,note3 ,images ( ! orig9al pages are available ?r\gh ,int]net ,ar*ive4 ,see https3_/_/ar*ive4org_/details_/greekphil osoph#jb;b5n ,transcrib]'s note3 ,text enclos$ by und]scores is 9 italics 7italics74 ,footnotes are at ! end ( ! book4 ,,! ,,greek ,,philosoph]s ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,greek ,,philosoph]s by ,,alfr$ ,,william ,,b5n ,,plot9us ,quamquam ab 8 philosophiam et omnes +5uas discipl9as habemus3 s$ tam5 e/ aliquid quod nobis non liceat1 liceat illis ,,cic]o ,9 ,two ,volumes ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,london ,kegan ,paul1 ,tr5*1 ,co41 #a ,pat]no/] ,squ>e #ahhb 7,! rights ( translation & ( reproduction are res]v$7 ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,! ,,second ,,volume4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,/oics pages #a-eb ,i4 ,:y ! sy/ems ( ,plato & ,ari/otle fail$ to secure a hold on contempor>y ?\ght1 #a--;,fate ( ! s*ools :i* !y f\nd$1 #b--,revival ( e>li] philosophies & especially ( naturalism1 #c--;,anti/h5es & ! ,cynics1 #d--,re/oration ( naturalism to its =m] dignity1 #f4 ,,ii4 ,z5o & ,crates1 #g--;,e/abli%m5t ( ! ,/oic s*ool1 #h--;,clean!s & ,*rysippus1 #i--;,encyclopa$ic "* ( ! ,/oic tea*+1 #i--,! great place :i* x gave to physical sci5ce1 #aj--;,h]acleitean reaction aga9/ ! dualism ( ,ari/otle1 #aa--;,det]m9ism & mat]ialism ( ! ,/oics1 #ab--,_! concessions to ! popul> religion1 #ad4 ,,iii4 ,! ,/oic !ory ( cognition purely empirical1 #ae--;,developm5t ( =mal logic1 #af--,new importance attribut$ to judgm5t z di/+ui%$ f conception1 #af--,! idea ( law1 #ag--;,consi/5cy z ! pr9ciple ( ! ,/oic e?ics1 #ah--,mean+ ( ! precept1 ,foll[ ,nature1 #ai--;,di/9ction betwe5 pleasure & self-int]e/ z moral /&>ds1 #bj--;,absolute suffici5cy ( virtue = happ9ess1 #ba--,! ,/oics wrong f an individual1 "r f a social po9t ( view1 #bb--,!ory ( ! passions1 #bc--,necessity ( volition & fre$om ( judgm5t1 #bd--;,difficulties involv$ 9 an appeal to purpose 9 creation1 #bd4 ,,iv4 ,! ,/oic p>adoxes foll[ logically f ! absolute di/9ction betwe5 "r & wrong1 #be--;,attempt at a compromise ) ! ord9>y morality by ! doctr9es 7i47 ( pref]5ce & objection1 #bf--7;ii47 ( p]missible feel+1 #bg--7;iii47 ( progress f folly to wisdom1 #bg--;& 7iv47 ( imp]fect duties1 #bg--;,cic]o's ,de ,(ficiis1 #bh--;,examples ( ,/oic casui/ry1 #bi--;,ju/ification ( suicide1 #cj4 ,v4 ,?ree great contributions made by ! ,/oics to e?ical speculation1 7i47 ,! inw>dness ( virtue1 includ+ ! notion ( consci5ce1 #ca--,preval5t misconception ) reg>d to ! ,er9yes1 #cb--7;ii47 ,! individualisation ( duty1 #cc--,process by :i* ?is idea 0 evolv$1 #ce--;,its influ5ce on ! ,romans ( ! empire1 #cf--7;iii47 ,! idea ( humanity1 #cf--;,its connexion ) ! idea ( ,nature1 #cg--,utilit>ianism ( ! ,/oics1 #ch4 ,,vi4 ,! philan?ropic t5d5cies ( ,/oicism p>tly neutralis$ by its extreme individualism1 #dj--;,cons]vatism ( ,m>cus ,aurelius1 #da--,! ,/oics at once unpity+ & =giv+1 #db--;,humility produc$ by _! doctr9e ( univ]sal depravity1 #db--;,x is n 9 ! p[] ( o!rs to injure u1 #dc--,! ,/oic satiri/s & ,roman society1 #dd4 ,,vii4 ,! idea ( ,nature & ! unity ( mank9d1 #dd--,! dynamism ( ,h]acleitus dissociat$ f ! teleology ( ,socrates1 #df--,/&po9t ( ,m>cus ,aurelius1 #df--,t5d5cy to extricate morality f its ext]nal support1 #dg--,mod]n attacks on ,nature1 #dh--;,evolution z an e?ical sanction1 #di--,! vici\s circle ( evolutioni/ e?ics1 #ej--,! idea ( humanity creat$ & ma9ta9$ by ! idea ( a cosmos1 #ea--,! pray] ( ,clean!s1 #eb4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,epicurus ,,& ,,lucretius pages #ec-aai ,i4 ,/ation>y "* ( ,epicureanism1 #ec--,preval5t t5d5cy to exagg]ate its sci5tific value1 #ee--,opposition or indiff]5ce ( ,epicurus to ! sci5ce ( 8 "t1 #eg4 ,,ii4 ,life ( ,epicurus1 #eh--;,8 philosophy ess5tially practical1 #ei--,! relation ( pleasure to virtue3 ,ari/ippus1 #fj--,pessimism ( ,hgsias1 #fa--;,h$onism ( ,plato's ,protagoras1 #fa--,! ,epicurean def9ition ( pleasure1 #fb--,reaction ( ,plato's idealism on ,epicurus1 #fc--;,he accepts ! negative def9ition ( pleasure1 #fd--;,inconsi/5cy involv$ 9 8 admissions1 #fe4 ,,iii4 ,d$uction ( ! p>ticul> virtues3 ,temp]ance1 #ff--,po9ts ( contact ) ,cynicism1 #ff--;,evils br$ by excessive frugality1 #fg--,sexual passion disc\rag$ by ,epicureanism1 #fg--;,comp>ative indulg5ce %[n to pity & grief1 #fh--;,=titude inculcat$ by m9imis+ ! evils ( pa91 #fi--;,ju/ice z a reg>d = ! g5]al int]e/1 #gj--,! motives = ab/a9+ f aggression purely selfi%1 #gj--;,indiff]5ce ( ! ,epicureans to political duties1 #gc--,success ( ,epicureanism 9 promot+ dis9t]e/$ fri5d%ip1 #gd4 ,,iv4 ,motives :i* l$ ,epicurus to include physics 9 8 tea*+1 #ge--;,8 attacks on sup]naturalism direct$ less aga9/ ! old ,poly!ism ?an aga9/ ! religi\s movem5t :5ce ,ca?olicism sprang1 #gf--;,ju/ification ( ! tone tak5 by ,lucretius1 #gh--,plato & ,hildebr&1 #gh--;,concessions made by ,epicurus to ! religi\s reaction1 #hj--;,8 criticism ( ! ,/oic !ology1 #ha4 ,v4 ,:y ,epicurus adopt$ ! atomic !ory1 #hb--;,doctr9e ( inf9ite comb9ations1 #hc--,limit$ numb] ( *ances requir$ by ! mod]n !ory ( evolution1 #hd--,objections to :i* ,democritus _h laid himself op51 #he--,!y are n satisfactorily met by ,epicurus1 #he--,"o naturali/ic !ory z good z ano!r1 #hg--;except ! conclusions ( a/ronomy1 :i* are false1 #hg4 ,,vi4 ,mat]ialism & ! d5ial ( a future life1 #hh--;,epicurus tries to argue away ! dread ( dea?1 #hi--;,8 ent]prise inconsi/5t ) human nature1 #ij--,! belief 9 future torm5ts is ! dread ( dea? "u ano!r =m1 #ib--;,h[ ! prospect ( dea? adds to our enjoym5t ( life1 #ic--;,its /imulat+ effect on ! en]gies1 #id--,! love ( life gives mean+ & m]it to c\rage1 #ie4 ,,vii4 ,! ,epicurean !ory ( s5sation & cognition1 #ie--,negative "* ( ! :ole sy/em1 #ih--,!ory ( human hi/ory3 ! doctr9e ( progressive civilisation mu* old] ?an ,epicurus1 #ih--,opposition betwe5 humanism & naturalism on ?is po9t1 #ii--,passage f a drama ( ,euphorion1 #ii4 ,,viii4 ,lucretius3 8 want ( philosophic orig9ality1 #ajj--;,8 alleg$ improvem5ts on ! doctr9e ( ,epicurus exam9$1 #aja--;,8 unres]v$ acceptance ( ! ,epicurean e?ics1 #ajc--;,9 :at ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,lucretius & ,epicurus consi/s1 #ajc--,roman en?usiasm = physical sci5ce1 #ajd--,sympa?y ( ,lucretius ) e>ly ,greek ?\ght1 #aje--,! true h]o9e ( ! ,de ,r]um ,natur1 #aje--;,exhibition ( life 9 all its =ms1 #ajf--,v5us z ! beg9n+ & end ( exi/5ce1 #ajf--;,elucidation ( ! atomic !ory by vital ph5om5a1 #ajg--;,imp]fect appreh5sion ( law3 ! fo$]a ,naturai & ! fo$]a fati1 #ajh--;,assimilation ( ! great cosmic *anges to organic processes1 #aaj--;,false beliefs consid]$ z necess>y products ( human nature1 #aaa--;& consequ5tly z fit subjects = poetic treatm5t1 #aab--;,high arti/ic value ( ! ,de ,r]um ,natur1 #aac--;,comp>ison betwe5 ,lucretius & ,dante1 #aac4 ,,ix4 ,m]its & defects ( ,epicurus3 8 revival ( atomism & rejection ( sup]naturalism1 #aad--;,8 !ory ( e?ics1 #aae--;,8 contributions to ! sci5ce ( human nature1 #aaf--;,8 em95ce z a pr(essor ( ! art ( happ9ess1 #aaf--;,8 influ5ce on mod]n philosophy greatly exagg]at$ by ,m4 ,guyau1 #aag--,unique comb9ation ( circum/ances to :i* ,epicureanism ow$ its orig91 #aai4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,sceptics ,,& ,,eclectics3 ,,greek ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,rome pages #abj-aid ,i4 ,philosophic embassy f ,a!ns to ,rome1 #abj--,lectures ( ,c>neades on ,ju/ice v]sus ,exp$i5cy1 #aba--,public & private morality 9 ,rome3 position ( ,cato1 #abb--;,8 motion = ! dismissal ( ! embassy1 #abc--;,c>neades & ,plato1 #abc4 ,,ii4 ,diff]5t mean+s ( ! ^w scepticism1 #abc--;,false scepticism z an ally ( or?odoxy1 #abe--,ve9 ( d\bt runn+ ?r\gh ,greek my?ology1 #abf--,want ( s]i\sness 9 ,hom]'s religion1 #abg--;,incr$ul\s _s %[n by "s ( 8 *>act]s1 #abg--,simil> t5d5cy 9 ,aes*ylus & ,h]odotus1 #abh--,negative & sceptical elem5ts 9 e>ly ,greek ?\ght1 #abh4 ,,iii4 ,protagoras ! true fa!r ( philosophical scepticism1 #abi--,! ?ree !ses ( ,gorgias1 #acj--,sceptical idealism ( ! ,cyr5aic s*ool1 #acb--,scepticism z an ally ( religion ) ,socrates & ,plato1 #acc--,! ,p>m5ides1 ! ,sophi/1 & ! ,timaeus1 #acd--,syn!sis ( affirmation & negation 9 metaphysics & 9 dialectics1 #ace--,use ( scepticism z a moral sanction by ! ,meg>ians1 #acf4 ,,iv4 ,life & op9ions ( ,pyrrho1 #acg--;,d5ial ( fir/ pr9ciples3 pres5t aspect ( ! "q1 #aci--,practical tea*+ ( ,pyrrho1 #adj--;,enc\ragem5t giv5 to scepticism by ! conc5tration ( ?\ght on human int]e/s1 #ada--;,illogical compromise ( ,epicurus1 #adc--,p>asitic "* ( ! sceptical s*ool1 #adc4 ,v4 ,orig9 ( ! ,new ,academy1 #add--;,"* & position ( ,arcesilaus1 #ade--,! ,/oic !ory ( c]ta9ty1 #adf--;,criticism ( ,arcesilaus3 8 me?od ( inf9itesimal transitions1 #adg--,sy/ematic developm5t & application ( ! ,academic pr9ciple by ,c>neades1 #adh--;,8 analysis ( exp]i5ce1 #adi--;,8 attack on syllogi/ic & inductive reason+1 #aej--;,8 criticism ( ! ,/oic & ,epicurean !ologies1 #aea--,sceptical con=mity to ! e/abli%$ religion1 #aec--,!ory ( probable evid5ce z a guide to action1 #aed--;,a priori reason+ ( ! anci5t sceptics1 #aee--,_! resemblance 9 ?is respect to mod]n agno/ics1 #aef--;& also 9 _! treatm5t ( e?ics1 #aeg--,ob$i5ce to ,nature inculcat$ by ,c>neades1 #aeh4 ,,vi4 ,return ( ,greek ?\ght to ! ,sophi/ic /&po9t1 #aeh--,ob/acles to a revival ( spiritualism1 #aei--,platonis+ eclecticism ( ! ,academy3 ,philo & ,antio*us1 #afj--;,approximation ( ,/oicism to ,ari/otle's tea*+1 #afb--;,g5]al crav+ = c]ta9ty & /ability 9 philosophy1 #afc4 ,,vii4 ,sudd5 p>alysis ( ! ,greek intellect1 #afe--,probable influ5ce ( ! new ,lat9 lit]ature1 #afe--;,adaptation ( ,greek philosophy to ,roman requirem5ts1 #aff--;,increas$ prom95ce giv5 to ! anti-religi\s side ( ,epicureanism1 #afg--;,its e?ics ill-suit$ to ! ,roman "*1 #afh--;,gr[+ popul>ity ( ,/oicism3 ,panaetius & ,posidonius1 #afh--;,x is tempor>ily *eck$ by ! influ5ce ( ! ,academy1 #afi4 ,,viii4 ,academic eclecticism ( ,cic]o1 #agj--;,8 attempt$ return to ! pr9ciples ( ,socrates1 #aga--,natural in/9ct z ! common gr\nd ( philosophy & untra9$ exp]i5ce1 #agb--,practical agreem5t ( ! diff]5t e?ical sy/ems1 #agc--,! weakness ( ,cic]o's "* fav\rable to religi\s s5tim5t1 #agc--;,8 !ological position1 #agd--;,contra/ betwe5 ,cic]o & ,socrates1 #age4 ,,ix4 ,! ideas ( ,nature1 reason1 & utility1 #agf--,mean+ & value :i* !y possess$ = a ,roman1 #agg--;,cynic t5d5cies ( ,roman ?\ght1 #agh--;,influ5ce ex]cis$ by ! y\ng] ,cato 9 fav\r ( ,/oicism1 #agi--,! philosophy ( natural law z illu/rat$ 9 ,roman poetry1 #ahj--,/oic elem5ts 9 ! ,a5eid1 #aha--,! ,roman love ( simplification & ar*aism1 #ahb--;,cynicism ( ,juv5al1 #ahc4 ,x4 ,neo-,scepticism z a reaction aga9/ ,naturalism3 ,a5esidmus1 #ahd--,return to ! /&po9t ( ,protagoras1 #ahd--;,critical analysis ( causation & p]ception1 #ahe--,! t5 ,tropes1 #ahf--,_! d]ivation f ! categories ( ,ari/otle1 #ahf--;,e?ical scepticism ( ,a5esidemus1 #ahg--,! ,tropes simplifi$ & ext5d$ to reason+1 #ahh--,_! cont9u$ inv9cibility z aga9/ all appeals to au?ority1 #ahi--;,association ( ,scepticism ) ,empiricism1 #ahi--,sextus ,empiricus & ,hume on causation1 #aij4 ,,xi4 ,! philosophy ( ! d9n]-bell & its implications1 #aia--,subsequ5t influ5ce ( ,scepticism on ,greek ?\ght1 #aib--,un%ak5 confid5ce ( ! ,neo-,platoni/s 9 ! p[] ( reason1 #aic--,_! philosophy a g5u9e return to ! /&po9t ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 #aic4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,religi\s ,,revival pages #aie-bfe ,i4 ,new views respect+ ! civilisation ( ! ,roman empire1 #aie--,prejudices =m]ly ent]ta9$ by its hi/orians1 #aif--,! lit]>y bias1 #aig--;,evid5ce ( intellectual & moral progress suppli$ by ! /udy ( jurisprud5ce & epigraphy1 #aig--,! new s*ool ( hi/orians1 #aih--,! vitality ( poly!ism mu* great] ?an 0 =m]ly suppos$1 #aii--not)/&+ ! scepticism ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ ,roman writ]s1 #aii--oppos$ z !y 7 by a l>ge & increas+ body ( religi\s belief1 #bjj4 ,,ii4 ,revival ( religi\s au?ority "u ,augu/us1 #bjj--;,feel+ ( ! prov9cials1 #bja--;,isolat$ position ( ,horace1 #bja--,! spread ( religi\s beliefs *eck$ by ! political organisation ( ! old city-/ate1 #bjb--;& enc\rag$ by ! ,roman conque/1 #bjc--,sceptical t5d5cies ( ! city-ari/ocracies1 #bjd--! high] classes m fav\rable ?an ! p to free ?\ght d[n to ! "t ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 #bje4 ,,iii4 ,dissociation ( weal? f education "u ! empire1 #bjf--,/upidity & cr$ulity ( ! c5turions1 #bjg--;,ev]-increas+ influ5ce ex]cis$ by wom51 #bjh--;& indirectly by *ildr51 #baj--,slav]y & religion1 #baa--,! social despotism ( ! empire de/ructive to intellectual indep5d5ce1 #baa--;,causes :i* prev5t$ ! =mation ( a new ari/ocracy1 #bac4 ,,iv4 ,nature-wor%ip z a univ]sal religion1 #bad--;,isis & ,s]apis1 #bae--,mi?ras & ! wor%ip ( ! heav5ly bodies1 #bae--,spread ( ,judaism 9 ,rome & else:]e1 #baf--,! ,holy ,l& & ! ,sabba?1 #bah--;,cont9u$ devotion paid to ! ,olympian deities1 #bai--;,ela/icity ( ,graeco-,roman poly!ism1 #bai--;,developm5t ( indig5\s sup]/ition1 #bbj4 ,v4 ,oracul> "* ( ! pagan religions1 #bba--;,effect produc$ by ! intellectual movem5t 9 ,greece1 #bba--,popul> belief rema9s /ation>y or becomes retrograde3 ,deisidaimonia1 #bbb--;,fai? 9 om5s among ! educat$ classes "u ,augu/us1 #bbc--;,conv]sion ( an infidel by ! oracle ( ,mopsus1 #bbd--;,alex&] ( ,abonutei*us & 8 dupes1 #bbd4 ,,vi4 ,belief 9 prophetic dreams3 ! "w ( ,artemidrus1 #bbg--;,conv]sion ( an ,epicurean1 #bbi--,! fight+-cock ( ,tanagra1 #bbi--,piety display$ by animals1 #bcj--;,increas$ rev]5ce paid to ,asclpius & ,h]acles1 #bcj--;,ari/eides ! rhetor1 #bca--;,deification ( mortals1 #bcb4 ,,vii4 ,! doctr9e ( immortality1 #bcc--;,epicurean epitaphs1 #bcc--;,attitude ( ! ,/oics & ,p]ipatetics1 #bcd--,op9ions ( lit]>y & sci5tific m51 #bcd--;,epitaphs te/ify+ to ! popul> belief 9 a future life1 #bce--;,articles f\nd 9 tombs1 #bcf--;,evid5ce af=d$ by figur$ repres5tations1 #bcg--;,frequ5cy ( gho/ly app>itions1 #bdj4 ,,viii4 ,reaction ( sup]naturalism on philosophy1 #bda--;,decl9e ( ,epicureanism1 #bda--,religi\s t5d5cies ( ,/oicism3 ,s5eca1 #bda--;,complete sub/itution ( !ology = physics by ,epicttus1 #bdc--,:y he reject$ ! doctr9e ( human immortality1 #bdd--,sup]/ition ( ,m>cus ,aurelius1 #bde--;,decomposition ( ,/oicism3 ! ,cynic revival1 #bdf--,neo-,py?agoreanism3 its tempor>y alliance ) ,/oicism1 #bdg--;& subsequ5t return to ! spiritualism ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 #bdh--,! ,neo-,py?agorean cre$1 #bdi4 ,,ix4 ,advantages possess$ by ,platonism 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 #bej--;,great ext5t ( its influ5ce1 #bej--,! ,platoni/ daemonology1 #bea--;,conflict+ t5d5cies 9 ,plut>*'s writ+s1 #bec--,unmix$ sup]/ition ( ,maximus ,tyrius & ,apuleius1 #bed--;,a prose hymn to ,isis1 #bee--;,comb9ation ( philosophy ) ,ori5tal !ology1 #bef--,philo & ! ,logos1 #beg--;,duali/ic pessimism ( ! ,gno/ics1 #bei4 ,x4 ,sup]ficial analogy betwe5 mod]n ,europe & ! ,roman empire1 #bfa--;,analysis ( ! po9ts on :i* !y diff]1 #bfb--;,gr[? & influ5ce ( physical sci5ce1 #bfd--,spread ( rationalism ?r\gh all classes ( society1 #bfe4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,spiritualism ,,( ,,plot9us pages #bff-cfb ,i4 ,plut>* on ,delays 9 ! ,div9e ,v5geance1 #bff--;,a vision ( judgm5t1 #bfg--,n]o =giv5 = ! sake ( ,greece1 #bfh--;,a c5tury ( we/]n supremacy 9 politics & lit]ature1 #bfh--,reaction begun by ,n]o1 #bfi--,revival ( ,greek lit]ature3 ,plut>* & 8 successors1 #bfi--,r5ew$ cultivation ( philosophy & sci5ce1 #bgj--,sophi/icism & ,platonism ( ! second c5tury1 #bga--,! two me?ods ( int]pret+ ,plato1 #bgb--,! problem ( ! age1 #bgc4 ,,ii4 ,life ( ,plot9us1 #bgc--;,8 p]sonal influ5ce & popul>ity1 #bge--,! "p assign$ to him 9 a dialogue ( ,leop>di's1 #bgg--;,composition & arrangem5t ( 8 writ+s1 #bgg--,my?ical elem5ts 9 8 biography1 #bhj--;,alleg$ d]ivation ( 8 tea*+ f ,ammonius ,saccas1 #bha4 ,,iii4 ,difficulties pres5t$ by ! /yle ( ,plot9us1 #bhb--;,g5]al cle>ness ( 8 philosophy1 #bhd--;,8 dep5d5ce on ,plato & exclusive att5tion to ! metaphysical side ( ,plato's tea*+1 #bhe--;,8 unackn[l$g$ obligations to ,ari/otle1 #bhg4 ,,iv4 ,plot9us on ! spiritual int]pretation ( love & beauty1 #bhg--;,8 dep>ture f ! me?od ( ,plato1 #bhi--;,ari/otelian influ5ces1 #bij--;,8 subjective /&po9t %>$ by ,plato & ,ari/otle1 #bia--,relation ( ! po/-,ari/otelian s*ools to _! pr$ecessors1 #bib--,! anti!sis betwe5 mat]ialism & spiritualism common to bo?1 #bib--,s]vices r5d]$ by ! lat] s*ools1 #bic4 ,v4 ,anti-mat]iali/ic argum5ts ( ,plot9us1 #bid--;,co9cid5ce ) mod]n philosophy1 #bie--;,criticism ( ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e1 #bif--,weakness ( ,greek philosophy 9 deal+ ) ! ph5om5a ( volition1 #big--;,difficulties rais$ by a/rology1 #bih--,plot9us z a philosophical critic & re=m]1 #bii4 ,,vi4 ,int]m$iate position ( ! s\l betwe5 ! pr9ciples ( unity & division1 #cjb--;,comb9ation ( ! ,ari/otelian ,n\s ) ! ,platonic ,ideas1 #cjc--;,difficulties to :i* x gave rise1 #cjd--,unity & plurality 9 ! ,ideas & 9 ! ,n\s1 #cjd--;,desc5t ( ! s\l into ! mat]ial _w1 #cje--,! triad ( body1 s\l1 & _s1 #cjg--,se>* = a supreme pr9ciple ( exi/5ce3 data furni%$ by ,plato & ,ari/otle1 #cjg--,! unity ( all s\ls1 #cji--,univ]sal dep5d5ce ( exi/5ce on unity1 #caj--,me?od = arriv+ at ! ,"o1 #caj--,to :at ext5t ,plot9us c be call$ a my/ic1 #cab--,my/ical elem5ts 9 ! sy/ems ( 8 pr$ecessors1 #cac4 ,,vii4 ,retrospect & recapitulation1 #cae--,transition to ! con/ructive philosophy ( ,plot9us1 #cag--,?ree aspects ( ! supreme pr9ciple1 #cag--;,creative p[] ( ! ,"o1 #cah--;,influ5ce ( false physical analogies on metaphysics1 #cai--;,inconceivability ( causation ap>t f "t1 #cbj--,subjective nature ( logical & ma!matical sequ5ce1 #cba--,! ,neo-,platonic me?od 9 ! ,*ri/ian cre$s1 #cbb--;,h[ ,plot9us employ$ ! me?od ( g5]ation by contr>ies1 #cbb--;,difficulty ( expla9+ ! d]ivation ( ,s\l f ,n\s1 #cbc--;& ( acc\nt+ = ! exi/5ce ( ,matt]1 #cbc--,return to ! ,platonic id5tification ( ,matt] ) ,ext5sion1 #cbf--;,g5]ation ( ! ,inf9ite f ! ,"o1 #cbg--;,hesitation ( ,plot9us betwe5 monism & dualism1 #cbh--;,influ5ce ( ,/oicism1 #cbi--,sub/itution ( contemplation = action z a creative pr9ciple1 #ccj4 ,,viii4 ,! e?ics ( ,plot9us3 d]ivation ( ! c>d9al virtues1 #cca--;,abs5ce ( asceticism1 #ccb--;,condemnation ( suicide1 #ccb--,simil> view express$ by ,s*op5hau]1 #ccc--;,dialectic z a me?od = atta9+ p]fection1 #ccc--,! lat] writ+s ( ,plot9us1 #ccd4 ,,ix4 ,f\r po9ts ( view f :i* e great philosophical sy/em may be consid]$1 #ccd--;,inf]iority ( ,neo-,platonism to ! old] s*ools ( ,greek ?\ght 9 absolute value1 #cce--;,des]v$ neglect into :i* x has fall51 #ccf--;,9 comb9+ ! metaphysics ( ,plato & ,ari/otle ) ,/oicism1 ,plot9us elim9ates ! elem5ts ( tru? & utility :i* !y sev]ally conta91 #ccf--;,high ae/hetic value ( ,neo-,platonism1 #cch--,purity & unworldl9ess ( ,plot9us1 #cci--;,complete self-absorption ( ?\ght :i* he repres5ts1 #cdj4 ,x4 ,neo-,platonism n a product ( ,ori5tal t5d5cies1 #cda--,nor ( ! religi\s revival ( ! empire1 #cdb--,nor a my/ical reaction aga9/ ,scepticism1 #cdc--;,indep5d5t attitude ( ,plot9us t[>ds ! old religion1 #cdd--;,8 views on immortality1 #cde--;,8 relation to pan!ism1 #cdf--;,8 attack on ! ,gno/ics1 #cdg--,plot9us on ! relation betwe5 religion & morality1 #cdh--,neo-,platonism a "p ( ! great classical revival1 #cdi4 ,,xi4 ,! place ( ,plot9us 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 #cej--,! triumph ( spiritualism due to 8 tea*+1 #cej--;,he secures ! supremacy ( ,plato & ,ari/otle dur+ ! ,middle ,ages1 #cea--;,8 int]pretation ( ,plato univ]sally accept$ until a rec5t date1 #ceb--,! pan!i/ic direction ( mod]n metaphysics l>gely det]m9$ by ,plot9us1 #cec--,neo-,platonic d]ivation ( ! ,unkn[able1 #cec--;,atavism 9 philosophy1 #cee4 ,,xii4 ,hi/ory ( ,neo-,platonism aft] ,plot9us1 #cee--;,its alliance ) ! old religion1 #cef--;,cont9u$ vitality ( poly!ism1 #ceg--;,increas$ /udy ( ! classic philosoph]s1 #ceh--,proclus & 8 sy/em1 #ceh--,! s*ools ( ,a!ns clos$ by ,ju/9ian1 #cfj--,! ,greek pr(essors 9 ,p]sia1 #cfa--;,f9al ext9ction ( pagan philosophy1 #cfb4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,greek ,,philosophy ,,& ,,mod]n ,,?\ght pages #cfc-dcj ,i4 ,cont9uity 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght1 #cfc--,! triumph ( spiritualism foll[$ by a brea* betwe5 ! two spirituali/ic s*ools1 #cfd--;,importance ( ! ,reali/ic controv]sy1 #cfe--,:y ,realism 0 at fir/ fav\r$ by ! ,*ur*1 #cff--,revolution effect$ by ! introduction ( ,ari/otle's complete works into ! ,we/1 #cfg--,platonic reaction ( ! ,r5aissance1 #cfh--;,its influ5ce on lit]ature1 #cfi--,%akspe>e a ,platoni/1 #cgj--,r5ew$ asc5d5cy ( ,ari/otle 9 sci5ce1 #cga4 ,,ii4 ,bacon z an ,ari/otelian1 #cgb--;,hi/ory ! matt] ( sci5ce1 #cgc--;,bacon's me?od ( arrangem5t tak5 f ,ari/otle1 #cgd--,orig9 ( 8 confusion betwe5 ,=m & ,law1 #cge--,! sup]9duction ( ,=ms & ! atomic !ory1 #cgf--,relation ( ! ,novum ,organum to ! ,topics1 #cgg--,! me?od ( negative in/ances1 #cgh--,! ,"l ,*ancellor & ,nature1 #cgi--,! utilisation ( natural =ces br\ght ab\t by a me?od oppos$ to ,bacon's1 #chj--;,association ( ! =mal philosophy ( ,ari/otle & ,bacon ) ! geoc5tric a/ronomy1 #cha4 ,,iii4 ,! philosophic importance ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em fir/ p]ceiv$ by ,giordano ,bruno1 #chb--;,h[ x l$ to a revival ( ,atomism1 #chc--;,common pan!i/ic t5d5cy ( ! anti-,ari/otelian s*ools1 #chd--,! analytical me?od appli$ to ma!matics1 #che--,survival ( ,ari/otelian ideas 9 ! physics ( ,galileo1 #che--;,8 aff9ities ) ,plato1 #chf--;,influ5ce ( ,platonic ideas on ,kepl]1 #chg4 ,,iv4 ,desc>tes' !ory ( ,matt] d]iv$ f ! ,timaeus1 #chh--;& develop$ "u ! influ5ce ( ,democritus1 #chi--;,h[ ! id5tification ( ,matt] ) ,ext5sion l$ to its complete sep>ation f ,?\ght1 #cij--,! d5ial ( f9al causes a consequ5ce ( ?is sep>ation1 #cij--;,diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,c>tesian & ,baconian views ( teleology1 #cia--;,doctr9e ( animal automatism1 #cia--,localisation ( feel+ 9 ! bra91 #cib--,! ,cogito ergo sum & its antec$5ts 9 ,greek philosophy1 #cib--;,desc>tes int]prets ,?\ght aft] ! analogy ( ,ext5sion1 #cic--,revival ( ! ,/oic & ,epicurean mat]ialism3 transition to ,hobbes1 #cid4 ,v4 ,hobbes n a l9k betwe5 ,bacon & ,locke1 #cie--,! diff]5t mean+s :i* !y respectively atta*$ to ! notion ( exp]i5ce1 #cie--;,d$uctive & ma!matical me?od ( ,hobbes1 #cif--;,8 opposition to ! e?ics ( ,ari/otle1 #cig--;,8 id5tification ( happ9ess ) p[]1 #cih--,subord9ation ( ! inf9ite to ! f9ite 9 ,greek philosophy1 #cih--;,contra/ (f]$ by ! illimitable aspirations ( ! ,r5aissance1 #cii--;,elem5ts out ( :i* ,sp9ozism 0 =m$1 #djj4 ,,vi4 ,platonic me?od ( ,sp9oza1 #dja--,! limit+ pr9ciples ( ,greek idealism1 #djb--,_! t5d5cy to coalesce 9 a s+le conception1 #djc--,simil> result obta9$ by an analysis ( ext5sion & ?\ght1 #djd--;,g5esis ( ,sp9oza's ,inf9ite ,sub/ance1 #dje--,! uses ( unlimit$ cr$it 9 metaphysics1 #djf--,sp9oza's !ory ( cognition1 #djg--,! id5tity ( ext5sion & ?\ght1 #djh4 ,,vii4 ,influ5ce ( ,ari/otle's logic on ,sp9oza1 #dji--,mean+ ( #8! inf9ite intellect ( ,god1' #daj--;,cont+5cy z a common prop]ty ( ext5sion & ?\ght1 #daa--,! d\ble-aspect !ory n held by ,sp9oza1 #dab--,! di/9ction betwe5 necessity & cont+5cy 9 its application to e?ics1 #dac--,! /udy ( illusion 9 ,malebran*e & ,molire1 #dad--;,intellectual "* ( ,sp9oza's e?ics1 #dae--,p>allel betwe5 k & virtue1 #daf--;,enum]ation ( ! ,greek elem5ts 9 ,sp9oza's philosophy1 #dag4 ,,viii4 ,! place ( ,scepticism 9 ,greek ?\ght1 #dah--,p>allel betwe5 ,locke & ! ,new ,academy1 #dai--,results obta9$ by a complete application ( ! analytical me?od1 #dbj--;,close connexion betwe5 philosophy & positive sci5ce1 #dbj--;,increas$ prom95ce giv5 to e?ical & practical int]e/s by ! me?od ( ,locke1 #dba--,! idea ( ,nature & ! revival ( teleology1 #dbb--,new mean+ giv5 to h$onism by mod]n philosophy1 #dbc--,! ,/oic side ( mod]n utilit>ianism1 #dbc--;,diff]5t comb9ations ( ! same ideas 9 anci5t & mod]n sy/ems1 #dbe4 ,,ix4 ,conflict betwe5 analytical criticism & s*ola/icism1 #dbf--,! !ory ( evolution z a new application ( ! atomi/ic me?od1 #dbg--,transitional "* ( ! pr9cipal sy/ems ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 #dbh--;,ari/otelian ideas 9 mod]n ,fr5* ?\ght1 #dbh--;,contra/+ relations ( anci5t & mod]n philosophy to !ology1 #dcj4 ,,! ,,greek ,,philosoph]s4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,/oics4 ,i4 ,! sy/ems ( ,plato & ,ari/otle 7 spl5did digressions f ! ma9 l9e ( anci5t speculation r ?an /ages 9 its regul> developm5t4 ,! philosoph]s :o came aft] !m w5t back to an e>li] tradition1 & ! influ5ce ( ! two greate/ ,hell5ic ma/]s1 :5 x 0 felt at all1 0 felt almo/ entirely z a di/urb+ or deflect+ =ce4 ,! extraord9>y rea* ( _! pr9ciples c\ld n1 9 tru?1 be appreciat$ until ! organis$ exp]i5ce ( mank9d _h accumulat$ to an ext5t requir+ ! application ( new rules = its compreh5sion & utilisation2 & to make su* an accumulation possible1 no?+ less 0 ne$$ ?an ! comb9$ ef=ts ( ! :ole we/]n _w4 ,su* religi\s1 educational1 social1 & political re=ms z ^? contemplat$ 9 ,plato's ,republic1 ?\gh orig9ally design$ = a s+le city-community1 c\ld n be realis$1 ev5 approximately1 )9 a n>r[] field ?an t (f]$ by ! m$iaeval *ur* & ! feudal /ate4 ,! ideal !ory fir/ ga9$ practical significance 9 connexion ) ! metaphysics ( ,*ri/ian !ology4 ,! place giv5 by ,plato to ma!matics has only be5 fully ju/ifi$ by ! developm5t ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,s also1 ,ari/otle's criticism became ( practical importance only :5 ! dreams aga9/ :i* x 0 direct$ _h embodi$ !mselves 9 a fabric ( oppressive sup]/ition4 ,only ! va/ ext5sion ( reason$ k has enabl$ u to dis5tangle ! vitally important elem5ts ( ,ari/otle's logic f ! mass ( useless ref9em5ts 9 :i* !y are imb$d$2 8 f\rfold division ( causes c\ld n be e/imat$ rightly ev5 by ,bacon1 ,desc>tes1 or ,sp9oza2 :ile 8 arrangem5t ( ! sci5ces1 8 rem>ks on classification1 & 8 contributions to comp>ative biology br+ u up to ! v v]ge ( !ories ^: fir/ promulgation is /ill fre% 9 ! memories ( m54 ,aga91 ! spiritualism taught by ,plato & ,ari/otle alike--by ! disciple1 inde$1 ) ev5 m di/9ctness ?an by ! ma/]--0 s entirely inconsi/5t ) ! common belief ( antiquity z to rema9 a dead lett] = ne>ly six c5turies--t is1 until ! "t ( ,plot9us4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 body & m9d 0 recognis$ by e s*ool1 b only z ! diff]5ce betwe5 solid & gase\s matt] is recognis$ by u2 :ile ! anti!sis betwe5 consci\s & unconsci\s exi/5ce1 ) all its mom5t\s consequ5ces1 0 recognis$ by none4 ,! old hypo!sis _h to be ?or\ghly ?\ght out be=e its insuffici5cy c\ld be completely & irrevocably confess$4 ,nor 0 ?is ! only reason :y ! spirituali/s lo/ t\* ( _! age4 ,if 9 "s respects !y 7 f> 9 advance ( e>ly ,greek ?\ght1 9 o!r respects !y 7 f> beh9d x4 ,_! sy/ems 7 p]vad$ by an unphilosophical dualism :i* t5d$ to undo mu* t _h be5 a*iev$ by _! less prejudic$ pr$ecessors4 ,= ?is we h p>tly to blame _! environm5t4 ,! opposition ( ,god & ! _w1 heav5 & e>?1 m9d & matt]1 necessity 9 ,nature & free-w 9 man1 0 a concession--?\gh ( c\rse an unconsci\s concession--to ! /upid bigotry ( ,a!ns4 ,yet at ! same "t !y _h fail$ to solve ^? psy*ological problems :i* _h mo/ int]e/ = an ,a!nian public4 ,in/ead ( foll[+ up ! attempt made by ! ,sophi/s & ,socrates to place morality on a sci5tific f\ndation1 !y busi$ !mselves ) ! con/ruction ( a new ma*9]y = dim9i%+ ! efficacy ( temptation or = /r5g!n+ ! efficacy ( law4 ,to ! "q1 ,:at is ! highe/ good8 ,plato gave an answ] :i* nobody c\ld und]/&1 & ,ari/otle an answ] :i* 0 almo/ absolutely useless to anybody b himself4 ,! o!r great problem1 ,:at is ! ultimate f\ndation ( k8 0 left 9 an equally unsatisfactory /ate4 ,plato nev] answ]$ x at all2 ,ari/otle m]ely po9t$ out ! negative conditions :i* mu/ be fulfill$ by its solution4 ,x is n1 !n1 surpris+ t ! ,academic & ,p]ipatetic s*ools utt]ly fail$ to c>ry on ! great movem5t inaugurat$ by _! respective f\nd]s4 ,! successors ( ,plato fir/ lo/ !mselves 9 a labyr9? ( ,py?agorean my/icism1 & !n sank into ! position ( m]e moral in/ructors4 ,! hi/ory ( t rem>kable revolution by :i* ! ,academy rega9$ a =emo/ place 9 ,greek ?\ght1 w =m ! subject ( a future *apt]3 "h we may anticipate s f> z to obs]ve t x 0 effect$ by tak+ up & pres5t+ 9 its orig9al purity a tradition ( old] date ?an ,platonism1 ?\gh pres5t$ "u a new aspect & mix$ ) o!r elem5ts by ,plato4 ,! heirs ( ,ari/otle1 aft] /agg]+ on a few paces "u ! imm5se burd5 ( 8 encyclopa$ic beque/1 came to a dead halt1 & cont5t$ !mselves ) keep+ ! treasure safe until ! "t %\ld arrive = its appropriation & re9ve/m5t by a /rong] speculative race4 ,no soon] did ! two imp]ial sy/ems lose _! asc5d5cy ?an ! g]ms :i* !y _h tempor>ily ov]%ad[$ sprang up into vigor\s vitality1 & = m ?an five c5turies dom9at$ ! :ole c\rse n only ( ,greek b ( ,european ?\ght4 ,( ^! by f> ! mo/ important 0 ! naturali/ic idea1 ! belief t physical sci5ce might be sub/itut$ = religi\s sup]/itions & local conv5tions z an impregnable basis ( conduct4 ,9 a =m] *apt]#a we endeav\r$ to %[ t1 :ile !re are traces ( ?is idea 9 ! philosophy ( ,h]acleitus1 & :ile its roots /ret* f> back into ! lit]ature & popul> fai? ( ,greece1 x 0 =mulat$ = ! fir/ "t by ! two great ,sophi/s1 ,prodicus & ,hippias1 :o1 9 ! mom5t\s division betwe5 ,nature & ,law1 plac$ !mselves--,hippias m p>ticul>ly--on ! side ( ,nature4 ,two causes l$ to ! tempor>y discr$it ( _! tea*+4 ,"o 0 ! p]v]sion by :i* natural "r became ! wat*word ( ^? :o1 l ,plato's ,callicles1 held t no?+ %\ld /& betwe5 ! /rong man & ! gratification ( 8 desire = pleasure or = p[]4 ,! o!r 0 ! ke5 criticism ( ! ,humani/s1 ! fri5ds ( social conv5tion1 :o held ) ,protagoras t ,nature 0 unkn[able1 or ) ,gorgias t %e did n exi/1 or ) ,socrates t h] laws 7 ! secret ( ! gods4 ,x 0 9 p>ticul> ! ov]:elm+ p]sonal influ5ce ( ,socrates :i* triumph$4 ,he drew away f ! ,sophi/s _! /ronge/ disciple1 ,anti/h5es1 & conv9c$ him t philosophy 0 valuable only 9 s f> z x became a life-r5ovat+ p[]1 & t1 view$ 9 ?is light1 x _h no relation to any?+ outside ourselves4 ,b j z ,socrates _h disc>d$ ! physical speculations ( =m] tea*]s1 s also did ,anti/h5es disc>d ! dialectic :i* ,socrates _h sub/itut$ = !m1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( d5y+ t def9ition 0 possible4#b ,yet he seems to h kept a firm hold on ! two great ideas t 7 ! net result ( all previ\s philosophy1 ! idea ( a cosmos1 ! common citiz5%ip ( :i* made all m5 pot5tially equal1#c & ! idea ( reason z ! ess5tial pr]ogative ( man4#d ,anti/h5es pu%$ to its extreme consequ5ces a movem5t begun by ! naturali/ic ,sophi/s4 ,8 doctr9e 0 :at w\ld n[ be call$ an>*ic collectivism4 ,! ,/ate1 m>riage1 private prop]ty1 & ! !n accept$ =ms ( religion1 7 to be aboli%$1 & all mank9d 7 to h]d promiscu\sly toge!r4#e ,ei!r he or 8 foll[]s1 alone among ! anci5ts1 decl>$ t slav]y 0 wrong2 &1 l ,socrates1 he held t ! virtue ( m5 & wom5 0 ! same4#f ,b :at he meant by ?is broad human virtue1 :i* accord+ to him 0 id5tical ) happ9ess1 is n cle>4 ,we only "k t he dissociat$ x 9 ! /ronge/ mann] f pleasure4 #8,i _h r be mad ?an delight$1' is "o ( 8 *>act]i/ic say+s4#g ,x w\ld appe>1 h[ev]1 t :at he really object$ to 0 self-indulg5ce--! pursuit ( s5sual gratification = its own sake--& t he 0 ready to welcome ! enjoym5ts naturally accompany+ ! heal?y dis*>ge ( vital function4#h ,anti/h5es & 8 s*ool1 ( :i* ,diog5es is ! mo/ popul> & *>act]i/ic type1 7 aft]w>ds kn[n z ,cynics2 b ! "n is nev] m5tion$ by ,plato & ,ari/otle1 nor d !y allude to ! scurrility & sy/ematic indec5cy aft]w>ds associat$ ) x4 ,! anecdotes relat+ to ?is unsav\ry subject %\ld be receiv$ ) extreme suspicion4 ,!re has always be5 a t5d5cy to believe t philosoph]s c>ry out 9 practice :at are vulg>ly believ$ to be ! logical consequ5ces ( _! !ories4 ,?us x is relat$ ( ,pyrrho ! ,sceptic t :5 out walk+ he nev] turn$ aside to avoid any ob/acle or dang]1 & 0 only sav$ f de/ruction by ! vigilance ( 8 fri5ds4#i ,?is is ( c\rse a silly fable2 & we h ,ari/otle's ^w = x t ! ,sceptics took z good c>e ( _! lives z o!r p4#aj ,9 l mann] we may conjecture t ! ,cynics1 advocat+ z !y did a return to ,nature & defiance ( prejudice1 7 falsely cr$it$ ) :at 0 falsely suppos$ to be ! practical exemplification ( _! precepts4 ,x is at any rate rem>kable t ,epicttus1 a man n dispos$ to und]value ! obligations ( decorum1 con/antly ref]s to ,diog5es z a k9d ( philosophical sa9t1 & t he describes ! ideal ,cynic 9 words :i* w\ld apply )\t alt]ation to ! "* ( a ,*ri/ian apo/le4#aa ,cynicism1 if we und]/& x rightly1 0 only ! mutilat$ =m ( an old] philosophy hav+ = its object to set morality free f conv5tion1 & to f\nd x anew on a sci5tific k ( natural law4 ,! ne$ ( su* a sy/em 0 n felt s long z ,plato & ,ari/otle 7 unfold+ _! wond]ful s*emes = a reorganisation ( action & belief4 ,) ! tempor>y collapse ( ^? s*emes x came once m to ! front4 ,! result 0 a new s*ool :i* s ?or\ghly satisfi$ ! dem&s ( ! age1 t = five c5turies ! noble/ spirits ( ,greece & ,rome1 ) few exceptions1 adh]$ to its doctr9es2 t 9 dy+ x bequea!d "s ( _! mo/ vital elem5ts to ! metaphysics & ! !ology by :i* x 0 succe$$2 t ) _! decay x reappe>$ z an important factor 9 mod]n ?\ght2 & t its "n has become imp]i%ably associat$ 9 our own language ) ! pr\d endurance ( suff]+1 ! self-suffic+ness ( consci\s rectitude1 & ! r5unciation ( all sympa?y1 except :at may be d]iv$ f contemplation ( ! immortal dead1 ^: h]oism is record$ 9 hi/ory1 or ( ! et]nal cosmic =ces p]=m+ _! glori\s (fices ) unimpassion$ en]gy & imp]turbable repose4 ,,ii4 ,"o day1 "s few ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,ari/otle1 a %ort1 lean1 sw>?y "y man1 ( weak build1 ) clumsily %ap$ limbs1 & head incl9$ to "o side1 0 /&+ 9 an ,a!nian book%op1 int5tly /udy+ a roll ( manuscript4 ,8 "n 0 ,z5o1 & he 0 a native ( ,citium1 a ,greek colony 9 ,cyprus1 :]e ! ,hell5ic elem5t _h become adult]at$ ) a consid]able ,pho5ician infusion4 ,accord+ to "s acc\nts1 ,z5o _h come to ! great c5tre ( intellectual activity to /udy1 accord+ to o!rs = ! sale ( ,tyrian purple4 ,at any rate ! volume :i* he held 9 8 h& decid$ 8 vocation4 ,x 0 ! second book ( ,x5ophon's ,memoirs ( ,socrates4 ,z5o eag]ly ask$ :]e su* m5 z he ^: say+s /ood record$ !re 7 to be f\nd4 ,at t mom5t ! ,cynic ,crates happ5$ to pass by4 #8,!re is "o ( !m1' said ! booksell]1 #8foll[ him4'#ab ,! hi/ory ( ?is ,crates 0 di/+ui%$ by ! "o solit>y romance ( ,greek philosophy4 ,a "y lady ( noble family1 nam$ ,hipp>*ia1 fell desp]ately 9 love ) him1 refus$ sev]al mo/ eligible suitors1 & ?reat5$ to kill h]self unless %e 0 giv5 to him 9 m>riage4 ,h] p>5ts 9 despair s5t = ,crates4 ,m>riage1 = a philosoph]1 0 aga9/ ! pr9ciples ( 8 sect1 & he at fir/ jo9$ !m 9 endeav\r+ to dissuade h]4 ,f9d+ 8 remon/rances unavail+1 he at la/ flung at h] feet ! /aff & wallet :i* con/itut$ 8 :ole worldly possessions1 exclaim+1 #8,"h is ! bridegroom1 & t is ! d[]4 ,?9k ( ?is matt] well1 = y _c be my p>tn] unless y foll[ ! same call+ ) me4' ,hipp>*ia cons5t$1 & !nce=?1 he$less ( taunts1 con=m$ h] life 9 e respect to ! ,cynic patt]n4#ac ,z5o _h m delicacy or less =titude ?an ,hipp>*ia2 & ! v meagre intellectual f>e provid$ by ,crates mu/ h left 8 inquisitive m9d unsatisfi$4 ,accord+ly we f9d him leav+ ?is r disappo9t+ sub/itute = ,socrates1 to /udy philosophy "u ,/ilpo ! ,meg>ian dialectician & ,polemo ! head ( ! ,academy2#ad :ile we "k t he mu/ h gone back to ,h]acleitus = ! physical basis f :i* contempor>y speculation _h by ?is "t cut itself completely free4 ,at l5g?1 ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! ?ird c5tury ,b4,c41 ,z5o1 aft] hav+ be5 a le>n] = tw5ty ye>s1 op5$ a s*ool on 8 own acc\nt4 ,z if to m>k ! practical be>+ ( 8 doctr9e he *ose "o ( ! mo/ frequ5t$ resorts 9 ! city = its promulgation4 ,!re 0 at ,a!ns a portico call$ ! ,poecile ,/oa1 adorn$ ) frescoes by ,polygntus1 ! greate/ pa9t] ( ! ,cimonian p]iod4 ,x 0 among ! monum5ts ( t wond]ful city1 at once :at ! ,loggia dei ,lanzi is to ,flor5ce1 & :at ,raphael's ,/anze are to ,rome2 :ile1 l ! ,place de la ,concorde 9 ,p>is1 x 0 d>k5$ by ! t]rible associations ( a revolution>y epo*4 ,a c5tury be=e ,z5o's "t f\rte5 hundr$ ,a!nian citiz5s _h be5 slaught]$ "u its colonnades by ord] ( ! ,?irty4 #8,i w purify ! ,/oa1' said ! ,cypriote /rang]2#ae & ! feel+s /ill associat$ ) ! ^w ,/oicism prove h[ nobly 8 promise 0 fulfill$4 ,h[ mu* ( ! complete sy/em kn[n 9 lat] times "u ?is "n 0 due to ,z5o himself1 we d n "k2 = no?+ b a few fragm5ts ( 8 & ( 8 imm$iate successors' writ+s is left4 ,! idea ( comb9+ ,anti/h5es ) ,h]acleitus1 & bo? ) ,socrates1 probably belongs to ! f\nd] ( ! s*ool4 ,8 successor1 ,clean!s1 a man ( "* r ?an ( intellect1 0 cont5t to h& on :at ! ma/] _h taught4 ,!n came ano!r ,cypriote1 ,*rysippus1 ( :om we are told t )\t him ! ,/oa w\ld n h exi/$2#af s ?or\ghly did he "w out ! sy/em 9 all its details1 & s /rongly did he =tify its positions aga9/ ho/ile criticism by a framework ( elaborate dialectic4 #8,give me ! propositions1 & ,i w f9d ! pro(s6' he us$ to say to ,clean!s4#ag ,aft] him1 no?+ ( importance 0 add$ to ! doctr9es ( ! s*ool2 al?\gh ! _s by :i* !y 7 animat$ seems to h und]gone pr(\nd modifications 9 ! lapse ( ages4 ,9 reality1 ,/oicism 0 n1 l ! old] ,greek philosophies1 a creation ( individual g5ius4 ,x be>s ! "* ( a compilation bo? on its fir/ exposition & on its f9al completion4 ,polemo1 :o _h be5 a f9e g5tleman be=e he became a philosoph]1 taunt$ ,z5o ) fil*+ 8 op9ions f e qu>t]1 l ! cunn+ little ,pho5ician trad] t he 04#ah ,& x 0 said t ! sev5 hundr$ treatises ( ,*rysippus w\ld be r$uc$ to a blank if ev]y?+ t he _h borr[$ f o!rs 7 to be eras$4 ,he seems1 inde$1 to h be5 ! fa!r ( review-writ]s1 & to h us$ ! review]'s "r ( transcription ) m ?an mod]n lic5se4 ,ne>ly a :ole trag$y ( ,euripides reappe>$ 9 "o ( 8 #8articles1' & a wit on be+ ask$ :at he 0 read+1 repli$1 #8! ,m$ea ( ,*rysippus4'#ai ,9 ?is respect ,/oicism betrays its desc5t f ! encyclopa$ic lectures ( ! e>li] ,sophi/s1 p>ticul>ly ,hippias4 ,:ile pr(ess$ly subord9at+ e o!r /udy to ! art ( virtu\s liv+1 its expositors seem to h ei!r put a v wide int]pretation on virtue1 or else to h rais$ its f\ndation to a mo/ unnecess>y height4 ,!y prote/$ aga9/ ,ari/otle's glorification ( k z ! supreme end1 & decl>$ its exclusive pursuit to be m]ely a m ref9$ =m ( self-indulg5ce2#bj b1 be+ ,greeks1 !y %>$ ! speculative passion ) him1 & seiz$ on any pretext t enabl$ !m to gratify x4 ,& ?is inquisitiv5ess 0 app>5tly mu* /rong] 9 ,asiatic ,hellas1 :5ce ! ,/oics 7 almo/ entirely recruit$1 ?an 9 ! old c\ntry1 :]e c5turies ( intellectual activity _h issu$ 9 a scepticism f :i* _! fre%] m9ds revolt$4#ba ,x is m5tion$ by ,zell] z a pro( ( exhau/ion & comp>ative indiff]5ce to su* enquiries1 t ! ,/oics %\ld h fall5 back on ! ,h]acleitean philosophy = _! physics4#bb ,b all ! ideas respect+ ! con/itution ( ,nature t 7 !n possible _h already be5 put =w>d4 ,! ,greek capacity = discov]y 0 p]haps great] 9 ! ?ird c5tury ?an at any =m] "t2 b f ! v progress ( sci5ce x 0 necess>ily conf9$ to speciali/s1 su* z ,ari/>*us ( ,samos or ,ar*im$es4 ,& if ! ,/oics made no orig9al contributions to physical sci5ce1 !y at lea/ accept$ :at seem$ at t "t to be its e/abli%$ results2 "h1 z 9 o!r respects1 (f]+ a m>k$ contra/ to ! ,epicurean s*ool4 ,if a ,clean!s assail$ ! helioc5tric hypo!sis ( ,ari/>*us on religi\s gr\nds1 he 0 tread+ 9 ! foot/eps ( ,ari/otle4 ,x is f> m important t he or 8 successors %\ld h taught ! true !ory ( ! e>?'s %ape1 ( ! moon's phases1 ( eclipses1 & ( ! relative size & di/ance ( ! heav5ly bodies4#bc ,on ?is la/ subject1 inde$1 "o ( ! lat] ,/oics1 ,posidonius1 arriv$ at or accept$ conclusions :i*1 al?\gh fall+ f> %ort ( ! reality1 approximat$ to x 9 a v rem>kable mann]1 :5 we consid] :at imp]fect means ( measurem5t ! ,greek a/ronom]s _h at _! disposition4#bd ,9 return+ to "o ( ! old] cosmologies1 ! ,/oics plac$ !mselves 9 opposition to ! sy/em ( ,ari/otle z a :ole1 al?\gh on que/ions ( detail !y frequ5tly adopt$ 8 conclusions4 ,! object ( ,h]acleitus1 z aga9/ ! ,py?agoreans1 _h be5 to dissolve away e anti!sis 9 a p]vad+ unity ( contradictories2 &1 z aga9/ ! ,eleatics1 to sub/itute an et]nal s]ies ( trans=mations = ! *angeless unity ( absolute exi/5ce4 ,! ,/oics n[ appli$ ! same me?od on a scale proportionate to ! subsequ5t developm5t ( ?\ght4 ,ari/otle _h c>efully di/+ui%$ ,god f ! _w1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( isolat+ him f all %>e 9 its creation & int]e/ 9 its affairs4 ,! ,/oics decl>$ t ,god & ! _w 7 "o4 ,s f>1 x is all[able to call !m pan!i/s4 ,yet _! pan!ism 0 v diff]5t f :at we are accu/om$ to d5ote by t "n2 f ! sy/em ( ,sp9oza1 = example4 ,_! /rong fai? 9 f9al causes & 9 ,provid5ce--a fai? 9 :i* !y closely foll[$ ,socrates--w\ld be h>dly consi/5t ) any?+ b ! ascription ( a di/9ct & individual consci\sness to ! ,supreme ,be+1 :i* is j :at mod]n pan!i/s refuse to admit4 ,_! ,god 0 sometimes describ$ z ! s\l ( ! _w1 ! fi]y elem5t surr\nd+ & p5etrat+ e o!r k9d ( matt]4 ,:at rema9$ 0 ! body ( ,god2 b x 0 a body :i* he _h orig9ally creat$ out ( 8 own sub/ance1 & w\ld1 9 ! fulness ( "t1 absorb into t sub/ance aga94#be ,?us !y kept ! future conflagration =etold by ,h]acleitus1 b gave x a m religi\s col\r+4 ,! process ( creation 0 !n to beg9 ov] aga91 & all ?+s 7 to run ! same c\rse z be=e d[n to ! m9ute/ p>ticul>s1 human hi/ory repeat+ itself1 & ! same p]sons return+ to live ! same lives once m4#bf ,su* a belief evid5tly involv$ ! mo/ rigid fatalism3 & "h aga9 _! doctr9e (f]s a po9t$ contra/ to t ( ,ari/otle4 ,! ,/agirite1 diff]+1 z x w\ld seem1 9 ?is respect f all ! old] physici/s1 ma9ta9$ t !re 0 an elem5t ( *ance & spontaneity 9 ! sublun>y sph]e2 & )\t go+ v deeply into ! me*anism ( motives or ! !ory ( moral responsibility1 he _h claim$ a simil> indet]m9at5ess = ! human w4 ,/oicism w\ld he> ( nei!r2 ) x1 z ) mod]n sci5ce1 ! *a9 ( causation is unbrok5 f fir/ to la/1 & ext5ds to all ph5om5a alike4 ,! old !ological notion ( an omnipot5t div9e w1 or ( a de/9y sup]ior ev5 to t w1 0 at once confirm$ & cont9u$ by ! new !ory ( natural law2 j z ! pr$e/9ation ( ! ,re=m]s reappe>$ 9 ! metaphysical rationalism ( ,sp9oza4#bg ,?is dogma ( univ]sal det]m9ism 0 comb9$ 9 ! ,/oical sy/em ) an equally outspok5 mat]ialism4 ,! capacity = ei!r act+ or be+ act$ on 01 accord+ to ,plato1 ! "o conv9c+ evid5ce ( real exi/5ce2 & he _h endeav\r$ to prove t !re is su* a ?+ z m9d ap>t f matt] by its possession ( ?is *>act]i/ic m>k4#bh ,! ,/oics simply rev]s$ 8 argum5t4 ,:atev] acts or is act$ on1 !y said1 mu/ be corporeal2 !re=e ! s\l is a k9d ( body4#bi ,"h !y only foll[$ ! common op9ion ( all philosoph]s :o believ$ 9 an ext]nal _w1 except ,plato & ,ari/otle1 :ile to a c]ta9 ext5t anticipat+ ! sci5tific automatism fir/ taught 9 mod]n times by ,sp9oza1 & simultane\sly reviv$ by v>i\s ?9k]s 9 our own day4 ,to a c]ta9 ext5t only2 = !y did n recognise ! indep5d5t reality ( a consci\sness 9 :i* ! me*anical processes are ei!r reflect$1 or repres5t$ "u a diff]5t aspect4 ,& !y fur!r gave _! !ory a some:at grotesque expression by int]pret+ ^? qualities & attributes ( ?+s1 :i* o!r mat]iali/s h be5 cont5t to consid] z belong+ to matt]1 z !mselves actual bodies4 ,= in/ance1 ! virtues & vices 71 accord+ to !m1 s _m gase\s curr5ts by :i* ! s\l is p5etrat$ & %ap$--a mat]iali/ic r5d]+ ( ,plato's !ory t qualities are di/9ct & indep5d5t sub/ances4#cj ,we mu/ m5tion z an additional po9t ( contra/ betwe5 ! ,/oics & ! subsequ5t s*ools :i* !y mo/ resembl$1 t :ile ^! look on ! s\l z insep>able f ! body1 & %>+ its =tunes f fir/ to la/1 al?\gh p]fectly di/9ct f x 9 idea1 !y emphasis$ ! anti!sis betwe5 ! two j z /rongly z ,plato1 giv+ ! s\l an absolutely inf9ite p[] ( self-ass]tion dur+ our mortal life1 & all[+ x a cont9u$1 ?\gh n an immortal1 exi/5ce aft] dea?4#ca ,:at has be5 said ( ! human s\l applies equally to ,god1 :o is ! s\l ( ! _w4 ,he also is conceiv$ "u ! =m ( a mat]ial b v subtle & all-p5etrat+ elem5t to :i* our s\ls are mu* m closely ak9 ?an to ! co>se clay ) :i* !y are tempor>ily associat$4 ,& x 0 natural t ! heav5ly bodies1 9 ^: composition ! e!real elem5t seem$ s visibly to pr$om9ate1 %\ld pass ) ! ,/oics1 z ) ,plato & ,ari/otle1 = consci\s be+s inf]ior only 9 sacr$ness & maje/y to ! ,supreme ,rul] ( all4#cb ,?us1 ! philosophy :i* we are /udy+ helps to prove ! /r5g? & endurance ( ! religi\s reaction to :i* ,socrates fir/ gave an argum5tative expression1 & by :i* he 0 ultimately hurri$ to 8 doom4 ,we may ev5 trace its increas+ asc5d5cy ?r\gh ! successive /ages ( ! ,naturali/ic s*ool4 ,prodicus simply id5tifi$ ! gods ( poly!ism ) unconsci\s physical =ces2#cc ,anti/h5es1 :ile disc>d+ local wor%ip1 believ$1 l ,r\sseau1 9 ! exi/5ce ( a s+le deity2#cd ,z5o1 or 8 successors1 reviv$ ! :ole pan!on1 b associat$ x ) a pure morality1 & expla9$ away its m (f5sive features by an elaborate sy/em ( allegorical int]pretation4#ce ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 by its leg5d>y beliefs t ! liv+ p[] ( anci5t religion 0 display$1 b by ! /udy & practice ( div9ation4 ,?is 0 to ! ,greeks & ,romans :at prie/ly direction is to a ,ca?olic1 or ! int]pretation ( ,scripture texts to a ,prote/ant believ]4 ,& ! ,/oics1 9 _! anxiety to uphold religion z a bulw>k ( morality1 w5t entirely along ) ! popul> sup]/ition2 :ile at ! same "t !y endeav\r$ to reconcile x ) ! univ]sality ( natural law by ! same clumsily rationali/ic me?ods t h f\nd fav\r ) "s mod]n sci5tific def5d]s ( ! miracul\s4 ,! signs by :i* we are enabl$ to pr$ict an ev5t ent]$1 !y said1 equally ) ! ev5t itself1 into ! ord] ( ,nature1 be+ ei!r connect$ ) x by direct causation1 z is ! configuration ( ! heav5ly bodies at a man's bir? ) 8 aft] =tunes1 or det]m9$ f ! beg9n+ ( ! _w to prec$e x accord+ to an inv>iable rule1 z ) ! indications d]iv$ f inspect+ ! entrails ( sacrificial victims4 ,& :5 sceptics ask$ ( :at use 0 ! premonitory sign :5 ev]y?+ 0 pr$e/9$1 !y repli$ t our behavi\r 9 view ( ! w>n+ 0 pr$e/9$ z well4#cf ,to u ! religion ( ! ,/oics is int]e/+ *iefly z a "p ( ! ma*9]y by :i* !y attempt$ to make good ! connexion betwe5 natural & moral law1 assum$ r ?an prov$ by _! ,sophi/ic & ,cynic precursors4 ,b be=e proce$+ to ?is bran* ( ! subject we mu/ glance at _! mode ( conceiv+ ano!r side ( ! fundam5tal relation%ip betwe5 man & ! univ]se4 ,?is is logic 9 its wide/ s5se1 s und]/ood z to include ! !ory ( ! process by :i* we get our k & ( ! ultimate evid5ce on :i* x re/s1 no less ?an ! !ory ( =mal ratioc9ation4 ,,iii4 ,9 _! !ory ( cognition ! ,/oics *iefly foll[$ ,ari/otle2 only ) !m ! doctr9e ( empiricism is enunciat$ s di/9ctly z to be plac$ beyond ! rea* ( mis9t]pretation4 ,! m9d is at fir/ a tabula rasa1 & all our ideas are d]iv$ exclusively f ! s5ses4#cg ,b :ile k z a :ole re/s on s5se1 ! validity ( ea* p>ticul> s5se-p]ception mu/ be det]m9$ by an appeal to reason1 9 o!r words1 to ! totality ( our acquir$ exp]i5ce4#ch ,s also ! fir/ pr9ciples ( reason+ are n to be po/ulat$1 ) ,ari/otle1 z imm$iately & unconditionally c]ta92 !y are to be assum$ z hypo!tically true & gradually te/$ by ! consequ5ces d$ucible f !m4#ci ,bo? pr9ciples well illu/rate ! syn!tic me?od ( ! ,/oics--_! habit ( br++ into close connexion :atev] ,ari/otle _h /udi\sly held ap>t4 ,& we mu/ ma9ta91 9 opposition to ! ,g]man critics1 t _! me?od m>ks a real advance on 84 ,x ought at any rate to f9d m fav\r ) ! exp]i5tial s*ool ( mod]n sci5ce1 ) ^? :o hold t ! highe/ ma!matical & physical laws are prov$1 n by ! impossibility ( conceiv+ _! contradictories1 b by _! close agreem5t ) all ! facts accessible to our obs]vation4 ,x 0 a consequ5ce ( ! pr9ciple j /at$ t 9 =mal logic ! ,/oics %\ld give prec$5ce to ! hypo!tical ov] ! categorical syllogism4#dj ,f "o po9t ( view _! pref]5ce = ?is mode ( /at+ an argum5t 0 an advance on ! me?od ( ,ari/otle1 ^: reason+s1 if explicitly set out1 w\ld h assum$ ! =m ( disjunctive syllogisms4 ,f ano!r po9t ( view x 0 a return to ! old] dialectics ( ,socrates & ,plato1 :o always look$ on _! major premises z possess+ only a conditional validity--conditional1 t is to say1 on ! cons5t ( _! int]locutor4 ,we h fur!r to note t bo? ! disjunctive & ! hypo!tical syllogism 7 fir/ recognis$ z su* by ! ,/oics2 a discov]y connect$ ) ! feature :i* mo/ pr(\ndly di/+ui%es _! logic f ,ari/otle's logic4 ,we %[$1 9 deal+ ) ! latt]1 t x is bas$ on an analysis ( ! concept1 & t all its imp]fections are due to t s+le circum/ance4 ,x 0 ! ,/oics :o fir/ br\ght judgm5t1 s fatally neglect$ by ! au?or ( ! ,analytics1 into prop] prom95ce4 ,hav+ once grasp$ propositions z ! beg9n+ & end ( reason+1 !y naturally & "u ! guidance ( common language1 pass$ f simple to complex ass]tions1 & imm$iately detect$ ! argum5ts to :i* ^! latt] s]ve z a f\ndation4 ,& if we proce$ to ask :y !y 7 m int]e/$ 9 judgm5t ?an 9 conception1 we %all probably f9d ! explanation to be t _! philosophy _h its root 9 ! e?ical & practical int]e/s :i* involve a cont9ual process ( injunction & belief1 t is to say1 a cont9ual association ( su* disp>ate notions z an impression & an action2 :ile ! ,ari/otelian philosophy1 be+ ultimately d]iv$ f e>ly ,greek ?\ght1 _h = its lead+ pr9ciple ! circumscription ( ext]nal objects & _! repres5tation "u ! =m ( a classifi$ s]ies4 ,?us ! naturali/ic sy/em1 />t+ ) ! application ( sci5tific ideas to human life1 ultimately c>ri$ back into sci5ce ! vital idea ( ,law2 t is1 ( fix$ relations subsi/+ betwe5 disp>ate ph5om5a4 ,& ?is 9 turn l$ to ! re9t]pretation ( k z ! subsumption ( less g5]al "u m g5]al relations4 ,"u ! guidance ( a some:at simil> pr9ciple ! ,/oic logicians attempt$ a re=m ( ,ari/otle's categories4 ,^! !y r$uc$ to f\r3 ,sub/ance1 ,quality1 ,disposition1 & ,relation 7 1 1 1 & #da72 & ! *ange 0 an improvem5t 9 s f> z x introduc$ a c]ta9 me?od & subord9ation :]e none exi/$ be=e2 = ea* category implies1 & is conta9$ 91 its pr$ecessor2 :]eas ! only ord] traceable 9 ,ari/otle's categories ref]s to ! comp>ative frequ5cy ( ! que/ions to :i* !y correspond4 ,) ! idea ( subsumption & subord9ation to law1 we pass at once to ! ,/oic e?ics4 ,= ,z5o1 ! end ( life 0 self-consi/5cy2 = ,clean!s1 consi/5cy ) ,nature2 = ,*rysippus1 bo? ! "o & ! o!r4#db ,! /ill surviv+ individualism ( ! ,cynics is repres5t$ 9 ! fir/ ( ^! pr9ciples2 ! religi\s inspiration ( ! ,/oa 9 ! second2 & ! compreh5siv5ess ( its great sy/ematis+ intellect 9 ! la/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is a vagu5ess ab\t ! idea ( self-consi/5cy :i* seems to date f a "t :5 ,/oicism 0 less a new & exclusive s*ool ?an an endeav\r to appropriate :atev] 0 be/ 9 ! old] s*ools4 ,= to be consi/5t is ! common ideal ( all philosophy1 & is j :at di/+ui%es x f ! uncalculat+ impulsiv5ess ( ord9>y life1 ! *ance inspirations ( ord9>y ?\ght4 ,b ! ,p]ipatetic :o *ose k z 8 highe/ good diff]$ widely f ! ,h$oni/ :o made pleasure or pa9lessness 8 end2 & ev5 if !y agre$ 9 ?9k+ t ! highe/ pleasure is yield$ by k1 ! ,/oic himself w\ld ass]t t ! object ( _! common pursuit 0 ) bo? alike ess5tially unmoral4 ,he w\ld1 no d\bt1 ma9ta9 t ! self-consi/5cy ( any !ory b 8 own 0 a delusion1 & t all false moralities w\ld1 if consi/5tly act$ out1 inevitably l& _! pr(essors 9 a contradiction4#dc ,yet ! abs5ce ( contradiction1 al?\gh a valuable v]ification1 is too negative a m>k to s]ve = ! sole te/ ( rightness2 & ?us we are l$ on to ! m specific /&>d ( con=mability to ,nature1 :e!r our own or t ( ! univ]se z a :ole4 ,"h aga9 a difficulty pres5ts itself4 ,! idea ( ,nature _h tak5 su* a p[]ful hold on ! ,greek m9d t x 0 employ$ by e s*ool 9 turn--except p]haps by ! extreme sceptics1 /ill fai?ful to ! traditions ( ,protagoras & ,gorgias--& 0 confid5tly appeal$ to 9 support ( ! mo/ div]g5t e?ical sy/ems4 ,we f9d x occupy+ a prom95t place bo? 9 ,plato's ,laws & 9 ,ari/otle's ,politics2 :ile ! maxim1 ,foll[ ,nature1 0 borr[$ by ,z5o himself f ,polemo1 ! head ( ! ,academy1 or p]haps f ,polemo's pr$ecessor1 ,x5ocrates4 ,& ,epicurus1 ! great oppon5t ( ,/oicism1 ma9ta9$1 n )\t plausibility1 t e animal is l$ by ,nature to pursue its own pleasure 9 pref]5ce to any o!r end4#dd ,?us1 :5 ,clean!s decl>$ t pleasure 0 unnatural1#de he & ! ,epicureans c\ld n h be5 talk+ ab\t ! same ?+4 ,!y mu/ h meant some?+ diff]5t by pleasure or by nature or by bo?4 ,! la/ alt]native seems ! mo/ probable4 ,nature ) ! ,/oics 0 a fix$ objective ord] :]eby all ?+s "w toge!r z co-op]ant p>ts ( a s+le sy/em4 ,ea* has a c]ta9 (fice to p]=m1 & ! p]fect p]=mance ( x is ! creature's virtue1 or reason1 or highe/ good3 ^! ?ree expressions be+ always us$ z /rictly synonym\s t]ms4 ,"h we h ! teleology1 ! dialectics1 & ! utilit>ianism ( ,socrates1 s work$ out & assimilat$ t !y diff] only z v>i\s aspects ( a s+le tru?4 ,! ?ree l9es ( ,socratic tea*+ _h also be5 drawn to a s+le po9t by ,plato2 b 8 idealism _h necessitat$ ! creation ( a new _w = _! developm5t & conc5tration4 ,! idea ( ,nature z x _h gr[n up "u ! h&s ( ,h]acleitus1 ! ,sophi/s1 & ,anti/h5es1 suppli$ ,z5o ) a ready-made m\ld into :i* 8 re=m+ aspirations c\ld be run4 ,! true ,republic 0 n a patt]n laid up 9 heav51 nor 0 x re/rict$ to ! n>r[ dim5sions ( a s+le ,hell5ic /ate4 ,x 0 ! :ole real univ]se1 9 e "p ( :i* except 9 ! works ( wick$ m5 a div9e law 0 recognis$ & obey$4#df ,nay1 accord+ to ,clean!s1 ,god's law is obey$ ev5 by ! wick$1 & ! ess5ce ( morality consi/s only 9 its volunt>y fulfilm5t4 ,z o!rs v vividly put x1 we are l a dog ti$ "u a c>t2 if we d n *oose to run we %all be dragg$ along4#dg ,x w n[ be bett] und]/ood :5ce arose ! ho/ility ( ! ,/oics to pleasure1 & h[ !y c\ld speak ( x 9 :at seems su* a p>adoxical /yle4 ,x 0 subjective feel+ z oppos$ to objective law2 x 0 relative1 p>ticul>1 & individual1 z oppos$ to _! =mal /&>d ( "r2 & x 0 cont9ually draw+ m5 away f _! true nature by act+ z a temptation to vice4 ,?us1 probably = ! la/ reason1 ,clean!s c\ld speak ( pleasure z contr>y to ,nature2 :ile less rigor\s au?orities reg>d$ x z absolutely indiff]5t1 be+ a consequ5ce ( natural actions1 n an ess5tial elem5t 9 _! p]=mance4 ,& :5 _! oppon5ts po9t$ to ! univ]sal desire = pleasure z a pro( t x 0 ! natural end ( animat$ be+s1 ! ,/oics answ]$ t :at ,nature _h 9 view 0 n pleasure at all1 b ! pres]vation ( life itself4#dh ,su* an int]pretation ( in/9ct introduces u to a new pr9ciple--self-int]e/2 & ?is 01 9 fact1 recognis$ on all h&s z ! f\ndation ( "r conduct2 x 0 ab\t ! "q1 ,:at is our int]e/8 t ! anci5t morali/s 7 disagre$4 ,! ,cynics app>5tly held t1 = e be+1 simple exi/5ce is ! only good1 & !re=e ) !m virtue meant limit+ oneself to ! b>e necess>ies ( life2 :ile by foll[+ ,nature !y meant r$uc+ exi/5ce to its l[e/ t]ms1 & assimilat+ our actions1 s f> z possible1 to ^? ( ! l[] animals1 plants1 or ev5 /ones1 all ( :i* require no m ?an to ma9ta9 ! integrity ( _! prop] nature4 ,:]e ! ,cynics left (f ! ,/oics began4 ,recognis+ simple self-pres]vation z ! e>lie/ int]e/ & duty ( man1 !y held t 8 ultimate & highe/ good 0 complete self-realisation1 ! developm5t ( t rational1 social1 & b5efic5t nature :i* di/+ui%es him f ! l[] animals4#di ,"h _! teleological religion came 9 z a valuable sanction = _! e?ics4 ,epicttus1 probably foll[+ old] au?orities1 argues t self-love has purposely be5 made id5tical ) sociability4 #8,! nature ( an animal is to d all ?+s = its own sake4 ,accord+ly ,god has s ord]$ ! nature ( ! rational animal t x _c obta9 any p>ticul> good )\t at ! same "t contribut+ to ! common good4 ,because x is self-seek+ x is n !re=e unsocial4'#ej ,b if our happ9ess dep5ds on ext]nal goods1 !n we %all beg9 to fight ) "o ano!r = _! possession3#ea fri5ds1 fa!r1 c\ntry1 ! gods !mselves1 ev]y?+ w1 ) good reason1 be sacrific$ to _! atta9m5t4 ,&1 reg>d+ ?is z a self-evid5t absurdity1 ,epicttus concludes t our happ9ess mu/ consi/ solely 9 a righte\s w1 :i* we "k to h be5 ! doctr9e ( 8 :ole s*ool4 ,we h n[ rea*$ ! great po9t on :i* ! ,/oic e?ics diff]$ f t ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,! two latt]1 :ile uphold+ virtue z ! highe/ good1 all[$ ext]nal advantages l pleasure & exemption f pa9 to ent] into _! def9ition ( p]fect happ9ess2 nor did !y dem& ! entire suppression ( passion1 b1 on ! contr>y1 assign$ x to a c]ta9 "p 9 ! =mation ( "*4 ,we mu/ add1 al?\gh x 0 n a po9t insi/$ on by ! anci5t critics1 t !y did n br+ out ! socially b5efic5t "* ( virtue ) any?+ l ! di/9ctness ( _! successors4 ,! ,/oics1 on ! o!r h&1 refus$ to admit t !re 0 any good b a virtu\s w1 or t any useful purpose c\ld be s]v$ by irrational feel+4 ,if ! passions agree ) virtue !y are sup]flu\s1 if !y are oppos$ to x !y are mis*iev\s2 & once we give !m ! re9 !y are m likely to disagree ) ?an to obey x4#eb ,! sev]] s*ool _h m reason on _! side ?an is commonly admitt$4 ,ei!r !re is no su* ?+ z duty at all1 or duty mu/ be p>am\nt ov] e o!r motive--t is to say1 a p]fect man w dis*>ge 8 obligations at ! sacrifice ( e p]sonal advantage4 ,!re is no pleasure t he w n r5\nce1 no pa9 t he w n endure1 r ?an leave !m unfulfill$4 ,b to assume ?is supremacy ov] 8 w1 duty mu/ be incomm5surable ) any o!r motive2 if x is a good at all1 x mu/ be ! only good4 ,to id5tify virtue ) happ9ess seems to u absurd1 because we are accu/om$ to associate x exclusively ) ^? dispositions :i* are ! cause ( happ9ess 9 o!rs1 or altruism2 & happ9ess itself ) pleasure or ! abs5ce ( pa91 :i* are /ates ( feel+ necess>ily conceiv$ z egoi/ic4 ,b nei!r ! ,/oics nor any o!r anci5t morali/s recognis$ su* a di/9ction4 ,all agre$ t public & private int]e/ mu/ someh[ be id5tifi$2 ! only "q be+1 %\ld "o be m]g$ 9 ! o!r1 & if s1 :i*8 or %\ld !re be an illogical compromise betwe5 ! two4 ,! alt]native *os5 by ,z5o 0 incomp>ably nobl] ?an ! me?od ( ,epicurus1 :ile x 0 m consi/5t ?an ! me?ods ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,he reg>d$ "r conduct exclusively 9 ! light ( ^? univ]sal int]e/s ) :i* alone x is prop]ly conc]n$2 & if he appeal$ to ! motives suppli$ by p]sonal happ9ess1 ?is 0 a confusion ( phraseology r ?an ( ?\ght4 ,! treatm5t ( ! passions by ! ,/oic s*ool pres5ts great] difficulties1 due p>tly to _! own vacillation1 p>tly to ! v indef9ite nature ( ! feel+s 9 "q4 ,x w be admitt$ t "h also ! claims ( duty are supreme4 ,to foll[ ! prompt+s ( fe> or ( ang]1 ( pity or ( love1 )\t consid]+ ! ult]ior consequ5ces ( our action1 is1 ( c\rse1 wrong4 ,= ev5 if1 9 any p>ticul> in/ance1 no h>m comes ( ! concession1 we _c be sure t su* w always be ! case2 & mean:ile ! passion is /r5g!n$ by indulg5ce4 ,& we h also to consid] ! bad effect produc$ on ! "* ( ^? :o1 f9d+ !mselves ! object ( passion1 le>n to address !mselves to x in/ead ( to reason4 ,difficulties arise :5 we beg9 to consid] h[ f> education %\ld aim at ! sy/ematic disc\ragem5t ( /rong emotion4 ,"h ! ,/oics seem to h tak5 up a position n v consi/5t ei!r ) _! appeals to ,nature or ) _! teleological assumptions4 ,no?+ /rikes "o z m unnatural ?an ! complete abs5ce ( human feel+2 & a believ] 9 design might plausibly ma9ta9 t e emotion conduc$ to ! pres]vation ei!r ( ! individual or ( ! race4 ,we f9d1 h[ev]1 t ! ,/oics1 "h z else:]e rev]s+ ! ,ari/otelian me?od1 w\ld n admit ! exi/5ce ( a psy*ological di/9ction betwe5 reason & passion4 ,accord+ to _! analysis1 ! emotions are s _m diff]5t =ms ( judgm5t4 ,joy & sorr[ are false op9ions respect+ good & evil 9 ! pres5t3 desire & fe>1 false op9ions respect+ good & evil 9 ! future4#ec ,b1 grant+ a righte\s w to be ! only good1 & its abs5ce ! only evil1 !re c be no room = any ( ^! feel+s 9 ! m9d ( a truly virtu\s man1 s9ce 8 op9ions on ! subject ( good are correct1 & its possession dep5ds entirely on himself4 ,ev]y?+ else arises f an ext]nal necessity1 to /rive ) :i* w\ld be useless because x is inevitable1 fooli% because x is b5efic5t1 & impi\s because x is supremely wise4 ,x w be se5 t ! ,/oics condemn$ passion n z ! cause ( immoral actions b z intr9sically vici\s 9 itself4 ,h5ce _! c5sure ext5d$ to ! raptur\s delight & passionate grief :i* seem entirely out ( relation to conduct prop]ly s call$4 ,?is 0 equival5t to say+ t ! w has complete control ov] emotion2 a doctr9e :i* our philosoph]s did n %r9k f ma9ta9+4 ,x might h be5 suppos$ t a position :i* ! mo/ extreme support]s ( free-w w\ld h>dly accept1 w\ld f9d /ill less fav\r ) an av[$ly necess>ian s*ool4 ,& to reg>d ! emotions z ei!r !mselves beliefs1 or z inevitably caus$ by beliefs1 w\ld seem to remove !m ev5 f>!r f ! sph]e ( moral responsibility4 ,! ,/oics1 h[ev]1 hav+ arriv$ at ! p]fectly true doctr9e t judgm5t is a =m ( volition1 seem to h imm$iately inve/$ x z su* ) ! old associations ( free *oice :i* !y 7 at ! same "t busily engag$ 9 /ripp+ (f f o!r ex]cises ( ! same faculty4 ,!y took up ! ,socratic p>adox t virtue is k2 b !y w\ld n agree ) ,socrates t x c\ld be in/ill$ by =ce ( argum5t4 ,to !m vice 0 n s mu* ignorance z ! ob/9ate refusal to be conv9c$4#ed ,! ,/oic argum5ts are1 inde$1 :5 we come to analyse !m1 appeal to au?ority r ?an to ! logical und]/&+4 ,we are told aga9 & aga9 t ! common objects ( desire & dread _c really be good or evil1 because !y are n altoge!r "u our control4#ee ,& if we ask :y ?is necess>ily excludes !m f ! class ( ?+s to be pursu$ or avoid$1 ! answ] is t man1 hav+ be5 creat$ = p]fect happ9ess1 mu/ also h be5 creat$ ) ! p[] to secure x by 8 own unaid$ ex]tions4 ,b1 ev5 grant+ ! v d\btful !sis t !re is any asc]ta9able purpose 9 creation at all1 x is h>d to see h[ ! ,/oics c\ld h answ]$ any "o :o *ose to ma9ta9 t man is creat$ = enjoym5t2 s9ce1 judg+ by exp]i5ce1 he has secur$ a l>g] %>e ( x ?an ( virtue1 & is j z capable ( ga9+ x by a m]e ex]cise ( volition4 ,= ! pr(essors ( ! ,por* fully admitt$ t _! ideal sage _h nev] be5 realis$2 :i*1 ) _! op9ions ab\t ! indivisibility ( virtue1 0 equival5t to say+ t !re nev] _h be5 su* a ?+ z a good man at all4 ,or1 putt+ ! same p>adox into o!r words1 s9ce ! two classes ( wise & fooli% divide humanity betwe5 !m1 & s9ce ! =m] class has only an ideal exi/5ce1 !y 7 oblig$ to admit t mank9d are n m]ely mo/ ( !m fools1 b all fools4 ,& ?is1 z ,plut>* has po9t$ out 9 8 v clev] attack on ,/oicism1 is equival5t to say+ t ! s*eme ( creation is a complete failure4#ef ,,iv4 ,! inconsi/5cies ( a great philosophical sy/em are be/ expla9$ by exam9+ its hi/orical antec$5ts4 ,we h already attempt$ to dis5tangle ! roots f :i* ,/oicism 0 n\ri%$1 b "o ( ! mo/ important has n yet be5 tak5 into acc\nt4 ,?is 0 ! /ill cont9u$ influ5ce ( ,p>m5ides1 d]iv$1 if n f 8 orig9al tea*+1 !n f "s "o or m ( ! alt]$ %apes ?r\gh :i* x _h pass$4 ,x has be5 %[n h[ ,z5o us$ ! ,h]acleitean me?od to break d[n all ! dem>cations labori\sly built up by ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,_s 0 id5tifi$ ) matt]2 ideas ) a]ial curr5ts2 ,god ) ! _w2 rational ) s5sible evid5ce2 volition ) judgm5t2 & emotion ) ?\ght4 ,b ! idea ( a fundam5tal anti!sis1 expell$ f e o!r dep>tm5t ( enquiry1 took hold ) all ! m en]gy on :at1 to ,/oicism1 0 ! mo/ vital ( all di/9ctions--t betwe5 "r & wrong4#eg ,once grasp ?is trans=mation ( a metaphysical into a moral pr9ciple1 & e p>adox ( ! sy/em w be se5 to foll[ f x ) logical necessity4 ,:at ! supreme ,idea _h be5 to ,plato & self-?9k+ ?\ght to ,ari/otle1 t virtue became to ! new s*ool1 simple1 un*angeable1 & self-suffici5t4 ,x mu/ n only be indep5d5t ( pleasure & pa91 b absolutely incomm5surable ) !m2 !re=e !re c be no happ9ess except :at x gives4 ,z an indivisible unity1 x mu/ be possess$ entirely or n at all2 & be+ et]nal1 once possess$ x c nev] be lo/4 ,fur!r1 s9ce ! same action may be ei!r "r or wrong1 accord+ to ! motive ( its p]=mance1 virtue is no?+ ext]nal1 b a subjective disposition1 a /ate ( ! w & ! affections2 or1 if ^! are to be consid]$ z judgm5ts1 a /ate ( ! reason4 ,f9ally1 s9ce ! univ]se is organis$ reason1 virtue mu/ be natural1 & especially consonant to ! nature ( man z a rational animal2 :ile1 at ! same "t1 its exi/5ce 9 absolute purity be+ inconsi/5t ) exp]i5ce1 x mu/ rema9 an unatta9able ideal4 ,x has be5 %[n 9 =m] p>ts ( ?is "w h[ ,greek philosophy1 aft] /ra9+ an anti!sis to ! utmo/1 0 driv5 by ! v law ( its be+ to close or bridge ov] ! *asm by a s]ies ( accommodations & transitions4 ,to ?is rule ,/oicism 0 no exception2 & p]haps its extraord9>y vitality may h be5 p>tly due to ! necessity impos$ on its pr(essors ( cont9ually revis+ _! e?ics1 ) a view to s(t5+ d[n its mo/ repell5t features4 ,we proce$ to sket* 9 rapid outl9e ! *ief artifices employ$ = ?is purpose4 ,! doctr9e1 9 its v e>lie/ =m1 _h left a l>ge neutral gr\nd betwe5 good & evil1 compreh5d+ almo/ all ! common objects ( desire & avoidance4 ,^! ! ,/oics n[ proce$$ to divide accord+ to a simil> pr9ciple ( arrangem5t4 ,:atev]1 )\t be+ morally good 9 ! /ricte/ s5se1 0 ei!r conducive to morality1 or con=mable to human nature1 or bo?1 !y call$ pref]able4 ,"u ?is head came p]sonal advantages1 su* z m5tal accompli%m5ts1 beauty1 heal?1 /r5g?1 & life itself2 toge!r ) ext]nal advantages1 su* z weal?1 hon\r1 & high connexions4 ,! opposite to pref]able ?+s !y call$ objectionable2 & :at lay betwe5 ! two1 su* z ! p>ticul> co9 select$ to make a paym5t )1 absolutely indiff]5t4#eh ,! ?or\gh-go+ condemnation ( passion 0 expla9$ away to a c]ta9 ext5t by all[+ ! sage himself to feel a slight t\* ( ! feel+s :i* fail to %ake 8 det]m9ation1 l a sc> rema9+ aft] ! w\nd is heal$2 & by admitt+ ! desirability ( sundry emotions1 :i*1 ?\gh c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! passions1 seem to h diff]$ f !m 9 degree r ?an 9 k9d4#ei ,9 l mann]1 ! p]emptory alt]native betwe5 consummate wisdom & utt] folly 0 s(t5$ d[n by admitt+ ! possibility ( a gradual progress f "o to ! o!r1 itself subdivid$ into a numb] ( m or less advanc$ grades1 recall+ ,ari/otle's idea ( motion z a l9k betwe5 ,privation & ,=m4#fj ,if !re be a class ( p]sons :o al?\gh n p]fectly virtu\s are on ! road to virtue1 x foll[s t !re are moral actions :i* !y are capable ( p]=m+4 ,^! ! ,/oics call$ int]m$iate or imp]fect duties2 &1 9 accordance ) _! intellectual view ( conduct1 !y def9$ !m z actions = :i* a probable reason might be giv52 app>5tly 9 contradi/9ction to ^? :i* 7 d$uc$ f a s+le pr9ciple ) ! extreme rig\r ( sci5tific demon/ration4 ,su* int]m$iate duties w\ld h = _! appropriate object ! ends :i*1 )\t be+ absolutely good1 7 /ill relatively wor? seek+1 or ! avoidance ( :at1 )\t be+ an absolute evil1 0 all[$ to be relatively objectionable4 ,!y /ood midway betwe5 virtue & vice1 j z ! progressive *>act]s /ood betwe5 ! wise & ! fooli%1 & pref]able objects betwe5 :at 0 really good & :at 0 really evil4 ,! idea ( su* a provisional code seems to h orig9at$ ) ,z5o2#fa b ! =m "u :i* we n[ "k x is ! result ( at lea/ two successive revisions4 ,! fir/ & mo/ important is due to ,panaetius1 a ,/oic philosoph] ( ! second c5tury ,b4,c41 on ^: views ! /udy ( ,plato & ,ari/otle ex]cis$ a consid]able influ5ce4 ,a "w ( ?is tea*] on ! ,duties ( ,man furni%$ ,cic]o ) ! mat]ials = 8 celebrat$ ,de ,(ficiis1 "u :i* =m its lessons h pass$ into ! educational lit]ature ( mod]n ,europe4 ,! ,lat9 treatise is writt5 9 a some:at frigid & un9t]e/+ /yle1 :e!r ?r\gh ! fault ( ,cic]o or ( 8 guide we _c tell4 ,! pr9ciples laid d[n are excell5t1 b !re is no vital bond ( union hold+ !m toge!r4 ,we c h>dly imag9e t ! au?or's son1 = :om ! "w 0 orig9ally design$1 or anyone else s9ce 8 "t1 felt himself mu* b5efit$ by its p]usal4 ,tak51 h[ev]1 z a regi/] ( ! height rea*$ by ord9>y educat$ s5tim5t "u ! influ5ce ( speculative ideas1 & ( ! limits impos$ by x 9 turn on _! vag>ies1 aft] f\r c5turies ( cont9ual int]action1 ! ,de ,(ficiis pres5ts u ) v satisfactory results4 ,! old quadrip>tite division ( ! virtues is reproduc$2 b ea* is treat$ 9 a l>ge & lib]al _s1 m>k+ an imm5se advance on ,ari/otle's def9itions1 :]ev] ! two c be comp>$4 ,wisdom is id5tifi$ ) ! inve/igation ( tru?2 & !re is a caution aga9/ believ+ on insuffici5t evid5ce1 :i* advantage\sly contra/s ) :at 7 soon to be ! lessons ( !ology on ! same subject4 ,! o!r great intellectual duty inculcat$ is to refra9 f wa/+ our en]gies on difficult & useless enquiries4#fb ,?is injunction has be5 tak5 up & v impressively repeat$ by "s philosoph]s 9 our own "t2 b 9 ! m\? ( ,cic]o x probably involv$ mu* great] re/rictions on ! /udy ( sci5ce ?an !y w\ld be dispos$ to admit4 ,& ! limits n[ prescrib$ to speculation by ,positivism w p]haps seem n less injudici\s1 :5 view$ 9 ! light ( future discov]ies1 ?an ^? fix$ by ! anci5t morali/s seem to u :o "k :at w\ld h be5 lo/ _h !y always be5 treat$ ) respect4 ,! obligations ( ju/ice come next4 ,!y are summ$ up 9 two precepts t leave no?+ to be desir$3 ! fir/ is to d no h>m except 9 self-def5ce2 ! second1 to be> our %>e 9 a p]petual ex*ange ( good (fices4 ,& ! f\ndation ( ju/ice is rightly plac$ 9 ! fai?ful fulfilm5t ( contracts--an idea p]haps sugge/$ by ,epicurus4#fc ,! virtue ( =titude is treat$ ) simil> bread?1 & s int]pret$ z to cov] ! :ole field ( conduct1 be+ id5tifi$ n only ) fe>lessness 9 ! face ( dang]1 b ) ! en]getic p]=mance ( e duty4 ,9 a ^w1 x is oppos$ q z mu* to slo?fulness & irresolution z to physical timidity4#fd ,temp]ance pres]ves its old mean+ ( a reasonable re/ra9t ex]cis$ ov] ! animal passions & desires2 & fur!rmore1 x receives a v ri* significance z ! quality by :i* we are enabl$ to disc]n & act up to ! "p assign$ to u 9 life by natural end[m5t1 social position1 & individual *oice4 ,b ?is1 z "o ( ! mo/ important ideas contribut$ by ,/oicism to subsequ5t ?\ght1 mu/ be res]v$ = sep>ate discussion 9 ! foll[+ section4 ,9 addition to its sy/em ( int]m$iate duties1 ! ,/oic e?ics includ$ a code ( casui/ry :i*1 to judge by "s record$ specim5s1 all[$ a v />tl+ latitude bo? to ! ideal sage & to ! ord9>y citiz54 ,?us1 if ,sextus ,empiricus is to be believ$1 ! ,/oics saw no?+ objectionable ab\t ! trade ( a c\rtesan4#fe ,*rysippus1 l ,socrates & ,plato1 d5i$ t !re 0 any h>m 9 falsehoods if !y 7 told ) a good int5tion4 ,diog5es ( ,seleucia ?\ght x p]missible to pass bad money1#ff & to sell defective articles )\t m5tion+ _! faults2#fg he 01 h[ev]1 contradict$ on bo? po9ts by ano!r ,/oic1 ,antipat]4 ,/ill m discr$itable 7 ! op9ions ( ,hecato1 a disciple ( ,panaetius4 ,he discuss$ ! "q :e!r a good man ne$ or ne$ n fe$ 8 slaves 9 a "t ( great sc>city1 ) an evid5t lean+ t[>ds ! latt] alt]native2 & also made x a matt] ( delib]ation :e!r 9 case "p ( a %ip's c>go _h to be ?r[n ov]bo>d1 a valuable horse or a wor?less slave %\ld be ! m readily sacrific$4 ,8 answ] is n giv52 b t ! po9t %\ld ev] h be5 moot$ does n say mu* = ! rig\r ( 8 pr9ciples or = ! b5evol5ce ( 8 disposition4#fh ,mo/ outrage\s ( all1 f ! ,/oic po9t ( view1 is ! decl>ation ( ,*rysippus t ,h]acleitus & ,ph]ecydes w\ld h done well to give up _! wisdom1 _h !y be5 able by s do+ to get rid ( _! bodily infirmities at ! same "t4#fi ,t ov]/ra9$ !oretical sev]ity %\ld be accompani$ by a correspond+ laxity 9 practice is a ph5om5on ( frequ5t occurr5ce2 b t ?is laxity %\ld be exhibit$ s undisguis$ly 9 ! details ( ! !ory itself1 goes beyond any?+ quot$ aga9/ ! ,jesuits by ,pascal1 & be>s witness1 aft] a fa%ion1 to ! extraord9>y s9c]ity ( ,greek ?\ght4#gj ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 9 any ( ^! concessions t ! ,/oics f\nd f fir/ to la/ _! mo/ effici5t solution = ! difficulties ( practical exp]i5ce1 b 9 ! c\nt5ance !y ext5d$ to an act :i*1 m ?an any o!r1 might h seem$ fatally inconsi/5t bo? 9 _s & 9 lett] ) _! :ole sy/em1 :e!r we *oose to call x a defiance ( div9e law1 a rev]sal ( natural in/9ct1 a selfi% ab&onm5t ( duty1 or a c[>dly %r9k+ f pa94 ,we allude1 ( c\rse1 to _! habitual recomm5dation ( suicide4 #8,if y are n satisfi$ ) life1' !y said1 #8y h only got to rise & dep>t2 ! door is always op54' ,v>i\s circum/ances 7 specifi$ 9 :i* ! sage w\ld ex]cise ! privilege ( #8tak+ himself (f1' z !y euphemi/ically express$ x4 ,sev]e pa91 mutilation1 incurable disease1 advanc$ old age1 ! hopelessness ( escap+ f tyranny1 & 9 g5]al any h9drance to lead+ a #8natural' life1 7 held to be a suffici5t ju/ification = su* a /ep4#ga ,! fir/ f\nd]s ( ! s*ool set an example aft]w>ds frequ5tly foll[$4 ,z5o is said to h hang$ himself = no bett] reason ?an t he fell & broke 8 f+] ?r\gh ! weakness ( old age2 & ,clean!s1 hav+ be5 ord]$ to ab/a9 tempor>ily f food1 resolv$1 z he express$ x1 n to turn back aft] go+ half-way to dea?4#gb ,?is side ( ! ,/oic doctr9e f\nd p>ticul> fav\r 9 ,rome1 & ! volunt>y dea? ( ,cato 0 always spok5 ( z 8 *ief title to fame4 ,_m noble spirits 7 su/a9$ 9 _! defiance ( ! imp]ial despotism by ! ?\ght t !re 0 "o la/ lib]ty ( :i* n ev5 ,caes> c\ld deprive !m4 ,objections 7 sil5c$ by ! argum5t t1 life n be+ an absolute good1 its loss might fairly be pref]r$ to "s relatively great] inconv5i5ce4#gc ,b :y ! sage %\ld r5\nce an exi/5ce :]e p]fect happ9ess dep5ds entirely on 8 own w1 nei!r 01 nor c\ld x be1 expla9$4 ,v4 ,if n[1 ab&on+ all te*nicalities1 we endeav\r to e/imate ! significance & value ( ! mo/ g5]al ideas contribut$ by ,/oicism to e?ical speculation1 we %all f9d t !y may be mo/ conv5i5tly consid]$ "u ! foll[+ heads4 ,fir/ ( all1 ! ,/oics made morality completely inw>d4 ,!y decl>$ t ! int5tion 0 equival5t to ! de$1 & t ! wi% 0 equival5t to ! int5tion--a view :i* has be5 made famili> to all by ! tea*+ ( ! ,gospel1 b ! orig9 ( :i* 9 ,greek philosophy has be5 /rangely ignor$ ev5 by rationali/ic writ]s4#gd ,f ! inaccessibility ( motives & feel+s to direct ext]nal obs]vation1 x foll[s t ea* man mu/ be1 9 ! la/ resort1 8 own judge4 ,h5ce ! notion ( consci5ce is equally a ,/oic creation4 ,t we h a my/ical intuition in=m+ u1 prior to exp]i5ce1 ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 "r & wrong is1 inde$1 a !ory q ali5 to _! empirical d]ivation ( k4 ,b t ! educat$ wrong-do] c>ries 9 8 bosom a p]petual witness & av5g] ( 8 guilt1 !y mo/ di/9ctly ass]t$4#ge ,! diff]5ce betwe5 anci5t & mod]n trag$y is alone suffici5t to prove ! novelty & p[] ( ?is idea2 = t ! ,eum5ides d n repres5t ev5 ! g]m ( a consci5ce is z c]ta9 z any?+ 9 my?ology c be4#gf ,on ! o!r h&1 ! fallibility ( consci5ce & ! ext5t to :i* x may be sophi/icat$ 7 topics n embrac$ )9 ! limits ( ,/oicism1 & p]haps nev] adequately illu/rat$ by any writ]1 ev5 9 mod]n times1 except ! great ,engli% noveli/ ^: loss we /ill deplore4 ,! second ,/oic idea to :i* we w\ld invite att5tion is t1 9 ! economy ( life1 e "o has a c]ta9 function to fulfil1 a c]ta9 "p to play1 :i* is m>k$ out = him by circum/ances beyond 8 control1 b 9 ! adequate p]=mance ( :i* 8 duty & dignity are peculi>ly involv$4 ,x is true t ?is idea f9ds no assignable place 9 ! tea*+ ( ! e>lie/ ,/oics1 or r 9 ! few fragm5ts ( _! tea*+ :i* alone h be5 pres]v$2 b x is t\*$ ^u by ,cic]o "u ! head ( ,temp]ance1 9 ! adaptation f ,panaetius already ref]r$ to2 x frequ5tly recurs 9 ! lectures ( ,epicttus2 & x is enunciat$ ) en]getic concision 9 ! solit>y m$itations ( ,m>cus ,aurelius4#gg ,! belief spok5 ( is1 inde$1 closely connect$ ) ! ,/oic teleology1 & only applies to ! sph]e ( free intellig5ce a pr9ciple l t suppos$ to regulate ! activity ( inanimate or irrational be+s4 ,if e m9]al1 e plant1 & e animal has its special use & (fice1 s also mu/ we1 accord+ to ! capacity ( our individual & det]m9ate exi/5ce4 ,by accompli%+ ! "w ?us impos$ on u1 we fulfil ! purpose ( our vocation1 we h done all t ! highe/ morality dem&s1 & may ) a cle> consci5ce leave ! re/ to fate4 ,to put ! same idea into some:at diff]5t t]ms3 we are born into c]ta9 relation%ips1 dome/ic1 social1 & political1 by :i* ! l9es ( our daily duties are prescrib$ ) little latitude = p]sonal *oice4 ,:at does dep5d ^u ourselves is to make ! mo/ ( ^! conditions & to p]=m ! tasks aris+ out ( !m 9 z ?or\gh a mann] z possible4 #8,x 0 n only out ( ivory1' says ,s5eca1 #8t ,pheidias c\ld make /atues1 b out ( bronze z well2 _h y (f]$ him m>ble or "s *eap] mat]ial /ill1 he w\ld h c>v$ ! be/ t c\ld be made out ( t4 ,s ! sage w exhibit 8 virtue 9 weal?1 if he be p]mitt$2 if n1 9 pov]ty2 if possible1 9 8 own c\ntry2 if n1 9 exile2 if possible1 z a g5]al2 if n1 z a soldi]2 if possible1 9 bodily vig\r2 if n1 9 weakness4 ,:atev] =tune be grant$ him1 he w make x ! means = "s memorable a*ievem5t4' ,or1 to take ! m homely comp>isons ( ,epicttus3 #8,! weav] does n manufacture 8 wool1 b works up :at is giv5 him4' #8,rememb] t y are to act 9 :atev] drama ! manag] may *oose1 a long or %ort "o accord+ to 8 pleasure4 ,%\ld he give y ! "p ( a begg>1 take c>e to act t becom+ly2 & ! same %\ld x be a lame man1 or a magi/rate1 or a private citiz54 ,= y\r bus9ess is to act well ! "* t is giv5 to y1 b to *oose x is ! bus9ess ( ano!r4#8,s spoke ! humble fre$man2 b ! ma/] ( ! _w _h also to recognise :at fateful limits 7 impos$ on 8 b5efic5t activity4 #8,:y wait1 ,o man6' exclaims ,m>cus ,aurelius4 #8,d :at ,nature n[ dem&s2 make ha/e & look n r\nd to see if any "k x2 nor hope = ,plato's ,republic1 b be cont5t ) ! smalle/ progress1 & consid] t ! result ev5 ( ?is w be no little ?+4'#gh ,c>lyle 0 n a ,/oic2 b 9 ?is respect 8 tea*+ brea!s ! be/ _s ( ,/oicism2 &1 to ! same ext5t also1 ?r\gh 8 :ole life he practis$ :at he taught4 ,! implications ( su* an e?ical /&>d are1 on ! :ole1 cons]vative2 x is assum$ t social in/itutions are1 tak+ !m altoge!r1 ne>ly ! be/ possible at any mom5t2 & t our true/ wisdom is to make ! mo/ ( !m1 in/ead ( sigh+ = "s o!r sph]e :]e our gr& aspirations or volcanic passions might f9d a readi] outlet = _! fev]i% activity4 ,& if ! tea*+ ( ! fir/ ,/oics did n take ! direction "h indicat$1 x 0 because !y1 ) ! communi/ic !ories inh]it$ f _! ,cynic pr$ecessors1 began by condemn+ all exi/+ social di/9ctions z irrational4 ,!y wi%$ to aboli% local religion1 prop]ty1 ! family1 & ! ,/ate1 z a sub/itute = :i* ! :ole human race 0 to be unit$ "u a s+le gov]nm5t1 )\t private possessions or slaves1 & ) a complete community ( wom5 & *ildr54#gi ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 h gradually dawn$ on !m t su* a radical subv]sion ( ! pres5t sy/em 0 h>dly compatible ) _! belief 9 ! provid5tial orig9 ( all ?+s2 & t1 besides ?is1 ! virtues :i* !y made x s mu* _! object to recomm5d1 w\ld be1 = ! mo/ "p1 sup]flu\s 9 a communi/ic society4 ,at ! same "t1 ! old notion ( ,sphrosyn z a virtue :i* consi/$ 9 m9d+ "o's own bus9ess1 or1 /at$ m g5]ally1 9 disc]n+ & do+ :atev] "w "o is be/ fitt$ =1 w\ld cont9ue to influ5ce e?ical tea*+1 ) ! effect ( giv+ m & m individuality to ! def9ition ( duty4 ,& ! ,/oic idea ( a p]fect sage1 includ+ z x did ! possession ( e accompli%m5t & an exclusive fitness = dis*>g+ e hon\rable function1 w\ld seem mu* less *im]ical if int]pret$ to mean t a noble "*1 :ile ev]y:]e intr9sically ! same1 might be realis$ "u z _m div]g5t =ms z !re are opportunities = cont9u\s usefulness 9 life4#hj ,we c und]/&1 !n1 :y ! philosophy :i*1 :5 fir/ promulgat$1 _h t5d$ to )draw its adh]5ts f p>ticipation 9 public life1 %\ld1 :5 transplant$ to ,roman soil1 h become associat$ ) an en]getic int]e/ 9 politics2 :y x 0 s eag]ly embrac$ by ^? noble /atesm5 :o f\ght to ! dea? 9 def5ce ( _! anci5t lib]ties2 h[ x c\ld become ! cem5t ( a s5atorial opposition "u ! wor/ ,caes>s2 h[ x c\ld be ! inspiration & support ( ,rome's ,prime ,m9i/] dur+ t qu9qu5nium ,n]onis :i* 0 ! "o bright episode 9 m ?an half a c5tury ( %ame & t]ror2 h[1 f9ally1 x c\ld m\nt ! ?rone ) ,m>cus ,aurelius1 & prove1 ?r\gh 8 example1 t ! _w's "w might be mo/ fai?fully p]=m$ by "o 9 ^: m$itations m]e worldly int]e/s occupi$ ! smalle/ space4 ,nor c we agree ) ,zell] 9 ?9k+ t x 0 ! nationality1 & n ! philosophy1 ( ^! disciples :i* made !m su* effici5t /atesm54#ha ,on ! contr>y1 x seems to u t ! #8,romanism' ( ^! m5 0 insep>able f _! philosophy1 & t !y 7 all ! m ,roman because !y 7 ,/oics z well4 ,! ?ird great idea ( ,/oicism 0 its doctr9e ( humanity4 ,m5 are all *ildr5 ( "o ,fa!r1 & citiz5s ( "o ,/ate2 ! highe/ moral law is1 ,foll[ ,nature1 & ,nature has made !m to be social & to love "o ano!r2 ! private int]e/ ( ea* is1 or %\ld be1 id5tifi$ ) ! univ]sal int]e/2 we %\ld live = o!rs t we may live = ourselves2 ev5 to our enemies we %\ld %[ love & n ang]2 ! unnaturalness ( passion is prov$ by no?+ m cle>ly ?an by its anti-social & de/ructive t5d5cies4 ,"h1 also1 ! ?ree great ,/oics ( ! ,roman empire--,s5eca1 ,epicttus1 & ,m>cus ,aurelius--r ?an ! f\nd]s ( ! s*ool1 mu/ be our au?orities2#hb :e!r x be because _! lessons correspond to a m develop$ /ate ( ?\ght1 or simply because !y h be5 m p]fectly pres]v$4 ,! =m] explanation is1 p]haps1 ! m g5]ally accept$4 ,!re seems1 h[ev]1 good reason = believ+ t ! idea ( univ]sal love--! highe/ ( all philosophical ideas next to t ( ! univ]se itself--dates fur!r back ?an is commonly suppos$4 ,x c h>dly be due to ,s5eca1 :o _h evid5tly f> m capacity = popul>is+ & apply+ ! ?\ghts ( o!rs ?an = orig9al speculation1 & :o on ?is subject expresses himself ) a rhetorical flu5cy n usually *>act]is+ ! exposition ( new discov]ies4 ,! same rem>k applies to 8 illu/ri\s successors1 :o1 :ile agree+ ) him 9 tone1 d n seem to h drawn on 8 writ+s = _! philosophy4 ,x is also cle> t ! idea 9 "q spr+s f two ess5tially ,/oic conceptions3 ! objective conception ( a unifi$ _w1 a cosmos to :i* all m5 belong2 & ! subjective conception ( a rational nature common to !m all4 ,^!1 aga91 are root$ 9 e>ly ,greek ?\ght1 & 7 already em]g+ into di/9ctness at ! "t ( ,socrates4 ,accord+ly we f9d t ,plato1 hav+ to compose a *>act]i/ic spee* = ! ,sophi/ ,hippias1 makes him say t l-m9d$ m5 are by nature k9sm5 & fri5ds to "o ano!r4#hc ,nature1 h[ev]1 soon came to be view$ "u a diff]5t aspect1 & x 0 ma9ta9$1 j z by "s liv+ philosoph]s1 t h] true law is ! univ]sal oppression ( ! weak by ! /rong4 ,!n ! idea ( m9d came 9 z a salut>y corrective4 ,x _h suppli$ a basis = ! e?ics ( ,protagoras1 & /ill m = ! e?ics ( ,socrates2 x 0 n[ comb9$ ) its old rival by ! ,/oics1 & f _! union arose ! conception ( human nature z some?+ alli$ ) & illu/rat$ by all o!r =ms ( animal life1 yet capable1 if fully develop$1 ( ris+ inf9itely above !m4 ,nev]!less1 ! individual & ! univ]sal elem5t 7 nev] q reconcil$ 9 ! ,/oic e?ics4 ,! altrui/ic quality ( ju/ice 0 cle>ly p]ceiv$2 b no attempt 0 made to %[ t all virtue is ess5tially social1 & has come to be recognis$ z obligatory on ! individual ma9ly because x conduces to ! safety ( ! :ole community4 ,! le>n] 0 told to conqu] 8 passions = 8 own sake r ?an = ! sake ( o!rs2 & indulg5ce 9 viol5t ang]1 ?\gh m en]getically d5\nc$1 01 9 !ory1 plac$ on a p> ) immod]ate delight or uncontrollable di/ress4 ,s also1 vices ( impurity 7 class$ ) comp>atively h>mless =ms ( s5suality1 & consid]$ 9 ref]5ce1 n to ! social degradation ( _! victims1 b to ! spiritual defilem5t ( _! p]petrators4 ,yet1 :ile ! ,/oics 7 f> f anticipat+ ! me?ods ( mod]n ,utilit>ianism1 !y 71 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 /rict ,utilit>ians--t is to say1 !y measur$ ! goodness or badness ( actions by _! consequ5ces2 9 o!r words1 by _! be>+ on ! suppos$ int]e/ ( ! individual or ( ! community4 ,!y did n1 x is true1 id5tify int]e/ ) pleasure or ! abs5ce ( pa92 b al?\gh1 9 our "t1 ,h$onism & ,utilit>ianism are1 = conv5i5ce1 treat$ z int]*angeable t]ms1 !y ne$ n necess>ily be s4 ,if any "o *oose to reg>d bodily /r5g?1 heal?1 weal?1 beauty1 intellect1 k1 or ev5 simple exi/5ce1 z ! highe/ good & ! end conduciv5ess to :i* det]m9es ! morality ( actions1 he is a ,utilit>ian2 &1 ev5 if x c\ld be %[n t a maximum ( happ9ess w\ld be ensur$ by ! atta9m5t ( 8 end1 he w\ld n on t acc\nt become a ,h$oni/4 ,n[ x is c]ta9 t ! e>ly ,/oics1 at lea/1 reg>d$ ! pres]vation ( ! human race z an end :i* rightfully took prec$5ce ( e o!r consid]ation2 &1 l ,*>les ,au/91 !y sometimes pu%$ _! pr9ciples to p>adoxical or (f5sive extremes1 app>5tly = no o!r purpose ?an t ( affront+ ! common feel+s ( mank9d1#hd )\t rememb]+ t su* feel+s 7 likely to repres5t embodi$ exp]i5ces ( utility4 ,?us--ap>t f _! communi/ic !ories--!y 7 fond ( specify+ ! circum/ances 9 :i* ince/ w\ld become legitimate2 & !y are said n only to h sanction$ cannibalism 9 cases ( extreme necessity1 b ev5 to h recomm5d$ its introduction z a sub/itute = burial or cremation2 al?\gh ?is1 we may hope1 0 r a grim illu/ration ( :at !y meant by moral indiff]5ce ?an a s]i\s practical sugge/ion4#he ,besides ! enc\ragem5t :i* x gave to k9d (fices betwe5 fri5ds & neighb\rs1 ! ,/oic doctr9e ( humanity & mutual love 0 hon\rably exemplifi$ 9 ,s5eca's emphatic condemnation ( ! gladiatorial games & ( ! horrible abuses connect$ ) dome/ic slav]y 9 ,rome4#hf ,b we miss a cle> p]ception t su* abuses are always & ev]y:]e ! consequ5ces ( slav]y2 & ! outspok5 abolitionism ( ! naturali/s allud$ to by ,ari/otle does n seem to h be5 imitat$ by _! successors 9 lat] ages4#hg ,! mo/ "o c say is t ! fiction ( orig9al lib]ty 0 import$ into ,roman jurisprud5ce ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ,/oic lawy]s1 & help$ to famili>ise m5's m9ds ) ! idea ( univ]sal emancipation be=e political & economical conditions p]mitt$ x to be made a reality4 ,,vi4 ,x is probable t ! philan?ropic t5d5cies ( ! ,/oics 71 to a great ext5t1 neutralis$ by ! extreme individualism :i* =m$ ! rev]se side ( _! philosophical "*2 & also by :at may be call$ ! subjective idealism ( _! e?ics4 ,accord+ to _! pr9ciples1 no "o c really d good to any "o else1 s9ce :at does n dep5d on my w is n a good to me4 ,! altrui/ic virtues are valuable1 n z s\rces ( b5efic5t action1 b z manife/ations ( b5evol5t s5tim5t4 ,?us1 to set on foot compreh5sive s*emes = ! relief ( human suff]+ seem$ no "p ( ! ,/oic's bus9ess4 ,& ! abolition ( slav]y1 ev5 _h x be5 practicable1 w\ld h seem$ r sup]flu\s to "o :o held t true fre$om is a m5tal condition )9 ! rea* ( all :o desire x1#hh :ile ! ri*e/ & mo/ p[]ful may be1 & = ! mo/ "p actually are1 )\t x4 ,moreov]1 at ! "t :5 philosophy ga9$ its greate/ asc5d5cy1 ! "o p>am\nt object ( practical /atesm5 mu/ h be5 to save civilisation f ! b>b>ians1 a "w to :i* ,m>cus ,aurelius devot$ 8 life4 ,h5ce we le>n )\t surprise t ! legislative ef=ts ( ! imp]ial ,/oic 7 direct$ to ! /r5g!n+1 r ?an to ! r5ovation1 ( anci5t in/itutions4#hi ,c]ta9 enactm5ts 71 inde$1 fram$ = ! protection ( ^? :o took "p 9 ! public games4 ,x 0 provid$1 ) a humanity f :i* ev5 our own age might le>n some?+1 t p]=m]s on ! high rope %\ld be ensur$ aga9/ ! consequ5ces ( an accid5tal fall by hav+ ! gr\nd b5ea? !m cov]$ ) fea!r b$s2 & ! gladiators 7 only all[$ to fight ) blunt$ weapons4#ij ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be not$ t 9 speak+ ( ! combats ) wild bea/s :i* 7 /ill all[$ to cont9ue "u 8 reign1 ,m>cus ,aurelius dwells only on ! monoton\s "* :i* made !m exce$+ly we>isome to a cultivat$ m9d2 j z a philosophic sportsman may sometimes be he>d to obs]ve t %oot+ "o gr\se is v l %oot+ ano!r2 :ile else:]e he ref]s ) simple contempt to ! poor wret*es :o1 :5 already half-dev\r$ by ! wild bea/s1 begg$ to be sp>$ = ano!r day's amusem5t4#ia ,:e!r he knew ! :ole ext5t ( ! judicial atrocities practis$ on 8 ,*ri/ian subjects may well be d\bt$2 b x maybe equally d\bt$ :e!r1 _h he kn[n x1 he w\ld h int]f]$ to save !m4 ,pa9 & dea? 7 no evils2 b x 0 an evil t ! law %\ld be defi$4#ib ,^? manife/ations ( sympa?y :i* are (t5 s mu* m preci\s ?an mat]ial assi/ance 7 also repugnant to ,/oic pr9ciples4 ,on ?is subject1 ,epicttus expresses himself ) s+ul> h>%ness4 #8,d n1' he says1 #8let y\rself be put out by ! suff]+s ( y\r fri5ds4 ,if !y are unhappy1 x is _! own fault4 ,god made !m = happ9ess1 n = mis]y4 ,!y are griev$ at p>t+ f y1 are !y8 ,:y1 !n1 did !y set _! affections on ?+s outside !mselves8 ,if !y suff] = _! folly x s]ves !m "r4'#ic ,on ! o!r h&1 if ,/oicism did n make m5 pitiful1 x made !m inf9itely =giv+4 ,v>i\s causes conspir$ to br+ ab\t ?is result4 ,if all are s9n]s1 & if all s9s are equal1 no "o has a "r1 "u pret5ce ( sup]ior virtue1 to ca/ a /one at 8 fell[s4 ,su* is ! po9t ( view insi/$ on ) especial emphasis by ,s5eca1 :o1 m p]haps ?an o!r philosoph]s1 _h reason to be consci\s h[ f> 8 practice fell %ort ( 8 pr(essions4#id ,b1 speak+ g5]ally1 pride 0 ! v la/ fault ) :i* ! ,/oics c\ld be *>g$4 ,bo? 9 anci5t & mod]n times1 satiri/s h be5 prone to assume t e disciple ( ! ,por*1 9 describ+ 8 ideal ( a wise man1 0 actually describ+ himself4 ,no misconception c\ld be m complete4 ,x is l suppos+ t1 because ,*ri/ comm&$ 8 foll[]s to be p]fect ev5 z _! heav5ly ,fa!r is p]fect1 e ,*ri/ian = t reason ?9ks himself equal to ,god4 ,! wise man ( ! ,/oics _h1 by _! own ackn[l$gm5t1 nev] be5 realis$ at all2 he _h only be5 approa*$ by ?ree *>act]s1 ,socrates1 ,anti/h5es1 & ,diog5es4#ie #8,may ! sage fall 9 love8' ask$ a "y man ( ,panaetius4 #8,:at ! sage may d1' repli$ ! ma/]1 #8is a "q to be consid]$ at "s future "t4 ,mean:ile1 y & ,i1 :o are v f> f be+ sages1 _h bett] take c>e n to let ourselves become ! slaves ( a degrad+ passion4'#if ,9 ! next place1 if x is n 9 ! p[] ( o!rs to injure u1 we h no "r to res5t any?+ t !y c d to u4 ,s argues ,epicttus1 :o began to le>n philosophy :5 /ill a slave1 & 0 c>efully prep>$ by 8 in/ructor1 ,musonius1 to be> )\t rep9+ :atev] outrages 8 ma/] might *oose to inflict on him4 ,f9ally1 to ^? :o urg$ t !y might ju/ly blame ! evil int5tions ( _! assailants1 ,m>cus ,aurelius c\ld reply t ev5 ?is 0 too presumptu\s1 t all m5 did :at !y ?\ght "r1 & t ! motives ( none c\ld be adequately judg$ except by himself4#ig ,& all ! ,/oics f\nd a common gr\nd = pati5ce 9 _! optimi/ic fatalism1 9 ! doctr9e t :atev] happ5s is bo? necess>ily det]m9$1 & det]m9$ by absolute goodness comb9$ ) infallible wisdom4#ih ,doctr9es l ^!1 if consi/5tly c>ri$ out1 w\ld h utt]ly de/roy$ s mu* ( morality z dep5ds on ! social sanction2 :ile1 by inculcat+ ! absolute indiff]5ce ( ext]nal actions1 !y might ultimately h p>alys$ ! individual consci5ce itself4 ,b ! ,/oics 7 n consi/5t4 ,unlike "s mod]n morali/s1 :o are ready to =give e injury s long z !y are n !mselves ! victims1 our philosoph]s 7 unsp>+ 9 _! d5unciations ( wrong-do+2 & x is v l>gely to _! indignant prote/s t we are indebt$ = our k ( ! corruption preval5t 9 ,roman society "u ! ,empire4 ,x may ev5 be cont5d$ t1 9 ?is respect1 our judgm5t has be5 unfairly biass$4 ,! picture drawn by ! ,/oics1 or by writ]s tra9$ "u _! influ5ce1 seems to h be5 too heavily *>g$ ) %ad[2 & b = ! ar*aeological evid5ce we %\ld n h kn[n h[ mu* g5u9e human affection lay conceal$ 9 ^? l[] social /rata ^: records c only be /udi$ on _! tombs4#ii ,x 0 among ^! classes t ,*ri/ianity f\nd ! readie/ acceptance1 simply because x gave a sup]natural sanction to habits & s5tim5ts already made famili> by ! spontane\s t5d5cies ( an unw>like rgime4 ,,vii4 ,be=e p>t+ ) ,/oicism we h to say a few words on ! metaphysical f\ndation ( ! :ole sy/em--! !ory ( ,nature consid]$ z a moral guide & support4 ,x has be5 %[n t ! ultimate object ( ?is1 z ( _m o!r e?ical !ories1 bo? anci5t & mod]n1 0 to reconcile ! in/9cts ( individual self-pres]vation ) virtue1 :i* is ! in/9ct ( self-pres]vation 9 an entire community4 ,! ,/oics id5tifi$ bo? impulses by decl>+ t virtue is ! sole good ( ! individual no less ?an ! supreme int]e/ ( ! :ole2 ?us involv+ !mselves 9 an insoluble contradiction4 ,=1 f _! nom9ali/ic po9t ( view1 ! good ( ! :ole c be no?+ b an aggregate ( p>ticul> goods1 or else a means = _! atta9m5t2 & 9 ei!r case ! happ9ess ( ! individual has to be acc\nt$ = ap>t f 8 duty4 ,& an analysis ( ! special virtues & vices w\ld equally h =c$ !m back on ! assumption1 :i* !y p]si/5tly repudiat$1 t individual exi/5ce & pleasure are intr9sically good1 & _! opposites intr9sically evil4 ,to prove _! fundam5tal p>adox--! non-exi/5ce ( individual z di/+ui%$ f social int]e/--! ,/oics employ$ ! analogy ( an organis$ body :]e ! good ( ! p>ts unque/ionably subs]ves ! good ( ! :ole2#ajj & ! object ( _! teleology 0 to %[ t ! univ]se &1 by implication1 ! human race1 7 prop]ly to be view$ 9 t light4 ,! ackn[l$g$ adaptation ( life to its environm5t furni%$ "s plausible argum5ts 9 support ( _! !sis2 & ! defici5cies 7 made good by a revival ( ! ,h]acleitean !ory 9 :i* ! unity ( ,nature 0 conceiv$ p>tly z a necess>y int]dep5d5ce ( oppos+ =ces1 p>tly z a p]petual trans=mation ( e sub/ance into e o!r4 ,univ]sal hi/ory also t5d$ to confirm ! same pr9ciple 9 its application to ! human race4 ,! ,mac$onian1 & /ill m ! ,roman empire1 br\ght ! idea ( a _w-wide community liv+ "u ! same laws ev] ne>] to its realisation2 ! decay ( ! old religion & ! old civic patriotism set free a va/ fund ( altruism :i* n[ took ! =m ( simple philan?ropy2 :ile a rank gr[? ( immorality (f]$ ev] new opportunities = an indignant prote/ aga9/ s5seless luxury & inhuman vice4 ,?is la/ circum/ance1 h[ev]1 0 n all[$ to prejudice ! optimism ( ! sy/em2 = ! f]tile physics ( ,h]acleitus sugge/$ a me?od by :i* moral evil c\ld be int]pret$ z a necess>y concomitant ( good1 a mat]ial = ! p]petual ex]cise & illu/ration ( virtu\s de$s4#aja ,yet1 if ! conception ( unity 0 ga9+ gr\nd1 ! conceptions ( purpose & vitality mu/ h be5 gr[+ weak] z ! triumph ( brute =ce prolong$ itself )\t limit or hope ( r$ress4 ,h5ce ,/oicism 9 its lat] =m %[s a t5d5cy to dissociate ! dynamism ( ,h]acleitus f ! teleology ( ,socrates1 & to lean on ! =m] r ?an on ! latt] = support4 ,"o symptom ( ?is *ang$ attitude is a bl9d wor%ip ( p[] = its own sake4 ,we f9d ! r5unciation ( pleasure & ! defiance ( pa9 appreciat$ m f an ae/hetic ?an f an e?ical po9t ( view2 !y are exalt$ almo/ 9 ! _s ( a ,r$ ,indian1 n z means to high] ends1 b z manife/ations ( unconqu]able /r5g?2 & sometimes ! highe/ sanction ( duty takes ! =m ( a morbid crav+ = applause1 z if ! univ]se 7 an amphi!atre & life a gladiatorial game4#ajb ,! noble _s ( ,m>cus ,aurelius 01 inde$1 pro( aga9/ su* temptations3 & he _h f> m to dread ?an to hope f ! unlight5$ voice ( public op9ion2 b to him also1 #8/&+ betwe5 two et]nities1' ,nature pres5t$ h]self *iefly "u ! aspect ( an ov]:elm+ & absorb+ ,p[]4 ,pleasure is n s mu* dang]\s z wor?less1 weak1 & evanesc5t4 ,selfi%ness1 pride1 ang]1 & discont5t w soon be swept into abysmal gulfs ( oblivion by ! ro>+ cat>act ( *ange4 ,univ]sal hi/ory is "o long monoton\s procession ( phantasms pass+ ov] ! sc5e into dea? & utt] night4 ,9 "o %ort life we may see all t ev] 01 or is1 or is to be2 ! same pageant has already be5 & %all be repeat$ an inf9ite numb] ( times4 ,no?+ endures b ! process ( un5d+ r5ovation3 we mu/ die t ! _w may be ev] "y4 ,dea? itself only reunites u ) ! absolute ,all :5ce we come1 9 :i* we move1 & :i!r we return4#ajc ,b ! imp]ial sage makes no attempt to expla9 :y we %\ld ev] h sep>at$ ourselves f x 9 ?\ght2 or :y "o life %\ld be bett] wor? liv+ ?an ano!r 9 ! univ]sal vanity ( ?+s4 ,! physics ( ,/oicism 01 9 tru?1 ! scaffold+ r ?an ! f\ndation ( its e?ical sup]/ructure4 ,! real f\ndation 0 ! necessity ( social exi/5ce1 =mulat$ "u ! influ5ce ( a logical exclusiv5ess fir/ introduc$ by ,p>m5ides1 & inh]it$ f 8 tea*+ by e sy/em ( philosophy 9 turn4 ,yet !re is no d\bt t ,/oic morality 0 consid]ably /r5g!n$ & /eadi$ by ! support x f\nd 9 conceptions d]iv$ f a diff]5t ord] ( speculations2 s mu* s t at la/ x grew to consci\s indep5d5ce ( t support4 ,m>cus ,aurelius1 a con/ant /ud5t ( ,lucretius1 seems to h _h occasional misgiv+s ) respect to ! c]ta9ty ( 8 own cre$2 b !y nev] ext5d$ to 8 practical beliefs4 ,he 0 det]m9$ t1 :atev] might be ! orig9 ( ?is _w1 8 relation to x %\ld be /ill ! same4 #8,?\gh ?+s be purposeless1 act n ?\ )\t a purpose4' #8,if ! univ]se is an ungov]n$ *aos1 be cont5t t 9 t wild torr5t ?\ ha/ a gov]n+ reason )9 ?yself4'#ajd ,!re seems1 !n1 good reason = believ+ t ! law ( duty1 aft] be+ divorc$ f my?ology1 & s]i\sly compromis$ by its association1 ev5 among ! ,/oics !mselves1 ) our egoi/ic in/9cts1 ga9$ an entirely new au?ority :5 plac$1 at lea/ 9 appe>ance1 "u ! sanction ( a p[] ^: comm&s did n ev5 admit ( be+ disobey$4 ,& ! "q spontane\sly pres5ts itself :e!r we1 aft] gett+ rid ( ! old errors & confusions1 may pr(itably employ ! same me?od 9 def5ce ( ! same convictions1 :e!r ! anci5t alliance betwe5 fact & "r c be reorganis$ on a basis ( sci5tific pro(4 ,a great re=m] ( ! la/ g5]ation1 f9d+ t ! idea ( ,nature 0 con/antly put =w>d to ?w>t 8 mo/ *]i%$ s*emes1 prep>$ a m9e = its de/ruction :i* 0 only explod$ aft] 8 dea?4 ,seldom has s p[]ful a *>ge ( logical dynamite be5 collect$ )9 s small a space z 9 ,mill's fam\s ,essay on ,nature4 ,b ! imm$iate effect 0 less ?an might h be5 anticipat$1 because ! attack 0 suppos$ to be direct$ aga9/ religion1 :]eas x 0 only aim$ at an ab/ract metaphysical dogma1 n necess>ily connect$ ) any !ological beliefs1 & held by _m :o h disc>d$ all su* beliefs4 ,a /rong] impression 01 p]haps1 produc$ by ! ne>ly simultane\s decl>ation ( ,sir ,w4 ,gull--9 ref]5ce to ! suppos$ vis m$icatrix naturae--t1 9 cases ( disease1 #8:at ,nature wants is to put ! man 9 8 c(f94' ,! new s*ool ( political economi/s h also done mu* to %[ t legislative int]f]5ce ) ! #8natural laws' ( weal? ne$ by no means be s g5]ally mis*iev\s z 0 once suppos$4 ,& ! doctr9e ( ,evolution1 besides break+ d[n ! old di/9ctions betwe5 ,nature & ,man1 has repres5t$ ! =m] z ess5tially v>iable1 & !re=e1 to t ext5t1 incapable ( af=d+ a fix$ /&>d = moral action4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 f ?is s*ool t a new attempt to rehabilitate ! old physical e?ics has lately proce$$4 ,! object ( ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s ,data ( ,e?ics is1 among o!r po9ts1 to prove t a true morality repres5ts ! ultimate /age ( evolution1 & reproduces 9 social life t p]man5t equilibration t[>ds :i* e =m ( evolution con/antly t5ds4 ,& ,mr4 ,sp5c] also %[s h[ evolution is br++ ab\t a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* ! self-reg>d+ %all be f9ally h>monis$ ) ! social impulses4 ,n[1 x w be readily admitt$ t morality is a product ( evolution 9 ?is s5se t x is a gradual =mation1 t x is ! product ( _m conv]g+ conditions1 & t x progresses accord+ to a c]ta9 me?od4 ,b t ! same me?od is obs]v$ ?r\gh all ord]s ( evolution seems less evid5t4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! =mation1 fir/ ( ! sol> sy/em1 & !n ( ! e>?'s cru/1 !re is a cont9ual loss ( =ce1 :ile 9 ! developm5t ( organic life !re is z cont9ual a ga92 & on arriv+ at subjective ph5om5a1 we are met by facts :i*1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 _c advantage\sly be express$ 9 t]ms ( =ce & matt] at all4 ,ev5 if we d n agree ) ,george ,s& 9 ?9k+ t self-sacrifice is ! only virtue1 we mu/ admit t ! possibility1 at lea/1 ( its be+ sometimes dem&$ is insep>able f ! idea ( duty4 ,b self-sacrifice _c be conceiv$ )\t consci\sness2 :i* is equival5t to say+ t x involves o!r ?an me*anical notions4 ,?us we are confront$ by ! /&+ difficulty ( all evolution>y !ories1 & on a po9t :]e t difficulty is peculi>ly s5sible4 ,nor is ?is an objection to be got rid ( by ! argum5t t x applies to all philosophical sy/ems alike4 ,to an ideali/1 ! dep5d5ce ( morality on consci\sness is a practical confirmation ( 8 pr(ess$ pr9ciples4 ,hold+ t ! univ]sal =ms ( exp]i5ce are ! conditions "u :i* an object is appreh5d$1 r ?an modifications impos$ by an unkn[able object on an unkn[able subject1 & t ^! =ms are common to all intellig5t be+s1 he holds also t ! p]ception ( duty is ! wid5+ ( our individual selves into t univ]sal self :i* is ! subjective side ( all exp]i5ce4 ,aga91 :atev] h>mony evolution may introduce into our conceptions1 :atev] hopes x may enc\rage ) reg>d to ! future ( our race1 "o does n see precisely :at sanction x gives to morality at pres5t--t is to say1 h[ x makes self-sacrifice easi] ?an be=e4 ,because c]ta9 =ces h be5 unconsci\sly work+ t[>ds a c]ta9 end ?r\gh ages pa/1 :y %\ld ,i consci\sly "w t[>ds ! same end8 ,if ! p]fection ( humanity is pr$et]m9$1 my conduct _c prev5t its consummation2 if x 9 any way dep5ds on me1 ! "q returns1 :y %\ld my p>ticul> int]e/s be sacrific$ to x8 ,! man :o does n already love 8 contempor>ies :om he has se5 is unlikely to love !m ! m = ! sake ( a remote po/]ity :om he w nev] see at all4 ,f9ally1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t evolution is only half ! cosmic process2 x is p>tially condition$ at e /age by dissolution1 to :i* 9 ! long run x mu/ entirely give way2 & if1 z ,mr4 ,sp5c] obs]ves1 evolution is ! m int]e/+ ( ! two1#aje ?is pref]5ce is itself due to ! lifew>d t5d5cy ( our ?\ghts2 9 o!r words1 to ^? moral s5tim5ts :i* x is s\ght to base on :at1 ab/ract$ly consid]$1 has all along be5 a creation ( _! own4 ,! idea ( ,nature1 or ( ! univ]se1 or ( human hi/ory z a :ole--b = its evil associations ) fanaticism & sup]/ition1 we %\ld gladly say ! belief 9 ,god--is "o ! e?ical value ( :i* c be m easily felt ?an analys$4 ,we d n agree ) ! mo/ brilliant ( ! ,engli% ,positivi/s 9 re/rict+ its influ5ce to ! ae/hetic emotions4#ajf ,! elevat+ influ5ce ( ^! %\ld be fully recognis$2 b ! place due to m sev]ely intellectual pursuits 9 moral tra9+ is great] f>4 ,:atev] /udies t5d to )draw u f ! petty circle ( our p]sonal int]e/s & pleasures1 are indirectly fav\rable to ! prepond]ance ( social ov] selfi% impulses2 & ! s]vice ?us r5d]$ is amply repaid1 s9ce ^! v /udies necessitate = _! cont9uance a l>ge exp5diture ( moral en]gy4 ,x might ev5 be cont5d$ t ! influ5ce ( speculation on practice is det]m9$ by ! previ\s influ5ce ( practice on speculation4 ,physical laws act z an armature to ! law ( duty1 ext5d+ & p]petuat+ its grasp on ! m9ds ( m52 b x 0 ?r\gh ! magnetism ( duty t _! confus$ curr5ts 7 fir/ drawn into p>allelism & h>mony ) its attraction4 ,we h j se5 h[1 f ?is po9t ( view1 ! int]pretation ( evolution by consci5ce might be sub/itut$ = ! int]pretation ( consci5ce by evolution4 ,yet ^? :o base morality on religion1 or give fai? prec$5ce ov] works1 h disc]n$ ) a sure ?\gh dim in/9ct ! dep5d5ce ( noble & f>-sight$ action on "s p>am\nt intellectual initiative & control2 9 o!r words1 ! highe/ e?ical ideals are condition$ by ! highe/ philosophical g5]alisations4 ,be=e ! ,greeks c\ld ?9k ( ea* man z a citiz5 ( ! _w1 & z b\nd to all o!r rational be+s by virtue ( a common orig9 & a common abode1 x 0 fir/ necess>y t !y %\ld ?9k ( ! _w itself z an ord]ly & compreh5sive :ole4 ,& :at 0 once a creative1 /ill cont9ues to "w z an educat+ =ce4 ,our aspirations t[>ds agreem5t ) ourselves & ) humanity z a :ole are /r5g!n$ by ! contemplation ( t supreme unity :i*1 ev5 if x be b ! glorifi$ reflection ( our individual or g5]ic id5tity1 /ill rema9s ! idea 9 & ?r\gh :i* ^? less] unities 7 fir/ completely realis$--! idea :i* has orig9at$ all man's mo/ fruitful fai?s1 & w at la/ absorb !m all4 ,mean:ile our highe/ devotion c h>dly f9d m fitt+ utt]ance ?an 9 ! pray] :i* once rose to a ,/oic's lips3-- ,b ,jove all-b\nte\s6 :o1 9 cl\ds enwrapt1 ! lightn+ wielde/2 ,may'/ ,?\ f baneful ,ignorance ! race ( m5 deliv]6 ,?is1 ,fa!r6 scatt] f ! s\l1 & grant t we ! wisdom ,may rea*1 9 confid5ce ( :i*1 ,?\ ju/ly guide/ all ?+s2 ,t we1 by ,!e 9 hon\r set1 ) hon\r may repay ,!e1 ,rais+ to all ?y works a hymn p]petual2 z beseeme? ,a mortal s\l3 s9ce nei!r man nor god has high] glory ,?an rightfully to celebrate ,et]nal ,law all-rul+4#ajg ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,epicurus ,,& ,,lucretius4 ,i4 ,among ! sy/ems ( anci5t philosophy1 ,epicureanism is rem>kable = ! complet5ess ) :i* its doctr9es 7 work$ out by _! fir/ au?or1 & = ! fidelity ) :i* !y 7 h&$ d[n to ! late/ g5]ation ( 8 disciples4 ,= a p]iod ( m ?an five hundr$ ye>s1 no?+ 0 add$ to1 & no?+ 0 tak5 away f1 ! orig9al tea*+ ( ,epicurus4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 o!r respects1 x (f]s a /rik+ contra/ to ! sy/em :i* we la/ review$4 ,9 our sket* ( ! ,/oic philosophy1 we _h to notice ! cont9ual process ( developm5t ?r\gh :i* x pass$1 f its comm5cem5t to its close4 ,!re is a m>k$ diff]5ce betwe5 ! e>li] & ! lat] heads ( ! s*ool at ,a!ns--betwe5 ^!1 z a class1 & ! ,/oics ( ! ,roman empire--&1 f9ally1 ev5 betwe5 two ,/oics :o /ood s ne> to "o ano!r z ,epicttus & ,m>cus ,aurelius4 ,?is contra/ _c be due to ext]nal circum/ances1 = ! two sy/ems 7 exactly coeval1 & 7 expos$1 dur+ _! :ole lifetime1 to ! action ( precisely ! same environm5t4 ,! cause mu/ be s\ght = 9 ! "* ( ! philosophies !mselves1 & ( ! m9ds :i* 7 naturally mo/ am5able to _! respective influ5ce4 ,/oicism reta9$ en\gh ( ! ,socratic _s to fo/] a love ( enquiry = its own sake1 & an indisposition to accept any au?ority )\t a se>*+ exam9ation ( its claims to ob$i5ce or respect4 ,! le>n] 0 submitt$ to a ?or\gh tra9+ 9 dialectics2 :ile ! ideal ( life set be=e him 0 n a /ate ( re/1 b ( int5se & unremitt+ toil4 ,:atev] p>ticul> conclusions he might c>ry away ) him f ! class-room 7 insignificant 9 comp>ison ) ! pr9ciple t he mu/ be prep>$ to demon/rate !m = himself ) t self-assurance happily lik5$ by ,z5o to ! feel+ exp]i5c$ :5 ! cl5*$ fi/ is held )9 ! grasp ( ! o!r h&4 ,epicurus1 on ! contr>y1 did n enc\rage indep5d5t ?\ght among 8 disciples2 nor1 ) "o exception h]eaft] to be notic$1 did 8 tea*+ ev] attract any v orig9al or p[]ful intellect4 ,f ! fir/ a /&>d ( or?odoxy 0 erect$2 &1 to facilitate _! ret5tion1 ! lead+ t5ets ( ! s*ool 7 drawn up 9 a s]ies ( articles :i* its adh]5ts 7 advis$ to le>n by he>t4 ,h5ce1 z ,mr4 ,wallace obs]ves1#ajh :ile ! o!r *ief sects among :i* philosophy 0 divid$--! ,academicians1 ! ,p]ipatetics1 & ! ,/oics--drew _! appellation1 n f _! fir/ f\nd]1 b f ! locality :]e 8 lectures _h be5 deliv]$1 ! ,epicureans alone cont9u$ to be> ! "n ( a ma/] :om !y reg>d$ ) religi\s v5]ation4 ,h5ce1 also1 we mu/ add ) ,zell]1#aji & not)/&+ ! d\bt express$ by ,mr4 ,wallace1#aaj on ! subject1 t our acqua9tance ) ! sy/em s fai?fully adh]$ to may be reg>d$ z exceptionally full & accurate4 ,! exc]pts f ,epicurus himself1 pres]v$ by ,diog5es ,la]tius1 ! poem ( ,lucretius1 ! criticisms ( ,cic]o1 ,plut>*1 & o!rs1 & ! fragm5ts ( ,epicurean lit]ature recov]$ f ! ,h]culanean papyri1 agree s well :]e !y cov] ! same gr\nd1 t !y may be fairly tru/$ to supplem5t ea* o!r's defici5cies2 & a fur!r confirmation1 if any 0 ne$$1 is obta9$ by consult+ ! old] s\rces1 :5ce ,epicurus borr[$ mo/ ( 8 philosophy4 ,x may safely be assum$ t ! prejudices once ent]ta9$ aga9/ ,epicureanism are n[ ext9ct4 ,:atev] may h be5 ! speculative op9ions ( its f\nd]1 he _h z good a "r to !m z ! ,apo/les _h to !irs2 nor did he /& fur!r alo( f ! popul> religion ( any age ?an ,ari/otle1 :o has g5]ally be5 9 high fav\r ) !ologians4 ,8 practical tea*+ 0 direct$ t[>ds ! con/ant inculcation ( virtue2 nor 0 x beli$ by ! conduct ei!r ( himself or ( 8 disciples1 ev5 judg$ by ! /&>d ( ! s*ools to :i* !y 7 mo/ oppos$4 ,& "s ( 8 physical !ories1 once reject$ z self-evid5tly absurd1 are n[ prov$ to be 9 h>mony ) ! sob] conclusions ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,at any rate1 x is n 9 ?is qu>t]1 z our read]s w d\btless h already p]ceiv$1 t ! old prejudices1 if !y /ill exi/1 are likely to f9d an e*o4 ,j n[1 inde$1 ! dang] is n t ,epicurus %\ld be depreciat$1 b t 8 m]its %\ld obta9 f> m ?an _! prop] me$ ( recognition4 ,x seems to be =gott5 t :at 0 be/ 9 8 physics he borr[$ f o!rs1 & t :at he add$ 0 ( less ?an no value2 t he 0 ignorant or c>eless ( demon/rat$ tru?s2 t 8 av[$ pr9ciples ( belief 7 inconsi/5t ) any tru? ris+ above ! level ( vulg> appreh5sion2 & f9ally1 t 9 8 sy/em sci5tific int]e/s 7 utt]ly subord9at$ to practical int]e/s4 ,9 ! face ( su* facts1 to say1 z ,mr4 ,fr\de does1 t ,epicureanism 0 #8! cre$ ( ! m5 ( sci5ce' 9 ! "t ( ,julius ,caes>#aaa--;an ass]tion directly contradict$ by ,lange#aab--;is p]haps only ( a piece ) ,mr4 ,fr\de's usual inaccuracy :5 writ+ ab\t anci5t hi/ory2 b su* decl>ations z t ( ,mr4 ,fr$]ic ,pollock1 t ! ,epicurean sy/em #80 a g5u9e attempt at a sci5tific explanation ( ! _w2 & 0 9 its day ! solit>y prote/ aga9/ ! contempt ( physics :i* prevail$ 9 ! o!r po/-,ari/otelian s*ools2'#aac ( ,pr(4 ,trezza1 t ! ,epicurean s*ool #8summ$ up 9 itself ! mo/ sci5tific elem5ts ( ,greek antiquity2'#aad ( ,dr4 ,woltj]1 t #8) respect to ! laws & pr9ciples ( sci5ce1 ! ,epicureans came ne>e/ ( all ! anci5ts to ! sci5ce ( our own "t2'#aae & f9ally1 ( ,m4 ,erne/ ,r5an1 t ,epicureanism 0 #8! great sci5tific s*ool ( antiquity1'#aaf are absolutely amaz+4 ,! em95t ,fr5* critic j quot$ has else:]e obs]v$1 ) p]fect ju/ice1 t ! sci5tific _s is ! negation ( ! sup]natural2 & p]haps he argues t ! negation ( ! sup]natural mu/1 reciprocally1 be ! sci5tific _s4 ,b ?is is only true :5 su* a negation is arriv$ at inductively1 aft] a dis9t]e/$ survey ( ! facts4 ,epicurus />t$ ) ! d5ial ( sup]natural int]f]5ce z a practical po/ulate1 & !n hunt$ ab\t = :atev] explanations ( natural ph5om5a w\ld suit 8 =egone conclusion4 ,moreov]1 an enquir] really animat$ by ! sci5tific _s /udies ! facts = _! own sake2 he /udies !m z !y actually are1 n re/+ cont5t ) alt]native explanations2 & he /udies !m to ! fulle/ ext5t ( :i* 8 p[]s are capable4 ,epicurus1 on ! contr>y1 decl>es t physics w\ld n be wor? att5d+ to if ! m9d c\ld be set free f religi\s t]rors 9 any o!r mann]2#aag he w n let himself be ti$ d[n to any "o !ory if !re are o!rs equally inconsi/5t ) div9e ag5cy to be _h2#aah & :5 8 dem&s 9 ?is respect are satisfi$1 t is1 :5 ! appe>ances vulg>ly ascrib$ to sup]natural causation h be5 provid$ ) natural causes1 he leaves (f4 ,to get rid ( sup]/iti\s beliefs 01 no d\bt1 a highly m]itori\s a*ievem5t1 b x _h be5 f> m effectually p]=m$ by ! great pre-,socratic ?9k]s1 ,h]acleitus1 ,emp$ocles1 ,anaxagoras1 & ,democritus4 ,^! m5 or _! foll[]s _h1 besides1 got hold ( a mo/ important pr9ciple--! vital pr9ciple ( all sci5ce--:i* 0 ! reign ( law1 ! univ]sality & indefeasibility ( physical causation4 ,n[1 ,epicurus expressly refus$ to accept su* a doctr9e1 decl>+ t x 0 ev5 worse ?an believ+ 9 ! gods1 s9ce !y c\ld be propitiat$1 :]eas fate c\ld n4#aai ,aga91 ,greek physical philosophy1 "u ! guidance ( ,plato1 _h be5 t5d+ m & m to seek = its f\ndation 9 ma!matics4 ,ma!matical reason+ 0 se5 to be ! type ( all demon/ration2 & ! be/ hopes ( progress 7 /ak$ on ! ext5sion ( ma!matical me?ods to e field ( enquiry 9 turn4 ,h[ mu* might be done by foll[+ up ?is clue 0 quickly se5 n only 9 ! triumphs ( geometry1 b 9 ! brilliant a/ronomical discov]ies by :i* ! %ape ( ! e>?1 ! phases ( ! moon1 & ! cause ( eclipses 7 f9ally cle>$ up & plac$ altoge!r outside ! sph]e ( conjecture4 ,nor 0 a k ( ^! tru?s conf9$ to speciali/s3 !y 7 famili> alike to ! old] ,academy1 to ! ,p]ipatetic1 & to ! ,/oic s*ools2 s t1 ) ! exception ( ^? :o d\bt$ e proposition1 we may assume !m to h be5 !n1 z n[1 ! common prop]ty ( all educat$ m54 ,epicurus1 on ! o!r h&1 seems to h kn[n no?+ ( ma!matics1 or only en\gh to dispute _! validity1 = we are told t 8 disciple ,polya5us1 :o _h previ\sly be5 em95t 9 t dep>tm5t1 0 p]suad$1 on jo9+ ! s*ool1 to reject ! :ole ( geometry z untrue2#abj :ile1 9 a/ronomy1 he pron\nc$ ! heav5ly bodies to be no l>g] ?an !y appe> to our s5ses1 d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ,antipodes1 & put ! crude/ guesses ( e>ly philosophy on ! same foot+ ) ! be/-au!nticat$ results ( lat] obs]vation4 ,x is no wond]1 !n1 t dur+ ! :ole cont9uance ( 8 s*ool no man ( sci5ce ev] accept$ its tea*+1 ) ! s+le exception ( ,asclepiades1 :o 0 p]haps a ,democritean r ?an a disciple ( ! ,g>d51 & :o1 at any rate1 z a physiologi/1 w\ld n be br\ght into contact ) its m flagrant absurdities4 ,9 ord] to und]/& h[ s vigor\s an intellect c\ld g s wildly a/ray1 we mu/ glance at 8 p]sonal hi/ory1 & at ! mann] 9 :i* 8 sy/em seems to h be5 gradually built up4 ,,ii4 ,epicurus 0 born #cda ,b4,c41 ab\t ! same "t z ,z5o ! ,/oic4 ,unlike all ! o!r philosoph]s ( 8 age1 he 0 ( ,a!nian p>5tage2 t is to say1 he belong$ to a race ( exclusively practical t5d5cies1 & m>k$ by a s+ul> inaptitude or di/a/e = physical enquiries4 ,8 fa!r1 a poor coloni/ 9 ,samos1 01 app>5tly1 n able to give him a v regul> education4 ,at eighte5 he 0 s5t to ,a!ns1 b 0 %ortly aft]w>ds oblig$ to rejo9 8 family1 :o 7 driv5 f ,samos 9 #cbb1 along ) ! o!r ,a!nian settl]s1 by a political revolution1 & _h tak5 refuge 9 ,colophon1 on ! ,asiatic coa/4 ,9 ! c\rse ( 8 w&]+s1 ! future philosoph] came across "s public lectur]s1 :o seem to h in/ruct$ him 9 ! physics ( ,democritus1 & p]haps also 9 ! scepticism ( ,pyrrho2 b ( su* a /eady discipl9e z ,plato pass$ ?r\gh dur+ 8 t5 ye>s' int]c\rse ) ,socrates1 ,ari/otle dur+ 8 tw5ty ye>s' /udies "u ,plato1 & ,z5o dur+ 8 simil>ly protract$ att5dance at ! v>i\s s*ools ( ,a!ns1 !re is no trace :atev]4 ,epicurus always describ$ himself z self-taught1 mean+ t 8 k _h be5 acquir$ by read+ in/ead ( by li/5+2 & we f9d 9 him ! advantages z well z ! defects common to self-taught m5 9 all ages--consid]able fre%ness & fre$om f s*ola/ic prejudices1 along ) a c]ta9 n>r[ness ( sympa?ies1 incomplet5ess ( in=mation1 inaptitude = ab/ract reason+1 & la/1 b n lea/1 an enorm\s op9ion ( 8 own abilities1 jo9$ to an ov]we5+ contempt = ^? ) ^: op9ions he did n agree4 ,aft] tea*+ = "s "t 9 ,mityln1 ,epicurus e/abli%$ himself z ! head ( a s*ool 9 ,a!ns1 :]e he b\ght a h\se & g>d54 ,9 ! latt] he lectur$ & ga!r$ r\nd him a b& ( devot$ fri5ds1 among :om wom5 7 includ$1 & :o 7 wont to assemble = purposes ( social recreation n less ?an ( philosophic discipl9e4 ,j be=e 8 dea?1 :i* occurr$ 9 ! ye> #bgj1 he decl>$ 9 a lett] to 8 fri5d & de/9$ successor ,h]m>*us1 t ! recollection ( 8 philosophical a*ievem5ts _h be5 su* a s\rce ( pleasure z to ov]come ! agonies ( disease1 & to make ! la/ day ! happie/ ( 8 life4#aba ,= ! re/1 ,epicurus seclud$ himself1 on pr9ciple1 f ! _w1 & few e*oes ( 8 tea*+ seem to h pass$ beyond ! circle ( 8 imm$iate adh]5ts4 ,?us1 :atev] opportunities might o!rwise h (f]$ !mselves ( pr(it+ by adv]se criticism 7 completely lo/4#abb ,epicureanism 0 ess5tially a practical philosophy4 ,! physical1 !ological1 & logical portions ( ! sy/em 7 reason$ out ) exclusive ref]5ce to its e?ical end1 & _! absolute subord9ation to x 0 nev] all[$ to be =gott54 ,x is !re=e ) ! moral !ory ( ,epicurus t we mu/ beg94 ,f ! "t ( ,socrates on1 ! majority ( ,greeks1 _h !y be5 ask$ :at 0 ! ultimate object ( endeav\r1 or :at made life wor? liv+1 w\ld h answ]$1 pleasure4 ,b among pr(essional philosoph]s su* a def9ition ( ! supreme good met ) little fav\r4 ,see+ v cle>ly t ! /&>d ( conduct mu/ be social1 & conv9c$ t x mu/ at ! same "t include ! highe/ good ( ! individual1 !y f\nd x impossible to believe t ! two c\ld be reconcil$ by enc\rag+ ea* citiz5 9 ! unre/rict$ pursuit ( 8 own private gratifications4 ,nor _h su* an idea z ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb] ev] ris5 above _! horizon2 al?\gh1 f ! necessities ( life itself1 !y unconsci\sly assum$ x 9 all _! political discussions4 ,! desire = pleasure 01 h[ev]1 too p[]ful a motive to be safely disreg>d$4 ,accord+ly we f9d ,socrates frequ5tly appeal+ to x :5 no o!r argum5t 0 likely to be equally efficaci\s1 ,plato /riv+ to make ! private satisfaction ( 8 citiz5s co9cide ) ! dem&s ( public duty1 & ,ari/otle ma9ta9+ t ?is co9cid5ce mu/ spontane\sly result f ! consolidation ( moral habits2 ! true te/ ( a virtu\s disposition be+1 9 8 op9ion1 ! pleasure :i* accompanies its ex]cise4 ,"o ( ! companions ( ,socrates1 ,ari/ippus ! ,cyr5aean1 a man :o _h cut himself loose f e political & dome/ic obligation1 & :o 0 rem>kable = ! v]satility ) :i* he adapt$ himself to ! mo/ v>y+ circum/ances1 w5t /ill fur!r4 ,he boldly decl>$ t pleasure 0 ! sole end wor? seek+1 & on ! /r5g? ( ?is doctr9e came =w>d z ! f\nd] ( a new philosophical s*ool4 ,accord+ to 8 sy/em1 ! summum bonum 0 n ! total am\nt ( enjoym5t secur$ 9 a lifetime1 b ! greate/ s+le enjoym5t t c\ld be secur$ at any mom5t2 & ?is pr9ciple 0 associat$ ) an ideali/ic !ory ( p]ception1 app>5tly sugge/$ by ,protagoras1 b c>ry+ 8 views mu* fur!r4 ,our k1 said ,ari/ippus1 is /rictly limit$ to ph5om5a2 we are consci\s ( no?+ beyond our own feel+s2 & we h no "r to assume ! exi/5ce ( any objects by :i* !y are caus$4 ,! /udy ( natural sci5ce is !re=e wa/e ( "t2 our :ole en]gies %\ld be devot$ to ! int]e/s ( practical life4#abc ,?us ,greek humanism seem$ to h f\nd its appropriate sequel 9 h$onism1 :i*1 z an e?ical !ory1 might quote 9 its fav\r bo? ! dictates ( imm$iate feel+ & ! sanction ( public op9ion4 ,! ,cyr5aic s*ool end$1 curi\sly en\gh1 9 pessimism4 ,! doctr9e t pleasure is ! only good1 & ! doctr9e t life yields a prepond]ance ( pa9ful ov] pleasurable feel+s1 are sev]ally compatible ) a pref]5ce ( exi/5ce to non-exi/5ce2 :5 unit$1 z !y 7 by ,hgsias1 a ,cyr5aic pr(essor1 !y logically lead to suicide2 & we are told t ! public au?orities ( ,alex&ria 7 oblig$ to ord] ! discont9uance ( 8 lectures1 s great 0 _! effect 9 promot+ self-de/ruction4#abd ,mean:ile1 h$onism _h be5 tempor>ily tak5 up by ,plato1 & develop$ into ! e>lie/ kn[n =m ( utilit>ianism4 ,9 8 ,protagoras1 he endeav\rs to %[ t e virtue has = its object ei!r to secure a great] pleasure by ! sacrifice ( a less] pleasure1 or to avoid a great] pa9 by ! endurance ( a less] pa92 no?+ be+ tak5 into acc\nt b ! int]e/s ( ! individual ag5t conc]n$4 ,plato aft]w>ds disc>d$ ! !ory sket*$ 9 ! ,protagoras = a high] & m g5]\s1 if less di/9ctly =mulat$ morality2 b :ile ceas+ to be a h$oni/ he rema9$ a utilit>ian2 t is to say1 he insi/$ on judg+ actions by _! t5d5cy to promote ! g5]al welf>e1 n by ! s5tim5ts :i* !y excite 9 ! m9d ( a conv5tional spectator4 ,! idea ( virtue z a h$oni/ic calculus1 ab&on$ by its fir/ orig9ator1 & app>5tly neglect$ by 8 imm$iate successors1 0 tak5 up by ,epicurus2 = t ! latt] borr[$ x f ,plato seems to be prov$ by ! exact resemblance ( _! language2#abe & ,m4 ,guyau is q mi/ak5 :5 he repres5ts 8 h]o z ! f\nd] ( utilit>ian morality4#abf ,x 0 n en\gh1 h[ev]1 to appropriate ! ca/-(f ideas ( ,plato2 x 0 necess>y to meet ! argum5ts by :i* ,plato _h be5 l$ to ?9k t pleasure 0 n ! supreme good1 & to d\bt :e!r x 01 z su*1 a good at all4 ,! mo/ natural c\rse w\ld h be5 to beg9 by exhibit+ ! h$oni/ic ideal 9 a m fav\rable light4 ,s5sual gratifications1 f _! rem>kable int5sity1 _h long be5 ! accept$ types ( pleasurable feel+1 & f _! animal "*1 z well z f o!r obvi\s reasons1 _h frequ5tly be5 us$ to excite a prejudice aga9/ x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,plato himself1 & ,ari/otle /ill m1 _h br\ght into prom95ce ! sup]iority1 simply z pleasures1 ( ^? intellectual activities :i* !y consid]$ to be1 ev5 ap>t f all pleasure1 ! highe/ good4 ,b ,epicurus refus$ to avail himself ( ?is opportunity = effect+ a compromise ) ! opposite s*ool1 boldly decl>+ t he = 8 "p c\ld n conceive any pleasures ap>t f ^? receiv$ ?r\gh ! five s5ses1 among :i* he1 *>act]i/ically en\gh1 includ$ ae/hetic enjoym5ts4 ,! obvi\s significance ( 8 words has be5 expla9$ away1 & !y h be5 ass]t$ to conta9 only ! v h>mless proposition t our animal nature is ! basis1 ! condition1 ( our spiritual nature4#abg ,b1 if ?is 7 ! true explanation1 x w\ld be possible to po9t out :at o!r pleasures 7 recognis$ by ,epicurus4 ,^!1 if !y exi/$ at all1 mu/ h belong$ to ! m9d z su*4 ,n[1 we h x on ,cic]o's au?ority t1 :ile admitt+ ! exi/5ce ( m5tal feel+s1 bo? pleasurable & pa9ful1 he r$uc$ !m to an ext5sion & reflection ( bodily feel+s1 m5tal happ9ess prop]ly consi/+ 9 ! assurance ( prolong$ & pa9less s5sual gratification4 ,?is is some?+ v diff]5t f say+ t ! highe/ spiritual enjoym5ts are condition$ by ! heal?y activity ( ! bodily organs1 or t !y _c be appreciat$ if ! animal appetites are />v$4 ,x am\nts to say+ t !re are no specific & positive pleasures ap>t f ! five s5ses z ex]cis$ ei!r 9 reality or 9 imag9ation4#abh ,& ev5 )\t ! evid5ce ( ,cic]o1 we c see t "s su* conclusion necess>ily foll[$ f ! pr9ciples else:]e laid d[n by ,epicurus4 ,to a ,greek1 ! m5tal pleasures1 p> excell5ce1 7 ^? d]iv$ f fri5d%ip & f intellectual activity4 ,b our philosoph]1 :ile w>mly panegyris+ fri5d%ip1 recomm5ds x n = ! direct pleasure :i* x af=ds1 b = ! pa9 & dang] :i* x prev5ts2#abi :ile 8 re/riction ( sci5tific /udies to ! (fice ( dispell+ sup]/iti\s fe>s seems meant = a direct prote/ aga9/ ,ari/otle's op9ion1 t ! highe/ pleasure is d]iv$ f ^? /udies4 ,equally significant is 8 outspok5 contempt = lit]>y culture4#acj ,9 ?is respect1 he (f]s a m>k$ contra/ to ,ari/ippus1 :o1 :5 ask$ by "s "o :at good 8 son w\ld get by education1 answ]$1 #8,?is mu*1 at lea/1 t :5 he is at ! play he w n sit l a /one ^u a /one1'#aca ! cu/om>y attitude1 x w\ld seem1 ( an ord9>y ,a!nian auditor4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t ! popul> id5tification ( an ,epicurean ) a s5suali/ has some?+ to say 9 its fav\r4 ,nev]!less1 we h no reason to ?9k t ,epicurus 0 any?+ b p]fectly s9c]e :5 he repudiat$ ! *>ge ( be+ a m]e s5suali/4#acb ,b ! impulse :i* lift$ him above s5sualism 0 n d]iv$ f 8 own orig9al philosophy4 ,x 0 due to ! inspiration ( ,plato2 & no?+ te/ifies m to ,plato's moral greatness ?an t ! doctr9e mo/ oppos$ to 8 own idealism %\ld h be5 rais$ f ! du/ by ! example ( its flight4 ,we proce$ to %[ h[ ! peculi> =m assum$ by ,epicureanism 0 det]m9$ by ! pressure br\ght to be> on its orig9al g]m two g5]ations be=e4 ,x _h be5 urg$ aga9/ h$onism t pleasure is a process1 a movem5t2 :]eas ! supreme good mu/ be a complet$ product--an end 9 :i* we c re/4 ,aga9/ s5sual enjoym5ts 9 p>ticul>1 x _h be5 urg$ t !y are caus$ by ! satisfaction ( appetite1 &1 z su*1 mu/ result 9 a m]e negative condition1 m>k+ ! z]o po9t ( pleasurable s5ti5cy4 ,f9ally1 mu* /ress _h be5 laid on ! anti-social & suicidal consequ5ces ( t selfi% grasp+ at p[] to :i* habits ( unlimit$ self-indulg5ce mu/ infallibly lead4 ,! =m giv5 to h$onism by ,epicurus is a reaction aga9/ ^! criticisms1 a modification impos$ on x = ! purpose ( evad+ _! =ce4 ,he seems to admit t bodily satisfaction is r ! removal ( a want1 & consequ5tly ( a pa91 ?an a s\rce ( positive pleasure4 ,b ! result+ condition ( lib]ation f uneas9ess is1 accord+ to him1 all t we c desire2 & by ext5d+ ! same pr9ciple to e o!r good1 he indirectly br+s back ! m5tal felicity :i* at fir/ sight 8 sy/em ?reat5$ ei!r to exclude or to r$uce to a m]e %ad[ ( s5sual enjoym5t4 ,=1 9 calculat+ ! elem5ts ( unhapp9ess1 we h to deal1 n only ) pres5t discom=t1 b also1 & to a f> great] ext5t1 ) ! appreh5sion ( future evil4 ,we dread ! loss ( worldly goods1 ( fri5ds1 ( reputation1 ( life itself4 ,we are cont9ually expos$ to pa91 bo? f viol5ce & f disease4 ,we are haunt$ by visions ( div9e v5geance1 bo? "h & h]eaft]4 ,to get rid ( all su* t]rors1 to possess our s\ls 9 peace1 is ! highe/ good--a p]man5t1 z di/+ui%$ f a transi5t /ate ( consci\sness--& ! prop] bus9ess ( philosophy is to %[ u h[ t consummation may be atta9$4 ,?us we are br\ght back to t blissful self-contemplation ( m9d :i* ,ari/otle _h already decl>$ to be ! goal ( all endeav\r & ! sole happ9ess ( ,god4 ,b ,epicurus c\ld only borr[ ! lead+ pr9ciple ( 8 oppon5ts at ! exp5se ( an enorm\s inconsi/5cy4 ,x 0 long ago po9t$ out by ! ,academicians--& ! objection has nev] be5 answ]$--t pleasure & m]e pa9lessness _c bo? be ! highe/ good1 al?\gh ! "o may be an indisp5sable condition ( ! o!r4 ,to conf\nd ! means ) ! end 01 inde$1 a common fault ( ,greek philosophy2 & ! ,/oics also 7 guilty ( x :5 !y def9$ self-pres]vation to be ! natural object ( e creature1 & yet atta*$ a high] value to ! in/rum5ts ?an to ! aims ( t activity4 ,9 ,epicureanism1 h[ev]1 ! *ange ( front 0 m op51 & 0 attempt$ "u ! eyes ( acute & vigilant enemies4 ,if ! total abs5ce ( pa9 involves a pleasurable /ate ( consci\sness1 we h a "r to ask = a def9ition or description ( x1 & ?is1 s f> z c be made out1 our philosoph] nev] pret5d$ to supply4 ,( c\rse1 a mod]n psy*ologi/ c po9t out t ! functions ( respiration1 circulation1 secretion1 & absorption are con/antly go+ on1 & t1 9 _! normal activity1 !y give rise to a va/ sum ( pleasurable consci\sness1 :i* f> m ?an makes up 9 volume = :at x wants 9 acut5ess4 ,b1 :atev] 8 rec5t int]pret]s may say1#acc ,epicurus n[h]e alludes to ?is diffus$ feel+ ( vitality2 _h he recognis$ x1 8 enum]ation ( ! positive s5sations1 ap>t f :i* ! good is inconceivable1 w\ld h seem$ z incomplete to him z x does to u4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! complete removal ( pa9 introduces u to a /ate ( consci\sness1 :i*1 )\t be+ positively pleasurable1 has a positive value ( "s k9d1 we ought to be told :]e9 x diff]s f ! ideals ( ! spirituali/ s*ool2 :ile1 if x has no positive value at all1 we ought equally to be told :]e9 x diff]s f ! unconsci\sness ( sleep or ( dea?4 ,,iii4 ,we h n[ to see h[1 grant+ ,epicurus 8 conception ( pa9lessness z ! supreme good1 he proce$s to evolve f x a :ole e?ical1 !ological1 & physical sy/em4 ,= reasons already m5tion$1 ! e?ical developm5t mu/ be /udi$ fir/4 ,we %all !re=e beg9 ) an analysis ( ! p>ticul> virtues4 ,temp]ance1 z ! great self-reg>d+ duty1 obvi\sly takes prec$5ce ( ! o!rs4 ,9 deal+ ) ?is bran* ( 8 subject1 !re 0 no?+ to prev5t ,epicurus f pr(it+ by ! lab\rs ( 8 pr$ecessors1 & m especially ( ! naturali/ic s*ool f ,prodicus d[n4 ,s f> z mod]ation is conc]n$1 !re ne$ be little diff]5ce betwe5 a !ory ( conduct bas$ exclusively on ! int]e/s ( ! individual1 & a !ory :i* reg>ds him *iefly z a portion ( "s l>g] :ole4 ,accord+ly1 we f9d t our philosoph]1 9 8 praises ( frugality1 closely approximat$ to ! ,cynic & ,/oic /&>ds--s mu* s1 inde$1 t 8 expressions on ! subject are repeat$ly quot$ by ,s5eca z ! be/ t c\ld be f\nd4 ,p]haps ! ,roman morali/ valu$ !m less = _! own sake ?an z be+1 to "s ext5t1 ! admissions ( an oppon5t4 ,b1 9 tru?1 he 0 only reclaim+ :at ! pr9ciples ( 8 own sect _h orig9ally inspir$4 ,to be cont5t ) ! b>e/ necess>ies 0 a "p ( t ,nature-wor%ip aga9/ :i* ,greek humanism1 ) its h$oni/ic & ideali/ic (f%oots1 _h begun by vigor\sly prote/+4 ,h5ce _m passages 9 ,lucretius express exactly ! same s5tim5ts z ^? :i* are mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ,lat9 lit]ature at a "t :5 x is completely dom9at$ by ,/oic influ5ces4 ,x is ano!r ,cynic trait 9 ,epicurus t he %\ld address himself to a mu* wid] audi5ce ?an ! ,sophi/s1 or ev5 ?an ,socrates & 8 spirituali/ic successors4 ,?is circum/ance sugge/$ a new argum5t 9 fav\r ( temp]ance4 ,8 philosophy be+ int5d$ = ! use ( all mank9d )\t exception1 0 b\nd to %[ t happ9ess is )9 ! rea* ( ! poor z well z ( ! ri*2 & ?is c\ld n be did x dep5d1 to any appreciable ext5t1 on indulg5ces :i* weal? alone c pur*ase4 ,& ev5 ! ri* w n enjoy complete tranquillity unless !y are taught t ! loss ( =tune is n to be fe>$1 s9ce _! appetites c be easily satisfi$ )\t x4 ,?us ! pa9s aris+ f excess1 ?\gh d\btless n =gott51 seem to h be5 ! lea/ important motive to re/ra9t 9 8 tea*+4 ,! precepts ( ,epicurus are only too fai?fully foll[$ 9 ! s\!rn c\ntries = ^: b5efit !y 7 fir/ fram$4 ,x is a matt] ( common obs]vation1 t ! extreme frugality ( ! ,italians1 by leav+ !m satisfi$ ) ! b>e/ suffici5cy1 deprives !m ( a mo/ valuable spur to ex]tion1 & all[s a va/ fund ( possible en]gy to m\ld] away 9 li/less apa?y1 or to consume itself m rapidly 9 sordid vice4 ,moreov]1 z economi/s h long s9ce po9t$ out1 :]e ! /&>d ( com=t is high1 !re w be a l>ge available m>g9 to fall back ^u 9 p]iods ( di/ress2 :ile :]e x is l[1 ! limit ( subsi/5ce w be always dang]\sly ne>4 ,! enemies ( h$onism _h tak5 a malici\s satisfaction 9 id5tify+ x ) voluptu\s indulg5ce1 & _h scornfully ask$ if t c\ld be ! supreme good & prop] object ( virtu\s endeav\r1 ! enjoym5t ( :i* 0 habitually associat$ ) secresy & %ame4 ,x 01 p]haps1 to scre5 8 sy/em f su* reproa*es t ,epicurus w5t a long way t[>ds ! extreme limit ( asceticism1 & h9t$ at ! advisability ( complete ab/95ce f t :i*1 al?\gh natural1 is n necess>y to self-pres]vation1 & involves a s]i\s dra9 on ! vital en]gies4#acd ,9 ?is respect1 he 0 n foll[$ by ,lucretius1 :o has no objection to ! satisfaction ( animal in/9ct1 s long z x is n accompani$ by p]sonal passion4#ace ,nei!r ! ,greek morali/ nor ! ,roman poet c\ld =esee :at a great "p 9 ! hi/ory ( civilisation *ivalr\s devotion to a belov$ object 0 de/9$ to play1 al?\gh ! uses ( idealis$ desire _h already reveal$ !mselves to ,plato's p5etrat+ gaze4 ,) reg>d to ^? m ref9$ aspects ( temp]ance1 9 :i* x appe>s z a re/ra9t ex]cis$ by reason ov] ang]1 pity1 & grief1 ,epicurus & 8 foll[]s refus$ to g all l5g?s ) ! ,/oics 9 _! ef=t to extirpate emotion altoge!r4 ,b "h !y seem n to h proce$$ on any fix$ pr9ciple1 except t ( contradict+ ! opposite s*ool4 ,t ! sage w feel pity1 & sometimes %$ te>s1#acf is a s5tim5t f :i* few are n[ likely to diss5t2 yet ! absolute impassivity at :i* ,/oicism aim$ seems /ill m consi/5t ) a philosophy ^: ideal 0 complete exemption f pa92 :ile 9 practice x w\ld be r easi] to atta9 ?an ! p[] ( feel+ q happy on ! rack1 :i* ! accompli%$ ,epicurean 0 expect$ to possess4#acg ,next to ,temp]ance comes ,=titude2 & ) x ! difficulties ( reconcil+ ,epicureanism ) ! ord9>y morality are consid]ably increas$4 ,! old conception ( ?is virtue 0 will+ness to face pa9 & dea? on behalf ( a noble cause1#ach :i* w\ld be g5]ally und]/ood to mean ! salvation ( family1 fri5ds1 & fa!rl&2 & ! ultimate sanction ( su* self-devotion 0 f\nd 9 ! pressure ( public op9ion4 ,ideali/ic philosophy1 tak+ /ill high] gr\nd1 n only refus$ to balance ! fe> ( pa9 & dea? aga9/ ! fe> ( infamy or ! hope ( applause1 b add$ public op9ion to ! consid]ations :i* a good man 9 ! dis*>ge ( 8 duty w\ld1 if necess>y1 despise4 ,epicurus also inculcat$ disreg>d = reputation1 except :5 x might lead to inconv5i5ces ( a tangible description2#aci b he _h no?+ beyond ! calculations ( self-int]e/ to put 9 its place4 ,a mod]n utilit>ian is b\nd to und]go loss & suff]+ 9 8 own p]son = ! prev5tion ( great] loss & suff]+ else:]e2 an egoi/ic h$oni/ _c consi/5tly be brave1 except = ! sake ( 8 own future security4 ,! me?od by :i* ,epicurus reconcil$ int]e/ ) c\rage 0 to m9imise ! importance ( :atev] injuries c\ld be inflict$ by ext]nal circum/ances2 j z 9 8 !ory ( ,temp]ance he _h m9imis$ ! importance ( bodily pleasures4 ,h[ he dispos$ ( dea? w be/ be se5 9 connexion ) 8 physical philosophy4 ,pa9 he enc\nt]$ by emphasis+1 or r imm5sely exagg]at+1 ! m9d's p[] ( annull+ ext]nal s5sation by conc5trat+ its :ole att5tion on rememb]$ or anticipat$ pleasures1 or else on ! c]ta9ty t pres5t suff]+ mu/ come to an end1 & to a m spe$y end 9 proportion to its great] sev]ity4 ,we are to hold a fire 9 our h&1 p>tly by ?9k+ ( ! fro/y ,caucasus1 p>tly by ! com=t+ reflection t ! pa9 ( a burn1 be+ int5se1 w n be ( long duration2 :ile1 at wor/1 l ! ,/oics1 we h ! res\rce ( suicide z a la/ refuge f intol]able suff]+4#adj ,) ! ,epicurean !ory ( ,ju/ice1 ! di/ortion1 already suffici5tly obvi\s1 is c>ri$ /ill fur!r2 al?\gh we mu/ frankly admit t x includes "s ap]u /rik+ly 9 advance ( all t _h hi!rto be5 writt5 on ! subject4 ,ju/ice1 accord+ to our philosoph]1 is nei!r an int]nal balance ( ! s\l's faculties1 nor a rule impos$ by ! w ( ! /rong]1 b a mutual agreem5t to ab/a9 f aggressions1 v>y+ f "t to "t ) ! v>y+ int]e/s ( society1 & always det]m9$ by consid]ations ( g5]al utility4#ada ,?is is excell5t3 we miss1 inde$1 ! ,/oic idea ( a common humanity1 embrac+1 und]ly+1 & transc5d+ all p>ticul> contracts2 b we h1 9 ex*ange1 ! idea ( a g5]al int]e/ equival5t to ! sum ( private int]e/s1 toge!r ) ! means necess>y = _! jo9t pres]vation2 & we h also ! =m "u :i* ! notion ( ju/ice orig9ates1 ?\gh n ! measure ( its ultimate expansion1 :i* is reg>d = ! g5]al int]e/1 ev5 :5 we are n b\nd by any contract to obs]ve x4 ,b :5 we g on to ask :y contracts %\ld be adh]$ to1 ,epicurus has no reason to (f] beyond dread ( puni%m5t4 ,8 words1 z translat$ by ,mr4 ,wallace1 are3--#8,inju/ice is n 9 itself a bad ?+1 b only 9 ! fe> aris+ f anxiety on ! "p ( ! wrong-do] t he w n always escape puni%m5t4'#adb ,?is 0 evid5tly meant = a direct contradiction ( ,plato's ass]tion1 t1 ap>t f its p5al consequ5ces1 inju/ice is a disease ( ! s\l1 involv+ m mis*ief to ! p]petrator ?an to ! victim4 ,mr4 ,wallace1 h[ev]1 takes a diff]5t view ( 8 au?or's mean+4 ,accord+ to him1 ,if we int]pret ?is doctr9e1 aft] ! example ( "s ( ! anci5ts1 to mean t any wrong-do+ w\ld be innoc5t & good1 suppos+ x escap$ detection1 we %all probably be miscon/ru+ ,epicurus4 ,:at he seems to allude to is r ! case ( /rictly legal enactm5ts1 :]e1 previ\sly to law1 ! action ne$ n h be5 p>ticul>ly moral or immoral2 :]e1 9 fact1 ! common agreem5t has e/abli%$ a rule :i* is n completely 9 h>mony ) ! #8ju/ice ( nature4' ,9 %ort1 ,epicurus is prote/+ aga9/ ! conception ( inju/ice1 :i* makes x consi/ 9 disob$i5ce to political & social rules1 impos$ & en=c$ by public & au?oritative sanctions4 ,he is prote/+1 9 o!r words1 aga9/ ! claims ( ! ,/ate ^u ! citiz5s = _! complete ob$i5ce2 aga9/ ! old ideas ( ! div9e sanctity & maje/y ( law z law2 aga9/ !ories l t ma9ta9$ by contempor>ies ( ,socrates1 t !re c\ld be no su* ?+ z an unju/ law4#adc ,epicurus 0 assur$ly n a ma/] ( language1 b _h he meant all t is "h put into 8 m\?1 he w\ld h>dly h be5 at a loss = words to say x4 ,rememb]+ t ! con/itut$ a sort ( cre$ drawn up by ! ma/] himself = 8 disciples to le>n by he>t1#add & t ! incrim9at$ passage is "o ( ! articles 9 t cre$1 we ne$ only look at ! context to make c]ta9 t x has be5 entirely misread by 8 apologi/4#ade ,9 ! ?ree prec$+ articles1 we are told t ju/ice is by nature a contract = ! prev5tion ( aggressions1 t x does n exi/ among animals :i* are unable1 nor among tribes ( m5 :i* are ei!r unable or unwill+ to ent] into su* an agreem5t1 &--) reit]at$ emphasis--t1 ap>t f contracts1 x has no orig9al exi/5ce 7o ' 74 ,!re is no?+ at all ab\t a true z di/+ui%$ f a false ju/ice2 !re is no allusion :atev] to ! !ories ( any #8contempor>ies ( ,socrates2' ! polemic ref]5ce1 if any1 is to ,plato1 & to ,plato alone4 ,!n comes ! decl>ation quot$ above1 to ! effect t inju/ice is n an evil 9 itself1 b only an evil ?r\gh ! dread ( puni%m5t :i* x produces4 ,n[1 by inju/ice1 ,epicurus mu/ simply mean ! opposite ( :at he def9$ ju/ice to be 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph--t is1 a brea* ( ! agreem5t n to hurt "o ano!r 7 74 ,! au?ority ( ! ,/ate is evid5tly conceiv$1 n z sup]s$+1 b z en=c+ agreem5ts4 ,! succe$+ article /ill fur!r confirms ! view reject$ by ,mr4 ,wallace4 ,epicurus tells u t no man :o /eal?ily evades ! contract to ab/a9 f mutual aggressions c be sure ( escap+ detection4 ,?is is evid5tly add$ to %[ t1 ap>t f any my/ical sanctions1 fe> ( puni%m5t is q en\gh to det] a prud5t man f committ+ crimes4 ,& we c see t no o!r det]r5t 0 recognis$ by ,lucretius1 :51 9 evid5t ref]5ce to 8 ma/]'s words1 he m5tions ! fe>s ( ^? :o (f5d--n aga9/ m]e conv5tional rules1 b aga9/ human rights 9 g5]al--z ! great safegu>d ( ju/ice4#adf ,we may1 inde$1 fairly ask :at gu>antee aga9/ wrong-do+ ( any k9d c\ld be suppli$ by a sy/em :i* made ! supreme good ( ea* individual consi/ 9 8 immunity f pa9 & fe>1 except t v pa9 or fe> :i* he 0 above all ?+s to avoid8 ,! wise man might reasonably give 8 ass5t to enactm5ts int5d$ = ! common good ( all m51 includ+ himself among ! numb]2 b :5 8 concrete int]e/ z a private citiz5 came into collision ) 8 ab/ract int]e/s z a social unit1 "o does n see h[ ! qu>rel 0 to be decid$ on ,epicurean pr9ciples1 except by /rik+ a balance betwe5 ! pa9s respectively result+ f ju/ice & inju/ice4 ,"h1 ,epicurus1 9 8 anxiety to %[ t h$onism1 rightly und]/ood1 l$ to ! same results z ! accept$ sy/ems ( morality1 ov]-e/imat$ ! policy ( hone/y4 ,!re are cases 9 :i* ! wrong-do] may c\nt on immunity f dang] ) m confid5ce ?an :5 ent]+ on su* ord9>y ent]prises z a sea-voyage or a comm]cial speculation2 !re are ev5 cases :]e a s+le crime might free him f :at else w\ld be a lifelong dread4 ,&1 at wor/1 he c fall back on ! ,epicurean argum5ts prov+ t nei!r physical pa9 nor dea? is to be fe>$1 :ile ! ?reats ( div9e v5geance are a baseless dream4#adg ,! radical selfi%ness ( ,epicureanism comes out /ill m di/9ctly 9 its attitude t[>ds political activity4 ,n only does x sy/ematically disc\rage m]e p]sonal ambition--! desire ( possess+ political p[] = ! fur!rance ( "o's own ends--b x passes a l condemnation on dis9t]e/$ ef=ts to improve ! condition ( ! p by legislation2 :ile ! g5]al rule laid d[n = ! wise man 9 8 capacity ( citiz5 is passive ob$i5ce to ! e/abli%$ au?orities1 to be dep>t$ f only :5 ! exig5cies ( self-def5ce require x4 ,on ?is ,mr4 ,wallace obs]ves t #8political life1 :i* 9 all ages has be5 impossible = ^? :o _h n weal?1 & :o 7 unwill+ to mix !mselves ) vile & impure associates1 0 n to ! m9d ( ,epicurus4'#adh ,no au?ority is quot$ to prove t ! ab/5tion recomm5d$ by ,epicurus 0 dictat$ by puri/ s5tim5ts ( any k9d2 nor c we readily admit t x is impossible to record a vote1 to canvass at an election1 or ev5 to address a public meet+1 )\t fulfill+ "o or o!r ( ! conditions specifi$ by ,mr4 ,wallace2 & we "k by ! example ( ,littr t x is possible = a poor man to take a r prom95t "p 9 public life1 )\t ! slighte/ sacrifice ( p]sonal dignity4#adi ,x mu/ also be rememb]$ t ,epicurus 0 n speak+ = himself alone2 he 0 giv+ practical advice to all :om x might conc]n--advice ( :i* he ?\ght1 aeque paup]ibus prode/1 locupletibus aeque2 s t :5 ,mr4 ,wallace adds t1 #8above all1 x is n ! bus9ess ( a philosoph] to become a political p>tisan1 & sp5d 8 life 9 an atmosph]e ( av>ici\s & malignant passions1'#aej we mu/ obs]ve t ,epicureanism 0 n design$ to make philosoph]s1 b p]fect m54 ,! real "q is :e!r x w\ld s]ve ! public int]e/ 7 all :o endeav\r to %ape _! lives by ! precepts ( philosophy to )draw !mselves entirely f p>ticipation 9 ! affairs ( _! c\ntry4 ,&1 hav+ reg>d to ! g5]al "* ( ! sy/em n[ "u consid]ation1 we may n un*>itably surmise t ! motive = ab/5tion :i* x suppli$ 0 selfi% love ( ease f> m ?an unwill+ness to be mix$ up ) ! dirty "w ( politics4 ,epicureanism allott$ a f> l>g] place to fri5d%ip ?an to all ! o!r social virtues put toge!r2 & ! disciple 0 taught to look to x n only = ! satisfaction ( 8 altrui/ic impulses1 b = ! cr[n+ happ9ess ( 8 life4 ,! egoi/ic basis ( ! sy/em 01 inde$1 made suffici5tly prom95t ev5 "h2 utility & pleasure1 :i* ,ari/otle _h exclud$ f ! notion ( true fri5d%ip1 be+ decl>$ its prop] ends4 ,all ! conditions ( a dis9t]e/$ atta*m5t 71 h[ev]1 br\ght back by a circuit\s process4 ,x 0 argu$ t ! full value ( fri5d%ip c\ld n be reap$ except by ^? ^: affection = ea* o!r w5t to ! ext5t ( complete self-devotion2 b ! ,epicureans 7 less successful 9 %[+ h[ ?is happy condition c\ld be realis$ consi/5tly ) ! /udy ( 8 own int]e/ by ea* individual4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 x 0 realis$2 & ! memb]s ( ?is s*ool became rem>kable1 above all o!rs1 = ! t5d]ness & fidelity ( _! p]sonal atta*m5ts4 ,b we may suspect t =mal precepts _h little to d ) ! result4 ,e/rangem5t f ! popul> cre$1 :5 /ill uncommon1 has always a t5d5cy to draw ! dissid5ts toge!r2#aea & :]e o!r ties1 :e!r religi\s1 dome/ic1 or patriotic1 are neglect$1 ! ord9>y in/9cts ( human nature are likely to %[ !mselves ) all ! m en]gy 9 ! only rema9+ =m ( union4 ,moreov]1 ! *e]ful1 cont5t$1 ab/emi\s1 unambiti\s *>act]s :o w\ld be ! mo/ readily attract$ to ! ,epicurean bro!rhood suppli$ ! v mat]ials t mo/ readily unite 9 placid & endur+ atta*m5ts4 ,a tol]ably /rict /&>d ( or?odoxy provid$ aga9/ !oretical diss5sions3 nor 7 ! new conv]ts likely to possess ei!r d>+ or orig9ality en\gh to excite controv]sies :]e !y did n already exi/4 ,,iv4 ,aft] elim9at+ all ! s\rces ( mis]y due to folly & vice1 ,epicurus _h /ill to deal ) :at1 9 8 op9ion1 7 ! mo/ =midable ob/acles to human happ9ess1 dread ( ! div9e ang] & dread ( dea?1 ei!r 9 itself1 or z ! entrance on ano!r life4 ,to meet ^!1 he compil$1 = we c h>dly say con/ruct$1 an elaborate sy/em ( physical philosophy1 hav+ = its object to %[ t ,nature is entirely gov]n$ by me*anical causes1 & t ! s\l p]i%es ) ! body4 ,we h already m5tion$ t = sci5ce z su* & ap>t f its e?ical applications he nei!r c>$ nor pret5d$ to c>e 9 ! lea/4 ,x seems1 !re=e1 r surpris+ t he c\ld n manage1 l ! ,sceptics be=e him1 to get rid ( sup]naturalism by a some:at m exp$iti\s me?od4 ,! explanation seems to be t to give "s acc\nt ( natural ph5om5a _h become1 9 8 "t1 a necessity = e "o aspir+ to f\nd a philosophical sy/em4 ,a brilliant example _h be5 set by ,plato & ,ari/otle1 ( :om ! =m]1 too1 _h app>5tly yield$ to ! popul> dem& r ?an foll[$ ! b5t ( 8 own g5ius1 9 turn+ aside f e?ics to physics2 & ,z5o _h simil>ly includ$ ! :ole ( k 9 8 tea*+4 ,! old ,greek curiosity respect+ ! causes ( ?+s 0 /ill alive2 & a simil> curiosity 0 d\btless awak5+ among ^? populations to :om ,greek civilisation _h be5 c>ri$ by colonisation1 comm]ce1 & conque/4 ,n[1 ^? sci5tific speculations are always ! mo/ popul> :i* c be %[n to h "s be>+ on religi\s belief1 ei!r 9 ! way ( confirmation or ( opposition1 accord+ z fai? or d\bt happ5s to be mo/ 9 ! asc5d5t4 ,fifty ye>s ago1 among ourselves1 no "w on natural philosophy c\ld hope = a l>ge circulation unless x 0 fill$ ) teleological applications4 ,at pres5t1 lib]al op9ions are ga9+ gr\nd2 & ^? treatises are mo/ eag]ly /udi$ :i* t5d to prove t ev]y?+ 9 ,nature c be be/ expla9$ ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( me*anical causation4 ,at nei!r p]iod is x ! facts !mselves :i* h excit$ mo/ att5tion1 b _! possible be>+ on our own int]e/s4 ,among ! contempor>ies ( ,epicurus1 ! two curr5ts ( ?\ght t 9 m rec5t times h enjoy$ an alt]nate triumph1 seem to h co-exi/$ z =ces ( ab\t equal /r5g?4 ,! old sup]/itions 7 reject$ by all ?9k+ m52 & ! only "q 0 by :at new fai? !y %\ld be replac$4 ,poets & philosoph]s _h alike lab\r$ to br+ ab\t a religi\s re=mation by exhibit+ ! popul> my?ology 9 its grotesque de=mity1 & by con/ruct+ sy/ems 9 :i* pure mono!ism 0 m or less di/9ctly proclaim$4 ,b x suit$ ! purpose1 p]haps x gratifi$ ! vanity ( ,epicurus to talk z if ! "w ( deliv]ance /ill rema9$ to be done1 z if m5 7 /ill groan+ "u ! incubus ( sup]/itions :i* he alone c\ld tea* !m to %ake (f4 ,he seems1 inde$1 to h conf\nd$ ! old & ! new fai?s "u a common opprobrium1 & to h assum$ t ! popul> religion 0 ma9ly support$ by ,/oic argum5ts1 or t ! ,/oic optimism 0 n less productive ( sup]/iti\s t]rors ?an ! gloomy poly!ism :i* x 0 design$ to sup]s$e4#aeb ,aga91 :ile attack+ ! belief 9 human immortality1 ,epicurus seems to direct 8 bl[s aga9/ ! metaphysical reason+s ( ,plato1#aec z well z aga9/ ! indi/9ct =ebod+s ( primitive imag9ation4 ,! consequ5ces ( ?is two-edg$ polemic are v rem>kable4 ,9 read+ ,lucretius1 we are surpris$ at ! total abs5ce ( criticisms l ^? br\ght to be> on ,greek my?ology ) su* =midable effect1 fir/ by ,plato &1 long aft]w>ds1 by ,lucian4 ,!re is a mu* m mod]n tone ab\t 8 invectives1 & !y seem aim$ at an enemy famili> to ourselves4 ,"o w\ld suppose t ! adv5t ( ,ca?olicism _h be5 reveal$ 9 a prophetic vision to ! poet1 & t ?is1 r ?an ! religion ( 8 own times1 0 ! object ( 8 wra? & dread2 or else t "s *ild ( ! ,r5aissance 0 seek+ = a fre] utt]ance ( 8 own revolt aga9/ all !ology1 "u ! disguise ( a dead language & ( a w>f>e ) long-discr$it$ gods4 ,= ?is reason1 ,*ri/ians h always reg>d$ him1 ) p]fect ju/ice1 z a dang]\s enemy2 :ile rationali/s ( ! fi]c] type h accept$ 8 spl5did d5unciations z ! appropriate expression ( _! own mo/ *]i%$ feel+s4 ,! explanation ( ?is anomaly is1 we believe1 to be f\nd 9 ! fact t ,ca?olicism did1 to a great ext5t1 actually spr+ f a cont9uation ( ^? widely diff]5t t5d5cies :i* ,epicurus conf\nd$ 9 a common assault4 ,x _h an intellectual basis 9 ! ,platonic & ,/oic philosophies1 & a popul> basis 9 ! revival ( ^? manifold sup]/itions :i*1 und]ly+ ! brilliant civilisations ( ,greece & ,rome1 7 always ready to break out ) r5ew$ viol5ce :5 _! re/ra9+ pressure 0 remov$4 ,! revival ( :i* we speak 0 p[]fully aid$ f )\t4 ,! same movem5t t 0 c>ry+ ,hell5ic culture into ,asia 0 br++ ,ori5tal delusions by a sort ( back curr5t into ! ,we/]n _w4 ,nor 0 ?is all4 ,! relaxation ( all political bonds1 toge!r ) ! indiff]5ce ( ! educat$ classes1 besides all[+ a rank und]gr[? ( popul> beliefs to spr+ up un*eck$1 surr5d]$ ! regulation ( ^? beliefs into ! h&s ( a pr(ession :i* x _h hi!rto be5 ! policy ( e anci5t republic to keep "u rigid re/ra9t--! accr$it$ or in=mal m9i/]s ( religion4#aed ,n[1 ! *ief *>act]i/ic ( a prie/ly ord] has always & ev]y:]e be5 insatiable av>ice4 ,:5 =bidd5 to acquire weal? 9 _! individual capacity1 !y grasp at x all ! m eag]ly 9 _! corporate capacity4 ,&1 z ! ,epicureans probably p]ceiv$1 !re is no eng9e :i* !y c use s effectually = ! gratification ( ?is passion z ! belief 9 a future life4 ,:at !y h to tell ab\t ?is is (t5 describ$ by !mselves & _! support]s z a message ( joy to ! we>y & afflict$4 ,b "u _! treatm5t x is v f> f be+ a consolatory belief4 ,d>k %ades & lurid lights pr$om9ate consid]ably 9 _! pictures ( ! _w beyond ! grave2 & "h1 z we %all pres5tly %[1 !y are aid$ by an irresi/ible in/9ct ( human nature4 ,on ?is subject1 also1 !y c speak ) unlimit$ confid5ce2 =1 :ile _! o!r /atem5ts ab\t ! sup]natural are liable to be contradict$ by exp]i5ce1 ! abode ( s\ls is a b\rne f :i* no travell] returns to disprove ! accuracy ( _! /atem5ts4 ,t su* a t5d5cy 0 at "w "s "t be=e ! age ( ,epicurus is %[n by ! foll[+ passage f ,plato's ,republic3-- ,m5dicant prophets g to ri* m5's doors & p]suade !m t !y h a p[] committ$ to !m ( mak+ atonem5t = _! s9s or ^? ( _! fa!rs by sacrifices or *>ms4444 ,& !y produce a ho/ ( books 444 accord+ to :i* !y p]=m _! ritual1 & p]suade n only individuals b :ole cities1 t expiations & atonem5ts = s9 may be made by sacrifices & amusem5ts :i* fill a vacant h\r1#aee & are equally at ! s]vice ( ! liv+ & ! dead2 ! latt] sort !y call my/]ies1 & !y r$eem u f ! pa9s ( hell1 b if we neglect !m no "o kn[s :at awaits u4#aef ,let u n[ pass ov] f\rte5 c5turies & see to :at results ! doctr9e taught by ,plato himself l$ :5 x _h ent]$ into an alliance ) ! sup]/itions :i* he d5\nc$4 ,our illu/ration %all be tak5 f a sa9t$ h]o ( ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,9 a s]mon prea*$ be=e ,pope ,ni*olas ,,ii4 at ,arezzo1 ! fam\s ,hildebr&1 aft]w>ds ,gregory ,,vii41 relates ! foll[+ /ory3-- ,9 "o ( ! prov9ces ( ,g]many !re di$1 ab\t t5 ye>s ago1 a c]ta9 c\nt1 :o _h be5 ri* & p[]ful1 &1 :at is a/oni%+ = "o ( t class1 he 01 accord+ to ! judgm5t ( man1 pure 9 fai? & innoc5t 9 8 life4 ,"s "t aft] 8 dea?1 a holy man desc5d$ 9 _s to hell1 & beheld ! c\nt /&+ on ! topmo/ rung ( a ladd]4 ,he tells u t ?is ladd] /ood unconsum$ amid ! crackl+ flames ar\nd2 & t x _h be5 plac$ !re to receive ! family ( ! a=esaid c\nt4 ,!re 01 moreov]1 ! black & frightful abyss out ( :i* rose ! fatal ladd]4 ,x 0 s ord]$ t ! la/ com] took 8 /& at ! top ( ! ladd]1 & :5 ! re/ ( ! family arriv$ he w5t d[n "o /ep1 & all bel[ him did likewise4 ,z ! la/ ( ! same family :o di$ came & took 8 place1 age aft] age1 on ?is ladd]1 x foll[$ inevitably t !y all successively rea*$ ! dep? ( hell4 ,! holy man :o beheld ?is ?+1 ask$ ! reason ( ?is t]rible damnation1 & especially h[ x 0 t ! seigneur :om he _h kn[n & :o _h liv$ a life ( ju/ice & well-do+ %\ld be ?us puni%$4 ,& he he>d a voice say+1 #8,x is because ( c]ta9 l&s belong+ to ! *ur* ( ,metz1 :i* 7 tak5 f ! bless$ ,/eph5 by "o ( ?is man's ance/ors1 f :om he 0 ! t5? 9 desc5t1 & = ?is cause all ^! m5 h s9n$ by ! same av>ice & are subject$ to ! same puni%m5t 9 et]nal fire4'#aeg ,9 view ( su* facts z ^!1 we _c blame ! ,epicureans if !y reg>d$ ! doctr9e ( future retribution z any?+ b a consolatory or ennobl+ belief1 & if !y deem$ t to extirpate x 0 to cut out a mis*iev\s delusion by ! roots3-- ,et m]ito3 nam si c]ta9 f9em esse vid]5t ,a]umn>um hom9es aliqua ratione val]5t ,relligionibus1 atque m9is obsi/]e vatum3 ,nunc ratio nulla #8/ re/&i1 nulla facultas1 ,aet]nas quoniam po5as 9 morte tim5dum4'#aeh ,& x is no wond] t ! words ( _! great poet %\ld read l a prophetic exposure ( ! t]rors ) :i* ! religi\s revival1 bas$ on a coalition ( philosophy & sup]/ition1 0 %ortly to ov]spread ! :ole horizon ( human life4 ,s /rong1 h[ev]1 0 ! !ological reaction aga9/ ,greek rationalism t ,epicurus himself came "u its influ5ce4 ,in/ead ( d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( ! gods altoge!r1 or leav+ x unc]ta9 l ,protagoras1 he ass]t$ x 9 ! mo/ emphatic mann]4 ,_! int]f]5ce ) ,nature 0 all t he c>$ to dispute4 ,! egoi/ic "* ( 8 :ole sy/em comes out once m 9 8 conception ( !m z be+s too mu* absorb$ 9 _! own placid enjoym5ts to be tr\bl$ ) ! "w ( creation & provid5ce4 ,he 01 inde$1 only repeat+ al\d :at _h long be5 :isp]$ 9 ! free-?9k+ circles ( ,a!nian society4 ,t ! gods 7 indiff]5t to human int]e/s 0 a h]esy indignantly d5\nc$ by ,aes*ylus1#aei ma9ta9$ by ,ari/odmus1 ! fri5d ( ,socrates1 & s+l$ out z a fit subject = puni%m5t by ,plato4 ,nor 0 ! !ology ( ,ari/otle's ,metaphysics practically di/+ui%able f su* a doctr9e4 ,al?\gh ess5tial to ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ! cosmos1 consid]$ z a sy/em ( movem5ts1 ! ,prime ,mov] communicates ! requir$ impulse by ! m]e fact ( 8 exi/5ce1 & app>5tly )\t any consci\sness ( ! effect he is produc+4 ,active b5efic5ce _h1 9 tru?1 ev5 less to d ) ! ideal ( ,ari/otle ?an ) ! ideal ( ,epicurus1 & ea* philosoph] con/ruct$ a god aft] 8 own image2 ! "o absorb$ 9 p]petual ?\ght1 ! o!r1 or m prop]ly ! o!rs1 9 p]petual enjoym5t2 = ! ,epicurean deities 7 necess>ily conceiv$ z a plurality1 t !y might n be )\t ! pleasure ( fri5dly conv]sation4 ,nev]!less1 ! "p assign$ by ,ari/otle to 8 god p]mitt$ him to (f] a mu* /rong] pro( ( ! div9e exi/5ce & attributes ?an 0 possible to ,epicurus1 :o _h no?+ bett] to adduce ?an ! univ]sal belief ( mank9d1--an argum5t obvi\sly prov+ too mu*1 s9ce x told1 if any?+1 m p[]fully = ! int]f]5ce ?an = ! b>e reality ( sup]natural ag5ts4 ,our philosoph] appe>s to m advantage z a critic ?an z a religi\s dogmati/4 ,he meets ! ,/oic belief 9 ,provid5ce by po9t+ out ! und5iable preval5ce ( evils :i* omnipot5t b5evol5ce c\ld n be suppos$ to tol]ate2 ! ,/oic optimism1 ) its doctr9e1 /ill a popul> "o1 t all ?+s 7 creat$ = ! good ( man1 by a ref]5ce to ! gl>+ defects :i*1 on t hypo!sis1 w\ld vitiate ! arrangem5ts ( ,nature2 ! ,/oic appeal to om5s & prophecies by %[+ ! purely accid5tal "* ( _! fulfilm5t4#afj ,b he tru/s mo/ ( all to a radically diff]5t explanation ( ! _w1 an explanation :i* ev]y:]e sub/itutes me*anical causation = design4 ,only "o among ! old] sy/ems--! atomism ( ,democritus--_h consi/5tly c>ri$ out su* a conception ( ,nature1 & ?is1 accord+ly1 ,epicurus adopts 9 its ma9 outl9es4 ,v4 ,x is g5]ally assum$ by ! ,g]man critics t ! atomic !ory 0 peculi>ly fitt$ to s]ve z a basis = ! individuali/ic e?ics ( ,epicureanism4 ,to ?is we c h>dly agree4 ,! insignificance & p[]lessness ( ! atoms1 except :5 aggregat$ toge!r 9 enorm\s numb]s1 w\ld seem to be naturally m fav\rable to a sy/em :]e ! community w5t = ev]y?+ & ! individual = no?+2 nor does ! g5]al acceptance ( atomism by mod]n sci5ce seem to be accompani$ by any relaxation ( ! social s5tim5t 9 its pr(essors4 ,_h ! ,/oics foll[$ ,democritus & ,epicurus ,h]acleitus--at lea/ a conceivable hypo!sis--"s equally cog5t reason w\ld d\btless h be5 =?com+ to indicate ! appropriat5ess ( _! *oice4#afa ,z x is1 we h no evid5ce t ,epicurus saw any?+ m 9 ! atomic !ory ?an a conv5i5t explanation ( ! _w on purely me*anical pr9ciples4 ,! division ( matt] into m9ute & inde/ructible p>ticles s]v$ admirably to acc\nt = ! gradual =mation & disappe>ance ( bodies )\t necessitat+ ! help ( a creator4 ,b ! inf9ities assum$ z a condition ( atomism 7 ( ev5 great] importance4 ,:]e "t & space are unlimit$1 ! quantity ( matt] mu/ be equally unlimit$1 o!rwise1 be+ compos$ ( loose p>ticles1 x w\ld long s9ce h be5 dissipat$ & lo/ 9 ! surr\nd+ void4 ,n[1 giv5 inf9ite "t & space1 & inf9ite atoms capable ( comb9+ ) "o ano!r 9 v>i\s ways1 all possible comb9ations mu/ already h be5 tri$1 n once or twice1 b inf9itely (t54 ,( su* comb9ations1 t :i* be/ fulfils ! conditions ( me*anical /ability w la/ ! longe/1 &1 )\t be+ design$1 w pres5t all ! *>act]s ( design4 ,& ?is1 accord+ to ,epicurus1 is h[ ! actual frame ( ?+s comes to be :at x is4 ,nor 0 x only ! _w z a :ole t he expla9$ by ! !ory ( a s+le happy accid5t occurr+ aft] a multitude ( =tuit\s exp]im5ts4 ,! same process repeats itself on a small] scale 9 ! production ( p>ticul> comp\nds4 ,all sorts ( liv+ bodies 7 orig9ally ?r[ up f ! e>?'s bosom1 b _m ( !m in/antly p]i%$1 n be+ provid$ ) ! means ( nutrition1 propagation1 or self-def5ce4 ,9 l mann] we are enabl$ to recall a p>ticul> ?\ght at pleasure1 because innum]able images are cont9ually pass+ ?r\gh ! m9d1 none ( :i* comes into ! =egr\nd ( consci\sness until att5tion is fix$ on x2 ?\gh h[ we come to di/+ui% x f ! re/ is n expla9$4 ,s also1 only ^? societies surviv$ & became civilis$ :]e contracts 7 fai?fully obs]v$4 ,all k9ds ( wild bea/s h at diff]5t times be5 employ$ 9 w>1 j z horses & elephants are n[1 b on trial 7 f\nd unmanageable & giv5 up4#afb ,x w be se5 t :at has be5 s+l$ out z an anticipation ( ! ,d>w9ian !ory 0 only "o application ( a v compreh5sive me?od = elim9at+ design f ! univ]se4 ,b ( :at is mo/ orig9al & ess5tial 9 ,d>w9ism1 t is1 ! modifiability ( specific =ms by ! summ+ up ( spontane\s v>iations 9 a giv5 direction1 ! ,epicureans _h n ! slighte/ suspicion4 ,& :]ev] !y or _! ma/] h1 9 o!r respects1 made "s approa* to ! tru?s ( mod]n sci5ce1 x may fairly be expla9$ on _! own pr9ciple z a s+le lucky guess out ( _m false guesses4 ,! mod]n doctr9e ( evolution1 :ile rely+ l>gely on ! f]tility ( multipli$ *ances1 is n oblig$ to assume su* an enorm\s numb] ( simultane\s co9cid5ces z ,epicurus4 ,! ascription ( c]ta9 def9ite attractions & repulsions to ! ultimate p>ticles ( matt] w\ld alone re/rict _! possible modes ( aggregation )9 comp>atively n>r[ limits4 ,!n1 aga91 ! _w seems to h be5 built up by successive /ages1 at ea* ( :i* "s new =ce or comb9ation ( =ces came into play1 a firm basis hav+ be5 already secur$ = :atev] v>iations !y 7 capable ( produc+4 ,?us ! sol> sy/em is a /ate ( equilibrium result+ f ! action ( two v simple =ces1 gravitation & heat4 ,on ! surface ( ! e>?1 cohesion & *emical aff9ity h be5 sup]add$4 ,:5 a fre% equilibrium _h result$ f _! jo9t en]gy1 ! m complex conditions ( life f\nd free scope = _! ex]cise4 ,! trans=mations ( liv+ species 7 simil>ly effect$ by v>iation on v>iation4 ,&1 f9ally1 9 "o species1 ! satisfaction ( its animal wants set free ^? m ref9$ impulses by :i*1 aft] _m exp]im5ts1 civilisation has be5 built up4 ,obvi\sly ! total sum ( adaptations necess>y to con/itute our actual _w w h ! probabilities ( its occurr5ce enorm\sly increas$ if we suppose ! m g5]al conditions to be e/abli%$ prior to1 & 9 complete indep5d5ce (1 ! less g5]al1 in/ead ( limit+ ourselves1 l ! anci5t atomi/s1 to "o va/ simultane\s %uffle ( all ! mat]ial & dynamical elem5ts involv$4 ,return+ to ,epicurus1 we h next to consid] h[ he obta9$ ! v>i\s motions requir$ to br+ 8 atoms into ^? inf9ite comb9ations ( :i* our _w is only ! mo/ rec5t4 ,! conception ( matt] naturally end[$ ) capacities = mov+ 9 all directions indiff]5tly 0 unkn[n to anci5t physics1 z 0 also t ( mutual attraction & repulsion4 ,democritus suppos$ t ! atoms all gravitat$ d[nw>d ?r\gh inf9ite space1 b ) diff]5t velocities1 s t ! light] 7 p]petually ov]tak5 & driv5 upw>ds by ! heavi]1 ! result ( ^! collisions & pressures be+ a vortex :5ce ! _w z we see x has proce$$4#afc ,:ile ! atomism ( ,democritus 01 z a !ory ( matt]1 ! greate/ contribution ev] made to physical sci5ce by pure speculation1 z a !ory ( motion x 0 op5 to at lea/ ?ree insup]able objections4 ,pass+ ov] ! difficulty ( a p]petual movem5t ?r\gh space 9 "o direction only1 !re rema9$ ! self-contradictory assumption t an inf9ite numb] ( atoms all mov+ toge!r 9 t "o direction c\ld f9d any unoccupi$ space to fall into4#afd ,secondly1 a/ronomical discov]ies1 e/abli%+ z !y did ! sph]icity ( ! e>?1 _h = ev] disprov$ ! crude !ory t unsupport$ bodies fall d[nw>d 9 p>allel /raight l9es4 ,ev5 grant+ t ! a/ronom]s1 9 ! abs5ce ( complete empirical v]ification1 c\ld n prove _! :ole cont5tion1 !y c\ld at any rate prove en\gh ( x to de/roy ! notion ( p>allel desc5t2 = ! v>y+ elevation ( ! pole-/> demon/rat$ ! curvature ( ! e>?'s surface s f> z x 0 accessible to obs]vation1 ?us %[+ t1 )9 ! limits ( exp]i5ce1 gravitation act$ along conv]g5t l9es4 ,f9ally1 ,ari/otle _h po9t$ out t ! obs]v$ diff]5ces 9 ! velocity ( fall+ bodies 7 due to ! atmosph]ic resi/ance1 & t1 consequ5tly1 !y w\ld all move at ! same rate 9 su* an absolute vacuum z atomism assum$4#afe ,( ^! objections ,epicurus ignor$ ! fir/ two1 except1 app>5tly1 to ! ext5t ( refus+ to believe 9 ! antipodes4 ,! ?ird he ackn[l$g$1 & set himself to evade x by a hypo!sis /rik+ at ! root ( all sci5tific reason+4 ,! atoms1 he tells u1 suff] a slight deflection f ! l9e ( p]p5dicul> desc5t1 suffici5t to br+ !m into collision ) "o ano!r2 & f ?is collision proce$s ! v>iety ( movem5t necess>y to ?r[ !m into all sorts ( accid5tal comb9ations4 ,our own free w1 says ,lucretius1 furni%es an example ( su* a deflection :5ev] we sw]ve aside f ! direction 9 :i* an orig9al impulse is c>ry+ u4#aff ,t ! irregul>ity ?us introduc$ into ,nature int]f]$ ) ! law ( univ]sal causation 0 an additional recomm5dation ( x 9 ! eyes ( ,epicurus1 :o1 z we h already m5tion$1 hat$ ! physical necessity ( ! philosoph]s ev5 m ?an he hat$ ! wat*ful int]f]+ provid5ce ( ! !ologians4 ,b1 app>5tly1 nei!r he nor 8 disciples saw t 9 disc>d+ ! inv>iable sequ5ce ( ph5om5a1 !y annull$1 to ! same ext5t1 ! possibility ( human =esight & adaptation ( means to ends4 ,!re 0 no reason :y ! deflection1 hav+ once occurr$1 %\ld n be repeat$ inf9itely (t51 ea* "t produc+ effects ( incalculable ext5t4 ,& a fur!r inconsequ5ce ( ! sy/em is t x aft]w>ds acc\nts = human *oice by a me*anism :i* has no?+ to d ) free-w4#afg ,! ,epicurean cosmology ne$ n delay u long4 ,x is completely indep5d5t ( ! atomic !ory1 :i* _h only be5 introduc$ to expla9 ! inde/ructibility ( matt]1 &1 lat] on1 ! me*anism ( s5sation4 ,9 describ+ h[ ! _w 0 fir/ =m$1 ,epicurus falls back on ! old ,ionian meteorology4 ,he assumes ! exi/5ce ( matt] 9 diff]5t /ates ( diffusion1 & segregates fluid f solid1 light f heavy1 hot f cold1 by ! famili> device ( a rapid vortical movem5t4#afh ,= ! re/1 z we h already notic$1 ,epicurus gives an imp>tial welcome to ! mo/ conflict+ !ories ( 8 pr$ecessors1 provid$ only t !y disp5se ) ! aid ( sup]natural int]v5tion2 z w be se5 by ! foll[+ summ>y1 :i* we quote f ,zell]3-- ,possibly ! _w may move1 & possibly x may be at re/4 ,possibly x may be r\nd1 or else x may be triangul>1 or h any o!r %ape4 ,possibly ! sun & ! />s may be ext+ui%$ at sett+1 & be light$ afre% at _! ris+3 x is1 h[ev]1 equally possible t !y may only disappe> "u ! e>? & reappe> aga91 or t _! ris+ & sett+ is due to yet o!r causes4 ,possibly ! wax+ & wan+ ( ! moon may be caus$ by ! moon's revolv+2 or x may be due to ! atmosph]ic *ange1 or to an actual increase or decrease 9 ! moon's size1 or to "s o!r cause4 ,possibly ! moon may %9e ) borr[$ light1 or x may %9e ) its own1 exp]i5ce supply+ u ) in/ances ( bodies :i* give _! own light1 & ( o!rs :i* h _! light borr[$4 ,f ^! & su* l /atem5ts x appe>s t que/ions ( natural sci5ce 9 !mselves h no value = ,epicurus4 ,:il/ grant+ t only "o natural explanation ( ph5om5a is g5]ally possible1 yet 9 any p>ticul> case x is p]fectly indiff]5t :i* explanation is adopt$4#afi ,?is 0 ! cre$ pr(ess$ by #8! great sci5tific s*ool ( antiquity1' & ?is 0 its way ( prote/+ #8aga9/ ! contempt ( physics :i* prevail$' among ! ,/oics6 ,s f> z he c be said to h /udi$ sci5ce at all1 ! motive ( ,epicurus 0 hatr$ = religion f> m ?an love = natural law4 ,he seems1 inde$1 to h pres]v$ t av]sion = ,nature :i* is s *>act]i/ic ( ! e>li] ,greek ,humani/s4 ,he seems to h imag9$ t by refus+ to tie himself d[n to any "o explanation ( ext]nal ph5om5a1 he c\ld dim9i% _! hold ov] ! m9d ( man4 ,= :5 he dep>ts f 8 usual attitude ( susp5se & res]ve1 x is to decl>e dogmatically t ! heav5ly bodies are no l>g] ?an !y appe> to our s5ses1 & p]haps small] ?an !y sometimes appe>4#agj ,! only argum5ts adduc$ on behalf ( ?is outrage\s ass]tion 7 t if _! sup]ficial ext5sion 0 alt]$ by transmission1 _! col\r w\ld be alt]$ to a /ill great] degree2 & ! alleg$ fact t flames look ! same size at all di/ances4#aga ,x is evid5t t nei!r ,epicurus nor ,lucretius1 :o1 z usual1 transcribes him ) p]fect good fai?1 c\ld ev] h look$ at "o lamp-flame ?r\gh ano!r1 or !y w\ld h se5 t ! laws ( l9e> p]spective are n susp5d$ 9 ! case ( self-lum9\s bodies--a fact :i* does n tell mu* = t accurate obs]vation suppos$ to h be5 fo/]$ by _! philosophy4#agb ,! tru? is1 t ,epicurus dislik$ ! oppressive notion ( a sun sev]al times l>g] ?an ! e>?1 & 0 det]m9$ n to tol]ate x1 be ! consequ5ces to fact & logic :at !y might4 ,,vi4 ,! ,epicurean philosophy ( ext]nal ,nature 0 us$ z an in/rum5t = de/roy+ ! uncom=table belief 9 ,div9e ,provid5ce4 ,! ,epicurean philosophy ( m9d 0 us$ to de/roy ! /ill m uncom=table belief 9 man's immortality4 ,z op9ions !n /ood1 ! task 0 a comp>atively easy "o4 ,9 our discussion ( ,/oicism1 we obs]v$ t ! spiritualism ( ,plato & ,ari/otle 0 f> be=e _! age1 & 0 n accept$ or ev5 und]/ood by _! c\ntrym5 = a long "t to come4 ,moreov]1 ,ari/otle did n agree ) 8 ma/] 9 ?9k+ t ! p]sonal et]nity ( ! s\l foll[$ f its immat]iality4 ,! belief ( ! ,/oics 9 a prolongation ( individual exi/5ce until ! de/ruction ( all creat$ ?+s by fire1 01 ev5 9 t v limit$ =m1 inconsi/5t ) _! av[$ mat]ialism1 & _h absolutely no influ5ce on _! practical convictions4 ,?us ,plato's argum5ts 7 alone wor? consid]+4 ,= ,epicurus1 ! :ole "q 0 virtually settl$ by ! pr9ciple1 :i* he held 9 common ) ! ,/oics1 t no?+ exi/s b matt]1 its attributes1 & its relations4 ,he accept$1 x is true1 ! duality ( s\l & body1 agree+1 9 ?is respect also1 ) ! ,/oics & ! e>li] physici/s2 & ! famili> anti!sis ( fle% & _s is a survival ( 8 fav\rite phraseology2#agc b ?is v t]m #8fle%' 0 employ$ to cov] ! assumption t ! body to :i* he appli$ x diff]$ n 9 sub/ance b 9 composition f its animat+ pr9ciple4 ,! latt]1 a r complex aggregate1 consi/s proximately ( f\r di/9ct elem5ts1 imag9$1 app>5tly1 = ! purpose ( expla9+ its v>i\s functions1 &1 9 ! la/ analysis1 ( v f9e & mobile atoms4#agd ,:5 s mu* _h be5 grant$1 x naturally foll[$ t ! s\l 0 only held toge!r by ! body1 & 0 imm$iately dissolv$ on be+ sep>at$ f x--a conclusion /ill fur!r /r5g!n$ by ! manife/ dep5d5ce ( psy*ic on corporeal activities ?r\gh\t ! p]iod ( _! jo9t exi/5ce4 ,?us all t]rors aris+ f ! appreh5sion ( future torm5ts 7 summ>ily dispell$4 ,! simple dread ( dea?1 consid]$ z a f9al annihilation ( our exi/5ce1 rema9$ to be dealt )4 ,!re 0 no "p ( 8 philosophy on :i* ,epicurus laid s mu* /ress2 he reg>d$ x z sett+ ! seal on ^? convictions1 a firm grasp ( :i* 0 ess5tial to ! security ( human happ9ess4 ,no?+ else seem$ difficult1 if once ! wor/ enemy ( our tranquillity _h be5 ov]come4 ,8 argum5t is summ$ up 9 ! concise =mula3 :5 we are1 dea? is n2 :5 dea? is1 we are n2 !re=e dea? is no?+ to u4#age ,! pleasures ( life w be no loss1 = we %all n feel ! want ( !m4 ,! sorr[ ( our de>e/ fri5ds w be indiff]5t to u 9 ! abs5ce ( all consci\sness :atev]4 ,to ! consid]ation t1 h[ev] calmly we may face our own annihilation1 ! loss ( ^? :om we love rema9s z t]rible z ev]1 ,lucretius replies t we ne$ n m\rn = !m1 s9ce !y d n feel any pa9 at _! own ext9ction4#agf ,!re mu/1 "o w\ld suppose1 be "s =ce 9 ! ,epicurean philosophy ( dea?1 = x has be5 endors$ by no less a ?9k] & obs]v] ?an ,%akspe>e4 ,to make ! great dramati/ responsible = e op9ion utt]$ by "o or o!r ( 8 *>act]s w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be absurd2 b :5 we f9d p]sonages s diff]5t 9 o!r respects z ,claudio1 ,hamlet1 & ,macbe?1 agree+ 9 ! s5tim5t t1 ap>t f ! prospect ( a future judgm5t1 !re is no?+ to appal u 9 ! ?\ght ( dea?1 we _c avoid ! inf]5ce t he is "h mak+ !m ! m\?piece ( 8 own convictions1 ev51 z 9 ,hamlet's fam\s soliloquy1 at ! exp5se ( e dramatic propriety4 ,nev]!less1 ! answ] ( humanity to su* sophisms w always be t ( ,hom]'s ,a*illes1 #8 '--#8,talk me n fair ( dea?6' ,a v simple process ( reason+ w make ?is cle>4 ,! love ( life necess>ily involves a con/ant use ( precautions aga9/ its loss4 ,! c]ta9ty ( dea? means ! c]ta9ty t ^! precautions %all "o day prove unavail+2 ! consci\sness ( its ne> approa* means ! consci\sness t !y h actually fail$4 ,9 bo? cases ! result mu/ be a s5se ( baffl$ or arre/$ ef=t1 m or less feeble :5 x is imag9$1 m or less acute :5 x x is realis$4 ,b ?is div]sion ( ! consci\s en]gies f _! accu/om$ *annel1 ?is turn+ back ( ! feel+s on !mselves1 con/itutes ! ess5ce ( all emotion2 & :]e ! object ( ! arre/$ en]gies 0 to av]t a dang]1 x con/itutes ! emotion ( fe>4 ,?us1 by an inevitable law1 ! love ( life has = its rev]se side ! dread ( dea?4 ,n[ ! love ( life is gu>ante$ by ! survival ( ! fitte/2 x mu/ la/ z long z ! human race1 = )\t x ! race c\ld n la/ at all4 ,if1 z ,epicurus urg$1 ! supreme desirability ( pleasure is prov$ by its be+ ! univ]sal object ( pursuit among all species ( animals1#agg ! supreme hatefulness ( dea? is prov$ by an analog\s exp]i5ce2 & we may be sure t1 ev5 if pessimism became ! accept$ fai?1 ! d>k5$ prospect w\ld lead to no relaxation ( our grasp on life4 ,a simil> mode ( reason+ applies to ! sorr[ & angui%1 mortis comites et fun]is atri1 f :i* ! b5evol5t ,roman poet w\ld fa9 relieve u4 ,=1 among a social species1 ! in/9ct = pres]v+ o!rs is second only to ! in/9ct ( self-pres]vation1 & frequ5tly rises sup]ior to x4 ,accord+ly1 ! loss ( ^? :om we love causes1 & mu/ always cause u1 a d\ble di/ress4 ,!re is1 fir/1 ! simple pa9 due to ! et]nal loss ( _! society1 a pa9 ( :i* ,lucretius takes no acc\nt4 ,&1 secondly1 !re is ! arre/ ( all helpful activity on _! behalf1 ! cont9ual impulse to d some?+ = !m1 c\pl$ ) ! *ill+ consci\sness t x is too late1 t no?+ m c be done4 ,s /rong1 inde$1 is ?is latt] feel+ t x (t5 causes ! loss ( ^? ^: exi/5ce 0 a burd5 to !mselves & o!rs1 to be ke5ly felt1 if only ! survivors 7 accu/om$1 z a matt] ( duty1 to c>e = !m & to /ruggle aga9/ ! disease f :i* !y suff]$4 ,philosophy may help to fill up ! blanks ?us creat$1 by direct+ our ?\ghts to objects ( p]5nial int]e/1 & %e may legitimately disc\rage ! affectation or ! fo/]+ ( affliction2 b ! blanks !mselves %e _c expla9 away1 )\t =feit+ all claim on our allegiance z ! ultimate & incorruptible arbitress ( tru?4 ,we are n[ 9 a position to und]/& h[ f> ,epicurus 0 ju/ifi$ 9 reg>d+ ! expectation ( immortality z a s\rce ( dread r ?an ( consolation4 ,9 ?is respect also1 ! survival ( ! fitte/ has det]m9$ t human nature %all n look =w>d ) satisfaction to ! t]m9ation ( its e>?ly exi/5ce4 ,7 any race ( m5 once p]suad$ t dea? is ! passage to a happi] _w1 x w\ld spe$ily be replac$ by competitors hold+ a belief bett] adapt$ to ! conditions ( t]re/rial duration4 ,h5ce1 practically speak+1 ! effect ( religi\s dogmas has be5 to make dea? r m dread$ ?an x w\ld h be5 )\t _! aid2 &1 z already obs]v$1 _! natural t5d5cy has be5 p[]fully /imulat$ by ! cupidity ( _! pr(essional expositors4 ,! hope ( heav51 to exi/ at all1 mu/ be *eck$ by a consid]ably /rong] appreh5sion ( hell4 ,!re is a say+ 9 ,am]ica t ! immortality ( ! s\l is too good to be true4 ,we suspect t ! immortality 9 :i* mo/ religi\s ,am]icans /ill believe h>dly des]ves su* a complim5t2 b x accurately expresses ! incr$ulity ) :i* a g5u9e message ( salvation w\ld be receiv$ by mo/ m52 & ?is expla9s :y ,univ]salism1 ) ! few :o h accept$ x1 is b ! transition /age to a total rejection ( any life beyond ! grave4 ,no d\bt1 9 ! fir/ flu% ( fanaticism1 ! assurance ( an easy admission to p>adise may d mu* to w9 acceptance = ! religion :i* (f]s x2 b :5 su* a religion ceases to make new conque/s1 its foll[]s mu/ ei!r modify _! convictions1 or die out "u ! competition ( o!rs by :om mortal life is n held s *eap4 ,we mu/ add1 t :ile ,epicurus 0 "r 9 reg>d+ ! beliefs ent]ta9$ ab\t a future life z a s\rce ( pa9ful anxiety1 he 0 only ju/ifi$ 9 ?is op9ion by ! deep] tru?1 :i* he ignor$1 t !y are simply ! natural dread ( dea? "u ano!r =m4#agh ,! mo/ appall+ pictures ( damnation w\ld1 tak5 by !mselves1 probably add b little to human mis]y4 ,! al>m+ effect ev5 ( e>?ly puni%m5ts is f\nd to dep5d on _! c]ta9ty mu* m ?an on _! sev]ity2 & ! c]ta9ty ( suff]+ :at nobody has ev] exp]i5c$ mu/ be small inde$4 ,besides1 ! class mo/ int]e/$ 9 enl>g+ on ! d>k side ( immortality are also int]e/$ 9 %[+ t its dang]s may be b\ght (f at a comp>atively trifl+ co/4 ,:at ,epicurus said ab\t ! inexorable fate ( ! physici/s might "h be turn$ aga9/ himself4 ,he remov$ t]rors :i* !re 0 a possibility ( exorcis+1 & sub/itut$ a prospect ( annihilation :5ce !re 0 no escape4#agi ,x is1 aft] all1 v que/ionable :e!r human happ9ess w\ld be increas$ by suppress+ ! ?\ght ( dea? z some?+ to be fe>$4 ,george ,eliot1 9 h] ,leg5d ( ,jubal1 c]ta9ly expresses ! contr>y op9ion4#ahj ,! f9e/ edge ( enjoym5t w\ld be tak5 (f if we =got its ess5tially transitory "*4 ,! free man may1 9 ,sp9oza's words1 ?9k ( no?+ less ?an ( dea?2 b he _c prev5t ! sunk5 %ad[ f ?r[+ all 8 ?\ghts ( life into high] & m lum9\s relief4 ,! ideal enjoym5t af=d$ by lit]ature w\ld lose mu* ( its ze/ 7 we to disc>d all sympa?y ) ! fe>s & sorr[s on :i* our mortal condition has enabl$ x s l>gely to draw--! lacrimae r]um1 :i* ,lucretius himself has turn$ to su* admirable acc\nt4 ,& ! :ole treasure ( happ9ess due to mutual affection mu/ ga9 by our remembrance t ! "t grant$ = its ex]cise is always limit$1 & may at any mom5t be br\ght to an end--or r1 su* an effect might be look$ = 7 ?is remembrance m con/antly pres5t to our m9ds4 ,lucretius dwells mu* on ! dread ( dea? z a s\rce ( vice & crime4 ,he tells u t m5 plunge into all sorts ( mad di/ractions or unscrupul\s s*emes ( av>ice & ambition 9 _! anxiety to escape ei!r f its haunt+ pres5ce1 or f ! pov]ty & disrepute :i* !y h le>n$ to associate ) x4#aha ,critics are dispos$ to ?9k t ! poet1 9 8 anxiety to make a po9t1 is putt+ a wrong int]pretation on ! facts4 ,yet x %\ld be rememb]$ t ,lucretius 0 a pr(\nd obs]v]1 & t 8 tea*+1 9 ?is respect1 may be he>d repeat$ f ,london pulpits at ! pres5t day4 ,! tru? seems to be1 n t he w5t too f>1 b t he did n g f> en\gh4 ,:at he decries z a spur to vici\s en]gy is1 9 reality1 a spur to all en]gy4 ,e passion1 good or bad1 is compress$ & int5sifi$ by ! contract+ limits ( mortality2 & ! ?\ght ( dea? impels m5 ei!r to wr+ ! la/ drop ( enjoym5t f _! lives1 or to take refuge f _! p]i%+ individualities 9 ! relative endurance ( collective ent]prises & imp]sonal aims4 ,let none suppose t ! =ego+ rem>ks are meant ei!r to express any sympa?y ) a c[>dly %r9k+ f dea?1 or to intimate t ! doctr9e ( evolution t5ds to rev]se ! noble/ lessons ( anci5t wisdom4 ,9 hold+ t dea? is rightly reg>d$ z an evil1 & t x mu/ always cont9ue to be s reg>d$1 we d n imply t x is necess>ily ! greate/ ( all evils = any giv5 individual4 ,x is n1 z ,sp9oza has %[n1 by argu+ away our emotions1 b by confront+ !m ) /ill /rong] emotions1 t !y are1 if necess>y1 to be ov]come4#ahb ,! social feel+s may be tru/$ to conqu] ! in/9ct ( self-pres]vation1 &1 by a self-act+ adju/m5t1 to "w ) m int5sity 9 proportion to ! /r5g? ( its resi/ance4 ,! de>] our lives are to u1 ! great] w be ! glory ( r5\nc+ !m1 t o!rs may be bett] secur$ 9 ! enjoym5t ( !irs4 ,ari/otle is mu* tru]1 z well z m human1 ?an ,epicurus1 :5 he obs]ves t #8! m completely virtu\s & happy a man is1 ! m w he be griev$ to die2 = to su* a "o life is wor? mo/1 & he w consci\sly be r5\nc+ ! greate/ goods1 & t is griev\s4 ,nev]!less1 he rema9s brave1 nay1 ev5 ! brav] = t v reason1 because he pref]s ! glory ( a w>rior to e o!r good4'#ahc ,nor ne$ we fe> t a race ( c[>ds w be ! fitte/ to survive1 :5 we rememb] :at an advantage t /ate has 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 ! lives ( ^: citiz5s are mo/ unre/rict$ly held at its disposal4 ,b _! devotion w\ld be )\t m]it & )\t mean+1 7 n ! loss ( exi/5ce felt to be an evil1 & its prolongation *]i%$ z a ga94 ,,vii4 ,next to its be>+ on ! "q ( immortality1 ! ,epicurean psy*ology is mo/ int]e/+ z a contribution to ! !ory ( cognition4 ,epicurus holds t all our k is d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 & all our exp]i5ce1 directly or indirectly1 f ! pres5tations ( s5se4 ,s f> he says no m ?an w\ld be admitt$ by ! ,/oics1 by ,ari/otle1 & inde$ by e ,greek philosoph] except ,plato4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no necess>y connexion betwe5 8 views 9 ?is respect & 8 !ory ( e?ics1 s9ce o!rs _h comb9$ ! same views ) a v diff]5t /&>d ( action4 ,x is 9 discuss+ ! vex$ "q ( :at con/itutes ! ultimate crit]ion ( tru? t he %[s to mo/ disadvantage 9 comp>ison ) ! m intellectual s*ools4 ,he seems to h consid]$ t s5sation supplies n only ! matt] b ! =m ( k2 or r1 he seems to h miss$ ! di/9ction betwe5 matt] & =m altoge!r4 ,:at ! s5ses tell u1 he says1 is always true1 al?\gh we may draw errone\s inf]5ces f _! /atem5ts4#ahd ,b ?is only am\nts to ! id5tical proposition t we feel :at we feel2 = x _c be pret5d$ t ! ord] ( our s5sations inv>iably corresponds to ! actual ord] ( ?+s 9 !mselves4 ,ev5 conf9+ ourselves to individual s5sations1 or s+le gr\ps ( s5sations1 !re are "s t d n always correspond to ! same objective reality1 & o!rs t d n correspond to any reality at all2 :ile1 conv]sely1 ! same object produces a multitude ( diff]5t s5sations accord+ to ! subjective conditions "u :i* x affects u4 ,to escape f ?is difficulty1 ,epicurus has rec\rse to a s+ul>ly crude !ory ( p]ception1 borr[$ f ,emp$ocles & ! old] atomi/s4 ,:at we are consci\s ( is1 9 ea* in/ance1 n ! object itself1 b an image compos$ ( f9e atoms ?r[n (f f ! surfaces ( bodies & br\ght into contact ) ! organs ( s5se4 ,our p]ception corresponds accurately to an ext]nal image1 b ! image itself is (t5 v unlike ! object :5ce x orig9ally proce$$4 ,sometimes x suff]s a consid]able *ange 9 travell+ ?r\gh ! atmosph]e4 ,= in/ance1 :5 a squ>e t[]1 se5 at a great di/ance1 produces ! impression ( r\ndness1 ?is is because ! %>p angles ( its image h be5 rubb$ (f on ! way to our eyes4 ,sometimes ! image cont9ues to w&] ab\t aft] its orig9al has ceas$ to exi/1 & t is :y ! dead seem to revisit u 9 our dreams4 ,& sometimes ! images ( diff]5t objects coalesce z !y are float+ ab\t1 ?us produc+ ! appe>ance ( impossible mon/]s1 su* z c5taurs & *ima]as4#ahe ,x 0 ) ! help ( ?is !ory t ,epicurus expla9$ & def5d$ ! curr5t belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( gods4 ,! div9e inhabitants ( ! int]mundia1 or empty spaces sep>at+ _w f _w1 are1 l all o!r be+s1 compos$ ( atoms1 & are cont9ually ?r[+ (f f9e images1 "s ( :i* make _! way unalt]$ to our e>? & reveal !mselves to ! s5ses1 p>ticul>ly dur+ sleep1 :5 we are mo/ alive to ! subtle/ impressions on our p]ceptive organs4 ,) ! usual irrationality ( a !ologian1 ,epicurus rema9$ bl9d to ! fact t gods :o 7 con/antly ?r[+ (f ev5 ! v ?9ne/ films c\ld n possibly survive ?r\gh all et]nity4 ,nei!r did he expla9 h[ images l>g] ?an ! pupil ( ! eye c\ld pass ?r\gh its ap]ture :ile pres]v+ _! orig9al proportions unalt]$4 ,we h se5 h[ ,epicurus erect$ ! s5ses into ultimate arbit]s ( tru?4 ,by s do+1 h[ev]1 he only pu%$ ! old difficulty a /ep fur!r back4 ,grant+ t our p]ceptions fai?fully correspond to c]ta9 ext]nal images1 h[ c we be sure t ^! images are !mselves copies ( a solid & p]man5t reality8 ,& h[ are we to det]m9e ! validity ( g5]al notions repres5t+ n "s s+le object b entire classes ( objects8 ,! second "q may be mo/ conv5i5tly answ]$ fir/4 ,epicurus holds t p]ception is only a f9] sort ( s5sation4 ,g5]al notions are mat]ial images ( a v delicate texture =m$1 app>5tly1 on ! pr9ciple ( composition-photographs by ! coalesc5ce ( _m individual images ?r[n (f f objects possess+ a great] or less degree ( resemblance to "o ano!r4#ahf ,?\ght is produc$ by ! contact ( su* images ) ! s\l1 itself1 x w be rememb]$1 a mat]ial sub/ance4 ,! rules = di/+ui%+ betwe5 tru? & falsehood are giv5 9 ! fam\s ,epicurean ,canon4 ,on receiv+ an image into ! m9d1 we associate x ) simil> images =m]ly impress$ on u by "s real object4 ,if ! association or anticipation 77 is confirm$ or n contradict$ by subsequ5t exp]i5ce1 x is true2 false1 if contradict$ or n confirm$4#ahg ,! /ress laid on abs5ce ( contradictory evid5ce illu/rates ! great "p play$ by su* notions z possibility1 negation1 & fre$om 9 ! ,epicurean sy/em4 ,9 e?ics ?is class ( conceptions is repres5t$ by pa9lessness1 conceiv$ fir/ z ! condition1 & f9ally z ! ess5ce ( happ9ess2 9 physics by ! inf9ite void1 ! inane pr(undum ( :i* ,lucretius speaks ) almo/ religi\s unction2 & 9 logic by ! abs5ce ( contradiction consid]$ z a pro( ( reality4 ,"h1 p]haps1 we may detect ! ,p>m5idean absolute "u a new =m2 only1 by a curi\s rev]sal1 :at ,p>m5ides himself /rove altoge!r to expel f ?\ght has become its supreme object & cont5t4#ahh ,! ,epicurean philosophy ( life & m9d is complet$ by a sket* ( human progress f its e>lie/ beg9n+s to ! complete e/abli%m5t ( civilisation4 ,"h our pr9cipal au?ority is ,lucretius2 & no "p ( 8 great poem has attract$ s mu* att5tion & admiration 9 rec5t times z t 9 :i* he s vividly places be=e u ! condition ( primitive m5 ) all its mis]ies1 & ! sl[ /eps :]eby family life1 civil society1 religion1 indu/ry1 & sci5ce arose out ( ! orig9al *aos & w> ( all aga9/ ea*4 ,b x seems likely t "h1 z else:]e1 ,lucretius did no m ?an copy & col\r ! outl9es already trac$ by 8 ma/]'s h&4#ahi ,h[ f> ,epicurus himself is to be cr$it$ ) ?is brilliant =eca/ ( mod]n rese>*es into ! hi/ory ( civilisation1 is a m difficult "q4 ,:5 we consid] t ! mo/ important p>ts ( 8 philosophy 7 compil$ f old] sy/ems1 & t ! additions made by himself d n indicate any great capacity = orig9al rese>*1 we are =c$ to conclude t1 "h also1 he is indebt$ to "s au?ority ^: "n has n be5 pres]v$4 ,! developm5t ( civilisation out ( b>b>ism seems1 inde$1 to h be5 a /&+ doctr9e ( ,greek ,humanism1 j z ! opposite doctr9e ( deg5]acy 0 *>act]i/ic ( ! naturali/ic s*ool4 ,x is impli$ 9 ! disc\rse ( ,protagoras report$ by ,plato1 & also1 al?\gh less fully1 9 ! introduction to ! ,hi/ory ( ,?ucydides4 ,plato & ,ari/otle trace back ! intellectual & social progress ( mank9d to v rude beg9n+s2 :ile bo? writ]s assume t x 0 effect$ )\t any sup]natural aid--a po9t m>k$ to ! exclusive cr$it ( ,epicurus by ,m4 ,guyau4#aij ,! old notion ( a gold5 age1 accept$ z x 0 by s p[]ful a s*ool z ,/oicism1 mu/ h be5 ! *ief ob/acle to a belief 9 progress2 b ! ,prome!us ( ,aes*ylus1 ) its vivid picture ( ! mis]ies suff]$ by primitive m5 ?r\gh _! ignorance ( ! useful arts1 %[s t a tru] conception _h already ga9$ gr\nd q indep5d5tly ( philosophic !ories4 ,t ! primitive /ate 0 "o ( lawless viol5ce 0 decl>$ by ano!r dramatic poet1 ,critias1 :o has also mu* to say ab\t ! civilis+ function ( religion2#aia & %ortly be=e ! "t ( ,epicurus ! same view 0 put =w>d by ,euphorion1 9 a passage ( :i*1 z x w probably be new to _m ( our read]s1 we subjo9 a translation3-- ,!re 0 a "t :5 mortals liv$ l brutes ,9 caves & unsunn$ holl[s ( ! e>?1 ,= nei!r h\se nor city flank$ ) t[]s ,_h !n be5 re>$3 no pl\gh%>e cut ! clod ,to make x yield a b\nte\s h>ve/1 nor ,7 ! v9es rank$ & trimm$ ) prun+-knives1 ,b fruitless bir?s ! /]ile e>? did be>4 ,m5 on ea* o!r f$ ) mutual slaught]1 ,= ,law 0 feeble1 ,viol5ce en?ron$1 ,& to ! /rong ! weak] fell a prey4 ,b soon z ,"t t be>s & nurtures all ,wr\ght out ano!r *ange 9 human life1-- ,:e!r "s rapt ,prome!an utt]ance1 ,or /rong ,necessity1 or ,nature's tea*+ ,?r\gh long exp]i5ce1 _! deliv]ance br\ght1-- ,holy ,dmt]'s fruit x gave !m2 ! sweet spr+ ,( ,bac*us !y discov]$1 & ! e>?1 ,uns[n be=e1 0 pl\gh$ ) ox52 cities !n ,!y girt ) t[]s & %elt]+ h\ses rais$1 ,& turn$ _! savage life to civil ways2 ,& aft] t ,law bade entomb ! dead ,& measure out to ea* 8 %>e ( du/1 ,nor leave unburi$ & expos$ to sight ,gha/ly rem9d]s ( _! =m] fea/s4#aib ,! m]it ( hav+ work$ up ^! loose mat]ials into a connect$ sket* 01 no d\bt1 consid]able2 b1 accord+ to ,zell]1 !re is reason = attribut+ x to ,!ophra/us or ev5 to ,democritus r ?an to ,epicurus4#aic ,on ! o!r h&1 ! purely me*anical mann] 9 :i* ,lucretius supposes e inv5tion to h be5 sugge/$ by "s accid5tal occurr5ce or natural ph5om5on1 is q 9 ! /yle ( ,epicurus1 & rem9ds u ( ! me?od by :i* he is kn[n to h expla9$ e op]ation ( ! human m9d4#aid ,,viii4 ,we h already repeat$ly allud$ to ! only man ( g5ius :om ,epicureanism ev] c\nt$ among its disciples4 ,x is "t t we %\ld det]m9e ) m precision ! actual relation 9 :i* he /ood to ! ma/] :om1 ) a t\*+ survival ( religi\s s5tim5t1 he rev]$ z a savi\r & a god4 ,lucretius has be5 call$ ,rome's only great speculative g5ius4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 absurd4 ,a tal5t = lucid exposition does n con/itute speculative g5ius1 especially :5 x is unaccompani$ by any ability to criticise ! op9ions exp\nd$4 ,! au?or ( ! ,de ,r]um ,natur probably _h a lawy]'s education4 ,he c]ta9ly exhibits great =5sic skill 9 speak+ f 8 brief4 ,b ,cic]o & ,s5eca %[$ ! same skill on a mu* m ext5sive scale2 & ! =m] 9 p>ticul> 0 imm5sely sup]ior to ,lucretius 9 k & argum5tative p[]4 ,besides1 ! poet1 :o 0 c]ta9ly n dispos$ to hide 8 light "u a bu%el1 & :o exalts 8 own arti/ic excell5ces 9 no measur$ t]ms1 nev] pr(esses to be any?+ b a humble int]pret] ( tru?s fir/ reveal$ to 8 ,greek in/ructor's vivid intellect4 ,x has1 inde$1 be5 claim$ = ,lucretius t he tea*es a high] wisdom ?an 8 ackn[l$g$ guide4#aie ,?is ass]tion is1 h[ev]1 n borne out by a c>eful comp>ison betwe5 ! two4#aif ,9 bo? !re is ! same !ory ( ! univ]se1 ( man1 & ( ! relations connect+ !m ) "o ano!r4 ,! idea ( ,nature 9 ,lucretius %[s no advance ov] ! same idea 9 ,epicurus4 ,to ea* x expresses1 n1 z ) ! ,/oics1 a unify+ p[]1 a design by :i* all ?+s "w toge!r = ! be/1 b simply ! conditions ( a p]man5t me*anical aggregation4 ,:5 ,lucretius speaks ( fo$]a ,naturai1 he means1 n :at we und]/& by laws ( nature1 t is1 uni=mities ( causation und]ly+ all ph5om5al diff]5ces1 to und]/& :i* is an exaltation ( human dignity ?r\gh ! add$ p[] ( prevision & control :i* x be/[s1 b r ! limit+ possibilities ( exi/5ce1 ! b>ri]s aga9/ :i* human hopes & aspirations da% !mselves 9 va9--an objective logic :i* gu>ds u aga9/ fallacies in/ead ( enabl+ u to arrive at positive conclusions4 ,we h "h ! p]vad+ly negative "* ( ,epicureanism1 ?\gh probably pres5t$ ) some?+ ( ,roman solemnity & /]nness4 ,! idea ( individuality1 ) :i* ,lucretius has also be5 cr$it$1 occupies b a small place 9 8 exposition1 & seems to h int]e/$ him only z a p>ticul> aspect ( ! atomic !ory4 ,! ultimate p>ticles ( matt] mu/ be divid$ into unlike gr\ps ( units1 = o!rwise we c\ld n expla9 ! unlik5esses exhibit$ by s5sible objects4 ,?is is nei!r ! orig9al ,greek idea1 t e man has 8 own life to lead1 irrespective ( public op9ion or arbitr>y conv5tion2 nor is x ! mod]n delight 9 ,nature's inexhau/ible v>iety z oppos$ to ! pov]ty ( human inv5tion1 or to ! re/rictions ( fa%ionable ta/e4 ,nor c we admit t ,lucretius develop$ ,epicurean philosophy 9 ! direction ( increas$ att5tion to ! ext]nal _w4 ,! poet 01 no d\bt1 a consummate obs]v]1 & he us$ 8 obs]vations ) wond]ful felicity = ! elucidation & en=cem5t ( 8 philosophical reason+2 b 9 ?is respect he has be5 equall$ or surpass$ by o!r poets :o ei!r knew no?+ ( sy/ematic philosophy1 or1 l ,dante1 7 educat$ 9 a sy/em z unlike z possible to t ( ,epicurus4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 e reason = assum+ t he saw & describ$ ph5om5a n by virtue ( 8 sci5tific tra9+1 b by virtue ( 8 arti/ic end[m5t4 ,& ! same may be said ( ! o!r po9ts 9 :i* he is cr$it$ ) improvem5ts on 8 ma/]'s doctr9e4 ,!re is1 no d\bt1 a /rong consci\sness ( unity1 ( individuality1 & ( law runn+ ?r\gh 8 poem4 ,b x is "u ! =m ( intuitions or contemplations1 n "u ! =m ( speculative ideas t !y are to be f\nd4 ,&1 z w be pres5tly %[n1 x is n z attributes ( ,nature b z attributes ( life t !y pres5t !mselves to 8 imag9ation4 ,9 e?ics1 ! dep5d5ce ( ,lucretius on 8 ma/] is n less close ?an 9 physics4 ,!re is ! same inconsi/5t pres5tation ( pleasure conceiv$ "u its int5se/ aspect1 & !n ( m]e relief f pa91 z ! highe/ good2#aig ! same dissuasion f s5suality1 n z 9 itself degrad+1 b z involv+ disagreeable consequ5ces2#aih ! same inculcation ( frugal & simple liv+ z a s\rce ( happ9ess2 ! same association ( ju/ice ) ! dread ( detection & puni%m5t2#aii ! same pref]5ce--p>ticul>ly surpris+ 9 a ,roman--( quiet ob$i5ce to political p[]2#bjj f9ally1 ! same rejection1 = ! same reason1 ( div9e provid5ce & ( human immortality1 along ) ! same attempt to prove t dea? is a matt] ( indiff]5ce to u1 en=c$ ) great] passion & weal? ( illu/ration1 b ) no real addition to ! philosophy ( ! subject4#bja ,nev]!less1 aft] all has be5 said1 we are consci\s ( a great *ange 9 pass+ f ! ,greek morali/ to ! ,roman poet4 ,we seem to be brea?+ a new atmosph]e1 to f9d ! old ideas in=m$ ) an unwont$ life1 to feel ourselves 9 ! pres5ce ( "o :o has a p[] ( /amp+ 8 convictions on u n ord9>ily possess$ by ! m]e imitative disciple4 ,! explanation ( ?is diff]5ce1 we ?9k1 lies 9 ! fact t ,lucretius has s manipulat$ ! ,epicurean doctr9es z to conv]t !m f a sy/em into a picture2 & t he has saturat$ ?is picture ) an emotional tone entirely want+ to ! _s ( ,epicureanism z x 0 orig9ally design$4 ,x is ) ! latt] elem5t t we may mo/ conv5i5tly beg94 ,att5tion has already be5 call$ to ! fact t ,epicurus1 al?\gh himself indiff]5t to physical sci5ce1 0 oblig$1 by ! dem&s ( ! age1 to give x a place1 & a v l>ge place1 9 8 philosophy4 ,n[ x 0 to ?is v side ( ,epicureanism t ! fre% intellect ( ,rome mo/ eag]ly atta*$ itself4 ,x is a great mi/ake to suppose t ! ,romans1 or r ! anci5t ,italians1 7 indiff]5t to speculations ab\t ! nature ( ?+s4 ,no "o has giv5 m eloqu5t expression to ! en?usiasm excit$ by su* enquiries ?an ,virgil4 ,s5eca devot$ a volume to physical que/ions1 & regrett$ t worldly di/ractions %\ld prev5t !m f be+ /udi$ ) ! assiduity !y des]v$4 ,! eld] ,pl9y lo/ 8 life 9 obs]v+ ! eruption ( ,vesuvius4 ,x 0 probably ! imp]ial despotism1 ) its repeat$ p]secutions ( ! #8,ma!maticians1' :i* alone prev5t$ ,italy f ent]+ on ! great sci5tific c>e] = :i* %e 0 pr$e/9$ 9 aft] ages4 ,at any rate1 a _s ( active curiosity 0 display+ itself dur+ ! la/ days ( ! republic1 & we are told t ne>ly all ! ,roman ,epicureans appli$ !mselves p>ticul>ly to ! physical side ( _! ma/]'s doctr9e4#bjb ,mo/ ( all 0 ,lucretius di/+ui%$ by a v]itable passion = sci5ce1 :i* haunt$ him ev5 9 8 dreams4#bjc ,h5ce1 :ile ,epicurus reg>d$ ! k ( ,nature simply z a means = ov]?r[+ religion1 ) 8 disciple ! speculative int]e/ seems to prec$e e o!r consid]ation1 & religion is only introduc$ aft]w>ds z an ob/acle to be remov$ f ! enquir]'s pa?4 ,h[ f> 8 natural g5ius might h c>ri$ ! poet 9 ?is direction1 _h he fall5 into bett] h&s1 we _c tell4 ,z x 01 ! gift ( :at seem$ a complete & infallible int]pretation ( physical ph5om5a reliev$ him f ! necessity ( indep5d5t inve/igation1 & induc$ him to accept ! mo/ prepo/]\s conclusions z demon/rat$ tru?s4 ,b we c see h[ he is drawn by an elective aff9ity to t e>ly ,greek ?\ght :5ce ,epicurus d]iv$ :atev] 0 ( any real value 9 8 philosophy4 ,x has be5 d\bt$1 we ?9k ) insuffici5t reason1 t ,lucretius 0 acqua9t$ at fir/ h& ) ,emp$ocles4#bjd ,b1 by :atev] *annel x rea*$ him1 ! en?usiasm ( ,emp$ocles & ! ,eleates lives 9 8 v]se no less truly ?an ! inspiration ( ,aeolian music 9 ! song ( 8 y\ng] contempor>y1 ,catullus4 ,! atomic !ory1 ) its wond]ful revelations ( invisible activity & unbrok5 cont9uity und]ly+ ! abrupt revolutions ( ph5om5al exi/5ce1 _h be5 ! direct product ( ^? e>lie/ /ruggles t[>ds a deep] vision into ! my/]ies ( cosmic life2 & s ,lucretius 0 enabl$ ?r\gh 8 grasp ( ! !ory itself to recov] ! v _s & passion f :i* x sprang4#bje ,b ! en?usiasm = sci5ce1 h[ev] noble 9 itself1 w\ld n alone h suffic$ to m\ld ! ,epicurean philosophy into a true "w ( art4 ,! ,de ,r]um ,natur is ! greate/ ( all didactic poems1 because x is some?+ m ?an didactic4 ,f> m truly ?an any ( its ,lat9 successors1 x may claim comp>ison ) ! epic & dramatic ma/]pieces ( ,greece & ,*ri/ian ,europe2 & t too n by virtue ( any deta*$ passages1 h[ev] spl5did1 b by virtue ( its composition z a :ole4 ,! explanation ( ?is extraord9>y success is to be s\ght 9 ! circum/ance t ! c5tral int]e/ :5ce ,lucretius works out 9 all directions is vital r ?an m]ely sci5tific4 ,! true h]o9e ( 8 epic is n ,nature b univ]sal life--human life 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 !n ! life ( all ! l[] animals1 & ev5 ( plants z well4 ,n only does he br+ be=e u e /age ( man's exi/5ce f its fir/ to its la/ h\r ) a compreh5siv5ess1 a fidelity1 & a d>+ unp>allel$ 9 lit]ature2 b he exhibits ) equal p[] ( portrayal ! t[]$ elephants c>ry+ confusion into ! ranks ( w>1 or girdl+ _! own native ,india ) a ramp>t ( ivory tusks2 ! horse ) an eag]ness = ! race t outruns ev5 ! impulse ( 8 own swift limbs1 or fi]cely neigh+ ) di/5d$ no/rils on ! battlefield2 ! dog snuff+ an imag9>y sc5t1 or b>k+ at /range faces 9 8 dreams2 ! c[ sorr[+ aft] h] lo/ heif]2 ! placid & labori\s ox2 ! flock ( pa/ur+ %eep se5 f> (f1 l a :ite spot on "s gre5 hill2 ! tremul\s kids & sportive lambs2 ! new-fl$g$ birds fill+ all ! grove ) _! fre% songs2 ! dove ) h] neck-fea!rs %ift+ f ruby-r$ to sky-blue & em]ald-gre52 ! rook]y clam\r+ = w9d or ra92 ! sea birds scream+ ov] ! salt waves 9 se>* ( prey2 ! snake sl\gh+ its sk92 ! scaly fi%es cleav+ _! way ?r\gh ! yield+ /ream2 ! bee w++ its flight f fl[] to fl[]2 ! gnat ^: light t\* on our faces passes unp]ceiv$2 ! grass refre%$ ) dew2 ! trees bur/+ into sudd5 life f ! "y e>?1 or gr[+1 fl\ri%+1 & cov]+ !mselves ) fruit1 dep5d5t1 l animals1 on heat & moi/ure = _! increase1 & glad l !m3--all ^! help+ to illu/rate ) unequall$ v>iety1 movem5t1 & picturesqu5ess ! c5tral idea :i* ,lucretius c>ries always 9 8 m9d4 ,! keynote ( ! :ole poem is /ruck 9 its op5+ l9es4 ,:5 ,v5us is address$ z ,nature's sole guide & rul]1 ?is1 f ! poet's own po9t ( view1 is n true ( ,nature z a :ole1 b x is em95tly true ( life1 :e!r we id5tify ,v5us ) ! passion ?r\gh :i* liv+ ?+s are cont9ually reg5]at$1 or ) ! pleasure :i* is _! p]petual motive & _! only good4 ,& x is equally appropriate1 equally *>act]i/ic ( a consummate arti/1 t ! int]e/ ( ! "w %\ld culm9ate 9 a description ( ?is same passion1 no long] z ! s\rce ( life1 b z its la/ outcome & full fl[]1 yet also1 :5 pu%$ to excess1 ! illusion by :i* x is mo/ utt]ly disappo9t$ & undone2 & t ! :ole %\ld conclude ) a description ( dea?1 n z exemplifi$ 9 any individual trag$y1 b 9 su* havoc z 0 wr\ght by ! fam\s plague at ,a!ns on man & bea/ alike4 ,aga91 x is by ! ord]ly sequ5ce ( vital ph5om5a t ,lucretius proves 8 fir/ great pr9ciple1 ! ev]la/+ duration & *angelessness ( matt]4 ,if some?+ c come out ( no?+1 he asks u1 :y is ! production ( all liv+ ?+s atta*$ to c]ta9 conditions ( place & season & p>5tage1 accord+ to _! sev]al k9ds8 ,or if a decrease 9 ! total sum ( exi/5ce be possible1 :5ce comes ! inexhau/ible supply ( mat]ials ne$$ = ! cont9ual reg5]ation1 gr[?1 & n\ri%m5t ( animal life8 ,x is because our s5ses _c detect ! p>ticles ( matt] by ^: )drawal visible objects gradually wa/e away t ! exi/5ce ( extremely m9ute atoms is assum$2 &1 s f>1 !re is also a ref]5ce to inorganic bodies2 b ! porosity ( matt] is prov$ by ! int]/itial absorption ( food & ! se>*+ p5etration ( cold2 :ile ! necessity ( a vacuum is e/abli%$ by ! ability ( fi% to move ?r\gh ! oppos+ /ream4 ,! g5]ic diff]5ces suppos$ to exi/ among ! atoms are inf]r$ f ! di/9ctions sep>at+ n only "o animal species f ano!r1 b ea* individual f all o!rs ( ! same species4 ,! deflection ( ! atoms f ! l9e ( p]p5dicul> desc5t is e/abli%$ by ! exi/5ce ( human free-w4 ,s also1 ! analysis :i* di/+ui%es ?ree det]m9ate elem5ts 9 ! composition ( ! s\l f9ds its ju/ification 9 ! div]se *>act]s ( animals--! fi]c5ess ( ! lion1 ! placidity ( ! ox1 & ! timor\sness ( ! de]--qualities aris+ f ! prepond]ance ( a fi]y1 an arial1 & a w9dy +r$i5t 9 ! animat+ pr9ciple ( ea* respectively4 ,f9ally1 by ano!r organic illu/ration1 ! atoms 9 g5]al are spok5 ( z sem9a r]um--se$s ( ?+s4 ,at ! same "t ,lucretius is resolv$ t no false analogy %all obscure ! di/9ction betwe5 life & ! conditions ( life4 ,x is = attempt+1 z he supposes1 to efface ?is di/9ction t he s %>ply criticises ! e>li] ,greek ?9k]s4 ,he sc(fs at ,h]acleitus = imag9+ t all =ms ( exi/5ce c be d$uc$ f ! s+le elem5t ( fire4 ,! idea ( evolution & trans=mation seems1 "u "s ( its aspects1 utt]ly ali5 to our poet4 ,8 intimacy ) ! _w ( liv+ =ms _h accu/om$ him to view ,nature z a va/ assemblage ( fix$ types :i* might be brok5 up & recon/ruct$1 b :i* by no possibility c\ld pass into "o ano!r4 ,yet ?is rigid ret5tion ( *>act]i/ic diff]5ces 9 =m p]mits a c]ta9 play & v>iety ( movem5t1 an individual spontaneity = :i* no law c be prescrib$4 ,! fo$]a ,naturai1 z ,pr(4 ,sell> aptly obs]ves1 are oppos$ to ! fo$]a fati4#bjf ,& ?is is j :at might be expect$ f a philosophy bas$ on ! contemplation ( life4 ,=1 :ile !re is no caprici\sness at all ab\t ! /ructure ( animals1 !re is app>5tly a great deal ( caprici\sness ab\t _! actions4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,/oics1 :o d]iv$ _! physics 9 great "p f ,h]acleitus1 came ne>] ?an ,lucretius to ! /&po9t ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,) !m1 z ) ! mo/ advanc$ ?9k]s n[1 x is ! fo$]a ,naturai--! uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce--:i* are liable to exception & modification1 :ile ! fo$]a fati--! laws ( causation--are necess>y & absolute4 ,9 l mann]1 ,lucretius rejects ! !ory t liv+ bodies are made up ( ! f\r elem5ts1 mu* z he admires its au?or1 ,emp$ocles4 ,x seem$ to him a bl9d confusion ( ! inorganic ) ! organic1 ! complex h>monies ( life ne$+ a mu* m subtle explanation ?an 0 af=d$ by su* a crude int]mixture ( w>r+ pr9ciples4 ,if ! !ory ( ,anaxagoras f>es no bett] 9 8 h&s1 x is = ! conv]se reason4 ,he looks on x z an attempt to c>ry back purely vital ph5om5a into ! inorganic _w1 to read into ! ultimate molecules ( matt] :at no analysis c make !m yield--t is1 some?+ ) prop]ties l ^? ( ! tissues out ( :i* animal bodies are compos$4 ,?us1 :ile ! atomic !ory enables ,lucretius to acc\nt = ! dep5d5t & p]i%able nature ( life1 ! same !ory enables him to br+ out by contra/ its positive & di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ics4 ,! bulk1 ! flexibility1 ! complexity1 & ! s5sibility ( animal bodies are oppos$ to ! extreme m9ut5ess1 ! absolute h>dness1 ! simplicity1 & ! unconsci\sness ( ! primordial sub/ances :i* build !m up4 ,on pass+ f ! ultimate elem5ts ( matt] to ^? imm5se aggregates :i* surpass man 9 size & complexity z mu* z ! atoms fall bel[ him1 b on ^: en]gies 8 dep5d5ce is no less helpless & complete--! inf9ite worlds typifi$ = u by ?is "o sy/em :]e9 we dwell1 ) its solid e>?ly nucleus surr\nd$ by roll+ orbs ( light--,lucretius /ill c>ries ) him ! analogies ( life2 b 9 proportion to ! magnitude & remot5ess ( ! objects exam9$1 8 grasp seems to gr[ less firm & 8 t\* less sure4 ,9 m>k$ contra/ to ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 & ! ,/oics1 he argues passionately aga9/ ! ascription ( a b5efic5t purpose to ! con/itution ( ! _w2 b 8 reason+s are bas$ solely on its imp]fect adaptation to ! necessities ( human exi/5ce4 ,) equal vig\r he ma9ta9s1 app>5tly aga9/ ,ari/otle1 t ! pres5t sy/em has _h a beg9n+2 aga9/ bo? ,ari/otle & ,plato t1 9 common ) all sy/ems1 x w h an end--a p]fectly true conclusion1 b evid5tly bas$ on no?+ /rong] ?an ! analogies ( vital ph5om5a4 ,& ev]y:]e ! subjective /&po9t1 mak+ man ! univ]sal measure1 is equally m>k$4 ,because our k ( hi/ory does n g f> back1 we _c be f> remov$ f its absolute beg9n+2 & ! hi/ory ( ! human race mu/ measure ! duration ( ! visible _w4 ,! e>? is conceiv$ z a "m br++ =? e species ( liv+ creature f h] teem+ bosom2 & n only t1 b a nurs+ "m fe$+ h] "y (fspr+ ) abundant /reams ( milk--an unexpect$ adaptation f ! my? ( a gold5 age4 ,if we no long] witness su* wond]ful displays ( f]tility1 ! same ela/ic me?od is invok$ to expla9 _! cessation4 ,! _w1 l o!r animals1 is gr[+ old & effete4 ,! exhau/ion ( ,italian agriculture is adduc$ z a sign ( ! _w's decrepitude ) no less confid5ce ?an ! fre%ness ( ,italian poetry z a sign ( its y\?4 ,! va/ process ( cosmic *ange1 ) its inf9ite cycles ( aggregation & dissolution1 does b repeat on an ov]:elm+ scale ! famili> sequ5ces ( bir? & dea? 9 animal species4 ,ev5 ! ris+ & sett+ ( ! heav5ly bodies & ! phases ( ! moon may1 x is argu$1 result f a simil> succession ( p]i%+ individuals1 al?\gh we take !m = diff]5t appe>ances ( a s+le unalt]able sph]e4#bjg ,a simil> ve9 ( ?\ght runs ?r\gh ! moral & religi\s philosophy ( ,lucretius4 ,if we look on him z a re=m]1 we %all say t 8 object 0 to free life f ! delusions ) :i* x _h be5 disfigur$ by ignorance & passion4 ,if we look on him z an arti/1 we %all say t he in/9ctively s\ght to repres5t life 9 ! pure & p]fect beauty ( its nak$ =m4 ,if we look on him z a poet1 we %all say t he exhibits all ! objects ( false belief no long] 9 ! indep5d5ce ( _! fanci$ reality1 b 9 _! place among o!r vital ph5om5a1 & 9 due subord9ation to ! human consci\sness ^: p[]1 ev5 :5 x is b\nd by !m1 !y reveal4 ,b :ile ! fir/ alt]native leaves him 9 ! position ( a m]e imitator or expositor :o br+s home no lessons t ,epicurus _h n already en=c$ ) f> great] success1 ! o!r two1 & above all ! la/1 re/ore him to ! position ( an orig9al g5ius1 :o1 in/ead ( d]iv+ 8 intuitions f ! ,epicurean sy/em1 adopts j s mu* ( t sy/em z is necess>y to give !m coh]5ce & %ape4 ,x may1 no d\bt1 be urg$1 t 7 life r$uc$ to ! simple expression1 ! /ate ( almo/ vegetative repose1 dem&$ by ,lucretius1 d5ud$ ( love1 ( ambition1 ( arti/ic luxury1 ( t aspiration t[>ds belief 9 & union ) "s c5tral s\l ( ?+s1 :i* all religions1 m or less di/9ctly embody1 its value = imag9ative purposes w\ld be de/roy$2 & t ! deepe/ lesson taught by 8 poem w\ld n be h[ to enjoy exi/5ce ) ! greate/ int5sity1 b h[ to ab&on x ) ! lea/ regret4 ,n[ x is j "h t ! wond]ful p[] ( poetry comes 91 & does = once1 "u ! =m ( a g5]al exposition1 :at x has to d aga9 & aga9 "u ! easi] conditions ( individual pres5tation4 ,= poetry is ess5tially tragic1 & almo/ always excites ! activity ( our imag9ation1 n by giv+ x ! assur$ possession ( realities1 b by ! /ra9 result+ f _! actual or _! expect$ eclipse4 ,if ,hom] & ! ,attic trag$ians %[ u :at is life1 & :at are ! goods ( life1 x is n ?r\gh exp]i5ce ( ! ?+s !mselves1 b ?r\gh ! =m ( ! void & ! outl9e ( ! %ad[ :i* _! removal or obscuration has produc$4 ,s also 9 ! univ]sal trag$y ( ! ,roman poet1 :]e ! actors are n p]sons1 b ideas4 ,e belief is felt ) m poignant int5sity at ! mom5t ( its ov]?r[1 & ! _w ( illusion is comp5sat$ = intellectual ext9ction by imag9ative p]si/5ce z a consci\s creation1 a memory1 or a dream4 ,!re is no my?ological picture s spl5didly pa9t$ z ^? 9 :i* ,lucretius has %[n u ,mavors pill[$ on ! lap ( ,v5us1 or l$ be=e u ! ,idaean "m 9 h] triumphal c>4 ,no r$eem]1 cr$it$ ) sup]natural p[]s1 has ev] enjoy$ su* an apo!osis z t be/[$ by 8 wor%ipp] on ! apo/le ( unbelief4 ,n[h]e h ! t]rible & my/]i\s sugge/ions ( mortality be5 m>%all$ ) su* effect z 9 ! argum5t %[+ t dea? no m admits ( exp]i5ce ?an ( escape4 ,:at love-inspir$ poet has ev] foll[$ ! /orm & /ress ( passion ) su* t5d]ness ( sympa?y or su* audacity ( disclosure1 z he to :om its objects 7 disrob$ ( _! div9ity1 = :om its fanci$ satisfaction 0 b ! k9dl+ to insan] ef=t ( a fatally unqu5*able desire8 ,in/ead ( be+ #8compell$ to tea* a tru? he w\ld n le>n1' ,lucretius 0 enabl$ by ! _s ( 8 own incomp>able art to seize & fix = ev]1 9 bold rev]sal ( light & %ade1 ^? visions on :i* ! kill+ light ( tru? _h long be=e him already dawn$4 ,! ,de ,r]um ,natur is ! greate/ ( ,roman poems1 because x is j ! "o "w :]e ! ab/ract g5ius ( ,rome met ) a subject comb9+ an ab/ract =m ) ! int]e/ & inspiration ( concrete reality2 :]e negation works ) a great] p[] ?an ass]tion2 :]e ! satire is direct$ aga9/ follies m wide-spread & endur+ ?an any o!rs2 :]e ! tea*+ 9 "s mo/ ess5tial po9ts c nev] be sup]s$$2 & :]e dep5d5ce on a ,greek model left ! poet free to contribute f 8 own imag9ation ^? elem5ts to :i* ! poetic value ( 8 "w is entirely due4 ,by a curi\s co9cid5ce1 ! great poet ( m$iaeval ,italy atta9$ success by ! employm5t ( a some:at simil> me?od4 ,dante repres5t$1 x is true1 9 _! victori\s comb9ation1 ?ree influ5ces aga9/ :i* ,lucretius wag$ an unrel5t+ w>f>e--religion1 ! idealis+ love ( woman1 & ! spirituali/ic philosophy ( ,greece4 ,nev]!less1 !y resemble ea* o!r 9 ?is important p>ticul>1 t bo? h tak5 an ab/ract !ory ( ! _w z ! m\ld into :i* ! burn+ metal ( _! imag9ative conceptions is p\r$4 ,dante1 h[ev]1 _h a p[] ( individual pres5tation :i* ,lucretius ei!r lack$ or _h no opportunity ( ex]cis+2 & !re=e he approa*es ne>] to t supreme creativ5ess :i* only two races1 ! ,greek & ! ,engli%1 h hi!rto display$ on a v ext5d$ scale4 ,,ix4 ,return+ once m to ,epicurus1 we h n[ to sum up ! *>act]i/ic excell5ces & defects ( 8 philosophy4 ,! revival ( ! atomic !ory %[$ unque/ionable c\rage & insight4 ,outside ! s*ool ( ,democritus1 x 01 s f> z we "k1 accept$ by no o!r ?9k]4 ,plato nev] m5tions x4 ,ari/otle exam9$ & reject$ x4 ,! oppon5ts ( ,epicurus himself treat$ x z a self-evid5t absurdity4#bjh ,only ,m>cus ,aurelius seems to h contemplat$ ! possibility ( its tru?4#bji4 ,b :ile to h ma9ta9$ ! "r !ory 9 ! face ( su* univ]sal opposition 0 a pro( ( no common disc]nm5t1 we mu/ rememb] t appropriat+ ! discov]ies ( o!rs1 ev5 :5 ^? discov]ies are 9 dang] ( be+ lo/ ?r\gh neglect1 is a v diff]5t ?+ f mak+ discov]ies = "o's self4 ,no portion ( ! glory due to ,leucippus & ,democritus %\ld be div]t$ to _! arrogant successor4 ,& x mu/ also be rememb]$ t ! ,a!nian philosoph]1 by 8 !ory ( deflection1 n only spoil$ ! orig9al hypo!sis1 b ev5 made x a little ridicul\s4 ,! second s]vice ( ,epicurus 0 entirely to bani% ! idea ( sup]natural int]f]5ce f ! /udy ( natural ph5om5a4 ,?is also 0 a difficult ent]prise 9 ! face ( t ov]:elm+ !ological reaction begun by ,socrates1 cont9u$ by ,plato1 & c>ri$ to grotesque consequ5ces by ! ,/oics2 b1 "h aga91 !re c be no "q ( attribut+ any orig9ality to ! philosoph] ( ! ,g>d54 ,t !re ei!r 7 no gods at all1 or t if !re 7 !y nev] m$dl$ ) ! _w1 0 a common en\gh op9ion 9 ,plato's "t2 & ev5 ,ari/otle's doctr9e ( a ,prime ,mov] excludes ! notion ( creation1 provid5ce1 & miracles altoge!r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,epicurean !ory ( idle gods 0 irrational 9 itself1 & kept ! door op5 = a return ( sup]/iti\s beliefs4 ,! next & p]haps ! mo/ important po9t 9 fav\r ( ,epicureanism is its !ory ( pleasure z ! end ( action4 ,plato _h left 8 idea ( ! good undef9$2 ,ari/otle _h def9$ 8 9 su* a mann] z to %ut out ! va/ majority ( mank9d f its pursuit2 ! ,/oics _h revolt$ e in/9ct by altoge!r disc>d+ pleasure z an end1 & putt+ a purely =mal & holl[ p]fection 9 its place4 ,x mu/ fur!r be admitt$ t ,epicurus1 9 trac+ back ju/ice to ! two ideas ( int]e/ & contract1 _h hold ( a true & f]tile pr9ciple4 ,nev]!less1 al?\gh e?ics is 8 /ronge/ gr\nd1 8 usual ill-luck pursues him ev5 "h4 ,x is :]e he is mo/ orig9al t he goes mo/ a/ray4 ,by r$uc+ pleasure1 z an end ( action1 to ! m]e removal ( pa91 he alt]s e>li] sy/ems ( h$onism = ! worse2 & plays ! game ( pessimism by mak+ x appe> t1 on ! :ole1 dea? mu/ be pref]able to life1 s9ce x is :at life c nev] be--a /ate ( absolute repose4 ,& by mak+ self-int]e/1 9 ! s5se ( seek+ no?+ b "o's own pleasure or ! means to x1 ! only rule ( action1 he endang]s ! v f\ndations ( society4 ,at be/1 ! selfi% sy/em1 z ,col]idge has beautifully obs]v$1 #8/&s 9 a simil> relation to ! law ( consci5ce or univ]sal selfless reason1 z ! dial to ! sun :i* indicates its pa? by int]cept+ its radiance4'#baj ,nor is ! indication s c]ta9 z ,col]idge admitt$4 ,a "t may come :5 self-sacrifice %all be unnecess>y = ! public welf>e1 b we are n )9 a measurable di/ance ( x z yet4 ,no ^w ( comm5dation c be pron\nc$ on ! ,epicurean psy*ology & logic4 ,!y are bo? bad 9 !mselves1 & inconsi/5t ) ! re/ ( ! sy/em4 ,7 all k d]iv$ f s5se-impressions--especially if ^? impressions 7 :at ,epicurus imag9$ !m to be--! atomic !ory c\ld nev] h be5 discov]$ or ev5 conceiv$1 nor c\ld an ideal ( happ9ess h be5 ?\ght out4 ,9 its !ory ( human progress1 ,epicureanism once m %[s to advantage2 al?\gh 9 d5y+ all inv5tiv5ess to man1 & mak+ him ! passive recipi5t ( ext]nal impressions1 x diff]s widely f ! mod]n s*ool :i* x is commonly suppos$ to h anticipat$4 ,& we may reasonably suspect t1 "h z else:]e1 e>li] sy/ems embodi$ s\nd] views on ! same subject4 ,! qualities :i* enabl$ ,epicurus to compete successfully ) mu* great] ?9k]s ?an himself z ! f\nd] ( a la/+ sect1 7 practical r ?an !oretical4 ,o!rs be=e him _h taught t happ9ess 0 ! end ( life2 none1 l him1 _h cultivat$ ! art ( happ9ess1 & po9t$ out ! fitte/ me?ods = atta9+ x4 ,! idea ( su* an art 0 a real & important addition to ! res\rces ( civilisation4 ,no mi/ake is great] ?an to suppose t pleasure is lo/ by be+ made an object ( pursuit4 ,to s+le out ! mo/ agreeable c\rse among _m alt]natives1 &1 :5 once f\nd1 /eadily to pursue x1 is an aptitude l any o!r1 & is capable ( be+ br\ght to a high degree ( p]fection by assidu\s att5tion & self-discipl9e4#baa ,no d\bt ! capacity = enjoym5t is impair$ by excessive self-consci\sness1 b ! same is true ( e o!r accompli%m5t dur+ ! e>li] /ages ( its acquisition4 ,x is only ! beg9n] :o is tr\bl$ by tak+ too mu* ?\ght ab\t 8 own pr(ici5cy2 :5 practice has become a second nature1 ! pr(essor ( h$onism reaps 8 h>ve/ ( delight )\t wa/+ a ?\ght on 8 own ef=ts1 or all[+ ! phantom ( pleasure 9 ! ab/ract to allure him away f its p>ticul> & pres5t realisation4 ,&1 grant+ t happ9ess z su* c be made an object ( cultivation1 ,epicurus 0 p]fectly "r 9 tea*+ t ! removal ( pa9 is its mo/ ess5tial condition1 faulty z 0 7f a speculative po9t ( view7 8 confusion ( ! condition ) ! ?+ itself4 ,if ! pr(ess$ pleasure-seek]s ( mod]n society (t5 fail 9 ! bus9ess ( _! lives1 x is f neglect+ ?is salut>y pr9ciple1 especially :]e x takes ! =m ( att5tion to ! requirem5ts ( heal?4 ,9 assign+ a high importance to fri5d%ip1 he 0 equally well inspir$4 ,cong5ial society is n only ! mo/ satisfy+ ( enjoym5ts 9 itself1 b also t :i* c be mo/ easily comb9$ ) e o!r enjoym5t4 ,x is also true1 al?\gh a tru? felt r ?an p]ceiv$ by our philosoph]1 t speculative agreem5t1 especially :5 speculation takes ! =m ( diss5t f receiv$ op9ions1 greatly increases ! affection ( fri5ds = "o ano!r4 ,& z !ology is ! subject on :i* un=c$ agreem5t seems mo/ difficult1 to elim9ate its influ5ce altoge!r 0 a valuable ?\gh purely negative contribution to unanimity ( ?\ght & feel+ 9 ! h$oni/ic sect4 ,an attempt has rec5tly be5 made by ,m4 ,guyau to trace ! influ5ce ( ,epicurus on mod]n philosophy4 ,we _c b ?9k ! me?od ( ?is able & lucid writ] a ?or\ghly mi/ak5 "o4 ,assum+ ! recognition ( self-int]e/ z ! sole or p>am\nt in/9ct 9 human nature1 to be ! ess5ce ( :at ,epicurus taught1 ,m4 ,guyau1 )\t m ado1 sets d[n e mod]n ?9k] :o agrees ) him on ?is "o po9t z 8 disciple1 & !n adds to ! numb] all :o hold t pleasure is ! end ( action2 ?us mak+ out a pretty long li/ ( fam\s names among ! m rec5t cont9uators ( 8 tradition4 ,a m ext5d$ /udy ( anci5t philosophy w\ld h %[n ! ,fr5* critic t morali/s :o1 9 o!r respects1 7 mo/ oppos$ to ,epicurus1 agre$ ) him 9 hold+ t e man naturally & necess>ily makes 8 own int]e/ ! supreme te/ ( "r conduct2 & t only ) ! def9ition ( welf>e did _! div]g5ce beg94 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! selfi% sy/ems ( mod]n times diff] entirely f ,epicureanism 9 _! conception ( happ9ess4 ,) ,hobbes1 = in/ance1 :om ,m4 ,guyau classes z an ,epicurean1 ! ideal is n pa9lessness b p[]2 ! desires are1 accord+ to 8 view1 naturally inf9ite1 & are held 9 *eck1 n by philosophical precepts b by mutual re/ra9t2 :ile1 9 d$uc+ ! special virtues1 8 /&>d is n ! good ( ea* individual1 b ! good ( ! :ole--9 o!r words1 he is1 to t ext5t1 a ,/oic r ?an an ,epicurean4 ,la ,ro*ef\cauld1 :o is (f]$ z ano!r example ( ! same t5d5cy1 0 n a morali/ at all2 & z a psy*ologi/ he diff]s ess5tially f ,epicurus 9 reg>d+ vanity z always & ev]y:]e ! great motive to virtue4 ,_h ! ,a!nian sage believ$ ?is he w\ld h despair$ ( mak+ m5 happy2 = disreg>d ( public op9ion1 )9 ! limits ( p]sonal safety1 01 ) him1 "o ( ! fir/ conditions ( a tranquil exi/5ce4 ,nor w\ld he h be5 less av]se f ! sy/em ( ,helvtius1 ano!r ( 8 suppos$ disciples4 ,! pr9cipal orig9ality ( ,helvtius 0 to insi/ t ! passions1 in/ead ( be+ disc\rag$--z all previ\s morali/s1 ,epicurus among ! numb]1 _h advis$--%\ld be delib]ately /imulat$ by ! promise ( unlimit$ indulg5ce to ^? :o di/+ui%$ !mselves by important public s]vices4 ,( ,sp9oza we ne$ say no?+1 = ,m4 ,guyau admits t he 0 q z mu* inspir$ by ,/oic z by ,epicurean ideas4 ,at ! same "t1 ! comb9ation ( ^! two e?ical sy/ems w\ld h be5 mu* bett] illu/rat$ by mod]n ,engli% utilit>ianism1 :i* ,m4 ,guyau reg>ds z a developm5t ( ,epicureanism alone4 ,! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb] is n an individual or self-int]e/$1 b a univ]sal end1 hav+1 z ,mill has %[n1 = its ultimate sanction ! love ( humanity z a :ole1 :i* is an ess5tially ,/oic s5tim5t4 ,x may be add$ t utilit>ianism has no sympa?y ) ! p>ticul> !ory ( pleasure1 :e!r s5sual or negative1 adopt$ by ,epicurus4 ,9 giv+ a high1 or ev5 ! highe/ place to intellectual enjoym5ts1 x agrees ) ! e/imate ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 to :i* he 0 s /eadily oppos$4 ,& 9 duly appreciat+ ! positive side ( all enjoym5ts1 x returns to ! e>li] h$onism f :i* he /ood s f> ap>t4 ,! di/9ctive features ( ,epicureanism h1 9 tru?1 nev] be5 copi$1 nor are !y ev] likely to be copi$1 by any mod]n sy/em4 ,x arose1 z we h se51 f a comb9ation ( circum/ances :i* w h>dly be repeat$ 9 ! future hi/ory ( ?\ght4 ,z ! heat & pressure ( molt5 granite turn s&/one into slate1 s also ! mighty sy/ems ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 com+ into contact ) ! irreligi\s1 s5sual1 empirical1 & sceptical side ( ,attic ?\ght1 =c$ x to assume t sort ( lam9at$ texture :i* *>act]ises ! !oretical philosophy ( ,epicurus4 ,&1 at ! v same mom5t1 ! disappe>ance ( all patriotism & public _s f ,a!nian life all[$ ! old] elem5ts ( ,a!nian "*1 its amiable egoism1 its love ( frugal gratifications1 its av]sion f purely speculative int]e/s1 to create a new & loos] bond ( social union among ^? :o 7 indiff]5t to ! vulg> objects ( ambition1 b :om ! au/]] doctr9es ( ,/oicism _h fail$ to attract4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,sceptics ,,& ,,eclectics3 ,,greek ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,rome4 ,i4 ,! ye> #aee ,b4,c4 0 signalis$ by an important ev5t1 if n 9 ! hi/ory ( ideas1 at lea/ 9 ! hi/ory ( _! diffusion4 ,?is 0 ! despat* ( an embassy f ! ,a!nian p to ! ,roman ,s5ate1 consi/+ ( ?ree philosoph]s1 ! heads ( _! respective s*ools--,c>neades ! ,academician1 ,critolaus ! ,p]ipatetic1 & ,diog5es ! ,/oic4 ,philosophic tea*+1 once proscrib$ at ,a!ns1 _h1 at ! "t ( :i* we are speak+1 become h] *ief di/9ction1 & ! mo/ hon\rable pr(ession pursu$ )9 h] prec9cts4 ,x 01 !n1 z natural t an important mission %\ld be confid$ to ! mo/ em95t repres5tatives ( ! call+ 9 "q z t high ecclesia/ics %\ld be simil>ly employ$ by ,rome 9 lat] ages1 or t ,g]man univ]sity t[ns %\ld s5d pr(essors to repres5t _! int]e/s 9 ! imp]ial ,diet4 ,b ! same fate t befalls an e/abli%$ religion _h befall5 an e/abli%$ philosophy4 ,an attempt to impose re/rictions on ! lib]ty ( tea*+ _h1 inde$1 be5 successfully resi/$1 & ! exp]im5t 0 nev] repeat$4#bab ,nev]!less1 ! tea*]s !mselves lo/ z mu* 9 true dignity z !y ga9$ 9 afflu5ce & popul> e/imation4 ,9 all probability1 ! ?reat ( dea? w\ld n h induc$ ,socrates to und]take ! task :i* 01 app>5tly1 accept$ )\t compulsion & z an hon\rable duty by 8 successors4 ,! ,a!nians _h made an unprovok$ raid on ! t[n ( ,oropus2 ! affair _h be5 ref]r$ to arbitration2 & ! aggressors _h be5 s5t5c$ to pay a f9e ( #ejj tal5ts4 ,x 0 to obta9 a remission ( ?is s5t5ce t ! ?ree ,s*ol>*s 7 s5t on an embassy to ! ,roman ,s5ate4 ,if ! nature ( _! err& 0 n precisely calculat$ to w9 respect = ! pr(ession ( ! ,a!nian envoys1 ! subsequ5t proce$+s ( "o among _! numb] prov$ /ill less likely to raise x 9 ! e/imation ( ^? ^: fav\r !y s\ght to w94 ,hell5ic culture 01 at t "t1 rapidly ga9+ gr\nd among ! ,roman ari/ocracy2 ,c>neades1 :o already enjoy$ an imm5se reputation = eloqu5ce & +5uity among 8 own c\ntrym51 us$ ! opportunity (f]$ by 8 tempor>y resid5ce 9 ! imp]ial city to deliv] public lectures on morality2 & su* 0 ! eag]ness to li/5 t = a "t ! "y nobles c\ld ?9k & talk ( no?+ else4 ,! subject *os5 0 ju/ice4 ,! fir/ lecture recapitulat$ :atev] _h be5 said 9 praise ( t virtue by ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,b x 0 a pr9ciple ( ! sect to :i* ,c>neades belong$ t e affirmative proposition1 h[ev] /rongly support$1 might be d5i$ ) equal plausibility4 ,accord+ly1 8 second disc\rse 0 entirely devot$ to upsett+ ! conclusions advocat$ 9 ! fir/4 ,transport+ ! :ole "q1 z w\ld seem1 f a private to a public po9t ( view1 he attempt$ to %[1 f ! diff]5t /&>ds prevail+ 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 t !re 0 no su* ?+ z an immutable rule ( "r2 & also t ! greate/ & mo/ successful ,/ates _h pr(it$ mo/ by unscrupul\s aggressions on _! weak] neighb\rs--8 mo/ tell+ illu/rations be+ drawn f ! hi/ory ( ! ,romans !mselves4 ,!n1 desc5d+ once m to private life1 ! sceptical lectur] expatiat$ on ! frequ5cy ( ^? cases 9 :i* ju/ice is oppos$ to self-int]e/1 & ! folly ( sacrific+ "o's own advantage to t ( ano!r4 #8,suppose a good man has a runaway slave or an unheal?y h\se to sell1 w he in=m ! buy] ( _! defici5cies1 or w he conceal !m8 ,9 ! "o case he w be a fool1 9 ! o!r case he w be unju/4 ,aga91 ju/ice =bids u to take away ! life or prop]ty ( ano!r4 ,b 9 a %ipwreck1 w n ! j man try to save 8 life at ano!r's exp5se by seiz+ ! plank ( :i* "s weak] p]son ?an himself has got hold--especially if !y are alone on ! sea toge!r8 ,if he is wise he w d s1 = to act o!rwise w\ld be to sacrifice 8 life4 ,s also1 9 fly+ be=e ! enemy1 w he n dispossess a w\nd$ comrade ( 8 horse1 9 ord] to m\nt & escape on x himself8 ,"h1 aga91 ju/ice is incompatible ) self-pres]vation--t is to say1 ) wisdom6#8#bac ,at ! "t :5 ,c>neades deliv]$ 8 lectures1 ! morality ( ,rome resembl$ t ( ,sp>ta dur+ h] great conflict ) ,a!ns1 z *>act]is$ by "o ( ! speak]s 9 ! ,melian ,dialogue4 ,scrupul\sly hon\rable 9 _! deal+s ) "o ano!r1 9 _! deal+s ) =eign nations h] citiz5s notori\sly id5tifi$ ju/ice ) :at 0 agreeable or advantage\s to !mselves4 ,! argum5ts ( ! ,academic philosoph] mu/1 !re=e1 h be5 d\bly annoy+ to ! lead]s ( ! ,/ate1 z a satire on its public policy & z a s\rce ( dang] to ! integrity ( its private life4 ,9 ?is respect1 old ,cato 0 a type ( ! :ole race4 ,9 all transactions ) 8 fell[-citiz5s1 & 9 e (fice und]tak5 on behalf ( ! community1 8 hone/y 0 su* t x became prov]bial4 ,b 8 absolute disreg>d ( int]national ju/ice has become equally prov]bial ?r\gh ! fam\s advice1 reit]at$ on e possible occasion1 t an un(f5d+ & unw>like city %\ld be de/roy$1 le/ its exi/5ce %\ld at "s future "t become a s\rce ( uneas9ess to ! mi/ress ( ! _w4 ,p]haps x 0 a secret consci\sness ( 8 own inconsi/5cy :i* prev5t$ him f directly propos+ t ,c>neades %\ld n be all[$ to cont9ue 8 lectures4 ,at any rate1 ! ex-,c5sor cont5t$ himself ) mov+ t ! bus9ess on :i* ! ,a!nian envoys _h come %\ld be at once conclud$1 t !y might return to _! classes at ,a!ns1 leav+ ! y\? ( ,rome to seek in/ruction z be=e f ! wise conv]sation & example ( h] public m54#bad ,we are n told :e!r 8 spee* on ?is occasion w\nd up ) ! usual =mula1 caet]um1 ,patres ,conscripti1 s5t5tia mea e/ ,c>?ag9em esse del5dam2 b z x is /at$ t f ! ye> #age to ! end ( 8 life1 he nev] made a motion 9 ! ,s5ate t 0 n t]m9at$ by ^? words1 we are entitl$ to assume t he did n omit !m 9 ! pres5t in/ance4 ,if s1 ! effect mu/ h be5 s+ul>ly grotesque2 al?\gh1 p]haps1 less s ?an if att5tion _h be5 drawn to ! cu/om>y phrase by its unexpect$ abs5ce4 ,at any rate1 ,c>neades _h an opportunity ( c>ry+ back "o m illu/ration ( e?ical inconsi/5cy :]e) to enliv5 8 lectures on ! #8vanity ( dogmatis+' & ! absolute equilibrium ( contradictory op9ions4 ,x has be5 m5tion$ t ,c>neades 0 ! head ( ! ,academic s*ool4 ,9 t capacity1 he 0 ! l9eal inh]itor ( ,plato's tea*+4 ,yet a public apology = inju/ice1 ev5 :5 balanc$ by a previ\s panegyric on its opposite1 might seem to be ( all lessons ! mo/ ali5 f ,platonism2 & 9 a ,/ate gov]n$ by ,plato's own laws1 x w\ld c]ta9ly h be5 puni%able ) dea?4 ,to expla9 ?is anomaly is to relate ! hi/ory ( ,greek scepticism1 :i* is :at we %all n[ attempt to d4 ,,ii4 ,9 mod]n p>lance1 ! ^w scepticism is (t5 us$ to d5ote absolute unbelief4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a misapplication2 &1 prop]ly speak+1 x %\ld be res]v$1 z x 0 by ! ,greeks1 = ^? cases 9 :i* belief is simply )held1 or 9 :i*1 z its etymology implies1 ! m5tal /ate connot$ is a desire to consid] ( ! matt] be=e com+ to a decision4 ,b1 ( c\rse1 !re are occasions :51 ei!r f prud5ce or polit5ess1 absolute rejection ( a proposition is veil$ "u ! appe>ance ( simple indecision or ( a dem& = fur!r evid5ce2 & at a "t :5 to believe 9 c]ta9 !ological dogmas 0 ei!r dang]\s or discr$itable1 ! "n sceptic may h be5 accept$ on all h&s z a conv5i5t euphemism 9 speak+ ab\t p]sons :o did n d\bt1 b d5i$ !m altoge!r4 ,aga91 tak5 9 its orig9al s5se1 ! "n sceptic is applicable to two entirely diff]5t1 or r diametrically opposite classes4 ,! true philosoph] is m sl[ to believe ?an o!r m51 because he is bett] acqua9t$ ?an !y are ) ! rules ( evid5ce1 & ) ! app>5tly /rong claims on our belief (t5 possess$ by propositions kn[n to be false4 ,to t ext5t1 all philosoph]s are sceptics1 & are rightly reg>d$ z su* by ! vulg>2 al?\gh _! acceptance ( _m conclusions :i* ! unle>n$ reject )\t exam9ation1 has ! contr>y effect ( giv+ !m a reputation = extraord9>y cr$ulity or ev5 insanity4 ,& ?is leads u to ano!r aspect ( scepticism--an aspect "u :i*1 s f> f be+ an elem5t ( philosophy1 x is "o ( ! mo/ dang]\s enemies t philosophy has to face4 ,in/ead ( reg>d+ ! difficulties :i* beset ! pa? ( enquiry z a w>n+ aga9/ premature conclusions1 & a /imulus to m c>eful rese>*1 x is possible to make !m a pretext = ab&on+ enquiry altoge!r4 ,& x is also possible to reg>d ! div]g5t answ]s giv5 by diff]5t ?9k]s to ! same problem1 n z mat]ials = comp>ison1 selection or comb9ation1 nor ev5 z indications ( ! v>i\s directions 9 :i* a solution is n to be s\ght1 b z a pro( t ! problem altoge!r passes ! p[] ( human reason to solve4 ,7 ?is intellectual despond5cy to issue 9 a p]man5t susp5se ( judgm5t1 x w\ld be bad en\gh2 b practically its consequ5ces are ( a mu* m mis*iev\s "*4 ,! human m9d is s con/itut$ t x mu/ ei!r g =w>d or fall back2 9 no case c x /& /ill4 ,accord+ly1 ! lazy sceptic almo/ always ends by con=m+ to ! e/abli%$ cre$s & cu/oms ( 8 age or ( ! society 9 :i* he lives2 ?us /r5g!n+ ! h&s ( au?ority 9 its conflict ) ! m en]getic or c\rage\s enquir]s1 ^: object is to discov]1 by ! unaid$ ef=ts ( reason1 "s new & positive pr9ciple ei!r ( action or ( belief4 ,& ! gu>dians ( or?odoxy are s well aw>e ( ! pr(it to be reap$ f ?is alliance t1 :5 deb>r$ f putt+ d[n _! oppon5ts by law or by public op9ion1 !y anxi\sly fo/] false scepticism :]e x is already rampant1 & endeav\r to create x :]e x does n exi/4 ,sometimes dis9t]e/$ morality is ! object ( _! attack1 & at o!r times ! f\ndations ( inductive sci5ce4 ,_! fav\rite =mula is t :atev] objections may be urg$ aga9/ _! own doctr9es1 o!rs equally /rong may be urg$ aga9/ ! results ( free ?\ght2 :]eas ! tru? is t su* objections1 be+ applicable to all sy/ems alike1 exactly balance "o ano!r1 leav+ ! special argum5ts aga9/ irrationalism to tell ) z mu* =ce z be=e4 ,& !y also lay great /ress on ! int]nal diss5sions ( _! assailants--diss5sions :i* only br+ out into m vivid relief ! "o po9t on :i* all are agre$1 t1 :atev] else may be true1 ! traditional op9ions are demon/rably false4 ,z might be expect$ f ! imm5se exub]ance ( _! intellectual life1 we f9d e k9d ( scepticism repres5t$ among ! ,greeks2 &1 z ) _! o!r philosophical t5d5cies1 !re is evid5ce ( its exi/5ce previ\s to or indep5d5t ( sci5tific speculation4 ,_! v religion1 ?\gh burd5$ ) an enorm\s mass ( fictiti\s leg5ds1 %[s a c]ta9 unwill+ness to transgress ! m obvi\s laws ( nature1 n noticeable 9 ! traditions ( k9dr$ or neighb\r+ races4 ,its t5d5cy is r to imag9e sup]natural causes = natural ev5ts1 or to read a div9e mean+ into accid5tal occurr5ces1 ?an to introduce impossibilities into ! ord9>y c\rse ( hi/ory4 ,& "s ( its mo/ m>vell\s /ories are told 9 su* a mann] t ! incr$ul\s satire ) :i* !y 7 orig9ally receiv$ is1 by a beautiful play ( irony1 work$ into ! v texture ( ! n>rative itself4 ,= example1 ! ,greeks 7 especially dis9cl9$ to believe t "o ( ! l[] animals c\ld speak ) a human voice1 or t a dead man c\ld be br\ght back to life--contradict$ z bo? suppositions 7 by ! facts ( univ]sal exp]i5ce4 ,s :5 ! horse ,xan?us replies to 8 ma/]'s reproa*es1 ,hom] adds t 8 voice 0 arre/$ by ! ,er9yes--t is to say1 by ! laws ( nature2 & we may suspect t no?+ m is int5d$ by 8 spee* ?an ! int]pretation :i* ,a*illes w\ld spontane\sly put on ! mute & pa!tic gaze ( ! fai?ful /e$4 ,& :51 to illu/rate ! wondr\s m$ical skill ( ,asclpius1 x is relat$ t at la/ he succe$$ 9 re/or+ a dead man to life1 ! /ory adds t = ?is impi\s de$ bo? ! heal] & 8 pati5t 7 imm$iately transfix$ by a ?und]bolt f heav54#bae ,ano!r impossibility is to pr$ict ) any c]ta9ty ! future fate ( individuals1 & "h also--z has be5 already obs]v$ 9 a diff]5t connexion#baf--! ,greeks %[$ _! extreme scepticism ) reg>d to any alleg$ contrav5tion ( a natural law1 "u ! transp>5t disguise ( /ories ab\t p]sons :om ambigu\s pr$ictions _h lur$ to _! fall4 ,x is ev5 d\btful h[ f> ! ,greek poets believ$ 9 ! p]sonality ( _! gods1 or1 :at comes to ! same ?+1 9 _! deta*m5t f ! natural objects 9 :i* a div9e p[] 0 suppos$ to be embodi$4 ,su* a deta*m5t is mo/ completely realis$ :5 !y are assembl$ 9 an ,olympian c\ncil2 b1 z ,hegel has some:]e obs]v$1 ,hom] nev] br+s 8 gods toge!r 9 ?is mann] )\t pres5t+ !m 9 a ridicul\s light--t is to say1 )\t h9t+ t _! exi/5ce mu/ n be tak5 q 9 e>ne/4 ,& ! exi/5ce ( disembodi$ spirits seems to be simil>ly conceiv$ by ! great epic ma/]4 ,! life ( ! s\ls 9 ,hades is n a cont9uance b a memory & a reflection ( _! life on e>?4 ,! scornful reply ( ,a*illes to ! congratulations ( ,odysseus implies1 z x 71 ! consci\sness ( 8 own non5tity4 ,by no o!r device c\ld ! irony ( ! :ole situation1 ! wor?lessness ( a m]ely subjective immortality1 be made s poignantly app>5t4#bag ,! *>act]s 9 ,hom] are m>k$ by ?is incr$ul\s disposition 9 direct proportion to _! g5]al wisdom4 ,:5 ,agamemnon relates 8 dream to ! assembl$ *iefs1 ,ne/or dryly obs]ves t if anyone ( less au?ority _h told !m su* a /ory !y w\ld h imm$iately reject$ x z untrue4 ,hector's outspok5 contempt = augury is well kn[n2 & 8 indiff]5ce to ! dy+ words ( ,patroclus is equally *>act]i/ic4 ,9 ! ,odyssey1 ,alc9\s po9t$ly di/+ui%es 8 gue/ f ! common run ( travell]s1 ^: words des]ve no cr$it4 ,t ,telema*us %\ld tell :o is 8 fa!r1 ) ! uncomplim5t>y res]vation t he has only 8 "m's ^w = x1 is evid5tly meant z a pro( ( ! "y man's precoci\s %rewdness2 & x is ) ! utmo/ difficulty t ,p5elope h]self is p]suad$ ( h] husb&'s id5tity4 ,s 9 ! ,agamemnon ( ,aes*ylus1 no?+ less ?an ! report ( an eye-witness w conv9ce ! ,*orus ( old m5 t ,troy has really fall54#bah ,f9ally1 to complete ! li/ ( examples af=d$ indep5d5tly ( philosophical reflection1 ,h]odotus repeat$ly expresses disbelief 9 ! /ories told him1 or1 :at is m rem>kable1 holds 8 judgm5t 9 susp5se ) reg>d to _! v]acity4 ,scepticism1 z a philosophical pr9ciple1 is ali5 f e>ly ,greek ?\ght2 b x is p]vad$ by a negative t5d5cy exhibit$ 9 f\r diff]5t directions1 all conv]g+ t[>ds ! lat] attitude ( susp5sive d\bt4 ,!re are %>p criticisms on ! popul> my?ology2 !re are prote/s aga9/ ! ascription ( reality to s5sible appe>ances2 !re are contemptu\s ref]5ces on ! "p ( "s philosoph]s to ! op9ions held by o!rs2 & !re are occasional lam5tations ov] ! difficulty ( gett+ at any tru? at all4 ,! importance1 h[ev]1 ( ^! la/ utt]ances has be5 consid]ably exagg]at$ bo? 9 anci5t & mod]n times4 ,=1 9 "s in/ances1 !y are attributable solely to ! di/ru/ ( s5se-p]ception1 & 9 o!rs !y seem to express no?+ m ?an a pass+ mood aga9/ :i* we mu/ set ! dogmatic conclusions else:]e enunciat$ ) p]fect confid5ce by ! same ?9k]s4#bai ,at ! same "t1 we h to note1 z an illu/ration ( ! /&+ connexion betwe5 !ological belief & t k9d ( scepticism :i* is %[n by di/ru/ 9 man's p[] ( discov]+ ! tru? = himself1 t ! /ronge/ expressions ( su* a di/ru/ are to be f\nd 9 ! two mo/ religi\s ( ! pre-,socratic ?9k]s1 ,x5ophanes & ,emp$ocles4 ,,iii4 ,a new p]iod beg9s ) ! ,greek ,humani/s4 ,we use ?is t]m 9 pref]5ce to t ( ,sophi/s1 because1 z has be5 %[n1 9 specially deal+ ) ! subject1 half ! tea*]s kn[n "u ! latt] d5om9ation made x _! bus9ess to popul>ise physical sci5ce & to apply x to morality1 :ile ! o!r half /ruck out an entirely diff]5t l9e1 & f\nd$ _! educational sy/em on ! express rejection ( su* inve/igations2 _! me?od be+1 9 ?is respect1 =e%ad[$ by ! greate/ poet ( ! age1 :o conc5trates all 8 att5tion on ! work+s ( ! human m9d1 & foll[$ by its greate/ hi/orian1 ) :om a simil> /udy takes ! place occupi$ by geography & natural hi/ory 9 ! "w ( ,h]odotus4 ,?is absorption 9 human int]e/s 0 unfav\rable alike to ! objects & to ! me?ods ( previ\s enquiry3 to ! =m]1 z a div]sion f ! new /udies2 to ! latt]1 z inconsi/5t ) ! flexibility & _m-sid$ness ( consci\s m9d4 ,h5ce ! true fa!r ( philosophical scepticism 0 ,protagoras4 ,) him1 = ! fir/ "t1 we f9d full expression giv5 to ! prop] sceptical attitude1 :i* is "o ( susp5se & indiff]5ce z oppos$ to absolute d5ial4 ,he does n und]take to say :e!r ! gods exi/ or n4 ,he reg>ds ! real ess5ce ( ,nature z unkn[able1 on acc\nt ( ! relativity :i* *>act]ises all s5sible impressions4 ,& :]ev] op9ions are divid$1 he und]takes to provide equally /rong argum5ts = bo? sides ( ! "q4 ,he also anticipates ! two pr9cipal t5d5cies exhibit$ by all future scepticism 9 its relation to practice4 ,"o is its devotion to humanity1 "u ! d\ble =m ( exclusive att5tion to human int]e/s1 & great mildness 9 ! treatm5t ( human be+s4 ,! o!r is a disposition to take cu/om & public op9ion1 r ?an any physical or metaphysical law1 = ! /&>d & sanction ( morality4 ,su* scepticism might = ! mom5t be ho/ile to religion2 b a reconciliation 0 likely to be soon effect$ betwe5 !m4 ,! fam\s !ses ( ,gorgias 7 quot$ 9 a =m] *apt] z an illu/ration ( ! tactics pursu$ by ,greek ,humanism 9 its controv]sy ) physical sci5ce4 ,!y mu/ be notic$ aga9 9 ! pres5t connexion1 on acc\nt ( _! be>+ on ! developm5t ( scepticism1 & z hav+ inaugurat$ a me?od ( reason+ (t5 employ$ 9 subsequ5t attacks1 direct$1 n aga9/ ! :ole ( k1 b aga9/ p>ticul> p>ts ( x4 ,! scepticism ( ,protagoras re/$ on ! assumption t !re is an ext]nal reality f ! reaction ( :i* ) m9d all our p]ceptions proce$4 ,nei!r ( ^! two factors c be kn[n ap>t f ! o!r1 & z bo? are 9 a con/ant flux1 our k ( ! result+ comp\nd at "o "t does n %[ :at x has be5 or w be at ano!r "t4 ,b ,gorgias altoge!r d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( any objective reality2 & he attempt$ to disprove x by an analytical in/ead ( a syn!tic argum5t1 lay+ d[n a s]ies ( disjunctive propositions1 & upsett+ ! diff]5t alt]natives 9 succession4 ,exi/5ce mu/ be ei!r some?+ or no?+1 or bo? toge!r2 & if some?+1 x mu/ be ei!r f9ite or inf9ite1 or bo?1 & ei!r "o or _m1 or bo?4 ,8 argum5t aga9/ an inf9ite exi/5ce is altoge!r futile2 b x s]ves to illu/rate ! undevelop$ /ate ( reflection at t p]iod4 ,! et]nity ( ! _w is conf\nd$ ) its unlimit$ ext5sion 9 space3 & ?is hypo!sis1 aga91 is met by ! transp>5t quibble t ! _w1 n be+ 9 any "o place1 mu/ be n[h]e or n at all4 ,& ! alt]native t ! _w has n always exi/$ is refut$ by ! unprov$ assumption1 :i*1 app>5tly1 no ,greek philosoph] ev] ?\ght ( disput+1 t no?+ c beg9 )\t be+ caus$ by some?+ else4 ,/ill1 h[ev] contemptible su* reason+s may seem1 x is obvi\s t 9 !m we h ! fir/ crude =m ( ! fam\s ant9omies by :i* ,kant long aft]w>ds s\ght to prove ! impossibility ( a _w exi/+ 9 space & "t ap>t f a p]cipi5t subject1 & :i* h s9ce be5 us$ to e/abli% 9 a m g5]al way ! unkn[ability ( exi/5ce z su*4 ,x w also be obs]v$ t ! sceptical argum5ts respectively d]iv$ f ! relativity ( ?\ght & f ! contradictions inh]5t 9 its ultimate products are run toge!r by mod]n agno/ics4 ,b no reason t we c rememb] has ev] be5 giv5 to %[ t an idea is necess>ily subjective because x is self-contradictory4 ,! second !sis ( ,gorgias 0 t1 ev5 grant+ ! _w to exi/1 x c\ld n possibly be kn[n4 ,"h ! reason+ is unexpect$ly weak4 ,because all ?\ghts d n repres5t facts1--z1 = example1 our ideas ( impossible comb9ations1 l *>iots runn+ ov] ! sea1--x is assum$ t none d4 ,b ! problem h[ to di/+ui% betwe5 true & false ideas 0 rais$1 & x 0 r\nd ?is t ! fi]ce/ battle betwe5 dogmati/s & sceptics subsequ5tly rag$4 ,& 9 ! complete conv]tibility ( consci\sness & reality po/ulat$ by ,gorgias1 we may f9d ! sugge/ion ( a po9t sometimes ov]look$ 9 ! automati/ controv]sy--namely1 t ! impossibility1 if any1 ( our act+ on ! mat]ial _w reciprocally involves ! impossibility ( its act+ on u1 9 s f> z we are consci\s be+s4 ,if ?\ght _c be translat$ into movem5t1 nei!r c movem5t be translat$ into ?\ght4 ,! ?ird !sis ma9ta9s t1 grant+ ! _w to exi/ & to be kn[able1 "o man _c communicate 8 k to ano!r2 =1 ! diff]5t classes ( s5sations be+ het]og5e\s1 a visual or tactual impression on our consci\sness _c be convey$ by an auditory impression on ! consci\sness ( someone else4 ,?is difficulty has be5 completely ov]come by ! subsequ5t progress ( ?\ght4 ,we _c1 x is true1 directly communicate m ?an a few s5sations to "o ano!r2 b by produc+ "o we may call up o!rs ) :i* x has become associat$ ?r\gh previ\s exp]i5ce4 ,& ! great bulk ( our k has be5 analys$ into relations ( co-exi/5ce1 succession1 & resemblance1 :i* are q indep5d5t ( ! p>ticul> symbols employ$ to transmit !m f "o m9d to ano!r4#bbj ,! scepticism ( ,ari/ippus & ! ,cyr5aics m$iat$ betwe5 ! views ( ,protagoras & ^? ( ,gorgias1 :ile m>k+ an advance on bo?4 ,accord+ to ?is s*ool1 we "k no?+ beyond our own feel+s1 & x mu/ be left undecid$ :e!r !y are caus$ by an ext]nal reality or n4 ,nor c ! feel+s ( "o individual ju/ify u 9 reason+ to ! exi/5ce ( simil> feel+s 9 ! m9d ( ano!r individual4#bba ,x might be object$ t ! argum5ts advanc$ 9 support ( ! latt] ass]tion are suicidal1 = !y are d]iv$ f ! abnormal /ates ( consci\sness accompany+ p>ticul> diseases1 or else f ! div]g5ces ( ta/e exhibit$ by diff]5t individuals ev5 :5 9 good heal?1--an app>5t admission t we are suffici5tly well acqua9t$ ) ! ph5om5a 9 "q to in/itute a comp>ison betwe5 !m1 :i*1 by hypo!sis1 is impossible4 ,& ?is is1 9 fact1 ! me?od by :i* ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] has endeav\r$ to upset ! :ole !ory ( subjective idealism1 z involv+ at e /ep an assumption ( ! v realities t x pr(esses to d5y4 ,b ! ,cyr5aic & ! mod]n ideali/ h a p]fect "r to %[ t ! assumptions ( _! adv]s>ies are self-contradictory2 & ! readie/ way ( s do+ is to reason f !m z if !y 7 true4 ,! real answ] to t extreme =m ( idealism :i* d5ies ! possibility ( mak+ kn[n our feel+s to ea* o!r is t1 our bodies be+ simil>ly con/ruct$ & respond+ to simil> impressions by simil> manife/ations1 ,i h ! same sort ( w>rant = assum+ t y\r /ates ( consci\sness are l m9e t ,i h = assum+ y to exi/ at all4 ,! inf]5ce mu/1 ( c\rse1 be surr\nd$ by prop] precautions1 su* z are seldom us$ by unsci5tific reason]s4 ,we mu/ make sure t ! /ructure is ! same & t ! excitem5t is ! same1 or t _! diff]5ces1 if any1 are insignificant1 be=e we c attribute ! same value to ! same manife/ations ( feel+ on ! "p ( diff]5t p]sons2 b t ?is c be done1 at lea/ 9 ! case ( ! elem5t>y s5sations1 is %[n by ! easy detection ( su* anomalies z col\r-bl9dness :]e !y exi/4 ,) ,socrates & ,plato1 scepticism exhibits itself "u two new aspects3 z an accompanim5t ( religi\s belief1 & z an elem5t ( con/ructive ?\ght4 ,?us !y repres5t bo? ! good & ! bad side ( ?is t5d5cy3 ! aspect "u :i* x is a help1 & ! aspect "u :i* x is a h9drance to sci5tific inve/igation4 ,) bo? philosoph]s1 h[ev]1 ! re/riction or negation ( human k 0 a consequ5ce r ?an a cause ( _! !ological convictions2 nor d !y seem to h appreciat$ its value z a weapon 9 ! controv]sy ) religi\s unbelief4 ,:5 ,socrates repres5t$ ! irreconcilable div]g5ce 9 ! explanations ( ,nature (f]$ by previ\s ?9k]s z a suffici5t condemnation ( _! sev]al pret5sions1 he did n set ?is fact aga9/ ! argum5ts by :i* a ,x5ophanes _h simil>ly endeav\r$ to ov]?r[ ! popul> my?ology2 b he look$ on x z a fatal consequ5ce ( _! insane presumption 9 m$dl+ ) ! secrets ( ! gods4 ,on "o occasion only1 :5 expla9+ to ,eu?ydmus t ! invisibility ( ! gods is no reason = d\bt+ _! exi/5ce1 he argues1 some:at 9 ,butl]'s /yle1 t our own m9ds1 ^: exi/5ce we _c d\bt1 are equally invisible4#bbb ,& ! ,platonic ,socrates makes x 8 bus9ess to demon/rate ! univ]sality ( human ignorance1 n z a caution aga9/ dogmatic unbelief1 b z a glorification ( ! div9e k2 ?\gh h[ we come to "k t !re is any su* k he leaves utt]ly unexpla9$4 ,9 ,plato's ,p>m5ides we h to note ! g]m ( a new dialectic4 ,!re x is sugge/$ t we may ov]come ! difficulties att5d+ a p>ticul> !ory--9 ?is in/ance ! !ory ( self-exi/+ ideas--by consid]+ h[ mu* great] are ! difficulties :i* w\ld ensue on its rejection4 ,! argum5ts advanc$ by ,z5o ! ,eleatic aga9/ ! reality ( motion are m5tion$ z a case 9 po9t2 & ,plato proce$s to illu/rate 8 propos$ me?od by %[+ :at consequ5ces respectively foll[ if we fir/ assume ! exi/5ce1 & !n ! non-exi/5ce ( ! ,"o2 b ! :ole analysis seems valueless = its imm$iate purpose1 s9ce ! result+ impossibilities on ei!r side are left exactly balanc$2 & ,plato does n1 l "s mod]n metaphysicians1 call 9 our affections to decide ! controv]sy4 ,! me?od by :i* ,plato ev5tually f\nd 8 way out ( ! sceptical difficulty1 0 to trans=m x f a subjective law ( ?\ght into an objective law ( ?+s4 ,adopt+ ! ,h]acleitean physics z a suffici5t explanation ( ! mat]ial _w1 he conceiv$1 at a comp>atively e>ly p]iod ( 8 m5tal evolution1 t ! fallaci\sness ( s5se-impressions is due1 n to ! s5ses !mselves1 b to ! in/ability ( ! ph5om5a ) :i* !y deal2 & aft]w>ds1 on discov]+ t ! int]pretation ( ideal relations 0 subject to simil> p]plexities1 he assum$ t1 9 _! case also1 ! contradiction arises f a comb9ation ( ,be+ ) n-,be+ det]m9+ :atev] diff]5ces prevail among ! ultimate elem5ts ( ?+s4 ,&1 f9ally1 l ,emp$ocles1 he solv$ ! problem ( cognition by e/abli%+ a p>allel betwe5 ! human s\l & ! univ]se z a :ole2 ! circles ( ! ,same & ! ,o!r be+ unit$ 9 ! cele/ial orbits & also 9 ! me*anism ( ! bra94#bbc ,x 0 by an analog\s1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 f> m complicat$ & +5i\s adju/m5t1 t ,hegel s\ght to ov]come ! agno/icism :i* ,kant pr(ess$ to h f\nd$ on a basis ( irrefragable pro(4 ,) bo? philosoph]s1 h[ev]1 ! sceptical pr9ciple 0 celebrat+ its supreme triumph at ! mom5t ( its fanci$ ov]?r[4 ,! dogmatism ( d\bt c\ld g no fur!r ?an to resolve ! :ole *a9 ( exi/5ce into a succession ( mutually contradictory ideas4 ,if ! syn!sis ( affirmation & negation _c pr(itably be us$ to expla9 ! orig9 ( ?+s 9 !mselves1 x has a real & v important function :5 limit$ to ! subjective sph]e1 to ! philosophy ( practice & ( belief4 ,x 0 s employ$ by ,socrates1 &1 on a mu* great] scale1 by ,plato himself4 ,to consid] e proposition f opposite po9ts ( view1 & to *all5ge ! claim ( e exi/+ cu/om on our respect1 0 a proce$+ fir/ in/itut$ by ! ma/]1 & c>ri$ out by ! disciple 9 a mann] :i* has made 8 inve/igations a model = e future enquir]4 ,some?+ ( _! _s 0 inh]it$ by ,ari/otle2 b1 except 9 8 logical treatises1 x 0 ov]borne by ! dem&s ( a pre-em95tly dogmatic & sy/ematis+ g5ius4 ,9 criticis+ ! !ories ( 8 pr$ecessors1 he has abundantly illu/rat$ ! p[] ( dialectic1 & he has enum]at$ its res\rces ) consci5ti\s complet5ess2 b he has n v]ifi$ 8 own conclusions by subject+ !m to ?is =midable te/+ app>atus4 ,mean:ile ! scepticism ( ,protagoras _h n be5 entirely absorb$ into ! sy/ems ( 8 rivals1 b cont9u$ to exi/ z an indep5d5t tradition1 or 9 association ) a simpl] philosophy4 ,! fam\s s*ool ( ,meg>a1 ab\t :i*1 un=tunately1 we h receiv$ v little direct in=mation1 0 nom9ally a developm5t ( ! ,socratic tea*+ on its logical side1 z ! ,cynic & ,cyr5aic s*ools 7 on its e?ical side1 b l !m also1 x seems to h a m real connexion ) ! great impulse previ\sly giv5 to speculation by ! ,sophi/s4 ,at any rate1 we *iefly he> ( ! ,meg>ians z hav+ d5i$ ! possibility ( def9ition1 to :i* ,socrates atta*$ s mu* importance1 & z fram+ que/ions n susceptible ( a categorical answ]1--an evid5t satire on ! ,socratic me?od ( elicit+ ! tru? by cross-exam9ation4#bbd ,:at !y really d]iv$ f ,socrates seems to h be5 8 m5tal conc5tration & indep5d5ce ( ext]nal circum/ances4 ,"h !y closely resembl$ ! ,cynics1 z also 9 _! contempt = =mal logic2 b :ile ,anti/h5es f\nd a sanction = 8 indiff]5ce & impassivity 9 ! ord] ( nature1 _! *ief repres5tative1 ,/ilpo1 a*iev$ ! same result by pu%+ ! sceptical pr9ciple to consequ5ces f :i* ev5 ! ,cyr5aics w\ld h %runk4 ,d5y+ ! possibility ( atta*+ a pr$icate to a subject1 he seems1 9 l mann]1 to h isolat$ ! m9d f :at are call$ its affections1 or1 at lea/1 to h made ?is isolation 8 ideal ( ! good4 ,ev5 ! ,/oics did n g to su* a l5g?2 & ,s5eca di/+ui%es himself f ! foll[]s ( ,/ilpo by say+1 #8,our sage feels tr\ble :ile he ov]comes x1 :]eas !irs does n feel x at all4'#bbe ,,iv4 ,s f>1 ! sceptical !ory _h be5 put =w>d aft] a some:at fragm5t>y fa%ion1 & 9 /rict dep5d5ce on ! previ\s developm5t ( dogmatic philosophy4 ,) ! ,humani/s x _h tak5 ! =m ( an attack on physical sci5ce2 ) ! ,meg>ians1 ( a criticism on ! ,socratic dialectic2 ) bo?1 x _h be5 pu%$ to ! l5g? ( an absolute negation1 logically n m def5sible ?an ! affirmations to :i* x 0 oppos$4 ,:at rema9$ 0 t1 aft] be+ consi/5tly =mulat$1 its results %\ld be exhibit$ 9 _! sy/ematic be>+ on ! practical int]e/s ( mank9d4 ,! tw(old task 0 accompli%$ by ,pyrrho1 ^: "n has accord+ly cont9u$ to be associat$1 ev5 9 mod]n times1 ) ! pr(ession ( univ]sal d\bt4 ,?is rem>kable man 0 a native ( ,elis1 :]e a bran* ( ! ,meg>ian s*ool _h at "o "t e/abli%$ itself2 & x seems likely t ! det]m9+ impulse ( 8 life 01 directly or indirectly1 d]iv$ f ,/ilpo's tea*+4 ,a contempor>y ( ,alex&] ! ,great1 he accompani$ ! ,mac$onian army on its m>* to ,india1 subsequ5tly return+ to 8 native city1 :]e he di$ at an advanc$ age1 ab\t #bge ,b4,c4 ,! absurd /ories ab\t 8 indiff]5ce to mat]ial ob/acles :5 out walk+ h be5 already m5tion$ 9 a =m] *apt]1 & are suffici5tly refut$ by ! circum/ances j relat$4 ,! citiz5s ( ,elis are said to h %[n _! respect = ! philosoph] by exempt+ him f taxation1 appo9t+ him _! *ief prie/--no inappropriate (fice = a sceptic ( ! true type--& hon\r+ 8 memory ) a /atue1 :i* 0 /ill po9t$ out to sightse]s 9 ! "t ( ,pausanias4#bbf ,pyrrho1 :o probably no m believ$ 9 books ?an 9 any?+ else1 nev] committ$ 8 op9ions to writ+2 & :at we "k ( !m is d]iv$ f ! reports ( 8 disciples1 :i*1 aga91 are only pres]v$ 9 a v incomplete =m by ! compil]s ( ! empire4 ,accord+ to ^!1 ,pyrrho began by decl>+ t ! philosophic problem might be summ$ up 9 ! ?ree foll[+ que/ions3 #8,:at is ! nature ( ?+s8 ,:at %\ld be our relation to !m8 ,:at is ! practical consequ5ce ( ?is det]m9ation8' ,( its k9d1 ?is /atem5t is probably ! be/ ev] fram$1 & might be accept$ ) equal read9ess by e s*ool ( ?\ght4 ,b ! scepticism ( ,pyrrho at once reveals itself 9 8 answ] to ! fir/ "q4 ,we "k no?+ ab\t ?+s 9 !mselves4 ,e ass]tion made respect+ !m is liable to be contradict$1 & nei!r ( ! two oppos+ propositions des]ves m cr$5ce ?an ! o!r4 ,! consid]ations by :i* ,pyrrho attempts to e/abli% ?is proposition 7 probably sugge/$ by ! sy/ems ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,! only possible av5ues ( communication ) ! ext]nal _w are1 he tells u1 s5se & reason4 ,( ^! ! =m] 0 s univ]sally discr$it$ t he seems to h reg>d$ any elaborate refutation ( its claims z sup]flu\s4 ,:at we p]ceive by our s5ses is ! appe>ance1 n ! reality ( ?+s4 ,?is is exactly :at ! ,cyr5aics _h already ma9ta9$4 ,! inadequacy ( reason is prov$ by a m orig9al me?od4 ,_h m5 any settl$ pr9ciples ( judgm5t1 !y w\ld agree on que/ions ( conduct1 = x is ) reg>d to ^! t !y are be/ in=m$1 :]eas ! great v>iety ( laws & cu/oms %[s t ! exact opposite is true4 ,!y are m hopelessly divid$ on po9ts ( morality ?an on any o!r4#bbg ,x w be rememb]$ t ,pyrrho's fell[-t[nsman1 ,hippias1 _h1 ab\t a hundr$ ye>s e>li]1 f\nd$ 8 !ory ( ,natural ,law on ! arbitr>y & v>iable "* ( cu/om4 ,! result ( comb9+ 8 pr9ciples ) ^? pr(ess$ by ,protagoras & ,gorgias 0 to e/abli% complete moral scepticism2 b x w\ld be a mi/ake to suppose t moral di/9ctions _h no value = him p]sonally1 or t !y 7 neglect$ 9 8 public tea*+4 ,timon1 a celebrat$ disciple ( ,pyrrho1 add$ ano!r &1 f ! speculative po9t ( view1 a mu* m p[]ful argum5t1 :i*1 h[ev]1 may equally h be5 borr[$ f ! ma/]'s lectures4 ,read]s ( ! ,po/]ior ,analytics w rememb] h[ /rongly ,ari/otle dwells on ! necessity ( />t+ ) fir/ pr9ciples :i* are self-evid5tly true4 ,! *a9 ( demon/ration mu/ h some?+ to hang on1 x _c be c>ri$ back ad inf9itum4 ,n[1 ,timon w\ld n admit ( su* a ?+ z fir/ pr9ciples4 ,e assumption1 he says1 mu/ re/ on "s previ\s assumption1 & z ?is process _c be cont9u$ = ev]1 !re c be no demon/ration at all4 ,?is became a v fav\rite weapon ) ! lat] ,sceptics1 &1 /ill at ! sugge/ion ( ,ari/otle1 !y add$ ! fur!r #8trope' ( compell+ _! adv]s>ies to *oose betwe5 go+ back ad inf9itum & reason+ 9 a circle--9 o!r words1 prov+ ! premises by means ( ! conclusion4 ,mod]n sci5ce w\ld n feel mu* appall$ by ! sceptical dilemma4 ,its actual fir/ pr9ciples are only provisionally assum$ z ultimate1 & x is impossible = u to tell h[ mu* f>!r _! analysis may be pursu$2 :ile1 aga91 _! validity is gu>ante$ by ! circul> process ( %[+ t ! consequ5ces d$uc$ f !m agree ) ! facts ( exp]i5ce4 ,b z aga9/ ^? mod]n philosoph]s :o1 9 adh]5ce to ! ,ari/otelian tradition1 /ill seek to base _! sy/ems on fir/ pr9ciples indep5d5t ( any individual exp]i5ce1 ! sceptical argum5t is unansw]able1 & has ev5 be5 /r5g!n$ by ! progress ( k4 ,to ?is day1 ?9k]s ( diff]5t s*ools _c agree ab\t ! f\ndations ( belief1 & :at to "o seems self-evid5tly true1 is to ano!r ei!r conceivably or actually false4 ,to ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] ! p]si/5ce ( =ce is a necess>y tru?2 to ,pr(4 ,/anley ,jevons its creation is a p]fectly possible cont+5cy2 :ile to o!rs1 aga91 ! :ole conception ( =ce1 z und]/ood by ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 is s absolutely unmean+ t !y w\ld decl9e to ent]ta9 any proposition ab\t ! inv>iability ( ! objective reality :i* x is suppos$ to repres5t4 ,& :5 ! priori dogmati/ affects to treat ! negations ( 8 oppon5ts z some?+ t !y d n ?9k1 b only ?9k !y ?9k1 !y may1 ) p]fect fairness1 attribute 8 rejection ( _! beliefs--z1 = example1 free-w--to a simil> subjective illusion4 ,moreov]1 ! pure exp]im5tali/s c po9t to a circum/ance n =ese5 by ! anci5t sceptics1 :i* is t propositions once g5]ally reg>d$ z incontrov]tible by ?9k+ m51 are n[ z g5]ally ab&on$ by !m4 ,hav+ prov$1 to 8 satisfaction1 t ! nature ( ?+s is unkn[able1 ,pyrrho proce$s to deal ) ! two rema9+ heads ( ! philosophic problem4 ,to ! "q :at %\ld be our relation to a univ]se :i* we _c rea*1 ! answ] is1 naturally1 "o ( total indiff]5ce4 ,& ! advantage to be d]iv$ f ?is attitude is1 he tells u1 t we %all secure ! complete imp]turbability :]e9 true happ9ess consi/s4 ,! sceptical philosophy does n agree ) ,/ilpo 9 d5y+ ! reality ( actual & imm$iate annoyances1 = x d5ies no?+2 b x pr(esses to dispel t v l>ge am\nt ( unhapp9ess :i* arises f ! pursuit ( fanci$ goods & ! expectation ( future calamities4 ,9 respect to ! latt]1 :at ,pyrrho s\ght 0 to arrive by ! ex]cise ( reason+ at ! tranquillity :i* unreason+ animals naturally enjoy4 ,?us1 we are told t1 :5 out at sea 9 a /orm1 he call$ ! att5tion ( ! t]rifi$ pass5g]s to a little pig :i* 0 quietly fe$+ 9 spite ( ! dang]1 & taught !m t ! wise man %\ld atta9 to a simil> k9d ( composure4 ,v>i\s o!r anecdotes ( m or less d\btful au!nticity are relat$1 %[+ t ! philosoph] c\ld g5]ally1 ?\gh n always1 act up to 8 own ideal ( indiff]5ce4 ,he liv$ ) 8 si/]1 :o 0 a midwife by pr(ession1 & pati5tly submitt$ to ! h\sehold drudg]y :i* %e unsp>+ly impos$ on him4 ,once1 h[ev]1 %e succe$$ 9 goad+ him into a passion2 & on be+ r inopportunely rem9d$ ( 8 pr(ess$ pr9ciples by a by/&]1 ! sceptic t>tly repli$ t a wret*$ woman l t 0 no fit subject = a display ( philosophical indiff]5ce4 ,on ano!r occasion1 :5 taunt$ = los+ 8 self-possession at ! attack ( a furi\s dog1 he obs]v$1 ) tru?1 t1 aft] all1 philosoph]s are human be+s4#bbh ,?us we f9d ,pyrrho compet+ ) ! dogmati/s z a practical morali/1 & (f]+ to secure ! inw>d tranquillity at :i* !y too aim$ by an easi] me?od ?an !irs4 ,! la/ em95t repres5tative ( ! sceptical s*ool1 ,sextus ,empiricus1 illu/rates its pret5sions 9 ?is respect by ! well-kn[n /ory ( ,apelles1 :o1 aft] va9ly endeav\r+ to pa9t ! foam on a horse's m\?1 took ! sponge :i* he us$ to wipe 8 easel1 & ?rew x at ! picture 9 vexation4 ,! mixture ( col\rs ?us accid5tally appli$ produc$ ! exact effect :i* he desir$1 b at :i* no calculation c\ld arrive4 ,9 l mann]1 says ,sextus1 ! confusion ( univ]sal d\bt accid5tally result$ 9 ! imp]turbability :i* accompanies susp5se ( judgm5t z surely z a body is foll[$ by its %ad[4#bbi ,!re 01 h[ev]1 no accid5t ab\t ! matt] at all4 ,! ab&onm5t ( ^? /udies :i* relat$ to ! ext]nal _w 0 a consequ5ce ( ! ev]-increas+ att5tion paid to human int]e/s1 & t ^! c\ld be be/ consult$ by complete deta*m5t f outw>d circum/ances1 0 a conclusion inevitably sugge/$ by ! negative or anti!tical mom5t ( ,greek ?\ght4 ,h5ce1 :ile ! individuali/ic & apa!tic t5d5cies ( ! age 7 %>$ by e philosophical s*ool1 !y _h a clos] logical connexion ) ! ideali/ic ?an ) ! naturali/ic me?od2 & s x is among ! successors ( ,protagoras t we f9d !m develop$ ) ! greate/ di/9ctness2 :ile _! incorporation ) ,/oicism impos$ a self-contradictory /ra9 on t sy/em :i* x nev] succe$$ 9 %ak+ (f4 ,epicureanism occupi$ a position midway betwe5 ! two extremes2 & f ?is po9t ( view1 we %all be bett] able to und]/& bo? its inh]5t weakness z comp>$ ) ! o!r anci5t philosophies1 & ! admiration :i* x has attract$ f opposite qu>t]s 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,to "s x is mo/ int]e/+ z a revelation ( law 9 ,nature1 to o!rs z a message ( deliv]ance to man--n m]ely a deliv]ance f ignorance & passion1 su* z its rivals _h promis$1 b f all e/abli%$ sy/ems1 :e!r religi\s1 political1 or sci5tific4 ,& unque/ionably ,epicurus did endeav\r to comb9e bo? po9ts ( view 9 8 !ory ( life4 ,9 seek+ to base morality on a k ( natural law he resembles ! ,/oics4 ,9 8 attacks on fatalism1 9 8 refusal to be b\nd d[n by a rigor\sly sci5tific explanation ( ph5om5a1 9 8 failure to recognise ! unity & p[] ( ,nature1 & 9 8 pref]5ce ( s5se to reason1 he p>tially reproduces ! negative side ( ,scepticism2 9 8 id5tification ( happ9ess ) ! tranquil & imp]turbable self-possession ( m9d1 9 8 mild humanism1 & 9 8 compliance ) ! e/abli%$ religion ( ! l&1 he entirely reproduces its positive e?ical tea*+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! two sides ( 8 philosophy1 s f> f complet+1 int]f]e ) & m> "o ano!r4 ,emancipation f ! outw>d _w w\ld h be5 f> m effectually obta9$ by a total rejection ( physical sci5ce ?an by ! con/ruction ( a !ory ^: details 71 on any sci5tific pr9ciples1 demon/rably untrue4 ,! appeal to natural in/9ct z an argum5t = h$onism w\ld1 consi/5tly foll[$ out1 h l$ to "o ( two conclusions1 ei!r ( :i* is incompatible ) ! pr9ciple t imp]turbability is ! highe/ good4 ,if natural in/9ct1 z manife/$ by brutes1 by *ildr51 & by savages1 be ! "o sure guide ( action1 !n ,callicles 0 "r1 & ! habitual indulg5ce ( passion is wis] ?an its sy/ematic re/ra9t4 ,b if ,nature is to be /udi$ on a m specific & discrim9at+ plan1 if !re are human z di/+ui%$ f m]ely animal impulses1 & if ! high] developm5t ( ^! %\ld be our rule ( life1 !n ,plato & ,ari/otle & ! ,/oics 7 "r1 & ! rational faculties %\ld be cultivat$ = _! own sake1 n because ( ! immunity f sup]/iti\s t]rors :i* !y secure4 ,& we may add t ! att5dance on public wor%ip practis$ by ,epicurus agre$ mu* bett] ) ! sceptical susp5se ( judgm5t t\*+ div9e provid5ce ?an ) its absolute negation1 :e!r accompani$ or n by a belief 9 gods :o are indiff]5t to sacrifice & pray]4 ,x 01 no d\bt1 = ^! & simil> reasons t all ! mo/ vigor\s intellects ( ,hellas rang$ !mselves ei!r on ! ,/oic or on ! ,sceptic side1 leav+ ! halfhe>t$ compromise ( ,epicurus to ^? :o c\ld n ?9k out any "o !ory consi/5tly1 or :o1 l ! ,romans at fir/1 7 n acqua9t$ ) any sy/em b 84 ,h5ce=?1 dur+ a p]iod ( "s c5turies1 ! :ole philosophic movem5t is det]m9$ by ! int]action ( ^! two fundam5tal =ces4 ,! fir/ effect ( _! conflict 0 to impose on ,scepticism an important modification1 illu/rat+ its ess5tially p>asitic "*4 ,we h se5 x1 z a g5]al t5d5cy ( ! ,greek m9d1 cl++ to ! v texture ( my?ology1 accompany+ ! e>lie/ sy/ematic compilation ( facts1 aid+ ! humani/ic attacks on physical sci5ce1 associat$ ) ! fir/ great religi\s reaction1 op]at+ z ! dialectic ( dialectic itself1 & f9ally assum+ ! =m ( a %ad[y morality1 9 rivalry ) & imitation ( e?ical sy/ems bas$ on a positive & sub/antial doctr9e4 ,we h n[ to trace its metamorphosis into a critical sy/em ext5d+ its ramifications 9 p>allelism ) ! imm5se dogmatic /ructure ( ,/oicism1 & simultane\sly endeav\r+ to rea* ! same practical results by a m ela/ic adaptation to ! infirmities ( human reason & ! unc]ta9ties ( s5sible exp]i5ce4 ,z su*1 we %all also h to /udy its influ5ce ov] ! mo/ pla/ic ( ,roman intellects1 ! great orator 9 ^: writ+s ,greek philosophy 0 reclo!d ) some?+ ( its anci5t *>m1 s t _m :o 7 deb>r$ f admission to ! groves & porticoes ( ,a!ns h caught an e*o ( ! high debates :i* once /irr$ _! recesses1 z !y trod ! %ady slopes ( ,tusculum "u 8 vision>y guidance1 or foll[$ 8 se>*+ eyes ov] ! blue wat]s to ,pompeii1 :ile he reason$ on m9d & its object1 on s5se & k1 on d\bt & c]ta9ty1 ) ,lucullus & ,hort5sius1 on ! sunlight ,baian %ore4 ,x is ! hi/ory ( ! ,new ,academy t we %all n[ proce$ to trace4 ,v4 ,:5 we la/ _h occasion to speak ( ! ,platonic s*ool1 x 0 repres5t$ by ,polemo1 "o ( ! tea*]s f ^: lessons ,z5o ! ,/oic seems to h compil$ 8 sy/em4 ,"u 8 sup]9t5d5ce1 ,platonism _h completely ab&on$ ! metaphysical traditions ( its f\nd]4 ,physics & dialectics _h already be5 absorb$ by ,ari/otelianism4 ,ma!matics _h pass$ into ! h&s ( exp]ts4 ,no?+ rema9$ b ! !ory ( e?ics2 &1 z an e?ical tea*]1 ,polemo 0 only di/+ui%$ f ! ,cynics by ! elegance & mod]ation ( 8 tone4 ,ev5 ?is n>r[ /&+-gr\nd became unt5able :5 expos$ to ! =midable competition ( ,/oicism4 ,! precept1 ,foll[ ,nature1 borr[$ by ! new philosophy f ,polemo1 acquir$ a f> deep] significance ?an he c\ld give x1 :5 view$ 9 ! light ( an elaborate physical sy/em %[+ :at ,nature 01 & :i!r h] guidance l$4 ,b /one aft] /one _h be5 remov$ f ! ,platonic sup]/ructure & built into ! walls ( o!r edifices1 only to br+ its orig9al f\ndation ! m prom95tly into sight4 ,?is 0 ! initial d\bt ( ,socrates1 wid5$ into ! confession ( univ]sal ignorance attribut$ to him by ,plato 9 ! ,apologia4 ,only by return+ to ! exclusively critical attitude ) :i* its f\nd] _h begun c\ld ! ,academy hope to ex]cise any influ5ce on ! subsequ5t c\rse ( ,greek speculation4 ,& x 0 also necess>y t ! agno/ic /&po9t %\ld be tak5 mu* m 9 e>ne/ by its new repres5tatives ?an by ,socrates or ,plato4 ,) !m x _h be5 m]ely ! prep>ation = a dogmatism ev5 m self-confid5t ?an t ( ! ma/]s aga9/ :om !y f\ght2 b if 9 _! "t su* a *ange ( front might seem compatible ) ! ret5tion ( _! old /rongholds1 matt]s n[ /ood on a widely diff]5t foot+4 ,exp]i5ce _h %[n t ! purely critical position c\ld n be ab&on$ )\t fall+ back on "s "o or o!r ( ! old philosophies1 or advanc+ pret5sions inconsi/5t ) ! dialectic :i* _h be5 illu/rat$ by _! ov]?r[4 ,! c\rse m>k$ out = ,plato's successors by ! necessities ( ?\ght might h be5 less evid5t _h n ,pyrrhonism sudd5ly reveal$ to !m :]e _! opportunities lay1 & at ! same "t1 by its ext9ction z an indep5d5t s*ool1 all[$ !m to /ep into ! vacant place4 ,x 0 at ?is juncture t ! volunt>y )drawal ( an old] fell[-pupil plac$ ,arcesilaus at ! head ( ! ,academy4 ,! date ( 8 accession is n giv51 b we are told t he di$ #bda or #bdj ,b4,c4 9 ! sev5ty-fif? ye> ( 8 age4 ,he mu/1 !re=e1 h fl\ri%$ a g5]ation lat] ?an ,z5o & ,epicurus4 ,accompli%$1 witty1 & g5]\s1 8 life is describ$ by "s z consid]ably less au/]e ?an t ( ! excell5t non5tities :om he succe$$4 ,yet its g5]al goodness 0 te/ifi$ to by no less an au?ority ?an 8 contempor>y1 ! noble ,/oic1 ,clean!s4 #8,d n blame ,arcesilaus1' exclaim$ ! latt] to an unfri5dly critic2 #8if he d5ies duty 9 8 words1 he affirms x 9 8 de$s4' #8,y don't flatt] me1#8 obs]v$ ,arcesilaus4 #8,x is flatt]+ y1' rejo9$ ,clean!s1 #8to say t y\r actions belie y\r words4'#bcj ,x might be inf]r$ f ?is anecdote t ! scepticism ( ! new tea*]1 l t ( ,c>neades aft] him1 0 occasionally ex]cis$ on moral di/9ctions1 :i*1 z !n def9$ & d$uc$1 7 assur$ly op5 to v s]i\s criticism4 ,ev5 s1 9 foll[+ ! conv5tional /&>d ( ! age1 he w\ld h be5 act+ 9 p]fect consi/5cy ) ! pr9ciples ( 8 s*ool4 ,b1 z a matt] ( fact1 8 attacks seem to h be5 exclusively aim$ at ! ,/oic crit]ion ( c]ta9ty4 ,we h t\*$ on ?is difficult subject 9 a =m] *apt]1 b ! pres5t seems a m fav\rable opportunity = sett+ x =? 9 prop] detail4 ,! ,/oics held1 z ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 :o resembles !m 9 s _m respects1 n[ holds1 t all k is ultimately produc$ by ! action ( ! object on ! subject4 ,be+ conv9c$1 h[ev]1 t ea* s+le p]ception1 z su*1 is fallible1 !y s\ght = ! crit]ion ( c]ta9ty 9 ! repetition & comb9ation ( individual impressions2 &1 aga9 l ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 b also 9 complete accordance ) _! dynamic !ory ( ,nature1 !y e/imat$ ! validity ( a belief by ! degree ( t5acity ) :i* x is held4 ,! v>i\s /ages ( assurance 7 c>efully di/+ui%$ & arrang$ 9 an asc5d+ s]ies4 ,fir/ came simple p]ception1 !n simple ass5t1 ?irdly1 compreh5sion1 & f9ally demon/rative sci5ce4 ,^! m5tal acts 7 respectively typifi$ by ext5d+ ! =ef+]1 by b5d+ x z 9 ! ge/ure ( beckon+1 by cl5*+ ! fi/1 & by plac+ x1 ?us cl5*$1 9 ! grasp ( ! o!r h&4 ,f ano!r po9t ( view1 !y def9$ a true conviction z t :i* c only be produc$ by ! action ( a correspond+ real object on ! m9d4 ,?is !ory 0 complicat$ /ill fur!r by ! ,/oic int]pretation ( judgm5t z a volunt>y act2 by ! e?ical significance :i* x consequ5tly receiv$2 & by ! conc5tration ( all wisdom 9 ! p]son ( an ideal sage4 ,! unres]v$ be/[al ( belief is a practical po/ulate dictat$ by ! necessities ( life2 b only he :o kn[s :at ^? necessities are1 9 o!r words only ! wise man1 kn[s :5 ! po/ulate is to be en=c$4 ,9 %ort1 ! crit]ion ( y\r be+ "r is y\r conviction t y are "r1 & ?is conviction1 if y really possess x1 is a suffici5t witness to its own v]acity4 ,or aga91 x is ! nature ( man to act rightly1 & he _c d s unless he has "r beliefs1 confirm$ & cl9*$ by ! consci\sness t !y are "r4 ,arcesilaus left no writ+s1 & 8 criticisms on ! ,/oic !ory1 z report$ by ,cic]o & ,sextus ,empiricus1 h a some:at unsatisfactory appe>ance4 ,by :at we c make out1 he seems to h insi/$ on ! infallibility ( ! wise man to a mu* great] ext5t ?an ! ,/oics !mselves1 n all[+ t !re 0 any class ( judgm5ts 9 :i* he 0 liable to be mi/ak54 ,b j z ! ,/oics 7 oblig$ to accept suicide z an indisp5sable safegu>d = ! inviolability ( _! p]sonal dignity & happ9ess1 s also ,arcesilaus _h rec\rse to a k9d ( intellectual suicide = ! purpose ( secur+ immunity f error4 ,! only way1 accord+ to him1 9 :i* ! sage c make sure ( nev] be+ mi/ak5 is nev] to be c]ta9 ab\t any?+4 ,=1 grant+ t e m5tal repres5tation is produc$ by a correspond+ object 9 ! ext]nal _w1 /ill diff]5t objects are connect$ by su* a numb] ( ins5sible gradations t ! impressions produc$ by !m are virtually indi/+ui%able f "o ano!r2 :ile a f]tile s\rce ( illusions also exi/s 9 ! div]sity ( impressions produc$ by ! same object act+ on diff]5t s5ses & at diff]5t times4 ,moreov]1 ! ,/oics !mselves admitt$ t ! sage might =m a mi/ak5 op9ion2 x 0 only = 8 convictions t !y claim$ un]r+ accuracy1 ea* ( ! two--op9ion & conviction--be+ ! product ( a di/9ct intellectual en]gy4 ,"h aga91 ,arcesilaus employ$ 8 me?od ( inf9itesimal transitions1 refus+ to admit t ! v>i\s cognitive faculties c\ld be sep>at$ by any h>d & fa/ l9e2 especially z1 accord+ to ! !ory !n held by all p>ties1 & by none m /rongly ?an ! ,/oics1 intellectual conceptions are d]iv$ exclusively f ! data ( s5se & imag9ation4 ,we c see t ! logic ( ,scepticism is1 equally ) t ( ! o!r ,greek sy/ems1 det]m9$ by ! ?ree fundam5tal mom5ts ( ,greek ?\ght4 ,!re is fir/ ! c>eful circumscription ( c]ta9ty2 !n !re is ! m$iat+ process by :i* x is ins5sibly connect$ ) error2 &1 la/ly1 z a result ( ?is process1 !re is ! anti!tical opposition ( a negative to an affirmative proposition on e possible subject ( m5tal repres5tation4#bca ,to ! objection t 8 susp5sive attitude w\ld r5d] action impossible1 ,arcesilaus repli$ t any m5tal repres5tation 0 suffici5t to set ! w 9 motion2 & t1 9 *oos+ betwe5 diff]5t c\rses1 probability 0 ! mo/ rational means ( det]m9ation4 ,b ! task ( r$uc+ probable evid5ce to a sy/em 0 res]v$ = a /ill abl] dialectician1 :o did n appe> on ! sc5e until a c5tury aft] 8 "t4 ,arcesilaus is commonly call$ ! f\nd] ( ! ,middle1 ,c>neades ! f\nd] ( ! ,new ,academy4 ,! di/9ction is1 h[ev]1 purely nom9al4 ,c>neades f\nd$ no?+4 ,8 pr9ciples 7 id5tical ) ^? ( 8 pr$ecessor2 & 8 claim to be consid]$ ! greate/ ( ! ,greek sceptics is due to 8 hav+ giv5 ^? pr9ciples a wid] application & a m sy/ematic developm5t4 ,! ,/oics reg>d$ x z a special disp5sation ( provid5ce t ,*rysippus1 ! organis+ g5ius ( _! s*ool1 %\ld h come betwe5 its two mo/ =midable oppon5ts1 be+ ?us plac$ 9 a position to answ] ! objections ( ! "o & to refute by anticipation ^? ( ! o!r4#bcb ,x might seem to less prejudic$ obs]v]s t ! ?9k] ^: cause b5efit$ mo/ by ?is arrangem5t 0 ,c>neades4 ,p>ody+ a well-kn[n iambic1 he us$ to say3 #8,)\t ,*rysippus ,i %\ld n h be54'#bcc ,&1 9 fact1 x 0 by a close /udy ( t writ]'s volum9\s treatises t he 0 able to cov] ! imm5se ext5t ( gr\nd :i* ,scepticism !nce=w>d disput$ ) ! dogmatic s*ools4 ,nor 7 8 attacks direct$ aga9/ ,/oicism only1 b aga9/ all o!r positive sy/ems pa/ & pres5t z well4 ,:at he says ab\t ! suppos$ f\ndation ( k is ev5 n[ an unansw]able objection to ! transc5d5tal realism ( ,mr ,h]b]t ,sp5c]4 ,/ates ( consci\sness speak = !mselves alone1 !y d n include ! consci\sness ( an ext]nal cause4#bcd ,b ! gr\nds on :i* he re/s 8 negation ( all c]ta9ty are /ill sup]ficial en\gh1 be+ m]ely ^? s5sible illusions :i* ! mod]n sci5ce ( obs]vation has be5 able ei!r to elim9ate altoge!r or to re/rict )9 n>r[ & def9able limits4 ,t ph5om5a1 s f> f be+ necess>ily ref]r$ to a cause :i* is n ph5om5al1 _c be ?\ght ( at all except 9 relation to "o ano!r1 & t k means no?+ m ?an a consci\sness ( ?is relation1 0 h>dly p]ceiv$ be=e ! "t ( ,hume4 ,turn+ f s5se to reason1 ,c>neades attacks ! syllogi/ic process on gr\nds already specifi$ 9 connexion ) ! e>li] ,sceptics2 & also on ! plea t to prove ! possibility ( syllogism is itself to syllogise1 & ?us involves ei!r a petitio pr9cipii or a regress ad inf9itum4#bce ,su* a me?od is1 ( c\rse1 suicidal1 = x disproves ! possibility ( ! alleg$ dispro(1 a consid]ation :i* ! ,/oics did n fail to urge1 & :i* ! lat] ,sceptics c\ld only meet by ext5d+ ! rule ( susp5se to _! own argum5ts aga9/ argum5t4#bcf ,nev]!less ! sceptical analysis detect$ "s difficulties 9 ! ord9>y !ory ( logic1 :i* h be5 reviv$ 9 mod]n times1 & h n yet receiv$ any satisfactory solution4 ,sextus ,empiricus1 probably copy+ an e>li] au?ority1 x may be ,c>neades himself1 obs]ves t1 z ! major premise ( e syllogism virtually conta9s ! m9or1 x is ei!r sup]flu\s1 or assumes ! proposition to be prov$4 ,?us we argue t ,socrates is an animal because he is a man1 & all m5 are animals4 ,b if we d n "k ?is latt] proposition to be true 9 ! case ( ,socrates1 we _c be sure t x is true 9 any case2 :ile if we "k x to be true 9 8 case1 we d n ne$ to beg9 by /at+ x 9 g5]al t]ms4 ,& he also attempts to %[ ! impossibility ( a valid induction by ! consid]ation1 s9ce s (t5 urg$1 t to g5]alise f a limit$ numb] ( in/ances to a :ole class is unsafe1 = "s ( ! unkn[n in/ances may be contradictory1 :ile ! inf9ite1 or at lea/ indef9ite multiplicity ( individuals precludes ! possibility ( _! exhau/ive enum]ation4#bcg ,:5 ! ,academicians pass f ! =m to ! matt] ( dogmatic philosophy1 _! criticisms acquire great] int]e/ & great] weight4 ,on ?is gr\nd1 _! assaults are pr9cipally direct$ aga9/ ! !ology ( _! ,/oic & ,epicurean rivals4 ,x is "h 9 p>ticul> t ,c>neades reveals himself to u z ! ,hume ( antiquity4 ,nev] has ! case = agno/icism be5 m p[]fully made out ?an by him or by ! disciples :om he inspir$4 ,to ! argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( sup]natural be+s d]iv$ f univ]sal cons5t1 he replies1 fir/1 t ! op9ion ( ! vulg> is wor?less1 & secondly1 t m5's beliefs ab\t ! gods are hopelessly at v>iance ) "o ano!r1 ev5 ! same div9ity be+ made ! subject ( numb]less discordant leg5ds4#bch ,he r$uces ! poly!i/ic deification ( natural objects to an absurdity by =c+ x back ?r\gh a s]ies ( ins5sible gradations into absolute feti*ism4#bci ,! p]sonification ( m5tal qualities is simil>ly treat$1 until an hypo!sis is provid$ = e pass+ mood4#bdj ,!n1 turn+ to ! m philosophical deism ( ! ,/oics1 he assails _! !ory ( ! div9e b5evol5ce ) in/ance aft] in/ance ( ! app>5t malevol5ce & iniquity to be f\nd 9 ,nature2 vividly rem9d+ "o ( ! facts adduc$ by ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] 9 confutation ( ! simil> views held by mod]n ,engli% !ologians4#bda ,z aga9/ ! :ole !ory ( f9al causes1 ,c>neades argues aft] a me?od :i*1 ?\gh logically s\nd1 c\ld n !n pres5t itself ) ! au?ority :i* advanc+ sci5ce has m rec5tly %[n x to possess4 #8,:at y ,/oics1' he says1 #8expla9 z ! result ( consci\s purpose1 o!r philosoph]s1 l ,/rato = in/ance1 expla9 ) equal plausibility z ! result ( natural causation4 ,& su* is our ignorance ( ! =ces at "w 9 ,nature t ev5 :]e no me*anical cause c be assign$1 x w\ld be presumptu\s to ma9ta9 t none c exi/4#bdb ,! reign ( law does n necess>ily prove ! pres5ce ( intellig5ce2 x is m]ely ! evid5ce ( a uni=m movem5t q consi/5t ) all t we "k ab\t ! work+ ( unconsci\s =ces4#bdc ,to cont5d1 ) ,socrates1 t ! human m9d mu/ be d]iv$ f a ,univ]sal ,m9d p]vad+ all ,nature w\ld logically involve ! transf] ( e human attribute to its orig9al s\rce4#bdd ,& to say t ! ,supreme ,be+1 because x surpasses man1 mu/ possess an intellig5ce l 81 is no m rational ?an to make ! same assumption ) reg>d to a great city because x is sup]ior to an ant4'#bde ,! mat]ialism ( 8 dogmatic contempor>ies plac$ !m at a t]rible disadvantage :5 ! sceptical successor ( ,plato w5t on to %[ t et]nal duration is incompatible ) :atev] we "k ab\t ! con/itution ( corporeal sub/ance2 & ?is "p ( 8 argum5t appli$ z mu* to ! ,epicurean z to ! ,/oic religion4#bdf ,b ev5 a spirituali/ic mono!ism is n safe f 8 dissolv+ criticism4 ,accord+ to ,c>neades1 a god )\t s5ses has no exp]i5ce ( :atev] pleasurable or pa9ful feel+s accompany s5sation1 & is !re=e1 to t ext5t1 m ignorant ?an a man2 :ile to suppose t he exp]i5ces pa9ful s5sations is ! same z mak+ him obnoxi\s to ! dim9i%$ vitality & ev5tual dea? ) :i* !y are naturally associat$4 ,&1 g5]ally speak+1 all s5sation involves a modification ( ! s5ti5t subject by an ext]nal object1 a condition necess>ily imply+ ! de/ructibility ( ! =m] by ! latt]4#bdg ,s also1 moral goodness is an ess5tially relative quality1 inconceivable )\t ! possibility ( succumb+ to temptation1 :i* we _c attribute to a p]fect ,be+4#bdh ,9 a ^w1 :atev] belongs to consci\s life be+ relative & condition$1 p]sonality is exclud$ f ! absolute by its v def9ition4 ,z to ! pro(s ( div9e ag5cy d]iv$ f div9ation1 !y are bo? irrational & weak4 ,if all ?+s are pr$et]m9$ by ,god's provid5ce1 k ( ! future is useless1 &1 !re=e1 _c h be5 giv5 to u4 ,moreov]1 no confid5ce c be plac$ 9 ! alleg$ fulfilm5ts ( prophecy2 probably mo/ ( !m are fictiti\s & ! rema9d] accid5tal4 ,= ! re/1 good luck is di/ribut$ )\t reg>d to m]it2 & ! g5]al corruption ( mank9d %[s t1 f ! ,/oic po9t ( view1 human nature is a complete failure4#bdi ,well may ,m4 ,havet say ( ! ,academicians3 #8ce sont eux et non les p>tisans d',epicure qui sont les libres p5seurs de l'antiquit ou qui l'aurai5t v\lu tre2 mais ils ne le p\vai5t pas4'#bej ,!y c\ld n1 = _! pr9ciples 7 z inconsi/5t ) an absolute negation z ) an absolute affirmation2 :ile 9 practice _! rule 01 z we h said1 con=mity to ! cu/om ( ! c\ntry2 ! consequ5ce ( :i* 0 t ,sceptics & ,epicureans 7 equally assidu\s 9 _! att5dance at public wor%ip4 ,x is1 !re=e1 ) p]fect dramatic appropriat5ess t ,cic]o puts ! argum5ts ( ,c>neades into ! m\? ( ,cotta1 ! ,pontifex ,maximus2 &1 al?\gh himself an augur1 takes ! negative side 9 a discussion on div9ation ) 8 bro!r ,qu9tus4 ,& our o!r great au?ority on ! sceptical side1 ,sextus ,empiricus1 is n less emphatic ?an ,cotta 9 prote/+ 8 devotion to ! traditional religion ( ! l&4#bea ,we h se5 ) :at fre$om ,c>neades discuss$ ! f\ndations ( morality4 ,x is n[ evid5t t 9 s do+ he did n exce$ ! legitimate functions ( criticism4 ,no "o at ! pres5t day looks on ,pr(4 ,ba9 & ,mr4 ,h5ry ,sidgwick z dang]\s tea*]s because !y h made x cle> t to pursue ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb] is n always ! way to secure a maximum ( happ9ess = oneself4 ,! really dang]\s me?od1 z we n[ see1 is to fo/] illusions 9 e>ly life :i* subsequ5t exp]i5ce mu/ dispel4 ,) ! introduction ( practical que/ions1 we pass to ! great positive a*ievem5t ( ,c>neades1 8 !ory ( probable evid5ce4 ,int5d$ z an acc\nt ( ! process by :i* belief is adju/$ to safe action r ?an ( ! process by :i* x is br\ght into agreem5t ) reality1 8 logic is a sy/ematisation ( ! pr9ciples by :i* prud5t m5 are unconsci\sly guid$ 9 common life4 ,c>neades di/+ui%es ?ree degrees ( probability4 ,! l[e/ is atta*$ to simple p]ception4 ,?is arises :5 we receive ! impression ( an object )\t tak+ ! att5dant circum/ances into acc\nt4 ,! next /ep is rea*$ :5 our fir/ impression is confirm$ by ! simil> impressions receiv$ f its att5dant circum/ances2 & :5 ea* ( ^!1 aga91 be>s ! te/ ( a simil> exam9ation our assurance is complete4 ,! fir/ belief is simply probable2 ! second is probable & uncontradict$2 ! ?ird probable1 uncontradict$1 & me?odically e/abli%$4 ,! example giv5 by ,sextus is t ( a p]son :o on see+ a coil ( rope 9 a d>k passage ?9ks t x may be a snake1 & jumps ov] x1 b on turn+ r\nd & obs]v+ t x rema9s motionless feels incl9$ to =m a diff]5t op9ion4 ,rememb]+1 h[ev]1 t snakes are sometimes congeal$ by cold 9 w9t]1 he t\*es ! coil ) 8 /ick1 & f9ally satisfies himself by means ( ?is te/ t ! image pres5t to 8 m9d does n really repres5t a snake4 ,! circum/ances to be exam9$ be=e arriv+ at a def9ite judgm5t include su* consid]ations z :e!r our s5ses are 9 a heal?y condition1 :e!r we are wide awake1 :e!r ! air is cle>1 :e!r ! object is /eady1 & :e!r we h tak5 "t en\gh to be sure t ! conditions "h specifi$ are fulfill$4 ,ea* degree ( probability is1 aga91 divisible into sev]al gradations accord+ to ! /r5g? ( ! impressions receiv$ & ! great] or less consili5ce ( all ! circum/ances involv$4#beb ,! ,academic !ory ( probability be>s "s resemblance to ! ,canonic ( ,epicurus1 & may h be5 p>tially sugge/$ by x4 ,bo? are di/+ui%$ f ! ,ari/otelian & ,/oic logic by ! c>e ) :i* !y provide = ! abs5ce ( contradictory evid5ce4 ,9 ?is po9t1 h[ev]1 ! sup]iority ( ,c>neades to ,epicurus is v m>k$4 ,x is n en\gh = him t a pres5t impression %\ld sugge/ a belief n inconsi/5t ) pa/ exp]i5ce2 9 ! true inductive _s1 he expressly se>*es = negative in/ances1 & recomm5ds ! employm5t ( exp]im5t = ?is purpose4 ,/ill m philosophical is ! c>eful & repeat$ analysis ( att5dant circum/ances1 a precaution n p>allel$ by any?+ 9 ! slov5ly me?od ( 8 pr$ecessor4 ,"h ! great value ( scepticism z an elem5t 9 m5tal tra9+ becomes at once app>5t4 ,! extreme fallibility ( ! intellectus sibi p]missus _h to be e/abli%$ be=e precautions c\ld be adopt$ = its re/ra9t4 ,b ! evid5ce accept$ 9 pro( ( ?is fallibility has be5 v diff]5t at diff]5t times1 & has itself giv5 rise to m ?an "o fallaci\s int]pretation4 ,) u x is1 = ! mo/ "p1 furni%$ by exp]i5ce4 ,! circum/ance t _m demon/rable errors 7 =m]ly receiv$ z tru?s is q suffici5t to put u on our gu>d aga9/ unte/$ op9ions4 ,) ,bacon1 x 0 n ! errone\sness ( previ\s sy/ems1 b _! b>r5ness & immobility1 :i* l$ him to "q ! s\ndness ( _! logic2 & 8 d\bts 7 confirm$ by an analysis ( ! di/urb+ influ5ces "u :i* m5's judgm5ts are =m$4 ,! anci5t ,sceptics 7 gov]n$ entirely by priori consid]ations4 ,f9d+ !mselves confront$ by an imm5se mass ( contradictory op9ions1 !y argu$ t "s ( ^! mu/ be false z all c\ld n possibly be true4 ,& an analysis ( ! human faculties l$ !m1 equally on priori gr\nds1 to ! conclusion t ^! irreconcilable div]g5ces 7 b ! result & ! reproduction ( an int]m9able conflict c>ri$ on )9 ! m9d itself4 ,!y c\ld n =esee h[ mu* "t w\ld d t[>ds r$uc+ ! disagreem5t ( educat$ op9ion )9 a n>r[] compass4 ,!y did n "k :at ! exp]i5ce ( exp]i5ce itself w\ld tea*4 ,& _! criticisms on ! logic & metaphysics ( _! oppon5ts 7 r5d]$ inconclusive1 z aga9/ all c]ta9ty1 by ! ext5t to :i* !y %>$ t logic & metaphysics !mselves4 ,c>neades1 at lea/1 seems to assume ?r\gh\t t all exi/5ce is mat]ial1 t !re is a %>p di/9ction betwe5 subject & object 9 k1 & t !re is an equally %>p di/9ction betwe5 s5sation & reason+ 9 ! processes by :i* k is obta9$4 ,9 l mann]1 8 e?ical scepticism all turns on ! axiom1 also %>$ by him ) ! ,/oics1 t = a man to be actuat$ by any motive b 8 own int]e/ is m]e folly4 ,mod]n agno/icism occupies ! same position ) reg>d to ! pres5t f\ndation & possible future ext5sion ( human k z 0 occupi$ by ! anci5t ,sceptics ) reg>d to ! possibility ( all k4 ,its conclusions also are bas$ on a v insuffici5t exp]i5ce ( :at c be effect$ by exp]i5ce1 & on an analysis ( cognition l>gely adopt$ f ! sy/em :i* x seeks to ov]?r[4 ,l ,scepticism also1 :5 logically ?\ght out1 x t5ds to issue 9 a self-contradiction1 at "o "t affirm+ ! consci\sness ( :at is1 by def9ition1 beyond consci\sness2 & at ano!r "t dogmatically det]m9+ ! po9ts on :i* we mu/ rema9 = ev] ignorant4 ,x may be t "s problems1 z /at$ by mod]n ?9k]s1 are insoluble2 b p]haps we may f9d our way our ( !m by trans=m+ ! "q to be solv$4 ,if1 9 ! doma9 ( pure speculation1 contempor>y agno/icism exagg]ates ! exi/+ div]g5ces1 9 e?ics its :ole ef=t is1 contr>iwise1 to r$uce & reconcile !m4 ,su* 0 also ! t5d5cy ( ,c>neades4 ,he decl>$ t1 9 _! controv]sy ab\t ! highe/ good1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,/oics & ! ,p]ipatetics 0 purely v]bal4 ,bo? held t we are naturally fram$ = ! pursuit ( c]ta9 objects1 & t virtu\s liv+ is ! only means by :i* !y c be atta9$4 ,b :ile ! disciples ( ,ari/otle held t ! satisfaction ( our natural impulses rema9s f fir/ to la/ ! only end1 ! disciples ( ,z5o insi/$ t at "s po9t--n1 z w\ld seem v p>ticul>ly specifi$--virtu\s conduct1 :i* 0 orig9ally ! means t[>ds ?is satisfaction1 becomes sub/itut$ = x z ! supreme & ultimate good4#bec ,t ! po9t at issue 0 m important ?an x seem$ is evid5t f its reproduction "u ano!r =m 9 mod]n e?ical philosophy4 ,=1 among ourselves1 ! controv]sy betwe5 utilit>ianism & :at1 = want ( a bett] "n1 we mu/ call intuitionism1 is gradually n>r[+ itself to ! "q :e!r ! pursuit ( ano!r's good has or has n a high] value ?an ! quantity ( pleasure :i* accrues to him f x1 plus ! effects ( a good example & ! b5efits t society at l>ge is likely to ga9 f ! /r5g? :i* ex]cise gives to ! altrui/ic dispositions ( "o ( its memb]s4 ,^? :o attribute an absolute value to altruism1 z su*1 connect ?is value 9 "s way or o!r ) ! spiritual welf>e ( ! ag5t2 & !y hold t )\t su* a ga9 to himself he w\ld gradually fall back on a life ( calculat+ selfi%ness or ( unregulat$ impulse4 ,"h we h ! return f a social to an individual morality4 ,! ,/oics1 conv]sely1 7 feel+ _! way f ! good ( ! individual to t ( ! community2 & !y c\ld only bridge ! *asm by conv]t+ :at _h orig9ally be5 a means t[>ds self-pres]vation into an end 9 itself4 ,?is ,c>neades c\ld n see4 ,conv9c$ t happ9ess 0 bo? necess>y & atta9able1 b conv9c$ also t ! sy/ems :i* _h hi!rto (f]$ x z _! rew>d 7 logically unt5able1 he wi%$ to place morality on ! broad basis ( :at 0 held 9 common by all s*ools1 & ?is seem$ to be ! rule ( ob$i5ce to ,nature's dictates1--a rule :i* _h also ! great m]it ( bidd+ m5 d 9 ! "n ( philosophy :at !y already felt incl9$ to d )\t any philosophy at all4 ,we are told1 inde$1 t he w\ld n commit himself to any p>ticul> sy/em ( e?ics2 ! inf]5ce1 h[ev]1 is n t he ignor$ ! necessity ( a moral law1 b t he wi%$ to extricate x f a compromis+ alliance ) unt5able speculative dogmas4 ,nev]!less 8 acceptance ( ,nature z a real entity 0 a survival ( metaphysics2 & 8 morality 01 s f> z x w5t1 an incipi5t return to ! traditions ( ! ,old ,academy4 ,,vi4 ,we h n[ rea*$ a po9t :]e ,greek philosophy seems to h swung back into ! position :i* x occupi$ ?ree hundr$ ye>s be=e1 t[>ds ! close ( ! ,peloponnesian ,w>4 ,! gr\nd is aga9 divid$ betwe5 naturali/s & humani/s1 ! "o s*ool (f]+ an encyclopa$ic tra9+ 9 physical sci5ce & exact philology1 ! o!r lit]>y1 sceptical1 & limit+ its att5tion to ! m imm$iate int]e/s ( life2 b bo? agree+ 9 ! supreme importance ( conduct1 & diff]+ *iefly z to :e!r its basis %\ld or %\ld n be s\ght 9 a k ( ! ext]nal _w4 ,mat]ialism is aga9 9 ! asc5dant1 to ?is ext5t at lea/1 t no o!r !ory is contemplat$ by ! /ud5ts ( physical sci5ce2 :ile ! promise ( a spirituali/ic cre$ is to be f\nd1 if at all1 9 ! s*ool ^: scepticism ?r[s x back on ! subjective sph]e1 ! invisible & impalpable _w ( m9d4 ,! attitude ( philosophy t[>ds religion has1 inde$1 und]gone a m>k$ *ange2 = ! ,/oic naturali/s c\nt !mselves among ! mo/ /r5u\s support]s ( beliefs & practices :i* _! ,sophi/ic pr$ecessors _h contemn$1 :ile ! humani/ criticism is cauti\sly gu>d$ by at lea/ an ext]nal con=mity to e/abli%$ usage2 b ! ,platonic doctr9e ( immortality has disappe>$ ) ! dogmatic spiritualism on :i* x re/$2 & fai? 9 sup]ior be+s t5ds to dissociate itself f morality1 or to become id5tifi$ ) a simple belief 9 ! fixity ( natural law4 ,:5ev] naturalism & scepticism h ?us /ood oppos$1 ! result has be5 _! trans=mation or absorption into a new philosophy1 comb9+ ! sy/ematic =malism ( ! "o ) ! introspective idealism ( ! o!r4 ,9 ,greece su* a revolution _h already be5 effect$ once be=e by ,plato2 & a re/oration ( 8 sy/em seem$ ! mo/ obvi\s solution t c\ld (f] itself on ! pres5t occasion4 ,su* 01 9 fact1 ! solution ev5tually adopt$2 :at we h to expla9 is :y its adoption 0 delay$ s long4 ,= ?is v>i\s reasons may be (f]$4 ,to beg9 )1 ! speculative languor ( ! age 0 unfav\rable to ! rise ( a new s*ool4 ,greece 0 almo/ depopulat$ by ! dem&s ( =eign s]vice2 & at ,alex&ria1 :]e a new c5tre ( ,hell5ism _h be5 creat$1 its be/ en]gies 7 absorb$ by ! cultivation ( positive sci5ce4 ,x 01 no d\bt1 9 great "p ow+ to ! de>? ( ability t ideas :i*1 at an e>li] p]iod1 w\ld h be5 imm$iately tak5 up & develop$1 7 all[$ to rema9 /ation>y = a hundr$ ye>s--! int]val sep>at+ a ,c>neades f an ,arcesilaus4 ,! regul> organisation ( philosophical tea*+ 0 ano!r h9drance to progress4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( prop]ty 0 annex$ to ! head%ips ( ! diff]5t s*ools1 & s]v$ z an end[m5t1 n ( rese>* b ( cont5t$ acquiesc5ce 9 ! receiv$ traditions4 ,moreov]1 ! jeal\sy ) :i* ! pr(essors ( rival doctr9es w\ld naturally reg>d "o ano!r1 0 likely to prev5t _! mutual approximation f go+ beyond c]ta9 n v close limits1 & might ev5 lead to a /ill sev]] def9ition ( ! *>act]i/ic t5ets :i* /ill kept !m ap>t4 ,ano!r & deep] di/urb+ =ce lay 9 ! diss5sions :i*1 at a v e>ly /age ( its developm5t1 _h split ! spirituali/ic philosophy into two oppos+ t5d5cies respectively repres5t$ by ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,any ?9k] :o w&]$ away f ! pr9ciples ei!r ( ,/oicism or ( ,scepticism 0 m likely to f9d himself bewild]$ by ! conflict+ claims ( ^! two illu/ri\s ma/]s1 ?an to disc]n ! common gr\nd on :i* !y /ood1 or to br+ !m )9 ! grasp ( a s+le reconcil+ sy/em4 ,f9ally1 an enorm\s p]turbation 9 ! normal c\rse ( speculation 0 produc$ by ! entrance ( ,rome on ! philosophical sc5e4 ,b be=e e/imat+ ! influ5ce ( ?is new =ce1 we mu/ foll[ ev5ts to ! po9t at :i* x fir/ becomes ( calculable importance4 ,we h se5 h[ ,c>neades1 alike 9 8 !ory ( probability & 9 8 e?ical eclecticism1 _h dep>t$ f ! extreme sceptical /&po9t4 ,8 successor1 ,clitoma*us1 0 cont5t ) committ+ ! doctr9es ( ! ma/] to writ+4 ,a fur!r /ep 0 tak5 by ! next ,s*ol>*1 ,philo1 :o is kn[n z ! ,l>issaean1 9 ord] to di/+ui% him f 8 m celebrat$ namesake1 ! ,alex&rian ,jew4 ,?is philosoph] ass]t$ t ! negations ( ! ,new ,academy 7 n to be tak5 z a pr(ession ( absolute scepticism1 b m]ely z a criticism on ! unt5able pret5sions ( ! ,/oa4 ,8 own position 0 t1 z a matt] ( fact1 we h "s c]ta9 k ( ! ext]nal _w1 b t no logical acc\nt c be giv5 ( ! process by :i* x is obta9$--we c only say t su* an assurance has be5 naturally /amp$ on our m9ds4#bed ,?is is ! !ory ( intuitions or innate ideas1 /ill held by _m p]sons2 &1 z su*1 x m>ks a return to pure ,platonism1 hav+ be5 evid5tly sugge/$ by ! semi-my?ological fancies ( ! ,m5o & ! ,pha$rus4 ,) ,philo z ) ^? ,scot* pr(essors :o long aft]w>ds took up sub/antially ! same position1 ! lead+ motive 0 a practical "o1 ! necessity ( plac+ morality on "s /rong] gr\nd ?an t ( m]e probability4 ,nei!r he nor 8 imitators saw t if e?ical pr9ciples are self-evid5t1 !y ne$ no objective support2 if !y are d]ivative & cont+5t1 !y _c imp>t to metaphysics a c]ta9ty :i* !y d n indep5d5tly possess4 ,! return to ! old ,academic /&po9t 0 complet$ by a mu* m vigor\s ?9k] ?an ,philo1 8 pupil1 oppon5t1 & ev5tual successor1 ,antio*us4 ,s f> f attempt+ any compromise ) ! ,sceptics1 ?is philosoph] op5ly decl>$ t !y _h l$ ! s*ool away f its true traditions2 & claim$ = 8 own tea*+ ! m]it ( reproduc+ ! orig9al doctr9e ( ,plato4#bee ,9 reality1 he 01 z ,zell] has %[n1 an eclectic4#bef ,x is by argum5ts borr[$ f ,/oicism t he v9dicates ! c]ta9ty ( human k4 ,pu%+ ! practical po/ulate to its logical conclusion1 he ma9ta9s1 n only t we are 9 possession ( ! tru?1 b also--:at ,philo _h d5i$--t true beliefs be> on _! face ! evid5ce by :i* !y are di/+ui%$ f illusions4 ,admitt+ t ! s5ses are liable to error1 he ass]ts ! possibility ( rectify+ _! mi/akes1 & ( reason+ f a subjective impression to its objective cause4 ,! ,sceptical negation ( tru? he meets ) ! famili> argum5t t x is suicidal1 = to be conv9c$ t !re c be no conviction is a contradiction 9 t]ms2 :ile to argue t tru? is indi/+ui%able f falsehood implies an illogical confid5ce 9 ! validity ( logical processes2 besides involv+ ! assumption t !re are false appe>ances & t !y are kn[n to u z su*1 :i* w\ld be impossible unless we 7 9 a position to comp>e !m ) ! correspond+ tru?s4#beg ,= 8 own "p1 ,antio*us adopt$ )\t alt]ation ! empirical !ory ( ,*rysippus1 accord+ to :i* k is elaborat$ by reflection out ( ! mat]ials suppli$ by s5se4 ,8 physics 7 also ^? ( ,/oicism ) a slight ,p]ipatetic admixture1 b )\t any modification ( _! purely mat]iali/ic "*4 ,9 e?ics he rema9$ tru] to ! ,academic tradition1 refus+ to foll[ ! ,/oics 9 _! absolute isolation ( virtue f vice1 & ( happ9ess f ext]nal circum/ances1 involv+ z x did ! equality ( all transgressions & ! wor?lessness ( worldly goods4 ,b ! disciples ( ! ,por* _h made su* l>ge concessions to common s5se by _! !ories ( pref]5ce & ( progress1 t ev5 "h !re 0 v little left to di/+ui% 8 tea*+ f !irs4#beh ,mean:ile a s]ies ( ,/oic ?9k]s _h also be5 feel+ _! way t[>ds a compromise ) ,plato & ,ari/otle1 :i*1 s f> z x w5t1 0 a /ep 9 ! direction ( spiritualism4 ,we h se51 9 a =m] *apt]1 h[ "o ( ! great di/+ui%+ m>ks ( ,/oicism1 z comp>$ ) ! sy/ems imm$iately prec$+ x1 0 ! sub/itution ( a p]vad+ monism = _! anti!sis betwe5 ,god & ! _w1 betwe5 heav5 & e>?1 betwe5 reason & s5se4 ,x w be rememb]$ also t ?is moni/ic cre$ 0 associat$ ) a return to ! ,h]acleitean !ory t ! _w is p]iodically de/roy$ by fire4 ,n[1 ) ref]5ce to ?ree out ( ^! f\r po9ts1 ,bo?us1 a ,/oic contempor>y ( ,c>neades1 return$ to ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e4 ,:ile /ill hold+ to ! mat]ialism ( 8 own s*ool1 includ+ a belief 9 ! corporeal nature ( ! div9ity1 he sep>at$ ,god f ! _w1 & repres5t$ him z gov]n+ its movem5ts f )\t2 ! _w itself he ma9ta9$ to be et]nal2 & 9 ! m9d ( man he recognis$ reason or n\s z an indep5d5t s\rce ( conviction4 ,9 8 cosmology1 ,bo?us 0 foll[$ by a m celebrat$ ma/]1 ,panaetius1 :o also adopt$ ! ,ari/otelian rationalism s f> z to d5y ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ! s\l aft] dea?1 & to repudiate ! belief 9 div9ation :i* ,/oicism _h borr[$ f popul> sup]/ition2 :ile 9 psy*ology he p>tially re/or$ ! di/9ction betwe5 life & m9d :i* _h be5 oblit]at$ by 8 pr$ecessors4#bei ,! duali/ic !ory ( m9d 0 c>ri$ /ill fur!r by ,posidonius1 ! mo/ em95t ,/oic ( ! fir/ c5tury ,b4,c4 ,?is v le>n$ & accompli%$ ma/]1 :ile return+ 9 o!r po9ts to a /rict] or?odoxy1 0 l$ to admit ! ,platonic di/9ction betwe5 reason & passion1 & to make x ! basis ( 8 e?ical sy/em4#bfj ,b ! ,platonis+ t5d5cies ( ,posidonius _h no m p[] ?an ^? ( ,antio*us to effect a true spirituali/ic revival1 s9ce nei!r !y nor any ( _! contempor>ies _h any g5ius = metaphysical speculation2 :ile ! increas$ att5tion paid to ,ari/otle did n ext5d to ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( 8 sy/em1 :i*1 ev5 )9 ! ,p]ipatetic s*ool1 7 s misconceiv$ z to be int]pret$ 9 a ?or\ghly mat]iali/ic s5se4#bfa ,a di/9ct p>allelism may be trac$ 9 ! l9es ( evolution along :i* we h accompani$ our two oppos+ s*ools4 ,:ile ! ,academicians 7 com+ ov] to ! ,/oic !ory ( cognition1 ! ,/oics !mselves 7 mov+ 9 ! same g5]al direction1 & seek+ = an ext]nal reality m 9 consonance ) _! notions ( c]ta9ty ?an ! philosophy ( _! fir/ tea*]s c\ld supply4 ,=1 z orig9ally con/itut$1 ,/oicism includ$ a l>ge elem5t ( scepticism1 :i* mu/ (t5 h laid its advocates op5 to ! *>ge ( inconsi/5cy f ^? :o accept$ ! same pr9ciple 9 a m undilut$ =m4 ,! ,h]acleitean flux adopt$ by ,z5o z ! physical basis ( 8 sy/em1 0 mu* bett] suit$ to a sceptical ?an to a dogmatic philosophy1 z ! use to :i* x 0 put by ,protagoras & ,plato suffici5tly prov$2 & ?is 0 probably ! reason :y ,bo?us & ,panaetius p>tially disc>d$ x 9 fav\r ( a m /able cosmology4 ,! dialectical /udies ( ! s*ool also t5d$ to sugge/ m difficulties ?an !y c\ld remove4 ,! compreh5sive sy/ematisation ( ,*rysippus1 l t ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 _h = its object ! illu/ration ( ea* topic f e po9t ( view1 & especially f ! negative z well z f ! positive side4 ,! consequ5ce 0 t 8 indefatigable erudition _h collect$ a great numb] ( logical puzzles :i* he _h ei!r neglect$ or f\nd himself unable to solve4 ,!re w\ld1 !re=e1 be a gr[+ incl9ation to sub/itute a lit]>y & rhetorical = a logical tra9+3 & z we %all pres5tly see1 !re 0 an extrane\s influ5ce act+ 9 ! same direction4 ,f9ally1 ! rig\r ( ,/oic morality _h be5 /ra9$ to su* a pit* t its pr(essors 7 driv5 to admit ! complete ideality ( virtue4 ,_! sage _h nev] %[n himself on e>?1 at lea/ )9 ! hi/orical p]iod2 & ! :ole _w ( human int]e/s be+1 f ! rational po9t ( view1 ei!r a delusion or a failure1 /ood 9 p]man5t contradiction to _! optimi/ic !ory ( ,nature4 ,! ,sceptics 7 q aw>e ( ?is practical approximation to _! own views1 & sometimes took advantage ( x to turn ! tables on _! oppon5ts ) tell+ effect4 ,?us1 on ! occasion ( t philosophical embassy ) an acc\nt ( :i* ! pres5t *apt] began1 :5 a noble ,roman playfully obs]v$ to ,c>neades1 #8,y mu/ ?9k t ,i am n a ,praetor z ,i am n a sage1 & t ,rome is nei!r a city nor a /ate1' ! great ,sceptic repli$1 turn+ to 8 colleague ,diog5es1 #8,t is :at my ,/oic fri5d "h w\ld say4'#bfb ,& ,plut>*1 9 two %>p attacks on ! ,/oics1 writt5 f ! ,academic po9t ( view1 & probably compil$ f docum5ts ( a mu* e>li] p]iod1#bfc *>ges !m ) outrag+ common s5se by _! :olesale practical negations1 to at lea/ z great an ext5t z ! ,sceptics outrag$ x by _! susp5se ( judgm5t4 ,h[ ! e?ical sy/em ( ,/oicism 0 modifi$ s z to meet ^! criticisms has be5 relat$ 9 a =m] *apt]2 & we h j se5 h[ ,posidonius1 by 8 p>tial return to ! ,platonic psy*ology1 ) its division betwe5 reason & impulse1 contribut$ to a /ill fur!r *ange 9 ! same conciliatory s5se4 ,,vii4 ,we h n[ rea*$ a po9t 9 hi/ory :]e ! ,greek intellect seems to be /ruck ) a p>tial p>alysis1 cont9u+ = a c5tury & a half4 ,dur+ t p]iod1 its activity--:at !re is ( x--is %[n only 9 criticism & erudition4 ,!re is le>n+1 !re is rese>*1 !re is acut5ess1 !re is ev5 good ta/e1 b orig9ality & eloqu5ce are ext9ct4 ,is x a co9cid5ce1 or is x some?+ m1 t ?is int]val ( /]ility %\ld occur simultane\sly ) ! mo/ spl5did p]iod ( ,lat9 lit]ature1 & t ! new bir? ( ,greek culture %\ld be foll[$ by ! decrepitude & dea? ( ! ,lat9 muse8 ,x is c]ta9 t 9 mod]n ,europe1 possess+ z x does s _m indep5d5t s\rces ( vitality1 ! fl[]+-times ( diff]5t c\ntries r>ely co9cide2 ,engl& & ,spa91 f ! middle ( ! sixte5? to ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 be+ ! only in/ances t we c recall ( two c\ntries almo/ simultane\sly rea*+ ! highe/ po9t ( _! lit]>y developm5t4 ,possibly1 dur+ ! great age ( ,lat9 lit]ature1 all ! mo/ aspir+ ,greeks f\nd employm5t z tutors 9 ,roman families2 :ile ! read+ public ( ! ,we/ 7 too mu* absorb$ by ! ma/]pieces compos$ 9 _! own language1 or too elat$ ) ! consci\sness ( a new sup]iority1 to enc\rage ! rivalry ( ^? f :om !y _h wre/$ n only poetical indep5d5ce1 b also1 :at till !n _h nev] be5 disput$ ) ! ,greeks1 supreme dom9ion 9 ! _w ( m9d4 ,x is1 at any rate1 significant t :ile ,greek 0 ! fav\rite language ( ,roman lov]s 9 ! "t ( ,lucretius & aga9 9 ! "t ( ,juv5al1 !re are no allusions to its hav+ be5 employ$ by !m dur+ ! int]m$iate p]iod4#bfd ,be ?is z x may1 f ! fall ( ! ,republic to ! "t ( ,trajan1 philosophy1 l poetry & eloqu5ce--or at lea/ all philosophy t 0 positive & practical--became domicil$ 9 ,rome1 & receiv$ ! /amp ( ! ,roman "*4 ,h[ ,/oicism 0 affect$ by ! *ange has be5 po9t$ out 9 a =m] *apt]4 ,:at we h n[ to /udy is *iefly ! reaction ( ,rome on ! ,greek m9d1 & its be>+ on ! subsequ5t developm5t ( ?\ght4 ,?is reaction _h begun to make itself felt long be=e ! bir? ( a philosophical lit]ature 9 ! ,lat9 language4 ,x may be trac$ to ! "t :5 ! lecture-halls at ,a!ns 7 fir/ visit$ by ,roman /ud5ts1 & ,greek pr(essors fir/ receiv$ on t]ms ( intimate companion%ip into ! h\ses ( ,roman nobles4 ,9 ea* in/ance1 b m especially 9 ! latt]1 n only w\ld ! pupil imbibe new ideas f ! ma/]1 b ! ma/] w\ld suit 8 tea*+ to ! ta/es & capacities ( ! pupil4 ,! result w\ld be an intellectual condition some:at resembl+ t :i* att5d$ ! popul>isation ( philosophy 9 ,a!ns dur+ ! latt] half ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4,c42 & all ! m s z speculation _h already spontane\sly rev]t$ to ! ,sophi/ic /&po9t4 ,! p>allel w be /ill m complete if we take ! ^w ,sophi/ 9 its orig9al & compreh5sive s5se4 ,we may !n say t :ile ,c>neades1 ) 8 entranc+ eloqu5ce & 8 read9ess to argue bo? sides ( a "q1 0 ! ,protagoras ( ! new movem5t2 ,panaetius1 ! dignifi$ rationali/ & hon\r$ fri5d ( ,laelius & ! y\ng] ,scipio1 its ,prodicus2 & ,posidonius1 ! a/ronom] & encyclopa$ic s*ol>1 its ,hippias1 ,pha$rus ! ,epicurean 0 its ,anaxagoras or ,democritus4 ,! ,epicurean philosophy 01 9 fact1 ! fir/ to ga9 a foot+ 9 ,rome2 & x !reby acquir$ a position ( comp>ative equality ) ! o!r s*ools1 to :i* x 0 n really entitl$1 b :i* x has ev] s9ce succe$$ 9 ma9ta9+4 ,! new doctr9e fell l a sp>k on a mass ( combu/ible mat]ial4 ,! ,romans 7 full ( curiosity ab\t ,nature & h] work+s2 full ( contempt = ! degrad+ ,etruscan sup]/itions :i* hamp]$ !m at e turn1 & ! falsity ( :i* 0 prov+ too mu* ev5 = ! (ficial gravity ( _! /ate-appo9t$ int]pret]s2 full ( impati5ce at ! ,greek my?ology :i* 0 beg9n+ to sub/itute itself = ! sev]e ab/ractions ( _! own m spiritual fai?2#bfe full ( loa?+ = ! ,asiatic orgies :i* 7 be+ introduc$ into ! highe/ society ( _! own city4 ,epicureanism (f]$ !m a complete & easily intelligible !ory ( ! _w1 :i* at ! same "t came z a deliv]ance f sup]natural t]rors4 ,! consequ5ce 0 t its diff]5t p>ts 7 ?r[n out ( p]spective1 & _! relative importance almo/ rev]s$4 ,orig9ally fram$ z an e?ical sy/em ) c]ta9 physical & !ological implications1 x 0 int]pret$ by ,lucretius1 & app>5tly also by 8 ,roman pr$ecessors1#bff z a sci5tific & anti-religi\s sy/em1 ) c]ta9 ref]5ces to conduct nei!r v prom95tly br\ght =w>d nor v di/9ctly conceiv$4 ,& we "k f ! cont5ts ( ! papyrus rolls discov]$ at ,h]culaneum1 t ^? :o /udi$ ! sy/em 9 its orig9al s\rces paid p>ticul> att5tion to ! volum9\s physical treatises ( ,epicurus1 z well z to ! !ological works ( 8 successors4 ,nor 0 ?is *ange ( front limit$ to ,epicureanism1 if1 z we may suspect1 ! rationali/ic direction tak5 by ,panaetius 0 due1 at lea/ 9 "p1 to a simil> dem& on ! side ( 8 ,roman admir]s4 ,b :at _h happ5$ once be=e :5 philosophy 0 tak5 up by m5 ( ! _w1 repeat$ itself on ?is occasion4 ,att5tion 0 div]t$ f speculative to e?ical problems1 or at lea/ to issues ly+ on ! bord]l& betwe5 speculation & practice1 su* z ^? relat+ to ! crit]ion ( tru? & ! nature ( ! highe/ good4 ,on nei!r ( ^! topics _h ,epicureanism a consi/5t answ] to give1 especially :5 subject$ to ! cross-exam9ation ( rival s*ools eag] to secure ,roman fav\r = _! own doctr9es4 ,/at$ "u any =m1 ! ,epicurean morality c\ld n long satisfy ! conqu]ors ( ! _w4 ,to "s ( !m x w\ld seem a %ameful d]eliction ( duty1 to o!rs an irksome re/ra9t on self-indulg5ce1 :ile all w\ld be ali5at$ by its decl>$ contempt = ! g5]al int]e/s ( culture & ambition4 ,add to ?is t ! slighte/ acqua9tance ) a/ronomy1 z x 0 !n taught 9 ,hell5ic c\ntries1 w\ld be fatal to a belief 9 ! ,epicurean physics1 & we %all und]/& t ! cause = :i* ,lucretius cont5d$ 0 already lo/ be=e 8 great poem saw ! light4 ,! requirem5ts :i* ,epicureanism fail$ to meet1 71 to a great ext5t1 satisfi$ by ,/oicism4 ,?is philosophy _h1 f a comp>atively e>ly p]iod1 won ! fav\r ( a select class1 b _h be5 tempor>ily ov]%ad[$ by ! popul>ity ( its h$oni/ic & anti-religi\s rival1 :5 a k ( ! ,greek sy/ems fir/ became diffus$ ?r\gh ,italy4 ,! unc\? language ( ! e>ly ,/oics & ! app>5tly unpractical "* ( _! !ories d\btless ex]cis$ a repell5t effect on _m :o 7 n out ( sympa?y ) _! g5]al _s4 ,^! difficulties 7 ov]come fir/ by ,panaetius1 & !n1 to a /ill great] ext5t1 by ,posidonius1 ! eld] contempor>y & fri5d ( ,pompeius & ,cic]o1 :o 0 rem>kable n only = 8 enorm\s le>n+ b also = 8 oratorical tal5t4#bfg ,x seems probable t ! lessons ( ?is di/+ui%$ man m>k$ ! beg9n+ ( t religi\s reaction :i* ev5tually c>ri$ all be=e x4 ,we h already se5 h[ he ab&on$ ! rationali/ic direction /ruck out by 8 pr$ecessor1 ,panaetius2 & 8 return to ! old ,/oic or?odoxy may v well h respond$ to a revival ( religi\s feel+ among ! educat$ ,roman public1 :o by ?is "t mu/ h discov]$ t !re 7 o!r ways ( escap+ f sup]/ition besides a complete rejection ( ! sup]natural4 ,! triumph ( ,/oicism 01 h[ev]1 ret>d$ by ! comb9$ influ5ce ( ! ,academic & ,p]ipatetic s*ools4 ,bo? claim$ ! !ory ( a morality f\nd$ on natural law z a doctr9e ( _! own1 borr[$ f !m )\t ackn[l$gm5t by ! ,por*1 & re/at$ "u an (f5sively p>adoxical =m4 ,to a ,roman1 ! ,academy w\ld (f] ! fur!r attraction ( complete immunity f ! bondage ( a speculative sy/em1 fre$om ( enquiry limit$ only by ! exig5cies ( practical life1 & a conv5i5tly ela/ic int]pretation ( ! ext5t to :i* popul> fai?s might be accept$ z true4 ,if absolute susp5se ( judgm5t j>r$ on 8 moral convictions1 x 0 ready ) accommodations & concessions4 ,we h se5 h[ ! scepticism ( ,c>neades 0 fir/ modifi$ by ,philo1 & !n op5ly r5\nc$ by ,philo's successor1 ,antio*us4 ,roman influ5ce may h be5 at "w ) bo?2 = ,philo sp5t "s "t 9 ! capital ( ! empire1 :i!r he 0 driv5 by ! ev5ts ( ! fir/ ,mi?ridatic ,w>2 :ile ,antio*us 0 ! fri5d ( ,lucullus & ! tea*] ( ,cic]o4#bfh ,,viii4 ,! greate/ ( ,roman orators & writ]s 0 also ! fir/ ,roman t held op9ions ( 8 own 9 philosophy4 ,h[ mu* orig9al ?\ght occurs 9 8 volum9\s contributions to ! lit]ature ( ! subject is m ?an we c det]m9e1 ! ,greek au?orities on :i* he drew be+ kn[n almo/ exclusively ?r\gh ! ref]5ces to !m conta9$ 9 8 disquisitions4 ,b1 judg+ f ! evid5ce be=e u1 c>efully sift$ z x has be5 by ,g]man s*ol>s1 we %\ld feel dispos$ to assign him a =emo/ rank among ! ?9k]s ( an age c]ta9ly n di/+ui%$ ei!r = f]tility or = dep? ( ?\ght4 ,x seems cle> t he gave a new basis to ! eclectic t5d5cies ( 8 contempor>ies1 & t ?is basis 0 subsequ5tly accept$ by o!r philosoph]s ^: speculative capacity has nev] be5 que/ion$4 ,cic]o describes himself z an adh]5t ( ! ,new ,academy1 & expressly claims to h reass]t$ its pr9ciples aft] !y _h fall5 into neglect among ! ,greeks1 m p>ticul>ly z aga9/ 8 own old ma/] ,antio*us1 ^: ,/oicis+ !ory ( cognition he agrees ) ,philo 9 repudiat+4#bfi ,l ,philo also1 he bases c]ta9ty on ! tw(old gr\nd ( a moral necessity = act+ on our beliefs1#bgj & ! exi/5ce ( moral intuitions1 or natural t5d5cies to believe 9 ! m9d itself2#bga or1 p]haps1 m prop]ly speak+1 on ! s+le gr\nd ( a moral s5se4 ,?is1 z already /at$1 0 unque/ionably a reproduction ( ! ,platonic ideas "u _! subjective aspect4 ,b 9 8 g5]al views ab\t ! nature & limits ( human k1 ,cic]o leaves ! ,academy beh9d him1 & goes back to ,socrates4 ,p]haps no two m5 ( great g5ius c\ld be m unlike ?an ^! two1--= u ! mo/ liv+ figures 9 anci5t hi/ory if n 9 all hi/ory1--! ,roman be+ z mu* a type ( "t-s]v+ness & vacillation z ! ,a!nian 0 ( consi/5cy & resolute indep5d5ce4 ,yet1 9 its m]e ext]nal results1 ! philosophy ( ,socrates is p]haps m fai?fully reproduc$ by ,cic]o ?an by any subsequ5t enquir]2 & ! diff]5ces betwe5 !m are easily acc\nt$ = by ! long int]val sep>at+ _! ages f "o ano!r4 ,ea* set out ) ! same eag] desire to collect k f e qu>t]2 ea* s\ght above all ?+s = t k9d ( k :i* seem$ to be ( ! greate/ practical importance2 & ea* 0 l$ to believe t ?is did n include speculations relat+ to ! physical _w2 "o great motive to ! p>tial scepticism pr(ess$ by bo? be+ ! irreconcilable disagreem5t ( ^? :o _h attempt$ an explanation ( its my/]ies4 ,! deep] gr\nd ( man's ignorance 9 ?is respect 0 /at$ some:at diff]5tly by ea*2 or p]haps we %\ld say t ! same reason is express$ 9 a my?ical =m by ! "o & 9 a sci5tific =m by ! o!r4 ,socrates held t ! nature ( ?+s is a secret :i* ! gods h res]v$ = !mselves2 :ile1 9 ,cic]o's op9ion1 ! heav5s are s remote1 ! int]ior ( ! e>? s d>k1 ! me*anism ( our own bodies s complicat$ & subtle1 z to be plac$ beyond ! rea* ( fruitful obs]vation4#bgb ,nor did ?is deprivation seem any great h>d%ip to ei!r1 s9ce1 z citiz5s ( great & free /ates1 bo? 7 pre-em95tly int]e/$ 9 ! /udy ( social life2 & x is *>act]i/ic ( _! common t5d5cy t bo? %\ld h be5 n only great talk]s & obs]v]s b also great read]s ( anci5t lit]ature4#bgc ,) reg>d to e?ics1 !re is1 ( c\rse1 a great diff]5ce betwe5 ! innovat+1 creative g5ius ( ! ,greek & ! receptive b timid intellig5ce ( ! ,roman4 ,yet ! unc]ta9ty :i*1 9 ! "o case1 0 due to ! abs5ce ( any fix$ sy/em1 is equally pres5t 9 ! o!r1 ow+ to ! emb>rassm5t ( hav+ s _m sy/ems among :i* to *oose4 ,?ree e?ical motives 7 con/antly pres5t to ! ?\ghts ( ,socrates3 ! utility ( virtue1 f a mat]ial po9t ( view1 to ! individual2 its social necessity2 & its connexion ) ! dual con/itution ( man z a be+ compos$ ( two elem5ts :]e( ! "o is inf9itely sup]ior to ! o!r2 b he nev] 0 able1 or nev] attempt$ to co-ord9ate !m "u a s+le pr9ciple4 ,8 successors tri$ to discov] su* a pr9ciple 9 ! idea ( natural law1 b c\ld nei!r e/abli% nor apply x 9 a satisfactory mann]4 ,cic]o reproduces ! ,socratic elem5ts1 sometimes 9 _! orig9al disp]sion & confusion1 sometimes ) ! additional complication & p]plexity introduc$ by ! idea ?r\gh :i* x _h be5 hop$ to sy/ematise & reconcile !m4 ,to him1 inde$1 t idea 0 ev5 m important ?an to ! ,greek morali/s2 = he look$ on ,nature z ! common gr\nd :]e philosophy & untra9$ exp]i5ce might meet = mutual confirmation & support4#bgd ,we h se5 h[ he adopt$ ! !ory--z yet n v cle>ly =mulat$--( a moral s5se1 or g5]al faculty ( intuition1 f ,philo4 ,to /udy & obey ! dictates ( ?is faculty1 z di/+ui%$ f ! deprav+ influ5ce ( cu/om1 0 8 me?od ( arriv+ at tru? & "r4 ,b if1 :5 prop]ly consult$1 x always gave ! same response1 a simil> unanimity might be expect$ 9 ! doctr9es ( ! v>i\s philosophical s*ools2 & ! adhesion ( ,academicians1 ,p]ipatetics1 & ,/oics to ! precept1 ,foll[ ,nature1 seem$ to demon/rate t su* an agreem5t actually exi/$4 ,h5ce ,cic]o ov] & ov] aga9 lab\rs to prove t _! disputes 7 m]ely v]bal1 & t ,/oicism 9 p>ticul> _h borr[$ its e?ics :olesale f 8 own fav\rite sect4 ,yet f "t to "t _! discrepancies w\ld =ce !mselves on 8 notice2 & by none h ! diff]5ces sep>at+ ,/oicism f its rivals be5 /at$ ) m cle>ness1 concision1 & po9t4#bge ,^! relate to ! absolute self-suffic+ness ( virtue1 its unity1 & ! incompatibility ( emotion ) its ex]cise4 ,b ,cic]o seems to h reg>d$ ! !ory ( pref]5ce & rejection z a concession to common s5se am\nt+ to a surr5d] ( :atev] 0 p>odoxical & exclusive 9 ! ,/oic /&po9t4#bgf ,& ) respect to ! "q r\nd :i* controv]sy rag$ mo/ fi]cely1 namely1 :e!r virtue 0 ! sole or m]ely ! *ief condition ( happ9ess1 ,cic]o1 z a man ( ! _w1 consid]$ t x 0 practically ( no consequ5ce :i* side prevail$4#bgg ,x w\ld be unfair to blame him = n see+1 :at ! /rict] s*ool felt r ?an saw1 t ! happ9ess associat$ ) goodness 0 n ( an individual b ( a social "*1 & !re=e c\ld n prop]ly be comp>$ ) objects ( purely individual desire1 su* z heal?1 weal?1 fri5ds1 & worldly fame4 ,b ev5 tak5 9 its milde/ =m1 !re 7 difficulties ab\t ,greek idealism :i* /ill rema9$ unsolv$4 ,!y may be summ$ up 9 "o ^w1 ! necessity ( subord9at+ all p]sonal & passionate feel+s to a high] law1 :atev] ! dictates ( t law may be4 ,( su* self-suppression few m5 7 less capable ?an ,cic]o4 ,:e!r virtue meant ! extirpation or m]ely ! mod]ation ( desire & emotion1 x 0 equally impossible to "o ( :om ,macaulay has said1 ) n m sev]ity ?an tru?1 t 8 :ole s\l 0 "u ! dom9ion ( a girli% vanity & a crav5 fe>4#bgh ,su* weak & well-int5tion$ natures almo/ always take refuge f _! sorr[s & self-reproa*es 9 religion2 & probably ! religi\s s5tim5t 0 m highly develop$ 9 ,cic]o ?an 9 any o!r ?9k] ( ! age4 ,"h also a p>allel ) ,socrates naturally sugge/s itself4 ,! relation betwe5 ! two am\nts to m ?an a m]e analogy2 = n only 0 ! intellectual condition ( old ,a!ns repeat+ itself 9 ,rome1 b ! religi\s op9ions ( all cultivat$ ,romans :o /ill reta9$ _! belief 9 a provid5tial ,god1 71 to an ev5 great] ext5t ?an _! e?ics1 d]iv$ ?r\gh ,/oicism f ! great f\nd] ( rational !ology4 ,cic]o1 l ,socrates1 views ,god "u ! ?reefold aspect ( a creator1 a provid5ce1 & an in=m+ _s3--id5tical 9 8 nature ) ! s\l ( man1 & hav+ man = 8 peculi> c>e4 ,) reg>d to ! evid5ce ( 8 exi/5ce1 ! teleological argum5t d]iv$ f ! /ructure ( organis$ be+s is common to bo?2 ! argum5t f univ]sal belief1 d\btless a p[]ful motive ) ,socrates1 is m di/9ctly put =w>d by ,cic]o2 & :ile bo? reg>d ! heav5ly lum9>ies z manife/ embodim5ts ( ! div9e ess5ce1 ,cic]o is l$ by ! traditions ( ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 & ! ,/oics1 to pres5t ! regul>ity ( _! movem5ts z ! mo/ conv9c+ revelation ( a sup]human intellig5ce1 & to id5tify ! out]mo/ />ry sph]e ) ! highe/ ,god ( all4#bgi ,intimately associat$ ) ?is view is 8 belief 9 ! immortality ( ! s\l1 :i* he supposes w return aft] dea? to ! et]nal & un*angeable sph]e :5ce x orig9ally proce$$4#bhj ,b 8 famili>ity ) ! sceptical argum5ts ( ,c>neades prev5t$ ,cic]o f putt+ =w>d 8 !ological beliefs ) ! same confid5ce z ,socrates2 :ile1 at ! same "t1 x enabl$ him to take up a mu* m decid$ attitude ( ho/ility t[>ds ! popul> sup]/itions f :i* he 0 anxi\s1 s f> z possible1 to purify true religion4#bha ,to sum up3 ,cic]o1 l ,kant1 seems to h be5 *iefly impress$ by two ph5om5a1 ! />ry heav5s )\t & ! moral law )92 ea* 9 its own way giv+ him ! idea ( un*ang+ & ev]la/+ cont9uance1 & bo? te/ify+ to ! exi/5ce ( a p[] by :i* all ?+s are regulat$ = ! be/4 ,b ! mat]ialism ( 8 age naturally prev5t$ him f reg>d+ ! ext]nal ord] z a m]e reflex or l[] manife/ation ( ! inw>d law by :i* all spirits feel !mselves to be memb]s ( ! same intelligible community4 ,we h illu/rat$ ! position ( ,cic]o by ref]5ce to ! ma/] :o1 m ?an any o!r ,greek philosoph]1 seems to h satisfi$ 8 ideal ( p]fect wisdom4 ,we mu/ n[ obs]ve t no?+ is bett] calculat$ to %[ h[ inadequate 0 ! view once univ]sally tak5 ( ,socrates1 & /ill1 p]haps1 tak5 by all :o are n s*ol>s1 ?an t x %\ld be applicable 9 s _m po9ts to ,cic]o z well4 ,=1 :ile ! influ5ce ( ! "o on human ?\ght 0 ! greate/ ev] ex]cis$ by a s+le individual1 ! influ5ce ( ! o!r 0 limit$ to ! accel]ation ( a movem5t already 9 full activity1 & moreov] t5d+ on ! :ole 9 a retrograde direction4 ,! immeasurable sup]iority ( ! ,a!nian lies 9 8 dialectical me?od4 ,x 0 n by a m]e elim9ation ( diff]5ces t he hop$ to e/abli% a g5]al agreem5t1 b by reason+ d[n f admitt$ pr9ciples1 :i* 7 !mselves to be ! result ( sci5tific induction br\ght to be> on a compreh5sive & ev]-wid5+ area ( exp]i5ce4 ,h5ce 8 scepticism1 :i* 0 direct$ aga9/ au?ority1 t5d$ z mu* to /imulate enquiry z t ( ! ,roman declaim]1 :i* 0 direct$ aga9/ reason1 t5d$ to dead5 or to depress x4 ,h5ce1 also1 ! political philosophy ( ,socrates 0 z revolution>y z t ( 8 imitator 0 cons]vative4 ,bo? 71 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 ari/ocrats2 b :ile ! ari/ocracy ( ! elegant rhetorician meant a clique ( indol5t & incapable nobles1 t ( ! /urdy craftsman meant a b& ( highly-tra9$ speciali/s ma9ta9$ 9 p[] by ! *oice1 ! confid5ce1 & ! will+ ob$i5ce ( an intellig5t p4 ,& :ile ! religion ( ,cic]o 0 a bl9d reliance on provid5ce supplem5t$ by prie/craft 9 ?is _w1 ) ! hope1 if ?+s came to ! wor/1 ( a safe retreat f tr\ble 9 ! next2 ! religion ( ,socrates 0 an active co-op]ation ) ! univ]sal m9d1 an attempt to make reason & ! w ( ,god prevail on e>?1 ) ! hope1 if !re 0 any future /ate1 ( c>ry+ on 9 x ! intellectual w>f>e :i* alone _h made life wor? liv+ "h4 ,no less a contra/ c\ld be expect$ betwe5 ! orator :o turn$ to philosophy only = ! occupation ( a leisure h\r1 or = relief f ! pangs ( disappo9t$ ambition1 & ! ?9k] :o gave h] 8 :ole exi/5ce z ! elect apo/le & m>tyr ( h] cre$4 ,,ix4 ,we h se5 :at 0 ! guid+ pr9ciple ( ,cic]o's philosophical me?od4 ,by int]rogat+ all ! sy/ems ( 8 "t1 he hop$ to elicit _! po9ts ( agreem5t1 & to utilise ! result = ! practical purposes ( life4 ,z actually appli$1 ! effect ( ?is me?od 0 n to reconcile ! curr5t !ories ) "o ano!r1 nor yet to lay ! f\ndation ( a m compreh5sive philosophy1 b to ?r[ back ?\ght on an ord] ( ideas :i*1 f _! great popul>ity1 _h be5 incorporat$ ) e sy/em 9 turn1 &1 = t v reason1 seem$ to embody ! precise po9ts on :i* all 7 agre$4 ,^! 7 ! idea ( ,nature1 ! idea ( m9d or reason1 & ! idea ( utility4 ,we h frequ5tly come across !m 9 ! c\rse ( ! pres5t "w4 ,"h x w suffice to recall ! fact t !y _h be5 fir/ rais$ to di/9ct consci\sness :5 ! results ( e>ly ,greek ?\ght 7 br\ght into contact ) ! exp]i5ces ( ,greek life1 & m especially ( ,a!nian life1 9 ! age ( ,p]icles4 ,z orig9ally und]/ood1 !y gave rise to _m complications & cross divisions1 aris+ f :at 0 consid]$ to be _! mutual incompatibility or equival5ce4 ,?us ,nature 0 op5ly reject$ by ! sceptical ,sophi/s1 ignor$ by ,socrates1 &1 dur+ a long p]iod ( 8 c>e]1 treat$ ) v little respect by ,plato2 reason1 9 its m elaborate =ms1 0 slight$ by ! ,cynics1 & employ$ = its own de/ruction by ! ,meg>ians1 9 bo? cases z an enemy to utility2 :ile to ,ari/otle ! pure ex]cise ( reason 0 ! highe/ utility ( any1 & ,nature only a l[] manife/ation ( ! same idealis+ process4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 we f9d ,nature accept$ z a wat*word by ,/oics1 ,epicureans1 & ,sceptics alike1 al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ea* atta*$ a widely diff]5t mean+ to ! t]m2 ! supremacy ( reason1 )\t ^: aid1 inde$1 _! controv]sies c\ld n h be5 c>ri$ on1 is recognis$ ) simil> unanimity2 & ea* sect lays exclusive /ress on ! connexion ( its pr9ciples ) human happ9ess1 ?us mak+ utility ! =emo/ consid]ation 9 philosophy4 ,consequ5tly1 to :atev] sy/em a ,roman turn$1 he w\ld recognise ! ?ree great regulative conceptions ( ,greek ?\ght1 al?\gh frequ5tly envelop$ 9 a network ( f9e-spun di/9ctions & inf]5ces :i* to him mu/ h seem$ nei!r natural nor reasonable nor useful4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ap>t f su* subtleties1 he c\ld readily translate all ?ree into t]ms :i* seem$ to %[ t1 s f> f be+ divid$ by any ess5tial incompatibility1 !y did b repres5t diff]5t aspects ( a s+le h>moni\s ideal4 ,nature meant simplicity1 ord]l9ess1 univ]sality1 & ! spontane\s cons5ti5ce ( unsophi/icat$ m9ds4 ,reason meant human dignity1 especially z manife/$ 9 ! conque/ ( fe> & ( desire4 ,& :atev] 0 natural & reasonable seem$ to satisfy ! requirem5ts ( utility z well4 ,x might seem also t ^! v pr9ciples 7 embodi$ 9 ! facts ( old ,roman life & ( ,rome's imp]ial de/9y4 ,! only "q 0 :i* s*ool ( ,greek philosophy gave !m _! cle>e/ & complete/ int]pretation4 ,lucretius w\ld h said t x 0 ! sy/em ( ,epicurus2 b su* a misconception 0 only r5d]$ possible by ! poet's seclusion f imp]ial int]e/s1 &1 app>5tly1 by 8 unacqua9tance ) ! m ref9$ =ms ( ,hell5ic ?\ght4 ,rome c\ld n f9d 9 ,epicureanism ! compreh5siv5ess1 ! cohesion1 & ! p[] :i* m>k$ h] own "*1 & :i* %e only requir$ to h express$ "u a speculative =m4 ,!n came ,cic]o1 ) 8 mod]nis$ rhetorical v]sion ( :at he conceiv$ to be ! ,socratic philosophy4 ,8 tea*+ 0 f> bett] suit$ ?an t ( 8 great contempor>y to ! ta/es ( 8 c\ntrym51 & probably contribut$ 9 no small degree to ! subsequ5t discr$it ( ,epicureanism2 yet1 by a /range irony1 x told1 to ! same ext5t1 9 fav\r ( a philosophy f :i* ,cic]o himself 0 probably ev5 m av]se ?an f ! morality ( ! ,g>d54 ,9 8 h&s1 ! ,academic criticism _h simply ! effect ( dissolv+ away ^? elem5ts :i* di/+ui%$ ,/oicism f ,cynicism2 :ile 8 eclecticism br\ght into view c]ta9 pr9ciples m *>act]i/ic ( ! ,cynics ?an ( any o!r sect4 ,! ,nature to ^: guidance he con/antly appeals 01 prop]ly speak+1 n a ,socratic b a ,sophi/ic or ,cynic idea2 & :5 ! ,/oics appropriat$ x1 !y 7 only reclaim+ an ance/ral possession4 ,! exclusion ( !oretical /udies & dialectical subtleties f philosophy 0 also ,cynic2 ! ,/oic !ology :5 purifi$1 z ,cic]o desir$ t x %\ld be purifi$1 f its sup]/iti\s +r$i5ts1 0 no o!r ?an ! naturali/ic mono!ism ( ,anti/h5es2 & ! ,/oic morality )\t its p>adoxes 0 little m ?an an ennobl$ ,cynicism4 ,! curve describ$ by ?\ght 0 det]m9$ by =ces ( almo/ me*anical simplicity4 ,! ,greek ,eclectics1 seek+ a middle t]m betwe5 ! ,academy & ! ,por*1 _h fall5 back on ,plato2 ,cic]o1 pursu+ ! same direction1 rec$$ to ,socrates2 b ! cont9u$ attraction ( ,/oicism drew him to a po9t :]e ! two 7 l9k$ toge!r by _! hi/orical int]m$i>y1 ! ,cynic s*ool4 ,&1 by a s+ul> co9cid5ce1 ! primal =ms ( ,roman life1 half godlike & half brutal1 7 f\nd1 bett] ?an any?+ 9 ,hell5ic exp]i5ce1 to realise ! ideal ( a sect :i* _h tak5 ,h]acles = its patron sa9t4 ,_h ,diog5es se>*$ ! ,roman ,=um1 he w\ld h met ) a man at e /ep4 ,mean:ile ! morality ( ,/oicism _h enli/$ a =ce ( incalculable importance on its behalf4 ,?is 0 ! life & dea? ( ! y\ng] ,cato4 ,h[ev] n>r[ 8 intellect1 h[ev] impracticable 8 pr9ciples1 h[ev] hopeless 8 resi/ance to ! c\rse ( hi/ory1 ,cato _h m]its :i* 9 ! eyes ( 8 c\ntrym5 plac$ him ev5 high] ?an ,caes>2 & ?is impression 0 probably /r5g!n$ by ! extraord9>y want ( tact :i* ! great conqu]or %[$ :5 he insult$ ! memory ( 8 noble/ foe4 ,pure 9 an age ( corruption1 dis9t]e/$ 9 an age ( gre$1 devot$ly patriotic 9 an age ( selfi% ambition1 fai?ful unto dea? 9 an age ( %ameless t]giv]sation1 & )al ( s+ul>ly mild & g5tle "*1 ,cato liv$ & di$ = ! law ( consci5ce1 prov+ by 8 example t if a revival ( old ,roman virtue 7 /ill possible1 only ?r\gh ! lessons ( ,greek philosophy c\ld ?is miracle be wr\ght4 ,& x 0 equally cle> t ,rome c\ld only accept philosophy "u a =m h>monis+ ) h] anci5t traditions1 & embody+ doctr9es l ^? :i* ! m>tyr$ sa9t ( h] republican lib]ties _h pr(ess$4 ,! ,roman re=m]s 7 satisfi$ to call !mselves ,/oics2 &1 9 review+ ! ,/oic sy/em1 we saw to :at an ext5t !y welcom$ & develop$ "s ( its fundam5tal ?\ghts4 ,b we h n[ to add t ! curr5t :i* bore !m on _h its s\rce deep] d[n ?an ! elaborate comb9ations ( ,z5o & ,*rysippus1 & ent]$ into ! composition ( e o!r sy/em t act$ on ! ,roman intellect simultane\sly ) !irs4 ,?us :atev] =ces co-op]at$ ) ,/oicism _h ! effect n ( complicat+ b ( simplify+ its t5d5cies1 by br++ into exclusive prom95ce ! orig9al impulse :5ce !y sprang1 :i* 0 ! idea ( ,natural ,law4 ,h5ce ! =m ultimately assum$ by ,roman ?\ght 0 a philosophy ( ,nature1 sometimes appe>+ m "u a ,/oic1 & sometimes m "u a ,cynic guise4 ,ev]y?+ 9 ,roman poetry t is n copi$ f ,greek models or inspir$ by ,italian passion--9 o!r words1 its didactic1 descriptive1 & satiric elem5ts--may be trac$ to ?is philosophy4 ,d\btless ! inculcation ( useful arts1 ! delight 9 beautiful sc5]y1 ! praises ( ru/ic simplicity1 ! fi]ce prote/s aga9/ vice "u all its =ms1 & ! celebration ( an imp]ial de/9y1 :i* =m ! /aple ( ,rome's national lit]ature1 spr+ f h] own deepe/ life2 b ! quick5+ p[] ( ,greek ?\ght 0 ne$$ to develope !m into articulate expression4 ,!re is1 inde$1 no?+ m nobly *>act]i/ic ( ! ,hell5ic _s1 especially z organis$ by ,socrates1 ?an its capacity n only = communicat+1 b = awak5+ ideas2 ?us enabl+ all ! nations among :i* x spread to realise ! :ole pot5tial treasure ( !oretical & practical en]gy ) :i* !y 7 end[$4 ,&1 f ?is po9t ( view1 we may say t :at seems mo/ di/9ctively prop] to ,rome--! triumphant consci\sness ( h]self z a _w-conqu]+ & _w-rul+ p[]--came to h] f ,greece1 & "u ! =m ( a ,greek idea1 ! idea ( provid5tial de/9y4 ,x 0 to make 8 c\ntrym5 und]/& ! fateful "* & inevitable m>* ( h] empire t ,polybius compos$ 8 great hi/ory2 x 0 also by a ,greek t ! mo/ successful ( h] e>ly national epics 0 sung2 & :5 at la/ h] language 0 wr\ght into an adequate in/rum5t ( lit]>y expression--?anks also to ,greek rhetorical tea*+1--& ! culture ( h] *ildr5 _h advanc$ s f> t !y c\ld v5ture to compete ) ! ,greeks on _! own gr\nd1 x 0 /ill only "u =ms sugge/$ by ,/oicism t ,virgil c\ld rewrite ! /ory ( 8 c\ntry's d$ication to h] pr$e/9$ task4 ,t ,virgil 0 acqua9t$ ) ?is philosophy & _h accept$ "s ( its pr9cipal conclusions is evid5t f a fam\s passage 9 ! ,six? ,a5eid1#bhb sett+ =? ! !ory ( a univ]sal & all-p5etrat+ s\l compos$ ( fi]y matt]1 :5ce ! p>ticul> s\ls ( m5 & animals are d]iv$1 by a process lik5$ to ! scatt]+ & g]m9ation ( se$s2 f ano!r equally fam\s passage 9 ! ,f\r? ,eclogue1#bhc describ+ ! p]iodical recurr5ce ( ev5ts 9 ! same ord] z be=e2 & also1 al?\gh to a less ext5t1 f 8 acceptance ( ! ,/oic a/ronomy 9 ! ,georgics2#bhd a circum/ance :i*1 by ! way1 r5d]s x mo/ unlikely t he look$ up to ,lucretius z an au?ority 9 physical sci5ce4#bhe ,b ev5 ap>t f ?is collat]al evid5ce1 "o c see t ! ,a5eid is a ,/oic poem4 ,x is fill$ ) ! ideas ( mutation & vicissitude ov]rul$ by a div9ely appo9t$ ord]2 ( ! prophetic intimations by :i* t ord] is reveal$2 ( ! ob$i5ce to reason by :i* passion is subdu$2 & ( ! fai? 9 div9e goodness by :i* suff]+ is made easy to be borne4 ,& !re are also gleams ( t univ]sal humanity famili> to ,/oicism1 :i* read to "s l an anticipation ( ! ,*ri/ian or ! mod]n _s1 b :i* really resemble !m only z e>li] manife/ations ( ! same great philosophical movem5t4 ,?is analogy ) subsequ5t developm5ts is aid$1 s f> z x goes1 by ! admixture ( a c]ta9 ,platonic elem5t ) ,virgil's ,/oicism1 %[n *iefly by ! ref]5ces to an ant5atal exi/5ce ( ! s\l1 introduc$ = ! purpose ( br++ ,rome's future h]oes on ! sc5e4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is ! la/ example ( an attempt on ! "p ( a ,roman writ] to comb9e ,plato's tea*+ ) ,/oicism4#bhf ,at a "t :5 ! ,romans 7 m consci\s ( _! lit]>y dep5d5ce on ,greece ?an 0 ! case aft] ! ,augu/an age _h rea*$ its z5i?1 !y 7 probably drawn by ! beauty ( its lit]>y =m to /udy a sy/em :i* c\ld o!rwise int]e/ !m b little4 ,?us1 n only is ,cic]o full ( admiration = ,plato--z1 inde$1 might be expect$ ) s highly cultivat$ a disciple ( ! ,academy--b ,cato1 accord+ to ! well-kn[n /ory1 sp5t 8 la/ h\rs read+ & re-read+ ! ,pha$o2 & 8 nephew ,brutus also occupi$ an int]m$iate position betwe5 ! ,old ,academy & ! ,por*4 ,! ,roman love ( simplification & ar*aism induc$ subsequ5t ?9k]s ei!r to let ,platonism drop altoge!r1 or to /udy ^? elem5ts 9 :i* x diff]$ f ! pure naturali/ic doctr9e "u _! ,py?agorean =m4 ,x may ev5 be d\bt$ :e!r ,virgil's psy*ology is n d]iv$ f ,py?agoras r ?an f ,plato2 ,ovid1 s f> z he philosophises at all1 is unque/ionably a foll[] ( ! =m]2#bhg & 9 ! moral tea*+ ( ! ,sextii1 :o fl\ri%$ "u ,augu/us1 ,py?agorean pr9ciples are bl5d$ ) ,/oicism4#bhh ,x is ano!r manife/ation ( ! same ef=t to grasp e ,greek doctr9e by its roots1 t ,horace %\ld proclaim himself ! disciple ( ,ari/ippus r ?an ( ,epicurus4#bhi ,ev5 he1 h[ev]1 feels himself drawn ) advanc+ ye>s t[>ds ! nobl] fai? :i* 0 n[ c>ry+ all be=e x4#bij ,) ,s5eca & 8 contempor>ies1 ,/oicism has %ak5 itself free f ali5 +r$i5ts1 & has become ! accept$ cre$ ( ! :ole republican opposition1 be+ especially pron\nc$ 9 ! writ+s ( ! two "y poets1 ,p]sius & ,lucan4 ,b 9 proportion z naturali/ic philosophy assum$ ! =m ( a prote/ aga9/ vice1 luxury1 inhumanity1 despotism1 & degradation1 or ( an exhortation to welcome dea? z a deliv]ance f ^? evils1 9 ! same proportion did x t5d to fall back into simple ,cynicism2 & on ?is side also x f\nd a ready response1 n only 9 ! h]oic =titude1 b also 9 ! brutal co>s5ess & scurrility ( ! ,roman "*4 ,h5ce ! ,satires ( ! la/ great ,roman poet1 ,juv5al1 are an ev5 m di/9ct expression ( ,cynic ?an ! epic ( ,virgil _h be5 ( ,/oic s5tim5t4 ,along ) :atev] 0 good & :olesome 9 ,cynicism !re is ! %ameless indec5cy ( ! ,cynics1 & _! unque/ion+ acceptance ( m5dicancy & pro/itution z conv5i5t helps to lead+ a natural & easily cont5t$ life4 ,& x may be notic$ t ! free-?9k+ t5d5cies :i* di/+ui%$ ! ,cynics f ! ,/oics are also display$ 9 ,juv5al's occasional d5unciations ( sup]/ition4 ,x4 ,?us ! f9al effect ( its communion ) ! ,roman m9d 0 n s mu* to develope ,greek philosophy any fur!r1 or to reconcile its w>r+ sects ) "o ano!r1 z to aid 9 _! decomposition by ?r[+ !m back on ! e>li] =ms :5ce !y _h sprung4 ,accord+ly we f9d t ! philosophic activity ( ,hellas imm$iately be=e & aft] ! ,*ri/ian era--s f> z !re 0 any at all--consi/$ 9 a revival ( ! ,py?agorean & ,cynic s*ools1 accompani$ by a correspond+ resuscitation ( primitive ,scepticism4 ,?is la/ takes ! %ape ( a v di/9ct prote/ aga9/ ! fa%ionable naturalism ( ! age1 j z ! scepticism ( ,protagoras & ,gorgias--if our view be correct--_h once be5 call$ =? by ! naturalism ( ,prodicus & ,hippias4 ,! pr9cipal repres5tative1 if n ! f\nd]1 ( ,neo-,scepticism 0 ,a5esidmus1 :o taught 9 ,alex&ria1 :5 we are n in=m$1 b probably aft] ! middle ( ! fir/ c5tury ,a4,d4#bia ,an av[$ disciple ( ,pyrrho1 8 object 0 to reass]t ! sceptical pr9ciple 9 its orig9al purity1 especially z aga9/ ! ,academicians1 :om he *>g$ ) hav+ fir/ p]v]t$ & !n completely ab&on$ x4#bib ,a5esidmus w\ld he> no?+ ( probabilities nor ( moral c]ta9ties4 ,he also claim$ to di/+ui% himself f ! ,academicians by refus+ to ass]t ev5 s mu* z t no?+ c be ass]t$2 b x appe>s t1 9 ?is po9t1 he _h be5 fully anticipat$ by ,arcesilaus & ,c>neades4#bic ,= ! re/1 8 own ,scepticism recalls ! me?od ( ,gorgias & ,protagoras mu* m di/9ctly ?an ! me?od ( ! ,new ,academy--a fre% illu/ration ( ! ar*aic & revivali/ t5d5cies display$ by philosophy at ?is p]iod4 ,9 o!r words1 x is n aga9/ ! reason+ processes t 8 criticisms are direct$1 b aga9/ ! !ory ( causation on ! objective side1 & aga9/ ! cr$ibility ( our imm$iate p]ceptions on ! subjective side4#bid ,b1 9 bo? directions1 he has work$ out ! difficulties ( ! old ,sophi/s ) a m9ut5ess & a precision unkn[n to !m2 & "s ( 8 po9ts h be5 f\nd wor? repeat+ 9 a diff]5t connexion by mod]n critics4 ,?us1 9 analys+ ! !ory ( causation1 he draws att5tion to ! plurality ( causes z an ob/acle to connect+ any giv5 consequ5t ) "o antec$5t m ?an ) ano!r2 to ! illegitimate assumption t ! laws inf]r$ f exp]i5ce hold good "u unkn[n conditions2 to ! arbitr>y assumption ( hypo!tical causes n ev9c$ by exp]i5ce2 & to ! absurdity ( introduc+ a new difficulty = ! purpose ( expla9+ an old "o4#bie ,) reg>d to causation itself1 ,a5esidmus seems to h resolv$ x into action & reaction1 ?us elim9at+ ! condition ( antec$5ce & consequ5ce1 )\t :i* x becomes un9telligible4#bif ,! ,alex&rian ,sceptic's g5]al argum5ts aga9/ ! possibility ( k resolve !mselves into a criticism ( :at ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton call$ ,natural ,realism1 some:at complicat$ & confus$ by a simultane\s attack on ! !ory ( natural morality conceiv$ z some?+ et]nal & immutable4 ,!y are summ$ up 9 ! fam\s t5 ,tropes4 ,( ^! ! fir/ ?ree are f\nd$ on ! conflict+ s5sations produc$ by ! same object :5 act+ on diff]5t animals--z is inf]r$ f ! m>k$ contra/ pres5t$ by _! sev]al v>ieties ( orig9 & /ructure1--on diff]5t m51 & on ! diff]5t s5ses ( ! same individual4 ,! f\r?1 :i* has evid5tly an e?ical be>+1 enl>ges on ! *anges 9 m5's views caus$ by m5tal & bodily *anges1 accord+ to _! heal?1 age1 disposition1 & s =?4 ,! next five ,tropes relate to circum/ances connect$ ) ! objects !mselves3 _! di/ance & position z reg>ds ! spectator1 ! di/urbance produc$ 9 _! prop] action by ext]nal influ5ces su* z air & light1 toge!r ) ! v>i\s membranes & hum\rs compos+ ! organs ( s5se ?r\gh :i* !y are appreh5d$2 _! quantitative v>iation1 involv+ z x does opposite effects on ! s5ses1 or z ) m$ic9es1 on ! heal?2 ! law ( relativity1 accord+ to :i* _m ?+s are only kn[n :5 tak5 9 company ) o!rs1 su* z d\ble & half1 "r & left1 :ole & "p2 comp>ative frequ5cy or r>ity ( occurr5ce1 z ) comets1 :i*1 :ile really ( mu* less importance ?an ! sun1 excite mu* m int]e/ f _! be+ s seldom se54 ,f9ally1 ! t5? ,trope is purely e?ical1 & inf]s ! non-exi/5ce ( a fix$ moral /&>d f ! div]g5t & ev5 opposite cu/oms prevail+ among diff]5t nations4#big ,9 8 attacks on ! preval5t !ories ( e?ics1 ,a5esidmus aga9 rem9ds u bo? ( ,protagoras & ( mod]n agno/icism4 ,accord+ to him1 ! g5]al disagreem5t ( mank9d proves1 among o!r ?+s1 t !re is no def9able highe/ good--x is nei!r virtue1 nor pleasure1 nor k4#bih ,9 ! abs5ce ( any dogmatic tea*+ on ! subject at ! "t :5 he liv$1 ,protagoras c\ld n give an op9ion ) reg>d to ! summum bonum2 b ,plato's fam\s dialogue repres5ts him z "o :o1 f 8 po9t ( view1 w\ld be unwill+ to admit ! possibility ( introduc+ fix$ pr9ciples into conduct2 & 9 l mann]1 ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 :ile accept+ ! h$oni/ic pr9ciple1 gives x su* an extremely g5]al signification t he is ?r[n back on ! sceptical pr9ciple ( leav+ ev]yone free to foll[ 8 own incl9ations1 provid$ t1 9 s do+1 he does n int]f]e ) ! lib]ty ( o!rs4 ,! p>allel betwe5 ,a5esidmus & ,protagoras w\ld become /ill m complete 7 x true t ! ,alex&rian philosoph] also s\ght to base 8 ,scepticism on ! ,h]acleitean !ory ( ,nature1 argu+ t contradictory ass]tions are necessitat$ by ! pres5ce ( contradictory prop]ties 9 e object4 ,t ,a5esidmus held ?is view is /at$ z a fact by ,sextus1 ^: te/imony is "h corroborat$ by ,t]tullian1 or r by ,t]tullian's in=mant1 ,soranus4 ,we f9d1 h[ev]1 t ,zell]1 :o =m]ly accept$ ! /atem5t 9 "q z true1 has latt]ly se5 reason to reject x4 ,a5esidmus _c1 he ?9ks1 h be5 guilty ( s great an inconsi/5cy z to base 8 ,scepticism on ! dogmatic physics ( ,h]acleitus4 ,& he expla9s ! agreem5t ( ! anci5t au?orities by suppos+ t ! orig9al "w ( ,a5esidmus conta9$ a critical acc\nt ( ! ,h]acleitean !ory1 t ?is 0 mis9t]pret$ into an expression ( 8 adhesion to x by ,soranus1 & t ! blund] 0 adopt$ at second-h& by bo? ,sextus & ,t]tullian4#bii ,x is1 at any rate1 c]ta9 t ! successors ( ,a5esidmus adh]$ to ! /&po9t ( ,pyrrho4 ,"o ( !m1 ,agrippa1 bo? simplifi$ & /r5g!n$ ! argum5ts ( ! s*ool by r$uc+ ! t5 ,tropes to five4 ,! e>li] objections to human c]ta9ty 7 summ$ up "u two heads3 ! irreconcilable conflict ( op9ions on all subjects2 & ! ess5tial relativity ( consci\sness1 9 :i* ! p]cipi5t & ! p]ceiv$ are s intimately unit$ t :at ?+s 9 !mselves are _c possibly be discov]$4 ,! o!r ?ree ,tropes relate to ! baselessness ( reason+4 ,!y 7 evid5tly sugge/$ by ,ari/otle's rem>ks on ! subject4 ,! process ( pro( _c be c>ri$ backw>ds ad inf9itum1 nor c x legitimately revolve 9 a circle4 ,?us mu* _h already be5 admitt$1 or r insi/$ on by ! great f\nd] ( logic4 ,b ! ,sceptics c\ld n agree to ,ari/otle's cont5tion1 t demon/ration may be bas$ on fir/ pr9ciples ( self-evid5t c]ta9ty4 ,!y "h fell back on _! ma9 argum5t2 t ! abs5ce ( g5]al agreem5t on e po9t is fatal to ! exi/5ce ( su* pret5d$ axioms4 ,a /ill fur!r simplification 0 effect$ by ! r$uction ( ! five ,tropes to two--t all reason+ re/s on intuition1 & t m5's intuitions are irreconcilably at v>iance ) "o ano!r4#cjj ,z aga9/ true sci5ce1 ! sceptical ,tropes are p[]less1 = ! validity ( its pr9ciples has no?+ to d ) _! g5]al acceptance4 ,!y are laid be=e ! le>n] = 8 in/ruction1 & if he *ooses to reg>d !m z ei!r false or d\btful1 ! mis=tune w be 8 & n !irs4 ,b z aga9/ all attempts to con/ra9 belief by an appeal to au?ority1 ! ,tropes /ill rema9 inv9cible4 ,:e!r ! te/imony invok$ be t ( anci5t traditions or ( a suppos$ inw>d witness1 !re is always ! same fatal objection t o!r traditions & o!r inw>d witnesses tell q a diff]5t /ory4 ,! task ( decid+ betwe5 !m mu/1 aft] all1 be h&$ ov] to an imp]sonal reason4 ,9 o!r words1 ea* individual mu/ judge = himself & at 8 own risk1 j z he does 9 que/ions ( physical sci5ce4 ,we h already obs]v$ t ,scepticism among ! anci5ts 0 (t5 cultivat$ 9 connexion ) "s positive doctr9e :i* x indirectly s]v$ to recomm5d4 ,9 ! case ( its la/ support]s1 ?is 0 ! /udy ( m$ic9e on an empirical z oppos$ to a d$uctive me?od4 ,! ,sceptical cont5tion is t we _c g beyond appe>ances2 ! empirical cont5tion is1 t all k comes to u f exp]i5ce1 & t ?is only %[s u h[ ph5om5a are relat$ to "o ano!r1 n h[ !y are relat$ to _! und]ly+ causes1 :e!r effici5t or f9al4 ,^! alli$ po9ts ( view h be5 br\ght into /ill m intimate association by mod]n ?\ght1 :i*1 z w be %[n 9 ! conclud+ *apt]1 has sprung f a modifi$ =m ( ! anci5t ,scepticism1 p[]fully aid$ by a simultane\s developm5t ( physical sci5ce4 ,at ! same "t1 ! new s*ool h succe$$ 9 %ak+ (f ! n>r[ness & timidity ( _! pr$ecessors1 :o 7 /ill s f> "u ! influ5ce ( ! old dogmati/s z to believe t !re 0 an inh]5t opposition betwe5 obs]vation & reason+ 9 ! me?ods ( discov]y1 betwe5 facts & explanations 9 ! tru?s ( sci5ce1 & betwe5 antec$5ce & causation 9 ! realities ( ,nature4 ,9 ?is respect1 a/ronomy has done m = ! "r adju/m5t ( our conceptions ?an any o!r bran* ( k2 & x is rem>kable t ,sextus ,empiricus1 ! la/ em95t repres5tative ( anci5t ,scepticism1 & ! only "o 7unless ,cic]o is to be call$ a ,sceptic7 ^: writ+s are /ill extant1 %\ld expressly except a/ronomy f ! de/ructive criticism to :i* he subjects ! :ole range ( /udies includ$ 9 :at we %\ld call ! univ]sity curriculum ( 8 "t4#cja ,we ne$ n ent] into an analysis ( ! pond]\s compilation ref]r$ to2 = ne>ly e po9t ( int]e/ :i* x comprises has already be5 t\*$ on 9 ! c\rse ( our inve/igation2 & ,sextus diff]s only f 8 pr$ecessors by add+ ! argum5ts ( ! ,new ,academy to ^? ( ,protagoras & ,pyrrho1 ?us complet+ ! ,sceptical cycle4 ,x w be en\gh to notice ! s+ul> circum/ance t s copi\s & c>eful an enum]ation ( ! gr\nds :i* x 0 possible to urge aga9/ dogmatism--includ+1 z we h se51 _m /ill employ$ = ! same or o!r purposes1--%\ld h omitt$ ! two mo/ p[]ful solv5ts ( any4 ,^! 7 left = ! exquisite critical acum5 ( ,hume to discov]4 ,!y relate to ! conception ( causation1 & to ! conception ( our own p]sonality z an indivisible1 cont9u\sly exi/+ sub/ance1 be+ attempts to %[ t bo? involve assumptions ( an illegitimate "*4 ,sextus comes up to ! v v]ge ( ,hume's objection to ! =m] :5 he obs]ves t causation implies relation1 :i* c only exi/ 9 ?\ght2#cjb b he does n ask h[ we come to ?9k su* a relation1 /ill less does he connect x ) ! p]ception ( ph5om5al antec$5ce2 & 8 attacks on ! v>i\s m5tal faculties assum$ by psy*ologi/s pass ov] ! fundam5tal po/ulate ( p]sonal id5tity1 ?us leav+ ,desc>tes :at seem$ a safe f\ndation :]eon to rebuild ! edifice ( metaphysical philosophy4 ,,xi4 ,! effect aim$ at by anci5t ,scepticism "u its la/ =m 0 to ?r[ back reflection on its orig9al />t+-po9t4 ,life 0 once m h&$ ov] to ! guidance ( s5se1 appetite1 cu/om1 & art4#cjc ,we may call ?is residuum ! philosophy ( ! d9n]-bell4 ,t in/itution implies ! feel+ ( hung]1 ! direct+ s5sation ( s\nd1 ! habit ( eat+ toge!r at a fix$ "t1 & ! art ( det]m9+ "t by obs]v+ ! cele/ial revolutions4 ,ev5 s limit$ a view conta9s indef9ite possibilities ( expansion4 ,x involves ! ?ree fundam5tal relations t o!r philosophies h = _! object to "w out ) great] di/9ctness & 9 full] detail3 ! relation betwe5 feel+ & action1 b9d+ toge!r pa/1 pres5t1 & future 9 ! consci\sness ( p]sonal id5tity2 ! relation ( ourselves to a collective society ( simil>ly con/itut$ be+s1 our int]c\rse ) :om is subject f ! v fir/ to laws ( morality & ( logic2 &1 f9ally1 ! relation 9 :i* we /&1 bo? s+ly & comb9$1 to t univ]sal ord] by :i* all alike are envelop$ & borne along1 ) its sugge/ions ( a /ill l>g] logic & an augu/] morality spr++ f ! ess5tial dep5d5ce ( our individual & social selves on an ev5 deep] id5tity ?an t :i* !y imm$iately reveal4 ,we h already _h occasion to obs]ve h[ ! noble tea*+ ( ,plato & ! ,/oics resumes itself 9 a confession ( ?is ?reefold syn!sis2 & we n[ see h[1 putt+ !m at _! v l[e/1 no?+ less ?an ?is w cont5t ! claims ( ?\ght4 ,?us1 9 less "t ?an x took ,b]keley to pass f t>-wat] to ! ,tr9ity1 we h l$ our ,sceptics f _! philosophy ( ! d9n]-bell to a philosophy :i* ! ,ca?olic symbols1 ) _! my?ologis+ t5d5cies1 c b imp]fectly repres5t4 ,& to c>ry !m ) u ?us f>1 no?+ m ?an "o ( _! own fav\rite me?ods is ne$$4 ,:]ev] !y attempt to arre/ ! progress ( enquiry & g5]alisation1 we c %[ !m t no real l9e ( dem>cation exi/s4 ,let !m once admit ! idea ( a relation connect+ ! elem5ts ( consci\sness1 & x w c>ry !m ov] e limit except t :i* is rea*$ :5 ! univ]se becomes consci\s ( itself4 ,let !m d5y ! idea ( a relation1 & we may safely leave !m to ! endless task ( analys+ consci\sness into elem5ts :i* are feel+s & no?+ m4 ,! magician 9 ! /ory got rid ( a too importunate famili> by sett+ him to sp9 ropes ( s&4 ,! _s ( ,scepticism is exorcis$ by sett+ x to divide ! /r&s ( reason into bread?less l9es & unext5d$ po9ts4 ,:at influ5ce ,scepticism ex]cis$ on ! subsequ5t c\rse ( ,greek ?\ght is difficult to det]m9e4 ,if we are to believe ,diog5es ,la]tius1 :o fl\ri%$ 9 ! second qu>t] ( ! ?ird c5tury ,a4,d41 e s*ool except ,epicureanism _h at t "t sunk into utt] neglect2#cjd & x is natural to connect ?is cata/rophe ) ! activity ( ! ,sceptics1 & especially ( ,sextus ,empiricus1 ^: critical compilation _h appe>$ n long be=e4 ,su* a conclusion w\ld be support$ by ! circum/ance t ,lucian1 writ+ m ?an fifty ye>s e>li]1 directs 8 attacks on contempor>y philosophy *iefly f ! ,sceptical /&po9t2 8 ,h]motimus 9 p>ticul> be+ a popul>is$ v]sion ( ! *ief difficulties rais$ f t qu>t]4 ,/ill x rema9s to be %[n :y ! criticism ( ! ,greek ,humani/s1 ( ,pyrrho1 & ( ! ,new ,academy %\ld h produc$ s mu* m p[]ful an effect "u _! reviv$ =m ?an :5 !y 7 fir/ promulgat$2 & x may be ask$ :e!r ! decl9e ( philosophy %\ld n r be attribut$ to ! g5]al b>b>isation ( ! ,roman empire at t p]iod4 ,we h also to consid] 9 :at relation ! new ,scepticism /ood to ! new ,platonism by :i*1 9 common ) e o!r s*ool1 x 0 ev5tually ei!r displac$ or absorb$4 ,! answ] usually giv5 to ?is "q is t ! "o 0 a reaction f ! o!r4 ,x is said t philosophy1 9 despair ( be+ able to discov] tru? by reason1 took refuge 9 ! doctr9e t x c\ld be atta9$ by sup]natural revelation2 & t ?is doctr9e is ! *>act]i/ic m>k di/+ui%+ ! sy/em ( ,plot9us f its pr$ecessors4 ,t a belief 9 ! possibility ( receiv+ div9e communications 0 widely diffus$ dur+ ! la/ c5turies ( poly!ism is1 no d\bt1 e/abli%$1 b t x ev] =m$ m ?an an adjunct to ,neo-,platonism seems que/ionable2 & !re is no evid5ce t we are aw>e ( to %[ t x 0 occasion$ by a reaction f ,scepticism4 ,z a def5ce aga9/ ! argum5ts ( ,pyrrho & 8 successors1 x w\ld1 9 tru?1 h be5 q unavail+2 = :atev] objections appli$ to m5's natural p]ceptions1 w\ld h appli$ ) /ill great] =ce to ! alleg$ sup]natural revelation4 ,moreov]1 ! my/ical elem5t ( ,neo-,platonism appe>s only 9 its consummation--9 ! ultimate union ( ! individual s\l ) ! absolute ,"o2 ! re/ ( ! sy/em be+ reason$ out 9 accordance ) ! ord9>y laws ( logic1 & 9 app>5t disreg>d ( ! ,sceptical attacks on _! validity4 ,! tru? is t critics seem to h be5 misl$ by a sup]ficial analogy betwe5 ! spirituali/ic revival accompli%$ by ,plot9us1 & ! ,romantic revival :i* m>k$ ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury4 ,! two movem5ts h1 no d\bt1 sev]al traits 9 common2 b !re is ?is great diff]5ce betwe5 !m1 t ! latt] 01 :at ! =m] 0 n1 a reaction aga9/ individualism1 agno/icism1 & religi\s unbelief4 ,! "r analogy w be f\nd n by look+ =w>d b by look+ back4 ,x w !n be se5 t ! ,neo-,platoni/s 7 :at _! traditional "n implies1 disciples ( ,plato1 & n only ( ,plato b ( ,ari/otle z well4 ,!y /ood 9 ! same relation to ! sy/ems :i* !y oppos$ z t 9 :i* ! two great f\nd]s ( spiritualism _h /ood to ! naturali/ic & humani/ s*ools ( _! "t--( c\rse ) :atev] modifications ( a common /&po9t 7 necessitat$ by ! sub/itution ( a decl9+ = a progressive civilisation4 ,l ,plato also1 !y 7 pr(\ndly influ5c$ by ! ,py?agorean philosophy1 ) its curi\s comb9ation ( my/ical asceticism & ma!matics4 ,&1 to complete ! analogy1 !y too f\nd !mselves 9 pres5ce ( a p[]ful religi\s reaction1 aga9/ ! excesses ( :i*1 l him1 !y at fir/ prote/$1 al?\gh ) less ?an 8 au?ority1 & only1 l him1 to be at la/ c>ri$ away by its resi/less torr5t4 ,x is to ! /udy ( ?is religi\s movem5t t we mu/ n[ address ourselves1 be=e ent]+ on an exam9ation ( ! late/ =m assum$ by ,greek philosophy among ! ,greeks !mselves4 ,note4--,x does n ent] into ! plan ( ?is "w to /udy ! educational & social aspects ( ,greek philosophy "u ! ,roman ,empire4 ,^? :o wi% = in=mation on ! subject %\ld consult ,capes's ,/oicism1 ,m>?a's ,morali/es s\s l',empire ,roma91 ,r5an's ,m>c-,aurle1 *ap1 iii41 ,aub]t9's ,snque et ,sa9t ,paul1 ,havet's ,*ri/ianisme et ses ,orig9es1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 ,ga/on ,boissi]'s ,religion ,roma9e1 ,duruy's ,hi/oire ,roma9e1 *ap1 lxi41 ,fri$lnd]'s ,d>/ellung5 aus d] ,sitt5ges*i*te ,rom's1 ,vol4 ,,iii41 *ap4 v4 7#e? ed471 & ,bruno ,bau]'s ,*ri/us und die ,cs>54 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,religi\s ,,revival4#cje ,i4 ,! result ( rec5t enquiries into ! /ate ( civilisation "u ! ,roman ,empire dur+ ! fir/ two c5turies ( its exi/5ce1 has be5 to sugge/ conclusions 9 _m respects at v>iance ) ^? =m]ly ent]ta9$4 ,in/ead ( ! intellectual /agnation1 ! moral turpitude1 & ! religi\s indiff]5ce :i* 7 once suppos$ to h be5 ! mo/ m>k$ *>act]i/ics ( t p]iod1 mod]n s*ol>s disc]n symptoms ( active & fruitful ?\ght1 ( purity & dis9t]e/$ness bo? 9 public & private life1 b above all ( a religi\s feel+ :i* err$ f> m on ! side ( excess ?an on ! side ( defect4 ,?is *ange ( view may be trac$ to v>i\s causes4 ,a new class ( inve/igators h made anci5t hi/ory an object ( special /udy4 ,fre% evid5ce has be5 br\ght to light1 & a m discrim9at+ z well z a m ext5d$ use has be5 made ( ! s\rces already available4 ,&1 p]haps1 ev5 great] importance is attributable to ! pr9ciple n[ s g5]ally accept$1 t hi/orical ph5om5a1 l all o!r ph5om5a1 are ess5tially cont9u\s 9 _! movem5t4 ,! old !ories assum$ t ! sub/itution ( ,*ri/ian = :at is call$ ,pagan civilisation 0 accompani$ by a sudd5 break 9 m5's habits & ideas4 ,b ! :ole _s ( mod]n philosophy has prep>$ u to believe t su* a break is n likely to h ev] occurr$4 ,& a new survey ( ! p]iod 9 "q is lead+ u to ! conviction t1 z a matt] ( fact1 x did n occur4 ,= a long "t ! hi/ory ( ! ,roman ,empire 0 writt5 by ! desc5dants ( its mo/ deadly enemies--by ,*ri/ian ecclesia/ics or by s*ol>s tra9$ "u _! influ5ce1 & by ! inh]itors ( ! nor!rn races :o ov]ran & de/roy$ x4 ,! natural t5d5cy ( bo? classes 0 to pa9t ! vices ( ! old society 9 ! mo/ gl>+ col\rs1 t by s do+ !y might exhibit ! virtues ( its conqu]ors & ! necessity ( _! mission 9 /rong] relief4 ,9 ?is respect1 _! task 0 greatly facilitat$ by ! "* ( ! au?orities f :om _! in=mation 0 pr9cipally d]iv$4 ,horace & ,petronius1 ,s5eca & ,juv5al1 ,tacitus & ,suetonius1 furni%$ !m ) pictures ( depravity :i* x 0 impossible to exagg]ate1 :i* _h ev5 to be ton$ d[n be=e !y c\ld be reproduc$ 9 a mod]n language4 ,no all[ance 0 made = ! influ5ce ( a rhetorical tra9+ 9 fo/]+ ! cultivation ( effect at ! exp5se ( tru?1 nor = ! influ5ce ( ari/ocratic prejudice 9 secur+ a ready acceptance = :atev] t5d$ to ! discr$it ( a mon>*ical gov]nm5t4 ,x 0 also =gott5 t ! c\rt & society ( ,rome c\ld give no idea ( ! life l$ 9 ! re/ ( ,italy & 9 ! prov9ces4 ,moreov]1 ! contra/ cont9ually in/itut$ or impli$ by ^! hi/orians 0 n betwe5 ! anci5t civilisation & ! /ate ( ?+s :i* imm$iately succe$$ x1 nor yet betwe5 ! society ( a great capital z x 0 !n1 & z x 0 9 ! hi/orian's own "t4 ,! po9ts select$ = contra/ 7 :at 0 wor/ 9 ,paganism & :at is be/ 9 ,*ri/ianity4 ,! "o 0 judg$ f ! /&po9t ( c\rti]s & m5 ( ! _w1 embitt]$ by disappo9tm5t & famili> ) e =m ( depravity1 ! o!r 0 judg$ f ! /&po9t ( exp]i5ce acquir$ 9 a college quadrangle1 a c\ntry p>sonage1 or a ca!dral close4 ,! mod]n writ] knew little en\gh ev5 ab\t 8 own c\ntry1 he knew next to no?+ ab\t :at morality 0 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 & no?+ at all ab\t :at x /ill cont9ues to be 9 mod]n ,italy4 ,ev5 ! v imp]fect means ( in=mation suppli$ by ! lit]ature ( ! empire 7 n utilis$ to ! fulle/ ext5t4 ,x 0 naturally ! writ]s ( mo/ brilliant g5ius :o receiv$ mo/ att5tion1 & ^!1 z x happ5$1 7 ! mo/ prejudic$ aga9/ _! contempor>ies4 ,_! obs]vations1 too1 7 put on record "u ! =m ( sweep+ g5]alisations2 :ile ! facts f :i* a diff]5t conclusion might be ga!r$ lay scatt]$ ?r\gh ! pages ( m obscure au?orities1 ne$+ to be c>efully sift$ out & br\ght toge!r by ^? :o wi%$ to arrive at a m imp>tial view ( ! age to :i* !y relate4 ,ano!r notewor?y circum/ance is t ! la/ c5turies ( ,paganism 7 on ! :ole m>k$ by a /eady lit]>y decl9e4 ,to a lit]>y man1 ?is meant t civilisation z a :ole 0 retrograd+1 t x 0 an effete organism :i* c\ld only be reg5]at$ by ! infusion ( new life f )\t2 :ile1 conv]sely1 ! fre% lit]>y productivity ( m$iaeval & mod]n ,europe 0 cr$it$ to ! complete r5ovation :i* ,*ri/ianity & ! ,b>b>ians 7 suppos$ to h wr\ght4 ,a clos] /udy ( ,roman law has done mu* to correct ?is sup]ficial impression4 ,x has reveal$ ! exi/5ce1 9 at lea/ "o mo/ important doma91 ( a va/ intellectual & moral advance cont9u$ d[n to ! dea? ( ,m>cus ,aurelius4 ,& ! retrograde movem5t :i* set 9 ) ,commodus may be fairly attribut$ to ! increas$ milit>ism necessitat$ by ! encroa*m5ts ( b>b>ism1 & m directly to ! infusion ( b>b>ian elem5ts into ! t]ritory ( ! empire1 r ?an to any spontane\s decay ( ,roman civilisation4 ,! subsequ5t resuscitation ( art & lett]s is ano!r te/imony to ! p]man5t value & vitality ( anci5t culture4 ,x 0 9 ^? prov9ces :i* _h rema9$ lea/ affect$ by ! nor!rn invasion1 su* z ,v5etia & ,tuscany1 t ! free activity ( ! human intellect 0 fir/ or mo/ fruitfully resum$1 & x 0 f ! irradiation ( /ill unconqu]$ ,byzantium t ! light :i* re-awak5$ !m 0 d]iv$4 ,ano!r sci5ce :i* has only be5 cultivat$ on a l>ge scale )9 comp>atively rec5t ye>s has confirm$ ! views sugge/$ by jurisprud5ce4 ,an enorm\s mass ( inscriptions has be5 br\ght to light1 deciph]$1 collat$1 & made available by transcription = ! purposes ( s$5t>y s*ol>s4 ,) ! help ( ^! records1 fragm5t>y ?\gh !y be1 we h obta9$ an insight into ! s5tim5ts1 beliefs1 & social in/itutions ( ,pagan antiquity z x 0 j be=e ! conv]sion ( ! ,roman _w to ,*ri/ianity1 su* z lit]ature alone c\ld n supply4 ,lit]ature & hi/ory1 too1 h told a some:at diff]5t /ory :5 read ov] aga9 9 ! light ( ^! new discov]ies4 ,f9ally1 ! :ole m9e ( mat]ials1 new & old1 has be5 work$ by a class ( enquir]s :o br+ to _! task qualities ne>ly unkn[n among ! s*ol>s ( a =m] g5]ation4 ,^! m5 are famili> ) an imm5se range ( /udies ly+ outside _! special subject1 b (t5 capable ( af=d+ x unexpect$ illu/rations2 !y are free f !ological prejudices2 !y are sometimes v]s$ 9 ! practical conduct ( /ate affairs2 & habits ( wide social int]c\rse h emancipat$ !m f ! n>r[+ associations incid5t to a le>n$ pr(ession4 ,p]haps no subject has ga9$ s mu* f ! application ( ! new hi/orical me?od z t :i* we h n[ to /udy 9 its connexion ) ! progress ( ,greek philosophy4 ,?is is ! religion ( ! ,roman empire4 ,on =m] occasions1 we h _h to obs]ve h[ fruitful 0 ! int]action betwe5 fai? & reason 9 ! e>ly /ages ( ,greek ?\ght4 ,we h n[ to %[ h[ ! same process 0 cont9u$ on a great] scale dur+ its lat] developm5t & diffusion4 ,! conditions & results ( ?is conflict h sometimes be5 gravely misconceiv$4 ,we h said t 9 m ?an "o direction important advances 7 made "u ! empire4 ,9 ! direction ( pure rationalism1 h[ev]1 !re 0 no advance at all1 b1 on ! contr>y1 a cont9ual loss ( ! gr\nd =m]ly won4 ,! poly!ism :i* ,*ri/ianity displac$ turns out to h be5 f> m vigor\s & f]tile ?an 0 once suppos$1 & 9 p>ticul> to h be5 support$ by a mu* /rong] body n only ( popul> s5tim5t1 b1 :at at fir/ seems v surpris+1 ( educat$ conviction4 ,we 7 =m]ly taught to believe t ! fai? ( ,hom] & ,aes*ylus1 ( ,py?agoras & ,pheidias1 0 9 ! la/ /age ( decrepitude :5 its de/9$ successor appe>$1 t x _h long be5 ab&on$ by ! philosoph]s1 & 0 giv+ place 9 ! m9ds ( ! vulg> to m excit+ =ms ( sup]/ition newly import$ f ! ,ea/4 ,! undue prepond]ance giv5 to purely lit]>y s\rces ( in=mation is l>gely responsible = an op9ion :i* n[ appe>s to h be5 mi/ak54 ,among ! great ,roman writ]s1 ,lucretius proclaims himself a mortal enemy to religion2 ,ennius & ,horace are disbeliev]s 9 provid5ce2 ! attitude ( ,juv5al t[>ds ! gods & t[>ds a future life is at lea/ ambigu\s1 & t ( ,tacitus undecid$2 ,cic]o attacks ! curr5t sup]/itions ) a vig\r :i* has div]t$ att5tion f ! ess5tially religi\s "* ( 8 convictions2 ,lucian1 by f> ! mo/ popul> ,greek writ] ( ! empire1 is notori\s = 8 ho/ility to e =m ( !ology4 ,among less kn[n au?ors1 ! eld] ,pl9y passionately d5\nces ! belief 9 a div9e guidance ( life & 9 ! immortality ( ! s\l4#cjf ,tak5 alone1 ^! in/ances w\ld t5d to prove t sceptical ideas 7 v widely diffus$ ?r\gh ,roman society1 bo? be=e & aft] ! e/abli%m5t ( ! empire4 ,side by side1 h[ev]1 ) ! au?orities j cit$ !re are o!rs brea?+ a v diff]5t _s2 & :at we h especially to notice is t ) ! progress ( "t ! latt] p>ty are cont9ually ga9+ 9 weight & numb]s4 ,& ?is1 z we %all n[ proce$ to %[1 is precisely :at might h be5 expect$ f ! alt]$ circum/ances :i* ensu$ :5 ! civilis$ _w 0 subject$ to a s+le city1 & t city h]self to a s+le *ief4 ,,ii4 ,9 ! _w ( ?\ght no less ?an 9 ! _w ( action1 ! b\ndless lic5se :i* *>act]is$ ! la/ days ( ,roman republicanism 0 foll[$ by a p]iod ( tranquillity & re/ra9t4 ,augu/us endeav\r$ to associate 8 sy/em ( imp]ialism ) a revival ( religi\s au?ority4 ,by 8 ord]s a great numb] ( ru9\s temples 7 re/or$1 & ! old c]emonies 7 celebrat$ once m ) all _! =m] pomp4 ,8 ef=ts 9 ?is direction 7 ably second$ by ! greate/ poet & ! greate/ hi/orian ( ! age4 ,bo? ,virgil & ,livy 7 animat$ by a w>m religi\s feel+1 associat$1 at lea/ 9 ! case ( ! latt]1 ) a cr$ulity :i* knew no b\nds4 ,) bo?1 religion took an antiqu>ian =m4 ,!y 7 conv9c$ t ,rome _h gr[n great ?r\gh fai? 9 ! gods1 t %e _h a div9e m&ate to conqu] ! _w1 & t ?is sup]natural mission might be mo/ cle>ly p]ceiv$ 9 ! circum/ances ( h] fir/ orig94#cjg ,x is also *>act]i/ic t bo? %\ld h be5 prov9cials1 educat$ 9 ! traditions ( a rev]5t cons]vatism1 & sympa?is+ *iefly ) ^? elem5ts 9 ! con/itution ( ,rome :i* br\ght h] ne>e/ to primitive ,italian habits & ideas4 ,n[ x 0 n m]ely ! policy1 x 0 ! inevitable consequ5ce ( imp]ialism to fav\r ! prov9ces#cjh at ! exp5se ( ! capital1 by depriv+ ! urban population & ! s5atorial ari/ocracy ( ! political prepond]ance :i* !y _h =m]ly enjoy$4 ,"h1 z 9 mo/ o!r in/ances1 :at we call a reaction did n mean a *ange 9 ! op9ions or s5tim5ts ( any p>ticul> p]sons or classes1 b ! adv5t ( a new class ^: ways ( ?9k+ n[ det]m9$ ! g5]al tone ( ! public m9d4 ,"o symptom ( ?is reaction 0 ! fa%ionable ar*aism ( ! ,augu/an age1 ! t5d5cy to despise :atev] 0 new 9 lit]ature1 & to exalt :atev] 0 old4 ,x is well kn[n h[ feel+ly ,horace compla9s ( a movem5t :i* 0 us$ to damage 8 own reputation z a poet2#cji b :at seems to h escap$ obs]vation is1 t ?is prote/ aga9/ ! lit]>y ar*aism ( 8 contempor>ies is only "o symptom ( a mu* pr(\nd] division betwe5 8 philosophy & !irs4 ,he 0 j z good a patriot z !y 71 b 8 sympa?ies 7 ) ! ,hell5is+ ari/ocracy to :i* ,lucretius & ,cic]o _h belong$1 n ) ! n>r[-m9d$ cons]vatism ( ! middle classes & ! c\ntry p4 ,he 0 a man ( progress & free-?\ght1 :o accept$ ! empire = :at x might be wor?1 a ,roman ,prosp] ,m]ime or ,sa9te-,beuve1 ^: pref]5ce ( ord] to an>*y did n involve any respect = sup]/iti\s beliefs simply because !y 7 support$ by au?ority4 ,& ?is heal?y common s5se is s mu* a "p ( 8 "*1 t he sometimes gives 8 mi/resses ! b5efit ( x1 w>n+ ,leuconoe aga9/ ! ,babylonian soo?say]s1 & tell+ ,phidyle t ! gods %\ld be approa*$ n only ) sacrifices b ) clean h&s4#caj ,yet s /rong 0 ! _s ( ! age1 t ! sceptical poet occasionally feels himself oblig$ to second or to applaud ! "w ( re/oration und]tak5 by ,augu/us1 & to augur f x1 ) m or less s9c]ity1 a re=mation 9 private life4#caa ,& ev5 ! frivol\s ,ovid may be suppos$ to h _h ! same object 9 view :5 compos+ 8 ,fa/i4 ,! religi\s revival initiat$ by ,augu/us = 8 own purposes 0 soon absorb$ & lo/ 9 a mu* wid] movem5t1 foll[+ indep5d5t l9es & det]m9$ by =ces ^: exi/5ce nei!r he nor any ( 8 contempor>ies c\ld suspect4 ,ev5 = 8 own purposes1 some?+ m 0 ne$$ ?an a m]e return to ! pa/4 ,! old ,roman fai? & wor%ip 7 too dry & meagre to satisfy ! crav+s ( ! ,romans !mselves 9 ! alt]$ conditions creat$ = !m by ! possession ( a _w-wide empire2 /ill less c\ld !y furni% a meet+-gr\nd = all ! populations :i* t empire 0 rapidly fus+ into a s+le mass4 ,b :at 0 want$ might be tru/$ to evolve itself )\t any assi/ance f )\t1 once free scope 0 giv5 to ! religi\s in/9cts ( mank9d4 ,^! _h long be5 kept 9 abeyance by ! cre$s :i* !y _h orig9ally call$ into exi/5ce1 & by ! rigid political organisation ( ! anci5t city-/ate4 ,local patriotism 0 adv]se to ! introduction ( new beliefs ei!r f )9 or f )\t4 ,once ! g5]al int]e/s ( a community _h be5 plac$ "u ! gu>dian%ip ( c]ta9 deities ) def9ite names & jurisdictions1 x 0 und]/ood t !y w\ld feel (f5d$ at ! prospect ( see+ _! privileges invad$ by a rival p[]2 & 7 t rival ! patron ( ano!r community1 8 introduction might seem l a surr5d] ( national indep5d5ce at ! feet ( an ali5 conqu]or4 ,s1 also1 no v active proselytism 0 likely to be c>ri$ on :5 ! adh]5ts ( ea* p>ticul> religion believ$ t its adoption by an ali5 community w\ld enable /rang]s & possible enemies to secure a %>e ( ! fav\r :i* _h hi!rto be5 res]v$ = !mselves exclusively4 ,& to allure away ! gods ( a ho/ile t[n by ! promise ( a new e/abli%m5t 01 9 fact1 "o ( ! /ratagems commonly employ$ by ! g5]al ( ! besieg+ army4#cab ,if ! ,roman conque/ did n altoge!r put an end to ^! s5tim5ts1 x consid]ably mitigat$ _! int5sity4 ,! imp]ial city 0 too /rong to feel endang]$ by ! introduction ( ali5 deities )9 its prec9cts4 ,! subject /ates 7 reliev$ f anxiety ) reg>d to a political indep5d5ce :i* !y _h irrecov]ably lo/4 ,moreov]1 s9ce ! conque/s ( ,alex&]1 va/ aggregations ( human be+s _h come into exi/5ce1 to :i* ! anci5t exclusiv5ess 0 unkn[n1 because !y nev] _h be5 cities at all 9 ! anci5t s5se ( ! ^w4 ,su* 7 ,alex&ria & ,antio*1 & ^! spe$ily became c5tres ( religi\s syncretism4 ,rome h]self1 9 becom+ ! capital ( an imm5se empire1 acquir$ ! same cosmopolitan "*4 ,h] population consi/$ = ! mo/ "p ( emancipat$ slaves1 & ( adv5tur]s f all p>ts ( ! _w1 _m ( :om _h br\ght _! national fai?s ) !m1 :ile all 7 ready to embrace any new fai? :i* _h sup]ior attractions to (f]4 ,ano!r important ag5t 9 ! diffusion & propagation ( new religions 0 ! army4 ,! legions con/itut$ a sort ( migratory city1 recruit$ f all p>ts ( ! empire1 & mov+ ov] its :ole ext5t4 ,! dang]s ( a milit>y life comb9$ ) its au?oritative ideas are highly fav\rable to devotion2 & ! soldi]s c\ld readily adopt new modes = ! expression ( ?is feel+ bo? f ea* o!r & f ! inhabitants ( ! c\ntries :]e !y 7 /ation$1 & w\ld 9 turn become mission>ies = _! dissem9ation ov] ! mo/ di/ant regions4 ,t su* 0 actually ! case is prov$ by num]\s religi\s inscriptions f\nd 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,roman camps4#cac ,aft] consid]+ by :at ag5cies ! se$s ( religi\s belief 7 c>ri$ f place to place1 we h to exam9e1 :at 0 ev5 m important1 ! quality ( ! soil on :i* !y fell4 ,& "h1 to cont9ue ! metaphor1 we %all f9d t ! ,roman pl\gh _h n only brok5 ?r\gh ! cru/ ( p>ticul>i/ prejudice1 b _h turn$ up new social /rata em95tly fitt$ to receive & n\ri% ! g]ms scatt]$ ov] _! surface by e breeze & e bird ( passage1 or plant$ & wat]$ by a spiritual s[]'s h&4 ,along ) ! positive *eck ( an e/abli%$ wor%ip1 ! negative *eck ( dissolv+ criticism _h1 to a great ext5t1 disappe>$ ) ! de/ruction ( ! rgime :i* _h be5 mo/ fav\rable to its ex]cise dur+ ! e>ly /ages ( progress4 ,! old city ari/ocracies 7 n m]ely oppos$ on patriotic gr\nds to free-trade 9 religion1 b1 z ! mo/ educat$ & indep5d5t class 9 ! community1 !y 7 ! fir/ to %ake (f sup]natural beliefs ( e k9d4 ,we h gr[n s accu/om$ to see+ ^? beliefs upheld by ! p>tisans ( political privilege & attack$ 9 ! "n ( democratic pr9ciples1 t we are apt to =get h[ v mod]n is ! association ( free-?\ght ) ! supremacy ( numb]s4 ,x only dates f ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 & ev5 n[ x is f> f obta9+ ev]y:]e4 ,a!ns 0 ! mo/ p]fectly organis$ democracy ( antiquity1 & 9 ! c\rse ( ?is "w we h repeat$ly _h occasion to obs]ve h[ /rong 0 ! _s ( religi\s bigotry among ! ,a!nian p4 ,if we want rationali/ic op9ions we mu/ g to ! great nobles & _! fri5ds1 to a ,p]icles1 a ,critias1 or a ,protagoras4 ,!re mu/ also h be5 p]fect intellectual lib]ty among ! ,roman nobles :o took up ,hell5ic culture ) su* eag]ness t[>ds ! middle ( ! second c5tury ,b4,c41 & among ^? :o1 at a lat] p]iod1 li/5$ ) equanimity or approval to ,caes>'s pr(ession ( ,epicureanism 9 a cr[d$ s5atorial debate4 ,x 0 z mu* 9 ord] t ! ,de ,r]um ,natur %\ld h be5 writt5 by a memb] ( ?is class z t ! ,a5eid %\ld proce$ f ! p5 ( a mode/ prov9cial f>m]4 ,9 positive k1 ,virgil greatly excell$ ,lucretius1 b 8 beliefs 7 inevitably det]m9$ by ! traditions ( 8 ignorant neighb\rs4 ,:5 civil w>1 proscription1 delation1 &1 p]haps m ?an any o!r cause1 _! own deliri\s extravagance1 _h wr\ght ! ru9 ( ! ,roman ari/ocracy1 _! places 7 tak5 by respectable prov9cials :o br\ght ) !m ! convictions )\t ! g5ius ( ! ,mantuan poet2 & !nce=w>d ! tide ( religi\s reaction nev] ceas$ ris+ until ! ,crusades1 :i* 7 its supreme expression1 unexpect$ly br\ght ab\t a fir/ revival ( ,hell5ic culture4 ,on t occasion1 also1 ! fir/ symptoms ( revolt manife/$ !mselves among ! nobles2 tak+ ! =m ( ,gno/icism 9 ! brilliant c\rts ( ,langu$oc1 &1 at a lat] p]iod1 ( ,epicureanism 9 ! ,ghibell9e circles ( ,flor5t9e society2 :ile1 conv]sely1 :5 ! ,ciompi or poor] artisans ( ,flor5ce rose 9 revolt aga9/ ! ri* trad]s1 "o ( ! fir/ dem&s made by ! successful insurg5ts 01 t a prea*+ fri> %\ld be s5t to give !m religi\s in/ruction4 ,at a /ill lat] p]iod1 ! same opposition ( intellectual int]e/s cont9ues to be def9$ by ! same social divisions4 ,two di/9ct curr5ts ( ?\ght co-op]at$ to br+ ab\t ! ,prote/ant ,re=mation4 ,"o1 :i* 0 religi\s & reaction>y1 proce$$ f ! p4 ,! o!r1 :i* 0 secul>is+1 s*ol>ly1 & sci5tific1 repres5t$ ! t5d5cies ( ! upp] classes & ( ^? :o look$ to !m = enc\ragem5t & support4 ,?r\gh\t ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies1 _m noble names are to be f\nd among ! *ampions ( reason2 & :ile speculative lib]ty is associat$ ) ! asc5d5cy ( ! ari/ocratic p>ty1 sup]/ition & intol]ance are associat$ ) ! triumph ( ! p1 :e!r "u ! =m ( a democracy or ( a levell+ despotism4 ,s1 also1 ! great emancipat+ movem5t ( ! eighte5? c5tury 0 fo/]$ by ! desc5dants ( ! ,crusad]s1 &1 until aft] ! ,revolution1 met ) no response among ! b\rgeoisie or ! p2 inde$ ! reaction 9 fav\r ( sup]naturalism 0 begun by a *ild ( ! p1 ,r\sseau4 ,all ?is1 z we h already obs]v$1 has be5 rev]s$ 9 m rec5t times2 b ! facts quot$ are en\gh to prove h[ natural x 0 t 9 ! anci5t _w decay ( class privileges %\ld be equival5t to a /r5g!n+ ( ! influ5ces :i* made = sup]naturalism & aga9/ enlight5$ criticism4 ,,iii4 ,aft] ! revolution :i* de/roy$ ! political p[] ( ! old ari/ocracy1 !re came a fur!r revolution ! effect ( :i* 0 to dim9i% l>gely its social pr$om9ance4 ,we le>n f ! bitt] s>casms ( ,horace & ,juv5al t "u ! empire weal? took ! place ( bir?1 if n1 z ^? satiri/s pret5d1 ( m]it1 z a passport to di/9ction & respect4 ,m]ely to possess a c]ta9 am\nt ( money procur$ admission to ! eque/rian & s5atorial ord]s2 :ile a small] pecuni>y qualification entitl$ any ,roman citiz5 to rank among ! ,hone/iores z oppos$ to ! ,humiliores1 ! latt] only be+ liable1 if f\nd guilty ( c]ta9 (f5ces1 to ! m atroci\s =ms ( capital puni%m5t1 su* z dea? by ! wild bea/s or by fire4#cad ,ev5 a reputation = le>n+ 0 suppos$ to be a m>ketable commodity2 & :5 supreme p[] 0 held by a philosoph]1 ! vulg> ri* c\ld /ill hope to attract 8 fav\rable notice by fill+ _! h\ses ) books4#cae ,we also "k f ,juv5al1 :at inde$ ! analogy ( mod]n times w\ld readily sugge/1 t l>ge =tunes 7 (t5 rapidly made1 & made by ! cultivation ( v sordid arts4 ,?us memb]s ( ! mo/ ignorant & sup]/iti\s classes 7 con/antly ris+ to positions :]e !y c\ld set ! tone ( public op9ion1 or at lea/ help to det]m9e its direction4 ,! milit>y organisation ( ! empire _h ! fur!r effect ( giv+ a high social /atus to retir$ c5turions--m5 probably recruit$ f ! mo/ b>b>\s prov9cial populations1 & c]ta9ly m rem>kable = _! huge size ?an = _! m5tal gifts4#caf ,:5 "o ( ^! h]oes he>d a philosoph] /ate t no?+ c be made out ( no?+1 he w\ld ask ) a horse-laugh :e!r t 0 any reason = go+ )\t "o's d9n]4#cag ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 x came to be a "q ( sup]natural ag5cy1 a man ( ?is type w\ld a/oni% ! ,jews !mselves by 8 cr$ulity4 ,imbu$ ) ! idea ( p]sonal au?ority1 he readily fanci$ t anyone /&+ high 9 ! fav\r ( ,god c\ld cure diseases f a di/ance by simply giv+ !m ! ^w ( comm& to dep>t4#cah ,a mu* m important factor 9 ! social movem5t ?an ^? already m5tion$ 0 ! ev]-increas+ influ5ce ( wom54 ,?is probably /ood at ! l[e/ po9t to :i* x has ev] fall51 dur+ ! classic age ( ,greek life & ?\ght4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( ,?ucydides1 s f> z x =ms a connect$ s]ies ( ev5ts1 f\r times only dur+ a p]iod ( ne>ly sev5ty ye>s does a woman cross ! sc5e4 ,9 ea* in/ance h] app>ition only la/s = a mom5t4 ,9 ?ree ( ! f\r in/ances %e is a que5 or a pr9cess1 & belongs ei!r to ! half-b>b>\s k+doms ( nor!rn ,hellas or to :olly b>b>\s ,?race4 ,9 ! "o rema9+ in/ance-- t ( ! woman :o helps "s ( ! trapp$ ,!bans to make _! escape f ,plataea--:ile h] de$ ( m]cy w live = ev]1 h] "n is = ev] lo/4#cai ,b no soon] did philosophy ab&on physics = e?ics & religion ?an ! importance ( ^? subjects to wom5 0 p]ceiv$1 fir/ by ,socrates1 & aft] him by ,x5ophon & ,plato4 ,wom5 are said to h att5d$ ,plato's lectures disguis$ z m54 ,wom5 =m$ "p ( ! circle :i* ga!r$ r\nd ,epicurus 9 8 suburban retreat4 ,o!rs aspir$ n only to le>n b to tea*4 ,art1 ! daught] ( ,ari/ippus1 h&$ on ! ,cyr5aic doctr9e to h] son1 ! y\ng] ,ari/ippus4 ,hipp>*ia1 ! wife ( ,crates ! ,cynic1 e>n$ a place among ! repres5tatives ( 8 s*ool4 ,b all ^! 7 exceptions2 "s ( !m belong$ to ! class ( ,heta]ae2 & philosophy1 al?\gh x might address itself to !m1 rema9$ unaffect$ by _! influ5ce4 ,! case 0 widely diff]5t 9 ,rome1 :]e wom5 7 f> m highly hon\r$ ?an 9 ,greece2#cbj & ev5 if ! prom95t "p assign$ to !m 9 ! leg5d>y hi/ory ( ! city be a pro(1 among o!rs1 ( its untru/wor?9ess1 /ill t su* /ories %\ld be ?\ght wor? inv5t+ & pres]v+ is an indirect pro( ( ! ext5t to :i* fem99e influ5ce prevail$4 ,) ! loss ( political lib]ty1 _! importance1 z always happ5s at su* a conjuncture1 0 consid]ably increas$4 ,"u a p]sonal gov]nm5t !re is f> m scope = intrigue ?an :]e law is k+2 & z intrigu]s wom5 are at lea/ ! equals ( m54 ,moreov]1 !y pr(it$ fully by ! levell+ t5d5cies ( ! age4 ,"o great s]vice ( ! imp]ial jurisconsults 0 to remove "s ( ! disabilities "u :i* wom5 =m]ly suff]$4 ,accord+ to ! old law1 !y 7 plac$ "u male gu>dian%ip ?r\gh _! :ole life1 b ?is re/ra9t 0 fir/ r$uc$ to a legal fiction by compell+ ! gu>dian to d :at !y wi%$1 & at la/ x 0 entirely aboli%$4 ,_! p[]s bo? ( inh]itance & beque/ 7 ext5d$2 !y frequ5tly possess$ imm5se weal?2 & _! weal? 0 sometimes exp5d$ = purposes ( public munific5ce4 ,_! social fre$om seems to h be5 unlimit$1 & !y =m$ comb9ations among !mselves :i* probably s]v$ to increase _! g5]al influ5ce4#cba ,all ^! circum/ances tak5 toge!r w\ld p]mit ! ,roman wom5 to h op9ions ( _! own if !y lik$1 & w\ld ensure a respectful he>+ = :atev] !y _h to say2 :ile ! m5 :o _h op9ions to propagate w\ld1 = ! same reason1 be deeply int]e/$ 9 secur+ _! adhesion4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !y receiv$ a good lit]>y education1 be+ s5t app>5tly to ! same s*ools z _! bro!rs1 & !re made acqua9t$ )1 at lea/1 ! ,lat9 poets4#cbb ,?us !y w\ld possess ! degree ( culture necess>y = readily receiv+ & transmitt+ new impressions4 ,& we "k1 z a matt] ( fact1 t _m ,roman ladies ent]$ eag]ly into ! lit]>y movem5t ( ! age1 %>+ ! /udies ( _! husb&s1 disc\rs+ on que/ions ( gramm>1 freely express+ _! op9ion on ! relative m]its ( diff]5t poets1 & ev5 attempt+ au?or%ip on _! own acc\nt4#cbc ,philosophy1 z x 0 !n taught1 attract$ a consid]able %>e ( _! att5tion2 & "s great ladies 7 con/antly att5d$ by a ,/oic pr(essor1 to ^: lectures !y li/5$ seem+ly ) m pati5ce ?an pr(it4#cbd ,"o ( _! fav\rite /udies 0 ,plato's ,republic1 accord+ to ,epicttus1 because x advocat$ a community ( wives2#cbe or1 z we may m *>itably sugge/1 because x admitt$ wom5 to an equality ) m54 ,b !re is no evid5ce to prove t _! inquisitiv5ess ev] w5t to ! l5g? ( que/ion+ ! f\ndations ( religi\s fai?2 & we may fairly reckon _! increas+ influ5ce among ! =ces :i* 7 t5d+ to br+ ab\t an ov]:elm+ religi\s revival among ! educat$ classes4 ,9 ?is connexion1 "s importance mu/ also be attribut$ to ! m indirect influ5ce ex]cis$ by *ildr52 ,^! did n =m a p>ticul>ly num]\s class 9 ! upp] ranks ( ,roman society2 b1 to judge by :at we see 9 mod]n ,france1 ! few] !re 7 ( !m ! m att5tion 7 !y likely to receive2 & _! int]e/s1 :i* l ^? ( ! o!r def5celess classes _h be5 depress$ or neglect$ "u ! ari/ocratic rgime1 7 fav\r$ by ! re=m+ & levell+ movem5t ( ! empire4 ,"o ( ,juv5al's mo/ popul> satires is entirely devot$ to ! "q ( _! education2 &1 9 ref]5ce to ?is1 ! po9t ( view mo/ prom95tly put =w>d is ! importance ( ! examples :i* are (f]$ to !m by _! p>5ts4 ,juv5al1 himself a free-?9k]1 is exce$+ly anxi\s t !y %\ld n be indoctr9at$ ) sup]/iti\s op9ions2 b we may be sure t a diff]5t ord] ( consid]ations w\ld equally induce o!rs to give _! *ildr5 a c>eful religi\s tra9+1 & to keep !m at a di/ance f sceptical influ5ces2 :ile ! spontane\s t5d5cy ( *ildr5 to believe 9 ! sup]natural w\ld r5d] x easi] to give !m moral in/ruction "u a religi\s =m4 ,to complete our enum]ation ( ! =ces by :i* a new public op9ion 0 be+ creat$1 we mu/ m5tion ! slaves4 ,?\gh /ill liable to be treat$ ) great b>b>ity1 ! condition ( ?is class 0 consid]ably ameliorat$ "u ! empire4 ,_! lives &1 9 ! case ( wom51 _! *a/ity1 7 protect$ by law2 !y 7 all[$ by cu/om to accumulate prop]ty2 !y _h always ! hope ( lib]ty be=e _! eyes1 = emancipations 7 frequ5t & 7 enc\rag$ by ! new legislation2 !y (t5 liv$ on t]ms ( ! close/ intimacy ) _! ma/]s1 & 7 sometimes educat$ en\gh to conv]se ) !m on subjects ( g5]al int]e/4 ,n[ a s]vile condition is m fav\rable ?an any o!r to religi\s ideas4 ,x inculcates habits ( unque/ion+ submission to au?ority2 & by ! mis]ies ) :i* x is att5d$ imm5sely enhances ! value ( consolatory beliefs1 :e!r !y take ! =m ( fai? 9 div9e protection dur+ ?is life1 or ( a comp5sation = its afflictions 9 ! next4 ,moreov]1 a great majority ( ! ,roman slaves came f ^? ,ea/]n c\ntries :i* 7 ! native l& ( sup]/ition1 & ?us s]v$ z mission>ies ( ,ori5tal cults & cre$s 9 ! ,we/1 besides furni%+ apt disciples to ! tea*]s :o came f ,asia ) ! express object ( secur+ conv]ts to _! religion 9 ,rome4 ,! "p play$ by slaves 9 ! diffusion ( ,*ri/ianity is well kn[n2 :at we h to obs]ve at pres5t is t _! influ5ce mu/ equally h told 9 fav\r ( e o!r sup]naturali/ belief1 &1 to ! same ext5t1 aga9/ ! rationalism ( writ]s l ,horace & ,lucian4 ,?us ,roman civilisation1 ev5 :5 consid]$ on its lib]al1 progressive1 democratic side1 seems to h necess>ily fav\r$ ! gr[? & spread ( sup]/ition1 because ! new social /rata :i* x turn$ up 7 less on _! gu>d aga9/ unw>rant$ beliefs ?an ! old gov]n+ ari/ocracies ) _! m+l$ cons]vatism & culture4 ,b ?is 0 n all2 & on view+ ! empire f ano!r side we %all f9d t "u x all classes alike 7 expos$ to conditions em95tly inconsi/5t ) t individual indep5d5ce & capacity = =m+ a private judgm5t :i* _h s hon\rably di/+ui%$ at lea/ "o class "u ! republican rgime4 ,if imp]ialism 0 9 "o s5se a levell+ & democratic sy/em1 9 ano!r s5se x 0 int5sely ari/ocratic1 or r timocratic4 ,sup]iorities ( bir?1 race1 age1 & sex 7 ev]y:]e t5d+ to disappe>1 only t !y might be replac$ by ! m ignoble sup]iorities ( brute-=ce1 ( c\rt-fav\r1 & ( weal?4 ,! ,palace set an example ( caprice on ! "o side & ( s]vility on ! o!r :i* 0 fai?fully foll[$ ?r\gh all grades ( ,roman society1 less f a _s ( imitation ?an because circum/ances 7 at "w :i* made e ri* man or woman ! c5tre ( a petty c\rt consi/+ ( volunt>y dep5d5ts ^: obsequi\sness 0 rew>d$ by daily doles ( food & money1 by ! occasional gift ( a toga or ev5 ( a small f>m1 or by ! hope ( a h&some legacy4 ,be=e daybreak ! doors ( a weal?y h\se 7 surr\nd$ by a motley cr[d1 includ+ n only fami%$ cli5ts b praetors1 tribunes1 opul5t fre$m51 & ev5 ladies 9 _! litt]s2 all come nom9ally = ! purpose ( pay+ _! respects to ! ma/]1 b 9 reality to receive a small pres5t ( money4 ,at a lat] h\r1 :5 ! great man w5t abroad1 he 0 att5d$ by a troop ( poor hang]s-on1 :o1 aft] trudg+ ab\t = h\rs 9 8 tra9 & accompany+ him home 9 ! aft]noon1 (t5 miss$ ! place at 8 table :i* _! assiduities 7 int5d$ to secure4 ,ev5 :5 x came1 ! invitation br\ght small com=t1 z only ! poore/ food & ! wor/ w9e 7 set be=e ! cli5t1 :ile he _h ! additional vexation ( see+ 8 patron fea/+ on ! *oice/ di%es & ! mo/ delici\s v9tages2 & ?is 0 also ! lot ( ! dome/ic philosoph] :om "s ri* m5 reg>d$ z an indisp5sable memb] ( _! ret9ue4#cbf ,( c\rse ^? :o wi%$ = a l>g] %>e ( ! patron's fav\rs c\ld only hope to w9 x by un/9t$ tok5s ( admiration1 def]5ce1 or ass5t2 & probably _m besides ! ma/] ( ?irty legions 9 ! well-kn[n /ory 7 inv>iably all[$ to be "r by ! s*ol>s ) :om !y condesc5d$ to dispute4 ,besides ! att5tions lavi%$ on e weal?y individual1 ^? :o _h no *ildr5 7 especially c\rt$1 & t too by o!rs :o 7 z well (f z !mselves ) ! object ( be+ rememb]$ 9 _! wills4 ,s advantage\s a position1 inde$1 did ^! orbi1 z !y 7 call$1 occupy1 t among ! high] classes !re 0 extreme unwill+ness to m>ry2 al?\gh1 z an enc\ragem5t to population1 ! fa!r ( ?ree *ildr5 enjoy$ sev]al sub/antial privileges4 ,?is circum/ance1 aga91 by prev5t+ ! p]petuation ( weal?y families1 & all[+ _! prop]ty to pass into ! h&s ( degrad$ =tune-hunt]s1 r5d]$ impossible ! consolidation ( a new ari/ocracy :i* might h reorganis$ ! traditions ( lib]al culture1 & =m$ an effectual b>ri] aga9/ ! d[nw>d pressure ( despotism on ! "o side & ! inroads ( popul> sup]/ition on ! o!r4 ,z a la/ illu/ration ( ! ext5t to :i* au?ority & subord9ation 7 pu%$ 9 ,roman society1 x may be m5tion$ t ! bett] class ( slaves 7 p]mitt$ to keep slaves = _! own s]vice4 ,b :e!r ! in/itution ( slav]y z a :ole %\ld be reckon$ among ! conditions fav\rable to au?oritative beliefs is d\btful1 z x 0 an elem5t common to e p]iod ( antiquity4 ,p]haps1 h[ev] p>adoxical su* an ass]tion may seem1 ! v frequ5cy ( emancipation gave increas$ /r5g? to ! feel+ ( dep5d5ce on an ov]rul+ p]sonal p[]4 ,a fre$man c\ld n =get t ! mo/ important ev5t 9 8 life 0 due1 n to any natural law1 b to ! w or ! caprice ( a ma/]2 & ?is reflection mu/ h confirm$ 8 fai? 9 ! div9e be+s ( :om he & 8 ma/] 7 fell[-slaves4 ,,iv4 ,we h n[ to %[ :at new beliefs ga9$ mo/ gr\nd1 & :at old beliefs 7 mo/ successfully reviv$1 ?r\gh ! comb9ation ( fav\rable conditions1 an analysis ( :i* has be5 attempt$ 9 ! prec$+ pages4 ,among ! ho/ ( cre$s :i* at ?is p]iod compet$ ) "o ano!r = ! fav\r ( ! ri* or = ! suffrages ( ! poor1 !re 7 "s t possess$ a m>k$ advantage ov] _! rivals 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,! wor%ip ( ,nature consid]$ z imag+ ! vicissitudes ( human life1 c\ld n fail to be ! mo/ popul> ( any4 ,all :o desir$ a bond ( sympa?y unit+ !m ) _! fell[-subjects ov] ! :ole empire1 & ev5 ) ! tribes beyond its fronti]s1 might meet on ?is mo/ univ]sal gr\nd4 ,all :o wi%$ to comb9e excitem5t ) devotion 7 attract$ by ! dramatic repres5tation ( bir? & dea?1 ( b]eavem5t & sorr[ & se>*+1 ( purification ?r\gh suff]+1 & triumphant reunion ) ! lo/ objects ( affection 9 ?is or 9 ano!r _w4 ,inquisitive or innovat+ m9ds 7 gratifi$ by admission to secrets a k ( :i* 0 believ$ to possess ine/imable value4 ,& ! mo/ cons]vative c\ld see 9 su* celebrations an ackn[l$gm5t1 "u o!r =ms1 ( "s div9ity :i* _h always be5 rev]5c$ 9 _! own home1 p]haps ev5 ! m au!ntic reproduction ( adv5tures already relat$ to !m z dim & unc]ta9 traditions ( ! pa/4 ,m ?an "o su* cultus1 repres5t+ "u ! traits ( p]sonal love & loss & recov]y1 ! dea? ( vegetation 9 w9t] & its return to life 9 spr+1 0 introduc$ f ! ,ea/1 & obta9$ a wide popul>ity ?r\gh ! empire4 ,long be=e ! close ( ! republic1 ! wor%ip ( ,cybele 0 e/abli%$ 9 ,rome ) ! sanction ( ! ,s5ate4 ,o!r ,asiatic deities ( a mu* less respectable "*1 ,a/>te & ! s-call$ ,syrian goddess1 ?\gh n (ficially recognis$1 enjoy$ a celebrity ext5d+ to ! remote/ corn]s ( ! we/]n _w4#cbg ,/ill great] & m univ]sal 0 ! v5]ation be/[$ on ,isis & ,s]apis4 ,f ! pr9ce to ! peasant1 f ! philosoph] to ! ignorant girl1 all classes unit$ 9 do+ homage to _! p[]4 ,_! my/]ies 7 celebrat$ 9 ! m\nta9 valleys ( ! ,tyrol1 & probably creat$ z mu* excitem5t among ! p ( t neighb\rhood z ! ,amm]gau passion-play does at pres5t4#cbh ,an inscription has be5 discov]$ describ+ 9 m9ute detail an (f]+ made to ,isis by a ,spani% matron 9 hon\r ( h] little daught]4 ,x 0 a silv] /atue ri*ly ornam5t$ ) preci\s /ones1 resembl+1 z our au?ority obs]ves1 :at w\ld n[ be pres5t$ to ! ,madonna1#cbi :o inde$ is probably no m ?an a ,*ri/ian adaptation ( ! ,egyptian goddess4 ,& ,plut>*1 or ano!r le>n$ & +5i\s writ] ^: "w has come d[n to u "u 8 "n1 devotes a long treatise to ,isis & ,osiris1 9 :i* ! my?ical hi/ory ( ! goddess is z ?ickly cov]$ ) allegorical int]pretations z ! /atue d$icat$ to h] by ! ,spani% lady 0 ) em]alds & pe>ls4 ,ano!r =m ( naturali/ic religion1 fitt$ = univ]sal acceptance by its appeals to common exp]i5ce1 0 ! wor%ip ( ! ,sun4 ,x 0 probably z su* t ,mi?ras1 a ,syro-,p]sian deity1 obta9$ a success ?r\gh\t ! ,roman empire :i* at "o "t seem$ to balance ! ris+ =tunes ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,adoration ( ! heav5ly bodies 01 inde$1 v common dur+ ?is p]iod1 & 0 probably connect$ ) ! extreme preval5ce ( a/rological sup]/ition4 ,x w\ld also h>monise p]fectly ) ! /ill surviv+ ,olympian religion ( ! old ,hell5ic ari/ocracy1 & w\ld pr(it by ! support :i* philosophy s9ce ! "t ( ,socrates _h ext5d$ to ?is =m ( sup]naturali/ belief4 ,b1 p]haps1 = t v reason ! classes :i* _h n[ become ! ultimate arbit]s ( op9ion1 felt less sympa?y ) ,mi?ras-wor%ip & o!r k9dr$ cults ?an ) ! ,egyptian my/]ies4 ,^! _h a m recognisable be>+ on _! own daily life1 &1 l ! ,*?onian religions ( old ,greece1 !y includ$ a ref]5ce to ! immortality ( ! s\l4 ,moreov]1 ! climate ( ,europe1 especially ( we/]n ,europe1 does n p]mit ! sun to become an object ( su* excessive adoration z 9 s\!rn ,asia4 ,mi?ras-wor%ip1 !n1 is an example ( ! expansive =ce exhibit$ by ,ori5tal ideas r ?an ( a fai? :i* really satisfi$ ! wants ( ! ,roman _w4 ,a f> high] place mu/ be assign$ to ,judaism among ! competitors = ! allegiance ( ,europe4 ,! cosmopolitan importance at "o "t assum$ by ?is religion has be5 consid]ably obscur$1 ow+ to ! subsequ5t devolution ( its "p to ,*ri/ianity4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 by no means impossible t1 b = ! div]sion creat$ by ! ,gospel1 & ! disa/r\s consequ5ces ( _! revolt aga9/ ,rome1 ! ,jews might h won ! _w to a purifi$ =m ( _! own mono!ism4 ,a few significant circum/ances are record$ %[+ h[ mu* influ5ce !y _h acquir$1 ev5 9 ,rome1 be=e ! fir/ prea*+ ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is to be f\nd 9 ,cic]o's def5ce ( ,flaccus4 ,! latt] 0 accus$ ( appropriat+ "p ( ! annual contributions s5t to ! temple at ,j]usalem2 &1 9 deal+ ) ?is *>ge1 ,cic]o speaks ( ! ,jews1 :o 7 naturally prejudic$ aga9/ 8 cli5t1 z a p[]ful faction ! ho/ility ( :i* he is anxi\s n to provoke4#ccj ,"s tw5ty ye>s lat]1 a great advance has be5 made4 ,n only mu/ ! mat]ial int]e/s ( ! ,jews be respect$1 b a c]ta9 con=mity to _! religi\s prescriptions is consid]$ a m>k ( good bre$+1 ,9 "o ( 8 mo/ amus+ satires1 ,horace tells u h[1 be+ anxi\s to %ake (f a bore1 he appeals = help to 8 fri5d ,ari/ius ,fuscus1 & rem9ds him ( "s private bus9ess :i* !y _h to discuss toge!r4 ,fuscus sees 8 object1 & be+ mis*iev\sly det]m9$ to defeat x1 answ]s3 #8,yes1 ,i rememb] p]fectly1 b we mu/ wait = "s bett] opportunity2 ?is is ! ?irtie? ,sabba?1 d y wi% to insult ! circumcis$ ,jews8' #8,i h no scruples on t po9t1#8 replies ! impati5t poet4 #8,b ,i h1' rejo9s ,fuscus1--#8a little weak-m9d$1 "o ( ! _m1 y "k--excuse me1 ano!r "t4#8#cca ,nor 7 ! ,jews cont5t ) ! c\nt5ance ?us freely accord$ !m4 ,! same poet else:]e intimates t :5ev] !y f\nd !mselves 9 a majority1 !y took advantage ( _! sup]ior /r5g? to make proselytes by =ce4'#ccb ,& !y pursu$ ! good "w to su* purpose t a c\ple ( g5]ations lat] we f9d ,s5eca bitt]ly compla9+ t ! vanqui%$ _h giv5 laws to ! victors1 & t ! cu/oms ( ?is abom9able race 7 e/abli%$ ov] ! :ole e>?4#ccc ,evid5ce to ! same effect is giv5 by ,philo ,judaeus & ,josephus1 :o in=m u t ! ,jewi% laws & cu/oms 7 admir$1 imitat$1 & obey$ ov] ! :ole e>?4#ccd ,su* ass]tions might be suspect$ ( exagg]ation1 7 !y n1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 confirm$ by ! ref]5ces already quot$1 to :i* o!rs ( ! same k9d may be add$ f lat] writ]s %[+ t x 0 a common practice among ! ,romans to ab/a9 f "w on ! ,sabba?1 & ev5 to celebrate x by pray+1 fa/+1 & light+ lamps1 to visit ! synagogues1 to /udy ! law ( ,moses1 & to pay ! ye>ly contribution ( two dra*mas to ! temple at ,j]usalem4#cce ,!n z n[1 ,judaism seems to h _h a mu* great] attraction = wom5 ?an = m52 & ?is may be acc\nt$ = n only by ! great] cr$ulity ( ! female sex1 :i* w\ld equally pr$ispose !m 9 fav\r ( e o!r new religion1 b also by _! natural sympa?y ) ! dome/ic virtues :i* are su* an amiable & int]e/+ feature 9 ! ,jewi% "*4 ,josephus tells u t t[>ds ! beg9n+ ( ,n]o's reign ne>ly all ! wom5 ( ,damascus 7 atta*$ to ,judaism2#ccf & he also m5tions t ,poppaea1 ! mi/ress & aft]w>ds ! wife ( ,n]o1 us$ h] p[]ful influ5ce = ! protection ( 8 compatriots1 ?\gh :e!r %e actually became a proselyte1 z "s h suppos$1 is d\btful4#ccg ,accord+ to ,ovid1 ! synagogues 7 mu* visit$ by ,roman wom51 among o!rs1 app>5tly1 by ^? ( easy virtue1 = he alludes to !m z resorts :i* ! man ( pleasure 9 se>* ( a conque/ w f9d x advantage\s to frequ5t4#cch ,! mono!ism ( ! ,jehovi/ religion w\ld seem to h m>k$ x out z ! natural fai? ( a univ]sal empire4 ,yet1 /range to say1 x 0 n by ?is elem5t ( ,judaism t proselytes 7 mo/ attract$4 ,our au?orities are unanim\s 9 speak+ ( ! sabba?-obs]vance z ! mo/ di/+ui%+ trait ( ! ,jews !mselves1 & ! po9t 9 :i* !y 7 mo/ scrupul\sly imitat$ by _! adh]5ts2 :ile ! duty ( contribut+ to ! ma9t5ance ( ! temple app>5tly /ood next 9 popul> e/imation4 ,b if ?is be true1 x foll[s t ! lib]ation ( ! spirituali/ic elem5t 9 ,judaism f its c]emonial husk 0 a less ess5tial condition to ! success ( ,*ri/ianity ?an "s h suppos$4 ,:at ! _w object$ to 9 ,judaism 0 n its concrete1 hi/orical1 practical side1 b its exclusiv5ess1 & ! hatr$ = o!r nations :i* x 0 suppos$ to bre$4 ,:at ! new conv]ts wi%$ 0 to take ! place ( ! ,jews1 to sup]s$e !m 9 ! div9e fav\r1 n to improve on _! law4 ,x 0 useless to tell !m t !y 7 "u no obligation to obs]ve ! sabba?1 :5 ! in/itution ( a day ( re/ 0 precisely :at mo/ fasc9at$ !m 9 ! hi/ory ( ,god's relations ) 8 *os5 p4 ,& x 0 equally useless to tell !m t ! h\r _h come :5 ! ,fa!r %\ld n be wor%ipp$ any m at ,j]usalem b ev]y:]e 9 _s & 9 tru?1 :5 ,j]usalem _h become irrevocably associat$ 9 _! m9ds ) ! e/abli%m5t ( a div9e k+dom on ?is e>?4 ,?us1 :ile ! religion ( ! ,middle ,ages rea*$ its int5se/ expression 9 arm$ pilgrimages to ,pale/9e1 ! religion ( mod]n ,puritanism has embodi$ itself by pref]5ce 9 ! obs]vance ( :at x /ill delights to call ! sabba?4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! influx ( ,asiatic religions into ,europe 0 att5d$ by any loss ( fai? 9 ! old gods ( ,greece & ,italy1 or by any neglect ( _! wor%ip4 ,! rese>*es ( ,fri$lnd] h prov$ ! absolute errone\sness ( su* an idea1 widely ent]ta9$ z x has be54 ,innum]able monum5ts are 9 exi/5ce te/ify+ to ! cont9u$ au?ority ( ! ,olympian div9ities1 & p>ticul>ly ( ,jupit]1 ov] ! :ole ext5t ( ! ,roman empire4 ,ample end[m5ts 7 /ill devot$ to ! ma9t5ance ( _! s]vice2 _! temples /ill smok$ ) sacrifices2 _! litanies 7 /ill repeat$ z a duty :i* x w\ld h be5 sc&al\s to neglect2 9 all h\rs ( public & private dang] _! help 0 /ill implor$1 & ackn[l$g$ by ! d$ication ( votive (f]+s :5 ! dang] 0 ov]come2 x 0 /ill believ$1 z 9 ! days ( ,hom]1 t !y occasionally manife/$ !mselves on e>?1 signalis+ _! pres5ce by works ( sup]human p[]4#cci ,nor 0 !re any?+ anomal\s 9 ?is peaceable co-exi/5ce ( ! old ) ! new fai?s4 ,s f> back z we c trace ! records bo? ( ,greek & ,roman poly!ism1 !y are rem>kable = _! receptive & assimilative capacity4 ,apollo & ,artemis 7 import$ into ,greece f ,lycia1 ,h]acles & ,aphrodite f ,pho5icia1 ,dionysus & ,ares probably f ,?race4 ,roman religion "u its olde/ =m includ$ bo? a ,lat9 or ,sab9e & an ,etruscan elem5t2 at a subsequ5t p]iod x became ,hell5is$ )\t los+ any?+ ( its grave & decor\s "*4 ,9 ,greece1 ! ela/ic sy/em ( div9e relation%ips 0 /ret*$ a little fur!r s z to make room = ! new com]s4 ,! same sy/em1 :5 introduc$ into ,roman my?ology1 s]v$ to connect & enliv5 :at previ\sly _h be5 s _m rigid & isolat$ ab/ractions4 ,) bo?1 ! supreme religi\s conception cont9u$ to be :at x _h be5 ) _! ,aryan ance/ors1 t ( a heav5ly ,fa!r ,jove2 & ! fa%ionable deities ( ! empire 7 receiv$ into ! pan!on ( ,hom] & ,hesiod z recov]$ or adopt$ *ildr5 ( ! same ,olympian sire4 ,! dang] to ,hell5i/ic poly!ism 0 n f ano!r =m ( ! same type1 b f a fai? :i* %\ld refuse to amalgamate ) x on any t]ms2 & 9 ! environm5t creat$ by ,roman imp]ialism ) its unify+ & cosmopolitan "*1 su* a fai?1 if x exi/$ any:]e1 c\ld n fail 9 ! long-run to sup]s$e & ext+ui% its m tol]ant rivals4 ,b ! imm$iate effect produc$ by giv+ free play to m5's religi\s in/9cts 0 n ! conc5tration ( _! belief on a s+le object1 or on new to ! exclusion ( old objects1 b an extraord9>y abundance & complexity ( sup]naturalism "u all its =ms4 ,?is g5]al t5d5cy1 aga91 admits ( be+ decompos$ into two di/9ct curr5ts1 accord+ z x 0 det]m9$ by ! introduction ( ali5 sup]/itions f )\t1 or by ! developm5t ( native & popul> sup]/ition f )94 ,b1 9 ea* case1 ! retrogressive movem5t result$ f ! same political revolution4 ,at once critical & cons]vative1 ! city-ari/ocracies prev5t$ ! p]5nial g]ms ( religi\s life f multiply+ to any s]i\s ext5t )9 ! limits ( _! jurisdiction1 no less vigilantly ?an !y prohibit$ ! importation ( its complet$ products f abroad4 ,we h n[ to /udy ! behavi\r ( ^! g]ms :5 ! re/ra9t to :i* !y _h =m]ly be5 subject$ 0 light5$ or )drawn4 ,v4 ,! old religions ( ,greece & ,italy 7 ess5tially oracul>4 ,:ile inculcat+ ! exi/5ce ( sup]natural be+s1 & prescrib+ ! modes accord+ to :i* su* be+s 7 to be wor%ipp$1 !y paid mo/ att5tion to ! int]pretation ( ! signs by :i* ei!r future ev5ts 9 g5]al1 or ! consequ5ces ( p>ticul> actions1 7 suppos$ to be div9ely reveal$4 ,( ^! intimations1 "s 7 giv5 to ! :ole _w1 s t he :o ran might read1 o!rs 7 res]v$ = c]ta9 fav\r$ localities1 & only communicat$ ?r\gh ! appo9t$ m9i/]s ( ! god4 ,! ,delphic oracle 9 p>ticul> enjoy$ an enorm\s reputation bo? among ,greeks & b>b>ians = guidance af=d$ "u ! latt] conditions2 & dur+ a consid]able p]iod x may ev5 be said to h direct$ ! c\rse ( ,hell5ic civilisation4 ,x 0 also "u ?is =m t sup]natural religion suff]$ mo/ injury f ! great intellectual movem5t :i* foll[$ ! ,p]sian w>s4 ,m5 :o _h le>n$ to /udy ! con/ant sequ5ces ( ,nature = !mselves1 & to %ape _! conduct accord+ to fix$ pr9ciples ( prud5ce or ( ju/ice1 ei!r ?\ght x irrev]5t to tr\ble ! god ab\t que/ions on :i* !y 7 compet5t to =m an op9ion = !mselves1 or did n *oose to place a well-consid]$ s*eme at ! m]cy ( 8 possibly int]e/$ responses4 ,t su* a revolution occurr$ ab\t ! middle ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4,c41 seems prov$ by ! great *ange ( tone 9 ref]5ce to ?is subject :i* "o p]ceives on pass+ f ,aes*ylus to ,sophocles4 ,t anyone %\ld "q ! v]acity ( an oracle is a supposition :i* nev] crosses ! m9d ( ! eld] dramati/4 ,a k ( augury c\nts among ! greate/ b5efits conf]r$ by ,prome!us on mank9d1 & ! ,titan br+s ,zeus himself to t]ms by 8 acqua9tance ) ! secrets ( de/9y4 ,sophocles1 on ! o!r h&1 evid5tly has to deal ) a sceptical g5]ation1 despis+ prophecies & ne$+ to be w>n$ ( ! fe>ful consequ5ces br\ght ab\t by neglect+ _! injunctions4 ,probably few contribut$ s mu* to ! *ange z ,socrates1 not)/&+ 8 g5]al piety & ! cr$ulity :i* he exhibit$ on ?is p>ticul> po9t4 ,= 8 e?ical & dialectical tra9+1 comb9$ ) t c>eful /udy ( facts :i* he s e>ne/ly recomm5d$1 w5t v f> t[>ds mak+ a consultation ( ! oracle sup]flu\s2 & he did actually impress on 8 auditors ! duty ( disp5s+ ) its assi/ance 9 all cases except ^? :]e a k ( ! future 0 necess>y & c\ld n be o!rwise obta9$4#cdj ,ev5 s sup]/iti\s a believ] z ,x5ophon improv$ on 8 ma/]'s lessons 9 ?is respect1 & in/ead ( ask+ ! ,py?ia :e!r he %\ld take s]vice ) ! y\ng] ,cyrus--z ,socrates _h advis$--simply ask$ to :at god he %\ld sacrifice be=e />t+ on ! exp$ition4 ,t[>ds ! beg9n+ ( our era1 z is well kn[n1 ! ,greek oracles _h fall5 into complete neglect & sil5ce4 ,b all ?is "t ! popul> belief 9 om5s _h cont9u$ unaffect$1 & _h app>5tly ev5 increas$4 ,! peculi> ,greek feel+ kn[n z ,deisidaimonia is fir/ satiris$ by ,!ophra/us1 :o def9es x z c[>dice ) reg>d to ! gods1 & gives sev]al amus+ in/ances ( ! anxiety occasion$ by its pres5ce--all connect$ ) ! int]pretation ( om5s--su* z ,ari/ophanes c\ld h>dly h fail$ to notice _h !y be5 usual 9 8 "t4 ,nor 7 su* fancies conf9$ to ! ignorant classes4 ,al?\gh ! ,/oics _c be accus$ ( ,deisidaimonia1 !y gave _! p[]ful sanction to ! belief 9 div9ation1 z has be5 already m5tion$ 9 our acc\nt ( _! philosophy4 ,x w\ld seem t :atev] au?ority ! great oracul> c5tres _h lo/ 0 simply h&$ ov] to l[] & m popul> =ms ( ! same sup]/ition4 ,9 ,rome1 z well z 9 ,greece1 rationalism took ! =m ( disbelief 9 div9ation4 ,"h at lea/ ! ,epicurean1 ! ,academician1 &1 among ! ,/oics1 ! disciple ( ,panaetius1 7 all agre$4 ,b z ! sceptical movem5t began at a mu* lat] p]iod 9 ,rome ?an 9 ! c\ntry :]e x fir/ orig9at$1 s also did ! sup]naturali/ reaction come lat]1 ! age ( ,augu/us 9 ! "o correspond+ v ne>ly ) ! age ( ,alex&] 9 ! o!r4 ,virgil & ,livy are rem>kable = _! fai? 9 om5s2 & al?\gh ! latt] compla9s ( ! g5]al incr$ulity ) :i* n>ratives ( su* ev5ts 7 receiv$1 8 /atem5ts are to be tak5 r z an index ( :at p ?\ght 9 ! age imm$iately prec$+ 8 own1 ?an z an accurate description ( contempor>y op9ion4 ,c]ta9ly no?+ c\ld be f>!r f ! tru? ?an to say t signs & prodigies 7 disreg>d$ by ! ,romans "u ! empire4 ,ev5 ! cool & cauti\s ,tacitus feels himself oblig$ to relate sundry m>vell\s incid5ts :i* seem$ to accompany or to prefigure great hi/orical cata/rophes2 & ! m cr$ul\s ,suetonius has transcrib$ an imm5se numb] ( su* incid5ts f ! pages ( old] *ronicl]s1 besides in=m+ u ( ! extreme att5tion paid ev5 to trifl+ om5s by ,augu/us4#cda ,mean:ile ! recognis$ me?ods = look+ into futurity cont9u$ to enjoy _! old popul>ity1 & t :i* reli$ on indications af=d$ by ! entrails ( sacrifices 0 practis$ ) unabat$ confid5ce d[n to ! "t ( ,julian4#cdb ,ev5 fai? 9 natural law1 :]e x exi/$1 accommodat$ itself to ! preval5t sup]/ition by tak+ ! =m ( a/rology2 & x is well kn[n :at reliance ! emp]or ,tib]ius1 = 8 "t a s+ul>ly enlight5$ man1 plac$ on pr$ictions d]iv$ f obs]vation ( ! />ry heav5s4 ,subsequ5tly1 ) ! revival ( ,hell5ism1 ! ,greek oracles broke sil5ce1 & rega9$ ev5 m ?an _! anci5t reputation1 z ! increas$ facilities = locomotion n[ r5d]$ !m accessible f ! remote/ regions4#cdc ,sometimes ! miracul\s "* ( _! responses result$ 9 ! conv]sion ( h>d5$ infidels4 ,9 ?is connexion1 ! foll[+ anecdote is relat$ by ,plut>*4 ,a c]ta9 gov]nor ( ,cilicia ent]ta9$ s]i\s d\bts ab\t ! gods1 & 0 /ill fur!r confirm$ 9 8 impiety by ! ,epicureans :o surr\nd$ him4 ,?is man1 = ! purpose ( ?r[+ discr$it on ! fam\s oracle ( ,mopsus1 s5t a fre$man to consult x1 be>+ a seal$ lett] conta9+ a "q ) ^: purport nei!r he nor any "o else except ! s5d] 0 acqua9t$4 ,on arriv+ at ! oracle1 ! mess5g] 0 admitt$ to pass a night )9 ! temple1 :i* 0 ! me?od ( consultation usually practis$ !re4 ,9 8 sleep a beautiful figure appe>$ to him1 & aft] utt]+ ! words #8a black "o1' imm$iately vani%$4 ,on he>+ ?is answ] ! gov]nor fell on 8 knees 9 con/]nation1 &1 op5+ ! seal$ tablet1 %[$ 8 fri5ds ! "q :i* x conta9$1 #8,%all ,i sacrifice a :ite or a black bull to !e8' ,! ,epicureans 7 conf\nd$2 :ile ! gov]nor (f]$ up ! prescrib$ sacrifice1 & became !nce=w>d a con/ant ador] ( ,mopsus4#cdd ,no?+1 z ,fri$lnd] obs]ves1 %[s s well :at int5se cr$ulity prevail$ at ?is "t1 ) ref]5ce to ph5om5a ( a m>vell\s description1 z ! success obta9$ by a celebrat$ impo/or1 ,alex&] ( ,abonutei*us1 ^: adv5tur\s c>e] may /ill be /udi$ 9 "o ( ,lucian's livelie/ pieces4 ,"h x w be en\gh to m5tion t ,alex&] 0 a clev] *>latan ( impos+ figure1 w9n+ mann]s1 & b\ndless effront]y1 :o e/abli%$ himself 9 ,abonutei*us1 a small t[n 9 ,paphlagonia1 on ! s\!rn %ore ( ! ,black ,sea1 :]e he made a trade ( giv+ oracles 9 ! "n ( ,asclpius4 ,! god ( heal+ 0 repres5t$ = ! occasion by a l>ge tame s]p5t fitt$ ) a human head made ( pa9t$ canvas & work$ by horsehair /r+s4 ,sometimes ! oracul> responses 7 deliv]$ by ! m\? ( ! god himself4 ,?is 0 manag$ ) ! help ( a conf$]ate :o spoke ?r\gh a tube connect$ ) ! false head4 ,su* direct communications 71 h[ev]1 only grant$ z an exceptional fav\r & = a high price4 ,9 mo/ in/ances ! answ] 0 giv5 9 writ+1 & ! fee *>g$ = x only am\nt$ to a %ill+ ( our money4 ,alex&] _h orig9ally fix$ on ,abonutei*us1 :i* 0 8 native place & !re=e well kn[n to him1 z ! seat ( 8 op]ations1 on acc\nt ( ! extraord9>y sup]/ition ( its inhabitants2 b ! p ( ! adjac5t prov9ces soon %[$ !mselves to be n[ise beh9d 8 fell[-t[nsm5 9 _! cr$ulity4 ,! fame ( ! new oracle spread ov] all ,asia ,m9or & ,?race2 & visitors ?rong$ to x 9 su* numb]s z sometimes to produce a sc>city ( provisions4 ,! prophet's gross receipts rose to an av]age ( #c1jjjl4 a ye>1 & ! (fice ( int]pret+ 8 m ambigu\s responses became s lucrative t ! two exegtes employ$ = ?is purpose paid ea* a tal5t a ye> 7#bdjl47 = ! privilege ( ex]cis+ x4 ,x 0 f ! ,epicureans1 ( :om we are told t !re 7 a consid]able numb] 9 ^! p>ts1 t ! mo/ s]i\s opposition to ! impo/or proce$$2 b he contriv$ to sil5ce _! criticisms by d5\nc+ !m to ! fanatical multitude z #8a!i/s & ,*ri/ians4' ,t[>ds ,epicurus himself ,alex&] n\ri%$ an undy+ hatr$2 & :5 ! oracle 0 consult$ ) reg>d to t philosoph]'s fate1 x made answ] t he 0 #8b\nd 9 lead5 *a9s & seat$ 9 a morass4' ,! 1 or summ>y ( ! ,epicurean cre$1 he publicly burn$ & ?rew its a%es into ! sea2 & "o un=tunate t[n :i* conta9$ a l>ge s*ool ( ,epicureans he puni%$ by refus+ its inhabitants access to ! oracle4 ,on ! o!r h&1 accord+ to ,lucian1 he 0 on ! be/ ( t]ms ) ! disciples ( ,plato1 ,*rysippus1 & ,py?agoras4#cde ,at la/ tid+s ( ! oracle made _! way to ,italy & ,rome1 :]e !y creat$ int5se excitem5t1 p>ticul>ly among ! lead+ m5 ( ! /ate4 ,"o ( ^!1 ,rutilianus1 a man ( consul> dignity & well kn[n = 8 abject sup]/ition1 ?rew himself head-=emo/ into ! fa%ionable delusion4 ,he s5t (f mess5g] aft] mess5g] 9 hot ha/e to ! %r9e ( ,asclpius2 & ! wily ,paphlagonian easily contriv$ t ! reports :i* !y c>ri$ back %\ld /ill fur!r inflame ! curiosity & wond] ( 8 noble devotee4 ,b1 9 tru?1 no great ref9em5t ( impo/ure 0 ne$$ to complete ! capture ( su* a will+ dupe4 ,"o ( 8 que/ions 01 :at tea*] %\ld he employ to direct ! /udies ( 8 son8 ,py?agoras & ,hom] 7 recomm5d$ 9 ! oracul> response4 ,a few days aft]w>ds1 ! boy di$1 mu* to ! discomfiture ( ,alex&]1 ^: enemies took ! opportunity ( triumph+ ov] :at seem$ an irretrievable mi/ake4 ,b ,rutilianus himself came to ! rescue4 ,! oracle1 he said1 cle>ly =e%ad[$ 8 son's dea?1 by nam+ tea*]s :o c\ld only be f\nd 9 ! _w bel[4 ,f9ally1 on be+ consult$ ) reg>d to ! *oice ( a wife1 ! oracle promptly recomm5d$ ! daught] ( ,alex&] & ! ,moon2 = ! prophet pr(ess$ to h enjoy$ ! fav\rs ( t goddess 9 ! same circum/ances z ,endymion4 ,rutilianus1 :o 0 at ?is "t sixty ye>s old1 at once compli$ ) ! div9e injunction1 & celebrat$ 8 m>riage by sacrific+ :ole hecatombs to 8 cele/ial "m-9-law4 ,) s p[]ful a protector1 ,alex&] might safely bid 8 enemies defiance4 ,! gov]nor ( ,bi?ynia _h to entreat ,lucian1 ^: life _h be5 ?reat5$ by ! impo/or1 to keep out ( h>m's way4 #8,%\ld any?+ happ5 to y1' he said1 #8,i c\ld n af=d to (f5d ,rutilianus by br++ 8 fa!r-9-law to ju/ice4' ,ev5 ! be/ & wise/ man !n liv+ yield$ to ! preval5t delusion4 ,m>cus ,aurelius1 :o 0 at t "t fight+ ) ! ,m>comanni1 0 induc$ to act on an oracle f ,abonutei*us1 promis+ t if two lions 7 ?r[n into ! ,danube a great victory w\ld be ! result4 ,! animals made _! way safely to ! opposite bank2 b 7 beat5 to dea? ) clubs by ! b>b>ians1 :o mi/ook !m = "s outl&i% k9d ( wolf or dog2 & ! imp]ial army 0 %ortly aft]w>ds defeat$ ) a loss ( #bj1jjj m54#cdf ,alex&] help$ himself out ( ! difficulty ) ! /ale excuse t he _h only =etold a victory1 )\t say+ :i* side %\ld w94 ,he 0 n m successful 9 det]m9+ ! duration ( 8 own life1 :i* came to an end be=e he _h complet$ sev5ty ye>s1 in/ead ( la/+1 z he _h prophesi$1 = a hundr$ & fifty4 ,?is miscalculation1 h[ev]1 seems n to h impair$ 8 reputation1 = ev5 aft] 8 dea? x 0 believ$ t a /atue ( him 9 ! m>ket-place ( ,p>ium 9 ,mysia _h ! p[] ( giv+ oracles4#cdg ,,vi4 ,ano!r wide-spread sup]/ition 0 ! belief 9 prophetic or premonitory dreams4 ,?is 0 %>$ by "s ev5 among ^? :o reject$ sup]natural religion1--a ph5om5on n unp>allel$ at ! pres5t day4 ,?us ! eld] ,pl9y tells u h[ a soldi] ( ! ,praetorian ,gu>d 9 ,rome 0 cur$ ( hydrophobia by a rem$y reveal$ 9 a dream to 8 "m 9 ,spa91 & communicat$ by h] to him4 ,! lett] describ+ x 0 writt5 )\t any k ( 8 mi%ap1 & arriv$ j 9 "t to save 8 life4#cdh ,& ,pl9y 0 himself induc$ by a dream to und]take ! hi/ory ( ! ,roman campaigns 9 ,g]many4#cdi ,religi\s believ]s naturally put at lea/ equal confid5ce 9 :at !y imag9$ to be revelations ( ! div9e w4 ,gal51 ! great physician1 (t5 all[$ himself to be guid$ by dreams 9 ! treatm5t ( 8 pati5ts1 & _h e reason to congratulate himself on ! result4 ,! y\ng] ,pl9y1 ,suetonius1 ,dion ,cassius1 & ! emp]ors ,augu/us & ,m>cus ,aurelius1 7 all influ5c$ 9 a simil> mann]2 & among ^! ,dion1 :o /&s la/ 9 po9t ( "t1 %[s by 8 repeat$ allusions to ! subject t sup]/ition1 s f> f dim9i%+1 0 cont9ually on ! increase4#cej ,x 0 natural t ! be/ me?ods ( int]pret+ s useful a s\rce ( in=mation %\ld be greatly s\ght aft]1 & t !y %\ld be sy/ematis$ 9 treatises expressly devot$ to ! subject4 ,"o su* "w1 ! ,oneirocritica ( ,artemidrus1 is /ill extant4 ,x 0 compos$ t[>ds ! end ( ! second c5tury1 z its au?or tells u1 at ! direct & repeat$ comm& ( ,apollo4 ,accord+ to ,artemidrus1 ! g5]al belief 9 prophecy & 9 ! exi/5ce ( provid5ce mu/ /& or fall ) ! belief 9 prophetic dreams4 ,he look$ on ! compilation ( 8 "w z ! fulfilm5t ( a religi\s mission1 & 8 :ole life 0 devot$ to collect+ ! mat]ials = x4 ,8 good fai? is1 we are told1 beyond "q1 8 indu/ry is enorm\s1 & he ev5 ex]cises consid]able discrim9ation 9 select+ & elucidat+ ! ph5om5a :i* are repres5t$ to u z manife/ations ( a sup]natural int]e/ 9 human affairs4 ,?us 8 beliefs may be tak5 z a fair gauge ( ! ext5t to :i* educat$ op9ion _h at t "t become infect$ ) vulg> sup]/ition4#cea ,dreams1 l oracles1 7 occasionally employ$ = ! conv]sion ( infidels4 ,an incid5t ( ! k9d is relat$ by ,aelian1 a writ] :o fl\ri%$ e>ly 9 ! ?ird c5tury1 & :o is rem>kable1 ev5 9 t age1 = 8 bigot$ or?odoxy4 ,a c]ta9 man nam$ ,euphronius1 he tells u1 ^: delight 0 to /udy ! blasphem\s nons5se ( ,epicurus1 fell v ill ( consumption1 & s\ght 9 va9 = help f ! skill ( ! physicians4 ,he 0 already at dea?'s door1 :51 z a la/ res\rce1 8 fri5ds plac$ him 9 ! temple ( ,asclpius4 ,!re he dream$ t a prie/ came to him & said1 #8,?is man's only *ance ( salvation is to burn ! impi\s books ( ,epicurus1 knead ! a%es up ) wax1 & use ! mixture z a p\ltice = 8 *e/ & /oma*4' ,on awak5+1 he foll[$ ! div9e prescription1 0 re/or$ to heal?1 & became a model ( piety = ! re/ ( 8 life4 ,! same au?or gives u a /rik+ in/ance ( pray] answ]$1 also r$\nd+ to ! cr$it ( ,asclpius1 ! object ( ^: fav\r is1 h[ev]1 on ?is occasion n a human be+ b a fight+-cock4 ,! sc5e is laid at ,tanagra1 :]e ! bird 9 "q1 hav+ _h 8 foot hurt1 & evid5tly act+ "u ! influ5ce ( div9e inspiration1 jo9s a *oir :o are s++ ! praises ( ,asclpius1 contribut+ 8 %>e to ! sacr$ conc]t1 &1 to ! be/ ( 8 ability1 keep+ "t ) ! o!r p]=m]s4 #8,?is he did1 /&+ on "o leg & /ret*+ out ! o!r1 z if to %[ its pitiable condition4 ,s he sang to 8 savi\r z f> z ! /r5g? ( 8 voice w\ld p]mit1 & pray$ t he might recov] ! use ( 8 limb4' ,! petition is grant$1 :]eupon our h]o claps 8 w+s & /ruts ab\t #8) out/ret*$ neck & nodd+ cre/ l a pr\d w>rior1 ?us proclaim+ ! p[] ( provid5ce ov] irrational animals4'#ceb ,aelian m5tions o!r rem>kable examples ( ! piety display$ by brutes4 #8,elephants wor%ip ! sun1 /ret*+ out _! trunks to x l h&s :5 x rises :ile m5 d\bt ! exi/5ce ( ! gods1 or at lea/ _! c>e = u4' #8,!re is an isl& 9 ! ,black ,sea1 sacr$ to ,h]acles1 :]e ! mice t\* no?+ t belongs to ! god4 ,:5 ! grapes :i* are int5d$ to be us$ = 8 sacrifices beg9 to rip51 !y quit ! isl& 9 ord] to escape ! temptation ( nibbl+ at !m1 com+ back :5 ! v9tage is ov]4 ,hippo1 ,diagoras1 ,h]o/ratus1 & o!r enemies ( ! gods w\ld1 no d\bt1 sp>e ^! grapes j z little z any?+ else t 0 consecrat$ to _! use4'#cec ,x is1 p]haps1 *>act]i/ic ( ! times t ,aelian's /ories %\ld r$\nd m especially to ! cr$it ( ,asclpius & ,h]acles1 :o 7 n gods ( ! fir/ ord]1 b demi-gods or deifi$ mortals4 ,_! wor%ip1 l t ( ! ,nature-p[]s connect$ ) e>? r ?an ) heav51 belongs p>ticul>ly to ! popul> religion1 & seems to h be5 repress$ or re/ra9$ 9 societies organis$ on ari/ocratic pr9ciples4 ,& z m imm$iate products ( ! =ces by :i* sup]naturali/ beliefs are creat$ & ma9ta9$1 su* div9ities w\ld pr(it by ! free scope n[ giv5 to popul> pr$ilections4 ,9 _! case also1 z ) ! e>?-goddesses ,dmtr & ,isis1 a m imm$iate & affectionate relation might be e/abli%$ betwe5 ! believ] & ! object ( 8 wor%ip ?an _h be5 possible 9 ref]5ce to ! *ief ,olympian gods4 ,h]acles _h liv$ ! life ( a man1 8 activity _h be5 almo/ uni=mly b5efic5t1 & s he 0 univ]sally invok$1 z a help] & heal]1 9 ! sick-*amb] no less ?an on ! /orm-to/ %ip4#ced ,asclpius 0 /ill m obvi\sly ! natural refuge ( ^? :o 7 afflict$ ) any bodily disease1 &1 9 a "t ( pr(\nd peace1 ?is 0 ( all calamities ! mo/ likely to turn m5's ?\ghts t[>ds a sup]natural protector4 ,h5ce we f9d t :]e1 ap>t f ,*ri/ianity1 ! religi\s en?usiasm ( ! second c5tury rea*es its int5se/ expression1 :i* is 9 ! writ+s ( ! celebrat$ rhetor ,ari/eides1 ,asclpius comes 9 = ! l>ge/ %>e ( devotional feel+4 ,dur+ an illness :i* cont9u$ ?r\gh ?irte5 ye>s1 ,ari/eides s\ght day & night = help & inspiration f ! god4 ,x came at la/ 9 ! usual =m ( a prescription communicat$ ?r\gh a dream4 ,bo? on ?is & on o!r occasions1 ! excitem5t ( an ov]wr\ght imag9ation comb9$ ) an exorbitant vanity made ! sophi/ believe himself to be pref]r$ above all o!r m5 z an object ( ! div9e fav\r4 ,at "o "t he w\ld see himself admitt$ 9 8 dreams to an ex*ange ( complim5ts ) ,asclpius2 at o!r times he w\ld conv]t ! mo/ ord9>y incid5ts into signs ( sup]natural protection4 ,?us 8 fo/]-si/] hav+ di$ on ! day ( 8 own recov]y f a dang]\s epidemic1 x 0 reveal$ to him 9 a dream t h] life _h be5 accept$ z a ransom = 84 ,we are told t ! monks ( ! ,middle ,ages c\ld n refra9 f express+ _! indignant contempt = ! insane cr$ulity ( ,ari/eides1 9 m>g9al notes on 8 orations2 b ! la/-m5tion$ incid5t1 at lea/1 is closely p>allel$ by ! well-kn[n /ory t a dev\t lady 0 once p]mitt$ to r$eem ! life ( ,pius ,,ix4 by ! sacrifice ( h] own4#cee ,besides ?is increas+ rev]5ce paid to ! deifi$ mortals ( anci5t my?ology1 ! cu/om ( be/[+ div9e hon\rs on illu/ri\s m5 aft] or ev5 be=e _! dea?1 f\nd new scope = its ex]cise "u ! empire4 ,among ! manife/ations ( ?is t5d5cy1 ! apo!osis ( ! emp]ors !mselves1 ( c\rse1 ranks fir/4 ,we are accu/om$ to ?9k ( x z "p ( ! ma*9]y ( despotism1 surr\nd$ by (ficial c]emonies & en=c$ by cruel puni%m5ts2 b1 9 fact1 x fir/ orig9at$ 9 a spontane\s movem5t ( popul> feel+2 & 9 ! case ( ,m>cus ,aurelius at lea/1 x 0 ma9ta9$ = a :ole c5tury1 if n long]1 by ! m]e =ce ( public op9ion4 ,& _m prophecies 7:i*1 z usual1 came true7 7 made on ! /r5g? ( revelations receiv$ f him 9 dreams4#cef ,b a mu* /rong] pro( ( ! preval5t t5d5cy is furni%$ by ! apo!osis ( ,ant9\s4 ,9 its orig9 ?is may be attribut$ to ! caprice ( a voluptu\s despot2 b its p]petuation long aft] ! motives ( flatt]y or ( fe> _h ceas$ to act1 %[s t ! wor%ip ( a beautiful y\?1 :o 0 believ$ to h giv5 8 life = ano!r1 satisfi$ a deep-seat$ crav+ ( ! age4 ,x is possible t1 9 ?is & o!r in/ances1 ! deifi$ mortal may h pass$ = ! repres5tative or inc>nation ( "s god :o 0 already believ$ to h l$ an e>?ly exi/5ce1 & might !re=e readily revisit ! sc5e ( 8 =m] activity4 ,?us ,ant9\s con/antly appe>s ) ! attributes ( ,dionysus2 & ,apollonius ( ,tyana1 ! celebrat$ ,py?agorean prophet ( ! fir/ c5tury1 0 wor%ipp$ at ,ephesus 9 ! "t ( ,lactantius "u ! "n ( ,h]acles ,alexicacus1 t is1 ,h]acles ! def5d] f evil4#ceg ,,vii4 ,we n[ pass to a =m ( sup]naturalism m *>act]i/ic ?an any o!r ( ! direction :i* m5's ?\ghts 7 tak+ "u ! ,roman empire1 & m or less pr(\ndly connect$ ) all ! o!r religi\s manife/ations :i* h hi!rto engag$ our att5tion4 ,?is is ! doctr9e ( immortality1 a doctr9e f> m g5]ally accept$ 9 ! fir/ c5turies ( ! ,*ri/ian era1 b q ap>t f ,*ri/ian influ5ce1 ?an is suppos$ by mo/ p]sons4 ,"h our mo/ tru/wor?y in=mation is d]iv$ f ! epigraphic monum5ts4 ,b = !m1 we might h cont9u$ to believe t public op9ion on ?is subject 0 fai?fully reflect$ by a few sceptical writ]s1 :o 71 9 tru?1 speak+ only = !mselves & = ! num]ically insignificant class to :i* !y belong$4 ,n t ! inscriptions all po9t "o way & ! books ano!r way4 ,on ! contr>y1 !re are epitaphs mo/ di/9ctly repudiat+ ! notion ( a life beyond ! grave1 j z !re are expressions let fall by m5 ( le>n+ :i* %[ t !y accept$ x z true4 ,z mu* might be expect$ f ! divisions !n prevail+ 9 ! speculative _w4 ,( all philosophical sy/ems1 ,epicureanism 01 at ?is "t1 ! mo/ widely diffus$3 its adh]5ts reject$ ! belief 9 ano!r _w z a mis*iev\s delusion2 & _m ( !m seem to h c>efully provid$ t _! convictions %\ld be record$ on _! tombs4 ,! monum5t ( "o su* philosoph]1 d$icat$ to et]nal sleep1 is /ill extant2 o!rs are d$icat$ to safe repose2 o!rs1 aga91 speak ( ! opposite belief z a va9 imag9ation4 ,a fav\rite epitaph ) p]sons ( ?is s*ool runs z foll[s3--#8,i 0 no?+ & became1 ,i 0 & am no m1 s mu* is true4 ,to speak o!rwise is to lie1 = ,i %all be no m4'#ceh ,sometimes1 f ! dep?s ( _! unconsci\sness1 ! dead are made to express indiff]5ce to ! loss ( exi/5ce4 ,sometimes1 9 :at 0 popul>ly believ$ to be ! _s ( ,epicureanism1 b 01 9 reality1 mo/ ali5 to x1 !y exhort ! pass]-by to indulge 8 appetites freely1 s9ce dea? is ! end ( all4 ,x mu/ fur!r be not$ t disbelief 9 a future life1 z a philosophical pr9ciple1 0 n conf9$ to ! ,epicureans4 ,all philosoph]s except ! ,platoni/s & ,py?agoreans 7 mat]iali/s2 & no logical ?9k] :o _h once appli$ 8 m9d to ! subject c\ld accept su* an absurdity z ! ev]la/+ duration ( a complex corporeal sub/ance1 :e!r consi/+ ( gase\s or ( fi]y matt]4 ,a majority ( ! ,/oics all[$ ! s\l to cont9ue its individual exi/5ce until1 9 common ) ! :ole _w1 x %\ld be reabsorb$ into ! elem5tal fire2 b o!rs look$ =w>d to a m spe$y ext9ction1 )\t ceas+ on t acc\nt to consid] !mselves or?odox memb]s ( ! s*ool4 ,( ^! ! mo/ rem>kable in/ance is ,m>cus ,aurelius4 ,! great emp]or 0 n bl9d to :at seem$ ! enorm\s inju/ice ( dea?1 & did n q see 8 way to reconcil+ x ) ! ,/oic belief 9 a b5efic5t provid5ce2 b ! difficulty ( f9d+ room = s _m gho/s1 & p]haps also ! ,h]acleitean dogma ( p]petual trans=mation1 l$ him to r5\nce :atev] hope he may at "o "t h *]i%$ ( ent]+ on a new exi/5ce 9 "s bett] _w4#cei ,a simil> consequ5ce 0 involv$ 9 ! pr9ciples ( ! ,p]ipatetic philosophy2 & ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias1 ! fam\s ,ari/otelian comm5tator1 :o fl\ri%$ ab\t #bjj ,a4,d41 affirms ! p]i%able nature ( ! s\l on 8 own acc\nt1 &1 ) p]fect ju/ice1 attributes ! same belief to ,ari/otle himself4#cfj ,among ! sci5tific & lit]>y m5 :o 7 n pl$g$ to any p>ticul> s*ool1 we f9d ! eld] ,pl9y reject+ ! belief 9 immortality1 n only z irrational b z ! rev]se ( consolatory4 ,x robs u1 he decl>es1 ( ,nature's mo/ especial boon1 :i* is dea?1 & d\bles ! pangs ( dissolution by ! prospect ( cont9u$ exi/5ce else:]e4#cfa ,qu9tilian leaves ! "q undecid$2#cfb ,tacitus expresses himself d\btfully2#cfc & ,gal51 ^: great physiological k enabl$ him to see h[ fallaci\s 7 ,plato's argum5ts1 :ile 8 philosophical tra9+ equally sep>at$ him f ! mat]iali/s1 also refuses to pron\nce 9 fav\r ( ei!r side4#cfd ,:at ,juv5al ?\ght is unc]ta92 b1 f 8 g5]al tone1 we may conjecture t he leant to ! negative side4#cfe ,aga9/ ^! we h to set ! confid5t expressions ( belief 9 a future life employ$ by all ! ,platoni/s & ,py?agoreans1 & by "s ( ! ,/oic s*ool4 ,b _! doctr9es on ! subject w be mo/ advantage\sly expla9$ :5 we come to deal ) ! religi\s philosophy ( ! age z a :ole4 ,:at we h n[ to exam9e is ! g5]al condition ( popul> belief z ev9c$ by ! "* ( ! fun]eal monum5ts erect$ 9 ! "t ( ! empire4 ,our au?orities are agre$ 9 /at+ t ! majority ( ^! be> witness to a wide-spread & ev]-gr[+ fai? 9 immortality1 sometimes convey$ "u ! =m ( inscriptions1 sometimes "u t ( figur$ reliefs1 sometimes m navely signifi$ by articles plac$ 9 ! tomb = use 9 ano!r _w4 #8,i am wait+ = my husb&1' is ! inscription plac$ ov] 8 dead wife by "o :o 01 l h]1 an enfran*is$ slave4 ,else:]e a wid[ #8comm5ds h] dep>t$ husb& to ! gods ( ! und]world1 & prays t !y w all[ 8 _s to revisit h] 9 ! h\rs ( ! night4'#cff #8,9 dea? ?\ art n dead1' are ! words deciph]$ on "o m\ld]+ /one4 #8,no1' says a fa!r to a son :om he _h lo/ 9 ,numidia1 #8?\ ha/ n gone d[n to ! abode ( ! ,manes b ris5 to ! />s ( heav54' ,at ,doxato1 ne> ,philippi 9 ,mac$onia1 #8a "m has grav5 on ! tomb ( h] *ild3 8,we are cru%$ by a cruel bl[1 b ?\ ha/ r5ew$ ?y be+ & art dwell+ 9 ! ,elysian fields40'#cfg ,?is conception ( ! future _w z a heav5ly & happy abode :]e human s\ls are receiv$ into ! society ( ! gods1 recurs ) especial frequ5cy 9 ! ,greek epitaphs1 b is also met ) 9 ,lat9-speak+ c\ntries4 ,&1 consid]+ h[ great a "p ! wor%ip ( dep>t$ spirits plays 9 all primitive religions1 j su* a t5d5cy might be expect$ to %[ itself at su* a "t1 if1 z we h cont5d$1 ! conditions ( society "u ! empire 7 calculat$ to set free ! orig9al =ces by :i* popul> fai? is creat$4 ,x seems1 !re=e1 r arbitr>y to assume1 z ,fri$lnd] does1#cfh t ! movem5t 9 "q 0 entirely due to ,platonic influ5ce1--especially consid]+ t !re are di/9ct traces ( x to be f\nd 9 ,p9d>2--al?\gh at ! same "t we may grant t x 0 p[]fully fo/]$ by ,plato's tea*+1 & receiv$ a fre% impulse f ! recon/itution ( 8 philosophy 9 ! ?ird c5tury ( our era4 ,side by side1 h[ev]1 ) ^! exalt$ aspirations1 ! old popul> belief 9 a subt]ranean abode ( s\ls surviv$ "u its v crude/ =ms2 & "h also mod]n explorations h br\ght to light v surpris+ evid5ce ( ! /r5g? ) :i* ! grotesque idea ( ,*>on ! ,/ygian f]ryman /ill kept its hold on ! imag9ation ( un$ucat$ p4 ,orig9ally peculi> to ,greece1 :]e x /ill exi/s "u a slightly alt]$ =m1 ?is sup]/ition p5etrat$ into ! ,we/ at a comp>atively e>ly p]iod4 ,?us 9 ! tombs ( ,campania alone _m hundr$ skeletons h be5 f\nd ) bronze co9s 9 _! m\?s1 plac$ !re to pay _! passage across ! ,/yx2 & explorations at ,pra5e/e %[ t ?is cu/om rea*es back to ! middle ( ! f\r? c5tury ,b4,c4 ,we also le>n f ,lucian t1 9 8 "t1 ! old animi/ic beliefs 7 ent]ta9$ to ! ext5t ( burn+ or bury+ ! clo!s1 ornam5ts1 & o!r appurt5ances ( deceas$ p]sons along ) _! bodies1 "u ! idea t ! own]s requir$ !m = use 9 ! o!r _w2 & x is to su* deposits t our museums ( classical antiquity owe ! great] "p ( _! cont5ts4#cfi ,:5 ! belief 9 a future life assumes ! =m la/ m5tion$1 x is1 z we h said1 simply a survival ( ! mo/ primitive animism1 n te/ify+ to any religi\s reaction at ! "t :5 x c be prov$ to h fl\ri%$4 ,x is introduc$ 9 ! pres5t connexion m]ely to %[ :at ideas 7 curr5t among ^? classes to ^: op9ions ,roman civilisation 0 gradually giv+ irresi/ible weight4 ,h[ ! m9ds ( ! ri*] & m educat$ classes 7 affect$ by ?is und]ly+ /ratum1 is %[n by ! nature ( ! figur$ repres5tations ) :i* _! la/ abodes 7 ornam5t$4 ,ev]yone has be5 made tol]ably famili> ) ^! ?r\gh ! sculptur$ s>cophagi pres]v$ 9 our museums2 b1 f _! symbolical "*1 ! significance ( ! reliefs ) :i* !y are decorat$ is n obvi\s at fir/ sight2 & "s ( ! my?ical adv5tures ?us embodi$ may h be5 wr\ght )\t any ref]5ce to ! de/9ation ( ! d>k & n>r[ *amb] :i* !y enclos$1 or may ev5 h be5 int5d$ to div]t ! imag9ation f sad ?\ghts by ! luxuriance ( ru%+ life & joy & victory :i* !y display$2 b aft] mak+ e possible d$uction on ?is score1 !re rema9 _m o!rs (f]+ a deep] s\rce ( consolation to ! b]eav$ survivor by ! pictur$ promise ( future reunion ) ^? :om he _h lov$ & lo/4 ,"o fav\rite subject is ! visit ( ,diana to ! sleep+ ,endymion1 by :i* is cle>ly =e%ad[$ an awak5+ to div9e felicity f ! sleep ( dea?4 ,! rape ( ,pros]p9e1 foll[$ by h] re/oration to ! upp] _w1 conveys a simil> int5tion2 z also does ! fate ( ,adonis1 s9ce he too 0 believ$ to h ris5 f ! dead4 ,! m>riage ( ,bac*us & ,ariadne unque/ionably symbolises ! ex*ange ( an e>?ly = a heav5ly life2 & ! sc5es ( ,bac*ic revelry ) :i* ! int]ior ( "s tombs is decorat$1 71 to ! imag9ation ( ^? :o design$ !m1 no unbecom+ image ( ! joys await+ a bless$ s\l 9 its cele/ial abode4 ,an inscription ( :i* we h already quot$ ! op5+ words expresses 9 t]ms t hope ( companion%ip ) ! joy\s b& ( ,dionysus at :i* ! pla/ic repres5tations c b mutely h9t4 #8,n[ 9 a fl[]y mead[1' says ! m\rn+ "m ( ,doxato to h] *ild1 #8! prie/ess m>k$ ) a sacr$ seal is enroll+ !e 9 ! troop ( ,bac*us1 :]e ! ,naiads t be> ! sacr$ baskets claim !e z _! fell[ to lead ! solemn procession by ! light ( tor*es4' ,at ! same "t1 a t5d]] or grav] note is (t5 /ruck4 ,! /ories ( ,admtus & ,alce/is1 ( ,protesilaus & ,laodameia1 po9t to a r5ewal ( conjugal love beyond ! grave4 ,:at 7 =m]ly suppos$ to be sc5es repres5t+ ! et]nal f>ewell ( husb& & wife are1 9 ! op9ion ( mod]n ar*aeologi/s1 pictures ( _! re/oration to ea* o!r's arms4 ,ris+ high] /ill1 ,a*illes among ! daught]s ( ,lycomdes probably typifies ! lib]ation ( an immortal _s f ! s$uctions ( s5se4 ,! lab\rs ( ,h]acles recall 8 apo!osis1 & seem to %[ t a life ( noble ef=t %all be rew>d$ h]eaft]4 ,! battle ( ! ,amazons is an allegory ( /rife ) & triumph ov] ! temptations ( e>?ly delight4 ,ano!r (t5-recurr+ !me1 ! hunt+ ( ! ,calydonian bo>1 may mean ! s\l's victory ov] dea?2 b ?is explanation is (f]$ only z a conjecture ( ! pres5t writ]'s4 ,a rem>kable circum/ance connect$ ) ! evid5ce af=d$ by ! figur$ monum5ts is its progressive "*4 ,accord+ to ,m4 ,ravaisson1 #8,z "t goes on1 ! indications ( belief 9 a future life1 in/ead ( becom+ fa9t]1 gr[ cle>] & m di/9ct4 ,m & m exalt$ ideas are =m$ ( ! s\l's de/9y1 & ev] increas+ hon\rs are paid to ! dead4 ,moreov]1 ^! ideas & practices are ext5d$ s z to cov] a great] numb] ( individuals4 ,at fir/ x w\ld seem t ! only p]sons ^: fate excites any int]e/ are k+s & h]oes1 ! *ildr5 or ! desc5dants ( ! gods2 9 ! c\rse ( "t _m o!rs1 & at la/ all1 or ne>ly all1 are admitt$ to a %>e 9 ! same reg>d4 ,! anci5t pr9ciple t happ9ess is res]v$ = ^? :o resemble ! gods rema9s un*ang$2 b ! notion ( :at con/itutes resemblance to ! gods1 or 9 o!r words p]fection1 gradually becomes s modifi$1 t all m5 may aspire to rea* x4'#cgj ,we are "h 9 pres5ce ( a ph5om5on l t to :i* att5tion 0 invit$ 9 an e>ly *apt] ( ?is "w4#cga ,! belief 9 immortality1 ent]ta9$ "u a gloomy & repulsive =m by ! un$ucat$1 is tak5 up by ! high] classes1 br\ght into contact ) _! m g5]\s ideas1 broad5$1 deep5$1 purifi$1 & f9ally made ! basis ( a new religion4 ,nev]!less1 9 ! pres5t in/ance at lea/1 all 0 n cle> ga92 & ! fai? :i* smiles on u f /ori$ s>cophagus & mural relief1 or pleads = our sympa?y 9 epitaphs m endur+ ?an ! hope :i* !y en%r9e1 _h also its grotesque & hide\s side1 = an expression ( :i* we mu/ turn to lit]ature aga94 ,once cr$it$ ) a cont9u$ exi/5ce1 ! dep>t$ _s w\ld n rema9 9 ! ,hades or ! ,elysium provid$ = x by ! ju/ice or ! piety1 ( ! survivor1 b p]si/$ 9 return+ to ?is _w & manife/+ a mo/ uncom=table int]e/ 9 its affairs2 or1 ev5 if will+ to rema9 at re/1 x 0 liable to be dragg$ back by incantations1 & compell$ to reveal ! secrets ( futurity at ! bidd+ ( an unpr9cipl$ magician4 ,:at sci5ce & good feel+ comb9$ h prov$ unable to keep d[n among ourselves1 naturally rag$ ) unmitigat$ virul5ce at a "t :5 ! primitive b>b>ism & sup]/ition 7 only cov]$ ov] by a cru/ ( culture :i* at _m po9ts 0 gr[+ ?9n] e day4 ,among ,lat9 writ]s1 ! y\ng] ,pl9y1 ,suetonius1 & ,apuleius1 among ,greek writ]s1 ,plut>*1 ,pausanias1 ,maximus ,tyrius1 ,philo/ratus1 & ,dion ,cassius1 af=d unequivocal evid5ce ( _! belief & ! belief ( _! contempor>ies 9 gho/ly app>itions2 & ,lucian1 :ile reject+ gho/-/ories on 8 own acc\nt1 speaks z if !y 7 implicitly accept$ ev5 9 philosophical circles4#cgb ,/ill m abundant is ! evid5ce prov+ ! frequ5cy ( attempts made to evoke spirits by means ( magical incantations4 ,horace's ,canidia boa/s t %e c raise ! dead ev5 aft] _! bodies h be5 burn$4#cgc ,lucan describes ! process ( conjur+ up a gho/ at l5g?2 & x is ?\ght t he ins]t$ ! :ole sc5e 9 8 poem z a satire on ! emp]or ,n]o1 :o is kn[n to h be5 addict$ to su* practices1 z 7 also 8 successors1 ,didius ,julianus1 ,c>acalla1 & ,elagabalus4 ,& t ! same art 0 cultivat$ by private p]sons is cle> f ! allusions made to x by ,qu9tilian1 ,apuleius1 ,t]tullian1 & ,heliodrus4#cgd ,,viii4 ,we h n[ to consid] h[ ! philosophy ( ! empire 0 affect$ by ! atmosph]e ( sup]naturalism :i* surr\nd$ x on e side4 ,( ! ,epicureans x ne$ only be said t !y 7 true to _! tru/1 & upheld ! pr9ciples ( _! f\nd] s long z ! sect itself cont9u$ to exi/4 ,b we may reckon x z a fir/ consequ5ce ( ! religi\s reaction1 t1 aft] ,lucretius1 ,epicureanism fail$ to secure ! adhesion ( a s+le em95t man1 & t1 ev5 z a popul> philosophy1 x suff]$ by ! competition ( o!r sy/ems1 among :i* ,/oicism long ma9ta9$ ! =emo/ place4 ,we %[$ 9 a =m] *apt] h[ /rong a religi\s col\r+ 0 giv5 to _! tea*+ by ! e>li] ,/oics1 especially ,clean!s4 ,x w\ld appe>1 h[ev]1 t ,panaetius disc>d$ _m ( ! sup]/itions accept$ by 8 pr$ecessors1 possibly z a concession to t reviv$ ,scepticism :i* 0 s vigor\sly advocat$ j be=e 8 "t2 & x 0 "u ! =m impos$ on x by ?is philosoph] t ,/oicism fir/ ga9$ acceptance 9 ,roman society2 if inde$ ! rationalism ( ,panaetius 0 n itself p>tly det]m9$ by 8 int]c\rse ) su* lib]al m9ds z ,laelius & ! y\ng] ,scipio4 ,b ,posidonius1 8 successor1 already m>ks ! beg9n+ ( a reaction>y movem5t2 &1 9 ,virgil1 ,/oical op9ions are closely associat$ ) an unque/ion+ acceptance ( ! anci5t ,roman fai?4 ,! attitude ( ,s5eca is mu* m indep5d5t2 he is full ( contempt = popul> sup]/ition1 & 8 god is n v di/+ui%able f ! ord] ( ,nature4 ,yet 8 t5d5cy t[>ds clo?+ philosophical in/ruction 9 religi\s t]ms des]ves notice1 z a symptom ( ! sup]ior facility ) :i* su* t]ms l5t !mselves to didactic purposes4 ,acceptance ( ! univ]sal ord] became m intelligible "u ! "n ( ob$i5ce to a div9e decree2 ! unity ( ! human race & ! obligations result+ !refrom impress$ !mselves m deeply on ! imag9ations ( ^? :o he>d t m5 are all memb]s ( "o body2 ! supremacy ( reason ov] appetite became m assur$ :5 its dictates 7 int]pret$ z ! voice ( a god )9 ! s\l4#cge ,! religi\s t5d5cy ( ,s5eca's philosophy appe>s r 9 8 psy*ology ?an 9 8 metaphysics1 9 ! /ress :i* he lays on human immortality r ?an 9 8 discussions on creation & div9e provid5ce4 ,8 /atem5ts on ?is subject are n1 inde$1 v consi/5t1 dea? be+ sometimes spok5 ( z ! end ( consci\sness1 & at o!r times1 z ! beg9n+ ( a new life1 ! #8bir?day ( et]nity1' to quote a phrase aft]w>ds adopt$ by ,*ri/ian prea*]s4 ,nor c we be absolutely c]ta9 t ! promis$ et]nity is n m]ely ano!r way ( express+ ! s\l's absorption into & id5tification ) ! fi]y elem5t :5ce x 0 orig9ally d]iv$4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is an ambiguity to be met ) 9 o!r doctr9es ( a spiritual exi/5ce aft] dea?1 nor is x entirely abs5t f ! language ev5 ( ,*ri/ian !ologians4 ,:at des]ves att5tion is t1 :e!r ! future life spok5 ( by ,s5eca be tak5 9 a lit]al or 9 a figurative s5se1 x is equally int5d$ to lead our ?\ghts away f ! _w ( s5sible exp]i5ce to a m ideal ord] ( ?+s2 &1 to t ext5t1 x falls 9 ) ! m g5]al religi\s movem5t ( ! age4 ,:e!r ,zell] is1 = t reason1 ju/ifi$ 9 speak+ ( him z a ,platonis+ ,/oic seems m que/ionable2 = ! ,/oics always agre$ ) ,plato 9 hold+ t ! s\l is di/9ct f & sup]ior to ! body1 & t x is consub/antial ) ! animat+ pr9ciple ( ,nature4 ,! same circum/ances :i* 7 else:]e lead+ to a revival ( ,platonism1 equally t5d$ to develope ?is side ( ,/oicism1 b x seems ne$less to seek = a clos] connexion betwe5 ! two ph5om5a4#cgf ,on pass+ f ,s5eca to ,epicttus1 we f9d t ! religi\s elem5t has receiv$ a consid]able accession ( /r5g?1 s consid]able1 inde$1 t ! simple progress ( "t w n altoge!r acc\nt = x4 ,some?+ is due to ! sup]ior dev\tness ( ! ,ea/]n m9d--,epicttus 0 a ,phrygian1--& /ill m to ! diff]5ce 9 /ation betwe5 ! two philosoph]s4 ,z a noble1 ,s5eca belong$ to ! class :i* 0 naturally mo/ incl9$ to adopt an indep5d5t attitude t[>ds ! popul> beliefs2 z a slave1 ,epicttus belong$ to ! class :i* 0 naturally mo/ am5able to _! au?ority4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 no accid5t t philosophy %\ld1 at a di/ance ( only a g5]ation1 be repres5t$ by two su* widely contra/$ individuals2 = ! :ole t5d5cy ( ,roman civilisation 01 z we h se51 to br+ ! ,ori5tal elem5t & ! s]vile elem5t ( society into ev]-increas+ prom95ce4 ,no?+ proves ! asc5d5cy ( religi\s consid]ations 9 ! m9d ( ,epicttus m /rongly ?an 8 av]sion f ! physical enquiries :i* 7 eag]ly prosecut$ by ,s5eca4 ,nature int]e/s him solely z a manife/ation ( div9e wisdom & goodness4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ?is int5sifi$ religi\s feel+1 ! ,/oic !ory ( natural law is trans=m$1 ) ,epicttus1 into an expression ( filial submission to ! div9e w1 :ile ! ,/oic teleology becomes an enum]ation ( ! bless+s %[]$ by provid5ce on man4 ,9 ! latt] respect1 8 /&po9t approa*es v ne> to t ( ,socrates1 :o1 al?\gh a free-born ,a!nian citiz51 belong$1 l him1 to ! poor] classes1 & sympa?is$ deeply ) _! feel+ ( dep5d5ce on sup]natural protection1--a rem>k :i* also applies to ! humble day-lab\r] ,clean!s4 ,epicttus also %>es ! idea1 *>act]i/ic ( ! ,platonic r ?an ( ! ,x5ophontic ,socrates1 t ! philosoph] is entru/$ ) a mission f ,god1 )\t :i* x w\ld be p]il\s = him to und]take ! (fice ( a tea*]1 & :i*1 9 ! dis*>ge ( t (fice1 he %\ld keep con/antly be=e 8 eyes4 ,b ! dialectical elem5t :i* ) ,socrates _h furni%$ s /rong a c\nt]poise to ! au?oritative & traditional side ( 8 philosophy1 is almo/ entirely want+ 9 ! disc\rses ( 8 imitator1 & ! little ( x :i* he admits is valu$ only z a means ( sil5c+ ! ,sceptics4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! weakness & insignificance ( human nature1 consid]$ on ! individual side1 are abundantly illu/rat$1 & contemptu\s dim9utives are habitually us$ 9 speak+ ( its compon5t p>ts4#cgh ,x w\ld seem t ! attitude ( pro/ration be=e an ov]:elm+ ext]nal au?ority prev5t$ ,epicttus f look+ v fav\rably on ! doctr9e ( individual immortality2 & ev5 if he accept$ t doctr9e1 :i* seems 9 ! highe/ degree improbable1 x held a mu* less important place 9 8 ?\ghts ?an 9 ^? ( ,cic]o & ,s5eca4 ,x w\ld seem1 also1 t ! ,/oic mat]ialism 0 betray+ its fundam5tal incompatibility ) a hope orig9ally borr[$ f ! idealism ( ,plato4 ,nor 0 ?is r5unciation inconsi/5t ) ! e?ical dualism :i* drew a %>p l9e ( di/9ction betwe5 fle% & _s 9 ! con/itution ( man1 = ! sup]iority ( ! _s arose f its id5tity ) ! div9e sub/ance into :i* x 0 de/9$ to be reabsorb$ aft] dea?4#cgi ,if1 9 ! philosophy ( ,epicttus1 physics & morality become entirely id5tifi$ ) religion1 religion1 on ! o!r h&1 rema9s entirely natural & moral4 ,x is an (f]+ n ( pray] b ( praise1 a s]vice less ( c]emonies & sacrifices ?an ( virtu\s de$s1 a /udy ( consci5ce r ?an ( prophecy1 a fai? n s mu* 9 sup]natural port5ts z 9 provid5tial law4#chj ,b 9 arriv+ at ,m>cus ,aurelius1 we h ov]/epp$ ! l9e :i* divides rational religion f sup]/ition4 ,in/ances ( ! good emp]or's a/oni%+ cr$ulity h already be5 giv5 & ne$ n be repeat$4 ,!y are en\gh to %[ t 8 lavi% exp5diture on public wor%ip 0 dictat$ by some?+ m ?an a reg>d = e/abli%$ cu/oms4 ,we "k1 inde$1 t ! hecatombs ) :i* 8 victories 7 celebrat$ gave occasion to pr(ane m]rim5t ev5 9 ! society ( t p]iod4 ,on "o occasion1 a petition 0 pass$ f h& to h&1 purport+ to be address$ to ! emp]or by ! :ite ox51 & deprecat+ 8 success on ! gr\nd t if he won !y 7 lo/4#cha ,yet ! same ,m>cus ,aurelius1 9 speak+ ( 8 pr$ecessor ,anton9us1 expressly specifies piety )\t sup]/ition z "o ( ! traits 9 8 "* :i* 7 mo/ des]v+ ( imitation4#chb ,&1 und\bt$ly1 ! m5tal condition ( ^? :o 7 cont9ually 9 an agony ( fe> le/ !y %\ld incur ! div9e displeasure by "s purely arbitr>y act or omission1 or :o suppos$ t ! gods might be brib$ into fur!r+ _! iniquit\s ent]prises1 0 beyond all comp>ison fur!r remov$ f true wisdom ?an ! condition ( ^? :o believ$ !mselves to be fav\r$ by p>ticul> manife/ations ( ! div9e b5efic5ce1 p]haps z a recomp5se = _! e>ne/ attempts to lead a j & holy life4 ,we may conclude1 !n1 t philosophy1 :ile injuri\sly affect$ by ! sup]naturali/ movem5t1 /ill protect$ its disciples aga9/ ! m virul5t =ms ( sup]/ition1 & by ent]+ into comb9ation ) ! popul> belief1 rais$ x to a high] level ( feel+ & ( ?\ght4 ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 by ,/oicism t ! f9al reconciliation ( anci5t religion ) philosophy c\ld be accompli%$1 b by c]ta9 old] =ms ( speculation :i* we n[ proce$ to /udy4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt] we attempt$ to %[ t ! t5d5cy ( ,roman ?\ght1 :5 br\ght into contact ) ! ,greek sy/ems1 0 to resolve !m into _! compon5t elem5ts1 or to ?r[ !m back on _! hi/orical antec$5ts4 ,z a result ( ?is dissolv+ process1 ! ,/oicism ( ! second c5tury split up into a numb] ( m or less conflict+ pr9ciples1 ea* ( :i* receiv$ exclusive prom95ce accord+ to ! *angeful mood ( ! ?9k] :o resort$ to philosophy = consolation or = help4 ,/oicism _h orig9ally embrac$ ! dynamism ( ,h]acleitus1 ! teleology ( ,socrates1 ! physical morality ( ,prodicus & 8 ,cynic successors1 ! sy/ematis+ dialectic ( ,ari/otle1 ! psy*ism ( ,plato & ! ,py?agoreans1 &1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! sup]/itions ( popul> my?ology4 ,) ,epicttus1 we f9d ! ,cynic & ! ,socratic elem5ts mo/ cle>ly develop$1 ) ,m>cus ,aurelius1 ! ,socratic & ! ,h]acleitean1 ! latt] be+ especially /rong 9 ! m$itations writt5 %ortly be=e 8 dea?4 ,9 ! ea/]n prov9ces ( ! empire1 ,cynicism 0 prea*$ z an indep5d5t sy/em ( morality1 & obta9$ great success by its popul> & propag&i/ "*4 ,dion ,*ryso/om1 a mu*-admir$ lectur] ( ! second c5tury1 speaks ) en?usiasm ( its mo/ fam\s repres5tative ,diog5es1 & rec\nts1 ) evid5t gu/o1 "s ( ! mo/ %ameless actions attribut$1 p]haps falsely1 to t ecc5tric philosoph]4#chc ,& ! popul> rhetorician ,maximus ,tyrius1 al?\gh a pr(ess$ ,platoni/1 places ! ,cynic life above e o!r4#chd ,b ! traditions ( ,cynicism 7 ?or\ghly oppos$ to ! preval5t poly!ism2 & its :ole attitude 0 calculat$ to repel r ?an to attract m9ds p5etrat$ ) ! en?usia/ic _s ( ! age4 ,to all su* ! ,neo-,py?agorean doctr9e came z a welcome revelation4 ,aft] its tempor>y adoption by ! ,academy1 ,py?agoreanism _h ceas$ to exi/ z an indep5d5t sy/em1 b cont9u$ to lead a sort ( und]gr\nd life 9 connexion ) ! ,orphic & ,dionysiac my/]ies4 ,:5 or :]e x reappe>$ "u a philosophical =m _c be c]ta9ly det]m9$4 ,zell] fixes on ! beg9n+ ( ! fir/ c5tury ,b4,c4 z ! mo/ probable date1 & on ,alex&ria z ! mo/ probable sc5e ( its r5ew$ speculative activity4#che ,"s fifty ye>s lat]1 we f9d ,py?agorean tea*]s 9 ,rome1 & traces ( _! influ5ce are pla9ly disc]nible 9 ! ,augu/an lit]ature4 ,"u its e>lie/ =m1 ! new sy/em 0 an attempt to comb9e ma!matical my/icism ) pr9ciples borr[$ f ! ,/oic & o!r philosophies2 or p]haps x 0 simply a return to ! poetical syncretism ( ,emp$ocles4 ,al?\gh compos$ ( fire & air1 ! s\l is decl>$ to be immortal2 & lessons ( hol9ess are accompani$ by an elaborate code ( rules = c]emonial purification4 ,! eld] ,sextius1 f :om ,s5eca d]iv$ mu* ( 8 e?ical en?usiasm1 probably belong$ to ?is s*ool4 ,he taught a morality app>5tly id5tical ) t ( ,/oicism 9 e po9t except ! inculcation ( ab/95ce f animal food4#chf ,to ?is might be add$ ! practice ( nightly self-confession--an exam9ation f ! moral po9t ( view ( h[ "o's :ole day has be5 sp5t1--7 we c]ta9 t ! ,/oics did n orig9ate x = !mselves4#chg ,! alliance betwe5 ,neo-,py?agoreanism & ,/oicism did n la/ long4 ,_! fundam5tal pr9ciples 7 too radically oppos$ to admit ( any reconciliation1 except :at c\ld be effect$ by ! absorption ( bo? into a m compreh5sive sy/em4 ,& ,roman ,/oicism1 at lea/1 0 too practical1 too sci5tific1 too sane1 to assimilate :at mu/ h seem$ a curi\s amalgam ( ma!matical juggl]y & dreamy asceticism2 :ile ! reputation ( belong+ to :at pass$ = a secret society w\ld be reg>d$ ) p>ticul> dread 9 ! vic9ity ( ! imp]ial c\rt1--x 01 9 fact1 = ?is p>ticul> reason t ! eld] ,s5eca p]suad$ 8 son to r5\nce ! veget>ian diet :i* ,sotion _h induc$ him to adopt1--& ! suspici\s ho/ility ( ! public au?orities may h _h some?+ to d ) ! spe$y disappe>ance ( ,neo-,py?agoreanism f ,rome4#chh ,on ! o!r h&1 s co>sely mat]iali/ic & utilit>ian a doctr9e z t ( ! ,por*1 mu/ h be5 equally repulsive to ! spiritualism :i*1 :ile x disc]n$ a deep k9%ip p]meat+ all =ms ( animal exi/5ce1 saw 9 ! outw>d conditions ( t exi/5ce only ! prison or ! tomb :]e a heav5-born exile lay immur$ 9 expiation ( ! guilt t _h driv5 him f 8 =m] & well-nigh =gott5 abode4 ,h5ce1 aft] ,s5eca1 we f9d ! two s*ools pursu+ div]g5t directions1 ! naturalism ( ! "o becom+ m & m contra/$ ) ! spiritualism ( ! o!r4 ,x has be5 m5tion$ h[ emphatically ,m>cus ,aurelius reject$ ! doctr9e ( a future life1 :i*1 p]haps1 _h be5 br\ght "u 8 notice z a t5et ( ! ,neo-,py?agoreans4 ,! latt]1 on _! side1 ab&on$ ! ,/oic cosmology = ! m cong5ial metaphysics ( ,plato1 :i* !y enri*$ ) "s elem5ts f ,ari/otle's sy/em1 b )\t 9 ! lea/ ackn[l$g+ _! obligations to ^? two illu/ri\s ma/]s4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y pr(ess$ to d]ive _! hidd5 wisdom f c]ta9 alleg$ writ+s ( ,py?agoras & 8 e>li] disciples1 :i*1 ) ! disreg>d = v]acity n uncommon among my/ics1 !y did n scruple to =ge :olesale4 ,z a consequ5ce ( _! un=tunate activity1 lit]ature 0 encumb]$ ) a mass ( wor?less productions1 ( :i* _m fragm5ts /ill survive1 mix$1 p]haps1 ) "s g5u9e relics ( old ,italiote speculation1 ! extrication ( :i* is1 h[ev]1 a task ( almo/ insup]able difficulty4 ,x is only z a religi\s philosophy t ,neo-,py?agoreanism c int]e/ u "h4 ,consid]$ 9 ?is light1 ! pr9ciples ( its adh]5ts may be summ$ up "u two heads4 ,fir/1 !y taught ! sep>ate exi/5ce ( _s z oppos$ to matt]4 ,unlike ! ,/oics1 !y di/+ui%$ betwe5 ,god & ,nature1 al?\gh !y 7 n agre$ z to :e!r _! ,supreme ,be+ transc5d$ ! _w or 0 imman5t 9 x4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 did n int]f]e ) _! fundam5tal cont5tion1 = ei!r alt]native is consi/5t ) 8 absolute immat]iality4 ,9 l mann]1 ! human s\l is absolutely indep5d5t ( ! body :i* x animates2 x has exi/$ & w cont9ue to exi/ = ev]4 ,! :ole object ( e?ics1 or r ( religion1 is to en=ce & illu/rate ?is indep5d5ce1 to prev5t ! s\l f becom+ atta*$ to its prison-h\se by indulg5ce 9 s5sual pleasures1 to gu>d its habitation aga9/ defil+ contact ) ! m (f5sive =ms ( mat]ial impurity4 ,h5ce _! recomm5dation ( ab/95ce f w9e1 f animal food1 & f m>riage1 _! provisions = p]sonal cleanl9ess1 _! use ( l95 in/ead ( wooll5 g>m5ts1 "u ! idea t a vegetable is pur] ?an an animal tissue4 ,! second article ( ! ,py?agorean cre$ is t _s1 be+ sup]ior to matt]1 has ! p[] ( int]f]+ ) & controll+ its movem5ts1 t1 be+ above space & "t1 x c be made manife/ )\t any reg>d to ! conditions :i* !y ord9>ily impose4 ,to :at an ext5t ?is belief 0 c>ri$1 is %[n by ! /ories told ( ,py?agoras1 ! suppos$ f\nd] ( ! s*ool1 & ,apollonius ( ,tyana1 its /ill great] repres5tative 9 ! fir/ c5tury ( our era4 ,bo? 7 cr$it$ ) an extraord9>y p[] ( work+ miracles & ( pr$ict+ future ev5ts2 b1 contr>y to ! usual cu/om ( my?olog]s1 a l>g] measure ( ?is p[] 0 ascrib$ to ! "o :o liv$ 9 a m advanc$ /age ( civilisation1 & ! composition ( ^: biography 0 sep>at$ by a comp>atively %ort int]val f ! ev5ts :i* x pr(esses to relate4#chi ,,ix4 ,! mo/ important result ( ! old ,py?agorean tea*+ 01 t x contribut$ a l>ge elem5t--some:at too l>ge1 inde$1--to ,plato's philosophy4 ,neo-,py?agoreanism be>s precisely ! same relation to t reviv$ ,platonism :i* 0 ! la/ outcome ( anci5t ?\ght4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ! great controv]sy betwe5 ,/oicism & ,scepticism1 :i* = c5turies divid$ ! s*ools ( ,a!ns1 & 0 pass$ on by !m to ,cic]o & 8 contempor>ies1 seem$ t5d+ t[>ds a reconciliation bas$ on a return to ! f\nd] ( ! ,academy1 :51 f :atev] cause1 ,greek speculation came to a halt1 :i* cont9u$ until ! la/ ?ird ( ! fir/ c5tury aft] ,*ri/4 ,at t epo*1 we f9d a great revival ( philosophical int]e/1 & ?is revival seems to h be5 ma9ta9$ = at lea/ a hundr$ ye>s1 t is to say1 ?r\gh ! :ole ( :at is call$ ! age ( ! ,anton9es4 ,9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce among ! rival sects :i* ensu$1 ,platonism />t$ ) all ! advantages t a great inh]itance & a great "n c\ld be/[4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( ?is p]iod1 we f9d ! ,academy once m pr(ess+ to hold ! doctr9es ( its f\nd] 9 _! orig9al purity & complet5ess4 ,evid5tly ! sob] common-s5se view ( ,antio*us _h be5 disc>d$1 & ,plato's own writ+s 7 tak5 z an au?oritative /&>d ( tru?4 ,a s]ies ( indu/ri\s comm5tators und]took ! task ( elucidat+ _! cont5ts4 ,nor 0 x only 9 ! s*ools t _! influ5ce 0 felt4 ,! beauty ( _! /yle mu/ h /rongly recomm5d$ ! ,dialogues to ! att5tion ( lit]>y m54 ,plut>*1 ! mo/ consid]able ,greek writ] ( 8 "t1 0 a decl>$ ,platoni/4 ,s also 0 ! brilliant ,african noveli/1 ,apuleius1 :o fl\ri%$ "u ,m>cus ,aurelius4 ,celsus1 ! celebrat$ anti-,*ri/ian controv]siali/1 & ,maximus1 ! ,tyrian rhetorician1 pr(ess$ ! same allegiance2 & ! illu/ri\s physiologi/ ,gal5 %[s traces ( ,platonic influ5ce4 ,platonism1 z fir/ con/itut$1 _h be5 an em95tly religi\s philosophy1 & its natural t5d5cies 7 /ill fur!r /r5g!n$ at ! p]iod ( its revival by ! great religi\s reaction :i* we h be5 /udy+ 9 ! pres5t *apt]2 :ile1 conv]sely1 9 ! /ruggle = supremacy among rival sy/ems1 its aff9ities ) ! _s ( ! age gave x an imm5se advantage ov] ! sceptical & mat]iali/ic philosophies1 :i* br\ght x into /ill clos] sympa?y ) ! curr5ts ( popul> op9ion4 ,& its p>tisans 7 drawn ev5 fur!r 9 ! same direction by ! influ5ce ( ,neo-,py?agoreanism1 repres5t+1 z ?is did1 "o among ! ?ree or f\r lead+ pr9ciples :i* ,plato _h attempt$ to comb9e4 ,! *ief !ological doctr9es held 9 common by ! two s*ools1 7 ! immortality ( ! s\l & ! exi/5ce ( daemons4 ,^! 7 suppos$ to =m a class ( spiritual be+s1 int]m$iate betwe5 gods & m51 & %>+ to "s ext5t 9 ! nature ( bo?4 ,accord+ to ,plut>*1 ?\gh v long-liv$1 !y are n immortal2 & he quotes ! fam\s /ory ab\t ! dea? ( ,pan 9 pro( ( 8 ass]tion2#cij b1 9 ?is respect1 8 op9ion is n %>$ by ,maximus ,tyrius#cia1 :o expressly decl>es !m to be immortal2 &1 inde$1 "o h>dly sees h[ ! contr>y c\ld h be5 ma9ta9$ consi/5tly ) ,platonic pr9ciples2 =1 if ! human s\l nev] dies1 mu* less c spirits ( a high] rank be doom$ to ext9ction4 ,z a class1 ! daemons are morally imp]fect be+s1 subject to human passions1 & capable ( wrong-do+4 ,l m5 also1 !y are divid$ into good & bad4 ,! =m] k9d p]=m provid5tial & retributive (fices on behalf ( ! high] gods1 inspir+ oracles1 puni%+ crime1 & succ\r+ di/ress4 ,^? :o p]mit !mselves to be influ5c$ by improp] motives 9 ! dis*>ge ( _! appo9t$ functions1 are degrad$ to ! condition ( human be+s4 ,! bad & morose sort are propitiat$ by a gloomy & self-torm5t+ wor%ip4#cib ,by means ( ! imp]fect "* ?us ascrib$ to ! daemons1 a way 0 f\nd = reconcil+ ! purifi$ !ology ( ,platonism ) ! old ,greek religion4 ,to ea* ( ! high] deities !re is atta*$1 we are told1 a daemon :o be>s 8 "n & is frequ5tly conf\nd$ ) him4 ,! immoral or unwor?y actions n>rat$ ( ! old gods 71 9 reality1 ! "w ( _! inf]ior namesakes4 ,?is !ory 0 adopt$ by ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur*1 ) ! diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 t !y altoge!r suppress$ ! high] class ( ,platonic p[]s1 & id5tifi$ ! daemons ) ! fall5 angels ( _! own my?ology4 ,?is is ! reason :y a ^w :i* 0 n orig9ally us$ 9 a bad s5se has come to be synonym\s ) devil4 ,x 0 9 p]fect accordance ) ! _s ( ,greek philosophy1 & m p>ticul>ly ( ,platonism1 t a connect+ l9k %\ld be int]pos$ betwe5 e>? & heav51 ! human & ! div9e1 especially :51 z at ?is "t1 ! supreme creator _h come to be isolat$ 9 solit>y spl5d\r f ! re/ ( exi/5ce2 b x w\ld be a mi/ake to suppose t ! daemons 7 inv5t$ = ! purpose to :i* !y 7 appli$4 ,we f9d !m m5tion$ by ,hesiod2#cic & !y probably repres5t an ev5 old] phase ( religi\s ?\ght ?an ! ,olympian gods1 be+1 9 fact1 a survival ( t primitive psy*ism :i* peopl$ ! :ole univ]se ) life & animation4 ,?is becomes /ill cle>] :5 we consid] t !y are describ$1 bo? "u _! e>lie/ & _! late/ ,greek =m1 z be+1 9 "p at lea/1 human s\ls rais$ aft] dea? to a high] sph]e ( activity4 ,among ^!1 ,maximus ,tyrius includes ! demi-gods ( my?ology1 su* z ,asclpius & ,h]acles1 :o1 z we h se51 7 objects ( p>ticul> v5]ation "u ! empire4#cid ,?us daemon-wor%ip comb9$ ?ree diff]5t elem5ts or aspects ( ! sup]naturali/ movem5t3--! free play giv5 to popul> imag9ation by ! decay or de/ruction ( ! ari/ocratic organisation ( society & religion1 ! increas+ t5d5cy to look = a p]petuation & elevation ( human exi/5ce1 & ! conv]g5ce ( philosophical speculation ) popul> fai?4 ,daemonism1 h[ev]1 does n fill a v great place 9 ! cre$ ( ,plut>*2 & a comp>ison ( him ) 8 successors %[s t ! san] traditions ( ,greek ?\ght only gradually gave way to ! ris+ flood ( ignorance & unreason4 ,x is true t1 z a morali/1 ! philosoph] ( ,*a]onea consid]$ religion ( ine/imable importance to human virtue & human happ9ess2 :ile1 z a hi/orian1 he accept$ /ories ( sup]natural occurr5ces ) a cr$ulity recall+ t ( ,livy & fall+ little %ort ( ,dion ,cassius4 ,nor did 8 own ,platoni/ic mono!ism prev5t him f ext5d+ a v g5]\s intellectual tol]ation to ! diff]5t =ms ( poly!ism :i* he f\nd ev]y:]e prevail+4#cie ,9 ?is respect1 he & probably all ! philosoph]s ( t & ! succe$+ age1 ! ,epicureans1 ! ,sceptics1 & "s ( ! ,cynics alone except$1 (f] a /rik+ contradiction to "o ( ,gibbon's mo/ celebrat$ epigrams4 ,to !m ! popul> religions 7 n equally false b equally true1 &1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 equally useful4 ,:]e ,plut>* drew ! l9e 0 at :at he call$ ,deisidaimonia1 ! frightful m5tal malady :i*1 z already m5tion$1 began to afflict ,greece soon aft] ! conque/s ( ,alex&]4 ,x is g5]ally translat$ sup]/ition1 b has a mu* n>r[] mean+4 ,x expresses ! beliefs & feel+s ( "o :o lives 9 p]petual dread ( provok+ sup]natural v5geance1 n by wrongful behavi\r t[>ds 8 fell[-m51 nor ev5 by int5tional disrespect t[>ds a high] p[]1 b by ! neglect ( c]ta9 c]emonial obs]vances2 & :o is con/antly on ! look-out = heav5-s5t progno/ications ( calamities1 :i*1 :5 !y come1 w app>5tly be inflict$ f %e] ill-w1 ,plut>* has devot$ "o ( 8 mo/ fam\s essays to ! ca/igation ( ?is weakness4 ,he delib]ately pref]s a!ism to x1 %[+ by an elaborate comp>ison ( in/ances t ! =m]--) :i*1 h[ev]1 he has no sympa?y at all--is mu* less injuri\s to human happ9ess1 & involves mu* less real impiety1 ?an su* a con/ant attribution ( mean+less malice to ! gods4 ,"o example ( ,deisidaimonia adduc$ by ,plut>* is ,sabbat>ianism1 especially :5 c>ri$1 z x _h rec5tly be5 by ! ,jews dur+ ! siege ( ,j]usalem1 to ! po9t ( entirely susp5d+ milit>y op]ations on ! day ( re/4#cif ,t ! belief 9 daemons1 "s ( :om pass$ = be+ malevol5t p[]s1 might yield a fruitful crop ( new sup]/itions1 does n seem to h occurr$ to ,plut>*2 /ill less t ! doctr9e ( future torm5ts ( :i*1 foll[+ ,plato's example1 he 0 a firm uphold]1 might prove a t]ror to o!rs besides (f5d]s aga9/ ! moral law1--especially :5 manipulat$ by a class ^: int]e/ x 0 to /imulate ! feel+ 9 "q to ! utmo/ possible int5sity4 ,:5 we pass f ,plut>* to ,maximus ,tyrius & ,apuleius1 ! d>kness gr[s p]ceptibly ?ick]1 & is no long] brok5 by ! lucida tela diei ) :i* ! ,!ban ?9k] _h combat$ at lea/ "o class ( mi/ak5 beliefs4 ,^! writ]s are s occupi$ ) develop+ ! positive aspects ( sup]naturalism--daemonology1 div9ation1 & ?aumaturgy--t !y c f9d no place = a prote/ aga9/ its extravagances & p]v]sions2 nor is _! my/icism balanc$ by ^? ext5sive applications ( philosophy to real life1 :e!r "u ! =m ( biography or ( disc\rses on practical morality1 :i* enabl$ ,plut>*'s m9d to pres]ve an attitude ( comp>ative sobriety & calmness4 ,h5ce :ile ,maximus is absolutely =gott51 & ,apuleius rememb]$ only z an amus+ /ory-tell]1 ,plut>* has be5 p]haps ! mo/ successful int]pret] betwe5 ,greek humanity & mod]n ?\ght4 ,8 popul>ity is n[ rapidly decl9+1 b ! influ5ce ex]cis$ by 8 writ+s on *>act]s diff]+ s mu* f "o ano!r & f 8 own z ^? ( ,montaigne1 ,r\sseau1 & ,wordswor?1 suffices to prove1 if any pro( be ne$$1 h[ deep & wide 7 ! sympa?ies :i* !y once evok$4 ,:at progress devotional feel+ _h made dur+ ! int]val :i* sep>at$ ,apuleius f ,plut>* & 8 s*ool1 may be illu/rat$ by a comp>ison ( ! t]ms :i* !y respectively employ 9 ref]5ce to ! ,egyptian ,isis4 ,! au?or ( ! treatise on ,isis & ,osiris id5tifies ! goddess ) ! female or mat]ial1 z di/+ui%$ f ! =mative pr9ciple 9 ,nature2 :i*1 to say ! lea/ ( x1 is n giv+ h] a v exalt$ rank 9 ! s*eme ( creation4 ,apuleius1 on ! o!r h&1 addresses h]1 or makes 8 h]o address h]1 9 ! foll[+ en?usia/ic language3-- ,holy ev]la/+ ,savi\r ( ! human race6 ,b\nte\s nurse ( mortals6 ,t5d] "m ( ! afflict$6 ,n = a day or night nor ev5 = "o little mom5t do/ ?\ relax ?y c>e = m51 driv+ away ! /orms ( life & /ret*+ =? to !m ! "r h& ( deliv]ance1 :]e) ?\ do/ unravel ev5 ! tangl$ ?reads ( fate1 soo! ! /orms ( =tune1 & re/ra9 ! hurtful c\rses ( ! />s4 ,! gods above adore !e1 ! gods bel[ respect2 ?\ do/ cause ! heav5s to roll1 ! sun to %9e2 ! _w ?\ rule/1 & treade/ ,t>t>us "u foot4 ,to !e ! />s reply1 = !e ! seasons come aga92 9 !e ! deities rejoice1 & !e ! elem5ts obey4 ,at ?y nod ! breezes bl[1 ! cl\ds drop fatness1 ! se$s g]m9ate & se$l+s spr+4 ,b my wit is small to celebrate ?y praises1 my =tune poor to pay !e sacrifices1 ! abundance ( my voice does n suffice to tell :at ,i ?9k ( ?y maje/y1 nor w\ld a ?\s& tongues nor an unwe>i$ & ev]la/+ fl[ ( spee*4 ,!re=e :at alone religion jo9$ to pov]ty c a*ieve1 ,i w provide3 an image ( ?y div9e c\nt5ance & mo/ holy godhead1 gu>d$ = p]petual contemplation )9 ! recesses ( my he>t4#cig ,d\btless ! cool intellect ( a ,greek & ! f]vid temp]am5t ( an ,african w\ld always h express$ !mselves 9 widely diff]5t acc5ts4 ,:at we h to note is t ! "o 0 n[ tak+ ! place ( ! o!r because ! atmosph]e _h be5 heat$ up to a po9t z fav\rable to passion z x 0 fatal to ?\ght4 ,aft] ,apuleius1 ,platonism1 outside ! lecture rooms ( ,a!ns1 becomes id5tifi$ ) ,py?agoreanism1 & bo? ) dogmatic !ology4 ,9 ?is direction1 philosophy 0 feel+ its way t[>ds a reconciliation ) two great ,ori5tal religions1 ,hebrew mono!ism & ,m$o-,p]sian dualism4 ,! fir/ advances _h come f religion4 ,ari/obulus1 an ,alex&rian ,jew 7,b4,c4 #afj71 0 app>5tly ! fir/ to detect an analogy betwe5 ! lat] speculations ( ,plato & 8 own h]$it>y fai?4 ,bo? taught t ! _w _h be5 creat$ by a s+le supreme ,god4 ,bo? 7 p5etrat$ ) ! pure/ e?ical ideas4 ,bo? associat$ s5suality & idolatry 9 ! same vehem5t d5unciations4 ,! conclusion 0 obvi\s4 ,:at _h be5 sup]naturally reveal$ to ! *os5 p c\ld n h be5 discov]$ else:]e by a simple ex]cise ( human reason4 ,plato mu/ h borr[$ 8 wisdom f ,moses4#cih ,at a lat] p]iod1 ! celebrat$ ,philo1 foll[+ up ! clue ?us furni%$1 proce$$ to evolve ! :ole ( ,greek philosophy f ! ,p5tateu*4 ,an elaborate sy/em ( allegorical int]pretation1 borr[$ f ! ,/oics1 0 ! in/rum5t ) :i* he effect$ 8 ent]prise4 ,! result 0 :at might h be5 =ese5--a complete ,hell5isation ( ,hebrew religion4 ,circumscription1 anti!sis1 & m$iation 71 z we "k1 ! *ief mom5ts ( ,greek ?\ght4 ,philo re>rang$ 8 mono!i/ic sy/em accord+ to ! s*eme :i* !y suppli$4 ,he fir/ det]m9$ ! div9e unity ) su* logical precision z to place ,god out ( relation to ! _w4 ,!n1 9 ! true ,greek _s1 he plac$ at ! o!r end ( 8 metaphysical scale matt]--! %ift+1 =mless1 %ad[y residuum left beh9d :5 e ideal elem5t has be5 ?\ght away f ! _w4 ,s conceiv$1 matt] became1 :at x _h be5 to ,plato1 ! pr9ciple ( all evil1 & !re=e some?+ ) :i* ,god c\ld n possibly be br\ght into contact4 ,accord+ly1 ! process ( creation is made intelligible by ! int]position ( a connect+ l9k 9 ! %ape ( c]ta9 hypo/asis$ div9e attributes or =ces1 repres5t$ z at ! same "t belong+ to & di/9ct f ! div9e p]sonality4 ,( ^! ! mo/ important are ! goodness to :i* ! _w owes its orig91 & ! p[] by :i* x is gov]n$4 ,bo? are unit$ 9 ! ,logos or ,^w4 ,?is la/ idea--:i*1 by ! way1 0 d]iv$ n f ,plato b f ! ,/oics--sums up 9 itself ! totality ( m$iatorial functions by :i* ,god & ! _w are put into communication ) "o ano!r4 ,9 l mann]1 ,plato _h int]pos$ a univ]sal s\l betwe5 8 ,ideas & ! _w ( s5sible appe>ances1 & _h po9t$ to an arrangem5t ( ! ,ideas !mselves by :i* we c\ld asc5d 9 ?\ght to a contemplation ( ! absolute good4 ,!re seems1 h[ev]1 to be a diff]5ce betwe5 ! orig9al ,hell5ic conception & ! same conception z adapt$ to ,ori5tal ways ( ?9k+4 ,) ,plato1 z ) e o!r ,greek philosoph]1 a m$iator is introduc$ n = ! purpose ( repres5t+ ! supreme ideal to u nor ( transmitt+ our aspirations to x1 b ( guid+ & facilitat+ our approa* to x1 ( help+ u to a p]fect appreh5sion & realisation ( its mean+4 ,) ,philo1 on ! contr>y1 ! relation ( ! ,logos to ,god is mu* ! same z t ( a ,gr& ,vizi] to an ,ori5tal ,sultan4 ,&1 f ?is po9t ( view1 x is v significant t he %\ld comp>e x to ! high-prie/ :o lays ! pray]s ( ! p be=e ! et]nal ?rone1 especially :5 we c\ple ?is ) 8 decl>ation t ! ,logos is ! ,god ( u imp]fect be+s1 ! fir/ ,god be+ res]v$ = ! contemplation ( ^? :o are wise & p]fect4#cii ,su* a sy/em 0 likely to result1 & be=e long actually did result1 9 ! realisation ( ! ,logos on e>?1 9 ! creation ( an inspir$ & infallible ,*ur*1 m$iat+ betwe5 ,god & man2 :ile x gave increas$ au?ority & expansive p[] to ano!r sup]/ition :i* already exi/$ 9 ,philo's "t1 & ( :i* 8 ,logos doctr9e 0 p]haps only ! metaphysical sublimation1--! sup]/ition t ! div9e ,^w has be5 giv5 to mank9d "u ! =m ( an infallible book4 ,f ano!r po9t ( view1 we may disc]n a c]ta9 connexion betwe5 ! idea t ,god w\ld be defil$ by any imm$iate contact ) ! mat]ial _w1 & ! ,sabbat>ianism :i* 0 s rife among ,g5tiles z well z among ,jews at t p]iod4 ,= su* a !ory ( ! div9e "* readily associates itself ) ! notion t hol9ess excludes n only mat]ial indu/ry b any int]e/ ! scope ( :i* is limit$ to our pres5t life4 ,t ,philo's int]pretation ( ,platonism ultimately react$ on ,greek ?\ght seems c]ta91 b at :at date 8 influ5ce began to tell1 & h[ f> x rea*$1 mu/ rema9 undecid$4 ,plut>* speaks ( ,god's purity & ( 8 transc5d5t elevation above ! univ]se 9 language closely resembl+ t ( ! ,alex&rian ,jew1 ) ^: op9ions he may h be5 indirectly acqua9t$4#djj ,we h already se5 h[ ! daemons 7 employ$ to fill up ! int]val ?us creat$1 & :at s]i\s concessions to popul> sup]/ition ! belief 9 _! activity involv$4 ,/ill ,plut>* does n g s f> z to say t ! _w 0 n creat$ by ,god4 ,?is /ep 0 tak5 by ,num5ius1 a philosoph] :o fl\ri%$ ab\t ! middle ( ! second c5tury1 & :o repres5ts ! complete id5tification ( ,platonism ) ,py?agoreanism1 already m5tion$ z *>act]i/ic ( ! p]iod foll[+ t date4 ,num5ius is acqua9t$ ) ,philo's speculations1 & accepts 8 d]ivation ( ,platonism f ! ,p5tateu*4 #8,:at1' he asks1 #8is ,plato b a ,moses writ+ 9 ! ,attic dialect8'#dja ,he also accepts ! !ory t ! _w 0 creat$ by a s+le int]m$iate ag5t1 :om1 h[ev]1 he cr$its ) a mu* m di/9ct & indep5d5t p]sonality ?an ,philo c\ld see 8 way to admitt+4 ,& he reg>ds ! human s\l z a fall5 _s ^: life on e>? is ! consequ5ce ( its own s9ful desires4 ,f su* fancies !re 0 b a s+le /ep to ! m ?or\gh-go+ dualism :i* looks on ! mat]ial _w z entirely evil1 & z ! creation ( a bl9d or malevol5t p[]4 ,?is /ep _h already be5 tak5 by ,gno/icism4 ,! sy/em s call$ summ$ up 9 itself1 m completely1 p]haps1 ?an any o!r1 all ! conv]g5t or conflict+ ideas ( ! age4 ,greek my?ology & ,greek philosophy1 ,zoroa/rianism1 ,judaism1 & ,*ri/ianity ea* contribut$ an elem5t to ! fanta/ic & complicat$ s*eme prop\nd$ by its la/ great repres5tative1 ,val5t9us4 ,?is tea*] pit*es 8 conception ( ! supreme ,god ev5 high] ?an ,philo1 & places him1 l ,plato's absolute ,good1 outside ! sph]e ( be+4 ,f him--or x--z f a bottomless gulf proce$ a va/ s]ies ( emanations end+ 9 ! ,demiurgus or creator ( ! visible _w1 ^: action is describ$1 9 language vividly recall+ ! speculations ( c]ta9 mod]n metaphysicians1 z an enorm\s blund]4 ,=1 accord+ to ,gno/icism1 ! _w is n m]ely infect$ ) evil by p>ticipation 9 a mat]ial pr9ciple1 x is evil altoge!r1 & a special int]v5tion ( ! high] p[]s is ne$$ 9 ord] to undo ! "w ( its deliri\s au?or4#djb ,"h we h a p>ticul> side ( ,plato's philosophy exagg]at$ & di/ort$ by contact ) ,zoroa/rian dualism4 ,9 ! ,/atesman !re is a my?ical description ( two alt]nate cycles1 9 "o ( :i* ! _w is gov]n$ by a wise provid5ce1 :ile 9 ! o!r ?+s are ab&on$ to !mselves1 & move 9 a direction ! rev]se ( t orig9ally impos$ on !m4 ,x is 9 ! latt] cycle t ,plato supposes u to be mov+ at pres5t4#djc ,aga91 aft] hav+ be5 long cont5t to expla9 ! orig9 ( evil by ! resi/ance ( in]t matt] to ! in=m+ p[] ( ideal goodness1 ,plato goes a /ep fur!r 9 8 late/ "w1 ! ,laws1 & haz>ds ! hypo!sis ( an evil s\l actively c\nt]work+ ! b5efic5t designs ( ,god4#djd ,& we f9d ! same idea subsequ5tly tak5 up by ,plut>*1 :o sees 9 x ! mo/ effici5t means = exon]at+ ,god f all %>e 9 ! responsibility = physical disord] & moral wrong4#dje ,b bo? ma/] & disciple re/rict$ ! influ5ce ( _! suppos$ evil s\l )9 v n>r[ limits1 & !y w\ld h repudiat$ ) horror su* a notion z t ! :ole visible _w is a product ( folly or ( s94 ,gno/ic pessimism m>ks ! extreme po9t ( ab]ration to :i* ,greek ?\ght 0 drawn by ! attraction ( ,ori5tal sup]/ition4 ,h[ x 0 rescu$ f de/ruction by a new sy/ematisation ( its anci5t me?ods & results w be expla9$ 9 ano!r *apt]4 ,x4 ,9 conclusion1 a few words may pr(itably be devot$ to ! "q :e!r ! rationali/ic movem5t ( our own age is likely to be foll[$ by su* ano!r sup]naturali/ reaction z t :i* made itself s p[]fully felt dur+ ! fir/ c5turies ( ,roman imp]ialism4 ,!re is1 no d\bt1 a c]ta9 sup]ficial resemblance betwe5 ! _w ( ! ,caes>s & ! _w 9 :i* we live4 ,ev]y:]e we see ari/ocracies giv+ way to m c5tralis$ & equitable =ms ( gov]nm5t1 ! au?ority ( :i* is sometimes conc5trat$ 9 ! h&s ( a s+le absolute rul]4 ,n only are ! int]e/s & wi%es ( ! poor] & less educat$ classes consult$ ) increas+ anxiety1 b ! welf>e ( wom5 is engross+ ! att5tion ( mod]n legislators to an ev5 great] ext5t ?an 0 ! case ) ! imp]ial juri/s4 ,facilities = travell+1 jo9$ to ! f>-rea*+ comb9ations ( mod]n /atesman%ip & mod]n /rategy1 are e day br++ ,europe into clos] contact ) ! religi\s life ( ,asia4 ,! decay ( traditional & organis$ !ology is p]mitt+ c]ta9 =ms ( spontane\s & unorganis$ sup]/ition to develope !mselves once m1 z witness ! wide diffusion ( spiritism1 :i* is probably ak9 to ! demonology & wit*craft ( e>li] ages1 & w\ld1 no d\bt1 be simil>ly p]secut$ by ! prie/s1--:o1 z x is1 attribute spirituali/ic manife/ations to diabolical ag5cy1--_h !y suffici5t p[] = ! purpose4 ,la/ly1 correspond+ to ! syncretism ( ! ,roman empire1 we may obs]ve a c]ta9 mixture & comb9ation ( religi\s pr9ciples1 ,ca?olic ideas be+ av[$ly adopt$ by ev5 ! mo/ latitud9>ian ,prote/ants1 & ,prote/ant influ5ces ent]+ into ,ca?olicism1 mu* m imp]ceptibly x is true1 b probably to an equal ext5t4 ,! analogy betwe5 mod]n ,europe & ! ,roman empire is1 h[ev]1 z we h already h9t$1 m]ely sup]ficial4 ,x has be5 %[n 9 ! c\rse ( our analysis t to ensure ! triumph ( sup]/ition 9 ! old _w some?+ m 0 necess>y ?an ! de/ruction ( ari/ocratic gov]nm5t4 ,e feel+ ( lib]ty--except ! lib]ty to die--& almo/ e feel+ ( self-respect _h to be cru%$ out by ! e/abli%m5t ( an au?oritative hi]>*y ext5d+ f ! ,emp]or d[n to ! meane/ slaves1 be=e ! voice ( ,hell5ic reason c\ld be hu%$4 ,b among ourselves x is r ( ! opposite fault--( too great indep5d5ce & individualism--t compla9ts are he>d4 ,if we occasionally see a h]$it>y mon>* or a popul> m9i/] inve/$ ) despotic p[]1 ?is ph5om5on is probably due to ! circum/ances ( a revolution>y p]iod1 & w 9 c\rse ( "t become m & m exceptional4 ,flatt]]s1 p>asites1 & w-hunt]s are n an increas+ b a dim9i%+ class4 ,mod]n (fic]s1 z a body1 %[ none ( t contempt = reason+ & am5ability to sup]/ition :i* *>act]is$ ! ,roman c5turions2 9 ,france1 milit>y m5 are ev5 di/+ui%$ = _! deadly hatr$ ( prie/s4 ,&1 :at is m important ?an any o!r elem5t 9 our comp>ison1 ! res]ves :i* mod]n civilisation is br++ to ! front are ( a widely diff]5t intellectual /ature & equipm5t f _! pr$ecessors "u ,augu/us & ! ,anton9es4 ,s9ce ! reorganisation ( indu/ry by sci5ce1 millions ( work+-m5 h receiv$ an education :i* prep>es !m to und]/& ! univ]sality ( law mu* bett] ?an ! lit]>y education giv5 to _! social sup]iors1 :i*1 inde$1 be>s a rem>kable resemblance to ! rhetorical & sophi/ical tra9+ enjoy$ by ! contempor>ies ( ,maximus ,tyrius & ,apuleius4 ,if z mu* _c be said ( ! middle classes1 !y are at any rate f> m enlight5$ ?an ,roman prov9cials1 & are likely to improve /ill fur!r ) ! spread ( education--ano!r peculi>ly mod]n ph5om5on4 ,on ?is po9t we h1 inde$1 some?+ bett] to argue f ?an priori probabilities4 ,we see be=e our eyes ! rationali/ic movem5t advanc+ p>i passu ) ! democratic movem5t1 &1 9 "s c\ntries1 ov]tly aid$ by x4 ,to say t ?is alliance has be5 provok$ by an accid5tal & tempor>y association ( mon>*y & ari/ocracy ) ,*ur* e/abli%m5ts1 is a sup]ficial explanation4 ,! paid advocates ( delusion "k well :]e _! int]e/ lies4 ,!y h le>n$ by exp]i5ce t democracy means ! education ( ! p1 & t ! education ( ! p means ! loss ( _! own pre/ige4 ,& !y "k also t1 9 _m cases1 ! p are already suffici5tly educat$ to use political p[]1 once !y h obta9$ x1 = ! summ>y de/ruction ( organis$ & end[$ sup]/ition4 ,:at has be5 said ( popul> influ5ce applies equally to ! influ5ce ( wom54 ,:5 !y 7 ei!r n educat$ at all or only receiv$ a lit]>y education1 e improvem5t 9 _! position 0 simply s mu* gr\nd ga9$ = sup]/ition4 ,! prospect is v diff]5t n[4 ,wom5 are beg9n+ to receive a tra9+ l t ( m51 or r a tra9+ sup]ior to :at all b a v few m5 h hi!rto enjoy$4 ,& ! result is t1 :]ev] ?is exp]im5t has be5 tri$1 !y h flung aside traditional beliefs once suppos$ to be a necessity ( _! nature ev5 m decisively & disda9fully ?an h ! pr(essors by :om !y are taught4 ,once m1 !re 0 a cause ( intellectual deg5]ation at "w 9 ! anci5t _w1 :i* = u has almo/ ceas$ to exi/4 ,?is 0 ! flood ( b>b>ism :i* envelop$ & corrupt$1 long be=e x ov]:elm$1 ! ,hell5is$ civilisation ( ,rome4 ,b if ! dang] ( su* an inundation is = ev] remov$1 are we equally secure aga9/ ! contagion ( t intellectual miasma :i* broods ov] ! multitud9\s b>b>ian populations among :om we 9 turn are settl+ z conqu]ors & coloni/s8 ,anyone *oos+ to ma9ta9 ! negative might po9t to ! example ( a fam\s naturali/ :o1 besides contribut+ l>gely to ! advancem5t ( 8 own special sci5ce1 is also di/+ui%$ = high g5]al culture1 b :om long resid5ce 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies has fitt$ to be ! dupe ( impo/ures :i* x is a disgrace ev5 = m5 & wom5 ( fa%ion to accept4 ,exp]i5ce1 h[ev]1 tea*es u t1 s f> at lea/1 !re is little dang] to be dread$ f ?is qu>t]4 ,in/ead ( be+ prone to sup]/ition1 ,anglo-,indian society is describ$ z prevail+ly sceptical or ev5 agno/ic2 &1 9 fact1 ! /udy ( !ology 9 its l[e/ =ms is apt to />t a tra9 ( reflection n entirely conducive to v5]ation = its m mod]n developm5ts4 ,= ! re/1 ,european enlight5m5t seems likely to spread fa/] & f>!r among ! conqu]$1 ?an ,ori5tal d>kness among ! conqu]+ race4 ,s f>1 we h only consid]$ belief 9 its relation to ! re-di/ribution ( political1 social1 & national =ces4 ,b beh9d all su* =ces !re is a deep] & m p]5nial cause ( intellectual revolution at "w4 ,!re is n[ 9 ! _w an organis$ & ev]-gr[+ mass ( sci5tific tru?s1 at lea/ a ?\s& times great] & a ?\s& times m diffus$ ?an ! am\nt ( positive k possess$ by mank9d 9 ! age ( ! ,anton9es4 ,:at ^? tru?s c d 9 ! future may be inf]r$ f :at !y h already done 9 ! pa/4 ,ev5 ! elem5t>y sci5ce ( ,alex&ria1 ?\gh x c\ld n cope ) ! sup]naturali/ reaction ( ! empire1 prov$ /rong en\gh1 "s c5turies lat]1 to *eck ! flood ( ,mahometan fanaticism1 & = a "t to lead captivity captive 9 ! v /rongholds ( militant !ological belief4 ,:51 long aft]w>ds1 ,jesuitism & ,puritanism betwe5 !m ?reat5$ to reconqu] all t ! humanism ( ! ,r5aissance _h won f sup]/ition1 :5 all ,europe f end to end 0 r$ ) ! blood or black5$ ) ! dea?-fires ( h]etics & wit*es1 sci5ce1 :i* _h mean:ile be5 sil5tly lay+ ! f\ndations ( a new k+dom1 _h b to appe> be=e ! eyes ( m51 & !y left ! p[]s ( d>kness to foll[ :]e %e l$4 ,:5 ! follies & excesses ( ! ,revolution provok$ ano!r intellectual reaction1 h] au?ority r$uc$ x to a m]e mimicry & %ad[ ( ! t]rible rev5ges by :i* analog\s epo*s 9 ! pa/ hi/ory ( op9ion _h be5 signalis$4 ,& ?is 0 at a "t :5 ! mat]ials ( reaction exi/$ 9 abundance1 because ! rationali/ic movem5t ( ! eighte5? c5tury _h left ! middle & l[] classes unt\*$4 ,at ! pres5t mom5t1 ,ca?olicism has no allies b a dispirit$1 half-sceptical ari/ocracy2 & any appeal to o!r qu>t]s w\ld %[ t h] =m] res]ves h irrevocably pass$ ov] to ! foe4 ,:at is m1 %e has unconsci\sly be5 play+ ! game ( rationalism = fifte5 c5turies4 ,by wag+ a m]ciless w>f>e on e o!r =m ( sup]/ition1 %e has done h] be/ to dry up ! s\rces ( religi\s belief4 ,^? :om %e calls hea!ns & pagans liv$ 9 an atmosph]e ( sup]naturalism :i* r5d]$ !m f> less apt pupils ( philosophy ?an h] own *ildr5 are to-day4 ,x 0 h>d] to r5\nce :at %e took away ?an x w be to r5\nce :at %e has left1 :5 ! tru?s ( sci5ce are se5 by all1 z !y are n[ se5 by a few1 to involve ! admission t !re is no object = our devotion b ! welf>e ( s5ti5t be+s l ourselves2 t !re are no *anges 9 ,nature = :i* natural =ces w n acc\nt2 & t ! unity ( all exi/5ce has1 = u1 no individualisation beyond ! f9ite & p]i%able consci\sness ( man4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,spiritualism ,,( ,,plot9us4 ,i4 ,among ! mo/ int]e/+ ( ,plut>*'s religi\s writ+s is "o entitl$ ,on ! ,delays 9 ! ,div9e ,v5geance4 ,z might be expect$ f ! "n1 x deals ) a problem closely ak9 to t :i* ages be=e _h be5 made ! subject ( su* sublime imag]y & su* inconclusive reason+ by ! au?or ( ! ,book ( ,job4 ,:at tr\bl$ ! ,hebrew poet 0 ! app>5tly undes]v$ suff]+ ( ! j4 ,:at ! ,greek morali/ feels himself call$ on to expla9 is ! app>5t prosp]ity & impunity ( ! wick$4 ,he w n = a mom5t admit t crime rema9s unav5geful2 8 object is to %[ :y ! retribution does n foll[ directly on ! de$4 ,&1 9 ord] to acc\nt = ?is1 he adduces a numb] ( v +5i\s reasons4 ,by act+ delib]ately r ?an 9 bl9d ang]1 ! gods wi% to read u a useful lesson 9 pati5ce & =be>ance4 ,sometimes _! object is to give ! s9n] an opportunity = rep5tance & am5dm5t2 or else !y may be hold+ him 9 res]ve = ! p]=mance ( "s b5eficial "w4 ,at o!r times1 _! ju/ice is delay$ only t x may be manife/$ by "s signal & /rik+ =m ( retribution4 ,9 _m cases1 ! f9al /roke has be5 prec$$ by long ye>s ( secret torm5t2 & ev5 :]e no suff]+ seems to be inflict$1 ! pangs ( remorse may furni% a suffici5t expiation4 ,or aga91 v5geance may be res]v$ = a future g5]ation4 ,"s p]sons hold t to visit ! s9s ( ! fa!rs on ! *ildr5 is unju/1 b 9 ?is !y are pr(\ndly mi/ak54 ,memb]s ( ! same family & citiz5s ( ! same /ate are connect$ z p>ts ( "o organic :ole2 %>+ 9 ! b5efits :i* accrue f ! good de$s ( _! pr$ecessors1 x is "r t !y %\ld also %>e 9 ! responsibility = _! crimes4 ,moreov]1 ! po/]ity ( ! wick$ inh]it a s9ful disposition :i*1 z ! gods c cle>ly =esee1 w\ld betray itself 9 ov]t acts 7 !y n cut (f 9 _! y\?4 ,& x is equally an error to suppose t ! orig9al wrongdo]s rema9 unaffect$ by ! retribution :i* befalls _! desc5dants4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y witness x f ! next _w1 :]e x adds poignancy to _! remorse1 & entails on !m fre% p5alties ov] & above ^? :i* !y h already be5 doom$ to suff]4 ,?us ) ,plut>*1 z ) 8 ma/] ,plato1 a future _w is ! gr& c\rt ( appeal f ! anomalies & inequalities ( ?is _w2 &1 foll[+ ! example ( ! ,gorgias & ! ,republic1 he res]ves to ! la/ a t]rible picture ( ! torm5ts held 9 /ore = ^? :o h n expiat$ _! transgressions on e>?1 describ+ !m z !y are suppos$ to h be5 witness$ by a human s\l tempor>ily sep>at$ f ! body = ! purpose ( view+ & report+ on ?is f9al manife/ation ( div9e ju/ice4 ,x w\ld appe>1 h[ev]1 f ! n>rative 9 "q t future puni%m5ts are n et]nal4 ,aft] a m or less protract$ p]iod ( expiation1 ! immortal s\l is re/or$ to ! upp] _w1 "u :atev] embodim5t seems mo/ appropriate to its =m] c>e]4 ,among ^? ^: turn has arriv$ = ent]+ on a new exi/5ce at ! mom5t :5 ,plut>*'s visitor makes 8 desc5t to hell1 is ! s\l ( ,n]o4 ,! wick$ ,emp]or has j be5 condemn$ to assume ! =m ( a vip]1 :5 a great light %9es =?1 & f ! mid/ ( ! light a voice is he>d cry+3 #8,let him reappe> "u ! guise ( a song-bird haunt+ ! neighb\rhood ( m>%es & m]es2 = he has already paid ! p5alty ( 8 guilt1 & ! gods owe him "s k9dness = hav+ lib]at$ ,greece1 ! be/ & mo/ belov$ by !m ( all ! nations t he rul$4' ,x w\ld seem f ?is s+ul> & t\*+ expression ( gratitude t ! dea?less idealism ( ,hellas f\nd 9 ,n]o's gift ( a nom9al lib]ty ample comp5sation = ! v real & preci\s works ( art ( :i* %e 0 despoil$ on ! occasion ( 8 visit to h] %ores4 ,at fir/ sight1 t visit looks l no?+ bett] ?an a display ( triumphant buffoon]y on ! "o side & ( s]vile adulation on ! o!r4 ,b1 9 reality1 x 0 a turn+-po9t 9 ! hi/ory ( civilisation1 ! awak5+ to new glories ( a race 9 :om life _h become1 to all outw>d appe>ance1 ext9ct4 ,= m ?an a :ole c5tury ! seat ( intellectual supremacy _h be5 e/abli%$ 9 ,rome2 & dur+ ! same p]iod ,rome h]self _h turn$ to ! ,we/ r ?an to ! ,ea/ = r5ovation & support4 ,caes>'s conque/s 7 l ! revelation ( a new _w2 & ?ree times ov]1 :5 ! two halves ( ! divid$ empire came into collision1 ! *ampion :o comm&$ ! res\rces ( t _w _h won4 ,h5ce=? x 0 to h] we/]n prov9ces & to h] we/]n fronti]s t ,rome look$ = dang]1 = aggr&isem5t1 or = r5[n4 ,9 ,horace's "t1 m5 ask$ ea* o!r :at ! w>like ,cantabrians 7 plann+2 & ! p]sonal pres5ce ( ,augu/us himself 0 ne$$ be=e ^? unruly ,ib]ians c\ld be subdu$4 ,8 adopt$ sons e>n$ _! fir/ laurels at ! exp5se ( ,alp9e m\nta9e]s4 ,8 lat] ye>s are fill$ ) ,g]man campaigns2 & ! great disa/] ( ,v>us mu/ h rivet$ att5tion m closely ?an any victory to :at 0 pass+ betwe5 ! ,rh9e & ! ,elbe4 ,"u ,claudius1 ! conque/ ( ,brita9 op5$ a new s\rce ( int]e/ 9 ! ,we/1 &1 l ,g]many be=e1 suppli$ a new title ( triumph to ! imp]ial family4 ,half ! lit]>y tal5t 9 ,rome1 ! two ,s5ecas1 ,lucan1 & at a lat] p]iod ,m>tial & ,qu9tilian1 came f ,spa91 z also did ,trajan1 ^: y\? fall 9 ?is p]iod4 ,) ,n]o's visit to ,greece 9 #ff ! reaction beg9s4 ,:51 a few ye>s lat]1 ! empire 0 disput$ betwe5 a g5]al f ,gaul & a g5]al f ,syria1 x 0 ! c&idate ( ! ,ea/]n legions :o prevail$2 ! revolt ( ,judaea drew att5tion to ,ea/]n affairs2 & ! great campaigns ( ,trajan mu/ h def9itely turn$ ! tide ( public int]e/ 9 t direction1 not)/&+ ! f>-sight$ prote/ ( ,tacitus4 ,on m peaceful gr\nd1 ,hadrian's ,asiatic t\rs & 8 protract$ resid5ce 9 ,a!ns complet$ ! "w inaugurat$ by ,n]o4 ,9 8 reign1 ! intellectual c5tre ( gravity is def9itely transf]r$ to ,greece2 & ,roman lit]ature1 aft] its la/ blaze ( spl5d\r "u ,trajan1 becomes ext9ct1 or survives only 9 =ms borr[$ f ! sophi/ical rhetoric ( ! ,ea/4 ,plut>*1 :o 0 tw5ty-"o :5 ,n]o decl>$ 8 c\ntry free1 0 ! fir/ lead] 9 ! great ,hell5i/ revival1 )\t1 at ! same "t1 entirely belong+ to x4 ,he c>$ m = ! matt] ?an = ! =m ( antiquity1 = ! great de$s & great] ?\ghts ( ! pa/ ?an = ! words 9 :i* !y 7 relat$ & expla9$4 ,h5ce1 by ! awkw>dness & heav9ess ( 8 /yle1 he is m ak9 to ! writ]s ( ! ,alex&rian p]iod ?an to 8 imm$iate successors4 ,on ! "o side1 he op5s ! era ( classical idealism2 on ! o!r1 he closes t ( encyclopa$ic erudition4 ,! next g5]ation bore mu* ! same relation to ,plut>* t ! fir/ ,sophi/s bore to ,hecataeus & ,h]odotus4 ,address+ !mselves to popul> audi5ces1 !y 7 oblig$ to /udy p]spicuity & elegance ( expression1 at ! risk1 x is true1 ( v]bosity & platitude4 ,su* m5 7 ,dion ,*ryso/om1 ,h]des ,atticus1 ,maximus ,tyrius1 & ,ari/eides4 ,b ! old models 7 imitat$ ) m success by writ]s :o liv$ m entirely 9 ! pa/4 ,arrian reproduc$ ! graceful simplicity ( ,x5ophon 9 8 n>rative ( ! campaigns ( ,alex&] & 8 reports ( ! lectures ( ,epicttus4 ,lucian compos$ dialogues rank+ ) ! greate/ ma/]pieces ( light] ,attic lit]ature4 ,! felicity ( 8 /yle & 8 complete emancipation f sup]/ition may probably be trac$ to ! same s\rce--a dilig5t /udy ( ! anci5t classics4 ,x is c]ta9 t nei!r z a writ] nor z a critic does he repres5t ! av]age educat$ ta/e ( 8 own times4 ,s f> f giv+ poly!ism its dea?bl[1 z he 0 =m]ly imag9$ to h done1 he only prote/$ unavail+ly aga9/ its re/oration4 ,n only oratory & lit]ature1 b philosophy & sci5ce 7 cultivat$ ) r5ew$ vig\r4 ,! l9e betwe5 philosophy & sophi/icism 0 n1 inde$1 v di/9ctly drawn4 ,epicttus sev]ely c5sures ! moral tea*]s ( 8 "t = ornam5t+ _! lectures ) claptrap rhetoric ab\t ! battle ( ,!rmopylae or fl[]y descriptions ( ,pan & ! ,nymphs4#djf ,& ! pr(ess$ declaim]s simil>ly drew on a /ore ( philosophical commonplaces4 ,?is sort ( popul> treatm5t l$ to ! cultivation ( e?ics & !ology 9 pref]5ce to logic & metaphysics1 & to an eclectic bl5d+ ( ! *ief sy/ems ) "o ano!r4 ,a sev]] me?od 0 inculcat$ 9 ! s*ools ( ,a!ns1 especially aft] ! end[m5t ( _! pr(essors by ,m>cus ,aurelius2 b1 9 practice1 ?is came to mean :at x means 9 mod]n univ]sities1 ! sub/itution ( philology = indep5d5t enquiry4 ,! "q 0 n s mu* :at is true z :at did ,plato or ,ari/otle really ?9k4 ,alex&rian sci5ce %[$ some?+ ( ! same le>n$ & traditional "* 9 ! works ( ,ptolemy2 b ! great "n ( ,gal5 m>ks a real progress 9 physiology1 z well z a return to ! pr9ciples ( ,hippocrates4 ,?us1 s f> z 0 possible 9 su* alt]$ circum/ances1 did ! ,r5aissance ( ! second c5tury reproduce ! intellectual environm5t f :i* ,plato's philosophy _h sprung4 ,9 lit]ature1 !re 0 ! same att5tion to words r ?an to ?+s2 sometimes tak+ ! =m ( exact s*ol>%ip1 aft] ! mann] ( ,prodicus2 sometimes ( loose & sup]ficial declamation1 aft] ! mann] ( ,gorgias4 ,!re 0 ! naturalism ( ,hippias1 elaborat$ into a sy/em by ! ,/oics1 & practis$ z a life by ! new ,cynics4 ,!re 0 ! h$onism ( ,ari/ippus1 inculcat$ "u a dilut$ =m by ! ,epicureans4 ,!re 0 ! old ,ionian mat]ialism1 pr(ess$ by ,/oics & ,epicureans alike4 ,!re 0 ! scepticism ( ,protagoras1 reviv$ by ,a5esidmus & 8 foll[]s4 ,!re 0 ! ma!matical my/icism ( ! ,py?agoreans1 fl\ri%+ 9 ,egypt in/ead ( 9 s\!rn ,italy4 ,!re 0 ! pur] geometry ( ! ,alex&rian ,museum1 correspond+ to ! s*ool ( ,cyrn4 ,on all sides1 !re 0 a mass ( vague moral prea*+1 )\t any attempt to exhibit ! moral tru?s :i* we empirically "k z "p ( a compreh5sive metaphysical philosophy4 ,&1 la/ly1 !re 0 an imm5se undef9$ religi\s movem5t1 rang+ f !ologies :i* taught ! spirituality ( ,god & ( ! human s\l1 d[n to ! mo/ irrational & abject sup]/ition4 ,we saw 9 ! la/ *apt] h[1 correspond+ to ?is environm5t1 !re 0 a reviv$ ,platonism1 t ,platonism 0 9 fact ! fa%ionable philosophy ( t age1 j z x aft]w>ds became ! fa%ionable philosophy ( ano!r ,r5aissance ?irte5 c5turies lat]4 ,b x 0 a ,platonism ) ! backbone ( ! sy/em tak5 out4 ,plato's ?\ghts all c5tr$ 9 a c>efully consid]$ s*eme = ! moral & political reg5]ation ( society4 ,n[1 ) ! de/ruction ( ,greek indep5d5ce1 & ! absorption ev]y:]e ( free city-/ates into a va/ milit>y empire1 x might seem z if ! realisation ( su* a s*eme _h become altoge!r impracticable4 ,! ,republic 01 inde$1 at t mom5t realis+ itself "u a =m adapt$ to ! alt]$ exig5cies ( ! "t2 b no ,platoni/ c\ld z yet recognise 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* ev5 an approximate fulfilm5t ( 8 ma/]'s dream4 ,fail+ any practical issue1 !re rema9$ ! speculative side ( ,plato's tea*+4 ,8 writ+s did n embody a complete sy/em1 b !y (f]$ ! mat]ials :5ce a sy/em c\ld be fram$4 ,"h ! *oice lay betwe5 two possible l9es ( con/ruction2 & ea* _h1 9 fact1 be5 already attempt$ by 8 own imm$iate disciples4 ,"o 0 ! ,py?agorean me?od ( ! ,old ,academy1 :at ,ari/otle contemptu\sly call$ ! conv]sion ( philosophy into ma!matics4 ,we saw 9 ! la/ *apt] h[ ! reviv$ ,platonism ( ! fir/ & second c5turies ent]$ once m on ! same p]il\s pa?1 a pa? :i* l$ f>!r & f>!r away f ! true pr9ciples ( ,greek ?\ght1 & ( ,plato himself :5 8 intellect /ood at its highe/ po9t ( spl5d\r4 ,neo-,py?agorean my/icism meant an unreconcil$ dualism ( _s & matt]2 & z ! ultimate consequ5ce ( t dualism1 x meant ! sub/itution ( magical incantations & c]emonial obs]vances = ! /udy ( reason & virtue4 ,moreov]1 x readily alli$ itself ) ,ori5tal beliefs1 :i* meant a negation ( natural law t ! ,greeks c\ld h>dly tol]ate1 &1 "u ! =m ( ,gno/ic pessimism1 a belief 9 ! inh]5t depravity ( ,nature t !y c\ld n tol]ate at all4 ,! o!r alt]native 0 to comb9e ! dialectical idealism ( ,plato ) ! cosmology ( e>ly ,greek ?\ght1 int]pret+ ! two worlds ( _s & ,nature z gradations ( a s+le s]ies & manife/ations ( a s+le pr9ciple4 ,?is 0 :at ,ari/otle _h attempt$ to d1 b _h n done s ?or\ghly z to satisfy ! moral wants ( 8 own age1 or ! religi\s wants ( ! age :5 a reviv$ ,platonism 0 seek+ to organise itself into a sy/em :i* %\ld be ! reconciliation ( reason & fai?4 ,yet ! bett] sort ( ,platoni/s felt t ?is "w c\ld n be accompli%$ )\t ! assi/ance ( ,ari/otle1 ^: ess5tial agreem5t ) _! ma/]1 z aga9/ ,/oicism1 !y fully recognis$4 ,_! mi/ake 0 to assume t ?is agreem5t ext5d$ to e po9t ( 8 tea*+4 ,tak5 9 ?is s5se1 _! attempt$ h>monies 7 spe$ily demoli%$ by s*ol>s ^: pr(essional famili>ity ) ! orig9al s\rces %[$ !m h[ /rongly ,ari/otle himself _h insi/$ on ! diff]5ces :i* sep>at$ him f ! ,academy & its f\nd]4#djg ,to id5tify ! two great spirituali/ philosoph]s be+ impossible1 x rema9$ to %[ h[ !y c\ld be comb9$4 ,! solution ( su* a problem dem&$ m g5ius ?an 0 likely to be develop$ 9 ! s*ools ( ,a!ns4 ,an int5s] intellectual life prevail$ 9 ,alex&ria1 :]e ! mat]ials ( erudition 7 m abundantly suppli$1 & :]e contact ) ! ,ori5tal religions gave ,hell5ism a full] consci\sness ( its di/9ction f & sup]iority to e o!r =m ( speculative activity4 ,& "h1 accord+ly1 ! fundam5tal idea ( ,neo-,platonism 0 conceiv$4 ,,ii4 ,plot9us is n only ! greate/ & mo/ celebrat$ ( ! ,neo-,platoni/s1 he is also ! fir/ respect+ ^: op9ions we h any au!ntic in=mation1 & !re=e ! "o :o = all practical purposes mu/ be reg>d$ z ! f\nd] ( ! s*ool4 ,:at we "k ab\t 8 life is d]iv$ f a biography writt5 by 8 disciple ,porphyry4 ,?is is a r fooli% p]=mance2 b x possesses consid]able int]e/1 bo? on acc\nt ( ! in=mation :i* x 0 int5d$ to supply1 & also z af=d+ indirect evid5ce ( ! height to :i* sup]/ition _h ris5 dur+ ! ?ird c5tury ( our era4 ,plot9us gave 8 fri5ds to und]/& t he 0 born 9 ,egypt ab\t #bje ,a4,d42 b s reluctant 0 he to m5tion any circum/ance connect$ ) 8 physical exi/5ce1 t 8 race & p>5tage always rema9$ a my/]y4 ,he %[$ some:at m communicativ5ess 9 speak+ ( 8 m5tal hi/ory1 & us$ to relate 9 aft]-life t at ! age ( tw5ty-eight he _h felt /rongly attract$ to ! /udy ( philosophy1 b rema9$ utt]ly dissatisfi$ ) :at ! mo/ fam\s tea*]s ( ,alex&ria _h to tell him on ! subject4 ,at la/ he f\nd 9 ,ammonius ,saccas ! ideal sage = :om he _h be5 seek+1 & cont9u$ to att5d 8 lectures = elev5 ye>s4 ,at ! end ( t p]iod1 he jo9$ an ea/]n exp$ition "u ! ,emp]or ,gordian1 = ! purpose ( mak+ himself acqua9t$ ) ! wisdom ( ! ,p]sians & ,indians1 conc]n+ :i* 8 curiosity seems to h be5 excit$ by ,ammonius4 ,b 8 hopes ( fur!r enlight5m5t 9 t qu>t] 7 n fulfill$4 ,! campaign t]m9at$ disa/r\sly2 ! emp]or himself fell at ! head ( 8 troops 9 ,mesopotamia1 & ,plot9us _h great difficulty 9 escap+ ) 8 life to ,antio*4 ,soon aft]w>ds he settl$ 9 ,rome1 & rema9$ !re until ne> ! end ( 8 life1 :5 ill-heal? oblig$ him to retire to a c\ntry seat 9 ,campania1 ! prop]ty ( a deceas$ fri5d1 ,z?us4 ,"h ! philosoph] di$1 9 ! sixty-six? ye> ( 8 age4 ,plot9us seems to h begun 8 c>e] z a public tea*] soon aft] tak+ up 8 resid5ce 9 ,rome4 ,8 lectures at fir/ assum$ ! =m ( conv]sations ) 8 private fri5ds4 ,app>5tly by way ( reviv+ ! traditions ( ,socrates & ,plato1 he enc\rag$ !m to take an active "p 9 ! discussion3 b ei!r he did n possess ! au?ority ( 8 great exempl>s1 or ! rules ( ,greek dialogue 7 n v /rictly obs]v$ 9 ,rome2 = we le>n f ! report ( an eye-witness t int]ruptions 7 f> too frequ5t1 & t a va/ am\nt ( nons5se 0 talk$4#djh ,aft]w>ds a m regul> sy/em ( lectur+ 0 e/abli%$1 & pap]s 7 read al\d by ^? :o _h any obs]vations to (f]1 z 9 our own philosophical societies4 ,! new tea*] ga!r$ r\nd him a di/+ui%$ society1 compris+ n only pr(essional philosoph]s1 b also physicians1 rhetors1 s5ators1 & /atesm54 ,among ! la/-m5tion$ class1 ,rogatianus1 :o fill$ ! (fice ( praetor1 %[$ ! s9c]ity ( 8 conv]sion by r5\nc+ ! dignities ( 8 position1 surr5d]+ 8 worldly possessions1 limit+ himself to ! b>e/ necess>ies ( life1 & all[+ himself to be dep5d5t ev5 = ^! on ! hospitality ( 8 fri5ds4 ,?anks to ?is asceticism1 he recov]$ ! use ( 8 h&s & feet1 :i* _h be=e be5 completely crippl$ ) g\t4#dji ,! fasc9ation ex]cis$ by ,plot9us 0 n only intellectual1 b p]sonal4 ,s+ul>ly affable1 oblig+1 & pati5t1 he 0 always ready to answ] ! que/ions ( 8 fri5ds1 ev5 lay+ aside 8 "w 9 ord] to discuss ! difficulties :i* !y br\ght to him = solution4 ,8 lectures 7 giv5 9 ,greek2 & al?\gh ?is always rema9$ to him a =eign language1 ! pronunciation & gramm> ( :i* he nev] completely ma/]$1 8 expressions frequ5tly won admiration by _! felicity & =ce2 & ! effect ( 8 eloqu5ce 0 /ill fur!r height5$ by ! gl[+ en?usiasm :i* irradiat$ 8 :ole c\nt5ance1 naturally a v pleas+ "o1 dur+ ! deliv]y ( ! m impressive passages4#daj ,z might be expect$1 ! circle ( admir]s :i* surr\nd$ ,plot9us includ$ sev]al wom51 beg9n+ ) 8 ho/ess ,gem9a & h] daught]4 ,he also /ood high 9 ! fav\r ( ! ,emp]or ,gali5us & 8 consort ,salon9a2 s mu* s1 inde$1 t !y 7 ne>ly p]suad$ to let him try ! exp]im5t ( re/or+ a ru9$ city 9 ,campania1 & gov]n+ x accord+ to ,plato's laws4#daa ,porphyry attributes ! failure ( ?is project to ! envy ( ! c\rti]s2 ,hegel1 ) probably q z mu* reason1 to ! s\nd judgm5t ( ! imp]ial m9i/]s4#dab ,our philosoph] _h1 h[ev]1 abundant opportunity = %[+ on a m mode/ scale t he 0 n de/itute ( practical ability4 ,s high did 8 "* /&1 t _m p]sons ( di/9ction1 :5 !y felt _! end approa*+1 br\ght _! *ildr5 to him to be tak5 c>e (1 & entru/$ _! prop]ty to 8 keep+4 ,z a result ( ! confid5ce ?us repos$ 9 him1 8 h\se 0 always fill$ ) "y p ( bo? sexes1 to ^: education & mat]ial int]e/s he paid ! mo/ scrupul\s att5tion1 obs]v+ t z long z 8 w>ds did n make a pr(ession ( philosophy1 _! e/ates & incomes ought to be pres]v$ unimpair$4 ,x is also m5tion$ t1 al?\gh frequ5tly *os5 to arbitrate 9 disputes1 he nev] made a s+le enemy among ! ,roman citiz5s--a piece ( good =tune :i* is m ?an "o c\ld safely promise to anyone simil>ly circum/anc$ 9 an ,italian city at ! pres5t day4#dac ,plot9us possess$ a rem>kable p[] ( read+ ! *>act]s & ev5 ! ?\ghts ( ^? ab\t him4 ,x is said1 probably ) "s exagg]ation1 t he pr$ict$ ! future fate ( all ! boys plac$ "u 8 c>e4 ,?us he =etold t a c]ta9 ,polemo1 9 :om he took p>ticul> int]e/1 w\ld devote himself to love & die "y2 :i* prov$ only too true1 & may well h be5 anticipat$ by a good obs]v] )\t ! ex]cise ( any sup]natural presci5ce4 ,z ano!r in/ance ( 8 p5etration1 we are told t a valuable necklace hav+ be5 /ol5 f a wid[ nam$ ,*ione1 :o liv$ 9 8 h\se ) h] family1 ! slaves 7 all l$ into ! pres5ce ( ,plot9us t he might s+le out ! ?ief4 ,aft] a c>eful scrut9y1 ! philosoph] put 8 f+] on ! guilty individual4 ,! man at fir/ prote/$ 8 innoc5ce1 b 0 soon induc$ by an application ( ! :ip to confess1 &1 :at 0 a mu* m valuable v]ification ( 8 accus]'s insight1 to re/ore ! miss+ article4 ,porphyry himself c\ld te/ify f p]sonal exp]i5ce to 8 fri5d's rem>kable p[] ( p5etration4 ,be+ once ab\t to commit suicide1 ,plot9us div9$ 8 int5tion1 & told him t x proce$$1 n f a rational resolution1 b f a fit ( ! blues1 z a rem$y = :i* he prescrib$ *ange ( sc5e1 & ?is did 9 fact h ! desir$ effect4#dad ,previ\s to 8 =ty-n9? ye>1 ,plot9us wrote no?+4 ,at t age he began to compose %ort essays on subjects :i* sugge/$ !mselves 9 ! c\rse ( 8 oral tea*+4 ,dur+ ! next t5 ye>s1 he produc$ tw5ty-"o su* pap]s1 "s ( !m only a page or two 9 l5g?4 ,at ! end ( t p]iod1 he made ! acqua9tance ( 8 future editor & biograph]1 ,porphyry1 a "y /ud5t ( ,semitic extraction1 ^: orig9al "n 0 ,mal*us4 ,! two soon became fa/ fri5ds2 & :atev] speculative diff]5ces at fir/ divid$ !m 7 quickly remov$ by an amicable controv]sy betwe5 ,porphyry & ano!r disciple nam$ ,amelius1 :i* result$ 9 ! unres]v$ adhesion ( ! =m] to ! doctr9e ( _! common ma/]4#dae ,! lit]>y activity ( ,plot9us seems to h be5 p[]fully /imulat$ by association ) ! m me?odical m9d ( ,porphyry4 ,dur+ ! five ye>s#daf ( _! p]sonal int]c\rse he produc$ n9ete5 essays1 am\nt+ altoge!r to ?ree times ! bulk ( ! =m] s]ies4 ,eight %ort] pieces foll[$ dur+ ! p]iod ( fail+ heal? :i* prec$$ 8 dea?1 ,porphyry be+ at t "t abs5t 9 ,sicily1 :i!r he _h retir$ :5 suff]+ f ! fit ( depression already m5tion$4 ,porphyry obs]ves t ! fir/ s]ies ( essays %[ ! immaturity ( y\?--a p]iod :i* he ext5ds to :at is g5]ally consid]$ ! suffici5tly ripe age ( fifty-n9e2--! second s]ies ! full-gr[n p[] ( manhood2 & ! la/ ! weakness ( decl9+ ye>s4 ,! tru? is t 8 me?od ( criticism1 at lea/ 9 ?is in/ance1 0 to judge ( compositions z if _! m]it dep5d$ on _! l5g?1 & p]haps also ) ref]5ce to ! circum/ance :e!r _! subject _h or _h n be5 previ\sly talk$ ov] ) himself4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 ! e>li] pieces include "s ( ! v be/ ?+s t ,plot9us ev] wrote2 &1 tak+ !m 9 ! ord] ( _! composition1 !y =m a connect$ exposition ( ,neo-,platonic pr9ciples1 to :i* no?+ ( importance 0 ev] add$4 ,?is we %all attempt to %[ 9 ! mo/ effectual mann] possible by bas+ our own acc\nt ( ,neo-,platonism on an analysis ( _! cont5ts2 & we /rongly recomm5d !m to ! att5tion ( all ,greek s*ol>s :o wi% to make !mselves acqua9t$ ) ,plot9us at fir/ h&1 b h n leisure to wade ?r\gh ! :ole ( 8 works4 ,x may also be m5tion$ t ! la/ s]ies ( essays are di/+ui%$ by ! popul> "* ( _! subjects r ?an by any evid5ce ( fail+ p[]s1 "o ( !m1 t on ,provid5ce1#dag be+ rem>kable = ! vig\r & eloqu5ce ( its /yle4 ,by cutt+ up "s ( ! long] essays into p>ts1 ,porphyry succe$$1 mu* to 8 delight1 9 br++ ! :ole numb] up to fifty-f\r1 :i* is a product ( ! two p]fect numb]s six & n9e4 ,he !n divid$ !m into six volumes1 ea* conta9+ n9e books--! fam\s ,enneads ( ,plot9us4 ,8 pr9ciple ( arrangem5t 0 to br+ toge!r ! books 9 :i* simil> subjects 7 discuss$1 plac+ ! easi] disquisitions fir/4 ,?is disposition has be5 adh]$ to by subsequ5t editors1 ) ! s+le exception ( ,kir*h(f1 :o has pr9t$ ! works ( ,plot9us accord+ to ! ord] 9 :i* !y 7 writt54#dah ,porphyry's scrupul\s in=mation has sav$ mod]n s*ol>s an incalculable am\nt ( tr\ble1 b has n1 app>5tly1 e>n$ all ! gratitude x des]v$1 to judge by ,zell]'s intimation t ! *ronological ord] ( ! sep>ate pieces _c ev5 n[ be precisely det]m9$4#dai ,un=tunately1 :at c\ld h be5 ( priceless value 9 ! case ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 is ( comp>atively small value 9 ! case ( ,plot9us4 ,8 sy/em mu/ h be5 fully =m$ :5 he began to write1 & ! dates 9 our possession give no clue to ! mann] 9 :i* its lead+ pr9ciples 7 evolv$4#dbj ,su*1 s f> z !y c be asc]ta9$1 are ! mo/ important facts 9 ! life ( ,plot9us4 ,int]wov5 ) ^!1 we f9d "s leg5d>y details :i* vividly illu/rate ! sup]/ition & cr$ulity ( ! age4 ,x is evid5t f 8 *ildi% talk ab\t ! numb]s six & n9e t ,porphyry 0 imbu$ ) ,py?agorean ideas4 ,accord+ly1 8 :ole acc\nt ( ,plot9us is dom9at$ by ! wi% to repres5t t philosoph] "u ! guise ( a ,py?agorean sa9t4 ,we h already allud$ to ! mann] 9 :i* he exalts 8 h]o's rem>kable sagacity into a p[] ( sup]natural presci5ce & div9ation4 ,he also tells u1 ) ! mo/ unsuspect+ good fai?1 h[ a c]ta9 ,alex&rian philosoph] ^: jeal\sy _h be5 excit$ by ! success ( 8 illu/ri\s c\ntryman1 endeav\r$ to draw d[n ! malignant influ5ces ( ! />s on ! head ( ,plot9us1 b 0 oblig$ to desi/ on f9d+ t ! attack recoil$ on himself4#dba ,on ano!r occasion1 an ,egyptian prie/1 by way ( exhibit+ 8 skill 9 magic1 (f]$ to conjure up ! daemon or gu>dian _s ( ,plot9us4 ,! latt] readily cons5t$1 & ! ,temple ( ,isis 0 *os5 = ! sc5e ( ! op]ations1 z1 accord+ to ! ,egyptian1 no o!r spot suffici5tly pure = ! purpose c\ld be f\nd 9 ,rome4 ,! incantations 7 duly pron\nc$1 :51 mu* to ! admiration ( ^? pres5t1 a god made 8 appe>ance in/ead ( ! expect$ daemon4 ,by :at p>ticul> m>ks ! div9ity ( ! app>ition 0 det]m9$1 ,porphyry omits to m5tion4 ,! philosoph] 0 congratulat$ by 8 c\ntryman on ! possession ( su* a di/+ui%$ patron1 b ! cele/ial visitor vani%$ be=e any que/ions c\ld be put to him4 ,?is mi%ap 0 attribut$ to a fri5d #8:o1 ei!r f envy or fe>1 *ok$ ! birds :i* _h be5 giv5 him to hold1' & :i* seem to h play$ a v important "p 9 ! incantation1 ?\gh :at x 01 we d n f9d m p>ticul>ly specifi$4#dbb ,ano!r di/+ui%$ complim5t 0 paid to ,plot9us aft] 8 dea? by no less an au?ority ?an ! ,py?ian ,apollo1 :o at ?is p]iod _h fully recov]$ ! use ( 8 voice4 ,on be+ consult$ respect+ ! fate ( ! philosoph]'s s\l1 ! god repli$ by a flood ( bomba/ic twaddle1 9 :i* ! glorifi$ _s ( ,plot9us is describ$ z releas$ f ! *a9 ( human necessity & ! surg+ upro> ( ! body1 swimm+ /\tly to ! /orm-beat5 %ore1 & m\nt+ ! heav5-illum9$ pa?1 n unkn[n to him ev5 9 life1 t leads to ! blissful abodes ( ! immortals4#dbc ,9 view ( su* t5d5cies1 "o h>dly kn[s h[ mu* confid5ce is to be plac$ 9 ,porphyry's well-kn[n picture ( 8 ma/] z "o :o liv$ s entirely = spiritual int]e/s t he seem$ a%am$ ( hav+ a body at all4 ,we are told t1 z a consequ5ce ( ?is feel+1 he avoid$ ! subject ( 8 pa/ life1 refus$ to let 8 portrait be pa9t$1 neglect$ ! c>e ( 8 heal?1 & rigor\sly ab/a9$ f animal food1 ev5 :5 x 0 prescrib$ = him "u ! =m ( m$ic9e4#dbd ,all ?is may be true1 b x is n v consi/5t ) ! special doctr9es ( ,plot9us z record$ 9 8 writ+s1 nor %\ld x be all[$ to influ5ce our int]pretation ( !m4 ,9 8 p]sonal "* & conduct he may h all[$ himself to be c>ri$ away by ! preval5t asceticism & sup]/ition ( ! age2 9 8 philosophy he is guid$ by ! heal?i] traditions ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 & /&s 9 decl>$ opposition to ! my/icism :i* 0 a negation ( ,nature & ( life4 ,h[ f> ,plot9us 0 indebt$ to ,ammonius ,saccas = 8 speculative ideas is ano!r "q ) respect to :i* ! ,py?agoreanis+ t5d5cies ( 8 biograph] may possibly h contribut$ to ! diffusion ( a s]i\s misconception4 ,:at ,porphyry tells u is ?is4 ,be=e leav+ ,alex&ria1 ,plot9us _h b\nd himself by a mutual agreem5t ) two ( 8 fell[-pupils1 ,h]5nius & ,orig9es 7n ! ,*ri/ian ,fa!r1 b a pagan philosoph] ( ! same age & "n71 to keep secret :at !y _h le>n$ by li/5+ to ! lectures ( ,ammonius4 ,h]5nius1 h[ev]1 soon broke ! compact1 & ,orig9es foll[$ 8 example4 ,plot9us !n consid]$ t ! engagem5t 0 at an end1 & us$ ! results ( 8 /udies "u ,ammonius z ! basis ( 8 conv]sational lectures 9 ,rome1 ! sub/ance ( :i*1 we are left to suppose1 0 subsequ5tly embodi$ 9 8 publi%$ writ+s4 ,b1 z ,zell] has po9t$ out1 ?is :ole /ory be>s a suspici\s resemblance to :at is relat$ ( ! e>ly ,py?agorean s*ool4 ,!re also ! doctr9es ( ! ma/] 7 reg>d$ by 8 disciples z a my/]y :i* !y pl$g$ !mselves to keep secret1 & 7 only divulg$ ?r\gh ! infidelity ( "o among _! numb]1 ,philolaus4 ,& ! same critic proves by a c>eful exam9ation ( :at are kn[n to h be5 ! op9ions ( ,orig9es & ,long9us1 bo? fell[-pupils ( ,plot9us1 t !y diff]$ f him on "s po9ts ( ess5tial importance to 8 sy/em4 ,we _c1 !re=e1 suppose t ^! po9ts 7 includ$ 9 ! tea*+ ( _! common ma/]1 ,ammonius4#dbe ,b if ?is be s1 x foll[s t ,plot9us 0 ! real f\nd] ( ! ,neo-,platonic s*ool2 &1 9 all cases1 8 writ+s rema9 ! great s\rce :5ce our k ( its fir/ pr9ciples is d]iv$4 ,,iii4 ,9 po9t ( /yle1 ,plot9us is mu* ! mo/ difficult ( ! anci5t philosoph]s1 &1 9 ?is respect1 is only surpass$ by a v few ( ! mod]ns4 ,ev5 ,long9us1 :o 0 "o ( ! mo/ intellig5t critics !n liv+1 & :o1 besides1 _h be5 educat$ 9 ! same s*ool ) our philosoph]1 c\ld n make head or tail ( 8 books :5 copies ( !m 7 s5t to him by ,porphyry1 & suppos$1 aft] ! mann] ( philologi/s1 t ! text mu/ be corrupt1 mu* to ! disgu/ ( ,porphyry1 :o assures u t its accuracy 0 unimpea*able4#dbf ,probably polit5ess prev5t$ ,long9us f say+1 :at he mu/ h se5 at a glance1 t ,plot9us 0 a total /rang] to ! art ( lit]>y composition4 ,we are told t he wrote z fa/ z if he 7 copy+ f a book2 b he _h nev] ma/]$ ev5 ! elem5ts ( ! ,greek language2 & ! weakness ( 8 eyesight prev5t$ him f read+ ov] :at he _h writt54 ,! mi/akes 9 spell+ & gramm> ,porphyry correct$1 b x is evid5t t he has made no alt]ations 9 ! g5]al /yle ( ! ,enneads2 & ?is is ne>ly z bad z bad c be--disjo9t$1 elliptical1 r$undant1 & awkw>d4 ,*apt] foll[s *apt] & p>agraph succe$s to p>agraph )\t any fix$ pr9ciple ( arrangem5t2 ! connexion ( ! s5t5ces is by no means cle>2 "s s5t5ces are almo/ un9telligible f _! extreme brevity1 o!rs f _! inord9ate l5g? & complexity4 ,! unpractis$ h& ( a =eign] con/antly reveals itself 9 ! *oice & collocation ( words & grammatical inflections4 ,pr$icates & subjects are huddl$ toge!r )\t any reg>d to ! h>monies ( numb] & g5d]1 s t ev5 if false concords d n occur1 we are cont9ually annoy$ by ! sugge/ion ( _! pres5ce4#dbg ,b ev5 ! mo/ p]fect ma/]y ( ,greek w\ld n h made ,plot9us a successful writ]4 ,we are told t be=e tak+ up ! p5 he _h ?or\ghly ?\ght out 8 :ole subject2 b ?is is n ! impression produc$ by a p]usal ( ! ,enneads4 ,on ! contr>y1 he seems to be ?9k+ z he goes along1 & to be cont9ually beset by difficulties :i* he has n =ese54 ,! frequ5t & disord]ly int]ruptions by :i* 8 lectures 7 at "o "t di/urb$ seem to h made _! way into 8 solit>y m$itations1 break+ or tangl+ ! ?read ( sy/ematic exposition at e turn4 ,irrelevant que/ions are con/antly intrud+ !mselves1 to be met by equally irrelevant answ]s4 ,! fir/ mode ( express+ an idea is frequ5tly )drawn1 & ano!r put 9 its place1 :i* is1 9 mo/ cases1 ! less intelligible ( ! two2 :ile1 z a g5]al rule1 :5 we want to "k :at a ?+ is1 ,plot9us in=ms u ) indefatigable prolixity :at x is n4 ,nev]!less1 by d9t ( p]t9aci\s repetition1 ! f\nd] ( ,neo-,platonism has succe$$ 9 mak+ ! ma9 outl9es1 & to a great ext5t ! details1 ( 8 sy/em s p]fectly cle> t probably no philosophy is n[ bett] und]/ood ?an 84 ,9 ?is respect1 ,plot9us (f]s a rem>kable contra/ to ! two great ?9k]s f :om 8 ideas are pr9cipally d]iv$4 ,:ile ,plato & ,ari/otle con/ruct ea* p>ticul> s5t5ce ) ma/]ly cle>ness1 ! g5]al drift ( _! speculations is by no means easy to asc]ta92 &1 ev5 n[1 critics take diametrically opposite views ( ! int]pretation :i* is to be put on _! tea*+ ) reg>d to sev]al mo/ important po9ts4 ,! expositors ( ,neo-,platonism1 on ! contr>y1 %[ a r>e unanimity 9 _! acc\nts ( its con/itutive pr9ciples4 ,:at !y diff] ab\t is its orig9 & its hi/orical significance4 ,& ^! are po9ts on :i* we too %all h to ent]1 s9ce all ! anci5t sy/ems are int]e/+ to u *iefly z hi/orical ph5om5a1 & ,neo-,platonism m s ?an any o!r4 ,plot9us effect$ a va/ revolution 9 speculative op9ion1 b he effect$ x by seiz+ on ! ?\ghts ( o!rs r ?an by any new ?\ghts or ev5 new developm5ts or applications ( 8 own4 ,:e!r ,plot9us 0 or 0 n ! disciple ( ,ammonius1 x is beyond all d\bt t he consid]$ himself ! disciple ( ,plato4 ,!re are m ?an a hundr$ ref]5ces to t philosoph] 9 ! ,enneads1 aga9/ less ?an ?irty ref]5ces to all ! o!r anci5t ?9k]s put toge!r2#dbh &1 :at is m rem>kable1 9 only ab\t half ( !m is he m5tion$ by "n4 ,! read] is expect$ to "k t #8he' always means ,plato4 ,& x is an article ( fai? ) ,plot9us t 8 ma/] _c be mi/ak52 :5 ! words ( oracul> wisdom seem to contradict "o ano!r1 !re mu/ be "s way ( h>monis+ !m4 ,:5 !y contradict :at he tea*es himself1 ! difficulty mu/ be remov$ by skilful int]pretation2 or1 bett] /ill1 x mu/ be discreetly ignor$4#dbi ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 a pr9ciple is palpably borr[$ f ,ari/otle1 n only is its d]ivation unackn[l$g$1 b we are giv5 to und]/& by implication t x belongs to ! sy/em :i* ,ari/otle 0 at mo/ pa9s to controv]t4#dcj ,b num]\s z are ! obligations1 :e!r real or imag9>y1 ( ! ,alex&rian to ! ,a!nian tea*]1 !y range ov] a comp>atively limit$ field4 ,:at mo/ int]e/s a mod]n /ud5t 9 ,platonism--its critical prep>ation1 its conv]sational dialectic1 its p]sonal episodes1 its moral en?usiasm1 its political sup]/ructure--_h app>5tly no int]e/ = ,plot9us z a writ]4 ,he goes /raight to ! metaphysical core ( ! sy/em1 & occupies himself ) re-?9k+ x 9 its m9ute/ details4 ,n[ ?is 0 j ! "p :i* _h ei!r n be5 discuss$ at all1 or _h be5 v insuffici5tly discuss$ by 8 pr$ecessors4 ,x w\ld seem t ! revival ( ,platonic /udies _h foll[$ an ord] some:at simil> to ! ord] 9 :i* ,plato's own ideas 7 evolv$4 ,! scepticism ( ! ,apologia _h be5 tak5 up & work$ out to its la/ consequ5ces by ! ,new ,academy4 ,! !ory ( intuitive k1 ! e?ical anti!sis betwe5 reason & passion1 & ! doctr9e ( immortality "u its m popul> =m1 _h be5 resum$ by ! ,greek & ,roman ,eclectics4 ,plut>* busi$ himself ) ! erotic philosophy ( ! ,pha$rus & ! ,symposium1 z also did 8 successor1 ,maximus ,tyrius4 ,9 addition to ?is1 he & ! o!r ,platoni/s ( ! second c5tury paid great att5tion to ! !ology adumbrat$ 9 ^? dialogues1 & 9 ! e>li] books ( ! ,republic4 ,b mean:ile ,neo-,py?agoreanism _h int]v5$ to break ! normal l9e ( developm5t1 &1 "u its influ5ce1 ,plut>* pass$ at once to ! ma!matical puzzles ( ! ,timaeus4 ,) ,plato himself ! next /ep _h be5 to f\nd a /ate = ! application ( 8 new pr9ciples2 & su* 0 ! logic ( 8 sy/em1 t ! :ole /ress ( adv]se circum/ances c\ld n prev5t ! realisation ( a simil> s*eme f be+ moot$ 9 ! ?ird c5tury2 :ile1 z we h se51 some?+ m remotely analog\s to x 0 at t v "t be+ c>ri$ out by ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,plato's own disappo9t$ hopes _h f\nd relief 9 ! pr(\nde/ metaphysical speculations2 & n[ ! "t has come :5 8 lab\rs 9 ?is direction 7 to engage ! att5tion hi!rto absorb$ by ! m popul> or lit]>y aspects ( 8 tea*+4 ,n[ x 0 by ?is side ( ,platonism t ,ari/otle also _h be5 mo/ deeply fasc9at$4 ,:ile con/antly criticis+ ! ideal !ory1 he _h1 9 tru?1 accept$ x "u a modifi$ =m4 ,8 univ]sal classification is d]iv$ f ! dialectic me?od4 ,8 psy*ology & !ology are con/ruct$ on ! spirituali/ic basis ( ! ,academy1 & out ( mat]ials :i* ! f\nd] ( ! ,academy _h suppli$4 ,x 0 !re=e natural t ,plot9us %\ld avail himself l>gely ( ! ,/agirite's help 9 endeav\r+ to reproduce :at a tradition ( six c5turies _h obscur$ or confus$4 ,to reconcile ! two ,attic ma/]s 01 z we "k1 a common s*ool ex]cise4 ,le>n$ comm5tators _h1 inde$1 plac$ _! disagreem5t beyond all dispute4 ,b !re rema9$ ! simpl] c\rse ( br++ _! common /&po9t into great] prom95ce1 & comb9+ _! !ories :]e ?is seem$ possible )\t too op5ly r5\nc+ ! respect due to :at almo/ all consid]$ ! sup]ior au?ority ( ,plato4 ,to :i* ( ! two ma/]s ,neo-,platonism really ow$ mo/ is a "q t mu/ be po/pon$ until we h made ourselves acqua9t$ ) ! outl9es ( ! sy/em z !y appe> 9 ! works ( ,plot9us4 ,,iv4 ,x has be5 already m5tion$ h[ l>ge a place 0 giv5 to erotic que/ions by ! lit]>y ,platoni/s ( ! second c5tury4 ,ev5 9 ! s*ool ( ,plot9us1 ,platonic love cont9u$ to be discuss$1 sometimes ) a fre$om :i* pa9$ & disgu/$ ! ma/] beyond measure4#dca ,8 fir/ essay 0 app>5tly sugge/$ by a "q put to him 9 ! c\rse ( "s su* debate4#dcb ,! subject is beauty4 ,9 8 treatm5t ( x1 we f9d our philosoph] at once ris+ sup]ior to ! indecor\s frivolities ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,physical beauty he decl>es to be ! ideal elem5t 9 objects1 t :i* !y h receiv$ f ! creative s\l1 & :i* ! p]ceptive s\l recognises z ak9 to h] own ess5ce4 ,love is no?+ b ! excitem5t & joy occasion$ by ?is discov]y4 ,b to und]/& ! tru] & high] =ms ( beauty1 we mu/ turn away f s5sible p]ceptions1 & /udy x z manife/$ 9 wise in/itutions1 virtu\s habits1 & sci5tific !ories4 ,! passionate en?usiasm excit$ by ! contemplation ( su* qualities z magnanimity1 or ju/ice1 or wisdom1 or val\r c only be expla9$ by assum+ t !y reveal our inmo/ nature1 %[+ u :at we 7 de/9$ =1 :at we orig9ally 71 & :at we h ceas$ to be4 ,= we ne$ only enum]ate ! vices :i* make a s\l hide\s--inju/ice1 s5suality1 c[>dice1 & ! l--to p]ceive t !y are =eign to h] real nature1 & are impos$ on h] by contam9ation ) ! pr9ciple ( all evil1 :i* is matt]4 ,to be brave means n to dread dea?1 because dea? is ! sep>ation ( ! s\l f ! body4 ,magnanimity means ! neglect ( e>?ly int]e/s4 ,wisdom means ! elevation ( our ?\ghts to a high] _w4 ,! s\l t virtue has ?us releas$ becomes pure reason1 & reason is j :at con/itutes h] intr9sic beauty4 ,x is also :at alone really exi/s2 )\t x all ! re/ ( ,nature is no?+4 ,?us f\l is oppos$ to fair1 z evil to good & false to true4 ,once m1 z ! s\l is beautiful by p>ticipation 9 reason1 s reason 9 its turn dep5ds on a /ill high] pr9ciple1 ! absolute good to :i* all ?+s aspire1 & f :i* !y are d]iv$--! "o s\rce ( life1 ( reason1 & ( exi/5ce4 ,beh9d all o!r loves is ! long+ = ?is ultimate good2 & 9 proportion to its sup]iority ov] _! objects is ! int5sity ( ! passion :i* x inspires1 ! happ9ess :i* its atta9m5t & fruition mu/ be/[4 ,he :o w\ld behold ?is supreme beauty mu/ n seek = x 9 ! fair =ms ( ! ext]nal _w1 = ^! are b ! images & %ad[s ( its glory4 ,x c only be se5 ) ! inw>d eye1 only f\nd 9 ! recesses ( our own s\l4 ,to compreh5d ! good we mu/ be good ourselves2 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 we mu/ be ourselves & no?+ else4 ,9 ?is process ( ab/raction1 we fir/ arrive at pure reason1 & !n we say t ! ideas ( reason are :at con/itutes beauty4 ,b beyond reason is t highe/ good ( :i* beauty is m]ely ! outw>d ve/ure1 ! s\rce & pr9ciple f :i* beauty spr+s4 ,x is evid5t t :at ,plot9us says ab\t beauty & love 0 sugge/$ by ! well-kn[n passages on ! same subject 9 ! ,pha$rus & ! ,symposium4 ,8 analysis ( ae/hetic emotion has1 h[ev]1 a mu* m ab/ract & metaphysical "* ?an t ( 8 great model4 ,! :ole fiction ( an ant5atal exi/5ce is quietly let drop4 ,:at ! sight ( s5sible beauty awak5s 9 a philosophic s\l is n ! memory ( an ideal beauty beheld 9 "s o!r _w1 b ! consci\sness ( its own idealis+ activity1 ! dom9ion :i* x ex]cises ov] un=m$ & fluctuat+ matt]4 ,&1 9 all probability1 ,plato meant no m ?an ?is--9 fact he h9ts z mu* else:]e1#dcc--;b he 0 n able or did n *oose to express himself ) su* unmi/akable cle>ness4 ,aga91 ?is pref]5ce = my?ological imag]y on ! "p ( ! m orig9al & poetical ?9k] seems to be closely connect$ ) a m vivid int]e/ 9 ! practical duties ( life4 ,) ,plot9us1 ! primal beauty or supreme good is some?+ t c be isolat$ f all o!r beauty & goodness1 some?+ to be p]ceiv$ & enjoy$ 9 absolute seclusion f "o's fell[-m54 ,god is1 inde$1 describ$ z ! s\rce & cause ( all o!r good4 ,b nei!r "h nor else:]e is !re a h9t t we %\ld /rive to resemble him by becom+1 9 our turn1 ! cause ( good to o!rs4 ,platonic love1 on ! contr>y1 fir/ f9ds its reality & tru? 9 unremitt+ ef=ts = ! enlight5m5t & elevation ( o!rs1 be+ relat$ to ! transmission ( spiritual life j z ! love inspir$ by visible beauty is relat$ to ! p]petuation & physical ennoblem5t ( ! race4 ,?is pref]5ce ( pure ab/ract speculation to b5efic5t action may be trac$ to ! influ5ce ( ,ari/otle4 ,"s ( ! mo/ en?usia/ic expressions us$ by ,plot9us 9 speak+ ( 8 supreme pr9ciple seem to h be5 sugge/$ by ! ,metaphysics & ! la/ book ( ! ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics4 ,! self-?9k+ ?\ght ( ! ,/agirite does n1 inde$1 take ! highe/ rank ) him4 ,b x is reta9$ 9 8 sy/em1 & is only relegat$ to a second>y place because1 = reasons :i* we %all expla9 h]eaft]1 x does n fulfil equally well ) ,plato's ,idea ( ,good1 ! condition ( absolute & indivisible unity1 )\t :i* a fir/ pr9ciple c\ld n be conceiv$ by any ,greek philosoph]4 ,b ?is app>5t return to ! /&po9t ( ! ,republic really involves a /ill wid] dep>ture f its animat+ _s4 ,9 o!r words1 ,plot9us diff]s f ,ari/otle z ,ari/otle himself _h diff]$ f ,plato2 he %>es ! same speculative t5d5cy1 & c>ries x to a great] extreme4 ,we h also to note t ,plot9us arrives at 8 ,absolute by a me?od app>5tly v diff]5t f t pursu$ by ei!r ( 8 tea*]s4 ,plato's primal beauty is1 on ! face ( x1 an ab/raction & g5]alisation f all ! scatt]$ & imp]fect manife/ations ( beauty to be met ) 9 our objective exp]i5ce4 ,& ,ari/otle is l$ to 8 conception ( an et]nal immat]ial ?\ght by two l9es ( analysis1 bo? />t+ f ! ph5om5a ( ext]nal ,nature4 ,! problem ( 8 ,physics is to acc\nt = ! p]petuity ( motion4 ,! problem ( 8 ,metaphysics is to expla9 ! trans=mation ( pot5tial into actual exi/5ce4 ,plot9us1 on ! o!r h&1 is always bidd+ u look )94 ,:at we admire 9 ! objective _w is b a reflex ( ourselves4 ,m9d is ! sole reality2 & to grasp ?is reality "u its highe/ =m1 we mu/ become l x4 ,?us ! m we isolate our own p]sonality & self-id5tity f ! o!r int]e/s & exp]i5ces ( life1 ! m ne>ly d we approa* to consci\sness ( & coalesc5ce ) ! supreme id5tity :]e9 all ?+s h _! s\rce4 ,b on look+ at ! matt] a little m closely1 we %all f9d t ,plot9us only set 9 a cle>] light :at _h all along be5 ! lead+ motive ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,we h already obs]v$ t ,plato's :ole my?ological ma*9]y is only a fanciful way ( express+ t indep5d5t exp]i5ce :i* ! m9d d]ives f ! /udy ( its own spontane\s activity4 ,& ! process ( g5]alisation describ$ 9 ! ,symposium is really limit$ to moral ph5om5a4 ,plato's /&po9t is less individuali/ic ?an t ( ,plot9us 9 s f> z x involves a cont9ual ref]5ce to ! beliefs1 exp]i5ces1 & wants ( o!r m52 b x is equally subjective1 9 ! s5se ( int]pret+ all ,nature by ! analogies ( human life4 ,!re are ev5 occasions :5 8 spiritualism goes ! l5g? ( inculcat+ complete )drawal f ! _w ( common life into an ideal sph]e1 :5 he seems to id5tify evil ) matt]1 :5 he r$uces all virtue to contempt = ! int]e/s ( ! body1 9 language :i* 8 ,alex&rian successor c\ld adopt )\t any modification ( its obvi\s mean+4#dcd ,s also ) ,ari/otle4 ,z a naturali/1 he is1 inde$1 purely objective2 b :5 he (f]s a g5]al explanation ( ! _w1 ! subjective elem5t introduc$ by ,protagoras & ,socrates at once reappe>s4 ,simple absolute self-consci\sness is = him ! highe/ good1 ! animat+ pr9ciple ( ,nature1 ! mo/ complete reality1 & ! only "o t w\ld rema91 7 ! elem5t ( non5tity to disappe> f ?is _w4 ,! utt] misconception ( dynamic ph5om5a :i* m>ks 8 physics & a/ronomy c only be acc\nt$ = by 8 desire to give life ! priority ov] me*anical motion1 & reason ! priority ov] life4 ,?us 8 metaphysical me?od is ess5tially id5tical ) ! introspective me?od recomm5d$ by ,plot9us1 &1 if fully work$ out1 might h l$ to ! same results4 ,we _c1 !n1 agree ) ,zell]1 :5 he gr\ps ! ,neo-,platoni/s toge!r ) ! o!r po/-,ari/otelian s*ools1 on ! gr\nd t !y are all alike di/+ui%$ f ,plato & ,ari/otle by ! exclusive att5tion :i* !y pay to subjective & practical1 z oppos$ to sci5tific & !oretical int]e/s4 ,x seems to u t su* di/9ctions are out ( relation to ! hi/orical ord] 9 :i* ! diff]5t sy/ems ( ,greek philosophy 7 evolv$4 ,x is n 9 ! sub/ance ( _! tea*+1 b 9 _! dim9i%$ p[] ( orig9al speculation1 t ! ?9k]s :o came aft] ,ari/otle (f] ! /ronge/ contra/ to _! pr$ecessors4 ,9 s f> z !y are exclusively practical & subjective1 !y foll[ ! ,humani/s & ,socrates4 ,9 s f> z !y comb9e ,socratic t5d5cies ) physical /udies1 !y imitate ! me?od ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,_! cosmopolitan naturalism is inh]it$ f ! ,cynics 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 m remotely f ! physiocratic ,sophi/s1 &1 p]haps1 9 ! la/ resort1 f ,h]acleitus4 ,_! religion is traceable ei!r to ,py?agoras1 to ,socrates1 or to ,plato4 ,_! scepticism is only a little m develop$ ?an t ( ,protagoras & ! ,cyr5aics4 ,b if we seek = "s "o pr9ciple held 9 common by all ^! lat] s*ools1 & held by none ( ! e>li] s*ools1 we %all seek = x 9 va94 ,! imitative sy/ems are sep>at$ f "o ano!r by ! same fundam5tal diff]5ces z ^? :i* divide ! orig9al sy/ems4 ,n[1 9 bo? p]iods1 ! deepe/ ( all diff]5ces is t :i* divides ! spirituali/s f ! mat]iali/s4 ,9 bo? p]iods1 also1 x is mat]ialism t comes fir/4 ,& 9 bo?1 ! transition f "o doctr9e to ! o!r is m>k$ by ! exclusive prom95ce giv5 to subjective1 practical1 sceptical1 or !ological int]e/s 9 philosophy2 by ! en?usia/ic culture ( rhetoric 9 g5]al education2 & by a /rong religi\s reaction 9 ! upp] ranks ( society4 ,?us we c q agree ) ,zell] :5 he obs]ves#dce t ,neo-,platonism only c>ri$ out a t5d5cy t[>ds spiritualism :i* _h be5 already manife/+ itself among ! lat] ,/oics1 & _h be5 /ill fur!r develop$ by ! ,neo-,py?agoreans4 ,b :at does ?is prove8 ,n :at ,zell] cont5ds =1 :i* is t ,neo-,platonism /&s on ! same gr\nd ) ! o!r po/-,ari/otelian sy/ems1 b simply t a recurr5ce ( ! same intellectual conditions 0 be+ foll[$ by a recurr5ce ( ! same results4 ,n[1 z be=e1 mat]ialism 0 prov+ its inadequacy to acc\nt = ! facts ( m5tal exp]i5ce4 ,n[1 z be=e1 morality1 aft] be+ cut (f f physical laws1 0 seek+ a basis 9 religi\s or metaphysical ideas4 ,n[1 z be=e1 ! /udy ( ?\ghts 0 succe$+ to ! /udy ( words1 & ! me?ods ( popul> p]suasion 7 giv+ place to ! me?ods ( dialectical demon/ration4 ,( c\rse1 ! age ( ,plot9us 0 f> inf]ior to ! age ( ,plato 9 vitality1 9 g5ius1 & 9 g5]al enlight5m5t1 not)/&+ ! enorm\s ext5sion :i* ,roman conque/ _h giv5 to ! sup]ficial area ( civilisation1 z ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,enneads & ! ,dialogues w\ld alone suffice to prove4 ,b ?is does n alt] ! fact t ! g5]al direction ( _! movem5t proce$s 9 p>allel l9es4 ,9 say+ t ! po/-,ari/otelian philosoph]s 7 n orig9al ?9k]s1 we mu/ gu>d aga9/ ! supposition t !y contribut$ no?+ ( value to ?\ght4 ,on ! contr>y1 :ile n putt+ =w>d any new !ories1 !y g5]alis$ "s ( ! pr9ciples borr[$ f _! pr$ecessors1 work$ out o!rs 9 m9ute detail1 & /at$ ! argum5ts on bo? sides ( e controv]t$ po9t ) sup]ior dialectic precision4 ,?us1 :ile mat]ialism _h be5 assum$ z self-evid5tly true by ! pre-,socratic s*ools1 x 0 ma9ta9$ by ! ,/oics & ,epicureans on :at seem$ to be gr\nds ( exp]i5ce & reason4 ,&1 simil>ly1 we f9d t ,plot9us1 hav+ arriv$ at ! consci\sness t spiritualism is ! common gr\nd on :i* ,plato & ,ari/otle /&1 ! connect+ trait :i* mo/ completely di/+ui%es !m f _! successors1 proce$s 9 8 second essay#dcf to argue ! case aga9/ mat]ialism m p[]fully ?an x _h ev] be5 argu$ be=e1 & ) ne>ly z mu* effect z x has ev] be5 argu$ s9ce4 ,v4 ,our p]sonality1 says ! ,alex&rian philosoph]1 _c be a prop]ty ( ! body1 = ?is is compos$ ( p>ts1 & is 9 a /ate ( p]petual flux4 ,a man's self1 !n1 is 8 s\l2 & ! s\l _c be mat]ial1 = ! ultimate elem5ts ( matt] are inanimate1 & x is inconceivable t animation & reason %\ld result f ! aggregation ( p>ticles :i*1 tak5 s+ly1 are de/itute ( bo?2 :ile1 ev5 7 x possible1 _! disposition 9 a c]ta9 ord] w\ld argue ! pres5ce ( an intellig5ce controll+ !m f )\t4 ,! ,/oics !mselves admit ! =ce ( ^! consid]ations1 :5 !y attribute reason to ! fi]y elem5t or vital brea? by :i*1 accord+ to !m1 all ?+s are %ap$4 ,!y d1 inde$1 talk ab\t a c]ta9 elem5t>y disposition z ! pr9ciple ( animation1 b ?is disposition is ei!r id5tical ) ! matt] possess+ x1 9 :i* case ! difficulties already m5tion$ recur1 or di/9ct f x1 9 :i* case ! animat+ pr9ciple /ill rema9s to be acc\nt$ =4 ,aga91 to suppose t ! s\l %>es 9 ! *anges ( ! body is incompatible ) ! self-id5tity :i* memory reveals4 ,to suppose t x is an ext5d$ sub/ance is incompatible ) its simultane\s pres5ce1 z an indivisible :ole1 at e po9t to :i* its activity rea*es2 z well z ) ! circum/ance t all our s5sations1 ?\gh receiv$ ?r\gh diff]5t organs1 are ref]r$ to a common c5tre ( consci\sness4 ,if ! s5sorium is a fluid body x w h no m p[] ( reta9+ impressions ?an wat]2 :ile1 if x is a solid1 new impressions w ei!r n be receiv$ at all1 or only :5 ! old impressions are effac$4 ,pass+ f s5sation to ?\ght1 x is admitt$ t ab/ract conceptions are incorporeal3 h[1 !n1 c !y be receiv$ & ent]ta9$ by a corporeal sub/ance8 ,or :at possible connexion c !re be betwe5 diff]5t arrangem5ts ( mat]ial p>ticles & su* notions z temp]ance & ju/ice8 ,?is is already a suffici5tly ne> approa* to ! language ( mod]n philosophy4 ,9 ano!r essay1 :i* accord+ to ! orig9al arrangem5t /&s ?ird1 & mu/ h be5 compos$ imm$iately aft] t :5ce ! =ego+ argum5ts are transcrib$1 !re is m ?an an approa*1 !re is complete co9cid5ce4#dcg ,to d$uce m9d f atoms is1 says ,plot9us1 if we may s speak1 /ill m impossible ?an to d$uce x f ! elem5t>y bodies4 ,grant+ t ! atoms h a natural movem5t d[nw>ds1 grant+ t !y suff] a lat]al deflection & s imp+e on "o ano!r1 /ill ?is c\ld d no m ?an produce a di/urbance 9 ! bodies aga9/ :i* !y /rike4 ,b to :at atomic movem5t c "o attribute psy*ic en]gies & affections8 ,:at sort ( collision 9 ! v]tical l9e ( desc5t1 or 9 ! oblique l9e ( deflection1 or 9 any direction y please1 w acc\nt = ! appe>ance ( a p>ticul> k9d ( reason+ or m5tal impulse or ?\ght1 or h[ c x acc\nt = ! exi/5ce ( su* processes at all8 ,"h1 ( c\rse1 ,plot9us is allud+ to ! ,epicureans2 b x is ) ! ,/oic & o!r s*ools t he is pr9cipally conc]n$1 & we return to 8 attack on _! psy*ology4 ,! activities ( ! s\l are ?\ght1 s5sation1 reason+1 desire1 att5tion1 & s =?3 ! activities ( body are heat1 cold1 impact1 & gravitation2 if to ^! we add ! *>act]i/ics ( m9d1 ! latt] w h no special prop]ties by :i* x c be kn[n4 ,& ev5 9 body we di/+ui% betwe5 quantity & quality2 ! =m]1 at mo/1 be+ corporeal1 & ! latt] n corporeal at all4 ,"h ,plot9us j t\*es ! ideali/ic me?od ( mod]n spiritualism1 b fails to foll[ x any fur!r4 ,he seems to h adopt$ ,ari/otle's natural realism z a suffici5t !ory ( ext]nal p]ception1 & to h rema9$ un9flu5c$ by ,plato's di/ru/ ( s5sible appe>ances4 ,aft] dispos+ ( ! ,/oic mat]ialism1 accord+ to :i* ! s\l1 ?\gh di/9ct f ! body1 is1 equally ) x1 an ext5d$ & resi/+ sub/ance1 our philosoph] proce$s to discuss ! !ories :i* make x a prop]ty or function ( ! body4 ,! ,py?agorean notion ( ! s\l z a h>mony ( ! body is met by a reproduction ( ! well-kn[n argum5ts us$ aga9/ x 9 ,plato's ,pha$o4 ,!n comes ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e t ! s\l is ! entele*y--t is to say1 ! realis$ purpose & p]fection--( ! physical organism to :i* x belongs4 ,?is is an idea :i* ,ari/otle himself _h fail$ to make v cle>1 & ! inadequacy ( :i* he _h virtually ackn[l$g$ by ascrib+ a diff]5t orig9 to reason1 al?\gh ?is is c\nt$ z "o ( ! psy*ic faculties4 ,plot9us1 at any rate1 c\ld n appreciate an explanation :i*1 :atev] else x impli$1 c]ta9ly involv$ a consid]able dep>ture f 8 own duali/ic int]pretation ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 _s & matt]4 ,he c\ld n ent] into ,ari/otle's view ( ! "o z a l[] & less conc5trat$ =m ( ! o!r4 ,! same argum5ts :i* _h already be5 employ$ aga9/ ,/oicism are n[ turn$ aga9/ ! ,p]ipatetic psy*ology4 ,! s\l z a pr9ciple1 n only ( memory & desire1 b ev5 ( nutrition1 is decl>$ to be indep5d5t ( & sep>able f ! body4 ,&1 f9ally1 z a result ( ! :ole controv]sy1 its immortality is affirm$4 ,b h[ f> ?is immortality involves ! belief 9 a prolongation ( p]sonal exi/5ce aft] dea?1 is a po9t :i* /ill rema9s unc]ta94 ,we %all return to ! "q 9 deal+ ) ! religi\s op9ions ( ,plot9us4 ,closely connect$ ) ! mat]ialism ( ! ,/oics1 & equally adv]se to ! pr9ciples ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 0 _! fatalism4 ,9 opposition to ?is1 ,plot9us proce$s to develop ! spirituali/ic doctr9e ( free-w4#dch ,9 ! previ\s discussion1 we _h to notice h[ closely 8 argum5ts resemble ^? employ$ by m mod]n controv]siali/s4 ,we h "h to po9t out no less wide a diff]5ce betwe5 ! two4 ,in/ead ( pres5t+ free-w z a fact ( consci\sness :i* is itself irreconcilable ) ! dep5d5ce ( m5tal on mat]ial *anges1 our philosoph]1 conv]sely1 inf]s t ! s\l mu/ be free bo? f ! conditions ( me*anical causation & f ! g5]al int]dep5d5ce ( natural =ces1 because x is an individual sub/ance4#dci ,9 tru?1 ! ph5om5a ( volition 7 h&l$ by ! anci5t philosoph]s ) a vagu5ess & a feebl5ess (f]+ ! mo/ s+ul> contra/ to _! p[]ful & discrim9at+ grasp ( o!r psy*ological problems4 ,( necess>ianism1 9 ! mod]n s5se1 !y _h no idea4 ,ari/otle fail$ to see t1 q ap>t f ext]nal re/ra9ts1 our *oice may conceivably be det]m9$ ) ! utmo/ rig\r by an int]nal motive2 nor c\ld he und]/& t ! circum/ances :i* make a man responsible = 8 actions d n am\nt to a release ( 8 conduct f ! law ( univ]sal causation4 ,9 ?is respect1 ,plato saw some:at deep] ?an 8 disciple1 b creat$ fre% confusion by id5tify+ fre$om ) ! supremacy ( reason ov] irrational desire4#ddj ,plot9us g5]ally adopts ! ,platoni/ po9t ( view4 ,accord+ to ?is1 ! s\l is free :5 %e is extricat$ f ! bonds ( matt]1 & det]m9$ solely by ! conditions ( h] spiritual exi/5ce4 ,?us virtue is n s mu* free z id5tical ) fre$om2 :ile1 contr>iwise1 vice means enslavem5t to ! affections ( ! body1 & !re=e comes "u ! doma9 ( mat]ial causation4#dda ,yet1 aga91 9 criticis+ ! fatali/ic !ories :i* repres5t human actions z entirely pr$et]m9$ by div9e provid5ce1 he prote/s aga9/ ! ascription ( s mu* t is evil to s good a s\rce1 & insi/s t at lea/ ! bad actions ( m5 are due to _! own free *oice4#ddb ,9 v9dicat+ human fre$om1 ,plot9us _h to enc\nt] a difficulty exce$+ly *>act]i/ic ( 8 age4 ,?is 0 ! a/rological sup]/ition t ev]y?+ dep5d$ on ! />s1 & t ! future fate ( e p]son might be pr$ict$ by obs]v+ _! movem5ts & configurations at ! "t ( 8 bir?4 ,philosoph]s f\nd x mu* easi] to demoli% ! pret5sions ( a/rology by an ab/ract demon/ration ( _! absurdity1 ?an to get rid ( ! suppos$ facts :i* 7 curr5tly quot$ 9 _! fav\r4 ,t =tunes c\ld be =etold on ! /r5g? ( a/ronomical calculations ) z mu* c]ta9ty z eclipses1 seems to h be5 an accept$ article ( belief 9 ! "t ( ,plot9us1 & "o :i* he does n v5ture to dispute4 ,he is !re=e oblig$ to satisfy himself ) ma9ta9+ t ! />s d n cause1 b m]ely =e%[ ! future1 9 ! same mann] z ! flight ( birds1 to ! prophetic virtue ( :i* he also atta*es implicit cr$5ce4 ,all p>ts ( ,nature are connect$ by su* an intimate sympa?y1 t ea* s]ves z a clue to ! re/2 &1 on ?is pr9ciple1 ! />s may be reg>d$ z ! lett]s ( a scripture 9 :i* ! secrets ( futurity are reveal$4#ddc ,h[ mu* orig9ality !re may be 9 ! anti-mat]iali/ic argum5ts ( ,plot9us we _c tell4 ,he c]ta9ly m>ks a great advance on ,plato & ,ari/otle1 approximat+1 9 ?is respect1 mu* m closely ?an !y d to ! mod]n /&po9t4 ,! indivisibility & p]man5ce ( m9d _h1 no d\bt1 be5 /rongly insi/$ on by ^? tea*]s1 9 contra/ ) ! ext5d$ & fluctuat+ nature ( body4 ,b !y did n1 l him1 d$uce ^! *>act]i/ics f a direct analysis ( consci\sness z su*4 ,plato inf]r$ ! simplicity & self-id5tity ( m9d f ! simplicity & self-id5tity ( ! ideas :i* x contemplates4 ,ari/otle w5t a /ep fur!r1 or p]haps only express$ ! same mean+ m cle>ly1 :5 he associat$ immat]iality ) ! id5tity ( subject & object 9 ?\ght4#ddd ,moreov]1 bo? ,plato & ,ari/otle seem to h re/$ ! :ole spirituali/ic case on objective r ?an on subjective consid]ations2 al?\gh1 z we h se51 ! subjective int]e/ 0 :at dom9at$ all ! :ile 9 _! ?\ghts4 ,/>t+ ) ! analogy ( a liv+ body1 ,plato argues1 bo? 9 ! ,pha$rus & 9 ! ,laws1 t s\l mu/ ev]y:]e be ! fir/ cause ( motion1 & !re=e mu/ exi/ prior to body4#dde ,! elaborate sci5tific analysis ( ,ari/otle's ,physics leads up to a simil> conclusion2 & ! ontological analysis ( ! ,metaphysics />ts ) ! di/9ction betwe5 ,=m & ,matt] 9 bodies1 to end ) ! "q ( _! relative priority1 & ( ! objective ma*9]y by :i* !y are unit$4 ,plot9us1 too1 sometimes ref]s to m9d z ! s\rce ( physical ord]2 b ?is is r 9 def]5ce to 8 au?orities ?an because ! necessity ( su* an explanation seem$ to him1 z x did to !m1 ! deepe/ gr\nd ( a spirituali/ic philosophy4 ,on ! o!r h&1 8 psy*ological argum5ts = ! immat]iality ( ! s\l are drawn f a wid] area ( exp]i5ce ?an !irs1 feel+ be+ tak5 into acc\nt no less ?an ?\ght2 in/ead ( re/rict+ himself to "o p>ticul> k9d ( cognition = evid5ce ( spiritual p[]1 he looks = x 9 e manife/ation ( liv+ p]sonality4 ,9 criticis+ ! ,/oic sy/em z a :ole1 ! ,new ,academy & ! lat] ,sceptics _h incid5tally dwelt on sundry absurdities :i* foll[$ f ! mat]iali/ic int]pretation ( k2 & ,plot9us evid5tly d]iv$ "s ( 8 mo/ =cible objections f _! writ+s2 b no previ\s philosoph] t we "k ( _h set =? ! :ole case = spiritualism & aga9/ mat]ialism ) su* tell+ effect4 ,& :at is1 p]haps1 m important ?an any orig9ality 9 detail1 is ! pr(\nd insight %[n 9 *oos+ ?is :ole "q ( spiritualism v]sus mat]ialism = ! gr\nd :]eon ! comb9$ =ces ( ,plato & ,ari/otle 7 to fight _! fir/ battle aga9/ ! naturali/ic sy/em :i* _h triumph$ ov] !m five c5turies be=e4 ,x 0 on dialectical & e?ical gr\nds t ! controv]sy betwe5 ,por* & ,academy1 on e?ical & religi\s gr\nds t ! controv]sy betwe5 ,epicureanism & all o!r s*ools ( philosophy1 _h hi!rto be5 conduct$4 ,cic]o & ,plut>* nev] allude to _! oppon5ts z mat]iali/s4 ,only once1 9 8 polemic aga9/ ,coltes1 does ,plut>* obs]ve t nei!r a s\l nor any?+ else c\ld be made out ( atoms1 b ?is is because !y are discrete1 n because !y are ext5d$4#ddf ,= ! re/1 8 me?od is to trip up 8 oppon5ts by po9t+ out _! inconsi/5cies1 r ?an to cut ! gr\nd f "u _! feet by prov+ t _! !ory ( ! univ]se is wrong4 ,"u su* guidance z ?is4 ,platonism _h made b little way4 ,we saw1 9 ! conclud+ sections ( ! la/ *apt] & 9 ! op5+ section ( ! pres5t *apt]1 t x pr(it$ by ! religi\s & lit]>y revival ( ! second c5tury1 j z x 0 to pr(it long aft]w>ds by ! great] revival ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 s mu* s z to become ! fa%ionable philosophy ( ! age4 ,yet1 ev5 9 t p]iod ( its r5ew$ spl5d\r1 ! noble/ ( contempor>y ?9k]s 0 n a ,platoni/ b a ,/oic2 & al?\gh x w\ld be unfair to measure ! moral di/ance betwe5 ! ,por* & ! ,academy by ! int]val :i* sep>ates an ,aurelius f an ,apuleius1 /ill x w\ld seem z if naturalism cont9u$ to be ! *os5 cre$ ( /r5u\s & dutiful endeav\r1 :ile spiritualism 0 drift+ into an alliance ) hy/]ical & s5su\s sup]/ition4 ,if we may judge by ! po9ts :i* ,sextus ,empiricus selects = controv]sial treatm5t1 ,/oicism 0 /ill ! reign+ sy/em 9 8 "t1 t is to say1 ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! ?ird c5tury2 & if1 a g5]ation lat]1 x _h sunk into neglect1 e rival s*ool1 except t ( ,epicurus1 0 9 exactly ! same condition4 ,?us ! only advance made 0 to sub/itute "o =m ( mat]ialism = ano!r1 until ,neo-,platonism came & put an end to _! disputes by de/roy+ ! common f\ndation on :i* !y /ood2 :ile1 at ! same "t1 x suppli$ a completely organis$ doctr9e r\nd :i* ! nobl] elem5ts ( ! ,hell5ic revival c\ld rally = a la/ /& aga9/ ! foes t 7 ?reat5+ x f e side4 ,,vi4 ,we h se5 h[ ,plot9us e/abli%es ! spirituali/ic basis ( 8 philosophy4 ,we h n[ to see h[ he works out f x 9 all directions1 develop+ ! results ( 8 previ\s enquiries into a complete metaphysical sy/em4 ,x w h be5 obs]v$ t ! :ole me?od ( reason+ by :i* mat]ialism 0 ov]?r[n1 re/$ on ! anti!sis betwe5 ! unity ( consci\sness & ! divisibility ( corporeal sub/ance4 ,v mu* ! same me?od 0 aft]w>ds employ$ by ,c>tesianism to demon/rate ! same conclusion4 ,b ) ,desc>tes & 8 foll[]s1 ! opposition betwe5 s\l & body 0 absolute1 ! =m] be+ def9$ z pure ?\ght1 ! latt] z pure ext5sion4 ,h5ce ! extreme difficulty :i* !y exp]i5c$ 9 acc\nt+ = ! evid5t connexion betwe5 ! two4 ,! spiritualism ( ,plot9us did n involve any su* impassable *asm betwe5 consci\sness & its object4 ,accord+ to him1 al?\gh ! s\l is conta9$ 9 or dep5ds on an absolutely self-id5tical unity1 %e is n h]self t unity1 b 9 "s degree %>es ! *>act]s ( divisibility & ext5sion4#ddg ,if we conceive all exi/5ce z b\nd$ at ei!r extremity by two pr9ciples1 ! "o ext5d$ & ! o!r inext5d$1 !n s\l w /ill /& midway betwe5 !m2 n divid$ 9 h]self1 b divid$ 9 respect to ! bodies :i* %e animates4 ,plot9us holds t su* an assumption is necessitat$ by ! facts ( s5sation4 ,a feel+ ( pa91 = example1 is locat$ 9 a p>ticul> po9t ( ! body1 & is1 at ! same "t1 appreh5d$ z my feel+1 n z "s "o else's4 ,a simil> syn!sis obta9s ?r\gh ! :ole ( ,nature4 ,! visible univ]se consi/s ( _m het]og5e\s p>ts1 held toge!r by a s+le animat+ pr9ciple4 ,& we c trace ! same qualities & figures ?r\gh a multitude ( concrete individuals1 _! ess5tial unity rema9+ unbrok51 not)/&+ ! disp]sion ( ! objects 9 :i* !y inh]e4 ,"h ,plot9us av[$ly foll[s ! tea*+ ( ,plato1 :o1 9 ! ,timaeus1 describes ,be+ or ,sub/ance z compos$ by m+l+ ! indivisible & un*ang+ ) ! divisible & corporeal pr9ciple4#ddh ,&1 al?\gh !re is no express ref]5ce1 we "k t 9 plac+ s\l betwe5 ! two1 he 0 equally foll[+ ,plato4 ,x is o!rwise 9 ! next essay1 :i* und]takes to give a m explicit analysis ( psy*ical ph5om5a4#ddi ,! s\l1 we are told1 consi/s1 l ext]nal objects1 ( two elem5ts relat$ to "o ano!r z ,=m & ,matt]4 ,^! are reason & s5se4 ,! (fice ( ! =m] is1 prim>ily1 to enlight5 & control ! latt]4 ,plato _h already po9t$ to su* a di/9ction2 b ,ari/otle 0 ! fir/ to "w x out cle>ly1 & to make x ! h+e ( 8 :ole sy/em4 ,x is1 accord+ly1 "u ! guidance ( ,ari/otle t ,plot9us proce$s 9 :at he has next to say4 ,j z !re is a s\l ( ! _w correspond+ to our s\l1 s also1 he argues1 !re mu/ be a univ]sal objective ,reason outside & above ! _w4 ,9 speak+ ( ?is ,reason1 we %all1 = cle>ness' sake1 9 g5]al call x by its ,greek "n1 ,n\s4 ,n\s1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 is ! faculty by :i* we appreh5d ab/ract ideas2 x is self-?9k+ ?\ght2 &1 z su*1 x is ! prime mov] ( ,nature4 ,plot9us adopts ! fir/ two positions unres]v$ly1 & ! ?ird to a c]ta9 ext5t2 :ile he br+s all ?ree into comb9ation ) ! ,platonic !ory ( ideas4 ,x _h always be5 an insup]able difficulty 9 ! way ( ,plato's tea*+ t x necessitat$1 or seem$ to necessitate1 ! un9telligible notion ( ideas exi/+ )\t any m9d to ?9k !m4 ,= a disciple ( ,ari/otle1 ! difficulty ceases to exi/ if ! ar*etypal ess5ces assum$ by ,plato are conceiv$ z resid+ 9 an et]nal ,n\s4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 h[ are we to reconcile su* an accommodation ) ,ari/otle's pr9ciple1 t ! ,supreme ,intellig5ce c ?9k no?+ b itself8 ,simply by g5]alis+ f ! same ma/]'s doctr9e t ! human ,n\s is id5tical ) ! ideas :i* x contemplates4 ,?\ght & its object are ev]y:]e "o4 ,?us1 accord+ to ,plot9us1 ! absolute ,n\s embraces ! totality ( ar*etypes or =ms :i* we see reflect$ & embodi$ 9 ! mat]ial univ]se4 ,9 ?9k+ !m1 x ?9ks itself1 n pass+ f "o to ! o!r z 9 discursive reason+1 nor br++ !m into exi/5ce by ! act ( ?\ght1 b appreh5d+ !m z simultane\sly pres5t realities4 ,to expla9 h[ ! ,n\s c\ld be id5tical ) a numb] ( di/9ct ideas 0 a difficult problem4 ,we %all h to %[ at a m advanc$ /age ( our exposition h[ ,plot9us endeav\r$ to solve x ) ! help ( ,plato's ,sophi/4 ,9 ! essay :]e 8 !ory is fir/ put =w>d1 he cuts ! knot by ass]t+ t ea* idea virtually conta9s e o!r1 :ile ea* 9 its actual & sep>ate exi/5ce is1 s to speak1 an indep5d5t ,n\s4 ,b correlation is n id5tity2 & to say t ea* idea ?9ks itself is n to expla9 h[ ! same subject c ?9k1 & 9 ?9k+ be id5tical ) all4 ,! p]sonal id5tity ( ! ?9k+ subject /ill /&s 9 unreconcil$ opposition to ! multitude ( ?\ghts :i* x ent]ta9s1 :e!r successively or 9 a s+le intuition4 ,( two ?+s "o3 ei!r ! unity ( ! ,n\s or ! div]sity ( its ideas mu/ be sacrific$4 ,plot9us evades ! alt]native by a k9d ( ?ree-c>d trick4 ,sometimes 8 ideal unity is to be f\nd "u ! notion ( conv]g5ce to a common c5tre1 sometimes "u ! notion ( p>ticipation 9 a common prop]ty1 sometimes "u ! notion ( mutual equival5ce4 ,! confusion 0 p>tly inh]it$ f ,ari/otle4 ,:5 discuss+ ! psy*ology ( t philosoph]1 we %[$ t 8 active ,n\s is no o!r ?an ! idea ( :i* we are at any mom5t actually consci\s4 ,our own reason is ! passive ,n\s1 ^: id5tity is lo/ 9 ! multiplicity ( objects ) :i* x becomes id5tifi$ 9 turn4 ,b ,ari/otle 0 c>eful n to let ! p]sonality ( ,god1 or ! supreme ,n\s1 be endang]$ by resolv+ x into ! totality ( sub/antial =ms :i* con/itute ,nature4 ,god is self-consci\s 9 ! /ricte/ s5se4 ,he ?9ks no?+ b himself4 ,aga91 ! subjective />t+-po9t ( ,plot9us may h affect$ 8 conception ( ! univ]sal ,n\s4 ,a s+le individual may isolate himself f 8 fell[s 9 s f> z he is a s5ti5t be+2 he _c d s 9 s f> z he is a rational be+4 ,8 reason always addresses itself to ! reason ( "s "o else--a fact n[h]e br\ght out s cle>ly z 9 ! dialectic philosophy ( ,socrates & ,plato4 ,!n1 :5 an agreem5t has be5 e/abli%$1 _! m9ds1 be=e s %>ply divid$1 seem to be1 aft] all1 only diff]5t p]sonifications ( ! same univ]sal _s4 ,h5ce reason1 no less ?an its objects1 comes to be conceiv$ z bo? _m & "o4 ,& ?is syn!sis ( contradictories meets u 9 mod]n ,g]man z well z 9 anci5t ,greek philosophy4 ,aft] 8 prelim9>y analysis ( ,n\s1 we f9d ,plot9us work+ out 9 two directions f ! conception s obta9$4#dej ,he beg9s by expla9+ 9 :at relation ! human s\l /&s to ! univ]sal reason4 ,to him1 p]sonally1 x seem$ z if ! _w ( ?\ght into :i* he p5etrat$ by reflect+ on 8 own inmo/ ess5ce1 0 s mu* ! real home ( 8 s\l t h] pres5ce 9 a bodily habitation pres5t$ itself z a difficulty requir+ to be cle>$ up4 ,9 ?is connexion1 he ref]s to ! op9ions ( ! ,py?agoreans1 :o look$ on our e>?ly life z an unmix$ evil1 a puni%m5t = "s s9 committ$ 9 a =m] /age ( exi/5ce4 ,_! views seem to h be5 p>tly %>$ by ,plato4 ,sometimes he calls ! body a prison & a tomb into :i* ! s\l has fall5 f h] orig9al abode4 ,yet1 9 8 ,timaeus1 he glorifies ! visible _w1 & tells u t ! univ]sal s\l 0 div9ely appo9t$ to give x life & reason2 :ile our individual s\ls h also _! "p to play 9 p]fect+ ! same provid5tial s*eme4 ,x is to ! second !ory t ,plot9us evid5tly leans4 ,h[ev] closely 8 life may h be5 con=m$ to ! ,py?agorean model--a po9t ) respect to :i* we h no?+ bett] ?an ! v prejudic$ /atem5ts ( ,porphyry to rely on--!re is no trace ( ,py?agorean asceticism 9 8 writ+s4 ,h]eaft] we %all see h[ ho/ile he 0 to ,gno/ic pessimism4 ,9 ! prec$+ essay1 he _h already specifi$ admiration = physical beauty z a fir/ & necess>y /ep 9 ! s\l's asc5t to a contemplation ( spiritual realities2#dea & n[ x is "u ! guidance ( ,plato's lat] speculations t he proce$s to acc\nt = h] desc5t f t high] _w to ! re/ra9ts ( matt] & ( s5se4 ,) reg>d to ! univ]sal s\l ( ,nature1 !re is1 inde$1 no difficulty at all4 ,9 giv+ a s5sible realisation to ! noetic ideas1 %e suff]s no degradation or pollution by contact ) ! l[] elem5ts ( matt]4 ,en?ron$ on ! out] v]ge ( ! cosmos1 %e gov]ns ! :ole c\rse ( ,nature by a simple ex]cise ( volition1 & 9 ! enjoym5t ( a felicity :i* rema9s undi/urb$ by passion or desire4 ,b j z we h se5 ! supreme ,n\s resolv+ itself into a multitude ( individual intellig5ces1 s also does ! cosmic s\l produce _m less] or p>tial s\ls ( :i* our own is "o4 ,n[ ^! d]ivative s\ls _c all be equal1 = t w\ld be to defeat ! purpose ( creation1 :i* is to realise all ! possibilities ( creation f ! highe/ to ! l[e/4 ,?us ea* has an (fice correspond+ to h] place 9 ! scale ( p]fection4#deb ,we may say ( ! human s\l t %e /oops to conqu]4 ,h] mission is to cope ) ! m recalcitrant =ms ( matt]4 ,x is to ! /ruggle ) _! impurities t ! tr\bles & passions ( our life are due4 ,by yield+ to e>?ly temptations1 we suff] a second fall1 & "o mu* m real ?an ! fir/2 by ov]com+ !m1 z is p]fectly 9 our p[] to d1 we give scope & ex]cise to faculties :i* w\ld o!rwise h rema9$ dormant & unkn[n4 ,moreov]1 our s\l reta9s ! privilege ( return+ to h] =m] abode1 enri*$ by ! exp]i5ce acquir$ 9 ?is _w1 & ) t cle>] p]ception ( good :i* ! k ( its opposite alone c supply4 ,nay1 p>adoxical z ! ass]tion may seem1 %e has n entirely desc5d$ to e>?1 b rema9s 9 p>tial communication ) ! noetic _w by virtue ( h] reason+ faculty2 t is to say1 :5 its intuitions are n d>k5$ & di/urb$ by ! triumph ( s5su\s impressions ov] ! l[] s\l4 ,on ?is & on _m o!r occasions1 ,plot9us betrays a glimm]+ consci\sness t 8 philosophy is purely subjective1 & t its attempt$ transc5d5talism is1 9 tru?1 a projection ( psy*ological di/9ctions into ! ext]nal _w4 ,/>t+ ) ! famili> division ( human nature into body1 s\l1 & _s 7or reason71 he endeav\rs to f9d an objective c\nt]p>t = ea*4 ,body is repres5t$ by ! mat]ial univ]se1 s\l by ! animat+ pr9ciple ( ,nature1 reason by ! extramundane ,n\s4 ,"u ^! ?ree heads is compris$ ! totality ( real exi/5ce2 b exi/5ce itself has to be acc\nt$ = by a pr9ciple ly+ above & beyond x1 :i* has /ill to be obta9$ by an ef=t ( ab/raction f ! data t self-consci\sness supplies4#dec ,9 8 v fir/ essay1 ,plot9us _h h9t$ at a pr9ciple high] & m primordial ?an ! absolute ,n\s1 some?+ ) :i* ! s\l is connect$ by ! m$iation ( ,n\s1 j z %e h]self m$iates betwe5 ,n\s & ! mat]ial _w4 ,! notion ( su* a supreme pr9ciple 0 d]iv$ f ,plato4 ,9 ! six? & sev5? books ( ! ,republic1 we are told t at ! summit ( ! dialectic s]ies /&s an idea to grasp :i* is ! ultimate object ( all reason+4 ,plato calls ?is ! ,idea ( ,good1 & describes x z hold+ a place 9 ! intellectual _w analog\s to t held by ! sun 9 ! physical _w4 ,=1 j z ! sun br+s all visible ?+s into be+1 & also gives ! light by :i* !y are se51 s also ! ,good is n only t by :i* ! objects ( k are kn[n1 b also t :5ce _! exi/5ce is d]iv$1 :ile at ! same "t itself transc5d+ exi/5ce 9 dignity & p[]4#ded ,9 a =m] "p ( ?is "w#dee we f\nd reason to believe t ,plato's supreme good is no o!r ?an ! ,idea ( ,sam5ess :i* occurs 9 ! ,sophi/ & 9 ! ,timaeus1 :]e x is correlat$ ) ! ,idea ( ,diff]5ce2 & we also conclud$ t ! div9e creator ( ! la/-nam$ dialogue is int5d$ to repres5t x "u a m concrete & popul> =m4#def ,we may1 p]haps1 also discov] x 9 ! ,limit ( ! ,philbus2 & if we are to believe :at ,ari/otle tells u ab\t ! lat] tea*+ ( ,plato1 x seems to h f9ally coalesc$ ) ! ,py?agorean ,"o1 :i* comb9es ) ! unlimit$ ,dyad to =m fir/ numb]1 & !n ev]y?+ else1 j z ! ,same comb9es ) ! ,diff]5t to =m exi/5ce 9 ! ,timaeus4#deg ,= ! ,platonic ,idea ( ,good1 ,ari/otle _h sub/itut$ 8 own conception ( self-?9k+ ?\ght1 z ! absolute on :i* all ,nature hangs3 & we h se5 h[ ,plot9us foll[s him to ! ext5t ( admitt+ t ?is visible univ]se is "u ! imm$iate control ( an incorporeal ,reason1 :i* also s]ves z a receptacle = ! ,platonic ,ideas4 ,b :at satisfi$ ,ari/otle does n fully satisfy him4 ,! fir/ pr9ciple mu/ be "o1 & ,n\s fails to answ] ! conditions ( absolute unity1 ,ev5 self-?9k+ ?\ght involves ! elem5t>y dualism ( object & subject4 ,aga91 z ,plot9us some:at inconsi/5tly argues1 ,n\s1 be+ k1 mu/ cognise some?+ simpl] ?an itself4#deh ,or1 p]haps1 :at he means is t 9 ,n\s1 :i* is its product1 ! fir/ pr9ciple becomes self-consci\s4 ,consci\sness means a *eck on ! outfl[ ( en]gy due to ! re/ra9+ action ( ! ,"o1 a return to & reflection on itself ( ! creative p[]4#dei ,if ! necessity ( ! ,"o is prov$ by ! inw>d diff]5tiation ( :at seem$ mo/ simple1 x is also prov$ by ! integration ( :at seems mo/ divid$4 ,9 8 next essay1 our philosoph] w&]s (f f ! inve/igation ( :at he has j begun1 by abruptly />t+ ! "q :e!r all s\ls are "o4#dfj ,?is "q is1 h[ev]1 mo/ intimately connect$ ) 8 ma9 !me4 ,he answ]s x 9 ! affirmative4 ,/rictly p]sonal z our feel+s seem1 we are1 9 reality1 "o ) ea* o!r1 ?r\gh our jo9t p>ticipation 9 ! _w-s\l4 ,love & sympa?y among human be+s are solely due to ?is connexion4 ,plot9us m5tions1 z ano!r evid5ce ( its reality1 ! secret aff9ities call$ into play ev5 at a great di/ance by magical spells--an allusion v *>act]i/ic ( 8 age4#dfa ,:at prev5ts u f m fully p]ceiv+ ! unity ( all s\ls is ! sep>at5ess ( ! bodies ) :i* !y are associat$4 ,matt] is ! pr9ciple ( individuation4 ,b ev5 )9 ! s\l !re is a division betwe5 ! rational & ! irrational "p1 conc5tration be+ ! *>act]i/ic ( ! "o & disp]sion ( ! o!r4 ,! latt] is fitt$ by its divid$ nature = presid+ ov] ! bodily functions ( s5sation & nutrition2 & ) ! dissolution ( ! body x returns to ! unity ( ! high] s\l4 ,!re are two ways 9 :i* we c acc\nt = ?is p]vad+ unity4 ,x is ei!r z products or z portions ( ! univ]sal s\l t all p>ticul> s\ls are "o4 ,plot9us comb9es bo? explanations4 ,! _w-s\l fir/ gives bir? to an image ( itself1 & !n ?is is subdivid$ into z _m p>tial s\ls z !re are bodies requir+ animation4 ,on ext5d+ our survey /ill wid]1 we f9d t ! exi/5ce ( a ?+ ev]y:]e dep5ds on its unity4#dfb ,all bodies p]i% by dissolution1 & dissolution means ! loss ( unity4 ,heal?1 beauty1 & virtue are m]ely s _m diff]5t k9ds ( h>mony & unison4 ,%all we !n say t s\l1 z ! great unify+ p[] 9 ,nature1 is ! ,"o ( :i* we are 9 se>*8 ,n s2 = prec$+ inve/igations h taught u t s\l is only an ag5t = transmitt+ ideas receiv$ f a high] p[]2 & ! psy*ic faculties !mselves are held toge!r by a unify+ pr9ciple = :i* we h to acc\nt4 ,nei!r is ! :ole sum ( exi/5ce ! ,"o1 = its v "n implies a plurality ( p>ts4 ,& ! claims ( ! ,n\s to t di/9ction h be5 already disprov$4 ,9 %ort1 no?+ t exi/s c be ! ,"o1 =1 z we h se51 unity is ! cause ( exi/5ce & mu/ !re=e prec$e x4 #8,:at !n1' asks ,plot9us1 #8is ! ,"o8 ,no easy "q to answ] = u ^: k is bas$ on ideas1 & :o c h>dly tell :at ideas are1 or :at is exi/5ce itself4 ,! f>!r ! s\l advances 9 ?is =mless region1 :]e !re is no?+ = h] to grasp1 no?+ ^: impress %e c receive1 ! m does h] foot+ fail h]1 ! m helpless & desolate does %e feel4 ,(t5times %e we>ies ( su* se>*+ & is glad to leave x all & to desc5d into ! _w ( s5se until %e f9ds re/ on ! solid e>?1 z ! eyes are reliev$ 9 turn+ f small objects to l>ge4 ,= %e does n "k t to be "o h]self is to h ga9$ ! object ( h] se>*1 = !n %e is no o!r ?an t :i* %e kn[s4 ,nev]!less x is only by ?is me?od t we c ma/] ! philosophy ( ! ,"o4 ,s9ce1 !n1 :at we seek is "o1 & s9ce we are consid]+ ! fir/ pr9ciple ( all ?+s & ! ,good1 he :o ent]s on ?is que/ mu/ n place himself af> f ! ?+s t are fir/ by desc5d+ to ! ?+s t are la/1 b he mu/ leave ! objects ( s5se1 &1 fre$ f all evil1 asc5d to ! fir/ pr9ciple ( 8 own nature1 t by becom+ "o1 in/ead ( _m1 he may behold ! beg9n+ & ! ,"o4 ,!re=e he mu/ become ,reason1 tru/+ 8 s\l to ,reason = guidance & support1 t %e may wakefully receive :at x sees1 & ) ?is he mu/ behold ! ,"o1 n admitt+ any elem5t ( s5se1 b gaz+ on ! pure/ ) pure ,reason & ) t :i* 9 ,reason is fir/4 ,%\ld he :o addresses himself to ?is ent]prise imag9e t ! object ( 8 vision possesses magnitude or =m or bulk1 !n ,reason is n 8 guide1 = su* p]ceptions d n belong to its nature b to s5se & to ! op9ion :i* foll[s on s5se4 ,no2 we mu/ only pl$ge ,reason to p]=m :at x c d4 ,reason sees :at prec$es1 or :at conta9s1 or :at is d]iv$ f itself4 ,pure are ! ?+s 9 x1 pur] /ill ^? :i* prec$e1 or r1 t :i* prec$es x4 ,?is is nei!r reason nor any?+ t is2 = :atev] is has ! =m ( exi/5ce1 :]eas ?is has none1 n ev5 an ideal =m4 ,= ! ,"o1 ^: nature is to g5]ate all ?+s1 _c be any ( ^? ?+s itself4 ,!re=e x is nei!r sub/ance1 nor quality1 nor reason1 nor s\l2 nei!r mov+ nor at re/1 n 9 place1 n 9 "t1 b unique ( its k9d1 or r k9dless1 be+ be=e all k9d1 be=e motion & be=e re/1 = ^! belong to be+1 & are t to :i* its multiplicity is due4 ,:y1 !n1 if x does n move1 is x n at re/8 ,because :ile "o or bo? ( ^! mu/ be attribut$ to be+1 ! v act ( attribution involves a di/9ction betwe5 subject & pr$icate1 :i* is impossible 9 ! case ( :at is absolutely simple4'#dfc ,! ,"o _c1 prop]ly speak+1 be an object ( k1 b is appreh5d$ by some?+ high] ?an k4 ,?is is :y ,plato calls x ineffable & indescribable4 ,:at we c describe is ! way to ! view1 n ! view itself4 ,! s\l :i* has nev] be5 irradiat$ ) ! light ( t supreme spl5d\r1 nor fill$ ) ! passionate joy ( a lov] f9d+ re/ 9 ! contemplation ( 8 belov$1 _c be giv5 t exp]i5ce 9 words4 ,b ! beatific vision is op5 to all4 ,he f :om x is hidd5 has only himself to blame4 ,let him break away f ! re/ra9ts ( s5se & place himself "u ! guidance ( philosophy1 t philosophy :i* leads f matt] to _s1 f s\l to ,n\s1 f ,n\s to ! ,"o4 ,plot9us himself1 we are told1 rea*$ ! climax ( complete unification sev]al times 9 8 life1 ,porphyry only once1 9 ! sixty-eigh? ye> ( 8 age4 ,probably ! condition s d5om9at$ 0 a species ( hypnotic trance4 ,its importance 9 ! ,neo-,platonic sy/em has be5 consid]ably exagg]at$1 & on ! /r5g? ( ?is s+le po9t "s critics h summ>ily dispos$ ( ,plot9us & 8 :ole s*ool z unreason+ my/ics4 ,my/icism is a vague ^w capable ( v v>i\s applications4 ,9 ! pres5t in/ance1 we presume t x is us$ to express a belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( "s me?od = ! discov]y ( tru? ap>t f tradition2 obs]vation1 & reason+4 ,&1 tak5 9 ?is s5se1 ! ,neo-,platonic me?od ( arriv+ at a full appreh5sion ( ! ,"o w\ld be consid]$ an extreme in/ance ( my/icism4 ,we mu/ be> 9 m9d1 h[ev]1 t ,plot9us arrives at an intellectual conception ( absolute unity by ! mo/ /rictly logical process4 ,x makes no diff]5ce t 8 reason+ is uns\nd1 = ! same criticism applies to o!r philosoph]s :o h nev] be5 accus$ ( my/icism4 ,x may be said t aft] lead+ u up to a c]ta9 po9t1 reason is replac$ by intuition4 ,r1 :at ! ultimate intuition does is n to take ! place ( logic1 b to sub/itute a liv+ realisation = an ab/ract & negative conception4 ,moreov]1 ! intuition is won n by =sak+ logic1 b by /ra9+ its res\rces to ! v utmo/4 ,aga91 "o great *>act]i/ic ( my/icism1 z ord9>ily und]/ood1 is to d5y ! tru? ( common obs]vation & reason+4 ,n[ ,plot9us nev] goes ?is l5g?4 ,z we h already rem>k$1 he does n ev5 %>e ,plato's di/ru/ ( s5sible impressions1 b r foll[s ! example ( ,ari/otle 9 recognis+ _! validity )9 a c]ta9 sph]e4 ,nor does he m5tion hav+ receiv$ any revelations ( div9e tru? dur+ 8 int]c\rse ) ! absolute ,"o4 ,?is alone m>ks an imm5se diff]5ce betwe5 8 ec/asies--if su* !y c be call$--& ^? ( ! ,*ri/ian my/ics ) :om he is associat$ by ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,sa9t-,hilaire4#dfd ,x may be said t ! ,"o is itself a my/ical conception1 involv+ a rev]sal ( all our ord9>y beliefs4 ,! univ]se is a va/ multiplicity ( objects1 held toge!r1 if y w1 by "s secret bond ( union possibly relat$ to ! p]sonal unity ( consci\sness1 b /ill nei!r lo/ nor confus$ 9 its id5tity4 ,precisely2 b ,plot9us himself fully admits z mu*4 ,8 ,"o is ! cause ( exi/5ce1 n exi/5ce itself4 ,he kn[s j z well z we d1 t ! ab/ract idea ( unity has no reality ap>t f ! m9d4 ,b if s1 :y %\ld he associate x1 9 ! true my/ical /yle1 ) ! transports ( amor\s passion8 ,! "q is p]t95t1 b x might be address$ to o!r ,greek sy/ems z well4 ,we mu/ rememb] t ,plot9us is only comm5t+ & enl>g+ on ,plato4 ,9 ! ,republic also1 ! ,idea ( ,good is describ$ z transc5d+ ! exi/5ce & ! k :i* x produces1#dfe & 9 ! ,symposium1 ! absolute self beautiful1 :i* seems to be ! ,good "u ano!r "n1 is spok5 ( 9 t]ms n less passionately en?usia/ic ?an any appli$ by ,plot9us to ! vision ( ! ,"o4#dff ,d\btless ! practical s5se ( ! great ,attic ma/] did n des]t him ev5 "h3 ! object ( all ?\ght1 9 its wide/ sweep & 9 its highe/ flight1 is to f9d room = e possible expansion ( k1 = e possible elevation ( life4 ,plot9us 0 a /rang] to su* broad views2 b 9 dep>t+ f ,plato1 z usual he foll[s ,ari/otle4 ,! absolute self-?9k+ ?\ght ( ! ,/agirite is1 :5 we exam9e x closely1 only "o degree less *im]ical ?an ! ,neo-,platonic unification4 ,= x means consci\sness ( self )\t ! correlative consci\sness ( a n-self1 & z su*1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 x af=ds an et]nal felicity equal or sup]ior to ! be/ & happie/ mom5ts ( our s5sitive human life4 ,:at ,plot9us does is to isolate p]sonal id5tity f reason &1 z su*1 to make x at once ! cause & ! supreme ideal ( exi/5ce4 ,?is involves two errors3 fir/ a false ab/raction ( "o subjective ph5om5on f ! sum total ( consci\s life2 &1 secondly1 an illegitimate g5]alisation ( ?is ab/raction into an objective law ( ?+s4 ,b 9 bo? errors1 ,ari/otle _h prec$$ him1 by dissociat+ reason f all o!r m5tal functions1 & by !n attribut+ ! :ole cosmic movem5t to ! love :i* ?is isolat$ faculty ( reason1 9 its absolute self-exi/5ce1 = ev] inspires4 ,& he also set ! example ( associat+ happ9ess1 :i* is an emotional /ate1 ) an intellectual ab/raction f :i* emotion is necess>ily exclud$4 ,aga91 ! ,/oics1 ,epicureans1 & ,sceptics all pass = be+ absolute rationali/s4 ,yet _! common ideal ( impassive self-possession1 :5 work$ out to its logical consequ5ces1 becomes ne>ly indi/+ui%able f ! self-simplification ( ,plot9us4 ,all alike exhibit ! ,greek t5d5cy t[>ds endless ab/raction--:at we h call$ ! analytical mom5t ( ,greek ?\ght1 work+ toge!r ) ! mom5ts ( anti!sis & circumscription4 ,! sceptical isolation ( man f ,nature1 ! ,epicurean isolation ( ! individual f ! community1 ! ,/oic isolation ( w f feel+1 rea*$ _! highe/ & mo/ ab/ract expression 9 ! ,neo-,platonic isolation ( pure self-id5tity f all o!r modes ( consci\sness & exi/5ce comb9$4 ,9 e/imat+ ! intellectual "* ( ,plot9us1 we mu/ also rememb] t ! !ory ( ! absolute ,"o occupies a relatively small place 9 8 speculations2 :ile1 at a r\gh computation1 ! purely my/ical portions ( 8 writ+s--by :i* we und]/& ^? 9 :i* allusion is made to p]sonal & incommunicable exp]i5ces ( 8 own--d n am\nt to m ?an "o p] c5t4 ( ! :ole4 ,if ^! h attract$ m att5tion ?an all ! re/ put toge!r1 ! reason probably is t !y (f] an agreeable relief to ! arid s*ola/icism :i* fills s mu* ( ! ,enneads1 & t !y are ! only v orig9al contribution made by ,plot9us to ,greek lit]ature4 ,b ! significance ( a writ] mu/ n always be measur$ by 8 mo/ orig9al passages1 & ?is is em95tly true ( our philosoph]4 ,8 great m]it 0 to make ! spiritualism ( ,plato & ,ari/otle m intelligible & int]e/+ ?an x _h be5 be=e1 & to furni% reason ) a rally+-po9t :5 x 0 ?reat5$ ) utt] de/ruction by ! religi\s revival ( ! empire4 ,,vii4 ,s f> our inve/igation has be5 analytical4 ,we h se5 ,plot9us acquire1 "o aft] ano!r1 ! elem5ts out ( :i* 8 sy/em has /ill to be con/ruct$4 ,! fir/ /ep 0 to sep>ate _s f matt]4 ,!y are respectively di/+ui%$ z pr9ciples ( union & ( division4 ,! bodies giv5 to u 9 exp]i5ce are a comb9ation ( ! two1 a disp]sion ( =m ov] an inf9itely ext5d$1 inf9itely divisible1 inf9itely *angeful sub/ratum4 ,our own s\ls1 :i* at fir/ seem$ s absolutely self-id5tical1 pres5t1 on exam9ation1 a simil>ly composite "*4 ,a fre% analysis results 9 ! sep>ation ( ,n\s or ,reason f ! l[] functions ( consci\s life4 ,& we inf] by analogy t ! s\l 9 ,nature be>s ! same relation to a transc5d5t objective ,n\s4 ,n\s is ess5tially pure self-consci\sness1 & f ?is self-consci\sness ! _w ( ,ideas is develop$4 ,prop]ly speak+1 ,ideas are ! sole reality3 s5sible =ms are an image ( !m impress$ on matt] ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! _w-s\l4 ,b ,n\s1 or ! totality ( ,ideas1 ?\gh high1 is n ! highe/4 ,all t has hi!rto occupi$ u1 ,nature1 ,s\l1 & ,reason1 is p]vad$ by a fundam5tal unity1 )\t :i* no?+ c\ld exi/4 ,b ,s\l is n h]self ?is unity1 nor is ,reason4 ,self-consci\sness1 ev5 9 its pure/ expression1 involves a duality ( object & subject4 ,! notion ( ,be+ is di/9ct f ! notion ( on5ess4 ,! pr9ciple repres5t$ by ! latt]1 z ! cause ( all ?+s1 mu/ itself transc5d exi/5ce4 ,at ! same "t1 x is reveal$ to u by ! fact ( our own p]sonal id5tity4 ,to be unit$ ) oneself is to be unit$ ) ! ,"o4 ,?us we h1 9 all1 five gradations3 ! ,"o1 ,n\s1 ,s\l1 ! s5sible _w1 &1 la/ly1 un=m$ ,matt]4 ,tak5 toge!r1 ! fir/ ?ree con/itute a triad ( spiritual pr9ciples1 &1 z su*1 are associat$ 9 a s+le gr\p by ,plot9us4#dfg ,sometimes !y are spok5 ( z ! ,alex&rian ,tr9ity4 ,b ! impli$ comp>ison ) ! ,tr9ity ( ,ca?olicism is mislead+4 ,) ,neo-,platonism1 ! supreme unity is1 prop]ly speak+1 alone ,god & alone ,"o4 ,n\s is va/ly inf]ior to ! fir/ pr9ciple1 & ,s\l1 aga91 to ,n\s4 ,possibly ! second & ?ird pr9ciples are p]sonal2 ! fir/ mo/ c]ta9ly is n1 s9ce self-consci\sness is expressly d5i$ to x by ,plot9us4 ,nor is x likely t ! idea ( a sup]natural triad 0 sugge/$ to ,neo-,platonism by ,*ri/ianity4 ,ea* ( ! ?ree pr9ciples may be trac$ to its s\rce 9 ,greek philosophy4 ,?is has be5 already %[n 9 ! case ( ! ,"o & ( ! ,n\s4 ,! univ]sal s\l is to be f\nd 9 ,plato's ,timaeus2 x is analog\s1 at lea/ 9 its l[]1 divid$ "p1 to ,ari/otle's ,nature2 & x is ne>ly id5tical ) ! in=m+ _s ( ,/oicism4 ,z to ! numb] ?ree1 x 0 held 9 high e/eem long be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 & 0 likely to be indep5d5tly employ$ = ! con/ruction ( diff]5t sy/ems at a "t :5 belief 9 ! magical virtue ( p>ticul> numb]s 0 m widely diffus$ ?an at any =m] p]iod ( civilis$ hi/ory4 ,f ano!r po9t ( view1 z we h already obs]v$ ) ,kir*n]1 ! fundam5tal triad assum$ by ,plot9us is body1 s\l1 & _s4 ,"u _! objective aspect ( ! s5sible univ]se1 ! _w-s\l1 & ! ,n\s1 ^! ?ree pr9ciples con/itute ! sum ( all reality4 ,take away plurality f ,n\s & !re rema9s ! ,"o4 ,take away s\l f body & !re rema9s un=m$ matt]4 ,^! are ! two transc5d5t pr9ciples betwe5 :i* ! o!rs ext5d1 & by ^: comb9ation 9 v>i\s proportions !y are expla9$4 ,x is true t ,plot9us himself does n allude to ! possibility ( su* an analysis1 b x exhibits1 bett] ?an any o!r1 ! natural ord] ( 8 dialectic4 ,plot9us passes by an almo/ ins5sible transition f ! m elem5t>y & analytical to ! m con/ructive portion ( 8 philosophy4 ,?is naturally falls into two great divisions1 ! "o speculative & ! o!r practical4 ,x has to be %[n by :at necessity & 9 :at ord] ! great cosmic pr9ciples are evolv$ f _! supreme s\rce2 & x has also to be %[n 9 :at way ?is k is connect$ ) ! supreme int]e/s ( ! human s\l4 ,! moral aspect ( ,neo-,platonism is n at fir/ v cle>ly di/+ui%$ f its metaphysical aspect2 & bo? f9d _! mo/ g5]al solution 9 ! same l9e ( ?\ght t has l$ u up to a contemplation ( ! ultimate ,"o4 ,= ! successive gradations ( our asc5t repres5t1 9 an inv]t$ ord]1 ! /eps ( creative en]gy by :i* all ?+s are evolv$ f _! primal s\rce2 :ile !y directly correspond to ! process ( purification ?r\gh :i* e s\l mu/ pass 9 return+ f ! exile ( h] sep>ate & mat]ial exi/5ce to ! happ9ess ( id5tification ) ,god4 ,& "h we at once come on ! fundam5tal contradiction ( ! sy/em4 ,:at we 7 s c>efully taught to consid] z "o & no?+ m1 mu/ n[ be conceiv$ z ! fir/ cause & ! supreme good4 ,plot9us does1 inde$1 try to evade ! difficulty by say+ t 8 absolute is only a cause 9 relation to o!r ?+s1 t x is n s mu* good z ! giv] ( good1 t x is only "o 9 ! s5se ( n be+ _m4#dfh ,b aft] mak+ ^! res]vations1 he cont9ues to use ! old t]ms z confid5tly z if !y /ood = ! ideas usually associat$ ) !m4 ,8 fundam5tal error 0 to id5tify ?ree di/9ct me?ods ( connect+ ph5om5a1 9 ?\ght1 ) ea* o!r or ) ourselves4 ,we may view ?+s 9 relation to _! g5]at+ antec$5ts1 9 relation to o!r ?+s ) :i* !y are associat$ by resemblance or juxtaposition1 or 9 relation to ! satisfaction ( our own wants4 ,^! ?ree modes ( ref]5ce correspond to ,ari/otle's effici5t1 =mal1 & f9al causes2 b ! ^w causation %\ld be appli$ only to ! fir/4 ,:e!r _! un=tunate confusion bo? by ,ari/otle & by 8 successors 0 9 any appreciable degree due to _! hav+ be5 associat$ by him "u a common d5om9ation1 may reasonably be d\bt$4 ,x is r m probable t ! same "n 0 giv5 to ^! diff]5t conceptions 9 consequ5ce ( _! hav+ fir/ become p>tially id5tifi$ 9 ?\ght4 ,social arrangem5ts1 :i* h a great deal to d ) primitive speculation1 w\ld naturally lead to su* an id5tification4 ,! k+ or o!r *ief magi/rate /&s at ! head ( ! social hi]>*y & =ms ! bond ( union among its memb]s2 he is ! s\rce ( all au?ority2 & 8 position1 or1 fail+ t1 8 fav\r1 is reg>d$ z ! supreme good4 ,religion ext5ds ! same comb9ation ( attributes to h] *ief ,god2 & philosophy1 foll[+ on ! l9es ( religion1 employs x to unify ! me?ods ( sci5ce & morality4 ,all exi/5ce1 accord+ to ,plot9us1 proce$s f ! ,"o1 :i* he also calls ,god4 ,b ,god does n create ! _w by a consci\s ex]cise ( p[]2 =1 z we h se51 e =m ( consci\sness is exclud$ f 8 def9ition4 ,nei!r does x proce$ f him by emanation1 = ?is w\ld imply a dim9ution ( 8 sub/ance4#dfi ,x is produc$ by an ov]fl[ ( 8 inf9ite p[]4#dgj ,our philosoph] tries to expla9 & def5d ?is r un9telligible mode ( d]ivation by ! analogy ( physical sub/ances & _! actions4 ,light is con/antly com+ f ! sun )\t any loss to ! lum9>y itself4#dga ,& all ?+s are1 9 l mann]1 con/antly communicat+ _! prop] virtue to o!rs :ile rema9+ unalt]$ !mselves4 ,"h we h a good example ( ! close connexion betwe5 sci5ce & ab/ract speculation4 ,p (t5 talk z if metaphysics 0 some?+ beyond ! rea* ( v]ification4 ,b "s metaphysical !ories admit1 at any rate1 ( dispro(1 9 s f> z !y are f\nd$ on false physical !ories4 ,_h ,plot9us kn[n t nei!r ! sun nor any?+ else 9 ,nature c produce =ce out ( no?+1 he w\ld1 v probably1 h hesitat$ to cr$it ! ,"o ) su* a p[]4 ,9 reason+ up f ! _w to its fir/ cause1 we 7 giv5 to und]/& t ! two 7 relat$ to "o ano!r z contradictory opposites4 ,! multiple mu/ proce$ f ! simple1 & exi/5ce f t :i* does n exi/4 ,b ! analogies ( mat]ial production n[ sugge/ a some:at diff]5t view4 ,:at e p[] calls into exi/5ce is an image ( itself1 b ! effect is nev] m ?an a weak5$ & imp]fect copy ( its orig9al4 ,?us ! univ]se appe>s z a s]ies ( dim9i%+ en]gies desc5d+ 9 a graduat$ scale f ! highe/ to ! l[e/4 ,"h1 aga91 bad sci5ce makes bad philosophy4 ,effects are nev] inf]ior to _! causes1 b always exactly equal1 ! effect be+ no?+ else ?an ! cause 9 ano!r place or "u ano!r =m4 ,?is w\ld be obvi\s en\gh1 did n sup]ficial obs]vation habitually conf\nd ! real cause ) ! sum ( its concomitants4 ,:at we are accu/om$ to ?9k ( z a s+le cause is1 9 tru?1 a :ole bundle ( causes1 :i* d n always conv]ge to a s+le po9t1 & ea* ( :i*1 tak5 s+ly1 is1 ( c\rse1 inf]ior to ! :ole sum tak5 toge!r4 ,?us :5 we say t ! sun heats ! e>?1 ?is is only a conv5tional way ( speak+4 ,:at really does ! "w is a relatively inf9itesimal "p ( ! sol> heat sep>ately transmitt$ to u ?r\gh space4 ,once neglect ?is tru?1 & !re is no reason :y effects %\ld n exce$ z well z fall %ort ( _! causes 9 any assignable proportion4 ,su* an illusion is1 9 fact1 produc$ :5 diff]5t en]gies conv]ge to a po9t4 ,"h x is ! consequ5t & n ! antec$5t :i* is conf\nd$ ) ! sum ( its concomitants1 z :5 an explosion is said to be ! effect ( a sp>k4 ,( c\rse we are speak+ ( causation z ex]cis$ "u ! conditions ( "t1 space1 matt]1 & motion4 ,x is !n id5tical ) ! transmission ( en]gy & obeys ! laws ( en]gy4 ,& to talk ab\t causation "u any o!r conditions ?an ^! is utt] nons5se4 ,b ,plot9us & o!r philosoph]s exclude ! mo/ ess5tial ( ! conditions specifi$ f _! enquiries into ! ultimate orig9 ( ?+s4 ,we are expressly in=m$ t ! g5esis ( ,n\s f ! ,"o1 & ( ,s\l f ,n\s1 mu/ n be conceiv$ z tak+ place 9 "t b 9 et]nity4#dgb ,un=tunately ^? :o make su* res]vations are n consi/5t4 ,!y cont9ue to talk ab\t p[]1 causation1 priority1 & s =?1 z if ^! conceptions 7 sep>able f "t4 ,h5ce !y h to *oose betwe5 mak+ /atem5ts :i* are absolutely un9telligible & mak+ /atem5ts :i* are absolutely untrue4 ,p]haps ! processes ( logic & ma!matics may be adduc$ z an exception4 ,x may be cont5d$ t ! g5us is prior to ! species1 ! premise to ! conclusion1 ! unit to ! multiple1 ! l9e to ! figure1 9 reason ?\gh n 9 "t4 ,& ,plot9us avails himself to ! fulle/ ext5t ( ma!matical & logical analogies 9 8 transc5d5tal con/ructions4 ,8 ,"o is ! />t+-po9t ( num]ation1 ! c5tre ( a circle1 ! id5tity involv$ 9 diff]5ce2 & "u ea* relation x claims an absolute priority1 ( :i* causal p[] is only ! mo/ g5]al expression4 ,we h already se5 h[ a multitude ( ar*etypal ,ideas spr+ f ! supreme ,n\s z f _! f\nta9-head4 ,_! production is expla9$1 on ! l9es ( ,plato's ,sophi/1 z a process ( dialectical d]ivation4 ,by logically analys+ ! conception ( self-consci\sness1 we obta91 fir/ ( all1 ,n\s itself1 or ,reason1 z ! subject1 & ,exi/5ce z ! object ( ?\ght4 ,subject & object1 consid]$ z ! same ) "o ano!r1 give u ,id5tity2 consid]$ z di/9ct1 !y give u ,diff]5ce4 ,! passage f "o to ! o!r gives ,motion2 ! limitation ( ?\ght to itself gives ,re/4 ,! plurality ( det]m9ations s obta9$ gives numb] & quantity1 _! specific diff]5ce gives quality1 & f ^! pr9ciples ev]y?+ else is d]iv$4#dgc ,x might seem z if1 "h at lea/1 we _h some?+ :i* c\ld be call$ a process ( et]nal g5]ation--a causal ord] indep5d5t ( "t4 ,b1 9 reality1 ! assum$ sequ5ce exi/s only 9 our m9ds1 & !re x takes place "u ! =m ( "t1 n less inevitably ?an d ! ext]nal re-arrangem5ts ( matt] & motion4 ,?us 9 logic & ma!matics1 su* t]ms z priority1 antec$5ce1 & evolution c only be us$ to signify ! ord] 9 :i* our k is acquir$2 !y d n answ] to causal relations exi/+ among ?+s 9 !mselves4 ,& ap>t f ^! two ord]s--! objective ord] ( dynamical production 9 space & "t1 & ! subjective ord] ( intelligibility 9 ?\ght--!re is no k9d ( succession t we c conceive4 ,et]nal relations1 if !y exi/ at all1 mu/ be relations ( co-exi/5ce1 ( resemblance1 or ( diff]5ce1 cont9u$ ?r\gh inf9ite "t4 ,:]ev] !re is antec$5ce1 ! consequ5t c only h exi/$ = a f9ite "t4 ,"s may ?9k t we h pu%$ ?is po9t at unnecess>y l5g?4 ,b ! ,neo-,platonic me?od is n q s obsolete z !y1 p]haps1 suppose4 ,:5ev] we repeat ! ,nic5e & ,a?anasian ,cre$s1 we are express+ our religi\s belief 9 ! language ( ! ,alex&rian s*ools1 ?us pl$g+ ourselves to metaphysical dogmas :i* we c nei!r expla9 nor def5d4 ,su* t]ms z son%ip & procession h no mean+ except :5 appli$ to relations conceiv$ "u ! =m ( "t2 & to pr$icate et]nity ( !m is to r$uce !m to s mu* un9telligible j>gon4 ,an en]gy cont9ually advanc+ ?r\gh successive gradations1 & dim9i%+ z x advances--su*1 z we h se51 is ! conception ( exi/5ce (f]$ by ,plot9us4 ,we h se51 also1 h[ to expla9 ! g5esis ( "o pr9ciple f ano!r )\t ! aid ( sup]natural volition or ( me*anical causation1 he is compell$ to press into ! s]vice e sort ( relation%ip by :i* two objects c be connect$1 & to inve/ x ) a dynamical significance :i* only ! ph5om5a ( matt] & motion c possess4 ,b :at he *iefly relies on = guidance 9 ?is tortu\s labyr9? ( timeless evolution1 is ! old ,greek pr9ciple t contr>ies are g5]at$ f "o ano!r4 ,& ) him1 z ) ! e>li] ?9k]s1 all contr>ies r$uce !mselves1 9 ! la/ analysis1 to ! f\r great anti!ses ( ! ,"o & ! ,_m1 ,be+ & n-,be+1 ! ,same & ! ,o!r1 ,re/ & ,motion4 ,x matt]s no?+ t he %\ld h foll[$ ,plato to ! ext5t ( co-ord9at+ five ( ^! t]ms z supreme ar*etypal ,ideas1 imm$iately result+ f ! self-consci\sness ( ,n\s1 & !mselves produc+ all o!r =ms ( exi/5ce4 ,!y are us$1 q indep5d5tly ( t d]ivation1 to expla9 ! connexion ( ! v>i\s creative pr9ciples ) "o ano!r4 ,n\s is d$uc$ f its fir/ cause z ,be+ f n-,be+1 z ! ,_m f ! ,"o1 z ,diff]5ce f ,id5tity1 & z ,motion f ,re/4#dgd ,to expla9 ! g5]ation ( ,s\l f ,n\s is a m difficult problem4 ,! ,"o _h orig9ally be5 def9$ z ! anti!tical cause ( ,n\s1 & !re=e ! latt] c\ld easily be acc\nt$ = by simply rev]s+ ! analytical process2 :]eas ,n\s _h n be5 def9$ z ! cause ( ,s\l1 b z ! model :5ce h] creative ,ideas are d]iv$4 ,s\l1 9 fact1 is n oppos$ to any?+2 %e is ! connect+ l9k betwe5 s5se & _s4 ,9 ?is /rait1 ,plot9us seems to ?9k t ! anti!sis betwe5 ,re/ & ,motion is ! be/ fitt$ to express ! nature ( h] desc5t f ! high] pr9ciple2 & on "o occasion he illu/rates ! relation ( 8 ?ree div9e sub/ances to "o ano!r by ! fam\s figure ( a c5tral po9t repres5t+ ! ,"o1 a fix$ circle r\nd t po9t repres5t+ ! ,n\s1 & outside t1 aga91 a revolv+ circle repres5t+ ! ,s\l4#dge ,/ill1 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! sy/em are v awkw>dly piec$ toge!r at ?is juncture2 = ! creative en]gy ( ! ,n\s has already be5 invok$ to acc\nt = ! ,ideas or p>tial intellig5ces into :i* x spontane\sly divides2 & "o does n und]/& h[ x c be simultane\sly appli$ to ! production ( some?+ t is n an ,idea at all4 ,fre% difficulties arise 9 expla9+ ! activity :i* ! ,s\l1 9 h] turn1 ex]ts4 ,z orig9ally conceiv$1 h] function 0 suffici5tly cle>4 ,m$iat+ betwe5 two worlds1 %e trans=ms ! l[] "o into a lik5ess ( ! high]1 /amp+ on mat]ial objects a visible image ( ! et]nal ,ideas reveal$ to h] by a contemplation ( ! ,n\s4 ,&1 z a fur!r elaboration ( ?is s*eme1 we 7 told t ! prim>y s\l g5]ates an inf]ior s\l1 :i*1 aga91 subdivides itself into ! multitude ( p>tial s\ls requir$ = ! animation ( diff]5t bodily organisms4 ,b n[ t our philosoph] has ent]$ on a syn!tic con/ruction ( ! elem5ts furni%$ by 8 prelim9>y analysis1 he f9ds himself confront$ by an entirely new problem4 ,= 8 impli$ pr9ciple is t ea* hypo/asis mu/ g5]ate ! grade :i* comes next aft] x 9 ! desc5d+ s]ies ( manife/ations1 until ! possibilities ( exi/5ce h be5 exhau/$4 ,b 9 develop+ & apply+ ! noetic ,ideas1 ! ,s\l1 app>5tly1 f9ds a pre-exi/+ ,matt] ready to h&4 ,?us %e has to deal ) some?+ l[] ?an h]self1 :i* %e did n create1 & :i* is n creat$ by ! ,=ms comb9$ ) x 9 s5sible exp]i5ce4 ,we he> ( a desc5t f ?\ght to feel+1 & f feel+ to simple vitality1#dgf b 9 ea* in/ance ! dep? ( ! ,s\l's fall is measur$ by ! ext5t to :i* %e p5etrates into ! recesses ( a sub/ance n cle>ly relat$ to h] nor to any?+ above h]4 ,plot9us is driv5 by ?is p]plexity to reconsid] ! :ole !ory ( ,matt]4#dgg ,he takes ,ari/otle's doctr9e z ! gr\ndwork ( 8 inve/igation4 ,accord+ to ?is1 all exi/5ce is divid$ into ,matt] & ,=m4 ,:at we "k ( ?+s--9 o!r words1 ! sum ( _! diff]5tial *>act]i/ics--is _! ,=m4 ,take away ?is1 & ! unkn[able residuum is _! ,matt]4 ,aga91 ,matt] is ! vague indet]m9ate some?+ out ( :i* p>ticul> ,=ms are develop$4 ,! two are relat$ z ,possibility to ,actuality1 z ! m g5]ic to ! m specific sub/ance ?r\gh e grade ( classification & composition4 ,?us !re are two ,matt]s1 ! "o s5sible & ! o!r intelligible4 ,! =m] con/itutes ! common sub/ratum ( bodies1 ! o!r ! common elem5t ( ideas4#dgh ,! g5]al di/9ction betwe5 ,matt] & ,=m 0 orig9ally sugge/$ to ,ari/otle by ,plato's rem>ks on ! same subject2 b he diff]s f 8 ma/] 9 two important p>ticul>s4 ,plato1 9 8 ,timaeus1 seems to id5tify ,matt] ) space4#dgi ,s f>1 x is a mu* m positive conception ?an ! ( ! ,metaphysics4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he con/antly opposes x to reality z some?+ non-exi/5t2 & he at lea/ implies t x is oppos$ to absolute good z a pr9ciple ( absolute evil4#dhj ,?us :ile ! ,ari/otelian _w is =m$ by ! developm5t ( ,p[] into ,actuality1 ! ,platonic _w is compos$ by ! union ( ,be+ & n-,be+1 ( ! ,same & ! ,diff]5t1 ( ! ,"o & ! ,_m1 ( ! ,limit & ! ,unlimit$1 ( ,good & ,evil1 9 v>y+ proportions ) ea* o!r4 ,plot9us1 z we h said1 />ts ) ! ,ari/otelian acc\nt ( ,matt]2 b by a process ( dialectical manipulation1 he gradually br+s x into almo/ complete agreem5t ) ,plato's conception2 ?us1 z usual1 m$iat+ betwe5 & comb9+ ! views ( 8 two great au?orities4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 he takes advantage ( ,ari/otle's di/9ction betwe5 intelligible & s5sible ,matt]1 to /rip ! latt] ( t positive & vital significance ) :i* x _h be5 clo!d 9 ! ,p]ipatetic sy/em4 ,9 ! _w ( ,ideas1 !re is an elem5t common to all specific =ms1 a fundam5tal unity 9 :i* !y meet & inh]e1 :i* may )\t impropriety be call$ _! ,matt]4 ,b ?is ,matt] is an et]nal & div9e sub/ance1 insep>ably unit$ ) ! fix$ =ms :i* x supports1 &1 !re=e1 some?+ :i*1 equally ) !m1 receives light & life & ?\ght f ! c5tral s\rce ( be+4 ,x is o!rwise ) s5sible ,matt]1 ! common sub/ance ( ! corporeal elem5ts4 ,?is is1 to use ! en]getic expression ( our philosoph]1 a decorat$ corpse4#dha ,x does n rema9 con/antly comb9$ ) any =m1 b is = ev] pass+ f "o to ano!r1 )\t manife/+ a p>ticul> pref]5ce = any4 ,z su*1 x is ! absolute negation ( ,=m1 & c only be conceiv$1 if at all1 by ?9k+ away e s5sible quality4 ,nei!r has x any quantity1 = quantity means magnitude1 & magnitude implies def9ite figure4 ,ari/otle oppos$ to ea* p>ticul> =m a correspond+ privation1 & plac$ ,matt] midway betwe5 !m4 ,plot9us1 on ! o!r h&1 id5tifies ,matt] ) ! g5]al privation ( all =ms4 ,x is at ?is po9t t he beg9s to "w 8 way back to ! ,platonic notion ( ,matt] z simple ext5sion4 ,!re mu/1 aft] all1 be some?+ ab\t ,matt] :i* enables x to receive e k9d ( quality & figure1--x mu/ h "s sort ( mass or bulk1 n1 inde$1 9 any def9ite s5se1 b ) an equal capacity = expansion & = contraction4 ,n[1 says ,plot9us1 ! v indet]m9at5ess ( ,matt] is precisely ! capacity = ext5sion 9 all directions t we require4 #8,hav+ no pr9ciple ( /ability1 b be+ borne t[>ds e =m1 & easily l$ ab\t 9 all directions1 x acquires ! nature ( a mass4'#dhb ,h5ce=?1 :atev] our philosoph] says ab\t ,matt] w apply to ext5sion & to ext5sion alone4 ,x _c be appreh5d$ by sight1 nor by he>+1 nor by smell1 nor by ta/e1 = x is nei!r col\r1 nor s\nd1 nor od\r1 nor juice4 ,nei!r c x be t\*$1 = x is n a body1 b x becomes corporeal on be+ bl5d$ ) s5sible qualities4 ,&1 9 a lat] essay1 he describes x z receiv+ all ?+s & lett+ !m dep>t aga9 )\t reta9+ ! slighte/ trace ( _! pres5ce4#dhc ,:y !n1 x may be ask$1 if ,plot9us meant ext5sion1 c\ld he n say s at once1 & save u all ?is tr\ble 9 hunt+ out 8 mean+8 ,!re 7 v good reasons :y he %\ld n4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 he wi%$ to express himself1 s f> z possible1 9 ,ari/otelian phraseology1 & ?is 0 incompatible ) ! r$uction ( ,matt] to ext5sion4 ,9 ! next place1 ! idea ( an inf9ite void _h be5 already appropriat$ by ! ,epicureans1 to ^: sy/em he 0 bitt]ly oppos$4 ,&1 f9ally1 ! ext5sion ( ord9>y exp]i5ce _h n ! absolute g5]ality :i* 0 ne$$ 9 ord] to br+ ,matt] into relation ) t ultimate ab/raction :5ce1 l ev]y?+ else1 x has n[ to be d]iv$4 ,z a result ( ! prec$+ analysis1 ,plot9us at la/ id5tifies ,matt] ) ! ,inf9ite--n an inf9ite some?+1 b ! ,inf9ite pure & simple1 ap>t f any subject ( :i* x c be pr$icat$4 ,we />t$ ) :at seem$ a broad di/9ction betwe5 intelligible & s5sible ,matt]4 ,t di/9ction n[ disappe>s 9 a new & m compreh5sive conception2 &1 at ! same "t1 ,plot9us beg9s to see 8 way t[>ds a re/atem5t ( 8 :ole sy/em 9 cle>] t]ms4 #8,! ,inf9ite is g5]at$ f ! inf9ity or p[] or et]nity ( ! ,"o2 n t !re is inf9ity 9 ! ,"o1 b t x is creat$ by ! ,"o4'#dhd ,) ! fir/ outru% ( en]gy f ! primal f\nt ( ?+s1 ,matt] beg9s to exi/4 ,b no soon] d movem5t & diff]5ce />t into life1 ?an !y are re/ra9$ & b5t back by ! pres5ce ( ! ,"o2 & ?is reflection ( p[] or be+ on itself con/itutes ! supreme self-consci\sness ( ,n\s4#dhe ,:e!r ! subsequ5t creation ( ,s\l involves a fre% production ( en]gy1 or :e!r a portion ( ! orig9al /ream1 :i* 0 call$ into exi/5ce by ! ,"o1 escapes f ! re/ra9+ self-consci\sness ( ,n\s & cont9ues its onw>d fl[--?is ,plot9us does n say4 ,:at he does say is t ,s\l /&s to ,n\s 9 ! relation ( ,matt] to ,=m1 & is rais$ to p]fection by gaz+ back on ! ,ideas conta9$ 9 ,n\s1 j z ,n\s itself _h be5 p]fect$ by return+ to ! ,"o4#dhf ,b :ile ! two high] pr9ciples rema9 /ation>y1 ! ,s\l1 besides giv+ bir? to a fre% /ream ( en]gy1 turns t[>ds h] own creation & away f ! f\nta9 ( h] life4 ,&1 app>5tly1 x is only by ?is condesc5sion on h] "p t ! visible _w c\ld h be5 =m$4#dhg ,we c expla9 ?is by suppos+ t z ! /ream ( ,matt] dep>ts m & m f ! ,"o1 its p[] ( self-reflection cont9ually dim9i%es1 & at l5g? ceases altoge!r4 ,x is ?us t ! sub/ratum ( s5sible objects mu/1 z we h se51 be conceiv$ "u ! aspect ( a passive recipi5t = ! =ms impos$ on x by ! ,s\l2 & j z ^? =ms are a m]e image ( ! noetic ,ideas1 s also1 ,plot9us tells u1 is _! ,matt] an image ( ! intelligible ,matt] :i* exi/s 9 ! ,n\s itself2 only ! image realises ! conception ( a mat]ial pr9ciple m completely ?an ! ar*etype1 because ( its m negative & indet]m9ate nature1 a dim9ution ( good be+ equival5t to an increase ( evil4#dhh ,/ill ,plot9us gives no cle> answ] to ! "q :5ce comes ?is la/ & l[e/ ,matt]4 ,he w n say t x is an emanation f ! ,s\l1 nor yet w he say t x is a =mless residue ( ! elem5t out ( :i* %e 0 %ap$ by a return to ! ,n\s4 ,9 tru?1 he c\ld n make up 8 m9d z to :e!r ! ,matt] ( s5sible objects 0 creat$ at all4 ,he oscillates betwe5 unwill+ness to admit t absolute evil c come f good1 & unwill+ness to admit t ! two are co-ord9ate pr9ciples ( exi/5ce4 ,&1 z usual1 :]e ideas fail him1 he helps himself out ( ! difficulty ) metaphors4 ,! ,s\l mu/ advance1 & 9 ord] to advance %e mu/ make a place = h]self1 & t !re may be a place !re mu/ be body4 ,or1 aga91 :ile rema9+ fix$ 9 h]self1 %e s5ds out a great light1 & by ! light %e sees t !re is d>kness beyond its extreme v]ge1 & m\lds its =mless sub/ance into %ape4#dhi ,! ambiguities & unc]ta9ties :i* ,plot9us exhibits 9 !oris+ on ! orig9 ( ,matt]1 are due n only to ! conflict+ influ5ces ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 b also to ano!r influ5ce q di/9ct f !irs4 ,?is is ! ,/oic cosmology4 ,:ile utt]ly repudiat+ ! mat]ialism ( ! ,/oics1 ,plot9us evid5tly felt attract$ by _! sev]e monism1 & by ! consi/5t mann] 9 :i* !y d]iv$ e =m ( exi/5ce f ! div9e sub/ance4 ,!y too recognis$ a di/9ction betwe5 ,=m & ,matt]1 ! active & ! passive pr9ciple 9 ,nature1 b !y suppos$ t ! "o1 besides be+ p5etrat$ & m\ld$ by ! o!r1 _h also be5 orig9ally produc$ by x4 ,su* a !ory 0 well suit$ to ! en]getic & practical "* ( ,/oic morality1 ) its av]sion f m]e contemplation1 its imm$iate be>+ on ! concrete int]e/s ( life4 ,man 0 conceiv$ z an intellig5t =ce1 hav+ = 8 prop] function to br+ ord] out ( *aos1 #8to make reason & ! w ( ,god prevail1' & ?is ideal appe>$ to be reflect$ 9 ! dynamic con/itution ( ,nature4 ,) ,plot9us1 on ! o!r h&1 z ) ,ari/otle1 !ory & n practice 0 ! end ( life1 or r1 z he himself express$ x1 practice 0 an inf]ior k9d ( !oris+1 an endeav\r to set be=e oneself 9 outw>d =m :at %\ld prop]ly be s\ght 9 ! noetic _w :]e subject & object are "o4#dij ,accord+ly1 :ile accept+ ! ,/oic monism1 he /rove to br+ x into close agreem5t ) ,ari/otle's cosmology1 by sub/itut+ contemplation = w z ! creative pr9ciple 9 all exi/5ce1 no less ?an z ! ideal ( happ9ess = man4 ,we h se5 h[1 9 accordance ) ?is view1 ea* pr9ciple is p]fect$ by look+ back on its s\rce4#dia ,?us ! activity ( ! _w-s\l1 s f> z x is ex]cis$ = ! b5efit ( :at comes aft] & falls b5ea? h]1 is an anomaly only to be acc\nt$ = by h] inf]ior place 9 ! sy/em ( graduat$ desc5t2 or else by ! utt] impot5ce ( ,matt]1 :i* is incapable ( rais+ itself into ,=m by a spontane\s act ( reflection1 & c only passively receive ! images transmitt$ to x f above1 )\t be+ able to reta9 ev5 ^! = any "t4 ,nay1 "h also1 :at looks l creative en]gy admits ( be+ assimilat$ m or less closely to an ex]cise ( idealis+ ?\ght4 ,x is really = h] own sake t ! ,s\l fills :at lies beyond h] ) life & light1 n1 l ,plato's ,s\l1 f pure dis9t]e/$ joy 9 ! communication & diffusion ( good4 ,x is because %e recoils ) horror f d>kness & non5tity t %e %apes ! =mless sub/ance into a resid5ce = h]self1 on ! model ( ! imp]ial palace :5ce %e came4 ,?us ! functions ( s5sation1 nutrition1 & reproduction are to be reg>d$ z s _m modes ( contemplation4 ,9 ! fir/1 ! ,s\l dwells on ! mat]ial images :i* already exi/2 9 ! second & ?ird1 %e /rives to p]petuate & multiply !m /ill fur!r4 ,& ! dang] is t %e may become s en?rall$ by h] own creation z to =get ! div9e orig9al aft] :i* x is =m$4#dib ,%\ld %e yield to ! sn>e1 successive transmigrations w s9k h] l[] & l[] into ! dep?s ( animalism & mat]ial d>kness4 ,to avoid ?is degradation1 to en]gise ) ! bett] "p ( our nature1 is to be good4 ,& ) ! di/9ction betwe5 good & evil1 we pass f ! metaphysical to ! e?ical portion ( ! sy/em4 ,,viii4 ,all virtue1 ) ,plot9us1 re/s on ! sup]iority ( ! s\l to ! body4 ,s f>1 he foll[s ! common doctr9e ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,b 9 work+ out ! di/9ction1 he is influ5c$ by ! individualis+ & !oretic philosophy ( ! latt] r ?an by ! social & practical philosophy ( ! =m]4 ,or1 aga91 we may say t ) him ! intellectualism ( ,ari/otle is height5$ & w>m$ by ! religi\s aspirations ( ,plato1 /r5g!n$ & purifi$ by ! ,/oic passionlessness1 ! ,/oic indep5d5ce ( ext]nal goods4 ,9 8 e?ical sy/em1 ! virtues are arrang$ 9 an asc5d+ scale4 ,ea* grade reproduces ! old quadrip>tite division into ,wisdom1 ,c\rage1 ,temp]ance & ,ju/ice1 b 9 ea* _! respective significance receives a new int]pretation4 ,z civic virtues1 !y cont9ue to be> ! mean+ assign$ to !m 9 ,plato's ,republic4 ,wisdom belongs to reason1 ,c\rage to passionate _s1 ,temp]ance to desire1 :ile ,ju/ice implies ! fulfilm5t ( its appropriate function by ea*4#dic ,b all ?is only am\nts to ! re/riction ( :at w\ld o!rwise be unregulat$ impulse1 ! imposition ( ,=m on ,matt]1 ! supremacy ( ! s\l ov] ! body2 :]eas :at we want is to get rid ( matt] altoge!r4 ,"h also1 ,plato sets u on ! "r track :5 he calls ! virtues purifications4 ,f ?is po9t ( view1 = ! s\l to en]gise alone )\t any int]f]5ce1 is ,wisdom2 n to be mov$ by ! passions ( ! body is ,temp]ance2 n to dread sep>ation f ! body is ,c\rage2 & to obey ! guidance ( reason is ,ju/ice4#did ,su* a disposition ( ! s\l is :at ,plato means by fly+ f ! _w & becom+ l ,god4 ,is ?is en\gh8 ,no1 x is n4 ,we h1 s f>1 be5 deal+ only ) ! negative conditions ( good1 n ) good itself4 ,! ess5tial ?+ is n purification1 b :at rema9s beh9d :5 ! "w ( purification is accompli%$4 ,s we come to ! ?ird & highe/ grade ( virtue1 ! truly div9e life1 :i* is a complete conv]sion to reason4 ,our philosoph] endeav\rs to fit ?is also into ! framework ( ! c>d9al virtues1 b n )\t impos+ a s]i\s /ra9 on ! ord9>y mean+ ( words4 ,( ,wisdom no?+ ne$ be said1 = x is ! same z rationality4 ,ju/ice is ! self-possession ( m9d1 ,temp]ance ! inw>d direction t[>ds reason1 ,c\rage ! impassivity aris+ f resemblance to t :i* is by nature impassive4#die ,plot9us is c>eful to make u und]/& t 8 morality has nei!r an ascetic nor a suicidal t5d5cy4 ,pleasures are to be tol]at$ "u ! =m ( a necess>y relief & relaxation2 pa9s are to be remov$1 b if incurable1 !y are to be pati5tly borne2 ang] is1 if possible1 to be suppress$1 &1 at any rate1 n all[$ to exce$ ! limits ( an involunt>y movem5t2 fe> w n be felt except z a salut>y w>n+4 ,! bodily appetites w be re/rict$ to natural wants1 & w n be felt by ! s\l1 except1 p]haps1 z a transi5t excitem5t ( ! imag9ation4#dif ,:atev] ab/95ces our philosoph] may h practis$ on 8 own acc\nt1 we f9d no trace ( a t5d5cy t[>ds self-mortification 9 8 writ+s1 no?+ t is n consi/5t ) ! heal?ie/ traditions ( ,greek spiritualism z orig9ally con/itut$ by ! great ,a!nian s*ool4 ,:ile n absolutely condemn+ suicide1 ,plot9us re/ricts ! "r ( leav+ ?is _w )9 mu* n>r[] limits ?an 7 assign$ to x by ! ,/oics4 ,9 viol5tly sep>at+ h]self f ! body1 ! s\l1 he tells u1 is act+ "u ! influ5ce ( "s evil passion1 & he intimates t ! mis*iev\s effects ( ?is passion w prolong !mselves into ! new life on :i* %e is de/9$ to ent]4#dig ,translat$ into m ab/ract language1 8 mean+ probably is t ! feel+s :i* ord9>ily prompt to suicide1 are su* z w\ld n exi/ 9 a well-regulat$ m9d4 ,x is rem>kable t ,s*op5hau]1 ^: views ( life 71 on o!r po9ts1 ! v rev]se ( ^? held by ,plot9us1 %\ld h us$ v mu* ! same argum5t aga9/ self-de/ruction4 ,accord+ to 8 !ory1 ! w to life1 :i* x %\ld be our pr9cipal bus9ess to conqu]1 ass]ts itself /rongly 9 ! wi% to escape f suff]+1 & only delays ! f9al mom5t ( peaceful ext9ction by ru%+ f "o phase ( exi/5ce to ano!r4 ,& 9 ord] to prove ! possibility ( su* a revival1 ,s*op5hau] 0 oblig$ to graft on 8 philosophy a !ory ( metempsy*osis1 :i*1 b = ?is necessity1 w\ld c]ta9ly nev] h f\nd a place 9 x at all4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 _m o!r in/ances1 an e?ical doctr9e is app>5tly d$uc$ f a metaphysical doctr9e :i* has1 9 reality1 be5 manufactur$ = its support4 ,all sy/ems d b pres5t "u diff]5t =mulas a common fund ( social s5tim5t4 ,a con/antly gr[+ body ( public op9ion tea*es u t we d n belong to ourselves1 b to ^? ab\t u1 & t1 9 ord9>y circum/ances1 x is no less weak & selfi% to run away f life ?an to run away f dea?4 ,plot9us foll[s up 8 essay on ! ,virtues by an essay on ,dialectic4#dih ,z a me?od = atta9+ p]fection1 he places dialectic above e?ics2 &1 grant+ t ! appreh5sion ( ab/ract ideas ranks high] ?an ! p]=mance ( social duties1 he is q consi/5t 9 s do+4 ,n mu*1 h[ev]1 c be made ( 8 few rem>ks on ! subject4 ,!y seem to be p>tly meant = a prote/ aga9/ ! ,/oic idea t logic is an in/rum5t = acquir+ tru? r ?an tru? itself1 & also aga9/ ! ,/oic use or abuse ( ! syllogi/ic me?od4 ,9 mod]n phraseology1 ,plot9us seems to view dialectic z ! imman5t & et]nal process ( life itself1 r ?an z a collection ( rules = draw+ correct inf]5ces f true propositions1 or f propositions assum$ to be true4 ,we h se5 h[ he reg>d$ exi/5ce 9 ! highe/ s5se z id5tical ) ! self-?9k+ ( ! absolute ,n\s1 & h[ he attempt$ to evolve ! :ole s]ies ( ar*etypal ,ideas conta9$ !re9 f ! simple fact ( self-consci\sness4 ,?us he w\ld naturally id5tify dialectic ) ! subjective reproduction ( ?is objective evolution2 & "h he w\ld always h be=e 8 eyes ! spl5did programme sket*$ 9 ,plato's ,republic4#dii ,8 pref]5ce ( intuitive to discursive reason+ has be5 quot$ by ,ritt] z a symptom ( my/icism4 ,b "h1 z 9 s _m in/ances1 he foll[s ,ari/otle1 :o also held t simple ab/raction is a high] op]ation1 & repres5ts a high] ord] ( real exi/5ce ?an complex ratioc9ation4#ejj ,! ultimate /age ( p]fection is1 ( c\rse1 ! id5tification ( subject & object1 ! asc5t f ! ,n\s to ! ,"o4 ,b1 on ?is po9t1 ,plot9us nev] add$ any?+ ess5tial to :at has already be5 quot$ f ! analytical portion ( 8 enquiry1 & ! essay conta9+ t passage is accord+ly plac$ la/ 9 ,porphyry's arrangem5t ( 8 works4 ,our acc\nt ( ,neo-,platonism has1 ) ! exception ( a few illu/rations1 be5 d]iv$ exclusively f ! e>li] essays ( ,plot9us4 ,8 subsequ5t writ+s are exce$+ly obscure & t$i\s1 & !y add little by way ei!r ( developm5t or def5ce to ! outl9es :i* he _h sket*$ ) a ma/]'s h&4 ,:atev] mat]ials !y may supply = a bett] appreciation1 :e!r ( 8 philosophy or ( 8 g5]al "* z a ?9k]1 w mo/ pr(itably f9d _! place 9 ! f9al survey ( bo? :i* we %all n[ attempt to give4 ,,ix4 ,e great sy/em ( philosophy may be consid]$ f f\r di/9ct po9ts ( view4 ,we may ask :at is its value z a !ory ( ! _w & ( human life1 measur$ ei!r by ! numb] ( new tru?s :i* x conta9s1 or by ! /imulus to new ?\ght :i* x af=ds4 ,or we may consid] x f ! ae/hetic side1 z a monum5tal /ructure int]e/+ u n by its utility1 b by its beauty & gr&eur4 ,"u ?is aspect1 a sy/em may be admirable = its complet5ess1 coh]5ce1 & symmetry1 or = ! great intellectual qualities exhibit$ by its ar*itect1 al?\gh x may be op5 to fatal objections z a habitation = human be+s1 & may fail to reproduce ! plan on :i* we n[ "k t ! univ]se is built4 ,or1 aga91 our int]e/ 9 ! "w may be purely hi/orical & psy*ological2 we may look on x z ! product ( a p>ticul> age & a p>ticul> m9d1 z summ+ up = u "u _! mo/ ab/ract =m ! ideas & aspirations :i* at any giv5 mom5t _h ga9$ possession ( educat$ op9ion4 ,or1 f9ally1 we may /udy x z a l9k 9 ! evolution ( ?\ght1 z a result ( e>li] t5d5cies1 & an antec$5t ( lat] developm5ts4 ,we propose to make a few rem>ks on ! philosophy ( ,plot9us1 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 on ,neo-,platonism 9 g5]al1 f ea* ( ^! f\r po9ts ( view4 ,9 absolute value1 ,neo-,platonism /&s l[e/ z well z la/ among ! anci5t s*ools ( ?\ght4 ,no read] :o has foll[$ u ?us f> w ne$ to be rem9d$ h[ _m valuable ideas 7 fir/ br\ght to light1 or re9=c$ ) new argum5ts & illu/rations by ! e>ly ,greek ?9k]s1 by ! ,sophi/s & ,socrates1 by ,plato & ,ari/otle1 by ! ,/oics1 ,epicureans1 & ,sceptics1 & by ! morali/s ( ! ,roman empire4 ,on e subject ( speculation t c be />t$1 we cont9ue to ask1 l ,plot9us himself1 :at ! #8bless$ anci5ts' _h to say ab\t x2#eja n1 ( c\rse1 because !y liv$ a long "t ago1 b because !y came fir/1 because !y said :at !y _h to say ) ! unique *>m ( orig9al discov]y1 because !y 7 9 m direct contact ?an we are1 n1 inde$1 ) ! facts1 b ) ! ph5om5a ( ,nature & life & ?\ght4 ,x is true t we h no?+ m to le>n f !m1 = :atev] 0 s\nd 9 _! tea*+ has be5 entirely absorb$ into mod]n ?\ght1 & comb9$ ) ideas ( :i* !y did n dream4 ,b until we come to ,hume & 8 successors1 !re is no?+ 9 philosophical lit]ature t c be comp>$ to _! writ+s = emancipat+ & /imulat+ p[]2 &1 p]haps1 :5 ! ?9k]s ( ! la/ & pres5t c5turies h become z obsolete z ,bacon & ,desc>tes are n[1 ^? writ+s w cont9ue to be /udi$ ) unabat+ zeal4 ,neo-,platonism1 on ! o!r h&1 is dead1 & e attempt made to galvanise x into new life has prov$ a disa/r\s failure4 ,! _w1 t is to say ! _w ( culture1 w n read ,plot9us & 8 successors1 w n ev5 read ! books t are writt5 ab\t !m by s*ol>s ( brilliant lit]>y ability l ,,mm4 ,va*]ot & ,jules ,simon 9 ,france1 ,/e9h>t & ,kir*n] 9 ,g]many4#ejb ,we h n f> to seek = ! cause ( ?is fatal condemnation4 ,neo-,platonism is no?+ if n a sy/em1 & z a sy/em x is false1 & n only false b out ( relation to e accept$ belief4 ,9 comb9+ ! dialectic ( ,plato ) ! metaphysics ( ,ari/otle & ! physics ( ,/oicism1 ,plot9us has contriv$ to rob ea* ( :atev] plausibility x once possess$4 ,! ,platonic doctr9e ( ,ideas 0 an attempt to express some?+ v real & important1 ! di/9ction betwe5 laws & facts 9 ,nature1 betwe5 g5]al pr9ciples & p>ticul> obs]vations 9 sci5ce1 betwe5 e?ical /&>ds & ev]yday practice 9 life4 ,! et]nal ,n\s ( ,ari/otle repres5t$ ! upw>d /ruggle ( ,nature ?r\gh me*anical1 *emical1 & vital movem5ts to self-consci\s ?\ght4 ,! _w-s\l ( ,/oicism repres5t$ a return to monism1 a prote/ aga9/ ! unphilosophical anti!sis betwe5 ,god & ! _w1 _s & matt]1 necessity & free-w4 ,plot9us attempts to rationalise ! ,ideas by %utt+ !m up 9 ! ,ari/otelian ,n\s1 ) ! effect ( sev]+ !m /ill m hopelessly f ! real _w1 &1 at ! same "t1 mak+ _! subjective orig9 /ill m flagrantly app>5t ?an be=e4 ,& along ) ! ,/oic conception ( a _w-s\l1 he pres]ves all ^? sup]/iti\s fancies ab\t secret spiritual sympa?ies & aff9ities connect+ ! diff]5t p>ts ( ,nature ) "o ano!r :i* ! conception ( a transc5d5t ,n\s1 z orig9ally und]/ood by ,ari/otle1 _h at lea/ ! m]it ( exclud+4 ,f9ally1 by a trem5d\s wr5* ( ab/raction1 ! unity ( exi/5ce is torn away f exi/5ce itself1 & ! mo/ relative ( all conceptions is put out ( relation to ! ?\ght :i*1 9 ! v same brea?1 x is decl>$ to condition1 & to ! ?+s :i* x is decl>$ to create4 ,aga91 on ! practical side1 by comb9+ ,plato ) ,ari/otle & bo? ) ,/oicism1 ,plot9us contrives to elim9ate :at is mo/ valuable 9 ea*4 ,if1 9 ! ,republic1 ! ,good 0 plac$ above all exi/5ce1 ?is 0 only t we might trans=m exi/5ce into its image4 ,if ,ari/otle plac$ ! !oretical above ! e?ical virtues1 he assign$ no limits b ^? ( obs]vation & reason+ to ! en]gis+ ( !oretic p[]4 ,if ! ,/oics re/$ morality on ! absolute isolation ( ! human w1 !y d$uc$ f ?is pr9ciple n only ! inw>dness ( virtue1 b also ! individualisation ( duty1 ! obligation ( b5efic5ce1 & ! =giv5ess ( s94 ,b ) ,plot9us1 ,reason has no true object ( contemplation outside its own ab/ract ideas1 & ! self-realisation ( ,/oicism means a b>r5 consci\sness ( p]sonal id5tity1 f :i* e v>iety ( int]e/ & sympa?y is exclud$3 x is n an expansion ( our own s\l into co9cid5ce ) ! absolute ,all1 b a conc5tration ( bo? into a s+le po9t1 a flight ( ! alone to ! alone2#ejc & only 9 ?is utt] solitude does he suppose t ! ,platonic ,good is f9ally & :olly possess$4 ,nor1 ) a s+le exception1 is ! fundam5tal untru? ( ! sy/em r$eem$ by any j & orig9al obs]vations on po9ts ( detail su* z lie s ?ickly scatt]$ ov] ! pages ( o!r metaphysicians1 bo? 9 anci5t & mod]n lit]ature4 ,! s+le exception is ! refutation ( mat]ialism to :i* att5tion has be5 already direct$4 ,ap>t f ?is1 ! ,enneads d n conta9 "o s+le felicit\s or sugge/ive idea1 no?+ t c enl>ge ! horizon ( our ?\ghts1 no?+ t c exalt ! purpose ( our lives4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we pass to ! second po9t ( view1 & judge ,neo-,platonism accord+ to ! requirem5ts1 n ( tru? or ( usefulness1 b ( beauty1 our fir/ v]dict ( utt] condemnation w be succe$$ by a mu* m fav\rable op9ion4 ,plot9us has us$ ! mat]ials inh]it$ f 8 pr$ecessors ) unque/ionable boldness & skill2 & ! con/ructive p[] exhibit$ 9 ! g5]al plan ( 8 va/ sy/em is fully equall$ by ! close reason+ ) :i* e detail is elaborat$ & fitt$ into its prop] place4 ,no?+ c be imag9$ m impos+ ?an ?is wondr\s procession ( =ms defil+ f ! unkn[n to ! unkn[n--f ! self-develop+ consci\sness ( ,reason z x breaks & flames & multiplies into a :ole univ]se ( be+ & life & ?\ght1 ev] return+1 by ! v law ( _! production1 to ! s\rce :5ce !y h sprung--onw>d & outw>d on ! w+s ( ! cosmic ,s\l1 ?r\gh ?is visible _w1 :]e !y reappe> z images ( intellectual beauty 9 ! et]nal revolutions ( ! />ry sph]es above1 9 ! ev]la/+ reproduction ( organic species bel[1 9 ! lovelie/ ?\ghts & actions ( ! lovelie/ human s\ls--till ! utmo/ limits ( _! propagation & disp]sion h be5 rea*$1 till ! la/ fa9t rays ( exi/5ce die out 9 ! d>k & void region t ext5ds to inf9ity beyond4 ,no?+ 9 ! realm ( ab/ractions c be m mov+ ?an ?is ,odyssey ( ! human s\l1 wak5$ by visions ( e>?ly lovel9ess to a consci\sness ( h] true de/9y1 a remembrance ( h] lo/ & =gott5 home2 !n ab&on+ ^! = ! possession ( a m spiritual beauty1 asc5d+ by ! /eps ( dialectic to a contemplation ( ! ar*etypal ,ideas t lie fold$ & mutually int]p5etrat$ 9 ! bosom ( ! et]nal ,reason :]e ?\ght & be+ are b ! d\ble aspect ( a s+le absolute reality2 seek+ f>!r & high]1 beyond ! limits ( exi/5ce itself1 = a /ill pur] unity1 & f9d+ 9 ! awful solitude ( t supreme elevation t ! c5tral s\rce ( all ?+s does n lie )\t b )91 t only 9 return+ to self-id5tity does %e return to ! ,"o2 or1 aga91 desc5d+ to ! la/ conf9es ( light & life t %e may prolong _! radiation into ! =mless dep?s ( matt]1 project+ on its d>kness an image ( ! glory ^: remembrance /ill att5ds h] 9 h] fall4 ,/ill m impressive1 if we consid] ! writ+s ( ,plot9us on _! p]sonal side1 & z a revelation ( _! au?or's m9d1 is ! high & su/a9$ purity1 ! absolute deta*m5t & dis9t]e/$ness by :i* !y are *>act]is$ ?r\gh\t4 ,no trace ( angry passion1 no dally+ ) images ( evil1 int]f]es to m> _! exalt$ spirituality f fir/ to la/4 ,:ile ! we/]n _w 0 pass+ ?r\gh a p]iod ( horror & degradation su* z _h nev] be5 kn[n be=e1 ! philosoph] took refuge 9 an ideal sph]e1 & look$ d[n on x all ) no m di/urbance to 8 s]5ity ?an if he _h be5 ! spectator ( a mimic p]=mance on ! /age4#ejd ,?is1 inde$1 is "o ( ! reasons :y ! ,enneads are s mu* less int]e/+1 f a lit]>y po9t ( view1 ?an ! works ( ! ,roman ,/oics4 ,x is n only t we fail to f9d 9 !m any allusions ev5 ( ! fa9te/ k9d to contempor>y ev5ts or to contempor>y life & mann]s1 su* z ab\nd 9 ,s5eca & ,epicttus1 b !re is n ! slighte/ ref]5ce to ! exi/5ce ( su* a ?+ z ! ,roman empire at all4 ,"o or two political illu/rations occur1 b !y are drawn f old ,greek city life1 & 7 probably sugge/$ by ,plato or ,ari/otle4#eje ,b ?is trem5d\s blank is s p]fectly 9 keep+ ) ! :ole _s ( ,neo-,platonism z to height5 in/ead ( l[]+ its ae/hetic effect4 ,9 /udy+ ! philosophy ( ! prec$+ c5turies1 to :atev] s*ool x may belong1 we h ! image ( dea? always be=e our eyes2 & to =tify u aga9/ its t]rors1 we are cont9ually call$ ^u to rememb] ! vanity ( life4 ,?is is ! prote/ ( ?\ght aga9/ ! _w1 j z 9 ,lucian & ,sextus we he> ! prote/ ( ! _w aga9/ ?\ght4 ,at la/ ! :ole bitt] /rife comes to an end1 ! vision ( s5se passes away1 ,& leaves u ) ,plot9us & pure s\ls4 ,"h we ne$ no deliv]ance f tr\bles & indignities :i* are n felt2 nor d we ne$ to be prep>$ = dea?1 kn[+ t we c nev] die4 ,! _w w no long] look askance at u1 = we h ceas$ to conc]n ourselves ab\t its re=mation4 ,no scepticism c %ake our convictions1 = we h discov]$ ! secret ( all k ?r\gh ! consci\sness ( t :i* is et]nal 9 ourselves4 ,?us ! _w ( outw>d exp]i5ce has dropp$ out ( our ?\ghts1 because ?\ght has orb$ into a _w ( its own4 ,x4 ,9 ! =ego+ rem>ks we h already pass$ f ! purely ae/hetic to ! hi/orical or psy*ological view ( ,neo-,platonism--t is1 ! view :i* consid]s a philosophy 9 ref]5ce to ! circum/ances ( its orig94 ,e speculative sy/em reflects1 m or less fully1 ! _s ( ! age 9 :i* x 0 born2 & ! abs5ce ( all allusion to contempor>y ev5ts does n prove t ! sy/em ( ,plot9us 0 an exception to ?is rule4 ,x only proves t ! t5d5cy ( ! age 0 to c>ry away m5's ?\ghts f practical to !oretical int]e/s4 ,we h already *>act]is$ ! fir/ c5turies ( ,roman imp]ialism z a p]iod ( ev]-increas+ religi\s reaction2 & 9 ?is reaction we attempt$ to di/+ui% betwe5 ! developm5t ( sup]naturali/ beliefs :i* 7 native to ,greece & ,italy1 & ! importation ( beliefs :i* _h orig9at$ 9 ! ,ea/4 ,we saw also h[ philosophy %>$ 9 ! g5]al t5d5cy1 h[ x became !ological & spirituali/ic in/ead ( e?ical & naturali/ic1 h[ its pr(essors 7 conv]t$ f oppon5ts into uphold]s ( ! popul> belief4 ,n[1 accord+ to "s critics1 ,neo-,platonism m>ks ano!r /age 9 ! gradual sub/itution ( fai? = reason1 ( au?ority = indep5d5t ?\ght2 ! only "q be+ :e!r we %\ld int]pret x z a product ( ,ori5tal my/icism1 or z a simple sequ5ce ( ! same movem5t :i* _h previ\sly l$ f ,cic]o to ,s5eca1 f ,s5eca to ,epicttus1 f ,epicttus to ,m>cus ,aurelius4 ,( ^! views1 ! fir/ is tak5 by ,ritt]1 & adopt$ ) "s modifications by ,m4 ,va*]ot 9 8 ,hi/oire de l'cole d',alex&rie4 ,x is also unres]v$ly accept$ by ,donaldson 9 8 cont9uation ( ,mll]'s ,hi/ory ( ,greek ,lit]ature1 & is probably held at ?is mom5t by mo/ ,engli%m5 :o take any int]e/ 9 ! subject at all4 ,! second view--accord+ to :i* ,neo-,platonism is1 at lea/ 9 its ma9 features1 a *>act]i/ic al?\gh deg5]ate product ( ,greek ?\ght--is t ma9ta9$ by ,zell]4 ,z aga9/ ! ,ori5talis+ !ory1 x seems to u t ,zell] has ?or\ghly prov$ 8 case4#ejf ,x may be d\bt$ :e!r !re is a s+le idea 9 ,plot9us :i* c be %[n to h its exact c\nt]p>t 9 any ( ! ,h9doo or o!r ,asiatic sy/ems :5ce he is suppos$ to h drawn2 &1 z our own analysis has abundantly %[n1 he says no?+ t _c be d]iv$1 ei!r directly or by a simple & easy process ( evolution1 f ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 & ! ,/oics4 ,on ! o!r h&1 has n ,zell] gone mu* too f> 9 treat+ ,neo-,platonism z a product ( ! great religi\s reaction :i* unque/ionably prec$$ & accompani$ its appe>ance8 ,has he n altoge!r und]rat$ its importance z a purely speculative sy/em1 an ef=t t[>ds ! atta9m5t ( absolute tru? by ! simple ex]cise ( human reason8 ,x seems to u t he has1 & we %all (f] "s gr\nds = v5tur+ to diff] f 8 op9ion4 ,to appreciate ! lab\rs ( ,plot9us1 we mu/1 fir/ ( all1 comp>e 8 :ole philosophic me?od ) t ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,n[1 ,zell] himself has %[n q cle>ly t 9 rea* ( ?\ght1 9 p[] ( syn!sis1 9 accuracy ( reason+1 n "o ( ^! c be comp>$ to ! f\nd] ( ,neo-,platonism = a s+le mom5t4#ejg ,we may g /ill fur!r & decl>e ) confid5ce t no philosoph] ( equal speculative g5ius _h appe>$ 9 ,hellas s9ce ,*rysippus1 or1 v possibly1 s9ce ,ari/otle4 ,! only gr\nd = disput+ 8 claims to take rank ) ! great ma/]s ( ,hell5ic ?\ght seems to be t 8 sy/em culm9ates on ! objective side 9 some?+ :i* lies beyond exi/5ce1 & on ! subjective side 9 a my/ical ec/asy :i* is ! negation ( reason4 ,we h %[n1 h[ev]1 t if ! ,"o is repres5t$ z transc5d+ reality1 s also is ! ,idea ( ,good :i* corresponds to x 9 ,plato's s*eme2 & t ! ,"o is rea*$ if n grasp$ by a process ( reason+ :i*1 al?\gh uns\nd1 /ill (f]s itself z reason+ alone1 & moves 9 complete indep5d5ce ( any revelation or intuition su* z ^? to :i* ! g5u9e sy/ems ( my/icism s freely resort4 ,x _c be too (t5 repeat$ t ! ,"o 9 no way conflicts ) ! _w ( real exi/5ce1 b1 on ! contr>y1 creates & completes x4 ,n[1 )9 t _w1 ) :i* alone reason is prop]ly conc]n$1 ,plot9us nev] betrays any want ( confid5ce 9 its p[] to discov] tru?2 nor1 contr>y to :at ,zell] assumes1 does he seem to h be5 9 ! lea/ affect$ by ! ef=ts ( ! lat] ,sceptics to invalidate its pret5sions 9 ?is respect4#ejh ,_! criticism 01 9 fact1 *iefly direct$ aga9/ ,/oicism1 & did n t\* ! spirituali/ic position at all4 ,t !re c be no c]ta9 k af=d$ by s5sation1 or1 speak+ m g5]ally1 by ! action ( an outw>d object on an inw>d subject1 ,plot9us himself fully admits or r cont5ds4#eji ,b :ile di/ru/+ ! ability ( ext]nal p]ception1 tak5 alone1 to e/abli% ! exi/5ce ( an ext]nal object by :i* x is caus$1 he expressly claims su* a p[] = reason or und]/&+4#eaj ,= him1 z = ,ari/otle1 & probably = ,plato also1 ! m9d is "o ) its real object2 9 e act ( cognition ! idea becomes consci\s ( itself4 ,we d n say t ,scepticism is p[]less aga9/ su* a !ory z ?is1 b1 9 po9t ( fact1 x 0 a !ory :i* ! anci5t ,sceptics _h n attack$1 & _! argum5ts no m l$ ,plot9us to despair ( reason1 ?an ! simil> argum5ts ( ,protagoras & ,gorgias _h l$ ,plato & ,ari/otle to despair ( x six c5turies be=e4 ,if ,sextus & 8 s*ool contribut$ any?+ to ! great philosophical revolution ( ! succe$+ age1 x 0 by s weak5+ ! mat]iali/ic sy/ems z to r5d] !m less capable ( oppos+ ! spirituali/ic revival :5 x came4 ,unque/ionably ,plot9us 0 influ5c$ by ! sup]naturali/ic movem5t ( 8 age1 b only z ,plato _h be5 influ5c$ by ! simil> reaction ( 8 "t2 & j z ! ,a!nian philosoph] _h prote/$ aga9/ ! sup]/itions :i* he saw ga9+ gr\nd1 s also did ! ,alex&rian philosoph] prote/1 ) f> less vig\r x is true1 b /ill to "s ext5t1 aga9/ ! worse extravagances univ]sally ent]ta9$ by 8 contempor>ies4 ,among ^!1 to judge by num]\s allusions 9 8 writ+s1 a/rology & magic held ! =emo/ place4 ,t !re 0 some?+ 9 bo?1 he did n v5ture to d5y1 b he con/antly endeav\rs to ext5uate _! practical significance & to give a m philosophical int]pretation to ! alleg$ ph5om5a on :i* !y 7 bas$4 ,t[>ds ! old poly!ism1 8 attitude1 )\t be+ ho/ile1 is p]fectly indep5d5t4 ,we c see ?is ev5 9 8 life1 not)/&+ ! religi\s col\r+ ?r[n ov] x by ,porphyry4 ,:5 invit$ by 8 disciple ,amelius to jo9 9 ! public wor%ip ( ! gods1 he pr\dly answ]$1 #8,x is _! bus9ess to come to me1 n m9e to g to !m4'#eaa ,9 allegoris+ ! old my?s1 he h&les !m ) z mu* fre$om z ,bacon1 & evid5tly ) no m belief 9 _! hi/orical "*4#eab ,9 giv+ ! "n ( ,god to 8 supreme pr9ciple1 he is c>eful to exclude ne>ly e attribute associat$ ) div9ity ev5 9 ! pure/ =ms ( contempor>y !ology4 ,p]sonality1 intellig5ce1 w1 & ev5 exi/5ce1 are expressly d5i$ to ! ,"o4 ,al?\gh ! fir/ cause & highe/ good ( all ?+s1 x is s n 9 a religi\s b 9 an ab/ract1 metaphysical s5se4 ,! ,n\s ) its ideal (fspr+ & ! _w-s\l are also spok5 ( z gods2 b _! p]sonality1 if !y h any1 is ( ! mo/ %ad[y description1 & !re is no reason = ?9k+ t ,plot9us ev] wor%ipp$ !m himself or int5d$ !m to be wor%ipp$ by 8 disciples4 ,l ,ari/otle1 he attributes animation & div9ity to ! heav5ly bodies1 b ) su* c>eful provisions aga9/ an an?ropomorphic conception ( _! nature1 t n mu* devotional feel+ is likely to h m+l$ ) ! contemplation ( _! spl5d\r4 ,f9ally1 we arrive at ! daemons1 ^? int]m$iate spirits :i* play s great a "p 9 ! religion ( ,plut>* & ! o!r ,platoni/s ( ! second c5tury4 ,) reg>d to ^!1 ,plot9us repeats _m ( ! curr5t op9ions z if he %>$ !m2 b 8 adhesion is ( an extremely tepid "*2 & x may be d\bt$ :e!r ! daemons meant mu* m = him ?an = ,plato4#eac ,! immortality ( ! s\l is a subject on :i* ideali/ic philosoph]s habitually express !mselves 9 t]ms ( app>5tly /udi$ ambiguity1 & ?is is especially true ( ,plot9us4 ,"h1 z else:]e1 he repeats ! op9ions & argum5ts ( ,plato1 b ) c]ta9 developm5ts :i* make 8 adhesion to ! popul> belief 9 a p]sonal duration aft] dea? consid]ably m d\btful ?an 0 t ( 8 ma/]4 ,"o great difficulty 9 ! way ( ,plato's doctr9e1 z commonly und]/ood1 is t x attributes a p]man5ce to individuals1 :i*1 on ! pr9ciples ( 8 sy/em1 %\ld belong only to g5]al ideas4 ,n[1 at fir/ sight1 ,plot9us seems to evade ?is difficulty by admitt+ ev]la/+ ideas ( individuals no less ?an ( g5]ic types4#ead ,a clos] exam9ation1 h[ev]1 %[s t ?is view is ev5 m unfav\rable ?an ,plato's to ! hope ( p]sonal immortality4 ,= ei!r our real self is indep5d5t ( our empirical consci\sness1 :i* is j :at we wi% to h pres]v$1 or1 z seems m probable1 ! et]nal exi/5ce :i* x enjoys is ( an altoge!r ideal "*1 l t :i* ,sp9oza also attribut$ to ! human s\l1 & :i*1 9 8 philosophy1 c]ta9ly _h no?+ to d ) a prolongation ( individual consci\sness beyond ! grave4 ,z ,madame de ,/al obs]ves ( a simil> view held at "o "t by ,s*ell+1 #8cette immortalit-l ressemble t]riblem5t la mort4' ,& :51 9 addition to 8 own !ory ( individual ideas1 we f9d ,plot9us adopt+ ! !ory ( ! ,/oics1 t ! :ole c\rse ( mundane affairs p]iodically returns to its />t+-po9t & is repeat$ 9 ! same ord] z be=e1#eae we _c help conclud+ t human immortality 9 ! popul> s5se mu/ h seem$ z impossible to him z x did to !m4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 suppose t ! doctr9e ( metempsy*osis & future retributions :i* he unque/ionably pr(esses1 applies only to c]ta9 det]m9ate cycles ( psy*ic life2 or t x 0 to him1 :at x _h probably be5 to ,plato1 only a figurative way ( express+ ! ess5tial unity ( all s\ls1 & ! transc5d5t "* ( e?ical di/9ctions4#eaf ,9 ?is connexion we may deal ) ! "q :e!r ! philosophy ( ,plot9us is prop]ly describ$ z a pan!i/ic sy/em4 ,plot9us 0 c]ta9ly n a pan!i/ 9 ! same s5se z ,sp9oza & ,hegel4 ,) him1 ! ,"o & ! ,all are n id5tical2 al?\gh imp]sonal & unconsci\s1 8 supreme pr9ciple is n imman5t 9 ! univ]se1 b transc5ds & creates x3 ! totality ( ?+s are dep5d5t on x1 b x is indep5d5t ( !m4 ,ev5 7 we to assume t ! ,"o is only ideally di/9ct f ! exi/5ce :i* x causes1 /ill ! ,n\s w\ld rema9 sep>ate f ! _w-s\l1 ! high] ,s\l f ,nature1 &1 )9 ! sph]e ( ,nature h]self1 ,matt] w\ld cont9ue to be p]petually break+ away f ,=m1 free-w w\ld be left 9 unreconcil$ ho/ility to fate4 ,once1 & once only1 if we rememb] rightly1 does our philosoph] rise to ! mod]n conception ( ! univ]se z an absolute :ole ^: p>ts are n caus$ b con/itut$ by _! fundam5tal unity1 & are n really sep>at$ f "o ano!r 9 ,nature1 b only ideally di/+ui%$ 9 our ?\ghts4 ,& he adds t we _c keep up ?is ef=t ( ab/raction = long at a "t2 ?+s escape f u1 & return to _! orig9al unity4#eag ,) ,plot9us himself1 h[ev]1 ! contr>y 0 true3 :at he c\ld n keep up 0 8 grasp on ! syn!tic unity ( ?+s4 ,& he himself supplies u ) a ready explanation :y x %\ld be s1 :5 he po9ts to ! divid+ t5d5cy ( ?\ght z oppos$ to ! unit+ t5d5cy ( ,nature4 ,:at he & ! o!r ,hell5ic ?9k]s want$ above all1 0 to make ! _w cle> to !mselves & to _! pupils1 & ?is !y accompli%$ by _! me?od ( s]ial classification1 by br++ into play :at we h (t5 spok5 ( z ! mom5ts ( anti!sis1 m$iation1 & circumscription1 ,/oicism also _h j t\*$ ! pan!i/ic idea1 only to let x g aga94 ,aft] be+ nom9ally id5tifi$ ) ! _w1 ! ,/oic ,god 0 repres5t$ z a design+ intellig5ce1 l ! ,socratic ,god--an idea :olly ali5 f real pan!ism4 ,if ,plot9us rose above ! vulg> sup]/itions ( ! ,we/1 :ile1 at ! same "t1 us+ _! language = ! easi] expression ( 8 philosophical ideas1 !re 0 "o m ref9$ sup]/ition ( mix$ ,greek & ,ori5tal orig9 :i* he d5\nc$ ) ! mo/ uncompromis+ vig\r4 ,?is 0 ,gno/icism1 z taught by ,val5t9us & 8 s*ool4 ,t[>ds ! close ( our la/ *apt]1 we gave "s acc\nt ( ! !ory 9 "q4 ,x 0 pr9cipally z enemies ( ! _w & malign]s ( its p]fection t ! ,gno/ics made !mselves (f5sive to ! f\nd] ( ,neo-,platonism4 ,to him1 ! anti!sis ( good & evil 0 repres5t$1 n by ! opposition ( _s & ,nature1 b by ! opposition betwe5 8 ideal pr9ciple ?r\gh all degrees ( its p]fection1 & un=m$ ,matt]4 ,l ,plato1 he look$ on ! exi/+ _w z a consummate "w ( art1 an embodim5t ( ! ar*etypal ,ideas1 a visible pres5tation ( reason4 ,b 9 ! c\rse ( 8 attack on ! ,gno/ics1#eah o!r po9ts ( great int]e/ are rais$1 %[+ h[ pr(\ndly 8 philosophy diff]$ f !irs1 h[ entirely he takes 8 /& on ! fix$ pr9ciples ( ,hell5ic ?\ght4 ,?us he p>ticul>ly reproa*es 8 oppon5ts = _! sy/ematic disp>agem5t ( ,plato1 to :om1 aft] all1 !y owe :atev] is true & valuable 9 _! metaphysics4#eai ,he ridicules _! belief 9 demoniacal possession1 ) its :olly gratuit\s & clumsy employm5t ( sup]natural ag5cies to acc\nt = :at c be suffici5tly expla9$ by ! op]ation ( natural causes4#ebj ,&1 m ?an any?+ else1 he sev]ely c5sures _! deta*m5t ( religion f morality4 ,on ?is la/ po9t1 "s ( 8 rem>ks are s /rik+ & p]t95t t !y des]ve to be quot$4 ,above all1 he exclaims1 we mu/ n fail to notice :at effect ?is doctr9e has on ! m9ds ( ^? :om !y h p]suad$ to despise ! _w & all t x conta9s4 ,( ! two *ief me?ods = atta9+ ! supreme good1 "o has s5sual pleasure = its end1 ! o!r virtue1 ! ef=t aft] :i* beg9s & ends ) ,god4 ,epicurus1 by 8 d5ial ( provid5ce1 leaves u no *oice b to pursue ! =m]4 ,b ?is doctr9e ,gno/icism1 involv+ z x does a /ill m insol5t d5ial ( div9e ord] & human law1 laughs to scorn :at has always be5 ! accept$ ideal ( conduct1 &1 9 its rage aga9/ beauty1 aboli%es temp]ance & ju/ice--! ju/ice t is associat$ ) natural feel+ & p]petuat$ by discipl9e & reason--along ) e o!r ennobl+ virtue4 ,s1 9 ! abs5ce ( true morality1 !y are giv5 ov] to pleasure & utility & selfi% isolation f o!r m5--unless1 inde$1 _! nature is bett] ?an _! pr9ciples4 ,!y h an ideal t no?+ "h bel[ c satisfy1 & s !y put (f ! ef=t = its atta9m5t to a future life1 :]eas !y %\ld beg9 at once1 & prove t !y are ( div9e race by fulfill+ ! duties ( _! pres5t /ate4 ,= virtue is ! condition ( e high] aspiration1 & only to ^? :o disda9 s5sual enjoym5t is x giv5 to und]/& ! div9e4 ,h[ f> our oppon5ts are f realis+ ?is is prov$ by _! total neglect ( e?ical sci5ce4 ,!y nei!r "k :at virtue is1 nor h[ _m virtues !re are1 nor :at anci5t philosophy has to tea* u on ! subject1 nor :at are ! me?ods ( moral tra9+1 nor h[ ! s\l is to be t5d$ & cleans$4 ,!y tell u to look to ,god2 b m]ely say+ ?is is useless unless !y c tell u :at ! mann] ( ! look+ is to be4 ,= x might be ask$1 :at is to prev5t u f look+ to ,god1 :ile at ! same "t freely indulg+ our s5sual appetites & angry passions4 ,virtue p]fect$1 enlight5$1 & root$ 9 ! s\l1 w reveal ,god to u1 b )\t x he w rema9 an empty "n4#eba ,ev5 ,m4 ,va*]ot1 ) all 8 anxiety to discov] an ,ori5tal orig9 = ,neo-,platonism1 _c help see+ t ?is attack on ! ,gno/ics 0 inspir$ by an indignant reaction ( ,greek philosophy aga9/ ! inroads ( ,ori5tal sup]/ition1 & t ! same "* belongs m or less to ! :ole sy/em ( its au?or4 ,b1 s f> z we are aw>e1 ,kir*n] is ! only critic :o has fully work$ out ?is idea1 & exhibit$ ! philosophy ( ,plot9us 9 its true "* z a "p ( ! great classical revival1 :i* aft] produc+ ! lit]ature ( ! second c5tury rea*$ its consummation 9 a return to ! idealism ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4#ebb ,neo-,platonism may itself furni% u ) no inapt image ( ! age 9 :i* x arose4 ,l ! un=m$ ,matt] ab\t :i* we h be5 he>+ s mu*1 ! consci\sness ( t p]iod 0 9 itself d>k1 indet]m9ate & un/eady1 uncreative1 unspontane\s1 unorig9at+1 b ) a receptive capacity :i* enabl$ x to seize1 reflect1 & transmit ! p[] ( liv+ ,reason1 ! spl5d\r ( et]nal ?\ght4 ,,xi4 ,9 fix+ ! relation ( ,plot9us to 8 own age1 we h gone f> t[>ds fix+ 8 relation to all ages1 ! place :i* he occupies 9 ! developm5t ( philosophy z a connect$ :ole4 ,we h se5 t z an attempt to discov] ! tru? ( ?+s1 8 speculations are wor?less & worse ?an wor?less1 s9ce _! me?od no less ?an _! tea*+ is false4 ,nev]!less1 ,wisdom is ju/ifi$ ( all h] *ildr54 ,)\t add+ any?+ to ! sum ( positive k1 ,plot9us produc$ an effect on m5's ?\ghts n unwor?y ( ! great intellect & pure life :i* he devot$ to ! s]vice ( philosophy4 ,no o!r ?9k] has ev] accompli%$ a revolution s imm$iate1 s compreh5sive1 & ( su* prolong$ duration4 ,he 0 ! creator ( ,neo-,platonism1 & ,neo-,platonism simply annihilat$ e s*ool ( philosophy to :i* x 0 oppos$4 ,= ?irte5 c5turies or m1 ! ?ree great sy/ems :i* _h s long divid$ ! suffrages ( educat$ m9ds--,/oicism1 ,epicureanism1 & ,scepticism--ceas$ to exi/1 & 7 all[$ to lapse into su* complete oblivion t only a few fragm5ts ( ! works 9 :i* !y 7 orig9ally embodi$ h be5 pres]v$4 ,& ,plot9us 0 enabl$ to d ?is by ! pr(\nd insight :i* l$ him to /rike less at any p>ticul> doctr9e held by 8 oppon5ts ?an at ! common f\ndation on :i* !y all /ood1 ! mat]ialism op5ly pr(ess$ by ! ,/oics & ,epicureans1 & assum$ by ! ,sceptics z ! necess>y presupposition ( e dogmatic philosophy4 ,x is true t ! pr9ciple :i* he oppos$ to !irs 0 n ( 8 own orig9ation1 al?\gh he /at$ x m p[]fully ?an x _h ev] be5 /at$ be=e4 ,b to h reviv$ ! spiritualism ( ,plato & ,ari/otle 9 su* a way z to w9 = x univ]sal acceptance1 0 precisely 8 greate/ m]it4 ,x is also ! only "o t he w\ld h claim$ = himself4 ,z we h already m5tion$1 he pr(ess$ to be no?+ m ?an ! disciple ( ,plato4 ,& al?\gh ,ari/otelian ideas ab\nd 9 8 writ+s1 /ill n only are !y ov]balanc$ by ! ,platonic elem5t1 b ,plot9us might ju/ly h cont5d$ t !y also belong1 9 a s5se1 to ,plato1 hav+ be5 orig9ally acquir$ by a simple developm5t f 8 tea*+4 ,we h said t ! f\nd] ( ,neo-,platonism contriv$ to bl5d ! sy/ems ( 8 two great au?orities 9 su* a mann] z to elim9ate mu* ( ! relative tru? :i* is conta9$ 9 ea* ( !m tak5 by itself4 ,x has be5 res]v$ = mod]n ?\ght to accompli% ! pr(\nd] syn!sis :i* has elim9at$ _! errors 9 comb9+ _! tru?s4 ,yet1 p]haps1 no o!r sy/em w\ld h satisfi$ ! want ( ! "t s well z t con/ruct$ by ,plot9us out ( ! mat]ials at 8 disposal4 ,su* z x 01 t sy/em held its gr\nd z ! reign+ philosophy until all indep5d5t ?9k+ 0 suppress$ by ,ju/9ian1 some:at m ?an two & a half c5turies aft] its au?or's dea?4 ,ev5 !n x did n become ext9ct1 b reappe>$ 9 ,*ri/ian lit]ature1 9 ! writ+s attribut$ to ,dionysius ! ,areopagite1 & aga9 9 ! d>+ speculations ( ,erig5a1 ! fa!r ( m$iaeval philosophy1 to pass "u m dilut$ =ms into ! tea*+ ( ! lat] ,s*oolm51 until ! "t arriv$ = its r5ew$ /udy 9 ! orig9al s\rces z an elem5t ( ! ,platonic revival 9 ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,all ?is popul>ity proves1 z we say1 t ,plot9us suit$ 8 own age & o!r ages :i* reproduc$ ! same g5]al intellectual t5d5cies4 ,b ! important ?+ 0 t he made ,plato & ,ari/otle m int]e/+1 & ?us l$ m5 to /udy _! writ+s m eag]ly ?an be=e4 ,! true reign ( ^? philosoph]s does n beg9 until we rea* ! ,middle ,ages1 & ! comm&+ position :i* !y !n enjoy$ 0 due1 9 great measure1 to ! revolution effect$ by ,plot9us4 ,b :5 ,neo-,platonism1 z a lit]ature & a sy/em1 _h giv5 way to ! orig9al au?orities f :i* x 0 d]iv$1 its influ5ce did n1 on t acc\nt1 cease to be felt4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ,plot9us gave curr5cy to a c]ta9 int]pretation ( ,plato's tea*+ :i* has be5 univ]sally accept$ until a comp>atively rec5t p]iod1 p]haps "o may say until ! "t ( ,s*lei]ma*]4 ,we h se5 h[ _m elem5ts ( ,platonism he left out ( sight2 &1 ?anks to 8 example1 foll[$ z x naturally 0 by ,ca?olic !ologians1 ! _w 0 cont5t to leave !m out ( sight z well4 ,! *>m+ disciple ( ,socrates :om we all "k & love--! lit]>y & dramatic arti/1 ! brilliant p>odi/1 ! sceptical railleur f ! %afts ( ^: irony ev5 8 own !ories are n safe1 ! p5etrat+ obs]v] ( human life1 ! f>-see+ critic & re=m] ( social in/itutions--is a discov]y ( mod]n s*ol>%ip4 ,n z su* did ! ma/] ( idealism appe> to ,m>silio ,fic9o & ,mi*ael ,angelo1 to ,lady ,jane ,grey & ,cudwor? & ,h5ry ,m1 to ,b]keley & ,hume & ,?omas ,taylor1 to all ! great ,engli% poets f ,sp5s] to ,%elley2 n z su* does he n[ appe> to popul> imag9ation2 b z a my/ical en?usia/1 a dream] ( dreams :i*1 :e!r !y be realis$ or n 9 "s f>-(f sph]e1 are1 at any rate1 out ( relation to ! _w ( s5su\s exp]i5ce & ev]yday life4 ,s absolute1 inde$1 is ! reaction f ?is view t we are 9 dang] ( ru%+ to ! contr>y extreme1 ( =gett+ :at elem5ts ( tru? ! ,plot9ian int]pretation conta9$1 & sub/itut+ = x an int]pretation /ill m "o-sid$1 /ill m inadequate to express ! scope & spl5d\r ( ,plato's ?\ghts4 ,plato believ$ 9 tru? & "r & purity1 believ$ 9 !m /ill m pr(\ndly ?an ,plot9us2 & 8 0 a m effectual fai? precisely because he did n %>e ! /]ile optimism ( 8 ,alex&rian disciple1 b work$ & wat*$ = ! realisation ( :at1 z yet1 _h nev] be5 realis$4#ebc ,f9ally1 by ! =m :i* he gave to ,platonism1 ,plot9us has _h a l>ge %>e 9 det]m9+ ! direction ( mod]n metaphysics4 ,al?\gh1 z we h se51 n1 prop]ly speak+1 a pan!i/ himself1 he %[$ h[ ! ideal !ory c\ld be trans=m$ into a pan!i/ic sy/em1 & pan!ism x imm$iately became :5 ! peculi> limitations & subtleties ( ,greek ?\ght _h ceas$ to dom9ate ov] ! we/]n m9d1 & :5 ! re/ra9ts ( ,ca?olic or?odoxy _h be5 remov$ or relax$4 ,! /ream ( t5d5cy 9 ?is direction runs all ?r\gh ! ,middle ,ages1 & acquires new volume & mom5tum at ! ,r5aissance1 until1 by a process :i* w be analys$ 9 ! next *apt]1 x rea*es its supreme expansion 9 ! philosophy ( ,sp9oza4 ,!n1 aft] a long pause1 x is tak5 up by ,kant's successors1 & comb9$ ) ! subjective idealism ( mod]n psy*ology1 f9ally pass+1 ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( ,victor ,c\s9 & ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 into ! philosophy ( ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]4 ,! la/-nam$ ?9k] w\ld1 no d\bt1 repudiate ! title ( pan!i/2 & x is c]ta9 t1 "u 8 treatm5t1 pan!ism has rev]t$1 by a curi\s sort ( atavism1 to some?+ mu* m ne>ly resembl+ ! orig9al doctr9e ( ! ,neo-,platonic s*ool4 ,mr4 ,sp5c] tells u t ! _w is ! manife/ation ( an unkn[able ,p[]4 ,plot9us said ne>ly ! same1 al?\gh n 9 su* absolutely self-contradictory t]ms4#ebd ,mr4 ,sp5c] con/antly assumes1 by speak+ ( x 9 ! s+ul> numb]1 t ! creative ,p[] ( :i* we "k no?+ is "o2 hav+1 app>5tly1 conv9c$ himself ( its unity by two me?ods ( reason+4 ,fir/1 he id5tifies ! transc5d5t cause ( ph5om5a ) ! absolute1 :i* is involv$ 9 our consci\sness ( relation2 leav+ x to be inf]r$ t z relativity implies plurality1 absolut5ess mu/ imply unity4 ,&1 secondly1 f ! mutual conv]tibility ( ! physical =ces1 he inf]s ! unity ( t :i* und]lies =ce4 ,plot9us also arrives at ! same result by two l9es ( argum5t1 "o po/]iori1 & d]iv$ f ! unity p]vad+ all ,nature2 ! o!r priori1 & d]iv$ f ! fanci$ dep5d5ce ( ! ,_m on ! ,"o4 ,ev5 9 8 use ( ! pr$icate ,unkn[able )\t a subject1 ,mr4 ,sp5c] has be5 anticipat$ by ,damascius1 "o ( ! la/ ,neo-,platoni/s1 :o speaks ( ! supreme pr9ciple z 4#ebe ,& ! same philosoph] anticipates ! late ,fa!r ,dalgairns 9 sugge/+ ! v p]t95t "q1 h[1 if we "k no?+ ab\t ! ,unkn[able1 we "k t x is unkn[able4 ,nor is ?is all4 ,besides ! argum5ts f relativity & causation1 ,mr4 ,sp5c] has a ?ird me?od = arriv+ at 8 absolute4 ,he ?9ks away all ! det]m9ations impos$ by consci\sness on its objects1 & id5tifies ! residual sub/ance ) ! ultimate reality ( ?+s4 ,n[1 ?is residue1 z we h se51 exactly corresponds to ! ,matt]1 :e!r intelligible or s5sible1 ( ,ari/otle & ,plot9us4 ,z su*1 x /&s 9 extreme anti!sis to ! ,"o1 & yet !re is a ne> k9%ip betwe5 !m4 ,probably1 accord+ to ,plot9us1 & c]ta9ly accord+ to ,proclus1#ebf ,matt] is a direct product ( ! ,"o1 ^: inf9ite p[] x reflects4 ,all exi/5ce is =m$ by ! union1 9 v>y+ proportions1 ( ^! two pr9ciples4 ,above all1 bo? are unkn[able4 ,?us x 0 natural t 9 ! h&s ( less subtle analy/s ?an ! ,greeks !y %\ld coalesce into a s+le sub/ance4 ,&1 z a matt] ( fact1 !y h s coalesc$ 9 ! sy/ems ( ,giordano ,bruno1 ( ,sp9oza1 & f9ally ( ,mr4 ,sp5c]4 ,"h we imag9e an impati5t read] exclaim+1 #8,h[ c ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 :o kn[s1 if possible1 ev5 less ( ,greek philosophy ?an ( 8 own ,unkn[able1 h d]iv$ t pr9ciple f ! ,greeks8' ,well1 we h already trac$ ! g5ealogy by :i* ! two sy/ems ( agno/icism are connect$4 ,& "s additional light w be ?r[n on ! "q if we consid] t ! =m ( ,neo-,platonism 0 l>gely det]m9$ by ! mann] 9 :i* ,plot9us br\ght ! spirituali/ic conceptualism ( ,plato & ,ari/otle into contact ) ! dynamic mat]ialism ( ! ,/oics2 & t ! =m ( ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s philosophy has be5 simil>ly det]m9$ by br++ ! idealism ( mod]n ,g]man ?\ght into contact ) ! me*anical evolutionism ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,?us1 "u ! influ5ce ( old associations1 has pan!ism be5 metamorphos$ into a crude agno/icism1 :i* fai?fully reproduces ! lik5ess ( its orig9al ance/ors1 ! ,plot9ian ,matt] & ! ,plot9ian ,"o4 ,,xii4#ebg ,! hi/ory ( ,neo-,platonism1 subsequ5tly to ! dea? ( ,plot9us1 decomposes itself into sev]al di/9ct t5d5cies1 pursu+ m or less div]g5t l9es ( direction4 ,fir/ ( all1 x 0 drawn into ! sup]naturali/ movem5t aga9/ :i* x _h orig9ally be51 9 "p at lea/1 a reaction & a prote/4 ,"o sees f ! life ( its f\nd] h[ f> 8 two fav\rite disciples1 ,amelius & ,porphyry1 7 f %>+ 8 sup]iority to ! sup]/itions ( ! age4 ,bo? _h be5 educat$ "u ,py?agorean influ5ces1 :i* 7 fo/]$ r ?an repress$ by ! new philosophy4 ,) ,porphyry1 !oretical int]e/s are1 to a great ext5t1 sup]s$$ by practical int]e/s2 &1 9 practice1 ! religi\s & ascetic pr$om9ates ov] ! purely e?ical elem5t4 ,/ill1 h[ev] great may h be5 8 ab]rations1 !y nev] w5t beyond ! limits ( ,hell5ic tradition4 ,al?\gh ( ,syrian extraction1 8 attitude t[>ds ,ori5tal sup]/ition 0 "o ( uncompromis+ ho/ility2 & 9 writ+ aga9/ ,*ri/ianity1 8 criticism ( ! ,old ,te/am5t seems to h closely resembl$ t ( mod]n rationalism4 ,b ) ,porphyry's disciple1 ,iambli*us1 e re/ra9t is ?r[n aside1 ! wilde/ ,ori5tal fancies are accept$ z articles ( belief1 & ! mo/ s5seless devotional practices are inculcat$ z means t[>ds ! atta9m5t ( a truly spiritual life4 ,besides ! g5]al religi\s movem5t :i* _h long be5 9 action1 & 0 daily ga9+ /r5g? f ! increas+ b>b>isation ( ! empire1 !re 01 at ?is juncture1 a p>ticul> cause t5d+ to br+ ,greek philosophy into close alliance ) ! my?ology :i* x _h =m]ly reject$ & d5\nc$4 ,?is 0 ! rapid rise & spread ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,/ ,augu/9e has said t ( all hea!n philosoph]s none came ne>] to ! ,*ri/ian fai? ?an ! ,neo-,platoni/s4#ebh ,nev]!less1 x 0 9 !m t ! old religion f\nd its only apologi/s & ! new religion its mo/ active assailants4 ,we h already allud$ to ! elaborate polemic ( ,porphyry4 ,half a c5tury lat]1 ! same pr9ciples c\ld boa/ ( a /ill m illu/ri\s *ampion4 ,! emp]or ,julian 0 imbu$ ) ! doctr9es ( ,neo-,platonism1 & 0 won back to ! anci5t fai? by ! tea*+ ( its pr(essors4 ,:at seems to u ! reaction>y attitude ( ! spirituali/ s*ool 0 dictat$ by ! circum/ances ( its orig94 ,a product ( ! great classical revival1 its cause 0 necess>ily l9k$ ) ! civilisation ( anci5t ,greece1 & ( t civilisation ! wor%ip ( ! old gods seem$ to =m an integral elem5t4 ,"o ne$ only ?9k ( ! ,italian ,r5aissance1 ) its pr$ilection = ! old my?ology1 to und]/& h[ mu* /rong] & m passionate ?is feel+ mu/ h be5 among ^? to :om ,greek lit]ature /ill spoke 9 a liv+ language1 ^: eyes1 :]ev] !y turn$1 /ill re/$ on ! monum5ts1 unrivall$1 undesecrat$1 unfall51 unfad$1 ( ,greek religi\s art4 ,nor 0 poly!ism :at "s h imag9$ x to h be5 at ?is p]iod1 m]ely a tradition1 an association1 a dream1 draw+ %ad[y su/5ance f ! human works & human ?\ghts :i* x _h once inspir$4 ,to ,plot9us & ,proclus1 z =m]ly to ,socrates & ,plato & ,ari/otle1 ! lum9>ies ( day & night blaz$ d[n f heav5 z animat$ & immortal witnesses ( its tru?4 ,x 0 n simply t ! heav5s decl>$ ! glory ( ,god2 to ! pi\s behold]1 !y 7 visibly inhabit$ by glori\s gods1 & _! con/ellat$ fires 71 z ,plot9us said1 a scripture 9 :i* ! secrets ( de/9y might be read4 ,! same philosoph] scornfully asks ! ,gno/ics1 :o1 9 ?is respect1 7 indi/+ui%able f ! ,*ri/ians1 :e!r !y 7 s infatuat$ z to call ! wor/ m5 _! bro!rs1 :ile refus+ t title to ! sun2 & at a mu* lat] p]iod1 not)/&+ ! heavy p5alties atta*$ to x1 ! wor%ip ( ! heav5ly bodies cont9u$ to be practis$ by ! pr(\nde/ ?9k]s & s*ol>s ( ! ,neo-,platonic s*ool4#ebi ,moreov]1 poly!ism1 by ! v weakness & unfixity ( its dogmas1 gave a mu* wid] scope to indep5d5t speculation ?an c\ld be p]mitt$ )9 ! limits ( ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*1 j because ,ca?olicism itself con/itut$ a philosophical sy/em 9 :i* all ! great problems ( exi/5ce 7 provid$ ) def9ite & au?oritative solutions4 ,! f9al defeat ( poly!ism prov$1 9 "s respects1 an advantage to ,neo-,platonism1 by compell+ x to ex*ange !ological controv]sy = /udies :i* c\ld be prosecut$1 at lea/ = a "t1 )\t giv+ umbrage to ! dom9ant religion4 ,at ,alex&ria ! new spiritualism 0 associat$1 on g5u9ely ,platonic pr9ciples1 ) ! tea*+ ( geometry by ! noble & ill-fat$ ,hypatia4 ,9 all ! ,neo-,platonic s*ools1 :e!r at ,rome1 at ,alex&ria1 at ,con/ant9ople1 or at ,a!ns1 ! writ+s ( ,plato & ,ari/otle 7 att5tively /udi$1 & made ! subject ( num]\s comm5t>ies1 _m ( :i* are /ill extant4 ,?is return to ! two great ma/]s ( idealism 01 z we h already said1 ! mo/ valuable result ( ! metaphysical revival1 & probably contribut$ m ?an any o!r cause to ! pres]vation ( _! works amid/ ! g5]al wreck ( anci5t philosophical lit]ature4 ,f9ally1 ef=ts 7 made to pres5t ! doctr9e ( ,plot9us "u a m popul> or a m sci5tific =m1 & to develope x into sy/ematic complet5ess4 ,driv5 by ,*ri/ian intol]ance f e o!r c5tre ( civilisation1 ,greek philosophy f\nd a la/ refuge 9 ,a!ns1 :]e x cont9u$ to be taught ?r\gh ! :ole ( ! fif? c5tury & ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! six?4 ,dur+ t p]iod1 all ! t5d5cies already indicat$ z *>act]i/ic ( ,neo-,platonism exhibit$ !mselves once m1 & contribut$ 9 ab\t equal degrees to ! v]satile activity ( its la/ orig9al repres5tative1 ,proclus 7#daj-dhe74 ,?is rem>kable man (f]s "o ( ! mo/ melan*oly examples ( wa/$ p[] to be f\nd 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght4 ,end[$ ) an enorm\s faculty = acquir+ k1 a r>e subtlety 9 ! analysis ( ideas1 & an unsurpass$ g5ius = _! sy/ematic arrangem5t1 he might1 "u m fav\rable auspices1 h be5 ! ,laplace or ,cuvi] ( 8 age4 ,z x 01 8 imm5se en]gies 7 devot$ to ! task ( br++ a s]ies ( lifeless ab/ractions into h>mony ) a s]ies ( equally lifeless sup]/itions4 ,a comm5tator bo? on ,euclid & on ,plato1 he aspir$ to pres5t transc5d5tal dialectic "u ! =m ( ma!matical demon/ration4 ,9 8 ,in/itutes ( ,!ology1 he (f]s pro(s equally elaborate & futile ( mu* t _h be5 tak5 = grant$ 9 ! philosophy ( ,plot9us4 ,aga91 :]e !re seems to be a gap 9 ! sy/em ( 8 ma/]1 he fills x up by ins]t+ new figm5ts ( 8 own4 ,?us1 betwe5 ! sup]-ess5tial ,"o & ! absolute ,n\s1 he int]poses a s]ies ( h5ads or unities1 answ]+ to ! multiplicity ( intellig5ces or self-consci\s ,ideas :i* ,plot9us _h plac$ )9 ! supreme ,reason1 or to ! p>tial s\ls :i* he _h plac$ aft] ! _w-s\l4 ,9 ?is mann]1 ,proclus1 foll[+ ! usual me?od ( ,greek ?\ght1 supplies a transition f ! creative ,"o to ! ,be+ :i* _h hi!rto be5 reg>d$ z its imm$iate product2 :ile1 at ! same "t1 provid+ a c\nt]p>t to ! _m less] gods ) :i* poly!ism _h surr\nd$ its supreme div9ity4 ,f9ally1 z ,plot9us _h arrang$ all ?+s on ! ?reefold s*eme ( a fir/ pr9ciple1 a dep>ture f t pr9ciple1 & a subsequ5t reunion ) x1 ,proclus divides ! :ole s]ies ( creat$ sub/ances into a succession ( triads1 ea* reproduc+1 on a small scale1 ! fundam5tal sy/em ( an orig91 a dep>ture1 & a return4 ,& he ev5 multiplies ! triads /ill fur!r by decompos+ ea* sep>ate mom5t into a second>y process ( ! same description4 ,= example1 ,intellig5ce z a :ole is divid$ into ,be+1 ,life1 & ,?\ght1 & ! fir/ ( ^!1 aga91 into ! ,limit1 ! ,unlimit$1 & ! absolute ,exi/5ce 771 :i* is ! syn!sis ( bo?4 ,! ,hegelian sy/em is1 z is well kn[n1 con/ruct$ on a simil> plan2 b :ile ) ,hegel ! logical evolution is a progress f l[] to high] & ri*] life1 ) ,proclus1 z ) ! :ole ,neo-,platonic s*ool1 &1 inde$1 ) almo/ e s*ool ( ,greek ?\ght1 ea* /ep =w>d is also a /ep d[nw>d1 involv+ a proportionate loss ( reality & p[]4 ,?us ,proclus 0 to ,plot9us :at ,plot9us himself _h be5 to ,plato & ,ari/otle3 t is to say1 he /ood "o degree fur!r remov$ f ! actual tru? ( ?+s & f ! spontaneity ( orig9al reflection4 ,& :at we h said ab\t ! philosophic position ( ! ma/] may be appli$1 ) "s modification1 to ! claims ( 8 mo/ em95t disciple4 ,f a sci5tific po9t ( view1 ! sy/em1 ( ,proclus is a m]e mass ( we>isome rubbi%2 f an ae/hetic po9t ( view x m]its our admiration z ! mo/ compreh5sive1 ! mo/ coh]5t1 & ! mo/ symmetrical "w ( ! k9d t antiquity has to %[4 ,x w\ld seem t j z ! ar*itectural skill ( ! ,romans surviv$ all _! o!r great gifts1 & ev5 cont9u$ to improve until ! v la/--! s-call$ temple ( ,m9]va ,m$ica be+ ! mo/ te*nically p]fect ( all _! monum5ts--s also did ! ,greek p[] ( concat5at+ ideas g on develop+ itself z long z ,greece 0 p]mitt$ to h any ideas ( h] own4 ,! "t arriv$ :5 ?is la/ lib]ty 0 to be tak5 away4 ,9 ! ye> #ebi1 ,ju/9ian issu$ 8 fam\s decree prohibit+ ! public tea*+ ( philosophy 9 ,a!ns1 & confiscat+ ! end[m5ts devot$ to ! ma9t5ance ( its pr(essors4 ,x is probable t ?is measure =m$ "p ( a compreh5sive s*eme = complet+ ! extirpation ( paganism ?r\gh\t ! empire4 ,= "s two c5turies pa/1 ! triumph ( ,*ri/ianity _h be5 secur$ by an unsp>+ ex]cise ( ! imp]ial au?ority1 z ! triumph ( ,ca?olicism ov] h]esy 0 next to be secur$ ) ! aid ( ! ,franki% sword4 ,a few ye>s aft]w>ds1 ! pr9cipal repres5tatives ( ! ,neo-,platonic s*ool1 includ+ ! ,damascius ( :om we h already spok51 & ,simplicius1 ! fam\s ,ari/otelian comm5tator1 repair$ to ! c\rt ( ,khosru ,nus*irvan1 ! ,k+ ( ,p]sia1 ) ! int5tion ( settl+ 9 8 c\ntry = ! re/ ( _! lives4 ,!y 7 soon he>tily sick ( _! adopt$ home4 ,khosru 0 unque/ionably an enlight5$ mon>*1 greatly int]e/$ 9 ,hell5ic culture1 & s9c]ely desir\s ( diffus+ x among 8 p4 ,x is also c]ta9 t ,aga?ias1 our only au?ority on ?is subject1 0 viol5tly prejudic$ aga9/ him4 ,b x may v well be1 z /at$ by t hi/orian#ecj t ,khosru by no means came up to ! exagg]at$ expectations =m$ ( him by ! exil$ pr(essors4 ,he _h be5 describ$ to !m z ! ideal ( a ,platonic rul]1 &1 l inexp]i5c$ bookm51 !y accept$ ! report 9 good fai?4 ,!y f\nd t he c>$ a great deal m = sci5tific que/ions ab\t ! cause ( ! tides & ! modifications sup]9duc$ on plants & animals by transf]5ce to a new environm5t1 ?an ab\t ! metaphysics ( ! ,"o4#eca ,moreov]1 ! immorality ( ,ori5tal society & ! corruption ( ,ori5tal gov]nm5t 7 some?+ = :i* !y 7 totally unprep>$4 ,bett]1 !y ?\ght1 to die at once1 s t x 7 b on ,roman soil1 ?an to live on any conditions 9 su* a c\ntry z ,p]sia4 ,khosru 0 mo/ unwill+ to lose 8 gue/s1 b on f9d+ t !y 7 det]m9$ to leave him1 he p]mitt$ !m to dep>t1 & ev5 made x a matt] ( express /ipulation ) ! imp]ial gov]nm5t t !y %\ld be all[$ to live 9 _! old homes )\t suff]+ any mole/ation on acc\nt ( _! religi\s op9ions4#ecb ,simplicius cont9u$ to write comm5t>ies on ,ari/otle aft] 8 return1 & 0 ev5 succe$$ by a y\ng] g5]ation ( ,platonic expositors2 b be=e ! end ( ! six? c5tury paganism 0 ext9ct1 & ,neo-,platonism1 z a sep>ate s*ool ( philosophy1 %>$ its fate4 ,x w be ! object ( our next & conclud+ *apt] to %[ t ! disappe>ance ( ! old religion & ! old me?ods ( tea*+ did n involve any real break 9 ! cont9uity ( ?\ght1 & t mod]n speculation has be51 ?r\gh ! great] "p ( its hi/ory1 a reproduction ( ,greek ideas 9 new comb9ations & "u alt]$ names4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,greek ,,philosophy ,,& ,,mod]n ,,?\ght4 ,i4 ,adequately to exhibit ! relation ( ,greek philosophy to mod]n ?\ght w\ld require a volume4 ,! object ( ! pres5t discussion is m]ely to %[ 9 :at ways t relation has be5 mo/ cle>ly manife/$1 & :at assi/ance x may af=d u 9 solv+ "s important problems connect$ ) ! developm5t ( metaphysical & moral speculation4 ,hi/orians (t5 speak z if philosophy took an entirely fre% />t at diff]5t epo*s ( its exi/5ce4 ,"o su* break is v>i\sly associat$ ) ,desc>tes1 or ,bacon1 or "s "o ( _! ,italian pr$ecessors4 ,9 l mann]1 ! introduction ( ,*ri/ianity1 c\pl$ ) ! clos+ ( ! ,a!nian s*ools by ,ju/9ian1 is consid]$1 z once 0 ! suppression ( ! ,we/-,roman ,caes>ate by ,odoac]1 to m>k ! beg9n+ ( a new rgime4 ,b !re c be no m a real break 9 ! cont9uity ( intellectual ?an 9 ! cont9uity ( political hi/ory1 beyond :at sleep or inactivity may simulate 9 ! life ( ! organic aggregate no less ?an 9 ! life ( ! organic individual4 ,9 ea* in/ance1 ! ?read is tak5 up :]e x 0 dropp$4 ,if ! re/ ( ! _w has be5 advanc+ mean:ile1 new t5d5cies w come into play1 b only by fir/ atta*+ !mselves to old] l9es ( movem5t4 ,sometimes1 aga91 :at seems to be a revolution is1 9 tru?1 ! revival or lib]ation ( an e>li] movem5t1 ?r\gh ! decay or de/ruction ( beliefs :i* h hi!rto *eck$ its gr[?4 ,?us ! sy/ems ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 aft] c>ry+ all be=e !m = a brief p]iod1 7 f\nd unsuitable1 f _! va/ compreh5sion & high spirituality1 to ! undevelop$ consci\sness ( _! age1 & 7 replac$ by popul>is$ v]sions ( ! sceptical or naturali/ic philosophies :i* !y _h endeav\r$ to suppress4 ,& :5 ^! 7 at l5g? left beh9d by ! =w>d movem5t ( ! human m9d1 speculative re=m]s spontane\sly rev]t$ to ! two great ,socratic ?9k]s = a bett] solution ( ! problems 9 debate4 ,aft] _m abortive ef=ts1 a tea*] appe>$ possess+ suffici5t g5ius to fuse _! pr9ciples into a seem+ly coh]5t & compreh5sive :ole4 ,by comb9+ ! ,platonic & ,ari/otelian spiritualism ) a dynamic elem5t borr[$ f ,/oicism1 ,plot9us did = an age ( intellectual decad5ce :at 8 models _h done 9 va9 = an age ( intellectual gr[?4 ,! relation 9 :i* he /ood to ,/oicism1 ,epicureanism1 & ,scepticism1 reproduc$ ! relation 9 :i* !y /ood to ! v>i\s physical & sophi/ic s*ools ( _! "t2 b ! sil5t exp]i5ce ( six c5turies won = him a mu* m endur+ success4 ,neo-,platonism 0 ! =m "u :i* ,greek philosophy pass$ into ,*ri/ian tea*+2 & ! transition 0 effect$ ) less difficulty because ,*ri/ianity _h already absorb$ "s ( its mo/ ess5tial elem5ts f ! orig9al sy/em ( ,plato himself4 ,mean:ile ! revival ( spiritualism _h giv5 an imm5se impulse to ! /udy ( ! classic writ+s :5ce x 0 drawn2 & ! m !y 7 /udi$ ! m prom95tly did _! antagonism on c]ta9 important que/ions come into view4 ,h5ce1 no soon] did ! two sy/ems betwe5 :i* ,plot9us _h e/abli%$ a provisional compromise come out victori\s f _! /ruggle ) mat]ialism1 ?an !y began to sep>ate & draw (f into oppos+ camps4 ,! pr9cipal subject ( dispute 0 ! =m "u :i* ideas exi/4 ,! conflict+ !ories ( ,realism & ,nom9alism are already set =? ) p]fect cle>ness by ,porphyry 9 8 introduction to ! ,organon2 & 8 /atem5t ( ! case1 z ,victor ,c\s9 has po9t$ out1 gave ! signal = a controv]sy =m+ ! c5tral int]e/ ( ,s*ola/icism dur+ ! entire p]iod ( its duration4 ,n[1 x is a rem>kable fact1 & "o z yet n suffici5tly att5d$ to1 t a metaphysical issue fir/ rais$ betwe5 ! ,platoni/s & ,ari/otle1 & reg>d$1 at lea/ by ! latt]1 z ( supreme importance = philosophy1 %\ld h be5 totally neglect$ at a "t :5 abundant docum5ts on bo? sides 7 op5 to consultation1 & tak5 up ) passionate eag]ness at a "t :5 n m ?an "o or two dialogues ( ,plato & two or ?ree tracts ( ,ari/otle cont9u$ to be read 9 ! we/]n _w4 ,v>i\s explanations ( ?is s+ul> anomaly may be (f]$4 ,x may be said1 = in/ance1 t aft] e moral & religi\s "q on :i* ! s*ools ( ,a!ns 7 divid$ _h be5 clos$ by ! au?oritative rul+ ( ,ca?olicism1 no?+ rema9$ to qu>rel ov] b po9ts too remote or too obscure = ! ,*ur* to int]f]e 9 _! decision2 & t ^! 7 accord+ly seiz$ ^u z ! only field :]e human intellig5ce c\ld ex]cise itself ) any approa* to fre$om4 ,! tru?1 h[ev]1 seems to be t to take any int]e/ 9 ! controv]sy betwe5 ,realism & ,nom9alism1 x 0 fir/ necess>y t ,european ?\ght z a :ole %\ld rise to a level ) ! common /&po9t ( _! fir/ support]s4 ,?is revolution 0 effect$ by ! g5]al adoption ( a mono!i/ic fai?4 ,moreov]1 ! ,platonic ideas 7 some?+ m ?an figm5ts ( an imag9ative dialectic4 ,!y 7 n[ beg9n+ to appe> 9 _! true light1 & z :at ,plato _h always und]/ood !m to be--no m]e ab/ractions f exp]i5ce1 b spiritual =ces by :i* s5su\s reality 0 to be recon/itut$ & re=m$4 ,! ,*ur* h]self seem$ some?+ m ?an a collection ( individuals hold+ common convictions & obey+ a common discipl9e2 %e 01 l ,plato's own ,republic1 ! visible embodim5t ( an ar*etype laid up 9 ,heav54#ecc ,& ! ,*ur*'s tea*+ seem$ also to assume ! indep5d5t reality ( ab/ract ideas4 ,does n ! ,tr9ity involve belief 9 a ,god di/9ct f any ( ! ,div9e ,p]sons tak5 alone8 ,d n ! ,fall1 ! ,inc>nation1 & ! ,atonem5t become m intelligible if we imag9e an ideal humanity s9n+ ) ! fir/ ,adam & purifi$ by becom+ unit$ ) ! second ,adam8 ,su*1 at lea/1 seems to h be5 ! dimly conceiv$ metaphysics ( ,/4 ,paul1 :atev] may n[ be ! (ficial doctr9e ( ,rome4 ,x 01 !re=e1 9 ord] t1 dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! ,middle ,ages1 f ,*>lemagne to ! ,crusades1 ,realism %\ld h be5 ! prevail+ doctr9e2 ! m s because ,plato's ,timaeus1 :i* 0 /udi$ 9 ! s*ools ?r\gh t entire p]iod1 furni%es its read]s ) a complete !ory ( ! univ]se2 :ile only ! =mal side ( ,ari/otle's philosophy is repres5t$ by su* ( 8 logical treatises z 7 !n kn[n to we/]n ,*ri/5dom4 ,yet ,realism conceal$ a dang] to or?odoxy :i* 0 n long 9 mak+ itself felt4 ,j z ! sub/antiality ( individuals disappe>$ 9 t ( _! conta9+ species1 s also did e subord9ate species t5d to vani% 9 ! summum g5us ( absolute ,be+4 ,n[ su* a conclusion 0 no?+ less ?an full-bl[n pan!ism2 & pan!ism 01 9 fact1 ! sy/em ( ! fir/ great ,s*oolman1 ,john ,scotus ,erig5a2 :ile o!r ,reali/s 7 only prev5t$ f rea*+ ! same goal by ! re/ra9t ei!r ( ,*ri/ian fai? or ( ecclesia/ical au?ority4 ,b if !y fail$ to draw ! logical consequ5ces ( _! premises1 x 0 drawn = !m by o!rs2 & ,abl>d did n fail to twit 8 oppon5ts ) ! =midable h]esy impli$ 9 _! reali/ic pr9ciples4#ecd ,z yet1 h[ev]1 ! weight ( au?ority incl9$ t[>ds ,plato's side2 & ! p]secution suff]$ by ,abl>d himself1 z comp>$ ) ! v mild treatm5t accord$ to 8 contempor>y1 ,gilb]t de la ,porre1 :5 ea* 0 arraign$ on a *>ge ( h]esy1 %[s t :ile ! ,nom9alism ( ! "o 0 an aggravation1 ! ,realism ( ! o!r 0 an ext5uation ( 8 (f5ce4#ece ,s matt]s /ood :5 ! introduction ( ,ari/otle's entire sy/em into we/]n ,europe br\ght ab\t a revolution comp>able to t effect$ two c5turies lat] by ! complete recov]y ( anci5t lit]ature4 ,x 0 ?r\gh ,lat9 translations f ! ,arabic1 accompani$ by ,arabic comm5t>ies1 t ! ,p]ipatetic philosophy 0 fir/ reveal$ 9 its entirety2 & ev5 ,alb]tus ,magnus1 liv+ 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury1 seems to h d]iv$ 8 k ( ! subject f ^! exclusively4 ,b a few ye>s aft] ! capture ( ,con/ant9ople by ! ,crusad]s 9 #abjd1 ! ,greek manuscripts ( ,ari/otle 7 br\ght to ,p>is2 &1 t[>ds ! middle ( ! c5tury1 a new ,lat9 v]sion 0 made f ^! "u ! sup]vision ( ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as4#ecf ,! triumph ( ,ari/otle 0 n[1 at lea/ = a "t1 secur$4 ,=1 :ile 9 ! fir/ p]iod ( ! ,middle ,ages we f9d only a s+le great "n1 t ( ,abl>d1 among ! ,nom9ali/s1 aga9/ a /rong array ( ,reali/s1 9 ! second p]iod ! proportions are rev]s$1 & ,realism has only a s+le wor?y *ampion1 ,duns ,scotus1 to pit aga9/ ,alb]tus1 ,aqu9as1 & ,william ( ,ockham1 ea* ( !m repres5t+ "o ( ! pr9cipal ,european nations4#ecg ,! human intellect1 hi!rto conf9$ )9 ! n>r[ b\nds ( logic1 n[ rang$ ov] physics1 metaphysics1 psy*ology1 & e?ics2 & al?\gh all ^! subjects 7 /udi$ only at second-h&1 & ) v limit$ opportunities = criticism1 /ill ! b5efit receiv$ mu/ h be5 imm5se4 ,! priceless s]vice ( ! lat] ,s*oolm5 is to h appropriat$ & successfully upheld1 aga9/ ,platonism on ! "o h& & !ological my/icism on ! o!r1 a philosophy :i*1 h[ev] sup]ficial1 took 9 ! :ole range ( natural ph5om5a1 d]iv$ all k f ext]nal obs]vation1 & set an example ( admirable precision 9 ! sy/ematic exposition ( its results4 ,if no positive addition 0 made to t va/ /oreh\se ( facts & ideas1 ! blame does n lie ) ,ari/otle's me?od1 b ) ! =cible suppression ( free m5tal activity by ! ,*ur*1 or its div]sion to m pr(itable fields by ! /udy ( ,roman jurisprud5ce4 ,ev5 z x 01 ,ari/otle contribut$ l>gely to ! d[nfall ( ecclesia/ical au?ority 9 two ways3 directly by accu/om+ m5 to use _! reason1 & indirectly by ?r[+ back my/icism on its prop] (fice--! re/oration ( a purely p]sonal religion4 ,b be=e ! dissolv+ action ( ,nom9alism _h become fully manife/1 its asc5d5cy 0 once m *all5g$2 & ?is "t1 also1 ! philosophical impulse came f ,con/ant9ople4 ,greek s*ol>s1 seek+ help 9 ! ,we/1 br\ght ) !m to ,flor5ce ! complete works ( ,plato2 & ^! 7 %ortly made accessible to a wid] public ?r\gh ! ,lat9 translation ( ,fic9o4 ,_! influ5ce seems at fir/ to h told 9 fav\r ( my/icism1 = ?is 0 ! contempor>y t5d5cy to :i* !y c\ld be mo/ readily affiliat$2 &1 besides1 9 sw++ back f ,ari/otle's philosophy to ! rival =m ( spiritualism1 m5's m9ds naturally rev]t$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to :at _h once l9k$ !m toge!r--! sy/em ( ,plot9us4 ,?us ,platonism 0 /udi$ ?r\gh an ,alex&rian m$ium1 & z ! ,alex&rians _h look$ at x1 t is to say1 *iefly "u its !ological & metaphysical aspects4 ,z su*1 x became ! accept$ philosophy ( ! ,r5aissance2 & mu* ( :at we mo/ admire 9 ! lit]ature--at lea/ ! ,engli% lit]ature--( t p]iod1 is directly traceable to ,platonic influ5ce4 ,t ! ,utopia ( ,sir ,?omas ,m 0 inspir$ by ! ,republic & ! ,critias is1 ( c\rse1 obvi\s2 & ! great "p play$ by ! ideal !ory 9 ,sp5s]'s ,fa]y ,que51 ?\gh less evid5t1 is /ill suffici5tly cle>4 ,z ,mr4 ,gre5 obs]ves 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,p 7,,ii41 p4 #dac71 #8,sp5s] borr[s1 9 fact1 ! delicate & ref9$ =ms ( ! ,platonic philosophy to express 8 own moral en?usiasm4444 ,ju/ice1 ,temp]ance1 ,tru? are no m]e names to him1 b real exi/5ces to :i* 8 :ole nature cl+s ) a raptur\s affection4' ,n[ x des]ves obs]vation1 z illu/rat+ a great revolution 9 ,european ?\ght1 t ! relation ( ,plato to ! epic ( ! ,engli% ,r5aissance is precisely p>allel$ by ! relation ( ,ari/otle to ! epic ( m$iaeval ,italy4 ,dante borr[s m ?an 8 cosmography f ! ,/agirite4 ,! successive circles ( ,hell1 ! spirals ( ,purgatory1 & ! sph]es ( ,p>adise1 are a framework 9 :i* ! *>act]s ( ! poem are exhibit$1 n z individual actors :om we trace ?r\gh a life's hi/ory1 b z types ( a class & repres5tatives ( a s+le m5tal quality1 :e!r vici\s or virtu\s4 ,9 o!r words1 ! hi/orical arrangem5t ( all previ\s poems is ab&on$ 9 fav\r ( a logical arrangem5t4 ,= ! ord] ( contiguity 9 "t is sub/itut$ ! ord] ( resemblance & diff]5ce 9 idea4 ,h[ ?or\ghly ,ari/otelian1 inde$1 7 ! l9es )9 :i* m$iaeval imag9ation mov$ is prov$ by ! possibility ( trac+ !m 9 a "w utt]ly diff]5t f ,dante's--! ,decam]on ( ,boccaccio4 ,! tales con/itut+ ?is collection are s arrang$ t ea* day illu/rates "s "o special class ( adv5tures2 only1 to make good ,ari/otle's pr9ciple t e>?ly affairs are n subject to inv>iable rules1 a s+le dep>ture f ! prescrib$ subject is all[$ 9 ea* decade2 :ile dur+ "o entire day ! /ory-tell]s are left free to *oose a subject at _! own discretion4 ,n[ :at di/+ui%es ,sp5s] f ,dante is t1 :ile he also disposes 8 inv5tions accord+ to an extremely artificial & ab/ract s*ematism1 ) him1 z ) ,plato1 ab/ractions acquire a sep>ate individual exi/5ce1 be+1 9 fact1 embodi$ z s _m p]sons2 :ile ,dante1 foll[+ ,ari/otle1 nev] sep>ates 8 f ! concrete data ( exp]i5ce4 ,& x may be not$ t1 9 ?is respect at lea/1 ,engli% lit]ature has n des]t$ ! philosophy :i* presid$ ov] its second bir?4 ,x has ev] s9ce be5 m prone to realise ab/ractions ?an any o!r lit]ature1 :e!r "u ! =m ( allegories1 p>ables1 or m]e casual illu/rations drawn f mat]ial objects4 ,ev5 at ?is day1 ,engli% writ]s cr[d _! pages ) dazzl+ metaphors1 :i* to ,cont95tal read]s mu/ h sometimes a r b>b>ic effect4 ,ano!r & pr(\nd] *>act]i/ic ( ,plato1 z di/+ui%$ f ,ari/otle1 is 8 ?or\gh-go+ opposition ( reality to appe>ance2 8 di/ru/ ( s5su\s p]ception1 imag9ation1 & op9ion2 8 cont9ual appeal to a hidd5 _w ( absolute tru? & ju/ice4 ,we f9d ?is pr(\nd] pr9ciple also grasp$ & appli$ to poetical purposes 9 our ,elizabe?an lit]ature1 n only by ,sp5s]1 b by a /ill great] ma/]--,%akespe>e4 ,x is by no means unlikely t ,%akespe>e may h look$ into a translation ( ! ,dialogues2 at any rate1 ! intellectual atmosph]e he brea!d 0 s saturat$ ) _! _s t he c\ld easily absorb en\gh ( x to inspire him ) ! !ory ( exi/5ce :i* alone gives consi/5cy to 8 dramatic "w f fir/ to la/4 ,= ! ess5ce ( 8 com$ies is t !y repres5t ! ord9>y _w ( s5sible exp]i5ce z a sc5e ( bewild]m5t & delusion1 :]e !re is no?+ fix$1 no?+ satisfy+1 no?+ true2 z some?+ :i*1 because ( its v unreality1 is be/ repres5t$ by ! drama1 b a drama t is n )\t my/]i\s intimations ( a reality beh9d ! veil4 ,9 !m we h ! ,fall+s f u1 vani%+s1 ,blank misgiv+s ( a creature ,mov+ ab\t 9 worlds n realis$2 :ile 9 8 trag$ies we h ! realisation ( ^? worlds--! work+s ( an et]nal ju/ice :i* alone rema9s fai?ful to "o purpose ?r\gh ! inf9ite flux ( passion & ( s5se4 ,besides ! revival ( ,platonism1 ?ree causes _h conspir$ to ov]?r[ ! supremacy ( ,ari/otle4 ,! lit]>y ,r5aissance ) its adoration = beauty ( =m 0 ali5at$ by ! b>b>\s dialect ( ,s*ola/icism2 ! my/ical !ology ( ,lu!r saw 9 x an ally bo? ( ecclesia/ical au?ority & ( human reason2 & ! new _s ( passionate revolt aga9/ all tradition attack$ ! accept$ philosophy 9 common ) e o!r bran* ( ! (ficial univ]sity curriculum4 ,be=e long1 h[ev]1 a reaction set 94 ,! innovators discr$it$ !mselves by an extravagance1 an ignorance1 a cr$ulity1 & an intol]ance worse ?an any?+ 9 ! tea*+ :i* !y decri$4 ,no soon] 0 ! ,re=mation organis$ z a positive doctr9e ?an x fell back = support on ! only model ( sy/ematic ?9k+ at t "t to be f\nd4 ,! ,humani/s 7 conciliat$ by hav+ ! orig9al text ( ,ari/otle plac$ be=e !m2 & !y readily believ$1 :at 0 n true1 t x conta9$ a wisdom :i* _h elud$ m$iaeval rese>*4 ,b ! great sci5tific movem5t ( ! sixte5? c5tury contribut$1 m ?an any o!r impulse1 to br+ ab\t an ,ari/otelian reaction4 ,aft] w9n+ immortal triumphs 9 e bran* ( art & lit]ature1 ! ,italian intellect ?rew itself ) equal vig\r into ! inve/igation ( physical ph5om5a4 ,"h ,plato c\ld give little help1 :]eas ,ari/otle suppli$ a me?odis$ description ( ! :ole field to be explor$1 & contributions ( extraord9>y value t[>ds ! und]/&+ ( "s1 at lea/1 among its inf9ite details4 ,& we may measure ! r5ew$ popul>ity ( 8 sy/em n only by ! fact t ,cesalp9o1 ! greate/ naturali/ ( ! age1 pr(ess$ himself its adh]5t1 b also by ! bitt]ness ( ! criticisms direct$ aga9/ x1 & ! involunt>y homage (f]$ by rival sy/ems :i* 7 little m ?an meagre exc]pts f ! ,p]ipatetic ontology & logic4 ,,ii4 ,( all te/imonies to ! re/or$ supremacy ( ,ari/otelianism1 !re is none s rem>kable z t af=d$ by ! ?9k] :o1 m ?an any o!r1 has enjoy$ ! cr$it ( its ov]?r[4 ,to call ,francis ,bacon an ,ari/otelian w seem to mo/ read]s a p>adox4 ,su* an appellation w\ld1 h[ev]1 be mu* ne>] ! tru? ?an 7 ! titles =m]ly be/[$ on ! au?or ( ! ,novum ,organum4 ,! notion1 inde$1 t he 0 9 any s5se ! fa!r ( mod]n sci5ce is rapidly disappe>+ f ! cre$ ( educat$ p]sons4 ,its long cont9uance 0 due to a coalition ( lit]>y m5 :o knew no?+ ab\t physics & ( physici/s :o knew no?+ ab\t philosophy or its hi/ory4 ,x is c]ta9 t ! great discov]ies made bo? be=e & dur+ ,bacon's lifetime 7 ! />t+-po9t ( all future progress 9 ! same direction4 ,x is equally c]ta9 t ,bacon himself _h ei!r n he>d ( ^? discov]ies or t he p]si/5tly reject$ !m4 ,b x might /ill be cont5d$ t he div9$ & =mulat$ ! only me?od by :i* ^! & all o!r great additions to human k h be5 made1 _h n ! delusion be5 dispell$ by rec5t inve/igations1 m especially ^? ( 8 own editors1 ,messrs4 ,ellis & ,sp$d+4 ,mr4 ,sp$d+ has %[n t ,bacon's me?od nev] 0 appli$ to physical sci5ce at all4 ,mr4 ,ellis has %[n t x 0 incapable ( application1 be+ f\nd$ on a complete misconception ( ! problem to be solv$4 ,! facts c\ld 9 tru?1 h>dly h be5 o!r ?an :at !y are4 ,_h ,bacon succe$$ 9 lay+ d[n ! l9es ( future inve/igation1 x w\ld h be5 a tell+ argum5t aga9/ 8 own impli$ belief t all k is d]iv$ f exp]i5ce4 ,=1 grant+ ! validity ( t belief1 a true !ory ( discov]y c only be rea*$ by an induction f ! obs]v$ facts ( sci5tific practice1 & su* facts did n1 at t "t1 exi/ 9 suffici5t numb]s to w>rant an induction4 ,x w\ld h be5 /ill m extraord9>y _h he furni%$ a clue to ! labyr9? ( ,nature )\t ev] hav+ explor$ its mazes on 8 own acc\nt4 ,ev5 z x is1 f ,bacon's own po9t ( view ! contradiction rema9s4 ,if ev] any sy/em 0 con/ruct$ priori ! ,in/auratio ,magna 04 ,b !re is really no su* ?+ z priori speculation4 ,ap>t f obs]vation1 ! ke5e/ & bolde/ intellect c d no m ?an re>range ! mat]ials suppli$ by tradition1 or give a high] g5]alisation to ! pr9ciples ( o!r philosoph]s4 ,?is 0 precisely :at ,bacon did4 ,! weal? ( aphori/ic wisdom & +5i\s illu/ration scatt]$ ?r\gh 8 writ+s belongs entirely to himself2 b 8 dream ( us+ sci5ce z an in/rum5t = acquir+ unlimit$ p[] ov] ,nature is inh]it$ f ! a/rolog]s1 al*emi/s1 & magicians ( ! ,middle ,ages2 & 8 philosophical sy/em1 ) :i* alone we are "h conc]n$1 is p>tly a modification1 p>tly an ext5sion1 ( ,ari/otle's4 ,an exam9ation ( its lead+ features w at once make ?is cle>4 ,bacon beg9s by dem&+ t ?r\gh\t ! :ole range ( exp]i5ce new facts %\ld be collect$ on ! l>ge/ scale1 9 ord] to supply mat]ials = sci5tific g5]alisation4 ,!re c be no d\bt t he is "h guid$ by ! example ( ,ari/otle1 & ( ,ari/otle alone4 ,su* a /oreh\se ( mat]ials is /ill extant 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,animals1 :i* evid5tly sugge/$ ! use ( ! ^w #8,hi/ory' 9 ?is s5se to ,bacon1 & :i*1 by ! way1 is imm5sely sup]ior to any?+ t he ev] attempt$ 9 ! same l9e4 ,! facts on :i* ,ari/otle's ,politics is bas$ 7 conta9$ 9 ano!r va/ descriptive "w ( ! same k9d1 n[ unhappily lo/4 ,ev5 ! ,/agirite's m sy/ematic treatises comprise a multitude ( obs]vations1 catalogu$ accord+ to a c]ta9 ord]1 b n r$uc$ to sci5tific pr9ciples4 ,:at ,bacon did 0 to c>ry out1 or to bid o!rs c>ry out1 ! plan s sugge/$ 9 e dep>tm5t ( enquiry4 ,b if we ask by :at me?od he 0 guid$ 9 8 survey ( ! :ole field to be explor$1 h[ he came by a complete enum]ation ( ! sci5ces1 arrang$ accord+ to _! logical ord]1--! answ] is /ill t he borr[$ x f ! ,p]ipatetic encyclopa$ia4 ,"o ne$ only comp>e ! catalogue ( p>ticul> hi/ories subjo9$ to ! ,p>asceve1#ech ) a table ( ,ari/otle's works1 to und]/& h[ closely ,bacon foll[s 9 ! foot/eps ( 8 pr$ecessor4 ,we d1 inde$1 f9d sundry subjects enum]at$ on :i* ! eld] /ud5t _h n t\*$2 b !y are only su* z w\ld naturally sugge/ !mselves to a man ( compreh5sive intellig5ce1 com+ ne>ly two ?\s& ye>s aft] 8 orig9al2 :ile !y are mo/ly ( no philosophical value :atev]4 ,bacon's m]it 0 to br+ ! di/9ction betwe5 ! descriptive sci5ces & ! !oretical sci5ces into cle>] consci\sness1 & to give a view ( ! =m] correspond+ 9 complet5ess to t already obta9$ ( ! latt]4 ,! me?odical di/9ction betwe5 ! mat]ials = g5]alisation & g5]alisation itself1 is d]iv$ f ! metaphysical di/9ction betwe5 ,matt] & ,=m 9 ,nature4#eci ,?is di/9ction is ! next great feature ( ,bacon's philosophy1 & x is tak51 /ill m obvi\sly ?an ! fir/1 f ,ari/otle1 ! mo/ manife/ blots ( ! orig9al be+ fai?fully reproduc$ 9 ! copy4 ,! ,=ms ( simple sub/ances 71 accord+ to ! ,/agirite1 _! s5sible qualities4 ,! ,=ms ( aggregates 7 ! :ole complex ( _! diff]5tial *>act]i/ics4 ,& al?\gh ! =mal cause or idea ( a ?+ 0 c>efully discrim9at$ f its effici5t & f9al causes1 x 0 f\nd impossible1 9 practice1 to keep ! ?ree f runn+ into "o4 ,aga91 ! di/9ction betwe5 s+le concepts & ! judgm5ts creat$ by putt+ two concepts toge!r1 al?\gh cle>ly convey$ by ! logical di/9ction betwe5 t]ms & propositions1 0 no soon] p]ceiv$ ?an lo/ sight (1 ?anks to ! un=tunate !ory ( ess5tial pr$ication4 ,= x 0 ?\ght t ! import ( univ]sal propositions consi/$ ei!r 9 /at+ ! total concept to :i* a giv5 m>k belong$1 or 9 annex+ a new m>k to a giv5 concept4 ,h5ce1 9 ,ari/otle's sy/em1 ! /udy ( natural law means no?+ b ! def9ition & classification ( natural types2 &1 9 h>mony ) ?is idea1 ! :ole univ]se is conceiv$ z an arrangem5t ( conc5tric sph]es1 ea* receiv+ its impulse f t imm$iately above x4 ,precisely ! same confusion ( ,=m1 ,cause1 & ,law reigns ?r\gh\t ,bacon's !ory ( ,nature4 ,we d1 inde$1 f9d m5tion made ( axiomata or g5]al propositions to a great] ext5t ?an 9 ! ,organon1 b !y are nev] cle>ly di/+ui%$ f ,=ms1 nor ,=ms f functions4#edj ,& al?\gh effici5t & mat]ial causes are assign$ to physics1 :ile =mal & f9al causes are res]v$ = metaphysics--an app>5t recognition ( ! wide diff]5ce betwe5 ! =ces :i* br+ a ?+ into exi/5ce & ! actual conditions ( its /ability1--?is arrangem5t is a dep>ture f ! lett] r ?an f ! _s ( ,ari/otle's philosophy4 ,= ! effici5t causes ( ! ,de ,augm5tis answ] r\ghly to ! v>i\s k9ds ( motion discuss$ 9 ! ,physics & 9 ! treatise ,on ,g5]ation & ,corruption2 :ile its ,=ms are1 z we h se51 id5tifi$ ) natural causes or laws 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se4 ,accord+ to ,bacon1 ! object ( sci5ce is to analyse ! complex ( ,=ms mak+ up an individual aggregate into its sep>ate con/itu5ts2 ! object ( art1 to sup]9duce "o or m su* ,=ms on a giv5 mat]ial4 ,h5ce 8 mann] ( reg>d+ !m diff]s 9 "o important respect f ,ari/otle's4 ,! ,greek naturali/ 01 be=e all ?+s1 a biologi/4 ,8 int]e/ lay ) ! di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ics ( animal species4 ,^! are easily discov]$ by ! unassi/$ eye2 b :ile !y are comp>atively sup]ficial1 !y are also comp>atively unalt]able4 ,! ,engli% exp]im5t]1 be+ prim>ily conc]n$ ) inorganic bodies1 ^: prop]ties he desir$ to utilise = indu/rial purposes1 0 l$ to consid] ! attributes ( an object z at once p5etrat+ its inmo/ texture1 & yet capable ( be+ sep>at$ f x1 l heat & col\r = in/ance4 ,b1 l e o!r ?9k] ( ! age1 if he escapes f ! control ( ,ari/otle x is only to fall "u ! dom9ion ( ano!r ,greek ma/]--9 ?is in/ance1 ,democritus4 ,bacon _h a great admiration = ! ,atomi/s1 & al?\gh 8 invet]ate ,p]ipatetic proclivities prev5t$ him f embrac+ _! !ory z a :ole1 he w5t along ) x s f> z to admit ! dep5d5ce ( ! second>y on ! prim>y qualities ( matt]2 & on ! /r5g? ( ?is he conclud$ t ! way to alt] ! prop]ties ( an object 0 to alt] ! arrangem5t ( its compon5t p>ticles4 ,! next /ep 0 to create a me?od = det]m9+ ! p>ticul> configuration on :i* any giv5 prop]ty ( matt] dep5ds4 ,if su* a problem c\ld be solv$ at all1 x w\ld be by "s new sy/em ( practical analysis4 ,bacon did n see ?is because he 0 a ,s*oolman1 emancipat$1 inde$1 f ecclesia/ical au?ority1 b reta9+ a bl9d fai? 9 ! p[] ( logic4 ,ari/otle's ,organon _h be5 ! great /oreh\se ( aids to v]bal disputation2 x %\ld n[ be turn$ into an in/rum5t = ! m successful prosecution ( physical rese>*es4 ,:at def9itions 7 to ! "o1 t ,=ms %\ld be to ! o!r2 & bo? 7 to be det]m9$ by mu* ! same process4 ,n[ ,ari/otle himself _h emphatically decl>$ t ! concepts out ( :i* propositions are con/ruct$ 7 discov]able by induction & by induction alone4 ,) him1 induction meant comp>+ a numb] ( in/ances1 & ab/ract+ ! "o circum/ance1 if any1 9 :i* !y agre$4 ,:5 ! object is to e/abli% a proposition inductively1 he has rec\rse to a me?od ( elim9ation1 & bids u se>* = in/ances :i*1 diff]+ 9 ev]y?+ else1 agree 9 ! association ( two p>ticul> m>ks4#eda ,9 ! ,topics he goes /ill fur!r & supplies u ) a v>iety ( te/s = asc]ta9+ ! relation betwe5 a giv5 pr$icate & a giv5 subject4 ,among ^!1 ,mill's ,me?ods ( ,diff]5ce1 ,residues1 & ,concomitant ,v>iations are v cle>ly /at$4#edb ,b he does n call su* modes ( reason+ ,induction4 ,s f> z he has any g5]al "n = !m at all1 x is ,dialectic1 t is1 ,syllogism ( :i* ! premises are n absolutely c]ta92 &1 z a matt] ( nom5clature1 he seems to be "r4 ,!re is1 und\bt$ly1 a process by :i* we arrive at g5]al conclusions f ! comp>ison ( p>ticul> in/ances2 b ?is process 9 its purity is no?+ m nor less ?an induction by simple enum]ation4 ,all o!r reason+ requires ! aid ( univ]sal propositions1 & is !re=e1 to t ext5t1 d$uctive4 ,! me?ods ( elim9ation or1 z !y are n[ call$1 ( exp]im5t1 involve at e /ep ! assumption ( g5]al pr9ciples duly specifi$ 9 ! *apt] ( ,mill's ,logic :]e !y are analys$4 ,& :]ev] we c rise imm$iately f1 a s+le in/ance to a g5]al law1 x is because ! exam9ation ( t s+le in/ance has be5 prec$$ by a *a9 ( d$uctive reason+4 ,! confusion ( ,induction1 prop]ly s call$1 & ,elim9ation "u a s+le "n1 is l>gely due to ! bad example set by ,bacon4 ,he f\nd x /at$ 9 ! ,analytics t all concepts & g5]al propositions are e/abli%$ ei!r by syllogism or by induction2 & he f\nd "s v useful rules laid d[n 9 ! ,topics1 n answ]+ to :at he und]/ood by ! =m] me?od2 he !re=e summ>ily dubb$ !m ) ! "n ( ,induction1 :i* !y h kept ev] s9ce1 to ! incalculable confusion ( ?\ght4 ,9 work+ out 8 !ory ( logic1 ! po9t on :i* ,bacon lays mo/ /ress is ! use ( negative in/ances4 ,he seems to ?9k t _! application to reason+ is an orig9al discov]y ( 8 own4 ,b1 on exam9ation1 no m seems to be meant by x ?an t1 be=e accept+ any p>ticul> !ory1 we %\ld consid] :at o!r explanations ( ! same fact might conceivably be (f]$4 ,9 o!r words1 we %\ld foll[ ! example already set by ,ari/otle & ne>ly e o!r ,greek philosoph] aft] ,socrates4 ,b ?is is n induction2 x is reason+ d[n f a disjunctive proposition1 g5]ally assum$ )\t any close scrut9y1 ) ! help ( sundry conditional propositions1 until we rea* our conclusion by a sort ( exhau/ive process4 ,ei!r ?is1 t1 or ! o!r is ! explanation ( some?+4 ,b if x 7 ei!r t or ! o!r1 s & s w\ld foll[1 :i* is impossible2 !re=e x mu/ be ?is4 ,no o!r logic is possible 9 ! infancy ( enquiry2 b "o great advantage ( exp]im5t & ma!matical analysis is to relieve u f ! necessity ( employ+ x4 ,! value ( exp]im5tation z su* _h1 h[ev]1 sc>cely dawn$ on ,bacon4 ,8 fam\s ,pr]ogative ,in/ances are1 9 ! ma91 a guide to simple obs]vation1 supplem5t$ r ?an replac$ by direct int]f]5ce ) ! ph5om5a "u exam9ation1 comp>able to t mod]ate use ( ! rack :i* he w\ld h c\nt5anc$ 9 crim9al proc$ure4 ,!re 01 p]haps1 a deep] mean+ 9 ,h>vey's rem>k t ,bacon wrote ab\t ,nature l a ,"l ,*ancellor ?an ! great physiologi/ himself suspect$4 ,to ,bacon ! /atesman1 sci5ce 0 some?+ to be l>gely end[$ out ( ! public treasury 9 ! sure hope t x w\ld f> m ?an repay ! exp5diture incurr$1 by inv5tions ( priceless advantage to human life4 ,to ,bacon ! lawy]1 ,nature 0 a p]son 9 possession ( important secrets to be wre/$ f h] by employ+ e artifice ( ! spy1 ! detective1 ! cross-exam9]1 & ! inquisitorial judge2 to ,bacon ! c\rti]1 %e 0 a sov]eign ^: policy might be discov]$1 &1 if ne$ be1 controll$1 by pay+ judici\s att5tion to h] hum\rs & caprices4 ,&1 = ?is v reason1 he w\ld feel drawn by a secret aff9ity to ! ,ari/otelian dialectic1 d]iv$ z x 0 ?r\gh ,socrates & ,plato f ! practice ( ! ,a!nian law-c\rts & ! debates ( ! ,a!nian assembly4 ,no d\bt ! ,topics 0 int5d$ prim>ily = a manual ( debate r ?an ( sci5tific enquiry2 & ! ,engli% ,*ancellor %[$ true philosophic g5ius 9 8 attempt to utilise x = ! latt] purpose4 ,nev]!less ! adaptation prov$ a mi/ake4 ,x 0 n )\t good gr\nds t ! ,socratic dialectic _h be5 res]v$ exclusively by its great f\nd]1 & almo/ exclusively by 8 successors1 = ^? human int]e/s f ! discussion ( :i* x 0 fir/ d]iv$4 ,& ! discov]]s1 :o 9 ,bacon's own lifetime 7 lay+ ! f\ndations ( physical sci5ce1 employ$ a me?od totally diff]5t f 81 because !y />t$ ) a totally diff]5t conception ( ! univ]se4 ,to !m x 0 n a liv+ :ole1 a ,=m ( ,=ms1 b a sum ( =ces to be analys$1 isolat$1 & recomb9$1 9 fact or 9 idea1 ) a sublime disreg>d = ! conditions "u :i* !y 7 pres5t$ to ord9>y exp]i5ce4 ,t v ext5sion ( human p[] anticipat$ by ,bacon came 9 a mann] ( :i* he _h nev] dream$4 ,x 0 ga9$ by /udy+1 n ! ,=ms to :i* he atta*$ s mu* importance1 b ! modes ( motion :i* he _h relegat$ to a subord9ate place 9 8 classification ( natural causes4#edc ,x has be5 said t1 :atev] may be ! value ( 8 logic1 ,bacon recall$ m5 f ! con/ruction ( baseless !ories to ! /udy ( facts4 ,b1 "h also1 he m]ely e*oes ,ari/otle1 :o said ! same ?+ long be=e him1 ) mu* great] t]s5ess1 & ) ! sup]ior au?ority ( "o :o tea*es by example z well z by precept2 :ile ! m]it ( reviv+ ,ari/otle's advice :5 x _h fall5 into oblivion belongs to ano!r ,bacon1 ! au?or ( ! ,opus ,majus2 ! m]it ( act+ on x1 to ! savants ( ! ,r5aissance1 to su* m5 z ,vesalius1 ,cesalp9o1 & ,ty*o ,brahe4 ,b1 t[>ds ! close ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 ! "t = amass+ obs]vations 0 pa/1 no fur!r progress be+ possible until ! obs]vations already record$ 7 int]pret$ aright4 ,! j in/9ct ( sci5ce p]ceiv$ ?is2 & = ne>ly a c5tury aft] ,cesalp9o no addition ( any magnitude 0 made to :at ,bacon call$ #8,hi/ory1' :ile m5's conceptions ( natural law 7 und]go+ a radical trans=mation4#edd ,to *oose su* a "t = develop+ ! ,ari/otelian philosophy 0 peculi>ly un=tunate2 = t philosophy _h become1 bo? on its good & on its bad side1 an ob/acle to progress1 by enc\rag+ /udies :i* 7 n want$1 & by fo/]+ a _s ( opposition to ! ,cop]nican a/ronomy4 ,! m]e fact t ,ari/otle himself _h pron\nc$ 9 fav\r ( ! geoc5tric sy/em did n c\nt = mu*4 ,! mis=tune 0 t he _h con/ruct$ an entire physical philosophy 9 h>mony ) x2 t he _h l9k$ ?is to 8 metaphysics2 & t ! s5sible exp]i5ce on ^: au?ority he laid s mu* /ress1 seem$ to te/ify 9 its behalf4 ,! consequ5ce 0 t ^? ?9k]s :o1 )\t be+ pr(ess$ ,ari/otelian p>tisans1 /ill rema9$ pr(\ndly affect$ by ! ,p]ipatetic _s1 c\ld n see _! way to accept+ a !ory ) :i* all ! hopes ( intellectual progress 7 b\nd up4 ,^! consid]ations w enable u to und]/& ! attitude ( ,bacon t[>ds ! new a/ronomy2 :ile1 conv]sely1 8 position 9 ?is respect w s]ve to confirm ! view ( 8 "* set =? 9 ! prec$+ pages4 ,! !ory1 %>$ by him ) ,ari/otle1 t ,nature is ?r\gh\t compos$ ( ,=m & ,matt] rea*$ its climax 9 ! supposition t ! great elem5t>y bodies are mass$ toge!r 9 a s]ies ( conc5tric sph]es dispos$ accord+ to "s pr9ciple ( graduation1 symmetry1 or contra/2 & ?is seem$ incompatible ) any b a geoc5tric arrangem5t4 ,x is true t ,bacon qu>rell$ ) ! p>ticul> sy/em ma9ta9$ by ,ari/otle1 &1 "u ! guidance ( ,telesio1 fell back on a mu* crud] =m ( cosmography2 b 8 m9d /ill rema9$ dom9at$ by ! fanci$ necessity ( conceiv+ ! univ]se "u ! =m ( a /ratifi$ sph]e2 & ^? :o p]si/ 9 look+ on him z ! apo/le ( exp]i5ce w be surpris$ to f9d t he treat$ ! subject entirely f an priori po9t ( view4 ,! tru? is t ,bacon exemplifi$1 9 8 own intellectual "*1 e "o ( ! fundam5tal fallacies :i* he has s picturesquely describ$4 ,! unwill+ness to analyse s5sible appe>ances into _! ideal elem5ts 0 8 ,idol ( ! ,tribe2 ! ?ir/ = mat]ial utilities 0 8 ,idol ( ! ,d53 ! uncritical acceptance ( ,ari/otle's metaphysics1 8 ,idol ( ! ,!atre2 & ! undef9$ notions associat$ ) induction1 8 ,idol ( ! ,m>ket4 ,,iii4 ,we may consid] x a =tunate circum/ance t ! philosophy ( ,=m1--t is to say1 ( description1 def9ition1 classification1 & s5su\s p]ception1 z di/+ui%$ f ma!matical analysis & d$uctive reason+1--0 associat$ ) a demon/rably false cosmology1 z x ?us became mu* m ?or\ghly discr$it$ ?an w\ld o!rwise h be5 possible4 ,at ?is juncture1 ! fir/ to p]ceive & po9t out h[ pr(\ndly an acceptance ( ! ,cop]nican !ory mu/ affect m5's beliefs ab\t ,nature & ! :ole univ]se1 0 ,giordano ,bruno2 & ?is alone w\ld entitle him to a great place 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,! conception ( a s+le f9ite _w surr\nd$ by a s]ies ( et]nal & un*angeable cry/al sph]es mu/1 he said1 be ex*ang$ = ! conception ( inf9ite worlds disp]s$ ?r\gh illimitable space4 ,once grant t ! e>? has a d\ble movem5t r\nd its own axis & r\nd ! sun1 & ,ari/otle's :ole sy/em ( f9ite exi/5ce collapses at once1 leav+ ! gr\nd cle> = an entirely diff]5t ord] ( ideas4#ede ,b1 9 ?is respect1 :atev] 0 e/abli%$ by ! new sci5ce _h already be5 div9$ by a /ill old] philosophy ?an ,ari/otle's1 z ,bruno himself gladly ackn[l$g$1#edf & ! imm$iate effect ( 8 reason+ 0 to revive ! ,atomic !ory4 ,! assumption ( inf9ite space1 =m]ly consid]$ an insup]able objection to t !ory1 n[ became "o ( its *ief recomm5dations2 ! argum5ts ( ,lucretius rega9$ _! full =ce1 :ile 8 fallacies 7 let drop2 ,atomism seem$ n only possible b necess>y2 & ! mat]ialism once associat$ ) x 0 equally reviv$4 ,b ,ari/otelianism1 z we h se51 0 n alone 9 ! field1 & on ! fir/ symptoms ( a successful revolt1 its old rival /ood 9 read9ess to seize ! vacant ?rone4 ,! "q 0 h[ f> its claim w\ld be support$1 & h[ f> disput$ by ! new invad]s4 ,x might be suppos$ t ! old] =ms ( ,greek philosophy1 ?us re/or$ to light aft] an eclipse ( m ?an a ?\s& ye>s1 w\ld be no less ho/ile to ! poetic ,platonism ?an to ! sci5tific ,ari/otelianism ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,su*1 h[ev]1 0 n ! case2 & we h to %[ h[ an alliance 0 e/abli%$ betwe5 ^! app>5tly opposite l9es ( ?\ght1 ev5tually giv+ bir? to ! highe/ speculation ( ! foll[+ c5tury4 ,bruno himself act$ z a m$iator betwe5 ! two philosophies4 ,8 sympa?ies ) ,platonism 7 /rongly pron\nc$1 he look$ ) admiration on its m$iaeval support]s1 especially ,david ( ,d9an2 & regrett$ ! "t :5 ,ox=d 0 a focus ( reali/ic tea*+1 in/ead ( be+ :at he f\nd h]1 devot$ to ! p$antic humanism ( ! ,r5aissance4#edg ,he fully accept$ ! pan!i/ic conclusions t[>ds :i* ,platonism always t5d$2 b 9 proclaim+ an absolute pr9ciple :5ce all specific diff]5ces are evolv$1 he is c>eful to %[ t1 :ile x is nei!r ,=m nor ,matt] 9 ! ord9>y s5se1 x may be call$ ,matt] 9 ! m ref9$ signification atta*$ to t t]m by ,plot9us &1 inde$1 by ,ari/otle himself4 ,!re is a common sub/ance und]ly+ all ab/ract ess5ces1 j z !re is a common sub/ance left beh9d :5 ! s5sible qualities ( diff]5t bodies are /ripp$ (f2 & bo? are1 at bottom1 ! same4 ,?us monism became ! bann] r\nd :i* ! old] =ms ( ,greek speculation ralli$ 9 _! assault on ,ari/otle's philosophy1 ?\gh :at monism impli$ 0 z yet v imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,mean:ile a new & p[]ful ag5cy 0 ab\t to int]pose ) decisive effect 9 ! d\btful /ruggle4 ,?is 0 ! /udy ( ma!matics4 ,reviv$ by ! ,arabians & nev] :olly neglect$ dur+ ! ,middle ,ages1 x _h pr(it$ by ! g5]al movem5t ( ! ,r5aissance1 & 0 f9ally appli$ to ! cosmical problem by ,galileo4 ,9 ?is connexion1 two po9ts ( pr(\nd philosophical int]e/ mu/ be not$4 ,! fir/ is t1 ev5 9 its fall1 ! ,ari/otelian influ5ce surviv$1 to "s ext5t1 bo? = good & = evil4 ,to ,ari/otle belongs ! m]it ( hav+ be5 ! fir/ to base a/ronomy on physics4 ,he ma9ta9s ! e>?'s immobility on exp]im5tal no less ?an on speculative gr\nds4 ,a /one ?r[n /raight up 9 ! air returns to its />t+-po9t in/ead ( fall+ to ! we/ ( x2 & ! abs5ce ( /ell> p>allax seems to %[ t !re is no *ange 9 our position relatively to ! heav5ly bodies4 ,aft] satisfy+ himself1 on empirical consid]ations1 t ! popul> a/ronomy is true1 he proce$s to %[ t x mu/ be true1 by consid]ations on ! nature ( matt] & motion1 :i*1 al?\gh mi/ak51 are conceiv$ 9 a g5u9ely sci5tific _s4 ,n[ ,galileo saw t1 to e/abli% ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 he mu/ fir/ grapple ) ! ,p]ipatetic physics1 & replace x by a new dynamical !ory4 ,?is1 :i* he c\ld h>dly h effect$ by ! ord9>y ma!matical me?ods1 he did by borr[+ ! analytical me?od ( ,atomism & apply+ x to ! measurem5t ( motion4 ,! law ( fall+ bodies 0 asc]ta9$ by resolv+ _! desc5t into a s]ies ( mom5ts1 & det]m9+ its rate ( velocity at successive int]vals2 & curvil9e> motions 7 simil>ly resolv$ into ! comb9ation ( an impulsive ) an accel]at+ =ce1 a me?od diametrically oppos$ to t ( ,bacon1 :o w\ld n ev5 accept ! r\gh analysis ( ! app>5t cele/ial motions propos$ by ,greek a/ronom]s4 ,x seems /range t ,galileo1 hav+ gone s f>1 did n g a /ep fur!r1 & p]ceive t ! planet>y orbits1 be+ curvil9e>1 mu/ result f ! comb9ation ( a c5tripetal ) a tang5tial =ce4 ,b ! tru? is t he nev] seems to h grasp$ 8 own law ( in]tia 9 its full g5]ality4 ,he und]/ood t ! planets c\ld n h be5 set 9 motion )\t a rectil9e> impulse2 b 8 idea 0 t ?is impulse cont9u$ only s long z 0 necess>y 9 ord] to give !m _! pres5t velocity1 in/ead ( act+ on !m = ev] z a tang5tial =ce4 ,! explanation ( ?is /range inconsequ5ce mu/ be s\ght 9 a survival ( ,ari/otelian conceptions1 9 ! p]si/5t belief t rectil9e> motion 0 necess>ily limit$ & tempor>y1 :ile circul> motion 0 natural1 p]fect1 & et]nal4#edh ,n[ su* conceptions z ,nature1 p]fection1 & et]nity always rebel aga9/ an analysis ( ! ph5om5a :]e9 !y are suppos$ to reside4 ,! same prejudice w expla9 :y ,galileo %\ld h s p]si/5tly ignor$ ,kepl]'s ,laws1 = we c h>dly imag9e t !y 7 n br\ght "u 8 notice4 ,! philosophical aff9ities ( ! new sci5ce 7 n exhau/$ by ! atomi/ic analysis ( ,democritus & ! regulative me?od ( ,ari/otle4 ,platonism c\ld h>dly fail to b5efit by ! great impulse giv5 to ma!matical /udies 9 ! latt] half ( ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,! passionate love ( its f\nd] = geometry mu/ h recomm5d$ him z mu* to ! mo/ advanc$ m9ds ( ! p]iod z 8 religi\s my/icism _h recomm5d$ him to ! !ologians ( ! e>li] ,r5aissance4 ,& ! increas+ asc5d5cy ( ! helioc5tric a/ronomy1 ) its spl5did defiance ( s5se & op9ion1 0 indirectly a triumph = ! philosophy :i*1 m ?an any o!r1 _h ass]t$ ! claims ( pure reason aga9/ bo?4 ,we see ?is di/9ctly 9 ,galileo4 ,9 express adhesion to ,platonism1 he ?r[s 8 tea*+ into a conv]sational =m1 endeav\r+ to extract ! tru? f 8 oppon5ts r ?an convey x into _! m9ds f )\t2 & ! !ory ( rem9isc5ce z ! s\rce ( demon/rative k seems to meet ) 8 approval4#edi ,he is always ready ) pro(s drawn f obs]vation & exp]im5t2 b no?+ c be m 9 ,plato's _s1 no?+ m unlike ,ari/otle & ,bacon1 ?an 8 encomium on ! sublime g5ius ( ,ari/>*us & ,cop]nicus = hav+ ma9ta9$ a rational hypo!sis aga9/ :at seem$ to be ! evid5ce ( _! s5ses4#eej ,& he else:]e obs]ves h[ mu* less w\ld h be5 ! glory ( ,cop]nicus _h he kn[n ! exp]im5tal v]ification ( 8 !ory4#eea ,! ,platonic influ5ce told ev5 m efficaci\sly on ,galileo's /ill great] contempor>y1 ,kepl]4 ,) him z ) ! au?or ( ! ,republic1 my/icism took ! direction ( seek+ ev]y:]e = evid5ce ( ma!matical proportions4 ,) :at brilliant success ! se>* 0 att5d$1 x is ne$less to relate4 ,:at int]e/s u "h is ! fact1 v\*$ = by ,arago1 t ! ,g]man a/ronom] 0 guid$ by an idea ( ,plato's1 t ! _w mu/ h be5 creat$ on geometrical pr9ciples4#eeb ,_h ,bacon kn[n any?+ ab\t ! "w on :i* 8 adv5tur\s contempor>y 0 engag$1 we may be sure t x w\ld h af=d$ him ano!r illu/ration = 8 ,idla1 ! only difficulty be+ :e!r x %\ld be ref]r$ to ! illusions ( ! ,tribe1 ! ,d51 or ! ,!atre4 ,mean:ile ,atomism cont9u$ to ex]cise a p[]ful influ5ce on ! me?od ev5 m ?an on ! doctr9es ( sci5ce4 ,! analytical mode ( treatm5t1 appli$ by ,galileo to dynamics1 0 appli$1 ) equal success1 by o!r ma!maticians1 to ! /udy ( discrete & cont9u\s quantity4 ,x is to ! division ( numb]s & figures into inf9itesimal p>ts--a direct contrav5tion ( ,ari/otle's tea*+--t we owe log>i?ms1 algebraic geometry1 & ! diff]5tial calculus4 ,?us 0 e/abli%$ a connexion betwe5 spiritualism & mat]ialism1 ! philosophy ( ,plato & ! philosophy ( ,democritus4 ,out ( ^! elem5ts1 toge!r ) :at /ill surviv$ ( ,ari/otelianism1 0 con/ruct$ ! sy/em ( ,desc>tes4 ,,iv4 ,to und]/& ,desc>tes aright1 we mu/ provisionally disreg>d ! acc\nt giv5 9 8 "w on ,me?od ( ! process by :i* he arriv$ at a new !ory ( ! _w2 =1 9 tru?1 !re 0 no?+ new ab\t x except ! proportion 9 :i* fragm5ts tak5 f old] sy/ems 7 select$ & recomb9$4 ,z we h already notic$1 !re is no su* ?+ z sp9n+ philosophies out ( "o's own head2 &1 9 ! case ( ,desc>tes1 ev5 ! belief t he 0 s do+ came to him f ,plato2 =1 along ) ,ari/otle's dogmatic errors1 8 s\nd tea*+ ) reg>d to ! d]ivation ( k _h fall5 into oblivion4 ,! initial d\bt ( ! ,disc\rse on ,me?od & ! ,m$itations is also ,platonic2 only x is manife/$ "u an individual & subjective1 in/ead ( a univ]sal & objective =m4 ,b to f9d ! real />t+-po9t ( ,desc>tes' enquiries we mu/ look = x 9 8 ma!matical /udies4 ,a geometrician naturally conceives ! visible _w "u ! aspect ( figur$ ext5sion2 & if he ?9ks ! figures away1 no?+ w rema9 b ext5sion z ! ultimate mat]ial out ( :i* all det]m9ate bodies are %ap$4 ,su* 0 ! result rea*$ by ,plato 9 8 ,timaeus4 ,he id5tifi$ matt] ) space1 view+ ?is z ! receptacle = 8 et]nal & self-exi/5t ,ideas1 or r ! pla/ic m$ium on :i* _! images are impress$4 ,! simple/ spatial elem5ts are triangles2 accord+ly x is ) ^! t he con/ructs 8 solid bodies4 ,! !ory ( triangul> elem5ts 0 probably sugge/$ by ,atomism2 x is1 9 fact1 a compromise betwe5 ! purely ma!matical & ! mat]iali/ic me?ods4 ,l all ,plato's fancies1 ?is !ory ( matt] 0 attack$ ) su* conv9c+ argum5ts by ,ari/otle t1 s long z 8 physics rema9$ 9 ! asc5d5t1 x did n f9d a s+le support]2 al?\gh1 z we saw 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ,plot9us v ne>ly work$ 8 way back to x f ! ,p]ipatetic def9ition4 ,ev5 n[1 at ! mom5t ( ,ari/otle's fall1 x might h fail$ to attract att5tion1 _h n ! conditions "u :i* x fir/ arose be5 almo/ exactly repeat$4 ,geometrical demon/ration _h aga9 become ! type ( all reason+2 !re 0 aga9 a sceptical _s abroad1 =c+ m5 to fall back on ! mo/ elem5t>y & univ]sal conceptions2 an atomi/ic mat]ialism aga9 ?reat5$ to claim at lea/ ! :ole field ( physical enquiry = its own4 ,t ,desc>tes foll[$ ! ,timaeus 9 id5tify+ matt] ) ext5sion _c be d\bt$2 especially :5 we see t he adopts ,plato's analysis ( body into elem5t>y triangles2 b ! !ory agre$ s well ) 8 intellectual pr$ispositions t he may easily h imag9$ x to be a necess>y d$uction f 8 own priori ideas4 ,moreov]1 aft] ! fir/ two /eps1 he p>ts company ) ,plato1 & gives himself up1 s f> z 8 rejection ( a vacuum w p]mit1 to ! me*anical physics ( ,democritus4 ,mu* praise has rec5tly be5 be/[$ on 8 attempt to int]pret all physical ph5om5a 9 t]ms ( matt] & motion1 & to d$uce !m f ! unaid$ op]ation ( natural causes2 b ?is is no m ?an _h be5 done by ! e>ly ,greek ?9k]s1 f :om1 we may obs]ve1 8 hypo!sis ( an initial vortex 0 also d]iv$4 ,8 cosmogony is bett] ?an !irs1 only 9 s f> z x is adapt$ to sci5tific discov]ies 9 a/ronomy & physiology n made by ,desc>tes himself2 = :]e 8 conjectures g beyond ^! !y are entirely at fault4 ,desc>tes' !ory ( ! univ]se includ$1 h[ev]1 some?+ m ?an ext5sion 7or matt]7 & motion4 ,?is 0 ,?\ght4 ,if we ask :5ce came ! notion ( ,?\ght1 our philosoph] w answ] t x 0 obta9$ by look+ into himself4 ,x 01 9 reality1 obta9$ by look+ into ,ari/otle1 or into "s text-book reproduc+ 8 metaphysics4 ,b ! ,platonic elem5t 9 8 sy/em enabl$ ,desc>tes to isolate ,?\ght mu* m completely ?an x _h be5 isolat$ by ,ari/otle4 ,to und]/& ?is1 we mu/ turn once m to ! ,timaeus4 ,plato made up 8 univ]se f space & ,ideas4 ,b ! ,ideas 7 too vague or too un9telligible = sci5tific purposes4 ,ev5 m$iaeval ,reali/s 7 cont5t to replace !m by ,ari/otle's mu* cle>] doctr9e ( ,=ms4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,ari/otle's ,fir/ ,matt] 0 any?+ b a satisfactory conception4 ,x 0 a m]e ab/raction2 ! unkn[able residuum left beh9d :5 bodies 7 /ripp$1 9 imag9ation1 ( all _! s5sible & cogitable qualities4 ,9 o!r words1 !re 0 no ,matt] actually exi/+ )\t ,=m2 :]eas ,=m 0 nev] s truly itself1 nev] s absolutely exi/5t1 z :5 completely sep>at$ f ,matt]3 x !n became simple self-consci\sness1 z 9 ,god1 or 9 ! reasonable "p ( ! human s\l4 ,! revolution wr\ght by sub/itut+ space = ,ari/otle's ,fir/ ,matt] w n[ become app>5t4 ,corporeal sub/ance c\ld at once be conceiv$ z exi/+ )\t ! co-op]ation ( ,=m2 & at ! same /roke1 ,=m1 lib]at$ f its mat]ial bonds1 sprang back into ! subjective sph]e1 to live h5ce=w>d only z pure self-consci\s ?\ght4 ,?is absolute sep>ation ( ,=m & ,matt]1 "u _! new names ( ,?\ght & ,ext5sion1 once grasp$1 v>i\s pr9ciples ( ,c>tesianism w foll[ f x by logical necessity4 ,fir/ comes ! exclusion ( f9al causes f philosophy1 or r f ,nature4 ,!re 0 n1 z ) ,epicurus1 any anti-!ological feel+ conc]n$ 9 _! rejection4 ,) ,ari/otle1 aga9/ :om ,desc>tes is always prote/+1 ! f9al cause 0 n a m>k ( design+ intellig5ce impos$ on ,matt] f )\t2 x 0 only a p>ticul> aspect ( ,=m1 ! realisation ( :at ,matt] 0 always /riv+ aft] by virtue ( its inh]5t pot5tiality4 ,:5 ,=m 0 conceiv$ only z pure ?\ght1 !re c\ld be no "q ( su* a process2 ! mo/ highly organis$ bodies be+ only modes ( figur$ ext5sion4 ,! revival ( ,atomism _h1 no d\bt1 a great deal to d ) ! pref]5ce = a me*anical int]pretation ( life4 ,ari/otle _h himself %[n ) ma/]ly cle>ness ! diff]5ce betwe5 8 view ( ,nature & t tak5 by ,democritus2 ?us indicat+ be=eh& ! direction 9 :i* an alt]native to 8 own tea*+ might be s\ght2 & ,bacon _h1 9 fact1 already ref]r$ ) approval to ! example set by ,democritus 9 deal+ ) teleological enquiries4 ,nev]!less ,bacon's own attitude t[>ds f9al causes diff]s ess5tially f ,desc>tes'4 ,! ,fr5* ma!matician1 _h he spok5 8 :ole m9d1 w\ld probably h d5i$ _! exi/5ce altoge!r4 ,! ,engli% re=m] fully admits _! reality1 z1 ) 8 ,ari/otelian !ory ( ,=ms1 he c\ld h>dly avoid do+2 & we f9d t he actually associates ! /udy ( f9al ) t ( =mal causes1 assign+ bo? to metaphysics z its peculi> prov9ce4 ,?is be+ s1 8 comp>ative neglect ( ! =m] is mo/ easily expla9$ by ! fam\s comp>ison ( teleological enquiries to ve/al virg9s1 d$icat$ to ! s]vice ( ,god & be>+ no (fspr+2 = ,mr4 ,ellis has made x p]fectly cle> t ! b>r5ness allud$ to is n sci5tific b indu/rial4 ,our k is ext5d$ :5 we trace ! work+s ( a div9e purpose 9 ,nature2 b ?is is n a k9d ( k :i* be>s fruit 9 useful me*anical inv5tions4#eec ,bacon probably felt t m5 w\ld n be v =w>d to improve on ,nature if !y believ$ 9 ! p]fection ( h] works & 9 _! b5efic5t adaptation to our wants4 ,! teleological _s 0 z /rong ) him z ) ,ari/otle1 b x took a diff]5t direction4 ,in/ead ( /udy+ ! adaptation ( means to ends :]e x already exi/$1 he wi%$ m5 to create x = !mselves4 ,b ! utilit>ian t5d5cy1 :i* pr$om9at$ ) ,bacon1 0 q exceptional ) ,desc>tes4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 he desir$ k = its own sake1 n z an in/rum5t = ! gratification ( o!r wants2 & ?is intellectual dis9t]e/$ness 01 p]haps1 ano!r aspect ( ! sev]ance effect$ betwe5 ?\ght & matt]4 ,! celebrat$ ,c>tesian p>adox1 t animals are unconsci\s automata1 is ano!r consequ5ce ( ! same pr9ciple4 ,9 ,ari/otle's philosophy1 ! doctr9e ( pot5tiality develop+ itself into act ?r\gh a s]ies ( asc5d+ manife/ations1 suppli$ a l9k connect+ ! highe/ rational ) ! l[e/ vegetal life4 ,! id5tification ( ,=m ) pure ?\ght put an end to ! conception ( any su* int]m$iate gradations4 ,brutes mu/ ei!r h a m9d l ours or none at all4 ,! =m] alt]native 0 n ev5 tak5 into consid]ation2 probably1 among o!r reasons1 because x 0 n easily reconcilable ) ,*ri/ianity2 s t no?+ rema9$ b to d5y s5sibility :]e ?\ght 0 believ$ n to exi/4 ,f9ally1 9 man himself1 ?\ght is n di/+ui%$ f feel+2 x is1 9 fact1 ! ess5ce ( m9d1 j z ext5sion is ! ess5ce ( body2 & all spiritual ph5om5a are modes ( ?\ght 9 ! same s5se t all physical ph5om5a are modes ( space4 ,x 01 !n1 r a happy *ance ?an g5u9e physiological insight :i* l$ ,desc>tes to make bra9 ! organ ( feel+ no less ?an ( intellection2 a view1 z ,pr(4 ,huxley has obs]v$1 mu* 9 advance ( t held by ,bi*at a hundr$ & fifty ye>s lat]4 ,= :oev] d$uc$ all ! m5tal manife/ations f a common ess5ce 0 b\nd 9 consi/5cy to locate !m 9 ! same bodily organ2 :at ! metaphysician _h jo9$ ! physiologi/ c\ld n possibly put asund]4 ,we are n[ 9 a position to und]/& ! full =ce ( ,desc>tes' ,cogito ergo sum4 ,x expresses ! sub/antiality ( self-consci\s ,=m1 ! equal claim ( ?\ght ) ext5sion to be recognis$ z an elem5t ( ! univ]se4 ,?is recognition ( self-consci\sness z ! sure/ reality 01 inde$1 f> f be+ new4 ,! ,greek ,sceptics _h nev] gone to ! l5g? ( d\bt+ _! own p]sonal exi/5ce4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y pr(ess$ a sort ( subjective idealism4 ,refus+ to g beyond _! own consci\sness1 !y f\nd 9 its undi/urb$ self-possession ! only absolute satisfaction t life c\ld af=d4 ,b k & reality _h become s intimately associat$ ) some?+ indep5d5t ( m9d1 & m9d itself ) a m]e reflection ( reality1 t ! d5ial ( an ext]nal _w seem$ to ! vulg> a d5ial ( exi/5ce itself4 ,& al?\gh ,ari/otle _h f\nd ! highe/1 if n ! sole absolute actuality 9 self-?9k+ ?\ght1 he project$ x to su* a di/ance f human p]sonality t its be>+ on ! sceptical controv]sy _h pass$ unp]ceiv$4 ,desc>tes began 8 demon/ration at ! po9t :]e all ! anci5t sy/ems _h conv]g$1 b fail$ to discov] 9 :at direction ! conditions ( ! problem requir$ t !y %\ld be prolong$4 ,no mi/ake c be great] ?an to reg>d him z ! precursor ( ,g]man philosophy4 ,! latt] orig9at$ q indep5d5tly ( 8 tea*+1 ?\gh n p]haps ( 8 example1 9 ! comb9ation ( a mu* pr(\nd] scepticism ) a mu* wid] k ( dogmatic metaphysics4 ,8 me?od is ! v rev]se ( true idealism4 ,! ,cogito ergo sum is n a tak+ up ( exi/5ce into ?\ght1 b r a conv]sion ( ?\ght into "o p>ticul> type ( exi/5ce4 ,n[1 z we h se51 all o!r exi/5ce 0 conceiv$ z ext5sion1 & h[ev] c>efully ?\ght might be di/+ui%$ f ?is z absolutely indivisible1 x 0 spe$ily r$uc$ to ! same g5]al patt]n ( inclusion1 limitation1 & expansion4 ,:]eas ,kant1 ,fi*te1 & ,hegel aft]w>ds dwelt on ! =m ( ?\ght1 ,desc>tes att5d$ only to its cont5t1 or to t 9 :i* x 0 conta9$4 ,9 o!r words1 he began by consid]+ n h[ he ?\ght b :at he ?\ght & :5ce x came--8 ideas & _! suppos$ d]ivation f a high] sph]e4 ,take1 = example1 8 two great me?ods = prov+ ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,we h 9 our m9ds ! idea ( a p]fect be+--at lea/ ,desc>tes pr(ess$ to h su* an idea 9 8 m9d1--& we1 z imp]fect be+s1 c\ld n h orig9at$ x = ourselves4 ,x mu/1 !re=e1 h be5 plac$ !re by a p]fect be+ act+ on u f )\t4 ,x is "h tak5 = grant$ t ! me*anical equival5ce betwe5 mat]ial effects & _! causes mu/ obta9 9 a _w :]e spatial relations1 & !re=e measurem5t1 are presumably unkn[n4 ,&1 secondly1 exi/5ce1 z a p]fection1 is involv$ 9 ! idea ( a p]fect be+2 !re=e su* a be+ c only be conceiv$ z exi/+4 ,"h !re seems to be a confus$ notion t because ! prop]ties ( a geometrical figure c be d$uc$ f its def9ition1 !re=e ! exi/5ce ( some?+ m ?an a simple idea c be d$uc$ f ! def9ition ( t idea itself4 ,b besides ! ma!matical influ5ce1 !re 0 evid5tly a ,platonic influ5ce at "w2 & "o is rem9d$ ( ,plato's argum5t t ! s\l _c die because x p>ticipates 9 ! idea ( life4 ,su* fallacies 7 impossible s long z ,ari/otle's logic cont9u$ to be c>efully /udi$1 & !y gradually disappe>$ ) its revival4 ,mean:ile ! cat 0 away1 & ! mice us$ _! opportunity4 ,t ! absolute disjunction ( ?\ght f matt] involv$ ! impossibility ( _! int]action1 0 a consequ5ce n drawn by ,desc>tes himself1 b by 8 imm$iate foll[]s4 ,"h also1 ,greek philosophy play$ its "p 9 ha/5+ ! developm5t ( mod]n ideas4 ,! fall ( ,ari/otle _h incid5tally ! effect ( reviv+ n only ! sy/ems :i* prec$$1 b also ^? :i* foll[$ 84 ,*ief among ^! 7 ,/oicism & ,epicureanism4 ,diff]+ widely 9 mo/ o!r respects1 !y agre$ 9 tea*+ t body is act$ on by body alone4 ,! ,c>tesians accept$ ?is pr9ciple to ! fulle/ ext5t s f> z human p]ceptions & volitions 7 conc]n$2 & to a great ext5t 9 deal+ ) ! problems ( physical sci5ce4 ,b in/ead ( argu+ f ! laws ( me*anical causation to ! mat]iality ( m9d1 !y argu$ f its immat]iality to ! total abs5ce ( communication betwe5 consci\sness & motion4 ,!re 01 h[ev]1 "o ?9k] ( t age :o w5t all l5g?s ) ! lat] ,greek mat]iali/s4 ,?is 0 ,?omas ,hobbes1 ! f\nd] ( mod]n e?ics1 ! fir/ ,engli%man to grasp & develope /ill fur!r ,galileo's me?od ( ma!matical d$uction & me*anical analysis4 ,v4 ,! au?or ( ! ,levia?an has sometimes be5 repres5t$ z "o :o c>ri$ ! ,baconian me?od into politics1 & prep>$ ! way = its m ?or\gh application to psy*ology by ,locke4 ,b ?is view1 :i* reg>ds ! ?ree great lead]s ( ,engli% philosophy 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury z successive l9ks 9 a connect$ s]ies1 is a misappreh5sion ( hi/ory1 :i* c\ld only h aris5 ?r\gh leav+ out ( acc\nt ! contempor>y developm5t ( ,cont95tal speculation1 & ?r\gh ! invet]ate habit ( look+ on ! mod]n di/9ction betwe5 empiricism & transc5d5talism z a fundam5tal anti!sis divid+ ! philosoph]s ( e epo* into two oppos+ s*ools4 ,! tru? is t1 if ! ?ree writ]s j m5tion$ agree 9 d]iv+ k solely f exp]i5ce1 !y agree 9 no?+ else2 & t _! unanimity on ?is "o po9t does n am\nt to mu*1 w be evid5t if we consid] :at ea* und]/ood by ! notion 9 "q4 ,) ,bacon1 exp]i5ce 0 ! negation ( m]e au?ority1 :e!r tak+ ! =m ( natural prejudice1 ( individual prepossession1 ( holl[ phrases1 or ( e/abli%$ sy/ems4 ,! "q h[ we come by t k :i* all agree to be ! mo/ c]ta91 is left unt\*$ 9 8 logic2 ei!r ( ! curr5t answ]s w\ld h suit$ 8 sy/em equally well2 nor is !re any reason = believ+ t he w\ld h sid$ ) ,mill r ?an ) ,kant respect+ ! orig9 ( ma!matical axioms4 ,) ,locke1 exp]i5ce meant ! analysis ( notions & judgm5ts into ! simple data ( s5se & self-consci\sness2 & ! exp]i5tiali/s ( ! pres5t day are beyond all d\bt 8 disciples2 b ! p>5tage ( 8 philosophy1 s f> z x is simply a d5ial ( innate ideas1 mu/ be s\ght1 n 9 ! ,novum ,organum1 nor 9 any o!r mod]n "w1 b 9 ! old ,organon ( ,ari/otle1 or 9 ! comm5ts ( ! ,s*oolm5 :o foll[$ ,ari/otle 9 prote/+ aga9/ ! ,platonism ( _! "t1 j z ,locke prote/$ aga9/ ! ,platonism ( ,desc>tes & ,malebran*e4 ,! exp]i5ce ( ,hobbes diff]s bo? 9 orig9 & application f ei!r ( ^!4 ,) him1 s5sible impressions are n a c\rt ( appeal aga9/ traditional judgm5ts1 nor yet are !y ! ultimate elem5ts into :i* all ideas may be analys$2 !y are ! *annels ?r\gh :i* pulsat+ movem5ts are convey$ into ! m9d2 & ^! movem5ts1 aga91 repres5t ! action ( me*anical =ces or ! w ( a p>am\nt au?ority4 ,& he holds ?is doctr9e1 p>tly z a logical consequ5ce ( 8 mat]ialism1 p>tly z a safegu>d aga9/ ! !ological pret5sions :i*1 9 8 op9ion1 are a con/ant ?reat to social ord]4 ,! au?ority ( ! political sov]eign is m5ac$ on ! "o h& by ,papal infallibility1 & on ! o!r by rebelli\s subjects putt+ =w>d a claim to sup]natural inspiration4 ,to ! ,pope1 ,hobbes says3 #8,y are violat+ ! law ( ,nature by pr(ess+ to d]ive f ,god :at is really giv5 only by ! cons5t ( m51 & c only be giv5 by !m to _! temporal head1--! "r to impose a p>ticul> religion4#8 ,to ! ,puritan1 he says3 #8,y\r inw>d illum9ation is a sup]/iti\s dream1 & y h no "r to use x z a pretext = break+ ! k+'s peace4 ,religion has really no?+ to d ) ! sup]natural2 x is only a p>ticul> way ( inculcat+ ob$i5ce to ! natural conditions ( social union4' ,aga91 ,hobbes diff]s :olly f ,bacon 9 ! d$uctive "* ( 8 me?od4 ,8 logic is ! old syllogi/ic sy/em reorganis$ on ! model ( ma!matical analysis4 ,l all ! great ?9k]s ( 8 "t1 he 0 a geometrician & a me*anical physici/1 reason+ f g5]al to p>ticul> propositions & desc5d+ f causes to effects4#eed ,8 fam\s !ory ( a social contract is a rational con/ruction1 n a hi/orical n>rative4 ,b ?\gh a ma!matician1 he %[s no traces ( ,platonic influ5ce4 ,he is1 !re=e1 all ! m gov]n$ by ,atomi/ & ,/oic modes ( ?\ght4 ,he treats human nature1 s+le & associat$1 z ,galileo & ,desc>tes _h treat$ motion & space4 ,l !m1 too1 he f9ds himself 9 con/ant antagonism to ,ari/otle4 ,! description ( man z a social animal is disda9fully reject$1 & ! political union resolv$ into an equilibrium ( _m oppos+ wills ma9ta9$ by viol5t pressure f )\t4 ,9 e?ics1 no less ?an 9 physics1 we f9d attractive =ces replac$ by me*anical impacts4 ,:ile ! analysis ( ,hobbes goes mu* deep] ?an ,ari/otle's1 ! grasp ( 8 recon/ructive syn!sis is wid] & /rong] 9 at lea/ an equal proportion4 ,recognis+ ! good ( ! :ole z ! supreme rule ( conduct1#eee he gives a new int]pretation to ! p>ticul> virtues1 & disposes ( ! !ory :i* made !m a mean betwe5 two extremes no less effectually ?an 8 contempor>ies _h dispos$ ( ! same !ory 9 its application to ! elem5t>y con/itution ( matt]4 ,& j z !y 7 aid$ 9 _! revolt aga9/ ,ari/otle by ! revival ( o!r ,greek sy/ems1 s also 0 he4 ,! id5tification ( ju/ice ) public int]e/1 ?\gh commonly attribut$ to ,epicurus alone1 01 l mat]ialism1 an idea %>$ by him ) ,/oicism1 & 0 probably impress$ on mod]n ?\ght by ! weight ( _! unit$ au?ority4 ,& :5 we f9d ! philosoph] ( ,malmesbury mak+ public happ9ess consi/ 9 ord] & tranquillity1 we _c b ?9k t ?is 0 a g5]alisation f ! ,/oic & ,epicurean conceptions ( individual happ9ess2 = x reproduces1 "u a social =m1 ! same ideal ( passionless repose4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ?is sub/itution ( ! social = ! p]sonal integ] involves a correspond+ *ange 9 ! valuation ( individual happ9ess4 ,:at ! passions _h be5 to lat] ,greek philosophy1 t ! individual s\l became to ,hobbes1 some?+ ess5tially inf9ite & insatiable1 ^: desires gr[ z !y are gratifi$1 ^: happ9ess1 if su* x c be call$1 is n a condition ( /able repose b ( p]petual movem5t & unre/4#eef ,"h1 aga91 ! analogy betwe5 physics & e?ics obta9s4 ,9 bo?1 !re 0 an orig9al opposition betwe5 ! idea ( a limit & ! idea ( inf9ite expansion4 ,j z1 among ! e>li] ,greek ?9k]s1 !re 0 a physical philosophy ( ! inf9ite or1 z its impugn]s call$ x1 ! indef9ite1 s also !re 01 correspond+ to x1 a philosophy ( ! inf9ite or indef9ite 9 e?ics1 repres5t$1 n inde$ by pr(essional morali/s1 b by rhetoricians & m5 ( ! _w4 ,_! ideal 0 n ! cont5t$ man1 b ! popul> orator or ! despot :o revels 9 ! consci\sness ( p[]--! ability to satisfy 8 desires1 :atev] !y may be4 ,& ! extreme consequ5ce ( ?is pr9ciple is drawn by ,plato's ,callicles :5 he decl>es t true happ9ess consi/s 9 nurs+ "o's desires up to ! highe/ po9t at :i* !y c be freely indulg$2 :ile 8 ideal ( "* is ! sup]ior individual :o sets at naught :atev] re/ra9ts h be5 devis$ by a weak & timid majority to protect !mselves aga9/ him4 ,! ,greek love ( balanc$ anti!sis & circumscrib+ =m triumph$ ov] ! inf9ite 9 bo? fields4 ,:ile ! two great ma/]s ( idealism imprison$ ! =mless & turbul5t t]re/rial elem5ts )9 a uni=m & et]nal sph]e ( cry/al1 !y impos$ a simil> re/ra9t on ! desires & emotions1 conf9+ !m )9 a b>ri] ( reason :i*1 :5 once erect$1 c\ld nev] be brok5 ?r\gh4 ,& al?\gh ! gr\nd won 9 physics 0 lo/ aga9 = a "t ?r\gh a revival ( old !ories1 ?is 0 because true ,hell5ism f\nd its only cong5ial sph]e 9 e?ics1 & !re ! philosophy ( ! f9ite cont9u$ to reign supreme4 ,if ! successors ( ,ari/otle fell back on cosmologies ( ampl] scope ?an 81 !y reta9$ 8 limit+ me?od 9 _! speculations on man4 ,) ,*ri/ianity1 !re came a c]ta9 inv]sion ( p>ts4 ,! ext]nal univ]se aga9 became subject$ to n>r[ limitations1 & ! flammantia mo5ia mundi beyond :i* ,epicurus _h d>$ to p5etrate1 7 rais$ up once m & gu>d$ by new t]rors z an impassable b>ri] to ?\ght4 ,b inf9ity took refuge )9 ! s\l2 &1 :ile 9 ?is life a /]n] self-control ?an ev5 t ( ,/oicism 0 enjo9$1 p]spectives ( illimitable delight 9 ano!r life 7 disclos$4 ,f9ally1 at ! ,r5aissance1 e b>ri] 0 simultane\sly ov]?r[n1 & ! accumulat$ en]gies ( we/]n civilisation expatiat$ ov] a field :i*1 if x 0 va/ 9 reality1 0 absolutely unb\nd$ 9 imag9ation4 ,great z 7 ! a*ievem5ts ( t age1 its dreams 7 great] /ill2 & :at mo/ excites our wond] 9 ! works ( its h]oes is b ! fragm5t ( an unf9i%$ :ole4 ,! ideal ( life set up by ,ari/otle 01 l 8 conception ( ! _w1 contradict$ 9 e p>ticul>2 & ! relative positions assign$ by him to act & p[] 7 precisely rev]s$4 ,x has be5 %[n h[ ,%akespe>e reflect$ ! ,platonism ( 8 contempor>ies3 he reflect$ also ! fi]ce outbur/ ( _! ambition2 & 9 describ+ :at !y w\ld d>e1 to possess solely sov]eign sway & ma/]dom1 or we> )\t corrival all ! dignities ( hon\r1 he borr[$ almo/ ! v words us$ by ,euripides to express ! feel+s enc\rag$ by "s tea*]s ( 8 "t4 ,! same _s is exhibit$ a g5]ation lat] 9 ! dramas ( ,cald]on & ,corneille1 be=e _! ?\ghts 7 =c$ into a diff]5t *annel by ! /ress ( ! ,ca?olic reaction2 :ile its la/ & highe/ manife/ation is ! s5tim5t ( ,milton's ru9$ ar*angel1 t to reign 9 hell is bett] ?an to s]ve 9 heav54 ,?us1 :5 ,hobbes r$uces all ! passions to modes ( ! fundam5tal desire = p[]1#eeg he does b give ! sci5tific !ory ( t :i* /&s proclaim$ 9 m ?rill+ acc5ts by ! noble/ poetry ( 8 age4 ,:]e no dang] c\ld det] f ! pursuit ( p[]1 no balanc+ ( pa9 ) pleasure avail$ to qu5* ! ard\r ( desire4 ,) full k t viol5t delights h viol5t ends & 9 _! triumph die1 ! fateful condition 0 accept$4 ,n only did ,giordano ,bruno1 9 consci\s p>allelism ) 8 !ory ( matt]1 decl>e t )\t mutation1 v>iety1 & vicissitude no?+ w\ld be agreeable1 no?+ good1 no?+ delightful1 t enjoym5t consi/s solely 9 transition & movem5t1 & t all pleasure lies midway betwe5 ! pa9ful long+ ( fre% appetite & ! sadness ( its satiation & ext9ction2#eeh b ! s$at] wisdom ( ,bacon1 9 t\*+ on ! controv]sy betwe5 ,callicles & ,socrates1 seems to incl9e t[>ds ! side ( ! =m]2 &1 9 all cases1 w>ns m5 n to make too mu* ( ! inconv5i5ces att5d5t on pleasure1 b #8s to procure s]5ity z !y de/roy n magnanimity4'#eei ,^!1 !n1 7 ! pr9cipal elem5ts ( ! philosophical ,r5aissance4 ,fir/1 !re 0 a c]ta9 survival ( ,ari/otelianism z a me?od ( compreh5sive & logical arrangem5t4 ,!n !re 0 ! new ,platonism1 br++ along ) x a revival ( ei!r ,alex&rian or m$iaeval pan!ism1 & closely associat$ ) geometrical /udies4 ,?irdly1 !re 0 ! old ,greek ,atomism1 z orig9ally set =? by ,democritus or z re-edit$ by ,epicurus1 traditionally unfav\rable to !ology1 pot5t alike = decomposition & recon/ruction1 confirm$ by ! new a/ronomy1 & l5d+ its me?od to ! re=mation ( ma!matics2 next ! lat] ,greek e?ical sy/ems2 & f9ally ! =mless idea ( inf9ite p[] :i* all ,greek sy/ems _h1 z su*1 conspir$ to suppress1 b :i*1 nev]!less1 _h play$ a great "p 9 ! e>li] /ages ( ,greek speculation bo? physical & moral4 ,on ^! f\ndations ! l(ty edifice ( ,sp9ozism 0 re>$2 out ( ^! mat]ials its composite /ructure 0 built2 & )\t a previ\s /udy ( !m x _c be und]/ood4 ,,vi4 ,:e!r ,sp9oza ev] read ,plato is d\btful4 ,"o h>dly sees :y he %\ld h neglect$ a writ] ^: works 7 easily accessible1 & at t "t v popul> ) ?9k+ m9ds4 ,b :e!r he 0 acqua9t$ ) ! ,dialogues at fir/ h& or n1 ,plato w help u to und]/& ,sp9oza1 = x 0 ?r\gh ! door ( geometry t he ent]$ philosophy1 & "u ! guidance ( "o :o 0 saturat$ ) ! ,platonic _s2 s f> z ,*ri/ianity influ5c$ him1 x 0 ?r\gh elem5ts d]iv$ f ,plato2 & 8 metaphysical me?od 0 "o :i*1 m ?an any o!r1 w\ld h be5 welcom$ ) delight by ! au?or ( ! ,m5o & ! ,republic1 z an attempt to realise 8 own dialectical ideal4 ,= ,sp9ozism is1 on ! face ( x1 an application ( geometrical reason+ to philosophy1 & especially to e?ics4 ,x is also an attempt to prove transc5d5tally :at geometricians only assume--! necessity ( space4 ,n[1 ,plato look$ on geometrical demon/ration z ! great type ( c]ta9ty1 ! sci5tific completion ( :at ,socrates _h begun by 8 int]rogative me?od1 ! "o means ( c>ry+ irrefragable conviction into e dep>tm5t ( k1 & m p>ticul>ly into ! /udy ( our highe/ good4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he saw t geometricians assume :at itself requires to be demon/rat$2 & he confid5tly expect$ t ! defici5cy w\ld be suppli$ by 8 own project$ me?od ( transc5d5t dialectics4 ,su* at lea/ seems to be ! drift ( ! foll[+ passage3 ,:5 ,i speak ( ! division ( ! intellectual1 y w also und]/& me to speak ( t k :i* reason h]self atta9s by ! p[] ( dialectic1 us+ ! hypo!ses n z fir/ pr9ciples1 b only z hypo!ses--t is to say z /eps & po9ts ( dep>ture into a region :i* is above hypo!ses1 9 ord] t %e may so> beyond !m to ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ! :ole2 & cl++ to ?is & !n to t :i* dep5ds on ?is1 by successive /eps %e desc5ds aga9 )\t ! aid ( any s5sible object1 beg9n+ & end+ 9 ideas4#efj ,! problem1 !n1 :i* ,sp9oza set himself 01 fir/1 to acc\nt = ! fundam5tal assumptions ( all sci5ce1 & m p>ticul>ly ( geometry1 by d$uc+ !m f a s+le self-evid5t pr9ciple2 & !n to use t pr9ciple = ! solution ( :atev] problems seem$ to /& mo/ 9 ne$ ( its application4 ,&1 z usually happ5s 9 su* adv5tur\s ent]prises1 ! suppos$ answ] ( pure reason 0 obta9$ by comb9+ or exp&+ conceptions borr[$ )\t criticism f pre-exi/+ sy/ems ( philosophy4 ,desc>tes _h already accompli%$ a great simplification ( ! speculative problem by summ+ up all exi/5ce "u ! two heads ( ext5sion & ?\ght4 ,x rema9$ to acc\nt = ^!1 & to r$uce !m to a s+le idea4 ,z we h se51 !y 7 d]iv$ f ,greek philosophy1 & ! bond :i* 0 to unite !m mu/ be s\ght = 9 ! same direction4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ! sy/ems ( ,plato & ,ari/otle 7 b\nd$ at ei!r extremity by a det]m9ate & by an indet]m9ate pr9ciple4 ,) ! "o1 exi/5ce rang$ betwe5 ! ,idea ( ,good at ! upp] end ( ! scale & empty space at ! l[]2 ) ! o!r1 betwe5 absolute ,?\ght & ,fir/ ,matt]4 ,x 0 by comb9+ ! two def9ite t]ms1 space & ?\ght1 t ,desc>tes _h con/ruct$ 8 sy/em2 & aft] subtract+ ^! ! two indef9ite t]ms rema9$4 ,9 "o respect !y 7 ev5 m oppos$ to ea* o!r ?an 7 ! t]ms ) :i* !y _h be5 respectively associat$4 ,! ,idea ( ,good repres5t$ unity1 id5tity1 & con/ancy1 z aga9/ plurality1 diff]5ce1 & *ange2 :ile ,ari/otle's ,matt] 01 by its v def9ition1 multi=m1 fluctuat+1 & indet]m9ate4 ,nev]!less1 !re 7 equally important analogies traceable betwe5 !m4 ,no v cle> acc\nt c\ld be giv5 ( ei!r1 & bo? 7 cu/om>ily describ$ by negatives4 ,if ,matt] fell %ort ( complete exi/5ce1 ! ,good transc5d$ all exi/5ce4 ,if ! "o 0 a univ]sal capacity = assum+ ,=ms1 ! o!r 0 ! s\rce :5ce all ,=ms proce$$4 ,:5 ! di/9ctive *>act]i/ics ( an individual 7 ?\ght away1 ! "q might well be moot$ into :i* pr9ciple x w\ld return4 ,! ambigu\s use ( ! ^w ,p[] contribut$ /ill fur!r to _! id5tification1 = x 0 n less applicable to ! receptive ?an to ! productive faculty4 ,n[ we h j se5 into :at importance ! idea ( ,p[] sudd5ly sprang at ! ,r5aissance3 ) ,bruno x 0 ! only abid+ reality ( ,nature2 ) ,hobbes x 0 ! only object ( human desire4 ,ano!r t]m occupy+ a v l>ge place 9 ,ari/otle's philosophy 0 well adapt$ to m$iate betwe5 & ev5tually to unite ! two speculative extremes4 ,?is 0 ,sub/ance2 9 logic ! subject ( pr$ication1 9 metaphysics ! sub/ratum ( qualities1 ! or ,be+ ( ! ,t5 ,categories4 ,n[ ,fir/ ,matt] might fairly claim ! position ( a univ]sal subject or sub/ance1 s9ce x 0 inve/$ ) e s5sible quality 9 turn1 & ev51 z ! common elem5t ( all ,=ms1 ) e ?9kable quality z well4 ,ari/otle himself _h f9ally pron\nc$ = ! individual comp\nd ( ,=m & ,matt] z ! true sub/ance4 ,yet he also speaks z if ! ess5tial def9ition ( a ?+ con/itut$ ! ?+ itself2 9 :i* case ,=m alone c\ld be ! true subject2 & a simil> claim might be put =w>d on behalf ( ! ,plot9ian ,"o4#efa ,su* 7 ! priori elem5ts :i* a hi/orical syn!sis _h prep>$ to satisfy ! want ( a metaphysical ,absolute4 ,let u n[ see :at result w\ld foll[ :5 ! newly-recov]$ idea ( space 0 subject$ to a metaphysical analysis4 ,ext5sion is bo? "o & inf9ite4 ,no p>ticul> area c be conceiv$ ap>t f ! :ole :i* bo? conta9s & expla9s x4 ,aga91 ext5sion is absolutely homog5e\s2 to :atev] di/ance we may travel 9 imag9ation !re w /ill be ! same repetition ( simil> p>ts4 ,b space1 ) ! ,c>tesians1 meant m ?an a simple juxtaposition ( p>ts2 hav+ be5 made ! ess5ce ( matt]1 x 0 inve/$ ) me*anical z well z ) geometrical prop]ties4 ,! bodies into :i* x resolv$ itself 7 conceiv$ z mov+1 & z communicat+ _! movem5t to "o ano!r ?r\gh an unbrok5 *a9 ( causation 9 :i* ea* con/itut$ a s+le l9k1 det]m9+ & det]m9$ by ! re/2 s t1 "h also1 ea* "p 0 expla9$ by ref]5ce to an inf9ite :ole1 reproduc+ its ess5ce1 :ile exempt f ! condition ( circumscrib$ exi/5ce4 ,we c und]/&1 !n1 t :5 ! necessity ( acc\nt+ = ext5sion itself once became felt1 ! natural solution w\ld be to conceive x z hold+ ! same relation to "s great] :ole :i* its own subdivisions held to _! sum total2 9 o!r words x %\ld be at once a "p1 an emanation1 & an image ( ! ultimate reality4 ,?is is1 9 fact1 v ne>ly ! relation :i* ,matt] holds to ! ,"o 9 ! ,neo-,platonic sy/em4 ,& we "k t ) ,plot9us ,matt] is almo/ ! same z inf9ite ,ext5sion4 ,correspond+ to ! univ]sal space :i* conta9s all p>ticul> spaces1 !re 01 9 ! ,neo-,platonic sy/em1 a univ]sal ,?\ght :i* conta9$ all p>ticul> ?\ghts1--! ,n\s ab\t :i* we he>d s mu* 9 /udy+ ,plot9us4 ,su* a conception is utt]ly /range to ! mod]n m9d1 b x 0 famili> en\gh to ,sp9oza2 & we c see h[ x w\ld be sugge/$ by ! common =ms ( reason+4 ,! t5d5cy ( syllogism is ei!r to subsume l[] "u high] notions until a summum g5us is rea*$1 or to resolve all subjects into a s+le pr$icate1 or to connect all pr$icates ) a s+le subject4 ,! analogies ( space1 too1 w\ld tell 9 ! same direction1 br++ ne>] ! idea ( a va/ ?\ght-sea 9 :i* all p>ticul> ?\ghts1 or :at to a ,c>tesian meant ! same ?+1 all p>ticul> m9ds1 7 conta9$4 ,& ,neo-,platonism %[$ h[ ?is univ]sal ,m9d or ,?\ght c\ld1 l ! space :i* x s mu* resembl$1 be int]pret$ z ! product ( a /ill high] pr9ciple4 ,to complete ! p>allelism1 x rema9$ to %[ t ,?\ght1 :i* be=e _h seem$ ess5tially f9ite1 is1 on ! contr>y1 co-inf9ite ) ,ext5sion4 ,h[ ?is 0 done w appe> a little fur!r on4 ,sp9oza ga!r$ up all ! ?reads ( speculation ?us made ready = 8 grasp1 :5 he def9$ ,god z a sub/ance consi/+ ( inf9ite attributes1 ea* ( :i* expresses 8 inf9ite & et]nal ess5ce2 subsequ5tly add+ t ! ess5ce "h spok5 ( is ,p[]1 & t two ( ! inf9ite attributes are ,ext5sion & ,?\ght1 :]e( ! p>ticul> ?+s kn[n to u are modes4 ,platonism _h decompos$ ! _w into two ideal pr9ciples1 & _h re-creat$ x by comb9+ !m ov] aga9 9 v>i\s proportions1 b !y 7 n entirely reabsorb$ & work$ up into ! concrete reality :i* result$ f _! union2 !y 71 s to speak1 knott$ toge!r1 b ! ends cont9u$ to hang loose4 ,above & bel[ ! f9ite sph]e ( exi/5ce !re rema9$ z an unemploy$ surplus ! inf9ite causal en]gy ( ! ,"o & ! inf9ite passive pot5tiality ( ,matt]4 ,sp9oza comb9$ & id5tifi$ ! two oppos+ elem5ts 9 ! notion ( a s+le sub/ance z inf9ite 9 actuality z !y _h be5 9 p[]4 ,he ?us gave its highe/ metaphysical expression to t common t5d5cy :i* we trac$ ?r\gh ! prospects op5$ out by ! ,cop]nican a/ronomy1 ! revival ( ,atomism1 ! dynamical psy*ology ( ,hobbes1 & ! illimitable passion ( ! ,r5aissance1 :ile1 at ! same "t1 pres]v+ ! unity ( ,plato's idealism1 & ev5 mak+ x m conc5trat$ ?an be=e4 ,x has be5 %[n h[ univ]sal space & univ]sal ?\ght at once conta9 & expla9 ea* p>ticul> space & ea* p>ticul> concept4 ,9 l mann]1 ! inf9ite sub/ance conta9s & expla9s space & ?\ght !mselves4 ,conta9s !m1 yes1 z attributes2 b expla9s !m1 h[8 ,z two among an inf9ity ( attributes4 ,9 o!r words1 if we ask :y !re %\ld be su* an exi/5ce z space1 ! answ] is because exi/5ce1 be+ inf9ite1 mu/ necess>ily include e conceivable ?+4 ,! argum5t is /rik+ly l a pr9ciple ( ! ,epicurean philosophy1 & may well h be5 sugge/$ by x4 ,accord+ to ,lucretius1 ! appe>ance ( design 9 our _w ne$ n be attribut$ to creative intellig5ce1 because inf9ite atoms mov+ 9 inf9ite mann]s ?r\gh inf9ite "t1 mu/ at l5g? arrive1 aft] a compreh5sive s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 at ! pres5t frame ( ?+s2#efb & ! same pr9ciple is invok$ on a small] scale to acc\nt = ! orig9 ( organis$ be+s1 ( memory1 & ( civil society4#efc ,9 bo? sy/ems1 inf9ite space is ! root-conception2 b :at ,lucretius _h legitimately us$ to expla9 becom+1 ,sp9oza illegitimately applies to ! elucidation ( be+4 ,at "o /roke all empirical k is plac$ on an priori f\ndation4 ,by assum+ unlimit$ cr$it at ! bank ( ! univ]se we entitle ourselves to draw a *eque = any p>ticul> am\nt4 ,?us ! idea ( inf9ite attributes is no m]e collat]al speculation1 b =ms an ess5tial elem5t ( ,sp9ozism4 ,! kn[n v>ieties ( exi/5ce are1 s to speak1 surr\nd$1 support$1 & fix$ 9 _! places by ! endless multitude ( ! unkn[n4 ,& ?is conception ( be+ z absolutely inf9ite1 is ano!r pro( ( ,sp9oza's ,platonic t5d5cies1 = x involves ! realisation ( an ab/ract idea1 t is to say1 ( ,be+1 :i* ! philosoph] treats z some?+ m compreh5sive ?an ! facts ( consci\sness :5ce x is d]iv$4 ,or1 aga91 we may say t two pr9ciples1--! ,nom9ali/ic z well z ! ,reali/ic1--are "h at "w4 ,by virtue ( ! "o1 ,sp9oza makes ,be+ some?+ beyond & above ! facts ( exp]i5ce4 ,by virtue ( ! o!r he re9ve/s x ) concrete reality1 b a reality altoge!r transc5d+ our p[]s ( imag9ation4 ,v mu*1 also1 t ,plot9us says ab\t 8 ,"o might be appli$ to ,sp9oza's ,sub/ance1 b ) a new & positive mean+4 ,! ,fir/ ,cause is above exi/5ce1 b only exi/5ce z re/rict$ )9 ! v n>r[ limits ( our exp]i5ce1 & only z inf9ite reality transc5ds ! p>ts :i* x includes4 ,x is well kn[n t ,sp9oza draws a %>p l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! two attributes ( ,ext5sion & ,?\ght1 :i*1 ) him1 correspond to :at are usually call$ body & m9d4 ,nei!r attribute c act on ! o!r4 ,m9d receives no impressions f body1 nor does body receive any impulses f m9d4 ,?is proposition foll[s by rigor\s logical necessity f ! ,platonic pr9ciple t m9d is indep5d5t ( body1 comb9$ ) ! ,/oic pr9ciple t no?+ b body c act on body1 g5]alis$ into ! wid] pr9ciple t int]action implies homog5eity ( nature4 ,accord+ to "s critics1 ,sp9oza's tea*+ on ?is po9t con/itutes a fatal flaw 9 8 philosophy4 ,h[1 x is ask$1 c we "k t !re is any su* ?+ z body 7or ext5sion7 if body _c be p]ceiv$1--= p]ceiv$ x c]ta9ly _c be )\t act+ on our m9ds8 ,! idea ( inf9ite sub/ance sugge/s a way out ( ! difficulty4 #8,i f9d 9 myself1' ,sp9oza might say1 #8! idea ( ext5sion4 ,9 fact1 my m9d is no?+ b ! idea ( ext5sion1 or ! idea ( t idea1 & s on ?r\gh z _m self-reflections z y please4 ,at ! same "t1 m9d1 or ?\ght1 is n itself ext5d$4 ,desc>tes & ! ,platoni/s be=e him h prov$ ?us mu*4 ,consequ5tly ,i c conceive ext5sion z exi/+ indep5d5tly ( myself1 &1 m g5]ally1 ( all ?\ght4 ,b h[ c ,i be sure t x actually does s exi/8 ,9 ?is wise4 ,an exam9ation ( ?\ght leads me to ! notion ( some?+ 9 :i* x resides--a sub/ance ^: attribute x is4 ,b hav+ once conceiv$ su* a sub/ance1 ,i _c limit x to a s+le attribute1 nor to two1 nor to any f9ite numb]4 ,limitation implies a b\nd>y1 & !re c be no b\nd>y assign$ to exi/5ce1 = exi/5ce by its v def9ition includes ev]y?+ t is4 ,accord+ly1 :atev] c be conceiv$1 9 o!r words :atev] c be ?\ght )\t involv+ a contradiction1--an important res]vation :i* ,i beg y to obs]ve1--mu/ necess>ily exi/4 ,n[ ext5sion involves no contradiction1 !re=e x exi/s1--exi/s1 t is to say1 z an attribute ( ! inf9ite sub/ance4 ,&1 by p>ity ( reason+1 !re mu/ be an idea ( ext5sion2 = ?is also c exi/ )\t involv+ a contradiction1 z ! simple/ introspection suffices to %[4 ,y ask me :y !n ,i d n believe 9 gorgons & *ima]as4 ,i answ] t s9ce1 9 po9t ( fact1 !y d n exi/1 ,i presume t _! notion involves a contradiction1 al?\gh my k ( natural law is n suffici5tly ext5d$ to %[ me :]e ! contradiction lies4 ,b p]haps sci5ce w "s day be able to po9t out 9 e in/ance ( a non-exi/+ ?+1 :]e ! contradiction lies1 no less surely ?an x c n[ be po9t$ out 9 ! case ( impossible geometrical figures4' ,9 %ort1 :ile o!r p travel /raight f _! s5sations to an ext]nal _w1 ,sp9oza travels r\nd to x by ! idea ( an inf9ite sub/ance4#efd ,! relation ( ,sp9oza's ,sub/ance to its attributes is ambigu\s4 ,x is at once _! cause1 _! totality1 & _! unity4 ,! highly ela/ic & indef9ite t]m ,p[] help$ ^! v>i\s aspects to play into & replace "o ano!r accord+ to ! requirem5ts ( ! sy/em4 ,x is associat$ ) ! subjective possibility ( multiply+ imag9>y exi/5ces to any am\nt2 ) ! causal en]gy 9 :i* exi/5ce orig9ates2 & ) ! expansiv5ess *>act]i/ic alike ( ,ext5sion & ( ,?\ght4 ,= ! two kn[n attributes ( ! univ]sal sub/ance are n simply relat$ to x z co-pr$icates ( a common subject2 !y sev]ally express its ess5tial ,p[]1 & are1 to t ext5t1 id5tical ) "o ano!r4 ,b :5 we ask1 ,h[ d !y express ,p[]8 ! same ambiguity recurs4 ,sub/ance is reveal$ ?r\gh its attributes1 z a cause ?r\gh its effects2 z an aggregate ?r\gh its con/itu5ts2 & z an ab/ract notion ?r\gh its concrete embodim5ts4 ,?us ,ext5sion & ,?\ght are id5tical ?r\gh _! v diff]5ces1 s9ce ^! illu/rate ! v]satility ( _! common s\rce1 & at ! same "t jo9tly contribute to ! realisation ( its p]fection4 ,b1 = all practical purposes1 ,sp9oza deals only ) ! p>allelism & resemblance ( ! attributes4 ,we h to see h[ he e/abli%es x1 & h[ f> he 0 help$ 9 s do+ by ! traditions ( ,greek philosophy4 ,,vii4 ,x has be5 already %[n h[ ,ext5sion1 hav+ become id5tifi$ ) matt]1 took on its me*anical qualities1 & 0 conceiv$ z a connect$ s]ies ( causes or modes ( motion4 ,! p>allel f\nd by ,sp9oza = ?is s]ies 9 ,?\ght is ! *a9 ( reasons & consequ5ts =m+ a demon/rative argum5t2 & "h he is obvi\sly foll[+ ,ari/otle1 :o al?\gh o/5sibly di/+ui%+ betwe5 =mal & effici5t causes1 hopelessly conf\nds !m 9 ! second book ( 8 ,po/]ior ,analytics4#efe ,we are said to und]/& a ?+ :5 we br+ x "u a g5]al rule1 & also :5 we discov] ! me*anical ag5cy :i* produces x4 ,= in/ance1 we may "k t a p>ticul> man w die1 ei!r f ! fact t all m5 are mortal1 or f ! fact t he has receiv$ a fatal w\nd4 ,! g5]al rule1 h[ev]1 is n ! cause ( :at w happ51 b only ! cause ( our kn[+ t x w happ52 & k ( ! rule by no means c>ries ) x a k ( ! effici5t cause2 z we see 9 ! case ( gravitation & o!r natural =ces ^: modus op]&i is /ill a complete my/]y4 ,:at deceiv$ ,ari/otle 0 p>tly 8 false analysis ( ! syllogism1 :i* he int]pret$ z ! connexion ( two t]ms by ! int]position ( a middle answ]+ to ! causal nexus ( two ph5om5a2 & p>tly 8 conception ( ! univ]se z a s]ies ( conc5tric sph]es1 ?r\gh :i* movem5t is transmitt$ f )\t1 ?us comb9+ ! two ideas ( notional compreh5sion & me*anical causation4 ,be ?is z x may1 ,sp9oza takes up ! ,ari/otelian id5tification ( logical ) dynamical connexion1 & gives x ! wide/ possible developm5t4 ,= ! ,/agirite w\ld n1 at any rate1 h dream$ ( attribut+ any b a subjective exi/5ce to ! demon/rative s]ies1 nor ( ext5d+ x beyond ! limits ( our actual k4 ,sp9oza1 on ! o!r h&1 assumes t ! :ole inf9ite *a9 ( mat]ial causes is repres5t$ by a correspond+ *a9 ( et]nal ideas2 & ?is *a9 he calls ! inf9ite intellect ( ,god4#eff ,"h1 besides ! necessities ( sy/ematisation1 ! influ5ce ( m$iaeval realism is pla9ly evid5t4 ,=1 :5 ! absolute self-exi/5ce ( ,plato's ,ideas _h be5 surr5d]$ 9 def]5ce to ,ari/otle's criticism1 a home 0 /ill f\nd = !m by ,plot9us 9 ! et]nal ,n\s1 & by ! ,*ri/ian ,s*oolm5 9 ! m9d ( ,god2 nor did su* a belief pres5t any difficulties s long z ! div9e p]sonality 0 respect$4 ,! pan!ism ( ,sp9oza1 h[ev]1 0 absolute1 & exclud$ ! notion ( any b a f9ite subjectivity4 ,?us ! inf9ite intellect ( ,god is an unsupport$ *a9 ( ideas recall+ ! !ory at "o "t imag9$ by ,plato4#efg ,or its exi/5ce may be m]ely :at ,ari/otle w\ld h call$ pot5tial2 9 o!r words1 ,sp9oza may mean t reasons w g on evolv+ !mselves s long z we *oose to /udy ! dialectic ( exi/5ce1 always 9 /rict p>allelism ) ! natural s]ies ( mat]ial movem5ts con/itut+ ! ext]nal univ]se2 & j z ?is is det]m9$ ?r\gh all its p>ts by ! totality ( ext5sion1 or ( all matt] 7:e!r mov+ or motionless7 tak5 toge!r1 s also at ! summit ( ! logical s]ies /&s ! idea ( ,god1 f ^: def9ition ! demon/ration ( e less] idea necess>ily foll[s4 ,x is true t 9 a *a9 ( connect$ en]gies ! antec$5t1 z su*1 mu/ be always precisely equal to ! consequ5t2 b1 app>5tly1 ?is difficulty did n pres5t itself to ,sp9oza1 nor ne$ we be surpris$ at ?is2 = ,kant1 com+ a c5tury lat]1 0 /ill s imbu$ ) ,ari/otelian traditions z1 simil>ly1 to d]ive ! category ( ,cause & ,effect f ! relation betwe5 ,reason & ,consequ5t 9 hypo!tical propositions4#efh ,mean:ile ! p>allelism betwe5 ,?\ght & ,ext5sion 0 n exhau/$ by ! id5tification j analys$4 ,ext5sion 0 n only a s]ies ( movem5ts2 x /ill rema9$ an expression = co-exi/5ce & adjac5cy4 ,sp9oza1 !re=e1 felt himself oblig$ to supply ,?\ght ) a correspond+ly cont9u\s quality4 ,x is "h t 8 *ief orig9ality lies1 "h t he has be5 mo/ closely foll[$ by ! philosophy ( our own "t4 ,m9d1 he decl>es1 is an attribute ev]y:]e accompany+ matt]1 co-ext5sive & co-inf9ite ) space4 ,our own animation is ! sum or ! resultant ( an animation cl++ to e p>ticle t ent]s into ! composition ( our bodies4 ,:5 our ?\ghts are affect$ by an ext]nal impulse1 to suppose t ?is impulse proce$s f any?+ mat]ial is a delusion2 x is produc$ by ! m9d belong+ to ! body :i* acts on our body2 al?\gh 9 :at s5se ?is process is to be und]/ood rema9s a my/]y4 ,sp9oza has cle>ly expla9$ ! doctr9e ( animal automatism1 & %[n x to be p]fectly conceivable2#efi b he has entirely omitt$ to expla9 h[ ! p>allel influ5ce ( "o ?\ght 7or feel+7 on ano!r is to be und]/ood2 = al?\gh ?is too is spok5 ( z a causal relation1 x seems to be q diff]5t f ! logical concat5ation describ$ z ! inf9ite intellect ( ,god2 & to suppose t idea foll[s f idea l movem5t f movem5t w\ld am\nt to a complete mat]ialisation ( m9d2 :ile our philosoph] w\ld c]ta9ly h repudiat$ ,mr4 ,%adwor? ,hodgson's !ory1 t /ates ( consci\sness are only connect$ ?r\gh _! ext5d$ sub/ratum1 z ! segm5ts ( a mosaic picture are held toge!r by ! und]ly+ surface ( masonry4 ,nor c we admit t ,sp9oza ent]ta9$ ! !ory1 n[ s popul>1 accord+ to :i* ext5sion & consci\sness are m]ely diff]5t aspects ( a s+le reality4 ,= ?is w\ld imply t ! sub/ance :i* !y manife/ _h an exi/5ce ( its own ap>t f its attributes2 :]eas ,sp9oza makes x consi/ ( ! attributes1 t is to say1 id5tifies x ) _! totality4 ,we are =c$1 !n1 to conclude t ! proposition decl>+ ?\ght & ext5sion to be ! same ?+#egj has no o!r mean+ ?an t !y are connect$ by ! d\ble analogy :i* we h endeav\r$ to expla94 ,! analogy betwe5 ,?\ght & ,ext5sion "u ! two aspects ( necess>y connexion & m]e cont+5t relation 9 co-exi/5ce or succession1 01 9 tru?1 m int]e/+ to its au?or z a basis = 8 e?ical ?an z a developm5t ( 8 metaphysical speculations4 ,! two ord]s ( relations repres5t1 9 _! di/9ction1 ! opposition ( sci5ce to op9ion or imag9ation1 ! opposition ( dutiful conviction to bl9d or selfi% impulse4 ,sp9oza borr[s f ! ,/oics _! id5tification ( volition ) belief2 b 9 work+ out ! consequ5ces ( ?is pr9ciple x is ( ,plato r ?an ( ! ,/oics t he rem9ds u4 ,! passions are 9 8 sy/em :at s5se1 imag9ation1 & op9ion 7 9 t ( ! ,a!nian ideali/2 & 8 e?ics may almo/ be call$ ! metaphysics ( ! ,republic turn$ outside 94 ,joy1 grief & desire are m or less imp]fect p]ceptions ( reality--a reality n belong+ to ! ext]nal _w b to ! consci\s subject itself4#ega ,:5 ,sp9oza traces !m to a consci\sness or expectation ( rais$ or l[]$ p[]1 we recognise ! influ5ce ( ,hobbes2 b :51 "h z else:]e1 he id5tifies p[] ) exi/5ce1 we detect a return to ,greek =ms ( ?\ght4 ,! great conflict betwe5 illusion & reality is f\ght out once m2 only1 ?is "t1 x is ab\t our own ess5ce t we are fir/ deceiv$ & !n enlight5$4 ,if ! nature & orig9 ( outw>d ?+s are half reveal$1 half conceal$ by s5se & imag9ation1 our emotions are 9 l mann] ! obscur+ & di/ort+ m$ium ?r\gh :i* we appreh5d our inmo/ selves1 & :atev] adds to or takes away f ! pl5itude ( our exi/5ce2 & :at sci5ce is to ! "o1 morality & religion are to ! o!r4 ,x is rem>kable t :ile ,sp9oza 0 giv+ a new application to ! ,platonic me?od1 ano!r ,c>tesian1 ,malebran*e1 0 work+ x out m /rictly on ! old l9es ( speculative rese>*4 ,! ,re*]*e de la ,vrit ( ?is unju/ly neglect$ ?9k] is a me?odical acc\nt ( ! v>i\s subjective ob/acles :i* imp$e our appreh5sion ( ?+s z !y really exi/1 & ( ! means by :i* x may be facilitat$4 ,"h also1 att5tion is conc5trat$ on ! subjective side ( philosophy2 & if ! m5tal processes select$ = /udy are ( !oretical r ?an practical int]e/1 we may probably attribute ?is to ! circum/ance t e e?ical "q 0 already decid$ = ,malebran*e by ! ,*ur* ^: ord]s he _h assum$4 ,b x 0 n m]ely 9 ! writ+s ( pr(ess$ philosoph]s t ! new aspect ( ,platonism f\nd expression4 ,all great art embodies 9 "o =m or ano!r ! lead+ conceptions ( its age2 & ! latt] half ( ! sev5te5? c5tury f\nd su* a manife/ation 9 ! com$ies ( ,molire4 ,if ^! works /& at ! head ( ,fr5* lit]ature1 !y owe _! position n m to _! au?or's brilliant wit ?an to 8 pr(\nd philosophy ( life2 or r1 we %\ld say t ) him wit & philosophy are "o4 ,! comic p[] ( ,%akespe>e 0 %[n by resolv+ ! outw>d appe>ances ( ?is _w into a s]ies ( dissolv+ illusions4 ,l ,sp9oza & ,malebran*e1 ,molire turns ! illusion 91 %[+ :at p]v]t$ op9ions m5 =m ( !mselves & o!rs1 ?r\gh misconceptions & passions ei!r ( spontane\s gr[? or s$ul\sly fo/]$ by design+ h&s4 ,society1 ) him1 seems almo/ entirely made up ( pret5d]s & _! dupes1 bo? *>act]s be+ n unfrequ5tly comb9$ 9 ! same p]son1 :o is made a victim ?r\gh 8 desire to pass = :at he is n & _c be4 ,& ?is is :at ess5tially di/+ui%es ! art ( ,molire f ! ,new ,com$y ( ,a!ns1 :i* he1 l o!r mod]ns1 _h at fir/ felt incl9$ to imitate until ! success ( ! ,prcieuses ,ridicules %[$ him :]e 8 true opportunities lay4 ,= ! ,new ,com$y 0 ,ari/otelian :]e x 0 n simply humani/2 t is to say1 x 0 an exhibition ( types l ^? sket*$ by ,ari/otle's disciple1 ,!ophra/us1 & already prefigur$ 9 ! ma/]'s own ,e?ics4 ,^! 7 ! p]5nial =ms 9 a _w ( inf9ite & p]i%+ individual exi/5ces1 n conceal$ beh9d ph5om5a1 b incorporat$ 9 !m & con/itut+ _! ess5tial tru?4 ,! ,old ,com$y is some?+ diff]5t aga92 x is pre-philosophic1 & may be *>act]is$ z an attempt to describe great political int]e/s & t5d5cies ?r\gh ! m$ium ( my?s & fables & famili> dome/icities1 j z ! old !ories ( ,nature1 ! old lessons ( practical wisdom1 & ! fir/ great national *ronicles _h be5 ?r[n into ! same homely =m4#egb ,! purely intellectual view ( human nature1 ! def9ition ( m9d 9 t]ms ( cognition1 is "o m fallacy f :i* ,ari/otle's tea*+1 _h x n fall5 into neglect or contempt1 might h gu>d$ ,sp9oza4 ,nev]!less1 8 p>allelism betwe5 passion & s5su\s p]ception saves him f ! wor/ extravagances ( 8 ,greek pr$ecessors4 ,= ! s5ses1 h[ev] mu* !y might be malign$1 nev] 7 nor c\ld be altoge!r reject$2 :ile ! passions met ) little m]cy f ,plato & ) none f ! ,/oics1 :o consid]$ !m n only unnecess>y b ev5 unnatural4 ,sp9oza m wisely sees 9 !m ass]tions1 h[ev] obscure & confus$1 ( ! w to be & gr[ :i* con/itutes individual exi/5ce4 ,& he sees t !y c no m be remov$ by po9t+ out _! evil consequ5ces ?an s5se-impressions c be aboli%$ by prov+ _! fallaci\sness4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ,sp9oza speaks z if "o emotion c\ld only be conqu]$ or expell$ by ano!r emotion1 we mu/ n all[ 8 peculi> phraseology to conceal f u ! purely intellectual "* ( 8 :ole e?ical sy/em4 ,:at he really holds is t emotion c be ov]come by reason or bett] k1 because x is itself an imp]fect cognition4 ,po9t by po9t1 an analogy--or some?+ m ?an an analogy--is made out betwe5 ! errors ( s5su\s p]ception jo9$ to imag9ation1 & ! errors ( our spontane\s ef=ts aft] happ9ess or self-realisation4 ,bo? are impos$ on u f )\t1 & nei!r c be got rid ( by a simple act ( volition4 ,bo? are affect$ by illusions ( p]spective3 ! ne>] object ( desire1 l ! ne>] object ( p]ception1 assum+ a disproportionate place 9 ! field ( view4 ,9 bo?1 accid5tal contiguity is habitually conf\nd$ ) causation2 :ile 9 bo? ! assignm5t ( causes to effects1 in/ead ( be+ trac$ back ?r\gh an inf9ite s]ies ( antec$5ts1 /ops %ort ) ! antec$5t ne>e/ to ourselves4 ,if objects are classifi$ accord+ to _! sup]ficial resemblances or ! usages ( common language1 s also are ! desires su/a9$ & int5sifi$ by imitation & rivalry4 ,by p>ity ( reason+1 moral education mu/ be conduct$ on ! same l9es z intellectual education4 ,fir/1 x is %[n h[ our individual exi/5ce1 dep5d+ z x does on =ces inf9itely exce$+ our own1 is to be ma9ta9$4 ,?is is *iefly done by cultivat+ fri5dly relations ) o!r m52 probably1 al?\gh ,sp9oza does n himself make ! comp>ison1 on ! same pr9ciple z t obs]v$ 9 ! mutual assi/ance & rectification ( ! s5ses1 toge!r ) _! pres]vation by means ( v]bal signs4 ,! mislead+ passions are to be ov]come by discov]+ _! orig92 by ref]r+ ! pleasures & pa9s :i* produce !m to ! "r causes2 by call+ 9 ?\ght to r$ress ! balance ( imag9ation2 by divid+ ! att5tion among an inf9ite numb] ( causes2 f9ally1 by demon/rat+ ! absolute necessity ( :atev] actions excite !m1 & classify+ !m accord+ to _! relations1 9 ! same way t ! ph5om5a ( ! mat]ial _w are dealt ) :5 subject$ to sci5tific analysis4 ,s f> ,sp9oza1 foll[+ ! example ( ,/oicism1 has only /udi$ ! means by :i* reason conqu]s passion4 ,he n[ proce$s to %[1 9 ! _s ( ,plato or ( ,platonic ,*ri/ianity1 h[ imm5sely sup]ior to ! pleasures ( s5se & op9ion are ^? af=d$ by true religion--by ! love ( ,god & ! possession ( et]nal life4 ,b1 "h also1 z 9 ! ,greek sy/em1 logic does duty = emotion4 ,! love ( ,god means no m ?an view+ ourselves z fill+ a place 9 ! inf9ite framework ( exi/5ce1 & z det]m9$ to be :at we are by ! totality ( =ces compos+ x4 ,& et]nal life is m]ely ! adju/m5t ( our ?\ghts to ! logical ord] by :i* all modes ( exi/5ce are d$ucible f ! idea ( inf9ite p[]4 ,?us1 :ile ,sp9oza draws to a head all ! t5d5cies inh]it$ f ,greek philosophy1 borr[+ f ! e>ly physici/s _! necess>ianism2 f ! ,atomi/s1 _! exclusion ( f9al causes1 _! d5ial ( ! sup]natural1 & _! inf9ite worlds2 f ! ,a!nian s*ool1 _! di/9ction betwe5 m9d & body & betwe5 reason & s5se2 f ,ari/otle1 8 p>allelism betwe5 causation & syllogism2 f ! ,epicureans1 _! v9dication ( pleasure2 & f ! ,/oics1 _! id5tification ( belief ) action1 _! conque/ ( passion & _! devotion to humanity2--x is to ! dom9ant ,platonism ( ! sev5te5? c5tury t 8 sy/em owes its f\ndation1 its developm5t1 & its cr[n2 = he beg9s by realis+ ! ab/ract conception ( be+1 & inf]s its absolute inf9ity f ! mislead+ analogy ( space1 :i* is n an ab/raction at all2 d$uces 8 conclusions accord+ to ! geometrical me?od recomm5d$ by ,plato2 & ends1 l ,plato1 by translat+ dialectic =mulas into ! emotional language ( religi\s fai?4#egc ,,viii4 ,f ?is gr& syn!sis1 h[ev]1 a s+le elem5t 0 omitt$2 &1 l ! un9vit$ gue/ ( fairy tradition1 x prov$ /rong en\gh s+ly to de/roy :at _h be5 con/ruct$ by ! unit$ ef=ts ( all ! re/4 ,?is 0 ! sceptical pr9ciple1 ! critical analysis ( ideas1 fir/ ex]cis$ by ,protagoras1 made a new />t+-po9t by ,socrates1 c>ri$ to p]fection by ,plato1 supplem5t+ exp]i5ce ) ,ari/otle1 & f9ally proclaim$ 9 its purity z ! sole function ( philosophy by an entire s*ool ( ,greek ?\ght4 ,not)/&+ ! /]ility commonly associat$ ) m]e negation1 x 0 ?is :i*1 ( all ! lat] ,greek s*ools1 possess$ ! greate/ p[]s ( gr[?4 ,besides pass+ ?r\gh m ?an "o /age ( developm5t on its own acc\nt1 ,scepticism impos$ s]i\s modifications on ,/oicism1 gave bir? to ,eclecticism1 & contribut$ to ! e/abli%m5t ( ,neo-,platonism4 ,! explanation is n f> to seek4 ,! m highly organis$ a sy/em is1 ! m resi/ance does x (f] to *ange1 ! m does its transmission t5d to assume a rigidly s*ola/ic =m4 ,to su* dogmatism ! ,sceptics 71 on pr9ciple1 oppos$2 & by keep+ ! problems ( philosophy op51 !y facilitat$ ! task ( all :o _h a new solution to (f]2 :ile m9d & its activities be+1 to "s ext5t1 safe f ! univ]sal d\bt1 ! sceptical pr9ciple spontane\sly ?rew back ?\ght on a subjective in/ead ( an objective syn!sis ( k--9 o!r words1 on t psy*ological idealism ! pregnancy & compreh5siv5ess ( :i* are e day becom+ m cle>ly recognis$4 ,& we %all n[ see h[ ! same f]tilis+ p[] ( criticism has be5 manife/$ 9 mod]n times z well4 ,! sceptical philosophy1 already advocat$ 9 ! ,middle ,ages by ,john ( ,salisbury1 01 l e o!r =m ( anci5t ?\ght1 reviv$ at ! ,r5aissance1 b only "u ! v sup]ficial =m :i* inf]s f ! co-exi/5ce ( _m div]g5t op9ions t none ( !m c be true4 ,ev5 s1 h[ev]1 x l$ ,montaigne to s\nd] notions ( tol]ation & humanity ?an 7 ent]ta9$ by any ( 8 contempor>ies4 ,) ,bacon1 & /ill m ) ,desc>tes1 x also appe>s z ! necess>y prep>ation = a remodell+ ( all belief2 b ! great dogmatic sy/ems /ill ex]cis$ su* a pot5t influ5ce on bo? ^? ?9k]s t _! pr(ess$ dem& = a new me?od m]ely leads up to an alt]$ /atem5t ( ! old unprov$ assumptions4 ,mean:ile ! old pr9ciple ( univ]sal d\bt c\ld no long] be ma9ta9$ 9 pres5ce ( ! c]ta9ties already won by mod]n sci5ce4 ,man1 9 ! "t ( ,newton1 _h1 z ,pope t]sely puts x1 #8too mu* k = ! sceptic side4' ,! problem 0 n h[ to e/abli% ! reality1 b h[ to asc]ta9 ! orig9 & possible ext5t ( t k4 ,! fir/ to p]ceive ?is1 ! fir/ to evolve criticism out ( scepticism1 & !re=e ! real f\nd] ( mod]n philosophy1 0 ,locke4 ,nev]!less1 ev5 ) him1 ! advantage ( /udy+ ! m rec5t 9 close connexion ) ! e>li] developm5ts ( ?\ght does n cease2 x only ent]s on a new phase4 ,if he _c1 l 8 pr$ecessors1 be directly affiliat$ to "o or m ( ! ,greek s*ools1 8 position c be illu/rat$ by a p>allel d]iv$ f ! hi/ory ( ^? s*ools4 ,:at ,arcesilaus & ,c>neades _h be5 to ,socrates & 8 successors1 t ,locke 01 9 a l>ge measure1 to ,bacon & ! ,c>tesians4 ,he w5t back to ! initial d\bt :i* ) !m _h be5 ov]borne by ! dogmatic reaction1 & insi/$ on mak+ x a reality4 ,! _s ( ! ,apologia is abs5t f ,plato's lat] dialogues1 only to reappe> ) ev5 m ?an its orig9al p[] 9 ! tea*+ ( ! ,new ,academy4 ,&1 9 l mann]1 ,desc>tes' introspective me?od1 ) its dem& = cle> ideas1 becomes1 9 ! ,essay conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 an irresi/ible solv5t = ! psy*ologyy & physics ( its fir/ prop\nd]4 ,! doctr9e ( innate ideas1 ! doctr9e t ext5sion is ! ess5ce ( matt]1 ! doctr9e t ?\ght is ! ess5ce ( m9d1 ! m g5]al doctr9e1 held also by ,bacon1 t ?+s h a discov]able ess5ce :5ce all _! prop]ties may be d$uc$ by a process analog\s to ma!matical reason+1--all collaps$ :5 br\ght to ! te/ ( def9ite & concrete exp]i5ce4 ,we h "h1 inde$1 some?+ comp>able n only to ! scepticism ( ! ,new ,academy1 b also to ! ,ari/otelian criticism ( ,plato's metaphysics2 &1 at fir/ sight1 x might seem z if ! ,p]ipatetic philosophy 0 de/9$ once m to rega9 ! position tak5 f x by ! resuscitation ( its anci5t foe4 ,b ,locke 0 n incl9$ to sub/itute "o =m ( s*ola/icism = ano!r4 ,by apply+ ! analytical me?od ( ,atomism to k itself1 he creat$ a weapon equally fatal to ! two compet+ sy/ems4 ,"u 8 dissection1 ! concrete individual sub/ance ( ! "o vani%$ no less completely ?an ! univ]sal ideas ( ! o!r4 ,no?+ rema9$ b a bundle ( qualities held toge!r by a subjective bond4 ,simil>ly1 9 political sci5ce1 ! analytical me?od ( assum+ civil gov]nm5t to result f a concurr5ce ( individual wills1 :i* ) ,hobbes _h s]v$ only to de/roy ecclesia/ical au?ority1 :ile leav+ intact & ev5 /r5g!n+ ! au?ority ( secul> rul]s1 0 re9t]pret$ by ,locke z a negation ( all absolutism :atev]4 ,x is int]e/+ to obs]ve h[1 "h also1 ! positive sci5ce ( ! age _h a l>ge %>e 9 det]m9+ its philosophic "*4 ,f\nd$ on ! discov]y ( ! e>?'s true %ape1 ,ari/otle's metaphysics _h be5 ov]?r[n by ! discov]y ( ! e>?'s motion4 ,& n[ ! claims ( ,c>tesianism to h furni%$ an exact k ( matt] & a def9ition ( x :5ce all ! facts ( obs]vation c\ld be d$uc$ priori1 7 summ>ily refut$ by ! discov]y ( univ]sal gravitation4 ,! ,c>tesians compla9$ t ,newton 0 br++ back ! occult qualities ( ! ,s*oolm52 b ! t5d5cy ( bodies to move t[>ds "o ano!r prov$ z c]ta9 z x 0 inexplicably my/]i\s4 ,= a "t1 ! /udy ( causes 0 sup]s$$ by ! /udy ( laws2 & ! new me?od ( physical sci5ce mov$ 9 p]fect h>mony ) ! ph5om5ism ( ,locke4 ,"o mo/ important consequ5ce ( ?is revolution 0 to place ! new ,critical philosophy on a foot+ q diff]5t f t occupi$ by ! anci5t sceptics4 ,bo? re/rict$ c]ta9 k to our own /ates ( consci\sness2 b x n[ appe>$ t ?is might be done )\t impea*+ ! value ( accept$ sci5tific conclusions1 :i* 0 m ?an ! ,academic philosophy w\ld h admitt$4 ,9 o!r words1 grant+ t we 7 limit$ to ph5om5a1 x 0 %[n t sci5ce consi/$ 9 asc]ta9+ ! relations ( ^! ph5om5a to "o ano!r1 in/ead ( to a problematic reality ly+ beh9d !m2 :ile1 t su* relations exi/$ & 71 9 fact1 "p ( ! ph5om5a !mselves1 0 :at no sceptic c\ld easily d5y4 ,nev]!less1 9 ea* case1 subjective idealism _h ! effect ( conc5trat+ speculation1 prop]ly s call$1 on e?ical & practical int]e/s4 ,locke /ruck ! keynote ( eighte5? c5tury philosophy :5 he pron\nc$ morality to be #8! prop] sci5ce & bus9ess ( mank9d 9 g5]al4'#egd ,& no soon] _h morality come to ! front ?an ! significance ( anci5t ?\ght aga9 made itself app>5t4 ,:e!r ?r\gh consci\s imitation1 or because ! same causes br\ght ab\t ! same effects1 e?ical enquiries mov$ along ! l9es orig9ally laid d[n 9 ! s*ools ( ,a!ns4 ,:5 rules ( conduct 7 n directly ref]r$ to a div9e revelation1 !y 7 bas$ ei!r on a suppos$ law ( ,nature1 or on ! necessities ( human happ9ess1 or on "s comb9ation ( ! two4 ,no?+ is m *>act]i/ic ( ! eighte5? c5tury ?an its wor%ip ( ,nature4 ,ev5 ! !ology ( ! age is deeply col\r$ by x2 & ) ! majority ( ^? :o reject$ !ology x became a new religion4 ,b ?is s5tim5t is demon/rably ( ,greek orig91 & f\nd its mo/ elaborate1 ?\gh n its mo/ absolute1 expression 9 ,/oicism4 ,! ,/oics _h inh]it$ x f ! ,cynics1 :o held ! fai? 9 great] purity2 & ^!1 aga91 s f> z we c judge1 f a c]ta9 ,sophi/ic s*ool1 "s fragm5ts ( ^: tea*+ h be5 pres]v$ by ,x5ophon & ,plato2 :ile ! fir/ :o gave wide curr5cy to ?is fam\s ab/raction 01 9 all probability1 ,h]acleitus4 ,to ! ,/oics1 h[ev]1 is due t intimate association ( naturalism ) teleology :i* meets u aga9 9 ! philosophy ( ! la/ c5tury1 & ev5 n[ :]ev] ! doctr9e ( evolution has n be5 ?or\ghly accept$4 ,x 0 assum$1 9 ! tee? ( all evid5ce1 t ,nature be>s ! m>ks ( a uni=mly b5efic5t design1 t evil is exclusively ( human orig91 & t ev5 human nature is ess5tially good :5 unspoil$ by artificial re/rictions4 ,yet if teleology 01 9 "s respects1 a fall+-(f f ! rigid me*anicism fir/ taught by ! pre-,socratic s*ools & !n aga9 by ! ,c>tesian s*ool1 9 at lea/ "o respect x m>k$ a comp>ative progress4 ,= ! fir/ attempts made bo? by anci5t & mod]n philosophy to expla9 vital ph5om5a on purely me*anical pr9ciples 7 altoge!r premature2 & ! imm5se ext5sion ( biological k :i* took place subsequ5tly to bo?1 c\ld n b br+ ab\t an irresi/ible movem5t 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! fir/ to revive teleology 0 ,leibniz1 :o furni%$ a transition f ! sev5te5? to ! eighte5? c5tury by 8 monadology4 ,9 ?is1 ,atomism is comb9$ ) ,ari/otelian ideas1 j z x _h previ\sly be5 comb9$ ) ,platonic ideas by ,desc>tes4 ,! movem5t ( ! atoms is expla9$ by _! aspiration aft] a m p]fect /ate in/ead ( by me*anical pressure4 ,b :ile ,leibniz /ill relies on ! ontological argum5t ( ,desc>tes to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 ?is 0 soon ab&on$1 along ) ! cosmological argum5t1 = ! argum5t f design1 :i* 0 also t us$ by ! ,/oics2 :ile 9 e?ics ! fitness ( ?+s 0 sub/itut$ = ! m me*anical law ( self-pres]vation1 z ! rule ( conduct2 & ! subjection ( all impulse to reason 0 replac$ by ! mild] pr9ciple ( a control ex]cis$ by ! b5evol5t ov] ! malevol5t in/9cts4 ,?is 0 a v di/9ct dep>ture f ! ,/oic me?od1 yet ^? :o made x 7 m fai?ful to teleology ?an ,/oicism _h be52 = to condemn human feel+ altoge!r 0 implicitly to condemn ! "w ( ,nature or ( ,god4 ,! o!r great e?ical me?od ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 its h$onism1 0 closely connect$ ) ! sceptical movem5t 9 speculative philosophy1 &1 l t1 receiv$ an entirely new significance by becom+ associat$ ) ! idea ( law4 ,^? :o isolate man f ! univ]se are necess>ily l$ to seek 9 8 int]e/s z su* ! sole regulator ( 8 actions1 & _! sole sanction 9 ! op9ion ( 8 fell[s4 ,protagoras w5t already s f>1 not)/&+ 8 unwill+ness to recognise pleasure z ! supreme end2 & 9 ! sy/em ( 8 true successor1 ,ari/ippus1 ! mo/ extreme h$onism goes h& 9 h& ) ! mo/ extreme idealism2 :ile ) ,epicurus1 aga91 bo? are temp]$ by ! influ5ce ( naturalism1 impos+ on him its conceptions ( objective law alike 9 sci5ce & 9 practice4 ,/ill 8 sy/em lean$ heavily to ! side ( self-gratification pure & simple2 & x 0 res]v$ = mod]n ?\ght to e/abli% a complete equilibrium betwe5 ! two compet+ t5d5cies ( ,greek e?ics4 ,?is has be5 effect$ 9 ,utilit>ianism2 & ^? critics are entirely mi/ak5 :o1 l ,m4 ,guyau1 reg>d t sy/em z a m]e reproduction ( ,epicureanism4 ,x might ) full z mu* reason be call$ a mod]n v]sion ( ,/oicism4 ,! idea ( humanity is ess5tially ,/oic2 to "w = ! good ( humanity 0 a ,/oic precept2 & to sacrifice "o's own pleasure = t high] good is a virtue :i* w\ld h satisfi$ ! mo/ rigor\s dem&s ( a ,clean!s1 an ,epicttus1 or an ,aurelius4 ,utilit>ianism agrees ) ! anci5t h$onism 9 hold+ pleasure to be ! sole good & pa9 ! sole evil4 ,its adh]5ts also1 = ! mo/ "p1 admit t ! desire ( ! "o & ! dread ( ! o!r are ! sole motives to action2 b1 :ile mak+ ! end absolutely univ]sal & imp]sonal1 !y make ! motive into a mom5t>y impulse1 )\t any necess>y relation to ! future happ9ess ( ! ag5t himself4 ,! good man does 8 duty because do+ x gives him pleasure1 or because ! failure to d x w\ld give him pa91 at ! mom5t2 al?\gh he kn[s t a contr>y c\rse w\ld save him f great] pa9 or w9 him great] pleasure h]eaft]4 ,no accurate ?9k] w\ld call ?is act+ f a selfi% or int]e/$ motive2 nor does x agree ) ! tea*+ ( ,epicurus4 ,7 all s5sitive be+s to be unit$ 9 a s+le organism1 !n1 on utilit>ian pr9ciples1 self-int]e/1 int]pret$ 9 ! s5se ( seek+ its own pres]vation & pleasure1 w\ld be ! only law t ! individualis$ aggregate c\ld rationally obey4 ,b ! good ( ea* "p w\ld be rigor\sly subord9at$ to ! good ( ! :ole2 & utilit>ian morality desires t we %\ld act z if ?is hypo!sis 7 realis$1 at lea/ 9 ref]5ce to our own p>ticul> int]e/s4 ,n[1 ! idea ( humanity z =m+ su* a consolidat$ :ole is n ,epicurean4 ,x belongs to ! philosophy :i* always reprobat$ pleasure1 precisely because its pursuit is associat$ ) ! d]eliction ( public duty & ) bitt] rivalry = ! possession ( :at1 by its v nature1 exi/s only 9 limit$ quantities1 :ile ! dem& = x is unlimit$ or1 at any rate1 f> exce$s ! supply4 ,accord+ to ! ,/oics1 !re 0 only "o way 9 :i* ! individual c\ld /udy 8 private int]e/ )\t ab&on+ 8 position z a social be+1 & ?is 0 to f9d x exclusively 9 ! practice ( virtue4#ege ,b virtue & public int]e/ rema9$ m]e =ms scantily supplem5t$ by appeals to ! traditional morality1 until ! idea ( g5]alis$ happ9ess1 ( pleasure diffus$ ?r\gh ! :ole community1 came to fill !m ) sub/ance & life4 ,x has also to be obs]v$ t ! idea ( utility z a te/ ( moral goodness is q di/9ct f h$onism4 ,plato proclaims1 9 ! mo/ unequivocal t]ms1 t actions mu/ be e/imat$ by _! consequ5ces in/ead ( by ! feel+s ( sympa?y or antipa?y :i* !y excite2 yet no "o c\ld object m /rongly to mak+ pleasure ! end ( action4 ,?us1 ?ree di/9ct doctr9es seem to conv]ge 9 mod]n ,engli% e?ics1 ( :i* all are traceable to ,greek philosophy1 b only "o to ,epicureanism 9 p>ticul>1 & n ultimately to t b to ! old] sy/ems :5ce x sprang4 ,& "h we unexpect$ly f9d ourselves confront$ by a new relation betwe5 anci5t & mod]n ?\ght4 ,ea* acts z a p[]ful precipitant on ! o!r1 dissolv+ :at might o!rwise h pass$ = insep>able associations1 & comb9+ elem5ts :i* a less complete exp]i5ce might h l$ u to reg>d z necess>ily incompatible ) "o ano!r4 ,! in/ance j analys$ is highly significant2 nor does x /& alone4 ,mod]n spirituali/s (t5 talk z if morality 0 impossible ap>t f _! peculi> metaphysics4 ,b ! ,/oics1 confess$ly ! pure/ morali/s ( antiquity1 7 uncompromis+ mat]iali/s2 :ile ! spirituali/ ,ari/otle taught :at is n easily di/+ui%able f a v ref9$ sort ( egoism4 ,aga91 ! doctr9e ( free-w is n[ commonly connect$ ) a belief 9 ! sep>ability ( consci\sness f matt]1 &1 l t1 is decl>$ to be an indisp5sable condition ( morality4 ,among ! ,greeks1 h[ev]1 x 0 held by ! mat]iali/ ,epicureans m di/9ctly ?an by any o!r s*ool2 :ile ! ,/oics did n f9d necess>ianism inconsi/5t ) self-sacrific+ virtue4 ,! p>tial d]ivation ( k f an activity 9 our own m9ds is ano!r suppos$ concomitant ( spiritualism2 al?\gh ,ari/otle traces e idea to an ext]nal s\rce1 :ile at ! same "t hold+ "s cognitions to be necess>ily true--a !ory repudiat$ by mod]n exp]i5tiali/s4 ,to ,plato1 ! spirituality ( ! s\l seem$ to involve its pre-exi/5ce no less ?an its immortality1 a consequ5ce n accept$ by 8 mod]n imitators4 ,teleology is n[ commonly oppos$ to pan!ism2 ! two 7 closely comb9$ 9 ,/oicism2 :ile ,ari/otle1 al?\gh he believ$ 9 a p]sonal ,god1 attribut$ ! m>ks ( design 9 ,nature to purely unconsci\s ag5cies4 ,,ix4 ,! naturalism & utilit>ianism ( ! eighte5? c5tury are ! la/ conceptions directly inh]it$ f anci5t philosophy by mod]n ?\ght4 ,h5ce=w>d1 :atev] light ! /udy ( ! =m] c ?r[ on ! vicissitudes ( ! latt] is due ei!r to _! p>tial p>allelism1 or to an influ5ce becom+ e day fa9t] & m difficult to trace amid ! multitude ( factors involv$4 ,! progress ( analytical criticism 0 cont9ually deflect$ or arre/$ by ! /ill p[]ful resi/ance ( s*ola/icism1 j z ! sceptical t5d5cies ( ! ,new ,academy _h be5 be=e1 ?\gh happily ) less p]man5t success2 & z1 9 antiquity1 ?is _h happ5$ )9 no less ?an )\t ! critical s*ool1 s also d we f9d ,locke cl++ to ! !ology ( ,desc>tes2 ,b]keley laps+ into ,platonism2 ,hume play+ fa/ & loose ) 8 own pr9ciples2 & ,kant leav+ x d\btful to :i* side he belongs1 s ev5ly are ! two oppos+ t5d5cies balanc$ 9 8 m9d1 s dext]\sly does he adapt ! new criticism to ! framework ( s*ola/ic logic & metaphysics4 ,mean:ile ! /r5g? ( ! analytical me?od 0 d\bl$ by its ext5sion to ! ph5om5a ( gr[? & *ange2 =1 z appli$ to ^!1 x became ! fam\s !ory ( ,developm5t or ,evolution4 ,no idea belongs s completely to mod]n philosophy2 = ev5 ! anci5t ?9k]s :o ?rew _! cosmology into a hi/orical =m _h nev] attempt$ to expla9 ! pres5t by ! pa/4 ,if any?+1 !y expla9$ ! pa/ by ! pres5t1 assum+ a r\gh analogy to exi/ betwe5 ! =mation ( ! univ]se z a :ole & ! g5esis ( ^? natural or artificial bodies :i* 7 cont9ually gr[+ or be+ built up be=e _! eyes4 ,_! cosmology 01 9 fact1 no?+ b ! old my?ology /ripp$ ( its p]sonal or consci\s elem5t2 &1 l x1 0 a hypo!sis unsupport$ by any ext]nal evid5ce2--a criticism n inconsi/5t ) ! admission t to elim9ate ! sup]natural elem5t f speculation 01 ev5 9 ! abs5ce ( any solid addition to human k1 an a*ievem5t ( ine/imable value4 ,! evolution>y me?od is also an elim9ation ( ! sup]natural1 b x is a great deal m4 ,by trac+ ! hi/ory ( comp\nd /ructures to _! fir/ orig91 & not+ ! successive increm5ts to :i* _! gradual gr[? is due1 x reveals1 z no /atical analysis ev] c\ld1 ! actual ord] ( syn!sis1 & ! mean+ ( ! sep>ate con/itu5ts by ^: jo9t action _! movem5ts are det]m9$2 :ile1 conv]sely1 _! dissolution supplies u ) a numb] ( ready-made exp]im5ts 9 :i* ! influ5ce ( ea* p>ticul> factor 9 ! sum total may be detect$ by wat*+ ! *anges t ensue on its removal4 ,9 a ^w1 ! me?od ( evolution is ! atomi/ic me?od1 ext5d$ f matt] to motion1 & view$ "u ! =m ( succession in/ead ( "u ! =m ( co-exi/5ce4 ,z a univ]sal philosophy1 ! !ory ( ,developm5t1 l e o!r mod]n idea1 has only be5 p]mitt$ to manife/ itself 9 comb9ation ) diff]5t =ms ( ! old s*ola/icism4 ,! :ole speculative movem5t ( our c5tury is made up ( su* hybrid sy/ems2 & ?ree1 9 p>ticul>1 /ill divide ! suffrages ( _m ?9k+ m5 :o h n be5 able entirely to %ake (f ! influ5ce ( reaction>y ideas4 ,^! are ! sy/ems ( ,hegel1 ( ,comte1 & ( ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]4 ,9 ea*1 ! logic & metaphysics inh]it$ f ,greek ?\ght are v>i\sly comp\nd$ ) ! new sci5ce4 ,& ea*1 = t v reason1 s]ves to facilitate ! transition f "o to ! o!r2 a "p analog\s to t play$ among ! ,greeks !mselves by ! va/ con/ructions ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 or1 9 an age ( less productivity1 by ! ,/oic & ,alex&rian philosophies4 ,! influ5ce ( ,ari/otle has1 inde$1 cont9u$ to make itself felt n only ?r\gh ! tea*+ ( 8 mod]n imitators1 b m directly z a liv+ tradition 9 lit]ature1 or ?r\gh ! r5ew$ /udy ( 8 writ+s at fir/ h&4 ,ev5 9 ! pure sci5ces1 x surviv$ until a comp>atively rec5t p]iod1 &1 s f> z ! ,fr5* intellect goes1 x is n yet entirely ext9ct4 ,f ,abl>d on1 ,p>is 0 ! headqu>t]s ( t sob]] s*ola/icism :i* took its cue f ! ,p]ipatetic logic2 & ! result+ direction ( ?\ght1 deeply impress$ z x became on ! ,fr5* "* & ! ,fr5* language1 0 int]rupt$ r ?an p]man5tly alt]$ by ! ,c>tesian revolution1 &1 ) ! fall ( ,c>tesianism1 gradually recov]$ its old pr$om9ance4 ,! ,ari/otelian philosophy is rem>kable above all o!rs = cle> def9itions1 full descriptions1 compreh5sive classifications1 lucid reason+1 encyclopa$ic sci5ce1 & dis9t]e/$ love ( k2 along ) a c]ta9 incapacity = e?ical speculation1#egf /rong cons]vative lean+s1 & a g5]al t5d5cy t[>ds ! rigid dem>cation r ?an ! fruitful comm+l+ ( ideas4 ,& x w probably be admitt$ t ^! are also traits *>act]i/ic ( ,fr5* ?9k+ z oppos$ to ,engli% or ,g]man ?9k+4 ,= in/ance1 widely diff]5t z is ! ,mcanique ,cle/e f ! a/ronomy ( ,ari/otle's treatise ,on ! ,heav5s1 bo? agree 9 be+ attempts to prove ! et]nal /ability ( ! cele/ial sy/em4#egg ,! de/ructive deluges by :i* ,ari/otle supposes civilisation to be p]iodically int]rupt$1 reappe> on a l>g] scale 9 ! !ory ( cata/rophes /ill held by ,fr5* geologi/s4 ,ano!r ,ari/otelian dogma1 ! fixity ( organic species1 ?\gh vigor\sly assail$ by em95t ,fr5* naturali/s1 has1 on ! :ole1 triumph$ ov] ! opposite doctr9e ( trans=mism 9 ,france1 & n[ imp$es ! acceptance ( ,d>w9's tea*+ ev5 9 circles :]e !ological prepossessions are ext9ct4 ,! accept$ classifications 9 botany & zoology are ! "w ( ,fr5*m5 foll[+ 9 ! foot/eps ( ,ari/otle1 ^: g5ius = me?odical arrangem5t 0 signally exemplifi$ 9 at lea/ "o ( ^! dep>tm5ts2 ! division ( animals into v]tebrate & inv]tebrate be+ orig9ally due to him4 ,bi*at's di/9ction betwe5 ! animal & ! vegetable functions recalls ,ari/otle's di/9ction betwe5 ! s5sitive & nutritive s\ls2 :ile 8 me?od ( /udy+ ! tissues be=e ! organs is prefigur$ 9 ! treatise on ! ,p>ts ( ,animals4 ,= a long "t1 ! rul+ ( ,ari/otle's ,poetics 0 undisput$ 9 ,fr5* criticism2 & if any?+ c\ld dis5title ,montesquieu's ,esprit des ,lois to ! pr\d motto1 ,prolem s9e matre creatam1 x w\ld be its close relation%ip to ! ,politics ( ! same univ]sal ma/]4 ,f9ally1 if x be grant$ t ! en?usiasm = k1 irrespective ( its utilit>ian applications1 exi/s to a great] degree among ! educat$ classes ( ,france ?an 9 any o!r mod]n society1 we may plausibly attribute ?is hon\rable *>act]i/ic to ! fo/]+ influ5ce ( "o :o has proclaim$ m eloqu5tly ?an any o!r philosoph] t !oretical activity is ! highe/ good ( human life1 ! ideal ( all ,nature1 & ! sole beatitude ( ,god4 ,x rema9s to add a few words on ! position :i* anci5t & mod]n philosophy respectively occupy t[>ds !ology4 ,"h _! relation is "o ( contra/ r ?an ( resemblance4 ,! ,greek ?9k]s />t at an imm5se di/ance f religi\s belief1 & _! fir/ allusions to x are m>k$ by a scornful d5ial ( its validity4 ,gradually1 ) ! transition f physical to e?ical enquiries1 an approximation betwe5 ! two is br\ght ab\t1 ?\gh n )\t occasional returns to _! =m] attitude ( ho/ility4 ,f9ally1 9 pres5ce ( a common dang] !y become int]wov5 & almo/ id5tifi$ ) "o ano!r2 :ile ! new religion aga9/ :i* !y make common cause1 itself pres5ts ! same spectacle ( metaphysical & moral ideas ent]+ into comb9ation ) ! spontane\s products ( popul> my?ology4 ,& be x obs]v$ t ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ?is process action & reaction 7 equal & contr>y4 ,! decl9e & corruption ( philosophy 0 ! price paid = ! elevation & purification ( religion4 ,:ile ! "o 0 con/antly s9k+1 ! o!r 0 con/antly ris+1 until !y conv]g$ on ! plane ( dogmatic !ology4 ,by ! v circum/ances ( ! case1 an opposite c\rse has be5 impos$ on ! developm5t ( mod]n philosophy4 ,/>t+ f an intimate union ) religion1 x sl[ly dis5gages itself f ! compromis+ alliance2 &1 al?\gh1 "h also1 ! normal c\rse ( ideas has be5 int]rupt$ by frequ5t reactions1 ! g5]al movem5t ( ,european ?\ght has be5 no less decid$ly t[>ds a complete emancipation f ! popul> beliefs ?an ! movem5t ( ,greek ?\ght _h be5 t[>ds _! conciliation & support4 ,spottiswoode ,co41 ,pr9t]s1 ,new-/reet ,squ>e1 ,london4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,see ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #gh-hc4 #b ,ari/otle1 ,metaph41 ,,viii41 iii41 #ajdc1 b1 #be4 #c ,zell]1 ,phil4 d4 ,gr41 ,,ii41 a1 #bgg4 #d ,diog4 ,l41 ,,vi41 #c4 #e ,accord+ to ! v probable conjecture ( ,zell]1 l4 c4 #f ,zell]1 l4 c42 ,diog4 ,l41 ,,vi41 #ab4 #g ,diog41 ,,vi41 #c4 #h ,= ! au?orities1 see ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #bfc4 #i ,diog41 ,,ix41 #fb4 #aj ,metaph41 ,,iv41 iv41 #ajjh1 b1 #ab ff4 #aa ,diss41 ,,iii41 xxii4 #ab ,diog41 ,,viii41 i4 ff4 #ac ,diog41 ,,vi41 #if4 #ad ,zell]1 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 a1 #bi4 #ae ,diog41 ,,vii41 #e4 #af ,diog41 ,,vii41 #ahc4 #ag ,ibid41 #agi4 #ah ,ibid41 #be4 #ai ,ibid41 #ahj ,l4 #bj ,plut>*1 ,de ,/oic4 ,repug41 iii41 #b4 #ba ,x is significant t ! only ,/oic :o fell back on pure ,cynicism %\ld h be5 ,ari/o ( ,*ios1 a g5u9e ,greek1 :ile ! only "o :o1 l ,ari/otle1 id5tifi$ good ) k 0 ,h]illus1 a ,c>?ag9ian4 #bb ,op4 cit41 p4 #ah1 cf4 p4 #cfb4 #bc ,diog41 ,,vii41 #add ff4 #bd ,posidonius e/imat$ ! sun's di/ance f ! e>? at #ejj1jjj1jjj /ades1 & ! moon's di/ance at #b1jjj1jjj /ades1 :i*1 c\nt+ ! /ade at #bjj y>ds1 gives ab\t #eg1jjj1jjj & #bbg1jjj miles respectively4 ,! sun's diamet] he reckon$1 accord+ to "o acc\nt1 at #ddj1jjj miles1 ab\t half ! real am\nt2 accord+ to ano!r acc\nt at a qu>t] less4 ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #aij1 ,note #b4 #be ,= ! au?orities1 see ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #aci1 ,note #a4 #bf ,zell]1 p4 #aee4 #bg ,! ,/oic necess>ianism gave occasion to a rep>tee :i* has rema9$ classical ev] s9ce1 al?\gh its orig9al au?or%ip is kn[n to few4 ,a slave ( ,z5o's1 on receiv+ *a/isem5t = a !ft1 tri$ to excuse himself by quot+ 8 ma/]'s pr9ciple t he 0 fat$ to /eal4 #8,& to be flogg$ = x1' repli$ ! philosoph]1 calmly cont9u+ 8 pr$e/9$ task4 7,diog41 ,,vii41 #bc47 #bh ,soph41 #bdg1 ,d4 #bi ,plut>*1 ,de ,comm4 ,notit41 xxx41 #b2 ,cic]o1 ,acad41 ,i41 xi41 #ci2 ,diog41 ,,vii41 #aej2 ,zell]1 p4 #aag4 #cj ,plut>*1 ,de ,/oic4 ,repug41 xliii41 #d4 #ca ,zell]1 p4 #bja1 ff4 #cb ,cic]o1 ,de ,nat4 ,deor41 ,,ii41 xv41 #ci4 #cc ,sextus ,empiricus1 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,ix41 #ah4 #cd ,cic]o1 ,de ,nat4 ,deor41 ,i41 xiii41 #cb4 #ce ,zell]1 p4 #cji ff4 #cf ,see ,cic]o1 ,de ,div9atione1 ,i41 passim4 #cg ,plut>*1 ,de ,placit4 ,phil41 ,,iv41 xi4 #ch ,?is seems ! be/ explanation ( ! v>i\s /atem5ts on ! subject made by our au?orities1 = :i* see ,zell]1 pp4 #ga-hf4 #ci ,sextus ,emp41 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,viii41 #cge4 #dj ,zell]1 p4 #aji4 #da ,zell]1 p4 #ic4 #db ,/obaeus1 ,eclog41 ,,ii41 p4 #acb1 quot$ by ,ritt] & ,prell]1 p4 #cid2 ,diog41 ,,vii41 #hi4 #dc #8,quid e/ sapi5tia8 ,semp] idem velle atque idem nolle4 ,licet illam exceptiunculam non adicias ut rectum sit quod velis4 ,non pote/ cuiquam semp] idem plac]e nisi rectum4' ,s5eca1 ,epi/41 xx41 #d4 #dd ,cic]o1 ,de ,f941 ,i41 ix41 #cj4 ,9 ?is he foll[$ ! ,cyr5aics2 see ,diog41 ,,ii41 #hg4 #de ,sextus ,emp41 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,xi41 #gc4 #df #8,das platonis*e ,g$i*t vom himmlis*5 ,gottes/aat hatte dur* die/ois*e ,auffassung d] ,welt als e9es vom ,gttli*5 dur*drung55 und beseelt5 ,krp]s e95 ,leib bekomm51 9 dess5 zw+5d5 ,organismus d] ,e9zelne als ,gli$ bes*loss5 i/ und si* fg5 muss4' ,bruno ,bau]1 ,*ri/us u4 d4 ,cs>51 p4 #cbh4 #dg ,zell]1 p4 #afh1 ,note #b4 #dh ,diog41 ,,vii41 vii41 #he4 #di ,gellius1 ,noct4 ,att41 ,,xii41 v41 #g1 quot$ by ,ritt] & ,prell]1 p4 #cie4 #ej ,diss]t41 ,i41 xix41 ,,ii4 #ea ,ibid41 xxii41 #i1 ff4 #eb ,cic]o1 ,tusc4 ,disput41 ,,iv41 xix4 ff4 #ec ,cic41 ,tusc4 ,disput41 ,,iv41 vi4 #ed ,zell]1 p4 #bbi4 #ee ,see ! ,diss]tations ( ,epicttus ?r\gh\t4 #ef ,plut>*1 ,de ,communibus ,notitiis1 cap4 xxxiii41 p4 #ajgf ,b4 #eg ,cf4 ,zell]1 p4 #ehc4 #eh ,zell]1 pp4 #bfj-a4 #ei ,ibid41 pp4 #bfg-h4 #fj ,ibid41 p4 #bgj4 #fa ,cic]o1 ,de ,f941 ,,iii41 xvii41 #eh2 ,acad41 ,i41 x41 #cg2 ,de ,(f41 ,i41 iii41 #h4 #fb ,de ,(f41 ,i41 vi4 #fc ,i41 viii4 #fd ,i41 xviii-xxiii4 #fe ,pyrrh4 ,hyp41 ,,iii41 #bja4 #ff ,cic41 ,de ,(f41 ,,iii41 xxiii41 #ia4 #fg ,cic41 ,de ,(f41 ,,iii41 xii41 #ea4 #fh ,ibid41 xxiii41 #hi4 #fi ,plut>*1 ,de ,comm4 ,notit41 xi41 #h4 #gj ,cf4 ,zell]1 pp4 #bfc-d1 #bgh-hd4 #ga ,diog41 ,,vii41 #acj2 ,cic41 ,de ,f941 ,,iii41 xviii41 #fj2 ,zell]1 pp4 #cje-i4 #gb ,diog41 ,,vii41 #ca1 #agf4 #gc ,plut>*1 ,de ,/oic4 ,repug41 xviii41 #e4 #gd #8,omnia scel]a1 etiam ante effectum op]is1 quantum culpae satis e/1 p]fecta sunt4'--,s5eca1 ,de ,con/4 ,sap41 vii41 #d4 ,cf4 ,z5o apud ,sext4 ,emp41 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,xi41 #aij4 #ge #8,prope e/ a te ,deus1 tecum e/1 intus e/ 444 sac] intra nos spiritus s$et bonorum malorumque no/rorum obs]vator et cu/os4'--,s5eca1 ,epp41 xli41 #a4 ,cf4 ,horace1 ,epp41 ,i41 i41 #fa2 ,lucan1 ,,ix41 #egc2 ,p]sius1 ,,iii41 #dc2 ,juv5al1 ,,xiii41 #aib-bce4 #gf ,x may be desirable to give "s reasons 9 support ( ?is op9ion1 z ! contr>y has be5 /at$ by s*ol>s writ+ )9 a comp>atively rec5t p]iod4 ,?us ,welck] says3 #8,das ,gewiss5 w>d bei d5 ,grie*5 als e9 gttli*es ,wes51 ,er9ys1 ges*eut und wie wir es son/ ni*t f9d51 zur ,got!it erhob5' 7,grie*is*e ,gtt]lehre1 ,i41 #bcc72 & aga9 7p4 #fii7 #8 444 i/ das ,gewiss54' ,simil>ly1 ,m4 ,alfr$ ,maury obs]ves t1 #8les remords se p]sonnifiai5t s\s la =me de desses ,er9nyies1 *>ges de punir t\s les =faits' 7,hi/oire des ,religions de la ,grce ,antique1 ,i41 #cdb74 ,& ,prell]1 :ile ent]ta9+ s\nd] views respect+ _! orig91 cont5ts himself ) ! caution t1 #8,man si* ht5 muss die ,furi5 blos fur die subjectiv5 ,m*te des m5s*li*5 ,gewiss5 zu halt5' 7,grie*is*e ,my?ologie1 ,i41 #fhf1 #crd ed474 ,n[1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! ,er9yes did n puni% all crime1 z !y ought to h done _h !y repres5t$ consci5ce4 ,accord+ to ,aes*ylus 7,eum541 #fjd-e71 !y consid]$ t ! murd] ( h] husb& by ,clytaemne/ra 0 no affair ( !irs1 !re be+ no blood relation%ip betwe5 ! p>ties conc]n$4 ,!y did n p]secute ,electra1 :o1 %ort ( /rik+ ! fatal bl[1 _h z mu* h& 9 h] "m's dea? z ,ore/es4 ,& ev5 :5 a fa!r 0 kill$ by 8 son1 !y d n always seem to h tak5 up ! matt]2 = 9 ! ,odyssey x is n by ! ,er9yes ( ,laius1 b by ^? ( ,epica/ t ,o$ipus is pursu$--a conception v unlike t ( ,sophocles1 :o makes him feel z mu* remorse = ! p>ricide z = ! ince/ & its consequ5ces4 ,9 ! next place1 ! ,er9yes are let loose n by ! action itself b by ! curses ( ! injur$ or (f5d$ blood-relation1 z we see by ,hom]1 ,il41 ,,ix41 #ded & #eff2 :i* seems to %[ t if !y p]sonifi$ any?+ human x 0 ! imprecations ( ! victim1 n ! self-reproa* ( ! aggressor4 ,?irdly1 ! ,ore/es ( ,aes*ylus1 s f> f feel+ consci5ce-smitt51 disclaims all responsibility = 8 "m's dea?1 inflict$ z x 0 9 consequ5ce ( a direct comm& f ! high] gods1 accompani$ by ?reats ( heavy puni%m5t 9 case ( disob$i5ce4 7,eum541 #ddc ff474 ,&1 f9ally1 ! (fice assign$ to ! ,er9yes ( see+ t ! laws ( nature are n brok5 7vol4 ,i41 #fg7 %[s t ! ,greeks conceiv$ _! exi/5ce z some?+ altoge!r objective & physical4 ,!re is a %ort b v s5sible acc\nt ( ! ,er9yes 9 ,keightley's ,my?ology1 p4 #age1 #d? ed4 #gg ,cic]o1 ,de ,(f41 ,i41 xxxi42 ,epicttus1 ,man41 #ag1 b41 #cj2 ,diss41 ,i41 ii41 #cc2 xvi41 #bj2 xxix41 #ci2 ,,ii41 v41 #aj2 ib41 #ba2 x41 #d1 xiv41 #h2 xxiii41 #ch2 xxv41 #bb2 ,anton9us1 ,comm41 ,,vi41 #ci1 #dc2 ,,ix41 #bi2 cf4 ,s5eca1 ,epp41 lxxxv41 #cd1 & ! say+ ( ,m>cus ,aurelius quot$ by ,dion ,cassius 7,epit41 ,,lxxi41 xxxiv41 #d71 t we _c make m5 :at we wi% !m to be2 we c only turn :at faculties !y h to ! be/ acc\nt 9 work+ = ! public good4 #gh ,= ! ref]5ces to ^! & o!r simil> passages1 see ! la/ note4 #gi ,plut>*1 ,de ,alex4 ,virt41 ,i41 vi42 ,diog41 ,,vii41 #cc4 #hj ,x ne$ h>dly be obs]v$ t "h also ! morality ( natural law has atta9$ its highe/ arti/ic developm5t "u ! h& ( ,george ,eliot--sometimes ev5 to ! neglect ( purely arti/ic effect1 z 9 ,daniel ,d]onda & ! ,spani% ,gypsy4 #ha ,zell]1 p4 #big1 foll[$ by ,mr4 ,capes1 9 8 excell5t little "w on ,/oicism 7p4 #ea74 #hb ,s5eca1 ,de ,ir1 ,i41 v41 #b ff42 ,,ii41 xxxi41 #g2 ,de ,clem41 ,i41 iii41 #b2 ,de ,b5ef41 ,,iv41 xxvi41 ,i1 ,epp41 xcv41 #ea ff42 ,epicttus1 ,diss41 ,,iv41 v41 #aj2 ,anton9us1 ,,vii41 #ac2 toge!r ) ! additional ref]5ces giv5 by ,zell]1 p4 #bhf ff4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t ! mutual love attribut$ to human be+s by ! ,/oic philosoph]s /&s1 n = an empirical *>act]i/ic1 b = an unrealis$ idea ( human nature4 ,! actual feel+s ( m5 t[>ds "o ano!r are describ$ by ,s5eca 9 language recall+ t ( ,s*op5hau] & ,leop>di4 #8,erras1' he exclaims1 #8si i/orum tibi qui occurrunt vultibus cr$is3 hom9um effigies hab5t1 animos f]>um3 nisi quod ill>um p]niciosior e/ primus incursus4 ,nunquam enim illas ad noc5dum nisi necessitas inicit3 aut fame aut timore coguntur ad pugnam3 hom9i p]d]e hom9em libet4'--,epp41 ciii41 #b4 #hc ,plato1 ,protagoras1 #ccg1 ,d4 #hd #8,he ,*>les ,au/9 pres5t$ ! ,b5?amic doctr9es 9 ! mo/ />tl+ =m ( :i* !y 7 susceptible1 exagg]at+ ev]y?+ 9 !m :i* t5d$ to consequ5ces (f5sive to any "o's preconceiv$ feel+s4'--,mill's ,autobiography1 p4 #gh4 #he ,zell]1 p4 #bha4 #hf #8,homo sacra res hom9i jam p] lusum et jocum occiditur 444 satisque spectaculi ex hom9e mors e/4'--,s5eca1 ,epp41 xcv41 #cc4 #8,s]vi sunt8 ,immo hom9es4 ,s]vi sunt8 ,immo contub]nales4 ,s]vi sunt8 ,immo humiles amici4 ,s]vi sunt8 ,immo cons]vi4'--,ibid41 xlvii41 #a4 ,comp>e ! treatise ,de ,ir1 passim4 #hg ,s5eca once lets falls ! words1 #8=tuna aequo jure g5itos alium alii donavit4'--,consol4 ad ,m>ciam1 xx1 #b2 b ?is is ! only expression ( ! k9d t we h be5 able to discov] 9 a ,/oic writ] ( ! empire4 #hh ,s5eca1 ,epp41 lxxx4 #hi #8,l'emp]eur avait p\r pr9cipe de ma9t5ir les anci5nes maximes roma9es dans leur intgrit4' 7,r5an's ,m>c-,aurle1 p4 #ed47 ,! au?ority giv5 by ,m4 ,r5an is ,dion ,cass41 ,,lxxi41 xxxiv42 :]e1 h[ev]1 !re is no?+ ( ! k9d /at$4 ,capitol9us says 7,anton4 ,phil41 cap4 xi473 #8,jus autem magis vetus re/ituit quam novum fecit4' #ij ,r5an1 p4 #cj2 ,capitol9us1 ,anton4 ,phil41 xii42 ,dion ,cass41 ,epit41 ,,lxxi41 xxix41 #c4 #ia ,anton9us1 ,comm41 ,,vi41 #df2 ,x41 #h4 #ib ,! expressions us$ by ,m4 ,erne/ ,r5an :5 treat+ ( ?is subject are some:at conflict+4 ,9 ref]5ce to ! p5al enactm5ts aga9/ ,*ri/ianity "u ,m>cus ,aurelius1 he fir/ /ates t1 h[ev] objectionable !y may h be51 #8en t\t cas dans l'application la mansutude du bon emp]eur fut l'abri de t\t repro*e' 7,m>c-,aurle1 p4 #eh47 ,fur!r on1 h[ev] we are told t :5 ! m>tyrs ( ,lyons appeal$ to ,rome1 #8la rponse impriale arriva en f94 ,elle tait dure et cruelle4' 7p4 #cbi47 ,& subsequ5tly ,m4 ,r5an makes ! ,emp]or p]sonally responsible = ! atrocities practis$ on t occasion by obs]v+1 #8,si ,m>c-,aurle1 au lieu d'employ] les lions et la *aise r\gie1' c4 7p4 #cde47 ,b p]haps su* inconsi/5cies are to be expect$ 9 a writ] :o has elevat$ ! necessity ( p]petual self-contradiction into a pr9ciple4 #ic ,epicttus1 ,diss41 ,,iii41 xxiv4 #id ,s5eca1 ,de ,ir1 ,i41 xiv41 #b2 ,de ,clem5t41 ,i41 vi41 #b4 #ie ,diog41 ,,vii41 #ia4 ,ziegl] 7,ges*4 d4 ,e?ik1 ,bonn1 #ahhb1 ,i41 #agd7 holds1 9 opposition to ,zell]1 t orig9ally e ,/oic1 z su*1 0 assum$ to be a p]fect sage1 & t ! "q 0 only :e!r ! ideal _h ev] be5 realis$ outside ! s*ool4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 goes aga9/ ! evid5ce ( ,plut>*1 :o tells z 7,de ,/oic4 ,repug41 xxxi41 #e7 t ,*rysippus nei!r pr(ess$ to be good himself nor suppos$ t any ( 8 fri5ds or tea*]s or disciples 0 good4 #if ,s5eca1 ,epp41 cxvi41 #d4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ,panaetius 0 speak+ at a "t :5 ! object ( passion w\ld at be/ be ei!r ano!r man's wife or a memb] ( ! demi-monde4 #ig ,comm41 ,,vii41 #bf2 ,,xii41 #af4 #ih ,see especially ,anton9us1 ,comm41 ,,ix41 #a4 #ii ,fri$lnd]1 ,rmis*e ,sitt5ges*i*te1 ,i41 #dfc2 ,duruy1 ,hi/oire des ,roma9s1 ,v41 #cdi ff41 #cgj2 cf4 ,ga/on ,boissi]1 ,la ,religion ,roma9e1 ,,ii41 #aeb ff41 #bab ff4 #ajj ,?is idea is mo/ di/9ctly express$ by ,m>cus ,aurelius1 ,,ii41 #a1 & ,,vii41 #ac4 #aja ,= ! au?orities1 see ,zell]1 p4 #agf4 #ajb ,see especially ,s5eca1 ,epp41 lxiv41 & ! :ole treatise ,de ,provid5ti4 #ajc ,see1 int] alia1 ,comm41 ,,iv41 #c2 ,,vi41 #ae1 #cg2 ,,vii41 #ba1 #di2 ,,xi41 #a2 ,,xii41 #g1 #ba1 #bc1 #bd1 #bf1 #ca1 #cb4 #ajd ,comm41 ,,xi41 #bh1 xii4 #ad4 ,a mod]n disciple ( ,aurelius has express$ himself to ! same purpose 9 slightly diff]5t language3-- #8,long f$ on b\ndless hopes1 ,o race ( man1 ,h[ angrily ?\ spurn'/ all simpl] f>e6 8,*ri/10 "s "o says1 80 human z we are4 ,no judge eyes u f heav5 our s9 to scan2 ,we live no m1 :5 we h done our span40 8,well1 !n1 = ,*ri/10 ?\ answ]e/1 8:o c c>e8 ,f s91 :i* ,heav5 records n1 :y =be>8 ,live we1 l brutes1 our life )\t a plan60 ,s answ]e/ ?\2 b :y n r say3 8,ha? man no second life8--,pit* ?is "o high6 ,sits !re no judge 9 ,heav51 our s9 to see8 ,m /rictly1 !n1 ! inw>d judge obey6 ,0 ,*ri/ a man l u8--,ah6 let u try ,if we !n1 too1 c be su* m5 z he60' --,! ,bett] ,"p1 by ,mr4 ,mat!w ,arnold4 ,! italics are 9 ! orig9al4 #aje ,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 #agg4 #ajf ,see an article entitl$ #8,pan!ism & ,cosmic ,emotion1' by ,fr$]ic ,h>rison1 9 ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury = ,augu/1 #ahha4 #ajg ,f ! ,hymn ( ,clean!s1 translat$ by ,mr4 ,francis ,newman 9 ,! ,s\l1 p4 #gc1 fif? edition4 #ajh ,epicureanism1 p4 #a4 #aji ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 a1 p4 #chj4 #aaj ,op4 cit41 p4 #gb4 #aaa ,%ort ,/udies1 ,,iii41 p4 #bdf4 #aab ,ges*4 des ,mat]41 ,i41 p4 #ib4 #aac ,pollock's ,sp9oza1 p4 #fd4 #aad ,epicuro e l',epicurismo1 ,flor5ce1 #ahgg1 p4 #bi4 #aae ,lucretii ,philosophia cum fontibus comp>ata1 ,gron+51 #ahgg1 p4 #acg4 #aaf ,dialogues ,philosophiques1 p4 #ed1 quot$ by ,woltj]1 loc4 cit4 #aag ,diog4 ,l41 ,x41 #adb4 #aah ,ibid41 #aac4 #aai ,diog4 ,l41 ,x41 #acd4 #abj ,cic]o1 ,acad41 ,,ii41 xxxiii41 #ajf4 #aba ,cic]o1 ,de ,f941 ,,ii41 xxx41 #if2 ,diog41 ,x41 #bb4 ,cic]o translates ! words 1 #8memoria rationum inv5torumque no/rorum4' ,!y may ref] m]ely to ! pleasure d]iv$ f intellectual conv]sation4 #abb ,! au?orities = ! life ( ,epicurus are giv5 by ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #cfc ff4 #abc ,diog41 ,,ii41 #ib4 #abd ,zell]1 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,ii41 a1 #bid4 #abe ,cf4 ,plato1 ,protag41 #cec1 ,c1 ff41 ) ,epicurus 9 ! lett] to ,m5oeceus1 quot$ by ,diog41 ,x41 #abi4 #abf ,morale d'picure1 p4 #bj4 #abg ,wallace's picureanism1 p4 #aed2 ,guyau1 ,morale d'picure1 p4 #cd4 #abh ,cic]o1 ,tusc4 ,disput41 ,,iii41 xviii41 #da2 ,zell]1 ,,iii41 a1 p4 #ddd4 #abi ,zell]1 p4 #dfj4 #acj ,ibid41 p4 #eha4 #aca ,diog41 ,,ii41 #gb4 #acb ,diog41 ,x41 #aca4 #acc ,guyau1 ,morale d'picure1 p4 #ee4 #acd ,diog41 ,x41 #aah4 #ace ,lucret41 ,,iv41 #ajeg-ff4 #acf ,diog41 ,x41 #aag1 #aah4 #acg ,cic]o1 ,de ,f941 ,v41 xxvii41 #hj2 ,diog41 ,x41 #aah4 #ach ,t is1 if we assume :at ,ari/otle says on ! subject to be d]iv$ f common usage 7,e?4 ,nic41 ,,iii41 ix41 p4 #aaae1 a1 #cc74 #aci ,cic]o1 ,tusc4 ,disp41 ,,ii41 xii41 #bh4 #adj ,cic]o1 ,de ,f941 ,i41 xv42 ,tusc41 ,v41 xxviii4 #ada ,diog41 ,x41 #aej ff4 #adb ,wallace1 p4 #afb2 ,diog41 ,x41 #aej4 #adc ,epicureanism1 pp4 #afb-c4 #add ,cic]o1 ,de ,f941 ,,ii41 vii41 #bj2 ,de ,nat4 ,deor41 ,i41 xvii41 #de1 xxx41 #he4 #ade ,diog41 ,x41 #aej-a4 #adf ,v41 #aade-ei4 #adg ,cic]o1 ,de ,f941 ,,ii41 xvii41 #eg4 #adh ,op4 cit41 p4 #afc4 #adi ,! lam5t$ ,pr(4 ,t4 ,h4 ,gre5 may be m5tion$ z ano!r example ( a high-m9d$ ?9k] :o 0 also an ard5t & active politician4 ,) reg>d to antiquity1 see ! spl5did roll ( public-spirit$ philosoph]s enum]at$ by ,plut>*1 ,adv4 ,col41 xxxii4 #aej ,op4 cit41 p4 #afd4 #aea ,j4 ,s4 ,mill obs]v$1 9 a conv]sation ) ,mr4 ,john ,morley1 report$ by ! latt]1 t #89 8 y\? m]e negation ( religion 0 a firm bond ( union1 social & o!rwise1 betwe5 m5 :o agre$ 9 no?+ else4'--,=tnightly ,review1 vol4 ,,xiii41 p4 #fge4 #aeb ,cic]o1 ,de ,nat4 ,deor41 ,l41 #ah-bd4 #aec ,woltj]1 ,lucret4 ,ph41 p4 #gd4 #aed #8,das ,/aatsgesetz od] das dem ,gesetz glei*komm5de vt]li*e ,h]komm5 bildet e95 ,geg5satz geg5 e9 abges*loss5es ,prie/]?um und dess5 natrli*5 ,e9fluss4' ,welck]1 ,gr4 ,gtt]lehre1 ,,ii41 p4 #de4 #8,la religion roma9e1 comme t\tes celles o dom9e l'esprit laque1 dim9ue le rle du prtre4' ,ga/on ,boissi]1 ,la ,religion ,roma9e1 ,i41 p4 #af4 #aee ,?is rem9ds "o ( ! #8pl]9ages1' :i* figure along ) #8pigeon-%oot+' among ! attractions (f]$ by ,fr5* c\ntry hotels to idle visitors4 #aef ,republic1 ,,ii41 #cfd1 ,c1 ff2 ,j[ett's transl41 ,,iii41 #bcd-e4 ,else:]e ,plato proposes t ^! #8be/ial p]sons' :o p]suade o!rs t ! gods c be induc$ by magical incantations to p>don crime1 %\ld be puni%$ by imprisonm5t = life 7,legg1 ,x41 #iji1 ,a1 f474 #aeg ,villema91 ,life ( ,gregory ,,vii41 ,engl1 transl41 ,i41 p4 #cje4 ,z a fur!r illu/ration ( ! same subject1 x may be m5tion$ t !re is a cemet]y ne> ,innsbruck 7& probably _m m l x ?r\gh\t ! ,tyrol7 freely adorn$ ) rude repres5tations ( s\ls 9 purgatory1 /ret*+ out _! h&s = help f amid ! flames4 ,! help is ( c\rse to be obta9$ by pur*ase f ! prie/hood4 #aeh ,lucret41 ,i41 #ajh-ab4 #aei ,agamemnon1 #cfi 7,d9dorf74 #afj ,zell]1 pp4 #dbh-i4 #afa ,pr(4 ,sell> obs]ves1 z we ?9k1 ) p]fect tru?1 t #8!re is no necess>y connexion betwe5 ! atomic !ory ( philosophy & t view ( ! ends & objects ( life :i* ,lucretius d]iv$ f ,epicurus4'--,roman ,poets ( ! ,republic1 p4 #cdh1 #bnd ed4 #afb ,lucret41 ,i41 #ajbj ff42 ,v41 #hce ff2 ,,iv41 #ghj ff42 ,v41 #ajbc2 ,v41 #acjg ff4 #afc ,t ,democritus attribut$ weight to 8 atoms has be5 prov$1 9 opposition to ,lewes & o!rs1 by ,zell]1 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,i41 p4 #gac 7#crd ed47 #afd ,woltj]1 ,lucr4 ,phil41 p4 #ch4 #afe ,ari/41 ,phys41 ,,iv41 viii41 #baf1 a1 #bj4 #aff ,,ii41 #beg ff4 #afg ,lucret41 ,,iv41 #hge ff4 #afh ,lucret41 ,v41 #dcg ff4 #afi ,zell]1 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 a1 pp4 #cig-h4 ,rei*el's transl41 pp4 #dab-c 7#a/ ed47 #agj ,woltj] 7,lucret4 ,ph41 p4 #abf7 *>ges ,lucretius ) hav+ misund]/ood 8 ma/] on ?is po9t4 ,z ! sun & moon appe> l>g] :5 ne> ! horizon ?an at o!r times1 ,epicurus ?\ght t we !n see !m ei!r z !y really are or a little l>g]4 ,?is1 ,lucretius1 accord+ to ,woltj]1 took to mean t _! g5]al app>5t size may be a little ov] or "u _! real size4 #aga ,zell]1 p4 #dac4 #agb ,see1 = in/ance1 ,woltj]1 op4 cit41 p4 #hh4 #agc ,zell]1 p4 #ddc1 note #c4 #agd ,zell]1 pp4 #dag-h4 #age ,diog41 ,x41 #abe4 #agf ,,iii41 #ibb4 #agg ,cic]o1 ,de ,f941 ,i41 ix41 #cj4 #agh #8,aeque enim tim5t ne apud inf]os s9t1 quam ne nusquam4'--,s5eca1 ,epp41 lxxxii41 #af4 #agi ,cf4 ,plut>*1 ,non posse suavit] vivi1 cap4 xxvii4 #ahj ,among o!r feel+s consequ5t on ! fir/ exp]i5ce ( dea? among ! po/]ity ( ,ca91 ! foll[+ are specifi$3-- #8,x seem$ ! light 0 nev] lov$ be=e1 ,n[ ea* man said1 8#8,twill g & come no m40 ,no budd+ bran*1 no pebble f ! brook1 ,no =m1 no %ad[ b new de>ness took ,f ! "o ?\ght t life mu/ h an end2 ,& ! la/ p>t+ n[ began to s5d ,diffusive dread ?r\gh love & w$d$ bliss1 ,?rill+ !m into f9] t5d]ness4#8 #aha ,,iii41 #ei ff4 #ahb ,e?ic41 ,p>s4 ,,iv41 ,prop4 vii4 #ahc ,e?ic4 ,nic41 ,,iii41 xii41 #aaag1 b1 #aj ff4 ,sir ,alex&] ,grant1 9 8 note on ! passage1 appositely comp>es ! "* ( ,wordswor?'s ,happy ,w>rior1 :o is #8,m brave = ?is t he has mu* to love4' #ahd ,= ! au?orities1 see ,zell]1 p4 #chh4 #ahe ,lucret41 ,,iv41 #ced1 #gbh1 #gfa4 #ahf ,su* at lea/ seems to be ! !ory r obscurely set =? 9 ,diog41 ,x41 #cb4 #ahg ,diog41 ,x41 #cc1 ,sextus ,emp41 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,vii41 #baa-af2 ,zell]1 p4 #cia4 #ahh ,= additional au?orities see ,zell]1 pp4 #che-ie1 & ,wallace's ,epicureanism1 *ap4 x4 #ahi ,see ,woltj]1 ,lucr4 ,ph41 p4 #ada ff4 #aij ,morale d'picure1 p4 #aeg4 #aia ,9 a fragm5t quot$ by ,sextus ,empiricus1 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,ix41 #ed4 #aib ,fragm5ta ,tragicorum1 ,didot1 p4 #adj4 #aic ,zell]1 p4 #daf1 note #a4 #aid ,see ! :ole conclud+ portion ( ,lucr41 bk4 ,v4 #aie ,*iefly by ,ritt]1 ,ges*4 d4 ,phil41 ,,iv41 p4 #id1 on :i* see ! cle> & conv9c+ reply ( ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #dg4 #aif ,= details we mu/ ref] to ! ma/]ly treatise ( ,dr4 ,woltj]1 already cit$ m ?an once 9 ! c\rse ( ?is *apt]4 #aig ,cf4 ,,ii41 #ah1 ) ,,ii41 #agb4 #aih ,! s+le exception to ?is rule t c be quot$ is1 we believe1 ! argum5t aga9/ impassion$ love d]iv$ f its enslav+ influ5ce 7quod alt]ius sub nutu degitur aetas1 ,v41 #aaaf74 ,b to live "u ano!r's nod is a condition em95tly unfav\rable to ! m5tal tranquillity :i* an ,epicurean priz$ be=e all ?+s2 nor1 9 any case1 does x seem to h c\nt$ = s mu* ) ,lucretius z ! #8damnation ( exp5ses' :i* 0 no less =midable a det]r5t to him ?an to ! #8unco guid' ( ,burns's satire4 #aii ,v41 #aaec-d4 #bjj ,v41 #aabe4 #bja ,ziegl] 7,ges*4 a4 ,e?ik1 ,i41 p4 #bjc7 quotes ,lucret41 ,,iii41 #acf1 to prove t ! poet recognis$ ! exi/5ce ( m5tal pleasures z su*4 ,b ,lucretius only says t ! m9d has pleasures n d]iv$ f an imm$iate ext]nal /imulus4 ,?is w\ld apply p]fectly to ! imag9ation ( s5sual pleasure4 #bjb ,woltj]1 op4 cit41 p4 #e4 #bjc ,,iv41 #iff4 #bjd ,woltj]1 op4 cit41 pp4 #agh ff4 #bje ,!re is an unque/ionable co9cid5ce betwe5 ,lucretius1 ,,ii41 #fi ff4 & ,plato1 ,legg41 #ggf ,b1 po9t$ out by ,tei*mll]1 ,ges*i*te d] ,begriffe1 p4 #agg4 ,bo? may h drawn f "s old] s\rce4 #bjf ,we ?9k1 h[ev]1 t ,pr(4 ,sell> attributes m importance to ?is elem5t 9 ! ,lucretian philosophy ?an x w be>4 ,8 words are3 #8,! doctr9e proclaim$ by ,lucretius 01 t creation 0 no result ( a caprici\s or b5evol5t ex]cise ( p[]1 b ( c]ta9 processes ext5d+ ?r\gh inf9ite "t1 by means ( :i* ! atoms h at l5g? be5 able to comb9e & "w toge!r 9 accordance ) _! ultimate conditions4 ,! conception ( ^! ultimate conditions & ( _! relations to "o ano!r involves "s m vital ag5cy ?an t ( bl9d *ance or an iron fatalism4 ,! fo$]a ,naturai are oppos$ to ! fo$]a fati4 ,! idea ( law 9 ,nature z und]/ood by ,lucretius is n m]ely t ( inv>iable sequ5ce or concomitance ( ph5om5a4 ,x implies at lea/ ! fur!r idea ( a 8secreta facultas0 9 ! orig9al elem5ts4#8 7,roman ,poets ( ! ,republic1 p4 #cce1 #bnd ed47 ,! expression secreta facultas occurs1 we believe1 only once 9 ! :ole poem 7,i41 #agd71 & is us$ on t s+le occasion )\t any ref]5ce to ! atoms1 :i* d n appe> until a lat] /age ( ! exposition4 ,lucretius is prov+ t :atev] beg9s to exi/ mu/ h a cause1 & 9 support ( ?is pr9ciple he appeals to ! fix$ laws :i* gov]n ! gr[? ( plants4 ,ea* plant spr+s f a p>ticul> k9d ( se$1 & s1 he argues1 ea* se$ mu/ h a di/9ct or specific virtue ( its own1 :i* virtue he expresses by ! words secreta facultas4 ,b1 accord+ to 8 subsequ5t tea*+1 ?is specific virtue dep5ds on a p>ticul> comb9ation ( ! atoms1 n on any spontane\s p[] :i* !y possess ( gr\p+ !mselves toge!r s z to =m organic comp\nds4 ,) reg>d to ! prop]ties ( ! atoms !mselves1 ,lucretius enum]ates !m cle>ly en\gh4 ,!y are ext5sion1 figure1 resi/ance1 & motion2 ! la/ m5tion$ be+ divid$ into d[nw>d gravitation1 lat]al deflection1 & ! mom5ta produc$ by mutual impact4 ,"h we h no?+ m ?an ! two elem5ts ( #8iron fatalism' & #8bl9d *ance' :i* ,pr(4 ,sell> reg>ds z insuffici5t to acc\nt = ! ,lucretian s*eme ( creation2 gravitation & mutual impact give ! "o1 lat]al deflection gives ! o!r4 ,any faculty ov] & above ^! c\ld only be conceiv$ "u ! =m ( consci\s impulse1 or ( mutual attractions & repulsions ex]cis$ by ! atoms on "o ano!r4 ,! fir/ hypo!sis is expressly reject$ by ! poet1 :o tells u 7,i41 #ajbj7 t ! primordial elem5ts are de/itute ( consci\sness1 & h fall5 into _! pres5t places ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( purely me*anical causes4 ,! second hypo!sis is n[h]e allud$ to 9 ! mo/ di/ant mann]1 x is contr>y to ! :ole _s ( ,epicurean physics1 x nev] occurr$ to a s+le ?9k] ( antiquity1 & to h conceiv$ x at t "t w\ld h ne$$ m ?an ! g5ius ( a ,newton4 ,z a la/ escape x may be urg$ t ,lucretius believ$ 9 #8a sort ( a some?+' :i*1 l ! f\r? elem5t 9 ! s\l1 he 0 n prep>$ to def9e4 ,b besides ! utt] want ( evid5ce = su* a supposition1 :at necessity w\ld !re h be5 = ! inf9ite *ances :i* he po/ulates 9 ord] to expla9 h[ ! actual sy/em ( ?+s came to be evolv$1 _h ! elem5ts be5 orig9ally end[$ ) ! disposition to fall into su* a sy/em r ?an into any o!r8 ,= ,pr(4 ,sell>'s vital ag5cy mu/ mean ?is disposition if x means any?+ at all4 ,:ile on ?is subject we mu/ also express our surprise to f9d ,pr(4 ,sell> say+ ( ,lucretius t #89 no anci5t writ]' is #8! c]ta9ty & univ]sality ( law m emphatically & unmi/akably express$' 7p4 #ccd74 ,?is w\ld1 we ?9k1 be mu* tru] ( ! ,/oics1 :o recognis$ 9 its absolute univ]sality t law ( causation on :i* all o!r laws dep5d1 b :i* ,lucretius expressly tells u 7,,ii41 #bee7 is brok5 ?r\gh by ! cl9am54 ,a m accurate /atem5t ( ! case1 we ?9k1 w\ld be to say t ! ,epicurean poet believ$ unres]v$ly 9 uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce1 b n1 to ! same ext5t1 9 uni=mities ( sequ5ce2 :ile ap>t f ^! two classes nei!r he nor mod]n sci5ce kn[s ( any laws at all4 #bjg ,v41 #fie-gc1 #gcj-di4 #bjh ,cic]o1 ,de ,nat4 ,deor41 ,i41 xxiv41 #ff4 #bji ,comm41 ,,ix41 #bh4 #baj ,col]idge's ,fri5d1 ,section ,,ii41 ,essay ,,ii41 sub 94 #baa #8,9 ! high] ranks ( ,fr5* society !re are m5 :o m]it to be call$ pr(essors ( ! art ( happ9ess2 :o h analys$ its +r$i5ts ) c>eful f+]s & scrut9is+ eyes2 :o h consummat$ _! exp]i5ce ( means & ends2 :o1 l able doctors1 c apply an imm$iate rem$y to ! daily difficulties ( home-life2 ^: practice is wor?y ( _! !ory1 & :o prove x by ma9ta9+ 9 _! wives' he>ts & 9 _! own a p]5nial nev]-weak5+ s5tim5t ( gratitude & love4#8 7,fr5* ,home ,life1 p4 #cbd47 ,al?\gh ,mr4 ,m>%all's obs]vations are directly applicable to ! happ9ess ( m>ri$ life only1 !y t5d to prove t all happ9ess may be r$uc$ to an art4 #bab ,wallace's ,epicureanism1 p4 #cg4 #bac ,cic]o1 ,de ,rep41 ,,iii41 vi4-xx4 #bad ,plut>*1 ,cato ,major1 xxii4 ff4 #bae ,p9d>1 ,py?41 ,,iii41 #if4 #baf ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #df4 #bag ,x is said t ! same ironical attitude cont9ues to *>act]ise ! ,greeks ( our "t4 ,col4 ,leake 7quot$ by ,welck]1 ,gr4 ,gtt]l41 ,,ii41 p4 #abg7 in=ms u t travell]s 9 ,greece are cont9ually ent]ta9$ ) local fables :i* are ev]y:]e repeat$1 b believ$ by nobody1 lea/ ( all by ! inhabitants ( ! di/rict :]e !y fir/ orig9at$4 ,& ,welck] adds1 f 8 own exp]i5ce1 t ! "y ,greeks :o act z guides 9 ! religi\s h\ses relat$ ! miracul\s leg5ds ( ! place ) an en?usiasm & an eloqu5ce :i* left him 9 d\bt :e!r or n !y !mselves believ$ :at !y expect$ him to believe4 #bah ,il41 ,,ii41 #hj2 ,,xii41 #bch2 ,,xvi41 #hei2 ,od41 ,i41 #bae2 ,,xi41 #cfc2 ,,xxiii41 #aff2 ,agamem41 #dgg ff4 #bai ,sextus ,empiricus1 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,vii41 #hi ff2 ,zell]1 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,i41 pp4 #dfd1 #feb1 #gdc1 #hbh4 7#crd ed47 #bbj ,= ! !ses ( ,gorgias see ,sextus ,empiricus1 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,vii41 #fe ff4 #bba ,sext4 ,emp41 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,vii41 #agj ff4 #bbb ,x541 ,mem41 ,,iv41 iii41 #ad4 #bbc ,timaeus1 #cg1 ,b1 #dc1 ,d ff4 #bbd ,examples ( ^! que/ions are3 #8,h y lo/ y\r horns8' &1 #8,did ,electra "k t ,ore/es 0 h] bro!r8' ,/at$ 9 words1 %e knew t he 02 b %e did n recognise him z h] bro!r :5 he came to h] 9 disguise4 #bbe ,plut>*1 ,adv4 ,col41 xxii4-xxiii42 ,s5eca1 ,epp41 ix4 #bbf ,zell]1 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 a1 #dha2 ,diog4 ,l41 ,,ix41 xi4 #bbg ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #dhd2 ,ritt] & ,prell]1 ,hi/4 ,ph41 p4 #ccf4 #bbh 4 ,= ?is & ! o!r /ories1 see ,diog4 ,l41 ,,ix41 #ff-h4 #bbi ,pyrrh4 ,hyp41 ,i41 #bh ff4 #bcj ,diog4 ,l41 ,,vii41 #aga4 #bca ,cic]o1 ,acad41 ,,ii41 xxiv41 #gg2 ,sext4 ,emp41 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,vii41 #aej-g2 ,zell]1 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 a1 pp4 #dib ff4 #bcb ,plut>*1 ,de ,comm4 ,notit41 i41 #d2 ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #ha 7:]e1 h[ev]1 ! ref]5ce to ,plut>* is wrongly giv574 #bcc 4 7,diog4 ,l41 ,,iv41 #fb47 ,! orig9al l9e ran1 4 #bcd ,sext4 ,emp41 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,vii41 #aei-fe4 #bce ,t ,c>neades 0 ! fir/ to />t ?is difficulty _c be directly prov$1 b is conjectur$ ) great probability by ,zell] 7op4 cit41 p4 #ejd74 #bcf ,sext4 ,pyrrh4 ,hyp41 ,,ii41 #ahf4 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,viii41 #dfc4 #bcg ,pyrrh4 ,hyp41 ,,ii41 #aie1 #bjd4 #bch ,cic]o1 ,de ,nat4 ,deor41 ,i41 xxiii41 #fb2 ,,iii41 iv41 #aa2 xvi41 #db2 xxi41 #ec4 #bci ,sext41 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,ix41 #ahb-c4 #bdj ,cic41 ,de ,nat4 ,deor41 ,,iii41 xviii41 #dg4 #bda ,cic41 ,acad41 ,,ii41 xxxviii41 #abj2 ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #ejf4 #bdb ,cic41 ,acad41 ibid41 #aba2 ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #ejg4 #bdc ,cic41 ,de ,nat4 ,deor41 ,,iii41 x41 #bd4 #bdd ibid41 ,,iii41 xi41 #bg4 #bde ibid41 ix41 #ba4 #bdf ibid41 ,,iii41 xii41 #bi2 ,i41 xxxix41 #aji4 #bdg ,sext4 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,ix41 #aci-dg4 #bdh ibid41 #aeb-gg4 #bdi ,cic41 ,de ,nat4 ,deor41 ,,iii41 vi42 ,de ,div941 ,,ii41 passim2 ,de ,nat4 ,deor41 ,,iii41 xxvi4 ff4 #bej ,le ,*ri/ianisme et ses ,orig9es1 ,,ii41 p4 #c4 #bea ,sext41 ,pyrrh4 ,hyp41 ,,iii41 #b4 #beb ,sext41 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,vii41 #aff-hi4 #bec ,cic41 ,de ,f941 ,,iii41 xii41 #da2 ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #eai4 #bed ,accord+ to ,zell]'s int]pretation ( ,cic]o1 ,acad41 ,,ii41 xi41 #cd4 #bee ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #fjb4 #bef ibid41 p4 #fjc4 #beg ,= ! au?orities see ,zell]1 op4 cit41 pp4 #eii-fja4 #beh ,zell]1 op4 cit41 pp4 #fjc-h4 #bei ,zell]1 op4 cit41 pp4 #eed1 #efa ff4 #bfj ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #ege4 #bfa ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #fba4 #bfb ,cic41 ,acad41 ,,ii41 xlv4 #bfc ,! treatises entitl$ ,de ,/oicorum ,repugnanti & ,de ,communibus ,notiliis4 #bfd ,lucret41 ,,iv41 #aaed-fd2 ,juv541 ,,vi41 #ahf-ie4 #bfe ,v>ro obs]ves t = #agj ye>s ! anci5t ,romans wor%ipp$ _! gods )\t images2 #8quod si adhuc1' inquit1 #8mansisset ca/ius ,dii obs]v>5tur4' ,& 9 ! same passage1 speak+ ( my?ology1 he says1 #8hoc omnia ,diis attribuuntur quae non modo 9 hom9em1 s$ etiam 9 contemtissimum hom9em cad]e possunt4' ,augu/941 ,de ,civit4 ,dei1 ,,iv41 iii41 & xxxi41 quot$ by ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #fgd4 #bff ,ritt] & ,prell]1 ,hi/4 ,phil41 p4 #dbf2 ,woltj]1 ,lucretii ,philosophia1 p4 #e4 #bfg ,! s]vices ( ,posidonius seem to h be5 ov]look$ by ,m4 ,ga/on ,boissi] :5 he implies 9 8 "w on ,roman ,religion 7vol4 ii41 p4 #ac7 t ,fabianus1 a ,roman declaim] "u ,augu/us1 0 ! fir/ to give an eloqu5t expression to ,/oicism4 #bfh ,zell]1 op4 cit41 pp4 #eig-h4 #bfi ,acad41 ,,ii41 xxii41 #fi4 #bgj ibid41 xxxi41 #ii4 #bga ,de ,f941 ,v41 xxi41 #ei4 #bgb ,acad41 ,,ii41 xxxix4 #bgc ,= ! lit]>y /udies ( ,socrates1 see ,x5oph41 ,mem41 ,i41 vi41 #ad2 ^? ( ,cic]o are too manife/ to ne$ any special ref]5ce4 #bgd ,see ! passages quot$ by ,zell]1 op4 cit41 pp4 #fei-fj4 #bge ,acad41 ,i41 x4 #bgf ,de ,f941 ,,iv41 viii4 #bgg ,de ,(f41 ,,iii41 iii41 #aa4 #bgh ,! passage occurs ne> ! beg9n+ ( 8 ,essay on ,bacon4 #bgi ,see ! ,somnium ,scipionis1 ,de ,repub41 ,,vi41 xvii4 #bhj ibid41 xxvi4 #bha ,de ,div941 ,,ii41 lxxii41 #adh2 ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #ffg4 #bhb l4 #gbd ff4 #bhc l4 #e-g1 & #cd-cf4 #bhd ,i41 #bca-ea4 #bhe ,! v passage 7,georg41 ,,ii41 #dge-ib7 :i* is suppos$ to ref] to ,lucretius conta9s a l9e 7frigidus ob/it]it circum praecordia sanguis7 embody+ ! ,/oic !ory t ! s\l has its seat 9 ! he>t1 & is n\ri%$ by a w>m exhalation f ! blood4 ,see ,zell]1 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 a1 p4 #aig4 #bhf ,zell] does inde$ call ,s5eca & ,m>cus ,aurelius #8,platonis+ ,/oics' 7,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 b1 p4 #bcf1 #crd4 ed472 b ! evid5ce adduc$ h>dly seems to ju/ify ! epi!t4 #bhg ,metamorph41 ,,xv41 #fj4 #bhh ,zell]1 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 a1 p4 #fha4 #bhi ,epp41 ,i41 i41 #ah4 #bij ,m4 ,ga/on ,boissi] 7,religion ,roma9e1 ,i41 p4 #bjf71 on ! /r5g? ( a passage 9 "o ( ,horace's ,satires 7,,ii41 iii41 #aa71 :]e ! poet speaks ( c>ry+ ,plato ab\t ) him on 8 travels1 inf]s t ! /udy ( ! ,dialogues _h a good deal to d ) 8 conv]sion4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 m ?an probable t ! ,plato m5tion$ is n ! philosoph]1 b ! comic poet1 = we f9d t 8 companions 9 ,horace's trunk 7 ,m5&]1 ,eupolis1 & ,ar*ilo*us4 #bia ,zell] is incl9$ to place ,a5esidmus a hundr$ ye>s e>li] ?an ! date "h assign$ to him 7,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 b1 p4 #i72 b two pieces ( evid5ce :i* he himself quotes seem to militate /rongly aga9/ ?is view4 ,"o is a /atem5t ( ,ari/ocles ! ,p]ipatetic1 :o fl\ri%$ #afj-aij ,a4,d41 t ,scepticism _h be5 reviv$ n long be=e 8 "t 7 2 apud ,euseb41 ,pr4 ,ev41 ,,xiv41 xviii41 #bb2 ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #i72 ! o!r is ,s5eca's "q1 ,quis e/ qui tradat praecepta ,pyrrhonis8 7,nat4 ,quae/41 ,,vii41 xxxii4 #b2 ,zell]1 p4 #aa74 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,epicttus1 lectur+ t[>ds ! end ( ! fir/ c5tury1 alludes to ,scepticism z some?+ !n liv+ & active4 ,! natural inf]5ce is t ,a5esidmus fl\ri%$ be=e 8 "t & aft] ,s5eca1 t is ab\t ! p]iod m5tion$ 9 ! text2 & we _c make out t !re are any satisfactory data po9t+ to a diff]5t conclusion4 #bib ,zell]1 ,,iii41 b1 p4 #ah4 #bic ,zell]1 ,,iii41 a1 pp4 #die & #ead2 ,cic41 ,acad41 ,i41 xii41 #de2 ibid41 ,,ii41 ix41 #bh4 #bid ,) all def]5ce to s great a s*ol> z ,zell]1 x seems to u t he has mis9t]pret$ a passage 9 :i* ,sextus ,empiricus obs]ves t a p>ticul> argum5t ( 8 own aga9/ ! possibility ( rea*+ tru? ei!r by s5se or by reason1 is virtually 77 conta9$ 9 ! difficulties rais$ by ,a5esidmus 7,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,viii41 #dj74 ,zell] 7op4 cit41 ,,iii41 b1 p4 #bj1 note #e7 translates 1 #8dem ,s9ne na*1' #89 sub/ance1' a mean+ :i* x w h>dly be>4 ,:at ,sextus says is t ! untru/wor?9ess ( reason foll[s on ! untru/wor?9ess ( s5se1 = ! notions suppli$ by ! latt] mu/ ei!r be common to all ! s5ses--:i* is impossible1 ow+ to _! specialis$ "*--or limit$ to "s1 & !re=e equally liable ) !m to dispute & contradiction4 ,moreov]1 he argues1 rational notions 7 7 _c all be true1 z !y conflict bo? ) ea* o!r & ) s5sation4 ,& ! ref]5ce to ,a5esidmus means simply t ?is k9d ( argum5t am\nts to a fur!r ext5sion ( 8 attack on ! cr$ibility ( ! s5ses2 x does n imply t ,a5esidmus _h ev] attack$ reason himself4 ,! :ole passage is q 9 ! usual /yle ( exhau/ive alt]nation foll[$ by ,sextus1 & its extreme awkw>dness seems to %[ t he is =c+ 8 argum5ts into p>allelism ) ^? ( 8 pr$ecessor4 ,x is possible also t ! diff]5t memb]s ( ! argum5t h be5 transpos$2 = ! "p connect+ reason ) s5se 7#dd7 ought logically to /& la/1 & t relat+ to ! discrepancy ( diff]5t notions ) "o ano!r 7#de-g71 second4 ,cf4 ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,vii41 #cej1 :]e ,a5esidmus is said to h id5tifi$ ! und]/&+ ) ! s5ses1 q 9 ! /yle ( ,protagoras & q unlike ! ,new ,academy4 #bie ,sext4 ,emp41 ,pyrrh4 ,hyp41 ,i41 #ahj ff4 #bif ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,,ix41 #bbh4 #big ,! t5 ,tropes 7 evid5tly sugge/$ by ! t5 ,categories ( ,ari/otle4 ,! five gr\nd$ on diff]5ces ( disposition1 place1 quantity1 relation1 & habits1 %[ at once by _! names t !y are d]iv$ f 1 1 1 1 & 4 ,! ,trope ( comp>ative frequ5cy w\ld be sugge/$ by 2 ! di/urb+ influ5ce ( bodies on "o ano!r comb9es & 2 ! conflict ( ! special s5ses belongs1 al?\gh some:at m remotely1 to 2 &1 9 ord] to make up ! numb] t51 1 :i* answ]s to ! p]cipi5t 9 g5]al1 _h to be divid$ into ! two ,tropes tak5 respectively f ! diff]5ces among animals & among m51--an arrangem5t t w\ld occur all ! m readily z includ$ ! two notions ( ,g5us & ,species1 ( :i* ! "o answ]s1 9 ?is in/ance1 to animals1 & ! o!r to m54 #bih ,zell]1 ,,iii41 b1 p4 #bc4 #bii ,zell]1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bi-cg4 #cjj ,sext4 ,emp41 ,pyrrh4 ,hyp41 ,i41 #afd & #agh2 ,zell]1 op4 cit41 pp4 #cg & #ch4 #cja ,adv4 ,ma?41 ,v41 #a4 #cjb ibid41 ,,ix41 #bjh4 #cjc ,^! are ! f\r pr9ciples enum]at$ by ,sextus1 ,pyrrh4 ,hyp41 ,i41 #bd4 #cjd ,diog4 ,l41 ,x41 #i4 #cje ,! mat]ials &1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! ideas ( ?is *apt] are *iefly d]iv$ f ,zell]'s ,philosophie d] ,grie*51 ,vol4 ,,iii41 ,duruy's ,hi/oire des ,roma9s1 ,vol4 ,v41 ,ga/on ,boissi]'s ,religion ,roma9e1 & above all f ,fri$lnd]'s ,d>/ellung5 aus d] ,sitt5ges*i*te ,rom's1 ,"p ,,iii41 *apt]s iv4 & vi4 #cjf ,fri$lnd]1 ,rmis*e ,sitt5ges*i*te1 ,,iii41 pp1 #dhc1 #fha4 #cjg ,z a /rik+ in/ance ( ! solid>ity :i* n[ connects all =ms ( irrationalism1 x may be m5tion$ t ,livy's fables are accept$1 9 av[$ defiance ( mod]n criticism1 by ! cl]icalis+ ,engli% /ud5ts ( ar*aeology 9 ,rome4 #cjh ,us+ ! ^w 9 its mod]n r ?an 9 its anci5t s5se1 s z to include ! :ole empire outside ! city ( ,rome4 #cji ,epp41 ,,ii41 i41 #bj ff4 #caj ,c>m41 ,i41 xi41 & ,,iii41 xxiii4 #caa ,c>m41 ,,iii41 vi41 & ! ,c>m5 ,secul>e4 #cab ,boissi]1 ,religion ,roma9e1 ,i41 p4 #ccf4 #cac ,fri$lnd]1 ,,iii41 p4 #eaj4 #cad ,see ! note on ,hone/iores & ,humiliores app5d$ to ! fif? volume ( ,duruy's ,hi/oire des ,roma9s4 #cae ,lucian1 ,adv]sus ,indoctum4 #caf ,juv5al1 ,satt41 ,,xvi41 #ad4 #cag ,p]sius1 ,satt41 ,,iii41 #gg42 cf4 ,v41 #ahi4 #cah ,mat?41 viii41 #i2 ,luke1 vii41 #h4 #cai ,?ucydides1 ,,ii41 iv4 ,! o!r wom5 allud$ to are1 ! wife ( ,admtus1 :o tells ,!mi/ocles h[ he is to proce$ 9 ord] to conciliate h] husb& 7,i41 cxxxvi472 ,/ratonice1 ! si/] :om ,p]diccas gives 9 m>riage to ,seu!s 7,,ii41 ci472 & ,brauro1 ! ,edonian que5 :o murd]s h] husb& ,pittacus 7,,iv41 cvii474 ,! wife & daught] ( ,hippias ! ,peisi/ratid & ! si/] ( ,h>modius are m5tion$ 9 bk4 ,,vi41 lv4 ff1 b !y take u back to an e>li] p]iod ( ,greek hi/ory ?an t ( :i* ,?ucydides treats consecutively2 :ile ! names ( ,hel5 & ,procne1 :i* also occur1 belong1 ( c\rse1 to a mu* remot] pa/ 7,i41 ix41 & ,,ii41 xxix47 #cbj ,x has ev5 be5 ma9ta9$ t ! condition ( ! ,roman matron 0 sup]ior to t ( ! mod]n ,fr5*woman4 7,duruy1 ,hi/oire des ,roma9s1 ,v41 p4 #da47 #cba ,boissi]1 ,religion ,roma9e1 ,,ii4 p4 #bjj4 #cbb ,boissi]1 op4 cit41 ,,ii41 pp4 #bad ff4 #cbc ,fri$lnd]1 ,romis*e ,sitt5ges*i*te1 ,i41 pp4 #dda ff4 #cbd ,lucian1 ,de ,m]c$e ,conductis1 xxvi42 ,fri$lnd]1 ,i41 p4 #ddg4 #cbe ,epict41 ,fragm41 #ec ,dbn]4 #cbf ,juv5al1 ,v41 & ,lucian1 ,de ,m]c$e ,conductis4 #cbg ,fri$lnd]1 ,,iii41 p4 #ejb4 #cbh ,fri$lnd]1 ibid4 #cbi ,boissi]1 op4 cit41 ,i41 p4 #cfb4 #ccj ,havet1 ,le ,*ri/ianisme et ses ,orig9es1 ,,ii41 p4 #aej4 #cca ,hor41 ,satt41 ,i41 ix41 #fg-gb4 #ccb ,ibid41 ,i41 iv41 #adb4 #ccc ,op]a1 ed4 ,tau*nitz1 ,v41 p4 #bji4 #ccd ,philo1 ,vita ,mos4 p4 #acf1 ,m42 ,joseph41 ,contr4 ,ap41 ,,ii41 xxxix42 ,fri$lnd]1 ,,iii41 p4 #ehc4 #cce ,ovid41 ,ars ,am41 ,i41 #dae2 ,rem4 ,am41 #bai2 ,p]s41 ,v41 #agi2 ,juv41 ,,xiv41 #ig2 ,fri$lnd]1 loc4 cit4 #ccf ,havet1 ,,ii41 p4 #cbh4 #ccg ,fri$lnd]1 ,i41 p4 #dea4 #cch ,ars ,am41 ,i41 #gf4 #cci ,fri$lnd]1 ,,iii41 pp4 #eah1 #eci ff1 #eec ff4 #cdj ,x5ophon1 ,mem41 ,i41 i41 #i4 #cda ,fri$lnd]1 ,,iii41 p4 #ebc4 #cdb ibid41 pp4 #ebd ff4 #cdc ,fri$lnd]1 ,,iii41 pp4 #ebg ff4 #cdd ,plut>*1 ,de ,defect4 ,oracul41 cap4 xlv41 p4 #dcd4 #cde ,lucian1 ,alex&]1 #be1 #dg4 #cdf ,accord+ to ,fri$lnd] 7,,iii41 p4 #eca71 ?is happ5$ betwe5 #afg & #afi4 #cdg ,fri$lnd]1 p4 #ecb4 #cdh ,fri$lnd]1 ,,iii41 p4 #ecc4 #cdi ,ibid41 p4 #ecd4 #cej ,= details see ,fri$lnd]1 loc4 cit4 #cea ,fri$lnd]1 pp4 #ece ff4 ,?is =m ( sup]/ition /ill fl\ri%es 9 great =ce among at lea/ ! l[] class ( ,italians at ! pres5t day2 & ! cont9ual /imulation af=d$ to x by ! public lott]y is n ! lea/ mis*iev\s consequ5ce ( t infam\s in/itution4 #ceb ,aelian1 ,fragm41 #ih2 ,fri$lnd]1 p4 #did4 #cec ,fri$lnd]1 loc4 cit4 #ced ,fri$lnd]1 p4 #edi4 #cee ,= ! :ole subject ( ,ari/eides see ,fri$lnd]1 pp4 #dif ff4 #cef #8,et p>um sane fuit quod illi honores div9os1 omnis aetas1 omnis sexus1 omnis condicio ac dignitas d$it1 nisi quod etiam sacrilegus judicatus e/ qui ejus imag9em 9 suo domo non habuit qui p] =tunam vel potuit hab]e vel debuit4 ,d5ique hodieque 9 multis domibus ,m4 ,aurelii /atuae consi/unt int] deos p5ates4 ,nec defu]unt hom9es qui somniis eum multa pra$ixisse augurantes futura et v]a conc9n]unt4'--,vita ,m4 ,anton9i ,phil41 cap4 xviii4 #ceg ,fri$lnd]1 p4 #eac4 #ceh ,fri$lnd]1 ,,iii41 p4 #fhc4 ,cp4 ,clif=d's epitaph3 #8,i 0 no?+ & 0 conceiv$2 ,i lov$ & did a little "w2 ,i am no?+ & grieve n4' #cei ,comm41 ,,iv41 #ba2 ,,xii41 #e1 #bf4 #cfj ,zell]1 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 a1 p4 #gih4 #cfa ,quot$ by ,fri$lnd]1 pp4 #fha f4 #cfb ,ibid41 p4 #fhh4 #cfc ,ibid4 #cfd ,zell]1 op4 cit41 p4 #hbh4 #cfe ,see 9 p>ticul>1 ,satt41 ,,ii1 #adi4 #cff ,fri$lnd]1 ,i41 p4 #dfe f4 #cfg ,duruy1 ,hi/4 d4 ,rom41 ,v41 p4 #dfc4 #cfh ,,iii41 p4 #fib4 #cfi ,fri$lnd]1 ,,iii41 p4 #gja4 #cgj ,a mesure que le temps s'avance les traits p> lesquels se produit la croyance une autre vie1 d'abord vagues et confus1 lo9 de s'effac]1 se prononc5t et se prcis5t4 ,on se fait de la de/9e des mes des ides de plus en plus hautes2 on r5d aux morts des honneurs de plus en plus gr&s4 ,en outre1 ces ides1 ces pratiques s't5d5t de plus en plus au gr& nombre4 ,au comm5cem5t il semble qu'on ne s'inquite que du sort des rois et des hros1 enfants ou desc5dants directs des dieux2 avec le temps beauc\p d'autres ont "p aux mmes proccupations1 puis t\s ou presque t\s4 ,la flicit e/ rs]ve a qui ressemble aux dieux2 c'e/ une maxime antique qui subsi/e immuable4 ,avec le temps on se fait de la ressemblance avec les dieux ou1 ce qui revi5t au mme1 de la p]fection1 des ides qui p]mett5t t\s d'y prt5dre4' ,ravaisson1 ,le ,monum5t de ,myrrh9e et les bas-reliefs funraires1 #ahgf1 quot$ by ,duruy1 op4 cit41 p4 #dfc4 #cga ,see ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #fh4 #cgb ,= ref]5ces see ,fri$lnd]1 ,,iii41 pp4 #gjf ff4 #cgc ,epod41 xvii41 #gi4 #cgd ,fri$lnd]1 pp4 #gaj f4 #cge ,s541 ,epp41 xvi41 #e2 xcv41 #eb2 xli41 #a & #b4 #cgf ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ,zell]'s cont5tion am\nts to no m ?an t ,s5eca foll[s ,posidonius 9 8 adoption ( ! ,platonic di/9ction betwe5 reason & passion1 :i* 7 id5tifi$ by ! old] ,/oics4 ,b ! object ( ! latt] 0 app>5tly to save ! p]sonality ( man1 :i* seem$ to be ?reat5$ by ,plato's trip>tite division ( m9d2 & z ,s5eca a*ieves ! same result by includ+ ! passions 9 ! #cgg ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m & him is aft] all little m ?an v]bal4 ,= ! g5]al attitude ( ,s5eca t[>ds religion see ,ga/on ,boissi]1 ,religion ,roma9e1 ,,ii41 pp4 #fc-ib4 #cgg ,epp41 xcii41 #a41 7,zell]1 by mi/ake ref]s to ,epp41 xciv41 9 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 a1 p4 #gaa47 #cgh ,z 1 1 4 #cgi ,epict41 ,fragm41 #age2 ,diss41 ,i41 xvi41 #a-h2 ,,ii41 xvi41 #db2 ,,iii41 xxii41 #b2 xxiv41 #ia-id4 ,zell]1 ,,iii41 a1 p4 #gdb4 #chj ,zell]1 p4 #gde4 #cha ,fri$lnd]1 ,,iii41 p4 #dic4 #chb ,comm41 ,,vi41 #cj4 #chc ,oratt41 ,,vi41 p4 #bjc4 #chd ,diss41 ,,ii41 xxxvi4 #che ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 b1 pp4 #hh ff4 #chf ,s5eca1 ,epp41 lxiv41 #b2 cviii41 #ag4 #chg ,s5eca1 ,de ,ir1 ,,iii41 xxxvi41 #a4 #chh ,s5eca1 ,epp41 cviii41 #bb4 #chi ,= a detail$ acc\nt ( ! ,neo-,py?agorean s*ool1 see ,zell]1 op4 cit41 ,,iii41 b1 pp4 #gi-aeh1 f :i* ! above summ>y is entirely d]iv$4 #cij ,de ,defect4 ,orac41 xvii41 p4 #dai4 #cia ,diss41 ,i41 xv41 #b4 #cib ,plut>*1 ,de ,is4 et ,osir41 xxv4 & xxvi2 ,de ,fac4 9 ,orbe ,lun41 xxx4 #cic ,op4 et ,d41 #abj4 #cid ,diss41 ,i41 xv41 #g4 #cie ,zell]1 ,,iii41 b1 pp4 #ahi ff4 #cif ,de ,sup]/it41 viii41 p4 #afi4 #cig ,metamorph41 ,,xi41 xxv4 #cih ,zell]1 ,,iii41 b1 pp4 #beg ff4 #cii ,= ref]5ces1 see ,ritt] & ,prell]1 ,hi/4 ,phil41 pp4 #dfg-gc4 #djj ,= ref]5ces1 see ,zell]1 ,,iii41 b1 pp4 #adh f4 #dja ,suidas1 quot$ by ,ritt] & ,prell]1 p4 #dhe4 #djb ,va*]ot1 ,hi/oire de l',ecole d',alex&rie1 pp4 #bad-ag2 ,zell]1 ,,iii41 b1 pp4 #chg ff4 ,! orig9al au?ority is ,ir5aeus4 #djc ,politicus1 p4 #bgj ff4 #djd ,legg41 ,x41 pp4 #hif1 ,d ff1 #hih1 ,c1 #ijd1 ,a4 #dje ,de ,isid4 et ,osir41 xlv4 f42 ,de ,vir4 ,moral41 iii42 ,de ,anim4 ,procr41 v41 #e4 ,plut>* supposes t ! irrational s\l 9 man is d]iv$ f ! evil _w-s\l :i* he reg>ds r z s5seless ?an z ,satanic4 ,x w\ld ?us v closely resemble ! deliri\s ,demiurgus ( ,val5t9us & ! #8absolut ,dumme' ( ,edu>d v4 ,h>tmann4 #djf ,diss41 ,,iii41 xxiii4 #djg ,zell]1 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 a1 pp4 #hjg ff4 #djh ,porph41 ,vita ,plot41 cap4 iii4 #dji ,ibid41 cap4 vii4 #daj ,ibid41 cap4 xiii4 #daa ,n1 z is commonly /at$1 on ! model ( ,plato's ,republic1 :i* w\ld h be5 a f> m difficult ent]prise1 & "o little 9 accordance ) ! practical good s5se %[n on o!r occasions by ,plot9us4 #dab ,porph41 ,vita1 cap4 xii42 ,hegel1 ,ges*4 d4 ,ph41 ,,iii41 p4 #cd4 #dac ,porph41 ,vita1 cap4 ix4 #dad ,ibid41 xi4 ,leop>di has tak5 ! incid5t ref]r$ to z ! subject ( "o ( 8 dialogues2 ,plot9us1 ! great *ampion ( optimism1 be+ *os51 ) bitt] irony1 to repres5t ! ,italian poet's own pessimi/ic views ( life4 ,! difficulty 0 to %[ h[ ! ,neo-,platoni/ philosoph] c\ld1 consi/5tly ) ! pr9ciples ?us fa!r$ on him1 /ill cont9ue to dissuade 8 pupil f committ+ suicide4 ,leop>di volunt>ily faces ! argum5tum ad hom9em by :i* common s5se has 9 all ages summ>ily dispos$ ( pessimism3 #8,!n :y don't y kill y\rself8' 7#8,y\r philosophy or y\r life1' s to speak47 ,! answ] is s+ul>ly lame4 ,porphyry is to ?9k ( ! di/ress :i* 8 dea? w\ld cause to 8 fri5ds4 ,he might h repli$ t if ! g5]al mis]y 7 s great z ,plot9us _h ma9ta9$1 a little m or less affliction w\ld n make any appreciable diff]5ce2 t1 consid]+ ! pr(\nd selfi%ness ( mank9d1 an accept$ article ( fai? ) pessimism1 8 fri5ds w\ld 9 all probability easily resign !mselves to 8 loss2 t1 at any rate1 ! suff]+ inflict$ on !m w\ld be a m]e trifle comp>$ to :at he w\ld himself be gett+ rid (2 & t1 if ! wor/ came to ! wor/1 !y _h b to foll[ 8 example & ease !mselves ( all _! tr\bles at a s+le /roke4 ,a s9c]e pessimi/ w\ld probably say3 #8,i d n kill myself because ,i am afraid3 & my v fe> ( dea? is a conclusive argum5t 9 fav\r ( my cre$4 ,no?+ proves ! deep-root$ necessity ( pa9 m /rongly ?an t we %\ld refuse to pr(it by s obvi\s a means ( escap+ f x z t (f]$ by suicide4' ,( c\rse :]e pessimism is associat$ ) a belief 9 metempsy*osis1 z among ! ,buddhi/s1 !re is ! be/ ( reasons = n seek+ a viol5t dea?1 namely1 t x w\ld 9 all probability transf] ! suicide to ano!r & inf]ior grade ( exi/5ce2 :]eas1 by us+ ! opportunities ( self-mortification :i* ?is _w (f]s1 he might succe$ 9 ext+ui%+ ! vital pr9ciple = good & all4 ,& ,s*op5hau] does1 9 fact1 adopt ! belief 9 metempsy*osis j s f> z is necess>y to exclude ! desirability ( suicide f 8 philosophy4 ,b ! tru? is1 t :ile ,asiatic pessimism is ! logical consequ5ce ( a false metaphysical sy/em1 ! analog\s sy/ems ( ,european pessimi/s are simply an excuse = n pu%+ _! disgu/ ) life to its only rational issue4 #dae ,porph41 ,vita1 cap4 xviii4 #daf ,porphyry says six1 b !re mu/ be a mi/ake some:]e1 z ,plot9us 0 fifty-n9e :5 _! fri5d%ip began1 & di$ 9 8 sixty-six? ye>2 :ile ,porphyry's dep>ture = ,sicily took place two ye>s be=e t ev5t1 leav+1 at mo/1 five ye>s dur+ :i* _! p]sonal int]c\rse c h la/$1 if ! o!r dates are to be tru/$4 #dag ,enn41 ,,iii41 ii4 & iii4 #dah ,plot9i ,op]a recognovit ,adolphus ,kir*h(f1 ,lipsiae1 #ahef1 9 ,teubn]'s s]ies ( ,greek & ,lat9 au?ors4 ,h4 ,f4 ,mll]1 ! late/ editor ( ,plot9us1 has return$ to ! orig9al arrangem5t by ,enneads4 ,8 edition is accompani$ by a v useful ,g]man translation1 only half ( :i*1 h[ev]1 has z yet appe>$4 7,b]l91 #ahgh47 #dai ,zell]1 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 b1 p4 #dgb4 7,?ird edition47 #dbj ,porph41 ,vita1 iv4 ff41 xxiv4 ff4 #dba ,ibid41 cap4 x4 #dbb ,ibid4 #dbc ,ibid41 cap4 xxii4 #dbd ,ibid41 capp4 i4 & ii4 #dbe ,zell]1 op4 cit41 pp4 #dea ff4 #dbf ,porph41 ,vita1 cap4 xx4 #dbg ,a s+le example w make our mean+ cle>4 ,plot9us is try+ to prove t !re c be no ,=m )\t ,matt]4 ,he fir/ argues t if ! notes ( a concept c be sep>at$ f "o ano!r1 ?is proves ! pres5ce ( ,matt]1 s9ce divisibility is an affection belong+ only to x4 ,he !n goes on to say1 1 4 7,enn41 ,,ii41 iv41 #d2 ,kir*h(f1 ,i41 p4 #aac1 ,i4 #g47 ,! mean+ is1 t if ! notes are insep>able1 ! unity 9 :i* !y inh]e is relat$ to !m z ,matt] to ,=m4 #dbh ,see ! index to ,kir*h(f's edition4 #dbi ,= ref]5ces see ,kir*n]1 ,die ,philosophie des ,plot91 p4 #ahe2 ,/e9h>t1 ,meletemata ,plot9iana1 pp4 #i-bc2 ,zell]1 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 b1 pp4 #dcj f4 #dcj ,/e9h>t1 op4 cit41 pp4 #cj ff42 ,kir*n]1 op4 cit41 pp4 #ahf ff4 #dca ,porph41 ,vita1 cap4 xv4 #dcb ,enn41 ,i41 vi4 #dcc ,m5o1 #hf1 ,a4 ,comp>e ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bab4 #dcd ,!aettus1 #agf1 ,a4 ,pha$o1 #fg1 ,b ff4 #dce ,op4 cit41 p4 #dbg4 #dcf ,enn41 ,,iv41 vii4 #dcg ,enn41 ,,iii41 i41 #c4 #dch ,enn41 ,,iii41 i4 #dci 4 ,,iii41 i41 #d1 ,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #ch1 l4 #bb4 ,s utt]ly incapable is ,m4 ,va*]ot ( plac+ himself at ?is po9t ( view1 t he actually reads into ! words quot$ an argum5t 9 fav\r ( free-w bas$ on ! te/imony ( consci\sness4 ,8 v]sion runs z foll[s3--#8,n\s savons et n\s croyons f]mem5t p> le s5tim5t de ce qui se passe en n\s que les individus 7les mes7 viv5t1 agiss5t1 p5s5t1 d'une vie1 d'une action1 d'une p5se qui leur e/ propre4'--,hi/oire ,critique de l'cole d',alex&rie1 ,i41 p4 #ead4 ,s f> z our k goes1 su* an appeal to consci\sness is n to be f\nd 9 any anci5t writ]4 #ddj ,see ,legg41 #hfa1 ,a ff4 = an attempt to prove t m5 may prop]ly be puni%$ = actions committ$ ?r\gh ignorance ( _! real good4 ,?is passage is "o ( ! gr\nds us$ by ,tei*mll]1 9 8 ,lit]>is*e ,fehd51 to e/abli% ! r p>adoxical !sis t ,ari/otle publi%$ 8 ,e?ics be=e ,plato's dea?4 #dda ,,iii41 i41 #aj4 #ddb ,cap4 #d1 sub f94 #ddc ,capp4 #f & #g4 ,cp4 ,enn41 ,,ii41 iii42 ,zell]1 op4 cit41 pp4 #efg ff2 ,kir*n]1 ,ph4 d4 ,plot41 p4 #aie4 #ddd ,plato1 ,pha$o1 #gi1 ,a ff42 ,ari/ot41 ,de ,an41 ,,iii41 iv41 sub f94 #dde ,pha$r41 #bde1 ,c2 ,legg41 #hib1 ,a4 #ddf ,adv4 ,col41 ix41 #c4 #ddg ,enn41 ,,iv41 ii41 i4 #ddh ,enn41 ,,iv41 ii41 sub f942 ,tim41 #ce1 ,a4 #ddi ,enn41 ,v41 ix4 #dej ,enn41 ,,iv41 viii4 #dea ,enn41 ,v41 ix41 #b4 #deb ,read]s ( ,pope's ,essay on ,man w recognise ?is argum5t4 ,x 01 9 fact1 borr[$ f ,plot9us by ,leibnitz1 & h&$ on ?r\gh ,bol+broke to ,pope4 ,!re is no bett] introduction to ,neo-,platonism ?an ?is beautiful poem4 #dec ,kir*n]1 ,ph4 d4 ,plot41 p4 #ce4 ,! triad ( body1 s\l1 & _s is /ill to be met ) 9 mod]n popul> philosophy2 b1 contr>y to ! ,greek ord] ( priority1 !re is a noticeable t5d5cy to rank s\l1 z ! seat ( emotion1 high] ?an _s or pure reason1 p>ticul>ly among p]sons ^: op9ions receive little c\nt5ance f ! la/-m5tion$ faculty4 #ded ,rep41 ,,vi41 #ejh1 ,c ff42 ,,vii41 #eag1 ,c4 #dee ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bbi4 #def ,ibid41 p4 #bce4 #deg ,ari/ot41 ,metaph41 ,i41 vi4 #deh ,enn41 ,v41 iv41 #b2 ,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #gb1 l4 #h4 #dei ,?is is ! me?od ( ,fi*te's ,wiss5s*aftslehre1 :i* seems to %[ t ,fi*te 0 acqua9t$ ) ,neo-,platonism1 probably at second-h&4 #dfj ,enn41 ,,iv41 ix4 #dfa ,ibid41 #c2 ,kir*h41 ,i41 p1 #ge1 l4 #bd4 #dfb ,enn41 ,,vi41 ix41 #a4 #dfc ,enn41 ,,vi41 ix41 #c2 ,kir*h41 ,i41 pp4 #ha ff4 #dfd ,9 ! introductory essay prefix$ to 8 "w ,de l'cole d',alex&rie4 #dfe 1 1 4--,rep41 #ejh1 ,e4 1 ' 4--,ibid41 #eji1 ,b4 ,! fir/ ( ^! passages is bracket$ by ,/allbaum1 b n ! second4 #dff ,symp41 #baa1 ,e f4 #dfg ,enn41 ,v41 i4 #dfh ,enn41 ,,vi41 ix41 #c1 sub f942 ibid41 #f1 p4 #gfd1 ,e4 7,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #hg1 l4 #af72 ,enn41 ,v41 v41 #f1 p4 #ebe1 ,d4 7,kir*h41 ,,ii41 p4 #bd1 l4 #bd74 #dfi ,enn41 ,,vi41 ix41 #i1 sub f94 #dgj ,ibid41 ,v41 ii41 ,i1 p4 #did1 ,a4 7,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #aji1 l4 #g74 #dga ,ibid41 ,v41 i41 #e1 p4 #dhg1 ,c4 7,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #aja1 l4 #cb74 #dgb ,enn41 ,v41 i41 #f1 p4 #dhg1 ,b4 7,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #aja1 l4 #ba74 #dgc ,enn41 ,v41 i41 #d1 p4 #dhe1 ,e 7,kir*h41 ,i41 pp4 #ii f474 #dgd ,enn41 ,v41 ii41 #a1 p4 #did1 ,a2 ,,vi41 ix41 #b1 p4 #gei1 ,a2 ,,ii41 iv41 #e1 p4 #afb1 ,a4 #dge ,enn41 ,,iv41 iv41 #af1 p4 #dji1 ,c 7,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #bhc1 l4 #ca74 #dgf ,enn41 ,v41 ii41 #b4 #dgg ,enn41 ,,ii41 iv4 #dgh ,ari/ot41 ,metaph41 ,,vii41 x41 sub f94 #dgi ,tim41 #dh1 ,e1 ff4 #dhj ,ibid41 #dg1 ,e4 #dha ,enn41 ,,ii41 iv41 #e1 p4 #afa1 ,e 7,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #aad1 l4 #a74 #dhb ,enn41 ,,ii41 iv41 #aa1 sub f94 #dhc ,enn41 ,,iii41 vi41 #ad f4 #dhd ,enn41 ,,ii41 iv41 #ae1 p4 #afi1 ,a 7,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #abd1 l4 #ag74 #dhe ,ibid41 #e1 p4 #afb1 ,a 7,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #aad1 l4 #ab74 #dhf ,ibid41 ,,iii41 ix41 #c1 p4 #ceh1 ,a 7,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #abh1 l4 #bb74 #dhg ,enn41 ,,iii41 iv41 i4 #dhh ,enn41 ,,ii41 iv41 #ae1 p4 #afi1 ,b 7,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #abd1 l4 #bb74 #dhi ,enn41 ,,iv41 iii11 #i1 p4 #cgi1 ,a 7,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #bdd1 l4 #ag74 ,9 "o ( 8 late/ essays 7,enn41 ,i41 viii41 #g7 ,plot9us = a mom5t accepts ! ,platonic !ory t evil mu/ necess>ily coexi/ ) good z its correlative opposite1 b quickly returns to ! alt]native !ory t evil results f ! gradual dim9ution & ext9ction ( good 7cp4 ,zell]1 ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 b1 p4 #edi74 #dij ,enn41 ,,iii41 viii41 #d & #h4 #dia ,our own ^w #8p>agon' is a curi\s record ( ! !ory 9 "q4 ,x is d]iv$ f ! ,greek p>ticipial sub/antive 1 ! produc]4 ,n[1 accord+ to ,neo-,platonism1 9 ! hi]>*ic s]ies ( exi/5ces1 ! product always /rives1 or %\ld /rive1 to model itself on ! produc]1 h5ce came to be us$ 9 ! d\ble s5se ( a cause & an exempl>4 ,z su*1 x is "o ( ! te*nical t]ms employ$ ?r\gh\t ! ,in/itutiones ,!ologicae ( ,proclus4 ,b1 9 "t1 ! second or d]ivative mean+ became s mu* ! m important z to ga9 exclusive possession ( ! ^w on its adoption into mod]n languages4 #dib ,enn41 ,,iii41 iv41 #b4 #dic ,enn41 ,i41 ii41 #a4 #did ,ibid41 #c4 #die ,enn41 ,i41 ii41 #f1 sub f94 #dif ,ibid41 #e4 #dig ,ibid41 ix4 #dih ,enn41 ,i41 iii4 #dii ,rep41 ,,vi41 #eaa4 #ejj ,see ! conclusion ( ! ,po/]ior ,analytics4 #eja ,enn41 ,,iii41 vii41 #a1 p4 #cbe1 ,c 7,kir*h41 ,,ii41 p4 #bhb1 l4 #ac74 #ejb ,zell]'s la/ volume1 giv+ a full acc\nt ( ! ,neo-,platonic s*ool1 has rec5tly rea*$ a ?ird edition1 b x belongs to a connect$ "w1 & conta9s1 9 addition1 a mass ( in=mation possess+ special int]e/ = !ologians4 ,x has n1 h[ev]1 be5 translat$ into ,engli%1 nor app>5tly is !re any int5tion ( translat+ x4 ,our own lit]ature on ! subject is repres5t$ by a wor?less book ( ,k+sley's1 entitl$ ,alex&ria & h] ,s*ools1 & a novel by a lady1 call$ ! ,w>ds ( ,plot9us4 #ejc ,enn41 ,,vi41 ix41 sub f94 #ejd ,enn41 ,,iii41 ii41 #ae1 p4 #bff1 ,e 7,kir*h41 ,,ii41 p4 #ccf1 l4 #ca74 ,m4 ,r5an talks ( ! p]iod f #bce to #bhd z #8cet enf] d'un demi-sicle o sombre t\te philosophie1 t\te civilit1 t\te dlicatesse' 7,m>c-,aurle1 p4 #dih74 ,z1 h[ev]1 ?is epo* produc$ ,neo-,platonism1 ! expression #8t\te philosophie' is r misplac$4 #eje ,enn41 ,,iv41 iv41 #ag1 p4 #daj1 ,b4 7,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #bhe1 l4 #a74 #ejf ,ph4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii41 b1 pp4 #fi ff1 #dai ff4 #ejg ,op4 cit41 pp4 #dai ff4 #ejh ,zell]1 p4 #ddg4 #eji ,enn41 ,v41 v41 p4 #ebj1 ,a4 7,kir*h41 ,,ii41 p4 #ah1 l4 #c74 ,?is is ! only passage 9 ! ,enneads :]e ! ,sceptics seem to be allud$ to4 #eaj ,loc4 cit4 #eaa ,vita1 x41 sub f94 #eab ,= specim5s ( 8 treatm5t1 see ,zell]1 pp4 #fbb ff4 #eac ,= ! !ology ( ,plot9us see ,zell]1 pp4 #fai ff1 & = ! daemons1 p4 #egj4 ,9 our op9ion1 ,zell] attributes a mu* /rong] religi\s fai? to ,plot9us ?an c be prov$ f ! passages to :i* he ref]s4 #ead ,enn41 ,v41 vii4 #eae ,enn41 ,v41 vii41 ,i1 p4 #eci1 ,b4 7,kir*h41 ,i41 p4 #ade1 l4 #bc74 #eaf ,= ref]5ces1 see ,zell]1 pp4 #ehh ff4 #eag ,enn41 ,,vi41 ii41 #c1 p4 #eih1 ,a4 7,kir*h41 ,,ii41 p4 #bbg74 #eah ,enn41 ,,ii41 ix4 #eai ,ibid41 cap4 #f4 #ebj ,ibid41 #ad4 #eba ,enn41 ,,ii41 ix41 #ae4 #ebb ,kir*n]1 ,die ,ph4 d4 ,plot41 pp4 #a-bd1 #age-bjh4 ,cp4 ,/e9h>t1 ,meletemata ,plot9iana1 p4 #d4 #ebc ,two o!r popul> misconceptions may be trac$ back1 9 "p at lea/1 to ! exclusively transc5d5tal int]pretation ( ,plato's philosophy4 ,by draw+ away att5tion f ! ,socratic dialogues1 x broke ! connexion betwe5 ,socrates & 8 *ief disciple1 ?us leav+ ! =m] to be e/imat$ exclusively f ,x5ophon's view ( 8 "* z a moral & religi\s tea*]4 ,true1 ,x5ophon himself supplies u ) ! data :i* prove t ,socrates 01 above all ?+s1 a dialectician1 b only 9 ! reflex light ( ,plato's subsequ5t developm5ts c _! real significance be p]ceiv$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! attempt to comb9e ,ari/otle ) ,plato l$ to a s]i\s misund]/&+ ( ! actual relation betwe5 ! two4 ,:5 ! :ole ideal elem5t ( 8 philosophy _h be5 drawn (f & employ$ to height5 /ill fur!r ! transc5d5talism ( 8 ma/]'s tea*+1 ! ,/agirite came to be judg$ entirely by ! residual elem5ts1 by ! logical1 physical1 & critical portions ( 8 sy/em4 ,on ! /r5g? ( ^!1 he 0 repres5t$ z ! type ( :atev] is mo/ oppos$ to ,plato1 &1 9 p>ticul>1 ( a practical1 prosaic turn ( m9d1 :i* 0 q ali5 f 8 true "*4 #ebd 444 ' 4 7,enn41 ,,vi41 ix41 #e1 p4 #gfc1 ,b47 4 7,proclus1 ,in/itutiones ,!ologicae1 cxxiii471 cp4 ,proclus1 ibid41 clxii4 #ebe ,de ,pr9cip41 ii41 quot$ by ,ritt] & ,prell]1 p4 #ecf f4 #ebf ,in/4 ,!ol41 lxxii41 cp4 ,zell]1 p4 #hjh1 :]e x is d5i$1 wrongly1 z we ?9k1 t ,plot9us held ! same view4 #ebg ,! foll[+ sket* is bas$ on ! acc\nts giv5 ( ! p]iod to :i* x relates 9 ! works ( ,zell] & ,va*]ot4 #ebh ,de ,civit4 ,dei1 ,,viii41 v41 quot$ by ,kir*n]1 p4 #bjh4 #ebi ,enn41 ,,ii41 ix41 #ah1 p4 #bag1 ,c2 = ,syrianus & ,proclus1 see ,zell]1 p4 #gch4 ,! ,emp]or ,con/ant9e is said to h rema9$ a sun-wor%ipp] all 8 life 7,va*]ot1 ,,ii41 p4 #aec72 & ev5 ,philo ,judaeus speaks ( ! />s z visible gods 7,zell]1 p4 #cic74 #ecj ,quot$ by ,ritt] & ,prell]1 p4 #eci4 #eca ,comp>e ! report ( ,aga?ias ) ! s]ies ( que/ions put to ,priscian1 quot$ 9 ! ,diss]tation by ,m4 ,qui*]at1 prefix$ to ,dbn]'s edition ( ,priscian's ,solutiones 7pr9t$ aft] ,plot9us 9 ,didot's edition1 pp4 #edi ff74 #ecb ,m4 ,va*]ot says 7,,ii41 p4 #djj71 )\t giv+ any au?ority = 8 /atem5t1 t ! ,neo-,platoni/s 7 driv5 f ,p]sia by ! p]secution ( ! ,magi2 & t !y return$ home #8furtivem5t1' :i* is c]ta9ly incorrect4 ,!y return$ op5ly1 "u ! protection ( a treaty betwe5 ,p]sia & ,rome4 #ecc ,repub41 ,,ix41 sub f94 #ecd ,haurau1 ,hi/oire de la ,philosophie ,scola/ique1 ,i41 p4 #cgb4 #ece ,= ,gilb]t de la ,porre see ,haurau1 ,i41 *ap4 xviii4 #ecf ,j\rda91 ,re*]*es critiques sur les ,traductions lat9es d',ari/ote4 #ecg ,! t]m ,nom9ali/ is "h us$ 9 ! wide s5se giv5 to x by ,haurau4 ,see ! la/ *apt] ( 8 "w on ! ,s*ola/ic ,philosophy4 #ech ,works ,i41 p4 #dje 9 ,ellis & ,sp$d+'s edition4 #eci #8,hi/oria naturalis 444 mat]ia prima philosophiae4' ,de ,aug41 ,,ii41 iii4 #edj ,! #8notions & conceptions' ( ! ,advancem5t ( ,le>n+ 7,works1 ,,iii41 p4 #cef7 is r5d]$ by #8axiomata' 9 ! ,de ,augm5tis 7,i41 p4 #efg71 :]e 9 bo? in/ances ! "q is entirely ab\t ,=ms4 ,cp4 #h ( ,pr(4 ,f[l]'s ,introduction to ! ,novum ,organum4 #eda ,analyt4 ,prior41 ,,ii41 xxx4 #edb ,pr(4 ,ba91 aft] m5tion+ t ! second book ( ! ,topics #8sets =? 9 a crude condition ! pr9cipal canons ( inductive logic1' goes on to say t #8^! /atem5ts _c be call$ g]ms = !y nev] g]m9at$' 7,grote's ,m9or ,works1 p4 #ad74 ,may !y n h g]m9at$ 9 ! ,novum ,organum8 #edc ,desc>tes %[$ a mu* deep] insight into ! sci5tific conditions ( indu/rial progress ?an ,bacon4 ,8 words are1 #8,on peut tr\v] une philosophie pratique p> laquelle connoissant la =ce et les actions du feu1 de l'eau1 de l'air1 des a/res1 des cieux1 et de t\s les autres corps qui n\s environn5t1 aussi di/9ctem5t que n\s connoissons les div]s me/i]s de nos artisans1 n\s les p\rrions employ] en mme faon t\s les usages auxquels ils sont propres1 et a9si n\s r5dre comme mai/res et possesseurs de la ,nature4' ,disc\rs de la ,m?ode1 ,sixime ,p>tie4 ,?is passage has be5 rec5tly quot$ by ,dr4 ,bridges 7#8,comte's ,def9ition ( ,life1' ,=tnightly ,review = ,june #ahha1 p4 #fhd7 to illu/rate :at seems a v que/ionable position4 ,he says t ! ,cop]nican a/ronomy1 by reveal+ ! inf9itude ( ! univ]se1 made m5 despair ( compreh5d+ nature 9 h] totality1 & ?us ?rew !m back on enquiries ( m directly human int]e/ & practical applicability2 p>ticul>ly specify+ #8! l(ty utilit>ianism ( ! ,novum ,organum & ( ! ,disc\rs de la ,m?ode1' z #8"o ( ! fir/ concomitants' #8( ?is intellectual revolution4#8 ,!re seems to be a d\ble misconception "h3 =1 9 ! fir/ place1 ,bacon c\ld h>dly h be5 influ5c$ by a !ory :i* he p]si/5tly reject$2 &1 9 ! next place1 nei!r ,bacon nor ,desc>tes %[$ a trace ( ! positivi/ t5d5cy to despair ( atta9+ absolute & univ]sal k4 ,bo? ( !m expect$ to discov] ! inmo/ ess5ces ( ?+s2 & nei!r ( !m imag9$ t a diff]5t set ( conditions might come into play outside ! b\nd>ies ( ! visible univ]se4 ,9 fact !y believ$ !mselves to be enl>g+ in/ead ( re/rict+ ! field ( m5tal vision2 & x 0 f ?is v enl>gem5t t !y anticipat$ ! mo/ mom5t\s practical results4 ,x 0 ) ,locke1 z we %all see h]eaft]1 t ! sceptical or agno/ic movem5t began4 ,9 ?is same article1 ,dr4 ,bridges repeats1 probably on ,comte's au?ority1 ! incr$ible /atem5t t #8,?ales taught ! ,egyptian prie/s ^? two or ?ree elem5t>y tru?s z to ! laws ( triangles1 :i* enabl$ !m to tell ! height ( ! pyramid by measur+ its %ad[4' ,comte's ignorance or c>elessness 9 relat+ ?is /ory z a well-atte/$ fact 0 long ago notic$ ) a/oni%m5t by ,grote4 7,life ( ,george ,grote1 p4 #bjd47 #edd ,:ewell notices ?is #8,/ation>y ,int]val' 7,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ,bk4 ,,xvi41 *apt] iii41 sect4 #c71 b )\t det]m9+ ei!r its j limits or its real cause4 #ede ,compreso *e s> il moto di que/' a/ro mondano 9 cui siamo 444 s'aprir la porta de l'intellig5za de li pr9cipi v]i di cose naturali4 ,de l',inf9ito ,univ]so e ,mondi1 p4 #ea1 ,wagn]'s ,ed4 #edf #8,sono amputate radici *e g]mogliano1 son cose anti*e *e rivegnono4 ,ibid41 p4 #hb4 #edg ,pr9cipio ,causa et ,uno1 p4 #bbe4 ,= ,david ( ,d9an1 ^: op9ions are kn[n only ?r\gh ! reports ( ,alb]tus & ,aqu9as1 see ,haurau1 ,,ii41 iv4 #edh ,galileo's words are3--#8,il moto circul>e naturale del tutto e delle p>ti m5tre sono 9 ottima disposizione4' ,dialoghi sui ,massimi ,si/emi4 ,op]e1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bfe2 see also p4 #ch4 #edi ,dialoghi1 p4 #baa4 #eej #8,non posso trov> t]m9e all'ammirazione mia come abbia possuto 9 ,ari/>co e nel ,cop]nico f> la ragione tanta viol5za al s5so *e contro a que/o ella si sia fatta padrona della loro cr$ulit4' ,dialoghi1 p4 #ceh4 #eea ,ibid41 p4 #cgj4 #eeb #8,kepl] tait p]suad de l'exi/5ce de ces lois en suivant cette p5se de ,platon3 que ,dieu1 en crant le monde1 avait d faire de la gometrie4' ,arago1 uvres ,,iii41 p4 #bab4 #eec ,de ,aug41 ,,iii41 v4 ,works1 ,i41 p4 #ega4 #eed ,?is is well br\ght out 9 a rem>kable s]ies ( articles on ! ,philosophy ( ,hobbes rec5tly publi%$ by ,tnnies 9 ! ,vi]teljahrss*rift fur wiss5s*aftli*e ,philosophie4 #eee ,levia?an1 *ap4 xv41 sub f94 #eef ,levia?an1 *ap4 xi41 sub f94 #eeg ,levia?an1 *ap4 vi4 #eeh ,spaccio della ,be/ia ,trionfante1 sub 94 #eei ,advancem5t ( ,le>n+1 ,ellis & ,sp$d+1 ,,iii41 p4 #dbh4 #efj ,republic1 ,,vi41 #eaa1 ,j[ett's ,trans4 ,,iii41 p4 #cih4 #efa ,plot9us himself expresses a d\bt z to :e!r ! ,"o is1 prop]ly speak+1 all ?+s or n 7,enn41 ,v41 ii41 sub 9472 b 9 8 essay on ,sub/ance & ,quality1 he def9es qualities z en]gies ( ! sub/ance to :i* !y belong 7,enn41 ,,ii41 vi4 #c74 ,n[ all ?+s are1 accord+ to 8 philosophy1 en]gies ( ! ,"o4 ,!re w\ld1 !re=e1 be no difficulty 9 consid]+ x z _! sub/ance4 #efb ---- ,quia multimodis1 multis1 mutata1 p] omne ,ex inf9ito vexantur p]cita plagis1 ,omne g5us motus1 et coetus exp]iundo1 ,t&em dev5iunt 9 taleis disposituras1 ,qualibus haec rebus consi/it summa creata4 7,i41 #ajbc-g47 #efc ,v41 #hec2 ,,iv41 #ghj-hjj2 ,v41 #ajbe4 #efd ,j ! same rem>k applies to ! monads ( ,leibnitz4 ,ea* monad reflects all ! o!rs1 & inf]s t its reflections repres5t a reality f ! inf9ite creative p[] ( ,god4 ,desc>tes' appeal to ! div9e v]acity repres5ts ! same me?od 9 a less develop$ /age4 ,! root-idea "h is to be s\ght =1 n 9 ,greek ?\ght b 9 ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( a sup]natural revelation4 #efe ,! =mal cause ( a ?+ is its species1 ! concept "u :i* x is imm$iately subsum$2 ! effici5t cause is :at br+s x into exi/5ce4 ,?us ! =mal cause ( a man is humanity1 ! effici5t cause1 8 fa!r4 #eff ,e?41 ,i41 prop4 xvi42 ,,ii41 prop4 iii42 prop4 v42 prop4 xviii41 s*ol42 prop4 xxviii42 prop4 xl41 s*ol4 ii42 ,v41 prop4 xxix41 s*ol42 prop4 xl41 s*ol4 7,! passage la/ ref]r$ to is ! cle>e/ & mo/ decisive47 #efg ,see ! passage f ! ,republic quot$ above4 #efh ,! t5d5cy ( logicians is n[1 contr>iwise1 to =ce reason+ into p>allelism ) ma!matical physics by int]pret+ ! proposition z an equation betwe5 subject & pr$icate4 #efi ,,iii41 prop4 ii41 s*ol4 #egj ,,ii41 vii41 s*ol4 #ega ,,iii41 ix4 & xi4 #egb ,greek trag$y is j ! rev]se--an expansion ( ! old patri>*al relations into a m\ld fitt$ to receive ! highe/ ?\ght & feel+ ( a civilis$ age4 #egc ,= ! :ole subject ( ,sp9oza's ma!matical me?od1 see ,w9delb&'s pap] on ,sp9oza 9 ! ,vi]teljahrss*rift fr wiss5s*aftli*e ,philosophie1 #ahgg4 ,"s po9ts 9 ! la/ p>agraph 7 sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,pollock's ,sp9oza 7pp4 #bee1 #bfd74 #egd ,essay1 ,bk4 iv41 *4 #ab4 #ege ,see ! ref]5ces to ,epicttus1 supra1 p4 #ba4 #egf ,:at ,ari/otle has writt5 on ! subject is n e?ics b natural hi/ory4 #egg #8,ne rem>que-t-on comm5t *aque re*]*e analytique de ,laplace a fait ressortir dans notre globe et dans l'univ]s des conditions d'ordre et de dure8'--,arago1 uvres1 ,,iii41 p4 #dif4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s note3 ,obvi\s typographical errors h be5 sil5tly correct$4 ,v>iations 9 hyph5ation & ligatures h be5 /&>dis$ b all o!r spell+ & punctuation rema9s un*ang$4