,note3 ,images ( ! orig9al pages are available ?r\gh ,int]net ,ar*ive4 ,see https3_/_/ar*ive4org_/details_/onsam5ess #jj;fullu(t ,transcrib]'s note3 ,text enclos$ by und]scores is 9 italics 7italics74 ,small capitals h be5 transcrib$ z ,,all ,,capitals4 ,! ,table ( ,cont5ts c be f\nd aft] ! ma9 text4 ,a li/ ( o!r corrections c be f\nd at ! end ( ! docum5t4 ,,on ,,sam5ess ,,& ,,id5tity4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,,philosophical ,,s]ies4 ,,numb]s ,,9 ,,prep>ation4 ,,no4 ,,ii4 ,,/udies ,,f ,,! ,,laboratory ,,( ,,exp]im5tal ,,psy*ology4 ,rese>*es are 9 progress on3 ,memory & ! ,lea/ ,noticeable ,diff]5ce 9 ,s5sation2 ,measurem5t 9 ! ,diagnosis ( ,diseases ( ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em2 ,! ,rate at :i* ! ,n]v\s ,impulse ,travels2 ,! ,p]sonal ,diff]5ce 9 ! ,"t ( ,m5tal ,processes2 ,! ,rate1 ,ext5t1 & ,=ce ( ,movem5t2 ,accuracy ( ,p]ception z a ,function ( ! ,"t ( ,/imulation2 ,! ,correlation ( ,m5tal ,"t1 ,int5sity1 & ,ext5sity2 ,! ,relative ,value to ,sci5ce ( ,exp]im5t1 ,obs]vation1 & ,memory2 ,! ,build+ ( ,complex ,p]ceptions2 etc4 ,,no4 ,,iii4 ,,desc>tes' ,,m$itations1 ) ,lat9 & ,engli% ,texts1 & ,philosophical ,analysis4 ,by ,george ,/u>t ,full]ton & ,william ,roma9e ,newbold4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,publications ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania ,,philosophical ,,s]ies4 ,edit$ by ,george ,/u>t ,full]ton ,pr(essor ( ,philosophy & ,james ,mc,keen ,cattell ,pr(essor ( ,psy*ology4 ,no4 #a4 ,april1 #ahij4 ,,on ,,sam5ess ,,& ,,id5tity4 ,a ,psy*ological ,/udy3 ,be+ a ,contribution to ! ,f\ndations ( a ,!ory ( ,k4 by ,,george ,,/u>t ,,full]ton4 ,philadelphia ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania ,press ,publi%]s ,on ,sam5ess & ,id5tity4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,! ,,k9ds ,,( ,,sam5ess4 ,& "s require ev]y?+ accurately /at$2 :]eas1 ?is accuracy annoys o!rs1 ei!r because ( _! inability to foll[ a tra9 ( reason+ ?r\gh1 or because ( its hair-splitt+ "*2 = accuracy does involve "s hair-splitt+4 ,ari/otle1 ,metaph4 ,book ,i1 ,! ,less1 c4 #c4 ,,section #a4 ,!re are few words ! ambiguity ( :i* has l$ to m confusion & pr(itless dispute ?an t ( ! ^w same4 ,m5 con/antly use ?is ^w z ?\gh x _h b "o mean+1 & t mean+ 7 always cle>1 :]eas x really gives expression to a numb] ( widely diff]5t exp]i5ces1 "s ( :i* are q difficult ( analysis4 ,x is highly desirable t ^! exp]i5ces %\ld n be conf\nd$ ) ea* o!r1 b kept cle>ly sep>ate1 z ! consequ5ces ( su* misconception are v f>-rea*+4 ,h[ f>-rea*+1 ,i %all 9 ! pages to foll[ try to indicate4 ,x is my purpose to po9t out ! diff]5ces 9 connotation ( ! sev]al s5ses ( ?is highly ambigu\s ^w1 to %[ ! elem5t :i* !y h 9 common1 & to trace "s ( ! difficulties & absurdities :i* h sprung f us+ ! ^w loosely & )\t prop] discrim9ation4 ,i %all h to plead guilty to some?+ v l hair-splitt+1 b ,i may put =w>d 9 excuse ! und5iable fact t accuracy does involve "s hair-splitt+4 ,if anyone pref]s ! self-contradictions & prepo/]\s conclusions to :i* loose & unanalytic ?\ght has s (t5 l$ ! unw>y1 he is welcome to !m4 ,i %all hold a few ( ^! up to inspection aft] a :ile4 ,= my "p1 ,i pref] a little quibbl+ at ! outset ( a discussion to a sy/ematic incoh]5ce all ?r\gh x1 ) ! *ances ( f9d+ myself 9 a cul-de-sac at ! end4 ,:e!r ,i am successful 9 dissipat+ to "s degree ! fog :i* has hung ab\t sam5esses & oblit]at$ important di/9ctions1 ea* "o mu/ judge = himself4 ,! k9ds ( sam5ess ,i f9d to be z foll[s3 ,,sec4 #b4 ,i4 ,we speak ( any s5sation1 feel+1 or idea1 or complex ( s5sations1 feel+s1 or ideas1 z be+ ! same ) itself at any "o in/ant4 ,! pa9 9 my f+] is :at x is at ?is mom5t4 ,! f+] itself 7! imm$iate object ( k1 a complex f s5se & imag9ation7 is1 at ea* mom5t1 :at x is4 ,x is to ?is s5se ( ! ^w t ! logical laws ( ,id5tity & ,contradiction h ultimate ref]5ce4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,,ii4 ,a s5sation1 feel+1 or idea1 or complex ( s5sations1 feel+s1 or ideas1 consid]$ 9 itself & )\t ref]5ce to ! _w ( mat]ial ?+s1 is call$ ! same ) "o previ\sly exi/5t :5 ! two are alike4 ,i say1 = example1 t ,i feel to-day ! same pa9 ,i felt ye/]day1 or t ,i h dreamt ! same dream ?ree times4 ,?is is evid5tly n sam5ess ( ! k9d fir/ m5tion$4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,,iii4 ,we speak ( see+ ! same mat]ial ?+ at diff]5t times4 ,suppose a man pass+ along a c\ntry road to look across a field at a di/ant tree4 ,:at he actually sees is a small blui% pat* ( color1 :i*1 int]pret+ 9 t]ms furni%$ by 8 previ\s exp]i5ce1 he supplem5ts ) mat]ial drawn f memory & imag9ation4 ,on ! foll[+ day he looks at ! tree aga9 f a ne>] po9t & sees a l>g] gre5 pat* ( color ) di/9ct diff]5ces ( %ad+ & ) a cle> outl9e4 ,?is he int]prets 9 a simil> mann]4 ,n[1 )\t be+ a philosoph] at all1 & )\t consci\s ref]5ce to any?+ beyond :at he has exp]i5c$ or c exp]i5ce1 he affirms t he has on two successive days se5 ! same tree4 ,i ask1 j :at is ! significance ( ! ^w same z us$ 9 ?is connection8 ,:at peculi> exp]i5ce has x be5 employ$ to m>k8 ,:at is p]ceiv$ on ! "o occasion is n ! same z :at is p]ceiv$ on ! o!r 9 ! s5se ( ! ^w fir/ giv5 7by p]ceiv$ ,i mean exi/+ 9 consci\sness z a complex ( m5tal elem5ts4 ,) ! suppos$ ext]nal correlates ( our p]cepts ,i am n n[ conc]n$74 ,& x is equally cle> t two su* p]cepts ne$ n be ! same 9 ! second s5se ( ! ^w1 = !y may be q unlike4 ,9 ?is case !y are unlike1 s f> at lea/ z :at is actually 9 s5sation is conc]n$4 ,:at peculi> exp]i5ce !n does ! ^w m>k :5 ! obs]v] decl>es t he has se5 ! same tree twice8 ,we are n[ 9 ! sph]e ( mat]ial objects 7i4 e41 z exp]i5c$2 ,i ref] to ! m5tal cont5t & no?+ m71 & are n conc]n$ ) our exp]i5ces z isolat$ elem5ts1 b z gr\p$ & arrang$ 9 s]ies4 ,our total possible exp]i5ce ( any "o object is a collection ( p>tly simultane\s & p>tly successive actual & possible s5sations :i* condition ea* o!r1 & :i* we reg>d z a unit4 ,! ,ideali/ believes t ?is is all !re is ( ! object1 & all we mean :5 we commonly employ ! ^w4 ,! ,reali/ assumes t !re is some?+ beyond & correspond+ to ?is exp]i5ce1 & :i* is to be reg>d$ z ! real ?+4 ,he1 h[ev]1 mu/ admit t all we c "k ( any object1 9 :atev] s5se we *oose to employ t ^w1 all our evid5ce = ma9ta9+ its exi/5ce & det]m9+ its qualities1 mu/ be drawn f ?is gr\p ( s5sations4 ,x is ?is t we imm$iately "k1 & any?+ inf]r$ mu/ be inf]r$ f ?is4 ,f ?is x foll[s t :5 any "o1 :e!r ,reali/1 or ,ideali/1 or unreflective man1 feels ju/ifi$ 9 ass]t+ t :at he p]ceives to-day is ! same object he p]ceiv$ ye/]day1 he is l$ to make ?is ass]tion on ! /r5g? ( "s di/9ction 9 8 imm$iate exp]i5ce1 & he ref]s only second>ily1 if at all1 to any?+ beyond & ext]nal to ?is4 ,! di/9ction :i* he m>ks by ! ^w is ?is3 ,he has reason to believe t ! two p]cepts 9 "q belong to ! "o s]ies1--to ! "o life hi/ory1 s to speak4 ,he believes t _h he c>$ to d s he c\ld h fill$ up ! gap betwe5 !m by a cont9u\s s]ies ( p]cepts1 ea* condition$ by ! prec$+1 & =m+ ! "o *a94 ,ea* repres5ts to him ! "o object1 9 t ea* /&s = ! :ole s]ies1 & 8 ?\ght is mu* m tak5 up ) ! s]ies z a :ole ?an ) ! individuals compos+ x4 ,he kn[s t ! p]cepts 9 su* a s]ies c only be successive1 nev] simultane\s4 ,_h he reason to suspect t ! two p]cepts we are discuss+ belong to diff]5t s]ies ( ?is k9d1 & t !re is no?+ 9 ! nature ( ! case to prev5t _! be+ simultane\s1 he w\ld decide = two trees4 ,b ea* p]cept conta9s m ?an "o m5tal elem5t1 & j z we may reg>d ea* p]cept z repres5t+ ! :ole s]ies1 s we may reg>d ea* elem5t z repres5t+ ! :ole complex :i* may be exp]i5c$ at "o "t1 & ?r\gh ?is ! :ole s]ies ( p]cepts4 ,i say t ! orange ,i smell is ! same ) ! "o ,i see2 t ,i c reveal by /rik+ a light ! *air ,i fell ov] 9 ! d>k2 t ,i he> rattl+ d[n ! /reet ! coa* ,i /epp$ out ( a few mom5ts ago4 ,x is n wor? :ile to di/+ui% ?is use f ! use ( ! ^w same j m5tion$1 = !y agree 9 mak+ a s+le exp]i5ce /& = a :ole gr\p or s]ies1 :i* is assum$ to be at lea/ pot5tially pres5t ) ea* "o4 ,:5 we h _h two exp]i5ces ?us repres5t+ ! "o gr\p1 we say t we h 9 two ways1 or on two occasions1 exp]i5c$ ! same object4 ,9 ?is s5se has ! man 9 our illu/ration se5 ye/]day & to-day ! same tree4 ,9 ?is s5se c\ld he at ! "o "t see & t\* ! same tree4 ,x is 9 ?is s5se also t we use ! ^w :5 we say t ! object se5 ) ! nak$ eye & ! object se5 ?r\gh a telescope or "u a microscope are ! same4 ,if ,i look at a di/ant object ) ! nak$ eye & !n look at x ?r\gh a telescope1 :at ,i actually see 7or :at is actually 9 ! s5se7 is 9 ! two cases v diff]5t4 ,b j z see+ an object f a di/ance ) ! nak$ eye1 ,i may walk t[>ds x & sub/itute = ! dim & vague p]cept :i* ,i fir/ _h a s]ies ( p]cepts increas+ 9 cle>ness & end+ 9 "o :i* ,i reg>d z altoge!r satisfactory1 s ,i may sub/itute at once ?is cle> p]cept = ! dim "o1 by ! use ( ! telescope1 & may "k t x prop]ly belongs to ! s]ies :i*1 tak5 z a :ole1 con/itutes my notion ( ! object4 ,?is ,i may "k f ! relations :i* ?is p]cept be>s to ! o!r p]cepts ( ! s]ies1 & :i* all[ me to pass 9 my inf]5ces f x to !m z ,i c f any "o ( !m to ano!r4 ,if1 see+ a dim object ^u ! horizon1 ,i raise a telescope & ?r\gh x p]ceive ! figure ( a man1 ,i "k t ,i c\ld h _h a simil> p]cept )\t any telescope by simply approa*+ ! object4 ,conv]sely1 on p]ceiv+ a man ne> at h&1 ,i "k ,i c\ld h a simil> p]cept f a di/ance by look+ ?r\gh a telescope4 ,i call ! man se5 ?r\gh ! telescope ! same z ! man se5 ) ! nak$ eye1 = ! same reason z ,i call ! man se5 by ! eye at a di/ance ! same ) ! man se5 ne> at h&4 ,& ! app>5tly non-ext5d$ speck :i* ,i see ) ! nak$ eye looks v diff]5t f ! curi\s insect ,i see :5 ,i place a microscope ov] ?is speck1 b ,i call !m ! same = ! reason j giv54 ,if ! insect z se5 "u ! glass be divid$1 s is ! speck z se5 by ! eye2 if ! insect is tak5 away1 ! speck disappe>s too4 ,! s]ies ( p]cepts made possible ?r\gh ! microscope may be reg>d$ z a cont9uation ( ! s]ies :i* arises f approa*+ ! eye to ! object4 ,ea* memb] 9 x /&s 9 a relation to ?is prim>y s]ies simil> to t illu/rat$ above 9 ! case ( ! telescope1 & simil> to t held by ! t]ms ( ! prim>y s]ies to ea* o!r4 ,x %\ld be kept cle>ly 9 m9d t 9 all ^! cases ! object 7imm$iately p]ceiv$7 is ! same only 9 ! s5se po9t$ out1 i4 e41 two or m p]cepts1 :i* may1 9 !mselves consid]$1 be q unlike ea* o!r1 are recogniz$ z 9 a c]ta9 relation to ea* o!r1 z ea* repres5t+ ! "o s]ies to :i* all belong4 ,if "o ?9ks he has reason to believe ea* p]cept repres5ts n m]ely ! s]ies ( p]cepts1 b some?+ diff]5t1 :i* he inf]s & is pleas$ to call ! real ?+1 he may be incl9$ to believe t 9 say+ he sees ! same object on two occasions he is ref]r+ to ?is some?+4 ,x mu/ be cle> to him1 h[ev] t all 8 evid5ce = ! sam5ess ( ?is some?+ lies 9 ! exp]i5ce ,i h describ$1 & x is to ?is t he mu/ po9t 9 pro( t x is ! same4 ,! p]cepts !mselves are c]ta9ly n ! same 9 any o!r s5se ?an ! "o giv54 ,!y are n id5tical1 & !y ne$ n be alike4 ,!y m]ely /& = ea* o!r4 ,%\ld "o =get ?is1 he w fall into blund]s :i* ,i w illu/rate at l5g? :5 ,i speak ( ! common op9ion on ! subject ( ! inf9ite divisibility ( space4 ,john ,locke1 9 8 fam\s ,essay1#a has made a di/9ction betwe5 ! sam5ess ( masses ( inorganic matt] & ! sam5ess ( organisms4 ,t ( ! =m]1 he says1 consi/s 9 ! sam5ess ( _! p>ticles1 :ile ! sam5ess ( a plant or animal does n consi/ 9 t ( ! p>ticles :i* compose x at ?is "t or at t1 = !y are 9 cont9ual flux1 b 9 ! p>ticipation 9 ! "o life ( ! organism4 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 appe> to me t we h "h a real diff]5ce 9 ! k9d ( exp]i5ce m>k$ by ! ^w4 ,! diff]5ce is m]ely t 9 ! "o case we connect ?is exp]i5ce1 n ) ! object z a :ole1 b ) ! sep>ate p>ticles :i* compose x1 :i* we take z s _m sep>ate objects ea* hav+ a sam5ess ( ! k9d j discuss$1 :ile 9 ! o!r case we look ^u ! object z a :ole1 z a unit1 & disreg>d any ref]5ce to its compon5t p>ts4 ,b :e!r we reg>d ! object z a unit or take ea* ( its ultimate p>ts z sep>ate objects1 we are ?9k+ ( ! "o k9d ( sam5ess4 ,we are ?9k+ ( a c]ta9 life-hi/ory 9 :i* any "o l9k may repres5t ! :ole1 & any two l9ks may be1 f ?is po9t ( view1 reg>d$ z equival5t4 ,x is n m]ely ) ref]5ce to plants & animals t we speak ( sam5ess )\t reg>d to a sam5ess ( con/itu5t p>ts4 ,we d x 9 ?is case simply because ! organism furni%es u ) a conv5i5t unit1 & "o mu* m important z a unit ?an z an aggregate4 ,we c make simil> units :5 we please1 & consid] _! sam5ess )\t ?9k+ ( _! p>ts4 ,we speak ( ! same nation z exi/+ ?r\gh _m g5]ations1 & ( ! same corporation z surviv+ _m dea?s4 ,:e!r ! object we are consid]+ be naturally indivisible1 or composite & assum$ a unit = conv5i5ce1 :5 we speak ( x z ! same at two diff]5t times we are ref]r+ to ! "o exp]i5ce4 ,locke does make "h a di/9ction wor? notic+1 b x does n m>k two fundam5tally diff]5t uses ( ! ^w4 #a ,essay ,conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 ,bk4 #b1 ,*ap4 #bg1 #c4 ,,sec4 #e4 ,,iv4 ,two objects are call$ ! same1 & two o!r m5tal exp]i5ces occurr+ at ! "o "t are call$ ! same1 f ! fact t !y are recogniz$ z alike4 ,! botani/1 f9d+ t two plants belong to ! "o class calls !m ! same )\t any int5tion ( conf\nd+ ! two individuals4 ,nor does "o :o places 8 two h&s 9 w>m wat] & decl>es t he has ! same feel+ 9 bo?1 conf\nd ! two /reams ( s5sation4 ,! fact t only lik5ess is meant is "h cle>ly recogniz$4 ,x is n1 ,i ?9k1 z cle>ly recogniz$ :5 simil> s5sations or o!r m5tal exp]i5ces 7consid]$ s+ly71 occurr+ at diff]5t times1 are call$ ! same4 ,9 t case !y are sometimes spok5 ( z if !y 7 mat]ial objects hav+ a cont9u\s sam5ess aft] ! fa%ion expla9$ above4 ,,sec4 #f4 ,v4 ,! ^w same is us$ to signify ! relation betwe5 any m5tal exp]i5ce & t :i* is reg>d$ z its repres5tative4 ,?is repres5tative may or may n resemble x4 ,we speak1 = example1 ( call+ up 9 memory ?is or t object se5 at "s pa/ "t4 ,! memory-image is c]ta9ly n ! same ) ! orig9al p]cept 9 ,s5se ,i4 ,:5 we say t ! object ( memory is ! pa/1 we _c mean ?is1 = x is pla9ly false4 ,nor is x ?\ght ( z m]ely l x1 z 9 ,s5se ,,ii4 ,x is ?\ght ( z a some?+ :i* repres5ts x--/&s = x 9 a peculi> way4 ,j :at ?is implies ,i w n "h attempt to discov]4 ,x is en\gh = my purpose to po9t out t :5 we say a man rememb]s an object we d n mean m]ely to indicate ! pres5ce 9 8 imag9ation ( a resembl+ picture1 b to include a c]ta9 relation betwe5 ?is picture & an orig9al p]cept4 ,x is n easy to describe :at is pres5t 9 an act ( memory4 ,:5 ,i am ?9k+ ( ano!r man z call+ to m9d some?+ f 8 pa/ exp]i5ce1 ,i br+ be=e my own m9d two pictures1 "o repres5t+ 8 orig9al p]cept1 & "o 8 pres5t memory-image4 ,hold+ ^! be=e me toge!r1 ,i recognize !m z relat$1 b di/9ct4 ,i use ! ^w same to d5ote _! relation4 ,b ! p]son :o is ex]cis+ 8 memory does n h be=e 8 m9d two objects1 an orig9al & a copy1 ) an obs]v$ relation betwe5 !m4 ,he has n ! orig9al1 or x w\ld n be an act ( memory4 ,:51 h[ev]1 he reflects ^u 8 exp]i5ce z ,i h done1 he repres5ts x to himself z ,i h repres5t$ x to myself4 ,he speaks z if1 9 ! act ( rememb]+1 he 7 consci\s ( two objects & c\ld comp>e !m4 ,he speaks ( recogniz+ ! memory picture z a copy & repres5tative ( ! orig9al p]cept4 ,language1 z commonly us$1 adapts itself to ?is way ( reg>d+ ! matt]1 & ,i may leave a fur!r analysis ( x to ! /ud5t ( ! memory1 m]ely po9t+ out t1 :atev] is impli$ 9 ! exp]i5ce1 a common use ( ! ^w same is to d5ote ?is relation betwe5 any m5tal exp]i5ce & ! memory-image :i* repres5ts x4 ,x w be se5 t ?is k9d ( sam5ess may be presuppos$ 9 affirm+ sam5ess 9 o!r s5ses ( ! ^w4 ,:5 ,i comp>e a pres5t s5sation ) "o felt "s days s9ce1 & affirm t !y are ! same1 ! latt] mu/ ent] into ! comp>ison ?r\gh its repres5tative 9 memory4 ,x is n itself pres5t at ! "t ( ! comp>ison4 ,& :5 ,i say t ,i h se5 ! same tree ye/]day & to-day1 ,i mean1 z ,i h expla9$1 t ! two p]cepts belong to ! "o s]ies2 b s9ce my exp]i5ce ( ye/]day _c be itself pres5t 9 my consci\sness to-day1 x c take its place 9 ! s]ies1 z ?\ght to-day1 only by proxy4 ,:5 ,i say t ,i h 9 my m9d ! same s]ies on two successive days1 ,i evid5tly mean t x is ! same s]ies 9 ! s5se 9 :i* any exp]i5ce & its repres5tative 9 memory are ! same4 ,o!r less important in/ances might be giv5 ( ?is use ( ! ^w same to express ! relation betwe5 any exp]i5ce & its repres5tative4 ,we say t we see an object 9 a mirror1 :5 we mean t we see its reflect$ image4 ,we speak ( see+ 9 a picture ?is man or t4 ,:5 we h f\nd = any?+ a satisfactory sub/itute we say x is ! same ?+4 ,su* uses ( ! ^w are n likely to deceive anyone1 & ,i w n dwell ^u !m4 ,_! mean+ is too pla9 to be mi/ak54 ,,sec4 #g4 ,,vi4 ,we con/antly speak ( two m5 z see+ ! same ?+4 ,9 ?is we h a s5se ( ! ^w :i* dem&s c>eful analysis4 ,= ! sake ( cle>ness1 & to avoid ambiguity1 ,i w conf9e myself "h1 z ,i h done 9 ! =ego+ sections1 to an exam9ation ( :at is actually exp]i5c$ by ! m51 & w def] all consid]ation ( exi/5ces assum$ z ly+ beyond a possible exp]i5ce 9 an extra-m5tal _w1 = discussion 9 sections to foll[4 ,! "q :i* int]e/s me at pres5t is simply ?is3 ,:at exp]i5ce is x t leads a man to affirm t he & someone else are p]ceiv+ ! same object8 ,! ,reali/ 79 ! mod]n s5se7 w\ld say t ?is exp]i5ce is only 8 evid5ce t he & ano!r are p]ceiv+ ! same object1 mean+ by object :at ,i h ref]r$ to z believ$ to lie beyond 8 exp]i5ce2 :ile ! ,ideali/ w\ld say t ?is exp]i5ce exhau/s ! :ole matt]4 ,! ,reali/ mu/1 h[ev]1 admit1 z ,i h br\ght out 9 a diff]5t connection1 t all 8 evid5ce = ! exi/5ce ( ! object 79 8 s5se71 & = any affirmations :atev] reg>d+ x1 ly+ )9 ! field ( ! imm$iately kn[n1 any words1 :i* h be5 co9$ to express qualities (1 or di/9ctions conc]n+1 ?is object1 w\ld reta9 a use & significance z m>k+ di/9ctions )9 ?is field ev5 if ! object 7 suppos$ non-exi/5t4 ,:e!r any su* duplicate ( :at is imm$iately p]ceiv$ exi/s or n is a "q ap>t4 ,s9ce we admitt$ly draw all our di/9ctions f ! field ( ! imm$iately kn[n & !n c>ry !m ov] to su* objects1 & n vice v]sa1 we may be sure t we w\ld g on say+ t two m5 see ! same object 9 any case4 ,i myself give ! pref]5ce to t ! exi/5ce ( :i* is an indubitable fact1 & pref] us+ ! ^w object to indicate ! complex 9 consci\sness4 ,i h1 h[ev]1 no desire to assume any po9t 9 dispute by juggl+ ) a ^w1 & w try to keep cle>ly 9 m9d ! mean+ ( ! ^w ?us assum$ :5ev] ,i use x4 ,n[1 ! exp]i5ce :i* leads me to say t ,i & ano!r man see ! same object is j ?is3 ,i p]ceive a p>ticul> object1 & 9 a c]ta9 relation to x ,i p]ceive ! body ( ano!r man4 ,f a pa/ exp]i5ce ( my own body 9 relation to objects & f reason+ by analogy1 ,i h come to connect su* a relation ( ano!r body to ! object ) ! ?\ght ( ano!r consci\sness ( ! object z connect$ ) t body4 ,j z ,i p]ceive my own body to p]=m c]ta9 actions :5 ,i am consci\s ( p]ceiv+ ! object1 s ,i p]ceive ?is o!r body ) :i* ,i h connect$ 9 ?\ght a consci\sness ( ! object to p]=m simil> acts 9 response to simil> relations t[>ds ! object4 ,x is :olly a matt] ( obs]vation 9 my own case t ! p]ception ( my own body 9 ?is or t relation to an object is a s9e qua non to ! p]ception ( ! object4 ,& x is :olly a matt] ( reason+ f l to l t leads me to connect 9 ?\ght s5sations or p]cepts ) any o!r animal body :atev]4 ,:5 ,i say1 !re=e1 t ,i & ano!r man are p]ceiv+ ! same ?+1 !re is 9 my m9d a complex consi/+ ( a p]cept or idea ( ! ?+1 a p]cept or idea ( ! man's body1 & ! ?\ght ( a p]cept connect$ ) ?is body4 ,:5 ,i say t he is ?9k+ ( u bo? z see+ ! same ?+1 ,i call up 9 m9d a simil> complex & connect x 9 ?\ght ) 8 body4 ,:atev] ,i may believe z to ! exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce ( ?+s ly+ beyond ?is sph]e1 & suppos$ to cause ^! exp]i5ces1 ^! are ! exp]i5ces to :i* ,i ultimately ref] :5 ,i speak ( two m5 z see+ ! same object1 & ^! furni% ! :ole gr\nd = ! exi/5ce ( ! phrase4 ,! p]cept ( ! object :i* ,i connect 9 ?\ght ) ! o!r man's body ne$ n be :olly simil> to my p]cept ( ! object4 ,! man :o has discov]$ t he is color-bl9d1 does n suppose t m5 n simil>ly afflict$ see j :at he does 9 look+ at a *]ry tree full ( ripe fruit4 ,nev]!less1 he /ill speaks ( himself & o!rs z see+ ! same objects4 ,if ano!r man's body is n exactly l m9e1 ,i am n ju/ifi$ by argum5t f simil>ity 9 read+ into x an exactly simil> exp]i5ce4 ,x is n ! simil>ity ( ! two p]cepts t ,i am ?9k+ ( *iefly :5 ,i speak ( !m z p]cepts ( ! same object4 ,i am ?9k+ ( ! relation 9 :i* ,i suppose !m to /& to ea* o!r4 ,i ?9k ( ! possible exi/5ce ( ! "o "u giv5 circum/ances z condition+ ! possible exi/5ce ( ! o!r4 ,,sec4 #h4 ,,vii4 ,:5 a man 9 an e>ly /age ( reflection ^u 8 exp]i5ce has decid$ t objects imm$iately p]ceiv$ are n ! real ?+s b m]ely _! m5tal copies or repres5tatives1 he may ?9k ( ^! real ?+s 9 sev]al ways4 ,he may believe 9 a _w ( real ?+s1 consi/+ ( gr\ps ( real qualities1 ext]nal to consci\sness2 he may accept su* real ?+s1 b add to !m a sub/ratum or sub/ance1 di/9ct f ! qualities2 or he may believe t ! real exi/s z m]e sub/ratum1 sub/ance1 or n\m5on1 & t all qualities1 be+ m]ely its revelation to m9d1 exi/ )9 ! circle ( consci\sness alone4 ,! fir/ position is "o n (t5 tak54 ,! second is t held by ,locke1#b :o believ$ t1 correspond+ to our ideas ( objects1 !re exi/ sub/ances possess$ ( c]ta9 prim>y qualities1 & hav+ an und]ly+ sub/ance or sub/ratum4 ,! ?ird repres5ts ! view ( ! ,kantian1#c :o1 to be consi/5t1 mu/ d5y to 8 n\m5on any qualities :atev]4 ,h[ he is to d ?is )\t hav+ x lapse into utt] no?+ness is a problem = him to solve4 #b ,essay ,conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+4 ,bk4 #b1 ,*ap4 #b1 ,i1 & ,bk4 #b1 ,*ap4 #bc1 #a4 et seq4 #c ,kritik d] re95 ,v]nunft4--,von dem ,grunde d] ,unt]s*eidung all] ,geg5/nde b]haupt 9 ,phnom5a und ,n\m5a4 ,kant's ,smmtli*e ,w]ke1 h]ausgegeb5 von ,h>t5/e94 ,leipzig1 #ahfg1 #c;er ,b&1 s4 #bji1 et seq4 ,see also1 ,kritik d] ,praktis*5 ,v]nunft2 ,vorr$e2 & ! discussion3 ,wie e9e ,erweit]ung d] re95 ,v]nunft 9 praktis*] ,absi*t1 ohne damit ihr ,erk5ntniss als speculativ1 zuglei* zu erweit]n1 zu d5k5 mgli* sei8 ,i ,?4 ,,ii ,b4 ,,ii ,hpt/42 same edition1 #e;er ,bd41 s4 #e1 #adj4 ,i am n conc]n$ "h ) ! inn] contradiction ( ! ,kantian sy/em4 ,! notion ( n\m5a pr$om9antly 9 ,kant's m9d1 01 ,i ?9k1 ab\t z ,i h /at$4 ,he w\ld n1 ( c\rse1 h d5i$ reality to ph5om5a1 b 8 misconception ( ,b]keley1 & ! satisfaction ) :i* he settles d[n to ! n\m5al 9 ! ,critique ( ! ,practical ,reason1 %[ t he felt t[>d ! blos ,ers*e9ung v mu* z ,locke felt t[>d m]e ideas4 ,cf4 ,essay1 ,bk4 #d1 ,*ap4 #aa1 #g4 ,! disciple ( ,locke has1 !re=e1 9 discuss+ all ! uses ( ! ^w same1 to consid] ! sam5ess (3 #a4 ,?+s imm$iately kn[n4 #b4 ,gr\ps ( real qualities 9 an extra-m5tal _w1 m or less l :at is imm$iately kn[n4 #c4 ,sub/ance2 ! ,i "k n :at to :i* ,locke clung ?r\gh all difficulties4 ,! man :o holds ! fir/ ( ! ?ree views above m5tion$ ne$ only consid] ! fir/ & ! second ( ^!2 & ! ,kantian ne$ only consid] ! fir/ & ! ?ird1 rebaptiz+ ! latt] n\m5on or ?+-9-itself4 ,omitt+ = lat] consid]ation ! sam5ess ( ! self or ego1 ,i h already discuss$ ! uses ( ! ^w same )9 ! field ( ! imm$iately kn[n4 ,x rema9s to consid] ! sam5ess ( :at is believ$ to lie beyond ?is1 & to belong to a diff]5t k9d ( a _w4 ,:5 m5 discuss ^! suppos$ realities1 9 :at s5ses ( ! ^w same may !y reasonably ?9k ( !m z ! same8 ,:5 a common1 unreflective man1 ^: m9d has n be51 9 ! words ( ,bi%op ,b]keley1 debau*$ by le>n+1 looks at a tree & ?9ks ab\t x1 he believes he sees a real tree1 at a c]ta9 real di/ance f 8 body1 & ( a giv5 real height & figure4 ,x does n occur to him to make any di/9ction betwe5 ! tree imm$iately p]ceiv$1 & an inf]r$ second tree1 n imm$iately p]ceiv$1 b repres5t$ by ! =m]4 ,!re is ! tree2 he sees x2 he c t\* x2 x seems to him b "o3 & he always talks z if !re 7 b "o tree to be discuss$ 9 ! premises4 ,t "o tree1 he ?9ks1 is really ext5d$2 is really out 9 space beyond 8 body2 is1 9 %ort1 :at x appe>s to be4 ,to 8 unreflective m9d ?is tree does n seem to be a repres5tative or to be se5 ?r\gh a repres5tative1 b to be se5 imm$iately & j :]e x really is4 ,b :5 a man has begun to battle ) ! difficulties ( reflection1 & has le>n$ to make a di/9ction betwe5 ?+s & 8 ideas ( ! ?+s1 he w probably fall into un=ese5 p]plexities ab\t ?is tree4 ,he reflects t1 :5 he closes 8 eyes1 ! tree disappe>s2 t :5 he approa*es x x looks gre51 & :5 he rec$es f x x gr[s blue2 t a man ) a peculi> defect 9 8 vision does n see x color$ z he does2 t :5 he makes a pressure on ! side ( "o eyeball he sees two trees :]e be=e he saw only "o2 t :5 he makes su* a pressure ^u bo? eyeballs & moves !m ab\t a little he sees two trees mov+ ab\t1 al?\gh he kn[s real trees c n ord9>ily be made to move ab\t s easily4 ,su* reflections lead him to di/+ui% betwe5 ! tree z he sees x1 & ! tree z x really is1 & he def9es ! tree z he sees x z ! tree imm$iately kn[n1 & ! real tree z ! tree m$iately kn[n1 a cause ( ! exi/5ce ( ! =m]4 ,he n[ ?9ks t he sees directly only copies or repres5tatives ( real ?+s1 & z he believes ^! copies or repres5tatives to be 9 8 m9d1 & usually talks z if 8 m9d 7 9 8 head1 or at lea/ 9 8 body1 he concludes t ?+s imm$iately kn[n mu/ 9 _m in/ances be mu* small] ?an !y seem1 or p]haps lack ext5sion altoge!r4 ,h[ c a tree ?irty feet high be 9 a man's m9d8 ,x is true1 t1 :5 ,i press ^u my eyeballs 9 ! mann] describ$1 ,i seem to see two trees ( t size mov+2 b mu/ x n be a mi/ake8 ,mu/ we n assume t :at is imm$iately se5 only seems ext5d$1 & /&s = an ext5d$ ?+ :i* is grasp$ ?r\gh x8 ,s our philosoph] le>ns to di/ru/ ! imm$iate object ( k2 to reg>d x z 9 "s s5se unreal z comp>$ ) :at x repres5ts2 & to d5y to x ^? prop]ties :i* x app>5tly possesses4 ,x is n ext5d$1 b x /&s = ext5sion2 x is n color$1 b x /&s = color2 x is n real1 b x /&s = reality4 ,x is natural1 h[ev]1 = "o :o has gone ?us f> to g f>!r4 ,:5 he reflects aga9 ^u ! fact t he sees ! tree ( a diff]5t color at diff]5t di/ances2 :5 he rememb]s t colors v>y ) ! quality ( ! light by :i* !y are se52 :5 he & 8 neighbor dispute conc]n+ ! true color ( ! "o tree :i* he sees dott$ ) r$ leaves1 & :i* 8 oppon5t claims to see ( a uni=m color2 !n he may well beg9 to ask himself :at is ! true color ( ! real tree1 or :e!r x is c]ta9 t x has any color at all8 ,may n1 !n1 ! real tree h only "s ( ! qualities t we ord9>ily attribute to trees8 ,p]haps1 ! space qualities8 ,or1 worse yet1 s9ce "s ( ! qualities t ! ord9>y man attributes to trees may be reg>d$ z exi/+ only 9 a %ad[y way 9 our ideas1 :y may n ! same be true ( all ! o!r qualities8 ,h[ d we "k t real trees are ext5d$8 ,h[ d we "k t real ext5sion mu/ be assum$ z ! cause ( ! delusive app>5t ext5sion ( our ideas1 if x is true t real color ne$ n ?us be assum$ z a cause ( our s5sations ( color8 ,:at if ! real ?+ exi/s only z an indescribable & incompreh5sible some:at1 :i* we mu/ assume z a cause ( ! imm$iately kn[n1 b ( :i* we c "k no?+ m8 ,:5 "o has once begun ?is slipp]y desc5t1 x is n easy to say :]e he may f9d a peg to /ay him 9 8 c\rse4 ,suppose1 h[ev]1 he is cont5t to /rip ! real ?+ ( :at are commonly call$ ! second>y qualities ( matt]1 & to leave to x :at are kn[n z ! prim>y4 ,he w foll[ ! example ( ! :olly unreflective man & speak ( x 9 su* a way z to sugge/ t ! ?+ itself is some?+ ap>t f its real qualities4 ,a tree1 he w say1 has qualities4 ,x w\ld c]ta9ly s\nd odd to he> him say x is qualities4 ,& he w v possibly g on to ju/ify ! use ( ! language he employs by di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! real qualities repres5t$ by 8 m5tal picture ( ! tree & an obscure some?+ :i* he assumes z und]ly+ !m2 ?us embrac+ ! ,lockian di/9ction ( ideas1 real qualities1 & sub/ance4 ,he may conclude1 x is true1 t sub/ance 9 ?is s5se ( ! ^w is *im]ical1 & t ! belief 9 x arises out ( a misund]/&+ ( ! significance ( language2 b if he has gone s f> z to assume duplicates ( ?+s imm$iately kn[n1 9 ! =m ( real qualities1 x is m probable t he w be incl9$ to complete 8 classes ( be+s by add+ ! ?ird4#d #d ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 no reason :y he may n add z _m m classes z he pleases1 & ju/ify ! additions z he ju/ifies ?is4 ,m5 d n d ?is1 z a matt] ( fact1 b t is no reason4 ,n[1 x does n conc]n me to consid] :e!r ?is *ange ( view is to be reg>d$ z a real progress 9 reflective k or z a progressive decl9e & fall ( ! unreflective man4 ,! po9t :i* conc]ns me is ?is3 ,! unreflective man talks z if b "o tree 7 "u discussion4 ,! man :o reflects uses ! same =ms ( spee*3 & ev5 :5 he believes t he mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 ! tree imm$iately kn[n & ! obscure some?+ :i* he has come to look ^u z its cause1 or betwe5 ! tree imm$iately kn[n1 ! bundle ( real qualities inf]r$1 & ! obscure some?+ t he connects ) ^!1 he /ill goes on talk+ z if he _h only "o ?+ to talk ab\t4 ,! dang] ( su* a proce$+ is obvi\s4 ,if ,i talk ab\t two or ?ree ?+s z ?\gh !y 7 "o1 x is b natural t ,i %\ld sometimes confuse !m ) ea* o!r4 ,%\ld pro( be =?com+ = "o ( ^!1 x w\ld be b natural = me to fall occasionally into ! error ( suppos+ t x someh[ applies to ! o!rs4 ,if ,i g on say+ ! tree :5 ,i mean "o tree & some?+ else1 two trees1 or two trees & some?+ else1 x is only to be expect$ t ,i soon] or lat] come to grief 9 my reason+s4 ,& x %\ld be not$ t ?is peculi> ambiguity 9 ! names ( ?+s entails a p>allel ambiguity 9 ! use ( ! words by :i* we indicate ! m9d's recognition ( ! pres5ce ( ?+s4 ,we commonly speak ( a drunk5 man's see+ two trees1 :]e a sob] man sees "o4 ,we speak ( an insane man z he>+ voices1 :5 no "o has spok54 ,we say t we see ! maples are turn+ r$1 ev5 :5 we believe t color may n prop]ly be attribut$ to ! m$iate object ( k4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ^? :o hold to ! exi/5ce ( real objects ( ! k9d be=e m5tion$1 g5]ally ma9ta9 t 9 ref]r+ to ?+s 9 space1 _! positions & mutual relations1 we are giv+ att5tion1 n to ! imm$iately kn[n1 b to its ext]nal d\ble4 ,i see1 feel1 p]ceive1 x is said1 n ! image1 & n ! con/itu5ts ( ! image 7! ideas71 b ! ext]nal object by means ( ! image4#e ,if "o holds t ?is ext]nal object presupposes a sub/ance1 a some?+ di/9ct f a gr\p ( qualities1 !re is no?+ to prev5t 8 ma9ta9+1 %\ld he wi% to d s1 t 9 say+ ,i see a tree1 prim>y ref]5ce is _h to ?is sub/ance or reality4 ,( c\rse1 if1 9 ! s5t5ce ,i see a tree1 ! ^w tree c h ?ree mean+s1 x foll[s t !re is also a possibility ( tak+ 9 ?ree s5ses ! ^w see4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to po9t out t1 unless "o is v c>eful1 see+ 9 "o s5se may result 9 believ+ 9 ano!r1 z kick+ did 9 ! fam\s case ( ,dr4 ,johnson & ! /one4 ,! caution is p]t95t ) respect to any o!r ^w us$ 9 ! same g5]al way z we use ! ^w see4 #e ,ueb]weg4 ,see ,krau?'s ,ed4 ( ,b]keley's ,pr9ciples1 ,phila41 #ahgd1 p4 #cdc4 ,i h said t :5 a man ab&ons 8 orig9al unreflective position & le>ns to di/+ui% betwe5 ?+s imm$iately kn[n & o!r ?+s !y are suppos$ to repres5t1 he goes on us+ ! common language1 & talk+ z ?\gh !re 7 b "o ?+ "u consid]ation4 ,n[1 m5 d n d ?is m]ely 9 common conv]sation & 9 writ+ ab\t matt]s ( ev]yday life1 b !y d x 9 ! v books t h be5 writt5 to prove t ea* ?+ is ?us d\ble or triple4 ,john ,locke1 = example1 beg9s ! v *apt] 9 :i* he is ab\t to draw ! di/9ction betwe5 ! second>y & prim>y qualities ( bodies 7i4 e41 betwe5 ! con/itu5ts ( ?+s imm$iately kn[n & ! con/itu5ts ( _! ext]nal correlates71 z well z to enlight5 u on our ideas ( sub/ances1 ) ! foll[+ words3#f #f ,essay1 ,bk4 #b1 ,*ap4 #bc1 #a4 ,! m9d be+1 z ,i h decl>$1 furni%$ ) a great numb] ( ! simple ideas1 convey$ 9 by ! s5ses1 z !y are f\nd 9 ext]ior ?+s1 or by reflexion on its own op]ations1 takes notice also1 t a c]ta9 numb] ( ^! simple ideas g con/antly toge!r2 :i*1 be+ presum$ to belong to "o ?+1 & words be+ suit$ to common appreh5sions1 & made use ( = quick despat*1 are call$1 s unit$ 9 "o subject1 by "o "n2 :i*1 by inadv]t5cy1 we are apt aft]w>d to talk (1 & consid] z "o simple idea1 :i* inde$ is a complication ( _m ideas toge!r3 because1 z ,i h said1 n imag9+ h[ ^! simple ideas c subsi/ by !mselves1 we accu/om ourselves to suppose "s sub/ratum :]e9 !y d subsi/1 & f :i* !y d result1 & :i* !re=e we call sub/ance4 ,x is cle> en\gh f ?is1 z x is cle> en\gh f o!r passages 9 ! same book1 t ,locke talk$ z ?\gh ! complex ( simple ideas 9 consci\sness 7 ! v same ?+ 79 ,s5se ,i7 z ! gr\p ( real qualities outside ( consci\sness4 ,& no c>eful read] ( 8 book c avoid see+ t ! confusion ( 8 language is a fair index to ! confusion ( 8 ?\ghts ) reg>d to ! two4#g ,x is little bett] 9 ! case ( bodies & sub/ance4 ,9 ! passage j giv51 he w\ld seem to make sub/ance an obscure some?+ und]ly+ gr\ps ( ideas1 & n gr\ps ( real qualities1 b 9 ! next s5t5ce he makes x a sub/ratum ( ! qualities :i* produce 9 u ideas4 ,9 _m passages#h he di/+ui%es betwe5 sub/ance & sub/ances1 by :i* latt] he means gr\ps ( real qualities ) ! add$ sub/ratum or sub/ance2 z su* sub/ances he in/ances oak1 elephant1 iron4 ,he emphasizes ! fact t sub/ance is n to be conf\nd$ ) sub/ances1 :i* are ?+s ( diff]5t sorts4#i ,9 s f> z ! sub/ances are bundles ( qualities1 !y are kn[n to u ?r\gh s5sation4#aj ,9 s f> z !y are also sub/ance1 !y _c be kn[n to u ?r\gh s5sation1 = ! idea ( sub/ance is n kn[n ?r\gh s5sation4#aa ,we are n !n to look ^u sub/ance z su* a con/itu5t "p ( a sub/ance z a quality is4 ,! two belong to diff]5t classes4 ,& if we (f] pro( = ! exi/5ce ( real sub/ances1 :i* is evid5tly applicable to !m only z bundles ( qualities--pro( f s5sation--!n sub/ance is ov]look$ altoge!r4 ,x is significant t ,locke1 hav+ ?us put toge!r "u "o head z a sub/ance an oak view$ z a bundle ( real qualities & an oak view$ z sub/ratum1 proce$$ to argue z if he _h b "o ?+ to prove :5 he felt call$ ^u to def5d ! real exi/5ce ( sub/ances4 ,9 8 *apt]s on ,! ,ext5t ( ,human ,k1 ! ,reality ( ,k1 & ,our ,k ( ! ,exi/5ce ( ,o!r ,?+s1#ab he devotes himself :olly to prov+ ?+s z bundles ( qualities1 & pays no m att5tion to sub/ance ?an if x _h nev] ent]$ 8 ?\ght4 ,if we take ^! *apt]s z au?oritative1 we mu/ bani% sub/ance f ! sph]e ( k altoge!r4 #g ,essay1 ,bk4 #d1 ,*ap4 #b1 #ad2 ,bk4 #d1 ,*ap4 #d & ,*ap4 #aa4 #h ,ibid41 ,bk4 #b1 ,*ap4 #ab1 #f2 ,bk4 #b1 ,*ap4 #bc1 #a1 ) note 7,phila41 #ahdf1 p4 #ahc1 et seq474 #i ,see note to #a1 ,*ap4 #bc1 ,bk4 #b4 #aj ,bk4 #d1 ,*ap4 #aa1 et passim4 #aa ,i confess !re is ano!r idea1 :i* w\ld be ( g5]al use = mank9d to h1 z x is ( g5]al talk1 z if !y _h x2 & t is ! idea ( sub/ance1 :i* we nei!r h1 nor c h1 by s5sation or reflection4 ,bk4 #a1 ,*ap4 #d1 #ah ( ! ,essay4 #ab ,essay1 ,bk4 #d1 ,*aps4 #c1 #d & #aa4 ,z ano!r in/ance ( a use ( language calculat$ to produce confusion1 ,i may (f] ! foll[+ f ,sir ,william ,hamilton3 ,:atev] we "k is n kn[n z x is1 b only z x seems to u to be1#ac--;a use ( words :i* w\ld c]ta9ly indicate t ! imm$iate & m$iate objects ( k are "o4 ,& :at w\ld we inf] f su* a s5t5ce z ?is3 ,?us ! consci\sness ( an ,inscrutable ,p[] manife/$ to u ?r\gh all ph5om5a1 has be5 gr[+ ev] cle>]2 & mu/ ev5tually be fre$ f its imp]fections4 ,! c]ta9ty t on ! "o h& su* a ,p[] exi/s1 :ile on ! o!r h& its nature transc5ds intuition & is beyond imag9ation1 is ! c]ta9ty t[>ds :i* intellig5ce has f ! fir/ be5 progress+4#ad ,or ?is3 ,we are oblig$ to reg>d e ph5om5on z a manife/ation ( "s ,p[] by :i* we are act$ ^u2 ?\gh ,omnipres5ce is un?9kable1 yet1 z exp]i5ce discloses no b\nds to ! diffusion ( ph5om5a1 we are unable to ?9k ( limits to ! pres5ce ( ?is ,p[]2 :ile ! criticisms ( ,sci5ce tea* u t ?is ,p[] is ,incompreh5sible4 ,& ?is consci\sness ( an ,incompreh5sible ,p[]1 call$ ,omnipres5t f inability to assign its limits1 is j t consci\sness on :i* ,religion dwells4#ae #ac ,lectures on ,metaph41 ,,viii1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahhj1 p4 #ajb4 #ad ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples4 ,"p ,i1 ,*ap4 ,v1 #ca1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahhh1 p4 #ajh4 #ae ,fir/ ,pr9ciples4 ,"p ,i1 ,*ap4 ,v1 #bg4 ,aft] conclud+ t we _c "k ! ultimate nature ( t :i* is manife/$ to u1 !re arise ! que/ions--,:at is x t we "k8 ,9 :at s5se d we "k x8#af ,or :at %all "o say to ?is3 ,our consci\sness ( ! uncondition$ be+ lit]ally ! uncondition$ consci\sness1 or raw mat]ial ( ?\ght1 to :i* 9 ?9k+ we give def9ite =ms1 x foll[s t an ev]-pres5t s5se ( real exi/5ce is ! v basis ( our intellig5ce4#ag #af ,"p ,,ii1 ,*ap4 ,i1 #ce4 #ag ,"p ,i1 ,*ap4 ,,iv1 #bf4 ,n[1 if ! consci\sness ( an inscrutable p[] is n ! inscrutable p[] itself2 if ! exi/5ce ( su* a p[] does n mean simply its exi/5ce 9 consci\sness2 if ! ph5om5a 9 :i*1 x is assum$1 a p[] is manife/$1 are to be kept sep>ate 9 ?\ght f ! p[]1 s t we %all be 9 no dang] ( conf\nd+ a consci\sness ( c]ta9 ph5om5a ) consci\sness ( an incompreh5sible p[]2 if our consci\sness ( ! uncondition$ is to be kept 9 m9d z signify+ m]ely our uncondition$ consci\sness1 & an ev]-pres5t s5se ( real exi/5ce z signify+ only an ev]-pres5t s5se ( raw mat]ial 9 consci\sness2 !n x is high "t t ^! s5t5ces & all su* z ^! be re-writt5 ) "s reg>d = lucidity1 accuracy & consi/5cy4 ,h[ c a read] help conf\nd+ ?+s :5 he is ?us taught by ! v man ^: bus9ess x is to di/+ui% betwe5 !m8 ,! bl9d l$ by ! bl9d is a *e]ful spectacle comp>$ ) ?is4 ,no?+ c be m evid5t ?an t ! man :o has ab&on$ 8 orig9al unreflective belief 9 ! s+l5ess ( ! p]ceiv$ object1 & has come to believe 9 x z hav+ "o or m ext]nal correlates1 %\ld keep di/9ctly 9 m9d t an imm$iate & a m$iate object are1 by hypo!sis1 two di/9ct ?+s3 t he has nev] _h any direct exp]i5ce :atev] save ( ! "o2 & t all di/9ctions t he makes ) reg>d to ! o!r1 ! v notions ( its exi/5ce1 reality1 & ext]nality1 h be5 drawn f ! sph]e ( ! imm$iate & c>ri$ ov] to x 9 ?\ght4 ,& he %\ld nev] all[ himself to =get1 t1 :5 he says he has pass$ 9 ?\ght f ! imm$iate to ! m$iate object1 he _c mean lit]ally t 8 ?\ght is n[ occupi$ directly ^u ?is ext]nal ?+--t x is itself pres5t to m9d4 ,he %\ld rememb] t he c only mean t he has su* an exp]i5ce z ! foll[+3 ,he has 9 m9d ! imm$iate object1 & a m5tal picture ( a duplicate ( ?is /&+ 9 a causal relation to x & repres5t$ by x2 or1 he has 7if a ,lockian71 9 addition to ^! two1 a ?ird highly vague & indef9ite m5tal image 7! idea ( sub/ance71 :i* he connects ) ! image j describ$1 z he has connect$ t ) ! imm$iate object2 or 7if a ,kantian71 he has 9 m9d ! imm$iate object1 &1 connect$ directly ) t1 su* a vague image z has j be5 describ$4 ,?is is :at he actually has 9 m9d s f> z objects are conc]n$4 ,he does n1 h[ev]1 m]ely recognize ! exi/5ce 9 8 m9d ( ^! diff]5t images 9 _! relations to ea* o!r1 b he looks ^u ?is m5tal arrangem5t z someh[ ju/ifi$ by exp]i5ce & embody+ tru?4 ,:5 we ask :at ! ^w ju/ifi$ c mean 9 ?is connection1 x is n easy to f9d an answ]4 ,)9 ! sph]e ( ! imm$iately kn[n ! mean+ ( ! ^w is pla9 en\gh4 ,:5 ,i h con/ruct$ 9 my imag9ation a c]ta9 image or complex ( images embody+ a belief z to matt] ( fact1 ,i say ! m5tal op]ation is ju/ifi$ :5 ,i c sub/itute = ! idea ! p]cept :i* x is suppos$ to repres5t1 or c "k indirectly t ?is might be done accord+ to kn[n laws ( ! appe>ance & disappe>ance ( p]cepts4 ,?us ,i p]ceive ! outside ( a tree-trunk & =m an idea ( :at lies "u ! b>k4 ,i h reason to "k t by /ripp+ (f ! b>k ,i c sub/itute = ! image ,i h =m$ ! correspond+ p]cept4 ,& if ,i see at a di/ance a simil> tree gr[+ ^u an inaccessible cliff1 & =m an image ( :at lies "u its b>k1 ,i may /ill reg>d ?is z ju/ifi$ by ! possibility ( ref]r+ to cases 9 :i* a simil> image1 aris+ out ( a simil> exp]i5ce1 has be5 f\nd to be ju/ifi$4 ,x is a legitimate inf]5ce t1 if circum/ances 7 some:at diff]5t1 ! prop] p]cept might take ! place ( ?is image too4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t ! ^w ju/ifi$ _c be us$ 9 ?is or any analog\s s5se 9 speak+ ( ! relation n ( an image to a p]cept1 b ( an image or a p]cept to a some?+ t1 by hypo!sis1 _c itself ent] into exp]i5ce at all4 ,:at !n c ! ^w mean8 ,x at fir/ int]e/s u to "k t "s ,sn>ks are ,boojums1 b our int]e/ lapses :5 we discov] t we h absolutely no m>k by :i* we may "k a ,boojum f any?+ else4 ,b ,i mu/ n be drawn into digressions4 ,! po9ts ) :i* ,i am conc]n$ are ^!3--,,fir/3 ,:5 a man says he sees ?is tree or t h\se1 he ord9>ily speaks z if !re 7 b ! "o object 9 8 ?\ght4 ,if he di/+ui%es at all betwe5 an imm$iate & a m$iate object1 ! language t he uses w\ld n indicate t he does s4 ,& ev5 aft] m5 h ent]$ into l5g?y argum5ts = ! purpose ( m>k+ ?is di/9ction1 & insi/+ t ?+s are n s+le z !y seem to ! unreflective1 !y /ill indulge 9 ?is peculi> use ( language1 :i* w\ld imply ei!r t !y h =gott5 = ! "t be+ _! own di/9ction betwe5 ! imm$iate & ! m$iate1 or t !y reg>d ! two z ! same 9 ,s5se ,i1 & to be treat$ z "o4 ,c]ta9ly1 9 _! reason+s ^u ?is subject1 m5 :o hold to ! two k9ds ( objects d conf\nd !m ) "o ano!r1 & /r5g!n _! fai? 9 ! two by ?is misconception1 z ,i %all %[ lat]4 ,we h "h1 !n1 :at we may call a k9d ( sam5ess1 or pseudo-sam5ess1 :i* des]ves inve/igation1 & :i* "o %\ld be c>eful n to conf\nd ) sam5ess ( o!r k9ds4 ,:e!r ! ^w same is commonly appli$ 9 ! premises is indiff]5t to my purpose4 ,9 ! rema9d] ( ! pres5t section ,i w consid] ! relation betwe5 ! m5tal repres5tative & its assum$ correlatives4 ,,second3 ,if we are to accept n m]ely ! _w ( objects imm$iately kn[n1 b also a _w or two worlds correspond+ to ?is1 & yet di/9ct f x1 we _c be sure our li/ ( sam5esses is complete unless we trav]se 9 our se>* = ! diff]5t k9ds all ! sph]es ( be+ 9 :i* we believe1 & ( :i* we ?9k we c h "s k4 ,9 ! section foll[+ ?is "o ,i w try to discov] ! k9ds ( sam5ess :i* a believ] 9 ext]nal ?+s may reasonably attribute to !m )9 _! own sph]e4 ,9 ?is !re is no "q ( ! relation ( some?+ 9 "o sph]e to a correlative some?+ 9 ano!r4 ,= ! fir/ po9t4 ,:at is 9 a man's m9d :5 he is ?9k+ ( 8 p]cept z hav+ a real object correspond+ to x1 ,i h %[n to be z foll[s3 ,he has 9 m9d an imm$iate object & a duplicate ( ?is1 n necess>ily altoge!r l x1 imag9$ z /&+ 9 a causal relation to x & repres5t$ by x4 ,:5 x occurs to him t ?is imag9$ duplicate is itself an imm$iate object & n ! real "o1 he does z mu* = x1 & provides x ) a simil> duplicate4 ,9 e case1 :5 he tries to ?9k ( an object imm$iately p]ceiv$ z hav+ a real correlate1 he simply furni%es x ) an imag9>y d\ble 9 ?is way4 ,:at else is he to d8 ,he is try+ to ?9k ( two objects2 ! real object _c1 x is said1 be 9 ! m9d2 he mu/ !n imag9e x4 ,if he is a ,lockian he w h 9 m9d ! imm$iate object & two imag9>y ones1 "o signify+ ! real object z a bundle ( qualities1 & ! o!r1 a highly vague "o1 pictur+ ! sub/ance4 ,n[1 s9ce ?is is all t c be be=e ! man's m9d1 any k9d ( sam5ess :i* conc]ns ! p]cept & ! real ?+ mu/ mean to him "s relation betwe5 ! imm$iate object & ! image or images ( :i* ,i h spok54 ,:5 ?is is realiz$ x is se5 t we h "h n a new k9d ( sam5ess1 a di/9ct exp]i5ce1 b a k9d already discuss$4 ,! relation betwe5 ! imm$iate object & ! images describ$ is simply t betwe5 repres5tative & ?+ repres5t$4 ,?is ,i h already exam9$ )9 ! field ( :at is recogniz$ z imm$iately kn[n4 ,"h1 too1 x w\ld seem t we are 9 ! field ( ! imm$iately kn[n1 s9ce we h to d ) p]cepts & ideas1 b ?\gh ^! images are 9 ?is field1 !y are "h1 s to speak1 "u prote/1 & _! fram+ is suppos$ to be ju/ifi$#ah only by some?+ assum$ to be n 9 ?is field4 ,:5 ?is some?+ is ?\ght ( at all x is ?\ght ( 9 j ! way ,i h describ$4 ,?is is :at ?9k+ x means4 ,nev]!less1 ?is duplicate _w is assum$ to be a _w ap>t1 & = ?is reason ,i h consid]$ ! sam5ess ( p]cepts & _! correspond+ real objects by itself4 ,x gives u sam5ess 9 s5se sev5?4 #ah ,i h already po9t$ out ! vagu5ess 9 ?is ^w4 ,9 writ+ ! =ego+ ,i h _h 9 m9d *iefly ! position ( ! ,lockian4 ,i ne$ n consid] at l5g? t tak5 by ! ,kantian1 = :at ,i h said w1 ) little *ange1 apply to x also4 ,if ,i hold to a n\m5on z correspond+ to my ph5om5on1 & yet d5y to x all qualities :atsoev]1 ,i mu/1 to reta9 any appe>ance ( consi/5cy1 repres5t x 9 my m9d 9 ! v vague/ possible way4 ,nev]!less1 ,i mu/ repres5t x1 or ,i am n ?9k+ ( x at all1 & ,i mu/ relate ! ph5om5on & ?is vague repres5tation 9 ! way describ$4 ,a true consi/5cy w\ld1 ( c\rse1 make impossible ! :ole process1 = x w\ld make impossible ! giv+ ( any quality at all to ! repres5tation1 & ! putt+ any relation betwe5 x & ! ph5om5on4 ,9 s d>k a night cats d n m]ely turn grey1 !y disappe>4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if "o is too lib]al ) ?is n\m5on1 x palpably ceases to be a n\m5on1 & deg5]ates into some?+ v l a ph5om5on4 ,! illusion mu/ n be lo/4 ,bo? ^! conflict+ t5d5cies may be well illu/rat$ 9 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s ,unkn[able4 ,if we really refuse to all[ to ! consci\sness ( x any qualitative or quantitative expression :atev]1#ai our vague image :olly disappe>s & !re is no?+ left 9 our consci\sness b ! ph5om5on4 ,:ile if we foll[ ! ,fir/ ,pr9ciples 9 coax+ x back into exi/5ce by all[+ x reality1#bj & causality1#ba & a fre$om f limits1#bb & pr9t+ its "n ) a capital lett]1#bc z ?\gh x 7 ev5 bett] ?an o!r ?+s--if we d all ?is !re is dang] ( ! convalesc5t's becom+ too robu/ altoge!r4 ,! problem has its p>allel 9 ! practical problem ( pay+ wages3--"o mu/ n pay too little1 or he loses 8 labor]2 nor too mu*1 or he loses 8 money4 ,! ?+ is to f9d ! happy mean :i* w keep an object ( ?\ght be=e a man's m9d & yet n make him lose all appe>ance ( consi/5cy4 #ai ,fir/ ,pr9ciples4 ,"p ,i1 ,*ap4 #d1 #bf4 ,n4 ,y41 #ahhh1 p4 #ia4 #bj ,ibid4 ,*ap4 #d1 #bd2 ,*ap4 #e1 #ca1 #cb1 et passim4 #ba ,ibid4 ,*ap4 #e1 #ca1 et passim4 #bb ,ibid4 ,*ap4 #d1 #bd4 #bc ,ibid4 ,*ap4 #e1 #cb1 et passim4 ,b 9 :i* ev] ( ! ways m5tion$ a man ?9ks ( real ?+s1 he does :at ,i h describ$4 ,& :5 he implies t ! imm$iately kn[n & ! real are 9 "s s5se ! same1 z he does :5 he talks z if !re 7 b ! "o object1 or ass]ts t we d n "k ?+s z !y are 9 !mselves b only z !y appe> to u2 he really uses ! ^w same 9 ! fif? s5se t ,i h giv54 ,! fact t he is us+ x to indicate ! relation betwe5 p]cepts & a c]ta9 class ( ideas :i* he has come to reg>d z duplicates ( 8 p]cepts does n make ! use ( ! ^w a new "o4 ,:atev] may be ! /ate ( affairs outside ( 8 consci\sness1 ?is is all t takes place )9 x2 & ! ^w same1 us$ 9 ?is connection1 c mean no m to him ?an ,i h said4 ,,sec4 #i4 ,to avoid ne$less prolixity ,i w class toge!r & v briefly treat ( ! k9ds ( sam5ess :i* "o may attribute to ext]nal ?+s4 ,x is n necess>y to g at l5g? into ! discussion ( ^!1 = s9ce ! ext]nal _w1 z x is assum$ by ^? :o h fai? 9 x1 is1 to ! man ?9k+ x1 simply a m or less modifi$ duplicate ( ! _w ( ?+s imm$iately p]ceiv$2 & s9ce all gr\nd = attribut+ to x any det]m9ations at all mu/ be f\nd 9 t :i* is imm$iately p]ceiv$2 we may naturally look to f9d 9 x no?+ t we h n already f\nd 9 ?is imm$iate _w4 ,h[1 inde$1 c\ld any?+ else get into x8 ,we _c h 9 m9d :at is by hypo!sis out ( m9d4 ,! real _w is !n1 9 ! m9d ( ! man :o ?9ks x1 a _w ( imag9$ objects1 & ! _w ( imag9ation dep5ds = its mat]ial ^u ! _w ( s5se4 ,a little reflection w %[ t ! k9ds ( sam5ess ( ^! realities are only ! k9ds ( sam5ess already discuss$ duplicat$1 & assum$ to belong to a new _w4 #a4 ,an ext]nal quality or gr\p ( qualities may be said to be ! same ) itself at any "o in/ant4 ,"h we h ,s5se ,i c>ri$ ov] into ! field ( imag9$ duplicates4 #b4 ,an ext]nal quality exi/+ at "o "t may be said to be ! same ) an ext]nal quality exi/+ at ano!r "t1 to indicate t ! two are simil>4 ,! same ?+ may be true ( any gr\p ( qualities4 ,"h we h ,s5se ,,ii4 #c4 ,! ext]nal bundle ( qualities1 :i* =m$ = ,locke ! kn[able elem5t 9 a ?+ or body1 may be reg>d$ z be+ ! same at two diff]5t times--z hav+1 s to speak1 a life-hi/ory4 ,"h "o is simply call+ up 9 ?\ght ! exp]i5ce describ$ "u ,s5se ,,iii4 #d4 ,two ext]nal ?+s 7bundles ( real qualities71 or two ext]nal qualities1 exi/+ at "o "t1 may be call$ ! same to m>k simil>ity4 ,"h we h ,s5se ,,iv4 #e4 ,an ext]nal ?+ 79 ! s5se j indicat$71 or an ext]nal quality1 may be call$ ! same ) its repres5tative4 ,if ?is repres5tative be ! imm$iate object ( k1 we h ! exp]i5ce describ$ z ,s5se ,,vii4 ,if x be ano!r ext]nal ?+ or quality1 e4 g41 an ext]nal picture 9 an ext]nal mirror1 an ext]nal /atue 9 ext]nal m>ble1 etc41 we h ,s5se ,v4 #f4 ,two m5 may be said to p]ceive ! same ext]nal ?+4 ,9 say+ ?is "o simply calls up 9 m9d ! complex describ$ at l5g? "u ,,vi1 b makes ! duplicate1 :i* is1 to him1 ! ?+1 /& 9 ! complex 9 ! place ( ! p]cept1 ?is be+ n[ reg>d$ z a m]e repres5tative4 #g4 ,an ext]nal ?+ may be said to be ! same ) its repres5tative 9 consci\sness or ) ! sub/ance or n\m5on assum$ to und]lie x4 ,"h we h ,s5se ,,vii4 ,x w\ld seem sc>cely necess>y to m5tion ?is la/1 s9ce1 if ! repres5tative 9 consci\sness c be call$ ! same ) its real correlate1 x w\ld seem self-evid5t t ! real correlate may be call$ ! same ) x4 ,i add x1 h[ev]1 = ! sake ( complet5ess4 ,x %\ld be not$ t 9 ?is la/ k9d ( sam5ess we /ep ov] ! limits ( any "o class ( be+1 ideas1 ?+s 7z bundles ( qualities71 or sub/ance4 ,! ^w is us$ to d5ote a relation betwe5 some?+ 9 "o class & a correspond+ ?+ 9 ano!r class4 ,9 ! =ego+ ,i h be5 consid]+ ! sam5ess ( real or ext]nal ?+s reg>d$ z bundles ( qualities4 ,if "o ask conc]n+ ! sam5ess ( ,locke's sub/ance1 or ! n\m5on ( o!r writ]s1 ,i w\ld say t our notions ( ?is mu/ v>y ) ! k9d ( be+ we all[ ?is nebul\s entity4 ,/rict consi/5cy 9 deal+ ) a n\m5on z sometimes def9$ means1 ( c\rse1 its utt] collapse4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we keep any?+ 9 m9d at all1 we mu/ c>ry ov] to x at lea/ ! fir/ ( ! k9ds ( sam5ess describ$4 ,i d n ?9k x w\ld be h>d to %[ t sev]al o!r k9ds are c>ri$ ov] 9 despite ( consi/5cy by m5 :o hold to ?is %ad[y some?+ "u "o "n or ano!r4 ,z1 h[ev]1 we d n f9d "h any new s5se ( ! ^w same1 b m]e repetition 9 a new field 7if "o may call x su*71 x seems unnecess>y to dwell ^u ?is "p ( my subject4 ,i h n discuss$ at all ! sam5ess ( ?+s f ! po9t ( view ( an adh]5t ( t ,natural ,realism :i* claims t we "k imm$iately real ?+s & yet holds t real ?+s are n our p]ceptions !mselves1 b some?+ extra-m5tal4 ,?is view is s incoh]5t t x is n likely to be tak5 s]i\sly by m5 :o h le>n$ to reflect at all4 ,i may say1 h[ev]1 en passant1 t x does n add to ! k9ds ( sam5ess ,i h describ$3 x m]ely conf\nds !m "o ) ano!r1 & falls into ! inconsequ5ces :i* naturally result f s do+4 ,,sec4 #aj4 ,:5 we come to ! "q ( ! sam5ess ( ! ,self or ,ego we are1 if possible1 on m debatable gr\nd ?an h]et(ore4 ,! :ole subject ( our k ( ! ,self lies z yet1 9 ! op9ion ( _m1 v mu* 9 ! d>k4 ,)\t und]tak+ ! task ( def9+ n>r[ly :at ?is elusive some?+ is1 x w\ld seem t ,i may safely make conc]n+ x at lea/ ! foll[+ ass]tions3 ,9 us+ ! ^w self1 we may h ref]5ce ei!r to :at is imm$iately kn[n z appe>+ 9 ! circle ( consci\sness1 ! ph5om5on1 or to a some?+ suppos$ to lie beyond ?is sph]e & to be kn[n only ?r\gh its repres5tative 9 consci\sness4 ,n[ ?is some?+ beyond may be look$ at 9 v>i\s ways4 ,john ,locke1 9 discuss+ ! n-self1 made ! ?ree-fold division ( idea1 bundle ( real qualities1 & sub/ance4 ,he might ) equal reason h di/+ui%$ 9 a simil> way betwe5 ! self z idea 7! imm$iately kn[n71 ! self z a bundle ( real qualities 7n imm$iately kn[n71 & ! self z sub/ance4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 h[ev]1 he did n put ! n-self & ! self ^u ! same plane4 ,he seem$ to ?9k t we "k ! self m imm$iately1 & to hold t x ent]s consci\sness z ! bundle ( real qualities#bd :i*1 9 ! case ( matt]1 is assum$ to lie beyond4 ,! sub/ance ( ! self1 h[ev]1 he condemns to out] d>kness & ! company ( mat]ial sub/ance4 ,to me !re seems no reason1 admitt+ ! "r to pass at all beyond ! imm$iately p]ceiv$1 = mak+ ! di/9ction :i* he does make4 ,& z "o1 :o has foll[$ him ) ass5t 9 8 treatm5t ( ! n-self1 may1 ) "s ju/ice compla9 ( 8 inconsi/5cy & refuse to foll[ him "h1 ,i m5tion ! position he might h tak5 z well z ! position he actually did take ) respect to ! self & its exi/5ces4 #bd ,comp>e ,bk4 #d1 ,*4 #i1 #c ( ! ,essay1 ) ,bk4 #d1 ,*4 #aa1 #a1 #d1 #g1 #h1 & #i4 ,,sec4 #aa4 ,! ^w self may !n be reg>d$ z ref]r+ ei!r3 #a4 ,to ! self z ph5om5on1 a some?+ imm$iately p]ceiv$1 a "p or ! :ole ( our consci\s exp]i5ce2 #b4 ,to a complex ( real qualities beyond & repres5t$ by ! self z x appe>s 9 consci\sness2 #c4 ,to ! sub/ance ( self1 or self z n\m5on1 a vague & ill-def9$ some?+1 suppos$ to be di/9ct f & to und]lie ph5om5a or real qualities2 or #d4 ,to two1 or to all1 ( ^! tak5 toge!r4 ,if ! ^w is us$ 9 ! la/ ( ^! s5ses any inquiry conc]n+ sam5ess mu/ split up its complex mean+ & treat sep>ately ! diff]5t elem5ts includ$4 ,x rema9s1 !n1 to inquire :at k9ds ( sam5ess we may attribute to ! self 9 ! fir/ ?ree s5ses giv54 ,i w take !m 9 rev]se ord]4 ,,sec4 #ab4 ,) respect to ! ?ird s5se1 :i* makes x ref] to ! sub/ance ( ,locke or ! n\m5on ( o!r writ]s3 all ! difficulties :i* arise out ( ! endeavor to attribute sam5ess ( any k9d to any sub/ance or n\m5on obta9 "h also4 ,b x seems on ! surface m gl>+ly inconsi/5t 9 ! adh]5t ( n\m5a to discrim9ate betwe5 diff]5t k9ds z admitt+ ( diff]5ces ( treatm5t ?an x does = him to suppose !m capable ( treatm5t at all4 ,?+s t diff] _c be conceiv$ z diff]+ except 9 qualities1 & "h !re is "q n ( qualities b ( n\m5a4 ,if "o is to reta9 any appe>ance ( consi/5cy1 he mu/ n ma9ta9 t ! ^w same is applicable 9 any giv5 s5se to c]ta9 n\m5a & n to o!rs4 ,if he does s1 he op5ly ab&ons 8 n\m5a to a ph5om5al fate4 ,&1 z a matt] ( fact1 ,i ?9k x is pla9 t ^? believ]s 9 n\m5a1 :o di/+ui% !m f "o ano!r1 yet ?9k ( !m 9 j ! "o way4 ,if we take ! utt]ances ( a good repres5tative ( ! class1 ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 we may see t al?\gh he di/+ui%es betwe5 ! n\m5al ego & ! n\m5al non-ego1 n only d 8 cle>e/ /atem5ts make su* a di/9ction out ( ! "q1 b ! di/9ction drawn is s vague & insignificant#be t ! two n\m5a may be ?\ght ( & reason$ ab\t 9 ! "o way4 ,ph5om5a be+ ab/ract$1 :at 0 9 8 m9d :5 he spoke ( ! "o 0 probably 9 no respect diff]5t f :at 0 9 8 m9d :5 he spoke ( ! o!r4 ,9 s f>1 !n1 z ! n\m5a !mselves are conc]n$1 x w\ld seem t any k9d ( sam5ess :i* we may pr$icate ( ! n\m5al n-self we may pr$icate on ! same gr\nd & ) equal ju/ice ( ! n\m5al self1 & vice v]sa4 ,if1 h[ev]1 any s5se ( ! ^w same m>ks a relation betwe5 a n\m5on & "s o!r ?+ or ?+s1 & if ! two n\m5a diff] z respects ?is relation1 !n ?is k9d ( sam5ess may be attribut$ to ! "o & n to ! o!r4 ,x may be claim$ t we indicate j su* a relation 9 us+ ! ^w same 9 ,s5se ,,vi2 & t1 :atev] "o might d1 "o w\ld "u no circum/ances speak ( two m5 z p]ceiv+ ! same self1 n\m5al or any o!r4 ,i %all discuss ?is po9t :5 ,i come to discuss ! sam5ess ( self z ph5om5on4 #be ,lectures on ,metaphysics1 ,,viii1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahhj1 p4 #ig4 ,i may add "h t :5 "o oblit]ates ! di/9ction betwe5 n\m5a by plung+ !m into ! d>kness ( ! unkn[able1 !re c1 ( c\rse1 be no "q ( a new s5se ( ! ^w same 9 ! field ,i am discuss+4 ,on ! g5]al "q ( n\m5al sam5ess1 all t x seems to me necess>y to say ,i h said be=e4 ,,sec4 #ac4 ,! second s5se ( ! ^w self w\ld make x a complex ( real qualities beyond1 & repres5t$ by1 ! self z x appe>s 9 consci\sness4 ,n[1 ,i d n ?9k t ! fact t "o w\ld attribute to ! self1 s consid]$1 "o class ( qualities1 & to ! n-self ano!r class1 w\ld1 :5 ! two real objects are consid]$ 9 !mselves1 prev5t "o's ascrib+ to ! =m] all ! k9ds ( sam5ess :i* "o may ascribe to ! latt]1 or w\ld ju/ify ! assumption ( a new k9d ( sam5ess prop] only to ! =m]4 ,9 discuss+ ! sam5ess ( ext]nal ?+s ,i h n made any "o k9d ( x dep5d5t ^u ! peculi> quality ( _! qualities1 if ,i may s speak4 ,i consid]$ !m only z gr\ps ( qualities 9 g5]al1 suppos$ to be ext]nal to consci\sness4 ,! idea ( ! real self is 9 its g5]al "* ess5tially simil> to t ( ! real n-self4 ,provid$ t ! two classes ( qualities h en\gh 9 common to be prop]ly call$ qualities1 & to be capable ( be+ relat$ to ea* o!r 9 gr\ps1 !y may diff] 9 k9d toto clo )\t necessitat+ a diff]5ce ( treatm5t f ! po9t ( view ) :i* ,i am at pres5t conc]n$4 ,x is v evid5t1 h[ev]1 t ^? :o h ?\ght ( ! self z a real ?+1 di/9ct f consci\sness1 & yet to be 9 "s way intelligibly repres5t$ 9 ?\ght1 h _h a t5d5cy to repres5t x v mu* z !y h repres5t$ mat]ial objects4 ,!re has be5 a g5]al ef=t to get rid ( ! idea ( ext5sion1 b ?is has be5 %[n r 9 r$uc+ ! size ( ! object & attribut+ to x inconsi/5t space relations ?an 9 d5y+ x su* relations altoge!r4 ,bi%op ,butl]'s argum5t = immortality f ! indisc]ptibility ( ! uncomp\nd$ %[s t he ?\ght ( ! self z he ?\ght ( a mat]ial atom1#bf & ,sir ,william ,hamilton's s*ola/ic notion ( ! ubiquity ( ! s\l 9 ! bodily organism--all 9 ! :ole & all 9 e "p#bg--makes x suffici5tly cle> t he ?\ght ( x s1 too2 ?\gh1 to be sure1 su* ubiquity w\ld make ( x a v que] atom inde$4 ,if1 !n1 ! man1 :o holds to ! self 9 ! second s5se ( ! ^w1 calls up 9 us+ ! ^w a m5tal complex l t :i* repres5ts to him a real n-self1 !re is all ! m reason :y we %\ld n expect to f9d any?+ 9 8 ?\ght :i* w\ld sugge/ a new k9d ( sam5ess )9 ! sph]e ( ! real self4 ,x rema9s1 ( c\rse1 to notice "h1 z 9 ! case ( ! n\m5al self1 t any s5se ( ! ^w same :i* has ref]5ce n s mu* to ! ?+s "u discussion z to ! relations ( ^! ?+s to o!r ?+s1 may1 if self & n-self diff] z to ^! relations1 be applicable to ! "o & n to ! o!r4 ,?us ,s5se ,,vi may be reg>d$ z inapplicable to ! real self4 ,i w discuss ?is po9t m fully 9 a few mom5ts4 ,) ?is "o exception we may1 !re=e1 ,i ?9k1 apply ! k9ds ( sam5ess enum]at$ "u ,sec4 #i z obta9+ 9 ! sph]e ( ext]nal ?+s to ! real self also1 & x w\ld seem t no new k9ds are to be add$4 ,x is unnecess>y to repeat "h ! classification already giv54 #bf ,analogy1 ,"p #a4 ,*ap4 ,i4 #bg ,lectures on ,metaphysics1 ,,xxv41 ,n4 ,y41 #ahhj1 p4 #cef4 ,hamilton's utt]ances conc]n+ reality are incoh]5t1 & inconsi/5t4 ,i d him no inju/ice1 h[ev]1 if ,i give ! above z "o ( 8 views4 ,,sec4 #ad4 ,we come f9ally to ! self z a some?+ imm$iately p]ceiv$1 ! self z ph5om5on or idea4 ,i d n mean to use ^! names 9 a "q-begg+ way1 & ,i w try to exhau/ all reasonable possibilities 9 discuss+ x & its sam5esses4 ,n[1 :atev] ! self is1 x w\ld seem t x mu/ be1 9 s f> z x is a ?+ imm$iately kn[n1 ei!r a "p or ! :ole ( consci\sness1 or "o or ! o!r ( ^! reg>d$ 9 "s peculi> aspect or relation4 ,if x be a "p ( consci\sness1 recogniz$ z di/9ct f ano!r "p1 ! non-ego1 we may reasonably ma9ta93 #a4 ,t ! p]ceiv$ self is at any mom5t :at x is--is ! same ) itself4 ,! "q :e!r x be simple & unanalyzable does n affect ! problem4 ,?is is sam5ess 9 s5se ,i4 #b4 ,t if x be simple & unanalyzable1 ?is simple elem5t ( consci\sness may be ! same at two diff]5t times1 & if complex1 two elem5ts or two complexes ( elem5ts1 belong+ to diff]5t times may be ! same4 ,?is is sam5ess 9 s5se ,,ii4 #c4 ,t if we reg>d ! self z an object hav+ a life-hi/ory1 z consi/+ ( successive elem5ts unit$ 9 a s]ies z s5se elem5ts are unit$ 9 ! s]ies :i* is = u a mat]ial object 7imm$iately kn[n71 we may speak ( its be+ ! same on two successive days1 ev5 ?\gh x exhibit dissimil> qualities1 prim>y ref]5ce be+ _h n to lik5ess ( elem5ts1 b to ! exp]i5ce :i* has be5 describ$ at l5g? 9 discuss+ s5se ,,iii4 #d4 ,t we may speak ( two selves1 ( two elem5ts ( two selves 7if selves be complex71 or ( two elem5ts ( "o self 7if "o self may conta9 two su* elem5ts71 z at any "o "t ! same1 to indicate t !y are simil>4 ,?is is sam5ess 9 s5se ,,iv4 ,x %\ld be kept 9 m9d1 h[ev]1 t we nev] look ^u "o consci\sness z conta9+ two selves z x conta9s "o self1 or z x may conta9 two mat]ial objects 7imm$iately kn[n74 ,! second self 9 m9d is recogniz$ z pres5t only z an imag9$ object4 ,nev]!less x w\ld seem q prop] to use ! ^w same to m>k ?is relation ( simil>ity betwe5 ! p]ceiv$ self & an imag9$ self1 j z we use x to m>k a lik5ess ( two mat]ial objects1 or ( "o mat]ial object & ! memory image ( su* an object4 #e4 ,t we may speak ( ! self & its repres5tative z ! same4 ,! memory image ( a lat] "t may /& = ! self z exp]i5c$ at an e>li]4 ,unless x be claim$ t ye/]day's consci\sness ( self is actually to-day's consci\sness1 "o mu/ admit t ! self rememb]$ is ! self kn[n ?r\gh its proxy4 ,& "o may 9 8 reason+s ab\t ! self use z a symbol ! pron\n ,i1 pay+ little att5tion z he goes along to :at x /&s =1 & yet kn[+ x may s]ve 9 place ( ! obscure some?+ x repres5ts4 ,^! are in/ances ( sam5ess 9 s5se ,v4 #f4 ,t we nev] use ! ^w same 9 s5se ,,vi 9 speak+ ( ! self z we d 9 speak+ ( ! n-self4 ,we d n say two m5 p]ceive ! same self z we say !y p]ceive ! same tree or h\se4 ,! famili> di/9ction betwe5 ! subjective & ! objective m>ks out ! latt] z 9 a s5se1 peculi> to itself1 common & imp]sonal4 ,i h already %[n :at we h 9 m9d :5 we say two m5 see ! same mat]ial ?+4 ,we h a picture ( ! ?+1 & ( ! bodies ( ! two m5 9 a c]ta9 relation to x2 & we imag9e a copy ( ! ?+ z 9 "s way connect$ ) ea* ( ^! bodies1 & due to its relation to ! ?+4 ,:5 relations to a mat]ial object are 9 "q all ! bodies 9 a consci\sness are on a p>4 ,we may directly p]ceive ! "o ?+ & two or m bodies hold+ simil> relations to x4 ,b x is n s 9 ! case ( selves4 ,! "o self t we f9d 9 ea* consci\sness seems to be peculi>ly relat$ to "o body to ! exclusion ( o!rs4 ,& z we h n1 9 ! case ( ?is self1 ! conditions :i* l$ u to m>k ! simil> relations ( two human bodies 7our repres5tatives ( ! m57 to "o mat]ial object1 by say+ two m5 see ! same ?+1 we1 ( c\rse1 d n say t two m5 see ! same self4 ,! ^w same1 9 s5se ,,vi1 we may reg>d1 !n1 z inapplicable to ! self z imm$iately kn[n4#bh ,?is appe>s to be due1 h[ev]1 n to ! nature ( ?is self 9 itself consid]$1 b to its peculi> relation to ! o!r ?+s 9 a consci\sness4 #bh ,ow+ to ! ambiguity already po9t$ out z exi/+ 9 t]ms :i* /& = our objects ( k & our k ( ^! objects1 x w\ld seem almo/ impossible to avoid misconception )\t un5durable reit]ation4 ,9 ! above p>agraph1 by ! words body1 object1 self1 etc41 ,i always ref] to ?+s imm$iately kn[n4 ,moreov]1 s9ce ! o!r two selves1 ! self z gr\p ( real qualities & ! self z n\m5on1 are to u1 z x 71 %ad[s ca/ by ! self imm$iately kn[n--assum$ to exi/ only because ?is is kn[n to exi/1 & ?\ght ( z pres5t only because ?is is kn[n to be pres5t--s9ce1 ,i say1 ^! two selves hold 9 our ?\ght ?is peculi> relation ( dep5d5ce ^u ! self 9 consci\sness1 x is to be expect$ t we nev] f9d any "o speak+ ( two m5 z see+ ! same real self z "o might readily speak ( two m5 z see+ ! same real tree4 ,"o says he has evid5ce t two m5 see ! same real tree1 :5 he has or c h 9 consci\sness an imm$iately p]ceiv$ tree & two imm$iately p]ceiv$ human bodies 9 a c]ta9 relation to x4 ,if no "o _h ev] _h ?is exp]i5ce 9 ! sph]e ( ! imm$iately kn[n1 we h no reason to ?9k any "o w\ld ev] h ?\ght ( apply+ ! phrase 9 "q to a tree m$iately kn[n4 ,& z we d n h a simil> exp]i5ce t\*+ ! self 9 consci\sness1 x is only natural to f9d t no "o applies ! phrase to any self out ( consci\sness4 ,:5 ?+s diff] _! %ad[s ought to diff] too4 ,sam5ess 9 s5se ,,vi we may reg>d1 !n1 z n attributable to self 9 any ( ! ?ree s5ses ( ! ^w4 #g4 ,t1 f9ally1 !re seems no m reason :y "o %\ld n call ! self z imm$iately kn[n ! same ) ! self z ext]nal ?+1 or ) ! self z n\m5on1 ?an ! n-self z simil>ly p]ceiv$ ! same ) ! n-self z simil>ly inf]r$4 ,! suppos$ relation%ips are 9 ! two cases exactly alike4 ,"h we h sam5ess 9 s5se ,,vii4 ,,sec4 #ae4 ,if we claim t by ! self z imm$iately kn[n we und]/& n a "p b ! :ole ( consci\sness1 we %\ld seem1 unless we 9 "s way modify our /atem5t1 to oblit]ate ! di/9ction betwe5 self & n-self4 ,/ill1 tak+ ! words simply1 & assum+ t we mean by self all t is imm$iately kn[n1 we d n f9d t ?is w necessitate any important diff]5ce 9 ! discussion ( its sam5esses4 ,consci\sness z a :ole is c]ta9ly :at x is1 or ! same ) itself1 at any in/ant3 two elem5ts 9 x belong+ to diff]5t times1 or two complexes ( elem5ts belong+ to diff]5t times may be ! same1 z be+ alike2 x may be reg>d$ z hav+ a life hi/ory1 & may f ?is po9t ( view be call$ ! same at diff]5t times )\t reg>d to simil>ity2 two simultane\s elem5ts or complexes ( elem5ts 9 x may be call$ ! same to m>k ! fact t !y resemble ea* o!r1 or x1 z a :ole1 may = ! same reason be call$ ! same ) ano!r consci\sness 7imag9$72 x & its repres5tative 7= example1 ! memory-image ( its =m] self71 may be call$ ! same2 & we may use ! ^w same to indicate its relation to its suppos$ real correlate 9 an extra-consci\sness _w1 :e!r we make ?is ?+ or n\m5on4 ,x w be obs]v$ t 9 ! prec$+ ,i h all[$ ! self1 consid]$ z ! :ole ( consci\sness1 all ! k9ds ( sam5ess ^u my li/ except ! six?4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no objection1 except t aris+ f oddity ( expression1 aga9/ all[+ x ?is k9d ( sam5ess too4 ,if we really mean by ! self ! :ole ( consci\sness1 !n ev]y?+ imm$iately p]ceiv$ is a "p ( ! self4 ,if !n1 x is prop] to say two m5 see ! same tree1 "o may g on to say1 if "o *oses1 t two m5 see a "p ( ! "o self4 ,su* an expression c\ld1 ( c\rse1 be us$ only 9 speak+ ( ! objective "p ( ?is self1 ! "p :i* ^? :o di/+ui% betwe5 ego & non-ego call ! n-self4 ,x is ne$less to say t no "o ev] ?9ks ( talk+ 9 ?is way4 ,i m]ely m5tion ! po9t = ! sake ( complet5ess 9 my analysis4 ,,sec4 #af4 ,if by ! self we d n und]/& a "p or ! :ole ( consci\sness tak5 simply1 b ! "o or ! o!r ( ^! reg>d$ f "s peculi> po9t ( view1 does x affect ! "q ( ! k9ds ( sam5ess we may attribute to x8 ,x may be ass]t$1 = example1 t :5 we are ?9k+ ( ! _w ( ?+s imm$iately p]ceiv$ z condition$ by its relation to a p>ticul> organism 7also imm$iately p]ceiv$7--z duplicat$ by a pressure on ! eyes1 z annihilat$ by a bl[ on ! head--we make ^! ?+s m5tal1 & prop]ly include !m "u ! head ( self2 :]eas1 :5 we ab/ract ^! same ?+s 9 ?\ght f ! organism1 &1 s to speak1 objectify !m1 we prop]ly include !m "u ! head ( n-self4 ,we are ?us to reg>d ! "o ?+ z an elem5t ( ! self or ( ! n-self1 accord+ to ! light 9 :i* x is view$4 ,b x does n seem to me t if we take ! ^w self 9 ! s5se j describ$1 or 9 any analog\s s5se1 we ne$ alt] ! li/ ( sam5esses already giv54 ,we are /ill consid]+ a "p or ! :ole ( consci\sness1 & ! fact t we are view+ x 9 "o light r ?an ano!r w\ld n app>5tly influ5ce 9 any way its k9ds ( sam5ess4 ,,sec4 #ag4 ,?is w\ld c]ta9ly appe> to be ! case if we take ! words "p & :ole ( consci\sness 9 _! common acceptation1 z d5ot+ a portion or ! totality ( m5tal elem5ts 7s5sations1 feel+s1 volitions1 ideas71 9 _! v>i\s relations to ea* o!r4 ,x rema9s1 h[ev]1 to consid] a position1 :i*1 x may be claim$1 is n cov]$ by ! =ego+ classification ( possible positions1 :5 ! words "p & :ole are ?us und]/ood4 ,suppose t "o di/+ui%es 9 ! ,kantian fa%ion betwe5 ! =m & ! matt] ( :at appe>s 9 consci\sness1 & ma9ta9s t ! =mal elem5t1 ! arrangem5t1 or unity ( consci\sness is to be attribut$ to m9d1 or1 if y please1 is m9d1 & = m9d ,i may "h write self1 :ile ! matt] or cont5t1 ! raw mat]ial to be elaborat$ & relat$1 is to be di/+ui%$ f ?is z a ?+ ap>t4 ,c x be %[n t ! above giv5 k9ds ( sam5ess h significance 9 reg>d to ! self s und]/ood8 ,:e!r we call ?is a "p ( consci\sness or n w dep5d on our use ( t]ms4 ,x is n a "p1 z commonly und]/ood1 nor is x ! :ole ( consci\sness4 ,n[1 x has seem$ to me t ^? :o h laid mo/ emphasis ^u ?is =mal elem5t 9 consci\sness h be5 v vague 9 _! treatm5t ( x4 ,on ! "p ( _m writ]s !re is little evid5ce ( ev5 an attempt at sci5tific exactitude4 ,& yet x does n appe> t ! subject admits ( treatm5t only 9 ?is loose & unsatisfactory way4 ,if we c discuss x at all1 !re seems no reason :y1 ) increas+ k1 we may n expect to discuss x ) accuracy & precision4 ,if we consid] ?is =mal elem5t ( consci\sness 9 a concrete in/ance1 x may help u to classify our ideas conc]n+ x4 ,let u imag9e ?ree po9ts 9 su* relations to ea* o!r t :5 ea* is connect$ ) ! o!r two by /raight l9es we h an equilat]al triangle4 ,! ?ree po9ts are1 ( c\rse1 :at !y are at any in/ant4 ,& :atev] a relation may be1 if ! mutual relations ( ^! ?ree po9ts are capable ( be+ consid]$ ap>t f ! po9ts1 z a di/9ct elem5t 9 consci\sness1 !re appe>s no reason :y we %\ld n ass]t ) equal ju/ice t ^! relations are :at !y are at any in/ant4 ,:5 we take note ( ! po9ts we take note ( ! relations1 & we d n conf\nd ! "o ) ! o!r4 ,& j z ,i may say t su* a set ( ?ree po9ts imag9$ or obs]v$ n[ is ! same ) ano!r & a simil> set imag9$ or obs]v$ at "s =m] "t1 mean+ by ! ^w same to indicate simil>ity1 & n sam5ess 9 ! /rict s5se m5tion$ j above2 s !re appe>s no reason at all :y ,i may n say t ! mutual relations ( ! "o set ( po9ts are ! same ) ! mutual relations ( ! o!r1 mak+ "h1 too1 ! di/9ction betwe5 sam5ess 9 ! =m]1 /rict]1 s5se1 & sam5ess 9 ?is second s5se ( simil>ity4 ,if :at is conta9$ 9 a consci\sness at any "o in/ant1 is1 ipso facto1 to be di/+ui%$ f :at is conta9$ 9 x at any o!r in/ant1 !re seems equal reason = mak+ ?is di/9ction 9 ! mat]ial elem5t & 9 ! =mal4 ,x is q true t m5 are n accu/om$ to c>ry+ ?is di/9ction into ! region ( =m4 ,! :ole hi/ory ( ! dispute z to univ]sals is evid5ce ( ! way 9 :i* m5 h conf\nd$ ! k9ds ( sam5ess2 b ,i fancy t ev5 ^? :o w\ld cle>ly recognize t r$ color imag9$ ye/]day & r$ color imag9$ to-day are ! same m]ely 9 be+ simil>1 or 9 /&+ 9 a relation ( orig9al & repres5tative1 w\ld yet n ?9k ( di/+ui%+ triangul>ity notic$ ye/]day f triangul>ity notic$ to-day1 & m>k+ t !y are n ! same 9 ! fir/ & /ricte/ s5se ( ! ^w4 ,& yet x w\ld be h>d to %[ :y two indi/+ui%ably simil> color s5sations1 exi/+ 9 consci\sness at diff]5t times1 are to be kept ap>t 9 ?\ght & recogniz$ z two s5sations1 :ile two occurr5ces ( ! consci\sness ( triangul>ity 7,i use ! clumsy phrase to avoid any "q-begg+ ^w71 are n to be di/+ui%$ z sep>ate 9 a simil> way4 ,to say t ! =mal elem5t is n a ?+1 b an activity1 does n alt] ! position4 ,if an activity is en\gh ( a ?+ to be talk$ ab\t & di/+ui%$ f o!r ?+s1 we may surely recognize an activity 9 consci\sness ye/]day z num]ically diff]5t f an activity 9 consci\sness to-day4 ,fur!rmore1 if1 in/ead ( tak+ z simple an in/ance ( =m z ! relations ( ! ?ree po9ts ,i h be5 discuss+1 ,i *oose to take ! sum total ( ! relations betwe5 ! mat]ial elem5ts 7"h ,i use mat]ial z correlative to =mal71 :i* g to make up ! life hi/ory ( a mat]ial object1 say a tree1 :y may ,i n speak ( ! =mal tree z be+ ! same at two times1 mean+ !reby t ! gr\p ( relations co-exi/5t at any "o "t may be reg>d$ z repres5tative ( any o!r gr\p belong+ to ! "o s]ies or ( ! :ole s]ies8 ,to be sure1 ,i am n ju/ifi$ by common usage 9 ?us speak+1 s9ce common usage m>ks only di/9ctions :i* are practically important1 & by ! words ! same tree includes bo? =m & matt]4 ,nev]!less1 ,i c see no reason :y1 if ?is elem5t ( =m does admit ( be+ consid]$ ap>t1 x is n at lea/ possible to f9d 9 ?is field ! k9d ( sam5ess we h 9 m9d :5 we say t we h se5 on two successive days ! same tree4 ,aga91 if ,i c speak ( two simultane\s s5sations ( r$ness 9 "o consci\sness 7e4 g41 ! two halves ( a r$ surface71 z ! same1 mean+ to indicate simply simil>ity1 :y may ,i n also speak ( two simultane\s exp]i5ces ( triangul>ity 9 "o consci\sness z ! same1 & keep cle>ly 9 m9d "h1 too1 t ,i mean only to indicate simil>ity8 ,if ,i c speak ( a s5sation or a complex ( s5sations 9 "o consci\sness z ! same ) a simil> s5sation or gr\p ( s5sations 9 ano!r1 & yet n =get t ,i am deal+ ) two ?+s1 :y may ,i n d z mu* = two simil> relations or gr\ps ( relations 9 two consci\snesses8 ,if 9 ! "o case ,i d n conf\nd sam5ess 9 ! s5se ( simil>ity ) sam5ess ( ! k9d we mean :5 we say ea* ?+ is at ea* in/ant ! same ) itself1 :y %\ld ,i d s 9 ! o!r case8 ,if1 ,i repeat1 ! =mal elem5t 9 consci\sness is en\gh ( a ?+ to be di/+ui%$ f ! mat]ial elem5t & discuss$1 !re appe>s no reason :y x %\ld n be op5 to di/9ctions ( ?is k9d4 ,& :5 ,i call up 9 memory a triangle once se51 ! memory image w\ld seem to /& z a repres5tative ( ! orig9al 9 bo? its elem5ts1 =m & matt]4 ,9 nei!r %\ld ! repres5tative be conf\nd$ ) ! orig9al4 ,if we may use ! ^w same to indicate ?is peculi> relation ( repres5tation betwe5 two ?+s yet recogniz$ z two1 x w\ld seem only j to all[ ?is di/9ction z mu* 9 ! case ( triangul>ity z 9 ! case ( r$ness or blu5ess4 ,z to ! six? k9d ( sam5ess4 ,may we grant ?is to ! self1 if by self we mean ! =mal elem5t ( consci\sness8 ,i h said a little way back1 be=e tak+ up ! di/9ction ( =mal & mat]ial1 t1 if we make ! ^w self cov] all ! imm$iately kn[n1 !re is no?+ to prev5t "o's say+ t two m5 see a "p ( ! same self1 = mat]ial objects 7imm$iately kn[n7 w\ld h to be reg>d$ z su* p>ts4 ,& "h x is evid5t t if we make self to cov] ! :ole ( ! =mal elem5t 9 a consci\sness1 x ( c\rse includes ! =mal elem5t 9 :at we may call ! objective side ( consci\sness--! side :i* is1 9 "s s5se ( ! words1 common & imp]sonal4 ,n[1 we d say t two m5 see ! same tree1 & by tree1 ! man :o di/+ui%es betwe5 =m & matt] means a c]ta9 complex conta9+ bo? =mal & mat]ial elem5ts4 ,^! elem5ts he believes he c di/+ui% f "o ano!r1 & pay att5tion pr$om9antly n[ to ! "o1 & n[ to ! o!r4 ,does x n seem to foll[ t a man may z truly be said to see ! =mal elem5t z ! mat]ial1 & t two m5 :o see ! same tree may ) ju/ice be said to see ! same %ape or arrangem5t ( p>ts8 ,9 o!r words1 may we n apply ! six? s5se ( ! ^w same to ! =mal elem5t 9 consci\sness if ?is elem5t is a ?+ capable ( treatm5t at all8 ,& if ?is =mal elem5t 9 a tree se5 by two m5 is a "p ( ! self1 :y may we n say t two m5 see a "p ( ! same self1 ev5 ?\gh we make self m]e =m8 ,x w\ld s\nd v odd to say s1 ( c\rse1 b t %\ld n weigh ) a philosoph]1 if consi/5cy require x4 ,f9ally1 if ,i may call an imm$iately p]ceiv$ object ! same ) its suppos$ ext]nal correlate1 n conf\nd+ ! two1 b m]ely m>k+ by ! ^w a peculi> in/ance ( ! repres5tative relation1 :y may ,i n1 if ,i believe t ext]nal ?+s /& 9 real relations to ea* o!r truly repres5t$ by our p]ceptions ( ?+s & _! relations--:y1 9 ?is case1 may ,i n speak ( ! relations1 ext]nal & int]nal1 z ! same1 )\t on t acc\nt =gett+ t ,i am po9t+ out a relation betwe5 two ?+s 7if ,i may ?us speak ( relations71 num]ically diff]5t8 ,are !y n z diff]5t z ! matt] ( consci\sness & its correlate 9 ! out] _w8 ,,sec4 #ah4 ,9 ! =ego+ ,i h endeavor$ to make my li/ ( ! k9ds ( sam5ess complete4 ,i c ?9k ( no?+ t has be5 ov]look$2 b z ,i h be5 try+ to =ce a pa? ?r\gh a ?icket few h made any su/a9$ ef=t to p5etrate1 x is q possible my map ( ! gr\nd may ne$ em5dation4 ,i %all be v glad ( any criticism :i* w help me to improve x4 ,& z ! _m divisions made1 & ! _m di/9ctions drawn1 may v possibly t5d to produce 9 "o :o has foll[$ ! discussion ?us f>1 a /ate ( m9d ak9 to t ( ! true-begott5 ,gobbo1 :5 he 0 oblig+ly direct$ to ! ,jew's h\se by 8 hopeful son1 a %ort summ>y ( ! results obta9$ may s]ve to facilitate appreh5sion & intellig5t criticism4 ,:at has be5 done is ?is3 ,i began by consid]+ ! k9ds ( sam5ess ( ?+s imm$iately kn[n1 leav+ out ( consid]ation = ! "t be+ ! sam5ess ( ! self or ego4 ,?is result$ 9 ! foll[+ k9ds3 ,i4 ,any m5tal elem5t or complex ( m5tal elem5ts may be said to be ! same ) itself at any in/ant4 ,,ii4 ,any m5tal elem5t or complex ( m5tal elem5ts 9 exi/5ce at "o "t may be call$ ! same ) a m5tal elem5t or complex ( m5tal elem5ts exi/+ at ano!r "t1 to indicate t ! two are simil>4 ,,iii4 ,we may say t we p]ceive ! same object 7complex ( m5tal elem5ts7 at two diff]5t times1 :5 we d n mean t :at is actually exp]i5c$ on ! two occasions is ! same 9 ei!r ( ! prec$+ s5ses2 b only t ! two exp]i5ces are t]ms 9 a c]ta9 s]ies1 ! :ole ( :i* may be reg>d$ z repres5t$ by any "p4 ,9 ?is s5se does "o see ! same tree on two succe$+ days4 ,,iv4 ,any two m5tal elem5ts or complexes ( m5tal elem5ts 9 consci\sness at ! "o "t may be call$ ! same to m>k ! fact t !y are alike4 ,v4 ,any m5tal elem5t or complex ( m5tal elem5ts may be call$ ! same ) its repres5tative1 :e!r ?is repres5tative resemble x or n4 ,,vi4 ,:5 a man has le>n$ f exp]i5ce ( 8 own body 7z a ?+ imm$iately kn[n7 t a consci\sness ( 8 body 9 a c]ta9 peculi> relation to a giv5 object 7complex ( m5tal elem5ts7 is a presupposition to a consci\sness ( ! object1 & wi%es to m>k ! fact t he is p]ceiv+ or imag9+ two human bodies 9 ?is relation to a s+le object1 & connect+ 9 ?\ght ) ea* ( !m a picture ( ! object1 he may say t he is p]ceiv+ or imag9+ two m5 see+ ! same object4 ,?is s5se ( ! ^w same obvi\sly expresses q a complex ?\ght4 ,,vii4 ,9 addition to ^! k9ds ( sam5ess f\nd )9 ! sph]e ( ! imm$iately kn[n1 we obta9 "o k9d by /epp+ beyond x1 :i*1 s9ce we /ep beyond x1 s to speak1 ) only "o foot1 may be "h m5tion$ z belong+ at lea/ p>tially to ! _w ( imm$iate objects4 ,:5 we h come to believe t ?+s 9 consci\sness h _! correlates 9 a _w outside ( consci\sness1 we may speak ( ! ?+s 9 consci\sness z ! same ) _! ext]nal correlates2 or1 at any rate1 we may talk ( !m z if !y 7 ! same 9 "s s5se ( ! ^w :i* w all[ u to include ! two 7or ?ree7 di/9ct ?+s "u "o "n1 & treat !m z "o4 ,?is is con/antly done4 ,! importance ( rememb]+ t we h really m ?an "o ?+ to consid]1 x w\ld seem sc>cely necess>y to emphasize4 ,h[ f> ?is is really a new k9d ( sam5ess ,i discuss$ at "s l5g?4 ,aft] hav+ m>k$ ^! sev5 k9ds ( sam5ess z hav+ to d ) ! imm$iately kn[n1 ,i proce$$ to consid] ! k9ds ( sam5ess :i* may obta9 9 a _w or worlds beyond consci\sness4 ,x 0 po9t$ out t "o may look ^u ! ext]nal 9 ?ree ways4 ,"o may believe 9 ext]nal ?+s z m]ely bundles ( real qualities1 & may /op !re3 or "o may believe 9 su* bundles ( real qualities1 & 9 addition hold to sub/ance or sub/ratum z an obscure some?+ impli$ by ^! real qualities3 or1 la/ly1 "o may hold t ! only correlate ( ! ?+ 9 consci\sness is n\m5on1 a ?+ n di/+ui%able f ! sub/ance above m5tion$4 ,x 0 !n %[n t a realm ( ext]nal ?+s1 consi/+ ( bundles ( real qualities 9 a _w beyond consci\sness1 w\ld1 s9ce x is to ! man ?9k+ x m]ely a duplicate ( ! imm$iate _w1 admit ( ! exi/5ce ( all ! k9ds ( sam5ess above enum]at$1 & w\ld n furni% any "o k9d :i* might increase ! li/4 ,& ) respect to ! ext]nal z n\m5on1 x 0 /at$ t if ! n\m5al be repres5t$ to ! m9d at all1 at lea/ ! fir/ k9d ( sam5ess mu/ be attribut$ to x1 & t o!r k9ds w be1 9 proportion to ! degree ( cle>ness all[$ ?is vague & inconsi/5t entity4 ,no new k9d ( sam5ess ne$1 h[ev]1 be look$ = 9 ?is field4 ,if "o hold to ! ext]nal 9 bo? k9ds1 he mu/1 ( c\rse1 se>* ?ree di/9ct realms ( be+ be=e he c be sure t he has n ov]look$ any legitimate s5se ( ! ^w same4 ,z a result ( ! =ego+ analysis we may ma9ta9 t1 :atev] be 8 belief z to ideas1 ?+s1 & n\m5a1 8 se>* w n result 9 m ?an ! sev5 k9ds ( sam5ess ,i h giv54 ,9 ! assum$ new fields we f9d m]e repetition4 ,! pure ,ideali/ w\ld r$uce ! li/ to six by dropp+ (f ! sev5? k9d altoge!r4 ,next1 z to ! sam5ess ( ! ,self or ,ego4 ,x 0 po9t$ out t "o may take ! ^w self to mean3 7#a7 ! self 9 consci\sness1 or z ph5om5on2 7#b7 ! self z bundle ( real qualities out ( consci\sness2 7#c7 ! self z sub/ance or n\m5on2 7#d7 two ( ^!1 or all ( ^!1 tak5 toge!r4 ,x 0 said t z ! f\r? s5se is suffici5tly discuss$ 9 exam9+ ! fir/ ?ree1 x w\ld n be sep>ately consid]$4 ,! ?ree rema9+ s5ses 7 !n tak5 up 9 rev]se ord]4 ,! ?ird & ! ,second 7 f\nd to furni% no new k9d ( sam5ess1 & to be on a p> ) ! correspond+ s5ses ( ! ^w n-self1 except z t\*+ ! six? k9d ( sam5ess4 ,z respects ?is1 x 0 admitt$ t no "o w\ld speak ( two m5 z p]ceiv+ ! same self1 :e!r z bundle ( real qualities or z n\m5on4 ,x 0 rem>k$1 h[ev]1 t ?is is due n to a diff]5ce 9 ! self & n-self 9 !mselves consid]$1 b to a diff]5ce 9 _! relation to o!r ?+s 9 a consci\sness4 ,! self 9 consci\sness1 or z imm$iately kn[n1 0 !n discuss$4 ,x 0 /at$ t we may safely assume ?is to be ei!r a "p or ! :ole ( consci\sness1 or ! "o or ! o!r ( ^! 9 "s peculi> aspect or relation4 ,self1 view$ z a "p ( consci\sness1 0 f\nd to furni% no new k9d ( sam5ess1 & 0 f\nd to admit ( all ! k9ds discov]$ except ! six?2 ?is "o be+ inadmissible f ! fact t :5 we make ! self a "p ( consci\sness we always make x ! subjective "p & n ! objective4 ,self1 view$ z ! :ole ( consci\sness1 0 likewise f\nd to furni% no new k9d ( sam5ess1 & x 0 f\nd to admit ( all ! sev5 k9ds discov]$--ev5 ( ! six?1 ?\gh 9 a modifi$ way1 s9ce ?is k9d c belong only to a "p ( ! self1 ! objective "p1 :i* is 9 "s s5se common & imp]sonal4 ,x may1 to be sure1 be object$ t x w\ld be contr>y to common usage to speak ( two m5 z see+ ! same self 9 any s5se ( t ^w2 b 9 mak+ ! self ! :ole ( consci\sness "o has already ab&on$ ! common /&po9t1 & "o may z well be consi/5t 9 c>ry+ out ! consequ5ces4 ,assum+ ! self to be n a "p or ! :ole ( consci\sness simply1 b reg>d$ 9 "s peculi> aspect or relation1 0 n f\nd to be significant z conc]ns k9ds ( sam5ess4 ,x /ill rema9$ to consid] a possible position2 t ( ! man :o di/+ui%es betwe5 ! =mal & ! mat]ial elem5t 9 consci\sness1 & id5tifies self or m9d ) ! =m]4 ,! =mal elem5t ( consci\sness is n a "p ( consci\sness z ! ^w "p is commonly us$1 nor is x ! :ole ( consci\sness1 9 ! ord9>y acceptation ( ! ^w :ole4 ,& ?\gh ?is view might v well h be5 br\ght "u a =m] head by /ret*+ a little ! mean+ ( ! ^w "p1 yet su* is its importance t ,i *ose r to omit x :5 discuss+ self z a "p ( consci\sness 7!re us+ ! ^w "p 9 a limit$ s5se71 & to take x up lat] by itself4 ,x 0 insi/$ t if ! =mal elem5t 9 consci\sness is en\gh ( a ?+ to be di/+ui%$ f some?+ else1 & to be discuss$1 x is en\gh ( a ?+ to admit ( di/9ctions & diff]5ces mu* z o!r ?+s d4 ,aft] exam9ation x appe>$1 z a matt] ( fact1 t !re is no reason :y ! believ] 9 =m %\ld n attribute to x all ( ! sev5 k9ds ( sam5ess be=e describ$--ev5 79 ! modifi$ way describ$ a mom5t ago7 ! six? k9d4 ,& x also appe>$ t no new k9d ( sam5ess is discov]able 9 ?is field4 ,) ?is clos$ ! se>* = sam5esses4 ,x w be obs]v$ t we h pass$ 9 review ! self & ! n-self z imm$iately kn[n1 ! self & ! n-self z bundles ( real qualities out ( consci\sness1 & ! self & ! n-self z n\m5on or sub/ance4 ,i "k ( no o!r field 9 :i* ! se>* may be prosecut$1 unless su* be inv5t$ gratuit\sly by increas+ ! lay]s ( be+ 9 a way no "o seems incl9$ to increase !m4 ,& 9 view ( ! fact t ! sam5esses f\nd 9 any lay] bel[ ! fir/ seem to be only repetitions ( :at we f9d 9 t "o1 we c\ld h no reason to hope t any su* ne$less increase 9 /rata c\ld add a s+le new k9d ( sam5ess to ^? describ$4 ,,sec4 #ai4 ,n[ t we h obta9$ a li/ ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( sam5ess1 we may pass our eye ov] x ) a view to discov]+ :at ! v>i\s k9ds h 9 common1 & :at is ! reason t we express su* div]se exp]i5ces by ! use ( ! "o ^w4 ,su* an exam9ation reveals ! fact t ! common notion :i* unites !m is ! idea ( simil>ity4 ,9 "s cases ?is notion lies m 9 ! =egr\nd ?an 9 o!rs1 b 9 all cases x is pres5t1 & =ms ! bond ( union4 ,i w run ?r\gh ! li/ & po9t ?is out1 beg9n+1 h[ev]1 ) ! second k9d1 & res]v+ ! fir/ = discussion aft] ! o!rs4 ,,ii4 ,a m]e m5tion ( ! second k9d ( sam5ess is1 9 ?is connection1 suffici5t4 ,two m5tal exp]i5ces are !re av[$ly call$ ! same to m>k simil>ity4 ,,iii4 ,:5 we speak ( ! same object z p]ceiv$ on two occasions1 we d n1 z has be5 notic$1 mean t :at is actually 9 ! s5se at ! two diff]5t times is simil>4 ,nev]!less1 we f9d "h1 too1 ! notion ( simil>ity1 = ! two exp]i5ces are n consid]$ m]ely 9 !mselves1 b z elem5ts 9 a gr\p or s]ies1 & z ea* repres5t+ ! :ole s]ies4 ,:51 !re=e1 we h ! two exp]i5ces1 we reg>d ourselves z hav+ 9 !m two exp]i5ces ( ! "o s]ies2 :i* means1 to be m explicit1 t we h 9 m9d on ! two occasions two complexes :i* are simil>1 & :i*1 :5 ?\ght ( toge!r1 are relat$ to ea* o!r z ! memory image & its orig9al are relat$4 ,"h ! lik5ess lies 9 :at is repres5t$1 n 9 ! repres5tatives4 ,,iv4 ,z 9 ! second k9d ( sam5ess1 s 9 ! f\r?1 ! ref]5ce to simil>ity is unmi/akable4 ,we call qualities or ?+s ! same :5 !y are ( ! "o k9d1 :5 !y are obs]v$ to resemble ea* o!r4 ,v4 ,! relation ( repres5tative & ?+ repres5t$ evid5tly implies ! notion ( simil>ity4 ,x is q true t we (t5 recognize z 9 ?is relation ?+s t we d n ?9k ( z be+ simil> at all1 & yet a little reflection w %[ t "o ?+ c /& = ano!r only 9 s f> z x resembles x4 ,! resemblance may lie 9 ! qualities ( ! ?+s 9 !mselves consid]$1 or x may lie 9 ext]nal relations ( :i* ! ?+s are capable1 or functions :i* !y may s]ve4 ,! v notion ( a proxy is a some?+ :i*1 = ! purpose 9 h&1 may be reg>d$ z capable ( assum+ ! functions ( ano!r4 ,9 s f> z x c d ?is x is l ! o!r4 ,?+s :olly diff]5t 7if ?+s c\ld be :olly diff]5t7 c\ld n repres5t ea* o!r4 ,,vi4 ,:5 a man ?9ks ( two o!r m5 z p]ceiv+ ! same object1 he mu/ recognize1 if he reflect1 t he has 9 m9d a picture ( ! object1 ( two human bodies 9 a peculi> relation to x1 & two images ( ! object someh[ connect$ ) ^! bodies4 ,he ne$ n ?9k ( ^! images z :olly resembl+ 8 picture ( ! object or ea* o!r4 ,he does1 inde$1 make !m m or less l 8 picture ( ! object1 b :at is prom95t 9 8 m9d is ! ?\ght ( !m z repres5tatives1 z relat$ to & giv+ in=mation conc]n+ ! object4 ,i say conc]n+ ! object1 b ?is phrase is ambigu\s4 ,if ! man "u discussion believes 9 real objects 9 an extra-consci\sness _w1 he w look ^u ! images z repres5t+ su* a real object2 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 8 gu>antee = ?is real object1 & all 8 in=mation conc]n+1 x mu/ be f\nd 9 8 picture ( ! object1 & ?is1 or its copy1 w /& = ! real object 9 any m5tal complex he may con/ruct4 ,if ! man be an ,ideali/1 accept+ only :at c be f\nd 9 a consci\sness1 he w look ^u ! two images z relat$ to 8 picture ( ! object & repres5tative ( t4 ,9 any case he mu/ reg>d !m z repres5tatives1 & 9 ?is s5se ! same ) ! ?+ !y repres5t4 ,! notion ( simil>ity :i* is at ! bottom ( ?is idea ( repres5tative & ?+ repres5t$ is !n impli$ 9 sam5ess ( ! six? k9d also4 ,,vii4 ,& s9ce ^? :o di/+ui% betwe5 ! imm$iate & ! m$iate objects ( k make ! =m] repres5tative ( ! latt]1 we h evid5tly ?is impli$ notion ( simil>ity 9 ! sev5? k9d ( sam5ess z well z 9 ! six?4 ,! m$iate object is said to be kn[n ?r\gh ! imm$iate3 t is1 ! qualities & relations ( ! "o are made to /& = & s]ve 9 place ( ! qualities & relations ( ! o!r4 ,?is !y c d1 ( c\rse1 only 9 s f> z ! two sets ( qualities & relations are simil>4 ,x is easy en\gh to see t ?is notion ( simil>ity is pres5t :5 we ?9k ( an idea or complex ( ideas z repres5t+ a real ?+ beyond consci\sness1 & giv+ in=mation conc]n+ x4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we sublimate our real ?+ into a n\m5on & /rip x ( ! det]m9ations :i*1 tak5 toge!r1 make up our idea ( a ?+1 we de/roy1 if we are consi/5t & ?or\gh-go+1 all notion ( simil>ity betwe5 ! two2 b 9 do+ ?is we de/roy our n\m5on altoge!r4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we refuse to all[ to our notion ( a ?+ any qualitative or quantitative expression :atev]1 we _c ?9k ( ! ?+ z hav+ reality or exi/5ce1 or any m>k by :i* x is to be di/+ui%$ f no?+ at all4 ,9 ?is case ! idea is no long] repres5tative1 = x has no?+ to repres5t4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we d n :olly de/roy ! n\m5on1 b /ill all[ x a dilut$ exi/5ce ( an indef9ite k9d1 9 s f> z x has ?is1 & c be repres5t$ 9 m9d at all1 x resembles ! idea1 & j s f> may ! idea /& z its repres5tative4 ,i h already po9t$ out t sev]al ( ^? :o p9 _! fai? to ext]nal realities seem to appreh5d at times b dimly1 if at all1 t ! relation ( ph5om5on & n\m5on1 or ( idea & real ?+1 is t ( repres5tative & ?+ repres5t$1 & t we h "h two ?+s & n "o4 ,c]ta9ly !y sometimes pass f "o to ! o!r )\t rhyme or reason1 & app>5tly 9 complete unconsci\sness ( ! fact t !y h made any *ange at all4 ,if1 = ! "t be+1 !y really take ! two = "o1 !y are n ?9k+ ( ! sev5? k9d ( sam5ess1 b ( ano!r k9d4 ,z ?is is done ?r\gh m]e inadv]t5ce & loos5ess ( reason+1 & _c be ju/ifi$ on _! own assumptions1 x is n wor? :ile to dwell ^u x f>!r4 ,:]e "o really has 9 m9d ! sev5? k9d ( sam5ess1 ! elem5ts ,i h m5tion$ w be f\nd 9 x4 ,i4 ,f9ally1 we come to ! p]plex+ case t ,i po/pon$ at ! outset4 ,:at has sam5ess ( ! fir/ k9d 9 common ) ! re/8 ,h[ c we speak ( simil>ity :5 /rictly "o ?+ is 9 "q8 ,n "o ?+ 9 ! loose s5se 9 :i* we call a mat]ial object "o ?+ 9 its successive /ates1 nor "o 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! memory image & its orig9al are "o1 b "o ?+ z a s+le elem5t ( k is itself at any "o in/ant8 ,h[ c ! idea ( lik5ess hold "h8 ,dundre>y's bird flock+ all by itself w\ld seem to h f\nd its philosophical prototype4 ,x may be said t ?\gh ! ?+ 9 "q is /rictly "o1 yet we divide x f itself 9 ?\ght & !n affirm x ( itself4 ,we give expression to ! logical law ( id5tity by say+ t x is x4 ,b "h ! difficulty meets u t1 if we are really talk+ ab\t only ! "o x1 we h said q all we h to say 9 m]ely say+ x2 :ile if1 to complete our ?\ght1 we mu/ add ! second x1 we h n an id5tical proposition1 9 any /rict s5se ( ! ^w1 b a syn!tic "o4 ,x is easy en\gh 9 words to divide a ?+ f itself1 s9ce ! words ?+ & itself are two1 & may readily be di/+ui%$4 ,9 ! same way x is easy 9 words to affirm a ?+ to be & n to be at ! "o "t4 ,!re is no law to prev5t "o's /r++ s\nds toge!r z he may please4 ,b if "o is int]e/$ n 9 ! m]e symbols1 b 9 t :i* !y are suppos$ to repres5t1 "o mu/ see t ! expression x is x1 to be a significant proposition1 mu/ h a subject & a pr$icate1 & affirm a relation betwe5 !m4 ,"h we h1 by hypo!sis1 /rictly "o ?+ = subject & pr$icate4 ,! proposition x is x mu/ !n consi/ ( "o ?+ & a relation betwe5 x--:i* is ab\t z significant z ! /atem5t t a door may consi/ ( "o side & a relation betwe5 x4 ,betwe5 :at8 ,"o side4#bi ,e =m ( proposition employ$ to give expression to ! law ( id5tity implies ?is difficulty4 ,:e!r we say x is x1 or :atev] is is1 or ev]y?+ is id5tical ) itself1 our proposition1 tak5 lit]ally1 is ei!r useless 7s9ce we h said all we h to say 9 m5tion+ ! subject alone71 or untrue 7s9ce we add a new elem5t 9 add+ ! pr$icate74 #bi ,?is abnormal door has its p>allel 9 ! n[ discr$it$ causa sui4 ,note ! foll[+ f ,desc>tes3 ,de mme1 lorsque n\s disons que ,dieu e/ p> soi1 n\s p\vons aussi la vrit ent5dre cela ngativem5t1 comme v\lant dire qu'il n'a po9t de cause2 mais si n\s avons aup>avant re*]* la cause p\rquoi il e/ ou p\rquoi il ne cesse po9t d'tre1 et que1 considrant l'imm5se et incomprh5sible puissance qui e/ cont5ue dans son ide1 n\s l'ayons reconnue si ple9e et si abondante qu'en effet elle soit la vraie cause p\rquoi il e/1 et p\rquoi il cont9ue a9si t\j\rs d'tre1 et qu'il n'y en puisse avoir d'autre que celle-l1 n\s disons que ,dieu e/ p> soi1 non plus ngativem5t1 mais au contraire trs positivem5t4 ,c>1 encore qu'il n'e/ pas beso9 de dire qu'il e/ la cause effici5te de soi-mme1 de peur que peut-tre on n'entre en dispute du mot2 nanmo9s1 p>ce que n\s voyons que ce qui fait qu'il e/ p> soi1 ou qu'il n'a po9t de cause diffr5te de soi-mme1 ne procde pas du nant1 mais de la relle et vritable imm5sit de sa puissance1 il n\s e/ t\t a fait loisible de p5s] qu'il fait en quelque faon la mme *ose a l'g>d de soi-mme que la cause effici5te l'g>d de son effet1 et p>tant qu'il e/ p> soi positivem5t4--,rponses aux ,premires ,objections4 ,x is !n suffici5tly evid5t t ! =ms us$ to express ! logical law ( id5tity d n1 tak5 /rictly1 express at all ! k9d ( sam5ess ) :i* we are n[ conc]n$1 b1 on ! contr>y1 some?+ v diff]5t4 ,we are consid]+ a sam5ess 9 :i* !re is no duality :atev]1 b our expressions w\ld seem to h no mean+ except z indicat+ a relation betwe5 two4 ,!y are !n significant1 n z express+ sam5ess ( ! fir/ k9d1 b z sugge/+ x1 & ?is !y c]ta9ly s]ve to d4 ,! reason = ?is ,i %all try to give 9 a mom5t4 ,x has be5 said t 9 ! o!r k9ds ( sam5ess we always f9d ! notion ( simil>ity4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we di/+ui% two ?+s z two & yet recognize !m z simil>1 we mu/ h :at ,i may call a mix$ exp]i5ce ( lik5ess & unlik5ess4 ,9 any two ?+s comp>$1 ! degrees ( lik5ess & unlik5ess may v>y1 & we may fix att5tion ^u simil>ities or diff]5ces4 ,9 proportion to ! att5tion giv5 to dissimil> elem5ts w ! two objects be cle>ly di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r & discrim9at$ z two4 ,if ! purpose 9 h& does n require a c>eful att5tion to diff]5ces1 & if :at is prom95t 9 m9d is ! lik5ess ( ! two objects1 ! s5se ( duality may fall into ! backgr\nd1 & ! man pass readily f "o object to ! o!r ) little consci\sness t he has made a *ange4 ,z ,i n[ look at ! two ink-/&s on my desk1 ,i cle>ly recognize !m z two & yet z ( ! "o k9d4 ,"h ,i am z di/9ctly aw>e t !y are two z ,i am t !y are 9 "s respects ! same4 ,b 9 "s ( ! k9ds ( sam5ess ,i h describ$ ?is s5se ( duality falls m into ! %ade4 ,:5 ,i speak ( see+ ! same ink-/& twice1 or :5 ,i call up 9 memory an ink-/& once se51 ,i am likely1 unless ,i take p>ticul> pa9s to reflect ^u my m5tal op]ation1 to h b a dim realization ( ! fact t ,i h two di/9ct ?+s to deal )4 ,h[ ^? :o di/+ui% betwe5 ! imm$iate & ! m$iate objects ( k h a t5d5cy to =get _! di/9ction1 & to pass unconsci\sly f "o to ! o!r1 ,i h dwelt ^u suffici5tly4 ,suppose1 n[1 t f two objects :i* we recognize z simil> & yet di/9ct1 we ab/ract "o by "o ! elem5ts :i* diff]4 ,s long z !re is any diff]5ce left1 we /ill h id5tity 9 div]sity--simil>ity 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ! t]m1 :i* implies a recognition ( two ?+s z two4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! la/ diff]5ce disappe>s1 all s5se ( duality mu/ disappe> ) x1 = any division or di/9ction )9 :at rema9s is inadmissible4 ,?+s :i* are di/+ui%$ are di/+ui%$ ?r\gh "s diff]5ce4 ,a s5se ( duality implies a discrim9ation betwe5 two1 & :]e x is impossible to discrim9ate duality vani%es4 ,simil>ity1 z we commonly use ! ^w1 mu/ !n disappe> ) ! disappe>ance ( all dissimil>ity betwe5 two objects4 ,i say betwe5 two objects 9 default ( a bett] expression1 =1 ( c\rse1 we h at ?is po9t no long] two objects4 ,my mean+ is1 h[ev]1 suffici5tly pla94 ,a s5se ( duality implies diff]5ce1 & simil>ity1 z commonly und]/ood1 implies duality4 ,! simil>ity w !n take itself (f ) ! la/ diff]5ce4 ,x may be object$ t a consci\sness ( duality & a consci\sness ( simil>ity are only possible on ! gr\nd t ,i m5tion1 b t duality & simil>ity !mselves may really obta9 :5 no diff]5ce betwe5 two is p]ceptible4 ,b a mom5t's reflection w make x pla9 t "o :o speaks ?us is simply supply+ 9 himself ! elem5ts t he is suppos+ abs5t 9 ! case ( ano!r4 ,if he uses ! words duality & simil>ity1 & !y really mean any?+ to him1 !y imply all t ,i h said4 ,he _c repres5t to himself two ?+s at all )\t di/+ui%+ !m f ea* o!r1 & he c n di/+ui% !m f ea* o!r unless !y diff] 9 "s way4 ,if1 !n1 he speak ( two ?+s z be+ two & yet completely indi/+ui%able1 he is1 tak5 lit]ally1 talk+ nons5se4 ,he may1 ( c\rse1 mean ! mislead+ phrase to be und]/ood z indicat+ some?+ n actually express$ by ! words4 ,he may mean to po9t out t1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 9 :i* he has an exp]i5ce :i* he calls a recognition ( two objects z two & z simil>1 he has reason to ?9k ano!r m9d has an exp]i5ce p>tly l & p>tly unlike 8 own--l 9 z mu* z x conta9s :at corresponds to t :i* is common to ! two objects he has 9 m9d2 unlike 9 z mu* z x conta9s no?+ :i* corresponds to ! elem5ts :i* make x possible = him to recognize two objects4 ,x is ?is t is 9 8 m9d :5 he speaks ( ?9k+ ( two objects z really two & yet indi/+ui%able to ?is man or t4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! expression two ?+s may be indi/+ui%able is us$ to indicate ?is exp]i5ce1 x %\ld be c>efully borne 9 m9d t ! proposition mu/ n be tak5 lit]ally1 = ! good reason t ! subject & pr$icate are n 9 ! "o consci\sness4 ,! two objects are 9 ! m9d ( ,smi?1 & ! indi/+ui%able elem5t 9 ! m9d ( ,jones4 ,:5 we speak ( two m5 z see+ ! same ?+1 ,i h %[n t we are us+ ! ^w same 9 a loos] s5se :i* %\ld nev] be conf\nd$ ) ! /rict] s5se4 ,/rictly speak+1 !n1 ! two ?+s are nev] indi/+ui%able1 b t :i* corresponds to ! two ?+s 9 a consci\sness f :i* all recognition ( duality is abs5t4 ,t "o man may h a consci\sness ( duality :ile ano!r man has n1 & t ^! two exp]i5ces may be relat$ z ! exp]i5ces ( diff]5t m9ds are relat$ :5 we say !y are exp]i5c+ ! same ?+1 no "o w\ld c>e to dispute4 ,%\ld a man say t he c ?9k ( himself z unable to di/+ui% two ?+s :i* are nev]!less two1 ! case1 w\ld n be mat]ially diff]5t4 ,! man _c1 ( c\rse1 ?9k ( ! two ?+s z indi/+ui%able1 b he may ?9k ( two ?+s & connect ) ?is ?\ght ! ?\ght ( himself z hav+ an exp]i5ce 9 :i* !re is no consci\sness ( duality4 ,b1 x may be insi/$1 we are /ill only talk+ ab\t consci\sness2 let u come to real ?+s4 ,suppose no "o able to di/+ui% betwe5 !m1 ab/ract all consci\sness ( diff]5ce1 w\ld n two real ?+s rema9 two1 h[ev] we might conf\nd !m8 ,c a ?+ 9 "o place be a ?+ 9 ano!r place1 h[ev] closely x may resemble x1 or h[ev] ignorant we may be8 ,to ?is ,i answ] t :5 "o speaks ( two real ?+s ! words only mean some?+ to him because he has pres5t 9 m9d :at ,i h said mu/ be pres5t if "o is to h a consci\sness ( duality4 ,a ?+ 9 "o place & a ?+ 9 ano!r place are to him two simply because he ?9ks !m z diff]+--9 place4 ,:5 "o has come to ! conclusion t he mu/ duplicate 8 exp]i5ce1 di/+ui% betwe5 ! _w ( imm$iate & ! _w ( m$iate objects1 & place ! latt] 9 a region outside1 !re is no?+ to prev5t him f ?9k+ ( two real ?+s z two1 al?\gh all di/9ctions )9 ! field ( imm$iate objects h be5 oblit]at$4 ,/ill1 9 ?9k+ ^! real ?+s z two1 he does j :at he does 9 ?9k+ two imm$iate objects z two--he recognizes diff]5ce4 ,! twoness dep5ds ^u diff]5ce z mu* 9 ! "o case z 9 ! o!r1 & to speak ( two objects 9 a real _w z two & yet hav+ no diff]+ elem5t w\ld be to use words )\t mean+4 ,9 talk+ ab\t a real _w1 if we are really to talk & n m]ely to utt] a s]ies ( s\nds1 our words mu/ be significant4 ,to say ?is or t may be 9 a 'real' _w1 ?\gh we may n be able to conceive x1 w\ld1 if ?is or t implies a contradiction1 be to say no?+4 ,! fact is t ?is ext]nal _w1 z we ?9k x1 implies ! notions ( be=e & aft]1 9 ?is place & t1 all ! di/9ctions & diff]5ces :i* make x to u a _w ( di/9ct objects4 ,( c\rse x foll[s t ?+s 9 ! ext]nal _w are ?\ght z di/9ct f ea* o!r1 b ?is does n affect my /atem5t t di/9ction is impossible )\t diff]5ce4 ,we may1 !n1 h a s]ies ( exp]i5ces1 beg9n+ ) "o 9 :i* two objects are recogniz$ z simil> & yet are v cle>ly di/+ui%$ z two objects1 cont9u$ 9 o!rs 9 :i* ! s5se ( duality falls m & m into ! backgr\nd1 & end+ 9 "o 9 :i* !re is no consci\sness ( duality at all4 ,! la/ ( ^! exp]i5ces is n :olly diff]5t f ! o!rs4 ,!re is 9 x no exp]i5ce ( simil>ity 9 s f> z ?is ^w is us$ to express id5tity 9 diff]5ce1 or a relation betwe5 two4 ,!re c be no su* relation unless !re are two1 & "h !re are n two4 ,b x %\ld be m>k$ t ?is exp]i5ce diff]s f ! o!rs1 n 9 ! elem5t :i* has l$ u to decl>e two objects simil>--! elem5t :i* !y h 9 common--b 9 t :i* has l$ u to decl>e !m two & diff]5t4 ,x is by add+ to ?is la/ exp]i5ce1 s to speak1 t we get ! o!rs4 ,!y conta9 x & m4 ,usage w n all[ u to apply ! t]m simil>ity 9 speak+ ( an exp]i5ce 9 :i* two ?+s are n di/+ui%$1 & ?is is prop] en\gh2 b x %\ld nev] be =gott5 t ?is exp]i5ce is at ! bottom ( all our exp]i5ces ( simil>ity--is1 s to speak1 _! common core4 ,:51 !re=e1 ,i said "s pages back t all ! k9ds ( sam5ess "u discussion conta9 ! idea ( simil>ity1 ,i 0 us+ ! ^w 9 a c]ta9 broad s5se to indicate t :i* is ! gr\nd ( all our exp]i5ces ( simil>ity1 & is also f\nd 9 ! fir/ k9d ( sam5ess on ! li/4 ,i pref]r$ to use !re ! ^w simil>ity1 because x 0 easy to %[ t ?is notion is really conta9$ 9 six ( ! sev5 uses ( ! ^w same1 & x 0 conv5i5t aft]w>d to %[ ! connection betwe5 ! fir/ k9d ( sam5ess & ! notion ( simil>ity4 ,& n[ x is n difficult to guess :y we employ su* expressions z we d to indicate /rict id5tity4 ,if ,i habitually use ! proposition x is y to indicate a relation betwe5 two ?+s hav+ simil> elem5ts & yet reg>d$ z di/9ct1 & look ^u ! proposition z ju/ifi$ by ! simil> elem5ts1 obs]v+ t1 ^! rema9+ un*ang$1 ! dissimil> elem5ts may be v v>iable )\t affect+ ! tru? ( ! proposition1 :at m natural ?an t ,i %\ld g on us+ ! propositional =m :5 ! dissimil> elem5ts h dim9i%$ to z]o--:5 ! proposition has become x is x8 ,to be sure1 no "o c take su* a proposition lit]ally1 any m ?an "o c sob]ly believe t "o divid$ by z]o results 9 inf9ity4 ,su* expressions h _! use & value1 b !y mu/ be prop]ly und]/ood4 ,if "o uses ! expression x is x to emphasize ! fact t "o is n to pass f x to any y or z--t "o is to rule out all di/9ction or s5se ( diff]5ce1 ! use _c be h>mful4 ,& ! use ( ! propositional =m has ?is great conv5i5ce3 x puts a p]iod1 s to speak1 to "o's ?9k+1 & prev5ts "o f ca/+ ab\t = a completion ( ! ?\ght4 ,if "o m]ely say to me x1 ,i %all probably take x z a subject & busy myself to f9d a pr$icate4 ,if he say x is x1 he says really no m ?an x1 b he makes me fix my ?\ghts ^u x alone4 ,,sec4 #bj4 ,9 ! =ego+ se>* = ! elem5t t ! k9ds ( sam5ess h 9 common1 ,i h _h 9 m9d *iefly ! sam5esses ( ?+s imm$iately kn[n4 ,x is n necess>y to repeat ! se>* 9 ! field ( ! ext]nal4 ,we h b ! sev5 k9ds ( sam5ess1 & :atev] may be ! ?+s t are ! same 9 ^! sev]al ways1 ! elem5ts ,i h indicat$ mu/ be pres5t if our words are to be significant4 ,b "o ?+ rema9s = me to d 9 ?is "p ( my monograph1 & t w n deta9 me long4 ,i mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 sam5ess & id5tity1 or r po9t out to :at k9ds ( sam5ess ?is latt] ^w is commonly appli$4 ,! ^w is (t5 us$ q loosely1 b :]e ! attempt is made to di/+ui% betwe5 id5tity & sam5ess 9 a loos] s5se1 & to use t]ms ) "s precision1 ! =m] ^w s]ves to indicate sam5ess 9 :i* !re is no consci\sness ( duality1 or 9 :i* ! consci\sness ( duality has fall5 into ! backgr\nd & may easily be ov]look$4 ,sam5ess ( ! fir/ k9d1 = example1 is spok5 ( z id5tity4 ,?is is ! only k9d ( sam5ess 9 :i* !re is no elem5t ( duality at all4 ,! use ( ! ^w id5tity is n1 h[ev]1 re/rict$ to ?is4 ,locke's inquiry conc]n+ ! id5tity ( masses ( inorganic matt]1 ( vegetables1 ( animals1 & ( p]sons1 has to d ) sam5ess ( ! ?ird k9d on ! li/4 ,9 ?is k9d ( sam5ess !re is no cle> consci\sness t "o is deal+ ) m ?an "o ?+1 & ,locke's discussion is conduct$ ?r\gh\t z ?\gh "o 7 n4 ,x may be object$ t 9 c]ta9 o!r k9ds !re is (t5 no cle> consci\sness ( duality1 & yet "o does n ?9k ( us+ ! t]m id5tity4 ,?is is q true4 ,! two k9ds m5tion$ h be5 ?\ght wor?y ( special discussion by logician & philosoph]1 & h be5 giv5 a te*nical "n4 ,! o!rs h n4 ,/ill1 al?\gh ! ^w is n commonly us$ 9 su* cases1 x w\ld1 ,i fancy1 seem natural to use x 9 a direct ratio to ! degree 9 :i* ! s5se ( duality falls into ! backgr\nd4 ,dr4 ,johnson w\ld probably h be5 will+ to say t ! /one he saw himself kick 0 id5tical ) ! "o ! exi/5ce ( :i* he want$ to prove4 ,bi%op ,b]keley c\ld h felt only disgu/ at su* a use ( ! t]m4 ,sc>cely anyone1 ,i suppose1 w\ld reg>d himself z speak+ /rictly if he call$ ! f\r? k9d ( sam5ess id5tity4 ,! co-exi/5ce ( ! two ?+s comp>$ w\ld prev5t _! be+ conf\nd$4 ,)\t1 !n1 attempt+ to assign any v exact limits to ! application ( a some:at loosely us$ ^w1 ,i may repeat my =m] /atem5t t m5 use ! ^w id5tity to m>k c]ta9 k9ds ( sam5ess 9 :i* !re is little or no consci\sness ( duality1 & !y are n incl9$ to use x to m>k sam5esses 9 :i* ?+s are recogniz$ z simil> b cle>ly di/9ct4 ,) ?is ,i end ! fir/ "p ( my discussion1 & ,i confess ,i draw a long brea? 9 do+ s4 ,:5 ,i sat d[n to write x 0 ) ! impression t ,i c\ld say all t 0 necess>y ab\t ! k9ds ( sam5ess 9 a mu* small] numb] ( pages2 b f9d+ x impossible to avoid misund]/&+s )\t be+ m explicit & detail$1 ,i h _h to *ange my plan4 ,n[1 t ,i am ?r\gh1 ,i mu/ confess to myself t mo/ p]sons w f9d ?is hair-splitt+ any?+ b ent]ta9+--:i* w\ld be held by ! inconsid]ate to furni% a presumption aga9/ ! tru? x conta9s1 if anci5t adages g = any?+4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t ! old saw :i* puts tru? 9 a well does n indicate t ! well may n be a dry "o4 ,) ?is consolatory reflection ,i turn to ! second "p ( my task4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,hi/orical ,,& ,,critical4 ,^? n[ :o propose to hold mutual discussion mu/ ne$s und]/& "o ano!r some:at3 = )\t ?is h[ c !y h any mutual discussion8 ,ea* ( _! words !n1 mu/ be famili> & h def9ite mean+1 & n _m mean+s1 b "o only1 & if x h m mean+s ?an "o1 !y mu/ make x cle> 9 :i* ( ^! s5ses x is us$4 ,ari/otle1 ,metaph41 ,book ,x1 c4 #e1 #c4 ,,section #ba4 ,:5 ,h]aclitus ( ,ephesus1 mov$ !reto by 8 view ( ! con/ant flux ( ?+s1 decl>$ x impossible to ent] ! same riv] twice1#cj he evid5tly suppos$ t a riv] c be ! same only 9 ! fir/ & /ricte/ s5se ( ! ^w4 ,he d5i$1 consequ5tly1 a "r to use ! ^w1 z x con/antly is us$1 to indicate t c]ta9 ph5om5a belong to a gr\p or s]ies1 :i*1 9 its totality1 is to u a s+le object4 ,:5 we say t we h ent]$ ! same riv] twice we h no ref]5ce to ! actual exp]i5ces ( ! two occasions consid]$ m]ely z exp]i5ces4 ,( c\rse1 ^! are n ! same1 z ea* is itself1 & !y may ev5 be some:at dissimil>4 ,nor h we ref]5ce to ! sep>ate p>ticles ( :i* ! body ( wat] is compos$4 ,we all admit t ! wat] 9 a riv] *anges1 & yet we nev] ?9k ( say+ t ! riv] is no long] ! same4 ,! two k9ds ( sam5ess are q di/9ct1 yet bo? are legitimate2 & bo? 7 z famili> to ! anci5t ,greek z to ! mod]n ,am]ican4 ,socrates 0 consid]$ ,socrates f boyhood ?r\gh y\? to manhood4 ,! ,ilissus 0 ! ,ilissus :e!r swoll5 or %runk54 ,! philosoph]'s difficulty ) ! riv] did n arise out ( ! fact t ?is k9d ( sam5ess 0 n p]fectly well recogniz$ 9 language & 9 common ?\ght4 ,x arose out ( ! fact t ! beg9n+s ( reflection make _m ?+s seem /range :i* be=e pass$ unnotic$1 & sometimes lead to ass]tion & d5ial evid5tly contr>y to exp]i5ce & common s5se4 ,! unreflective man calls ! riv] ! same on two successive days1 b he has no cle> notion ( :at ! ^w implies4 ,9 a loose way he opposes same to diff]5t4 ,h]aclitus saw t ! wat] 9 a riv] is con/antly *ang+4 ,he :o ent]s twice does n ent] precisely ! same body ( wat]4 ,:at m natural1 & :at m fallaci\s1 ?an to ass]t t he does n twice ent] ! same riv]8 #cj ,ari/otle1 ,metaph41 ,bk4 ,,iii1 c4 #e1 #g4 ,,sec4 #bb4 ,& well might ,cratylus hold 8 peace & move 8 f+]#ca :5 he _h capp$ ! climax ) ! /atem5t t ! same riv] c\ld n be ent]$ once4 ,h]aclitus _h m]ely d5i$ sam5ess ( ! ?ird k9d to be sam5ess1 s9ce x implies duality4 ,cratylus1 surpris$ by a discov]y ( duality :]e he _h n be=e suspect$ x1 w n all[ ! t]m :]e !re is no duality :atev]4 ,x is n surpris+ t he came at la/ to be ( op9ion t "o ought to speak ( no?+4 ,^u su* a basis spee* loses its significance4 #ca ,ari/otle1 ,metaph4 ,,iii1 c4 #e1 #g4 ,,sec4 #bc4 ,! ,p>m5idean argum5t = ! et]nity ( ,be+#cb re/s p>tly ^u a confusion ( ! fir/ k9d ( sam5ess ) ! f\r?4 ,be+ has _h no orig91 = f :at c\ld x h be5 d]iv$8 ,n f ! non-exi/5t1 = ?is has no exi/5ce3 & n f ! exi/5t1 = x is itself ! exi/5t4 ,! quibble ab\t ! non-exi/5t we ne$ n consid]1 ?\gh x is s]i\sly repeat$ by m ?an "o writ] ( our "t4 ,! la/ "p ( ! argum5t1 n f ! exi/5t1 = x is itself ! exi/5t1 draws its :ole =ce f ! assumption t x is ! exi/5t z a ?+ is itself1 or 9 ! fir/ s5se ( ! ^w same4 ,b if ?is be ! case1 ! argum5t is a m]e f>ce1 an argum5t only 9 words4 ,! phrase1 d]iv$ f ! exi/5t1 means no?+ at all unless x means t ! exi/5t 9 "q is be=e ! ?+ d]iv$4 ,to say x is ! ?+ d]iv$1 is to r$uce ! words to no?+4 ,if x mean any?+ to speak ( ! exi/5t z d]iv$ f ! exi/5t1 x is because ea* ( ^! is an exi/5t--t is1 a ?+ belong+ to a class & di/+ui%$ f o!r memb]s ( ?is class by "s diff]5ce4 ,9 ?is case ! diff]5ce is t ( be=e & aft]4 ,an exi/5t d]iv$ f an exi/5t is ! same ) x only z ?+s ( a class are ! same4 ,if we *oose to elim9ate all diff]5ces & speak ( ! exi/5t we may d s2 b !n x is inadmissible to raise que/ions ab\t its d]ivation1 & br+ 9 ^? v "t di/9ctions betwe5 diff]5t exi/5ts :i* we are suppos+ abs5t4 #cb ,ueb]weg4 ,hi/4 ( ,philos41 ,vol4 ,i1 #ai1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahgg1 p4 #eg4 ,,sec4 #bd4 ,! nihili/ic doctr9e ( ,gorgias ( ,leont9i1#cc :o taught t no?+ exi/s1 t if x did exi/ x c\ld n be kn[n1 & t if x did exi/ & c\ld be kn[n ! k ( x c\ld n be communicat$ by "o m9d to ano!r1 is f\nd$ 9 "p ^u su* bad reason+ t x is r surpris+ t ,gorgias %\ld h be5 guilty ( x4 ,t "p ( x1 h[ev]1 :i* has to d ) ! communicability ( k is r bett] ?an ! re/1 & indicates "s progress 9 reflection4 ,a sign1 he says1 diff]s f ! ?+ x signifies4 ,h[ c "o communicate ! notion ( color by words1 s9ce ! e> he>s s\nds & n colors8 ,besides1 h[ c ! same idea be 9 two diff]5t p]sons8 ,?is reason+ w\ld seem at lea/ plausible1 ,i ?9k1 to _m m9ds at ! pres5t day4 ,x is evid5tly ! (fspr+ ( a confusion ( sam5esses4 ,a sign diff]s1 x is true1 f ! ?+ signifi$4 ,! ^w blue he>d by ! e> is n l ! color blue se5 or imag9$4 ,b if any "o pron\nce ! ^w1 & ask me if ,i am ?9k+ ( ! color he has m5tion$1 ,i say yes4 ,! s\nd is n l ! color1 b x is its repres5tative1 & "o ( ! prop] uses ( ! ^w same 7! fif?7 indicates j ?is relation betwe5 repres5tative & ?+ repres5t$4 ,any attempt to discr$it communication ( k on ! gr\nd t "o _c speak colors1 & t1 !re=e1 "o man is speak+ "o ?+ & ! o!r ?9k+ ano!r1 goes on ! supposition t :at is said & :at is ?\ght mu/ be ! same 9 s5se fir/ 7/rict id5tity7 or 9 s5se f\r? 7mu/ be a ?+ ( ! same k9d74 ,& z to ! exi/5ce ( ! same ?+ 9 two m9ds2 "h ,gorgias has evid5tly discov]$ ) "s surprise t sam5ess 9 s5se six? diff]s f sam5ess 9 s5se fir/1 & has felt impell$ to d5y x ! "n altoge!r4 ,he has p]ceiv$ a duality :]e mo/ m5 h n notic$ x2 &1 in/ead ( obs]v+ t !re are sam5esses & sam5esses1 & t ! communication ( k is conc]n$ ) ! six? k9d 9 ?is connection1 & n ) ! fir/1 he has d5i$ ! communication ( k4 ,_h he f\nd x necess>y to c>ry out 8 !oretic premises to practical conclusions he w\ld h /opp$ talk+1 :i* he did n2 ?\gh presumably ! irrepressible didactic in/9ct w\ld h l$ him1 spite ( consi/5cy1 to imitate ,cratylus 9 mov+ 8 f+]4 #cc ,ueb]weg4 ,hi/4 ( ,philos41 ,vol4 ,i1 #bi1 p4 #gg4 ,,sec4 #be4 ,! reason+ 9 ! ,platonic ,dialogues is v frequ5tly n above suspicion2 b x is n easy to f9d any:]e su* a ne/ ( p>alogisms z we h 9 ! ,p>m5ides4 ,h[ f> ,plato 0 9 e>ne/ 9 all ?is quibbl+1 & :at 0 8 aim1 ,i w n pret5d to say4 ,he has1 h[ev]1 v well illu/rat$ ! possibilities ( equivocation 9 juggl+ ) sam5esses1 & ,i %all quote a bit ( ! argum5t conc]n+ ! "o & ! _m to %[ h[ readily ?is is done4 ,almo/ any "p ( ! dialogue w\ld d1 b ,i *oose ! fir/ b\t betwe5 ,p>m5ides & ,ari/oteles4 ,i take ,pr(essor ,j[ett's v]sion3#cd #cd ,! ,dialogues ( ,plato4 ,n4 ,y41 #ahgh4 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bee4 ,p>m5ides proce$$3 ,if "o is1 he said1 ! "o _c be _m8 ,impossible4 ,!n ! "o _c h p>ts1 & _c be a :ole8 ,h[ is t8 ,:y1 ! "p w\ld surely be ! "p ( a :ole8 ,yes4 ,& t ( :i* no "p is want+1 w\ld be a :ole8 ,c]ta9ly4 ,!n1 9 ei!r case1 "o w\ld be made up ( p>ts2 bo? z be+ a :ole1 & also z hav+ p>ts8 ,c]ta9ly4 ,& 9 ei!r case1 ! "o w\ld be _m1 & n "o8 ,true4 ,b1 surely1 "o ought to be n _m1 b "o8 ,surely4 ,!n1 if "o is to rema9 "o1 x w n be a :ole1 & w n h p>ts8 ,no4 ,& if "o has no p>ts1 x w h nei!r beg9n+1 middle1 nor end2 = ^! w\ld be p>ts ( "o8 ,"r4 ,b !n1 aga91 a beg9n+ & an end are ! limits ( ev]y?+8 ,c]ta9ly4 ,!n ! "o1 nei!r hav+ beg9n+ nor end1 is unlimit$8 ,yes1 unlimit$4 ,& !re=e =mless1 z n be+ able to p>take ei!r ( r\nd or /raight4 ,h[ is t8 ,:y1 ! r\nd is t ( :i* all ! extreme po9ts are equidi/ant f ! c5tre8 ,yes4 ,& ! /raight is t ( :i* ! middle int]cepts ! extremes8 ,true4 ,!n ! "o w\ld h p>ts1 & w\ld be _m1 :e!r x p>took ( a /raight or ( a r\nd =m8 ,assur$ly4 ,b hav+ no p>ts1 "o w be nei!r /raight nor r\nd8 ,"r4 ,!n1 be+ ( su* a nature1 "o _c be 9 any place1 = x _c be ei!r 9 ano!r or 9 itself4 ,h[ is t8 ,because1 if "o be 9 ano!r1 x w be encircl$ 9 t o!r 9 :i* x is conta9$1 & w t\* x 9 _m places2 b t :i* is "o & indivisible1 & does n p>take ( a circul> nature1 _c be t\*$ by a circle 9 _m places4 ,c]ta9ly n4 ,& "o be+ 9 itself1 w also conta9 itself1 & _c be o!r ?an "o1 if 9 itself2 = no?+ c be 9 any?+ :i* does n conta9 x4 ,impossible4 ,b !n1 is n t :i* conta9s o!r ?an t :i* is conta9$8 = ! same :ole _c at once be affect$ actively & passively2 & "o w ?us be no long] "o1 b two8 ,true4 ,!n "o _c be any:]e1 ei!r 9 itself or 9 ano!r8 ,no4 ,fur!r consid]1 :e!r t :i* is ( su* a nature c h ei!r re/ or motion4 ,:y n8 ,:y1 because motion is ei!r motion 9 place or *ange 9 self2 ^! are ! only k9ds ( motion4 ,yes4 ,& ! "o1 :5 *ang$ 9 itself1 _c possibly be any long] "o4 ,x _c4 ,& !re=e _c exp]i5ce ?is sort ( motion8 ,cle>ly n4 ,c ! motion ( "o1 !n1 be 9 place8 ,p]haps4 ,b if "o mov$ 9 place1 mu/ x n ei!r move r\nd & r\nd 9 ! same place1 or f "o place to ano!r8 ,c]ta9ly4 ,& t :i* moves r\nd & r\nd 9 ! same place1 mu/ g r\nd ^u a c5tre2 & t :i* goes r\nd ^u a c5tre mu/ h o!r p>ts :i* move ar\nd ! c5tre2 b t :i* has no c5tre & no p>ts _c possibly be c>ri$ r\nd ^u a c5tre8 ,impossible4 ,b p]haps ! motion ( ! "o consi/s 9 go+ f "o place to ano!r8 ,p]haps s1 if x moves at all4 ,& h we n already %[n t "o c n be 9 any?+8 ,yes4 ,& /ill great] is ! impossibility ( "o com+ into be+ 9 any?+8 ,i d n see h[ t is4 ,:y1 because any?+ :i* comes into be+ 9 any?+1 _c z yet be 9 t o!r ?+ :ile /ill com+ into be+1 nor rema9 entirely out ( x1 if already com+ into be+ 9 x4 ,c]ta9ly4 ,& !re=e :atev] comes into be+ 9 ano!r mu/ h p>ts1 & ! "o "p may be 9 t o!r1 & ! o!r "p out ( x2 b t :i* has no p>ts _c possibly be at ! same "t a :ole1 :i* is ei!r )9 or )\t any?+4 ,true4 ,& h[ c t :i* has nei!r p>ts1 nor a :ole1 come into be+ any:]e ei!r z a "p or a :ole8 ,is n t a /ill great] impossibility8 ,cle>ly4 ,!n "o does n *ange by a *ange ( place1 :e!r by go+ some:]e & com+ into be+ 9 some?+2 or aga91 by go+ r\nd 9 ! same place2 or aga91 by *ange 9 itself8 ,true4 ,! "o1 !n1 is incapable ( any k9d ( motion8 ,incapable4 ,b nei!r c ! "o exi/ 9 any?+1 z we affirm8 ,yes1 t is affirm$ by u4 ,!n x is nev] 9 ! same8 ,:y n8 ,because be+ 9 ! same is be+ 9 some?+ :i* is ! same4 ,c]ta9ly4 ,b x _c be 9 itself1 & _c be 9 o!r8 ,true4 ,!n "o is nev] ! same8#ce #ce ,! text ( ,/allbaum 7#ahdh7 does n h>monize ) ?is4 ,! v]sion ,i quote leaves out 1 & reads 9 ! nom9ative4 ,x w\ld seem n4 ,& t :i* is nev] 9 ! same has no re/1 & /&s n /ill8 ,x _c /& /ill4 ,"o1 !n1 z w\ld seem1 is nei!r /&+ /ill nor 9 motion8 ,cle>ly n4 ,nei!r w "o be ! same ) itself or o!r2 nor aga91 o!r ?an itself1 or o!r4 ,h[ is t8 ,if o!r ?an itself x w\ld be o!r ?an "o1 & w\ld n be "o4 ,true4 ,& if ! same ) o!r1 x w\ld be t o!r1 & n itself2 s t ^u ?is supposition1 too1 x w\ld n h ! nature ( "o1 b w\ld be o!r ?an "o8 ,x w\ld4 ,!n x w n be ! same ) o!r1 or o!r ?an itself8 ,x w n4 ,nei!r w "o be o!r ?an o!r1 :ile x rema9s "o2 = n ! "o1 b only ! o!r1 c be o!r ( o!r1 & no?+ else4 ,true4 ,!n n by virtue ( be+ "o1 w "o be o!r8 ,c]ta9ly n4 ,b if n by virtue ( be+ "o1 n by virtue ( be+ itself2 & if n by virtue ( be+ itself1 n itself1 & itself n be+ o!r at all1 w n be o!r ( any?+8 ,"r4 ,nei!r w "o be ! same ) itself4 ,:y n8 ,because ! nature ( ! "o is surely n ! nature ( ! same4 ,:y is t8 ,because :5 a ?+ becomes ! same ) any?+1 x does n necess>ily become "o4 ,:y n8 ,t :i* becomes ! same ) ! _m necess>ily becomes _m & n "o4 ,true4 ,& yet1 if !re 7 no diff]5ce betwe5 ! "o & ! same1 :5 a ?+ became ! same1 x w\ld always become "o2 & :5 x became "o1 ! same4 ,c]ta9ly4 ,&1 !re=e1 if "o be ! same ) "o1 x is n "o ) "o1 & w !re=e be "o & also n "o4 ,b t is surely impossible4 ,& !re=e ! "o c nei!r be o!r ( o!r1 nor ! same ) "o4 ,impossible4 ,& ?us "o is nei!r ! same1 nor o!r1 9 relation to itself or o!r8 ,no4 ,nei!r w "o be l or unlike itself or o!r4 ,:y n8 ,because lik5ess is sam5ess ( affections4 ,yes4 ,& sam5ess has be5 %[n to be a nature di/9ct f on5ess8 ,t has be5 %[n4 ,b if "o _h any o!r affection ?an t ( be+ "o1 x w\ld be affect$ 9 su* a way z to be m ?an "o2 & t is impossible4 ,true4 ,!n "o c nev] h ! same affections ei!r z ano!r or z itself8 ,cle>ly n4 ,!n x _c be l o!r1 or l itself4 ,no4 ,nor c x be affect$ s z to be o!r1 = !n x w\ld be affect$ 9 su* a way z to be m ?an "o4 ,x w\ld4 ,t :i* is affect$ 9 a mann] o!r ?an itself or o!r1 w be unlike itself or o!r1 if sam5ess ( affections is lik5ess4 ,true4 ,b ! "o1 z appe>s1 nev] hav+ affections o!r ?an its own1 is nev] unlike itself or o!r8 ,nev]4 ,!n ! "o is nev] ei!r l or unlike itself or o!r8 ,pla9ly n4 ,9 read+ ?is extract "o _c b admire ! c\rtesy or wond] at ! simplicity ( ,ari/oteles4 ,he always answ]s j z he %\ld to keep ! ball roll+2 & he is 9 no wise compell$ to d ?is "u ! circum/ances1 = ! argum5t is loose 9 ! extreme4 ,briefly /at$1 ! reason+ is z foll[s3 ,"o _c be a :ole1 & _c h p>ts1 = !n x w\ld n be "o1 b _m4 ,b if x has no p>ts x has no beg9n+1 middle1 or end1 & is =mless4 ,x is !n 9 no place1 = x _c be 9 itself1 s9ce ! conta9] mu/ be diff]5t f ! ?+ conta9$2 nor c x be 9 o!r1 = x w\ld h to be encircl$ by t o!r1 & t\*$ 9 _m p>ts1 :i* is impossible4 ,x foll[s t x c nei!r be at re/ nor 9 motion4 ,n 9 motion2 = x _c h *ange 9 itself1 or x w\ld no long] be "o2 nor c x h motion 9 place1 :e!r circul> motion ^u a c5tre or motion f place to place2 ! =m] = ! reason t circul> motion implies a c5tre & p>ts ar\nd ! c5tre2 & ! latt] because "o is 9 no place3 & z to com+ into be+ 9 any?+1 :i* may be reg>d$ z a k9d ( motion1 :ile do+ ?is x w\ld h to be "p 9 & "p n 91 :i* is impossible4 ,x _c be at re/1 = "o is nev] 9 ! same2 to be 9 ! same1 is to be 9 some?+ :i* is ! same1 & "o _c be 9 any?+4 ,nor1 f>!r1 c "o be ! same ) itself or o!r1 nor o!r ?an itself or o!r4 ,if o!r ?an itself x w\ld n be "o2 & if ! same ) o!r x w\ld be t o!r1 & n itself4 ,on ! o!r h& only o!r c be ! o!r ( o!r1 & n "o2 & ! "o _c be ! same ) itself1 = ! nature ( ! "o is n ! nature ( ! same1 s9ce t :i* becomes ! same ) ! _m does n become "o4 ,f9ally1 "o _c be l or unlike itself or o!r1 = lik5ess is sam5ess ( affections1 & sam5ess is n on5ess2 "o mu/1 h[ev]1 h no affection except on5ess1 or x becomes m ?an "o4 ,x _c1 !n1 h ! same affections z itself or o!r4 ,z1 = ! same reason1 x _c h o!r affections ?an itself or o!r1 x _c be unlike4 ,we h "h "o *ief error1 :i* runs ?r\gh almo/ ! :ole ( ! argum5t--is1 inde$1 ! ,k]n ( ! ,pudel--& sev]al subsidi>y errors ( diff]5t k9ds4 ,"s ( ^! la/ are v readily discov]$1 z t ab\t ! com+ into be+ 9 a ?+4 ,) ^!1 h[ev]1 ,i am n conc]n$4 ,i m]ely rem>k en passant t !y may all be cle>$ up ) a little c>e & accuracy1 & ,i turn to ! ma9 error1 :i* consi/s 9 a con/ant confusion ( two k9ds ( sam5ess4 ,! fact is t ,p>m5ides is always pass+ f ! "o1 or "o 9 ! ab/ract1 m]e on5ess1 to a "o1 or "o object4 ,^! are no m id5tical 9 ! /rict s5se ?an manhood & a man1 & 9 ov]look+ _! diff]5ce he is simply conf\nd+ ! fir/ & ! f\r? k9ds ( sam5ess4 ,! "o _c h p>ts1 = ! good reason t x is a quality tak5 by itself1 & n a ?+1 :i* is ?\ght z a bundle ( qualities4 ,a "o1 on ! o!r h&1 may h p>ts1 & ea* ( ^! p>ts may be a "o too4 ,a "o by no means consi/s ( a s+le elem5t1 on5ess1 b ( ?is elem5t comb9$ ) o!rs2 & ea* su* gr\p may be di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r su* gr\p1 & all be recogniz$ z simil>1 or ! same 9 a true s5se ( ! ^w4 ,! "q :e!r "o c be 9 a place1 too1 evid5tly has to d1 n ) ! "o1 b a "o1 = spacial or temporal diff]5ces are individualiz+1 & di/+ui% a ?+ f ano!r ?+ ( ! same k9d4 ,to ask :e!r ! "o may or may n be 9 a place is inadmissible4 ,! same error is at ! bottom ( ! argum5t ab\t ! "o's be+ 9 motion or at re/4 ,! "q has no significance except 9 ref]5ce to a "o4 ,if we speak ( ! "o z 9 motion1 we at once put ?is ab/ract elem5t 9 su* a relation to o!r elem5ts t we h no long] ! "o b a "o4 ,! "o _c h *ange 9 itself & rema9 ! "o1 b a "o may *ange a good deal & /ill be a "o4 ,& )\t admitt+ ! ju/ice ( ! argum5t1 t :at has no p>ts _c be 9 any?+1 ! pro( ( ! impossibility ( motion 9 space may be condemn$ m]ely ^u ! gr\nd t x is only ! "o :i* _c h p>ts1 :ile x is only a "o :i* is conc]n$ 9 ! problem ( motion4 ,! same may be said = ! argum5t aga9/ ! "o's com+ into be+ 9 any?+4 ,x is only a "o :i* c be ?\ght z com+ into be+ 9 a ?+1 & a "o may h p>ts4 ,z = ! impossibility ( ! "o's be+ at re/1 on ! gr\nd t to be at re/1 a ?+ mu/ be 9 ! same1 & "o _c be 9 any?+--?is is a repetition ( ! =m] error4 ,a "o may be 9 some?+1 z has be5 po9t$ out1 ev5 on ! basis e/abli%$ at ! outset1 & x is ) ?is1 & n ) ! "o1 t we are conc]n$ 9 ! problem ( re/ & motion4 ,! re/ ( ! argum5t is bas$ ^u errors ( a diff]5t k9d1 & 9 x "o may keep to ! "o ?r\gh\t1 if "o *oose4 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 no reason to ?9k t ! speak] did ?is4 ,he probably "h1 z be=e1 c>ri$ ov] to a "o1 "o ?\ght z an individual ?+1 di/9ctions drawn 9 view ( ! "o1 "o view$ 9 ! ab/ract4 ,z "s ( ! /atem5ts made may be true or false z "o is tak5 9 ?is s5se or t2 & p>ticul>ly z ! ant9omy re/s ^u a misconception z to ! nature ( sam5ess1 ,i w cont9ue ! analysis4 ,:at is to be prov$ is1 fir/1 t "o _c be ! same ) itself or o!r1 or o!r ?an itself or o!r2 & second1 t x _c be l or unlike itself or o!r4 ,! position t ! "o1 if o!r ?an itself1 w\ld n be "o1 & if ! same ) o!r1 w\ld be t o!r1 is some:at ambigu\s4 ,if a "o is 9 "q1 x may und\bt$ly be a "o & yet be o!r ?an any p>ticul> "o2 & x may be ! same ) o!r--ano!r "o--)\t ceas+ to be "o1 if by same we mean simil>4 ,! play ^u words 9 o!r ( o!r x is n necess>y to consid]4 ,! conclusion t "o _c be ! same ) itself is bas$ ^u ! supposition t sam5ess is a quality sup]add$ to ! o!r qualities ( a ?+2 b 9 its fir/ s5se ! ^w does n ev5 s]ve to indicate a relation2 x is m]ely us$ to po9t out ! abs5ce ( duality4 ,bo? a "o & ! "o may be ! same ) !mselves p]fectly well1 & 9 say+ s we d n 9 ?\ght end[ !m ) any quality n already possess$4 ,?is la/ error s]ves also z a basis to ! second p>adoxical position1 t "o _c be l or unlike itself or o!r4 ,x assumes lik5ess & unlik5ess to be qualities add$ to ! o!r qualities ( ?+s :i* are l or unlike4 ,a possible objection to my use ( ! t]m a "o ,i mu/ =e/all be=e pass+ on4 ,i h us$ ?is z synonym\s ) "o object4 ,"o horse is "o object1 & s is "o "p ( a horse4 ,x may be said1 h[ev]1 t a "o may also be us$ to signify a s+le occurr5ce ( on5ess1 z di/+ui%$ f ano!r occurr5ce ( on5ess4 ,t any elem5t ( consci\sness may be di/+ui%$ f any simil> elem5t m]ely by spatial or temporal diff]5ces ,i h argu$ 9 ! fir/ "p ( my monograph4 ,:y may n !n a "o mean ! on5ess ( ?is "o horse1 or ! on5ess ( ?is "p ( ! horse8 ,& if x may1 c a "o ( ?is k9d h p>ts any m ?an ! "o8 ,i answ]1 x _c2 = x is !n only a p>ticul> occurr5ce ( ! quality 7if ,i may s use ! ^w7 ( on5ess4 ,b1 !n1 if we s und]/& ! t]m1 ! argum5t loses all significance4 ,we _c call a "o ( ?is k9d a conta9] or a ?+ conta9$1 or talk ( x z encircl$ by any?+4 ,we d n ev5 try to imag9e x z mov+ on its c5tre1 or pass+ f place to place1 or com+ into be+ 9 any?+1 or be+ at re/ 9 any?+4 ,su* language we use only 9 speak+ ( ?+s4 ,x seems to me pla9 t ! speak] is ?9k+ ( "o z a ?+1 & x is ?is t gives its *>m to ! bundle ( p>adoxes4 ,! ,eleatic "o 0 always a ?+ & n m]e unity or an occurr5ce ( unity4 ,my criticism ( ! reason+ is1 ,i ?9k1 j4 ,& :e!r ,plato is responsible = ! ,p>m5ides or n1 we mu/ agree t su* a confusion ( ! "o & a "o 7z an object7 w\ld n be =eign to 8 modes ( ?\ght4 ,8 _w ( ,ideas is peopl$ ) !'s turn$ into a's1 a fact :i* 8 acute pupil ,ari/otle 0 n sl[ to discov]4#cf #cf ,metaph4 ,,xii1 c4 #d4 ,,sec4 #bf4 ,ari/otle has aga9 & aga9 discuss$ ) 8 usual ke5ness ! k9ds ( sam5ess4 ,he saw well en\gh t ! ^w is ambigu\s1 & may ) equal "r be employ$ 9 speak+ ( exp]i5ces :i* d or d n conta9 an elem5t ( duality4 ,he has po9t$ out t ! law ( non-contradiction has to d ) sam5ess ( ! fir/ k9d1 & n ) ! o!rs4#cg ,8 "q z to ,socrates & ,socrates sitt+1 8 treatm5t ( ,coriscus & ! musical ,coriscus1 8 /atem5t t ! :ite & ! musical are ! same :5 !y are accid5ts 9 ! same subject1#ch %[ t he cle>ly und]/ood ! significance ( sam5ess 9 s5se ?ird4 ,he gives u s5se f\r? :5 he says t ?+s may be call$ ! same :5 !y belong to ! same species or g5us4#ci ,9 8 polemic aga9/ ! ,protagorean doctr9e ( relativity1#dj s5ses six? & sev5? come to ! surface1 ?\gh !y are n v cle>ly or exhau/ively discuss$4 ,! fallacy 9 ! app>5t possibility ( attribut+ contradictory pr$icates to ! same subject1 f ! fact t ! same w9e may appe> sweet to "o ta/] & n sweet to ano!r1 or at "o "t sweet & at ano!r n sweet to ! "o palate1 is laid b>e 9 ! di/9ction betwe5 k9ds ( sam5ess4 ,ari/otle di/+ui%es betwe5 ! w9e itself & ! s5sations x produces 9 diff]5t p]sons1 & he recognizes ! fact t "o man's p]ception ( ! same w9e ne$ n be :olly l t ( ano!r4 ,b ?is does n imply any violation ( ! law ( non-contradiction1 = ea* s5sation is j :at x is at any in/ant2 & ! /atem5t t ! same w9e is sweet & n sweet at ! "o mom5t am\nts only to say+ t ! "o object c cause dissimil> s5sations 9 two m9ds at "o mom5t4 ,z mu* may be said = ! non-simultane\s s5sations ( ! "o man4 ,s5sations diff]+ 9 "t are two1 & may diff] )\t violat+ any law4 ,9 m>k+ ! fact t :5 we say two m5 p]ceive ! same ?+ we d n mean t ! imm$iate object ( k is 9 ! two cases /rictly "o1 b m]ely t ^! two objects are relat$ 9 a peculi> way1 ,ari/otle draws ! l9e betwe5 sam5ess 9 s5se fir/ & 9 s5se six?4 ,z to s5se sev5?4 ,he di/+ui%es betwe5 ! app>5t & ! real1 & yet goes on speak+1 q 9 mod]n fa%ion1 z ?\gh "o ?+ c\ld s]ve = bo?4 ,he po9ts out1 propos ( press+ ^u ! eyeball & d\bl+ ! visual image1 t !re is a di/9ction betwe5 ! app>5t & ! real1 & !n closes ! p>agraph ) ! rem>k t to ^? p]sons :o d n move _! organ ( vision t :i* is "o appe>s "o4#da ,?is language w\ld c]ta9ly seem to indicate t t :i* is appe>s--or t !y are ! same 9 "s /rict s5se ( ! ^w4 ,! s5t5ce reads mu* 9 ! /yle ( ,mr4 ,sp5c] or ,sir ,william ,hamilton4 #cg ,metaph4 ,,iii1 c4 #e1 #aj2 c4 #f1 #c4 #ch ,ibid4 ,,iii1 c4 #b1 #f2 ,,iv1 c4 #f1 #a1 & c4 #i1 #a4 #ci ,ibid4 ,,iv1 c4 #i1 #a1 & c4 #f4 #dj ,ibid4 ,,iii1 c4 #e1 #aj2 ,x1 c4 #f1 #f4 #da ,metaph4 ,x1 c4 #f1 #b4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t ,ari/otle recogniz$ a sam5ess 9 :i* !re is no s5se ( duality1 & sam5esses 9 :i* two ?+s are call$ ! same & yet di/+ui%$ z two4 ,our way ( express+ /rict id5tity1 h[ev]1 a way :i*1 z ,i h %[n1 does n prop]ly express x all--seems to h misl$ him into f9d+ a sort ( quasi duality ev5 "h1 :]e he kn[s x to be really abs5t4 ,9 a *apt]#db devot$ to sam5ess & div]sity1 he closes 8 li/ ( sam5esses ) ! rem>k3 ,x is pla9 t sam5ess is a on5ess ei!r ( two or m ?+s ) ref]5ce to _! ess5ce1 or ( "o ?+ treat$ z two2 z :5 y say a ?+ is ! same ) itself1 = !n y d treat x z two4 ,we d employ two words1 und\bt$ly2 b if we are really ?9k+ a ?+ z itself1 we are n mak+ x dual 9 any s5se :atev]4 ,! quotation smacks j a little ( ,cratylus4 #db ,ibid4 ,,iv1 c4 #i4 ,,sec4 #bg4 ,! sceptical argum5ts ( ,pyrrho are excell5t in/ances ( a confusion ( sam5esses4 ,! argum5t1 = example1 t s9ce an apple se5 by ! eye z yell[ seems to ! ta/e sweet1 & to ! smell z fragrant1 t :i* is se5 is j z likely to be some?+ else z ! reality2#dc ?is argum5t ga9s :at little plausibility x may h f ! assumption t an object se5 & an object ta/$ are 7or ought to be7 ! same 9 s5se fir/ in/ead ( s5se ?ird4 #dc ,diog5es ,lartius4 ,,ix1 #i4 ,& ! compla9ts1 t ?+s believ$ to be l>ge1 sometimes1 z :5 at a di/ance1 appe> small2 t ?+s :i* we believe to be /raight1 sometimes seem b5t2 t ! sun has "o appe>ance 9 ! morn+1 & ano!r at noon2#dd ^!1 & all o!rs l !m1 assume t an object se5 ne> at h& & !n se5 at a di/ance1 a /ick se5 z /raight & !n se5 z crook$1 ! sun on ! horizon & ! sun at ! z5i?1 are 9 ea* case "o /rictly1 & n m]ely "o z ea* elem5t 9 a complex ( exp]i5ces is "o ) ea* o!r elem5t1 :5 any "o may repres5t ! :ole4 ,! conclusion t1 s9ce x is n possible to view ?+s )\t ref]5ce to place & position1 _! true nature _c be kn[n1#de is f\nd$ ^u ?is error4 #dd ,ibid4 loc4 cit4 #de ,ibid4 loc4 cit4 ,?is becomes cle> :5 "o asks1 :at is x1 aft] all1 ! nature ( :i* is s 9 d\bt8 ,is x a /ick8 ! sun8 ,^! words are ambigu\s4 ,two consecutive exp]i5ces ( ! same /ick--z we ord9>ily use ?is ^w 9 speak+ ( /icks--are n /rictly id5tical1 & ne$ n be alike4 ,! /ick se5 on two occasions is n ! same /ick 9 s5se ,i4 ,if ,i limit ! mean+ ( ! words ! /ick to "o ( ^! exp]i5ces1 !n ! true nature ( ! /ick is j :at is exp]i5c$ on t occasion4 ,:at is exp]i5c$ on ! second occasion is ano!r /ick1 & its true nature is also j :at x seems to be4 ,if1 h[ev]1 by ! /ick ,i d n mean only ! exp]i5ce ( "o mom5t1 b a s]ies ( exp]i5ces diff]+ m or less f "o ano!r1 !n ,i am "u no necessity to select "o ( !m z ! true nature ( ! /ick1 = its true nature is no?+ m nor less ?an ! :ole gr\p ( exp]i5ces4 ,if ,i try to discov] or to inv5t "s new exp]i5ce :i* ,i may call ! true nature ( ! gr\p1 ,i am simply add+ to x 9 ?\ght ano!r exp]i5ce :i* takes its place among ^? ! gr\p already conta9s4 ,i am play+ ) ! ^w nature4 ,?is la/ exp]i5ce c\ld n be m important ?an ^? among :i* x is plac$1 & x c\ld n /& = any "o ( !m 9 any o!r way ?an ea* ( !m c\ld /& = x4 ,%\ld x be object$ t by ! /ick "o does n mean ei!r a s+le exp]i5ce ( ! /ick or ! sum total ( ! gr\p ( exp]i5ces1 b a some?+ di/9ct f all ^! & inf]r$ ?r\gh !m1 ,i answ]1 t 9 ?is case ! argum5t f ! v>iability ( exp]i5ces is n to ! po9t4 ,su* a /ick z ?is w\ld be ! same ) ei!r ( ^? j discuss$ only 9 ! sev5? s5se ( ! ^w1 & its nature w\ld be ! same ) _! nature only 9 t s5se too4 ,an exp]i5ce ( ! /ick out ( place & position1 if t 7 conceivable1 w\ld n give u ?is /ick1 = su* an exp]i5ce w\ld /ill be an exp]i5ce4 ,x mu/ nev] be =gott5 t ?is ext]nal /ick is q di/9ct f any or all exp]i5ces1 & c\ld n be giv5 9 exp]i5ces ( any k9d4 ,x c only be inf]r$4 ,if an unv>y+ s]ies ( exp]i5ces is good gr\nd = inf]r+ an unv>y+ ext]nal /ick1 simil> to :at is exp]i5c$1 "o w\ld suppose a v>y+ s]ies ( exp]i5ces w\ld furni% a basis = inf]5ce ( a v>y+ ext]nal /ick1 9 its successive phases l :at is exp]i5c$4 ,unless "s reason is giv5 = a discrim9ation 9 favor ( ! unv>y+ s]ies1 ! argum5t f v>iation does n affect ! ext]nal /ick at all4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t 9 ?is p>ticul> argum5t1 at lea/1 ! ext]nal is n 9 ,pyrrho's m9d at all4 ,:at p]plexes him is1 t :at he is accu/om$ to call a /raight /ick sometimes looks crook$4 ,on reflection he discov]s t he calls x /raight only because x seems /raight on "s occasions2 & if x may at "o "t seem /raight & at ano!r seem crook$1 :i* is x 9 reality8 ,! "q is a v natural "o4 ,! unreflective d n ask x1 because !y assume t "o ( ! exp]i5ces is to be tak5 z express+ ! true nature ( ! object & ! o!r relegat$ to ! sph]e ( m or less deceptive appe>ance4 ,! man :o has begun to reflect does ask x1 because he sees t ! assum$ true nature is an appe>ance too1 & x naturally occurs to him t x also may be deceptive4 ,if he reflect$ m1 he w\ld see t he is p>tly "r & p>tly wrong4 ,we d n reg>d z equally important e elem5t 9 ! gr\p ( exp]i5ces :i* we call an object4 ,c]ta9 elem5ts1 notably ! tactual qualities & ^? visual exp]i5ces :i* give u ! be/ opportunity ( inf]r+ ! tactual qualities1 /& 9 ! =egr\nd :5 we speak ( ! object4 ,we "n ! object accord+ to ^!4 ,9 say+ a /raight /ick we h prom95tly 9 m9d c]ta9 tactual exp]i5ces1 & c]ta9 visual exp]i5ces :i* normally are connect$ ) ^! & give u ! "r to inf] !m4 ,we call any appe>ance delusive :i* leads u to inf] tactual exp]i5ces1 & visual exp]i5ces ( a k9d reg>d$ z be/ repres5tative ( ^! tactual exp]i5ces1 :5 su* _c be actually exp]i5c$4 ,c]ta9 elem5ts 9 ! total gr\p1 :i* is to u an exp]i5c$ object1 may !n prop]ly be reg>d$ z 9 a s5se ! true nature ( ! object1 !y are ! mo/ important "p1 & ! "p to :i* o!r elem5ts are ref]r$4 ,^! elem5ts may ju/ly be reg>d$ z delusive :5 !y mislead u 9 our inf]5ces z to ! important elem5ts4 ,s f> ! common man is "r4 ,& z no elem5t is delusive 9 itself1 b only 9 s f> z x ref]s ! m9d to some?+ else1 & to ! wrong some?+ else1 ^? elem5ts :i* are ultimate & n us$ z signs ( o!rs1 _c be delusive4 ,9 rais+ ?is "q ) reg>d to !m ,pyrrho is wrong4 ,^! elem5ts may1 to be sure1 be us$ z signs or indications ( any o!r elem5ts 9 ! gr\p1 & 9 _! turn made /epp+ /ones2 b ?is is n commonly done1 & language & common ?\ght r>ely m>k logical possibilities4 ,! language 9 use fairly expresses ! attitude ( ! av]age man t[>ds ! elem5ts 9 8 ?\ght4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! unreflective man speaks z if ! less important1 or p]haps ,i _h bett] say less prom95t1 exp]i5ces 7 n a "p ( ! object z he kn[s x4 ,he seems to reg>d ! :ole object z actually pres5t1 :5 a s+le exp]i5ce only is pres5t4 ,9 putt+ all exp]i5ces on ! same plane1 s to speak1 ! ,pyrrhoni/ makes a g5u9e advance4 ,:]e9 he errs is ?is3 ,he sees t a /ick se5 ne> at h& is z mu* an exp]i5ce or appe>ance z a /ick se5 at a di/ance1 & t "o ( ^! ph5om5a does n diff] 9 k9d f ! o!r2 he sees also t to assume t "o is ! real /ick & ! o!r is n1 seems to g ^u ! assumption t !y diff] 9 k9d2 he is consequ5tly unwill+ to call any "o ( 8 exp]i5ces ! real /ick1 & yet he insi/s ^u look+ = a real /ick1 :i* may be express$ 9 a s+le exp]i5ce4 ,x nev] seems to occur to him t ! real /ick may be ! "n ( ! :ole s]ies ( exp]i5ces 9 _! appropriate relations4 ,he wi%es a sam5ess 9 ! /rict s5se1 ) no elem5t ( duality4 ,! /ick se5 /raight 9 ! air1 & se5 b5t 9 ! wat]1 is ! same /ick 9 s5se ?ird4 ,x takes bo? ( ^! exp]i5ces to express ! true nature ( ?is /ick4 ,no "o exp]i5ce c\ld s]ve4 ,x is ! battle betwe5 /ick z a s+le exp]i5ce1 & /ick z a gr\p ( exp]i5ces1 t leads to all ! confusion4 ,i h giv5 z mu* space to ,pyrrho z ,i c>e to1 & ,i w n delay ov] him & 8 successors4 ,^! furni% good mat]ial to "o fond ( analysis4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a great deal ( repetition among ! sceptics4 ,!y occupy !mselves *iefly ei!r 9 conf\nd+ ! fir/ k9d ( sam5ess ) ! ?ird1 z 9 ! prec$+2 or 9 conf\nd+ ! fir/ k9d ) ! six?1 z 9 ! argum5t = unc]ta9ty drawn f ! v>y+ guise "u :i* ! same object appe>s to diff]5t p]sons4 ,! ambiguity ( ! ^w same1 z "h us$1 is app>5t1 & x is 9 ?is ambiguity t !y become entangl$4 ,,sec4 #bh4 ,into ! labyr9?s ( ! s*ola/ic philosophy ,i hesitate to ent]1 & yet ,i c\ld h>dly be excus$ = pass+ on to ! mod]ns )\t at lea/ a ref]5ce to ! great dispute ov] ,univ]sals--a dispute :i* is1 at bottom1 a qu>rel conc]n+ sam5esses4 ,i %all speak ( x v briefly4 ,! object ( ! g5]al t]m or class "n is 9 "q4 ,plato1 di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! univ]sal & ! individual1 betwe5 man & m51 ?\ght x necess>y1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 :o has n1 ,i ?9k1 done him inju/ice1 to assume an object = ! univ]sal outside ( & ap>t f all ! individuals =m+ a class4 ,! ,idea is a real ?+1 ! real ?+ 9 :i* ! individuals p>ticipate1 or ( :i* !y are copies2 b x is n itself to be f\nd 9 any or all ( !m1 except1 s to speak1 9 a figurative or metaphorical way4 ,ari/otle1 f9d+ no reason to assume a new individual1 = s he reg>d$ ! ,platonic ,idea1 plac$ ! univ]sal 9 ! individuals compos+ ! class4 ,c]ta9 ( ! s*oolm51 emphasiz+ ! di/9ction betwe5 real ?+s & m5tal repres5tations1 ma9ta9$ t only individuals h real exi/5ce1 & ass]t$ ei!r t univ]sals exi/ m]ely z peculi> comb9ations ( m5tal elem5ts :i* s]ve to ?9k ! objects =m+ a class1 or t ! univ]sal is ! ^w1 :i* may be appli$ indiff]5tly to _m individuals ( "o k9d4 ,9 ^! views we h ! univ]salia ante rem1 ! univ]salia 9 re1 & ! univ]salia po/ rem2 or extreme ,realism1 mod]ate ,realism1 & ,nom9alism 9 its two =ms4 ,! exam9ation into ! respective m]its ( ! positions :i* h be5 tak5 ) reg>d to univ]sals w be facilitat$ by di/+ui%+ c>efully betwe5 ! diff]5t sph]es ( be+2 t is1 betwe5 ?+s imm$iately kn[n & real ?+s m$iately kn[n1 z also betwe5 ?+s conta9$ 9 "o consci\sness & ^? conta9$ 9 ano!r4 ,x is pla9ly important n to conf\nd ^! classes ) ea* o!r4 ,let u take1 fir/1 a numb] ( resembl+ objects 9 a s+le consci\sness4 ,i h already po9t$ out t :5 we say sev]al su* objects are ! same we d n at all mean to d5y t !y are di/9ct objects4 ,we m]ely wi% to indicate t ea* possesses c]ta9 elem5ts :i*1 tak5 by !mselves1 & aft] mak+ ab/raction f all o!r elem5ts1 r5d] impossible any di/9ction betwe5 diff]5t objects4 ,we di/+ui% two objects z two ?r\gh "s diff]5ce1 ev5 if x be only local or temporal4 ,r$ness comb9$ ) x & r$ness comb9$ ) y are recogniz$ z two occurr5ces ( r$ness1 b ?is only on acc\nt ( x & y4 ,r$ness p]ceiv$ to-day & r$ness p]ceiv$ ye/]day are two occurr5ces ( r$ness1 m>k$ z su* by ! to-day & ! ye/]day4 ,r$ness consid]$ simply conta9s no?+ :i* w all[ ( su* di/9ctions4 ,?is does n imply at all t r$ness consid]$ simply is an occurr5ce ( r$ness--t s9ce we h n two or m occurr5ce ( ! quality we h a s+le occurr5ce ( x1 an individual4 ,we h n1 if we h really ab/ract$ f all save ! r$ness1 any occurr5ce or occurr5ces at all1 = ^! imply j ! elem5ts ( diff]5ce :i* we are endeavor+ to elim9ate4 ,an occurr5ce ( r$ness means r$ness ) a diff]5ce :i* w m>k x out f o!r r$ness1 f ano!r occurr5ce4 ,if1 !n1 "o gives to tw5ty individuals a common "n to indicate t !y resemble ea* o!r1 or are 9 "s s5se ! same1 he %\ld keep cle>ly 9 m9d j :at ?is means4 ,x means t along ) v>i\s diff]+ elem5ts ea* conta9s ! elem5t x4 ,he %\ld rememb] t ea* individual is ! same ) ea* o!r individual only 9 ?is s5se1 s5se f\r?4 ,:5 he proposes to sep>ate ! x f ! o!r elem5ts1 & consid] x sep>ately1 he %\ld be mo/ c>eful to see t he is really tak+ x sep>ately1 & n all[+ %r$s ( =eign matt] to hang to x & give rise to difficulties & p]plexities4 ,he %\ld n ov]look ! fact t !re is a fallacy 9 ! v "q1 ,:e!r ! x 9 "o individual is id5tical 7! same 9 s5se fir/7 ) ! x 9 any o!r individual8 ,if ^! two x's are di/+ui%able z 9 two individuals1 "o is n consid]+ x m]ely1 b x ) o!r elem5ts4 ,! sep>ation ( ! x elem5t f ! o!r elem5ts 9 ! objects is "h n complete1 or "o w\ld be consid]+ n an x or x's1 b x4 ,any "o :o sees ?is mu/ see t he :o asks su* a "q is reta9+ a duality1 & !n try+ to get out ( x an id5tity ) no elem5t ( duality4 ,he is milk+ ! he-goat4 ,he is try+ to r$uce sam5ess 9 s5se f\r? to sam5ess 9 s5se fir/4 ,tw5ty objects imm$iately kn[n mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) tw5ty real ?+s n imm$iately kn[n1 & ( :i* ! objects are suppos$ to be repres5tatives4 ,^! two classes are ! same ) ea* o!r only 9 s5se sev5?4 ,i h discuss$ 9 detail 9 ! fir/ "p ( my monograph ! sam5esses ( real ?+s1 & x is n necess>y to repeat :at ,i h said4 ,x is en\gh to /ate t x 0 !re made evid5t t :5 we speak ( a numb] ( simil> real ?+s z ! same1 we use ! ^w 9 s5se f\r?1 & h 9 m9d j ! elem5ts :i* are pres5t :5 we speak ( sev]al simil> imm$iate objects ( k z ! same4 ,we are m]ely c>ry+ ov] to a set ( imag9$ duplicates a di/9ction :i* we obs]ve 9 objects recogniz$ z )9 consci\sness4 ,:51 !re=e1 we give tw5ty real ?+s a common "n1 & =m !m into a class1 because !y are alike1 we mean t along ) v>i\s o!r real elem5ts1 ea* ( ^! objects conta9s ! real elem5t x4 ,! ^w same means to u j :at x does :5 we speak ( tw5ty simil> imm$iate objects z ! same4 ,we h *ang$ only ! objects2 we h n *ang$ ! sam5ess & all t dep5ds ^u x4 ,two su* objects are ! same 9 s5se f\r?1 & nev] 9 s5se fir/4 ,if !y c\ld be ! same 9 s5se fir/1 !y w\ld n be two4 ,:5 a man und]takes to sep>ate 9 ?\ght ! real x elem5t f ! o!r real elem5ts 9 two or m su* objects1 he %\ld be c>eful1 z 9 ! case ( imm$iate objects1 to make a complete sep>ation & n a p>tial "o4 ,he %\ld see "h1 too1 t ! "q :e!r ! x 9 "o object & ! x 9 ano!r are /rictly id5tical1 is a fooli% "o4 ,?is x & t x are n /rictly id5tical1 or !y w\ld n be ?is x & t x4 ,remove completely ! ?is & ! t & all o!r diff]+ elem5ts--leave1 t is1 only x1 & ! possibility ( any su* "q simply disappe>s4 ,if !re /ill seem to anyone gr\nd = a "q 9 ! premises1 x is evid5ce t he is n consid]+ m]ely x4 ,he is try+ to keep two ?+s two1 & yet make !m "o4 ,tw5ty objects 9 "o consci\sness mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) tw5ty objects 9 ano!r4 ,:5 we speak ( two m5 z see+ ! same ?+1 we d n mean t ! object 9 "o m9d is ! same ) ! object 9 ! o!r 9 s5se fir/1 b 9 s5se six?4 ,?is does n prev5t !m f be+ two4 ,a s+le object 9 "o m9d may be ! same ) itself 9 s5se fir/4 ,a numb] ( simil> objects 9 "o m9d may be ! same 9 s5se f\r?4 ,two objects or two classes ( objects 9 diff]5t m9ds may be ! same 9 s5se six?4 ,"o may1 to be sure1 ?9k ( tw5ty objects 9 "o m9d1 & ( ! same 7s5se six?7 tw5ty objects 9 ano!r m9d z =ty objects4 ,philosophical reflection naturally leads to ?is4 ,i am induc+ a read] to d x :5 ,i tell him t an object 9 "o m9d & ! same object 9 ano!r are two objects4 ,b 9 do+ ?is1 "o mu/ be> 9 m9d ! fact t ! =ty objects belong to two q di/9ct classes1 & t common language w\ld n reckon !m z =ty1 b z tw5ty4 ,9 ?is !re is1 ( c\rse1 a pitfall = ! unw>y4 ,n[1 :5 ,plato look$ = ! object ( ! g5]al "n1 = ! x conta9$ 9 a class ( simil> objects1 :at did he d8 ,he creat$ a new object di/9ct f & ap>t f all ! o!rs4 ,he is v vague 9 8 /atem5ts1 & he 0 probably q z vague 9 8 ?\ght2 b ,i _c see h[ anyone famili> ) ! ,pha$rus1 ! ,republic1 ! ,timaeus1 ! ,symposium & ! ,p>m5ides1 & famili> ) ,plato's concrete way ( ?9k+ 9 images1 c avoid com+ to ! conclusion t ! ,idea 0 to him pr$om9antly an object1 an individual--a vague & inconsi/5t object1 if y please1 b /ill an object4 ,b an x is 9 no s5se a univ]sal4 ,x is ! same ) o!r x's only 9 s5se f\r?2 t is1 x is l !m4 ,! x t !y h 9 common mu/ be x consid]$ simply1 n x consid]$ z "h or !re1 9 ?is place or 9 t4 ,all su* diff]5ces mu/ be elim9at$ if "o is to get n an individual1 b a univ]sal4 ,if ! ,idea may be consid]$ z ap>t f objects1 x is an object 9 s f> n ess5tially diff]+ f ! o!rs4 ,aga91 ! ,platonic ,idea is an object1 b n to be put ^u ! same plane ) o!r objects4 ,!y suff] *ange1 :ile x is immutable2 !y are p]ceivable by ! s5ses1 & x is n4 ,! objects ( s5se & ! ,idea are 9 diff]5t worlds2 & ?\gh we _c accuse ,plato ( draw+ ! di/9ctions ( ! mod]n hypo!tical reali/1 he has c]ta9ly giv5 u a sugge/ive p>allel to ! ,lockian ideas & real ?+s4 ,! tr\ble has aris5 out ( 8 difficulty 9 keep+ an ab/raction ab/ract2 he has turn$ x into a concrete1 &1 f9d+ 9 ! _w ( s5se no place = ?is concrete1 ?is new individual1 he has giv5 x a _w ( its own4 ,:atev] ?is object 9 ?is _w ap>t may be1 x is c]ta9ly n :at is common to tw5ty individuals 9 ! _w ( s5sible ?+s4 ,ari/otle1 see+ ?is difficulty1 plac$ ! idea 9 ! objects =m+ ! class4 ,x may be object$ t putt+ x 9 a place individualizes x z mu* z putt+ x out ( a place4 ,?is is q true if ! 9 is tak5 locally--tak5 z x is :5 we speak ( a man z be+ 9 "o room r ?an ano!r4 ,! x 9 "o object is n id5tically ! x 9 ano!r object4 ,we d n get ! univ]sal1 x 9 ! ab/ract1 until we lose ! di/9ctions 9 ! "o object1 & 9 ! o!r object4 ,two x's _c be ! same 9 s5se fir/1 f ! m]e fact t !y are two2 an x 9 "o place & an x 9 ano!r place are always two4 ,if1 h[ev]1 by ! /atem5t t ! univ]sal is 9 ! objects1 "o mean m]ely t ! univ]sal is t elem5t x1 :i*1 comb9$ ) c]ta9 elem5ts1 =ms a total :i* is kn[n z ?is object1 & comb9$ ) c]ta9 o!rs =ms a total :i* is kn[n z t1 b tak5 by itself conta9s no di/9ction ( ?is & t2 if ?is is all t is meant by ! 91 !re is no objection to ! use ( ! /atem5t1 & x is /rictly true4 ,! x elem5t is a "p ( ea* ( ! objects1 b1 until "s addition is made to x1 x is n ! x 9 ?is object or ! x 9 t object2 x is :at !y h 9 common4 ,! 9 common means j ?is4 ,! ,nom9ali/ic doctr9e t only individuals h real exi/5ce1 & t ! univ]sal1 :atev] x may be1 is to be s\ght 9 ! m9d1 di/+ui%es betwe5 ! sph]es ( be+ & d5ies to "o :at x all[s to ano!r4 ,( ! extreme nom9ali/ic position1 t ! only true univ]sal is ! ^w1 :i* may be appli$ indiff]5tly to sev]al di/9ct objects1 ,i %all n "h speak4 ,i h discuss$ ?is :olly unt5able view else:]e4#df ,b ! m reasonable ,nom9alism1 ! conceptuali/ic1 is wor?y ( exam9ation "h4 ,9 s f> z x holds t ! m9d c =m a concept1 :i* %all consi/ ( ! elem5t or elem5ts sev]al objects h 9 common1 we h no qu>rel ) x4 ,"h we f9d a true univ]sal1 obta9$ by disc>d+ diff]5ces :i* di/+ui% objects f "o ano!r4 ,we obta9 by ?is t m5tal core common to sev]al simil> m5tal objects4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we di/+ui% betwe5 m5tal objects & real ?+s correspond+ to !m1 we h evid5tly two di/9ct fields to consid]4 ,:5 we say a numb] ( objects 9 consci\sness are alike1 we are simply po9t+ out ! fact t !y conta9 a univ]sal elem5t z well z individual diff]5ces4 ,c we say t a numb] ( real objects are alike8 ,if s1 :at d we mean 9 say+ x8 ,if !re is no?+ to prev5t u f call+ !m individuals1 !re w\ld seem to be no?+ to prev5t u f affirm+ t !y are really alike4 ,does lik5ess ev] mean any?+ except sam5ess 9 diff]5ce8 ,is n1 !n1 ! elem5t 9 :i* sev]al objects resemble ea* o!r a univ]sal elem5t1 :e!r ! objects be m5tal or real8 ,:at else does univ]sal mean8 ,! excuse = speak+ ceases :5 language ceases to be significant4 ,"o does n 9 ! lea/ expla9 ! simil>ity1 or sam5ess 9 ! f\r? s5se1 ( a numb] ( real objects1 by assum+ a univ]sal 9 a q diff]5t _w--"o :i* c\ld n possibly exi/ 9 ! _w ( ! objects4 ,?is solution ( ! problem is ,platonic4 ,! elem5t :i* tw5ty real objects h 9 common mu/ be a real elem5t1 or x _c be a con/itu5t "p ( ea* object4 ,if x is n a con/itu5t "p ( ea* object1 x is absurd to speak ( ! objects z hav+ x 9 common4 ,if !y h no?+ 9 common1 x is absurd to say t !y are alike4 ,tw5ty simil> objects mu/ h a univ]sal elem5t1 to :atev] sph]e ( be+ !y belong2 & ?is elem5t mu/ belong to ! same sph]e z ! objects4 ,a m5tal univ]sal is ! same ) a real univ]sal only 9 s5se sev5?1 & x c furni% no explanation ( ! lik5ess ( real ?+s4 #df ,see my ,conception ( ! ,inf9ite1 ,*4 ,,vi 7,j4 ,b4 ,lipp9cott ,co41 ,philadelphia74 ,x is b fair to /ate t my criticism ( ,realism 9 ?is volume is direct$ aga9/ ! ante rem ,realism4 ,i did n h ! ,mod]ate ,realism 9 m9d1 & :at ,i said w n apply to x4 ,9 ! light ( ! =ego+ analysis a goodly numb] ( ! s*ola/ic argum5ts reg>d+ univ]sals are easily se5 to conta9 errors4 ,! ,anselmic view ( g5]a & species z univ]sal sub/ances1#dg = in/ance1 makes an ab/raction a ?+ & di/+ui%es x f o!r ?+s4 ,x fails to keep x ab/ract4 ,! doctr9e attribut$ to ,william ( ,*ampeaux1 by ,abel>d1 t univ]sals are ess5tially & :olly pres5t 9 ea* ( _! individuals1 9 :i* latt] !re is no div]sity ( ess5ce1 b only v>iety ?r\gh accid5ts1#dh is t5able or n accord+ to ! s5se 9 :i* ! words are tak54 ,! ^w :olly is an awkw>d "o1 & w\ld incl9e "o to ! view t ,william reg>d$ ! univ]sal z a ?+1 a concrete1 :i* may be 9 ?is place or t4 ,if ?is 7 8 op9ion1 & x is p]haps m reasonable to believe t x 01 ! objection ( ,abel>d1 t ?is w\ld necessitate ! same ?+'s be+ 9 diff]5t places at ! same "t1 w\ld hold good4 ,if ! ess5ce ( humanity be :olly 9 ,socrates1 x mu/ be :]e ,socrates is4 ,x _c1 !n1 be some:]e else 9 ,plato4 ,manife/ly humanity1 s reg>d$1 is n a univ]sal at all4 ,x is ?is humanity or t humanity1 i4 e41 ?is or t occurr5ce ( humanity2 & two occurr5ces ( a quality or gr\p ( qualities are two individuals4 ,! ^w 9 ,i h %[n to be ambigu\s4 ,any elem5t1 reg>d$ z1 9 "o s5se1 9 an individual1 reta9s ! local flavor :i* makes univ]sality impossible4 ,b if ,william meant no?+ m by 8 /atem5t ?an t ! elem5t common to ! individuals is a con/itu5t "p ( ea*1 & t !re is 9 x no di/9ction :i* w all[ u to put x "p "h & "p !re1 ! polemic ( ,abel>d is n ju/ifiable4 ,:atev] he may h int5d$ to say1 !re c be no mi/ake z to ! mean+ ( ! foll[+ s5t5ce f ,rob]t ,pulleyn3 ,! species is ! :ole sub/ance ( individuals1 & ! :ole species is ! same 9 ea* individual3 !re=e ! species is "o sub/ance1 b its individuals _m p]sons1 & ^! _m p]sons are t "o sub/ance4#di ,! dialectician repres5t$ z say+ ?is1 ought to h be5 a prey to pr(\nd melan*oly2 8 sam5esses are cle>ly 9 deplorable confusion4 ,he makes 8 univ]sal an individual1 & !n imposes ^u x duties :i* no individual c fulfil ) cr$it4 ,x is to be "o & yet n "o3 di/9ct f some?+ else1 & yet id5tical ) x4 ,x is to be a univ]sal & n a univ]sal4 ,x is by no means to be envi$4 ,! conceptuali/ic position ( ,abel>d1 t we may ga9 a subjective univ]sal by ab/raction1 b t only individuals exi/ 9 reality1 is op5 to ! objections t ,i advanc$ 9 discuss+ ,nom9alism4 ,! position is support$#ej by ! argum5t t we may ab/ract ! =m f ! sub/antial subject to :i* x is unit$1 & consid] x sep>ately1 :ile 9 nature !re is no su* ab/raction1 ! =m & ! subject =m+ a unit$ :ole4 ,to ?is "o may answ]1 z ,i h indicat$ above1 t1 :atev] x may be unit$ )1 ! =m 9 ! sev]al individuals is 9 "s s5se ! same1 or ! individuals w\ld n be alike1 & ! concept w\ld be ( no s]vice 9 repres5t+ x4 ,:at is meant by su* sam5ess8 ,is x any?+ b sam5ess 9 s5se f\r?8 ,:5 sev]al objects are ! same 9 s5se f\r?1 is n ! elem5t common to !m a univ]sal8 ,:y make ?is conceptuali/ic discrim9ation betwe5 ?+s 9 m9d & real ?+s8 #dg ,haurau4 ,philos4 ,s*ola/ique4 ,p>is1 #ahgb4 ,i1 p4 #bha4 #dh ,hi/oria ,calamitatum1 quot$ by ,haurau4 ,i1 p4 #cbd4 #di ,species e/ tota sub/antia individuorum1 totaque species eademque 9 s+ulis rep]itur individuis3 itaque species una e/ sub/antia1 ejus v]o individua mult p]son1 et h mult p]son sunt illa una sub/antia4 7,s5t5t41 p4 ,i1 c4 ,,iii47--,quot$ by ,haurau1 ,i1 p4 #cbh4 #ej ,haurau1 ,i1 #chj-cha4 ,! argum5t is tak5 f ! ,de ,intellectibus4 ,f9ally1 9 pass+ f s*ola/icism1 ,i w\ld sugge/ t x is conducive to cle>ness 9 ?9k+ to be> 9 m9d t :5 ,alb]t1 or ,?omas1 or ,duns1 decl>es 9 favor ( all ?ree k9ds ( univ]sal1 ante rem1 9 re1 & po/ rem1 he is decl>+ = ?ree ?+s & n "o4 ,he is n at all 9 ! position ( ! old ,platonic ,reali/2 b is r1 if ,i may s express x1 a k9d ( triple ,ari/otelian4 ,"o may p]fectly well hold to all ?ree univ]sals1 by putt+ "o 9 ! m9d ( ,god1 "o 9 ?+s1 & "o 9 a human m9d2 b an individual may be giv5 ?is ?ree-fold exi/5ce q z well z a univ]sal4 ,9 ! old ,realism ! problem ( ! univ]sal call$ into exi/5ce a new sph]e ( be+4 ,"h a new sph]e ( be+1 assum$ ^u extrane\s gr\nds1 furni%es "o m univ]sal4 ,! univ]sals 9 ! m9d ( ,god are n assum$ z ! object ( ! g5]al "n appli$ to tw5ty real objects4 ,! object ( ?is "n is ! 9 re4 ,! ante rem univ]sal _c1 !n1 be gott5 z ,plato got x4 ,9 ?is di/9ction betwe5 ! diff]5t sph]es ( be+ we h an advance 9 reflection2 b z ,i h said1 on ?is new gr\nd ! individual may dem& its rights4 ,! ante rem ,realism ( ! great s*ola/ics ( ! ?irte5? c5tury %\ld n be conf\nd$ ) t ( an e>li] p]iod4 ,x is n op5 to ! same objections4 ,b on ! o!r h&1 x has n ! same excuse = exi/5ce4 ,x is a hi/orical relic4 ,,sec4 #bi4 ,! fir/ ( ! mod]ns to :om ,i %all ref] is ,desc>tes4 ,!re are c]ta9 passages 9 ! ,m$itations :i* w well illu/rate ! ef=ts made by ?is rem>kable man 9 ! direction ( accurate analysis1 z also ! errors into :i* he fell ?r\gh a confusion ( ! k9ds ( sam5ess4 ,i %all quote f ! second & ?ird ,m$itations3 ,let u n[ accord+ly consid] ! ?+s :i* are commonly ?\ght ! easie/ ( all to "k1 & :i* are ?\ght also to be ! mo/ di/9ctly kn[n1 t is1 ! bodies t we t\* & see2 n inde$ bodies 9 g5]al1 = ^! g5]al notions are usually a little m confus$3 b let u consid] a s+le "o ( !m4 ,let u take1 = example1 ?is bit ( wax2 x has j be5 tak5 f ! hive2 x has n yet lo/ ! sweetness ( ! honey x conta9$2 x /ill keeps some?+ ( ! odor ( ! fl[]s f :i* x has be5 ga!r$2 its color1 its figure1 its size1 are app>5t2 x is h>d1 x is cold1 x is easily h&l$1 & if /ruck x gives a s\nd4 ,9 a ^w1 ev]y?+ t c make a body di/9ctly kn[n is f\nd 9 ?is "o4 ,b notice1 :ile ,i speak1 x is plac$ ne> ! fire2 :at rema9$ ( savor & odor disappe>s1 its color *anges1 its figure is lo/1 its size increases1 x becomes liquid1 gr[s hot1 "o c sc>cely h&le x1 & :5 /ruck x no long] gives a s\nd4 ,does ! same wax rema9 aft] ?is *ange8 ,"o mu/ admit t x does2 no "o d\bts x2 no "o judges o!rwise4 ,:at !n 0 x t 0 kn[n ) s mu* di/9ctness 9 ?is bit ( wax8 ,c]ta9ly no?+ t ,i p]ceiv$ by means ( ! s5ses1 = all ! ?+s :i* fall "u ta/e1 smell1 sight1 t\* & he>+1 are *ang$1 & yet ! same wax rema9s4 ,p]haps x 0 :at ,i ?9k n[1 namely1 t ?is wax 0 nei!r ! sweetness ( honey1 ! agreeable odor ( fl[]s1 ! :it5ess1 ! figure1 nor ! s\nd1 b only a body :i* a little be=e appe>$ to my s5ses "u ^! =ms1 & :i* n[ appe>s to !m "u o!rs4 ,b to speak precisely1 :at d ,i imag9e :5 ,i ?9k x 9 ?is way8 ,let u consid] x att5tively1 & ab/ract+ all t does n belong to ! wax1 let u see :at rema9s4 ,surely no?+ rema9s b some?+ ext5d$1 flexible & mutable4 ,b :at is t1 flexible & mutable8 ,is x n t ,i imag9e t ?is bit ( wax1 be+ r\nd1 is capable ( becom+ squ>e & ( *ang+ f squ>e to triangul>8 ,no1 x is c]ta9ly n t1 = ,i ?9k x capable ( an inf9ite numb] ( simil> *anges2 b ,i c\ld n run ?r\gh ?is inf9ite numb] by my imag9ation1 & consequ5tly ?is conception t ,i h ( ! wax is n due to ! faculty ( imag9ation4 ,b :at n[ is ?is ext5sion8 ,is x n also unkn[n8 ,= x becomes great] :5 ! wax melts1 great] :5 x boils1 & /ill great] :5 ! heat increases1 & ,i c\ld n conceive cle>ly & truly :at wax is1 if ,i did n ?9k t ev5 ?is bit t we are consid]+ is capable ( receiv+ m v>ieties ( ext5sion ?an ,i h ev] imag9$4 ,x mu/ !n be admitt$ t ,i c\ld n compreh5d by imag9ation ev5 :at ?is bit ( wax is1 & t only my und]/&+ c compreh5d x4 ,i say ?is p>ticul> bit ( wax2 = z = wax 9 g5]al1 x is /ill m evid5t4 ,b :at is ?is bit ( wax t _c be compreh5d$ save by ! und]/&+ or ! m9d8 ,x is c]ta9ly ! same t ,i see1 t ,i t\*1 t ,i imag9e2 x is1 9 a ^w1 ! same t ,i h always ?\ght x f ! beg9n+4 ,b1 :at is important to note "h is1 t my p]ception is n a s5sation ( sight1 nor ( t\*1 nor an act ( ! imag9ation1 & x has nev] be5 ?is1 al?\gh x may h seem$ s be=e2 b x is m]ely an intuition 7inspection7 ( ! m9d1 :i* may be imp]fect & confus$ z x 0 be=e1 or cle> & di/9ct z x is at pres5t1 accord+ z my att5tion is direct$ m or less to ! elem5ts 9 x1 & ( :i* x is compos$4 ,h[ev]1 ,i _c be too mu* surpris$ :5 ,i consid] ! weakness ( my m9d & its pron5ess to be c>ri$ ins5sibly into error4 ,= ev5 :5 ,i consid] all ?is 9 my own m9d1 & )\t us+ language1 ! words arre/ me1 & ,i am almo/ deceiv$ by ! t]ms 9 common use2 = we say t we see ! same wax if x be pres5t1 & n t we judge t x is ! same1 f its hav+ ! same color & figure2 :5ce ,i might be tempt$ to conclude t "o kn[s ! wax by ! sight ( ! eyes1 & n m]ely by ! intuition ( ! m9d1 7 x n t1 9 look+ f a w9d[ at m5 pass+ 9 ! /reet1 ,i say t ,i see m51 j z ,i say t ,i see ! wax2 & yet :at d ,i see f ?is w9d[ except hats & cloaks :i* might cov] ma*9es mov$ by spr+s8 ,b ,i judge t !y are m51 & ?us compreh5d only by ! p[] ( judg+1 :i* is 9 my m9d1 :at ,i ?\ght ,i saw ) my eyes4#ea #ea ,mditation ,deuxime4--,ed4 ,simon1 ,p>is1 #ahfj1 pp4 #gf-gh4 ,9 ?is extract ! au?or attempts to di/+ui% betwe5 :at is ?\ght & :at is p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses or imag9$4 ,_h he rema9$ )9 ! sph]e ( ! imm$iately kn[n1 "o c\ld n h object$ to su* a di/9ction4 ,sam5ess 9 s5se ?ird is some?+ highly complex1 imply+ t elaboration ( m5tal elem5ts :i* we call ?\ght4 ,x is q j to di/+ui% ! notion a bit ( wax f any s+le s5se exp]i5ce or picture ( ! imag9ation4 ,9 do+ ?is ,desc>tes 0 se>*+ = sam5ess 9 s5se ?ird4 ,b :5 he leaves ! sph]e ( consci\sness1 & assumes t :at rema9s ! same 9 ! bit ( wax is some?+ di/9ct f ! sum total ( exp]i5ces1 z m5 are di/9ct f _! g>m5ts1 he falls into error4 ,x is aga9/ ?is t ! criticism 9 ! text is direct$4 ,:at ,desc>tes is feel+ = 9 ?is is sam5ess 9 s5se ?ird4 ,:5 we use ! words a bit ( wax1 we d n h 9 m9d a s+le exp]i5ce4 ,! wax 9 a solid & ! wax 9 a liquid /ate is to u ! same wax4 ,i h po9t$ out :at ! ^w same1 s us$1 means4 ,x means t ^! two exp]i5ces are recogniz$ z belong+ to ! "o gr\p or s]ies ( exp]i5ces2 & ! wax1 completely kn[n1 is ! sum total ( ! s]ies4 ,desc>tes saw v well t ! two exp]i5ces "u discussion are n /rictly id5tical 7! same 9 s5se fir/71 & he saw also t !y are v unlike4 ,he naturally ask$1 ,9 :at !n are !y ! same8 or1 :at is !re t is "h ! same8 ,&1 in/ead ( accept+ ! fact t su* a sam5ess z ?is _c be r$uc$ to "o ( ! o!rs1 he solv$ ! problem by pass+ f ! exp]i5ces1 ! hats & cloaks1 to a real ?+ und]ly+4 ,9 o!r words1 to expla9 ! sam5ess ( two exp]i5ces ( a bit ( wax1 sam5ess 9 s5se ?ird1 he assum$ real wax1 :i* is ! same ) ! exp]i5ces :i* repres5t x only 9 s5se sev5?4 ,?is real wax1 or some?+ 9 x1 he supposes to rema9 ! same on two occasions4 ,x is ?is to :i* he makes ! m9d ref] :5 x calls ! wax ! same4 ,b :5 a man advances /atem5ts ab\t a bit ( wax1 8 in=mation re/s ultimately ^u 8 exp]i5ces1 if x be gr\nd$ at all4 ,f ! exp]i5ce "o inf]s ! real ?+1 & n vice v]sa4 ,no "o knew ?is bett] ?an ,desc>tes1 ) 8 fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! c]ta9ty ( consci\sness & ! unc]ta9ty ( :at is ext]nal4 ,he got 8 real _w by a process ( reason+1 & put x 9 a realm :olly cut (f f direct obs]vation4 ,?is be+ ! case1 "o _c b wond] at 8 inconsi/5cy 9 ! pres5t in/ance4 ,is "o to rema9 9 d\bt :e!r a piece ( wax felt to be h>d1 & !n melt$ be=e ! fire1 is ! same1 until "o has _h "s means ( discov]+ t ! same real wax is pres5t on ! two occasions8 ,h[ is "o to f9d out :e!r real wax is ev] pres5t unless he inf] its pres5ce f "s exp]i5ce8 ,& h[ is "o to "k t ! same real wax is pres5t on two occasions unless he inf] x f ! fact t :at is directly p]ceiv$ on ! two occasions is ! same 9 "s s5se ( ! ^w8 ,:atev] sam5ess !re is re/s ultimately = its evid5ce ^u ! exp]i5ces4 ,!re is no?+ else to judge f4 ,! reason+1 :i* w\ld base ! sam5ess ( :at is exp]i5c$ ^u ! sam5ess ( a correspond+ real ?+1 :5 ! sam5ess ( ?is latt] is to be inf]r$ f ! =m]1 rem9ds "o ( ! /upid argum5t1 /ill occasionally met )1 :i* w\ld inf] a ,god f data ( consci\sness1 & !n f\nd a belief 9 ! v]acity ( consci\sness ^u ! goodness ( ,god4 ,"o may believe1 if "o please1 t1 :5 we h two di/9ct exp]i5ces s connect$ t we call !m two p]ceptions ( ! same wax1 !re is 9 "s way connect$ ) !m a bit ( real wax :i* rema9s 9 "s s5se ! same4 ,b "o %\ld nev] suppose t any giv5 exp]i5c$ wax is prov$ ! same by ref]5ce to ?is4 ,x is judg$ ! same ^u obs]vation4 ,desc>tes !n 0 inconsi/5t ) 8 own pr9ciples :5 he made ?is jump to a new sph]e ( be+4 ,! sam5ess ( ! exp]i5c$ object is ultimate2 ! only p]t95t "q is1 :at does x mean8 ,x means1 z ,i h said1 t ! wax h>d & ! wax s(t are ! same 9 s5se ?ird4 ,b sam5ess 9 s5se ?ird admits ( wide dissimil>ities 9 ! exp]i5ces x unites into ! notion ( ! "o object4 ,desc>tes look$ = a sam5ess )\t ^! dissimil>ities4 ,he w\ld r$uce s5se ?ird to s5se fir/1 or1 p]haps1 to s5se second4 ,to d ?is he mu/ g beh9d ! exp]i5ces to a real ?+1 :i* is to rema9 ! same z a proxy = :at is evid5tly v>iable4 ,?is make%ift is only satisfactory to "o :o ov]looks1 or all[s to fall into ! backgr\nd1 ! pla9 fact t repres5tative & ?+ repres5t$ are two sep>ate ?+s & n to be confus$2 t is1 :o confuses sam5ess 9 s5se fir/ ) sam5ess 9 s5se sev5?4 ,desc>tes di/+ui%$ c>efully betwe5 ideas & ext]nal ?+s1 b he sometimes ov]look$ ! di/9ction4 ,b :at is ?is bit ( wax t _c be compreh5d$ save by ! und]/&+ or ! m9d8 ,x is c]ta9ly ! same t ,i see1 t ,i t\*1 t ,i imag9e2 x is1 9 a ^w1 ! same t ,i h always ?\ght x f ! beg9n+4 ,h[ ambigu\s6 is x ! same 9 s5se fir/ or s5se sev5?8 ,! s5t5ce foll[+ w\ld indicate s5se sev5?1 b ! _s ( ! :ole discussion w\ld argue = s5se fir/4 ,"o mu/ delude oneself into believ+ t "o c get at real wax directly1 9 "s way or o!r1 or "o _c ?9k ( mak+ x an ultimate gr\nd ( reason+4 ,desc>tes1 l s _m o!rs1 w\ld seem to h vibrat$ betwe5 a cle> consci\sness t ideas & real ?+s are di/9ct1 belong+ to diff]5t worlds1 & a confus$ belief t !y belong to ! "o _w1 & t real ?+s are op5 to direct obs]vation4 ,i %all take /ill ano!r extract f ?is au?or4 ,x conta9s simil> errors4 ,n[1 among ^! ideas1 "s appe> to me to be inborn1 o!rs to be =eign & to come f )\t1 & /ill o!rs to be made & inv5t$ by myself4 ,=1 z to ! faculty ( conceiv+ t :i*1 9 g5]al1 "o calls a ?+1 or a tru?1 or a ?\ght1 x appe>s to me t ,i d n get t f any o!r s\rce ?an my own nature2 b if n[ ,i he> a s\nd1 if ,i see ! sun1 if ,i feel ! heat1 up to ! pres5t ,i h judg$ t ^! s5sations proce$ f ?+s :i* exi/ )\t me2 & la/ly1 x seems to me t syr5s1 hippogriffs1 & all simil> *im]as are fictions & inv5tions ( my m9d4 ,b p]haps ,i c p]suade myself1 t all ^! ideas belong to ! class ( ^? t ,i call =eign1 & t come to me f )\t1 or t !y are all innate1 or else t !y are all creat$ by myself2 = ,i h n yet cle>ly discov]$ _! true s\rce4 ,& my *ief duty "h is to consid]1 t\*+ ^? :i* seem to come f objects )\t me1 :at reasons ,i h = ?9k+ !m l _! objects4 ,! fir/ ( ! reasons is t ,i seem to be taught to d s by nature2 & ! second1 t ,i p]ceive t ^! ideas are n dep5d5t ^u my w2 = (t5 !y pres5t !mselves to me 9 spite ( me1 z n[1 :e!r ,i wi% x or n1 ,i feel heat1 & consequ5tly am p]suad$ t ?is s5sation or idea ( heat is produc$ 9 me by some?+ diff]5t f me1 to wit3 by ! heat ( ! fire by :i* ,i am sitt+4 ,& ,i _c see t any?+ is m reasonable ?an to judge t ?is ext]nal object emits & impresses ^u me its resemblance r ?an any?+ else4 ,n[ ,i mu/ see if ^! reasons are suffici5tly /rong & conv9c+4 ,:5 ,i say t ,i seem to be taught s by nature1 ,i mean m]ely by ?is ^w nature a c]ta9 incl9ation :i* leads me to believe x1 & n a natural light :i* gives me c]ta9 k t x is true4 ,b ^! two ways ( speak+ are v diff]5t1 = ,i _c d\bt any?+ t ! natural light %[s me to be true1 z x has j %[n me t f ! fact ( my d\bt+ ,i may inf] my exi/5ce2 inasmu* z ,i h n 9 me any o!r faculty or p[] ( di/+ui%+ ! true f ! false to tea* me t :at ?is light %[s me to be true is n true1 & 9 :i* ,i may h z mu* confid5ce z 9 x4 ,b z conc]ns incl9ations :i* also seem to me natural1 ,i h (t5 rem>k$1 :5 x has be5 a "q ( *oice betwe5 virtues & vices1 t !y d n less incl9e to evil ?an to good2 x foll[s t ,i h no m reason to foll[ !m :5 ! true & ! false are 9 "q4 ,& z = ! o!r reason1 :i* is t ^! ideas mu/ come f )\t1 s9ce !y are n dep5d5t on my w1 ,i d n f9d x m conv9c+4 ,= :ile ^! incl9ations ( :i* ,i h j spok5 are 9 me1 not)/&+ t !y are n always 9 h>mony ) my w1 p]haps !re is 9 me "s faculty or p[] capable ( produc+ ^! ideas )\t ! aid ( ext]nal ?+s1 al?\gh x is yet unkn[n to me2 z inde$ x has always seem$ to me up to ?is "t t :5 ,i sleep !y are ?us =m$ 9 me )\t ! aid ( ! objects !y repres5t4 ,f9ally1 ev5 %\ld ,i admit t !y are caus$ by ^! objects1 x does n necess>ily foll[ t !y mu/ be l !m4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,i h (t5 rem>k$ 9 _m in/ances1 t !re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 an object & its idea3 z1 = example1 ,i f9d 9 me two v diff]5t ideas ( ! sun2 ! "o has its s\rce 9 ! s5ses1 & %\ld be plac$ 9 ! class ( ^? :i* ,i h said above come f )\t1 & f ?is x seems to me v small2 ! o!r has x orig9 9 a/ronomical reason+s1 t is to say1 9 c]ta9 notions :i* are inborn1 or else =m$ 9 "s way or o!r by myself1 & f ?is x seems to me _m times great] ?an ! :ole e>?4 ,surely1 ^! two ideas :i* ,i h ( ! sun _c bo? be l ! same sun2 & reason conv9ces me t ! "o :i* is d]iv$ directly f its appe>ance is ! "o :i* is mo/ unlike x4 ,all ( :i* proves to me t1 up to ?is h\r1 x has n be5 by a sure & prem$itat$ judgm5t1 b m]ely by a bl9d & ra% impulse1 t ,i h be5 l$ to believe t !re are ?+s )\t me1 & diff]5t f my be+1 :i*1 by ! organs ( my s5ses1 or by :atev] o!r means1 convey to me _! ideas or images1 & impress ^u me _! resemblances4#eb #eb ,mditation ,troisime1 pp4 #hc-he4 ,f ! e>li] portions ( ?is extract "o may see h[ cle>ly ,desc>tes di/+ui%$ betwe5 ! idea1 or ! ?+ imm$iately kn[n1 & ! ext]nal ?+ :i* he assum$ z correspond+ to ! idea2 f ! latt] "p "o may see h[ he sometimes conf\nd$ !m4 ,he f9ds t he may d\bt :e!r ideas h any ext]nal correlatives2 &1 grant+ t !y h1 :e!r ! two resemble ea* o!r at all4 ,all ?is w\ld imply t ext]nal ?+s are completely cut (f f obs]vation4 ,& yet he /ates ) navet t he has (t5 rem>k$ 9 _m in/ances t !re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 an object & its idea4 ,n[1 if ?is c really be rem>k$ 9 _m in/ances1 ! d\bt z to ! exi/5ce ( objects w\ld seem to be gr\ndless4 ,h[ c x be rem>k$8 ,on ?is po9t ,desc>tes is sil5t4 ,he has evid5tly fall5 back ^u ! popul> notion t "u favorable circum/ances "o c get a look at a real ?+1 j z x is4 ,! reason :i* conv9ces him t ! a/ronom]'s notion ( ! sun is ! true notion is no?+ b ?is4 ,x c\ld c]ta9ly n be d$uc$ f 8 only argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ext]nal ?+s--! v]acity ( ,god4 ,h[ does he "k1 t 9 giv+ u sev]al diff]5t ideas ( ! sun1 ,god has *os5 to h ?is "o only resemble x8 ,x is a pure assumption4 ,reason is ( s]vice :5 "o has some?+ to g ^u2 b 9 ! abs5ce ( premises x w n c>ry "o f>4 ,?is assumption is an illu/ration ( :at ,i _h occasion to rem>k ^u 9 criticiz+ ,pyrrho2 ( ! fact t1 f ! s]ies ( possible p]ceptions :i* we gr\p toge!r z "o object1 we are apt to select "o1 to u = "s reason ! mo/ satisfactory "o1 & to reg>d x z m truly repres5t+ ! object ?an ! o!rs4 ,desc>tes has foll[$ ?is impulse1 & made ?is p]ception ! be/ repres5tative ( ! real object4 ,_h he always di/+ui%$ sam5ess 9 s5se fir/ f sam5ess 9 s5se sev5?1 he w\ld h se5 h[ purely gratuit\s is 8 assumption4 ,! /atem5t1 too1 t two diff]5t ideas ( ! sun _c bo? resemble ! same sun1 %[s h[ little he compreh5d$ :at x meant by ! ^w same :5 us$ 9 ! ?ird s5se4 ,if by ! sun we mean a :ole s]ies ( possible p]ceptions1 p]haps q unlike ea* o!r1 b all unit$ & relat$ 9 c]ta9 ways1 !re is no?+ to prev5t v dissimil> ?+s f be+ l ! same sun4 ,ea* ( !m ne$ only resemble a s+le l9k 9 ! s]ies4 ,by ! words ! same sun ,desc>tes meant ! same 9 s5se fir/1 b ?is s9s aga9/ ! prop] mean+ ( ! t]m4 ,! difficulty is self-creat$4 ,desc>tes' sun rem9ds me ( ,b]keley's moon4 ,?is latt] writ] cle>ly p]ceiv$ t !re may be multiplicity & div]sity :]e "o attributes sam5ess 9 s5se ?ird4 ,note ! foll[+3 ,b = a full] explication ( ?is po9t1 & to %[ t ! imm$iate objects ( sight are n s mu* z ! ideas or resemblances ( ?+s plac$ at a di/ance1 x is requisite t we look ne>] into ! matt]1 & c>efully obs]ve :at is meant 9 common disc\rse :5 "o says t :i* he sees is at a di/ance f him4 ,suppose1 = example1 t look+ at ! moon ,i %\ld say x 7 fifty or sixty semidiamet]s ( ! e>? di/ant f me4 ,let u see :at moon ?is is spok5 (4 ,x is pla9 x _c be ! visible moon1 or any?+ l ! visible moon1 or t ,i see--:i* is only a r\nd1 lum9\s pla91 ( ab\t ?irty visible po9ts 9 diamet]4 ,=1 9 case ,i am c>ri$ f ! place :]e ,i /& directly t[>d ! moon1 x is manife/ ! object v>ies /ill z ,i g on2 &1 by ! "t t ,i am advanc$ fifty or sixty semidiamet]s ( ! e>?1 ,i %all be s f> f be+ ne> a small1 r\nd1 lum9\s flat t ,i %all p]ceive no?+ l x--?is object hav+ long s9ce disappe>$1 &1 if ,i w\ld recov] x1 x mu/ be by go+ back to ! e>? f :5ce ,i set out4#ec #ec ,essay t[>ds a ,new ,!ory ( ,vision4 ,sec4 #dd4 ,works3 ed4 ,fras]4 ,ox=d #ahga4 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ec4 ,s mu* = dissimil> exp]i5ces ( ! same object4 ,& ,b]keley is n impell$ to assume an ext]nal some?+ to expla9 h[ ! object c be ! same "u ! circum/ances4 ,! case1 he f9ds1 /&s ?us3 ,hav+ ( a long "t exp]i5c$ c]ta9 ideas p]ceivable by t\*--z di/ance1 tangible figure1 & solidity--to h be5 connect$ ) c]ta9 ideas ( sight1 ,i d1 ^u p]ceiv+ ^! ideas ( sight1 =?) conclude :at tangible ideas are1 by ! wont$ ord9>y c\rse ( nature1 l to foll[4 ,look+ at an object1 ,i p]ceive a c]ta9 visible figure & color1 ) "s degree ( fa9tness & o!r circum/ances1 :i*1 f :at ,i h =m]ly obs]v$1 det]m9e me to ?9k t if ,i advance =w>d s _m paces1 miles1 etc41 ,i %all be affect$ ) su* & su* ideas ( t\*4#ed #ed ,ibid41 #de4 ,& ne$ "o ask a cle>] illu/ration ( sam5ess 9 s5se ?ird ?an ! case ( ! coa*1 :i* occurs 9 ! foll[+ section3 ,sitt+ 9 my /udy ,i he> a coa* drive along ! /reet2 ,i look ?r\gh ! casem5t & see x2 ,i walk out & ent] into x4 ,?us1 common spee* w\ld incl9e "o to ?9k ,i he>d1 saw1 & t\*$ ! same ?+1 to wit1 ! coa*4 ,x is1 nev]!less1 c]ta9 ! ideas intromitt$ by ea* s5se are widely diff]5t & di/9ct f ea* o!r2 b1 hav+ be5 obs]v$ con/antly to g toge!r1 !y are spok5 ( z "o & ! same ?+4 ,,sec4 #cj4 ,x w\ld be easy to select f ,sp9oza1 t ma/] ( reason+s app>5tly v exact b really v loose1 _m good in/ances ( confus$ sam5esses4 ,i %all conf9e myself to a s+le "o1 8 argum5t to prove t e sub/ance is necess>ily inf9ite4 ,x is ! eigh? proposition 9 ,"p ,i ( ! ,e?ics4 ,!re _c be m ?an "o sub/ance ) ! same attribute1 & ?is exi/s ( its own nature4 ,x belongs1 !n1 to its nature to exi/ ei!r z f9ite or z inf9ite4 ,b x _c be f9ite1 = !n x w\ld h to be limit$ by ano!r ( ! same k9d1 :i* w\ld also necess>ily exi/2 !re w\ld !n be two sub/ances ) ! same attribute1 :i* is absurd4 ,x is1 !re=e1 inf9ite4#ee #ee ,sub/antia unius attributi non nisi unica exi/it1 et ad ipsius naturam p]t9et exi/]e4 ,erit ergo de ipsius natura vel f9ita vel inf9ita exi/]e4 ,at non f9ita4 ,nam deb]et t]m9>i ab alia eiusdem natur1 qu etiam necess>io deb]et exi/]e2 adeoque d>5tur du sub/anti eiusdem attributi1 quod e/ absurdum4 ,exi/it ergo inf9ita2 q4 e4 d4--,e?ices1 ,p>s prima2 ,,viii4 ,omnis sub/antia e/ necess>io inf9ita4 ,leipzig1 #ahge1 p4 #hd4 ,among its defects ?is argum5t includes a confusion ( sam5ess 9 s5se f\r? ) sam5ess 9 s5se fir/4 ,attribute ,sp9oza has def9$ z t :i* is conceiv$ z ! ess5ce ( sub/ance4 ,mode is a modification ( sub/ance4 ,two sub/ances1 he has argu$1 _c be di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by _! modifications1 = sub/ance is prior to its modifications1 & we may set ^! aside & consid] x z x is 9 itself4 ,sub/ances _c !n1 be di/+ui%$ except by _! attributes2 & if ! attribute be ! same1 h[ c we say t !re are two sub/ances8 ,!re _c1 consequ5tly1 be two sub/ances ) ! same attribute4 ,b1 ! argum5t cont9ues1 s9ce !re _c be two sub/ances ) ! same attribute1 e sub/ance mu/ be inf9ite2 =1 to be f9ite1 a ?+ mu/ be limit$ by some?+3 & no?+ c be limit$ except by a ?+ ( ! same k9d 7= example1 a mat]ial ?+ _c be limit$ by a ?\ght74 ,b if a ?+ be limit$ by ano!r ?+ ( ! same k9d1 ! ?+ limit$ & ! ?+ limit+ h ! same attribute4 ,x foll[s t !y are n two ?+s1 b "o4 ,! ?+ 9 "q is n limit$ b inf9ite4 ,9 criticiz+ ?is1 ,i may call att5tion1 9 pass+1 to ! highly disputable & gratuit\sly assum$ premise1 t1 to be f9ite1 a ?+ mu/ be limit$ by some?+4 ,if ?is be d5i$1 ! gr\nd ( ! reason+ is remov$2 :ile1 if x be grant$1 no argum5t is ne$$ to prove t some?+ is inf9ite1 = "o has only said 9 o!r words t all limits mu/ be limits )9 some?+4 ,! "q is begg$ at once4 ,) ?is1 h[ev]1 ,i am n conc]n$4 ,:at int]e/s me is ?is3 ,! argum5t assumes a limit$ ?+ & a some?+ beyond x1 & !n ass]ts t !y are "o4 ,b two ?+s ( ! same k9d 9 diff]5t places1 or m>k$ z diff]5t by di/9ctions ( any sort1 are readily di/+ui%$ z two4 ,to come to ! concrete1 ext5sion conceiv$ z on ?is side ( a po9t & ext5sion conceiv$ z beyond ! po9t are n ext5sion simply1 b ?is ext5sion & t ext5sion4 ,!y are ! same only 9 s5se f\r?1 n 9 s5se fir/4 ,we h "h n m]ely ! attribute ext5sion1 b ! fur!r elem5ts ?is & t4 ,! conclusion1 !n1 t :at we />t$ out ) is inf9ite1 is :olly unw>rant$4 ,x is n ?is t is inf9ite1 b ?is ) some?+ else :i* is to "s degree l x1 al?\gh n :olly s4 ,t is to say1 ! ?+ assum$ z f9ite c only be prov$ to be inf9ite by conf\nd+ two sam5esses4 ,! ?+ prov$ to be inf9ite is a new object includ+ x & :at x is assum$ to presuppose4 ,if x be n p]missible to make ?is di/9ction betwe5 ! object assum$ z f9ite1 = ! sake ( ! argum5t1 & ! object :i* is prov$ to be inf9ite1 x is also n p]missible to ass]t t an object to be f9ite w\ld h to be limit$ by ano!r ( ! same k9d4 ,if ! two are "o1 ^! words are mean+less4 ,if !y are n "o1 "o _c conclude f ! argum5t t e sub/ance is necess>ily inf9ite1 b only t some?+ is necess>ily inf9ite1 a conclusion already giv5 9 ! s+le premise t :at is limit$ mu/ be limit$ by some?+ ( ! same k9d4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ,sp9oza reta9s 9 8 argum5t n only ! attribute1 b ! mode1 ! ?is & ! beyond ?is2 & !n he ov]looks ! mode & consid]s m]ely ! attribute1 :i* gives him /rict id5tity4 ,?is proc$ure we h met be=e 9 ! dispute conc]n+ univ]sals4 ,,sec4 #ca4 ,9 ! =m] "p ( my monograph ,i h m5tion$ ,locke's confusion ( sam5ess 9 s5se sev5? ) sam5ess 9 s5se fir/4 ,i %all n[ quote a few sections f ! ,essay conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+ to %[ h[ significant 8 error is1 & to :at an ext5t x is responsible = 8 position reg>d+ ideas1 ?+s1 & sub/ance4 ,my extracts are f ! elev5? *apt] ( ! f\r? book1 entitl$ ,( our ,k ( ! ,exi/5ce ( ,o!r ,?+s4 ,locke argues z foll[s3#ef #ef ,locke's ,essays1 ,philadelphia1 #ahdf1 p4 #dae1 et seq4 ,! k ( our own be+ we h by intuition4 ,! exi/5ce ( a ,god reason cle>ly makes kn[n to u1 z has be5 %[n4 ,! k ( ! exi/5ce ( any o!r ?+ we c h only by s5sation3 = !re be+ no necess>y connection ( real exi/5ce ) any idea a man ha? 9 8 memory1 nor ( any o!r exi/5ce b t ( ,god1 ) ! exi/5ce ( any p>ticul> man2 no p>ticul> man c "k ! exi/5ce ( any o!r be+1 b only :5 by actual op]at+ ^u him x makes itself p]ceiv$ by him4 ,= ! hav+ ! idea ( any?+ 9 our m9d no m proves ! exi/5ce ( t ?+1 ?an ! picture ( a man evid5ces 8 be+ 9 ! _w1 or ! visions ( a dream make !reby a true hi/ory4 ,x is !re=e ! actual receiv+ ( ideas f )\t1 t gives u notice ( ! exi/5ce ( o!r ?+s1 & makes u "k t some?+ do? exi/ at t "t )\t u1 :i* causes t idea 9 u1 ?\gh p]haps we nei!r "k nor consid] h[ x does x3 = x takes n f ! c]ta9ty ( our s5ses1 & ! ideas we receive by !m1 t we "k n ! mann] :]e9 !y are produc$1 v4 g41 :il/ ,i write ?is ,i h1 by ! pap] affect+ my eyes1 t idea produc$ 9 my m9d :i*1 :atev] object causes1 ,i call :ite2 by :i* ,i "k t t quality or accid5t 7i4 e41 ^: appe>ance be=e my eyes always causes t idea7 do? really exi/1 & ha? a be+ )\t me4 ,& ( ?is1 ! greate/ assurance ,i c possibly h1 & to :i* my faculties c atta91 is ! te/imony ( my eyes1 :i* are ! prop] & sole judges ( ?is ?+1 ^: te/imony ,i h reason to rely on z s c]ta91 t ,i c no m d\bt1 :il/ ,i write ?is1 t ,i see :ite & black1 & t some?+ really exi/s t causes t s5sation 9 me1 ?an t ,i write or move my h&3 :i* is a c]ta9ty z great z human nature is capable (1 conc]n+ ! exi/5ce ( any?+ b a man's self alone1 & ( ,god4 ,! notice we h by our s5ses ( ! exi/+ ( ?+s )\t u1 ?\gh x be n altoge!r s c]ta9 z our intuitive k1 or ! d$uctions ( our reason1 employ$ ab\t ! cle> ab/ract ideas ( our own m9ds2 yet x is an assurance t des]ves ! "n ( k4 ,if we p]suade ourselves t our faculties act & in=m u "r1 conc]n+ ! exi/5ce ( ^? objects t affect !m1 x _c pass = an ill-gr\nd$ confid5ce3 = ,i ?9k nobody c1 9 e>ne/1 be s sceptical z to be unc]ta9 ( ! exi/5ce ( ^? ?+s :i* he sees & feels4 ,at lea/1 he t c d\bt s f> 7:atev] he may h ) 8 own ?\ghts7 w nev] h any controv]sy ) me2 s9ce he c nev] be sure ,i say any?+ contr>y to 8 own op9ion4 ,z to myself1 ,i ?9k ,god has giv5 me assurance en\gh ( ! exi/5ce ( ?+s )\t me2 s9ce by _! diff]5t application ,i c produce 9 myself bo? pleasure & pa91 :i* is "o great conc]nm5t ( my pres5t /ate4 ,?is is c]ta91 ! confid5ce t our faculties d n h]e9 deceive u is ! greate/ assurance we are capable (1 conc]n+ ! exi/5ce ( mat]ial be+s4 ,= we _c act any?+ b by our faculties2 nor talk ( k itself1 b by ! helps ( ^? faculties :i* are fitt$ to appreh5d ev5 :at k is4 ,b besides ! assurance we h f our s5ses !mselves1 t !y d n err 9 ! in=mation !y give u1 ( ! exi/5ce ( ?+s )\t u1 :5 !y are affect$ by !m1 we are f>!r confirm$ 9 ?is assurance by o!r concurr5t reasons4 ,fir/1 x is pla9 ^? p]ceptions are produc$ 9 u by ext]ior causes affect+ our s5ses3 because ^? t want ! organs ( any s5se nev] c h ! ideas belong+ to t s5se produc$ 9 _! m9ds4 ,?is is too evid5t to be d\bt$3 & !re=e we _c b be assur$ t !y come 9 by ! organs ( t s5se1 & no o!r way4 ,! organs !mselves1 x is pla91 d n produce !m2 = !n ! eyes ( a man 9 ! d>k w\ld produce colors1 & 8 nose smell roses 9 ! w9t]3 b we see nobody gets ! reli% ( a p9e apple till he goes to ! ,indies1 :]e x is1 & ta/es x4 ,secondly1 because sometimes ,i f9d t ,i _c avoid ! hav+ ^? ideas produc$ 9 my m9d4 ,= ?\gh :5 my eyes are %ut1 or w9d[s fa/1 ,i c at pleasure recall to my m9d ! ideas ( light1 or ! sun1 :i* =m] s5sations _h lodg$ 9 my memory2 s ,i c at pleasure lay by t idea1 & take into my view t ( ! smell ( a rose1 or ta/e ( sug>4 ,b if ,i turn my eyes at noon t[>ds ! sun1 ,i _c avoid ! ideas :i* ! light1 or sun1 !n produces 9 me4 ,s t !re is a manife/ diff]5ce betwe5 ! ideas laid up 9 my memory 7ov] :i*1 if !y 7 !re only1 ,i %\ld h con/antly ! same p[] to dispose ( !m1 & lay !m by at pleasure71 & ^? :i* =ce !mselves ^u me1 & ,i _c avoid hav+4 ,& !re=e x mu/ ne$s be "s ext]ior cause1 & ! brisk act+ ( "s objects )\t me1 ^: efficacy ,i _c resi/1 t produces ^? ideas 9 my m9d1 :e!r ,i w or no4 ,besides1 !re is nobody :o do? n p]ceive ! diff]5ce 9 himself betwe5 contemplat+ ! sun1 z he ha? ! idea ( x 9 8 memory1 & actually look+ ^u x2 ( :i* two 8 p]ception is s di/9ct1 t few ( 8 ideas are m di/+ui%able "o f ano!r4 ,& !re=e1 he ha? c]ta9 k1 t !y are n bo? memory1 or ! actions ( 8 m9d1 & fancies only )9 him2 b t actual see+ ha? a cause )\t4 ,?irdly1 add to ?is1 t _m ( ^? ideas are produc$ 9 u ) pa91 :i* aft]w>d we rememb] )\t ! lea/ (f5se4 ,?us ! pa9 ( heat or cold1 :5 ! idea ( x is reviv$ 9 our m9ds1 gives u no di/urbance2 :i*1 :5 felt1 0 v tr\blesome1 & is aga9 :5 actually repeat$2 :i* is occasion$ by ! disord] ! ext]nal object causes 9 our bodies :5 appli$ to x4 ,& we rememb] ! pa9s ( hung]1 ?ir/1 or ! heada*e1 )\t any pa9 at all2 :i* w\ld ei!r nev] di/urb u1 or else con/antly d x1 z (t5 z we ?\ght ( x1 7 !re no?+ m b ideas float+ 9 our m9ds1 & appe>ances ent]ta9+ our fancies1 )\t ! real exi/5ce ( ?+s affect+ u f abroad4 ,! same may be said ( pleasure accompany+ sev]al actual s5sations1 & ?\gh ma!matical demon/rations dep5d n ^u s5se1 yet ! exam9+ !m by diagrams gives great cr$it to ! evid5ce ( our sight1 & seems to give x a c]ta9ty approa*+ to t ( demon/ration itself4 ,= x w\ld be v /range t a man %\ld all[ x = an und5iable tru?1 t two angles ( a figure1 :i* he measures by l9es & angles ( a diagram1 %\ld be bigg] "o ?an ! o!r2 & yet d\bt ( ! exi/5ce ( ^? l9es & angles1 :i* by look+ on he makes use ( to measure t by4 ,f\r?ly1 our s5ses 9 _m cases be> witness to ! tru? ( ea* o!r's report1 conc]n+ ! exi/5ce ( s5sible ?+s )\t u4 ,he t sees a fire may1 if he d\bt :e!r x be any?+ m ?an a b>e fancy1 feel x too2 & be conv9c$ by putt+ 8 h& 9 x3 :i* c]ta9ly c\ld nev] be put into su* exquisite pa9 by a b>e idea or phantom1 unless t ! pa91 be a fancy too1 :i* yet he _c1 :5 ! burn is well1 by rais+ ! idea ( x1 br+ ^u himself aga94 ,?us ,i see1 :il/ ,i write ?is1 ,i c *ange ! appe>ance ( ! pap]3 & by design+ ! lett]s tell be=eh& :at new idea x %all exhibit ! v next mom5t1 by b>ely draw+ my p5 ov] x3 :i* w nei!r appe> 7let me fancy z mu* z ,i w71 if my h&s /& /ill2 or ?\gh ,i move my p51 if my eyes be %ut3 nor1 :5 ^? *>act]s are once made on ! pap]1 c ,i *oose aft]w>d b see !m z !y are3 t is1 h ! ideas ( su* lett]s z ,i h made4 ,:5ce x is manife/1 t !y are n b>ely ! sport & play ( my own imag9ation1 :5 ,i f9d t ! *>act]s t 7 made at ! pleasure ( my own ?\ght1 d n obey !m2 nor yet cease to be1 :5ev] ,i %all fancy x2 b cont9ue to affect ! s5ses con/antly & regul>ly1 accord+ to ! figures ,i made !m4 ,to :i* if we w add1 t ! sight ( ^? %all1 f ano!r man1 draw su* s\nds z ,i be=eh& design !y %all /& =2 !re w be little reason left to d\bt t ^? words ,i write d really exi/ )\t me1 :5 !y cause a long s]ies ( regul> s\nds to affect my e>s1 :i* c\ld n be ! effect ( my imag9ation1 nor c\ld my memory reta9 !m 9 t ord]4 ,?is is q a long citation1 b ,i h giv5 x at l5g? because x may /& z ! type ( by f> ! great] "p ( ! objections urg$ aga9/ ,idealism1 & because a bett] in/ance ( ! confusion ( two sam5esses c\ld sc>cely be desir$4 ,notice h[ con/antly x is assum$ t ! ?+ giv5 9 p]ception is ! real ?+1 a ?+ :i* is1 nev]!less1 *>act]iz$ z di/9ct f1 & ! cause (1 ! idea4 ,at ! outset ,locke di/+ui%es well en\gh betwe5 ! idea & ! ext]nal ?+4 ,! hav+ ! idea ( any ?+ 9 ! m9d1 he decl>es1 no m proves ! exi/5ce ( t ?+ ?an ! picture ( a man evid5ces 8 be+ 9 ! _w4 ,x is only ! receiv+ ( ideas f )\t t gives u notice ( ?+s z causes ( ! ideas4 ,x w\ld seem q fair "h to ask h[ we "k t "s ideas come f )\t8 ,( c\rse1 if ! realm ( ! )\t 7 op5 to inspection1 ! "q c\ld be answ]$ at once4 ,b x is n op5 to inspection--c]ta9ly n to a consi/5t ,lockian4 ,h[1 !n1 may ,i di/+ui% ideas com+ f )\t f o!r ideas8 ,no ideas are p]ceiv$ until !y are :at ,locke w\ld call )94 ,! appeal to ! te/imony ( ! eyes ne$s exam9ation4 ,to :at eyes does "o appeal8 ,! imm$iately kn[n or idea-eyes1 or ! ext]nal organs ^: exi/5ce is ! matt] ( dispute8 ,surely n to ! la/1 = x is only z a result ( ! argum5t t we may assume ^! at all4 ,& :at h& is x s c]ta9 t ,i move 9 writ+8 ,! complex ( ideas imm$iately kn[n1 or ! some?+ beyond1 ^: exi/5ce is to be e/abli%$8 ,if x be ! latt]1 all discussion is unnecess>y4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! eyes & ! h& conc]n$ are ideas1 x is n cle> h[ ! appeal to !m c be ( any s]vice4 ,does a s5se give any?+ b s5sations8 ,& if ! v s5se organ z imm$iately kn[n be a gr\p ( s5sations1 h[ c ! te/imony ( a s5se l& "o 9 a _w beyond t ( s5sations8 ,& ! argum5t t ,god has giv5 me assurance ( ! exi/5ce ( ?+s )\t me1 s9ce by apply+ !m to myself ,i c produce 9 myself pa9 & pleasure1 presupposes t ,i c apply su* ?+s to myself & "k t ,i am do+ s4 ,if ?is be ! fact1 x is trifl+ to discuss :e!r ?+s ,i move to & fro exi/4 ,if1 h[ev]1 x is /ill to be prov$ t !re are su* ?+s1 & t !y are mov$ to & fro1 ! argum5t is :olly baseless4 ,locke "h makes appeal to ! common exp]i5ce t c]ta9 objects appli$ to ! body cause pleasure1 & c]ta9 o!rs pa92 a fact :i* no reasonable man w\ld ?9k ( d5y+ or que/ion+1 z x is matt] ( daily obs]vation4 ,b 9 su* exp]i5ces1 all t is imm$iately evid5t is t an object imm$iately p]ceiv$ 7,locke's idea7 is appli$ to ano!r object imm$iately p]ceiv$ 7idea7 ) a result+ 7idea7 pa94 ,:e!r or n c]ta9 duplicates ( ! ?+s imm$iately kn[n are br\ght into a peculi> conjunction at ! same "t is :olly problematic1 & w\ld seem to rema9 s until "s evid5ce be advanc$ ( ! exi/5ce ( su* duplicates4 ,?is argum5t on ! "p ( our au?or %[s mo/ cle>ly t = ! "t be+ he lo/ ! di/9ction betwe5 ideas & real ?+s4 ,!y are ! same 9 s5se sev5?2 he assum$ !m to be ! same 9 s5se fir/4 ,he falls into ?is error aga9 & aga94 ,! g5]al appeal to ! te/imony ( ! s5ses is foll[$ by f\r special argum5ts4 ,accord+ to ! fir/ ( ^!1 x is pla9 t p]ceptions are produc$ 9 u by ext]ior causes affect+ our s5ses1 because ^? t want ! organs ( any s5se nev] c h ! ideas belong+ to t s5se produc$ 9 _! m9ds4 ,?is is suppos$ to prove t !y come 9 by ! organs ( t s5se1 & 9 no o!r way4 ,b "h aga9 "o may ask1 ,:at is meant by ! organs ( any s5se8 ,if ! real ext]nal organ be meant1 "o may object t its exi/5ce has n yet be5 prov$4 ,if ! organ imm$iately kn[n be meant1 "o has only call$ att5tion to ! fact t c]ta9 ideas are a s9e qua non to ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 o!r ideas4 ,h[ ?is t5ds to prove ! exi/5ce ( some?+ di/9ct f ideas is n app>5t4 ,locke's impulse 9 ?is argum5t f9ds its s\rce 9 our common exp]i5ce t bodily organs imm$iately p]ceiv$ are prov$ by obs]vation to be pr]equisites to ! exp]i5c+ ( ideas4 ,we see a giv5 object 9 a c]ta9 relation to a normal human body1 & we inf] an idea ( ! object connect$ ) t body4 ,we say ! man has an idea ( ! object1 & c only inf] ! object itself4 ,we connect ! idea ) "s p>ticul> "p ( 8 body1 & reg>d ?is z ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* he ga9s ! idea4 ,all ?is is reasonable en\gh4 ,x is well to rememb]1 h[ev]1 t 9 all ?is ! real object is n obs]v$ to play any "p4 ,! object :i* ,i c]ta9ly see 9 relation to ! body :i* ,i c]ta9ly see is :at ,locke w\ld call an idea4 ,! man's body is an idea4 ,! idea :i* ,i assume ! man to h is to me1 if ,i rema9 )9 ! sph]e ( ! obs]vable1 an idea ( ! 7idea7 object ,i see4 ,if ,i am to get any real object at all x is n by ref]5ce to obs]vation or exp]i5ce4 ,if ,i am to get x by inf]5ce1 "s gr\nd mu/ be furni%$ = inf]5ce4 ,aga9 ,locke has conf\nd$ ! obs]vable ) ! real4 ,x is only on ?is gr\nd t ! appeal to ! s5se organ has any =ce4 ,! second & ! ?ird argum5ts busy !mselves to %[ t !re are unmi/akable diff]5ces betwe5 ideas :i* h _! orig9 9 ! brisk act+ ( objects )\t & ideas ( memory or imag9ation4 ,! two classes are %[n to be di/9ct1 & x is v prop]ly held t ideas ( diff]5t k9ds %\ld n be conf\nd$4 ,b ! /atem5t1 t ideas may be divid$ into two classes1 is a v diff]5t "o f ! /atem5t t ! two classes diff] 9 t "o has ext]nal correlates & ! o!r has n4 ,"o may admit all ! di/9ctions :i* ,locke makes 9 ! field ( ideas2 &1 x be+ once prov$ t su* di/9ctions imply a _w ( real ?+s 9 relation to c]ta9 ideas1 may grant v readily t ^! ideas h correspond+ to !m real ?+s1 or t ideas caus$ by real ?+s diff] by su* & su* m>ks f o!r ideas4 ,b1 until x be prov$ t ! m>ks 9 "q d give a "r to inf] real ?+s1 x %\ld n be assum$ t any giv5 class ( ideas is caus$ by real ?+s4 ,:at is to be discov]$ is assum$4 ,& x is assum$ "h1 z above1 because ,locke c\ld n keep di/9ct ! two classes ( ?+s4 ,he is capable ( say+1 ,b if ,i turn my eyes at noon t[>ds ! sun1 ,i _c avoid ! ideas :i* ! light1 or sun1 !n produces 9 me1 :5 ! :ole dispute is ov] ! "q :e!r !re be a real sun t[>d :i* real eyes may be turn$4 ,h[ does he "k t he is turn+ 8 eyes t[>d ! sun8 ,does he n see x up !re8 ,is he n actually look+ ^u x8 ,8 error is too pla9 to ov]look4 ,b if "o c\ld d\bt 8 confusion ( ! two suns1 ! app>5t & ! real1 8 illu/ration f ! diagrams us$ 9 ma!matical demon/ration w\ld lay ! d\bt once = all4 ,real l9es exi/1 = x w\ld be v /range t a man %\ld all[ x = an und5iable tru?1 t two angles ( a figure1 :i* he measures by l9es & angles ( a diagram1 %\ld be bigg] "o ?an ! o!r2 & yet d\bt ( ! exi/5ce ( ^? l9es & angles1 :i* by look+ on he makes use ( to measure t by4 ,! ,engli% is n z bad z ! reason+4 ,! f\r? argum5t is d]iv$ f ! fact t "o s5se supports ! te/imony ( ano!r4 ,he t sees a fire may1 if he d\bt :e!r x be any?+ m ?an a b>e fancy1 feel x too4 ,a b>e fancy1 ,locke is sure1 w\ld n cause su* acute pa94 ,?is comes back to ! second & ?ird argum5ts & may be criticiz$ 9 ! same way4 ,if "o c\ld ref] to a s+le obs]vation ( ! fact t real ?+s d n accompany ideas ( ! fancy & t !y d accompany ideas ( a diff]5t class1 ! argum5t w\ld be unobjectionable4 ,want+ ?is obs]vation1 or some?+ to take its place1 no?+ is prov$4 ,& z to ! s5ses help+ ea* o!r to real ?+s1 if ea* s5se only gives ! idea appropriate to x1 x is n easy to see h[ two toge!r prove m ?an "o alone4 ,9 ?is section1 too1 ,locke is assum+ t real ?+s belong to ! _w ( ?+s imm$iately p]ceiv$4 ,he c1 he says1 make :at *>act]s he pleases on ! pap] be=e him1 b once hav+ made !m1 _c *oose b see !m z !y are4 ,:5ce x is manife/1 t !y are n b>ely ! sport & play ( my own imag9ation1 :5 ,i f9d t ! *>act]s t 7 made at ! pleasure ( my own ?\ght1 d n obey !m2 nor yet cease to be1 :5ev] ,i %all fancy x2 b cont9ue to affect ! s5ses con/antly & regul>ly1 accord+ to ! figures ,i made !m4 ,t is1 ! ideas :i* he concludes n to be ideas ( imag9ation are ! ?+s :i* cont9ue to affect ! s5ses1 or ! real ?+s4 ,!re is little wond] t ?is au?or believ$ 9 real ?+s4 ,,sec4 #cb4 ,excell5t "w has be5 done by ,b]keley 9 di/+ui%+ sam5esses4 ,8 treatm5t ( sam5ess 9 s5se ?ird ,i h already quot$4 ,8 discussion ( ! inf9ite divisibility ( f9ite l9es1#eg a matt] ( :i* ,i %all speak m fully lat]1 aga9 br+s out s5se ?ird4 ,almo/ 8 :ole philosophy consi/s 9 ! endeavor to keep cle>ly 9 m9d ! significance ( s5se sev5?1 & to develop :at x implies4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he has fall5 into ! error ( confus+ s5se fir/ & s5se six?1 & ( us+ ?is confusion to sil5ce an objection to 8 doctr9e4 #eg ,a ,treatise ,conc]n+ ! ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,k1 #abc-acb4 ,ed4 ,fras]1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bbj-bbe4 ,he takes up 9 ! ,pr9ciples1 = ! purpose ( refut+ x1 ! objection t 8 doctr9e makes ?+s e mom5t annihilat$ & creat$ anew4#eh ,?is1 he argues1 w n be f\nd reasonably *>g$ on ! pr9ciples we h premis$1 s z 9 tru? to make any objection at all aga9/ our notions4 ,=1 ?\gh we hold inde$ ! objects ( s5se to be no?+ else b ideas :i* _c exi/ unp]ceiv$2 yet we may n h5ce conclude !y h no exi/5ce except only :ile !y are p]ceiv$ by u1 s9ce !re may be "s o!r _s t p]ceives !m ?\gh we d n4 ,:]ev] bodies are said to h no exi/5ce )\t ! m9d1 ,i w\ld n be und]/ood to mean ?is or t p>ticul> m9d1 b all m9ds :atsoev]4 ,x does n !re=e foll[ f ! =ego+ pr9ciples t bodies are annihilat$ & creat$ e mom5t1 or exi/ n at all dur+ ! int]vals betwe5 our p]ception ( !m4 #eh #de-dh1 pp4 #agh-ahj4 ,to ! read] ( ,mill x is cle> en\gh t ,b]keley is n cont5t to assume pot5tial exi/5ce z an integral "p ( ! life hi/ory ( an object4 ,x seems odd t he %\ld n d s1 z he has himself po9t$ out ! d\ble s5se ( ! ^w exi/4#ei ,h[ev]1 he dem&s actual exi/5ce4 ,any lapse 9 ! actual exi/5ce ( ! imm$iate object seems to him a de/ruction ( ! object4 ,he has ! common feel+ t x is contr>y to nature t ?+s %\ld be de/roy$ & creat$ f mom5t to mom5t4 ,!y mu/ exi/ cont9u\sly4 ,!y evid5tly d n actually exi/ cont9u\sly 9 ! "o m9d4 ,s he assumes t1 dur+ ! p]iods ( _! abs5ce f "o m9d1 !y mu/ exi/ 9 ano!r3 o!rwise !y c\ld n be said to exi/ at all4 #ei ,pr9ciples1 #c1 p4 #aeg4 ,( c\rse1 all ?is assumes t ! objects 9 "o m9d are id5tically 7s5se fir/7 ! objects 9 ano!r4 ,if !y be recogniz$ z two di/9ct ?+s1 belong+ to diff]5t worlds--worlds s diff]5t t :at is 9 "o c ent] ! o!r only ?r\gh its repres5tative--! :ole argum5t is se5 to be fallaci\s4 ,"o c no m make a consi/5t :ole ( elem5ts tak5 f two diff]5t consci\snesses1 ?an "o c piece out a grief ) a smell4 ,! attempt is ! result ( ov]look+ ! duality impli$ 9 sam5ess 9 s5se six?4 ,,sec4 #cc4 ,!re is a cle> & =cible passage 9 ,john ,/u>t ,mill's ,sy/em ( ,logic1 9 :i* he di/+ui%es c]ta9 sam5esses f c]ta9 o!rs4 ,x is to be regrett$ t he dismiss$ ! subject ) s slight an exam9ation1 = x c\ld n b h ga9$ by a c>eful analysis at ! h&s ( ?is ke5 man4 ,i quote m p>ticul>ly to br+ out :at ,mill has to say ab\t sam5ess 9 s5se second4 ,:ile speak+ ( resemblance1 x is necess>y to take notice ( an ambiguity ( language1 aga9/ :i* sc>cely any "o is suffici5tly on 8 gu>d4 ,resemblance1 :5 x exi/s 9 ! highe/ degree ( all1 am\nt+ to undi/+ui%abl5ess1 is (t5 call$ id5tity1 & ! two simil> ?+s are said to be ! same4 ,i say (t51 n always2 = we d n say t two visible objects1 two p]sons1 = in/ance1 are ! same1 because !y are s mu* alike t "o might be mi/ak5 = ! o!r3 b we con/antly use ?is mode ( expression :5 speak+ ( feel+s2 z :5 ,i say t ! sight ( any object gives me ! same s5sation or emotion to-day t x did ye/]day1 or ! same :i* x gives to "s o!r p]son4 ,?is is evid5tly an incorrect application ( ! ^w same2 = ! feel+ :i* ,i _h ye/]day is gone1 nev] to return2 :at ,i h to-day is ano!r feel+1 exactly l ! =m]1 p]haps1 b di/9ct f x2 & x is evid5t t two diff]5t p]sons _c be exp]i5c+ ! same feel+1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we say t !y are bo? sitt+ at ! same table4 ,by a simil> ambiguity we say1 t two p]sons are ill ( ! same disease2 t two p]sons hold ! same (fice2 n 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we say t !y are engag$ 9 ! same adv5ture1 or sail+ 9 ! same %ip1 b 9 ! s5se t !y fill (fices exactly simil>1 ?\gh1 p]haps1 9 di/ant places4 ,great confusion ( ideas is (t5 produc$1 & _m fallacies eng5d]$1 9 o!rwise enlight5$ und]/&+s1 by n be+ suffici5tly alive to ! fact 79 itself n always to be avoid$71 t !y use ! same "n to express ideas s diff]5t z ^? ( id5tity & undi/+ui%able resemblance4#fj #fj ,a ,sy/em ( ,logic1 ,book ,i1 ,*ap4 ,,iii1 #aa1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahhb1 p4 #fb4 ,x w be se5 t ,mill "h draws a l9e betwe5 sam5ess 9 s5se fir/ & ! sam5esses 9 :i* !re is an elem5t ( duality4 ,he also draws att5tion to ! fact--a fact to :i* ,i h already ref]r$--t successive m5tal elem5ts1 consid]$ 9 !mselves1 are m likely to be conf\nd$ ?an mat]ial ?+s1 ?\gh ^! la/ may be q z closely simil>4 ,language %[s h[ m5 ov]look ! duality ( two simil> feel+s :i* diff] only 9 "t4 ,!y may speak ( two simil> objects z ! same1 z !y frequ5tly d1 & yet !y w n usually lose ! s5se ( _! twoness4 ,!y say ^! objects are ! same4 ,b :5 !y comp>e a feel+ exp]i5c$ to-day ) "o exp]i5c$ ye/]day1 !y say ?is is ! same feel+ ,i _h ye/]day4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ! language us$ to indicate duality at all4 ,i h said t1 9 ! extract giv51 a l9e is drawn betwe5 sam5esses :i* imply duality & ! sam5ess :i* does n2 & yet su* illu/rations are us$ to repres5t ! latt] z a man1 a table1 & a %ip--objects :i* are ! same 9 s5se ?ird z well z 9 s5se fir/1 & :i* consequ5tly imply duality1 9 "s s5se ( ! ^w4 ,b1 if "o is n consid]+ s+le memb]s ( ! *a9 ( exp]i5ces :i*1 tak5 toge!r1 we call a man1 b is consid]+ ! :ole gr\p z a unit1 ?is difficulty disappe>s4 ,?is is evid5tly :at ,mill has 9 m9d1 & he _c be tax$ ) inconsi/5cy4 ,"o may1 h[ev]1 object to ! /atem5t t x is an improp] use ( ! ^w same to speak ( ?+s m]ely simil> z ! same4 ,! ^w has _m mean+s1 & we c h>dly say t any "o ( !m is illegitimate4 ,x is m]ely illegitimate to conf\nd !m4 ,& "o %\ld n take q lit]ally ! description ( resemblance 9 ! highe/ degree z am\nt+ to undi/+ui%abl5ess4 ,/rict undi/+ui%abl5ess removes all duality1 & consequ5tly makes impossible :at we call resemblance or simil>ity4 ,to be simil>1 ?+s mu/ be di/+ui%$ z two4 ,f9ally1 "o may object to a treatm5t ( sam5esses :i* m]ely gr\ps !m into two classes1 :5 !re are at lea/ sev5 k9ds t %\ld1 9 ! int]e/s ( cle> ?9k+1 be kept sep>ate4 ,x is only by c>efully m>k+ su* di/9ctions t fallaci\s reason+s are to be avoid$4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ?is discussion ( sam5esses is m]ely a side issue :]e x occurs 9 ! ,logic1 x w\ld p]haps be unju/ to blame ,mill = n go+ into x m fully4 ,,sec4 #cd4 ,at ?is po9t ,i leave ! realms ( ! dead & em]ge into ! l& ( ! liv+4 ,! errors t ,i h be5 criticiz+ /ill live1 & x w\ld n be difficult to glean a goodly numb] ( !m f ! au?ors ( our day4 ,i %all be mod]ate1 & w cont5t myself ) "o or two repres5tative in/ances4 ,x w\ld be surpris+ if z loose & incauti\s a reason] z ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] did n furni% "s examples ( confus$ sam5esses4 ,to c]ta9 ( 8 errors 9 ?is direction ,i h briefly ref]r$ 9 ! e>li] "p ( my monograph4 ,"h ,i %all treat ( him a little m at l5g?1 ?\gh ev5 "h x is impossible to d ju/ice to ! subject1 z t w\ld involve my quot+ & comm5t+ ^u at lea/ a l>ge "p ( ! fir/ division ( ! ,fir/ ,pr9ciples4 ,i %all take only ! conclusion ( ! argum5t by :i* he e/abli%es ! exi/5ce ( 8 ,unkn[able1 or ,inscrutable ,p[]1 or ,ultimate ,cause1 or ,unse5 ,reality1 or ,absolute4 ,?is conta9s two confusions ( no little significance4 ,mr4 ,sp5c] writes3 ,h5ce our firm belief 9 objective reality--a belief :i* metaphysical criticisms _c = a mom5t %ake4 ,:5 we are taught t a piece ( matt]1 reg>d$ by u z exi/+ ext]nally1 _c be really kn[n1 b t we c "k only c]ta9 impressions produc$ on u1 we are yet1 by ! relativity ( our ?\ght1 compell$ to ?9k ( ^! 9 relation to a positive cause--! notion ( a real exi/5ce :i* g5]at$ ^! impressions becomes nasc5t4 ,if x be prov$ to u t e notion ( a real exi/5ce :i* we c frame is utt]ly inconsi/5t ) itself--t matt]1 h[ev] conceiv$ by u1 _c be matt] z x actually is1 our conception1 ?\gh transfigur$1 is n de/roy$3 !re rema9s ! s5se ( reality1 dissociat$ z f> z possible f ^? special =ms "u :i* x 0 be=e repres5t$ 9 ?\ght4 ,?\gh ,philosophy condemns successively ea* attempt$ conception ( ! ,absolute--?\gh x proves to u t ! ,absolute is n ?is1 nor t1 nor t--?\gh 9 ob$i5ce to x we negative1 "o aft] ano!r1 ea* idea z x arises2 yet1 z we _c expel ! entire cont5ts ( consci\sness1 !re ev] rema9s beh9d an elem5t :i* passes into new %apes4 ,! cont9ual negation ( ea* p>ticul> =m & limit1 simply results 9 ! m or less complete ab/raction ( all =ms & limits2 & s ends 9 an indef9ite consci\sness ( ! un=m$ & unlimit$4 ,& "h we come face to face ) ! ultimate difficulty--,h[ c !re possibly be con/itut$ a consci\sness ( ! un=m$ & unlimit$1 :51 by its v nature1 consci\sness is possible only "u =ms & limits8 ,if e consci\sness ( exi/5ce is a consci\sness ( exi/5ce z condition$1 !n h[1 aft] ! negation ( conditions1 c !re be any residuum8 ,?\gh n directly )drawn by ! )drawal ( its conditions1 mu/ n ! raw mat]ial ( consci\sness be )drawn by implication8 ,mu/ x n vani% :5 ! conditions ( its exi/5ce vani%8 ,t !re mu/ be a solution ( ?is difficulty is manife/2 s9ce ev5 ^? :o w\ld put x1 d1 z already %[n1 admit t we h "s su* consci\sness2 & ! solution appe>s to be t above %ad[$ =?4 ,su* consci\sness is n1 & _c be1 con/itut$ by any s+le m5tal act2 b is ! product ( _m m5tal acts4 ,9 ea* concept !re is an elem5t :i* p]si/s4 ,x is alike impossible = ?is elem5t to be abs5t f consci\sness1 & = x to be pres5t 9 consci\sness alone3 ei!r alt]native involves unconsci\sness--! "o f ! want ( ! sub/ance2 ! o!r f ! want ( ! =m4 ,b ! p]si/5ce ( ?is elem5t "u successive conditions1 necessitates a s5se ( x z di/+ui%$ f ! conditions1 & indep5d5t ( !m4 ,! s5se ( a some?+ t is condition$ 9 e ?\ght1 _c be got rid (1 because ! some?+ _c be got rid (4 ,h[ !n mu/ ! s5se ( ?is some?+ be con/itut$8 ,evid5tly by comb9+ successive concepts depriv$ ( _! limits & conditions4 ,we =m ?is indef9ite ?\ght1 z we =m _m ( our def9ite ?\ghts1 by ! coalesc5ce ( a s]ies ( ?\ghts4 ,let me illu/rate ?is3 ,a l>ge complex object1 hav+ attributes too num]\s to be repres5t$ at once1 is yet tol]ably well conceiv$ by ! union ( sev]al repres5tations1 ea* /&+ = "p ( its attributes4 ,on ?9k+ ( a piano1 !re fir/ rises 9 imag9ation its visual appe>ance1 to :i* are in/antly add$ 7?\gh by sep>ate m5tal acts7 ! ideas ( its remote side & ( its solid sub/ance4 ,a complete conception1 h[ev]1 involves ! /r+s1 ! hamm]s1 ! damp]s1 ! p$als2 & :ile successively add+ ^! to ! conception1 ! attributes fir/ ?\ght ( lapse m or less completely out ( consci\sness4 ,nev]!less1 ! :ole gr\p con/itutes a repres5tation ( ! piano4 ,n[ z 9 ?is case we =m a def9ite concept ( a special exi/5ce1 by impos+ limits & conditions 9 successive acts2 s1 9 ! conv]se case1 by tak+ away ! limits & conditions 9 successive acts1 we =m an indef9ite notion ( g5]al exi/5ce4 ,by fus+ a s]ies ( /ates ( consci\sness1 9 ea* ( :i*1 z x arises1 ! limitations & conditions are aboli%$1 !re is produc$ a consci\sness ( some?+ uncondition$4 ,to speak m rigor\sly3--?is consci\sness is n ! ab/ract ( any "o gr\p ( ?\ghts1 ideas1 or conceptions2 b x is ! ab/ract ( all ?\ghts1 ideas1 or conceptions4 ,t :i* is common to !m all1 & _c be got rid (1 is :at we pr$icate by ! ^w exi/5ce4 ,dissociat$ z ?is becomes f ea* ( its modes by ! p]petual *ange ( ^? modes1 x rema9s z an indef9ite consci\sness ( some?+ con/ant "u all modes--( be+ ap>t f its appe>ances4 ,! di/9ction we feel betwe5 special & g5]al exi/5ce1 is ! di/9ction betwe5 t :i* is *angeable 9 u1 & t :i* is un*angeable4 ,! contra/ betwe5 ! ,absolute & ! ,relative 9 our m9ds1 is really ! contra/ betwe5 t m5tal elem5t :i* exi/s absolutely1 & ^? :i* exi/ relatively4 ,by its v nature1 !re=e1 ?is ultimate m5tal elem5t is at once necess>ily indef9ite & necess>ily inde/ructible4 ,our consci\sness ( ! uncondition$ be+ lit]ally ! uncondition$ consci\sness1 or raw mat]ial ( ?\ght to :i* 9 ?9k+ we give def9ite =ms1 x foll[s t an ev]-pres5t s5se ( real exi/5ce is ! v basis ( our intellig5ce4 ,z we c 9 successive m5tal acts get rid ( all p>ticul> conditions & replace !m by o!rs1 b _c get rid ( t undiff]5tiat$ sub/ance ( consci\sness :i* is condition$ anew 9 e ?\ght2 !re ev] rema9s ) u a s5se ( t :i* exi/s p]si/5tly & indep5d5tly ( conditions4 ,at ! same "t t by ! laws ( ?\ght we are rigor\sly prev5t$ f =m+ a conception ( absolute exi/5ce2 we are by ! laws ( ?\ght equally prev5t$ f ridd+ ourselves ( ! consci\sness ( absolute exi/5ce3 ?is consci\sness be+1 z we "h see1 ! obv]se ( our self-consci\sness4 ,& s9ce ! only possible measure ( relative validity among our beliefs1 is ! degree ( _! p]si/5ce 9 opposition to ! ef=ts made to *ange !m1 x foll[s t ?is :i* p]si/s at all times1 "u all circum/ances1 & _c cease until consci\sness ceases1 has ! highe/ validity ( any4 ,to sum up ?is some:at too elaborate argum5t3--,we h se5 h[ 9 ! v ass]tion t all our k1 prop]ly s call$1 is ,relative1 !re is involv$ ! ass]tion t !re exi/s a ,non-relative4 ,we h se5 h[1 9 ea* /ep ( ! argum5t by :i* ?is doctr9e is e/abli%$1 ! same assumption is made4 ,we h se5 h[1 f ! v necessity ( ?9k+ 9 relations1 x foll[s t ! ,relative is itself inconceivable1 except z relat$ to a real ,non-relative4 ,we h se5 t unless a real ,non-relative or ,absolute be po/ulat$1 ! ,relative itself becomes absolute2 & s br+s ! argum5t to a contradiction4 ,& on contemplat+ ! process ( ?\ght1 we h equally se5 h[ impossible x is to get rid ( ! consci\sness ( an actuality ly+ beh9d appe>ances2 & h[1 f ?is impossibility1 results our inde/ructible belief 9 t actuality4#fa #fa ,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 ,"p #a1 ,*ap4 ,,iv1 #bf1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahhh1 pp4 #ic-ig4 ,su* an extract z ?is is v tempt+ to ! critic1 b ,i %all try n to be drawn into criticisms :i* d n imm$iately conc]n my purpose 9 quot+4 ,! po9ts :i* *iefly int]e/ me are ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s evid5t confusion ( sam5ess 9 s5se sev5? ) sam5ess 9 s5se fir/1 & ( sam5ess 9 s5se second ) sam5ess 9 s5se fir/4 ,i %all beg9 ) ! fir/ confusion4 ,e c>eful read] ( ! extract giv5 above mu/ see t ! ,absolute ) :i* ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s argum5t is conc]n$ is an ,absolute 9 consci\sness4 ,x is an indef9ite consci\sness1 raw mat]ial ( consci\sness1 an indef9ite ?\ght1 an ab/ract ( all ?\ghts1 ideas1 or conceptions4 ,x is ! elem5t ( exi/5ce :i* is common to all ^! ?\ghts1 ideas1 or conceptions4 ,if !re c\ld be any d\bt z to ! nature ( ?is ,absolute 9 :i* ! argum5t results1 x %\ld be set at re/ by ! v emphatic /atem5t t our consci\sness ( ! uncondition$ is lit]ally ! uncondition$ consci\sness1 or raw mat]ial ( ?\ght to :i* 9 ?9k+ we give def9ite =ms4 ,x is ?is undiff]5tiat$ sub/ance ( consci\sness :i* is conditional anew 9 e ?\ght t rema9s ) u z an ,absolute ?r\gh all =ms ( ! condition$4 ,n[ ?is ,absolute1 ! elem5t ( exi/5ce :i* accompanies all o!r elem5ts 9 consci\sness1 is ! only "o ) :i* ! argum5t has at all conc]n$ itself1 & yet ?is is evid5tly n ! ,absolute 9 :i* ! au?or is *iefly int]e/$4 ,!re c be no good reason = call+ ?is ,absolute ei!r ,unkn[able1 ,incompreh5sible1 or ,inscrutable4 ,x is n a ,p[] = x is simply ! elem5t ( exi/5ce1 nor is x a ,reality1 = ! ab/ract ( all ?\ghts1 ideas1 or conceptions mu/ be common to ! unreal or imag9>y z well z to ! real4 ,x is 7m5tal7 exi/5ce pure & simple4 ,if ! argum5t be good1 ?is elem5t is kn[n completely & j z x is2 indef9itely1 x is true1 b !n x is indef9ite1 & if kn[n def9itely w\ld n be kn[n z x is4 ,!re is no?+ f>!r ab\t x to "k4 ,x is 9 no s5se ,unkn[able4 ,if ! objection be to ! use ( ! ^w "k :]e ! k is indef9ite1 we %\ld inv5t "s ^w to apply to an indef9ite consci\sness2 b su* consci\sness1 if d5i$ to be k1 %\ld n be class$ ) ignorance4 ,moreov]1 z k is ( all degrees ( def9it5ess1 we %\ld ne$ a s]ies ( words to express ! gradations4 ,! s]ies w\ld be a long "o4 ,b ! ,absolute :i* int]e/s ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 & :i* ?r[s t halo ( ! my/]i\s ab\t 8 philosophy1 is a some?+ di/9ct f ! ,absolute 9 consci\sness1 & n kn[n z x is4 ,x is by no means t :i* is common to impressions made ^u u1 b ! some?+ assum$ to make ^! impressions4 ,x is "u1 ap>t f1 & beh9d appe>ances & modes--:i* an ,absolute1 :i* is simply t :i* is common to appe>ances & modes1 _c be4 ,ph5om5a 7! ?+s imm$iately kn[n7 are only a manife/ation ( "s ,p[] by :i* we are act$ ^u1#fb & ?is ,absolute _c take its place among ph5om5a1 z ! =m] mu/4 ,! two ,absolutes are1 inde$1 q di/9ct ?+s3 "o ( !m1 ! "o 9 consci\sness1 has be5 %[n to exi/2 no argum5t is =?com+ to prove ! exi/5ce ( ! o!r4 ,manife/ly x is n imm$iately kn[n1 = !n x w\ld be a ph5om5on1 h[ev] indef9ite4 ,^u :at gr\nd is x inf]r$8 ,x is ! old problem ( ,desc>tes & ,locke4 #fb ,fir/ ,pr9ciples4 ,*ap4 ,v1 #bg1 p4 #ii4 ,?is problem ,mr4 ,sp5c] solves 9 ! same way z !y1 by assum+ ! ext]nal object to be giv5 imm$iately2 b !re is ?is important diff]5ce1 t :]eas ,desc>tes & ,locke fall into ! error f inadv]t5ce1 ! au?or ( ! ,fir/ ,pr9ciples & ! ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology embraces x delib]ately4 ,! two e>li] writ]s 7 sometimes able to recognize z two ?+s a some?+ 9 consci\sness & an assum$ some?+ )\t4 ,!y confus$ !m only n[ & !n4 ,mr4 ,sp5c] has be5 unable to di/+ui% !m ) cle>ness at any "t1 & he elevates ! confusion into a pr9ciple4 ,! po/ulate ) :i* metaphysical reason+ sets out1 is t we are prim>ily consci\s only ( our s5sations--t we c]ta9ly "k we h ^!1 & t if !re be any?+ beyond ^! s]v+ z cause = !m1 x c be kn[n only by inf]5ce f !m4 ,i %all give mu* surprise to ! metaphysical read] if ,i call 9 "q ?is po/ulate2 & ! surprise w rise into a/oni%m5t if ,i di/9ctly d5y x4 ,yet ,i mu/ d ?is4 ,limit+ ! proposition to ^? epi-p]iph]al feel+s produc$ 9 u by ext]nal objects 7= ^! are alone 9 "q7 ,i see no alt]native b to affirm t ! ?+ prim>ily kn[n1 is n t a s5sation has be5 exp]i5c$1 b t !re exi/s an out] object4#fc #fc ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1 ,"p ,,vii1 ,*ap4 ,,vi1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahhc1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cfi4 ,! "q "h is--,:at does consci\sness directly te/ify8 ,& ! direct te/imony ( consci\sness is1 t ,"t & ,space are n )9 b )\t ! m9d2 & s absolutely indep5d5t ( x t !y _c be conceiv$ to become non-exi/5t ev5 7 ! m9d to become non-exi/5t4#fd #fd ,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 ,"p ,i1 ,*ap4 ,,iii1 #ae1 ed4 cit4 p4 #di4 ,! moral ( ! fir/ bit quot$ w\ld seem to be1 unless we make ! ^w prim>ily ref] only to ord] 9 "t1 t "o kn[s imm$iately :at is beyond consci\sness & m$iately :at is 9 x--a use ( words satisfactory1 ,i %\ld ?9k1 to no "o b ,mr4 ,sp5c]4 ,if1 by prim>ily be meant previ\sly1 & ! two classes ( be+ are kn[n 9 j ! same way1 :y di/+ui% betwe5 ! classes8 ,moreov]1 9 ?is case a ?+ w\ld n be kn[n ?r\gh appe>ances1 b be=e !m4 ,^u ! o!r supposition1 to be sure1 appe>ances w\ld be kn[n ?r\gh x--a mode ( speak+ n 9 h>mony ) ! language ( ! ,fir/ ,pr9ciples4 ,x seems a *oice betwe5 ,scylla & ,*>ybdis4 ,! second extract makes consci\sness directly te/ify n only to :at is beyond its pale1 b1 putt+ on ! _s ( prophecy1 ev5 to :at does n belong to ! pres5t1 b to a possible future4 ,:5 we speak ( consci\sness z te/ify+ to a s5sation1 we mean simply t ! s5sation is 9 consci\sness4 ,! ^w _c be us$ 9 ?is s5se 9 speak+ ( :at is beyond consci\sness4 ,9 :at s5se is x us$8 ,x w\ld seem to mean1 if x mean any?+1 t consci\sness gives "o ! "r to inf] a some?+ beyond--a "r :i* ?\ghtful m5 believe %\ld be e/abli%$ by pro(4 ,?is pro(1 "o _c1 ( c\rse1 expect f a man :o makes ! ?+ beyond consci\sness ! ?+ prim>ily kn[n4 ,x w\ld be m consi/5t 9 him to attempt a pro( t !re is some?+ 9 consci\sness4 ,?is complete confusion 9 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s m9d ( ?+s 9 consci\sness & ?+s )\t1 w expla9 :y he keeps talk+ ( 8 two ,absolutes z if !re 7 only "o1 z if ?is "o 7 ! "o ( :i* we are consci\s1 & yet z if ?is "o 7 beyond consci\sness4 ,8 pages sw>m ) illu/rations :i* ,i might give4 ,i %all give only ! foll[+3 ,?us ! consci\sness ( an ,inscrutable ,p[] manife/$ to u ?r\gh all ph5om5a1 has be5 gr[+ ev] cle>]2 & mu/ ev5tually be fre$ f its imp]fections4#fe ,if ,mr4 ,sp5c] ev] comes to a consci\sness t sam5ess 9 s5se sev5? is n sam5ess 9 s5se fir/1 he w f9d "w be=e him 9 remodel+ 8 doctr9e4 #fe ,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 ,"p ,i1 ,*ap4 ,v1 #ca1 p4 #ajh4 ,! second confusion ^u :i* ,i wi% to comm5t comes to ! surface 9 a s5t5ce occurr+ ne> ! end ( ! l5g?y extract quot$ at ! outset3 ,& s9ce ! only possible measure ( relative validity among our beliefs1 is ! degree ( _! p]si/5ce 9 opposition to ! ef=ts made to *ange !m1 x foll[s t ?is :i* p]si/s at all times1 "u all circum/ances1 & _c cease until consci\sness ceases1 has ! highe/ validity ( any4 ,n[ t :i*1 x has be5 argu$1 p]si/s at all times & "u all circum/ances1 is ! raw mat]ial ( ?\ght1 ! elem5t ( exi/5ce :i* is ! ab/ract ( all ?\ghts1 ideas1 or conceptions4 ,x is m]ely t :i* !y h 9 common1 & c include none ( ^? elem5ts 9 :i* !y diff]4 ,if1 h[ev]1 p]si/5ce mean any?+1 x means p]si/5ce 9 "t4 ,t :i* exi/s at ?is "t & t :i* exi/s at t are n "o1 /rictly speak+1 b two4 ,t is1 !y are n ! same 9 s5se fir/1 b 9 "s loos] s5se :i* w admit ( duality4 ,if1 !n1 we are deal+ ) ! ,absolute1 exi/5ce pure & simple1 & are ab/ract+ f all diff]5ces :i* may m>k out ?is exi/5ce f t1 we mu/ ab/ract f temporal di/9ctions too4 ,if we d ?is1 we c no long] speak ( ! ,absolute z p]si/+4 ,if we d n d ?is1 some?+ may p]si/1 b x is no ,absolute4 ,m5tal elem5ts o!rwise simil>1 b di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by temporal diff]5ces are ! same 9 s5se second1 n 9 s5se fir/4 ,! exi/5ce ( :i* ,i am consci\s to-day & ! exi/5ce ( :i* ,i 0 consci\s ye/]day are n ! same exi/5ce 9 any s5se save ?is4 ,ye/]day's exi/5ce does n p]si/ to-day2 x is replac$ by ano!r4 ,mr4 ,sp5c] has evid5tly fall5 into ! error ( ^? s*oolm5 :o endeavor$ to ab/ract ! elem5t :i* sev]al ?+s h 9 common1 b creat$ unnecess>y difficulties by mak+ an incomplete ab/raction & treat+ x z ?\gh x 7 complete4 ,o!r defects ( ?is fallaci\s argum5t to prove our belief 9 ! ,absolute valid1 ,i w n "h discuss4 ,,sec4 #ce4 ,i next take a few passages :i* w illu/rate ! confusion ( sam5esses fir/ & sev5?1 f ,dr4 ,james ,mc,cosh's late "w on ,fir/ & ,fundam5tal ,tru?s4 ,!y are select$ f ! *apt] on ,our ,intuition ( ,body by ! ,s5ses4#ff #ff ,"p ,,ii1 ,book ,i1 ,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,we are foll[+ ! pla9e/ dictates ( consci\sness1 we avoid a ?\s& difficulties1 & we get a solid gr\nd on :i* to re/ & to build1 :5 we ma9ta9 t ! m9d 9 its fir/ ex]cises acquires k2 n1 inde$1 sci5tific or arrang$1 n ( qualities ( objects & classes ( objects1 b /ill k--! k ( ?+s pres5t+ !mselves1 & z !y pres5t !mselves2 :i* k1 individual & concrete1 is ! f\ndation ( all o!r k1 ab/ract1 g5]al & d$uctive4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ! m9d is s con/itut$ z to atta9 a k ( body or ( mat]ial objects4 ,x may be difficult to asc]ta9 ! exact po9t or surface at :i* ! m9d & body come toge!r & influ5ce ea* o!r1 9 p>ticul>1 h[ f> into ! body 7,desc>tes )\t pro( ?\ght to be 9 ! p9eal gl&71 b x is c]ta9 t :5 !y d meet m9d kn[s body z hav+ its ess5tial prop]ties ( ext5sion & resi/+ en]gy4 ,x is ?r\gh ! bodily organism t ! intellig5ce ( man atta9s its k ( all mat]ial objects beyond4 ,?is is true ( ! infant m9d2 x is true also ( ! mature m9d4 ,we may ass]t some?+ m ?an ?is reg>d+ ! organism4 ,x is n only ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* we "k all bodily objects beyond itself2 x is itself an object prim>ily kn[n2 nay1 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k t1 along ) ! objects imm$iately affect+ x1 x is ! only object orig9ally kn[n4 ,intuitively man seems to "k no?+ beyond 8 own organism1 & objects directly affect+ x2 9 all fur!r k !re is a process ( inf]5ce proce$+ on a ga!r$ exp]i5ce4 ,?is !ory seems to me to expla9 all ! facts1 & x deliv]s u f _m p]plexities4#fg #fg ,n4 ,y41 #ahhi1 pp4 #fb-fc4 ,9 our primitive cognition ( body !re is involv$ a k ( ,outness or ,ext]nality4 ,we "k ! object p]ceiv$1 be x ! organism or ! object affect+ ! organism1 z n 9 ! m9d1 b z out ( ! m9d4 ,9 reg>d to "s ( ! objects p]ceiv$ by u1 we may be 9 d\bt z to :e!r !y are 9 ! organism or beyond x1 b we are always sure t !y are extra-m5tal4#fh #fh ,pp4 #fh-fi4 ,we "k ! ,objects z ,affect+ ,u4 ,i h already said t we "k !m z indep5d5t ( u4 ,?is is an important tru?4 ,b x is equally true & equally important t ^! objects are made kn[n to u z someh[ hav+ an influ5ce on u4 ,! organic object is capable ( affect+ our m9ds1 & ! extra-organic object affects ! organism :i* affects ! m9d4 ,^u ?is cognition are f\nd$ c]ta9 judgm5ts z to ! relations ( ! objects kn[n to ! kn[+ m9d4#fi #fi ,p4 #gj4 ,b x w be vehem5tly urg$ t x is mo/ prepo/]\s to ass]t t we "k all ?is by ! s5ses4 ,^u ?is ,i rem>k t ! phrase by ! s5ses is ambigu\s4 ,if by s5ses he meant ! m]e bodily organism--! eye1 ! e>s1 ! n]ves & ! bra9--,i affirm t we "k1 & c "k1 no?+ by ?is bodily "p1 :i* is a m]e organ or in/rum5t2 t s f> f kn[+ pot5cy or ext5sion1 we d n "k ev5 color1 or ta/e1 or smell4 ,b if by ! s5ses he meant ! m9d ex]cis$ 9 s5se-p]ception1 summon$ into activity by ! organism1 & contemplat+ cognitively ! ext]nal _w1 !n ,i ma9ta9 t we d "k1 & ?is intuitively1 ext]nal objects z influ5c+ u2 t is1 ex]cis+ p[]s 9 ref]5ce to u4 ,i ask ^? :o w\ld d\bt ( ?is doctr9e ( :at x is t !y suppose ! m9d to be cognizant 9 s5se-p]ception4 ,if !y say a m]e s5sation or impression 9 ! m9d1 ,i reply t ?is is n consi/5t ) ! revelation ( consci\sness1 :i* ann\nces pla9ly t :at we "k is some?+ extra-m5tal4 ,if !y say1 ) ,kant1 a m]e ph5om5on 9 ! s5se ( appe>ance1 !n ,i reply t ?is1 too1 is inconsi/5t ) consci\sness1 :i* decl>es t we "k ! ?+4#gj #gj ,pp4 #ga & #gb4 ,! /atem5ts conta9$ 9 ^! extracts are pla9ly 9 a /ate ( civil w>1 & might be left1 )\t =eign aid1 to complete _! own de/ruction4 ,i %all fir/ let !m criticize ea* o!r4 7#a7 ,x is ass]t$ t x may be difficult to asc]ta9 ! exact po9t or surface at :i* ! m9d & body come toge!r & influ5ce ea* o!r--9 p>ticul> h[ f> into ! body--b t x is c]ta9 t :5 !y d meet m9d kn[s body z hav+ its ess5tial prop]ties ( ext5sion & resi/+ en]gy4 ,?is k is said to arise :5 !y meet1 be x m>k$1 & n be=e4 7#b7 ,x is also ass]t$ t x is ?r\gh ! body t ! m9d atta9s its k ( all mat]ial objects beyond4 ,?is makes our k ( objects beyond ! body m$iate & n imm$iate4 ,:y are objects beyond ! body reg>d$ z m$iately kn[n8 ,no reason is sugge/$ except t !y are n !mselves 9 contact ) ! m9d1 b only 9 contact ) t :i* is 9 contact ) ! m9d4 ,x is !n presumable t any p>ts ( ! bodily organism :i* nev] !mselves meet ! m9d 7if !re are any su*7 are n kn[n imm$iately1 b only ?r\gh ! p>ts :i* d meet ! m9d4 ,t is1 !y are kn[n m$iately1 too4 ,t !re are1 or at lea/ may be1 su* p>ts1 is directly inf]rible f ! /atem5t t we d n "k h[ f> into ! body m9d & body come toge!r4 7#c7 ,x is /at$ t ! body is an object prim>ily kn[n4 ,x is reg>d$ by ! au?or z probable t1 along ) ! objects imm$iately affect+ x1 x is ! only object orig9ally kn[n4 ,he ?9ks t man kn[s intuitively no?+ beyond 8 own organism & objects directly affect+ x4 ,b :at is meant by ! words prim>ily1 orig9ally1 intuitively8 ,if ?+s n 9 direct contact ) m9d are n kn[n imm$iately b ?r\gh some?+ else1 & if ! po9t or surface at :i* m9d & body meet is at "s unc]ta9 di/ance f ! surface ( ! body1 surely ! only mat]ial ?+ imm$iately kn[n is t portion ( ! body 9 contact ) m9d1 & n ! :ole body ) ! objects directly affect+ x4 ,k ( ^! m$iate objects mu/ be due to a process ( inf]5ce f :at is directly exp]i5c$4 ,?+s kn[n prim>ily1 orig9ally & intuitively are !n kn[n m$iately & inf]5tially--ev5 9 "s cases s imp]fectly kn[n t x is n kn[n :at & :]e !y are1 :e!r 9 or beyond ! body4 7#d7 ,! doctr9e t we are consci\s 9 s5se-p]ception ( a m]e s5sation or impression 9 ! m9d is answ]$ by ! /atem5t t ?is is n consi/5t ) ! revelation ( consci\sness1 :i* ann\nces pla9ly t :at we "k is some?+ extra-m5tal4 ,kant's ph5om5alism is met by ! claim t consci\sness decl>es t we "k ! ?+4 ,a ?+ kn[n m$iately1 h[ev]1 _c be m c]ta9ly kn[n ?an ! ?+ kn[n imm$iately1 & f :i* its exi/5ce is inf]r$4 ,! imm$iate revelation ( consci\sness _c d m ?an give z a k ( ! po9t or surface at :i* m9d & body meet4 ,x is only "h t m9d c directly "k body z hav+ its ess5tial prop]ties ( ext5sion & resi/+ en]gy4 ,b s f> f consci\sness te/ify+ to ! ext5sion & resi/ance ( ?is "p ( ! body1 x does n1 z ,dr4 ,mc,cosh admits1 te/ify to ?is "p ( ! body at all4 ,if x reveal no?+ z to :at x kn[s imm$iately1 :at c its /atem5t z to :at x kn[s m$iately be wor?8 ,& if consci\sness te/ifies t x kn[s imm$iately :at ,dr4 ,mc,cosh has ma9ta9$ to be m$iately kn[n1 he mu/ hold t its revelation is false & delusive4 ,x c]ta9ly seems to me t my consci\sness reveals ! ink-/& be=e me z x does n reveal ! "p ( my body ) :i* ! m9d has come toge!r1 s9ce x does n ev5 reveal :e!r ?is "p be a po9t or a surface4 ,if my k ( ! ink-/& mu/ re/ ^u my k ( ?is1 & c h no great] c]ta9ty1 my fai? 9 ! ink-/& mu/ g4 ,a t[] _c be m firm ?an its f\ndation4 ,s mu* = ! consi/5cy ( ! extracts !mselves4 ,i n[ turn to a criticism on a diff]5t basis4 ,! difficulties connect$ ) ?is inconsi/5t doctr9e naturally arise out ( ! /&po9t occupi$ by ! au?or4 ,he accepts z f9al1 & z ju/ifiable 9 metaphysics1 ! conv5i5t psy*ological assumption t ! gr\p ( s5sations ga9$ f an object is a some?+ di/9ct f ! object itself2 t ! object may be ext]nal to ! organism1 b t ! m9d1 ) its s5sations1 is1 or may be treat$ z if x 71 some:]e )9 ! organism2 t ! s5sations are ga9$ f real ?+s1 b are n !mselves real ?+s1 s t a _w ( s5sations--?+s be+ ab/ract$--mu/ be an unreal & phantom _w4 ,n[1 ! man :o has ?us di/+ui%$ betwe5 ?+s & s5sations1 if he reg>d ! s5sations z our only imm$iate repres5tatives ( ! ?+s1 w f9d x difficult1 )\t mak+ an evid5tly gratuit\s assumption some:]e1 to prove 8 "r to rea* ?+s at all4 ,dr4 ,mc,cosh sees ?is difficulty1 & s he assumes t consci\sness reveals bo? s5sations & ?+s4 ,he all[s u p]ceptions m+l$ ) s5sations4#ga ,:]e are ^! m+l$ p]ceptions & s5sations8 ,9 ! m9d4 ,:]e is ! m9d8 ,9 ! body4 ,9 :at body8 ,! body p]ceiv$4 ,is ?is body p]ceiv$ itself 9 ! m9d & m+l$ ) s5sations8 ,no4 ,x is !n di/9ct f ! m5tal p]cept--! p]ception ( x is some:]e 9 x1 b is n x4 ,h[ d we "k1 !n1 t !re is a body8 ,we inf] x f ! p]cept2 consci\sness 7! p]cept7 reveals x4 ,on :at pr9ciple is x inf]r$8 ,! "q is a j "o if ! k be n imm$iate4 ,our au?or does n ev5 see t !re is a "q4 ,! fact is t ?is doctr9e seems to avoid ! difficulties ( a repres5tative p]ception only :ile x is all[$ to rema9 loose & vague4 ,if ?+s are n to be kn[n repres5tatively1 !y mu/ ei!r be !mselves 9 consci\sness--& !n !y are n extra-m5tal--or !y mu/ be directly kn[n 9 "s o!r way ?an z 9 consci\sness1 & !n consci\sness does n reveal !m & _c be appeal$ to4 ,an appeal to consci\sness1 unless ! ?+ itself is 9 consci\sness1 is fatal4 #ga ,*ap4 ,,iii1 p4 #ge4 ,b ?is discrim9ation betwe5 s5sations & ! ?+ caus+ ! s5sations1 & ! assumption t consci\sness te/ifies to ! two classes ( ?+s1 does n seem to be borne out by ! facts4 ,consci\sness does n te/ify to ! two classes4 ,! common man ?9ks t he kn[s directly ! ?+s t he sees & feels1 & ! di/9ction betwe5 ^! ?+s & 8 ideas ( ! ?+s1 or 8 s5sations ga!r$ f ! ?+s1 arises only ^u reflection & aft] a comp>ison ( 8 exp]i5ces ) ^? ( o!r m54 ,he sees ! ink-/& 9 front ( ano!r man's body4 ,he discov]s t ! o!r man sees ! ink-/&--t is1 has an exp]i5ce l 8 own4 ,he f9ds1 aft] inve/igation1 t ?is o!r man does n h ! exp]i5ce until aft] "s influ5ce has be5 conduct$ by ! n]ves to ! bra94 ,he accord+ly concludes t ! m9d ( ?is o!r man1 & all t x imm$iately kn[s1 is situat$ some:]e 9 ! bra94 ,he ?us di/+ui%es betwe5 ! ink-/& & ! repres5tative ( ! ink-/& 9 ! m9d ( ! o!r man4 ,?is is precisely :at ,dr4 ,mc,cosh has done1 ?\gh he has pref]r$ to use ! ^w p]ception in/ead ( s5sation or impression4 ,hav+ gone z f> z ?is1 ! man 9 "q reflects1 if he be consi/5t1 t 8 own case mu/ be ess5tially simil> to t ( ! man he is consid]+1 & concludes t he1 too1 sees only 7imm$iately1 at lea/7 "s repres5tative ( ! ink-/&1 & n ! ?+ itself4 ,dr4 ,mc,cosh does n conclude ?is1 because he is n consi/5t4 ,b an ink-/&1 a tree1 a h\se1 9 ! bra91 _c be v mu* l a real ink-/&1 tree or h\se4 ,!n "o does n see ?+s z !y are1 b is condemn$ to a phantom _w4 ,hav+ gone ?us f>1 our common man is appall$ at 8 own conclusions1 z well he may be4 ,he may1 h[ev]1 be readily reassur$1 if "o w po9t out to him ! error 9 8 argum5t4 ,! :ole argum5t began by assum+ t he has evid5ce t "s object is 9 front ( 8 body & 9 front ( ! body ( ano!r man2 t he has a body & s has ! o!r man4 ,if ?is k be imm$iate1 ( c\rse x may furni% ! basis ( an argum5t2 b if x be n imm$iate1 "o has no "r to beg9 ) x1 b %\ld g back to :at is imm$iate4 ,let u assume t x is imm$iate4 ,:at ,i am !n consci\s ( is my own body1 ! o!r man's body & ! object 9 relation to !m4 ,^u ?is basis ,i argue to "s repres5tative ( ! object ,i imm$iately see1 & ,i connect x ) ! man's bra94 ,does ! man n[ see two objects or only "o8 ,if only "o1 :i* "o8 ,! "o ,i ref] to 8 bra91 or ! "o ,i see8 ,does ! "o he sees seem to him to be 9 8 bra98 ,probably he has n ! lea/ notion t x is connect$ ) t organ4 ,am ,i1 !n1 9 8 case8 ,d ,i also see only a copy ( ! object 9 my bra98 ,& may ?is n be true1 al?\gh ,i h no imm$iate k ( my bra9 & its relation to t object8 ,b--& ?is is ! important po9t--if all ?is be true1 h[ ab\t ! position ) :i* ,i />t$8 ,my argum5t is bas$ ^u two real bodies & a real object4 ,i see t ,i 0 :olly 9 error 9 suppos+ t ,i saw ^! & c\ld reason f !m4 ,!n ! reason+ is n good4 ,!n ! conclusion is n reliable1 & x is n prov$ t ,i see imm$iately only an image 91 or 9 "s sort ( contact )1 my bra94 ,! fallaci\s "* ( ! argum5t is pla9 en\gh2 :]e is ! flaw8 ,x lies 9 ?is3 ,i assume t ,i see ! two bodies & ! object imm$iately4 ,consci\sness seems to reveal !m4 ,aft] grant+ ! man opposite me a repres5tative ( t object ,i apply ! same reason+ to myself1 =gett+ t ,i assum$ at ! outset t ,i see ! real object4 ,i c c]ta9ly n put ! object ,i see 9 my bra91 = ! bra9 9 any way ,i c be conceiv$ to "k x belongs to precisely ! same class ( ?+s z ?is object1 & !y are beside ea* o!r 9 consci\sness4 ,! repres5tative ! o!r man has is a repres5tative ( ! object 9 my consci\sness1 & n--at lea/1 ,i h no evid5ce t x is--a repres5tative ( a some?+ else ( :i* my object is also a repres5tative4 ,& if ! object ( :i* ,i am imm$iately consci\s is ext5d$ & )\t my body 7imm$iately p]ceiv$71 ,i may assume t ! object 9 8 consci\sness is also ext5d$ & )\t ! body 9 8 consci\sness4 ,8 repres5tative ( my object is n 9 ! head ,i see1 = 8 head z ,i see x is 9 my consci\sness1 if ! object ,i see is1 & any object 9 8 consci\sness is ! same ) any correspond+ object 9 m9e only 9 s5se six?--a s5se ( sam5ess :i* ,i h expla9$ at l5g? 9 ! e>li] "p ( my "w4 ,?is reason+ is1 x seems to me1 cle> en\gh & consi/5t en\gh1 & %\ld be pla9 to any "o :o w take ! tr\ble to foll[ x c>efully4 ,x l&s "o 9 no su* difficulties & inconsi/5cies z result f ! doctr9e ,i h be5 criticiz+4 ,%\ld x be said ?is is a =m ( ,idealism1 & at lea/ ab&ons :at is extra-m5tal1 ,i answ]1 ! "n is a matt] ( ta/e & ( little significance2 :at is important is t ?is doctr9e does n f\nd its reason+ ^u an assumption :i* its conclusion decl>es to be false2 nor does x ma9ta9 t :at is imm$iately kn[n is n ext5d$1 figur$1 ext]nal to ! body1 z x seems to be1 b some?+ q diff]5t & dissimil>4 ,x is 9 h>mony ) ! revelation ( consci\sness4 ,%\ld x /ill be object$ t x makes no di/9ction betwe5 ?+s & ! s5sations or impressions :i* repres5t !m1 ,i answ]1 "o c object to ?+s be+ reg>d$ z complexes ( s5sations only z long z he sep>ates s5sations & ?+s1 mak+ ! =m] unlike ! ?+s & relegat+ !m to a place 7! bra97 :]e ! ?+s are n1 & to exi/ 9 :i* !y mu/ be v bad copies ( ! ?+s inde$4 ,! doctr9e ,i advocate does n d5y ! ?+s z p]ceiv$ at all2 x m]ely holds t consci\sness does decl>e = ! ?+s1 & n = a set ( repres5tatives mu* unlike !m & said to exi/ 9 a place 9 :i* we are n consci\s ( p]ceiv+ any?+4 ,x objects to see+ d\ble ?r\gh an incomplete reflection ^u :at consci\sness reveals4 ,n[ x is v evid5t t ,dr4 ,mc,cosh1 9 8 anxiety to prove an extra-m5tal _w1 is actuat$ by a desire to reta9 real ?+s4 ,he is "u ! impression t1 unless ! extra-m5tal is kn[n1 our k is conf9$ to %ad[s & unrealities4 ,he combats ! ,ideali/1 because he supposes him to d5y ! body ( :i* we are consci\s2 :]eas1 all t ! ,ideali/ is d5y+ 7if he be consi/5t ) 8 pr9ciples7 is ! hypo!tical repres5tative ( ! body1 assum$ to exi/ )9 ! body1 & to :i* consci\sness does n te/ify4 ,x is ?is t is ! unreality4 ,! body to :i* ! ,ideali/ holds is ! v body to :i* ,dr4 ,mc,cosh ?9ks consci\sness te/ifies2 b ?is body is n beyond consci\sness1 nor 9 any prop] s5se ( ! words extra-m5tal4 ,! above argum5t = ! extra-m5tal is consequ5tly due to a misconception--to ! misconception t ! body reveal$ by consci\sness is ! extra-m5tal body1 & t ! only body left to an ,ideali/ is an unreal phantom ( ?is body1 & di/9ct f x4 ,& x is ! attempt to make ?is body reveal$ by consci\sness bo? 9 m9d & out ( m9d t has occasion$ ! difficulties & inconsequ5ces ( ! reason+ ,i h quot$4 ,?is attempt is due to a confusion ( sam5ess 9 s5se sev5? ) sam5ess 9 s5se fir/4 ,my excuse = s m9ute a criticism ( ?is pla9ly unt5able position is t we h "h a repres5tative in/ance ( an error q common1 & inde$ *>act]i/ic ( a c]ta9 /age ( reflection4 ,,sec4 #cf4 ,! la/ confusion ( sam5esses t ,i %all discuss lies at ! bottom ( ! common op9ion on ! inf9ite divisibility ( space1 & causes ! ant9omies :i* arise f x4 ,! position ,i %all criticize is well set =? 9 ,pr(essor ,w4 ,k4 ,clif=d's popul> lecture entitl$ ,( ,b\nd>ies 9 ,g5]al4#gb ,f ?is ,i take a few passages :i* w suffice to illu/rate 8 doctr9e4 #gb ,see+ & ,?9k+1 ,london1 ,macmillan ,co41 #ahgi4 ,n[ ! idea express$ by t ^w cont9u\s is "o ( extreme importance2 x is ! f\ndation ( all exact sci5ce ( ?+s2 & yet x is s v simple & elem5t>y t x mu/ h be5 almo/ ! fir/ cle> idea t we got into our heads4 ,x is only ?is3 ,i _c move ?is ?+ f "o position to ano!r1 )\t mak+ x g ?r\gh an inf9ite numb] ( int]m$iate positions4 ,inf9ite2 x is a dreadful ^w1 ,i "k1 until y f9d out t y are famili> ) ! ?+ :i* x expresses4 ,9 ?is place x means t betwe5 any two positions !re is "s int]m$iate position2 betwe5 t & ei!r ( ! o!rs1 aga91 !re is "s o!r int]m$iate2 & s on )\t any end4 ,inf9ite means )\t any end4 ,if y w5t on ) t "w ( c\nt+ =ev]1 y w\ld nev] get any fur!r ?an ! beg9n+ ( x4 ,at la/ y w\ld only h two positions v close toge!r1 b n ! same2 & ! :ole process might be gone ov] aga91 beg9n+ ) ^? z _m times z y l4 99 99 99 99 ,:5 a po9t moves1 x moves along "s l9e2 & y may say t x traces out or describes ! l9e4 ,to look at some?+ def9ite1 let u take ! po9t :]e ?is b\nd>y ( r$ on pap] is cut by ! surface ( wat]4 ,i move all ab\t toge!r4 ,n[ y "k t betwe5 any two positions ( ! po9t !re is an inf9ite numb] ( int]m$iate positions4 ,:]e are !y all8 ,:y1 cle>ly1 9 ! l9e along :i* ! po9t mov$4 ,t l9e is ! place :]e all su* po9ts are to be f\nd4 99 99 99 99 ,x seems a v natural ?+ to say t space is made up ( po9ts4 ,i want y to exam9e v c>efully :at ?is means1 & h[ f> x is true4 ,& let u fir/ take ! simple/ case1 & consid] :e!r we may safely say t a l9e is made up ( po9ts4 ,if y ?9k ( a v l>ge numb]--say1 a million--( po9ts all 9 a r[1 ! end ones be+ an in* ap>t2 !n ?is /r+ ( po9ts is altoge!r a diff]5t ?+ f a l9e an in* long4 ,= if y s+le out two po9ts :i* are next "o ano!r1 !n !re is no po9t ( ! s]ies betwe5 !m2 b if y take two po9ts on a l9e1 h[ev] close toge!r !y may be1 !re is an inf9ite numb] ( po9ts betwe5 !m4 ,! two ?+s are diff]5t 9 k9d1 n 9 degree4 99 99 99 99 ,:5 a po9t moves along a l9e1 we "k t betwe5 any two positions ( x !re is an inf9ite numb] 79 ?is new s5se#gc7 ( int]m$iate positions4 ,t is because ! motion is cont9u\s4 ,ea* ( ^? positions is :]e ! po9t 0 at "s in/ant or o!r4 ,betwe5 ! two end positions on ! l9e1 ! po9t :]e ! motion began & ! po9t :]e x /opp$1 !re is no po9t ( ! l9e :i* does n belong to t s]ies4 ,we h ?us an inf9ite s]ies ( successive positions ( a cont9u\sly mov+ po9t1 & 9 t s]ies are includ$ all ! po9ts ( a c]ta9 piece ( l9e-room4 ,may we say !n t ! l9e is made up ( t inf9ite s]ies ( po9ts8 #gc ,pr(essor ,clif=d has us$ ! ^w numb] 9 two s5ses1 a quantitative & a qualitative4 ,by numb] 9 ! latt] s5se he means simply unlimit$ units4 ,yes2 if we mean no m ?an t ! s]ies makes up ! po9ts ( ! l9e4 ,b no1 if we mean t ! l9e is made up ( ^? po9ts 9 ! same way t x is made up ( a great _m v small pieces ( l9e4 ,a po9t is n to be reg>d$ z a "p ( a l9e1 9 any s5se :atev]4 ,x is ! b\nd>y betwe5 two p>ts4 ,^! extracts suffice1 ,i ?9k1 to %[ :at ! common doctr9e is1 & to %[ also ! unavoidable difficulties connect$ ) x4 ,^! 7 cle>ly se5 long ago4 ,motion1 argues ,z5o ( ,elea1#gd _c beg91 because a body 9 motion mu/ pass ?r\gh an inf9ite numb] ( int]m$iate places be=e x c arrive at any o!r place4 ,a*illes c nev] ov]take ! tortoise1 = by ! "t t he has rea*$ ! place :]e x 01 x has always mov$ a little beyond4 ,if ,pr(essor ,clif=d c\ld n move a ?+ f "o position to ano!r1 )\t mak+ x g ?\gh an inf9ite numb] ( int]m$iate positions1 if ^! positions mu/ be gone ?r\gh ) successively1 & if inf9ite really mean )\t any end1 !n ! f9al memb] ( ! s]ies c\ld nev] h be5 rea*$1 = ! pla9 reason t !re is no f9al memb] to an endless s]ies4 ,if ! new position is rea*$ )\t pass+ ?r\gh e memb] ( ! s]ies & leav+ none f>!r to pass ?r\gh1 x is n rea*$ by pass+ ?r\gh an inf9ite numb] ( int]m$iate positions4 ,! difficulty "h is a hopeless "o2 ei!r ! s]ies has a f9al memb]1 & !n x is n inf9ite2 or x has n1 & !n "o _c come to ! end4 #gd ,ueb]weg1 ,hi/4 ( ,philos41 ,vol4 ,i1 #bj4 ,n4 ,y41 #ahgg1 pp4 #eg-eh4 ,! attempt sometimes made to avoid ?is difficulty by call+ ^u a precisely simil> "o = aid is ( n ! lea/ avail4 ,! "t ( ! motion1 x is said1 is divisible j z is ! space ov] :i* ! body moves2 ! spaces & ! times !n v>y toge!r1 & z ! spaces become v small ! times become v small2 inf9itesimal spaces are pass$ ov] 9 inf9itesimal times1 & all ^! inf9itesimals are includ$ 9 ! f9ite space & f9ite "t ( ! motion4 ,b if !re be a difficulty 9 arriv+ at ! end ( an endless s]ies ( places or positions1 !re is surely no less a difficulty 9 rea*+ ! end ( an endless s]ies ( times4 ,if ! s]ies ( times to be successively exhau/$ be truly endless1 !n an end ( ! motion c nev] be rea*$4 ,quibbl+ ov] ! size ( ! memb]s ( ! s]ies 9 ! case ( ei!r space or "t is useless4 ,:e!r ?+s are big or little1 if ! supply ( !m is truly endless1 "o c nev] get to ! end ( ! supply4 ,! rapidity ) :i* !y are exhau/$ has no?+ to d ) ! "q1 = an increase 9 rapidity has obvi\sly no effect 9 facilitat+ an approa* to :at is assum$ n to exi/1 a f9al t]m4 ,x is1 !n1 p]fectly cle> t1 if1 9 ord] to move a body1 ,i mu/ come to ! end ( an endless s]ies1 ,i may reasonably conclude t ,i _c move a body4 ,grant+ ! assumption ^u :i* x is bas$1 ,z5o's argum5t is unansw]able4 ,x is n a "q ( an ord9>y difficulty1 a trifl+ evil2 x is a "q ( an impossibility1 a flat contradiction2 to move an in*1 to endure = a m9ute1 "o is to accompli% ! feat ( rea*+ ! end ( ! endless4 ,"o ?+ is q c]ta92 no rival doctr9e c pres5t a great] difficulty4 ,x is possible t "s "o may wi% to f9d a way out ( ?is difficulty by di/+ui%+1 z ,clif=d has done1 betwe5 ! po9ts ( ! l9e & ! p>ts ( ! l9e4 ,b ?is di/9ction is ( no s]vice4 ,all ^! po9ts are decl>$ to be on ! l9e1 & any?+ t passes ov] ! :ole l9e mu/ exhau/ !m "o by "o until x arrives at ! f9al po9t4 ,by hypo!sis1 !re is no f9al po9t to ! s]ies--! s]ies is )\t any end4 ,unless1 !n1 ! l9e c be pass$ ov] )\t pass+ ov] ! po9ts1 !re w\ld seem to be no help 9 turn+ to l9e pieces4 ,moreov]1 x appe>s reasonable to assume t !re are z _m p>ts to ! l9e z !re are po9ts4 ,= all ^! po9ts are on ! l9e1 & no two ( !m are 9 precisely ! same position on ! l9e2 !y mu/ consequ5tly be on diff]5t p>ts ( ! l9e4 ,if x be object$ t1 hav+ no ext5sion1 !y _c prop]ly be said to be on p>ts ( ! l9e1 ,i answ] t1 ev5 on ?is hypo!sis1 !y mu/ be at diff]5t p>ts ( ! l9e1 9 ord] to be di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r4 ,! "p ( ! l9e betwe5 any two ( !m is c]ta9ly n ! same z ! "p betwe5 any o!r two4 ,x foll[s t ! numb] ( p>ts ( :i* ! l9e is made up is at lea/ z great z ! numb] ( po9ts less "o1 if we refuse to say t ! po9ts are on ! l9e2 & is z great z ! numb] ( po9ts1 if we are will+ to say t !y are on ! l9e4 ,to move ov] ! :ole l9e1 !n1 a po9t mu/ come )9 "o t]m ( ! end ( an endless s]ies1 or x mu/ pass ov] an endless numb] ( small pieces ( l9e until x comes to ! v end4 ,does ?is seem a s5sible doctr9e8 ,! rival doctr9e1 sometimes call$ ! ,b]keleyan1 conta9s no su* difficulties1 & x makes evid5t t ! difficulties discuss$ above arise simply out ( a confusion ( sam5esses1 & are gratuit\s4 ,its discussion dem&s t ,i call to m9d a few di/9ctions already made4 ,"o mu/ be> 9 m9d1 9 ! fir/ place1 t a l9e imm$iately kn[n1 exi/+ 9 consci\sness1 is ! same ) an ext]nal l9e correspond+ to x1 n 9 s5se fir/1 b 9 s5se sev5?4 ,t is1 !y are two l9es1 n "o1 & 9 ! int]e/s ( cle>ness !y %\ld be consid]$ sep>ately4 ,"o %\ld rememb]1 9 ! second place1 t a l9e 9 consci\sness at "o mom5t is n1 9 ! /ricte/ s5se1 ! same ) a l9e 9 consci\sness at ano!r mom5t4 ,"o may /& = ! o!r & ?us be ! same ) x 9 s5se fif?2 or ! two may be reg>d$ z bo? belong+ to ! "o s]ies ( exp]i5ces1 :i*1 tak5 toge!r1 repres5t to u an object1 9 :i* case !y are ! same 9 s5se ?ird4 ,a ?+ ! same ) ano!r ?+ 9 ei!r ( ^! s5ses is n necess>ily mu* l x4 ,x mu/ only be able to s]ve z its repres5tative4 ,n[ ,i see a l9e ab\t an in* long on ! pap] be=e me4 ,x is a c]ta9 di/ance f my eyes4 ,i %all conc]n myself = ! pres5t only ) ! l9e imm$iately p]ceiv$1 :i* means = me s mu* s5sation4 ,if ,i move ?is l9e 7:i* rema9s ! same 9 s5se ?ird71 ne>] to me or f>!r away1 ,i d n p]ceive ! id5tical ?+ t ,i did be=e4 ,my quantity ( s5sation is increas$ or dim9i%$4 ,if ,i keep ! l9e at ! same di/ance & *ange none ( ! conditions1 ! quantity ( s5sation rema9s presumably ! same4 ,! "q arises1 ,is ?is l9e z actually exp]i5c$ at ?is mom5t inf9itely divisible or n8 ,i c c]ta9ly conceive ( x z divisible to "s ext5t1 = ,i see "p out ( "p1 & ,i c ?9k ( ^! p>ts z sep>at$4 ,b if ?is l9e 7 divid$1 ! division w\ld soon result 9 p>ts :i* c\ld be se51 b :i* c\ld n be se5 to consi/ ( "p out ( "p4 ,7 ^! app>5tly non-ext5d$ p>ts 7!y w\ld rema9 ! same 9 s5se ?ird71 approa*$ to ! eyes1 !y1 too1 w\ld be se5 to consi/ ( "p out ( "p1 b !n ,i %\ld simply h sub/itut$ = ! app>5tly non-ext5d$ a repres5tative :i* 0 ext5d$4 ,?is w\ld n prove t :at 0 be=e 9 consci\sness 0 ext5d$ & c\ld be divid$4 ,consci\sness c]ta9ly seems to te/ify t any p>ticul> l9e 9 consci\sness is compos$ ( a limit$ numb] ( indivisible p>ts1 & :5 "o adds to ?is reflection ! consid]ation t a po9t mov+ ov] a giv5 l9e does n appe> to h an endless task be=e x1 b soon arrives at ! f9al t]m1 "o is irresi/ibly impell$ to ! conclusion t ! p>ts ( ! l9e are n inf9ite1 b t ! division results 9 ! indivisible1 ! simple elem5t ( s5sation1 :i*1 jo9$ ) o!r su* elem5ts1 makes an ext5d$ object1 b :i* tak5 alone is n ext5d$ at all4 ,! :ole difficulty lies 9 keep+ to ! l9e & ! p>ts ) :i* "o />t$4 ,x is s easy to pass f sam5ess 9 s5se fir/ to sam5ess 9 s5se ?ird or s5se fif?2 x is s natural to br+ an object :i* is1 z we say1 imp]fectly se51 clos] to ! eye & ?us sub/itute = :at 0 se5 be=e a new exp]i5ce connect$ ) x 9 ! ord] ( nature1 confid5t t any sy/em ( relations d]iv$ f ! latt] may safely be c>ri$ ov] to all possible exp]i5ces connect$ ) ! =m]2 "o does ?is s in/9ctively t a man may v readily suppose t he is /ill busi$ ab\t ! app>5tly non-ext5d$ elem5t ) :i* he />t$1 :5 he is 9 reality divid+ & sub-divid+ its repres5tative1 :i* is evid5tly ext5d$4 ,b ! "q is n :e!r1 :5 "o has divid$ a l9e until ! p>ts _c be se5 to consi/ ( p>ts1 "o may sub/itute = ^! p>ts :at evid5tly does consi/ ( p>ts1 & g on divid+ t4 ,! "q is1 :e!r an app>5tly non-ext5d$ elem5t ( a l9e 9 consci\sness is divisible or n4 ,any argum5t f ! possibility ( divid+ its sub/itutes evid5tly has no?+ to d ) ?is po9t4 ,x is pla9 t ?is doctr9e1 :i* makes any p>ticul> f9ite l9e 9 consci\sness to consi/ ( a limit$ numb] ( simple p>ts1 is n op5 to ! objection t x necessitates ! absurdity ( exhau/+ an endless s]ies4 ,mov+ along su* a l9e1 ,a*illes c\ld ov]take ! tortoise1 = ! successively dim9i%+ di/ances betwe5 !m d n con/itute an endless s]ies4 ,! desc5d+ s]ies results aft] a limit$ numb] ( t]ms 9 ! simple1 & ! s]ies is brok51 = ! simple does n consi/ ( p>ts4 ,9 ?is !re is at lea/ no contradiction4 ,x rema9s to see :at o!r objections may lie aga9/ x4 ,x may be argu$1 fir/1 z x (t5 is argu$1 t x is impossible to conceive ( any "p ( a l9e z n itself ext5d$ & hav+ p>ts4 ,x may be admitt$ t ! small p>ts arriv$ at d n seem to h "p out ( "p2 t ^! sub-p>ts are n obs]v$ 9 !m1 b /ill x is said t "o :o ?9ks ab\t !m _c b ?9k ( !m z really hav+ su* p>ts4 ,i ask "o :o puts =w>d ?is objection to look into 8 own m9d & see :e!r he does n mean by ?9k+ ab\t !m1 br++ !m 9 imag9ation ne>] to ! eye1 or by "s means sub/itut+ = !m :at c be se5 to h "p out ( "p4 ,t "o c d ?is no "o w\ld ?9k ( d5y+1 b1 z ,i h said1 ?is does n prove ! orig9al p>ts to be ext5d$4 ,x may be object$ aga9 t ext5sion c nev] be built up out ( ! non-ext5d$--t if "o elem5t ( a giv5 k9d has1 tak5 alone1 no ext5sion at all1 two or m su* elem5ts toge!r _c h any ext5sion ei!r4 ,i answ] t a /raight l9e has no angul>ity at all1 & yet two /raight l9es may obvi\sly make an angle2 t "o man is n 9 ! lea/ a cr[d1 b t "o hundr$ m5 may be2 t no s+le tree is a =e/1 b t _m trees toge!r d make a =e/2 t a uni=m expanse ( color is 9 no s5se a v>iegat$ surface1 b t sev]al su* toge!r d make a v>iegat$ surface4 ,x may be t ext5sion is simply ! "n we give to sev]al simple s5se-elem5ts ( a p>ticul> k9d tak5 toge!r4 ,"o _c say (f-h& t x is n4 ,%\ld "o object1 f9ally1 t1 if a giv5 l9e 9 consci\sness be compos$ ( a limit$ numb] ( indivisible elem5ts ( s5sation1 consci\sness ought to di/+ui% ^! s+le elem5ts & te/ify z to _! numb]2 ,i answ] t :at is 9 consci\sness is n necess>ily 9 a cle> analytical consci\sness1 nor well di/+ui%$ f o!r elem5ts4 ,= example1 ,i am at pres5t consci\s ( a /ream ( s5sations :i* ,i connect ) ! h& t holds my p54 ,! s+le elem5ts 9 ?is complex ,i _c di/+ui% f ea* o!r1 nor c ,i give _! numb]4 ,x does n foll[ t ,i am to assume ! numb] to be inf9ite4 ,mu* less %\ld ,i be impell$ to make ?is assumption1 if x necessitat$ my accept+ z true :at ,i see to be flatly contradictory1 z 9 ! case "u discussion4 ,x 0 because ( ?is vagu5ess & lack ( discrim9ation 9 ! te/imony ( consci\sness t ,i said1 "s di/ance back1 t consci\sness seems to te/ify t any f9ite l9e 9 x is compos$ ( simple p>ts4 ,if ! te/imony 7 q cle>1 ! matt] w\ld be settl$ at once4 ,z x is n q cle>1 ! matt] has to be settl$ on a d$uctive basis4 ,! mo/ reasonable solution appe>s to be ! ,b]keleyan4 ,s mu* = ! l9e imm$iately p]ceiv$1 ! l9e 9 consci\sness4 ,:at %all we say to "o :o is will+ to admit t ?is l9e is n inf9itely divisible1 b is compos$ ( simple s5se-elem5ts2 & yet :o ma9ta9s t !re exi/s an ext]nal l9e correspond+ to x1 :i* is n imm$iately p]ceiv$1 & is inf9itely divisible8 ,we may beg9 by sugge/+ to him t an ext]nal po9t mov+ ov] ?is ext]nal l9e mu/ p]=m ! :olly impossible feat to :i* ,clif=d condemns a po9t mov+ ov] a l9e2 & we may f>!r sugge/ t1 if ! ext]nal _w be an intelligible _w at all1 a contradiction may be z mu* out ( place 9 x z any:]e else4 ,& if ! exi/5ce ( ?is _w be problematic1 a ?+ n self-evid5t1 x seems q reasonable to dem& v good pro( inde$ ( ! exi/5ce1 ( t :i* conta9s 9 its v conception su* excell5t reasons = believ+ 9 its non-exi/5ce4 ,?is pro(1 ! /ud5t ( ! hi/ory ( speculation w te/ify1 has n z yet be5 =?com+4 ,,sec4 #cg4 ,) ?is ,i close my analysis ( sam5esses1 & ( confusions :i* h result$ 9 ne$less emb>rassm5ts & gratuit\s difficulties4 ,m in/ances ( ! latt] c\ld be giv51 ( c\rse4 ,! read] w be able to furni%1 ,i presume1 _m l !m4 ,^? :i* ,i h giv5 seem to me q suffici5t to prove ! ne$ ( mu* great] c>e & exactitude ?an "o commonly f9ds 9 metaphysical reason+s4 ,loose reason+ is bad reason+1 & leads to bad results4 ,its "o virtue is t x does n require mu* m5tal application on ! "p ( ei!r au?or or read]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! attempt to be cauti\s & exact1 to di/+ui% betwe5 ?+s easily conf\nd$1 & to keep /rictly to ! ?+ 9 dispute ?r\gh a long discussion1 ^! ?+s are we>isome to all conc]n$4 ,al?\gh ,i am q consci\s ( ?is fact1 ,i h tri$ to d ^! ?+s3 ) :at result1 my fell[-analy/s mu/ judge4 ,i feel reasonably sure t ,i h succe$$ 9 be+ we>isome1 & = ?is ,i make due apology4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,! ,,k9ds ,,( ,,sam5ess4 ,,page4 ,,sec4 #a4 ,object ( ! ,monograph1 #e #b4 ,sam5ess 9 ,s5se ,fir/1 or ,/rict ,id5tity1 #f #c4 ,sam5ess 9 ,s5se ,second1 #f #d4 ,sam5ess 9 ,s5se ,?ird1 #f #e4 ,sam5ess 9 ,s5se ,f\r?1 #aa #f4 ,sam5ess 9 ,s5se ,fif?1 #ab #g4 ,sam5ess 9 ,s5se ,six?1 #ad #h4 ,sam5ess 9 ,s5se ,sev5?1 #af #i4 ,! ,sam5esses ( ,ext]nal ,?+s1 #ca #aj4 ,ambiguity ( ! ,^w ,self1 #cd #aa4 ,! ,sam5esses ( ! ,self1 #ce #ab4 ,sam5esses ( ! ,self z ,n\m5on or ,sub/ance1 #ce #ac4 ,sam5esses ( ! ,real ,self out ( ,consci\sness1 #cg #ad4 ,sam5esses ( ! ,self 9 ,consci\sness1 #ch #ae4 ,sam5esses ( ! ,self 9 ,consci\sness 7cont9u$71 #db #af4 ,sam5esses ( ! ,self 9 ,consci\sness 7cont9u$71 #dc #ag4 ,! ,self z ,=m1 & its ,sam5esses1 #dc #ah4 ,summ>y ( ,results ( ! ,=ego+ ,analysis1 #dh #ai4 ,! ,elem5t ,common to ! ,k9ds ( ,sam5ess1 #ed #bj4 ,use ( ! ,^w ,id5tity1 #fd ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,hi/orical ,,& ,,critical4 ,,sec4 #ba4 ,! ,error ( ,h]aclitus1 #fg #bb4 ,! ,climax ( ,cratylus1 #fh #bc4 ,! ,p>m5idean ,argum5t = ! ,et]nity ( ,be+1 #fh #bd4 ,gorgias & ,sam5esses ,fif? & ,six?1 #fi #be4 ,plato & ! ,eleatic ,"o1 #gj #bf4 ,ari/otle's ,treatm5t ( ,sam5esses1 #hb #bg4 ,! ,confusions ( ,pyrrho1 & ,_! ,results1 #hd #bh4 ,sam5ess & ! ,dispute conc]n+ ,univ]sals1 #hh #bi4 ,desc>tes' ,confusion ( ,sam5esses1 #ih #cj4 ,sp9oza's ,argum5t to ,prove e ,sub/ance ,inf9ite1 #ajh #ca4 ,locke's ,confusion ( ,s5se ,fir/ & ,s5se ,sev5?1 #aaa #cb4 ,b]keley's ,error conc]n+ ,s5se ,six?1 #abj #cc4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill on ! ,k9ds ( ,sam5ess1 #abb #cd4 ,! ,sp5c]ian ,unkn[able1 & ,sam5esses ,sev5? & ,second1 #abd #ce4 ,! ,confusions at ! ,basis ( ,dr4 ,mc,cosh's ,realism1 #acd #cf4 ,sam5ess & ! ,inf9ite ,divisibility ( ,space1 #adc #cg4 ,conclusion1 #aeb 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s note3 ,inconsi/5cies 9 hyph5ation & punctuation h n be5 correct$4 ,transcrib]'s corrections3 page orig9al text correction #ag all] ,g]g5/nde all] ,geg5/nde #dh elem5t 9 consci\snesss elem5t 9 consci\sness #ee f\nd 9 a consci\snesss1 f\nd 9 a consci\sness1 #eh p>ce que v\s voyons p>ce que n\s voyons #eh ,premires ,objections4 ,premires ,objections4 #gi diff]5ces are invidualiz+ diff]5ces are individualiz+ #aja ^u 8 expe-ences1 ^u 8 exp]i5ces1