,,fresco ,,painting                     
,illustration                           
,,fresco ,,painting                     
,,its ,,art ,,and ,,technique           
,,with ,,special ,,reference ,,to ,,the 
,,buono                        ,,and    
,,spirit ,,fresco ,,methods             
,,by                                    
,,james ,,ward                          
,,author ,,of        8,,principles ,,of 
,,ornament10 8,,colour ,,harmony ,,and  
,,contrast10             8,,historic    
,,ornament10 8,,progressive ,,design10  
,,etc4    ,with ,four ,plates in ,colour
 and ,thirty-one ,half-tone             
,illustrations                 of       
,italian and other ,fresco ,paintings   
,,london                                
,,chapman ,,and ,,hall1 ,,ltd4          
#aiji                       ,,richard   
,,clay  ,,sons1 ,,limited1              
,,bread ,,street ,,hill1 ,e4,c41 ,,and  
,,bungay1 ,,suffolk4     ,,preface   ,i 
have endeavoured in this treatise to    
place before students some practical    

hints in the methods and processes of   
fresco painting1 which are the outcome  
of my experience in the practice of the 
8buon-fresco10 and the 8spirit-fresco0  
systems of wall decoration4 ,as to the  
stereochrome1 or ,german 8water-glass10 
and its later variety1 the ,keims       
process of fresco painting1 ,i do not   
pretend to have a definite knowledge1   
having no practical experience in       
painting in these methods1 but1 on      
seeing the condition of some frescos in 
,england which have been executed in    
stereochromy1 ,i should prefer to trust 
to the buon-fresco or to the            
spirit-fresco mediums when it is a      
question of the permanency of wall      
paintings4  ,it is common enough to-day 
to hear and to read of the condemnation 
of fresco painting by critics1 and even 
by some eminent artists1 all of whom    
seem to echo each other in pointing out 
the failures in the examples executed on
 the walls of the ,houses of ,parliament
 and other places2 and all agree1       

because of these failures1 that fresco  
painting is impossible in this country1 
owing to the dampness of the climate4   
,our damp climate seems to have a deal  
to answer for1 but it is hardly fair to 
blame it for the ignorance of some of   
our mid-,victorian artists as to the    
nature and behaviour of the materials   
used in fresco painting1 and for their  
possibly limited knowledge of the       
chemistry of colours and the after      
action of caustic lime on the colours   
they used4  ,i trust that the technical 
notes and observations on some of the   
,italian frescos may be of interest and 
of some value to students of decorative 
art4                                    
,j4 ,,ward4     ,,contents   ,,chapter  
,i                                      
,,page  ,,the ,,relationship ,,of       
,,mural ,,painting ,,to ,,architecture  
#a   ,,chapter ,,ii  ,,mural            
,,decoration--,,systems ,,and ,,methods 
#h   ,,chapter ,,iii  ,,fresco-,,buono  
,,process--,,colours--,,preparation ,,of

 ,,the ,,wall--,,method ,,of ,,execution
                                        
#ab   ,,chapter ,,iv  ,,painting ,,of   
,,flesh ,,and ,,draperies--,,permanence 
,,of ,,buon-,,fresco                    
#be   ,,chapter ,v  ,,spirit ,,fresco   
,,painting                              
#ca   ,,chapter ,,vi  ,,technical       
,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,composition1       
,,colour1 ,,and ,,present ,,state ,,of  
,,some ,,italian ,,frescos              
#ci   ,,chapter ,,vii  ,,fresco         
,,paintings ,,by ,,gozzoli ,,and        
,,perugino                              
#ea   ,,chapter ,,viii  ,,the ,,work    
,,of ,,pinturicchio ,,and ,,ghirlandajo 
#ef   ,,chapter ,,ix  ,,frescos ,,by    
,,andrea ,,del ,,sarto1 ,,luini1 ,g4    
,,ferrari1 ,,raffaelle ,,and ,,michael  
,,angelo                                
#fc  ,,index                            
#ga     ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations     
,,plate                                 
,to face page  #a4 ,,the ,,arts ,,of    
,,peace 7colour74 ,lord ,leighton       

,frontispiece  #b4 ,,fragment ,,of      
,,ancient ,,fresco ,,from ,,tiryns      
#aj  #c4 ,,portion ,,of ,,fresco        
,,border 7colour74 ,after    ,sir ,e4   
,j4 ,poynter1 ,p4,r4,a4                 
#bj  #d4 ,,trial ,,piece ,,of ,,buon    
,,fresco4 ,g4 ,f4 ,watts1 ,r4,a4        
#bc  #e4 ,,trial ,,piece ,,of ,,buon    
,,fresco4 ,g4 ,f4 ,watts1 ,r4,a4        
#be  #f4 ,,group ,,of ,,three ,,figures 
7colour74 ,g4 ,f4 ,watts1 ,r4,a4        
#bg  #g4 ,,st4 ,,stephen ,,before ,,his 
,,accusers1 ,,and ,,the ,,stoning ,,of  
,,st4 ,,stephen4 ,sir ,e4 ,j4 ,poynter1 
,p4,r4,a4                           #cj 
#h4 ,,detail ,,from ,,the ,,arts ,,of   
,,war4 ,lord ,leighton                  
#cb  #i4 ,,detail ,,from ,,the ,,arts   
,,of ,,war4 ,lord ,leighton             
#cd  #aj4 ,,detail ,,from ,,the ,,arts  
,,of ,,peace4 ,lord ,leighton4          
#cg  #aa4 ,,the ,,birth ,,of ,,the      
,,virgin4 ,giotto                       
#ci  #ab4 ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,st4      
,,francis4 ,giotto                      

#dj  #ac4 ,,st4 ,,louis1 ,,king ,,of    
,,france4 ,giotto                       
#db  #ad4 ,,the ,,meeting ,,of ,,ss4    
,,joachim ,,and ,,anna4 ,giotto         
#dc  #ae4 ,,christ ,,appearing ,,to     
,,mary ,,magdalene4 ,fra ,angelico      
#dd  #af4 ,,the ,,deposition ,,in ,,the 
,,sepulchre4 ,fra ,angelico             
#df  #ag4 ,,detail ,,of ,,the           
,,crucifixion4 ,fra ,angelico           
#dg  #ah4 ,,the ,,tribute ,,money       
7colour74 ,masaccio                     
#di  #ai4 ,,angels1 ,,from ,,the        
,,paradise4 ,b4 ,gozzoli                
#ea  #bj4 ,,angels1 ,,from ,,the        
,,paradise4 ,b4 ,gozzoli                
#ec  #ba4 ,,st4 ,,benedict4 ,perugino   
#ed  #bb4 ,,st4 ,,john4 ,perugino       
#ee  #bc4 ,,detail ,,from ,,the         
,,christ',s ,,charge ,,to ,,peter4      
,perugino              #ef  #bd4 ,,st4  
,,catherine ,,disputing ,,before        
,,maximianus4 ,pinturicchio         #eg 
#be4 ,,detail ,,of ,,the ,,st4          
,,catherine ,,fresco4 ,pinturicchio     

#eh  #bf4 ,,the ,,nativity1 ,,spello    
,,cathedral4 ,pinturicchio              
#ei  #bg4 ,,florentine ,,lady4          
,ghirlandajo                            
#fj  #bh4 ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,st4      
,,francis4 ,ghirlandajo                 
#fa  #bi4 ,,florentine ,,lady4          
,ghirlandajo                            
#fb  #cj4 ,,detail ,,from ,,the ,,birth 
,,of ,,the ,,virgin4 ,ghirlandajo       
#fc  #ca4 ,,fresco ,,of ,,an ,,infant   
,,angel4 ,b4 ,luini                     
#fd  #cb4 ,,the ,,virgin ,,and ,,child4 
,b4 ,luini                              
#fe  #cc4 ,,st4 ,,lucy ,,sentenced ,,to 
,,death4 ,jacopo d',avanzo              
#ff  #cd4 ,,the ,,fire ,,in ,,the       
,,borgo4 ,raffaelle                     
#fh  #ce4 ,,figure ,,of ,,adam1         
,,sistine ,,chapel4 ,michael ,angelo    
#fi     ,,fresco ,,painting             
,,chapter ,i  ,,the ,,relationship ,,of 
,,mural ,,painting ,,to ,,architecture  
,when considering the subject of mural  
painting1 and indeed the progress and   

development of art generally1 of the    
so-called 8fine arts10 or of the lesser 
arts that minister to the uses and wants
 of everyday life1 we cannot regard them
 as isolated creations of human activity
 apart from their legitimate connection 
with the laws and principles of good    
architecture4 ,the progress1            
development1 culmination1 and decadence 
of architecture synchronize with the    
similar stages of painting and          
sculpture4  ,in a noble building the    
special functions of the three sister   
arts are clearly defined2 each supplies 
its own distinct qualities of expression
 to make up the general artistic unity4 
,the severe lines and proportional      
rhythm of the architecture are enriched 
by sculpture1 which in its turn is      
chastened and modified by the contiguous
 severity of the former1 while painting 
adds the necessary colour finish to the 
bare spaces that are enclosed by the    
mouldings and constructional lines of   
the architecture1 borrowing at the same 

time much of its dignity1 restfulness of
 form1 simplicity of composition1 and   
whatever else that adds to its nobility 
and monumental fitness1 from its close  
association with the architecture4      
,thus1 while the three arts are each    
limited to their own special functions1 
they1 at the same time1 would appear to 
assimilate from each other what is      
lacking in themselves1 and so contribute
 to the complete artistic harmony4      
,painting1 as the most ornate of the    
three1 owing to its greater power of    
expression and beauty of colour1 must   
nevertheless be employed to decorate1 in
 the true sense of the word1 the plain  
spaces in a building1 and in the largest
 and simplest manner1 without any       
definite attempts to represent the true 
facts of nature1 or at least it should  
be suggestive of such facts rather than 
descriptive of them4  ,the arrangement  
and composition of line1 restfulness of 
the masses of form1 and the harmonic    
balance and purity of colour are among  

the primary essentials of mural         
painting1 and all these indispensable   
requisites of this form of art are due  
to its contact with architecture4 ,while
 bearing this in mind1 we must not      
forget that painting has its special    
functions apart from those of           
architecture1 which include a           
controlling power over form and colour1 
and the faculty of illustrating ideas1  
by means of the representation of a     
theme or an incident1 a subject or a    
story4  ,now if the essentials of       
monumental painting1 which we have      
named1 and the special functions of the 
art of the painter are united in any    
scheme of mural decoration1 the result  
would be an ideal work of decorative    
art1 examples of which may be found in  
the frescos of ,giotto1 and in those of 
the majority of the ,italian painters   
who followed him1 down to the sublime   
creations of ,michael ,angelo4  ,the    
older art of the ,egyptian1 ,greek1     
,roman1 ,byzantine and ,medival schools 

was1 in each case1 influenced by1 and in
 perfect harmony with the architecture  
of the respective periods1 and not less1
 but even more so1 were the painting and
 sculpture of ,italy from the middle of 
the thirteenth century till the end of  
the sixteenth century4 ,the ,byzantine  
and ,romanesque mosaics which decorate  
the churches of ,ravenna1 ,venice and   
,rome are dignified and sculpturesque in
 treatment1 and from an ornamental point
 of view1 admirably fill the            
architectural spaces of both walls and  
vaulted ceilings4 ,the artists of these 
ancient schools rightly treated the wall
 spaces as flat surfaces1 the wall being
 strictly considered as such1 and no    
attempt was made to treat the subject of
 the painting in pictorial perspective1 
or to give the wall the illusion of a   
window4 ,the subject or incident1 was   
also1 for the most part1 mystic in      
character1 and elevated in a spiritual  
sense1 so that the very soul of their   
art was expressed and symbolized2 while 

what we may call the bodily part1 either
 from a want of their power of          
expressing it or from a careless or     
studied neglect of this side of their   
art1 was limited and incomplete4 ,and   
even when1 in later times1 the science  
of art1 as expressed in anatomy and     
perspective1 was well understood1 this  
traditional treatment of the design was 
followed out by the ,italian artists1   
both in their mosaics and wall          
paintings1 and was never lost sight of  
by the painters subsequent to ,giotto1  
until the seventeenth century1 when the 
general decadence of art had set in4    
,the three absolute essentials of       
ancient and medival painting1 which also
 characterized the best work of the     
,renaissance1 appear to have been a     
striving after the symbolic expression  
of the spirit of the subject1 a         
restfulness and dignity of form1 and the
 beauty of colour4 ,whatever else we    
look for1 we ought to find these three  
essentials in a successful work of      

monumental painting4 ,in this kind of   
art1 and indeed in all art1 small things
 should be sacrificed to great1 and the 
commonplace or matter-of-fact to the    
rendering or expression of the idea2 in 
parentheses1 it might be pointed out1   
that in a general sense the tendency of 
the art of the present day is towards a 
greater dexterity of handling closer    
representations of the facts of nature1 
but less sincerity of aim4  ,the more   
important paintings of the fourteenth   
and fifteenth centuries were those which
 decorated the walls of the ,italian    
churches and palaces1 and the authors of
 these works were not only painters1 but
 the majority of them were also         
architects1 sculptors1 and craftsmen in 
gold and silver work4 ,even those who   
confined their attention chiefly to     
painting1 thoroughly understood the     
principles of architecture1 and often   
designed and carried out architectural  
work1 as witness ,giotto1 ,ghirlandajo1 
,michael ,angelo1 ,leonardo ,da ,vinci1 

and many others4  ,if we now consider   
another aspect of art1 where it is      
applied to objects of general utility1  
we shall find that the design and       
decoration of such1 when rightly        
understood1 are in each case subject to 
the laws that govern good architecture4 
,take1 for instance1 the form or shape  
of a common candlestick1 a vase in      
pottery or in metal1 a cabinet or a     
chair1 and let us see how far we can    
apply the principles of architecture to 
their design and decoration4 ,when      
designing such objects the first        
consideration is their utility1 and the 
next is the material of which they are  
made4 ,it is a common enough truism to  
say that the forms and proportions which
 may be suitable for objects made in a  
certain material1 such as pottery or    
glass for example1 should not be        
imitated in another1 such as metal or   
woodwork4 ,when the questions of utility
 and material have been settled1 we can 
apply the laws and principles of        

architecture to guide us in the design  
and decoration of the given object4 ,as 
to design1 first1 we should strive to   
obtain good proportion of the parts and 
divisions to each other1 and to the     
whole4 ,it will be found that correct   
proportion generally postulates the     
determination of beautiful outlines and 
shapes4 ,we should also aim for the     
expression of contrasting elements of   
forms1 such as curves with straight     
lines1 sharp curves with others of less 
curvature1 horizontal lines to          
counteract vertical tendencies1 or      
mouldings and lines of varying widths   
arranged to fit in such positions that  
will give1 or suggest1 constructive     
strength2 all of which are simply       
architectural principles1 which1 if     
applied to the design of common objects1
 would give them a definite claim to be 
considered as works of art4  ,very      
little decoration is required on any    
article or object which has been        
designed on correct architectural       

principles1 beyond that already         
expressed by the lines or mouldings and 
space divisions4 ,if1 however1 the      
nature or use of the object permits of  
the display1 or adventitious aid of     
such1 in order to heighten its beauty1  
by making it still more attractive and  
comely to the eye1 then the laws and    
principles of architecture will again   
help us by indicating where the         
decoration may be placed1 the right     
amount to use1 the scale of such1 and   
the order of its disposition4 ,we learn1
 for instance1 from architecture that we
 must not weaken the appearance of the  
constructive parts1 such as the lines1  
or the mouldings1 by any fretful        
ornamentation1 but on the panels and    
plain spaces we may legitimately place  
our decoration1 yet still restrained so 
far as not to interfere with the right  
uses of the object1 and designed so as  
to harmonize1 and in some instances     
contrast1 with the lines and contour4   
,examples of artistic objects1 designed 

on architectural principles1 may be     
found in the ,greek and ,etruscan vases 
and ,pompeian bronzes1 and1 on the other
 hand1 if some examples may be mentioned
 where the laws of architecture do not  
find expression in their form or        
decoration1 and where art is almost     
non-existing1 we might safely point out 
the meretricious creations of the       
,chelsea and ,dresden chinaware1 and the
 gold and silversmiths' work of the     
mid-,victorian period4 ,this digression 
from our subject may be justified1 on   
the grounds of showing how important the
 study of architecture is to the        
painter1 the decorative artist1 and to  
the designer in any branch of art4      
,,chapter ,,ii  ,,mural                 
,,decoration--,,systems ,,and ,,methods 
,various processes1 systems1 or methods 
have been employed in ancient and modern
 times in the colour decoration of walls
 and ceilings4 ,under this section of   
art is included all kinds of wall       
paintings1 from the representation of   

the symbolic hieroglyphics1 found in the
 ,egyptian tombs1 to the monumental     
paintings on the walls of public        
buildings1 churches1 and palaces4 ,the  
decoration of wall surfaces in colour is
 one of the very oldest forms of art1   
and to a wall painting of any kind the  
term 8fresco0 has usually1 but somewhat 
loosely1 been applied4 ,strictly        
speaking1 however1 a veritable fresco   
painting is one that is executed on the 
fresh or wet lime plaster of the wall1  
and is not re-touched after the plaster 
has become dry4 ,all other varieties of 
so-called 8fresco0 paintings can only be
 designated as wall paintings1 and      
qualified according to their kind1 such 
as 8fresco-secco10 or 8dry0 fresco1 a   
kind of fresco where the wall is        
prepared in the same way as in true     
fresco1 and is then allowed to dry4     
,before the painting is commenced1 the  
wall is well saturated with lime water1 
and the colours used are the same as    
those employed in fresco painting4 ,it  

is not so permanent as work executed on 
the fresh1 wet plaster4 ,some of the old
 writers frequently use the term 8secco0
 when tempera painting is evidently     
meant4 ,painting in tempera on the dry  
wall is a process in which the colours  
are tempered with a binding medium1 such
 as glue size1 gum1 parchment size1 or a
 size made from eggs beaten up with     
water2 the ,italian painters added the  
juice1 or gum1 of the fig tree1 and     
sometimes vinegar to the egg size4      
,other methods are encaustic1 or        
painting with wax as a medium1 heat     
being afterwards applied to the wall to 
blend or to protect the colours2 spirit 
fresco1 in which the colours are ground 
in a wax medium and thinned with spirits
 of turpentine or oil of spike2         
water-glass1 a ,german method of wall   
painting2 ,keim's process1 an improved  
variety of water-glass1 and wall        
painting in oil colours4  ,the only     
advantage that these varieties of wall  
painting seem to possess over the buon1 

or true fresco1 process--and it may be  
considered as a questionable one--is1   
that as regards the number of the       
colours1 the artist may use an almost   
unlimited or unrestricted palette1 while
 in buon fresco his colours are limited 
to the very few which remain unchanged  
when subjected to the caustic action of 
the lime in the plaster4 ,tempera       
painting on walls has been so much      
mistaken for the fresco process that it 
is impossible to say when the latter was
 first practised1 but according to the  
statements of ,vitruvius and ,pliny1 the
 process was well understood by the     
,greeks and ,romans4 ,perhaps one of the
 most interesting revelations in the    
history of the art has been brought     
about by the discovery of several       
fragments of wall and ceiling           
decorations1 found recently by the late 
,dr4 ,schliemann during the excavations 
of the ancient cities and palaces of the
 pre-,hellenic ,mycene and ,tiryns1 of  
primitive ,greece4 ,one of these        

fragments of fresco painting1 which was 
found in a palace at ,tiryns1 consisted 
of a portion of a wall or ceiling1 a    
stucco slab1 composed of lime and sand  
plaster1 on which is painted the        
representation of a spirited bull with  
the figure of a man vaulting over its   
back4 ,this interesting piece of work   
must have been executed at least as     
early as #aejj ,b4,c41 as the city of   
,tiryns was a mass of ruins shortly     
after this date4 ,many other fragments  
of fresco paintings have also been found
 in the ruins of these ancient palaces1 
some of which were decorated with linear
 and geometric ornament1 conventional   
flowers1 and animal forms4 ,not only    
were the walls and ceilings decorated   
with frescos1 but the floors of some of 
the apartments were treated in a similar
 manner4 ,still earlier examples of     
fresco painting have been found in      
prehistoric ,thera1 one of the ,grecian 
isles1 and others in the ,minoan palace 
at ,cnossus1 in ,crete1 both of which   

may have been painted as early as the   
nineteenth century ,b4,c41 and certainly
 not later than the eighteenth4  ,the   
wall paintings of the ,egyptian tombs   
were  ,illustration3  ,to face p4 #aj   
,,plate #b4--;,,fragment ,,of ,,ancient 
,,fresco ,,from ,,tiryns  executed in   
tempera on a gesso or stucco white      
ground1 the same method being followed  
in the decoration of the mummy cases and
 other objects4 ,in some instances these
 tempera paintings of the ,egyptians    
were varnished1 which was not an        
advantage to their appearance1 as the   
varnish darkened1 and in a great measure
 destroyed1 the beauty of the original  
colours4  ,some of the wall paintings   
found at ,pompeii are said to have been 
executed in veritable fresco1 since lime
 has been found in mixture with most of 
the colours used4 ,on the other hand1   
this has been disputed1 and some        
authorities classify them as tempera or 
secco paintings2 but perhaps the truth  
of the matter is1 that a certain amount 

of the first colouring was really       
executed on the wet lime plaster1 and   
that1 in some instances1 certain        
colours1 used in the finishing of the   
work1 were applied afterwards in a      
tempera medium when the wall surface had
 become quite dry4 ,this method of      
procedure1 according to the statements  
of ,vasari and ,cennini1 was not an     
uncommon practice with the ,italian     
frescanti of the fourteenth and         
fifteenth centuries4     ,,chapter ,,iii
  ,,fresco-,,buono                      
,,process--,,colours--,,preparation ,,of
 ,,the ,,wall--,,method ,,of ,,execution
   ,fresco-buono1 or true fresco1 is so 
called because the painting is executed 
8a fresco10 that is1 directly on the    
fresh1 or wet plaster1 which forms the  
painting surface of the wall4 ,this     
plaster1 or mortar1 is a mixture of lime
 and sand1 and the colours used in the  
painting are such as will remain        
unchanged in hue when in contact or in  
mixture with the lime4 ,when all        

necessary details relating to the method
 of procedure connected with the work   
are carefully carried out1 true fresco  
paintings may be said to have a higher  
degree of permanence and durability than
 those executed by any other method or  
medium4 ,the fine surface texture and   
luminous quality of buon fresco         
pre-eminently distinguishes it as the   
most beautiful colour finish for mural  
decoration4  ,the great permanence of   
fresco paintings is due to the formation
 of carbonates1 and sometimes silicates1
 of lime on the surface of the plaster1 
which takes place during the drying of  
the latter4 ,the carbonic acid contained
 in the natural limestone is driven out 
of it by the process of burning in the  
kiln1 and after the burnt lime has been 
slaked into lime 8putty10 it has then   
become what is known as a hydrate of    
lime4 ,as long as the plaster is wet on 
the wall the lime in the plaster exists 
in the state of a hydrate1 and the      
applied colours of the painting become  

saturated with this form of lime2 but   
during the process of drying1 the lime  
on the surface1 and to a slight depth   
below the surface of the plaster1       
rapidly absorbs carbonic acid gas from  
the atmosphere1 and becomes a carbonate 
of lime1 which is formed as a hard and  
crystalline skin1 or surface covering1  
under which the colours are locked up1  
and so protected from any atmospheric   
influences4 ,in addition to this        
carbonate surface a silicate of lime is 
sometimes formed1 especially when in the
 painting some of the more earthy       
colours are used which may have silica  
in their composition4 ,these thin       
coverings of carbonates and silicates of
 lime render fresco paintings impervious
 to wet or damp on the surface1 so that 
they may be occasionally washed without 
injury2 but bad air1 such as            
sulphuretted hydrogen gases1 or the     
sulphur products given off by gas and   
coal combustion1 will in time convert   
the carbonate covering into a sulphate  

of lime1 a substance which disintegrates
 and destroys1 not only the colours1 but
 the plaster surface also4 ,this would  
suggest that in buildings which contain 
fresco paintings coal fires and gas     
should not be used for heating and      
lighting purposes1 and also that the    
buildings should be properly ventilated4
   ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,wall ,,in 
,,buon-,,fresco3  ,the wall on which a  
work in buon-fresco is to be painted    
should be of good brick1 or if a stone  
wall1 it should be lined with brick on  
its inner face1 or1 better still1 it    
should be what is known as a hollow     
brick wall--that is1 one having an      
air-space between the outer and inner   
linings4 ,the joints between the bricks 
should be scored out1 so as to leave a  
key for the first coating of rough      
plaster2 this should consist of old lime
 and coarse1 gritty1 well-washed river  
sand1 mixed with ox-hair1 or white      
asbestos cut into small bits1 so as to  
bind the mixture more effectually4 ,for 

this first coating of plaster the usual 
proportions are one part of lime and two
 parts of the gritty sand2 it should be 
about three-quarters of an inch in      
thickness4 ,this coating should have a  
roughened surface1 made by scratching it
 with a coarse-toothed kind of wooden   
comb1 and should be left for the best   
part of a year1 so that it may          
thoroughly harden1 before it receives   
the second1 and last1 coat of plaster1  
that on which the painting is to be     
executed1 which is known as the         
intonaco4 ,this plaster mixture must be 
prepared with great care1 and more than 
sufficient to cover the whole wall space
 should be made before beginning the    
painting1 so as to get the whole surface
 evenly tempered1 and of the same       
mixture2 for if different mixtures were 
made1 and at different times1 the lime  
and sand might vary in proportions1     
which would possibly affect the colours 
of the painting1 and prevent them drying
 uniformly1 as to tint or tone4  ,the   

proportions of lime and sand for the    
intonaco is1 one part of lime and three 
parts of fine and well-washed river     
sand4 ,pit sand must not be used1 on    
account of the clay and earthy matter   
which it contains2 nor sea sand1 which  
of course contains a certain amount of  
salt that would attract damp and cause  
the lime to perish4 ,the lime must be   
well slaked1 and must be fairly old in  
the 8putty0 state1 so that there may be 
no fear of its blistering and blowing   
off here and there in round flakes on   
the finished surface1 which it will do  
if it is too new or not properly slaked1
 even six or eight months after the     
plaster has been spread on the wall4    
,the method of preparing lime for fresco
 work is1 first to select the best white
 variety which has been properly        
calcined4 ,the lime is put into a large 
wooden trough with sufficient clean     
water to slake and dissolve it into a   
thin creamy consistency4 ,the mixture is
 then strained through a fine sieve into

 a brick-lined pit1 roofed over to keep 
out the wet and dust4 ,a thick coating  
of clean river sand should be put over  
the lime when it has cooled down and    
thickened into a paste1 and has become  
what is known as 8lime putty40  ,there  
are many tales and legends concerning   
the extreme old age of lime putty before
 it has been used in the plaster of wall
 surfaces1 or as a painting material in 
fresco4  ,it has been stated that for   
some of the ,italian frescos the lime   
used was eighty years old4 ,as a matter 
of fact it is quite ripe for use about  
one year after it has been slaked4 ,the 
lime used by ,sir ,edward ,j4 ,poynter  
in his fresco in ,st4 ,stephen's ,church
 at ,dulwich was about two years old1   
and that used in the ,houses of         
,parliament frescos was three years4    
,the quality of the lime1 however1 is of
 more consequence than its age4 ,the    
common grey lime used by the ,london    
builders should be avoided2 the best    
,english variety is the pure white      

limestone1 which is quarried and burnt  
near ,buxton in ,derbyshire4  ,before   
describing the method of laying on the  
last plaster ground1 or intonaco1 a few 
words must be said about the preparation
 of the design or subject to be painted4
 ,a finished coloured drawing or        
painting of the design1 to a smaller1 or
 even to the same scale as the fresco   
painting1 must be prepared1 and the     
artist should endeavour to make an exact
 copy of this on the plaster surface1 as
 there is no time to experiment in      
colour schemes1 or to make alterations  
from the original coloured design in the
 short period that is at the disposal of
 the painter when he is at work on the  
wet plaster4 ,if the colour sketch of   
the work is prepared on a small scale it
 will be also necessary that a cartoon  
in light and shade drawing should be    
made to the full scale of the fresco    
painting1 before beginning to paint on  
the wall4  ,as the colours1 and         
everything else that may be required1   

must be in readiness1 and close at hand 
before laying on the plaster ground and 
before commencing the painting1 it will 
be as well to indicate here the proper  
colours which may be safely used on the 
lime plaster4  ,although the palette in 
buon-fresco painting is very simple and 
restricted as to the number of the      
colours which may be trusted to         
withstand the caustic action of the     
lime1 at the same time a fairly rich and
 luminous colour scheme may be obtained1
 notwithstanding the limited range of   
the palette4 ,the following list may be 
safely relied upon3--       ,,white4    
,lime white 7hydrate of lime74          
,,yellow4 ,raw sienna 7a ferruginous    
earth74         8   4 ,cadmium yellow   
7cadmium sulphide74       ,,red4        
,vermilion 7sulphide of mercury74       
8   4 ,light red 7calcined ,oxford      
ochre74         8   4 ,indian red       
7ferric peroxide74       ,,blue4 ,cobalt
 blue 7phosphate of cobalt and alumina74
       ,,green4 ,oxide of chromium      

7anhydrous sesquioxide of chromium74    
8   4 ,emerald oxide of chromium        
7hydrated oxide of chromium and         
borax74         8   4 ,cobalt green     
7oxides of cobalt and zinc74            
,,orange4 ,burnt sienna 7raw sienna     
calcined74       ,,brown4 ,raw umber    
7oxides of iron1 manganese1 and clay74  
8   4 ,burnt umber 7raw umber calcined74
       ,,black4 ,ivory black 7charred   
bones74  ,there are other pigments that 
might be used1 but are really not       
necessary1 and some of them are doubtful
 as to their permanence4 ,one colour1   
not in our list1 is the genuine         
ultramarine1 a splendid blue1 and       
thoroughly permanent in buon-fresco1 but
 its great price prohibits its use1     
except in very small quantities1 or on  
small portions of the work4 ,french1 or 
factitious1 ultramarine is also very    
permanent1 and withstands the action of 
the lime1 but at the same time it is a  
most harsh and disagreeable colour when 
used in lime or in any other kind of    

fresco2 when used alone it destroys by  
its intensity of hue the proper values  
of other colours in the scheme2 on the  
other hand1 if any attempt is made to   
tone it down by mixing it with another  
pigment1 or by glazing another colour   
over it1 the result is cold and muddy in
 the extreme1 so it is best left out of 
the list1 as it is almost unmanageable  
in fresco4 ,vermilion is rendered       
durable in fresco by pouring lime-water 
over the powdered colour1 and then      
draining this water off1 without        
disturbing the colour4 ,this washing is 
repeated four or five times1 before the 
vermilion is ready for use4 ,permanent  
white1 which is a barium sulphate1 and  
tin white1 or tin binoxide1 may both be 
used in lime frescoes1 but they are     
unnecessary1 and not so good for the    
purpose as lime white4 ,lemon yellow1   
,naples yellow1 aureolin1 ,venetian red1
 and terre-verte may be used with lime1 
but it all depends on the manufacture of
 these colours as to whether or not they

 may be used with safety4 ,for example1 
the ,naples yellow1 ,venetian red1 and  
terre-verte pigments of to-day are quite
 different in their chemical            
constituents to the same named colours  
of the fourteenth and fifteenth         
centuries4 ,yellow ochre1 though it has 
been used very much by the old ,italian 
frescanti1 is not to be depended upon   
when used in lime fresco in this        
country1 as it consists of a mixture or 
combination of hydrate of iron and clay2
 it therefore attracts the damp that is 
nearly always present in our atmosphere4
 ,of course1 it can be safely used in   
very dry climates1 but it may be        
mentioned that it has been one of the   
pigments which has largely perished in  
some of the frescos of the ,houses of   
,parliament4 ,another objection to its  
use in fresco is1 that the caustic      
nature of the lime is apt to change     
yellow ochre to a light red1 an after   
effect which may not be altogether      
desirable4 ,raw sienna1 however1 more   

than takes the place of yellow ochre1   
and is one of the most useful colours in
 fresco painting4 ,we should say that   
the three most permanent and beautiful  
colours for use on the lime plaster are 
raw sienna1 burnt umber1 and ,indian    
red1 and whether used in transparent    
washes or in solid tints1 as when mixed 
with lime-white1 or in the full strength
 of their hues1 they always dry out     
luminous and brilliant4 ,all the colours
 should be ground very finely in water1 
and kept in covered jars or wide-mouthed
 glass bottles4 ,the lime-white should  
be strained through muslin and kept     
covered4 ,a bone or ivory palette knife 
must be used1 and the palette should be 
made of tinned metal1 having a series of
 small circular wells to hold the       
various colours4 ,brushes are of the    
ordinary kind1 hog-hair1 and a few long 
sable riggers4 ,hog-hair brushes are    
best for use when they are of a flat    
shape1 but of a roundish finish at the  
end1 like an old or half-worn brush1 so 

that when in use they will not disturb  
the surface of the wet plaster1 which a 
new or square-ended brush is apt to do4 
,when everything is in readiness to     
commence work1 a portion of the rough   
wall surface should be thoroughly       
saturated with water1 and the plaster   
ground1 or intonaco1 should be laid on  
with a wooden trowel1 beginning at the  
top and at an angle of the wall1 and    
large enough in area to constitute a    
day's work1 or1 rather1 as much as can  
be done in about five hours2 for after  
that time it is not safe to work on the 
new plaster1 as it then becomes too dry3
 if allowed to get in this condition the
 colours will not properly incorporate  
with the body of the plaster1 for if any
 painting is done when the plaster is in
 a half-dry state the colours will not  
adhere permanently to the wall1 but will
 scale off the surface1 or may be       
brushed off loosely when dry4 ,when any 
portion of the plaster ground becomes   
too dry to work upon4  ,illustration  it

 must be cut right away and a new       
coating of plaster applied2 it is of no 
avail to syringe it with water in order 
to keep it damp for painting on1 as the 
water only weakens the nature of the    
lime in the plaster4 ,the chemical      
action between the atmosphere and the   
lime1 necessary for the firm locking up 
of the colours1 will have taken place   
after four or five hours' time1         
according to condition of the           
atmosphere2 and this action will not    
repeat itself or be brought about by any
 application of water after the period  
named4  ,when the day's work is         
finished1 any part of the surface not   
painted on must be cut away1 and the    
plaster all around the edge must be     
under-cut1 the cut sloping well inwards1
 so as to form a key for the new piece  
of plaster for the next day's work4     
,this coating of plaster should be      
rather more than half-an-inch in        
thickness1 and should be finished to a  
level1 but not too smooth1 a surface1   

with the wooden trowel1 or 8float40 ,an 
iron trowel must not be used4 ,after the
 plaster is laid on it should remain    
about ten minutes or so before painting1
 so as to allow it to set4 ,it should   
then be coated with a tint1 that would  
be a deep vellum colour when dry1 made  
of a mixture of lime-white and a little 
raw sienna1 about the thickness of      
cream2 this will give a slightly        
smoother surface to the plaster and will
 act as a luminous ground for the       
subsequent colouring1 besides acting a  
very important part as an under-coating 
on which the superimposed colours will  
8bear out0 more effectively4 ,the water 
used should be distilled or boiled1 or  
rain water collected in clean vessels1  
as hard water generally contains a      
quantity of chalk1 and for this reason  
it is not so powerful a solvent of the  
lime as soft or distilled water4  ,the  
portion of the design selected for the  
day's painting is traced from the       
cartoon1 and is transferred to the soft 

plaster through the holes1 which are    
pricked through the tracing paper1 by   
means of pouncing with powdered charcoal
 contained in a muslin bag1 or it may   
have the outline traced through with a  
sharp-pointed wooden stile2 this will   
leave a slightly depressed line on the  
soft plaster1 and is a cleaner method   
than the charcoal pounce1 and on the    
whole the more preferable one4  ,we have
 now arrived at the stage of the work   
when the painting may be proceeded with4
 ,it may be here mentioned that1 in     
order to try the hues of the colours and
 various tints1 an ordinary brick having
 a thick coating of plaster of ,paris1  
that has been allowed to become         
thoroughly dry1 should be at hand4 ,if a
 touch from the brush1 dipped in any    
tint1 be put on this plastered brick it 
will dry immediately1 and show at once  
the actual shade of colour that such a  
tint will be when1 after some days1 it  
has dried out on the plaster surface4   
,it generally takes three or four days1 

according to the season of the year1 or 
heat of the room1 before the wall       
surface and the applied colours finally 
dry out1 and all  ,illustration3  ,to   
face p4 #bc4  ,,plate #d4--,,trial      
,,piece ,,of ,,fresco ,,painting  ,g4   
,f4 ,watts1 ,r4,a41 ,victoria and       
,albert ,museum  colours1 more          
particularly the lighter tints and      
half-tones1 dry eventually ever so much 
lighter than they appear when first laid
 on4 ,it is only the very darkest tones1
 or pigments used in their full         
strength1 those that have no lime mixed 
with them1 that dry anything near the   
full strength of their wet state1 and   
then there are exceptions to this2 so it
 follows that in buon-fresco painting   
the artist must paint in a much darker  
key than the work is intended to appear 
when it has dried out4  ,as regards the 
method of execution in painting it may  
be urged that the artist will work      
according to his own feeling or         
temperament3 for example1 some may      

decide to paint in thin transparent     
washes or glazings1 as in water-colour  
painting2 others may prefer to use the  
colours in a thick impasto method1 as in
 oil painting4 ,either method may be    
adopted with success1 but we should say 
that a judicious mixture of both        
methods1 in the same work1 will obtain  
the clearest and most luminous results1 
for1 as a matter of technique1 fresco   
lends itself admirably to either methods
 of painting4 ,the general rule is to   
model the shades1 half-tones and lights1
 broadly at first and in the order      
named1 with brushes rather large than   
small1 and then to finish off by        
strengthening the shadows with lesser   
touches1 or by a series of delicately   
hatched lines1 and brightening the      
lights in the same way1 using for these 
purposes sable rigger brushes4 ,the     
reason for this is that every touch     
tells1 especially when using a sable    
brush2 you cannot press or lean on your 
brush on the soft plaster without       

disturbing the underneath colours1 and  
possibly destroying the surface of the  
plaster as well4 ,it will be seen from  
this that the fresco painter must       
cultivate a light hand for his work2 he 
cannot indulge1 for instance1 in that   
dexterity of handling that may be       
accomplished in oil or in1 say1         
spirit-fresco painting1 simply because  
of the danger of working up the soft and
 wet plaster ground3 he must know what  
he has to do1 and must do it frankly and
 at once2 for1 although to a certain    
extent the artist may be able to paint  
over parts and so correct occasional    
mistakes1 it is not advisable to do so1 
as the corrections will more or less    
show when the work has dried out1 by    
looking muddy1 and consequently less    
luminous than they ought to be4 ,the    
only alternative1 when a correction is  
necessary1 is to cut the piece out1 and 
lay on a fresh plaster ground4 ,all this
 shows how important it is to have a    
full-sized cartoon in light and shade1  

and also a colour scheme previously     
prepared1 from which the fresco painting
 may be almost copied directly on to the
 wet plaster4  ,illustration3  ,to face 
p4 #be4  ,,plate #e4--,,trial ,,piece   
,,of ,,fresco ,,painting  ,g4 ,f4       
,watts1 ,r4,a41 ,victoria and ,albert   
,museum     ,,chapter ,,iv  ,,painting  
,,of ,,flesh ,,and                      
,,draperies--,,permanence ,,of          
,,buon-,,fresco   ,in beginning the     
painting of flesh and draperies on the  
wet plaster1 or indeed in any other kind
 of wall painting1 it is important to   
commence with a kind of modified        
outline4 ,this1 of course1 applies also 
to any other prominent objects in the   
design or composition4 ,it is therefore 
advisable that1 before laying in the    
first masses of colours1 the main       
features of the drawing should be       
outlined firmly with a sable brush1 even
 if you modify or half-obliterate the   
outline when afterwards painting within 
it4 ,having outlined the portion        

selected for painting on the prepared   
light or cream-coloured ground1         
supposing it to be a head or other part 
of the human figure1 a very good way to 
begin is to lay in the shadows first1   
using a soft or half-worn hog-hair      
brush1 the shadow colour to be of a warm
 greenish tint1 of a mixture of emerald 
oxide of chromium1 raw sienna1 and light
 red1 used thinly to get transparency4  
,immediately after the shading1 or      
modelling of the shadows1 is            
accomplished a general flesh-coloured   
tint is made1 of a medium tone1 and is  
swiftly brushed over the parts where the
 lights and half-tones would be1 taking 
care that it is worked very thinly or   
sparingly into the shadows4 ,this       
flesh-coloured tint ought to have a very
 little quantity of lime-white to render
 it semi-opaque4 ,as soon as this is    
done the carnations of the cheeks and   
lips and colours of the eyes should be  
painted in4 ,then on the top of the     
general flesh tint the colours of the   

forehead1 cheeks1 and neck should be    
worked in1 according to the colour of   
the sketch1 gradually brightening the   
lighter parts and strengthening the     
shadows as required4 ,for this second   
painting of the flesh the shade colour1 
modified of course according to the     
complexion and position it is to occupy1
 may be made of a mixture of raw sienna1
 light red1 burnt sienna1 and a very    
little emerald oxide4 ,the same colours1
 with vermilion and lime-white added1   
may be used for lights and half-tones1  
and the transition tones between lights 
and half-tones may be obtained by       
lightly dragging the lighter tints over 
the half-tones1 which operation usually 
produces the natural greyness required  
in these parts4 ,for the darker markings
 of the nostrils1 lips1 eyes1 and       
eyebrows1 or any dark accentuations of  
the flesh tints1 burnt umber used alone 
or mixed with a little vermilion1 or    
burnt sienna1 may be employed4 ,black   
may also be used for the same purpose if

 mixed with burnt sienna or vermilion4  
,at this stage the flesh-coloured       
,illustration  parts may be left to dry 
in a little and get firmer before       
finally finishing these parts1 when     
attention may now be directed to the    
painting of the hair1 head-dress1 or any
 small accessory4 ,these portions of the
 work may be laid in at once with an    
almost flat tint of strong local colour1
 and the lights and shades modelled into
 it4 ,on coming back to the flesh       
portions it may be found necessary to do
 a considerable amount of retouching2   
this can still be done near the end of  
the day's work1 as long as the touches  
are small and delicate1 and provided    
there is no serious repainting          
attempted4 ,as regards the general      
question of retouching a word of warning
 is necessary2 and that is1 it often    
happens that some touches which are     
intended to dry out lighter than the    
colour on which they are superimposed   
will appear actually darker than the    

underneath colour when they are freshly 
laid on2 this generally happens when the
 colour which is being used contains    
some lime-white in its mixture1 and it  
is owing to this capricious behaviour of
 opaque or semi-opaque tints that some  
artists have preferred to work almost   
entirely in transparent washes on the   
lime-white ground4 ,it stands to reason1
 however1 that the work will be more    
luminous and more permanent if the      
colours are all mixed in some degree    
with lime1 and also there will be more  
complete incorporation or cohesion with 
the colours and the plaster ground4  ,it
 may be mentioned that if a general tone
 of colour is to be given to any large  
surface1 or if the same colour is to    
appear in different parts of the fresco1
 as in draperies1 skies1 buildings1     
etc41 a few shades of the colours       
required should be mixed and preserved  
in closed jars for future use1 as it is 
almost impossible to match shades of a  
colour with any degree of accuracy where

 lime is one of the ingredients of the  
mixture4  ,the simplest way to paint    
drapery in fresco is to first outline   
the work1 and also indicate the         
principal folds in outline1 then prepare
 three shades of the general colour so  
that the darkest or shadow tint will not
 be so dark as the final darkest shade1 
nor the lightest so light as the        
finished lights are intended to be4     
,paint in the shades and shadows first1 
the middle tints or half-tones next1 and
 always finish with painting the lights2
 each tint1 of course1 in the operation 
must be lightly or delicately modelled  
into its neighbouring tint4 ,this will  
constitute the first painting1 and when 
finished it should be allowed to remain 
for ten minutes1 or more1 to sink       
properly into the plaster4 ,for the     
second painting a darker shade than the 
darkest used in the first is prepared1  
and the darkest accents and depths of   
the folds are delicately expressed2 and 
with a still lighter tint than the      

lights of the first painting1 used in a 
fairly thick consistency1 and with a    
full brush1 the higher lights of the    
drapery are then painted in4 ,the piece 
of work ought now to present the        
appearance of a monochrome study in     
light and shade1 but it may be necessary
 to indicate reflected lights in some   
portions of the shadows1 and the lights 
may want a blush of some other colour to
 make the study a more truthful         
representation of drapery texture1 or of
 the accidental lights1 and also        
reflections from surrounding objects4   
,these extra tints should be put in     
their proper places after the second    
painting is done2 and care should be    
taken to mix them of a purer or brighter
 colour than they appear in the coloured
 sketch1 so that1 when they are glazed  
lightly over the work1 the              
underpainting1 which is of a different  
colour1 will slightly show through and  
modify these bright glazings to the     
required tones4 ,it may be necessary to 

glaze over more than once in order to   
get the desired effects1 but that will  
not matter1 provided that the glazing is
 done with a light hand1 so that the    
underpainting is not disturbed4  ,when  
painting foliage1 flowers1 fruit1       
ornament1 or architecture1 the same     
method of working will also apply1 but  
the treatment of such objects would be  
simpler1 and will be found less         
difficult1 than the painting of drapery4
  ,we have gone somewhat into detail in 
giving this description as to the       
methods of painting in buon-fresco1 but 
we have done so because we believe it to
 be the best and highest form of wall   
decoration1 and we are convinced that if
 a dry wall is obtained1 properly       
prepared1 and none but the best and     
safest colours used1 it is a perfectly  
possible medium for wall decoration1    
even in this climate of ours4  ,as a    
proof of this we wish to mention that   
the fresco painted in this method1 and  
with colours similar to what have been  

described as suitable for buon-fresco1  
by ,sir ,edward ,j4 ,poynter1 ,p4,r4,a41
 in the chancel of ,st4 ,stephen's      
,church at ,dulwich1 about thirty-five  
years ago1 is at the present moment in a
 perfectly sound condition1 and is      
almost as fresh looking and bright as   
when first painted4 ,it is exposed to   
the effects of condensed vapour and     
moisture in the winter months1 when the 
church is heated1 and it is subjected to
 the fumes of the gas that lights the   
church1 yet it shows no signs of        
deterioration2 on the contrary1 the     
surface looks1 and feels to the touch1  
more like terra-cotta1 or of the texture
 and firmness of biscuit porcelain1 than
 anything else one can think of4  ,when 
one hears of frescos perishing in this  
country1 like some of those in the      
,houses of ,parliament1 we may be sure  
that the causes are not always due to   
the damp climate1 nor altogether to     
sulphur gases1 but either to a badly    
prepared wall surface1 or1 what is more 

than likely1 the use of one or two      
doubtful colours1 that in perishing will
 even loosen or destroy other sounder   
colours when juxtaposed to or mixed with
 them4  ,illustration3 ,photo4 ,bolas4  
,to face p4 #cj4  ,,plate #c4--,,st4    
,,stephen ,,before ,,his ,,accusers1    
,,and ,,the ,,stoning ,,of ,,st4        
,,stephen  ,sir ,e4 ,j4 ,poynter1       
,bart41 ,p4,r4,a41 ,fresco in ,st4      
,stephen's ,church1 ,dulwich            
,,chapter ,v  ,,spirit ,,fresco         
,,painting   ,the method of painting    
followed out in the spirit-fresco       
system1 as far as the manipulation of   
the colours is concerned1 is almost     
precisely the same as that of the lime  
or buon-fresco process1 the exception   
being1 that the over-paintings and      
retouchings may be executed at any time1
 weeks1 months1 or even years1 after any
 previous painting of the same parts2   
but as the preparation of the wall is of
 course somewhat different1 and the     
medium is altogether so1 a short        

description of the method or system may 
be of interest to students4             
,spirit-fresco painting is a method or  
process invented by ,mr4 ,gambier ,parry
 of ,gloucester1 and which he adopted   
when painting his mural decorations in  
,st4 ,andrew's ,chapel in ,gloucester   
,cathedral1 and in ,highnam church4 ,the
 process was adopted by the late ,lord  
,leighton for the wall paintings of     
8,the ,arts of ,peace10 and 8,war10 in  
the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 and1 
many years previous to the painting of  
these works1 for the fresco painted by  
him in ,lyndhurst church in the ,new    
,forest4 ,some of the frescos in the    
,manchester ,town ,hall1 by ,ford ,madox
 ,brown1 are painted in this process1   
and some of the paintings by various    
modern artists which decorate the       
interior of the ,royal ,exchange are    
executed in the spirit-fresco medium on 
coarse canvas1 and afterwards fastened  
to the wall4  ,although we cannot claim 
for spirit-fresco that peculiar quality 

of monumental dignity1 nor the undoubted
 luminosity or power of reflecting light
 that is characteristic of buon-fresco  
paintings1 still1 if the entire system  
is carefully carried out1 from the      
preparation of the wall down to the     
finished painting1 the work should be as
 lasting and as permanent as any other  
kind of wall painting4  ,for instance1  
the spirit-fresco executed by ,lord     
,leighton in ,lyndhurst church1         
forty-four years ago1 had still retained
 its brilliancy of colour and was in a  
perfectly sound condition three years   
ago1 when the writer last saw it4 ,in   
the winter season water from the        
condensed moisture constantly runs down 
the surface of this fresco1 but does not
 seem to injure it4 ,no amount of damp  
or wet on the surface will injure       
spirit-fresco paintings1 as the colours 
are practically locked up in wax1 upon  
which water has little or no injurious  
effect1 but if the wall is damp at the  
back1 or water gets in by accident1 the 

plaster ground behind becomes soft and  
friable1 and the coloured surface is    
soon destroyed4 ,damp behind the surface
 is the greatest enemy to this kind of  
fresco1  ,illustration3  ,to face p4    
#cb4  ,,plate #i4--;,,detail ,,from     
,,the ,,arts ,,of ,,war ,,fresco  ,lord 
,leighton1 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum
  and consequently the inner surface of 
an outside wall should not be chosen for
 an important work in this process4  ,as
 the writer had the honour of assisting 
,lord ,leighton in the execution of the 
8,arts of ,peace0 and 8,war0 frescos in 
the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 and  
also prepared both walls before the     
paintings were executed1 he is therefore
 enabled to give a brief description1 as
 outlined below1 of the whole method of 
procedure1 both as to the preparation of
 the walls and the method of painting   
adopted1 which will serve to explain the
 system of spirit-fresco painting4  ,it 
may be mentioned that the walls were    
prepared in strict accordance with ,mr4 

,gambier ,parry's method and directions4
 ,mr4 ,parry inspected this part of the 
work1 and declared that the whole       
preparation had been done to his        
satisfaction4  ,first of all the rough  
brick surface of the wall had a coating 
of plaster1 consisting of a mixture of  
lime and river sand1 exactly of the same
 proportions1 and laid on in the same   
thickness as that of the first plaster  
coating in buon-fresco4 ,after this had 
remained for two years1 a second        
coating1 again similar in composition   
and in thickness to that used in the    
last-named process1 was applied4 ,this  
plaster coating was finished off with a 
rectangular wooden trowel1 and1 in the  
case of the wall on which the 8,arts of 
,war0 fresco was painted1 it was left   
with a fairly rough surface4 ,the wall  
surface of the 8,arts of ,peace0 fresco 
was1 on the contrary1 brought to a much 
smoother face1 as it was the desire of  
,lord ,leighton to have a smooth surface
 for the latter painting1 for working on

 the rough surface of the former fresco 
was1 as he remarked1 8like painting on a
 gravel walk40  ,when the coating of    
plaster1 which was rather more than     
half-an-inch in thickness1 had remained 
for about eight months1 in order that it
 might get thoroughly dry1 the wall was 
saturated with two coats of the 8wall   
wash10 this being made from the medium  
in which the spirit-fresco colours are  
ground1 mixed with one and a half of its
 bulk of turpentine4 ,the spirit-fresco 
medium is a mixture of pure white wax1  
gum elemi1 oil of spike1 and artists'   
copal2 the proportions of each are given
 at end of this chapter4 ,after the     
second coating of the wall wash had     
dried in1 a day being allowed for this1 
a coating made of dry white lead1 and   
half its quantity of gilders' whitening1
 thinned out with wall wash1 was applied
 as thickly as it could be conveniently 
used4 ,a little yellow ochre was added  
to this mixture in order to obtain a    
creamy white ground1 which enables the  

artist to see by contrast the pure white
 lights that may be used in the         
painting1 as the work proceeds4  ,the   
8,arts of ,war0 fresco ground was       
treated with one coating only of this   
last mixture1 which accounted for its   
extremely rough texture1 while the      
8,arts of ,peace0 wall surface had three
 coatings1 as  ,illustration3  ,to face 
p4 #cd4  ,,plate #h4--;,,detail ,,from  
,,the ,,arts ,,of ,,war ,,fresco  ,lord 
,leighton1 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum
  the nature of the subject was thought 
to demand a smoother surface4  ,the wall
 wash1 preparation coats1 and the       
colours used in the painting1 being all 
mixed or diluted with the same medium1  
and the spike oil1 used in the artist's 
dipper1 having the effect of opening up 
the ground coating1 allows the colours  
to unite with1 or melt into1 the ground1
 the latter being extremely porous1 so  
that when finished and dry the work     
forms a continuous body from the surface
 right into the plaster4 ,in this       

continuity of body spirit-fresco        
resembles closely that of the           
buon-fresco4  ,the process admits of    
repainting and retouching as often as   
may be necessary1 though it is best1 for
 the sake of gaining a desired luminous 
effect1 to paint frankly with a full    
brush1 laying on the colour in an       
impasto1 and where depth of tone or     
transparency is desired these effects   
are best obtained by washing in thinly  
or glazing the shadows1 using the       
colours and the spike oil medium1 as in 
water-colour painting4 ,the method of   
work is really1 in the execution1 a     
mixture of the techniques of oil and    
water-colour painting4 ,one of its great
 advantages is the practically unlimited
 range of colours allowed on the        
palette1 and another is that the artist 
can take up his work at any time1 or    
stage1 neither of which obtains in      
buon-fresco4  ,it may be of interest to 
describe the method of carrying out the 
painting of the work in connection with 

the ,south ,kensington frescos4 ,the    
original designs were painted carefully 
in brown monochrome1 in light and shade1
 and were enlarged as fine outlines on a
 canvas to the exact size of the wall   
space2 from these enlargements tracings 
were made on tracing cloth1 and these   
tracings were pricked through and       
pounced on to the wall with powdered    
charcoal1 this impression being         
intensified by going over it with a lead
 pencil4 ,a small coloured sketch in the
 case of each fresco was prepared in oil
 colour1 which was fairly closely copied
 in the colouring of the larger work4   
,for convenience1 the monochrome        
cartoons in each case were photographed 
to full scale1 in sections1 and the     
light and shade was faithfully copied   
from these photographs1 so that in the  
execution of the painting on the wall   
there should be no hesitation1 nor any  
experimenting in colour4  ,the first    
piece of work done on the wall was one  
of the largest and most prominent       

figures1 and was painted as far as      
possible in direct and full colour4 ,the
 nature of the medium1 however1 does not
 always lend itself to the finishing of 
the work straight off in one painting2  
this is the case especially in the flesh
 tints1 or in any elaborate drapery     
modelling4 ,the method usually adopted  
was to lay in the tints with a full     
brush and solid colour1 carrying the    
modelling as far as possible in the     
first painting4 ,too much working over  
the same part is liable to bring up the 
wax1 and to cause the work to dry       
unpleasantly glossy4 ,when there is a   
danger of this occurring it is better to
 leave off and take up the part again   
after  ,illustration3  ,to face p4 #cg4 
,,plate #aj4--;,,detail ,,from ,,the    
,,arts ,,of ,,peace  ,lord ,leighton1   
,victoria and ,albert ,museum  allowing 
a day or so for drying4 ,when any part  
required a second or third painting1    
which usually happens1 it was found best
 to begin by moistening the whole of it 

over with a very thin transparent tint  
of the local colour1 using plenty of    
spike oil2 this has the effect of       
opening up the wall surface by causing a
 slight melting of the paint underneath4
 ,the painting was then carried to a    
completer stage of finish by reinforcing
 the higher lights and deeper shadows4  
,the process lends itself to the        
accomplishment of almost any degree of  
finish by the use of subsequent washes  
of thin colour in the shadows4 ,it is   
better1 as a matter of technique1 in any
 kind of fresco painting to always      
employ the brush strokes in the         
direction of the lines of the form1 and 
not across it1 as is often done in oil  
painting2 one reason for this is that   
the work can be accomplished more       
directly and rapidly1 and another is    
that the drawing of the forms is better 
expressed4  ,it may be noticed that     
there is a marked difference in the     
technique of the painting of the two    
frescos in the museum4 ,the 8,arts of   

,war10 painted first1 is treated        
broadly1 and the colour throughout used 
rather thickly1 while in the 8,arts of  
,peace0 a thinner method of treatment in
 the use of the colour is apparent1 and 
the modelling in the latter1 especially 
in the heads and nudes1 is carried to a 
higher degree of finish1 without any    
loss of breadth1 by means of small brush
 strokes1 or 8hatching40 ,this method of
 work is of special value in fresco     
painting1 and was adopted to a very     
great extent by the ,italian frescanti  
of the fifteenth and sixteenth          
centuries4 ,michael ,angelo painted1 or 
at least finished his frescos in the    
,sistine ,chapel in hatched lines2 ,lord
 ,leighton had satisfied himself on this
 point by a close examination of the    
,sistine frescos when he copied the     
figure of ,adam from the 8,creation of  
,man10 which is painted in one of the   
ceiling panels of the chapel4 ,the      
broader method of treatment1 as seen in 
the technique of the 8,arts of ,war0    

fresco1 is the more popular1 but ,lord  
,leighton preferred the technique of his
 later work1 the 8,arts of ,peace40     
,the following are the constituents of  
the medium in which the spirit          
fresco-colours are ground1 according to 
,gambier ,parry3--                ,elemi
 resin 7gum elemi7 #b ozs4  weight      
,pure white wax #d ozs4                 
,incorporated  by heat4      ,oil of    
spike lavender #h ozs4    liquid        
,finest preparation of artist's  measure
               copal #bj ozs4           
,the colours in a dry powder are ground 
up in this medium1 and put into tubes   
for use4 ,spike oil to be used freely in
 the dipper1 when painting4             
,illustration3 ,photo4 ,alinari4  ,to   
face p4 #ci4  ,,plate #aa4--,,the       
,,birth ,,of ,,the ,,virgin  ,giotto1   
,cloister of ,sta4 ,maria ,novella1     
,florence     ,,chapter ,,vi            
,,technical ,,notes ,,on ,,the          
,,composition1 ,,colour1 ,,and ,,present
 ,,state ,,of ,,some ,,italian ,,frescos

   ,during a visit to ,italy in the     
summer of last year the writer made some
 notes on the composition1 colour1      
technique1 and present state of some of 
the ,italian frescos1 which he hopes may
 interest the reader4  ,among the       
frescos by ,giotto 7#abgf-accf7 which   
still exist in ,florence1 perhaps the   
finest are those in the ,bardi ,chapel1 
in the ,church of ,santa ,croce1 where  
so many of the illustrious ,florentines 
are laid at rest4                       
8 444 here repose     ,angelo's1        
,alfieri's bones1 and his1     ,the     
starry ,galileo1 with his woes2         
,here ,machiavelli's earth returned to  
whence it rose40  ,the three small      
frescos on the walls of the cloisters of
 the ,church of ,santa ,maria ,novella  
are of great interest to students1 as   
they were painted by ,giotto when his   
artistic powers were in full maturity1  
and are among the best examples of the  
master4  ,on the walls and ceiling of   
the ,bardi ,chapel1 ,giotto has painted 

a series of frescos illustrating scenes 
in the life and death of ,st4 ,francis  
of ,assisi4 ,on the right wall1         
beginning from the top1 is the          
8,confirmation of the ,rules of his     
,order by the ,pope02 8,st4 ,francis    
before the ,sultan02 8,challenging the  
,magi to the ,ordeal of ,fire02 8,st4   
,francis blessing ,assisi02 and1 his    
appearing to the ,bishop of ,assisi4 ,on
 the left wall are the paintings1 8,st4 
,francis flees from his ,father's       
,house10 and1 his ,death1 where he is   
surrounded by his sorrowing             
confraternity4 ,the latter fresco is the
 lowest one on the left1 and is one of  
,giotto's best compositions1 though it  
is not much more than a coloured        
outline1 and has been much repainted4   
,it is the only painting of the series  
in this chapel which has been noticed by
 ,vasari in his life of ,giotto4 ,the   
figures in this fresco are painted      
almost in grisaille1 with the exception 
of the cloak of the kneeling figure of  

the podesta1 which is a deep red4 ,the  
sky1 which has been repainted1 is a dark
 blue1 in the centre of which appears   
the figure of the saint in a halo1      
surrounded1 or supported by four angels 
on clouds4 ,the colouring of this       
portion is in beautiful golden tints1   
and is evidently the untouched work of  
,giotto's hand4 ,the background         
architecture is expressed in broken     
tints of a yellowish stone-colour4 ,in  
spite of the repainting1 the complete   
design and some of the original         
colouring and handling still remain4 ,it
 is  ,illustration3 ,photo4 ,alinari4   
,to face p4 #dj4  ,,plate #ab4--;,,death
 ,,of ,,st4 ,,francis  ,giotto1 ,bardi  
,chapel1 ,sta4 ,croce1 ,florence  one of
 the best of ,giotto's didactic works1  
apart from the excellence of its design4
 ,the saint1 sketched calmly in death2  
the intense1 yet dignified sorrow of    
some of his surrounding brethren2 and   
the eager examination by others of the  
marks of the stigmata1 are well         

expressed in the attitudes and faces of 
the central groups of figures1 while    
both sides of the painting are occupied 
by observant and stately figures1 who   
look on the central scene where all the 
action is represented4 ,this symmetrical
 kind of composition1 produced by       
placing the more quiescent and choragic 
figures at either side of the picture1  
and the chief actors in the centre1 was 
a favourite design of ,giotto's1 which  
he adopted in many of his great         
works--among others1 for example1 in    
8,st4 ,francis fleeing from his         
,father's ,house10 painted on the upper 
part of the left wall1 and in the       
8,ordeal of ,fire10 on the centre of the
 opposite wall4 ,it may be pointed out  
that many ,italian artists subsequent to
 ,giotto have also adopted this         
arrangement in their decorative         
compositions4  ,it is a moot question   
whether ,giotto thought the illustration
 of the scene1 or the story1 or the     
correct balance and distribution of the 

units of his composition was the more   
important2 in any case1 however1 he     
invariably told his story well1 no one  
could tell it better1 while at the same 
time his compositions are undoubtedly   
consistent with the principles of good  
decoration4  ,in this chapel of the     
,bardi1 on either side of the window1   
,giotto has painted life-size figures of
 ,st4 ,louis 7,king of ,france71 ,st4   
,louis of ,toulouse1 ,st4 ,elizabeth of 
,hungary1 and ,st4 ,claire4 ,each is    
standing under a painted niche of the   
,campanile-,gothic architecture4 ,the   
8,st4 ,louis of ,france0 is the most    
interesting1 and the finest figure of   
the series2 and although considerably   
repainted1 it has still much of         
,giotto's work left untouched1          
especially in the head and hexagonal    
pointed crown4 ,it is a most dignified  
and serious rendering of the saintly    
king1 as he stands in a firm and easy   
pose1 ,osiris-like1 with his kingly     
attributes of sceptre and whip of       

authority in either hand4  ,the three   
small frescos by ,giotto1 painted on the
 walls of the cloisters1 in the ,church 
of ,santa ,maria ,novella1 at ,florence4
 ,two of these1 the 8,meeting of        
,joachim and ,anna at the ,golden       
,gate10 and the 8,birth of the ,virgin10
 are on the recessed wall1 on either    
side of the tomb of the ,marchessa      
,strozzi-,ridolfi1 and on the right of  
these two will be found the third1 the  
8,presentation of the ,virgin at the    
,temple40 ,these small frescos measure  
each about #d feet in width1 and are    
shaped like quarters of a circle4 ,from 
the technical point of view1 the        
8,meeting of ,joachim and ,anna0 is the 
most interesting1 as it has suffered    
least of the three from repainting1 and 
there are some fine passages of         
beautiful1 though faded colour1 and of  
frank and decisive brushwork1 which is  
decidedly characteristic of the hand of 
,illustration3 ,photo4 ,alinari4  ,to   
face p4 #db4  ,,plate #ac4--,,st4       

,,louis1 ,,king ,,of ,,france  ,giotto1 
,bardi ,chapel1 ,sta4 ,croce1 ,florence 
,illustration3 ,photo4 ,alinari4  ,to   
face p4 #dc4  ,,plate #ad4--,,meeting   
,,of ,,ss4 ,,joachim ,,and ,,anna ,,at  
,,the ,,golden ,,gate  ,giotto1         
,cloisters of ,sta4 ,maria ,novella1    
,florence  ,giotto4 ,joachim is clothed 
in red drapery1 the folds of which are  
very naturally arranged1 and the        
technique of the painting of this       
garment reveals the swift and sure touch
 of the master4 ,there is no hesitation 
in the execution of the brush-drawn     
folds1 the colour is laid on thinly and 
transparently1 so that the effect of the
 light ground is still apparent through 
the superimposed tints4 ,giotto painted 
his frescos1 as far as one can make out1
 very thinly1 and so aimed in getting a 
luminous and almost transparent effect1 
so we may safely come to the conclusion 
that when certain parts of his frescos  
look heavy and solid we may be sure that
 those parts have been repainted by some

 one else4 ,st4 ,anna has blue drapery1 
and the figure next1 on the left1 has an
 orange cloak4 ,the delightful little   
angel1 repainted however1 is of a yellow
 golden colour1 and the sky has been    
repainted in a rather too dark blue     
colour2 it is quite likely that the     
latter has been originally much lighter1
 and the angel deeper and warmer in     
tone4 ,the architecture of the ,golden  
,gate and the adjacent buildings1 behind
 the figures1 is painted in creamy white
 and pinkish tints4 ,the two figures of 
the passing men with game are coloured  
in greys and pale reds1 and afford good 
examples of the early ,italian costume4 
,the landscape of the background is very
 much faded to a neutral grey2 it may   
have been clothed with flowers by       
,giotto1 but the little tufts of        
vegetation which are now sprinkled over 
the hillside are evidently recent       
additions4  ,if we wish to see some of  
the best works in fresco that have been 
executed by ,beato ,fra ,angelico       

7#achg-adee71 we must visit his old     
monastery of ,st4 ,mark's1 now the      
,museum of ,st4 ,mark's1 in ,florence1  
and the best of all are the series of   
the small frescos painted by him between
 #adcf and #adde1 walls of the cells1   
formerly occupied by the monks of this  
old monastery4 ,in fourteen of the cells
 will be found the small frescos1 one in
 each cell1 each measuring about six    
feet in height1 by about four in width4 
,the remaining cells contain frescos    
painted by ,fra ,angelico's brother1    
,fra ,benedetto1 and the others by his  
pupils or assistants4 ,the latter are   
very inferior in design and workmanship 
to those of the first-mentioned series4 
,in the first cell on the left is       
painted the scene at the ,sepulchre1    
where 8,christ appears to the           
,magdalen10 the design and colour of    
which are extremely good4 ,the robe on  
the figure of ,christ is of a           
linen-white tone1 with umberish shades2 
that of the ,magdalen is of a yellowish 

pink colour2 the hurdle fence which runs
 across the background of the picture is
 of a golden straw colour2 trees1       
flowers and foliage are chiefly in tints
 of broken greens1 and the rock work and
 entrance doorway to the tomb are in    
cool greys4 ,in the fresco of the second
 cell1 the 8,deposition of ,christ in   
the ,sepulchre10 the composing lines of 
the draperies and of the rocks flow     
harmoniously into1 and also out of each 
other1 the figures are so arranged as to
 form a decorative  ,illustration3      
,photo4 ,alinari4  ,to face p4 #dd4     
,,plate #ae4--;,,christ ,,appearing ,,to
 ,,mary ,,magdalene  ,fra ,angelico1    
,monastery of ,st4 ,mark1 ,florence     
pattern-like effect1 at the same time   
the intense fervour and piety of the    
subject is well expressed4 ,the figure  
of the female saint at the feet of      
,christ has a red dress1 the remainder  
of the lower figures have purple        
garments1 and ,st4 ,dominic has the     
black and white dress of his order4 ,the

 8,resurrection10 painted in the eighth 
cell1 has a colour arrangement of pale  
purples1 greens1 white1 and dark blue1  
which is very harmonious4 ,the colouring
 of the fresco in the last or inner cell
 on the right1 the 8,adoration of the   
,magi10 though somewhat faded1 is still 
very beautiful3 the ,virgin has a blue  
dress1 and for the rest of the          
colouring1 peach and plum1 and golden   
tints prevail4 ,the colour schemes of   
the frescos in the other cells1 that    
have been painted by ,fra ,angelico1 are
 similar to those of the first and      
second of the series1 with the exception
 of the tenth1 which has the entire     
background of the subject1 the          
,presentation in the ,temple1 painted in
 a broken ,venetian red colour1 which   
can hardly have been the original       
colour4  ,the execution or technique of 
these small frescos by ,angelico is     
exceedingly firm and direct2 they are   
frankly painted1 without any apparent   
hesitation of touch--indeed1 in these   

paintings the student will find a more  
masterly freedom in the workmanship than
 in the case of the laboured and        
miniature-like paintings of the more    
popular altar-pieces and easel pictures 
of this master4 ,these remarks apply to 
those of the cell frescos1 which are the
 authentic work of this master2 and     
under this head would come more         
particularly the first1 the third 7the  
8,annunciation071 sixth 7the            
8,transfiguration071 ninth 78,coronation
 of the ,virgin071 and the 8,adoration  
of the ,magi10 on the wall of an inner  
cell4  ,two better-known works of       
,angelico are1 the 8,annunciation10 on  
the wall of the upper corridor1 facing  
the staircase1 and his larger work1 the 
lunette of the 8,crucifixion0 in the    
chapter-house of this monastery4 ,the   
fresco of the 8,annunciation10 which has
 been considerably repainted1 is very   
simple in composition1 but very         
effective2 and the colouring1 though now
 dull and opaque1 has still something   

reminiscent of ,angelico's colour       
arrangements4 ,the ,virgin's dress is   
dark blue1 with olive-green lining2 the 
angel's dress is a pinkish dove-colour2 
the grass1 foliage1 and flowers are in  
grey greens and white2 architecture1 a  
light stone-colour2 and the paling      
behind is a warm grey4  ,the great work 
of the 8,crucifixion0 in the            
chapter-house is in a fairly sound      
condition1 but it has been much         
repainted4 ,the colour treatment of the 
background is somewhat unusual1 as it is
 marked out in three distinct and       
sharply divided bands of colour3 the    
upper portion being of a dark purplish  
red 7the original colour may have been a
 dark blue71 the central horizontal band
 of a light vellum tint1 and the lower1 
or ground colour1 of a golden yellow4   
,the painting of the figures in their   
present condition is  ,illustration3    
,photo4 ,alinari4  ,to face p4 #df4     
,,plate #af4--,,the ,,deposition ,,in   
,,the ,,sepulchre  ,fra ,angelico1      

,monastery of ,st4 ,mark  ,illustration3
 ,photo4 ,alinari4  ,to face p4 #dg4    
,,plate #ag4--;,,detail ,,of ,,the      
,,crucifixion  ,fra ,angelico1          
,monastery of ,st4 ,mark1 ,florence     
most careful in execution3 those on the 
right half1 the ,dominican fathers and  
brothers1 and other founders of         
religious orders1 are in the dark grey1 
white1 and brown dresses of their       
orders1 the balance of colour on this   
side being obtained by the bright red of
 the ,cardinal's hat and of a           
book-cover1 and the golden-coloured     
nimbi of the figures4 ,a warmer scheme  
of colour is noticed on the left half of
 the painting1 where golden tints1 soft 
reds1 grey greens1 white1 and grey      
complete an excellent harmony4 ,the     
figure of ,christ on the ,cross is in   
very pale flesh tints1 and has a white  
garment2 the flesh tints of the thieves 
on either side being darker in tone4    
,the general effect of the colouring is 
very pure and luminous4  ,after ,giotto1

 we may say1 that the artist whose      
influence is most apparent in ,italian  
art was the ,florentine painter1        
,masaccio 7#adja-adbh874 ,his most      
important works are the frescos he      
painted in the ,brancacci ,chapel of the
 ,church of ,s4 ,maria del ,carmine1 at 
,florence4 ,the instructor of ,masaccio 
is supposed to have been ,masolino da   
,panicale 7#achd-adce71 who first       
painted some frescos in the above       
chapel1 and who1 according to ,vasari1  
was commissioned to decorate the chapel 
with scenes from the history of ,st4    
,peter1 some of which he had executed1  
but they are no longer in existence1    
unless we place to his credit the 8,adam
 and ,eve0 fresco on the right wall1    
although some writers have ascribed this
 work to ,filippino ,lippi 7#adfj-aeje71
 the son of the painter ,filippo ,lippi1
 and a scholar of ,botticelli4  ,there  
are really very few works left by       
,masaccio1 but those which still are in 
existence clearly prove that he was far 

in advance of any artist of his time in 
his complete mastery of the human       
figure1 as shown by his searching and   
accurate draughtsmanship1 his great     
knowledge of anatomy1 and his facility  
in giving spirit1 action1 and vitality  
to his decorative compositions4 ,his    
gifts in these directions place him at  
the head of the greatest artists of the 
early half of the fifteenth century4    
,his achievements are all the more      
wonderful if we believe1 as it is said1 
that he died at the early age of        
twenty-six1 though some authorities     
state that he reached the age of        
forty-one years4 ,the finest authentic  
work from his hand is the fresco of     
8,the ,tribute ,money10 which he painted
 on the left wall of the ,brancacci     
,chapel1 and this work still remains as 
a monument to his great powers4 ,this   
work is a picture which includes three  
scenes in its composition2 namely1 7#a7 
,the central group1 where ,christ       
rebukes ,st4 ,peter1 around whom are the

 standing figures of the apostles1 with 
varied expressions of indignation2 the  
figure in the foreground1 back view1 in 
this group is that of the tax-collector1
 and the last figure of this central    
group1 on the right1 is a portrait of   
,masaccio4 7#b7 ,the scene on the left1 
middle distance1 represents ,st4 ,peter 
finding the money in the body of the    
fish1 and 7#c7 that on the              
,illustration  right is ,st4 ,peter     
giving the money to the tax-collector4  
,the figures are all admirably drawn1   
and painted with great breadth of       
treatment2 that of the back view of the 
tax-collector is more especially a      
remarkable example of accurate drawing  
and of easy freedom in the pose and     
action4 ,the same person1 but in front  
view1 represented in the right scene1   
has a similar freedom of pose and       
action1 and there is an intensely       
gratified expression in his face as he  
receives the tribute money4 ,the natural
 treatment of the hilly landscape of the

 background is also far in advance of   
the landscape-painting of ,masaccio's   
time4  ,on the altar wall there is      
another fresco by this painter1 though  
now in a very bad state2 the subject is 
8,st4 ,peter baptizing10 where1 among   
other figures1 is the celebrated nude   
figure of a benumbed and shivering      
youth1 a figure so well drawn1 and so   
correct in anatomy1 that1 as ,lanzi     
says1 8it has made an epoch in the      
history of art40  ,another very fine and
 authentic work by ,masaccio is the     
8,expulsion from ,paradise10 painted on 
the left wall of the chapel1 where ,adam
 and ,eve are represented as being      
driven from the gates of ,eden by the   
angel with the flaming sword4 ,the      
figures in this intensely dramatic      
composition have been borrowed1 with    
little alteration1 by ,raffaelle1 and   
used in one of the ,loggia frescos1 and 
he has also adapted some other figures  
from the paintings in this chapel for   
the cartoons1 and in his frescos of the 

,stanze of the ,vatican2 and yet he1 to 
whom so many others were indebted1 was1 
as ,vasari tells us1 8little esteemed in
 life40 ,it was after his death that his
 real greatness was discovered2 for do  
we not read that the great artists of   
,italy and other countries came to study
 the work of ,masaccio in that veritable
 school of art1 the ,brancacci ,chapel  
of the ,carmelite ,church1 and it was   
only then that he was truly honoured8   
,filippino ,lippi founded his style on  
the work of ,masaccio1 and ,ghirlandajo1
 ,verocchio1 ,leonardo1 ,perugino1      
,raffaelle1 and ,michael ,angelo        
acknowledged his greatness and learned  
of him4 ,this painter who was1 like many
 other great men1 so little esteemed in 
life1 had1 after his death1 this epitaph
 written on him--      8,i painted1 and 
my picture was as life2      ,spirit and
 movement to my forms ,i gave--      ,i 
gave them soul and being4 ,he who taught
      ,all others--,michael ,angelo--,i 
taught3      ,he deigned to learn of    

me44440  ,illustration3 ,photo4 ,brogi4 
,to face p4 #ea4  ,,plate               
#ai4--;,,angels4 ,,detail ,,from ,,the  
,,paradise  ,benozzo ,gozzoli1 ,riccardi
 ,palace1 ,florence     ,,chapter ,,vii 
,,fresco ,,paintings ,,by ,,gozzoli     
,,and ,,perugino   ,benozzo ,gozzoli    
7#adbj-ig71 the most celebrated pupil of
 ,fra ,angelico1 is seen at his best in 
his great decorative frescos which adorn
 the four walls of a room in the        
,riccardi ,palace in ,florence4 ,this   
room1 which had formerly been the       
,chapel of the ,medici1 has its walls   
completely painted over with the        
processional subject1 the 8,journey of  
the ,magi10 by ,gozzoli1 when he was    
about forty years old4 ,it is one of the
 best1 if not the best1 preserved fresco
 paintings in ,florence4 ,the colouring 
is very rich and warm in glowing tones1 
as in the case of all ,gozzoli's work   
which has remained uninjured4 ,the      
extremely rich effect is considerably   
heightened by the free use of gold on   

the embroideries of the principal       
figures1 and on the horse-trappings4    
,the work contains many portraits of the
 principal people of the time1 among    
which are those of ,cosimo de ,medici1  
,lorenzo the ,magnificent1 and that of  
the artist himself4 ,the kings1 in      
sumptuous apparel1 are represented on   
horseback1 attended by lords1 squires1  
retainers and servants1 all travelling  
slowly and with much solemnity1 through 
a beautiful country4 ,a hunting party   
occupies the left wall1 looking towards 
the window1 where some leopards and     
hawks1 used for hunting1 are admirably  
drawn and painted4 ,on the recessed wall
 surrounding the window the scene       
represented is ,paradise1 or the ,garden
 of ,heaven1 in which many angels are in
 prayer1 and others soaring in the      
clouds4 ,the fine condition of these    
frescos presents a great contrast to the
 decayed and almost obliterated         
paintings executed by ,gozzoli on the   
walls of the ,campo ,santa at ,pisa4    

,very little1 indeed1 except slight     
traces1 now remains of the latter       
paintings1 but the cause of their decay 
is not far to seek4 ,it is true that all
 the paintings on the walls of the      
,campo ,santa have always been exposed  
to the open air1 but the real cause of  
the disintegration of the ,gozzoli      
paintings in this place is from their   
being painted in tempera1 or            
fresco-secco1 and not1 as in the case of
 the ,riccardi frescos1 in veritable or 
buon-fresco4 ,the ,campo ,santa frescos 
by ,gozzoli represent scenes from the   
history of the ,old ,testament1 from the
 time of ,noah to the ,queen of ,sheba's
 visit to ,king ,solomon4 ,they were    
painted between #adfi and #adhe1 when   
the artist was in the zenith of his     
powers1 and from what remains of them we
 can easily imagine them to have been   
the finest of any works executed by this
 great nature-loving artist4 ,an        
,italian artist who was engaged in      
repairing the more decayed              

,illustration3 ,photo4 ,brogi4  ,to face
 p4 #ec4  ,,plate #bj4--;,,angels4      
,,detail ,,from ,,the ,,paradise        
,benozzo ,gozzoli1 ,riccardi ,palace1   
,florence  portions of ,gozzoli's wall  
paintings in the ,campo ,santa1 in the  
summer of #aijh1 informed the writer    
that nearly all the remaining colours on
 these paintings were in a powdery state
 on the surface of the wall1 and could  
easily be dusted off4 ,this rarely      
happens in the case of paintings which  
have been executed in buon or veritable 
fresco1 and there is doubt that the     
chief cause of decay and of the faded   
appearance of many of the old ,italian  
frescos is due to the fact that they    
were either executed in tempera1 or in  
the fresco-secco method1 or that they   
were begun in buon-fresco and finished  
afterwards with glazings and opaque     
touches of tempera colour4 ,many of     
,simon ,memmi's frescos in the ,spanish 
,chapel1 in the ,church of ,santa ,maria
 ,novella at ,florence1 were repainted  

or 8restored0 about one hundred years   
after his death1 and ,ruskin has stated 
that some of the restorer's             
over-painting has since fallen away1    
revealing the very pure original work   
underneath4  ,pietro ,vanucci1 better   
known as ,pietro ,perugino 7#addf-aebd71
 was one of the most important artists  
of the ,umbrian school of painting1 and 
was ,raffaelle's early instructor4 ,he  
painted many frescos in ,florence1 where
 he lived and worked for about fourteen 
years1 and where he acquired much of the
 ,florentine manner of design and       
painting4 ,one of his most important    
works in ,florence is the great fresco  
of the 8,crucifixion10 with saints      
standing around the foot of the cross1  
which he painted in three compartments  
on the wall of the chapter-house of the 
,church of ,st4 ,maria ,maddalena de'   
,pazzi1 in the ,via ,colona4 ,the design
 and pose of the figures in this fresco 
are very characteristic of ,perugino's  
manner1 which may be seen in the upcast 

and wistful expression of the eyes1 the 
pose of the heads1 and devout attitudes 
of his standing figures4 ,the           
illustrations of the two heads from this
 fresco1 here given1 are in the above   
respects very typical of ,perugino's    
work2 they also admirably show his      
method of handling1 as well as the      
brush-marks of the fresco4 ,the light   
touches in the beard and hair of the    
male head are later reinforcements1 but 
with this exception1 the whole of the   
painting in these heads is quite likely 
to be the genuine work of ,perugino4    
,another fresco in ,florence1 known as  
the 8,cenacolo di ,foligno10 is ascribed
 to ,perugino2 it is in the refectory of
 the old convent of ,st4 ,onofrio1 in   
the ,via ,faenza4  ,this artist painted 
some important frescos in the ,sistine  
,chapel of the ,vatican1 at ,rome1 some 
of which are still in existence1 namely1
 the 8,baptism of ,christ10 and the     
8,delivery of the ,keys to ,st4 ,peter40
 ,it is recorded that he had also       

painted a fresco on the wall at the back
 of the altar in this chapel1 but that  
it was destroyed in order to make way   
for ,michael ,angelo's 8,last           
,judgment40 ,in those palmy days of     
great artistic activity it was evident  
that some difficulty was experienced in 
finding sufficient wall space on which  
the painters of  ,illustration3 ,photo4 
,alinari4  ,to face p4 #ed4  ,,plate    
#ba4--,,st4 ,,benedict1 ,,from ,,the    
,,crucifixion  ,perugino1 ,church of    
,sta4 ,maria ,maddalena de' ,pazzi      
,illustration3 ,photo4 ,alinari4  ,to   
face p4 #ec4  ,,plate #bb4--,,st4       
,,john1 ,,from ,,the ,,crucifixion4     
,perugino1 ,church of ,sta4 ,maria      
,maddalena de' ,pazzi  that time might  
execute their numerous commissions1     
when1 as we see1 masterpieces had to be 
destroyed to make room for still greater
 works4 ,if we contrast those spacious  
days of art with those of our own time  
and in our own country1 it affords us   
food for some reflection of a mournful  

kind to find there are acres of blank   
spaces on the walls of our churches and 
public buildings1 and capable enough    
artists in our midst who might be       
employed to decorate these barren       
spaces1 but nobody1 or no ,government1  
public-spirited enough to entrust modern
 artists with commissions to execute    
such works4     ,,chapter ,,viii  ,,the 
,,work ,,of ,,pinturicchio ,,and        
,,ghirlandajo   ,,bernardino            
,,pinturicchio of ,perugia 7#aded-aeac7 
was an excellent painter in fresco1     
although ,vasari1 in his ,lives of the  
,painters1 has done scant justice to his
 great merits4 ,in the face of much     
splendid work that has been done by     
,pinturicchio1 the want of appreciation 
of his merits by ,vasari is quite       
inexplicable4 ,any one who has seen1 and
 carefully examined his frescos in the  
,borgia apartments of the ,vatican must 
acknowledge him as one of the greatest  
decorative artists of his time1 greater1
 for example because less conventional1 

than ,perugino1 his contemporary1 with  
whom he sometimes collaborated1 and who 
often got credit for work which was done
 by ,pinturicchio4 ,to compare his work 
with that of ,perugino we should say    
that in the design and colouring of the 
former artist there is more life1 more  
spontaneity1 and much less mannerism    
than is seen in the work of ,perugino4  
,in design his wall decorations are     
characterized by great variety and      
plenitude of incident1 and although he  
may appear at times to aim at the       
expression of too  ,illustration3       
,photo4 ,alinari4  ,to face p4 #ef4     
,,plate #bc4--;,,detail ,,from          
,,christ',s ,,charge ,,to ,,peter       
,perugino1 ,sistine ,chapel             
,illustration3 ,photo4 ,anderson4  ,to  
face p4 #eg4  ,,plate #bd4--,,st4       
,,catherine ,,disputing ,,before ,,the  
,,emperor ,,maximianus  ,pinturicchio1  
,borgia ,appartments1 ,vatican1 ,rome   
much individuality in the figures of his
 groups1 the outcome perhaps of his     

great versatility1 yet in a masterly way
 he invariably succeeds in uniting the  
various and contrasting elements of his 
work into one harmonious arrangement1   
the unity being largely assisted by the 
judicious disposition of his colour1    
which1 generally speaking1 is a harmony 
of azure and gold4 ,pinturicchio has    
been adversely criticised for his       
practice of giving undue prominence to  
some of the mouldings and other salient 
points of the painted architecture in   
his frescos1 and the patterns of        
embroidery on the dresses of his        
figures1 by modelling them in low relief
 and afterwards gilding them1 the       
objection being that such a practice is 
not the function of painting2 that may  
be1 but surely an artist may be allowed 
to treat his subject in his own way1 by 
using any means to produce the desired  
end he may have in view1 especially if  
that end is to produce a beautiful work 
in harmony with its surroundings4       
,artistic heresies may be illogical     

enough1 but it matters very little if   
the result is a production of beauty1   
for do we not often see that some       
dreadfully logical people only succeed  
in producing the ugliness of the        
commonplace however careful they may be 
in the due observance of artistic laws8 
,in the vaulted ceiling panels and on   
the groined ribs of the vaults in the   
,borgia apartments there is a good deal 
of stucco relief modelling of ornament  
and animal forms by ,giovanni da ,udine 
and ,perina del ,vaga1 this relief      
decoration being coloured and gilded1   
similar to the cameo reliefs in the     
loggia of the ,vatican1 which the two   
last-named artists had executed under   
,raffaelle's direction2 and as          
,pinturicchio's frescos were in all     
probability painted before the date of  
the ceiling decorations1 it is not at   
all unlikely that the relief work on the
 wall frescos underneath suggested in a 
great measure a similar enrichment of   
the vaulted ribs and ceilings4 ,in any  

case the whole of the decorations on    
both walls and ceilings of the ,borgia  
apartments are in singular harmony and  
unity1 although the work has been done  
by different hands4  ,pinturicchio was  
employed by the ,pope1 ,alexander ,,vi1 
to decorate the ,borgia apartments2     
accordingly1 the frescos of the second1 
third1 and fourth rooms were painted by 
him1 with scenes from the life of       
,christ1 the lives of the ,saints1 and  
with allegorical representations of the 
arts and sciences respectively4 ,the    
most important and largest fresco has   
the subject of ,st4 ,catherine of       
,alexandria disputing before the        
,emperor ,maximianus1 in the background 
of which is a representation of the     
,arch of ,constantine4 ,this is painted 
on the back wall of the third room4 ,the
 figure of ,st4 ,catherine is finely    
designed and painted1 and is supposed to
 be a portrait of ,lucretia ,borgia4    
7,see illustrations47 ,among the best   
work of ,pinturicchio are his frescos in

 the first chapel to the right in the   
,church of ,s4 ,maria ,araceli1 ,rome1  
representing scenes from  ,illustration3
 ,photo4 ,anderson4  ,to face p4 #eh4   
,,plate #be4--,,portrait ,,of ,,lucrezia
 ,,borgia4 ,,st4 ,,catherine ,,disputing
 ,,before ,,the ,,emperor4 ,,detail ,,of
 ,,fresco  ,pinturicchio1 ,borgia       
,appartments1 ,vatican  ,illustration3  
,to face p4 #ei  ,,plate #bf4--,,the    
,,nativity  ,pinturicchio1 ,church of   
,sta4 ,maria del ,popolo1 ,rome  the    
life of ,st4 ,bernard of ,siena1 and on 
the vaulted roof is painted the four    
,evangelists1 all of which are very     
vigorous and lifelike representations2  
the same may also be said of his frescos
 in the ,baglioni ,chapel in the ,duomo 
at ,spello4 ,his two frescos in the     
,sistine ,chapel1 8,moses journeying to 
,egypt0 and the 8,baptism of ,christ10  
were formerly ascribed to ,perugino4    
,the ,florentine artist1 ,domenico      
,ghirlandajo 7#addi-adih71 was one of   
the most eminent fresco painters of his 

time4 ,he was fond of introducing       
sumptuously dressed personages into his 
works1 many of whom were representations
 of the people of his day4 ,the powerful
 ,tornabuoni family of ,florence were   
his patrons1 who commissioned him to    
paint many frescos in ,florence and in  
,rome4 ,he can claim the distinction of 
having ,michael ,angelo as one of his   
pupils4  ,some of his best existing     
works are those in the choir of the     
,church of ,santa ,maria ,novella1 and  
the ,church of ,st4 ,trinita at         
,florence4 ,in the ,church of ,santa    
,maria degli ,innocenti1 in the         
,foundling ,hospital at ,florence1 is a 
well-preserved altar-piece1 a tempera   
painting on panel by him1 the           
8,adoration of the ,magi10 which is     
dignified in its design1 and the        
colouring is brilliant in reds and      
golden hues1 these colours being very   
characteristic of his later works4 ,in  
the background of this fine work is a   
beautiful landscape1 and at the foot of 

the hill on the left is the scene       
representing the slaughter of the       
,innocents4 ,the drapery of the kneeling
 king is masterly in the design of its  
folds1 but the standing figure of the   
youthful king on the left is the most   
beautiful of the larger figures4 ,in all
 the range of ,italian art it would be  
difficult to match for beauty and for   
types of innocence the two little babes1
 or innocenti1 who are kneeling at the  
bottom of the picture1 adoring and      
adorable1 as in every way they are4 ,at 
the top1 kneeling on clouds above the   
manger1 are four lovely angels holding a
 scroll1 on which is written1 8,gloria  
in excelsis ,deo40 ,generally speaking1 
his frescos are remarkable for their    
high degree of careful finish1 and      
nearly all of the spectators or         
accessory figures in his paintings are  
portraits of his patrons and            
contemporaries4 ,his compositions are   
very simple and dignified1 with a       
certain degree of solemn severity in the

 drawing of the principal figures4 ,the 
latter characteristic is partly due to  
his practice of making many of his      
figures stately portraits1 and partly to
 the long and straight folds of his     
draperies1 which remind us of           
,masaccio's work1 and1 in a lesser      
degree1 that of ,giotto4 ,it is         
interesting to compose and note the     
similarity of design which is apparent  
in his fresco1 the 8,calling of ,,ss4   
,peter and ,andrew10 in the ,sistine    
,chapel1 with the 8,tribute ,money10 by 
,masaccio1 in the ,brancacci ,chapel of 
the ,carmelite ,church at ,florence2 and
 also his celebrated work1 the 8,death  
of ,st4 ,francis10 in ,st4 ,trinita at  
,florence1 with the same subject painted
 by ,giotto  ,illustration3 ,photo4     
,alinari4  ,to face p4 #fj4  ,,plate    
#bg4--;,,florentine ,,lady4 ,,detail    
,,of ,,fresco1 ,,birth ,,of ,,st4 ,,john
  ,ghirlandajo1 ,church of ,sta4 ,maria 
,novella1 ,florence  ,illustration3  ,to
 face p4 #fa4  ,,plate #bh4--;,,death   

,,of ,,st4 ,,francis  ,ghirlandajo1     
,church of ,st4 ,trinita1 ,florence  in 
the ,bardi ,chapel of ,santa ,croce4 ,in
 the latter work we see piety and       
sentiment more strongly expressed by    
,giotto1 while portraiture and light and
 shade are more in evidence in          
,ghirlandajo's rendering of this        
subject1 but the figure composition in  
both works is almost identical4  ,the   
frescos by ,ghirlandajo in the choir of 
the ,church of ,santa ,maria ,novella   
are among the most important of his     
works1 and remain as fine examples of   
his skill as a great decorator4 ,the    
subjects are from the life of the       
,virgin and ,john the ,baptist1 all of  
which are treated with great care and   
elaboration of rich detail1 the utmost  
finish being not only accorded to the   
principal actors in the scenes1 but also
 to the architectural backgrounds1 with 
their panels and friezes of figures1 the
 embroidered patterns on the dresses1   
and other decorative accessories1 in    

fact all his beauties of style in       
design1 execution1 and colouring are    
admirably expressed in these            
characteristic works4  ,in the          
,monastery of ,san ,marco in ,florence1 
in the smaller refectory1 is an         
interesting fresco of the 8,cenacolo10  
or ,last ,supper1 by ,ghirlandajo4      
,there is a little stiffness and        
formality in the composition of this    
work1 but the heads of the principal    
figures are lifelike and well painted4  
,the colouring is strong and rich1 gold 
has been freely used in the nimbi and on
 the dresses of the figures1 and in the 
background4 ,above the figures1 in the  
background1 is painted an abundance of  
cypress1 orange trees1 and flowers2     
while in the sky1 hawks are pursuing    
wild duck4 ,there is also a similar1 but
 in some ways a much better1 8,cenacolo0
 by ,ghirlandajo in the refectory in the
 convent of the ,church of the          
,ognissanti at ,florence4               
,illustration3 ,photo4 ,alinari4  ,to   

face p4 #fb4  ,,plate                   
#bi4--;,,florentine ,,lady4 ,,detail    
,,of ,,fresco1 ,,birth ,,of ,,the       
,,virgin  ,ghirlandajo1 ,church of ,sta4
 ,maria ,novella1 ,florence             
,illustration3 ,photo4 ,alinari4  ,to   
face p4 #fc4  ,,plate #cj4--;,,detail   
,,from ,,fresco1 ,,birth ,,of ,,the     
,,virgin  ,ghirlandajo1 ,church of ,sta4
 ,maria ,novella1 ,florence             
,,chapter ,,ix  ,,frescos ,,by ,,andrea 
,,del ,,sarto1 ,,luini1 ,g4 ,,ferrari1  
,,raffaelle ,,and ,,michael ,,angelo    
,in the anterior court of the ,church of
 the ,santissima ,annunziata1 in        
,florence1 there are five fairly        
well-preserved frescos by ,andrea del   
,sarto 7#adhh-aecj74 ,in the same court 
there are others painted by his pupils1 
and contemporary artists4 ,the best of  
the five by ,andrea is the 8,death of   
,st4 ,filippo10 where a young man is    
raised to life by the dead body of the  
saint4 ,the colouring is very strong and
 luminous1 and has the soft melting     

character of the various tones into each
 other1 which distinguishes the work of 
this painter1 more especially seen in   
his easel pictures4 ,the next fresco in 
importance of this series is that which 
represents the miracles wrought by the  
robes of ,st4 ,filippo1 where children  
are healed by touching his garments4    
,the colouring of this painting is      
lively and fresh1 and the effect of     
light and shade is a very important     
feature in the work4 ,the backgrounds of
 these frescos1 whether architectural or
 landscape1 are at present exceedingly  
light in tone1 which either means that  
these parts have faded or have been     
destroyed by cleaning4 ,this causes the 
figures to look completely out of tone  
with the pale backgrounds4  ,the ,brera 
,palace at ,milan contains a great      
number of small and extremely           
interesting frescos1 that have been     
removed from various churches and       
suppressed convents in the city and     
neighbourhood1 among which are some very

 good examples of ,bernardino ,luini's  
work 7#adgj-aecj874 ,luini was the most 
famous scholar of ,leonardo da ,vinci1  
and was so greatly influenced by the    
latter that many pictures had for a long
 time been ascribed to his master4 ,he  
was a most prolific and industrious     
artist1 both in fresco and in easel     
pictures1 and as a rule his work is full
 of grace and charm4 ,the female figures
 and children painted by ,luini are     
always characterized by their easy      
natural poses1 and have a refined       
delicacy and sweetness of expression4   
,his colouring1 always rich and warm in 
tone1 is chiefly distinguished by its   
freshness and purity2 these qualities   
are best seen in his smaller frescos1   
now in the ,brera galleries4 ,in the    
entrance corridor there is an example of
 his fresco work1 brought from the      
,church of ,st4 ,maria di ,brera1 in    
,milan4 ,the subject is the 8,virgin and
 ,child10 with an angel and two other   
figures1 ,st4 ,abate1 and ,st4 ,barbara1

 and a boy with a lute4 ,the colour and 
drawing of this example are extremely   
good1 though the general composition is 
lacking in  ,illustration3 ,photo4      
,alinari4  ,to face p4 #fd4  ,,plate    
#ca4--;,,fresco1 ,,infant ,,angel       
,luini1 ,brera1 ,milan  ,illustration3  
,photo1 ,alinari  ,to face p4 #fe4      
,,plate #cb4--,,the ,,virgin ,,and      
,,child ,,with ,,st4 ,,john ,,and ,,st4 
,,martha  ,luini1 ,fresco in the ,brera1
 ,milan  cohesion and unity4 ,the       
8,burial of ,st4 ,catherine0 is also in 
the ,brera4 ,it is a small fresco       
brought from the ,convent della         
,pelucca1 and is one of the more        
successful works of ,luini4 ,three      
finely designed angels are carrying the 
body of ,st4 ,catherine1 below which is 
the tomb4 ,the robes of the saint are   
red in colour1 while those of the angel 
on the right are purple2 the middle1    
green2 and the angel to the left has    
yellow drapery4 ,the best work1 however1
 by ,luini in the ,brera is the         

beautiful fresco1 in the ,sala ,,xvi1 of
 the 8,virgin and ,child0 with ,st4     
,martha1 ,st4 ,john1 and a nun4 ,in this
 work the landscape background is       
remarkably fresh and pure in colour1 and
 is painted in a very naturalistic      
manner1 the treatment of the trees1 and 
details of the landscape reminding one  
forcibly of a picture by ,constable4    
,there are some fine passages of        
luminous and harmonious colouring in the
 draperies1 the faces of the figures    
have a tenderness and purity of         
expression1 and the whole work is a     
convincing example of the master at his 
best4 ,being on a level with the eye1   
and in a good light1 one is enabled to  
see in this fresco that ,luini's method 
of painting consisted in his first      
modelling the forms in a solid impasto1 
and afterwards finishing his work1 like 
the majority of ,italian fresco         
painters1 by shading transparently in   
finely hatched lines4  ,there are other 
examples of ,luini's fresco work in the 

,brera1 consisting chiefly of heads and 
figures of boys4 ,in the old ,romanesque
 basilica church of ,st4 ,ambrogio at   
,milan1 in the first chapel of the left 
aisle1 is a fresco by him1 the 8,ecce   
,homo10 in a fairly good state of       
preservation1 and in the sixth chapel of
 the right aisle is his work1 the       
8,legend of ,st4 ,george40 ,the ,church 
of ,st4 ,maria della ,grazie in the same
 city contains his fresco of the        
8,virgin ,enthroned10 with saints       
around1 the colour and composition of   
which are good1 but an injurious dusty  
bloom has appeared on some portions of  
this fine work4 ,numerous examples of   
,luini's fresco decorations may be seen 
in the ,church of ,st4 ,maurizo         
7,monastero ,maggiore71 including the   
large 8,crucifixion10 on the wall over  
the entrance to the choir4 ,this great  
work contains nearly #adj figures1 many 
of which are of singular beauty4 ,at    
,saronno1 not far from ,milan1 in the   
,church of the ,santuario there are also

 some very important frescos by ,luini1 
representing scenes in the history of   
the ,virgin1 the best of which is a very
 fine 8,adoration of the ,magi40        
,gaudenzio ,ferrari 7#adhd-aedi7 was    
another ,milanese painter1 though a     
native of ,piedmont1 but ,milan and its 
neighbourhood was strictly speaking the 
centre of his labours4 ,he was a        
follower of ,leonardo da ,vinci1        
although he had worked with ,perugino1  
and later with ,raffaelle4 ,he painted  
numerous frescos in ,milan1 ,saronno1   
and ,varallo2 most of them are          
characterized by life and animation of  
pose in the figures1 and as a rule his  
works contain many figures of great     
merit and beauty1  ,illustration3  ,to  
face p4 #ff4  ,,plate #cc4--,,st4 ,,lucy
 ,,sentenced ,,to ,,death  ,jacopo      
,d',avanzo1 ,church of ,st4 ,anthony1   
,padua  showing fine qualities of       
freedom in the execution4 ,but his work 
as a whole is unequal1 owing to his     
tendency of allowing himself to be      

influenced by that of his               
contemporaries4 ,the best of his frescos
 are those which are most ,luinesque in 
style and character4  ,in the side      
entrance of the right aisle1 in the     
,church of ,st4 ,ambrogio1 in ,milan1   
,ferrari has painted the frescos1       
8,christ bearing the ,cross10 and the   
8,three ,marys02 the latter1 though     
darkened much1 is in a good state of    
preservation1 and is now under glass4   
,at ,saronno1 in the ,church of the     
,santuario1 he has decorated the cupola 
with an assemblage of angels and winged 
boys1 some of which are designed with   
great spirit1 and are beautifully       
painted4 ,later work by ,ferrari is the 
fresco decoration of the fourth chapel  
in the right aisle of ,st4 ,maria delle 
,grazie 7#aedb71 where he painted the   
powerful compositions of the ,passion1  
namely1 the 8,crucifixion10 the         
8,scourging of ,christ10 and 8,christ   
,crowned with ,thorns40 ,the figures are
 life-size1 and are characterized by    

much animation1 strong colouring1 and   
great freedom of execution4  ,the works 
of ,raffaelle and ,michael ,angelo in   
fresco painting which adorn the ,stanze 
of the ,vatican and the ,sistine        
,chapel1 respectively1 have been so much
 described1 and are so well known to    
students1 that any criticism which might
 be offered here would amount to an     
unstinted appreciation of their labours4
 ,it goes without saying that it is a   
very serious thing for the sake of      
,italian ,art that so much of the finest
 work of these masters has either gone  
very dark and dirty1 or1 what is worse1 
has in places almost perished by the    
disintegration of the colours4 ,the     
large fresco of the 8,school of         
,athens10 in the ,stanze of the         
,vatican1 probably the best work in     
fresco from the hand of ,raffaelle1 is  
now quite different from what it must   
have been when first it was painted4    
,the composition of the figures and some
 portions of the original colours still 

remain1 but all else must be entirely   
changed4 ,even where the original colour
 is still on the wall1 such parts are   
extremely blackened by age and dirt1 but
 the architectural background1 the      
central flight of steps1 and the        
foreground around and between the       
figures are1 on the contrary1 much      
lighter in tone than they must have been
 originally1 and consequently all the   
shade and shadows1 which formerly       
connected the masses of the figure      
groups together1 have disappeared4 ,the 
present extreme lightness of tone which 
surrounds the dark figures1 unduly      
emphasizes the latter1 and gives an     
unsatisfactory and very spotty          
appearance to the general composition1  
which is at variance with the early     
engravings and copies of this fresco4   
,it is quite likely that the present    
aspect of this great work is due to the 
fact that the cleaners and restorers    
engaged on it from time to time have    
employed their cleansing energy on the  

background more than on the figures1 and
 have cleaned off the dirt1             
,illustration3 ,photo4 ,anderson4  ,to  
face p4 #fh4  ,,plate #cd4--,,the ,,fire
 ,,in ,,the ,,borgo  ,raffaelle1 ,stanza
 dell' ,incendio1 ,vatican1 ,rome       
,illustration3 ,photo4 ,braun1 ,clment  
et ,cie4  ,to face p4 #fi4  ,,plate     
#ce4--;,,figure ,,of ,,adam1 ,,from     
,,the ,,creation ,,of ,,man  ,michael   
,angelo1 ,sistine ,chapel1 ,vatican1    
,rome  and paint as well1 so leaving    
this portion in a clean-looking or light
 state2 and if we bear in mind that the 
background work has in all probability  
been painted much more thinly1 or with  
less impasto1 than the figures1 we can  
easily imagine that in the parts under  
notice there has always been less body  
of colour to be destroyed by the        
cleaners4 ,it is also noticeable that   
where a blue or grey colour has been    
used in the draperies1 the painting of  
such parts has badly perished1 which    
suggests that either a vegetable or a   

copper-blue pigment has been used1      
instead of a cobalt or an ultramarine   
blue1 or that these parts have been     
afterwards repainted in tempera4 ,the   
other frescos in this room1 the 8,mount 
,parnassus10 and the 8,prudence1        
,fortitude and ,temperance10 are in a   
much better state than the 8,school of  
,athens40  ,michael ,angelo's great work
 in fresco1 on the ceiling of the       
,sistine ,chapel1 is still1 fortunately1
 in a fairly good state1 but the 8,last 
,judgment10 on the altar wall1 is very  
grimy1 and in a much blackened state4   
,one cannot help thinking that a good   
deal of the dirt could be removed from  
this work by a little judicious         
cleaning4   ,,the ,,end     ,,index     
,andrea del ,sarto1 #fc-fd              
,architecture1 #a  ,architecture1       
principles of1 #f  ,arts of ,peace      
fresco1 #cd  ,arts of ,war fresco1      
#cc-cd   ,bardi ,chapel1 ,santa ,croce1 
,florence1 #ci-dj  ,benozzo ,gozzoli1   
#ea-ec  ,borgia apartments1 ,vatican1   

#ef-eh  ,brancacci ,chapel1 ,carmelite  
,church1 #dg-di  ,brera ,palace1 ,milan1
 frescos at1 #fd-fe  ,brown1 ,ford      
,madox1 #cb  ,brushes for fresco1 #bj   
,buon-fresco1 #i   ,campo ,santa1 ,pisa1
 #eb  ,cartoons1 #af1 #ag1 #bd1 #ef     
,cenacolo by ,ghirlandajo1 #fa-fb       
,cnossus1 #aj  ,colour sketches1 #af1   
#cf  ,colours for buon-fresco1 #ag-ai   
,design in objects of general utility1  
#e  ,drapery painting1 #bh-bi           
,egyptian tempera1 #aa  ,encaustic      
painting1 #i   ,filippino ,lippi1 #dg   
,flesh painting1 #be-bg  ,foundling     
,hospital1 ,florence1 #ei-fj  ,fra      
,angelico1 #dd-df  ,fresco-buono1 #ab   
,fresco-secco1 #h1 #aa  ,fresco1 systems
 and methods1 #h   ,gaudenzio ,ferrari1 
#ff-fg  ,ghirlandajo1 ,domenico1 #ei-fa 
,giotto1 #ci-dc  ,giovanni da ,udine1   
#eg-eh  ,gloucester ,cathedral1 #ca     
,houses of ,parliament frescos1 #cj     
,intonaco1 #ae   ,keim's process1 #i    
,last ,judgment fresco1 #fh  ,leighton1 
,lord1 #cb-cc  ,luini1 ,bernardino1     

#fd-ff  ,lyndhurst ,church fresco1 #cb  
,masaccio1 #dg-di  ,masolino da         
,panicale1 #dg  ,method of execution in 
buon-fresco1 #bc  ,method of execution  
in spirit fresco1 #cf-cg  ,michael      
,angelo1 #ch1 #ej1 #ed1 #fh  ,monastery 
of ,st4 ,mark frescos1 #dd-df1 #fa      
,monumental painting1 essentials of1 #d 
,mosaics1 #c  ,mycene1 #aj   ,painting1 
#b  ,parry1 ,gambier1 #ec  ,perina del  
,vaga1 #eg-eh  ,perugino1 #ec-ee        
,pinturicchio1 #ef-eh  ,pompeii1 #aa    
,poynter1 ,sir ,e4 ,j41 ,bart41         
,p4,r4,a41 #af1 #cj   ,raffaelle1 #di1  
#fg1 #fi  ,retouching1 #bg  ,riccardi   
palace1 #ea  ,ruskin1 #ec   ,santa      
,maria della ,grazie1 ,milan1 #ff-fg    
,santa ,maria ,maddalena de ,pazzi1 #ed 
,santa ,maria ,novella1 ,florence1 #ci1 
#fa  ,santissima ,annunziata1 ,church of
 the1 #fc  ,st4 ,ambrogio1 ,milan1      
#ff-fg  ,st4 ,catherine of ,alexandria1 
#eh  ,st4 ,maurizo ,church 7,monastero  
,maggiore71 #ff  ,st4 ,stephen's1       
,dulwich1 #ga  ,saronno1 ,church of the 

,santuario1 #ff-fg  ,school of ,athens  
fresco1 #fh  ,simon ,memmi1 #ec         
,sistine ,chapel1 #ch1 #ed1 #ei         
,spanish ,chapel1 #ec  ,spirit fresco1  
#ca  ,spirit fresco medium1 #ch  ,spirit
 fresco painting1 #i   ,tempera         
painting1 #i  ,test brick for colour1   
#bb  ,thera1 #aj  ,tiryns1 #aj          
,undercoating1 or ground tint1 #ba      
,vasari1 #dj1 #ej1 #ef  ,vatican1       
,loggia of the1 #eh  ,victoria and      
,albert ,museum1 #cc   ,walls for fresco
 paintings1 #ad1 #cc  ,walls1           
preparation of1 #ad1 #cc-cd             
,water-glass fresco1 #i   ,richard ,clay
  ,sons1 ,limited1 ,london and ,bungay4