,transcrib]'s ,notes ,sup]scripts are indicat$ by c>et symbols3 #bh = s+le *>act]s & #ba4e = multiple *>act]s4 ,italic text is enclos$ 9 und]scores4 ,o!r notes w be f\nd at ! end ( ?is e,book4 ,! ,de/9ies ( ! ,/>s ,by ,svante ,arrh5ius1 ,ph4,d4 ,presid5t1 ,nobel ,in/itute1 ,/ockholm1 ,sw$5 7,recipi5t ( ! ,nobel ,prize 9 ,*emi/ry1 #aijc7 ,au?oriz$ ,translation f ! ,sw$i% ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,fries ,fell[ ,a4,i4,e4,e4 ,illu/rat$ ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons ,new ,york & ,london ,! ,knick]bock] ,press #aiah ,,copyright1 #aiah ,,by ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,! ,knick]bock] ,press1 ,new ,york ,,translator',s ,,preface ,:5 ,dr4 ,svante ,arrh5ius 9 ! ye> #aijc receiv$ ! ,,nobel ,,prize 9 ,*emi/ry x came z a fitt+ rew>d ( 8 a*ievem5ts pr9cipally 9 ! electro-*emical field4 ,x 0 natural1 h[ev]1 t a g5ius ( 8 calibre w\ld n limit 8 int]e/ to ! 8inf9itely small0 b w\ld gradually broad5 x to encompass ! 8inf9itely l>ge40 ,& 8to take an int]e/0 means ) ,dr4 ,arrh5ius to pu% ! b\nd>ies ( ! unkn[n & ( ! unexplor$ a little f>!r away f man4 ,8 evolution 9 ?is respect runs p>allel ) t ( all ! great m5 :o /& out z lead]s 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,wrapt up 9 ! solution ( a p>ticul> problem & fir$ ) ! div9e ye>n+ to rea* ultimate causes !y are inevitably driv5 to ev] wid5+ circles ( rese>* until ?is :ole mat]ial univ]se1 its :5ce & :i!r1 becomes ! ov]p[]+ passion ( _! spirits4 ,?us ! m]e titles ( ! works ( ,dr4 ,arrh5ius1 read 9 ! sequ5ce ( _! publication1 give u1 bett] ?an any biography1 ! hi/ory ( a s\l1 :i*1 no matt] :at 8 unpr(ess$ philosophical fai? may be1 con/itutes our /ronge/ evid5ce 9 fav\r ( t !ory ( 8purposiv5ess0 9 ! univ]se :i* ,dr4 ,arrh5ius s he>tily abhors 7& ju/ly s7 :5 resort$ to 9 natural sci5ce1 b :i* !ory nev]!less 7& ju/ly s7 is s de> to ! philosoph]3--,rese>*es 9 ,reg>d to ! ,conductivity ( ,electrolytes2 ,conductivity ( ,extremely ,dilut$ ,solutions2 ,*emical ,!ory ( ,electrolytes2 ,textbook 9 ,!oretical ,electro-,*emi/ry2 ,textbook 9 ,cosmological ,physics2 ,worlds 9 ! ,mak+2 ,inf9ity ( ! ,univ]se2 ,life ( ! ,univ]se z ,conceiv$ by ,man f ,e>lie/ ,ages to ! ,pres5t ,"t2--?us run ! titles ( a few ( ! works we already h by ,dr4 ,arrh5ius' h&4 ,h[ 7 x possible = him ,,n to write ,! ,de/9ies ( ! ,/>s8 ,! volume came z inevitably z fruition foll[s fl[]+4 ,:at rema9s to be se5 is if ,dr4 ,arrh5ius c )/& ! trem5d\s temptation t mu/ be at "w 9 8 s\l to lift1 be x ev] s little1 ! curta9 t sep>ates natural sci5ce & philosophy2 we hope he w give 92 we admire 9 ?is book h[ he reads 8,! ,riddle ( ! ,milky ,way02 we c]ta9ly wi% to "k h[ he reads--! riddle ( ! univ]se4 ,! ,de/9ies ( ! ,/>s met ) unexampl$ success 9 ,sw$54 ,?ree editions appe>$ )9 two mon?s :5 ! book 0 publi%$ 9 ,novemb]1 #aiae4 ,! ,am]ican v]sion has be5 some:at delay$ pr9cipally due to w> conditions4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 has n be5 :olly a loss to ! ,engli%-speak+ _w z ,dr4 ,arrh5ius by no means has be5 idle 9 ! meantime4 ,consid]able additional subject matt]1 includ+ ?ree new pictures1 has be5 add$1 *iefly bas$ on ! mo/ rec5t a/ronomical discov]ies "s ( :i* h be5 record$ z late z #aiag4 ,= valuable sugge/ions & = all ! ,am]ican equival5ts ( ! metric measures 9 ! orig9al1 ! read] z well z ! translator1 is indebt$ to a memb] ( ! ,publi%+ ,h\se t pres5ts ?is volume 9 su* an attractive way1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,putnam1 himself an ard5t lov] ( a/ronomy & a writ] on ! subject4 ,dr4 ,arrh5ius is ju/ly r5[n$ = 8 lucid /yle & poli%$ =m4 ,all t is lack+ 9 ^! qualities )9 ! cov]s ( ?is volume is :olly due to ! defici5cies ( ! translator1 :o h[ev] c\ld n resi/ ! temptation ( transf]r+ to ,anglo-,saxon soil ?is monum5t to ! g5ius ( 8 =m] tea*]1 ,dr4 ,svante ,arrh5ius4 ,j4 ,e4 ,,fries4 ,,birm+ham1 ,,ala41 ,decemb] #ae1 #aiag4 ,,preface ,s9ce ,i pres5t$ ,worlds 9 ! ,mak+ & ,life ( ! ,univ]se z ,conceiv$ by ,man f ,e>lie/ ,ages to ! ,pres5t ,"t to ! public--:i* receiv$ !m ) f> great] int]e/ & appreciation ?an ,i c\ld =esee--,i h _h repeat$ occasions to treat new que/ions ( a cosmological nature1 que/ions l>gely aris5 f new discov]ies & obs]vations )9 ! scope ( a/ronomy4 ,va/ new vi/as h be5 op5$ ?r\gh ! /udy ( ! relation ( ! />s to ! 8,milky ,way0 & ?r\gh obs]vations ( our neighb\r planets4 ,! la/ m5tion$ give pla9 indications ( ! c\rse ( planet>y evolution & ?us enable u to surmise ! *ang+ fate & future position ( ! ,e>?4 ,9 an e>li] ,g]man publication1 ,das ,s*icksal d] ,planet5 7#aiaa71 ,i dealt ) "s ( ^! problems4 ,z1 fur!r1 ! evolution ( ! sol> sy/em f ! ,milky ,way nebula1 to :i* ,i h devot$ sev]al lectures at home & abroad1 may be consid]$ z ! pre-hi/ory ( ! evolution ( ! planets1 ,i h giv5 ?is collection ( cosmog5ic articles ! common title ,! ,de/9ies ( ! ,/>s4 ,i (f] z introduction a lecture deliv]$ be=e ! ,f\r? ,int]national ,philosophical ,congress 9 ,bologna1 #aiaa1 deal+ ) ! 8,orig9 ( ,/>-,wor%ip40 ,hop+ t ?is little book w1 to a consid]able ext5t1 fill ! gaps 9 my previ\s works1 ,i pres5t ^! treatises 9 remodell$ =m4 ,,svante ,,arrh5ius4 ,,/ockholm1 ,novemb]1 #aiae4 ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i ,,page ,,orig9 ,,( ,,/>-,,wor%ip #a ,position & practical value ( a/ronomy4 ,wor%ip ( />s4 ,*ronology4 ,! ,au/ralian negro's conception ( ! />s4 ,day & night1 summ] & w9t]4 ,sol> ye>4 ,sun-wor%ip4 ,*ang+ phases ( ! moon 9 *ronology4 ,! ,mexican 8,tonalamatl40 ,moon-wor%ip 9 ,mesopotamia4 ,significance ( ! moon 9 a/rology4 ,! sun & ! heat4 ,agriculture's dem& on *ronology4 ,wor%ip ( ! planet ,v5us by ! ,mexicans & ! ,babylonians4 ,! ,*ur* ,cal5d>4 ,! ,zodiac4 ,! sev5 planets4 ,! week4 ,correspond5ce & sympa!tic magic4 ,! ,platonic-,ari/otelian philosophy4 ,a/rology & al*emy4 ,ty*o ,brahe4 ,occult sci5ces4 ,ari/>*os f ,samos4 ,kop]nicus4 ,! progress ( ,a/ronomy4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,my/]y ,,( ,,! ,,milky ,,way #da ,primitive conceptions ( ! ,milky ,way4 ,anaxagoras & ,demokritos4 ,ptolemaios4 ,galilei4 ,cosmog5ic speculations4 ,wm4 ,h]s*el's /ati/ical rese>*es reg>d+ ! di/ribution ( ! />s4 ,! ,milky ,way z ! f\ndation ( ! /ell> sy/em4 ,! ,milky ,way z a nebula4 ,classification accord+ to age ( ! />s1 _! di/ribution & velocity4 ,motion 9 ! ,orion nebula4 ,! planet>y nebul4 ,kapteyn's 8/>-drifts40 ,! orig9 ( ! ,milky ,way4 ,comp>ison betwe5 ! ,milky ,way & a spiral nebula 9 8,! ,dogs ( ,orion40 ,a few details f ! ,milky ,way4 ,! inf9itely great & ! inf9itely small4 ,! magnitude & de/9y ( ! ,milky ,way4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,climatic ,,importance ,,( ,,wat] ,,vap\r #hd ,! f\r elem5ts ( ,ari/otle4 ,humid-w>m climates4 ,! ,congo & ,amazon bas9s4 ,! c>bonif]\s age4 ,! effect ( cl\d9ess4 ,des]t climate4 ,/eppes4 8,kevirs0 & 8,bayirs40 ,s& dunes4 ,! great ,kevir4 ,climatic *anges4 ,khanik(f's description4 ,salt lakes4 ,deposits ( salt ?r\gh evaporation4 ,hunt+ton ab\t ! arefaction ( ! e>?4 ,humid p]iod dur+ ! ice-age4 ,climatic *anges dur+ hi/oric "t4 ,africa1 ,asia1 ,greece1 ,italy1 ,sicily4 ,we/-,europe's climate has gr[n m m>9e4 ,pres5t conditions4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,atmosph]e ,,& ,,physics ,,( ,,! ,,/ell> ,,bodies #aai ,out] envelope ( ! />s4 ,! l>ge planets4 ,spectra4 ,m>s1 ,e>?1 ,v5us1 ,m]cury4 ,atmosph]e impossible on ! moon4 ,! light f ! ,e>?4 ,! atmosph]e ( ,m]cury4 ,! atmosph]e ( ,v5us & its ,cl\ds4 ,composition ( air & its *ange ) height4 ,=c$ circulation4 ,troposph]e & ,/ratosph]e4 ,hydrog5 9 ! highe/ /rata ( ! atmosph]e4 ,wat] vap\r & c>bonic acid 9 ! air4 8,geokoronium40 ,influ5ce ( gravity on composition ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! air on ,v5us & ,m>s4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]e #aee ,inhabit$ ,worlds4 ,k9%ip ( ! /ell> bodies4 ,pres5ce ( life4 ,importance ( wat] & c>bon4 ,importance ( temp]ature4 ,all life evolv$ f exi/5ce 9 wat]4 ,necessity ( oxyg54 ,bact]ia4 ,r$uc+ sub/ances prepond]able 9 ! ,_w-matt]4 ,volcanic gases & gases 9 solidifi$ lava4 ,wat]1 vap\r1 c>bon dioxide1 nitrog5 gas1 & sulphur\s acid4 ,p]man5t gases & hydrog54 ,! poison\s "* ( ! orig9al air4 ,its purification4 ,! importance ( plant life & necessity ( a solid cru/ 9 ?is process4 ,supply ( c>bonic dioxide & production ( oxyg54 ,! "w ( ,ko5e4 ,silica4 ,cool+ ( ! ,e>? & *ang+ surface temp]ature4 ,! ice-p]iods4 ,c5tres ( collapse & l9es ( fissure 9 ! cru/4 ,g5]al survey ( ! gradual *ange ( ! air4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,planet ,,m>s #ahj ,! controv]sy ab\t ! habitabl5ess ( ,m>s4 ,humidity on ,m>s4 ,e>ly obs]vations4 ,! spectra ( ,m>s & ( ! ,moon comp>$4 ,inve/igations by ,campbell & ,m>*&4 ,! "w ( ,l[ell4 ,measurem5ts by ,sliph]4 ,calculations by ,v4 ,! temp]ature on ,m>s accord+ to ^! s\rces4 ,campbell's exp$ition to ,m\nt ,:itney 9 ,cali=nia4 ,oxyg5 on ,m>s4 ,! cold on ,m>s detrim5tal to any?+ b ! l[e/ =ms ( life4 ,cause ( diff]5t results by ,sliph] & ,campbell4 ,v's answ] to ,campbell's criticism4 ,new measurem5ts by ,sliph]4 ,campbell's new me?od ( measurem5t ( #aiaj4 ,*ri/ians5 calculates ! temp]ature on ,m>s f int5sity ( ! ,sun's radiation4 ,! sun-con/ant4 ,av]age temp]ature ( ,m>s ab\t =ty degrees ,c5tigrade4 ,possibly l[ plant life ar\nd ! poles dur+ summ]4 ,! canals on ,m>s are probably fissures 9 ! cru/4 ,! l5g? ( ! canals comp>$ ) t ( ! fissures 9 ,e>?'s cru/4 ,! d\ble canals on ,m>s comp>$ ) ! p>allel fissures 9 ,calabria4 ,emanations along ! fissures4 ,! canals z affect$ by increas+ cold or heat4 ,! pol> sn[4 ,?aw+ ( ! canals4 ,travel ( ! wat] vap\r indep5d5t ( ! topography4 ,! des]t s& on ,m>s4 ,cl\ds & mi/s4 ,highl&s & m\nta9s on ,m>s4 ,s& fill+ ( ! canals4 ,! seas on ,m>s4 ,! /raightness & uni=m bread? ( ! canals an illusion4 ,light & d>k spots4 8,new0 canals4 ,! fancies ( ,l[ell4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,m]cury1 ,,! ,,moon1 ,,& ,,v5us #bbh ,fissures on ,m]cury4 ,l[ell's draw+4 ,c5tres ( collapse4 ,abs5ce ( atmosph]e4 ,! climate on ! ,moon4 ,w4 ,pick]+'s belief 9 fro/ =mations on ! ,moon4 ,! m\nta9s on ! ,moon4 ,volcanoes4 ,circul> elevat$ r+s4 8,seas0 on ! ,moon4 ,! ,crat] 8,l9n40 8,s9uses0 & 8,/reaks0 on ! ,moon4 ,! light matt] ( ! /reaks probably lava-scum4 ,! col\r ( ! ,moon & ( ! ,e>?4 ,comp>ison betwe5 ! ,moon & ,m>s4 ,*anges on ! ,moon4 8,sn[0 & 8,vegetation0 on ! ,moon accord+ to ,w4 ,pick]+4 ,! fate ( ,m>s & ( ! ,e>?4 ,fall+ meteoric du/4 ,! climate on ,v5us4 ,swamps l ^? ( ! c>bonif]\s age4 ,abundant vegetation4 ,l[ organisms4 8,culture0 on ,v5us w proce$ f ! poles4 ,! future ( ,v5us4 ,! claims ( a/rology 9 mod]n light4 ,ty*o ,brahe4 ,! dreams ( ,giordano ,bruno probably true4 ,,illu/rations ,,page ,,fig4 #a4--,,! ,,milky ,,way #df ,photo by ,ea/on4 ,,fig4 #b4--,,planet>y ,,nebula ,,no4 #gjji1 ,,new ,,g5]al ,,catalogue #eb ,,fig4 #c4--,,nebula ,,no4 #deid1 ,,new ,,g5]al ,,catalogue #ff ,,fig4 #d4--,,nebula ,,no4 #aja ,,9 ,,messi]',s ,,catalogue #gj ,,fig4 #e4--,,nebula ,,no4 #ea ,,9 ,,messi]',s ,,catalogue #ga ,,fig4 #f4--,,milky ,,way ,,betwe5 ,,cassiopeia ,,& ,,swan #gf ,accord+ to ,wolf4 ,,fig4 #g4--,,milky ,,way ,,9 ,,eagle ,,& ,,sagitt>ius #gf ,accord+ to ,wolf4 ,,fig4 #h4--,,! 8,,trifid0 ,,hole ,,9 ,,eagle #gg ,accord+ to ,wolf4 ,,fig4 #i4--,,t>im ,,riv] ,,) ,,lakes ,,& ,,bayirs #if ,accord+ to ,sv5 ,h$94 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,! ,,=m] ,,lake ,,bonneville ,,9 ,,utah #ajf ,,fig4 #aa4--;,,jupit]1 #aiji #abb ,accord+ to ,f4 le ,c\ltre4 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,saturn1 #aiji #abc ,accord+ to ,f4 le ,c\ltre4 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,spectra ,,( ,,! ,,major ,,planets #abd ,accord+ to ,v4 ,m4 ,sliph]4 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,v5us ,,obs]v$ ,,by ,,langley ,,9 #ahhb #acf ,,fig4 #ae4--,,rock ,,fissure ,,at ,,hango1 ,,sw$5 #bjd ,photo by ,i4 ,i4 ,s$]holm4 ,,fig4 #af4--;,,e>?quake ,,c5t]s ,,9 ,,calabria #bje ,accord+ to ,i4 ,i4 ,s$]holm4 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,maps ,,( ,,m>s ,,by ,,s*iap>elli ,,& ,,antoniadi ,at ! end ,,fig4 #ag;a4--,,maps ,,( ,,m>s ,,by ,,s*iap>elli ,,& ,,antoniadi ,at ! end ,,fig4 #ah4--,,photo ,,( ,,m>s ,,by ,,lampl& #baj ,,fig4 #ai4--,,m>s ,,on ,,april #h1 #aiji #baj ,accord+ to ,qu5isset4 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,! ,,s\? ,,pole ,,spot ,,on ,,m>s1 #aiji #baj ,accord+ to ,j>ry ,desloges4 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,s&/orm ,,on ,,m>s1 #aiji #baj ,accord+ to ,antoniadi4 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,,cl\d ,,on ,,edge ,,( ,,m>s1 ,,! #g,,? ,,( ,,m>*1 #aija #baf ,accord+ to ,moleswor?4 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,m>s1 ,,july #aa1 #aijg #baf ,accord+ to ,l[ell4 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,m>s1 ,,octob] #f1 #aiji #baf ,accord+ to ,antoniadi4 ,,fig4 #be4--,,m]cury #bcj ,accord+ to ,l[ell4 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,! ,,moon ,,ne> ,,! ,,crat] ,,ty*o #bcj ,photo f ,y]kes ,obs]vatory4 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,m>e ,,s]5itatis ,,& ,,m>e ,,tranquillitatis #bca ,photo f ,y]kes ,obs]vatory4 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,! ,,moon ,,ne> ,,its ,,s\? ,,pole #bdj ,photo f ,y]kes ,obs]vatory4 ,,fig4 #bi4--,,! ,,lun> ,,crat] ,,cop]nicus ,,& ,,vic9ity #bdb ,photo f ,y]kes ,obs]vatory4 ,! ,de/9ies ( ! ,/>s ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,/>-,,wor%ip ,a/ronomy occupies a r unique position among ! natural sci5ces4 ,:ile physics1 *emi/ry1 & ! biological sci5ces =m ! f\ndation ( ! extraord9>y mat]ial developm5t ( our day1 a/ronomy1 9 ! eyes ( mo/ p1 is ( little practical value4 ,:at b5efit c\ld we d]ive f kn[+ :e!r a /> lies a hundr$ or a ?\s& billion miles f ! ,sun1 or f und]/&+ h[ ! /ell> bodies h evolv$ 9 ! c\rse ( billions ( ye>s8 ,& yet a/ronomy has n be5 z futile z is commonly imag9$1 nei!r is x useless at ! pres5t "t4 ,?is sci5ce is /ill ( ! greate/ importance to common life by fix+ our /&>ds ( "t &1 be=e ! introduction ( ! compass1 0 invaluable also to navigation1 :i* art1 moreov]1 dep5ds n[ ^u a/ronomy = det]m9ation ( geographical position on ! op5 sea4 ,obs]vations = ^! purposes1 h[ev]1 are ( su* a simple nature1 t !y h>dly fall "u ! a/ronomical sci5ce prop]1 b r "u ! appli$ sci5ces4 ,!y h ent]$ into daily life mu* z1 9 comm]ce1 ! det]m9ation ( ! weight ( a body is n consid]$ z belong+ to ! sci5ce ( physics1 al?\gh x dep5ds on ! use ( a physical in/rum5t1 ! scale4 ,b we mu/ n =get t :at we n[ consid] s commonplace t x entirely has lo/ ! gr& aspect ( sci5ce1 once 0 ! goal ( grop+ sci5tific endeav\r4 ,all natural sci5ce has gr[n out ( ! ne$s ( practical life4 ,geometry is probably ev5 old] ?an a/ronomy4 ,! "n means3 to measure l&1 & ! olde/ geometry 01 accord+ly1 devot$ to ! measurem5t ( di/ances on ! ,e>? & lat] to ! det]m9ation ( ! area ( l&-hold+s4 ,?is extremely important practical application ( geometry is ( su* a simple nature t x is n m5tion$ 9 mod]n ma!matical sci5ce1 to :i* geometry belongs4 ,9 ?is mann]1 ! orig9al !ses ( all our natural sci5ces h become ! possession ( ! public to su* a degree t !y are look$ ^u z self-evid5t4 ,?is is ! case also ) ^? p>ts ( a/ronomy :i*1 because ( _! practical importance at ! outset1 gave rise to ! sci5ce itself4 ,! gr[+ k ab\t ! />s1 l all high] insight1 became among primitive peoples ! private possession ( _! lead]s1 0 by ^! kept a secret & made a "p ( ! v5]able realm ( religion4 ,we f9d t a majority ( ^! old peoples r5d]$ wor%ip to ! />s1 believ+ !m to gov]n ! fates ( human be+s4 ,?is may inde$ seem highly rem>kable1 z our ev]yday exp]i5ce is t ! /ell> bodies1 ) ! exception ( ! ,sun1 ex]t no p]ceptible influ5ce on organic nature1 & su* conclusion is emphatically confirm$ by ! sy/ematic collection ( all our exp]i5ces :i* we call mod]n sci5ce4 ,! ,sun1 z /at$1 is ! exception z x reigns ov] ! entire nature1 ! liv+ z well z ! lifeless1 by virtue ( ! heat & light :i* abundantly fl[ f ?is autocrat ( our planet>y sy/em4 ,p]haps ! ,moon also plays "s small active "p z x seems some:at to affect ! b>ometric pressure1 ! magnetic & p>ticul>ly ! electric conditions ( ! atmosph]e1 :i*1 9 turn1 appe> to influ5ce sev]al life processes4 ,on ! o!r h& we _c po9t to any influ5ce ^u nature traceable to ! o!r /ell> bodies4 ,obvi\sly1 primitive man devot$ 8 ?\ghts only to su* conditions z affect$ 8 int]e/s 9 a b5eficial or detrim5tal way4 ,on ! assumption t ^! conditions 7 gov]n$ by spirits :o resembl$ man & :o 9 p>ticul> 7 end[$ ) w1 our ance/ors endeav\r$ by sacrifice & exorcism to move ! spirits !y fe>$ to discont9ue _! h>mful activity4 ,"s su* spirits dwelt 9 bea/s ( prey & 9 o!r noxi\s animals1 su* z poison\s snakes2 o!rs caus$ e>?quakes1 volcanic eruptions1 sn[/orms1 lightn+ ravages1 fires1 floods1 heat1 dr\ght1 etc4 ,aga9/ ^! calamities religi\s ex]cises =m$ a protection4 ,religion sprang ma9ly f fe> ( spirits4 ,lat] on ?ank (f]+s & hymns 7 be/[$ ^u b5evol5t objects & ph5om5a 9 nature4 ,x is evid5t t ?is primitive1 simple religion is ( f> great] age ?an />-wor%ip4 ,! latt] presupposes a comp>atively high degree ( culture4 ,! />s 7 ( no b5efit to man until x became necess>y to measure "t int]vals compris+ a great] numb] ( days ?an might be c\nt$ on "o's f+]s4 ,h[ ?is gr[? 9 all probability took place we %all endeav\r to expla9 9 ! foll[+4 ,fairly c]ta9 x is t />-wor%ip did n gr[ out ( man's admiration = ! sublime drama :i* at dawn ( morn+ comm5ces at ! ea/]n horizon1 & proce$s 9 ! c\rse ( a day ov] ! firmam5t 9 ord] to close be=e night j beyond ! we/]n expanses1 nei!r 0 x f\nd$ on man's gratitude t[>d ! tor*-be>]s ( night = _! incessant battle aga9/ gloomy cl\ds & all ! o!r spirits ( d>kness4 ,ev5 tribes on a r l[ /age h no d\bt notic$ ! mo/ conspicu\s among ! /ell> bodies4 ,! attitude ( ! ,au/ralian aborig9es is significant 9 ?is connection4 ,accord+ to ,sp5c] & ,gill5 !y possess leg5ds ab\t ! ,moon1 :i* is male1 ab\t ! ,sun & ,v5us1 ab\t ! p]nici\s ,magellanic cl\ds1 & ab\t ! ,pleiades1 :o1 l ! ,sun & ,v5us1 are consid]$ female4 ,eclipses h1 z is natural1 attract$ ! greate/ att5tion4 ,:ile ^! primitive m5 indulge 9 an incr$ible numb] ( religi\s c]emonies p]ta9+ to conditions ( _! daily life1 none ( ^! ex]cises are devot$ to ! />s1 if we except /one ?r[+ aga9/ ! ,sun dur+ eclipses4 ,ev5 ?is treatm5t is left ) consid]able s]5ity ( m9d = ! m$ic9e-m5 to p]=m4 ,x is v significant t all /ell> bodies are ( e>?ly orig91 t ! ,moon is ( male g5d] :ile ! ,sun1 ,v5us1 & ! ,pleiades are female1 :i* indicates t ! ,moon is consid]$ ( greate/ di/9ction4 ,!y c\nt "t accord+ to 8sleeps10 i4 e4 ! numb] ( times !y h slept1 or accord+ to moons2 long] p]iods accord+ to seasons2 !y h names = summ] & w9t]4 ,!y c c\nt to five1 or p]haps r to f\r1 z ! t]m five also means 8_m40 ,ideas ( p[] c5tr$ 9 ! /ell> bodies are evid5tly abs5t & !re=e also religi\s c]emonies p]ta9+ !reto4 ,a few tales exi/ relat+ to ! />s z to o!r objects )9 _! obs]vation4 ,?us conditions w\ld und\bt$ly h rema9$ b = ! high value :i* ! want ( a *ronometry gave to ! regul>ly *ang+ light ( ! /ell> bodies4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 day & night is ( su* a deeply fundam5tal importance t x has left its /amp on ! :ole organic nature on ! surface ( ! ,e>?4 ,plants entirely *ange _! life processes 9 ! c\rse ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs2 dur+ ! day !y add to _! gr[? "u ! /imulus ( light2 dur+ ! night !y p>tly exp5d ! /r5g? ga!r$ 9 daytime4 ,?is cycle is s regul> t x functions automatically4 ,! prom95t botani/1 ,pfeff]1 has exp]im5t$ ) a ,mimosa1 :i*1 z is well kn[n1 unfolds its leaves dur+ ! day b curls !m dur+ ! night4 ,if left 9 a d>k room any arbitr>y day1 x nev]!less uncurls its leaves4 ,by means ( electric light ,pfeff] *ang$ night into day = ! plant kept 9 ! d>k room4 ,x took consid]able "t be=e ! plant adju/$ itself to ! new conditions s t x unfold$ its leaves to ! influ5ce ( ! electric light4 ,animals behave simil>ly4 ,! night & day p]iod is in/ill$ 9 _! blood4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se !y possess an in/9ctive *ronometry4 ,x is (t5 /at$ t ! assurance ( ! return ( sunlight aft] ! d>kness ( night enabl$ humanity ) great] equanimity to acquiesce 9 ! loss ( light dur+ "o half ( its exi/5ce & t wor%ip 0 r5d]$ to ! ,sun 9 gratitude !re=4 8,a new outlook ^u life10 says ,troels ,lund1 8awak5s ! mom5t ! great discov]y is made t ! night ( sleep & ! night ( fe> are equally long & always foll[$ by morn+ & subsequ5t day40 ,?is discov]y1 h[ev]1 our pr$ecessors made long be=e !y rea*$ ! human /age4 ,sun-wor%ip by no means d]iv$ its orig9 !refrom4 ,r x is traceable to evid5ce ( ! ,sun's connection ) ! *ang+ seasons1 al?\gh ?is *ange also is ( dom9e]+ influ5ce 9 ! vegetable _w inasmu* z ! plants /ore res]ve n\ri%m5t 9 ! autumn1 p>ticul>ly1 & on a l>ge scale1 dur+ fructification4 ,also1 l[] & high] animals1 = example1 bees & squirrels1 ga!r w9t]-/ores4 ,x is !re=e small wond] if m5 on a comp>atively l[ /age lay 9 provisions = ! recurr+ p]iods ( scant food supply4 ,b a true *ronometry beyond five days is =eign to ! ,au/ralian negro z long z he c only c\nt to f\r or five4 ,he is aw>e t ,moon-phases reappe> & t summ] & w9t] return1 b he has no conception ( ! duration ( ! "t pass$ betwe5 ! recurr5ces ( ^! ph5om5a4 ,fur!r progress 0 made by ! p :o took ! bold /ep to c\nt ! f+]s1 n on "o h& alone1 b on bo? h&s1 & ?us rea*$ ! numb] t54 ,?is 0 utiliz$ 9 reckon+ "t s t ! l>g] unit became a decade1 i4 e4 t5 days & nights4 ,?is unit 0 orig9al ) ! ,indo-,europeans1 ,semites1 ,h9dus1 ,egyptians1 & ! isl&]s 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,ano!r advance yet 0 made 9 ,mexico :]e ! numb] tw5ty 0 introduc$ correspond+ to ! sum ( all f+]s & toes1 & ?us a unit ( "t 0 obta9$ compris+ tw5ty days & nights4 ,b to rise f ^! units to "o ( #cfe days 0 a /ep exce$+ly difficult = ! primitive peoples to take4 ,?\s&s ( ye>s elaps$ be=e ! mo/ intellig5t among ! races e/abli%$ ! l5g? ( ! sol> ye>4 ,^? :o liv$ 9 regions :]e ! ,sun's altitude notably *anges1 i4 e4 f> f ! equator1 und\bt$ly reckon$ "t 9 ye>s1 )\t kn[+ its l5g? express$ 9 days4 ,imag9e a nomadic tribe l ! ,lapps 9 ! nor? ( ,sw$54 ,9 ! autumn _! re9de] w&] d[n t[>d ! coa/ 9 se>* ( food & ! ,lapps g ) !m4 ,9 spr+ ! re9de] lead _! ma/]s back aga9 to ! m\nta9s4 ,x _c v well escape ! obs]vation ( ^! nomads t ! ,sun %9es almo/ cont9u\sly dur+ _! /ay 9 ! upl&s :ile dre>y night reigns ne>ly )\t int]ruption dur+ _! soj\rn 9 ! l[l&s4 ,!y are obvi\sly =c$ to co-ord9ate ! beautiful summ] ) ! duration ( sunlight4 ,to !m1 !re=e1 ! ,sun's extraord9>y great importance to life is unque/ionable4 ,! same holds true ab\t all p :o live suffici5tly f> f ! equator4 ,z a consequ5ce1 !y become ,sun-wor%ipp]s4 ,x is n difficult to f9d examples ( peoples :o h wor%ipp$ ! ,sun2 only a few ( ! m important ones w be m5tion$ "h4 ,! p ( ! bronze age "h 9 ! ,nor? 7 zeal\s ,sun-wor%ipp]s ?\s&s ( ye>s ago1 z ! _m relics f ?is p]iod1 & p>ticul>ly ! rock-c>v+s1 be> witness4 ,! ,celts ( ,we/]n ,europe h frequ5tly symboliz$ ! ,sun z a cross1 :ile ! wor%ip ( ,moon & />s seems to h be5 =eign to !m z well z to ! bronze-age p ( ! ,nor?4 ,! ,jewi% ,samson 7,simson7 0 a ,sun-h]o1 ! "n be+ relat$ to ! ,babylonian ,%ama%1 ! ,sun-god4 ,9 ,hesiodos' cosmogony ! ,sun 7,helios7 is m5tion$ be=e ! ,moon 7,sel5e74 ,! old ,g]mans wor%ipp$ bo? ,sun & ,moon1 p>ticul>ly ! =m]4 ,! ,slavs possess$ a ,sun-god ,dazbogu1 b no deity id5tifi$ ) ! ,moon4 ,simil> conditions obta9$ among ! ,f9ni% =efa!rs4 ,! ,*9ese ,tao-prie/s light fires dur+ ! v]nal equ9ox z we d at ,walpurgis & midsumm]1 & !y sacrifice rice & salt to ! flames4 8,?is is a remnant ( ! ,sun-cult10 says ,solomon ,re9a*1 f :om ^! data 9 reg>d to ,sun-wor%ip pr9cipally are tak54 ,9 ,japan1 ! ,moon is ( male sex1 ! ,sun ( female sex1 :i* indicates t !re1 z ) ! ,au/ralian negroes1 ! ,moon 0 orig9ally consid]$ m important ?an ! ,sun4 ,nev]!less ! ,japanese are n[ ,sun-wor%ipp]s2 ! ,sun is plac$ z emblem ( ! mo/ high 9 _! flag & ! ,mikado is kn[n to trace 8 l9eage f ! ,sun4 ,!y h1 !re=e1 long ago pass$ f ,moon-cult to ,sun-cult4 ,x is probable t ?is /ep 0 tak5 ev5 e>li] 9 ,*9a1 :]e ! ,sun fur!rmore is ( male sex4 ,) gr[+ civilization all p le>n to und]/&1 z h ! ,japanese1 ! sup]ior importance ( ! ,sun4 ,! ,incas ( ,p]u1 :o rea*$ a v high grade ( culture1 7 sun-wor%ipp]s & call$ !mselves *ildr5 ( ! ,sun1 al?\gh !y liv$ ne> ! equator :]e ! ,moon-cult1 z we pres5tly %all see1 owns its mo/ fai?ful adh]5ts4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! equator1 w9t] & summ] diff] v slightly ) respect to temp]ature & altitude ( ! ,sun4 ,r1 x is ! alt]nation ( humid & dry seasons t is ( decid+ importance4 ,no %eet ( sn[ cov]s ! gr\nd 9 w9t]-"t1 kills ! vegetation1 or decimates ! supply ( n\ri%m5t = animals & m54 ,inde$1 contr>y to our exp]i5ce1 a suppression ( gr[? (t5 accompanies a high altitude ( ! ,sun due to ! dr\ght :i* simultane\sly occurs4 ,! altitude & lum9osity ( ! ,sun *ange altoge!r too slightly 9 ! c\rse ( ! ye> to attract ! att5tion ( primitive man4 ,! light ( ! ,moon1 on ! o!r h&1 v>ies f full int5sity to no?+ & ?is takes place 9 p]iods s %ort t memory has no "t to =get ! cycle4 ,ev5 ! l[-/&+ ,au/ralian negroes utilize ! phases ( ! ,moon to d5ote remote times4 ,*ronometry 9 any true s5se !y d n possess1 unable z !y are to /ate ! numb] ( days 9 a mon?4 ,h[ mu* m =tunate ! peoples :o c\ld c\nt to t5 or bett] yet to tw5ty & ?us 7 able to use ! s+le or ! d\ble decade z a measure ( "t4 ,= !m x 0 easy to det]m9e ! "t betwe5 two successive phases ( ! ,moon1 sev5 & a half days ap>t4 ,! tru? once grasp$ t f\r phases sep>ate two new ,moons ! important bridge c\ld be e/abli%$ betwe5 ! %ort measure1 a day1 & ! long] measure1 a mon?4 ,! latt] 0 !n f\nd to be ne>ly ?irty times long] ?an ! =m]4 ,on a high] /age ( culture1 x 0 discov]$ t ?is ratio 0 n exact & ! discrepancy mu/ greatly h puzzl$ ! p4 ,! correct ratio is #bi4ec4 ,at all ev5ts ! p]iodic return ( full ,moon & new ,moon prov$ ! mo/ reliable measure ( "t )9 _! exp]i5ce4 ,?is 0 some?+ entirely diff]5t f ! irregul> occurr5ces ( e>?quakes1 /orms1 lightn+1 & floods1 n to m5tion ! ravages ( bea/s & foes4 ,spaces ( "t t hi!rto appe>$ b\ndless c\ld be survey$ & comput$4 ,! idea ( et]nity dawn$ = ! fir/ "t on humanity4 ,! ,moon 0 ! great ma/]1 measur] ( all4 ,9 ,sanskrit ! ,moon's "n is ,ms1 i4 e4 measur]1 & 8m5sis0 7,lat4 mon?7 is closely relat$ to 8m5sura0 7,lat4 measure74 ,) peoples :o did n live too f> f ! equator1 ! ,moon1 !re=e1 took prec$5ce ( ! ,sun4 ,among ! ,mexicans exi/$1 long ago1 a peculi> unit = measur+ long p]iods ( "t1 call$ 8tonalamatl10 compris+ #bfj days4 ,x 0 und\bt$ly int5d$ to conta9 n9e synodical mon?s 7reckon$ f new ,moon to new ,moon74 ,b su* a p]iod w\ld consi/ ( #bfe4eh days & s c\ld n be made to agree ) ! d\ble decade & 0 !re=e %ort5$ to #bfj days1 z we r\nd (f ! sol> ye>1 9 reality #cfe4bd days1 to an ev5 #cfe days4 ,elaborate /udies h be5 made 9 ord] to expla9 :y ! ,mexicans *ose n9e synodical mon?s in/ead ( twelve1 z mo/ o!r peoples1 b ! "q has n be5 solv$4 ,?is mu* is c]ta91 t 8tonalamatl0 has no?+ to d ) ! sol> ye>1 b only ) ! mon?4 ,! high age ( 8tonalamatl0 is prov$ by ! fact t ! prie/s adh]$ to x 9 magic & horoscope ca/+ long aft] ! sol> ye> came into public use4 ,a le>n$ ,mexican1 de ,jonghe1 has po9t$ out t 8tonalamatl0 0 us$ by all ! tribes belong+ to ! ,nahua-gr\p1 :i* tribes sep>at$ v long ago4 ,?is unit ( "t1 !re=e1 be>s all ! evid5ce ( a v high age1 b is obvi\sly y\ng] ?an ! synodical mon?4 ,our in=mation 9 reg>d to ,moon-wor%ip among ! peoples ( ,mesopotamia is ev5 m explicit4 ,! ,moon 7,s97 0 r5d]$ homage f> e>li] ?an ! ,sun 7,%ama%74 ,! foll[+ translation ( a hymn 9 cunei=m lett]s ,i quote f ,l4 ,b]g/rm1 :o publi%$ a /udy on 8,semitic ,moon-,wor%ip0 9 ,nordisk ,tidskrift1 #aiji3 ,oh1 ,s91 ?\ :o alone give/ light1 ,?\1 :o br+e/ light to m51 ,?\1 :o %[e/ fav\r to ! d>k-tress$ ones1 ,?y light %9es on ! firmam5t1 ,?y tor* illum9ates l fire1 ,?y radiance fills ! wide e>?4 ,oh1 heav5ly ,anu1 ^: insight & wisdom no "o compreh5ds1 ,?y light is spl5did z ,%ama%1 ?y fir/born1 ,be=e !e pro/rate ! great gods !mselves 9 ! du/ ,= on !e re/s ! fate ( ! _w4 ,anu 0 god ( ! heav5 & seems "h to /& = god 9 g5]al4 ,s9 0 fa!r to ! daught] ,%ama%1 :o 9 ?is hymn already is consid]$ almo/ comp>able to ! fa!r4 ,lat] on dur+ ! ,hammurabi-dyna/y 7ab\t #bjjj ,b4,c47 ! ,sun1 ,%ama%1 0 accept$ z supreme god1 b ! ,moon rema9$ ! regulator ( "t = religi\s purposes4 ,= a/rological =eca/s ! prie/s pref]r$ to use ! ,moon1 & ! 8signs0 9 ! ,moon 7 ! mo/ important4 ,?is is true ( a/rological prophecies also at ! "t ( ,ty*o ,brahe4 8,oh1 ,s91 ?\ telle/ ! oracles to ! gods :o pray !m ( !e10 reads an incantation4 ,f ,babylon1 ! he>t ( civilization1 ,moon-wor%ip spread to ,arabs & o!r ,semites1 & ) ! ,hebrews1 z ,b]g/rm rem>ks1 ! ,moon orig9ally play$ a f> great] "p ?an ! ,sun1 al?\gh at ! "t ( ,*ri/ ! condition 0 rev]s$4 ,nev]!less1 ! ,moon has /ill reta9$ its position z *ronograph] 9 ! ,*ur* ,cal5d>4 ,9 ,psalms #ajd3ai we read3 8,he appo9t$ ! ,moon = seasons40 ,9 g5]al1 we h built on ! belief t ! /ell> bodies made an impression on m5 by virtue ( ! light !y radiate & x has !re=e be5 difficult to expla9 :y ! ,moon rank$ above ! ,sun4 ,x is frequ5tly said t ! ,sun 79 ,babylonia7 0 consid]$ an enemy ( mank9d z its heat de/roy$ ! vegetation4 7,x is true t a p]iod ( sev]e dr\ght occurs !re 9 ! height ( ! summ]47 ,z oppos$ to ?is1 ! moonlit nights w\ld be consid]$ refre%+ & salut>y4 ,ano!r explanation is essay$ by ,b]g/rm1 :o says t ! lum9\s ,moon ) its ev]-*ang+ %ape appeal$ to ! imag9ation ( primitive p 9 a f> high] degree ?an ! fairly con/antly brilliant ,sun4 ,he is p>tly correct2 ! enorm\s v>iation 9 lum9osity f full to new ,moon enables ! obs]v] to notice ! diff]5ce f night to night4 ,! *ange by ab\t "o h\r 9 ea* tw5ty-f\r h\rs ( ! "t = ! ris+ & sett+ ( ! ,moon z comp>$ to ! disappe>ance & reappe>ance ( sunlight1 & m important yet ! %ort p]iods ( ! ,moon phases :i* leave ! obs]vations f ea* rec$+ phase fre% 9 memory1--bo? ^! ph5om5a contribute t[>d ! high value ( ! ,moon's synodic revolution z a measure ( protract$ "t duration4 ,! purely practical ne$ dom9ates1 n1 probably1 any desire to visualize ! *anges 9 leg5ds4 ,! ,au/ralian negroes use f\r diff]5t names = ! ,moon accord+ to its f\r qu>t]s1 %[+ t !y1 9 all probability1 believe !mselves confront$ ) f\r diff]5t /ell> bodies1 j z ! ,greeks at ! "t ( ,hom] consid]$ ! morn+- & ! ev5+-/>1 i4 e4 ,v5us1 z two sep>ate planets4 ,on ! o!r h&1 no gr\nd wor? m5tion+ supports ! !ory t ! scor*+ heat ( ! ,sun dim9i%$ ! peoples' incl9ation = its wor%ip4 ,on ! contr>y1 homage 0 g5]ally r5d]$ to ph5om5a "o fe>$4 ,x is fur!r n true t ! ,babylonians !mselves consid]$ ! ,sun1 ,%ama%1 ho/ile1 ! ,moon1 ,s91 fri5dly4 ,! ,sun-god1 ,%ama%1 by virtue ( 8 light1 0 believ$ to give life & heal?4 ,! scor*+ quality ( ! ,sun 0 attribut$ to ano!r god1 ,n]gal1 pr9ce ( ! und]world1 demon ( w> & slaught]1 s\rce ( fev]1 &1 pre-em95tly1 ( plague4 ,no reason exi/$1 !re=e1 :y ,%ama% %\ld take second rank aft] ,s91 :o is said 8to c>ry wat] & fire10 mean+1 accord+ to ,s*rad]1 t he br\ght fits ( ague & fev]4 ,:5 ! ,sun aft] ! oppressive day s9ks beh9d ! horizon1 x is well kn[n t a %>p fall ( temp]ature occurs1 p>ticul>ly 9 arid zones1 b also 9 humid regions )9 ! tropics :]e ?is v ph5om5on is utiliz$ = ! production ( ice4 ,he :o exposes himself to ! sudd5 cold ( ! night falls an easy prey to illness4 ,p>ticul>ly is ?is true "u a cle> sky--primitive p say 8:5 ! ,moon %9es0--because ( ! /rong radiation4 ,^? :o sleep 9 moonlight are /ruck by delirium & madness accord+ to primitive ?\ght1 an op9ion by no means dead among civiliz$ nations--x is common ) seaf>+ m5--& is no d\bt ! orig9 ( ! expression3 moon/ruck 7,g]man3 mondsu*tig1 ,ital43 lunatico1 ,fr5*3 lunatique1 ,sw$i%3 mnadsras&e1 etc474 ,to ?is belief has probably contribut$ ! fact t epileptic fits frequ5tly possess a p]iod ne>ly correspond+ to ! synodical mon?1 :i*1 z ,i h %[n else:]e1 mo/ likely dep5ds on a p]iodic *ange 9 ! atmosph]ic electricity4 ,9 ?is connection x might also be /at$ t ! ?ird among ! great />-deities1 ,i%t>1 ! que5 ( heav5 7,a/>te1 ,v5us71 0 ! mild b pot5t1 all-m]ciful si/] 9 e affliction1 :o deliv]$ f sorc]y & illness & gave p>don = s9 & guilt4 ,?is radiant goddess1 :o corresponds to ! attractive figure ( ! ,ca?olics' ,virg9 ,m>y1 01 9 spite ( h] solicitude = ! afflictions ( m51 plac$ ?ird 9 ! illu/ri\s triad1 ,s91 ,%ama%1 & ,i%t>4 ,! travell] 9 ! des]t is c]ta9ly (t5 tortur$ by ! sev]e dr\ght & a consequ5t insuff]able ?ir/4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 0 ju/ly ascrib$ to ! sc>city ( wat] & n to ! ,sun4 ,! ,egyptians1 !re=e1 wi%$ t _! dep>t$ ones on ! j\rney to _! new dwell+-places w\ld meet ) refre%+ spr+s :]e !y might qu5* _! ?ir/ & nor!rly w9ds t might cool ! air4 ,x is well kn[n t ! ,mohamm$ans h =m$ simil> conceptions ( a p>adise 9 life to come4 ,entirely new conditions arose :5 ! population grew until agriculture became a necessity = ! production ( suffici5t food4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,sun n[ became s dom9at+ t x mu/ be giv5 ! fir/ place among ! p[]s t affect ! fates ( m54 ,! plants h a decid$ annual p]iod & s h ! ov]fl[s ( ! riv]s :i* 7 ( ! utmo/ importance 9 ^? c\ntries :]e ! cradle ( civilization /ood4 ,! ra9falls !mselves 7 ( annual recurr5ce z 7 also ! int]v5+ dr\ghts4 ,9 ,egypt ! great importance ( ! floods caus$ ! introduction ( ! sol> ye> at a v e>ly /age & its l5g? 0 fix$ at #ab mon?s ( #cj days1 or #cfj days1 s t ! beg9n+ ( ! ye> occasionally _h to be adju/$4 ,?is 0 accompli%$ by resort+ to obs]vations ( ! ris+ & sett+ ( ! ,dog ,/> or ,sirius4 ,?us we realize h[ difficult x 0 to det]m9e ! exact l5g? ( ! sol> ye> f ev]yday ph5om5a4 ,! great re=m] ,am5hotep ,,iv4 endeav\r$ ab\t #adjj ,b4,c4 to h ! ,sun-god recogniz$ z sole ma/] ( all ! _w4 ,he met1 h[ev]1 ) su* great ob/acles on ! "p ( ! cons]vative prie/hood1 :i* z !y l>gely 7 s]v+ diff]5t gods w\ld h lo/ "p ( _! p[] if ! re=m _h prevail$1 t 8 successor 0 oblig$ to yield to ! solid opposition4 ,9 ,babylon ! local god ,m>duk1 once repres5tative ( ! planet ,jupit]1 & among ! />-gods rank+ next to ! ?ree ,sup]-gods1 became ab\t #bjjj ,b4,c4 elevat$ to ! highe/ position among ! gods & assum$ at ! same "t ! dignity ( ,sun-god4 ,x may "h be m5tion$ t ,m>duk also play$ a great "p z heal] ( illness4 ,! evolution 9 anci5t ,rome foll[$ ! same c\rse al?\gh at a f> lat] "t4 ,emp]or ,aurelianus 7#bgj-bge ,a4,d47 "u ! influ5ce ( ori5tal ,mi?ras-cult elevat$ ! ,sun-god to supreme god ( ! :ole ,roman ,empire1 :i* !n compris$ almo/ ! entire kn[n _w4 ,especially significant is ! fact t ,v5us ) ! ,mexicans play$ z important a "p z did ! ,moon & ! ,sun4 ,! lum9osity ( ,v5us1 unlike t ( planets outside ( ! e>?'s orbit1 b l t ( ! ,moon1 *anges f a maximum1 int5se en\gh 9 ! tropics to ?r[ a %ad[1 d[n to a m9imum :i* approa*es complete d>kness4 ,its p]iod is closely #a4f ye>s4 ,x falls %ort ( ?is figure by ab\t two h\rs & ! ,mexicans !re=e introduc$ a correction simil> to ! bissextile day 9 our leap ye>1 ( "o day 9 e twelve ye>s1 :i* day1 h[ev]1 _h to be d$uct$ in/ead ( add$4 ,obs]vations ( ! *ang+ lum9osity ( ,v5us & ( its position relative to ! ,sun obvi\sly l5t !mselves admirably to measurem5ts ( long p]iods ( "t & p>ticul>ly to det]m9ation ( ! l5g? ( ! important sol> ye> z five ,v5us-p]iods v ne>ly equal eight sol> ye>s4 ,! ,mexican prie/s e/abli%$ ! fact t #ajd sol> ye>s correspond to #fe ,v5us-p]iods or #adf 8,tonalamatl40 ,/>-cult 0 z /rongly develop$ 9 ,mexico z 9 ,babylon4 ,its ma9 doctr9e is /at$ by ,alfr$o ,*av]o ?us3 8,! ,fa!r-,creator 0 ,heav51 ,xiuhtecutli1 or ! ,azure-blue ma/]4 ,! "m 0 ,omecihuatl1 ! ,milky ,way1 or ! dual mi/ress40 ,x is well kn[n t a l>ge "p ( ! ,milky ,way1 f ! 8,swan0 to ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,s\!rn ,cross1 is divid$ 9 two p>allel bran*es1 :i* fact probably is responsible = ! title1 ! 8,dual ,mi/ress40 8,heav5 influ5c$ ! ,milky ,way ?r\gh fire2 f its cosmic matt] ! />s 7 set free1 ! mo/ prom95t ( :i* 7 ,tonatiuh1 ! ,sun2 ,tezcatlipoca1 ! ,moon2 & ,quetzalcoatl1 ,v5us4 ,^! 7 made ! supreme gods4 ,= ! purpose ( wor%ip1 !y 7 symboliz$ 9 human %ape4 ,myriads ( images1 repres5t+ ^! />-gods1 7 modell$ 9 clay1 wood1 or /one40 ,accord+ to ?is rem>kable picture ! ,mexicans %\ld h arriv$ at a f> bett] solution ( ! _w-riddle ?an ev5 ! ,babylonians did4 ,:ile mo/ o!r peoples assum$ heav5 & e>? z ! orig9al pr9ciples1 !y gave ! high position ( prog5itress ( all to ! ,milky ,way4 ,f h] ! innum]able />s1 ) ! ,sun 9 ! lead1 issu$4 ,?is agrees to a consid]able ext5t ) ! pres5t conception :i* we h arriv$ at dur+ ?is v la/ decade1 pr9cipally ?anks to ! "w ( ,am]ican a/ronom]s4 ,_! inve/igations h %[n h[ ! />s are segregat$ f ! nebul\s primeval matt] ( ! ,milky ,way2 h[ !y add di/ance betwe5 !mselves & _! matrix ) age1 :ile simultane\sly !y develop an increas+ individuality4 ,we h se5 t ,v5us-,i%t> 0 hon\r$ ) memb]%ip 9 ! augu/ triad ( />-gods1 also among ! ,babylonians4 ,_! successors1 ! ,assyrians1 reta9$ ! inh]it$ traditions4 ,?us _! k+s 9 ! n9? c5tury be=e ,*ri/ symboliz$ _! div9e l9eage by we>+ a necklace ) a moon-cresc5t 9 ! middle1 a cross 9 a r+1 emblem ( ! ,sun1 on "o side1 & on ! o!r a />1 emblem ( ,v5us 7comp>e ,montelius1 ,nordisk ,tidskrift1 #aijd1 p4 #ac1 fig4 #cj74 ,! ,jewi% synagogues are g5]ally decorat$ ) ! />-emblem4 ,! ,mohamm$ans1 l ! ,jews1 utilize ! position ( ! ,moon = det]m9ation ( ! ,*ur* cal5d>1 & we employ ! same means = fix+ ,ea/] "t4 ,! ,mohamm$ans reckon ) a ye> ( #ab synodical mon?s4 ,twelve su* mon?s conta9 only #ced4d days :ile a sol> ye> comprises #cfe4bd days1 & z a rule1 !re=e1 ! synodical mon? 0 r\nd$ to #cj days in/ead ( #bi4ec & ! sol> ye> to #cfj days4 ,su* 0 ! arrangem5t 9 ,egypt & orig9ally also 9 ,babylon4 ,primitive m5 compreh5d fractions only ) extreme difficulty4 ,9 ord] to correct ! discrepancies1 odd mon?s 7 introduc$ ab\t e six? ye>4 ,f ?is "t we may trace ! high reputation ( ! numb] twelve4 ,! ,zodiac 0 divid$ into twelve h\ses 9 ea* ( :i* ! ,sun 0 to dwell a mon? at a "t4 ,day & night 7 ea* divid$ into twelve h\rs4 ,! circle 0 divid$ into #cfj degrees correspond+ to ! numb] ( days ( ! ye>1 s t ! position ( ! ,sun at noon %\ld proce$ "o degree ( ! heav5 f day to day4 ,z ! ,moon dom9at$ *ronometry1 a complication :i* mu/ h caus$ consid]able confusion 0 9 _m places introduc$4 ,we h se5 t ! ,au/ralian negroes gave f\r diff]5t names to ! ,moon 9 its f\r diff]5t phases4 ,! great *ange 9 appe>ance ( ! ,moon f qu>t] to qu>t] makes su* a division natural4 ,! synodical mon? 0 !re=e made to consi/ ( f\r p>ts1 call$ weeks4 ,z ! l5g? ( a mon? is #bi4ec days1 ! ne>e/ numb] ev5ly divisible by f\r1 namely #bh1 0 sub/itut$1 & s sev5 days 7 allott$ to ea* week1 ?us introduc+ an error ( n less ?an #e4e4 ,to ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is week ! assumption ( sev5 w&]+ />s has no d\bt l>gely contribut$4 ,! prie/s _h discov]$ t besides ,sun1 ,moon1 & ,v5us1 f\r o!r />s %ift _! position on ! firmam5t ) ref]5ce to ! fix$ />s1 :i* latt] appe> always to ma9ta9 _! relative di/ances4 ,^! f\r w&]+ />s 7 ,m]cury1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 & ,saturn4 ,ea* day 9 ! week 0 d$icat$ to "o ( ! sev5 w&]+ />s & receiv$ its "n4 ,^! names h be5 ma9ta9$ to ! pres5t day1 = in/ance1 ,sunday1 ! ,sun's day1 ,monday1 ! ,moon's day1 etc4 ,! lun> cal5d>1 e/abli%$ ?r\gh religi\s consid]ations1 supplant$ ! m rational "o1 :i* latt]1 h[ev]1 surviv$ 9 ,egypt1 & 0 re9/at$ 9 ! ,occid5t dur+ ! ,fr5* revolution1 al?\gh un=tunately only = a %ort "t 7#agic-ahje74 ,z a result1 ! synodical mon?1 9 ord] to suit ! cal5d>1 has be5 *ang$ n only ) half a day to ?irty days1 b also ) "o & a half days to tw5ty-eight days4 ,if decades _h be5 adh]$ to we w\ld h _h mon?s ( ev5 ?irty days & ei!r five leap mon?s ( ?irty-"o days ea* 7dur+ leap ye> six7 or half a decade int]polat$ at new ye>4 ,besides ! sev5 w&]+ />s kn[n to antiquity 7at pres5t ov] eight hundr$ planets h be5 obs]v$71 sev]al o!r />s & con/ellations play$ an important "p4 ,! ,magellanic cl\ds1 consid]$ ( evil nature1 & ! ,pleiades appeal$ already to ! ,au/ralian negroes4 ,9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 :]e ! opportunity ( obs]v+ ! ,magellanic cl\ds is small1 situat$ z !y are ne> ! ,s\? ,pole1 ! ,pleiades h attract$ ! great] att5tion & ! ,phnicians especially appe> to h tak5 int]e/ 9 ?is con/ellation4 ,f !m1 rev]5ce = ! ,pleiades spread to a l>ge "p ( ,africa1 :]e we n[ to our surprise f9d ?is /> clu/] reproduc$ along ) symbols ( ,sun1 ,moon1 & ,v5us4 ,hom] also m5tions ! ,pleiades & a few o!r con/ellations1 namely1 ! ,hyades1 ,orion1 ! ,great ,be>1 & ! />s ,sirius & ,arcturus4 ,at all ev5ts1 ! ,pleiades h frequ5tly occupi$ a unique position 9 ! old _w4 ,sirius1 ! brighte/ /> 9 ! heav5s1 & ,canopus1 ! second 9 brightness1 also belong+ to ! s\!rn hemisph]e b only half z f> remov$ f ! ,s\? ,pole z ,sirius1 h bo? evok$ ! att5tion & ! wor%ip ( ! primitive p1 9 ?is case ! ,s\? ,africans4 ,at l5g?1 ! nations1 p>ticul>ly ! ,babylonians & ! ,mexicans1 acquir$ a wid] k ( ! diff]5t />s4 ,z ! mo/ important ones1 ,sun1 ,moon1 & ,v5us1 guid$ ! seasons & h5ce all natural ph5om5a1 a c]ta9 mundane significance 0 naturally ascrib$ also to ! y\ng] ones4 ,n only seasons1 mon?s1 days1 & h\rs 7 ea* rul$ by its />1 b s 0 ev]y?+ 9 nature2 diff]5t w9ds1 prov9ces1 trades1 bodily organs1 animals1 p]sons1 ea* possess$ its /> & cele/ial protector4 ,compreh5sive /udies ( ^! correspond5ces & connections 7 made & ! conclusions 7 drawn f immat]ial semblances & (t5 :olly arbitr>ily1--z reg>ds p]sons f ! configuration ( ! />s at ! "t ( bir?4 ,?us grew an enorm\sly ext5sive collection ( correspond5ce- & sympa?y-doctr9es accompani$ by a detail$ symbolism1 an entire quasi-sci5ce1 :i* mu/ nev] be que/ion$ z x orig9at$ ) ! infallible prie/s4 ,) ! ,babylonians1 religion & sci5ce completely melt$ toge!r & ev5 art 0 entirely subs]vi5t to ! same int]e/s4 ,occasionally ! loss ( ?is blissful /ate draws =? a sigh4 ,=tunately x is gone nev] to return4 ,! ori5tal wisdom 0 br\ght ov] to ,greece & 0 !re amalgamat$ ) ! ,platonic-,ari/otelian philosophy4 ,9 ?is =m ! ,babylonian h]itage held sway ov] ! ?\ght ( mank9d up to less ?an #bjj ye>s ago4 ,! mo/ important bran*es ( ?is fanciful1 s-call$ sci5ce 7 a/rology & al*emy4 ,ty*o ,brahe himself made x ! object ( 8 life to /r5g!n a/rology by contribut+ new mat]ial to x4 ,kepl] is said n to h believ$ 9 a/rology b he nev]!less ca/ horoscopes n only = pr9ces & p]sons ( high position 9 ord] to improve 8 economy1 b also = 8 own family4 ,probably traces ( ! old sup]/ition clung to him1 & presumably he ?\ght3 8,if x does no good1 nei!r does x d any h>m40 ,9 ! same mann]1 al*emy 0 c>ri$ on by fai?ful adepts1 b m (t5 by impo/ors1 seldom av]se to 8occult0 sci5ces4 ,a/rolog]s & al*emi/s exi/ ev5 yet among ! num]\s devotees to occultism2 at high price _m ( !m make _! pr$ictions or sell _! secrets4 ,i h he>d a ,sw$i% eng9e] ( v high /&+ /ate t _! progno/ications agre$ ) ev5ts4 ,among ! few al*emi/s 9 ,europe1 mo/ ( :om seem to be religi\s vision>ies1 ,/r9db]g is ( a c]ta9 int]e/ to u4 ,correspond5ce-!ory has play$ a v l>ge "p 9 ! speculations ( ! le>n$ up to comp>atively rec5t "t4 ,x is utiliz$ ext5sively 9 ! lat] fanta/ic writ+s ( ,sw$5borg4 ,num]\s traces are to be f\nd also 9 ! weake/ works ( ,/r9db]g4 ,! r5[n$ ,fr5* *emi/1 ,b]!lot1 has giv5 a valuable analysis ( ! al*emi/'s me?od ( treat+ *emical ph5om5a4 ,8 g5]al conclusion is t ! false pr9ciples :i* l$ ! al*emi/s a/ray rev]t back to ,plato's & ,ari/otle's philosophical !ories reg>d+ ! composition ( matt]4 ,some?+ simil> c be said ( a/rology4 ,x plays ) ideas ( its own fabrication ) h>dly any f\ndation 9 reality4 ,! result is almo/ :olly )\t value4 ,! greate/ a/ronom] 9 ,babylon1 ,kid9nu 7ab\t #bjj ,b4,c471 con/ruct$ tables ( great accuracy giv+ ! position ( ! />s4 ,9 ?is "w he utiliz$ obs]vations ga!r$ ov] ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,^! ephem]ides 7 also int5d$ z scripture s\rce = read+ ! fate ( m5 & = det]m9ation ( ! auspici\s mom5t = ! comm5cem5t ( an und]tak+4 ,at all ev5ts1 !y plac$ great rev5ue & p[] ov] s\ls 9 ! h&s ( ! rul+ prie/hood4 ,x does n appe> t ^! prie/s 7 able to rise to an attempt ( a physical explanation z to ! nature ( ! /ell> bodies4 ,t 0 probably also consid]$ dang]\s4 ,! />s 7 deities compos$ ( pur] & m ref9$ matt] ?an f\nd on ,e>?4 ,x 7 n improbable t ! gods w\ld inflict v5geance on ! presumptu\s "o :o d>$ to intrude ^u _! secrets & pass judgm5t on _! peculi>ities4 ,=tunately1 !re exi/$ 9 ,greece ano!r t5d5cy 9 philosophy besides ! s*ola/ic & ! ,platonic-,ari/otelian4 ,b ?is 0 ma9ly repres5t$ 9 s\!rn ,italy1 ,sicily1 & lat] 9 ,alex&ria4 ,already ! foll[]s ( ,py?agoras _h made important progress t[>d a solution ( ! /ell> problems4 ,! cr[n+ po9t 0 rea*$ by ,ari/>*os f ,samos1 :o liv$ 9 ,alex&ria ab\t #bajj ye>s ago4 ,he e/abli%$ #agjj ye>s be=e ,cop]nicus ! helioc5tric sy/em4 ,x is (t5 said t 8 "w 0 ( little value1 z ,cop]nicus nev]!less mu/ d x ov] aga94 ,x is !n =gott5 t ,cop]nicus himself cites ! philosoph]s ( antiquity :o express$ !ories 9 agreem5t ) ! helioc5tric sy/em & expressly /ates t he 0 bold en\gh to advance 8 hypo!ses because s _m prom95t au?orities c\ld be m5tion$ :o fav\r$ !m4 ,cop]nicus did n d>e entirely to break away f ! ,ptolemaic sy/em1 & 0 inconsi/5t en\gh p>tly to use x 9 8 calculations ( ! motions ( ! />s4 ,we h lately advanc$ f>!r along ! road ( ,py?agoras & ,ari/>*os1 ( ,cop]nicus & ,galileo1 & we h p]fect$ _! me?ods to a high degree4 ,progress 9 a/ronomy & k9dr$ sci5ces is n[adays made at a dizzy+ spe$ if measur$ ) ! /&>d ( antiquity4 ,occasionally we he> a w>n+ voice ask+ u to %[ m def]5ce to a philosophy directly desc5d+ f ! ,platonic-,ari/otelian4 ,he :o is at all famili> ) ! hi/ory ( natural sci5ce w und]/& u :5 we answ]3 8,we h _h m ?an en\gh !re(40 ,t non-naturali/s sometimes h a peculi> conception ( ! pres5t /atus ( a/ronomy is well illu/rat$ by ! /atem5t ( "o ( our =emo/ !ologians 9 a review ( a popul> a/ronomical "w :]e he rem>k$ t ! a/ronom] ( today _h n advanc$ mu* beyond ^? ( anci5t "t :o also c\ld =eca/ eclipses ( ! ,sun4 ,! pr$ictions 7 !n f\nd$ on ! recurr5ces ( eclipses aft] regul> int]vals mu* z ! new ,moons 7 =etold1 ) ! diff]5ce only t ! latt] occur mu* m frequ5tly4 ,our k ( ! /ell> bodies at pres5t & fifty or sixty ye>s ago are a _w ap>t & ! same is true ( ! latt] & t ( antiquity4 ,b we mu/ n !re=e =get t our brilliant />-sci5ce today is d]iv$ f m5's desire to measure "t1 & p>ticul>ly f _! ne$ to =esee ! food supply 9 com+ days4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,riddle ,,( ,,! ,,milky ,,way ,dur+ d>k b />lit nights1 ! gorge\s firmam5t is decorat$ ) an irregul> b& ( light t describes a w9d+ pa? across ! heav5s4 ,x cont9ues also 9 ! qu>t]s hidd5 f our sight s t x may be said to surr\nd ! firmam5t l a girdle4 ,?is b&1 :i* is mo/ lum9\s 9 ! ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e1 is call$ 8,! ,milky ,way40#a ,x =ms an angle ) ! equator ( ab\t #fj & divides ! firmam5t 9 two ne>ly equal p>ts--! nor!rn1 h[ev]1 is slightly l>g]4 #a ,! lit]al translation ( ! ,sw$i% "n is 8,! ,w9try ,way40 ,! ,milky ,way1 no less ?an o!r /ell> ph5om5a1 attract$ ! e>ly att5tion ( ! p4 ,! ,di]i ,tribe 9 ,c5tral ,au/ralia says t ! ,milky ,way is ! /ream ( heav5 & ! ,mexicans consid] x ! s\rce ( all t is4 ,tradition endeav\r$ to expla9 its orig94 ,its milky appe>ance caus$ ! ,romans to call x 8,via ,lactea10 a "n t is reta9$ 9 translat$ =m 9 mo/ mod]n languages4 ,?is "n is c\pl$ ) ! leg5d ( ! ,h]cules-*ild1 :o suck$ ! brea/ ( ,juno & :5 x 0 pu%$ away by ! inc5s$ goddess1 ! milk 0 spread across ! sky4 ,nev]!less1 ! human race1 until ab\t two hundr$ ye>s ago1 _h little conception ( ! extraord9>y importance ( ! ,milky ,way4 ,anaxagoras & ,democritos surmis$1 h[ev]1 t x consi/s ( a collection ( exce$+ly m9ute & d5sely clu/]$ />s ea* ( :i* has ! nature ( our ,sun4 ,ptolemy describ$1 ne>ly two ?\s& ye>s ago1 its position on ! firmam5t & 8 obs]vations are valid today z f> z det]m9ations ) ! nak$ eye suffice4 ,:5 ,galileo introduc$ ! telescope1 ! conception ( ! ,milky ,way z made up ( innum]able />s 0 v]ifi$4 ,n q two hundr$ ye>s ago ,sw$5borg1 9 8 cosmological speculations1 consid]$ our sol> sy/em z a "p ( ! ,galaxy4 ,wright1 ,kant1 & ,lamb]t fur!r amplifi$ ^! !ories4 ,! fir/ important =w>d /ep 0 tak5 by ! great ,william ,h]s*el 9 8 /ati/ical rese>*es4 ,he demon/rat$ t ! />s lie clos] to ea* o!r ! ne>] ! ,milky ,way !y are locat$4 ,?is is ma9ly true ab\t ! small />s invisible to ! nak$ eye :ile ! m lum9\s ones are m ev5ly di/ribut$ ov] ! heav5s4 ,9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ,milky ,way ! />s are ov] "o hundr$ times m cr[d$ ?an at its poles--t is1 ! po9ts f>!/ remov$ f ! ,galaxy4 ,h]s*el's inve/igations 7 cont9u$ & elaborat$ by ,/ruve1 & lat] by num]\s o!r sci5ti/s4 ,?r\gh ^! rese>*es1 x has be5 det]m9$ t ! ,milky ,way is1 s to speak1 ! f\ndation ^u :i* ! /> sy/em1 visible to u1 is built4 ,all k9ds ( /ell> bodies h be5 /udi$ & _! di/ribution has prov$ to be symmetrical ) ref]5ce to ! plane ( ! ,galaxy4 ,! majority is greatly conc5trat$ ar\nd ! ,milky ,way4 ,to ^! belong ! new />s :i* occasionally blaze into exi/5ce1 z ! well-kn[n new /> 9 ,p]seus1 #aija1 & ne>ly all ( :i* h appe>$ 9 ! ,milky ,way or 9 its imm$iate vic9ity4 ,we also f9d !re ! irregul> nebul1 enorm\s1 va/ly diffus$ volumes ( gas1 among :i* ! be/ kn[n is ! ,orion nebula1 & :i* seem to con/itute ! primeval matt] out ( :i* ! />s are born4 ,we might fur!r m5tion ! />-clu/]s1 d5se1 ball-%ap$ agglom]ations ( />s1 & ! s-call$ planet>y nebul1 :i*--at lea/ 9 _! visible out] %ell--also consi/ ( gas accumulations ) a sph]ical or ellipsoid con=mation4 ,! num]\s spiral nebul on ! o!r h&1 ^? /range /ell> bodies to :i* we lat] %all h occasion to return1 are beyond comp>ison m frequ5t 9 ! regions surr\nd+ ! poles ( ! ,galaxy ?an 9 ! re/ ( ! heav5s4 ,_m a/ronom]s h consid]$ ! ,milky ,way itself a nebula4 ,! mo/ common !ory d\btless is t x closely con=ms to a spiral nebula--an op9ion t has f\nd a p>ticul>ly w>m advocate 9 ! ,dut* a/ronom]1 ,ea/on 7see ,figure #a74 ,a few ye>s ago ,pr(4 ,bohl9 express$ ! view t x is mo/ ak9 to a planet>y nebula1 or m precisely to a r+ nebula :i* is suppos$ to gr[ out ( a planet>y ellipsoid nebula by ! gase\s matt] be+ driv5 f its poles t[>d its equator4 ,x is ( a c]ta9 int]e/ t ?is !ory l5ds itself to ! support ( ,sw$5borg's--nev]!less improbable--hypo!sis ab\t ! orig9 ( ! planets 9 ! sol> sy/em4 ,z we lat] %all see ! ,ea/on conception has ! bett] reasons 9 its fav\r4 ,if classifi$ accord+ to age ! />s are aga9 di/ribut$ ) ! ,milky ,way z a ref]5ce po9t4 ,?us1 let u consid] _! evolution1 :i* = v>i\s reasons is assum$ to take ! foll[+ c\rse4 ,we may comm5ce :5 ! />-matt] exi/$ on ! nebula /age4 ,x !n radiat$ ! light *>act]i/ic ( c]ta9 inc&esc5t gases1 pr9cipally ! lighte/ two1 hydrog5 & helium1 & fur!r ( an o!rwise unkn[n gas call$ nebulium 7nebula-sub/ance74 ,^! gases 7 lat] cond5s$ & d>k spectral l9es comm5c$ to appe> beside ! bright l9es ( ! a=esaid gases4 ,/>s on ?is /age1 nam$ aft] _! discov]] ,wolf-,rayet />s1 occur only 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ! ,milky ,way4 ,a lat] /age 9 _! evolution is repres5t$ by ! s-call$ helium />s 9 ^: spectrum ! d>k helium l9es prepond]ate4 ,!y are consid]ably conc5trat$ ar\nd our ,galaxy4 ,some:at m ev5ly di/ribut$ & yet ( decid$ly great] frequ5ce 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,milky ,way1 ! hydrog5 />s appe>1 *>act]iz$ by /rongly develop$ hydrog5 l9es & some:at retreat+ helium l9es4 ,^! />s are m develop$ ?an ! helium />s & =m ) !m ! gr\p ( :ite />s s nam$ aft] ! col\r ( _! light4 ,next 9 evolution foll[ ! yell[ />s1 to :i* our ,sun belongs4 ,d>k metal l9es appe> 9 _! spectrum4 ,!y are m ev5ly di/ribut$ ?an ! gr\ps m5tion$ be=e4 ,/ill fur!r is ?is true ab\t ! r$ />s ^: spectra conta9 ! *>act]i/ic b&s ( *emical comp\nds & !re=e betray comp>atively advanc$ cool+4 ,!y are fairly uni=mly spread ov] ! heav5s b are /ill some:at m num]\s 9 ! vic9ity ( ! ,milky ,way ?an fur!r !refrom4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,! ,milky ,way1 pictur$ z a spiral nebula by ,ea/on ,^! facts are demon/rat$ 9 ! /ati/ics by ,e4 ,c4 ,pick]+1 ,director ( ! ,h>v>d ,obs]vatory1 :o divid$ ! firmam5t 9 f\r equal zones1 ! fir/ ( :i* is ne>e/ to ! ,milky ,way 7& includes x7 & ! la/ ( :i* conta9s ! ,galactic poles4 ,8 table %[s ! p]c5tages ( diff]5t />s 9 ea* ( ! f\r zones4 ,:ite ,galactic ,helium ,hydrog5 ,yell[ ,yell[ ,r$ ,latitude ,/>s ,/>s ,/>s ,/>s ,/>s ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #h4a #ea4b #cg4d #bi4g #bi4d #bf4g #ba4f #ca4g #bh4f #bg4i #bf4g #bg4f #ci4h #aa4i #ah4c #ba4a #ba4i #bc4f #fb4c #e4b #ae4g #ba4c #bb4j #bb4a ,numb] ( />s obs]v$ #gaf #ahhe #acbi #agai #deg ,! diff]5ce is mo/ pron\nc$ 9 ! two fir/ gr\ps2 9 ! ?ree la/ x is small b unmi/akable4 ,an ev5 di/ribution w\ld correspond to #be p] c5t4 9 all f\r divisions ( ! heav5s4 ,^! compreh5sive /ati/ics1 embrac+ #fajf />s1 seem to indicate t ! />s 9 _! fir/ /age 7 )9 ! ,milky ,way b subsequ5tly drift$ away ) increas+ age4 ,?is leads u to ! ?\ght t !y orig9at$ f ! irregul>1 nebul\s accumulations :i* occur 9 ! ,milky ,way & 9 its vic9ity1 or m correctly f simil> =mations :i* =m]ly exi/$ 9 ^! regions b :i* n[ h clu/]$ into />s4 ,?is agrees v well ) ano!r obs]vation4 ,) ! help ( ! spectroscope ! motion ( diff]5t />s has be5 det]m9$ ) ref]5ce to ! po9t :]e ! sun n[ is4 ,! velocities h be5 f\nd great] ! old] ! />s are z %[n 9 ! table bel[ tak5 ma9ly f ! inve/igations ( ! r5[n$ a/ronom]1 ,campbell4 ,mean velocity (3 ,irregul> nebul #j ,km4 7 #j ,miles7 p] sec4 ,wolf-,rayet />s #d4e 0 7 #b4h 0 7 0 0 ,helium />s #f4e 0 7 #d4j 0 7 0 0 ,hydrog5 />s #aa 0 7 #f4h 0 7 0 0 ,yell[ />s #ae 0 7 #i4c 0 7 0 0 ,r$ />s #ag 0 7#aa4e 0 7 0 0 ,planet>y nebul #be 0 7#ae4e 0 7 0 0 ,to ^! figures a few rem>ks f\nd$ on rec5t obs]vations might be made4 ,! av]age di/ance betwe5 u & ! />s 9 ea* gr\p is diff]5t & ! yell[ />s1 to :i* inde$ our ,sun belongs1 are ^? ne>e/ to u 9 space4 ,!y are !re=e easi] to obs]ve ?an />s 9 ! o!r gr\ps4 ,campbell's /ati/ics include also = ?is reason a small] numb] ( />s 9 ?is class ?an 9 ! o!rs4 ,x is conceivable & by ! a/ronom] ,halm held to be true t ! mean velocity ( ! small] />s is great] ?an t ( ! l>g] ones4 ,?is is ! condition exi/+ 9 a mixture ( diff]5t gas molecules1 ) :i* ! brilliant ,fr5* sci5ti/1 ,h5ri ,po9c>1 comp>$ ! ?rong ( />s1 inasmu* z ! heavi] molecules possess ! sl[] motion4 ,to confirm ?is ,w4 ,s4 ,adams ( ! ,c>negie ,obs]vatory on ,m\nt ,wilson comp>$ />s ( equal velocity 9 _! own orbits4 ,su* />s are consid]$ to be on ! av]age equally f> remov$ f u4 ,he f\nd ! !ory ( ,halm confirm$4 ,! mean velocity ( ! hydrog5 />s 0 r$uc$ f #aa km4 7#f4h miles7 to #g4e km4 7#d4g miles71 t ( ! yell[ />s f #ae km4 7#i4c miles7 to #i4b km4 7#e4h miles71 & t ( ! r$ />s f #ag km4 7#aa4e miles7 to #ad km4 7#h4g miles71 :ile t ( ! helium />s rema9$ un*ang$4 ,! sequ5ce ( ! />s arrang$ accord+ to velocity 9 ! l9e ( sight is evid5tly n modifi$ by ?is new calculation4 ,9 reg>d to ! motion ( ! planet>y nebul x %\ld be m5tion$ t ,campbell 9 ?is connection has c>ri$ out a great numb] ( new det]m9ations accord+ to :i* ! mean obs]v$ velocity ( ^! l>ge bodies 9 ! l9e ( sight mu/ be increas$ to n less ?an #db km4 7#bf miles7 p] second4 ,campbell & ,moore contribute ! foll[+ int]e/+ data 9 reg>d to ,nebula ,n4 ,g4 ,c4 #gjji 7,fig4 #b73 8,measures ( ! rotational velocity ( ! nebula enable u to draw "s int]e/+ conclusions conc]n+ its mass4 ,on ! mo/ plausible assumption z to ! location ( ! axis ( rotation ! orbital spe$ ( ! nebul> mat]ials ly+ at a di/ance ( #i seconds ( arc f ! c5tre is ab\t #f km4 7#c4g miles7 p] second4 ,if we provisionally assume ! mass ( ! c5tral nucleus to equal t ( ! ,sun1 ,kepl]'s law connect+ ! p]iodic "t ) ! di/ance f ! nucleus tells u def9itely t ! nebula is di/ant f u only #h4i light ye>s4 ,?is mu/ be reg>d$ z an improbably small value1 9 view ( o!r evid5ce be>+ on ! "q4 ,= assum$ di/ances ( #ajj & #ajjj light ye>s1 :i* we h reason to believe are m probable ord]s ( nebul> di/ance1 ! masses ( ! nebula w\ld be respectively #aa4c & #aac times t ( ! ,sun1 & ! correspond+ p]iods ( rotation #acga & #ac1gaj ye>s4 ,f ^! consid]ations x seems c]ta9 t ! mass ( ! planet>y nebula ,n4 ,g4 ,c4 #gjji is sev]al times t ( ! ,sun4 ,! nebula is !re=e compet5t1 f ! po9t ( view ( its mass1 to develop into a sy/em m pret5ti\s ?an is our sol> sy/em4 8,a few speculations conc]n+ ?is nebula may n be )\t int]e/ & value4 8,! fa9t ext5sions to ! ea/ & to ! we/ ( ! elliptical figure sugge/ an encircl+ r+ ( mat]ials ^: pr9cipal plane1 pass+ ?r\gh ! nucleus1 passes also ne> our 7! obs]v]s'7 position 9 space4 ,^! ext5sions t]m9ate 9 cond5s$ nuclei at equal di/ances f ! nucleus & on exactly opposite sides ( ! nucleus4 ,! fa9t ext5sions & cond5sations may be & probably are l>gely ! effect ( ! edgewise projection ( su* a r+1 z 9 ! case ( ,saturn's r+s :5 ! obs]v] is 9 ! plane ( ! r+s4 ,! =ms ( ! two t]m9at+ cond5sations1 & especially ! w+ ext5d+ up & out f ! ea/ cond5sation1 sugge/ t we are n precisely 9 ! plane ( ! assum$ r+4 8,! =m ( ! ma9 nebula appe>s to be ellipsoidal & n *iefly elliptical4 8,! space imm$iately surr\nd+ ! c5tral nucleus appe>s to be relatively vacu\s4 ,aside f ! nucleus1 ! pr9cipal mass ( visible nebulosity exi/s 9 ! brilliant r+1 r\ghly elliptical z to its inn] & out] b\nd>ies1 :i* occupies ! region ab\t midway betwe5 ! nucleus & ! out] edge ( ! nebul> /ructure4 ,! brilliant r+ is probably 9 reality an ellipsoidal %ell2 ! projection ( su* a %ell ^u a plane at "r angles to ! l9e ( sight w\ld naturally %[ a relatively d>k c5tral area1 b ! projection pr9ciple may n be ! only "o involv$4 8,if ?is nebula is 9 process ( developm5t into a sol> sy/em1 ! indications are = a sy/em hav+ c]ta9 resemblances to our sol> sy/em4 ,our f\r out] planets h a comb9$ mass #bbe times z great z t ( ! f\r inn] planets4 ,simil>ly 9 ,n4 ,g4 ,c4 #gjji1 !re is app>5tly a paucity ( mat]ial to =m planets ne> ! nucleus & an abundance ( mat]ial = planets at great] di/ances f ! nucleus40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,planet>y nebula ,n4,g4,c4 #gjji 7composite draw+1 f ,curtis's photographs ( ! nebula made ) ! ,crossley reflect+ telescope4 ,! scale is 9 seconds ( arc74 ,f ,proce$+s ( ! ,national ,academy ( ,sci5ces ( ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,int]e/+ obs]vations h be5 pres5t$ rec5tly also ) ref]5ce to ! l>ge/ among ! irregul> nebul1 namely ! ,orion nebula4 ,?ree a/ronom]s 9 ,m>seilles1 ,b\rget1 ,fabry1 & ,buisson1 f\nd t p>ts ( ?is nebula1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! s-call$ trapeze & v close to ea* o!r1 mov$ ) diff]5t velocities & t ?is diff]5ce might am\nt to #aj km4 7#f4b miles7 p] second4 ,! s\?-ea/]ly "p approa*es u :ile ! nor?-ea/]ly rec$es f u4 ,consequ5tly a viol5t :irl-motion und\bt$ly takes place 9 ?is region4 ,?is obs]vation has be5 v]ifi$ by ! well-kn[n ,*icago a/ronom]1 ,fro/1 :o employ$ a diff]5t me?od ( inve/igation ?an 8 pr$ecessors4 ,he not$ diff]5ces 9 velocity am\nt+ to #aa km4 7#f4h miles7 p] second betwe5 po9ts n ov] two seconds ( arc di/ant f ! trapeze4 ,if !re=e we say t ! irregul> nebul on ! av]age possess no motion1 ?is /atem5t does n preclude important local deviations f ! rule )9 ! nebul1 intimat+ a trans=mation :i* probably leads to ! conc5tration ( ! nebul\s matt] t[>d ! c5tre ( ! :irl4 ,leav+ out1 to beg9 )1 ! planet>y nebul1 x appe>s t ! orig9al matt] ( ! />s /&s /ill 9 space1 t _! av]age velocity increases ) increas+ age & approa*es a mean value ( ab\t #ah km4 p] second or r\ghly #ajjj times ! spe$ ( ! ord9>y pass5g] tra94 ,our ,sun1 9 p>ticul>1 moves ) a velocity ( #bj km4 7#ab4d miles7 p] second t[>d a po9t 9 ! con/ellation ,h]cules #cj degrees nor? ( ! equator4 ,:at =ce !n %all we say x is t causes ! motion ( ! />s8 ,z f> z we "k none b gravitation4 ,x appe>s !re=e z if ! gase\s primeval sub/ance ( ! />s 7 n gov]n$ by ?is =ce4 ,x might prove haz>d\s1 h[ev]1 to make ?is assumption z gases also possess weight & ev5 ! mo/ r>efi$ /rata ( ! ,e>?'s atmosph]e ex]t b>ometric pressure by virtue ( _! attraction to ! mass ( ! e>?4 ,r ! immobility ( ! nebul is due to ! frequ5t collisions betwe5 ! molecules 9 any quantity ( gas ev5 if x be att5uat$ to su* a high degree z 9 ! nebul4 ,?us1 ! molecules /rike a balance1 z x 71 aga9/ ea* o!r s t ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! gas accumulations %ortly are br\ght to re/ relative to ea* o!r4 ,! irregul> gas mi/s ar\nd ! ,milky ,way =m !re=e a cont9u\s :ole4 ,a diff]5t condition obta9s 9 reg>d to cond5s$ /ell> bodies su* z ! />s4 ,!y may 9 ! d5se/ ?rong move dur+ billions ( ye>s be=e !y collide2 b !y might on ! o!r h& ent] nebul\s masses & !reby suff] gradual ret>dation4 ,we n[ ref] to />s mov+ outside ( ! vap\r cl\ds4 ,!y are !re=e unre/rict$ & ! long] !y h obey$ gravitation )\t imp$+ enc\nt]s ) nebul\s matt]1 9 o!r words ! long] ! "t elaps$ s9ce !y em]g$ f ! gas accumulations :i* gave !m bir?1 ! swift] is _! motion4 ,_! 7av]age7 velocity c ( c\rse n exce$ a c]ta9 limit :i* 9 our p>ts ( ! univ]se appe>s to be ab\t #ah km4 7#aa4b miles7 p] second4 ,campbell's measurem5ts %[ t = ! y\nge/ />s 7all except ! r$7 ! velocity is greate/ 9 ! plane ( ! ,milky ,way1 a natural en\gh condition z ! attract+ matt] "h is mo/ abundant4 ,! planet>y nebul possess a great] velocity al?\gh !y1 z consi/+ ( mi/ vap\rs1 are 9 ! fir/ /age ( evolution4 ,fa/] yet d ! spiral nebul move accord+ to measurem5ts by ,wolf ( ,heidelb]g4 ,?is %[s t !y are ( a diff]5t nature f ! irregul> nebul1 :i* =m ! matrix ( ! ,milky ,way4 ,a clos] exam9ation ( ! few--?irte5 9 all--planet>y nebul1 det]m9$ by ! ,am]ican a/ronom] ,keel]1 conv9c$ me t !y approa* ! ,galaxy f its poles ) a mod]ate spe$1 & subsequ5tly "u ! influ5ce ( its attraction curve _! orbit1 rapidly ga9 9 velocity1 & f9ally ru% into ! ne>e/ "p ( ! ,milky ,way ) a v high spe$4 ,a great numb] ( !m are no d\bt caught 9 ! mi/s or />-?rongs ( ! ,milky ,way aft] exposure to num]\s collisions & sweep+ away all matt] 9 _! c\rse4 ,su* clean-swept traces are v common 9 ! area ( ! ,milky ,way4 ,"o ( ! mo/ beautiful examples is ! s-call$ ,cocoon nebula 9 ! con/ellation ,cygnus 7! ,swan74 ,x has left 9 its wake a d>k rift1 9 ^: bottom1 h[ev]1 exce$+ly small & evid5tly v remote />s are visible accord+ to ! ,g]man a/ronom] ,wolf 7see ,worlds 9 ! ,mak+1 page #agb1 ,fig4 #ee74 ,! great mean velocity ( ! planet>y nebul indicates t !y orig9ally did n belong to ! ,galactic sy/em1 a conclusion also rea*$ by ,bohl91 b = o!r reasons4 ,!y are nev]!less m abundant 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,milky ,way ?an 9 o!r p>ts ( ! heav5s4 ,?is fact1 if view$ sup]ficially1 might lead to ! belief t !y are indig5\s to ! ,galactic sy/em1 b is expla9$ by _! conc5tration 9 ob$i5ce to gravitation t[>d ! ,milky ,way4 ,q rec5tly 7#aiag7 ,van ,maan5 det]m9$ ! di/ance ( "o ( ^! highly int]e/+ cele/ial bodies1 tabulat$ 9 ! ,new ,g5]al ,catalogue z ,no4 #gffb4 ,its di/ance 0 f\nd to be only ab\t #adj light ye>s4 ,?is is ab\t sixte5 times ! di/ance ( ,sirius & ! mean di/ance ( a /> ( ! fif? magnitude4 ,?is circum/ance agrees v well ) ! idea t ?is nebula is captur$ by ! ,galactic sy/em to :i* x has approa*$ f v di/ant p>ts ( ! space outside ( ! ,galactic sy/em4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable a/ronomical discov]ies 9 rec5t ye>s 0 made by ,kapteyn1 :o !reby z well z by o!r a*ievem5ts has ga9$ p]haps ! highe/ rank among a/ronom]s ( today4 ,he has %[n t ! />s ru%+ =? 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,sun belong to two great gr\ps1 "o com+ f ! con/ellation ,orion1 & ! o!r at ne>ly a "r angle 7#ajj7 f ! con/ellation ,scorpio4 ,9 ! =m]1 we f9d ne>ly all ! helium />s hi!rto /udi$4 ,we h previ\sly se5 t ^! />s /& almo/ /ill ) ref]5ce to ! ,galaxy :ile ! irregul> nebul possess no motion at all relative to ! same ref]5ce po9t--& ! ,galaxy is ! natural datum-l9e = all a/ronomical measurem5ts--s t ! motion ( ! fir/-m5tion$ />-gr\p t[>d ! ,sun is pr9cipally due to ! ,sun's own motion4 ,?is gr\p1 accord+ to ,kapteyn1 obeys ! law ( relative /> velocities ev5 bett] ?an ! comb9$ _w ( all />s2 ?us ) ref]5ce to ! ,sun1 ! helium />s are ! sl[e/1 ! yell[ />s ! fa/e/1 :ile ! hydrog5 />s occupy a middle position1 all a self-evid5t consequ5ce ( _! own velocity ) ref]5ce to ! ,galaxy :i* increases f helium />s to yell[ />s4 ,kapteyn has %[n ano!r regul>ity 9 ?is gr\p :i* is easily expla9$4 ,we h previ\sly m5tion$ t ! yell[ />s are mo/1 ! helium />s lea/ remov$ f _! place ( bir? 9 ! ,milky ,way4 ,! result is t ! yell[ />s appe> 7on ! av]age7 to come f a po9t f>!r f ! ,galaxy ?an ! app>5t orig9 ( ! hydrog5 />s & m remote yet ?an t ( ! helium />s4 ,on acc\nt ( ! relatively high velocity ( ! yell[ />s 9 diff]5t directions1 _! /ream appe>s to be m div]g5t ?an ! /ream ( hydrog5 />s1 & helium />s move 9 almo/ p>allel pa?s 7ne>ly directly oppos$ to ! ,sun's true motion ) ref]5ce to ! ,galaxy74 ,simil> regul>ities h be5 f\nd by ,kapteyn 9 ! second />-drift :i* w\ld lead u to ?9k1 z inde$ ,kapteyn assumes1 t ^! />s also develop$ f an orig9al nebul\s mi/1 :i* arriv$ 9 our neighb\rhood f ! unkn[n di/ant1 b is n[ us$ up 9 ! =mation ( correspond+ />s4 ,"h aga9 ! yell[ />s %\ld h dep>t$ f>!r f _! matrix ?an ! :ite hydrog5 />s4 ,helium />s are v r>e 9 ?is drift1 s t no reliable /ati/ics h z yet be5 made = !m4 ,x has be5 "o ( ! mo/ difficult problems ( cosmogony to =m a !ory to acc\nt = ! orig9 ( ! ,galactic sy/em4 ,we may1 almo/ ye>ly1 witness h[ new />s blaze into exi/5ce only to fade rapidly & 9 a few ye>s return to _! old insignificance--t is1 !y become invisible to ! nak$ eye al?\gh ?r\gh p[]ful l5ses we may frequ5tly discov] an exce$+ly fa9t /> 9 _! position4 ,z a rule1 a nebula ( ! planet>y type is =m$ 9 ! c\rse ( a few mon?s4 ,some:at lat] ! nebula is trans=m$ into a ,wolf-,rayet />4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ,wright f\nd ! c5tral bodies 9 c]ta9 planet>y nebul to be ,wolf-,rayet />s4 ,we h good reasons to assume ?is blaz+ =? into light to signify ! collision ( two fa9tly lum9\s or possibly ext9ct />s4 ,! new lights appe> also 9 /ell> regions :]e ! /> d5sity is v great1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,milky ,way or its vic9ity4 ,we see !re=e repeat$ly h[ mi/s ) enclos$ c5tral />s orig9ate4 ,!y rem9d u to a c]ta9 ext5t ( ! ,galaxy ) its cl\ds & />s & along ! road ?us sugge/$ trials h be5 made to rea* ! solution ( ! riddle4 ,! difficulty lies 9 ! fact t ! orbs ^: collision create 8new />s0 are small1 probably small] ?an our ,sun1 :ile ! mass ga!r$ 9 ! ,milky ,way mo/ likely is trillions#b ( times great] ?an t ( ! ,sun4 ,x is true t we "k a few unique />s1 su* z ,arcturus1 :i* exce$ our ,sun 9 size sev]al t5s ( ?\s& times1 b n ev5 two su* />s w\ld acc\nt = ! mass ( ! ,galaxy1 & fur!rmore ! probability t two /ell> bodies ( su* r>e dim5sions w\ld collide is s v small t x mu/ be left out ( acc\nt4 #b ,am]ican & ,fr5* num]ation2 billions acc4 to ,sw$i% & ,engli% usage4 ,kapteyn's />-drifts1 conta9+ _m ?\s&s or probably millions ( />s1 appe> to furni% ! bridge t leads to ! solution ( ! riddle ( ! ,milky ,way4 ,^! drifts 7 once enorm\s gas-cl\ds1 9 mass probably sev]al million times great] ?an t ( ! ,sun4 ,!y also _h an ext5sion equal to trillions ( />s4 ,! probability = ! meet+ ( two su* gas-drifts is comp>atively l>ge & %\ld n be mu* small] ?an = ! entrance ( a />-drift into ! ,milky ,way1 an occurr5ce :i* actually has happ5$ z %[n by ,kapteyn4 ,:5 two su* enorm\s gas-cl\ds meet1 ea* ) a cosmic velocity ( ab\t #bj km4 p] second1 a long "t w\ld n elapse be=e ! gas molecules 9 ! region ( int]p5etration w\ld be ret>d$ 9 _! orig9al motions4 ,an extraord9>ily /rong conc5tration & heat+ w\ld occur 9 ?is t]ritory1 :i* is surr\nd$ by ! comp>atively cold & heavy masses :i* rema9 unaffect$ because outside ( ! impact-area4 ,a c]ta9 degree ( equalization w\ld naturally take place 9 ! lay]s adjo9+ ! b\nd>y betwe5 active & inactive p>ts & ! =m] w\ld1 fur!rmore1 be set into a rapid sp9 ar\nd an axis p]p5dicul> to ! plane conta9+ ! two orig9al motions4 ,on acc\nt ( ! great viscosity ( gases1 p>ticul>ly at high temp]ature1 ! c5tral "p w\ld rotate z a coh]5t unit4 ,?us x w\ld =m a disk ( gase\s matt]4 ,?is disk w\ld be ?icke/ 9 ! middle & w\ld become ?9n] t[>d ! edge :]e c5trifugal =ce acts mo/ p[]fully4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,n4,g4,c4 #deid4 ,exposure #b h\rs4 #amm #f0g4 ,f ,proce$+s ( ! ,national ,academy ( ,sci5ces ( ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,su* a disc\s nebula has be5 inve/igat$ by ! a/ronom] ,f4 ,g4 ,pease ( ! ,c>negie ,obs]vatory on ,m\nt ,wilson4 ,by means ( ! spectroscope he has /udi$ ! motion ( ,nebula ,no4 #deid 9 ! ,new ,g5]al ,catalogue 7see ,fig4 #c74 ,?is body is believ$ to be a spiral nebula l ^? 9 ,figs4 #d & #e b view$ f ! side s t ! spirals appe> z a b&4 ,z ! picture %[s1 ?is b& is c\rs$ ?r\gh by a ?ick d>k l9e1 ow+1 x is believ$1 to a cold non-lum9\s du/-cl\d outside ( ! spiral4 ,! bright b& is broade/ 9 ! c5tre4 ,! curvature ( ! d>k middle l9e 9 ! %ape ( an arc1 ^: apex po9ts d[nw>d1 comb9$ ) ! fact t ! major portion ( light falls above ?is arc1 indicates t we d n view ! nebula exactly on edge b f ! upp] 7nor?7 side ( a plane ?r\gh ! arms ( ! nebula4 ,! nucleus spe$s away f u at ! dizzy+ rate ( #aahj km4 7#gcj miles7 p] second4 ,! ea/ edge1 i4 e4 ! left on ! picture1 dep>ts ) ! /ill high] velocity ( #afcj km4 7#aajj miles7 p] second1 :ile ! we/ 7"r7 edge retreats at ! rate ( only #hjj km4 7#die miles7 p] second4 ,accord+ to ,pease1 ! nebula rotates z a solid disk s t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! velocity ( any po9t & t ( ! c5tre increases 9 ! same proportion z ! di/ance ( ! po9t 9 "q f ! c5tre4 ,x is probable t we h be5 prev5t$ f obs]v+ ! out] p>ts1 correspond+ to ! spiral arms prop]1 by ! r+ ( du/ :i* encircles ! nebula4 ,! visible portion occupies an arc ( #b m9utes on ea* side ( ! c5tre4 ,its spectrum corresponds to t ( />-gr\p ,f-#e among ! yell[ />s 9 ! ,h>v>d classification4 ,!re=e1 x is n ! light ( ! coh]5t gas-cl\d :i* prepond]ates b r t ( ! />s consolidat$ )9 ! cl\d1 & correspond+ to ! />s 9 ! ,milky ,way4 ,?is />-light is s bright t x entirely suppresses ! radiation f ! gas-cl\d itself4 ,su* p>ts ( ! gas-aggregation z are mo/ remov$ f ! place ( collision cont9ue 9 _! c\rse ?r\gh space little affect$ by ! attraction ( ! c5tral mass because ( ! great di/ance involv$4 ,! portions ne>] ! po9t ( impact receive orbits curv$ by ?is same attraction & ! curvature becomes ! %>p] ! ne>] ! axis ( rotation4 ,"o result ( ! mutual gravitation betwe5 ! c5tral mass & ! p>ticles 9 ! out] sections ( ! nebula is also t ! velocity 9 ! spiral arms becomes small] ! f>!r ! section 9 "q is locat$ f ! c5tre1 j z comets 9 ! sol> sy/em move sl[] ! f>!r !y are remov$ f ! ,sun4 ,b 9 all portions outside ! c5tral region ! attraction is too weak to give circul> orbits to ! gase\s matt]4 ,all sub/ance 9 ^! localities1 !re=e1 dep>ts ev] m f ! c5tre4 ,z ! spiral arms /ret* out into /raight l9es su* matt] f9ally leaves ! c5tral disk altoge!r4 ,x is possible t only ! disk itself rema9s 9 ! nebula comput$ by ,pease4 ,ano!r a/ronom] on ,m\nt ,wilson1 ,a4 ,van ,maan51 has inve/igat$ a nebula1 ,no4 #aja 9 ,messi]'s catalogue 7,fig4 #d74 ,?is nebula lies ne>ly at a "r angle to ! l9e ( vision :i* consequ5tly almo/ co9cides ) ! axis ( rotation4 ,! motion ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ?is nebula has be5 calculat$ ) ! help ( photographs tak5 9 ! ye>s #ahii1 #aijh1 & #aiad1 :]eby its *ang$ position ) ref]5ce to surr\nd+ fix$ />s has be5 record$4 ,out ( #hg po9ts 9 ! spirals only #i mov$ 9 ! direction ( ! h&s on a clock :ile ! o!r #gh mov$ 9 ! opposite s5se4 ,! mean angul> velocity is #j4jbb seconds ( arc p] ye>1 correspond+ to #he1jjj ye>s = "o complete revolution at #e m9utes' di/ance f ! c5tre4 ,! absolute velocity #b m9utes ( arc f ! c5tre is #a4e times z great z at #g4e m9utes' di/ance4 ,fig4 #d is reproduc$ f ,van ,maan5's orig9al4 ,x %[s cle>ly ! g5]al regul>ity 9 ! motion ( ! compon5t p>ts z well z ! num]\s exceptions to ! rule4 ,su* exceptions may be caus$ by p]turbations due to invad+ masses1 :i* imp>t _! own motion to ! entangl+ matt]4 ,^! =eign bodies h probably cond5s$ surr\nd+ vap\rs & ?is creat$ ! bright knots :i* /ud ! nebul> spirals4 ,! upw>d motion am\nts on ! av]age to #j4jjg seconds p] ye>4 ,:ile ! po9ts ( cond5sation describe half a revolution ar\nd ! c5tre !y dep>t !refrom to ab\t twice _! orig9al di/ance4 ,m ?an a million ye>s is !re=e likely to elapse be=e ! out] portions ( ! nebula are s f> remov$ f ! nucleus t ! spiral =m ( ! nebula is no m app>5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,int]nal motions 9 ,messi] #aja4 ,! arr[s indicate ! direction & magnitude ( ! mean annual motions4 ,_! scale 7#j0a7 is indicat$ on ! plate4 ,! scale ( ! nebula is #amm #aj0e4 ,! comp>ison />s are enclos$ 9 circles4 ,f ,proce$+s ( ! ,national ,academy ( ,sci5ces ( ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,spiral nebula ,no4 #ea 9 ,messi]'s ,catalogue2 situat$ 9 ,canes ,v5atici1 & photograph$ ,febru>y #g & #h1 #aiaj1 f ,m\nt ,wilson ,obs]vatory 9 ,cali=nia4 ,scale3 #a millimet] #e sec4 arc4 ,lyran ,h]kules ,ormbr>5 rn5 ,skld5 ,svan5 ,rv5 ,pil5 ,ormbr>5 ,skytt5 ,skorpion5 ,sdra ,kronan ,kolsck ,syd-,korset ,skeppet ,argo ,kl5 ,skeppet ,argo ,/yre ,segel ,n ,enhrn+5 ,enhrn+5 ,kusk5 ,cepheus ,p]seus ,kassiopeja ,svan5 ,x is cle> t ! ,milky ,way may h be5 =m$ ?r\gh ! collision ( two imm5se nebul\s gas-aggregations 9 ! mann] j describ$4 ,subsequ5tly & by virtue ( ! magnitude ( ! ,galaxy great quantities ( w&]+ cosmic matt] & m9or /ell> bodies h be5 ga!r$ 9 occasionally accompani$ by l>g] clu/]+s su* z ! planet>y nebul ref]r$ to4 ,h[ well ju/ifi$ we are 9 look+ ^u ! ,milky ,way z a spiral nebula is app>5t f ! picture 7,fig4 #e7 reproduc+ a photograph ( ! famili> regul> nebula 9 ! ,dogs 7,canes ,v5atici74 ,x %[s a weal? ( detail hi!rto n surmis$4 ,! feat 0 accompli%$ 9 ! ,c>negie ,obs]vatory on ,m\nt ,wilson 9 ,s\!rn ,cali=nia ) ! help ( optical res\rces va/ly sup]ior to all e>li] means4 ,! ,milky ,way has previ\sly be5 comp>$ to ?is nebula1 b due to defici5t enl>gem5t _! /rik+ simil>ity has n be5 fully recogniz$ until n[4 ,assume ! ,sun locat$ 9 ! po9t m>k$ 8,s0 9 ,fig4 #e & "s di/ance above ! plane ( ! picture1 !n ! nebula if view$ f ?is po9t w\ld appe> some:at z ! ,milky ,way appe>s to u4 ,9 ! middle we behold ! sub/antial nucleus & on its left side a cleft betwe5 ! two bran*es ( ! inn] spiral4 ,f>!r to ! left1 we see only ! out] spiral1 fir/ broad5+ t[>d ! left :]e x approa*es 8,s10 !n n>r[+ only to spread aga9 on acc\nt ( ! great clu/]+ 9 ! l[] "r "p ( ! spiral4 ,! axis ( ! nebula corresponds to ! d5se/ p>ts ( ! ,galaxy 9 ,cygnus 7! ,swan71 ! loop 9 ! inn] spiral aga9 to ! empty space betwe5 ,cepheus & ,cassiopeia1 ! n>r[ "p ( ! out] spiral bran* resembles ! con/riction at ,alg5ib1 ! foll[+ diffusion corresponds to ! broad section 9 ,auriga 7,*>iote]7 & ,monoc]os 7,unicorn74 ,at ! subsequ5t n>r[ place we see ! out] nebula-clump correspond+ 9 c]ta9 respects to ! ,magellanic cl\ds on our firmam5t al?\gh ^! are f>!r remov$1 & app>5tly n indig5\s to ! ,milky ,way4 ,!re foll[s 9 ! nebula a massive section 9 our sy/em repres5t$ by ! well kn[n1 f> less compact1 yet brightly lum9\s tract conta9+ ! ,s\!rn ,cross4 ,"h1 f ! /> ,alpha 9 ,c5taurus--! ne>e/ bright fix$ />#c to our ,sun1 8only0 #d4e light ye>s or ab\t #be trillion#d miles di/ant--comm5ces a bi-section ( ! spiral & /rangely en\gh ! nebula is simil>ly =k$4 ,n[ ! out] spiral /ret*+ 9 a fa9t l9e upw>d f ! 8clump0 beg9s to %[ z a weak b&1 :ile ! inn] spiral /&s =? p[]fully above 8,s0 correspond+ to ! brilliant section ( ! ,galaxy 9 ,scutum 7,%ield7 & ,aquila 7,eagle74 ,! p>tition 9 ! nebula betwe5 ^! two bran*es is ! c\nt]p>t ( ! #aaj long 8prong0 9 ! ,milky ,way betwe5 ! con/ellations ,norma & ,lyra4 ,num]\s fa9t bridges jo9 ! two bran*es 9 ! nebula z well z 9 ! ,galaxy1 accord+ to ,wolf4 #c ,up to a %ort "t ago ,alpha ,c5tauri 0 consid]$ ! fix$ /> ne>e/ to ! ,sun4 ,by comp>+ old photographs ( ! firmam5t ) su* ( rec5t date ! r5[n$ a/ronom] ,b>n>d f\nd t a v small fix$ />--( ! magnitude #aj4e & !re=e f> f visible to ! nak$ eye--9 ! con/ellation ,ophiu*us 7,"r asc5sion #ag h4 #eh m4 #dd s41 ,nor? decl9ation #d #bg4d ,janu>y #a1 #aiag7 possesses a v l>ge prop] motion4 ,x trav]ses 9 a ye> #aj4c seconds on ! firmam5t4 ,! di/ance to ?is />1 :i* has ! l>ge/ prop] motion s f> kn[n1 0 lat] det]m9$ to be #c4c light ye>s or #c_/d ( ! di/ance f ,alpha ,c5tauri to our ,sun4 ,h5ce its velocity at "r angle to ! l9e ( vision is comput$ to be #di km4 7#cb miles7 p] second4 ,spectroscopic measurem5ts %[ t x approa*es u ) a velocity ( #ia km4 7#ef4e miles7 p] second along ! l9e ( vision4 ,! comb9$ velocity1 !re=e1 is #ajc km4 7#fc miles7 p] second1 an unusually high value4 ,! value ( #c4c light ye>s us$ 9 ?is calculation 0 det]m9$ by ! ,fr5* a/ronom] ,gonnessiat1 :o f\nd x by ! /udy ( old photographs f ,alg]ia4 ,he also calculat$ ! p>allax ( ?is /> to be #a second4 ,accord+ to lat] measurem5ts1 giv5 9 ! ,h>v>d ,bullet9s #faf & #fag1 its p>allax is only #j4g seconds & consequ5tly its di/ance #d4f light ye>s & its spe$ p]p5dicul>ly to ! l9e ( vision #gj km4 7#dc4e miles7 p] second4 ,campbell1 9 ! ,lick ,obs]vatory1 _h det]m9$ its radial velocity & f\nd t x approa*es ! ,sun at ! rate ( #abh km4 7#gi miles7 p] second4 ,its total velocity is1 accord+ to ^! two la/ det]m9ations1 #adf km4 7#ia miles7 p] second4 ,x is by no means improbable t simil> discov]ies w be made 9 ! future1 s t ! ,sun w be f\nd to h m />s 9 its 8imm$iate0 vic9ity ?an previ\sly assum$4 #d ,am]ican & ,fr5* num]ation2 ! ,sw$i% & ,engli% usage is billion4 ,! correspond5ce is inde$ surpris+ly good4 ,proportions are1 ( c\rse1 some:at diff]5t--9 p>ticul> is ! c5tral "p ( ! ,galaxy n s pr$om9at+1 :i* fact has be5 tr\blesome to ! adh]5ts ( ! nebula !ory4 ,probably x 0 orig9ally d5s] b has become att5uat$ ?r\gh />-=mation1 expla9+1 = in/ance1 ! great gap betwe5 ! con/ellations ,lyra & ,vulpecula4 ,to give a bett] idea ( ! /ructure ( ! ,milky ,way1 two photographs are "h reproduc$ z tak5 by ,wolf1 ! ,g]man a/ronom] 9 ,heidelb]g1 :o has done p>ticul>ly m]itori\s "w 9 ?is dep>tm5t4 ,"o 7,fig4 #f7 %[s a section ( ! ,galaxy 9 ,cygnus 7! ,swan7 ) ! /> ,d5eb 9 ! c5tre & to ! left ! 8,nor?am]ican-nebula0 s nam$ f its %ape4 ,above ,d5eb is ! d>k 8hole0 9 ,cygnus & bel[ ano!r *asm n q s black4 ,left ( ! 8hole0 is ! w9d+ canal enclos+ ! s-call$ ,cocoon nebula4 7,see ,worlds 9 ! ,mak+1 page #agb47 ,! foll[+ picture 7,fig4 #g7 conta9s1 9 ! upp] left1 ! bright /> ,altair 9 ,aquila 7! ,eagle7 locat$ close to ! p[]ful arm ( ! ,galaxy 9 ?is con/ellation4 ,f>!r to ! "r is ! fa9t] arm 9 ,ophiu*us 7! ,s]p5t-hold]74 ,! l[] half conta9s ! mo/ brilliant "p ( ! ,milky ,way 9 ! con/ellations ,scutum 7! ,%ield7 & ,sagitt>ius 7! ,ar*]74 ,bright />s are infrequ5t b ! fa9t] ones are innum]able3 8,!y are cr[d$ into d5se clu/]s & betwe5 !m ! mo/ delicate /> du/ is scatt]$40--8,we behold h[ ! />-ribbon dissolves into deta*$ tufts :i* int]tw9e into ! /range/ patt]ns4 ,^! cl\ds ( />s rea* _! greate/ spl5d\r 9 ! l[] "p ( ! map40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,! ,milky ,way betwe5 con/ellations ,cassiopeia & ,swan f photo by ,m4 ,wolf ( ,heidelb]g4 ,a little to ! left ( ! middle ! beautiful nebula ,am]ica appe>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,! ,milky ,way 9 con/ellations ,eagle 7upp] half7 & ,ar*] 7l[] half74 ,9 ! upp] left ! bright /> ,altair appe>s4 ,photo f ,m4 ,wolf ( ,heidelb]g4 ,we also reproduce 7,fig4 #h7 f ,m4 ,wolf a photograph 9 l>g] scale f ! region ( ,gamma 7l[] "p ( ,fig4 #g7 9 ! ,eagle ) its 8trid5t-hole10 s call$ f its peculi> %ape1 & 9 ^: vic9ity mi/s & />-cl\ds ab\nd4 ,?is picture is a m complicat$ c\nt]p>t ( ! flatt] photograph by ,wolf ( ! 8,cocoon nebula40 ,x appe>s z if ?ree or f\r /ell> bodies "h _h /epp$ 9 f )\t1 swept away ! />s 9 _! way1 & left clean 8/reets0 beh9d4 ,probably o!r 8empty0 spots 9 ! neighb\rhood h be5 =m$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,ano!r !ory is t su* d>k places are caus$ by opaque mi/-=mations :i* %ield ! light ( ! />s beh9d f our sight4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,! trisect$ hole 7,trifid-hole7 9 ,eagle4 ,photo f ,m4 ,wolf ( ,heidelb]g4 ,?r\gh ^! pictures we ga9 a conception ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! pres5t />s 9 ! ,milky ,way h clu/]$ out ( ! orig9al mi/y *aos4 ,we _c avoid ! idea ( great ext]ior simil>ity betwe5 ! lumps =m$ 9 curdl+ or s\r+ milk & ^? :i* we obs]ve 9 ! ,milky ,way4 ,! r5[n$ ,fr5* sci5ti/ ,duclaux says 9 8 micro-biology3 8,9 milk1 comm5c+ to s\r1 b yet entirely liquid1 we obs]ve "u ! microscope a precipitation ( t9y p>ticles4 ,to beg9 ) !y are se5 ) difficulty & are discov]$ only by slightly displac+ ! plane ( vision4 ,lat] !y develop into di/9ct gra9s1 *>act]iz$ by ,br[nian movem5ts1 j l small p>ticles ( clay4444 ,/ill lat] ! ph5om5on appe>s z a /eady molecul> agglom]ation4 ,! gra9s h ! t5d5cy ( ! clay p>ticles to lump & precipitate40 ,! fir/ cond5sation-nuclei 9 ! mi/-cl\ds are no d\bt cosmic du/ ent]+ f )\t & p]haps also l>g] clu/]+s su* z meteorites & comets4 ,at ! exi/+ l[ temp]ature1 surr\nd+ gases cond5se into fluid /ate on ! du/ p>ticles :i* by virtue ( ^! moi/ %ells are cem5t$ into aggregations ( su* size t gravitation ov]comes ! repell+ radiation pressure4 ,gravitation assi/$ by ! ret>d+ vap\rs fur!r mass ^! aggregates toge!r4 ,?is process ( coalesc5ce is accompani$ by heat production4 ,f9ally1 small />s are =m$1 !n gr\ps ( su* />s1 :ile ! spaces betwe51 n[ comp>atively devoid ( matt]1 appe> d>k mu* z ! :ey betwe5 flocks ( curd4 ,z yet1 ! small /ell> bodies are surr\nd$ by quantities ( du/ & gas1 :i*1 h[ev]1 ) cont9u$ cond5sation become ev] m r>efi$4 ,ev5 yet ! big />s 9 ,pleiades1 belong+ to ! helium gr\p1 appe> on ! photographic plates int]spac$ ) great pat*es ( du/-cl\ds4 ,^! are n[1 h[ev]1 s unsub/antial t !y (f] little imp$im5t to ! procession ( ! mighty />s4 ,! cond5sation process may be greatly accel]at$ ?r\gh ! invasion ( volum9\s gas nebul simil> to ! ,cocoon nebula4 ,at la/ all gases 9 ! new /> cond5se1 t is to say ! %ell ( t5u\s vap\rs & du/ contracts to su* an insignificant ?ickness t x _c be se5 except possibly f ! imm$iate vic9ity4 ,small bodies +a!r$ ?r\gh friction aga9/ ! remnants ( ! orig9al ext5d$ wrapp+ w&] z planets ar\nd ! new sun1 sweep+ away ! la/ traces ( unatta*$ matt]4 ,! cond5sation on ! new orb leaves a 8hole0 9 ! nebulosity :i* 9 ?is way is trans=m$ into />s & _! satellites :i* em]ge f ! mi/ & scatt] on ! firmam5t4 ,! ,milky ,way appe>s to be 9 a r advanc$ /age ( ?is evolution4 ,! 8inf9itely small0 pres5ts occasionally surpris+ lik5ess to ! 8inf9itely l>ge40 ,9 ?is mann] we c =m a conception ( ! gr[? ( ! wond]ful /ructure :i* has br\ght =? ! majority ( ! /ell> bodies t we disc]n4 ,! spiral nebul visible at ! ,galactic poles are simil> =mations b probably ( f> m mode/ dim5sions4 ,!y may comp>e to ! ,milky ,way z ! small] planets to ! ,sun4 ,accord+ to rec5t inve/igations ! spiral nebul seem also to possess an enorm\s velocity & !y h probably invad$ ! ,milky ,way f )\t4 ,z previ\sly /at$1 an exce$+ly rem>kable conception ( ! ,milky ,way exi/s among ! ,mexicans4 ,to !m x is ! ,matrix ( all & gave bir? to ! />s1 ! mo/ important ( :i* are ! ,sun1 ! ,moon1 & ,v5us4 ,?is idea evid5tly agrees v well ) ! results ( inve/igations 9 ! la/ few ye>s4 ,f9ally1 a few words ab\t ! ext5t ( ! ,milky ,way4 ,s f> we h n be5 able to measure x2 only r unc]ta9 approximations are possible4 ,wolf e/imates ! diamet]1 t is ! di/ance betwe5 ! two spirals at ! po9t :]e ! ,sun n[ is1 to be ab\t #aj1jjj times ! di/ance f ! ,sun to ! ne>e/ fix$ />1 ,alpha 9 ,c5taurus1 :i* di/ance on ! o!r h& is ab\t #aj1jjj times ! di/ance f ! ,sun to ! remote/ kn[n planet1 ,neptune1 or #cjj1jjj times t f ,sun to ,e>?4 ,express$ 9 ! usual units1 we arrive at #dj1jjj light ye>s or #djj1jjj trillion kilometres 7#bdj1jjj trillion miles74 ,"l ,kelv9 makes ano!r e/imate ( #fjjj light ye>s1 t is sev5 times small]4 ,! mean diamet] ( ! nebula prop] might be ab\t five times l>g]1 9 r\nd figures "o hundr$ ?\s& light ye>s1 or "o billion billion kilometres 7#fjj million billion miles74 ,l a mon/r\s octopus1 ! ,milky ,way swims 9 ! fa?omless e!r-sea4 ,its dim5sions are ab\t z _m times l>g] ?an ^? ( ! e>? z t globe is l>g] ?an an atom4 ,?is has caus$ ! gift$ ,iri% physici/ ,f\rni] ,d',albe to consid] ! cele/ial globes z atoms1 out ( :i* sy/ems ( ! ord] ( ! ,milky ,way are con/ruct$ 9 ! same mann] z ! e>? & o!r /ell> bodies are upbuilt ) atoms1 invisible to u & yet measur$ ) an incr$ible degree ( accuracy4 ,f\rni] ,d',albe goes fur!r /ill4 ,9 poetic flight he does n hesitate to end[ ! ,milky ,way organism ) life4 ,its evolution _c be d5i$ a c]ta9 simil>ity to ! processes ( life4 ,! great nebula owes its orig9 to ! union ( two individuals1 two nebulosities1 :o met 9 _! c\rse ?r\gh b\ndless space4 ,!re float$ ! newborn ext5d+ its t5tacles 9 ! cool e!r-waves & ga9$ sub/ance & /r5g? ?r\gh ! small] be+s :i* ! surg+ bill[s br\ght )9 its rea*4 ,x has n[ atta9$ ! z5i? ( its evolution1 & is break+ up into molecules1 or sol> sy/ems1 :i* aga9 are compos$ ( /ell> bodies1 or atoms )9 ! molecule4 ,9 viol5t exub]ance ( y\? ^! ru% ?r\gh space 9 fulfilm5t ( _! individual life4 ,_m w 9 due "t und\bt$ly become du/ aga9 & !n s]ve to n\ri% a new y\?ful nebula4 ,o!rs succumb to a freez+-dea? b w be re/or$ to life 9 collision ) a nebulosity or "s o!r /ell> body & give =m to 8new />s0 or planet>y cl\ds4 ,aga9 & aga9 %all ! />ry mi/s g ?r\gh ! cycle ( exi/5ce & aft] a lifetime1 ^: duration /&s 9 proportion to _! dim5sions1 i4 e4 may be e/imat$ to billions ( billions ( ye>s1 give rise to new cele/ial be+s4 ,?us %all x = ev] cont9ue 9 an et]nal rhy?m4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,climatic ,,importance ,,( ,,wat] ,,vap\r ,:5 ,ari/otle1 = two ?\s& ye>s our lead+ savant 9 cosmography1 ab\t tw5ty-?ree c5turies ago /at$ ! f\ndation ( 8 natural sci5ce1 he laid d[n z ! important pr9ciples3 moi/ure & heat & _! opposites2 because ! f\r elem5ts out ( :i* ev]y?+ 0 made1 73 e>?1 *>act]iz$ by dryness & cold2 wat]1 :i* 0 moi/ & cold2 air1 :i* comb9$ moi/ure ) heat2 & la/ly fire1 :i* /ood = dryness & heat4 ,und\bt$ly he 0 consid]+ ! requisites ( life1 :i* may be designat$ z humidity & heat4 ,we h seem+ly agre$ t all life orig9ates 9 ! sea1 s t moi/ure c be consid]$ ! fir/ requirem5t = its appe>ance on ! e>?4 ,z to heat1 life is de/roy$ by fro/ & fav\r$ by increas$ w>m?1 at lea/ to a c]ta9 po9t1 ab\t #ce to #dj ,c4 7#ie to #ajd ,fahr5heit71 :i* temp]ature is mo/ propiti\s to ! developm5t ( life1 :ile a fur!r increase is detrim5tal1 s t already bel[ ! boil+ po9t ( wat] life suff]s m h>m ?an at temp]atures bel[ freez+4 ,9 fact1 ! geologi/s h f\nd t ! diff]5t epo*s 9 e>?'s evolution are be/ *>act]iz$ by _! humidity or dryness4 ,to arrive at a cle> conception 9 ^! matt]s we %all briefly survey our pres5t k ( ! importance = ! evolution ( life on e>? t we %\ld atta* to ! humid & to ! dry p]iods or localities4 ,we are all famili> ) ! heavy1 moi/ure-lad5 w>m? :i* meets u :5 we ent] a ho?\se4 ,x is p>ticul>ly fav\rable to ! gr[? ( plants & to ! prosp]ity ( ! l[] animals4 ,to ! high] animals & to man1 ! humid heat is n s b5eficial4 ,9 ! op5 su* ho?\se air exi/s only 9 ! tropics4 ,p>ticul>ly ! ,congo region & ! p>ts ( ,brazil adjo9+ ! ,amazon ,riv] are rem>kable = _! humid heat & = _! fabul\sly luxuriant vegetation4 ,f our greate/ liv+ climatologi/1 ,julius ,hann1 ,i h borr[$ ! foll[+ description ( su* a clime3 8,! *anges ( temp]ature betwe5 ! colde/ & ! hotte/ mon? are v small 9 ! ,congo1 f 4#e to #e ,c4 74#i to #i ,fahr5heit71 ) an av]age ( ab\t #c4e ,c4 7#f4c ,f474 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 day & night rea*es ne>ly ?rice ?is value1 or #i4e ,c4 7#ag4a ,f474 ,! dry season becomes %ort] ! m we approa* ! equator & 9 ,equatorville & ,bangala x %r9ks to no?+4 ,dur+ ! ra9less mon?s1 a d5se humid fog settles morn+ & ev5+ ov] ! savannahs4 ,l[ hang+ cl\ds ( uni=m ?ickness frequ5tly hide ! ,sun = weeks at a "t4 ,x is dur+ ! ra9y season alone t we see a cle> sky betwe5 ! %[]s4 ,?is season op5s & closes ) magnific5t ?und]/orms com+ f ! ea/4 ,9 ,luluaburg1 lightn+ occurs dur+ n less ?an #ajf days 9 ! ye>4 ,9 ! dry season ! w9d c>ries ) x cl\ds ( du/ :i* falls to ! gr\nd4 ,! cl\d9ess is enorm\s 9 ! ,congo bas91 s t !re are v]itably no mon?s ) a cle> sky 9 ?is "p ( ! _w4 ,9 ,vivi1 ! numb] ( ov]ca/ days av]ages #gd p] c5t41 fluctuat+ betwe5 #fc p] c5t4 9 ,augu/ & #hc p] c5t4 9 ,novemb]4 ,! humidity is v high1 v>y+ 9 ,vivi f #gj to #gi p] c5t41 ) a mean value ( #ge p] c5t41 & 9 ,bolebo ! mean itself rea*es #gi p] c5t4 ,dur+ ! ra9y season1 ! heat is sometimes unbe>ably oppressive2 suffocat+ fumes rise f vegetable matt] :i* rapidly decays 9 ! excessive humidity4 ,! annual precipitation does n rea* v />tl+ figures2 x v>ies betwe5 #abj & #ahj cm4 7#dg to #ga in*es74 ,9 ,gabun1 close by1 ! sky is almo/ cont9u\sly cov]$ ) cl\ds dur+ ! dry season4 8,correspond+ regions 9 ,s\? ,am]ica are 9 p>ts *>act]iz$ by an ev5 high] humidity4 ,9 ,iquitos by ! ,amazon ,riv]1 x rea*es n less ?an #hc p] c5t4 ( saturation4 ,! annual *ange ( temp]ature is only ab\t #e ,c4 7#i ,f472 9 ,p>a 7#a4jh s\? latitude on ! coa/7 x %r9ks to #a or #a4e ,c4 7#a4h to #b4g ,f474 ,9 ! c\rse ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs ! v>iation is consid]ably l>g]4 ,! sky is rem>kably cle> betwe5 %[]s dur+ ! ra9y season4 ,9 ! int]ior ( ,guiana1 ! ra9s cont9ue f ! end ( ,april well into ,july or ev5 into ,augu/4 ,abundant dew is common dur+ ! ra9less "p ( ! ye>1 ?us ma9ta9+ ! humidity4 ,sun & ,moon are r>ely visible1 & gigantic lightn+ /orms ann\nce ! arrival ( ! ra9y p]iod40 ,simil> conditions app>5tly prevail$ dur+ ! c>bonif]\s p]iod1 :i* 0 *>act]iz$ by a luxuriant vegetation4 ,! mighty tree-trunks ( t "t fell into ! wat]-cov]$ m>%es out ( :i* !y _h gr[n & _! decay 0 !reby prev5t$4 ,in/ead !y turn$ into coal l ! peat 9 ! mosses ( today4 ,?is 0 = "s "t ?\ght to indicate t ! temp]ature 0 n p>ticul>ly high--,fre* e/imat$ ab\t #ab ,c4 7#ec4f ,f47 7#aiaj74 ,b s9ce ! discov]y & subsequ5t description by ,keilhack 7#aiad7 ( peat-b$s on ,ceylon1 :]e ! av]age ye>ly temp]ature is #bf ,c4 7#gh4h ,f471 a return is to be expect$ to ! old] conception1 :i* held t ! vegetation dur+ ! c>bonif]\s p]iod is evid5ce ( a v w>m climate4 ,judg+ by ! appe>ance ( fossil plants1 ! temp]ature %\ld h be5 ne>ly ! same all ov] ! globe4 ,c>?aus rem>ks t ! air 0 /irr$ by only feeble w9ds because ! trees ( t age ) _! great dim5sions b frail root-sy/ems c\ld n h )/ood a fre% breeze4 ,! sky 0 hidd5 beh9d a cont9u\s ?ick cov] ( cl\ds :i* only let a fa9t light sift ?r\gh to ! gr\nd4 ,! motionless air 0 almo/ saturat$ ) moi/ure4 ,! luxuriance ( ! vegetation1 transc5d+ any?+ exi/+ today1 indicates a fav\rable high p]c5tage ( c>bonic acid 9 ! air4 ,?is comb9$ ) ! humidity & ! d5se cl\ds caus$ ! heat radiation f ! ,sun to be almo/ entirely absorb$ by ! upp] /rata ( ! atmosph]e 9 :i* !reby a /rong circulation 0 ma9ta9$4 ,z a result1 ! heat 0 ne>ly equaliz$ betwe5 ! poles & ! equator & "u ! cl\d cov] an almo/ con/ant temp]ature reign$ day & night1 summ] & w9t]4 ,! damp air /ood wellnigh /ill & 0 fill$ ) d5se fog at ! smalle/ *anges 9 temp]ature4 ,lack ( light prev5t$ ! developm5t ( fl[]s1 & ! ?riv+ plants belong$ ma9ly to ! f]ns & to ! horsetails4 ,p9e & fir trees 7 yet comp>atively few4 ,! conditions 9 ! swampy regions :]e plant life fl\ri%$ 7 ne>ly id5tical ) ^? 9 a ho?\se if we 7 to draw a d5se veil 9 front ( ! w9d[s 9 walls & ceil+ s t a cont9u\s twilight w\ld prevail4 ,9 ?is uni=m climate1 plant life develop$ enorm\sly fa/] ?an animal life4 ,! d5se cl\ds c\ld /ore consid]able quantities ( heat 9 ! equatorial belt ?r\gh evaporation 9 _! upp] lay]s & ! viol5t w9d /orms above ! cl\ds w\ld c>ry ! aque\s vap\rs to cold] regions :]e ! heat w\ld be lib]at$ ?r\gh new cl\d =mations4 ,curr5ts 9 ! oceans n[ l>gely att5d to ?is heat transportation & give = in/ance to ! coa/ ( ,norway1 & inde$ to ! :ole ( ,we/]n ,europe1 its rem>kably mild1 & to life & civilization1 propiti\s climate1 b 9 ! c>bonif]\s age humid air curr5ts fulfill$ ! same task4 ,!y mov$ consid]ably fa/] & m ev5ly ?an ! ocean curr5ts1 7 n *eck$ or deflect$ by coa/s or isl&s1 & c\ld !re=e produce ! extraord9>ily uni=m temp]ature & ! m>9e climate all ov] ! globe4 ,su* a heat di/ribution takes place also 9 our days at a height ( ab\t #aj1jjj m4 7#f4b miles7 9 ! s-call$ 8/ratosph]e10 b ! temp]ature "h is v l[1 ab\t -#fj ,c4 7-#gf ,f471 s t ! vap\r susp5d$ is h>dly wor? m5tion+1 & _c give rise to cl\d =mations4 ,! quantities ( heat c>ri$ 9 ^! high] /rata ( ! atmosph]e are too insignificant to influ5ce ! masses ( air bel[1 ^: temp]ature1 !re=e1 is almo/ entirely gov]n$ by t ( ! sun-heat$ surface ( ! e>?1 except :]e ! ocean curr5ts equalize matt]s1 z = in/ance 9 ! almo/ :olly wat]-cov]$ latitudes s\? ( ! #cj? p>allel on ! ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e4 ,ev5 dur+ ! c>bonif]\s p]iod at its height1 !re exi/$1 ( c\rse1 a temp]ature diff]5ce betwe5 pole & equator1 b x 0 v small1 "s #aj ,c4 7#ah ,f47 p]haps4 ,und\bt$ly1 ! =mation ( coal b$s 0 ma9ly conf9$ to ^? regions :]e ! climate 0 mo/ uni=m all ! ye> ar\nd4 ,! opposite extremity1 ! dry des]t climate1 is f> m pron\nc$ 9 ! pres5t "t4 ,?is condition is well kn[n 9 all cont95ts except ,europe1 :]e we h>dly c claim a des]t b in/ead h /eppes1 ) a vegetation abundant aft] ! spr+ ra9s b fa/ disappe>+ ) ! arrival ( ! burn+ summ] heat4 ,a p>ticul> type ( plant life has adapt$ itself to ?is p]iodic *ange f ra9 to dr\ght1 f bitt] cold dur+ ! w9t] to p>*+ sun dur+ ! summ]4 ,p]5nial plants1 & p>ticul>ly trees1 c r>ely endure ! rigors ( su* climatic upheavals4 ,animal life on ! o!r h& has prov$ fairly adaptable & displays consid]able weal?4 ,?is /eppe climate is only an int]m$iate /age t[>ds ! des]t climate prop]1 :i* is ho/ile to all life4 ,its temp]ature is subject to enorm\s *anges 9 ! c\rse ( ! day & ! ye>4 ,! annual v>iation is less pron\nc$ ne> ! equator & ! daily v>iation less on ! approa* to ! poles1 on acc\nt ( ! small *anges 9 ! sun's radiation dur+ correspond+ p]iods4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 day & night 9 ,sah>a is frequ5tly #cj to #dj ,c4 7#ej to #gj ,f474 ,! l[e/ temp]ature obs]v$ by ,f\reau-,lamy1 #ahih-ahii1 0 -#bj ,c4 7-#d ,f47 or ne>ly ! same z on ! ,sc&9avian coa/s4 ,! highe/ am\nt$ to #dh ,c4 7#aah4d ,f47 or a total v>iation ( ne>ly #gj ,c4 7#abf ,f474 ,9 ,upp] ,egypt 7#ba4i ,n4 ,lat47 ! mean temp]ature *ang$ f #af4c ,c4 7#fa4c ,f47 9 ,janu>y to #cd4a ,c4 7#ic4b ,f47 9 ,july1 & ne>] ! equator 9 ,c5tral ,africa 7#h4a ,n4 ,lat41 #bc4f ,e4 ,long47 ! diff]5ce am\nt$ to only #f4i ,c4 7#dd4f ,f471 #bb4g ,c4 7#gb4e ,f47 9 ,decemb]1 #bi4f ,c4 7#he4a ,f47 9 ,april1 :ile 9 ,kia*ta 7#ej4d ,n4 ,lat41 #ajf4e ,e4 ,long47 9 ,sib]ia1 ! ye>ly *ange rea*es #de ,c4 7#ha ,f471 -#bf4f ,c4 7-#ae4g ,f47 9 ,janu>y1 #ai4a ,c4 7#ff4b ,f47 9 ,july4 ,! av]age daily v>iation at cont95tal /ations is ab\t #ab ,c4 7#ba4f ,f474 ,all ?is ref]s to ! temp]ature ( ! air1 :ile ! surface temp]ature 9 ! c\rse ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs may *ange #ej ,c4 7#ij ,f47 & 9 ! des]t ev5 m4 ,fro/ occurs 9 ! ,sah>a z late z ,may :5 ! maximum temp]ature may rea* #ej ,c4 7#abb ,f474 ,:ile 9 ,sc&9avia ! diurnal diff]5ce betwe5 highe/ & l[e/ temp]ature av]ages only #f to #g ,c4 7#aa to #ac ,f471 a maximum 9 ,july ( #aj4d ,c4 7#ah4g ,f47 & a m9imum 9 ,novemb] ( #d ,c4 7#g4b ,f471 ,h$9 on 8 j\rney 9 ,tibet1 #ahii-aijb1 obs]v$ a daily v>iation ( #ai ,c4 7#cd4b ,f47 & no appreciable diff]5ce ) *ange 9 altitude4 ,! result ( su* a viol5t temp]ature *ange 9 ! c\rse ( a day is a break+ up ( ! rocks :i* subsequ5tly & gradually are gr\nd to f9e du/ by unob/ruct$ w9ds :]ev] vegetation does n b9d ! soil4 ,9 ?is mann] ! s& des]ts are =m$4 ,! arid wa/es ( ,asia h lately be5 vividly describ$ by ,sv5 ,h$94 ,! m\nta9s erod$ by ! s&/orms resemble dilapidat$ ru9s1 /&+ z monum5ts ( an anci5t highl&4 ,! s& 9 ,ea/ ,turke/an is r$uc$ to su* a f9e p[d] t x c float 9 ! air = sev]al days aft] a /orm1 reveal+ itself 9 gorge\s sunsets4 ,w9ds sweep ! s& into long dunes1 :i* %ift 9 ! direction ( ! bla/4 ,x is f]rug9\s & !re=e r$ or if p[d]iz$ r$di%-yell[4 ,:5 moi/5$ x assumes a br[n to black %ade4 ,aft] ra91 ! wat] desc5ds t[>d ! valley1 c>ry+ ) x ! s& 9 ! =m ( silt4 ,?is1 ?r\gh evaporation1 is trans=m$ into a pla/ic black d\gh1 slides l a glaci] sl[ly d[n ! hillsides1 & f9ally comes to re/ 9 "s broad holl[ :i* x gradually fills4 ,su* a silt aggregation is call$ 9 ,p]sia a 8,kevir40 ,its surface dries1 b ! int]ior rema9s moi/4 ,z evaporation cont9ues x becomes ri*] 9 salt s t :ite cru/s ( ?is sub/ance are =m$ dur+ dry p]iods4 ,9 o!r di/ricts1 z 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,t>im ,riv]1 ! wat] occasionally appe>s 9 ! l[e/ p>ts1 ! s-call$ 8,bayirs0 7see ,fig4 #i71 =mations simil> to ! ,kevirs1 or 9 salt lakes betwe5 ! s& dunes4 ,s& c>ri$ by ! w9ds quickly fills ^! lakes s t !y too move 9 ! direction ( prevail+ w9ds4 ,!y lie ) _! longe/ dim5sions p>allel to ea* o!r & at "r angle to ! c\rse ( ! ,t>im ,riv]4 ,! sket* map tak5 f ,h$9's "w %[s ! ,bayirs /rung out 9 l9e ) ! lakes some:at l panels 9 a tape/ry patt]n4 ,?is reticulation ( ! l&scape is ! result ( ! dune =mations4 ,! ma9 dunes ) /eep we/]n slopes run 9 ! direction ,n4,n4,e4-,s4,s4,w4 ,!y /& at "r angle to ! prevail+ w9ds4 ,ne>ly p]p5dicul> to _! cre/ l9es dunes ( small] height are ?r[n up by w9ds 9 ano!r common direction b less frequ5t ?an ^? :i* rais$ ! fundam5tal dunes4 ,?is sy/em br+s to m9d ! cl\d =mations call$ mack]el sky1 cl\ds rippl$ 9 two directions frequ5tly almo/ at "r angle to ea* o!r4 ,!y owe _! peculi>ity to two s]ies ( wave motions propell$ by w9ds f two diff]5t directions 9 ! upp] /rata ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! cl\d pat*es correspond to ! wavecre/s on a surg+ sea4 ,! map ( ! ,bayirs sugge/s a *essbo>d ) squ>es some:at elongat$ & irregul>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,t>im riv] ) adjac5t lakes & ,bayirs1 drawn by ,sv5 ,h$94 7solid arr[7 ,pr$om9at+ direction ( w9ds4 7da%$ arr[7 ,direction 9 :i* ! riv] is %ift+4 7holl[ box7 ,vegetation4 7dott$ box7 ,s&4 7horizontal l9es 9 box7 ,lakes4 7v]tical l9es 9 box7 ,bayirs4 ,we may n[ return to a clos] /udy ( ! l>ge/ ( ^! =mations1 ! great ,kevir 9 ,p]sia4 ,?is mud-lake1 ) a dry surface1 measures #ejj km4 7#caj miles7 9 l5g? & #bjj km4 7#abd miles7 9 wid? ov] its l>ge/ dim5sions4 ,h$9 e/imates its area at #ee1jjj sq4 km4 7#ba1adb sq4 miles7 or ! same z t ( ! great ,lake ,mi*igan on ! b\nd>y betwe5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4 ,due to ! cont9u\s gr[? ( ! salt proportion ?r\gh ! infl[ ( ,kevirs & ?r\gh sup]ficial evaporation a salt cru/ ( v>y+ ?ickness is =m$ ne> ! surface ( ! lake4 ,h$9 caus$ a hole to be cut ) an iron b>4 ,he fir/ enc\nt]$ a #aj cm4 7#c4i 947 deep cov]+ ( clayey pa/e1 & !n ! salt cru/ ab\t #g cm4 7#b4h 947 ?ick re/+ on a semi-dry lay] ( clay ) a dep? ( #ae cm4 7#e4i 9474 ,f>!r bel[1 s(t] /rata ( clay foll[$1 becom+ m wat]y ! deep] he w5t4 ,! iron b> c>elessly wield$ w\ld h disappe>$ 9 ! mire4 ,ano!r inve/igator1 ,buhse1 exam9$ a piece ( ! cru/1 :i* :5 dry is fairly solid & ( a yell[i%-grey col\r4 ,"o half consi/$ ( s& 7probably qu>tz-s&71 "o six? ( lime/one1 #f4a p] c5t4 oxide ( iron 7caus+ ! yell[ col\r71 #e4c p] c5t4 common salt1 #b4e p] c5t4 sulphate ( sodium1 & #b4a p] c5t4 clay4 ,ra9 conv]ts ?is surface lay] into a pla/ic mass1 :i* p]si/5tly /icks to ! clo!s ( ! travell] or to ! bodies ( ! camels if !y %\ld slip & fall into ! mud4 ,n ! slighte/ trace ( vegetation or ( any life exi/s4 ,on ! %ore ( ! mud-lake small flat elevations & depressions may be f\nd2 o!rwise1 ! surface is z level z t ( an ord9>y lake4 ,! ,kevir battles ) ! drift+ s& z does ! wat] 9 ,ea/ ,turke/an4 ,! s& appe>s to ga9 9 ! conte/4 ,aft] /orms1 va/ portions ( ! ,kevir are cov]$ ) yell[ des]t s&4 8,if ! climatic *ange 9 ,p]sia cont9ues 9 ! pres5t direction10 says ,h$91 :o1 h[ev]1 is deal+ ) l>ge spans ( "t inasmu* z 9 8 op9ion no appreciable alt]ations h tak5 place s9ce ! invasions ( ,alex&] ! ,great1 8!n x may be tak5 = grant$ t ! sl\gh ( ! ,kevir w lose 9 moi/ure & afflux ( wat] & 9 "t w become m solid & t ! drift s& ) great] ease w ga9 foo?old & t]ritory4 ,! f9al outcome ( ! physico-geographical trans=mation n[ 9 progress w no d\bt be to conv]t ! entire ,kevir into a s& des]t ( ! k9d pr$om9at+ 9 ,ea/ ,turke/an4 ,& conv]sely we may inf] t ,ea/ ,turke/an1 once a "p ( ! c5tral ,asiatic ,m$it]ranean sea1 9 ! c\rse ( "t 0 fill$ ) ! f9ely divid$ products ( dis9tegration1 su* z we n[ f9d 9 ! ,kevir1 & fur!r t its expanse ( wat]y mud & clay f9ally dri$ & h>d5$ to su* an ext5t t x c\ld support ! load ( ! encroa*+ s&4 ,t ! ext5sion ( ! s& =m]ly 0 small]1 is also borne out by ! ar*ological discov]ies 9 ,ea/ ,turke/an :i* sev]al travell]s besides myself h made4 ,! h>dpan laid b>e 9 ! #8,bayirs' ( ! ,*]*5 des]t /rongly rem9ds ( ! ,kevir-gr\nd4 ,9 bo? cases ! same d>k1 f9e p[d] =m+ a ne>ly plane surface4 ,9 bo? cases ?is mat]ial :5 mix$ ) wat] is trans=m$ into a sl\gh 9 :i* "o hopelessly s9ks1 b 9 ,ea/ ,turke/an ! wat] has rec$$ to a great] dep? & z ra9s are extremely r>e travel all ov] ! smoo? #8,bayir'-gr\nd may be und]tak5 ) impunity40 ,^! =mations are ( ! greate/ int]e/ because !y picture ! *anges tak+ place on a sl[ly desiccat+ planet4 ,9 #aheh ! ,geographical ,society 9 ,petrograd despat*$ an exp$ition "u ! comm& ( ,khanik(f to visit ^! regions4 ,f ,h$9's "w1 ,ov]l& to ,india1 f :i* ! prec$+ quotation is tak51 we borr[ ! foll[+ vivid description by ,khanik(f3 8,at la/1 9 ! morn+ ( ,april f\r?1 & dur+ ! mo/ oppressive heat1 we rea*$ ,bala-haus4 ,at ?is place remnants ( a ru9$ res]voir1 long s9ce b]eft ( its wat]1 c\ld be se54 ,! des]t _h "h assum$ ! p]fect "* ( ! #8! accurs$ l&1' :i* "n x be>s among ! natives4 ,n ! smalle/ tuft ( grass1 n a sign ( animal life gladd5$ ! eye1 n a s\nd int]rupt$ ! dea?like1 awful sil5ce b t ( ! m>*+ c>avan4 8,because ( ! sl[ procession ( ! camels & ! delay suff]$ :5 we lo/ our way1 we only cov]$ #be km4 7#ae4e miles7 9 ! night /age4 ,aft] f\r h\rs' re/ we resum$ our m>* & direct$ our /eps t[>d ! hills1 call$ ,kellehp] & situat$ #bj km4 7#ab4e miles7 f ,bala-haus2 !y 7 pla9ly visible b positively seem$ to take flight on our approa*4 ,i 0 some:at ahead ( ! c>avan & sat d[n at ! foot ( ?is s&-elevation2 & nev] c ,i describe ! feel+ ( we>9ess & ( depression t ,i 0 unable to w>d (f z ,i look$ into ! gha/ly solitude t engulf$ me4 ,scatt]$ cl\ds int]cept$ ! rays ( ! sun1 b ! air 0 hot & heavy2 ! diffus$ light l5t a monoton\s & disconsolat+ hue to ! greyi%1 burn+ surface ( ! des]t2 h>dly a s+le v>iation ( col\r gave relief to ! imm5se expanses t ! vision embrac$4 ,! absolute immobility ( e po9t 9 ?is m\rnful l&scape1 comb9$ ) ! complete abs5ce ( any s\nd1 produc$ an ov]:elm+ depression ( ! _s2 "o felt z set ^u a place t _h be5 /ruck inanimate = ev]1 a place to :i* organic life w\ld nev] return safe ?r\gh "s t]rible cata/rophe ( nature4 ,"o witness$ ! beg9n+1 s to speak1 ( ! dea?-agony ( our planet40 ,if a dry+ out has tak5 place 9 ^! regions1--:i* seems probable f ,h$9's obs]vation t ! wat] 9 a ,tibet lake1 ,lakk]-tso1 =m]ly rea*$ a #acc m4 7#dce ft47 high] level ?an at pres5t1--su* a process is nev]!less n s obvi\s "h z 9 ! salt inl& lakes1 = in/ance ! ,great ,salt ,lake 9 ,utah1 ! ,dead ,sea1 & ! ,caspian ,sea1 :]e ! saltness has greatly increas$ due to evaporation4 ,conc]n+ ! ,great ,salt ,lake we "k t ev5 at a comp>atively late "t x _h a mu* wid] ext5sion ?an n[4 ,its wat] conta9s #bb p] c5t4 common salt besides o!r comp\nds4 ,! ,dead ,sea holds #be p] c5t4 salt4 ,a v v>iable p]c5tage is to be f\nd 9 ! ,caspian ,sea4 ,ne> ! m\? ( ! ,volga x is ( c\rse l[1 only #j4ae1 & increases s\?w>d to #a4cb at ! p59sula ,ap%]on & to #e4fc 9 ! bay ( ,kaidak4 ,9 ! gulf ( ,k>aboghaz on ! ,asiatic side x rea*es #bh4e p] c5t4 ,x has be5 comput$ t ?is gulf receives annually f ! inru%+ wat]s ( ! ,caspian ,sea #cej1jjj tons ( salt :i* is p>tly deposit$ on its %ores & bottom4 ,?is desiccation1 h[ev]1 is a m]e trifle :5 contra/$ ) ! process by :i* ! mighty salt deposits 9 ,g]many 7 =m$4 ,x took place1 we believe1 9 a %all[ bay ext5d+ s\?w>d f ! ,arctic ,sea4 ,z ! salts1 fir/ gypsum1 !n common salt1 & la/ly m soluble potassium & magnesium comp\nds1 cry/alliz$ by degrees new wat] masses ent]$ f ! sea4 ,at ! same "t1 ! bottom ( ! gulf sl[ly rec$$1 giv+ room = fre% evaporat+ floods4 ,! salt lay]s deposit$ 9 ?is mann] sometimes rea* a dep? ( m ?an #ajjj m4 7ab\t "o half a mile74 ,we c ?us ga9 a conception ( ! imm5se quantities ( wat] evaporat$ & ! enorm\s "t requir$ !re=4 ,! deposits w\ld long ago h be5 c>ri$ away f _! orig9al place 7 x n = ! fact t !y f9ally 7 cov]$ ) a lay] ( slime ne>ly imp]vi\s to wat]4 ,! mo/ soluble salts1 su* z *loride ( magnesium1 h nev]!less be5 extract$ to a great ext5t4 ,! extremes ( aridity or humidity h ( c\rse n occurr$ dur+ ! brief "t kn[n to hi/ory4 ,( a special int]e/ is ! "q 9 :at direction ! climate at pres5t is t5d+4 ,9 ?is connection1 ,hunt+ton has ar\s$ great att5tion by prop\nd+ ! !ory t ! e>? is n[ 9 a p]iod ( rapid desiccation4 ,judg+ by ! te/imony ( geology1 x seems beyond d\bt t an age ( humidity prevail$ simultane\sly ) ! ice-p]iod 9 nor!rn ,europe1 ov] sev]al p>ts ( ! globe1 9 fact ev]y:]e z f> z we "k except 9 ,au/ralia4 ,?is is cle>ly borne out by ! high] levels ( ! lakes & _! consequ5t great] ext5sion 9 e>li] days4 ,s f> z ,tibet & ,c5tral ,asia are conc]n$ we h already m5tion$ ?is fact4 ,b 9 ,am]ica & ,africa ! humid p]iod 0 ev5 m pat5t4 ,! ,great ,salt ,lake has cov]$ an area _m times great] ?an at pres5t z te/ify ! picturesque t]races 9 its surr\nd+s 7comp>e ,fig4 #aj74 ,accord+ to ! rese>*es by ,passage1 ?is p]iod 0 also /rongly pron\nc$ 9 ,africa4 ,a l>ge fre%-wat] body occupi$ ! ,congo bas91 ! ,tsad lake _h a f> great] expansion ?an n[1 & mighty riv]s trav]s$ ,sah>a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,ext5sion ( ! great ,lake ,bonneville 9 ,utah1 ( :i* ! ,great ,salt ,lake is a remnant4 ,x is (t5 assum$ t ! climate ( ,africa has be5 m humid ev5 9 hi/oric times4 ,! geograph] ,leo ,b]g 9 ,petrograd1 h[ev]1 is emphatically oppos$ to ?is !ory4 ,he po9ts out t ! writ]s ( antiquity1 ,diodoros1 ,polybios1 & ,pausanias1 h giv5 descriptions ( ! riv]s on ! ,nor? ,african coa/ :i* ne>ly agree ) conditions today4 ,! location ( two anci5t cities on ! %ores ( ,lake ,*ott-el-,dj]id 9 ,tunis 7,lacus ,tritonis ( old71 :i* lake1 x is claim$1 rea*$ a level v mu* high] ?an n[ #ejj ye>s ,b4,c41 pla9ly demon/rates t ! %ore-l9e !n ran v close to its pres5t position4 ,/ud5ts ( anci5t ,egypt are unable to f9d evid5ce ( any di/9ct diff]5ce 9 ! climate ( t c\ntry f ! e>lie/ times to our days4 ,x is true t m>%es 9 ! ,nile delta h *ang$ into spl5did mead[s--b ?is is ! "w ( man4 ,! humid p]iod mu/ h end$ long be=e hi/ory comm5c$4 ,a few ( ! old writ]s1 su* z ,h]odotos1 ,ari/ophanes1 & ,philo1 ass]t t ra9 nev] falls 9 ,egypt1 b ?is mu/ be class$ z an exagg]ation :5 contra/$ ) ref]5ces to ra91 sn[1 & hail 9 ?is section made by o!r anci5t au?ors1 = in/ance ,plut>*1 ,pl9y1 & lianus4 ,at any rate x seems z if precipitation 0 z r>e an occurr5ce 9 ! l& ( ! ,ph>aohs z 9 ! l& ( ! ,nile ( today4 ,aga9/ ! /atem5t by ,hunt+ton t ! climate ( ,pale/9e has become v mu* m torrid dur+ hi/oric times1 /&s ! ass]tion by ,hild]s*eid1 :o has made a ?or\gh /udy ( ^! que/ions1 t no reason :atev] exi/s = su* a conclusion4 ,( greate/ int]e/ to u 9 ?is connection are p]haps ,italy & ,greece4 ,hunt+ton believes t ! riv] ,alpheios1 :i* flood$ ,olympia & cov]$ x ) a #d m4 to #e m4 7#d or #e y>ds7 ?ick s$im5t1 c>ri$ a f> great] volume ( wat] =m]ly ?an today4 ,?is flood1 h[ev]1 0 caus$ by an e>?quake accompani$ by a fall ( rocks :]eby ! riv] 0 damm$4 ,!re is no necessity = assum+ a great] abundance ( ! wat]fl[4 ,accord+ to ,/rabo1 ! /reams ,kefissos & ,ilissos1 betwe5 :i* ,a!ns is situat$1 dri$ out dur+ ! summ] !n z !y d n[4 ,if we are to believe ,pausanias1 ! brooks :i* trav]s$ ! ,argive pla9 behav$ simil>ly1 & s !y behave today4 ,f all we c judge1 ! climate ( ,greece has n *ang$ p]ceptibly s9ce ! days ( ,hom]4 ,9 reg>d to ,sicily1 x is /at$ t sev]al ( its riv]s 7 navigable 9 ! ,middle ,age1 :ile su* is n ! case n[4 ,b ?is is expla9$ by ! deva/ation ( ! =e/s :i* =m]ly equaliz$ ! fl[ ( ^! riv]s1 & p]haps also by ! size ( ! vessels ( t "t4 ,cultivation 9 ^! regions has %>ply decl9$ s9ce antiquity4 ,z a consequ5ce1 ! loose soil1 :i* =m]ly 0 plant$1 has be5 wa%$ away & ! dams & reta9+ walls1 built to prev5t a too rapid dra9 ( ! wat]1 h disappe>$4 ,?us ! c\ntry has gr[n increas+ly arid4 ,l>ge cities1 z ,palmyra1 exi/$ 9 des]t regions :]e lack ( wat] n[ prev5ts habitation4 ,b wat] 0 br\ght to ! metropolitan cities ( old ?r\gh long magnific5t aqu$ucts1 ! ru9s ( :i* p>tly rema9 today4 ,we h all reasons to believe t ! m>k$ decrease 9 cultivation & population1 laid to *anges 9 conditions ( humidity1 dep5d$ altoge!r on man's int]f]5ce ) nature4 ,on c]ta9 rocks 9 ,morocco1 c>v+s h be5 f\nd portray+ 9 a simple way l>ge mammals su* z elephants1 rh9oc]oses1 & giraffes1 :i* d n exi/ 9 ^! regions n[ because ( lack ( n\ri%m5t4 ,b ^! r\gh works ( art1 resembl+ ^? ( ! bu%m5 ( today1 date f prehi/oric "t1 ! s-call$ paleoli?ic era1 :5 ! climate admitt$ly 0 m humid 9 ^! regions ?an x is n[4 ,simil> conditions obta91 accord+ to ,h$91 9 ,c5tral ,asia & 9 ,p]sia4 ,! climate !re has )\t d\bt be5 m humid b n 9 hi/oric times4 ,! m>* ( ,alex&] t[>d ,india took place "u z adv]se conditions z n[ are f\nd 9 ^! regions 7,balu*i/an74 ,_! cities1 n[ 9 ru9s1 receiv$ _! wat] supply ?r\gh conduits f riv]s "s ( :i* 7 !n adjac5t to ! cities1 al?\gh !y lat] h *ang$ _! c\rse z po9t$ out by ,leo ,b]g4 ,9 ,we/]n & ,c5tral ,europe num]\s m>%es & morasses h inde$ be5 dra9$ & r5d]$ available = cultivation1 b ?is does n prove t ! climate is become m dry4 ,on ! contr>y all obs]vations1 = in/ance ^? made by ,ty*o ,brahe on ! isl& ,hv51 indicate t ! diff]5ce betwe5 summ] & w9t] temp]ature has decreas$ dur+ hi/oric "t2 t is ! climate is become less cont95tal1 or m humid1 ?an =m]ly4 ,fur!rmore1 _m circum/ances1 su* z ! occurr5ce ( hazel & ( wat] *e/nut 9 f> m nor!rly latitudes & ! high] altitude ( ! timb] l9e 9 e>li] "t1 prove t ! summ] 9 prehi/oric ages 0 w>m] ?an n[4 ,simultane\sly x 0 dry]4 ,a /udy ( ! lacu/r9e pile dwell+s 9 ,switz]l& %[s t ! levels ( ! lakes !n 7 n high] ?an n[ b v ne>ly ! same1 :i* demon/rates t ! precipitation has n *ang$ p]ceptibly 9 ,switz]l& s9ce ^! build+s 7 made2 ! p]iod 9 "q occurr$1 we believe1 ab\t #gjjj ye>s ago4 ,:ile great climatic *anges h tak5 place s9ce man's fir/ appe>ance on e>?1 presumably be=e ! end ( ! ice p]iod1 hi/oric "t is too %ort to record any di/9ct modifications4 ,local ones may be 9 evid5ce su* z ,we/ ,europe's transition to a less cont95tal climate4 ,a v>iation ( ?is nature has be5 f\nd n long] back ?an s9ce !rmometrical obs]vations comm5c$4 ,?us ! w9t]s 9 ,b]l9 dur+ ! p]iod #agdf-ahdg 7 cold] & ! summ]s w>m] ?an dur+ #ahdh-aijg4 ,! diff]5ce = ,janu>y am\nt$ to -#a4e ,c4 7-#b4g ,f47 & = ,may to #j4f ,c4 7#a4jh ,f474 ,! tabulation bel[1 quot$ f ,ekholm1 %[s ! mean temp]ature 9 ,/ockholm1 ,lund1 ,london1 & ,p>is1 dur+ w9t] 7,decemb]-,febru>y71 spr+ 7,m>*-,may71 summ] 7,june-,augu/71 & autumn 7,septemb]-,novemb]7 & = ! foll[+ p]iods3 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,/ockholm ,lund ------------------------------------- #agii- #ahdi- #agec- #agii- #ahdh #ahih #agih #ahih ---------------------------------------- -- ,w9t] #be4e ,f4#bf4h ,f4#cj4b ,f4#cj4i ,f4 -#c4f ,c4 -#b4i ,c4 -#a4j ,c4-#j4f ,c4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,spr+ #cg4i ,f4 #cg4i ,f4 #da4b ,f4#da4e ,f4 #c4c ,c4 #c4c ,c4 #e4a ,c4 #e4c ,c4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,summ] #fj ,f4 #fj ,f4 #fa ,f4#fj4b ,f4 #ae4f ,c4 #ae4f ,c4 #af4a ,c4#ae4g ,c4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,autumn #dc4i ,f4 #dc4e ,f4 #de4i ,f4#de4i ,f4 #f4f ,c4 #f4d ,c4 #g4g ,c4 #g4g ,c4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,ye> #da4i ,f4 #db4a ,f4 #dd4f ,f4#dd4f ,f4 #e4e ,c4 #e4f ,c4 #g4j ,c4 #g4j ,c4 ---------------------------------------- -- ---------------------------------------- - ,london ,p>is ---------------------------------- #agii- #ahdi- #ahjf- #ahdi- #ahdh #ahih #ahdh #ahih --------------------------------------- ,w9t] #ch4e ,f4#ci4b ,f4#cg4i ,f4#cg4i ,f4 #c4f ,c4 #d4j ,c4 #c4c ,c4 #c4c ,c4 --------------------------------------- ,spr+ #dh4b ,f4 #dh ,f4#ej4e ,f4#ej4c ,f4 #i4j ,c4 #h4i ,c4#aj4c ,c4#aj4b ,c4 --------------------------------------- ,summ] #fa4i ,f4#fb4b ,f4#fd4f ,f4#fd4h ,f4 #af4f ,c4#af4h ,c4#ah4a ,c4#ah4b ,c4 --------------------------------------- ,autumn #ej4g ,f4#ej4e ,f4#ed4b ,f4#ea4h ,f4 #aj4d ,c4#aj4c ,c4#aa4c ,c4#aa4j ,c4 --------------------------------------- ,ye> #i4h ,f4 #ej ,f4#ea4c ,f4#ea4c ,f4 #i4i ,c4#aj4j ,c4#aj4g ,c4#aj4g ,c4 --------------------------------------- ,! diff]5ce is n great4 ,= ,/ockholm ! w9t] has gr[n w>m]1 ! autumn cold]1 = ,london ! w9t] w>m] & s slightly also ! summ]1 b spr+ & autumn a trifle cold]1 & = ,p>is ! summ] a little w>m] :ile ! autumn is consid]ably cold]4 ,lund %[s ! lea/ v>iation4 ,! w9t] has gr[n #j4d ,c4 7#j4gb ,f47 w>m] & ! summ] cold] by ! same am\nt4 ,! annual mean rema9s ne>ly con/ant1 only slightly increas$1 b ! climate is become m m>9e4 7,?is is h>dly app>5t f ! figures cit$ z f> z ,p>is is conc]n$47 ,f ,ty*o ,brahe's obs]vations ( ! numb] ( days :5 sn[ or ra9 fell 9 ! place :]e 8 obs]vatory 0 situat$ on ! isl& ,hv5 9 resund n f> f ,cop5hag51 ,ekholm has calculat$ t ! temp]ature !re dur+ ! "t #aehb-aeig 0 #a4d ,c4 7#b4e ,f47 l[] 9 ,febru>y & #a ,c4 7#a4h ,f47 l[] 9 ,m>* ?an 9 lat] ye>s 7#ahha-ahif74 ,on ! o!r h& ! fir/ autumn fro/ occurr$ at ! same "t z n[ & ! same 0 ! case ) ! la/ fro/ 9 spr+1 s t ! temp]atures on ^! dates 9 autumn & spr+ 7 ne>ly id5tical at ! end ( ! sixte5? c5tury & n[4 ,ekholm drew ! conclusion t ! climate is become m m>9e4 ,hildebr&son makes ! objection t ,ty*o ,brahe's obs]vations 7 conf9$ to an abnormally cold p]iod judg+ by ! tables ,spe]s*neid] has prep>$ %[+ ! ice =mation 9 ,dani% navigable wat]s4 ,n9e out ( ! sixte5 ye>s 9 :i* ,ty*o ,brahe ga!r$ 8 data 7 notable = abnormally cold w9t]s1 :ile only n9ete5 out ( ! hundr$ ye>s compos+ ! sixte5? c5tury 7 *>act]iz$ by equally sev]e w9t]s4 ,?us1 ! conclusion is n w>rant$ t ! w9t]s ( ! sixte5? c5tury z a :ole av]ag$ cold] ?an ^? ( ! n9ete5?4 ,lat] inve/igations 79 #aiag7 9 reg>d to ! dates :5 ! ice w\ld break up 9 ,lake ,ml> at ,ve/]s1 9 ,neva ,riv] at ,petrograd1 & 9 ,dw9a ,riv] at ,riga1 h l$ ,ekholm to believe t he has f\nd a p]iodicity 9 w9t] temp]atures ( n less ?an #bab ye>s1 a conclusion :i* w\ld agree ) ,spe]s*neid]'s /ati/ics4 ,if s1 we are at pres5t liv+ 9 a p]iod rem>kable = its mild w9t]s :ile a s]ies ( extremely sev]e w9t] seasons occurr$ at ! "t ( ,ty*o ,brahe4 ,?is law w\ld also h a be>+ on ! prec$+ table ( temp]atures 9 ,/ockholm1 ,lund1 ,london1 & ,p>is z a succession ( sev]e w9t]s came ar\nd 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury :ile ! rev]se is true t[>ds its end4 ,on ! :ole climatic v>iations dur+ hi/oric "t h be5 insignificant1 if pres5t at all1 provid$ we ext5d our comp>isons ov] two or m c5turies4 ,su* is also ! op9ion ( ,hildebr&son4 ,! idea ( a sl[ det]ioration ( ! climate due to increas+ desiccation is ( old l9eage & is mo/ likely relat$ to ! v5]able conception ( a bygone gold5 age4 ,ari/otle ev5 at t e>ly date believ$ t a gradual arefaction ( ! ,e>? took place4 ,9 rec5t times ?is fai? has be5 p>ticul>ly fo/]$ by ,hunt+ton 9 a numb] ( treatises :]e he endeav\rs to prove t ,asia1 repres5t$ = in/ance by ,pale/9e1 ,syria1 & ,p]sia1 & fur!r ,africa & ,nor? ,am]ica are subject to a rapid exsiccation cle>ly traceable ?r\gh hi/oric "t4 ,! contr>y1 h[ev]1 is true ab\t ,we/]n ,europe4 ,x 0 (t5 said t ,s\!rn ,russia 9 rec5t times suff]$ a sl[ arefaction manife/+ itself 9 ! =mation ( /eppes4 ,?is l$ to c>eful inve/igations %[+ ! ass]tion to be errone\s & culm9at+ 9 ! "w ( ,leo ,b]g4 ,r1 a slight %ift+ 9 ! opposite direction is detectable z ! =e/ region has exp&$ at ! exp5se ( ! /eppes 9 con=mity ) ! developm5t t[>d ! end ( prehi/oric "t4 ,! r5[n$ ,am]ican a/ronom]1 ! late ,dr4 ,l[ell1 embrac$ ! idea ( increas+ aridity :i* he obs]v$ himself 9 ,arizona :]e 8 obs]vatory is locat$4 ,! dry+ out ( ,arizona und\bt$ly took place 9 long bygone prehi/oric "t4 ,! disappe>ance ( a high culture 9 ,syria & ,mesopotamia 0 ! result ( ho/ile deva/ation ( _! wat]works2 a comp5sation is n[ (f]$ 9 ! reclamation ( ! des]ts along ! ,nile1 9 ,cali=nia & ,arizona1 & 9 num]\s o!r places4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,atmosph]e ,,& ,,physics ,,( ,,! ,,/ell> ,,bodies ,9 a c]ta9 s5se1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 speak+ ( an atmosph]e ( suns & />s4 ,^! bodies consi/ ma9ly ( a comp>atively d5se mass surr\nd$ by a lay] ( v att5uat$ gas4 ,! d5sity ( our ,sun is ab\t #a4d times t ( wat]4 ,9 o!r />s x is consid]ably l[]1 9 "s cases only a few hundr$?s ( ! d5sity ( wat]4 ,?is applies p>ticul>ly to ^? />s ( v>iable magnitude1 ! ,cepheid type1 nam$ aft] _! longe/ & be/ kn[n repres5tative1 ! my/]i\s /> ,delta 9 ! con/ellation ,cepheus1 & 9 g5]al to "y />s4 ,9 any case ! />s are gase\s ?r\gh\t on acc\nt ( _! high temp]ature4 ,an exception mu/ be made = ! cl\ds ( matt] precipitat$ by easily cond5s$ vap\rs1 su* z gase\s c>bon1 :i* cl\ds float 9 ! out] /rata1 & are responsible = ! bright a/ral light4 ,! />s j m5tion$ belong to ! comp>atively "y /ell> bodies1 :ile ! ,sun 9 common ) o!r yell[ />s is consid]ably old]4 ,correlat$ ) _! age is und\bt$ly ! great] mean d5sity ( ! yell[ />s4 ,ar\nd _m ( ! "y />s1 = in/ance ar\nd ! brilliant ,altair1 ! pr9cipal memb] ( ! con/ellation ,aquila1 a gas %ell ( great expansion has be5 obs]v$1 usually consi/+ ( hydrog5 b frequ5tly also ( helium4 ,^! ext5sive gas app5dages may be consid]$ z a k9d ( atmosph]e surr\nd+ ! />s 9 "q4 ,_! d5sity is no d\bt exce$+ly small4 ,our own c5tral orb1 ! ,sun1 is also end[$ ) r>efi$ gases outside ( ! lum9\s cl\ds4 ,by _! absorption ( light !y cause ! d>k l9es 9 ! ,sun's spectrum1 aft] _! discov]] nam$ ,fraunh(] l9es4 ,! greate/ height f ! surface ( ! ,sun is rea*$ by hydrog51 mix$ ) a small quantity ( helium & ) a gas1 unkn[n on ,e>?1 :i* we call coronium because x has be5 obs]v$ 9 ! ,sun's corona4 ,^! gases may be look$ ^u z ! atmosph]e ( ! ,sun4 ,simil> conditions obta9 no d\bt on ! major planets1 :i* possess a d5sity n ess5tially diff]5t f t ( ! ,sun4 ,!y h1 moreov]1 practically ! same p]iod ( revolution ar\nd _! own axis1 ,jupit] #i4i h\rs1 ,saturn #aj4c1 & ,uranus 7probably7 #aj4h h\rs4 ,judg+ by _! d5sity1 !y are1 9 all probability1 l ! ,sun1 gase\s ?r\gh\t except = ! heavy cl\d =mations :i* appe> to con/itute ! out] limit ( ^! /ell> bodies4 ,_! int]ior1 l t ( ! ,sun1 may conta9 comp>atively sluggi% gas-masses1 z c]ta9 peculi> pat*es appe> on _! ext]ior1 simil> to ! sunspots & p]si/+ = long int]vals1 sometimes ov] a ye>4 ,! be/ kn[n example ( ! k9d is ! s-call$ r$ spot on ,jupit]1 :i* has rema9$ s9ce #ahgh1 al?\gh x is n s pron\nc$ n[ z dur+ its e>ly days 7see ,fig4 #aa74 ,*>act]i/ic = ^! planets are c]ta9 b&s ( a m>k$ del9eation & runn+ p>allel ) ! equator 7see ,figs4 #aa & #ab74 ,!y are caus$ by ! rapid p]iph]al motion ( ^! planets1 ) ,jupit] #bh & ) ,saturn #bd times t ( ! ,e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,! planet ,jupit] 9 #aiji 9 ,m]cator's projection by ,f4 le ,c\ltre ( ,g5eva4 ,! 8r$ spot0 ov] :i* ! cl\ds are disp]s$1 is f\nd at #cee ,long4 & #bj ,s4 ,lat4 9 ! outcurv+ ( ! d>k b&4 ,s\? direction is upw>d1 z on all pictures obta9$ ) a/ronomical tubes4 ,:i* gases %\ld we expect to f9d 9 ! atmosph]e ( ^! planets8 ,accord+ to ! ,kant-,laplace hypo!sis1 a !ory g5]ally cr$it$ ) a s\nd k]nel1 ! planets 7 segregat$ f ! ,sun's sub/ance at a "t :5 ! latt] 0 exp&$ s z to include ! orbits ( ^! planets & beyond4 ,naturally1 !re=e1 _! atmosph]es w\ld orig9ally be compos$ ( ! v gases t =m$ ! outmo/ "p ( ! ,sun's atmosph]e1 notably hydrog54 ,sliph]1 :o has photograph$ ! spectra "h reproduc$ ( ! out] planets1 believes t c]ta9 /rong absorption b&s 9 ! spectra ( ,neptune & ,uranus correspond to ! di/9ctive ,f & ,c l9es ( hydrog51 us+ ,fraunh(]'s d5otation 7see ,fig4 #ac74 ,b because ! b&s 9 "q1 z %[n on ! figure1 are v broad x is difficult to id5tify !m ) c]ta9ty4 ,also o!r gases ( unkn[n orig9 ent] into ! vap\r envelopes outside ( ! cl\ds & cause1 z app>5t f _! spectra1 a /rong absorption ( ! sunlight reflect$ f ! cl\ds bel[4 ,! absorption increases ) ! planet's di/ance f ! ,sun2 ?us1 x is mo/ pron\nc$ on ,neptune & lea/ on ,jupit]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,! appe>ance ( ,saturn ,septemb] #cj1 #aiji1 accord+ to ,f4 le ,c\ltre ( ,g5eva4 ,at any rate1 ! gas app5dages ( ! heav5ly bodies j consid]$ diff] 9 "o ess5tial respect f ! atmosph]es ( ! inn] planets3 ,m>s1 ,e>?1 ,v5us1 & ,m]cury4 ,on ! ,sun & on ! out] planets ! atmosph]e gradually m]ges into ! int]ior gas-masses s t no di/9ct b\nd>y c be f\nd betwe5 ! r>] & ! d5s] lay]s4 ,widely diff]5t conditions obta9 on ! ,e>?4 ,"h ! range ( air is %>ply def9$ bel[ by ! ,e>?'s solid cru/ or by ! oceans4 ,9 su* case alone may we speak ( an atmosph]e prop]1 ( ! k9d t ent]s into our commonplace conceptions4 ,simil> are ! conditions on all /ell> bodies ) a solid or a liquid surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,spectra ( ! major planets1 comp>$ ) t ( ! moon4 ,! latt] corresponds to ! spectrum ( sunlight reflect$ f a planet :i* lacks a light-absorb+ atmosph]e4 ,photos by ,v4 ,m4 ,sliph] ( ! ,l[ell ,obs]vatory4 ,b x is n c]ta9 9 e case t all su* planets possess an atmosph]e4 ,obs]vations ( ! ,moon :5 pass+ "s /> %[ t ! air envelope1 if pres5t1 is unable to deflect ! light beam f ! />1 or 9 o!r words x has no p]ceptible p[] ( refraction4 ,f ?is we also inf] t its d5sity is v small1 correspond+ at mo/ to "o or two mm4 74#jd to 4#jh in*es7 b>ometric pressure4 ,b we h good reasons to believe t ! ,moon has be5 deta*$ f ! ,e>?1 c>ry+ away p>ts ( its lighte/ sub/ance1 :i* !ory is support$ by ! fact t ! ,moon's mean d5sity 7#c4c7 is only six-t5?s ( ! ,e>?'s 7:i* aga9 is #e4ec times t ( wat]71 & we might !re=e h expect$ t ! ,moon 9 p>t+ %\ld h %>$ 9 ! v lighte/ con/itu5ts ( ! ,e>?1 namely its air-cov]+4 ,su* 0 unque/ionably ! actual proc$ure1 b 9 ! c\rse ( "t ! ,moon has lo/ its orig9ally no d\bt consid]able atmosph]e4 ,! reason is t ! molecules 9 a gas are 9 a cont9u\s rapid motion1 :i* is ! swift] ! light] ! gas & ! high] its temp]ature4 ,9 hydrog51 ! lighte/ gas kn[n1 ! velocity am\nts to #a4hd km4 7#a4ae miles7 p] second at #j ,c4 7#cb ,f474 ,! p>ts ( ! ,moon expos$ to ! /ronge/ sunlight are heat$ to ab\t #aej ,c4 7#cjj ,f474 ,at t temp]ature1 ! av]age velocity ( hydrog5 molecules is #b4bi km4 7#a4dc miles7 p] second4 ,b a body dep>t+ f ! surface ( ! ,moon at a rate ( #b km4 7#a4bd miles7 p] second1 or m1 _c be reta9$ by ! attraction ( t globe & !re=e nev] retraces its pa? b spe$s away = ev]4 ,9 ! same mann] a bullet eject$ f a cannon ) an initial velocity ( #aa4b km4 7#g miles7--a velocity n ev5 approa*$ by pres5t artill]y--w\ld fly away f ,e>? b>r+ ! resi/ance ( ! air4 ,?us we see t we z yet are f> f ! realization ( ! dreams ( ,jules ,v]ne 9 8 ,a ,voyage to ! ,moon4 ,at any rate1 gravity on ! ,moon is too weak to reta9 hydrog5 ov] ! hotte/ po9t ( ! surface4 ,?is "p ( ! gas flies away1 new supplies ru% 9 f ! sides1 & 9 a %ort "t all traces ( hydrog5 h disappe>$ f ! ,moon4 ,probably x 0 ma9ly ga!r$ 9 by ! ,sun1 :]e a velocity ( #fac km4 7#chj miles7 p] second is necess>y if ! molecules are to ov]come ! ,sun's attraction1 :ile _! actual velocity !re am\nts to only ab\t #h km4 7#e miles7 p] second4 ,9 a simil> mann] we f9d t ! second lighte/ gas1 helium1 at a temp]ature ( #aej ,c4 7#cjj ,f471 possesses a molecul> velocity ( #a4fb km4 7#a4a miles7 p] second4 ,?is is less ?an ! #b km4 7#a4bd miles7 p] second necess>y to leave ! ,moon's sph]e ( attraction4 ,b all helium molecules d n move at ! same spe$2 "s are fa/] & "s sl[] ?an ! av]age4 ,^? mov+ at a high] rate ?an #b km4 7#a4bd miles7 p] second con/itute a consid]able fraction ( ! total4 ,?is fraction disappe>s4 ,equilibrium is soon re/or$ s t 9 less ?an a second ! same fraction ( helium molecules is ready to dep>t4 ,9 ?is mann] ! ,moon lo/ its helium atmosph]e spe$ily1 al?\gh n q z rapidly z its hydrog54 ,m sl[ly yet vani%$ ! gases :i* are mo/ abundant 9 our atmosph]e1 nitrog5 & oxyg51 b ^! too 7 n fett]$ = ev] by ! limit$ gravity on ! ,moon4 ,! same fate befell aque\s vap\r1 :i* is ne>ly twice z light z oxyg54 ,! loss ( wat]1 h[ev]1 0 long delay$1 z we lat] %all le>n1 because new vap\r masses 7 dis*>g$ f ! lun> volcanoes4 ,9 ^! consid]ations1 we %\ld also be> 9 m9d t ! ,moon no d\bt 0 a fluid molt5 mass :5 sep>at+ f ! ,e>? & its sub/ance resembl$ ! lava f our volcanoes4 ,9 ?is condition x rema9$ until its ext]ior temp]ature _h fall5 to ab\t #abjj ,c4 7#bbjj ,f474 ,at t po9t1 ! av]age velocity ( oxyg5 molecules is ab\t #a km4 74#fb mile7 p] second1 ) v>iations 9 bo? directions1 s t a few p] c5t4 ( !m rea* a suffici5t velocity to leave ! ,moon = ev]4 ,su* gas molecules ( m$ium weight return probably to ! ,e>? :i*1 z exp]i5ce tells u1 is pond]\s en\gh to hold !m 9 bonds4 ,all gases1 t con/itute any consid]able fraction ( ! ,e>?'s atmosph]e1 & :i*1 !re=e1 mo/ likely 7 divid$ ) ! ,moon 9 its p>t+ f u1 h aga9 left t globe4 ,! same unque/ionably holds true = o!r /ell> bodies ( equal or small] size1 su* z all ! m9or planets & = ! great majority ( ! satellites to ! major ones4 ,only ! v l>ge/ ( ,jupit]'s moons1 & possibly ,neptune's lonely companion1 ^: size is n kn[n ) c]ta9ty1 might possibly surpass our ,moon 9 ability to reta9 gases4 ,our reason+ ) respect to ! ,moon applies also to ,m]cury4 ,x is true t ! molecules !re mu/ possess a velocity "o & a half times z high z on ! ,moon if !y are to leave ! planet4 ,b at ! same "t ! temp]ature on ,m]cury's hotte/ po9t1 always turn$ t[>d ! ,sun1 is f> high]1 ab\t #djj ,c4 7#gej ,f471 s t ! molecules !re move #a4bf times z fa/ z simil> molecules ov] ! ,moon's hotte/ po9t4 ,m]cury is consequ5tly bett] able ?an ! ,moon to reta9 gases1 b ! diff]5ce is slight4 ,direct obs]vations 7see bel[7 also lead u to believe t ,m]cury is v simil> to ! ,moon 9 ^! respects4 ,we might possibly imag9e t c]ta9 gases1 :i* on ! ,moon w\ld cond5se into fluids or solids1 on ,m]cury might rema9 volatiliz$ on acc\nt ( ! high temp]ature & ?us =m an atmosph]e4 ,su* assumption1 h[ev]1 w\ld be errone\s4 ,! inve/igations by ,s*iap>elli & by all 8 successors %[ t ,m]cury 9 turn+ ar\nd its axis always pres5ts ! selfsame side to ! ,sun4 ,! opposite side1 nev] rea*$ by a ray ( sunlight1 mu/ assume an extremely l[ temp]ature1 v close to ! absolute z]o 7-#bgc4g ,c4 or -#dfj4f ,f47 & f> bel[ any cold exi/+ on ! ,moon4 ,to ?is side1 all bodies ) an appreciable vap\r pressure mu/ di/il & freeze to solid lumps or fro/-cov]+s )\t p]ceptible vap\r pressure4 ,= ^! reasons1 ,m]cury _c possess any atmosph]e to speak (4 ,!re rema9 9 ! :ole s]ies ( planets & satellites 9 our sol> sy/em only two bodies besides ! ,e>? :i* are end[$ ) an atmosph]e 9 ! orig9al s5se ( ! ^w--namely1 ,m>s & ,v5us4 ,we rea* ! same conclusion :5 inve/igat+ ! ability ( ! planets to reflect ! sunlight fall+ ^u !m4 ,! bodies :i* possess an atmosph]e hold also susp5d$ !re9 cl\ds ( wat] or ice1 & also ( du/1 :irl$ up f bel[4 ,^! float+ p>ticles reflect light f> m effici5tly ?an ! solid or fluid surface ( a planet4 ,! ,moon c n[ reflect #g4c p] c5t4 ( ! sunlight & ,m]cury #f4i p] c5t4 7,h4 ,n4 ,russell1 ,proce$+s ,nat4 ,acad41 #aiaf74 ,^! numb]s lie s close t !y may be consid]$ practically ! same )9 errors ( obs]vation4 ,x is !re=e probable t ,m]cury is z devoid ( an atmosph]e z ! ,moon4 ,! opposite extreme is repres5t$ by ,v5us1 :i* reflects n less ?an #ei p] c5t4 ( ! sunlight receiv$1 accord+ to ,h4 ,n4 ,russell4 ,t]re/rial cl\ds 7 f\nd by ,abbot to return #fe p] c5t4 ,we believe f a/ronomical obs]vations t ! entire surface ( ,v5us is hidd5 beh9d a ?ick opaque cl\d-cov]+4 ,! slight diff]5ce betwe5 ,o4#fe & ,o4#ei may be due to errors ( obs]vation1 b also to a small absorption ( light 9 ^? p>ts ( ,v5us's atmosph]e :i* are outside ( ! cl\ds4 ,saturn & ,jupit] are v simil> to ,v5us 9 ?is reg>d ) #fc & #ef p] c5t4 respectively4 ,! gases above ! cl\ds on ^! planets ext+ui% to a consid]able ext5t ! sunlight reflect$ f ! cl\ds1 z app>5t f _! spectra4 7,comp>e ,fig4 #ac47 ,h5ce ! value #j4fc giv5 by ,russell = ,saturn is probably too high4 ,conc]n+ ,jupit] x has be5 obs]v$ t its r$ light becomes deep] :5 ! sunspots are few1 b :it] :5 ! spots are num]\s4 ,! sunspots h be5 f\nd to fav\r ! =mation ( high cl\ds1 su* z cirrus1 & ?is w\ld seem to apply also to ,jupit]2 :5 spots are pl5ty1 ! cl\ds are high1 & consequ5tly ! absorb+ lay]s above1 :i* cause ! r$ col\r1 are ?9n]1 s t ,jupit] w !n %9e ) a :it]--less r$--lu/re ?an :5 ! sunspots are r>e4 ,! two outmo/ planets1 ,uranus & ,neptune1 return1 accord+ to ,russell1 #fc & #gc p] c5t4 respectively ( ! sunlight receiv$4 ,^! figures are probably too high4 ,!y d n agree well ) ,sliph]'s records ( _! spectra 7,fig4 #ab74 ,!re n[ rema9s ,m>s4 ,?is planet approa*es ! ,moon inasmu* z x reflects only #ae4d p] c5t4 ( ! sunlight arriv+ to ! orb4 ,ev]y?+ po9ts to ! conclusion t ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s is v ?94 ,l[ell e/imates1 on some:at meagre gr\nds1 h[ev]1 t on ea* squ>e metre ( ! planet re/s only #bb p] c5t4 ( ! mass ( air support$ by ea* squ>e metre ( ! ,e>?'s surface4 ,x w\ld naturally be v int]e/+ to asc]ta9 ! am\nt ( sunlight our ,e>? ?r[s back into space4 ,?is we _c measure1 z we _c place our in/rum5ts outside ( ! ,e>?'s cl\d-mi/s nor c we read !m !re4 ,n less ?an #eb p] c5t4 ( ! ,e>? is cov]$ ) cl\ds1 ^: :it5ess 7,lat93 ,alb$o7 is #fe4 ,?us ! cl\ds alone return #j4eb #j4fe #j4cch p>ts ( ! sunlight4 ,( ?is portion a fraction am\nt+ to ab\t #d p] c5t4 is ext+ui%$ 9 ! air above4 ,! rema9d] is #j4cbe4 ,atmosph]e & susp5d$ du/ r$uce ! sunlight ov] ! cl\d-free "p1 i4 e4 #dh p] c5t4 ( ! ,e>?1 by #fj p] c5t1 half ( :i* returns to space1 :ile ! o!r half rea*es ! gr\nd 9 ! =m ( light f ! sky1 & ( ?is fraction aga9 ab\t #d p] c5t4 is reflect$ into space2 ^! two items add$ give #j4ae4 ,f9ally1 ! #dj p] c5t4 sunlight directly receiv$ by ! ,e>?'s surface is reflect$ to ! ext5t ( #f p] c5t4 by ! oceans & by ! g5]ally moi/ gr\nd2 des]ts & b>e rocks reflect ab\t twice z mu*1 b _! total area is comp>atively small2 ( ?is #f p] c5t4 reflect$ light1 #gj p] c5t4 rea*es outside space2 ?us we obta9 #j4dh #j4dj #j4jf #j4gj #j4jjh4 ,9 all1 !re=e1 ! am\nt ( reflect$ sunlight is #j4cch #j4ae #j4jjh #di4f p] c5t4 ,if ! air 7 free f cl\ds1 ! reflexion-numb] or ,alb$o w\ld be #cc p] c5t41 or consid]ably high] ?an t ( ,m>s4 ,:5 n[ half or a little m 7#eb7 ( ! ,e>?'s surface is ov]ca/ ) cl\ds & ?is portion !re=e has ! :it5ess ( ,v5us1 ! figure #di4f 7,russell calculates ! figure #de7 = ! entire ,e>? naturally falls clos]--almo/ #c4f times--to #ei1 ! figure ( ,v5us1 ?an to #ae4d1 ! figure = ,m>s4 ,we may also comp>e ! value #cc p] c5t41 :i* applies to ! cl\d-free portion ( ! ,e>?1 ) ! value #ae4d p] c5t4 = ,m>s1 :i* is almo/ )\t cl\ds1 & ) ! value #g4c p] c5t4 = ! ,moon1 :i* has nei!r cl\ds nor du/1 because x lacks an atmosph]e4 ,we c !n conclude t ! atmosph]e ( our ,e>? holds almo/ ?ree times z mu* du/ susp5d$ ov] ea* squ>e metre z does ,m>s1 & ?is 9 spite ( ! small] gravitational =ce on ,m>s1 :i* is ab\t #cg4e p] c5t4 ( t on ,e>?4 ,tak+ prop] acc\nt ( ! l[ temp]ature on ,m>s we may easily compute1 by means ( a =mula giv5 by ,/okes1 t a p>ticle ( du/ %\ld s9k #b4c times sl[] on ,m>s ?an on ,e>?4 ,:51 nev]!less & 9 spite ( frequ5t b ?9 mi/s1 s few p>ticles ( du/ float 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s1 ! conception inevitably comes to our m9d t ! air on t planet mu/ be extremely r>efi$ s t ! w9d-puffs h little p[] to raise ! du/ f ! gr\nd4 ,l[ell e/imat$ ! b>ometric pressure at ! surface ( ,m>s to be ab\t #fd mm4 7#b4eb in*es71 & ,proctor gives ab\t twice ?is figure4 ,!re appe>s to be gr\nd = consid]+ already ! =m] value too high2 bo? are v unc]ta94 ,if we accept t ( ,l[ell1 we f9d t ea* squ>e metre ( ! surface ( ,m>s supports a column ( air1 ^: mass is only ab\t "o-fif? ( ! mass re/+ on ea* squ>e metre ( ocean surface on ,e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,! planet ,v5us1 ) sunlit atmosph]e 7to ! left71 z obs]v$ by ,langley at ! ,v5us passage ,decemb] #f1 #ahhb4 ,! d5se cl\ds :i* float above ,v5us h long ago l$ to ! assumption t ! atmosph]e ( t planet mu/ be f> deep] ?an t ( ! ,e>?4 ,its /rong refractory p[] has also contribut$ to ?is belief4 ,:5 ,v5us is close to ! sun-disc ! d>k body /&s =? surr\nd$ by a r+ ( light 7see ,fig4 #ad74 ,x is1 h[ev]1 recogniz$ t ?is ph5om5on requires no great] air d5sity ?an t on ,e>? = its appe>ance4 ,9 ?is connection we %\ld rememb] t ! inside limit ( ! vap\r %ell :i* we 9 ?is mann] obs]ve1 is ! cl\d-wall1 n ! gr\nd4 ,& ^! cl\ds1 we h e reason to believe1 float on acc\nt ( ! heat prevail+ at a great height 9 ! atmosph]e1 s high 9 fact t !y =m an imp5etrable wall already :]e ! cirrus cl\ds appe> 9 our sky4 ,if ^! suppositions are correct1 ! light-r+ m5tion$ is caus$ by a qu>t] only ( ! air-masses on ,v5us1 & its total air-cov]+ mu/ be f> deep] ?an t ( ! ,e>?4 ,! latt] occupies probably 9 ?is respect z well z 9 ref]5ce to position 9 space a middle gr\nd betwe5 ,m>s ) its extremely ?9 & ,v5us ) its comp>atively d5se atmosph]e4 ,if s1 we might expect ! atmosph]e on ,m]cury to be d5s] yet1 :ile we already h se5 t x is almo/ :olly lack+ on t planet4 ,! explanation is t ,m]cury has lo/ its sp9 ar\nd its own axis & !re=e always pres5ts ! same side to ! ,sun--j z ! ,moon & probably all o!r satellites turn "o side only t[>d _! respective c5tral bodies--h5ce ! opposite side becomes s cold t all gases are !re cond5s$ to fluids or solids except ! two mo/ volatile ones1 hydrog5 & helium1 :i* on ! o!r h& leave ! planet on its hot side4 ,if ,v5us1 !re=e1 z held by sev]al a/ronom]s f ,s*iap>elli to ,l[ell1 always turn$ "o side only t[>d ! ,sun1 ?is planet also w\ld be )\t any p]ceptible air-cov]+4 ,accord+ to inve/igations by ,bjelopolsky ( ,v5us's spectrum1 :i* inve/igations1 h[ev]1 are 9 complete disagreem5t ) correspond+ measurem5ts by ,sliph]1 t planet has a p]iod ( rotation on its own axis ( ab\t #bi h\rs4 ,?is figure is v unc]ta9 & a new det]m9ation is !re=e highly desirable4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! atmosph]es ( ! planets1 x is ( great int]e/ to asc]ta9 ! composition ( ! air t surr\nds ! ,e>?4 ,our k 9 ^! matt]s has gr[n consid]ably ( late4 ,we %all 9 ! ma9 foll[ ! pres5tation by ,dr4 ,weg5] ( ,m>burg4 ,we "k at pres5t ) consid]able accuracy :i* gases ent] into ! air4 ,besides ! previ\sly well-kn[n nitrog5 & oxyg5 :i* contribute ! bulk1 #gh4a & #bj4i p] c5t4 respectively1 ( ! total volume at ! e>?'s surface1 we f9d wat] vap\r 9 proportions *ang+ ) localities & times1 & x is = ?is reason left out :5 fix+ ! v>i\s p]c5tages2 fur!r1 c>bon dioxide #j4jc volume p] c5t4 & ! r>e gases discov]$ by ,rayleigh & ,ramsay1 argon1 #j4icb p] c5t41 neon #j4jjab p] c5t41 helium #j4jjjd p] c5t41 krypton #j4jjjjje p] c5t41 & x5on #j4jjjjjjf p] c5t4 ,ea* "o ( ^! con/itu5ts dim9i%es 9 quantity ) height 9 accordance ) ! s-call$ b>omet]-=mula & ! rate is ! m rapid ! heavi] ! gas4 ,krypton & x5on1 !re=e1 :i* are two & "o half & f\r times heavi] ?an oxyg51 occur ma9ly 9 ! l[] /rata4 ,! p]c5tage ( helium on ! o!r h&1 a gas eight times light] ?an oxyg51 %\ld increase rapidly ) height4 ,if ! air consi/$ ( a mixture ( oxyg5 & helium at #j ,c4 7#cb ,f47 ! =m] w\ld decrease to "o half at an elevation ( #e km4 7#c4a miles7 b ! latt] n be=e we _h asc5d$ #dj km4 7#be miles7 7eight times high] ?an = oxyg51 z ! weights are 9 ! ratio ( #a to #h74 ,at t altitude1 oxyg5 w\ld h decreas$ 9 ! proportion #a3bh #a3bef4 ,:51 z actually is ! case1 !re is #ej1jjj times m oxyg5 ?an helium at ! surface ?is ratio %\ld decrease 9 ! proportion #abh3a at a height ( #dj km4 7#be miles74 ,n9ety kilomet]s 7#ef miles7 above ! surface helium %\ld ov]balance oxyg5 & !reaft] rapidly ga9 9 prepond]ance4 ,?is holds true provid$ no agitation takes place 9 ! =m ( v]tical curr5ts ( air4 ,simil> laws apply to all light gases :i* d n turn into fluids or solids at l[ temp]atures4 ,aque\s vap\r1 on ! o!r h&1 :i* :5 cool$ cond5ses to cl\ds1 dim9i%es mu* fa/] ?an ! ne>ly twice z heavy oxyg51 because ! temp]ature rapidly decreases z we move upw>d or at a rate ( ab\t #e ,c4 p] km4 7#ad4e ,f4 p] mile7 up to #b4e km4 7#a4e miles7 & ( #h ,c4 p] km4 7#bc ,f4 p] mile7 at a height ( #h4e km4 7#e4c miles74 ,! quantity ( wat] vap\r %r9ks to "o half at #a4i km4 7slightly m ?an a mile7 above gr\nd4 ,c>bon dioxide aga9 foll[s ! b>omet]-=mula applicable to o!r gases because x occurs 9 su* m9ute quantity t x nev] cond5ses to cl\ds4 ,9 fact1 x is wat] vap\r alone :i* mu/ be treat$ z an exception4 ,c>bon dioxide is ne>ly "o & "o half times heavi] ?an ! o!r gases ( ! atmosph]e on an av]age4 ,x %\ld !re=e dim9i% 9 ! proportion #a3ba4e #a3b4h 9 a v]tical di/ance ( #e km4 7#c4a miles7 :ile ! d5sity ( ! air decreases only 9 ! ratio #a3b4 ,sev]al det]m9ations ( ! pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! atmosph]e z high up z #c4h km4 7#b4cc miles7 h be5 made1 by ,s4 ,a4 ,&ree among o!rs1 b ! p]c5tage ( ?is gas rema9s con/ant )9 ! errors ( obs]vation4 ,! same holds true to a height ( #g km4 7#d4ce miles7 = ! proportion betwe5 oxyg5 & nitrog51 al?\gh we might h expect$ a p]ceptible *ange z oxyg5 is #ad p] c5t4 heavi] ?an nitrog54 ,h[ %all we expla9 ?is fact :i* seem+ly contradicts ! !ory j advanc$8 ,! explanation is q simple4 ,! prec$+ /atem5ts hold true = a mass ( air at p]fect re/4 ,b1 if ! air is viol5tly agitat$1 ! composition becomes homog5e\s all ?r\gh4 ,we "k t 9 ! b>ometric cyclones & anticyclones /rong ris+ & desc5d+ air curr5ts fl[4 ,! composition ( ! atmosph]e1 !re=e1 becomes ! same z f> up z ?is mix+ action prevails4 ,^! curr5ts produce ano!r effect1 namely1 a fall ( temp]ature ) ris+ height4 ,because :5 a gas is transport$ upw>d ! surr\nd+ pressure decreases1 result+ 9 expansion & consequ5t cool+4 ,x is well kn[n t a gas is heat$ :5 7rapidly7 compress$1 a quality =m]ly made use ( 9 ! pneumatic fire-tool to ignite t9d]4 ,x is evid5t t conv]sely a gas mu/ cool (f :5 exp&+4 ,if n[ ! mix+ ( ! air 7 extremely rapid ! !rmomet] w\ld fall v close to #aj ,c4 7#ah ,f47 ) ea* km4 74#fb miles7 rise 9 elevation4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! air /ood p]fectly /ill 9 a v]tical direction1 ! temp]ature w\ld rema9 con/ant at all heights ov] ! same po9t4 ,betwe5 ^! two extremes1 we f9d ! actual condition1 inasmu* z ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e decreases upw>d #e to #h ,c4 p] km4 7#ad4e to #bc ,f4 p] mile7 z obs]v$ dur+ balloon asc5sions4 ,?is applies to ! s-call$ 8troposph]e0--mix+-zone4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable discov]ies 9 rec5t times1 made by ,teiss]5c de ,bort & ,assman1 is ! fact t ! decrease ( temp]ature ) height does n cont9ue indef9itely b only up to a c]ta9 elevation1--9 middle ,europe ab\t #aa km4 7#g miles71 9 ,lapl& ab\t #g km4 7#d4e miles71 & at ! equator ab\t #ae km4 7#aj4e miles7--& above ?is po9t ! temp]ature rema9s con/ant4 ,we n[ meet ! peculi> condition t ! temp]ature ( ?is upp] lay]1 :i* is call$ /ratosph]e--8film-zone0--is l[e/ ov] ! equator1 because x comm5ces at a great height !re1 & l[e/ ov] ! pol> regions1 :]e x ext5ds f>!r d[n4 ,! /ratosph]e has receiv$ its "n f ! fact t x consi/s s to speak ( lamell almo/ p>allel to ! e>?'s surface & mov+ 9 a horizontal direction :ile v]tical motions are abs5t4 ,! w9ds 9 ^! /rata h a m>k$ we/]ly direction 7i4 e4 !y are ea/ w9ds7 & !y become /rong] ! high] ! /ratum--at an altitude ( #hc km4 7#eb4e miles7 _! velocity is ab\t #ajj m4 7#ccj ft47 p] second4 ,9 ! troposph]e on ! o!r h& we/ w9ds pr$om9ate4 ,! w9d direction 9 ! /ratosph]e 0 obs]v$ on ! s-call$ lum9\s night-cl\ds :i* 7 f\nd z high z #hj km4 7#ej miles7 above ! ,e>?4 ,^! /rata consequ5tly revolve sl[] ar\nd ! e>?'s axis ?an ! solid body ( ! planet itself4 ,at an elevation ( #hj km4 7#ej miles7 ! rotational spe$ has decreas$ to #fe p] c5t4 ( ! angul> velocity ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,we h reason to believe t ! v highe/ /rata /& /ill1 t is d n take "p 9 ! e>?'s rotation on its axis4 ,?is w\ld foll[ if outside space 7 n entirely devoid ( vap\r s t our atmosph]e w\ld m]ge imp]ceptibly into ! exce$+ly att5uat$ gas masses ( int]planet>y space4 ,z high z ! mix+-zone ext5ds1 s high also is ! composition ( ! air con/ant & l t at ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,b above ?is limit--9 ,sc&9avia1 we might say above an elevation ( #aj km4 7#f4b miles7--comm5ces a rapid tap]+ ( ! heavy gases1 :ile ! p]c5tage ( ! light ones correspond+ly rises4 ,=emo/ among ! latt] is hydrog51 ) only half ! weight ( helium4 ,! pres5ce ( hydrog5 9 ! atmosph]e has be5 %[n by ,b\ss+ault1 & ! proportion 9 :i* x occurs has lat] be5 measur$ by ,arm& ,gauti]4 ,x is ab\t "o ?ree hundr$? "p ( "o p] c5t4 ,x increases extremely rapidly ) height 9 ! /ratosph]e s t #hj km4 7#ej miles7 above ! e>? & upw>d hydrog5 is m abundant ?an all o!r kn[n gases ( ! atmosph]e at ! same altitudes4 ,we reproduce bel[ a some:at revis$ table by ,dr4 ,weg5] ( ,m>burg1 :o has made ! mo/ rec5t computation ( ! p]c5tages ( ! v>i\s con/itu5ts ( air at diff]5t heights4 ,consid]ation has be5 giv5 to ! fact t ! composition ( ! air does n *ange except z reg>ds ! p]c5tage ( moi/ure )9 ! troposph]e1 :i* is assum$ to rea* a height ( #aj km4 7#f4b miles74 ,z usual 9 simil> cases ! p]c5tages ref] to volume4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,height ,pressure ---------------------------- 9 9 9 9 ,hydrog5 ,helium ,nitrog5 km4 miles mm4 in*es #b #d #bh ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #j #j #gfj #bi4i #j4jjcc #j4jjje #gh4a ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #aj #f4b #aig #g4ge #j4jjcc #j4jjje #gh4a ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #cj #ah4f #h4ie 4#ceb ---- ---- #he ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #ej #ca4j #j4de 4#jagg #a ---- #hh ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #gj #dc4e #j4jde 4#jjagg #ac #a #hj ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #ij #ee4h #j4jaeg 4#jjjfb #fh #e #bf ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #aaj #fh4b #j4jaaf 4#jjjdf #id #e #a ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #acj #hj4f #j4jjig 4#jjjch #if #d #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #baj #acj4b #j4jjee 4#jjjbb #ii #a ---- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #caj #aib4f #j4jjcb 4#jjjac #ajj ---- ---- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #daj #bed4b #j4jjba 4#jjjjh #ajj ---- ---- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #eaj #caf4b #j4jjaf 4#jjjjf #ajj ---- ---- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,height ,pressure ---------------------------- ,c>bon 9 9 9 9 ,oxyg5 ,argon ,dioxide ,wat] km4 miles mm4 in*es #cb #ci4i #dd #ah ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #j #j #gfj #bi4i #bj4i #j4icg #j4jc #a4da ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #aj #f4b #aig #g4ge #bj4i #j4icg #j4jc #j4ad ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #cj #ah4f #h4ie 4#ceb #ae #j4bi #j4jjfd #j4e ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ej #ca4j #j4de 4#jagg #aj #j4aj #j4jjad #a4g ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #gj #dc4e #j4jde 4#jjagg #f #j4je #j4jjje ---- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ij #ee4h #j4jaeg 4#jjjfb #a ---- ---- ---- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #aaj #fh4b #j4jaaf 4#jjjdf #j ---- ---- ---- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #acj #hj4f #j4jjig 4#jjjch ---- ---- ---- ---- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #baj #acj4b #j4jjee 4#jjjbb ---- ---- ---- ---- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #caj #aib4f #j4jjcb 4#jjjac ---- ---- ---- ---- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #daj #bed4b #j4jjba 4#jjjjh ---- ---- ---- ---- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #eaj #caf4b #j4jjaf 4#jjjjf ---- ---- ---- ---- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,"u ! "n ( ea* gas its molecul> weight is giv5 z a measure ( correspond+ specific weight4 ,! quantity ( wat] vap\r 0 n includ$ :5 ! p]c5tages ( ! o!r gases 7 calculat$1 because x *anges consid]ably ) locality & "t4 ,! numb] giv5 9 ! table = wat] is ! mean = ! entire globe--x corresponds to #aa4d grammes p] cubic metre 74#ca oz4 p] cu4 yd47--or ! am\nt pres5t 9 air saturat$ ) moi/ure at #af4e ,c4 7#fa4g ,f474 ,! bulk ( ! wat] vap\r =ms a lay] /rongly conc5trat$ t[>d ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,c>bon dioxide also tap]s rapidly ) increas+ height because its d5sity is #a4e times great] ?an t ( air4 ,?is is app>5t f ! molecul> weight #dd /at$ "u c>bon dioxide1 :ile ! av]age molecul> weight ( air is #bi4 ,fa/] yet d krypton1 ) a molecul> weight ( #hc1 & x5on1 ) a molecul> weight ( #aca1 decrease z we asc5d 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,^! gases1 l neon1 ^: p]c5tage fir/ increases slightly ) height1 & argon1 :i* decreases upw>d z %[n 9 ! table1 d n p]ceptibly influ5ce ! processes ( nature4 ,! rev]se is true ab\t wat] vap\r & c>bon dioxide1 :i* n\ri% ! plants & also protect ! ,e>? aga9/ a too rapid heat radiation into space4 ,we well rememb] h[ abruptly ! temp]ature *anges 9 ! c\rse ( ! day 9 ! dry des]t climate1 :ile correspond+ v>iation is comp>atively slight 9 humid climates 7comp>e page #hf74 ,?is is ! result ( ! ability ( wat] vap\r to arre/ ! radiation f ! ,e>?4 ,c>bon dioxide is ab\t ev5ly di/ribut$ ov] ! globe--al?\gh some:at sp>s] ov] highl&s--& its heat-cons]v+ & equaliz+ influ5ce is1 !re=e1 n s manife/ z t ( moi/ure4 ,only by ! mo/ accurate inve/igations has ?is influ5ce be5 demon/rat$4 ,9 ,weg5]'s table a gas is includ$1 call$ ,geocoronium1 ^: exi/5ce 9 ! air has n be5 directly prov$4 ,conspicu\s is1 h[ev]1 ! gre5 light display$ at great altitude by ! ,nor!rn ,light ar*es1 a gre5 color :i* does n1 z f> z we are aw>e1 belong to any kn[n con/itu5t ( ! air4 ,x is true t ! correspond+ spectral l9e 7#eeg 7 lies v close to a l9e belong+ to krypton1 b ! latt] is a heavy gas :i* _c occur to any traceable ext5t 9 ! high /rata1 m ?an #cjj km4 7#ahf miles7 above ! e>?1 :]e occasionally ! ,nor!rn ,light ar*es appe>--_! fav\r$ height accord+ to measurem5ts by ,/rm] is ab\t #abj km4 7#ge miles74 ,weg5] assumes1 !re=e1 t ?is gre5 l9e belongs to an hi!rto unkn[n sub/ance1 ,geocoronium1 :i* %\ld be five times light] ?an hydrog54 ,rec5t rese>*es pres5t great difficulties to ! acceptance ( ?is assumption1 & = ?is reason fur!r discussion ( ! problem w be omitt$4 ,above a height ( #baj km4 7#acj miles71 ?is gas1 accord+ to ,weg5]1 w\ld prepond]ate4 ,if su* po/ulat$ gas does n exi/1 hydrog5 completely dom9ates 9 ^! regions & d[n to #he km4 7#ec miles7 above ! ,e>?4 ,because hydrog5 is s light1 ! d5sity ( ! air 9 ! range ( a b>ometric pressure bel[ #j4jb mm4 74#jjjh in*es7 increases b sl[ly z we desc5d t[>d ! ,e>?4 ,?is upp]mo/ "p ( ! atmosph]e may appropriately be designat$ z ! hydrog5-zone4 ,ev5 )9 ?is range1 ! 8%oot+ />s0 meet suffici5t resi/ance to flame into light at a height ( ab\t #abj km4 7#ge miles7 & dissolve into du/ :i* turns d>k ab\t #he km4 7#ec miles7 above ! ,e>?4 ,e4 ,c4 ,pick]+ recogniz$ ! spectrum ( hydrog5 9 ! light ( meteors pass+ at great height1 b decompos$ wat] vap\r might possibly be its s\rce4 ,meteors cross+ l[] /rata %[ ! spectrum ( nitrog54 ,nitrog5 becomes important f a height ( ab\t #he km4 7#ec miles7 d[nw>d & f #ge km4 7#df4e miles7 to ! surface ( ! ,e>? x pr$om9ates4 ,z a consequ5ce ! pressure increases rapidly z we approa* ! gr\nd4 ,9 ^! regions or up to #hj km4 7#ej miles7 float$ ! highe/ lum9\s night cl\ds1 obs]v$ by ,jesse1 indicat+ t "h comm5c$ a new range1 ! nitrog5-zone4 ,only ! heavy meteorites are able to p5etrate into ! nitrog5 sph]e1 :i* *ecks _! spe$ & causes !m to explode1 & !reaft] ! remnants fall ) a velocity compatible ) ! air resi/ance !y meet4 ,to ^! p>ts desc5d also ! l[e/ rays ( ! ,nor!rn ,lights1 ! s-call$ drap]ies--,/rm] obs]v$ !m once at a height ( #cg km4 7#bc miles74 ,f9ally1 wat] vap\r pres5ts itself 9 appreciable quantities at an elevation ( ab\t #aj km4 7#f4b miles71 :]e ! troposph]e comm5ces4 ,we n[ meet ! highe/ cl\ds1 cirrus 7) ! exception ( ! 8lum9\s night cl\ds0 obs]v$ only 9 ! ye>s #ahhc-ahib aft] ! eruption on ,krakatoa74 ,to ^! heights1 rea* ! v]tical air curr5ts :i* are ess5tial to cl\d =mations4 ,only light cl\ds1 h[ev]1 float at ^! altitudes2 ! heavy cl\ds 7alto-cumulus7 d n rise above #d to #e km4 7#b4e to #c4a miles7 & ! ra9 cl\ds prop] 7cumuli7 occur only bel[ a height ( #b km4 7#a4be miles74 ,?is is ! result ( ! d[nw>d conc5tration ( wat] vap\r )9 ! troposph]e4 ,if gravity decreas$ 9 int5sity1 ! effect w\ld be ! same z if ! gases 7 light]4 ,on ,v5us1 ! int5sity ( gravity is eight t5?s ( t on ,e>?4 ,! diff]5ce is slight4 ,if ev]y?+ else 7 simil> ! v>i\s air-zones w\ld rea* #be p] c5t4 high] on ,v5us ?an !y d on our globe4 ,b "o ess5tial condition is v>i$ by ! f> high] temp]ature on our neighb\r4 ,! proportion ( moi/ure 9 ! air is !reby va/ly increas$4 ,! d5se cl\ds rise to mu* great] heights ?an on ,e>?4 ,if !re be t5 times z mu* wat] 9 ! air on ,v5us z !re is 9 ! air on ,e>?--:i* might fairly repres5t ! actual condition--! heavy ra9cl\ds w\ld !re rise to a height ( m ?an #aj km4 7#f4b miles71 & _! small] weight on ,v5us w\ld also contribute to _! buoyancy4 ,! light cirrus cl\ds %\ld appe> z high z ab\t #cj km4 7#ah4e miles7 above ! gr\nd4 ,"u su* circum/ances1 we _c expect b t ! planet mu/ be entirely hidd5 f our sight z well z f ! rays ( ! ,sun4 ,on ,m>s1 ! int5sity ( gravity is #b4fh times small] ?an on ,e>?4 ,9 consequ5ce b>ometric pressure falls #b4fh times sl[] ) increas+ height !re ?an "h4 ,! same ratio holds = decrease 9 temp]ature & = %r9kage ( proportion ( moi/ure :5 comp>+ conditions on ! two planets4 ,! /rong cold precludes any?+ b insignificant quantities ( wat] vap\r4 ,! air on ,m>s is simil> to ! atmosph]e on ,e>? 9 & above ! cirrus-region4 ,! cl\ds exi/+ !re are n only extremely ?9 & transp>5t--x is well kn[n t cirrus cl\ds ?r[ no %ad[s--b !y are conf9$ to small fractions ( ! planet's sky4 ,!y are replac$ by light mi/s4 ,we %all lat] return to ! consequ5ces ( ^! peculi>ities4 ,) help ( ! spectroscope we h asc]ta9$ t ! gases on ! ,sun are1 9 ! ma91 also arrang$ accord+ to specific weights1 s t ! lighte/ rea* ! greate/ heights4 ,some:at simil> conditions obta9 9 ! gas-app5dages ( ! />s 7comp>e page #aai74 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]e ,( a v p>ticul> int]e/ is ! "q ( ! atmosph]e ( ! planets4 ,! great problem ( habitability ( ! latt] is mo/ intimately connect$ !re)4 ,primitive fancy1 v e>ly1 populat$ ! /ell> bodies1 especially ! />s & ! ,sun1 ) be+s simil> to ^? on ,e>?4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 ! insight awoke t ^! bodies are inc&esc5t & !re=e unfit to %elt] life ( ! k9d ) :i* we are famili>4 ,att5tion !n turn$ to ! planets1 z !y & ! ,e>? belong$ to ! same ord] ( heav5ly bodies4 ,p]haps !y furni%$ abodes = our k94 ,& ! />s1 suns l our ,sun1 %\ld n !y be surr\nd$ ea* ) its ?rong ( planets1 gravitat+ ar\nd _! c5tral s\rce ( light & heat8 ,?is beautiful ?\ght vi$ ) ! conception ( ,e>? z ! c5tre ( ! univ]se & z :olly set ap>t f ! o!r /ell> bodies1 ^: prime object x 7 m]ely to furni% light & to indicate "t = ! inhabitants ( ! ,e>?4 ,mu* to be regrett$1 x 0 ! latt] f> less attractive !ory :i* ga9$ firm hold on ! ,*ur*1 al?\gh a few ( its unbias$ m51 l ! r5[n$ ,c>d9al ,nicolaus ,cusanus 7#adja-adfd71 decl>$ 9 fav\r ( ! contr>y op9ion1 & did s unmole/$4 ,b times grew h>d]1 ironclad or?odoxy triumph$1 & ,giordano ,bruno1 ^: def5ce 0 t he simply accept$ ! !ory ( ! great ,cusanus1 0 burn$ at ! /ake to expiate 8 fe>less ass]tion t o!r worlds1 no less ?an ours1 might be bless$ ) ! pres5ce ( liv+ be+s4 ,und\bt$ly1 o!r planets are upbuilt ( ! same mat]ial :i* ent]s into ! composition ( ! ,e>?--z held already by ,leon>do da ,v9ci4 ,spectral analysis tea*es u t ! same con/itu5ts =m all ! suns1 includ+ our own4 ,if we agree t ! suns h furni%$ ! orig9al sub/ance ( ! planets revolv+ ar\nd !m x is a natural conclusion t ?is matt] %\ld comb9e into simil> *emical comp\nds on planets equally advanc$ 9 _! evolution>y1 t is cool+1 process4 ,& we "k1 inde$1 t ! same elem5ts compose ! ,sun & ! ,e>?1 & t ! samples br\ght to u f o!r worlds1 i4 e4 ! meteors1 are ( a composition :i* /rongly rem9ds u ( ! rocks 9 ! int]ior ( ! ,e>?4 ,we seek 9 va9 only = indications ( ! action ( wat]1 :i* sub/ance has left su* obvi\s traces on ! surface ( our globe & 9 ! imm$iate /rata bel[4 ,b x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! wat]1 9 ! =m ( vap\r1 z previ\sly set =?1 has left all ! m9or /ell> bodies1 & ! meteorites manife/ly belong to ! small or smalle/ among ! w&]]s ( ! heav5s4 ,!re is !n no reason to d\bt t ! mat]ial ( :i* ! planets are built ess5tially is ! same ?r\gh\t ! univ]se4 ,_! int]ior %\ld1 l t ( our ,e>?1 consi/ ( ! heavy metals1 pr9cipally iron1--/rongly preval5t also 9 ! ,sun & 9 ! meteors1--& ?is metallic nucleus %\ld be clo!d ) ! silicates1 oxides1 c>bonates1 sulphides1 & hydrates ( all metals1 p>ticul>ly alum9um1 & among ! metals we may also c\nt hydrog54 ,! melt+ po9ts ( ^! ext]ior & light] sub/ances lies above #ajjj ,c 7#ahjj ,f474 ,no life c\ld exi/ 9 su* a molt5 mass1 s t n until a solid cru/ _h be5 =m$ ?r\gh cool+ 0 ! possibility ( life at h&4 ,life is1 at lea/ on ,e>?1 ti$ to c]ta9 s-call$ comp\nds1 9 :i* c>bon is ! ess5tial common elem5t1 :ile hydrog51 nitrog51 & oxyg5 toge!r ) sulphur1 phosphorus1 iron1 magnesium1 & a few o!r less important elem5ts also ent] !re94 ,no sub/ance b c>bon possesses ?is quality ( be+ a pr]equisite ( life4 ,silica is a close k9 to c>bon & a sub/itute 9 c]ta9 organic comp\nds1 b protoplasm1 ! ma9 con/itu5t ( ! liv+ cell1 _c be built )\t c>bon4 ,9 ! inorganic _w1 h[ev]1 silica by virtue ( its aff9ity1 :i* is k9dr$ to t ( c>bon1 plays a rle some:at simil> to ! latt] 9 ! almo/ inf9itely v>iably silicates4 ,protoplasm _c endure 9 a temp]ature above #fj ,c4 7#adj ,f47 or !reab\t--c]ta9 alg1 x is sometimes /at$1 ?rive 9 hot spr+s up to #hj to #ij ,c4 7#agf to #aid ,f47 b c]ta9ly n ov] #ajj ,c4 7#bab ,f474 ,at ^! temp]atures--/rictly speak+ at all temp]atures betwe5 ,o ,c4 7#cb ,f47 & #cfe ,c4 7#fhi ,f47--wat] c exi/ 9 fluid /ate & ?is too is a pr]equisite ( life4 ,we may say !re=e t life is conf9$ to a small temp]ature range betwe5 ! freez+ & boil+ po9ts ( wat]4 ,b :]ev] wat] occurs1 except 9 a vessel :i* x completely fills1 !re exi/s also 9 ! adjac5t space1 if unoccupi$ by fluids or solids1 wat] vap\r ( at lea/ #d4f mm4 74#ah in*es7 pressure4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 always an atmosph]e ( aque\s vap\r on any planet ^: surface is p>tly cov]$ by wat]4 ,! palontologi/s h agre$ t all life comm5c$ 9 ! wat]4 ,! manifold liv+ be+s :i* n[ inhabit ! solid cru/ ( ! ,e>? all desc5d f ance/ors :i* float$ 9 ! waves ( ! ocean1 ! cradle ( all organisms4 ,x is n absolutely c]ta9 t oxyg5 is necess>y to all liv+ be+s b _m biologi/s hold t op9ion4 ,c]ta9 bact]ia are able to draw ! oxyg5 !y require = _! developm5t f comp\nds 9 :i* oxyg5 is b\nd sometimes 9 a v intimate mann]1 z 9 sulphates4 ,b ^! bact]ia are consid]$ deg5]ate plants1 & free oxyg5 is c]ta9ly indisp5sable to ! exi/5ce ( ! animals & probably also to ! plants ) ! exception j m5tion$4 ,z we %all see lat]1 free oxyg5 _c be pres5t on ! planets until a solid cru/ has be5 =m$4 ,we may !re=e /ate t ! conditions = ! exi/5ce ( life on a planet are fulfill$ :5 a true atmosph]e conta9+ oxyg5 & wat] surr\nd its body4 ,if we are to und]/& ^! conditions1 we mu/ /udy ! processes :]eby oxyg5 is suppli$ to ! atmosph]e4 ,z ! planets are segregations f ! ,sun1 !y %\ld orig9ally h ! composition ( ! ,sun1 p>ticul>ly t ( its out] lay]s4 ,"h metals occur 9 greate/ abundance1 b !re are also a few oxides1 especially ^? ( titanium & magnesium 7accord+ to ,f[l]71 hydrog5 9 great quantities1 oxyg51 c>bon1 cyanog51 & c>bon monoxide4 ,x may seem /range t free oxyg5 exi/s side by side ) a surplus ( hydrog5 & sodium1 /rong s-call$ r$uc+ sub/ances :i* b9d oxyg54 ,b at ! high temp]atures prevail+ on ! ,sun comp\nds ( oxyg5 & ! r$uc+ sub/ances1 = in/ance hydrog51 i4 e4 wat]1 are l>gely dissociat$ into _! con/itu5ts4 ,b1 if ! temp]ature %\ld drop to ab\t #abjj ,c4 7#bbjj ,f471 at :i* po9t cru/ build+ does n yet take place1 ! oxyg5 w\ld be entirely absorb$ 9 ! =mation ( ! comp\nds m5tion$4 ,! comp\nd sub/ances ( ! ,e>?1 l ^? ( ! ,sun1 are also /rongly r$uc+1 s t we mu/ inf] t free oxyg5 did n ent] into ! gas cov]+ ( ! ,e>? at ! "t :5 its solid cru/ 0 =m$4 ,we may ga9 a conception ( ! gases :i* !n exi/$ 9 ! outmo/ lay]s ( ! ,e>? by /udy+ ! gases on ! ,sun & on o!r /ell> bodies1 p>ticul>ly ! comets1 & also by inve/igat+ ! gases absorb$ by ! molt5 int]ior ( ! ,e>?4 ,previ\s to ! cru/ =mation1 ! entire mass ( ! ,e>? except ! gases 9 its outmo/ lay]s 7 ( ! same "* z possess$ by its molt5 int]ior n[4 ,?is molt5 mass1 or magma1 :5 9 contact ) ! surr\nd+ gases p>tly imbib$ !m ?r\gh ! process call$ absorption4 ,an inve/igation ( ! gases pres5t 9 ! magma w !re=e give u an idea ( ^? exi/+ 9 ! orig9al vap\rs surr\nd+ ! ,e>?4 ,! magma occasionally comes into view 9 volcanic eruptions1 & ! conf9$ gases are !n p>tly giv5 up into ! air1 b !y are also p>tly reta9$ 9 ! solidify+ lava1 or volcanic rocks1 :5ce !y may be driv5 (f by high temp]ature & subsequ5tly analyz$4 ,! direct gas emanations f ! crat]s may also be ga!r$ & analyz$4 ,su* inve/igations h be5 c>ri$ out on a l>ge scale by ,alb]t ,brun1 ,fr5*man1 ,ar?ur ,day1 ,am]ican1 & 8 co-lab\r]s ,%eph]d & ,p]ret4 ,brun rea*$ ! surpris+ conclusion t wat] vap\r1 hi!rto consid]$ ! mo/ important ( ! volcanic gases1 9 reality 0 n "o ( !m b orig9at$ 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,?is !ory1 h[ev]1 0 completely refut$ ?r\gh ! inve/igations by ,day & 8 associates4 ,z an example1 we give ! analysis 7! mean ( sev]al det]m9ations7 ( volcanic gases f ! crat] ,halemaumau on ! volcano ,kilauea 9 ,hawaii3 ,may1 #aiab ,p] c5t4 ( ,volume ,c>bon dioxide #ee4d ,c>bon monoxide #d4c ,hydrog5 #g4g ,nitrog5 #bi4f ,sulphur\s acid #b4i ,decemb]1 #aiab ,p] c5t4 ( ,weight ,c>bon dioxide #db4i ,nitrog5 #be4h ,wat] #bg4e ,sulphur\s acid #c4g ,9 ! latt] case1 x has be5 %[n t air _h ga9$ entrance to ! volcanic gases1 :i* air might h c>ri$ a quantity ( wat]4 ,b ?is quantity c\ld n h be5 l>ge judg+ by ! am\nt ( nitrog5 pres5t :i* corresponds to n q #c p] c5t4 wat] by weight4 ,9 ! =m] case wat] 0 n includ$ 9 ! analysis4 ,at any ev5t1 a high p]c5tage ( wat] has frequ5tly be5 obs]v$ 9 volcanic gases4 ,:5 ! gases 7 left 9 contact ) wat] a consid]able "p 0 absorb$ !reby1 p>ticul>ly comp\nds ( *lor9e & fluor9e & also ammonia & sulphur\s acid4 ,an analysis ( su* wat] %[$ #aj p] c5t4 m fluor9e ?an sulphur\s acid & two fif?s z mu* *lor9e z fluor9e4 ,! ammonia am\nt$ only to half ( "o p] c5t4 ( ! *lor9e4 ,none ( ! r>e air gases 7 pres5t1 :i* indicates t ! nitrog5 orig9at$ entirely f ! magma & n f ! air4 ,brun has analyz$ lavas f diff]5t volcanoes4 ,! gases extract$ !refrom naturally d n give z reliable in=mation ab\t ! orig9al atmosph]e ( ! ,e>? z d ! gases directly emanat+ f ! volcanoes4 ,z examples we quote ! composition ( ! vap\rs 9 lavas eject$ ,m>* #d1 #aija1 f ,/romboli1 & f ,vesuvius 9 ! well-kn[n eruption ( #aijf4 ,!y %[ 9 p]c5tages ( volume3 ,/romboli ,vesuvius ,free *lor9e #ab4h #j ,hydrate ( *lor9e #b4j #f4f ,sulphur\s acid #d4e #ab4j ,c>bon dioxide #fj4b #gc4h ,c>bon monoxide #aa4e traces ,hydrog5 #j4e #g4f ,nitrog5 #f4i traces ,m>%-gas #a4f #j ----- ------ #ajj4j #ajj4j ,x w be notic$ t ! composition v>ies consid]ably4 ,free *lor9e _c v well be primig5ial z x1 l oxyg51 comb9es ) r$uc+ sub/ances4 ,*lor9e may be produc$ by heat+ *loride ( calcium ) silica & f]ro-silicates :i* are pres5t 9 ! magma4 ,at all ev5ts1 c>bon dioxide con/itutes ! bulk4 ,next 9 importance are sulphur\s acid & hydrate ( *lor9e4 ,c>bon monoxide1 hydrog51 & nitrog5 may occur 9 q consid]able quantities b are sometimes almo/ :olly abs5t4 ,day & ,%eph]d rea*$ ! conclusion t ! gases emitt$ by ! hot lava 9 ! ,halemaumau crat] are nitrog51 wat]1 c>bon dioxide1 c>bon monoxide1 sulphur\s acid1 hydrog51 sulphur vap\r1 also small quantities ( *lorides1 fluorides1 & possibly ammonia4 ,su*1 at lea/ approximately1 %\ld also ! orig9al composition ( ! ,e>?'s atmosph]e h be5 :5 ! cru/ 0 newly =m$4 ,nitrog51 wat]1 & c>bon dioxide 7 ! mo/ important +r$i5ts2 9 ! high /rata hydrog5 0 pres5t4 ,oxyg5 0 totally lack+ & r$uc+ gases su* z hydrog51 sulphur\s acid1 & c>bon monoxide ab\nd$ in/ead4 ,if we fur!r note ! composition ( comets & meteorites we f9d t cyanog51 c>bohydrates1 & c>bon monoxide also are pres5t 9 ! =m]1 argon & helium 9 ! latt]4 ,x is !re=e probable t ^! sub/ances1 al?\gh abs5t 9 ! emanations f ,kilauea1 yet belong$ to ! prim>y atmosph]es ( ! planets4 ,! r>e gases ( ! air especially %\ld orig9ally h come f ! ext]ior p>ts ( ! sun1 z did ! nitrog54 ,an atmosph]e ( su* a composition w\ld be utt]ly un5durable to liv+ be+s4 ,x mu/1 if organisms are go+ to ?rive !re91 be purifi$ f su* poisons z c>bon dioxide1 gase\s sulphur1 cyanog51 & sulphur\s acid4 ,we "k t su* a process has tak5 place & t ! sunlight has be5 ! great *emi/ :o produc$ oxyg5 & c>bon f ! c>bon dioxide4 ,! j m5tion$ poison\s gases 7 subsequ5tly oxidiz$ ?r\gh electrical dis*>ges4 ,we all "k t ! plants up-build _! framework "u ! influ5ce ( sunlight1 consum+ 9 ! meantime c>bon dioxide1 wat]1 & a little ammonia4 ,9 ! process1 oxyg5 is =m$1 z are also />*1 cellulose1 sug>s1 & album9\s sub/ances ) ! aid ( ! gre5 col\r+ matt] 9 plants1 *lorophyll1 :i* consid]ably accel]ates ! action4 ,subsequ5tly ^! new sub/ances1 :i* all 7except ! album9\s ones7 belong to ! c>bohydrate gr\p1 are conv]t$ into pr9cipally c>bon & wat]4 ,! f9al result is t c>bon dioxide ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( sunlight is split into its two con/itu5ts1 c>bon & oxyg54 ,?is process1 :i* is comp>atively rapid 9 ! pres5ce ( *lorophyll1 %\ld also1 al?\gh m sl[ly1 take place )\t t m$ium2 & 9 rec5t trials ! *emi/s--p>ticul>ly ,daniel ,b]!lot--h1 inde$ succe$$ 9 imitat+ )\t *lorophyll ?is important function ( ! plants ?r\gh ! application ( light ( a %ort wave l5g?4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! _m millions ( ye>s :i* geology has prov$ necess>y = ! evolution ( our planet1 ! c>bon dioxide 9 ! air 0 gradually conv]t$ into oxyg5 & c>bon4 ,z long z r$uc+ gases1 su* z ! poison\s ones m5tion$1 or any consid]able quantities ( c>bohydrates & hydrog5 yet rema9$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 ! oxyg5 0 consum$ 9 _! combu/ion4 ,if a solid cru/ _h n exi/$ to prev5t ! oxyg5 f ent]+ into ! int]ior molt5 mass1 x w\ld also h f\nd its way !re & w\ld h oxidiz$ ! r$uc+ sub/ances 9 ! magma4 ,! sep>ation ( ! int]ior f ! surr\nd+ gas %ell is !re=e a necess>y requisite = ! exi/5ce ( free oxyg5 9 ! air4 ,ano!r condition is t ! combu/ible gases escap+ f ! volcanoes mu/ be add$ to ! air at a suffici5tly sl[ rate n to consume all ( ! simultane\sly =m$ oxyg54 ,a ?ird requirem5t is t ! lib]at$ c>bon %\ld n 9 a r5ew$ process ( oxidation b9d ! oxyg5 j recov]$4 ,z long z ! air /ill 0 r$uc+1 ?is la/ condition 0 no d\bt fulfill$ = t v reason4 ,at all ev5ts1 ! cru/ once =m$ & ! orig9al viol5t volcanic activity some:at abat$1 ! "t f9ally arriv$ :5 free oxyg5 exi/$ 9 ! air4 ,! previ\sly pres5t r$uc+ gases 71 except = small fractions1 burn$ into wat]1 c>bon dioxide1 & sulphuric acid & ! nitrog5 comp\nds _h no d\bt yield$ free nitrog5 to ! /ores ( t gas already a "p ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! "t 0 n[ ripe = ! fir/ plants1 probably l[ =ms ( alg1 :i*1 9 ! oceans1 comm5c$ life on our planet4 ,! c>bon dioxide & hydro*loric acid ( ! air z well z ! newly =m$ sulphuric acid 7 absorb$ by ! runn+ wat] & caus$ a rapid dis9tegration produc+ silica & acid silicates4 ,z plant life develop$ & ext5d$ ! =mation ( oxyg5 increas$4 ,fall+ vegetable matt] 0 imb$d$ 9 slime :i* prev5t$ ! access ( oxyg5 dur+ decay & 9 ?is mann] ! fossil fuels 7 deposit$4 ,ko5e ( ,brussels fir/ po9t$ out t ! c>bon & ! sulphuric comp\nds accumulat$ 9 ! ,e>? w\ld suffice to b9d ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,lat] inve/igations lead to ! conclusion t ! c>bon alone is suffici5t = ! purpose4 ,x w\ld !re=e appe> t all ! oxyg5 ( ! air is d]iv$ f c>bon dioxide belong+ to ! orig9al atmosph]e or contribut$ !reto by ! volcanoes4 ,! reason :y c>bon dioxide & wat] cont9u\sly are lib]at$ f ! magma is und\bt$ly t ! acid silicates are light] ?an ! basic & !re=e accumulate 9 ! ext]ior p>ts ( ! magma4 ,a great surplus ( silica exi/s !re4 ,comp\nds conta9+ wat] & c>bon dioxide1 i4 e4 hydrates & c>bonates1 are also light & %\ld !re=e congregate to ! same /rata :]e silica ab\nds1 !re p>tly to be dissolv$ by ! free silica & ?us sett+ wat] & c>bonic acid free4 ,! latt] are1 9 contra/ to silica1 volatile & evaporate !re=e into ! air leav+ ! silica beh9d4 ,?is process is yet 9 evid5ce :]ev] ! magma em]ges z ?r\gh ! volcanoes4 ,b also a few o!r acids 9 ! magma are highly volatile1 z sulphur\s1 ?iosulphuric1 & hydro*loric acids4 ,^! also belong to ! volcanic gases1 are dissolv$ by ! wat]1 & p>take 9 ! processes ( dis9tegration4 ,! c>bon dioxide & hydro*loric acid =m c>bonates & *lorides4 ,! =m] are extract$ f ! sea wat] by cru/acea1 sometimes also by plants1 & =m "p ( our s$im5t>y /rata2 ! latt] are soluble & rema9 9 ! wat]1 *iefly z sodium *loride or common salt4 ,! ?iosulphuric acid1 probably a product ( f]r\s sulphide & acids 9 ! magma1 has ent]$ into num]\s insoluble metallic sulphides f\nd 9 ! ,e>?4 ,p>tly1 x has also be5 oxidiz$1 l ! sulphur\s acid1 into sulphuric acid & has !n assi/$ 9 ! processes ( dis9tegration1 =m+ gypsum :i* has be5 deposit$ 9 ! s$im5t>y rocks4 ,! geologi/s believ$ =m]ly t ! ,e>? gradually & cont9u\sly has gr[n cool]4 ,?is !ory1 h[ev]1 /ruggl$ ) ! difficulty t c]ta9 cold "t int]vals1 ice p]iods1 7 succe$$ by w>m] epo*s4 ,to beg9 ) ef=ts 7 made to surm\nt ?is ob/acle by assum+ t an ice p]iod on ! nor? hemisph]e 0 c\nt]balanc$ by a w>m p]iod on ! s\? hemisph]e & vice v]sa4 ,9 ?is mann]1 ! mean temp]ature = ! entire surface ( ! globe might possibly h be5 cont9u\sly decreas+ al?\gh fluctuations _h occurr$ on ! two hemisph]es4 ,b ?is view has prov$ unt5able1 because ! ice p]iod has left traces also )9 ! tropics1 ne> ! equator1 z on ,kilimanj>o1 9 ,new ,gu9ea1 & s on4 ,x is n[ practically agre$ t ! la/ great ice p]iod 0 *>act]iz$ by a temp]ature betwe5 #d to #e ,c4 7#g to #i ,f47 bel[ ! pres5t all ov] ! surface ( ! ,e>?4 ,?is det]m9ation has be5 accompli%$ by measur+ ! diff]5ce 9 height betwe5 ! t]m9als ( ! glaci]s at pres5t & ! l[e/ po9ts :]e _! gr9d+ action has left obvi\s traces4 ,! ice cov]+s ( ,nor? ,europe1 ,nor?-,ea/ ,am]ica1 ,s\? ,am]ica1 along ! coa/ ( ,*ile & 9 ,arg5t9a1 z well z on ! s\!rn isl& ( ,new ,zeal&1 all appe> to h exi/$ simultane\sly4 ,also dur+ e>li] eras1 = in/ance dur+ ! ,algonkian & ! ,p]mian epo*s1 ice p]iods h occurr$4 ,! latt]1 :i* 0 felt 9 ,au/ralia1 ,india1 & ,s\? ,africa1 is call$ ! ,gondwana-"t4 ,?is p]iod 0 =m]ly suppos$ n to h caus$ any temp]ature drop except 9 ! tracts m5tion$4 ,lat] inve/igations lead u to believe1 z ass]t$ by ,holl& 9 8 presid5tial address to ! geological section ( ! ,briti% ,association at its #aiad meet+1 t also ?is ice p]iod simultane\sly embrac$ ! entire globe4 ,z ! ,algonkian "t belongs to ! olde/ epo*s ( geological hi/ory x appe>s t ! temp]ature on ! ,e>? z long z life has exi/$ on our planet on ! :ole has be5 ne>ly con/ant1 ) important alt]nations1 h[ev]1 ( w>m & cold p]iods4 ,= an explanation ( ^! fluctuations1 our well-nigh only rec\rse is ! assumption t ! heat-cons]v+ quality ( ! atmosph]e has *ang$ by virtue ( a v>y+ composition4 ,w>m p]iods occurr$ :5 c>bon dioxide 0 abundant 9 ! atmosph]e due to volcanic activity1 cold p]iods aga9 accompani$ a paucity ( c>bon dioxide4 ,) ris+ temp]ature1 ! p]c5tage ( wat] vap\r 9 ! air also increas$1 af=d+ fur!r protection aga9/ radiation loss ( heat4 ,?us1 x w\ld seem z if ! mean temp]ature ( ! ,e>?'s surface h>dly _h *ang$ to any ext5t wor? m5tion+ dur+ imm5se spans ( "t e/imat$ to ab\t #ejj million ye>s4 ,nev]!less1 a sl[ process ( cool+ proce$+ t[>d ! c5tre ( ! planet probably takes place4 ,ev] gr[+ quantities ( matt] are transport$ f ! int]ior ( ! e>? ?r\gh volcanic action4 ,s$im5t>y deposits increase cont9u\sly :ile ! int]ior becomes holl[4 ,z a result ! cru/ mu/ gradually settle1 caus+ l>ge cracks 9 ! process4 ,= ^! weak5$ places ! volcanic products %[ a special lik+ & ! crat]s are /rung out 9 l9es along su* fissures4 ,9 o!r places1 :]e volcanic action is less pron\nc$1 hot spr+s appe> in/ead1 g5]ally emitt+ c>bon dioxide 9 abundance1 occasionally also sulphur\s acid & sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,! dislocations 9 ! cru/ also take place along ^! cracks accompani$ by e>?quakes4 ,! /udy ( ^! v>i\s ph5om5a has enabl$ u to map out ! fissures1 :i* g5]ally radiate 9 ne>ly /raight l9es f "o po9t1 ! s-call$ c5tre ( collapse1 z ! cracks 9 a pane ( glass issue f ! po9t ( breakage caus$ by a swift bl[4 ,we %all lat] see t su* breakage l9es & c5tres ( collapse are common on all /ell> bodies :i* possess a solid cru/ & are obs]vable f ! ,e>?4 ,we may n[ easily =m an idea ( ! g5]al tr5d 9 ! developm5t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! gases orig9ally pres5t 7 all1 except ! hydrog51 ! nitrog51 & ! r>e gases1 /rongly absorb5t ( light & 9 p>ticul> ( heat4 ,x is1 !re=e1 natural t ! planets :i* h n =m$ a solid cru/ possess a /rongly absorb+ vap\r-%ell1 z inde$ is ! case ) ! l>ge planets 7comp>e ,fig4 #ac74 ,! cru/ once =m$ & ! air gradually purg$ ( ^! gases1 ?anks to ! sunlight1 s t ma9ly nitrog5 & oxyg51 small quantities ( ! r>e gases1 & c>bon dioxide besides wat] rema9$1 ! temp]ature fell r rapidly4 ,c>bon dioxide =m$ ! la/ effective heat-cons]v+ +r$i5t4 ,z ! cru/ grew ?ick]1 ! supply ( ?is gas dim9i%$ & 0 fur!r us$ up 9 ! processes ( dis9tegration4 ,z a consequ5ce ! temp]ature sl[ly decreas$1 al?\gh decid$ fluctuations occurr$ ) ! *ang+ volcanic activity dur+ diff]5t p]iods4 ,supply & consumption ( c>bon dioxide fairly balanc$ z dis9tegration ran p>allel ) ! proportion ( ?is gas 9 ! air4 ,b evolution on ! :ole c only proce$ 9 "o direction t[>d a f9al cool+ ( ! ,e>?4 ,?is mu/ occur if = no o!r reason because ! /ore ( en]gy 9 ! ,sun & !re=e its radiation mu/ sl[ly decrease4 ,) deep5+ cru/ & disappe>+ c>bon dioxide vegetation mu/ ebb1 & ) x ! production ( oxyg54 ,?is gas also p>takes 9 ! g5]al dis9tegration ?r\gh oxidation ( iron protoxides 9 ! m9]al rocks4 ,! oxyg5 portion ( ! air mu/ !re=e f9ally rea* its maximum & />t on ! decl9e4 ,calculations po9t to ! conclusion t ! c>bon dioxide ( ! air w\ld be consum$ 9 a few t5s ( ?\s& ye>s if new supplies 7 n furni%$ f ! int]ior4 ,wat] is also absorb$ 9 ! processes ( decay z hydrat$ comp\nds are =m$1 increas+ 9 quantity ) fall+ temp]ature4 ,z ! am\nt ( wat] 9 ! ocean is imm5sely l>g] 7ab\t #ej1jjj times7 ?an ! /ores ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! air & 9 ! seas ! lack ( ! latt] w und\bt$ly fir/ become s]i\s4 ,b a sl[ desiccation ( ! planet mu/ subsequ5tly take place1 & w proce$ at an accel]at$ rate ) ! cont9u$ cool+ ( ! ,e>?4 ,!n ! vap\r 9 ! air & consequ5tly precipitation w wane4 ,!n1 z dur+ ! ice p]iods1 mighty ice caps w cov] ! poles & imp\nd a l>ge portion ( ! wat] 9 ! ocean4 ,f9ally1 ! entire planet1 p]haps aft] hav+ h>b\r$ life dur+ trillions ( ye>s1 becomes an ice wa/e ) a few cracks 9 its h>d cru/ ?r\gh :i* w>m & acid vap\rs rise & create small melt$ areas *>act]iz$ by a d>k] col\r ?an ! des]t & ice-l&scape 9 g5]al4 ,organic life lacks ! conditions = exi/5ce & ceases !re=e to *e] ! planet ) its int]e/+ v>iations4 ,! planet is dead b cont9ues 9 ob$i5ce to gravitation to describe its orbit 9 space4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,planet ,,m>s ,?r\gh ! works ( ,s*iap>elli1 ,flamm>ion1 & ,l[ell ! vivid int]e/ ( ! g5]al public has be5 direct$ t[>d our neighb\r planet ,m>s4 ,sev]al inve/igators1 ,flamm>ion & ,l[ell among !m1 ass]t ) full confid5ce t ,m>s has intellig5t inhabitants1 :o h built & ma9ta9 ! curi\s 8canals10 :i*1 x is /at$1 c\ld n h be5 creat$ except by intellig5t be+s f> sup]ior to man4 ,air1 wat]1 & sun%9e exi/ !re1 says ,flamm>ion 9 8 well-kn[n great "w1 ,la ,plante ,m>s 7#aijb1 page #eae74 8,x appe>s incongru\s to u to condemn a _w l ,m>s1 :]e all ! conditions = life exi/1 to su* a fate0 7to be a dry des]t74 ,no d\bt s5tim5t & ! desir$ result play a "p 9 all su* d$uctions1 z inde$ ! words *os5 by ,flamm>ion w\ld indicate4 ,z contra/$ to ! ,e>?1 ,m>s is1 on ! o!r h&1 consid]ably fur!r remov$ f ! ,sun1 ^: radiation !re=e on ,m>s possesses only #dc p] c5t4 ( its int5sity on ,e>?4 ,judg+ by ?is fact1 ! mean temp]ature ( ,m>s %\ld fall f> bel[ t ( ! ,e>? & consid]ably bel[ ! freez+ po9t ( wat] & "u su* conditions x is h>d to imag9e a vegetation ne> ! poles ( ,m>s z ,l[ell does 9 8 volume1 ,m>s z ! ,abode ( ,life 7#aiji71 or ev5 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! canals any:]e on ! surface ( ! planet z assum$ by ,flamm>ion4 ,) su* ideas 9 vogue we c well und]/& t ! a/ronom]s w\ld po9t _! lately extremely %>p5$ in/rum5ts t[>d our ruby-col\r$ neighb\r 9 ! sky :51 9 #aiji1 x pass$ v close to ! e>? "u conditions p>ticul>ly fav\rable to accurate obs]vations1 m s 9 fact ?an !y _h be5 dur+ ! sev5te5 prec$+ ye>s4 ,num]\s a/ro-physici/s1 among !m ! _w's =emo/ repres5tatives ( _! discipl9e1 h repeat$ly turn$ _! spectroscopes t[>d ,m>s 9 ord] to asc]ta9 :e!r wat] vap\r 0 pres5t !re or n4 ,9 ! spectrum ( ! ,sun we f9d sev]al s-call$ 8ra9-b&s0 due to ! fact t ! light be=e x rea*es ! app>atus has pass$ ?r\gh ! moi/ure ( ! air4 ,! m humid ! air ! m /rongly develop$ ^! ra9-b&s are4 ,if we direct ! in/rum5t fir/ on ! ,moon1 :i* lacks an atmosph]e & !re=e also moi/ure1 & !n on ,m>s1 :i* = ! sake ( simplicity we assume /&+ close to ! ,moon-disk1 a diff]5ce %\ld appe> 9 ! spectra ( ^! two bodies1 provid$ moi/ure is pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s4 ,! ra9-b&s ought to be m pron\nc$ 9 sunlight t has pass$ ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s 7pass$ x twice z ! light is reflect$ by ! surface ( ! planet7 ?an 9 light reflect$ f ! nak$ ,moon4 ,! b&s appe> ( c\rse 9 bo? spectra z ! light on its f9al /age to ! spectroscope passes ! atmosph]e ( ! ,e>?1 :i* nev] is free f moi/ure4 ,9 ?is mann] ,hugg9s & ,janss51 sci5ti/s ( _w-wide fame1 believ$ t !y _h demon/rat$ ! pres5ce ( wat] vap\r on ,m>s4 ,campbell1 on ! o!r h&1 ! prom95t director ( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory1 made simil> inve/igations ( ! planet 9 #ahid1 & s did a ,fr5* a/ronom]1 ,m>*&1 9 #ahif & #ahih1 bo? "u unusually fav\rable circum/ances z ! =m] in/all$ 8 in/rum5t #abhc m4 7#ebjj ft47 & ! latt] #bhfj m4 7#icgj ft47 above sea level1 b nei!r f\nd any indication ( moi/ure 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s4 ,x is evid5t t ! obs]vations w\ld be f> m accurate if we c\ld elim9ate ! moi/ure f ! atmosph]e ( ! ,e>?1 9 :i* case no ra9-b&s w\ld appe> 9 ! spectrum ( ! ,moon4 ,x w\ld !n be unnecess>y to comp>e ! two spectra2 we w\ld only h to det]m9e :e!r ra9-b&s 7 pres5t 9 ! spectrum ( ,m>s or n4 ,we c nev] entirely avoid ! wat] vap\r ( ! air1 b its influ5ce may be greatly r$uc$ by mak+ our obs]vations f high m\nta9s or 9 des]t climates :]e ! air is comp>atively dry1 t is free f wat] vap\r4 ,inve/igations und]tak5 :]e ! air is dry des]ve !re=e m confid5ce ?an ^? h&icapp$ by great] humidity4 ,! obs]vations by ,campbell & ,m>*& fall 9 ! =m] category1 & x w\ld1 !re=e1 appe> t ! pres5ce ( wat] vap\r on ,m>s to any ext5t wor? m5tion+ is highly d\btful4 ,9 lat] trials1 ,campbell & ,keel] h employ$ an improv$ me?od1 us+ photographs ( ! spectra on s5sitive plates1 b nei!r has succe$$ 9 discov]+ any wat] vap\r 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s4 ,obvi\sly photography (f]s a great advantage ov] direct ocul> obs]vation4 ,! two pictures may be plac$ side by side & v accurate measurem5ts may be made at leisure4 ,we may also *oose ! mom5ts = exposure :5 ! two /ell> bodies /& equally high ov] ! horizon s t ! sunlight reflect$ f !m trav]ses equal di/ances 9 ! humid atmosph]e ( ! e>?4 ,x n[ devolv$ ^u ,l[ell to te/ 8 !ories by means ( ! magnific5t res\rces at 8 disposal 9 ,flag/aff obs]vatory 9 ! des]t ( ,arizona #bbjj m4 7#gbjj ft47 above sea level4 ,9 ! mon?s ( ,janu>y & ,febru>y ! dew-po9t !re is ab\t -#g ,c4 7#ai4d ,f47 i4 e41 ea* cubic met] 7#a4c cu4 yds47 ( air conta9s #b4h grammes 7#dc4be gra9s7 ( wat] vap\r :ile saturat$ air at z]o temp]ature 7#cb ,f47 holds ne>ly twice ?is am\nt or #d4h grammes 7#gd gra9s7 p] cubic met] 7#a4c cu4 yds474 ,sliph]1 work+ 9 ?is obs]vatory1 pu%$ ! s5sitiv5ess ( 8 plates to ! utmo/ !n obta9able1 & photograph$ ! spectrum ( ,m>s 9 ,janu>y & ,febru>y1 #aijh4 ,he f\nd t ! mo/ important ra9-b& always 0 m prom95t 9 ! spectrum ( ,m>s ?an 9 ! spectrum ( ! ,moon photograph$ lat] dur+ ! same night4 ,peculi>ly en\gh1 x 0 only ! ra9-b& designat$ 8,a10 & locat$ 9 ! r$ spectral field1 t 0 ( a m>k$ diff]5ce 9 ! two spectra4 ,o!r b&s gave no indication ( ! pres5ce ( wat] vap\r on ,m>s4 ,?is result did n directly contradict ! conclusions rea*$ by ,campbell & ,keel]1 also by means ( photography2 !y _h inve/igat$ o!r b&s ?an 8,a40 ,! 8,a0-l9e might !re=e possibly be m s5sitive to wat] vap\r ?an ! o!rs4 ,sliph]'s discov]y 0 consid]$ s valuable t x mu/ be employ$ to ! limit4 ,! well-kn[n physici/ ,v 0 !re=e call$ 9 consultation2 he made c>eful measurem5ts ( ! int5sity ( ! 8,a0-l9es on ! v>i\s plates & calculat$ t ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s conta9$ #a4ge times z mu* wat] vap\r z t ( ! ,e>? at ! po9t ( obs]vation4 ,if we desire to det]m9e ! proportion ( wat] vap\r 9 ! air at ! surface ( ,m>s f ?is /atem5t we may figure 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,! am\nt ( wat] vap\r 9 a v]tical column ( air "o squ>e met] 7#a4b sq4 yds47 9 section is1 accord+ to ,hann1 #bejj times ! am\nt 9 a cubic met] 7#a4c cu4 yds47 at ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,at ! "t ( ! obs]vation1 ! latt] am\nt 0 #b4bi grammes 7#ce4d gra9s72 on ea* squ>e met] 7#a4b sq4 yds47 ( ! gr\nd re/$ !re=e #egbe grammes 7#ab lbs4 #aa oz47 ( wat] vap\r4 ,t ! quantity ( wat] is n l>g]1 al?\gh ! dep? ( ! atmosph]e f> exce$s #bejj m4 7#a4e miles71 is due to ! fact t ! temp]ature rapidly decreases ) di/ance f ! gr\nd4 ,on ,m>s1 ! temp]ature ought n to fall s quickly ) *ange 9 height because ! int5sity ( gravity !re is #b4fh times small] ?an on ! ,e>?4 ,! temp]ature drops !re #b4fh times sl[] ) asc5t 9 ! atmosph]e1 & a column ( air on ,m>s "o squ>e met] 7#a4b sq4 yds47 9 section %\ld !re=e conta9 #ffhj times z mu* wat] vap\r z a cubic met] 7#a4c cu4 yds47 at its surface4 ,z ,m>s did n /& 9 z5i?1 ! di/ance trav]s$ by ! light-ray 9 ! atmosph]e 0 great]--9 fact #a4dc times great] ?an if su* _h be5 ! case4 ,a column ( air 9 ! direction ( ! light-ray1 "o squ>e met] 7#a4b sq4 yds47 9 section conta9$ !re=e #hage grammes 7#ah lbs4 #c oz47 wat] vap\r4 ,9 ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s :i* ! light pass$ 9 a v]tical direction !re 01 if we are to believe ,v1 #a4ge times z mu*1 or #ad1cjj grammes 7#ca lbs4 #h oz47 & 9 a cubic met] 7#a4c cu4 yds47 at ! surface ( ! planet1 consequ5tly #ffhj times less1 or #b4ad grammes 7#cc4a gra9s74 ,! correspond+ dew-po9t is !n1 accord+ to ?is det]m9ation1 -#aj4c ,c4 7#ac4e ,f474 ,x is agre$ ^u t a des]t climate prevails on ,m>s4 ,x might at ! "t ( ! obs]vation con=m to ! extremely dry climate at ,salt ,lake ,city 9 ! height ( summ] :5 ! humidity !re is only #ca p] c5t4 ( saturation4 ,"u su* conditions saturat$ air at noon 9 ! equatorial belt on ,m>s %\ld conta9 #g grammes 7#ajh gra9s7 p] cubic met] 7#a4c cu4 yds47 correspond+ to a temp]ature ( #e4c ,c4 7#da4e ,f474 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t ?is 0 n v enc\rag+ to ,l[ell4 ,if ! temp]ature 9 ! middle ( ! day1 :5 ! sunlight falls p]p5dicul>ly on ! surface ( ! planet1 rises only to ab\t #e ,c4 7#da ,f471 ! mean temp]ature = tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 ev5 9 ! mid/ ( ! summ]1 mu/ 9 ?is entirely cle>1 light air be f> bel[ freez+ & vegetation on ,m>s is !re=e n v well conceivable4 ,9 spite ( ?is1 ,l[ell saw 9 ,sliph]'s measurem5ts a confirmation ( 8 !ory t ,m>s is ! abode ( an intellig5t race t utilizes1 9 _! wre/le ) exi/5ce1 a v]dant vegetation pu%$ ev5 into ! pol> regions4 ,campbell1 h[ev]1 w5t "o /ep fur!r ?an ,sliph]4 ,9 ,augu/ & ,septemb]1 #aiji1 ,m>s occupi$ a position 9 ! sky p>ticul>ly fav\rable to obs]vations4 ,campbell decid$ to b5efit !reby4 ,) ! support ( a ri* patron ( sci5ce1 a ,mr4 ,crock]1 :o on sev]al occasions has made magnific5t contributions t[>d a/ronomical rese>*1 ,campbell equipp$ an exp$ition to ,m\nt ,:itney 9 ,cali=nia1 #ddbe m4 7#ad1ejb ft47 high & ! l(tie/ peak 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,he 0 accompani$ by an able sci5tific /aff1 ! mo/ prom95t ( :i* 7 ,dr4 ,abbot1 head ( ! obs]vatory belong+ to ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itution1 & a well-kn[n ,g]man a/ronom]1 ,albre*t4 ,! memb]s ( ! exp$ition 7 affect$ by m\nta9 sickness & suff]$ _m sev]e h>d%ips :5 ! w9d 0 high1 rea*+ ab\t #be m4 p] sec4 7#ef miles p] h\r71 & at ! same "t cold1 fall+ bel[ z]o 7freez+7 dur+ ! night4 ,! b>ometric pressure 0 only #ddg mm4 7#ag4f in*es74 ,dur+ ! nights1 :5 ! obs]vations 7 made1 ! wat] cont5t ( ! air fell to betwe5 #j4e & #j4i grammes 7#g4g gra9s to #ac4i gra9s7 p] cubic met] 7#a4c cu4 yd47 or #b4e to #d times less ?an ,sliph] _h to cont5d )4 ,! spectra ( ! ,moon & ( ,m>s 7 photograph$ 9 close succession1 two exposures be+ made 9 ea* case4 ,! b& 8,a0 0 pla9ly visible on sev]al plates4 ,no indication ( great] prom95ce ( ?is b& 9 ! spectrum ( ,m>s c\ld be f\nd4 ,o!r ra9-b&s 7 also inve/igat$ ) ! same result4 ,nei!r 7 ! *>act]i/ic b&s ( oxyg5 /rong] 9 ! spectrum ( ,m>s1 ?an 9 t ( ! ,moon4 ,sliph] believ$ t he _h disc]n$ a diff]5ce1 al?\gh ( a hair's bread?1 :i* w\ld indicate ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s4 ,! conclusion itself is n improbable1 b ! am\nt ( oxyg5 !re is 9 any case consid]ably small] ?an 9 ! ,e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,sev]al /atem5ts by ,campbell1 z well z ,sliph]'s obs]vations1 indicate t a diff]5ce ought to h appe>$ betwe5 ! spectrum ( ,m>s & t ( ! ,moon if ! wat] cont5t 9 ,m>s' atmosph]e _h be5 ! same z 9 ! ,e>?'s at ! "t ( ! obs]vation4 ,?is cont5t1 z /at$ be=e1 0 ab\t #c times small] on ,m\nt ,:itney ?an at ,flag/aff4 ,at ! latt] place1 ! measurem5ts gave #a4ge z ! ratio ( wat] vap\r on ,m>s to t on ! ,e>?4 ,! am\nt ( wat] vap\r ) ! ,sun 9 z5i? on ,m>s %\ld !re=e1 accord+ to ,campbell's obs]vations1 only rea* #j4d gramme 7#f4a gra9s7 p] cubic met] 7#a4c cu4 yds47 correspond+ to a dew-po9t ( -#bh ,c4 7-#ah4d ,f47 or to an actual temp]ature ( -#ag ,c4 7#a4d ,f47 all[+ also = a des]t climate ) only #ca p] c5t4 saturation4 ,?is temp]ature is probably high] ?an ! mean = a summ] day z ! obs]vations 7 made at noon on ,m>s4 ,x mu/ n[ be evid5t t we %\ld consid] ,m>s z unfit to h>b\r liv+ be+s4 ,!re is possibly a slight am\nt ( oxyg5 9 ! ?9 air b ! extremely l[ temp]ature & ! scant supply ( wat] vap\r =m insurm\ntable ob/acles to ! subsi/5ce ( ev5 ! simple/ =ms ( life 9 ! equatorial regions on ,m>s4 ,! temp]ature diff]5ce betwe5 day & night mu/ be enorm\s on acc\nt ( ! des]t climate4 ,ev5 if life c\ld develop dur+ ! day1 :i* has ne>ly ! same duration z ) u--,l[ell fix$ x at #bd h\rs1 #cg m9utes1 #bb4f seconds--& dur+ :i* ! temp]ature possibly might rise above ! freez+ po9t1 x w\ld nev]!less be de/roy$ )\t m]cy by ! bitt] fro/ at night4 ,campbell has (f]$ an explanation ( ! indications ( wat] vap\r on ,m>s1 app>5t on ,sliph]'s photographs4 ,an analysis ( ! latt]'s obs]vations %[s t ! ,moon 0 photograph$ ab\t f\r h\rs lat] 9 ! night ?an 0 ,m>s4 ,on all occasions except "o1 cl\ds appe>$ 9 ! sky4 ,?is indicates ! pres5ce ( moi/ure 9 ! air1 s t ! humidity %\ld *ange ) ! temp]ature :i* latt] rapidly falls 9 ! c\rse ( ! night4 ,campbell1 himself1 f\nd dur+ ! cle> nights1 :5 he made 8 obs]vations1 t ! humidity 9 ! h\rs ( ! night up to midnight falls to a fraction--a half or a ?ird--( its orig9al value an h\r or s aft] sunset4 ,?is rapid temp]ature drop is probably conf9$ to ! /rata imm$iately above ! obs]vation po9t b ! moi/ure is /rongly conc5trat$ d[nw>d s t ?is *ange 9 humidity und\bt$ly %\ld h be5 tak5 into acc\nt4 ,or bett]1 obs]vations %\ld be avoid$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! night & ! ,moon & ,m>s photograph$ z soon aft] ea* o!r z possible1 precautions tak5 by ,campbell b n by ,sliph]4 ,t ! latt] f\nd less traces ( wat] on ! lun> photos ?an on ! m>tian ones is1 !re=e1 probably due to ! fact t ! =m] 7 tak5 ab\t midnight b ! latt] n long aft] sunset1 :5 ! atmosph]e conta9$ mu* m wat] vap\r4 ,?us1 we le>n h[ a small slip1 m obvi\s to ! meteorologi/ ?an to ! a/ronom]1 may spoil a lab\r o!rwise done ) extraord9>y c>e4 ,to ,campbell's critique ,v answ]$ by ! sugge/ion t ! meteorological conditions dur+ ! ,m\nt ,:itney obs]vations %\ld h be5 exceptionally unfav\rable4 ,! entire s\?-we/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ! nor? ( ,mexico 7 visit$ at t "t by cl\dy wea!r & heavy d[np\rs4 ,v cont5ds t ?is humidity %\ld p>tly h ext5d$ to ! high /rata above ,m\nt ,:itney & !re=e r5d]$ ! calculation ( ! moi/ure cont5t ( ! air entirely unreliable4 ,simultane\sly 7,augu/1 #aiaj7 new measurem5ts 7 publi%$ ( ,sliph]'s photo-plates f ,febru>y1 #aijh1 :i* ,v _h exam9$4 ,! result 0 n[ t ! ra9-b& 8,a0 0 #b4e times m pron\nc$ 9 ! spectrum ( ,m>s ?an 9 t ( ! ,moon4 ,fur!rmore1 ! oxyg5 absorption-b& 8,b0 0 #a4e times /rong] = ,m>s ?an = ! ,moon4 ,great quantities ( wat] vap\r & oxyg5 %\ld1 !re=e1 und\bt$ly exi/ 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s4 ,9 ! meantime ,campbell _h n be5 idle4 ,! difficulty ) ! old] measurem5ts consi/$ 9 ! fact t ! absorption l9e ( wat] vap\r 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s occupies ! id5tical place ( ! l9e due to vap\r 9 ! ,e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,!re exi/s1 h[ev]1 a me?od1 z already po9t$ out by ,campbell 9 #ahif1 ( sep>at+ ! two1 :i* me?od is available :5 ,m>s ei!r approa*es or dep>ts f ! ,e>? ) suffici5t velocity4 ,! latt] c\ld be det]m9$ bo? f ! kn[n motions ( ! two planets & f ! displacem5t ( c]ta9 spectral l9es ( ! ,sun4 ,^! two det]m9ations 7 9 almo/ p]fect agreem5t2 = in/ance ,janu>y #bf-bg1 #aiaj1 a/ronomical calculations gave a relative velocity ( #ai4a km4 7#aa4hf miles7 p] second & spectroscopical measurem5ts #ai4b km4 7#aa4ic miles7 p] second1 :ile on ,febru>y #c-d ! relative velocity 0 #ah4a km4 7#aa4bd miles7 a diff]5ce ( #a km4 74#fb miles7 p] second4 ,?is trial %[s ! accuracy ( ! me?od4 ,among ! absorption l9es ( wat] vap\r & ( oxyg5 !re 01 h[ev]1 none due to ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s4 ,campbell assumes t su* l9es w\ld c]ta9ly h be5 visible if !y _h be5 only "o-fif? z /rong z ! s-call$ tellurian l9es4 ,! advantage ( ?is me?od is evid5tly t ! 8m>tian0 & ! 8tellurian0 l9es lie close beside ea* o!r on ! same plate s t diff]5ces 9 s5sitiv5ess1 exposure1 & atmosph]ic conditions are entirely elim9at$4 ,f ^! & ! foll[+ data we may calculate wat] cont5t & temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e on ,m>s anew3 wat] vap\r at ! po9t ( obs]vation 0 #a4i grammes 7#bi4c gra9s7 p] cubic met] 7#a4c cu4 yds471 z5i?-di/ance ( ,m>s #ee & incid5t z well z reflect$ sun-rays =m$ an angle ( #gj ) ! surface ( ,m>s2 h5ce1 ! am\nt ( moi/ure at ! surface 0 only #j4ab gramme 7#a4he gra9s7 p] cubic met] 7#a4c cu4 yds471 correspond+ to -#ch ,c4 7-#cf4d ,f47 = saturat$ air & to -#bg ,c4 7-#af4f ,f47 = air ( #ca p] c5t4 saturation4 ,oxyg5 cont5t p] cubic met] 7#a4c cu4 yds47 at ! surface ( ,m>s w\ld be only a sixte5? "p ( correspond+ num]ical value on ! ,e>?4 ,?is det]m9ation is m accurate ?an any ( ! previ\s ones & r$uces ! temp]ature ano!r #aj ,c4 7#ah ,f47 bel[ ! l[e/ value d]iv$ e>li] 9 ?is *apt]4 ,we %\ld rememb]1 h[ev]1 t1 dur+ ! trial ( ,septemb]1 #aiji1 ! sun /ood practically 9 z5i? on ,m>s1 :ile 9 ,janu>y & ,febru>y1 #aiaj1 we are conc]n$ ) a po9t :]e sunrise _h occurr$ ab\t f\r & a half h\rs previ\sly4 ,! latt] obs]vation %\ld give a value close to1 b slightly above1 ! mean diurnal temp]ature on ,m>s4 ,no det]m9ation comp>able 9 precision ) ?is "o by ,campbell appe>s to h be5 made4 ,we mu/ !re=e recognize x z conclusive4 ,we may easily calculate ! surface temp]ature ( a planet f ! int5sity ( ! sol> radiation receiv$1 or insolation1 provid$ ! surr\nd+ vap\r %ell conta9s no heat ret>d+ gas4 ,! mo/ important gases ( ?is k9d are wat] vap\r1 :i*1 z we j h se51 is v sp>se 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s1 & c>bon dioxide1 ( :i* !re probably also1 = reasons /at$ bel[1 is only a scant supply 9 ! m>tian gas %ell4 ,su* calculations 7 fir/ p]=m$ by ,*ri/ians5 ( ,cop5hag51 :o assum$ #b4e calories z ! sol> con/ant on ,e>?1 i4 e41 ! am\nt ( en]gy receiv$ ?r\gh insolation p] m9ute by ea* squ>e c5timet] 74#ae sq4 947 ( ! ,e>?'s surface :5 at "r angle to ! radiation & on mean di/ance f ! ,sun4 ,on ,m>s1 ! radiat+ en]gy receiv$ "u simil> conditions is only ab\t #a4a calories4 ,! surface ( ! planet is heat$ until x radiates z mu* en]gy into space z x receives f ! ,sun4 ,9 ?is way we obta9 an av]age temp]ature ( -#cg ,c4 7-#cd4f ,f47 = ! entire surface ( ,m>s4 ,! regions1 expos$ to ! ,sun 9 z5i? at noon1 might1 if heat 7 n convey$ !refrom1 possibly rea* a daily mean temp]ature ( #h ,c4 7#df4d ,f47 & p]haps slightly m at noon4 ,probably n ev5 ! freez+ po9t is rea*$1 z ! heat is rapidly c>ri$ away by ! freely circulat+ air4 ,! above-m5tion$ mean temp]ature ( -#cg ,c4 7-#cd4f ,f47 seems on ! :ole to agree well ) ! obs]vations by ,campbell on ,m\nt ,:itney4 ,rec5t accurate det]m9ations ( ! int5sity ( ! sol> radiation by ,abbot1 ,k4 ng/rm & o!rs1 indicate t x has be5 e/imat$ ab\t #bj p] c5t4 too high4 ,if we take ! sol> con/ant to an ev5 #b4j calories1 :i* is a trifle high1 we rea* ! conclusion t ! mean temp]ature on ,m>s w\ld fall ab\t #ej degrees bel[ freez+4 ,equatorial regions might !n rea* an av]age ( -#h ,c4 7#ag4f ,f47 & at noon ! temp]ature might possibly rise slightly above z]o 7#cb ,f474 ,a high] temp]ature yet might be atta9$ at ! pole :]e ! ,sun dur+ ! summ] rema9s = mon?s above ! horizon or a high m>k ( #h ,c4 7#df4d ,f47 provid$ no heat 7 c>ri$ away by air curr5ts4 ,su* losses naturally mu/ occur1 & ! temp]ature probably hov]s ar\nd freez+4 ,at ! m>tian poles we might possibly imag9e ! exi/5ce ( "s l[ =ms ( vegetation 7sn[-alg1 etc47 dur+ ! height ( ! %ort summ]4 ,:5 we hi!rto on ! au?ority ( ,l[ell1 ,v1 & o!rs1 h assum$ an av]age temp]ature ( #aj ,c4 7#ej ,f47 on ,m>s1 we h done s on ! supposition t ! atmosph]e ( ! planet conta9$ great quantities ( heat-cons]v+ gases4 ,?is assumption appe>s to be no m t5able ?an ! belief 9 ! high temp]ature on ,m>s4 ,aft] all1 ! temp]ature is probably ab\t #aj ,c4 7#ah ,f47 high] ?an our la/ calculation w\ld indicate--or ab\t -#dj ,c4 7-#dj ,f47--because ! air on ,m>s is v cle> & admits1 !re=e1 all sun-rays1 reta9+ also a fraction by virtue ( :at little wat] vap\r1 c>bon dioxide1 & o!r heat-cons]v+ gases !re may be pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,! mean summ] temp]ature at ! m>tian equator 7-#bg ,c4 or -#af4f ,f4 acc4 to ,campbell's data7 w\ld !n lie ab\t #ac ,c4 7#bc4d ,f47 above ! mean = ! planet4 ,?is agrees closely ) conditions on ! ,e>? :]e ! highe/ mean 9 ,july at ! equator is #bg ,c4 7#hj4f ,f47 & ! mean = ! e>? #af ,c4 7#fj4h ,f474 ,we are consequ5tly oblig$ to revise 9 _! entirety our ideas ab\t ,m>s4 ,! belief t organic life 7gre5 vegetation7 causes ! col\r ( ! s-call$ seas on ,m>s1 z assum$ by ,l[ell1 or t ! r$ t9ts belong to ! gorge\s dress 9 :i* autumn arrays ! plants be=e _! leaves are %$ "u ! attacks ( fro/1 z intimat$ by ,flamm>ion1 mu/ n[adays take its place 9 ! %ad[y realm ( dreams4 ,^? :o d n believe t ! s-call$ canals are real wat]ways1 devot$ to freight c>ry+ & irrigation1 or illusions1 :i* conception ! photographs contradict 7= example ,fig4 #ah71 g5]ally consid] t !y signify cracks or fissures4 ,z 9 ! cru/ ( ! ,e>?1 !y g5]ally run 9 ne>ly /raight l9es or 9 regul>ly b5t curves 7,fig4 #ag & #ag;a74 ,flamm>ion m5tions t ! r5[n$ physici/ ,fizeau look$ ^u ! 8canals0 z cracks 9 ! ice-cov]+s ( ! oceans on ,m>s4 ,p5>d1 9 #ahhh1 express$ ! m likely op9ion t !y correspond to ! fissures 9 ! cru/ ( ! ,e>?4 ,flamm>ion cont5ds t su* fissures d n h ! rectil9e> configuration ( ! 8canals40 ,?is is completely 9 error1 z %[n on ! map "h reproduc$ 7,fig4 #af74 ,x is also /at$ t !y are s inexplicably long1 = in/ance ! canal ,phison is #bbej ,engli% miles 7,l[ell7 or #cfbj km4 9 l5g?4 ,! longe/ kn[n e>?quake crack along ! entire l5g? ( :i* a dislocation has tak5 place at "o "t is #fjj km4 7#cgc miles7 9 ext5sion2 ! viol5t e>?quake 9 ,cali=nia1 #aijf1 orig9at$ f ?is crack4 ,!re is no d\bt1 moreov]1 t a great fissure 9 ! ,e>? foll[s ! coa/ ( ,*ile f ,arica to ! ,/rait ( ,magellan 9 a ne>ly nor? & s\? direction = a di/ance ( ab\t #cb p>allels or #cefj km4 7#bbaj miles74 ,?is fissure is almo/ z long z ,phison on ,m>s4 ,su* cracks exi/ along ! entire coa/ ( ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,z yet1 we d n "k _! position 9 mu* detail1 because long /ret*es run bel[ ! sea or ?r\gh t]ritories n yet occupi$ by civiliz$ p4 ,z an example ( a small fissure1 a picture tak5 by ,s$]holm f ,segelskr1 ea/ ( ,hang 9 ! ,baltic1 may s]ve 7see ,fig4 #ae74 ,z ! /udies ( e>?quakes are prosecut$ ) increas+ int]e/ 9 lat] ye>s1 fissures ( all dim5sions w und\bt$ly soon be discov]$4 ,! solid cru/ on ,m>s is1 fur!rmore1 some:at ?ick] ?an t ( ! ,e>? z ! cool+ ( t planet has progress$ fur!r4 ,! sections brok5 (f at ! bur/+ ( ! ,m>tian cru/ ought !re=e to be mu* l>g] bo? 9 bread? & 9 l5g?4 ,no d\bt1 ! facts t ! int5sity ( gravity on ,m>s is only ?ree-eights ( its int5sity on ! ,e>? & t ! curvature ( ! ,m>tian surface is twice z %>p z ! ,e>?'s contribute to ?is result4 ,imag9e two vaults1 "o built ) high] & broad] w$ge-%ap$ /ones ?an ! o!r & ) half ! radius & fur!rmore load$ only "o-?ird z heavily z ! o!r1 & x w become evid5t t we c p]mit a mu* l>g] span 9 ! =m] ?an 9 ! latt] case )\t fe> ( collapse4 ,9 o!r words1 x requires a mu* m ext5sive cav+ or %r9kage ( ! molt5 mass b5ea? ! cru/ ( ,m>s to cause a rupture ?an "u ! t]re/rial cru/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,n>r[ bay on ! left side ( ,segelsk>1 ea/ ( ,hango 9 ,f9l&4 ,! bay owes its exi/5ce to ! fact t ! ice has laid b>e a t]ritory c\rs$ ?r\gh by fissures4 ,photo by ,i4 ,i4 ,s$]holm4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,e>?quake c5tres 9 ,calabria & 9 ,sicily4 ,on ! l>g] map ! damag$ localities are indicat$1 on ! small] ! mo/ prom95t tremor l9es4 ,drawn by ,i4 ,i4 ,s$]holm4 ,z a consequ5ce1 ! fissures on ,m>s ought to be long] ?an ! correspond+ =mations on ! ,e>?4 ,a ?or\gh /udy ( ! l>ge fissure 9 ,calabria %[s t x consi/s ( a v]itable network ( small] /raight cracks 7z is app>5t on ,figure #af1 :i* is tak5 f a "w by ! well-kn[n ,f9ni% geologi/ ,s$]holm74 ,on ?is map ! radial cracks 7see ,worlds 9 ! ,mak+1 ,fig4 #af71 *>t$ by ,suess1 are also %[n1 & _! direction "u ! sea designat$ by dott$ l9es4 ,! sket* 9 ! upp] left corn] ( ,fig4 #af is 9 /rik+ simil>ity to a picture drawn by ,s*iap>elli 9 ,m]cator's projection ( ! planet ,m>s 7see map at ! end ( book74 ,we notice on bo?1 ! num]\s equidi/ant l9es correspond+ to p>allel cracks & duplex canals4 ,n e fissure has its p>allel & n e canal its mate--g5]ally only "o ( ! latt] is visible & sometimes bo? disappe>4 ,z ! radial cracks 9 ! draw+ by ,suess if ext5d$ meet 9 ! ,lip>i ,isl&s1 s also sev]al canals on ,m>s run toge!r 9 a s-call$ lake 7,l[ell call$ !m 8groves0 or 8oases07 :i* evid5tly is a c5tre ( collapse 7_m appe> on ,fig4 #ag74 ,x is pla9 t all cross+s ( ! 8canals0 are n necess>ily su* c5tres ( collapse4 7,see maps ,figs4 #ag & #ag;a at end ( book74 ,we %all consequ5tly assume t ! canals on ,m>s correspond to ! geological dislocation fissures on ! ,e>?4 ,along ^! fissures em]ge ! gases lib]at$ 9 ! cool+ process on bo? planets2 :i* are simil> gases to ^? :i* escape ?r\gh ! volcanoes4 ,^! vap\rs are prim>ily wat]1 next c>bon dioxide &1 9 consid]ably small] quantities1 sulphurett$ gases & hydro*loric acid4 ,!y dis*>ge ?r\gh cracks 9 regions :i*1 geologically speak+1 n s long ago 7 ! sc5e ( volcanic activity4 ,9 ! dislocation-grooves1 lakes1 & wat] c\rses are (t5 =m$1 z we may obs]ve 9 sev]al places 9 ,sw$51 = in/ance ne> ,/ockholm4 ,assume n[ a gradual cool+ ( our e>?4 ,mo/ t]ritories are cov]$ by /ratifi$1 comp>atively light rocks4 ,to ! dislocation fissures wat] ga!rs f ! surr\nd+ /rata & occasionally f ! int]ior1 p>tly wa%es away ! loose mat]ial & trans=ms ! fissures into furr[s1 g5]ally ) flat bottoms4 ,dissolv$ salts are c>ri$ to ! sea4 ,z cool+ proce$s1 ! ocean comm5ces to freeze4 ,ea* summ] ! surface melts to a c]ta9 ext5t1 z is ! case n[ 9 our pol> regions4 ,f9ally1 ! entire ocean freezes to ! bottom1 ! ice is n[ to be consid]$ z a k9d ( rock1 flexures & dislocations cease & ! ice assumes a smoo? surface4 ,9 ! /rong sunlight dur+ ! summ] ?is surface ?aws1 z d ! wat]-c\rses on ! ma9l&1 & ^! cont9ue to c>ry _! salts to ! op5 surface wat]4 ,at ! approa* ( w9t] ! latt] solidifies aga9 b n z ! wat] 9 our inl& lakes f ! top b f ! bottom1 z ord9>y sea-wat] possesses its greate/ d5sity bel[ ! freez+ po9t :ile ! opposite is true ( fre% wat]4 ,! consequ5ce is t ! ice f\ndation gr[s upw>d & z ! surface wat] becomes increas+ly %all[ x is turn$ into a conc5trat$ salt solution4 ,) a fur!r drop 9 temp]ature ! ice =mation is accompani$ by cry/allization ( ! salts4 ,some?+ simil> takes place on ! ,m>tian ma9l& 9 its flat riv] bas9s1 :i* correspond to ! salt lakes 9 our des]ts4 ,on acc\nt ( ! bitt] cold & ! consumption ( ! wat] 9 ! process ( dis9tegration 7! c>bon dioxide has be5 l>gely us$ up 9 ! same mann]71 precipitation has almo/ ceas$ on ,m>s & mo/ ( ! wat] 9 circulation em]ges f ! int]ior ( ! planet along ! fissures4 ,z x conta9s hydro*loric acid & c>bon dioxide x extracts f ! soil salts1 su* z ! *lorides ( sodium 7common salt71 ( calcium & ( magnesium1 all pres5t 9 common sea-wat] to :i* x 0 br\ght by ! riv]s4 ,! comp\nds ( calcium & magnesium are n precipitat$ z c>bonat$ salts ?r\gh ! m$ium ( cru/acea z is ! case on e>?4 ,! /rong sol> radiation dur+ ! summ] p>tly evaporates ! wat] into ! ?9 air1 leav+ ! salts beh9d4 ,on acc\nt ( ! l[ temp]ature1 ?is vaporization on ,m>s is probably sl[] ?an on ! ,e>?4 ,along ! cracks 9 ! cru/1 a k9d ( dry salt-lakes are =m$ simil> to ! g5]ally %all[ & occasionally dry lakes common 9 ! des]ts ( ,c5tral ,asia z describ$ by ,h$94 ,we "k t ,m>s possesses a pron\nc$ des]t climate4 ,!re f9ally rema9s 9 ! l[e/ sections ( ! wat] c\rses a conc5trat$ salt solution1 :i* p>ts ) its wat] m & m reluctantly1 s t ! salts :i* mo/ /rongly hold ! wat] cry/allize at ! deepe/ po9ts4 ,if ! w9t]'s cold is suffici5tly sev]e 7bel[ -#ee ,c4 or -#fg ,f47 ice is extract$ ev5 f ! mo/ conc5trat$ solutions1 :i* ma9ly conta9 *loride ( calcium4 ,9 spite ( su* extreme temp]atures1 evaporation into ! r>e atmosph]e is n negligible & ! ice cry/als p>tly vani%1 to reappe> 9 ! colde/ regions ( ! planet1 t is1 ar\nd ! pole :i* at ! "t is turn$ away f ! sun4 ,on ! ocean1 n[ froz5 solid ?r\gh\t1 a pol>-cap ( sn[ & ho>-fro/ is =m$ :i* f9ally rea*es z f> z ! #ch? p>allel on ! s\!rn hemisph]e 7see ,figs4 #ah & #ai71 :]e w9t] occurs :5 ,m>s is mo/ remov$ f ! sun1 & to ! #eh? p>allel 7see ,fig4 #ai7 on ! nor!rn hemisph]e :]e w9t] reigns :ile ,m>s is ne>e/ to ! ,sun & consequ5tly n q s cold4 ,simil> conditions obta9 on ! ,e>? al?\gh n to su* a m>k$ degree4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,photograph ( ,m>s1 enl>g$ & ret\*$2 tak5 by ,lampl& ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,appe>ance ( ,m>s ,april #h1 #aijg1 z obs]v$ by ,qunisset4 ,bel[ "o pole a d>k l9e is pla9ly visible4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,! s\? pole spot on ,m>s obs]v$ by ,j>ry-,desloges ,july #aj1 #aiji4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,! appe>ance ( ,m>s dur+ an obs]vation by ,antoniadi 9 #aiji4 ,! :ole disk is some:at hazy2 bel[1 ! details are hidd5 by cl\ds ( s&4 ,9 ! vic9ity ( ! sn[-:ite pol> cap1 :e!r !re be cont95t or sea1 bodies ( wat] occur ) solidly froz5 surface cov]$ by cry/als ( v hygroscopic salts1 su* z ! *lorides ( calcium1 magnesium1 & sodium4 ,:5 ! summ] w>m? returns & ! pol> cap is heat$1 ! ho>-fro/ evaporates1 & ! n[ comp>atively humid air spreads ov] ! surr\nd+ t]ritory4 ,we obs]ve also frequ5t mi/-=mations 9 ^! places4 ,! gr\nd ne> ! edge ( ! pol> sn[ assumes !n (t5 a d>k hue on acc\nt ( ! moi/ure 7,fig4 #ai74 ,occasionally canals & lakes appe> 9 ! pol> cap 7see ,fig4 #bj74 ,?is is evid5tly due to hot emanations along ! cracks4 ,! moi/ air sweeps ov] ! salts1 :i* !n absorb wat] & dissolve into conc5trat$ solutions4 ,new quantities ( wat] vap\r are suppli$ f ! pole z !y di/ill ov] t[>d ! o!r pole1 :]e w9t] n[ exi/s1 & pu% on t[>d ! equator :i* !y f9ally pass4 ,9 _! c\rse !y dissolve ! salts 9 ! depressions along ! fissures & p>ticul>ly at ! deep cross+s :]e ! c5tres ( collapse or ! s-call$ 8oases0 are locat$4 ,l[ell has obs]v$ t ! 8canals0 9 ?is mann] gradually 8liquify0 f #gh ,n4 ,lat4 to ! equator 9 fifty-two days4 ,! canal !ory pres5ts great difficulties to ! explanation ( ?is curi\s ph5om5on4 ,9 ord] to make ! wat] fl[ x mu/ be assum$ t ! surface ( ,m>s is entirely smoo? or at lea/ v ne>ly s & t ! inhabitants convey ! wat] melt$ at ! poles ?r\gh pump+ /ations4 ,! canals v>y 9 wid?2 accord+ to ,l[ell1 _! mean is #af km4 7#aj miles71 accord+ to ,flamm>ion betwe5 #cjj & #fj km4 7#ahe & #cg miles7 :i* latt] e/imate probably is too high4 ,! same canal diff]s widely 9 bread? 9 successive ye>s & sometime disappe>s altoge!r4 ,:5 ! supply ( wat] vap\r is scant1 only ! mo/ hygroscopic salts are dissolv$1 i4 e41 ^? deposit$ 9 ! deepe/ furr[ ( ! canal1 b :5 ! moi/ure sweep+ ov] ! canal is m abundant ! broad] portions absorb wat]1 d>k5 & ?us become visible4 ,! same holds true 9 reg>d to ! inl& lakes 78oases074 ,z ! wat] vap\r diffuses 9 ! air1 ! canal becomes liquid along its entire l5g? indep5d5t ( ! altitude ( its v>i\s p>ts4 ,all agree ^u ! des]t climate ( ! ma9l& on ,m>s4 ,l mo/ des]ts on ! ,e>?1 x is1 !re=e1 probably a table-l&1 :]e "o plateau m\nts above ! o!r1 ea* "o ne>ly level4 ,by ! action ( ! w9d1 ! upp] lay]s h be5 trans=m$ into f9e s&4 ,on ! dead planet no fur!r s$im5ts are deposit$ by ! sea4 ,! only accretions to ! planet are meteorites & cosmic du/ :i* sl[ly ra9s d[n4 ,x conta9s among o!r sub/ances iron1 p>tly metallic & p>tly 9 ! =m ( protoxides 7:i* h a light gre5 col\r74#e ,! oxyg5 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s trans=ms ^! comp\nds to f]ro-oxide :i* has diff]5t col\rs accord+ to its co>s5ess1 b g5]ally is o*re4 ,! surface ( ,m>s is also describ$ z possess+ ?is col\r4 ,dross has1 !re=e1 assum$ t ! ,m>tian soil is m+l$ ) f]ro-oxide4 ,! f9e/ du/1 h[ev]1 is yell[ :ile l>g] cry/als t5d t[>d violet4 ,we (t5 obs]ve on ,m>s t ! details are cov]$ by a yell[ veil4 ,?is is ( c\rse f9ely p[d]$ f]ro-oxide probably mix$ ) less col\r$ s& :i* ! des]t w9d :irls up ov] l>ge portions ( ,m>s4 ,va/ sections ( ! planet bore su* wrapp+s 9 ! autumn ( #aiji1 z obs]v$ & describ$ by ,antoniadi 9 ,p>is 7see ,fig4 #ba74 ,simil> obs]vations h previ\sly be5 made by ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ & o!rs4 #e ,9 ! deepe/ portions ( ! oceans on ! ,e>? :]e no s$im5ts f ! coa/s are deposit$1 l>ge accumulations conta9+ iron comp\nds h be5 f\nd & ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 m9]als !re9 po9ts to _! meteoric orig94 ,z a rule1 only ! c5tral & ! pol> regions ( ! surface ( ,m>s c be se54 ,t]ritories ne> ! equator m ?an #dj to #ej degrees remov$ f ! po9t 9 l9e ) ! ,sun & ! c5tre ( ! planet are g5]ally hidd5 beh9d a ?91 :ite veil ( mi/4 ,z soon z ! ,sun leaves ! z5i? & rea*es half-way to ! horizon ! moi/ure ( ! air is precipitat$ ne> ! gr\nd4 ,?is %[s t ! planet does n possess any quantities ( heat-cons]v+ vap\rs 9 its gas %ell4 ,! mi/ does n ext5d to ! poles1 ^: :ite caps always appe> di/9ctly1 because ! ,sun _c greatly affect ! evaporation 9 regions :]e ! ,sun's altitude is nei!r v high nor v v>iable4 ,! same holds true = o!r sn[-cov]$ tracts1 ev5 if !y are n locat$ 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ! pole4 ,:5 ! supply ( wat] vap\r is scant1 only ! mo/ sali5t canals come into view4 ,z a rule !y d n !n appe> d\ble1 z "o ( ! mates is always less prom95t4 ,l[ell %[$1 he believ$1 t x always is ! same canal out ( a pair :i* fir/ comes to sight & t its position always rema9s un*ang$ 9 contra/ to ,s*iap>elli :o has rea*$ ! opposite conclusion4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is q natural4 ,on acc\nt ( ! small am\nt ( wat] vap\r 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s true cl\ds are r>e4 ,figure #bb %[s su* a cl\d at ! edge ( ! planet4 ,! a=em5tion$ mi/s are (t5 call$ cl\ds1 = in/ance by ,pick]+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,cl\d at ! upp] "r edge ( ,m>s obs]v$ by ,moleswor?1 ,m>* #g1 #aija ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,m>s z obs]v$ by ,l[ell1 ,july #aa1 #aijg4 ,ev5 ! d>k portions appe> c\rs$ ?r\gh by 8canals40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,m>s1 z obs]v$ by ,e4 ,m4 ,antoniadi1 ,octob] #f1 #aiji4 ,t elevations really may be f\nd on ,m>s is evid5t f ! fact t sn[ or ho>-fro/ (t5 rema9s 9 pat*es ne> ! pole & occasionally q f> !refrom1 = in/ance on ! l>ge isl& ,hellas 7#dj ,s4 ,lat471 :ile x disappe>s f ! surr\nd+s & sometimes f ! pole itself 7! s\? pole74 ,su* a highl& cov]$ by ice exi/s ne> ! s\? pole1 & is %[n ne> ! upp] edge ( ,fig4 #bd4 ,9 places :]e sn[ always rema9s1 a feeble glaci] =mation may occur4 ,mo/ inve/igators assume t m\nta9s & plateaus exi/ on ,m>s1 al?\gh ( mode/ altitude 7,campbell believes t he has obs]v$ peaks #cjjj m4 7#ihjj ft47 high74 ,l[ell :o dilig5tly has look$ = m\nta9s at ! edge ( ! illum9at$ "p ( ,m>s1 has rea*$ ! conclusion t !y1 if pres5t1 _c rise m ?an #fjj to #ijj m4 7#bjjj to #cjjj ft47 above ! surr\nd+ pla9s4 ,x 7 inde$ improbable t all inequalities ( ! ,m>tian surface %\ld h be5 remov$ 9 ! process ( dis9tegration1 :i* al?\gh at "w = enorm\s ext5sions ( "t1 has long be5 extremely feeble & is unassi/$ by torr5ts ( ra9 :i* might rapidly wa% ! products into ! valleys4 ,at pres5t1 x is ma9ly ! s& c>ri$ by ! des]t w9d t sl[ly r$uces ! r\ghnesses & 9 ?is process ext5sive highl&s are h>dly t\*$4 ,b1 )\t ! assumption1 9 itself v unlikely1 ( a ne>ly level surface on ,m>s x becomes difficult to compreh5d h[ ! canals1 if fill$ ) pure wat]1 c proce$ 9 /raight l9es )\t ref]5ce to exi/+ diff]5ces 9 altitude4 ,l ! riv]s on ! ,e>? !y ought to b5d accord+ to ! topography1 ev5 if con/ruct$ by eng9e]s4 ,:5 ! canals freeze at ! approa* ( w9t]1 !y inv>iably h be5 obs]v$ to disappe> 9 company ) ! lakes or oases at _! cross+s4 ,!y are !n all cov]$ by ! r$di%-yell[ du/ c>ri$ by w9d f ! surr\nd+s4 ,:5 a canal is ab\t to reappe> x frequ5tly fir/ comes to sight z a d>k /reak evid5tly ! result ( moi/5$ f]ro-oxide4 ,occasionally a mi/ =mation prec$es ! appe>ance ( ! canal4 ,x is pla9 t ! cold1 mi/y air settles 9 ! valleys1 !re z "h1 & gives up its moi/ure to ! salts on _! bottom & ! canal is ?us br\ght out z a d>k l9e4 ,sometimes ! vic9ity also assumes a d>k] %ade indicat+ ! absorption ( "s moi/ure4 ,on ! sides ( ! canals ! less hygroscopic salts are deposit$4 ,possibly ! gre5 col\r ( ! canals is p>tly a contra/-effect due to ! r$ surr\nd+1 possibly also ! result ( f9ely divid$ matt] 9 ! liquid4 ,x is also conceivable t ! cause is ! r$uc+ influ5ce on ! f]ro-oxide ( ! sulphuric gases em]g+ f ! fissures2 an exce$+ly small quantity accompli%es 9 ?is case l>ge results4 ,f4 le ,c\ltre describes ! col\r z be+ sometimes a dead black4 ,some?+ simil> applies to ! seas4 ,:5 ^! freeze1 especially 9 %all[ places1 yell[i%-r$ du/ f ! cont95t settles on _! surface & l5ds x hues betwe5 ! orig9al d>k gre5 & ! light yell[i%-r$4 ,:5 ! ice subsequ5tly melts ?is du/ s9ks 9 ! wat] :i* latt] resumes its d>k gre5 col\r4 ,*loride solutions1 if conc5trat$1 freeze at ! foll[+ temp]atures2 t ( calcium at -#ee ,c4 7-#fg ,f47 t ( magnesium at -#dd ,c4 7-#dh4b ,f47 & t ( sodium at -#bb ,c4 7-#g4f ,f474 ,if n[1 z we previ\sly h se51 ! mean temp]ature ( ,m>s z a :ole is ab\t -#dj ,c4 7-#dj ,f471 ( ! equatorial belt ab\t -#aj ,c4 7#ad ,f471 & ( ! pole 9 ! height ( summ] ab\t #j ,c4 7#cb ,f471 x is evid5t t a liquefaction ( ! ocean surface & ( ! canals1 p>ticul>ly :]e salts are deposit$1 v readily may take place4 ,we %\ld 9 ?is connection rememb] t ! ice on ,m>s is /ation>y :ile on ,e>? x is 9 motion4 ,! consequ5ce is t s& & du/ 9 ! c\rse ( ?\s&s ( ye>s h accumulat$ on ! bottom ( ! %all[ bas9s 9 ! pol> ice4 ,^! seas appe> !re=e d>k 9 spite ( _! exce$+ly small dep? & ! :ite salt & ice-cry/als rema9+ undissolv$ are unable to display _! light col\r4 ,ev5 9 ! 8ocean10 ,l[ell 0 p]suad$ t he _h obs]v$ canals 7see ,fig4 #bc71 & x may be possible t cracks are 9 evid5ce !re1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! mo/ %all[ sections1 z is ! case 9 ! ,tyrrh5ian sea nor? ( ,sicily4 ,x is significant t ,flamm>ion has rea*$ ! conclusion1 :i* at fir/ appe>s highly haz>d\s1 t ! freez+ po9t ( wat] is l[] on ,m>s ?an on ,e>?4 ,?is is entirely correct1 if we let wat] /& = salt solutions4 ,x is cu/om>y to po9t to ! /rictly uni=m bread? & ! rectil9e> appe>ance ( ! canals z cle> evid5ce ( _! be+ artificial1 i4 e41 ! "w ( eng9e]s4 ,! ,italian a/ronom] ,c]ulli /rongly object$ to ?is conception4 8,9 ! exce$+ly r>e cases :5 bo? sides ( ! canal pla9ly may be se510 /ates ,s*iap>elli1 8,i h obs]v$ curves & not*es 9 ! bord]s40 ,?is occurr$ ) ! canals ,euphrates & ,triton 9 #ahgi1 & ) ! ,ganges 9 #ahhh4 ,& x w\ld seem obvi\s t wat]c\rses produc$ 9 old furr[s w\ld n1 z a rule1 be ( uni=m bread?4 ,antoniadi1 by 8 obs]vations 9 ! autumn ( #aiji 7see ,fig4 #ag;a & #bd71 has confirm$ ?is op9ion1 z has le ,c\ltre1 :o f\nd twice z _m irregul> canals z rectil9e> ones4 ,antoniadi rem>ks t "s canals appe> to be collections ( lakes /rung out 9 a c]ta9 direction :ile o!rs are n>r[ l9es :i* b5d & twi/4 8,! complicat$ network ( /raight l9es is probably illusory40 ,! spots on ,m>s1 he cont9ues1 are v irregul>1 & 8pres5t by no means any geometrical =m0 7on :i* ! belief l>gely is f\nd$ t !y are ! product ( intellig5t be+s74 8,! appe>ance ( ! planet rem9ds "o ( t ( ! ,moon 7except t ! latt] is dead1 i4 e41 un*angeable7 or ( a t]re/rial l&scape view$ f a balloon40--8,9 a ^w1 ! #8geometry' ( ,m>s is reveal$ z a pure illusion40 ,exce$+ly in/ructive is a comp>ison betwe5 ! two maps ( ,m>s drawn by ,s*iap>elli 7#ahhf7 & by ,antoniadi 7#aiji7 reproduc$ "h & f\nd at ! end ( ! volume4 ,:ile ,s*iap>elli z a rule repres5ts ! canals z n>r[1 /raight1 or slightly curv$ b&s ( uni=m wid?1 ^! =mations on ! ,antoniadi *>t frequ5tly dissolve into a s]ies ( d>k spots jo9$ by less obscure sections 7see = example ! canals ,nect> & ,o]oe at ! ,sunlake74 ,! same is true ab\t sev]al ( ! s-call$ 8seas10 p>ticul>ly ! ,tyrrh5ian 7,m>e ,tyrrh5um71 & ! ,sunlake 7,lacus ,solis72 also ab\t ! 8,ocean-bays0 su* z ! well-kn[n ,syrtis major :i* ) ! ,sunlake =m ! mo/ conspicu\s objects on ! surface ( ,m>s4 ,^! maps are1 moreov]1 ( great int]e/ because sev]al canals & o!r features pres5t on "o are abs5t on ! o!r & vice v]sa4 ,9 ?is way1 we obta9 a vivid conception ( ! rem>kable *angeabl5ess ( ! ,m>tian surface z contra/$ ) ! ext]ior ( ! ,e>?4 ,! latt]1 if view$ f ,m>s1 w\ld n h pres5t$ any noticeable *ange 9 hi/orical "t except = ! seasonal v>iation ( ! sn[ fields4 ,?is peculi>ity ( ,m>s is only expla9$ by ! fact t ! geographical features ( t planet z a rule are surface =mations ( a slight dep? & !re=e subject to rapid trans=mations4 ,frequ5tly1 l>ge :ite spots sudd5ly appe>1 especially ne> ! lakes1 su* z ! spot at ,lake ,phnix ne> ! c5tre ( ,fig4 #bd :i* repres5ts ,m>s on ,octob] #f1 #aiji1 accord+ to ,antoniadi4 ,^! :ite spots disappe> z sudd5ly z !y %[ =?4 ,! :ite col\r is probably due to a v ?9 sn[ or ho>-fro/1 :i* is easily cond5s$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ! lakes b :i* z readily vani%es at ! approa* ( a w>m draft or ( sun%9e4 ,occasionally1 d>k spots on ,m>s are describ$ z dissolv+ "u /rong enl>gem5t into d>k & light squ>es giv+ ! appe>ance ( a *essbo>d4 ,?is rem9ds "o ( ! bayirs 9 ,turke/an 7see ,fig4 #i74 ,! collections ( lakes along ! cracks on ,m>s :i* appe> to u z 8canals0 are repeat$ly fill$ up by s& & dri$ out4 ,!y are reviv$ ?r\gh new depressions along ! dislocation fissures1 correspond+ to our e>?quakes1 :5 vap\rs ( wat] & o!r gases p\r =? & cond5se to lakes 9 ! deepe/ pockets ( ! fissures4 ,canals are !re=e creat$ r rapidly1 sometimes ov] night1 & vani% occasionally z sudd5ly4 ,! mo/ rem>kable case ( 8new0 canals 0 made kn[n ?r\gh a communication by ,l[ell4 ,two new canals1 at ! "t ! mo/ conspicu\s on ! surface ( ,m>s1 7 obs]v$ ea/ ( 8,syrtis magna0 on ,septemb] #cj1 #aiji1 f ,flag/aff obs]vatory1 :5 !y also 7 photograph$1 :i* precludes an illusion4 7,on ! o!r h& !re 0 no sign ( ! great canal ,am5!s1 %[n on ! map ,fig4 #ag1 a %ort di/ance to ! left1 i4 e41 ea/ ( ,syrtis 9 ! v section :]e ! new canals 7 obs]v$47 ,also two new oases ?r\gh :i* ! new slightly curv$ canals pass$ 7 obs]v$ = ! fir/ "t1 z 7 also a few m9or canals 9 ! neighb\rhood4 ,9 #aiac1 ! d\ble canal ?iops 7see map at ,long4 #bdj2 ! canal is !re s+le7 0 r$iscov]$ f ! ,l[ell obs]vatory aft] an abs5ce ( fifte5 ye>s4 ,^! data make x evid5t t "o or possibly sev]al r /rong e>?quakes took place ea/ ( ,syrtis major j prior to ,septemb] #cj1 #aiji ) ! two oases z c5tres ( collapse4 ,! fissures n[ made visible h probably exi/$ be=e b fill$ ) s& & h n[ reappe>$ z a result ( ! cond5sation ( wat] vap\r :5 x em]g$ into ! cold ,m>tian air4 ,?is fact1 t ! mo/ prom95t canals 9 su* mann] n[ sudd5ly appe> & n[ z rapidly vani%1 ought to conv9ce u beyond d\bt t !y are n magnific5t products ( eng9e]+ skill1 = ! con/ruction ( :i* we %\ld require c5turies on ! ,e>?4 ,! !ory t intellig5t m5 exi/ on ,m>s is v popul>4 ,) its help ev]y?+ may be expla9$1 p>ticul>ly if we attribute an intellig5ce va/ly sup]ior to our own to ^! be+s1 s t we n always are able to fa?om ! wisdom ) :i* _! canals are con/ruct$4 ,! cross+s ( ! latt] are said to be cities 7,l[ell7 fifty times great] ?an ,london4 ,! tr\ble ) ^! 8explanations0 is t !y expla9 any?+1 & !re=e 9 fact no?+4 ,if we w\ld endeav\r to und]/& ! ph5om5a on ,m>s1 we mu/ 9 ! fir/ place avoid ! =m]ly s popul> pr9ciple ( 8purposiv5ess0 :i* l$ ev5 ! mo/ prom95t sci5ti/s into s _m amus+ errors4 ,nei!r may we base our conceptions1 z does ,flamm>ion1 on ! assumption ( natural =ces unkn[n to u1 no matt] h[ mu* su* a c\rse may appeal to my/ics4 ,only =ces ) :i* we are famili> c be resort$ to1 if we really are to und]/& nature4 ,x seems to me t su* me?od ( rese>* might ) good results be appli$ also to ! planet ,m>s4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,m]cury1 ,,! ,,moon1 ,,& ,,v5us ,! planet ,m]cury probably resembles ,m>s 9 _m respects1 b diff]s p>ticul>ly 9 lack+ an atmosph]e4 ,! fissures 9 ! cru/ ( ! ,e>? or ( ,m>s are z a rule rapidly fill$ & _! cont\rs l>gely hidd5 f sight by alluvium or s& c>ri$ by w9d/orms1 s t !y reveal !mselves only ?r\gh tremors & v>i\s emanations along _! c\rse4 ,! fissures on ,m]cury on ! o!r h& mu/ rema9 z yawn+ *asms4 ,x is probable t r$uc+ gases /ream out ( ^! cracks z on ,e>?1 & col\r ! environm5t 9 a d>k] %ade ?an ! o!r visible "p ( ! planet's surface1 t is ! hemisph]e turn$ t[>d ! ,sun4 ,n v volatile gases1 su* z sal-ammoniac1 o!r *lorides & sulphur1 :i* on ! ,e>? are deposit$ inside ! fissures1 may "h spread ov] l>ge areas & discol\r surr\nd+ t]ritory1 p>ticul>ly :]e iron comp\nds are pres5t1 &1 "u ! attack ( sulphur1 turn black4 ,l[ell has made draw+s ( ! d>k spots visible on ,m]cury1 "o ( :i* is reproduc$ z ,fig4 #be4 ,^! spots lie1 z on ,antoniadi's draw+ ( ! surface ( ,m>s 7,fig4 #ag;a71 arrang$ 9 l9es :i* are almo/ /raight or ( a slight curvature only4 ,?is seems to indicate t ! spots belong to areas imm$iately adjo9+ enorm\s fissures4 ,accord+ to ,l[ell's draw+1 ^! cracks are f> m regul>ly di/ribut$ on ,m]cury ?an on ,m>s4 ,v close to ! c5tre ( ! ev]-sunny side we see a d>k spot1 a 8lake40 ,x is evid5t t ?is spot is locat$ 9 by f> ! hotte/ po9t on ! surface ( ,m]cury4 ,?is gives rise to ! foll[+ conception4 ,! hotte/ "p ( ,m]cury 0 naturally ! la/ to solidify4 ,m]cury evid5tly ceas$ to rotate ar\nd its own axis1 leav+ "o side cont9ually expos$ to ! ,sun1 :ile its surface yet consi/$ ( lava t 0 fluid1 at lea/ :]e ! sun%9e 0 mo/ int5se4 ,! weake/ po9t on ! planet 0 !re=e ! "o j opposite ! ,sun4 ,:5 lat] collapses occurr$ ! cracks comm5c$ at ?is weak po9t4 ,we see on ! figure h[ n less ?an six fissures radiate f ?is c5tre4 ,o!rs 7 =m$ :]e ! cru/ broke (f f adjac5t solid portions4 ,^! latt] fissures h a less rectil9e> appe>ance ?an ^? div]g+ f ! c5tre ( collapse4 ,along ^! faults1 r$uc+ gases no d\bt issue f ! int]ior ( ! planet & give a d>k tone to ! surface lay]s1 :i* probably consi/ ( f]rug9\s du/ fall+ f space4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,sun1 su* du/ ought to be m pl5tiful1 conc5trat$ z x 7 by ! gravitation ( ! ,sun4 ,m]cury lies five times ne>] ! ,sun ?an ! ,e>? does1 & twelve times ne>] ?an ,m>s4 ,!re probably also exi/ on ,m]cury1 z on ! ,moon1 l>ge m\nta9s :i* are n subject to ! we> ( runn+ wat] & bl[+ s&4 ,we _c1 h[ev]1 obs]ve !m f ! ,e>?4 ,possibly !y correspond to ! widely ext5d$ spots1 :i* sev]al inve/igators z ,s*roet]1 ,vogel1 & o!rs1 h notic$1 =mations resembl+ ! 8seas0 on ! ,moon4 ,vogel believ$ t he _h f\nd traces ( wat] vap\r 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,m]cury z 9 t ( ,m>s1 a belief 9 bo? cases und\bt$ly f\nd$ on errone\s obs]vations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,draw+ by ,l[ell1 repres5t+ ! planet ,m]cury ) 8canals40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,a "p ( ! moon ne> its s\? pole4 ,! big crat] above1 9 ! int]ior & on ! walls ( :i* a l>ge numb] ( small] crat]s appe>1 is ,clavius4 ,a little bel[ & to ! "r is ,longomontanus j at ! edge ( ! %ad[2 almo/ 9 ! middle ( ! picture appe>s ,ty*o ) its c5tral cone4 ,! moon diamet] corresponds to #dc4d cm4 ,photo by ,y]kes ,obs]vatory4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,m>e ,s]5itatis 7bel[71 ,m>e ,tranquillitatis 7upp] left7 & vic9ity4 ,to ! left ( ,m>e ,s]5itatis ! great crat] ,posidonius2 #b4h cm4 f ! "r edge a small :ite spot may be se54 ,?is is ! rem>kable crat] ,l9n1 said to h und]gone *anges4 ,! moon diamet] corresponds to #ce4g cm4 ,photo by ,y]kes ,obs]vatory4 ,! "p ( ,m]cury :i* is turn$ f ! ,sun mu/ be *>act]iz$ by a trem5d\s cold due to radiation into space4 ,! temp]ature /ays probably ab\t #bjj ,c4 7#cfj ,f47 bel[ ! freez+ po9t ( wat] 7#cbh bel[ z]o ,f474 ,ev5 ! mo/ conc5trat$ solutions we "k ( freeze to ice precipitat+ ! salt consid]ably above ?is temp]ature4 ,moi/ure 9 fluid /ate c1 !re=e1 n v well exi/ on ?is side4 ,on ! sunny hemisph]e x mu/ be lack+ z well1 due to evaporation ov] to ! cold side4 ,z a result1 ! desolation on ,m]cury mu/ be f> great] ?an t on ,m>s & surface *anges caus$ by v>iations 9 temp]ature are almo/ preclud$4 ,on acc\nt ( ! s-call$ libration1 c]ta9 d>k portions ne> ! b\nd>y ( ! illum9at$ hemisph]e occasionally ent] ! sunlight4 ,b1 dur+ ?is int]val1 all traces ( moi/ure are und\bt$ly driv5 away f ^! p>ts1 also nev] to return4 ,! ,e>?'s moon is n entirely z /agnant z ,m]cury1 al?\gh on ! :ole x closely resembles ?is planet4 ,! ,moon always turns ! same side to ! ,e>?--a small libration exi/s "h also--s t ea* "p ( its surface is illum9$ by ! ,sun dur+ "o half ( ! synodical mon? 7#bi4ec days74 ,?is "t1 h[ev]1 is s long t ! moon's surface 9 ! meantime almo/ assumes ! temp]atures due to cont9u\s sunlight & cont9u\s night4 ,"s inve/igators1 z ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+1 are p]suad$ t portions ( ! moon j em]g$ f ! %ad[ %[ a light] col\r ?an aft] a %ort "t ( illum9ation4 ,^! obs]vations1 h[ev]1 h n be5 accept$ z correct4 ,accord+ to ,pick]+1 ! light col\r %\ld result f a slight =mation ( sn[ or ho>-fro/ dur+ ! long night ( #cee h\rs4 ,if an appreciable trace ( vap\r exi/$ on ! ,moon1 x ought to evaporate & =m :ite caps ov] ! poles :]e ! ,sun's heat is n suffici5tly /rong to melt !m4 ,z no su* signs h ev] be5 obs]v$1 ! fai? 9 sn[ on ! ,moon is n likely to f9d _m def5d]s4 ,! lun> m\nta9s are n attack$ by wat] or s&/orms1 nor d !y peel (f due to rapid heat+ by ! ,sun4 ,!y rise1 !re=e1 to full /ature ov] _! surr\nd+s4 ,_! height c be measur$ by ! l5g? ( _! %ad[s4 ,mdl]1 9 ?is mann]1 comput$ "o ( ! peaks ( ! ,m\nta9 ,newton to rise #gcjj m4 7#bd1jjj ft47 above ! t]ritory on :i* its %ad[ falls4 ,six peaks rea* betwe5 #fjjj & #gjjj m4 7#ai1ejj & #bd1jjj ft471 #ba betwe5 #ejjj & #fjjj m4 7#af1ejj & #ai1ejj ft471 #hb betwe5 #djjj & #ejjj m4 7#ac1jjj & #af1ejj ft471 & #ehb rea* #bjjj m4 7#fejj ft47 & m4 ,^! figures %[ ! extraord9>y m\nta9\s "* ( ! ,moon's surface comp>$ to t ( ! ,e>? :i* is ?irte5 times l>g]4 ,9 ,fig4 #bf1 we see a picture ( ! portion ( ! ,moon mo/ ri* 9 volcanoes1 ) ! crat] ,ty*o 9 ! c5tre & ,clavius above4 ,! num]\s volcanoes are p>ticul>ly *>act]i/ic ( ! ,moon4 ,!y v>y 9 magnitude f a diamet] ( ov] #bjj km4 7#abe miles71 = example ! colossal ,clavius ) its companion crat]s1 d[n to dim5sions j visible ) ! aid ( a telescope4 ,! l>ge/ exce$ our bigge/ _m times 9 wid? & diff] ess5tially f !m1 inasmu* z _! bottoms are flat1 occasionally provid$ ) small] volcanic cones--see ! crat] ,longomontanus to ! "r ( ,ty*o on ,fig4 #bf--;& surr\nd$ by a high 7inw>dly (t5 v /eep1 outw>dly m slop+7 wall z on ,clavius1 ,longomontanus1 & ,ty*o4 ,! l>ge/1 z = example ,clavius1 may be comp>$ to a prov9ce su* z ,bohemia1 surr\nd$ z x is on all sides by m\nta9s4 ,! elevat$ r+1 z well z ! int]ior ( ,clavius1 is adorn$ ) num]\s l>ge & small crat]s4 ,! smalle/ ( ^! resemble hemisph]ical excavations 9 ! cru/ ( ! ,moon1 or !y may be small volcanic cones :i* break ?r\gh ! walls4 ,sometimes !y are /rung out l pe>ls along r5ts 9 ! gr\nd4 ,all ^! volcanoes h und\bt$ly giv5 passage f ! int]ior to ! surface ( ! ,moon = enorm\s volumes ( gases previ\sly enclos$ 9 ! lun> magma4 ,nor is x less c]ta9 t ^! gases h consi/$ l>gely ( wat] vap\r4 ,if ?is _h be5 cond5s$ to wat]1 oceans & riv]s w\ld h be5 =m$1 & on ! bottom ( ! seas w\ld h be5 deposit$ s$im5ts c>ri$ d[n f ! m\nta9s4 ,su*1 h[ev]1 is n ! case4 ,! s-call$ 8seas0 on ! ,moon are inde$ on a l[] level ?an _! surr\nd+s1 b _! surface is ev5 7see ,fig4 #bg ) ,m>e ,s]5itatis bel[ & ,m>e ,tranquillitatis above to ! left2 see also ,fig4 #bi ) ,m>e ,imbrium bel[2 x is b\nd$ on ! "r by ! 8,c>pa?ians074 ,! 8seas0 consi/ ( volcanic rocks1 & are n at all cov]$ ) loose s$im5ts :i* if pres5t ought to reflect light bett] ?an ! volcanic vitre\s rocks4 ,b ! lun> 8seas0 are mu* d>k] ?an ! environm5ts4 ,?is %[s t seas prop]1 or bodies ( wat]1 h probably nev] exi/$ on ! ,moon4 ,ev5 be=e ! surface _h *ang$ f its molt5 condition ! wat] vap\r _h dep>t$ f ! atmosph]e1 & ! new quantities :i* ! volcanoes emitt$ f ! dep?s bel[ disappe>$ s rapidly t lakes 7 nev] =m$4 ,! hi/ory ( o!r atmosph]ic gases on ! ,moon 0 no d\bt simil>4 ,all evid5ce1 !re=e1 po9ts to ! conclusion t life nev] inhabit$ its r\gh surface4 ,fig4 #bg %[s t ! 8sea-bottoms0 are n free f volcanoes4 ,!y also ab\nd 9 folds1 correspond+ to m\nta9-*a9s on ! ,e>?4 ,^! folds indicate old breaks 9 ! cru/ :ile x 0 yet v ?94 ,to ! "r1 9 ,m>e ,s]5itatis1 appe> a few :ite spots :i* ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ ascrib$ to sn[4 ,! l>ge/ is ! mu* discuss$ 8crat]0 787 ,l9n4 ,m>e ,s]5itatis is surr\nd$ by a r+ ( volcanoes4 ,a not$ a/ronom]1 ,c]ulli1 obs]v$1 :5 he direct$ a glass ( mod]ate p[]1 su* z op]a glasses1 t[>d ! ,moon t ! spots seem+ly arrang$ !mselves 9 r[s =m+ int]sect+ l9es simil> to ! canal-sy/em on ,m>s4 ,z ! regul>ity disappe>$ ) great] enl>gem5t1 ,c]ulli believ$ t ! canal-sy/em on ,m>s also w\ld dissolve into small spots if a suffici5tly p[]ful telescope 7 us$4 ,8 idea1 :i* p>tly has be5 v]ifi$1 0 m rec5tly adopt$ by ! ,engli%man1 ,maund]1 :o d5ies ! exi/5ce ( canals on ,m>s4 ,photography1 h[ev]1 has prov$ _! reality 7,fig4 #ah74 ,if we disreg>d ! illusory reticulation1 !re are nev]!less on ! surface ( ! ,moon num]\s designs ( a ne>ly rectil9e> outl9e4 ,!re are to beg9 ) ! s9uses1 ext5d$ tr5*es1 (t5 dott$ along _! sides ) m9or volcanoes4 ,fig4 #bg %[s1 9 ! upp] "r corn]1 two su* s9uses1 ! "r "o ) a small volcano1 ,hyg9us1 9 ! middle4 ,!re are1 fur!r1 five su* volcanoes 9 its left arm1 n visible on ! photograph1 & two 9 ! "r arm4 ,! second1 8,s9us ,ariadaeus10 comm5ces to ! left ) ! ,volcano ,ariadaeus1 n visible on ! figure4 ,! explanation ( ! orig9 ( ^! s9uses is probably to be f\nd 9 ! diff]5t contraction ( ! ,moon's surface lay] & ( ! hott] sub/rata imm$iately aft] ! solid cru/ 0 =m$4 ,9 a way1 !y correspond !re=e to cracks 9 ! glaz+ on porcela94 ,l ! two s9uses j m5tion$ !y frequ5tly comm5ce & end ) small crat]s :i* =m$ weak spots 9 ! cru/ t facilitat$ ! orig9al break4 ,lat] on1 volcanoes broke ?r\gh along ! s9uses !mselves4 ,9 sev]al regions ( ! ,moon1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ! equatorial belt1 obs]v]s h claim$ discov]ies ( new s9uses & occasionally ( m9or crat]s1 8:i* c\ld n possibly h escap$ notice if !y _h exi/$ be=e40 ,at pres5t1 ! almo/ unanim\s v]dict is t su* *anges are v improbable1 & t ! visibility ( ! 8new0 objects l>gely dep5ds on fav\rable sidelight1 s t !y might well h be5 ov]look$ if ! region 9 "q previ\sly 0 exam9$ "u less advantage\s illum9ation4 ,! mo/ peculi> =mations on ! ,moon are ! s-call$ 8bright /reaks0 :i* z a rule issue 9 almo/ /raight l9es f "s ( ! l>g] crat]s1 p>ticul>ly ,ty*o & ,cop]nicus4 ,^? ar\nd ,ty*o 7see ,fig4 #bh7 d n seem to be ei!r rais$ above nor depress$ bel[ ! surr\nd+s to any degree wor? m5tion+4 ,= ?is reason !y are n visible "u oblique illum9ation z 9 ,fig4 #be4 ,!y proce$ 9 /raight l9es indep5d5t ( elevations4 ,?is quality is 9 /rik+ con=mity ) ! *>act]i/ics ( fissures on e>? z = in/ance ^? t trav]se ! ,tyrrh5ian ,sea & ! ,calabrian m\nta9s4 ,!y also resemble ! canals on ,m>s 9 ?is respect4 ,nasmy? & ,c>p5t] caus$ a glass ball1 conta9+ wat] "u pressure1 to break at "o po9t & obta9$ a sy/em ( beams radiat+ f ?is po9t & vividly rem9d+ ( ! /reaks ar\nd ! lun> crat]s4 ,! same effect appe>s if a homog5e\s plate1 ( glass = in/ance1 is brok5 by a bl[ 9 "o po9t4 ,no d\bt ^! /reak c5tres 7 once c5tres ( collapse al?\gh !y sometimes n[ are f\nd at a consid]able elevation1 l ,ty*o4 ,?is may be ! result ( a lat] secul> lift+ ( ! rocky sub/rata l ! sl[ rise ( ! ,sc&9avian p59sula4 ,! /reaks ar\nd ,cop]nicus 7see ,fig4 #bi7 are v diff]5t f ^? ar\nd ,ty*o4 ,!y are n rectil9e> & consi/ next to ! crat] ( di/9ct m\nta9 *a9s pla9ly visible "u oblique illum9ation4 ,!y p5etrate into ,m>e ,imbrium 7,fig4 #bi bel[7 cross+ ! mighty 8,c>pa?ian0 m\nta9s4 ,frequ5tly1 !y are provid$ ) m9or volcanoes1 z 9 ! /reak direct$ almo/ /raight d[nw>d on ! figure1 i4 e41 to ! nor?4 ,!y are obvi\sly volcanic fissures l ^? on ! ,e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,ty*o 9 full illum9ation ) surr\nd+ magnific5t sy/em ( /reaks4 ,9 ! l[] "r corn] ,cop]nicus ) a less regul> sy/em appe>s4 ,betwe5 !m ,m>e ,nubium1 9 ! upp] "r ,m>e ,humonum1 ) ! great crat] ,gass5di bel[4 ,! moon diamet] corresponds to #af4g cm4 ,photo by ,y]kes ,obs]vatory4 ,comp>e ,figs4 #be & #bh1 %[+ p>ts ( ! same t]ritory "u side light4 ,! /reaks1 9 _m cases1 w\ld n be visible at all 7 x n = _! diff]5t col\r1 :i* is consid]ably light] ?an t ( ! surr\nd+s4 ,! only explanation (f]$ = ?is fact is ! assumption t ! orig9al cracks 7 fill$ by "s light matt] =c$ out f ! int]ior ( ! ,moon1 t is by ! lun> magma4 ,?is magma 0 n v visc\s1 z x has spread out consid]ably beyond ! edges ( ! cracks prop]4 ,^! presumably1 l ^? on ,e>?1 7 ( a r mod]ate wid?1 n en\gh to be di/+ui%able at ! ,moon's di/ance4 ,simil> light-fl[+ emanations f long fissures are kn[n also on our planet1 = in/ance1 f ! ,laki eruption on ,icel& 9 #aghc4 ,! col\r may be light simply by comp>ison ) ! previ\sly solidifi$ cru/1 :i*1 optically1 z reg>ds reflexion ( light1 has prov$ v simil> to obsidian or1 ev5 m l ano!r volcanic m9]al product1 vitrophyre4 ,x is also possible1 h[ev]1 t gas bubbles 7 lib]at$ z ! lava solidifi$ & gave ! surface a milk:ite appe>ance--gravity on ! ,moon is only "o six? ( t on ! ,e>? s t ! bubbles w\ld rise & evaporate extremely sl[ly f ! magma4 ,due to ! v l[ atmosph]ic pressure on ! ,moon1 ! bubbles w\ld also occupy a l>g] volume ?an 9 a correspond+ case on ,e>? & become m conspicu\s 9 proportion4 ,!y probably p>tly rema9$ on ! surface ( ! outp\r$ lava z a ?9 scum1 :i* h>d5$ 9 t /ate4 ,s9ce !n1 x has suff]$ no m *ange ?an all o!r =mations on ! ,moon1 :ile on ! ,e>? x w\ld soon h be5 sc\r$ away by s& & wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,! great lun> crat] ,cop]nicus surr\nd$ ) /reaks4 ,bel[ ! ,c>pa?ian m\nta9 range & at bottom "p ( ,m>e ,imbrium4 ,! moon diamet] corresponds to #ee cm4 ,photo by ,y]kes ,obs]vatory4 ,be=e we leave ! ,moon x may be well to say a few words ab\t its col\r4 ,mdl] /ates 9 agreem5t ) sev]al o!r obs]v]s t ,m>e ,s]5itatis1 a 8sea0 on ! ,moon's nor? side 7#be latitude7 j to ! "r ( ! c5tre m]idian 7see ,fig4 #bg7 is rem>kable = its beautiful pure gre5 col\r1 :ile ,m>e ,crisium ab\t #af ,lat4 ,n4 ne> ! "r edge ( ! ,moon is ( a d>k grey-gre5 hue4 ,9 ,m>e ,humorum 7ab\t #bb ,lat4 ,s41 n f> f ! edge ( ! ,moon1 see ,fig4 #bh7 grey & d>k gre5 %ades alt]nate & 9 ,m>e ,frigoris1 j inside ! lun> nor? pole1 ! col\r is a d+y yell[i%-gre54 ,9 o!r words1 ! *>act]i/ic col\r ( ! great lava seas is app>5tly gre54 ,?is agrees closely ) conditions on ! ,e>? :]e simil> =mations are col\r$ gre5 by silicates ( f]r\s protoxides1 c]ta9 species ( :i* are call$ gre5-/ones4 ,franz1 h[ev]1 que/ions ! obs]vations ( ,mdl] & pr(esses ! belief t v light crat]s appe> blui% & assumes ?is to be a contra/ effect to ! g5]al yell[ hue ( ! ,moon4 ,langley inve/igat$ ! lun> radiation ) ! spectroscope & f\nd t ! ratio ( blue to yell[ 0 small] 9 ! moonlight ?an 9 ! sunlight1 = :i* reason ! g5]al col\r ( ! moon resembles t ( yell[ s&/one4 ,a v int]e/+ obs]vation 0 made at ! ,l[ell obs]vatory :5 inve/igat+ ! spectrum ( ! sp>se light reflect$ f ! ,e>? to ! portions ( ! ,moon n expos$ to ! sunlight4 ,x prov$ to be ( a f> m blue t+e ?an sunlight reflect$ f ! ,moon4 ,our conclusion mu/ be t ! ,e>? %9es ) a blue lu/re4 ,?is is p]fectly natural1 z ! diffus$ light :i* rea*es u aft] hav+ be5 scatt]$ by p>ticles susp5d$ 9 ! air 7& by gas molecules z well7 is a deep blue & !re exi/s no reason :y t "p ( ! light :i* is ?r[n outw>d into space %\ld be ( a diff]5t col\r4 ,! ,e>?1 !re=e1 is blue 9 contradi/9ction to ,m>s :i* is r$1 on acc\nt ( its des]t surface1 & ,v5us :i* is bright :ite4 ,! cl\dy portions ar\nd ! equator & ! poles %\ld appe> light blue f )\t & %\ld be sep>at$ by d>k blue b&s ov] ! s-call$ horse latitudes1 "u :i* ! cl\dless des]t regions are locat$ on ei!r side ( ! equator4 7,comp>e ! title page illu/ration47 ,comp>$ to ,m>s ! ,moon (f]s a sc5e ( f> great] desolation4 ,on ,m>s1 we obs]ve at lea/ "s consid]able *anges su* z ! disappe>ance ( ! :ite pole-caps at midsumm] :5 at ! same "t a d>k r+ appe>s to surr\nd !m2 !n ! 8lakes0 & ! 8canals0 come into view1 beg9n+ close to ! r+ m5tion$1 lat] on ne>] ! equator1 & f9ally on its o!r side1 :ile ! opposite pole-cap puts on its w9t] hue4 ,aga91 we h ! sudd5 appe>ance1 & equally ha/y disappe>ance1 ( :ite spots1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! lakes1 & ! s& /orms :i* hide ! surface ( ,m>s & (t5 fill its canals4 ,! abruptness ( ! *anges indicate t !y are conf9$ to a v ?9 surface lay]4 ,! =mation1 on ! o!r h&1 ( canals1 = _m ye>s unobs]v$1 mu/ be ascrib$ to a volcanic activity :i*1 :ile feeble1 yet mu/ be seat$ 9 ! deep] portions ( ! planet4 ,9 addition1 a /unt$ vegetation ( l[ =ms is n un?9kable 9 ! pol> regions4 ,z aga9/ ?is1 ! ,moon is und\bt$ly a /ell> body entirely insusceptible ( surface *ange4 ,ne> its c5tre1 x is probably n completely solidifi$ & an extremely sl[ gr[? ( ! firm cru/ is !re=e likely4 ,gases are no d\bt set free dur+ ?is process1 b !y are unable to p5etrate ! enclos+ ?ick arm\r & rema9 !re=e z bubbles 9 ! h>d5+ magma4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 no *anges h1 ) c]ta9ty1 be5 detect$ on ! ,moon's surface4 ,x is true t ! great ,wm4 ,h]s*el1 kn[n z an excell5t obs]v]1 believ$ t he discov]$1 9 #ahgc1 m\nta9s :i* _h n exi/$ be=e t "t1 & ,s*rt]1 :o dilig5tly /udi$ ! lun> surface1 0 ( ! op9ion t he too _h disc]n$ num]\s *anges4 ,^! discov]ies1 h[ev]1 7 d\bt$ by c>eful critics1 & aft] ! publication ( ,mdl]'s great "w ab\t ! ,moon 7#ahcg7 ! complete /agnation on t body 0 tak5 = grant$4 ,nev]!less1 !re are sev]al a/ronom]s1 su* z ,s*midt 9 ,a!ns 7#ahff7 & lately ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ 9 ,cambridge1 ,mass41 :o ?9k t !y h disc]n$ consid]able modifications4 ,! =m] held t ! crat] ,l9n 7,fig4 #bg7 _h vani%$ s9ce ! publication ( ,mdl]'s "w4 ,9 #ahfg1 ,mdl]1 himself1 proclaim$ t x _h ! same appe>ance z be=e4 ,pick]+1 aga91 reports p]iodic *anges ( 8sn[0 & 8vegetation40 7,comp>e ,fig4 #bg tak5 f ,pick]+'s ,moon-atlas47 ,clos] analysis1 h[ev]1 indicates t ! ph5om5a are probably only app>5t & dep5d on ! angle ( illum9ation at ea* p>ticul> "t ( obs]vation4 ,= "s "t1 r m ?an a qu>t] ( a c5tury1 photography has be5 press$ into ! s]vice ( lun> inve/igation ) f> m objective results ?an w\ld be possible ?r\gh direct ocul> inspection alone4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod1 :i*1 x mu/ be admitt$1 is n v long1 no di/9ct signs ( *anges h be5 record$ by ! photographic plates4 ,! great diff]5ce betwe5 ,m>s & ! ,moon dep5ds ^u ! exi/5ce ( a real atmosph]e on ! =m]4 ,! oxyg5 w probably vani% f ,m>s also1 be+ us$ up 9 ! c\rse ( dis9tegration4 ,b nitrog51 argon1 & ! o!r p]man5t gases w always rema91 z w ! wat] vap\r f ! bodies ( wat] ev] pres5t1 p>ticul>ly ar\nd ! s\? pole4 ,x is true t ?is wat] vap\r also w dim9i% ) s9k+ temp]ature & :5 ! latt] f9ally has rea*$ ! freez+ po9t ( ! salt solutions on ,m>s1 ! canals & ! lakes w cease to ?aw out or liquify "u ! vap\r di/ill$ ov] f ! w>m to ! cold pole4 ,b s& /orms & ?9 mi/ =mations w always appe> & cause col\r *anges on ! desolate planet4 ,if we wi% to picture to u ! future fate ( our ,e>? :5 x gradually ent]s ! reign ( d>kness & cold 9 consequ5ce ( ! enfeebl+ ( ! ,sun1 we mu/ seek our illu/ration on ,m>s & n on ! ,moon4 ,sl[ly are ! oceans go+ to freeze1 f9ally d[n to _! bottom1 ! abundance ( ! ra9falls w dim9i%1 only light sn[ w n[ & !n br+ *ange to a surface ev]more trans=m$ into a s& des]t z f> z ! cont95ts rea*4 ,r5ts 9 ! rocky sub/rata ( ! latt] w appe> z d>k l9es1 caus$ by ! gases ris+ f ! int]ior4 ,:5 ! temp]ature at ! equator has fall5 bel[ ! freez+ po9t1 ! pol> regions w rema9 ! only p>ts :]e a light cov]+ ( fro/ w melt 9 ! height ( ! summ] season & :]e ! la/ feeble organisms w eke out _! h>d exi/5ce1 resort+ to a prolong$ w9t]'s sleep ( _! se$s & spores4 ,f9ally1 ! la/ remnant ( life w also disappe> & s&/orms alone1 save = ! gasps ( gas emanation f fissures 9 ! rocky gr\nd1 w br+ relief to ! monoton\s desolation4 ,fall+ meteoric du/1 :i* n[ exi/s 9 orig9al /ate only on ! bottom ( ! oceans1 w gradually cov] ! entire surface ( ! ,e>? ) a mantle col\r$ brick-r$ ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( atmosph]ic oxyg54 ,:5 ! oxyg5 itself is us$ up1 ! meteoric du/ w reta9 its orig9al greyi%-gre5 hue & l5d x to ! fun]al pall ( ! ,e>?4 ,v diff]5t conditions obta9 on our neighb\r planet1 :i* is clos] bo? to ! ,sun & to ourselves1 ! radiant ,v5us1 an object ( int]e/$ human att5tion already 9 anci5t times4 ,! av]age temp]ature !re is calculat$ to ab\t #dg ,c4 7#aaf4f ,f47 assum+ ! sun con/ant to two calories p] cubic c5timet] 74#jfa cu4 947 p] m9ute4 ,! humidity is probably ab\t six times ! av]age ( t on ! ,e>?1 or ?ree times t 9 ,congo :]e ! av]age temp]ature is #bf ,c4 7#gh4h ,f74 ,! atmosph]e ( ,v5us holds ab\t z mu* wat] vap\r #e km4 7#c4a miles7 above ! surface z does ! atmosph]e ( ! ,e>? at ! surface4 ,we mu/ !re=e conclude t ev]y?+ on ,v5us is dripp+ wet4 ,! ra9/orms on ! o!r h& d n necess>ily br+ great] precipitation ?an ) u4 ,! cl\d-=mation is enorm\s & d5se ra9cl\ds travel z high up z #aj km4 7#f4b miles74 ,! heat f ! ,sun does n attack ! gr\nd b ! d5se cl\ds1 caus+ a p[]ful ext]nal circulation ( air :i* c>ries ! vap\r to high] /rata :]e x cond5ses into new cl\ds4 ,?us1 an effective b>ri] is =m$ aga9/ horizontal air curr5ts 9 ! great expanses bel[4 ,at ! surface ( ,v5us1 !re=e1 !re exi/s a complete abs5ce ( w9d bo? v]tically1 z ! ,sun's radiation is absorb$ by ! ev] pres5t cl\ds above1 & horizontally due to friction4 ,dis9tegration takes place ) enorm\s rapidity1 probably ab\t eight times z fa/ z on ! ,e>?1 & ! viol5t ra9s c>ry ! products spe$ily d[nhill :]e !y fill ! valleys & ! oceans 9 front ( all riv] m\?s4 ,a v great "p ( ! surface ( ,v5us is no d\bt cov]$ ) swamps1 correspond+ to ^? on ! ,e>? 9 :i* ! coal deposits 7 =m$1 except t !y are ab\t #cj ,c4 7#ed ,f47 w>m]4 ,no du/ is lift$ high into ! air to l5d x a di/9ct col\r2 ,only ! dazzl+ :ite reflex f ! cl\ds rea*es ! outside space & gives ! planet its rem>kable1 brilliantly :ite1 lu/re4 ,! p[]ful air curr5ts 9 ! highe/ /rata ( ! atmosph]e equalize ! temp]ature diff]5ce betwe5 poles & equator almo/ completely s t a uni=m climate exi/s all ov] ! planet analog\s to conditions on ! ,e>? dur+ its hotte/ p]iods4 ,! temp]ature on ,v5us is n s high z to prev5t a luxuriant vegetation4 ,! con/antly uni=m climatic conditions :i* exi/ ev]y:]e result 9 an entire abs5ce ( adaptation to *ang+ ext]ior conditions4 ,only l[ =ms ( life are !re=e repres5t$1 mo/ly no d\bt belong+ to ! vegetable k+dom2 & ! organisms are ne>ly ( ! same k9d all ov] ! planet4 ,! vegetative processes are greatly accel]at$ by ! high temp]ature4 ,!re=e1 ! lifetime ( ! organisms is probably %ort4 ,_! dead bodies1 decay+ rapidly1 if ly+ 9 ! op5 air1 fill x ) /ifl+ gases2 if emb$d$ 9 ! slime c>ri$ d[n by ! riv]s1 !y spe$ily turn into small lumps ( coal1 :i*1 lat]1 "u ! pressure ( new lay]s comb9$ ) high temp]ature1 become p>ticles ( graphite4 ,fossils prop] are n =m$ z 0 also ! case 9 ! e>ly p]iods ( ! ,e>?4 ,! temp]ature at ! poles ( ,v5us is probably some:at l[]1 p]haps ab\t #aj ,c4 7#ah ,f47 ?an ! av]age temp]ature on ! planet4 ,! organisms !re %\ld h develop$ into high] =ms ?an else:]e1 & progress & culture1 if we may s express x1 w gradually spread f ! poles t[>d ! equator4 ,lat]1 ! temp]ature w s9k1 ! d5se cl\ds & ! gloom disp]se1 & "s "t1 p]haps n be=e life on ! ,e>? has rev]t$ to its simpl] =ms or has ev5 become ext9ct1 a flora & a fauna w appe>1 simil> 9 k9d to ^? t n[ delight our human eye1 & ,v5us w !n inde$ be ! 8,heav5ly ,que50 ( ,babylonian fame1 n because ( h] radiant lu/re alone1 b z ! dwell+ place ( ! highe/ be+s 9 our sol> sy/em4 ,! anci5ts believ$ t ! fates ( m5 c\ld be read 9 ! />s & ?is fai? p]si/$ ) ! p[] ( a religion until a few c5turies ago4 ,x 0 %>$ by ! =emo/ a/ronom]s1 pre-em95tly by ,ty*o ,brahe1 :o endeav\r$ to support x ?r\gh 8 inve/igations4 ,traces are yet to be f\nd 9 popul> conceptions4 ,^! ideas h be5 v]ifi$ today 9 a c]ta9 s5se al?\gh ) a :olly diff]5t mean+ ?an held by our =efa!rs4 ,! planets d tell u ! conditions t exi/$ on ! ,e>? at ! fir/ dawn ( life & we c also draw f !m a pr$iction ( ! fate t once1 aft] milli>ds ( ye>s p]haps1 w befall ! latt] desc5dants ( pres5t g5]ations4 ,9 "o respect ! dreams ( our ance/ors h n prov$ true1 namely1 ) ref]5ce to ! habitability ( ! o!r globes 9 our sol> sy/em4 ,accord+ to ! great ,kant1 conditions on ! w&]+ />s outside ( ! ,e>?'s orbit 7 s fav\rable to life t _! inhabitants ought to h rea*$ a f> high] developm5t ?an be+s on ! ,e>?4 ,! la/ remnant ( ?is conception lives 9 ! speculations ab\t ! m>vell\sly pr(ici5t eng9e]s :o built ! magnific5t sy/em ( giant canals on ,m>s4 ,a ?or\gh critique has demon/rat$ t any o!r planet 9 our sol> sy/em h>dly c (f] an abode = high] be+s1 except ?is v ,e>?1 :i* !re=e ju/ly may be call$ 8! be/ ( worlds0 among ^? t we "k4 ,& yet1 x 0 und\bt$ly a great tru? t ,giordano ,bruno gave 8 life =1 because x is highly probable1 nay almo/ c]ta91 t ar\nd ! c\ntless suns :i* dot ! firmam5t sp9 d>k bodies1 al?\gh un=tunately our mo/ p[]ful l5ses d n reveal !m4 ,a numb] ( ^! unse5 /ell> bodies %elt] liv+ be+s1 :i* ev5 might h climb$ to a high] po9t on ! ladd] ( evolution ?an h ! inhabitants ( ! ,e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,map ( ! planet ,m>s 9 ,m]cator's projection accord+ to draw+ by ,s*iap>elli4 ,a comp>ison ) ! draw+ by ,antoniadi 7,fig4 #ag;a7 sugge/s t ,s*iap>elli has made a some:at diagrammatic picture1 :i* sets =? a v great numb] ( /rictly /raight 8canals40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag;a4 ,map ( ! planet ,m>s 9 ,m]cator's projection1 drawn 9 #aiji by ,e4 ,m4 ,antoniadi4 ,explanations3 ,m]$ies s\?2 ,ori5s ea/2 ,occid5s we/2 ,sept5trio nor?2 ,nix sn[4 ,abbreviations3 ,m ,m>e1 sea2 ,s ,s9us1 bay2 ,fr ,fretum1 *annel2 ,l ,lacus1 lake2 ,fl ,flum51 riv]2 ,r ,regio1 region2 ,i ,insula1 isl&2 ,pr ,promontorium1 cape4 ,a ,selection f ! ,catalogue ( ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,complete ,catalogue s5t on application ,! ,ess5ce ( ,a/ronomy ,?+s ,e ,"o ,%\ld ,"k ,ab\t ! ,sun1 ,moon & ,/>s ,by ,edw>d ,w4 ,price #abmo4 ,fully ,illu/rat$4 ,price #a4ej4 ,by mail1 #a4fe ,"h is a volume q diff]5t f ! usual 8popul> book on a/ronomy40 ,x answ]s 9 unte*nical language ! e-day que/ions ( e-day p1 ! mat]ial be+ s arrang$ t x is readily available = quick ref]5ce use1 z well z = int]e/+ consecutive read+4 ,an individual *apt] is devot$ to ea* memb] ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em4 ,special space is giv5 to 8,freaks & ,oddities ( ! ,skies40 ,! illu/rations are f photographs tak5 at ! great obs]vatories4 ,! draw+s ( ,m>s are ! mo/ rec5t publi%$1 be+ made by ,pr(essor ,l[ell 9 ,janu>y ( ?is ye>4 ,! *ronological table & annotat$ bibliography are ( real value4 ,sun ,lore ( ,all ,ages ,a ,collection ( ,my?s & ,leg5ds ,conc]n+ ! ,sun & its ,wor%ip ,by ,william ,tyl] ,olcott ,au?or ( 8,/> ,lore ( ,all ,ages10 8,a ,field ,book ( ! ,/>s10 etc4 #ho4 ,) #cj ,illu/rations4 #b4ej net4 ,by mail1 #b4gj ,a companion volume to ,/> ,lore ( ,all ,ages by ! same au?or4 ,x comprises a compilation ( ! my?s1 leg5ds1 & facts conc]n+ ! sun1 ( equal int]e/ to ! lay-read] or to ! /ud5t4 ,! lit]ature ( ! subject is teem+ ) int]e/1 l9k$ z x is ) ! life /ory ( mank9d f ! cradle ( ! race to ! pres5t day1 = ! sol> my? lies at ! v f\ndation ( all my?ology1 & z su* mu/ =ev] claim pre-em95ce4 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons ,new ,york ,london ,a ,beg9n]'s ,/>-,book ,an ,easy ,guide to ! ,/>s & to ! ,a/ronomical ,uses ( ! ,op]a-,glass1 ! ,field-,glass1 & ! ,telescope ,by ,kelv9 ,mc,kready ,squ>e #hvo4 ,includ+ #gj ,illu/rations4 #b4ge net4 ,po/age ,additional ,?is volume1 peculi>ly def9ite & helpful 9 me?od1 is especially adapt$ to ! practical ne$s ( ^? :o wi% a well illu/rat$ & cle>ly writt5 h&book1--accurate 9 its sci5tific in=mation & yet popul> en\gh to meet ! wi%es ( ! av]age man or woman4 ,! book is di/+ui%$ f o!r volumes on popul> a/ronomy by a novel sy/em ( mapp+1 & by an unusually full discussion ( ! uses ( ! simpl] a/ronomical in/rum5ts4 ,special c>e has be5 giv5 to reproductions ( rec5t a/ronomical photographs4 8,mr4 ,mc,kready's book is ! f9e/ ?+ = ! beg9n] t ,i h ev] se54 ,x is a pleasure to read a book s excell5t 9 s _m diff]5t ways4 ,i h nev] se5 photographs reproduc$ bett]4 ,i h nev] se5 maps ( ! heav5s s intelligible to ! beg9n]1 & ,i h nev] read explanations s concise & yet s complete z 9 ?is book40--,pr(4 ,s4 ,a4 ,mit*ell1 ,dep>tm5t ( ,a/ronomy1 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,new ,york ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons ,london ,a ,revis$ ,edition ( a ,/&>d ,"w ,a ,field ,book ( ! ,/>s ,by ,william ,tyl] ,olcott ,au?or ( 8,/> ,lore ( ,all ,ages10 etc4 ,second ,edition1 ,revis$4 ,) ,additional ,mat]ial4 #afo4 ,) ,fifty ,diagrams4 #a4jj net4 ,by mail1 #a4aj ,9 ! new edition ( ?is /&>d "w ! au?or has giv5 full in=mation1 toge!r ) diagrams repres5t+ ! result ( ! late/ inve/igations4 ,all matt]s ( a te*nical or !oretical nature h be5 omitt$4 ,only :at ! read] c obs]ve ) ! nak$ eye or ) an op]a-glass h be5 includ$ 9 x4 ,excell5tly arrang$ & copi\sly illu/rat$1 ?is manual is a real field-book & w prove valuable = all :o wi% to become famili> ) ! />s4 ,new ,york ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons ,london ,/> ,lore ( ,all ,ages ,a ,collection ( ,my?s1 ,leg5ds1 & ,facts1 ,conc]n+ ! ,con/ellations ( ! ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e ,by ,william ,tyl] ,olcott ,au?or ( 8,a ,field ,book ( ! ,/>s10 etc4 #ho4 ,) #afd ,illu/rations & ,diagrams #c4ej net4 ,by mail1 #c4ge 8,a sumptu\s treasure-h\se 9 :i* ! lov] ( anci5t my? & mod]n miracle may w&] = en*ant$ h\rs4 ,its r$ & gold doors op5 ^u a gall]y ( ma/]pieces 9 art1 all be+ inspir$ conceptions connect$ 9 "s way ) /> lore4 ,! pictures & ! leg5ds ( all ages h be5 ransack$ to make ?is gall]y irresi/ible to art & nature lov]s1 & n 9 va94 ,)al ! mo/ int5se facts ( a/ronomical k & discov]y are giv5 beside ! tape/ri$ romance :i* e>li] peoples wove ) />-/uff z ! m$ium ( _! art4 ,x is a book delightful to ! eye1 s*ol>ly 9 conception & treatm5t1 & *>m+ to ! inn] s5se40--,f ,sci5tific ,am]ican4 8,"h all ! my?s1 leg5ds1 & facts relat+ to all our nor!rn con/ellations are set =? fully z well z ) sci5tific exactness1 are illu/rat$ ) cle> maps & diagrams1 & are br\ght into close association ) _! classic orig9s by beautifully reproduc$ photographs ( works ( art & ar*itecture40 ,! ,outlook4 ,new ,york ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons ,london ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,punctuation & spell+ 7 made consi/5t :5 a pr$om9ant pref]5ce 0 f\nd 9 ?is book2 o!rwise !y 7 n *ang$4 ,simple typographical errors 7 correct$2 occasional unbalanc$ quotation m>ks reta9$4 ,! spell+ & acc5t m>ks ( non-,engli% words h n be5 *ang$4 ,ambigu\s hyph5s at ! ends ( l9es 7 reta9$2 occurr5ces ( inconsi/5t hyph5ation h n be5 *ang$4 ,illu/rations h be5 mov$1 :5 necess>y1 to fall betwe5 p>agraphs & outside ( quot$ text4 ,9 "s cases1 ?is places !m on diff]5t pages ?an ! ones giv5 9 ! ,table ( ,illu/rations4 ,9 v]sions ( ?is e,book t support 8l9ks01 ! page numb]s 9 t table l9k to ! correct illu/rations4 ,wide tables on pages #aac & #adf h be5 split to fit )9 recomm5d$ wid? limits4 ,! left-h& id5tifi] columns h be5 duplicat$ 9 bo? halves ( ! split tables4