour allowed to       
competitors to get off the ground4      
,bleriot1 following1 succeeded in       
covering one side of the triangular     
course1 but then came down through grit 
in the carburettor4 ,latham1 following  
him with thirteen as the number of his  
machine1 experienced his usual bad luck 
and came to earth through engine trouble
 after a very short flight4 ,captain    
,ferber1 who1 owing to military         
regulations1 always flew under the name 
of ,de ,rue1 came out next with his     
,voisin biplane1 but failed to get off  
the ground2 he was followed by ,lefebvre
 on a ,wright biplane1 who achieved the 
success of the morning by rounding the  

course--a distance of six and a quarter 
miles--in nine minutes with a twenty    
mile an hour wind blowing4 ,his flight  
finished the morning4  ,wind and rain   
kept competitors out of the air until   
the evening1 when ,latham went up1 to be
 followed almost immediately by the     
,comte de ,lambert4 ,sommer1 ,cockburn  
7the only ,english competitor71         
,delagrange1 ,fournier1 ,lefebvre1      
,bleriot1 ,bunau-,varilla1 ,tissandier1 
,paulhan1 and ,ferber turned out after  
the first two1 and the excitement of the
 spectators at seeing so many machines  
in the air at one time provoked wild    
cheering4 ,the only accident of the day 
came when ,bleriot damaged his propeller
 in colliding with a haycock4  ,the main
 results of the day were that the ,comte
 de ,lambert flew #cj kilometres in #bi 
minutes #b seconds2 ,lefebvre made the  
ten-kilometre circle of the track in    
just a second under #i minutes1 while   
,tissandier did it in #i minutes1 and   
,paulhan reached a height of #bcj feet4 

,small as these results seem to us now1 
and ridiculous as may seem enthusiasm at
 the sight of a few machines in the air 
at the same time1 the ,rheims ,meeting  
remains a great event1 since it proved  
definitely to the whole world that the  
conquest of the air had been achieved4  
,throughout the week record after record
 was made and broken4 ,thus on the      
,monday1 ,lefebvre put up a record for  
rounding the course and ,bleriot beat   
it1 to be beaten in turn by ,glenn      
,curtiss on his ,curtiss-,herring       
biplane4 ,on that day1 too1 ,paulhan    
covered #cd miles in #a hour #f minutes4
 ,on the next day1 ,paulhan on his      
,voisin biplane took the air with       
,latham1 and ,fournier followed1 only to
 smash up his machine by striking an    
eddy of wind which turned him over      
several times4 ,on the ,thursday1 one of
 the chief events was ,latham's #dc     
miles accomplished in #a hour #b minutes
 in the morning and his #if4e miles in  
#b hours #ac minutes in the afternoon1  

the latter flight only terminated by    
running out of petrol4 ,on the ,friday1 
the ,colonel ,renard ,french airship1   
which had flown over the ground under   
the pilotage of ,m4 ,kapfarer1 paid     
,rheims a second visit2 ,latham manuvred
 round the airship on his ,antoinette   
and finally left it far behind4 ,henry  
,farman won the ,grand ,prix de         
,champagne on this day1 covering #aab   
miles in #c hours1 #d minutes1 #ef      
seconds1 ,latham being second with his  
#if4e miles flight1 and ,paulhan third4 
,on the ,saturday1 ,glenn ,curtiss came 
to his own1 winning the ,gordon-,bennett
 ,cup by covering #bj kilometres in #ae 
minutes #ej4f seconds4 ,bleriot made a  
good second with #ae minutes #ef4b      
seconds as his time1 and ,latham and    
,lefebvre were third and fourth4 ,farman
 carried off the passenger prize by     
carrying two passengers a distance of #f
 miles in #aj minutes #ci seconds4 ,on  
the last day ,delagrange narrowly       
escaped serious accident through the    

bursting of his propeller while in the  
air1 ,curtiss made a new speed record by
 travelling at the rate of over #ej     
miles an hour1 and ,latham1 rising to   
#ejj feet1 won the altitude prize4      
,illustration3 ,m4 ,tissandier's        
#8,wright' machine 7showing starting    
method74  ,these are the cold statistics
 of the meeting2 at this length of time 
it is difficult to convey any idea of   
the enthusiasm of the crowds over the   
achievements of the various competitors1
 while the incidents of the week1 comic 
and otherwise1 are nearly forgotten now 
even by those present in this making of 
history4 ,latham's great flight on the  
,thursday was rendered a breathless     
episode by a downpour of rain when he   
had covered all but a kilometre of the  
record distance previously achieved by  
,paulhan1 and there was wild enthusiasm 
when ,latham flew on through the rain   
until he had put up a new record and his
 petrol had run out4 ,again1 on the     
,friday afternoon1 the ,colonel ,renard 

took the air together with a little     
,french dirigible1 ,zodiac ,,iii2       
,latham was already in the air directly 
over ,farman1 who was also flying1 and  
three crows which turned out as rivals  
to the human aviators received as much  
cheering for their appearance as had    
been accorded to the machines1 which    
doubtless they could not understand4    
,frightened by the cheering1 the crows  
tried to escape from the course1 but as 
they came near the stands1 the crowd    
rose to cheer again and the crows       
wheeled away to make a second charge    
towards safety1 with the same result2   
the crowd rose and cheered at them a    
third and fourth time2 between ten and  
fifteen thousand people stood on chairs 
and tables and waved hats and           
handkerchiefs at three ordinary1        
everyday crows4 ,one thoughtful         
spectator1 having thoroughly enjoyed the
 funny side of the incident1 remarked   
that the ultimate mastery of the air    
lies with the machine that comes nearest

 to natural flight4 ,this still remains 
for the future to settle4  ,farman's    
world record1 which won the ,grand ,prix
 de ,champagne1 was done with a ,gnome  
,rotary ,motor which had only been run  
on the test bench and was fitted to his 
machine four hours before he started on 
the great flight4 ,his propeller had    
never been tested1 having only been     
completed the night before4 ,the closing
 laps of that flight1 extending as they 
did into the growing of the dusk1 made a
 breathlessly eerie experience for such 
of the spectators as stayed on to       
watch--and these were many4 ,night came 
on steadily and ,farman covered lap     
after lap just as steadily1 a buzzing1  
circling mechanism with something       
relentless in its isolated persistency4 
,the final day of the meeting provided a
 further record in the quarter million  
spectators who turned up to witness the 
close of the great week4 ,bleriot1      
turning out in the morning1 made a      
landing in some such fashion as flooded 

the carburettor and caused it to catch  
fire4 ,bleriot himself was badly burned1
 since the petrol tank burst and1 in the
 end1 only the metal parts of the       
machine were left4 ,glenn ,curtis tried 
to beat ,bleriot's time for a lap of the
 course1 but failed4 ,in the evening1   
,farman and ,latham went out and up in  
great circles1 ,farman cleaving his way 
upward in what at the time counted for a
 huge machine1 on circles of about a    
mile diameter4 ,his first round took him
 level with the top of the stands1 and1 
in his second1 he circled the captive   
balloon anchored in the middle of the   
grounds4 ,after another circle1 he came 
down on a long glide1 when ,latham's    
lean ,antoinette monoplane went up in   
circles more graceful than those of     
,farman4 #8,swiftly it rose and swept   
round close to the balloon1 veered round
 to the hangars1 and out over to the    
,rheims road4 ,back it came high over   
the stands1 the people craning their    
necks as the shrill cry of the engine   

drew nearer and nearer behind the       
stands4 ,then of a sudden1 the little   
form appeared away up in the deep       
twilight blue vault of the sky1 heading 
straight as an arrow for the anchored   
balloon4 ,over it1 and high1 high above 
it went the ,antoinette1 seemingly      
higher by many feet than the ,farman    
machine4 ,then1 wheeling in a long sweep
 to the left1 ,latham steered his       
machine round past the stands1 where the
 people1 their nerve-tension released on
 seeing the machine descending from its 
perilous height of #ejj feet1 shouted   
their frenzied acclamations to the hero 
of the meeting4  ,illustration3 ,rheims 
,aviation ,week4 ,m4 ,lefebvre's        
#8,wright' machine in flight4  #8,for   
certainly 8,le ,tham10 as the ,french   
call him1 was the popular hero4 ,he     
always flew high1 he always flew well1  
and his machine was a joy to the eye1   
either afar off or at close quarters4   
,the public feeling for ,bleriot is     
different4 ,bleriot1 in the popular     

estimation1 is the man who fights       
against odds1 who meets the adverse     
fates calmly and with good courage1 and 
to whom good luck comes once in a while 
as a reward for much labour and anguish1
 bodily and mental4 ,latham is the      
darling of the ,gods1 to whom ,fate has 
only been unkind in the matter of the   
,channel flight1 and only then because  
the honour belonged to ,bleriot4        
#8,next to these two1 the public loved  
most ,lefebvre1 the joyous1 the         
gymnastic4 ,lefebvre was the comedian of
 the meeting4 ,when things began to     
flag1 the gay little ,lefebvre would    
trot out to his starting rail1 out at   
the back of the judge's enclosure       
opposite the stands1 and after a little 
twisting of propellers his ,wright      
machine would bounce off the end of its 
starting rail and proceed to do the most
 marvellous tricks for the benefit of   
the crowd1 wheeling to right and left1  
darting up and down1 now flying over a  
troop of the cavalry who kept the plain 

clear of people and sending their horses
 into hysterics1 anon making straight   
for an unfortunate photographer who     
would throw himself and his precious    
camera flat on the ground to escape     
annihilation as ,lefebvre swept over him
 #f or #g feet off the ground4 ,lefebvre
 was great fun1 and when he had once    
found that his machine was not fast     
enough to compete for speed with the    
,bleriots1 ,antoinettes1 and ,curtiss1  
he kept to his mtier of amusing people4 
,the promoters of the meeting owe       
,lefebvre a debt of gratitude1 for he   
provided just the necessary comic       
relief4'--7,the ,aero1 ,september #gth1 
#aiji47  ,it may be noted1 in connection
 with the fact that ,cockburn was the   
only ,english competitor at the meeting1
 that the ,rheims ,meeting did more than
 anything which had preceded it to waken
 ,british interest in aviation4         
,previously1 heavier-than-air flight in 
,england had been regarded as a freak   
business by the great majority1 and the 

very few pioneers who persevered toward 
winning ,england a share in the conquest
 of the air came in for as much derision
 as acclamation4 ,rheims altered this2  
it taught the world in general1 and     
,england in particular1 that a serious  
rival to the dirigible balloon had come 
to being1 and it awakened the thinking  
portion of the ,british public to the   
fact that the aeroplane had a future4   
,illustration3 ,doncaster flying week4  
,cody ,flying4  ,the success of this    
great meeting brought about a host of   
imitations of which only a few deserve  
bare mention since1 unlike the first1   
they taught nothing and achieved little4
 ,there was the meeting at ,boulogne    
late in ,september of #aiji1 of which   
the only noteworthy event was ,ferber's 
death4 ,there was a meeting at ,brescia 
where ,curtiss again took first prize   
for speed and ,rougier put up a world's 
height record of #fde feet4 ,the        
,blackpool meeting followed between     
#ahth and #bcrd of ,october1 #aiji1     

forming1 with the exception of          
,doncaster1 the first ,british ,flying  
,meeting4 ,chief among the competitors  
were ,henry ,farman1 who took the       
distance prize1 ,rougier1 ,paulhan1 and 
,latham1 who1 by a flight in a high     
wind1 convinced the ,british public that
 the theory that flying was only        
possible in a calm was a fallacy4 ,a    
meeting at ,doncaster was practically   
simultaneous with the ,blackpool week2  
,delagrange1 ,le ,blon1 ,sommer1 and    
,cody were the principal figures in this
 event4 ,it should be added that #acj   
miles was recorded as the total flown at
 ,doncaster1 while at ,blackpool only   
#aae miles were flown4 ,then there were 
,juvisy1 the first ,parisian meeting1   
,wolverhampton1 and the ,comte de       
,lambert's flight round the ,eiffel     
,tower at a height estimated at between 
#a1bjj and #a1cjj feet4 ,this may be    
included in the record of these aerial  
theatricals1 since it was nothing more4 
,probably wakened to realisation of the 

possibilities of the aeroplane by the   
,rheims ,meeting1 ,germany turned out   
its first plane late in #aiji4 ,it was  
known as the ,grade monoplane1 and was a
 blend of the ,bleriot and              
,santos-,dumont machines1 with a tail   
suggestive of the ,antoinette type4 ,the
 main frame took the form of a single   
steel tube1 at the forward end of which 
was rigged a triangular arrangement     
carrying the pilot's seat and the       
landing wheels underneath1 with the wing
 warping wires and stays above4 ,the    
sweep of the wings was rather similar to
 the later ,taube design1 though the    
sweep back was not so pronounced1 and   
the machine was driven by a             
four-cylinder1 #bj horse-power1         
air-cooled engine which drove a         
two-bladed tractor propeller4 ,in spite 
of ,lilienthal's pioneer work years     
before1 this was the first power-driven 
,german plane which actually flew4      
,eleven months after the ,rheims meeting
 came what may be reckoned the only     

really notable aviation meeting on      
,english soil1 in the form of the       
,bournemouth week1 ,july #ajth to #afth1
 #aiaj4 ,this gathering is noteworthy   
mainly in view of the amazing advance   
which it registered on the ,rheims      
performances4 ,thus1 in the matter of   
altitude1 ,morane reached #d1ajg feet   
and ,drexel came second with #b1dij     
feet4 ,audemars on a ,demoiselle        
monoplane made a flight of #ag miles    
#a1dhj yards in #bg minutes #ag4b       
seconds1 a great flight for the little  
,demoiselle4 ,morane achieved a speed of
 #ef4fd miles per hour1 and ,grahame    
,white climbed to #a1jjj feet altitude  
in #f minutes #cf4h seconds4 ,machines  
carrying the ,gnome engine as power unit
 took the great bulk of the prizes1 and 
,british-built engines were far behind4 
,illustration3 ,rolls executing a turn  
7note tilt74  ,illustration3 ,fatal     
accident to ,rolls4 ,bournemouth        
,aviation ,week4  ,the ,bournemouth     
,meeting will always be remembered with 

regret for the tragedy of ,c4 ,s4       
,rolls's death1 which took place on the 
,tuesday1 the second day of the meeting4
 ,the first competition of the day was  
that for the landing prize2 ,grahame    
,white1 ,audemars1 and ,captain ,dickson
 had landed with varying luck1 and      
,rolls1 following on a ,wright machine  
with a tail-plane which ought never to  
have been fitted and was not part of the
 ,wright design1 came down wind after a 
left-hand turn and turned left again    
over the top of the stands in order to  
land up wind4 ,he began to dive when    
just clear of the stands1 and had       
dropped to a height of #dj feet when he 
came over the heads of the people       
against the barriers4 ,finding his      
descent too steep1 he pulled back his   
elevator lever to bring the nose of the 
machine up1 tipping down the front end  
of the tail to present an almost flat   
surface to the wind4 ,had all gone well1
 the nose of the machine would have been
 forced up1 but the strain on the tail  

and its four light supports was too     
great2 the tail collapsed1 the wind     
pressed down the biplane elevator1 and  
the machine dived vertically for the    
remaining #bj feet of the descent1      
hitting the ground vertically and       
crumpling up4 ,major ,kennedy1 first to 
reach the debris1 found ,rolls lying    
with his head doubled under him on the  
overturned upper main plane2 the lower  
plane had been flung some few feet away 
with the engine and tanks under it4     
,rolls was instantaneously killed by    
concussion of the brain4  ,antithesis to
 the tragedy was ,audemars on his       
,demoiselle1 which was named #8,the     
,infuriated ,grasshopper4' ,concerning  
this1 it was recorded at the time that  
#8,nothing so excruciatingly funny as   
the action of this machine has ever been
 seen at any aviation ground4 ,the      
little two-cylinder engine pops away    
with a sound like the frantic drawing of
 ginger beer corks2 the machine scutters
 along the ground with its tail well up2

 then down comes the tail suddenly and  
seems to slap the ground while the front
 jumps up1 and all the spectators rock  
with laughter4 ,the whole attitude and  
the jerky action of the machine suggest 
a grasshopper in a furious rage1 and the
 impression is intensified when it comes
 down1 as it did twice on ,wednesday1 in
 long grass1 burying its head in the    
ground in its temper4'--7,the ,aero1    
,july1 #aiaj47  ,the ,lanark ,meeting   
followed in ,august of the same year1   
and with the bare mention of this1 the  
subject of flying meetings may be left  
alone1 since they became mere matters of
 show until there came military         
competitions such as the ,berlin        
,meeting at the end of ,august1 #aiaj1  
and the ,british ,war ,office ,trials on
 ,salisbury ,plain1 when ,cody won his  
greatest triumphs4 ,the ,berlin meeting 
proved that1 from the time of the       
construction of the first successful    
,german machine mentioned above1 to the 
date of the meeting1 a good number of   

,german aviators had qualified for      
flight1 but principally on ,wright and  
,antoinette machines1 though by that    
time the ,aviatik and ,dorner ,german   
makes had taken the air4 ,the ,british  
,war ,office ,trials deserve separate   
and longer mention4  ,in #aiaj in spite 
of official discouragement1 ,captain    
,dickson proved the value of the        
aeroplane for scouting purposes by      
observing movements of troops during the
 ,military ,manuvres on ,salisbury      
,plain4 ,lieut4 ,lancelot ,gibbs and    
,robert ,loraine1 the actor-aviator1    
also made flights over the manuvre area1
 locating troops and in a way           
anticipating the formation and work of  
the ,royal ,flying ,corps by a          
usefulness which could not be officially
 recognised4  ,illustration3 ,audemars  
on #8,the ,infuriated ,grasshopper1'    
,bournemouth4 ,july1 #aiaj4     ,,xv    
,,the ,,channel ,,crossing   ,it may be 
said that ,louis ,bleriot was           
responsible for the second great        

landmark in the history of successful   
flight4 ,the day when the brothers      
,wright succeeded in accomplishing      
power-driven flight ranks as the first  
of these landmarks4 ,ader may or may not
 have left the ground1 but the wreckage 
of his #8,avion' at the end of his      
experiment places his doubtful success  
in a different category from that of the
 brothers ,wright and leaves them the   
first definite conquerors1 just as      
,bleriot ranks as first definite        
conqueror of the ,english ,channel by   
air4  ,in a way1 ,louis ,bleriot ranks  
before ,farman in point of time2 his    
first flapping-wing model was built as  
early as #aijj1 and ,voisin flew a      
biplane glider of his on the ,seine in  
the very early experimental days4       
,bleriot's first four machines were     
biplanes1 and his fifth1 a monoplane1   
was wrecked almost immediately after its
 construction4 ,bleriot had studied     
,langley's work to a certain extent1 and
 his sixth construction was a double    

monoplane based on the ,langley         
principle4 ,a month after he had wrecked
 this without damaging himself--for     
,bleriot had as many miraculous escapes 
as any of the other fliers--he brought  
out number seven1 a fairly average      
monoplane4 ,it was in ,december of #aijg
 after a series of flights that he      
wrecked this machine1 and on its        
successor1 in ,july of #aijh1 he made a 
flight of over #h minutes4 ,sundry      
flights1 more or less successful1       
including the first cross-country flight
 from ,toury to ,artenay1 kept him busy 
up to the beginning of ,november1 #aijh1
 when the wreckage in a fog of the      
machine he was flying sent him to the   
building of #8number eleven1' the famous
 cross-channel aeroplane4  ,number      
eleven was shown at the ,french ,aero   
,show in the ,grand ,palais and was     
given its first trials on the #ahth     
,january1 #aiji4 ,it was first fitted   
with a ,r4,e4,p4 motor and had a lifting
 area of #abj square feet1 which was    

later increased to #aej square feet4    
,the framework was of oak and poplar    
spliced and reinforced with piano wire2 
the weight of the machine was #dg lbs4  
and the undercarriage weight a further  
#fj lbs41 this consisting of rubber cord
 shock absorbers mounted on two wheels4 
,the ,r4,e4,p4 motor was found          
unsatisfactory1 and a three-cylinder    
,anzani of #aje mm4 bore and #abj mm4   
stroke replaced it4 ,an accident        
seriously damaged the machine on ,june  
#bnd1 but ,bleriot repaired it and      
tested it at ,issy1 where between ,june 
#aith and ,june #bcrd he accomplished   
flights of #h1 #ab1 #ae1 #af1 and #cf   
minutes4 ,on ,july #dth he made a       
#ej-minute flight and on the #acth flew 
from ,etampes to ,chevilly4             
,illustration3 ,blriot crossing the     
,channel4  ,a few further details of    
construction may be given3 the wings    
themselves and an elevator at the tail  
controlled the rate of ascent and       
descent1 while a rudder was also fitted 

at the tail4 ,the steering lever1       
working on a universally jointed        
shaft--forerunner of the modern         
joy-stick--controlled both the rudder   
and the wings1 while a pedal actuated   
the elevator4 ,the engine drove a       
two-bladed tractor screw of #f feet #g  
inches diameter1 and the angle of       
incidence of the wings was #bj degrees4 
,timed at ,issy1 the speed of the       
machine was given as #cf miles an hour1 
and as ,bleriot accomplished the        
,channel flight of #bj miles in #cg     
minutes1 he probably had a slight       
following wind4  ,the ,daily ,mail had  
offered a prize of #a1jjj for the first 
,cross-,channel flight1 and ,hubert     
,latham set his mind on winning it4 ,he 
put up a shelter on the ,french coast at
 ,sangatte1 half-way between ,calais and
 ,cape ,blanc ,nez4 ,from here he made  
his first attempt to fly to ,england on 
,monday the #aith of ,july4 ,he soared  
to a fair height1 circling1 and reached 
an estimated height of about #ijj feet  

as he came over the water with every    
appearance of capturing the             
,cross-,channel prize4 ,the luck which  
dogged his career throughout was against
 him1 for1 after he had covered some #h 
miles1 his engine stopped and he came   
down to the water in a series of long   
glides4 ,it was discovered afterward    
that a small piece of wire had worked   
its way into a vital part of the engine 
to rob ,latham of the honour he coveted4
 ,the tug that came to his rescue found 
him seated on the fuselage of his       
,antoinette1 smoking a cigarette and    
waiting for a boat to take him to the   
tug4 ,it may be remarked that ,latham   
merely assumed his ,antoinette would    
float in case he failed to make the     
,english coast2 he had no actual proof4 
,bleriot immediately entered his machine
 for the prize and took up his quarters 
at ,barraques4 ,on ,sunday1 ,july #beth1
 #aiji1 shortly after #d a4m41 ,bleriot 
had his machine taken out from its      
shelter and prepared for flight4 ,he had

 been recently injured in a petrol      
explosion and hobbled out on crutches to
 make his cross-,channel attempt2 he    
made two great circles in the air to try
 the machine1 and then alighted4 #8,in  
ten minutes ,i start for ,england1' he  
declared1 and at #d4ce the motor was    
started up4 ,after a run of #ajj yards1 
the machine rose in the air and got a   
height of about #ajj feet over the land1
 then wheeling sharply seaward and      
heading for ,dover4  ,bleriot had no    
means of telling direction1 and any     
change of wind might have driven him out
 over the ,north ,sea1 to be lost1 as   
were ,cecil ,grace and ,hamel later on4 
,luck was with him1 however1 and at     
#e4ab a4m4 of that ,july ,sunday1 he    
made his landing in the ,north ,fall    
meadow1 just behind ,dover ,castle4     
,twenty minutes out from the ,french    
coast1 he lost sight of the destroyer   
which was patrolling the ,channel1 and  
at the same time he was out of sight of 
land without compass or any other means 

of ascertaining his direction4 ,sighting
 the ,english coast1 he found that he   
had gone too far to the east1 for the   
wind increased in strength throughout   
the flight1 this to such an extent as   
almost to turn the machine round when he
 came over ,english soil4 ,profiting by 
,latham's experience1 ,bleriot had      
fitted an inflated rubber cylinder a    
foot in diameter by #e feet in length   
along the middle of his fuselage1 to    
render floating a certainty in case he  
had to alight on the water4             
,illustration3 ,latham starts from      
,sangatte4  ,latham in his camp at      
,sangatte had been allowed to sleep     
through the calm of the early morning   
through a mistake on the part of a      
friend1 and when his machine was turned 
out in order that he might emulate      
,bleriot1 although he no longer hoped to
 make the first flight1 it took so long 
to get the machine ready and dragged up 
to its starting-point that there was a  
#be mile an hour wind by the time       

everything was in readiness4 ,latham was
 anxious to make the start in spite of  
the wind1 but the ,directors of the     
,antoinette ,company refused permission4
 ,it was not until two days later that  
the weather again became favourable1 and
 then with a fresh machine1 since the   
one on which he made his first attempt  
had been very badly damaged in being    
towed ashore1 he made a circular trial  
flight of about #e miles4 ,in landing   
from this1 a side gust of wind drove the
 nose of the machine against a small    
hillock1 damaging both propeller blades 
and chassis1 and it was not until       
evening that the damage was repaired4   
,french torpedo boats were set to mark  
the route1 and ,latham set out on his   
second attempt at six o'clock4 ,flying  
at a height of #bjj feet1 he headed over
 the torpedo boats for ,dover and seemed
 certain of making the ,english coast1  
but a mile and a half out from ,dover   
his engine failed him again1 and he     
dropped to the water to be picked up by 

the steam pinnace of an ,english warship
 and put aboard the ,french destroyer   
,escopette4  ,there is little to choose 
between the two aviators for courage in 
attempting what would have1 been        
considered a foolhardy feat a year or   
two before4 ,bleriot's state1 with an   
abscess in the burnt foot which had to  
control the elevator of his machine1    
renders his success all the more        
remarkable4 ,his machine was exhibited  
in ,london for a time1 and was          
afterwards placed in the ,conservatoire 
des ,arts et ,mtiers1 while a memorial  
in stone1 copying his monoplane in form1
 was let into the turf at the point     
where he landed4  ,the second ,channel  
crossing was not made until #aiaj1 a    
year of new records4 ,the altitude      
record had been lifted to over #aj1jjj  
feet1 the duration record to #h hours   
#ab minutes1 and the distance for a     
single flight to #cfe miles1 while a    
speed of over #fe miles an hour had been
 achieved1 when ,jacques de ,lesseps1   

son of the famous engineer of ,suez     
,canal and ,panama fame1 crossed from   
,france to ,england on a ,bleriot       
monoplane4 ,by this time flying had     
dropped so far from the marvellous that 
this second conquest of the ,channel    
aroused but slight public interest in   
comparison with ,bleriot's feat4  ,the  
total weight of ,bleriot's machine in   
,cross ,channel trim was #ffj lbs41     
including the pilot and sufficient      
petrol for a three hours' run2 at a     
speed of #cg miles an hour1 it was      
capable of carrying about #e lbs4 per   
square foot of lifting surface4 ,it was 
the three-cylinder #be horse-power      
,anzani motor which drove the machine   
for the flight4 ,shortly after the      
flight had been accomplished1 it was    
announced that the ,bleriot firm would  
construct similar machines for sale at  
#djj apiece--a good commentary on the   
prices of those days4  ,on ,june the    
#bnd1 #aiaj1 the third ,channel crossing
 was made by ,c4 ,s4 ,rolls1 who flew   

from ,dover1 got himself officially     
observed over ,french soil at           
,barraques1 and then flew back without  
landing4 ,he was the first to cross from
 the ,british side of the ,channel and  
also was the first aviator who made the 
double journey4 ,by that time1 however1 
distance flights had so far increased as
 to reduce the value of the feat1 and   
thenceforth the ,channel crossing was no
 exceptional matter4 ,the honour1 second
 only to that of the ,wright ,brothers1 
remains with ,bleriot4     ,,xvi        
,,london ,,to ,,manchester   ,the last  
of the great contests to arouse public  
enthusiasm was the ,london to           
,manchester ,flight of #aiaj4 ,as far   
back as #aijf1 the ,daily ,mail had     
offered a prize of #aj1jjj to the first 
aviator who should accomplish this      
journey1 and1 for a long time1 the offer
 was regarded as a perfectly safe one   
for any person or paper to make--it     
brought forth far more ridicule than    
belief4 ,punch offered a similar sum to 

the first man who should swim the       
,atlantic and also for the first flight 
to ,mars and back within a week1 but in 
the spring of #aiaj ,claude ,grahame    
,white and ,paulhan1 the famous ,french 
pilot1 entered for the #ahc mile run on 
which the prize depended4 ,both these   
competitors flew the ,farman biplane    
with the #ej horse-power ,gnome motor as
 propulsive power4 ,grahame ,white      
surveyed the ground along the route1 and
 the ,l4  ,n4 ,w4 ,railway ,company1 at 
his request1 whitewashed the sleepers   
for #ajj yards on the north side of all 
junctions to give him his direction on  
the course4 ,the machine was run out on 
to the starting ground at ,park ,royal  
and set going at #e4ai a4m4 on ,april   
#bcrd4 ,after a run of #ajj yards1 the  
machine went up over ,wormwood ,scrubs  
on its journey to ,normandy1 near       
,hillmorten1 which was the first        
arranged stopping place en route2       
,grahame ,white landed here in good trim
 at #g4bj a4m41 having covered #ge miles

 and made a world's record cross country
 flight4 ,at #h4ae he set off again to  
come down at ,whittington1 four miles   
short of ,lichfield1 at about #i4bj1    
with his machine in good order except   
for a cracked landing skid4 ,twice1 on  
this second stage of the journey1 he had
 been caught by gusts of wind which     
turned the machine fully round toward   
,london1 and1 when over a wood near     
,tamworth1 the engine stopped through a 
defect in the balance springs of two    
exhaust valves2 although it started up  
again after a #ajj foot glide1 it did   
not give enough power to give him safety
 in the gale he was facing4 ,the rising 
wind kept him on the ground throughout  
the day1 and1 though he hoped for better
 weather1 the gale kept up until the    
,sunday evening4 ,the men in charge of  
the machine during its halt had         
attempted to hold the machine down      
instead of anchoring it with stakes and 
ropes1 and1 in consequence of this1 the 
wind blew the machine over on its back1 

breaking the upper planes and the tail4 
,grahame ,white had to return to        
,london1 while the damaged machine was  
prepared for a second flight4 ,the      
conditions of the competition enacted   
that the full journey should be         
completed within #bd hours1 which made  
return to the starting ground           
inevitable4  ,louis ,paulhan1 who had   
just arrived with his ,farman machine1  
immediately got it unpacked and put     
together in order to be ready to make   
his attempt for the prize as soon as the
 weather conditions should admit4 ,at   
#e4ca p4m41 on ,april #bgth1 he went up 
from ,hendon and had travelled #ej miles
 when ,grahame ,white1 informed of his  
rival's start1 set out to overtake him4 
,before nightfall ,paulhan landed at    
,lichfield1 #aag miles from ,london1    
while ,grahame ,white had to come down  
at ,roden1 only #fj miles out4 ,the     
,english aviator's chance was not so    
small as it seemed1 for1 as ,latham had 
found in his cross-,channel attempts1   

engine failure was more the rule than   
the exception1 and a very little thing  
might reverse the relative positions4   
,a special train accompanied ,paulhan   
along the ,north-,western route1        
conveying ,madame ,paulhan1 ,henry      
,farman1 and the mechanics who fitted   
the ,farman biplane together4 ,paulhan  
himself1 who had flown at a height of   
#a1jjj feet1 spent the night at         
,lichfield1 starting again at #d4i a4m4 
on the #bhth1 passing ,stafford at      
#d4de1 ,crewe at #e4bj1 and landing at  
,burnage1 near ,didsbury1 at #e4cb1     
having had a clean run4  ,meanwhile1    
,grahame ,white had made a most heroic  
attempt to beat his rival4 ,an hour     
before dawn on the #bhth1 he went to the
 small field in which his machine had   
landed1 and in the darkness managed to  
make an ascent from ground which made   
starting difficult even in daylight4    
,purely by instinct and his recollection
 of the aspect of things the night      
before1 he had to clear telegraph wires 

and a railway bridge1 neither of which  
he could possibly see at that hour4 ,his
 engine1 too1 was faltering1 and it was 
obvious to those who witnessed his start
 that its note was far from perfect4    
,at #c4ej he was over ,nuneaton and     
making good progress2 between           
,atherstone and ,lichfield the wind     
caught him and the engine failed more   
and more1 until at #d4ac in the morning 
he was forced to come to earth1 having  
covered #f miles less distance than in  
his first attempt4 ,it was purely a case
 of engine failure1 for1 with full      
power1 he would have passed over        
,paulhan just as the latter was         
preparing for the restart4 ,taking into 
consideration the two machines1 there is
 little doubt that ,grahame ,white      
showed the greater flying skill1        
although he lost the prize4 ,after      
landing and hearing of ,paulhan's       
victory1 on which he wired              
congratulations1 he made up his mind to 
fly to ,manchester within the #bd hours4

 ,he started at #e o'clock in the       
afternoon from ,polesworth1 his landing 
place1 but was forced to land at #e4cj  
at ,whittington1 where he had landed on 
the previous ,saturday4 ,the wind1 which
 had forced his descent1 fell again and 
permitted of starting once more2 on this
 third stage he reached ,lichfield1 only
 to make his final landing at #g4ae     
p4m41 near the ,trent ,valley station4  
,the defective running of the ,gnome    
engine prevented his completing the     
course1 and his ,farman machine had to  
be brought back to ,london by rail4     
,the presentation of the prize to       
,paulhan was made the occasion for the  
announcement of a further competition1  
consisting of a #a1jjj mile flight round
 a part of ,great ,britain4 ,in this1   
nineteen competitors started1 and only  
four finished2 the end of the race was a
 great fight between ,beaumont and      
,vedrines1 both of whom scorned weather 
conditions in their determination to    
win4 ,beaumont made the distance in a   

flying time of #bb hours #bh minutes #ai
 seconds1 and ,vedrines covered the     
journey in a little over #bc hours4     
,valentine came third on a ,deperdussin 
monoplane and ,s4 ,f4 ,cody on his      
,cathedral biplane was fourth4 ,this was
 in #aiaa1 and by that time             
heavier-than-air flight had so far      
advanced that some pilots had had war   
experience in the ,italian campaign in  
,tripoli1 while long cross-country      
flights were an everyday event1 and bad 
weather no longer counted4     ,,xvii   
,a ,,summary1 ,,to #aiaa   ,there is so 
much overlapping in the crowded story of
 the first years of successful          
power-driven flight that at this point  
it is advisable to make a concise       
chronological survey of the chief events
 of the period of early development1    
although much of this is of necessity   
recapitulation4 ,the story begins1 of   
course1 with ,orville ,wright's first   
flight of #heb feet at ,kitty ,hawk on  
,december #aith1 #aijc4 ,the next event 

of note was ,wright's flight of #aa4ab  
miles in #ah minutes #i seconds at      
,dayton1 ,ohio1 on ,september #bfth1    
#aije1 this being the first officially  
recorded flight4 ,on ,october #dth of   
the same year1 ,wright flew #bj4ge miles
 in #cc minutes #ag seconds1 this being 
the first flight of over #bj miles ever 
made4 ,then on ,september #adth1 #aijf1 
,alberto ,santos-,dumont made a flight  
of eight seconds on the second          
heavier-than-air machine he had         
constructed4 ,it was a big box-kite-like
 machine2 this was the second           
power-driven aeroplane in ,europe to    
fly1 for although ,santos-,dumont's     
first machine produced in #aije was     
reckoned an unsuccessful design1 it had 
actually got off the ground for brief   
periods4 ,louis ,bleriot came into the  
ring on ,april #eth1 #aijg1 with a first
 flight of #f seconds on a ,bleriot     
monoplane1 his eighth but first         
successful construction4  ,henry ,farman
 made his first appearance in the       

history of aviation with a flight of    
#ice feet on a ,voisin biplane on       
,october #aeth1 #aijg4 ,on ,october     
#beth1 in a flight of #b1ecj feet1 he   
made the first recorded turn in the air1
 and on ,march #bith1 #aijh1 carrying   
,leon ,delagrange on a ,voisin biplane1 
he made the first passenger flight4 ,on 
,april #ajth of this year1 ,delagrange1 
in flying #a miles1 made the first      
flight in ,europe exceeding a mile in   
distance4 ,he improved on this by flying
 #aj miles at ,milan on ,june #bbnd1    
while on ,july #hth1 at ,turin1 he took 
up ,madame ,peltier1 the first woman to 
make an aeroplane flight4  ,wilbur      
,wright1 coming over to ,europe1 made   
his first appearance on the ,continent  
with a flight of #a minutes at          
,hunaudieres1 ,france1 on ,august #hth1 
#aijh4 ,on ,september #fth1 at ,chlons1 
he flew for #a hour #d minutes #bf      
seconds with a passenger1 this being the
 first flight in which an hour in the   
air was exceeded with a passenger on    

board4  ,on ,september #abth1 #aijh1    
,orville ,wright1 flying at ,fort       
,meyer1 ,u4,s4,a41 with ,lieut4         
,selfridge as passenger1 crashed his    
machine1 suffering severe injuries1     
while ,selfridge was killed4 ,this was  
the first aeroplane fatality4 ,on       
,october #cjth1 #aijh1 ,farman made the 
first cross-country flight1 covering the
 distance of #ag miles between ,bouy and
 ,rheims4 ,the next day1 ,louis         
,bleriot1 in flying from ,toury to      
,artenay1 made two landings en route1   
this being the first cross-country      
flight with landings4 ,on the last day  
of the year1 ,wilbur ,wright won the    
,michelin ,cup at ,auvours with a flight
 of #ij miles1 which1 lasting #b hours  
#bj minutes #bc seconds1 exceeded #b    
hours in the air for the first time4    
,on ,january #bnd1 #aiji1 ,s4 ,f4 ,cody 
opened the ,new ,year by making the     
first observed flight at ,farnborough on
 a ,british ,army aeroplane4 ,it was not
 until ,july #ahth of #aiji that the    

first ,european height record deserving 
of mention was put up by ,paulhan1 who  
achieved a height of #dej feet on a     
,voisin biplane4 ,this preceded         
,latham's first attempt to fly the      
,channel by two days1 and five days     
later1 on the #beth of the month1       
,bleriot made the first ,channel        
crossing4 ,the ,rheims ,meeting followed
 on ,august #bbnd1 and it was a great   
day for aviation when nine machines were
 seen in the air at once4 ,it was here  
that ,farman1 with a #aah mile flight1  
first exceeded the hundred miles1 and   
,latham raised the height record        
officially to #ejj feet1 though actually
 he claimed to have reached #a1bjj feet4
 ,on ,september #hth1 ,cody1 flying from
 ,aldershot1 made a #dj mile journey1   
setting up a new cross-country record4  
,on ,october #aith the ,comte de        
,lambert flew from ,juvisy to ,paris1   
rounded the ,eiffel ,tower and flew     
back4 ,j4 ,t4 ,c4 ,moore-,brabazon made 
the first circular mile flight by a     

,british aviator on an all-,british     
machine in ,great ,britain1 on ,october 
#cjth1 flying a ,short biplane with a   
,green engine4 ,paulhan1 flying at      
,brooklands on ,november #bnd1          
accomplished #if miles in #b hours #dh  
minutes1 creating a ,british distance   
record2 on the following day1 ,henry    
,farman made a flight of #aej miles in  
#d hours #bb minutes at ,mourmelon1 and 
on the #eth of the month1 ,paulhan1     
flying a ,farman biplane1 made a world's
 height record of #igg feet4 ,this1     
however1 was not to stand long1 for     
,latham got up to #a1efj feet on an     
,antoinette at ,mourmelon on ,december  
#ast4 ,december #cast witnessed the     
first flight in ,ireland1 made by ,h4   
,ferguson on a monoplane which he       
himself had constructed at ,downshire   
,park1 ,lisburn4  ,these1 thus briefly  
summarised1 are the principal events up 
to the end of #aiji4 #aiaj opened with  
tragedy1 for on ,january #dth ,leon     
,delagrange1 one of the greatest pilots 

of his time1 was killed while flying at 
,pau4 ,the machine was the ,bleriot ,,xi
 which ,delagrange had used at the      
,doncaster meeting1 and to which        
,delagrange had fitted a #ej horse-power
 ,gnome engine1 increasing the speed of 
the machine from its original #cj to #de
 miles per hour4 ,with the ,rotary      
,gnome engine there was of necessity a  
certain gyroscopic effect1 the strain of
 which proved too much for the machine4 
,delagrange had come to assist in the   
inauguration of the ,croix d',hins      
aerodrome1 and had twice lapped the     
course at a height of about #fj feet4   
,at the beginning of the third lap1 the 
strain of the ,gnome engine became too  
great for the machine2 one wing         
collapsed as if the stay wires had      
broken1 and the whole machine turned    
over and fell1 killing ,delagrange4  ,on
 ,january #gth ,latham1 flying at       
,mourmelon1 first made the vertical     
kilometre and dedicated the record to   
,delagrange1 this being the day of his  

friend's funeral4 ,the record was       
thoroughly authenticated by a large     
registering barometer which ,latham     
carried1 certified by the officials of  
the ,french ,aero ,club4 ,three days    
later ,paulhan1 who was at ,los         
,angeles1 ,california1 raised the height
 record to #d1adf feet4  ,on ,january   
#beth the ,brussels ,exhibition opened1 
when the ,antoinette monoplane1 the     
,gaffaux and ,hanriot monoplanes1       
together with the d',hespel aeroplane1  
were shown2 there were also the         
dirigible ,belgica and a number of      
interesting aero engines1 including a   
,german airship engine and a            
four-cylinder #ej horse-power ,miesse1  
this last air-cooled by means of fans   
driving a current of air through air    
jackets surrounding fluted cylinders4   
,on ,april #bnd ,hubert ,le ,blon1      
flying a ,bleriot with an ,anzani       
engine1 was killed while flying over the
 water4 ,his machine was flying quite   
steadily1 when it suddenly heeled over  

and came down sideways into the sea2 the
 motor continued running for some       
seconds and the whole machine was drawn 
under water4 ,when boats reached the    
spot1 ,le ,blon was found lying back in 
the driving seat floating just below the
 surface4 ,he had done good flying at   
,doncaster1 and at ,heliopolis had      
broken the world's speed records for #e 
and #aj kilometres4 ,the accident was   
attributed to fracture of one of the    
wing stay wires when running into a gust
 of wind4  ,the next notable event was  
,paulhan's ,london-,manchester flight1  
of which full details have already been 
given4 ,in ,may ,captain ,bertram       
,dickson1 flying at the ,tours meeting1 
beat all the ,continental fliers whom he
 encountered1 including ,chavez1 the    
,peruvian1 who later made the first     
crossing of the ,alps4 ,dickson was the 
first ,british winner of international  
aviation prizes4  ,c4 ,s4 ,rolls1 of    
whom full details have already been     
given1 was killed at ,bournemouth on    

,july #abth1 being the first ,british   
aviator of note to be killed in an      
aeroplane accident4 ,his return trip    
across the ,channel had taken place on  
,june #bnd4 ,chavez1 who was rapidly    
leaping into fame1 as a pilot1 raised   
the ,british height record to #e1gej    
feet while flying at ,blackpool on      
,august #crd4 ,on the #aath of that     
month1 ,armstrong ,drexel1 flying a     
,bleriot1 made a world's height record  
of #f1gde feet4  ,it was in #aiaj that  
the ,british ,war ,office first began   
fully to realise that there might be    
military possibilities in               
heavier-than-air flying4 ,c4 ,s4 ,rolls 
had placed a ,wright biplane at the     
disposal of the military authorities1   
and ,cody1 as already recorded1 had been
 experimenting with a biplane type of   
his own for some long period4 ,such     
development as was achieved was mainly  
due to the enterprise and energy of     
,colonel ,j4 ,e4 ,capper1 ,c4,b41       
appointed to the superintendency of the 

,balloon ,factory and ,balloon ,school  
at ,farnborough in #aijf4 ,colonel      
,capper's retirement in #aiaj brought   
7then7 ,mr ,mervyn ,o',gorman to        
command1 and by that time the series of 
successes of the ,cody biplane1 together
 with the proved efficiency of the      
aeroplane in various civilian meetings1 
had convinced the ,british military     
authorities that the mastery of the air 
did not lie altogether with dirigible   
airships1 and it may be said that in    
#aiaj the ,british ,war ,office first   
began seriously to consider the         
possibilities of the aeroplane1 though  
two years more were to elapse before the
 formation of the ,royal ,flying ,corps 
marked full realisation of its value4   
,illustration3 ,chavez flying across the
 ,alps4  ,a triumph and a tragedy were  
combined in ,september of #aiaj4 ,on the
 #bcrd of the month1 ,georges ,chavez   
set out to fly across the ,alps on a    
,bleriot monoplane4 ,prizes had been    
offered by the ,milan ,aviation         

,committee for a flight from ,brigue in 
,switzerland over the ,simplon ,pass to 
,milan1 a distance of #id miles with a  
minimum height of #f1fjj feet above sea 
level4 ,chavez started at #a4cj p4m4 on 
the #bcrd1 and #da minutes later he     
reached ,domodossola1 #be miles distant4
 ,here he descended1 numbed with the    
cold of the journey2 it was said that   
the wings of his machine collapsed when 
about #cj feet from the ground1 but     
however this may have been1 he smashed  
the machine on landing1 and broke both  
legs1 in addition to sustaining other   
serious injuries4 ,he lay in hospital   
until the #bgth ,september1 when he     
died1 having given his life to the      
conquest of the ,alps4 ,his death in the
 moment of success was as great a       
tragedy as were those of ,pilcher and   
,lilienthal4  ,the day after ,chavez's  
death1 ,maurice ,tabuteau flew across   
the ,pyrenees1 landing in the square at 
,biarritz4 ,on ,december #cjth1         
,tabuteau made a flight of #cfe miles in

 #g hours #dh minutes4 ,farman1 on      
,december #ahth1 had flown for over #h  
hours1 but his total distance was only  
#bhb miles4 ,the autumn of this year was
 also noteworthy for the fact that      
aeroplanes were first successfully used 
in the ,french ,military ,manuvres4 ,the
 ,british ,war ,office1 by the end of   
the year1 had bought two machines1 a    
military type ,farman and a ,paulhan1   
ignoring ,british experimenters and     
aeroplane builders of proved            
reliability4 ,these machines1 added to  
an old ,bleriot two-seater1 appear to   
have constituted the ,british aeroplane 
fleet of the period4  ,there were by    
this time three main centres of aviation
 in ,england1 apart from ,cody1 alone on
 ,laffan's ,plain4 ,these three were    
,brooklands1 ,hendon1 and the ,isle of  
,sheppey1 and of the three ,brooklands  
was chief4 ,here such men as ,graham    
,gilmour1 ,rippen1 ,leake1 ,wickham1 and
 ,thomas persistently experimented4     
,hendon had its own little group1 and   

,shellbeach1 ,isle of ,sheppey1 held    
such giants of those days as ,c4 ,s4    
,rolls and ,moore ,brabazon1 together   
with ,cecil ,grace and ,rawlinson4 ,one 
or other1 and sometimes all of these    
were deserted on the occasion of some   
meeting or other1 but they were the     
points where the spade work was done1   
,brooklands taking chief place4 #8,if   
you want the early history of flying in 
,england1 it is there1' one of the early
 school remarked1 pointing over toward  
,brooklands course4  #aiaa inaugurated a
 new series of records of varying       
character4 ,on the #agth ,january1 ,e4  
,b4 ,ely1 an ,american1 flew from the   
shore of ,san ,francisco to the ,u4,s4  
cruiser ,pennsylvania1 landing on the   
cruiser1 and then flew back to the      
shore4 ,the ,british military designing 
of aeroplanes had been taken up at      
,farnborough by ,g4 ,h4 de ,havilland1  
who by the end of ,january was flying a 
machine of his own design1 when he      
narrowly escaped becoming a casualty    

through collision with an obstacle on   
the ground1 which swept the             
undercarriage from his machine4  ,a list
 of certified pilots of the countries of
 the world was issued early in #aiaa1   
showing certificates granted up to the  
end of #aiaj4 ,france led the way easily
 with #cec pilots2 ,england came next   
with #eg1 and ,germany next with #df2   
,italy owned #cb1 ,belgium #bg1 ,america
 #bf1 and ,austria #ai2 ,holland and    
,switzerland had #f aviators apiece1    
while ,denmark followed with #c1 ,spain 
with #b1 and ,sweden with #a4 ,the first
 certificate in ,england was that of ,j4
 ,t4 ,c4 ,moore-,brabazon1 while ,louis 
,bleriot was first on the ,french list  
and ,glenn ,curtiss1 first holder of an 
,american certificate1 also held the    
second ,french brevet4  ,on the #gth    
,march1 ,eugene ,renaux won the         
,michelin ,grand ,prize by flying from  
the ,french ,aero ,club ground at ,st   
,cloud and landing on the ,puy de ,dome4
 ,the landing1 which was one of the     

conditions of the prize1 was one of the 
most dangerous conditions ever attached 
to a competition2 it involved dropping  
on to a little plateau #aej yards       
square1 with a possibility of either    
smashing the machine against the face of
 the mountain1 or diving over the edge  
of the plateau into the gulf beneath4   
,the length of the journey was slightly 
over #bjj miles and the height of the   
landing point #a1dfe metres1 or roughly 
#d1ejj feet above sea-level4 ,renaux    
carried a passenger1 ,doctor ,senoucque1
 a member of ,charcot's ,south ,polar   
,expedition4  ,the #aiaa ,aero          
,exhibition held at ,olympia bore       
witness to the enormous strides made in 
construction1 more especially by        
,british designers1 between #aijh and   
the opening of the ,show4 ,the ,bristol 
,firm showed three machines1 including a
 military biplane1 and the first        
,british-built biplane with tractor     
screw4 ,the ,cody biplane1 with its     
enormous size rendering it a prominent  

feature of the show1 was exhibited4 ,its
 designer anticipated later engines by  
expressing his desire for a motor of    
#aej horse-power1 which in his opinion  
was necessary to get the best results   
from the machine4 ,the then famous      
,dunne monoplane was exhibited at this  
show1 its planes being ,v-shaped in     
plan1 with apex leading4 ,it embodied   
the results of very lengthy experiments 
carried out both with gliders and       
power-driven machines by ,colonel       
,capper1 ,lieut4 ,gibbs1 and ,lieut4    
,dunne1 and constituted the longest step
 so far taken in the direction of       
inherent stability4  ,such forerunners  
of the notable planes of the war period 
as the ,martin ,handasyde1 the          
,nieuport1 ,sopwith1 ,bristol1 and      
,farman machines1 were features of the  
show2 the ,handley-,page monoplane1 with
 a span of #cb feet over all1 a length  
of #bb feet1 and a weight of #dbb lbs41 
bore no relation at all to the          
twin-engined giant which later made this

 firm famous4 ,in the matter of engines1
 the principal survivals to the present 
day1 of which this show held specimens1 
were the ,gnome1 ,green1 ,renault       
air-cooled1 ,mercedes four-cylinder     
dirigible engine of #aae horse-power1   
and #abj horse-power ,wolseley of eight 
cylinders for use with dirigibles4  ,on 
,april #abth of #aiaa1 ,paprier1        
instructor at the ,bleriot school at    
,hendon1 made the first non-stop flight 
between ,london and ,paris4 ,he left the
 aerodrome at #a4cg p4m41 and arrived at
 ,issy-les-,moulineaux at #e4cc p4m41   
thus travelling #bej miles in a little  
under #d hours4 ,he followed the railway
 route practically throughout1 crossing 
from ,dover to nearly opposite ,calais1 
keeping along the coast to ,boulogne1   
and then following the ,nord ,railway to
 ,amiens1 ,beauvais1 and finally ,paris4
  ,in ,may1 the ,paris-,madrid race took
 place2 ,vedrines1 flying a ,morane     
biplane1 carried off the prize by first 
completing the distance of #gcb miles4  

,the ,paris-,rome race of #iaf miles was
 won in the same month by ,beaumont1    
flying a ,bleriot monoplane4 ,in ,july1 
,knig won the ,german ,national ,circuit
 race of #a1afh miles on an ,albatross  
biplane4 ,this was practically          
simultaneous with the ,circuit of       
,britain won by ,beaumont1 who covered  
#a1jaj miles on a ,bleriot monoplane1   
having already won the                  
,paris-,brussels-,london-,paris ,circuit
 of #a1jhj miles1 this also on a        
,bleriot4 ,it was in ,august that a new 
world's height record of #aa1aeb feet   
was set up by ,captain ,felix at        
,etampes1 while on the #gth of the month
 ,renaux flew nearly #fjj miles on a    
,maurice ,farman machine in #ab hours4  
,cody and ,valentine were keeping       
interest alive in the ,circuit of       
,britain race1 although this had long   
been won1 by determinedly plodding on at
 finishing the course4  ,illustration3  
,army ,aeroplane ,tests on ,salisbury   
,plain1 #bnd ,august1 #aiab4 ,vdrines   

passing ,cody's hangar4  ,on ,september 
#ith1 the first aerial post was tried   
between ,hendon and ,windsor1 as an     
experiment in sending mails by          
aeroplane4 ,gustave ,hamel flew from    
,hendon to ,windsor and back in a strong
 wind4 ,a few days later1 ,hamel went on
 strike1 refusing to carry further mails
 unless the promoters of the ,aerial    
,postal ,service agreed to pay          
compensation to ,hubert1 who fractured  
both his legs on the #aath of the month 
while engaged in aero postal work4 ,the 
strike ended on ,september #beth1 when  
,hamel resumed mail-carrying in         
consequence of the capitulation of the  
,postmaster-,general1 who agreed to set 
aside #ejj as compensation to ,hubert4  
,september also witnessed the completion
 in ,america of a flight across the     
,continent1 a distance of #b1fjj miles4 
,the only competitor who completed the  
full distance was ,c4 ,p4 ,rogers1 who  
was disqualified through failing to     
comply with the time limit4 ,rogers     

needed so many replacements to his      
machine on the journey that1 expressing 
it in ,american fashion1 he arrived with
 practically a different aeroplane from 
that with which he started4  ,with      
regard to the aerial postal service1    
analysis of the matter carried and the  
cost of the service seemed to show that 
with a special charge of one shilling   
for letters and sixpence for post cards1
 the revenue just balanced the          
expenditure4 ,it was not possible to    
keep to the time-table as1 although the 
trials were made in the most favourable 
season of the year1 aviation was not    
sufficiently advanced to admit of facing
 all weathers and complying with        
time-table regulations4  ,french        
military aeroplane trials took place at 
,rheims in ,october1 the noteworthy     
machines being ,antoinette1 ,farman1    
,nieuport1 and ,deperdussin4 ,the tests 
showed the ,nieuport monoplane with     
,gnome motor as first in position2 the  
,breguet biplane was second1 and the    

,deperdussin monoplanes third4 ,the     
first five machines in order of merit   
were all engined with the ,gnome motor4 
,the records quoted for #aiaa form the  
best evidence that can be given of      
advance in design and performance during
 the year4 ,it will be seen that the    
days of the giants were over2 design was
 becoming more and more standardised and
 aviation not so much a matter of       
individual courage and even daring1 as  
of the reliability of the machine and   
its engine4 ,this was the first year in 
which the twin-engined aeroplane made   
its appearance1 and it was the year1    
too1 in which flying may be said to have
 grown so common that the #8meetings'   
which began with ,rheims were hardly    
worth holding1 owing to the fact that   
increase in height and distance flown   
rendered it no longer necessary for a   
would-be spectator of a flight to pay   
half a crown and enter an enclosure4    
,henceforth1 flying as a spectacle was  
very little to be considered2 its       

commercial aspects were talked of1 and  
to a very slight degree exploited1 but1 
more and more1 the fact that the        
aeroplane was primarily an engine of    
war1 and the growing ,german menace     
against the peace of the world combined 
to point the way of speediest           
development1 and the arrangements for   
the ,british ,military ,trials to be    
held in ,august1 #aiab1 showed that even
 the ,british ,war ,office was waking up
 to the potentialities of this new      
engine of war4     ,,xviii  ,a          
,,summary1 ,,to #aiad   ,consideration  
of the events in the years immediately  
preceding the ,war must be limited to as
 brief a summary as possible1 this not  
only because the full history of flying 
achievements is beyond the compass of   
any single book1 but also because1      
viewing the matter in perspective1 the  
years #aijc-aiaa show up as far more    
important as regards both design and    
performance4 ,from #aiab to ,august of  
#aiad1 the development of aeronautics   

was hindered by the fact that it had not
 progressed far enough to form a real   
commercial asset in any country4 ,the   
meetings which drew vast concourses of  
people to such places as ,rheims and    
,bournemouth may have been financial    
successes at first1 but1 as flying grew 
more common and distances and heights   
extended1 a great many people found it  
other than worth while to pay for       
admission to an aerodrome4 ,the business
 of taking up passengers for pleasure   
flights was not financially successful1 
and1 although schemes for commercial    
routes were talked of1 the aeroplane was
 not sufficiently advanced to warrant   
the investment of hard cash in any of   
these projects4 ,there was a deadlock2  
further development was necessary in    
order to secure financial aid1 and at   
the same time financial aid was         
necessary in order to secure further    
development4 ,consequently1 neither was 
forthcoming4  ,this is viewing the      
matter in a broad and general sense2    

there were firms1 especially in ,france1
 but also in ,england and ,america1     
which looked confidently for the great  
days of flying to arrive1 and regarded  
their sunk capital as investment which  
would eventually bring its due return4  
,but when one looks back on those years1
 the firms in question stand out as     
exceptions to the general run of people1
 who regarded aeronautics as something  
extremely scientific1 exceedingly       
dangerous1 and very expensive4 ,the very
 fame that was attained by such pilots  
as became casualties conduced to the    
advertisement of every death1 and the   
dangers attendant on the use of         
heavier-than-air machines became greatly
 exaggerated2 considering the matter as 
one of number of miles flown1 even in   
the early days1 flying exacted no more  
toll in human life than did railways or 
road motors in the early stages of their
 development4 ,but to take one instance1
 when ,c4 ,s4 ,rolls was killed at      
,bournemouth by reason of a faulty      

tail-plane1 the fact was shouted to the 
whole world with almost as much         
vehemence as characterised the          
announcement of the ,titanic sinking in 
mid-,atlantic4  ,illustration3 ,army    
,aeroplane ,tests on ,salisbury ,plain4 
,cody on his new aeroplane4  ,even in   
#aiaa the deadlock was apparent2        
meetings were falling off in attendance1
 and consequently in financial benefit  
to the promoters2 there remained1       
however1 the knowledge--for it was      
proved past question--that the aeroplane
 in its then stage of development was a 
necessity to every army of the world4   
,france had shown this by the more than 
interest taken by the ,french           
,government in what had developed into  
an ,air ,section of the ,french army2   
,germany1 of course1 was hypnotised by  
,count ,zeppelin and his dirigibles1 to 
say nothing of the ,parsevals which had 
been proved useful military accessories2
 in spite of this1 it was realised in   
,germany that the aeroplane also had its

 place in military affairs4 ,england    
came into the field with the military   
aeroplane trials of ,august #ast to     
#aeth1 #aiab1 barely two months after   
the founding of the ,royal ,flying      
,corps4  ,when the ,r4,f4,c4 was        
founded--and in fact up to two years    
after its founding--in no country were  
the full military potentialities of the 
aeroplane realised2 it was regarded as  
an accessory to cavalry for scouting    
more than as an independent arm2 the    
possibilities of bombing were very      
vaguely considered1 and the fact that it
 might be possible to shoot from an     
aeroplane was hardly considered at all4 
,the conditions of the ,british         
,military ,trials of #aiab gave to the  
,war ,office the option of purchasing   
for #a1jjj any machine that might be    
awarded a prize4 ,machines were         
required1 among other things1 to carry a
 useful load of #cej lbs4 in addition to
 equipment1 with fuel and oil for #d    
hours2 thus loaded1 they were required  

to fly for #c hours1 attaining an       
altitude of #d1ejj feet1 maintaining a  
height of #a1ejj feet for #a hour1 and  
climbing #a1jjj feet from the ground at 
a rate of #bjj feet per minute1         
#8although #cjj feet per minute is      
desirable4' ,they had to attain a speed 
of not less than #ee miles per hour in a
 calm1 and be able to plane down to the 
ground in a calm from not more than     
#a1jjj feet with engine stopped1        
traversing #f1jjj feet horizontal       
distance4 ,for those days1 the landing  
demands were rather exacting2 the       
machine should be able to rise without  
damage from long grass1 clover1 or      
harrowed land1 in #ajj yards in a calm1 
and should be able to land without      
damage on any cultivated ground1        
including rough ploughed land1 and1 when
 landing on smooth turf in a calm1 be   
able to pull up within #ge yards of the 
point of first touching the ground4 ,it 
was required that pilot and observer    
should have as open a view as possible  

to front and flanks1 and they should be 
so shielded from the wind as to be able 
to communicate with each other4 ,these  
are the main provisions out of the set  
of conditions laid down for competitors1
 but a considerable amount of leniency  
was shown by the authorities in the     
competition1 who obviously wished to try
 out every machine entered and see what 
were its capabilities4  ,the beginning  
of the competition consisted in         
assembling the machines against time    
from road trim to flying trim4 ,cody's  
machine1 which was the only one to be   
delivered by air1 took #a hour and #ce  
minutes to assemble2 the best assembling
 time was that of the ,avro1 which was  
got into flying trim in #ad minutes #cj 
seconds4 ,this machine came to grief    
with ,lieut4 ,parke as pilot1 on the    
#gth1 through landing at very high speed
 on very bad ground2 a securing wire of 
the undercarriage broke in the landing1 
throwing the machine forward on to its  
nose and then over on its back4 ,parke  

was uninjured1 fortunately2 the damaged 
machine was sent off to ,manchester for 
repair and was back again on the #afth  
of ,august4  ,it is to be noted that by 
this time the ,royal ,aircraft ,factory 
was building aeroplanes of the ,b4,e4   
and ,f4,e4 types1 but at the same time  
it is also to be noted that ,british    
military interest in engines was not    
sufficient to bring them up to the high 
level attained by the planes1 and it is 
notorious that even the outbreak of war 
found ,england incapable of providing a 
really satisfactory aero engine4 ,in the
 #aiab ,trials1 the only machines which 
actually completed all their tests were 
the ,cody biplane1 the ,french          
,deperdussin1 the ,hanriot1 two         
,bleriots and a ,maurice ,farman4 ,the  
first prize of #d1jjj1 open to all the  
world1 went to ,f4 ,s4 ,cody's          
,british-built biplane1 which complied  
with all the conditions of the          
competition and well earned its official
 acknowledgment of supremacy4 ,the      

machine climbed at #bhj feet per minute 
and reached a height of #e1jjj feet1    
while in the landing test1 in spite of  
its great weight and bulk1 it pulled up 
on grass in #ef yards4 ,the total weight
 was #b1fij lbs4 when fully loaded1 and 
the total area of supporting surface was
 #ejj square feet2 the motive power was 
supplied by a six-cylinder #abj         
horse-power ,austro-,daimler engine4    
,the second prize was taken by ,a4      
,deperdussin for the ,french-built      
,deperdussin monoplane4 ,cody carried   
off the only prize awarded for a        
,british-built plane1 this being the sum
 of #a1jjj1 and consolation prizes of   
#ejj each were awarded to the ,british  
,deperdussin ,company and ,the ,british 
and ,colonial ,aeroplane ,company1 this 
latter soon to become famous as makers  
of the ,bristol aeroplane1 of which the 
war honours are still fresh in men's    
minds4  ,while these trials were in     
progress ,audemars accomplished the     
first flight between ,paris and ,berlin1

 setting out from ,issy early in the    
morning of ,august #ahth1 landing at    
,rheims to refill his tanks within an   
hour and a half1 and then coming into   
bad weather which forced him to land    
successively at ,mezieres1 ,laroche1    
,bochum1 and finally nearly             
,gersenkirchen1 where1 owing to a leaky 
petrol tank1 the attempt to win the     
prize offered for the first flight      
between the two capitals had to be      
abandoned after #cjj miles had been     
covered1 as the time limit was          
definitely exceeded4 ,audemars          
determined to get through to ,berlin1   
and set off at #e in the morning of the 
#aith1 only to be brought down by fog2  
starting off again at #i4ae he landed at
 ,hanover1 was off again at #a4ce1 and  
reached the ,johannisthal aerodrome in  
the suburbs of ,berlin at #f4dh that    
evening4  ,as early as #aiaj the        
,british ,government possessed some ten 
aeroplanes1 and in #aiaa the force      
developed into the ,army ,air           

,battalion1 with the aeroplanes under   
the control of ,major ,j4 ,h4 ,fulton1  
,r4,f4,a4 ,toward the end of #aiaa the  
,air ,battalion was handed over to      
7then7 ,brig4-,gen4 ,d4 ,henderson1     
,director of ,military ,training4 ,on   
,june #fth1 #aiab1 the ,royal ,flying   
,corps was established with a military  
wing under ,major ,f4 ,h4 ,sykes and a  
naval wing under ,commander ,c4 ,r4     
,samson4 ,a joint ,naval and ,military  
,flying ,school was established at      
,upavon with ,captain ,godfrey ,m4      
,paine1 ,r4,n41 as ,commandant and      
,major ,hugh ,trenchard as ,assistant   
,commandant4 ,the ,royal ,aircraft      
,factory brought out the ,b4,e4 and     
,f4,e4 types of biplane1 admittedly     
superior to any other ,british design of
 the period1 and an ,aircraft           
,inspection ,department was formed under
 ,major ,j4 ,h4 ,fulton4 ,the military  
wing of the ,r4,f4,c4 was equipped      
almost entirely with machines of ,royal 
,aircraft ,factory design1 but the ,navy

 preferred to develop ,british private  
enterprise by buying machines from      
private firms4 ,on ,july #ast1 #aiad1   
the establishment of the ,royal ,naval  
,air ,service marked the definite       
separation of the military and naval    
sides of ,british aviation1 but the     
,central ,flying ,school at ,upavon     
continued to train pilots for both      
services4  ,illustration3 ,army         
,aeroplane ,tests on ,salisbury ,plain1 
#bnd ,august1 #aiab4  ,the new ,army    
aeroplane4  ,it is difficult at this    
length of time1 so far as the military  
wing was concerned1 to do full justice  
to the spade work done by               
,major-,general ,sir ,david ,henderson  
in the early days4 ,just before war     
broke out1 ,british military air        
strength consisted officially of eight  
squadrons1 each of #ab machines and #ac 
in reserve1 with the necessary          
complement of road transport4 ,as a     
matter of fact1 there were three        
complete squadrons and a part of a      

fourth which constituted the force sent 
to ,france at the outbreak of war4 ,the 
value of ,general ,henderson's work lies
 in the fact that1 in spite of official 
stinginess and meagre supplies of every 
kind1 he built up a skeleton            
organisation so elastic and so well     
thought out that it conformed to war    
requirements as well as even the ,german
 plans fitted in with their aerial      
needs4 ,on the #dth of ,august1 #aiad1  
the nominal ,british air strength of the
 military wing was #agi machines4 ,of   
these1 #hb machines proceeded to        
,france1 landing at ,amiens and flying  
to ,maubeuge to play their part in the  
great retreat with the ,british         
,expeditionary ,force1 in which they    
suffered heavy casualties both in       
personnel and machines4 ,the history of 
their exploits1 however1 belongs to the 
,war period4  ,the development of the   
aeroplane between #aiab and #aiad can be
 judged by comparison of the            
requirements of the ,british ,war       

,office in #aiab with those laid down in
 an official memorandum issued by the   
,war ,office in ,february1 #aiad4 ,this 
latter called for a light scout         
aeroplane1 a single-seater1 with fuel   
capacity to admit of #cjj miles range   
and a speed range of from #ej to #he    
miles per hour4 ,it had to be able to   
climb #c1ejj feet in five minutes1 and  
the engine had to be so constructed that
 the pilot could start it without       
assistance4 ,at the same time1 a heavier
 type of machine for reconnaissance work
 was called for1 carrying fuel for a    
#bjj mile flight with a speed range of  
between #ce and #fj miles per hour1     
carrying both pilot and observer4 ,it   
was to be equipped with a wireless      
telegraphy set1 and be capable of       
landing over a #cj foot vertical        
obstacle and coming to rest within a    
hundred yards' distance from the        
obstacle in a wind of not more than #ae 
miles per hour4 ,a third requirement was
 a heavy type of fighting aeroplane     

accommodating pilot and gunner with     
machine gun and ammunition1 having a    
speed range of between #de and #ge miles
 per hour and capable of climbing #c1ejj
 feet in #h minutes4 ,it was required to
 carry fuel for a #cjj mile flight and  
to give the gunner a clear field of fire
 in every direction up to #cj degrees on
 each side of the line of flight4       
,comparison of these specifications with
 those of the #aiab trials will show    
that although fighting1 scouting1 and   
reconnaissance types had been defined1  
the development of performance compared 
with the marvellous development of the  
earlier years of achieved flight was    
small4  ,yet the records of those years 
show that here and there an outstanding 
design was capable of great things4 ,on 
the #ith ,september1 #aiab1 ,vedrines1  
flying a ,deperdussin monoplane at      
,chicago1 attained a speed of #aje miles
 an hour4 ,on ,august #abth ,g4 de      
,havilland took a passenger to a height 
of #aj1efj feet over ,salisbury ,plain1 

flying a ,b4,e4 biplane with a #gj      
horse-power ,renault engine4 ,the work  
of de ,havilland may be said to have    
been the principal influence in ,british
 military aeroplane design1 and there is
 no doubt that his genius was in great  
measure responsible for the excellence  
of the early ,b4,e4 and ,f4,e4 types4   
,on the #cast ,may1 #aiac1 ,h4 ,g4      
,hawker1 flying at ,brooklands1 reached 
a height of #aa1dej feet on a ,sopwith  
biplane engined with an #hj horse-power 
,gnome engine4 ,on ,june #afth1 with the
 same type of machine and engine1 he    
achieved #ab1ijj feet4 ,on the #bnd     
,october1 in the same year1 a ,grahame  
,white biplane with #abj horse-power    
,austro-,daimler engine1 piloted by     
,louis ,noel1 made a flight of just     
under #bj minutes carrying #i           
passengers4 ,in ,france a ,nieuport     
monoplane piloted by ,g4 ,legagneaux    
attained a height of #f1abj metres1 or  
just over #bj1jgj feet1 this being the  
world's height record4 ,it is worthy of 

note that of the world's aviation       
records as passed by the ,international 
,aeronautical ,federation up to ,june   
#cjth1 #aiad1 only one1 that of ,noel1  
is credited to ,great ,britain4  ,just  
as records were made abroad1 with one   
exception1 so were the really efficient 
engines4 ,in ,england there was the     
,green engine1 but the outbreak of war  
found the ,royal ,flying ,corps with #hj
 horse-power ,gnomes1 #gj horse-power   
,renaults1 and one or two ,antoinette   
motors1 but not one ,british1 while the 
,royal ,naval ,air ,service had got #bj 
machines with engines of similar origin1
 mainly land planes in which the wheeled
 undercarriages had been replaced by    
floats4 ,france led in development1 and 
there is no doubt that at the outbreak  
of war1 the ,french military aeroplane  
service was the best in the world4 ,it  
was mainly composed of ,maurice ,farman 
two-seater biplanes and ,bleriot        
monoplanes--the latter type banned for a
 period on account of a number of       

serious accidents that took place in    
#aiab4  ,america had its ,army ,aviation
 ,school1 and employed ,burgess-,wright 
and ,curtiss machines for the most part4
 ,in the pre-war years1 once the ,wright
 ,brothers had accomplished their task1 
,america's chief accomplishment         
consisted in the development of the     
#8,flying ,boat1' alternatively named   
with characteristic ,american           
clumsiness1 #8,the ,hydro-,aeroplane4'  
,in ,february of #aiaa1 ,glenn ,curtiss 
attached a float to a machine similar to
 that with which he won the first       
,gordon-,bennett ,air ,contest and made 
his first flying boat experiment4 ,from 
this beginning he developed the boat    
form of body which obviated the use and 
troubles of floats--his hydroplane      
became its own float4  ,mainly owing to 
greater engine reliability the duration 
records steadily increased4 ,by         
,september of #aiab ,fourny1 on a       
,maurice ,farman biplane1 was able to   
accomplish a distance of #fbh miles     

without a landing1 remaining in the air 
for #ac hours #ag minutes and just over 
#eg seconds4 ,by #aiad this was raised  
by the ,german aviator1 ,landemann1 to  
#ba hours #dh seconds4 ,the nature of   
this last record shows that the factors 
in such a record had become mere engine 
endurance1 fuel capacity1 and capacity  
of the pilot to withstand air conditions
 for a prolonged period1 rather than any
 exceptional flying skill4              
,illustration3 ,flight of full-size     
,langley ,aerodrome1 piloted by ,glenn  
,h4 ,curtiss1 #bnd ,june #aiad1 at      
,hammondsport1 ,n4,y4  ,original machine
 and engine1 with the addition of       
pontoons which weighed #cjj lbs4  ,let  
these years be judged by the records    
they produced1 and even then they are   
rather dull4 ,the glory of achievement  
such as characterised the work of the   
,wright ,brothers1 of ,bleriot1 and of  
the giants of the early days1 had       
passed2 the splendid courage1 the       
patriotism and devotion of the pilots of

 the ,war period had not yet come to    
being4 ,there was progress1 past        
question1 but it was mechanical1 hardly 
ever inspired4 ,the study of climatic   
conditions was definitely begun and     
aeronautical metereology came to being1 
while another development already noted 
was the fitting of wireless telegraphy  
to heavier-than-air machines1 as        
instanced in the ,british ,war ,office  
specification of ,february1 #aiad4      
,these1 however1 were inevitable2 it    
remained for the ,war to force          
development beyond the inevitable1      
producing in five years that which under
 normal circumstances might easily have 
occupied fifty--the aeroplane of to-day2
 for1 as already remarked1 there was a  
deadlock1 and any survey that may be    
made of the years #aiab-aiad1 no matter 
how superficial1 must take it into      
account with a view to retaining correct
 perspective in regard to the           
development of the aeroplane4  ,there is
 one story of #aiad that must be        

included1 however briefly1 in any record
 of aeronautical achievement1 since it  
demonstrates past question that to      
,professor ,langley really belongs the  
honour of having achieved a design which
 would ensure actual flight1 although   
the series of accidents which attended  
his experiments gave to the ,wright     
,brothers the honour of first leaving   
the earth and descending without        
accident in a power-driven              
heavier-than-air machine4 ,in ,march1   
#aiad1 ,glenn ,curtiss was invited to   
send a flying boat to ,washington for   
the celebration of #8,langley ,day1'    
when he remarked1 #8,i would like to put
 the ,langley aeroplane itself in the   
air4' ,in consequence of this remark1   
,secretary ,walcot of the ,smithsonian  
,institution authorised ,curtiss to     
re-canvas the original ,langley         
aeroplane and launch it either under its
 own power or with a more recent engine 
and propeller4 ,curtiss completed this1 
and had the machine ready on the shores 

of ,lake ,keuka1 ,hammondsport1 ,n4,y41 
by ,may4 ,the main object of these      
renewed trials was to show whether the  
original ,langley machine was capable of
 sustained free flight with a pilot1 and
 a secondary object was to determine    
more fully the advantages of the tandem 
monoplane type2 thus the aeroplane was  
first flown as nearly as possible in its
 original condition1 and then with such 
modifications as seemed desirable4 ,the 
only difference made for the first      
trials consisted in fitting floats with 
connecting trusses2 the steel main      
frame1 wings1 rudders1 engine1 and      
propellers were substantially as they   
had been in #aijc4 ,the pilot had the   
same seat under the main frame and the  
same general system of control4 ,he     
could raise or lower the craft by moving
 the rear rudder up and down2 he could  
steer right or left by moving the       
vertical rudder4 ,he had no ailerons nor
 wing-warping mechanism1 but for lateral
 balance depended on the dihedral angle 

of the wings and upon suitable movements
 of his weight or of the vertical       
rudder4  ,after the adjustments for     
actual flight had been made in the      
,curtiss factory1 according to the      
minute descriptions contained in the    
,langley ,memoir on ,mechanical ,flight1
 the aeroplane was taken to the shore of
 ,lake ,keuka1 beside the ,curtiss      
hangars1 and assembled for launching4   
,on a clear morning 7,may #bhth7 and in 
a mild breeze1 the craft was lifted on  
to the water by a dozen men and set     
going1 with ,mr ,curtiss at the steering
 wheel1 esconced in the little          
boat-shaped car under the forward part  
of the frame4 ,the four-winged craft1   
pointed somewhat across the wind1 went  
skimming over the wavelets1 then        
automatically headed into the wind1 rose
 in level poise1 soared gracefully for  
#aej feet1 and landed softly on the     
water near the shore4 ,mr ,curtiss      
asserted that he could have flown       
farther1 but1 being unused to the       

machine1 imagined that the left wings   
had more resistance than the right4 ,the
 truth is that the aeroplane was        
perfectly balanced in wing resistance1  
but turned on the water like a weather  
vane1 owing to the lateral pressure on  
its big rear rudder4 ,hence in future   
experiments this rudder was made        
turnable about a vertical axis1 as well 
as about the horizontal axis used by    
,langley4 ,henceforth the little        
vertical rudder under the frame was kept
 fixed and inactive4#g  ,that the       
,langley aeroplane was subsequently     
fitted with an #hj horse-power ,curtiss 
engine and successfully flown is of     
little interest in such a record as     
this1 except for the fact that with the 
weight nearly doubled by the new engine 
and accessories the machine flew        
successfully1 and demonstrated the      
perfection of ,langley's design by      
standing the strain4 ,the point that is 
of most importance is that the design   
itself proved a success and fully       

vindicated ,langley's work4 ,at the same
 time1 it would be unjust to pass by the
 fact of the flight without according to
 ,curtiss due recognition of the way in 
which he paid tribute to the genius of  
the pioneer by these experiments4       
,,xix  ,,the ,,war ,,period--,i   ,full 
record of aeronautical progress and of  
the accomplishments of pilots in the    
years of the ,war would demand not      
merely a volume1 but a complete library1
 and even then it would be barely       
possible to pay full tribute to the     
heroism of pilots of the war period4    
,there are names connected with that    
period of which the glory will not fade1
 names such as ,bishop1 ,guynemer1      
,boelcke1 ,ball1 ,fonck1 ,immelmann1 and
 many others that spring to mind as one 
recalls the #8,aces' of the period4 ,in 
addition to the pilots1 there is the    
stupendous development of the           
machines--stupendous when the length of 
the period in which it was achieved is  
considered4  ,the fact that ,germany was

 best prepared in the matter of         
heavier-than-air service machines in    
spite of the ,german faith in the       
dirigible is one more item of evidence  
as to who forced hostilities4 ,the      
,germans came into the field with well  
over #fjj aeroplanes1 mainly two-seaters
 of standardised design1 and with       
factories back in the ,fatherland       
turning out sufficient new machines to  
make good the losses4 ,there were a few 
single-seater scouts built for speed1   
and the two-seater machines were all    
fitted with cameras and bomb-dropping   
gear4 ,manuvres had determined in the   
,german mind what should be the uses of 
the air fleet2 there was photography of 
fortifications and field works2         
signalling by ,vry lights2 spotting for 
the guns1 and scouting for news of enemy
 movements4 ,the methodical ,german mind
 had arranged all this beforehand1 but  
had not allowed for the fact that       
opponents might take counter-measures   
which would upset the over-perfect      

mechanism of the air service just as    
effectually as the great march on ,paris
 was countered by the genius of ,joffre4
  ,the ,french ,air ,force at the       
beginning of the ,war consisted of      
upwards of #fjj machines4 ,these1 unlike
 the ,germans1 were not standardised1   
but were of many and diverse types4 ,in 
order to get replacements quickly       
enough1 the factories had to work on the
 designs they had1 and thus for a long  
time after the outbreak of hostilities  
standardisation was an impossibility4   
,the versatility of a ,latin race in a  
measure compensated for this2 from the  
outset1 the ,germans tried to overwhelm 
the ,french ,air ,force1 but failed1    
since they had not the numerical        
superiority1 nor--this equally a        
determining factor--the versatility and 
resource of the ,french pilots4 ,they   
calculated on a #ej per cent superiority
 to ensure success2 they needed more    
nearly #djj per cent1 for the ,german   
fought to rule1 avoiding risks whenever 

possible1 and definitely instructed to  
save both machines and pilots wherever  
possible4 ,french pilots1 on the other  
hand1 ran all the risks there were1 got 
news of ,german movements1 bombed the   
enemy1 and rapidly worked up a very     
respectable anti-aircraft force which1  
whatever it may have accomplished in the
 way of hitting ,german planes1 got on  
the ,german pilots' nerves4  ,it has    
already been detailed how ,britain sent 
over #hb planes as its contribution to  
the military aerial force of #aiad4     
,these consisted of ,farman1 ,caudron1  
and ,short biplanes1 together with      
,bleriot1 ,deperdussin and ,nieuport    
monoplanes1 certain ,r4,a4,f4 types1 and
 other machines of which even the name  
barely survives--the resourceful ,yankee
 entitles them #8orphans4' ,it is on    
record that the work of providing spares
 might have been rather complicated but 
for the fact that there were none4      
,there is no doubt that the ,germans had
 made study of aerial military needs    

just as thoroughly as they had perfected
 their ground organisation4 ,thus there 
were #ba illuminated aircraft stations  
in ,germany before the ,war1 the most   
powerful being at ,weimar1 where a      
revolving electric flash of over #bg    
million candle-power was located4       
,practically all ,german aeroplane tests
 in the period immediately preceding the
 ,war were of a military nature1 and    
quite a number of reliability tests were
 carried out just on the other side of  
the ,french frontier4 ,night flying and 
landing were standardised items in the  
,german pilot's course of instruction   
while they were still experimental in   
other countries1 and a system of signals
 was arranged which rendered the        
instructional course as perfect as might
 be4  ,the ,belgian contribution        
consisted of about twenty machines fit  
for active service and another twenty   
which were more or less useful as       
training machines4 ,the material was    
mainly ,french1 and the ,belgian pilots 

used it to good account until ,german   
numbers swamped them4 ,france1 and to a 
small extent ,england1 kept ,belgian    
aviators supplied with machines         
throughout the ,war4  ,the ,italian ,air
 ,fleet was small1 and consisted of     
,french machines together with a        
percentage of planes of ,italian origin1
 of which the design was very much a    
copy of ,french types4 ,it was not until
 the ,war was nearing its end that the  
military and naval services relied more 
on the home product than on imports4    
,this does not apply to engines1        
however1 for the ,f4,i4,a4,t4 and       
,s4,c4,a4,t4 were equal to practically  
any engine of ,allied make1 both in     
design and construction4  ,russia spent 
vast sums in the provision of machines3 
the giant ,sikorsky biplane1 carrying   
four #ajj horse-power ,argus motors1 was
 designed by a young ,russian engineer  
in the latter part of #aiac1 and in its 
early trials it created a world's record
 by carrying seven passengers for #a    

hour #ed minutes4 ,sikorsky also        
designed several smaller machines1      
tractor biplanes on the lines of the    
,british ,b4,e4 type1 which were very   
successful4 ,these were the only home   
productions1 and the imports consisted  
mainly of ,french aeroplanes by the     
hundred1 which got as far as the docks  
and railway sidings and stayed there1   
while ,german influence and the         
corruption that ruined the ,russian     
,army helped to lose the ,war4 ,a few   
,russian aircraft factories were got    
into operation as hostilities proceeded1
 but their products were negligible1 and
 it is not on record that ,russia ever  
learned to manufacture a magneto4  ,the 
,united ,states paid tribute to ,british
 efficiency by adopting the ,british    
system of training for its pilots2 #ejj 
,american cadets were trained at the    
,school of ,military ,aeronautics at    
,oxford1 in order to form a nucleus for 
the ,american aviation schools which    
were subsequently set up in the ,united 

,states and in ,france4 ,as regards     
production of craft1 the designing of   
the ,liberty engine and building of over
 #bj1jjj aeroplanes within a year proves
 that ,america is a manufacturing       
country1 even under the strain of war4  
,there were three years of struggle for 
aerial supremacy1 the combatants being  
,england and ,france against ,germany1  
and the contest was neck and neck all   
the way4 ,germany led at the outset with
 the standardised two-seater biplanes   
manned by pilots and observers1 whose   
training was superior to that afforded  
by any other nation1 while the machines 
themselves were better equipped and     
fitted with accessories4 ,all the early 
,german aeroplanes were designated      
,taube by the uninitiated1 and were     
formed with swept-back1 curved wings    
very much resembling the wings of a     
bird4 ,these had obvious disadvantages1 
but the standardisation of design and   
mass production of the ,german factories
 kept them in the field for a           

considerable period1 and they flew side 
by side with tractor biplanes of        
improved design4 ,for a little time1 the
 ,fokker monoplane became a definite    
threat both to ,french and ,british     
machines4 ,it was an improvement on the 
,morane ,french monoplane1 and with a   
high-powered engine it climbed quickly  
and flew fast1 doing a good deal of     
damage for a brief period of #aiae4     
,allied design got ahead of it and      
finally drove it out of the air4        
,illustration3 ,a ,handley-,page ready  
to start on a bombing raid1 ,dunkirk1   
#ast ,june1 #aiah4  ,german equipment at
 the outset1 which put the ,allies at a 
disadvantage1 included a hand-operated  
magneto engine-starter and a small      
independent screw which1 mounted on one 
of the main planes1 drove the dynamo    
used for the wireless set4 ,cameras were
 fitted on practically every machine2   
equipment included accurate compasses   
and pressure petrol gauges1 speed and   
height recording instruments1           

bomb-dropping fittings and sectional    
radiators which facilitated repairs and 
gave maximum engine efficiency in spite 
of variations of temperature4 ,as       
counter to these1 the ,allied pilots had
 resource amounting to impudence4 ,in   
the early days they carried rifles and  
hand grenades and automatic pistols4    
,they loaded their machines down1 often 
at their own expense1 with accessories  
and fittings until their aeroplanes     
earned their title of ,christmas trees4 
,they played with death in a way that   
shocked the average ,german pilot of the
 ,war's early stages1 declining to fight
 according to rule and indulging in the 
individual duels of the air which the   
,german hated4 ,as ,sir ,john ,french   
put it in one of his reports1 they      
established a personal ascendancy over  
the enemy1 and in this way compensated  
for their inferior material4  ,french   
diversity of design fitted in well with 
the initiative and resource displayed by
 the ,french pilots4 ,the big ,caudron  

type was the ideal bomber of the early  
days2 ,farman machines were excellent   
for reconnaissance and artillery        
spotting2 the ,bleriots proved excellent
 as fighting scouts and for aerial      
photography2 the ,nieuports made good   
fighters1 as did the ,spads1 both being 
very fast craft1 as were the            
,morane-,saulnier monoplanes1 while the 
big ,voisin biplanes rivalled the       
,caudron machines as bombers4  ,the day 
of the ,fokker ended when the ,british  
,b4,e4#b4;,c4 aeroplane came to ,france 
in good quantities1 and the ,f4,e4 type1
 together with the ,de ,havilland       
machines1 rendered ,british aerial      
superiority a certainty4 ,germany's best
 reply--this was about #aiaf--was the   
,albatross biplane1 which was used by   
,captain ,baron von ,richthofen for his 
famous travelling circus1 manned by     
,german star pilots and sent to various 
parts of the line to hearten up ,german 
troops and aviators after any specially 
bad strafe4 ,then there were the        

,aviatik biplane and the ,halberstadt   
fighting scout1 a cleanly built and very
 fast machine with a powerful engine    
with which ,germany tried to win back   
superiority in the third year of the    
,war1 but ,allied design kept about     
three months ahead of that of the enemy1
 once the ,fokker had been mastered1 and
 the race went on4 ,spads and ,bristol  
fighters1 ,sopwith scouts and ,f4,e4's  
played their part in the race1 and      
design was still advancing when peace   
came4  ,the giant twin-engined          
,handley-,page bomber was tried out1    
proved efficient1 and justly considered 
better than anything of its kind that   
had previously taken the field4         
,immediately after the conclusion of its
 trials1 a specimen of the type was     
delivered intact at ,lille for the      
,germans to copy1 the innocent pilot    
responsible for the delivery doing some 
great disservice to his own cause4 ,the 
,gotha ,wagon-,fabrik ,firm immediately 
set to work and copied the              

,handley-,page design1 producing the    
great ,gotha bombing machine which was  
used in all the later raids on ,england 
as well as for night work over the      
,allied lines4  ,how the ,war advanced  
design may be judged by comparison of   
the military requirements given for the 
,british ,military ,trials of #aiab1    
with performances of #aiaf and #aiag1   
when the speed of the faster machines   
had increased to over #aej miles an hour
 and ,allied machines engaged enemy     
aircraft at heights ranging up to       
#bb1jjj feet4 ,all pre-war records of   
endurance1 speed1 and climb went by the 
board1 as the race for aerial           
superiority went on4  ,bombing brought  
to being a number of crude devices in   
the first year of the ,war4 ,allied     
pilots of the very early days carried up
 bombs packed in a small box and threw  
them over by hand1 while1 a little      
later1 the bombs were strung like apples
 on wings and undercarriage1 so that the
 pilot who did not get rid of his load  

before landing risked an explosion4     
,then came a properly designed carrying 
apparatus1 crude but fairly efficient1  
and with #aiaf development had proceeded
 as far as the proper bomb-racks with   
releasing gear4  ,reconnaissance work   
developed1 so that fighting machines    
went as escort to observing squadrons   
and scouting operations were undertaken 
up to #ajj miles behind the enemy lines2
 out of this grew the art of camouflage1
 when ammunition dumps were painted to  
resemble herds of cows1 guns were       
screened by foliage or painted to merge 
into a ground scheme1 and many other    
schemes were devised to prevent aerial  
observation4 ,troops were moved by night
 for the most part1 owing to the keen   
eyes of the air pilots and the danger of
 bombs1 though occasionally the aviator 
had his chance4 ,there is one story     
concerning a ,british pilot who1 on     
returning from a reconnaissance flight1 
observed a ,german ,staff car on the    
road under him2 he descended and bombed 

and machine-gunned the car until the    
,german ,general and his chauffeur      
abandoned it1 took to their heels1 and  
ran like rabbits4 ,later still1 when    
,allied air superiority was assured1    
there came the phase of machine-gunning 
bodies of enemy troops from the air4    
,disregarding all anti-aircraft         
measures1 machines would sweep down and 
throw battalions into panic or upset the
 military traffic along a road1         
demoralising a battery or a transport   
train and causing as much damage through
 congestion of traffic as with their    
actual machine-gun fire4 ,aerial        
photography1 too1 became a fine art2 the
 ordinary long focus cameras were used  
at the outset with automatic plate      
changers1 but later on photographing    
aeroplanes had cameras of wide angle    
lens type built into the fuselage4      
,these were very simply operated1 one   
lever registering the exposure and      
changing the plate4 ,in many cases1     
aerial photographs gave information     

which the human eye had missed1 and it  
is noteworthy that photographs of ground
 showed when troops had marched over it1
 while the aerial observer was quite    
unable to detect the marks left by their
 passing4  ,illustration3 ,hoisting out 
a seaplane from the #8,ark ,royal1'     
,january1 #aiaf4  ,some small mention   
must be made of seaplane activities1    
which1 round the ,european coasts       
involved in the ,war1 never ceased4 ,the
 submarine campaign found in the        
spotting seaplane its greatest          
deterrent1 and it is old news now how   
even the deeply submerged submarines    
were easily picked out for destruction  
from a height and the news wirelessed   
from seaplane to destroyer1 while in    
more than one place the seaplane itself 
finished the task by bomb dropping4 ,it 
was a seaplane that gave ,admiral       
,beatty the news that the whole ,german 
,fleet was out before the ,jutland      
,battle1 news which led to a change of  
plans that very nearly brought about the

 destruction of ,germany's naval power4 
,for the most part1 the seaplanes of the
 ,war period were heavier than the land 
machines and1 in the opinion of the land
 pilots1 were slow and clumsy things to 
fly4 ,this was inevitable1 for their    
work demanded more solid building and   
greater reliability4 ,to put the matter 
into ,hibernian phrase1 a forced landing
 at sea is a much more serious matter   
than on the ground4 ,thus there was need
 for greater engine power1 bigger       
wing-spread to support the floats1 and  
fuel tanks of greater capacity4 ,the    
flying boats of the later ,war period   
carried considerable crews1 were heavily
 armed1 capable of withstanding very    
heavy weather1 and carried good loads of
 bombs on long cruises4 ,their work was 
not all essentially seaplane work1 for  
the ,r4,n4,a4,s4 was as well known as   
hated over the ,german airship sheds in 
,belgium and along the ,flanders coast4 
,as regards other theatres of ,war1 they
 rendered valuable service from the     

,dardanelles to the ,rufiji ,river1 at  
this latter place forming a principal   
factor in the destruction of the cruiser
 ,knigsberg4 ,their spotting work at the
 ,dardanelles for the battleships was   
responsible for direct hits from #ae in4
 guns on invisible targets at ranges of 
over #ab1jjj yards4 ,seaplane pilots    
were bombing specialists1 including     
among their targets army headquarters1  
ammunition dumps1 railway stations1     
submarines and their bases1 docks1      
shipping in ,german harbours1 and the   
,german ,fleet at ,wilhelmshaven4       
,dunkirk1 a ,british seaplane base1 was 
a sharp thorn in the ,german side4      
,turning from consideration of the      
various services to the exploits of the 
men composing them1 it is difficult to  
particularise4 ,a certain inevitable    
prejudice even at this length of time   
leads one to discount the valour of     
pilots in the ,german ,air ,service1 but
 the names of ,boelcke1 von ,richthofen1
 and ,immelmann recur as proof of the   

courage that was not wanting in the     
enemy ranks1 while1 however much we may 
decry the ,gotha raids over the ,english
 coast and on ,london1 there is no doubt
 that the men who undertook these raids 
were not deficient in the form of       
bravery that is of more value than the  
unthinking valour of a minute which1    
observed from the right quarter1 wins a 
military decoration4  ,yet the fact that
 the ,allied airmen kept the air at all 
in the early days proved on which side  
personal superiority lay1 for they were 
outnumbered1 out-manuvred1 and faced by 
better material than any that they      
themselves possessed2 yet they won their
 fights or died4 ,the stories of their  
deeds are endless2 ,bishop1 flying alone
 and meeting seven ,german machines and 
crashing four2 the battle of ,may #eth1 
#aiae1 when five heroes fought and      
conquered twenty-seven ,german machines1
 ranging in altitude1 between #ab1jjj   
and #c1jjj feet1 and continuing the     
extraordinary struggle from five until  

six in the evening4 ,captain ,aizlewood1
 attacking five enemy machines with such
 reckless speed that he rammed one and  
still reached his aerodrome             
safely--these are items in a long list  
of feats of which the character can only
 be realised when it is fully           
comprehended that the ,british ,air     
,service accounted for some #h1jjj enemy
 machines in the course of the ,war4    
,among the ,french there was ,captain   
,guynemer1 who at the time of his death 
had brought down fifty-four enemy       
machines1 in addition to many others of 
which the destruction could not be      
officially confirmed4 ,there was ,fonck1
 who brought down six machines in one   
day1 four of them within two minutes4   
,there are incredible stories1 true as  
incredible1 of shattered men carrying on
 with their work in absolute disregard  
of physical injury4 ,major ,brabazon    
,rees1 ,v4,c41 engaged a big ,german    
battleplane in ,september of #aiae and1 
single-handed1 forced his enemy out of  

action4 ,later in his career1 with a    
serious wound in the thigh from which   
blood was pouring1 he kept up a fight   
with an enemy formation until he had not
 a round of ammunition left1 and then   
returned to his aerodrome to get his    
wound dressed4 ,lieutenants ,otley and  
,dunning1 flying in the ,balkans1       
engaged a couple of enemy machines and  
drove them off1 but not until their     
petrol tank had got a hole in it and    
,dunning was dangerously wounded in the 
leg4 ,otley improvised a tourniquet1    
passed it to ,dunning1 and1 when the    
latter had bandaged himself1 changed    
from the observer's to the pilot's seat1
 plugged the bullet hole in the tank    
with his thumb and steered the machine  
home4  ,these are incidents2 the full   
list has not been1 and can never be     
recorded1 but it goes to show that in   
the pilot of the ,war period there came 
to being a new type of humanity1 a      
product of evolution which fitted a     
certain need4 ,of such was ,captain     

,west1 who1 engaging hostile troops1 was
 attacked by seven machines4 ,early in  
the engagement1 one of his legs was     
partially severed by an explosive bullet
 and fell powerless into the controls1  
rendering the machine for the time      
unmanageable4 ,lifting his disabled leg1
 he regained control of the machine1 and
 although wounded in the other leg1 he  
manuvred his machine so skilfully that  
his observer was able to get several    
good bursts into the enemy machines1    
driving them away4 ,then1 desperately   
wounded as he was1 ,captain ,west       
brought the machine over to his own     
lines and landed safely4 ,he fainted    
from loss of blood and exhaustion1 but  
on regaining consciousness1 insisted on 
writing his report4 ,equal to this was  
the exploit of ,captain ,barker1 who1 in
 aerial combat1 was wounded in the right
 and left thigh and had his left arm    
shattered1 subsequently bringing down an
 enemy machine in flames1 and then      
breaking through another hostile        

formation and reaching the ,british     
lines4  ,in recalling such exploits as  
these1 one is tempted on and on1 for it 
seems that the pilots rivalled each     
other in their devotion to duty1 this   
not confined to ,british aviators1 but  
common practically to all services4     
,sufficient instances have been given to
 show the nature of the work and the    
character of the men who did it4  ,the  
rapid growth of aerial effort rendered  
it necessary in ,january of #aiae to    
organise the ,royal ,flying ,corps into 
separate wings1 and in ,october of the  
same year it was constituted in         
,brigades4 ,in #aiaf the ,air ,board was
 formed1 mainly with the object of      
co-ordinating effort and ensuring both  
to the ,r4,n4,a4,s4 and to the ,r4,f4,c4
 adequate supplies of material as far as
 construction admitted4 ,under the      
presidency of ,lord ,cowdray1 the ,air  
,board brought about certain reforms    
early in #aiag1 and in ,november of that
 year a separate ,air ,ministry was     

constituted1 separating the ,air ,force 
from both ,navy and ,army1 and rendering
 it an independent force4 ,on ,april    
#ast1 #aiah1 the ,royal ,air ,force came
 into existence1 and unkind critics in  
the ,royal ,flying ,corps remarked on   
the appropriateness of the date4 ,at the
 end of the ,war1 the personnel of the  
,royal ,air ,force amounted to #bg1ijf  
officers1 and #bfc1hdb other ranks4     
,contrast of these figures with the     
number of officers and men who took the 
field in #aiad is indicative of the     
magnitude of ,british aerial effort in  
the ,war period4  ,illustration3 ,the   
,seaplane ,carrier #8,empress' from the 
stern1 showing interior of hangar4      
,,xx  ,,the ,,war ,,period--,,ii        
,there was when ,war broke out no       
realisation on the part of the ,british 
,government of the need for encouraging 
the enterprise of private builders1 who 
carried out their work entirely at their
 own cost4 ,the importance of a supply  
of ,british-built engines was realised  

before the ,war1 it is true1 and a      
competition was held in which a prize of
 #e1jjj was offered for the best        
,british engine1 but this awakening was 
so late that the ,r4,f4,c4 took the     
field without a single ,british power   
plant4 ,although ,germany woke up       
equally late to the need for home       
produced aeroplane engines1 the         
experience gained in building engines   
for dirigibles sufficed for the         
production of aeroplane power plants4   
,the ,mercedes filled all requirements  
together with the ,benz and the         
,maybach4 ,there was a #bbe horse-power 
,benz which was very popular1 as were   
the #ajj horse-power and #agj           
horse-power ,mercedes1 the last         
mentioned fitted to the ,aviatik biplane
 of #aiag4 ,the ,uberursel was a copy of
 the ,gnome and supplied the need for   
rotary engines4  ,in ,great ,britain    
there were a number of aeroplane        
constructing firms that had managed to  
emerge from the lean years #aiab-aiac   

with sufficient manufacturing plant to  
give a hand in making up the leeway of  
construction when ,war broke out4       
,gradually the motor-car firms came in1 
turning their body-building departments 
to plane and fuselage construction1     
which enabled them to turn out the      
complete planes engined and ready for   
the field4 ,the coach-building trade    
soon joined in and came in handy as     
propeller makers2 big upholstering and  
furniture firms and scores of concerns  
that had never dreamed of engaging in   
aeroplane construction were busy on     
supplying the ,r4,f4,c4 ,by #aiae       
hundreds of different firms were        
building aeroplanes and parts2 by #aiag 
the number had increased to over #a1jjj1
 and a capital of over a million pounds 
for a firm that at the outbreak of ,war 
had employed a score or so of hands was 
by no means uncommon4 ,women and girls  
came into the work1 more especially in  
plane construction and covering and     
doping1 though they took their place in 

the engine shops and proved successful  
at acetylene welding and work at the    
lathes4 ,it was some time before        
,britain was able to provide its own    
magnetos1 for this key industry had been
 left in the hands of the ,germans up to
 the outbreak of ,war1 and the #8,bosch'
 was admittedly supreme--even now it has
 never been beaten1 and can only be     
equalled1 being as near perfection as is
 possible for a magneto4  ,one of the   
great inventions of the ,war was the    
synchronisation of engine-timing and    
machine-gun1 which rendered it possible 
to fire through the blades of a         
propeller without damaging them1 though 
the growing efficiency of the aeroplane 
as a whole and of its armament is a     
thing to marvel at on looking back and  
considering what was actually           
accomplished4 ,as the efficiency of the 
aeroplane increased1 so anti-aircraft   
guns and range-finding were improved4   
,before the ,war an aeroplane travelling
 at full speed was reckoned perfectly   

safe at #d1jjj feet1 but1 by the first  
month of #aiae1 the safe height had gone
 up to #i1jjj feet1 #g1jjj feet being   
the limit of rifle and machine gun      
bullet trajectory2 the heavier guns were
 not sufficiently mobile to tackle      
aircraft4 ,at that time1 it was reckoned
 that effective aerial photography      
ceased at #f1jjj feet1 while            
bomb-dropping from #g1jjj-h1jjj feet was
 reckoned uncertain except in the case  
of a very large target4 ,the improvement
 in anti-aircraft devices went on1 and  
by ,may of #aiaf1 an aeroplane was not  
safe under #ae1jjj feet1 while          
anti-aircraft shells had fuses capable  
of being set to over #bj1jjj feet1 and  
bombing from #ae1jjj and #af1jjj feet   
was common4 ,it was not till later that 
,allied pilots demonstrated the safety  
that lies in flying very near the       
ground1 this owing to the fact that1    
when flying swiftly at a very low       
altitude1 the machine is out of sight   
almost before it can be aimed at4  ,the 

,battle of the ,somme and the clearing  
of the air preliminary to that operation
 brought the fighting aeroplane pure and
 simple with them4 ,formations of       
fighting planes preceded reconnaissance 
craft in order to clear ,german machines
 and observation balloons out of the sky
 and to watch and keep down any further 
enemy formations that might attempt to  
interfere with ,allied observation work4
 ,the ,german reply to this consisted in
 the formation of the ,flying ,circus1  
of which ,captain ,baron von            
,richthofen's was a good example4 ,each 
circus consisted of a large formation of
 speedy machines1 built specially for   
fighting and manned by the best of the  
,german pilots4 ,these were sent to     
attack at any point along the line where
 the ,allies had got a decided          
superiority4  ,the trick flying of      
pre-war days soon became an everyday    
matter2 ,pegoud astonished the aviation 
world before the ,war by first looping  
the loop1 but1 before three years of    

hostilities had elapsed1 looping was    
part of the training of practically     
every pilot1 while the spinning nose    
dive1 originally considered fatal1 was  
mastered1 and the tail slide1 which     
consisted of a machine rising nose      
upward in the air and falling back on   
its tail1 became one of the easiest     
#8stunts' in the pilot's repertoire4    
,inherent stability was gradually       
improved1 and1 from #aiaf onward1       
practically every pilot could carry on  
with his machine-gun or camera and trust
 to his machine to fly itself until he  
was free to attend to it4 ,there was    
more than one story of a machine coming 
safely to earth and making good landing 
on its own account with the pilot dead  
in his cock-pit4  ,toward the end of the
 ,war1 the ,independent ,air ,force was 
formed as a branch of the ,r4,a4,f4 with
 a view to bombing ,german bases and    
devoting its attention exclusively to   
work behind the enemy lines4 ,bombing   
operations were undertaken by the       

,r4,n4,a4,s4 as early as #aiad-aiae     
against ,cuxhaven1 ,dusseldorf1 and     
,friedrichshavn1 but the supply of      
material was not sufficient to render   
these raids continuous4 ,a separate     
,brigade1 the #hth1 was formed in #aiag 
to harass the ,german chemical and iron 
industries1 the base being in the ,nancy
 area1 and this policy was found so     
fruitful that the ,independent ,force   
was constituted on the #hth ,june1      
#aiah4 ,the value of the work           
accomplished by this force is           
demonstrated by the fact that the       
,german ,high ,command recalled twenty  
fighting squadrons from the ,western    
front to counter its activities1 and1 in
 addition1 took troops away from the    
fighting line in large numbers for      
manning anti-aircraft batteries and     
searchlights4 ,the ,german press of the 
last year of the ,war is eloquent of the
 damage done in manufacturing areas by  
the ,independent ,force1 which1 had     
hostilities continued a little longer1  

would have included ,berlin in its      
activities4  ,formation flying was first
 developed by the ,germans1 who made use
 of it in the daylight raids against    
,england in #aiag4 ,its value was very  
soon realised1 and the ,v formation of  
wild geese was adopted1 the leader      
taking the point of the ,v and his      
squadron following on either side at    
different heights4 ,the air currents set
 up by the leading machines were thus   
avoided by those in the rear1 while each
 pilot had a good view of the leader's  
bombs1 and were able to correct their   
own aim by the bursts1 while the        
different heights at which they flew    
rendered anti-aircraft gun practice less
 effective4 ,further1 machines were able
 to afford mutual protection to each    
other and any attacker would be met by  
machine-gun fire from three or four     
machines firing on him from different   
angles and heights4 ,in the later       
formations single-seater fighters flew  
above the bombers for the purpose of    

driving off hostile craft4 ,formation   
flying was not fully developed when the 
end of the ,war brought stagnation in   
place of the rapid advance in the       
strategy and tactics of military air    
work4     ,,xxi  ,,reconstruction   ,the
 end of the ,war brought a pause in     
which the multitude of aircraft         
constructors found themselves faced with
 the possible complete stagnation of the
 industry1 since military activities no 
longer demanded their services and the  
prospects of commercial flying were     
virtually nil4 ,that great factor in    
commercial success1 cost of plant and   
upkeep1 had received no consideration   
whatever in the ,war period1 for armies 
do not count cost4 ,the types of        
machines that had evolved from the ,war 
were very fast1 very efficient1 and very
 expensive1 although the bombers showed 
promise of adaptation to commercial     
needs1 and1 so far as other machines    
were concerned1 ,america had already    
proved the possibilities of             

mail-carrying by maintaining a mail     
service even during the ,war period4  ,a
 civil aviation department of the ,air  
,ministry was formed in ,february of    
#aiai with a ,controller ,general of    
,civil ,aviation at the head4 ,this was 
organised into four branches1 one       
dealing with the survey and preparation 
of air routes for the ,british ,empire1 
one organising meteorological and       
wireless telegraphy services1 one       
dealing with the licensing of           
aerodromes1 machines for passenger or   
goods carrying and civilian pilots1 and 
one dealing with publicity and          
transmission of information generally4  
,a special ,act of ,parliament entitled 
#8,the ,air ,navigation ,acts1          
#aiaa-aiai1' was passed on ,february    
#bgth1 and commercial flying was        
officially permitted from ,may #ast1    
#aiai4  ,meanwhile the great event of   
#aiai1 the crossing of the ,atlantic by 
air1 was gradually ripening to          
performance4 ,in addition to the rigid  

airship1 ,r4#cd1 eight machines entered 
for this flight1 these being a ,short   
seaplane1 ,handley-,page1 ,martinsyde1  
,vickers-,vimy1 and ,sopwith aeroplanes1
 and three ,american flying boats1      
,n4,c4#a1 ,n4,c4#c1 and ,n4,c4#d4 ,the  
,short seaplane was the only one of the 
eight which proposed to make the journey
 westward2 in flying from ,england to   
,ireland1 before starting on the long   
trip to ,newfoundland1 it fell into the 
sea off the coast of ,anglesey1 and so  
far as it was concerned the attempt was 
abandoned4  ,the first machines to start
 from the ,western end were the three   
,american seaplanes1 which on the       
morning of ,may #fth left ,trepassy1    
,newfoundland1 on the #a1chj mile stage 
to ,horta in the ,azores4 ,n4,c4#a and  
,n4,c4#c gave up the attempt very early1
 but ,n4,c4#d1 piloted by               
,lieut4-,commander ,read1 ,u4,s4,n41    
made ,horta on ,may #agth and made a    
three days' halt4 ,on the #bjth1 the    
second stage of the journey to ,ponta   

,delgada1 a further #aij miles1 was     
completed and a second halt of a week   
was made4 ,on the #bgth1 the machine    
left for ,lisbon1 #ijj miles distant1   
and completed the journey in a day4 ,on 
the #cjth a further stage of #cdj miles 
took ,n4,c4#d on to ,ferrol1 and the    
next day the last stage of #dbj miles to
 ,plymouth was accomplished4            
,meanwhile1 ,h4 ,g4 ,hawker1 pilot of   
the ,sopwith biplane1 together with     
,commander ,mackenzie ,grieve1 ,r4,n41  
his navigator1 found the weather        
sufficiently auspicious to set out at   
#f4dh p4m4 on ,sunday1 ,may #ahth1 in   
the hope of completing the trip by the  
direct route before ,n4,c4#d could reach
 ,plymouth4 ,they set out from ,mount   
,pearl aerodrome1 ,st ,john's1          
,newfoundland1 and vanished into space1 
being given up as lost1 as ,hamel was   
lost immediately before the ,war in     
attempting to fly the ,north ,sea4      
,there was a week of dead silence       
regarding their fate1 but on the        

following ,sunday morning there was     
world-wide relief at the news that the  
plucky attempt had not ended in         
disaster1 but both aviators had been    
picked up by the steamer ,mary at #i4cj 
a4m4 on the morning of the #aith1 while 
still about #gej miles short of the     
conclusion of their journey4 ,engine    
failure brought them down1 and they     
planed down to the sea close to the     
,mary to be picked up2 as the vessel was
 not fitted with wireless1 the news of  
their rescue could not be communicated  
until land was reached4 ,an equivalent  
of half the #aj1jjj prize offered by the
 ,daily ,mail for the non-stop flight   
was presented by the paper in           
recognition of the very gallant attempt1
 and the ,king conferred the ,air ,force
 ,cross on both pilot and navigator4    
,raynham1 pilot of the ,martinsyde      
competing machine1 had the bad luck to  
crash his craft twice in attempting to  
start before he got outside the boundary
 of the aerodrome4 ,the ,handley-,page  

machine was withdrawn from the          
competition1 and1 attempting to fly to  
,america1 was crashed on the way4       
,illustration3 ,the ,atlantic ,flight4  
,front view of the ,vickers-,vimy       
machine standing on its nose in the bog 
at ,clifden1 ,co4 ,galway4  ,the first  
non-stop crossing was made on ,june     
#adth-#aeth in #af hours #bg minutes1   
the speed being just over #aag miles per
 hour4 ,the machine was a ,vickers-,vimy
 bomber1 engined with two ,rolls-,royce 
,eagle ,,viii's1 piloted by ,captain    
,john ,alcock1 ,d4,s4,c41 with ,lieut4  
,arthur ,whitten-,brown as navigator4   
,the journey was reported to be very    
rough1 so much so at times that ,captain
 ,alcock stated that they were flying   
upside down1 and for the greater part of
 the time they were out of sight of the 
sea4 ,both pilot and navigator had the  
honour of knighthood conferred on them  
at the conclusion of the journey4       
,meanwhile1 commercial flying opened on 
,may #hth 7the official date was ,may   

#ast7 with a joy-ride service from      
,hounslow of ,avro training machines4   
,the enterprise caught on remarkably1   
and the company extended their          
activities to coastal resorts for the   
holiday season--at ,blackpool alone they
 took up #aj1jjj passengers before the  
service was two months old4 ,hendon1    
beginning passenger flights on the same 
date1 went in for exhibition and        
passenger flying1 and on ,june #bast the
 aerial ,derby was won by ,captain      
,gathergood on an ,airco #d,r machine   
with a ,napier #dej horse-power #8,lion'
 engine2 incidentally the speed of      
#abi4c miles per hour was officially    
recognised as constituting the world's  
record for speed within a closed        
circuit4 ,on ,july #agth a ,fiat ,b4,r4 
biplane with a #gjj horse-power engine  
landed at ,kenley aerodrome after having
 made a non-stop flight of #a1ajj miles4
 ,the maximum speed of this machine was 
#afj miles per hour1 and it was claimed 
to be the fastest machine in existence4 

,on ,august #beth a daily service       
between ,london and ,paris was          
inaugurated by the ,aircraft            
,manufacturing ,company1 ,limited1 who  
ran a machine each way each day1        
starting at #ab4cj and due to arrive at 
#b4de p4m4 ,the ,handley-,page ,company 
began a similar service in ,september of
 #aiai1 but ran it on alternate days    
with machines capable of accommodating  
ten passengers4 ,the single fare in each
 case was fixed at #ae guineas and the  
parcel rate at #gs4 #f;d4 per pound4    
,meanwhile1 in ,germany1 a number of    
passenger services had been in operation
 from the early part of the year2 the   
,berlin-,weimar service was established 
on ,february #eth and ,berlin-,hamburg  
on ,march #ast1 both for mail and       
passenger carrying4 ,berlin-,breslau was
 soon added1 but the first route opened 
remained most popular1 #ech flights     
being made between its opening and the  
end of ,april1 while for ,march and     
,april combined1 the ,hamburg-,berlin   

route recorded only #bfb flights4 ,all  
three routes were operated by a combine 
of ,german aeronautical firms entitled  
the ,deutsche ,luft ,rederie4 ,the      
single fare between ,hamburg and ,berlin
 was #dej marks1 between ,berlin and    
,breslau #ejj marks1 and between ,berlin
 and ,weimar #dej marks4 ,luggage was   
carried free of charge1 but varied      
according to the weight of the          
passenger1 since the combined weight of 
both passenger and luggage was not      
allowed to exceed a certain limit4  ,in 
,america commercial flying had begun in 
,may of #aiah with the mail service     
between ,washington1 ,philadelphia1 and 
,new ,york1 which proved that mail      
carrying is a commercial possibility1   
and also demonstrated the remarkable    
reliability of the modern aeroplane by  
making #ajb complete flights out of a   
possible total of #ajd in ,november1    
#aiah1 at a cost of #j4ggg of a dollar  
per mile4 ,by ,march of #aiai the cost  
per mile had gone up to #a4bh dollars2  

the first annual report issued at the   
end of ,may showed an efficiency of     
#ie4f per cent and the original six     
aeroplanes and engines with which the   
service began were still in regular use4
  ,illustration3 ,the ,n4,c4 #d and     
,n4,c4 #a lying ready to start on the   
,atlantic ,flight4  ,in ,june of #aiai  
an ,american commercial firm chartered  
an aeroplane for emergency service owing
 to a ,new ,york harbour strike and     
found it so useful that they made it a  
regular service4 ,the ,travellers       
,company inaugurated a passenger flying 
boat service between ,new ,york and     
,atlantic ,city on ,july #beth1 the     
fare1 inclusive of #ce lbs4 of luggage1 
being fixed at #be each way4  ,five     
flights on the ,american continent up to
 the end of #aiai are worthy of note4   
,on ,december #acth1 #aiah1 ,lieut4 ,d4 
,godoy of the ,chilian army left        
,santiago1 ,chili1 crossed the ,andes at
 a height of #ai1gjj feet and landed at 
,mendoza1 the capital of the            

wine-growing province of ,argentina4 ,on
 ,april #aith1 #aiai1 ,captain ,e4 ,f4  
,white made the first non-stop flight   
between ,new ,york and ,chicago in #f   
hours #ej minutes on a ,d4,h4#d machine 
driven by a twelve-cylinder ,liberty    
engine4 ,early in ,august ,major        
,schroeder1 piloting a ,french ,lepere  
machine flying at a height of #ah1djj   
feet1 reached a speed of #acg miles per 
hour with a ,liberty motor fitted with a
 super-charger4 ,toward the end of      
,august1 ,rex ,marshall1 on a           
,thomas-,morse biplane1 starting from a 
height of #ag1jjj feet1 made a glide of 
#ce miles with his engine cut off1      
restarting it when at a height of #fjj  
feet above the ground4 ,about a month   
later ,r4 ,rohlfe1 piloting a ,curtiss  
triplane1 broke the height record by    
reaching #cd1faj feet4     ,,xxii       
#aiai-bj   ,into the later months of    
#aiai comes the flight by ,captain      
,ross-,smith from ,england to ,australia
 and the attempt to make the ,cape to   

,cairo voyage by air4 ,the ,australian  
,government had offered a prize of      
#aj1jjj for the first flight from       
,england to ,australia in a ,british    
machine1 the flight to be accomplished  
in #gbj consecutive hours4 ,ross-,smith1
 with his brother1 ,lieut4 ,keith       
,macpherson ,smith1 and two mechanics1  
left ,hounslow in a ,vickers-,vimy      
bomber with ,rolls-,royce engine on     
,november #abth and arrived at ,port    
,darwin1 ,north ,australia1 on the #ajth
 ,december1 having completed the flight 
in #bg days #bj hours #bj minutes1 thus 
having #ea hours #dj minutes to spare   
out of the #gbj allotted hours4         
,illustration3 ,australian ,flight      
finish1 #ajth ,december1 #aiai4  ,the   
crew and machine4  ,illustration3 ,cape 
to ,cairo4  ,the #8,silver ,queen' and  
its crew4  ,early in #aibj came a series
 of attempts at completing the journey  
by air between ,cairo and the ,cape4    
,out of four competitors ,colonel ,van  
,ryneveld came nearest to making the    

journey successfully1 leaving ,england  
on a standard ,vickers-,vimy bomber with
 ,rolls-,royce engines1 identical in    
design with the machine used by ,captain
 ,ross-,smith on the ,england to        
,australia flight4 ,a second            
,vickers-,vimy was financed by the      
,times newspaper and a third flight was 
undertaken with a ,handley-,page machine
 under the auspices of the ,daily       
,telegraph4 ,the ,air ,ministry had     
already prepared the route by means of  
three survey parties which cleared the  
aerodromes and landing grounds1 dividing
 their journey into stages of #bjj miles
 or less4 ,not one of the competitors   
completed the course1 but in both this  
and ,ross-,smith's flight valuable data 
was gained in respect of reliability of 
machines and engines1 together with a   
mass of meteorological information4     
,the ,handley-,page ,company announced  
in the early months of #aibj that they  
had perfected a new design of wing which
 brought about a twenty to forty per    

cent improvement in lift rate in the    
year4 ,when the nature of the design was
 made public1 it was seen to consist of 
a division of the wing into small       
sections1 each with its separate lift4  
,a few days later1 ,fokker1 the ,dutch  
inventor1 announced the construction of 
a machine in which all external bracing 
wires are obviated1 the wings being of a
 very deep section and self-supporting4 
,the value of these two inventions      
remains to be seen so far as commercial 
flying is concerned4  ,the value of air 
work in war1 especially so far as the   
,colonial campaigns in which ,british   
troops are constantly being engaged is  
in question1 was very thoroughly        
demonstrated in a report issued early in
 #aibj with reference to the successful 
termination of the ,somaliland campaign 
through the intervention of the ,royal  
,air ,force1 which between ,january     
#bast and the #cast practically         
destroyed the ,dervish force under the  
,mullah1 which had been a thorn in the  

side of ,britain since #aijg4 ,bombs and
 machine-guns did the work1 destroying  
fortifications and bringing about the   
surrender of all the ,mullah's          
following1 with the exception of about  
seventy who made their escape4  ,certain
 records both in construction and       
performance had characterised the       
post-war years1 though as design        
advances and comes nearer to perfection1
 it is obvious that records must get    
fewer and farther between4 ,the record  
aeroplane as regards size at the time of
 its construction was the ,tarrant      
triplane1 which made its first--and     
last--flight on ,may #bhth1 #aiai4 ,the 
total loaded weight was #cj tons1 and   
the machine was fitted with six #djj    
horse-power engines2 almost immediately 
after the trial flight began1 the       
machine pitched forward on its nose and 
was wrecked1 causing fatal injuries to  
,captains ,dunn and ,rawlings1 who were 
aboard the machine4 ,a second accident  
of similar character was that which     

befell the giant seaplane known as the  
,felixstowe ,fury1 in a trial flight4   
,this latter machine was intended to be 
flown to ,australia1 but was crashed    
over the water4  ,on ,may #dth1 #aibj1 a
 ,british record for flight duration and
 useful load was established by a       
commercial type ,handley-,page biplane1 
which1 carrying a load of #c1fij lbs41  
rose to a height of #ac1iii feet and    
remained in the air for #a hour #bj     
minutes4 ,on ,may #bgth the ,french     
pilot1 ,fronval1 flying at ,villacoublay
 in a ,morane-,saulnier type of biplane 
with ,le ,rhone motor1 put up an        
extraordinary type of record by looping 
the loop #ifb times in #c hours #eb     
minutes #aj seconds4 ,another record of 
the year of similar nature was that of  
two ,french fliers1 ,boussotrot and     
,bernard1 who achieved a continuous     
flight of #bd hours #ai minutes #g      
seconds1 beating the pre-war record of  
#ba hours #dh seconds set up by the     
,german pilot1 ,landemann4 ,both these  

records are likely to stand1 being in   
the nature of freaks1 which demonstrate 
little beyond the reliability of the    
machine and the capacity for endurance  
on the part of its pilots4              
,illustration3 ,trial ,flight of the    
,tarrant ,triplane at ,farnborough4     
,the machine before the crash4          
,meanwhile1 on ,february #adth1 ,lieuts4
 ,masiero and ,ferrarin left ,rome on   
,s4,v4,a4 ,ansaldo ,v4 machines fitted  
with #bbj horse-power ,s4,v4,a4 motors4 
,on ,may #cjth they arrived at ,tokio1  
having flown by way of ,bagdad1         
,karachi1 ,canton1 ,pekin1 and ,osaka4  
,several other competitors started1 two 
of whom were shot down by ,arabs in     
,mesopotamia4  ,considered in a general 
way1 the first two years after the      
termination of the ,great ,european ,war
 form a period of transition in which   
the commercial type of aeroplane was    
gradually evolved from the fighting     
machine which was perfected in the four 
preceding years4 ,there was about this  

period no sense of finality1 but it was 
as experimental1 in its own way1 as were
 the years of progressing design which  
preceded the war period4 ,such          
commercial schemes as were inaugurated  
call for no more note than has been     
given here2 they have been experimental1
 and1 with the possible exception of the
 ,united ,states ,government mail       
service1 have not been planned and      
executed on a sufficiently large scale  
to furnish reliable data on which to    
forecast the prospects of commercial    
aviation4 ,and there is a school rapidly
 growing up which asserts that the day  
of aeroplanes is nearly over4 ,the      
construction of the giant airships of   
to-day and the successful return flight 
of ,r#cd across the ,atlantic seem to   
point to the eventual triumph1 in spite 
of its disadvantages1 of the dirigible  
airship4  ,this is a hard saying for    
such of the aeroplane industry as       
survived the ,war period and            
consolidated itself1 and it is but the  

saying of a section which bases its     
belief on the fact that1 as was noted in
 the very early years of the century1   
the aeroplane is primarily a war        
machine4 ,moreover1 the experience of   
the ,war period tended to discredit the 
dirigible1 since1 before the            
introduction of helium gas1 the         
inflammability of its buoyant factor    
placed it at an immense disadvantage    
beside the machine dependent on the     
atmosphere itself for its lift4  ,as    
life runs to-day1 it is a long time     
since ,kipling wrote his story of the   
airways of a future world and thrust out
 a prophecy that the bulk of the world's
 air traffic would be carried by gas-bag
 vessels4 ,if the school which inclines 
to belief in the dirigible is right in  
its belief1 as it well may be1 then the 
foresight was uncannily correct1 not    
only in the matter of the main          
assumption1 but in the detail with which
 the writer embroidered it4  ,on the    
constructional side1 the history of the 

aeroplane is still so much in the making
 that any attempt at a critical history 
would be unwise1 and it is possible only
 to record fact1 leaving it to the      
future for judgment to be passed4 ,but1 
in a general way1 criticism may be      
advanced with regard to the place that  
aeronautics takes in civilisation4 ,in  
the past hundred years1 the world has   
made miraculously rapid strides         
materially1 but moral development has   
not kept abreast4 ,conception of the    
responsibilities of humanity remains    
virtually in a position of a hundred    
years ago2 given a higher conception of 
life and its responsibilities1 the      
aeroplane becomes the crowning          
achievement of that long series which   
,james ,watt inaugurated1 the last step 
in inter-communication1 the chain with  
which all nations are bound in a growing
 prosperity1 surely based on moral      
wellbeing4 ,without such conception of  
the duties as well as the rights of     
life1 this last achievement of science  

may yet prove the weapon that shall end 
civilisation as men know it to-day1 and 
bring this ultra-material age to a phase
 of ruin on which saner people can build
 a world more reasonable and less given 
to groping after purely material        
advancement4  ,illustration3 ,the       
,tarrant smash4  ,front view of crashed 
machine4 ,searching for the injured     
after the smash4     ,,part ,,ii        
#aijc-aibj3 ,,progress ,,in ,,design    
,,by  ,,lieut-,,col4 ,w4 ,,lockwood     
,,marsh     ,i  ,,the ,,beginnings      
,although the first actual flight of an 
aeroplane was made by the ,wrights on   
,december #agth1 #aijc1 it is necessary1
 in considering the progress of design  
between that period and the present day1
 to go back to the earlier days of their
 experiments with #8gliders1' which show
 the alterations in design made by them 
in their step-by-step progress to a     
flying machine proper1 and give a clear 
idea of the stage at which they had     
arrived in the art of aeroplane design  

at the time of their first flights4     
,they started by carefully surveying the
 work of previous experimenters1 such as
 ,lilienthal and ,chanute1 and from the 
lesson of some of the failures of these 
pioneers evolved certain new principles 
which were embodied in their first      
glider1 built in #aijj4 ,in the first   
place1 instead of relying upon the      
shifting of the operator's body to      
obtain balance1 which had proved too    
slow to be reliable1 they fitted in     
front of the main supporting surfaces   
what we now call an #8elevator1' which  
could be flexed1 to control the         
longitudinal balance1 from where the    
operator lay prone upon the main        
supporting surfaces4 ,the second main   
innovation which they incorporated in   
this first glider1 and the principle of 
which is still used in every aeroplane  
in existence1 was the attainment of     
lateral balance by warping the          
extremities of the main planes4 ,the    
effect of warping or pulling down the   

extremity of the wing on one side was to
 increase its lift and so cause that    
side to rise4 ,in the first two gliders 
this control was also used for steering 
to right and left4 ,both these methods  
of control were novel for other than    
model work1 as previous experimenters1  
such as ,lilienthal and ,pilcher1 had   
relied entirely upon moving the legs or 
shifting the position of the body to    
control the longitudinal and lateral    
motions of their gliders4 ,for the main 
supporting surfaces of the glider the   
biplane system of ,chanute's gliders was
 adopted with certain modifications1    
while the curve of the wings was founded
 upon the calculations of ,lilienthal as
 to wind pressure and consequent lift of
 the plane4  ,this first glider was     
tested on the ,kill ,devil ,hill        
sandhills in ,north ,carolina in the    
summer of #aijj1 and proved at any rate 
the correctness of the principles of the
 front elevator and warping wings1      
though its designers were puzzled by the

 fact that the lift was less than they  
expected2 whilst the #8drag' 7as we call
 it71 or resistance1 was also           
considerably lower than their           
predictions4 ,the #aija machine was1 in 
consequence1 nearly doubled in area--the
 lifting surface being increased from   
#afe to #cjh square feet--the first     
trial taking place on ,july #bgth1      
#aija1 again at ,kill ,devil ,hill4 ,it 
immediately appeared that something was 
wrong1 as the machine dived straight to 
the ground1 and it was only after the   
operator's position had been moved      
nearly a foot back from what had been   
calculated as the correct position that 
the machine would glide--and even then  
the elevator had to be used far more    
strongly than in the previous year's    
glider4 ,after a good deal of thought   
the apparent solution of the trouble was
 finally found4 ,this consisted in the  
fact that with curved surfaces1 while at
 large angles the centre of pressure    
moves forward as the angle decreases1   

when a certain limit of angle is reached
 it travels suddenly backwards and      
causes the machine to dive4 ,the        
,wrights had known of this tendency from
 ,lilienthal's researches1 but had      
imagined that the phenomenon would      
disappear if they used a fairly lightly 
cambered--or curved--surface with a very
 abrupt curve at the front4 ,having     
discovered what appeared to be the cause
 they surmounted the difficulty by      
#8trussing down' the camber of the      
wings1 with the result that they at once
 got back to the old conditions of the  
previous year and could control the     
machine readily with small movements of 
the elevator1 even being able to follow 
undulations in the ground4 ,they still  
found1 however1 that the lift was not as
 great as it should have been2 while the
 drag remained1 as in the previous      
glider1 surprisingly small4 ,this threw 
doubt on previous figures as to wind    
resistance and pressure on curved       
surfaces2 but at the same time confirmed

 7and this was a most important result7 
,lilienthal's previously questioned     
theory that at small angles the pressure
 on a curved surface instead of being   
normal1 or at right angles to1 the chord
 is in fact inclined in front of the    
perpendicular4 ,the result of this is   
that the pressure actually tends to draw
 the machine forward into the           
wind--hence the small amount of drag1   
which had puzzled ,wilbur and ,orville  
,wright4  ,another lesson which was     
learnt from these first two years of    
experiment1 was that where1 as in a     
biplane1 two surfaces are superposed one
 above the other1 each of them has      
somewhat less lift than it would have if
 used alone4 ,the experimenters were    
also still in doubt as to the efficiency
 of the warping method of controlling   
the lateral balance as it gave rise to  
certain phenomena which puzzled them1   
the machine turning towards the wing    
having the greater angle1 which seemed  
also to touch the ground first1 contrary

 to their expectations4 ,accordingly1 on
 returning to ,dayton towards the end of
 #aija1 they set themselves to solve the
 various problems which had appeared and
 started on a lengthy series of         
experiments to check the previous       
figures as to wind resistance and lift  
of curved surfaces1 besides setting     
themselves to grapple with the          
difficulty of lateral control4 ,they    
accordingly constructed for themselves  
at their home in ,dayton a wind tunnel  
#af inches square by #f feet long in    
which they measured the lift and #8drag'
 of more than two hundred miniature     
wings4 ,in the course of these tests    
they for the first time produced        
comparative results of the lift of      
oblong and square surfaces1 with the    
result that they re-discovered the      
importance of #8aspect ratio'--the ratio
 of length to breadth of planes4 ,as a  
result1 in the next year's glider the   
aspect ration of the wings was increased
 from the three to one of the earliest  

model to about six to one1 which is     
approximately the same as that used in  
the machines of to-day4 ,further than   
that1 they discussed the question of    
lateral stability1 and came to the      
conclusion that the cause of the trouble
 was that the effect of warping down one
 wing was to increase the resistance of1
 and consequently slow down1 that wing  
to such an extent that its lift was     
reduced sufficiently to wipe out the    
anticipated increase in lift resulting  
from the warping4 ,from this they       
deduced that if the speed of the warped 
wing could be controlled the advantage  
of increasing the angle by warping could
 be utilised as they originally         
intended4 ,they therefore decided to fit
 a vertical fin at the rear which1 if   
the machine attempted to turn1 would be 
exposed more and more to the wind and so
 stop the turning motion by offering    
increased resistance4  ,as a result of  
this laboratory research work the third 
,wright glider1 which was taken to ,kill

 ,devil ,hill in ,september1 #aijb1 was 
far more efficient aerodynamically than 
either of its two predecessors1 and was 
fitted with a fixed vertical fin at the 
rear in addition to the movable elevator
 in front4 ,according to ,mr ,griffith  
,brewer1#h this third glider contained  
#cje square feet of surface2 though     
there may possibly be a mistake here1 as
 he states#i the surface of the previous
 year's glider to have been only #bij   
square feet1 whereas ,wilbur ,wright    
himself#aj states it to have been #cjh  
square feet4 ,the matter is not1        
perhaps1 save historically1 of much     
importance1 except that the gliders are 
believed to have been progressively     
larger1 and therefore if we accept      
,wilbur ,wright's own figure of the     
surface of the second glider1 the third 
must have had a greater area than that  
given by ,mr ,griffith ,brewer4         
,unfortunately1 no evidence of the      
,wright ,brothers themselves on this    
point is available4  ,the first glide of

 the #aijb season was made on ,september
 #agth of that year1 and the new machine
 at once showed itself an improvement on
 its predecessors1 though subsequent    
trials showed that the difficulty of    
lateral balance had not been entirely   
overcome4 ,it was decided1 therefore1 to
 turn the vertical fin at the rear into 
a rudder by making it movable4 ,at the  
same time it was realised that there was
 a definite relation between lateral    
balance and directional control1 and the
 rudder controls and wing-warping wires 
were accordingly connected4 ,this ended 
the pioneer gliding experiments of      
,wilbur and ,orville ,wright--though    
further glides were made in subsequent  
years--as the following year1 #aijc1 saw
 the first power-driven machine leave   
the ground4  ,to recapitulate--in the   
course of these original experiments the
 ,wrights confirmed ,lilienthal's theory
 of the reversal of the centre of       
pressure on cambered surfaces at small  
angles of incidence3 they confirmed the 

importance of high aspect ratio in      
respect to lift3 they had evolved new   
and more accurate tables of lift and    
pressure on cambered surfaces3 they were
 the first to use a movable horizontal  
elevator for controlling height3 they   
were the first to adjust the wings to   
different angles of incidence to        
maintain lateral balance3 and they were 
the first to use the movable rudder and 
adjustable wings in combination4  ,they 
now considered that they had gone far   
enough to justify them in building a    
power-driven #8flier1' as they called   
their first aeroplane4 ,they could find 
no suitable engine and so proceeded to  
build for themselves an internal        
combustion engine1 which was designed to
 give #h horse-power1 but when completed
 actually developed about #ab-ae        
horse-power and weighed #bdj lbs4 ,the  
complete machine weighed about #gej lbs4
 ,further details of the first ,wright  
aeroplane are difficult to obtain1 and  
even those here given should be received

 with some caution4 ,the first flight   
was made on ,december #agth1 #aijc1 and 
lasted #ab seconds4 ,others followed    
immediately1 and the fourth lasted #ei  
seconds1 a distance of #heb feet being  
covered against a #bj-mile wind4  ,the  
following year they transferred         
operations to a field outside ,dayton1  
,ohio 7their home71 and there they flew 
a somewhat larger and heavier machine   
with which on ,september #bjth1 #aijd1  
they completed the first circle in the  
air4 ,in this machine for the first time
 the pilot had a seat2 all the previous 
experiments having been carried out with
 the operator lying prone on the lower  
wing4 ,this was followed next year by   
another still larger machine1 and on it 
they carried out many flights4 ,during  
the course of these flights they        
satisfied themselves as to the cause of 
a phenomenon which had puzzled them     
during the previous year and caused them
 to fear that they had not solved the   
problem of lateral control4 ,they found 

that on occasions--always when on a     
turn--the machine began to slide down   
towards the ground and that no amount of
 warping could stop it4 ,finally it was 
found that if the nose of the machine   
was tilted down a recovery could be     
effected2 from which they concluded that
 what actually happened was that the    
machine1 #8owing to the increased load  
caused by centrifugal force1' had       
insufficient power to maintain itself in
 the air and therefore lost speed until 
a point was reached at which the        
controls became inoperative4 ,in other  
words1 this was the first experience of 
#8stalling on a turn1' which is a danger
 against which all embryo pilots have to
 guard in the early stages of their     
training4  ,the #aije machine was1 like 
its predecessors1 a biplane with a      
biplane elevator in front and a double  
vertical rudder in rear4 ,the span was  
#dj feet1 the chord of the wings being  
#f feet and the gap between them about  
the same4 ,the total area was about #fjj

 square feet which supported a total    
weight of #ibe lbs42 while the motor was
 #ab to #ae horse-power driving two     
propellers on each side behind the main 
planes through chains and giving the    
machine a speed of about #cj m4p4h4 ,one
 of these chains was crossed so that the
 propellers revolved in opposite        
directions to avoid the torque which it 
was feared would be set up if they both 
revolved the same way4 ,the machine was 
not fitted with a wheeled undercarriage 
but was carried on two skids1 which also
 acted as outriggers to carry the       
elevator4 ,consequently1 a mechanical   
method of launching had to be evolved   
and the machine received initial        
velocity from a rail1 along which it was
 drawn by the impetus provided by the   
falling of a weight from a wooden tower 
or #8pylon4' ,as a result of this the   
,wright aeroplane in its original form  
had to be taken back to its starting    
rail after each flight1 and could not   
restart from the point of alighting4    

,perhaps1 in comparison with ,french    
machines of more or less contemporary   
date 7evolved on independent lines in   
ignorance of the ,americans' work71 the 
chief feature of the ,wright biplane of 
#aije was that it relied entirely upon  
the skill of the operator for its       
stability2 whereas in ,france some      
attempt was being made1 although perhaps
 not very successfully1 to make the     
machine automatically stable laterally4 
,the performance of the ,wrights in     
carrying a loading of some #fj lbs4 per 
horse-power is one which should not be  
overlooked4 ,the wing loading was about 
#a lbs4 per square foot4  ,about the    
same time that the ,wrights were        
carrying out their power-driven         
experiments1 a band of pioneers was     
quite independently beginning to        
approach success in ,france4 ,in        
practically every case1 however1 they   
started from a somewhat different       
standpoint and took as their basic idea 
the cellular 7or box7 kite4 ,this form  

of kite1 consisting of two superposed   
surfaces connected at each end by a     
vertical panel or curtain of fabric1 had
 proved extremely successful for        
man-carrying purposes1 and1 therefore1  
it was little wonder that several minds 
conceived the idea of attempting to fly 
by fitting a series of box-kites with an
 engine4 ,the first to achieve success  
was ,m4 ,santos-,dumont1 the famous     
,brazilian pioneer-designer of airships1
 who1 on ,november #abth1 #aijf1 made   
several flights1 the last of which      
covered a little over #gjj feet4        
,santos-,dumont's machine consisted     
essentially of two box-kites1 forming   
the main wings1 one on each side of the 
body1 in which the pilot stood1 and at  
the front extremity of which was another
 movable box-kite to act as elevator and
 rudder4 ,the curtains at the ends were 
intended to give lateral stability1     
which was further ensured by setting the
 wings slightly inclined upwards from   
the centre1 so that when seen from the  

front they formed a wide ,v4 ,this      
feature is still to be found in many    
aeroplanes to-day and has come to be    
known as the #8dihedral4' ,the motor was
 at first of #bd horse-power1 for which 
later a #ej horse-power ,antoinette     
engine was substituted2 whilst a        
three-wheeled undercarriage was         
provided1 so that the machine could     
start without external mechanical aid4  
,the machine was constructed of bamboo  
and steel1 the weight being as low as   
#ceb lbs4 ,the span was #dj feet1 the   
length being #cc feet1 with a total     
surface of main planes of #hfj square   
feet4 ,it will thus be seen--for        
comparison with the ,wright             
machine--that the weight per horse-power
 7with the #ej horse-power engine7 was  
only #g lbs41 while the wing loading was
 equally low at  lb4 per square foot4   
,the main features of the               
,santos-,dumont machine were the        
box-kite form of construction1 with a   
dihedral angle on the main planes1 and  

the forward elevator which could be     
moved in any direction and therefore    
acted in the same way as the rudder at  
the rear of the ,wright biplane4 ,it had
 a single propeller revolving in the    
centre behind the wings and was fitted  
with an undercarriage incorporated in   
the machine4  ,the other chief ,french  
experimenters at this period were the   
,voisin ,frres1 whose first two         
machines--identical in form--were sold  
to ,delagrange and ,h4 ,farman1 which   
has sometimes caused confusion1 the two 
purchasers being credited with the      
design they bought4 ,the ,voisins1 like 
the ,wrights1 based their designs       
largely on the experimental work of     
,lilienthal1 ,langley1 ,chanute1 and    
others1 though they also carried out    
tests on the lifting properties of      
aerofoils in a wind tunnel of their own4
 ,their first machines1 like those of   
,santos-,dumont1 showed the effects of  
experimenting with box-kites1 some of   
which they had built for ,m4 ,ernest    

,archdeacon in #aijd4 ,in their case the
 machine1 which was again a biplane1    
had1 like both the others previously    
mentioned1 an elevator in front--though 
in this case of monoplane form--and1 as 
in the ,wright1 a rudder was fitted in  
rear of the main planes4 ,the ,voisins1 
however1 fitted a fixed biplane         
horizontal #8tail'--in an effort to     
obtain a measure of automatic           
longitudinal stability--between the two 
surfaces of which the single rudder     
worked4 ,for lateral stability they     
depended entirely on end curtains       
between the upper and lower surfaces of 
both the main planes and biplane tail   
surfaces4 ,they1 like ,santos-,dumont1  
fitted a wheeled undercarriage1 so that 
the machine was self-contained4 ,the    
,voisin machine1 then1 was intended to  
be automatically stable in both senses2 
whereas the ,wrights deliberately       
produced a machine which was entirely   
dependent upon the pilot's skill for its
 stability4 ,the dimensions of the      

,voisin may be given for comparative    
purposes1 and were as follows3 ,span #cc
 feet with a chord 7width from back to  
front7 of main planes of #f feet1 giving
 a total area of #dcj square feet4 ,the 
#ej horse-power ,antoinette engine1     
which was enclosed in the body 7or      
#8nacelle'7 in the front of which the   
pilot sat1 drove a propeller behind1    
revolving between the outriggers        
carrying the tail4 ,the total weight1   
including ,farman as pilot1 is given as 
#a1edj lbs41 so that the machine was    
much heavier than either of the others2 
the weight per horse-power being midway 
between the ,santos-,dumont and the     
,wright at #ca lbs4 per square foot1    
while the wing loading was considerably 
greater than either at #c lbs4 per      
square foot4 ,the ,voisin machine was   
experimented with by ,farman and        
,delagrange from about ,june #aijg      
onwards1 and was in the subsequent years
 developed by ,farman2 and right up to  
the commencement of the ,war upheld the 

principles of the box-kite method of    
construction for training purposes4 ,the
 chief modification of the original     
design was the addition of flaps 7or    
ailerons7 at the rear extremities of the
 main planes to give lateral control1 in
 a manner analogous to the wing-warping 
method invented by the ,wrights1 as a   
result of which the end curtains between
 the planes were abolished4 ,an         
additional elevator was fitted at the   
rear of the fixed biplane tail1 which   
eventually led to the discarding of the 
front elevator altogether4 ,during the  
same period the ,wright machine came    
into line with the others by the fitting
 of a wheeled undercarriage integral    
with the machine4 ,a fixed horizontal   
tail was also added to the rear rudder1 
to which a movable elevator was later   
attached2 and1 finally1 the front       
elevator was done away with4 ,it will   
thus be seen that having started from   
the very different standpoints of       
automatic stability and complete control

 by the pilot1 the ,voisin 7as developed
 in the ,farman7 and ,wright machines1  
through gradual evolution finally       
resulted in aeroplanes of similar       
characteristics embodying a modicum of  
both features4  ,before proceeding to   
the next stage of progress mention      
should be made of the experimental work 
of ,captain ,ferber in ,france4 ,this   
officer carried out a large number of   
experiments with gliders contemporarily 
with the ,wrights1 adopting--like       
them--the ,chanute biplane principle4   
,he adopted the front elevator from the 
,wrights1 but immediately went a step   
farther by also fitting a fixed tail in 
rear1 which did not become a feature of 
the ,wright machine until some seven or 
eight years later4 ,he built and        
appeared to have flown a machine fitted 
with a motor in #aije1 and was          
commissioned to go to ,america by the   
,french ,war ,office on a secret mission
 to the ,wrights4 ,unfortunately1 no    
complete account of his experiments     

appears to exist1 though it can be said 
that his work was at least as important 
as that of any of the other pioneers    
mentioned4     ,,ii  ,,multiplicity ,,of
 ,,ideas   ,in a review of progress such
 as this1 it is obviously impossible1   
when a certain stage of development has 
been reached1 owing to the very         
multiplicity of experimenters1 to       
continue dealing in anything approaching
 detail with all the different types of 
machines2 and it is proposed1 therefore1
 from this point to deal only with      
tendencies1 and to mention individuals  
merely as examples of a class of thought
 rather than as personalities1 as it is 
often difficult fairly to allocate the  
responsibility for any particular       
innovation4  ,during #aijg and #aijh a  
new type of machine1 in the monoplane1  
began to appear from the workshops of   
,louis ,blriot1 ,robert                 
,esnault-,pelterie1 and others1 which   
was destined to give rise to long and   
bitter controversies on the relative    

advantages of the two types1 into which 
it is not proposed to enter here2 though
 the rumblings of the conflict are still
 to be heard by discerning ears4        
,blriot's early monoplanes had certain  
new features1 such as the location of   
the pilot1 and in some cases the engine1
 below the wing2 but in general his     
monoplanes1 particularly the famous ,no4
 ,,xi on which the first ,channel       
crossing was made on ,july #beth1 #aiji1
 embodied the main principles of the    
,wright and ,voisin types1 except that  
the propeller was in front of instead of
 behind the supporting surfaces1 and    
was1 therefore1 what is called a        
#8tractor' in place of the then more    
conventional #8pusher4' ,blriot aimed at
 lateral balance by having the tip of   
each wing pivoted1 though he soon fell  
into line with the ,wrights and adopted 
the warping system4 ,the main features  
of the design of ,esnault-,pelterie's   
monoplane was the inverted dihedral 7or 
kathedral as this was called in ,mr ,s4 

,f4 ,cody's ,british ,army ,biplane of  
#aijg7 on the wings1 whereby the tips   
were considerably lower than the roots  
at the body4 ,this was designed to give 
automatic lateral stability1 but1 here  
again1 conventional practice was soon   
adopted and the ,r4,e4,p4 monoplanes1   
which became well-known in this country 
through their adoption in the early days
 by ,messrs ,vickers1 were of the       
ordinary monoplane design1 consisting of
 a tractor propeller with wire-stayed   
wings1 the pilot being in an enclosed   
fuselage containing the engine in front 
and carrying at its rear extremity fixed
 horizontal and vertical surfaces       
combined with movable elevators and     
rudder4 ,constructionally1 the ,r4,e4,p4
 monoplane was of extreme interest as   
the body was constructed of steel4 ,the 
,antoinette monoplane1 so ably flown by 
,latham1 was another very famous machine
 of the #aiji-aiaj period1 though its   
performance were frequently marred by   
engine failure2 which was indeed the    

bugbear of all these early              
experimenters1 and it is difficult to   
say1 after this lapse of time1 how far  
in many cases the failures which        
occurred1 both in performances and even 
in the actual ability to rise from the  
ground1 were due to defects in design or
 merely faults in the primitive engines 
available4 ,the ,antoinette aroused     
admiration chiefly through its graceful1
 bird-like lines1 which have probably   
never been equalled2 but its chief      
interest for our present purpose lies in
 the novel method of wing-staying which 
was employed4 ,contemporary monoplanes  
practically all had their wings stayed  
by wires to a post in the centre above  
the fuselage1 and1 usually1 to the      
undercarriage below4 ,in the            
,antoinette1 however1 a king post was   
introduced half-way along the wing1 from
 which wires were carried to the ends of
 the wings and the body4 ,this was      
intended to give increased strength and 
permitted of a greater wing-spread and  

consequently improved aspect ratio4 ,the
 same system of construction was adopted
 in the ,british ,martinsyde monoplanes 
of two or three years later4            
,illustration3 ,latham's ,antoinette    
#bi4  ,this period also saw the         
production of the first triplane1 which 
was built by ,a4 ,v4 ,roe in ,england   
and was fitted with a ,j4,a4,p4 engine  
of only #i horse-power--an amazing      
performance which remains to this day   
unequalled4 ,mr ,roe's triplane was     
chiefly interesting otherwise for the   
method of maintaining longitudinal      
control1 which was achieved by pivoting 
the whole of the three main planes so   
that their angle of incidence could be  
altered4 ,this was the direct converse  
of the universal practice of elevating  
by means of a subsidiary surface either 
in front or rear of the main planes4    
,recollection of the various flying     
meetings and exhibitions which one      
attended during the years from #aiji to 
#aiaa1 or even #aiab1 are chiefly       

notable for the fact that the first     
thought on seeing any new type of       
machine was not as to what its          
#8performance'--in speed1 lift1 or what 
not--would be2 but speculation as to    
whether it would leave the ground at all
 when eventually tried4 ,this is perhaps
 the best indication of the outstanding 
characteristic of that interim period   
between the time of the first actual    
flights and the later period1 commencing
 about #aiab1 when ideas had become     
settled and it was at last becoming     
possible to forecast on the             
drawing-board the performance of the    
completed machine in the air4 ,without  
going into details1 for which there is  
no space here1 it is difficult to convey
 the correct impression of the chaotic  
state which existed as to even the      
elementary principles of aeroplane      
design4 ,all the exhibitions contained  
large numbers--one had almost written a 
majority--of machines which embodied the
 most unusual features and which never  

could1 and in practice never did1 leave 
the ground4 ,at the same time1 there    
were few who were sufficiently hardy to 
say certainly that this or that         
innovation was wrong2 and consequently  
dozens of inventors in every country    
were conducting isolated experiments on 
both good and bad lines4 ,all kinds of  
devices1 mechanical and otherwise1 were 
claimed as the solution of the problem  
of stability1 and there was even        
controversy as to whether any measure of
 stability was not undesirable2 one     
school maintaining that the only safety 
lay in the pilot having the sole say in 
the attitude of the machine at any given
 moment1 and fearing danger from the    
machine having any mind of its own1 so  
to speak4 ,there was1 as in most        
controversies1 some right on both sides1
 and when we come to consider the more  
settled period from #aiab to the        
outbreak of the ,war in #aiad we shall  
find how a compromise was gradually     
effected4  ,at the same time1 however1  

though it was at the time difficult to  
pick out1 there was very real progress  
being made1 and1 though a number of     
#8freak' machines fell out by the       
wayside1 the pioneer designers of those 
days learnt by a process of trial and   
error the right principles to follow and
 gradually succeeded in getting their   
ideas crystallised4  ,in connection with
 stability mention must be made of a    
machine which was evolved in the utmost 
secrecy by ,mr ,j4 ,w4 ,dunne in a      
remote part of ,scotland under subsidy  
from the ,war ,office4 ,this type1 which
 was constructed in both monoplane and  
biplane form1 showed that it was in fact
 possible in #aiaj and #aiaa to design  
an aeroplane which could definitely be  
left to fly itself in the air4 ,one of  
the ,dunne machines was1 for example1   
flown from ,farnborough to ,salisbury   
,plain without any control other than   
the rudder being touched2 and on another
 occasion it flew a complete circle with
 all controls locked1 automatically     

assuming the correct bank for the radius
 of turn4 ,the peculiar form of wing    
used1 the camber of which varied from   
the root to the tip1 gave rise1 however1
 to a certain loss in efficiency1 and   
there was also a difficulty in the pilot
 assuming adequate control when desired4
 ,other machines designed to be         
stable--such as the ,german ,etrich and 
the ,british ,weiss gliders and         
,handley-,page monoplanes--were based on
 the analogy of a wing attached to a    
certain seed found in ,nature 7the      
#8,zanonia' leaf71 on the righting      
effect of back-sloped wings combined    
with upturned 7or #8negative'7 tips4    
,generally speaking1 however1 the       
machines of the #aiji-aiab period relied
 for what automatic stability they had  
on the principle of the dihedral angle1 
or flat ,v1 both longitudinally and     
laterally4 ,longitudinally this was     
obtained by setting the tail at a       
slightly smaller angle than the main    
planes4  ,the question of reducing the  

resistance by adopting #8stream-line'   
forms1 along which the air could flow   
uninterruptedly without the formation of
 eddies1 was not at first properly      
realised1 though credit should be given 
to ,edouard ,nieuport1 who in #aiji     
produced a monoplane with a very large  
body which almost completely enclosed   
the pilot and made the machine very     
fast1 for those days1 with low          
horse-power4 ,on one of these machines  
,c4 ,t4 ,weymann won the                
,gordon-,bennett ,cup for ,america in   
#aiaa1 and another put up a fine        
performance in the same race with only a
 #cj horse-power engine4 ,the subject1  
was however1 early taken up by the      
,british ,advisory ,committee for       
,aeronautics1 which was established by  
the ,government in #aiji1 and designers 
began to realise the importance of      
streamline struts and fuselages towards 
the end of this transition period4      
,these efforts were at first not always 
successful and showed at times a lack of

 understanding of the problems involved1
 but there was a very marked improvement
 during the year #aiab4 ,at the ,paris  
,aero ,salon held early in that year    
there was a notable variety of ideas on 
the subject2 whereas by the time of the 
one held in ,october designs had        
considerably settled down1 more than one
 exhibitor showing what were called     
#8monocoque' fuselages completely       
circular in shape and having very low   
resistance1 while the same show saw the 
introduction of rotating cowls over the 
propeller bosses1 or #8spinners1' as    
they came to be called during the ,war4 
,a particularly fine example of         
stream-lining was to be found in the    
,deperdussin monoplane on which ,vdrines
 won back the ,gordon-,bennett ,aviation
 ,cup from ,america at a speed of #ajee 
m4p4h4--a considerable improvement on   
the #gh m4p4h4 of the preceding year1   
which was by no means accounted for by  
the mere increase in engine power from  
#ajj horse-power to #adj horse-power4   

,this machine was the first in which the
 refinement of #8stream-lining' the     
pilot's head1 which became a feature of 
subsequent racing machines1 was         
introduced4 ,this consisted of a        
circular padded excresence above the    
cockpit immediately behind the pilot's  
head1 which gradually tapered off into  
the top surface of the fuselage4 ,the   
object was to give the air an           
uninterrupted flow instead of allowing  
it to be broken up into eddies behind   
the head of the pilot1 and it also      
provided a support against the enormous 
wind-pressure encountered4 ,this true   
stream-line form of fuselage owed its   
introduction to the ,paulhan-,tatin     
#8,torpille' monoplane of the ,paris    
,salon of early #aiab4 ,altogether the  
end of the year #aiab began to see the  
disappearance of #8freak' machines with 
all sorts of original ideas for the     
increase of stability and performance4  
,designs had by then gradually become to
 a considerable extent standardised1 and

 it had become unusual to find a machine
 built which would fail to fly4 ,the    
,gnome engine held the field owing to   
its advantages1 as the first of the     
rotary type1 in lightness and ease of   
fitting into the nose of a fuselage4    
,the majority of machines were tractors 
7propeller in front7 although a         
preference1 which died down             
subsequently1 was still shown for the   
monoplane over the biplane4 ,this year  
also saw a great increase in the number 
of seaplanes1 although the #8flying     
boat' type had only appeared at         
intervals and the vast majority were of 
the ordinary aeroplane type fitted with 
floats in place of the land             
undercarriage2 which type was at that   
time commonly called #8hydro-aeroplane4'
 ,the usual horse-power was #ej--that of
 the smallest ,gnome engine--although   
engines of #ajj to #adj horse-power were
 also fitted occasionally4 ,the average 
weight per horse-power varied from #ah  
to #be lbs41 while the wing-loading was 

usually in the neighbourhood of #e to #f
 lbs4 per square foot4 ,the average     
speed ranged from #fe-ge miles per hour4
  ,illustration3 ,bristol ,fighter1 rear
 view4     ,,iii  ,,progress ,,on       
,,standardised ,,lines   ,in the last   
section an attempt has been made to show
 how1 during what was from the design   
standpoint perhaps the most critical    
period1 order gradually became evident  
out of chaos1 ill-considered ideas      
dropped out through failure to make     
good1 and1 though there was still plenty
 of room for improvement in details1 the
 bulk of the aeroplanes showed a general
 similarity in form and conception4     
,there was still a great deal to be     
learnt in finding the best form of wing 
section1 and performances were still    
low2 but it had become definitely       
possible to say that flying had emerged 
from the chrysalis stage and had become 
a science4 ,the period which now began  
was one of scientific development and   
improvement--in performance1            

manuvrability1 and general airworthiness
 and stability4  ,the ,british ,military
 ,aeroplane ,competition held in the    
summer of #aiab had done much to show   
the requirements in design by giving    
possibly the first opportunity for a    
definite comparison of the performance  
of different machines as measured by    
impartial observers on standard         
lines--albeit the methods of measuring  
were crude4 ,these showed that a high   
speed--for those days--of #ge miles an  
hour or so was attended by disadvantages
 in the form of an equally fast low     
speed1 of #ej miles per hour or more1   
and generally may be said to have given 
designers an idea what to aim for and in
 what direction improvements were       
required4 ,in fact1 the most noticeable 
point perhaps of the machines of this   
time was the marked manner in which a   
machine that was good in one respect    
would be found to be wanting in others4 
,it had not yet been possible to combine
 several desirable attributes in one    

machine4 ,the nearest approach to this  
was perhaps to be found in the much     
discussed ,government ,b4,e4#b machine1 
which was produced from the ,royal      
,aircraft ,factory at ,farnborough1 in  
the summer of #aiab4 ,though            
considerably criticised from many points
 of view it was perhaps the nearest     
approach to a machine of all-round      
efficiency that had up to that date     
appeared4 ,the climbing rate1 which     
subsequently proved so important for    
military purposes1 was still low1       
seldom1 if ever1 exceeding #djj feet per
 minute2 while gliding angles 7ratio of 
descent to forward travel over the      
ground with engine stopped7 little      
exceeded #a in #h4  ,the year #aiab and 
#aiac saw the subsequently              
all-conquering tractor biplane begin to 
come into its own4 ,this type1 which    
probably originated in ,england1 and at 
any rate attained to its greatest       
excellence prior to the ,war from the   
drawing offices of the ,avro ,bristol   

and ,sopwith firms1 dealt a blow at the 
monoplane from which the latter never   
recovered4  ,the two-seater tractor     
biplane produced by ,sopwith and piloted
 by ,h4 ,g4 ,hawker1 showed that it was 
possible to produce a biplane with at   
least equal speed to the best           
monoplanes1 whilst having the advantage 
of greater strength and lower landing   
speeds4 ,the ,sopwith machine had a top 
speed of over #hj miles an hour while   
landing as slowly as little more than   
#cj miles an hour2 and also proved that 
it was possible to carry #c passengers  
with fuel for #d hours' flight with a   
motive power of only #hj horse-power4   
,this increase in efficiency was due to 
careful attention to detail in every    
part1 improved wing sections1 clean     
fuselage-lines1 and simplified          
undercarriages4 ,at the same time1 in   
the early part of #aiac a tendency      
manifested itself towards the           
four-wheeled undercarriage1 a pair of   
smaller wheels being added in front of  

the main wheels to prevent overturning  
while running on the ground2 and several
 designs of oleo-pneumatic and          
steel-spring undercarriages were        
produced in place of the rubber         
shock-absorber type which had up till   
then been almost universal4  ,these two 
statements as to undercarriage designs  
may appear to be contradictory1 but in  
reality they do not conflict as they    
both showed a greater attention to the  
importance of good springing1 combined  
with a desire to avoid complication and 
a mass of struts and wires which        
increased head resistance4  ,the        
,olympia ,aero ,show of ,march1 #aiac1  
also produced a machine which1 although 
the type was not destined to prove the  
best for the purpose for which it was   
designed1 was of interest as being the  
first to be designed specially for war  
purposes4 ,this was the ,vickers        
#8,gun-bus1' a #8pusher' machine1 with  
the propeller revolving behind the main 
planes between the outriggers carrying  

the tail1 with a seat right in front for
 a gunner who was provided with a       
machine gun on a swivelling mount which 
had a free field of fire in every       
direction forward4 ,the device which    
proved the death-blow for this type of  
aircraft during the war will be dealt   
with in the appropriate place later1 but
 the machine should not go unrecorded4  
,as a result of a number of accidents to
 monoplanes the ,government appointed a 
,committee at the end of #aiab to       
inquire into the causes of these4 ,the  
report1 which was presented in ,march1  
#aiac1 exonerated the monoplane by      
coming to the conclusion that the       
accidents were not caused by conditions 
peculiar to monoplanes1 but pointed out 
certain desiderata in aeroplane design  
generally which are worth recording4    
,they recommended that the wings of     
aeroplanes should be so internally      
braced as to have sufficient strength in
 themselves not to collapse if the      
external bracing wires should give way4 

,the practice1 more common in monoplanes
 than biplanes1 of carrying important   
bracing wires from the wings to the     
undercarriage was condemned owing to the
 liability of damage from frequent      
landings4 ,they also pointed out the    
desirability of duplicating all main    
wires and their attachments1 and of     
using stranded cable for control wires4 
,owing to the suspicion that one        
accident at least had been caused       
through the tearing of the fabric away  
from the wing1 it was recommended that  
fabric should be more securely fastened 
to the ribs of the wings1 and that      
devices for preventing the spreading of 
tears should be considered4 ,in the last
 connection it is interesting to note   
that the ,french ,deperdussin firm      
produced a fabric wing-covering with    
extra strong threads run at right angles
 through the fabric at intervals in     
order to limit the tearing to a defined 
area4  ,in spite1 however1 of the       
whitewashing of the monoplane by the    

,government ,committee just mentioned1  
considerable stir was occasioned later  
in the year by the decision of the ,war 
,office not to order any more           
monoplanes2 and from this time forward  
until the ,war period the ,british ,army
 was provided exclusively with biplanes4
 ,even prior to this the popularity of  
the monoplane had begun to wane4 ,at the
 ,olympia ,aero ,show in ,march1 #aiac1 
biplanes for the first time outnumbered 
the #8single-deckers' 7as the ,germans  
call monoplanes72 which had the effect  
of reducing the wing-loading4 ,in the   
case of the biplanes exhibited this     
averaged about #d lbs4 per square foot1 
while in the case of the monoplanes in  
the same exhibition the lowest was #e   
lbs41 and the highest over #h lbs4 per  
square foot of area4 ,it may here be    
mentioned that it was not until the ,war
 period that the importance of loading  
per horse-power was recognised as the   
true criterion of aeroplane efficiency1 
far greater interest being displayed in 

the amount of weight borne per unit area
 of wing4  ,an idea of the state of     
development arrived at about this time  
may be gained from the fact that the    
,commandant of the ,military ,wing of   
the ,royal ,flying ,corps in a lecture  
before the ,royal ,aeronautical ,society
 read in ,february1 #aiac1 asked for    
single-seater scout aeroplanes with a   
speed of #ij miles an hour and a landing
 speed of #de miles an hour--a          
performance which even two years later  
would have been considered modest in the
 extreme4 ,it serves to show that1      
although higher performances were put up
 by individual machines on occasion1 the
 general development had not yet reached
 the stage when such performances could 
be obtained in machines suitable for    
military purposes4 ,so far as seaplanes 
were concerned1 up to the beginning of  
#aiac little attempt had been made to   
study the novel problems involved1 and  
the bulk of the machines at the ,monaco 
,meeting in ,april1 #aiac1 for instance1

 consisted of land machines fitted with 
floats1 in many cases of a most         
primitive nature1 without other         
alterations4 ,most of those which       
succeeded in leaving the water did so   
through sheer pull of engine power2     
while practically all were incapable of 
getting off except in a fair sea1 which 
enabled the pilot to jump the machine   
into the air across the trough between  
two waves4 ,stability problems had not  
yet been considered1 and in only one or 
two cases was fin area added at the rear
 high up1 to counterbalance the effect  
of the floats low down in front4 ,both  
twin and single-float machines were     
used1 while the flying boat was only    
just beginning to come into being from  
the workshops of ,sopwith in ,great     
,britain1 ,borel-,denhaut in ,france1   
and ,curtiss in ,america4 ,in view of   
the approaching importance of amphibious
 seaplanes1 mention should be made of   
the flying boat 7or #8bat boat' as it   
was called1 following ,rudyard ,kipling7

 which was built by ,sopwith in #aiac   
with a wheeled landing-carriage which   
could be wound up above the bottom      
surface of the boat so as to be out of  
the way when alighting on water4        
,during #aiac the 7at one time almost   
universal7 practice originated by the   
,wright ,brothers1 of warping the wings 
for lateral stability1 began to die out 
and the bulk of aeroplanes began to be  
fitted with flaps 7or #8ailerons'7      
instead4 ,this was a distinct change for
 the better1 as continually warping the 
wings by bending down the extremities of
 the rear spars was bound in time to    
produce #8fatigue' in that member and   
lead to breakage2 and the practice      
became completely obsolete during the   
next two or three years4  ,the          
,gordon-,bennett race of ,september1    
#aiac1 was again won by a ,deperdussin  
machine1 somewhat similar to that of the
 previous year1 but with exceedingly    
small wings1 only #ajg square feet in   
area4 ,the shape of these wings was     

instructive as showing how what1 from   
the general utility point of view1 may  
be disadvantageous can1 for a special   
purpose1 be turned to account4 ,with a  
span of #ba feet1 the chord was #e feet1
 giving the inefficient #8aspect ratio' 
of slightly over #d to #a only4 ,the    
object of this was to reduce the lift1  
and therefore the resistance1 to as low 
a point as possible4 ,the total weight  
was #a1ejj lbs41 giving a wing-loading  
of #ad lbs4 per square foot--a hitherto 
undreamt-of figure4 ,the result was that
 the machine took an enormously long run
 before starting2 and after touching the
 ground on landing ran for nearly a mile
 before stopping2 but she beat all      
records by attaining a speed of #abf    
miles per hour4 ,where this performance 
is mainly interesting is in contrast to 
the machines of #aibj1 which with an    
even higher speed capacity would yet be 
able to land at not more than #dj or #ej
 miles per hour1 and would be thoroughly
 efficient flying machines4             

,illustration3 ,r4,a4,f4 ,aeroplane4    
,the ,rheims ,aviation ,meeting1 at     
which the ,gordon-,bennett race was     
flown1 also saw the first appearance of 
the ,morane #8,parasol' monoplane4 ,the 
,morane monoplane had been for some time
 an interesting machine as being the    
only type which had no fixed surface in 
rear to give automatic stability1 the   
movable elevator being balanced through 
being hinged about one-third of the way 
back from the front edge4 ,this made the
 machine difficult to fly except in the 
hands of experts1 but it was very quick 
and handy on the controls and therefore 
useful for racing purposes4 ,in the     
#8,parasol' the modification was        
introduced of raising the wing above the
 body1 the pilot looking out beneath it1
 in order to give as good a view as     
possible4  ,before passing to the year  
#aiad mention should be made of the feat
 performed by ,nesteroff1 a ,russian1   
and ,pgoud1 a ,french pilot1 who were   
the first to demonstrate the            

possibilities of flying upside-down and 
looping the loop4 ,though perhaps not   
coming strictly within the purview of a 
chapter on design 7though certain       
alterations were made to the top        
wing-bracing of the machine for this    
purpose7 this performance was of extreme
 importance to the development of       
aviation by showing the possibility of  
recovering1 given reasonable height1    
from any position in the air2 which led 
designers to consider the extra stresses
 to which an aeroplane might be         
subjected and to take steps to provide  
for them by increasing strength where   
necessary4  ,when the year #aiad opened 
a speed of #abf miles per hour had been 
attained and a height of #ai1fjj feet   
had been reached4 ,the ,sopwith and     
,avro 7the forerunner of the famous     
training machine of the ,war period7    
were probably the two leading tractor   
biplanes of the world1 both two-seaters 
with a speed variation from #dj miles   
per hour up to some #ij miles per hour  

with #hj horse-power engines4 ,the      
,french were still pinning their faith  
mainly to monoplanes1 while the ,germans
 were beginning to come into prominence 
with both monoplanes and biplanes of the
 #8,taube' type4 ,these had wings swept 
backward and also upturned at the       
wing-tips which1 though it gave a       
certain measure of automatic stability1 
rendered the machine somewhat clumsy in 
the air1 and their performances were not
 on the whole as high as those of either
 ,france or ,great ,britain4  ,early in 
#aiad it became known that the          
experimental work of ,edward ,busk--who 
was so lamentably killed during an      
experimental flight later in the        
year--following upon the researches of  
,bairstow and others had resulted in the
 production at the ,royal ,aircraft     
,factory at ,farnborough of a truly     
automatically stable aeroplane4 ,this   
was the #8,r4,e4' 7,reconnaissance      
,experimental71 a development of the    
,b4,e4 which has already been referred  

to4 ,the remarkable feature of this     
design was that there was no particular 
device to which one could point out as  
the cause of the stability4 ,the stable 
result was attained simply by detailed  
design of each part of the aeroplane1   
with due regard to its relation to1 and 
effect on1 other parts in the air4      
,weights and areas were so nicely       
arranged that under practically any     
conditions the machine tended to right  
itself4 ,it did not1 therefore1 claim to
 be a machine which it was impossible to
 upset1 but one which if left to itself 
would tend to right itself from whatever
 direction a gust might come4 ,when the 
principles were extended to the #8,b4,e4
 #b;c' type 7largely used at the        
outbreak of the ,war7 the latter        
machine1 if the engine were switched off
 at a height of not less than #a1jjj    
feet above the ground1 would after a few
 moments assume its correct gliding     
angle and glide down to the ground4     
,the ,paris ,aero ,salon of ,december1  

#aiac1 had been remarkable chiefly for  
the large number of machines of which   
the chassis and bodywork had been       
constructed of steel-tubing2 for the    
excess of monoplanes over biplanes2 and 
7in the latter7 predominance of         
#8pusher' machines 7with propeller in   
rear of the main planes7 compared with  
the growing ,british preference for     
#8tractors' 7with air-screw in front74  
,incidentally1 the ,maurice ,farman1 the
 last relic of the old type box-kite    
with elevator in front appeared shorn of
 this prefix1 and became known as the   
#8short-horn' in contradistinction to   
its front-elevatored predecessor which1 
owing to its general reliability and    
easy flying capabilities1 had long been 
affectionately called the #8mechanical  
cow4' ,the #aiac ,salon also saw some   
lingering attempts at attaining         
automatic stability by pendulum and     
other freak devices4  ,apart from the   
appearance of #8,r4,e4#a1' perhaps the  
most notable development towards the end

 of #aiac was the appearance of the     
,sopwith #8,tabloid' tractor biplane4   
,this single-seater machine1 evolved    
from the two-seater previously referred 
to1 fitted with a ,gnome engine of #hj  
horse-power1 had the1 for those days1   
remarkable speed of #ib miles an hour2  
while a still more notable feature was  
that it could remain in level flight at 
not more than #cg miles per hour4 ,this 
machine is of particular importance     
because it was the prototype and        
forerunner of the successive designs of 
single-seater scout fighting machines   
which were used so extensively from     
#aiad to #aiah4 ,it was also probably   
the first machine to be capable of      
reaching a height of #a1jjj feet within 
one minute4 ,it was closely followed by 
the #8,bristol ,bullet1' which was      
exhibited at the ,olympia ,aero ,show of
 ,march1 #aiad4 ,this last pre-war show 
was mainly remarkable for the good      
workmanship displayed--rather than for  
any distinct advance in design4 ,in     

fact1 there was a notable diversity in  
the types displayed1 but in detailed    
design considerable improvements were to
 be seen1 such as the general adoption  
of stranded steel cable in place of     
piano wire for the main bracing4        
,,iv  ,,the ,,war ,,period   ,up to this
 point an attempt has been made to give 
some idea of the progress that was made 
during the eleven years that had elapsed
 since the days of the ,wrights' first  
flights4 ,much advance had been made and
 aeroplanes had settled down1           
superficially at any rate1 into more or 
less standardised forms in three main   
types--tractor monoplanes1 tractor      
biplanes1 and pusher biplanes4 ,through 
the application of the results of       
experiments with models in wind tunnels 
to full-scale machines1 considerable    
improvements had been made in the design
 of wing sections1 which had greatly    
increased the efficiency of aeroplanes  
by raising the amount of #8lift'        
obtained from the wing compared with the

 #8drag' 7or resistance to forward      
motion7 which the same wing would cause4
 ,in the same way the shape of bodies1  
interplane struts1 etc41 had been       
improved to be of better stream-line    
shape1 for the further reduction of     
resistance2 while the problems of       
stability were beginning to be tolerably
 well understood4 ,records 7for what    
they are worth7 stood at #ba1jjj feet as
 far as height was concerned1 #abf miles
 per hour for speed1 and #bd hours      
duration4 ,that there was considerable  
room for development is1 however1       
evidenced by a statement made by the    
late ,b4 ,c4 ,hucks 7the famous pilot7  
in the course of an address delivered   
before the ,royal ,aeronautical ,society
 in ,july1 #aiad4 #8,i consider1' he    
said1 #8that the present day standard of
 flying is due far more to the          
improvement in piloting than to the     
improvement in machines4444 ,i consider 
those 7early #aiad7 machines are only   
slight improvements on the machines of  

three years ago1 and yet they are put   
through evolutions which1 at that time1 
were not even dreamed of4 ,i can take a 
good example of the way improvement in  
piloting has outdistanced improvement in
 machines--in the case of myself1 my    
#8looping' ,blriot4 ,most of you know   
that there is very little difference    
between that machine and the #ej        
horse-power ,blriot of three years ago4'
 ,this statement was1 of course1 to some
 extent an exaggeration and was by no   
means agreed with by designers1 but     
there was at the same time a germ of    
truth in it4 ,there is at any rate      
little doubt that the theory and        
practice of aeroplane design made far   
greater strides towards becoming an     
exact science during the four years of  
,war than it had done during the six or 
seven years preceding it4  ,it is       
impossible in the space at disposal to  
treat of this development even with the 
meagre amount of detail that has been   
possible while covering the #8settling  

down' period from #aiaa to #aiad1 and it
 is proposed1 therefore1 to indicate the
 improvements by sketching briefly the  
more noticeable difference in various   
respects between the average machine of 
#aiad and a similar machine of #aiah4   
,in the first place1 it was soon found  
that it was possible to obtain greater  
efficiency and1 in particular1 higher   
speeds1 from tractor machines than from 
pusher machines with the air-screw      
behind the main planes4 ,this was for a 
variety of reasons connected with the   
efficiency of propellers and the        
possibility of reducing resistance to a 
greater extent in tractor machines by   
using a #8stream-line' fuselage 7or     
body7 to connect the main planes with   
the tail4 ,full advantage of this could 
not be taken1 however1 owing to the     
difficulty of fixing a machine-gun in a 
forward direction owing to the presence 
of the propeller4 ,this was finally     
overcome by an ingenious device 7known  
as an #8,interrupter gear'7 which       

allowed the gun to fire only when none  
of the propeller blades was passing in  
front of the muzzle4 ,the monoplane     
gradually fell into desuetude1 mainly   
owing to the difficulty of making that  
type adequately strong without it       
becoming prohibitively heavy1 and also  
because of its high landing speed and   
general lack of manuvrability4 ,the     
triplane was also little used except in 
one or two instances1 and1 practically  
speaking1 every machine was of the      
biplane tractor type4  ,a careful       
consideration of the salient features   
leading to maximum efficiency in        
aeroplanes--particularly in regard to   
speed and climb1 which were the two most
 important military requirements--showed
 that a vital feature was the reduction 
in the amount of weight lifted per      
horse-power employed2 which in #aiad    
averaged from #bj to #be lbs4 ,this was 
effected both by gradual increase in the
 power and size of the engines used and 
by great improvement in their detailed  

design 7by increasing compression ratio 
and saving weight whenever possible72   
with the result that the motive power of
 single-seater aeroplanes rose from #hj 
and #ajj horse-power in #aiad to an     
average of #bjj to #cjj horse-power1    
while the actual weight of the engine   
fell from #c-d lbs4 per horse-power to  
an average of #b lbs4 per horse-power4  
,this meant that while a pre-war engine 
of #ajj horse-power would weigh some    
#djj lbs41 the #aiah engine developing  
three times the power would have less   
than double the weight4 ,the result of  
this improvement was that a scout       
aeroplane at the time of the ,armistice 
would have #a horse-power for every #h  
lbs4 of weight lifted1 compared with the
 #bj or #be lbs4 of its #aiad           
predecessors4 ,this produced a          
considerable increase in the rate of    
climb1 a good postwar machine being able
 to reach #aj1jjj feet in about #e      
minutes and #bj1jjj feet in under half  
an hour4 ,the loading per square foot   

was also considerably increased2 this   
being rendered possible both by         
improvement in the design of wing       
sections and by more scientific         
construction giving increased strength4 
,it will be remembered that in the      
machine of the very early period each   
square foot of surface had only to lift 
a weight of some #a to #b lbs41 which by
 #aiad had been increased to about #d   
lbs4 ,by #aiah aeroplanes habitually had
 a loading of #h lbs4 or more per square
 foot of area2 which resulted in great  
increase in speed4 ,although a speed of 
#abf miles per hour had been attained by
 a specially designed racing machine    
over a short distance in #aiad1 the     
average at that period little exceeded1 
if at all1 #ajj miles per hour2 whereas 
in #aiah speeds of #acj miles per hour  
had become a commonplace1 and shortly   
afterwards a speed of over #aff miles an
 hour was achieved4  ,in another        
direction1 also1 that of size1 great    
developments were made4 ,before the ,war

 a few machines fitted with more than   
one engine had been built 7the first    
being a triple ,gnome-engined biplane   
built by ,messrs ,short ,bros4 at       
,eastchurch in #aiac71 but none of large
 size had been successfully produced1   
the total weight probably in no case    
exceeding about #b tons4 ,in #aiaf1     
however1 the twin engine ,handley-,page 
biplane was produced1 to be followed by 
others both in this country and abroad1 
which represented a very great increase 
in size and1 consequently1 load-carrying
 capacity4 ,by the end of the ,war      
period several types were in existence  
weighing a total of #aj tons when fully 
loaded1 of which some #d tons or more   
represented #8useful load' available for
 crew1 fuel1 and bombs or passengers4   
,this was attained through very careful 
attention to detailed design1 which     
showed that the material could be       
employed more efficiently as size       
increased1 and was also due to the fact 
that a large machine was not liable to  

be put through the same evolutions as a 
small machine1 and therefore could      
safely be built with a lower factor of  
safety4 ,owing to the fact that a wing  
section which is adopted for carrying   
heavy loads usually has also a somewhat 
low lift to drag ratio1 and is not      
therefore productive of high speed1     
these machines are not as fast as light 
scouts2 but1 nevertheless1 they proved  
themselves capable of achieving speeds  
of #ajj miles an hour or more in some   
cases2 which was faster than the average
 small machine of #aiad4  ,illustration3
 ,bristol ,fighters in formation4  ,in  
one respect the development during the  
,war may perhaps have proved to be      
somewhat disappointing1 as it might have
 been expected that great improvements  
would be effected in metal construction1
 leading almost to the abolition of     
wooden structures4 ,although1 however1 a
 good deal of experimental work was done
 which resulted in overcoming at any    
rate the worst of the difficulties1     

metal-built machines were little used   
7except to a certain extent in ,germany7
 chiefly on account of the need for     
rapid production and the danger of delay
 resulting from switching over from     
known and tried methods to experimental 
types of construction4 ,the ,germans    
constructed some large machines1 such as
 the giant ,siemens-,schukhert machine1 
entirely of metal except for the wing   
covering1 while the ,fokker and ,jnker  
firms about the time of the ,armistice  
in #aiah both produced monoplanes with  
very deep all-metal wings 7including the
 covering7 which were entirely unstayed 
externally1 depending for their strength
 on internal bracing4 ,in ,great        
,britain cable bracing gave place to a  
great extent to #8stream-line wires1'   
which are steel rods rolled to a more or
 less oval section1 while tie-rods were 
also extensively used for the internal  
bracing of the wings4 ,great            
developments in the economical use of   
material were also made in the direction

 of using built-up main spars for the   
wings and inter-plane struts2 spars     
composed of a series of layers 7or      
#8laminations'7 of different pieces of  
wood also being used4  ,apart from the  
metallic construction of aeroplanes an  
enormous amount of work was done in the 
testing of different steels and light   
alloys for use in engines1 and by the   
end of the ,war period a number of      
aircraft engines were in use of which   
the pistons and other parts were of such
 alloys2 the chief difficulty having    
been not so much in the design as in the
 successful heat-treatment and casting  
of the metal4  ,an important development
 in connection with the inspection and  
testing of aircraft parts1 particularly 
in the case of metal1 was the           
experimental application of ,x-ray      
photography1 which showed up latent     
defects1 both in the material and in    
manufacture1 which would otherwise have 
passed unnoticed4 ,this method was also 
used to test the penetration of glue    

into the wood on each side of joints1 so
 giving a measure of the strength2 and  
for the effect of #8doping' the wings1  
dope being a film 7of cellulose acetate 
dissolved in acetone with other         
chemicals7 applied to the covering of   
wings and bodies to render the linen    
taut and weatherproof1 besides giving it
 a smooth surface for the lessening of  
#8skin friction' when passing rapidly   
through the air4  ,an important result  
of this experimental work was that it in
 many cases enabled designers to produce
 aeroplane parts from less costly       
material than had previously been       
considered necessary1 without impairing 
the strength4 ,it may be mentioned that 
it was found undesirable to use welded  
joints on aircraft in any part where the
 material is subject to a tensile or    
bending load1 owing to the danger       
resulting from bad workmanship causing  
the material to become brittle--an      
effect which cannot be discovered except
 by cutting through the weld1 which1 of 

course1 involves a test to destruction4 
,written1 as it has been1 in ,august1   
#aibj1 it is impossible in this chapter 
to give any conception of how the       
developments of ,war will be applied to 
commercial aeroplanes1 as few truly     
commercial machines have yet been       
designed1 and even those still show     
distinct traces of the survival of war  
mentality4 ,when1 however1 the          
inevitable recasting of ideas arrives1  
it will become evident1 whatever the    
apparent modification in the relative   
importance of different aspects of      
design1 that enormous advances were made
 under the impetus of ,war which have   
left an indelible mark on progress4  ,we
 have1 during the seventeen years since 
aeroplanes first took the air1 seen them
 grow from tentative experimental       
structures of unknown and unknowable    
performance to highly scientific        
products1 of which not only the         
performances 7in speed1 load-carrying   
capacity1 and climb7 are known1 but of  

which the precise strength and degree of
 stability can be forecast with some    
accuracy on the drawing board4 ,for the 
rest1 with the future lies--apart from  
some revolutionary change in fundamental
 design--the steady development of a now
 well-tried and well-found engineering  
structure4     ,,part ,,iii             
,,aerostatics     ,i  ,,beginnings      
,francesco ,lana1 with his #8aerial     
ship' stands as one of the first great  
exponents of aerostatics2 up to the time
 of the ,mongolfier and ,charles balloon
 experiments1 aerostatic and aerodynamic
 research are so inextricably           
intermingled that it has been thought   
well to treat of them as one1 and thus  
the work of ,lana1 ,veranzio and his    
parachute1 ,guzman's frauds1 and the    
like1 have already been sketched4 ,in   
connection with ,guzman1 ,hildebrandt   
states in his ,airships ,past and       
,present1 a fairly exhaustive treatise  
on the subject up to #aijf1 the year of 
its publication1 that there were two    

inventors--or charlatans--,lorenzo de   
,guzman and a monk ,bartolemeo          
,laurenzo1 the former of whom           
constructed an unsuccessful airship out 
of a wooden basket covered with paper1  
while the latter made certain           
experiments with a machine of which no  
description remains4 ,a third de        
,guzman1 some twenty-five years later1  
announced that he had constructed a     
flying machine1 with which he proposed  
to fly from a tower to prove his success
 to the public4 ,the lack of record of  
any fatal accident overtaking him about 
that time seems to show that the        
experiment was not carried out4         
,galien1 a ,french monk1 published a    
book ,l'art de naviguer dans l'air in   
#ageg1 in which it was conjectured that 
the air at high levels was lighter than 
that immediately over the surface of the
 earth4 ,galien proposed to bring down  
the upper layers of air and with them   
fill a vessel1 which by ,archimidean    
principle would rise through the heavier

 atmosphere4 ,if one went high enough1  
said ,galien1 the air would be two      
thousand times as light as water1 and it
 would be possible to construct an      
airship1 with this light air as lifting 
factor1 which should be as large as the 
town of ,avignon1 and carry four million
 passengers with their baggage4 ,how    
this high air was to be obtained is     
matter for conjecture--,galien seems to 
have thought in a vicious circle1 in    
which the vessel that must rise to      
obtain the light air must first be      
filled with it in order to rise4        
,cavendish's discovery of hydrogen in   
#aggf set men thinking1 and soon a      
certain ,doctor ,black was suggesting   
that vessels might be filled with       
hydrogen1 in order that they might rise 
in the air4 ,black1 however1 did not get
 beyond suggestion2 it was ,leo ,cavallo
 who first made experiments with        
hydrogen1 beginning with filling soap   
bubbles1 and passing on to bladders and 
special paper bags4 ,in these latter the

 gas escaped1 and ,cavallo was about to 
try goldbeaters' skin at the time that  
the ,mongolfiers came into the field    
with their hot air balloon4  ,joseph and
 ,stephen ,mongolfier1 sons of a wealthy
 ,french paper manufacturer1 carried out
 many experiments in physics1 and       
,joseph interested himself in the study 
of aeronautics some time before the     
first balloon was constructed by the    
brothers--he is said to have made a     
parachute descent from the roof of his  
house as early as #agga1 but of this    
there is no proof4 ,galien's idea1      
together with study of the movement of  
clouds1 gave ,joseph some hope of       
achieving aerostation through ,galien's 
schemes1 and the first experiments were 
made by passing steam into a receiver1  
which1 of course1 tended to rise--but   
the rapid condensation of the steam     
prevented the receiver from more than   
threatening ascent4 ,the experiments    
were continued with smoke1 which        
produced only a slightly better effect1 

and1 moreover1 the paper bag into which 
the smoke was induced permitted of      
escape through its pores2 finding this  
method a failure the brothers desisted  
until ,priestley's work became known to 
them1 and they conceived the use of     
hydrogen as a lifting factor4 ,trying   
this with paper bags1 they found that   
the hydrogen escaped through the pores  
of the paper4  ,their first balloon1    
made of paper1 reverted to the hot-air  
principle2 they lighted a fire of wool  
and wet straw under the balloon--and as 
a matter of course the balloon took fire
 after very little experiment2 thereupon
 they constructed a second1 having a    
capacity of #gjj cubic feet1 and this   
rose to a height of over #a1jjj feet4   
,such a success gave them confidence1   
and they gave their first public        
exhibition on ,june #eth1 #aghc1 with a 
balloon constructed of paper and of a   
circumference of #aab feet4 ,a fire was 
lighted under this balloon1 which1 after
 rising to a height of #a1jjj feet1     

descended through the cooling of the air
 inside a matter of ten minutes4 ,at    
this the ,acadmie des ,sciences invited 
the brothers to conduct experiments in  
,paris4  ,the ,mongolfiers were         
undoubtedly first to send up balloons1  
but other experimenters were not far    
behind them1 and before they could get  
to ,paris in response to their          
invitation1 ,charles1 a prominent       
physicist of those days1 had constructed
 a balloon of silk1 which he proofed    
against escape of gas with rubber--the  
,roberts had just succeeded in          
dissolving this substance to permit of  
making a suitable coating for the silk4 
,with a quarter of a ton of sulphuric   
acid1 and half a ton of iron filings and
 turnings1 sufficient hydrogen was      
generated in four days to fill          
,charles's balloon1 which went up on    
,august #bith1 #aghc4 ,although the day 
was wet1 ,paris turned out to the number
 of over #cjj1jjj in the ,champs de     
,mars1 and cannon were fired to announce

 the ascent of the balloon4 ,this1      
rising very rapidly1 disappeared amid   
the rain clouds1 but1 probably bursting 
through no outlet being provided to     
compensate for the escape of gas1 fell  
soon in the neighbourhood of ,paris4    
,here peasants1 ascribing evil          
supernatural influence to the fall of   
such a thing from nowhere1 went at it   
with the implements of their            
craft--forks1 hoes1 and the like--and   
maltreated it severely1 finally         
attaching it to a horse's tail and      
dragging it about until it was mere rag 
and scrap4  ,meanwhile1 ,joseph         
,mongolfier1 having come to ,paris1 set 
about the construction of a balloon out 
of linen2 this was in three diverse     
sections1 the top being a cone #cj feet 
in depth1 the middle a cylinder #db feet
 in diameter by #bf feet in depth1 and  
the bottom another cone #bj feet in     
depth from junction with the cylindrical
 portion to its point4 ,the balloon was 
both lined and covered with paper1      

decorated in blue and gold4 ,before ever
 an ascent could be attempted this      
ambitious balloon was caught in a heavy 
rainstorm which reduced its paper       
covering to pulp and tore the linen at  
its seams1 so that a supervening strong 
wind tore the whole thing to shreds4    
,mongolfier's next balloon was          
spherical1 having a capacity of #eb1jjj 
cubic feet4 ,it was made from           
water-proofed linen1 and on ,september  
#aith1 #aghc1 it made an ascent for the 
palace courtyard at ,versailles1 taking 
up as passengers a cock1 a sheep1 and a 
duck4 ,a rent at the top of the balloon 
caused it to descend within eight       
minutes1 and the duck and sheep were    
found none the worse for being the first
 living things to leave the earth in a  
balloon1 but the cock1 evidently        
suffering1 was thought to have been     
affected by the rarefaction of the      
atmosphere at the tremendous height     
reached--for at that time the general   
opinion was that the atmosphere did not 

extend more than four or five miles     
above the earth's surface4 ,it          
transpired later that the sheep had     
trampled on the cock1 causing more solid
 injury than any that might be inflicted
 by rarefied air in an eight-minute     
ascent and descent of a balloon4  ,for  
achieving this flight ,joseph           
,mongolfier received from the ,king of  
,france a pension of #dj1 while ,stephen
 was given the ,order of ,st ,michael1  
and a patent of nobility was granted to 
their father4 ,they were made members of
 the ,legion d',honneur1 and a          
scientific deputation1 of which ,faujas 
de ,saint-,fond1 who had raised the     
funds with which ,charles's hydrogen    
balloon was constructed1 presented to   
,stephen ,mongolfier a gold medal struck
 in honour of his aerial conquest4      
,since ,joseph appears to have had quite
 as much share in the success as        
,stephen1 the presentation of the medal 
to one brother only was in questionable 
taste1 unless it was intended to balance

 ,joseph's pension4  ,once aerostation  
had been proved possible1 many people   
began the construction of small         
balloons--the whole thing was regarded  
as a matter of spectacles and as a form 
of amusement by the great majority4 ,a  
certain ,baron de ,beaumanoir made the  
first balloon of goldbeaters' skin1 this
 being eighteen inches in diameter1 and 
using hydrogen as a lifting factor4 ,few
 people saw any possibilities in        
aerostation1 in spite of the adventures 
of the duck and sheep and cock2 voyages 
to the moon were talked and written1 and
 there was more of levity than          
seriousness over ballooning as a rule4  
,the classic retort of ,benjamin        
,franklin stands as an exception to the 
general rule3 asked what was the use of 
ballooning--#8,what's the use of a      
baby8' he countered1 and the spirit of  
that reply brought both the dirigible   
and the aeroplane to being1 later4  ,the
 next noteworthy balloon was one by     
,stephen ,mongolfier1 designed to take  

up passengers1 and therefore of rather  
large dimensions1 as these things went  
then4 ,the capacity was #ajj1jjj cubic  
feet1 the depth being #he feet1 and the 
exterior was very gaily decorated4 ,a   
short1 cylindrical opening was made at  
the lower extremity1 and under this a   
fire-pan was suspended1 above the       
passenger car of the balloon4 ,on       
,october #aeth1 #aghc1 ,pilatre de      
,rozier made the first balloon          
ascent--but the balloon was held        
captive1 and only allowed to rise to a  
height of #hj feet4 ,but1 a little later
 in #aghc1 ,rozier secured the honour of
 making the first ascent in a free      
balloon1 taking up with him the ,marquis
 d',arlandes4 ,it had been originally   
intended that two criminals1 condemned  
to death1 should risk their lives in the
 perilous venture1 with the prospect of 
a free pardon if they made a safe       
descent1 but d',arlandes got the royal  
consent to accompany ,rozier1 and the   
criminals lost their chance4 ,rozier and

 d',arlandes made a voyage lasting for  
twenty-five minutes1 and1 on landing1   
the balloon collapsed with such rapidity
 as almost to suffocate ,rozier1 who1   
however1 was dragged out to safety by   
d',arlandes4 ,this first aerostatic     
journey took place on ,november #bast1  
#aghc4  ,some seven months later1 on    
,june #dth1 #aghd1 a ,madame ,thible    
ascended in a free balloon1 reaching a  
height of #i1jjj feet1 and making a     
journey which lasted for forty-five     
minutes--the great ,king ,gustavus of   
,sweden witnessed this ascent4 ,france  
grew used to balloon ascents in the     
course of a few months1 in spite of the 
brewing of such a storm as might have   
been calculated to wipe out all but     
purely political interests4 ,meanwhile1 
interest in the new discovery spread    
across the ,channel1 and on ,september  
#aeth1 #aghd1 one ,vincent ,lunardi made
 the first balloon voyage in ,england1  
starting from the ,artillery ,ground at 
,chelsea1 with a cat and dog as         

passengers1 and landing in a field in   
the parish of ,standon1 near ,ware4     
,there is a rather rare book which gives
 a very detailed account of this first  
ascent in ,england1 one copy of which is
 in the library of the ,royal           
,aeronautical ,society2 the venturesome 
,lunardi won a greater measure of fame  
through his exploit than did ,cody for  
his infinitely more courageous and--from
 a scientific point of view--valuable   
first aeroplane ascent in this country4 
,the ,mongolfier type of balloon1       
depending on hot air for its lifting    
power1 was soon realised as having      
dangerous limitations4 ,there was always
 a possibility of the balloon catching  
fire while it was being filled1 and on  
landing there was further danger from   
the hot pan which kept up the supply of 
hot air on the voyage--the collapsing   
balloon fell on the pan1 inevitably4    
,the scientist ,saussure1 observing the 
filling of the balloons very carefully1 
ascertained that it was rarefaction of  

the air which was responsible for the   
lifting power1 and not the heat in      
itself1 and1 owing to the rarefaction of
 the air at normal temperature at great 
heights above the earth1 the limit of   
ascent for a balloon of the ,mongolfier 
type was estimated by him at under      
#i1jjj feet4 ,moreover1 since the amount
 of fuel that could be carried for      
maintaining the heat of the balloon     
after inflation was subject to definite 
limits1 prescribed by the carrying      
capacity of the balloon1 the duration of
 the journey was necessarily limited    
just as strictly4  ,these considerations
 tended to turn the minds of those      
interested in aerostation to            
consideration of the hydrogen balloon   
evolved by ,professor ,charles4 ,certain
 improvements had been made by ,charles 
since his first construction2 he        
employed rubber-coated silk in the      
construction of a balloon of #cj feet   
diameter1 and provided a net for        
distributing the pressure uniformly over

 the surface of the envelope2 this net  
covered the top half of the balloon1 and
 from its lower edge dependent ropes    
hung to join on a wooden ring1 from     
which the car of the balloon was        
suspended--apart from the extension of  
the net so as to cover in the whole of  
the envelope1 the spherical balloon of  
to-day is virtually identical with that 
of ,charles in its method of            
construction4 ,he introduced the valve  
at the top of the balloon1 by which     
escape of gas could be controlled1      
operating his valve by means of ropes   
which depended to the car of the        
balloon1 and he also inserted a tube1 of
 about #g inches diameter1 at the bottom
 of the balloon1 not only for purposes  
of inflation1 but also to provide a     
means of escape for gas in case of      
expansion due to atmospheric conditions4
  ,sulphuric acid and iron filings were 
used by ,charles for filling his        
balloon1 which required three days and  
three nights for the generation of its  

#ad1jjj cubic feet of hydrogen gas4 ,the
 inflation was completed on ,december   
#ast1 #aghc1 and the fittings carried   
included a barometer and a grapnel form 
of anchor4 ,in addition to this1        
,charles provided the first #8ballon    
sond' in the form of a small pilot      
balloon which he handed to ,mongolfier  
to launch before his own ascent1 in     
order to determine the direction and    
velocity of the wind4 ,it was a graceful
 compliment to his rival1 and indicated 
that1 although they were both working to
 the one end1 their rivalry was not a   
matter of bitterness4  ,ascending on    
,december #ast1 #aghc1 ,charles took    
with him one of the brothers ,robert1   
and with him made the record journey up 
to that date1 covering a period of three
 and three-quarter hours1 in which time 
they journeyed some forty miles4 ,robert
 then landed1 and ,charles ascended     
again alone1 reaching such a height as  
to feel the effects of the rarefaction  
of the air1 this very largely due to the

 rapidity of his ascent4 ,opening the   
valve at the top of the balloon1 he     
descended thirty-five minutes after     
leaving ,robert behind1 and came to     
earth a few miles from the point of the 
first descent4 ,his discomfort over the 
rapid ascent was mainly due to the fact 
that1 when ,robert landed1 he forgot to 
compensate for the reduction of weight  
by taking in further ballast1 but the   
ascent proved the value of the tube at  
the bottom of the balloon envelope1 for 
the gas escaped very rapidly in that    
second ascent1 and1 but for the tube1   
the balloon must inevitably have burst  
in the air1 with fatal results for      
,charles4  ,as in the case of aeroplane 
flight1 as soon as the balloon was      
proved practicable the flight across the
 ,english ,channel was talked of1 and   
,rozier1 who had the honour of the first
 flight1 announced his intention of     
being first to cross4 ,but ,blanchard1  
who had an idea for a #8flying car1'    
anticipated him1 and made a start from  

,dover on ,january #gth1 #aghe1 taking  
with him an ,american doctor named      
,jeffries4 ,blanchard fitted out his    
craft for the journey very thoroughly1  
taking provisions1 oars1 and even wings1
 for propulsion in case of need4 ,he    
took so much1 in fact1 that as soon as  
the balloon lifted clear of the ground  
the whole of the ballast had to be      
jettisoned1 lest the balloon should drop
 into the sea4 ,half-way across the     
,channel the sinking of the balloon     
warned ,blanchard that he had to part   
with more than ballast to accomplish the
 journey1 and all the equipment went1   
together with certain books and papers  
that were on board the car4 ,the balloon
 looked perilously like collapsing1 and 
both ,blanchard and ,jeffries began to  
undress in order further to lighten     
their craft--,jeffries even proposed a  
heroic dive to save the situation1 but  
suddenly the balloon rose sufficiently  
to clear the ,french coast1 and the two 
voyagers landed at a point near ,calais 

in the ,forest of ,guines1 where a      
marble column was subsequently erected  
to commemorate the great feat4  ,rozier1
 although not first across1 determined  
to be second1 and for that purpose he   
constructed a balloon which was to owe  
its buoyancy to a combination of the    
hydrogen and hot air principles4 ,there 
was a spherical hydrogen balloon above1 
and beneath it a cylindrical container  
which could be filled with hot air1 thus
 compensating for the leakage of gas    
from the hydrogen portion of the        
balloon--regulating the heat of his     
fire1 he thought1 would give him perfect
 control in the matter of ascending and 
descending4  ,on ,july #afth1 #aghe1 a  
favourable breeze gave ,rozier his      
opportunity of starting from the ,french
 coast1 and with a passenger aboard he  
cast off in his balloon1 which he had   
named the #8,aero-,mongolfiere4' ,there 
was a rapid rise at first1 and then for 
a time the balloon remained stationary  
over the land1 after which a cloud      

suddenly appeared round the balloon1    
denoting that an explosion had taken    
place4 ,both ,rozier and his companion  
were killed in the fall1 so that he1    
first to leave the earth by balloon1 was
 also first victim to the art of        
aerostation4  ,there followed1          
naturally1 a lull in the enthusiasm with
 which ballooning had been taken up1 so 
far as ,france was concerned4 ,in       
,italy1 however1 ,count ,zambeccari took
 up hot-air ballooning1 using a spirit  
lamp to give him buoyancy1 and on the   
first occasion when the balloon car was 
set on fire ,zambeccari let down his    
passenger by means of the anchor rope1  
and managed to extinguish the fire while
 in the air4 ,this reduced the buoyancy 
of the balloon to such an extent that it
 fell into the ,adriatic and was totally
 wrecked1 ,zambeccari being rescued by  
fishermen4 ,he continued to experiment  
up to #ahab1 when he attempted to ascend
 at ,bologna2 the spirit in his lamp was
 upset by the collision of the car with 

a tree1 and the car was again set on    
fire4 ,zambeccari jumped from the car   
when it was over fifty feet above level 
ground1 and was killed4 ,with him the   
,rozier type of balloon1 combining the  
hydrogen and hot air principles1        
disappeared2 the combination was        
obviously too dangerous to be practical4
  ,the brothers ,robert were first to   
note how the heat of the sun acted on   
the gases within a balloon envelope1 and
 it has since been ascertained that sun 
rays will heat the gas in a balloon to  
as much as #hj degrees ,fahrenheit      
greater temperature than the surrounding
 atmosphere2 hydrogen1 being less       
affected by change of temperature than  
coal gas1 is the most suitable filling  
element1 and coal gas comes next as the 
medium of buoyancy4 ,this for the free  
and non-navigable balloon1 though for   
the airship1 carrying means of          
combustion1 and in military work liable 
to ignition by explosives1 the gas      
helium seems likely to replace hydrogen1

 being non-combustible4  ,in spite of   
the development of the dirigible        
airship1 there remains work for the     
free1 spherical type of balloon in the  
scientific field4 ,blanchard's companion
 on the first ,channel crossing by      
balloon1 ,dr ,jeffries1 was the first   
balloonist to ascend for purely         
scientific purposes2 as early as #aghd  
he made an ascent to a height of #i1jjj 
feet1 and observed a fall in temperature
 of from #ea degrees--at the level of   
,london1 where he began his ascent--to  
#bi degrees at the maximum height       
reached4 ,he took up an electrometer1 a 
hydrometer1 a compass1 a thermometer1   
and a ,toricelli barometer1 together    
with bottles of water1 in order to      
collect samples of the air at different 
heights4 ,in #aghe he made a second     
ascent1 when trigonometrical            
observations of the height of the       
balloon were made from the ,french      
coast1 giving an altitude of #d1hjj     
feet4  ,the matter was taken up on its  

scientific side very early in ,america1 
experiments in ,philadelphia being      
almost simultaneous with those of the   
,mongolfiers in ,france4 ,the flight of 
,rozier and d',arlandes inspired two    
members of the ,philadelphia            
,philosophical ,academy to construct a  
balloon or series of balloons of their  
own design2 they made a machine which   
consisted of no less than #dg small     
hydrogen balloons attached to a wicker  
car1 and made certain preliminary       
trials1 using animals as passengers4    
,this was followed by a captive ascent  
with a man as passenger1 and eventually 
by the first free ascent in ,america1   
which was undertaken by one ,james      
,wilcox1 a carpenter1 on ,december #bhth
 #aghc4 ,wilcox1 fearful of falling into
 a river1 attempted to regulate his     
landing by cutting slits in some of the 
supporting balloons1 which was the      
method adopted for regulating ascent or 
descent in this machine4 ,he first cut  
three1 and then1 finding that the effect

 produced was not sufficient1 cut three 
more1 and then another five--eleven out 
of the forty-seven4 ,the result was so  
swift a descent that he dislocated his  
wrist on landing4   ,a ,,note ,,on      
,,ballonets ,,or ,,air ,,bags4          
,meusnier1 toward the end of the        
eighteenth century1 was first to        
conceive the idea of compensating for   
the loss of gas due to expansion by     
fitting to the interior of a free       
balloon a ballonet1 or air bag1 which   
could be pumped full of air so as to    
retain the shape and rigidity of the    
envelope4  ,the ballonet became         
particularly valuable as soon as airship
 construction became general1 and it was
 in the course of advance in ,astra     
,torres design that the project was     
introduced of using the ballonets in    
order to give inclination from the      
horizontal4 ,in the earlier ,astra      
,torres1 trimming was accomplished by   
moving the car fore and aft--this in    
itself was an advance on the separate   

#8sliding weight' principle--and this   
was the method followed in the ,astra   
,torres bought by the ,british          
,government from ,france in #aiab for   
training airship pilots4 ,subsequently1 
the two ballonets fitted inside the     
envelope were made to serve for trimming
 by the extent of their inflation1 and  
this method of securing inclination     
proved the best until exterior rudders1 
and greater engine power1 supplanted it1
 as in the ,zeppelin and1 in fact1 all  
rigid types4  ,in the kite balloon1 the 
ballonet serves the purpose of a rudder1
 filling itself through the opening     
being kept pointed toward the           
wind--there is an ingenious type of air 
scoop with non-return valve which       
assures perfect inflation4 ,in the ,s4  
,s4 type of airship1 two ballonets are  
provided1 the supply of air being taken 
from the propeller draught by a slanting
 aluminium tube to the underside of the 
envelope1 where it meets a longitudinal 
fabric hose which connects the two      

ballonet air inlets4 ,in this hose the  
non-return air valves1 known as         
#8crab-pots1' are fitted1 on either side
 of the junction with the air-scoop4    
,two automatic air valves1 one for each 
ballonet1 are fitted in the underside of
 the envelope1 and1 as the air pressure 
tends to open these instead of keeping  
them shut1 the spring of the valve is   
set inside the envelope4 ,each spring is
 set to open at a pressure of #be to #bh
 mm4     ,,ii  ,,the ,,first            
,,dirigibles   ,having got off the      
earth1 the very early balloonists set   
about the task of finding a means of    
navigating the air1 but1 lacking steam  
or other accessory power to human       
muscle1 they failed to solve the        
problem4 ,joseph ,mongolfier speedily   
exploded the idea of propelling a       
balloon either by means of oars or      
sails1 pointing out that even in a dead 
calm a speed of five miles an hour would
 be the limit achieved4 ,still1 sailing 
balloons were constructed1 even up to   

the time of ,andree1 the explorer1 who  
proposed to retard the speed of the     
balloon by ropes dragging on the ground1
 and then to spread a sail which should 
catch the wind and permit of deviation  
of the course4 ,it has been proved that 
slight divergences from the course of   
the wind can be obtained by this means1 
but no real navigation of the air could 
be thus accomplished4  ,professor       
,wellner1 of ,brunn1 brought up the idea
 of a sailing balloon in more practical 
fashion in #ahhc4 ,he observed that     
surfaces inclined to the horizontal have
 a slight lateral motion in rising and  
falling1 and deduced that by alternate  
lowering and raising of such surfaces he
 would be able to navigate the air1     
regulating ascent and descent by        
increasing or decreasing the temperature
 of his buoyant medium in the balloon4  
,he calculated that a balloon1 #ej feet 
in diameter and #aej feet in length1    
with a vertical surface in front and a  
horizontal surface behind1 might be     

navigated at a speed of ten miles per   
hour1 and in actual tests at ,brunn he  
proved that a single rise and fall moved
 the balloon three miles against the    
wind4 ,his ideas were further developed 
by ,lebaudy in the construction of the  
early ,french dirigibles4  ,according to
 ,hildebrandt1#aa the first sailing     
balloon was built in #aghd by ,guyot1   
who made his balloon egg-shaped1 with   
the smaller end at the back and the     
longer axis horizontal2 oars were       
intended to propel the craft1 and       
naturally it was a failure4 ,carra      
proposed the use of paddle wheels1 a    
step in the right direction1 by mounting
 them on the sides of the car1 but the  
improvement was only slight4 ,guyton de 
,morveau1 entrusted by the ,academy of  
,dijon with the building of a sailing   
balloon1 first used a vertical rudder at
 the rear end of his construction--it   
survives in the modern dirigible4 ,his  
construction included sails and oars1   
but1 lacking steam or other than human  

propulsive power1 the airship was a     
failure equally with ,guyot's4  ,two    
priests1 ,miollan and ,janinet1 proposed
 to drive balloons through the air by   
the forcible expulsion of the hot air in
 the envelope from the rear of the      
balloon4 ,an opening was made about     
half-way up the envelope1 through which 
the hot air was to escape1 buoyancy     
being maintained by a pan of            
combustibles in the car4 ,unfortunately1
 this development of the ,mongolfier    
type never got a trial1 for those who   
were to be spectators of the first      
flight grew exasperated at successive   
delays1 and in the end1 thinking that   
the balloon would never rise1 they      
destroyed it4  ,meusnier1 a ,french     
general1 first conceived the idea of    
compensating for loss of gas by carrying
 an air bag inside the balloon1 in order
 to maintain the full expansion of the  
envelope4 ,the brothers ,robert         
constructed the first balloon in which  
this was tried1 and placed the air bag  

near the neck of the balloon1 which was 
intended to be driven by oars1 and      
steered by a rudder4 ,a violent swirl of
 wind which was encountered on the first
 ascent tore away the oars and rudder   
and broke the ropes which held the air  
bag in position2 the bag fell into the  
opening of the neck and stopped it up1  
preventing the escape of gas under      
expansion4 ,the ,duc de ,chartres1 who  
was aboard1 realised the extreme danger 
of the envelope bursting as the balloon 
ascended1 and at #af1jjj feet he thrust 
a staff through the envelope--another   
account says that he slit it with his   
sword--and thus prevented disaster4 ,the
 descent after this rip in the fabric   
was swift1 but the passengers got off   
without injury in the landing4          
,meusnier1 experimenting in various     
ways1 experimented with regard to the   
resistance offered by various shapes to 
the air1 and found that an elliptical   
shape was best2 he proposed to make the 
car boat-shaped1 in order further to    

decrease the resistance1 and he         
advocated an entirely rigid connection  
between the car and the body of the     
balloon1 as indispensable to a          
dirigible4#ab ,he suggested using three 
propellers1 which were to be driven by  
hand by means of pulleys1 and calculated
 that a crew of eighty would be required
 to furnish sufficient motive power4    
,horizontal fins were to be used to     
assure stability1 and ,meusnier         
thoroughly investigated the pressures   
exerted by gases1 in order to ascertain 
the stresses to which the envelope would
 be subjected4 ,more important still1 he
 went into detail with regard to the use
 of air bags1 in order to retain the    
shape of the balloon under varying      
pressures of gas due to expansion and   
consequent losses2 he proposed two      
separate envelopes1 the inner one       
containing gas1 and the space between it
 and the outer one being filled with    
air4 ,further1 by compressing the air   
inside the air bag1 the rate of ascent  

or descent could be regulated4 ,lebaudy1
 acting on this principle1 found it     
possible to pump air at the rate of #ce 
cubic feet per second1 thus making good 
loss of ballast which had to be thrown  
overboard4  ,meusnier's balloon1 of     
course1 was never constructed1 but his  
ideas have been of value to aerostation 
up to the present time4 ,his career     
ended in the revolutionary army in      
#agic1 when he was killed in the        
fighting before ,mayence1 and the ,king 
of ,prussia ordered all firing to cease 
until ,meusnier had been buried4 ,no    
other genius came forward to carry on   
his work1 and it was realised that human
 muscle could not drive a balloon with  
certainty through the air2 experiment in
 this direction was abandoned for nearly
 sixty years1 until in #aheb ,giffard   
brought the first practicable           
power-driven dirigible to being4        
,giffard1 inventor of the steam         
injector1 had already made balloon      
ascents when he turned to aeronautical  

propulsion1 and constructed a steam     
engine of #e horse-power with a weight  
of only #ajj lbs4--a great achievement  
for his day4 ,having got his engine1 he 
set about making the balloon which it   
was to drive2 this he built with the aid
 of two other enthusiasts1 diverging    
from ,meusnier's ideas by making the    
ends pointed1 and keeping the body      
narrowed from ,meusnier's ellipse to a  
shape more resembling a rather fat      
cigar4 ,the length was #add feet1 and   
the greatest diameter only #dj feet1    
while the capacity was #hh1jjj cubic    
feet4 ,a net which covered the envelope 
of the balloon supported a spar1 #ff    
feet in length1 at the end of which a   
triangular sail was placed vertically to
 act as rudder4 ,the car1 slung #bj feet
 below the spar1 carried the engine and 
propeller4 ,engine and boiler together  
weighed #cej lbs41 and drove the #aa    
foot propeller at #aaj revolutions per  
minute4  ,as precaution against         
explosion1 ,giffard arranged wire gauze 

in front of the stoke-hole of his       
boiler1 and provided an exhaust pipe    
which discharged the waste gases from   
the engine in a downward direction4     
,with this first dirigible he attained  
to a speed of between #f and #h feet per
 second1 thus proving that the          
propulsion of a balloon was a           
possibility1 now that steam had come to 
supplement human effort4  ,three years  
later he built a second dirigible1      
reducing the diameter and increasing the
 length of the gas envelope1 with a view
 to reducing air resistance4 ,the length
 of this was #bcj feet1 the diameter    
only #cc feet1 and the capacity was     
#aac1jjj cubic feet1 while the upper    
part of the envelope1 to which the      
covering net was attached1 was specially
 covered to ensure a stiffening effect4 
,the car of this dirigible was dropped  
rather lower than that of the first     
machine1 in order to provide more       
thoroughly against the danger of        
explosions4 ,giffard1 with a companion  

named ,yon as passenger1 took a trial   
trip on this vessel1 and made a journey 
against the wind1 though slowly4 ,in    
commencing to descend1 the nose of the  
envelope tilted upwards1 and the weight 
of the car and its contents caused the  
net to slip1 so that just before the    
dirigible reached the ground1 the       
envelope burst4 ,both ,giffard and his  
companion escaped with very slight      
injuries4  ,plans were immediately made 
for the construction of a third         
dirigible1 which was to be #a1igj feet  
in length1 #ih feet in extreme diameter1
 and to have a capacity of #g1hjj1jjj   
cubic feet of gas4 ,the engine of this  
giant was to have weighed #cj tons1 and 
with it ,giffard expected to attain a   
speed of #dj miles per hour4 ,cost      
prevented the scheme being carried out1 
and ,giffard went on designing small    
steam engines until his invention of the
 steam injector gave him the funds to   
turn to dirigibles again4 ,he built a   
captive balloon for the great exhibition

 in ,london in #ahfh1 at a cost of      
nearly #cj1jjj1 and designed a dirigible
 balloon which was to have held a       
million and three-quarters cubic feet of
 gas1 carry two boilers1 and cost about 
#dj1jjj4 ,the plans were thoroughly     
worked out1 down to the last detail1 but
 the dirigible was never constructed4   
,giffard went blind1 and died in        
#ahhb--;he stands as the great pioneer  
of dirigible construction1 more on the  
strength of the two vessels which he    
actually built than on that of the      
ambitious later conceptions of his      
brain4  ,in #ahgb ,dupuy de ,lome1      
commissioned by the ,french government1 
built a dirigible which he proposed to  
drive by man-power--it was anticipated  
that the vessel would be of use in the  
siege of ,paris1 but it was not actually
 tested till after the conclusion of the
 war4 ,the length of this vessel was    
#aah feet1 its greatest diameter #di    
feet1 the ends being pointed1 and the   
motive power was by a propeller which   

was revolved by the efforts of eight    
men4 ,the vessel attained to about the  
same speed as ,giffard's steam-driven   
airship2 it was capable of carrying     
fourteen men1 who1 apart from these     
engaged in driving the propeller1 had to
 manipulate the pumps which controlled  
the air bags inside the gas envelope4   
,in the same year ,paul ,haenlein1      
working in ,vienna1 produced an airship 
which was a direct forerunner of the    
,lebaudy type1 #afd feet in length1 #cj 
feet greatest diameter1 and with a cubic
 capacity of #he1jjj feet4              
,semi-rigidity was attained by placing  
the car as close to the envelope as     
possible1 suspending it by crossed      
ropes1 and the motive power was a gas   
engine of the ,lenoir type1 having four 
horizontal cylinders1 and giving about  
#e horse-power with a consumption of    
about #bej cubic feet of gas per hour4  
,this gas was sucked from the envelope  
of the balloon1 which was kept fully    
inflated by pumping in compensating air 

to the air bags inside the main         
envelope4 ,a propeller1 #ae feet in     
diameter1 was driven by the ,lenoir     
engine at #dj revolutions per minute4   
,this was the first instance of the use 
of an internal combustion engine in     
connection with aeronautical            
experiments4  ,the envelope of this     
dirigible was rendered airtight by means
 of internal rubber coating1 with a     
thinner film on the outside4 ,coal gas1 
used for inflation1 formed a suitable   
fuel for the engine1 but limited the    
height to which the dirigible could     
ascend4 ,such trials as were made were  
carried out with the dirigible held     
captive1 and a speed of #ae feet per    
second was attained4 ,full experiment   
was prevented through funds running low1
 but ,haenlein's work constituted a     
distinct advance on all that had been   
done previously4  ,two brothers1 ,albert
 and ,gaston ,tissandier1 were next to  
enter the field of dirigible            
construction2 they had experimented with

 balloons during the ,franco-,prussian  
,war1 and had attempted to get into     
,paris by balloon during the siege1 but 
it was not until #ahhb that they        
produced their dirigible4  ,this was #ib
 feet in length and #cb feet in greatest
 diameter1 with a cubic capacity of     
#cg1ejj feet1 and the fabric used was   
varnished cambric4 ,the car was made of 
bamboo rods1 and in addition to its crew
 of three1 it carried a ,siemens dynamo1
 with #bd bichromate cells1 each of     
which weighed #ag lbs4 ,the motor gave  
out #a horse-power1 which was sufficient
 to drive the vessel at a speed of up to
 #aj feet per second4 ,this was not so  
good as ,haenlein's previous attempt    
and1 after #b1jjj had been spent1 the   
,tissandiers abandoned their            
experiments1 since a #e-mile breeze was 
sufficient to nullify the power of the  
motor4  ,renard1 a ,french officer who  
had studied the problem of dirigible    
construction since #ahgh1 associated    
himself first with a brother officer    

named ,la ,haye1 and subsequently with  
another officer1 ,krebs1 in the         
construction of the second dirigible to 
be electrically-propelled4 ,la ,haye    
first approached ,colonel ,laussedat1 in
 charge of the ,engineers of the ,french
 ,army1 with a view to obtaining funds1 
but was refused1 in consequence of the  
practical failure of all experiments    
since #ahgj4 ,renard1 with whom ,krebs  
had now associated himself1 thereupon   
went to ,gambetta1 and succeeded in     
getting a promise of a grant of #h1jjj  
for the work2 with this promise ,renard 
and ,krebs set to work4  ,they built    
their airship in torpedo shape1 #afe    
feet in length1 and of just over #bg    
feet greatest diameter--the greatest    
diameter was at the front1 and the cubic
 capacity was #ff1jjj feet4 ,the car    
itself was #ajh feet in length1 and #d  
feet broad1 covered with silk over the  
bamboo framework4 ,the #bc foot diameter
 propeller was of wood1 and was driven  
by an electric motor connected to an    

accumulator1 and yielding #h4e          
horse-power4 ,the sweep of the          
propeller1 which might have brought it  
in contact with the ground in landing1  
was counteracted by rendering it        
possible to raise the axis on which the 
blades were mounted1 and a guide rope   
was used to obviate damage altogether1  
in case of rapid descent4 ,there was    
also a #8sliding weight' which was      
movable to any required position to     
shift the centre of gravity as desired4 
,altogether1 with passengers and ballast
 aboard1 the craft weighed two tons4    
,in the afternoon of ,august #ith1      
#ahhd1 ,renard and ,krebs ascended in   
the dirigible--which they had named     
#8,la ,france1' from the military       
ballooning ground at ,chalais-,meudon1  
making a circular flight of about five  
miles1 the latter part of which was in  
the face of a slight wind4 ,they found  
that the vessel answered well to her    
rudder1 and the five-mile flight was    
made successfully in a period of #bc    

minutes4 ,subsequent experimental       
flights determined that the air speed of
 the dirigible was no less than #ad     
miles per hour1 by far the best that had
 so far been accomplished in dirigible  
flight4 ,seven flights in all were made1
 and of these five were completely      
successful1 the dirigible returning to  
its starting point with no difficulty4  
,on the other two flights it had to be  
towed back4  ,renard attempted to repeat
 his construction on a larger scale1 but
 funds would not permit1 and the type   
was abandoned2 the motive power was not 
sufficient to permit of more than short 
flights1 and even to the present time   
electric motors1 with their necessary   
accumulators1 are far too cumbrous to   
compete with the self-contained internal
 combustion engine4 ,france had to wait 
for the ,lebaudy brothers1 just as      
,germany had to wait for ,zeppelin and  
,parseval4  ,two ,german experimenters1 
,baumgarten and ,wolfert1 fitted a      
,daimler motor to a dirigible balloon   

which made its first ascent at ,leipzig 
in #ahhj4 ,this vessel had three cars1  
and placing a passenger in one of the   
outer cars#ac distributed the load      
unevenly1 so that the whole vessel      
tilted over and crashed to the earth1   
the occupants luckily escaping without  
injury4 ,after ,baumgarten's death1     
,wolfert determined to carry on with his
 experiments1 and1 having achieved a    
certain measure of success1 he announced
 an ascent to take place on the         
,tempelhofer ,field1 near ,berlin1 on   
,june #abth1 #ahig4 ,the vessel1        
travelling with the wind1 reached a     
height of #fjj feet1 when the exhaust of
 the motor communicated flame to the    
envelope of the balloon1 and ,wolfert1  
together with a passenger he carried1   
was either killed by the fall or burnt  
to death on the ground4 ,giffard had    
taken special precautions to avoid an   
accident of this nature1 and ,wolfert1  
failing to observe equal care1 paid the 
full penalty4  ,platz1 a ,german        

soldier1 attempting an ascent on the    
,tempelhofer ,field in the ,schwartz    
airship in #ahig1 merely proved the     
dirigible a failure4 ,the vessel was of 
aluminium1 #j4jjh inch in thickness1    
strengthened by an aluminium lattice    
work2 the motor was two-cylindered      
petrol-driven2 at the first trial the   
metal developed such leaks that the     
vessel came to the ground within four   
miles of its starting point4 ,platz1 who
 was aboard alone as crew1 succeeded in 
escaping by jumping clear before the car
 touched earth1 but the shock of        
alighting broke up the balloon1 and a   
following high wind completed the work  
of full destruction4 ,a second account  
says that ,platz1 finding the propellers
 insufficient to drive the vessel       
against the wind1 opened the valve and  
descended too rapidly4  ,the envelope of
 this dirigible was #aef feet in length1
 and the method of filling was that of  
pushing in bags1 fill them with gas1 and
 then pulling them to pieces and tearing

 them out of the body of the balloon4 ,a
 second contemplated method of filling  
was by placing a linen envelope inside  
the aluminium casing1 blowing it out    
with air1 and then admitting the gas    
between the linen and the aluminium     
outer casing4 ,this would compress the  
air out of the linen envelope1 which was
 to be withdrawn when the aluminium     
casing had been completely filled with  
gas4  ,all this1 however1 assumes that  
the ,schwartz type--the first rigid     
dirigible1 by the way--would prove      
successful4 ,as it proved a failure on  
the first trial1 the problem of filling 
it did not arise again4  ,by this time  
,zeppelin1 retired from the ,german     
army1 had begun to devote himself to the
 study of dirigible construction1 and1 a
 year after ,schwartz had made his      
experiment and had failed1 he got       
together sufficient funds for the       
formation of a limited liability        
company1 and started on the construction
 of the first of his series of airships4

 ,the age of tentative experiment was   
over1 and1 forerunner of the success of 
the heavier-than-air type of flying     
machine1 successful dirigible flight was
 accomplished by ,zeppelin in ,germany1 
and by ,santos-,dumont in ,france4      
,,iii  ,,santos-,,dumont   ,a ,brazilian
 by birth1 ,santos-,dumont began in     
,paris in the year #ahih to make        
history1 which he subsequently wrote4   
,his book1 ,my ,airships1 is a record of
 his eight years of work on             
lighter-than-air machines1 a period in  
which he constructed no less than       
fourteen dirigible balloons1 beginning  
with a cubic capacity of #f1cej feet1   
and an engine of #c horse-power1 and    
rising to a cubic capacity of #ga1jjj   
feet on the tenth dirigible he          
constructed1 and an engine of #fj       
horse-power1 which was fitted to the    
seventh machine in order of             
construction1 the one which he built    
after winning the ,deutsch ,prize4  ,the
 student of dirigible construction is   

recommended to ,santos-,dumont's own    
book not only as a full record of his   
work1 but also as one of the best       
stories of aerial navigation that has   
ever been written4 ,throughout all his  
experiments1 he adhered to the non-rigid
 type2 his first dirigible made its     
first flight on ,september #ahth1 #ahih1
 starting from the ,jardin              
d',acclimatation to the west of ,paris2 
he calculated that his #c horse-power   
engine would yield sufficient power to  
enable him to steer clear of the trees  
with which the starting-point was       
surrounded1 but1 yielding to the advice 
of professional aeronauts who were      
present1 with regard to the placing of  
the dirigible for his start1 he tore the
 envelope against the trees4 ,two days  
later1 having repaired the balloon1 he  
made an ascent of #a1cjj feet4 ,in      
descending1 the hydrogen left in the    
balloon contracted1 and ,santos-,dumont 
narrowly escaped a serious accident in  
coming to the ground4  ,his second      

machine1 built in the early spring of   
#ahii1 held over #g1jjj cubic feet of   
gas and gave a further #dd lbs4 of      
ascensional force4 ,the balloon envelope
 was very long and very narrow2 the     
first attempt at flight was made in wind
 and rain1 and the weather caused       
sufficient contraction of the hydrogen  
for a wind gust to double the machine up
 and toss it into the trees near its    
starting-point4 ,the inventor           
immediately set about the construction  
of #8,santos-,dumont ,no4 #c1' on which 
he made a number of successful flights1 
beginning on ,november #acth1 #ahii4 ,on
 the last of his flights1 he lost the   
rudder of the machine and made a        
fortunate landing at ,ivry4 ,he did not 
repair the balloon1 considering it too  
clumsy in form and its motor too small4 
,consequently ,no4 #d was constructed1  
being finished on the #ast ,august1     
#aijj4 ,it had a cubic capacity of      
#ad1hjj feet1 a length of #abi feet and 
greatest diameter of #af4g feet1 the    

power plant being a #g horse-power      
,buchet motor4 ,santos-,dumont sat on a 
bicycle saddle fixed to the long bar    
suspended under the machine1 which also 
supported motor1 propeller1 ballast1 and
 fuel4 ,the experiment of placing the   
propeller at the stem instead of at the 
stern was tried1 and the motor gave it a
 speed of #ajj revolutions per minute4  
,professor ,langley witnessed the trials
 of the machine1 which proved before the
 members of the ,international ,congress
 of ,aeronautics1 on ,september #aith1  
that it was capable of holding its own  
against a strong wind4  ,finding that   
the cords with which his dirigible      
balloon cars were suspended offered     
almost as much resistance to the air as 
did the balloon itself1 ,santos-,dumont 
substituted piano wire and found that   
the alteration constituted greater      
progress than many a more showy device4 
,he altered the shape and size of his   
,no4 #d to a certain extent and fitted a
 motor of #ab horse-power4 ,gravity was 

controlled by shifting weights worked by
 a cord2 rudder and propeller were both 
placed at the stern4 ,in                
,santos-,dumont's book there is a       
certain amount of confusion between the 
,no4 #d and ,no4 #e airships1 until he  
explains that #8,no4 #e' is the         
reconstructed #8,no4 #d4' ,it was with  
,no4 #e that he won the ,encouragement  
,prize presented by the ,scientific     
,commission of the ,paris ,aero ,club4  
,this he devoted to the first aeronaut  
who between ,may and ,october of #aijj  
should start from ,st ,cloud1 round the 
,eiffel ,tower1 and return4 ,if not won 
in that year1 the prize was to remain   
open the following year from ,may #ast  
to ,october #ast and so on annually     
until won4 ,this was a simplification of
 the conditions of the ,deutsch ,prize  
itself1 the winning of which involved a 
journey of #aa kilometres in #cj        
minutes4  ,the ,santos-,dumont ,no4 #e1 
which was in reality the modified ,no4  
#d with new keel1 motor1 and propeller1 

did the course of the ,deutsch ,prize1  
but with it ,santos-,dumont made no     
attempt to win the prize until ,july of 
#aija1 when he completed the course in  
#dj minutes1 but tore his balloon in    
landing4 ,on the #hth ,august1 with his 
balloon leaking1 he made a second       
attempt1 and narrowly escaped disaster1 
the airship being entirely wrecked4     
,thereupon he built ,no4 #f with a cubic
 capacity of #bb1bci feet and a lifting 
power of #a1eah lbs4 ,with this machine 
he won the ,deutsch ,prize on ,october  
#aith1 #aija1 starting with the         
disadvantage of a side wind of #bj feet 
per second4 ,he reached the ,eiffel     
,tower in #i minutes and1 through       
miscalculating his turn1 only just      
missed colliding with it4 ,he got ,no4  
#f under control again and succeeded in 
getting back to his starting-point in   
#bi minutes1 thus winning the #abe1jjj  
francs which constituted the ,deutsch   
,prize1 together with a similar sum     
granted to him by the ,brazilian        

,government for the exploit4 ,the       
greater part of this money was given by 
,santos-,dumont to charities4  ,he went 
on building after this until he had made
 fourteen non-rigid dirigibles2 of these
 ,no4 #ab was placed at the disposal of 
the military authorities1 while the     
rest1 except for one that was sold to an
 ,american and made only one trip1 were 
matters of experiment for their maker4  
,his conclusions from his experiments   
may be gathered from his own work3--    
#8,on ,friday1 #cast ,july1 #aijc1      
,commandant ,hirschauer and             
,lieutenant-,colonel ,bourdeaux spent   
the afternoon with me at my airship     
station at ,neuilly ,st ,james1 where ,i
 had my three newest airships--the      
racing #8,no4 #g1' the omnibus #8,no4   
#aj1' and the runabout #8,no4 #i'--ready
 for their study4 ,briefly1 ,i may say  
that the opinions expressed by the      
representatives of the ,minister of ,war
 were so unreservedly favourable that a 
practical test of a novel character was 

decided to be made4 ,should the airship 
chosen pass successfully through it the 
result will be conclusive of its        
military value4  #8,now that these      
particular experiments are leaving my   
exclusively private control ,i will say 
no more of them than what has been      
already published in the ,french press4 
,the test will probably consist of an   
attempt to enter one of the ,french     
frontier towns1 such as ,belfort or     
,nancy1 on the same day that the airship
 leaves ,paris4 ,it will not1 of course1
 be necessary to make the whole journey 
in the airship4 ,a military railway     
wagon may be assigned to carry it1 with 
its balloon uninflated1 with tubes of   
hydrogen to fill it1 and with all the   
necessary machinery and instruments     
arranged beside it4 ,at some station a  
short distance from the town to be      
entered the wagon may be uncoupled from 
the train1 and a sufficient number of   
soldiers accompanying the officers will 
unload the airship and its appliances1  

transport the whole to the nearest open 
space1 and at once begin inflating the  
balloon4 ,within two hours from quitting
 the train the airship may be ready for 
its flight to the interior of the       
technically-besieged town4  #8,such may 
be the outline of the task--a task      
presented imperiously to ,french        
balloonists by the events of #ahgj-a1   
and which all the devotion and science  
of the ,tissandier brothers failed to   
accomplish4 ,to-day the problem may be  
set with better hope of success4 ,all   
the essential difficulties may be       
revived by the marking out of a hostile 
zone around the town that must be       
entered2 from beyond the outer edge of  
this zone1 then1 the airship will rise  
and take its flight--across it4  #8,will
 the airship be able to rise out of     
rifle range8 ,i have always been the    
first to insist that the normal place of
 the airship is in low altitudes1 and ,i
 shall have written this book to little 
purpose if ,i have not shown the reader 

the real dangers attending any brusque  
vertical mounting to considerable       
heights4 ,for this we have the terrible 
,severo accident before our eyes4 ,in   
particular1 ,i have expressed           
astonishment at hearing of experimenters
 rising to these altitudes without      
adequate purpose in their early stages  
of experience with dirigible balloons4  
,all this is very different1 however1   
from a reasoned1 cautious mounting1     
whose necessity has been foreseen and   
prepared for4'  ,probably owing to the  
fact that his engines were not of       
sufficient power1 ,santos-,dumont cannot
 be said to have solved the problem of  
the military airship1 although the      
,french ,government bought one of his   
vessels4 ,at the same time1 he          
accomplished much in furthering and     
inciting experiment with dirigible      
airships1 and he will always rank high  
among the pioneers of aerostation4 ,his 
experiments might have gone further had 
not the ,wright brothers' success in    

,america and ,french interest in the    
problem of the heavier-than-air machine 
turned him from the study of dirigibles 
to that of the aeroplane1 in which also 
he takes high rank among the pioneers1  
leaving the construction of a successful
 military dirigible to such men as the  
,lebaudy brothers1 ,major ,parseval1 and
 ,zeppelin4     ,,iv  ,,the ,,military  
,,dirigible   ,although ,french and     
,german experiment in connection with   
the production of an airship which      
should be suitable for military purposes
 proceeded side by side1 it is necessary
 to outline the development in the two  
countries separately1 owing to the      
differing character of the work carried 
out4 ,so far as ,france is concerned1   
experiment began with the ,lebaudy      
brothers1 originally sugar refiners1 who
 turned their energies to airship       
construction in #ahii4 ,three years of  
work went to the production of their    
first vessel1 which was launched in     
#aijb1 having been constructed by them  

together with a balloon manufacturer    
named ,surcouf and an engineer1         
,julliot4 ,the ,lebaudy airships were   
what is known as semi-rigids1 having a  
spar which ran practically the full     
length of the gas bag to which it was   
attached in such a way as to distribute 
the load evenly4 ,the car was suspended 
from the spar1 at the rear end of which 
both horizontal and vertical rudders    
were fixed1 whilst stabilising fins were
 provided at the stern of the gas       
envelope itself4 ,the first of the      
,lebaudy vessels was named the          
#8,jaune'2 its length was #ahc feet and 
its maximum diameter #cj feet1 while the
 cubic capacity was #hj1jjj feet4 ,the  
power unit was a #dj horse-power        
,daimler motor1 driving two propellers  
and giving a maximum speed of #bf miles 
per hour4 ,this vessel made #bi trips1  
the last of which took place in         
,november1 #aijb1 when the airship was  
wrecked through collision with a tree4  
,illustration3 ,astra ,torres4  ,the    

second airship of ,lebaudy construction 
was #g feet longer than the first1 and  
had a capacity of #id1jjj cubic feet of 
gas with a triple air bag of #ag1ejj    
cubic feet to compensate for loss of    
gas2 this latter was kept inflated by a 
rotary fan4 ,the vessel was eventually  
taken over by the ,french ,government   
and may be counted the first dirigible  
airship considered fit on its tests for 
military service4  ,later vessels of the
 ,lebaudy type were the #8,patrie' and  
#8,republique1' in which both size and  
method of construction surpassed those  
of the two first attempts4 ,the         
#8,patrie' was fitted with a #fj        
horse-power engine which gave a speed of
 #bh miles an hour1 while the vessel had
 a radius of #bhj miles1 carrying a crew
 of nine4 ,in the winter of #aijg the   
#8,patrie' was anchored at ,verdun1 and 
encountered a gale which broke her hold 
on her mooring-ropes4 ,she drifted      
derelict westward across ,france1 the   
,channel1 and the ,british ,isles1 and  

was lost in the ,atlantic4  ,the        
#8,republique' had an #hj horse-power   
motor1 which1 however1 only gave her the
 same speed as the #8,patrie4' ,she was 
launched in ,july1 #aijh1 and within    
three months came to an end which       
constituted a tragedy for ,france4 ,a   
propeller burst while the vessel was in 
the air1 and one blade1 flying toward   
the envelope1 tore in it a great gash2  
the airship crashed to earth1 and the   
two officers and two non-commissioned   
officers who were in the car were       
instantaneously killed4  ,the ,clement  
,bayard1 and subsequently the           
,astra-,torres1 non-rigids1 followed on 
the early ,lebaudys and carried ,french 
dirigible construction up to #aiab4 ,the
 ,clement ,bayard was a simple non-rigid
 having four lobes at the stern end to  
assist stability4 ,these were found to  
retard the speed of the airship1 which  
in the second and more successful       
construction was driven by a ,clement   
,bayard motor of #ajj horse-power at a  

speed of #cj miles an hour4 ,on ,august 
#bcrd1 #aiji1 while being tried for     
acceptance by the military authorities1 
this vessel achieved a record by flying 
at a height of #e1jjj feet for two      
hours4 ,the ,astra-,torres non-rigids   
were designed by a ,spaniard1 ,seor     
,torres1 and built by the ,astra        
,company4 ,the envelope was of trefoil  
shape1 this being due to the interior   
rigging from the suspension band2 the   
exterior appearance is that of two lobes
 side by side1 overlaid by a third4 ,the
 interior rigging1 which was adopted    
with a view to decreasing air           
resistance1 supports a low-hung car from
 the centre of the envelope2 steering is
 accomplished by means of horizontal    
planes fixed on the envelope at the     
stern1 and vertical planes depending    
beneath the envelope1 also at the stern 
end4  ,one of the most successful of    
,french pre-war dirigibles was a        
,clement ,bayard built in #aiab4 ,in    
this twin propellers were placed at the 

front and horizontal and vertical       
rudders in a sort of box formation under
 the envelope at the stern4 ,the        
envelope was stream-lined1 while the car
 of the machine was placed well forward 
with horizontal controlling planes above
 it and immediately behind the          
propellers4 ,this airship1 which was    
named #8,dupuy de ,lome1' may be ranked 
as about the most successful non-rigid  
dirigible constructed prior to the ,war4
  ,experiments with non-rigids in       
,germany was mainly carried on by ,major
 ,parseval1 who produced his first      
vessel in #aijf4 ,the main feature of   
this airship consisted in variation in  
length of the suspension cables at the  
will of the operator1 so that the       
envelope could be given an upward tilt  
while the car remained horizontal in    
order to give the vessel greater        
efficiency in climbing4 ,in this        
machine1 the propeller was placed above 
and forward of the car1 and the         
controlling planes were fixed directly  

to the envelope near the forward end4 ,a
 second vessel differed from the first  
mainly in the matter of its larger size1
 variable suspension being again        
employed1 together with a similar method
 of control4 ,the vessel was moderately 
successful1 and under ,major ,parseval's
 direction a third was constructed for  
passenger carrying1 with two engines of 
#abj horse-power1 each driving          
propellers of #ac feet diameter4 ,this  
was the most successful of the early    
,german dirigibles2 it made a number of 
voyages with a dozen passengers in      
addition to its crew1 as well as proving
 its value for military purposes by use 
as a scout machine in manuvres4 ,later  
,parsevals were constructed of          
stream-line form1 about #cjj feet in    
length1 and with engines sufficiently   
powerful to give them speeds up to #ej  
miles an hour4  ,major ,von ,gross1     
commander of a ,balloon ,battalion1     
produced semi-rigid dirigibles from     
#aijg onward4 ,the second of these1     

driven by two #ge horse-power ,daimler  
motors1 was capable of a speed of #bg   
miles an hour2 in ,september of #aijh   
she made a trip from and back to ,berlin
 which lasted #ac hours1 in which period
 she covered #agf miles with four       
passengers and reached a height of      
#d1jjj feet4 ,her successor1 launched in
 ,april of #aiji1 carried a wireless    
installation1 and the next to this1     
driven by four motors of #ge horse-power
 each1 reached a speed of #de miles an  
hour4 ,as this vessel was constructed   
for military purposes1 very few details 
either of its speed or method of        
construction were made public4          
,practically all these vessels were     
discounted by the work of ,ferdinand von
 ,zeppelin1 who set out from the first  
with the idea of constructing a rigid   
dirigible4 ,beginning in #ahih1 he built
 a balloon on an aluminium framework    
covered with linen and silk1 and divided
 into interior compartments holding     
linen bags which were capable of        

containing nearly #djj1jjj cubic feet of
 hydrogen4 ,the total length of this    
first ,zeppelin airship was #dbj feet   
and the diameter #ch feet4 ,two cars    
were rigidly attached to the envelope1  
each carrying a #af horse-power motor1  
driving propellers which were rigidly   
connected to the aluminium framework of 
the balloon4 ,vertical and horizontal   
screws were used for lifting and forward
 driving and a sliding weight was used  
to raise or lower the stem of the vessel
 out of the horizontal in order to rise 
or descend without altering the load by 
loss of ballast or the lift by loss of  
gas4  ,the first trial of this vessel   
was made in ,july of #aijj1 and was     
singularly unfortunate4 ,the winch by   
which the sliding weight was operated   
broke1 and the balloon was so bent that 
the working of the propellers was       
interfered with1 as was the steering4 ,a
 speed of #ac feet per second was       
attained1 but on descending the airship 
ran against some piles and was further  

damaged4 ,repairs were completed by the 
end of ,september1 #aijj1 and on a      
second trial flight made on ,october    
#bast a speed of #cj feet per second was
 reached4  ,illustration3 ,zeppelin1    
pre-war type4  ,zeppelin was far from   
satisfied with the performance of this  
vessel1 and he therefore set about      
collecting funds for the construction of
 a second1 which was completed in #aije4
 ,by this time the internal combustion  
engine had been greatly improved1 and   
without any increase of weight1         
,zeppelin was able to instal two motors 
of #he horse-power each4 ,the total     
capacity was #cfg1jjj cubic feet of     
hydrogen1 carried in #af gas bags inside
 the framework1 and the weight of the   
whole construction was #i tons--a ton   
less than that of the first ,zeppelin   
airship4 ,three vertical planes at front
 and rear controlled horizontal         
steering1 while rise and fall was       
controlled by horizontal planes arranged
 in box form4 ,accident attended the    

first trial of this second airship1     
which took place over the ,bodensee on  
,november #cjth1 #aije4 #8,it had been  
intended to tow the raft1 to which it   
was anchored1 further from the shore    
against the wind4 ,but the water was too
 low to allow the use of the raft4 ,the 
balloon was therefore mounted on        
pontoons1 pulled out into the lake1 and 
taken in tow by a motor-boat4 ,it was   
caught by a strong wind which was       
blowing from the shore1 and driven ahead
 at such a rate that it overtook the    
motor-boat4 ,the tow rope was therefore 
at once cut1 but it unexpectedly formed 
into knots and became entangled with the
 airship1 pulling the front end down    
into the water4 ,the balloon was then   
caught by the wind and lifted into the  
air1 when the propellers were set in    
motion4 ,the front end was at this      
instant pointing in a downward          
direction1 and consequently it shot into
 the water1 where it was found necessary
 to open the valves4'#ad  ,the damage   

done was repaired within six weeks1 and 
the second trial was made on ,january   
#agth1 #aijf4 ,the lifting force was too
 great for the weight1 and the dirigible
 jumped immediately to #a1ejj feet4 ,the
 propellers were started1 and the       
dirigible brought to a lower level1 when
 it was found possible to drive against 
the wind4 ,the steering arrangements    
were found too sensitive1 and the motors
 were stopped1 when the vessel was      
carried by the wind until it was over   
land--it had been intended that the     
trial should be completed over water4 ,a
 descent was successfully accomplished  
and the dirigible was anchored for the  
night1 but a gale caused it so much     
damage that it had to be broken up4 ,it 
had achieved a speed of #cj feet per    
second with the motors developing only  
#cf horse-power and1 gathering from this
 what speed might have been accomplished
 with the full #agj horse-power1        
,zeppelin set about the construction of 
,no4 #c1 with which a number of         

successful voyages were made1 proving   
the value of the type for military      
purposes4  ,no4 #d was the most notable 
of the early ,zeppelins1 as much on     
account of its disastrous end as by     
reason of any superior merit in         
comparison with ,no4 #c4 ,the main      
innovation consisted in attaching a     
triangular keel to the under side of the
 envelope1 with two gaps beneath which  
the cars were suspended4 ,two ,daimler  
,mercedes motors of #aaj horse-power    
each were placed one in each car1 and   
the vessel carried sufficient fuel for a
 #fj-;hour cruise with the motors       
running at full speed4 ,each motor drove
 a pair of three-bladed metal propellers
 rigidly attached to the framework of   
the envelope and about #ae feet in      
diameter4 ,there was a vertical rudder  
at the stern of the envelope and        
horizontal controlling planes were fixed
 on the sides of the envelope4 ,the best
 performances and the end of this       
dirigible were summarised as follows by 

,major ,squier3--  #8,its best          
performances were two long trips        
performed during the summer of #aijh4   
,the first1 on ,july #dth1 lasted       
exactly #ab hours1 during which time it 
covered a distance of #bce miles1       
crossing the mountains to ,lucerne and  
,zurich1 and returning to the           
balloon-house near ,friedrichshafen1 on 
,lake ,constance4 ,the average speed on 
this trip was #cb miles per hour4 ,on   
,august #dth1 this airship attempted a  
#bd-;hour flight1 which was one of the  
requirements made for its acceptance by 
the ,government4 ,it left               
,friedrichshafen in the morning with the
 intention of following the ,rhine as   
far as ,mainz1 and then returning to its
 starting-point1 straight across the    
country4 ,a stop of #c hours #cj minutes
 was made in the afternoon of the first 
day on the ,rhine1 to repair the engine4
 ,on the return1 a second stop was found
 necessary near ,stuttgart1 due to      
difficulties with the motors1 and some  

loss of gas4 ,while anchored to the     
ground1 a storm arose which broke loose 
the anchorage1 and1 as the balloon rose 
in the air1 it exploded and took fire   
7due to causes which have never been    
actually determined and published7 and  
fell to the ground1 where it was        
completely destroyed4 ,on this journey1 
which lasted in all #ca hours #ae       
minutes1 the airship was in the air #bj 
hours #de minutes1 and covered a total  
distance of #cgh miles4  #8,the         
patriotism of the ,german nation was    
aroused4 ,subscriptions were immediately
 started1 and in a short space of time a
 quarter of a million pounds had been   
raised4 ,a ,zeppelin ,society was formed
 to direct the expenditure of this fund4
 ,seventeen thousand pounds has been    
expended in purchasing land near        
,friederichshafen2 workshops were       
erected1 and it was announced that      
within one year the construction of     
eight airships of the ,zeppelin type    
would be completed4 ,since the disaster 

to #8,zeppelin ,,iv4' the ,crown ,prince
 of ,germany made a trip in #8,zeppelin 
,no4 #c1' which had been called back    
into service1 and within a very few days
 the ,german ,emperor visited           
,friedrichshafen for the purpose of     
seeing the airship in flight4 ,he       
decorated ,count ,zeppelin with the     
,order of the ,black ,eagle4 ,german    
patriotism and enthusiasm has gone      
further1 and the 8,german ,association  
for an ,aerial ,fleet0 has been         
organised in sections throughout the    
country4 ,it announces its intention of 
building #ej garages 7hangars7 for      
housing airships4'  ,by ,january of     
#aiji1 with well over a quarter of a    
million in hand for the construction of 
,zeppelin airships1 ,no4 #c was again   
brought out1 probably in order to       
maintain public enthusiasm in respect of
 the possible new engine of war4 ,in    
,march of that year ,no4 #c made a      
voyage which lasted for #d hours over   
and in the vicinity of ,lake ,constance2

 it carried #bf passengers for a        
distance of nearly #aej miles4  ,before 
the end of ,march1 ,count ,zeppelin     
determined to voyage from               
,friedrichshafen to ,munich1 together   
with the crew of the airship and four   
military officers4 ,starting at four in 
the morning and ascertaining their route
 from the lights of railway stations and
 the ringing of bells in the towns      
passed over1 the journey was completed  
by nine o'clock1 but a strong south-west
 gale prevented the intended landing4   
,the airship was driven before the wind 
until three o'clock in the afternoon1   
when it landed safely near ,dingolfing2 
by the next morning the wind had fallen 
considerably and the airship returned to
 ,munich and landed on the parade ground
 as originally intended4 ,at about #c4cj
 in the afternoon1 the homeward journey 
was begun1 ,friedrichshafen being       
reached at about #g4cj4  ,these trials  
demonstrated that sufficient progress   
had been made to justify the            

construction of ,zeppelin airships for  
use with the ,german army4 ,no4 #c had  
been manuvred safely if not successfully
 in half a gale of wind1 and henceforth 
it was known as #8,,sms4 ,zeppelin ,i41'
 at the bidding of the ,german ,emperor1
 while the construction of #8,,sms4     
,zeppelin ,,ii4' was rapidly proceeded  
with4 ,the fifth construction of ,count 
,zeppelin's was #ddf feet in length1 #db
 feet in diameter1 and contained        
#ecj1jjj cubic feet of hydrogen gas in  
#ag separate compartments4 ,trial       
flights were made on the #bfth ,may1    
#aiji1 and a week later she made a      
record voyage of #idj miles1 the route  
being from ,lake ,constance over ,ulm1  
,nuremberg1 ,leipzig1 ,bitterfeld1      
,weimar1 ,heilbronn1 and ,stuttgart1    
descending near ,goppingen2 the time    
occupied in the flight was upwards of   
#ch hours4  ,in landing1 the airship    
collided with a pear-tree1 which damaged
 the bows and tore open two sections of 
the envelope1 but repairs on the spot   

enabled the return journey to           
,friedrichshafen to be begun #bd hours  
later4 ,in spite of the mishap the      
,zeppelin had once more proved itself as
 a possible engine of war1 and          
thenceforth ,germany pinned its faith to
 the dirigible1 only developing the     
aeroplane to such an extent as to keep  
abreast of other nations4 ,by the       
outbreak of war1 nearly #cj ,zeppelins  
had been constructed2 considerably more 
than half of these were destroyed in    
various ways1 but the experiments       
carried on with each example of the type
 permitted of improvements being made4  
,the first fatality occurred in         
,september1 #aiac1 when the fourteenth  
,zeppelin to be constructed1 known as   
,naval ,zeppelin ,l4#a1 was wrecked in  
the ,north ,sea by a sudden storm and   
her crew of thirteen were drowned4      
,about three weeks after this1 ,naval   
,zeppelin ,l4#b1 the eighteenth in order
 of building1 exploded in mid-air while 
manuvring over ,johannisthal4 ,she was  

carrying a crew of #be1 who were all    
killed4  ,by #aiab the success of the   
,zeppelin type brought imitators4 ,chief
 among them was the ,schutte-,lanz1 a   
,mannheim firm1 which produced a rigid  
dirigible with a wooden framework1 wire 
braced4 ,this was not a cylinder like   
the ,zeppelin1 but reverted to the cigar
 shape and contained about the same     
amount of gas as the ,zeppelin type4    
,the ,schutte-,lanz was made with two   
gondolas rigidly attached to the        
envelope in which the gas bags were     
placed4 ,the method of construction     
involved greater weight than was the    
case with the ,zeppelin1 but the second 
of these vessels1 built with three      
gondolas containing engines1 and a      
navigating cabin built into the hull of 
the airship itself1 proved quite        
successful as a naval scout until       
wrecked on the islands off the coast of 
,denmark late in #aiad4 ,the last       
,schutte-,lanz to be constructed was    
used by the ,germans for raiding        

,england1 and was eventually brought    
down in flames at ,cowley4     ,v       
,,british ,,airship ,,design   ,as was  
the case with the aeroplane1 ,great     
,britain left ,france and ,germany to   
make the running in the early days of   
airship construction2 the balloon       
section of the ,royal ,engineers was    
compelled to confine its energies to    
work with balloons pure and simple until
 well after the twentieth century had   
dawned1 and such experiments as were    
made in ,england were done by private   
initiative4 ,as far back as #aijj       
,doctor ,barton built an airship at the 
,alexandra ,palace and voyaged across   
,london in it4 ,four years later ,mr ,e4
 ,t4 ,willows of ,cardiff produced the  
first successful ,british dirigible1 a  
semi-rigid #gd feet in length and #ah   
feet in diameter1 engined with a #g     
horse-power ,peugot twin-cylindered     
motor4 ,this drove a two-bladed         
propeller at the stern for propulsion1  
and also actuated a pair of auxiliary   

propellers at the front which could be  
varied in their direction so as to      
control the right and left movements of 
the airship4 ,this device was patented  
and the patent was taken over by the    
,british ,government1 which by #aijh    
found ,mr ,willow's work of sufficient  
interest to regard it as furnishing data
 for experiment at the balloon factory  
at ,farnborough4 ,in #aiji1 ,willows    
steered one of his dirigibles to ,london
 from ,cardiff in a little less than ten
 hours1 making an average speed of over 
#ad miles an hour4 ,the best speed      
accomplished was probably considerably  
greater than this1 for at intervals of a
 few miles1 ,willows descended near the 
earth to ascertain his whereabouts with 
the help of a megaphone4 ,it must be    
added that he carried a compass in      
addition to his megaphone4 ,he set out  
for ,paris in ,november of #aiaj1       
reached the ,french coast1 and landed   
near ,douai4 ,some damage was sustained 
in this landing1 but1 after repair1 the 

trip to ,paris was completed4           
,meanwhile the ,government balloon      
factory at ,farnborough began airship   
construction in #aijg2 ,colonel ,capper1
 ,r4,e41 and ,s4 ,f4 ,cody were jointly 
concerned in the production of a        
semi-rigid4 ,fifteen thicknesses of     
goldbeaters' skin--about the most       
expensive covering obtainable--were used
 for the envelope1 which was #be feet in
 diameter4 ,a slight shower of rain in  
which the airship was caught led to its 
wreckage1 owing to the absorbent quality
 of the goldbeaters' skin1 whereupon    
,capper and ,cody set to work to        
reproduce the airship and its defects on
 a larger scale4 ,the first had been    
named #8,nulli ,secundus' and the second
 was named #8,nulli ,secundus ,,ii4'    
,punch very appropriately suggested that
 the first vessel ought to have been    
named #8,nulli ,primus1' while a        
possible third should be christened     
#8,nulli ,tertius4' #8,nulli ,secundus  
,,ii4' was fitted with a #ajj           

horse-power engine and had an envelope  
of #db feet in diameter1 the            
goldbeaters' skin being covered in      
fabric and the car being suspended by   
four bands which encircled the balloon  
envelope4 ,in ,october of #aijg1        
#8,nulli ,secundus ,,ii4' made a trial  
flight from ,farnborough to ,london and 
was anchored at the ,crystal ,palace4   
,the wind sprung up and took the vessel 
away from its mooring ropes1 wrecking it
 after the one flight4  ,illustration3  
,the ,army ,airship #8,beta' at the     
,manuvres4  ,the #8,beta' going up to   
reconnoitre4  ,stagnation followed until
 early in #aiji1 when a small airship   
fitted with two #ab horse-power motors  
and named the #8,baby' was turned out   
from the balloon factory4 ,this was     
almost egg-shaped1 the blunt end being  
forward1 and three inflated fins being  
placed at the tail as control members4  
,a long car with rudder and elevator at 
its rear-end carried the engines and    
crew2 the #8,baby' made some fairly     

successful flights and gave a good deal 
of useful data for the construction of  
later vessels4  ,next to this was       
#8,army ,airship #b;,a' launched early  
in #aiaj and larger1 longer1 and        
narrower in design than the ,baby4 ,the 
engine was an #hj horse-power ,green    
motor which drove two pairs of          
propellers2 small inflated control      
members were fitted at the stern end of 
the envelope1 which was #aed feet in    
length4 ,the suspended car was #hd feet 
long1 carrying both engines and crew1   
and the ,willows idea of swivelling     
propellers for governing the direction  
was used in this vessel4 ,in ,june of   
that year a new1 small-type dirigible1  
the #8,beta1' was produced1 driven by a 
#cj horse-power ,green engine with which
 she flew over #c1jjj miles4 ,she was   
the most successful ,british dirigible  
constructed up to that time1 and her    
successor1 the #8,gamma1' was built on  
similar lines4 ,the #8,gamma' was a     
larger vessel1 however1 produced in     

#aiab1 with flat1 controlling fins and  
rudder at the rear end of the envelope1 
and with the conventional long car      
suspended at some distance beneath the  
gas bag4 ,by this time1 the mooring     
mast1 carrying a cap of which the       
concave side fitted over the convex nose
 of the airship1 had been originated4   
,the cap was swivelled1 and1 when       
attached to it1 an airship was held nose
 on to the wind1 thus reducing by more  
than half the dangers attendant on      
mooring dirigibles in the open4         
,private subscription under the auspices
 of the ,morning ,post got together     
sufficient funds in #aiaj for the       
purchase of a ,lebaudy airship1 which   
was built in ,france1 flown across the  
,channel1 and presented to the ,army    
,airship ,fleet4 ,this dirigible was    
#ccg feet long1 and was driven by two   
#ace horse-power ,panhard motors1 each  
of which actuated two propellers4 ,the  
journey from ,moisson to ,aldershot was 
completed at a speed of #cf miles an    

hour1 but the airship was damaged while 
being towed into its shed4 ,on ,may of  
the following year1 the ,lebaudy was    
brought out for a flight1 but1 in       
landing1 the guide rope fouled in trees 
and sheds and brought the airship       
broadside on to the wind2 she was driven
 into some trees and wrecked to such an 
extent that rebuilding was considered an
 impossibility4 ,a ,clement ,bayard1    
bought by the army airship section1     
became scrap after even less flying than
 had been accomplished by the ,lebaudy4 
,in ,april of #aiaj1 the ,admiralty     
determined on a naval air service1 and  
set about the production of rigid       
airships which should be able to compete
 with ,zeppelins as naval scouts4 ,the  
construction was entrusted to ,vickers1 
,ltd41 who set about the task at their  
,barrow works and built something which1
 when tested after a year's work1 was   
found incapable of lifting its own      
weight4 ,this defect was remedied by a  
series of alterations1 and meanwhile the

 unofficial title of #8,mayfly' was     
given to the vessel4  ,illustration3    
,the ,s4,s4 type of airship4  ,h4,m4    
,king ,george inspecting4  ,taken over  
by the ,admiralty before she had passed 
any flying tests1 the #8,mayfly' was    
brought out on ,september #bdth1 #aiaa1 
for a trial trip1 being towed out from  
her shed by a tug4 ,when half out from  
the shed1 the envelope was caught by a  
light cross-wind1 and1 in spite of the  
pull from the tug1 the great fabric     
broke in half1 nearly drowning the crew1
 who had to dive in order to get clear  
of the wreckage4  ,there was            
considerable similarity in form1 though 
not in performance1 between the ,mayfly 
and the pre-war ,zeppelin4 ,the former  
was #eaj feet in length1 cylindrical in 
form1 with a diameter of #dh feet1 and  
divided into #ai gas-bag compartments4  
,the motive power consisted of two #bjj 
horse-power ,wolseley engines4 ,after   
its failure1 the ,naval ,air ,service   
bought an ,astra-,torres airship from   

,france and a ,parseval from ,germany1  
both of which proved very useful in the 
early days of the ,war1 doing patrol    
work over the ,channel before the       
,blimps came into being4  ,early in     
#aiae the #8,blimp' or #8,s4,s4' type of
 coastal airship was evolved in response
 to the demand for a vessel which could 
be turned out quickly and in quantities4
 ,there was urgent demand1 voiced by    
,lord ,fisher1 for a type of vessel     
capable of maintaining anti-submarine   
patrol off the ,british coasts1 and the 
first ,s4,s4 airships were made by      
combining a gasbag with the most        
available type of aeroplane fuselage and
 engine1 and fitting steering gear4 ,the
 #8,blimp' consisted of a ,b4,e4        
fuselage with engine and geared-down    
propeller1 and seating for pilot and    
observer1 attached to an envelope about 
#aej feet in length4 ,with a speed of   
between #ce and #dj miles an hour1 the  
#8,blimp' had a cruising capacity of    
about ten hours2 it was fitted with     

wireless set1 camera1 machine-gun1 and  
bombs1 and for submarine spotting and   
patrol work generally it proved         
invaluable1 though owing to low engine  
power and comparatively small size1 its 
uses were restricted to reasonably fair 
weather4 ,for work farther out at sea   
and in all weathers1 airships known as  
the coast patrol type1 and more commonly
 as #8coastals1' were built1 and later  
the #8,n4,s4' or ,north ,sea type1 still
 larger and more weather-worthy1        
followed4 ,by the time the last year of 
the ,war came1 ,britain led the world in
 the design of non-rigid and semi-rigid 
dirigibles4 ,the #8,s4,s4' or #8,blimp' 
had been improved to a speed of #ej     
miles an hour1 carrying a crew of three1
 and the endurance record for the type  
was #ah hours1 while one of them had    
reached a height of #aj1jjj feet4 ,the  
,north ,sea type of non-rigid was       
capable of travelling over #bj hours at 
full speed1 or forty hours at cruising  
speed1 and the number of non-rigids     

belonging to the ,british ,navy exceeded
 that of any other country4  ,it was    
owing to the incapacity--apparent or    
real--of the ,british military or naval 
designers to produce a satisfactory     
rigid airship that the #8,n4,s4' airship
 was evolved4 ,the first of this type   
was produced in #aiaf1 and on her trials
 she was voted an unqualified success1  
in consequence of which the building of 
several more was pushed on4 ,the        
envelope1 of #cfj1jjj cubic feet        
capacity1 was made on the ,astra-,torres
 principle of three lobes1 giving a     
trefoil section4 ,the ship carried four 
fins1 to three of which the elevator and
 rudder flaps were attached2 petrol     
tanks were placed inside the envelope1  
under which was rigged a long covered-in
 car1 built up of a light steel tubular 
framework #ce feet in length4 ,the      
forward portion was covered with        
duralumin sheeting1 an aluminium alloy  
which1 unlike aluminium itself1 is not  
affected by the action of sea air and   

water1 and the remainder with fabric    
laced to the framework4 ,windows and    
port-holes were provided to give light  
to the crew1 and the controls and       
navigating instruments were placed      
forward1 with the sleeping accommodation
 aft4 ,the engines were mounted in a    
power unit structure1 separate from the 
car and connected by wooden gangways    
supported by wire cables4 ,a complete   
electrical installation of two dynamos  
and batteries for lights1 signalling    
lamps1 wireless1 telephones1 etc41 was  
carried1 and the motive power consisted 
of either two #bej horse-power          
,rolls-,royce engines or two #bdj       
horse-power ,fiat engines4 ,the         
principal dimensions of this type are   
length #bfb feet1 horizontal diameter   
#ef feet #i inches1 vertical diameter   
#fi feet #c inches4 ,the gross lift is  
#bd1cjj lbs4 and the disposable lift    
without crew1 petrol1 oil1 and ballast  
#h1ejj lbs4 ,the normal crew carried for
 patrol work was ten officers and men4  

,this type holds the record of #aja     
hours continuous flight on patrol duty4 
,in the matter of rigid design it was   
not until #aiac that the ,british       
,admiralty got over the fact that the   
#8,mayfly' would not1 and decided on a  
further attempt at the construction of a
 rigid dirigible4 ,the contract for this
 was signed in ,march of #aiad2 work was
 suspended in the following ,february   
and begun again in ,july1 #aiae1 but it 
was not until ,january of #aiag that the
 ship was finished1 while her trials    
were not completed until ,march of      
#aiag1 when she was taken over by the   
,admiralty4 ,the details of the         
construction and trial of this vessel1  
known as #8,no4 #i1' go to show that she
 did not quite fill the contract        
requirements in respect of disposable   
lift until a number of alterations had  
been made4 ,the contract specified that 
a speed of at least #de miles per hour  
was to be attained at full engine power1
 while a minimum disposable lift of #e  

tons was to be available for movable    
weights1 and the airship was to be      
capable of rising to a height of #b1jjj 
feet4 ,driven by four ,wolseley ,maybach
 engines of #ahj horse-power each1 the  
lift of the vessel was not sufficient1  
so it was decided to remove the two     
engines in the after car and replace    
them by a single engine of #bej         
horse-power4 ,with this the vessel      
reached the contract speed of #de miles 
per hour with a cruising radius of #ah  
hours1 equivalent to #hjj miles when the
 engines were running at full speed4    
,the vessel served admirably as a       
training airship1 for1 by the time she  
was completed1 the ,no4 #bc class of    
rigid airship had come to being1 and    
thus ,no4 #i was already out of date4   
,three of the #bc class were completed  
by the end of #aiag2 it was stipulated  
that they should be built with a speed  
of at least #ee miles per hour1 a       
minimum disposable lift of #h tons1 and 
a capability of rising at an average    

rate of not less than #a1jjj feet per   
minute to a height of #c1jjj feet4 ,the 
motive power consisted of four #bej     
horse-power ,rolls-,royce engines1 one  
in each of the forward and after cars   
and two in a centre car4 ,four-bladed   
propellers were used throughout the     
ship4  ,illustration3 ,coastal airship1 
showing gun on top of envelope4  ,a     
#bc,x type followed on the #bc class1   
but by the time two ships had been      
completed1 this was practically         
obsolete4 ,the ,no4 #ca class followed  
the #bc,x2 it was built on              
,schutte-,lanz lines1 #fae feet in      
length1 #ff feet diameter1 and a million
 and a half cubic feet capacity4 ,the   
hull was similar to the later types of  
,zeppelin in shape1 with a tapering     
stern and a bluff1 rounded bow4 ,five   
cars each carrying a #bej horse-power   
,rolls-,royce engine1 driving a single  
fixed propeller1 were fitted1 and on her
 trials ,r4#ca performed well1          
especially in the matter of speed4 ,but 

the experiment of constructing in wood  
in the ,schutte-,lanz way adopted with  
this vessel resulted in failure         
eventually1 and the type was abandoned4 
,meanwhile1 ,germany had been pushing   
forward ,zeppelin design and straining  
every nerve in the improvement of rigid 
dirigible construction1 until ,l4#cc was
 evolved2 she was generally known as a  
super-,zeppelin1 and on ,september      
#bdth1 #aiaf1 six weeks after her       
launching1 she was damaged by gun-fire  
in a raid over ,london1 being eventually
 compelled to come to earth at ,little  
,wigborough in ,essex4 ,the crew gave   
themselves up after having set fire to  
the ship1 and though the fabric was     
totally destroyed1 the structure of the 
hull remained intact1 so that just as   
,germany was able to evolve the ,gotha  
bomber from the ,handley-,page delivered
 at ,lille1 ,british naval constructors 
were able to evolve the ,r4#cc type of  
airship from the ,zeppelin framework    
delivered at ,little ,wigborough4 ,two  

vessels1 ,r4#cc and ,r4#cd1 were laid   
down for completion2 three others were  
also put down for construction1 but1    
while ,r4#cc and ,r4#cd were built      
almost entirely from the data gathered  
from the wrecked ,l4#cc1 the three later
 vessels embody more modern design1     
including a number of improvements1 and 
more especially greater disposable lift4
 ,it has been commented that while the  
,british authorities were building      
,r4#cc and ,r4#cd1 ,germany constructed 
#cj ,zeppelins on #d slips1 for which   
reason it may be reckoned a matter for  
congratulation that the rigid airship   
did not decide the fate of the ,war4    
,the following particulars of           
construction of the ,r4#cc and ,r4#cd   
types are as given by ,major ,whale in  
his survey of ,british ,airships3--     
#8,in all its main features the hull    
structure of ,r4#cc and ,r4#cd follows  
the design of the wrecked ,german       
,zeppelin airship ,l4#cc4 ,the hull     
follows more nearly a true stream-line  

shape than in the previous ships        
constructed of duralumin1 in which a    
greater proportion of the greater length
 was parallel-sided4 ,the ,germans      
adopted this new shape from the         
,schutte-,lanz design and have not      
departed from this practice4 ,this      
consists of a short1 parallel body with 
a long1 rounded bow and a long tapering 
stem culminating in a point4 ,the       
overall length of the ship is #fdc feet 
with a diameter of #gi feet and an      
extreme height of #ib feet4  ,the type  
of girders in this class has been much  
altered from those in previous ships4   
,the hull is fitted with an internal    
triangular keel throughout practically  
the entire length4 ,this forms the main 
corridor of the ship1 and is fitted with
 a footway down the centre for its      
entire length4 ,it contains water       
ballast and petrol tanks1 bomb storage  
and crew accommodation1 and the various 
control wires1 petrol pipes1 and        
electric leads are carried along the    

lower part4  ,throughout this internal  
corridor runs a bridge girder1 from     
which the petrol and water ballast tanks
 are supported4 ,these tanks are so     
arranged that they can be dropped clear 
of the ship4 ,amidships is the cabin    
space with sufficient room for a crew of
 twenty-five4 ,hammocks can be swung    
from the bridge girder before mentioned4
  ,in accordance with the latest        
,zeppelin practice1 monoplane rudders   
and elevators are fitted to the         
horizontal and vertical fins4  ,the ship
 is supported in the air by nineteen gas
 bags1 which give a total capacity of   
approximately two million cubic feet of 
gas4 ,the gross lift works out at       
approximately #ei tons1 of which the    
total fixed weight is #cc tons1 giving a
 disposable lift of #bf tons4  ,the     
arrangement of cars is as follows3 ,at  
the forward end the control car is      
slung1 which contains all navigating    
instruments and the various controls4   
,adjoining this is the wireless cabin1  

which is also fitted for wireless       
telephony4 ,immediately aft of this is  
the forward power car containing one    
engine1 which gives the appearance that 
the whole is one large car4  ,amidships 
are two wing cars1 each containing a    
single engine4 ,these are small and just
 accommodate the engines with sufficient
 room for mechanics to attend to them4  
,further aft is another larger car which
 contains an auxiliary control position 
and two engines4  ,it will thus be seen 
that five engines are installed in the  
ship2 these are all of the same type and
 horse-power1 namely1 #bej horse-power  
,sunbeam4 ,r4#cc was constructed by     
,messrs ,armstrong1 ,whitworth1 ,ltd42  
while her sister ship ,r4#cd was built  
by ,messrs ,beardmore on the ,clyde4'   
,of the two vessels1 ,r4#cd appeared    
rather more airworthy than her sister   
ship2 the lift of the ship justified the
 carrying of a greater quantity of fuel 
than had been provided for1 and1 as she 
was considered suitable for making a    

,transatlantic crossing1 extra petrol   
tanks were fitted in the hull and a new 
type of outer cover was fitted with a   
view to her making the ,atlantic        
crossing4 ,she made a #ba hour cruise   
over the ,north of ,england and the     
,south of ,scotland at the end of ,may1 
#aiai1 and subsequently went for a      
longer cruise over ,denmark1 the        
,baltic1 and the north coast of         
,germany1 remaining in the air for #ef  
hours in spite of very bad weather      
conditions4 ,finally1 ,july #bnd was    
selected as the starting date for the   
cross ,atlantic flight2 the vessel was  
commanded by ,major ,g4 ,h4 ,scott1     
,a4,f4,c41 with ,captain ,g4 ,s4        
,greenland as first officer1            
,second-,lieut4 ,h4 ,f4 ,luck as second 
officer1 and ,lieut4 ,j4 ,d4 ,shotter as
 engineer officer4 ,there were also on  
board ,brig4-,gen4 ,e4 ,p4 ,maitland1   
representing the ,air ,ministry1 ,major 
,j4 ,e4 ,m4 ,pritchard1 representing the
 ,admiralty1 and ,lieut4-,col4 ,w4 ,h4  

,hemsley of the ,army ,aviation         
,department4 ,in addition to eight tons 
of petrol1 ,r4#cd carried a total number
 of #cj persons from ,east ,fortune to  
,long ,island1 ,n4,y4 ,there being no   
shed in ,america capable of             
accommodating the airship1 she had to be
 moored in the open for refilling with  
fuel and gas1 and to make the return    
journey almost immediately4             
,illustration3 ,the ,r #cd landing at   
,pulham ,st ,mary on arrival from       
,america4  ,brig4-,gen4 ,maitland's     
account of the flight1 in itself a      
record as interesting as valuable1      
divides the outward journey into two    
main stages1 the first from ,east       
,fortune to ,trinity ,bay1              
,newfoundland1 a distance of #b1jej sea 
miles1 and the second and more difficult
 stage to ,mineola ,field1 ,long        
,island1 #a1jhj sea miles4 ,an easy     
journey was experienced until           
,newfoundland was reached1 but then     
storms and electrical disturbances      

rendered it necessary to alter the      
course1 in consequence of which petrol  
began to run short4 ,head winds rendered
 the shortage still more acute1 and on  
,saturday1 ,july #eth1 a wireless signal
 was sent out asking for destroyers to  
stand by to tow4 ,however1 after an     
anxious night1 ,r4#cd landed safely at  
,mineola ,field at #i4ee a4m4 on ,july  
#fth1 having accomplished the journey in
 #ajh hours #ab minutes4  ,she remained 
at ,mineola until midnight of ,july     
#ith1 when1 although it had been        
intended that a start should be made by 
daylight for the benefit of ,new ,york  
spectators1 an approaching storm caused 
preparations to be advanced for         
immediate departure4 ,she set out at    
#e4eg a4m4 by ,british summer time1 and 
flew over ,new ,york in the full glare  
of hundreds of searchlights before      
heading out over the ,atlantic4 ,a      
following wind assisted the return      
voyage1 and on ,july #acth1 at #g4eg    
a4m41 ,r4#cd anchored at ,pulham1       

,norfolk1 having made the return journey
 in #ge hours #c minutes1 and proved the
 suitability of the dirigible for       
,transatlantic commercial work4 ,r4#hj1 
launched on ,july #aith1 #aibj1 afforded
 further proof1 if this were needed4    
,it is to be noted that nearly all the  
disasters to airships have been caused  
by launching and landing--the type is   
safe enough in the air1 under its own   
power1 but its bulk renders it unwieldy 
for ground handling4 ,the ,german system
 of handling ,zeppelins in and out of   
their sheds is1 so far1 the best        
devised3 this consists of heavy trucks  
running on rails through the sheds and  
out at either end2 on descending1 the   
trucks are run out1 and the airship is  
securely attached to them outside the   
shed2 the trucks are then run back into 
the shed1 taking the airship with them1 
and preventing any possibility of the   
wind driving the envelope against the   
side of the shed before it is safely    
housed2 the reverse process is adopted  

in launching1 which is thus rendered as 
simple as it is safe4     ,,vi  ,,the   
,,airship ,,commercially   ,prior to the
 war period1 between the years #aiaj and
 #aiad1 a ,german undertaking called the
 ,deutsche ,luftfahrt ,actien           
,gesellschaft conducted a commercial    
,zeppelin service in which four airships
 known as the ,sachsan1 ,hansa1         
,victoria ,louise1 and ,schwaben were   
used4 ,during the four years of its     
work1 the company carried over #ag1jjj  
passengers1 and over #ajj1jjj miles were
 flown without incurring one fatality   
and with only minor and unavoidable     
accidents to the vessels composing the  
service4 ,although a number of ,english 
notabilities made voyages in these      
airships1 the success of this only      
experiment in commercial aerostation    
seems to have been forgotten since the  
war4 ,there was beyond doubt a military 
aim in this apparently peaceful use of  
,zeppelin airships2 it is past question 
now that all ,germany's mechanical      

development in respect of land1 sea1 and
 air transport in the years immediately 
preceding the war1 was accomplished with
 the ulterior aim of military conquest1 
but1 at the same time1 the running of   
this service afforded proof of the      
possibility of establishing a dirigible 
service for peaceful ends1 and afforded 
proof too1 of the value of the dirigible
 as a vessel of purely commercial       
utility4  ,illustration3 ,the           
#8,bodensee' ,german passenger balloon4 
,in considering the possibility of a    
commercial dirigible service1 it is     
necessary always to bear in mind the    
disadvantages of first cost and upkeep  
as compared with the aeroplane4 ,the    
building of a modern rigid is an        
exceedingly costly undertaking1 and the 
provision of an efficient supply of     
hydrogen gas to keep its compartments   
filled is a very large item in upkeep of
 which the heavier-than-air machine goes
 free4 ,yet the future of commercial    
aeronautics so far would seem to lie    

with the dirigible where very long      
voyages are in question4 ,no matter how 
the aeroplane may be improved1 the      
possibility of engine failure always    
remains as a danger for work over water4
 ,in seaplane or flying boat form1 the  
danger is still present in a rough sea1 
though in the ,american ,transatlantic  
flight1 ,n4,c4#c1 taxi-ing #cjj miles to
 the ,azores after having fallen to the 
water1 proved that this danger is not so
 acute as is generally assumed4 ,yet the
 multiple-engined rigid1 as ,r4#cd      
showed on her return voyage1 may have   
part of her power plant put out of      
action altogether and still complete her
 voyage very successfully1 which1 in the
 case of mail carrying and services run 
strictly to time1 gives her an enormous 
advantage over the heavier-than-air     
machine4  #8,for commercial purposes1'  
,general ,sykes has remarked1 #8the     
airship is eminently adapted for long   
distance journeys involving non-stop    
flights4 ,it has this inherent advantage

 over the aeroplane1 that while there   
appears to be a limit to the range of   
the aeroplane as at present constructed1
 there is practically no limit whatever 
to that of the airship1 as this can be  
overcome by merely increasing the size4 
,it thus appears that for such journeys 
as crossing the ,atlantic1 or crossing  
the ,pacific from the west coast of     
,america to ,australia or ,japan1 the   
airship will be peculiarly suitable4 ,it
 having been conceded that the scope of 
the airship is long distance travel1 the
 only type which need be considered for 
this purpose is the rigid4 ,the rigid   
airship is still in an embryonic state1 
but sufficient has already been         
accomplished in this country1 and more  
particularly in ,germany1 to show that  
with increased capacity there is no     
reason why1 within a few years' time1   
airships should not be built capable of 
completing the circuit of the globe and 
of conveying sufficient passengers and  
merchandise to render such an           

undertaking a paying proposition4'  ,the
 ,british ,r4#ch class1 embodying the   
latest improvements in airship design   
outside ,germany1 gives a gross lift per
 airship of #he tons and a net lift of  
about #de tons4 ,the capacity of the gas
 bags is about two and three-quarter    
million cubic feet1 and1 travelling at  
the rate of #de miles per hour1 the     
cruising range of the vessel is         
estimated at #hh days4 ,six engines1    
each of #cej horse-power1 admit of an   
extreme speed of #gj miles per hour if  
necessary4  ,the last word in ,german   
design is exemplified in the rigids     
,l4#gj and ,l4#ga1 together with the    
commercial airship #8,bodensee4'        
,previous to the construction of these1 
the ,l4#fe type is noteworthy as being  
the first ,zeppelin in which direct     
drive of the propeller was introduced1  
together with an improved and lighter   
type of car4 ,l4#gj1 built in #aiah and 
destroyed by the ,british naval forces1 
had a speed of about #ge miles per hour2

 ,l4#ga had a maximum speed of #gb miles
 per hour1 a gas bag capacity of        
#b1dbj1jjj cubic feet1 and a length of  
#gdc feet1 while the total lift was #gc 
tons4 ,progress in design is best shown 
by the progress in useful load2 in the  
,l4#gj and ,l4#ga class1 this has been  
increased to #ehc per cent1 while in the
 ,bodensee it was even higher4  ,as was 
shown in ,r4#cd's ,american flight1 the 
main problem in connection with the     
commercial use of dirigibles is that of 
mooring in the open4 ,the nearest to a  
solution of this problem1 so far1       
consists in the mast carrying a         
swivelling cap2 this has been tried in  
the ,british service with a non-rigid   
airship1 which was attached to a mast in
 open country in a gale of #eb miles an 
hour without the slightest damage to the
 airship4 ,in its commercial form1 the  
mast would probably take the form of a  
tower1 at the top of which the cap would
 revolve so that the airship should     
always face the wind1 the tower being   

used for embarkation and disembarkation 
of passengers and the provision of fuel 
and gas4 ,such a system would render    
sheds unnecessary except in case of     
repairs1 and would enormously decrease  
the establishment charges of any        
commercial airship4  ,all this1 however1
 is hypothetical4 ,remains the airship  
of to-day1 developed far beyond the     
promise of five years ago1 capable1 as  
has been proved by its achievements both
 in ,britain and in ,germany1 of        
undertaking practically any given voyage
 with success4     ,,vii  ,,kite        
,,balloons   ,as far back as the period 
of the ,napoleonic wars1 the balloon was
 given a place in warfare1 but up to the
 ,franco-,prussian ,war of #ahgj-ga its 
use was intermittent4 ,the ,federal     
forces made use of balloons to a small  
extent in the ,american ,civil ,war2    
they came to great prominence in the    
siege of ,paris1 carrying out upwards of
 three million letters and sundry       
carrier pigeons which took back messages

 into the besieged city4 ,meanwhile1 as 
captive balloons1 the ,german and other 
armies used them for observation and the
 direction of artillery fire4 ,in this  
work the ordinary spherical balloon was 
at a grave disadvantage2 if a gust of   
wind struck it1 the balloon was blown   
downward and down wind1 generally       
twirling in the air and upsetting any   
calculations and estimates that might be
 made by the observers1 while in a wind 
of #be miles an hour it could not rise  
at all4 ,the rotatory movement caused by
 wind was stopped by an experimenter in 
the ,russo-,japanese war1 who fixed to  
the captive observation balloons a fin  
which acted as a rudder4 ,this did not  
stop the balloon from being blown       
downward and away from its mooring      
station1 but this tendency was overcome 
by a modification designed in ,germany  
by the ,parseval-,siegsfield ,company1  
which originated what has since become  
familiar as the #8,sausage' or kite     
balloon4 ,this is so arranged that the  

forward end is tilted up into the wind1 
and the underside of the gas bag1 acting
 as a plane1 gives the balloon a lifting
 tendency in a wind1 thus counteracting 
the tendency of the wind to blow it     
downward and away from its mooring      
station4 ,smaller bags are fitted at the
 lower and rear end of the balloon with 
openings that face into the wind2 these 
are thus kept inflated1 and they serve  
the purpose of a rudder1 keeping the    
kite balloon steady in the air4         
,illustration3 ,an early type of the    
,parseval-,siegsfeld observation        
balloon4  ,used by the ,germans in      
,russia4  ,illustration3 ,an observation
 balloon about to ascend to watch enemy 
movements1 near ,metz1 #beth ,january1  
#aiah4  ,various types of kite balloon  
have been introduced2 the original      
,german ,parseval-,siegsfield had a     
single air bag at the stern end1 which  
was modified to two1 three1 or more     
lobes in later varieties1 while an      
,american experimental design attempted 

to do away with the attached lobes      
altogether by stringing out a series of 
small air bags1 kite fashion1 in rear of
 the main envelope4 ,at the beginning of
 the ,war1 ,germany alone had kite      
balloons1 for the authorities of the    
,allied armies considered that the bulk 
of such a vessel rendered it too        
conspicuous a mark to permit of its     
being serviceable4 ,the ,belgian arm    
alone possessed two which1 on being put 
into service1 were found extremely      
useful4 ,the ,french followed by        
constructing kite balloons at ,chalais  
,meudon1 and then1 after some months of 
hostilities and with the example of the 
,royal ,naval ,air ,service to encourage
 them1 the ,british military authorities
 finally took up the construction and   
use of kite balloons for                
artillery-spotting and general          
observation purposes4 ,although many    
were brought down by gun-fire1 their    
uses far outweighed their disadvantages1
 and toward the end of the ,war1 hardly 

a mile of front was without its         
#8,sausage4'  ,for naval work1 kite     
balloons were carried in a specially    
constructed hold in the forepart of     
certain vessels2 when required for use1 
the covering of the hold was removed1   
the kite balloon inflated and released  
to the required height by means of      
winches as in the case of the land work4
 ,the perfecting of the #8,coastal' and 
,n4,s4 types of airship1 together with  
the extension of wireless telephony     
between airship and cruiser or other    
warship1 in all probability will render 
the use of the kite balloon unnecessary 
in connection with naval scouting4 ,but1
 during the ,war1 neither wireless      
telephony nor naval airships had        
developed sufficiently to render the    
,navy independent of any means that     
might come to hand1 and the fitting of  
kite balloons in this fashion filled a  
need of the times4  ,a necessary        
accessory of the kite balloon is the    
parachute1 which has a long history4 ,da

 ,vinci and ,veranzio 7ante1 page #aai7 
appear to have been the first exponents1
 the first in the theory and the latter 
in the practice of parachuting4         
,mongolfier experimented at ,annonay    
before he constructed his first hot     
air-balloon1 and in #aghc a certain     
,lenormand dropped from a tree in a     
parachute4 ,blanchard the balloonist    
made a spectacle of parachuting1 and    
made it a financial success2 ,cocking1  
in #ahcf1 attempted to use an inverted  
form of parachute2 taken up to a height 
of #c1jjj feet1 he was cut adrift1 when 
the framework of the parachute collapsed
 and ,cocking was killed4               
,illustration3 ,in mid-air4 ,a parachute
 descent from one of our balloons at the
 front1 near ,metz1 #bfth ,january1     
#aiah4  ,the rate of fall is slow in    
parachuting to the ground4 ,frau        
,poitevin1 making a descent from a      
height of #f1jjj feet1 took #de minutes 
to reach the ground1 and1 when she      
alighted1 her husband1 who had taken her

 up1 had nearly got his balloon packed  
up4 ,robertson1 another parachutist1 is 
said to have descended from a height of 
#aj1jjj feet in #ce minutes1 or at a    
rate of nearly #e feet per second4      
,during the ,war ,brigadier-,general    
,maitland made a parachute descent from 
a height of #aj1jjj feet1 the time taken
 being about #bj minutes4  ,the         
parachute was developed considerably    
during the ,war period1 the main        
requirement1 that of certainty in       
opening1 being considerably developed4  
,considered a necessary accessory for   
kite balloons1 the parachute was also   
partially adopted for use with          
aeroplanes in the later ,war period1    
when it was contended that if a machine 
were shot down in flames1 its occupants 
would be given a far better chance of   
escape if they had parachutes4 ,various 
trials were made to demonstrate the     
extreme efficiency of the parachute in  
modern form1 one of them being a descent
 from the upper ways of the ,tower      

,bridge to the waters of the ,thames1 in
 which short distance the #8,guardian   
,angel' type of parachute opened and    
cushioned the descent for its user4     
,for dirigibles1 balloons1 and kite     
balloons the parachute is an essential4 
,it would seem to be equally essential  
in the case of heavier-than-air         
machines1 but this point is still       
debated4 ,certainly it affords the      
occupant of a falling aeroplane a       
chance1 no matter how slender1 of       
reaching the ground in safety1 and1 for 
that reason1 it would seem to have a    
place in aviation as well as in         
aerostation4     ,,part ,,iv  ,,engine  
,,development     ,i  ,,the ,,vertical  
,,type   ,the balloon was but a year old
 when the brothers ,robert1 in #aghd1   
attempted propulsion of an aerial       
vehicle by hand-power1 and succeeded1 to
 a certain extent1 since they were able 
to make progress when there was only a  
slight wind to counteract their work4   
,but1 as may be easily understood1 the  

manual power provided gave but a very   
slow speed1 and in any wind at all the  
would-be airship became an uncontrolled 
balloon4  ,henson and ,stringfellow1    
with their light steam engines1 were    
first to attempt conquest of the problem
 of mechanical propulsion in the air2   
their work in this direction is so fully
 linked up with their constructed models
 that it has been outlined in the       
section dealing with the development of 
the aeroplane 7ante1 page #eg74 ,but1   
very shortly after these two began1     
there came into the field a ,monsieur   
,henri ,giffard1 who first achieved     
success in the propulsion by mechanical 
means of dirigible balloons1 for his was
 the first airship to fly against the   
wind4 ,he employed a small steam-engine 
developing about #c horse-power and     
weighing #cej lbs4 with boiler1 fitting 
the whole in a car suspended from the   
gas-bag of his dirigible4 ,the propeller
 which this engine worked was #aa feet  
in diameter1 and the inventor1 who made 

several flights1 obtained a speed of #f 
miles an hour against a slight wind4    
,the power was not sufficient to render 
the invention practicable1 as the       
dirigible could only be used in calm    
weather1 but ,giffard was sufficiently  
encouraged by his results to get out    
plans for immense dirigibles1 which     
through lack of funds he was unable to  
construct4 ,when1 later1 his invention  
of the steam-injector gave him the means
 he desired1 he became blind1 and in    
#ahhb died1 having built but the one    
famous dirigible4  ,this appears to have
 been the only instance of a steam      
engine being fitted to a dirigible2 the 
inherent disadvantage of this form of   
motive power is that a boiler to        
generate the steam must be carried1 and 
this1 together with the weight of water 
and fuel1 renders the steam engine      
uneconomical in relation to the lift    
either of plane or gas-bag4 ,again1 even
 if the weight could be brought down to 
a reasonable amount1 the attention      

required by steam plant renders it      
undesirable as a motive power for       
aircraft when compared with the internal
 combustion engine4  ,maxim1 in         
,artificial and ,natural ,flight1       
details the engine which he constructed 
for use with his giant experimental     
flying machine1 and his description is  
worthy of reproduction since it is that 
of the only steam engine besides        
,giffard's1 and apart from those used   
for the propulsion of models1 designed  
for driving an aeroplane4 #8,in #ahhi1' 
,maxim says1 #8,i had my attention drawn
 to some very thin1 strong1 and         
comparatively cheap tubes which were    
being made in ,france1 and it was only  
after ,i had seen these tubes that ,i   
seriously considered the question of    
making a flying machine4 ,i obtained a  
large quantity of them and found that   
they were very light1 that they would   
stand enormously high pressures1 and    
generate a very large quantity of steam4
 ,upon going into a mathematical        

calculation of the whole subject1 ,i    
found that it would be possible to make 
a machine on the aeroplane system1      
driven by a steam engine1 which would be
 sufficiently strong to lift itself into
 the air4 ,i first made drawings of a   
steam engine1 and a pair of these       
engines was afterwards made4 ,these     
engines are constructed1 for the most   
part1 of a very high grade of cast      
steel1 the cylinders being only #c_/cb  
of an inch thick1 the crank shafts      
hollow1 and every part as strong and    
light as possible4 ,they are compound1  
each having a high-pressure piston with 
an area of #bj square inches1 a         
low-pressure piston of #ej4bf square    
inches1 and a common stroke of #a foot4 
,when first finished they were found to 
weigh #cjj lbs4 each2 but after putting 
on the oil cups1 felting1 painting1 and 
making some slight alterations1 the     
weight was brought up to #cbj lbs4 each1
 or a total of #fdj lbs4 for the two    
engines1 which have since developed #cfb

 horse-power with a steam pressure of   
#cbj lbs4 per square inch4'  ,the result
 is remarkable1 being less than #b lbs4 
weight per horse-power1 especially when 
one considers the state of development  
to which the steam engine had attained  
at the time these experiments were made4
 ,the fining down of the internal       
combustion engine1 which has done so    
much to solve the problems of power in  
relation to weight for use with         
aircraft1 had not then been begun1 and  
,maxim had nothing to guide him1 so far 
as work on the part of his predecessors 
was concerned1 save the experimental    
engines of ,stringfellow1 which1 being  
constructed on so small a scale in      
comparison with his own1 afforded little
 guidance4 ,concerning the factor of    
power1 he says3 #8,when first designing 
this engine1 ,i did not know how much   
power ,i might require from it4 ,i      
thought that in some cases it might be  
necessary to allow the high-pressure    
steam to enter the low-pressure cylinder

 direct1 but as this would involve a    
considerable loss1 ,i constructed a     
species of injector4 ,this injector may 
be so adjusted that when the steam in   
the boiler rises above a certain        
predetermined point1 say #cjj lbs41 to  
the square inch1 it opens a valve and   
escapes past the high-pressure cylinder 
instead of blowing off at the safety    
valve4 ,in escaping through this valve1 
a fall of about #bjj lbs4 pressure per  
square inch is made to do work on the   
surrounding steam and drive it forward  
in the pipe1 producing a pressure on the
 low-pressure piston considerably higher
 than the back-pressure on the          
high-pressure piston4 ,in this way a    
portion of the work which would         
otherwise be lost is utilised1 and it is
 possible1 with an unlimited supply of  
steam1 to cause the engines to develop  
an enormous amount of power4'         99
       99       99       99       99    
,with regard to boilers1 ,maxim         
writes1--    #8,the first boiler which  

,i made was constructed something on the
   ,herreshof principle1 but instead of 
having one simple pipe in one   very    
long coil1 ,i used a series of very     
small and light pipes1   connected in   
such a manner that there was a rapid    
circulation   through the whole--the    
tubes increasing in size and number as  
the   steam was generated4 ,i intended  
that there should be a pressure of      
about #ajj lbs4 more on the feed-water  
end of the series than on the   steam   
end1 and ,i believed that this          
difference in pressure would   be       
sufficient to ensure a direct and       
positive circulation through   every    
tube in the series4 ,the first boiler   
was exceedingly light1   but the        
workmanship1 as far as putting the tubes
 together was   concerned1 was very bad1
 and it was found impossible to so      
adjust   the supply of water as to make 
dry steam without overheating and       
destroying the tubes4    #8,before      
making another boiler ,i obtained a     

quantity of copper   tubes1 about #h    
feet long1  inch external diameter1 and 
#a_/ej of an   inch thick4 ,i subjected 
about #ajj of these tubes to an internal
   pressure of #a ton per square inch of
 cold kerosene oil1 and as   none of    
them leaked ,i did not test any more1   
but commenced my   experiments by       
placing some of them in a white-hot     
petroleum fire4   ,i found that ,i could
 evaporate as much as #bf lbs4 of water 
per   square foot of heating surface per
 hour1 and that with a forced           
circulation1 although the quantity of   
water passing was very small   but      
positive1 there was no danger of        
overheating4 ,i conducted many          
experiments with a pressure of over #djj
 lbs4 per square inch1   but none of the
 tubes failed4 ,i then mounted a single 
tube in a   white-hot furnace1 also with
 a water circulation1 and found that    
it only burst under steam at a pressure 
of #a1fej lbs4 per square   inch4 ,a    
large boiler1 having about #hjj square  

feet of heating   surface1 including the
 feed-water heater1 was then            
constructed4   ,this boiler is about #d 
feet wide at the bottom1 #h feet long   
and   #f feet high4 ,it weighs1 with the
 casing1 the dome1 and the smoke   stack
 and connections1 a little less than    
#a1jjj lbs4 ,the water   first passes   
through a system of small tubes-- inch  
in diameter   and #a_/fj inch           
thick--which were placed at the top of  
the boiler   and immediately over the   
large tubes4444 ,this feed-water heater 
is   found to be very effective4 ,it    
utilises the heat of the products   of  
combustion after they have passed       
through the boiler proper and   greatly 
reduces their temperature1 while the    
feed-water enters the   boiler at a     
temperature of about #bej ,f4 ,a forced 
circulation is   maintained in the      
boiler1 the feed-water entering through 
a spring   valve1 the spring valve being
 adjusted in such a manner that the     
pressure on the water is always #cj lbs4

 per square inch in excess   of the     
boiler pressure4 ,this fall of #cj lbs4 
in pressure acts upon   the surrounding 
hot water which has already passed      
through the   tubes1 and drives it down 
through a vertical outside tube1 thus   
ensuring a positive and rapid           
circulation through all the tubes4      
,this apparatus is found to act         
extremely well4'  ,thus ,maxim1 who with
 this engine as power for his large     
aeroplane achieved free flight once1 as 
a matter of experiment1 though for what 
distance or time the machine was        
actually off the ground is matter for   
debate1 since it only got free by       
tearing up the rails which were to have 
held it down in the experiment4 ,here1  
however1 was a steam engine which was   
practicable for use in the air1         
obviously1 and only the rapid success of
 the internal combustion engine         
prevented the steam-producing type from 
being developed toward perfection4  ,the
 first designers of internal combustion 

engines1 knowing nothing of the petrol  
of these days1 constructed their        
examples with a view to using gas as    
fuel4 ,as far back as #ahgb ,herr ,paul 
,haenlein obtained a speed of about #aj 
miles an hour with a balloon propelled  
by an internal combustion engine1 of    
which the fuel was gas obtained from the
 balloon itself4 ,the engine in this    
case was of the ,lenoir type1 developing
 some #f horse-power1 and1 obviously1   
,haenlein's flights were purely         
experimental and of short duration1     
since he used the gas that sustained him
 and decreased the lifting power of his 
balloon with every stroke of the piston 
of his engine4 ,no further progress     
appears to have been made with the      
gas-consuming type of internal          
combustion engine for work with         
aircraft2 this type has the disadvantage
 of requiring either a gas-producer or a
 large storage capacity for the gas1    
either of which makes the total weight  
of the power plant much greater than    

that of a petrol engine4 ,the latter    
type also requires less attention when  
working1 and the fuel is more convenient
 both for carrying and in the matter of 
carburation4  ,the first airship        
propelled by the present-day type of    
internal combustion engine was          
constructed by ,baumgarten and ,wolfert 
in #ahgi at ,leipzig1 the engine being  
made by ,daimler with a view to working 
on benzine--petrol as a fuel had not    
then come to its own4 ,the construction 
of this engine is interesting since it  
was one of the first of ,daimler's make1
 and it was the development brought     
about by the experimental series of     
which this engine was one that led to   
the success of the motor-car in very few
 years1 incidentally leading to that    
fining down of the internal combustion  
engine which has facilitated the        
development of the aeroplane with such  
remarkable rapidity4 ,owing to the      
faulty construction of the airship no   
useful information was obtained from    

,daimler's pioneer installation1 as the 
vessel got out of control immediately   
after it was first launched for flight1 
and was wrecked4 ,subsequent attempts at
 mechanically-propelled flight by       
,wolfert ended1 in #ahig1 in the balloon
 being set on fire by an explosion of   
benzine vapour1 resulting in the death  
of both the aeronauts4  ,daimler1 from  
#ahhb onward1 devoted his attention to  
the perfecting of the small1 high-speed 
petrol engine for motor-car work1 and   
owing to his efforts1 together with     
those of other pioneer engine-builders1 
the motor-car was made a success4 ,in a 
few years the weight of this type of    
engine was reduced from near on a       
hundred pounds per horse-power to less  
than a tenth of that weight1 but        
considerable further improvement had to 
be made before an engine suitable for   
use with aircraft was evolved4  ,the    
increase in power of the engines fitted 
to airships has made steady progress    
from the outset2 ,haenlein's engine     

developed about #f horse-power2 the     
,santos-,dumont airship of #ahih was    
propelled by a motor of #d horse-power2 
in #aijb the ,lebaudy airship was fitted
 with an engine of #dj horse-power1     
while1 in #aiaj1 the ,lebaudy brothers  
fitted an engine of nearly #cjj         
horse-power to the airship they were    
then constructing--#a1djj horse-power   
was common in the airships of the ,war  
period1 and the later ,british rigids   
developed yet more4  ,before passing on 
to consideration of the petrol-driven   
type of engine1 it is necessary to      
accord brief mention to the dirigible   
constructed in #ahhd by ,gaston and     
,albert ,tissandier1 who at ,grenelle1  
,france1 achieved a directed flight in a
 wind of #h miles an hour1 obtaining    
their power for the propeller from #a   
horse-power ,siemens electric motor1    
which weighed #aba lbs4 and took its    
current from a bichromate battery       
weighing #dif lbs4 ,a two-bladed        
propeller1 #i feet in diameter1 was     

used1 and the horse-power output was    
estimated to have run up to #a as the   
dirigible successfully described a      
semicircle in a wind of #h miles an     
hour1 subsequently making headway       
transversely to a wind of #g miles an   
hour4 ,the dirigible with which this    
motor was used was of the conventional  
pointed-end type1 with a length of #ib  
feet1 diameter of #cj feet1 and capacity
 of #cg4ddj cubic feet of gas4          
,commandant ,renard1 of the ,french army
 balloon corps1 followed up             
,tissandier's attempt in the next       
year--#ahhe--making a trip from         
,chalais-,meudon to ,paris and returning
 to the point of departure quite        
successfully4 ,in this case the motive  
power was derived from an electric plant
 of the type used by the ,tissandiers1  
weighing altogether #a1agd lbs41 and    
developing #i horse-power4 ,a speed of  
#ad miles an hour was attained with this
 dirigible1 which had a length of #afe  
feet1 diameter of #bg feet1 and capacity

 of #fe1hcf cubic feet of gas4          
,reverting to the petrol-fed type again1
 it is to be noted that ,santos-,dumont 
was practically the first to develop the
 use of the ordinary automobile engine  
for air work--his work is of such       
importance that it has been considered  
best to treat of it as one whole1 and   
details of the power plants are included
 in the account of his experiments4     
,coming to the ,lebaudy brothers and    
their work1 their engine of #aijb was a 
#dj horse-power ,daimler1               
four-cylindered2 it was virtually a     
large edition of the ,daimler car       
engine1 the arrangement of the various  
details being on the lines usually      
adopted for the standard ,daimler type  
of that period4 ,the cylinders were     
fully water-jacketed1 and no special    
attempt toward securing lightness for   
air-work appears to have been made4     
,the fining down of detail that brought 
weight to such limits as would fit the  
engine for work with heavier-than-air   

craft appears to have waited for the    
brothers ,wright4 ,toward the end of    
#aijc they fitted to their first        
practicable flying machine the engine   
which made the historic first aeroplane 
flight2 this engine developed #cj       
horse-power1 and weighed only about #g  
lbs4 per horse-power developed1 its     
design and workmanship being far ahead  
of any previous design in this respect1 
with the exception of the remarkable    
engine1 designed by ,manly1 installed in
 ,langley's ill-fated aeroplane--or     
#8aerodrome1' as he preferred to call   
it--tried in #aijc4  ,the light weight  
of the ,wright brothers' engine did not 
necessitate a high number of revolutions
 per minute to get the requisite power2 
the speed was only #a1cjj revolutions   
per minute1 which1 with a piston stroke 
of #c4id inches1 was quite moderate4    
,four cylinders were used1 the cylinder 
diameter being #d4db inches2 the engine 
was of the vertical type1 arranged to   
drive two propellers at a rate of about 

#cej revolutions per minute1 gearing    
being accomplished by means of chain    
drive from crank-shaft end to propeller 
spindle4  ,the methods adopted by the   
,wrights for obtaining a light-weight   
engine were of considerable interest1 in
 view of the fact that the honour of    
first achieving flight by means of the  
driven plane belongs to them--unless    
,ader actually flew as he claimed4 ,the 
cylinders of this first ,wright engine  
were separate castings of steel1 and    
only the barrels were jacketed1 this    
being done by fixing loose1 thin        
aluminium covers round the outside of   
each cylinder4 ,the combustion head and 
valve pockets were cast together with   
the cylinder barrel1 and were not water 
cooled4 ,the inlet valves were of the   
automatic type1 arranged on the tops of 
the cylinders1 while the exhaust valves 
were also overhead1 operated by rockers 
and push-rods4 ,the pistons and piston  
rings were of the ordinary type1 made of
 cast-iron1 and the connecting rods were

 circular in form1 with a hole drilled  
down the middle of each to reduce the   
weight4  ,necessity for increasing power
 and ever lighter weight in relation to 
the power produced has led to the       
evolution of a number of different      
designs of internal combustion engines4 
,it was quickly realised that increasing
 the number of cylinders on an engine   
was a better way of getting more power  
than that of increasing the cylinder    
diameter1 as the greater number of      
cylinders gives better torque--even     
turning effect--as well as keeping down 
the weight--this latter because the     
bigger cylinders must be more stoutly   
constructed than the small sizes2 this  
fact has led to the construction of     
engines having as many as eighteen      
cylinders1 arranged in three parallel   
rows in order to keep the length of     
crank-shaft within reasonable limits4   
,the aero engine of to-day may1 roughly1
 be divided into four classes3 these are
 the ,v type1 in which two rows of      

cylinders are set parallel at a certain 
angle to each other2 the radial type1   
which consists of cylinders arranged    
radially and remaining stationary while 
the crankshaft revolves2 the rotary1    
where the cylinders are disposed round a
 common centre and revolve round a      
stationary shaft1 and the vertical type1
 of four or six cylinders--seldom more  
than this--arranged in one row4 ,a      
modification of the ,v type is the      
eighteen-cylindered engine--the ,sunbeam
 is one of the best examples--in which  
three rows of cylinders are set parallel
 to each other1 working on a common     
crankshaft4 ,the development of these   
four types started with that of the     
vertical--the simplest of all2 the ,v1  
radial1 and rotary types came after the 
vertical1 in the order given4  ,the     
evolution of the motor-car led to the   
adoption of the vertical type of        
internal combustion engine in preference
 to any other1 and it followed naturally
 that vertical engines should be first  

used for aeroplane propulsion1 as by    
taking an engine that had been developed
 to some extent1 and adapting it to its 
new work1 the problem of mechanical     
flight was rendered easier than if a    
totally new type had had to be evolved4 
,it was quickly realised--by the        
,wrights1 in fact--that the minimum of  
weight per horse-power was the prime    
requirement for the successful          
development of heavier-than-air         
machines1 and at the same time it was   
equally apparent that the utmost        
reliability had to be obtained from the 
engine1 while a third requisite was     
economy1 in order to reduce the weight  
of petrol necessary for flight4         
,illustration3 ,two ,cylinder ,daimler  
,engine1 #ahig4  ,daimler1 working      
steadily toward the improvement of the  
internal combustion engine1 had made    
considerable progress by the end of last
 century4 ,his two-cylinder engine of   
#ahig was approaching to the present-day
 type1 except as regards the method of  

ignition2 the cylinders had #c4ee inch  
diameter1 with a #d4ge inch piston      
stroke1 and the engine was rated at #d4e
 brake horse-power1 though it probably  
developed more than this in actual      
running at its rated speed of #hjj      
revolutions per minute4 ,power was      
limited by the inlet and exhaust        
passages1 which1 compared with          
present-day practice1 were very small4  
,the heavy castings of which the engine 
was made up are accounted for by the    
necessity for considering foundry       
practice of the time1 for in #ahig      
castings were far below the present-day 
standard4 ,the crank-case of this       
two-cylinder vertical ,daimler engine   
was the only part made of aluminium1 and
 even with this no attempt was made to  
attain lightness1 for a circular flange 
was cast at the bottom to form a stand  
for the engine during machining and     
erection4 ,the general design can be    
followed from the sectional views1 and  
these will show1 too1 that ignition was 

by means of a hot tube on the cylinder  
head1 which had to be heated with a     
blow-lamp before starting the engine4   
,with all its well known and hated      
troubles1 at that time tube ignition had
 an advantage over the magneto1 and the 
coil and accumulator system1 in         
reliability2 sparking plugs1 too1 were  
not so reliable then as they are now4   
,daimler fitted a very simple type of   
carburettor to this engine1 consisting  
only of a float with a single jet placed
 in the air passage4 ,it may be said    
that this twin-cylindered vertical was  
the first of the series from which has  
been evolved the ,mercedes-,daimler car 
and airship engines1 built in sizes up  
to and even beyond #bdj horse-power4    
,in #aija the development of the petrol 
engine was still so slight that it did  
not admit of the construction1 by any   
,european maker1 of an engine weighing  
less than #ab lbs4 per horse-power4     
,manly1 working at the instance of      
,professor ,langley1 produced a         

five-cylindered radial type engine1 in  
which both the design and workmanship   
showed a remarkable advance in          
construction4 ,at #iej revolutions per  
minute it developed #eb4d horse-power1  
weighing only #b4d pounds per           
horse-power2 it was a very remarkable   
achievement in engine design1           
considering the power developed in      
relation to the total weight1 and it    
was1 too1 an interruption in the        
development of the vertical type which  
showed that there were other equally    
great possibilities in design4  ,in     
,england1 the first vertical aero engine
 of note was that designed by ,green1   
the cylinder dimensions being #d4ae inch
 diameter by #d4ge stroke--a fairly     
complete idea of this engine can be     
obtained from the accompanying diagrams4
 ,at a speed of #a1afj revolutions per  
minute it developed #ce brake           
horse-power1 and by accelerating up to  
#a1bbj revolutions per minute a maximum 
of #dj brake horse-power could be       

obtained--the first-mentioned was the   
rated working speed of the engine for   
continuous runs4 ,a flywheel1 weighing  
#bc4e lbs41 was fitted to the engine1   
and this1 together with the ignition    
system1 brought the weight up to #ahh   
lbs41 giving #e4d lbs4 per horse-power4 
,in comparison with the engine fitted to
 the ,wrights' aeroplane a greater power
 was obtained from approximately the    
same cylinder volume1 and an appreciable
 saving in weight had also been         
effected4 ,the illustration shows the   
arrangement of the vertical valves at   
the top of the cylinder and the overhead
 cam shaft1 while the position of the   
carburettor and inlet pipes can be also 
seen4 ,the water jackets were formed by 
thin copper casings1 each cylinder being
 separate and having its independent    
jacket rigidly fastened to the cylinder 
at the top only1 thus allowing for free 
expansion of the casing2 the joint at   
the bottom end was formed by sliding the
 jacket over a rubber ring4 ,each       

cylinder was bolted to the crank-case   
and set out of line with the crankshaft1
 so that the crank has passed over the  
upper dead centre by the time that the  
piston is at the top of its stroke when 
receiving the full force of fuel        
explosion4 ,the advantage of this desaxe
 setting is that the pressure in the    
cylinder acts on the crank-pin with a   
more effective leverage during that part
 of the stroke when that pressure is    
highest1 and in addition the side       
pressure of the piston on the cylinder  
wall1 due to the thrust of the          
connecting rod1 is reduced4 ,possibly   
the charging of the cylinder is also    
more complete by this arrangement1 owing
 to the slower movement of the piston at
 the bottom of its stroke allowing time 
for an increased charge of mixture to   
enter the cylinder4  ,a #fj horse-power 
engine was also made1 having four       
vertical cylinders1 each with a diameter
 of #e4e inches and stroke of #e4ge     
inches1 developing its rated power at   

#a1ajj revolutions per minute4 ,by      
accelerating up to #a1bjj revolutions   
per minute #gj brake horse-power could  
be obtained1 and a maximum of #hj brake 
horse-power was actually attained with  
the type4 ,the flywheel1 fitted as with 
the original #ce horse-power engine1    
weighed #cg lbs42 with this and with the
 ignition system the total weight of the
 engine was only #bej lbs41 or #d4b lbs4
 per horse-power at the normal rating4  
,in this design1 however1 low weight in 
relation to power was not the ruling    
factor1 for ,green gave more attention  
to reliability and economy of fuel      
consumption1 which latter was           
approximately #j4f pint of petrol per   
brake horse-power per hour4 ,both the   
oil for lubricating the bearings and the
 water for cooling the cylinders were   
circulated by pumps1 and all parts of   
the valve gear1 etc41 were completely   
enclosed for protection from dust4      
,illustration3 ,green ,vertical ,engine 
#ce b4 h4 p4  ,a later development of   

the ,green engine was a six-cylindered  
vertical1 cylinder dimensions being #e4e
 inch diameter by #f inch stroke1       
developing #abj brake horse-power when  
running at #a1bej revolutions per       
minute4 ,the total weight of the engine 
with ignition system was #ddj lbs41 or  
#c4ff lbs4 per horse-power4 ,one of     
these engines was used on the machine   
which1 in #aiji1 won the prize of       
#a1jjj for the first circular mile      
flight1 and it may be noted1 too1 that  
,s4 ,f4 ,cody1 making the circuit of    
,england in #aiaa1 used a four-cylinder 
,green engine4 ,again1 it was a ,green  
engine that in #aiad won the #e1jjj     
prize offered for the best aero engine  
in the ,naval and ,military aeroplane   
engine competition4  ,manufacture of the
 ,green engines1 in the period of the   
,war1 had standardised to the production
 of three types4 ,two of these were     
six-cylinder models1 giving respectively
 #ajj and #aej brake horse-power1 and   
the third was a twelve-cylindered model 

rated at #bge brake horse-power4  ,in   
#aiaj ,j4 ,s4 ,critchley compiled a list
 showing the types of engine then being 
manufactured2 twenty-two out of a total 
of seventy-six were of the              
four-cylindered vertical type1 and in   
addition to these there were two        
six-cylindered verticals4 ,the sizes of 
the four-cylinder types ranged from #bf 
up to #aah brake horse-power2 fourteen  
of them developed less than #ej         
horse-power1 and only two developed over
 #ajj horse-power4  ,it became apparent1
 even in the early stages of            
heavier-than-air flying1 that           
four-cylinder engines did not produce   
the even torque that was required for   
the rotation of the power shaft1 even   
though a flywheel was fitted to the     
engine4 ,with this type of engine the   
breakage of air-screws was of frequent  
occurrence1 and an engine having a more 
regular rotation was sought1 both for   
this and to avoid the excessive         
vibration often experienced with the    

four-cylinder type4 ,another point that 
forced itself on engine builders was    
that the increased power which was      
becoming necessary for the propulsion of
 aircraft made an increase in the number
 of cylinders essential1 in order to    
obtain a light engine4 ,an instance of  
the weight reduction obtainable in using
 six cylinders instead of four is shown 
in ,critchley's list1 for one of the    
four-cylinder engines developed #aah4e  
brake horse-power and weighed #a1ajj    
lbs41 whereas a six-cylinder engine by  
the same manufacturer developed #aag4e  
brake horse-power with a weight of #hhj 
lbs41 the respective cylinder dimensions
 being #g4dh diameter by #i4jf stroke   
for the four-cylinder engine1 and #f4a  
diameter by #g4bh stroke for the        
six-cylinder type4  ,a list of aeroplane
 engines1 prepared in #aiab by ,graham  
,clark1 showed that1 out of the total   
number of #aab engines then being       
manufactured1 forty-two were of the     
vertical type1 and of this number       

twenty-four had four-cylinders while    
sixteen were six-cylindered4 ,the       
,german aeroplane engine trials were    
held a year later1 and sixty-six engines
 entered the competition1 fourteen of   
these being made with air-cooled        
cylinders4 ,all of the ten engines that 
were chosen for the final trials were of
 the water-cooled type1 and the first   
place was won by a ,benz four-cylinder  
vertical engine which developed #ajb    
brake horse-power at #a1bhh revolutions 
per minute4 ,the cylinder dimensions of 
this engine were #e4a inch diameter by  
#g4a inch stroke1 and the weight of the 
engine worked out at #c4d lbs4 per brake
 horse-power4 ,during the trials the    
full-load petrol consumption was #j4ec  
pint per horse-power per hour1 and the  
amount of lubricating oil used was      
#j4jche pint per brake horse-power per  
hour4 ,in general construction this     
,benz engine was somewhat similar to the
 ,green engine already described2 the   
overhead valves1 fitted in the tops of  

the cylinders1 were similarly arranged1 
as was the cam-shaft2 two springs were  
fitted to each of the valves to guard   
against the possibility of the engine   
being put out of action by breakage of  
one of the springs1 and ignition was    
obtained by two high-tension magnetos   
giving simultaneous sparks in each      
cylinder by means of two sparking       
plugs--this dual ignition reduced the   
possibility of ignition troubles4 ,the  
cylinder jackets were made of welded    
sheet steel so fitted around the        
cylinder that the head was also         
water-cooled1 and the jackets were      
corrugated in the middle to admit of    
independent expansion4 ,even the        
lubrication system was duplicated1 two  
sets of pumps being used1 one to        
circulate the main supply of lubricating
 oil1 and the other to give a continuous
 supply of fresh oil to the bearings1 so
 that if the supply from one pump failed
 the other could still maintain         
effective lubrication4  ,development of 

the early ,daimler type brought about   
the four-cylinder vertical              
,mercedes-,daimler engine of #he        
horse-power1 with cylinders of #e4e     
diameter with #e4i inch stroke1 the     
cylinders being cast in two pairs4 ,the 
overhead arrangement of valves was      
adopted1 and in later designs push-rods 
were eliminated1 the overhead cam-shaft 
being adopted in their place4 ,by #aiad 
the four-cylinder ,mercedes-,daimler had
 been partially displaced from favour by
 a six-cylindered model1 made in two    
sizes2 the first of these gave a nominal
 brake horse-power of #hj1 having       
cylinders of #d4a inches diameter by    
#e4e inches stroke2 the second type     
developed #ajj horse-power with         
cylinders #d4g inches in diameter and   
#e4e inches stroke1 both types being run
 at #a1bjj revolutions per minute4 ,the 
cylinders of both these types were cast 
in pairs1 and1 instead of the water     
jackets forming part of the casting1 as 
in the design of the original           

four-cylinder ,mercedes-,daimler engine1
 they were made of steel welded to      
flanges on the cylinders4 ,steel        
pistons1 fitted with cast-iron rings1   
were used1 and the overhead arrangement 
of valves and cam-shaft was adopted4    
,about #j4ee pint per brake horse-power 
per hour was the usual fuel consumption 
necessary to full load running1 and the 
engine was also economical as regards   
the consumption of lubricating oil1 the 
lubricating system being #8forced' for  
all parts1 including the cam-shaft4 ,the
 shape of these engines was very well   
suited for work with aircraft1 being    
narrow enough to admit of a stream-line 
form being obtained1 while all the      
accessories could be so mounted as to   
produce little or no wind resistance1   
and very little obstruction to the      
pilot's view4  ,the eight-cylinder      
,mercedes-,daimler engine1 used for     
airship propulsion during the ,war1     
developed #bdj brake horse-power at     
#a1ajj revolutions per minute2 the      

cylinder dimensions were #f4hh diameter 
by #f4e stroke--one of the instances in 
which the short stroke in relation to   
bore was very noticeable4  ,other       
instances of successful vertical        
design--the types already detailed are  
fully sufficient to give particulars of 
the type generally--are the ,panhard1   
,chenu1 ,maybach1 ,n4,a4,g41 ,argus1    
,mulag1 and the well-known              
,austro-,daimler1 which by #aiag was    
being copied in every combatant country4
 ,there are also the later ,wright      
engines1 and in ,america the ,wisconsin 
six-cylinder vertical1 weighing well    
under #d lbs4 per horse-power1 is       
evidence of the progress made with this 
first type of aero engine to develop4   
,,ii  ,,the ,,vee ,,type   ,an offshoot 
from the vertical type1 doubling the    
power of this with only a very          
slight--if any--increase in the length  
of crankshaft1 the ,vee or diagonal type
 of aero engine leaped to success       
through the insistent demand for greater

 power4 ,although the design came after 
that of the vertical engine1 by #aiaj1  
according to ,critchley's list of aero  
engines1 there were more ,vee type      
engines being made than any other type1 
twenty-five sizes being given in the    
list1 with an average rating of #egd    
brake horse-power4  ,the arrangement of 
the cylinders in ,vee form over the     
crankshaft1 enabling the pistons of each
 pair of opposite cylinders to act upon 
the same crank pin1 permits of a very   
short1 compact engine being built1 and  
also permits of reduction of the weight 
per horse-power1 comparing this with    
that of the vertical type of engine1    
with one row of cylinders4 ,further1 at 
the introduction of this type of engine 
it was seen that crankshaft vibration1  
an evil of the early vertical engines1  
was practically eliminated1 as was the  
want of longitudinal stiffness that     
characterised the higher-powered        
vertical engines4  ,of the ,vee type    
engines shown in ,critchley's list in   

#aiaj1 nineteen different sizes were    
constructed with eight cylinders1 and   
with horse-powers ranging from thirty to
 just over the hundred2 the lightest of 
these weighed #bi lbs4 per              
horse-power--a considerable advance in  
design on the average vertical engine1  
in this respect of weight per           
horse-power4 ,there were also two       
sixteen-cylinder engines of ,vee design1
 the larger of which developed #acd     
horse-power with a weight of only #b    
lbs4 per brake horse-power4 ,subsequent 
developments have indicated that this   
type1 with the further development from 
it of the double-,vee1 or engine with   
three rows of cylinders1 is likely to   
become the standard design of aero      
engine where high powers are required4  
,the construction permits of placing    
every part so that it is easy of access1
 and the form of the engine implies very
 little head resistance1 while it can be
 placed on the machine--supposing that  
machine to be of the single-engine      

type--in such a way that the view of the
 pilot is very little obstructed while  
in flight4  ,an even torque1 or great   
uniformity of rotation1 is transmitted  
to the air-screw by these engines1 while
 the design also permits of such good   
balance of the engine itself that       
vibration is practically eliminated4    
,the angle between the two rows of      
cylinders is varied according to the    
number of cylinders1 in order to give   
working impulses at equal angles of     
rotation and thus provide even torque2  
this angle is determined by dividing the
 number of degrees in a circle by the   
number of cylinders in either row of the
 engine4 ,in an eight-cylindered ,vee   
type engine1 the angle between the      
cylinders is #ij degrees2 if it is a    
twelve-cylindered engine1 the angle     
drops to #fj degrees4  ,one of the      
earliest of the ,british-built ,vee type
 engines was an eight-cylinder #ej      
horse-power by the ,wolseley ,company1  
constructed in #aijh with a cylinder    

bore of #cge inches and stroke of #e    
inches1 running at a normal speed of    
#a1cej revolutions per minute4 ,with    
this engine1 a gearing was introduced to
 enable the propeller to run at a lower 
speed than that of the engine1 the      
slight loss of efficiency caused by the 
friction of the gearing being           
compensated by the slower speed of the  
air-screw1 which had higher efficiency  
than would have been the case if it had 
been run at the engine speed4 ,the ratio
 of the gearing--that is1 the speed of  
the air-screw relatively to that of the 
engine1 could be chosen so as to suit   
exactly the requirements of the         
air-screw1 and the gearing itself1 on   
this engine1 was accomplished on the    
half-speed shaft actuating the valves4  
,very soon after this first design had  
been tried out1 a second ,vee type      
engine was produced which1 at #a1bjj    
revolutions per minute1 developed #fj   
horse-power2 the size of this engine was
 practically identical with that of its 

forerunner1 the only exception being an 
increase of half an inch in the cylinder
 stroke--a very long stroke of piston in
 relation to the bore of the cylinder4  
,in the first of these two engines1     
which was designed for airship          
propulsion1 the weight had been about #h
 lbs4 per brake horse-power1 no special 
attempt appearing to have been made to  
fine down for extreme lightness2 in this
 #fj horse-power design1 the weight was 
reduced to #fa lbs4 per horse-power1    
counting the latter as normally rated2  
the engine actually gave a maximum of   
#ge brake horse-power1 reducing the     
ratio of weight to power very           
considerably below the figure given4    
,illustration3 ,sikh1 #ab-;cylinder     
magneto1 end view4  ,illustration3      
,sikh1 #ab-;cylinder1 side view4  ,the  
accompanying diagram illustrates a later
 ,wolseley model1 end elevation1 the    
eight-cylindered #abj horse-power ,vee  
type aero engine of the early war       
period4 ,with this engine1 each crank   

pin has two connecting rods bearing on  
it1 these being placed side by side and 
connected to the pistons of opposite    
cylinders1 and the two cylinders of the 
pair are staggered by an amount equal to
 the width of the connecting            
rod-bearing1 to afford accommodation for
 the rods4 ,the crankshaft was a nickel 
chrome steel forging1 machined hollow1  
with four crank pins set at #ahj degrees
 to each other1 and carried in three    
bearings lined with anti-friction metal4
 ,the connecting rods were made of      
tubular nickel chrome steel1 and the    
pistons of drawn steel1 each being      
fitted with four piston rings4 ,of these
 the two rings nearest to the piston    
head were of the ordinary cast-iron     
type1 while the others were of phosphor 
bronze1 so arranged as to take the side 
thrust of the piston4 ,the cylinders    
were of steel1 arranged in two groups or
 rows of four1 the angular distance     
between them being #ij degrees4 ,in the 
space above the crankshaft1 between the 

cylinder rows1 was placed the           
valve-operating mechanism1 together with
 the carburettor and ignition system1   
thus rendering this a very compact and  
accessible engine4 ,the combustion heads
 of the cylinders were made of          
cast-iron1 screwed into the steel       
cylinder barrels2 the water-jacket was  
of spun aluminium1 with one end fitting 
over the combustion head and the other  
free to slide on the cylinder2 the      
water-joint at the lower end was made   
tight by a ,dermatine ring carried      
between small flanges formed on the     
cylinder barrel4 ,overhead valves were  
adopted1 and in order to make these as  
large as possible the combustion chamber
 was made slightly larger in diameter   
than the cylinder1 and the valves set at
 an angle4 ,dual ignition was fitted in 
each cylinder1 coil and accumulator     
being used for starting and as a reserve
 in case of failure of the high-tension 
magneto system fitted for normal        
running4 ,there was a double set of     

lubricating pumps1 ensuring continuity  
of the oil supply to all the bearings of
 the engine4  ,illustration3 ,end ,view 
of ,wolseley #abj horse-power ,vee-type 
,engine4  ,the feature most noteworthy  
in connection with the running of this  
type of engine was its flexibility2 the 
normal output of power was obtained with
 #a1aej revolutions per minute of the   
crankshaft1 but1 by accelerating up to  
#a1djj revolutions1 a maximum of #adg   
brake horse-power could be obtained4    
,the weight was about #e lbs4 per       
horse-power1 the cylinder dimensions    
being #e inches bore by #g inches       
stroke4 ,economy in running was         
obtained1 the fuel consumption being    
#jeh pint per brake horse-power per hour
 at full load1 with an expenditure of   
about #jjge pint lubricating oil per    
brake horse-power per hour4  ,another   
,wolseley ,vee type that was            
standardised was a #ij horse-power      
eight-cylinder engine running at #a1hjj 
revolutions per minute1 with a reducing 

gear introduced by fitting the air-screw
 on the half-speed shaft4 ,first made   
semi-cooled--the exhaust valve was left 
air-cooled1 and then entirely           
water-jacketed--this engine demonstrated
 the advantage of full water cooling1   
for under the latter condition the same 
power was developed with cylinders a    
quarter of an inch less in diameter than
 in the semi-cooled pattern2 at the same
 time the weight was brought down to #d 
lbs4 per horse-power4  ,a different but 
equally efficient type of ,vee design   
was the ,dorman engine1 of which an end 
elevation is shown2 this developed #hj  
brake horse-power at a speed of #a1cjj  
revolutions per minute1 with a cylinder 
bore of #e inches2 each cylinder was    
made in cast-iron in one piece with the 
combustion chamber1 the barrel only     
being water-jacketed4 ,auxiliary exhaust
 ports were adopted1 the holes through  
the cylinder wall being uncovered by the
 piston at the bottom of its stroke--the
 piston1 #dge inches in length1 was     

longer than its stroke1 so that these   
ports were covered when it was at the   
top of the cylinder4 ,the exhaust       
discharged through the ports into a belt
 surrounding the cylinder1 the belts on 
the cylinders being connected so that   
the exhaust gases were taken through a  
single pipe4 ,the air was drawn through 
the crank case1 before reaching the     
carburettor1 this having the effect of  
cooling the oil in the crank case as    
well as warming the air and thus        
assisting in vaporising the petrol for  
each charge of the cylinders4 ,the inlet
 and exhaust valves were of the overhead
 type1 as may be gathered from the      
diagram1 and in spite of cast-iron      
cylinders being employed a light design 
was obtained1 the total weight with     
radiator1 piping1 and water being only  
#ee lbs4 per horse-power4               
,illustration3 ,dorman #hj horse-power  
,vee-type ,engine4  ,here was the       
antithesis of the ,wolseley type in the 
matter of bore in relation to stroke2   

from about #aijg up to the beginning of 
the war1 and even later1 there was      
controversy as to which type--that in   
which the bore exceeded the stroke1 or  
vice versa--gave greater efficiency4    
,the short-stroke enthusiasts pointed to
 the high piston speed of the           
long-stroke type1 while those who       
favoured the latter design contended    
that full power could not be obtained   
from each explosion in the short-stroke 
type of cylinder4 ,it is now generally  
conceded that the long-stroke engine    
yields higher efficiency1 and in        
addition to this1 so far as car engines 
are concerned1 the method of rating     
horse-power in relation to bore without 
taking stroke into account has given the
 long-stroke engine an advantage1 actual
 horse-power with a long stroke engine  
being in excess of the nominal rating4  
,this may have had some influence on    
aero engine design1 but1 however this   
may have been1 the long-stroke engine   
has gradually come to favour1 and its   

rival has taken second place4  ,for some
 time pride of place among ,british ,vee
 type engines was held by the ,sunbeam  
,company1 which1 owing to the genius of 
,louis ,coatalen1 together with the very
 high standard of construction          
maintained by the firm1 achieved records
 and fame in the middle and later       
periods of the war4 ,their #bbe         
horse-power twelve-cylinder engine ran  
at a normal speed of #b1jjj revolutions 
per minute2 the air-screw was driven    
through gearing at half this speed1 its 
shaft being separate from the timing    
gear and carried in ball-bearings on the
 nose-piece of the engine4 ,the         
cylinders were of cast-iron1 entirely   
water-cooled2 a thin casing formed the  
water-jacket1 and a very light design   
was obtained1 the weight being only #cb 
lbs4 per horse-power4 ,the first engine 
of ,sunbeam design had eight cylinders  
and developed #aej horse-power at #b1jjj
 revolutions per minute2 the final type 
of ,vee design produced during the war  

was twelve-cylindered1 and yielded #caj 
horse-power with cylinders #dc inches   
bore by #fd inches stroke4 ,evidence in 
favour of the long-stroke engine is     
afforded in this type as regards economy
 of working2 under full load1 working at
 #b1jjj revolutions per minute1 the     
consumption was #jee pints of fuel per  
brake horse-power per hour1 which seems 
to indicate that the long stroke        
permitted of full use being made of the 
power resulting from each explosion1 in 
spite of the high rate of speed of the  
piston4  ,developing from the ,vee type1
 the eighteen-cylinder #dge brake       
horse-power engine1 designed during the 
war1 represented for a time the limit of
 power obtainable from a single plant4  
,it was water-cooled throughout1 and the
 ignition to each cylinder was          
duplicated2 this engine proved fully    
efficient1 and economical in fuel       
consumption4 ,it was largely used for   
seaplane work1 where reliability was    
fully as necessary as high power4  ,the 

abnormal needs of the war period brought
 many ,british firms into the ranks of  
,vee-type engine-builders1 and1 apart   
from those mentioned1 the most notable  
types produced are the ,rolls-,royce and
 the ,napier4 ,the first mentioned of   
these firms1 previous to #aiad1 had     
concentrated entirely on car engines1   
and their very high standard of         
production in this department of        
internal combustion engine work led1    
once they took up the making of aero    
engines1 to extreme efficiency both of  
design and workmanship4 ,the first      
experimental aero engine1 of what became
 known as the #8,eagle' type1 was of    
,vee design--it was completed in ,march 
of #aiae--;and was so successful that it
 was standardised for quantity          
production4 ,how far the original was   
from the perfection subsequently        
ascertained is shown by the steady      
increase in developed horse-power of the
 type2 originally designed to develop   
#bjj horse-power1 it was developed and  

improved before its first practical     
trial in ,october of #aiae1 when it     
developed #bee horse-power on a brake   
test4 ,research and experiment produced 
still further improvements1 for1 without
 any enlargement of the dimensions1 or  
radical alteration in design1 the power 
of the engine was brought up to #bff    
horse-power by ,march of #aiaf1 the rate
 of revolutions of #a1hjj per minute    
being maintained throughout4 ,july1     
#aiaf1 gave #bhd horse-power2 by the end
 of the year this had been increased to 
#cbb horse-power2 by ,september of #aiag
 the increase was to #cej horse-power1  
and by ,february of #aiah the #8,eagle' 
type of engine was rated at #cfj        
horse-power1 at which standard it       
stayed4 ,but there is no more remarkable
 development in engine design than this1
 a #ge per cent increase of power in the
 same engine in a period of less than   
three years4  ,to meet the demand for a 
smaller type of engine for use on       
training machines1 the ,rolls-,royce    

firm produced the #8,hawk' ,vee-type    
engine of #ajj horse-power1 and1        
intermediately between this and the     
#8,eagle1' the #8,falcon' engine came to
 being with an original rated           
horse-power of #bje at #a1hjj           
revolutions per minute1 in ,april of    
#aiaf4 ,here was another case of growth 
of power in the same engine through     
research1 almost similar to that of the 
#8,eagle' type1 for by ,july of #aiah   
the #8,falcon' was developing #bhe      
horse-power with no radical alteration  
of design4 ,finally1 in response to the 
constant demand for increase of power in
 a single plant1 the ,rolls-,royce      
company designed and produced the       
#8,condor' type of engine1 which yielded
 #fjj horse-power on its first test in  
,august of #aiah4 ,the cessation of     
hostilities and consequent falling off  
in the demand for extremely high-powered
 plants prevented the #8,condor' being  
developed to its limit1 as had been the 
#8,falcon' and #8,eagle' types4  ,the   

#8,eagle' engine was fitted to the two  
,handley-,page aeroplanes which made    
flights from ,england to ,india--it was 
virtually standard on the ,handley-,page
 bombers of the later ,war period1      
though to a certain extent the ,american
 #8,liberty' engine was also used4 ,its 
chief record1 however1 is that of being 
the type fitted to the ,vickers-,vimy   
aeroplane which made the first ,atlantic
 flight1 covering the distance of #a1hhj
 miles at a speed averaging #aag miles  
an hour4  ,the ,napier ,company         
specialised on one type of engine from  
the outset1 a power plant which became  
known as the #8,lion' engine1 giving    
#dej horse-power with twelve cylinders  
arranged in three rows of four each4    
,considering the engine as #8dry1' or   
without fuel and accessories1 an        
abnormally light weight per             
horse-power--only #ahi lbs4--was        
attained when running at the normal rate
 of revolution4 ,the cylinders and      
water-jackets are of steel1 and there is

 fitted a detachable aluminium cylinder 
head containing inlet and exhaust valves
 and valve actuating mechanism2 pistons 
are of aluminium alloy1 and there are   
two inlet and two exhaust valves to each
 cylinder1 the whole of the valve       
mechanism being enclosed in an oil-tight
 aluminium case4 ,connecting rods and   
crankshaft are of steel1 the latter     
being machined from a solid steel       
forging and carried in five roller      
bearings and one plain bearing at the   
forward end4 ,the front end of the      
crank-case encloses reduction gear for  
the propeller shaft1 together with the  
shaft and bearings4 ,there are two      
suction and one pressure type oil pumps 
driven through gears at half-engine     
speed1 and two #ab spark magnetos1      
giving #b sparks in each cylinder4  ,the
 cylinders are set with the central row 
vertical1 and the two side rows at      
angles of #fj degrees each2 cylinder    
bore is #e inches1 and stroke #e inches2
 the normal rate of revolution is #a1cej

 per minute1 and the reducing gear gives
 one revolution of the propeller shaft  
to #aeb revolutions of crankshaft4 ,fuel
 consumption is #jdh lbs4 of fuel per   
brake horse-power hour at full load1 and
 oil consumption is #jjbj lbs4 per brake
 horse-power hour4 ,the dry weight of   
the engine1 complete with propeller     
boss1 carburettors1 and induction pipes1
 is #hej lbs41 and the gross weight in  
running order1 with fuel and oil for six
 hours working1 is #b1fga lbs41         
exclusive of cooling water4             
,illustration3 ,napier #8,lion4'        
,illustration3 ,napier #8,lion4'  ,to   
this engine belongs an altitude record  
of #cj1ejj feet1 made at ,martlesham1   
near ,ipswich1 on ,january #bnd1 #aiai1 
by ,captain ,lang1 ,r4,a4,f41 the climb 
being accomplished in #ff minutes #ae   
seconds4 ,previous to this1 the altitude
 record was held by an ,italian pilot1  
who made #be1hjj feet in an hour and #eg
 minutes in #aiaf4 ,lang's climb was    
stopped through the pressure of air1 at 

the altitude he reached1 being          
insufficient for driving the small      
propellers on the machine which worked  
the petrol and oil pumps1 or he might   
have made the height said to have been  
attained by ,major ,schroeder on        
,february #bgth1 #aibj1 at ,dayton1     
,ohio4 ,schroeder is said to have       
reached an altitude of #cf1jbj feet on a
 ,napier biplane1 and1 owing to failure 
of the oxygen supply1 to have lost      
consciousness1 fallen five miles1       
righted his machine when #b1jjj feet in 
the air1 and alighted successfully4     
,major ,schroeder is an ,american4      
,turning back a little1 and considering 
other than ,british design of ,vee and  
double-,vee or #8,broad arrow' type of  
engine1 the ,renault firm from the      
earliest days devoted considerable      
attention to the development of this    
type1 their air-cooled engines having   
been notable examples from the earliest 
days of heavier-than-air machines4 ,in  
#aiaj they were making three sizes of   

eight-cylindered ,vee-type engines1 and 
by #aiae they had increased to the      
manufacture of five sizes1 ranging from 
#be to #ajj brake horse-power1 the      
largest of the five sizes having twelve 
cylinders but still retaining the       
air-cooled principle4 ,the ,de ,dion    
firm1 also1 made ,vee-type engines in   
#aiad1 being represented by an #hj      
horse-power eight-cylindered engine1    
air-cooled1 and a #aej horse-power1 also
 of eight cylinders1 water-cooled1      
running at a normal rate of #a1fjj      
revolutions per minute4 ,another notable
 example of ,french construction was the
 ,panhard and ,levassor #ajj horse-power
 eight-cylinder ,vee engine1 developing 
its rated power at #a1ejj revolutions   
per minute1 and having the--for that    
time--low weight of #dd lbs4 per        
horse-power4  ,american ,vee design has 
followed the ,british fairly closely2   
the ,curtiss ,company produced          
originally a #ge horse-power            
eight-cylinder ,vee type running at     

#a1bjj revolutions per minute1          
supplementing this with a #agj          
horse-power engine running at #a1fjj    
revolutions per minute1 and later with a
 twelve-cylinder model ,vee type1       
developing #cjj horse-power at #a1ejj   
revolutions per minute1 with cylinder   
bore of #e inches and stroke of #g      
inches4 ,an exceptional type of         
,american design was the ,kemp ,vee     
engine of #hj horse-power1 in which the 
cylinders were cooled by a current of   
air obtained from a fan at the forward  
end of the engine4 ,with cylinders of   
#dbe inches bore and #dge inches stroke1
 the rated power was developed at #a1aej
 revolutions per minute1 and with the   
engine complete the weight was only #dge
 lbs4 per horse-power4     ,,iii  ,,the 
,,radial ,,type   ,the very first       
successful design of internal combustion
 aero engine made was that of ,charles  
,manly1 who built a five-cylinder radial
 engine in #aija for use with ,langley's
 #8aerodrome1' as the latter inventor   

decided to call what has since become   
known as the aeroplane4 ,manly made a   
number of experiments1 and finally      
decided on radial design1 in which the  
cylinders are so rayed round a central  
crank-pin that the pistons act          
successively upon it2 by this           
arrangement a very short and compact    
engine is obtained1 with a minimum of   
weight1 and a regular crankshaft        
rotation and perfect balance of inertia 
forces4  ,when ,manly designed his      
radial engine1 high-speed internal      
combustion engines were in their        
infancy1 and the difficulties in        
construction can be partly realised when
 the lack of manufacturing methods for  
this high-class engine work1 and the    
lack of experimental data on the various
 materials1 are taken into account4     
,during its tests1 ,manly's engine      
developed #ebd brake horse-power at a   
speed of #iej revolutions per minute1   
with the remarkably low weight of only  
#bd lbs4 per horse-power2 this latter   

was increased to #cf lbs4 when the      
engine was completed by the addition of 
ignition system1 radiator1 petrol tank1 
and all accessories1 together with the  
cooling water for the cylinders4        
,illustration3 ,cross ,section1 ,manly's
 #e ,cylinder ,radial ,engine4  ,in     
,manly's engine the cylinders were of   
steel1 machined outside and inside to   
#a_/af of an inch thickness2 on the side
 of the cylinder1 at the top end1 the   
valve chamber was brazed1 being machined
 from a solid forging4 ,the casing which
 formed the water-jacket was of sheet   
steel1 #a_/ej of an inch in thickness1  
and this also was brazed on the cylinder
 and to the valve chamber4 ,automatic   
inlet valves were fitted1 and the       
exhaust valves were operated by a cam   
which had two points1 #ahj degrees      
apart2 the cam was rotated in the       
opposite direction to the engine at     
one-quarter engine speed4 ,ignition was 
obtained by using a one-spark coil and  
vibrator for all cylinders1 with a      

distributor to select the right cylinder
 for each spark--this was before the    
days of the high-tension magneto and the
 almost perfect ignition systems that   
makers now employ4 ,the scheme of       
ignition for this engine was originated 
by ,manly himself1 and he also designed 
the sparking plugs fitted in the tops of
 the cylinders4 ,through fear of trouble
 resulting if the steel pistons worked  
on the steel cylinders1 cast-iron liners
 were introduced in the latter1 #a_/af  
of an inch thick4  ,the connecting rods 
of this engine were of virtually the    
same type as is employed on nearly all  
modern radial engines4 ,the rod for one 
cylinder had a bearing along the whole  
of the crank pin1 and its end enclosed  
the pin2 the other four rods had        
bearings upon the end of the first rod1 
and did not touch the crank pin4 ,the   
accompanying diagram shows this         
construction1 together with the means   
employed for securing the ends of the   
four rods--the collars were placed in   

position after the rods had been put on4
 ,the bearings of these rods did not    
receive any of the rubbing effect due to
 the rotation of the crank pin1 the     
rubbing on them being only that of the  
small angular displacement of the rods  
during each revolution2 thus there was  
no difficulty experienced with the      
lubrication4  ,another early example of 
the radial type of engine was the       
,french ,anzani1 of which type one was  
fitted to the machine with which        
,bleriot first crossed the ,english     
,channel--this was of #be horse-power4  
,the earliest ,anzani engines were of   
the three-cylinder fan type1 one        
cylinder being vertical1 and the other  
two placed at an angle of #gb degrees on
 each side1 as the possibility of       
over-lubrication of the bottom cylinders
 was feared if a regular radial         
construction were adopted4 ,in order to 
overcome the unequal balance of this    
type1 balance weights were fitted inside
 the crank case4  ,the final development

 of this three-cylinder radial was the  
#8,y' type of engine1 in which the      
cylinders were regularly disposed at    
#abj degrees apart2 the bore was #da1   
stroke #dg inches1 and the power        
developed was #cj brake horse-power at  
#a1cjj revolutions per minute4          
,critchley's list of aero engines being 
constructed in #aiaj shows twelve of the
 radial type1 with powers of between #ad
 and #ajj horse-power1 and with from    
three to ten cylinders--this last is    
probably the greatest number of         
cylinders that can be successfully      
arranged in circular form4 ,of the      
twelve types of #aiaj1 only two were    
water-cooled1 and it is to be noted that
 these two ran at the slowest speeds and
 had the lowest weight per horse-power  
of any4  ,the ,anzani radial was        
considerably developed1 special         
attention being paid to this type by its
 makers1 and by #aiad the ,anzani list  
comprised seven different sizes of      
air-cooled radials4 ,of these the       

largest had twenty cylinders1 developing
 #bjj brake horse-power--it was         
virtually a double radial--and the      
smallest was the original #cj           
horse-power three-cylinder design4 ,a   
six-cylinder model was formed by a      
combination of two groups of three      
cylinders each1 acting upon a           
double-throw crankshaft2 the two crank  
pins were set at #ahj degrees to each   
other1 and the cylinder groups were     
staggered by an amount equal to the     
distance between the centres of the     
crank pins4 ,ten-cylinder radial engines
 are made with two groups of five       
cylinders acting upon two crank pins set
 at #ahj degrees to each other2 the     
largest ,anzani #8ten' developed #abe   
horse-power at #a1bjj revolutions per   
minute1 the ten cylinders being each #de
 inches in bore with stroke of #ei      
inches1 and the weight of the engine    
being #cg lbs4 per horse-power4 ,in the 
#bjj horse-power ,anzani radial the     
cylinders are arranged in four groups of

 five each1 acting on two crank pins4   
,the bore of the cylinders in this      
engine is the same as in the            
three-cylinder1 but the stroke is       
increased to #ee inches4 ,the rated     
power is developed at #a1cjj revolutions
 per minute1 and the engine complete    
weighs #cd lbs4 per horse-power4  ,with 
this #bjj horse-power ,anzani1 a petrol 
consumption of as low as #jdi lbs4 of   
fuel per brake horse-power per hour has 
been obtained1 but the consumption of   
lubricating oil is compensatingly high1 
being up to one-fifth of the fuel used4 
,the cylinders are set desax with the   
crank shaft1 and are of cast-iron1      
provided with radiating ribs for        
air-cooling2 they are attached to the   
crank case by long bolts passing through
 bosses at the top of the cylinders1 and
 connected to other bolts at right      
angles through the crank case4 ,the tops
 of the cylinders are formed flat1 and  
seats for the inlet and exhaust valves  
are formed on them4 ,the pistons are    

cast-iron1 fitted with ordinary         
cast-iron spring rings4 ,an aluminium   
crank case is used1 being made in two   
halves connected together by bolts1     
which latter also attach the engine to  
the frame of the machine4 ,the          
crankshaft is of nickel steel1 made     
hollow1 and mounted on ball-bearings in 
such a manner that practically a        
combination of ball and plain bearings  
is obtained2 the central web of the     
shaft is bent to bring the centres of   
the crank pins as close together as     
possible1 leaving only room for the     
connecting rods1 and the pins are #ahj  
degrees apart4 ,nickel steel valves of  
the cone-seated1 poppet type are fitted1
 the inlet valves being automatic1 and  
those for the exhaust cam-operated by   
means of push-rods4 ,with an engine     
having such a number of cylinders a very
 uniform rotation of the crankshaft is  
obtained1 and in actual running there   
are always five of the cylinders giving 
impulses to the crankshaft at the same  

time4  ,an interesting type of pioneer  
radial engine was the ,farcot1 in which 
the cylinders were arranged in a        
horizontal plane1 with a vertical       
crankshaft which operated the air-screw 
through bevel gearing4 ,this was an     
eight-cylinder engine1 developing #fd   
horse-power at #a1bjj revolutions per   
minute4 ,the ,r4,e4,p4 type1 in the     
early days1 was a #8fan' engine1 but the
 designer1 ,m4 ,robert ,pelterie1 turned
 from this design to a seven-cylinder   
radial1 which at #a1ajj revolutions per 
minute gave #ie horse-power4 ,several   
makers entered into radial engine       
development in the years immediately    
preceding the ,war1 and in #aiad there  
were some twenty-two different sizes and
 types1 ranging from #cj to #fjj        
horse-power1 being made1 according to   
report2 the actual construction of the  
latter size at this time1 however1 is   
doubtful4  ,probably the best example of
 radial construction up to the outbreak 
of ,war was the ,salmson 7,canton-,unne7

 water-cooled1 of which in #aiad six    
sizes were listed as available4 ,of     
these the smallest was a seven-cylinder 
#ij horse-power engine1 and the largest1
 rated at #fjj horse-power1 had eighteen
 cylinders4 ,these engines1 during the  
,war1 were made under licence by the    
,dudbridge ,ironworks in ,great         
,britain4  ,illustration3 ,section of   
#bjj h4p4 ,salmson ,radial ,engine4     
,the accompanying diagram shows the     
construction of the cylinders in the    
#bjj horse-power size1 showing the      
method of cooling1 and the arrangement  
of the connecting rods4 ,a patent       
planetary gear1 also shown in the       
diagram1 gives exactly the same stroke  
to all the pistons4 ,the complete engine
 has fourteen cylinders1 of forged steel
 machined all over1 and so secured to   
the crank case that any one can be      
removed without parting the crank case4 
,the water-jackets are of spun copper1  
brazed on to the cylinder1 and          
corrugated so as to admit of free       

expansion2 the water is circulated by   
means of a centrifugal pump4 ,the       
pistons are of cast-iron1 each fitted   
with three rings1 and the connecting    
rods are of high-grade steel1 machined  
all over and fitted with bushes of      
phosphor bronze2 these rods are         
connected to a central collar1 carried  
on the crank pin by two ball-bearings4  
,the crankshaft has a single throw1 and 
is made in two parts to allow the cage  
for carrying the big end-pins of the    
connecting rods to be placed in         
position4  ,the casing is in two parts1 
on one of which the brackets for fixing 
the engine are carried1 while the other 
part carries the valve-gear4 ,bolts     
secure the two parts together4 ,the     
mechanically-operated steel valves on   
the cylinders are each fitted with      
double springs1 and the valves are      
operated by rods and levers4 ,two       
,zenith carburettors are fitted on the  
rear half of the crank case1 and short  
induction pipes are led to each         

cylinder2 each of the carburettors is   
heated by the exhaust gases4 ,ignition  
is by two high-tension magnetos1 and a  
compressed air self-starting arrangement
 is provided4 ,two oil pumps are fitted 
for lubricating purposes1 one of which  
forces oil to the crankshaft and        
connecting-rod bearings1 while the      
second forces oil to the valve gear1 the
 cylinders being so arranged that the   
oil which flows along the walls cannot  
flood the lower cylinders4 ,this engine 
operates upon a six-stroke cycle1 a     
rather rare arrangement for internal    
combustion engines of the electrical    
ignition type2 this is done in order to 
obtain equal angular intervals for the  
working impulses imparted to the        
rotating crankshaft1 as the cylinders   
are arranged in groups of seven1 and all
 act upon the one crankshaft4 ,the      
angle1 therefore1 between the impulses  
is #gg-a_/g degrees4 ,a diagram is inset
 giving a side view of the engine1 in   
order to show the grouping of the       

cylinders4  ,illustration3 ,salmson #bjj
 h4p4 ,radial ,engine1 ,side ,view4     
,the #fjj horse-power ,salmson engine   
was designed with a view to fitting to  
airships1 and was in reality two        
nine-cylindered engines1 with a gear-box
 connecting them2 double air-screws were
 fitted1 and these were so arranged that
 either or both of them might be driven 
by either or both engines2 in addition  
to this1 the two engines were complete  
and separate engines as regards         
carburation and ignition1 etc41 so that 
they could be run independently of each 
other4 ,the cylinders were exceptionally
 #8long stroke1' being #ei inches bore  
to #hbg inches stroke1 and the rated    
power was developed at #a1bjj           
revolutions per minute1 the weight of   
the complete engine being only #da lbs4 
per horse-power at the normal rating4   
,a type of engine specially devised for 
airship propulsion is that in which the 
cylinders are arranged horizontally     
instead of vertically1 the main         

advantages of this form being the       
reduction of head resistance and less   
obstruction to the view of the pilot4 ,a
 casing1 mounted on the top of the      
engine1 supports the air-screw1 which is
 driven through bevel gearing from the  
upper end of the crankshaft4 ,with this 
type of engine a better rate of         
air-screw efficiency is obtained by     
gearing the screw down to half the rate 
of revolution of the engine1 this giving
 a more even torque4 ,the petrol        
consumption of the type is very low1    
being only #jdh lbs4 per horse-power per
 hour1 and equal economy is claimed as  
regards lubricating oil1 a consumption  
of as little as #jjd lbs4 per           
horse-power per hour being claimed4     
,certain ,american radial engines were  
made previous to #aiad1 the principal   
being the ,albatross six-cylinder       
engines of #ej and #ajj horse-powers4   
,of these the smaller size was          
air-cooled1 with cylinders of #de inches
 bore and #e inches stroke1 developing  

the rated power at #a1bcj revolutions   
per minute1 with a weight of about #e   
lbs4 per horse-power4 ,the #ajj         
horse-power size had cylinders of #ee   
inches bore1 developing its rated power 
at #a1bcj revolutions per minute1 and   
weighing only #bge lbs4 per horse-power4
 ,this engine was markedly similar to   
the six-cylindered ,anzani1 having all  
the valves mechanically operated1 and   
with auxiliary exhaust ports at the     
bottoms of the cylinders1 overrun by    
long pistons4 ,these ,albatross engines 
had their cylinders arranged in two     
groups of three1 with each group of     
three pistons operating on one of two   
crank pins1 each #ahj degrees apart4    
,the radial type of engine1 thanks to   
,charles ,manly1 had the honour of being
 first in the field as regards aero     
work4 ,its many advantages1 among which 
may be specially noted the very short   
crankshaft as compared with vertical1   
,vee1 or #8broad arrow' type of engine1 
and consequent greater rigidity1 ensure 

it consideration by designers of to-day1
 and render it certain that the type    
will endure4 ,enthusiasts claim that the
 #8broad arrow' type1 or ,vee with a    
third row of cylinders inset between the
 original two1 is just as much a        
development from the radial engine as   
from the vertical and resulting ,vee2   
however this may be1 there is a place   
for the radial type in air-work for as  
long as the internal combustion engine  
remains as a power plant4     ,,iv      
,,the ,,rotary ,,type   ,m4 ,laurent    
,seguin1 the inventor of the ,gnome     
rotary aero engine1 provided as great a 
stimulus to aviation as any that was    
given anterior to the war period1 and   
brought about a great advance in        
mechanical flight1 since these well-made
 engines gave a high-power output for   
their weight1 and were extremely smooth 
in running4 ,in the rotary design the   
crankshaft of the engine is stationary1 
and the cylinders1 crank case1 and all  
their adherent parts rotate2 the working

 is thus exactly opposite in principle  
to that of the radial type of aero      
engine1 and the advantage of the rotary 
lies in the considerable flywheel effect
 produced by the revolving cylinders1   
with consequent evenness of torque4     
,another advantage is that air-cooling1 
adopted in all the ,gnome engines1 is   
rendered much more effective by the     
rotation of the cylinders1 though there 
is a tendency to distortion through the 
leading side of each cylinder being more
 efficiently cooled than the opposite   
side2 advocates of other types are prone
 to claim that the air resistance to the
 revolving cylinders absorbs some #aj   
per cent of the power developed by the  
rotary engine1 but that has not         
prevented the rotary from attaining to  
great popularity as a prime mover4      
,there were1 in the list of aero engines
 compiled in #aiaj1 five rotary engines 
included1 all air-cooled4 ,three of     
these were ,gnome engines1 and two of   
the make known as #8,international4'    

,they ranged from #bae to #abc          
horse-power1 the latter being rated at  
only #ah lbs4 weight per brake          
horse-power1 and having fourteen        
cylinders1 #dcc inches in diameter by   
#dg inches stroke4 ,by #aiad forty-three
 different sizes and types of rotary    
engine were being constructed1 and in   
#aiac five rotary type engines were     
entered for the series of aeroplane     
engine trials held in ,germany4 ,minor  
defects ruled out four of these1 and    
only the ,german ,bayerischer ,motoren  
,flugzeugwerke completed the seven-hour 
test prescribed for competing engines4  
,its large fuel consumption barred this 
engine from the final trials1 the       
consumption being some #jie pints per   
horse-power per hour4 ,the consumption  
of lubricating oil1 also was excessive1 
standing at #jabc pint per horse-power  
per hour4 ,the engine gave #cge         
effective horse-power during its trial1 
and the loss due to air resistance was  
#df horse-power1 about #aa per cent4    

,the accompanying drawing shows the     
construction of the engine1 in which the
 seven cylinders are arranged radially  
on the crank case2 the method of        
connecting the pistons to the crank pins
 can be seen4 ,the mixture is drawn     
through the crank chamber1 and to enter 
the cylinder it passes through the two  
automatic valves in the crown of the    
piston2 the exhaust valves are situated 
in the tops of the cylinders1 and are   
actuated by cams and push-rods4 ,cooling
 of the cylinder is assisted by the     
radial rings1 and the diameter of these 
rings is increased round the hottest    
part of the cylinder4 ,when long flights
 are undertaken the advantage of the    
light weight of this engine is more than
 counterbalanced by its high fuel and   
lubricating oil consumption1 but there  
are other makes which are much better   
than this seven-cylinder ,german in     
respect of this4  ,illustration3        
,bayerischer #g ,cylinder ,rotary       
,engine1 #aiac4  ,rotation of the       

cylinders in engines of this type is    
produced by the side pressure of the    
pistons on the cylinder walls1 and in   
order to prevent this pressure from     
becoming abnormally large it is         
necessary to keep the weight of the     
piston as low as possible1 as the       
pressure is produced by the tangential  
acceleration and retardation of the     
piston4 ,on the upward stroke the       
circumferential velocity of the piston  
is rapidly increased1 which causes it to
 exert a considerable tangential        
pressure on the side of the cylinder1   
and on the return stroke there is a     
corresponding retarding effect due to   
the reduction of the circumferential    
velocity of the piston4 ,these side     
pressures cause an appreciable increase 
in the temperatures of the cylinders and
 pistons1 which makes it necessary to   
keep the power rating of the engines    
fairly low4  ,seguin designed his first 
,gnome rotary as a #cd horse-power      
engine when run at a speed of #a1cjj    

revolutions per minute4 ,it had five    
cylinders1 and the weight was #ci lbs4  
per horse-power4 ,a seven-cylinder model
 soon displaced this first engine1 and  
this latter1 with a total weight of #afe
 lbs41 gave #fae horse-power4 ,the      
cylinders were machined out of solid    
nickel chrome-steel ingots1 and the     
machining was carried out so that the   
cylinder walls were under  of an inch in
 thickness4 ,the pistons were cast-iron1
 fitted each with two rings1 and the    
automatic inlet valve to the cylinder   
was placed in the crown of the piston4  
,the connecting rods1 of #8,h' section1 
were of nickel chrome-steel1 and the    
large end of one rod1 known as the      
#8master-rod' embraced the crank pin2 on
 the end of this rod six hollow steel   
pins were carried1 and to these the     
remaining six connecting-rods were      
attached4 ,the crankshaft of the engine 
was made of nickel chrome-steel1 and was
 in two parts connected together at the 
crank pin2 these two parts1 after the   

master-rod had been placed in position  
and the other connecting rods had been  
attached to it1 were firmly secured4    
,the steel crank case was made in five  
parts1 the two central ones holding the 
cylinders in place1 and on one side     
another of the five castings formed a   
cam-box1 to the outside of which was    
secured the extension to which the      
air-screw was attached4 ,on the other   
side of the crank case another casting  
carried the thrust-box1 and the whole   
crank case1 with its cylinders and gear1
 was carried on the fixed crank shaft by
 means of four ball-bearings1 one of    
which also took the axial thrust of the 
air-screw4  ,for these engines1 castor  
oil is the lubricant usually adopted1   
and it is pumped to the crankshaft by   
means of a gear-driven oil pump2 from   
this shaft the other parts of the engine
 are lubricated by means of centrifugal 
force1 and in actual practice sufficient
 unburnt oil passes through the         
cylinders to lubricate the exhaust      

valve1 which partly accounts for the    
high rate of consumption of lubricating 
oil4 ,a very simple carburettor of the  
floatless1 single-spray type was used1  
and the mixture was passed along the    
hollow crankshaft to the interior of the
 crank case1 thence through the         
automatic inlet valves in the tops of   
the pistons to the combustion chambers  
of the cylinders4 ,ignition was by means
 of a high-tension magneto specially    
geared to give the correct timing1 and  
the working impulses occurred at equal  
angular intervals of #ajbhe degrees4    
,the ignition was timed so that the     
firing spark occurred when the cylinder 
was #bf degrees before the position in  
which the piston was at the outer end of
 its stroke1 and this timing gave a     
maximum pressure in the cylinder just   
after the piston had passed this        
position4  ,by #aiac1 eight different   
sizes of the ,gnome engine were being   
constructed1 ranging from #de to #ahj   
brake horse-power2 four of these were   

single-crank engines1 one having nine   
and the other three having seven        
cylinders4 ,the remaining four were     
constructed with two cranks2 three of   
them had fourteen cylinders apiece1     
ranged in groups of seven1 acting on the
 cranks1 and the one other had eighteen 
cylinders ranged in two groups of nine1 
acting on its two cranks4 ,cylinders of 
the two-crank engines are so arranged   
7in the fourteen-cylinder type7 that    
fourteen equal angular impulses occur   
during each cycle2 these engines are    
supported on bearings on both sides of  
the engine1 the air-screw being placed  
outside the front support4 ,in the      
eighteen-cylinder model the impulses    
occur at each #dj degrees of angular    
rotation of the cylinders1 securing an  
extremely even rotation of the          
air-screw4  ,in #aiac the ,gnome        
,monosoupape engine was introduced1 a   
model in which the inlet valve to the   
cylinder was omitted1 while the piston  
was of the ordinary cast-iron type4 ,a  

single exhaust valve in the cylinder    
head was operated in a manner similar to
 that on the previous ,gnome engines1   
and the fact of this being the only     
valve on the cylinder gave the engine   
its name4 ,each cylinder contained ports
 at the bottom which communicated with  
the crank chamber1 and were overrun by  
the piston when this was approaching the
 bottom end of its stroke4 ,during the  
working cycle of the engine the exhaust 
valve was opened early to allow the     
exhaust gases to escape from the        
cylinder1 so that by the time the piston
 overran the ports at the bottom the    
pressure within the cylinder was        
approximately equal to that in the crank
 case1 and practically no flow of gas   
took place in either direction through  
the ports4 ,the exhaust valve remained  
open as usual during the succeeding     
up-stroke of the piston1 and the valve  
was held open until the piston had      
returned through about one-third of its 
downward stroke1 thus permitting fresh  

air to enter the cylinder4 ,the exhaust 
valve then closed1 and the downward     
motion of the piston1 continuing1 caused
 a partial vacuum inside the cylinder2  
when the piston overran the ports1 the  
rich mixture from the crank case        
immediately entered4 ,the cylinder was  
then full of the mixture1 and the next  
upward stroke of the piston compressed  
the charge2 upon ignition the working   
cycle was repeated4 ,the speed variation
 of this engine was obtained by varying 
the extent and duration of the opening  
of the exhaust valves1 and was          
controlled by the pilot by hand-operated
 levers acting on the valve tappet      
rollers4 ,the weight per horse-power of 
these engines was slightly less than    
that of the two-valve type1 while the   
lubrication of the gudgeon pin and      
piston showed an improvement1 so that a 
lower lubricating oil consumption was   
obtained4 ,the #ajj horse-power ,gnome  
,monosoupape was built with nine        
cylinders1 each #dcc inches bore by #ei 

inches stroke1 and it developed its     
rated power at #a1bjj revolutions per   
minute4  ,illustration3 ,clerget #aae   
h4p4 ,rotary ,aero ,engine1 ,side       
,elevation4  ,an engine of the rotary   
type1 almost as well known as the       
,gnome1 is the ,clerget1 in which both  
cylinders and crank case are made of    
steel1 the former having the usual      
radial fins for cooling4 ,in this type  
the inlet and exhaust valves are both   
located in the cylinder head1 and       
mechanically operated by push-rods and  
rockers4 ,pipes are carried from the    
crank case to the inlet valve casings to
 convey the mixture to the cylinders1 a 
carburettor of the central needle type  
being used4 ,the carburetted mixture is 
taken into the crank case chamber in a  
manner similar to that of the ,gnome    
engine4 ,pistons of aluminium alloy1    
with three cast-iron rings1 are fitted1 
the top ring being of the obturator     
type4 ,the large end of one of the nine 
connecting rods embraces the crank pin  

and the pressure is taken on two        
ball-bearings housed in the end of the  
rod4 ,this carries eight pins1 to which 
the other rods are attached1 and the    
main rod being rigid between the crank  
pin and piston pin determines the       
position of the pistons4 ,hollow        
connecting-rods are used1 and the       
lubricating oil for the piston pins     
passes from the crankshaft through the  
centres of the rods4 ,inlet and exhaust 
valves can be set quite independently of
 one another--a useful point1 since the 
correct timing of the opening of these  
valves is of importance4 ,the inlet     
valve opens #d degrees from top centre  
and closes after the bottom dead centre 
of the piston2 the exhaust valve opens  
#fh degrees before the bottom centre and
 closes #d degrees after the top dead   
centre of the piston4 ,the magnetos are 
set to give the spark in the cylinder at
 #be degrees before the end of the      
compression stroke--two high-tension    
magnetos are used2 if desired1 the      

second one can be adjusted to give a    
later spark for assisting the starting  
of the engine4 ,the lubricating oil pump
 is of the valveless two-plunger type1  
so geared that it runs at seven         
revolutions to #ajj revolutions of the  
engine2 by counting the pulsations the  
speed of the engine can be quickly      
calculated by multiplying the pulsations
 by #ajj and dividing by seven4 ,in the 
#aae horse-power nine-cylinder ,clerget 
the cylinders are #dg bore with a #fc   
inches stroke1 and the rated power of   
the engine is obtained at #a1bjj        
revolutions per minute4 ,the petrol     
consumption is #jge pint per horse-power
 per hour4  ,a third rotary aero engine1
 equally well known with the foregoing  
two1 is the ,le ,rhone1 made in four    
different sizes with power outputs of   
from #ej to #afj horse-power2 the two   
smaller sizes are single crank engines  
with seven and nine cylinders           
respectively1 and the larger sizes are  
of double-crank design1 being merely the

 two smaller sizes doubled--fourteen and
 eighteen-cylinder engines4 ,the inlet  
and exhaust valves are located in the   
cylinder head1 and both valves are      
mechanically operated by one push-rod   
and rocker1 radial pipes from crank case
 to inlet valve casing taking the       
mixture to the cylinders4 ,the exhaust  
valves are placed on the leading1 or    
air-screw side1 of the engine1 in order 
to get the fullest possible cooling     
effect4 ,the rated power of each type of
 engine is obtained at #a1bjj           
revolutions per minute1 and for all four
 sizes the cylinder bore is #dac inches1
 with a #ee inches piston stroke4 ,thin 
cast-iron liners are shrunk into the    
steel cylinders in order to reduce the  
amount of piston friction4 ,although the
 ,le ,rhone engines are constructed     
practically throughout of steel1 the    
weight is only #bi lbs4 per horse-power 
in the eighteen-cylinder type4          
,illustration3 ,gyro-,duplex ,rotary    
,engine1 ,cross ,section4  ,american    

enterprise in the construction of the   
rotary type is perhaps best illustrated 
in the #8,gyro' engine2 this was first  
constructed with inlet valves in the    
heads of the pistons1 after the ,gnome  
pattern1 the exhaust valves being in the
 heads of the cylinders4 ,the inlet     
valve in the crown of each piston was   
mechanically operated in a very         
ingenious manner by the oscillation of  
the connecting-rod4 ,the ,gyro-,duplex  
engine superseded this original design1 
and a small cross-section illustration  
of this is appended4 ,it is constructed 
in seven and nine-cylinder sizes1 with a
 power range of from #ej to #ajj        
horse-power2 with the largest size the  
low weight of #be lbs4 per horse-power  
is reached4 ,the design is of           
considerable interest to the internal   
combustion engineer1 for it embodies a  
piston valve for controlling auxiliary  
exhaust ports1 which also acts as the   
inlet valve to the cylinder4 ,the piston
 uncovers the auxiliary ports when it   

reaches the bottom of its stroke1 and at
 the end of the power stroke the piston 
is in such a position that the exhaust  
can escape over the top of it4 ,the     
exhaust valve in the cylinder head is   
then opened by means of the push-rod and
 rocker1 and is held open until the     
piston has completed its upward stroke  
and returned through more than half its 
subsequent return stroke4 ,when the     
exhaust valve closes1 the cylinder has a
 charge of fresh air1 drawn in through  
the exhaust valve1 and the further      
motion of the piston causes a partial   
vacuum2 by the time the piston reaches  
bottom dead centre the piston-valve has 
moved up to give communication between  
the cylinder and the crank case1        
therefore the mixture is drawn into the 
cylinder4 ,both the piston valve and    
exhaust valve are operated by cams      
formed on the one casting1 which rotates
 at seven-eighths engine speed for the  
seven-cylinder type1 and nine-tenths    
engine speed for the nine-cylinder      

engines4 ,each of these cams has four or
 five points respectively1 to suit the  
number of cylinders4  ,the steel        
cylinders are machined from solid       
forgings and provided with webs for     
air-cooling as shown4 ,cast-iron pistons
 are used1 and are connected to the     
crankshaft in the same manner as with   
the ,gnome and ,le ,rhone engines4      
,petrol is sprayed into the crank case  
by a small geared pump and the mixture  
is taken from there to the piston valves
 by radial pipes4 ,two separate pumps   
are used for lubrication1 one forcing   
oil to the crank-pin bearing and the    
other spraying the cylinders4  ,among   
other designs of rotary aero engines the
 ,e4,j4,c4 is noteworthy1 in that the   
cylinders and crank case of this engine 
rotate in opposite directions1 and two  
air-screws are used1 one being attached 
to the end of the crankshaft1 and the   
other to the crank case4 ,another       
interesting type is the ,burlat rotary1 
in which both the cylinders and         

crankshaft rotate in the same direction1
 the rotation of the crankshaft being   
twice that of the cylinders as regards  
speed4 ,this engine is arranged to work 
on the four-stroke cycle with the       
crankshaft making four1 and the         
cylinders two1 revolutions per cycle4   
,it would appear that the rotary type of
 engine is capable of but little more   
improvement--save for such devices as   
these of the last two engines mentioned1
 there is little that ,laurent ,seguin  
has not already done in the ,gnome type4
 ,the limitation of the rotary lies in  
its high fuel and lubricating oil       
consumption1 which renders it unsuited  
for long-distance aero work2 it was1 in 
the war period1 an admirable engine for 
such short runs as might be involved in 
patrol work #8over the lines1' and for  
similar purposes1 but the water-cooled  
,vee or even vertical1 with its much    
lower fuel consumption1 was and is to be
 preferred for distance work4 ,the      
rotary air-cooled type has its uses1 and

 for them it will probably remain among 
the range of current types for some time
 to come4 ,experience of matters        
aeronautical is sufficient to show1     
however1 that prophecy in any direction 
is most unsafe4     ,v  ,,the           
,,horizontally-,,opposed ,,engine       
,among the first internal combustion    
engines to be taken into use with       
aircraft were those of the              
horizontally-opposed four-stroke cycle  
type1 and1 in every case in which these 
engines were used1 their excellent      
balance and extremely even torque       
rendered them ideal--until the          
tremendous increase in power            
requirements rendered the type too long 
and bulky for placing in the fuselage of
 an aeroplane4 ,as power increased1     
there came a tendency toward placing    
cylinders radially round a central      
crankshaft1 and1 as in the case of the  
early ,anzani1 it may be said that the  
radial engine grew out of the horizontal
 opposed piston type4 ,there were1 in   

#aiaj--that is1 in the early days of    
small power units1 ten different sizes  
of the horizontally opposed engine      
listed for manufacture1 but increase in 
power requirements practically ruled out
 the type for air work4  ,the ,darracq  
firm were the leading makers of these   
engines in #aiaj2 their smallest size   
was a #bd horse-power engine1 with two  
cylinders each of #ea inches bore by #dg
 inches stroke4 ,this engine developed  
its rated power at #a1ejj revolutions   
per minute1 and worked out at a weight  
of #e lbs4 per horse-power4 ,with these 
engines the cranks are so placed that   
two regular impulses are given to the   
crankshaft for each cycle of working1 an
 arrangement which permits of very even 
balancing of the inertia forces of the  
engine4 ,the ,darracq firm also made a  
four-cylindered horizontal opposed      
piston engine1 in which two revolutions 
were given to the crankshaft per        
revolution1 at equal angular intervals4 
,the ,dutheil-,chambers was another     

engine of this type1 and had the        
distinction of being the second largest 
constructed4 ,at #a1jjj revolutions per 
minute it developed #ig horse-power2 its
 four cylinders were each of #dic inches
 bore by #aah inches stroke--an         
abnormally long stroke in comparison    
with the bore4 ,the weight--which owing 
to the build of the engine and its      
length of stroke was bound to be rather 
high1 actually amounted to #hb lbs4 per 
horse-power4 ,water cooling was adopted1
 and the engine was1 like the ,darracq  
four-cylinder type1 so arranged as to   
give two impulses per revolution at     
equal angular intervals of crankshaft   
rotation4  ,one of the first engines of 
this type to be constructed in ,england 
was the ,alvaston1 a water-cooled model 
which was made in #bj1 #cj1 and #ej     
brake horse-power sizes1 the largest    
being a four-cylinder engine4 ,all three
 sizes were constructed to run at #a1bjj
 revolutions per minute4 ,in this make  
the cylinders were secured to the crank 

case by means of four long tie bolts    
passing through bridge pieces arranged  
across the cylinder heads1 thus         
relieving the cylinder walls of all     
longitudinal explosion stresses4 ,these 
bridge pieces were formed from chrome   
vanadium steel and milled to an #8,h'   
section1 and the bearings for the       
valve-tappet were forged solid with     
them4 ,special attention was given to   
the machining of the interiors of the   
cylinders and the combustion heads1 with
 the result that the exceptionally high 
compression of #ie lbs4 per square inch 
was obtained1 giving a very flexible    
engine4 ,the cylinder heads were        
completely water-jacketed1 and copper   
water-jackets were also fitted round the
 cylinders4 ,the mechanically operated  
valves were actuated by specially shaped
 cams1 and were so arranged that only   
two cams were required for the set of   
eight valves4 ,the inlet valves at both 
ends of the engine were connected by a  
single feed-pipe to which the           

carburettor was attached1 the induction 
piping being arranged above the engine  
in an easily accessible position4       
,auxiliary air ports were provided in   
the cylinder walls so that the pistons  
overran them at the end of their stroke4
 ,a single vertical shaft running in    
ball-bearings operated the valves and   
water circulating pump1 being driven by 
spiral gearing from the crankshaft at   
half speed4 ,in addition to the         
excellent balance obtained with this    
engine1 the makers claimed with justice 
that the number of working parts was    
reduced to an absolute minimum4  ,in the
 two-cylinder ,darracq1 the steel       
cylinders were machined from solid1 and 
auxiliary exhaust ports1 overrun by the 
piston at the inner end of its stroke1  
were provided in the cylinder walls1    
consisting of a circular row of drilled 
holes--this arrangement was subsequently
 adopted on some of the ,darracq racing 
car engines4 ,the water jackets were of 
copper1 soldered to the cylinder walls2 

both the inlet and exhaust valves were  
located in the cylinder heads1 being    
operated by rockers and push-rods       
actuated by cams on the half-time shaft 
driven from one end of the crankshaft4  
,ignition was by means of a high-tension
 magneto1 and long induction pipes      
connected the ends of the cylinders to  
the carburettor1 the latter being placed
 underneath the engine4 ,lubrication was
 effected by spraying oil into the crank
 case by means of a pump1 and a second  
pump circulated the cooling water4      
,another good example of this type of   
engine was the ,eole1 which had eight   
opposed pistons1 each pair of which was 
actuated by a common combustion chamber 
at the centre of the engine1 two        
crankshafts being placed at the outer   
ends of the engine4 ,this reversal of   
the ordinary arrangement had two        
advantages2 it simplified induction1 and
 further obviated the need for cylinder 
heads1 since the explosion drove at two 
piston heads instead of at one piston   

head and the top of the cylinder2       
against this1 however1 the engine had to
 be constructed strongly enough to      
withstand the longitudinal stresses due 
to the explosions1 as the cranks are    
placed on the outer ends and the        
cylinders and crank-cases take the full 
force of each explosion4 ,each          
crankshaft drove a separate air-screw4  
,this pattern of engine was taken up by 
the ,dutheil-,chambers firm in the      
pioneer days of aircraft1 when the firm 
in question produced seven different    
sizes of horizontal engines4 ,the       
,demoiselle monoplane used by           
,santos-,dumont in #aiji was fitted with
 a two-cylinder1 horizontally-opposed   
,dutheil-,chambers engine1 which        
developed #be brake horse-power at a    
speed of #a1ajj revolutions per minute1 
the cylinders being of #e inches bore by
 #ea inches stroke1 and the total weight
 of the engine being some #abj lbs4 ,the
 crankshafts of these engines were      
usually fitted with steel flywheels in  

order to give a very even torque1 the   
wheels being specially constructed with 
wire spokes4 ,in all the                
,dutheil-,chambers engines water cooling
 was adopted1 and the cylinders were    
attached to the crank cases by means of 
long bolts passing through the          
combustion heads4  ,for their earliest  
machines1 the ,clement-,bayard firm     
constructed horizontal engines of the   
opposed piston type4 ,the best known of 
these was the #cj horse-power size1     
which had cylinders of #dg inches       
diameter by #ea inches stroke1 and gave 
its rated power at #a1bjj revolutions   
per minute4 ,in this engine the steel   
cylinders were secured to the crank case
 by flanges1 and radiating ribs were    
formed around the barrel to assist the  
air-cooling4 ,inlet and exhaust valves  
were actuated by push-rods and rockers  
actuated from the second motion shaft   
mounted above the crank case2 this shaft
 also drove the high-tension magneto    
with which the engine was fitted4 ,a    

ring of holes drilled round each        
cylinder constituted auxiliary ports    
which the piston uncovered at the inner 
end of its stroke1 and these were of    
considerable assistance not only in     
expelling exhaust gases1 but also in    
moderating the temperature of the       
cylinder and of the main exhaust valve  
fitted in the cylinder head4 ,a         
water-cooled ,clement-,bayard horizontal
 engine was also made1 and in this the  
auxiliary exhaust ports were not        
embodied2 except in this particular1 the
 engine was very similar to the         
water-cooled ,darracq4  ,the ,american  
,ashmusen horizontal engine1 developing 
#ajj horse-power1 is probably the       
largest example of this type            
constructed4 ,it was made with six      
cylinders arranged on each side of a    
common crank case1 with long bolts      
passing through the cylinder heads to   
assist in holding them down4 ,the       
induction piping and valve-operating    
gear were arranged below the engine1 and

 the half-speed shaft carried the       
air-screw4  ,messrs ,palons and ,beuse1 
,germans1 constructed a light-weight1   
air-cooled1 horizontally-opposed engine1
 two-cylindered4 ,in this the cast-iron 
cylinders were made very thin1 and were 
secured to the crank case by bolts      
passing through lugs cast on the outer  
ends of the cylinders2 the crankshaft   
was made hollow1 and holes were drilled 
through the webs of the connecting-rods 
in order to reduce the weight4 ,the     
valves were fitted to the cylinder      
heads1 the inlet valves being of the    
automatic type1 while the exhaust valves
 were mechanically operated from the    
cam-shaft by means of rockers and       
push-rods4 ,two carburettors were       
fitted1 to reduce the induction piping  
to a minimum2 one was attached to each  
combustion chamber1 and ignition was by 
the normal high-tension magneto driven  
from the half-time shaft4  ,there was   
also a ,nieuport two-cylinder air-cooled
 horizontal engine1 developing #ce      

horse-power when running at #a1cjj      
revolutions per minute1 and being built 
at a weight of #e lbs4 per horse-power4 
,the cylinders were of #ec inches       
diameter by #ei inches stroke2 the      
engine followed the lines of the        
,darracq and ,dutheil-,chambers pretty  
closely1 and thus calls for no special  
description4  ,the ,french ,kolb-,danvin
 engine of the horizontal type1 first   
constructed in #aije1 was probably the  
first two-stroke cycle engine designed  
to be applied to the propulsion of      
aircraft2 it never got beyond the       
experimental stage1 although its trials 
gave very good results4 ,stepped pistons
 were adopted1 and the charging pump at 
one end was used to scavenge the power  
cylinder at the other ends of the       
engine1 the transfer ports being formed 
in the main casting4 ,the openings of   
these ports were controlled at both ends
 by the pistons1 and the location of the
 ports appears to have made it necessary
 to take the exhaust from the bottom of 

one cylinder and from the top of the    
other4 ,the carburetted mixture was     
drawn into the scavenging cylinders1 and
 the usual deflectors were cast on the  
piston heads to assist in the scavenging
 and to prevent the fresh gas from      
passing out of the exhaust ports4       
,,vi  ,,the ,,two-,,stroke ,,cycle      
,,engine   ,although it has been little 
used for aircraft propulsion1 the       
possibilities of the two-stroke cycle   
engine render some study of it desirable
 in this brief review of the various    
types of internal combustion engine     
applicable both to aeroplanes and       
airships4 ,theoretically the two-stroke 
cycle engine--or as it is more commonly 
termed1 the #8two-stroke1' is the ideal 
power producer2 the doubling of impulses
 per revolution of the crankshaft should
 render it of very much more even torque
 than the four-stroke cycle types1      
while1 theoretically1 there should be a 
considerable saving of fuel1 owing to   
the doubling of the number of power     

strokes per total of piston strokes4 ,in
 practice1 however1 the inefficient     
scavenging of virtually every two-stroke
 cycle engine produced nullifies or more
 than nullifies its advantages over the 
four-stroke cycle engine2 in many types1
 too1 there is a waste of fuel gases    
through the exhaust ports1 and much has 
yet to be done in the way of experiment 
and resulting design before the         
two-stroke cycle engine can be regarded 
as equally reliable1 economical1 and    
powerful with its elder brother4  ,the  
first commercially successful engine    
operating on the two-stroke cycle was   
invented by ,mr ,dugald ,clerk1 who in  
#ahha proved the design feasible4 ,as is
 more or less generally understood1 the 
exhaust gases of this engine are        
discharged from the cylinder during the 
time that the piston is passing the     
inner dead centre1 and the compression1 
combustion1 and expansion of the charge 
take place in similar manner to that of 
the four-stroke cycle engine4 ,the      

exhaust period is usually controlled by 
the piston overrunning ports in the     
cylinder at the end of its working      
stroke1 these ports communicating direct
 with the outer air--the complication of
 an exhaust valve is thus obviated2     
immediately after the escape of the     
exhaust gases1 charging of the cylinder 
occurs1 and the fresh gas may be        
introduced either through a valve in the
 cylinder head or through ports situated
 diametrically opposite to the exhaust  
ports4 ,the continuation of the outward 
stroke of the piston1 after the exhaust 
ports have been closed1 compresses the  
charge into the combustion chamber of   
the cylinder1 and the ignition of the   
mixture produces a recurrence of the    
working stroke4  ,thus1 theoretically1  
is obtained the maximum of energy with  
the minimum of expenditure2 in practice1
 however1 the scavenging of the power   
cylinder1 a matter of great importance  
in all internal combustion engines1 is  
often imperfect1 owing to the opening of

 the exhaust ports being of relatively  
short duration2 clearing the exhaust    
gases out of the cylinder is not fully  
accomplished1 and these gases mix with  
the fresh charge and detract from its   
efficiency4 ,similarly1 owing to the    
shorter space of time allowed1 the      
charging of the cylinder with the fresh 
mixture is not so efficient as in the   
four-stroke cycle type2 the fresh charge
 is usually compressed slightly in a    
separate chamber--crank case1           
independent cylinder1 or charging pump1 
and is delivered to the working cylinder
 during the beginning of the return     
stroke of the piston1 while in engines  
working on the four-stroke cycle        
principle a complete stroke is devoted  
to the expulsion of the waste gases of  
the exhaust1 and another full stroke to 
recharging the cylinder with fresh      
explosive mixture4  ,theoretically the  
two-stroke and the four-stroke cycle    
engines possess exactly the same thermal
 efficiency1 but actually this is       

modified by a series of practical       
conditions which to some extent tend to 
neutralise the very strong case in      
favour of the two-stroke cycle engine4  
,the specific capacity of the engine    
operating on the two-stroke principle is
 theoretically twice that of one        
operating on the four-stroke cycle1 and 
consequently1 for equal power1 the      
former should require only about half   
the cylinder volume of the latter2 and1 
owing to the greater superficial area of
 the smaller cylinder1 relatively1 the  
latter should be far more easily cooled 
than the larger four-stroke cycle       
cylinder2 thus it should be possible to 
get higher compression pressures1 which 
in turn should result in great economy  
of working4 ,also the obtaining of a    
working impulse in the cylinder for each
 revolution of the crankshaft should    
give a great advantage in regularity of 
rotation--which it undoubtedly does--and
 the elimination of the operating gear  
for the valves1 inlet and exhaust1      

should give greater simplicity of       
design4  ,in spite of all these         
theoretical--and some                   
practical--advantages the four-stroke   
cycle engine was universally adopted for
 aircraft work2 owing to the practical  
equality of the two principles of       
operation1 so far as thermal efficiency 
and friction losses are concerned1 there
 is no doubt that the simplicity of     
design 7in theory7 and high power output
 to weight ratio 7also in theory7 ought 
to have given the #8two-stroke' a place 
on the aeroplane4 ,but this engine has  
to be developed so as to overcome its   
inherent drawbacks2 better scavenging   
methods have yet to be devised--for this
 is the principal drawback--before the  
two-stroke can come to its own as a     
prime mover for aircraft4  ,mr ,dugald  
,clerk's original two-stroke cycle      
engine is indicated roughly1 as regards 
principle1 by the accompanying diagram1 
from which it will be seen that the     
elimination of the ordinary inlet and   

exhaust valves of the four-stroke type  
is more than compensated by a separate  
cylinder which1 having a piston worked  
from the connecting-rod of the power    
cylinder1 was used to charging1 drawing 
the mixture from the carburettor past   
the valve in the top of the charging    
cylinder1 and then forcing it through   
the connecting pipe into the power      
cylinder4 ,the inlet valves both on the 
charging and the power cylinders are    
automatic2 when the power piston is near
 the bottom of its stroke the piston in 
the charging cylinder is compressing the
 carburetted air1 so that as soon as the
 pressure within the power cylinder is  
relieved by the exit of the burnt gases 
through the exhaust ports the pressure  
in the charging cylinder causes the     
valve in the head of the power cylinder 
to open1 and fresh mixture flows into   
the cylinder1 replacing the exhaust     
gases4 ,after the piston has again      
covered the exhaust ports the mixture   
begins to be compressed1 thus           

automatically closing the inlet valve4  
,ignition occurs near the end of the    
compression stroke1 and the working     
stroke immediately follows1 thus giving 
an impulse to the crankshaft on every   
down stroke of the piston4 ,if the      
scavenging of the cylinder were         
complete1 and the cylinder were to      
receive a full charge of fresh mixture  
for every stroke1 the same mean         
effective pressure as is obtained with  
four-stroke cycle engines ought to be   
realised1 and at an equal speed of      
rotation this engine should give twice  
the power obtainable from a four-stroke 
cycle engine of equal dimensions4 ,this 
result was not achieved1 and1 with the  
improvements in construction brought    
about by experiment up to #aiab1 the    
output was found to be only about fifty 
per cent more than that of a four-stroke
 cycle engine of the same size1 so that1
 when the charging cylinder is included1
 this engine has a greater weight per   
horse-power1 while the lowest rate of   

fuel consumption recorded was #j4fh lb4 
per horse-power per hour4               
,illustration3 ,dugald ,clerk's         
,two-stroke ,cycle ,engine4  ,in #ahia  
,mr ,day invented a two-stroke cycle    
engine which used the crank case as a   
scavenging chamber1 and a very large    
number of these engines have been built 
for industrial purposes4 ,the charge of 
carburetted air is drawn through a      
non-return valve into the crank chamber 
during the upstroke of the piston1 and  
compressed to about #d lbs4 pressure per
 square inch on the down stroke4 ,when  
the piston approaches the bottom end of 
its stroke the upper edge first overruns
 an exhaust port1 and almost immediately
 after uncovers an inlet port on the    
opposite side of the cylinder and in    
communication with the crank chamber2   
the entering charge1 being under        
pressure1 assists in expelling the      
exhaust gases from the cylinder4 ,on the
 next upstroke the charge is compressed 
into the combustion space of the        

cylinder1 a further charge              
simultaneously entering the crank case  
to be compressed after the ignition for 
the working stroke4 ,to prevent the     
incoming charge escaping through the    
exhaust ports of the cylinder a         
deflector is formed on the top of the   
piston1 causing the fresh gas to travel 
in an upward direction1 thus avoiding as
 far as possible escape of the mixture  
to the atmosphere4 ,from experiments    
conducted in #aiaj by ,professor ,watson
 and ,mr ,fleming it was found that the 
proportion of fresh gases which escaped 
unburnt through the exhaust ports       
diminished with increase of speed2 at   
#fjj revolutions per minute about #cf   
per cent of the fresh charge was lost2  
at #a1bjj revolutions per minute this   
was reduced to #bj per cent1 and at     
#a1ejj revolutions it was still farther 
reduced to #f per cent4  ,so much for   
the early designs4 ,with regard to      
engines of this type specially          
constructed for use with aircraft1 three

 designs call for special mention4      
,messrs ,a4 ,gobe and ,h4 ,diard1       
,parisian engineers1 produced an        
eight-cylindered two-stroke cycle engine
 of rotary design1 the cylinders being  
co-axial4 ,each pair of opposite pistons
 was secured together by a rigid        
connecting rod1 connected to a pin on a 
rotating crankshaft which was mounted   
eccentrically to the axis of rotation of
 the cylinders4 ,the crankshaft carried 
a pinion gearing with an internally     
toothed wheel on the transmission shaft 
which carried the air-screw4 ,the       
combustible mixture1 emanating from a   
common supply pipe1 was led through     
conduits to the front ends of the       
cylinders1 in which the charges were    
compressed before being transferred to  
the working spaces through ports in     
tubular extensions carried by the       
pistons4 ,these extensions had also     
exhaust ports1 registering with ports in
 the cylinder which communicated with   
the outer air1 and the extensions slid  

over depending cylinder heads attached  
to the crank case by long studs4 ,the   
pump charge was compressed in one end of
 each cylinder1 and the pump spaces each
 delivered into their corresponding     
adjacent combustion spaces4 ,the charges
 entered the pump spaces during the     
suction period through passages which   
communicated with a central stationary  
supply passage at one end of the crank  
case1 communication being cut off when  
the inlet orifice to the passage passed 
out of register with the port in the    
stationary member4 ,the exhaust ports at
 the outer end of the combustion space  
opened just before and closed a little  
later than the air ports1 and the       
incoming charge assisted in expelling   
the exhaust gases in a manner similar to
 that of the earlier types of two-stroke
 cycle engine4 ,the accompanying rough  
diagram assists in showing the working  
of this engine4  ,illustration3 ,the    
,gobe and ,diard ,co-axial ,two-stroke  
,engine4  ,exhibited in the ,paris ,aero

 ,exhibition of #aiab1 the ,laviator    
two-stroke cycle engine1 six-cylindered1
 could be operated either as a radial or
 as a rotary engine1 all its pistons    
acting on a single crank4 ,cylinder     
dimensions of this engine were #c4id    
inches bore by #e4ab inches stroke1 and 
a power output of #ej horse-power was   
obtained when working at a rate of      
#a1bjj revolutions per minute4 ,used as 
a radial engine1 it developed #fe       
horse-power at the same rate of         
revolution1 and1 as the total weight was
 about #aih lbs41 the weight of about #c
 lbs4 per horse-power was attained in   
radial use4 ,stepped pistons were       
employed1 the annular space between the 
smaller or power piston and the walls of
 the larger cylinder being used as a    
charging pump for the power cylinder    
situated #abj degrees in rear of it4    
,the charging cylinders were connected  
by short pipes to ports in the crank    
case which communicated with the hollow 
crankshaft through which the fresh gas  

was supplied1 and once in each          
revolution each port in the case        
registered with the port in the hollow  
shaft4 ,the mixture which then entered  
the charging cylinder was transferred to
 the corresponding working cylinder when
 the piston of that cylinder had reached
 the end of its power stroke1 and       
immediately before this the exhaust     
ports diametrically opposite the inlet  
ports were uncovered2 scavenging was    
thus assisted in the usual way4 ,the    
very desirable feature of being entirely
 valveless was accomplished with this   
engine1 which is also noteworthy for    
exceedingly compact design4  ,the       
,lamplough six-cylinder two-stroke cycle
 rotary1 shown at the ,aero ,exhibition 
at ,olympia in #aiaa1 had several       
innovations1 including a charging pump  
of rotary blower type4 ,with the six    
cylinders1 six power impulses at regular
 intervals were given on each rotation2 
otherwise1 the cycle of operations was  
carried out much as in other two-stroke 

cycle engines4 ,the pump supplied the   
mixture under slight pressure to an     
inlet port in each cylinder1 which was  
opened at the same time as the exhaust  
port1 the period of opening being       
controlled by the piston4 ,the rotary   
blower sucked the mixture from the      
carburettor and delivered it to a       
passage communicating with the inlet    
ports in the cylinder walls4 ,a         
mechanically-operated exhaust valve was 
placed in the centre of each cylinder   
head1 and towards the end of the working
 stroke this valve opened1 allowing part
 of the burnt gases to escape to the    
atmosphere2 the remainder was pushed out
 by the fresh mixture going in through  
the ports at the bottom end of the      
cylinder4 ,in practice1 one or other of 
the cylinders was always taking fresh   
mixture while working1 therefore the    
delivery from the pump was continuous   
and the mixture had not to be stored    
under pressure4  ,the piston of this    
engine was long enough to keep the ports

 covered when it was at the top of the  
stroke1 and a bottom ring was provided  
to prevent the mixture from entering the
 crank case4 ,in addition to preventing 
leakage1 this ring no doubt prevented an
 excess of oil working up the piston    
into the cylinder4 ,as the cylinder     
fired with every revolution1 the valve  
gear was of the simplest construction1 a
 fixed cam lifting each valve as the    
cylinder came into position4 ,the spring
 of the exhaust valve was not placed    
round the stem in the usual way1 but at 
the end of a short lever1 away from the 
heat of the exhaust gases4 ,the         
cylinders were of cast steel1 the crank 
case of aluminium1 and ball-bearings    
were fitted to the crankshaft1 crank    
pins1 and the rotary blower pump4       
,ignition was by means of a high-tension
 magneto of the two-spark pattern1 and  
with a total weight of #cjj lbs4 the    
maximum output was #ajb brake           
horse-power1 giving a weight of just    
under #c lbs4 per horse-power4  ,one of 

the most successful of the two-stroke   
cycle engines was that designed by ,mr  
,g4 ,f4 ,mort and constructed by the    
,new ,engine ,company4 ,with four       
cylinders of #c4fi inches bore by #d4e  
inches stroke1 and running at #a1bej    
revolutions per minute1 this engine     
developed #ej brake horse-power2 the    
total weight of the engine was #aee     
lbs41 thus giving a weight of #c4a lbs4 
per horse-power4 ,a scavenging pump of  
the rotary type was employed1 driven by 
means of gearing from the engine        
crankshaft1 and in order to reduce      
weight to a minimum the vanes were of   
aluminium4 ,this engine was tried on a  
biplane1 and gave very satisfactory     
results4  ,american design yields two   
apparently successful two-stroke cycle  
aero engines4 ,a rotary called the      
,fredericson engine was said to give an 
output of #gj brake horse-power with    
five cylinders #de inches diameter by   
#dge inches stroke1 running at #a1jjj   
revolutions per minute4 ,another1 the   

,roberts two-stroke cycle engine1       
yielded #ajj brake horse-power from six 
cylinders of the stepped piston design2 
two carburettors1 each supplying three  
cylinders1 were fitted to this engine4  
,ignition was by means of the usual     
high-tension magneto1 gear-driven from  
the crankshaft1 and the engine1 which   
was water-cooled1 was of compact design4
  ,it may thus be seen that the         
two-stroke cycle type got as far as     
actual experiment in air work1 and that 
with considerable success4 ,so far1     
however1 the greater reliability of the 
four-stroke cycle has rendered it       
practically the only aircraft engine1   
and the two-stroke has yet some way to  
travel before it becomes a formidable   
competitor1 in spite of its admitted    
theoretical and questioned practical    
advantages4     ,,vii  ,,engines ,,of   
,,the ,,war ,,period   ,the principal   
engines of ,british1 ,french1 and       
,american design used in the war period 
and since are briefly described under   

the four distinct types of aero engine2 
such notable examples as the            
,rolls-,royce1 ,sunbeam1 and ,napier    
engines have been given special mention1
 as they embodied--and still embody--all
 that is best in aero engine practice4  
,so far1 however1 little has been said  
about the development of ,german aero   
engine design1 apart from the early     
,daimler and other pioneer makes4  ,at  
the outbreak of hostilities in #aiad1   
thanks to subsidies to contractors and  
prizes to aircraft pilots1 the ,german  
aeroplane industry was in a             
comparatively flourishing condition4    
,there were about twenty-two            
establishments making different types of
 heavier-than-air machines1 monoplane   
and biplane1 engined for the most part  
with the four-cylinder ,argus or the    
six-cylinder ,mercedes vertical type    
engines1 each of these being of #ajj    
horse-power--it was not till war brought
 increasing demands on aircraft that the
 limit of power began to rise4          

,contemporary with the ,argus and       
,mercedes were the ,austro-,daimler1    
,benz1 and ,n4,a4,g41 in vertical       
design1 while as far as rotary types    
were concerned there were two1 the      
,oberursel and the ,stahlhertz2 of these
 the former was by far the most         
promising1 and it came to virtual       
monopoly of the rotary-engined #8plane  
as soon as the war demand began4 ,it was
 practically a copy of the famous ,gnome
 rotary1 and thus deserves little       
description4  ,germany1 from the        
outbreak of war1 practically1           
concentrated on the development of the  
,mercedes engine2 and it is noteworthy  
that1 with one exception1 increase of   
power corresponding with the increased  
demand for power was attained without   
increasing the number of cylinders4 ,the
 various models ranged between #ge and  
#bfj horse-power1 the latter being the  
most recent production of this type4    
,the exception to the rule was the      
eight-cylinder #bdj horse-power1 which  

was replaced by the #bfj horse-power    
six-cylinder model1 the latter being    
more reliable and but very slightly     
heavier4 ,of the other engines1 the #abj
 horse-power ,argus and the #afj and    
#bbe horse-power ,benz were the most    
used1 the ,oberursel being very largely 
discarded after the ,fokker monoplane   
had had its day1 and the ,n4,a4,g4 and  
,austro-,daimler also falling to        
comparative disuse4 ,it may be said that
 the development of the ,mercedes engine
 contributed very largely to such       
success as was achieved in the war      
period by ,german aircraft1 and1 in     
developing the engine1 the builders were
 careful to make alterations in such a  
way as to effect the least possible     
change in the design of aeroplane to    
which they were to be fitted4 ,thus the 
engine base of the #age horse-power     
model coincided precisely with that of  
the #aej horse-power model1 and the #bjj
 and #bdj horse-power models retained   
the same base dimensions4 ,it was       

estimated1 in #aiah1 that well over     
eighty per cent of ,german aircraft was 
engined with the ,mercedes type4  ,in   
design and construction1 there was      
nothing abnormal about the ,mercedes    
engine1 the keynote throughout being    
extreme reliability and such            
simplification of design as would permit
 of mass production in different        
factories4 ,even before the war1 the    
long list of records set up by this     
engine formed practical application of  
the wisdom of this policy2 ,bohn's      
flight of #bd hours #aj minutes1        
accomplished on ,july #ajth and #aath1  
#aiad1 is an instance of this--the      
flight was accomplished on an ,albatross
 biplane with a #ge horse-power         
,mercedes engine4 ,the radial type1     
instanced in other countries by the     
,salmson and ,anzani makes1 was not     
developed in ,germany2 two radial       
engines were made in that country before
 the war1 but the ,germans seemed to    
lose faith in the type under war        

conditions1 or it may have been that    
insistence on standardisation ruled out 
all but the proved examples of engine4  
,details of one of the middle sizes of  
,mercedes motor1 the #agf horse-power   
type1 apply very generally to the whole 
range2 this size was in use up to and   
beyond the conclusion of hostilities1   
and it may still be regarded as         
characteristic of modern 7#aibj7 ,german
 practice4 ,the engine is of the fixed  
vertical type1 has six cylinders in     
line1 not off-set1 and is water-cooled4 
,the cam shaft is carried in a special  
bronze casing1 seated on the immediate  
top of the cylinders1 and a vertical    
shaft is interposed between crankshaft  
and camshaft1 the latter being driven by
 bevel gearing4  ,on this vertical      
connecting-shaft the water pump is      
located1 serving to steady the motion of
 the shaft4 ,extending immediately below
 the camshaft is another vertical shaft1
 driven by bevel gears from the         
crankshaft1 and terminating in a worm   

which drives the multiple piston oil    
pumps4  ,the cylinders are made from    
steel forgings1 as are the valve chamber
 elbows1 which are machined all over and
 welded together4 ,a jacket of light    
steel is welded over the valve elbows   
and attached to a flange on the         
cylinders1 forming a water-cooling space
 with a section of about #g_/af of an   
inch4 ,the cylinder bore is #ee inches1 
and the stroke #fbi inches4 ,the        
cylinders are attached to the crank case
 by means of dogs and long through      
bolts1 which have shoulders near their  
lower ends and are bolted to the lower  
half of the crank chamber4 ,a very light
 and rigid structure is thus obtained1  
and the method of construction won the  
flattery of imitation by makers of other
 nationality4  ,the cooling system for  
the cylinders is extremely efficient4   
,after leaving the water pump1 the water
 enters the top of the front cylinders  
and passes successively through each of 
the six cylinders of the row2 short     

tubes1 welded to the tops of the        
cylinders1 serve as connecting links in 
the system4 ,the ,panhard car engines   
for years were fitted with a similar    
cooling system1 and the ,white and      
,poppe lorry engines were also similarly
 fitted2 the system gives excellent     
cooling effect where it is most needed1 
round the valve chambers and the        
cylinder heads4  ,the pistons are built 
up from two pieces2 a dropped forged    
steel piston head1 from which depend the
 piston pin bosses1 is combined with a  
cast-iron skirt1 into which the steel   
head is screwed4 ,four rings are fitted1
 three at the upper and one at the lower
 end of the piston skirt1 and two       
lubricating oil grooves are cut in the  
skirt1 in addition to the ring grooves4 
,two small rivets retain the steel head 
on the piston skirt after it has been   
screwed into position1 and it is also   
welded at two points4 ,the coefficient  
of friction between the cast-iron and   
steel is considerably less than that    

which would exist between two steel     
parts1 and there is less tendency for   
the skirt to score the cylinder walls   
than would be the case if all steel were
 used--so noticeable is this that many  
makers1 after giving steel pistons a    
trial1 discarded them in favour of      
cast-iron2 the ,gnome is an example of  
this1 being originally fitted with a    
steel piston carrying a brass ring1     
discarded in favour of a cast-iron      
piston with a percentage of steel in the
 metal mixture4 ,in the ,le ,rhone      
engine the difficulty is overcome by a  
cast-iron liner to the cylinders4  ,the 
piston pin of the ,mercedes is of chrome
 nickel steel1 and is retained in the   
piston by means of a set screw and      
cotter pin4 ,the connecting rods1 of ,i 
section1 are very short and rigid1      
carrying floating bronze bushes which   
fit the piston pins at the small end1   
and carrying an oil tube on each for    
conveying oil from the crank pin to the 
piston pin4  ,the crankshaft is of      

chrome nickel steel1 carried on seven   
bearings4 ,holes are drilled through    
each of the crank pins and main         
bearings1 for half the diameter of the  
shaft1 and these are plugged with       
pressed brass studs4 ,small holes1      
drilled through the crank cheeks1 serve 
to convey lubricant from the main       
bearings to the crank pins4 ,the        
propeller thrust is taken by a simple   
ball thrust bearing at the propeller end
 of the crankshaft1 this thrust bearing 
being seated in a steel retainer which  
is clamped between the two halves of the
 crank case4 ,at the forward end of the 
crankshaft there is mounted a master    
bevel gear on six splines2 this bevel   
floats on the splines against a ball    
thrust bearing1 and1 in turn1 the thrust
 is taken by the crank case cover4 ,a   
stuffing box prevents the loss of       
lubricant out of the front end of the   
crank chamber1 and an oil thrower ring  
serves a similar purpose at the         
propeller end of the crank chamber4     

,with a motor speed of #a1dej r4p4m41   
the vertical shaft at the forward end of
 the motor turns at #b1age r4p4m41 this 
being the speed of the two magnetos and 
the water pump4 ,the lower vertical     
shaft bevel gear and the magneto driving
 gear are made integral with the        
vertical driving shaft1 which is carried
 in plain bearings in an aluminium      
housing4 ,this housing is clamped to the
 upper half of the crank case by means  
of three studs4 ,the cam-shaft carries  
eighteen cams1 these being the inlet and
 exhaust cams1 and a set of half        
compression cams which are formed with  
the exhaust cams and are put into action
 when required by means of a lever at   
the forward end of the cam-shaft4 ,the  
cam-shaft is hollow1 and serves as a    
channel for the conveyance of           
lubricating oil to each of the camshaft 
bearings4 ,at the forward end of this   
shaft there is also mounted an air pump 
for maintaining pressure on the fuel    
supply tank1 and a bevel gear tachometer

 drive4  ,lubrication of the engine is  
carried out by a full pressure system4  
,the oil is pumped through a single     
manifold1 with seven branches to the    
crankshaft main bearings1 and then in   
turn through the hollow crankshaft to   
the connecting-rod big ends and thence  
through small tubes1 already noted1 to  
the small end bearings4 ,the oil pump   
has four pistons and two double valves  
driven from a single eccentric shaft on 
which are mounted four eccentrics4 ,the 
pump is continuously submerged in oil2  
in order to avoid great variations in   
pressure in the oil lines there is a    
piston operated pressure regulator1 cut 
in between the pump and the oil lines4  
,the two small pistons of the pump take 
fresh oil from a tank located in the    
fuselage of the machine2 one of these   
delivers oil to the cam shaft1 and one  
delivers to the crankshaft2 this fresh  
oil mixes with the used oil1 returns to 
the base1 and back to the main large oil
 pump cylinders4 ,by means of these     

small pump pistons a constant quantity  
of oil is kept in the motor1 and the oil
 is continually being freshened by means
 of the new oil coming in4 ,all the oil 
pipes are very securely fastened to the 
lower half of the crank case1 and some  
cooling of the oil is effected by air   
passing through channels cast in the    
crank case on its way to the            
carburettor4  ,a light steel manifold   
serves to connect the exhaust ports of  
the cylinders to the main exhaust pipe1 
which is inclined about #be degrees from
 vertical and is arranged to give on to 
the atmosphere just over the top of the 
upper wing of the aeroplane4  ,as       
regards carburation1 an automatic air   
valve surrounds the throat of the       
carburettor1 maintaining normal         
composition of mixture4 ,a small jet is 
fitted for starting and running without 
load4 ,the channels cast in the crank   
chamber1 already alluded to in          
connection with oil-cooling1 serve to   
warm the air before it reaches the      

carburettor1 of which the body is       
water-jacketed4  ,ignition of the engine
 is by means of two ,bosch ,z ,h #f     
magnetos1 driven at a speed of #b1age   
revolutions per minute when the engine  
is running at its normal speed of #a1dej
 revolutions4 ,the maximum advance of   
spark is #ab mm41 or #cb degrees before 
the top dead centre1 and the firing     
order of the cylinders is #a1 #e1 #c1   
#f1 #b1 #d4  ,the radiator fitted to    
this engine1 together with the          
water-jackets1 has a capacity of #be    
litres of water1 it is rectangular in   
shape1 and is normally tilted at an     
angle of #cj degrees from vertical4 ,its
 weight is #bf kg41 and it offers but   
slight head resistance in flight4  ,the 
radial type of engine1 neglected        
altogether in ,germany1 was brought to a
 very high state of prefection at the   
end of the ,war period by ,british      
makers4 ,two makes1 the ,cosmos         
,engineering ,company's #8,jupiter' and 
#8,lucifer1' and the ,a4,b4,c4 #8,wasp  

,,ii' and #8,dragon ,fly #a;,a' require 
special mention for their light weight  
and reliability on trials4  ,the ,cosmos
 #8,jupiter' was--for it is no longer   
being made--a #dej horse-power          
nine-cylinder radial engine1 air-cooled1
 with the cylinders set in one single   
row2 it was made both geared to reduce  
the propeller revolutions relatively to 
the crankshaft revolutions1 and         
ungeared2 the normal power of the geared
 type was #dej horse-power1 and the     
total weight of the engine1 including   
carburettors1 magnetos1 etc41 was only  
#geg lbs42 the engine speed was #a1hej  
revolutions per minute1 and the         
propeller revolutions were reduced by   
the gearing to #a1bjj4 ,fitted to a     
#8,bristol ,badger' aeroplane1 the total
 weight was #b1hjj lbs1 including pilot1
 passenger1 two machine-guns1 and full  
military load2 at #g1jjj feet the       
registered speed1 with corrections for  
density1 was #acg miles per hour2 in    
climbing1 the first #b1jjj feet was     

accomplished in #a minute #d seconds2   
#d1jjj feet was reached in #b minutes   
#aj seconds2 #f1jjj feet was reached in 
#c minutes #cc seconds1 and #g1jjj feet 
in #d minutes #ae seconds4 ,it was      
intended to modify the plane design and 
fit a new propeller1 in order to attain 
even better results1 but1 if trials were
 made with these modifications1 the     
results are not obtainable4  ,the       
,cosmos #8,lucifer' was a three-cylinder
 radial type engine of #ajj horse-power1
 inverted ,y design1 made on the        
simplest possible principles with a view
 to quantity production and extreme     
reliability4 ,the rated #ajj horse-power
 was attained at #a1fjj revolutions per 
minute1 and the cylinder dimensions were
 #ege bore by #fbe inches stroke4 ,the  
cylinders were of aluminium and steel   
mixture1 with aluminium heads2 overhead 
valves1 operated by push-rods on the    
front side of the cylinders1 were       
fitted1 and a simple reducing gear ran  
them at half engine speed4 ,the crank   

case was a circular aluminium casting1  
the engine being attached to the        
fuselage of the aeroplane by a circular 
flange situated at the back of the case2
 propeller shaft and crankshaft were    
integral4 ,dual ignition was provided1  
the generator and distributors being    
driven off the back end of the engine   
and the distributors being easily       
accessible4 ,lubrication was by means of
 two pumps1 one scavenging and one      
suction1 oil being fed under pressure   
from the crankshaft4 ,a single          
carburettor fed all three cylinders1 the
 branch pipe from the carburettor to the
 circular ring being provided with an   
exhaust heater4 ,the total weight of the
 engine1 #8all on1' was #bhj lbs4       
,illustration3 #8,dragonfly' #a ,a4     
,illustration3 #8,dragonfly' piston     
assembly4  ,illustration3 #8,dragonfly' 
cylinder4  ,the ,a4,b4,c4 #8,wasp ,,ii1'
 made by ,walton ,motors1 ,limited1 is a
 seven-cylinder radial1 air-cooled      
engine1 the cylinders having a bore of  

#dge inches and stroke #fbe inches4 ,the
 normal brake horse-power at #a1fej     
revolutions is #afj1 and the maximum    
#bjj at a speed of #a1hej revolutions   
per minute4 ,lubrication is by means of 
two rotary pumps1 one feeding through   
the hollow crankshaft to the crank pin1 
giving centrifugal feed to big end and  
thence splash oiling1 and one feeding to
 the nose of the engine1 dropping on to 
the cams and forming a permanent sump   
for the gears on the bottom of the      
engine nose4 ,two carburettors are      
fitted1 and two two-spark magnetos1     
running at one and three-quarters engine
 speed4 ,the total weight of this engine
 is #cej lbs41 or #age lbs4 per         
horse-power4 ,oil consumption at #a1hej 
revolutions is #jc pints per horse-power
 per hour1 and petrol consumption is #ef
 pints per horse-power per hour4 ,the   
engine thus shows as very economical in 
consumption1 as well as very light in   
weight4  ,the ,a4,b4,c4 #8,dragon ,fly  
#a;,a' is a nine-cylinder radial engine 

having one overhead inlet and two       
overhead exhaust valves per cylinder4   
,the cylinder dimensions are #ee inches 
bore by #fe inches stroke1 and the      
normal rate of speed1 #a1fej revolutions
 per minute1 gives #cdj horse-power4    
,the oiling is by means of two pumps1   
the system being practically identical  
with that of the #8,wasp ,,ii4' ,oil    
consumption is #jba pints per brake     
horse-power per hour1 and petrol        
consumption #ef pints--the same as that 
of the #8,wasp ,,ii4' ,the weight of the
 complete engine1 including propeller   
boss1 is #fjj lbs41 or #agfe lbs4 per   
horse-power4  ,these ,a4,b4,c4 radials  
have proved highly satisfactory on      
tests1 and their extreme simplicity of  
design and reliability commend them as  
engineering products and at the same    
time demonstrate the value1 for aero    
work1 of the air-cooled radial          
design--when this latter is accompanied 
by sound workmanship4 ,these and the    
,cosmos engines represent the minimum of

 weight per horse-power yet attained1   
together with a practicable degree of   
reliability1 in radial and probably any 
aero engine design4     ,,appendix ,a   
,,general ,,mensier's ,,report ,,on     
,,the ,,trials ,,of ,,clement ,,ader',s 
#8,,avion4'                             
,,paris1 ,october #ba1 #ahig4  ,report  
on the trials of ,m4 ,clement ,ader's   
aviation apparatus4  ,m4 ,ader having   
notified the ,minister of ,war by       
letter1 ,july #ba1 #ahig1 that the      
,apparatus of ,aviation which he had    
agreed to build under the conditions set
 forth in the convention of ,july #bdth1
 #ahid1 was ready1 and therefore        
requesting that trials be undertaken    
before a ,committee appointed for this  
purpose as per the decision of ,august  
#dth1 the ,committee was appointed as   
follows3--  ,division ,general ,mensier1
 ,chairman2 ,division ,general          
,delambre1 ,inspector ,general of the   
,permanent ,works of ,coast ,defence1   
,member of the ,technical ,committee of 

the ,engineering ,corps2 ,colonel       
,laussedat1 ,director of the            
,conservatoire des ,arts et ,mtiers2    
,sarrau1 ,member of the ,institute1     
,professor of ,mechanical ,engineering  
at the ,polytechnic ,school2 ,leaute1   
,member of the ,institute1 ,professor of
 ,mechanical ,engineering at the        
,polytechnique ,school4  ,colonel       
,laussedat gave notice at once that his 
health and work as ,director of the     
,conservatoire des ,arts et ,mtiers did 
not permit him to be a member of the    
,committee2 the ,minister therefore     
accepted his resignation on ,september  
#bdth1 and decided not to replace him4  
,later on1 however1 on the request of   
the ,chairman of the ,committee1 the    
,minister appointed a new member1       
,general ,grillon1 commanding the       
,engineer ,corps of the ,military       
,government of ,paris4  ,to carry on the
 trials which were to take place at the 
camp of ,satory1 the ,minister ordered  
the ,governor of the ,military ,forces  

of ,paris to requisition from the       
,engineer ,corps1 on the request of the 
,chairman of the ,committee1 the men    
necessary to prepare the grounds at     
,satory4  ,after an inspection made on  
the #afth an aerodrome was chosen4 ,m4  
,ader's idea was to have it of circular 
shape with a width of #dj metres and an 
average diameter of #dej metres4 ,the   
preliminary work1 laying out the        
grounds1 interior and exterior          
circumference1 etc41 was finished at the
 end of ,august2 the work of smoothing  
off the grounds began ,september #ast   
with forty-five men and two rollers1 and
 was finished on the day of the first   
tests1 ,october #abth4  ,the first      
meeting of the ,committee was held      
,august #ahth in ,m4 ,ader's workshop2  
the object being to demonstrate the     
machine to the ,committee and give all  
the information possible on the tests   
that were to be held4 ,after a careful  
examination and after having heard all  
the explanations by the inventor which  

were deemed useful and necessary1 the   
,committee decided that the apparatus   
seemed to be built with a perfect       
understanding of the purpose to be      
fulfilled as far as one could judge from
 a study of the apparatus at rest2 they 
therefore authorised ,m4 ,ader to take  
the machine apart and carry it to the   
camp at ,satory so as to proceed with   
the trials4  ,by letter of ,august #aith
 the ,chairman made report to the       
,minister of the findings of the        
,committee4  ,the work on the grounds   
having taken longer than was            
anticipated1 the ,chairman took         
advantage of this delay to call the     
,committee together for a second        
meeting1 during which ,m4 ,ader was to  
run the two propulsive screws situated  
at the forward end of the apparatus4    
,the meeting was held ,october #bnd4 ,it
 gave the ,committee an opportunity to  
appreciate the motive power in all its  
details2 firebox1 boiler1 engine1 under 
perfect control1 absolute condensation1 

automatic fuel and feed of the liquid to
 be vaporised1 automatic lubrication and
 scavenging2 everything1 in a word1     
seemed well designed and executed4  ,the
 weights in comparison with the power of
 the engine realised a considerable     
advance over anything made to date1     
since the two engines weighed together  
realised #db kg41 the firebox and boiler
 #fj kg41 the condenser #ae kg41 or a   
total of #aag kg4 for approximately #dj 
horse-power or a little less than #c kg4
 per horse-power4  ,one of the members  
summed up the general opinion by saying3
 #8,whatever may be the result from an  
aviation point of view1 a result which  
could not be foreseen for the moment1 it
 was nevertheless proven that from a    
mechanical point of view ,m4 ,ader's    
apparatus was of the greatest interest  
and real ingeniosity4 ,he expressed a   
hope that in any case the machine would 
not be lost to science4'  ,the second   
experiment in the workshop was made in  
the presence of the ,chairman1 the      

purpose being to demonstrate that the   
wings1 having a spread of #ag metres1   
were sufficiently strong to support the 
weight of the apparatus4 ,with this     
object in view1 #ad sliding supports    
were placed under each one of these1    
representing imperfectly the manner in  
which the wings would support the       
machine in the air2 by gradually raising
 the supports with the slides1 the      
wheels on which the machine rested were 
lifted from the ground4 ,it was evident 
at that time that the members composing 
the skeleton of the wings supported the 
apparatus1 and it was quite evident that
 when the wings were supported by the   
air on every point of their surface1 the
 stress would be better equalised than  
when resting on a few supports1 and     
therefore the resistance to breakage    
would be considerably greater4  ,after  
this last test1 the work on the ground  
being practically finished1 the machine 
was transported to ,satory1 assembled   
and again made ready for trial4  ,at    

first ,m4 ,ader was to manuvre the      
machine on the ground at a moderate     
speed1 then increase this until it was  
possible to judge whether there was a   
tendency for the machine to rise2 and it
 was only after ,m4 ,ader had acquired  
sufficient practice that a meeting of   
the ,committee was to be called to be   
present at the first part of the trials2
 namely1 volutions of the apparatus on  
the ground4  ,the first test took place 
on ,tuesday1 ,october #abth1 in the     
presence of the ,chairman of the        
,committee4 ,it had rained a good deal  
during the night and the clay track     
would have offered considerable         
resistance to the rolling of the        
machine2 furthermore1 a moderate wind   
was blowing from the south-west1 too    
strong during the early part of the     
afternoon to allow of any trials4       
,toward sunset1 however1 the wind having
 weakened1 ,m4 ,ader decided to make his
 first trial2 the machine was taken out 
of its hangar1 the wings were mounted   

and steam raised4 ,m4 ,ader in his seat 
had1 on each side of him1 one man to the
 right and one to the left1 whose duty  
was to rectify the direction of the     
apparatus in the event that the action  
of the rear wheel as a rudder would not 
be sufficient to hold the machine in a  
straight course4  ,at #e4be p4m4 the    
machine was started1 at first slowly and
 then at an increased speed2 after #bej 
or #cjj metres1 the two men who were    
being dragged by the apparatus were     
exhausted and forced to fall flat on the
 ground in order to allow the wings to  
pass over them1 and the trip around the 
track was completed1 a total of #a1djj  
metres1 without incident1 at a fair     
speed1 which could be estimated to be   
from #cjj to #djj metres per minute4    
,notwithstanding ,m4 ,ader's            
inexperience1 this being the first time 
that he had run his apparatus1 he       
followed approximately the chalk line   
which marked the centre of the track and
 he stopped at the exact point from     

which he started4  ,the marks of the    
wheels on the ground1 which was rather  
soft1 did not show up very much1 and it 
was clear that a part of the weight of  
the apparatus had been supported by the 
wings1 though the speed was only about  
one-third of what the machine could do  
had ,m4 ,ader used all its motive power2
 he was running at a pressure of from #c
 to #d atmospheres1 when he could have  
used #aj to #ab4  ,this first trial1 so 
fortunately accomplished1 was of great  
importance2 it was the first time that a
 comparatively heavy vehicle 7nearly    
#djj kg41 including the weight of the   
operator1 fuel1 and water7 had been set 
in motion by a tractive apparatus1 using
 the air solely as a propelling medium4 
,the favourable report turned in by the 
,committee after the meeting of ,october
 #bnd was found justified by the results
 demonstrated on the grounds1 and the   
first problem of aviation1 namely1 the  
creation of efficient motive power1     
could be considered as solved1 since the

 propulsion of the apparatus in the air 
would be a great deal easier than the   
traction on the ground1 provided that   
the second part of the problem1 the     
sustaining of the machine in the air1   
would be realised4  ,the next day1      
,wednesday the #acth1 no further trials 
were made on account of the rain and    
wind4  ,on ,thursday the #adth the      
,chairman requested that ,general       
,grillon1 who had just been appointed a 
member of the ,committee1 accompany him 
so as to have a second witness4  ,the   
weather was fine1 but a fairly strong1  
gusty wind was blowing from the south4  
,m4 ,ader explained to the two members  
of the ,committee the danger of these   
gusts1 since at two points of the       
circumference the wind would strike him 
sideways4 ,the wind was blowing in the  
direction ,a ,b1 the apparatus starting 
from ,c1 and running in the direction   
shown by the arrow4 ,the first dangerous
 spot would be at ,b4 ,the apparatus had
 been kept in readiness in the event of 

the wind dying down4 ,toward sunset the 
wind seemed to die down1 as it had done 
on the evening of the #abth4 ,m4 ,ader  
hesitated1 which1 unfortunately1 further
 events only justified1 but decided to  
make a new trial4  ,at the start1 which 
took place at #e4ae p4m41 the apparatus1
 having the wind in the rear1 seemed to 
run at a fairly regular speed2 it was1  
nevertheless1 easy to note from the     
marks of the wheels on the ground that  
the rear part of the apparatus had been 
lifted and that the rear wheel1 being   
the rudder1 had not been in constant    
contact with the ground4 ,when the      
machine came to the neighbourhood of ,b1
 the two members of the ,committee saw  
the machine swerve suddenly out of the  
track in a semicircle1 lean over to the 
right and finally stop4 ,they           
immediately proceeded to the point where
 the accident had taken place and       
endeavoured to find an explanation for  
the same4 ,the ,chairman finally decided
 as follows3--  ,m4 ,ader was the victim

 of a gust of wind which he had feared  
as he explained before starting out2    
feeling himself thrown out of his       
course1 he tried to use the rudder      
energetically1 but at that time the rear
 wheel was not in contact with the      
ground1 and therefore did not perform   
its function2 the canvas rudder1 which  
had as its purpose the manuvring of the 
machine in the air1 did not have        
sufficient action on the ground4 ,it    
would have been possible without any    
doubt to react by using the propellers  
at unequal speed1 but ,m4 ,ader1 being  
still inexperienced1 had not thought of 
this4 ,furthermore1 he was thrown out of
 his course so quickly that he decided1 
in order to avoid a more serious        
accident1 to stop both engines4 ,this   
sudden stop produced the half-circle    
already described and the fall of the   
machine on its side4  ,the damage to the
 machine was serious2 consisting at     
first sight of the rupture of both      
propellers1 the rear left wheel and the 

bending of the left wing tip4 ,it will  
only be possible to determine after the 
machine is taken apart whether the      
engine1 and more particularly the organs
 of transmission1 have been put out of  
line4  ,whatever the damage may be1     
though comparatively easy to repair1 it 
will take a certain amount of time1 and 
taking into consideration the time of   
year it is evident that the tests will  
have to be adjourned for the present4   
,as has been said in the above report1  
the tests1 though prematurely           
interrupted1 have shown results of great
 importance1 and though the final       
results are hard to foresee1 it would   
seem advisable to continue the trials4  
,by waiting for the return of spring    
there will be plenty of time to finish  
the tests and it will not be necessary  
to rush matters1 which was a partial    
cause of the accident4 ,the ,chairman of
 the ,committee personally has but one  
hope1 and that is that a decision be    
reached accordingly4                    

,division ,general1                     
,chairman of the ,committee1            
,,mensier4  ,,boulogne-,,sur-,,seine1   
,october #bast1 #ahig4   ,annex to the  
,report of ,october #bast4  ,general    
,grillon1 who was present at the trials 
of the #adth1 and who saw the report    
relative to what happened during that   
day1 made the following observations in 
writing1 which are reproduced herewith  
in quotation marks4 ,the ,chairman of   
the ,committee does not agree with      
,general ,grillon and he answers these  
observations paragraph by paragraph4    
#a4 #8,if the rear wheel 7there is only 
one of these7 left but intermittent     
tracks on the ground1 does that prove   
that the machine has a tendency to rise 
when running at a certain speed8'       
,answer4--,this does not prove anything 
in any way1 and ,i was very careful not 
to mention this in my report1 this point
 being exactly what was needed and that 
was not demonstrated during the two     
tests made on the grounds4  #8,does not 

this unequal pressure of the two pair of
 wheels on the ground show that the     
centre of gravity of the apparatus is   
placed too far forward and that under   
the impulse of the propellers the       
machine has a tendency to tilt forward1 
due to the resistance of the air8'      
,answer4--,the tendency of the apparatus
 to rise from the rear when it was      
running with the wind seemed to be      
brought about by the effects of the wind
 on the huge wings1 having a spread of  
#ag metres1 and ,i believe that when the
 machine would have faced the wind the  
front wheels would have been lifted4    
,during the trials of ,october #abth1   
when a complete circuit of the track was
 accomplished without incidents1 as ,i  
and ,lieut4 ,binet witnessed1 there was 
practically no wind4 ,i was therefore   
unable to verify whether during this    
circuit the two front wheels or the rear
 wheel were in constant contact with the
 ground1 because when the trial was over
 it was dark 7it was #e4cj7 and the next

 day it was impossible to see anything  
because it had rained during the night  
and during ,wednesday morning4 ,but what
 would prove that the rear wheel was in 
contact with the ground at all times is 
the fact that ,m4 ,ader1 though         
inexperienced1 did not swerve from the  
circular track1 which would prove that  
he steered pretty well with his rear    
wheel--this he could not have done if he
 had been in the air4  ,in the tests of 
the #abth1 the speed was at least as    
great as on the #adth4  #b4 #8,it would 
seem to me that if ,m4 ,ader thought    
that his rear wheels were off the ground
 he should have used his canvas rudder  
in order to regain his proper course2   
this was the best way of causing the    
machine to rotate1 since it would have  
given an angular motion to the front    
axle4'  ,answer4--,i state in my report 
that the canvas rudder whose object was 
the manuvre of the apparatus in the air 
could have no effect on the apparatus on
 the ground1 and to convince oneself of 

this point it is only necessary to      
consider the small surface of this      
canvas rudder compared with the mass to 
be handled on the ground1 a weight of   
approximately #djj kg4 ,according to my 
idea1 and as ,i have stated in my       
report1 ,m4 ,ader should have steered by
 increasing the speed on one of his     
propellers and slowing down the other4  
,he admitted afterward that this remark 
was well founded1 but that he did not   
have time to think of it owing to the   
suddenness of the accident4  #c4 #8,when
 the apparatus fell on its side it was  
under the sole influence of the wind1   
since ,m4 ,ader had stopped the machine4
 ,have we not a result here which will  
always be the same when the machine     
comes to the ground1 since the engines  
will always have to be stopped or slowed
 down when coming to the ground8 ,here  
seems to be a bad defect of the         
apparatus under trial4'  ,answer4--,i   
believe that the apparatus fell on its  
side after coming to a stop1 not on     

account of the wind1 but because the    
semicircle described was on rough ground
 and one of the wheels had collapsed4   
,,mensier4  ,october #bgth1 #ahig4      
,,appendix ,b    ,specification and     
,claims of ,wright ,patent1 ,no4        
#hbacic4 ,filed ,march       #bcrd1     
#aijc4 ,issued ,may #bbnd1 #aijf4       
,expires ,may #bbnd1 #aibc4   ,to all   
whom it may concern4  ,be it known that 
we1 ,orville ,wright and ,wilbur        
,wright1 citizens of the ,united        
,states1 residing in the city of        
,dayton1 county of ,montgomery1 and     
,state of ,ohio1 have invented certain  
new and useful ,improvements in ,flying 
,machines1 of which the following is a  
specification4  ,our invention relates  
to that class of flying machines in     
which the weight is sustained by the    
reactions resulting when one or more    
aeroplanes are moved through the air    
edgewise at a small angle of incidence1 
either by the application of mechanical 
power or by the utilisation of the force

 of gravity4  ,the objects of our       
invention are to provide means for      
maintaining or restoring the equilibrium
 or lateral balance of the apparatus1 to
 provide means for guiding the machine  
both vertically and horizontally1 and to
 provide a structure combining          
lightness1 strength1 convenience of     
construction and certain other          
advantages which will hereinafter       
appear4  ,to these ends our invention   
consists in certain novel features1     
which we will now proceed to describe   
and will then particularly point out in 
the claims4  ,in the accompanying       
drawings1 ,figure #a is a perspective   
view of an apparatus embodying our      
invention in one form4 ,fig4 #b is a    
plan view of the same1 partly in        
horizontal section and partly broken    
away4 ,fig4 #c is a side elevation1 and 
,figs4 #d and #e are detail views1 of   
one form of flexible joint for          
connecting the upright standards with   
the aeroplanes4  ,in flying machines of 

the character to which this invention   
relates the apparatus is supported in   
the air by reason of the contact between
 the air and the under surface of one or
 more aeroplanes1 the contact surface   
being presented at a small angle of     
incidence to the air4 ,the relative     
movements of the air and aeroplane may  
be derived from the motion of the air in
 the form of wind blowing in the        
direction opposite to that in which the 
apparatus is travelling or by a combined
 downward and forward movement of the   
machine1 as in starting from an elevated
 position or by combination of these two
 things1 and in either case the         
operation is that of a soaring-machine1 
while power applied to the machine to   
propel it positively forward will cause 
the air to support the machine in a     
similar manner4 ,in either case owing to
 the varying conditions to be met there 
are numerous disturbing forces which    
tend to shift the machine from the      
position which it should occupy to      

obtain the desired results4 ,it is the  
chief object of our invention to provide
 means for remedying this difficulty1   
and we will now proceed to describe the 
construction by means of which these    
results are accomplished4               
,illustration3 ,patented ,may #bbnd1    
#aije4 ,o4  ,w4 ,wright ,flying         
,machine4  ,in the accompanying drawing 
we have shown an apparatus embodying our
 invention in one form4 ,in this        
illustrative embodiment the machine is  
shown as comprising two parallel        
superposed aeroplanes1 #a and #b may be 
embodied in a structure having a single 
aeroplane ,each aeroplane is of         
considerably greater width from side to 
side than from front to rear4 ,the four 
corners of the upper aeroplane are      
indicated by the reference letters a1 b1
 c1 and d1 while the corresponding      
corners of the lower aeroplane #b are   
indicated by the reference letters e1 f1
 g1 and h4 ,the marginal lines a b and e
 f indicate the front edges of the      

aeroplanes1 the lateral margins of the  
upper aeroplane are indicated1          
respectively1 by the lines a d and b c1 
the lateral margins of the lower        
aeroplane are indicated1 respectively1  
by the lines e h and f g1 while the rear
 margins of the upper and lower         
aeroplanes are indicated1 respectively1 
by the lines c d and g h4  ,before      
proceeding to a description of the      
fundamental theory of operation of the  
structure we will first describe the    
preferred mode of constructing the      
aeroplanes and those portions of the    
structure which serve to connect the two
 aeroplanes4  ,each aeroplane is formed 
by stretching cloth or other suitable   
fabric over a frame composed of two     
parallel transverse spars #c1 extending 
from side to side of the machine1 their 
ends being connected by bows #d1        
extending from front to rear of the     
machine4 ,the front and rear spars #c of
 each aeroplane are connected by a      
series of parallel ribs #e1 which       

preferably extend somewhat beyond the   
rear spar1 as shown4 ,these spars1 bows1
 and ribs are preferably constructed of 
wood having the necessary strength1     
combined with lightness and flexibility4
 ,upon this framework the cloth which   
forms the supporting surface of the     
aeroplane is secured1 the frame being   
enclosed in the cloth4 ,the cloth for   
each aeroplane previous to its          
attachment to its frame is cut on the   
bias and made up into a single piece    
approximately the size and shape of the 
aeroplane1 having the threads of the    
fabric arranged diagonally to the       
transverse spars and longitudinal ribs1 
as indicated at #f in ,fig4 #b4 ,thus   
the diagonal threads of the cloth form  
truss systems with the spars and ribs1  
the threads constituting the diagonal   
members4 ,a hem is formed at the rear   
edge of the cloth to receive a wire #g1 
which is connected to the ends of the   
rear spar and supported by the          
rearwardly-extending ends of the        

longitudinal ribs #e1 thus forming a    
rearwardly-extending flap or portion of 
the aeroplane4 ,this construction of the
 aeroplane gives a surface which has    
very great strength to withstand lateral
 and longitudinal strains1 at the same  
time being capable of being bent or     
twisted in the manner hereinafter       
described4  ,when two aeroplanes are    
employed1 as in the construction        
illustrated1 they are connected together
 by upright standards #h4 ,these        
standards are substantially rigid1 being
 preferably constructed of wood and of  
equal length1 equally spaced along the  
front and rear edges of the aeroplane1  
to which they are connected at their top
 and bottom ends by hinged joints or    
universal joints of any suitable        
description4 ,we have shown one form of 
connection which may be used for this   
purpose in ,figs4 #d and #e of the      
drawings4 ,in this construction each end
 of the standard #h has secured to it an
 eye #i1 which engages with a hook #aj1 

secured to a bracket plate #aa1 which   
latter plate is in turn fastened to the 
spar #c4 ,diagonal braces or stay-wires 
#ab extend from each end of each        
standard to the opposite ends of the    
adjacent standards1 and as a convenient 
mode of attaching these parts ,i have   
shown a hook #ac made integral with the 
hook #aj to receive the end of one of   
the stay-wires1 the other stay-wire     
being mounted on the hook #aj4 ,the hook
 #ac is shown as bent down to retain the
 stay-wire in connection to it1 while   
the hook #aj is shown as provided with a
 pin #ad to hold the staywire #ab and   
eye #i in position thereon4 ,it will be 
seen that this construction forms a     
truss system which gives the whole      
machine great transverse rigidity and   
strength1 while at the same time the    
jointed connections of the parts permit 
the aeroplanes to be bent or twisted in 
the manner which we will now proceed to 
describe4  #ae indicates a rope or other
 flexible connection extending          

lengthwise of the front of the machine  
above the lower aeroplane1 passing under
 pulleys or other suitable guides #af at
 the front corners e and f of the lower 
aeroplane1 and extending thence upward  
and rearward to the upper rear corners c
 and d1 of the upper aeroplane1 where   
they are attached1 as indicated at #ag4 
,to the central portion of the rope     
there is connected a laterally-movable  
cradle #ah1 which forms a means for     
moving the rope lengthwise in one       
direction or the other1 the cradle being
 movable toward either side of the      
machine4 ,we have devised this cradle as
 a convenient means for operating the   
rope #ae1 and the machine is intended to
 be generally used with the operator    
lying face downward on the lower        
aeroplane1 with his head to the front1  
so that the operator's body rests on the
 cradle1 and the cradle can be moved    
laterally by the movements of the       
operator's body4 ,it will be understood1
 however1 that the rope #ae may be      

manipulated in any suitable manner4  #ai
 indicates a second rope extending      
transversely of the machine along the   
rear edge of the body portion of the    
lower aeroplane1 passing under suitable 
pulleys or guides #bj at the rear       
corners g and h of the lower aeroplane  
and extending thence diagonally upward  
to the front corners a and b of the     
upper aeroplane1 where its ends are     
secured in any suitable manner1 as      
indicated at #ba4  ,considering the     
structure so far as we have now         
described it1 and assuming that the     
cradle #ah be moved to the right in     
,figs4 #a and #b1 as indicated by the   
arrows applied to the cradle in ,fig4 #a
 and by the dotted lines in ,fig4 #b1 it
 will be seen that that portion of the  
rope #ae passing under the guide pulley 
at the corner e and secured to the      
corner d will be under tension1 while   
slack is paid out throughout the other  
side or half of the rope #ae4 ,the part 
of the rope #ae under tension exercises 

a downward pull upon the rear upper     
corner d of the structure and an upward 
pull upon the front lower corner e1 as  
indicated by the arrows4 ,this causes   
the corner d to move downward and the   
corner e to move upward4 ,as the corner 
e moves upward it carries the corner a  
upward with it1 since the intermediate  
standard #h is substantially rigid and  
maintains an equal distance between the 
corners a and e at all times4           
,similarly1 the standard #h1 connecting 
the corners d and h1 causes the corner h
 to move downward in unison with the    
corner d4 ,since the corner a thus moves
 upward and the corner h moves downward1
 that portion of the rope #ai connected 
to the corner a will be pulled upward   
through the pulley #bj at the corner h1 
and the pull thus exerted on the rope   
#ai will pull the corner b on the other 
wise of the machine downward and at the 
same time pull the corner g at said     
other side of the machine upward4 ,this 
results in a downward movement of the   

corner b and an upward movement of the  
corner c4 ,thus it results from a       
lateral movement of the cradle #ah to   
the right in ,fig4 #a that the lateral  
margins a d and e h at one side of the  
machine are moved from their normal     
positions in which they lie in the      
normal planes of their respective       
aeroplanes1 into angular relations with 
said normal planes1 each lateral margin 
on this side of the machine being raised
 above said normal plane at its forward 
end and depressed below said normal     
plane at its rear end1 said lateral     
margins being thus inclined upward and  
forward4 ,at the same time a reverse    
inclination is imparted to the lateral  
margins b c and f g at the other side of
 the machine1 their inclination being   
downward and forward4 ,these positions  
are indicated in dotted lines in ,fig4  
#a of the drawings4 ,a movement of the  
cradle #ah in the opposite direction    
from its normal position will reverse   
the angular inclination of the lateral  

margins of the aeroplanes in an obvious 
manner4 ,by reason of this construction 
it will be seen that with the particular
 mode of construction now under         
consideration it is possible to move the
 forward corner of the lateral edges of 
the aeroplane on one side of the machine
 either above or below the normal planes
 of the aeroplanes1 a reverse movement  
of the forward corners of the lateral   
margins on the other side of the machine
 occurring simultaneously4 ,during this 
operation each aeroplane is twisted or  
distorted around a line extending       
centrally across the same from the      
middle of one lateral margin to the     
middle of the other lateral margin1 the 
twist due to the moving of the lateral  
margins to different angles extending   
across each aeroplane from side to side1
 so that each aeroplane surface is given
 a helicoidal warp or twist4 ,we prefer 
this construction and mode of operation 
for the reason that it gives a gradually
 increasing angle to the body of each   

aeroplane from the centre longitudinal  
line thereof outward to the margin1 thus
 giving a continuous surface on each    
side of the machine1 which has a        
gradually increasing or decreasing angle
 of incidence from the centre of the    
machine to either side4 ,we wish it to  
be understood1 however1 that our        
invention is not limited to this        
particular construction1 since any      
construction whereby the angular        
relations of the lateral margins of the 
aeroplanes may be varied in opposite    
directions with respect to the normal   
planes of said aeroplanes comes within  
the scope of our invention4             
,furthermore1 it should be understood   
that while the lateral margins of the   
aeroplanes move to different angular    
positions with respect to or above and  
below the normal planes of said         
aeroplanes1 it does not necessarily     
follow that these movements bring the   
opposite lateral edges to different     
angles respectively above and below a   

horizontal plane1 since the normal      
planes of the bodies of the aeroplanes  
are inclined to the horizontal when the 
machine is in flight1 said inclination  
being downward from front to rear1 and  
while the forward corners on one side of
 the machine may be depressed below the 
normal planes of the bodies of the      
aeroplanes said depression is not       
necessarily sufficient to carry them    
below the horizontal planes passing     
through the rear corners on that side4  
,moreover1 although we prefer to so     
construct the apparatus that the        
movements of the lateral margins on the 
opposite sides of the machine are equal 
in extent and opposite in direction1 yet
 our invention is not limited to a      
construction producing this result1     
since it may be desirable under certain 
circumstances to move the lateral       
margins on one side of the machine just 
described without moving the lateral    
margins on the other side of the machine
 to an equal extent in the opposite     

direction4 ,turning now to the purpose  
of this provision for moving the lateral
 margins of the aeroplanes in the manner
 described1 it should be premised that  
owing to various conditions of wind     
pressure and other causes the body of   
the machine is apt to become unbalanced 
laterally1 one side tending to sink and 
the other side tending to rise1 the     
machine turning around its central      
longitudinal axis4 ,the provision which 
we have just described enables the      
operator to meet this difficulty and    
preserve the lateral balance of the     
machine4 ,assuming that for some cause  
that side of the machine which lies to  
the left of the observer in ,figs4 #a   
and #b has shown a tendency to drop     
downward1 a movement of the cradle #ah  
to the right of said figures1 as        
hereinbefore assumed1 will move the     
lateral margins of the aeroplanes in the
 manner already described1 so that the  
margins a d and e h will be inclined    
downward and rearward1 and the lateral  

margins b c and f g will be inclined    
upward and rearward with respect to the 
normal planes of the bodies of the      
aeroplanes4 ,with the parts of the      
machine in this position it will be seen
 that the lateral margins a d and e h   
present a larger angle of incidence to  
the resisting air1 while the lateral    
margins on the other side of the machine
 present a smaller angle of incidence4  
,owing to this fact1 the side of the    
machine presenting the larger angle of  
incidence will tend to lift or move     
upward1 and this upward movement will   
restore the lateral balance of the      
machine4 ,when the other side of the    
machine tends to drop1 a movement of the
 cradle #ah in the reverse direction    
will restore the machine to its normal  
lateral equilibrium4 ,of course1 the    
same effect will be produced in the same
 way in the case of a machine employing 
only a single aeroplane4  ,in connection
 with the body of the machine as thus   
operated we employ a vertical rudder or 

tail #bb1 so supported as to turn around
 a vertical axis4 ,this rudder is       
supported at the rear ends on supports  
or arms #bc1 pivoted at their forward   
ends to the rear margins of the upper   
and lower aeroplanes1 respectively4     
,these supports are preferably          
,v-shaped1 as shown1 so that their      
forward ends are comparatively widely   
separated1 their pivots being indicated 
at #bd4 ,said supports are free to swing
 upward at their free rear ends1 as     
indicated in dotted lines in ,fig4 #c1  
their downward movement being limited in
 any suitable manner4 ,the vertical     
pivots of the rudder #bb are indicated  
at #be1 and one of these pivots has     
mounted thereon a sheave or pulley #bf1 
around which passes a tiller-rope #bg1  
the ends of which are extended out      
laterally and secured to the rope #ai on
 opposite sides of the central point of 
said rope4 ,by reason of this           
construction the lateral shifting of the
 cradle #ah serves to turn the rudder to

 one side or the other of the line of   
flight4 ,it will be observed in this    
connection that the construction is such
 that the rudder will always be so      
turned as to present its resisting      
surface on that side of the machine on  
which the lateral margins of the        
aeroplanes present the least angle of   
resistance4 ,the reason of this         
construction is that when the lateral   
margins of the aeroplanes are so turned 
in the manner hereinbefore described as 
to present different angles of incidence
 to the atmosphere1 that side presenting
 the largest angle of incidence1        
although being lifted or moved upward in
 the manner already described1 at the   
same time meets with an increased       
resistance to its forward motion1 while 
at the same time the other side of the  
machine1 presenting a smaller angle of  
incidence1 meets with less resistance to
 its forward motion and tends to move   
forward more rapidly than the retarded  
side4 ,this gives the machine a tendency

 to turn around its vertical axis1 and  
this tendency if not properly met will  
not only change the direction of the    
front of the machine1 but will          
ultimately permit one side thereof to   
drop into a position vertically below   
the other side with the aeroplanes in   
vertical position1 thus causing the     
machine to fall4 ,the movement of the   
rudder1 hereinbefore described1 prevents
 this action1 since it exerts a         
retarding influence on that side of the 
machine which tends to move forward too 
rapidly and keeps the machine with its  
front properly presented to the         
direction of flight and with its body   
properly balanced around its central    
longitudinal axis4 ,the pivoting of the 
supports #bc so as to permit them to    
swing upward prevents injury to the     
rudder and its supports in case the     
machine alights at such an angle as to  
cause the rudder to strike the ground   
first1 the parts yielding upward1 as    
indicated in dotted lines in ,fig4 #c1  

and thus preventing injury or breakage4 
,we wish it to be understood1 however1  
that we do not limit ourselves to the   
particular description of rudder set    
forth1 the essential being that the     
rudder shall be vertical and shall be so
 moved as to present its resisting      
surface on that side of the machine     
which offers the least resistance to the
 atmosphere1 so as to counteract the    
tendency of the machine to turn around a
 vertical axis when the two sides       
thereof offer different resistances to  
the air4  ,from the central portion of  
the front of the machine struts #bh     
extend horizontally forward from the    
lower aeroplane1 and struts #bi extend  
downward and forward from the central   
portion of the upper aeroplane1 their   
front ends being united to the struts   
#bh1 the forward extremities of which   
are turned up1 as indicated at #cj4     
,these struts #bh and #bi form          
truss-skids projecting in front of the  
whole frame of the machine and serving  

to prevent the machine from rolling over
 forward when it alights4 ,the struts   
#bi serve to brace the upper portion of 
the main frame and resist its tendency  
to move forward after the lower         
aeroplane has been stopped by its       
contact with the earth1 thereby         
relieving the rope #ai from undue       
strain1 for it will be understood that  
when the machine comes into contact with
 the earth1 further forward movement of 
the lower portion thereof being suddenly
 arrested1 the inertia of the upper     
portion would tend to cause it to       
continue to move forward if not         
prevented by the struts #bi1 and this   
forward movement of the upper portion   
would bring a very violent strain upon  
the rope #ai1 since it is fastened to   
the upper portion at both of its ends1  
while its lower portion is connected by 
the guides #bj to the lower portion4    
,the struts #bh and #bi also serve to   
support the front or horizontal rudder1 
the construction of which we will now   

proceed to describe4  ,the front rudder 
#ca is a horizontal rudder having a     
flexible body1 the same consisting of   
three stiff cross-pieces or sticks #cb1 
#cc1 and #cd1 and the flexible ribs #ce1
 connecting said cross-pieces and       
extending from front to rear4 ,the frame
 thus provided is covered by a suitable 
fabric stretched over the same to form  
the body of the rudder4 ,the rudder is  
supported from the struts #bi by means  
of the intermediate cross-piece #cb1    
which is located near the centre of     
pressure slightly in front of a line    
equidistant between the front and rear  
edges of the rudder1 the cross-piece #cb
 forming the pivotal axis of the rudder1
 so as to constitute a balanced rudder4 
,to the front edge of the rudder there  
are connected springs #cf1 which springs
 are connected to the upturned ends #cj 
of the struts #bh1 the construction     
being such that said springs tend to    
resist any movement either upward or    
downward of the front edge of the       

horizontal rudder4 ,the rear edge of the
 rudder lies immediately in front of the
 operator and may be operated by him in 
any suitable manner4 ,we have shown a   
mechanism for this purpose comprising a 
roller or shaft #cg1 which may be       
grasped by the operator so as to turn   
the same in either direction4 ,bands #ch
 extend from the roller #cg forward to  
and around a similar roller or shaft    
#ci1 both rollers or shafts being       
supported in suitable bearings on the   
struts #bh4 ,the forward roller or shaft
 has rearwardly-extending arms #dj1     
which are connected by links #da with   
the rear edge of the rudder #ca4 ,the   
normal position of the rudder #ca is    
neutral or substantially parallel with  
the aeroplanes #a and #b2 but its rear  
edge may be moved upward or downward1 so
 as to be above or below the normal     
plane of said rudder through the        
mechanism provided for that purpose4 ,it
 will be seen that the springs #cf will 
resist any tendency of the forward edge 

of the rudder to move in either         
direction1 so that when force is applied
 to the rear edge of said rudder the    
longitudinal ribs #ce bend1 and the     
rudder thus presents a concave surface  
to the action of the wind either above  
or below its normal plane1 said surface 
presenting a small angle of incidence at
 its forward portion and said angle of  
incidence rapidly increasing toward the 
rear4 ,this greatly increases the       
efficiency of the rudder as compared    
with a plane surface of equal area4 ,by 
regulating the pressure on the upper and
 lower sides of the rudder through      
changes of angle and curvature in the   
manner described a turning movement of  
the main structure around its transverse
 axis may be effected1 and the course of
 the machine may thus be directed upward
 or downward at the will of the operator
 and the longitudinal balance thereof   
maintained4  ,contrary to the usual     
custom1 we place the horizontal rudder  
in front of the aeroplanes at a negative

 angle and employ no horizontal tail at 
all4 ,by this arrangement we obtain a   
forward surface which is almost entirely
 free from pressure under ordinary      
conditions of flight1 but which even if 
not moved at all from its original      
position becomes an efficient lifting   
surface whenever the speed of the       
machine is accidentally reduced very    
much below the normal1 and thus largely 
counteracts that backward travel of the 
centre of pressure on the aeroplanes    
which has frequently been productive of 
serious injuries by causing the machine 
to turn downward and forward and strike 
the ground head-on4 ,we are aware that a
 forward horizontal rudder of different 
construction has been used in           
combination with a supporting surface   
and a rear horizontal rudder2 but this  
combination was not intended to effect  
and does not effect the object which we 
obtain by the arrangement hereinbefore  
described4  ,we have used the term      
#8aeroplane' in this specification and  

the appended claims to indicate the     
supporting surface or supporting        
surfaces by means of which the machine  
is sustained in the air1 and by this    
term we wish to be understood as        
including any suitable supporting       
surface which normally is substantially 
flat1 although1 of course1 when         
constructed of cloth or other flexible  
fabric1 as we prefer to construct them1 
these surfaces may receive more or less 
curvature from the resistance of the    
air1 as indicated in ,fig4 #c4  ,we do  
not wish to be understood as limiting   
ourselves strictly to the precise       
details of construction hereinbefore    
described and shown in the accompanying 
drawings1 as it is obvious that these   
details may be modified without         
departing from the principles of our    
invention4 ,for instance1 while we      
prefer the construction illustrated in  
which each aeroplane is given a twist   
along its entire length in order to set 
its opposite lateral margins at         

different angles1 we have already       
pointed out that our invention is not   
limited to this form of construction1   
since it is only necessary to move the  
lateral marginal portions1 and where    
these portions alone are moved only     
those upright standards which support   
the movable portion require flexible    
connections at their ends4  ,having thus
 fully described our invention1 what we 
claim as new1 and desire to secure by   
,letters ,patent1 is3--  #a4 ,in a      
flying machine1 a normally flat         
aeroplane having lateral marginal       
portions capable of movement to         
different positions above or below the  
normal plane of the body of the         
aeroplane1 such movement being about an 
axis transverse to the line of flight1  
whereby said lateral marginal portions  
may be moved to different angles        
relatively to the normal plane of the   
body of the aeroplane1 so as to present 
to the atmosphere different angles of   
incidence1 and means for so moving said 

lateral marginal portions1 substantially
 as described4  #b4 ,in a flying        
machine1 the combination1 with two      
normally parallel aeroplanes1 superposed
 the one above the other1 of upright    
standards connecting said planes at     
their margins1 the connections between  
the standards and aeroplanes at the     
lateral portions of the aeroplanes being
 by means of flexible joints1 each of   
said aeroplanes having lateral marginal 
portions capable of movement to         
different positions above or below the  
normal plane of the body of the         
aeroplane1 such movement being about an 
axis transverse to the line of flight1  
whereby said lateral marginal portions  
may be moved to different angles        
relatively to the normal plane of the   
body of the aeroplane1 so as to present 
to the atmosphere different angles of   
incidence1 the standards maintaining a  
fixed distance between the portions of  
the aeroplanes which they connect1 and  
means for imparting such movement to the

 lateral marginal portions of the       
aeroplanes1 substantially as described4 
#c4 ,in a flying machine1 a normally    
flat aeroplane having lateral marginal  
portions capable of movement to         
different positions above or below the  
normal plane of the body of the         
aeroplane1 such movement being about an 
axis transverse to the line of flight1  
whereby said lateral marginal portions  
may be moved to different angles        
relatively to the normal plane of the   
body of the aeroplane1 and also to      
different angles relatively to each     
other1 so as to present to the          
atmosphere different angles of          
incidence1 and means for simultaneously 
imparting such movement to said lateral 
marginal portions1 substantially as     
described4  #d4 ,in a flying machine1   
the combination1 with parallel          
superposed aeroplanes1 each having      
lateral marginal portions capable of    
movement to different positions above or
 below the normal plane of the body of  

the aeroplane1 such movement being about
 an axis transverse to the line of      
flight1 whereby said lateral marginal   
portions may be moved to different      
angles relatively to the normal plane of
 the body of the aeroplane1 and to      
different angles relatively to each     
other1 so as to present to the          
atmosphere different angles of          
incidence1 of uprights connecting said  
aeroplanes at their edges1 the uprights 
connecting the lateral portions of the  
aeroplanes being connected with said    
aeroplanes by flexible joints1 and means
 for simultaneously imparting such      
movement to said lateral marginal       
portions1 the standards maintaining a   
fixed distance between the parts which  
they connect1 whereby the lateral       
portions on the same side of the machine
 are moved to the same angle1           
substantially as described4  #e4 ,in a  
flying machine1 an aeroplane having     
substantially the form of a normally    
flat rectangle elongated transversely to

 the line of flight1 in combination     
which means for imparting to the lateral
 margins of said aeroplane a movement   
about an axis lying in the body of the  
aeroplane perpendicular to said lateral 
margins1 and thereby moving said lateral
 margins into different angular         
relations to the normal plane of the    
body of the aeroplane1 substantially as 
described4  #f4 ,in a flying machine1   
the combination1 with two superposed and
 normally parallel aeroplanes1 each     
having substantially the form of a      
normally flat rectangle elongated       
transversely to the line of flight1 of  
upright standards connecting the edges  
of said aeroplanes to maintain their    
equidistance1 those standards at the    
lateral portions of said aeroplanes     
being connected therewith by flexible   
joints1 and means for simultaneously    
imparting to both lateral margins of    
both aeroplanes movement about axes     
which are perpendicular to said margins 
and in the planes of the bodies of the  

respective aeroplanes1 and thereby      
moving the lateral margins on the       
opposite sides of the machine into      
different angular relations to the      
normal planes of the respective         
aeroplanes1 the margins on the same side
 of the machine moving to the same      
angle1 and the margins on one side of   
the machine moving to an angle different
 from the angle to which the margins on 
the other side of the machine move1     
substantially as described4  #g4 ,in a  
flying machine1 the combination1 with an
 aeroplane1 and means for simultaneously
 moving the lateral portions thereof    
into different angular relations to the 
normal plane of the body of the         
aeroplane and to each other1 so as to   
present to the atmosphere different     
angles of incidence1 of a vertical      
rudder1 and means whereby said rudder is
 caused to present to the wind that side
 thereof nearest the side of the        
aeroplane having the smaller angle of   
incidence and offering the least        

resistance to the atmosphere1           
substantially as described4  #h4 ,in a  
flying machine1 the combination1 with   
two superposed and normally parallel    
aeroplanes1 upright standards connecting
 the edges of said aeroplanes to        
maintain their equidistance1 those      
standards at the lateral portions of    
said aeroplanes being connected         
therewith by flexible joints1 and means 
for simultaneously moving both lateral  
portions of both aeroplanes into        
different angular relations to the      
normal planes of the bodies of the      
respective aeroplanes1 the lateral      
portions on one side of the machine     
being moved to an angle different from  
that to which the lateral portions on   
the other side of the machine are moved1
 so as to present different angles of   
incidence at the two sides of the       
machine1 of a vertical rudder1 and means
 whereby said rudder is caused to       
present to the wind that side thereof   
nearest the side of the aeroplanes      

having the smaller angle of incidence   
and offering the least resistance to the
 atmosphere1 substantially as described4
  #i4 ,in a flying machine1 an aeroplane
 normally flat and elongated            
transversely to the line of flight1 in  
combination with means for imparting to 
said aeroplane a helicoidal warp around 
an axis transverse to the line of flight
 and extending centrally along the body 
of the aeroplane in the direction of the
 elongation of the aeroplane1           
substantially as described4  #aj4 ,in a 
flying machine1 two aeroplanes1 each    
normally flat and elongated transversely
 to the line of flight1 and upright     
standards connecting the edges of said  
aeroplanes to maintain their            
equidistance1 the connections between   
said standards and aeroplanes being by  
means of flexible joints1 in combination
 with means for simultaneously imparting
 to each of said aeroplanes a helicoidal
 warp around an axis transverse to the  
line of flight and extending centrally  

along the body of the aeroplane in the  
direction of the aeroplane1             
substantially as described4  #aa4 ,in a 
flying machine1 two aeroplanes1 each    
normally flat and elongated transversely
 to the line of flight1 and upright     
standards connecting the edges of said  
aeroplanes to maintain their            
equidistance1 the connections between   
such standards and aeroplanes being by  
means of flexible joints1 in combination
 with means for simultaneously imparting
 to each of said aeroplanes a helicoidal
 warp around an axis transverse to the  
line of flight and extending centrally  
along the body of the aeroplane in the  
direction of the elongation of the      
aeroplane1 a vertical rudder1 and means 
whereby said rudder is caused to present
 to the wind that side thereof nearest  
the side of the aeroplanes having the   
smaller angle of incidence and offering 
the least resistance to the atmosphere1 
substantially as described4  #ab4 ,in a 
flying machine1 the combination1 with an

 aeroplane1 of a normally flat and      
substantially horizontal flexible       
rudder1 and means for curving said      
rudder rearwardly and upwardly or       
rearwardly and downwardly with respect  
to its normal plane1 substantially as   
described4  #ac4 ,in a flying machine1  
the combination1 with an aeroplane1 of a
 normally flat and substantially        
horizontal flexible rudder pivotally    
mounted on an axis transverse to the    
line of flight near its centre1 springs 
resisting vertical movement of the front
 edge of said rudder1 and means for     
moving the rear edge of said rudder1    
above or below the normal plane thereof1
 substantially as described4  #ad4 ,a   
flying machine comprising superposed    
connected aeroplanes means for moving   
the opposite lateral portions of said   
aeroplanes to different angles to the   
normal planes thereof1 a vertical       
rudder1 means for moving said vertical  
rudder toward that side of the machine  
presenting the smaller angle of         

incidence and the least resistance to   
the atmosphere1 and a horizontal rudder 
provided with means for presenting its  
upper or under surface to the resistance
 of the atmosphere1 substantially as    
described4  #ae4 ,a flying machine      
comprising superposed connected         
aeroplanes1 means for moving the        
opposite lateral portions of said       
aeroplanes to different angles to the   
normal planes thereof1 a vertical       
rudder1 means for moving said vertical  
rudder toward that side of the machine  
presenting the smaller angle of         
incidence and the least resistance to   
the atmosphere1 and a horizontal rudder 
provided with means for presenting its  
upper or under surface to the resistance
 of the atmosphere1 said vertical rudder
 being located at the rear of the       
machine and said horizontal rudder at   
the front of the machine1 substantially 
as described4  #af4 ,in a flying        
machine1 the combination1 with two      
superposed and connected aeroplanes1 of 

an arm extending rearward from each     
aeroplane1 said arms being parallel and 
free to swing upward at their rear ends1
 and a vertical rudder pivotally mounted
 in the rear ends of said arms1         
substantially as described4  #ag4 ,a    
flying machine comprising two superposed
 aeroplanes1 normally flat but flexible1
 upright standards connecting the       
margins of said aeroplanes1 said        
standards being connected to said       
aeroplanes by universal joints1 diagonal
 stay-wires connecting the opposite ends
 of the adjacent standards1 a rope      
extending along the front edge of the   
lower aeroplane1 passing through guides 
at the front corners thereof1 and having
 its ends secured to the rear corners of
 the upper aeroplane1 and a rope        
extending along the rear edge of the    
lower aeroplane1 passing through guides 
at the rear corners thereof1 and having 
its ends secured to the front corners of
 the upper aeroplane1 substantially as  
described4  #ah4 ,a flying machine      

comprising two superposed aeroplanes1   
normally flat but flexible1 upright     
standards connecting the margins of said
 aeroplanes1 said standards being       
connected to said aeroplanes by         
universal joints1 diagonal stay-wires   
connecting the opposite ends of the     
adjacent standards1 a rope extending    
along the front edge of the lower       
aeroplane1 passing through guides at the
 front corners thereof1 and having its  
ends secured to the rear corners of the 
upper aeroplane1 and a rope extending   
along the rear edge of the lower        
aeroplane1 passing through guides at the
 rear corners thereof1 and having its   
ends secured to the front corners of the
 upper aeroplane1 in combination with a 
vertical rudder1 and a tiller-rope      
connecting said rudder with the rope    
extending along the rear edge of the    
lower aeroplane1 substantially as       
described4                              
,,orville ,,wright4                     
,,wilbur ,,wright4    ,witnesses3       

,chas4 ,e4 ,taylor4       ,e4 ,earle    
,forrer4     ,,appendix ,c              
,proclamation published by the ,french  
,government on balloon ascents1 #aghc4  
,,notice ,,to ,,the ,,public6 ,,paris1  
#bg,,th ,,august1 #aghc4  ,on the       
,ascent of balloons or globes in the    
air4 ,the one in question has been      
raised in ,paris this day1 #bgth        
,august1 #aghc1 at #e p4m41 in the      
,champ de ,mars4  ,a ,discovery has been
 made1 which the ,government deems it   
right to make known1 so that alarm be   
not occasioned to the people4  ,on      
calculating the different weights of hot
 air1 hydrogen gas1 and common air1 it  
has been found that a balloon filled    
with either of the two former will rise 
toward heaven till it is in equilibrium 
with the surrounding air1 which may not 
happen until it has attained a great    
height4  ,the first experiment was made 
at ,annonay1 in ,vivarais1 ,,mm4        
,mongolfier1 the inventors2 a globe     
formed of canvas and paper1 #aje feet in

 circumference1 filled with heated air1 
reached an uncalculated height4 ,the    
same experiment has just been renewed in
 ,paris before a great crowd4 ,a globe  
of taffetas or light canvas covered by  
elastic gum and filled with inflammable 
air1 has risen from the ,champ de ,mars1
 and been lost to view in the clouds1   
being borne in a north-westerly         
direction4 ,one cannot foresee where it 
will descend4  ,it is proposed to repeat
 these experiments on a larger scale4   
,any one who shall see in the sky such a
 globe1 which resembles #8la lune       
obscurcie1' should be aware that1 far   
from being an alarming phenomenon1 it is
 only a machine that cannot possibly    
cause any harm1 and which will some day 
prove serviceable to the wants of       
society4                      7,signed7 
,,de ,,sauvigny4                        
,,lenoir4     ,a ,,short ,,bibliography 
,,of ,,aeronautics4   ,a complete       
bibliography of aeronautical works      
issued up to #aiji1 published by the    

,smithsonian ,institute1 ,washington1   
gives no less than #ac1ejj entries of   
book pamphlets1 and articles2 in all    
probability1 between that time and the  
present1 the total has been more than   
doubled4 ,the following is a list of    
outstanding work on the subject from the
 earliest times1 and1 in a good many    
cases1 the works mentioned give further 
bibliographies4 ,the ,smithsonian       
publication1 differentiating very little
 between the solid work on the subject  
and the magazine article1 is of little  
use except to the advanced student of   
the subject2 the following list is      
compiled with a view to directing       
attention to the more notable books and 
publications--a complete bibliography1  
as appendix to a work on aeronautics1 is
 an impossibility3--  ,prodromo ,all    
,arte ,mstra1 by ,francesco ,lana4      
,brescia1 #afgj4  ,mathematical ,magic1 
by ,j4 ,wilkins1 ,bishop of ,chester4   
,london1 #afia4  ,the ,air ,balloon1 or 
a ,treatise on the ,aerostatic ,globe4  

,london1 #aghc4  ,description des       
,experiences de la ,machine             
,aerostatique1 by ,f4 ,st ,fond4 #b     
vols4 ,paris1 #aghc4  ,hints of         
,important ,uses to be derived from     
,aerostatic ,globes1 by ,t4 ,martyn4    
,london1 #aghd4  ,account of the ,first 
,aerial ,voyage in ,england1 by ,v4     
,lunardi4 ,london1 #aghd4  ,narrative of
 ,m4 ,blanchard's ,third ,aerial        
,voyage1 translated from the ,french of 
,m4 ,blanchard4 ,london1 #aghd4         
,journal and ,certificates of the       
,fourth ,voyage of ,m4 ,blanchard4      
,london1 #aghd4  ,breslaw's ,last       
,legacy4 ,with an accurate description  
of the method how to make the air       
balloon4 ,london1 #aghd4  ,thoughts of  
the ,further ,improvement of            
,aerostation4 ,london1 #aghe4  ,treatise
 on ,aerostatic ,machines1 by ,j4       
,southern4 ,birmingham1 #aghe4          
,lunardi's ,account of his ,second      
,aerial ,voyage from ,liverpool1 ,august
 #ith1 #aghe4 ,london1 #aghe or #aghf4  

,an ,account of ,mr ,james ,decker's    
,two ,aerial ,expeditions4 ,norwich1    
#aghe4  ,the ,history and ,practice of  
,aerostation1 by ,tiberius ,cavallo1    
,f4,r4,s4 ,london1 #aghe4  ,eloge       
,funebre de ,m4 ,pilatre de ,rozier1 by 
,m4 ,lenoir4 ,london1 #aghe4            
,airopaida1 by ,t4 ,baldwin4 ,chester1  
#aghf4  ,an ,account of ,five ,aerial   
,voyages in ,scotland1 by ,v4 ,lunardi4 
,london1 #aghf4  ,a ,narrative of the   
,two ,aerial ,voyages of ,dr ,jeffries  
with ,mons4 ,blanchard1 by ,dr          
,jeffries4 ,london1 #aghf4  ,account of 
the ,three ,last ,aerial ,voyages made  
by ,m4 ,garnerin4 ,somerstown1 #ahjc4   
787  ,aeronautica1 or ,voyages in the   
,air1 by ,m4 ,garnerin4 ,london1 #ahjc4 
787  ,treatise on the ,use of ,balloons 
in ,military ,operations1 by            
,lieut4-,col4 ,money4 ,london1 #ahjc4   
,a ,treatise upon the ,art of ,flying1  
by ,thomas ,walker4 ,hull1 #ahaj4  ,the 
,aerial ,voyage of ,mr ,sadler across   
the ,irish ,channel1 ,october #ast1     

#ahab4 ,dublin1 #ahab4  ,a ,narrative of
 the ,aerial ,voyage of ,mr ,windham    
,sadler across the ,irish ,channel1     
,july1 #ahag4 ,dublin1 #ahbg4  ,the     
,aeropleustic ,art1 or ,navigation in   
the ,air by ,means of ,kites or ,buoyant
 ,sails1 by ,george ,pocock4 ,london1   
#ahbg4  ,annals of ,some ,remarkable    
,aerial and ,alpine ,voyages1 by ,t4    
,forster1 ,m4,b4 ,london1 #ahcb4        
,aeronautica1 by ,monk ,mason4 ,london1 
#ahch4  ,an ,essay on ,aerial           
,navigation1 by ,joseph ,mac,sweeney1   
,m4,d4 ,cork1 #ahdd4  ,the ,balloon1 or 
,aerostatic ,magazine1 by ,henry        
,coxwell4 ,london1 #ahde4  ,a ,system of
 ,aeronautics1 by ,john ,wise4          
,philadelphia1 #ahej4  ,histoires de la 
,locomotion ,aerienne1 by ,julian       
,turgan4 ,paris1 #ahea4  ,balloons for  
,warfare1 by ,henry ,coxwell4 ,london1  
#ahed4  ,the ,history of the ,charvolant
 or ,kite ,carriage4 ,london1 #ahea4    
,the ,giant ,balloon1 by ,f4 ,silas4    
,london1 #ahfc4  ,meteorological and    

,physical ,observations made in ,balloon
 ,ascents1 by ,james ,glaisher4 ,london1
 ,reprint from ,report of ,british      
,association1 #ahfd4  ,astra ,castra1 by
 ,hatton ,turnor4 ,london1 #ahfe4  ,the 
,right to ,fly1 translated from the     
,french of ,nadar4 ,london1 #ahff4  ,the
 ,mechanical ,appliances by which       
,flight is ,attained1 by ,j4 ,b4        
,pettigrew1 ,m4,d4 ,london1 #ahfg4 787  
,travels in the ,air1 by ,james         
,glaisher4 ,london1 #ahga4  ,animal     
,locomotion1 with a ,dissertation on    
,aeronautics1 by ,j4 ,b4 ,pettigrew1    
,m4,d4 ,london1 #ahgd4  ,animal         
,mechanism1 by ,e4 ,j4 ,marey4 ,london1 
#ahgd4  ,aerial ,navigation1 by ,c4 ,b4 
,mansfield4 ,london1 #ahgg4  ,the       
,aerial ,world1 by ,dr ,g4 ,hartig4     
7,new ,edition47 ,london1 #ahha4        
,ballooning1 by ,g4 ,may4 ,london1      
#ahhf4  ,my ,life and ,balloon          
,experiences1 by ,henry ,coxwell4       
,london1 #ahhg4  ,my ,life and ,balloon 
,experiences 7second series74 ,london1  

#ahhi4  ,experiments in ,aerodynamics1  
by ,s4 ,pierpont ,langley4 ,washington1 
#ahia4  ,aerial ,navigation1 by ,octave 
,chanute4 ,new ,york1 #ahia4            
,screw-propelled ,aeroplane ,machines1  
by ,e4 ,j4 ,stringfellow4 ,chard1 #ahib4
  ,the ,internal ,work of the ,wind1 by 
,s4 ,p4 ,langley4 ,washington1 #ahic4   
,progress in ,flying ,machines1 by      
,octave ,chanute4 ,new ,york1 #ahid4    
,aerial ,navigation1 by ,a4 ,f4 ,zahm4  
,philadelphia1 #ahid4  ,aerial          
,navigation1 by ,fijnje van ,salverda4  
,new ,york1 #ahid4  ,the ,aeronautical  
,annual1 by ,j4 ,s4 ,means4 #c vols4    
,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41 #ahie-f-g4  ,manual 
of ,military ,ballooning4 ,british ,war 
,office publication4 ,london1 #ahif4    
,the ,navigation of the ,air1 by ,a4    
,mc,callum4 ,aeronautical ,society1     
,london1 #ahig4  ,gliding ,experiments1 
by ,octave ,chanute4 ,western ,society  
of ,engineers1 ,u4,s4,a41 #ahig4        
,parakites1 by ,g4 ,t4 ,woglom4 ,new    
,york1 #ahig4  ,the ,mechanism and      

,equilibrium of ,kites1 by ,professor   
,marvin4 ,washington1 #ahig4  ,andree   
and his ,balloon1 by ,h4 ,lachambre and 
,a4 ,machuron4 ,london1 #ahih4  ,la     
,conquete de l',air1 by ,l4 ,sazerac de 
,forge4 ,paris1 #aijj4 ,this is one of  
the most exhaustive accounts of the     
development of dirigible airships that  
has been produced4 ,special attention is
 paid to the ,lebaudy type4  ,aerial    
,navigation1 by ,frederick ,walker4     
,london1 #aijb4  ,practical ,kites and  
,aeroplanes1 by ,frederick ,walker4     
,london1 #aijc4  ,my ,airships1 by ,a4  
,santos ,dumont4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,a     
personal account by the ,french pioneer 
of aerostatic experiment4  ,flying      
,machines with ,paddling ,wings1 by     
,andre ,delprat4 ,london1 #aijd4        
,manual of ,military ,ballooning4       
,london1 by ,authority1 #aije4          
,resistance of the ,air and the         
,question of ,flying1 by ,arnold        
,samuelson4 ,hamburg1 #aije4            
,navigating the ,air4 ,published by the 

,aero ,club of ,america4 ,new ,york1    
#aijg4  ,flying ,machines3 ,past1       
,present1 and ,future1 by ,a4 ,w4       
,marshall and ,h4 ,greenly4 ,london1    
#aijg4 787  ,a ,history of ,balloons and
 ,flying ,machines1 by ,lord ,montagu4  
,london1 #aijg4  ,pocketbook of         
,aeronautics1 by ,major ,h4 ,moedebeck4 
,london1 #aijg4 ,one of the most        
valuable reference works on the subject 
that has been compiled4  ,the ,problem  
of ,flight1 by ,herbert ,chatley4       
,london1 #aijg4  ,aerial ,flight3       
,aerodynamics1 by ,f4 ,w4 ,lanchester4  
,london1 #aijg4  ,aerial ,locomotion1 by
 ,a4 ,graham ,bell4 ,washington1 #aijg4 
,researches on the ,form and ,stability 
of ,aeroplanes1 by ,w4 ,r4 ,turnbull4   
,reprint from the ,physical ,review1    
,london1 #aijg4  ,aerial ,flight3       
,aerodonetics1 by ,f4 ,w4 ,lanchester4  
,london1 #aijh4  ,airships1 ,past and   
,present1 by ,a4 ,hildebrandt4 ,london1 
#aijh4 ,an ,english translation from the
 ,german1 which embodies all that had   

been done up to #aijf or thereabouts in 
dirigible construction1 with a few notes
 on aeroplane design and progress4 ,in  
various details ,hildebrandt is         
incorrect1 but there is a good deal in  
his work which is of value to the       
student1 if a confirming authority can  
be consulted4  ,aerial ,warfare1 by ,r4 
,p4 ,hearne4 ,london1 #aijh4            
,artificial and ,natural ,flight1 by    
,sir ,hiram ,maxim4 ,london1 #aijh4     
,containing an account of all ,maxim's  
experiments up to the time of writing4  
,the ,present ,status of ,military      
,aeronautics1 by ,major ,g4 ,o4 ,squier4
 ,published by the ,american ,society of
 ,mechanical ,engineers4 #aijh4  ,the   
,problem of ,flight1 by ,jose ,weiss4   
,london1 #aijh4  ,practical             
,aerodynamics1 by ,major ,baden-,powell4
 7,part #a47 ,london1 #aiji4  ,the      
,conquest of the ,air1 by ,a4 ,berget4  
,london1 #aiji4  ,vehicles of the ,air1 
by ,victor ,lougheed4 ,chicago and      
,london1 #aiji4 ,an illustrated         

compendium of aeroplane and airship     
design1 sketchily written1 and          
containing a number of conclusions which
 at the present time can hardly be      
regarded as accurate4 ,chiefly valuable 
for diagrams and data of early machines 
and engines4  ,model ,flying ,machines1 
by ,w4 ,g4 ,aston4 ,london1 #aiji4  ,the
 ,aeronautical ,classics3 #a1 ,aerial   
,navigation1 by ,sir ,george ,cayley2   
#b4 ,aerial ,locomotion1 by ,f4 ,h4     
,wenham2 #c4 ,the ,art of ,flying1 by   
,thomas ,walker2 #d4 ,the ,aerial ,ship1
 by ,francesco ,lana2 #e4 ,gliding1 by  
,percy ,s4 ,pilcher1 and ,the           
,aeronautical ,work of ,john            
,stringfellow2 #f4 ,the ,flight of      
,birds1 by ,giovanni ,a4 ,borelli4 ,a   
series of small manuals1 mainly         
reprints1 edited for the ,aeronautical  
,society of ,great ,britain by ,t4      
,o',brien ,hubbard and ,j4 ,h4          
,ledeboer1 of the utmost value to the   
student of aeronautical history4 ,the   
rescue of ,walker's and ,borelli's work 

from obscurity is in particular         
noteworthy as indicative of the valuable
 work accomplished by the ,aeronautical 
,society4  ,the ,boys' ,book of         
,airships1 by ,harry ,delacombe1 #aiaj1 
and ,the ,boys' ,book of ,aeroplanes1 by
 ,t4 ,o',brien ,hubbard and ,c4 ,c4     
,turner1 #aiab4 ,both these books1      
published by ,grant ,richards1 are of   
far greater value than their titles     
indicate4 ,written primarily for boys1  
they--especially the latter--contain a  
mass of historical information1 both    
accurate and valuable4  ,the ,langley   
,memoir on ,mechanical ,flight1 by ,s4  
,p4 ,langley and ,charles ,manly4       
,published by the ,smithsonian          
,institute1 ,washington4  ,aircraft in  
,warfare1 by ,f4 ,w4 ,lanchester4       
,london1 #aiac4  ,bird ,flight as the   
,basis of ,aviation1 by ,otto           
,lilienthal4  ,the ,design of           
,aeroplanes1 by ,a4 ,w4 ,judge4 ,london4
  ,the ,mechanics of the ,aeroplane1 by 
,captain ,duchesne4  ,airscrews1 by ,m4 

,a4 ,s4 ,riach4 ,london4 ,the standard  
work on the subject4  ,stability in     
,aviation1 by ,g4 ,h4 ,bryan4 ,london4  
,the ,properties of ,aerofoils1 by ,a4  
,w4 ,judge4 ,london4  ,aero ,engines1 by
 ,g4 ,a4 ,burls4 ,london4  ,high ,speed 
,internal ,combustion ,engines1 by ,a4  
,w4 ,judge4 ,london4  ,the ,aero        
,engine1 by ,s4 ,kean4 ,london4         
,aircraft1 by ,evan ,j4 ,david4         
,scribner's1 ,new ,york1 #aiai4 ,a      
rather scrappy account of the           
development of aeroplanes and           
dirigibles1 with special reference to   
the war period4  ,british ,airships3    
,past1 ,present1 and ,future1 by ,george
 ,whale4 ,london1 #aiai4 ,a very useful 
semi-technical handbook of the subject4 
,the ,aviation ,pocket-,book1 by ,h4    
,borlase ,matthews4 ,an annual          
compendium1 issued by ,messrs ,crosby   
,lockwood  ,co41 ,london1 giving fairly 
full data of technical development year 
by year4 7,not issued #aiai or #aibj47  
,,index     ,abaris1 legend of1 #g4     

,a4,b4,c4 radial engines1 #dff-g4       
,accidents1 committee of inquiry        
appointed1 #bii4    ,ader1 ,clement3    
builds #8,eole1' #aba2     builds       
#8,avion1' #abc2     account of trial   
flight1 #abd2     official denial of    
trial flight1 #abf2     end of          
experiments1 #abg2     compared with the
 ,wrights1 #baa2     official report on 
trials1 #dfi4    ,advisory ,committee1  
,british1 #bid4    ,aerial ,experiment  
,company of ,america1 #agi4    ,aerial  
,locomotion1 by ,wenham1 #gb-gf4        
,aerial ,navigation1 by ,cayley1 #de-dh4
    #8,aerodrome1' ,langley's1 #acd-dd4 
,aeronautical ,classics1 #dh4           
,aeronautical ,exhibitions3 ,the first1 
,crystal ,palace1 #fi1 #hb2     the     
first helicopter at1 #ga2               
,exhibition of #aiaa1 #bbi2     ,paris1 
#aiab1 #bid2     ,paris1 #aiac1 #cjd2   
,olympia1 #aiac1 #cjj2     ,olympia1    
#aiad1 #cje4    ,aeronautical ,society1 
,royal1 #gb4    ,aeronautical ,society1 
,annual ,reports1 #gf4    ,ailerons     

first fitted1 #cja4    ,air ,board      
formed1 #beh4    ,air ,force1 ,royal1   
formed1 #beh4    ,air ,force1 ,royal1   
strength of1 #beh4    ,air ,mail1       
,hendon-,windsor1 #bca4    ,air         
,ministry constituted1 #beh2     ,civil 
,aviation ,department1 #bfd4    ,air    
,navigation ,acts1 #bfe4    ,airships3  
,astra ,torres1 #cdi-ej2     ,baby1 the1
 #cfa2     ,barton1 #cei2     ,beta1    
#cfa2     ,blimp type1 #cfc2            
,british rigids1 #cfe-gj2               
,clement-,bayard1 #cdi-ej2     ,coastal 
type1 #cfd2     ,gamma1 #cfa2     ,gross
 type4 #cea2     ,lebaudy1 #cdh-i1 #cfb2
     ,north ,sea type1 #cfd2     ,nulli 
,secundus1 #cfj2     ,parseval1 #cea2   
,r#cc and ,r#cd1 #cfh2     ,r#ch class1 
#cgd2     ,r#hj1 #cga2     ,santos      
,dumont1 #cdb-dg2     ,schutte-,lanz1   
#ceh2     ,willows1 #cei2     ,zeppelin1
 #cda-ceb-h2     #b;,a1 ,british ,army1 
#cfa4    ,albatross aero engine1 #dbf4  
,alcock1 ,sir ,john1 #bff-g4    ,allard1
 attempt at gliding flight1 #cc4        

,allied war air equipment1 #bea4        
,alps1 crossed by ,chavez1 #bbf4        
,aluminium1 the ,schwartz airship1 #cdj4
    ,alvaston aero engine1 #dda4        
,america1 flight across1 #bca2          
,r#cd's voyage to1 #cgj4    ,andes1     
crossing of the1 #bfi4    ,andree's     
plans for a dirigible1 #cca4            
,antoinette engine1 fitted to ,voisin1  
#aha2     fitted to ,cody1 #aib2        
fitted to ,a4 ,v4 ,roe1 #aie4           
,antoinette monoplane1 #bij4    ,anzani 
aero engine1 #aif1 #baf1 #dai-ba4       
,archdeacon1 ,ernest1 #agi4             
,archytas1 legend of1 #g4    ,area      
necessary for support1 ,meerwein's      
statement1 #db4    ,army ,air           
,battalion1 ,british1 #bch4    ,art of  
,flying1 ,the1 by ,thomas ,walker1      
#dh-ee4    ,ascent1 first balloon1 #cbb2
     in ,america1 #cbh2     in ,england1
 #cbc4    ,ashmusen aero engine1 #ddd4  
,assyrian legends of flight1 #e4        
,astra ,torres airships1 #cej2     use  
of ballonets1 #ccj4    ,atlantic flight1

 #bfe-g4    ,audemars1 at ,bournemouth1 
#bji2     ,paris-,berlin flight1 #bcg4  
,aulus ,gellius1 legend of ,archytas1   
#g4    ,australian flight1 the first1   
#bgj4    ,aviatik1 construction of1     
#baj4    #8,avion' ,ader's1 #abc1 #baa2 
official report on1 #dfi4    ,ayar      
,utso1 ,peruvian legend of1 #h4         
#8,baby' airship1 the1 #cfa4    ,bacon1 
,francis1 on flight1 #bj4    ,bacon1    
,roger1 on flight1 #ab4    ,ballon sond1
 the first1 #cbe4    ,ballonets1        
#cbi-cj1 #ccc-d4    ,balloon3 the       
,mongolfier type1 #cah2     first public
 ascent1 #cai2     ,charles's hydrogen1 
#cbj2     ,mongolfierlater types1       
#cbj-ba-bb2     ,rozier and d',arlandes'
 ascent1 #cbb2     first ascent in      
,england1 #cbc2     ,saussure on cause  
of lift1 #cbc2     ,charles1 filling    
method1 #cbd2     ,charles's and        
,robert's ascent1 #cbe2     ,blanchard's
 channel crossing1 #cbf2     ,robert's  
observations1 #cbg2     ,section1 ,royal
 ,engineers1 #cei2     ,dirigible 7see  

dirigibles71 #cca-da2     in warfare1   
#cgf2     school at ,farnborough1 #bbf4 
,balloon ascents1 proclamation on1 #ejb4
    ,balloonists3 ,blanchard1 #db1 #cbf1
 #cgh2     ,mongolfier1 #db1 #cah4      
,barton airship1 the1 #cei4    #8,bat1' 
the1 ,pilcher's glider1 #aja4           
,baumgarten and ,wolfert dirigible1     
#cdj1 #chi4    ,bayerischer aero engine1
 #dbi-cj4    ,beaumont1 circuit of      
,britain1 #bbj1 #bcj2     wins          
,paris-,rome race1 #bcj4    #8,beetle'  
the1 ,pilcher's glider1 #ajc4           
,belgian provision of war aircraft1     
#bdh4    ,benz #d-;cylinder aero engine1
 #dja4    ,berlin1 air services from and
 to1 #bfh4    ,berriman1 on helicopter  
flight1 #hg4    ,besnier's gliding      
experiments1 #cd-e4    #8,beta' army    
airship1 #cfa4    ,b4,e4#b1 the1 #big4  
,b4,e4#b;c1 the1 #cjd4    ,bibliography1
 a short1 #ejd4    ,biplanes3           
,albatross1 #bea2     ,avro types1 #aie2
     ,bleriot1 #ahc2                    
,curtiss-,herring1 #ahb2     ,cody's    

first1 #aia-b2     ,cody's #8cathedral1'
 #aic1 #bij2     ,farman1 #aha1 #bag2   
,gotha1 #beb2     ,handley-,page1 #beb2 
,moore-,brabazon uses ,short1 #aih2     
,r4,e4#a1 #cje2     ,r4,e4,p41 #ahb2    
,sikorsky1 #bdi2     ,sopwith1 #bfe1    
#big2     ,voisin1 #aha1 #bbc1 #bhf2    
the #aije ,wright1 #age4    ,black1 ,dr1
 #cah4    ,blackpool flying meeting1    
#aie1 #bjf4    ,bladud1 legend of1 #i4  
,blanchard1 ,jean ,pierre1 #db1 #cbf1   
#cgh4    ,bleriot1 ,louis3 #agi2        
flapping wing experiments1 #ahc2        
flights1 #ahd2     at ,rheims1 #bjj-bjd2
     a student of ,langley1 #baa2       
constructional work1 #baa-ab2           
cross-country record1 #bbb2             
cross-channel machine1 #bab1 #baf1 #bhi2
     cross-channel flight1 #bac-d2      
early flights1 #bba4    ,blimp type     
airship1 #cfc4    ,bodensee1 ,german    
airship1 #cge4    ,boilers1 ,maxim's1   
#chf4    ,bomb sighting devices1 #beb4  
,bombers3 ,caudron type1 #bea2          
,gotha1 #beb2     ,handley-,page1 #beb2 

,voisin1 #bea4    ,borelli1 compared    
with da ,vinci1 #ah2     de ,volatu1    
#ba-bf2     his conclusions1 #bf-bg4    
,boulogne meeting1 the1 #agh1 #bjf4     
,bournemouth meeting1 #aih1 #bjg-h4     
,box ,kites1 ,cody's1 #ahi4             
,brearey's #8pectoral cord1' #hc4       
,brescia flying meeting1 #bjf4          
,british flying grounds1 the principal1 
#bbg2     war construction1 #bei-fj2    
war aircraft1 #aiad1 #bdg2     ,war     
,office ,trials1 #aid1 #bji1 #bcb1      
#bce-g1 #bif2     ,war ,office          
requirements1 #aiac1 #cjj2     war      
construction1 #bei-fj4    ,brooklands in
 the early days1 #aig1 #bbh4     ,cairo 
to ,cape flight1 #bgj4    ,capnobates1  
legend of1 #e4    ,capper1 ,colonel ,j4 
,e4 at ,farnborough1 #bbf2              
constructs dirigible1 #cfj4    ,carra's 
dirigible1 #ccb4    ,cassiodurus1       
legends by1 #g4    ,castel's helicopter1
 #hg4    ,casualties1 ,british war1     
#bcd4    ,cavallo1 ,leo1 experiments    
with hydrogen1 #cah4    ,cavendish1     

discovery of hydrogen1 #cah4    ,cayley1
 ,sir ,george1 #de-dh4    ,certified    
pilots1 list of in #aiaa1 #bbh4         
,channel crossing by ,bleriot1 #bac-ad2 
de ,lesseps1 #bae2     ,c4 ,s4 ,rolls1  
#baf2     balloon1 #cbf4    ,chanute1   
,o41 gliding experiments1 #ajg-aae2     
,wrights' reference to1 #aec2     at    
,wrights' camp1 #aeg4    ,chartres1 ,duc
 de1 balloon ascent1 #cbi1 #ccc4        
,charvolant or kite carriage1 ,pocock's1
 #ef4    ,chavez1 ,georges3 at ,tours1  
#bbe2     makes ,british height record1 
#bbe2     crosses the ,alps1 #bbf2      
fatal accident1 #bbf4    ,circuit of    
,britain race1 #bbj4    ,civil ,aviation
 ,department1 ,air ,ministry1 formed1   
#bfd4    ,clement-,bayard dirigible1    
#cdi-ej2     engines1 #ddd4    ,clerget 
rotary engine1 #dcd-f4    ,coastal type 
of ,british airship1 #cfd4    ,coatalen1
 ,louis1 #daa4    ,cockburn1 ,british   
competitor at ,rheims1 #bja1 #bjf4      
,cocking's parachute1 #cgh4    ,cody1   
,s4 ,f41 constructs box-kites1 #ahi2    

constructs dirigible1 #cfj2     first   
biplane1 #aij-a2     first flight in    
,england1 #aij-a2     first observed    
flight1 #bbb-c2     various flights1    
#aib2     wins ,british ,war ,office    
trials1 #bce-g2     passenger flights1  
#aic2     #8cathedral' biplane1 #aic2   
records achieved1 #aic-d1 #bbc2     at  
,doncaster1 #bjg2     in circuit of     
,britain race1 #bbj2     fatal accident1
 #aid4    ,colombine1 associated with   
,henson and ,stringfellow1 #fj1 #fd4    
,commercial ,zeppelin service1 #cgb4    
,construction1 ,british war1 #bei-fj4   
,cosmos #8,jupiter' engine1 #dfe2       
#8,lucifer' engine1 #dff4    ,cousin1   
,histoire de ,constantinople1 #aa4      
,curtiss1 ,glenn1 forms ,aerial         
,experiment ,company1 #agi2     flying  
boat construction1 #bdb2     flies      
,langley machine1 #bdc-e2     at        
,rheims1 #bja-b4    ,curtiss-,herring   
biplane1 #ahb4    ,curtiss ,vee-type    
engine1 #daf4     ,daedalus1 legend of1 
#e4    ,daimler aero engines1 #chi-ia1  

#cid-f4    ,danti1 ,giovanni1 #ab4      
,d',arlandes1 first balloon ascent1     
#cbb4    ,darracq aero engines1 #ddj1   
#ddb4    ,de ,dion aero engines1 #daf4  
,degen's flying machine1 #eb4    ,de    
,havilland1 height record1 #aif2     at 
,farnborough1 #bbh4    ,delagrange1 at  
,juvisy meeting1 #ahe-f2     at ,rheims1
 #bjb2     at ,doncaster1 #bjg2         
death of1 #bbd2     records made by1    
#bbb4    ,de ,lesseps channel crossing1 
#bae4    ,demoiselle monoplane1 ,santos 
,dumont's1 #ahd1 #bhe2     ,audemars1   
#bji4    ,deperdussin monoplane1 #bid1  
#cja-b4    ,derby1 aerial1 #bfg4    ,de 
,rue1 ,ferber's pseudonym1 #bjj4        
,d',esterno1 gliding machine1 #gb2      
,du ,vol des ,oiseaux1 #gb4    ,dickson1
 ,captain1 aero scouting1 in #aiaj1     
#baj2     at ,tours meeting1 #bbe4      
,dihedral angle1 #bhe4    ,diodorus's   
story of ,abaris1 #g4    ,dirigibles3   
,french1 at ,rheims meeting1 #bjc2      
,baumgarten and ,wolfert1 #cdj2         
,carra's1#ccb2     ,dupuy de ,lome's1   

#ccf2     de ,morveau's1 #ccb2          
,giffard's1 #ccd-f2     ,guyot's 7the   
first71 #ccb2     ,haenlein's1 ,paul1   
#ccg2     ,joseph ,mongolfier's         
suggestions for propulsion1 #cca2       
,meusnier's improvements1 #ccc2         
,miollan and ,janinet1 #ccb2     ,renard
 and ,krebs1 #cch-dj2     ,schwartz     
aluminium1 #cdj2     ,wellner's1 #cca2  
7see airships for later types74         
,doncaster flying meeting1 #aiji1 #bjf4 
,dorman aero engines1 #dji-aj4          
,drexel1 ,armstrong1 world's height     
record1 #bbe4    ,dugald ,clerk's       
two-stroke engine1 #ddg4    ,dunne      
monoplane1 the1 #bbi2     description   
of1 #bic4    ,dutheil-,chambers aero    
engine1 #dda1 #ddc4     ,electric motor 
airship propulsion1 #cij-ia4            
,empedocles1 legend of1 #f4    ,engines3
 ,a4,b4,c4 #8,wasp ,,ii4' radial1 #dff2 
,a4,b4,c4 #8,dragonfly' radial1 #dfg2   
,alvaston rotary1 #dda2     ,antoinette1
 #aha1 #bda2     ,anzani rotary1 #aif1  
#baf1 #dai-ba2     ,albatross radial1   

#dbf2     ,ashmusan horizontal1 #ddd2   
,austro-,daimler vertical1 #djc2        
,bayerischer rotary1 #dbi-cj2     ,benz 
#d-;cylinder vertical1 #bei1 #dja2      
,burlat rotary1 #dci2                   
,clement-,bayard horizontal1 #ddd2      
,clerget rotary1 #dcd-f2     ,cosmos    
#8,jupiter' radial1 #dfe2     ,cosmos   
#8,lucifer' radial1 #dff2               
,critchley's list of1 #djj1 #djd2       
,curtiss ,vee type1 #daf2     ,daimler  
vertical1 #chi-ia1 #cid-f2     ,darracq 
horizontal1 #ddj1 #ddb2     de ,dion    
,vee type1 #daf2     ,dorman ,vee type1 
#dji-aj2     ,dugald ,clerk's           
two-stroke1 #ddg2     ,dutheil-,chambers
 horizontal1 #dda1 #ddc2     ,eole1     
horizontal1 #ddc2     ,esnault-,pelterie
 radial1 #dbb2     ,fredericson1        
horizontal1 #deg2     ,giffard's1 #chc2 
,gnome rotary1 #aha1 #ahe1 #aie1 #bjc1  
#bbd1 #bda1dbh-i1 #dca-cd2     ,gobe and
 ,diard's two-stroke1 #dec2     ,graham 
,clark's list of1 #dja2     ,green      
vertical1 #aih1 #bda1 #cfa1 #cig-djj2   

,gyro and ,gyro-,duplex rotary1 #dcg-h2 
,haenlein's ,lenoir type1 #chh2         
,henson and ,stringfellow's1 #chc2      
,kemp ,vee type1 #daf2     ,kolb-,danvin
 horizontal1 #dde2     ,lamplough       
two-stroke1 #dee2     ,laviator         
two-stroke1 #ded2     ,lenoir type1     
,haenlein's1 #chh2     ,le ,rhone       
rotary1 #dcf2     ,manly1 ,charles1     
radial1 #aci1 #cif1 #dag-i2     ,maxim's
 steam1 #chd2     ,maybach vertical1    
#bfa2     ,mercedes vertical1 #bfa2     
,mercedes-,daimler vertical1 #djb2      
,mercedes #f-;cylinder vertical1        
#dei-dfe2     ,mort and ,new ,engine    
,co4 two-stroke1 #def2     ,napier ,vee 
type1 #dab1 #dad-e2     ,nieuport       
,horizontal1 #dde2     ,palons and      
,beuse horizontal1 #dde2     ,renault   
,vee type1 #bdc1 #dae2     ,roberts     
horizontal1 #deg2     ,rolls-,royce ,vee
 type1 #bff1 #dab-ad2     ,salmson      
rotary1 #dbb-f2     ,stringfellow's1    
#chc2     ,sunbeam1 #daa2     ,types of1
 #cic2     ,uberursel rotary1 #bei2     

,wolseley ,vee type1 #dje-i2     ,wright
 ,brothers1 #cib-c4    ,engine          
development1 #chc-dfh4    #8,eole'      
,ader's monoplane1 #aba4                
,esnault-,pelterie1 ,robert3 early      
experiments1 #agi2     ,r4,e4,p4        
biplane1 #ahb2     radial engine1 #dbb4 
,exhibitions3 first aeronautical1 #fi1  
#hb2     ,paris1 #aiab1 #bid2           
,paris1 #aiac1 #cjd2     ,olympia1      
#aiac1 #bih1 #bii-cjj2     ,olympia1    
#aiad1 #cje4     ,farman's biplane1     
,voisin type1 #aha1 #bhg2     first mile
 flight in ,europe1 #ahb2     first     
cross-country flight1 #bbb2     flights 
in #aijh-i1 #ahd1 #bba-b1 #bbc2     four
 hours' record1 #ahe2     exhibition    
flying in ,england1 #ahf2     at ,rheims
 meeting1 #bjb1 #bbc4    ,farnborough1  
,british military establishment at1     
#bbf2     de ,havilland at1 #bbh4       
,felix1 ,captain1 makes #aiaa height1   
record1 #bcj4    ,ferber's1 ,captain1   
experiments1 #agg1 #bhh2     book1      
,aviation1 #agg2     at ,rheims1 #bjj2  

death at ,boulogne meeting1 #agh4       
,ferguson1 ,h41 first flight in         
,ireland1 #bbc4    ,first aeronautical  
exhibition1 #fi1 #hb4    ,flapping wing 
or ,ornithopter flight3 ,bleriot's      
experiments1 #ahc2     ,brearey1 ,f4    
,w41 on1 #hc2     ,robert ,hooke on1    
#cb-cc2     de ,villeneuve's models1    
#hc4    ,fokker war aeroplanes1 #bea2   
internal-bracing post-war design1 #bga4 
,forlanini's helicopter1 ,professor1    
#hg4    ,formation flying1 #bfc4        
,fournier at ,rheims1 #bja4    ,fourny's
 distance record1 #aiab1 #bdb4          
,fredericson two-stroke engine1 #deg4   
,french military aero trials1 #bca-b2   
aircraft in #aiad1 #bdg2     pioneers1  
#agi4     ,galien's study of properties 
of air1 #cag2     proposed airship1     
#cah4    #8,gamma1' ,british airship1   
#cfa4    ,german aircraft in #aiad1     
#bdf2     war aircraft and equipment1   
#bej2     aeroplane1 the first1 #bjg2   
,national ,circuit race1 #bcj4          
,giffard's dirigibles1 #ccd-f2          

engines1 #chc4    ,gliding flight by    
,allard1 #cc2     ,besnier #cd2         
,chanute1 #ajg-aae2     ,ernest         
,archdeacon1 #agi2     ,le ,bris1       
#gg-hb2     ,lilienthal1 #if-ajj2       
,marshall1 ,rex1 #bfi2     ,montgomery1 
#aae-abj2     ,pilcher1 ,percy1         
#aja-ajf2     ,spencer1 ,charles1 #hb2  
,wright brothers1 #ade-afh4    ,gliding 
patent1 d',esterno's1 #gb4    ,gobe and 
,diard rotary engine1 #dec4             
,goldbeater's skin used by ,beaumanoir1 
#cbb4    ,gordon-,bennett cup1 won by   
,vdrines1 #bid2     race of #aiac1 #cja4
    ,gotha biplane1 #beb2     raids on  
,england1 #bee4    ,gnome engine1 #aha1 
#ahe1 #bjc1 #bda1 #dbh-i1 #dca-cd4      
,goupil's design of monoplane1 #ia4     
,grade1 first ,german monoplane1 #bjg4  
,graham-,white1 ,london-,manchester     
flight1 #bag-bbj4    ,green ,engine1    
vertical1 #aih1 #bda1 #cfa1 #cig-djj4   
,grimaldi's claim to flight1 #ch-ci4    
,gross airship1 #cea4    #8,guardian    
,angel' parachute1 #cgi4    ,guidotti's 

experiments1 #ai4    ,guyot's dirigible1
 #ccb4    ,guzman1 ,lorenzo de1 #cg1    
#cag4    ,gyro and ,gyro-,duplex rotary 
engines1 #dcg4     ,haenlein1 ,paul1    
dirigible construction1 #ccg2     engine
 used1 #chh4    ,haldane1 negotiations  
with ,wrights1 #agf4    ,hamel1 ,gustav1
 #bca4    ,hanouam1 ,indian legend of1  
#i4    ,handley-,page1 ,f41 machines by1
 #aif1 #beb2     new wing design1 #bga2 
height and load record1 #bgb4           
,hargrave1 ,lawrence1 ornithopter       
experiments1 #he4    ,havilland1 ,g4 de1
 height record1 #aif1 #bdj2     at      
,farnborough1 #bbh4    #8,hawk1' the1   
,pilcher's glider1 #ajd4    ,hawker1 ,h4
 ,g41 height record1 #bdj2     ,atlantic
 attempt1 #bfe4    ,helicopters3        
,castel's1 #hg2     da ,vinci's1 #ai2   
,berriman on1 #hg2     ,forlanini's1    
#hg2     ,kimball's1 #hh2     ,kress's1 
#hh2     ,nadar and de la ,landelle's1  
#ga2     ,phillips1 ,w4 ,s41 #eg2       
,principle and disadvantages1 #he2      
,paucton's1 #ci-dj4    ,henderson1      

,general ,sir ,d41 #bch-i4    ,henson1  
,w4 ,s41 and ,stringfellow1 #eg2        
,patent specification1 #eg2             
,prospectus of company1 #fj2     end of 
experiments1 #fg4    ,henson and        
,stringfellow's engines1 #chc4          
,hildebrandt1 ,airships ,past and       
,present1 #cag4    ,hooke1 ,robert1 #ba1
 #cb4    ,hot air balloons1 #cah-bb4    
,hydrogen1 discovered by ,cavendish1    
#cah2     experiments by ,leo ,cavallo1 
#cah2     balloon1 the ,charles1 #cbj4  
,icarus1 legend of1 #e4    ,ilmarinen1  
,finnish legend1 #i4    ,inca legends1  
#h4    ,independent ,force1 ,r4,a4,f41  
#bfb4    ,indian legends1 #d1 #i4       
,ireland1 first flight in1 #bbc4        
,italian aircraft war strength1 #bdh4   
,janinet1 ,miollan and1 dirigible1 #ccb4
    ,jeffries1 ,dr1 balloon voyage      
across the ,channel1 #cbf2              
scientific observations on balloon      
voyage1 #cbh4    #8,june ,bug' ,curtiss 
aeroplane1 #ahj4    #8,jupiter' radial  
engine1 #dfe4    ,jutland1 seaplanes at1

 #bed4    ,juvisy flying meeting1 #ahf4 
,kalevala 7,finnish epic71 legend from1 
#i4    ,kempt ,vee-type aero engine1    
#daf4    ,kill ,devil camp1 the         
,wrights'1 #aec1 #bgh4    ,kite         
,balloons3 the ,parseval-,siegsfeld1    
#cgf2     ,belgian1 #cgg2     in ,naval 
use1 #cgg4    ,kitty ,hawk1 the         
,wrights' camp at1 #aeb-c4    ,knig1    
winner of ,german ,national ,circuit1   
#aiaa1 #bcj4    ,kolb-,danvin aero      
engine1 #dde4    ,krebs1 ,renard and1   
dirigible1 #cch-dj4     ,lambert1 ,comte
 de1 flies round ,eiffel ,tower1 #ahe1  
#bjg1 #bbc4    ,lamplough1 two-stroke   
aero engine1 #dee4    ,lana1 ,francesco1
 #ba2     biographical details1 #bg-h2  
,the ,aerial ,ship1 #bh-ca4    ,lanark1 
meeting at1 #aiaj1 #bji4    ,lanchester1
 study of ornithopter flight1 #he4      
,landelle1 de la1 helicopter project1   
#ga4    ,landemann's distance record1   
#aiad1 #bdb4    ,langley1 ,s4 ,p41      
,memoir1 #acc2     first experiments1   
#acd2     engines1 #ace2     model      

machines1 #ace2     model flight1 #acg2 
construction of full-sized machine1     
#ach2     official report on trials1    
#adj-d2     ,wrights' reference to1     
#afa2     ,bleriot copies design1 #ahc2 
machine flown by ,glenn ,curtiss1 #bdc4 
,latham1 ,hubert1 flight of over an     
hour1 #ahf2     at ,rheims1 #bjj1 #bjd1 
#bbc2     attempts ,channel crossing1   
#bac2     height record1 #bbc2          
achieves vertical kilometre1 #bbd4      
,laurenzo1 ,bartolomeo1 #cag4           
,laviator two-stroke engine1 #ded4      
,lebaudy1 use of air bags1 #ccd2        
airships1 #cdh-i1 #cfb2     engines     
used1 #cij4    ,le ,blon1 ,hubert1 #bbe4
    ,le ,bris1 gliding experiments1 #gg4
    ,lefebvre at ,rheims1 #bja1 #bje4   
,legagneaux1 height record1 #bda4       
,legends of flight1 #c-ad4    ,lenoir   
engine used by ,haenlein1 #chf4    ,le  
,rhone rotary aero engine1 #dcf4        
,lilienthal1 ,otto1 #ie-aja2     studied
 by ,voisin1 #aha2     studied by       
,wrights1 #aei2     fatal accident1     

#ajj4    ,london-,manchester flight1    
#bag1 #bbj2     ,farman machines used1  
#ahb4    ,london-,paris1 first non-stop 
flight1 #bcj2     regular service1 #bfg4
    ,looping1 #bfb1 #bgb1 #cjc4         
,loraine1 ,robert1 early flights1 #baj4 
#8,lucifer' radial aero engine1 #dff4   
,lunardi1 first balloon ascent in       
,england1 #cbc4    ,l#gj and ,l#ga1     
,german dirigibles1 #cgd4               
,mahabarata1 legend from1 #d4    ,mail  
services1 aerial1 #bca1 #bfh4           
,maitland1 ,brig4-,gen41 parachute      
descent1 #cgi4    ,manly's radial       
engine1 #aci1 #cif1 #dag4    ,marey1 ,la
 ,machine ,animale1 #bb1hd1 #aej4       
,martinsyde1 ,atlantic crossing machine1
 #bff2     monoplane1 #bia4    ,maxim1  
,sir ,hiram1 aeroplane1 #abh2           
account of experiments1 #abi-aca2       
engines and boilers1 #chd-h4            
#8,mayfly' airship1 #cfb4    ,meerwein's
 glider1 #da-db2     practical          
conclusions1 #db4    ,meetings1 flying3 
,berlin1 #bji2     ,blackpool1 #aie2    

,boulogne1 #agh1 #bjf2     ,bournemouth1
 #aih1 #bjg-h2     ,brescia1 #bjf2      
,doncaster1 #bjf2     ,juvisy1 #ahf2    
,lanark1 #bji2     ,rheims1 #aii-bjf2   
,tours1 #bbe2     decay of1 #bji4       
,mercedes-,daimler vertical engine1     
#djb2     #f-;cylinder type1 #dei-dfe4  
,metal aeroplane construction1 #caa4    
,mensier1 ,general1 report on ,ader's   
#8,avion1' #dfi4    ,miollan and        
,janinet dirigible1 #ccb4    ,mousnier1 
,general1 #ccc2     death of1 #ccd4     
,model machines1 ,langley's1 #ace4      
,monge1 ,marey1 experiment with ,lana's 
#8aerial ship1' #cb4    ,mongolfiers1   
the1 first balloons1 #db1 #caf2         
,joseph1 later constructions1 #cbj-ba2  
,state pension granted1 #cba2     on    
dirigible propulsion1 #cca4             
,monoplanes3 ,ader's #8,avion1' #abc2   
,ader's #8,eole1' #abb2     ,antoinette1
 #bij2     ,audemars's #8,demoiselle1'  
#bji2     ,bleriot's1 #ahc2             
,bleriot's cross-channel1 #bab-f1 #bhi2 
,deperdussin1 #bid1 #cja-b2     ,dunne1 

#bbi2     ,ferguson's1 #bbc2     first  
,german1 the #8,grade1' #bjg2           
,goupil's1 #ia2     ,handley-,page1     
#bbi2     ,henson and ,stringfellow's1  
#eg-ei2     ,martinsyde1 #bia2          
,morane #8,parasol1' #cjb2     ,moy's1  
#ij2     ,paulhan-,tatin1 #bie2         
,penaud's design1 #hi2                  
,santos-,dumont's #8,demoiselle1' #ahd4 
,montgomery1 gliding experiments1       
#aae-abj2     death1 #abj4              
,moore-,brabazon1 ,j4 ,c4 ,t41 #aig1    
#bbc4    ,mort1 ,g4 ,f41 two-stroke     
engine1 #def4    ,moy1 ,thomas1 #ij4    
,mullar1 ,john1 legend of1 #h4          
,nadar's ,helicopter1 #ga2     work on  
,aviation1 #ga2     balloon experiments1
 #gb4    ,napier aero engine1 ,vee type1
 #dab1 #dad-ae4    ,nesteroof1 looping1 
#cjc4    ,new ,engine ,co41 two-stroke  
engine1 #def4    ,nieuport aero engine1 
#dde4    #8,nulli ,secundus' airship1   
#cfj4    ,n4,c4#d's ,atlantic crossing1 
#bfe4    ,n4,s4 type airships1 #cfd4    
,o',gorman1 ,colonel1 at ,farnborough1  

#bbf4    ,oliver of ,malmesbury1 #aa4   
,ornithopter experiments3 ,brearey1 ,f4 
,w41 #hc2     ,bleriot1 #ahc2     de    
,villeneuve1 #hc-d2     ,hooke1 #cb-c2  
,meerwein1 #da-b2     studied by        
,wright1 #he4     ,palons and ,beuse    
aero engine1 #dde4    ,paprier1         
,london-,paris flight1 #bcj4            
,parachutes1 da ,vinci's1 #ai1 #cgh2    
,veranzio's1 #ai-bj2     #8,guardian    
,angel1' #cgi2     modern1 #cgi2        
,blanchard's descents1 #cgh2            
,cocking's descents1 #cgh2              
,mongolfier's descents1 #cgh2           
,robertson's descents1 #cgh2            
,maitland's descents1 #cgh2     rate of 
fall1 #cgh4    ,parseval airship design1
 #cea4    ,parseval-,siegsfeld kite     
balloon1 #cgg4    ,patents              
specification1 the ,wrights'1 #dgi4     
,paucton on ,helicopter flight1 #ci-dj4 
,paulhan3 using ,farman biplane1 #ahb2  
exhibition flying charges1 #ahf2     at 
,rheims1 #bja2     ,london-,manchester  
flight1 #bag-bbj2     first ,european   

height record1 #bbc2     ,los ,angeles  
height record1 #bbd4    ,pegoud1 first  
to loop the loop1 #bfb1 #cjc4           
,penaud1 ,alphonse1 #hi2     death of1  
#ij2     reference to1 #abg4            
,perugia1 ,danti's experiment at1 #ab4  
,peruvian legends of flight1 #h4        
,phillips1 ,horatio1 investigations1    
#ia2     flying machine1 the1 #ahh-i2   
,w4 ,h41 helicopter1 #eg4    ,pilcher1  
,percy ,s41 work of1 #aja-f2     death1 
#ajf4    ,pilots in #aiaa1 list of      
certificates1 #bbh4    ,plane surfaces1 
,horatio ,phillips' investigations1 #ia4
    ,platz1 ascent in ,schwartz airship1
 #cdj4    ,pocock's kite carriage1 #ef4 
,proclamation on balloon ascents1 #ejb4 
,puy de ,dome flight1 #bbh4             
,pyrenees1 first crossed by ,tabuteau1  
#bbg4     ,radial engines1 see engines4 
,reconnaissance1 ,war1 #bec4            
,records1 #ahd-f1 #aic-aif-aig-aii-bja1 
#bba-bcb1 #bdj-b1 #bfi1 #bgb1 #cjf4     
,regiomontanous 7,john ,muller71 legend 
of1 #h4    ,renard and ,krebs'          

dirigible1 #cch-dj4    ,renault aero    
engines1 #dae4    ,renaux1 ,puy de ,dome
 flight1 #bbh2     duration record1     
#bcj4    ,r4,e4 type1 the1 #cjd-e4      
,r4,e4,p4 biplane1 construction of1     
#ahb4    ,rheims flying week of #aiji1  
#aii-bjf1 #bbe4    ,richthofen's        
#8travelling circus1' #bea4    ,rigid   
dirigibles 7see airships71 #cfe-ga4     
,robert1 discovery of rubber proofing1  
#cai2     observations on balloons1     
#cbg4    ,roberts two-stroke engine1    
#deg4    ,robertson's parachute descent1
 #cgh4    ,roe1 ,a4 ,v41 constructs     
first triplane1 #aib2     summary of    
construction1 #aie4    ,rogers1 ,c4 ,p41
 flying across ,america1 #bca4          
,rolls1 ,c4 ,s41 cross-,channel flight1 
#aih1 #baf1 #bbe2     fatal accident1   
#aih1 #bjh4    ,rolls-,royce engines1   
#bff1 #dab-ad4    ,rome-,tokio flight1  
#bgb4    ,ross-,smith's ,australian     
flight1 #bgj4    ,rotary engines 7see   
engines74    ,rougier1 at ,juvisy1 #ahf4
    ,royal ,aeronautical ,society1 #gb2 

,annual reports1 #gf4    ,royal         
,aircraft ,factory1 #bcf4    ,royal ,air
 ,force formed1 #beh2     strength of1  
#beh4    ,royal ,flying ,corps1 founding
 of1 #bce1 #bch4    ,royal ,naval ,air  
,service formed1 #bch2     in the war   
period1 #bee4    ,rozier1 ,pilatre de1  
#cbb2     death of1 #cbg4    ,rubber    
proofing1 discovery of1 #cai4           
,russian air strength in #aiad1 #bdi4   
,ryneveld1 ,cairo to ,cape flight1 #bgj4
    ,r#cd's voyage to ,america1 #cgj4   
,r#hj1 ,british rigid dirigible1 #cga4  
,salmson radial engine1 #dbb-f4         
,santos-,dumont3 airship constructions1 
#cdb-g2     conclusions regarding       
dirigibles1 #cde-g2     first effective 
aeroplane flight in ,europe1 #ahj1 #bba1
 #bhe2     designs #8#ad bis1' #ahj1    
#bhe2     designs #8,demoiselle1' #ahd2 
airship engines1 #cij4    ,saracen of   
,constantinople1 the1 #g1 #aj4          
,saussure1 observations on hot-air      
balloons1 #cbc4    ,schwartz aluminium  
dirigible1 #cdj4    ,schutte-,lanz      

airships1 #ceh4    ,scouting by         
aeroplane1 #baj4    ,seaplanes at       
,jutland1 #bed2     in #aiab-ac1 #bie1  
#cjj2     of the period1 #bed2          
submarine war spotting1 #bed4           
,seguin1 ,laurent1 inventor of ,gnome   
engine1 #dbh4    ,selfridge1 ,lieut41   
killed at ,fort ,meyer1 #aii1 #bbb4     
,sikorsky biplane1 #bdi4    ,simon the  
,magician1 #d1 #aj4    ,somali campaign1
 aircraft in1 #bga4    ,sopwith1 ,t4 ,o4
 ,m41 duration record1 #aif2            
distance record1 #aif2     height       
record1 #aig4    ,specification of      
,wright patents1 #dgi4    ,spencer1     
,charles1 gliding experiments1 #hb4     
,stability1 inherent1 #bfb1 #bib-c1     
#cjd4    ,standardising1 effects of1    
#ahg4    ,stream-lining1 #bic4          
,stringfellow1 ,john3 prospectus of     
company1 #fj2     record of work1       
#fe-gj2     engine1 #fg1 #fi-gj2        
engine and models at ,crystal ,palace1  
#fi2     death of1 #gj4    ,sunbeam aero
 engine1 ,vee type1 #daa4               

,swedenborg1 theory of flight1 #ce-f4   
,synchronisation of propeller and       
machine gun1 #bfj4     ,tabuteau1       
,maurice1 crosses ,pyrenees1 #bbg4      
,tarrant triplane1 #bgb4    ,taube type 
of machine1 #cjc4    ,thible1 ,madame1  
balloon ascent1 #cbc4    ,tissandier1   
,la ,navigation ,aerienne1 #cg2         
dirigible construction1 #ccg1 #cij2     
flying at ,rheims1 #bja4    ,tokio-,rome
 flight1 #bgb4    ,tours meeting1 #bbe4 
,trick flying of the war period1 #bfb4  
,triplane1 ,a4 ,v4 ,roe's1 #aib1 #aie1  
#bia2     the ,tarrant1 #bgb4           
,two-stroke cycle engines 7see engines74
     ,vdrines in ,circuit of ,britain   
race1 #bbj2     wins ,paris-,madrid     
flight1 #bcj2     speed record at       
,chicago1 #bdj2     winner of           
,gordon-,bennett race1 #bid4            
,vertical engines 7see engines74    ,vee
 type engines 7see engines74            
,veranzio's parachute1 #ai-bj4          
,vickers-,vimy ,atlantic aeroplane1     
#bff-g2     ,cape-,cairo flight1 #bgj2  

airships1 #cfb4    ,vinci1 ,leonardo da1
 #ae2     ,treatise on ,flight1 #af-ah2 
parachute1 #bj4    ,voisin1 gliding     
experiments1 #agi2     brothers1 biplane
 construction1 #ahj1 #bhf2     machine  
used by ,moore-,brabazon1 #aig4         
,walker1 ,thomas1 ,the ,art of ,flying1 
#dh-ee4    ,war ,office1 ,british aero  
trials1 #aiab1 #aid1 #bji1 #bcb1 #bce-g1
 #bif2     first experiments1 #bbe2     
aeroplane purchases1 #bbg2              
specifications1 #bci1 #cjj4    ,war     
period1 the1 #bdf-bfc1 #cjf-caa4        
,war1 provision of aircraft for1 #bdf-i4
    ,wellner's dirigible1 #cca4         
,wenham1 ,aerial ,locomotion1 #gb-f4    
,wieland the ,smith1 legend of1 #i4     
,wilcox1 ,james1 first ,american balloon
 ascent1 #cbi4    ,willows's dirigible1 
#cei4    ,wolseley ,vee-type engine1    
#dje-i4    ,wright1 ,orville1 accident  
at ,fort ,meyer1 #aii1 #bbb2     flights
 by1 #aii4    ,wright brothers1         
biographical1 #ade-g2     study of      
gliding1 #adg1 #bgg2     experiments    

begun1 #adh1 #bgh2     on equilibrium1  
#adi1 #bgh2     on engine power1 #afb2  
on propeller design1 #afi2     first    
power-driven flight1 #agj-a1 #bba1 #bhb2
     description of #aije machine1 #age1
 #bhc2     contract with ,u4,s4         
,government1 #agd4    ,wright1 ,wilbur1 
at ,le ,mans1 #aii4     ,young1 ,dr1    
experiments1 #dc4     ,zambeccari1      
,italian balloonist1 #cbg4    ,zeppelin1
 first investigations1 #cda2     first  
constructions1 #ceb2     record of      
constructions1 #ceb-h2     service      
commercial1 #cgb4     ,,glasgow3 ,w4    
,,collins ,,sons ,,and ,,co4 ,,ltd4     
,,footnotes   #a ,aeronautical ,classes1
 ,no4 #e4 ,royal ,aeronautical          
,society's publications4  #b            
,aeronautical ,classes1 ,no4 #e4 ,royal 
,aeronautical ,society publications4  #c
 ,this list it as given by ,wilbur      
,wright himself4  #d ,century ,magazine1
 ,september1 #aijh4  #e ,aeronautical   
,journal1 ,no4 #gi4  #f ,aeronautical   
,journal1 ,july1 #aijh4  #g ,smithsonian

 ,publications ,no4 #bcbi4  #h ,fourth  
,wilbur ,wright ,memorial ,lecture1     
,aeronautical ,journal1 ,vol4 ,,xx1 ,no4
 #gi1 page #ge4  #i ,ibid4 page #gc4    
#aj ,ibid4 pp4 #ia and #ajb4  #aa       
,airships ,past and ,present4  #ab      
,hildebrandt4  #ac ,hildebrandt4  #ad   
,hildebrandt4 ,airships ,past and       
,present4     ,transcriber's ,notes     
,punctuation and spelling were made     
consistent when a predominant preference
 was found in this book2 otherwise they 
were not changed4  ,simple typographical
 errors were corrected2 occasional      
unbalanced quotation marks retained4    
,missing or incorrect accent marks in   
non-,english words were not changed4    
,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines 
were retained2 occurrences of           
inconsistent hyphenation have not been  
changed4  ,text uses both mid-level     
decimal points 77 and baseline decimal  
points 747 ,these have not been changed 
in this e,book4  ,index not checked for 
proper alphabetization or correct page  

references4  ,illustrations have been   
moved1 when necessary1 between          
paragraphs and outside of quoted        
material4  ,pages with illustrations    
originally included the phrase1 8,to    
face page nnn04 ,such phrases have been 
deleted in this e,book4  ,captions for  
the three illustrations of #8,the       
,hawk'1 on page #ajf1 originally were   
below the last one1 but are shown here  
below each one4  8,parseval-,siegsfeld0 
and 8,parseval-,siegsfield0 were printed
 that way1 but both may be mis-spelled4 
,page #afj3 ,in the sentence beginning  
8,the travel of the centre of pressure01
 the phrase 8in the different tests7    
#ag lbs40 was printed that way1 with an 
unmatched right parenthesis4  ,page     
#dhe3 8on the other wise0 was printed   
that way4