,,! ,,purpose ,,( ,,hi/ory ,,columbia ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,sales ,,ag5ts ,,new ,,york3 ,,lemcke ,,bue*n] #cj-cb ,,we/ #bg,,? ,,/reet ,,london3 ,,humphrey ,,mil=d ,,am5 ,,corn]1 ,e4 ,c4 ,,! ,,purpose ,,( ,,hi/ory ,,by ,,fr$]ick ,j4 ,e4 ,,woodbridge ,illu/ration3 ,logo ,new ,york ,,columbia ,,univ]sity ,,press #aiaf ,all rights res]v$ ,copyright1 #aiaf1 ,,by ,,columbia ,,univ]sity ,,press4 ,pr9t$ f type1 ,july1 #aiaf4 ,,note ,?is book conta9s ?ree lectures deliv]$ at ! ,univ]sity ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a on ! ,mc,nair ,f\ndation 9 ,m>* ( ! curr5t ye>4 ,x expresses c]ta9 conclusions ab\t hi/ory to :i* ,i h be5 l$ by ! /udy ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy & by reflection on ! "w ( contempor>y philosoph]s1 especially ,b]gson1 ,dewey1 & ,santayana4 ,i am happy to ackn[l$ge my indebt$ness to ! ,faculty & ,/ud5ts ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a = a mo/ delightful visit at ,*apel ,hill4 ,f4 ,j4 ,e4 ,w4 ,,columbia ,,univ]sity ,,9 ,,! ,,city ,,( ,,new ,,york ,,june1 #aiaf ,,cont5ts ,i4 ,,f ,,hi/ory ,,to ,,philosophy #a ,,ii4 ,,! ,,pluralism ,,( ,,hi/ory #bg ,,iii4 ,,! ,,cont9uity ,,( ,,hi/ory #eh ,,! ,,purpose ,,( ,,hi/ory ,i ,,f ,,hi/ory ,,to ,,philosophy ,! s]i\s /udy ( hi/ory is *>act]i/ic ( a c]ta9 maturity ( m9d4 ,= ! intellectually "y1 ! _w is too new & attractive to ar\se 9 !m a v absorb+ int]e/ 9 its pa/4 ,life is = !m an adv5ture1 & ! _w is a place = excursions & exp]i5ces4 ,!y c>e little ab\t :at m5 h done1 b mu* ab\t :at !y might d4 ,hi/ory1 to int]e/ !m1 mu/ be writt5 z a romance :i* w fire _! imag9ation1 r ?an z a philosophy :i* might make !m wise4 ,b maturity1 some:at discipl9$ & disillusion$1 confirms ! suspicion1 :i* ev5 y\? ent]ta9s at times1 t ! _w1 :ile (f]+ an opportunity1 h$ges ! (f] ab\t ) re/rictions :i* mu/ be und]/ood & submitt$ to1 if ef=t is to be cr[n$ ) success4 ,! mature may ?us become eag] to und]/& life )\t ceas+ to enjoy x4 ,!y may become philosophical & %[ _! wisdom by a desire to sympa?ize ) :at m5 h done & to live rationally 9 ! light ( :at is possible4 ,!y may /udy hi/ory1 conv9c$ t x enl>ges _! sympa?ies & promotes rational liv+4 ,we might1 !re=e1 conclude t ! prevail+ int]e/ 9 hi/orical /udies is a sign t ! age is gr[+ 9 maturity & is seek+ an outlook ^u life :i* is bo? sane & enc\rag+4 ,?is may well be true4 ,b ev5 if ! /udy ( hi/ory indicate a c]ta9 maturity ( m9d1 x is n a gu>antee t hi/ory w n be /udi$ 9 ! _s ( y\?4 ,hi/ory may d little m ?an af=d a new _w = wild adv5ture & undiscipl9$ exp]i5ce4 ,moreov]1 maturity is n necess>ily wise4 ,disgu/1 revolt1 & loss ( sympa?y are n always /rang]s to x4 ,hi/orical /udies may be pursu$ ) little compreh5sion ( _! aim or mean+2 & hi/ory may be taught ) little reflection on its philosophical significance4 ,x w\ld appe>1 !re=e1 t ! /udy ( hi/ory itself af=ds an opportunity = philosophical inquiry1 & may pr(itably /imulate que/ions ab\t ! "* ( ^? facts ) :i* hi/ory is conc]n$4 ,9 ^! lectures ,i int5d to deal ) ! purpose ( hi/ory4 ,i w\ld n1 h[ev]1 be misund]/ood4 ,my aim is n1 by mak+ ano!r attempt to f9d ! increas+ purpose runn+ ?r\gh ! ages1 to w9 p]man5tly ! laurel :i*1 hi!rto1 ambiti\s philosoph]s h worn only = a season4 ,!re is1 no d\bt1 a k9d ( rapture 9 see+ hi/ory z ,/4 ,augu/9e saw x1--! progress ( ! ,city ( ,god f e>? to heav52 & !re is a k9d ( pride n :olly ignoble1 9 see+ x z ,hegel did1--! vibrat+ evolution f ! brood+ absolution ( ! ,ea/ to ! self-consci\s fre$om ( "o's own philosophy embrac$ & made univ]sal by ! civiliz+ en]gy ( "o's own /ate4 ,my aim is m mode/4 ,x is n romantic1 b te*nical4 ,metaphysics r ?an poetry is to be my doma91 al?\gh ,i *]i% ! hope t poetry may n1 !re=e1 be mispriz$4 ,if x may ultimately appe>1 n only z an ornam5t to liv+1 b also z an exempl>y me?od ( liv+ well1 ,i may ev5 n[ invoke ! ,muses to my aid1 b ,clio fir/1 &1 aft]w>ds1 ,calliope4 ,x is my aim1 ?r\gh an exam9ation ( :at ! hi/orian himself proposes1 to discov] 9 :at s5se ! idea ( purpose 9 hi/ory is appropriate1 & to :at ideas we are l$ :5 we ?9k ( hi/ory z ! record ( human progress4 ,! conclusions ,i hope to cl>ify1 ,i may "h anticipate4 ,!re is discov]able 9 hi/ory no purpose1 if we mean by purpose "s future ev5t t[>ds :i* ! :ole creation moves & :i* pa/ & pres5t ev5ts port5d2 b !re is purpose 9 hi/ory1 if we mean t ! pa/ is utiliz$ z mat]ial = ! progressive realization1 at lea/ by man1 ( :at we call spiritual ends4 ,m g5]ally1 hi/ory is itself ess5tially ! utilization ( ! pa/ = ends1 ends n necess>ily =ese51 b ends to come1 s t e hi/orical ?+1 :5 we view x retrospectively1 has ! appe>ance ( a result :i* has be5 select$1 & to :i* its antec$5ts are exclusively appropriate4 ,9 t s5se purpose is discov]able 9 hi/ory4 ,b ?is purpose is n s+le4 ,hi/ory is plurali/ic & implies a plurali/ic philosophy4 ,!re are _m hi/ories1 b no "o ( !m exi/s to ! prejudice ( any o!r4 ,&1 f9ally1 progress is n aptly conceiv$ z an evolution f ! pa/ into ! future4 ,evolution is1 r1 only a "n = hi/orical cont9uity1 & ?is cont9uity itself is a fact to be inve/igat$ & n a !ory :i* expla9s any?+1 or af=ds a /&>d ( value4 ,! pa/ is n ! cause or beg9n+ ( ! pres5t1 b ! effect & result ( hi/ory2 s t e hi/orical ?+ leaves1 z x 71 its pa/ beh9d x z ! record ( its life 9 "t4 ,progress may mean mat]ial progress :5 we h 9 m9d ! improvem5t 9 effici5cy ( ! in/rum5ts man uses to promote 8 well-be+2 x may mean rational progress :5 we h 9 m9d ! idealization ( 8 natural impulses4 ,!n he frames 9 8 imag9ation ideal ends :i* he c intellig5tly pursue & :i*1 ?r\gh ! attempt to realize !m1 ju/ify 8 labors4 ,su* are ! conclusions ,i hope to cl>ify1 & ,i %all beg9 by consid]+ ! purpose m5 ent]ta9 :5 !y write hi/ories4 ,x is natural to quote ,h]odotus4 ,! ,fa!r ( ,hi/ory seems to h be5 consci\s ( 8 purpose & to h express$ x4 ,we are told t he gave 8 hi/ory to ! _w 9 ord] t ! ?+s m5 h done might n 9 "t be =gott51 & t ! great & wond]ful de$s ( bo? ,greeks & b>b>ians might n become unhe>d (1--?is1 & :y !y f\ght ) "o ano!r4 ,?is /atem5t seems to be1 9 pr9ciple1 an adequate expression ( ! purpose ( writ+ hi/ories1 ev5 if ,h]odotus did n execute t purpose ) fidelity4 ,! limitations ( its specific t]ms are obvi\s4 ,"o might expect t ! great de$s 7 ma9ly exploits at arms1 t ! hi/ory w\ld be milit>y1 & t ! causes expos$ w\ld be causes ( w>4 ,b ! hi/ory itself deals ) geography & climate1 ) mann]s1 cu/oms1 traditions1 & in/itutions1 fully z mu* z ) h]oes & battles4 ,pr(essor ,gilb]t ,murray says ( x3 ,8 "w is n only an acc\nt ( a ?rill+ /ruggle1 politically v important1 & spiritually trem5d\s2 x is also1 m p]haps ?an any o!r kn[n book1 ! expression ( a :ole man1 ! repres5tation ( all ! _w se5 ?r\gh ! m$ium ( "o m9d & 9 a p>ticul> p]spective4 ,! _w 0 at t "t v int]e/+2 & ! "o m9d1 :ile /rongly individual1 0 "o ( ! mo/ compreh5sive kn[n to human records4 ,h]odotus's :ole me?od is highly subjective4 ,he is too sympa!tic to be consi/5tly critical1 or to rema9 cold t[>ds ! e>ne/ sup]/itions ( p ab\t him3 he %>es f ! outset _! t5d5cy to read ! activity ( a moral ,god 9 all ! mov+ ev5ts ( hi/ory4 ,he is sangu9e1 s5sitive1 a lov] ( human nature1 int]e/$ 9 details if !y are vital to 8 /ory1 oblivi\s ( !m if !y are only facts & figures2 he cat*es quickly ! atmosph]e ( ! society he moves 91 & falls readily "u ! spell ( great human influ5ces1 ! solid imp]sonal ,egyptian hi]>*y or ! dazzl+ circle ( great individuals at ,a!ns2 yet all ! "t %rewd1 cool1 g5tle 9 judgm5t1 deeply & unconsci\sly conv9c$ ( ! weakness ( human nature1 ! flaws ( its h]oism & ! excusabl5ess ( its app>5t villa9y4 ,8 book be>s = good & ill ! /amp ( ?is "* & ?is pr(ession4#a ,! hi/ory ( ,h]odotus w\ld1 !n1 pres]ve a record ( ! _w ( human affairs z he discov]$ x & an exposition ( ! causes & conditions :i* h influ5c$ human action4 ,he w\ld record :at m5 h done 9 ord] t _! de$s might be rememb]$ & 9 ord] t !y might be und]/ood4 ,l all o!r hi/orians he _h 8 individual limitations1 b = all ( !m he seems to h express$ ! purpose ( _! inquiries4 ,t purpose may be work$ out 9 _m diff]5t fields4 ,we may h milit>y hi/ory1 political hi/ory1 indu/rial hi/ory1 economic hi/ory1 religi\s hi/ory1 ! hi/ory ( civilization1 ( education1 & ( philosophy1 ! hi/ory1 inde$1 ( any human ent]prise :atev]4 ,b always ! purpose is ! same1 to pres]ve a fai?ful record & to promote ! und]/&+ ( :at has happ5$ 9 ! affairs ( m54 ,i ne$ h>dly add t1 = ! pres5t1 ,i am re/rict+ hi/ory to human hi/ory4 ,its wid] signification w n be neglect$1 b ,i make ! pres5t limitation 9 ord] t ?r\gh a consid]ation ( ! writ+ ( human hi/ory1 we may be l$ on to ! conception ( hi/ory 9 its m compreh5sive =m4 ,to conceive ! purpose ( writ+ hi/ory adequately is n ! same ?+ z to execute t purpose fai?fully4 ,if ,h]odotus may be cit$ 9 illu/ration ( ! adequate conception1 he w h>dly be cit$ by hi/orians 9 illu/ration ( its fai?ful execution4 ,!y h compla9$ ( him f "t to "t ev] s9ce ,?ucydides fir/ accus$ him ( c>+ m ab\t pleas+ 8 read]s ?an ab\t tell+ ! tru?4 ,he is blam$ pr9cipally = 8 cr$ulity & = 8 lack ( criticism4 ,cr$ul\s he 0 & less critical ?an "o c\ld wi%1 b x is well to rememb]1 9 any j e/imate ( him1 t he 0 mu* less cr$ul\s & mu* m critical ?an we %\ld naturally expect a man ( 8 "t to be4 ,he wrote 9 an age :5 m5 g5]ally believ$ spontane\sly ?+s :i* we1 s9ce we reflect1 c n believe1 & :5 x 0 m cong5ial to li/5 to a /ory ?an to indulge 9 ! criticism ( x4 ,he frequ5tly expresses disbelief ( :at he has be5 told & is (t5 at great pa9s to v]ify :at he has he>d4 ,) all 8 faults he rema9s among ! extraord9>y m54 ,^! faults1 :5 !y are sympa!tically exam9$1 indicate f> less blemi%es 9 ! "* ( ,h]odotus ?an !y d ! practical & moral difficulties :i* beset ! fai?ful writ+ ( all hi/ory4 ,t is :y he is s illu/rative = our purpose4 ,a fai?ful & true record is ! fir/ ?+ ! hi/orian desires1 b x is a v difficult ?+ to obta94 ,human te/imony ev5 9 ! pres5ce ( se>*+ cross-exam9ation is notori\sly fallible1 & ! dumb records ( ! pa/1 ) all _! v>iations & contradictions1 pres5t a /olid indiff]5ce to our curiosity4 ,! que/ions we ask ( ! dead1 only we ourselves c answ]4 ,h]odotus wrote ) ^! practical & moral difficulties at a maximum4 ,we h le>n$ sy/ematically to combat !m4 ,!re has gr[n up = our b5efit an abundant lit]ature :i* w\ld in/ruct ! hi/orian h[ be/ to proce$4 ,! me?ods ( hi/orians1 _! failures & successes1 h be5 c>efully /udi$ ) ! result t we h an elaborate sci5ce ( writ+ hi/ory :i* we call hi/oriography4 ,!re9 "o may le>n h[ to e/imate s\rces1 deal ) docum5ts1 weigh evid5ce1 detect causes1 & be w>n$ aga9/ ! errors to :i* "o is liable4 ,moreov]1 an?ropology1 ar*ology1 & psy*ology h come to ! hi/orian's aid to help him 9 keep+ 8 pa? z cle> & unob/ruct$ z possible4 ,9 o!r words1 hi/ory has become m easy & m difficult to write ?an x 0 9 ! days ( ,h]odotus4 ,! bett] und]/&+ ( its difficulties & ( ! ways to meet !m has made x m easy2 b ! wid5+ ( its scope has made x m difficult4 ,we /ill face ! contra/ betwe5 ! adequate conception ( ! purpose ( writ+ hi/ory & ! fai?ful execution ( t purpose4 ,b x w\ld seem t only practical & moral difficulties /& 9 ! way ( successful p]=mance4 ,ideally1 at lea/1 a p]fect hi/ory seems to be conceivable4 ,x is1 inde$1 conceivable t ) adequate data1 ) a wise & unbias$ m9d1 & ) a mod]ate supply ( g5ius1 an hi/orian might fai?fully record ! ev5ts ) :i* he deals1 & make u und]/& h[ !y happ5$4 ,x is conceivable because x has 9 _m cases be5 s closely approximat$4 ,our /&>ds ( judgm5t & appraisem5t "h are d\btless op5 to "q by a skeptical m9d4 ,we may lack ! evid5ce :i* w\ld make our e/imate conclusive4 ,b :at ,i mean is ?is3 hi/ories h be5 writt5 :i* satisfy to a rem>kable degree ! _s ( inquiry4 ,!y pres5t t f9ality & inevitability :i* m>k ! ma/] m9d4 ,!re are1 9 o!r words1 au?orities :i* few ( u ev] "q4 ,!y h s succe$$1 )9 _! limitations1 9 produc+ ! s5se ( adequacy1 t _! reputation seems to be secure4 ,_! limitations h be5 physical1 r ?an moral or intellectual1 s t ! defects :i* m> _! "w are less _! own ?an ^? ( circum/ance4 ,!y ?us appe> to be sub/antial witnesses t ! only difficulties 9 ! way ( fai?fully execut+ ! purpose ( writ+ hi/ory are practical & moral--to get ! adequate data1 ! wise & unbias$ m9d1 & ! mod]ate supply ( g5ius4 ,!re are no o!r difficulties4 ,yet :5 we say t !re are no o!r difficulties we may pr(itably be> 9 m9d t ,h]odotus has be5 *>g$ n only ) be+ cr$ul\s & uncritical1 b also ) n tell+ ! tru?4 ,at fir/ ?is might n appe> to indicate a new difficulty4 ,= if ,h]odotus li$1 8 difficulty 0 moral4 ,b x is n meant t ,h]odotus li$4 ,x is meant r t )9 8 own limitations he did n1 & possibly c\ld n1 give u ! true picture ( ! times :i* he record$4 ,he saw ?+s too ne> at h& to pa9t !m 9 t p]spective :i* tru?fully reveals _! proportions4 ,8 emphases1 8 lights & %ad[s1 are su* z an enlight5$ man ( 8 "t might display1 b !y are n ! emphases1 ! lights & %ad[s :i*1 z subsequ5t hi/orians h prov$1 give u anci5t ,greece ) its true %ad+4 ,we und]/& 8 own age mu* bett] ?an he did because ,grote & o!r mod]ns h reveal$ to u :at ,greece really 04 ,b :at1 we may ask1 0 ! real ,greece8 ,:o has writt5 & :o c write its true hi/ory8 ,grote's reputation z an hi/orian is secure1 b 8 hi/ory has already be5 sup]s$$ 9 _m important respects4 ,we are told t1 s9ce its publication1 a great *ange has come ov] our k ( ,greek civilization4 ,:at !n %all we say if nei!r ,h]odotus1 :o saw t civilization l>gely face to face1 nor ,grote1 :o portrays x aft] an exceptionally pati5t & ?or\gh /udy ( its records1 supplem5t$ by :at he calls sci5tific criticism & a positive philosophy1 has giv5 u ! real ,greece8 ,cle>ly x looks z if ! p]fect hi/ory is yet to be writt51 & z if e attempt to write x pu%es x =w>d into ! future4 ,& cle>ly we face1 if n a new difficulty1 a fact at lea/ :i* is ( fundam5tal importance 9 ! attempt to und]/& :at hi/ory itself is4 ,s ,h]odotus becomes aga9 illu/rative4 ,8 hi/ory once writt5 & giv5 to ! _w becomes itself an item 9 ! hi/ory ( ,greece1 mak+ x necess>y t ! /ory be retold4 ,9 ! face ( a fact1 at once s simple & s pr(\nd1 h[ idle is ! boa/ ( ! publi%] :o c\ld say ( ! au?or ( a rec5t life ( ,*ri/#b t %e has reproduc$ ! "t ( ,*ri/1 n z we w\ld und]/& x1 b z ,he himself saw x4 ,%e has told :at ,he believ$ & did1 r ?an :at ,he is report$ to h said4 ,%e has /ripp$ ,him ( tradition & %[n ,him z ,he 02 %e has giv5 to lit]ature an imp]i%able figure1 n ( ! wan ,galilean ( ! ,middle ,ages1 b ( ! t[]+ figure ( all hi/ory4 ,h[ idle1 ,i repeat1 is su* a boa/ ( f9ality :5 we "k t ?is new hi/ory ( ,*ri/1 in/ead ( end+ ! matt]1 may cause ano!r hi/ory to be writt5 by "s /ud5t :o comes to ! old record ) a new insight & a new inspiration4 ,x is possible1 we may say1 to portray ! ,*ri/ ( ,8 own day1 or ! wan ,galilean ( ! ,middle ,ages1 or ! figure :i* comm&s ! att5tion ( ! tw5tie? c5tury1 b ! real ,*ri/1 ! t[]+ figure ( all hi/ory1--:o w portray t8 ,x is yet to be done & done aga94 ,no hi/orical fact c ev] h its hi/ory fully writt53 & ?is1 n because ! adequate data1 ! wise & unbias$ m9d1 & ! mod]ate supply ( g5ius are lack+1 b because x is itself ! produc] ( new hi/ory ! m x is hi/orically und]/ood4 ,x gr[s1 x *anges1 x exp&s ! m adequately we app>5tly grasp x4 ,we seem nev] to be at ! end ( its c>e] & we mu/ /op abruptly ) its hi/ory /ill unf9i%$4 ,o!rs may take up our task1 b !y w end z we h end$4 ,! hi/ory ( no?+ is complete4 ,x is well-nigh impossible to avoid ! suspicion ( p>adox 9 su* /atem5ts z ^!4 ,yet ,i feel confid5t t e hi/orical /ud5t ke5ly alive to 8 task is abundantly s5sible ( ?is tru?4 ,:]e w he end ! hi/ory ( ,greece or ( ,rome8 ,:at w be ! f9al *apt] ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution8 ,no3 !re is no p>adox "h1 b !re is an ambiguity4 ,= hi/ory is n only a record writt5 to pres]ve memory & promote und]/&+1 x is also a process 9 "t4 ,) u1 ,pr(essor ,fl9t writes1 ! ^w 'hi/ory1' l its equival5ts 9 all mod]n languages1 signifies ei!r a =m ( lit]>y composition or ! appropriate subject or matt] ( su* composition--ei!r a n>rative ( ev5ts1 or ev5ts :i* may be n>rat$4 ,x is impossible to free ! t]m ( ?is d\bl5ess & ambiguity ( mean+4 ,nor is x1 on ! :ole1 to be desir$4 ,! advantages ( hav+ "o t]m :i* may1 ) ord9>y caution1 be innocu\sly appli$ to two ?+s s relat$1 m ?an c\nt]balance ! dang]s involv$ 9 two ?+s s di/9ct hav+ ! same "n4 ,! hi/ory ( ,engl& :i* actually happ5$ c n easily be conf\nd$ ) ! hi/ory ( ,engl& writt5 by ,mr4 ,gre52 :ile by ! latt] be+ t]m$ hi/ory z well z ! =m]1 we are rem9d$ t x is an attempt to reproduce or repres5t ! c\rse ( ! =m]4 ,occasionally1 h[ev]1 ! ambiguity ( ! ^w gives rise to great confusion ( ?\ght & gross inaccuracy ( spee*4 ,& ?is occurs mo/ frequ5tly1 if n exclusively1 j :5 m5 are try+ & pr(ess+ to ?9k & speak ) especial cle>ness & exactness reg>d+ ! signification ( hi/ory--i4e41 :5 !y are lab\r+ to def9e x4 ,s9ce ! ^w hi/ory has two v diff]5t mean+s1 x obvi\sly c n h m]ely "o def9ition4 ,to def9e an ord] ( facts & a =m ( lit]ature 9 ! same t]ms--to suppose t :5 ei!r ( !m is def9$ ! o!r is def9$--is s absurd t "o w\ld probably n believe x c\ld be s]i\sly done 7 x n s (t5 done4 ,b to d s has be5 ! rule r ?an ! exception4 ,! majority ( s-call$ def9itions ( hi/ory are def9itions only ( ! records ( hi/ory4 ,!y relate to hi/ory z n>rat$ & writt51 n to hi/ory z evolv$ & act$2 9 o!r words1 al?\gh giv5 z ! only def9itions ( hi/ory ne$$1 !y d n apply to hi/ory itself1 b m]ely to acc\nts ( hi/ory4 ,!y may tell u :at con/itutes a book ( hi/ory1 b !y c n tell u :at ! hi/ory is ) :i* all books ( hi/ory are occupi$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ) hi/ory 9 ?is latt] s5se t a /ud5t ( ! sci5ce or philosophy ( hi/ory is ma9ly conc]n$4#c ,x is because hi/ory is n only some?+ n>rat$ & writt51 b also some?+ evolv$ & act$ t we are l$ to say t ! hi/ory ( no?+ is complete4 ,! n>rative may beg9 & end :]e we please2 & might conceivably1 )9 its scope1 be adequate4 ,b ! beg9n+ & ! end ( ! action are s int]wov5 ) ! :ole "t process t adequacy "h becomes progressive4 ,t is ! fundam5tal reason :y ,grote's hi/ory surpasses t ( ,h]odotus 9 :at we call hi/orical tru?4 ,= ! tru? ( hi/ory is a progressive tru? to :i* ! ages z !y cont9ue contribute4 ,! tru? = "o "t is n ! tru? = ano!r1 s t hi/orical tru? is some?+ :i* lives & gr[s r ?an some?+ fix$ to be asc]ta9$ once = all4 ,to rememb] :at has happ5$1 & to und]/& x1 c>ries u ?us to ! recognition t ! writ+ ( hi/ory is itself an hi/orical process4 ,x1 too1 is some?+ evolv$ & act$4 ,x is p]5nially fre% ev5 if ! ev5ts ) :i* x deals are long s9ce pa/ & gone4 ,! record may be f9al1 b our und]/&+ ( :at has be5 record$ c make no su* claim4 ,! accuracy ( ! record is n ! tru? ( hi/ory4 ,we are well assur$1 = in/ance1 t ! ,greeks defeat$ ! ,p]sians at ! battle ( ,m>a?on 9 #dij ,b4,c4 ,! record on t po9t is n s]i\sly que/ionable1 al?\gh we h to rely on docum5ts :i* h _h a prec>i\s =tune4 ,&1 com+ to our own day1 we c h little d\bt t ! record ( ?is great] ,m>a?on ( ,europe w surpass all o!rs 9 fulness & accuracy4 ,!re are1 inde$1 z ,?ucydides po9t$ out long ago1 difficulties 9 ! way ( exactness ev5 :5 we are deal+ ) contemporane\s ev5ts4 ,eye-witnesses ( ! same ev5ts speak diff]5tly z _! memories or _! sympa?ies v>y4 ,su* difficulties we h le>n$ h[ to *eck until our records closely approa* tru? ( fact4 ,consequ5tly ! records ( :at m5 h done1 or may be do+1 may be relatively unimpea*able4 ,b x is q a diff]5t matt] to und]/& :at !y h done & are do+4 ,)\t t und]/&+1 hi/ory is no bett] ?an a *ronicle1 a table ( ev5ts1 b n t ?+ to possess & keep always aft] :i* ! hi/orian aspires4 ,to und]/& is n simply difficult1 x is also endless4 ,b ?is fact does n make x hopeless4 ,! und]/&+ ( hi/ory gr[s by :at x fe$s on1 enl>ges itself ) e fre% success1 con/antly reveals m to be und]/ood4 ,our illu/rations may s]ve u aga94 ,f ! accessible records ( ! battle ( ,m>a?on we c und]/& ) tol]able success ! imm$iate antec$5ts & consequ5ts ( t great ev5t4 ,b 9 call+ ! ev5t great we d n simply eulogize its p>ticipants4 ,we indicate1 r1 t its antec$5ts & consequ5ts h be5 f>-rea*+ & mom5t\s4 ,greece1 we say1 0 sav$4 ,b :at are we to und]/& by t salvation8 ,to answ] we mu/ write & rewrite h] own hi/ory1 ! hi/ory ( :at %e has be5 & is2 & ) e fre% writ+ ! battle ( ,m>a?on becomes bett] und]/ood4 ,x becomes a diff]5t battle ) a diff]5t tru?4 ,& m ?an ?is3 ) e rewrit+ we und]/& bett] :at w5t be=e & :at foll[$ aft] until ! battle itself becomes b ! symptom ( deep] ?+s4 ,s1 too1 is x ) ,europe's pres5t /ruggle4 ,already its hi/ory has begun ) _m volumes4 ,foll[+ ! example ( ,?ucydides 9 ! ,peloponnesian w>1 m5 are writ+ x contemporane\sly by summ]s & w9t]s4 ,! consequ5ces !y c only guess at1 b !y h done mu* ) ! antec$5ts1 s mu* t ! la/ fifty ye>s ( ,europe are bett] und]/ood ?an !y 7 a ye> ago4 ,! record ( !m has *ang$ little2 our und]/&+ ( !m has *ang$ mu*4 ,x has *ang$ s mu* t !y h already become a diff]5t half-c5tury f :at !y 74 ,! tru? ab\t !m la/ ye> is n ! tru? ab\t !m to-day4 ,fifty ye>s h5ce :at w ! tru? ab\t !m be8 ,i v5ture ano!r illu/ration1 "o f ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,i *oose ,plato4 ,he is su* a comm&+ figure t ! desire to und]/& him is exceptionally ke54 ,! record ( 8 life & ( 8 consci\s aims & purposes is v unsatisfactory4 ,we h no assur$ au?orities on ^! po9ts4 ,t is greatly to be regrett$1 because a correct record is naturally ! be/ ( aids t[>ds a correct und]/&+4 ,b ! unsatisfactory record is n v mat]ial to ! illu/ration 9 h&4 ,! record might be correct1 b ,plato w\ld1 ev5 s1 rema9 an hi/orical figure to be und]/ood4 ,he w\ld cont9ue to be ! produc] ( :at we call ,platonism1 & we %\ld h to und]/& him z t produc]4 ,9 t case1 evid5tly1 ! details ( 8 life1 8 span ( ye>s1 8 imm$iate aims & activities w\ld involve b ! beg9n+ ( an inquiry :i* w\ld la/ z long z ,plato is /udi$ by ^? :o w\ld und]/& him4 ,:o1 !n1 w\ld be ! real ,plato8 ,! man ab\t :om ,ari/otle wrote1 or ! man ab\t :om ,pr(essor ,paul ,%orey writes8 ,und\bt$ly ! real ,plato is ! man ab\t :om !y bo? write1 b t c mean only t he is ! man ab\t :om writ]s c write s div]sely4 ,he is n ! same man to ,pr(essor ,%orey t he 0 to ,ari/otle2 & x is1 consequ5tly1 a nice "q :i* ( ! two disciples has giv5 u ! correct e/imate ( _! ma/]4 ,:o 0 ! real ,plato8 ,& t "q c\ld /ill be ask$ ev5 if ! ,platonic tradition 7 9 its record1 :at x is n1 a cont9u\s & uni=mly accept$ tradition4 ,= x is q evid5t t ! ,platonic tradition has gr[n f age to age z /ud5ts ( ,plato h tri$ to und]/& him & to und]/& also :at o!r /ud5ts h und]/ood ab\t him4 ,! true ,plato is /ill ! que/ ( ,platoni/s4 ,x seems cle>1 !re=e1 t hi/orical tru?1 if we d n mean by t simply ! tru? ( ! records ) :i* we deal1 is some?+ :i* c n be asc]ta9$ once = all4 ,x is a liv+ & dynamic tru?4 ,x is g5u9ely progressive4 ,we may say t x is l some?+ be+ work$ out 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 & some?+ :i* ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts progressively exposes or makes cle>4 ,if1 !re=e1 we decl>e t ,h]odotus1 or any o!r hi/orian1 has n told ! tru?1 & d n mean !reby t he has utt]$ falsehoods1 we mean only t ! tru? has gr[n beyond him & 8 "t4 ,= 8 "t x might well be t he told ! tru? suffici5tly4 ,anci5t ,greece may !n h be5 precisely :at he said x 04 ,to blame him = n tell+ u :at anci5t ,greece is n[1 is to blame him irrationally4 ,9 ! light ( hi/orical tru?1 ! ,fa!r ( ,hi/ory & all 8 *ildr5 h be51 n simply hi/orians ( times old & new1 b also contributors to t tru? & progressive reveal]s ( x4 ,if !y h be5 fai?ful to _! pr(ess$ purpose ( pres]v+ ! memory ( :at has happ5$ & 9 mak+ :at has happ5$ und]/ood1 !y are n rivals 9 ! possession ( tru?4 ,!y h all be5 associat$ 9 a common ent]prise1 t ( cons]v+ ! hi/ory ( man 9 ord] t :at t hi/ory is & :at x implies may be progressively bett] kn[n4 ,hi/ory is !re=e n simply ! tell+ ( :at has happ5$2 x is also & m pr(\ndly ! cons]v+ ( :at has happ5$ 9 ord] t its mean+ may be grasp$4 ,a book ( hi/ory diff]s radically f a museum ( antiquities4 ,9 ! museum1 ! pa/ is pres]v$1 b x is a dead pa/1 ! flotsam & jetsam ( ! /ream ( "t4 ,x may af=d mat]ial = hi/ory1 & !n x is quick5$ into life4 ,9 a book ( hi/ory1 ! pa/ lives4 ,x is 9 a v g5u9e s5se progressive4 ,x gr[s & exp&s ) e fre% /udy ( x1 because e fre% /udy ( x puts x into a l>g]1 a m compreh5sive1 & a new p]spective1 & makes its mean+ ev] cle>]4 ,! outcome ( reflections l ^! is t hi/ory is con/antly reveal+ some?+ l an ord] or purpose 9 human affairs1 a tru? to :i* !y are subject & :i* !y express4 ,hi/ory is1 !re=e1 a c>e] 9 "t4 ,t is :y no hi/orical item c be s plac$ & dat$ t ! full tru? ( x is def9itely prescrib$ & limit$ to t place & date4 ,con=mably ) ! cal5d> & ) geography we may be able to affirm t a giv5 ev5t 0 or is tak+ place1 b to tell :at t ev5t is 9 a mann] :i* ensures und]/&+ ( x1 is to write ! hi/ory ( its c>e] 9 "t z compreh5sively z x c be writt54 ,x is to cons]ve t ev5t1 n z an isolat$ & deta*$ specim5 ( hi/orical fact1 b z some?+ alive :i*1 z x cont9ues to live1 reveals m & m its connections 9 ! ceaseless fl[ ( hi/ory itself4 ,! writ] ( hi/ory may1 consequ5tly1 atta9 8 purpose )9 ! limits ( ! practical & moral difficulties :i* beset x 9 ei!r ( two ways4 ,he may give u ! contemporane\s und]/&+ ( :at has happ5$ 9 t]ms ( ! outlook & p]spective ( 8 own day1 giv+ u a vision ( :at has gone be=e z an enlight5$ m9d ( 8 "t might see x4 ,8 hi/ory might !n be t ( anci5t peoples beheld 9 ! new p]spective into :i* !y h n[ be5 plac$4 ,c\ld he1 by miracle1 recall ! anci5ts back to life1 !y w\ld d\btless fail to recognize _! own hi/ory1 tru?ful z x might be4 ,b compreh5sion might dawn ^u !m z !y read1 & !y might exclaim3 ,^! 7 ! ?+s we 7 really do+1 b we did n "k x at ! "t2 we h discov]$ :at we 72 our hi/ory has reveal$ to u ourselves4 ,or ! hi/orian1 by ! re/ra9$ ex]cise ( 8 imag9ation1 may give u :at has happ5$ 9 ! p]spective ( ! "t 9 :i* x happ5$1 or 9 a p]spective ant]ior to 8 own day4 ,he may seek to recov] ! s5se1 s to speak1 ( pa/ contemporaneity1 transplant+ u 9 imag9ation to days no long] ours & to ways ( feel+ & act+ no long] pres5tly famili>4 ,su* a hi/ory w\ld be less compreh5sive & complete ?an ! =m]4 ,x w\ld also be m difficult to write1 because hi/orical imag9ation ( ?is k9d is r>e & also because x is n easy to dive/ ! pa/ ( its pres5t e/imate4 ,yet ! imag9ation has t p[] & enables u to live aga9 9 retrospect :at o!rs h liv$ be=e u4 ,b 9 bo? cases ! hi/ory w\ld be an active cons]vation ( ev5ts 9 "t2 x w\ld reveal _! tru?1 _! mean+1 & _! purpose4 ,if n[ we ask :at may be ?is tru? & mean+1 or 9 :at s5se may we appropriately speak ( a purpose 9 hi/ory1 we pass f hi/ory to philosophy4 ,no long] %all we be conc]n$ ) ! purpose ( writ+ hi/ory1 b r ) ! "* ( ! facts :i* /imulate t purpose & assi/ 9 its atta9m5t4 ,f hi/ory z ! attempt to pres]ve memory & promote und]/&+ we pass to hi/ory z a *>act]i/ic ( natural processes4 ,we %all try to analyze :at ! c>e] ( ?+s 9 "t involves2 b we %all keep ?is c>e] 9 m9d 9 ^? aspects ( x :i* be> mo/ significantly ^u ! hi/ory ( man4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,murray1 ,gilb]t4 ,anci5t ,greek ,lit]ature4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #aijh4 ,page #acc4 #b ,au/91 ,m>y4 ,! ,man ,jesus4 ,h>p]1 #aiae4 #c ,fl9t1 ,rob]t4 ,hi/ory ( ! ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory4 ,*>les ,scribn]'s ,sons1 #ahid4 ,page #e4 ,,ii ,,! ,,pluralism ,,( ,,hi/ory ,hi/ory leads to philosophy :5 x raises 9 a fundam5tal way ! "q ( tru?4 ,z we h se51 ! t]m tru?1 :5 appli$ to hi/ory1 has a d\ble mean+4 ,x may mean t ! record ( :at has happ5$ is correct1 & x may mean t ! und]/&+ ( :at has happ5$ is correct4 ,if ! record is correct1 its tru? seems to be some?+ fix$ once = all & un*ang+4 ,! p]fect record may nev] be possess$1 b x seems to be ideally possible1 because ! ev5ts :i* ! record w\ld keep 9 memory mu/ h happ5$1 &1 !re=e1 might h be5 record$ if =tune _h be5 favorable4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! und]/&+ ( :at has happ5$ is correct1 its tru? c n be some?+ fix$ once = all4 ,x is fix$ only f "t to "t4 ,"o correct und]/&+ ( :at has happ5$ does n displace ano!r z tru? might displace error1 b "o supplem5ts & enl>ges ano!r4 ,hi/ories :i* h gone be=e are n undone by ^? t foll[ aft]4 ,!y are incorporat$ into !m 9 a v real way4 ,hi/orical tru?1 !re=e1 :5 x does n mean simply ! correctness ( ! records ( hi/ory1 is progressive4 ,if ! record ( :at has happ5$ is correct1 its tru? is p]petual2 if ! und]/&+ ( :at has happ5$ is correct1 its tru? is contemporane\s4 ,n[ :at does ?is di/9ction involve8 ,does x involve m]ely ! recognition t facts may rema9 un*ang$ :ile our k ( !m gr[s8 ,a suspicion1 at lea/1 has be5 creat$ t x involves some?+ m1 namely1 ! recognition t ! facts !mselves1 be+ some?+ evolv$ & act$1 are also progressive4 ,hi/orical facts are c>e]s 9 "t4 ,x is _! occurr5ce :i* is record$ & x is _! c>e] :i* is und]/ood4 ,we may1 !re=e1 und]take an inquiry into ! nature ( facts l ^!4 ,we may />t f ! di/9ction betwe5 facts & our k ( !m1 = x is cle> t :atev] ! "* ( ! facts may be1 our k ( !m1 at lea/1 is progressive4 ,! pa/ is dead & gone4 ,x is some?+ ov] & done )1 s t any *ange 9 x is =ev] impossible4 ,we %\ld !n1 if we w\ld be precise1 say1 n t x is ! pa/ :i* gr[s & enl>ges1 b only our k ( x4 ,we recov] & cons]ve x 9 memory & imag9ation only1 & z we recov] x m & m completely & relate x m & m successfully1 we "k & und]/& x bett]4 ,plato is dead1 & n "o feature1 circum/ance1 or action ( 8 life c n[ be *ang$4 ,he lives only 9 ! memory ( man2 & because he lives !re & /imulates ! imag9ation1 !re is born a ,plato ( ! imag9ation4 ,!re are ?us two ,platos1 ! "o real & ! o!r hi/orical4 ,! "o liv$ & di$ long ago2 ! o!r /ill lives 9 human hi/ory4 ,! real ,plato has produc$ ! hi/orical ,plato & af=ds a *eck ^u hi/orians 9 _! repres5tation ( him4 ,t repres5tation may approa* progressively ne>] to :at ! real ,plato 0 l1 b x c nev] be ! man :o has pass$ away4 ,hi/ory w\ld be ?us a bran* ( human k1 & gr[ ) ! gr[? ( k1 :ile its objects rema9 un*ang$4 ,t is :y hi/ory has con/antly to be rewritt54 ,fur!rmore1 9 ! rewrit+1 new types ( hi/ory appe> ) new or alt]$ emphases4 ,! moral & religi\s type is supplem5t$ by ! political1 & ! political by ! economic & social4 ,= ) ! gr[? ( k ! pa/ looks diff]5t to u & we discov] t :at appe>$ once adequate has to be revis$4 ,we may admit1 !re=e1 t hi/ory1 :atev] else x may be1 is at any rate a k9d ( human k4 ,l all k x leads u to recognize t !re is a di/9ction betwe5 k itself & its objects1 & t ! progressive "* ( k indicates an approximation to an adequate repres5tation ( ! objects & n *anges 9 _! own "*4 ,?is di/9ction 9 its application to hi/ory is evid5tly n a di/9ction betwe5 lit]ature & its subject-matt]4 ,= ! pa/1 if we n[ take ! pa/ to be ! prop] subject-matt] ( writt5 hi/ory1 appe>s to h a tw(old "*4 ,x is all t has happ5$ precisely z x happ5$1 & x is all t is rememb]$ & kn[n1 precisely z x is rememb]$ & kn[n4 ,!re are1 we may say1 a real pa/ & an hi/orical pa/4 ,! latt] nev] is ! =m]1 b always a progressively m adequate repres5tation ( ! =m]4 ,n[ ?is di/9ction betwe5 ! real pa/ & ! hi/orical pa/ may be fruitful4 ,x may also be trea*]\s1 = ! t]ms 9 :i* x is express$ are trea*]\s t]ms4 ,= x is v easy to claim t ! real pa/ is aft] all only ! hi/orical pa/1 because ! pa/ itself be+ dead & gone is n[ real only z x is pres]v$ 9 hi/ory4 ,yet prop]ly und]/ood1 ! di/9ction is ess5tial to any philosophical compreh5sion ( :at hi/ory is4 ,x po9ts out t hi/ory is n ! pa/1 b is its recov]y & cons]vation4 ,ev5ts beg9 & end2 m5 are born & die2 ev5ts & m5 disappe> into ! pa/ 9 a mann] & an ord] :i* are unalt]able4 ,b x is n _! disappe>ance :i* con/itutes _! exi/5ce 9 "t a hi/ory4 ,_! hi/orical exi/5ce is a k9d ( cont9u+ life4 ,x may be t x cont9ues only 9 human k1 b1 ev5 s1 x cle>ly illu/rates ! nature ( hi/ory z a process 9 "t4 ,9 o!r words ! life ( k1 ( memory & imag9ation1 is itself a cont9ual record+ ( :at has happ5$1 a cont9ual und]/&+ ( x1 & a cont9ual putt+ ( x 9 a new & enl>g$ p]spective4 ,"h1 too1 )9 ! n>r[ limits ( man's p]ceiv+ & compreh5d+ life to :i* we h n[ re/rict$ hi/ory1 ev5ts beg9 & end1 m5 are born & die1 & ev5ts & m5 disappe> into ! pa/ 9 a mann] & an ord] :i* are unalt]able4 ,yet ev5 z !y disappe> nev] to return 9 ! precise & id5tical mann] ( _! fir/ exi/5ce1 !y are cons]v$1 & cont9ue ! process ( dy+ z occurr5ces 9 ord] to live z a hi/ory4 ,ye/]day z ye/]day is gone =ev]4 ,its opportunities are ov] & its incid5ts dead4 ,z an hi/orical ye/]day x lives z mat]ial = to-day's employm5t4 ,x becomes an exp]i5ce to pr(it by1 a mi/ake to rem$y1 or a success to enjoy4 ,hi/ory is ?us ! great de/roy] & ! great pres]v]4 ,we mu/ speak ( x 9 app>5t p>adoxes4 ,! *ild becomes a man only by ceas+ to be a *ild2 ,plato becomes an hi/orical figure only by dy+2 :atev] happ5s is cons]v$ only by be+ fir/ de/roy$4 ,b ! cons]vation ( :at happ5s is obvi\sly n a p]petuation4 ,hi/ory is n ! /ay+ ( ev5ts1 = "t =bids t !y /ay4 ,! cons]vation is r a utilization1 a k9d ( employm5t or work+ ov] ( mat]ial4 ,?r\gh x discrim9ations & selections are made & connections discov]$2 ! mov+ panorama is conv]t$ into an ord] ( ev5ts :i* c be und]/ood1 because consequ5ces are se5 9 ! light ( _! antec$5ts & antec$5ts are se5 9 ! light ( ! consequ5ces to :i* !y lead4 ,!re is ?us a g5u9e incorporation ( :at has happ5$ into :at does happ51 ( ye/]day into to-day1 s t ye/]day becomes a vital "p ( to-day & f9ds its enl>gem5t & fulfilm5t !re4 ,we c ?us write our own biographies4 ,x is possible = u to discov] :at mi/akes we h made & :at ends we h atta9$4 ,our hi/ory appe>s ?us to be a utilization ( mat]ial1 a realization ( ends1 a movem5t ) purpose 9 x4 ,selection is *>act]i/ic ( x v pr(\ndly4 ,o!r hi/ories1 ( o!r m51 ( times1 ( peoples1 ( in/itutions1 we write 9 ! same way because 9 ! same way we discov] & und]/& :at has happ5$ 9 _! case4 ,su* a de/roy+1 cons]v+1 utiliz+1 selective1 & purposeful movem5t 9 "t1 hi/ory appe>s to be :5 we re/rict x to ! doma9 ( human k4 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 idle s to re/rict x4 ,= o!r ?+s besides our k gr[--animals & plants1 & ! />s ev54 ,!y1 too1 h a hi/ory1 & x may be t _! hi/ory1 be+ also an affair 9 "t1 is n unlike 9 "* to our own gr[? 9 k4 ,or p]haps x 7 ev5 bett] to say t bo? !y & our k illu/rate equally :at hi/ory is1 discov]+ "t itself to be ! great hi/orian4 ,all "t-processes1 t is1 appe> to be1 :5 we att5tively consid] !m1 processes :i* supplem5t1 complete1 or trans=m :at has gone be=e4 ,!y are active cons]vations & utilizations ( ! pa/ z mat]ial4 ,!y save :at has happ5$ f be+ utt]ly de/roy$1 &1 9 sav+ x1 complete & develop x4 ,"t is1 ?us1 con/antly r\nd+ out ?+s1 s to speak1 or br++ !m to "s end or fulfilm5t4 ,t is :y we call its movem5t purposeful4 ,yet !re h be5 philosophies :i* h tri$ to make ( "t a magical device by :i* man might repres5t to himself 9 succession t :i* 9 itself is nev] 9 succession4 ,!y picture 8 j\rney ?r\gh life z a j\rney ?r\gh space :]e all t he sees1 "o ?+ aft] ano!r1 comes successively into view l ! h\ses on a /reet along :i* he may walk4 ,b z ! h\ses d n exi/ 9 succession1 nei!r d ! facts he discov]s4 ,!y1 too1 come into view z he moves along4 ,^! philosophies1 consequ5tly1 w\ld h u ?9k ( a _w 9 itself1 absolute & complete1 to :i* no?+ c be add$ & f :i* no?+ c be subtract$4 ,x is someh[ fix$ & f9i%$ n[2 b our human exp]i5ce1 be+ incomplete & unf9i%$1 gives to x ! appe>ance ( a process 9 "t & discloses to u :at x w\ld be l if all its factors & ! laws :i* hold !m 9 p]fect equilibrium 7 exp]i5c$ 9 succession4 ,hi/ory w\ld ?us be a k9d ( temporal revelation ( ! absolute & we %\ld read x z we read a book1 f cov] to cov]1 discov]+ page by page a /ory :i* is itself f9i%$ :5 we beg94 ,or philosophy1 :5 x has n conceiv$ ! _w to be ?us f9i%$ & complete 9 itself & only appe>+ to u z a temporal revelation1 has (t5 ?\ght ( movem5ts 9 "t z only ! results ( prec$+ movem5ts4 ,:atev] happ5s is ?us conceiv$ to be ! effect ( :at has already happ5$1 r ?an ! active cons]vation & work+ ov] ( :at has already happ5$4 ,! pa/ is made ! cause & produc] ( ! pres5t1 s t ! /ate ( ! _w at any mom5t is only ! result or outcome ( :at x 0 9 ! prec$+ mom5t4 ,to-day is ?\ght to be ! effect ( ye/]day & ! cause ( to-morr[1 & is ?us b a transition f "o day to ano!r4 ,"t-processes are ?us robb$ ( any g5u9e activity or productivity1 & "t itself is made to be no?+ b ! sequ5tial ord] 9 :i* ev5ts occur4 ,purpose1 cons]vation1 utilization1 & all t active supplem5t+ & work+ ov] ( ! pa/ on :i* we h dwelt1 become illusions :5 appli$ to ! _w at l>ge4 ,!y repres5t our way ( conceiv+ ?+s1 b n nature's way ( do+ ?+s4 ,b ^! philosophies1 z ,pr(essor ,b]gson especially among rec5t philosoph]s has po9t$ out1#d ga9 :atev] =ce !y h pr9cipally f ! fact t !y ?9k ( "t 9 t]ms ( space4 ,!y picture x z a l9e already drawn1 :5 !y %\ld picture x z a l9e 9 ! process ( be+ drawn4 ,z already drawn1 ! l9e has a beg9n+1 an end1 & consequ5tly1 a middle po9t4 ,let u call ! middle po9t ! pres5t4 ,all ! l9e to ! left ( t po9t we w call ! pa/ & all to ! "r ( x ! future4 ,we ?us behold "t spatially ) all its p>ts coexi/5t z ! po9ts on ! l9e4 ,ev5ts are !n conceiv$ to move f ! pa/ ?r\gh ! pres5t into ! future1 j z a p5cil po9t may pass f ! beg9n+ ( ! l9e ?r\gh its middle po9t to ! end4 ,b1 unlike ! p5cil po9t1 !y c n g backw>d4 ,?is fact gives u a *>act]i/ic by :i* we may di/+ui% "t f space ev5 if we h repres5t$ "t spatially4 ,! spatial ord] is rev]sible1 ! temporal is n4 ,"t is l a l9e on :i* y c g =w>d1 b on :i* y c n g backw>d4 ,b y c g =w>d4 ,ev]y?+ goes f ! pa/ to ! future4 ,! pres5t is b ! transition po9t ( _! go+4 ,!re are1 und\bt$ly1 advantages 9 ?9k+ ( "t 9 ?is spatial way4 ,!reby we are able to make cal5d>s & h a sci5ce ( me*anics4 ,x af=ds a basis = _m successful pr$ictions4 ,b1 q evid5tly1 "t is nei!r su* a l9e nor any?+ l x4 ,no?+ :atev] goes f ! pa/ ?r\gh ! pres5t into ! future4 ,we c n make su* a /atem5t intelligible4 ,= to g f ! pa/ to ! future is n l go+ f ,new ,york to ,bo/on4 ,bo/on is already !re to g to1 b ! future is n any:]e to g to4 ,& ,new ,york is !re to leave1 b ! pa/ is n any:]e to leave4 ,:at !n is ?is my/]i\s go+ if its />t+-po9t & its end are bo? non-exi/5t n[8 ,cle>ly x is a go+ only 9 a metaphorical s5se4 ,we call x a go+ because we c s repres5t x by dates & places4 ,we c say t "h we h be5 go+ f ,friday ?r\gh ,saturday to ,sunday4 ,b x is q cle> t to-day is nei!r pa/ nor future1 t x is nei!r ye/]day nor to-morr[1 & t if we g any:]e we mu/ />t to-day4 ,:5 ,sunday comes1 ,saturday w be ye/]day4 ,b note n[ ! /range situation into :i* we h fall5--only 9 ! future is ?is day ev] 9 ! pa/6 ,& t is true ( e day 9 ! _w's hi/ory4 ,x becomes a pa/ day only 9 its own future4 ,cle>ly !n "t is n l a l9e already drawn4 ,x is m l a l9e 9 ! draw+4 ,y take ! p5cil & ! l9e is left beh9d x z ! p5cil moves4 ,new po9ts are be+ con/antly add$ to :at has gone be=e4 ,! l9e is be+ manufactur$4 ,let u call s mu* ( x z has n[ be5 drawn ! pa/ & t :i* has n yet be5 drawn ! future4 ,x is cle> !n t ! pres5t is n ! middle po9t ( ! l9e nor any po9t :atev] ^u x1 = all ( ! l9e t has be5 drawn belongs to ! pa/ & all ! re/ ( x to ! future4 ,its pa/ has already be5 done2 its future is n yet done1 b only possible4 ,fur!rmore1 x is cle> t no po9t moves f ! pa/ into ! future4 ,su* a movem5t is un9telligible4 ,if !re is any movem5t ( po9ts at all1 x is a movem5t into ! pa/4 ,t is1 ! l9e1 in/ead ( gr[+ into ! future1 gr[s into ! pa/--cont9ually m & m ( x is drawn4 ,= rememb] t ! future ( ! l9e is n ! place on ! pap] or 9 ! air :i* by & by ! l9e may occupy4 ,its future is a g5u9e future1 a possibility z yet n[h]e realiz$4 ,x is ! "p ( ! l9e :i* always w be1 b nev] is2 or1 bett]1 x is t "p ( ! l9e :i* w h a place & a date if ! l9e cont9ues to be drawn4 ,! movem5t ( "t is ?us n a movem5t f ! pa/ to ! future1 b f ! possible to ! actual1 f :at may be to :at has be54 ,! pres5t is n ! vani%+ po9t betwe5 pa/ & future2 x is n1 s to speak1 9 ! same l9e or dim5sion ) !m4 ,x is some?+ q diff]5t4 ,x is all t we mean by activity or ev5tuality4 ,x is ! concrete1 def9ite1 & effective trans=m+ ( ! possible into ! actual4 ,x is ! draw+ ( ! l9e1 b 9 no s5se is x a "p or po9t ( ! l9e itself4 ,!re are1 d\btless1 difficulties 9 ?9k+ ( "t 9 ?is way1 = x is n entirely free f spatial rem9isc5ces4 ,b x s]ves to po9t out t pa/1 pres5t1 & future are n l p>ts ( a :ole into :i* an absolute or complete "t is divid$4 ,!y are m l d]ivatives ( ! "t process itself 9 ! concrete in/ances ( its activity4 ,!y are :at e gr[+ or *ang+ ?+ involves1 :e!r x be ! k ( man or ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 = ev]y?+ t gr[s or *anges manufactures a pa/ by realiz+ a future4 ,x leaves beh9d x ! record ( :at x has done cons]v$ by memory or by nature1 & 9 leav+ t record beh9d con/antly enl>ges or trans=ms x4 ,! gr[? moves 9 a mann] & an ord] :i* :5 once p]=m$ are unalt]able1 b !re is gr[? none ! less4 ,s9ce "t is l ?is1 x seems evid5tly un9telligible to re/rict x & hi/ory to human exp]i5ce & make ! _w 9 itself absolute4 ,x w\ld be bett] to say t x is hi/ory 9 ! l>ge s5se applicable to ! _w itself t makes human exp]i5ce possible4 ,yet x w\ld be m advisable n to make su* a di/9ction at all1 b to recognize t human exp]i5ce is "o k9d ( hi/ory1 namely1 hi/ory consci\s ( itself1 ! "t process delib]ately at "w4 ,n[ x is evid5t t hi/ory 9 ?is latt] s5se is purposive & selective4 ,t :i* has happ5$ is n rememb]$ z a :ole or und]/ood z a :ole4 ,n only are details =gott5 or neglect$1 b ?+s & ev5ts o!rwise important are omitt$ = ! sake ( secur+ emphasis & di/9ction among ! ?+s rememb]$4 ,h]odotus spoke ( wond]ful de$s & o!rs foll[+ ?is example h reg>d$ hi/ory z conc]n$ only ) great m5 & great ev5ts4 ,x is true t ! little m5 & ! little ev5ts t5d to disappe>1 b we %\ld rememb] t x is ! selective "* ( hi/ory :i* makes !m little4 ,speak+ absolutely1 we may say t no item1 h[ev] app>5tly insignificant1 is really insignificant 9 ! hi/orical developm5t ( any p or any in/itution1 = 9 "s measure e item is mat]ial to t developm5t4 ,b all are n equally mat]ial4 ,! abs5ce ( any "o ( !m might und\bt$ly h *ang$ ! :ole hi/ory1 b giv5 ! pres5ce ( !m all1 "s are ( great] significance ?an o!rs4 ,! hi/ory ( ! ,engli% p may be reg>d$ z a developm5t ( p]sonal lib]ty4 ,x is d\btless m ?an t1 b x is t4 ,z su* a developm5t1 x is evid5t t !re are _m ?+s :i* an hi/orian ( p]sonal lib]ty w disreg>d 9 ord] t ! p>ticul> movem5t he is /udy+ may be emphasiz$ & di/+ui%$4 ,x w be t p>ticul> movem5t :i* w det]m9e = him :at is great & :at little4 ,s x comes ab\t t hi/ories are div]sifi$ ev5 :5 !y are hi/ories ( ! same ?+4 ,!re are _m hi/ories ( ,engl& :i* diff] f "o ano!r n only 9 accuracy1 philosophical grasp1 & brilliancy1 b also 9 ! purpose !y discov] ,engl& to be fulfill+4 ,by purpose "h is n meant a pr$e/9$ end :i* ,engl& is b\nd to rea*1 b ! fact t h] hi/ory c be con/ru$ z a developm5t ( a specific k9d4 ,9 o!r words h] pa/ c be und]/ood only :5 x is se5 to be relevant to "s p>ticul> c>e] :i* has its t]m9ation 9 h] exi/+ in/itutions4 ,h] pa/ has contribut$ ?r\gh "t to def9ite results :i* are n[ app>5t4 ,! ?+s t h happ5$ h n all contribut$ to ^! results 9 ! same measure4 ,"s h contribut$ m1 "s less4 ,:at is true 9 ?is illu/ration appe>s to be true g5]ally4 ,e hi/ory is a p>ticul> c>e] 9 ! developm5t ( :i* "s facts1 p]sons1 & ev5ts h be5 m significant ?an o!rs1 s t ! t]m9ation ( ! c>e] at any "t is l an end t has be5 rea*$ or a consequ5ce to :i* its antec$5ts are peculi>ly appropriate4 ,t is ! s5se 9 :i* hi/ory is purposeful & selective4 ,! selection is tw(old4 ,fir/1 !re is selection ( ! type ( c>e]1 & secondly1 !re is selection ( ! items especially relevant to its progress4 ,we may h ! milit>y1 ! political1 ! social1 ! indu/rial1 ! economic1 or ! religi\s hi/ory ( ,engl&1 = in/ance1 & al?\gh ^! hi/ories w ov]lap & involve "o ano!r1 ea* ( !m w exhibit a c>e] :i* is peculi> & di/9ct f its fell[s4 ,:5 read+ ! indu/rial hi/ory we %all n be read+ ! religi\s hi/ory4 ,9 ! "o we %all f9d circum/ances & ev5ts record$ :i* we d n f9d 9 ! o!r1 because all circum/ances & ev5ts d n h significance equally = ! developm5t ( indu/ry & religion4 ,hi/orical selection is1 !re=e1 tw(old1--! selection ( a c>e] to be depict$ & ( ev5ts & circum/ances peculi>ly relevant to t c>e]4 ,is ?is selection1 we may ask1 only a device on ! hi/orian's "p to facilitate our compreh5sion1 or is x a g5u9e *>act]i/ic ( ! "t process itself8 ,does ! hi/orian read purpose into hi/ory or does he f9d x !re8 ,x may assi/ 9 answ]+ su* que/ions to obs]ve t if selection is a device ( ! hi/orian1 x is "o to :i* he is compell$4 ,)\t x hi/ory is un9telligible4 ,unless we und]/& ev5ts & circum/ances z contribut+ to a def9ite result & contribut+ 9 diff]5t measures1 we d n und]/& !m at all4 ,! ,magna ,*>ta1 ! ,briti% ,con/itution1 ! ,t[] ( ,london1 ! ,riv] ,?ames1 ! m9es ( ,wales1 ! plays ( ,%akespe>e--all ^! ?+s & ?+s l !m are = u q un9telligible if !y illum9ate no c>e] or illu/rate no specific movem5ts to :i* !y h p>ticul>ly contribut$4 ,selection is1 consequ5tly1 n a device :i* ! hi/orian has inv5t$2 x is impos$ ^u him by 8 own purpose to pres]ve ! memory & promote ! und]/&+ ( :at has happ5$4 ,! proc$ure ( ! hi/orian is n arbitr>y1 b necess>y4 ,x is impos$ ^u him by ! "* ( ! facts ) :i* he deals4 ,^! facts are movem5ts f ! possible to ! actual & are help$ & h9d]$ by o!r su* movem5ts4 ,an hi/orical fact is n only spread out 9 space & exi/s equally ) all its contempor>ies at an assignable place 9 ref]5ce to !m1 x also p]si/s 9 "t1 comes be=e & aft] o!r p]si/+ facts1 & p]si/s along ) o!rs 9 a cont9uance equal to1 or m or less ?an1 !irs4 ,9 a figure we may say1 facts m>* on 9 "t1 b n all at ! same spe$ or ) ! same endurance2 !y help or imp$e "o ano!r's movem5t2 !y d n all rea* ! goal2 "s ( !m turn out to be lead]s1 o!rs foll[]s2 _! c>e]s ov]lap & int]f]e2 s t ! result is a failure = "s & a success = o!rs4 ,! m>* is _! hi/ory4 ,?is is figure1 b x looks l ! fact4 ,simple illu/rations may en=ce x4 ,! se$s :i* we buy & s[ 9 ! spr+ are n simply s _m ounces ( *emical sub/ances4 ,!y are also s _m possible hi/ories or c>e]s 9 "t1 s _m days ( gr[?1 s mu* promise ( fruit or fl[]4 ,ea* se$ has its own peculi> hi/ory ) its own peculi> c>e]4 ,! se$s are plant$4 ,!n 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 soil & moi/ure & atmosph]e & food op]ate 9 unequal ways 9 ! developm5t ( ea* c>e]4 ,ea* is fur!r$ or h9d]$ z ev5ts fall out4 ,"s c>e]s are cut %ort1 o!rs prosp]4 ,ev]y:]e !re is selection4 ,ev]y:]e !re is adaptation ( means to ends4 ,! hi/ory ( ! g>d5 c be writt5 because !re is a hi/ory !re to write4 ,su* an illu/ration c be g5]aliz$4 ,our _w is indubitably a _w 9 "t4 ,t means mu* m ?an ! fact t its ev5ts c be plac$ 9 accordance ) a map or dat$ 9 accordance ) a cal5d>4 ,x means t !y are ev5ts 9 g5u9e c>e]s1 ea* ) its own p>ticul> "* & its own possibility ( a future1 l ! se$s 9 ! g>d54 ,?+s ) hi/ories h n only /ructures 9 space & are1 accord+ly1 relat$ geometrically to "o ano!r2 !y h n only *emical /ructures & are ?us analyzable into compon5t p>ts2 !y h also /ructures 9 "t4 ,!y are n n[ :at !y w be1 b :at !y w be is always cont9u\s ) :at !y are1 s t we mu/ ?9k ( !m /ret*$ out1 s to speak1 9 "t z well z 9 space1 or z be+ s _m mom5ts z well z s mu* volume4 ,:at !y become1 h[ev]1 dep5ds n only on _! own "t /ructures1 b also on _! int]play ) "o ano!r4 ,!y are help$ & h9d]$ 9 _! developm5t4 ,! results rea*$ at any "t are su* z complete ^? :i* h gone be=e1 = ea* c>e] is ! produc]1 b n ! product ( its pa/4 ,x seems cle>1 !re=e1 t !re is purpose 9 hi/ory4 ,b purpose is a tr\blesome ^w4 ,x connotes design1 int5tion1 =esight1 z well z ! conv]g+ ( means ^u a specific end4 ,only 9 ! latt] s5se is x "h us$1 b ) ?is addition3 ! end is to be conceiv$ n 9 t]ms ( any goal ultimately rea*$1 b 9 t]ms ( ! c>e] ( :i* x is ! t]m9ation2 & 9 ?is c>e]1 ! pres5t is cont9ually add+ to & complet+ ! pa/4 ,! gr[+ se$s end ea* 9 its own specific fl[] or fruit4 ,!y are ea* ( its own k9d & nam$ accord+ly4 ,x is only because ea* ( !m has its specific /ructure 9 "t t _! gr[? pres5ts t conv]g5ce ( means t[>d an end by :i* we di/+ui% !m & = :i* we value !m4 ,9 purpose con/ru$ 9 ?is way !re is evid5tly no ne$ ( design or int5tion or =esight4 ,9 mak+ a g>d5 !re is su* ne$4 ,! purposes ( nature may be delib]ately employ$ to atta9 ! purposes ( m54 ,b ap>t f be+s :o =esee & plan !re appe>s to be no evid5ce ( int5tion 9 ! _w4 ,:5 we speak ( nature's designs1 we speak figuratively1 & impute to h] rational & delib]ate p[]s4 ,b we c n cle>ly affirm t ! ra9 falls 9 ord] t ! g>d5 may be wat]$1 or t ! eye 0 fram$ 9 ord] t we might see4 ,! evid5ce = design ( t "* has be5 prov$ inadequate aga9 & aga9 ) e c>eful exam9ation ( x4 ,to say1 !re=e1 t nature is full ( purpose does n mean t nature has be5 fram$ 9 accordance ) "s preconceiv$ plan1 b r t nature is discov]$ to be an hi/orical process1 ! conv]sion ( ! possible into ! actual 9 su* a way t !re is cons]v$ a progressive record ( t conv]sion4 ,f ! selective "* ( hi/ory x foll[s t a s+le complete hi/ory ( any?+ is impossible--c]ta9ly a s+le complete hi/ory ( ! _w at l>ge4 ,hi/ory is plurali/ic4 ,?is conclusion might be rea*$ z o!rs h already be5 rea*$ by po9t+ out h[ x foll[s f ! purpose ( writ+ hi/ory1 & h[ ?is purpose indicates ! "* ( movem5ts 9 "t4 ,inde$ ?is has already be5 done 9 po9t+ out t ! hi/ory ( ,engl& is its _m hi/ories & ! hi/ory ( a g>d5 ! hi/ory ( its _m se$s4 ,always !re is a p>ticul> c>e] & p>ticul> incid5ts appropriate to x4 ,any c>e] may be z compreh5sive z desir$1 b ! m inclusive x is ! m re/rict$ x becomes4 ,! hi/ory ( ,milton conta9s details :i* ! hi/ory ( ,engli% lit]ature w omit2 & ! hi/ory ( ! cosmos %r9ks to no?+ :5 we try to write x4 ,! only univ]sal hi/ory is ! exposition ( :at hi/ory itself is1 ! "t process /ripp$ ( all its v>iety & specific int]e/s4 ,consequ5tly1 a s+le purpose is n discov]able2 !re are _m purposes4 ,:5 we try to r$uce !m all to "s %[ ( s+l5ess we aga9 d no m ?an try to tell :at a temporal ord] is l4 ,x is metaphysics & n hi/ory we are writ+4 ,to affirm t hi/ory is plurali/ic is1 h[ev]1 only to reaffirm ! selective "* ( hi/ory g5]ally4 ,a hi/ory ( ! _w 9 ord] to be s+le1 def9ite1 & coh]5t1 mu/ exhibit a s+le1 def9ite1 & coh]5t purpose or "t process4 ,t means1 ( c\rse1 t x is di/+ui%$ f o!r purposes equally s+le1 def9ite1 & coh]5t4 ,!re are ?us _m hi/ories ( ! _w di/+ui%$ f "o ano!r by ! incid5ce ( *oice or emphasis4 ,! fl[] 9 ! cranni$ wall ) its hi/ory fully record$ & und]/ood w\ld1 consequ5tly1 illu/rate ! univ]se4 ,all t has ev] happ5$ might be int]pret$ 9 illum9ation ( its c>e]4 ,yet x w\ld be absurd to ma9ta9 t ei!r nature or ,t5nyson int5d$ t ! little fl[] %\ld be exclusively illu/rative4 ,! wall w\ld d z well1 or its crannies1 or ! poet4 ,nature exhibits no pref]5ce ei!r 9 ! *oice ( a hi/ory or 9 ! ext5t ( its compreh5siv5ess4 ,man may be ?\ght to be1 & man is1 an incid5t 9 ! univ]se1 & ! univ]se may be ?\ght to be1 & ! univ]se is1 ! !at] ( man's c>e]4 ,! same pr9ciple may be illu/rat$ f human hi/ory exclusively4 ,we :o are ( ,european ance/ry & l>gely ,anglo-,saxon by inh]itance are pleas$ to write hi/ory z ! developm5t ( our own civilization ) its in/itutions1 cu/oms1 & laws2 & we reg>d ,*9a & ,japan1 = example1 z incid5tal & contributory to our own cont9uation 9 "t4 ,because our h]itage is ,*ri/ian we date all ev5ts f ! bir? ( ,*ri/4 ,yet we ga9 "s wisdom by paus+ to reflect h[ our proc$ure might impress an enlight5$ hi/orian f ,*9a or ,japan4 ,w\ld he beg9 ) ! cradle ( ,european civilization1 pass ?r\gh ,greece & ,rome1 & !n f ,europe to ,am]ica1 rem>k+ t 9 #aheb ,a4,d4 ,commodore ,p]ry op5$ ,japan to ! _w8 ,surely he w\ld beg9 o!rwise1 & n unlike ourselves w\ld con/rue ! hi/ory ( ! _w 9 a mann] relevant to ! progress ( 8 own civilization4 ,europe & ,am]ica & ,*ri/ianity w\ld contribute to t developm5t1 b w\ld n con/itute its ess5tial or di/9ctively significant factors4 ,! hi/orian is himself an hi/orical fact indicat+ a selection1 a di/9ction1 & an emphasis 9 ! c\rse ( "t4 ,8 hi/ory is naturally color$ by t fact4 ,o!r hi/ories he c write only ) an ef=t at deta*m5t f 8 own c>e]4 ,he mu/ =get himself if he w\ld und]/& o!rs2 b he mu/ und]/& himself fir/1 if he is successfully to =get :at he is4 ,he mu/ "k :at hi/ory is1 recognize its plurali/ic "*1 & try to d x ju/ice4 ,to d ju/ice to ! plurali/ic "* ( hi/ory is n1 h[ev]1 simply to write o!r hi/ories ?an "o's own ) comm5dable imp>tiality4 ,x is also to be ke5ly alive to ! philosophical implications ( ?is pluralism4 ,! mo/ significant ( !m is d\btless ?is3 s9ce philosophically consid]$ hi/ory is a ?+ n writt51 b evolv$ & act$1 to no "o hi/ory c absolute sup]iority or pref]5ce be assign$4 ,absolutely consid]$ ! hi/ory ( man c n claim prem95ce ov] ! hi/ory ( ! />s4 ,he is no m ! d>l+ ( ! univ]se ?an is ! remote/ nebula4 ,x is j z intelligible & j z true to say t man exi/s z an illu/ration ( /ell> evolution z to say t ! sun exi/s to divide light f d>kness = ! good ( man4 ,absolutely consid]$ ! cosmos is imp>tial to its _m hi/ories4 ,b ev5 t is n well said1 = x implies t ! cosmos might be p>tial if x *ose4 ,we %\ld r say t !re is no consid]+ ( hi/ory absolutely at all4 ,= hi/ory is j ! d5ial ( absolute consid]ations4 ,x is ! affirmation ( relative consid]ations1 ( consid]ations :i* are relative to a select$ c>e]4 ,!re is no o!r k9d ( hi/ory possible4 ,! recognition ( ?is fact does n1 h[ev]1 imply ! futility ( all hi/ory4 ,x does n imply t any hi/ory is good en\gh = m5 s9ce all hi/ories are good en\gh = ! cosmos4 ,s to conclude is to disreg>d completely ! implications ( pluralism4 ,if no hi/ory c claim absolute di/9ction1 all hi/ories are di/+ui%$1 nev]!less1 f "o ano!r4 ,if no hi/ory c claim prem95ce ov] any o!r1 x is true also t none c be robb$ by any o!r ( its own di/9ction & "*4 ,! fact t ! morn+ />s d n s+ toge!r is n ! univ]se's e/imate ( ! value ( poetry4 ,! fact t ! ra9 falls equally ^u ! j & ! unju/ is evid5ce nei!r ( ! imp>tial disp5sations ( deity nor ( ! equal issue ( vice & virtue4 ,ea* ev5t 9 its own hi/ory & illu/rative ( its own c>e] is ! law4 ,yet m5 h be5 prone to write _! own hi/ory z if x 7 some?+ else ?an a human ent]prise1 z if x 7 some?+ else ?an ! hi/ory ( humanity4 ,^? :o seek to read _! de/9y f ! con/ellations asc5dant at _! bir? are g5]ally call$ sup]/iti\s2 b ^? :o seek to read x f ! con/itution ( matt]1 or f ! me*anism ( ! physical _w1 or f ! composition ( *emical sub/ances1 al?\gh no less sup]/iti\s1 are too frequ5tly call$ sci5ti/s4 ,b du/ ?\ art & unto du/ ?\ %alt return is an ess5tial tru? only ab\t ! hi/ory ( du/2 x is only an incid5tal tru? ab\t ! hi/ory ( man4 ,"o le>ns no?+ peculi>ly *>act]i/ic ( humanity f x4 ,x af=ds no measure ( ! appreciation ( poetry1 ( ! con/itution ( a /ate1 or ( ! passion = happ9ess4 ,human hi/ory is human hi/ory only4 ,! hopes & fe>s1 ! aspirations1 ! wisdom & ! folly ( man are to be und]/ood only 9 ! light ( 8 c>e]4 ,!y are to be und]/ood 9 t]ms ( t into :i* !y may & d ev5tuate = him1 by ! way 9 :i* !y are incorporat$ into 8 pa/ to make x m fully rememb]$ & m adequately und]/ood1 & by ! way !y are us$ = 8 future to make 8 pa/ m satisfactory to rememb] & m satisfy+ to und]/&4 ,yet "s !re are :o /op wor%ipp+ ! />s :5 !y discov] t ! />s nei!r ask = wor%ip nor respond to x1 & :o dismiss rev]5ce & piety :5 !y discov] t a god did n create ! _w4 ,p]haps !y %\ld n wor%ip ! />s nor believe 9 ,god1 b nei!r a/ronomy nor geology af=ds good reasons = putt+ an end to human rev]5ce & fai?4 ,if ! />s h n begg$ man to wor%ip !m1 he has begg$ !m to be an inspiration to a /eadfa/ purpose4 ,x is 9 8 hi/ory1 n 9 !irs1 t !y h be5 div9e4 ,h[ /upid ( him !re=e1 & h[ traitor\s to 8 own hi/ory1 if he %ames 8 capacity = rev]5ce1 :5 once he has f\nd t ! />s h a diff]5t hi/ory f 8 own4 ,! inevitable failure ( a/ronomy & geology to af=d man gods suitable = 8 wor%ip is n a recomm5dation t he %\ld vigor\sly embrace ! sup]/itions ( 8 ance/ors4 ,to c\nsel t w\ld be an infamy equal to t :i* has j be5 condemn$4 ,! c\nsel is r t :at is n human %\ld n be tak5 z ! /&>d & measure ( :at is human4 ,human hi/ory c n be :olly resolv$ into physical processes nor ! ent]prises ( m5 be con/ru$ solely z ! by-product ( mat]ial =ces4 ,su* resolution ( x appe>s to be unw>rant$ 9 view ( ! conclusions to :i* a consid]ation ( :at hi/ory is1 leads4 ,! obv]se error has long s9ce be5 suffici5tly condemn$4 ,we h be5 w>n$ (t5 en\gh t wat] does n seek its own level or nature abhor a vacuum4 ,ev5 lit]>y criticism w>ns u aga9/ ! pa!tic fallacy4 ,b 9 refus+ to an?ropomorphize matt]1 we ought n to be l$ to mat]ialize man4 ,we %\ld r be l$ to recognize t ! reasons :i* condemn an?ropomorphic sci5ce are precisely ! reasons :i* comm5d humani/ic philosophy4 ,x is j because hi/ory is plurali/ic t x is unp>donable to conf\nd diff]5t hi/ories ) "o ano!r4 ,s we may conclude t ! pluralism ( hi/ory :i* makes all hi/ories1 :5 absolutely consid]$1 ( equal rank & ( indiff]5t importance1 does n rob !m1 !re=e1 ( _! specific *>act]s1 nor make human hi/ory a presumptu\s ent]prise = !m t write x n 9 ! language ( nature1 b 9 ! language ( man4 ,?is conclusion ne$s great] ref9em5t ( /atem5t if x is to be fre$ f ambiguity4 ,= ! di/9ction betwe5 nature & man is an artifice4 ,x is n a di/9ction :i* philosophy c ultimately ju/ify4 ,und\bt$ly man is a "p or in/ance ( nature1 gov]n$ by nature's laws & intimately involv$ 9 h] processes4 ,b he is s gov]n$ & involv$ n z matt] )\t imag9ation1 b z a be+ ^: di/9ction is ! hi/orical ex]cise ( 8 intellig5ce4 ,nature is n :at %e w\ld be )\t him & t is :y 8 hi/ory c nev] be rememb]$ or und]/ood if he is =gott54 ,he c n be tak5 out ( nature & nature be !n call$ ^u to expla9 him4 ,z a "p or in/ance ( nature man is to be rememb]$ & und]/ood1 b z ! "p or in/ance :i* he himself is1 & n ano!r4 ,8 hi/ory1 consequ5tly1 c nev] be adequately writt5 solely 9 t]ms ( physics or *emi/ry1 or ev5 ( biology2 x mu/ be writt5 also 9 t]ms ( aspiration4 ,all "t processes are hi/ories1 b man only is ! writ] ( !m1 s t hi/orical compreh5sion becomes ! significant trait ( human hi/ory4 ,to live 9 ! light ( a pa/ rememb]$ & und]/ood is to live1 n ! life ( in/9ct & emotion1 b ! life ( intellig5ce4 ,x is to see h[ means conv]ge ^u ends1 & s to discov] means = ! atta9m5t ( ends desir$4 ,human hi/ory becomes ?us ! record ( human progress4 ,f x we may le>n h[ t progress is to be def9$ & s discov] ! purpose ( man 9 hi/ory4 ,= him ! /udy ( 8 own hi/ory is 8 cong5ial task to :i* all 8 k ( o!r hi/ories is contributory2 & = him ! consci\s1 reflective1 & intellig5t liv+ ( 8 own hi/ory is 8 cong5ial purpose4 ,,footnote3 #d ,see especially 8 ,donnes immdiates de la consci5ce1 #ahhh4 7,eng4 tr4 ,"t & ,free ,w1 by ,f4 ,l4 ,pogson4 ,! ,macmillan ,company1 #aiab47 ,l'volution cratrice1 #aijh4 7,eng4 tr4 ,creative ,evolution1 by ,ar?ur ,mit*ell4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company1 #aiac47 ,,iii ,,! ,,cont9uity ,,( ,,hi/ory ,al?\gh hi/ory is plurali/ic1 x is n1 !re=e1 discont9u\s4 ,we c n divide x 9 two 9 su* a mann] t its p>ts w be :olly unconnect$4 ,any division we may make1 al?\gh we make x z pla9 z ! f5ce :i* divides a field1 gives u a b\nd>y :i*1 l ! f5ce1 belongs equally to ! p>ts on ei!r side ( x4 ,novelty & di/9ction may ab\nd 9 ! _w1 b no?+ is s novel or di/9ct t x is :olly cut (f f antec$5ts & consequ5ces ( "s sort4 ,x is ?is fact :i* we d5ote :5 we speak ( ! cont9uity ( hi/ory4 ,we indicate t e action ( "t1 e conv]sion ( ! possible into ! actual1 is intimately wov5 into ! ord] ( ev5ts & f9ds !re a def9ite place & def9ite connections4 ,consequ5tly x becomes easy to repres5t ! movem5t ( hi/ory z a k9d ( progress f e>li] to lat] ?+s1 f ance/ors to desc5dants1 or f ! orig9al or primitive to ! d]iv$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 progress is to mean any?+ m ?an j ?is repres5tation ( hi/orical cont9uity1 if1 = example1 x is to mean1 besides a progression f ! e>li] to ! lat]1 "s improvem5t also1 cle>ly a crit]ion is necess>y1 by :i* progress may be judg$ & e/imat$4 ,an inquiry is ?us sugge/$ into ! cont9uity ( hi/ory to see 9 :at s5se progress may be affirm$ ( x & by :at crit]ia t affirmation may be w>rant$4 ,z a prelim9>y to ?is inquiry x is advisable to envisage ! cont9uity itself & det]m9e h[ f> x assi/s 9 und]/&+ :at has happ5$4 ,f among ! _m illu/rations :i* might be cit$ to br+ ! fact ( hi/orical cont9uity visibly be=e u1 ^! f ,pr(essor ,tylor's ,primitive ,culture are p>ticul>ly sugge/ive because !y deal ) famili> ?+s3 ,progress1 degradation1 survival1 modification1 are all modes ( ! connection t b9ds toge!r ! complex network ( civilization4 ,x ne$s b a glance into ! trivial details ( our own daily life to set u ?9k+ h[ f> we are really its orig9ators1 & h[ f> b ! transmitt]s & modifi]s ( ! results ( long pa/ ages4 ,look+ r\nd ! rooms we live 91 we may try "h h[ f> he :o kn[s only 8 own "t c be capable ( rightly compreh5d+ ev5 t4 ,"h is ! honeysuckle ( ,assyria1 !re ! fleur-de-lis ( ,anj\1 a cornice ) a ,greek bord] runs r\nd ! ceil+1 ! /yle ( ,l\is ,,xiv & its p>5t ! ,r5aissance %>e ! look+-glass betwe5 !m4 ,trans=m$1 %ift$1 or mutilat$1 su* elem5ts ( art /ill c>ry _! hi/ory pla9ly /amp$ ^u !m2 & if ! hi/ory yet f>!r beh9d is less easy to read1 we are n to say t because we c n cle>ly disc]n x !re is !re=e no hi/ory !re4 ,x is ?us ev5 ) ! fa%ion ( ! clo!s m5 we>4 ,! ridicul\s little tails ( ! ,g]man po/ilion's coat %[ ( !mselves h[ !y came to dw9dle to su* absurd rudim5ts2 b ! ,engli% cl]gyman's b&s no long] s convey _! hi/ory to ! eye1 & look unacc\ntable en\gh till "o has se5 ! int]m$iate /ages ?r\gh :i* !y came d[n f ! m s]viceable wide coll>s1 su* z ,milton we>s 9 8 portrait1 & :i* gave _! "n to ! 'b&-box' !y us$ to be kept 94 ,9 fact1 ! books ( co/ume1 %[+ h[ "o g>m5t grew or %rank by gradual /ages & pass$ into ano!r1 illu/rate ) mu* =ce & cle>ness ! nature ( ! *ange & gr[?1 revival & decay1 :i* g on f ye> to ye> 9 m important matt]s ( life4 ,9 books1 aga91 we see ea* writ] n = & by himself1 b occupy+ 8 prop] place 9 hi/ory2 we look ?r\gh ea* philosoph]1 ma!matician1 *emi/1 poet1 into ! backgr\nd ( 8 education1--?r\gh ,leibnitz into ,desc>tes1 ?r\gh ,dalton into ,prie/ly1 ?r\gh ,milton into ,hom]4 ',man1' said ,wilhelm von ,humboldt1 'ev] connects on f :at lies at h& 7d] ,m5s* knpft imm] an ,vorh&5es an74' ,! notion ( ! cont9uity ( civilization conta9$ 9 ?is maxim is no b>r5 philosophic pr9ciple1 b is at once made practical by ! consid]ation t !y :o wi% to und]/& _! own lives ought to "k ! /ages ?r\gh :i* _! op9ions & habits h become :at !y are4 ,augu/e ,comte sc>cely ov]/at$ ! necessity ( ?is /udy ( developm5t1 :5 he decl>$ at ! beg9n+ ( 8 ',positive ,philosophy' t 'no conception c be und]/ood except ?r\gh its hi/ory1' & 8 phrase w be> ext5sion to culture at l>ge4 ,to expect to look mod]n life 9 ! face & compreh5d x by m]e inspection1 is a philosophy ^: weakness c easily be te/$4 ,imag9e any "o expla9+ ! trivial say+1 'a little bird told me1' )\t kn[+ ( ! old belief 9 ! language ( birds & bea/s1 to :i* ,dr4 ,das5t 9 ! introduction to ! ,norse ,tales1 s reasonably traces its orig94 ,to +5i\s attempts at expla9+ by ! light ( reason ?+s :i* want ! light ( hi/ory to %[ _! mean+1 mu* ( ! le>n$ nons5se ( ! _w has inde$ be5 due4#e ,! illu/rations are drawn f ! doma9 ( human int]e/s4 ,!y c\ld be p>allel$ by o!rs drawn f natural hi/ory4 ,! honeysuckle may c>ry u else:]e ?an to ,assyria1 reveal+ unsuspect$ k9%ips 9 ! _w ( plants4 ,biology has made ! conception ( ! cont9uity ( liv+ =ms a famili> commonplace1 & geology c f9d 9 ! e>?'s cru/ ! /ory ( c\ntless ye>s4 ,s famili> has ! idea ( cont9uity become t t]ms l evolution & developm5t h ceas$ to be te*nical & h become t]ms ( common spee*4 ,we speak readily ( ! evolution ( man1 ( gov]nm5t1 ( ! /eam-eng9e1 ( ! automobile1 & ( ! atom4 ,! idea has s possess$ all dep>tm5ts ( inquiry t a l>ge "p ( ! lit]ature ( e subject is occupi$ ) sett+ =? connections :i* h gone be=e4 ,n only d we g ?r\gh ,milton into ,hom]1 b ?r\gh ye/]day into an ev] rec$+ pa/ :i* gr[s m allur+ ! m x rec$es4 ,! que/ = orig9s has be5 ( absorb+ int]e/4 ,x w\ld seem t we c nev] und]/& any?+ at all until we h discov]$ its orig9 9 some?+ :i* prec$$ x4 ,9 ! fir/ lecture ,i po9t$ out h[ impossible x appe>s ev] to end any hi/ory f9ally4 ,we n[ seem to face a correspond+ impossibility1 namely1 ! impossibility ( ev] really beg9n+ x successfully4 ,x w\ld appe> t we /op only because we d n c>e to g f>!r1 or lack ! means to d s1 & n because we c say t we h f\nd a fir/ beg9n+ ) no antec$5ts be=e x4 ,we may beg9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy ) ! ,greeks1 ) ,?ales ( ,miletus1 b ! "q has be5 repeat$ly ask$1 ,0 n ,?ales a ,semite8 ,did he n d]ive 8 ideas f ,egypt & ,babylonia8 ,& :5ce came philosophy itself8 ,0 x n ! (fspr+ ( religion :i* prec$$ x1 s t1 be=e we beg9 its hi/ory1 we mu/ pass1 z ,pr(essor ,corn=d sugge/s1#f f religion to philosophy8 ,!n :at ( religion itself8 ,:at 7 its antec$5ts & :5ce 0 its desc5t8 ,s ! que/ions multiply int]m9ably until we mu/ admit t 9 ! beg9n+ is a "t arbitr>ily fix$ or only relatively det]m9$4 ,hi/ory1 be+ cont9u\s1 has nei!r beg9n+ nor end4 ,?is fact1 h[ev]1 ought n to bewild] any "o :o contemplates x /eadily4 ,x is an obvi\s consequ5ce ( ! nature ( "t1 = e pres5t has a pa/ & a future1 & a fir/ or la/ pres5t is1 consequ5tly1 q un9telligible4 ,! hi/orian1 lea/ ( all1 %\ld be bewild]$4 ,if he has recogniz$ t hi/ory is plurali/ic1 he w recognize also t beg9n+s & ends are1 9 any intelligible s5se1 ! t]m9i ( di/9ctions4 ,!re is n an absolute fir/ or la/ 9 hi/ory tak5 z a :ole1 =1 z we h se51 ! attempt to take hi/ory z a :ole1 if x has any mean+ at all1 means ! attempt to def9e hi/ory4 ,x gives u ! metaphysics ( "t1 b n an absolute1 complete1 & f9i%$ :ole1 ^: b\nd>ies1 al?\gh nev] empirically rea*$1 are ideally conceivable4 ,our ?9k+ moves 9 a direction q diff]5t4 ,x leads u to obs]ve t di/9ctions beg9 & end1 & beg9 & end z absolutely z "o *ooses1 b d n1 !reby1 cut !mselves (f f all connections4 ,^! lectures began to be deliv]$ la/ ,friday1 b n ! day be=e2 ! fir/ ^w ( !m 0 writt5 at a p]fectly def9ite "t & place :i* c nev] be *ang$2 !y w end ) a def9it5ess equally precise2 b ^! beg9n+s & end+s de/roy no cont9uity4 ,e hi/ory is equally cont9u\s1 undi/urb$ by its beg9n+s & end+s4 ,ea* action ( "t is prec$$ & foll[$ by ev]y?+ :i* prec$es & foll[s x1 & yet ea* action ( "t beg9s & ends ) its own peculi> & individual precision4 ,9 affirm+ ?is we are affirm+1 by means ( a p>ticul> in/ance1 ! metaphysical nature ( cont9uity itself4 ,= by cont9uity we mean ! possibility ( precise & def9ite di/9ctions4 ,! cont9uity ( a l9e may be divid$ at its middle po9t4 ,x is !n precisely divid$1 b is n1 !reby1 brok5 into two sep>ate l9es4#g ,aft] ?is mann] ! cont9uity ( hi/ory is to be conceiv$4 ,& 9 ! light ( ?is conception we %\ld und]/& :at ! cont9uity ( hi/ory c expla94 ,x is tempt+ to say t x c expla9 no?+ at all1 b x is evid5t t !re is an unc]ta9ty ( mean+ 9 su* a claim4 ,= ?+s may be expla9$ or made cle> 9 a v>iety ( ways ) little resemblance to "o ano!r4 ,:at we mean by a circle may be made cle> by def9+ a circle1 or by an algebraical =mula1 or by draw+ a circle4 ,all ^! ways w be fruitful1 b !y w be fruitful relatively to ! problem :i* provokes !m4 ,to expla9 any?+ at all1 x is necess>y to keep 9 m9d ! que/ions to :i* ! propos$ explanation is relevant4 ,if ,i am ask$ to draw a circle x w n d simply to def9e x2 & if ,i am ask$ to tell :at x is algebraically1 x w n d simply to draw x4 ,s x is app>5t t1 :5 we wi% to "k :at ! cont9uity ( hi/ory c expla91 or :5 we affirm t x expla9s no?+1 we %\ld h 9 m9d1 fir/ ( all1 ! que/ions to :i* ! cont9uity ( hi/ory w\ld be an appropriate answ]4 ,!re appe>s to be only "o su* "q1 & t is1 ,:at h be5 ! antec$5ts ( any giv5 fact8 ,^! antec$5ts ! cont9uity ( hi/ory expla9s 9 t x makes !m cle>4 ,x may also make cle> :at ! consequ5ces ( a giv5 fact h be5 or may be4 ,b ?is explanatory value is a d]ivative ( ! prec$+ or an enl>gem5t ( x1 ?r\gh our habit ( look+ at consequ5ces z d]iv$ f _! antec$5ts1 & ( bas+ our expectations ( :at may happ5 ^u our obs]vations ( :at has happ5$4 ,fur!r explanatory value 9 ! cont9uity ( hi/ory x seems difficult to f9d1 ev5 if we make ! /atem5t ( x less g5]al & m precise4 ,b 9 say+ ?is1 x is n impli$ t ?is value is mean or inconsid]able4 ,! cont9uity ( hi/ory is bo? ent]ta9+ & in/ructive4 ,x is ent]ta9+ because x reveals unsuspect$ k9%ips & allur+ connections4 ,x is in/ructive because x furni%es a f\ndation = inf]5ce & practice4 ,to man x gives ! long exp]i5ce ( 8 race to enjoy & pr(it by4 ,x guides 8 expectations & enhances ! control ( 8 own affairs4 ,x is ! same ) ! cont9uities ( nature g5]ally4 ,!y beget ! vision ( an ord]$ _w & help to frame rules :i* are applicable 9 ! control ( nature4 ,accord+ly x is n disp>agem5t :i* is "h int5d$1 b a limitation :i* %\ld be appreciat$4 ,:5 we say to our *ildr51 ,a little bird told me1 bo? we & our *ildr5 may be q ignorant ( ,dr4 ,das5t's introduction to ! ,norse ,tales4 ,we may be q unconsci\s t we are us+ an expression traceable to a "t :5 p believ$ 9 su* language ( birds & bea/s z gift$ p]sons c\ld und]/&4 ,x may be t we repeat ! words simply because we rememb] t our p>5ts once successfully deceiv$ u 9 our *ildhood by us+ !m1 & t our p>5ts did b foll[ ! example ( !irs4 ,b evid5tly we %\ld n expla9 ! trivial say+ simply by foll[+ x back endlessly into antiquity unless we conclud$ t x _h always be5 *>act]i/ic ( p>5ts to deceive *ildr5 9 ?is mann]4 ,9 t case we %\ld h discov]$ a metaphysical tru? ab\t ! nature ( p>5ts1 & no fur!r explanation w\ld be requir$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we are n will+ to admit t p>5ts are su* by nature t !y w cite birds z s\rces ( in=mation :5 x is exp$i5t to keep ! real s\rce hidd51 b insi/ t ?is habit be o!rwise expla9$1 we ask = an explanation :i* ! cont9uity ( hi/ory alone c n af=d4 ,an explanation 9 contemporane\s t]ms is requir$4 ,we d n use ! phrase because our ance/ors us$ x1 al?\gh we may h d]iv$ x f !m2 we use x because ( its kn[n efficacy4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 discov] t our ance/ors--or ,norse p>5ts--us$ x = a diff]5t reason1 namely1 because !y believ$ 9 a language ( bea/s & birds4 ,b if we ask :y !y s believ$1 x w n pr(it u to pursue antiquity aga91 unless by s do+ we come ^u ! contemporane\s1 exp]im5tal orig9 ( t belief4 ,= x is evid5t t if ! belief _h an orig91 !re 0 a "t ant]ior :5 x did n exi/1 & its orig9 c n1 !re=e1 be expla9$ solely 9 t]ms ( t ant]ior "t4 ,its orig9 po9ts1 n to cont9uity1 b to action4 ,x indicates n t ! orig9ators ( ! belief _h ance/ors1 b t1 9 view ( _! contemporane\s circum/ances1 !y act$ 9 a c]ta9 way4 ,to expla9 ! orig9 ( any?+1 !re=e1 we c n tru/ to ! cont9uity ( hi/ory alone4 ,t cont9uity may c>ry u back to ! beg9n+s ( beliefs & in/itutions :i* h p]si/$ & be5 transmitt$ f age to age2 x may reveal to u exp]im5tal factors :i* h %ap$ beliefs & in/itutions1 b :i* h long s9ce be5 =gott52 b x c nev]1 ( itself1 reveal ! exp]im5tal orig9 ( any belief or in/itution :atev]4 ,t is1 9 pr9ciple1 ! limitation by :i* ! explanatory value ( hi/orical cont9uity is re/rict$4 ,to und]/& orig9s we mu/ appeal to ! contemporane\s exp]i5ce ( _! own age1 or to exp]im5tal sci5ce4#h ,simple z ?is consid]ation is1 x has be5 too mu* neglect$ by hi/orians & philosoph]s 9 rec5t times on acc\nt ( ! pr(\nd influ5ce ( ! doctr9e ( evolution4 ,! great s]vice1 :i* t doctr9e has r5d]$1 has be5 to fix our att5tion on ! evid5t fact ( cont9uity f :i* our m9ds _h be5 di/ract$ by a too exclusive preoccupation ) !ories ( ! atomic k9d4 ,?r\gh sev]al c5turies1 philosophy _h acquir$ ! habit ( ?9k+ g5]ally 9 t]ms ( elem5ts & _! comp\nds1 :5ev] x address$ itself to a consid]ation ( nature1 or ( ! m9d1 or ( ! relation betwe5 ! two4 ,its pr9cipal problem 0 to discov] means ( connection & unification :i* might make cle> h[ t :i* is ess5tially discrete & discont9u\s might1 none ! less1 be comb9$ into a unity ( "s sort4 ,z x fail$1 x usually took refuge 9 ! opposite idea1 & attempt$ to conceive an orig9al unity out ( :i* div]sity 0 g5]at$ by "s impulsion 9 ?is initial & primal be+4 ,philosophy ?us vibrat$ betwe5 ! contra/$ poles ( ! same fundam5tal endeavor1 betwe5 ! attempt to comb9e elem5ts into a unity1 & ! attempt to resolve unity into elem5ts4 ,! latt] attempt1 especially 9 m5 l ,hegel & ,sp5c]1 _h ! advantage ( involv+ ! idea ( cont9uity1 & became ! controll+ philosophical ent]prise ( ! latt] "p ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,b x 0 pr9cipally ! doctr9e ( evolution or developm5t z set =? by biologi/s1 an?ropologi/s1 & hi/orians t made ! fact ( cont9uity conv9c+ly app>5t & fre$ philosophy f ! necessity ( attempt+ to expla9 x4 ,cont9uity became a fact to be appreciat$ & und]/ood1 & ceas$ to be a riddle to be solv$4 ,! doctr9e ( evolution ?us wr\ght a real emancipation ( ! m9d4 ,b ?is fre$om has be5 (t5 abus$4 ,reliev$ ( ! necessity ( expla9+ cont9uity1 philosoph]s1 biologi/s1 hi/orians1 & ev5 /ud5ts ( language1 lit]ature1 & ! arts1 h be5 too frequ5tly cont5t to let ! fact ( cont9uity d all ! expla9+ t ne$s to be done4 ,to discov] ! hi/orical orig9s & trace ! desc5t ( ideas1 in/itutions1 cu/oms1 & =ms ( life1 h be5 = _m ! exclusive & suffici5t occupation1 to ! neglect ( exp]im5tal sci5ce & ) ! consequ5t failure to make u v mu* wis] 9 our attempts to control ! intricate factors ( human liv+4 ,if we w\ld appreciate our own morals & religion we are (t5 advis$ to consid] primitive man & 8 in/itutions4 ,if we w\ld evaluate m>riage or prop]ty1 we are (t5 direct$ to /udy our remote ance/ors4 ,& ?is practical advice has sometimes tak5 ! =m ( metaphysics4 ,if we wi% to "k ! nature ( ?+s or to appraise _! wor?1 we are told to contemplate "s primitive cosmic /uff f :i* ev]y?+ has be5 d]iv$4 ,?us man & all ! v>i$ panorama ( ! _w vani% backw>d into nebul1 & life disappe>s into ! impulse to live4 ,n trail+ cl\ds ( glory d we come1 b trail+ ! primitive & ! obsolete4 ,su* consid]ations z ^! h div]se effects accord+ to our temp]am5ts4 ,!y q uni=mly produce1 h[ev]1 disillusionm5t & sophi/ication4 ,t is ! usual result ( inquisitions into "o's ance/ry4 ,b disillusionm5t & sophi/ication may produce ei!r regret or rebellion4 ,?is exaltation ( ! pa/1 z ! ance/ral home ( all t we are1 may make u regret our loss ( illusions & our disconc]t+ enlight5m5t4 ,x _h be5 bett] = u to h liv$ !n :5 illusions 7 *]i%$ & vital1 ?an to live n[ :5 !y are expos$ & artificial4 ,! joy ( liv+ has be5 sapp$1 & we may cry ) ,mat!w ,arnold's ,ob]mann ,oh1 _h ,i liv$ 9 t great day6 ,or disillusionm5t & sophi/ication may beget rebellion4 ,we may break ) ! pa/1 scorn an inh]itance s r$ol5t ( blood & lu/ & sup]/ition1 revel 9 an emancipation unguid$ by ! discipl9e ( c5turies1 /rive to create a new _w e day1 & imag9e t1 at la/1 we h begun to make progress4 ,b progress is n to be con/ru$ 9 t]ms ( a cons]vatism :i* is artificial & reaction>y1 or ( a radicalism :i* is undiscipl9$ & irresponsible4 ,cons]vatism & radicalism are1 z already indicat$1 temp]am5tal affections :i* a too exclusive & irrational contemplation ( our ance/ry may produce 9 u4 ,!y are born ( fe> or impati5ce1 & are n ! legitimate (fspr+ ( hi/ory4 ,= hi/orical cont9uity1 j because x does n ( itself reveal ! exp]im5tal orig9 ( any belief or in/itution1 does n ( itself disclose progress or any /&>d by :i* progress may be e/imat$4 ,x tea*es no lesson 9 morals & provides no guide to ! p]plex$4 ,& ! reason = ?is is simple4 ,hi/ory is cont9u\s1 &1 !re=e1 !re is no po9t1 no date1 no occurr5ce1 no incid5t1 no orig91 no belief1 & no in/itution1 :i* c claim prem95ce simply on acc\nt ( its position4 ,if m5 7 once sup]/iti\s because ( _! place 9 hi/ory & are n[ sci5tific = precisely ! same reason1 we c n !re=e conclude1 ) any intellig5t or rational c]ta9ty1 t evolution has progress$ f sup]/ition to sci5ce1 or t sci5ce is bett] ?an sup]/ition4 ,values are o!rwise det]m9$4 ,! cont9uity ( hi/ory levels !m all4 ,yet !re may be laws ( hi/ory4 ,! comp>ative /udy ( hi/ory1 :e!r ! hi/ory be ( civilizations or ( liv+ =ms or ( geological =mations1 reveals uni=mities & sequ5ces :i* promote our und]/&+ & aid our practice4 ,if we %\ld f9d t :]ev] m5 h liv$1 _! in/itutions1 laws1 cu/oms1 religion1 & philosophy t5d to %[ a uni=mity ( direction 9 _! developm5t1 we %\ld feel ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+ t ! t5d5cy indicat$ a law ( hi/ory4 ,yet su* laws w\ld n be indications ( progress4 ,!y w\ld indicate r ! conditions "u :i* progress is or c be made4 ,= laws are expressions ( ! limitations "u :i* ?+s may be done4 ,!y %[ ! =ms & /ructures to :i* actions con=m4 ,b :e!r ^! actions are good or bad1 upw>d or d[nw>d1 progressive or retrogressive1 !y d n %[4 ,= decl9e no less ?an progress is 9 con=mity ) law1 & ! cont9uity ( hi/ory is indiff]5t to bo?4 ,7 we1 !re=e1 9 possession ( all ! laws & uni=mities ( hi/ory1 we %\ld n h discov]$ !reby :at ei!r decl9e or progress is2 b 7 we 9 possession ( a k ( :at decl9e & progress are1 ! laws & uni=mities ( hi/ory w\ld tea* u bett] to avoid ! "o & atta9 ! o!r4 ,x w\ld seem to foll[ f ^! consid]ations t progress involves some?+ m ?an ! cont9u\s accumulation ( results 9 "s specifi$ direction1 ! pil+ ( !m up on "o ano!r 9 su* a way t ! total heap is m impressive ?an any ( ! portions add$ to x1 & m illu/rative1 consequ5tly1 ( a p>ticul> c>e]4 ,!re might1 inde$1 be progress 9 ?is s5se1 if we divorc$ ! conception ( x f any /&>d :i* might intellig5tly judge x & set a value ^u x4 ,= ! passage f se$ to fruit1 or any movem5t 9 "t :i* atta9s an end illu/rative ( ! /eps by :i* x has be5 rea*$ is 9 t s5se progressive4 ,b progress 9 ?is s5se means no m ?an ! fact ( hi/ory4 ,! c>e] ( ?+s 9 "t is precisely t sort ( movem5t1 & indicates ! s5se 9 :i* hi/ory is naturally purposeful4 ,to call x progress adds no?+ to ! mean+ ( x unless a /&>d is introduc$ by :i* x c be measur$4 ,if we w risk aga9 ! trea*]\s di/9ction betwe5 man z intellig5t & nature z simply =ceful1 we may say t progress rightfully implies "s improvem5t ( nature4 ,we %\ld !n see t to improve nature involves ! do+ ( some?+ :i* nature1 left to h]self1 does n d1 &1 consequ5tly1 t nature h]self af=ds no indication ( progress & no measure or /&>d ( x4 ,nor does hi/ory af=d !m1 if we divorce hi/ory f e moral e/imate ( x4 ,= aga91 we may say t progress implies "s improvem5t ( hi/ory1 s t to judge t !re has be5 progress is n to discov] t hi/ory by evolv+ has put a value ^u itself4 ,x is r to judge t hi/ory has measur$ up to a /&>d appli$ to x4 ,x seems idle1 !re=e1 to suppose t hi/ory ap>t f su* a /&>d c tell u :at progress is or :e!r x has be5 made4 ,yet hi/ory might d s if we are ready to admit man makes moral judgm5ts z naturally z ! sun %9es4 ,if 8 morality 7 "s miracle1 sup]naturally impos$ ^u 8 natural c>e]1 we %\ld ne$ sup]natural sanctions = x1 = no natural a*ievem5t ( 8 c\ld ju/ify x4 ,^! sanctions might ju/ify him & :at he does1 if he con=m$ to !m1 b nei!r he nor 8 actions c\ld give !m natural w>rant4 ,!y w\ld express no?+ aft] :i* he naturally aspires1 & c\ld1 consequ5tly1 af=d him no vision ( a goal ! atta9m5t ( :i* w\ld cr[n 8 hi/ory ) its own natural fruition4 ,b if 8 morality is natural1 8 ideals & /&>ds ( judgm5t express :at he has discov]$ he might be1 & po9t out to him :at 8 hi/ory might atta91 _h he k & p[] en\gh to turn x 9 ! direction ( 8 own consci\s purposes4 ,accord+ly 8 hi/ory !n might reveal bo? progress & ! crit]ion ( x4 ,b x w\ld d s n simply because x is a hi/ory1 b because x is a hi/ory ( a c]ta9 k9d4 ,man makes progress because he c conceive :at progress is1 & use t conception z a /&>d ( selection & z a goal to be rea*$4 ,he p>ticipates 9 8 own hi/ory consci\sly1 & t means t he p>ticipates 9 x morally1 ) a s5se ( obligation to 8 c>e]4 ,= to be consci\s implies ! anticipation 9 imag9ation ( results :i* are n yet atta9$1 b :i* might be atta9$ if appropriate means 7 f\nd4 ,conceiv+ ?us :at he might be1 man always has "s /&>d & measure ( :at he is4 ,he sees ahead ( him1 & moves1 !re=e1 ) c>e & discrim9ation4 ,all ! =ces & impulses ( 8 nature d n simply impel him on f beh9d2 !y also draw him on f be=e ?r\gh 8 ability to conceive to :at enl>gem5t & fruition !y might be c>ri$4 ,he condemns 8 life z mis]able1 only because he conceives a happ9ess :i* condemns x2 & he calls x good1 only because joys1 once anticipat$ b n[ atta9$1 h bless$ x4 ,progress is ?us *>act]i/ic ( human hi/ory1 because x is *>act]i/ic ( man t progress %\ld be conceiv$4 ,8 life is n only a life ( nutrition & reproduction1 or ( pleasures & pa9s1 b a life also ( hopes & fe>s4 ,& :5 hope & fe> are n bl9d1 b enlight5$1 8 life is also a life ( reason1 = reason is ! ability to conceive ! ends :i* cl>ify ! movem5ts t[>d !m4 ,)\t reason1 z )\t memory1 !re might /ill be pleasures & pa9s 9 exi/5ce4 ,to increase ^? pleasures & r$uce ^? pa9s w\ld be to introduce an improvem5t into ! s5ti5t _w1 z if a devil sudd5ly di$ 9 hell or 9 heav5 a new angel 7 creat$4 ,s9ce ! be+s1 h[ev]1 9 :i* ^! values w\ld reside1 w\ld1 by hypo!sis1 "k no?+ ( "o ano!r1 & s9ce ! bett]m5t w\ld take place unpray$-= & unnotic$1 x c\ld h>dly be call$ a progress2 & c]ta9ly n a progress 9 man1 s9ce man1 )\t ! ideal cont9uity giv5 by memory & reason1 w\ld h no moral be+4 ,9 human progress1 !re=e1 reason is n a casual in/rum5t1 hav+ its sole value 9 its s]vice to s5se2 su* a bett]m5t 9 s5ti5ce w\ld n be progress unless x 7 a progress 9 reason1 & ! increas+ pleasure reveal$ "s object t c\ld please2 = )\t a picture ( ! situation f :i* a height5$ vitality might fl[1 ! improvem5t c\ld be nei!r rememb]$ nor measur$ nor desir$4#i ,c>ry+ ?us ! conception & measure ( progress 9 8 own c>e]1 man c judge 8 hi/ory morally1 & decide :at progress he has made4 ,he speaks aptly ( mak+ progress1 recogniz+ 9 t expression t he uses ! mat]ials at 8 comm& = ! ends he desires4 ,b ! mat]ials at 8 comm& are n ( 8 own mak+4 ,he may1 inde$1 h modifi$ !m by =m] use1 b 9 ea* in/ance ( 8 us+ !m !y are always s mu* matt] ) a /ructure & "* ( _! own4 ,?is fact puts ! cont9uity ( hi/ory 9 a new light4 ,x =bids ! attempt to conceive x z a movem5t pu%+ =w>d1 z x 71 into ! future4 ,we %\ld conceive x r f ! po9t ( view ( ! "t process z we h already analyz$ x4 ,!n we %\ld see t ! cont9uity ( hi/ory is ! cont9uity ( ! results ( ! conv]sion ( ! possible into ! actual--! "p ( ! l9e :i* has be5 drawn4 ,x comprises all t has be5 accompli%$1 cons]v$ ei!r by man's memory or by nature at l>ge1 & exi/+ = cont9u$ modification or use4 ,z su*1 x has its own /ructure1 its own uni=mities1 & its own laws4 ,to !m e modification made is subject4 ,t is :y ev]y?+ connects on f :at lies at h&1 & :y ev]y?+ we d--ev5 ! expressions we use--po9ts backw>d to :at our ance/ors h done4 ,s9ce :at !y h done is only mat]ial = :at we may d1 x c n ( itself expla9 our use ( x1 or judge our own values4 ,an und]/&+ ( x %\ld1 h[ev]1 make u wis] 9 ! use ( x4 ,t is :y we ne$ contemporane\s exp]i5ce & empirical sci5ce4 ,we ne$ to discov]1 ei!r by our own exp]i5ce or by recon/itut+ ! exp]i5ce ( o!rs1 :at happ5s :5 giv5 mat]ial is us$ 9 a giv5 way4 ,su* discov]ies are ! only g5u9e explanations4 ,!y reveal ! conditions to :i* actions mu/ con=m if ! ends we desire are to be atta9$4 ,m g5]ally express$ ! cont9uity ( hi/ory is ! cont9uity ( matt]4 ,x comprises 9 sum ! /ructure to :i* e movem5t 9 "t is subject4 ,x makes up :at we call ! laws ( nature con=mably to :i* :atev] is done mu/ be done4 ,b 9 itself x is in]t & impot5t4 ,activity ( "s sort mu/ p5etrate x1 if !re is to be any?+ effect$4 ,& :at is effect$ reveals1 :5 exp]im5tally und]/ood1 ! laws z limitations )9 :i* ! control ( any movem5t is possible4 ,a wall is built by lay+ /one on /one4 ,x may be torn d[n & built aga91 or left a ru94 ,! plac+ or ov]?r[ ( e /one occurs z j t ev5t b once1 nev] to return1 b ! /ones1 ?\gh *isel$ or worn 9 ! h&l+1 rema9 con/ant mat]ial = con/ant use4 ,! result is a wall or a ru91 bo? ( :i* illu/rate ! law ( gravitation1 b nei!r ( :i* 0 produc$ by t law4 ,t is :at hi/ory is l4 ,x is an activity :i* trans=ms ! mat]ials ( ! _w )\t de/roy+ !m1 & trans=ms !m subject to laws ( _! own4 ,! _w is ?us ev] new1 b nev] lawless4 ,x is always fre% & always old4 ,! pres5t is1 z ,francis ,bacon said1 its real antiquity4 ,"t is ?us ! ar*-cons]vative & ! ar*-radical4 ,=ev] x revises its inh]itance1 b x is nev] quit ( x4 ,man's inh]itance comprises bo? :at he has d]iv$ f 8 ance/ors1 & also ! _w bequea!d to him f day to day4 ,?is mat]ial he uses ) "s k ( its laws1 & ) ! consci\s desire to conv]t x to 8 own ends4 ,! k9ds ( progress he c make are ?us relevant to ! purposes he sets be=e him4 ,s9ce ! satisfaction ( 8 physical ne$s & ! desire ( com=table liv+ require "s ma/]y ( physical res\rces1 8 progress c naturally be measur$ by ! degree ( success he makes 9 provid+ = satisfactions ( ?is k9d4 ,su* progress is mat]ial progress1 & its /&>ds are economy & effici5cy1 or ! atta9m5t ( ! maximum result ) ! m9imum ( ef=t4 ,?is k9d ( progress is v div]sifi$1 embrac+ all ! economic conc]ns ( life1 & mu* ( society & ! arts4 ,b mat]ial prosp]ity is provisional4 ,to be well-h\s$1 well-f$1 well-clo!d1 & ev5 to h fri5ds & ! opportunity = unlimit$ amusem5t1 ^! ?+s h nev] be5 p]man5tly reg>d$ z def9+ human happ9ess to ! full4 ,hav+ ^! ?+s man is /ill curi\s to "k :at he w d4 ,mat]ial progress indicates ma/]y ( ! necessities ( 8 exi/5ce 9 ord] t he may !n be free to act4 ,if no free act foll[s ^u su* ma/]y1 life loses its savor1 & pleasures gr[ /ale4 ,mat]ial progress w\ld ?us seem to be a prelim9>y to liv+ well1 b w\ld n be liv+ well itself4 ,= man w\ld be 9 a sorry plight if he succe$$ 9 ma/]+ ! physical res\rces ( 8 _w1 & !n f\nd no?+ to d4 ,!re seems to be no?+ fur!r = him to d ?an to reflect1 or r :at he does fur!r1 fl[s f 8 reflections4 ,s9ce he satisfies 8 bodily wants1 n bl9dly1 b consci\sly & ?r\gh ex]cise ( 8 intellig5ce1 look+ be=e & aft]1 & try+ to see 8 life f beg9n+ to end1 8 reflections lead him to self-consci\sness4 ,he discov]s 8 p]sonality & makes ! crucial di/9ction betwe5 8 body & 8 s\l4 ,he speaks ( 8 _w1 ( 8 fri5ds1 ( 8 life4 ,he beg9s !n to wond] = :at purpose & by :at "r 8 possessive attitude is w>rant$2 = unless he suppresses 8 reflections or yields himself ?\ghtlessly to 8 in/9cts & emotions1 he c n fail to obs]ve t ?+s are no m rightfully 8 ?an ano!r's1 & t to belong rightfully to any "o !re mu/ be "s w>rant drawn f a _w ) :i* 8 s\l c\ld be cong5ial4 ,ev5 8 s\l beg9s to appe> z n rightfully 81 = :y %\ld he h n[ ?is haunt+ s5se ( belong+ to ano!r _w1 & ( be+ a visitor to ?is 9 ne$ ( introduction & cr$5tials8 ,reflection ?us gives bir? to a new k9d ( life 9 :i* also progress may be made4 ,we call x rational progress1 = x involves ! attempt to ju/ify exi/5ce by discov]+ sanctions :i* reason c approve1 & to :i* all %\ld give ass5t1 because ea* s\l mu/1 on see+ !m1 recognize !m z its own4 ,reflection may lead man to d g5]\s ?+s4 ,he may com=t ! di/ress$1 help ! poor1 relieve pa91 or re=m society4 ,! _w af=ds him abundant opportunity = 8 b5efactions4 ,he may create beautiful ?+s :i* he & o!rs c enjoy p]fectly 9 ! m]e behold+ ( !m4 ,he may wor%ip ! gods1 dimly consci\s t !y at lea/ lead ! p]fect life1 & t to dwell ) !m is immortality4 ,su* ex]cises ( ! _s yield him a new k9d ( happ9ess4 ,b 8 dang] lies 9 suppos+ t 8 exi/5ce c be ?us ext]nally ju/ifi$3 t o!rs w bless him = 8 b5efactions2 t ,beauty lurks hidd5 to be glori\sly se5 ev5 at ! risk ( de/ruction2 or t ,god int5d$ him to be happy4 ,if1 h[ev]1 he is sav$ f ?us sup]/iti\sly conv]t+ ! ideal possibilities ( 8 life into ju/ify+ reasons :y he %\ld exi/ at all1 he may see 9 !m ! fruition ( all 8 hi/ory4 ,ev5 8 mat]ial progress gives him a h9t ( ?is1 = x is g5u9e progress & ju/ifies itself naturally ?r\gh ! atta9m5t ( its ends4 ,= he ne$s no sanction to w>m 8 body :5 cold1 or to fe$ x :5 hungry4 ,x is suffici5t t he sees ! end to be rea*$ & f9ds ! means to rea* x4 ,! hung] ( ! s\l may be no less efficaci\s4 ,al?\gh ^! crav+s t5d to br+ uneas9ess & di/a/e into 8 animal enjoym5ts1 !y f9d "s satisfaction if ^! enjoym5ts are idealiz$ & trans=m$ into a vision ( :at !y might be fre$ f ! mat]ial grossness :i* clogs !m4 ,man !n beg9s to conceive ideal love & fri5d%ip1 & an ideal society4 ,if only he 7 ! free p>tak] ( su* p]fect ?+s1 8 exi/5ce w\ld ne$ no ju/ification4 ,9 ackn[l$g+ ?is1 h[ev]1 he may r$iscov] himself & le>n m adequately :at ! purpose ( 8 hi/ory is4 ,x is s to use ! mat]ials ( ! _w t !y w be p]man5tly us$ 9 ! light ( ! ideal p]fection !y naturally sugge/4 ,man c conceive no occupation m satisfy+ & no happ9ess m complete4 ,9 ent]+ ^u x he makes rational progress4 ,its measure is ! degree ( success he atta9s 9 mak+ 8 animal life m9i/] to ideals he c own )\t res]ve & love )\t regret4 ,human hi/ory is some?+ m ?an ! lives ( great m51 ! rise & fall ( /ates1 ! gr[? ( in/itutions & cu/oms1 ! vag>ies ( religion & philosophy1 or ! controll+ influ5ce ( economic =ces4 ,x is also a rational ent]prise4 ,express$ 9 naturali/ic t]ms x is hi/ory consci\s ( :at hi/ory is4 ,to rememb] & to und]/& :at has happ5$ is n1 !re=e1 simply an int]e/+ & pr(itable /udy2 x may be also an illu/ration ( rational liv+4 ,x may be an indication t man1 9 f9ally discov]+ :at 8 hi/ory g5u9ely is1 is at ! same "t mak+ x m9i/] con/antly & consci\sly to its own enl>gem5t & p]fection4 ,t intellig5t be+s %\ld recov] _! hi/ory is no reason :y !y %\ld repudiate x1 ev5 if !y f9d _m ?+s ( :i* to be a%am$2 = !y are examples ( ! recov]y ( ! pa/ ) ! prospect ( a future4 ,9 read+ _! own hi/ory1 !y may smile at t :i* once !y rev]5c$1 & laugh at t :i* once !y fe>$4 ,!y may h to unle>n _m e/abli%$ lessons & r5\nce _m *]i%$ hopes4 ,!y may h to emancipate !mselves cont9ually f _! pa/2 b note t x is f _! pa/ t !y w\ld be emancipat$ & t x is fre$om t !y seek4 ,x is n a new =m ( slav]y4 ,into :at great] slav]y c\ld !y fall ?an into t impli$ by ! squ&]+ ( _! inh]itance or by blam+ _! ance/ors = prec$+ !m8 ,!y w be ance/ors !mselves "o day & o!rs w ask :at !y h bequea!d4 ,^! o!rs may n ask = ,greece aga9 or = ,rome or = ,*ri/ianity1 b !y w ask = ! l ( ^!1 ?+s :i* c live p]5nially 9 ! imag9ation1 ev5 if z in/itutions !y are pa/ & dead4 ,he is n fre$ f ! pa/ :o has lo/ x or :o reg>ds himself simply z its product4 ,9 ! "o case he w\ld h no exp]i5ce to guide him & no memories to *]i%4 ,9 ! o!r he w\ld h no en?usiasm4 ,to be emancipat$ is to h recov]$ ! pa/ untrammel$ 9 an enlight5$ pursuit ( t ent]prise ( ! m9d :i* fir/ begot x4 ,x is n to r5\nce imag9ation1 b to ex]cise x illum9$ & refre%$4 ,hi/ory is1 !n1 n only ! cons]v+1 ! rememb]+1 & ! und]/&+ ( :at has happ5$3 x is also ! complet+ ( :at has happ5$4 ,& s9ce 9 man hi/ory is consci\sly liv$1 ! complet+ ( :at has happ5$ is also ! attempt to c>ry x to :at he calls p]fection4 ,he looks at a wild]ness1 b1 ev5 z he looks1 beholds a g>d54 ,= him1 consequ5tly1 ! purpose ( hi/ory is n a secret he va9ly tries to f9d1 b a k9d ( life 8 reason enables him to live4 ,z he lives x well1 ! fragm5ts ( exi/5ce are complet$ & illum9$ 9 ! visions !y reveal4 ,,footnotes3 #e ,tylor1 ,edw>d ,b4 ,primitive ,culture4 ,h5ry ,holt ,co41 #ahhi4 ,vol4 ,i1 pages #ag ff4 #f ,corn=d1 ,francis ,m4 ,f ,religion to ,philosophy4 ,longmans1 ,gre5 ,co41 #aiab4 #g ,see ,d$ek9d1 ,ri*>d4 ,cont9uity & ,irrational ,numb]s1 9 ,essays on ! ,!ory ( numb]s4 ,tr4 by ,woo/] ,w4 ,beman4 ,op5 ,c\rt ,publi%+ ,co41 #aija4 #h ,if space p]mitt$1 ?is same limitation c\ld be abundantly illu/rat$ f ! sci5ces1 especially ! biological sci5ces4 ,!y h made v cle> :at an ess5tial diff]5ce !re is betwe5 ! cont9uity ( liv+ =ms & ! orig9 ( new =ms4 ,?is diff]5ce c be readily appreciat$ by comp>+ a "w on evolution or natural hi/ory ) a "w on exp]im5tal biology4 #i ,santayana1 ,george4 ,! ,life ( ,reason1 #aije4 ,vol4 ,i1 pages #c-d4